An Agrostis reuteri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Pierre Edmond Boissier. An Agrostis reuteri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Agrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Nag-uusahan nga subspecies: A. r. botelhoi.

Mga kasarigan

Agrostis

Agrostis reuteri


Les Mayfield (Albuquerque, Nuevo México; 30 de noviembre de 1959) es un productor y director de cine estadounidense.

Filmografía
El hombre de California (Encino Man) (1992)
Milagro en la calle 34 (Miracle on 34th Street) (1994)
Flubber y el profesor chiflado (1997)
De ladrón a policía (Blue Streak) (1999)
American Outlaws (2001)
The Man (2005)
Code Name: The Cleaner (2007)

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Nacidos en Albuquerque
Directores de cine de Estados Unidos

Les Mayfield


Valeriano Inocêncio de Araújo Ferrão (Beira, 11 de outubro de 1939 - Maputo, 2 de outubro de 2022) foi um político e diplomata moçambicano que se tornou o primeiro embaixador de Moçambique nos Estados Unidos da América.

Filho de Tomás António e de Cristina Joana Araújo Ferrão, cresceu no ambiente que considerava racista da cidade da Beira colonial.
Exilou-se em Paris em 1963, onde se juntou a grupos de exilados portugueses e moçambicanos.
Em 1964 foi estudar para Neuchâtel na Suíça, tendo-se formado em engenharia mecânica.
Em 1970 regressou a África, integrando campos de treino da Frelimo em Argel, Cairo e Dar-es-Salaam onde além de receber treino militar, foi professor.

Regressou a Moçambique depois da independência nacional, tornando-se deputado na Assembleia Popular em 1977, e ingressou em 1978 nos quadros do Ministério dos Negócios Estrangeiros, primeiro como secretário-geral do ministério e em 1981 como Secretário de Estado dos Negócios Estrangeiros. Em 1983, foi nomeado o primeiro embaixador de Moçambique nos Estados Unidos da América, cargo do qual foi exonerado em 1991.

Dedicou-se então a apoiar a agricultura, especialmente a realizada por mulheres na zona suburbana de Maputo, a qual fornece a cidade com produtos hortícolas.

Naturais de Moçambique colonial
Diplomatas de Moçambique
Embaixadores de Moçambique nos Estados Unidos da América
Políticos de Moçambique
Moçambicanos de ascendência indiana

Valeriano Ferrão


Der Begriff Kunstpatronage bezeichnet das Auftragsverhältnis zwischen einem Künstler und seinem Auftraggeber, bei dem der Patron die finanziellen und sozialen Voraussetzungen zur Umsetzung des Kunstwerkes schafft. Für gewöhnlich wird die Bezeichnung Kunstpatronage für die Kunstförderung des späten Mittelalters und der Frühen Neuzeit verwendet.

Als Auftraggeber traten meist wohlhabende Prälaten, Fürsten, Kaufleute oder Privatpersonen, aber auch Personengruppen wie Ordensgemeinschaften, Gremien, Zünften oder Bruderschaften auf. Die Kunstpatronage fand auf dem Gebiet der bildenden und der angewandten Kunst statt. Malerei und Bildhauerei, Architektur und Kunsthandwerk sowie Musik, Theater und Literatur wurden durch dieses System gefördert und in gewisser Weise auch gesteuert. Eine enge Beziehung zwischen Künstler und Auftraggeber auf persönlicher Ebene war bei einer kontinuierlichen, langjährigen Kunstpatronage nicht ungewöhnlich.

Arten der Kunstförderung
Es ist nur bedingt möglich, die einzelnen Arten der Kunstförderung voneinander zu unterscheiden, denn sie werden nicht einheitlich definiert. Das Mäzenatentum ist eng mit der Kunstpatronage verwandt und wird teilweise sogar synonym verwendet. Bei der Kunstpatronage werden wie beim
Mäzenatentum (im Gegensatz zum Sponsoring) keine konkreten kommerziellen Interessen verfolgt. Die Gründe für die Kunstpatronage von Seiten des Auftraggebers sind nicht immer dieselben gewesen. Prestige, Legitimität, Repräsentation von Reichtum, politische Kriterien, und persönliche Vorlieben sind jedoch die häufigsten Motive. Merkmale, die den Kunstpatron vom Mäzen unterscheiden, sind die teils sehr enge Beziehung zum Künstler und die gegenseitige Abhängigkeit. Nach Ulrich Oevermann steht beim Mäzenatentum die Bewahrung und Fortführung des kulturellen Erbes im Mittelpunkt, während es dem Kunstpatron darum geht, seinen eigenen Einfluss auszuüben und ihn zu festigen. Demnach würden Mäzene Kunst zum Nutzen des Allgemeinwohles fördern, die Kunstpatronage hingegen folgte eher dem Motiv der Selbstvermarktung. Gegenstimmen behaupten, dass das Idealbild des selbstlosen und altruistischen Mäzenatentums so wenig der Realität entspricht, wie es für die Kunstpatronage gilt.

Forschung
Die Kunstförderung tauchte erst seit Anfang der 1980er Jahre als Forschungsgegenstand der Soziologie auf. Die Hintergründe der Kunstpatronage und ihre Auswirkungen auf die künstlerische Produktion ist auch ein Forschungsgebiet der Kunstwissenschaften. Die Studien in diesem Bereich zeichnen ein detailliertes Bild, konzentrieren sich aber größtenteils auf Einzelfalluntersuchungen. Die Kunstpatronage ist ein vielschichtiges und facettenreiches Phänomen. Sie veränderte sich im Laufe der Jahrhunderte, passte sich den gesellschaftlichen Gegebenheiten an und weist unterschiedliche regionale Ausprägungen auf.

Kunsttheoretische Reflexion
Die Kunstförderung steht im Zusammenhang mit dem gesellschaftlichen Stellenwert der Kunst und dem Beruf des Künstlers. Über viele Jahrhunderte waren Maler und Bildhauer gewöhnliche Handwerker. Die mit dieser Arbeit verbundene körperliche Anstrengung wurde nur gering geschätzt. Seit der Antike bedeutete Kunst in erster Linie Auftragskunst. Dabei wurde die künstlerische Leistung zuvor genau festgelegt, sie wurde weder mit Bildung und Kreativität, noch mit geistiger Arbeit in Verbindung gebracht. Das allmähliche Erstarken des Stellenwertes der Kunst ist erst mit dem Beginn der italienischen Renaissance zu verzeichnen. Die Kunstpatronage hat dazu beigetragen, indem die Förderer ihren Protegés künstlerische Freiheit gewährten, ihnen Verantwortung übertrugen und ihr Ansehen in der Gesellschaft steigerten. Am Hofe regte die Kunstpatronage eine aktive Rezeptionskultur an und die teils intime Nähe des Künstlers zum Potentaten festigte das Bild eines außergewöhnlichen Berufsstandes. Seit Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts unterschied man, auch dank der theoretischen Abhandlungen "De pictura" (1435/1436) von Leon Battista Alberti und "Le vite" (1550–1568) von Giorgio Vasari zwischen Kunst und Handwerk.

Voraussetzungen für die Patronage
Die Ausprägungen der Kunstpatronage variieren stark. In der Frühen Neuzeit, besonders im 17. Jahrhundert kamen Künstler oft an Arbeit, indem sie von einflussreichen Personen, zum Beispiel von einem Legaten entdeckt, zunächst in einem Kloster untergebracht wurden und dann erste Aufträge für diese erledigten. Durch die Werke gewannen sie an Ansehen und lernten "weitere potentielle Auftraggeber" im Bekanntenkreis des Prälaten kennen. Fürsten und andere Förderer entschieden sich für einen bestimmten Künstler aus persönlichem Interesse, in Anerkennung seiner Tugend oder auch aus politischen Gründen, wobei die Herkunft eines Künstlers oft entscheidend war.

Auftragswerke
Ab Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts arbeiteten Künstler an fürstlichen Höfen, wo man ein Bedürfnis nach Repräsentation verspürte. Die Hofmaler erhielten den Amtstitel pictor regis und wurde in den Stand des familiaris et fidelis bzw. Kammerdieners oder valet de chambre erhoben, der mit besonderen Privilegien verbunden war. Ebenfalls Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts wurde in Frankreich ein magister regis, der erste höfische Baumeister, eingesetzt.

Beziehung zwischen Künstler und Auftraggeber
Das Verhältnis zwischen Künstler und Förderer konnte sehr unterschiedlich sein. Es kam sowohl vor, dass der Künstler direkt am Hof oder im Palast seines Auftraggebers untergebracht war und ausschließlich für ihn arbeitete, teils gaben die Patrone aber auch einzelne Werke in Auftrag.
Die engste Art von Beziehung ist die servitù particolare, bei der die Künstler als Mitglied der fürstlichen famiglia hohes Ansehen genossen und gut bezahlt wurden. Die Sicherheit und den Wohlstand mussten sie aber nicht selten mit ihrer Freiheit bezahlen, die durch die strengen Regeln am Hof eingeschränkt wurde. Es gab Fürsten, die eine Klausel in die Verträge mit den Hofkünstlern einbanden, die besagte, dass sie nicht für Privatleute außerhalb des Hofes arbeiten dürften. Dem Großteil der Künstler war es jedoch erlaubt, mit der Legitimation des Fürsten auch für andere Auftraggeber, zum Beispiel reiche Bürger oder andere Potentaten zu arbeiten.
Die Beziehung zwischen Künstler und Patron war im Fall einer servitù particolare oft besonders eng und von gegenseitiger Abhängigkeit geprägt. Einige Zeugnisse berichten von äußerst vertraulichen Beziehungen. Einer Anekdote zufolge soll Karl V. Tizian beispielsweise seinen heruntergefallenen Pinsel persönlich vom Boden aufgehoben haben.
Sollte der Förderer sterben oder sollte es zu einem politischen Wandel kommen, konnte die Beziehung für den Künstler schädlich werden, da er nun schwerlich andere Mäzene für sich gewinnen konnte. Durch ihre Verbindung zu Machthabern konnte den Künstlern vorgeworfen werden, zur politischen Gefolgschaft zu gehören, was sogar die Todesstrafe zur Folge haben konnte. Giacomo Andrea da Ferrara, ein Mitarbeiter Leonardos, wurde als Parteigänger öffentlich hingerichtet, nachdem er beim Einmarsch der französischen Truppen 1499 in Mailand nicht schnell genug geflohen war.
Um finanziellen Einbußen vorzubeugen, wurde es in Rom im 17. Jahrhundert üblich, dass die Künstler auf Vorrat malten und die angefangenen Gemälden in ihrer Werkstatt ausstellten und an Privatpersonen verkauften.

