Cultivation theory is a sociological and communications framework to examine the lasting effects of media, primarily television. The central hypothesis of cultivation analysis is that people who spend more time watching television are more likely to perceive the real world in a way as more commonly depicted in television messages as compared to those who watch less television, but are otherwise comparable in major demographic features.

Founded by George Gerbner, cultivation theory was developed to seek out the influence that television media may have on the viewers. In later years, the foundings of Gerbner were expanded on and developed by an American screenwriter Larry Gross. Gerbner formulated his paradigm for mass communication in 1973 which included three types of analysis: The first type of analysis is institutional process analysis, which looks at what institutions are supporting and distributing the content in question. The second type of analysis is message system analysis. Message system analysis aims to identify the content of message patterns in television and media. The third type of analysis is the cultivation analysis that is defined as the longitudinal surveys of people's opinions on certain subjects with the key variable being levels of media reception such as television viewing. These three analyses are known as the Cultivation Theory.

Cultivation theory began as a way to test the impact of television on viewers, especially how exposure to violence through television affects human beings. The theory's key proposition is that "the more time people spend 'living' in the television world, the more likely they are to believe that social reality aligns with reality portrayed on television." Gerbner believed that audience members used television to "fill the gaps" of their knowledge about certain experiences that they had not had for themselves. Because Cultivation Theory assumes the existence of objective reality and value-neutral research, it can be categorized as part of positivistic philosophy.

The more media that people consume, the more their perceptions change. Such images and messages, especially when repeated, help bring about the culture that they portray. Cultivation Theory aims to understand how long-term exposure to television programming, with its recurrent patterns of messages and images, can contribute to individuals' shared assumptions about the world around them.

In a 2004 study, surveying almost 2,000 articles published in the top three mass communication journals since 1956, Jennings Bryant and Dorina Miron found that cultivation theory was the third most frequently utilized cultural theory.

Description
Cultivation theory suggests that exposure to media affects a viewer's perceptions of reality, drawing attention to three aspects: institutions, messages, and publics.

Television, Gerbner suggested, binds diverse communities together by socializing people into standardized roles and behaviors; thus, television functions as part of the enculturation process. Gerbner's research focused on the larger meaning of heavy television consumption instead of the meaning behind specific messages.

Mainstreaming is the process by which TV viewers from disparate groups develop a common outlook of the world through exposure to the same images and labels, the effect being stronger among those whose TV viewing is more constant.
 Blurring refers to the fusion of traditional distinctions,
 Blending refers to the emergence of new conceptions into television's cultural mainstream, and
 Bending refers to shifting the mainstream to the institutional interests of the medium and its sponsors.

Resonance occurs when things viewed on television are congruent with the actual lived realities of viewers.

Perceptions of Violence
Gerbner's initial work looked specifically at the effects of television violence on American audiences. Measuring the effect of violence underscored the larger part of Gerbner's work on cultivation theory. Therefore, he measured dramatic violence, defined as "the overt expression or threat of physical force as part of the plot." Gerbner's research also focused on the interpretation by high-use viewers of the prevalence of crime on television versus reality. He argues that, since a high percentage of programs include violent or crime-related content, viewers who spend a lot of time watching are inevitably exposed to high levels of crime and violence.

In 1968, Gerbner conducted a survey to demonstrate this theory. Following his previous results, he placed television viewers into three categories: light viewers (less than 2 hours a day), medium viewers (2–4 hours a day), and heavy viewers (more than 4 hours a day). He found that heavy viewers held beliefs and opinions similar to those portrayed on television, which demonstrated the compound effect of media influence. Heavy viewers experienced shyness, loneliness, and depression much more than those who watched less often. From this study, Gerbner then began to work on what would become the Mean World Syndrome, which is based on the fact that heavy viewers of television, particularly violence-related content, are more likely than light viewers to believe that the world is more frightening and dangerous than it actually is.

In 2012, people with heavy viewing habits were found to believe that 5% of society was involved in law enforcement. In contrast, people with light viewing habits estimated a more realistic 1%.

TV viewing and fear of crime
In most of the surveys conducted by Gerbner, the results revealed a small but statistically significant relationship between television consumption and fear of becoming the victim of a crime. Those with light viewing habits predicted their weekly odds of being a victim were 1 in 100; those with heavy viewing habits predicted 1 in 10. Actual crime statistics showed the risk to be 1 in 10,000.

Supporting this finding is a survey done with college students that showed a significant correlation between the attention paid to local crime and one's fearfulness. There was also a significant correlation between fear of crime and violence and the number of times the respondents viewed television per week.

Local news has been frequently analyzed for cultivation, as they rely "heavily on sensational coverage of crime and other mayhem with particular emphasis on homicide and violence", while news agencies boast of their allegiance to report factually. Gerbner found that heavy viewers of news were more likely to overestimate crime rates and risk of personal exposure to crime and underestimate the safety of their neighborhoods. Additionally, several other studies point out the correlation between viewing local news and fear of crime, with Gross and Aiday (2003) finding the relationship between local news exposure and fear of crimes to be independent of local crime rates.

Aside from local news, national news, police shows, and general TV news viewing are also related to a fear of crime. Additionally, non-genre-specific TV viewing has been associated with fear of crime.

Busselle (2003) found that parents who watch more programs portraying crime and violence are more likely to warn their children about crime during their high school years; these warnings, in turn, increased the students' own crime estimates, suggesting cultivation takes place through both direct and indirect processes.

Background
Together, Gerbner and Gross were able to expand upon the cultivation theory and base it upon different core assumptions.

Cultivation theory is based on three core assumptions:

Medium: the first assumption is that television is fundamentally different from other forms of mass media.
Audience: cultivation theory does not predict what people will do after watching a violent program but rather posits a connection between people's fears of a violence-filled world and their exposure to violent programming. The exposure to violent programming leads to what Gerbner calls the Mean World Syndrome, the idea that long-term exposure to violent media will lead to a distorted view that the world is more violent than it is.
Function and Effect: television's effects are limited because it is a part of a larger sociocultural system. Therefore, although the effects of watching television may increase or decrease at any point in time, its effect is consistently present.
There are three orders of effect that come with the cultivation theory. The First Order Effects describe how people's behavior changes when exposed to mass media. The Second Order Effect encompasses the viewers' values and attitudes depending on what they are watching. The Third Order Effect is the change in the viewer's observation behavior.

Research
Using message system analysis as a tool helps researchers study viewer perceptions of reality, their perceptions of the observable world, and can evaluate transmitted media content.

Many theorists have extended Gerbner's theory. Gerbner's research focused on TV violence, but current research examines a variety of factors. Childhood viewing may be associated with overall self-esteem in children, and affect one's beliefs as an adult.

Studies outside the U.S., where the programming is less homogeneous and repetitive, produced results that are less consistent. Australian students who watched US television programs (especially adventure and crime shows) were more likely to view Australia as dangerous; however, they didn't perceive America as dangerous, even though they were watching US programs.

The cultivation effect is not specific to genre or program, but can result from cumulative exposure to stable patterns of content on television. Jonathan Cohen and Gabriel Weimann found cultivation more prevalent among teenagers and young adults, who may then exhibit cultivation longevity.

Viewers tended toward greater psychosocial health when watching no more than 2 hours of television each day, following recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), with an even greater impact on women. One study examined possible effects of viewing alcohol consumption in music videos."

Another study looked at interactive video games and found the viewer's role within the game is essential in the progression of the story. Participants interacted with other players in real-time, with a strong showing of the cultivation of participants.

Gerbner et al. developed an index for mean world syndrome. Those with heavy viewing habits become suspicious of other people's motives, expecting the worst. For example, heavy viewers of violent television are much more likely to be afraid of walking alone at night in fear that they will get robbed, mugged, or even killed. This results in the heavy viewers to try and protect themselves more than others by, for example, having watchdogs, buying new locks, investing in a security camera system, and owning guns.

Heavy viewers
Heavy viewers are individuals who watch at least four hours of television a day. However, Nielsen defined it as watching more than 11 hours a day. Heavy viewers are consistently characterized as being more susceptible to images and messages. They also rely more on television to cultivate their perceptions of the real world. In a 2014 study done on the cultivation effects of reality television, an Indiana University study found that young girls who regularly watched the MTV show Teen Mom had an unrealistic view of teen pregnancy.

Several cognitive mechanisms that explain cultivation effects have been put forth by Shrum (1995, 1996, 1997). Shrum's availability-heuristic explanation suggests that heavy viewers tend to retain more vivid memories of instances of television reality and more readily access those memories when surveyors ask them questions, resulting in more responses related to viewing, more quickly given. Another mechanism that might explain the cultivation phenomenon is a cognitive-narrative mechanism. Previous research suggests that the realism of narratives in combination with individual-level "transportability", or the ability to be less critical of a narrative, might facilitate cultivation effects.

Dramatic violence
The message system analysis focuses on the content that is displayed in television programs. Gerbner's main focus of TV viewing was the depiction of violence in tv shows and movies. In particular, he found the most common type of violence was dramatic violence. The Coding of Health and Media Project or CHAMP, created a violence code book that defines Dramatic Violence that involves a character's intentional physical pain on another character.  This sort of violence excludes sports violence, natural disasters seen on the news, and or comedy violence such as boxing, verbal threats. CHAMP's analysis also involves a quantification of the explicitness of violent acts with 1 being the least explicit to 5 being the most explicit, fatalities from violence, a definition for Comedic violence.

Dramatic violence is the "overt expression or serious threat of physical force as part of the plot."

Shows such as Law & Order SVU and CSI: Miami use murder to frame each episode, underscoring the presence of gratuitous and dramatic violence. The idea of dramatic violence reinforces the relationship between fear and entertainment. Though death is being used as a plot point, it also functions to cultivate an image of looming violence.

Magic bullet theory
The magic bullet theory is a linear model of communication concerned with audiences directly influenced by mass media and the media's power over them.

It assumes that the media's message is a bullet fired from a media "gun" into the viewer's head. Similarly, the hypodermic needle model uses the same idea of direct injection. It suggests that the media delivers its messages straight into a passive audience's body.

Television reality
Cultivation theory research seems to indicate that heavy viewing can result in the viewer adopting a set of beliefs based on content rather than facts. Generally, the beliefs of heavy viewers about the world are consistent with the repetitive and emphasized images and themes presented on television. As such, heavy viewing cultivates a television-shaped world view.

This false reality or "symbolic world" Gerbner discusses can be seen through the media's portrayal of different demographic groups. Main characters in television are often depicted as young, outgoing, and energetic. Through the inaccurate portrayal of ethnic groups such as Hispanics, we know that they make up a large portion of the population but are rarely shown as characters. Even Middle-Easterners are widely shown as the villains in television. Therefore, television trains heavy viewers to look at crime such as gun violence, fist fights, and high-speed car chases as normal while actual crime statistics note that violent crime occurs with less than 1% of the US population.

Even across diverse demographics, the amount of viewing can make a difference in terms of viewer conceptions of social reality. For instance, sex-role stereotypes can be traced to the independent contribution of TV viewing, just as sex, age, class, and education contribute. The amount of viewing time is the main element in creating television reality for the audience. According to Gerbner's research, the more time spent absorbing the world of television, the more likely people are to report perceptions of social reality that can be traced to television's most persistent representations of life and society.

Since the 1960s, communication scholars have examined television's contributions to viewers' perceptions of a wide variety of issues. However, little effort has been made to investigate the influence of television on perceptions of social reality among adolescents.

Research supports the concept of television reality arising from heavy viewing. According to Wyer and Budesheim, television messages or information (even when they are not necessarily considered truthful) can still be used by viewers to make social judgments. Furthermore, the information shown to be invalid may still inform an audience's judgments.

