Mexican literature is one of the most prolific and influential of Spanish-language literatures along with those of Spain and Argentina.  Found among the names of its most important and internationally recognized literary figures are authors Octavio Paz, Alfonso Reyes, Carlos Fuentes, Sergio Pitol, José Emilio Pacheco, Rosario Castellanos, Fernando del Paso, Juan Rulfo, Amado Nervo, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Ramón López Velarde, and Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, among others.

Introduction

Mexico's literature has its antecedents in the literatures of the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and the literary traditions of Spain. With the arrival of the Spanish, a new literature was produced through mestizaje, which made way for a period of creolization of literature in the newly established Viceroyalty of New Spain. The literature of New Spain was highly influenced by the Spanish Renaissance, which was represented in all the Spanish literature of the time, and local productions also incorporated numerous terms commonly used in the vernacular of the viceroyalty and some of the topics discussed in the works of the period shaped a distinctive variant of the Spanish literature produced in Mexico.

During the colonial era, New Spain was home to Baroque writers such as Bernardo de Balbuena, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Francisco de Castro, Luis Sandoval Zapata, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Diego de Ribera and Rafael Landivar. Towards the independence a new wave of writers gave the initial struggle for the emancipation of national literature from the literature of the Spanish peninsula: Diego José Abad, Francisco Javier Alegre and Friar Servando Teresa de Mier.

Towards the end of colonial rule in New Spain arose figures like José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, El Periquillo Sarniento is considered as an emblem of the Mexican literature and the first modern novel written in the Americas. By the second half of that century, works like Los mexicanos pintados por sí mismos, a manners book that gives a rough idea of how intellectuals of the time saw the rest of his countrymen. Towards the end of the century, during the Porfirio Diaz government, Mexican writers inclined towards the dominant European trends of the time.

To celebrate the centenary of the Independence of Mexico, there was a literary project surged Antología del Centenario which aimed to collect authors of the first hundred years of Mexico. This was truncated and only the first volume was published in two volumes primarily consisting of collected poetry. The poets of the time that were included were Friar Manuel de Navarrete, Fernando Calderón, Ignacio Rodríguez Galván. Notable modernists of the time included Amado Nervo and Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera. Other notable authors of that time were Luis G. Urbina, Efren Rebolledo, José Juan Tablada, Enrique González Martínez and Ramón López Velarde.

The emergence of the Mexican Revolution favored the development of journalistic genre. After the civil conflict finished, the Revolution theme appeared as a theme in many novels, short stories and plays like those of Mariano Azuela or Rodolfo Usigli. This trend would be an antecedent for the flowering of 'revolutionary literature', which was embodied in the work of writers like Rosario Castellanos or Juan Rulfo. A literature of indigenous themes, which aimed to portray the thoughts and life of the indigenous peoples of Mexico surged along with this revolutionary literature, although ironically, none of the writers were indigenous. The most notable indigenist authors of the time included Miguel Angel Menendez Reyes, Ricardo Pozas and Francisco Rojas González.

In alternative to these mainstream literature, also other literary styles were developed in the country, less known movements being outside the main focus. Among them, the estridentistas (1920s) that included authors such as Arqueles Vela and Manuel Maples Arce. Another relevant movement to the literary history of the country was a group of intellectuals known as Los Contemporáneos (1930s), which unified figures such as journalist Salvador Novo and poets like Xavier Villaurrutia and José Gorostiza.

During the second half of 20th century, Mexican literature had diversified into themes, styles and genres. There were new groups such as Literatura de la Onda (1960s), which sought for an urban, satirical and rebellious literature; among the featured authors were Parmenides García Saldaña and José Agustín; another literary style surged called Infrarrealismo (1970s), which sought to "blow his brains out the official culture"; La mafia cultural (1960s), was composed of Carlos Fuentes, Salvador Elizondo, José Emilio Pacheco, Carlos Monsivais, Inés Arredondo, Fernando Benítez among others. In 1990, Octavio Paz became the only Mexican to date to have won the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Pre-Columbian literature

While the peoples of Mesoamerica developed systems of writing, these were not often used to preserve their literature. Most of the myths and literary works of the indigenous peoples of Mexico were transmitted by oral tradition. The peoples of Mesoamerica, despite having developed writing systems, primarily employed pictographic and logosyllabic forms rather than a phonetic writing system. Among these expressions, the Borgia Group codices are regarded by some scholars as exceptional artistic and literary works. While there is scholarly disagreement, it is commonly accepted that the central section of the Codex Borgia contains a narrative related to the creation of the universe, although an alternate hypothesis suggests that it may depict a series of rituals with an unclear purpose.

In addition to the Codex Borgia, the Mixtec codices Becker 1, Nutall, and Colombino depict the life of the hero-ruler 8-Venado and his efforts towards the unification of the Mixtec people. Another significant manuscript, the Boturini Codex or "Pilgrimage Strip," recounts chapters of the Mexicas' migration from northern Mexico to their eventual settlement in Texcoco Lake. However, it is worth noting that some scholars argue that the Boturini Codex is a copy of an older, unidentified document created during the early stages of the Conquest.

Within the rich cultural tapestry of ancient Mexico, a multitude of ceramic artifacts, stone carvings, stelae, and monoliths bear witness to historical, mythical-genealogical, cosmogonic, and legendary narratives. Notably, the Olmecs, Toltecs, Mayas, Nahua, and Mixtec peoples have produced remarkable pieces that capture the imagination.

The Olmecs, often credited as the originators of complex civilizations in Mesoamerica, are associated with the oldest known stone writing. Among their relics, a gravel block named 'Bloque de Cascajal' in Spanish is adorned with glyphs and has been carbon-dated to approximately 3,000 years ago, making it a significant archaeological find. This discovery sheds light on the early development of written communication in the region, highlighting the Olmecs' sophisticated cultural achievements.

We know that one of the activities that were to dominate the novices of priests among the Mexica was the memorization of lyrical works or mythology of their people.

Some of these productions were permanently fixed by writing them down using the Latin alphabet that the missionaries of the 16th century used to transcribe the information they received from the native inhabitants. Modern scholars such as Angel Maria Garibay K. and Miguel Leon-Portilla, have translated these works which were once dispersed in several texts and have reunited or reviewed these works in publications such as in "Visión de los vencidos. Relaciones indígenas de la Conquista" or "Historia de la literatura Náhuatl."

The works of Spanish missionaries in central Mexico contributed to the preservation of the oral tradition of the Nahuatl speaking peoples by writing them down on paper using the Latin alphabet. In this regard the lyrical works of Acolmiztli Nezahualcoyotl (1402–1472), tlatoani of Texcoco, were preserved and passed down to posterity giving the author the title of Poet King. His works, along with other nobles of the nahuatlaca peoples of the Altiplano such as Ayocuan of Chalco-Atenco, and Tecayehuatzin of Huexotzinco, constitute the largest sample of pre-Columbian works and philosophical lyrics preserved into the modern era.

There are also smaller stocks of Postclassic Era literature recovered among other peoples such as the Purépecha, the Zapotec and Mixtec. The Case of the Mixtec is special as four codices have been preserved which have led to an approach to the study of the history of these people under the imprint of Eight Deer, Lord of Tututepec and Tilantongo. In the Mayan world there are preserved fragments called Books of Chilam Balam.

Another well known pre-Columbian literature is that of the Quiché people who did not inhabit the current Mexican territory, but rather, lived in what is now Guatemala. The Popol Vuh (Book of Counsel) was written in the Quiché language and incorporates two Mayan cosmogonical myths: the creation of the world and falling of Hunahpu and Xbalanque into Xibalba which is the underworld of the Maya.

Outside of Mesoamerica, Arturo Warman forwarded the hypothesis that the verses sung by the Yaquis and Mayo musicians during the performance of the Danza del Venado have their origin in pre-Columbian times and have survived to this day with very little change since then.

Among the prehispanic literature which flourished are:

 Epic Poetry which chronicles the life of famous people such as Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, the founding of cities and pilgrimages of tribes.
 Lyric poetry of religious, military or philosophical context.
 Dramatic poetry, which mixed elements of music and dance, as the feast of Tezcatlipoca.
 Historical Prose and didactic genealogies, also proverbs called Huehuetlatolli ("The sayings of the old").

Spanish colonial period

In the colonial literature of Mexico we can distinguish several periods. The first period is linked with the historical moment of conquest, it chronicles and letters abound.

16th century

The influence of indigenous themes in the literature of New Spain is evident in the incorporation of many terms commonly used in the common local tongue of the people in colonial Mexico as well as some of the topics touched in the works of the period which reflected local views and cultures. During this period, New Spain housed writers such as Bernardo de Balbuena.

In the colonial literature of Mexico we can distinguish several periods. The first examples of literature are linked with the historical moment of conquest, colonization chronicles and letters.
Works and writers:

 Itinerario de la armada del rey católico a la isla de Yucatán[...], probably by Juan Díaz (1480–1549)
 Relación de algunas cosas de las que acaescieron a Hernan Cortés[...]  by Andrés de Tapia (1498? -1561)
 Cartas de relación de Hernán Cortés (1485–1547)
 Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España by Bernal Diaz del Castillo (1492–1584)
 Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España Friar Bernardino de Sahagún (1499–1590)
 Historia de las Indias, Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias, Apologética historia [...], etc. Friar Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566)
 Historia general de las Indias, La Conquista de México by Francisco Lopez de Gomara (1511–1566)
 Antigüedades de la Nueva España by Francisco Hernández (1517–1578)
 Relación de las cosas de Yucatán Friar Diego de Landa (1524–1579)
 Crónica mexicana y Crónica mexicáyotl by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc (c. 1525 – c. 1610)
 Historia de Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo (c. 1530 – c. 1600)
 Historia Chichimeca by Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl (1568? -1648)
 Historia general de las Indias occidentales y particular de la gobernación de Chiapa y Guatemala by Friar Antonio de Remesal
 Francisco Cervantes de Salazar (1514? -1575). Born in Spain, was professor of rhetoric and then rector at the University of Mexico, author of Crónica de la Nueva España and poems such as Túmulo Imperial" y Diálogos latinos (following the example of Juan Luis Vives) of Mexican themes for the teaching of Latin.
 Gutierre de Cetina (1520 – c. 1567). Born in Spain, lived and died in Mexico. His poetry predates his stay in Mexico, but is very likely the existence of many plays of his authorship.
 Bernardo de Balbuena (1562–1627). Born in Spain, graduated from the University of Mexico, author of Grandeza mexicana (Mexican Greatness).
 Friar Luis de Fonsalida, author of "Diálogos o coloquios en lengua mexicana entre la Virgen María y el Arcángel San Gabriel".
 Friar Luis Cancer, author of "Varias canciones en verso zapoteco".
 Plácido Francisco, tepaneca prince, author of "Cánticos de las apariciones de la Virgen María".
 Andrés de Olmos, playwright author, "Representación de fin del mundo".
 Gaspar Perez de Villagra (1555–1620). Born in Puebla, participated in the conquest of New Mexico. Author of the poem Historia de la nueva México (1610) and several printed memorials.
 Francisco de Terrazas. First known poet born in New Spain.

17th century

In this period flourished particularly the Mexican variant of the Baroque literature. Many of the most famous authors of the century reached varying success in the area of literary games, with works like anagrams, emblems and mazes. There were notable authors in poetry, lyric, narrative and drama. The Baroque literature in New Spain followed the rivers of Spanish writers Góngora and Quevedo. Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Diego de Ribera were major exponents of the Mexican literature of this period.

