The Yugoslav People's Army (abbreviated as JNA/; Macedonian and ; Croatian and ; , JLA), also called the Yugoslav National Army, was the military of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its antecedents from 1945 to 1992.

Origins

The origins of the JNA started during the Yugoslav Partisans of World War II. As a predecessor of the JNA, the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia (NOVJ) was formed as a part of the anti-fascist People's Liberation War of Yugoslavia in the Bosnian town of Rudo on 22 December 1941. After the Yugoslav Partisans liberated the country from the Axis Powers, that date was officially celebrated as the "Day of the Army" in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia).

In March 1945, the NOVJ was renamed the "Yugoslav Army" ("Jugoslavenska/Jugoslovenska Armija") and, on its 10th anniversary, on 22 December 1951, "People's" ("Narodna") was added.

The support the Soviets had within JNA ranks during the Informbiro period, after 1948, is contested. Low-end estimates indicate that 10–15% of the army's personnel favoured the Soviet position. Yugoslav sources estimate the number of military members arrested ranged from 4,153 officers and soldiers  (estimated by Radonjić), to 7,000 imprisoned officers estimated by Milovan Đilas. The purge included 22 officers in the presidential guard regiment reporting directly to Tito, including Momčilo Đurić, wartime commander of the Yugoslav Partisan Supreme Headquarters escort battalion. During this period of Soviet blockade, the Yugoslav Army's development stagnated.

Forty-nine Yugoslav Army graduates of the General Staff Academy, the Frunze Academy, and other Soviet military academies were deemed potential Soviet supporters. Many of those attending such academies in the USSR at the time of the Tito–Stalin split never returned to Yugoslavia.

The split particularly affected the Air Force. Almost all Air Force officers had Soviet training, and some of them fled Yugoslavia in Air Force planes. The defectors included Major General Pero Popivoda, who was the head of the Air Force operational service. The Batajnica, Zemun, and Pančevo airbases near Belgrade saw several attacks by groups of saboteurs. The Zemun airbase commander and his deputy fled to Romania.

Between 1948 and 1955, the United States gave Yugoslavia US$600 million in direct military grants and an equal amount in economic aid, enabling Yugoslavia to devote more of its domestic resources to defence. After two visits to the United States by Colonel General Koča Popović and Colonel General Milo Kilibarda in May–June and August 1951, respectively, U.S. weaponry began arriving by late 1951. By 1952 the Armed Forces had grown to 500,000 troops, and defence expenditures consumed 22 percent of the gross national product. A Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) of 30 officers commanded by Brigadier General John W. Harmony was established by the United States in Belgrade in 1951. It operated for ten years, disbursing military grants and arranging another US$1 billion in arms sales on favorable terms. Among weapons transferred were 599 M-4A3
tanks, 319 M-47 tanks, 715 M-7, M-l8, and M-36 self-propelled guns, 565 M-3A1 and M-8 armored cars, and a total of total of 760 105mm,
155mm, and 203mm artillery pieces. The artillery pieces delivered were used to reequip artillery units within Yugoslavia's eight divisions.

Task and command structure

Under the constitution and laws of SFR Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav People's Army was a part of the armed forces with the Territorial Defense (Yugoslavia) as the joint armed forces of all working people and citizens of Yugoslavia.

The main task of the Yugoslav People's Army was to protect the independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and social organization of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Though the Presidency of Yugoslavia was the supreme commander of the armed forces and in command of Yugoslav People's Army, some duties from the presidency could be given to the Secretary of Defence. The Secretary of Defence was the officer with the highest military rank that could command the armed forces, including the Yugoslav People's Army and Territorial Defense. The President of Yugoslavia had the power to promote members of the military to the highest military ranks such as general or admiral, and to relieve duty of the highest military officers. The Chief of Staff of the Yugoslav People's Army, in the case that the Secretary of Defense was prevented or absent to fulfill his function, was formally his deputy who could take command of the armed forces. In 1987, under decree of the Presidency of Yugoslavia, the General Staff of the JNA was renamed to the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Yugoslavia, thus effectively giving command of JNA and the TO to one military body in order to more efficiently command the armed forces in case of war, according to the law of "All-people's defense" from 1982.

Organization

Structure and organization in late 1980s and at beginning of 1990s

In the mid-1980s, plans were made under a formal top-secret strategic and operational plan named "Jedinstvo" (Eng. "unity") for a structural change from republic armies and divisions to military districts and brigades to allow for easier federal consolidation of the republics' territorial armies, particularly in the case of a crisis.

Because of internal and external security changes during that time, "Jedinstvo" was later modeled in three parts: "Jedinstvo 1", "Jedinstvo 2", and "Jedinstvo 3", starting from 1987 (with a planned completion date of 1995) for the JNA to start major reform.

The first part of JNA major overhaul under "Jedinstvo 1" had its basic force structure nearly completed in 1989. Manpower was planned to be reduced to about 1 million in wartime, while in peacetime it would be 299,057 personnel including officers, soldiers and the civilian workforce, including civil service. Equipment purchase was not realized in full.

The JNA's organization and structure after "Jedinstvo 1" consisted of the Ground Forces, Air Force and Navy. Under reforms through the "Jedinstvo" plan it was planned to reorganize the army's structure into four major army areas called "Vojna Oblast" under command of the Federal Secretariat of People's Defence (SSNO) - "Vojna oblast" or military regions were further divided into corps, brigades, garrisons and smaller districts and sectors that were responsible for administrative tasks such as draft registration, mobilization, and construction and maintenance of military facilities. The regions were:

The first military region with headquarters in Belgrade (responsible for eastern Croatia, northern and central parts of Serbia and parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina)
The second military region with headquarters in Zagreb (Slovenia and northern Croatia)
The third military region with headquarters in Skopje (Macedonia, Southern Serbia and Montenegro)
The military-naval region "Vojnopomorska Oblast" with its headquarters in Split. Military-Naval Region included parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro - almost all Yugoslavia coastline. It had subdivisions on three sectors including flotilla and one corps.

Directly under SSNO were the Guard's motorized brigade, school centers, three SIGNAL regiments, a light anti-aircraft artillery regiment, and a few independent battalions and divisions.

In the "Jedinstvo 1" reforms, JNA eliminated most of its old divisional infantry organization and established the brigade and corps structure with some independent units under direct command of SSNO. Territorial defense was also changed and laws and the constitution were amended to address those changes.  The Ground Forces "converted ten of twelve infantry divisions into twenty-nine tank, mechanized and mountain infantry brigades with integral artillery, air defense and anti-tank regiments under corps structure. One airborne brigade was organized before 1990. The shift to brigade-level organization provided greater operational flexibility, maneuverability, and tactical initiative and reduced the possibility that large army units would be destroyed in set piece engagements with an aggressor. The change created many senior field command positions that would develop relatively young and talented officers." In 1989, five independent divisions under general staff command and 25 partisan (reserve) divisions under corps command were formed including many other battalions, regiments and batteries under different commands.

The 1989 plan "Jedinstvo 2" commenced and border battalions were transferred under corps command including some divisions that have remained before under others commands. Brigades got some artillery and antiaircraft batteries under their direct command that helped them to gain independence in wartime from higher levels. Defense of all major cities was previously planned with separate units but under "Jedinstvo 2" only Belgrade and Zagreb retained separated units for defense of their cities.

There were usually three classes of brigades, regiments and battalions:
 A. class
 B. class
 R. class.

A. class brigades and battalions were more than 60 to up to 100% manned, and B. class units had 15-60% manpower. R. class units were reserved with about 15-20% and was manned mostly in their logistic units and commands.

Battalions with A. class status were 100% manned and equipped. A. class brigades had a brigade HQ and 4 battalions and B class brigade had 2-3 battalions with HQ.

The "Jedinstvo 3" plan started in 1990. To the military leadership of the JNA, it was obvious that USSR was moving to defend its internal borders and the only global superpower left was the USA. It was then agreed in JNA that potential for aggression from the Warsaw Pact had diminished but potential aggression from NATO had increased. The new plan "Jedinstvo 3" included changes to organize better defenses from new perceived external threats. The plan required the building of smaller but more modernized forces with highly mobile units. Corps closer to the border would have two A. class brigades including an artillery regiment of A. class, an anti-armor regiment of B. class and an engineering battalion of A class. Corps deeper inside country would have one brigade of A. or B. class.