Besoldung
Die Besoldung am Hof bestand vorwiegend aus sachlichen Gütern. Die monetären Gehälter waren im Gegensatz zu den sachlichen Zuwendungen weniger normiert. Künstler erhielten als Hofhandwerker einen Tages-, Wochen- oder Stundenlohn. Nur wenige hatten das Glück, ein festes Jahresgehalt zu beziehen. Die Jahresgehälter der Dombaumeister beispielsweise waren meist projektgebunden, es gab jedoch auch Hofkünstler, deren Jahresgehalt in eine lebenslange Provision umgewandelt wurde. Der Vorteil war dabei, dass der Künstler trotz einer Arbeitsunfähigkeit und auch im hohen Alter weiterhin mit einem festen Einkommen rechnen konnte. Eine lebenslange Provision war aber nicht der Lohn für die Arbeitsleistung, sondern vielmehr für die Dienstbereitschaft und Tugend eines Hofkünstlers. Das Gehalt wurde nach dem Ermessen des Fürsten festgelegt, womit sich die großen Gehaltsunterschiede erklären lassen. Oftmals wurden die Kunstwerke noch zusätzlich bezahlt.
Sachleistungen sollten sicherstellen, dass dem Künstler eine "angemessene Unterkunft" geboten wurde. Es gab Hofkünstler, die ein eigenes Haus erhielten, viele waren jedoch im Palast untergebracht. Um den Hofstaat nach außen hin würdig repräsentieren zu können, legten manche Verträge die regelmäßige Zuteilung von Kleidung fest. Auch die Mahlzeiten und das Recht, einen Arzt auf Kosten des Patrons aufzusuchen, konnten Teil dieser Vereinbarungen sein.
Um nicht den Anschluss an den künstlerischen Zeitgeist zu verpassen, wurde es notwendig, die Künstler auf Bildungsreisen zu schicken. Die "fürstlichen Reisestipendien" stellten Anreize für solche Reisen her. Eine weitere Form der Vergütung stellt die Künstlernobilitierung dar, die mit einer Reihe von Privilegien verbunden war.

Heiratsvermittlung
Ab dem 14. Jahrhundert wurden Hofkünstler auch beauftragt, Porträts von Prinzessinnen und Prinzen anzufertigen, welche zur Anbahnung von Hochzeiten dienen sollten. Die erste Überlieferung einer Heiratsvermittlung über einen Hofmaler stammt aus Frankreich. Als die Herzöge eine Braut für den minderjährigen Karl VI. suchten, schickten sie den Hofmaler nach Bayern, Österreich und Lothringen, um die potentiellen Kandidatinnen porträtieren zu lassen. Karl VI. wurden die Porträts gezeigt und veranlassten ihn zu der Entscheidung, Elisabeth von Bayern zu heiraten. Die Hochzeit fand 1385 statt.

Kunstpatronage als Gegenentwurf zur Malerzunft
Die ersten Malerzünfte traten in Italien gegen Ende des Duecento auf. Die Zusammenschlüsse von Handwerkern dienten dem Schutz und der gegenseitigen Unterstützung. Die Künstler wurden in den Werkstätten der Zünfte ausgebildet und hatten dann unter bestimmten Voraussetzungen die Möglichkeit, unter einem Patron zu arbeiten und an seinem Hof zu leben. Hofmaler genossen einige Privilegien gegenüber den Künstlern der Malergilden. Sie unterstanden weder dem Zunftzwang noch mussten sie Steuern zahlen. Die Möglichkeit einer Nobilitierung bei der Kunstpatronage verdeutlicht, dass Künstlern am Hof einen hohen Stellenwert beigemessen wurden. Die konträren Denkentwürfe am Hof und in der Stadt, d. h. in der Zunft bedeuteten auch, dass die Kunst der Gildenmaler als artes mechanicae galt, die Kunst am Hofe jedoch schon früher zu den artes liberales gezählt wurden.
An den Höfen entwickelten sich durch die Konkurrenzsituation zu anderen Hofstaaten schnell neue, innovative Strömungen, beispielsweise der sogenannte Florentiner Stil, wohingegen die städtischen Auftraggeber mehr Wert auf das Decorum legten und eher eine traditionelle Umsetzung ihrer Aufträge forderten.
Nicht nur die künstlerischen Rahmenbedingungen, auch die sozialen Beziehungen unterschieden sich stark voneinander. Lorenzo Ghiberti beispielsweise wollte den politischen Streitigkeiten und der Seuchengefahr in der Stadt entfliehen und nahm eine Stelle als Hofmaler an. Andere Künstler wollten sich dem einschränkenden Zunftwesen entziehen oder erhofften sich einen besseren Lohn.

Frauen in der Kunstpatronage
Auch wenn der Großteil der Auftraggeber und Künstler im Mittelalter und in der Frühen Neuzeit männlich war, gibt es doch einige teils von der Forschung vernachlässigte, jedoch nennenswerte Auftraggeberinnen. Alfonsina Orsini de' Medicis Kunstpatronage beispielsweise gilt als besonders herausragend, da sie, ähnlich wie Caterina de' Medici, insbesondere große architektonische Projekte förderte, sich an deren Planung beteiligte und sich nicht auf die dem Decorum angemessenen religiösen Auftragswerke beschränken ließ.

Hofkünstler sahen sich oft dem Neid und der Missgunst anderer Höflinge ausgesetzt. Insbesondere Künstlerinnen mussten oft Verleumdungen ertragen, die ihren Ruf schädigen und ihre Stellung gefährden sollten. Als Protegée und Freundin Marie-Antoinettes zog die Malerin Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun den Argwohn anderer Anwärter auf sich. In Schmähschriften wurde sie beschuldigt, sich von dem "1787 entlassenen Finanzminister Calonne" auf Staatskosten aushalten lassen zu haben.

Die Ablösung der Kunstpatronage
Die Veränderungen, die die Französische Revolution mit sich brachte, führten auch zu einer Neuerung der Kunstpatronage und des Kunstmarktes. Die Höfe verloren an Bedeutung und schon im 17. Jahrhundert hatten sich der Kunsthandel und das Ausstellungswesen zu entwickeln begonnen. (Die temporär und regional eng begrenzten Märkte in Europa gegen Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts, insbesondere in den Niederlanden, sind frühe Ausnahmen.) Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts setzt sich die Idee von Freiheit und Autonomie in der Kunst durch und ermöglicht einen kritischen Blick auf die mit der Kunstpatronage verbundenen Instrumentalisierung und Steuerung. An einem Hof zu arbeiten, wurde bald nicht mehr als Privileg angesehen. Die Malerin Angelika Kauffmann beispielsweise schlug 1782 das Angebot ab, Hofkünstlerin in Neapel am Hofe Ferdinands IV. und der Königin Maria Karoline zu werden, weil sie es ausdrücklich vorzog, frei und eigenständig zu arbeiten.
Neben den privaten Kunstförderern und den Vereinigungen zur Förderung der Kunst übernahm nun auch der Staat Mitverantwortung für die Entwicklung von Kunst und Kultur. Dazu gehört auch die Gründung von Kunstakademien. Die ausführliche Rezeption der Kunst in den Medien und ein gebildetes Bürgertum haben die Kunstpatronage überflüssig gemacht.

Prominente Kunstpatronagen (Auswahl)
Die teils sehr persönlichen Beziehungen zwischen Künstler und Patron brachten wegweisende, berühmte Werke hervor. Einige der wichtigsten Doppelbiografien werden im Folgenden aufgeführt. Sowohl Künstler als auch Förderer unterhielten aber oft mehrere Auftragsbeziehungen.

Literatur
 Götz Adriani (Hrsg.): Die Künstler der Kaiser. Von Dürer bis Tizian, von Rubens bis Velázques aus dem Kunsthistorischen Museum in Wien. Ausstellungskatalog des Museums Frieder Burda, Baden-Baden: DuMont 2009. ISBN 978-3-8321-9200-6
 Eckhard Braun: Prinzipien öffentlicher Kunstförderung in Deutschland (Edition Umbruch Band 30), Kulturpolitische Gesellschaft e. V., Bonn, Klartext Verlag, Essen 2013 (Edition Umbruch Nr. 30), ISBN 978-3-8375-0995-3.
 Francis Haskell: Maler und Auftraggeber. Kunst und Gesellschaft im italienischen Barock. Köln 1996; Kat. Barock im Vatikan, 1572–1676. Bonn: DuMont, 2005. ISBN 3-7701-3757-4
 Hermsen, Thomas: Kunstförderung zwischen Passion und Kommerz. Vom bürgerlichen Mäzen zum Sponsor der Moderne. Frankfurt/Main; New York: Campus Verlag, 1997. ISBN 3-593-35833-6
 Jancke, Gabriele: Autobiographie als soziale Praxis: Beziehungskonzepte in Selbstzeugnissen des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts im deutschsprachigen Raum. Köln: Böhlau, 2002. [Berlin, Freie Univ., Diss., 1999]. ISBN 3-412-13201-2
 Arne Karsten: Künstler und Kardinäle. Vom Mäzenatentum römischer Kardinalnepoten im 17. Jahrhundert. Köln: Böhlau, 2003. [Berlin, Humboldt-Univ., Diss., 2001]. ISBN 3-412-11302-6
 North, Michael (Hrsg.): Art Markets in Europe 1400–1800. Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999. ISBN 1-84014-630-3
 Oevermann, Ulrich; Süßmann, Johannes; Tauber, Christine (Hrsg.): Die Kunst der Mächtigen und die Macht der Kunst. Untersuchungen zu Mäzenatentum und Kunstpatronage. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2007. ISBN 3-05-004223-0
 Bernd Roeck: Kunstpatronage in der Frühen Neuzeit. Studien zu Kunstmarkt, Künstlern und ihren Auftraggebern in Italien und im Heiligen Römischen Reich (15.–17. Jahrhundert). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1999. ISBN 3-525-01370-1
 Strunck, Christina (Hrsg.): Die Frauen des Hauses Medici. Politik, Mäzenatentum, Rollenbilder (1512. 1743). Petersberg: Imhof, 2011. ISBN 978-3-86568-687-9
 Wagner, Bernd: Fürstenhof und Bürgergesellschaft. Zur Entstehung, Entwicklung und Legitimation von Kulturpolitik. Essen: Klartext-Verlag, 2009. ISBN 978-3-8375-0224-4
 Martin Warnke: Hofkünstler. Zur Vorgeschichte des modernen Künstlers. Köln: DuMont, 1985. ISBN 3-7701-3847-3
 Wölfle, Sylvia: Die Kunstpatronage der Fugger 1560–1618. Augsburg: Wißner, 2009. ISBN 978-3-89639-682-2
 Zeitz, Lisa: "Tizian, teurer Freund…". Tizian und Federico Gonzaga. Kunstpatronage in Mantua im 16. Jahrhundert. Petersberg: Imhof, 2000. [München, Univ., Diss., 1999]. ISBN 3-932526-73-2

