Kızıl kurt (Canis rufus, hatalı adlandırılması ile Canis niger), köpekgiller (Canidae) familyasından Kuzey Amerika'da yaygın olan bir Canis türü. Bayağı kurt ile çok yakın akrabadır.

Özellikleri
Kuzey Amerika'da bayağı kurdu bu kurttan daha iyi ayırt edebilmek için bayağı kurda "Gray Wolf" (Boz kurt) denir. Kızıl kurt ondan daha küçüktür. Uzunluk 80 cm (+ 35 cm kuyruk), ayakta dururken 75 cm boy ve 25 kg ağırlık ortalama ölçüleridir. Erkekler dişilerden %10 civarında daha büyük olurlar.

Aynı gri kurtların hep gri renk olmadığı gibi kızıl kurtlar da hep kızıl renk olmazlar. Çoğunlukla tarçın kırmızısı renklileri görülür ama bej-gri ve siyahımsı renklilerine de rastlanılır. Bu demektir ki; sırf renge bakılarak kızıl ve gri kurdu birbirinden ayırt etmek güvenilir bir ipucu değildir. Bu yüzden kızıl kurdun çok daha zarif olan vücut yapısına dikkat etmek gerek. Ayrıca kızıl kurdun ağzı daha ince ve kulakları biraz daha büyük olur.

Yayılımı ve yaşam alanı
Kızıl kurt eskiden ABD'nin tüm Güneydoğusunda yaygındı. Aşırı avlama sonucu 1980 yılına kadar neredeyse tamamen ortadan kaybolmuş ve sadece Teksas ve Louisiana eyaletlerinde az miktarda kalmıştı. Günümüzde artık tekrar yayılması için çaba gösterilmektedir.

Aşırı avlanmanın diğer bir neticesi olarak kızıl kurtlar yaşam alanlarını değiştirip insanların ulaşamadığı bataklıklarda ve insanların uğramadığı dağlık bölgelerde yaşamaya başlamışlardır. Eskiden daha çok ormanlarda ve kırlarda rastlanırdı.

Yaşam şekli
Kızıl kurt, bayağı kurttan daha küçük olduğu için avladığı hayvanlarda daha küçüktür. En çok rakunlar, tavşanlar ve kemiriciler ile beslenir. Geyik gibi büyük hayvanlara ancak hasta ya da yaralı oldukları zaman saldırmaya cesaret eder. Ayrıca leş ile de beslenir.

Geceleri sürü halinde ava çıkarlar. Sürünün başı bir alfa çiftidir. Bu çiftin dışında sürünün hiçbir üyesi yavru yapmaz. Bir gebelikte 3-12 adet yavru dünyaya gelir. Kızıl kurdun ulumasıda bayağı kurtta olduğundan farklıdır. Uluması daha sessizdir.

Sınıflandırılması hakkında tartışmalar
Kızıl kurdun gerçekten ayrı bir tür olup olmadığı hakkında farklı fikirler vardır. Uzun süre kurdun bir alt türü olarak sınıflandırılmıştır. 1968 yılında ilk kez bir zoolojik kitapta (J.L. Paradiso, "Canids recently collected in east Texas, with comments on the taxonomy of the red wolf") ayrı bir tür olarak tarif edilmiş, ve bu fikir birçok diğer bilimciler tarafından doğru bulunmuştur.

1991 yılında yapılan genetik araştırmalar ama kızıl kurdun hem bayağı kurttan hem de kır kurdundan gen özellikleri taşıdığı ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu yüzden bazı bilimciler kızıl kurdun, kurt ile kır kurdu karışımından oluşmuş bir melez olduğunu savunmaya başlamışlardır.

Diğer bir teze göre kızıl kurtlar, sayıları çok azaldığı ve bu yüzden uygun bir eş bulamadıkları için, kurt ve kır kurtları ile çiftleşmek zorunda kalmışlar ve bu yüzden bu türlerin genlerini taşımaya başlamışlardır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 ARKive kızıl kurt (Canis rufus) fotoğrafları

Nesli kritik tehlikedeki hayvanlar
Melez köpekgiller
Kurtlar
Kuzey Amerika megafaunası
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki memeliler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki tehlikedeki türler
Tartışmalı taksonlar
1851'de tanımlanan omurgalılar

Kızıl kurt


Stephanie Lose (tidligere Kristensen; født 14. december 1982 i Løgumkloster) er en dansk politiker, der er formand for Region Syddanmark, valgt for Venstre, siden 22. juni 2015. Hun var formand i Danske Regioner fra 22. marts 2018 til 24. marts 2022. Til Venstres ekstraordinære landsmøde i januar 2021 blev hun valgt som næstformand for partiet.

Fra 9. marts til 1. august 2023 var hun minister uden portefølje med henblik på at at være fungerende økonomiminister. Da formand for Venstre og forsvarsminister Jakob Ellemann-Jensen blev sygmeldt i februar 2023, overtog Troels Lund Poulsen udover sit eget økonomiministerium også forsvarsministeriets ressort. Poulsen ønskede dog at blive aflastet, hvorfor Lose blev hentet ind som midlertidig minister. 1. august 2023 vendte Jakob Elleman-Jensen tilbage og Stephanie Lose fortsatte som regionsrådformand. Da Elleman-Jensen udtrådte fra politik 23. oktober 2023, overtog Lose midlertidigt det organisatoriske ansvar i Venstre.

Regionale poster
Hun overtog 22. juni 2015 formandsposten for Region Syddanmark fra Carl Holst, der var blevet valgt til Folketinget i forbindelse med folketingsvalget 18. juni 2015. Hun har været medlem af regionsrådet i Region Syddanmark siden 2006, hvor hun hidtil har været formand for blandt andet Udvalget for Regional Udvikling og Innovationsudvalget.

Hun overtog i april 2017 posten som næstformand i Danske Regioner efter partifællen Jens Stenbæk, en post hun bestred indtil hun i marts 2018 blev valgt som ny formand i Danske Regioner, efter den mangeårige formand socialdemokraten Bent Hansen takkede af.

Ved Kommunal- og regionsrådsvalg 2021 fik Lose 147.485 personlige stemmer, men mistede formandsposten for Danske Regioner til Anders Kühnau.

Privatliv og uddannelse
Hun har været medlem af Venstre, siden hun var 14 år. Hun er gift med Jakob Lose, der pr. 2015 er formand for kultur- og fritidsudvalget i Esbjerg Kommune. De har to børn sammen.

I 2006 blev Stephanie Lose uddannet cand.oecon. fra SDU.

Officiel litteratur fra Region Syddanmark
 "Fremtidens Syddanmark". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af regionsrådsformand Stephanie Lose, formand for Udvalget for regional udvikling Søren Rasmussen og borgmester i Haderslev Hans Peter Geil.
 "FN's Verdensmål og fremtidens Syddanmark". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af regionsrådsformand Stephanie Lose og formand for Udvalget for regional udvikling Søren Rasmussen.
 "Rent vand og jord i Region Syddanmark". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af Regionsrådsformand Stephanie Lose og formand for Miljøudvalget Jørgen Lehmann Petersen.
 "Grøn omstilling i Region Syddanmark". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af regionsrådsformand Stephanie Lose og formand for Udvalget for regional udvikling Søren Rasmussen.
 "En attraktiv og oplevelsesrig region". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af regionsrådsformand Stephanie Lose og formand for Udvalget for regional udvikling Søren Rasmussen.
 "Syddansk Mobilitetsstrategi". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af regionsrådsformand Stephanie Lose og formand for Udvalget for regional udvikling Søren Rasmussen.
 "Kompetencer til fremtiden". Udgivet 2020. . Forord af regionrådsformand Stephanie Lose og formand for Udvalget for uddannelse og arbejdskraft Tage Pedersen.

Referencer

Regionsrådsformænd fra Danmark
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog
Personer fra Løgumkloster
Politikere fra Venstre
Bankfolk fra Danmark
Danskere i 2000-tallet
Ministre uden portefølje fra Danmark

Stephanie Lose


Şiirler - Türküler, Ruhi Su albümü.

Şarkılar
Mevlana'dan Seçmeler
Ağıt
Yaratan Bizleri İnsan Yarattı
Ninni
Üç Kız Bir Ana
Üç Selvi
Şeyh Bedrettin Destanı'ndan
Zamanede Bir Hal Gelmesin Başa
Yürüdü Tren
Allı Turnam
Hasan Dağı
Mahsusmahal

Ruhi Su albümleri
1974 albümleri

Şiirler - Türküler


İngiltere
 Cambridge, İngiltere, İngiltere'nin bir kenti
 Cambridge Üniversitesi

 Cambridge, Gloucestershire

Diğer ülker

ABD
 Cambridge, Massachusetts, Amerika Birleşik Devletlerinin Massachusetts eyaletinde bulunan Boston kentinin yakınında bir kent

ve

 Cambridge, Idaho
 Cambridge, Illinois
 Cambridge, Iowa
 Cambridge, Kansas
 Cambridge, Kentucky
 Cambridge, Maine
 Cambridge, Maryland
 Cambridge, Minnesota
 Cambridge, Nebraska
 Cambridge, New Hampshire
 Cambridge (village), New York
 Cambridge (town), New York
 Cambridge, Ohio
 Cambridge, Vermont
 Cambridge, Wisconsin

ve

 Cambridge City, Indiana
 Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania

Avustralya
 Cambridge, Tasmania
 Town of Cambridge,

Kanada
 Cambridge, Ontario

Yeni Zelanda
 Cambridge, Yeni Zelanda

Cambridge (anlam ayrımı)


A Classe Maine foi uma classe de couraçados pré-dreadnought operada pela Marinha dos Estados Unidos, composta pelo ,  e . Suas construções começaram em 1899 e 1900 na William Cramp & Sons, Newport News Shipbuilding e Union Iron Works, sendo lançados ao mar em 1901 e comissionados entre 1902 e 1904. A Guerra Hispano-Americana de 1898 fez o Congresso dos Estados Unidos aprovar um programa de expansão naval, com o projeto dos novos navios incorporando novos avanços tecnológicos, incluindo caldeiras mais eficientes, novo processo de blindagem e uso de pólvora sem fumaça que permitiu o desenvolvimento de canhões mais poderosos.

Os couraçados da Classe Maine eram armados com uma bateria principal composta por quatro canhões de 305 milímetros montados em duas torres de artilharia duplas. Tinham um comprimento de fora a fora de 120 metros, boca de 22 metros, calado de mais de sete metros e um deslocamento carregado de quase catorze mil toneladas. Seus sistemas de propulsão eram compostos por doze caldeiras a carvão que alimentavam dois motores de tripla-expansão, que por sua vez giravam duas hélices até uma velocidade máxima de dezoito nós (33 quilômetros por hora). Os navios também tinham um cinturão principal de blindagem que ficava entre 191 e 419 milímetros de espessura.

Os navios tiveram carreiras relativamente tranquilas que envolveram principalmente treinamentos de rotina. O Maine e o Missouri começaram servindo na Frota do Atlântico Norte, enquanto o Ohio atuou na Frota Asiática no Sudeste Asiático. Os três realizaram uma volta ao mundo entre 1907 e 1909: o Missouri e o Ohio como parte da Grande Frota Branca, já o Maine independentemente depois de precisar deixar a frota por problemas nas suas caldeiras. Os três tiveram carreira sem grandes incidentes pelos seis anos seguintes. Durante a Primeira Guerra Mundial foram todos usados como navios-escola, sendo descomissionados entre 1919 e 1920 e desmontados alguns anos depois.

Projeto

Em 1897, a Marinha dos Estados Unidos tinha cinco encouraçados em construção e não havia planos de solicitar unidades adicionais para 1898. Com a destruição do cruzador blindado  no porto de Havana e a subsequente declaração de guerra à Espanha em 25 de abril de 1898, um grande programa de expansão naval foi aprovado no Congresso. O programa exigia três novos encouraçados, o primeiro dos quais receberia o nome do Maine destruído. O trabalho de design começou imediatamente, embora os parâmetros gerais para os novos encouraçados tenham se mostrado controversos. O Board on Construction da Marinha defendeu um projeto baseado no , sendo armado com canhões de 330, 203 e 152 milímetros, embora outros no conselho argumentassem que repetir o design da classe Illinois, que estava armado com canhões de 330 e 152 milímetros e tinha uma velocidade de dezesseis nós (trinta quilômetros por hora), economizaria tempo de construção. Além disso, apontaram que os canhões de 152 milímetros não poderiam ser incorporados dentro do limite de deslocamento.

Vários avanços tecnológicos importantes tornaram-se disponíveis nessa época, no entanto, o que exigiu várias mudanças no design. O advento da pólvora sem fumaça permitiu canhões menores com velocidades de saída maiores; a Marinha tinha, portanto, projetado um de canhão de alta velocidade calibre 40 de 305 milímetros. Além disso, a blindagem cimentada Krupp foi desenvolvida na Alemanha; o aço foi uma melhoria significativa em relação ao antigo processo Harvey. Como o aço era mais forte, uma blindagem mais fina poderia atingir o mesmo nível de proteção e, mais importante, uma economia significativa de peso. As caldeiras aquatubulares também eram agora suficientemente confiáveis para uso em navios de guerra. Estas eram mais leves e substancialmente mais eficientes do que as caldeiras flamotubulares mais antigas.

Pouco depois de os três navios terem sido autorizados, a Marinha soube que o encouraçado russo Retvizan, recentemente encomendado à William Cramp & Sons na Filadélfia, seria capaz de navegar a dezoito nós (33 quilômetros por hora), uma margem de dois nós (três quilômetros por hora) sobre o projeto do Maine. A Marinha solicitou que os estaleiros que apresentassem projetos que aumentassem a velocidade de seus navios propostos para corresponder à embarcação russa. A Cramp & Sons respondeu alongando o casco em quatro metros para aumentar sua finura (e assim reduzir o arrasto) e incorporar novas caldeiras Niclausse, enquanto a Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Company alongou o casco em seis metros e aumentou a potência do sistema de propulsão em sessenta por cento, para 16 mil cavalos de potência. Por fim, o design da Newport foi escolhido para os novos navios.