Under "Jedinstvo 3" every corps in the Air Force should have one support aviation brigade, one fighter wing, one Air Surveillance, Early Warning and Guidance regiment, 1-2 rocket brigades or regiments and rest up to possibilities to equip.

Under "Jedinstvo 2", the JNA on 1 January 1990 had:
 5 divisions - 2 R. and 3 B. class
 23 partisans divisions of R. class
 72 partisans brigade of R. class
 20 infantry brigades - 2 A., 10 B. and 8 R. class
 17 infantry regiments - 5 B. 12. R. class
 7 hill brigades  - 3 B. 4 R. class
 1 mountain brigade B. class
 32 motorized brigades - 4 A., 21 B. and 7. R. class
 2 marines infantries brigades B. class
 1 Guard motorized brigade A. class
 6 Armor brigades of B. class
 11 Mechanized brigades - 7. A. class, 3. B. class and 1 R. class
 1 artillery rocket brigade B. class
 6 mixed artillery brigades B. class
 5 mixed anti-armor artillery brigades B. class
and many others, including 19 military police battalions and river flotilla giving in total 28 divisions, 307 brigades and regiments and 137 independent battalions/divisions.

Under "Jedinstvo 3" until 1995, the structure of the JNA was:
 1 Mechanized division in A. class
 18 Partisans divisions of R. class
 7. Motorized brigades of R.class
 39 motorized brigades - 7 A. class
 17 mechanized brigades - 15 A. and 2 R. class

There were other units that had smaller but more modern and mobile forces with more mobile A class units with a total of 19 divisions, 234. brigades and 104 independent battalions/regiments in 1995. Total manpower at the end of 1995 was about 222.151 in peace and 834.891 in war.

Internal changes in Yugoslavia prevented the total realization of the "Jedinstvo 3" plan. While many changes under it were done during 1990, not all were finished completely. While most commands and units were formed and manned, equipping was not finished according to plan because of dissolution of Yugoslavia and stopping of deliveries from most of domestic factories to units of JNA.

As part of the armed forces, there was also the Territorial Defense, based on each republic's territory that formed Yugoslavia that would fall under command of JNA during wartime.

Ground Forces

The Ground Forces had the greatest number of personnel. In 1991 there were about 140,000 active-duty soldiers (including 90,000 conscripts), and over a million trained reservists that could be mobilized in wartime. Each of the Yugoslav constituent six republics had its own Territorial Defence forces which were similar to the US national guard and were subordinate to supreme command as an integral part of the defence system in wartime. The territorial defence (reserve force) was made up of former conscripts; they were occasionally called up for war exercises.

The ground forces were organised into infantry, armour, artillery, and air defence, as well as signal, engineering and chemical defence corps.

Air Force

The Yugoslav Air Force had about 32,000 personnel including 4,000 conscripts, and operated over 400 aircraft and 200 helicopters. It was responsible for transport, reconnaissance and rotary-wing aircraft as well as the national air defence system. The primary air force missions were to contest enemy efforts to establish air supremacy over Yugoslavia and to support the defensive operations of the ground forces and navy. Most aircraft were produced in Yugoslavia. Missiles were produced domestically and supplied by the Soviet Union.

The Yugoslav Air Force had twelve squadrons of domestically produced ground attack fighters. The ground attack squadrons provided close air support to ground force operations. They were equipped with 165 new Soko J-22 Orao, Super Galeb and J-21 Jastreb, and older Soko J-20 Kraguj fighters. Many ground attack fighters were armed with AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missiles purchased from the United States. Others were armed with Soviet Kh-23 and Kh-28 missiles. The air force also had about ninety armed Mi-8 helicopter gunships to provide added mobility and fire support for small ground units. A large number of reconnaissance aircraft were available to support ground forces operations. Four squadrons of seventy Galeb, Jastreb, and Orao-1 fighters were configured for reconnaissance missions.

The Yugoslav Air Force had nine squadrons of 130 Soviet-made MiG-21 interceptors for air defence. First produced in the late 1950s, the MiG-21 design was largely obsolete in 1990 and represented a potential weakness in Yugoslavia's air defence. However, the bulk of the MiG-21 fleet consisted mainly of the bis variant, the latest production MiG-21 model, and was armed with the Soviet Vympel K-13 (NATO reporting name: AA-2 "Atoll") missile, air-to-air missiles and some Molniya R-60 (NATO reporting name: AA-8 "Aphid") missiles as well as twin 23 mm cannons. By 1989, Yugoslavia started developing a new domestic multirole fighter plane called Novi Avion, which was supposed to replace the MiG-21 and J-21 Jastreb fleets entirely. The design of the new aircraft was influenced by the Mirage 2000 and Dassault Rafale fighter types and it was to enter service by the early 2000s. As an interim solution, a modernization package was planned for the MiG-21 and it is speculated that India's MiG-21 Bison upgrade was actually intended for Yugoslav aircraft. In 1987, Yugoslavia acquired 16 MiG-29s.

Although not officially known at the time, Yugoslavia was rumoured to have been interested in the purchase of Su-25 attack-aircraft and Mi-24 gunships. Instead of developing its own fighter plane, the Novi Avion, the country made a request to licence-build the F-20, but due to unstable relations with the US, the request was rejected. By the late 1980s, the licensed production of Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters was also planned, but due to the dissolution of the country, it was not continued.

One of the structures operated by the Yugoslav Air Force was the underground Željava Air Base near the town of Bihać in northwest Bosnia and Herzegovina. The structure was made to withstand a nuclear explosion and was destroyed by the JNA in 1992 to prevent its capture. Željava was home to the 117th Fighter Aviation Regiment, which was composed of the 124th and 125th Fighter Squadrons, equipped with MiG-21Bis fighters, and the 352nd Reconnaissance Squadron, equipped with MiG-21R aircraft.

The Air and Air Defence Forces were headquartered at Zemun and had fighter and bomber aircraft, helicopters, and air defence artillery units at air bases throughout the former Yugoslavia: Batajnica Air Base (Belgrade), Niš Constantine the Great Airport, Slatina Air Base (Priština), Golubovci Airbase (Titograd), Skopski Petrovec, Sarajevo, Mostar, Željava Air Base (Bihać), Pleso (Zagreb), Split Airport, Pula, Zemunik (Zadar), Cerklje ob Krki and many other smaller air bases.

Navy

Minor surface combatants operated by the Yugoslav Navy included nearly eighty frigates, corvettes, submarines, minesweepers, and missile, torpedo, and patrol boats in the Adriatic Fleet. The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split, Croatia.

The Partisans had operated many small boats in raids harassing Italian convoys in the Adriatic Sea during World War II. After the war, the navy operated numerous German and Italian submarines, destroyers, minesweepers, and tank-landing craft captured during the war or received as war reparations. The United States provided eight torpedo boats in the late 1940s, but most of them were soon obsolete. The navy was upgraded in the 1960s when it acquired ten Osa-I-class missile boats and four s from the Soviet Union. The Soviets granted a license to build eleven additional Shershen units in Yugoslav shipyards developed for this purpose.

In 1980 and 1982, the Yugoslav navy took the delivery of two Soviet s. In 1988 it completed two additional units under license. The Koni frigates were armed with four Soviet P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers, twin 9K33 Osa (NATO reporting name: SA-8 "Gecko") surface-to-air missiles, and anti-submarine rocket launchers.

The Yugoslav navy developed its own submarine-building capability during the 1960s. In 1990, the main combat units of the submarine service were three s armed with 533 mm torpedoes. Two smaller s entered service in the late 1970s. Two Sutjeska-class submarines had been relegated mainly to training missions by 1990. At that time the navy had apparently shifted to construction of versatile midget submarines. Four Una-class midgets and four Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicles were in service in the late 1980s. They were built for use by underwater demolition teams and special forces. The Una-class boats carried five crewmen, eight combat swimmers, four Mala vehicles, and limpet mines. The Mala vehicles carried two swimmers and  of mines.