The influence of primetime television shows on public perceptions of science and scientists has been explored by Gerbner (Gerbner, 1987). While Gerbner does not place the entire blame on television shows, he highlights the importance of acknowledging the unquestionable role it plays in shaping people's perceptions. Lack of scientific understanding can no longer be associated with 'information-deficit' because we are living in an 'information-rich world'. This also brings up the concerns about the implications of possessing too much scientific knowledge as a viewer. While being well informed helps people to make rational scientific choices, excessive scientific knowledge can bring up apprehensions, fears, suspicion, and mistrust. Prime time shows have a wider reachability, visibility, and interact with people from across diverse backgrounds. Television is used in a relatively nonselective way for viewing. These form the strong basis to conclude that scientists and the scientific community can benefit from stronger connections with the producers, directors, and the entertainment industry at large. The market for science shows has an audience group that faces a mixture of expectations, fears, utilitarian interests, curiosities, ancient prejudices, and superstitions. Gerbner's research used cultivation analysis to understand and examine the response patterns of 1,631 respondents' group which includes light and heavy viewers. They were presented with five propositions - science makes our way of life change too fast; makes our lives healthier, easier, and more comfortable; breaks down people's ideas of right and wrong; is more likely to cause problems than to find solutions; and the growth of science means that a few people can control our lives. The research estimated the percentage of positive responses to science based on two groups divided by sex and education. The study suggested that the exposure to science through television shows cultivate less favorable orientation towards science, especially in high status groups whose light-viewer members are its greatest supporters, and lower status groups have a generally low opinion of science. These observations can be understood through the concept of mainstreaming.

Application of Theory

Gender and sexuality

LGBT
Sara Baker Netzley (2010) conducted research similar to Gerbner's into the way that gay people were depicted on television. This study found that there was an extremely high level of sexual activity in comparison to the number of gay characters that appeared on television. This has led those who are heavy television consumers to believe that the gay community is extremely sexual. Much like the idea of a mean and scary world, it gives people an exaggerated sense of a sexualized gay community.

A study conducted by Jerel Calzo and Monique Ward (2009) begins by analysing recent research conducted into the portrayal of gay and lesbian characters on television. While the representation of gay and lesbian characters has continued to grow, the study found that most television shows frame gay and lesbian characters in a manner that reinforces LGBT stereotypes. Diving into the discussion, Calzo and Ward describe even shows such as Ellen and Will & Grace as having storyline content that reinforces "stereotypes by portraying [...] characters as lacking stable relationships, as being preoccupied with their sexuality (or not sexual at all), and by perpetuating the perception of gay and lesbian people as laughable, one-dimensional figures." Their findings confirmed that media genres played an important role in forming attitudes regarding homosexuality. They were surprised by the finding that prior primetime shows, which are no longer on air, reinforced greater acceptance within the LGBTQ realm. They then suggested that, because genre played a large role in the perceptions that viewers formed while watching certain television shows, research should focus on "more genre-driven effects analyses."

Men and Women
In their 2022 study, Scharrer and Warren examined the endorsement of traditionally masculine values in regard to gender norms among combined viewers of streaming services such as Netflix, video games, and YouTube. Traditionally masculine traits in this study included "emotional detachment, dominance, toughness, and/or avoidance of femininity among boys and girls in the sample" (Scharrer & Warren, 2022). Results showed that participants in the heavy viewer category indicated higher scores of endorsement of traditionally masculine traits for men compared to light viewers.

Beverly Roskos-Ewoldsen, John Davies, and David Roskos-Ewoldsen (2004) posit that perceptions of women are integrated in a rather stereotypical fashion, compared to portrayals of men, on television. They state that, "men are characters in TV shows at about a 2 to 1 ratio to women." Viewers who consume more television usually also have more traditional views of women. Research has also shown that women are more likely to be portrayed as victims on television than men.

Alexander Sink and Dana Mastro (2017) studied women and gender depictions on American prime-time television. Although women are often perceived to be better represented on television in recent years, these researchers claim that this is not necessarily the case. They claim women are proportionally underrepresented on prime time television, making up 39% of characters even though women make up 50.9% of the population in the US. Men were also portrayed as more dominant than women, and although men were more often objectified, women were consistently portrayed as hyper-feminized and hyper-sexualized. Fewer older women appeared during prime time, compared to men, and were often shown to be less competent than older male characters.

Sexual attitudes
Cultivation theory has been utilized when conducting research on sexual attitudes regarding women. Rita Seabrook found that there was a positive relationship of viewing reality tv, pornography, and sports programming and an acceptance of objectifying women and a higher tolerance for sexual aggression.

A study by Bradley J. Bond and Kristin L. Drogos (2014) examined the relationship between exposure to the television program Jersey Shore and sexual attitudes and behavior in college-aged adults. They found a positive relationship between time spent watching Jersey Shore and increased sexual permissiveness. This effect was found to be stronger in the younger participants than in older ones and held true even when the researchers controlled for other influences on participants' sexual attitudes, such as religious beliefs and parents' attitudes. This higher level of sexually permissive attitudes and behavior was not a result of higher overall exposure to television, but specifically to greater exposure to Jersey Shore, a highly sexualized program.

Race and ethnicity
Meghan S. Sanders and Srividya Ramasubramanian (2012) studied perceptions that African American media consumers hold about fictional characters portrayed in film and television. They found that—while study participants tended to view all African American characters positively—social class, rather than race or ethnicity, mattered more in perceptions about the warmth and competence of a character. Their study suggests that the ethnicity of media consumers needs to be taken into account in cultivation studies, because media consumers with different backgrounds likely perceive media portrayals, and their faithfulness to reality, differently.

A study by Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz and David Ta (2014) examined the cultivation effects of video games on White students' perceptions of Black and Asian individuals. While no significant effects were found for perceptions of Asian individuals, researchers found that those who spent a greater amount of time playing video games, no matter what genre, held a less positive view of Black people. They also found that real-life interaction with Black individuals did not change this effect. Behm-Morawitz and Ta suggest that the stable, negative racial and ethnic stereotypes portrayed in video game narratives of any genre impact real-world beliefs, in spite of more varied real-life interactions with racial and ethnic minorities.

Chrysalis Wright and Michelle Craske (2015) conducted a study using the cultivation framework to examine the relationship between music lyrics and videos that contained sexual content and the sexual behaviors of African American, Hispanic and Caucasian young adults. In previous studies, it was hypothesized that the heavy listening habits of youth to sexually explicit content can alter the listener's perception of reality and normalize risky sexual behaviors. However, Wright and Caste are the first study to assess the cultivation framework's ability to explain the possible relationship. Their findings concluded that there were minimal effects on those from Caucasian or Hispanic backgrounds with one or two normalized sexual behaviors, such as age of first relationship and sexual encounter. In comparison, researchers found that there were several normalized sexual behaviors found within participants from an African American background, such as earlier age of first date and sexual encounter, higher amount of casual sexual encounters and lower percentage of condom usage.

It is speculated that the effects of cultivation are more prominent within the African American community as opposed to other ethnic groups as African Americans might view music as an accurate representation of their culture. Chen (2006) found that rap music was the most popular music genre listened to by African Americans, and more explicit sexual references have been associated with rap in comparison to other genres with "78% of rap, 53% of pop, 37% of rock, and 36% of country music videos containing some form of sexual reference." Furthermore, previous research displayed that non-Caucasian artists make more allusions to sexual content, referencing sexual acts 21% of the time as compared to 7.5% of the time by Caucasian artists. These cultivation effects of musicians creating a false reality in regards to sexual behaviors and experiences through their lyrics and videos may make African American listeners more vulnerable to "adopt thinking processes and behave similar to the content contained in the music they are exposed to."

Politics and policy preferences
Diana Mutz and Lilach Nir (2010) conducted a study of how fictional television narratives can influence viewers' policy preferences and positive or negative attitudes regarding the justice system in the real world. They found that positive portrayals of the criminal justice system were associated with viewers' more positive view of the system in real life, whereas negative television portrayals were associated with viewers' feeling that the criminal justice system often works unfairly. Furthermore, researchers found that these attitudes did influence viewers' policy preferences concerning the criminal justice system in real life.

A study by Anita Atwell Seate and Dana Mastro (2016) studied news coverage of immigration and its relationship to viewers' immigration policy preferences and negative attitudes regarding immigrants. They found that exposure to negative messages about immigrants in the news generated anxious feelings towards the outgroup (i.e., immigrants), particularly when the news program showed a member of the outgroup. This exposure did not necessarily immediately influence immigration policy preferences, but long-term exposure to messages of this kind can affect such preferences.

Katerina-Eva Matsa (2010) explored cultivation effects through her thesis on television's impact on political engagement in Greece. She did so by describing the role of satirical television within the cultural realm in Greece and how this form of television created ingrained perceptions that Greek political institutions are corrupt, thus negatively influencing the Greek public's overall opinion of politics in their country.

Sports and Cultivation Theory

A study conducted at the University of Connecticut by scholar David Atkin revealed insights into television viewing of sports and how sports media impacts the values of its viewers. The hypothesis stated that the "Level of agreement with sports-related values (i.e., being physically fit, athletic, and active) is positively related to participation in sports-related media and leisure activities." The results from the study supported the hypothesis, specifically that "those for whom being physically fit, being athletic, and being active are important are exposed to more sports media." The results of this study align with the principles of Cultivation theory showing that heavier exposure to sports media is related to greater agreement with the values that the media present.

An article titled "Sport in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media and Politics", concluded that "the line of research has found that, as exposure to television increases, an individual's beliefs and opinions of the real-world become more similar to that of the television world." This statement proves to be in support of the previous hypothesis and supports cultivation theory being present in the sporting world, in the sense that the more sport-related media that someone consumes, the more likely they are to value being physically fit.

Another aspect of cultivation theory being studied in relation to sports is the difference between those who participate in sporting events and those who watch them. Cultivation theory can explain people being less active and the rise in obesity levels, because of what they watch on television. Because people don't see many active people on television, their "reality" is that people no longer need to be active 30 or so minutes per day.

Cultivation theory can be applied to America's shift toward so-called "violent sports". A survey undertaken in 1998 showed that only 67% of American teenagers considered themselves to be baseball fans, compared to 78% who responded, identifying themselves as football fans. This study correlates with current TV ratings, as since 2005, football has by far the most hours watched, at 111.9 million hours. Leo W. Jeffres, Jae-Won Lee, and Kimberly A. Neuendorf say that a "new 'media logic' that favors more violent, action-oriented sports" has emerged, "while slower-paced sports have been relegated to secondary status in the United States."

Although there was no true correlation between cultivation theory and sports, there has been research conducted on the level of violence in sports content and the effects it has on viewers. Results by Raney and Depalma (2006) found that individuals were less likely to report being in a positive mood after watching violent sports content.

Altruistic behavior
Zakir Shah, Jianxun Chu, Usman Ghani, Sara Qaisar, and Zameer Hassan (2020) conducted the first study from the perspective of cultivation theory to determine the mediating role of fear of victimization, gained from exposure to disaster-related media, on altruistic behavior. Findings show that exposure to disaster-related news and individuals' perceptions taken from the media contributed to fear of victimization. Moreover, fear of victimization from disaster significantly influences the altruistic behavior of people.

A research study that examines television veiwing, narrative engagement, and three Idealistic moral expectations: just world beliefs, altruism of doctors, tolerance of others. They found that television viewing, narrative engagement, and moral expectations were all dependent on each other.

New media
Technology has evolved since George Gerbner developed this theory. Society has more media to consume than just prime-time television. Andrew Ledbetter identified three key differences in television in the age of new media: recordable, mobile, and many choices.  Recordable means people have the ability to watch programs at anytime as opposed to the mid-century when television had a time-specific showing of any program. Mobile means people have the ability to watch video content wherever they go through smartphones. And third, many choices entails the multitude of streaming platforms, and even the many choices withing each streaming platform.

Cultivation theory has been applied to the study of new media. Scholars Morgan, Shanahan & Signorielli noted that media technology has not been static, and may continue to evolve. Therefore, older methods of cultivation analysis may have to move from counting hours of television viewed, and take a big data approach. These authors argue that, although many were skeptical that cultivation theory would be applicable with the increasing importance of new media, these new media still use narrative; and, since those narratives affect us, cultivation theory is still relevant.