The most notable authors:

 Arias Villalobos. He wrote "Historia de México en verso castellano", a narrative poetry.
 Bernardino de Llanos. Born in Spain, was known for his plays and literary whims.
 Diego de Ribera. A descriptive poetry writer of nature and art.
 Juan Ortiz de Torres and Jerome Becerra. Playwrights.
 José López Avilés. He wrote "Payo Enríquez", a biography in verse.
 Matías Bocanegra, author of "Canción la vista de un desengaño".
 María Estrada Medinilla and Sister Teresa de Cristo, verse reciters in civil and religious ceremonies.
 Fernando de Córdoba y Bocanegra (1565–1589). He was born in Mexico city and died in Puebla. He wrote Canción al amor divino and Canción al santísimo nombre de Jesús.
 Juan de Guevara, was born in Mexico, was an acclaimed lyric poet.
 Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (1581–1639).
 Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651–1695).
 Miguel de Guevara (c. 1586 – after 1646). Augustinian friar from Michoacan, with knowledge of 'Indigenous language'. A manuscript of him dating back 1638 includes, among other poems, sonnets such as No me mueve mi Dios para quererte....
 Antonio de Saavedra Guzman (? -¿? Published in 1599). Author of the poem El peregrino indiano, a praise of Hernán Cortés.
 Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (1645–1700).
 Francisco de Terrazas (? - ?, he was alive between 1525 and 1600). Born Mexico, close to Cortés, his works were praised by Miguel de Cervantes, as in La Galatea. Fragments of his poem Conquista y Mundo Nuevo are preserved.

18th century

Towards the end of the colonial period emerged important figures such as José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, whose El Periquillo Sarniento, is considered emblematic of Mexican picaresque alongside other of his novels such as La Quijotita y su Prima and Don Catrín dela Fachenda represented the first novels written in the Americas.

Illustrated writers and classicists included:

 Diego José Abad (1727–1779)
 Francisco Javier Alegre (1729–1788)
 Francisco Javier Clavijero (1731–1787)
 Rafael Landivar (1731–1793)
 José Mariano Beristain (1756–1817)
 José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1776–1827) also known as "The Mexican thinker"
 Friar Servando Teresa de Mier (1765–1827)

Writers of independent Mexico (19th century)

Due to the political instability of the 19th century, Mexico—already an independent nation—saw a decline not only in its literature but in the other arts as well. During the second half of the 19th century, Mexican literature became revitalized with works such as Los Mexicanos Pintados Por Si Mismos, a book that gives us an approximate idea of how intellectuals of the period saw their contemporaries. Towards the end of the century Mexican writers adopted the common tendencies of the period. Two modernist poets that stand out are Amado Nervo and Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera.

During the 19th century there were three major literary trends: romanticism, realism-naturalism and modernism.

Romantic writers gathered around hundreds of associations; among the most important the Academy Lateran, founded in 1836 (José María Lacunza, Guillermo Prieto, Manuel Carpio, Andrés Quintana Roo, José Joaquín Pesado, Ignacio Rodríguez Galván (Ignacio Ramirez). Liceo Hidalgo, was another prominent literary association founded in 1850, (Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Manuel Acuña, Manuel M. Flores). Unto whom it was labeled as neo-classical or academic, as opposed to the category of "romantic" that was given to the former authors. Other authors belong to this group such as José Manuel Martínez de Navarrete, Vicente Riva Palacio, Joaquin Arcadio Caspian, Justo Sierra and Manuel Jose Othon.

Later, during the rise of positivism aesthetic taste changed. Between realists and naturalists Mexican writers were Luis G. Inclán, Rafael Delgado, Emilio Rabasa, José Tomás de Cuéllar, Federico Gamboa and Ángel de Campo.

Within the modernist superman, original literary revolution in Latin America, there were numerous metrics and rhyming innovations, revival of obsolete forms and mainly symbolic findings. Between 1895 and 1910 Mexico became a core of modernist activity; among famous writers there were Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera, Enrique González Martínez, Salvador Díaz Mirón and Amado Nervo.

Essayists
 Lucas Alamán (1792–1853)
 Serapio Baqueiro Barrera (1865–1940)
 Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera (1859–1895).
 Antonio Menendez de la Peña (1844–1912).
 Rodolfo Menéndez de la Peña (1850–1928).
 Justo Sierra Méndez (1848–1912).
 José Vasconcelos (1882–1959).

Novelists and short story writers
 Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1834–1893).
 Angel del Campo (1868–1908).
 Florencio María del Castillo (1828–1863).
 José Tomás de Cuellar (1830–1894).
 Rafael Delgado (1853–1914).
 Federico Gamboa (1864–1939).
 Gregorio López (1897–1966).
 Manuel Payno (1810–1894).
 Guillermo Prieto (1818–1897).
 Vicente Riva Palacio (1832–1896)
 José Rubén Romero (1890–1952).
 Victoriano Salado Alvarez (1867–1931).
 Justo Sierra O'Reilly (1814–1861).
 Francisco Javier Moreno (1895–1961).

Poets

 Manuel Acuña (1849–1873).
 Manuel Carpio (1791–1860).
 Salvador Díaz Mirón (1853–1928).
 Enrique González Martínez (1871–1952).
 Enrique González Red (1899–1939).
 Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera (1858–1895).
 Renato Leduc (1898–1986).
 Rafael Lopez (1873–1943).
 Ramón López Velarde (1888–1921).
 Amado Nervo (1870–1919).
 Manuel Jose Othon (1858–1906).
 Juan de Dios Peza (1852–1910).
 Efren Rebolledo (1877–1929).
 Alfonso Reyes (1889–1959).
 José Juan Tablada (1871–1945).
 Luis G. Urbina (1864–1934).
 Granade Miriam (1995)
 Arianna Alvarez (2001)

Contemporary Writers (20th and 21st centuries)

The inception of the Mexican Revolution favored the growth of the journalistic genre. Once the civil conflict ended, the theme of the Revolution appeared as a theme in novels, stories and plays by Mariano Azuela and Rodolfo Usigli. This tendency would anticipate the flowering of a nationalist literature, which took shape in the works of writers such as Rosario Castellanos and Juan Rulfo. There also appeared on the scene an "indigenous literature," which purported to depict the life and thought of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, although, ironically, none of the authors of this movement were indigenous. Among them Ricardo Pozas and Francisco Rojas Gonzalez stand out.

There also developed less mainstream movements such as that of the "Estridentistas", with figures that include Arqueles Vela and Manuel Maples Arce (1920s). Other literary movements include that of Los Contemporáneos, which was represented by writers like Salvador Novo, Xavier Villaurrutia and José Gorostiza. Towards the end of the 20th century Mexican literature had become diversified in themes, styles and genres. In 1990 Octavio Paz became the first Mexican—and up until this point the only one—to win the Nobel Prize for Literature.

In the years between 1900 and 1914 it continued to dominate modernism in poetry and prose realism and naturalism. During this period lived representatives 19th-century literature with members of the Ateneo´s youth.

From 1915 to 1930 there were three streams: a stylistic renewal incorporating influences from the European vanguard (the estridentismo (Manuel Maples Arce, German List Arzubide, Arqueles Vela) and Contemporaries), a group of writers resumed colonial subjects (Xavier Villaurrutia, Jaime Torres Bodet, Jorge Cuesta, José Gorostiza, Salvador Novo), and others who began publishing calls "novels of the Revolution "(the best known is  the Underdogs  of Mariano Azuela): Martin Luis Guzman, Rafael Muñoz, Heriberto Frías, Jorge Ferretis, Nellie Campobello.

Until the mid-1940s there were authors who continued realistic narrative, but also reached their peak the indigenista novel and reflections involved around on self and national culture. Emerged two new poetic generations, grouped around the magazines Taller y Tierra Nueva.

With the publication of Agustín Yáñez's Al filo del agua in 1947 began what we call "contemporary Mexican novel" incorporating innovative techniques, influences of American writers such as (William Faulkner and John Dos Passos), and European influences from (James Joyce and Franz Kafka), and in 1963, the hitherto known for his articles in newspapers and magazines and its beautiful theater Elena Garro, published which became the initiator of the  boom  Latin American and founder of the genre known as "magical realism": the novel  Recollections of Things to Come , which inspired the Colombian Gabriel García Márquez to write his most celebrated One Hundred Years of Solitude. While during the period from 1947 to 1961 predominated the narrators (Arreola, Rulfo, Fuentes), then emerged poets worth as Rubén Bonifaz Nuño and Rosario Castellanos (also narrator).

In 1960 an anthology was edited La espiga amotinada, which brought together the major group of poets: Juan Banuelos, Oscar Oliva, Jaime Augusto Shelley, Eraclius Zepeda and Jaime Labastida. Literary magazines were one of the main vehicles for disseminating the writers, so they tend to group many of them under the name of the journals in which they were active. The Prodigal Son was directed by Xavier Villaurrutia, the group Los Contemporaneos who had Octavio Paz as a coolaborador. Octavio Paz, after leaving founded the newspaper Excelsior, a magazine called Vuelta, which led for many years the national culture, mainly after the death of Martin Luis Guzman in 1976.

After the death of Octavio Paz, a group of his contributors tried to start a magazine, but the fledgling magazine, Letras libres, failed to have the acceptance of Vuelta.
In 1979, Gabriel Zaid made a census of poets published in his anthology Assembly of young poets of Mexico; among those who were included, there were poets as Eduardo Hurtado, Alberto Blanco, Coral Bracho, Eduardo Casar, Eduardo Langagne, Manuel Ulacia, Vicente Quirarte, Victor Manuel Mendiola, Dante Medina, Veronica Volkow, Pearl Schwartz, Jaime Moreno Villarreal and Francisco Segovia. These and the other authors included are those who currently make up the group of authors at the peak of his literary career. Most worked in Vuelta.
Present-day notable Mexican poets include Elsa Cross and Efraín Bartolomé.

Influenced by the mass media, social networks, and the Internet, the generation born in the 80s and 90s exhibits a strong inclination towards literature, which finds expression in various digital and print media platforms, such as blogs, internet pages, digital and printed magazines, and electronic books. The impact of this generation on the literary landscape is still challenging to trace. Nonetheless, their presence is evident through the emergence of literary creation schools established in recent decades, including Universidad del Claustro de Sor Juana (UCSJ), Casa Lamm, Centro Morelense de las Artes (CMA), Sociedad General de Escritores de México (Sogem), and Escuela Mexicana de Escritores (EME).