The Yugoslav navy operated ten Osa-class missile boats and six  missile boats. The Osa I boats were armed with four P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers. In 1990, ten domestic Kobra missile boats were scheduled to begin replacing the Osa I class. The Kobra class was to be armed with eight Swedish RBS-15 anti-ship missiles, and fifteen of them were ordered in late 1989. Armed with two P-15 Termit launchers, the Končar-class boats were modeled after the , and there were plans to upgrade them with Swedish-built missiles. Two Kobra missile boats were built by Croatia as the  and both are still in service. The navy's fifteen Topčider-class torpedo boats included four former Soviet Shershen class and eleven Yugoslav built units.

The Yugoslav navy's mine warfare and countermeasures capabilities were considered adequate in 1990. It operated four Vukov Klanac-class coastal minesweepers built on a French design, four British s, and six 117-class inshore minesweepers built in domestic shipyards. Larger numbers of older and less capable minesweepers were mainly used in riverine operations. Other older units were used as dedicated minelayers. The navy used amphibious landing craft in support of army operations in the area of the Danube, Sava, and Drava rivers. They included both tank and assault landing craft. In 1990, there were four 501-class, ten 211-class, and twenty-five 601-class landing craft in service. Most of them were also capable of laying mines in rivers and coastal areas.

The Yugoslav Navy had 10,000 sailors (including 4,400 conscripts and 900 marines). They were essentially a coastal defence force with the mission of preventing enemy amphibious landings along the country's rugged 4,000-kilometer shoreline and coastal islands, and contesting enemy blockade or control of the strategic Strait of Otranto. The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split. The naval region was divided into three smaller naval districts and a riverine flotilla with major naval bases located at Split, Šibenik, Pula, Ploče and Kotor on the Adriatic Sea, and Novi Sad on the River Danube. The strategic islands of Vis and Lastovo were heavily fortified and unauthorised entry was prohibited. The fleet was organized into missile, torpedo, and patrol boat brigades, a submarine division, and minesweeper flotillas. The naval order of battle included four frigates, three corvettes, five patrol submarines, fifty-eight missile, torpedo, and patrol boats, and twenty-eight minesweepers. One antisubmarine warfare helicopter squadron was based at Split on the Adriatic coast. It employed Soviet Ka-25, Ka-28, and Mi-14 helicopters, and domestic Partisan helicopters. Some air force fighter and reconnaissance squadrons supported naval operations.

Military education and composition
The Yugoslav Constitution of 1974 principally tried to have the most proportional representation of Yugoslavia's republics and autonomous provinces in the high army ranks. It is defined in article 242 of the constitution, which says that, "Regarding the composition of staff and the employment in the high command and leadership functions in the Yugoslav People's Army the principle is applied of as proportional representation as possible of republics and autonomous provinces".

Serbs, Montenegrins, and Yugoslavs were by some opinions over-represented in the officer corps, but that was still in accordance with cited constitution. JNA's high-ranking positions in 1980 was dominated by ethnic Serbs, including the chief of the armed forces, minister of defense and secretary of the LCY in the JNA. Nobody was preventing anyone in Yugoslavia to become JNA officer in accordance to the law "Zakon o vojnim školama i naučnoistraživačkim ustanovama Jugoslovenske narodne armije" that had no exclusions clause. Proportional presentations was to be between republics and autonomous provinces according to cited part of constitution and not between nations. Military schools in Yugoslavia in accordance with law about military schools were built in all Yugoslavia Republics. In Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, military schools possessed 38,391 annual capacity or 50.54% of the total compared to Serbia, which had 30,843 capacity for educating military personnel that constituted about 40.62% of total capacity and rest was among other republics.

Representation of the main nations and nationalities of Yugoslavia in the general population and the armed forces:

Ethnic distribution among higher ranks of the JNA:

Anniversaries and rewards

December 22 was established as the Day of the JNA. On that day all units and organizations within JNA including other Yugoslavia states bodies celebrated the day the JNA was founded. Prestigious awards were given on that day: they were called dvadesetdrugi decembar. Rewards were given to anyone who had contributed to the defence of Yugoslavia in some way including military, scientific, economic or another contribution.  Winners of such awards were highly praised in media and among the populace. Every ten years, special medals were awarded on December 22. It was last promoted by the JNA general, the winner of the December 22nd reward and JNA silver star medal. Major general Ener Taso died on December 12, 2018.

Industry

The arms industry was dominant in the Yugoslav economy. With annual exports of $3 billion, it was twice as large as the second largest industry, tourism.

Several companies in Yugoslavia produced airplanes and combat aircraft, most notably SOKO of Mostar, with the Soko J-22 Orao being its best known product. There was also Zastava Arms for firearms and artillery. Another important manufacturer was Utva in Serbia. The Yugoslav military–industrial complex produced tanks (most notably, the M-84), armored vehicles (BOV APC, BVP M-80), various artillery pieces (mortars, multiple rocket launchers, howitzers), anti-aircraft weapons, as well as various types of infantry weapons and other equipment.

Infrastructure
JNA had modern infrastructure with many air bases including underground shelters and command and control centers in many locations including several mountains. The biggest and best known installation was the Željava Air Base, also known as the Bihać Underground Integrated Radar Control and Surveillance Centre and Air Base, in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Doctrine
The JNA adopted the concept of total defence (as did a number of other small European and neutral countries). Yugoslavia based its defence doctrine upon the total war concept of "Total People's Defence" (sh. Opštenarodna odbrana / Općenarodna obrana) which drew upon Yugoslavia's successful partisan history during the Yugoslav People's Liberation War during the Second World War. "TND prepared the entire population to contest the occupation of the country and finally to liberate it. The Territorial Defence Forces would mobilize the population for this purpose. The combat readiness of the TDF meant that the steps of organization and training could be bypassed after the start of hostilities. The TDF would supplement the YPA, giving it greater defensive depth and an armed local population ready to support combat actions." The entire Yugoslav population was to be engaged in armed resistance, armaments production, and civil defence under this concept. It was believed by the Yugoslav planners to be the best method by which a smaller nation could properly defend itself against a much stronger invader, specifically, NATO or the Warsaw Pact.

Dissolution

In January 1990, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was effectively dissolved as a national organization following its 14th Congress where the Serbian and Slovene delegations engaged in a public confrontation. The Yugoslav People's Army was left without an ideological support mechanism. 99% of the officers of the Army were members of the communist party.

The dissolution of Yugoslavia began when independent, non-communist governments were established in the Yugoslav republics of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia. In 1990, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia changed its name to Republic of Slovenia and ceased contributing funds to the federal government for a sustained military budget. Soon afterward the Slovene government began a re-organization of its territorial defense, bringing the former constituent republic's Territorial Defense reserve forces under its control as the Slovenian Territorial Defence.

In March 1991, Yugoslav defense minister General Veljko Kadijević organized a meeting at the military complex in Topčider, Belgrade. Present at this meeting were all 6 presidents of the Yugoslav republics, presidents of the autonomous republics, the Yugoslav president and all top military officers. Kadijević claimed that there were numerous paramilitary organizations in Yugoslavia sponsored by foreign and domestic enemies of the state. He also stated that the Yugoslav People's Army was dealing with Ustaše, Chetniks, and other "enemies of socialism" stemming from World War II conflicts. Kadijević proposed a declaration of martial law. A subsequent vote was held on Kadijević's recommendation of martial law, and the suggestion was vetoed.

In April 1991, the government of Croatia formed the Croatian National Guard (ZNG), which the Yugoslav People's Army considered to be a paramilitary organization.

On 25 June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. On the same day, Slovenian Territorial Defence units captured Yugoslav control posts on the borders with Italy, Hungary and Austria. Slovene forces also established border control posts on their border with Croatia.

As a result of these actions, on 27 June 1991 the Yugoslav People's Army attacked Slovenia, with its top commanders citing the constitutional obligation to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Yugoslavia. Yugoslav forces attacked the Slovene units on the border and in all other areas under Slovene control. The Slovenian Territorial Defence blockaded all ten Yugoslav bases in Slovenia and kept them under siege in the Ten-Day War which ended on 6 July 1991. Yugoslav forces had 44 killed and 146 wounded, with many Yugoslav officers wounded or captured. After the Brioni Agreement was signed, the Yugoslav People's Army agreed to withdraw from Slovenia by 10 October 1991, leaving large amounts of equipment behind.

