Matematikte, Riemann toplamı genellikle fonksiyon eğrisinin altında kalan bölgenin yaklaşık alanıdır. Bu toplama, Alman matematikçi Bernhard Riemann'ın soyadı verilmiştir.

Toplama işlemi, bölgenin farklı şekillere bölünüp (dikdörtgenler ya da yamuklar) birlikte, fonksiyonun ölçülen bölgesine benzer bir alan çıkartılması, ardından da her bir şeklin alanının hesaplanması ve son olarak bütün bu küçük alanların toplanmasından oluşur. Böyle bir uzlaşım belirli integrallerin sayısal hesaplanmasında kullanılabilir. Ayrıca hesabın temel teoremi kapalı tür integral yazımına izin vermediği zaman da kullanılabilir.

Küçük şekillerle doldurulmuş bölgenin alanı tam olarak, ölçülmek istenen alana eşit olmadığı için Riemann toplamı gerçek alandan daha farklı çıkar. Bu hata, bölgeyi daha da küçük şekillere bölmekle giderilebilir. Şekiller küçüldükçe toplam, Riemann integraline yaklaşır.

Tanım
f : D → R fonksiyonunu reel sayılar, R, kümesinin D altkümesinde tanımlayalım. I = [a, b] ise D altkümesinde tanımlı kapalı bir aralık olsun ve

olarak I aralığının bir kesiti olsun, ve de
 olsun.
f fonksiyonun I altkümesindeki P kesiti Riemann toplamı şöyle tanımlanır:

Burada şuna dikkat edilmelidir ki,  değeri,  aralığında isteğe bağlı bir değerdir, yani herhangi bir f fonksiyonu için farklı Riemann toplamları üretilebilir, yeter ki  şartı sağlansın.

Örnek: nin değişik seçimleri, farklı Riemann toplamları verir:
 Eğer, bütün i değerleri için  ise, o zaman S sol Riemann toplamı olur.
 Eğer, bütün i değerleri için  ise, o zaman S sağ Riemann toplamı olur.
 Eğer, bütün i değerleri için  ise, o zaman da S orta değer Riemann toplamı olur.
 Sol ve sağ Riemann toplamlarının ortalaması ise yamuklu toplama olur.
 Eğer şöyle bir ifade verilmişse

burada ,  aralığında f fonksiyonunun supremum noktasıysa , o zaman S üstten Riemann toplamı olur.
 Benzer şekilde, eğer ,  aralığında f fonksiyonunun infimum noktasıysa, o zaman da S alttan Riemann toplamı olur.

Verilen bir kesitteki herhangi bir Riemann toplamı (yani,  için  ve  aralığındaki istenilen değeri) üstten ve alttan Rieman toplamlarının arasında kalır. Riemann integrallenmesi için kesit daraldıkça alttan ve üstten Riemann toplamlarının birbirine hep yaklaşması gerekir. Bu bilgi sayısal integral hesabı için kullanılabilir.

Yöntemler

Riemann toplamının dört ana yöntemi, eşit kesit boyutları kullanılarak daha iyi anlaşılabilir. Yani, [a, b] aralığı n alt aralığa bölünür ve her bir aralığın uzunluğu

bağıntısıyla bulunur.
Kesitlerdeki noktalar da

ile gösterilir.

Sol Riemann Toplamı
Sol toplam, dikdörtgenlerin sol uç noktalarının kullanılması ve Δx taban uzunluğu ile f(a + iΔx) dikdörtgen uzunluğu kullanılmasıyla hesaplanır. Bunu i = 0, 1, ..., n − 1 için yapıp, çıkan alanları toplamak şu sonucu verir:

Eğer f fonksiyonu bu aralıkta monoton azalan bir şekildeyse sol Riemann toplamı gerçek değerden fazla bir sonuca götürür, fakat monoton artan ise gerçek değerden daha düşük bir sonuç çıkartır.

Sağ Riemann Toplamı
Burada f fonksiyonun sağ sınır noktaları kullanılır. Bu da tabanı Δx olan ve yüksekliği f(a + iΔx) olan dikdörtgenler verir. Bu işlemi bütün i = 1, ..., n değerleri için yapmak ve çıkan sonuçları toplamak şunu verir

Eğer f fonksiyonu monoton azalansa sağ Riemann toplamı gerçek değerden daha düşük bir sonuç verir, eğer monoton artansa da gerçek değerden daha büyük bir değer verir.
Bu formüldeki hata şöyle bulunur

burada ,  fonksiyonun mutlak değerinin o aralıktaki maksimum değeridir.

Orta Değer Riemann Toplamı
f fonksiyonunu, aralığın orta noktalarını kullanarak, boyları, birinci aralık için f(a + Q/2), ikincisi için f(a + 3Q/2) olan ve f(b − Q/2) kadar giden dikdörtgenler verir. Bunların alan toplamları şöyledir

Bu formülün hatası şöyledir

burada ,  fonksiyonun mutlak değerinin o aralıktaki maksimum değeridir.

Yamuklu Toplama Kuralı
Bu yöntemde ise, f fonksiyonunun aralıktaki değerleri sol ve sağ sınır noktalarının ortalamasına denkleştirilir. Yukarıdakilerle aynı olarak, yamuk için alan formülünü kullanarak

b1, b2 paralel kenarlı ve h yükseklikli yamukların alanını hesaplayıp şu formülle bütün bu alanları toplamak mümkün olur

Bu formüldeki hata şöyle hesaplanır

burada da ,  fonksiyonun mutlak değerinin o aralıktaki maksimum değeridir.

Yamuk yöntemiyle hesaplanan olası alan değeri sağ ve sol toplamların ortalamasına eşittir.

Örnek

Örnek olarak, y = x2 fonksiyonunun 0 ile 2 arasındaki eğri altında kalan alanı Riemann toplamı kullanılarak algoritmik bir şekilde hesaplanabilir.

İlk önce, [0, 2] aralığı n parçaya bölünür, ve her birinin genişliği  kadardır; bunlar Riemann dikdörtgenlerinin (bu noktadan sonra "kutu" denilecek) enleridir.  Sağ Riemann toplamı kullanılacağı için, kutuların x koordinatları dizisi  şeklinde olur. Aynı şekilde, kutuların uzunluk dizisi de  olur. ,  eşitliklerini göz önünde bulundurmak önemlidir.

Her kutunun alanı  olur ve de ninci sağ Riemann toplamı:

olur.

Eğer n → ∞ iken, yukarıdaki toplama formülünün limiti alınırsa, artan kutuların alan toplamı değerinin, grafiğin altında kalan bölgenin gerçek alanına yaklaştığı fark edilir. Dolayısıyla:

Bu yöntem daha farklı yollarla hesaplanan belirli integral ile de uyuşmaktadır:

Animasyonlar

Daha Fazlası
 Riemann integrali
 Riemann–Stieltjes integrali
 Lebesgue integrali
 Simpson Yöntemi
 Euler yöntemi and ortanokta yöntemi, diferansiyel denklem çözümüyle alakalı bazı yöntemler.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
Riemann toplamlarının yakınsamasını gösteren bir simülasyon

İntegral hesabı
Toplam

Riemann toplamı


An Huntleya citrina in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Robert Allen Rolfe. An Huntleya citrina in nahilalakip ha genus nga Huntleya, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Huntleya

Huntleya citrina


Luis Alfonso Robelo Callejas (11 de octubre de 1939-) es un diplomático, empresario y político nicaragüense.

Alfonso Robelo fundó el Movimiento Democrático Nicaragüense (MDN) en 1978 y fue uno de los cinco miembros que formaban la Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional (JGRN), órgano de gobierno constituido tras el triunfo de la Revolución  Sandinista en julio de 1979, La JGRN  estaba formada, además de Robelo, por  Violeta Barrios de Chamorro y los miembros del Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN), Daniel Ortega, que hacía las funciones de coordinador y presidente, Sergio Ramírez y Moisés Hassan hasta su dimisión en abril de 1980.

Biografía
Alfonso Robelo en León, el 11 de octubre de 1939. Tras los estudios primarios y secundarios se graduó en Ingeniería Química en el Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute de Troy, estado de Nueva York, Estados Unidos en 1961. Fue Rector de la Universidad Centroamericana (UCA) de 1970-1972 (el primer laico en este cargo de la UCA administrada por los jesuitas) y Presidente de la Cámara Nicaragüense de Comercio hasta 1975. También encabezó el Instituto Nicaragüense para el Desarrollo. Tras el asesinato del periodista Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal (director del diario La Prensa) el 10 de enero de 1978, Robelo fundó junto con Fabio Gadea Mantilla el Movimiento Democrático Nicaragüense, un partido socialdemócrata de hombres de negocios, industriales y profesionales opuestos a la dictadura somocista; como líder del Frente Amplio Opositor (FAO) trabajó abiertamente contra el régimen de Somoza por lo que fue arrestado y calificado públicamente por este como subversivo. Se exilió en Costa Rica y allí en junio de 1979 formó la Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional junto con Violeta Chamorro, Daniel Ortega, Sergio Ramírez y Moisés Hassan.

Líder contra
Después de su renuncia a la junta el 22 de abril de 1980 -por las tendencias marxistas-leninistas en el FSLN y la influencia de Cuba en el país- se pasó a la oposición a la cabeza del MDN. 4 días después el 26 de abril Violeta Chamorro también dimitió por razones de salud; la madrugada del 25 de octubre de 1981 su casa fue atacada por una turba de 400 personas por lo que se exilió en Costa Rica al año siguiente (1982) junto con el comandante Edén Pastora y fundó la Alianza Revolucionaria Democrática (Arde) para hostigar al Ejército Popular Sandinista (EPS) por el sur mientras la Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense (FDN) lo hostigaba por el norte desde Honduras. Después formó la Union Nacional Opositora (UNO) junto con Arturo Cruz Porras y Adolfo Calero de la FDN y tras la disolución de la UNO Alfonso Robelo formó en 1985 el directorio de la nueva Contra que cambió su nombre a Resistencia Nicaragüense (RN) que encabezó el coronel Enrique Bermúdez Varela de la ex Guardia Nacional (GN).

Durante la turbulencia política Robelo se divorció de su primera esposa,  Indiana Cardenal Caldera, con la cual procreó 4 hijos: Indiana Margarita, Luis Alfonso (que murió teniendo un año y medio de edad), Eliza y Alejandra. Se volvió a casar con una costarricense. Tras el Acuerdo de Esquipulas, el 16 de enero de 1988, el presidente de Costa Rica Óscar Arias Sánchez anunció que ningún líder contra viviría en su país. Con su esposa embarazada se opuso a irse del país por lo que renunció al directorio de la RN en febrero.

Embajador en Costa Rica
En el gobierno de Violeta Chamorro, tras las elecciones presidenciales del 25 de febrero de 1990 fue nombrado Embajador de Nicaragua en Costa Rica. En 1993 fue tomado como rehén durante una toma de la Embajada de su país.

Fuentes
en.wikipedia.org
Junta de Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional

Enlaces externos
 Entrevista de Euram a su primera esposa Indiana Cardenal Caldera
 Una disertación de Robelo hecha por los socialdemócratas de Estados Unidos

Gobernantes de Nicaragua
Políticos de Nicaragua
Embajadores de Nicaragua en Costa Rica

Alfonso Robelo


Solbusøy Station (Solbusøy stoppested) var en jernbanestation på Thamshavnbanen, der lå i Orkdal kommune i Norge.

