The 1878 Treaty of San Stefano (; Peace of San-Stefano, ; Peace treaty of San-Stefano,  or ) was a treaty between the Russian and Ottoman empires at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. It was signed at San Stefano, then a village west of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), on  by Count Nicholas Pavlovich Ignatiev and Aleksandr Nelidov on behalf of the Russian Empire and by Foreign Minister Saffet Pasha and Ambassador to Germany Sadullah Bey on behalf of the Ottoman Empire.

According to the official Russian position, by signing the treaty, Russia had never intended anything more than a temporary rough draft, so as to enable a final settlement with the other Great Powers.

The treaty provided for the establishment of an autonomous Principality of Bulgaria following almost 500 years of Ottoman rule in the Bulgarian lands. Bulgarians celebrate the day the treaty was signed, , as Liberation Day. However, the enlarged Bulgaria envisioned by the treaty alarmed neighboring states as well as France and the United Kingdom.  As a result, the enlargement was never implemented, being superseded by the Treaty of Berlin following the Congress of the same name that took place three months later.

Effects

On Bulgaria

The treaty established the autonomous self-governing Principality of Bulgaria, with a Christian government and the right to keep an army. Though still de jure tributary to the Ottomans, the Principality de facto functioned as an independent nation. Its territory included the plain between the Danube and the Balkan mountain range (Stara Planina), the region of Sofia, Pirot and Vranje in the Morava valley, Northern Thrace, parts of Eastern Thrace and nearly all of Macedonia (Article 6).

Bulgaria would thus have had direct access to the Mediterranean. This carried the potential of Russian ships eventually using Bulgarian Mediterranean ports as naval bases, which the other Great Powers greatly disliked.

A prince elected by the people, approved by the Ottoman Empire, and recognized by the Great Powers was to take the helm of the country (Article 7). A council of Bulgarian noblemen was to draft a constitution (also Article 7). (They produced the Tarnovo Constitution.) Ottoman troops were to withdraw from Bulgaria, while Russian troops would remain for two more years (Article 8).

According to Philip Roeder, the Treaty of San Stefano "transformed" Bulgarian nationalism, turning it from a disunited movement into a united one.

Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania
Under the treaty, Montenegro more than doubled its territory, acquiring formerly Ottoman-controlled areas including the cities of Nikšić, Podgorica, and Bar (Article 1), and the Ottoman Empire recognized its independence (Article 2).

Serbia gained the cities of Niš and Leskovac in Moravian Serbia and became independent (Article 3).

Turkey recognized the independence of Romania (Article 5) while the latter gained Northern Dobruja from Russia (to which it was transferred from the Ottoman Empire) and ceded Southern Bessarabia in a forced exchange.

On Russia and the Ottoman Empire

In exchange for war reparations, the Sublime Porte ceded Armenian and Georgian territories in the Caucasus to Russia, including Ardahan, Artvin, Batum, Kars, Olti, Beyazit, and Alashkert. Additionally, it ceded Northern Dobruja, which Russia handed to Romania in exchange for Southern Bessarabia (Article 19).

On other regions
The Vilayet of Bosnia (Bosnia and Herzegovina) was supposed to become an autonomous province (Article 14). Crete, Epirus and Thessaly were to receive a limited form of local self-government (Article 15), while the Ottomans vouched for their earlier-given promises to handle reforms in Armenia in order to protect the Armenians from abuse (Article 16). The Straits—the Bosporus and the Dardanelles—were declared open to all neutral ships in war and peacetime (Article 24).

The Circassians of the newly liberated Balkan territories, who had been settled there in 1864 following the Circassian genocide and had committed several atrocities against the Christian population of the region during the war, were to be expelled. This way, the Circassian minority in Dobruja disappeared.

Reaction

The Great Powers, especially British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, were unhappy with this extension of Russian power, and Serbia feared that the establishment of Greater Bulgaria would harm its interests in the former and remaining Ottoman territories. These reasons prompted the Great Powers to obtain a revision of the treaty at the Congress of Berlin, and substitute it with the Treaty of Berlin.

Romania, which had contributed significantly to the Russian victory in the war, was extremely disappointed by the treaty, and the Romanian public perceived some of its stipulations as Russia breaking the Russo-Romanian pre-war treaties that guaranteed the integrity of Romanian territory.

Austria-Hungary was disappointed with the treaty as it failed to expand its influence in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Albanians, dwelling in provinces controlled by the Ottoman Empire, objected to what they considered a significant loss of their territory to Serbia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro and realized they would have to organize nationally to attract the assistance of foreign powers seeking to neutralize Russia's influence in the region. The implications of the treaty led to the formation of the League of Prizren.

In the "Salisbury Circular" of 1 April 1878, the British Foreign Secretary Robert Cecil, made clear his and his government's objections to the Treaty of San Stefano and the favorable position in which it left Russia.

According to British historian A. J. P. Taylor, writing in 1954: "If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary might have survived to the present day. The British, except for [Disraeli] in his wilder moments, had expected less and were therefore less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878 'We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them.'"

Critical re-evaluation of treaty in Bulgaria since the 1990s
Since 1990, a number of historians, publicists and journalists in Bulgaria have subjected the Treaty of San Stefano and the entire policy of the Russian Empire on the Eastern question in the 19th century to critical re-evaluation and have concluded that the treaty was a "charade" crafted by the long-standing Russian ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Count Nikolay Ignatyev, for the purpose of securing Russian interests in Bulgaria and fomenting lasting anti-Western sentiment in Bulgarian society.

Russian Empire's objectives
Drawing on the texts of the 1876 Reichstadt Agreement, the 1877 Budapest Convention, various correspondence during the time period and particularly Count Ignatyev's own unfiltered thoughts in his diaries, all researchers draw the conclusion that the Russian Empire's only ambition was to conquer the Turkish Straits, in continuation of Catherine the Great's Greek Plan.

They argue that the "Bulgarian Question" and the liberation of the Bulgarians were used only as a political ruse and a stepping stone to Constantinople. As indicated in Ignatyev's Diaries, if the Russian plan had succeeded, Bulgarians would have ultimately been placed under Russian control by either subjecting them to direct Russian or indirect Serbian rule or ruling them as a puppet state.

Count Ignatyev's role in securing Russian imperial policy
Whereas in traditional Bulgarian and international historiography, Ignatyev is generally presented as a great friend of Bulgaria and an advocate of Bulgarian liberation, his diaires present him rather as a Machiavellian politician completely dedicated to furthering Russian imperialist expansion on the Balkans.

Among other things, Ignatyev is found to have continuously subverted the struggle for an independent Bulgarian Church in the 1860s and the 1870s, the success of which played a crucial role in Bulgarian nation-building. He is further implicated to have advocated for the hanging of the founder of the Bulgarian Internal Revolutionary Organisation (IRO), Vasil Levski, before the Ottoman authorities attempted to make the IRO, which was hostile to any foreign involvement, more amenable to Russian desires.

Indzhev, in particular, notes that by eliminating IRO's ideologue and leader, hellbent on liberation "by own means" and maligning the 19th-century Bulgarian bourgeoisie (e.g., Stoyan Chomakov), which favoured gaining autonomy by working together with the Ottoman authorities, Ignatyev's work blocked both Bulgaria's "revolutionary" and "evolutionary" path of development, which made "liberation by Russia", the scenario giving Russia direct control over Bulgarian affairs, the only option left.

April Uprising and consequences
Between 1855 and 1865, the Ottoman authorities settled 300,000 Crimean Tatar, Circassian and other Muslim Caucasian Muhacir in the Danube Vilayet. While the settlement of Crimean Tatars was largely problem-free, the scarcity of arable land, the sheer scale of Circassian migration and the inability of Ottoman authorities to address problems properly turned the Circassian settlement into a disaster that drove impoverished Circassians to join paramilitary (i.e., bashi-bazouk) units or turn to banditry and crime. The Ottoman inability to restore social order was a direct cause of the Bulgarian April Uprising of 1876, whose bloody suppression generated widespread indignation and condemnation in Europe.

Most Great Powers were still deliberating what action to take and eventually reached agreement to convene the Constantinople Conference in late December 1876, when the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary had already apportioned the Ottoman holdings in Europe for themselves by virtue of the Reichstadt Agreement of 8 July 1876, more than half a year earlier. The agreement was reconfirmed and elaborated further in the Budapest Convention of 15 January 1877.

Reichstadt and Budapest Treaties
Both treaties erre kept entirely secret and envisaged à Russian war on the Ottoman Empire, with Austria-Hungary pledging neutrality. The Russian Empire, in turn, pledged not to create a large Slavic state but only two independent principalities or two autonomous Ottoman vilayets (the version varies depending on language) north and south of the Balkan Range. In turn, Austria-Hungary was given permission to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. The treaties also envisaged Romania ceding southern Bessarabia to the Russian Empire, territorial acquisitions for Greece, etc.

All researchers have noted the pronounced similarity of the clauses of the two secret treaties to the provisions of the Berlin Treaty and the stark contrast of the three to the territorial provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano. The tous infer that the Russian Empire never had any actual intent to implement it.

In view of Ignatyev's dedication to Russian imperialism and his past disregard for Bulgarian interests, the universal conclusion here is that the Treaty of San Stefano was a "ruse", "deceit", "fraud", "trap" and "decoy" and that he signed it only for propaganda purposes to tie the nascent Bulgarian state to the Russian Empire by pretending that it was the Bulgarians' only protector but simultaneously blame the inevitable break-up of Bulgaria on the other Great Powers to so permanent distrust of them in Bulgarian society.

Sabotaging Constantinople Conference as casus belli for the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
However, in particular, Indzhev, Doychev, Gochev and Yordanov do not draw the line here. After comparing the dates of signing of the Budapest Convention (15 January 1877) and Grand Vizier Midhat Pasha's refusal (18 January 1877) to accede to the Great Powers' proposal at the Constantinople Conference for the creation of two autonomous Bulgarian vilayets and taking into account Ignatyev's own memos in his 1875–1878 Diaries, among other things, his allegation that"The Ottoman Sultan trusts the Russian ambassador fully" (pp. 72–73), the insistence that

"the Bulgarians... should be turned into an obedient tool of Russian policy and into our permanent allies by annihilating any option for them to cross to the enemy side" (pp. 51–53) and that

"the Austrian and Turkish Slavs must be our allies and tools of our policy towards Germany" (pp. 51–53),  the warning that

"if the nations that rebelled against the Turks fall under Western rather than our influence, the situation on the Balkans will become far more untenable for Russia than it is now" (p. 58), etc.and after analysing the Great Power that would benefit most from sabotaging the Constantinople Conference, they conclude that the culprit must be The Russian Empire.

Traditionally, Bulgarian historiograhy, in line with Russian propaganda, has always cast the blame for the failure of the Conference on the go-to villain in modern Bulgarian history: the English. However, the vilayet autonomy proposal reflected all of the United Kingdom's desires by splitting the autonomous territory into two and ensuring extensive international (including English) oversight of vilayet affairs, which would have prevented the autonomous territories from becoming Russian puppets.

The inability to subjugate the Bulgarians to its long-term goals and policy and the desire to keep Western influence out of the Balkans are argued to be the very reasons for Russia's unwillingness to commit to the proposals of the Conference. A war would have drastically reduced the territory of the future Bulgarian state but also given Russia free rein to dictate Bulgarian affairs. Russia's intent to go to war as early as July 1876, as stipulated in the Reichstadt Agreement, is adduced as a further argument that the Constantinople Conference was an obstacle, rather than a solution, to the Bulgarian Crisis for Russia.

Indzhev and Gochev hypothesise that Ignatyev secured the Ottomans' co-operation by assuring them that any territory they would lose in a potential war would be far smaller than the territory of the two autonomous vilayets, which largely overlapped with the borders of the Bulgarian Exarchate. Indeed, the Principality of Bulgaria created after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) covered less than 40% of the territory of the autonomous vilayets.