Croucher (2011) applied cultivation theory to his theory of social media and its effects on immigrant cultural adaptation. He theorizes that immigrants who use the dominant social media while they are still in the process of adapting to their new culture will develop perceptions about their host society from that media. He believes that this cultivation effect will also impact the way immigrants interact offline with natives of the host country. In a similar vein, the cultivation framework has been applied to the study of body image effects on social media platforms, with research indicating that browsing through certain types of content relates to distorted views on the physical appearances of strangers.

Minors are affected by the Internet
Cultivation theory, which mainly studies the long-term impact of television on the audience, in a specific group of people, the longer it watches TV, the closer the audience's perception of reality is to the content of the TV. Cultivation theory is one of the most common theories in today's lives, especially for teens and children, because adults can control and discern content on TV shows and social media, but minors cannot tell the difference between right and wrong all the time, "for example, the fact that media often broadcast programs, news or movies with violent content creates a social environment in which violence is taught and consumed." (Busair Ahmad, 2015). There is hope that television and film programs will be reformed to reduce the impact on children, and the government and people from all walks of life are also working hard to formulate policies and to protect young people. "We provide recommendations for clinicians, policymakers, and educators in partnering with caregivers and youth to support electronic media use that promotes positive outcomes in these areas." (Gaidhane, 2018). The problem can be paid attention to by institutions or organizations such as society and doctors, as well as more professional people, indicating that this is not a small thing. The problem also plagues governments and parents around the world, who need to work together to solve the impact of the Internet on adolescents and minors to better protect their future and make society more prosperous and stable. The Internet and informatization have brought many beautiful things, but everything has two sides, and human beings can be better served if the information is controlled.

Books
Authors and researchers have developed multiple books over the years based on cultivation theory. One of the earliest books written based on cultivation theory was in 1995, where James Shanahan and Michael Morgan came together to write the book "Television and its Viewers"Then, one of the latest books based on the topic was written by Andy Ruddock in 2020, called "Digital Media Influence: A Cultivation Approach".

Criticism
Although there is a significant correlation between TV viewing and perception of reality, Cultivation effects has a small influence on an individuals perception of the world. In a Meta-analysis done by Michael Morgan and James Shanahan, that revealed that increased television viewing only resulted in a slight fear of violence in reality.

Costanze Rossman argues that there is little evidence that tv viewing causes fear of violence. The variables may even be reversed in the relationship where fear of violence increases tv viewing. Other variables may influence this relationship, like living in an area with a high-crime rate.

Elihu Katz, the founder of Uses and Gratifications Theory, listed Cultivation Theory in his article, "Six Concepts in Search of Retirement." One of the reasons for retiring this theory is because of technology changes that have happened from when the theory was founded. George Gerbner's theory was founded in 1973, which was an era where prime time television was the dominant medium. Given that this theory developed before the age of the internet and social media, Morgan, Shanahan and Signorelli offer a suggestion about where the theory could go next in the age of new media. In the age of new media is recordable, mobile and has many choices, the authors wonder if the content and messages have become more diverse, therefore having an influence on cultivation.

Jennings Bryant points out that cultivation research focuses more on the effects rather than who or what is being influenced, being more to do with the whys and hows, as opposed to gathering normative data as to the whats, whos, and wheres. Daniel Chandler argues that while television does have some effect on how we perceive the world around us, Gerbner's study does not consider the lived experiences of those who do inhabit high crime areas. Horace Newcomb argues that violence is not presented as uniformly on television as the theory assumes; therefore, television cannot be responsible for cultivating the same sense of reality for all viewers.

See also

 Annenberg School for Communication at the University of Pennsylvania
 Availability heuristic
 Consensus reality
 Media influence
 Reality TV
 Sociological theory

References

Further reading

Communication theory

Cultivation theory


Goson Sakai (født 20. marts 1996) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Albirex Niigata og Fukushima United FC.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Goson Sakai


Imre Kocsis (1937-1991), peintre
 Imre Kocsis (1910-1944), engagé hongrois dans la Légion étrangère, compagnon de la Libération

Références

Imre Kocsis


ISO 7380 er en ISO standard for en Bolt med Indvendig 6-Kant (Unbrako).

En bolt ISO 7380 er en af de mest brugte bolte inden for befæstelse området.

Kilde
 http://bolte.dk/buttonhead-iso-7380-indv-6-kant

7380

ISO 7380


Ernest Augustus I, Duce de Saxa-Weimar (19 aprilie 1688 – 19 ianuarie 1748), a fost Duce de Saxa-Weimar și, din 1741, de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach.

Biografie
Ernest Augustu a fost al doilea fiu însă fiul cel mare care a supraviețuit al Ducelui Johann Ernst al III-lea de Saxa-Weimar și a primei lui soții,  Sophie Auguste de Anhalt-Zerbst. Când tatăl său a murit în 1707, Ernst August a devenit co-domnitor (Mitherr) de Saxa-Weimar, împreună cu unchiul său Wilhelm Ernst. În timp ce titlul său era doar oficial, Wilhelm Ernst era cel care deținea puterea în ducat. Numai după decesul lui Wilhelm Ernst în 1728, Ernst August în vârstă de 40 de ani, a început să exercite o adevărată autoritate în Saxa-Weimar.

Excese
Ernst August a fost un conducător care iubea luxul iar extravaganțele sale au contribuit la ruinarea financiară a ducatul. Având nevoie disperată de
fonduri, el a recurs la practica arestării supușilor bogați fără motiv, și îi elibera numai după ce renunțau la averile lor în favoarea ducelui sau după ce plăteau răscumpărări exorbitante. Unele dintre victime care au considerat că acest comportament este ilegal au făcut plângere la Curtea Imperială de la Viena sau la Curtea de Apel a Camerei Imperiale de la Wetzlar. Ernst August a pierdut toate procedurile legale îndreptate împotriva lui. Procesul a durat timp de mai mulți ani și în cele din urmă a condus la falimentul ducatul.

Ducele a menținut o armată permanentă care era disproporționat de mare pentru populația sau pentru resursele financiare ale ducatului. Unii dintre soldați au fost închiriați Principatului Saxoniei sau împăratului Sfântului Imperiu Roman. Mania lui Ernst August pentru construcții a dus la construirea la Kleinode a micului palat Belvedere și a palatului rococo din Dornburg, reședința luxoasă a ducelui. Pasiunea lui pentru vânătoarea a fost, de asemenea, extravagantă; când a murit, Ernst August a lăsat 1.100 de câini și 373 de cai. Ducele a menținut un "harem", în care două nobile "doamne de onoare" (Ehrenfräulein) și trei "doamne de cabinet" (Kammerfrauen) foarte tinere se îngrijeau de dorințele sale.

Căsătorii și copii
La 24 ianuarie 1716, la Nienburg, Ernst August s-a căsătorit cu Eleonore Wilhelmine de Anhalt-Köthen, fiica lui Eleonore Wilhelmine de Anhalt-Köthen. Ei au avut opt copii:
 Wilhelm Ernest (n. 4 iulie 1717, Weimar - d. 8 iunie 1719, Halle), Prinț Ereditar de Saxa-Weimar.
 Wilhelmine Auguste (n. 4 iulie 1717, Weimar - d. 9 decembrie 1752, Weimar), sora geamănă a lui  Wilhelm Ernst.
 Johann Wilhelm (n. 10 ianuarie 1719, Weimar - d. Weimar, 6 decembrie 1732), Prinț Ereditar de Saxa-Weimar.
 Charlotte Agnes Leopoldina (n. 4 decembrie, Weimar 1720 - d. 15 octombrie 1724, Weimar).
 Johanna Eleonore Henriette (n. 2 decembrie 1721, Weimar - d. 17 iunie 1722, Weimar).
 Ernestine Albertine (n. 28 decembrie 1722, Weimar - d. 25 noiembrie 1769, Alverdissen), căsătorită la 6 mai 1756 cu Filip al II-lea, Conte de Schaumburg-Lippe.
 Bernhardina Christina Sophia (n. 5 mai 1724, Weimar - d. 5 iunie 1757, Rudolstadt), căsătorită la 19 noiembrie 1744 cu Johann Frederic, Prinț de Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt.
 Emmanuel Frederick William Bernard (n. 19 decembrie 1725, Weimar - d. Weimar, 11 iunie 1729).

După decesul primei soții în 1726, ducele a decis să nu se mai căsătorească, alegând să trăiască liniștit cu "doamnele de onoare" și "doamnele de cabinet". Însă în 1732 situația s-a schimbat pe neașteptate: singurul său fiu în viață, prințul ereditar (Erbprinz) Johann Wilhelm a murit. A fost necesar să-și caute o nouă soție cu care să aibă moștenitori pentru a-și perpetua dinastia.

La 7 aprilie 1734, la Bayreuth, Ernst August în vârstă de 46 de ani, s-a recăsătorit cu Sophie Charlotte de Brandenburg-Bayreuth, fiica lui Georg Frederic de Brandenburg-Bayreuth. Ei au avut patru copii:
 Karl Augustus Eugen (n. 1 ianuarie 1735, Weimar - d. 13 September 1736, Weimar), Prinț Erditar de Saxa-Weimar.
 Ernest Augustus al II-lea, Duce de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach (n. 2 iunie 1737, Weimar - d. 28 mai 1758, Weimar).
 Ernestine Auguste Sophie (n. 4 ianuarie 1740 - d. Hildburghausen, 10 iunie 1786), căsătorită la 1 iulie 1758 cu Ernst Frederic al III-lea Karl, Duce de Saxa-Hildburghausen.
 Ernest Adolph Felix

Ducele a avut și un fiu nelegitim cu Friederike von Marschall:
 Ernest Frederick (n. 1731 - d. 1810), creat Freiherr von Brenn; s-a căsătorit cu Beate Helene Bormann, linia lui s-a stins în 1849.

Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach și absolutismul
În 1741 ramura Saxe-Eisenach-Jena s-a stins odată cu moartea lui Wilhelm Heinrich, Duce de Saxa-Eisenach. Ernst August a moștenit teritoriile sale. Uniunea dintre Saxa-Weimar și Saxa-Eisenach-Jena a devenit permanent. Una dintre puținele decizii înțelepte ale ducelui a fost instituirea "primogeniturii" în Saxa-Weimar (confirmată în 1724 de împăratul Carol al VI-lea); acest lucru a stopat divizarea țării în viitor. Din 1741 noul său ducat a luat numele de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach (Jena s-a unit cu Eisenach). Însă noul stat era alcătuit din două zone mari dezvoltate în jurul celor două reședințe în Weimar și Eisenach, care nu erau conectate.

Anexarea Saxa-Eisenach a fost favorabilă ducelui care era iubitor de vânătoare; el poseda o brazdă mare de păduri în regiunea Eisenach, care părea potrivită pentru vânătoare. Și-a lăsat fiul, prințul moștenitor în Weimar la Schloss Belvedere, sub tutela mareșalului curții și s-a mutat definitiv la Eisenach. Și-a văzut fiul rareori și trimitea instrucțiunile cele mai iraționale de la Eisenach la Weimar, în scopul de a supraveghea educația fiului său. Prințul Moștenitor și-a văzut tatăl pentru ultima oară în 1743.

Ernst August a încercat să conducă în mod absolutist în Saxe-Weimar după model franțuzesc. Ratskollegium - un organ consultativ format din nobili - a fost dizolvat. În 1746 cetățenii din Eisenach au prezentat ducelui un memorandum care detalia prerogativele naționale, în care el a fost denunțat pentru infracțiuni contra drepturilor constante tradiționale. Gestul a demonstrat că cetățenii ducatului au fost rezistenți la introducerea absolutismului, prin urmare, anumite politici pe care Ernst August le-a planificat nu au putut fi complet realizate. Moartea ducelui a împiedicat o controversă teribilă între nobili și cetățenii din Eisenach.

Deces
După moartea sa, Ernst August a lăsat ducatul ruinat, și a fost succedat de fiul său Ernest Augustus al II-lea, care era minor.