Stationen blev oprettet som holdeplads, da den første del af banen mellem Thamshavn og Svorkmo åbnede for driften 15. juli 1908. Oprindeligt hed den Solbu, men den skiftede navn til Solbusøi i 1915 og til Solbusøy i 1927. Den blev nedgraderet til trinbræt 1. januar 1931. Persontrafikken på banen blev indstillet 1. maj 1963, hvorefter den var en industribane for Orkla Grube-Aktiebolag. Trafikken blev helt indstillet 30. maj 1974.

10. juli 1983 begyndte der at køre veterantog mellem Løkken og Svorkmo. De kom til Solbusøy fra 1986 og derfra videre til Fannrem fra 1990 og Bårdshaug fra 2002. Solbusøy indgår dog ikke længere i veterantogenes køreplan.

Stationsbygningen blev opført til åbningen i 1908 efter tegninger af Finn Knudsen, der også stod for de øvrige stationsbygninger på banen. Stationsbygningen på Solbusøy blev senere flyttet til Bårdshaug herregård.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Noter

Stationer på Thamshavnbanen
Nedlagte jernbanestationer i Norge
Jernbanestationer i Trøndelag
Etableret i 1908
Ophørt i 1974

Solbusøy Station


A macaroon ( ) is a small cake or cookie, typically made from ground almonds (the original main ingredient), coconut or other nuts (or even potato), with sugar and sometimes flavourings (e.g. honey, vanilla, spices), food colouring, glacé cherries, jam or a chocolate coating; or a combination of these or other ingredients. Some recipes use sweetened condensed milk. Macaroons are sometimes baked on edible rice paper placed on a baking tray.

Etymology
The name "macaroon" comes from the Sicilian maccherone and this from Greek μακαρία meaning "paste", referring to the original almond paste ingredient; this word itself derives from ammaccare, meaning "to crush".

Origins
Culinary historians write that macaroons can be traced to a French monastery of the 8th century in the city of Cormery. Later, two Benedictine nuns, Sister Marguerite and Sister Marie-Elisabeth, came to Nancy seeking asylum during the French Revolution. The two women paid for their housing by baking and selling macaroons, and thus became known as the "Macaroon Sisters".

Jews later adopted macaroons because it has no flour or leavening (macaroons are leavened by egg whites) and can be eaten during the eight-day observation of Passover.

Recipes for macaroons appear in recipe books at least as early as 1725 (Robert Smith's Court Cookery, or the Complete English Cook), and use egg whites and almond paste. Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management includes a typical traditional recipe. Over time, coconut was added to the ground almonds and, in certain recipes, replaced them. Potato starch is also sometimes included in the recipe, to give the macaroons more body.

Regional varieties

Dominican Republic
Macaroons in the Dominican Republic are very dark. Grated coconut is mixed with ginger and cinnamon.

France

There are many regional variations of French macaroon. The coconut macaroon is known as the "Congolais", or "le rocher à la noix de coco".

Germany
Mandelhörnchen (Almond crescents) are a common treat in Germany. Made of a flour similar to that of the macaroon, they are formed to resemble a crescent, then covered in sliced almonds and dipped in chocolate.

India
Thoothukudi in Tamil Nadu and Mangalore in Karnataka have their own varieties of macaroon made with cashews and egg whites, adapted from those introduced in colonial times.

Ireland
A macaroon chocolate bar is made by Wilton Candy in County Kildare. The description on the packaging is "macaroon pieces in Irish milk chocolate." It was first made in 1937. Cleeve's Irish Confectionery also make a macaroon chocolate bar, with ingredients including cocoa butter, milk powder and desiccated coconut.

Italy

Italy has a wide tradition of cookies and confections made from ground almonds, including pignoli. Ricciarelli are a soft almond variety originating from Siena. Amaretti di Saronno are a crunchy variety from Saronno.

Philippines

Philippine coconut macaroons are uniquely cake-like in texture. They are slightly crunchy on the outside and soft, moist and chewy on the inside. They are usually baked into small, colourful cupcake wrappers and topped with a raisin. They are popular during holidays and special occasions.

Puerto Rico
In Puerto Rico, coconut macaroons are called besitos de coco (little coconut kisses).  A few variations of besitos de coco can be found on the island, the most popular ones including lemon zest and vanilla as additional ingredients.

Spain
The carajito is a macaroon variant made with hazelnuts and honey from the town of Salas, Asturias in northern Spain. A larger size version is commonly known as sultana or suspiros del moro.

Turkey
Acıbadem kurabiyesi is a traditional Turkish variety made of almonds, sugar and egg whites. The traditional recipes include a small amount of bitter almonds, which gives this macaroon its name. Because bitter almonds are not readily available, almond extract is typically used as a substitute. These are part of the stock-in trade of almost every bakery in Turkey, as they are seldom made at home.

United Kingdom
In the UK generally, the traditional almond macaroon often includes almond essence to strengthen the flavour, and is topped with an almond flake. Coconut macaroons are also popular.

Scotland
In Scotland, the Scottish macaroon has a dense, sugary centre and is covered in chocolate and roasted coconut. Traditionally they were made with cold leftovers of mashed potatoes and sugar loaf. When the macaroon bar became commercial the recipe no longer used mashed potato because of shelf life limitations. The modern macaroon is made from a combination (depending on producer) of sugar, glucose, water and egg white. These ingredients make a fondant centre. This recipe was reportedly discovered by accident in Coatbridge in 1931, when confectioner John Justice Lees was said to have botched the formula for making a chocolate fondant bar and threw coconut over it in disgust, producing the first macaroon bar.

Macaroon chocolate bars are also popular in Scotland. Buchanan's make a macaroon with Belgian chocolate and toasted coconut. They are a long-established family business based in Greenock. Scottish macaroon is made with a paste of potato and sugar.

United States

Coconut macaroons are common in America. Commercially made coconut macaroons are generally dense, moist and sweet; they are available in a few flavors, and often dipped in chocolate.  Homemade macaroons and varieties produced by smaller bakeries are commonly light and fluffy. Macaroons made with coconuts are often piped with a star shaped tip, whereas macaroons made with nuts are more likely shaped individually due to the stiffness of the dough.

Mass produced commercial macaroons in the United States are each about half an ounce, or 14 grams, in weight. They are not a highly processed product, containing only coconut, sweetener, starch, egg whites, and flavoring (if any). At about 60–70 calories each, however, they contain about 3–4 grams of saturated fat due to the coconut, and 3–4 grams of added sugar, depending on the particular flavor. They are vegetarian (not vegan as they contain egg whites), and contain no gluten, dairy, cholesterol, or sulfites.

Due to containing no grains or leavening, macaroons are a staple snack among American Jews on Passover and come in a variety of flavors besides coconut, including chocolate, chocolate chip, vanilla and almond.

See also
Almond biscuit - similar to macaroons
Cocadas - confectionery similar to small coconut macaroons
List of almond dishes

References

External links
Besitos de Coco Recipe (span)

Cookies
Biscuits
Almond cookies
Foods containing coconut
Filipino cuisine
Scottish cuisine
Jewish cuisine
Jewish baked goods
Turkish cuisine
Dominican Republic cuisine
Passover foods
Puerto Rican cuisine

Macaroon


Carlos Reyles es una localidad del departamento de Durazno, Uruguay.

Ubicación
La localidad se encuentra situada en la zona noroeste del departamento de Durazno, sobre la  cuchilla Grande del Durazno, próximo al empalme de las rutas 5 y 4. Dista 44 km de la ciudad de Durazno y 222 km de Montevideo.

Historia
Los orígenes del poblado datan del año 1860, cuando Carlos Genaro Reyles (padre del escritor Carlos Reyles) adquirió 5000 cuadras en las inmediaciones del camino Real entre San Pedro del Durazno (hoy Durazno) y Paso de los Toros. Luego de la adquisición fue construida la gran casona de la localidad que funcionaba como hotel, barraca, acopio de frutas, carpintería, herrería y ramos generales y que actualmente es el edificio que alberga al Liceo de la localidad, el que fue fundado en el año 1972.

El nombre del «pueblo Carlos Reyles» data del año 1938, y la propuesta de su denominación fue presentada en las Cámaras por el Sr. Zacarías García Corvo. Es entonces que por Ley N.º 9.860 de 16 de agosto de 1939 se denominó con el nombre de «Pueblo Carlos Reyles», al núcleo de casas que existían en los alrededores de la estación de ferrocarril Molles, de la 3ª sección judicial del departamento de Durazno.
En 1988, por ley 15.972 del 12 de agosto de ese año, se ratificó la categoría de pueblo.

Población
De acuerdo al censo de 2011, la localidad contaba con una población de 976 habitantes.

Actividades
Una vez al año se realiza el Festival del Rosedal.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Plano de la localidad de Carlos Reyles

Localidades del departamento de Durazno
Lugares de Uruguay con nombres de personas

Carlos Reyles (localidad)


Víctor Cordero Aurrecoechea fue un compositor mexicano, nació en el Distrito Federal el 10 de octubre de 1914, en el populoso barrio de Peralvillo, en tiempos de la Revolución Mexicana y falleció en la Ciudad de México el 7 de diciembre de 1983.

Es el tercer hijo de cuatro hermanos, Hijo de la Señora Doña Rosario Aurrecoechea Jiménez, originaria de Taxco, Guerrero.

A los cinco años de edad, una enfermedad lo tuvo por dos largos meses al borde de la tumba.

Víctor Cordero es hermano del actor Joaquín Cordero y padre del actor y músico José Luis Cordero, "Pocholo".

Vivencias durante la Revolución
A los siete años, su mamá lo regañó porque se salió a la calle para ver pasar a los villistas, al sentirse incomprendido, tomó la resolución de abandonar su hogar, ya que había oído decir: "que los que andaban con Villa no se morían de hambre, ni les faltaban caballo y rifle". Se escapó y fue a dar hasta la estación del ferrocarril, donde para su gran sorpresa, vio de cerca al General Francisco Villa. Sin detenerse para nada se le acercó y le dijo: "Usted es el señor que ando buscando." "¿A mí? –respondió el General Villa-, "¿Y para qué me quieres, muchachito?" "Pues para que me dé mi caballo y mi rifle, porque quiero irme con usted a la revolución". Se escuchó una sonora carcajada del famoso guerrillero, en el preciso momento en que lo andaba buscando su tía Teresita.

Sus vivencias en la Revolución fueron, sin duda alguna, un factor muy importante en su vida como compositor, sin embargo, durante su infancia ya había compuesto muchas canciones inspirado en revistas o simplemente en lo que se le venía a la mente. Con el tiempo, su capacidad de componer fue tomando una dimensión, a tal grado, que le era muy fácil escribir una canción de cualquier tema y en cualquier momento.

Trayectoria
El repertorio de sus primeras canciones lo formaron: Mares lejanos, Carnaval, Rebeca, Vestido de seda, Yo he soñado, Poeta de arrabal, Sueño de juventud, Si solamente, Jardín, Primavera, Yo te daré mi amor, Mariposa, Canción de luz, El ciego, Ventanita triste, Qué te importa, Vals violetas, Bienvenida, Señor Juez, Tu boca es mi ilusión, Nueve años de prisión, La fuentecita, Cuento oriental, Herida, Corazón muerto, Tu rostro encantador, Oye Yola, Qué difícil es querer, La canción de la tarde, Cuando mi alma, Traición, Sol ardiente, La muerte del sol y muchas más.