In that connection, several of the authors have also noted the unwillingness of the Russian administration to refer to the Bulgarians by their national name and to instead call them "Slavs" and "Orthodox Christians" before the war and the subsequent use of designations such as "Russian-Danubian Province", "Balkan Province", "occupation fund" and "occupation" until the terms of the Berlin Treaty defined the organisation of the future Bulgarian Principality and gave the Russian occupation corps explicit deadlines for retreat.

In particular, Indzhev, Doychev and Yordanov have opined that if the Russian troops had not been forced in Berlin to withdraw, they would have never left.

Myth of San Stefano
Numerous authors conclude that the carefully crafted myth of San Stefano has caused lasting harm to Bulgarian statehood by making Bulgarians vulnerable to Russian propaganda and depriving them of the ability to exercise judgement at critical junctures in their history.

In particular, Aleksandar Tatsov, Yanko Gochev, Plamen Tzvetkov and Alexander Yordanov have referred to the Balkan Wars in which the false belief of several successive Russophile cabinets that "Russia will help Bulgaria because it did so in San Stefano" essentially made the country's entire future dependent on a foreign power that had anathemised the Unification of Bulgaria, invited the Ottoman Sultan to reconquer Eastern Rumelia and organised a coup against the Bulgarian Prince only three decades earlier.

The Bulgarian journalist Ivo Indzhev focuses on the vulnerability of modern Bulgaria to Russian propaganda, including with regard to the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine, and points out that "the myth of San Stefano" remains to this day the most effective tool for generating pro-Russian and anti-Western sentiment in Bulgarian society. Finally, Tsvetkov bluntly states that unless Bulgarian society overcomes what he refers to as "its San Stefano inferiority complex" and "self-degrading Russophilia", he is not optimistic about the future of the country.

In that connection, quite notably and despite being unaware of either the Reichstadt and Budapest Treaties or Count Ignatyev's Diaries, the Bulgarian statesman and long-standing Prime Minister Stefan Stambolov held similar beliefs as early as the 1880s. He considered the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) to be an attempt by Tsarist Russia to turn Bulgaria into a protectorate and preferred a union with Romania or even a dual Bulgarian-Turkish state to further involvement with Russia.

Gallery

In popular culture

The circumstances leading to the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano are depicted in Boris Akunin's historical novel The Turkish Gambit. Akunin in general sticks to known historical facts, though he attributes some acts to fictional characters such as his recurrent protaginist Erast Fandorin.

See also

 Treaty of Berlin (1878)
 Bulgarian irredentism
 History of Bulgaria

References

External links

The Preliminary Treaty of Peace, signed at San Stefano – Full text, in English.
Full text of the San Stefano Preliminary Treaty (in Russian)

Maps
Bulgaria in the borders after the Treaties of Constantinople, San-Stephano, Berlin, London, Bucharest and Neuilly. Scale 1:1600000 map. (in German)

1878 in Bulgaria
1878 in the Ottoman Empire
1878 treaties
Russo-Turkish wars
Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
San Stefano
Macedonia under the Ottoman Empire
19th century in Armenia
19th century in Georgia (country)
San Stefano, Treaty of
Ottoman Empire–Russia treaties
History of Istanbul Province
History of Adjara
Ottoman period in Georgia (country)
March 1878 events
History of Montenegro

Treaty of San Stefano


The Province of New York (1664–1776) was a British proprietary colony and later royal colony on the northeast coast of North America. Together with 12 other colonies, the Province of New York achieved independence following the American Revolutionary War, becoming a part of the newly-formed United States.

In 1664, the Dutch Province of New Netherland in America was awarded by Charles II of England to his brother James, Duke of York. James raised a fleet to take it from the Dutch, and the Governor surrendered to the English fleet without recognition from the Dutch West Indies Company that had authority over it. The province was renamed for the Duke of York, as its proprietor. England seized de facto control of the colony from the Dutch in 1664, and was given de jure sovereign control in 1667 in the Treaty of Breda and again in the Treaty of Westminster (1674). It was not until 1674 that English common law was applied in the colony. The colony was one of the Middle Colonies, and ruled at first directly from England. When the Duke of York ascended to the throne of England as James II in 1685, the province became a royal colony.

When the English arrived, the Dutch colony somewhat vaguely included claims to all of the present U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Vermont, along with inland portions of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine in addition to eastern Pennsylvania. Much of this land was soon reassigned by the crown, leaving the territory of the modern State of New York, including the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, and future Vermont. The territory of western New York was disputed with the indigenous Iroquois Confederacy, and also disputed between the English and the French from their northern colonial province of New France (modern eastern Canada). The province remained an important military and economic link to Canada throughout its history. Vermont was disputed with the Province of New Hampshire to the east.

The revolutionary New York Provincial Congress of local representatives assumed the government on May 22, 1775, declared the province the State of New York in 1776, and ratified the first New York Constitution in 1777. During the ensuing American Revolutionary War the British regained and occupied the strategic port and harbor of New York Town in September 1776, using it as its military and political base of operations in British North America; though a British governor was technically in office, much of the remainder of the upper part of the colony was held by the rebel Patriots. British claims in New York were ended by the Treaty of Paris of 1783, with New York establishing its independence from the crown. The final evacuation of all of New York by the British Army was followed by the return of General George Washington's Continental Army on November 25, 1783, in a grand parade and celebration.

Geography
This British crown colony was established upon the former Dutch colony of New Netherland, with its core being York Shire, in what today is typically known as Downstate New York.

Counties

The Province of New York was divided into twelve counties on November 1, 1683, by New York Governor Thomas Dongan:
 Albany County: all of the region that is now northern and western New York. Also claimed the area, later disputed, that is now Vermont. In addition, as there was no fixed western border to the colony (a sea-to-sea grant), Albany County technically extended to the Pacific Ocean. Most of this land, which was Indian land for most of the province's history, has now been ceded to other states and most of the land within New York has been divided into new counties.
 Cornwall County: that part of Maine between the Kennebec River and the St. Croix River from the Atlantic Ocean to the St. Lawrence River. Ceded to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692.
 Dukes County: the Elizabeth Islands, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Island east of Long Island. Ceded to Massachusetts in 1692.
 Dutchess County: now Dutchess and Putnam counties.
 Kings County: the current Kings County; Brooklyn.
 New York County: the current New York County; Manhattan.
 Orange County: now Orange and Rockland counties.
 Queens County: now Queens and Nassau counties.
 Richmond County: the current Richmond County; Staten Island.
 Suffolk County: the current Suffolk County.
 Ulster County: now Ulster and Sullivan counties and part of what is now Delaware and Greene counties.
 Westchester County: now Westchester and Bronx counties.

On March 24, 1772:
 Tryon County was formed out of Albany County. It was renamed Montgomery County in 1784, with a later division to Herkimer County around Little Falls.
 Charlotte County was formed out of Albany County. It was renamed Washington County in 1784.

History

In 1617 officials of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland created a settlement at present-day Albany, and in 1624 founded New Amsterdam, on Manhattan Island. New Amsterdam surrendered to Colonel Richard Nicholls on August 27, 1664; he renamed it New York. On September 24 Sir George Carteret accepted the capitulation of the garrison at Fort Orange, which he called Albany, after another of the Duke of York's titles. The capture was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda in July 1667.

Easing the transition to British rule, the Articles of Capitulation guaranteed certain rights to the Dutch; among these were: liberty of conscience in divine worship and church discipline, the continuation of their own customs concerning inheritances, and the application of Dutch law to bargains and contracts made prior to the capitulation.

Proprietary government (1664–1685)

In 1664, James, Duke of York, was granted a proprietary colony which included New Netherland and present-day Maine. The New Netherland claim included western parts of present-day Massachusetts (to an extent that varied depending on whether the reference was the States General claim of all lands as far east as Narragansett Bay or the Treaty of Hartford negotiated by the English and Dutch colonies in 1650 but not recognized by either the Dutch or English governments) putting the new province in conflict with the Massachusetts charter. In general terms, the charter was equivalent to a conveyance of land conferring on him the right of possession, control, and government, subject only to the limitation that the government must be consistent with the laws of England. The Duke of York never visited his colony and exercised little direct control of it. He elected to administer his government through governors, councils, and other officers appointed by himself. No provision was made for an elected assembly.

Also in 1664, the Duke of York gave the part of his new possessions between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to Sir George Carteret in exchange for settlement of a debt. The territory was named after the Island of Jersey, Carteret's ancestral home.  The other section of New Jersey was sold to Lord Berkeley of Stratton, who was a close friend of the Duke. As a result, Carteret and Berkeley became the two English Lords Proprietors of New Jersey. The Province of New Jersey was created, but the border was not finalized until 1765 (see New York-New Jersey Line War). In 1667, territories between the Byram River and Connecticut River were split off to become the western half of Connecticut.

The first governor Richard Nicolls was known for writing "The Duke's Laws" which served as the first compilation of English laws in colonial New York. Nicholls returned to England after an administration of three years, much of which was taken up in confirming the ancient Dutch land grants. Francis Lovelace was next appointed Governor and held the position from May 1667 until the return of the Dutch in July 1673. A Dutch fleet recaptured New York and held it until it was traded to the English by the Treaty of Westminster. A second grant was obtained by the Duke of York in July 1674 to perfect his title.

Upon conclusion of the peace in 1674, the Duke of York appointed Sir Edmund Andros as Governor of his territories in America. Governor Edmund Andros in 1674 said "permit all persons of what religion soever, quietly to inhabit within the precincts of your jurisdiction" Nonetheless, he made the Quakers of West Jersey pay toll on the Delaware, but they applied to England and were redressed. He was followed by Colonel Thomas Dongan in 1682. Dongan was empowered, on the advice of William Penn, to summon "...a general assembly of all the freeholders, by such persons they should choose to represent them to consult with you and said council what laws are fit and necessary to be made..."

A colonial Assembly was created in October 1683. New York was the last of the English colonies to have an assembly. The assembly passed the Province of New York constitution on October 30, the first of its kind in the colonies. This constitution gave New Yorkers more rights than any other group of colonists including the protection from taxation without representation. On November 1, 1683, the government was reorganized, and the state was divided into twelve counties, each of which was subdivided into towns. Ten of those counties still exist (see above), but two (Cornwall and Dukes) were in territory purchased by the Duke of York from the Earl of Stirling, and are no longer within the territory of the State of New York, having been transferred by treaty to Massachusetts. While the number of counties has been increased to 62, the pattern still remains that a town in New York State is a subdivision of a county, similar to New England.

An act of the assembly in 1683 naturalized all those of foreign nations then in the colony professing Christianity. To encourage immigration, it also provided that foreigners professing Christianity may, after their arrival, be naturalized if they took the oath of allegiance as required.

The Duke's Laws established a non-denominational state church.

The British replaced the Dutch in their alliance with the Iroquois against New France, with an agreement called the Covenant Chain.

Royal province (1686–1775)
In 1664, after the Dutch ceded New Netherland to Britain, it became a proprietary colony under James, Duke of York. When James ascended the throne in February 1685 and became King James II, his personally owned colony became a royal province.

In May 1688, the Province of New York was made part of the Dominion of New England. However, in April 1689, when news arrived that King James had been overthrown in the Glorious Revolution, Bostonians overthrew their government and imprisoned Dominion Governor Edmund Andros. The province of New York rebelled in May in what is known as Leisler's Rebellion. King William's War with France began during which the French attacked Schenectady. In July, New York participated in an abortive attack on Montreal and Quebec. A new governor Henry Sloughter arrived in March 1691. He had Jacob Leisler arrested, tried, and executed.

New York's charter was re-enacted in 1691 and was the constitution of the province until the creation of the State of New York.

The first newspaper to appear in New York was the New-York Gazette, started November 8, 1725, by William Bradford. It was printed on a single sheet, published weekly.

During Queen Anne's War with France from 1702 to 1713, the province had little involvement with the military operations, but benefited from being a supplier to the British fleet. New York militia participated in two abortive attacks on Quebec in 1709 and 1711.