Características gerais e maquinário
Os navios da classe Maine tinham 118 metros de comprimento na linha d'água e 120 metros em geral. Eles tinham uma boca de 22 metros e um calado de 7,24 a 7,42 metros. Eles deslocaram 12 560 a 13 052 toneladas conforme projetado e até 13 900 toneladas em plena carga. Os navios tinham uma altura metacêntrica de 0,72 metros. Eles tinham um convés do castelo de proa que se estendia até o mastro principal. Conforme construídos, eles foram equipados com pesados mastros militares com gáveas, mas estes foram substituídos por equivalentes treliçados em 1909. Eles tinham uma tripulação de 40 oficiais e 521 homens alistados, que aumentaram para 779–813 oficiais e alistados em atualizações futuras.

Os navios eram movidos por motores a vapor de expansão tripla com dois eixos avaliados em 16 mil cavalos indicados de potência. O vapor era fornecido por doze caldeiras Thornycroft movidas a carvão para o Missouri e Ohio e 24 caldeiras Niclausse para Maine, que eram reunidas em três funis altos no meio do navio. Os motores dos navios geravam uma velocidade máxima de dezoito nós (33 quilômetros por hora), embora o Ohio tenha feito apenas 17,82 nós (33 quilômetros por hora) em seus testes de velocidade. A capacidade normal de carvão era de 1 016 toneladas, embora o Maine pudesse transportar até 1 897, o Missouri tinha capacidade para 1 866, e Ohio poderia armazenar 2 180 toneladas de carvão. A uma velocidade de dez nós (dezenove quilômetros por hora), os navios tinham uma resistência projetada de 9 100 quilômetros, embora eles pudessem navegar por 10 480 quilômetros nessa velocidade. A capacidade significativamente maior de carvão de Ohio permitiu que ele navegasse por 12 150 quilômetros nessa velocidade. A direção era controlada por um único leme, e os navios tinham um raio de viragem de 320 metros a 10 nós.

Armamento
Os navios estavam armados com uma bateria principal de quatro canhões Mark 3 de 305 milímetros, com 40 calibres de comprimento, em duas torres gêmeas na linha central, uma à frente e outra à ré. Os canhões podiam disparar um projétil de 390 kg a uma velocidade inicial de 730 metros por segundo. As torres eram montagens Mark IV, o que exigia que os canhões estivessem na horizontal para serem recarregados. Essas montagens podiam elevar para 15 graus e baixar para -5 graus, e eram operados eletricamente, podendo ser operados de forma independente.

A bateria secundária consistia em dezesseis canhões Mark 6 de 152 milímetros, com 50 calibres de comprimento, que foram colocados em casamatas no casco. Dez foram montados em uma bateria no convés superior, mais quatro foram localizados em outra bateria diretamente acima no convés do castelo de proa e os dois últimos foram colocados em casamatas contrafeitas na proa. Eles disparavam um projétil de 48 kg a 850 metros por segundo. Para defesa de curto alcance contra barcos torpedeiros, eles carregavam seis canhões calibre 50 de 76 milímetros montados em casamatas ao longo da lateral do casco, oito canhões de 3 libras e seis canhões de 1 libra. Como era padrão para os navios capitais do período, os encouraçados da classe Maine carregavam dois tubos de torpedos de 457 milímetros, submersos em seu casco na lateral. Eles foram inicialmente equipados com o design Mark II Whitehead, que carregava uma ogiva de 64 kg e tinha um alcance de 730 metros com uma velocidade de 27 nós (cinquenta quilômetros por hora).

Blindagem
A blindagem dos navios consistia em aço Krupp cimentado e aço Harvey. Seu cinturão blindado era 279 milímetros de espessura sobre os depósitos e espaços de máquinas e afunilava para 191 milímetros na borda inferior. O cinturão era de 216 milímetros em outros espaços e reduzia para 149 milímetros na borda inferior. O cinto estendia-se de 0,99 metros acima da linha d'água a 1,30 metros abaixo. O convés principal era de 64 milímetros de espessura e aumentava ligeiramente para setenta milímetros nos lados inclinados que o conectavam ao cinturão. O deck engrossava para 101 milímetros na popa. As torres de canhão da bateria principal tinham 305 milímetros de espessura nas laterais, e as barbetas de apoio tinham a mesma espessura de blindagem em seus lados expostos. Anteparas de 229 milímetros conectavam o cinturão com as barbetas; por trás destes, as barbetas foram protegidas com 203 milímetros de aço. Chapas de aço com 152 milímetros de espessura protegiam a bateria secundária. A torre de comando tinha 254 milímetros em seus lados com 51 milímetros de espessura no telhado.

Construção

Histórico de serviço

Depois que Maine e Missouri entraram em serviço, eles foram designados para a Frota do Atlântico Norte, enquanto o Ohio, construído na costa oeste dos Estados Unidos, foi enviado para servir como a nau capitânia da Frota Asiática baseada nas Filipinas. Em abril de 1904, um incêndio em uma torre matou 36 homens a bordo do Missouri, mas a ação rápida de três homens evitou que o fogo atingisse os paióis e destruísse o navio, pelo qual receberam a Medalha de Honra. Em 1907, o Ohio voltou do Pacífico ocidental e juntou-se a seus companheiros de classe no que se tornou a Frota do Atlântico. Durante esse período, o Maine serviu como nau capitânia da Frota do Atlântico até ser substituído em abril de 1907.

Em dezembro de 1907, os três navios e os demais encouraçados da Frota do Atlântico partiram de Hampton Roads, Virgínia, no início do cruzeiro da Grande Frota Branca. A frota navegou para o sul, contornando a América do Sul e voltando para o norte até a costa oeste dos Estados Unidos. O Maine foi destacado devido ao uso excessivo de carvão junto com o encouraçado ; os dois navios continuaram a viagem de forma independente e em um itinerário bastante reduzido. O restante dos navios cruzou o Pacífico e parou na Austrália, nas Filipinas e no Japão antes de continuar pelo Oceano Índico. Eles transitaram pelo Canal de Suez e percorreram o Mediterrâneo antes de cruzar o Atlântico, chegando a Hampton Roads em 22 de fevereiro de 1909 para uma revista naval com o presidente Theodore Roosevelt.

Nos seis anos seguintes, os navios tiveram carreiras bastante monótonas. O Missouri passou a maior parte do tempo fora do serviço ativo, apenas recomissionando para cruzeiros de treinamento de verão com aspirantes da Academia Naval dos Estados Unidos. Em 1914, o Ohio foi enviado para as águas mexicanas para proteger os interesses americanos no país durante a Revolução Mexicana. Depois que os Estados Unidos entraram na Primeira Guerra Mundial declarando guerra à Alemanha em 6 de abril de 1917, todos os três navios foram usados para treinar recrutas navais para a expansão da frota de guerra. Após a rendição alemã em novembro de 1918, o Missouri foi usado para transportar soldados americanos de volta da França, embora os outros dois navios não fossem tão empregados, já que seu curto alcance e falta de acomodações suficientes os tornariam transportes ineficientes. Os três navios permaneceram em serviço ativo muito brevemente após a guerra. O Ohio foi desativado em janeiro de 1919 com o Missouri e Maine seguindo-o em setembro de 1919 e maio de 1920, respectivamente. Todos os três navios foram vendidos para sucata, com Maine e Missouri indo para o estaleiro de demolição em janeiro de 1922 e Ohio se juntando a eles em março de 1923.

Referências

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

Classes de couraçados

Classe Maine


Marojejya, monotipski rod palmi smješten u tribus Areceae., dio potporodice Arecoideae. Postoje dvije priznate vrste, obje su madagaskarski endemi.

Pojavljuje se na padinama brda i u močvarama u tropskim prašumama od razine mora do oko 900 m nadmorske visine. Vernakularno su na malgaškom jeziku poznate kao "Ravin-be".

Vrste
 Marojejya darianii J.Dransf. & N.W.Uhl
 Marojejya insignis Humbert

Izvori

Areceae

Marojejya


Ciara Quinn Bravo (Alexandria, Kentucky; 18 de marzo de 1997) es una actriz estadounidense, conocida por su papel de Katie Knight en la serie de Nickelodeon Big Time Rush y la serie de  Fox Red Band Society. También apareció en las películas de televisión de Nickelodeon  Jinxed y  Swindle.

El trabajo de voz de Bravo incluye a Giselita en Open Season 3, Patty en Happiness Is a Warm Blanket, Charlie Brown y Sarah en Special Agent Oso.

Carrera
Ciara Bravo nació en Alexandria (Kentucky). Comenzó a trabajar a los nueve años, tras ser descubierta por Bryan Leder y Frederic Levy, de la agencia de talento Management 101, en la feria Model and Talent Expo dirigida por Mike Beaty en Dallas. A partir de entonces, realizó varias voces en off para los programas televisivos Playhouse Disney y Can You Teach My Alligator Manners?. También participó en el video del tema «Knees and Elbows», de Willow Smith y en anuncios publicitarios.

Durante 2008 realizó varias audiciones y comerciales de televisión para el Newport Aquarium y consiguió un papel secundario como una chica italiana en la película Ángeles y demonios.

En 2009, después de haber actuado en dos cortometrajes, Lost Sheep (o The Cafeteria) y Washed Up, firmó contrato por tres años con la cadena Nickelodeon para un papel en la serie Big Time Rush. En dicha serie interpreta a Katie Knight, la hermana menor del protagonista, Kendall Knight, quien es una niña muy astuta y manipuladora. Comparte elenco con Kendall Schmidt, James Maslow, Logan Henderson y Carlos Pena, entre otros.

En 2013 protagonizó Swindle, película para televisión de Nickelodeon con Jennette McCurdy, Ariana Grande, Noah Crawford, Noah Munck y Chris O'Neal, entre otros. También fue la voz de Giselle en la película Open Season 3. Ha hecho. además, trabajo de voz en Happiness Is a Warm Blanket, Charlie Brown y Special Agent Oso.

En 2021, protagonizó Cherry, película para Apple TV+ con Tom Holland y dirigida por los hermanos Anthony y Joe Russo.

Filmografía

Televisión

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Katalyst article

Actrices de televisión de Estados Unidos
Actrices de voz de Estados Unidos
Actrices infantiles de Estados Unidos
Artistas de Nickelodeon
Actrices de cine de Estados Unidos

Ciara Bravo


Uluslararası davet verilmesi veya bir davet için yabancı dilde davetiye basılması durumunda davetiyelerin altına konan ve söz konusu davete katılmak için ön bildirim şartı olduğunu ifade eden Fransızca kökenli kısaltma: "répondez s'il vous plaît"
(Bknz: Lütfen Cevap Veriniz-L.C.V.)

RSVP, hemen hemen tüm dillerde kullanılan bir kısaltma halini almıştır.

Kısaltmalar

RSVP


يتم إصدار جواز السفر الجيبوتي لمواطني جيبوتي للسفر الدولي.

السفر بدون تأشيرة
البلدان التالية تمنح تأشيرة مجانية أو على تأشيرة للسفر عند الوصول لمواطنين جيبوتي :

أفريقيا

الأمريكتين

آسيا

أوروبا

أوقيانوسيا

مراجع

جوازات سفر حسب البلد
سياسة جيبوتي
قانون جيبوتي

جواز سفر جيبوتي


حي الإنارة هو حي بيضاوي يقع بالقرب من حي عين الشق. تم بناءه في نهاية السبعينيات.

التجزئة والساكنة
وهو مقسم إلى جزءين الإنارة 1 والإنارة 2 ولهما نفس الخصائص المعمارية لكنهما مختلفان من حيث عدد السكان. الساكنة تتشكل أساسا من عائلات العمال والمستخدمين في الشركات الكبرى (كالضمان الاجتماعي والشركة الوطنية للكهرباء وشركات حكومية أخرى.

المساكن والمرافق العامة
الغالبية العظمى من المساكن هي على شكل فلات مكونة من طابقين (ثلاثة أو أربعة في بعض الأحيان). المساحات الخضراء تشكل اولية السكان حيث توجد عدة مساكن مع مساحة خضراء تضيف جمالية وهواء نقيا للحي.
في كل من الحيين يوجد مسجد وحمام عمومي ومكتب للبريد وبعض محلات البقالة. في الإنارة واحد يوجد مجمع رياضس كبير به مسبح يمتلئ في أيام الصيف.

الرياضة
دوريات كرة القدم في رمضان هي منتشرة في الحي والقليل من السكان هم من أنصار فريق الوداد البيضاوي بنسبة 20% أما الباقي فهم أنصار الرجاء العالمي وتوجد خلية كبيرة لالتراس إيغلز 06 (خلية عين الشق-الإنارة)

التغيرات
مند انشائه الإنارة عرف عدة تحولات حيث انه حي معزول في وسط عدة احياء جديدة (الشريفة، حي مولاي عبد الله، العمرية...) يجدب الطبقات الوسطى التي تبحث عن مكان هادئ للعيش. عدة مصانع انشئت في حدود الحي في بداية التسعينيات لتصبح منطقة صناعية معروفة وطنيا في ميدان النسيج.

انظر أيضا
 الدار البيضاء

أحياء الدار البيضاء

حي الإنارة


Știința Creștină ("Christian Science") este o credință care aparține familiei metafizice a mișcărilor religioase noi, întemeiată în anul 1879 de Mary Baker Eddy, urmând ca în anul 1894 să fie construit în Boston, Massachusetts  edificiul principal al religiei. Aceasta a devenit în anul 1936 religia cu creșterea cea mai rapidă din Statele Unite ale Americii, având atunci aproape 270.000 de membri, număr care apoi a suferit un declin.