Los cuadros que vivo en carne propia durante la Revolución le sirvieron para inspirarse y escribir corridos, muchos de ellos basados en hechos y personajes reales, otros son solamente un producto más de su imaginación.

Corridos
Juan Charrasqueado, Gabino Barrera, El ojo de vidrio, Juan Guerrero, Los combates de Celaya, Traiciones políticas, La Silla Presidencial, La pobre de Caritina, Hazañas de Pancho Villa, Ahí viene Maclovio Herrera, Contra el destino ninguno, Corrido de los 20 centavos, Corrido de Jesús Guajardo, Corrido de Querétaro, Corrido del cirgüelo, Corrido de Luis Vázquez, Corrido de Santa, El derecho agrario, El indio y el español, Justicia ranchera, Domingo Corrales, El pata rajada, Corrido de Jesús Cristerna, La mula bronca, La virgen de barro, Corrido de Rafael Buelna, La toma de Agua Prieta, Corrido al Che Guevara, Corrido de Lázaro Cárdenas, Corrido de Elvis Presley, etcétera, son unos cuantos de sus más de setecientos corridos.

También incursionó en los géneros: ranchero, bolero, huapango, tropical, chotís, vals, polka, cumbia, paso doble, danzón, tango, pasillo, chacha-chá, jocoso, moruno, danza, go-gó, y los estilos colombiano, francés, español, italiano y autóctono. Ejemplo de ello son: Mi casita de paja, Golondrina de ojos negros, El puente roto, Dos hojas sin rumbo, Traición a Juan, El loco, Con las manos vacías, Mi última carta, Ni tú ni yo, La paseada, Amorcito norteño, Besos y copas, Besos callejeros, Cuatro velas, Flor del río, Golondrina sin nido, Golondrina aventurera, Flor triste, Nada ganó con quererte, Mi ranchito abandonado, Paloma consentida, Noche de angustia, Un domingo en Ixtlahuaca, La milpa, Con los Charros en Madrid, Jardín oriental, Fiestas del centenario, Martiana, Falso Amor, Vals azul y otros.

Con la influencia del Rock and Roll y precisamente en los 60´s, época de pelo largo y el signo con la mano de Amor y Paz, nunca imaginó que incursionaría en el nuevo estilo de componer, surgiendo así la peculiaridad del "corrido in" o corrido moderno para la juventud rebelde, inspirando en los hechos que prevalecían en la sociedad de la época y al ritmo del cuarteto más grande de todos los tiempos: Los Beatles.
Producto de esa inspiración fueron canciones como: Chamaca sin medias, Chamaco drogado, Suéter de telaraña, El elevador, Flor de California, La falda roja, Sombrerito verde, Tendedero poca ropa, Traición a Felipa, etcétera.

Otros intérpretes
Su música ha brillado en las voces de estrellas como: Jorge Negrete, Pedro Infante, Javier Solís, Pedro Vargas, Ignacio López Tarso, Luis Pérez Meza, Francisco Charro Avitia, Antonio Aguilar, Juan y David Záizar, José Alfredo Jiménez, Vicente Fernández, José Feliciano, Lola Beltrán, Lucha Villa, Irma Serrano, Chavela Vargas, Yolanda del Río, Chayito Valdez, Las Hermanas Huerta, Dueto Miseria, Los Dos Reales, Los Alegres de Terán, Los Broncos de Reynosa, Los Juniors, Los Pasteles Verdes, Las hermanas Padilla, Cornelio Reyna, Los Tigres del Norte, La Banda el Recodo de don Cruz Lizárraga, y muchos más.

Muerte

El 14 de febrero de 2008, se llevó a cabo la develación del busto en bronce del Mtro. Víctor Cordero Aurrecoechea, en la Plaza de los Compositores Mexicanos, como reconocimiento a su obra y trayectoria.

El maestro Víctor Cordero falleció en la Ciudad de México el 7 de diciembre de 1983. Su obra ha trascendido el tiempo y las fronteras, y muchos intérpretes contemporáneos las han incluido en sus repertorios: Julio Preciado y su Banda Perla del Pacífico, Pepe Aguilar, Ana Gabriel, Alejandro Fernández, Guadalupe Pineda, Mazz, Paquita la del Barrio, K-Paz de la Sierra, Horóscopos de Durango, La Castañeda, Patrulla 81, entre otros.

Canciones
Sus canciones han sido utilizadas en más de 70 películas, entre las que destacan:

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|-
! scope="col"| Canción
! scope="col"| Película
! scope="col"| Año de Producción
! scope="col"| Director
|-
! scope="row" | Juan Charrasqueado
| Juan Charrasqueado
| 1947
| Ernesto Cortázar
|-
! scope="row" | El loco
| Rutilo el forastero
| 1962
| Miguel Morayta
|-
! scope="row" | Gabino Barrera
| Gabino Barrera
| 1964
| René Cardona Jr.
|-
! scope="row" | Gabino Barrera
| La venganza de Gabino Barrera
| 1967
| René Cardona Jr.
|-
! scope="row" | El ojo de vidrio
| El ojo de vidrio
| 1969
| René Cardona Jr.
|-
! scope="row" | Besos callejeros
| El lugar sin límites (película)
| 1978
| Arturo Ripstein
|-
! scope="row" | Flor triste
| Cruz de olvido
| 1981
| Felipe Gómez
|-
! scope="row" | Gabino Barrera
| Viva México y sus corridos
| 1982
| Mario Hernández
|-
! scope="row" | Domingo Corrales
| Domingo Corrales
| 1983
| Mario Hernández, Roberto Gabaldón y René Cardona

Reconocimientos
 1962. Diploma por el décimo lugar con su canción Miguelito. Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes.
 1967. Medalla de Honor otorgada por Casa Madero, S.A., XEW por el Programa Así es mi tierra.
 1967. Diploma por el éxito alcanzado en 1966 con su canción ranchera Flor del río. Promotora Hispano Americana de Música.
 1972. Diploma por Primer lugar en el Primer Concurso del Corrido Mexicano. Sociedad de Autores y Compositores de México.
 1972. Trofeo de Oro por las ventas de su canción Cómo pude perdonarla. Mundo Musical.
 1972. Trofeo de Oro por las ventas de su canción Besos y copas. Mundo Musical.
 1972. Medalla Agustín Lara en el 28 Congreso Mundial de Autores y Compositores. Sociedad de Autores y Compositores de México.
 1977. Reconocimiento por sus relevantes cualidades artísticas demostradas a lo largo de su fecunda vida dedicada a favorecer los valores musicales de nuestra patria. Delegación Benito Juárez.
 1981. Participación en el 3er. Festival de la Canción Ranchera. Televisa, S.A.
 1989. Mención Honorífica por su aportación a la historia musical de México a través de su relevante obra que se ha proyectado al mundo. Promotora Hispano Americana de Música y Editorial Mexicana de Música Internacional, S.A.
 1991. Reconocimiento por su extraordinaria labor como compositor. EMI musical.
 2000. Latin Award. Canción latina más ejecutada en los Estados Unidos. BMI.

Enlaces externos
SACM Sociedad de Actores y Compositores de México
 TUTELETV "de México para el mundo" con Ángel Panus, entrevistando a José Luis Cordero "Pocholo" 2009

Música folclórica de México
Compositores de México

Víctor Cordero Aurrecoechea


نيشيو مدينة تقع ضمن محافظة آيتشي في اليابان، تأسست في 12/15/1953، بلغ عدد تعداد سكانها في 1 يناير – 2008 حوالي 106643 مساحتها الاجمالية حوالي 75.78 كم2 لتصبح كثافة سكانها 1407 نسمة لكل كيلو متر مربع.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لنيشيو:

أعلام
 مامي كوياما

معرض صور

مراجع

مدن ساحلية في اليابان
مدن محافظة آيتشي
نيشيو

نيشيو (آيتشي)


The year 1733 in science and technology involved some significant events.

Physiology and medicine
 Rev. Stephen Hales publishes Hæmastaticks, the second volume of his Statical Essays, in London, containing the results of his experiments in measuring blood pressure.

Inventions
 May 26 – The flying shuttle loom is patented by John Kay, making weaving faster and increasing demand for yarn.
 The perambulator or pram (a baby carriage) is invented by English architect William Kent for children of the 3rd Duke of Devonshire.
 The achromatic refracting lens is invented by English barrister Chester Moore Hall.

Mathematics
 Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if the parallel postulate (Euclid's fifth) were false.
 Abraham de Moivre introduces the normal distribution to approximate the binomial distribution in probability.

Births
 January 18 – Kaspar Friedrich Wolff, German surgeon and physiologist (died 1794)
 February 19 – Daniel Solander, Swedish botanist (died 1782)
 March 13 – Joseph Priestley, English chemist (died 1804)
 March 17 – Carsten Niebuhr, Danish cartographer, surveyor and traveller (died 1815)
 May 4 – Jean-Charles de Borda, French mathematician, physicist, political scientist, and sailor (died 1799)
 May 22 – Alexander Monro, Scottish anatomist (died 1817)
 July 27 – Jeremiah Dixon, English surveyor and astronomer (died 1779)

Deaths
 June 23 – Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss natural historian (born 1672)

References

18th century in science
1730s in science

1733 in science


Pandeben eller frontalknoglen () er en knogle i det menneskelige kranium. Knoglen består af tre dele.. Disse er squama frontalis, den orbitale del, og den nasale det, og danner herved den benede del af panden, en del af den benede øjenhule der holder øjet, og dele af den benede del af næsen. Navnet kommer fra det latinske ord frons (det betyder "pande").

Referencer

Hovedets anatomi

Pandeben


Nyctiphrynus es un género de aves caprimulgiformes perteneciente a la familia Caprimulgidae que agrupa a especies nativas del Neotrópico y que se distribuyen desde el centro oeste de México a través de América Central y del Sur hasta el noreste de Argentina. A sus miembros se les conoce por el nombre popular de chotacabras, y también atajacaminos, guardacaminos, tapacaminos, pocoyos o pachacuas, entre otros.

Lista de especies
Según las clasificaciones del Congreso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC) (Versión 4.4, 2014) y Clements Checklist 6.9 agrupa a las siguientes 4 especies:

 Nyctiphrynus mcleodii (Brewster, 1888) - chotacabras prío;
 Nyctiphrynus ocellatus (Tschudi, 1844) - chotacabras ocelado;
 Nyctiphrynus rosenbergi (Hartert, 1895) - chotacabras del Chocó;
 Nyctiphrynus yucatanicus (Hartert, 1892) - chotacabras yucateco.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Géneros de aves
Taxones descritos por Charles Lucien Bonaparte

Nyctiphrynus


Men who have sex with men (MSM) refers to all men who engage in sexual activity with other men, regardless of sexual identity. The term was created by epidemiologists in the 1990s, to better study and communicate the spread of sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS between all sexually active males, not strictly those identifying as gay or bisexual, but also for example male prostitutes. The term is often used in medical literature and social research to describe such men as a group. It does not describe any specific kind of sexual activity, and which activities are covered by the term depends on context. An alternative term, males who have sex with males is sometimes considered more accurate in cases where those described may not be legal adults.