Dutch

When the British took over, the great majority of Dutch families remained, with the exception of government officials and soldiers. However, new Dutch arrivals became very few. While the Netherlands was a small country, the Dutch Empire was large, meaning that emigrants leaving the mother country had a wide variety of choices under full Dutch control. The major Dutch cities were centers of high culture, but they sent few immigrants. Most Dutch arrivals to the New World in the 17th century had been farmers from villages who on arrival in New Netherland scattered into widely separated villages that had little cross contact with each other. Even inside a settlement, different Dutch groups had minimal interaction.

With very few new arrivals, the result was an increasingly traditional system cut off from the forces for change. The folk maintained their popular culture, revolving around their language and their Calvinist religion. The Dutch brought along their own folklore, most famously Sinterklaas, which evolved into the modern day Santa Claus. They maintained their distinctive clothing and food preferences. They introduced some new foods to America, including beets, endive, spinach, parsley, and cookies. After the British takeover, rich Dutch families in Albany and New York City emulated the English elite, purchasing English furniture, silverware, crystal, and jewelry. They were proud of the Dutch language, which was strongly reinforced through the church, but were much slower than the Yankees in setting up schools for their children. They finally set up Queens College, which is now Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. They published no newspapers, and published no books and only a handful of religious tracts annually.

Germans
Nearly 2,800 Palatine German emigrants were transported to New York by Queen Anne's government in ten ships in 1710, the largest single group of immigrants before the Revolutionary War. By comparison, Manhattan then had only 6,000 people. Initially, the Germans were employed in the production of naval stores and tar along the Hudson River near Peekskill. In 1723 they were allowed to settle in the central Mohawk Valley west of Schenectady as a buffer against the Native Americans and the French. They also settled in areas such as Schoharie and Cherry Valley. Many became tenant farmers or squatters. They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities.

Black slaves
The first slaves were introduced to the colonies by the Dutch, and thereafter by the British, largely bought from African tribal chiefs who exploited prisoners taken during the numerous tribal wars of that period. In the 1690s, New York was the largest importer of the colonies of slaves and a supply port for pirates.  The black population became a major element in New York City, and on large upstate farms.

New York sold these slaves using slave markets, giving slaves to the highest bidder at an auction.

With its shipping and trades, New York had use for skilled Africans as artisans and domestic servants. Two notable slave revolts occurred in New York in 1712 and 1741.

The numbers of slaves imported to New York increased dramatically from the 1720s through 1740s. By the 17th century, they established the African burial ground in Lower Manhattan, which was used through 1812.  It was discovered nearly two centuries later during excavation before the construction of the Ted Weiss Federal Building at 290 Broadway. Historians estimated 15,000–20,000 Africans and African Americans had been buried in the approximately 8 acres surrounding there. Because of the extraordinary find, the government commissioned a memorial at the site, where the National Park Service has an interpretive center. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark and National Monument. Excavation and study of the remains has been described as the "most important historic urban archaeological project undertaken in the United States."

King George's War

This province, as a British colony, fought against the French during King George's War. The assembly was determined to control expenditures for this war and only weak support was given. When the call came for New York to help raise an expeditionary force against Louisburg, the New York assembly refused to raise troops and only appropriated a token £3,000. The assembly was opposed to a significant war effort because it would interrupt trade with Quebec and would result in higher taxes. The French raid on Saratoga in 1745 destroyed that settlement, killing and capturing more than one hundred people. After this attack the assembly was more generous and raised 1,600 men and £40,000.

French and Indian War

Upstate New York was the scene of fighting during the French and Indian War, with British and French forces contesting control of Lake Champlain in association with Native American allies. Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, and other agents in upstate New York brought about the participation of the Iroquois. The French and their Indian allies laid siege to Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George in 1757. The British forces surrendered to the French, but many prisoners were then massacred by the Indians. Some prisoners had smallpox, and when Indians took the scalps to their home villages, they spread a disease that killed large numbers. In the end the British won the war and took over all of Canada, thereby ending French-sponsored Indian attacks.

One of the largest impressment operations occurred in New York in the spring of 1757 when three thousand British troops cordoned off the city and impressed nearly eight hundred persons they found in taverns and other gathering places of sailors. New York was the centre for privateering. Forty New York ships were commissioned as privateers in 1756 and in the spring of 1757 it was estimated the value of French prizes brought into New York was two hundred thousand pounds. By 1759, the seas had been cleaned of French vessels and the privateers were diverted into trading with the enemy. The ending of the war caused a severe recession in New York.

Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet, negotiated an end to Pontiac's Rebellion. He promoted the Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix to protect the Indians from further English settlement in their lands.  The treaty established a boundary line along the West Branch Delaware River and the Unadilla River, with Iroquois lands to the west and colonial lands to the east.

Political parties
During the middle years of the 18th century, politics in New York revolved around the rivalry of two great families, the Livingstons and the De Lanceys. Both of these families had amassed considerable fortunes. New York City had an inordinate influence on New York province politics because several of the assembly members lived in New York City rather than in their district. In the 1752 election, De Lanceys' relatives and close friends controlled 12 of the 27 seats in the assembly. The De Lanceys lost control of the assembly in the election of 1761. Governor Cadwallader Colden tried to organize a popular party to oppose the great families, thus earning the hatred of the city elite of both parties. The Livingstons looked to the imperial ties as a means of controlling the influence of James De Lancey. The De Lanceys regarded imperial ties to be a tool for personal advantage.

Stamp Act

Parliament passed the Stamp Act 1765 to raise money from the colonies. New York had previously passed its own stamp act from 1756 to 1760 to raise money for the French and Indian war. The extraordinary response to the Stamp Act can only be explained by the build-up of antagonisms on local issues. New York was experiencing a severe recession from the effects of the end of the French and Indian war. The colonies were experiencing the effects of a very tight monetary policy caused by the trade deficit with Britain, a fiscal crisis in Britain restricting credit, and the Currency Act, which prevented the issuing of paper currency to provide liquidity.

From the outset, New York led the protests in the colonies. Both New York political factions opposed the Stamp Act of 1765. In October, at what became Federal Hall in New York, representatives of several colonies met in the Stamp Act Congress to discuss their response. The New York assembly petitioned the British House of Commons on December 11, 1765, for the Americans' right of self taxation. In August, the intimidation and beating of stamp agents was widely reported. The New York stamp commissioner resigned his job.

The act went into effect on November 1. The day before, James De Lancey organized a meeting at Burns Tavern of New York merchants, where they agreed to boycott all British imports until the Stamp Act was repealed. A leading moderate group opposing the Stamp Act were the local Sons of Liberty headed by Isaac Sears, John Lamb and Alexander McDougall. Historian Gary B. Nash wrote of what was called the "General Terror of November 1–4":

Historian Fred Anderson contrasted the mob actions in New York with those in Boston. In Boston, after the initial unrest, local leaders such as the Loyal Nine (a precursor to the Sons of Liberty) were able to take control of the mob. In New York, however, the "mob was largely made up of seamen, most of whom lacked deep community ties and felt little need to submit to the authority of the city's shorebound radical leaders." The New York Sons of Liberty did not take control of the opposition until after November 1.

On November 1, the crowd destroyed a warehouse and the house of Thomas James, commander at Fort George. A few days later the stamps stored at Fort George were surrendered to the mob. Nash notes that, "whether the Sons of Liberty could control the mariners, lower artisans, and laborers remained in doubt," and "they came to fear the awful power of the assembled lower-class artisans and their maritime compatriots."

On January 7, 1766, the merchant ship Polly carrying stamps for Connecticut was boarded in New York Harbor and the stamps destroyed. Up to the end of 1765 the Stamp Act disturbances had largely been confined to New York City, but in January the Sons of Liberty also stopped the distribution of stamps in Albany.

In May 1766, when news arrived of the repeal of the Stamp Act the Sons of Liberty celebrated by the erection of a Liberty Pole. It became a rallying point for mass meetings and an emblem of the American cause. In June, two regiments of British regulars arrived in New York and were quartered in the upper barracks. These troops cut down the liberty pole on August 10. A second and third pole were erected and also cut down. A fourth pole was erected and encased in iron to prevent similar action.

In 1766, widespread tenant uprisings occurred in the countryside north of New York City centered on the Livingston estates. They marched on New York expecting the Sons of Liberty to support them. Instead, the Sons of Liberty blocked the roads and the leader of the tenants was convicted of treason.

Quartering Act

In the last years of the French and Indian War London approved a policy of keeping twenty regiments in the colonies to police and defend the back country. The enabling legislation took the form of the Quartering Act which required colonial legislatures to provide quarters and supplies for the troops. The Quartering Act stirred little controversy and New Yorkers were ambivalent about the presence of the troops. The assembly had provided barracks and provisions every year since 1761. The tenant riots of 1766 showed the need for a police force in the colony. The Livingston-controlled New York assembly passed a quartering bill in 1766 to provide barracks and provisions in New York City and Albany which satisfied most, but not all of the requirements of the Quartering Act. London suspended the assembly for failure to comply fully, and Governor Moore dissolved the House of Assembly, February 6, 1768. The next month New Yorkers went to the polls for a new assembly. In this election, with the Sons of Liberty support, the De Lancey faction gained seats, but not enough for a majority.

Townshend Acts

In 1768, a letter issued by the Massachusetts assembly called for the universal boycott of British imports in opposition to the Townshend Acts. In October, the merchants of New York agreed on the condition that the merchants of Boston and Philadelphia also agreed. In December, the assembly passed a resolution which stated the colonies were entitled to self-taxation. Governor Moore declared the resolution repugnant to the laws of England and dissolved the assembly. The De Lancey faction, again with Sons of Liberty support, won a majority in the assembly.

In the spring of 1769, New York was in a depression from the recall of paper boycott and the British boycott. By the Currency Act New York was required to recall all paper money. London allowed the issuance of additional paper money, but the attached conditions were unsatisfactory. While New York was boycotting British imports, other colonies including Boston and Philadelphia were not. The De Lanceys tried to reach a compromise by passing a bill which allowed for the issuing of paper currency, of which half was for provisioning of the troops. Alexander McDougall, signed a 'Son of Liberty', issued a broadside entitled To the Betrayed Inhabitants of the City and Colony of New York which was an excellent piece of political propaganda denouncing the De Lanceys for betraying the liberties of the people by acknowledging the British power of taxation. The Sons of Liberty switched their allegiance from the De Lanceys to the Livingstons. Alexander McDougall was arrested for libel.

Conflict between the Sons of Liberty and the troops in New York erupted with the Battle of Golden Hill on January 19, 1770, where troops cut down the fourth Liberty Pole which had been erected in 1767.

In July 1770, the merchants of New York decided to resume trade with Britain when news arrived of Parliament's plan to repeal the Townshend Duties and to give permission for New York to issue some paper currency. The Sons of Liberty were strongly opposed to the resumption of trade. The merchants twice polled their members and went door to door polling residents of New York and all polls were overwhelming in support of resumption of trade. This was perhaps the first public opinion poll in American history.

Tea Act

New York was peaceful after the repeal of the Townshend Act, but the economy of New York was still in a slump. In May 1773 the Parliament passed the Tea Act cutting the duty on tea and enabling the East India company to sell tea in the colonies cheaper than the smugglers could. This act primarily hurt the New York merchants and smugglers. The Sons of Liberty were the organizers of the opposition and in November 1773 they published Association of the Sons of Liberty of New York in which anyone who assisted in support of the act would be an "enemy to the liberties of America". As a result, the New York East India agents resigned. The New York assembly took no action in regard to the Sons of Liberty assumption of extra-legal powers.

The New York City Sons of Liberty learned of Boston's plan to stop the unloading of any tea and resolved to also follow this policy. Since the Association had not obtained the support they had expected, the Sons of Liberty were afraid that if the tea was landed the population would demand its distribution for retail.

In December, news arrived of the Boston Tea Party strengthened opposition. In April 1774, The boat Nancy arrived in New York harbor for repairs. The captain admitted that he had 18 chests of tea on board and he agreed that he would not attempt to have the tea landed, but the Sons of Liberty boarded the ship regardless and destroyed the tea.