În cartea sa, "Science and Health With Key to The Scriptures" ("Știință și sănătate, cu cheia către scripturi") fondatoarea explică conceptul de boală ca fiind o iluzie ce poate fi corectată prin puterea vindecătoare a credinței. Eddy a încercat prin Christian Science întoarcerea la creștinismul timpuriu, al cărui element vindecător considera că s-a pierdut. Ceea ce diferențiază mișcarea de alte ramuri ale creștinismului este credință idealistă că realitatea e o iluzie, presupunând și faptul că bolnavii nu ar trebui tratați neapărat medicamentos, ci printr-o formă de rugăciune ce corectează iluzia responsabilă pentru starea precară de sănătate.

Religia este cunoscută și pentru ziarul "The Christian Science Monitor", care a câștigat 7 premii Pulitzer între anii 1950 și 2002.

Referințe

Legături externe
Site oficial

Creștinism

Știință Creștină


දෙමෝදර යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඌව පළාතේ, බදුල්ල දිස්ත්‍රික්කය තුල පිහිටි ප්‍රදේශයකි.

සංචාරක ආකර්ෂණ

දෙමෝදර අාරුක්කු නමයේ පාලම -  දෙමෝදර දුම්රිය ස්ථානය හා ඇල්ල අතර පිහිටි මෙරට ජනප්‍රිය ආරුක්කු පාලමක් වේ.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නගර සහ ගම්මාන

දෙමෝදර


Iron Man 2 (eng. Iron Man 2) je američki film iz 2010. godine temeljen na liku Iron Mana u izdanju Marvel Comicsa. Film je producirala kompanija Marvel Studios, a distribuirala kompanija Paramount Pictures. Riječ je o nastavku filma Iron Man iz 2008. godine te trećem po redu dijelu filmskog serijala Marvelovog univerzuma. Režirao ga je Jon Favreau, a napisao Justin Theroux. U filmu su glavne uloge ostvarili Robert Downey Jr., Gwyneth Paltrow, Don Cheadle, Scarlett Johansson, Sam Rockwell, Mickey Rourke i Samuel L. Jackson. Šest mjeseci nakon događaja iz filma Iron Man, Tony Stark odupire se pozivima američke vlade koja se želi domoći njegove tehnologije dok istovremeno vodi bitku s narušenim zdravljem uzrokovanim reaktorom u njegovim prsima. U međuvremenu, odmetnuti ruski znanstvenik Ivan Vanko razvio je identičnu tehnologiju i napravio vlastito oružje kako bi se osvetio Starkovoj obitelji, a u njegovom naumu pomaže mu Starkov poslovni suparnik Justin Hammer.

Nakon financijskog uspjeha filma Iron Man u svibnju 2008. godine, kompanija Marvel Studios službeno je najavila nastavak na kojem je odmah i započela produkciju. U srpnju iste godine Theroux je unajmljen kako bi napisao scenarij, a Favreau je ponovno odabran za režiju. Glumci Downey, Paltrow i Jackson reprizirali su svoje uloge iz prethodnog filma, dok je Cheadle zamijenio glumca Terrencea Howarda u ulozi James Rhodesa. Početkom 2009. godine objavljen je ostatak glumačke postave koji je uključivao Rourkea, Rockwella i Johanssonicu, a snimanje filma trajalo je od travnja do srpnja iste godine. Poput svog filmskog prethodnika, Iron Man 2 snimljen je gotovo u cijelosti u Kaliforniji osim dijela filma koji je snimljen u Monacu.

Svoju je svjetsku premijeru film Iron Man 2 imao 26. travnja 2010. godine u kinu El Capitan, a s međunarodnom kino distribucijom krenuo je u razdoblju od 28. travnja do 7. svibnja iste godine. Film je pobrao uglavnom pozitivne kritike filmske struke te postao komercijalni uspjeh u konačnici zaradivši preko 623,9 milijuna dolara na svjetskim kino blagajnama. Dana 28. rujna 2010. godine film je izdan na DVD-u i Blu-rayu. Tri godine kasnije, 3. svibnja 2013. godine, u kino distribuciju krenuo je treći nastavak - Iron Man 3.

Radnja

U Rusiji mediji objavljuju vijest o Tonyju Starku koji razotkriva svoj identitet Iron Mana. Ivan Vanko, čiji je otac Anton Vanko upravo preminuo, svjedoči Starkovoj konferenciji za medije putem televizije i započne izrađivati minijaturni reaktor sličan Tonyjevom. Šest mjeseci kasnije Stark je postao velika zvijezda i koristi Iron Man odijelo kako bi održavao mir u svijetu te odupire porivima vlasti u vezi prodaje svojih nacrta. Ponovno započinje održavati tzv. Stark Expo kako bi nastavio raditi ono što je radio i njegov otac Howard.

Paladijska jezgra u reaktoru koja održava Starka na životu i koja ujedno naoružava njegovo odijelo polako ga truje, a Tony se nađe u nemogućnosti pronalaska zamjene. Nemaran i utučen oko nadolazeće smrti, Tony odluči zadržati svoje zdravstveno stanje za sebe te osobnu asistenticu Pepper Potts imenuje direktoricom njegove kompanije Stark Industries, a zaposlenicu Natalie Rushman unaprijedi na mjesto Pepperine osobne asistentice. Tijekom jubilarne utrke Grand Prixa u Monacu, Starka električnim bičevima napada Vanko. Iako ga uspijeva pobijediti, Iron Man odijelo biva teško oštećeno. Vanko objašnjava da je svojim napadom svijetu htio pokazati da Iron Man nije nepobjediv. Zadivljen Vankovom borbenošću, Starkov poslovni suparnik Justin Hammer iscenira Vankovu smrt te ga uspijeva izbaviti iz zatvora kako bi mu ovaj izradio liniju zaštitnih odijela, boljih od onih koja izrađuje Stark. Tijekom rođendanske zabave za koju vjeruje da će mu ujedno biti i posljednja, Tony u alkoholiziranom stanju nosi odijelo Mark IV. Zgađen cijelom situacijom, poručnik američkog zrakoplovstva James Rhodes obuče prototip odijela Mark II i pokuša spriječiti Starka prije nego ovaj napravi neku glupost. Njihova borba završava patom, a Rhodes konfiscira odijelo Mark II za američke zračne snage.

Nick Fury, voditelj agencije S.H.I.E.L.D. dolazi do Starka i otkriva mu da je zaposlenica "Rushman" zapravo agentica Natasha Romanoff te da je Howard Stark bio osnivač agencije S.H.I.E.L.D. kojeg je Fury osobno poznavao. Fury mu objašnjava da je Vankov otac skupa sa Starkom radio na izgradnji reaktora, ali kada je Anton želio prodati njihov izum kako bi zaradio novac, Stark ga je deportirao. Sovjeti su kasnije poslali Antona u gulag. Fury daje Starku stari materijal njegovog oca među kojim se nalazi i Howardova skrivena poruka tijekom Stark Expa 1974. godine o dijagramu strukture novog elementa. Uz pomoć kompjutera J.A.R.V.I.S.-a, Stark ga uspijeva sintetizirati. Nakon što sazna da je Vanko još uvijek živ, on novi element stavlja u svoj reaktor i time sprječava njegovu ovisnost o paladijumu.

Tijekom održavanja još jednog Expa, Hammer svijetu otkriva Vankove borbene dronove koje predvodi Rhodes u teško naoružanoj verziji odijela Mark II. Stark dolazi u svom odijelu Mark VI kako bi upozorio Rhodesa, ali Vanko s daljinskim upravljačem preuzima kontrolu nad svim dronovima (uključujući i Rhodesov) te napada Iron Mana. Hammer biva uhićen dok agentica Romanoff i Starkov tjelohranitelj Happy Hogan kreću za Vankom u Hammerovoj tvornici. Vanko pobjegne, ali agentica Romanoff uspijeva preuzeti kontrolu nad odijelom Mark II kojeg nosi Rhodes. Ubrzo potom Stark i Rhodes zajedno poraze Vanka i njegove dronove nakon čega Vanko počini samoubojstvo raznijevši sebe i svoje odijelo.

Na ispitivanju Fury obavještava Starka da će ga zbog njegovog teškog karaktera agencija S.H.I.E.L.D. koristiti samo kao konzultanta. Stark i Rhodes dobivaju počasne medalje zbog svoje hrabrosti.

U posljednjoj sceni filma koja se nalazi nakon odjavne špice S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson obavještava Furyja o velikom čekiću kojeg su na dnu kratera našli u pustinji u Novom Meksiku.

Glumci
 Robert Downey Jr. kao Anthony Edward "Tony" Stark / Iron Man: inženjer ratne industrije koji je žrtva napada i, nakon toga, otet u Afganistanu. Za bijeg gradi visokotehnološki oklop kojeg će kasnije postepeno usavršiti.
 Davin Ransom je Tony Stark kao dijete.
 Gwyneth Paltrow kao Virginia "Pepper" Potts: osobna tajnica Tony Starka, promaknuta u izvršnog direktora Stark Industrije.
 Don Cheadle kao James "Rhodey" Rhodes / War Machine: Tonyjev najbolji prijatelj, pukovnik u vojnom zrakoplovstvu. U ovom poglavlju nosi oklop pojačan oružjem nazvan "War Machine". Glumac zamjenjuje Terrencea Howarda koji iz financijskih razloga nije potvrđen u toj ulozi.
 Scarlett Johansson kao Natalie Rushman / Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow: Tony ju je zaposlio kao novu tajnicu, u stvarnosti ona je agent S.H.I.E.L.D.-a, kodnog imena "Black Widow (hrv. Crna Udovica)", na tajnom zadatku.
 Sam Rockwell kao Justin Hammer: suparnik Tony Starka i vlasnik Hammer Industrije.
 Mickey Rourke kao Ivan Vanko / Whiplash: Rus spreman osvetiti se Tonyju, koji prema njegovim riječima je kriv za krađu očeve tehnologije. Nosi dva oklopa tijekom filma. Kako bi se pripremio za svoju ulogu, Mickey Rourke posjetio je zatvor u Rusiji.
 Samuel L. Jackson kao Nick Fury: direktor S.H.I.E.L.D.-a.
 Clark Gregg kao Phil Coulson: agent S.H.I.E.L.D.-a zadužen za izradu izvještaja o Tonyju Starku.
 Garry Shandling kao il Senatore Stern: senator spreman da se oružje "Iron Man" dostavi vladi Sjedinjenih Američkih Država.
 Jon Favreau kao Harold "Happy" Hogan: Tonyjev tjelohranitelj i šofer.
 Leslie Bibb kao Christine Everhart: novinar Vanity Faira.
 John Slattery kao Howard Stark: Tonyjev otac.
 Tim Guinee kao Bojnik Allen: bojnik ratnog zrakoplovstva.
 Jack White kao Jack: desna ruka Justina Hammera.
 Eugene Lazarev kao Anton Vanko: Ivanov otac.

Cameo
U filmu se pojavljuje nekoliko camea:
 Max Favreau kao Peter Parker, budući superheroj poznat kao Spider-Man.
 Stan Lee koautor stripa, glumi Larry Kinga.
 DJ AM, poznat i kao Adam Goldstein, glumi sebe na Starkovoj rođendanskoj proslavi. Film je posvećen Disc Jockeyu, koji je iznenada preminuo nakon završetka snimanja.
 Olivia Munn igra kratku ulogu Chess Roberts, novinara koji se bavi Stark Expoom.
 Kate Mara nakratko igra ulogu saveznog šerifa.
 Novinari Bill O'Reilly'' i Christiane Amanpour igraju se u nekim malim sekvencama televizijskih izvješća.
 Margy Moore nakratko igra ulogu Bambi Arbogast.
 Seth Green na kratko se pojavljuje na izlazu iz Stark Expoa.
 Elon Musk glumi sebe u cameo setu od deset sekundi u Monte Carlu.

Glasovi
 U originalnoj verziji, glas J.A.R.V.I.S.-a je glumac Paul Bettany'''.

Produkcija
Ubrzo nakon objavljivanja Iron Mana, Marvel je objavio da razvija nastavak, s namjerom da ga distribuira 30. travnja 2010. godine. U srpnju 2008., nakon nekoliko mjeseci pregovora, Jon Favreau potpisao je kao režiser nastavka. U isto vrijeme, Justin Theroux pristao je napisati scenarij, koji će se temeljiti na priči koju su napisali Favreau i Robert Downey Jr. Theroux je već bio scenarist filma Tropska grmljavina, a Downey je bio među protagonistima i koji ga je cijenio, preporučio ga je Marvelu.

U listopadu 2008. godine Don Cheadle je izabran da zamijeni Terrencea Howarda.
U siječnju 2009. godine Mickey Rourke i Sam Rockwell ušli su u pregovore s Marvelom kako bi glumili glavne antagoniste filma. Nekoliko dana kasnije, Rockwell je potvrdio da će igrati ulogu Justina Hammera. U međuvremenu, Marvel je pokušao zamoliti Emily Blunt za ulogu Crne udovice, ali glumica nije mogla prihvatiti druge poslovne obaveze. Samuel L. Jackson dogovorio se s Marvelom, nakon dugih i kompliciranih pregovora, da reprizira ulogu Nicka Furyja, koji je već igrao na kraju prvog filma, i na kraju se prijavio za ulogu lika u najmanje devet filmova. Downey i Rourke razgovarali su o filmu na Zlatnim globusima 2009., a Rourke se kasnije sastao s Favreauom i Therouxom kako bi razgovarali o njegovoj ulozi. Rourke je trebao odbiti Marvelovu početnu ponudu od 250.000 dolara, ali ponuda je povećana i Rourke je pristao sudjelovati u filmu. Istog dana, Scarlett Johansson prijavila se za ulogu Crne udovice, s mogućnošću sudjelovanja u više Marvelovih filmova, uključujući Osvetnike.