As a constructed behavioral category
The term men who have sex with men had been in use in public health discussions, especially in the context of HIV/AIDS, since 1990 or earlier, but the coining of the initialism by Glick et al. in 1994 "signaled the crystallization of a new concept." This behavioral concept comes from two distinct academic perspectives. First, it was pursued by epidemiologists seeking behavioral categories that would offer better analytical concepts for the study of disease-risk than identity-based categories (such as "gay", "bisexual", or "straight"), because a man who self-identifies as gay or bisexual is not necessarily sexually active with men, and someone who identifies as straight might be sexually active with men. Second, its usage is tied to criticism of sexual identity terms prevalent in social construction literature which typically rejected the use of identity-based concepts across cultural and historical contexts. The Huffington Post  postulates that the term MSM was created by Cleo Manago, the man who is also credited for coining the term same gender loving (SGL).

MSM are not limited to small, self-identified, and visible sub-populations. MSM and gay refer to different things: behaviors and social identities. MSM refers to sexual activities between men, regardless of how they identify, whereas gay can include those activities but is more broadly seen as a cultural identity. Homosexuality refers to sexual/romantic attraction between members of the same sex and may or may not include romantic relationships. Gay is a social identity and is generally the preferred social term, whereas homosexual is used in formal contexts, though the terms are not entirely interchangeable. Men who are non-heterosexual or questioning may identify with all, none, a combination of these, or one of the newer terms indicating a similar sexual, romantic, and cultural identity like bi-curious.

In their assessment of the knowledge about the sexual networks and behaviors of MSM in Asia, Dowsett, Grierson and McNally concluded that the category of MSM does not correspond to a single social identity in any of the countries they studied. There were no similar traits in all of the MSM population studied, other than them being males and engaging in sex with other men.

In some countries, homosexual relationships may be illegal or taboo, making MSM difficult to reach.

The term's precise use and definition has varied with regard to transgender and intersex people, who do not fall neatly into binary sex categories..

Prevalence
Determining the number of men who have ever had sex with another man is difficult.  Worldwide, at least 3% of men have had sex at least once with a man.

In the U.S., among men aged 15 to 44, an estimated 6% have engaged in oral or anal sex with another man at some point in their lives, and about 2.9% have had at least one male sexual partner in the previous 12 months.

Sexual practices

Historically, anal sex has been popularly associated with male homosexuality and MSM. However, many MSM do not engage in anal sex, and may engage in oral sex, frotting or mutual masturbation instead. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the top, the one being penetrated may be referred to as the bottom, and those who enjoy either role may be referred to as versatile—with those who do not prefer/practice anal sex being referred to as side.

Number of sexual partners
A 2007 study reported that two large population surveys found "the majority of gay men had similar numbers of unprotected sexual partners annually as straight men and women." According to the 2013 NATSAL (a representative population study in the UK) MSM typically had 17 lifetime sexual partners (median), which included all forms of sexual contact including oral and anal sex. An epidemiological article in The BMJ reported that national probability surveys like the NATSAL have been found to better reflect the population of MSM but are limited by their smaller samples of MSM. Convenience sample surveys recruit larger samples of MSM but tend to over-represent MSM identifying as gay and reporting more sexual risk behaviors.

Health issues

Sexually transmitted infections

Among men who have anal sex with other men, anal sex without use of a condom is considered to be high-risk for STI transmission. A person who inserts their penis into an infected partner is at risk because sexually transmitted diseases (STDS/STIs) can enter through the urethra or through small cuts, abrasions, or open sores on the penis. Also, condoms are more likely to break during anal sex than during vaginal sex. Thus, even with a condom, anal sex can be risky.

HIV/AIDS

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV can infect anybody, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or sexual orientation. Worldwide, an estimated 5–10% of HIV infections are the result of men having sex with men. However, in many developed countries, more HIV infections are transmitted by men having sex with men than by any other transmission route. In the United States, "men who have had sex with men since 1977 have an HIV prevalence (the total number of cases of a disease that are present in a population at a specific point in time) 60 times higher than the general population".

In 2007, the largest estimated proportion of HIV/AIDS diagnoses among adults and adolescents in the U.S. were men who have sex with men (MSM). While this category is only 2% of the U.S. population they accounted for 53% of the overall diagnoses and 71% among men. According to a 2010 federal study, one in five men who have sex with men are HIV positive and nearly half do not realize it.

According to a CDC study, HIV prevalence in the MSM population of the U.S. varies widely by ethnicity. "As many as 46% of black MSM have HIV" while "the HIV rate is estimated at 21% for white MSM and 17% for Hispanic MSM." In the United States from 2001 to 2005, the highest transmission risk behaviors were sex between men (40–49% of new cases) and high risk heterosexual sex (32–35% of new cases). HIV infection is increasing at a rate of 12% annually among 13–24-year-old American men who have sex with men. Experts attribute this to "AIDS fatigue" among younger people who have no memory of the worst phase of the epidemic in the 1980s and early 1990s, as well as "condom fatigue" among those who have grown tired of and disillusioned with the unrelenting safer sex message. The increase may also be because of new treatments. In developing countries, HIV infection rates have been characterized as skyrocketing among MSM. Studies have found that less than 5% of MSM in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have access to HIV-related health care.

HIV prevention with PrEP

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is the use of medication to prevent HIV transmission in people who have not yet been exposed to the virus. When used as directed, PrEP has been shown to be highly effective, reducing the risk of contracting HIV up to 99%. , numerous countries have approved the use of PrEP for HIV/AIDS prevention, including the United States, South Korea, France, Norway, Australia, Israel, Canada, Kenya, South Africa, Peru, Thailand, the European Union and Taiwan. New Zealand was one of the first countries in the world to publicly fund PrEP for the prevention of HIV in March 2018.

Other sexually transmitted infections

Men who have sex with men are at a higher risk of acquiring hepatitis B and hepatitis A through unprotected sexual contact. The U.S. CDC and ACIP recommend hepatitis A and hepatitis B vaccination for men who have sex with men. About a third of the world's population, more than 2 billion people, have been infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV). Hepatitis B is a disease caused by HBV which infects the liver and causes an inflammation called hepatitis.

Syphilis (caused by infection with Treponema pallidum) is passed from person to person through direct contact with a syphilis sore; these occur mainly on the external genitals, or in the vagina, anus, or rectum. Sores also can occur on the lips and in the mouth. Transmission of the organism occurs during vaginal, anal, or oral sex. In 2006, 64% of the reported cases in the United States were among men who have sex with men. This is consistent with a rise in the incidence of syphilis among MSM in other developed nations, attributed by Australian and UK authors to increased rates of unprotected sex among MSM.

Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common virus that most sexually active people in the U.S. will have at some time in their lives. It is passed on through genital contact and is also found on areas that condoms do not cover. Most men who get HPV of any type never develop any symptoms or health problems. Some types of HPV can cause genital warts, penile cancer, or anal cancer. MSM and men with compromised immune systems are more likely than other men to develop anal cancer. The incidence of anal cancer among HIV‐positive MSM is nine times higher than among HIV‐negative MSM, even in antiretroviral therapy. HIV-negative MSM has a higher incidence than the general population.  Men with HIV are also more likely to get severe cases of genital warts that are hard to treat.

Though not commonly classified as an STI, giardiasis can be transmitted between gay men, and it can be responsible for severe weight loss and death for individuals who have compromised immune systems, especially HIV.

Mental health

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, the majority of gay and bisexual men have and maintain good mental health, though research has shown that they are at greater risk for mental health problems. Stigma and homophobia can have negative consequences on health. Compared to other men, gay and bisexual men have a higher chance of having depression and anxiety disorders.

Monkeypox
Monkeypox has been shown to disproportionately affect men who have sex with men.

MSM blood and tissue donor controversy

Many countries impose restrictions on donating blood for men who have or have had sex with men, as well as their female sexual partners. Similar restrictions in many countries also prohibit donation of tissues such as corneas by men who have sex with men, often with far longer deferral periods than for MSM blood donors. Most national standards require direct questioning regarding a donor's sexual history, but the length of deferral varies.

See also

References

Further reading
 Assessment of sexual health needs of males who have sex with males in Laos and Thailand. Naz Foundation International
 Gay Guise: What to do when your client has sex with men and is not gay, 2007 July/August Psychotherapy Networker

External links
 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: HIV/AIDS among Men Who Have Sex with Men

Male homosexuality
Same-sex sexuality
Sexual health
Sexual orientation and science
LGBT and society
1990s neologisms

Men who have sex with men


Azrael (în ebraica biblică עזראל) este un înger în religiile avraamice. El este de multe ori identificat cu Îngerul Morții din Biblia ebraică.

Numele său evreiesc poate fi tradus ca "Ajutorul lui Dumnezeu", "Ajutor de la Dumnezeu" sau "Cel pe care îl ajută Dumnezeu". Numele său este ortografiat Azrael în Chambers Dictionary. Coranul se referă la un "مَلَكُ المَوْتِ" (Malak Al-Mawt sau "Înger al Morții"), care corespunde cu termenul ebraic Malach ha-Mawet în literatura rabinică. Numele său este scris, potrivit tradiției islamice arabe, în alfabetul arab ca ʿAzrāʾīl (în ).

Context
În funcție de perspectivele și preceptele diferitelor religii în care apare, Azrael poate fi descris ca locuind în Al treilea cer. Într-o descriere, el are patru fețe și patru mii de aripi, iar tot corpul său este format din ochi și limbi ale căror număr corespunde cu numărul de persoane care locuiesc pe Pamânt. El va fi ultima persoană care va muri, având misiunea de a înregistra și șterge în mod constant într-o carte mare numele oamenilor la naștere și respectiv la moarte.

În iudaism
În misticismul evreiesc, el este menționat în mod obișnuit ca "Azriel" (în ebraica biblică עזריאל), nu "Azrael". Zoharul, cartea sfântă a tradiției mistice evreiești a Cabalei, conține o reprezentare pozitivă a lui Azriel. El este considerat a fi un comandant de rang înalt al îngerilor lui Dumnezeu.

În cultura populară
Cultura populară folosește, de asemenea, termenul de Înger al Morții pentru a descrie indivizi și sisteme. Azrael este, de asemenea, un personaj popular care-l ajută pe Batman în benzile desenate ale DC Comics.

În creștinism
Nu există nici o referire la Azrael în Biblie și el nu este privit ca o figură canonică sau necanonică în creștinism. Cu toate acestea, o poveste din Apocalipsa lui Ezdra (o carte considerată necanonic de Bisericile Catolice, Protestante și de majoritatea Bisericilor Ortodoxe), care face parte din scrierile apocrife, conține povestea unui scrib și judecător pe nume Ezra (a nu se confunda cu personajul biblic Ezra), scris uneori, de asemenea, "Azra" în mai multe limbi. Azra a fost vizitat de arhanghelul Uriel și i s-a dat o listă de legi și de pedepse pe care trebuia să le respecte și să le aplice în calitate de judecător peste poporul său. Azra a fost menționat mai târziu în scrierile apocrife ca intrând în Rai "fără să simtă gustul morții". În funcție de diferitele puncte de vedere religioase creștine, s-ar putea spune că Ezra a dobândit un statut angelic. Adăugarea sufixului "el" la numele său denotă că este considerat o ființă cerească (de exemplu, Mihail, Rafael, Uriel). Prin urmare, i s-a spus Ezrael/Azrael. Scripturile ulterioare menționează, de asemenea, un scrib numit Salatiel, care a fost citat ca spunând: "eu, Salatiel, care sunt, de asemenea, Ezra". Din nou, în funcție de anumite puncte de vedere ale spiritualității creștine, acest lucru ar putea fi văzut ca o influență angelică din partea lui Ezrael/Azrael asupra lui Salatiel.