On 27 June 1991, war in Croatia began. The People's Army and the Serbians were on one side and Croatian military units on the other. On 14–15 September, Croatia launched the Battle of the Barracks, besieging over 20 Yugoslav People's Army barracks and depots, leaving Yugoslav soldiers without food, water or electricity for weeks. Some Croatian citizens deserted from the Yugoslav People's Army and began joining Croatian military forces. Senior Yugoslav officers also defected to Croatia, including Air Force Commander-in-Chief Colonel general Anton Tus.

In August 1991, the Battle of Vukovar began. It was the biggest battle in the War in Croatia after operations Storm and Flash. In the battle, 90% of the city was destroyed. The Yugoslav People's Army used fighter and attack aircraft, rocket launchers, a large number of tanks and other equipment.

Macedonia declared independence on 8 September 1991, but the Yugoslav People's Army did not militarily respond.

In November, Vukovar was captured and 80% of Croatian forces were destroyed or captured. Many atrocities were committed in the city by the Yugoslav People's Army and local Serb volunteers, including the Velepromet concentration camp, Vukovar massacre, etc.

In mid-October 1991, Yugoslav ground forces, supported by naval and air forces, attacked the city of Dubrovnik and the Konavle area where the Croats had strongholds, starting the Siege of Dubrovnik. By 6 December, Yugoslav forces had neutralized all Croat formations in the Konavle area, but Dubrovnik had not been captured.

After these two operations, the Yugoslav People's Army signed the Sarajevo Agreement with Croatia and began to withdraw.

In January 1992, Veljko Kadijević resigned after the 1992 European Community Monitor Mission helicopter downing.

The Yugoslav People's Army left Macedonia in March 1992. Around the same time, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence following a referendum and the Bosnian War started soon thereafter between the country's Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs. The Yugoslav People's Army officially withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina in May 1992. On 20 May 1992 the Yugoslav People's Army was formally dissolved, the remnants of which reformed into the military of the newly founded "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia".

Peacekeeping operations

United Nations Emergency Force (1956–1967) – 14,265 soldiers in 22 rotations, Colonel Lazar Mušicki as commander of mission (August 1964 – January 1965)
United Nations Yemen Observation Mission (1963–1964) – one squad
United Nations Iran–Iraq Military Observer Group (1988–1991) – military observers, General Slavko Jović as commander of mission
United Nations Transition Assistance Group (1989–1990) – military observers
United Nations Angola Verification Mission I (1989–1991) – military observers

Operational experience

World War II in Yugoslavia
Trieste crisis
Yugoslav wars
Ten-Day War in Slovenia (1991)
Croatian War of Independence (1991)
Bosnian War (1992)

See also
Yugoslav Partisans
OZNA
KOS
Organization of the League of Communists in the Yugoslav People's Army

Successor militaries of the former Yugoslavia
 Bosnia and Herzegovina: Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Croatia: Armed Forces of Croatia
 Kosovo: Kosovo Security Force
 Montenegro: Armed Forces of Montenegro
 North Macedonia: Army of North Macedonia
 Serbia: Serbian Armed Forces
 Serbia and Montenegro: Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro
 Slovenia: Slovenian Armed Forces

Notes

References

 Razvoj Oruzanih Snaga SFRJ [The Development of the Armed Forces of the Socialistic Federative Republic of Yugoslavia], Vols.3-2, The Ground Forces (Belgrade 1987). "This is a classified edition marked with the military security label 'for internal use' published for the 40th Anniversary of the Yugoslav Army. The entire set includes 24 books covering all aspects of the Yugoslav Army, written with consultation of the still classified primary sources" [comment in endnotes of Dimitrijevic 1997].

Disbanded armies
Military units and formations of the Cold War
1945 establishments in Yugoslavia
1992 disestablishments in Yugoslavia
Military units and formations established in 1945
Military units and formations disestablished in 1992

Yugoslav People's Army


Nula je jezero kod Vareša.

Zemljopisni položaj
Udaljeno je od Vareša par minuta hodom. Nalazi se na bivšem površinskom kopu rudnika željeza Smreka.

Opis
Predstavlja veliki bunar čiste vode i najvećim je vodenim akumulacijskim tijelom u Zeničko-dobojskoj županiji i širem susjedstvu. Dimenzija je 610 metara dužine, 320 metara širine u najširem dijelu i najdublja točka je na više od 100 metara.

Povijest
Nastalo je početkom 1990-ih. Danas je jedinim dobrom je Varešanima ostalo od rudarske prošlosti. Otkako je jezero nastalo poribljava ga se. Stanovnici ga koriste kao kupalište. Izvršena su mjerenja pokazala da nikad nije bilo u boljem stanju nego danas. 2011. napisan je detaljni elaborat i 2018. godine analizirani su uzorci i rezultati su da voda u jezeru Nula ima osobine izvrsne vode za kupanje i rekreaciju. Bilo je pokušaja u sklopu nekog projekta da se vrši podvodno rudarenje, što je donosilo rizik po okoliš i život u jezeru. Građani i prijatelji Vareša reagirali su, ne vodeći se onim "šuti-trpi" nego su s više od 2 500 glasova poslali jasnu poruku da ne žele biti mjestom pokusa za ispitivanje alternativnih metoda rudarstva. Pisali su na sve domaće i inozemne adrese i borba je 31. svibnja 2018. urodila plodom i jezero je spašeno.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Google Ibro Hrvat: Fotografija jezera - rujan 2017.

Jezera u Bosni i Hercegovini
Vareš

Nula (jezero)


Limnanthaceae, manja biljna porodica u redu kupusolike. Postoje dva roda čijih nekoliko vrsta raste po Sjevernoj Americi. Ime je dobila po rodu močvarni cvijet (Limnanthes).

Rodovi
 Floerkea Willd.
 Limnanthes R. Br.

Izvori

Brassicales

Limnanthaceae


El Hilo de Penélope es un libro de Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst, publicado por Éditions La Table d'Émeraude (París, 1996), en el que se recogen los principales artículos escritos por el autor.

Cronología

Los artículos fueron escritos desde 1977 a 1996 de manera independiente, pero el conjunto forma un corpus hermeticum completo. Los distintos textos proceden de las revistas Le Fil d'Ariane, de La Tourbe des Philosophes y de La Puerta. Charles d'Hooghvorst escribió el prefacio a todo el conjunto y Bruno del Mármol lo ilustró. En 1998 se publicó el segundo tomo de los escritos de Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst, que consiste en una antología de textos alquímicos, con prefacio de Jean Christophe y Jeanne Lohest. Más adelante, Arola Editors publicó ambos tomos en castellano (el tomo I en el año 2000 y el tomo II en 2006), traducidos ambos por Jeanne Lohest.

Los temas

Los libros clásicos

La primera parte recoge la lectura hermética de grandes textos de la tradición universal: la Odisea de Homero, las Bucólicas y la Eneida de Virgilio, las Metamorfosis de Ovidio, La Divina Comedia de Dante y el Quijote de Cervantes. D'Hooghvorst dedicó siete estudios a la Odisea (titulados «El Hilo de Penélope» I, II, III, etc., que después dio nombre al conjunto del libro); de entre estos estudios destacamos la siguiente idea: ¿se ignora acaso que la Ilíada y la Odisea eran la Biblia de los griegos? ¿El código de su saber y de su verdad? ¿Acaso esta Biblia contenía sólo historias sin fundamento? ¿A quién se conseguiría convencer de ello? ¿Habrían atravesado milenios estos poemas sólo para venir a contarnos historias infantiles? Contemporáneo de aquellos egipcios hieráticos, cuya civilización entera tendía hacia el misterio de la regeneración, cien años después de Hiram y Salomón, ¿el autor de la Odisea no tenía que decir más que futilidades?
Nos parece que pensar esto sería pasar al lado de la realidad sin verla, como los rústicos pretendientes en presencia del dux Mentes. La poesía homérica es un himno a esta radiante humanidad, cuyos hombres formaban con los dioses una comunidad de vida y pensamiento que se encaminaba hacia la apoteosis del héroe divinizado. ¿Acaso no es éste el objeto de la tradición que nos viene de nuestro padre antiguo?

Siguen dos estudios sobre Virgilio y uno sobre Ovidio –hasta aquí todos relacionados con la mitología– y termina esta parte con un estudio sobre el Infierno de Dante y con otro sobre un soneto de Cervantes.