Snimanje
Snimanje filma započelo je 13. travnja 2009., a završilo 28. kolovoza 2009. godine.

Glazba
Soundtrack filma objavljen je komercijalno kao "Iron Man 2: Original Motion Picture Score" 20. srpnja 2010. s 25 pjesama. John Debney je skladao soundtrack s Tomom Morellom. Tu su i neke AC/DC pjesme, distribuirane zajedno sa službenim albumom.

Promocija
Tijekom Comic-Con International u San Diegu, koji je održan između 23. i 26. srpnja 2009. godine, predstavljen je prvi trailer za film.

Distribucija
Film je objavljen u hrvatskim kinima 29. travnja 2010., dok je u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama objavljen 7. svibnja.

Home video izdanja
Film je objavljen na home videu 28. rujna 2010. na DVD-u i Blu-ray-u od strane Paramount Home Entertainment. Godine 2013. ponovno izdanje objavio je Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.

Nastavak

Nakon objavljivanja Iron Mana 2, Walt Disney Studios pristao je platiti Paramountu najmanje 115 milijuna dolara za svjetska distribucijska prava filmova Iron Man 3 i Osvetnici. Disney, Marvel i Paramount najavili su 3. svibanj 2013. za datum izlaska Iron Mana 3. Shane Black režirao je Iron Man 3, prema scenariju Drewa Pearcea. Downey, Paltrow, Cheadle i Favreau ponovili su svoje uloge, dok je Ben Kingsley glumio Trevora Slatteryja, Guy Pearce igrao je Aldricha Killiana, a Rebecca Hall kao Maya Hansen. Nastavak u Hrvatskoj objavljen je 25. travnja 2013., tjedan dana ranije nego u Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
  marvel.com

Američki filmovi 2010-ih
Akcijski filmovi
Pustolovni filmovi
Znanstvenofantastični filmovi
Marvel Cinematic Universe filmovi

Iron Man 2


M.E.T.A.L. je deseti studijski album njemačkog power metal sastava Freedom Call. Album je objavljen 23. kolovoza 2019. godine, a objavila ga je diskografska kuća Steamhammer. Singl 111 objavljen je 21. lipnja 2019. godine., singl "M.E.T.A.L." objavljen je 19. srpnja, a treći i posljednji singl "Spirit Of Daedalus" 16. kolovoza.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje
Chris Bay – vokali, gitara, klavijature
Lars Rettkowitz – gitara
Francesco Ferraro – bas-gitara
Tim Breideband – bubnjevi

Izvori

Albumi iz 2019.
Albumi sastava Freedom Call

M.E.T.A.L.


Mostar (, ) is a city and the administrative center of Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the historical capital of Herzegovina.

Mostar is situated on the Neretva River and is the fifth-largest city in the country. Mostar was named after the bridge keepers (mostari) who guarded the Stari Most (Old Bridge) over the Neretva during the Ottoman era. The Old Bridge, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, commissioned by Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, is one of Bosnia and Herzegovina's most visited landmarks, and is considered an exemplary piece of Islamic architecture in the Balkans.

History

Ancient and medieval history
Human settlements on the river Neretva, between Mount Hum and the Velež Mountain, have existed since prehistory, as witnessed by discoveries of fortified enceintes and cemeteries. Evidence of Roman occupation was discovered beneath the present town.

As far as medieval Mostar goes, although the Christian basilicas of late antiquity remained in use, few historical sources were preserved and not much is known about this period. The name of Mostar was first mentioned in a document dating from 1474, taking its name from the bridge-keepers (mostari); this refers to the existence of a wooden bridge from the market on the left bank of the river which was used by traders, soldiers, and other travelers. During this time it was also the seat of a kadiluk (district with a regional judge). Since Mostar was on the trade route between the Adriatic and the mineral-rich regions of central Bosnia, the settlement began to spread to the right bank of the river.

Prior to 1474 the names of two towns appear in medieval historical sources, along with their later medieval territories and properties – the towns of Nebojša and Cimski grad. In the early 15th century the county (župa) of Večenike covered the site of the present-day Mostar along the right bank of the Neretva, including the sites of Zahum, Cim, Ilići, Raštani and Vojno. It was at the center of this area, which in 1408 belonged to Radivojević, who built Cim Fort (prior to 1443). Mostar is indirectly referred to in a 1454 charter of King Alfonso V of Aragon as Pons ("bridge"), for a bridge had already been built there. Prior to 1444, the Nebojša Tower was built on the left bank of the Neretva, which belonged to the late medieval county still known as Večenike or Večerić. The earliest documentary reference to Mostar as a settlement dates from 3 April 1452, when Ragusans from Dubrovnik wrote to their fellow countrymen in the service of Serbian Despot Đorđe Branković to say that Vladislav Hercegović had turned against his father Stjepan and occupied the town of Blagaj and other places, including "Duo Castelli al ponte de Neretua.".

Ottoman period

In 1468 the region came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and the urbanization of the settlement began. It was named Köprühisar, meaning fortress at the bridge, at the centre of which was a cluster of 15 houses. The town was organized into two distinct areas: čaršija, the crafts and commercial centre of the settlement, and mahala or a residential area.

The town was fortified between the years 1520 and 1566, and the wooden bridge rebuilt in stone. In 1519 (Hijri 925) the settlement was recorded as a castle and both as Mostar and as Köprühisar and it was inhabited by Muslims and Christians. It had four Muslim households and 85 Christian households. The stone bridge, the Old Bridge (Stari most), was erected in 1566 on the orders of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and at  long and  high, quickly became a wonder in its own time. Later becoming the city's symbol, the Old Bridge was designed by Mimar Hayruddin, a student and apprentice of Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan. In the late 16th century, Köprühisar was one of the towns of the Sanjak of Herzegovina. The traveler Evliya Çelebi wrote in the 17th century that:

The first church in the city of Mostar, a Serbian Orthodox Church, was built in 1834 during Ottoman rule.

Austrian and Yugoslav period

Austria-Hungary took control over Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878 and ruled the region until the aftermath of World War I in 1918, when it became part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and then Yugoslavia. During this period, Mostar was the main urban centre of Herzegovina.
In 1881 the town became the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mostar-Duvno and in 1939, it became a part of the Banovina of Croatia. During World War II, Mostar was also annexed city in the Nazi German fascist puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia.

During the period of Austro-Hungarian rule (1878–1918), Mostar's city council cooperated with the Austro-Hungarian administration to implement sweeping reforms in city planning: broad avenues and an urban grid were imposed on the western bank of the Neretva, and significant investments were made in infrastructure, communications and housing. City administrators like Mustafa Mujaga Komadina were central players in these transformations, which facilitated growth and linked the eastern and western banks of the city. Noteworthy examples of Austro-Hungarian architecture include the Municipality building, which was designed by the architect Josip Vancaš from Sarajevo, residential districts around the Rondo, and Gimnazija Mostar from 1902 designed by František Blažek.

After World War II, Mostar developed industries producing plastics, tobacco, bauxite, wine, aircraft and aluminium. Several dams (Grabovica, Salakovac, Mostar) were built in the region to harness the hydroelectric power of the Neretva. The city was a major industrial and tourist center and prospered economically during the time of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Between 1948 and 1974 the industrial base was expanded with construction of a metal-working factory, cotton textile mills, and an aluminum plant. Skilled workers, both men and women, entered the work force and the social and demographic profile of the city was broadened dramatically; between 1945 and 1980, Mostar's population grew from 18,000 to 100,000.

Because Mostar's eastern bank was burdened by inadequate infrastructure, the city expanded on the western bank with the construction of large residential blocks. Local architects favored an austere modernist aesthetic, prefabrication and repetitive modules. Commercial buildings in the functionalist style appeared on the historic eastern side of the city as well, replacing more intimate timber constructions that had survived since Ottoman times. In the 1970s and 1980s, a healthy local economy fueled by foreign investment spurred recognition and conservation of the city's cultural heritage. An economically sustainable plan to preserve the old town of Mostar was implemented by the municipality, which drew thousands of tourists from the Adriatic coast and invigorated the economy of the city. The results of this ten-year project earned Mostar an Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 1986.

According to the 1991 census, Mostar had 127,000 inhabitants with roughly an equal number of Bosniaks (34.6%) and Croats (34%), 18.8% Serbs, and 13.6% of those who declared themselves Yugoslavs or Others.

Bosnian War

After Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence from Yugoslavia in April 1992, the town was besieged by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), following clashes between the JNA and Croat forces. The Croats were organized into the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) and were joined by a sizable number of Bosniaks. The JNA artillery periodically shelled neighbourhoods outside of their control from early April.

On 7 June the Croatian Army (HV) launched an offensive code named Operation Jackal, the objective of which was to relieve Mostar and break the JNA siege of Dubrovnik. The offensive was supported by the HVO, which attacked the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) positions around Mostar. By 12 June the HVO secured the western part of the city and by 21 June the VRS was completely pushed out from the eastern part. Numerous religious buildings and most of the city's bridges were destroyed or severely damaged during the fighting. Among them were the Catholic Cathedral of Mary, Mother of the Church, the Franciscan Church and Monastery, the Bishop's Palace and 12 out of 14 mosques in the city. After the VRS was pushed from the city, the Serbian Orthodox Žitomislić Monastery and the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity were demolished.

Throughout late 1992, tensions between Croats and Bosniaks increased in Mostar. In early 1993 the Croat–Bosniak War escalated and by mid-April 1993 Mostar had become a divided city with the western part dominated by HVO forces and the eastern part controlled by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH). Fighting broke out in May when both sides of the city came under intense artillery fire. The city was divided along ethnic lines, with a number of offensives taking place, resulting in a series of stalemates. The Croat–Bosniak conflict ended with the signing of the Washington Agreement in 1994, and the Bosnian War ended with the Dayton Agreement in 1995. Around 2,000 people died in Mostar during the war.

Two wars (Serb forces versus Bosniak and Croatian and Croat-Bosniak war) left Mostar physically devastated and ethno-territorially divided between a Croat-majority west bank (with ca. 55,000 residents) and a Bosniak-majority old City and east bank (with ca. 50,000 residents), with the frontline running parallel to the Neretva River. Most Serbs had fled the city.

Post-war developments

Since the end of the wider war in 1995, great progress has been made in the reconstruction of the city of Mostar. Over 15 million dollars has been spent on restoration.
A monumental project to rebuild the Old Bridge, which was destroyed during the Bosnian War, to the original design, and restore surrounding structures and historic neighbourhoods was initiated in 1999 and mostly completed by spring 2004. The money for this reconstruction was donated by Spain  (who had a sizable contingent of peacekeeping troops stationed in the surrounding area during the conflict), the United States, Turkey, Italy, the Netherlands, and Croatia. A grand opening was held on 23 July 2004 under heavy security.
In parallel, the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the World Monuments Fund, with funding provided by the World Bank, undertook a five-year-long restoration and rehabilitation effort to regenerate the most significant areas of historic Mostar, and particularly the urban tissue around the Old Bridge. Also in July 2004, the Stari Grad Agency was launched to operate and maintain the restored buildings, including the Old Bridge complex, and promote Mostar as a cultural and tourist destination.
In July 2005, UNESCO inscribed the Old Bridge and its closest vicinity onto the World Heritage List.

International reconstruction efforts also aimed at the reunification of the divided city. The February 1996 Mostar Agreement led to the adoption of the Interim Statute of the city the same month, and to a 1-year period of EU Administration of Mostar (EUAM), headed by former Bremen mayor Hans Koschnick, till early 1997.
After six years of implementation, in 2003 OHR Paddy Ashdown established an "international commission for reforming Mostar", whose final report noted how the HDZ/SDA power-sharing in Mostar had entrenched division and corruption, with "rampant parallelism" in administrative structures and usurpation of power by the municipalities over the City. A new Statute was negotiated, and finally imposed in February 2004 by OHR Paddy Ashdown.
In November 2010, the Constitutional Court struck down as discriminatory the electoral framework for Mostar. The Bosniak and Croat ruling parties were unable, however, to reach a new compromise. Lacking a legal basis, local elections could not take place in Mostar in 2012 and 2016, and outgoing mayor Ljubo Bešlić (HDZ BiH) remained in office as the only person authorised to allocate the city budget on an emergency basis. Almost a decade without administration led to a decline in service provision, including trash collection. In October 2019 Irma Baralija won a case against Bosnia and Herzegovina at the European Court of Human Rights for the lack of elections in Mostar. Finally, a political deal, agreed under international mediation in June 2020, enabled legislative amendments in July 2020 and the conduct of the vote in Mostar on 20 December 2020.

Architecture

Mostar has architecturally noteworthy buildings in a wide range of styles. Historicist architectural styles reflected cosmopolitan interest and exposure to foreign aesthetic trends and were artfully merged with indigenous styles. Examples include the Italianate Franciscan church, the Ottoman Muslibegovića house, the Dalmatian Ćorović House and an Orthodox church which was built as gift from the Sultan.

The Ottomans used monumental architecture to affirm, extend and consolidate their colonial holdings. Administrators and bureaucrats – many of them indigenous people who converted from Christianity to Islam – founded mosque complexes that generally included Koranic schools, soup kitchens or markets.

Out of the thirteen original mosques dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, seven have been lost during the 20th century for ideological reasons or by bombardment. One of the two 19th-century Orthodox churches has also disappeared, while the early 20th-century synagogue, after suffering severe damage in the World War II, has been converted into a theatre. Several Ottoman inns also survived, along with other buildings from this period of Mostar's history, such as fountains and schools.

The majority of administrative buildings are from the Austro-Hungarian period and have neoclassical and Secessionist characteristics. A number of surviving late Ottoman houses demonstrate the component features of this form of domestic architecture – upper storey for residential use, hall, paved courtyard, and verandah on one or two storeys. The later 19th-century residential houses are predominantly in neoclassical style.