Siehe auch
 Mäzenatentum

Weblinks
 Definition des Online-Lexikon bpb.de http://www.bpb.de/popup/popup_lemmata.html?guid=PJP6PX
 Literatur über die Kunstpatronage im Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?query=kunstpatronage&method=simpleSearch
 Kunstpatronage in der italienischen Renaissance (englisch) http://www.finearttouch.com/Art_Patronage_in_the_Italian_Renaissance.html
 Kent/ Simons/ Eade: Patronage, Art, and Society in Renaissance Italy von 1987, digitale Quelle (englisch) http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=113854654
 Kunst in der frühen Renaissance (1330–1550) (englisch) http://www.sparknotes.com/history/european/renaissance1/section6.rhtml

Einzelnachweise

Kunstgeschichte
Kunstbetrieb

Kunstpatronage


The flag of Cambodia (,  ; ) in its present form was originally adopted in 1989 and readopted in 1993, after the Constituent Assembly election in 1993 and restoration of the Cambodian monarchy.

Description
Since around 1875, the Cambodian flag has featured a depiction of Angkor Wat in the centre. The current flag, with a blue border and red central (the stripes are in the ratio 1:2:1) was adopted following Cambodia's independence in 1948. It was used until 9 October 1970, when a new flag was introduced for Lon Nol's Khmer Republic that lasted until the takeover of the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The subsequent state of Democratic Kampuchea, which existed from 1975 to 1979, used a red flag with a three-towered Angkor Wat design retained in yellow beginning in 1976. The People's Republic of Kampuchea was established in 1979, after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia.

The Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (FUNSK) revived the flag adopted by the Khmer Issarak in the days of anti-French resistance for the new state. This flag had the same colour pattern as the DK flag, but with a yellow five-towered Angkor Wat silhouette. When the PRK renamed itself as "State of Cambodia" (SOC) in 1989, the flag's lower half became blue. The UNTAC flag was used during the 1992–1993 transitional period along with the flag of the SOC within Cambodia.

In 1993, the 1948 Cambodian flag was readopted. The current Cambodian flag, together with the flags of Portugal, San Marino and Spain, are the only four state flags to feature a building. Red and blue are traditional colours of Cambodia.

The flag used today is the same as that established in 1948, although the older flag is sometimes said to have used a red outline for Angkor Wat while the current flag uses black specifically. Since that time, five other intervening designs have been used. Almost all made use of the image of the temple of Angkor Wat in one form or another. This famous temple site, which dates from the 12th century, was built by the Mahidharapura monarchs. It has five towers, but these were not always all depicted in the stylised version used on flags. The monarchy was restored in September 1993, the 1948 flag having been readopted in June of that year.

Symbolism

Royal standard

The Royal Standard of the King of Cambodia (, ; "King's Flag") is the personal flag of the Cambodian monarch. It was officially adopted in 1993, but its initial use dates back to 1941. It is also considered among the national symbols of Cambodia.

Historical national flags

See also
 List of Cambodian flags

References

External links

Flags of Cambodia
Flag
National flags
Cambodia
Cambodia

Flag of Cambodia


A Different World is an American sitcom television series and a spin-off of The Cosby Show. It aired for six seasons on NBC from September 24, 1987 to July 9, 1993. The series originally centered on Denise Huxtable (Lisa Bonet) and the life of students at Hillman College, a fictional historically black college in Virginia. It was inspired by student life at historically black colleges and universities.

After Bonet's departure in the first season, the remainder of the series primarily focused more on Southern belle Whitley Gilbert-Wayne (Jasmine Guy) and math whiz Dwayne Cleophus Wayne (Kadeem Hardison).

Concept
While it was a spin-off from The Cosby Show, A Different World typically addressed issues that were avoided by The Cosby Show writers (race and class relations, sexual assault, or the Equal Rights Amendment). One episode that aired in 1990 was one of the first American network television episodes to address the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS.

The original premise was to focus on a white student at a historically black university and feature Lena Horne as an acting teacher, but in production, the premise changed from being a story about a white student in a black college to a black student (Denise Huxtable) in a black college with a white friend. It was ultimately decided that Denise, who was of college age, would be spun off and have a white roommate in order to show the dynamic of a white girl in predominantly black surroundings.

Meg Ryan was originally cast for this role, but she decided to pursue a film career, so Marisa Tomei was cast. The first season of Hillman's student body consisted of both black and white students in equal numbers, but this was changed at the beginning of the second season and a predominantly black student body maintained until the series ended.

Season two changes
After the first season, it came to Cosby's and the producers' attention that the series was not accurately portraying a historically black college and life on campus, so Debbie Allen, an alumna of Howard University, was hired as the chief creative force to revamp the show. During the summer of 1988, Lisa Bonet announced that she and husband Lenny Kravitz were having a baby. Allen was in favor of having a young pregnant student in the show, but Cosby said that Lisa Bonet could be pregnant but not Denise Huxtable.

It was felt that viewers would not accept Denise as an unwed mother, having grown to know her as a "good girl" after four seasons of The Cosby Show. Thus it was decided that Denise would drop out of Hillman, return home to her family, and eventually travel to Africa throughout the fifth season of The Cosby Show, ensuring that viewers would not see a pregnant Denise. Allen was also in favor of keeping Tomei, as she herself recalled a white student at Howard and wanted to relate that in the show and even had possible premises for her character, such as meeting Dwayne's parents and seeing the other side of racism.

However, the network rejected this storyline and the producers released Tomei from the show, and she and Marie-Alise Recasner were replaced by Cree Summer and Charnele Brown, respectively. Darryl M. Bell and Sinbad were promoted to the principal cast, and Glynn Turman and Lou Myers were added as supporting cast members. These changes led to the placement of Whitley and Dwayne at the center of a wider ensemble.

Cast and characters

Main

Recurring
 Joe Morton as Byron Douglas (season 5)
 Cory Tyler as Terrence Taylor (seasons 4 and 5)
 Patrick Malone as Terrell Walker (season 6)
 Bumper Robinson as Dorian Heywood (season 6)
 Michael Ralph as Spencer Boyer (season 6), various characters (seasons 4 and 5)
 Gary Dourdan as Shazza Zulu (seasons 5 and 6, guest starring in episode 86)
 Marie-Alise Recasner as Millie (season 1)
 Andrew Lowery as Matthew (Freddie's cousin/Kim's boyfriend; season 4)
 Kim Wayans as Allison (season 1)
 Dominic Hoffman as Ken Souje (Season 1), Julian Day (Whitley's boyfriend, 8 episodes)
 Alisa Gyse Dickens as Kinu Owens (Dwayne's girlfriend; 9 episodes)
 Jenifer Lewis as Dean Dorothy Dandridge Davenport (9 episodes)
 Diahann Carroll as Marion Gilbert (Whitley's mother; 7 episodes)
 Patti LaBelle as Adele Wayne (Dwayne's mother; 7 episodes)
 Roger Guenveur Smith as Prof. Howard Randolph (season 4)
 Rosalind Cash as Dean Hughes (4 episodes)
 Ron O'Neal as Mercer Gilbert (Whitley's father; 4 episodes)
 Phylicia Rashad as Clair Huxtable (4 episodes)
 Jonell Green as Dashawn Curtis (4 episodes)
 Bill Cosby as Cliff Huxtable (3 episodes)
 Keshia Knight Pulliam as Rudy Huxtable (3 episodes)
 Robert Guillaume as Dean Winston and Professor Murphy (history professor/Kim's medical professor; 3 episodes)
 Harold Sylvester as Woodson Wayne (Dwayne's father; 3 episodes)
 Malcolm-Jamal Warner as Theodore Huxtable (2 episodes)

Guest stars
 Vanessa Bell Calloway as Lily Connors (season 3, episode 18) & Jaleesa's sister (Danielle; season 4, episode 18)
 Tisha Campbell as Josie Webb (2 episodes)
 Nestor Carbonell as Malik Velasquez (Whitley's mother's hired "boyfriend"; 2 episodes)
 Art Evans as Mr. Johnson (Ron's father; 2 episodes)
 IMx as Whitley's students (2 episodes)
 Richard Roundtree as Clinton Reese (Kim's father; Season 3 episodes 8 & 9)
 Halle Berry as Jaclyn (Ron's girlfriend; season 4, episode 15)
 The Boys as Mice 2 Men (singing group; season 5, episode 13)
 Dean Cain as Eddie (A&M University student; season 5, episode 14)
 Wayne Federman as A&M Wolf (season 5, episode 14)
 Ernie Sabella as Campus Security (season 5, episode 14)
 En Vogue as Faith, Hope, Charity, and Henrietta (Mr. Gaines' nieces; season 6, episode 16)
 Whoopi Goldberg as Dr. Jordan (professor; season 4, episode 24)
 David Alan Grier as Professor Byron Walcott (season 1, episode 9)
 James Avery as bowler (season 3, episode 4)
 Alfonso Ribeiro as Zach Duncan (prospective freshman; season 3, episode 19)
 Heavy D as himself (season 3, episode 6)
 Lena Horne as herself (season 6, episode 25)
 Jesse Jackson as himself (season 2, episode 21)
 Trina McGee as Gennifer (season 5, episode 18)
 Khandi Alexander as Theressa Stone (season 2, episode 21)
 Gladys Knight as herself (season 2, episode 5)
 Kris Kross as Dwayne's juvenile mentees (season 6, episode 11)
 Tupac Shakur as Piccolo (season 6, episode 23)
 Obba Babatundé as Frank (season 3, episode 22)
 Blair Underwood as Zelmer Collier (season 4, episode 14)
 Billy Dee Williams as Langston Paige (landlord; season 6, episode 23)
 Thomas Mikal Ford as Lamar Vinson (Jaleesa's ex-husband, season 2, episode 17)
 Raven-Symoné as Olivia Kendall (Denise's step-daughter, season 3, episode 5)
 Joseph C. Phillips as Lt. Martin Kendall (Denise's husband, season 3 episode 5)

Episodes

Connections to The Cosby Show
As a show developed by Bill Cosby for a character from The Cosby Show, A Different World had many connections to its parent program, even before the latter program was created. The third season finale of The Cosby Show, entitled "Hillman", was essentially a pilot episode for the new show.