Within this vast and dynamic generation of young and prolific writers, certain individuals have garnered attention for their literary contributions. Among them are Fernanda Melchor, Mercedes Alvarado, Martín Rangel, Aldo Vicencio, Davo Valdez, Iván Cruz, Juan Andrés Herrera, Víctor Ibarra (known by their pseudonyms Genkidama Ñu and Vraiux Dorós), Tania Carrera, Joana Medellín Herrero, Tania Langarica, Itzel Nayelli Palacios, Andrea Chaves, Rojo Córdova, Yaxkin Melchy, Karlos Atl, and many others. While the full extent of their impact is yet to be determined, these individuals represent the active and visible facet of this vast generation of aspiring writers

Essayists

 Jorge Cuesta (1903–1942)
 Germán Dehesa (1944–2010)
 Ricardo Garibay (1923–1999)
 Margo Glantz (1930–)
 Manuel Hernández Gómez (1950–)
 Hugo Hiriart (1942–)
 Carlos Monsivais (1938–2010)
 Octavio Paz (1914–1998)
 Óscar René Cruz Oliva (1933–)
 Sergio Pitol (1933–2018)
 Elena Poniatowska (1932–)
 Vicente Quirarte (1954–)
 Alfonso Reyes (1889–1959)
 Guillermo Samperio (1948–)
 Sara Sefchovich (1949–)
 Carlos J. Sierra (1933–)
 Gabriel Zaid (1934–)

Novelists and short story writers

 Abraham Nissan (1969–)
 Andres Acosta (1964–)
 José Agustín (1944–)
 Homer Aridjis (1940–)
 Inés Arredondo (1928–1989)
 Juan José Arreola (1918–2001)
 René Avilés Fabila (1940–)
 René Avilés Rojas (1911–1979)
 Mariano Azuela (1873–1952)
 Mario Bellatín (1960–)
 Carmen Boulton (1954–)
 Juan de la Cabada Vera (1901–1986)
 Nellie Campobello (1900–1986)
 Rosario Castellanos (1925–1974)
 José de la Colina (1934)
 Alberto Chimal (1970)
 Leonardo Da Jandra (1951–)
 Amparo Dávila (1928)
 Guadalupe Dueñas (1920–2002)
 Salvador Elizondo (1932–2006)
 Beatriz Mirror
 Laura Esquivel (1950–)
 William Fadanelli (1963–)
 J. M. Servin (1962)
 Bernardo Fernández
 Jorge Ferretis (1902–1962)
 Heriberto Frías (1870–1925)
 Carlos Fuentes (1928–2012)
 Sergio Galindo (1926-1993)
 Juan García Ponce (1932–2003)
 Parmenides García Saldaña (1944–1982)
 Jesus Gardea (1939–2000)
 Ricardo Garibay (1923–1999)
 Elena Garro (1916–1998)
 José Luis González (1926)
 Martin Luis Guzman (1887–1977)
 Andrés Henestrosa (1906–2008)
 Yuri Herrera (1970–)
 Jorge Ibargüengoitia (1928–1983)
 Xavier Icaza (1892–1969)
 Patricia Laurent Kullick (1962–)
 Monica Lavin (1955–)
 Alfredo Lèal (1985)
 Vicente Leñero (1933–2014)
 Valeria Luiselli (1983–)
 Mauricio Magdaleno (1906–1986)
 Ángeles Mastretta (1949–)
 Elmer Mendoza (1949–)
 Miguel Angel Menendez Reyes (1904–1982)
 Thomas Mojarro (1932)
 Rafael Muñoz
 Gilberto Owen (1904–1952)
 José Emilio Pacheco (1939–2014)
 Fernando del Paso (1935–2018)
 Sergio Pitol (1933)
 Gerardo Horacio Porcayo (1966–)
 Maria Luisa Puga (1944–2004)
 Rafael Ramírez Heredia (1942–2006)
 Cristina Rivera Garza (1964–)
 Sergio-Jesús Rodríguez (1967)
 Octavio Rodriguez Araujo (1941)
 José Revueltas (1914–1976)
 Martha Robles (1949–)
 Bernardo Ruiz (1953–)
 Juan Rulfo (1918–1986)
 Rafael Saavedra (1967–2013)
 Daniel Sada (1953–2011)
 Alberto Ruy Sanchez (1951)
 Gustavo Sainz (1940)
 Guillermo Samperio (1948–)
 Federico Schaffler
 Mauricio-José Schwarz (1955–)
 Enrique Serna (1959–)
 Jordi Soler (1963–)
 Gerardo de la Torre (1938)
 David Toscana (1961–)
 Juan Tovar (1941)
 Elman Trevizo (1981)
 Gabriel Trujillo
 Edmundo Valadés (1915–1994)
 Arqueles Vela (1899–1977)
 Xavier Velasco (1964–)
 Juan Pablo Villalobos (1973–)
 Juan Villoro (1956–)
 Josefina Vicens (1911–1988)
 Janitzio Villamar (1969–)
 Jorge Volpi (1968)
 Agustín Yáñez (1904–1980)
 José Luis Zárate (1966–)
 Eraclius Zepeda (1937)
 Gerardo Arana (1987–2012)

Poets

 Griselda Álvarez (1913–2009)
 Guadalupe Amor (1918–2000)
 Homero Aridjis (1940–)
 List Germán Arzubide (1898–1998)
 Juan Banuelos (1932–)
 Efraín Bartolomé (1950–)
 José Carlos Becerra (1936–1970)
 Abigael Bohórquez (1936–1995)
 Rubén Bonifaz Nuño (1923–2013)
 Andrés Castuera-Micher (1976)
 Alí Chumacero (1918– 2010)
 Óscar Cortés Tapia (1960–)
 Jorge Cuesta (1903–1942)
 Gerardo Deniz (1934–2014)
 José Gorostiza (1901–1973)
 Daniel Gutiérrez Pedreiro (1964–)
 Francisco Hernández (1946–)
 Efraín Huerta (1914–1982)
 David Huerta (1949–)
 Martín Jiménez Serrano (1967)
 Jaime Labastida (1939–)
 Ricardo López Méndez (1903–1989)
 Tedi López Mills (1959–)
 Manuel Maples Arce (1898–1981)
 Yaxkin Melchy Ramos (1985–)
 Carmen Mondragón "Nahui Olin" (1893–1978)
 Marco Antonio Montes de Oca (1932–2008)
 Oscar Oliva (1938–)
 José Emilio Pacheco (1939–2014)
 , (1939–2014)
 Octavio Paz (1914–1998)
 Carlos Pellicer (1899–1977)
 Jaime Sabines (1926–1999)
 Jaime Augusto Shelley (1937)
 Javier Sicilia (1956–)
 Concha Urquiza (1910–1945)
 Xavier Villaurrutia (1903–1950)
 Eraclio Zepeda (1937–2015)
 Arianna Alvarez (2001)

Playwrights

  (1932–2003)
 Homer Aridjis (1940–)
 Luis G. Basurto (1920–1990)
 Sabina Berman (1955–)
 Emilio Carballido (1925–2008)
 Andrés Castuera-Micher (1976)
 Elena Garro (1916–1998)
 Ricardo Garibay (1923–1999)
 Miguel Ángel Tenorio (1954–1)
 Luisa Josefina Hernandez (1928–)
 Vicente Leñero (1933–)
 Oscar Liera (1946–1990)
 Carlos Olmos (1947–2003)
 José Lorenzo Canchola (1962–)
 Victor Hugo Rascon Banda (1948–2008)
 Guillermo Schmidhuber (1943–)
 Juan Tovar (1941–)
 Luis Mario Moncada (1963–)
 Rodolfo Usigli (1905–1980)
 Xavier Villaurrutia (1903–1951)

Historians

 Alfonso Junco
 Carlos Antonio Aguirre Rojas (1954–)
 Carlos Pereyra
 Carlos Alvear Acevedo
 Eduardo Blanquel
 Guillermo Bonfil Batalla (1935–1991)
 Victor Manuel Castillo Farreras (1932–)
 Daniel Cosio Villegas (1898–1976)
 Martha Fernandez
 Mariano Cuevas
 José Fuentes Mares (1918–1986)
 Adolfo Gilly
 Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru
 Lucas Alamán
 Luis González y González (1925–2003)
 Luis González Obregón
 Enrique Krauze (1947–)
 Miguel León-Portilla (1926–)
 Alfredo López Austin (1936–)
 Leonardo López Luján (1964–)
 Jorge Alberto Manrique
 Francisco Martin Moreno (1946–)
 Álvaro Matute Aguirre
 Margarita Menegus
 Alfonso Mendiola
 Jean Meyer (1942–)
 Lorenzo Meyer (1942–)
 Juan Miralles (1930–2011)
 Moguel Josefina Flores (1952–)
 Edmundo O'Gorman (1906–1995)
 Héctor Pérez Martínez (1906–1948)
 Constantino Reyes-Valerio (1922–2006)
 Antonio Rubial
 Rafael Tovar y de Teresa
 Guillermo Tovar y de Teresa
 Paco Ignacio Taibo II
 Cristina Pacheco Torales
 Elisa Vargas Lugo
 Bolívar Zapata
 José David Gamboa
 Vito Alessio Robles

Chronology

National Prize for Arts and Sciences (Premio Nacional de Ciencias y Artes) awarded

Linguistics and literature
Lingüística y Literatura

2014: Dolores Castro
2011: Daniel Sada
2010: Maruxa Vilalta
2005: Carlos Monsiváis
2004: Margo Glantz
2002: Elena Poniatowska
2001: Vicente Leñero
2000: Margit Frenk
1995: Juan Miguel Lope Blanch
1993: Sergio Pitol
1988: Eduardo Lizalde
1987: Alí Chumacero
1986: Rafael Solana
1985: Marco Antonio Montes de Oca
1984: Carlos Fuentes Macías
1983: Jaime Sabines
1982: Elías Nandino
1981: Mauricio Magdaleno
1980: José Luis Martínez Rodríguez
1979: Juan José Arreola
1978: Fernando Benítez
1977: Octavio Paz
1976: (Tie)
 Antonio Gómez Robledo
 Efraín Huerta
1975: Francisco Monterde
1974: Rubén Bonifaz Nuño
1973: Agustín Yáñez
1972: Rodolfo Usigli
1971: Daniel Cosío Villegas
1970: Juan Rulfo
1969: Silvio Zavala Vallado
1968: José Gorostiza
1967: Salvador Novo López
1966: Jaime Torres Bodet
1965: Ángel María Garibay
1964: Carlos Pellicer Cámara
1958: Martín Luis Guzmán
1949: Mariano Azuela González
1946: Alfonso Reyes
1935: Gregorio López y Fuentes

History, Social Sciences, and Philosophy
Historia, Ciencias Sociales y Filosofía

2007: Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma
1997: Rodolfo Stavenhagen
1986: Luis Villoro Toranzo
1985: Alfonso Noriega Cantú
1984: Pablo González Casanova
1983: Luis González y González
1982: Héctor Fix Zamudio
1981: Miguel León-Portilla
1980: Leopoldo Zea Aguilar
1979: Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán
1978: Mario de la Cueva
1977: Víctor L. Urquidi Bingham
1976: Eduardo García Máynez
1962: Jesús Silva Herzog
1960: Alfonso Caso

Awards

 Nobel Prize for Literature: Octavio Paz
 Miguel de Cervantes Prize: Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes, Sergio Pitol, José Emilio Pacheco, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso.
 Neustadt Prize: Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes (candidate), Homero Aridjis (candidate)
 Jerusalem Prize: Octavio Paz
 Alfonso Reyes Prize: Octavio Paz, Juan José Arreola, José Emilio Pacheco, Ali Chumacero, José Luis Martínez, Ramón Xirau, Rubén Bonifaz Nuño
 National Prize for Literature: Octavio Paz, Sergio Pitol, Juan Rulfo, Carlos Monsivais, Juan José Arreola, Margo Glantz, Elena Poniatowska, Ali Chumacero, Vicente Leñero, Mariano Azuela, Alfonso Reyes, Jaime Sabines, Maruxa Vilalta
 Menendez y Pelayo International Prize: Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes, José Luis Martínez
 Prince of Asturias Award: Carlos Fuentes, Juan Rulfo
 Guggenheim Fellowship: Sergio Pitol, Homero Aridjis, Juan García Ponce, Alfredo López Austin, Margo Glantz, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso, Vicente Leñero, Ramón Xirau, Rubén Bonifaz Nuño, Leonardo López Luján
 Romulo Gallegos Prize: Carlos Fuentes, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso, Ángeles Mastretta
 Federico Garcia Lorca Prize: José Emilio Pacheco
 Juan Rulfo Prize: Sergio Pitol, Carlos Monsiváis, Tomás Segovia, Juan José Arreola, Juan García Ponce
 Octavio Paz Prize: Tomás Segovia, José Emilio Pacheco

See also

 List of Mexican writers
 List of Mexican poets
 Infrarealism
 Crack Movement

References

External links
 Preface to C.M. Mayo anthology Mexico: A Traveler's Literary Companion

Latin American literature by country
North American literature
Spanish-language literature

Mexican literature


The Gila River (; O'odham [Pima]: Keli Akimel or simply Akimel, Quechan: Haa Si'il, Maricopa language: Xiil) is a  tributary of the Colorado River flowing through New Mexico and Arizona in the United States. The river drains an arid watershed of nearly  that lies mainly within the U.S., but also extends into northern Sonora, Mexico.