Los cuentos tradicionales

Siguen a los estudios sobre los grandes maestros de la literatura clásica un análisis detallado de algunos cuentos tradicionales recogidos por Charles Perrault (1628-1703): El Gato con Botas, Riquete del Copete, Barba Azul y Piel de Asno. Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst construye los artículos en dos columnas, a la izquierda reproduce el cuento y reserva la columna de la derecha para comentar las escenas o palabras más importantes, en dichos comentarios demuestra que en estos cuentos se esconde el saber hermético más profundo. Escribe, por ejemplo, en la presentación de Piel de Asno:

Los tarots

En dos artículos sobre los tarots, d'Hooghvorst recupera el sentido original de este sistema adivinatorio y afirma que:

La cábala

Según explicó Carlos del Tilo, Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst fue un:

De estos cursos, d'Hooghvorst seleccionó algunos fragmentos que consideraba especialmente interesantes y los publicó bajo el nombre de Historias judías, en las que recogió algunos fragmentos de la exégesis hebraica –procedentes del Midrash Raba y del Zohar principalmente– y los glosó para encontrar a partir de ellos la raíz de todas las tradiciones.

La alquimia

El primer tomo de El Hilo de Penélope se cierra con tres reflexiones sobre la alquimia (que el autor escribía con "y") tituladas: «Rehaz el barro y cuécelo», «Reflexiones sobre el oro de los alquimistas» y «A propósito de la Turba Philosophorum».

La alquimia

El segundo tomo está enteramente dedicado a esta tradición; consta de dos parte: la primera es una antología de textos alquímicos presentados, anotados y, en ocasiones, traducidos del latín por el barón d'Hooghvorst entre los años 1955 y 1994. Todos ellos fueron publicados en las revistas Inconnues (Lausana) y Le Fil d'Ariane (Bruselas). Los textos han sido ordenados según un criterio cronológico, comenzando por los más antiguos. Los prefacios y demás textos de Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst, con excepción de las notas, aparecen en cursiva. La segunda parte reproduce un ensayo sobre el Arte de la Alquimia de Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst, publicado en 1951 en la revista Inconnues. En el prefacio de esta obra, J.-C. y J. Lohest, relacionan la selección de autores clásicos de la alquimia con el hilo de Penélope, que aúna el conjunto de artículos de d'Hooghvorst:

Los aforismos del nuevo mundo

En la segunda edición de El Hilo de Penélope I se incluyeron una serie de aforismos que d'Hooghvorst había escrito en silencio durante los últimos años de su vida pero que no dio a conocer hasta el final. Presentamos algunos:

El Hilo de Penélope y El Mensaje Reencontrado

En 1949, gracias a una reseña bibliográfica realizada por René Guénon en la revista Etudes Traditionnelles sobre El Mensaje Reencontrado de Louis Cattiaux, ambos personajes se ponen en contacto e inician una relación epistolar fecunda y continua que deriva en una íntima amistad. A Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst le debemos varios escritos sobre El mensaje Reencontrado que fueron recogidos por Raimon Arola en el libro Creer lo increíble o lo antiguo y lo nuevo en la historia de las religiones (Arola Editors, Tarragona, 2006) donde se recopilaron los artículos de Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst y su hermano Charles sobre El Mensaje Reencontrado. Para finalizar citamos las palabras que Charles d'Hooghvorst escribió sobre su hermano:

Referencias

Bibliografía
(2000). Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst, El Hilo de Penélope, t. I. Tarragona: Arola Editors. ISBN 84-95134-51-9

(2006). Emmanuel d'Hooghvorst, El Hilo de Penélope, t. II. Antología alquímica. Tarragona: Arola Editors. ISBN 84-96639-03-7

(2006). Raimon Arola (ed.), Creer lo increíble o lo antiguo y lo nuevo en la historia de las religiones. Tarragona: Arola Editors. ISBN 84-96639-06-1

(2011). Louis Cattiaux, El Mensaje Reencontrado o el reloj de la noche y el día de Dios. Barcelona: Herder. ISBN 978-84-254-2673-5

Enlaces externos
Louis Cattiaux. Arte y tradición hermética: http://www.louiscattiaux.es/

La Puerta. Retorno a las fuentes tradicionales: http://www.lapuertaonline.es/biblioteca.html

El Mensaje Reencontrado de Louis Cattiaux: http://elmensajereencontrado.info/

Louis Cattiaux: http://www.facebook.com/pages/Louis-Cattiaux/54232931605

El Mensaje Reencontrado. Estudio de El Mensaje Reencontrado y otros textos tradicionales: http://www.elmensajereencontrado.com/

Arsgravis. Arte y simbolismo:

Libros de 1996

El hilo de Penélope


مع مرور الوقت  هي أغنية جاز معروفة، كتب نصها ولحنها الملحن الأمريكي هرمان هوبفيلد عام 1931.

أصبحت هذه الأغنية مشهورة عام 1942 مع فيلم كازبلانكا التي غنتها دولي ويلسون.

مراجع

أغان إنجليزية
أغان عن كبر السن
أغان مكتوبة للأفلام
أغاني 1931
أغاني جاز
كازبلانكا (فيلم)
وارنر برذرز
أغان عن الحنين
أغان عن ألبرت أينشتاين

مع مرور الوقت (أغنية)


Richard Verrall () este un fost vicepreședinte al Frontului Național Britanic (NF) care a editat revista Spearhead din 1976 până în 1980. Sub pseudonimul Richard E. Harwood, Verrall a scris broșura Did Six Million Really Die?.

Cariera în cadrul Frontului Național
Verrall a studiat istoria la Colegiul Westfield, care face parte acum din Universitatea Regina Maria din Londra, obținând o diplomă de licență. Inițial membru al Partidului Conservator, Verrall a părăsit acest partid la începutul anilor 1970, împreună cu un număr de membri cu convingeri de dreapta care-l susțineau pe Enoch Powell, pentru a se alătura Frontului Național. El era inițial un susținător apropiat al lui John Tyndall și a fost numit de acesta în postul de redactor al revistei Spearhead, publicând acolo articole în care nega Holocaustul. El a fost, de asemenea, cunoscut pentru aprobarea eugenismului și determinismului biologic, adăugând la această teorie că era natural pentru membrii unui grup genetic să se sacrifice pentru binele altora din același grup.

În ciuda sale inițiale oferit lui Tyndall, Verrall nu l-a urmat în Noul Front Național și a fost numit vicepreședinte al NF de către Andrew Brons în 1980. Deși a deținut o funcție importantă în partid, Verrall a avut un rol nesemnificat în politica NF și a fost departe de lupta dintre Frontului Național Oficial și grupul Flag. În schimb, el și-a concentrat majoritatea eforturilor sale în publicarea unor scrieri despre Holocaust.

Negarea Holocaustului
Verrall este bine cunoscut astăzi ca autor al broșurii (publicată sub pseudonimul Richard Harwood) Did Six Million Really Die?, prin care nega Holocaustul; broșura a făcut obiectul unei plângeri penale formulate împotriva editorului germano-canadian Ernst Zündel. Instanța de judecată a constatat că broșura conținea falsuri și denaturări, dar Zündel a fost în cele din urmă achitat pe motiv că legea în baza căreia a fost acuzat era neconstituțională. Curtea Supremă a Canadei a stabilit că această carte "prezenta denaturat cercetările istorice, cita eronat martori, fabrica dovezi și cita autorități inexistente".

În 2017, sucursala britanică a companiei Amazon a eliminat broșura Did Six Million Really Die? din ofertele de pe site-ul său, după mulți ani în care a fost disponibilă pentru cumpărare.

Viața personală
Verrall este căsătorit cu Tessa Sempik și ei au fost menționați într-un articol din 1996 despre "chiriașii care refuză să plece din casa închiriată".

Referințe

Legături externe
 Renton, D., Fascism and Anti-Fascism in Britain
 Holocaust Denial on Trial

Nașteri în 1948
Oameni în viață
Jurnaliști britanici
Negarea Holocaustului

Richard Verrall


162P/Siding Spring, komet Halleyeve vrste, objekt blizu Zemlji.

Izvori

Kometi

162P/Siding Spring


Farleigh House, ou Farleigh Castle, parfois appelé Farleigh New Castle, est une grande maison de campagne anglaise située dans le comté de Somerset, anciennement le centre du domaine de Farleigh Hungerford. Une grande partie de la pierre pour la construire provient du château voisin de Farleigh Hungerford et la maison est maintenant un bâtiment classé Grade II .