Casa de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach
Nașteri în 1688
Decese în 1748
Duci de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach
Duci de Saxa-Weimar
Duci de Saxa-Eisenach
Oameni din Weimar

Ernest Augustus I, Duce de Saxa-Weimar-Eisenach


Rajmund Zamanja (Džamanjić) (Dubrovnik, 1587. – Dubrovnik, ožujak 1647.) ili Raymundo Giamagnik bio je hrvatski teolog, filozof i jezikoslovac.

Životopis
Rođen je u Dubrovniku 1587. godine. U Dubrovniku je pri dominikancima, u čiji je red stupio 1601., učio filozofiju i teologiju, a 1605. otišao je na svršetak studija u Bolognu. Godine 1612. vratio se u Dubrovnik sa zvanjem lektora. U tri je navrata bio generalni vikar dominikanaca. Četrnaest godina kasnije, 1626., osnovao je u prizemlju dominikanskoga samostana prvu javnu gimnaziju (1685. preuzeli su ju isusovci), u kojoj je bio predavač te je poseban naglasak stavljao na učenje hrvatskoga jezika.

Autor je prvoga slovopisa hrvatskoga jezika koji je, po svoj prilici, bio namijenjen polaznicima gimnazije. Godine 1639. izdao je u Mletcima jezičnu raspravu Nauk za piisati dobro latinskiema slovima rieci yezika slovinskoga koyiemse Dubrovcani, i sva Dalmatia kakko vlasctitiem svoyiem yezikom sluzcij, u kojoj je predložio jednostavan i dosljedan sustav pisanja konsonanata: dvostrukim se slovom pišu samo glasovi ć, đ, lj, nj, š i ž, ali i kompliciranu uporabu akcenatskih znakova. Njegovi slovopisni prijedlozi nisu zaživjeli u praksi.

Vidi još
 Popis hrvatskih jezikoslovaca
 Popis hrvatskih pravopisa

Izvori
 Zamanja, Rajmund | Hrvatska enciklopedija
 Pravopisi hrvatskoga jezika - Institut za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje

Životopisi, Dubrovnik
Hrvatski jezikoslovci
Hrvatski rimokatolički teolozi
Hrvatski filozofi
Hrvatski dominikanci

Rajmund Džamanjić


Mary Boykin Chesnut, geborene Miller (* 31. März 1823 bei Stateburg, South Carolina; † 2. November 1886 in Camden, South Carolina), war Autorin und eine der bekanntesten Zeitzeuginnen des Amerikanischen Bürgerkrieges.

Als Ehefrau von Senator und Brigadegeneral James Chesnut junior hatte Mary Chesnut Zugang zu den höchsten gesellschaftlichen Kreisen der Südstaaten und konnte so die wichtigsten Ereignisse und Entscheidungen des Bürgerkrieges direkt miterleben. Vom 18. Februar 1861 bis zum 26. Juni 1865 hielt sie diese Eindrücke in einem heute vielbeachteten Tagebuch fest. Erwähnung findet dieses unter anderem in der Filmreihe Der Amerikanische Bürgerkrieg von Ken Burns und in dem mit dem Pulitzer-Preis ausgezeichneten Standardwerk über den Sezessionskrieg, Für die Freiheit sterben, von James M. McPherson.

Zwischen 1881 und 1884 arbeitete Chesnut an einer endgültigen Fassung ihres Buches, das 1905 veröffentlicht wurde. Weitere Veröffentlichungen, darunter die von C. Vann Woodward, folgten. Woodward erhielt dafür 1981 den Pulitzer-Preis für Geschichte.

Mary Chesnut starb 1886, ein Jahr nach ihrem Ehemann, und wurde an dessen Seite auf dem Friedhof Knights Hill Cemetery in Camden, South Carolina, beigesetzt.

Literatur
 Comer Vann Woodward (Hrsg.): Mary Chesnut's Civil War. Yale University Press, New Haven 1981 (erhielt den Pulitzer-Preis)
 James M. McPherson: Für die Freiheit sterben – Die Geschichte des Amerikanischen Bürgerkrieges. Anaconda Verlag, Köln 2008, ISBN 978-3-86647-267-9

Autor
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1823
Gestorben 1886
Frau

Mary Chesnut


Victoria Amelina (en ), née le  à Lviv (république socialiste soviétique d'Ukraine, URSS) et morte le  à Dnipro (Ukraine), est une écrivaine ukrainienne.

Biographie
À 14 ans, Victoria Amelina émigre au Canada pendant une courte période avec son père Youri avant de revenir en Ukraine.

Elle étudie la technologie informatique à l'université nationale polytechnique de Lviv et, après avoir obtenu sa maîtrise, travaille dans l'industrie informatique en tant que programmeuse et gestionnaire pour des entreprises étrangères. En 2015, elle abandonne son travail au profit de l'écriture. Elle est mariée et a un fils.

En 2022, à la suite du déclenchement de l'invasion russe de février 2022, nouvelle étape de la guerre russo-ukrainienne, elle met de côté l'écriture d'œuvres de fiction, excepté de la poésie, pour se consacrer à la documentation des crimes de guerre russes, notamment avec l'organisation ukrainienne de défense des droits de l'homme Truth Hounds. Elle avait obtenu une résidence à Paris et prévoyait d'y travailler sur un essai documentaire, sur l'expérience des femmes ukrainiennes lors de l'invasion, Looking at Women Looking at War : War and Justice Diary. Elle est morte avant de partir pour Paris.

Elle meurt le , touchée par un bombardement le , une frappe de missile russe sur un restaurant de Kramatorsk lors de la guerre russo-ukrainienne. Elle était accompagnée de l'écrivain Héctor Abad Faciolince et de l'ancien haut-commissaire pour la paix en Colombie Sergio Jaramillo qui ont survécu à l'attaque.

Œuvre
Victoria Amelina est l'autrice de deux romans.

Dans son premier roman  (Le Syndrome de l'automne ou Homo Compatiens), paru en 2015, la protagoniste très empathique vit plusieurs bouleversements sociaux ou révolutions du , en particulier celui de la révolution égyptienne de 2011 et enfin l'Euromaïdan 2013-2014. La préface est signée Iouri Izdryk.

En 2017, son deuxième roman,  (Le Royaume Idéal de Dom), est centré sur une maison du château près de Lviv, qui s'avère être l'ancienne maison de l'écrivain Stanisław Lem. La saga familiale est racontée du point de vue d'un chien nommé Dominik. Ni le chien ni la maison n'accueillent vraiment les nouveaux propriétaires pendant longtemps. Il s'agit de l'histoire de la ville de Lviv, de la mémoire en général, de l'acceptation de l'héritage de 70 ans d'influence soviétique et donc aussi de la décommunisation. Comment l'ancien pilote de l'est de l'Ukraine et le chien peuvent-ils se sentir enfin chez eux dans le Lviv des années 1990, surtout après avoir commencé à se souvenir des nombreuses couches de l'histoire ? Les histoires d'Amelina sont toujours enrichies d'une bonne dose de mystère et de symbolisme.

En 2016, Amelina publie son premier livre pour enfants  (N'importe qui, ou Cœur d'Eau).

L'autrice publie également occasionnellement sur le site de blog zbrucz.eu, qui est principalement utilisé par les écrivains.

Avec la guerre en Ukraine, elle commence à documenter des crimes de guerre, notamment dans le village de Kapytolivka près d'Izioum, dans le nord-est du pays. Elle a aussi travaillé avec des enfants vivant près du front.

Festivals et prix
Victoria Amelina participe à des festivals littéraires en Ukraine, dont le plus important est le Forum du livre de Lviv, le festival de nouvelles Intermezzo à Vinnytsia, le festival de Zaporijjia et aux Pays-Bas au festival Read my World à Amsterdam.

Elle a fondé le festival de littérature de New-York près de Bakhmout.

Son premier roman est nominé pour le prix Koronacija Slova en 2015 et a été présélectionné pour plusieurs prix littéraires ukrainiens (Litakcent, prix Valéri Chevtchouk).

Elle est membre du PEN Club à partir de . En 2018, elle participe au  Congrès mondial du PEN en Inde en tant que déléguée de l'Ukraine et prononce un discours sur le prisonnier politique ukrainien en Russie Oleh Sentsov.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en janvier 1986
Naissance à Lviv
Étudiant de l'université nationale polytechnique de Lviv
Femme de lettres ukrainienne
Romancière ukrainienne
Décès à 37 ans
Victime civile morte pendant la guerre russo-ukrainienne
Décès à Dnipro
Décès en juillet 2023
Naissance en RSS d'Ukraine

Victoria Amelina


Fene İspanya'nın özerk bölgelerinden biri olan Galiçya'nın kuzeybatısında bulunan A Coruña eyaletine bağlı belediyesi.
150.000 nüfusu vardır

Fene


බද්දක් යනු, මහජන අරමුණු සඳහා රජයේ අවයවයක් ලෙස පනවනු ලබන අනිවාර්ය අය කර ගැනීමක් බද්දක්  ලෙස හඳුන්වයි.

බද්දක තිබිය යුතු ලක්ෂණ

1776 දී ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කළ  ඇඩම් ස්මිත්ගේ 'ජාතීන්ගේ ධනය' නැමැති කෘතියේ බදු සම්බන්ධව තිබිය යුතු වැදගත් කරුණු 4 ක් දක්වයි.

1.මිනිසුන් උපයන ආදායමට හා ධනයට සරිලන සේ ඔවුන්ගෙන් බදු අය කළ යුතුය.

2.අභිමතානුසාරි නොවිය යුතුය.

3.බදු අය කරන ක්‍රමය සරල විය යුතුය.

4.බදු අය කරගන්නට යොදන ක්‍රමවේදයේ පිරිවැය අවම විය යුතුය.

ඉහත ලක්ෂණවලට අමතරව බදු ක්‍රමයක් නම්‍ය විය යුතු අතර සාර්විකතාවයෙන් හා  සමානාත්මතාවයෙන් යුක්ත විය යුතුය. බදු දිරිගැන්වීමකින් කරනුයේ බදු අය කරගැනීමේ  ක්‍රියාවලියේදී බදු ගෙවීමට  නිර්දේශිත පුද්ගලයින් බදු ගෙවීම  කෙරෙහි යොමු කිරීමට යම් යම් ක්‍රියා

බදු දිරිගැන්වීමේ ස්වරූප

1.බදු සහන

2.බදු විරාම

3.බදු ව්‍යතිරේක

4.බදු ප්‍රතිශත අවම කිරීම

.
මෙලෙස බදු දිරිගැන්වීම් ලබා දෙන්නේ බොහෝ විට රටේ ආර්ථික දියුණුව අරමුණු කරගෙනය.රට තුලම සඟවාගෙන ඇති කළු මුදල් ආර්ථිකය වෙත ග්‍රහණය කරගෙන ආදායම් ව්‍යාප්තියේ විෂමතා  අවම කිරීමද මෙහි තවත් අරමුණකි.				               බදු විරාම හෝ අවම බදු ප්‍රතිශත නිර්දේශ කරනුයේ බොහෝ විට රට තුලට ඇදී එන ආයෝජන දිරි ගැන්වීමටයි.බදු ව්‍යතිරේක යටතේ බදු සමාවක් ලබා දෙන්නේ බදු ගෙවීම සම්බන්ධව නීතියෙන ස්ථාපිත ක්‍රමවේදයට අනුව කටයුතු කිරීම යම් බදු ගෙවන්නෙකු විසින් පැහැර හැර ඇති විටෙකදීය .මේ සියලු බදු දිරිගැන්වීම් ලබා දීමේදී සමානාත්මතාවය නැමැති නෛතික සංකල්පය වෙත වන බලපෑම පිළිබඳව සමාජය තුළ ආන්දෝලනාත්මක තත්වයක් හට ගන්නා අවස්ථා පවතී.