Intolerable Acts
In January 1774, the Assembly created a Committee of Correspondence to correspond with other colonies in regard to the Intolerable Acts.

In May 1774 news arrived of the Boston Port Act which closed the port of Boston. The Sons of Liberty were in favor of resumption of a trade boycott with Britain, but there was strong resistance from the large importers. In May, a meeting in New York was called in which members were selected for a Committee of Correspondence. The Committee of Fifty was formed which was dominated with moderates, the Sons of Liberty only obtained 15 members. Isaac Low was the chairman. Francis Lewis was added to create the Committee of Fifty-One. The group adopted a resolution which said Boston was "suffering in the defence of the rights of America" and proposed the formation of a Continental Congress. In July, the committee select five of their members as delegates to this congress. Some of the other counties also sent delegates to the First Continental Congress which was held in September. The New York delegates were unable to stop the adoption at the congress of the Continental Association. The association was generally ignored in New York.

In January and February 1775, of the New York Assembly voted down successive resolutions approving the proceedings of the First Continental Congress and refused to send delegates to the Second Continental Congress. New York was the only colonial assembly which did not approve the proceeds of the First Continental Congress. Opposition to the Congress revolved around the opinion that the provincial houses of assembly were the proper agencies to solicit redress for grievances. In March, the Assembly broke with the rest of the colonies and wrote a petition to London, but London rejected the petition because it contained claims about a lack of authority of the "parent state" to tax colonists, "which made it impossible" to accept. The Assembly last met on April 3, 1775.

Provincial Congress

In April 1775, the rebels formed the New York Provincial Congress as a replacement for the New York Assembly. News of the battle of Lexington and Concord reached New York on April 23, which stunned the city since there was a widely believed rumor that Parliament was to grant the colonies self-taxation. The Sons of Liberty led by Marinus Willett broke into the Arsenal at City Hall and removed 1,000 stand of arms. The armed citizens formed a voluntary corps to govern the city with Isaac Sears's house the de facto seat of government and militia headquarters. The crown-appointed New York executive council met on April 24 and concluded that "we were unanimously of the opinion that we had no power to do anything." The British troops in New York never left their barracks.

On October 19, 1775, Governor William Tryon was forced to leave New York for a British warship offshore, ending any appearances of British rule of the colony as the Continental Congress ordered the arrest of anyone endangering the safety of the colony. In April 1776 Tryon officially dissolved the New York assembly.

New York was located in the Northern theatre of the American Revolutionary War. New York served as the launching point for the failed Invasion of Canada in 1775, the first major military operation of the newly formed Continental Army. General George Washington took the Continental Army from Boston after the British withdrew following the Fortification of Dorchester Heights, and brought it to New York in 1776, correctly anticipating the British would return there.  The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was a turning point in the war. West Point on the Hudson was a strategic asset. And New York played a central role for the British in their attempt to divide New England from the rest of the colonies.

The Fourth Provincial Congress convened in White Plains on July 9, 1776, and became known as the New York First Constitutional Convention. New York endorsed the Declaration of Independence the same day, and declared the independent state of New York. New York celebrated by tearing down the statue of George III in Bowling Green. On July 10, 1776, the Fourth Provincial Congress changed its name to the Convention of Representatives of the State of New York, and "acts as legislature without an executive." While adjourned it left a Committee of Safety in charge. The New York state constitution was framed by a convention which assembled at White Plains on July 10, 1776, and after repeated adjournments and changes of venue, it concluded in Kingston, New York on Sunday evening, April 20, 1777, when the new constitution was adopted with one dissenting vote. It had been drafted by John Jay and was not submitted to the people for ratification. Under its provisions, the governor would be elected not appointed, voting restrictions were reduced, secret ballots were introduced, and civil rights were guaranteed. On July 30, 1777, George Clinton was inaugurated as the first Governor of New York at Kingston. On July 9, 1778, the State of New York signed the Articles of Confederation and officially became a part of the government of the United States of America, though it had been a part of the nation since it was declared in 1776 with signatories from New York.

The province was the scene of the largest battle of the entire war, and the first after the Declaration of Independence was signed. The British recaptured the city in September 1776 in the New York and New Jersey campaign, cut down the Liberty Pole in the common, and placed the province under martial law under the command of James Robertson, though his effective authority did not extend far beyond the southern tip of Manhattan (then the extent of New York City). Tryon retained his title of governor, but with little power. David Mathews was Mayor for the duration of British occupation of New York until Evacuation Day in 1783. After its reoccupation, New York became the headquarters for the British army in America, and the British political center of operations in North America. Loyalist refugees flooded into the city raising its population to 33,000. Prison ships in Wallabout Bay held a large proportion of American soldiers and sailors being held prisoner by the British, and was where more Americans died than in all of the battles of the war, combined. The British retained control of New York until Evacuation Day in November 1783, which was commemorated long afterward.

Structure of government

The governor of New York was royally appointed. The governor selected his Executive Council which served as the upper house. The governor and king had veto power over the assembly's bills. However, all bills were effective until royal disapproval had occurred which could take up to a year. During King George's War, the governor approved two assembly initiatives; that the colony's revenue be approved annually rather than every five years and that the assembly must approve the purpose of each allocation. Elections to the house of assembly were initially held whenever the governor pleased, but eventually a law was passed requiring an election at least once every seven years. The city of New York was the seat of government and where the New York provincial assembly met.

Between 1692 and 1694 the governor of New York was also the governor of Pennsylvania. From 1698 to 1701 the governor was also the governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire. From 1702 to 1738 he was also the governor of New Jersey.

Representation in the assembly in 1683 was six for Long Island, four for New York City, two for Kingston, two for Albany, one for each of Staten Island, Schenectady, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket and one for Pemequid on the Maine coast. In 1737, the assembly was expanded to 27 and in 1773 to 31.

Voters were required to have a £40 freehold, in addition to requirements related to age, sex, and religion. The £40 freehold requirement was often ignored. Jews were not allowed to vote between 1737 and 1747. In rural counties slightly more than half the males could vote. No secret ballot safeguarded the independence of the voters. The elections were held at the county town, under the supervision of the sheriff and sometimes at such short notice that many of the voting population could not get to the polls. The candidates were usually at the polls and the vote was taken by a show of hands unless this vote did not result in a clear winner.

David Osborn notes,
The election for an open seat in the New York assembly, held on the Village Green in Eastchester, Westchester County on October 29, 1733, is one of the better known political events in colonial America. Two hundred and seventy-five years after the contest, historians continue to cite the election to advance various arguments about colonial life. One recent student used the election to argue for the persistent importance of monarchy in the outlook of colonists, while another scholar treated the voting as an important point in the development of political awareness among New York artisans. Many writers address the election, held at what is today St. Paul's Church National Historic Site, in Mt. Vernon, as part of the story of the printer John Peter Zenger, whose acquittal in a seditious libel case in 1735 is seen as a foundation of the free press in America. The first issue of Zenger's New York Weekly Journal carried a lengthy report on the famous election, producing one of the few complete accounts of a colonial election available to historians."

List of governors
See List of colonial governors of New York

List of attorneys general
See List of attorneys general of the Province of New York

Legal profession
The British governors were upper class aristocrats not trained in the law, and felt unduly constrained by the legalistic demands of the Americans. In the period from the 1680s to about 1715 numerous efforts were made to strengthen royal control and diminish legal constraints on the power of the governors. Colonial lawyers fought back successfully. An important technique that developed especially in Boston, Philadelphia and New York in the 1720s and 1730s was to mobilize public opinion by using the new availability of weekly newspapers and print shops that produced inexpensive pamphlets. The lawyers used the publicity medium to disseminate ideas about American legal rights as Englishmen. By the 1750s and 1760s, however, there was a counterattack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers. Their image and influence declined.

The lawyers of colonial New York organized a bar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the Delancey and Livingston families. For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, in New York state to build an effective organization of lawyers. The American Revolution saw the departure of many leading lawyers who were Loyalists; their clientele was often tied to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to Britain or Canada after losing the war. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.

Judiciary
Initially the Province of New York started with the system of courts it had had in its earlier period of English rule: the Court of Assizes, the Court of Sessions, and a series of town courts such as the Mayor's Court of the City of New York.

In 1683 the Court of Assizes was abolished, with its jurisdiction being transferred to a new Court of Oyer and Terminer and Court of Chancery.

The Supreme Court of Judicature of the Province of New York was established by the New York Assembly on 6 May 1691, replacing the Court of Oyer and Terminer. Jurisdiction was based on the English Courts of King's Bench, Common Pleas and Exchequer but excluded cases of equity which continued to be dealt with by the Court of Chancery. The Supreme Court continued in being under the Constitution of 1777, becoming the New York Supreme Court under the 1846 Constitution.

Chief Justices of the Supreme Court

Demographics

Upstate New York (as well as parts of present Ontario, Quebec, Pennsylvania and Ohio) were occupied by the Five Nations (after 1720 becoming Six Nations, when joined by Tuscarora) of the Iroquois Confederacy for at least a half millennium before the Europeans came.

 In 1664, one-quarter of the population of New York was African American.
 In 1690, the population of the province was 20,000, of which 6,000 were in New York.
 In 1698, the population of the province was 18,607. 14% of the population of New York was black.
 The slave population grew after Queen Anne's war. The percentage of blacks in New York in 1731 and 1746 was 18% and 21% respectively.
 In 1756, the population of the province was about 100,000 of which about 14,000 were blacks. Most of the blacks in New York at this time were slaves.

Economy

The fur trade established under Dutch rule continued to grow. As the merchant port of New York became more important, the economy expanded and diversified and the agricultural areas of Long Island and the regions further up the Hudson River developed. Fishermen also made a decent living because New York was next to the ocean, making it a port/fishing state. Inland, farming crops made farmers a lot of money in the colony. Tradesmen made a fortune selling their wares.

References

Sources

Further reading
 Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War (2000). .
 Becker, Carl Lotus. The history of political parties in the province of New York, 1760–1776 (1909) online.
 Bonomi, Patricia U. A Factious People: Politics and Society in Colonial New York. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.
 Brandt, Clare. An American Aristocracy: The Livingstons (1986).
 Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in the Wilderness-The First Century of Urban Life in America 1625–1742 (1938). New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Chareleston.
 Bridenbaugh, Carl. Cities in revolt: urban life in America, 1743–1776 (1955).
 Countryman, Edward. A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760–1790 (1981).
 Doyle, John Andrew. English Colonies in America: Volume IV The Middle Colonies (1907) online ch 1–6.
 Fogleman, Aaron. Hopeful Journeys: German Immigration, Settlement, and Political Culture in Colonial America, 1717–1775 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996) online
 Hodges, Graham Russell Gao. Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863 (2005).
 Jacobs, Jaap, and L. H. Roper, eds. The Worlds of the Seventeenth-Century Hudson Valley (State University of New York Press, 2014). xii, 265 pp.
 Kammen, Michael. Colonial New York: A History (1975).
 Ketchum, Richard, Divided Loyalties, How the American Revolution Came to New York, 2002, .
 Launitz-Schurer, Leopold, Loyal Whigs and Revolutionaries, The making of the revolution in New York, 1765–1776, 1980, .
 McGregor, Robert Kuhn. "Cultural Adaptation in Colonial New York: The Palatine Germans of the Mohawk Valley." New York History 69.1 (1988): 5.
 Nash, Gary, The Urban Crucible, The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution, 1986, .
 Nash, Gary, The Unknown American Revolution. 2005, .
 Otterness, Philip. Becoming German: The 1709 Palatine Migration to New York (2004)
 Schecter, Barnet. The Battle for New York: The City at the Heart of the American Revolution. Pimlico, 2003. .