The theme song was co-written by Stu Gardner, Bill Cosby, and Dawnn Lewis – who was also a cast member. In the online interviews related to the 2006 "Hillman College Reunion", Lewis revealed that her being approached to write the song and to audition were two separate events that occurred within a short time of each other, such that she thought it was a practical joke by her friends.

The spin-off program featured many appearances by characters from the parent program, especially in the initial season, in which Denise's father Cliff Huxtable (Bill Cosby), mother Clair Huxtable (Phylicia Rashad), younger sisters Vanessa Huxtable (Tempestt Bledsoe) and Rudy Huxtable (Keshia Knight-Pulliam), brother Theodore Huxtable (Malcolm-Jamal Warner), and grandfather Russell (Earle Hyman) all appeared on the show, either at Hillman or at the other end of a phone call. Denise's departure from Hillman after Season 1 did not stop her mother from reappearing on the show.

Three of Phylicia Rashad's four appearances as Hillman alumna Clair Huxtable took place after season one, and in one of these, she brought her younger daughter Vanessa to tour the college. Sondra (played by Sabrina Le Beauf in the parent series) was the only Huxtable child not to appear on the show. Martin (Joseph C. Phillips) and Olivia (Raven Symone) appear in season 3 episode "Forever Hold Your Peace", along with Phylicia Rashad and Lisa Bonet. Elvin (Geoffrey Owens) and Pam (Erika Alexander) also never appeared on the show.

Producer/director Debbie Allen is the real-life sister of Phylicia Rashad. Allen made one guest appearance on The Cosby Show, playing an aggressive aerobics instructor who helps Clair slim down for a special occasion. Allen appeared in later seasons in a recurring role as Whitley's psychiatrist. Dwayne and Whitley also visited the Huxtable home in an episode featuring the revelation that Denise had married and would not return to Hillman.

A young Kadeem Hardison appeared on The Cosby Show as one of Theo Huxtable's friends in the first-season episode "A Shirt Story", though not playing Dwayne.

Sinbad also appeared on The Cosby Show as a car salesman in third-season episode "Say Hello to a Good Buy".

A Hillman alumna by the name of "Louise Sujay" was mentioned on both Cosby and A Different World by Clair Huxtable, Whitley Gilbert and her mother Marion.

Like Lisa Bonet, Karen Malina White brought her The Cosby Show character to Hillman. Charmaine was the best friend of Claire Huxtable's cousin Pam Tucker. White's Cosby Show costar Allen Payne turned down an offer to bring his role as Charmaine's boyfriend Lance Rodman to A Different World as a regular during Season 6, preferring instead to pursue a movie career; he and Jada Pinkett Smith starred in the 1994 film Jason's Lyric, which is considered to be a milestone in both their careers.

Payne appeared in one episode during season five in which Charmaine visits Hillman as a prospective student, bringing Lance along to see if he can gain admission as well. When Charmaine arrives at Hillman, she and Lance are maintaining a long-distance relationship and he is mentioned in multiple episodes. Lance and Charmaine later break up over the phone.

Years later, Tempestt Bledsoe (who played Vanessa on Cosby) and Darryl M. Bell (who played Ron on A Different World) became a real-life couple and co-starred on the 2009 Fox Reality Channel series Househusbands of Hollywood.

Hillman College
Hillman College is a fictional historically black college, founded in 1881 and located in the commonwealth of Virginia. The exact locality of the school is never revealed, but several geographic references are made which allude to the campus either being located somewhere in the Hampton Roads area or in the Roanoke Metropolitan Area. The school's motto is Deus Nondum Te Confecit, which literally translates from Latin to: God has not yet finished you. The school colors are maroon and gray. Visual shots of the Hillman campus that were used in the series were actually filmed at two real-life Black colleges, Clark Atlanta University and Spelman College, both in Atlanta, Georgia.

The first references to Hillman on The Cosby Show were made during season one, when it is mentioned as the place where Cliff Huxtable and Clair Hanks went to school while they were engaged. Cliff's father Russell is also a Hillman alumnus. The school made its first on-screen appearance in the third-season finale of The Cosby Show, titled "Hillman", when Cliff and Clair and their family attend a Hillman commencement ceremony which also honored a retiring professor.

Home media
Urban Works released Season 1 of A Different World on DVD in Region 1 on November 8, 2005. Several release dates for a Season 2 DVD were announced (May 2006, July 2006, and September 2006), but the DVD was never released. Urban Works was acquired by First Look Studios in early 2006. The distribution rights for the series have since reverted to the production company, Carsey-Werner Productions. FilmRise has currently made the series available on streaming services, especially Amazon Prime.

Reception

Ratings
Critics say that A Different World benefited from airing between The Cosby Show and Cheers on Thursday night.  The show consistently ranked first or second among African American viewers during most of its run.

Media reaction
The Hollywood Reporter is quoted as stating that when Debbie Allen became the producer (and usually director) of A Different World after the first season, she transformed it "from a bland Cosby spin-off into a lively, socially responsible, ensemble situation comedy."

The Museum of Broadcast Communications states that Debbie Allen:

a graduate of historically black Howard University – drew from her college experiences in an effort to accurately reflect in the show the social and political life on black campuses. Moreover, Allen instituted a yearly spring trip to Atlanta where series writers visited three of the nation's leading black colleges, Clark Atlanta, Morehouse and Spelman. During these visits, ideas for several of the episodes emerged from meetings with students and faculty.

On August 23 and 24, 2012, Debbie Allen, the former chief creative force of A Different World from 1988 to 1993, wrote on Twitter that she wanted to reboot the series. Over a million people on Facebook, Twitter and blogs reacted to the tweet and approve the potential reboot.

Impact on African-American culture
Because of Debbie Allen's influence as the producer (and usually director) of A Different World after the first season, African-American youth who watched the show often cite it as a defining reason why many of them decided to attend a historically Black college or university.

Hillman College Reunion
In August 2006, Nick at Nite aired a week-long marathon showing episodes of A Different World. Lisa Bonet, Dawnn Lewis, Jasmine Guy, Kadeem Hardison, Darryl M. Bell, Cree Summer, and Sinbad reunited for short vignettes that provided a glimpse of the current state of their characters. Nick at Nite's "Hillman College Reunion" website added details beyond those shown on television.

See also

 Historically black colleges and universities
 List of highest-rated television pilots  On September 24, 1987, the pilot episode of A Different World became the highest-rated television pilot in history.

Notes

References

Further reading

External links
 Carsey Werner - A Different World
 A Different World at the Museum of Broadcast Communications
 Official Bill Cosby website

1980s American black sitcoms
1980s American college television series
1980s American sitcoms
1987 American television series debuts
1990s American black sitcoms
1990s American college television series
1990s American sitcoms
1993 American television series endings
American television spin-offs
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Television series by Carsey-Werner Productions
Television series created by Bill Cosby
Television shows set in Virginia
The Cosby Show

A Different World


Friela-Maside (en gallego: A Friela-Maside) es un apeadero ferroviario situado en la localidad de Friela en el municipio español de Maside en la provincia de Orense, comunidad autónoma de Galicia. Cuenta con servicios de Media Distancia.

Situación ferroviaria
La estación se encuentra en el punto kilométrico 274,973 de la línea férrea de ancho ibérico que une Zamora con La Coruña a 387 metros de altitud, entre las estaciones de Orense y Carballino. El tramo es de vía única y está sin electrificar.

Historia
La estación fue inaugurada el 1 de julio de 1957 con la puesta en marcha del tramo Orense — Carballino de la línea férrea que pretendía unir Zamora con La Coruña. Su explotación inicial quedó a cargo de RENFE cuyo nacimiento se había producido en 1941.

Desde el 31 de diciembre de 2004 Renfe Operadora explota la línea mientras que Adif es la titular de las instalaciones ferroviarias.

En 2010, Adif realizó obras en las instalaciones mejorando los accesos para las personas con discapacidad. También se limpió y repintó el refugio.

La estación
La antigua estación de Friela es un simple apeadero compuesto por un pequeño refugio al que se accede gracias a una rampa desde la carretera cercana. Solo posee un andén lateral y una vía. Carece de cualquier otro equipamiento o servicio.

Servicios ferroviarios

Media Distancia
Renfe presta servicios de Media Distancia en la estación gracias sus trenes Regionales entre Orense y Santiago de Compostela. El servicio se reduce a un tren diario por sentido.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Media Distancia Galicia en la web de Renfe.

Friela - Maside
Friela - Maside
Friela
Estaciones de ferrocarril de España inauguradas en 1957
Estaciones de ferrocarril de Galicia inauguradas en el siglo XX

Estación de Friela-Maside


Bolimów é um município no centro da Polônia. Pertence à voivodia de Łódź, no condado de Skierniewice. É a sede da comuna de Bolimów.

Fundada como uma cidade privada por volta de 1370, foi confirmada pela lei de Chełmno em 1519. Em 1792, como uma cidade real, situava-se no estarostado de Bolimów na terra de Sochaczew da voivodia de Rawa. Em 1827, como uma cidade governamental da Polônia do Congresso, pertencia ao condado de Sochaczew, na oblast de Sochaczew da voivodia da Mazóvia.

Nos anos 1954-1972 a aldeia pertencia e era a sede das autoridades da gromada de Bolimów. Nos anos 1975-1998, a cidade pertencia administrativamente à voivodia de Skierniewice. Em 2022, a cidade recuperou seus direitos municipais.

Estende-se por uma área de 3,77 km², com 934 habitantes, segundo o censo de 31 de dezembro de 2021, com uma densidade populacional de 247,7 hab./km².

Ligações externas

Municípios da Polónia
Cidades de Łódź (voivodia)

Bolimów


Melko has several meanings:
Paul Melko, American science-fiction author
Morgoth, sometimes referred to as Melko/Melkor, in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium

Melko


Milan Rastislav Štefánik (; 21 July 1880 – 4 May 1919) was a Slovak politician, diplomat, aviator and astronomer. During World War I, he served at the same time as a general in the French Army and as Minister of War for Czechoslovakia. As one of the leading members of the Czechoslovak National Council (the resistance government), he contributed decisively to the cause of Czechoslovak sovereignty, since the status of Czech- and Slovak-populated territories was one of those in question until shortly before the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1918.