බදු සමා පනත හා ඉන් සිදුවූ බලපෑම

2003 අංක 10 දරණ දේශීය ආදායම් (විශේෂ විධිවිධාන පනත) හෙවත් බදු සමා පනත තුළින් නීතිගත කළ මෙම බදු දිරිගැන්වීම් සඳහා යොදා ගත් 'බදු සමාව' නැමැති ක්‍රියාමාර්ගය පිළිබඳව සමාජයේ බොහෝ විවේචන මතුවිය.රටේ ස්ථාපිත ආදායම් බදු නීතියට ගරු කරමින් නිසි කලට බදු ගෙවූ අවංක අයෙකු මෙම බදු සමා පනත මගින් කිසිදු සහනයක් හෝ දිරිගැන්වීමක්  නොලත් අතර බදු නොගෙවමින් නීතිය නොසළකාහරිමින් සිටි වංක අයෙකු සහන ලැබී‍ය. එසේමබදු ගෙවීම පැහැර හැරි පුද්ගලයින්ගෙන් බදු නොගෙවා සිටි කාලය සඳහා අය වීමට තිබූ හිඟ මුදල්ද  නොසළකා පවතින තත්වයේ සිට බදු ගෙවීමට ඉඩ සලසා දෙන ලදී.						                ජනාධිපතිනිය මෙම බදු සමා පනත පිළිබඳව  ශ්‍රේෂ්ඨාධිකරණයේ මතය විමසූ විට පංච පුද්ගල විනිසුරු මඬුල්ලක් ඒකමතිකව තීරණය කළේ  මෙම බදු සමා පනත මහජන මුදල් වංචාවට ලක් කළ මහජනයාගේ මූලික අයිතිවාසිකම් උල්ලංඝනය කළ නීතියක් බවත් මෙමගින් සමාජය                       මෙහෙයවන ශිෂ්ට සම්පන්න  නීති ක්‍රමය බිඳ දැමෙන පොදු දේපළ වංචා කෙරෙන තත්වයක් ගොඩනැගී ඇති බවත්ය.

නූතන බදු පනත හා බදු දිරිගැන්වීම්

බදු ව්‍යතිරේක යටතේ යම් රජයක් පිළිගත් මට්ටමකින් සමහර පුද්ගලයින් හා ආයතන බදු ගෙවීම් වලින් නිදහස් වන අවස්ථා පවතී.

2006 අංක 10 දරණ දේශීය ආදායම් පනතේ වගන්තිවල මේ සම්බන්ධ විධිවිධාන දක්වා ඇත.

07 වගන්තිය - ඇතැම් තැනැත්තන්(පුද්ගලයන් හැර) ඔවුන් ලබන ලාභ හා ආදායම් ප්‍රමාණය හෝ ඉන් යම් කොටසක් මත ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

නිදඃ ලෝක සංචාරක සංවිධානයේ ලාභ හා ආදායම.

එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ සංවිධානයේ ලාභ හා ආදායම.

08 වගන්තිය - ඇතැම් නිලධාරීන්ගේ හා සේවා නියුක්තිකයන්ගේ ඇතැම් ලාභ හා ආදායම බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.
නිදඃ ජනපති ධුරයෙන් යමෙකු ලබන වැටුප් ප්‍රතිලාභ

09 වගන්තිය - ලැබුණ ඇතැම් පොළී ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

10 වගන්තිය - ඇතැම් ලාභාංශ බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

11 වගන්තිය - ඉඩම් හා ඒවායේ වැඩිදියුණුකිරීම් වලින් ලැබෙන  ඇතැම් ලාභ හා ආදායම් ආදායම බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

12වගන්තිය - ඇතැම් සහනාධාර ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

13වගන්තිය - ආදායම් බද්දෙන් විවිධ නිදහස් කිරීම්.

14වගන්තිය - යම් වාසික ආගන්තුකයෙකුගේ ඇතැම් ලාභ හා ආදායම ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

15වගන්තිය - ලංකාවෙන් පිටතදී උපයන ලද ලාභ හා ආදායම නිදහස් කිරීම.

16වගන්තිය - කෘෂිකාර්මික ව්‍යවසා‍යකින් ලැබෙන ලාභ හා ආදායම ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

17වගන්තිය - යම් නිශ්චිත ව්‍යවසායකින් යම් සමාගමකට ලැබෙන ලාභ හා ආදායම ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

18වගන්තිය - යටිතල පහසුකම් සංවර්ධනය සඳහා වූ ඇතැම් ව්‍යවසාය ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

19වගන්තිය - සුළු පරිමාණ යටිතල පහසුකම් ව්‍යවසායන් ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

20වගන්තිය - යම් නව කාර්මික ව්‍යවසායක ලාභ හා ආදායම නිදහස් කිරීම.

21වගන්තිය - නැවත ස්ථානගත කරන ලද යම් ව්‍යවසායක ලාභ හා ආදායම නිදහස් කිරීම.

22වගන්තිය - පර්යේෂණ හා සංවර්ධන කටයුතුවල නියුක්ත යම් සමාගමක් ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

23වගන්තිය - යම් අවදානම් ප්‍රාග්ධන සමාගමක් ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

24වගන්තිය - සංචාරකයින් සඳහා වලව් නිවාස හෝ විශේෂ සං‍වර්ධිත බංගලා සැපයීමේ ව්‍යාපාරවල නියුතු යමෙකු ආදායම් බද්දෙන් නිදහස් කිරීම.

මේ අනුව පෙනී යන්නේ රටක ආදායම් නැංවීම, ආර්ථික හා යටිතල පහසුකම් සංවර්ධනය කිරීම මෙන්ම ඒ ඔස්සේ රටේ සමස්ත සංවර්ධනය නැංවීම බදු පැනවිම තුළ මෙන්ම බදු දි‍රි ගැන්වීම තුළද අරමුණු කරන බවයි.

අප නීතියේ ස්ථාපිත බදු දිරිගැන්වීම් සමඟ ඉන්දීය නීති තත්වය සසඳන කල එහි Rebates එනම් බදු 	ලෙස ගෙවූ මුදලින් කොටසක් ආපසු දීම යන තත්වය ක්‍රියාත්මක වේ.එසේම ප්‍රාදේශීය බදු දිරිගැන්වීම් යටතේ දුෂ්‍කර ප්‍රදේශවල ස්ථාපිත කර ඇති කාර්මික ඒකක සඳහා ප්‍රවාහන සහනාධාර (Tansport Subsidy)ලබා දේ.

බදු ගෙවීම සම්බන්ධව යම් යම් සහන ලබා දෙමින් ආර්ථිකයේ බදු අය කර ගැනීමේ යන්ත්‍රණය ශක්තිමත් කිරීමට බදු දිරිගැන්වීම් යන්න සාර්ථක ප්‍රයෝගයක් වීමට නම් එය පැහැදිලි, සරල,සම්පූර්ණ මෙන්ම විනිවිද ස්වභාවයෙන් යුක්ත වීම වැදගත් වේ.එවිට එය ආර්ථික සංවර්ධනයට වැදගත් රුකුලක් වේ.

ආශ්‍රිත මූලාශ්‍ර

2003 අංක 10 දරණ දේශීය ආදායම් (විශේෂ විධිවිධාන)පනත.

2006 අංක 10 දරණ  දේශීය ආදායම් පනත.

මේ වෙබ් අඩවිත් බලන්න
ආදායම් බද්දේ අතීතය

අඩවියෙන් බැහැර පිටු
බදු සහන හා ආයෝජන දිරිගැන්වීම්

පස් අවුරුදු බදු විරාම

බදු දිරිගැන්වීම්


Bu madde bir kişi hakkındadır. Kişinin ismini alan mezhep için lütfen Mâtürîdîlik maddesine bakınız.

Mâtürîdî ya da tam adıyla Ebû Mansûr Muhammed bin Muhammed bin Mahmûd el-Mâtürîdî es-Semerkandî, (; d. 863, Maturid, Semerkand - ö. 944, Semerkand), İslam dininin iki itikadi mezhebinden birisi olan Mâtürîdîlik mezhebinin kurucusu ve Hanefîlik mezhebine bağlı olanların itikad imamı sayılan İslâm alimi.

Hayatı
Bugünkü Özbekistan'ın Semerkand şehri yakınındaki Matürid köyünde doğmuştur. Matüridî'nin tam adı Ebû Mansur Muhammed bin Muhammed bin Mahmud el-Matürîdî es-Semerkandî'dir.

Hayatı hakkında fazla bilgiye rastlanmayan Matürîdî'nin kesin olarak bilinmemekle birlikte doğum tarihi konusunda çeşitli görüşler ileri sürülmektedir. Bu görüşlerden birine göre 862 yılı civarında vefat eden Muhammed bin Mukatil er-Razî'ye talebelik yapması dolayısıyla, ona talebelik edebileceği asgari yaş sınırının on civarında düşünülerek 852 civarında doğmuş olabileceğidir. Vefat tarihi olan 944'ten hareketle, yüz yıl civarında yaşadığı düşünülerek 844'te doğmuş olabileceği de ileri sürülmektedir. Vehbi Ecer de ise 863 yılında doğduğunun tahmin edildiğini iddia etmektedir . İmam Matüridî'nin Te'vilat'ını inceleyen İbrahim ve Seyyid Avazayn kardeşler, araştırmaya yazdıkları önsözde, İmam Matüridî'nin, Abbasi halifesi Câfer el-Mûtevekkil zamanında, yani hicri 232 – 247 tarihleri arasında doğduğunu iddia etmişlerdir.

Maturi'nin yaşadığı yerde Türkler'in çoğunlukta olması nedeniyle Türk kökenli olabileceği, soyunun Ebû Eyyûb el-Ensârî'ye uzandığından yola çıkarak Arap kökenli olabileceği ve bazı rivayetlerde günlük hayatta Farsça kullanması nedeniyle de Fars kökenli olabileceği şeklinde görüşler bulunmaktadır.

İmam Matürîdî, Abbasî hilafetinin iktidarının zayıflayarak müstakil beylikler dönemi denilebilecek bir çağda, Samanoğulları'nın Maveraünnehir'de hakim oldukları devirde yaşamıştır. Kaynaklar İmam Matürîdî'nin nasıl bir eğitim aldığı konusunda yeterli bilgi sunmasa da tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla Ebu Bekr Ahmed b. İshak b. Salih el-Cüzcânî (III. Asrın ortaları), Ebû Nasr Ahmed b. El-Abbas el-İyâzî (ö. IV. Asrın başları), Muhammed b. Mukatil er-Râzî (v. 862), Nusayr b. Yahya el-Belhî (ö. 881), Ebu Bekr Muhammed b. Ahmed b. Recâ el-Cüzcânî hocaları arasındadır . Yine kaynaklardan elde edilen bilgiye göre öğrencileri olarak Ebu'l-Kasım İshak b. Muhammed b. İsmail el-Hakim es-Semerkandî (ö. 951), Ebu'l-Hasan Ali Saîd er-Rüstüğfenî (ö. 956), Ebu Ahmed b. Ebi Nasr Ahmed b. Abbas el-İyâzî (ö. ?), Ebu Muhammed Abdülkerim b. Musa el-Pezdevî (ö. 1000) görülmektedir.

Matüridî, Ebu Hanife'nin yolunu izlemiş, cenazesi Semerkand'ın Cakerdize mahallesindeki bilginlerin gömüldükleri mezarlığa defnedilmiştir. 2005 yılında kabri üzerine türbe yaptırılmıştır.

Eş'arî ile ilgili
İki yaygın İtikadi mezheb'in diğeri Eş'arilik'dir. Arapların, Arap asıllı olmayan Müslümanları küçük görme anlayışlarından kaynaklanan tutumlarının etkisiyle Hasan el-Eş'arî'yi (ö. H 324/M 935) öne çıkarıp Matüridî'yi gölgelemeye çalıştıkları görülmüştür. İskenderiye Üniversitesi profesörlerinden Fethullah Huleyf, Kitâbü't Tevhid'de yazdığı önsözünde, Mâtürîdî'nin asırdaşı Hasan el-Eş'arî'nin Matüridî'den daha büyük bir bilgin olup olmadığına dair şu cümleleri sarf etmiştir: "... Bununla beraber Mâtüridî, Ehl-i Sünnet ve'l Cemaate yardımcı olma hususunda Eş'arî'ye karşı bir üstünlüğe sahiptir."