External links

 Grant to the Lords Proprietors, Sir George Carteret, July 29, 1674
 Duke of York's Confirmation to the 24 Proprietors: March 14, 1682
 The King's Letter Recognizing the Proprietors' Right to the Soil and Government 1683
 Constitution of New York Province, 1683
 Association of the Sons of Liberty in New York, December 15, 1773
 1776 map of Province of New York
 Colonial New York Genealogy & History

States and territories established in 1664
States and territories disestablished in 1776
1664 establishments in the British Empire
1776 disestablishments in the British Empire
New York, Province of
Dominion of New England
New York
Former English colonies
Pre-statehood history of New York (state)
New York
Middle Colonies

Province of New York


Sommernächte ist ein deutscher Spielfilm aus dem Jahr 1944. René Deltgen, Suse Graf und  Ernst von Klipstein spielten unter der Regie von Karl Ritter die Hauptrollen. Arbeitstitel des Films war Ihr heimlicher Gatte.

Handlung
Der Berliner Arzt Dr. Thomas Thomas verbringt wie jedes Jahr seinen Sommerurlaub an der Masurischen Seenplatte. Hier besitzt er ein kleines Blockhaus und geht seinem Hobby, dem Angeln nach. Die Schönheit dieses Stückchens Natur gibt ihm die Kraft, die er für seinen anstrengenden Beruf braucht. Sein alter Freund Dunhus, der über den fischreichen See wacht, empfängt ihn, wie jedes Jahr, voller Freude.

Als Thomas anderentags fast schon einen besonders kapitalen Hecht an der Angel hat, ruft ihm ein Mädchen etwas zu und weg ist der Fisch. Thomas antwortet nicht gerade höflich mit einem zünftigen Fluch, achtet aber nicht weiter auf das Mädchen, sondern lehnt sich zurück und träumt ein wenig in der warmen Sonne. Gabriele, so heißt die junge Frau, ist neugierig geworden und schwimmt zu dem Mann, der so schön fluchen kann, hinüber. Und sie stellt fest, dass Thomas ein charmanter Plauderer ist, mit dem man richtig gut reden kann. Auch Thomas gefällt die junge Frau ausnehmend gut. Gabriele geht während des Gesprächs so einiges durch den Kopf, zum Beispiel, dass da wohl jemand das flüchtige Abenteuer eines Sommers suchen könnte und so lässt die Thomas beim Abschied so ganz nebenbei wissen, dass sie verheiratet sei und ihren Mann in den nächsten Tagen erwarte. Damit hat Thomas nicht gerechnet, will sich seine Enttäuschung aber nicht anmerken lassen. Gabriele, die gar nicht verheiratet ist, mobilisiert nun ihren Jugendfreund Kuno, der ebenfalls ein passionierter Angler ist, ihr zu helfen und seinen Urlaub bei ihr am See zu verbringen und die Rolle ihres Ehemannes zu übernehmen. Kuno lässt sich überreden und reist an. Mit Thomas versteht er sich auf Anhieb ausgezeichnet. Das heißt für Thomas, dass er sich noch mehr zusammenreißen muss, da seine Gefühle für Gabriele dadurch noch unmöglicher werden.

Als er Kuno beim Flirten mit der hübschen Uschi, Tochter des Rittergutsbesitzers General a. D. Brosseit erwischt, ist er ziemlich empört. Wie kann er nur, mit einer so tollen Frau an seiner Seite. Kunos Gefühle für Uschi sind aber tatsächlich ernsthafter Natur, was die verzwickte Lage, in die er sich gutmütigerweise gebracht hat, nicht gerade erleichtert. Als Uschi nämlich ganz nebenbei erfährt, dass der Mann, der so heftig mit ihr flirtet, eine Frau hat, lässt sie ihn ihre Handschrift spüren. Auch Gabriele bereut inzwischen die Komödie, die sie Thomas vorspielt. Immer mehr ist sie der Überzeugung, dass Thomas Gefühle für sie nicht flüchtiger Natur sind, sondern ernsthaft und aufrichtig. Er leidet unter der Situation. Fälschlicherweise geht sie in einer lauen Sommernacht davon aus, dass Kuno Thomas aufgeklärt habe und bleibt bei ihm. Thomas, der immer noch keine Ahnung hat, ist glücklich, und will den neu gewonnenen Freund bitten, Gabriele freizugeben.

Bis das Knäuel sich nun endgültig entwirrt und aus Thomas und Gabriele ein glückliches Paar wird und Kuno doch noch seine Uschi kriegt und sogar der alte Dunhus sich der seit fast fünfzehn Jahren um ihn werbenden Ernestine geschlagen geben muss, kommt es noch zu einigen verzwickten Situationen.

Produktion
Der Film wurde am 26. Juni 1944 in Berlin im Bezirk Tiergarten gelegenen Grenzkino B.T.L.-Lichtspiele in der Potsdamer Straße uraufgeführt. Die Dreharbeiten für den Film begannen am 25. Juni mit den Atelieraufnahmen. Mitte Juli wurde mit den Außenaufnahmen gestartet. Von Ende August bis Mitte September 1943 folgten weitere Atelieraufnahmen (Tonfilmstudio Carl Froelich, Berlin-Tempelhof, Ufastadt, Babelsberg). Gefilmt wurde im Masurischen Seengebiet, in Niedersee und in der Umgebung von Rudczanny in Ostpreußen.

Sommernächte war die letzte Inszenierung Ritters im Dritten Reich. Danach konzentrierte er sich bis April 1945 ausschließlich auf die Herstellungs(gruppen)leitung.

Produktionsfirma war die UFA-Filmkunst GmbH (Berlin) Herstellungsgruppe Karl Ritter. Die Produktionsleitung lag bei Gustav Rathje, die Aufnahmeleitung bei Willi Rother und Emanuel Kacha. Für die Bauten waren Wilhelm Vorwerg und Rudolf Linnekogel verantwortlich. Die Kostüme stammen von Gertrud Steckler und der Ton von Ernst Walter. Die Standfotos nahm Viktor von Buchstab auf.

Die Produktionskosten beliefen sich auf rund 725.000 RM. Bis Januar 1945 betrug das Einspielergebnis von Sommernächte 1.641.000 RM.

Kritik
Ein stimmungsvoller Sommerfilm, der viel von der Atmosphäre jener Urlaubstage in der masurischen Seenlandschaft auf den Zuschauer überträgt!

Siehe auch
 Liste der während der NS-Zeit im Deutschen Reich uraufgeführten deutschen Spielfilme

Weblinks

 Sommernächte Film-Bühne Jahrgang II Nr. 59

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1944
Deutscher Film
Filmkomödie
Liebesfilm
Schwarzweißfilm

Sommernächte


Karoline Kunert (* 11. Oktober 1873 in Alt Jauernick, Landkreis Schweidnitz; † 3. November 1948 in Zeitz) war eine deutsche Politikerin (SPD).

Leben
Kunert besuchte die Volksschule, arbeitete danach als Dienstmädchen und war später als Hausangestellte in Breslau tätig. Sie war von 1917 bis 1923 Vorsitzende der Breslauer Ortsgruppe des Zentralverbandes der Hausangestellten und von 1919 bis 1927 Vorstandsmitglied der AOK Breslau. Daneben hatte sie sich an der Gründung der Breslauer Arbeiterwohlfahrt beteiligt und war seit 1922 deren Vorstandsmitglied.

Kunert war seit 1916 Funktionärin der SPD und von 1921 bis 1925 Bürgerdeputierte der Stadt Breslau. Am 14. November 1925 rückte sie als Abgeordnete in den Preußischen Landtag nach, dem sie bis 1933 angehörte.

Literatur
 Ernst Kienast (Hrsg.): Handbuch für den Preußischen Landtag, Ausgabe für die 5. Wahlperiode, Berlin 1933, S. 353.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Preußischen Landtags (Freistaat Preußen)
SPD-Mitglied
Deutscher
Geboren 1873
Gestorben 1948
Frau

Karoline Kunert


Octavio Batista Maul (Petrópolis, 22 de dezembro de 1901 — 5 de abril de 1974) foi um compositor, regente e professor brasileiro. Membro-fundador da Academia Brasileira de Música.

Biografia
Ainda jovem fez seus primeiros estudo musicais junto com seu pai, e com ele fundou uma banda musical na cidade sua natal. Octávio Maul tinha ascendência familiar nos descendentes de colonos alemães que imigraram e fixaram residência na cidade de Petrópolis no século XIX, e também possuia ascendência de origem  portuguesa. Com seus irmãos formou um sexteto musical, onde tocava flauta.

Aprovado em 1919, tornou-se estudante do então Instituto Nacional de Musica, da atual Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, onde passou a ter aulas com o maestro Francisco Braga.

Para melhorar sua aprendizagem musical, viaja para  Alemanha e Bélgica em 1929 e, voltando ao Brasil, estuda com o musicólogo Guilherme Fontainha.

Em 1930, junto com a pianista Alcina Navarro, Octavio Maul cria na sua cidade natal o Instituto Musical de Petrópolis. Ainda em Petrópolis, em 1933, Maul regeu a orquestra na inauguração do Teatro D. Pedro.

Em 1934 volta ao Instituto Nacional de Musica para ter aulas com o regente Francisco Mignone; posteriormente Maul viria a dirigir os concertos musicais da Orquestra Sinfônica da Sociedade Pró-Música.

Maul, em 1940, passa a ser professor interino do Instituto Nacional de Musica, agora denominado como Escola Nacional de Música; ele seria efetivado como catedrático no cargo em 1949.

Em 1951, no Theatro Municipal do Rio de Janeiro, apresenta suas obras e dirige a orquestra sinfônica deste teatro.

Já em 1960 a Rádio MEC divulga e transmite o  Festival Octávio Maul, que foi organizado por ele mesmo com o intuito de popularizar este estilo musical erudito.

Sua obra é extensa e variada. Compôs várias obras, e esteve à frente de diferentes orquestras.

Foi membro-fundador da Academia Brasileira de Música, ocupando a cadeira nº10, tendo como patrono Cândido Ignácio da Silva.

Por ser modesto e discreto, o falecimento de Octavio Maul foi quase que desapercebido pela imprensa da época.

Homenagem
Em outubro de 1974 o Conservatório Brasileiro de Música, unidade de Brasília, promoveu o Concurso de Piano Octávio Maul, em sua memória.

Em sua homenagem um logradouro público no bairro da Samambaia, na cidade de Petrópolis recebeu a denominação de Estrada Maestro Octavio Maul, em memória ao maestro nascido na cidade.

Maestros do estado do Rio de Janeiro
Compositores eruditos do Brasil
Naturais de Petrópolis
Brasileiros de ascendência alemã
Brasileiros de ascendência portuguesa

Octavio Maul


Amasya er en by i Sortehavsregionen i det nordlige Tyrkiet med (2012) indbyggere.

Eksterne henvisninger

Byer i Tyrkiet

Amasya


A seguir é apresentada a lista das canções gravadas por Jão, um cantor e compositor brasileiro que gravou canções para quatros álbuns de estúdio, um álbum ao vivo e um extended play (EP).

Canções

Ver também
 Discografia de Jão

Jão

Lista de canções gravadas por Jão


هاكون فيوم لاي (بالنرويجية: Håkon Wium Lie) هو الرئيس التقني لبرمجيات أوبرا ابتداءً من 2006 حيث بدأ عمله فيها من 1999. وهو من الأعضاء المؤسسين في حزب القراصنة النرويجي.
هاكون هو أول مَن أدخل مصطلح صفحات الطرز المتراصة عام 1994. خدم في لرابطة الشبكة العالمية وسيرن وغيرهما. قام في عام 2005 بتقديم اختبار أسيد2 الذي قام مشروع معايير الإنترنت فيما بعد بتطويره ونشره.

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص مرتبطون بسيرن
أشخاص من هالدن
علماء حاسوب نرويجيون
مبرمجون
مبرمجون نرويجيون
مطورو ويب
مهندسون نرويجيون
مواليد 1965
مواليد في هالدن

هاكون فيوم لاي


Maybrit Nielsen (født 30. november 1968) er en tidligere håndboldspiller fra Danmark. Hun var stregspiller og en del af de danske landshold, der vandt VM 1997.