His personal motto was "To Believe, To Love, To Work" (Veriť, milovať, pracovať).

Background
Štefánik was born in Košariská, Austria-Hungary (now Slovakia), on 21 July 1880. He had 11 brothers and sisters, two of whom died at a young age. His father, Pavol Štefánik, was a local Lutheran pastor, and his mother was Albertína Jurenková. He attended schools in Bratislava, Sopron and Szarvas.

In 1898, he began studying construction engineering in Prague. In 1900, he transferred his studies to Charles University, where he attended lectures in astronomy, physics, optics, mathematics and philosophy. For the 1902 summer semester, he went to university in Zürich. The Prague years had a great impact on Štefánik because he met many important personalities there. The philosophy lectures were given by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, the future first president of Czechoslovakia, who inspired Štefánik with the idea of co-operation between the Czechs and the Slovaks. Furthermore, Štefánik very actively participated in the work of the Slovak student association, Detvan, (and within Detvan, the so-called Hlasists group); he became acquainted with Vavro Šrobár. His studies were financed largely by Czech associations, including Českoslovanská jednota (Czechoslavic Unity) and Radhošť since he could not afford them himself. In Prague, he wrote political and artistic texts in which he tried to inform the Czechs of the disastrous situation of the Slovaks at that time. He graduated in 1904 with a doctorate in philosophy and with knowledge of astronomy: his thesis is about a star that was discovered in the
Cassiopeia constellation in 1572.

Scientist
In 1904, he went to Paris to find a job in astronomy with a recommendation from a Czech professor who was known in Paris. Initially, he had no money and no command of French, but he was nevertheless able to obtain a job at the famous Paris-Meudon Observatory after its director, Pierre Janssen, one of the cofounders of astrophysics, saw Štefánik's talent. Štefánik owed to Janssen and Camille Flammarion his social, political and scientific career. The observatory was the most important centre for astronomy at the time so he gained massive prestige from his job.

Between 20 June and 4 July 1905, Štefánik climbed Mont Blanc (he did so several more times in the following years) to observe the Moon and Mars. Then, he took part in an official French expedition to observe and record a full eclipse of the Sun in Alcossebre, Spain. He thus established his own reputation in French scientific society. He worked with Gaston Millochau, a member of the Académie Française, which made some of its members read his work. His studies and the results of his observations were published in reports to the Académie, and he received several awards for them. Later, he was invited to an international astronomer conference in Oxford on solar research. Between 1906 and 1908, he was co-director of the Mont Blanc observatories company.

In 1907, Štefánik received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society.

At the end of 1907, however, Janssen died and Štefánik lost his job. Since 1908, he had been charged by the French authorities with astronomical and meteorological observations, (mainly observations of solar eclipses) and political tasks in various countries all over the world, including (Algeria, Morocco, Turkistan, Russia, India, the United States, Panama, Brazil, Ecuador, Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti, Fiji, and Tonga). In Tahiti, he also built an observatory and a network of meteorological stations (rumour has it that much of his time in the Pacific Ocean was spent on spying on German positions). Between the trips, he regularly returned home to Košariská (the last time in 1913 for his father's funeral). In South America (especially in the Galapagos Islands in Ecuador), he had an opportunity to show his diplomatic skills for the first time.

In 1912, a mission from the Bureau des Longitudes, based in France, was led by Milan Rastislav Stefanik, with the assistance of Jaromir Kralicek. Stefanik and Kralicek arrived in Rio de Janeiro aboard the French steamship Amazone on September 10, 1912. Their equipment crates were promptly cleared by customs with the authorization of the Brazilian government. Stefanik brought with great consideration a set of equipment intended for the Brazilian National Observatory, which Morize had ordered from manufacturers in January 1912 to be used by the Brazilian team in the observation of the eclipse. This equipment included a Mailhat telescope with an impressive 8-meter focal length and a 15-centimeter aperture, coupled with a coelostat from the same manufacturer. The French team had the objectives of photographing the solar corona and conducting spectroscopic studies. They set up in a location near Passa Quatro (MG), where they joined the main team of the National Observatory's expedition. In the city of Passa Quatro, there is a bust in honor of the astronomer Milan Rastislav Stefanik. What drew attention was that their equipment crates were immediately released by customs, thanks to the authorization of the Brazilian government.

Milan Rastislav Stefanik showed great generosity by bringing a set of equipment intended for the Brazilian National Observatory to be used by the Brazilian team in observing the eclipse. This set included an impressive Mailhat telescope with an 8-meter focal length and a 15-centimeter aperture. Stefanik's presence and his equipment were valuable contributions to the advancement of science and astronomical research in Brazil at that time.

Štefánik worked in astrophysics and solar physics, and became well known for his spectral analysis of the sun's corona. He was involved in perfecting spectrography and has been considered a predecessor of Bernard Lyot. He also attempted to construct a machine for colour photography and cinematography, and he had his design patented in 1911.

Diplomacy
In addition to his scientific missions overseas, he also performed diplomatic tasks. He established contacts and friendships with leading scientific, artistic, political, diplomatic and business personalities. He participated in the establishment of business enterprises in France and other countries. His friends included physicist Henri Poincaré, Aymar de la Baume, Joseph Vallot (the richest man in France), architect Gustave Eiffel, Roland Bonaparte, Prime Minister Camille Chautemps, a French entrepreneur called Devousoud from Chamonix, American astronomer and admiral Simon Newcomb and American diplomat David Jayne Hill. In 1912, he received French citizenship, recognition and access to the French élite. On 20 October 1917, he was made a Grand Officier of the Legion of Honour. At the same time, he had some personal problems and a serious stomach illness, which did not get better even after two surgeries. Moreover, World War I had started in Europe.

World War I

Štefánik believed that defeat of Austria-Hungary and of Imperial Germany would offer an opportunity for the Slovaks and the Czechs to gain independence from Austria-Hungary after the war. Therefore, he joined the French army and trained to become an aviator. He flew MFS-54s for the 10th Army on the Artois and was later transferred to MFS 99 Squadron on the Serbian Front. In May 1915, he flew a total of 30 missions over enemy territory. The Serbian campaign was unsuccessful, but French aviator Louis Paulhan is credited with the world's first "medevac" by flying the seriously-ill Štefánik to safety.

Štefánik returned to Paris at the end of 1915, where he became acquainted with Edvard Beneš and renewed his association with his former professor, Masaryk. In 1916, the three men founded the Czechoslovak National Council, which led to the government of Czecho-Slovak resistance abroad and to the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918. After 1917, he became vice president of the council. His diplomatic skills made Štefánik able to help arrange a meeting of Masaryk and Beneš to meet and obtain the support of some of the most important personalities of the Triple Entente. For example, he organized Masaryk's meeting with the French prime minister, Aristide Briand.

In 1916, Štefánik and the Czecho-Slovak resistance started to organise the Czechoslovak Legions to fight against Austria-Hungary and Germany. For this purpose, Štefánik, both as the Czechoslovak Minister of War and as a French general, went to Russia in February 1917 and then to the United States, in the meantime he met Thomas Garrigue Masaryk in London in April. He also organized legions in France and Italy. It was largely his personal diplomatic skills and contacts that made the Entente recognise the Czechoslovak National Council as a de facto government and the Czechoslovak Legions as allied forces in the summer and the autumn of 1918.

In May 1918 Štefánik went to Siberia to try to rally the Czechoslovak legions to a renewal of the Eastern Front, as Bolshevik Russia had withdrawn from the war by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and Austria-Hungary in March 1918. The Czechoslovak Legions rebelled against a subsequent Bolshevik order to disarm and so gained the support of the Allies. Štefánik then decided that his initial plan was no longer feasible.

Independence
In January 1919 after the war ended, Štefánik went from Russia to France and Italy, where he organized the March retreat of Czechoslovak troops from Siberia to Paris. In addition, his diplomatic skills were needed to solve disagreements between the French and the Italian missions in Czechoslovakia. In April, he went from Paris to Rome to negotiate with the Italian Ministry of War, where he met with his fiancée, Juliana Benzoni, for the last time. Then, he went to the main Italian military base in Padua, where he agreed with General Armando Diaz to dissolve the Italian military mission in Czechoslovakia.

Sources do not substantiate rumours of disagreements arising between Štefánik and Beneš or Masaryk, mainly on the position of Slovakia in Czechoslovakia. On the contrary, telegrams sent by Štefánik from Vladivostok to the Czechoslovak National Council in Paris on 7 December 1918 indicate that Štefánik had a good relationship with them. To Masaryk, he wrote "with my filial feelings and a great patriotic happiness, I salute you, venerable professor, as the first president of the Czechoslovak Republic". To the President of the Council, Karel Kramář, he wrote, "Thank you, my dear president, for having chosen me as member of our National Ministry. You and your other co-workers can be sure of my loyalty and my fraternal feelings". To Beneš, he was even more friendly by using informal pronouns (he used formal pronouns to address Masaryk and Kramář): "Mr. Beneš, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Prague: "I hug you affectionately, my loyal and precious companion during the hours of anxiety". (The beginning can be translated instead as "I kiss you on the cheek".) The telegrams appear to show that Štefánik gave his full support to the union of the Czechs and Slovaks that was led by Masaryk.

Masaryk continued to accord Štefánik his full confidence to the last days of his life, as demonstrated by the challenging issue that Štefánik had to solve while he was Minister of War of the Czechoslovak Republic: disputes with the military missions of France and Italy on Czechoslovak territory, according to his telegram to Masaryk on 21 April 1919, only a few days before Štefánik died.

Death

When Štefánik wanted to return home to see his family, he decided to fly from Campoformido, near Udine, Italy, and to use an Italian military plane, a Caproni Ca.3. On 4 May 1919, at around 11:00, his plane tried to land near Bratislava, a military conflict area between the First Republic of Czechoslovakia and the Hungarian Soviet Republic, but crashed near Ivanka pri Dunaji. Štefánik died, along with the rest of the crew (two Italian pilots, Colonel Giotto Mancinelli Scotti and Sergeant Umberto Merlino, as well as a mechanic-radiotelegrapher, Gabriel Aggiusto).

At the time of the crash, Vavro Šrobár and his entire government had left Bratislava for Skalica, to plant trees as a memorial to the founding of the new Czechoslovak Republic. The Hungarian communists, in the middle of Bratislava's Franz Joseph Bridge, could not have shot down the plane.