Mâtürîdî 'nin farklı lâkapları

İmâmü'l-hüda yani "Hidayet önderi".
Alemü'l-hüda yani "Hidayet meş'alesi".
İmâmü'l-mütekellimîn yani "Kelâmcıların lideri".

Mâtürîdî 'nin Düşüncesi

Akaid (İnanç ilkeleri) ile ilgili  metodu

Mâtürîdî 'nin inanç ilkeleri (akaid) ile ilgili en kapsamlı eseri Kitab üt-Tevhid'dir. Bu esere göre dinin öğrenilmesinde başvurulacak "vasıtalar iki olup, biri nakil, diğeri akıl" dır. Nakil'den maksat Kur'an ve Sünnet yani (Hadis)'lerdir. En başta 'Kur'an' gelir ve Kur'an'ın anlaşılması konusunda Matüridî'nin Selefiyye, Mutezile mezheplerinden ve filozoflardan ayrılan  metodu vardır. Selefiyye, nakli akıldan önce tutar ve Kur'an'ın ancak hadis ışığında açıklanmasına izin verir, felsefi ve te'vile dayalı yoruma izin vermez. Mutezile, nakil ve akıl birbiriyle çelişirse aklı esas alır. Filozoflara göre gerçek yalnız akıl ile bilinir ve bulunur, Kur'an genellikle aklî verilere göre yorumlanır. Daha önce de belirtildiği gibi Matüridî'ye göre dinin kaynağı olarak nakil (Kur'an) ve akıla aynı oranda itimat etmek gerekir. Matüridî, İslâmın evrenselliğine zarar vermeyecek biçimde, itici olmaktan çok kucaklayıcı bir yaklaşımla dini anlatır. Bu sebeple Matüridî, dinin "özünü" ilgilendirmeyen görüş farklılıklarını hoş görür, onların sahiplerini dinden çıkmış saymaz. Kendisiyle aynı görüşte olmayanları zorlamaz. "Akıl" ile "nakli" dengeli bir şekilde kullanır. Akıl, bilgi kaynaklarından biri, insana verilmiş ilâhi bir emanettir. İnsanlar akılları sayesinde güzellik ve çirkinlikleri tanır, kendi üstünlüklerini onun sayesinde anlarlar. Kulun kusur işlemesi aklını kullanmayışı yüzündendir. "Allah'ın emirleri akıllı olana hitabendir". Allah'ın emirlerini anlayacak akıl seviyesine sahip olmayanlar, ilâhi emirlerin dışında kalır, sorumlu olmazlar.

Mâtürîdî 'ye göre insan "Fizyolojik yapıyla beraber aynı zamanda akla da sahip kılınarak yaratılmış; yaratılmışları (mahlûkat) yönetmek yeteneği ile sivrilmiş, her türlü zorluğa katlanarak, onların üstesinden gelmek için aklı devreye sokmakla mümtaz kılınmıştır. Zira akıl, temyiz kabiliyetinin en güçlü silâhıdır"

Netice olarak Mâtürîdî dine; akıl, ilim, hoşgörü ve taassuptan uzak bir tavırla yaklaşır. İnancın ana ilkelerini ilgilendirmeyen (esasa müteallik olmayan) eylem ve ibadet farklılıklarını hoşgörü ile karşılar, kelime-i şehadet getiren, Kıble'ye yönelen herkesi mü'min olarak değerlendirir. Ancak Allah-u Teâla Kur'an'da, sadece Allah'a ulaşmak isteyenlerin 'Hak Mümin' olduğunu, sadece bu insanların tevhid'i oluşturan takva sahipleri olduğunu ve sadece Allah'a ulaşmak isteyenlerin cennete gireceğini açık bir dille anlatmıştır. Açık bir yalanlamada (inkâr) bulunmadıkları sürece insanların ibadet ve işlerine karışılmaması gerekliliğini savunur. Bu, eylemin amele dahil edilmemesi anlamını taşır. Yani, Matüridî insanları, Mutezile ve Hariciler gibi kendi prensip ve görüşlerine uymaya zorlamaz. "Dinde zorlama yoktur" yaklaşımını esas alır.

Fıkıhla ilgili  metodu

Matüridî, "Irak fıkıh mezhebinin pîri" kabul edilen Ebu Hanife (Öl.767) nin
yolu ve  metodunu benimsemiştir. Ebu Hanife'ye göre fıkıh "Ma'rifet ün-Nefsi ma lehâ ve ma aleyhâ" dır. Anlamı, fıkıh ilmi içine insanın lehinde ve aleyhinde olan her şey girer, demektir. İnsanın inanç meseleleri de, eylemleri de fıkhın konusunu oluşturur. Bu sebeple ebu Hanife kelâm (ilâhiyat) kitabına el-Fıkıh ül-Ekber adını vermiştir. Ebu Hanife'nin öğrencisi sayılan Matüridî de hem inanç (iman) ve Tanrı bilimi, hem de insan eylemleri (ameli) yönlerini fıkhın içinde mütalaa eder. Bu sebeple "Matüridî"; fıkıhta akıla, kıyas'a önem veren ve fıkıh tarihinde Ehl-i Re'y diye anılan gruba dahildir. Daha sonraları dinin füruuna (ikinci derecede önemli olan) ameli hayata (dünyada yapılan eylemlere) ait bilgi ve kararları kapsayan bilim dalının adı olmuştur.

Matüridî, fıkıh alanında bağımsız hareket eden bir müctehid değil, Hanefi mezhebinin âlimidir ve görüşlerini hep bu çerçeveye sokmuştur. Ebu Hanife'de olduğu gibi, o'na göre de bilgi edinme yolları; nakil, duyular ve akıl'dir. Fıkhın kaynakları da; Kitap (yani Kur'an), Sünnet,Hadis İcmâ, kıyas, istihsân (güzel bulma, beğenme), geçmiş şeriat, "sahabe sözleri"dir.

Müfessirliği

Matüridî'nin tefsirle ilgili mufassal bir eseri vardır. Bu eserin adını Kâtip Çelebi, "Te'vîlât ül-Matüridiyyeti fî Beyâni Usûli Ehli's-Sünneti ve Usûl it-Tevhîd" adıyla verir. Eserini, Te'vilâtü Ehl is-Sünneh adıyla ananlar da vardır.
Biz kısaca "Te'vilat" adını kullanacak, belli başlı özellikleri üzerinde duracağız.

Matüridî'ye göre dinin öğrenilmesinde "başvurulacak vasıtalar iki olup, biri nakil, diğeri de akıl'dır." 'Nakil'in başında Kur'an gelmektedir. Kur'an'dan dinin bilinmesi konusunda Matüridî'nin Selefiyye'den, Mutezile'den ve filozoflardandan ayrılan bir  metodu vardır, demiştik. Filozoflar için gerçek akıl ile bilinir ve bulunur. Matüridî, Kur'an'ın tefsiri ile ilgili olarak bizlere bıraktığı Te'vilat ül-Kur'an adlı tefsir kitabında ilk defa dirayet metodu nu kullanmıştır. Ancak Matüridî bu Kur'an tefsirinde tefsir kelimesini değil, te'vil kelimesini kullanmıştır. O'na göre tefsir Allah'ın kelâmından murad edilen şey hakkında kesinlikle hüküm vermektir. Fakat te'vil, kelimenin (lafzın) ihtimallerinden birini tercih etmektir. Burada Allah'ı şahit gösterme ve kendi görüşlerini Allah'ın muradı gibi sanmaya yer yoktur. Temelde mutlaklık değil, izafilik (görecelik) söz konusudur.

Matüridî'nin tefsirinde izlediği yolu M.Ragıp İmamoğlu ve Yrd. Doç. Dr. Muhammed Eroğlu'nun çalışmalarından özetle sunarsak:
 Matüridî ayetleri ayetle tefsir etmiş ve bu  metodu yaygın biçimde kullanmıştır. Ayeti ayetle tefsir ederken, ayetler arasında ilişki kurmuş, asılsız haberlerden, rivayetlerden kaçınmıştır.
 Kıraat ve mushaf farklarıyla tefsir yapmıştır.
 Ayetleri hadislerden yararlanarak tefsir etmiştir. Ancak, hadislerin sıhhati üzerinde titizlikle durmuştur.
 Ayetlerin lügat anlamlarına başvurulmuştur. Şiirlere az yer verilmişitir.
 Arapça olmayıp da Araplaşmış (muarreb) kelimeleri de tefsir eder. Belâgat (düzgün anlatım san'atı, retorik) bilimine hakimiyeti görülmektedir.
 Ayetlerin nüzul (iniş) sebeplerine yer verilmiş ve onlardan yararlanılmıştır. Nüzul sebepleri ile, hükümle sebep arasında ilişki kurmuştur.
 Gramer tahlilleri çok azdır.
 Hanefî mezhebine bağlı olduğu için ahkâm ayetlerinin tevilinde Hanefîliğin esaslarını ön plânda tutmuştur.

İmâm Mâtürîdî Türbesi ve Kabri

Ayrıca bakınız
 Kelâm
 İslâm felsefesi
 İtikadi Mezhepler

Bibliyografya
 Ahmet Vehbi Ecer, "Büyük Türk Alimi Matüridî"
 Amiran Kutkan, "Türk Milletinin Manevi Kaynakları"
 Sönmez Kutlu, "İmam Matüridi ve Matüridilik"
 Abdullah Manaz, "Dünyada ve Türkiye'de Siyasi İslâmcılık"
 Hanifi Özcan, "Matüridi'de Bilgi Problemi"
 Hilmi Ziya Ülken, "Millet ve Tarih Şuuru"
 M. Sait Yazıcıoğlu, "Matüridî ve Nesefî'ye göre 'İnsan Hürriyeti' Kavramı"
 Ali Duman, "İmam Matürîdî, Hayatı, Eserleri ve İslam Düşüncesindeki Yeri", Hikmet Yurdu Düşünce-Yorum Sosyal Bilimler Araştırma Dergisi (www.hikmetyurdu.com), Yıl:2, S.4, 109-126.

Kaynakça

Ebu Eyyûb el-Ensarî
863 doğumlular
944 yılında ölenler
İslami mezhep imamları
Maturidiler
İslam filozofları
Arap asıllı İranlılar

Mâtürîdî


Akyuvarlar ya da lökosit olarak da adlandırılan beyaz seri kan hücreleri; ilikte ve lenf bezlerinde üretilirler. Bağışıklık sisteminin hücresel bileşenini oluşturan, vücudu bulaşıcı hastalıklara ve yabancı maddelere karşı korumaya koşullanmış hücrelerdir. Sağlıklı bir yetişkin insanın bir milyon hücreli kanında 4×103–11×103 adet, bir başka tanımla bir damla kanda yaklaşık 4.000 ilâ 11.000 arasında akyuvar bulunur.

Akyuvarlar 3 ana grupta toplanırlar:

Fagositoz yapan hücreler (fagositler)

Canlı etkenleri ve yabancı gördükleri cisimleri/maddeleri yutarlar (fagositoz) ve eriterek ortadan kaldırmaya çalışırlar.

 Mikrofajlar (Granülositler; Granulocyte): Polimorf çekirdekli lökositler -- Nötrofil polimorflar, Eozinofil polimorflar, Bazofil polimorflar
 Makrofajlar: Monositler, Doku makrofajları

Lenfositler
Bir bölümü kanser hücreleri ve virüsleri ortadan kaldırmaya progamlanmış hücrelerdir. Bir başka bölümü ise canlı etkenlere özgü proteinlerin (antijen) ya da yabancı olarak algılanan antijen nitelikli maddelerin etkisini ortadan  kaldırmaya programlanmış akyuvarlardır.