Farleigh House est construite et agrandie au cours des  et  siècles et jusqu'en  sert de centre d'un domaine de campagne appartenant à la famille Houlton jusqu'en 1899, puis à d'autres. En , il est vendu pour être utilisé comme école préparatoire appelée Ravenscroft School. Après sa fermeture en , la maison est louée aux derniers propriétaires de l'école par le nouveau Farleigh College jusqu'en , puis elle est vendue à Inspecs, un fabricant d'instruments optiques. En , un bail de 99 ans est acquis par le Bath Rugby Club, qui l'occupe désormais comme siège social et centre d'entraînement.

Famille Houlton
La maison est en grande partie construite avec des pierres provenant des ruines du . Un drapier de Trowbridge, Joseph Houlton, achète le domaine Farleigh Hungerford en 1702, et son fils, Joseph Houlton le Jeune, vit à Church Farm sur le domaine. Il reconstruit complètement et transforme une vieille maison à pignon en Farleigh House, une modeste résidence de gentleman avec un parc aux cerfs de 120 acres. En 1806, le colonel John Houlton hérite du domaine . Il agrandit et modifie la maison dans le style néo-gothique à la mode, dépensant 40 000 £ sur les extensions de la maison principale, une chapelle, des serres chaudes, des écuries et six loges. La majeure partie de la maison actuelle date de cette période. L'un des lodges s'appelait le Castle Lodge et est maintenant connu sous le nom de Bath Lodge Hotel.

La famille Houlton reste à Farleigh Hungerford jusqu'en 1899, date à laquelle Sir Edward Houlton est décédé sans héritier mâle.

Le domaine est vendu en 1906 à Lord Cairns et passe ensuite entre plusieurs mains. Dans les années 1950 et 1960, Farleigh House et son domaine appartiennent à la famille Hely-Hutchinson, une branche cadette des comtes de Donoughmore.

Ravenscroft School
En 1970, la maison principale et un certain nombre de cottages sont vendus à M. John FR Gillam, directeur et propriétaire de l'école Ravenscroft, qui était auparavant basée dans le Château de Beckington. Vers 1980, John Gillam achète également une grande partie du domaine Farleigh Hungerford. En juillet 1996, l'école Ravenscroft est fermée et la maison est louée au Farleigh College, une école spécialisée éduquant des enfants atteints de Trouble du spectre de l'autisme et de dyslexie, mais qui part ensuite dans de nouveaux locaux près de Mells . La famille Gillam reste propriétaire de la maison jusqu'en 2002, date à laquelle elle est vendue à une société d'optique appelée Inspecs pour servir de siège social à l'entreprise.

Inspecs
En 2002, la société londonienne Inspecs, détenue par Robin Totterman et Chris Smith, achète la maison et le terrain et rétablit l'ancien nom de "Farleigh House". Ils passent huit ans et des sommes importantes à redonner à la maison son ancienne gloire. Une rénovation complète est effectuée pendant cette période, notamment le remplacement de la majeure partie du toit plat en plomb . Une tour fortifiée médiévale à l'ouest de Farleigh House, connue sous le nom de " Drakes " et maintenant appelée Tower House ou Castle Court, est sauvée de la ruine grâce à un vaste projet de restauration. Le directeur du domaine David Reed (le frère de l'acteur Oliver Reed) effectue d'importants travaux de terrassement pour rétablir les jardins à la française traditionnels.

Club de rugby de Bath
En avril 2010, Bruce Craig, un homme d'affaires local, achète un bail de 99 ans de Farleigh House pour l'utiliser comme nouveau siège administratif et terrain d'entraînement du Bath Rugby Club, à la suite de son acquisition du club. La maison est maintenant le nouveau centre d'entraînement de Bath Rugby. La propriété dispose désormais de deux terrains de rugby ainsi que d'une surface de jeu tous temps .

Références

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade II dans le Somerset

Farleigh House


L'Expulsion du paradis () est un film allemand réalisé par Niklaus Schilling, sorti en 1977.

Synopsis
Anton Paulisch veut faire une carrière internationale en tant qu'acteur et déménage de Munich à Rome.

Fiche technique
 Titre : L'Expulsion du paradis
 Titre original :
 Réalisation : Niklaus Schilling
 Scénario : Niklaus Schilling
 Photographie : Ingo Hamer
 Montage : Niklaus Schilling
 Production : Elke Haltaufderheide et Manfred Korytowski
 Société de production : Visual KW Film and Television Production
 Pays :
 Genre : Aventure et comédie dramatique
 Durée : 119 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
 :

Distribution
 Herb Andress : Andy Paulisch
 Elke Haltaufderheide : Astrid Paulisch
 Ksenija Protic : la comtesse
 Jochen Busse : Berens
 Andrea Rau : Evi Hollauer
 Herbert Fux : la caméraman
 Elisabeth Bertram : la mère
 Georg Tryphon : le producteur
 Trude Breitschopf : la cliente

Distinctions
Le film a été présenté en sélection officielle en compétition lors de Berlinale 1977.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film allemand sorti en 1977
Film d'aventure allemand
Comédie dramatique allemande
Film sur le cinéma

L'Expulsion du paradis


Çoğulculuk Okulu, Empedokles gibi doğa filozoflarının öncülerinden olan ve diğer doğa filozoflarından ya da birci görüşlerden arkhe'nin birden fazla olduğunu söylemesiyle ayrılan filozoflardan meydana gelir. Diğer bir temsilcisi de Anaxagoras'tır.

Empedokles hem ana ilkenin birden fazla olduğunu ileri sürmüş, hem de etkin neden diye bir düşünce geliştirmiştir. Elea Okulu'nun düşüncelerinden oluşu reddetme yaklaşımını almıştır, öte yandan İyonya felsefecilerinden hareket düşüncesini almıştır. Ona göre değişmeyen öncesiz ve sonrasız bir madde evrenin temelidir. Bu maddenin ayrışma ve birleşimlerinden geri kalan varlıklar meydana gelmektedir. Anaxsagoras kimi farklılıklarla birlikte, Empedokles'in çoğulcu yaklaşımını tutarlı bir şekilde sürdürmüştür. Her şey bireşimlerden ve ayrışmalardan meydana gelir; hiçbir şey ne sonradan meydana gelir ne de yok olur. Anaxagoras ayrıca Empedokles'in sevgi-nefret ikilemini tek bir ilkeye indirger, yani nous'a ve çoğulcu yapıyı buna bağlar. Ona göre etkin neden nous'tur. Bu akıl nesnelerle karışmaz; aksine onları düzenleyen, bireşme ve ayrışmalarını sağlayan bir güç olarak vardır. Nesneleri harekete geçiren güçtür nous.

Çoğulculuk okulu böylece hem oluşu bir süreklilik eksenine oturturlar hem de etkin neden düşüncesiyle birlikte çoğul bir yapıyı savunurlar. Heraklitos'un oluş düşüncesiyle Parmanides'in süreklilik düşüncesini birleştirmeye yönelik bir felsefe geliştirmeye çalıştıkları görülür. Onlarda daha sonra atomculuğu etkileyecek olan düşünceler belirginleşir. Doğa felsefesinin ve ilk materyalist düşüncelerin şekillenmesinde önemli bir rol oynamışlardır.

Kaynakça
 Felsefe Tarihi, Macit Gökberk, Remzi Kitabevi.

Felsefi okullar

Çoğulculuk Okulu


Le label Ville et Métiers d'Art est un label français créé en 1992 à l'initiative d'élus locaux au sein d'une association.

Le réseau regroupe  (métropoles, communautés de communes, villes moyennes ou petites communes), soit près de .

Description
La candidature au label est ouverte à toutes les villes françaises qui en font la demande.

L'objectif est de favoriser le développement et la transmission de savoir-faire d'exception.