The Italian plane's identifying colours, a rumour had it, were mistaken for the similar marking of a Hungarian plane so the unannounced, unknown airplane was shot down by the Czechoslovak Army. However, the respected Zrínyi Miklós National Defense University in Budapest, in a joint article with the Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik in Slovakia, published a paper, citing the Italian eyewitness First Lieutenant Martinelli-Scotti: "in the course of the first landing attempt, the wheels touched the landing path, after which the cooling water immediately started leaking. That caused the overheating of the engines. During the second landing attempt, one of the engines exploded, resulting in catastrophe".

The paper also stated that the accident report from the Italian inquiry board was biased toward ruling out both human error by the Italian crew and manufacturing defects.

Legacy and awards

Štefánik's tomb was built in 1927 to 1928 on Bradlo Hill in Brezová pod Bradlom. The monumental but austere memorial was designed by Dušan Jurkovič.
The minor planet 3571 Milanštefánik (discovered 1982 at Kleť Observatory) was named after him.

Bratislava Airport (also called Bratislava-Ivanka) was named M.R. Štefánik Airport. (Slovak: Letisko M. R. Štefánika)

Slovak Government Flying Service aircraft Airbus 319 and Fokker 100 are painted with Štefánik's portrait.

The Slovak Armed Forces Academy is named as Armed Forces Academy of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik.

The transport wing of the Slovak Air Force located at Malacky Air Base was named as Transport Wing of General Milan Rastislav Štefánik.

In 2019, Slovakia launched a 2 euro commemorative coin commemorating the 100th death anniversary of Štefánik.

In 2019, Štefánik was selected as the "Greatest Slovak" in the Slovak version of the British programme 100 Greatest Britons.

In 2020, Slovak Matica created a film about Štefánik "Visionary of Slovak Freedom" with the subtitle "Štefánik and the Slovaks in the first foreign Czech-Slovak resistance".

In 1914, Štefánik was awarded the Chevalier rank of the French Legion of Honour, in 1917, he was awarded the Officier rank and finally in 1919 the Commandeur rank. Furthermore, in France, in 1915 he was awarded the Croix de guerre and Medal for the War Wounded. In Italy, he was awarded the War Merit Cross and the Officer rank of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus. In Russia, he was awarded the Order of Saint Vladimir, 4th class. Posthumously, he was awarded the Czechoslovak War Cross 1918. In 2023, he was posthumously awarded the Order of the White Lion 1st class, by the Czech president Petr Pavel.

See also

 History of Slovakia
 History of Czechoslovakia
 M. R. Štefánik Airport
 List of firsts in aviation

References

 Richard McKim: "Milan Štefánik and the rotation period of Venus", Journal of the British Astronomical Association vol. 117, p. 7-8, 2007.
 Kautský, Emil Karol: Kauza Štefánik - Legendy, fakty an otázniky okolo vzniku Česko - Slovenskej republiky. Matica Slovenská. Martin, 2004
 Štvrtého mája – atentát na slovenského kráľa
 M.R.Š. 1880 – 1919 at www.stefanik.net Milan Rastislav Štefánik museum
 Milan-Rastislav-Stefanik-(1880–1919) at tfsimon.com
 The Czech and Slovak Legion in Siberia, 1917–1922. McFarland Publishing, 2012
 (in czech) – speech of E. Beneš on behalf of the 10th anniversary of death of Stefanik BENEŠ, Edvard. Štefánik a jeho odkaz : přednáška k desátému výročí jeho smrti. Praha : ČIN, 1929. 66 p. – available online at University Library in Bratislava Digital Library

1880 births
1919 deaths
People from Myjava District
Slovak scientists
Slovak aviators
Czechoslovak politicians
Slovak Lutherans
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovak independence activists
Slovak astronomers
20th-century Lutherans
19th-century Lutherans
Charles University alumni
Recipients of the Order of the White Lion
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus

Milan Rastislav Štefánik


San Martín de Ondes (asturisch Samartín d'Ondes) ist eine Parroquia und ein Ort in der Gemeinde Belmonte de Miranda der Autonomen Region Asturien im Norden Spaniens.Die 47 Einwohner (2011) leben auf einer Fläche von 9,40 km². Belmonte, der Verwaltungssitz der Gemeinde, ist über die "AS-227" in 10,40 km zu erreichen.

Dörfer und Weiler in der Parroquia

Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Pfarrkirche San Martín de Ondes

Quellen

 Bevölkerungszahlen siehe
  auf GeoPostcodes.com
 Koordinaten und Höhenangaben siehe Google Earth

Weblinks
 Infoseite im Tourismusportal vivirasturias (englischer und spanischer Text)
 Karte von Asturien (PDF; 12,52 MB)

Ort in Asturien
Belmonte de Miranda

San Martín de Ondes


The Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene), in older texts known as the short-snouted spinner dolphin, is a dolphin endemic to the Atlantic Ocean. It is the only confirmed case of hybrid speciation in marine mammals, descending from the spinner dolphin and the striped dolphin.

Taxonomy
The Clymene dolphin was first formally described by John Edward Gray in 1846, although, unusually, he did not assign it its current name until four years later, in 1850. From then on, until a reassessment in 1981, the Clymene dolphin was regarded as a subspecies of the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris). In 1981, Perrin et al. asserted the Clymene's existence as separate species. Until this time, because Clymenes are relatively remote and were regarded as very similar to the more accessible spinners, they were never heavily studied. Anatomical and behavioral traits suggested that this species is a hybrid of the spinner dolphin and striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), and DNA testing has shown that it is indeed a hybrid species.

The common and scientific names are probably derived from the Greek Oceanid Clymene, although it has also been argued that it may instead come from the Greek word for "notorious".

Description

The Clymene dolphin looks very similar to the spinner dolphin. At close quarters, it is possible to observe that the beak of the Clymene is slightly shorter than that of its relative. The dorsal fin is also less erect and triangular.

The basic color of the Clymene dolphin is "cetacean neapolitan"; it occurs in three shaded layers, the underside being white. Next, a strip of light grey runs from just above the beak, round either side of the eye back to the tail stock, where the band thickens. The top layer, from the forehead, along the back to the dorsal fin, and down to the top of the tail stock, is a dark grey. The beak, lips, and flippers are also dark grey in color. Clymene dolphins grow to about  in length and  in weight.

Behavior and biology

Clymene dolphins spend most of their lives in waters over  in depth, but occasionally move into shallower, coastal regions. They feed on squid and small schooling fish, hunting either at night, or in mesopelagic waters where there is only limited light. Predators include cookie-cutter sharks, as evidenced by bite marks seen on a number of animals.

Clymenes are fairly active dolphins. They do spin longitudinally when jumping clear of the water, but not with as much regularity and complexity as the spinner dolphin. They will also approach boats and ride bow waves. Group sizes vary from just four up to around 150 individuals, although about forty is typical. Many of these groups appear to be single-sex, and also to be segregated by the approximate age of the individuals. Clymene dolphins are also highly vocal, making short whistles in a range of 6–19 kHz.

No figures are available for the size of animals at birth. Gestation, lactation, and maturation periods are all unknown, but are unlikely to vary greatly from others in the genus Stenella. Their longevity is also unknown, although at least one sixteen-year-old individual has been reported from a stranding.

Population and distribution

The Clymene dolphin is endemic to the Atlantic Ocean. Its full range is still poorly understood, particularly at its southern end. The species certainly prefer temperate and tropical waters. The northern end of the range runs roughly from New Jersey east-southeast to southern Morocco. The southern tip runs from somewhere around Angola to Rio de Janeiro. They appear to prefer deep water. Numerous sightings have been recorded in the Gulf of Mexico. The species has not been sighted, however, in the Mediterranean Sea.

The total population is unknown. The only population estimate available is for the north part of the Gulf of Mexico, where a count of 6,500 individuals was reported. However, it is suspected that there are three well-defined populations in the Atlantic Ocean, located in the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and the Gulf of Mexico. As of more recent research, it is presumed that individuals from the South Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico move between these two populations, while the North Atlantic population seems to be more isolated. The species may naturally be rare in comparison with others in the genus Stenella.

Human interaction

Some individuals have been killed from directed fisheries in the Caribbean and others may have been caught in nets off West Africa.

Conservation

The West African population of the Clymene dolphin is listed in Appendix II of the convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), since it has an unfavorable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organized by tailored agreements.

The Clymene dolphin is covered by the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia.

See also

Marine mammal
List of cetaceans
List of genetic hybrids

References

Bibliography

 Carwardine, Mark.  Whales Dolphins and Porpoises, Dorling Kindersley Handbooks, .
 Dee, Eileen Mary, and Mark McGinley. 2010. Clymene dolphin. Encyclopedia of Earth. topic ed. C. Michael Hogan. ed. Cutler J. Cleveland, NCSE, Washington DC
 Jefferson, Thomas A. "Clymene Dolphin" in Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals, 234–236.
 Perrin and Mead. (1994). "Clymene Dolphin" in Handbook of Marine Mammals. 5: 161–171.
 Reeves, Stewart, Clapham, and Powell. National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World, .

Clymene dolphin
Cetaceans of the Atlantic Ocean
Clymene dolphin
Taxa named by John Edward Gray
Mammal hybrids

Clymene dolphin


Mazepa, plemićka obitelj
 Ivan Stepanovič Mazepa, ukrajinski hetman
 Mazepa (1909.), ruski film iz 1909. godine
 Mazepa (1914.), ruski film iz 1914. godine
 Mazepa (Słowacki), tragedija Juliusza Słowackog
 Mazzepa (Byron), narativna poema Lorda Byrona
 Mazeppa (Liszt), simfonijska poema Franza Liszta

Mazepa (razdvojba)


Un total de 109 equipos participaron en la fase de Clasificación para la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 1982. Compitieron por una de las 24 plazas en el torneo final, un aumento de 8 cupos en relación con el torneo anterior. , en calidad de anfitriones, y , como los campeones defensores, clasificaron automáticamente, dejando 22 plazas disponibles.

Las 24 plazas para el Mundial de 1982 fueron distribuidas de la siguiente manera:

 Europa (UEFA): 14 plazas, una de ellas fue automáticamente para España, mientras que las otras 13 fueron disputadas por 33 países (incluido Israel).
 Sudamérica (CONMEBOL): 4 plazas, una de ellas fue automáticamente para Argentina, mientras que las otras 3 fueron disputadas por 9 equipos.
 América del Norte y Central y el Caribe (CONCACAF): 2 plazas, disputadas por 15 equipos.
 África (CAF): 2 plazas, disputadas por 29 equipos.
 Asia (AFC) y Oceanía (OFC): 2 plazas, disputadas por 21 equipos.