Karriere

Maybrit Nielsen spillede for FIF (1990-1992, 1994-1998), Ajax (1998-1999), ZVH Wiener Neustadt (1999-2000) og Virum-Sorgenfri (2000-2001) og nåede 39 kampe og 45 mål på landsholdet.

Efter den aktive karriere var hun håndboldtræner, først i Albertslund IF, og senere i sin gamle klub, FIF.

Privat
Hun er uddannet pædagog på Katrinedals skole i Vanløse, og har arbejdet med familieintegration.

Referencer

Håndboldspillere fra Danmark

Maybrit Nielsen


Nikita Sergeyeviç Kruşçev (Rusça: Никита Сергеевич Хрущёв , d. 17 Nisan 1894, Kalinovka, Ukrayna, Rus İmparatorluğu - ö. 11 Eylül 1971, Moskova),  Sovyet devlet adamı ve Sovyetler Birliği Komünist Partisi Birinci Sekreteri. Doğru okunuşu ve Türkçe yazım kurallarına göre soyadının doğru yazılışı Hruşçov olmasına rağmen, Türkçeye İngilizce Khrushchev kelimesinin okunuşu olan Kruşçev kelimesi geçmiş ve yaygınlık kazanmıştır.

Yaşamı
17 Nisan 1894'te Rusya'nın Kalinovka kasabasında dünyaya geldi. Babası maden işçisiydi. Doğduğu köyde öğrenim gördükten sonra ailesiyle birlikte Donetsk Kömür Havzası'ndaki madencilik ve sanayi merkezi Yuzovka'ya geçti. Burada 15 yaşında boru tesisatçısı olarak çalışmaya başladı. 1917 Ekim Devrimi'nden önce işçi örgütlerinde görev aldı. 1918'de Rusya Komünist (Bolşevik) Partisi'ne üye oldu. Ocak 1919'da Kızıl Ordu'ya katıldı. 1922'de Yuzovka'da yeni açılan bir işçi okuluna girerek orta öğrenimle birlikte parti eğitimi gördü. Okuldaki parti komitesinin sekreterliğine getirildi. 1925'te Yuzovka'daki Petrovski-Mariinsk ilçesinin parti sekreteri oldu. Aktif çalışmaları ile parti ileri gelenlerinin dikkatini çekti. Moskova'da toplanan 14. Parti Kongresi'ne katıldı. 1929'da Moskova'daki Stalin Sanayi Akademisi'ne kabul edilerek metalurji öğrenimi gördü. Parti içindeki çalışmalarına da devam eden Kruşçev 1933'te Moskova Bölge Komitesi İkinci Sekreterliği'ne yükseldi. 1935'te Moskova parti örgütünün birinci sekreteri oldu. Komünist Parti'nin 17. Kongre'sinde, Merkez Komitesi'nin tam üyeliğine seçildi. Aynı yıl Yüksek Sovyet Prezidyumu yedek üyeliğine getirildi. 1938'de politbüro aday üyesi oldu. Ertesi yıl politbüronun tam üyesi oldu. 1943'te Stalin'in politik temsilcisi olarak Stalingrad Kuşatması'nda Sovyet Kuvvetleri'ne komuta etti. 1944'te Ukrayna Meclisinin başkanlığına getirildi. 1946'da meydana gelen büyük kıtlık sırasında gıda maddelerinin dağıtımında Stalin'in isteği doğrultusunda hareket etmediği için bir süre gözden düştü. 1949'da yeniden Moskova parti örgütünün başına getirildi. Aynı zamanda Komünist Parti Merkez Komitesi Sekreteri oldu. 1949-53 döneminde diğer parti yöneticileri gibi sık sık Stalin'in siyasi oyunlarıyla karşılaştı. 1953'te Stalin'in ölümünden sonra Komünist Parti birinci sekreteri oldu. Devlet kurumlarını yöneten Başbakan Georgi Malenkov ile bir süre rekabet etti. 1955'te Malenkov'u başbakanlıktan uzaklaştırarak yerine kendi adayı Nikolay Bulganin'i getirdi.

Mayıs 1955'te ilk dış gezisini Bulganin'le birlikte Yugoslavya'ya yaptı. Daha sonra, Cenevre, Afganistan ve Hindistan'a yaptığı gezilerde dışa dönük ve esnek bir politika izlediğini gösterdi. Şubat 1956'da Moskova'da toplanan 20. Parti Kongresinde yaptığı Gizli Söylev'de iktidarın tek kişide toplanmasını eleştirerek Stalin'i acımasızlık, hoşgörüsüzlük ve iktidarı kötüye kullanmakla suçladı. Stalin'in yanılmaz lider imajını yıkmaya yönelik bir Stalincilikten uzaklaşma kampanyası başlattı. Bu süreç ve politika destalinizasyon olarak adlandırıldı ve tarihe geçti. Binlerce siyasi tutukluyu serbest bıraktı. Bu dönem aynı zamanda Kruşçev çözülmesi olarak da anılmaktadır. Stalincilikten arınma hareketi Doğu Avrupa'daki sosyalist ülkelerde de önemli gelişmelere yol açtı. Polonya ve Macaristan'da ayaklanmalar meydana geldi. Doğu Avrupa'daki bu gerginlikler Kruşçev'e karşı muhalefetin güçlenmesine sebep oldu. 1957'de Kruşçev'in görevden uzaklaştırılması gündeme geldi. Politbüroda yapılan bir oylama aleyhine sonuçlandıysa da kendisinin Merkez Komitesi tarafından seçildiğini ve ancak bu organın görevden alabileceğini söyleyip Moskova'ya çağırmış olduğu Merkez Komitesi üyeleriyle hemen toplantıya geçerek görevde kalmayı başardı. 1958'de başbakanlığı da üstlendi. 1959'da 21. Parti Kongresi'nde kapitalist ülkelerle barışçıl bir yarış içinde olmayı önerdi. 1958 yılında ABD ile SSCB arasında imzalanan kültürel bir anlaşma sonucu 1959'da karşılıklı olarak her iki ülkede açılan sergilerden  Moskova'da yapılan ikincisi sırasında ABD Başkan Yardımcısı Richard Nixon ile ünlü Mutfak Tartışması'nı yaptı. ABD'ye yaptığı ziyaret sonrasında Mayıs 1960'ta iki ülke liderinin Paris'te yaptığı zirveye katıldı.

1961'de ABD Başkanı John F. Kennedy ile Viyana'da yapılan zirve toplantısına katıldı. Bu görüşmeden kısa süre sonra Berlin Duvarı inşa edildi. 1962'de Küba'ya orta menzilli füzeler yerleştirmeye girişti. ABD ile uzlaşmaya varılması üzerine füzeleri kaldırmayı kabul etti. Bu uzlaşma sebebiyle Çin ile SSCB'nin arası açıldı. Çin lideri Mao Zedong (Tse Tung) tarafından sert bir şekilde eleştirilen Kruşçev ihtiyaç maddelerinin karşılanması yönünde halktan gelen baskıları ve aydınların düşünce özgürlüklerinin genişletilmesi yönündeki isteklerini dikkate aldı. Fakat yönetimdeki gücünün azalacağı endişesiyle bilim insanlarına ve aydınlara karşı sert önlemlere de başvurdu. 1958'de Boris Pasternak'ın Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'nü almasına izin vermedi.

Dış politikada hem sosyalist, hem kapitalist ülkelerle ilişkilerin geliştirilmesi için çaba gösteren Kruşçev konvansiyonel silahları azaltarak nükleer füzeleri geliştirme çabaları nedeniyle Sovyet askeri yetkililerinin sert muhalefetine hedef oldu. Uyguladığı tarım politikasında başarısız oldu.

SBKP Merkez Komitesi Sekreteri Mihail Suslov, Kruşçev'in politikalarının giderek kritik bir hale geldiğini, uzlaşmaz tavır sergilediğini ve Stalin dönemindeki parti üyelerinin çoğunu tasfiye etmeye çalıştığını fark ederek Kruşçev'e karşı muhalefeti örgütledi. Dış politikada da ikili arasında ciddi anlaşmazlıklar ortaya çıktı. Kruşçev'in ABD ile ilişkilerin geliştirilmesi politikasına karşı Suslov Yugoslavya ile yakınlaşmanın doğru olacağını savunuyordu. Destalinizasyonun yıkıcı bir nitelik kazandığını ve ekonomide sosyalist ilkelerin tersine hareket edildiğini söylüyordu. Kruşçev'e karşı Mihail Suslov önderliğinde Moskova hizbi olarak adlandırılan muhalefet hareketi gittikçe güçlendi. 1960 yılında yaşanan U-2 krizi ve 1962'deki Küba Füze Krizi genel sekreterin gücünü büyük ölçüde zayıflattı. SBKP Merkez Komitesi Sekreteri Mihail Suslov 1964'te Kruşçev'in görevden alınması teklifinde bulundu. 14 Ekim 1964'te yapılan Merkez Komitesi toplantısında Kruşçev ileri yaşı ve bozulan sağlığı nedeniyle Komünist Parti genel sekreterliğinden istifa ettiğini açıkladı.

11 Eylül 1971'de Moskova'da öldü. Ölümü halka 48 saat geçtikten sonra haber verildi. Devlet töreni yapılmadan Moskova'da Novodeviçiy Manastırı Mezarlığı'na gömüldü.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Çin-Sovyet ayrılığı
 Komünizmin 20 yılı
 Kruşçev'in Anıları
 Kruşçev çözülmesi
 Kruşçevcilik

Kaynakça

1894 doğumlular
1971 yılında ölenler

20. yüzyıl liderleri
Rus ateistler
Ukraynalı komünistler
Sovyetler Birliği devlet başkanları
Soğuk Savaş'ta liderler
Lenin Barış Ödülü
Destalinizasyon
Moskova'da defnedilenler
Sovyetler Birliği kahramanları
Bolşevikler
Kızıl Bayrak İşçi Nişanı sahipleri
Askerî darbe ile devrilen liderler
Novodeviçi Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Lenin Barış Ödülü sahipleri
Ateist siyasetçiler
Ateist devlet başkanları
Time Yılın Kişisi
Din eleştirmenleri

Nikita Kruşçev


Glenea discoidalis é uma espécie de escaravelho da família Cerambycidae. Foi descrita por Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe em 1867. É conhecida a sua existência na Malásia e Bornéu.

Referências

Borneo catalog 2005

discoidalis
Coleópteros descritos em 1867

Glenea discoidalis


Denis Herlin est un musicologue français, né le  à Sainte-Adresse (Seine-Maritime).

Biographie
Denis Herlin naît le .

Il obtient une licence d'histoire et de grec à l'Université de Paris IV-Sorbonne en 1982 et 1983 et étudie en parallèle au Conservatoire de Boulogne-Billancourt, dont il est diplômé d'analyse, en 1984, et d'histoire de la musique, en 1986. Il travaille également le piano et le clavecin, auprès de Kenneth Gilbert, Huguette Dreyfus, Noëlle Spieth et Davitt Moroney, notamment.

Denis Herlin suit les séminaires de François Lesure à l'École pratique des hautes études, où il obtient un DEA en 1990, puis un doctorat, avec une thèse consacrée à L'histoire des Nocturnes de Claude Debussy.

Depuis 1993, il est chercheur au CNRS, rédacteur en chef adjoint à partir de 1995 de l'édition des Œuvres complètes de Claude Debussy aux Éditions Durand-Salabert-Eschig, avant d'en être le rédacteur en chef depuis 2002.

Entre 2009 et 2011, il est président de la Société française de musicologie, et titulaire de l'International Chair in Musicology au Royal Northern College of Music de Manchester entre 2017 et 2023.

Denis Herlin est directeur de recherche au Centre national de la recherche scientifique (IReMUS). Ses travaux portent essentiellement sur Claude Debussy et sur la musique française des , particulièrement la musique de clavecin.

Publications

Ouvrages

 .

Vie privée
Il est marié avec Marie-France Giret, pianiste et professeur de musique de chambre, et a 2 filles.