A number of early trading and craft buildings still exist, notably some low shops in wood or stone, stone storehouses, and a group of former tanneries round an open courtyard. Once again, the 19th-century commercial buildings are predominantly neoclassical. A number of elements of the early fortifications are visible. Namely the Hercegusa Tower dating from the medieval period, whereas the Ottoman defence edifices are represented by the Halebinovka and Tara Towers – the watchtowers on the ends of the Old Bridge, and a stretch of the ramparts.

The oldest single arch stone bridge in Mostar, the Kriva Cuprija ("Sloping Bridge"), was built in 1558 by the Ottoman architect Cejvan Kethoda. It is said that this was to be a test before the major construction of the Stari Most began. The Old Bridge was completed in 1566 and was hailed as one of the greatest architectural achievement in the Ottoman controlled Balkans. This single-arch stone bridge is an exact replica of the original bridge that stood for over 400 years and that was designed by Hajrudin, a student of the great Ottoman architect Sinan. It spans  of the Neretva river,  above the summer water level. The Halebija and Tara towers have always housed the guardians of the bridge and during Ottoman times were also used as storehouses for ammunition. The arch is a perfect semicircle  in width and  in height. The frontage and vault are made of regular stone cubes incorporated into the horizontal layers all along the vault. The space between vault, frontal walls and footpath is filled with cracked stone. The bridge footpath and the approaching roads are paved with cobblestones, as is the case with the main roads in the town. Stone steps enable people to ascend to the bridge either side. During the armed conflict between Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats in the Bosnian War in the 1990s, the bridge was destroyed by the HVO (Croatian Defence Council).

The Cejvan Cehaj Mosque, built in 1552, is the oldest mosque in Mostar. Later a madrasa (Islamic school) was built on the same compound. The Old Bazaar, Kujundziluk is named after the goldsmiths who traditionally created and sold their wares on this street, and still sells authentic paintings and copper or bronze carvings of the Stari Most, pomegranates (the natural symbol of Herzegovina) or the stećaks (medieval tombstones).

The Koski Mehmed Paša Mosque, built in 1617 is open to visitors. Visitors may enter the mosque and take photos free of charge. The minaret is also open to the public and is accessible from inside the mosque. Just around the corner from the mosque is the Tepa Market. This has been a busy marketplace since Ottoman times. It now sells mostly fresh produce grown in Herzegovina and, when in season, the figs and pomegranates are extremely popular. Local honey is also a prominent specialty, being produced all around Herzegovina.

Culture

Magazine Most, along with Šantić's Poetry Evenings, was most important outlet for cultural and artistic production in the city and the region, offering space for upstart poets and writers.
Dani Matice Hrvatske is one of city's significant cultural events and it is commonly sponsored by the Croatian Government and the Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Mostar Summer is another umbrella event which includes Šantić Poetry Evenings, Mostar Summer Festival and Festival of Bosnia and Herzegovina choirs/ensembles. The city is a home of music festival named Melodije Mostara (Mostar Melodies), which has been held annually since 1995. Theatre festivals include Mostarska Liska (organized by the National Theatre Mostar) and The Mostar Spring (organized by the Matica hrvatska Mostar).

Mostar art institutions include:
Croatian Lodge "Herceg Stjepan Kosača"
Cultural Center Mostar
OKC Abrašević (English: Abrašević Youth Center)
Pavarotti Music Centre
Croatian National Theatre in Mostar
National Theatre Mostar
Museum of the Old Bridge
Herzegovina Museum
Mostar Youth Theatre
Aluminij Gallery
Birthplace of Svetozar Ćorović (Aleksa Šantić House)
Muslibegović House
World Music Centre
Puppet Theatre Mostar

Mostar cuisine is balanced between Western and Eastern influences. Traditional Mostar food is closely related to Turkish, Middle Eastern and other Mediterranean cuisines. However, due to years of Austrian rule and influence, there are many culinary influences from Central Europe.
Some of the dishes include ćevapčići, burek, sarma, japrak, musaka, dolma, sujuk, sač, đuveč, and sataraš. Local desserts include baklava, hurmašice, sutlijaš, tulumbe, tufahije, and šampita.

Economy

Mostar's economy relies heavily on the aluminium and metal industry, banking services and the telecommunication sector.  The city is home of some of the country's largest corporations.

Along with Sarajevo and Banja Luka, it is the largest financial center in Bosnia and Herzegovina. One of three largest banks in the country has its headquarters in Mostar. Bosnia and Herzegovina has three national electric, postal and telecommunication service corporations; the seat of one per each group is placed in Mostar (electric utility provider Elektroprivreda HZHB, postal service company Hrvatska pošta Mostar and HT Eronet, the third largest telecommunication company in the country). These three companies (along with banks and aluminium factory) make a vast portion of overall economic activity in the city.

Prior to the 1992–1995 Bosnian War, Mostar relied on other important companies which had been closed, damaged or downsized. They included SOKO (military aircraft factory), Fabrika duhana Mostar (tobacco industry), and Hepok (food industry). In 1981, Mostar's GDP per capita was 103% of the Yugoslav average.

Aluminum manufacturing company Aluminij Industries is the sole remaining large company that was prominent during the former Yugoslavia. It is one of the country's largest exporter companies and it has a number of international partners. It is one of the most influential companies in the region as well. The city of Mostar alone has direct income of €40 million annually from Aluminij.

Considering the fact that three dams are situated on the city of Mostar's territory, the city has a solid base for further development of production. There is also an ongoing project for the possible use of wind power and building of windmills. The private sector has seen a notable increase in small and medium enterprises over the past couple of years contributing to the positive business climate.

Mostar also hosts the annual International Economic Fair Mostar ("Međunarodni sajam gospodarstva Mostar") which was first held in 1997.

Demographics

In 2013 the municipality had a total population of 105,797 according to the census results and the city itself had a population of 60,195.

Ethnic groups
Its population consists of the following ethnic groups: Croats (48.4%); Bosniaks (44.1%) and Serbs (4.1%). The city of Mostar has the largest population of Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina. As in many other cities, its demographic profile was significantly altered after the Bosnian War; in case of Mostar, most of the Serbs left or were forced out of the city.

According to the official data of the local elections of 2008, among six city election districts, three western ones (Croat-majority) had 53,917 registered voters, and those three on the east (Bosniak-majority) had 34,712 voters.

The ethnic composition of the city of Mostar, per indicated census years:

Settlements and neighborhoods
The City of Mostar (aside from city proper) includes the following settlements:

After the Bosnian War, following the Dayton Agreement, the villages of Kamena, Kokorina and Zijemlje were separated from Mostar to form the new municipality of Istočni Mostar (East Mostar), in the Republika Srpska.

Climate
Mostar, and Herzegovina area in general, experience a modified humid subtropical climate (Cfa) under the Köppen Climate Classification, with cold, humid winters and hot, drier summers. In the summer months, occasional temperatures above  are not uncommon. In 1901, a temperature of  was measured in the city, which is the highest temperature to have ever been recorded in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The coldest month is January, averaging about , and the warmest month is July, averaging about . The sunniest months are between June and September. The remainder of the year is wet and mild. Mostar is the sunniest city in the country with an average of 2291 solar hours a year. Snow is relatively rare, and it usually melts within a few hours or days.

During the 2012 European cold wave, Mostar experienced unusually cold weather with freezing temperatures lasting for days and a record snow depth of .

Governance

The City of Mostar has the status of a municipality. The city government is led by the mayor - since 15 February 2021 Mario Kordić (HDZ BiH).

Interim Statute (1996–2004)
International reconstruction efforts aimed at the reunification of the divided city. The February 1996 Mostar Agreement led to the adoption of the Interim Statute of the city the same month and to a 1-year period of EU Administration of Mostar (EUAM), headed by former Bremen mayor Hans Koschnick, till early 1997.

The Interim Statute introduced a Yugoslav-style two-level of administration, with a City level with its own council and mayor (with two deputies) and six municipalities, each with its own administration and council, reflecting the wartime division: three in the Croat-majority West Mostar, and three in the Bosniak-majority East Mostar. A tiny "Central Zone" strip (not a municipality) was to host the rebuilt institutions of the city and, according to the original plans, also of the Federation entity.
Mostar citizens would cast three votes: the first two for the City council's 48 members (half from a city-wide lift and half from candidates in each municipality, 4 each), and the third to elect the members of the councils of the six municipalities. Ethnic quotas and veto rights were to prevent any domination.

2004 Statute
After six years of implementation, in 2003 OHR Paddy Ashdown established an "international commission for reforming Mostar", whose final report noted how the HDZ/SDA power-sharing in Mostar had entrenched division and corruption, with "rampant parallelism" in administrative structures and usurpation of power by the municipalities over the City. The Mostar Commission, headed by another former German mayor, Norbert Winterstein, gathered members of all Mostar parties with the overarching aim of reuniting the city. A new Statute was negotiated, although few points of contention remained. Finally, in February 2004 OHR Paddy Ashdown imposed via its Bonn Powers the new City Statute and related amendments to the BiH Election Law and cantonal and Federation Constitutions. The 2004 Statute abolished the six municipalities and created a unified City administration with a single budget and one Mayor of Mostar, with no deputies. Ethnic quotas in the City council were replaced by minimum/maximum thresholds; 17 councillors would now be elected from a city-wide list, and 18 from the territories of the six former municipalities, now "city areas", which retained a single residual competence on "the distribution of revenues deriving from allocated construction land", managed by city area "commissions" formed by the 3 city councillors elected in each one. The "central zone" remained outside any city area, and its residents were only entitled to vote for the city-wide list.

According to the City Statute, imposed by High Representative Paddy Ashdown on 28 January 2004 after local politicians failed to reach an agreement, the mayor of Mostar has to be elected by the city council with a two-thirds majority. Ashdown abolished the six municipalities that were divided equally among Bosniaks and Croats and replaced them with six electoral units, ridding Mostar of duplicate institutions and costs. In the process Ashdown also reduced the number of elected officials from 194 to 35. According to the City Statute, the constituent peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs) are guaranteed a minimum of four seats and a maximum of 15 seats. 18 councillors are elected by election units (3 councillors from each of the 6 districts) and 15 councillors from a city-wide list. This move was opposed by the Party of Democratic Action (SDA) and the Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH).

2008 elections
On the basis of the 2008 election, the City Council was composed of 35 councillors from the following parties:

Party of Democratic Action (SDA) 12
People's Party Work for Prosperity (NSRzB) 7
Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH) 7
Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (SDP BiH) 3
Croatian Democratic Union 1990 (HDZ 1990) 3
Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina (SBiH) 2
Croatian Party of Rights of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HSP BiH) 1

Relative winners were SDA with the greatest number of votes. However, neither party had enough votes to ensure election of the mayor from their party. The City Council met 16 times without success. Eventually, OHR was involved, and High Representative made some minor changes to the City Statute. After that, Ljubo Bešlić (HDZ BiH) was reelected as a mayor.

2010 Constitutional Court ruling
Following an appeal by HDZ BiH, in November 2010 the Constitutional Court found the electoral framework for Mostar (2004 Statute) to be discriminatory and unconstitutional. Among other things, the Constitutional Court noted that the votes of Mostar residents did not count the same, as the six electoral zones all elected 3 councillors despite their different population (with the smallest having 4 times fewer residents than the largest); and that the voters from the "central zone" counted less, as they only elected representatives from the city-wide list and not from any of the electoral zones.
The Court annulled the relevant provisions of the Election Law of BiH and of the 2004 Statute, and ordered the Parliamentary Assembly of BiH and the Mostar city assembly to revise them within six months. Yet, the Bosniak and Croat ruling parties did not get to a compromise.

Interim administration (2012–2020)
In the absence of a legal basis, local elections could not take place in Mostar in 2012 and 2016. The mandate of the City council also expired in 2012. Bešlić thus remained as acting mayor for eight additional years, during which he affirmed that he considered resigning multiple times, also due to his deteriorating health. During this time, he shared the administrative duties with Izet Šahović, head of the Mostar City's Finance Department, a bureaucrat and member of the Bosniak Party of Democratic Action (SDA). For two full mandates, Bešlić and Šahović have decided together how to disburse Mostar's yearly 30 million euro budget, without any legislative oversight or public transparency. The situation has been denounced by multiple NGOs, which have pointed at the SDA-HDZ power-sharing as the source of the mal-administration of Mostar and the recurrent problems with trash collection, water treatment, and continued ethnic duplication of the city services.

During this period, several rounds of talks were held with international facilitation. Between October 2012 and May 2013 Deputy High Representative Roderick W. Moore launched an 8-months mediation effort that produced a compromise framework aimed at merging the city areas (and central zone) into multi-ethnic voting districts. This was endorsed by the Peace Implementation Council's Steering Board (PIC SB). Yet, the proposal found no political support when it was submitted by Moore's successor Tamir G. Waser in July 2014 to the BiH Parliament. A second mediation attempt led by US and UK ambassadors to BiH, Maureen Cormack and Edward Ferguson, and based on a model with a single city-wide electoral district, also failed [in 2017]. In 2018, the two main parties HDZ BiH and SDA autonomously negotiated a compromise solution, based only on a formula for the election of the councillors from each city area along the "one man, one vote" principle, which would be later taken up in the June 2020 agreement.

In October 2019, the European Court of Human Rights ruled against Bosnia and Herzegovina in the case brought by Irma Baralija on the absence of electoral rights for the residents of Mostar. In July 2020, the Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina amended the electoral law to allow for local elections in Mostar to be held in December 2020.