Un total de 103 equipos jugaron por lo menos un partido clasificatorio. Se jugaron un total de 306 partidos clasificatorios, y se anotaron 797 goles (un promedio de 2.60 por partido).

Zonas Continentales

UEFA (Europa)

Grupo 1 -  y  clasificaron.
Grupo 2 -  y   clasificaron.
Grupo 3 - La  y  clasificaron.
Grupo 4 -  e  clasificaron.
Grupo 5 -  e  clasificaron.
Grupo 6 -  e  clasificaron.
Grupo 7 -  clasificó.

Conmebol (Sudamérica)

Grupo 1 -  clasificó.
Grupo 2 -  clasificó.
Grupo 3 -  clasificó.

Concacaf (América del Norte, Central y Caribe)

 y  clasificaron.

CAF (África)

 y  clasificaron.

AFC Y OFC (Asia y Oceanía)

 y  clasificaron.

Equipos clasificados

Notas
 La regla del gol de visitante fue utilizada por primera vez en el proceso clasificatorio.  avanzó dos veces gracias a esta regla, dejando en el camino a  y .
 Por primera vez en la historia del campeonato, dos equipos de África clasificaron al torneo final.
  marcó varios récords en su primera campaña exitosa. Jugaron 15 partidos y viajaron 5558,000 kilómetros durante la clasificación. Su victoria 13-0 sobre  se convirtió en un récord mundial, al igual que los seis goles de Steve Sumner en ese partido. También durante esa campaña, el guardamenta Richard Willson pasó 921 minutos sin conceder un solo gol, marcando así otro récord en copas mundiales.

Véase también
 Nueva Zelanda 5 - Arabia Saudita 0

Enlaces externos
 Preliminares a la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 1982 en FIFA.com
 RSSSF - Clasificación para la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 1982


Onthophagus schwaneri é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Snellen Van Vollenhoven em 1864.

Referências

Ligações externas

schwaneri
Coleópteros descritos em 1864

Onthophagus schwaneri


Biler 3 er en Disney-Pixar-film, som havde premiere i USA den 16. juni 2017. Det er den tredje film i Biler-serien.

Dansk stemme

 Lynet McQueen - David Owe

 Bumle - Lars Hjortshøj

 Luigi - Dario Campeotto

 Sally - Annette Heick

 Mack - Lasse Lunderskov

 Sheriffen - Ulf Pilgaard
Frede - Eddie Skoller
Ramone - Tommy Kenter
Flora - Ditte Gråbøl
Lizzie - Bente Eskesen

 Jackson Storm - Mathias Flint
Frøken Fræs - Ditte Hansen
Klink - Michael Wikke
Klank - Steen Rasmussen

 Smokey - Finn Nielsen

 Cruz - Johanne Louise Schmidt
Sterling - Karsten Jansfort

 Doc Hudson - Dick Kaysø

 Tex Dinoco - Peter Zhelder

Michael Keaton

Michael Keaton som har stemmelagt Ronny Ræs i den første afsnit, er ikke med i denne. Michael skulle faktisk vende tilbage til Biler 3, men han har afvist sin rolle, pågrund af han havde travlt med at arbejde i Spider-Man: Homecoming. Han blev erstatte af animator og tegnefilmsdubber Bob Peterson.

Produktion

Modtagelse

Eksterne henvisninger

Animationsfilm fra USA
Amerikanske film fra 2017
Biler (franchise)

Biler 3


Dacrydium beccarii er sígrænt tré (um 1 til 20m hátt) sem vex í Indónesíu, Malasíu, Papúa Nýja-Gínea, Filippseyjum, og Salómonseyjum.

Tilvísanir

Gagnviðarætt

Dacrydium beccarii


Deri hastalıkları (dermatoz), ciltte görülen hastalıklardır. Sayılmayacak kadar çok deri hastalığı vardır. Deri hastalıklarına genel olarak dermatoz, ilgili bilim dalına da dermatoloji ismi verilir. Deri hastalıkları hakkında genel bir fikir edinebilmek için birkaç bölüme ayırmak mümkündür.

Mikroorganizmaların sebep olduğu deri hastalıkları
Bu organizmalar genellikle deri iltihaplanmalarına yol açar. Mikroorganizmalar derideki herhangi bir bozukluğun üzerine kolayca yerleşebilirler. Yaralar, yanıklar, uyuz, böceklerin ısırdıkları yerler, egzemalar ve uçuklar kolayca iltihaplanabilirler. Deri iltihaplarına dermatit de denir. Mikroorganizmaların yol açtığı hastalıklardan olan cüzzam, deri veremi ve frengide ise yukarıdaki bahsedilen iltihaplanmaların dışında bir mekanizma söz konusudur. Bunlar bu yüzden spesifik iltihaplar veya spesifik enfeksiyonlar grubu olarak adlandırılmıştır.

Alerjik deri hastalıkları
En sık rastlanan deri hastalıklarıdır. Alerjik deri hastalıkları arasında serum hastalığı, Quincke ödemi, kurdeşen, egzama, kontakt dermatit sayılabilir. Alerjik deri hastalıklarının sebebini bulmak oldukça güçtür. Bu amaçla hasta ve çevresi çok iyi araştırılır. Çeşitli deri testleri yapılır. Gerekirse hasta bulunduğu çevreden bir müddet uzaklaştırılır. Alerjiye sebep olan amil bulunmaya çalışılır. Bu amiller; çiçek tozları, çeşitli besin maddeleri, ev tozları, bazı ilaçlar, bağırsak parazitleri olabilir. Alerjik hastalıklarda irsiyetin, vücut yapısının ve asabi durumun yani psikolojik sebeplerin de rolü büyüktür.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Akrokordon
 Dermateskop

Deri hastalıkları


الهوارب ربما تشير إلى:
 الهوارب، وهي قرية تونسية تقع في ولاية القيروان.
 سد الهوارب، وهو سدّ تونسي على وادي مرق الليل.

الهوارب (توضيح)


Gilbert Schaller (n, 17 de marzo de 1969 en Bruck an der Mur, Austria) es un jugador de tenis con nacionalidad austriaca. En su carrera ha conquistado un torneos a nivel ATP, su mejor posición fue Nº17 en octubre de 1995.

Títulos (1; 1+0)

Individuales (1)

Ranking ATP al finalizar cada temporada

Enlaces externos

Tenistas masculinos de Austria
Nacidos en Bruck an der Mur

Gilbert Schaller


Confédération générale du travail (CGT) est un nom porté par des organisations syndicales dans plusieurs pays :
 Argentine : Confédération générale du travail de la République argentine
 Belgique : Confédération générale du travail
 Burkina Faso : Confédération générale du travail du Burkina
 Colombie : Confédération générale du travail
 Espagne : Confédération générale du travail
 France :
 Confédération générale du travail (1895)
 Confédération générale du travail unitaire (1921-1936)
 Confédération générale du travail - Force ouvrière (1947)
 Confédération générale du travail - Syndicaliste révolutionnaire (1926-1939)
 Italie :
 Confédération générale du travail (1906-1925)
 Confédération générale italienne du travail (1944)
 Luxembourg : Confédération générale du travail luxembourgeoise
 Martinique : Confédération générale du travail de la Martinique
 Portugal : Confédération générale du travail
 La Réunion : Confédération générale du travail de La Réunion

Voir aussi

Confédération générale du travail (homonymie)


Otto Christoffersen (eller prins Otto af Danmark og junker Otto, (død efter 1346) var en dansk prins og næstældste søn af Christoffer 2. og Eufemia af Pommern. Otto var hertug af Estland og Lolland.

Biografi

Junker Ottos ældre bror Erik blev valgt som faderens medkonge, mens Otto blev udnævnt til hertug af Lolland og hertugdømmet Estland. Han benyttede titlen danskernes junker, hertug af Estland og Lolland med hovedkvarter i Sakskøbing.

I 1326 blev Christoffer 2. og hans ældste søn Erik afsat og tvunget i landflygtighed
De vendte tilbage tre år senere på betingelse af, at kong Christoffer underskrev en håndfæstning, der fratog ham næsten al magt og overlod styret til den danske adel og greverne af Holsten, der i de næste år pantsatte størstedelen af kongeriget. Otto blev i 1331 taget til fange af grev Gerhard 3. af Holsten, men snart efter løsladt. Efter Christoffer 2.s endelige nederlag til holstenerne i 1331 og hans død i begyndelsen af 1332, stod Otto og hans yngre bror Valdemar tilbage som tronarvinger, da deres storebror Erik var død kort før.

Med støtte fra sin svoger markgreve Ludvig af Brandenburg, søn af kejser Ludvig af Bayern og fra 1324 gift med Ottos søster Margrete, optrådte Otto i 1333 som dansk tronkræver. Eller måske var det mere huset Wittelsbach, som gjorde sig gældende i nordisk politik med junker Otto som galionsfigur. Margretes store medgift på 12.000 mark sølv var aldrig blevet udbetalt, og wittelsbacherne holdt dette krav levende, mens de holstenske grever forvaltede den danske kongemagt som pant.

Efter kong Christoffers død gik riget helt i opløsning og blev de følgende otte år styret af panthaverne. Otto gjorde undervejs et forsøg på at genvinde riget og lovede kejseren at betale sin søsters medgift, hvis han fik støtte fra ham. Grev Gert lå med en flåde ved Sakskøbing, og Otto søgte at komme til Viborg ting for at hyldes som konge og kunne gøre sit krav på tronen gældende. Altså måtte han op gennem Øresund og over Kattegat til Randers; og det måtte greven forhindre ham i. Holstenerne gik i skjul bag højningerne nord for vejen 1,5 km sydvest for Vansø, l km vest for Porsmosen. De danske ryttere undervurderede den holstenske styrke og indledte et angreb 7. oktober 1334, hvor Otto blev slået og taget til fange af grev Gerhard (slaget ved Taphede nær Viborg).  Otto blev herefter holdt fanget på slottet i Segeberg til 1341.  Han blev først løsladt, da lillebroren Valdemar (Valdemar Atterdag) blev konge i 1340, mod at junker Otto frasagde sig sin ret til tronen.