Indigenous peoples have lived along the river for at least 2,000 years, establishing complex agricultural societies before European exploration of the region began in the 16th century. However, European Americans did not permanently settle the Gila River watershed until the mid-19th century.

During the 20th century, human development of the Gila River watershed prompted the construction of large diversion and flood control structures on the river and its tributaries, and consequently the Gila now contributes only a small fraction of its historic flow to the Colorado. The historic natural discharge of the river is around , and is now only . These engineering projects have transformed much of the river valley and its surrounds from arid desert to irrigated land, and supply water to the more than five million people, mainly in the Phoenix and Tucson metropolitan areas, who live in the watershed .

Geography
The Gila River has its source in western New Mexico, in Sierra County on the western slopes of the Continental Divide in the Black Range. It flows southwest through the Gila National Forest and the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, then westward into Arizona, past the town of Safford. After flowing along the southern slope of the Gila Mountains in Graham County through a series of canyons, the Gila is impounded by Coolidge Dam in San Carlos Lake south of Peridot.

It emerges from the mountains into the valley southeast of Phoenix, Arizona, where it crosses the Gila River Indian Reservation as an intermittent stream due to large irrigation diversions, primarily at the Hayden Ashurst Diversion Dam. Well west of Phoenix, the river bends sharply southward along the Gila Bend Mountains, then it swings westward again near the town of Gila Bend. It flows southwestward between the Gila Mountains to the south and the Languna and Muggins ranges to the north in Yuma County, and finally it empties into the Colorado at Yuma, Arizona.

The Gila is joined by many tributaries, beginning with the East and West Forks of the river, which combine to form the main stem near Gila Hot Springs in New Mexico. Above Safford, it is joined by the San Francisco River and the intermittent San Simon River. Further downstream, it is joined by the San Carlos River from the north in San Carlos Lake. At Winkelman, Arizona, it picks up the San Pedro River and then is joined by the Santa Cruz River south of Casa Grande. The Salt River, its main tributary, joins in the Phoenix metropolitan area, and further west the Gila receives its last two major tributaries, the Agua Fria and Hassayampa Rivers, from the north.

Although the Gila River flows entirely within the United States, the headwaters of two tributaries – the San Pedro and Santa Cruz Rivers – extend into Mexico. About , or 2.8% of the Gila's  watershed, is in Mexico. A further  or 5.7% lies within New Mexico, while the remaining majority,  or 91.5%, is in Arizona.

History
A band of Pima (autonym "Akimel O'odham", river people), the Keli Akimel O'odham (Gila River People), have lived on the banks of the Gila River since before the arrival of Spanish explorers. Popular theory says that the word "Gila" was derived from a Spanish contraction of Hah-quah-sa-eel, a Yuma word meaning "running water which is salty". Their traditional way of life (himdagĭ, sometimes rendered in English as Him-dak) was and is centered at the river, which is considered holy. Traditionally, sand from the banks of the river is used as an exfoliant when bathing (often in rainstorms, especially during the monsoon).
Indigenous peoples such as the Hohokam were responsible for creating large, complex civilizations along the Middle Gila River and Salt River between 600 and 1450 AD. These native civilizations depended largely on irrigated agriculture, for which they constructed over  of canals. The upper Gila was inhabited by the Mogollon culture over most of the same time period, in settlements like those at Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument in the later period.

The first European to see the Gila River was possibly Spanish explorer and missionary Juan de la Asunción. Asunción reached the Gila in 1538 after traveling northwards along one of its tributaries, either the San Pedro or Santa Cruz. In 1540, Hernando de Alarcón sailed up the Colorado and Gila Rivers; maps drawn by his expedition show the river as the Miraflores or Brazos de la Miraflores.

During the Mexican–American War, General Stephen Watts Kearny marched 100 cavalrymen from the 1st U.S. Dragoons along the Gila River in November 1846.  This detachment was guided by Kit Carson. The Mormon Battalion followed Kearny's troops, building a wagon trail roughly following the river from December 1846 to January 1847.

After the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848, the Gila River served as a part of the border between the United States and Mexico until the 1853 Gadsden Purchase extended American territory well south of the Gila. The confluence of the Gila with the Colorado River was also used as a reference point for the southern border of California. Beginning in 1871, mainly Mormon settlers populated the Gila River valley around present-day Phoenix, using the Gila, Salt, and San Pedro Rivers for irrigation and establishing at least six major settlements.

In 1944, 25 German prisoners of war pulled off the largest and most spectacular escape from an American compound during the war, digging a  tunnel out of the Navy's Papago Park Prisoner of War Camp in Arizona. All of the men were eventually captured, though some remained at large for more than a month. Among the last to be captured were three German soldiers who had based their audacious but ill-fated escape plans on a stolen highway map of Arizona, which showed the Gila River leading to the Colorado River, which in turn led to Mexico. Devising a scheme to flee by water, the Germans constructed a collapsible kayak under the noses of their American captors, tested it in a makeshift pool within the prison compound, then sneaked it out through the tunnel. Their plan was perfect – except for the map. The Gila, shown as a healthy blue waterway, turned out to be little more than a dry rut.

Hydrology

The only major dam on the Gila River is Coolidge Dam,  southeast of Globe, Arizona, which forms San Carlos Lake. The Painted Rock Dam crosses the Gila near Gila Bend, although the river is a transient one at that point. The majority of the water is diverted at the Ashurst-Hayden Diversion Dam near Florence, Arizona. A number of minor diversion dams have been built on the river between the Painted Rock Dam and the Coolidge Dam, including the Gillespie Dam, which was breached during a flood in 1993.

Many dams have been built on tributaries to the Gila River, including Theodore Roosevelt Dam, Horse Mesa Dam, and Mormon Flat Dam  on the Salt River, New Waddell Dam on the Agua Fria River, and Bartlett Dam on the Verde River.

Many major dams in the Gila River system were built and operated by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, which also constructed most of the large dams throughout the Colorado River basin. Others, such as Coolidge Dam, are owned by local water supply agencies, irrigation districts, or Native American tribes.

The Gila River and its main tributary, the Salt River, were both perennial streams carrying large volumes of water – the Gila was once navigable by large riverboats from its mouth to near Phoenix, and by smaller craft from Phoenix nearly to the Arizona-New Mexico border – until irrigation and municipal water diversions turned both into usually dry rivers which carry water only after local downpours create flooding. Below Phoenix to the Colorado River, the Gila is usually either a trickle or completely dry, as is also the lower Salt from Granite Reef Diversion Dam downstream to the Gila, but both rivers can carry large volumes of water following rainfall.

The historic width of the Gila River varied from  with a depth of . Its natural discharge was roughly  per year, with a mean flow of about  at the mouth. The river's present discharge near the mouth is less than  per year, with an average flow of just . Overdraft from the Gila River system prompted the construction of the Central Arizona Project, which delivers some  annually from the Colorado River to supplement water supplies in the basin.

The upper Gila River, including its entire length within New Mexico, is a free-flowing one.  Recent efforts to allow for damming or otherwise diverting this stretch have met with stiff political resistance, having been named as one of the nation's most endangered rivers due to proposed dam projects such as Hooker Dam. During his time in office, former New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson had promised to block any such attempt during his term, and he had even considered pushing for a statutory prohibition against any such projects on the state's portion of the river.

Recreation
The Gila River between Virden, New Mexico, and Solomon, Arizona, is navigable during spring snowmelt and after summer and autumn storms. The river passes through many scenic canyons and stretches of Class I to III whitewater. Due to its desert surroundings, the river is characterized by erratic flows and flash floods that reach high peaks and drop off just as quickly. The Gila's Salt River tributary has even more difficult whitewater, ranging up to Class IV in places, and often has higher and more dependable flows than the Gila.

Boating and fishing are popular on San Carlos Lake and other basin reservoirs, including Lake Pleasant and Theodore Roosevelt Lake. The river system has 36 fish species, including largemouth bass, sunfish, channel catfish, flathead catfish, and Gila trout (Oncorhynchus gilae gilae).

Variant names
The Gila River has also been known as:

 Akee-mull
 Apache de Gila
 Brazo de Miraflores
 Cina`ahuwipi (Chemehuevi language)
 Hah-quah-sa eel (Yuma language)
 Hela River
 Jila River
 Rio Azul
 Rio Gila
 Rio de las Balsas
 Rio del Nombre Jesus
 Rio del los Apostoles
 Zila River
 Xila River
 Keli Akimel

See also

Gila and Salt River Meridian
Gila River War Relocation Center
List of Arizona rivers
List of New Mexico rivers
List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)
List of tributaries of the Gila River
Needle's Eye Wilderness
San Francisco River
San Pedro River
Santa Cruz River

References

Citations

Works cited

External links

Gila River Tourism Website
Arizona Boating Locations Facilities Map
Arizona Fishing Locations Map
Where to Fish in Arizona Species Information
Arizona Lake Levels

Arizona placenames of Native American origin
Rivers of Arizona
Rivers of Gila County, Arizona
Rivers of New Mexico
Rivers of Pinal County, Arizona
Rivers of Sierra County, New Mexico
Sonoran Desert
Tributaries of the Colorado River in Arizona
Tributaries of the Lower Colorado River in Arizona

Gila River


Muz (Musa), Güneydoğu Asya'nın tropikal bölgelerinde doğal olarak yetişen bir ağaçsı bitkiye ve bu bitkinin yeşil kabuklu (bazı türlerinde kırmızı veya pembe kabuklu ) uzun meyvelerine denir.

Dünya üzerinde meyvesi belki de en fazla tüketilen bitkilerden biridir. Muzun bu kadar aranmasının sebebi sadece kolay erişilebilen ve kolay tüketilebilen bir bitki olması değildir. Bu tüketimin ardında muzun çok besleyici bir besin kaynağı olması, birçok vitamin, protein, mineral ve aminoasiti içeriyor olması yatmaktadır. Batı Avrupa ülkelerinde sadece tadı ve kokusu için aranan bir meyve konumunda ise de üçüncü dünya ülkelerinde çok önemli bir besin maddesidir. Az gelişmiş ülkelerde çocuklar ihtiyaçları olan proteini muz yiyerek almaktadırlar. Faydaları şunlardır:
Muz kemik gelişimini sağlar, sinir zafiyeti ve yorgunluğu giderir.
Böbrek ve mafsal iltihabında, bağırsak hastalıklarında faydalıdır.
Müzmin kabızlık çekenler fazla yememelidir.
B1, B2, C, A ve E vitaminlerini içeren muz, potasyum, demir, kalsiyum, fosfor, sodyum ve iyot açısından da çok zengindir.
Muzun kalori düzeyi çok yüksek olmasına karşılık hiç kolesterol içermemektedir.
Kalp kaslarını geliştiren sodyum ve potasyum maddeleri içerir.