2020 elections
Following the election on 20 December 2020, the 35 members of the new City Council include:
Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH): 13 (+6)
Coalition for Mostar (SDA, SBB, DF, SBiH, BPS): 11 (-1)
BH Bloc (SDP BiH, NS): 5 (+2)
Croatian Republican Party (HRS): 3 (+3)
First Mostar Party (PMP): 2 (+2)
Serb list "Stay Here – United for Our Mostar" (SNSD, SDS): 1 (+1)

Former mayors of the City of Mostar

Education

Mostar has a number of various educational institutions. These include University of Mostar, University Džemal Bijedić of Mostar, United World College in Mostar, nineteen high-schools and twenty four elementary schools. High-schools include sixteen vocational schools and three gymnasiums.

All public schools in Mostar, both elementary and secondary education, are divided between Croat curriculum and Federal (unofficially Bosniak) curriculum schools. This ethnic division of schools was emplaced during the very first year of the Bosnian war and it continues, with some modifications, to this day. Today, the schools in Mostar and throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina are a site of struggle between ethno-national political elites in ways that reveals the precarious position of youth in the volatile nation building processes A partial exception to divided education is Gimnazija Mostar (also known as "Stara gimnazija") that implemented joint school administration and some joint student courses. However, Croat and Bosniak students in Gimnazija Mostar continue to have most courses according to the "national" curriculum, among them the so-called national subjects – history, literature, geography, and religion.

The country's higher education reform and the signing of the Bologna Process have forced both universities to put aside their rivalry to some extent and try to make themselves more competitive on a regional level.

University of Mostar is the second largest university in the country and the only Croatian language university in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was founded in 1977 as the University "Džemal Bijedić" of Mostar, but changed name in 1992. The origin of the university can be traced back to the Herzegovina Franciscan Theological School, which was founded in 1895 and closed in 1945, was the first higher education institution in Mostar. Today's University seal shows the building of the Franciscan Monastery.

University Džemal Bijedić of Mostar was founded in 1993. It employs around 250 professors and staff members. According to the Federal Office of Statistics, Džemal Bijedić University had 2,522 students enrolled during the 2012/2013 academic year.

 school year, the University of Mostar had 10,712 students enrolled at eleven faculties making it the largest university in the city.
Cumulatively, it has been attended by more than 40,000 students since the start of the Bologna process of education.

Sports
One of the most popular sports in Mostar is football. The two most successful teams are HŠK Zrinjski and FK Velež. FK Velež won the Yugoslav Cup in 1981 and in 1986, which was one of the most significant accomplishments this club has achieved. Since the Bosnian War, each club has generally been supported by a particular ethnic group (Velež for the Bosniaks and Zrinjski for the Croats). The matches between the two clubs are some of the country's most intense matches. Since the start of the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina, HŠK Zrinjski has won eight championships.

In basketball, HKK Zrinjski Mostar competes at the nation's highest level while the Zrinjski banner also represents the city in the top handball league. Vahid Halilhodžić, a former Bosnian football player and current manager of the Morocco national football team, started his professional career in FK Velež Mostar.

In 2011, rugby union football club RK Herceg was founded. The club competes in national leagues within Bosnia & Herzegovina and in the regional league Adria Sevens.

Another popular sport in Mostar is swimming. There are three swimming teams in Mostar: PK Velež, KVS Orka and APK Zrinjski. The best Bosnian swimmer, Lana Pudar, is from Mostar. Mostar has plenty of talented swimmers despite having just one 25-meter pool and one 12.5-meter pool.

Transport

Road

Rail
The city is served by Mostar railway station, with connections to the Capital and cross-border traffic with Croatia.

Air

Mostar is an important tourist destination in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Mostar International Airport serves the city as well as the railway and bus stations which connect it to a number of national and international destinations. Mostar's old town is an important tourist destination with the Stari Most being its most recognizable feature.

Tourism
Some noteworthy sites include Bishop's Ordinariate building, the remains of an early Christian basilica at Cim, a hamam (Ottoman public bath), clock tower (sahat-kula), Synagogue (1889) and Jewish Memorial Cemetery, Nesuh-aga Vučjaković Mosque, Hadži-Kurt Mosque or Tabačica, Metropolitan's Palace (1908), Karagöz Bey Mosque (1557), Cathedral of the Holy Trinity (1873), Catholic Church and Franciscan Monastery, Ottoman Residences (16th–19th century), Crooked Bridge, Tara and Halebija Towers.

The World War II Partisan Memorial Cemetery in Mostar, designed by the architect Bogdan Bogdanović, is another important symbol of the city. Its sacrosanct quality is derived from the unity of nature (water and greenery) with the architectural expression of the designer; the monument was inscribed on the list of National Monuments in 2006.

The Catholic pilgrimage site of Međugorje is also nearby as well as the Tekija Dervish Monastery in Blagaj, 13th-century town of Počitelj, Blagaj Fortress (Stjepan-grad), Kravica waterfall, seaside town of Neum, Roman villa rustica from the early fourth century Mogorjelo, Stolac with its stećak necropolis and the remains of an ancient Greek town of Daorson. Nearby sites also include the nature park called Hutovo Blato, archeological site Desilo, Lake Boračko as well as Vjetrenica cave, the largest and most important cave in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Notable people

Twin towns — sister cities

Mostar is twinned with:

 Amman, Jordan
 Antalya, Turkey
 Arsoli, Italy
 İzmir, Turkey
 Kayseri, Turkey
 Montegrotto Terme, Italy
 Ohrid, North Macedonia
 Osijek, Croatia
 Orkland, Norway
 Split, Croatia
 Tutin, Serbia
 Vukovar, Croatia

See also
Radiotelevizija Herceg-Bosne
Tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Notes

Citations

Literature

Further reading

External links

Visit Mostar
City of Mostar

Cities and towns in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Populated places in Mostar
Capitals of former nations

Mostar


Leon Rupnik, također poznat kao Lav Rupnik ili Lev Rupnik (Lokve 10. kolovoza 1880. – Ljubljana, 4. rujna 1946.) je bio slovenski general za vrijeme Kraljevine Jugoslavije, koji je surađivao s okupatorskim snagama fašističke Italije i nacističke Njemačke tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata. Rupnik je služio kao predsjednik pokrajinske vlade pokrajine Ljubljana pod njemačkom okupacijom od studenog 1943. do početka svibnja 1945. godine. U razdoblju između rujna 1944. i početkom svibnja 1945. godine, služio je također i kao glavni inspektor Domobranaca (Slovenskog domobranstva), kolaboracionističke antikomunističke milicije, iako nije imao nikakve vojne ovlasti do zadnjeg mjeseca rata.

Početak karijere
Rupnik je rođen u Lokvi blizu Gorice, selu u tadašnjoj Austrijskoj pokrajini Gorica i Gradiška, a danas u sastavu grada Nova Gorica, jugozapadna Slovenija. Karijerni vojnik, od 1895. do 1899. godine pohađa kopnenu kadetsku školu u Trstu, te je završava u činu poručnika. Svoje obrazovanje nastavlja u Beču od 1905. do 1907. godine. Nakon Prvog Svjetskog rata, pridružuje se Kraljevskoj jugoslavenskoj vojsci, u svibnju 1919. godine, u činu djelatnog bojnika. Nakon toga promican je u činovima, postavši potpukovnik (1923), pukovnik (1927), brigadni general (1933) i general-bojnik(1937). Kada je Wehrmacht napao kraljevinu Jugoslaviju 6. travnja 1941, Rupnik je načelnik stožera 1. armije.

Rupnikova linija
Nakon što su Treći Reich i Kraljevina Italija osnovali Sile osovine, Kraljevina Jugoslavijia se odlučuje na izgradnju linije utvrda duž granice kako bi se zaštitili od mogućih napada sa sjevera i zapada. Najviše se izgradilo, uglavnom, na granici s Italijom u Dravskoj Banovini. Liniju je u početku čuvalo 15 000 ljudi, ali njihov broj se povećao na 40.000 do 1941 godine. Kako je Rupnik bio odgovoran za njen završetak, "Rupnikova linija" je postala zajednički naziv za ove utvrde.

Obrana je izgrađena po uzoru na francusku Maginot liniju i Češkoslovačke modele, prilagođene lokalnim uvjetima.

Danas su moguće i pješačke ture po Rupnikovoj liniji.

Suradnja s okupatorom
Nakon brzog poraza Kraljevske jugoslavenske vojske, Rupnik je 17. travnja 1941. pušten iz njemačkog vojnog zatvora te je premješten u južnu Sloveniju pod talijanskom okupacijom (poznatu kao provincija Ljubljana). 7. lipnja 1942. godine, preuzima dužnost predsjednika pokrajinskog Odbora Ljubljana, time zamjenjujući Jura Adlešića kao gradonačelnik pod talijanskom okupacijom. Nakon talijanskog primirja u rujnu 1943, Ljubljana je okupirana od strane Nijemaca. Friedrich Rainer, nacistički gaulajtner iz Koruške, postavlja Rupnika kao predsjednika nove pokrajinske vlade, nakon što se navodno savjetovao s biskupom Gregorijem Rožmanom, koji se složio s Rainerovim namjerama da postavi Rupnika na čelo privremene vlade.

Zajedno s Antonom Kokaljom, Ernestom Peterlinom i Jankom Kregarom, Rupnik je bio jedan od osnivača Slovenskog domobranstva, pomoćne vojne jedinice Wehrmachta, ustrojenog kao dobrovoljna milicija za borbu protiv partizanskog pokreta otpora. Milicija je organizirana uglavnom od članova slovenskih anti-komunističkih političara okupljenih oko tajne organizacije Slovenska zaveza uz suglasnost njemačkih okupacijskih snaga. Ubrzo nakon ustrojavanja milicije 23. rujna 1943. godine, Rupnik sebe imenuje njenim vrhovnim zapovjednikom, ali biva otpušten od strane Rainera 4. studenoga 1943. U rujnu 1944. godine bio je imenovan za glavnog inspektora Slovenskog domobranstva.

U funkciji predsjednika pokrajinske uprave, Rupnik organizira glomaznu birokraciju, koja je nastojala pokriti sve sfere građanskog života, od lokalne uprave, do socijalne i kulturne politike. Za tu svrhu, oslanja se na dvije grupe pomagača: s jedne strane, u osnovi аpolitičnih državnih službenika i kulturnih funkcionera aktivnih još u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji (kao što su Stanko Majcen i Narte Velikonja); s druge strane, tu je nekoliko pro-nacistički orijentiranih mladih pojedinaca, kao što su Ljenko Urbančič i Stanko Kociper. Rupnik uspijeva zadržati funkcioniranje gotovo svih slovenskih kulturnih i obrazovnih institucija u razdoblju nacističke okupacije, te mu je 1944. godine čak uspjelo preimenovati "Akademiju znanosti i umjetnosti u Ljubljani" u Slovensku Akademiju znanosti i umjetnosti.

Tijekom svog predsjedništva, Rupnik zadržava potpunu lojalnost nacističkim оkupacijskim vlastima. Organizirao je nekoliko "anti-komunističkih mitinga", po kojima drži vatrene govore protiv Oslobodilačkog fronta Slovenskog naroda, zapadnih saveznika i "Svjetske židovske urote". Zadržava prijateljske kontakte s generalom SS-a, Erwinom Rösenerom,  koji je kasnije osuđen za ratne zločine.

Kao glavni inspektor Slovenskog domobranstvа od studenog 1944. godine, Rupnik u dva navrata nazoči davanju prisege.

Rupnik nije pristao na pokušaje pripadnika Slovenskog Saveza i nekih vojnih čelnika Slovenskog domobranstva da se dignu protiv nacista, niti je intervenirao kada je nekoliko njegovih bivših suradnika uhićeno od nacista te poslano u logor Dachau.

Uhićenje, suđenje i kazna
5. svibnja 1945. godine, Leon Rupnik bježi u Austriju s malom grupom od 20 kolaboracionista. Uhićen je od strane Britanaca 23. srpnja, te vraćen u Jugoslaviju, u siječnju 1946. Izveden je pred sud, zajedno s Rösenerom i drugima, i osuđen na smrtnu kaznu zbog izdaje, 30. kolovoza 1946 godine. Strijeljan je 4. rujna 1946 na ljubljanskom groblju Žale, te pokopan isti dan u neobilježenom grobu.

Antisemitizam
Poznat po svojem antisemitizmu i otvorenim pro-nacističkim stavovima već otprije rata, Rupnik je bio notorni antisemit, koji je pisao antisemitske rasprave i držao antisemitske govore.

Na predavanju u Polhov Gradecu, 5. lipnja 1944., Rupnik kaže:"S punim povjerenjem u pravednost vođa Europe, poglavito njemačke nacije, moramo mirno i sa svim fanatizmom voditi bitku protiv židovske svjetske dominacije koja servira Staljinove i Titove bandite i njihovih pomagača, anglo-američkih gangstera."

Ostalo
Njegov sin, Vuk Rupnik, je bio djelatni časnik Slovenskog domobranstva i zapovjednik jedinice u miliciji. Njegov sinovac, Stanko Kociper, je kasnije emigrirao u Argentinu i napisao knjigu u kojoj je pokušao opravdati Rupnikovu ulogu u ratu.

Poveznice

Vanjske poveznice

Vojni zapovjednici
Životopisi, Slovenija

Leon Rupnik


Morong ist eine philippinische Stadtgemeinde in der Provinz Rizal, in der Verwaltungsregion IV, Calabarzon. Sie hat  Einwohner (Zensus ), die in 8 Barangays lebten. Sie wird als Gemeinde der zweiten Einkommensklasse auf den Philippinen und als teilweise urbanisiert eingestuft.

Morong liegt am nördlichen Ufer des größten Binnensees der Philippinen, des Laguna de Bay. Ihre Nachbargemeinden sind Binangonan im Westen, Teresa im Norden, Tanay und Baras im Osten und Cardona im Südwesten. Die Topographie der Gemeinde ist gekennzeichnet durch die südlichen Ausläufer der Zentralen Luzon-Ebene.