 T-lenfositleri: Hedeflerini eriten (sitotoksik) hücreler (CD8+); Yardımcı (helper) lenfositler (Th, CD4+)
 B-lenfositleri
 NK hücreler

Plazma hücreleri
Plazma hücreleri (plasmosit) yabancı olarak (antijen)algılanan proteinlerin etkisizleştirilmesi için gereken karşı-maddeyi (antikor; immunoglobulin) üreten hücrelerdir.

Akyuvarlarla ilgili hastalıklar
Akyuvarlarla ilgili başlıca hastalıklar:
 Lökopeni, kandaki akyuvar sayısının azalmasıdır. Nötrofil sayısının azalmasına "nötropeni", lenfosit sayısının azalmasına "lenfopeni / lenfositopeni" nitelemesi yapılır.
 Lökositoz, kandaki akyuvar sayısının artmasıdır; daha çok nötrofil polimorfların artması için kullanılır. Lenfosit sayısının artışı "lenfositoz" tanımıyla açıklanır.
 Lösemi ve lenfoma türlerinde akyuvarların kontrolsüz biçimde çoğalmasıdır.

Kaynakça

Akyuvar


Greenfield Park ist der Name folgender Orte:

in den Vereinigten Staaten:
 Greenfield Park (Arizona), Ort im Maricopa County, Arizona
 Greenfield Park (Michigan), Gemeindefreies Gebiet im Calhoun County, Michigan
 Greenfield Park (New York), Ort im Saratoga County, New York

in Australien:
 Greenfield Park (New South Wales), Vorort von Sydney

in Kanada:
 Greenfield Park (Québec), Vorort von Montreal

Greenfield Park


Kotha Guru es una ciudad de la India en el distrito de Bathinda, estado de Panyab.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 215  a 222 km de la capital estatal, Chandigarh, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2010 contaba con una población de 10 122 habitantes.

Referencias

Punyab (India)
Localidades de Punyab (India)

Kotha Guru


النسيم ، منطقة من مناطق جنوب محافظة الجهراء في الكويت. تأسست في أواخر عام 1988.

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في الكويت

النسيم (الكويت)


O Cine Ópera, também conhecido como "Bonzão-Bonitão", é um equipamento cultural localizado na cidade de Belém, no Pará, remanescente histórico dos cine-teatros e dos chamados cinemas de rua. Foi o único cinema brasileiro que utilizou projetores cinematográficos movidos à queima de carvão. É um dos cinemas mais antigos da capital paraense. Destingue-se por exibir apenas filmes erótico-pornográficos desde janeiro de 1985 e está localizado na praça da Basílica Santuário de Nossa Senhora de Nazaré, principal edificação católica da cidade.

História
O Cine Ópera foi inaugurado em 28 de março de 1961, com a exibição do longa-metragem "Noites do Papagaio Verde", produzido em 1957, pelo diretor alemão Georg Jacob. Foi fundado pela empresa de exibidores Irmãos Hage Cia Ltda, formada pelos irmãos libaneses João Jorge Hage e Elias Hage, e por suas esposas, Geny Abinader Hage e Joana Hage. No acordo firmado em cartório, ficava clara a atuação de cada um dos irmãos:

Ao longo dos anos, em suas telas, foram projetados filmes estrangeiros de todos os gêneros, provindos de países que despertavam menor interesse entre os demais estabelecimentos da área: filmes russos, franceses, italianos etc.

Contudo, na década de 1980, todos os cinemas brasileiros sofreram uma crise. Foi o período em que se fortaleceu o cartel de duas poderosas empresas nacionais exibidoras cinematográficas, gerenciadas pelo próprio Livio Bruni que passara pelo Cine Ópera e por Luiz Severiano Ribeiro. Nesse período, o responsável pelo Cine Ópera, João Hage (não mais acompanhado do irmão, que havia falecido), precisou traçar uma estratégia para que o estabelecimento não fechasse as portas. Percebendo que a audiência dos filmes adultos era desproporcional, optou por aumentar, de forma gradual e intercalada, o número de sessões desse gênero.

Por fim, em janeiro de 1985, toda a grade de entretenimento do Cine Ópera acabou preenchida por filmes do gênero erótico-pornográfico. A decisão foi tomada em conjunto com a distribuidora recifense Centerfilmes, de Werneck Sereno, que fornecia as fitas para o Cine Ópera. É quando o espaço "se especializa em pornô hardcore, de sexo explícito mesmo, diferente do que havia nas pornochanchadas", e passa a ficar conhecido como "o único 'cinema de pegação' de Belém do Pará" (em parte por ter se tornado um espaço seguro para o público gay).

Em 2019, o responsável pelo Cine Ópera era um dos netos de um dos fundadores, o engenheiro elétrico Luiz Alberto Toureiro Hage, e o espaço já estava à venda havia mais de 10 anos. Segundo Luiz Alberto,

Apesar da queda de cerca de 30% nas vendas da bilheteria e embora todo o rendimento do estabelecimento fosse revertido para sua manutenção, ele continuava em funcionamento em 2019, com programação diária entre as 13h e as 20h.

Ao longo dos anos, os proprietários tentaram impedir alguns fetiches sexuais entre o público pagante, como o exibicionismo e o voyerismo; mas, como eram tão recorrentes, acabaram por entender e rotular o espaço como "uma área livre de diversão entre adultos".

Arquitetura
O Cine Ópera está localizado em frente à praça da Basílica Santuário de Nossa Senhora de Nazaré, área conhecida como Centro Arquitetônico de Nazaré, onde acontece anualmente o evento religioso mais importante da cidade: o Círio de Nazaré. A fachada é estreita e passa despercebida entre as demais do conjunto construído. Na sala de exibição, as poltronas ainda são as antigas de madeira e, abaixo da tela de projeção, há um palco para eventuais apresentações especiais, sobretudo eventos musicais. Outro detalhe interessante é a permanência dos antigos elementos da infraestrutura de ar insuflado, que servia para refrigerar o ambiente por meio da retirada do ar quente.

Homenagens

 2013 - Foi tema do documentário "Ópera: o bonzão bonitão", dirigido pelo paraense Victor de La Rocque, filmado e exibido no próprio Cine Ópera. O documentário foi resultado de bolsa de experimentação artística do Instituto de Artes do Pará.
 2014 - Foi tema da peça de teatro "Ópera Profano", da companhia de teatro Nós e os outros, com trama de Carlos Correia Santos.

Curiosidades

 O Cine Ópera está localizado na praça da Basílica Santuário de Nossa Senhora de Nazaré, principal edificação católica da cidade.
 À época da inauguração do Cine Ópera, havia outras 11 salas em funcionamento na cidade de Belém: os Cines ABC, Guarani, Independência, Iracema, Moderno, Nazaré, Olímpia, Palácio, Paraíso, Popular e Vitória.
 O título original do primeiro filme exibido no Cine Ópera é Nachtsim Grünen Kakadu.
 Foi o "único cinema do Brasil a exibir películas pornográficas com aparelhos de projeção movidos à queima de carvão".
 Até pouco tempo antes de 2018, o Cine Ópera era "o único cinema pornô no país a [ainda] exibir filmes em película".
 João Hage faleceu em 15 de março de 1993.
 O estabelecimento conta com um espaço de armazanamento onde guardam parte da sua história: os antigos projetores movidos a carvão e algumas películas.

Salas de cinema de Belém

Cine Ópera


Arrowverse je medijska franšiza i zajednički svemir, sastoji se od nekoliko televizijskih serija temeljenih na DC Comics likovima, a emitira se od 2012. godine na CW kabelskom kanalu i digitalnoj platformi CW Seed.
Franšizu su razvili Greg Berlanti, Marc Guggenheim, Andrew Kreisberg, Geoff Johns, Ali Adler, Phil Klemmer, Salim Akil, Caroline Dries i Todd Helbing.

Smješten u zajednički izmišljeni multiverse slično kao "DC Universe" i "DC Multiverse" u stripovima, uspostavljen je prelaskom preko zajedničkih elemenata radnje, postavki, glumaca i likova koji obuhvaćaju sedam televizijskih serija uživo i dvije animirane serije.

Franšiza je započela Arrowom, na temelju lika Green Arrow, koji je debitirao u listopadu 2012. Slijedio ga je Flash 2014. godine i animirana web-serija Vixen 2015. godine. Dodatno je proširena 2016. godine, kada je u siječnju debitirala nova serija pod nazivom Legends of Tomorrow, u kojoj su glumili likovi koji su se izvorno pojavili i u Arrowu i u Flashu. Kasnije te godine, CBS serija Supergirl, nakon što je već imala crossover s Flashom, premještena je na CW za svoju drugu sezonu, gdje je tada i ostala. Druga animirana web-serija, Freedom Fighters: The Ray, objavljena je 2017. godine, nakon čega će se Ray Terrill / The Ray pojaviti uživo tijekom crossover događaja "Crisis on Earth-X" 2019. godine. Osim live-action i web serije, franšiza je iznjedrila tri promotivne web serije, Blood Rush 2013., Chronicles of Cisco 2016. i The Flash: Stretched Scenes 2017. Peta serija, Batwoman, premijerno je prikazana 2019., a šesta, Superman & Lois, premijerno je prikazana 2021. godine. Od 2014. godine, svake godine postoji godišnji crossover događaj koji uključuje mnoge live-action serije Arrowversea. Osim toga, Matt Ryan ponovio je svoju ulogu Johna Constantinea iz NBC serije Constantine, u početku kao gost u epizodama Arrowa i Legends of Tomorrow, prije nego što je postao redoviti istoj seriji, uz nastavak priča iz bivše serije.

Crossoveri iz 2018. i 2019., "Elseworlds" i "Crisis on Infinite Earths", vidjeli su više DC televizijskih serija i filmova retroaktivno dodano multiverzumu franšize. "Crisis on Infinite Earths" također je ponovno pokrenuo multiverse, u kojem se Supergirl pridružila drugoj seriji na novoj izmišljenoj Zemlji zajedno sa serijom Black Lightning, koja je do sada bila odvojena. Franšiza je bila uspješna, stvarajući veliku bazu obožavatelja širom svijeta i dobila je pozitivne kritike, gdje su kritičari hvalili teme, glumu, akcijske sekvence, smjer i razvoj likova.

2021. sprema se novi crossover "Armageddon", događaj će se dogoditi u prvih pet epizoda osme sezone Flasha, pokazujući više likova Arrowversea, uključujući Ryan Wilder / Batwoman, Ray Palmer / Atoma, Jefferson Pierce / Black Lightninga, Alex Danvers / Sentinelu, Mia Queen / Green Arrowa, Ryan Choia, Eobard Thawne / Reverse Flasha i Damien Darhka.

Ime
U kolovozu 2015., u videu o produkciji prve sezone Vixena, Guggenheim je zajednički svemir serije nazvao "Arrowverse". Kreisberg je potvrdio da je to ime koje su proizvođači koristili za njega. Mediji su također nazivali svemir "Flarrowverse", "Berlanti-verse" i "DC TV-verse".

U rujnu 2020. godine CW je objavio trailer za razne serije koje će se emitirati na mreži 2021. godine, a u kojem je bio naziv "The CWverse". Mnogi su mediji smatrali da je promjena posljedica završetka Arrowa i da lik više nije dio zajedničkog svemira. Međutim, Matt Webb Mitovich iz TVLinea smatrao je da je uključivanjem Stargirl u trailer, koji postoji na paralelnoj zemlji s Arrowverseom, ime možda bio način da se razgovara o svim serijama superheroja koje su se emitirale na mreži u to vrijeme. Mitovich je također istaknuo da je izraz korišten godinu dana prije u sličnom traileru, u kojem je prikazana serija Arrowverse i Black Lightning, koja u to vrijeme nije bila dio svemira. Jake Abbate iz "SuperHeroHypea" također je nazvao ime koje obuhvaća "programski blok" superjunačkih emisija na mreži. Daniel Gillespie iz "Screen Ranta" smatrao je da ako je to pokušaj CW-a da promijeni Arrowverseovo ime, da obožavatelji i mediji neće "iznenada početi" koristiti ime, a ako CW nastavi koristiti taj izraz, može "dovesti do situacije u kojoj se svemir službeno naziva jednom stvari, ali drugom u potpunosti većina ljudi koji ga gledaju".