Potasyum terleme sebebiyle kapasitesini yitirmeye başlayan kasları canlandırır ve daha kolay hareket etmelerini sağlar. B1 vitamini sayesinde sinir dokularının normal çalışmasına da etki eder. İçerdiği iyot sayesinde de tiroid bezinin dengeli çalışmasına yardım eder.

Muz bitkisi en büyük çiçekli otsul bitkidir. Bitkileri sıkça ağaçlarla karıştırılır ve 7.6 metreye kadar çıkabilirler. Yaprakları sarmal bir biçimde yer alır ve 2.7 metre uzunluğa, 60 cm genişliğe kadar büyüyebilir.

Etimoloji
Türkçede yer alan muz kelimesi kökensel olarak Farsça mūz (موز) sözcüğüne dayanır ve kelime Arapça aynı anlama gelen mawz sözcüğü ile eş kökenlidir. Bu sözcük Orta Farsça aynı anlama gelen mōz veya mōc sözcüğünden alıntıdır. Orta Farsça sözcük Sanskritçe aynı anlama gelen moça (मोच)  sözcüğünden alıntıdır.

Diğer pek çok dilde kullanılan "banana" sözcüğünün kökeni ise Batı Afrika'da konuşulan bir Nijer-Kongo dili olan Volofça kökenli "banaana" kelimesine dayanır.

Farklı muz çeşitleri

Üretimi
FAO verilerine göre dünya muz üretimi 2019 yılında bir önceki yıla göre %0,9 artarak 117 milyon tona yükselmiştir. Dünya muz üretim alanları 5 milyon ha. civarında olup 2017'den itibaren artış eğilimindedir. Dünya muz ihracatı 2019 yılında bir önceki yıla göre %2,3 artarak 22,9 milyon ton gerçekleşirken, muz ithalatı önceki yıllara göre %1,6 artarak 24,8 milyon tona yükselmiştir. Dünyada en fazla muz üretim alanına sahip ülkeler başta Hindistan olmak üzere Brezilya, Çin, Ekvador, Tanzanya ve Ruanda'dır. Dünya muz üretiminde ise yine Hindistan 30 bin ton üretim ile ilk sırada yer alırken12 bin ton üretim ile Çin ikinci sırada, 7 bin ton üretim ile Endonezya üçüncü sırada yer almaktadır. Brezilya ve Ekvador ise dünya muz üretiminde ilk beşte yer alan diğer ülkelerdir.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Türkiye'de muz üretimi

Kaynakça

Tropikal meyveler
Bitkisel lifler

Muz


جون روبرت شريفر  هو عالم فيزيائي أمريكي حاز على جائزة نوبل للفيزياء عام 1972. شاركه العالمان جون باردين وليون كوبر في الجائزة عن النظرية BCS المسماة باسمهم باردين B، كوبر C، شريفر S. وتفسر تلك النظرية ظاهرة التوصيل الفائق بأنه تأثير في المدى الميكروسكوبي ينشأ عن تكثف كل زوجين من الإلكترونات في حالة مشابهة للبوزون Boson-like state.

ولد جون شريفر في 31 مايو 1931 بمدينة أوك بارك بولاية إلينوي، وكان يهتم منذ صغره بالبث بالراديو مما جذبه بعد ذلك إلى الهندسة الكهربائية.

تعرض شريفر لمأساة حيث سجن في إصلاحية ريتشارد دونوفان بين عامي 2005 و2007 وذلك بعد أن تسبب في مقتل اثنين واصاب سبعة اشخاص في حادثة سيارة كان يقودها في مدينة اوركت بكاليفورنيا، ليصبح بذلك أول حائز على نوبل يتعرض للسجن

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من أوك بارك (إلينوي)
أعضاء أجانب في الأكاديمية الروسية للعلوم
أعضاء الأكاديمية الوطنية الأمريكية للعلوم
أعضاء الجمعية الفلسفية الأمريكية
أعضاء الجمعية الفيزيائية الأمريكية
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة بنسلفانيا
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة فلوريدا
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة ولاية فلوريدا
أكاديميو جامعة برمنغهام
أمريكيون حازوا جائزة نوبل
أمريكيون من أصل ألماني
الأعضاء الأجانب في أكاديمية العلوم في الاتحاد السوفياتي
حائزون على جائزة نوبل في الفيزياء
حائزون على جوائز الأكاديمية الوطنية للعلوم
حائزون على زمالة غوغنهايم
حائزون على قلادة العلوم الوطنية الأمريكية
خريجو جامعة إلينوي في أوربانا شامباين
خريجو معهد ماساتشوستس للتكنولوجيا
سجناء ومعتقلون في كاليفورنيا
علماء من أوك بارك (إلينوي)
علماء من إلينوي
علماء من ولاية نيويورك
فيزيائيون أمريكيون
فيزيائيون أمريكيون في القرن 20
مواليد 1931
مواليد في أوك بارك (إلينوي)
وفيات 2019

جون روبرت شريفر


حسب الحوسبة واستنساخ الصوت والفيديو إن القرص البصري ، أيضاً يسمى القرص الضوئي أو القرص التخزين، هو شكل قرص مسطّح ودائري (عادةً معمول من البوليكربونات) أين ما البيانات تخزن في حفريات (أو ارتطامات) صغيرة جداً على السطّح القرص. تحديداً، بالتتابُع على مسار المدورة المستمرة، تمتد من طوية المسار إلى أبعد المسار، الذي يغطي كامل سطّح القرص. تتوصول البيانات على القرص عندما يضيئ المواد الخاصة (غالباً الألومنيوم) في القرص مع ليزر الصمام الثنائي. الحفريات يشوّه الليزر المعكوس، ومن ثم، معظم الأقراص البصرية (عدا الأقراص السوداء الخاصة بنظام ألعاب الفيديو البلاي‌ستيشن الأول) تتميز بأن لها مظهر التقزّح اللونيّ التي أنشأتها أخاديد الطبقة المتعكسة.

الأقراص البصرية، التي تسجل عليها مرة واحدة فقط، تستعمل صباغة عضوية. والأقراص التي تسجل أكثر من مرة تستعمل خليط معادن تتحول طورياً.

مواصفات

مراجع

استحداثات سمعية بصرية في 1884
أقراص بصرية
تأليف قرص بصري
دي في دي
قرص مضغوط
كهروضوئيات
وسائط تخزين
وسائط تخزين ضوئية حاسوبية

قرص بصري


La prostitution au Bhoutan est illégale mais dans de nombreuses villes frontalières du Bhoutan, il y a des gens qui pratiquent ouvertement le commerce du sexe. La prostitution se produit principalement dans les bars, les clubs et les hôtels. Certaines travailleuses du sexe sont employées par des propriétaires de bars et d'hôtels pour attirer les clients. La prostitution se produit également dans la capitale, Thimphou.

On estime qu'il y a 400 à 500 travailleuses du sexe dans le pays, dont beaucoup sont issues de milieux pauvres, qui se prostituent pour des raisons financières.

En 2017, l'ONG Lhak-Sam a proposé que le travail du sexe soit légalisé par le gouvernement, mais la proposition a été rejetée.

Tourisme sexuel
Le Bhoutan est une destination de tourisme sexuel pour les Occidentaux et les Indiens. Certaines prostituées haut de gamme sont impliquées dans le trafic, les touristes étant plus susceptibles de pouvoir payer leurs honoraires.

Législation
Le Code pénal du Bhoutan criminalise la prostitution.

Trafic sexuel
Le Bhoutan est un pays d'origine et de destination pour les femmes et les enfants vulnérables au trafic sexuel. Des filles du Bhoutan, travaillant comme domestiques ou animatrices dans des bars, sont sujettes au trafic sexuel, sous la pressions de dettes et de menaces physiques.

Le bureau du département d'État des États-Unis chargé de surveiller et de combattre la traite des personnes classe le Bhoutan parmi les pays de la «liste de surveillance de niveau 2».

Références

Liens externes
 Drayang - Le sombre secret du Bhoutan

Société bhoutanaise
Bhoutan

Prostitution au Bhoutan


Karmış, İskilip - Çorum ili İskilip ilçesine bağlı köy
 Karmış, Karaçoban - Erzurum ili Karaçoban ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Karmış


Hoya omlorii er fjölær jurt í vaxblómaættkvísl.  Útbreiðslan er á Malasíu (Perak), Súmötru og Borneó.

Tilvísanir

Vaxblómaættkvísl

Hoya omlorii


Diversas puertas eran las que cerraban antiguamente la ciudad de Zaragoza:

Puerta de Santa Engracia

Esta puerta, de grandes proporciones, aunque de pesada forma, se empezó a construir en el año 1830, habiéndose suspendido las obras en 1835.

En 3 de junio de 1819 había mandado ya el rey Fernando VII que se erigiese junto a las ruinas del convento, para recordar el heroico esfuerzo, el valor y el sufrimiento de los defensores de la ciudad en los memorables asedios durante la guerra de la Independencia.

Tenía tres ingresos en el centro destinados para el paso de las personas y dos puertas laterales que serrvían para el tránsito de coches y caballerías. Antiguamente se llamaba puerta de las Santas Masas.

Puerta Quemada

Situada al Sureste de la capital, entre las puertas del Sol y de santa Engracia carecía de todo mérito artístico. Debía su nombre, según parece, a haber sido aquel el lugar, en que se quemaban los cadáveres de los sentenciados por el tribunal del Santo Oficio.

Fue destruida enteramente en la guerra de la Independencia, en 1808, y la que se construyó posteriormente se asemejaba más bien a un postigo. Fue reemplazada por la puerta del Duque.

Puerta del Duque

Contigua a la iglesia de San Miguel de los Navarros y frente al puente de fábrica llamado de san José, se levantaba la magnífica puerta de hierro costeada por el señor Juan Bruil, hijo de la ciudad, senador del reino y ministro de Hacienda que fue en los años 1855 y 1856.

Esta puerta, abierta en mayo de 1856, en celebridad de la inauguración del ferrocarril de Madrid a Zaragoza, que presidió el duque de la Victoria en nombre de la Reina, fue construida en solo quince días, con este especial objeto. Pero la misma precipitación con que se llevaron las obras la dio poca solidez, produciendo a poco tiempo la caída de una parte de ella hecha de ladrillo.

Puerta del Sol

Se hallaba situada al Nordeste de la ciudad. Constaba de un solo arco de piedra sillería, en el cual se veían infinidad de señales de las balas recibidas en la guerra de la Independencia. Daba salida al barrio de las Tenerías, extramuros de la ciudad.

Puerta de Toledo

Puerta de Valencia

Puerta del Ángel

Se hallaba situada al Nordeste de la ciudad, en la plaza de La Seo, dando su frente al puente de Piedra sobre el río Ebro y a las carreteras generales de Cataluña, Francia y Huesca. Consta de tres entradas, la del centro para carruajes, de arco de medio punto.

Esta puerta se construyó en treinta días, con motivo de la venida de SS. MM. a esta capital para inaugurarse el día de su llegada conforme al plano que sirvió a la que se construyó en la del Duque, en la plaza de san Miguel.