De næste år opholdt junker Otto sig i Tyskland og Estland. I 1346 indtrådte han i Den Tyske Orden, da Valdemar Atterdag solgte Ottos hertugdømme Estland til ordenen. Hans senere skæbne er ukendt.

Otto er helten i B.S. Ingemanns roman Prins Otto af Danmark og hans Samtid (1835).

Noter

Litteratur

Prinser fra Danmark
Danskere i 1300-tallet
Hertuger fra Danmark
Tronprætendenter

Otto, Hertug af Estland og Lolland


Das Bremische Jahrbuch ist ein historisches Periodikum, das ab 1864 (für den Jahrgang 1863) jährlich ein Mal zunächst von der Abteilung des Künstlervereins für Bremische Geschichte und Altertümer, später von der Historischen Gesellschaft Bremen zusammen mit dem Staatsarchiv Bremen herausgegeben wurde; seit dem Jahr 1975 nur noch vom Staatsarchiv "in Verbindung mit der Historischen Gesellschaft". Von 1944 bis 1946 erschien das Jahrbuch kriegsbedingt nicht. Im Jahr 2016 erschien im Selbstverlag des Staatsarchivs Band 95.

Es gilt als "die historische Fachzeitschrift Bremens" und enthält Beiträge zur bremischen und nordwestdeutschen Landesgeschichte. Es bietet in Aufsätzen, Miszellen, Arbeitsberichten und Rezensionen die jeweils aktuellen Forschungen zur Geschichte der Stadt und des Landes Bremen.

Weblinks
 Digitale Sammlung der Bremischen Jahrbücher von Band 1 (1863) bis Band 92 (2013) bei der Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Bremen (die letzten vier Jahrgänge sind jeweils nicht verfügbar).
 Aufsätze aus dem Bremischen Jahrbuch in der Niedersächsischen Bibliographie
 Bremisches Jahrbuch bei Recensio.regio

Einzelnachweise

Geschichtswissenschaftliche Zeitschrift (Deutschland)
Ersterscheinung 1863
Geschichtsschreibung (Bremen)
Medien (Bremen)
Deutschsprachiges Jahrbuch
Heimatjahrbuch
Landesgeschichte
Literatur (Norddeutschland)

Bremisches Jahrbuch


Mary of Scotland is a 1936 American historical drama film starring Katharine Hepburn as the 16th-century ruler Mary, Queen of Scots. Directed by John Ford, it is an adaptation of the 1933 Maxwell Anderson play, with Fredric March reprising the role of Bothwell, which he also performed on stage during the run of play. The screenplay was written by Dudley Nichols. Ginger Rogers wanted to play this role and made a screen test, but RKO rejected her request to be cast in the part feeling that the role was not suitable to her image.

Synopsis
In 1561, Mary Stuart, the young widow of Francis II of France, sets sail for her native Scotland to re-establish herself as monarch. In spite of attempts by her politically insecure cousin, Queen Elizabeth of England, to prevent her from reaching Scotland, Mary lands safely with her Italian secretary, David Rizzio, and rides to Holyrod Castle near Edinburgh. Immediately upon her arrival, Mary is confronted by her half brother, James Stewart, the Earl of Moray, who is the leader of the country's ruling noblemen, and is questioned about her devotion to Catholicism and her refusal to marry. While the noblemen select a council for Mary, the queen is denounced publicly as a "wicked" Catholic by John Knox, an outspoken Protestant leader. Knox's accusations are countered by the equally eloquent Earl of Bothwell, who in spite of his own Protestantism, pledges his loyalty to Mary and demands that he be named Scotland's military chief. Enraged by Mary's success at charming her court, Elizabeth plots with Throckmorton, the new Scottish ambassador, to use Moray against her. At the same time, Rizzio encourages Mary to wed Lord Darnley, a Catholic who is the heir to the English crown after Elizabeth. Although she loves Bothwell, Mary rejects his proposal and marries the foppish Darnley. Soon after, Mary's council tries to force her to dismiss Rizzio and, when she refuses, goads the sexually frustrated Darnley into accusing the Italian of adultery. In Mary's bedroom, a group of Scottish lords murder Rizzio and, as a drunken Darnley watches, force the queen to sign a false confession of infidelity. Aided by Bothwell's loyal troops, Mary and Darnley escape and thwart Moray and Elizabeth's conspiracy. A year after Mary gives birth to a boy, James, a still discontented Darnley threatens to disown his son as his legitimate heir. Before he is able to carry out his plan, however, Darnley is burned alive in his private refuge, which is destroyed by planted explosives. As Knox damns Bothwell as Darnley's murderer, the earl "kidnaps" Mary and, in defiance of the council, secretly marries her. Twenty days later, Moray abducts baby James, and the rebel lords attack Holyrod Castle. Outnumbered by Moray's troops, Bothwell finally agrees to leave Scotland if Mary is allowed to remain queen. In spite of his promises, Moray forces Mary to abdicate and, after imprisoning her, makes himself regent. Eventually Mary escapes and, believing Elizabeth to support her cause, flees to England. Elizabeth, however, takes Mary prisoner and, after Bothwell dies a mad man in a Danish jail, puts her on trial for treason. Crushed by the news of Bothwell's death, Mary eagerly accepts her inevitable condemnation and refuses to renounce the Stuart claim to the English throne, even when offered clemency by Elizabeth. Satisfied that she has enjoyed a more rewarding life than the ambitious Elizabeth, Mary faces her execution with courage.

Cast

Accuracy

The film does not keep close to the historical truth, portraying Mary as a wronged martyr and her third husband, James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, a direct ancestor of Katharine Hepburn played by Fredric March), as a romantic hero. While it is true that Bothwell was well known as a philanderer, his last marriage to Mary was genuine. Regarding Mary's historical status, the false imprisonment by Elizabeth I and Anglo Protestant intrigue in Scotland did undermine her claim to the throne of Scotland and the throne of England, making her a direct threat to Elizabeth I.

At the beginning of the movie, Mary is described as the legitimate heir of King Henry VII of England, when in fact she was the heir of King James V of Scotland.

Reception

Contemporary reviews were generally positive. Frank S. Nugent of The New York Times wrote it had a "blend of excellence and mere adequacy." He wrote that the film had "depth, vigor and warm humanity" but had scenes which "lack the vitality they possessed in the play", and considered Hepburn's characterization of the title role rather too soft in comparison with the historical Mary. Variety praised the "extra-strong cast" and Ford's "sure-footed" direction. Hepburn's performance was described as "not really Mary Stuart but rather Katie Hepburn. And that is all in the film's favor because it humanizes it all and makes it that much more nearly acceptable." However, the review also found the film too long and the ending too sad, and conceding it could not end any other way without "completely corrupting history." "Impressive historical drama finely acted and produced with all-around distinction", reported Film Daily. Motion Picture Daily called the film "a splendidly powerful drama" with a "sincere, intelligent and genuine" performance by Hepburn. Russell Maloney reviewed the film negatively in The New Yorker, writing that despite its high production values, "it has little or nothing to do with Maxwell Anderson's play. Any other historical drama of the period could have been sandwiched in between these scenes and it wouldn't have made a bit of difference." Of Hepburn's performance, Maloney wrote that she had "the cards stacked against her from the very start, because pageantry naturally interferes with characterization."

The film is not regarded well by critics today, and in its time, it was a box office flop, causing a loss of $165,000. This was Katharine Hepburn's second flop in a row, causing her to being labeled "box office poison" in the late 1930s, leading to (after a two-year screen absence) her move to MGM for her comeback in The Philadelphia Story in 1940.

References

External links

 Mary of Scotland at Virtual History
 Radio adaptation of original play done for Theatre Guild on the Air in 1946 at Internet Archive

1936 films
Films set in the 16th century
Films set in Tudor England
American historical drama films
American films based on plays
American black-and-white films
Films directed by John Ford
Films set in Scotland
Films about Mary, Queen of Scots
Films about Elizabeth I
1930s historical drama films
Films with screenplays by Dudley Nichols
Films scored by Nathaniel Shilkret
1936 drama films
RKO Pictures films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films

Mary of Scotland (film)


Kate Noelle Holmes (d. 18 Aralık 1978; Toledo, Ohio), Amerikalı aktris ve yapımcı.

Hayatı
Kate Noelle Holmes, 18 Aralık 1978 yılında Toledo, Ohio'da beş çocuklu bir ailenin en küçüğü olarak dünyaya geldi.

Holmes, Nisan 2005'te aktör Tom Cruise ile çıkmaya başladı. Bir Katolik olarak yetiştirilen Holmes, Tom Cruise ile çıkmaya başladıktan kısa bir süre sonra Scientology okumaya başladı. Tanıştıktan sadece yedi hafta sonra, Haziran 2005'te nişanlandılar. Çiftin kızı Suri, ilk buluşmalarının birinci yıl dönümü olan 18 Nisan 2006'da dünyaya geldi. Cruise'un basın açıklamasına göre "Suri" adı, Farsça "kırmızı gül" ve İbranice "prenses" kelimesinden türemiştir. 18 Kasım 2006'da Holmes ve Cruise, İtalya, Bracciano'daki 15. yüzyıldan kalma Odescalchi Kalesi'nde bir Scientologist töreniyle evlendiler. Reklamcıları, çiftin, İtalya'daki törenden bir gün önce Los Angeles'ta evliliklerini "resmileştirdiğini" söyledi.

29 Haziran 2012'de, beş buçuk yıllık evlilikten sonra New York'ta Cruise'dan boşanma davası açtı. Açıklamanın ardından Holmes'a yakın kişiler, Cruise'un Suri'yi kaçıracağına dair korkması için nedenleri olduğunu ve ayrıca Scientology Kilisesi tarafından gözdağı verilmesinden endişe ettiğini belirtti. Temmuz 2012'de avukatlar, çiftin boşanma anlaşması imzaladığını duyurdu. Bu, Holmes için ilk ve Cruise için üçüncü boşanmaydı. Holmes, Suri'nin velayetini elinde tutuyor. Cruise'dan boşandıktan sonra Holmes, Katolik Kilisesi'ne döndü ve St. Francis Xavier Kilisesi'ne gitmeye başladı.

2013'ten 2019'a kadar Holmes, aktör ve şarkıcı Jamie Foxx ile ilişki içindeydi. Holmes, 2020'den 2021'e kadar şef Emilio Vitolo Jr ile çıktı.

Filmografi

Kaynakça

Dış Bağlantılar

Amerikalı kadın sinema oyuncuları
Amerikalı kadın dizi oyuncuları
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