Baranggays
 Bombongan
 Caniogan-Calero-Lanang
 Lagundi
 Maybancal
 San Guillermo
 San Pedro (Pob.)
 San Jose (Pob.)
 San Juan (Pob.)

Weblink

Ort auf den Philippinen
Provinz Rizal

Morong (Rizal)


الدوار له عدة معاني، وهي كالتالي:

أماكن
  دوار (ولاية سطيف): منطقة ببلدية أولاد صابر.
  دوار (جنوب السودان): إحدى قرى مقاطعة كوخ.
  دوار هيشر: مدينة.
  دوار (المغرب): مصطلح يطلق على التجمعات السكانية القروية.

تقنية
 دوار المروحية.
 دوار الذيل (مروحية).
 عضو دوار جزء الدوارن في المحركات الكهربية.
 دوار إنيجما، أحد القطع الرئيسية في آلة إنجما.

أخرى
 دوّار مروري، نوع من تقاطع الطرقات بحيث تسير السيارات حول جزيرة وسط تقاطعات الشوارع.
 دوّار الشمس، نوع مع النباتات ويسمى أيضاً عبّاد الشمس.
 دُوار، هو الدوخة والشعور بعدم الإتزان.

دوار (توضيح)


A União Militar Judaica (Żydowski Związek Wojskowy, ZZW) foi uma organização de resistência judaica que lutou contra os nazistas no Levante do Gueto de Varsóvia em 1943. A ZZW foi fundada em 1939 por veteranos da Primeira Guerra Mundial e membros do movimento sionista revisionista Betar. A organização tinha cerca de quatrocentos membros armados e cooperava com a Organização da Luta Judaica (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa, ZOB), outra organização de resistência judaica no gueto. A ZZW participou dos combates contra as forças alemãs que tentavam liquidar o gueto em abril e maio de 1943, defendendo principalmente a área do gueto perto da Praça Muranowski. Foi a última organização a se render no gueto, depois de perder a maioria de seus líderes e combatentes.<ref
name=jor></ref>

O objetivo da ZZW era defender a população judaica do gueto de Varsóvia contra a ocupação nazista e a deportação para os campos de extermínio. A ZZW também tinha uma visão sionista de criar um Estado judeu na Palestina após a guerra. A organização se opunha ao regime colaboracionista do Conselho Judaico (Judenrat) e buscava estabelecer uma autoridade judaica independente no gueto. Também esperava inspirar outras revoltas judaicas na Polônia ocupada e obter o apoio dos aliados ocidentais e da resistência polonesa.<ref
name=jor/>

Leitura adicional
 Arens, Moshe, "Flags Over the Ghetto"
 Apfelbaum, Marian 2007, "Two Flags; Return to the Warsaw Ghetto", Gefen Publishing House.
 David Wdowiński (1963). And we are not saved. Nova Iorque: Biblioteca Filisofal, 222. .
 Antony Polonsky, "Heroes, Hucksters, e Storytellers: A New History of the Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) em the Warsaw Ghetto" Yad Vashem Studies, 41:2 (2013)

Movimentos de libertação nacional
Estado Secreto Polaco
Resistência polaca durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial
Levante do Gueto de Varsóvia

União Militar Judaica


Križevac je brdo visoko oko 500 metara koje se uzdiže kilometar južno od Međugorja u Bosni i Hercegovini.

Njegovo staro ime je brdo Šipovac, praktički spojeno sa brdom Crnicom u čijem se podnožju nalazi Podbrdo.

Križevac je zajedno s Podbrdom i župnom crkvom sv. Jakova, jedna od tri temeljne točke pobožnosti hodočasnika u Međugorje. Na vrhu brda podignut je monumentalni križ, visok 8,5 metara i širok 3,5 metara, u čast Svete godine otkupljenja 1933.-'34., koju su podigli međugorski župljani. Gradnja križa započela je 1933., a dovršena 1934., a od te godine brdo Šipovac nosi naziv Križevac. Jedan od razloga koji je potaknuo stanovništvo na podizanje križa bile su obilne kiše koje su ugrozile usjeve, zbog čega je tadašnji župnik Bernardin Smoljan pozvao župljane da, unatoč siromaštvu, podignu križ u spomen 1900 godina Kristove muke i smrti na križu, a drugi razlog je molba tadašnjeg pape Pija XI., da se diljem svijeta podignu kipovi na vrhovima brda u čast velike obljetnice. U dršku samog križa umetnute su relikvije pravog Isusova križa, koje su za tu priliku dobivene iz Rima. Bila je to doista velika žrtva župljana Međugorja jer su sav materijal za gradnju armirano-betonskog križa (šljunak, cement, željezo, vodu i potrebnu opremu) danima morali nositi na svojim leđima uz strmi hercegovački kamenjar do vrha Šipovca.

Dana, 16. ožujka 1934. godine slavljena je prva sveta misa podno križa. U rujnu 1935. godine biskup Alojzije Mišić odredio je, da se u Međugorju slavi blagdan Uzvišenja svetoga Križa svake godine prve nedjelje nakon blagdana Rođenja Marijina, a da se misa slavi na Križevcu.

Križevac je i naziv same svetkovine Uzvišenja svetoga Križa u župi Međugorje. Tijekom tjedna koji prethodi blagdanu, križ je noću osvijetljen tisućama svjetala koja najavljuju skori blagdan.

Postaje križnog puta izrađene su u Italiji. Na Križevcu se nalazi i spomenik fra Slavku Barbariću, koji je preminuo prilikom uspona na Križevac.

Galerija

Izvori

Međugorski fenomen
Brda u Bosni i Hercegovini

Križevac (Međugorje, BiH)


Sağlık Bakanlığı İletişim Merkezi (SABİM), Sağlık Bakanlığı ile ilgili her türlü sorun, şikayet, öneri ve taleplerini dinleyip, değerlendirerek, iletilen sorunlara anında ve yerinde müdahaleler ile çözüm üretmektir.

ALO 184
ALO 184, T.C. Sağlık Bakanlığı tarafından oluşturulmuş danışma hattıdır. Hat, COVID-19 hakkında bilgi edinmek isteyen veya semptom gösteren vatandaşlara yardımcı olmak amacıyla açılmıştır. Ayrıca Tütün İhbar Hattı ve Sağlık Bakanlığı İletişim Merkezi olarak da kullanılmaktadır.

ALO 184, önce Tütün İhbar Hattı ve SABİM (Sağlık Bakanlığı İletişim Merkezi) olarak kullanıldı. 10 Mart 2020 tarihinde Türkiye'deki ilk COVID-19 hastasının tespit edilmesiyle birlikte 14 Mart 2020 tarihinde ALO 184'e "COVID-19 Danışma Hattı" görevi de eklendi. 14 Mart 2020 tarihinden sonra vatandaşlar ALO 184'e ilgi göstermeye başlamış, sistemi 1 ayda 1,5 milyon kişi kullanmıştır.

Temel amaçları
 Kamu hizmetlerinin etkin ve verimli bir biçimde yürütülmesini sağlamak,
 Halkın yönetimden duyduğu memnuniyeti artırmak,
 Yönetimde halkın katılımını artırıcı yönde rol oynamaktır.

Kaynakça

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı
COVID-19 pandemisi

SABİM


Bennett Adası, Yeni Sibirya Takımadaları'na bağlı De Long Adaları grubunun küçük bir üyesidir. 1881 yılında George W. DeLong tarafından bulunmuştur. 150 km²'lik yüzölçümüne sahip olan ada Geçmişte Amerika Birleşik Devletleri kontrolünde iken günümüzde Rusya'nın Yakutistan Cumhuriyeti'ne aittir. En yüksek noktası 426 metre olan adanın büyük bölümü buzullar ile kaplıdır.

De Long Adaları

Bennett Adası


ධ්‍වනි විද්‍යාව යනු විවිධ වූ ක්ෂේත්‍රයන්, ධ්වනිය අති ධ්වනිය හා අධෝධ්වනිය (පදාර්ථයේ අවස්ථා වන ඝන ද්‍රව හා වායුන්ගේ තුල පවතින සියළු යාන්ත්‍රික තරංග) පිළිබඳ වූ විද්‍යාවකි. ධ්‍වනි විද්‍යාව අධ්‍යයනය කරන විද්‍යාඥයා ධ්‍වනි විද්‍යාඥයෙක් වශයෙන් හඳුන්වනු ලබයි. ධ්වනි විද්‍යා‍ෙව් තාක්ෂණික යෙදීම් ධ්‍වනි ඉංජිනේරු විද්‍යාව වශයෙන් හඳුන්වයි. ධ්‍වනි විද්‍යාඥයෙකුගේ ක්‍රියාකාරකම් පරාසය බොහෝ විට සමාන කමක් දක්වයි.

සත්ව ලෝකයේ දිවි පැවැත්ම සඳහා ශ්‍රවණය ඉතා වැදගත් හැකියාවක් වන සේම කථා කිරී‍ෙම් හැකියාව මිනිස් දියුණු‍ෙව් හා සංස්කෘතියේ ඉතා වැදගත් ලක්ෂණයකි. ෙම් නිසා ශබ්‍දය පිළිබඳ වූ විද්‍යාව අප සමාජයේ විවිධ පැතිකඩවල් ඔස්සේ වර්ධනය වීම පුදුම දනවන කරුණක් නො‍ෙව්. සංගීතය, වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාව, ගෘහ නිර්මාණ ශිල්පය, කාර්මික නිෂ්පාදන හා යුධ විද්‍යාව මෙවැනි ක්ෂෙත්‍ර කිහිපයකි. කලාව, කර්මාන්ත, විද්‍යාව හා තාක්ෂණ‍ය යන ක්ෂේත්‍රයන් එකිනෙකෙහි වර්ධනයට රුකුල් දෙමින් අනෙක් බොහෝ දැනුම් ක්ෂේත්‍ර පරිද්දෙන්ම ධ්වනි විද්‍යාවද සමස්ත ක්ෂේත්‍රයක් ලෙස ප්‍රගමනය කිරීමට දායක වී තිබේ.

ධ්‍වනි විද්‍යාව (acoustic) යන වචනය සැදී ඇත්තේ ශ්‍රීක භාෂා‍ෙව් වචනයක් වන ακουστός, යන වචනයෙනි. මෙහි තේරුම වන්නේ "ඇසීමට ඇති හැකියාවයි" (Woodhouse 1910, B92) ලතින් භාෂාවෙන් මෙයට "Sonic" යනුවෙන් හඳුන්වයි. ධ්වනි විද්‍යාඥයන් සිය අධ්‍යයනයන් මිනිස් පරාසයෙන් ශ්‍රව්‍ය ඉහළ හා පහළ සංඛ්‍යාත පරාසයක් දක්වා විස්තාරණය කිරීමත් සමග එම ධ්වනි පරාස පිළිවෙලින් අතිධ්වනි හා අධෝ ධ්වනි පරාස ලෙස පොදුවේ හැඳින්වීම සිදු වූ අතර ධ්වනි විද්‍යාව මෙම සියළු සංඛ්‍යාත අධ්‍යයනය හඳුන්වන පොදු වදන බවට පත් විය.

ධ්වනිය පිළිබද ඉතිහාසය
තන්තුවක් කම්පනය කිරිමේදී ඇතිවන මුලික යන පළමු උපරිතානය පළමුවෙන්ම මෙම විද්‍යාමාන වන දේ අධ්‍යයනය කරනු ලැබුවේ පයිතගරස් විසිනි.

ධ්වනිය පිළිබද විද්‍යාව 6 වැනි සහ 1 වැනි සියවස අතර ග‍්‍රික සහ රෝම සංස්කෘතියේ පටන් ගන්නා ලදි. එය සංගිතයක් ලෙස ආරම්භ වු අතර අවුරුදු දහස් ගනනක් කලාවක් ලෙස ආරම්භ වු අතර අවුරුදු දහස් ගනනක් කලාවක් ලෙස භාවිත කල අතර පයිතගරස් සංගිත ප‍්‍රාන්තරවල ස්වභාවය ගැන උනන්දුවක් දක්වනතෙක් විද්‍යාත්මක ආකාරයට ඉගෙන ගත් බවට සාක්ෂි නොමැත. ඇරිස්ටෝටල්ට සමහර ප‍්‍රාන්තර අනිත් ප‍්‍රාන්තරවලට වඩා ලස්සන ඇයි දැයි දැන ගැනිමට අවශ්‍ය විය. එය පිළිතුරු සංඛ්‍යාත්මක අනුගත වලින් සොයා ගැනිමට ඔහු සමත් විය. ඇරිස්ටෝටල් (384-322) ධ්වනිය වායුන්ගේ සංකෝචනය සහ ප‍්‍රසාරණය අනුව සිදුවන බව තේරුම් ගන්නා ලදි. 20ඊක් දි රෝමානු ගෘහ නිර්මාණ හිල්පියකු සහ ඉංජිනේරුවා වු බර්ටුවිකස් ධ්වනිත්ව ගතිගුණ වන දෝංකාරය සහ අනුනාදය යන ගෘහ නිර්මාණාත්මක ධ්වනිය පිළිබද සාකච්ඡුා අඩංගු ශාස්ත‍්‍රිය ග‍්‍රන්ථයක් ලියන ලදි.

ධ්වනිමය ක‍්‍රියාවලිය පිළිබද භෞතිකමය තේරුම් ගැනිම විද්‍යාත්මක විප්ලවය තුල සහ පසුව වේගයෙන් සිදුවිය. ගැලිලියෝ (1564-1642) සහ මර්සෙන් (1588-1648)  තන්තු කම්පනය පිළිබද සම්පුර්ණ නියම ස්වායත්ව සොයා ගන්නා (පයිතගරස් අවු 2000 කට පෙර කලින් සම්පුර්ණ කරන ලද) ගැලිලියෝ විසින් රුව්දෙන වස්තුන්ගේ කම්පන මගින් තරංග නිපදවනු ලැබේ. එය වායු තුලින් ගමන් කර කනේ කන්අඩියට ගොස් මොලය සංවේදනය වි ශබ්දයක් ලෙස හදුනා ගනි. මෙම සැලකිය යුතු ප‍්‍රකාශනය මගින් කායික සහ මානසික ධ්වනිය පිළිබද කරුණු ඉදිරිපත් කරයි.