Notes et références

Liens externes

 Page sur le site du groupe de recherche IReMUS
 Page sur le site des éditions musicales Symétrie

Naissance en février 1961
Musicologue français du XXe siècle
Musicologue français du XXIe siècle
Directeur de recherche au CNRS

Denis Herlin


හරිතාගාර වායු යනු වායුගෝලයේ ඇති වායූන් වන අතර ඒවා මගින් අභ්‍යාවකාශයට තාපය ගලායාම අඩු කරති. එමගින් ගෝලීය උෂ්ණත්වය වැඩිවීමට දායක වන අතර එය හරිතාගාර ආචරණය නම් වේ. හරිතාගාර වායු පෘථිවියේ උෂ්ණත්වය පවත්වා ගෙන යාමට අත්‍යවශ්‍ය වේ. එම වායූන්ගේ බලපෑම නැති වුවහොත් පෘථිවිය නියමිත කාල සීමාවට පෙර ඉතා ශීත වීමට හැක. එසේම හරිතාගාර වායූන්ගේ වැඩිවීමද පෘථිවියේ මාරක තත්ත්වයට උෂ්ණත්වය ඉහළ නැංවීමට හැකි වන අතර, වායුගෝලීය කාබන්ඩයෙක්සයිඩ් ප්‍රතිශතය 9651% වන සිකුරු ග්‍රහයාගේ මතුපිට උෂ්ණත්වය 4670C (8720f) වේ.
විවිධ ස්වභාවික හා කාර්මික ක්‍රියාවලීන් මගින් හරිතාගාර වායු නිපදවෙයි මෑත කාලීන වායුගෝලීය CO2 මට්ටම 380 ppmv වේ.

අයිස් මධ්‍යස්ථ පාදක වුණු සාම්පල සහ වර්තාවල කාලීන CO2 මට්ටම පූර්ව කාර්මික අවධියට ආසන්නම කාලය තුළ මට්ටමට වඩා 100 ppmv විය. ඒ කාලය තුළ මිනිස් බලපෑම නොසලකා හැරිය හැකි තරම් වේ.

හරිතාගාර වායු සහ හරිතාගාර ආචරණය
වායු ගෝලයෙහි හරිතාගාර වායු මගින් ඇති කරනු ලබන අවශෝෂක තිරූවල රටාවන් සහ සුර්යය විකිරණය හා ඉහළයන තාප විකිරණය මගින් ඒව‍ායේ බලපෑම

සුර්යයා ලෝකය පෘතුවි පෘෂ්ඨයට ළගා වන විට එයින් කොටසක් අවශෝෂණය වී පෘථිවි පෘෂ්ඨය උණුසුම් කරනු ලබයි. පෘතුවි පෘෂ්ඨය සුර්යයාගේ පෘෂ්ඨයට වඩා බොහෝ සිසිල් නිසා එමඟින් සුර්යයාට වඩා දිගු තරංග ආයාමයක් සහිතව ශක්තිය විකිරණය කරනු ලබයි. එනම් උපරිමය මයික්‍රෝමිටර් 10 ක් පමණ වු අධෝරක්ත විකිරණ වේ. වා‍යුගෝලය මගින් සුර්යයා මගින් නිකුත් කරන කෙටි කරංග ආයාමයක් සහිත තරංගවලට වඩා පෘථිවිය මඟින් නිකුත් කරන දිගු තරංග ආයාමයක් සහිත තාපය අවශෝෂණය කරනු ලබයි. මෙලෙස අවශෝෂණය කර ගන්නා ශක්තිය මගින් වායු ගෝලය උණුසුම් කරනු ලබන අතර එය පෘථිවි පෘෂ්ඨයෙන් නිකුත් කරන සංවේදී වෙනත් තාපයන් මගින්ද උණුසුම් වේ. හරිතාගාර වායු මගින් දිගු තරංග ආයාම සහිත විකිරණ වර්ග අභ්‍යවකාශයේ ඉහළට සහ පෘථිවි පෘෂ්ඨය වෙතටද නිකුත් කරනු ලබයි. මෙලෙස පහලට නිකුත් කරන දිගු තරංග ආයාම සහිත විකිරණ මගින් හරිතා‍ගර ආචරණය ඇති කරනු ලබයි. මෙම යෙදුම ඇතැම් අවස්ථාවලදී මත භේදාත්මක වනුයේ මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය නියම හරිතාගාරවල උෂ්ණත්වය ඉහළ නැංවීමට යොදා ගනු ලබන ක්‍රියාවලිය නොවන බැවිනි.

පෘතුවිය මත ඒවායෙහි බහුලතාවය අනුව වඩාත් සුලභ හරිතාගාර වායුන් නම්
	ජල වාෂ්ප
	කාබන්ඩයොක්සයිඩ්
	මීතේන්
	නයිට්‍රස් ඔක්සයිඩ්
	ඕසෝන්
	CFC

වඩාත්ම ශක්තිමත් හරිතාගාර වායූන් නම්
	ජල වාෂ්ප - මෙමගින් 36% – 70% අතර ප්‍රමාණයක හරිතාගාර ආචරණයක් පොළොව මත ඇති කරනු ලබයි.
	කාබන්ඩයොක්සයිඩ් - 9% - 26%
	මීතෙන් - 4% - 9%
	ඕසෝන් - 3% - 7%

ඇතැම් වායූන් මගින් යම්කිසි ප්‍රමාණයක හරිතාගාර ආචරණයක් ඇති කරන බවට ප්‍රකාශ කිරීම අපහසු වේ. එසේ වන්නේ හරිතාගාර ආචරණය ඇති වීම වායු වර්ග කිහිපයක එකතුවෙන් සිදු වන බැවිනි. අනෙකුත් හරිතාගාර වායූන් නම් නයිට්‍රික්ඔක්සයිඩ්, සල්ෆර්හෙක්සාෆ්ලුවොරයිඩ්, හයිඩ්‍රෝෆුලුවොරෝකාබන් සහ ක්ලෝරෝෆ්ලෝරෝකාබන් (වැඩිදුර විස්තර සඳහා හරිතාගාර වායු IPCC ලැයිස්තුව බලන්න)

වායුගෝලයෙහි ප්‍රධාන සංඝටකයන් වන නයිට්‍රජන් සහ ඔක්සිජන් වායු හරිතාගාර වායූන් නොවේ. මෙසේ වන්නේ එකම පරමාණු වර්ගයකින් අන්තර්ගත ද්වි අණුක නයිට්‍රජන් සහ ඔක්සිජන් වැනි වායු වර්ග අධෝරක්ත විකිරණ අවශෝෂණය හෝ මුදාහැරීමක් සිදු නොකරන බැවිනි. එසේ වන්නේ මෙකී අණු කම්පනය වීමේදී එහි ද්විධ්‍රැවීය චලිතයෙහි ශුද්ධ වෙනස් වීමක් ඇති නොවන බැවිනි. අණුක කම්පනයන් සිදු වන්නේ අධෝරක්ත කිරණවල ෆෝටෝනවල සංඛ්‍යාතවලට සමාන වූ ශක්තීන්ගේ වෙයි. විෂම න්‍යෂ්ටික ද්වී පරමාණුක අණු වන කාබන්මොනොක්සයිඩ් හි හයිඩ්‍රජන් ක්ලෝරයිඩ් වැනි අණු අධෝරක්ත කිරණ අවශෝෂණය කරගන්නා අතර ඒවා වායු ගෝලයෙහි ඉතා කෙටි කාලයක් පවතියි. මේ හේතුවෙන් ඒවා කැපී පෙනෙන ලෙස හරිතාගාර ආචරණය වෙත බලපෑමක් ඇති නොකරයි.

19 වන ශත වර්ෂය අගභාගයේදී සිදු කරන ලද පරීක්ෂණවලින් සොයා ගන්නා ලද්දේ නයිට්‍රජන් සහ ඔක්සිජන් අධෝරක්ත කිරණ අවශෝෂණය කර නොගන්නා බවත් කාබන් ඩයෝක්සයිටඩ් වැනි වෙනත් වායූන් අධෝරක්ත කිරණ අවශෝෂණය කර ගන්නා බවත්ය. 20 වන ශත වර්ෂයේ මුල භාගයේදී සොයා ගන්නා ලද පරිදි ප්‍රධානතම හරිතාගාර වායු පෘථිවියේ උෂ්ණත්වය සැලකිය යුතු ලෙස ඉහළ නැංවීමට දායක වී ඇත.

හරිතාගාර වායු පිටවීම
ඇන්ටාටිකාවේ අයිස් හරයන්ගෙන් ලබාගත් මිණුම් පෙන්ණුම් කරන පරිදි කාර්මික වායු විමෝචනය ආරම්භයට ඉතා ආසන්න කාලයකදී වායුගෝලීය CO2 ප්‍රමාණය පරිමාව කොටස් දශලක්ෂයකට 280 පමණ විය. (ppm – ඒකක uL/L ලෙසට ඇතැම් විට භාවිතා වන අතර, පරිමා කොටස් දශලක්ෂ්‍යයකට කොටස් ලෙස භාවිතා වේ) එම සාම්පල වලින්ම ලබාගත් දත්ත පෙන්නුම් කරන්නේ ඊට ෙපර වර්ෂ 10000ක පමණ කාලයක් තුල CO2 සාන්ද්‍රනය 260 සිට 280 ppm අතර ප්‍රමාණයේ පැවති බවයි.

ෆොසිල වූ ශාක පත්‍රවල සාක්ෂි අධ්‍යයනයකදී යෝජනා වූයේ වර්ෂ 7000 – 10 000 පමණ පෙර CO2 මට්ටම විශාල වෙනස් වීමක් පෙන්ණුම් කර අතර එය 300 ppm ට වඩා ඉහළ වූ බවය. කෙසේ වෙතත් අනිත් තර්කය වූයේ මෙම සොයා ගැනීම් වල ක්‍රමාංකනය සහ අපවිත්‍රනය යන ප්‍රශ්න, සත්‍යය CO2 විචලතාවය පිළිබඳව ප්‍රශ්නයට වඩා වැඩියෙන් ඉපිල්ලී පෙනෙන බවයි.

කාර්මික විප්ලවය ඇරඹීමෙන් පසු හරිතාගාර වායු වර්ග කිහිපයක්ම වැඩි වීමක් පෙන්නුම් කළ අතර CO2 සාන්ද්‍රණය 100 ppm පමණ වැඩි විය. (280 ppm සිට 380 ppm) ප්‍රථම 50 ppm නැග්ම සිදුවී ඇත්තේ කාර්මික විප්ලවය ආරම්භයේ සිට1973 දක්වා වූ වසර 200 ක කාළය තුළය. ඊළග 50 ppm නැග්ම අවු 33 ක් තුළදී සිදු විය . ඒ 1973 සිට 2006 කාලය තුළය. බොහෝ නිරීක්ෂණයන් අන්තර්ජාල වායුගෝලීය රසායනික නිරීක්ෂණ දත්ත ගබඩා දැකිය හැක.

හරිතාගාර වායු


Afroedura ist eine Gattung der Schuppenkriechtiere aus der Familie der Geckos (Gekkonidae).

Merkmale
Die Tiere zeichnen sich durch einen extrem flachen Körperbau aus. Selbst bei der größten Art Afroedura hawaquensis ist der Körper an keiner Stelle mehr als 10 mm hoch. Größere Arten dieser Gattung können eine Gesamtlänge von bis zu 14 cm erreichen. Die Tiere sind meist grau oder braun gefärbt, zum Teil mit dunklen Querbändern. Da die Haftlamellen an den Füßen eine große Übereinstimmung mit denen der australischen Gattung Oedura aufweisen, wurden die Arten der Gattung Afroedura früher in diese Gattung eingeordnet.

Verbreitung und Lebensweise
Das Verbreitungsgebiet dieser Gattung erstreckt sich vom südlichen Afrika nördlich bis Angola.
Die Tiere sind nachtaktive Felsbewohner der Trockensavanne und ernähren sich von Insekten. Tagsüber verstecken sie sich in Felsspalten, in denen auch die Eier abgelegt werden.