În islamism
Împreună cu Jibrail, Mīkhā'īl și Isrāfīl, Îngerul Morții, numit Azrail (عزائيل), este considerat de musulmani a fi unul dintre arhangheli. El și îngerii lui subordonați sunt responsabili pentru luarea din corp a sufletelor celor decedați. Azrail nu acționează în mod independent de Dumnezeu și face doar ceea ce i s-a poruncit să facă. Mai degrabă decât o reprezentare pur și simplă a  personificării morții, Azrail este descris în sursele islamice ca subordonat voinței lui Dumnezeu "cu cea mai profundă venerație".

Mai multe tradițiile musulmane povestesc întâlniri între Îngerul Morții și profeți, cea mai faimosă fiind o conversație între Îngerul Morții și Moise.
Într-o poveste islamică, Idris s-a împrietenit cu îngerul morții. Idris i-a oferit mâncare, iar în consecință el i-a dezvpluit esența lui neumană, deoarece, fiind înger, el nu mănâncă. Mai târziu, îngerul morții i-a arătat cerurile.

În sikhism
În cuvântul lui Baba Farid, existent în Guru Granth Sahib, Azrael (ਅਜ਼ਰੇਲ) este menționat metaforic ca forma antropomorfică a morții. Deoarece nu există conceptul de îngeri sau demoni în sikhism, referirea la Azrael are doar un sens poetic.

Note

Arhangheli

Azrael


Tvrđava Norin nalazi se na jugoistočnom rubu Nikšićkog polja. U njegovoj blizini su tvrđave Budoš, Onogošt i Susjed. Pretpostavlja se da je kao i ostale tvrđave na tom području dio šireg zaštitnog kompleksa roda Kosača. Sama tvrđava smještena je na kamenitom i nepristupačnom brdu. Skromnih je ostataka koji ukazuju da je prirodni položaj nepristupačnog vrha iskorišten za njegovu lakšu fortifikaciju. Ostaci zidina su od tesanog kamena povezanog žbukom.

Izvori

Utvrde u Crnoj Gori

Norin (tvrđava)


is a 2001 action-adventure stealth video game developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and published by Konami for the PlayStation 2. Originally released on November 13, 2001, it is the fourth Metal Gear game produced by Hideo Kojima, the seventh overall game in the series and is a sequel to Metal Gear Solid (1998). An expanded edition, titled  was released the following year for Xbox and Windows in addition to the PlayStation 2. A remastered version of the game, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty - HD Edition, was later included in the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and PlayStation Vita. The HD Edition of the game was included in the Metal Gear Solid Master Collection Vol. 1 compilation for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, and Xbox Series X/S, which was released on October 24, 2023.

The story revolves around the Big Shell, a massive offshore clean-up facility seized by a group of terrorists who call themselves the Sons of Liberty. They demand an enormous ransom in exchange for the life of the President of the United States and threaten to destroy the facility and create a cataclysmic environmental disaster if their demands are not met. The motives and identities of many of the antagonists and allies change throughout the game, as the protagonists discover a world-shaking conspiracy constructed by a powerful organization known as the Patriots.

Metal Gear Solid 2 received acclaim for its gameplay, graphics, and attention to detail. However, critics were initially divided on the protagonist and the philosophical nature and execution of the game's storyline, which explores themes such as the Information Age, memetics, social engineering, political conspiracies, censorship, artificial intelligence, existentialism, postmodernism, virtual reality, and the internal struggle of freedom of thought. The game was a commercial success, selling seven million copies by 2004. It has since been considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time, as well as a leading example of artistic expression in video games. The game is often considered ahead of its time for dealing with themes and concepts, such as post-truth politics, fake news, alternative facts, synthetic media, and echo chambers, that became culturally relevant in the mid-to-late 2010s.

Gameplay

Metal Gear Solid 2 carries the subtitle of "Tactical Espionage Action," and most of the game involves the protagonist sneaking around to avoid being seen by the enemies. Most fundamental is the broader range of skills offered to the player. The first-person aiming mode allows players to target specific points in the game, greatly expanding tactical options; guards can be blinded by steam, distracted by a flying piece of fruit or hit in weak spots. Players can walk slowly, allowing them to sneak over noisy flooring without making a sound, or hang off walkways to slip past below guards' feet. The corner-press move from Metal Gear Solid, which allowed players a sneak peek around the next bend is expanded to allow players to fire from cover. Other abilities included leaping over and hanging off of railings, opening and hiding in storage lockers, and sneaking up behind enemies to hold them at gunpoint for items and ammunition. Players can shoot out the enemy's radio, so they are unable to communicate with others on their team.  The environment also has a more significant impact on the stealth gameplay, taking into account factors such as weather, smell, atmosphere, and temperature.

In Metal Gear Solid 2, the enemy guards are given more advanced AI "to prevent an imbalance of power," and unlike the original Metal Gear Solid, work in squads. They call on their radios for a strike team upon seeing the player, then attempt to flank him and cut off his escape while avoiding the player's attacks. Often strike teams will carry body armor and riot shields, making them a greater threat. Even if the player escapes to a hiding place, a team will sweep in to check the area. The game has a collective enemy AI, where enemy guards work together in squads, can communicate with one another, and react more realistically towards the player. The game's enemy AI was considered one of the best in gaming for many years.

The game expanded its predecessor's cover mechanic, with Solid Snake or Raiden able to take cover behind walls or objects and pop out to shoot at enemies, while the improved enemy AI allowed enemies to also take cover from the player character. The enemies will often take cover to call for backup, but during battle, they will take cover then pop out and shoot at the player or blindly throw grenades from behind their cover. The game features a laser sight mechanic, where a laser sight helps assist with manually aiming a gun. Boss battles and set-pieces remain a case of finding a strategy that bypasses the defenses of the enemy. However, in a major break from action game standards, it is also possible to clear the entire game, including boss fights, without causing a single deliberate death, through use of tranquilizer guns, stun grenades, and melee attacks.

Synopsis

Setting
Sons of Liberty takes place within an alternate history of events, in which the Cold War ended during the late 1990s. The game's story focuses on two narratives that occur around and near New York City  the first in 2007, two years  after the events of Metal Gear Solid; and the second in 2009. The game's plot is the fourth chapter of an overarching plot concerning the character of Solid Snake.

Characters

The main protagonist of Metal Gear Solid 2 is a young rookie agent named Raiden. He is supported by his commanding officer, the Colonel, and Rosemary, his girlfriend. Allies formed on the mission include Lt. Junior Grade Iroquois Pliskin, a Navy SEAL of mysterious background who provides his knowledge of the facility; Peter Stillman, an NYPD bomb-disposal expert; Otacon, a computer security specialist and friend of Solid Snake; and a cyborg ninja imitating Gray Fox's persona, first calling itself Deepthroat, then changing its name to Mr. X.

The antagonists are the Sons of Liberty,  a group of terrorists who seize control of the Big Shell environmental cleanup facility, including anti-terrorist training unit gone rogue Dead Cell, and a Russian mercenary force that patrols the facility. The Dead Cell team members are Vamp, a seemingly immortal man exhibiting vampire-like attributes; Fatman, a rotund man with exceptional knowledge of bombs; and Fortune, a woman whose uncontrollable psychic ability prevents any bodily harm from befalling her. The leader of Sons of Liberty claims to be Solid Snake, previously declared dead after a terrorist attack, later revealed to be Solidus Snake, a third clone of the "Les Enfants Terribles" project. Assisting the Sons of Liberty are Olga Gurlukovich, commander of the Russian mercenaries, and Revolver Ocelot, a disenfranchised Russian nationalist and former FOXHOUND agent, Solid Snake's old nemesis, and henchman of Solidus Snake.

Other characters include Emma Emmerich, Otacon's stepsister and a computer whiz-kid; Sergei Gurlukovich, Ocelot's former commanding officer and Olga's father;  President James Johnson, held hostage by the Sons of Liberty; and DIA operative Richard Ames. Liquid Snake returns, seemingly by possessing the body of Ocelot through a transplanted hand. The game also features cameos by Mei Ling, the communications expert who aided Snake in the first game, and Johnny Sasaki, the luckless soldier with chronic digestive problems.

Plot
In 2007, Solid Snake infiltrates a tanker carrying a new Metal Gear model, RAY. The tanker is attacked by Russian mercenaries, led by Colonel Gurlukovich, his daughter Olga, and Ocelot. Ocelot betrays his allies and scuttles the ship. Upon seeing Snake, Ocelot is possessed by the will of Liquid Snake and escapes with RAY.

Two years later, an environmental clean-up facility called the Big Shell has been erected to clear up the oil spill. During a tour by US President James Johnson, the Sons of Liberty raid the facility, take Johnson hostage, and threaten to destroy it. FOXHOUND's Raiden is ordered by the Colonel to rescue the hostages and disarm the terrorists. The surviving members of a responding Navy SEAL team, Iroquois Pliskin and Peter Stillman, help Raiden disable explosives planted by Fatman. A timed bomb goes off, killing Stillman. Raiden kills Fatman and encounters a mysterious cyborg ninja. Raiden and Pliskin arrange to transport hostages via helicopter, but are confronted by Dead Cell's leader identifying as Solid Snake, flying a Harrier. Raiden shoots down the Harrier, but "Solid Snake" escapes with the stolen Metal Gear RAY. Pliskin reveals he is the real Solid Snake and, along with Otacon, helps locate Johnson.

Johnson reveals to Raiden the United States' democratic process is a sham staged by an organization called "the Patriots", who secretly rule the country. Furthermore, the Big Shell is a facade to hide Arsenal Gear, a submersible mobile fortress that houses an AI called "GW". He explains the leader of Dead Cell is his predecessor George Sears, a clone of Big Boss known as Solidus Snake, who plans to seize Arsenal and overthrow the Patriots. Ocelot then kills Johnson.

Raiden rescues computer programmer Emma Emmerich, step-sister of Otacon, who plans to upload a virus into GW to disable Arsenal. Vamp stabs Emma, before being shot by Raiden. Emma uploads the virus, but dies from her injury as the virus is cut off prematurely. Otacon leaves to rescue the hostages while Raiden is captured by the ninja, revealed to be Olga, when Snake seemingly betrays him. Big Shell collapses as Arsenal departs.

Raiden awakens on Arsenal before Solidus who reveals he had killed Raiden's parents and raised him as a child soldier during the Liberian civil war. Solidus leaves and Olga frees Raiden, explaining she is a Patriot double-agent forced to aid Raiden in exchange for her child's safety. After the Colonel begins acting erratically, Raiden discovers he is a construct of GW, damaged by the virus. Rose tells Raiden she had been ordered by the Patriots to become his lover and spy on him, and that she is pregnant with his child. Raiden finds Snake, who had helped Olga capture Raiden, so they could gain entry to Arsenal. Fortune battles Snake, while Raiden is forced into battle with AI-controlled Metal Gear RAYs. The virus causes the RAYs to malfunction, and Olga sacrifices herself to save Raiden from Solidus.

Snake and Raiden are captured, and taken to the top of Arsenal by Solidus, Fortune, and Ocelot. Ocelot reveals himself to be a Patriot agent and that the entire affair was orchestrated by the Patriots to artificially replicate a soldier (Raiden) on par with Solid Snake, titled the S3 Plan. Ocelot kills Fortune before being possessed again by Liquid Snake. Liquid explains that Ocelot's severed right arm was replaced with his own, and plans to hunt down the Patriots using his host's knowledge and the stolen RAY. Snake pursues Liquid, as Arsenal loses control.