වාතයේ ධ්වනියේ ප‍්‍රවේගය පිළිබද පරියේෂණාත්මක මිනුම් 1630 සහ 1680 කාලය තු මරියින් විසින් විමර්ශනය කරන ලදි. මේ අතර නිව්ටන් (1642-1727) ඝනවල තරංග ප‍්‍රවේගය යන කොන්ගල භෞතික ධ්වනිය පිළිබද සම්බන්ධතාවයක් ව්‍යුත්පන්න කරන ලදි

ධ්වනි විද්‍යාවේ මූලික සංකල්ප
ධ්වනිය පිළිබද අධ්‍යයනයේදී සිදුවන්නේ යාන්ත්‍රික තරංග කම්පන ලබා ගැනීම , සෑදීම හා ප්‍රචාරණය යන ක්ෂේත්‍ර ඔස්සේය.

ඉහත ආකාරයේ වන ක්‍රියාපිළිවෙත් සෑම ධ්වනි අංශයකම හෝ ක්‍රියාවලියකම දැකිය හැක. ස්වභාවික හා චේතනාත්මක හේතූන් සඳහා බොහෝ උදාහරණ ඇත. ශක්තීන් ධ්වනි තරංග සාදමින් ධ්වනි තරංගවලට පරිවර්තනය කරන පරනායක ක්‍රියාවලි බොහෝමයක් පවතී. ධ්වනි තරංග ප්‍රචාරණය විස්තර කරන එක් මූලික සමීකරණයක් ඇත. නමුත් එහි සංකල්ප ඉතා සංකීර්ණ හා විචලනය වන්නකි. තරංගය ප්‍රචාරණ මාධ්‍යය හරහා ශක්තිය රැගෙන යයි. එසේම මෙම ශක්තිය නැවතත් වෙනත් ශක්තියක් බවට පරිවර්තනය වේ. (ස්වාභාවික හෝ චේතනීය උපක්‍රම ලෙසට) අවස්න ප්‍රතිඵලය සම්පූර්ණයෙන් භෞතික හෝ ජීව විද්‍යාත්මක හෝ චේතනීය ව්‍යමනට ළගා වේ. අප භූමිකම්පාවක් පිළිබද කථාකරන විට , සබ්මැරීනයක් තම සතුරා සෙවීමට "සොනාර්" භාවිතා කරන විට හෝ ප්‍රසංගයක වාද්‍ය වෘන්දයක් වාදනය කරන විට මූලික පියවර පහ සෑම අවස්ථාවකම අනුගමනය කරනු ලැබේ.

ධ්වනි ක්‍රියාවලිය ප්‍රධානතම පියවර වන්නේ ධ්වනි තරංග ප්‍රචාරණයයි.මෙය අයත් වන්නේ භෞතික ධ්වනි විද්‍යා ක්ෂේත්‍රයටයි. තරල තුළ මූලිකව ශබ්දය පීඩන තරංගයක් ලෙස ප්‍රචාරණය වේ. ඝණ තුළ යාන්ත්‍රික තරංග, පෘෂ්ඨ තරංග , අන්වායාම තරංග , තීර්යක් තරංග ලෙස විවිධ ආකාර ගනු ලබයි.

ධ්වනිය පළමුව ධ්වනි තරංගයේ පීඩන කලාප හා සංඛ්‍යාත පිළිබද සොයයි. පරිනායක ක්‍රියාවලදී විශේෂ වැදගත්කම් සහිත වේ.

තරංග ප්‍රචාරණය : පීඩන කලාප
ජලය හා වාතය වැනි තරලවල පරිමන්දිත පීඩන කලාපවල කැලඹීම් ලෙස ශබ්ද තරංග ප්‍රචාරණය වේ. මෙම කැළඹීම් සාමාන්‍යයෙන් කුඩා වූවත් මිනිස් කනට එය අනාවරණය කළ හැක. මිනිස් කනට සංවේදී කුඩාම ශබ්දය ශ්‍රව්‍යය දේහලීයතාවය වශයෙන් හදුන්වන අතර එය පරිමන්දිත පීඩනයේ විශාලත්වයෙන් 9 බලයක් කුඩා වේ. මෙම කැළඹීම්වල ශබ්දය ශබ්ද පීඩන මට්ටම් ලෙස හදුන්වන අතර ඩෙසිබල්වලින් මණිනු ලබන ලඝු පරිමාණයක් භාවිතා කරයි. ගණිතමය වශයෙන් ශබ්ද පීඩන මට්ටම් පහත පරිදි අර්ථ දැක්විය හැක.

Pref යනු ශ්‍රව්‍යය දේහලීයතාවය හා P යනු පරිමන්ධිත පීඩනයෙන් වෙනස්වන පීඩනයයි. පහත වගුව ශබ්දය හා එහි ශක්තිය පිළිබද ඩෙසිබල් හා පැස්කල්වලින් වූ යම් උදාහරණ කිහිපයකින් සමන්විතය.

සාමාන්‍ය ශබ්ද පීඩන විශාලත්ව පිළිබද ඩෙසිබල් මට්ටම්වල උදාහරණ

තරංග ප්‍රචාරණය සංඛ්‍යාතය
භෞතික විද්‍යාඥයන් හා ධ්වනි ඉංජිනේරුවන් ශබ්ද පිඩන මට්ටම් සංඛ්‍යාත අනුසාරයෙන් අධ්‍යයනය කරනු ලබන්නේ මිනිස් කනට ශබ්ද විචාරණය වනුයේ  සංඛ්‍යාතය ආශ්‍රයෙන් වන බැවිනි. අප උස් හා පහත් තාරකාවන් වශයෙන් හඳුන්වන්නේ තත්පරයකට සිදුවන උස් හෝ පහත් පීඩන කම්පනවල චක්‍ර ගණනයි. සාමාන්‍යය ධ්වනි මැණුමේ දී ධ්වනි සංඥාවන් සාම්පලයක් කාලයක් තුල ගෙන එය වඩා තේරුම් සහගත ලෙස අෂ්ඨක ලෙස හෝ කාල සංඛ්‍යාත ලෙස හෝ දක්වනු ලබයි. මෙම ප්‍රචලිත ක්‍රම දෙකම ශබ්දයක් වර්ගීකරණය කිරීමේ දී හා ධ්වනි සංකල්ප අධ්‍යයනයේ දී යොදා ගැනේ.

සමස්ථ ධ්වනි සංඛ්‍යාත පරාසය කොටස් තුනකට දැක්විය හැක. ශබ්දය , අතිධ්වනිය හා අධෝධ්වනිය මෙම කොටස් තුනයි. ශබ්ධ කලාපය 20 Hz සිට 20,000 Hz  දක්වා වේ. මෙම කලාපය ඉතා වැදගත් වන්නේ මෙම කලාපය තුළ සංඛ්‍යාත මිනිස් කනට සංවේදී නිසාය. මෙම කලාපයේ ඇති සංගීතය හා නවීන සංන්නිවේදනය වැනි මේ යෙදීම් ගණනාවක් ඇත. අති ධ්වනි කලාපය අධික සංඛ්‍යාත සහිත තරංගවලින් සමන්විතය. එනම් 20,000 Hz   වලින් ඉහළ සංඛ්‍යාතයන්ය. මෙම කලාපය තුළ (පරිලෝකනය සඳහා ) හොඳ විභේදනයන් ලබා දෙන අඩු තරංග ආයාමයන් සහිත තරංග ඇත. වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාවේ දී ද මෙහි යෙදීම් ගණනාවක් ඇත. වර්ණාවලියේ අනෙක් පස ඇත්තේ සංඛ්‍යාතය අඩු අධෝධ්වනි සංඛ්‍යාතයි. මෙම සංඛ්‍යාතයන් භූකම්පා වැනි භූගෝල අධ්‍යයනය සඳහා වැදගත් වේ.

ධ්වනියේ පරණායකය

පරණායකයක් යනු ශක්තියක් තවත් ශක්තියකට පත් කරන උපක්‍රමයකි.ධ්වනි විද්‍යාවේ දී මෙය සාමාන්‍යයෙන් යොදාගැනෙන්නේ ශබ්ද ශක්තිය විද්‍යුත් ශක්තිය බවට හෝ විද්‍යුත් ශක්තිය ධ්වනි ශක්තිය බවට පත් කිරීමටයි. ඕනෑම ධ්වනි විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රියාවලියක් සඳහා යම් ආකාරයක ධ්වනි පරණායකයක් සාමාන්‍යයෙන් අවශ්‍ය වේ. ධ්වනි පරණායකය යනු ශබ්ද විකාශන , මයික්‍රොෆෝන , හයිඩ්‍රොෆෝන හා සොනාර් ප්‍රක්ෂේපණ යන්ත්‍ර හා අති ධ්වනි උපකරණයි. මින් බොහෝමයක් විද්‍යුත් සංඥා හා ශබ්ද පීඩන තරංගවල පරිවර්තක වන විද්‍යුත් යාන්ත්‍රික උපකරණයි.
එක් වැදගත් උදාහරණයක් ලෙස ස්පීකර් ශ්‍රව්‍යය පද්ධතියක කුඩා ශබ්ද සදහා "සබ්වූපරය" දැක්විය හැක. මෙය තරංග සාදන්නේ ඒල්ලන ලද ප්‍රාචීරයක් දෝලනය වීමෙන් පීඩනය තරංග සෑදීමෙනි. විද්‍යුත් මයික්‍රොෆෝන ක්‍රියා කරන්නේ මේ ආකාරයටමය. ශබ්ද තරමක මයික්‍රොෆෝන පෘෂ්ඨයේ වැදීමෙන් එය විද්‍යුත් තරංග පිට කරයි.
භෞතික විද්‍යාව

ධ්‍වනි විද්‍යාව


Felix Anthony Machado (Karadi, perto de Vasai, 6 de junho de 1948) é um ministro indiano e arcebispo católico romano ad personam de Vasai.

Felix Anthony Machado estudou Interart Studies (literatura e arte) na Universidade de Mumbai (M.A.), depois teologia no St. Pius X College em Goregaon (Mumbai) e na Universidade Católica de Lyon, onde obteve uma licenciatura em teologia em 1976. Em 30 de outubro de 1976 foi ordenado sacerdote. Depois de anos como ministro da igreja, ele foi para os EUA e estudou Missiologia na Maryknoll School of Theology and Dogmatics na Fordham University em Nova York. Lá ele recebeu seu doutorado em 1984. teológico Doutorado. De 1984 a 1993 lecionou dogmática e missiologia no Colégio São Pio X em Goregaon. Desde 1993 trabalhou no departamento da Ásia do Pontifício Conselho para o Diálogo Inter-religioso, de 1999 a 2008 foi seu subsecretário (sottosegretario). Ao mesmo tempo, lecionou na Pontifícia Universidade Urbaniana e na Pontifícia Universidade Auxilium. Com a criação da Diocese de Vasai em 22 de maio de 1998, foi incardinado em seu clero.

Papa Bento XVI o nomeou arcebispo ad personam de Nashik em 16 de janeiro de 2008. O arcebispo de Bombaim, cardeal Oswald Gracias, o consagrou bispo em 8 de março do mesmo ano; Os co-consagradores foram Valerian D'Souza, bispo de Poona, e Thomas Bhalerao SJ, ex-bispo de Nashik. Em 10 de novembro de 2009 foi nomeado arcebispo ad personam de Vasai.

Em 8 de julho de 2020, o Papa Francisco o nomeou membro do Pontifício Conselho para o Diálogo Inter-religioso.

Ver também

Arcebispos católicos da Índia

Felix Anthony Machado


Andrew John "Andy" Connell (Mánchester, 26 de julio de 1961) es un músico y compositor británico, quien junto con Corinne Drewery, forman el dúo Swing Out Sister.

Swing Out Sister
Swing Out Sister comenzó en 1985, cuando Connell y Jackson se asociaron con Corinne Drewery. Desde el establecimiento de la banda, Connell ha sido el principal compositor y arreglista de las canciones de Swing Out Sister, incluyendo " Breakout " que llegó al Top 10 en Reino Unido y EE. UU.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web de Swing Out Sister
 Estación de radio en Internet de Andy Connell en LIVE365.com

Compositores de Inglaterra
Tecladistas de Inglaterra
Pianistas de Inglaterra
Nacidos en Mánchester

Andy Connell


Yucatán is a state in southeastern Mexico that is divided into 106 municipalities, organized into 7 administrative regions. According to the 2020 Mexican Census, it is the twenty-second most populated state with  inhabitants and the 20th largest by land area spanning .

Municipalities in Yucatán are administratively autonomous of the state according to the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico. Every three years, citizens elect a municipal president (Spanish: presidente municipal) by a plurality voting system who heads a concurrently elected municipal council (ayuntamiento) responsible for providing all the public services for their constituents. The municipal council consists of a variable number of trustees and councillors (regidores y síndicos). Municipalities are responsible for public services (such as water and sewerage), street lighting, public safety, traffic, and the maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1984, they have had the power to collect property taxes and user fees, although more funds are obtained from the state and federal governments than from their own income.

The largest municipality by population is Mérida, with 995,129 residents (42.87% of the state's total), while the smallest is Quintana Roo with 976 residents. The largest municipality by land area is Tizimín which spans , and the smallest is Sanahcat with . The newest municipality is Chikindzonot, established in 1957.

Municipalities

Notes

References

Yucatan

Municipalities of Yucatán