U svibnju 2021., kada je govorio o sezoni emitiranja 2021./22., Pedowitz je serije nazvao "CWverse".

Televizijske serije
Sedam televizijskih serija čine najveći dio Arrowverse franšize: Arrow, The Flash, Supergirl, Legends of Tomorrow, Black Lightning, Batwoman i Superman & Lois, zajedno s dvije web serije, Vixen i Freedom Fighters: The Ray.

Web serije

Crossover

Službeni crossover događaji

2014./15.
Flash vs. Arrow
 Flash vs. Arrow (The Flash) [S1E8] - 1.dio
 The Brave and the Bold (Arrow) [S3E8] - 2.dio

2015./16.
Heroes Join Forces
 Legends of Today (The Flash) [S2E8] - 1.dio
 Legends of Yesterday (Arrow) [S3E8] - 2.dio
Worlds Finest
 Worlds Finest (Supergirl) [S1E18]

2016./17.
Invasion!
 Invasion! (The Flash) [S3E8] - 1.dio
 Invasion! (Arrow) [S5E8] - 2.dio
 Invasion! (Legends of Tomorrow) [S2E7] - 3. dio
Duet
 Star-Crossed (Supergirl) [S3E16] - 1.dio kraj epizode se spaja na Flashovu epizodu
 Duet (The Flash) [S3E17] - 2.dio

2017./18.
Crisis on Earth-X
 Crisis on Earth-X, Part 1 (Supergirl)
 Crisis on Earth-X, Part 2 (Arrow)
 Crisis on Earth-X, Part 3 (The Flash)
 Crisis on Earth-X, Part 4 (Legends of Tomorrow)

2018./19.
Elseworlds
 Elseworlds, Part 1 (The Flash) [S5E9]
 Elseworlds, Part 2 (Arrow) [S7E9]
 Elseworlds, Part 3 (Supergirl) [S4E9]

2019./20.
Crisis on Infinite Earths
 Crisis on Infinite Earths: Part One (Supergirl) [S5E9]
 Crisis on Infinite Earths: Part Two (Batwoman) [S1E9]
 Crisis on Infinite Earths: Part Three (The Flash) [S6E9]
 Crisis on Infinite Earths: Part Four (Arrow) [S8E8]
 Crisis on Infinite Earths: Part Five (Legends of Tomorrow) [S5, Special epizoda]

2021./22.
Armageddon
 Armageddon, Part 1 (The Flash) [S8E1]
 Armageddon, Part 2 (The Flash) [S8E2]
 Armageddon, Part 3 (The Flash) [S8E3]
 Armageddon, Part 4 (The Flash) [S8E4]
 Armageddon, Part 5 (The Flash) [S8E5]

Multiverse

The Flash (1990.)
U epizodi The Flash (2014.) "Welcome to Earth-2" (iz 2016.) vide se uvidi u multiverse, uključujući sliku Johna Wesleyja Shippa kao Flash iz televizijske serije iz 1990. godine, što znači da serija postoji na alternativnoj Zemlji unutar Arrowverse multiversea. Shipp je reprizirao svoju ulogu Barry Allena / Flasha iz serije iz 1990. u godišnjim crossover događajima "Elseworlds" i "Crisis on Infinite Earths". Njegov rodni svemir proglašen je "Zemljom-90" u multiverseu prije krize.

"Crisis on Infinite Earths" crossover
Crossover događaj "Crisis on Infinite Earths" iz 2019. godine uključio je nekoliko DC Entertainment svojstava u Arrowverse multiverse uključujući i one koji su već bili uspostavljeni u prethodnim serijama i crossoverima. Nova svojstva koja su se pojavila u "Crisis on Infinite Earths" uključivala su:
Batman (TV serija iz 1966.): Burt Ward reprizira svoju ulogu ostarjelog Dick Graysona. Ova stvarnost je označena kao "Zemlja-66" u multiverseu prije krize.
Batman(film iz 1989.): Robert Wuhl reprizira svoju ulogu Alexandera Knoxa. Ova stvarnost je označena kao "Zemlja-89" u multiverseu prije krize.
Smallville (TV serija iz 2001.): Tom Welling i Erica Durance repriziraju svoje uloge Clarka Kenta i Lois Lane. Ova stvarnost je označena kao "Zemlja-167" u multiverseu prije krize.
Birds of Prey (TV serija iz 2002.): Ashley Scott i Dina Meyer repriziraju svoje uloge Helene Kyle / Huntress i Barbare Gordon / Oracle. Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-203" u multiverseu prije krizee.
Povratak Supermana (film iz 2006.): Brandon Routh ponavlja svoju ulogu Kal-El / Clark Kent / Superman, iako kao stara inkarnacija inspirirana strip pričom Kingdom Come. Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-96" u multiverseu prije i poslije krize.
Green Lantern (film iz 2011.): Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-12" u multiverseu nakon krize.
DC Extended Universe(filmovi od 2013.– do danas): Ezra Miller reprizira svoju ulogu Barry Allena, iako je njegov svemir ostao nedostojanstven.
Lucifer (TV serija iz 2016.): Tom Ellis reprizira svoju ulogu Lucifer Morningstara. Ova stvarnost je označena kao "Zemlja-666" u multiverseu prije krize.
TItans (TV serija iz 2018.): Alan Ritchson, Curran Walters, Teagan Croft, Minka Kelly i Anna Diop repriziraju se u ulogama Henryja "Hanka" Halla / Hawka, Jasona Todda / Robina, Rachel Roth, Dawn Granger / Dove i Koriand'r / Kory Anders / Starfire, iz arhivskih snimaka. Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-9" u multiverseu prije i poslije krize.
Swamp Thing (TV serija iz 2019.): Derek Mears pojavljuje se u ulozi Alec Holland / Swamp Thinga. Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-19" u multiverseu nakon krize.
Doom Patrol (TV serija iz 2019.): April Bowlby, Diane Guerrero, Joivan Wade, Riley Shanahan, and Matthew Zuk pojavljuju se u ulogama Rite Farr, Jane, Victora "Vica" Stonea / Cyborga, Cliffa Steelea i Larryja Trainora iz arhivskih snimki. Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-21" u multiverseu nakon krize.
Stargirl (TV serija iz 2020.): Brec Bassinger debitirala je kao Courtney Whitmore / Stargirl, zajedno s Yvette Monreal kao Yolanda Montez / Wildcat, Anjelika Washington kao Beth Chapel / Doctor Mid-Nite i Cameron Gellman kao Rick Tyler / Hourman sa snimki iz Stargirl. Ova stvarnost označena je kao "Zemlja-2" u multiverseu nakon krize.

Multimedijske franšize

Arrowverse


Ashley Simon Young (fæddur 9. júlí 1985) er enskur fótboltamaður sem spilar sem bakvörður og kantmaður fyrir Enska úrvalsdeildarliðið Everton.

Young hóf feril sinn í fótbolta fyrir Watford árið 2003. Hann varð fljótlega einn af mikilvægari leikmönnum Watford þangað til að hann var seldur til Aston Villa fyrir 8 milljónir punda sem risu á endanum í 9.65 milljónir punda árið 2007. Young spilaði fyrir Aston Villa til ársins 2011 þegar hann var keyptur af Manchester United. Young eyddi stærstum hluta af ferlinum sínum í Manchester borg. Árið 2020 fór hann frítt til Inter Milan, hann var þar í eitt tímabil. Inter Milan bar sigur í ítölsku deildinni tímabilið sem Young var leikmaður þeirra og varð Young því einn af þremur Englendingum til að afreka það, hinir tveir eru Jimmy Greaves sem tókst það með AC Milan árið 1961/1962 og annars vegar Gerry Hitchens sem gerði það einnig með Inter Milan tímabilið 1962/1963. Young snéri síðan aftur til Aston Villa árið 2021 þá orðin 36 ára gamall.

Enskir knattspyrnumenn

Ashley Young


Vestris se poate referi la:

Artiști
 Gaétan Vestris (1729-1808), balerin franco-italian
 Angiolo Vestris (1730-1809), actor și balerin franco-italian
 Françoise-Rose Gourgaud (1743-1804) actriță franceză, soția lui Angiolo Vestris, care a purtat pe scenă numele de Madame Vestris
 Auguste Vestris (1760-1842), dansator francez, fiul nelegitim al Gaétan Vestris
 Auguste Armand Vestris (1788-1825), dansator francez, fiul lui Auguste Vestris
 Elizabetta Lucia Bartolozzi (1797-1856), cântăreață și actriță engleză, soția lui Auguste Armand Vestris, numită pe scenă Madame Vestris ca și mătușa sa prin alianță.

Nave
 , o navă britanică de pasageri care s-a scufundat pe 12 noiembrie 1928; 112 din cei 325 de pasageri și membri ai echipajului au dispărut.

Dezambiguizare

Vestris


Mauchenheim steht für:

 Mauchenheim, eine Ortsgemeinde im Landkreis Alzey-Worms in Rheinland-Pfalz
 Mauchenheim (Adelsgeschlecht), Mauchenheim genannt Bechtolsheim, ein deutsches Adelsgeschlecht

Mauchenheim ist der Familienname folgender Personen:
 Andreas Maria Maximilian Freiherr von Mauchenheim genannt Bechtolsheim (* 1955), deutsch-amerikanischer Unternehmer und Informatiker, siehe Andreas von Bechtolsheim

 Cathérine Hélène Alexandrine von Mauchenheim gen. Bechtolsheim (1787–1872), Tochter eines französischen Grafen und Hofdame am Hofe von Mecklenburg-Schwerin
 Christian Freiherr von Mauchenheim gen. Bechtolsheim (* 1960), deutscher Unternehmer, ehemaliger Botschafter des Souveränen Malteserordens in Litauen
 Clemens von Bechtolsheim (1852–1930), deutscher Ingenieur und Erfinder
 Gustav von Mauchenheim genannt Bechtolsheim (1889–1969), deutscher Offizier, zuletzt Generalmajor im Zweiten Weltkrieg
 Hermann von Mauchenheim genannt Bechtolsheim (1836–1910), bayerischer Badkommissär
 Hubert Freiherr von Mauchenheim (1887–1967), deutscher Schauspieler, siehe Walter Bechmann
 Ludwig Friedrich von Mauchenheim gen. Bechtolsheim (1736–1813), dänischer General und Gouverneur
 Moritz Freiherr von Mauchenheim gen. von Bechtolsheim (1837–1901), Mitglied der ersten Kammer der Landstände des Herzogtums Nassau, siehe Moritz von Schütz zu Holzhausen gen. von Bechtolsheim
 Johann Reichard von Mauchenheim gen. Bechtolsheim (1643–1691), Domherr in Würzburg und 1677–1678 Rektor der Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg
 Theodor von Mauchenheim (1902–1973), deutscher Marineoffizier, Kapitän zur See der Kriegsmarine

Mauchenheim (Begriffsklärung)


Ruralna cjelina Gornje Jesenice, ruralna cjelina unutar područja sela Gornjih Jesenica, općina Dugi Rat.

Povijest
Gornje Jesenice su zbijeno naselje krškoga područja smješteno uz samu planinsku kosu, iznad obradivih površina, a tijekom vremena razvoj naselja je gradnjom stambeno – gospodarskih sklopova na nekoliko mjesta spustio zaseok prema jugu. Svojim položajem na padinama Mosora, iznimnoj ambijentalnoj vrijednosti, zadržanoj tradicijskoj organizaciji prostora, očuvanoj arhitekturi i upotrebi tradicijskih materijala s izuzetkom recentnih gradnji, Gornje Jesenice se valoriziraju kao skladna ruralna cjelina karakteristična za područje Primorskih Poljica.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-6714 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - kulturno-povijesna cjelina, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "kulturno-povijesna cjelina".

Izvori

Zaštićene ruralne cjeline u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Dugi Rat

Gornje Jesenice (ruralna cjelina)