Arsenal crashes into Manhattan. Raiden is contacted by an AI impersonating the Colonel and Rose. It states that GW was the only AI destroyed, and that the S3 Plan's real purpose is to control human thought to prevent society's regression in the digital era from trivial information drowning knowledge and truth. They order Raiden to eliminate Solidus; refusal will result in the deaths of Olga's child and Rose. After Raiden defeats Solidus, Snake appears after tracking Liquid's RAY. Snake and Otacon plan to rescue Olga's child, and locate the Patriots, whose details were hidden in the GW virus disc. Raiden is reunited with the real Rose.

In the epilogue, having decoded the disc, Otacon and Snake find it contains data on all twelve members of the Patriots' highest council, the Wiseman's Committee. However, the members have allegedly been dead for 100 years.

Themes and analysis

Metal Gear Solid 2 is often considered the first example of a postmodern video game and has often been cited as a primary example of artistic expression in video games. The storyline explored many social, philosophical and cyberpunk themes in significant detail, including meme theory, social engineering, sociology, artificial intelligence, information control, fifth-generation warfare, conspiracy theories, political and military maneuvering, evolution, existentialism, censorship, the nature of reality, the Information Age, virtual reality, child exploitation, taboos such as incest, sexual orientation, and the moral dilemma between security and personal liberty. Since its release, the game's themes have been studied and analyzed by numerous writers, journalists, and academics. MGS2, along with its predecessor, has been featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum's exhibition, The Art of Video Games, in 2012.

In his paper How Videogames Express Ideas, Matthew Weise of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology described  Sons of Liberty as "perhaps the most vivid example of a game that uses tension between different levels of player agency to fuel a multi-faceted ideological argument," noting Solidus Snake's suggestion of the United States being a "totalitarian regime of thought control" and pointing to the "very meta concept" of "how the designer's imposed plan or path for the player maps to the tyrannical nature of the government," where, "like the player, Jack has no agency other than what his puppet masters give him." In the book Joystick Soldiers: The Politics of Play in Military Video Games, Tanner Higgin examined the game's "resistant and subversive counter-history of military engagement," describing its "convoluted narrative and unconventional gameplay logics" as a "critique" of "the very networks of biopolitical and informational control that comprise the postmodern military, and posthumanity generally," and noting that it "purposefully manufactures frustration and negative affect" to "highlight the typically unexamined codes, conventions, and hidden pleasures of the military game genre."

Steven Poole commented in a 2012 Edge column, "the story of MGS2, with its mythic wit and sweep, is still in a different league from the vast majority of videogame yarns. ... [H]owever, the fact that MGS2 still seems so avant-garde today might well prompt a worry: does it represent the pinnacle of a now-vanished era, the age of the experimental mainstream? This was, after all, a big-budget commercial boxed product that gleefully took risks and subverted genre conventions at every turn. Modern blockbuster games play it painfully safe by comparison." Gamasutra notes that the game deals with issues concerning the Information Age, and has compared the game's themes to the philosophies of Thomas Hobbes, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. The existential themes of the game align with the political philosophy and theses of Isaiah Berlin and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, focusing on the struggle between freedom and equality, and Berlin's concept of the "pursuit of the ideal", as the player's internal conflict of ideals are one of the main driving forces of the plot.

The game is considered to be ahead of its time for dealing with themes and concepts that later became culturally relevant in the 2010s. The game has been described as "profound," particularly the final dialogue scene between Raiden and the AI posing as the Colonel and Rose. In 2011, Dugan Patrick of Gamasutra drew comparisons to social media and social gaming, and found that the game predicted elements of Facebook, such as allowing "people to intentionally censor their own experience within the self-curated walls of Facebook." In 2016, Alex Wiltshire of Glixel found the game to be "strangely prescient of not only its own time but also today," noting how it dodged "truth at every turn" and comparing it to post-truth politics, Facebook's curated News Feed, and the 2016 United States presidential election. Further comparisons have been drawn to concepts that became mainstream during the 2010s, such as fake news, echo chambers, and alternative facts. According to Cameron Kunzelman of Vice, Metal Gear Solid 2 is still politically relevant in 2017. In March 2018, GamesRadar drew comparisons to recent political events including the Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal and the investigations involving Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections.

In 2018, Adrian Mróz published a paper in the academic journal Kultura i Historia, where the "idea of Selection for Societal Sanity" from the game is "applied into a philosophical framework based on select concepts from Bernard Stiegler's writing and incorporating them with current events such as post-truth or fake news in order to explore the role of techne and filtration within social organizations and individual psyches." He notes that, despite being released in an era of neoliberal dominance, the game's themes resonate with current affairs in the late 2010s, such as post-truth, the collapse of political correctness, cognitive dissonance, and "the problem of filtering within a society flooded by information." IGN said its "fourth-wall-obliterating final act posed a number of terrifying questions about the overload of data in the information age, and how technology has led to an increasingly shaky definition" of "reality," and has drawn comparisons to deep fakes, machine learning, and information warfare.

Development
The creator Hideo Kojima's original design document for the game was completed in January 1999. The Japanese document was published by Konami in 2002, and translated into English in 2006. It mentioned that the game was originally going to be called Metal Gear Solid III to symbolize Manhattan's three tallest skyscrapers." The document outlines new game mechanics and features, such as bodies that need to be hidden, enemies being able to detect shadows, lights in an area that can be destroyed to affect enemy vision, realistic enemy AI that relies on squad tactics rather than working individually, and multi-level environments that add an element of "vertical tension" to the stealth gameplay. It also outlines themes, such as passing on memories, environmental issues, and particularly social themes regarding the "digitization of the military," digital simulations, the "digitization of operational planning," the "digitization of everyday life," and the "effects of digitization on personality." The document stated that the "aim of the story" involves "a series of betrayals and sudden reversals, to the point where the player is unable to tell fact from fiction" (departing from the "very clear and understandable story" of its predecessor), that "every character lies to (betrays) someone once," blurring the line between "what is real, and what is fantasy," and "ironies aimed at the digital society and gaming culture."

The game's production budget was $10 million, similar to the budget of a Japanese Godzilla film. Kojima states that when he "heard about the hardware for the PlayStation 2," he "wanted to try something new. Up to that point, all cutscenes had focused more on details like facial expressions, but I wanted to pay more attention to the surroundings, to see how much I could change them in real time." The game was in development for four years and over 100 people worked on the game.

Protagonist switch
For Metal Gear Solid 2, the established protagonist of Solid Snake was only made playable for the prologue portion of the game. A new protagonist named Raiden would substitute him as the player character for the main portion. The decision to introduce a new protagonist came from the idea of portraying Solid Snake from another character's perspective, but also to get around the dilemma of having to write gameplay tutorials directed at Snake, as Kojima felt that having to explain mission procedures and weapon handling to a veteran soldier like Snake would have felt unnatural after three mainline titles. Raiden was also deliberately designed to appeal to female players after the team overheard a pair of female debuggers remark that the more middle-aged protagonist of the original Metal Gear Solid was not appealing to them. Raiden's presence in the game was kept a secret before release, with preview trailers showing Snake in situations and battles that occurred to Raiden in the published game, such as a battle against a Harrier on George Washington Bridge and an encounter with the new Cyborg Ninja inside the tanker.

Plot changes
According to Kojima in the documentary Metal Gear Saga Vol. 1, the original plot of the game revolved around nuclear weapon inspections in Iraq and Iran and had Solid Snake trying to stop the Metal Gear while it was located on an aircraft carrier, in a certain time limit, while trying to stop Liquid Snake and his group. However, about six months into the project, the political situation in the Middle East became a concern, and they decided that they could not make a game with such a plot. The tanker in the released game is based on this original plot.

MGS2 was also intended to reference the novel City of Glass, notably in the naming of its characters. Raiden's support team originally featured a different field commander named Colonel Daniel Quinn; Maxine "Max" Work, an Asian woman who saves game data and quotes Shakespeare, and William "Doc" Wilson, the creator of GW. All take their names from key characters in the book, and all three would have turned out to be AIs. None of these characters survived to the final edition, their roles being absorbed by other characters, namely the "Colonel Campbell" simulation, Rose, and Emma Emmerich. Peter Stillman, however, takes his name from another City of Glass character.

A character named Chinaman, originally planned to be included as a villain, was later on omitted and his abilities incorporated in Vamp, namely the ability to walk on water and walls. Chinaman would have movements modeled after Jet Li and have a body tattoo of a dragon that would come alive as soon as he dove into the water.

Significant changes to the game's ending were made late in development following the September 11 attacks in New York, where the finale occurs. A sequence depicting Arsenal Gear's displacement of the Statue of Liberty and crashing through half of Manhattan was removed, as was a short coda to appear after the credits, a breaking newscast showing the Statue of Liberty's new resting place, Ellis Island. At the point where Solidus dies, Raiden was supposed to have cut the rope on Federal Hall's flagpole, causing an American flag to fall over Solidus' body, and American flags that were supposed to be on all the flagpoles in New York were removed from the title. The Japanese spelling of the name "Raiden" was changed from katakana (ライデン) to kanji (雷電) due to the former form of the name resembling "Bin Laden" in Japanese.

Music

Kojima's choice of composer for Metal Gear Solid 2 was highly publicized in the run-up to the game's release. The original intention was to have film composer Hans Zimmer but his rate was exceptionally high. Kojima decided upon Harry Gregson-Williams, another composer from Zimmer's studio, after watching The Replacement Killers with sound director Kazuki Muraoka. A mix CD containing 18 tracks of Gregson-Williams' work was sent to his office. Flattered by the research put into creating the CD (as some of the tracks were unreleased, and that what tracks he'd worked on for some films were undocumented), he joined the project soon after.

To bypass the language barrier and allow the score to be developed before the cutscenes were finalized, Gregson-Williams was sent short phrases or descriptions of the intended action. The resultant themes then shaped the action sequences in return. Gregson-Williams also arranged and re-orchestrated the original "Metal Gear Solid Main Theme" for use in the game's opening title sequence.

Norihiko Hibino, who had worked on previous Konami games such as Metal Gear: Ghost Babel, was responsible for the in-game music. He also worked on the majority of the game's cutscenes, re-orchestrating Gregson-Williams' "Main Theme" remix for use in several sequences.

As with Metal Gear Solid, the cutscene music includes orchestral and choir pieces, while the in-game soundtrack is scored with ambient music. However, the score as a whole incorporates more electronic elements (particularly breakbeat) than its predecessor, to reflect the plot's thematic thrust of a machine-dominated society. Rika Muranaka again provided a vocal ending theme, a jazz track entitled "Can't Say Goodbye to Yesterday," sung by Carla White. The game's music was released via four CDs: Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Original Soundtrack, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty Soundtrack 2: The Other Side, Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance Limited Sorter (Black Edition) and Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance Ultimate Sorter (White Edition).

The game's main theme was chosen by the London Philharmonic Orchestra for their Greatest Video Game Music compilation, and the theme is a key regular in the Video Games Live concert when the Metal Gear Solid segment is introduced. A segment of the song's main chorus is included in the closing sequence of Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.