Arten
Die Gattung Afroedura umfasst derzeit 28 rezente Arten:

 Afroedura africana (, 1888)
 Afroedura amatolica (, 1925)
 Afroedura bogerti , 1944
 Afroedura broadleyi , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura gorongosa , , , , , ,  & , 2017
 Afroedura granitica , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura haackei , 1984
 Afroedura halli (, 1935)
 Afroedura hawequensis  & , 1985
 Afroedura karroica (, 1925)
 Afroedura langi (, 1930)
 Afroedura leoloensis , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura loveridgei , 1963
 Afroedura major , 1984
 Afroedura maripi , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura marleyi (, 1930)
 Afroedura multiporis (, 1925)
 Afroedura namaquensis (, 1938)
 Afroedura nivaria (, 1894)
 Afroedura pienaari , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura pondolia (, 1925)
 Afroedura pongola , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura rondavelica , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura rupestris , ,  & , 2014
 Afroedura tembulica (, 1926)
 Afroedura tirasensis , 1965
 Afroedura transvaalica (, 1925)
 Afroedura waterbergensis , ,  & , 2014

Literatur
 Friedrich Wilhelm Henkel, Wolfgang Schmidt: Geckos. Biologie, Haltung, Zucht (= DATZ-Terrarienbücher.). 2., völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage. Ulmer, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8001-3854-9.
 Herbert Rösler: Geckos der Welt. Alle Gattungen. Urania-Verlag, Leipzig u. a. 1995, ISBN 3-332-00549-9.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Geckos
Gekkonidae

Afroedura


Bipinnula, rod orhideja iz tribusa Chloraeeae, dio potporodice Orchidoideae. Postoji 10 priznatih vrsta s juga Brazila, sjeveroistočne Argentine, Urugvaja i Čilea.

Vrste
 Bipinnula biplumata (L.f.) Rchb.f.
 Bipinnula fimbriata (Poepp.) I.M.Johnst.
 Bipinnula gabriel P.A.Bravo & G.M.Baeza
 Bipinnula gibertii Rchb.f.
 Bipinnula montana Arechav.
 Bipinnula penicillata (Rchb.f.) Cisternas & Salazar
 Bipinnula plumosa Lindl.
 Bipinnula polysyka Kraenzl.
 Bipinnula taltalensis I.M.Johnst.
 Bipinnula volkmannii Kraenzl.

Sinonimi
 Geoblasta Barb.Rodr.
 Jouyella Szlach.

Izvori

Chloraeeae

Bipinnula


Drygalski ist ein Einschlagkrater im äußersten Südosten der Mondvorderseite, südlich des Kraters Hausen und südöstlich von Zeeman.
Der Kraterrand ist mäßig erodiert, das Innere eben mit einem ausgeprägten Zentralberg.

Der Krater wurde 1964 von der IAU nach dem deutschen Geographen und Polarforscher Erich von Drygalski offiziell benannt.

Weblinks

 Drygalski auf The-Moon Wiki

Einzelnachweise

Einschlagkrater (Mond)
Erich von Drygalski

Drygalski (Mondkrater)


This is a list of legendary creatures from mythology, folklore and fairy tales, sorted by their classification or affiliation. Creatures from modern fantasy fiction and role-playing games are not included.

Animals, creatures associated with

Aquatic and marine mammals

Arthropods

Bats
 Balayang (Australian Aboriginal) – Bat-god and brother to Bunjil
 Camazotz (Mayan) – Bat spirit and servant of the lords of the underworld
 Leutogi (Polynesian) – Samoan princess rescued by bats
 Minyades (Greek) – Three sisters who refused to take part in the worship of Dionysus, and turned into bats by Hermes.
 Tjinimin (Australian Aboriginal) – Ancestor of the Australian people
 Vetala (Hindu) – Vampiric entity that takes over cadavers.

Birds

Carnivorans

Bears
 Bugbear (Celtic) – child-eating hobgoblin
 Callisto (Greek) – A nymph who was turned into a bear by Hera.

Canines

Felines

Hyenas
 Werehyena
 Kishi – cannibalistic two-faced demon, half-human half-hyena (Africa)

Musteloids, mongoose and civets

Procyonids
Azeban  is a lower-level trickster spirit in Abenaki mythology. The traditional homeland of the Abenaki is Wobanakik (Place of the Dawn), what is now called northern New England and southern Quebec. Azeban (also spelled Azban, Asban or Azaban) is a raccoon, the Abenaki trickster figure. Pronounced ah-zuh-bahn. Azeban does many foolish and/or mischievous things in Abenaki folktales, but unlike animal tricksters in some other tribes, is not dangerous or malevolent.

Fish

Insectivores
 Lavellan A Lavellan, làbh-allan, la-mhalan or la-bhallan etc. is a mythological creature from northern Scotland. It was generally considered to be a kind of rodent, and indeed the name "làbh-allan" is also used for a water shrew or water vole in Scottish Gaelic. It was however, reportedly larger than a rat, very noxious, and lived in deep pools in rivers. Its poisonous abilities were legendary, and it was said to be able to injure cattle over a hundred feet away.

Marsupials
 Drop Bear
 Bunyip  (Australian Aboriginal)

Molluscs
 Akkorokamui – octopus monster (Ainu, Japan)
 Carbuncle (Chilote) – one of its many descriptions is a luminescent bivalve
 Lou Carcolh – A giant, man-eating snail with fur and tentacles (France)
 Kraken – squid monster (Worldwide)
 Shen – A clam-dragon that creates mirages and fata morgana at sea (China)

Primates

Rabbits and hares

Reptiles, Limbed

Reptiles, Serpents and Worms

Rodents

Ungulates

Antelopes and deer

Bovines

Camelids
 Allocamelus – A donkey-headed camel.
 Heavenly Llama

Caprids

Equines

Pachyderms

See List of elephants in mythology and religion

Pigs and boars
 Calydonian Boar
 Erymanthian Boar
 Zhu Bajie

Xenarthrans
 Mapinguari

Megafauna
See  List of megafauna in mythology and folklore

Giants
See  List of giants in mythology and folklore

Artificial creatures
This listing includes creatures that are man-made, mechanical or of alchemical origins.

Body parts, creatures associated with

Blood

Bone
 Bloody Bones
 Gashadokuro
 Grim Reaper
 Skeleton

Eye

One-eyed

Face
 Asura
 Deva / Devi
 Noppera-bō

Hair
 Futakuchi-onna
 Harionago
 Mavka
 Medusa

Head

Limbs

Mouth
 Futakuchi-onna
 Kuchisake-onna

Skin
 Selkie
 Skin-walker
 Swan maiden

Tail
 Bakeneko
 Kitsune
 Yamata no Orochi
 Kumiho
 Hulder
 Nguruvilu

Neck

 Serpopard
 Rokurokubi
 Vampire

Torso

 Manananggal
 Geryon

Abdomen
 Pixiu

Concepts, creatures associated with

Battle, Vengeance, Violence, and War

Birth and Rebirth
 Phoenix
 Ubume

Death and Immortality

Dream, the Mind, and Sleep

Evil Eye and Sight

Fertility and Human Sexuality

Fortune, Luck, and Wealth

Light
Angel
Chalkydri
Deity
Lampetia
Will-o'-the-wisp
Dragon

Love and Romance

Sound
 Banshee
 Encantado
 Fenghuang
 Fossegrim
 Mermaid
 Nue
 Siren

Speech
Note: see Talking animal
 Gef
 Satan

Time and Technology
 Chronos
 Father Time
 Gremlin

Wisdom
 Baba Yaga
 Bai Ze
 Griffin
 Salmon of Wisdom
 Sphinx
 Valravn

Demons
 See list of theological demons

Elements, creatures associated with

Aether

Air and wind
 Ala
 Elemental
 Feldgeister
 Zduhać
See also:  List of flying mythological creatures

Darkness

Earth and subterranean

Fire

Light and rainbow

Metal and gold

Thunder and lightning

Water

Habitats, creatures associated with

Cave and underground

Celestial and heaven

Desert

Temperate forest and woodland

Tropical forest and jungle

Temperate grassland and garden
 Fairy
 Gnome

Savanna
 Ennedi tiger
 Werehyena

Lake and river

Mountain and hill

Sea

Swamp and marsh

Volcano and lava
 Cherufe
 Phoenix
 Salamander

Polar, ice, and winter

Urban and house

Underworld and hell

Humanoids
See Mythic humanoids

Hybrids
See List of hybrid creatures

Astronomical objects, creatures associated with

Sun
 Chalkydri beings from the Second Book of Enoch
 Kua Fu a giant in China
 Three-legged bird in China, Japan
 Phoenix in Greek Mythology

Moon
 Jade rabbit
 Werewolf
 Werejaguar
 Alien

Constellation

World
 World Elephant
 World Tree
 World Turtle
See also: List of mythological places

Creatures associated with Plants

Shapeshifters
See List of shapeshifters

Creatures associated with Times

Day and diurnal

Night and nocturnal

Undead

See also: :Category:Ghosts, and Ghosts in Hindu Mythology – Bhoot, Baital & Pishacha

Corporeal

Miscellaneous

References

 *
legendary creatures by types

List of legendary creatures by type


La  du Grand Prix Eco-Struct a lieu le . La course fait partie du calendrier international féminin UCI 2022 en catégorie 1.1. Elle est remportée par la Néerlandaise Charlotte Kool.

Équipes

Récit de la course
Charlotte Kool, lancée par Lorena Wiebes, remporte la course au sprint.

Classements

Classement final

Points UCI

Notes et références

Liens externes

Compétition cycliste en Belgique
Compétition cycliste féminine
Cyclisme en Belgique en 2022
Cyclisme sur route en 2022
Cyclisme en mai 2022

Grand Prix Eco-Struct 2022


Marion Welter (* 1965 in Luxemburg) ist eine luxemburgische Sängerin.

Leben
Nach ihrer Gesangsausbildung am Conservatoire de musique in Luxemburg sang sie bei diversen Gruppen im Bereich Jazz, Pop und Folklore. Sie wurde ausgewählt, Luxemburg beim Eurovision Song Contest 1992 in Malmö zu vertreten. Mit dem luxemburgischsprachigen Schlager Sou fräi (dt.: So frei), welcher von Jang Linster komponiert wurde, zusammen mit der Band Kontinent konnte sie nur den drittletzten Platz erreichen. Vor und während ihres Auftritts hatte sie einen akuten Anfall von Malaria, der ihr wie schwere Migräne vorkam. Sie hatte sich bei einem Kenia-Urlaub im Jahr 1990 mit Malaria angesteckt.

Sie blieb der Musik treu und tritt weiterhin mit Bands oder auf Musical-Galas auf.

Einzelnachweise

Sänger
Musiker (Luxemburg)
Interpret eines luxemburgischen Beitrags beim Eurovision Song Contest
Geboren 1965
Frau
Luxemburger

Marion Welter


Club Nacional (eller bare Nacional) er en paraguayansk fodboldklub fra hovedstaden Asunción. Klubben spiller i landets bedste liga, Primera División de Paraguay, og har hjemmebane på stadionet Estadio Arsenio Erico. Klubben blev grundlagt den 5. juni 1904, og har siden da vundet ni mesterskaber.

Titler
 Paraguayansk mesterskab (9): 1909, 1911, 1924, 1926, 1942, 1946, 2009 Clausura, 2011 Apertura, 2013 Apertura.

Kendte spillere
{| width=100%
 Manuel Fleitas Solich (1918–1927)
  Arsenio Erico (1930–1933, 1947–1949)
   Heriberto Herrera (~1950)
  Modesto Sandoval (1965–1968)
  Roberto Acuña (1989–1993)
  Óscar Cardozo (2004–2006)

Danske spillere
  Ingen

Eksterne henvisninger

 Klubbens officielle hjemmeside

Fodboldklubber i Paraguay
Etableret i 1904
Asunción

Club Nacional