Sont membres de l'association, les communes, les métropoles et intercommunalités qui auront demandé et obtenu le label Ville et Métiers d'Art.

les villes détentrices du label s'engagent à :
 favoriser l'installation de professionnels des métiers d'art dans la ville, notamment par l'aménagement d'ateliers-relais, la création de pépinières, la mise à disposition de locaux en centre-ville
 organiser des actions de communication et de promotion des métiers d'art : salons, expositions, films, vidéos, publications, éditions…
 développer le tourisme culturel : visites et circuits à thèmes, journées « portes ouvertes », boutiques éphémères, maisons des arts, itinéraires de découverte en liaison avec les offices de tourisme…
 favoriser les actions auprès des publics scolaires : ateliers de sensibilisation, classes de métiers d'art, visites d'ateliers d'art…
 accompagner les actions de formation : octroi de bourses, subvention à des écoles, création d'écoles techniques et de centres de formation.

Le label est aussi un outil de promotion et de communication important sur le plan touristique.

Attribution
Le Label est attribué pour cinq ans par une commission constituée de trois à neuf experts provenant des métiers d'art, des médias, de l'université et de l'action territoriale.

Localisation
Le siège de l'association est situé au  dans le .

Organisation
Le bureau est constitué d'un président, cinq vices-présidents, une secrétaire et une trésorière.

Le président actuel est Philippe Huppé, ancien député de l'Hérault.

Villes et collectivités labellisées
En 2022,  (métropoles, communautés de communes, villes moyennes ou petites communes), soit près de  sont labellisées.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste de mentions, appellations, pseudo-labels français non officiels

Liens externes

 Villes et Villages de Métiers d'Art en Provence

Label touristique en France

Ville et Métiers d'Art


Inger la Cour Andersen (født 23. maj 1958 i Jerup) er en dansk økonom og miljøforkæmper.

Hun blev i januar 2015 udnævnt som generaldirektør for International Union for Conservation of Nature.

I februar 2019 blev Inger Andersen udnævnt som generaldirektør for United Nations Environment Programme UNEP, hvor hun tiltrådte i juni.

Kildehenvisninger

Økonomer fra Danmark
Miljøforkæmpere

Inger Andersen


La hipótesis de la perturbación intermedia (en inglés intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH)) fue descrita por primera vez por Connell en 1978 como parte de un trabajo sobre bosques tropicales y arrecifes de coral, tomando como base mecanismos que permite el mantenimiento de la diversidad en los citados ecosistemas.

Estudios más recientes sugieren que las consecuencias de este mecanismo puede ser mucho más amplias y de mayor alcance de lo que se pensaba y con importantes efectos para la biodiversidad de los ecosistemas.

Roxburgh y colaboradores demostraron en el 2004 que las perturbaciones intermedias articulan diferentes mecanismos que pueden permitir la coexistencia de muchas especies, más de las que existirían en ausencia de estas perturbaciones. Estos mecanismos pueden ser fenómenos como dispersión, recolonización y competencia, que pueden resultar en un incremento de la diversidad.

Simplificando, esta hipótesis sostiene que en ecosistemas maduros la presencia de perturbaciones intermedias permite mantener niveles de riqueza de especies y de biodiversidad mayores a los que habría en ausencia de dichas perturbaciones. En ausencia de perturbaciones solo sería posible encontrar especies especialistas, en tanto que perturbaciones pequeñas no tendrían efecto alguno sobre la biodiversidad y perturbaciones grandes una disminución de la misma debido a la drástica destrucción del hábitat.

Algunos ejemplos que apoyan la hipótesis de la perturbación intermedia son:
 La participación del fuego como elemento recurrente y necesario en ecosistemas mediterráneos, destruyendo gran parte de la vegetación y dando paso a un proceso de recolonización y sucesión ecológica.
 Los procesos de aclareo del bosque que tribus nómadas llevan a cabo en la Selva del Amazonas para asentarse y cultivar el terreno por un tiempo para luego abandonarlo permitiendo su regeneración mudándose a otro lugar.

Referencias

 https://web.archive.org/web/20100610150906/http://bio.fsu.edu/~miller/commecol/mss/IDHabstact.pdf

Biogeografía
Términos de ecología

Hipótesis de la perturbación intermedia


ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායම 2005-06 සමයේ ක්‍රිකට් තරඟ සඳහා නවසීලන්තයේ සංචාරයක නිරත විය. ශ්‍රී ලංකාව 2004 දෙසැම්බර් 26 වැනි දින සිය සංචාරය ආරම්භ කරමින් 2004-05 තරග වාරයේදී එක්දින ජාත්‍යන්තර තරග පහක් සහ ටෙස්ට් තරග තුනකට ක්‍රීඩා කිරීමට නියමිතව තිබූ නමුත් 2004 ඉන්දීය සාගර භූමිකම්පාව හේතුවෙන් ශ්‍රී ලංකා දූපතට දැඩි ලෙස බලපෑවේය. පළමු එක්දින ජාත්‍යන්තර තරගයෙන් පසු ශ්‍රී ලංකා කණ්ඩායම සිය මව්බිම බලා පිටත් විය. ටෙස්ට් තරග අප්‍රේල් මාසයට නැවත සැලසුම් කරන ලද අතර ඉතිරි එක්දින තරග හතර 2005 දෙසැම්බර් 31 සහ 2006 ජනවාරි 8 අතර පැවැත්විණි.

2004-05 සංචාරය

1 වන එදිජා තරගය
තරගමාලාවේ පළමු තරගය කඩුලු 7කින් ජය ගැනීමට නවසීලන්ත කණ්ඩායම සමත් වූයේ තවත් ඕවර 17ක් ඉතිරිව තිබියදීම. කෙසේ වෙතත් මෙම තරගයෙන් පසුව නවසීලන්තය සහ ශ්‍රී ලංකා වේලා කලාපය අතර වෙනස හේතුවෙන් ශ්‍රී ලංකාව ඇතුළු අග්නිදිග ආසියාතික රටවලට එදිනම උදෑසන පැමිණි සුනාමි ව්‍යසනය හේතුවෙන් ශ්‍රී ලංකා කණ්ඩායම තරගමාලාව අතරමග දමා පිටත් විය. ටෙස්ට් තරඟාවලිය අප්‍රේල් දක්වා කල් තැබුණි. ශ්‍රී ලංකා සහ නවසීලන්ත ක්‍රිකට් පාලක මණ්ඩල විසින් 2005-06 වාරය සඳහා එක්දින තරඟමාලාව නැවත කාලසටහන්ගත කරන ලදී.

2005-06 සංචාරය

සංචිත

ඇන්ඩ්‍රේ ඇඩම්ස් මුලින් තෝරා ගනු ලැබූ නමුත් මාලාව ආරම්භ වීමට පෙර ඔහුගේ දකුණු අතේ අස්ථියක් කැඩී ගිය අතර ඔහු වෙනුවට ෆ්‍රෑන්ක්ලින් පත් විය.

ෆ්ලෙමින්ග් පළමු එක්දින ජාත්‍යන්තර තරගයෙන් ඉවත් වූයේ තම පළමු දරුවාගේ උපතේදී තම බිරිඳ සමඟ සිටීමටය. පළමු තරගයේ දී විටෝරි නායකත්වය දැරූ අතර, මුලින් ඉවත් කිරීමෙන් පසුව ආස්ටල් වෙනුවට ආදේශකයක් ලෙස තෝරා ගන්නා ලදී.