Por esta puerta había gran tránsito y movimiento de gentes, de carruajes y de caballos y puede contarse como la primera de la ciudad, por hallarse frente al único paso del Ebro o sea el puente de Piedra.

Puerta de San Ildefonso

Se encontraba al Norte de la población. Era de un solo arco, sin otro mérito que su antigüedad y se dirigía en línea recta a la calle o plaza del Mercado. Su construcción data del año 1118, en que hizo su entrada por ella Don Alfonso el Batallador. Su verdadero nombre es el de san Ildefonso, aunque vulgarmente se la conoce con el de la Tripería, por hallarse a la cabeza de dicha calle.

Junto a la misma puerta había un postigo que tenía salida a la orilla del Ebro y por el cual tomaban el agua los aguadores y demás que la necesitaban. En el verano colocaban un pontón o barca, con maroma de sirga y por un módico estipendio pasaban de uno a otro lado a los que lo deseaban.

Puerta de Sancho

Se hallaba al Noroeste de la ciudad, cerca de la plaza de santo Domingo. No tenía mérito alguno artístico: daba salida a las huertas llamadas del término de Almozara y varios pueblos de la orilla derecha del Ebro, en aquella dirección.

Puerta del Portillo

Situada al Oeste de la población junto a la plaza de su nombre, era de un solo arco de ladrillo, bastante alto y de mérito regular. Fue construida después de la guerra de la Independencia, por haberse totalmente destruido la que había anteriormente: su frente daba a la carretera general de Madrid y Navarra y el palacio de la Aljafería. Es constante y piadosa tradición, que cerca de esta puerta se verificó la milagrosa aparición de la Virgen del Portillo, en el año 1119 y la cual se venera en su iglesia contigua a dicha puerta, intramuros de la ciudad.

Puerta del Carmen

Se halla al Suroeste de la ciudad, en una plaza en la que confluyen la Avenida César Augusto, la Calle Hernán Cortés y los Paseos Pamplona y María Agustín. Su antiguo nombre era Puerta de Baltax, debiendo, sin duda el actual a su proximidad al convento que fue de frailes del Carmen. Daba salida a la carretera de Valencia, paseos de Casa Blanca, Capuchinos, Campo del Sepulcro y a las muchas torres que había en sus términos.

La actual Puerta del Carmen fue construida en el año 1789 en estilo neoclásico por el arquitecto Agustín Sanz, sobre la anterior Puerta. Consta de un arco de piedra de bastante altura y dos puertas pequeñas a los costados con algunas molduras, en las que faltan grandes trozos y se echaban de ver bien los signos de muchos proyectiles que revelan lo mucho que sufrió en la guerra de la Independencia.

Es memorable esta puerta también por haber entrado por ella el 5 de marzo de 1838 el general carlista Cabañero con una división de la cual pereció una gran parte y quedó otra prisionera por los milicianos nacionales y paisanos que con este hecho de armas conquistaron un laurel más sobre los que ya tenían conquistados y la ciudad obtuvo el título de siempre heroica.

Además de las puertas que se dejan mencionadas había un postigo llamado Sorreal, que se hallaba en la calle de Predicadores y comunicaba al Ebro, por donde tomaban el agua; otro en la puerta de la Tripería, que ya se ha citado; otro, titulado del Ángel, junto a la puerta de este nombre, que daba salida a la ribera del Ebro y estaba cerrado casi todo el año y otro en la puerta de Monserrate, frente al puente de Tablas, en la ribera del Ebro.

Referencias
Guía de Zaragoza, 1860

Puertas monumentales de Zaragoza
Historia de Zaragoza

Puertas de Zaragoza


Schoenchen est une ville américaine située dans le comté de d'Ellis, au Kansas. Selon le recensement de 2020, sa population est de .

Liens externes

Ville au Kansas
Comté d'Ellis (Kansas)

Schoenchen (Kansas)


Mali Trianon je dvorac sagrađen između 1762. i 1768. godine, za vrijeme vladavine Luja XV. u Francuskoj. Smješten je na tlu Versajske palače u Versailles.

Mali Trianon


Le Ribeyrolles 1918 était une tentative de fabrication d'un fusil automatique pour les forces françaises à la fin de la première guerre mondiale. Il a été chambré dans la munition expérimentale qu'est la cartouche de 8 × 35 mm , utilisé le système du blowback droit, L'arme était alimenté à partir d'un magasin détachable 25 et avait une portée effective de 400 mètres. La cartouche, qui, selon certains, était la première cartouche intermédiaire spécialement conçue, a été obtenue en réduisant le .351 Winchester Self-Loading . Une autre source indique qu'il a été chambré dans une cartouche désignée 8 × 32 mmSR.

Son nom officiel était Carabine Mitrailleuse 1918; dans un livre de 2007, il apparaît comme "fusil automatique Ribeyrolles 1918". Le Ribeyrolles avait la particularité d'être équipé d'un bipied léger à l'avant (indiquant une utilisation prévue comme arme automatique d'escouade ) et d'un fusil à baïonnette identique à celui du Berthier Modèle 1907/15.

Notes et références

Articles connexes
 Pistolet mitrailleur Chauchat-Ribeyrolles 1918
 Avtomat Fedorova
 Fusil Automatique Modèle 1917
 MP 18
 Vollmer M35

Liens externes

 Ribeyrolles 1918 - Premier fusil d'assaut français ou prototype raté ? sur les armes oubliées
 Image des Ribeyrolles sur les armes oubliées
 Carabine Mitrailleuse 1918 chez Historical Firearms

Arme de la Première Guerre mondiale
Arme militaire fabriquée en France
Pistolet-mitrailleur

Fusil automatique Ribeyrolles 1918


Xavier Hernández Creus (, ; d. 25 Ocak 1980, Terrassa), İspanyol eski millî futbolcudur. La Liga ekiplerinden Barcelona'yı çalıştırmaktadır. Xavi kariyeri boyunca 1 kez Dünya Kupasını 4 kez de UEFA Şampiyonlar Ligi'ni kazanmıştır.

Kulüp kariyeri
Futbola La Masia'da başlayan Xavi, kariyerindeki ilk maçına 18 Ağustos 1998 tarihinde çıktı. Barcelona formasıyla şu ana kadar 705 maça çıktı ve 83 gol atıp 152 asist yaptı. 2009 yılında takımıyla altı kupa sevinci birden yaşadı.

Xavi, İspanya formasını ise ilk kez 2000 yılında giydi. Millî takım formasıyla 2008 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası, 2010 FIFA Dünya Kupası ve 2012 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası sevinci yaşarken, 2008 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası'nda ise turnuvanın en iyi oyuncusu seçildi.

İlk yılları
Xavi, futbola; 11 yaşında Barcelona'da La Masia futbol eğitim merkezinde başladı. Babası Joaquim, futbolculuk döneminde La Liga takımlarından Sabadell'de oynadı. Xavi, Barcelona B formasıyla La Liga 2'de mücadele etmeye başladı.

Barcelona
Xavi, kariyerindeki ilk maçına; 18 Ağustos 1998 tarihinde Supercopa de España mücadelesinde 2-1 kaybettikleri maçta Mallorca karşısında çıktı ve o maçta da kariyerindeki ilk golünü attı. İlk lig maçına ise, 3 Ekim 1998 tarihinde 3-1 kazandıkları maçta Valencia karşısında çıkarken; ilk golünü ise 20 Aralık 1998 tarihinde Valladolid karşısında attı ve maçın 1-0 bitmesini sağladı. Barcelona formasıyla ilk sezonunda lig şampiyonluğu yaşadı.

Xavi, 2004-05 sezonunda Don Balón ödülünde yapılan oylama sonucunda ligin en iyisi seçildi. 2005-06 sezonunda önemli bir sakatlık geçirince, kendisinin oynadığı bölgede Andrés Iniesta oynamaya başladı. Xavi, aynı sezon UEFA Şampiyonlar Ligi'nde finalde yedek kadroda yer alsa da forma giyemedi ama Barcelona, son 6 dakikasına 1-0 geride girdiği maçı 2-1 kazandı ve kupanın sahibi oldu. Barcelona, ayrıca o sezon da lig şampiyonu olarak double yapmıştı.

Xavi, 2008 FIFA Dünya'da Yılın Oyuncusu Ödülü'nde topladığı 155 puanla beşinci oldu. 2008-09 sezonunda Barcelona, 27 Mayıs 2009 tarihinde oynanan finalde Manchester United'ı 2-0 mağlup etti ve kupanın sahibi oldu. Aynı sezon Don Balón ödülünde takım arkadaşları Lionel Messi ile Iniesta'nın arkasında oylamada üçüncü oldu. Xavi, 2009-10 sezonunun başlarında Barcelona formasıyla altı kupa sevinci birden yaşadı ve Barcelona, böylece bir sezonda altı kupa birden kazanan ilk takım oldu. 2010 FIFA Ballon d'Or ödülünde takım arkadaşları; Messi ve Iniesta ile birlikte üçe inen adaylar arasında yer almayı başardı. Xavi bu ödülde oyların %17,36'sını alarak takım arkadaşı Messi ve Iniesta'nın ardından üçüncü oldu ve yılın takımında da yer aldı.

Katalan Kulübünün resmi internet sitesinde yapılan açıklamaya göre, İspanyol orta saha oyuncusunun sözleşmesini 30 Haziran 2016'ya kadar uzatıldığı belirtilmiştir.

Al-Sadd
2014-15 sezonu bittikten sonra, Barcelona kulübünden ayrıldı ve Katar'ın El-Sadd ile bir yıl uzatma opsiyonu bulunan iki yıllık sözleşme imzaladı, yıllık 10 milyon € alacağı açıklandı.

Millî takım kariyeri

U-23
Xavi Hernández, İspanya'nın çeşitli yaş kategorilerinde forma giydi. İspanya U-23 formasıyla 2000 Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda mücadele etti.

A millî takım
İspanya formasını ise ilk kez; 15 Kasım 2000 tarihinde 2-1 kaybettikleri maçta Hollanda karşısında giyerken; ilk golünü ise, 26 Mart 2005 tarihinde 3-0 kazandıkları maçta Çin karşısında attı. Millî takım formasıyla üç FIFA Dünya Kupası, üç Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası ve iki de FIFA Konfederasyonlar Kupası'nda mücadele etti. Ayrıca; 2008 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası, 2010 FIFA Dünya Kupası ve 2012 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası sevinci yaşarken, 2008 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası'nda ise turnuvanın en iyi oyuncusu seçildi. Xavi, millî formayı şu ana kadar 115 kez giydi ve 11 gol attı. 2014 FIFA Dünya Kupasından sonra millî takım kariyerine son verdiğini açıkladı.

İstatistikleri

Kulüp İstatistikleri

1Diğer müsabakaları içerir; UEFA Süper Kupası, Kıtalararası Kupa, FIFA Kulüpler Dünya Kupası.