Release
In contrast to the original Metal Gear Solid, Sons of Liberty was released in North America first, on November 13, 2001. Because of the later release in the region, the protagonist switch was not kept a secret in the Japanese version in the weeks before its release. A preview event was held in Zepp Tokyo on the day of the game's North American release in which the character of Raiden was unveiled to the Japanese public. As a result, the Japanese packaging artwork depicts Raiden standing prominently next to Solid Snake, as opposed to only having Snake like on the cover artwork used for the American (and later European) version. A questionnaire was also added in the Japanese version, in which players are asked about their experience with the original Metal Gear Solid and action games in general; the answers to the questionnaire determines the difficulty level of the game and whether the player starts the game on the Tanker chapter or skips directly to the Plant chapter (an option that is only available after clearing the game once in the American version). The Japanese version has a few other additional features over the American version, including two extra game modes unlocked after completing the main game: Boss Survival, in which the player replays through the boss battles from the main game as either Snake or Raiden, and Casting Theater, in which the player can view certain cutscenes from the main game and replace the character models.

The Japanese version was released on November 29, two weeks after the American version. As with the original Metal Gear Solid, Sons of Liberty was sold in a limited "Premium Package" edition in addition to the standard release, which was packaged in a black box containing the game itself with a reversible cover art on the DVD case (with Snake on one side and Raiden on the other), a video DVD known as the Premium Disc, which features a collection of Metal Gear Solid-related commercials and trailers, a metallic Solid Snake figurine, and an 80-page booklet titled Metal Gear Chronicle featuring artwork and commentary about the series.

The European version, which was initially scheduled for February 22, 2002, was released on March 8, nearly four months after the other regions. The added features from the Japanese release were carried over to the European version, along with a new difficulty setting (European Extreme). The European version came packaged with a video DVD titled The Making of Metal Gear Solid 2. As well as collating all of the game's promotional trailers and a GameSpot feature on the game's final days of development, it features a titular documentary produced by French television production house FunTV, which was filmed at KCE Japan West's Japanese studio. The DVD was included as an apology to European consumers for the several months delay that had occurred since the original November release in North America and Japan, which saw numerous European gaming magazines detail the various twists in the game.

Substance

Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance, the expanded edition of the game, was released on the original Xbox and Windows in addition to the PlayStation 2. The Xbox version was initially released in North America as a timed exclusive for the console on November 4, 2002. This was followed by the PlayStation 2 version, released in Japan on December 19 of the same year. Substance was eventually released on PlayStation 2 and Windows in North America and on all three platforms in Europe in March 2003. The console versions were developed internally by KCE Japan, whereas the Windows port was outsourced to Success.

Substance contains several supplemental game modes in addition to the main story mode from the original Sons of Liberty releases. The main game contains all the changes and additions that were made in the Japanese and European versions of the original release (e.g., Boss Survival, Casting Theater, European Extreme), along with further additional changes. Players can now start the main story mode at the Tanker or Plant chapters without the need to answer a questionnaire first, and a new set of collectible dog tags have been added (exclusively on the PlayStation 2 version) based on names submitted from a second contest in addition to the original (2001) set. The visual effect for the thermal goggles was also changed in Substance, and the FHM-licensed posters that adorned several locations in the original Sons of Liberty version have been replaced with public domain images (these were also replaced in The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2). The Xbox and Windows versions feature slight dialogue changes during specific control explanations in which the term "analog stick" was substituted with "thumbstick" (Microsoft's preferred term). The controls were also slightly altered for the Xbox version, due to its fewer shoulder buttons (clicking on the left thumbstick switches between normal and first-person view, while the Y button serves as a lock-on for the player's aim). The Xbox version has support for 5.1 surround sound.

The primary addition of Substance is the inclusion of an extra missions mode with 350 VR missions set in a computer-constructed environment and 150 "Alternative" missions set in areas from the main story. The player can choose to play these missions as Solid Snake or Raiden, with alternate versions of both characters (in different outfits) becoming available as the player progresses. These missions are divided into eight categories (although not all of them are available to every character): Sneaking, Weapon, First Person View (which simulates a first-person shooter), Variety, Hold Up, Bomb Disposal, Elimination, and Photograph.

The other new addition is "Snake Tales", which is a set of five story-based missions featuring Solid Snake as the player character. These missions are primarily set in the Big Shell and involve characters from the main story in new roles such as Fatman, Emma, Vamp and Solidus Snake, while one mission set in the Tanker features Meryl Silverburgh. These missions, which are unrelated to the main campaign and are non-canonical, have no voice-acted cutscenes - instead, the story is told through text-only interludes.

Exclusive to the PlayStation 2 version is a skateboarding minigame in which the player control Snake or Raiden in a pair of Big Shell-themed levels. The player has to complete a set of objectives before time runs out, which range from collecting dog tags scattered throughout the level to blowing up parts of Big Shell. The minigame uses the same engine from Evolution Skateboarding, which was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Osaka.

On release, Famitsu magazine scored the PlayStation 2 version of the game a 35 out of 40.

HD Edition

Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty - HD Edition was released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011 and for the PlayStation Vita in 2012. This version is included in the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection but is also available as a digital download on the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade.  The PS3 and Xbox 360 versions feature an increased 720p resolution and a 16:9 aspect ratio, providing a clearer and wider view of the player's surroundings compared to the original 480p resolution and 4:3 ratio of the PlayStation 2 version, while the PS Vita version runs at qHD resolution. Cutscenes can now be viewed in fullscreen or letterboxed format, while online achievements/trophies have been added as well. Most of the additional content from Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance has also been ported in this version, such as the Missions and Snake Tales modes, although the Skateboarding minigame that was present in the PlayStation 2 version of Substance is absent. The PS3 and Vita versions have a "transfarring" option that allows players to transfer save data between both versions through a Wi-Fi connection or a cloud network. The Vita version has touchscreen and touchpad support for certain gameplay functions such as switching between items and weapons or zooming into cutscenes.

Related media

Documentary

The Document of Metal Gear Solid 2 is an interactive documentary developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and published by Konami, originally released on September 26, 2002. The game covers the development of Metal Gear Solid 2 in great detail, containing internal material developed during the production of Sons of Liberty.

It includes 3D models of characters, scenery, and objects that were used in the game (as well as unused assets), along with corresponding concept art when available. All the real-time cutscenes (or polygon demos) are also available to view (without audio), with the option to pause them at any point, change the camera angle and move them frame by frame. Other content includes storyboards, behind-the-scenes footage, preview trailers, music tracks (with the option to play alternate patterns when applicable), the finalized screenplay, Hideo Kojima's original draft (available in Japanese only), a development timeline, and a gallery of Metal Gear Solid related products and merchandise.

The disc also includes a few VR training missions that were later featured in Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance. In Europe, the disc was bundled with the PlayStation 2 version of Substance instead of having a stand-alone release. It was also included in the Japanese 20th Anniversary re-release of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty in July 2007.

Comics
IDW Publishing published a 12-issue comic book adaptation from 2006 to 2007, titled Metal Gear Solid: Sons of Liberty, illustrated by Ashley Wood (who also worked on the comic book adaptation of the previous game) and written by Alex Garner. This version deviates from the game, where many scenes involving Raiden are substituted with Snake.

A digital version of the comic, titled Metal Gear Solid 2: Bande Dessinée, was released on June 12, 2008, in Japan. Originally announced as a PlayStation Portable game, similar to the Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel, the digital comic was released as a DVD film instead. A fully voiced version of the graphic novel adaptation of the first Metal Gear Solid is featured as well.

Novels
A novelization of the game was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey. The American paperback edition was published on November 24, 2009. A majority of the character interaction in the novel is taken verbatim from the Codec conversations in the game itself.

A second novelization by Kenji Yano (written under the pen name Hitori Nojima), titled Metal Gear Solid Substance II, was published by Kadokawa Shoten in Japan on September 24, 2015. This novelization is narrated in real-time during the events of the Plant chapter from the perspective of a young man living in Manhattan.

Reception

Critical reception
Metal Gear Solid 2 received "universal acclaim" according to review aggregator Metacritic, where it is one of the highest-rated games on the website, and remains the highest-rated exclusive on the PlayStation 2. Game Informer gave the game a score of 10/10, while GameSpot gave the game a 9.6 rating, stating, "It boils down to this: You must play Metal Gear Solid 2." Critics praised the title's stealth gameplay and the improvements over its predecessor, as well as the game's level of graphical detail, particularly in the use of in-game graphics to render plot-driving cutscenes.

The title's storyline, however, was initially divisive and became the source of controversy. Hideo Kojima's ambitious script received praise for exploring numerous social, philosophical, and cyberpunk themes in significant detail, and it has often been called the first example of a postmodern video game. However, some critics considered the plot to be "incomprehensible" and overly cumbersome for an action game, and also felt that the lengthy dialogue sections heavily disrupted the gameplay and that the dialogue itself was overly disjointed and convoluted. The surprise introduction of Raiden as the protagonist for the majority of the game (replacing long-time series protagonist Solid Snake) was also controversial with fans of Metal Gear Solid.

Blake Fischer reviewed the PlayStation 2 version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "MGS2 is everything we hoped it would be, and more. Great action, an enthralling story, and plenty of surprises makes this the PS2 game to get this holiday season."

Sales
As a result of promising trailers and the enormous commercial success of its predecessor Metal Gear Solid, there was a high level of anticipation in the gaming community surrounding the release of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty. The game's E3 2000 demo surprised many spectators with its level of realism and played a vital role in the PlayStation 2 console's early success. It was the most anticipated game for the PlayStation 2 in 2001.

In Japan, the game sold 400,000 units in its first day, in addition to its 600,000 pre-orders in the country. Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty ultimately sold 687,000 units in 2001, making it the tenth-best-selling video game of 2001 in Japan, and the best-selling Konami game in Japanese Market of that year as well, outselling Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters 4: Battle of Great Duelists, The best-selling Game Boy Color game in Japan by approximately 155,000 units. In the United States, the game sold 500,000 units within two days of release, and 680,000 copies within five. It was the top-selling game in November 2001, with  units sold, and topped the video game rental chart the same month. It went on to be one of the top four best-selling games of 2001 in the United States. By July 2006, it had sold 2 million copies and earned  in the United States alone. Next Generation ranked it as the 16th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in the country.

In Europe, the game received  pre-orders, surpassing Konami's initial expectations of  units. In the United Kingdom, it set a fastest sales record with 200,000 copies sold and  or  grossed within three days. The PlayStation 2 version received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. It also received a Platinum Award in Germany for sales above 200,000 units in the country.

Worldwide, the game had sold over  units by 2003. , the original release had sold  and Substance had sold  for a combined  units sold worldwide, making it the highest-selling game in the series.

Awards
E3 2000 Game Critics Awards: "Special Commendation for Graphics"
E3 2001 Game Critics Awards: "Best Console Game," "Best Action/Adventure Game"
Edge: "Innovation of the Year"
Game Informer 2001 Game of the Year Awards: "Game of the Year"
Japan Game Awards 2001-2002: "Excellence Award"
AIAS' 5th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards: "Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design"

GameSpot named Metal Gear Solid 2 the fourth-best console game of 2001, and presented the game with its annual "Best Music" and "Biggest Surprise" awards among console games. It was nominated in the publication's "Best PlayStation 2 Game", "Best Sound", "Best Story", "Best Graphics, Technical", "Best Graphics, Artistic" and "Best In-Game Water" award categories. During the 5th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences honored Sons of Liberty with the "Sound Design" award, along with nominations for "Art Direction" and "Character or Story Development".