තුන්වැනි එක්දින තරගයට පෙර මිල්ස් සහ ඕරම් ආබාධයක් හේතුවෙන් ඉවත් විය. මාටින් සහ ෆ්‍රෑන්ක්ලින් ඔවුන් වෙනුවට ආදේශ කළ අතර, නැවත පැමිණෙන ෆ්ලෙමින් සඳහා ඇස්ට්ල් ඉවත් කරන ලදී. කෙසේ වෙතත්, ඇස්ට්ල් සිව්වන එක්දින තරගය ක්‍රීඩා කළේය. ෆ්ද් ඩ්ශ්ඩ්

1 වන එදිජා තරගය

2 වන එදිජා තරගය

3 වන එක්දින තරගය

4 වන එක්දින තරගය

යොමු කිරීම්

   Sri Lanka in New Zealand, 2004-05, 1st One-Day International from Cricinfo, 26 December 2004
   Malinga and Fernando affected by tsunami from Cricinfo, 28 December 2004
   Sri Lankan players want to go home from Cricinfo, 28 December 2004
   Sri Lanka head home from New Zealand by Steven Lynch, from Cricinfo, 29 December 2005
   Pura Cup round delayed to help New Zealand from Cricinfo, 9 January 2005
   New Zealand and Sri Lanka eye ICC rankings published on Cricinfo 30 December 2005
   New Zealand Squad from Cricinfo, retrieved 31 December 2005
   Sri Lanka Squad from Cricinfo, retrieved 31 December 2005
   Adams withdraws from Sri Lanka series published on Cricinfo 28 December 2005
   Fleming to miss first ODI published on Cricinfo 29 December 2005
   Astle and McMillan dumped for one-day series published on Cricinfo 23 December 2005
   Astle makes way for Fleming, published on Cricinfo on 4 January 2006
   New Zealand v Sri Lanka at Queenstown, 31 December 2005, scorecard from Cricinfo, retrieved 31 December 2005
   Fulton and How demolish Sri Lanka by S Rajesh of Cricinfo, published 31 December 2005
   New Zealand v Sri Lanka at Christchurch, 3 January 2005, scorecard from Cricinfo, retrieved 8 January 2005
   New Zealand v Sri Lanka at Wellington, 6 January 2005, scorecard from Cricinfo, retrieved 8 January 2005
   New Zealand v Sri Lanka at Napier, 8 January 2005, scorecard from Cricinfo, retrieved 8 January 2005

Pages with unreviewed translations
ක්‍රිකට්
ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුළ ක්‍රිකට්

ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායමේ නවසීලන්ත තරග සංචාරය 2005-06


Isla Liuska (en finés: Liuskasaari; en sueco: Skifferholmen) es una isla situada al sur de Helsinki, capital del país europeo de Finlandia. En esta isla se encuentra Segelsällskap Helsingfors, uno de los clubes más antiguos de vela en Finlandia.

En la isla se realizaron algunos de los eventos de vela de los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano 1952.

Véase también
 Geografía de Finlandia
 Geografía de Europa

Referencias

Archipiélagos e islas de Uusimaa
Geografía de Helsinki
Instalaciones en los Juegos Olímpicos de Helsinki 1952

Liuskasaari


In der Liste der Mitglieder des Grossen Rates des Kantons Freiburg (2012–2016) sind alle Grossräte verzeichnet, die in der Amtsperiode 2012 bis 2016 Mitglied des Grossen Rates des Kantons Freiburg waren.

Stand: 1. Oktober 2012

Fraktionen und Parteien
 CVP-BDP: Fraktion der Christlichdemokratischen Volkspartei und Bürgerlich-Demokratischen Partei
 FDP: Freisinnig-Demokratische Fraktion
 MLB: Fraktion Mitte-Links-Bündnis (CSP, GPS, GLP und Unabhängiger)
 SP: Sozialdemokratische Fraktion
 SVP: Fraktion der Schweizerischen Volkspartei

Ehemalige Mitglieder des Grossen Rates

Weblinks
 Liste der Mitglieder des Grossen Rats

Siehe auch

Politik (Kanton Freiburg)


راو اسم منقوص:
 الراوي عند المحدثين هو ناقل الحديث بالإسناد
 الراوي عند الأدباء هو قائل الرواية

انظر أيضاً
 روايات القرآن
 راوي قرطبة
 رو
 دبليو دبليو إي راو: عرض تليفزيوني للمصارعة المحترفة

راو


El Cerrito del Norte es una estación en las líneas Richmond–Fremont y Richmond–Millbrae del Metro de San Francisco. La estación se encuentra localizada en 6400 Cutting Boulevard en Richmond, California. La estación El Cerrito del Norte fue inaugurada el 29 de enero de 1973.  Distrito de Transporte Rápido del Área de la Bahía es la encargada por el mantenimiento y administración de la estación.

Descripción
La estación El Cerrito del Norte cuenta con 2 plataformas laterales y 2 vías. La estación también cuenta con 2,198 de espacios de aparcamiento.

Conexiones
La estación es abastecida por las siguientes conexiones de autobuses:
 Rutas del AC Transit: Rutas 7, 72, 72M, 72R*, 76, 376 (local); 667, 668, 675, 683, 684 (lunes a viernes solamente); 800 (All-Nighter); L* LC* (Transbay, se para en la Avenida San Pablo & Cutting)FAST: Ruta 90*Golden Gate Transit: Rutas 40*, 42Napa VINE: Ruta 29*Vallejo Transit: Ruta 80WestCAT: JL/JR, JX/JPX(30Z)*+,* - La ruta opera de lunes a viernes solamente+ - La Ruta JPX continúa como la Ruta 30Z a Martínez.''

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Estación El Cerrito del Norte
 Líneas y estaciones del Metro de San Francisco

Estaciones de Metro de Estados Unidos inauguradas en 1973
Estaciones de la línea Richmond–Fremont
Estaciones de la línea Richmond–Millbrae
Transporte del condado de Contra Costa
Arquitectura brutalista en Estados Unidos

El Cerrito del Norte (Metro de San Francisco)


Iti Bacci né Baccich, né le  à Sussak et mort le  à Rome, est un homme politique et un dirigeant sportif italien.

Biographie
Il est né à Sussak, faubourg de Fiume, le 15 juillet 1892, de Eugenio et Isolina Gilardelli. Comme ses frères et sœurs, il est envoyé étudier à Florence, où il rencontre, entre autres, Scipio Slataper et est l'un des fondateurs de la section florentine du Trento e Trieste. Appelé au service militaire dans l'armée austro-hongroise, il ne se présente pas et s'installe à Ancône, où son frère aîné Icilio, qui a quitté Fiume pour échapper aux persécutions politiques, s'est réfugié.

Irrédentiste, il s'engage pendant la Première Guerre mondiale comme volontaire dans les Bersaglieri italiens, un corps dans lequel son frère Ipparco sert depuis 1912 (né à Sussak le 2 août 1890, il est tombé le 12 octobre 1916 sur le Veliki-Hribah et a été décoré de la médaille d'argent de la mémoire). Avec le grade de sous-lieutenant, il retourne à Fiume à la fin du conflit et fait rapidement partie du groupe de citoyens soutenant l'annexion de la ville à l'Italie.

Il fonde le quotidien La Vedetta d'Italia, qui défend des positions nationalistes et est favorable au rattachement de la ville de Kvarner à l'Italie. En 1919, il participe à l'entreprise de Fiume avec son frère aîné Icilio. Il adhère à l'Association nationaliste italienne jusqu'en avril 1922 et, à partir de cette date, il rejoint le Parti national fasciste, dont il est secrétaire général adjoint de 1930 à 1931 et membre du Grand Conseil du fascisme de 1930 à 1932.

Il est élu député du Royaume en 1929 et reconfirmé en 1934.

Sous le régime fasciste, il est très actif en tant que dirigeant sportif et occupe également la présidence du Comité olympique national italien (CONI) pendant un certain temps, en tant que commissaire, entre 1930 et 1931. Il reprend le journal du CONI "Il Littoriale", dont il est le directeur.

Plus tard , il préside les chantiers navals de Quarnaro. De mars 1939 à août 1943, il est conseiller national de la Chambre des faisceaux et des corporations. Après le 8 septembre 1943, il n'adhère pas à la République sociale italienne et est arrêté à Fiume par les Allemands mais libéré grâce à l'intervention de son frère Icilio, qui est sénateur.

Références

Liens externes

  Alberto Monticone, BACCI, Iti, dans le Dizionario biografico degli italiani, vol. 5, Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 1963.
  Iti Bacci, sur le site storia.camera.it, Chambre des Députés.
  Iti Bacci, sur le site Olympedia.

Naissance en juillet 1892
Naissance à Fiume
Décès en janvier 1954
Décès à Rome
Décès à 61 ans
Personnalité politique italienne du XXe siècle
Personnalité du Parti national fasciste
Député de la XXVIIIe législature du royaume d'Italie
Député de la XXIXe législature du royaume d'Italie
Conseiller national de la Chambre des faisceaux et des corporations

Iti Bacci


Gadedreng er det tredje studiealbum fra den danske singer-songwriter Thomas Ring. Albummet udkom den 17. februar 2017 på 10.000 Records. "Mit Danmark" udkom som første single den 14. oktober 2016, efterfulgt af andensinglen "Stjernekaster" den 16. december 2016.

Spor

Kilder

Album fra 2017

Gadedreng (Thomas Ring-album)