Millî takım
2 Temmuz 2012 itibarıyla

Millî takım golleri

Başarıları

Kulüp
 La Liga (8): 1998-99, 2004-05, 2005-06, 2008-09, 2009-10, 2010-11, 2012-13, 2014-15
 Copa del Rey (2): 2008-09, 2011-12
 Supercopa de España (6): 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013
 UEFA Şampiyonlar Ligi (4): 2005-06, 2008-09, 2010-11, 2014-15
 UEFA Süper Kupası (2): 2009, 2011
 FIFA Kulüpler Dünya Kupası (2): 2009, 2011

Millî takım
 FIFA 20 Yaş Altı Dünya Kupası: 1999
 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası: 2008, 2012
 FIFA Dünya Kupası: 2010

Bireysel
 World Soccer Yılın Futbolcusu: 2010
 FIFPro World XI: 2008, 2009, 2010, 2013
 Don Balón Ödülleri En İyi Çıkış Yapan Oyuncu: 1998
 Don Balón Ödülleri En İyi İspanyol Oyuncu: 2005
 UEFA Yılın Takımı: 2008, 2009, 2010

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 FC Barcelona profili
 La Liga profili
 BDFutbol profili

 Millî takım profili
 2010 FIFA Dünya Kupası profili

1980 doğumlular
İspanya millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Katalan futbolcular
Yaşayan insanlar
FC Barcelona futbolcuları
2000 Yaz Olimpiyatları futbolcuları
2002 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
2004 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları
2006 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
2008 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları
2009 FIFA Konfederasyonlar Kupası futbolcuları
2010 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
2012 Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası futbolcuları
La Liga futbolcuları
Orta saha futbolcuları
Avrupa Futbol Şampiyonası kazanan futbolcular
FIFA Dünya Kupası kazanan futbolcular
2013 FIFA Konfederasyonlar Kupası futbolcuları
2014 FIFA Dünya Kupası futbolcuları
El-Sadd futbolcuları
İspanya 23 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
İspanya 21 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
İspanya 20 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
İspanya 18 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
İspanya 17 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Katar'daki gurbetçi futbolcular
FC Barcelona B futbolcuları
İspanyol Olimpiyat futbolcuları
Gümüş Olimpiyat madalyalı İspanyol sporcular
Segunda División B futbolcuları
La Liga 2 futbolcuları
İspanyol gurbetçi futbolcular
Katar'daki İspanyol gurbetçiler
UEFA Şampiyonlar Ligi'ni kazanan futbolcular
2000 Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda madalya kazananlar
Gümüş Olimpiyat madalyalı futbolcular

Xavi


باتريشيا ديفيس كلاركسون  هي ممثلة أمريكية (ولدت في 29 ديسمبر عام 1959). سطع نجمها في العديد من الأدوار الرئيسية والمساعدة في مجموعة متنوعة من الأفلام، سواء كانت إنتاجات أفلام طويلة مستقلة أو تابعة لاستديوهات مهمة. تتضمن الترشيحات والجوائز التي حصدتها ترشيحًا لجائزة الأوسكار، وترشيحين لجائزة الغولدن غلوب، وأربعة ترشيحات لجائزة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة، وترشيحًا واحدًا لجائزة توني (جائزة أنطوانيت بيري للتميز في مجال المسرح)، وحصدت جائزتي برايم تايم إيمي، وجائزتين للجمعية الوطنية لنقاد الأفلام، وجائزة الفلم الإنكليزي المستقل.

ولدت وترعرعت في نيو أورليانز لأم سياسية وأب مدير مدرسة، نالت كلاركسون شهادة في المسرح من جامعة فوردهام قبل أن تقصد كلية ييل للمسرح، حيث نالت درجة الماجستير في الفنون الجميلة. ظهرت لأول مرة في فيلم سينمائي طويل في فيلم الدراما والجريمة ذي أنتاتشبلز لبراين دي بالما (1987)، ولعبت بعده دورًا مساعدًا في فيلم ذا ديد بول (البركة الميتة) للمخرج كلينت إيستوود (1988). بعد ظهورها في عدة أدوار ثانوية في أوائل وأواسط التسعينات، لفتت انتباه النقاد عندما لعبت دور ممثلة مدمنة على الممنوعات في فيلم الدراما المستقل هاي آرت (بالإنجليزية: High Art) (1998). استمرت كلاركسون في لعب أدوار مساعدة في أفلام مثل ذا غرين مايل (الميل الأخضر) (1999)، ذا بليدج (العهد) (2001)، ودوجفيل (2003).

حصدت ثناء النقّاد عام 2003 بفضل أدائها في فيلم الدراما ذا ستيشن إيجنت (عامل المحطة)، والذي أدى إلى ترشيحها لنيل جائزة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة، بالإضافة إلى فيلم بيسز أوف أبريل (قطع من أبريل)، الذي رُشحت عن دورها فيه لنيل جائزتي الغولدن غلوب والأوسكار عن فئة أفضل ممثلة مساعدة. ظهرت كلاركسون أيضًا بصفتها نجمة ضيفة عدة مرات في مسلسل سيكس فيت أندر (ستة أقدام تحت الأرض) الذي أنتجته شركة إتش بي أو منذ عام 2002 وحتى 2006، وحصدت جائزتي برايم تايم إيمي بفضل أدائها. تتضمن بعض إنجازاتها في القرن الواحد والعشرين فيلم غود نايت أند غود لاك (ليلة سعيدة وحظ سعيد) (2005)، ولارس أند ذا ريل غيرل (لارس والفتاة الحقيقية) (2007)، وإيليجي (المرثية) (2008).

عام 2010، لعبت كلاركسون دور ممثلة مساعدة في فيلم شاتر آيلاند (جزيرة شاتر) للمخرج مارتن سكورسيزي، ولعبت بعدها أدوارًا في الفلمين الكوميديين إيزي إيه (2010) وفريندز ويذ بينيفيتس (أصدقاء مع امتيازات). لعبت لاحقًا دور الشريرة إيفا بيج في سلسلة أفلام ذا ميز رانر (عدّاء المتاهة) (2014). عادت إلى التمثيل في المسرح عام 2014، إذ لعبت دور مادج كيندال في إنتاج مسرح برودواي لفيلم ذي إيليفينت مان الذي ترشحت عن دورها فيه لجائزة توني عن فئة أفضل بطلة فيلم. عام 2017، حصدت جائزة السينما المستقلة البريطانية عن فئة أفضل ممثلة مساعدة بفضل أدائها في فيلم ذا بارتي (الحفلة) لسالي بوتر، وسطع نجمها في مسلسل هاوس أوف كاردز (بيت البطاقات) من إنتاج شركة نتفليكس. شاركت في بطولة مسلسل شارب أوبجكتس (أدوات حادة) القصير من إنتاج شركة إتش بي أو إلى جانب إيمي آدامز عام 2018، وربحت جائزة غولدن غلوب عن فئة أفضل ممثلة مساعدة في مسلسل، أو مسلسل قصير، أو فيلم تلفزيوني.

حياتها الشخصية
ردًا على التسرب النفطي في خليج المكسيك عام 2010، نشرت كلاركسون منشورًا لمجلة أون إيرث  التابعة لمجلس الدفاع عن الموارد الطبيعية. كما أنها أطلقت إعلان خدمة عامة يتحدث عن تجربتها في قضاء طفولتها في نيو أورليانز. نُشرت كلتا القطعتين المكتوبتين في 26 يوليو عام 2010.

الأعمال

الأفلام

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أمريكيون من أصل إسباني
أمريكيون من أصل ليتواني يهودي
بيئيات أمريكيات
بيئيون أمريكيون
حائزون على جائزة إيمي برايم تايم
خريجو جامعة فوردهام
خريجو مدرسة ييل للدراما
ممثلات أفلام أمريكيات
ممثلات أمريكيات في القرن 20
ممثلات أمريكيات في القرن 21
ممثلات تلفزيون أمريكيات
ممثلات مسرح أمريكيات
ممثلات من نيو أورليانز
مواليد 1959
مواليد في نيو أورلينز

باتريشيا كلاركسون


An Oberonia kingii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni S.Z. Lucksom. An Oberonia kingii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oberonia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Sikkim. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oberonia

Oberonia kingii


Gregory Goodwin Pincus () a fost un biolog și cercetător american care a inventat pilula contraceptivă orală combinată.

Note

Lectură suplimentară

 Weintraub, B. Pincus, Djerassi and Oral Contraceptives. Chimie în Israel, Buletinul Societății chimice din Israel. August 2005.

Nașteri în 1903
Decese în 1967
Absolvenți ai Universității Harvard
Biochimiști americani
Guggenheim Fellows
Savanți evrei americani
Americani din secolul al XX-lea
Inventatori americani

Gregory Goodwin Pincus


Francis Locke Jr. (October 31, 1766 – January 8, 1823) was a U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina.

Family
Francis Locke was the son of Francis Locke Sr. (1722–1796) (a Revolutionary War participant) and Anne Brandon (b.abt. 1737). All are buried at Thyatira Cemetery in Rowan County, North Carolina.

Career
A native of Rowan County, North Carolina, and a judge of the Superior Court of North Carolina from 1803 to 1814, he was elected to the Senate in 1814 to fill a vacancy caused by the resignation of David Stone, but resigned in 1815, before he could qualify.

References
NC Manual of 1913

1776 births
1823 deaths
United States senators from North Carolina
North Carolina Democratic-Republicans
North Carolina state court judges
People from Rowan County, North Carolina

Francis Locke Jr.


Carmen şu anlamlara gelebilir:
 Carmen (novella), Fransız romancı Prosper Mérimée'nin romanı.
 Carmen, Georges Bizet'in 4 perdelik opera eseri.
 Carmen (film), İspanyol yönetmen Carlos Saura'nın bir filmi.
 Carmen Electra, Amerikalı model aktris ve şarkıcı.

Carmen (anlam ayrımı)


Ledeni oblak je koloid ledenih čestica raspršenih u zraku. Izraz se koristi za označavanje oblaka koji se sastoje vodenog leda i leda ugljičnog dioksida na Marsu. Takvi oblaci mogu biti dovoljno veliki i gusti da bacaju sjene na Marsovu površinu.

Marsova atmosfera većinu godine ima ledene oblake od vodenog leda. Oblaci u ekvatorijalnom području između 10 do 30 kilometara iznad površine Marsa apsorbiraju infracrvenu svjetlost emitiranu s površine tijekom dana. To su relativno prozirni oblaci, poput tankih cirusa na Zemlji. Ipak, apsorpcija ovih oblaka je dovoljna za zagrijavanje srednjih slojeva atmosfere svaki dan.

Ledeni oblaci na Marsu važna su sastavnica hidrološkog ciklusa, kao i cjelokupnog planetnog klimatskog sustava.

Neki oblaci na Zemlji mogu sadržavati čestice leda, poput cirusa.

Vidi također

 IceCube (svemirska letjelica), satelit koji se koristi za mapiranje ledenih oblaka

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Web-stranica Mars Pathfindera o oblacima, zalascima i izlascima sunca

Oblaci

Ledeni oblak


Władysław Reymont, fæddur Władysław Rejment, (7. maí 1867 – 5. desember 1925) var pólskur rithöfundur. Hann hlaut nóbelsverðlaunin í bókmenntum árið 1924.

Ævi og störf
Reymont fæddist inn í fjárvana aðalsætt. Hann nam klæðskeraiðns en vann sem lestarvörður og leikari í farandleikhópi. Ferðalögin urðu honum hvatning til að setja saman smásögur. Árið 1899 sendi hann frá sér skáldsöguna Fyrirheitna landið (pólska: Ziemia obiecana) sem sló í gegn. Í henni beindi höfundurinn athyglinni að arðráni, kúgun og illri meðferð á verkafólki í iðnaðarborginni Lodz. Sagan var hörð gagnrýni á samfélagsleg áhrif óbeislaðrar iðnvæðingar.