Substance was nominated for the 2002 "Best Music on Xbox" and "Best Story on Xbox" awards.

Legacy
In a 2006 viewer poll conducted by Japan's Famitsu magazine of top 100 games of all time, Metal Gear Solid 2 was ranked at No. 42 in the poll. In the 200th issue of Game Informer Magazine in 2009, its list of top 200 games of all time ranked the game at No. 50 on the list. Metal Gear Solid 2 was ranked No. 7 in Game Informers 2008 list of the top ten video game openings. In 2010, GamesRadar included the game in its list of top seven games "with mega plot twists you never saw coming." The game was included in Tony Mott and Peter Molyneux's 2011 book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. It has also been listed as one of the best games of all time by Electronic Gaming Monthly, Empire, GameFAQs, GameRankings, IGN, Metacritic, Slant, and Stuff.

According to John Linneman of Digital Foundry, the game was a technical milestone for its time. It served as a killer app showcasing what the PlayStation 2 hardware was capable of, with the game setting "a new standard in cinematic presentation" and attention to detail, and demonstrating "huge numbers of enemies on screen with bodies that remain in the scene, the interaction of light and shadow, physics interactions with real world objects, multi-tiered environments and advanced enemy AI." This made possible new "gameplay opportunities" and a sense of freedom offered by levels "designed as mini-sandboxes with a tremendous amount of interactivity." The early anticipation that surrounded Metal Gear Solid 2 since its E3 2000 demo has been credited as a critical factor in the PlayStation 2's best-selling success and dominance during the sixth console generation, as well as the demise of Sega's Dreamcast. According to John Szczepaniak, "MGS2 was the game which single-handedly sold Sony's new PlayStation 2 to the masses."

In 2009, Wired included the game in its list of "The 15 Most Influential Games of the Decade" at No. 13, concluding that every "videogame story that subverts a player's expectations owes a debt to the ground broken by Metal Gear Solid 2." The artistic influence of Metal Gear Solid 2 can be seen in later video games such as Goichi Suda's similarly postmodern game Killer7, the similarly metanarrative game Portal, the survival horror title Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem, and particularly the first-person shooter BioShock, which featured a similar plot twist to Metal Gear Solid 2. Several game mechanics developed in Metal Gear Solid 2, such as the cover system and laser sight mechanic, have since become staples of stealth games as well as shooters, including Kill Switch (2003), Resident Evil 4 (2005) and Gears of War (2006). The reveal of Metal Gear Solid 2 also led to the development of Splinter Cell, which Ubisoft originally intended to be "a Metal Gear Solid 2 killer." According to Kojima, Metal Gear Solid 2 paid more "attention to the surroundings" in real-time and later "games like Call of Duty have followed this trend of making your surroundings more realistic." Neil Druckmann cited the revelation of Raiden in Metal Gear Solid 2 as an inspiration for the bold surprise in The Last of Us Part II (2020). In a 20-year retrospective, Christian Smith of Collider said that Metal Gear Solid 2 remains a "controversial masterpiece" that played a pivotal role in "redefining the art of making video games after the turn of the millennium". In 2021, PC Gamer listed the PC version as one of the worst PC ports: "MGS2 worked fine on some systems, but on others you could expect flickering textures, disappearing shadows, missing effects, frequent crashes and flaky audio."

Notes

References

External links

2001 video games
Action-adventure games
Video games about artificial intelligence
Cyberpunk video games
Drones in fiction
Dystopian video games
Existentialist video games
Eco-terrorism in fiction
Impact of the September 11 attacks on the video game industry
LGBT-related video games
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Metafictional video games
Metal Gear video games
PlayStation 2 games
Postmodern works
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Video games about terrorism
Video games about the United States Marine Corps
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Video games designed by Hideo Kojima
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Video games scored by Harry Gregson-Williams
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Japan Game Award winners

Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty


Fitionești is a commune in the center-north hill area of Vrancea County, Western Moldavia, Romania (2,859 inhabitants). The commune is composed of five villages: Ciolănești, Fitionești, Ghimicești, Holbănești and Mănăstioara. Fitionești is said to have taken its name from the Fetion family, an old family of local boyars. The first historical evidence dates back to the Thracian Bronze Age.

Geography
The river Zăbrăuț crosses the village that lies between two hills, surrounded by wooden areas. Fitionești has a varied relief: Bouroș(u) Hill to the East, Valea Rea Valley to the West, followed by Costin Hill; also, Pisc Hill (Pi Chisc) to the northwest, and Ursoaia. Twenty kilometres north of Fitionești, after Glodișteanu Woods, there is Moșinoaiele monastery (Moșânoaia). These surroundings are proper for (agro)tourism.

The closest town is Panciu, ten kilometres to the South-East, which is virtually the only access way to "civilization", historically also referred to as "la Vale" ("to the fields"). Another neighboring commune is Movilița, to the North-East. To the west, beyond Valea Rea and Costin hill, there is Muncelu village (Străoane commune).

Economy
The inhabitants are mostly farmers. They mainly cultivate maize, beans, and potatoes, also onion, cabbage, radishes, tomatoes, and cucumbers. There are also many vineyards (part of the Panciu vineyard) and orchards in Fitionești. Plums, apples, pears, and sour-cherries are most popular. Also they raise poultry (chicken, geese, ducks, sometimes turkeys), sheep, and cows. They keep horses (they still use them for farming work like ploughing), dogs, and cats.

They produce wine and "rachiu" (a strong alcoholic drink), cheese, and make some of their clothes at home by hand. Also, some popular home manufacture includes soap, carpets, and brooms, usually for family use, not for selling.

Social facts
Literacy: some old people are illiterate
Ethnicity: In 2002, all inhabitants except two (a German and a Hungarian) were ethnic Romanian.
Religion: 2803 Romanian Orthodox, 5 Roman Catholics and 51 Protestants
Institutions: Căminul Cultural, one communal library, four elementary schools (pupils go on to attend Ioan Slavici high-school in Panciu)
Places of interest: the Mosinoaiele (or Musinoaiele) monastery dedicated to the Ascension of the Holy Virgin, located 20 km from the village. The Musunoaiele hunting fund (boars, brown bears, deer, does, and foxes).

References

Communes in Vrancea County
Localities in Western Moldavia

Fitionești


Magasin er en dansk kortfilm fra 1966 instrueret af Edward Fleming.

Medvirkende

 Suzanne Brøgger

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Filmskolefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1966

Magasin (film)


كــيــفين سكوت ريتشاردسون
kevin scott richardson

هو العضو السابق لفريق باكستريت بويز
 الاسم الكامل: كيفن سكوت ريتشاردسون
 تاريخ الميلاد: 3 أكتوبر 1971
 القابه:Kev, Boo, Train, Mr. Body Beautiful
 مسقط الرأس: ليكسنغتن، كينتاكي الولايات المتحدة الإمريكية
 الحيوانات الأليفة: قطّة سوداء سَميتْ كوينسي
 الألوان المفضّلة: أزرق، أسود وأرجواني
 الهوايات: لعب لوحاتِ المفاتيح والتزحلق على الماءِ والسِباحَة والتجوال وكرةِ السلة والهوكي
 الغذاء المفضّل: المكسيكي وأيّ شيء آسيوي
 الموسيقى المفضّلة: R. Kelly, Prince, Babyface and Teddy Riley
 الأفلام المفضّلة: Top Gun - The Shawshank Redemption
 البرامج التلفزيونية المفضّلة: Roseanne and Martin
 الكتاب المفضّل: Interview with the Vampire
 النجوم السينمائيون المفضّلون:توم كروز ونيكول كيدمان
 البلاد الأجنبية المفضّلة: السويد
 المواهب الفريدة: مدرب رقصِ
سيّدته المثاليّة: كيفن يُجْذَب إلى البنات اللاتي يقبلن به كهو وليس ماهو عليه، أنا رجل خجول، أحيانًا أفكّر كثير جدًا عما أنا سأقول إلى شخص ما أو ما هم سيعتقدوا."
الملاحظة الجانبيّة: كيفن مدرّس رقصة تقليدية مؤهّل
...يعتقد كيفن أن إذا يمكن أن تحلمه، يمكن أن تعمله.
أسوأ عادة النّوم متأخّرًا.
كان ملك جمال الجاذبية عام 1993م وأشتغل في عرض الأزياء لفترة محدودة ثم اشتغل في ديزني لاند بملابس علاء الدين وسلاحف النينجا

انفصال كيفن عن الفريق
في يونيو 2006
ودع الفريق الغنائي الشهيرباكستريت بويز، أقدم أعضائه كيفين ريتشاردسن، الذي انفصل عن الفريق وفقا لبيان

للفريق على موقعه على الإنترنت. وقال ريتشاردسون إنه يغادر الفريق ليتابع اهتمامات أخرى، حسبما ذكرت "[
سي إن إن".

وأضاف ريتشاردسن في البيان «كان قرارا قاسيا جدا بالنسبة لي إلا أنه كان ضروريا للتقدم إلى الفصل المقبل من حياتي.» وقد لمعت فرقة باكستريت بويز في التسعينيات حيث قدمت موسيقى جديدة للشباب، مدعومة بالانسجام العاطفي وخطوات الرقص المتزامنة لأعضائها وهيئتهم البراقة، ولكن في يوم 29 أبريل 2012 اعلنت الفرقة بعودة القائد لها وهو كيفن ريتشاردسون.

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من مقاطعة إستل (كنتاكي)
عارضو أزياء أمريكيون
عارضو أزياء من كنتاكي
فرق موسيقى بوب
فرق موسيقية أمريكية
كتاب أغان من كنتاكي
مغنو بوب أمريكيون
مغنو ومغنيات بوب
مغنو ومغنيات بوب أمريكيون
مغنون أمريكيون في القرن 20
مغنون أمريكيون في القرن 21
مغنون من كنتاكي
ممثلون من ليكسينغتون (كنتاكي)
ممثلون من ولاية كنتاكي
مواليد 1971
مواليد في ليكسينغتون (كنتاكي)
موسيقيون من ليكسينغتون (كنتاكي)

كيفن ريتشاردسون


مجمع القادسية هو مجمع سكني أنشئ في 1973 في مدينة بغداد بمنطقة القصور الرئاسية في عهد الرئيس العراقي السابق صدام حسين، ويقع اليوم في منطقة تسمى بالمنطقة الخضراء. يتكون المجمع من 45 عمارة على جانبين، تسمى مجموعة الجهة اليسرى بالمجمع القديم وذلك لأنه بني قبل المجمع الواقع في الجهة اليمنى وهو المجمع الجديد. بني المجمع القديم على يد مهندسين فرنسيين، أما المجمع الجديد فبني على يد مهندسين ألمانيين ويعتبر من أحدث الطرازات في العراق ويحتوي على مصاعد حديثة ومدارس ومستشفى وسوق خاص ويسكن فيه الموظفون المهمون في الدولة منذ زمن الرئيس العراقي السابق صدام حسين وحتى الآن.

مبان ومنشآت في العراق

مجمع القادسية


Yokohama FC (横浜FC), er en japansk professionel fodboldklub, baseret i Yokohama, og de spiller i J2 League.

Historiske slutplaceringer

Nuværende trup
Pr. 10. september 2019.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger
 J.League

Fodboldklubber i Japan

Yokohama FC