Frá 1904 til 1909 sendi hann frá sér fjögurra binda flokkinn Bændurna (pólska: Chopi), sem varð hans langfrægasta verk. Það segir frá einu ári í pólsku bændasamfélagi, þar sem hvert bindi fjallar um sína árstíð.

Verkum Reymont var mjög hampað í Póllandi í valdatíð kommúnista, enda var tónninn blandaður pólskri ættjarðarást og gagnrýni á kapítalisma.

Síðasta skáldsaga Reymont birtist sem framhaldssaga árið 1922 og kom út í heilu lagi árið 1924. Hún nefnist Uppreisn (pólska: Bunt) og er lítt dulin allegóría um rússnesku byltinguna þar sem dýr á sveitabæ gera byltingu. Líkindin við Dýrabæ eftir George Orwell eru augljós en ekki er ljóst hvort Orwell var kunnugt um sögu hins pólska skáldbróður síns.

Nóbelsverðlaun Reymont árið 1924 komu nokkuð á óvart. Samkeppnin var hörð, þar sem Thomas Mann, George Bernard Shaw og Thomas Hardy voru allir orðaðir við verðlaunin. Pólskir bókmenntaáhugamenn bundu frekar vonir við rithöfundinn Stefan Żeromski en sterk and-þýsk voðhorf hans munu hafa komið í veg fyrir að hann hreppti hnossið. Heilsu Reymont var farið að hraka og gat hann ekki haldið til Stokkhólms til að veita verðlaununum móttöku. Hann lést árið eftir.

Reymont, Wladyslaw
Handhafar bókmenntaverðlauna Nóbels

Władysław Reymont


Os torneios WTA Tier V foram torneios de tênis de quinto nível da Women's Tennis Association realizados entre 1990 e 1992 e de 2001 a 2005. De 1988 a 1990, os diferentes níveis de torneios WTA foram referidos pelo termo "Categoria", e havia 5 categorias. A programação dos eventos variou ao longo dos anos, com torneios sendo promovidos, rebaixados ou cancelados. Alguns dos torneios de menor expressão tornaram-se eventos Tier V entre 1990 e 1992, e mais tarde de 2001 a 2005, antes de serem integrados novamente aos Tier IV.

Em 2009, a WTA mudou as categorias do torneio, de modo que a maioria dos torneios Tier III e Tier IV de 2008 passaram a estar em uma categoria, "International Tournaments".

Número de torneios

Eventos

Veja também
 Torneios WTA 125

Torneios WTA Tier V


Iliamna can refer to:

Places in the United States
 Iliamna, Alaska, a census-designated place
 Iliamna Bay on the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
 Iliamna Lake in Alaska
 Iliamna River in Alaska
 Iliamna Volcano in Alaska
 Iliamna Airport in Iliamna, Alaska.

Other uses
 Iliamna (plant), a genus of mallow

See also
 Lilamna, an extinct genus of sharks

Iliamna


Józef Marian Chełmoński (November 7, 1849 – April 6, 1914) was a Polish painter of the realist school with roots in the historical and social context of the late Romantic period in partitioned Poland. He is famous for monumental paintings now at the Sukiennice National Art Gallery in Kraków and at the MNW in Warsaw.

Life
Chełmoński was born in the village of Boczki near Łowicz in central Congress Poland under the Russian military control. His first drawing teacher was his father Józef Adam (a small leaseholder and administrator of Boczki village). His mother was Izabela née Łoskowska. After finishing high school in Warsaw, Józef studied in Warsaw Drawing Class (1867–1871) and took private lessons from Wojciech Gerson. From 1871 to 1874 Chełmoński lived in Munich. He worked with Polish painters assembled around Jozef Brandt and Maksymilian Gierymski. There, he also studied for a few months at the academy of H. Anschutz and A. Strahuber. In 1872 and 1874 Chełmoński visited the Polish Territories (Poland, as an independent country, did not exist during this time), Tatra Mountains and Ukraine.

His first paintings were done under the influence of Gerson. The works that followed were landscapes and villages. In 1875 Chełmoński went to Paris, where he had many important exhibitions and became known to the art scene. With many orders, the artistic level of his paintings decreased.

From 1878 to 1887 Chełmoński visited Poland, Vienna and Venice. In 1887 he returned to Poland and in 1889 settled in the village of Kuklówka Zarzeczna. Contact with his homeland and nature are qualities revealed in his artworks. From that time are the best liked, or the most beloved of Chełmoński's paintings are paintings such as Partridge on the Snow, The Storks or Before Thunderstorm.

Chełmoński represented the trend in art called "Polish Patriotic Painting". He died in Kuklówka near Grodzisk Mazowiecki in 1914.

Selected works

References

Józef Chełmoński  (archived 15 February 2004)
Paintings

Bibliography
Maciej Masłowski: Malarski żywot Józefa Chełmońskiego (Józef Chełmoński Painter's Life),Warsaw 1965, ed. "PIW" (ed.National Publishing Institute, 2nd edition - 1972);
Maciej Masłowski: Józef Chełmoński, Warsaw 1973, ed. "Auriga" - Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe (Art and Film Publishers).

External links

1849 births
1914 deaths
Artists from Congress Poland
Painters from the Russian Empire
19th-century Polish painters
19th-century Polish male artists
20th-century Polish painters
20th-century Polish male artists
Equine artists
Polish male painters

Józef Chełmoński


Carls engle er en dansk børnefilm fra 2006 med instruktion og manuskript af Mette Kjærgaard.

Handling
Da Carls mormor dør, udfordres hans tro på engle af storebroren Lasse. Carls personlige kamp, mellem at turde tro på sig selv og frygten for at miste sin brors anerkendelse, bliver vedkommende for både børn og voksne i denne kortfilm om et barns første møde med døden.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Børnefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2006

Carls engle


Odessa nationale Universitet I. I. Metjnikov (ukrainsk: Одеський національний університет імені І.І. Мечникова; russisk: Одесский национальный университет имени И. И. Мечникова) er et universitet i den sydukrainske by Odessa. Det er opkaldt efter den russiske zoolog og anatom Ilja Ilitj Metjnikov.

Metjnikovuniversitetet er en af de ældste og vigtigste højskoler i Ukraine. Det består af ti fakulteter og fire institutioner. Ved siden af en række undervisningssteder i selve Odessa, har det også indretninger i forstaden Tjornomorsk og i byen Mykolajiv. Til universitetet regnes også Odessa stjerneobservatorium og et af Ukraines største videnskabelige biblioteker.

Universitetet blev grundlagt i 1865 ved edikt givet af zar Aleksander 2., og hed da Imperatorskij Novorossijskij Universitet. Det var i sin tid vokset frem fra det tidligere Lycée Richelieu i Odessa.

Eksterne henvisninger
  (russisk, ukrainsk, engelsk)

Odessa oblast
Universiteter

Metjnikovuniversitetet


An Tillandsia carlsoniae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Lyman Bradford Smith. An Tillandsia carlsoniae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tillandsia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tillandsia

Tillandsia carlsoniae


Kalameny este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Ružomberok din regiunea Žilina, pe malul râului . Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 468 de locuitori. Se învecinează cu comuna Lúčky.

Istoric
Localitatea Kalameny este atestată documentar din 1375.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Kalameny


Olalhas Portekiz'de Tomar belediyesine bağlı olan, 34,59 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 1.581 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Portekiz'in freguesiaları
Tomar

Olalhas


Lars Hansen (født 2. april 1803, død 8. marts 1895) var en dansk gårdmand og politiker.

Han var arvefæstegårdmand til Bækketoftegård i Bjælkerup. Fra 1848 til 1849 deltog han i Den Grundlovgivende Rigsforsamling som valgt af Præstø Amts 1. Valgkreds (Store Heddinge). I 1852 blev Lars Hansen desuden valgt til Folketinget, hvor han sad til 1866. Han tilhørte Bondevennernes Selskab.

Kilder
 Arkivskaber: Lars Hansen, arvefæstegårdmand og rigsdagsmand for Store Heddinge

Landmænd fra Danmark
Medlemmer af Den Grundlovgivende Rigsforsamling
Folketingsmedlemmer fra Bondevennernes Selskab
Folketingsmedlemmer i 1850'erne
Folketingsmedlemmer i 1860'erne

Lars Hansen (politiker)


الفهرس المحزوم
هو شكل من اشكال الفهارس
وهو يأتي أهمية بعد الفهرس المطبوع.
والفهرس المحزوم هو عبارة عن جزازات ورقية تسجل عليها أوصاف أوعية المعلومات وتحزم الجزازات في مجموعات تضم كل منها حوالي 300 جزازة وتحزم الجزازات في مجموعات تضم كل منها حوالي 300جزازة وتضع في مجلد خاص يفتح ويغلق بمفتاح خاص
وهذا الفهرس قليل الاستخدام

ويتميز
هذا الشكل من الفهارس ويتميز
يشغل حيزا صغيرا في المكتبة ادا قورن بالفهرس البطاقى حيث أنه يشغل ثلث الحيز الذي يشغله الفهرس البطاقى
 بسهولة حملة ونقلة في أي مكان بالمكتبه واعداد
 تكلتفة المالية قليلة
 ويتمتع بالمرورنه في ملاحقة الجديد من المقتنيات

وأهم عيوبه
 يتلف بسرعة كبيرة بسبب كثرة الاستخدام لك لان ورقه اقل متانة من البطاقات
 يحتاج إلى تجهزات خشبية لوضع وحدات الفهرس فيها
وتكون على شكل خانات أو عيون
تضخم عدد أجزاءه في المكتبات الكبيرة

المراجع

علوم المكتبات

فهرس محزوم


Die Carretera Nacional N-V ist eine Nationalstraße in Spanien. Sie war mit einer Gesamtlänge von 407 Kilometern die zweitkürzeste der sechs sternförmig von Madrid ausgehenden und bis zur äußeren Begrenzung Spaniens führenden Nationalstraßen. Heute existiert die Strecke nur noch auf ca. 50 Kilometer langen Abschnitten parallel zu der Autobahn A-5.

Verlauf
Die Carretera Nacional N-V führte von der Hauptstadt Madrid aus über Badajoz zur portugiesischen Grenze, wo sie in der portugiesischen Autobahn A6 ihre Fortsetzung fand, welche früher als portugiesische Nationalstraße 4 beschildert war. Festgelegt wurde diese Streckenführung um 1940.

Bis auf wenige Abschnitte wurde die Nationalstraße komplett durch die Autobahn A-5 ersetzt bzw. zu dieser ausgebaut. Zwischen Almaraz und Jaraicejo (Sur) sowie Talavera la Real (37,3 km) und Badajoz (14,6 km) verläuft die noch bestehende N-V parallel zur Autobahn A-5.

Die Abschnitte, die nicht zur Autobahn A-5 ausgebaut wurden, wurden zur Carretera Nacional N-Va umwidmet. Dies sind die Abschnitte bei Trujillo, Villamesias und Mérida. Diese meist sehr kurzen Strecken waren Bestandteile der Nationalstraße N-V, die durch diese Ortschaften verlief. Im Verlauf der Autobahn A-5 wurden jedoch Ortsumfahrungen gebaut, sodass dadurch die Strecken durch die Ortschaften erhalten blieben.

Einzelnachweise

Nationalstraße in Spanien
Verkehrsbauwerk in der Extremadura
Straße in Europa

Carretera Nacional N-V


An Sobralia geminata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Louis Dressler ngan Bogarín. An Sobralia geminata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sobralia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Sobralia

Sobralia geminata