ISO/IEC 2022 Information technology—Character code structure and extension techniques, is an ISO/IEC standard in the field of character encoding. It is equivalent to the ECMA standard ECMA-35, the ANSI standard ANSI X3.41 and the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0202. Originating in 1971, it was most recently revised in 1994.

ISO 2022 specifies a general structure which character encodings can conform to, dedicating particular ranges of bytes (0x00–1F and 0x7F–9F) to be used for non-printing control codes for formatting and in-band instructions (such as line breaks or formatting instructions for text terminals), rather than graphical characters. It also specifies a syntax for escape sequences, multiple-byte sequences beginning with the  control code, which can likewise be used for in-band instructions. Specific sets of control codes and escape sequences designed to be used with ISO 2022 include ISO/IEC 6429, portions of which are implemented by ANSI.SYS and terminal emulators.

ISO 2022 itself also defines particular control codes and escape sequences which can be used for switching between different coded character sets (for example, between ASCII and the Japanese JIS X 0208) so as to use multiple in a single document, effectively combining them into a single stateful encoding (a feature less important since the advent of Unicode). It is designed to be usable in both 8-bit environments and 7-bit environments (those where only seven bits are usable in a byte, such as e-mail without 8BITMIME).

Encodings and conformance
Writing systems with relatively few characters, such as Greek, Cyrillic, Arabic, or Hebrew, as well as forms of the Latin alphabet using diacritics or letters absent in the ISO Basic Latin alphabet, have historically been represented on computers with different 8-bit, single byte, extended ASCII encodings. Some of these, such as the ISO 8859 series, conform to ISO 2022, while others such as DOS code page 437 do not, usually due to not reserving the bytes 0x80–9F for control codes.

Certain East Asian languages, specifically Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (collectively "CJK"), are written using far more characters than the maximum of 256 which can be represented in a single byte, and were first represented on computers with language-specific double-byte encodings or variable-width encodings; some of these (such as the Simplified Chinese encoding ) conform to , while others (such as the Traditional Chinese encoding Big5) do not. Control codes in ISO 2022 are always represented with a single byte, regardless of the number of bytes used for graphical characters. CJK encodings used in 7-bit environments which use  mechanisms to switch between character sets are often given names starting with "ISO-2022-", most notably ISO-2022-JP, although some other CJK encodings such as EUC-JP also make use of ISO 2022 mechanisms.

Since the first 256 code points of Unicode were taken from ISO 8859-1, Unicode inherits the concept of C0 and C1 control codes from ISO 2022, although it adds other non-printing characters besides the ISO 2022 control codes. However, Unicode transformation formats such as UTF-8 generally deviate from the ISO 2022 structure in various ways, including:
 Using 8-bit bytes, but not representing the C1 codes in their single-byte forms specified in ISO 2022 (most UTFs, one exception being the obsolete UTF-1)
 Representing all characters, including control codes, with multiple bytes (e.g. UTF-16, UTF-32)
 Mixing bytes with the most significant bit set and unset within the coded representation for a single code point (e.g. UTF-1, )

ISO 2022 escape sequences do, however, exist for switching to and from UTF-8 as a "coding system different from that of ISO 2022", which are supported by certain terminal emulators such as xterm.

Overview

Elements
ISO/IEC 2022 specifies the following:

 An infrastructure of multiple character sets with particular structures which may be included in a single character encoding system, including multiple graphical character sets and multiple sets of both primary (C0) and secondary (C1) control codes,
 A format for encoding these sets, assuming that 8 bits are available per byte,
 A format for encoding these sets in the same encoding system when only 7 bits are available per byte, and a method for transforming any conformant character data to pass through such a 7-bit environment,
 The general structure of ANSI escape codes, and
 Specific escape code formats for identifying individual character sets, for announcing the use of particular encoding features or subsets, and for interacting with or switching to other encoding systems.

Code versions

A specific implementation does not have to implement all of the standard; the conformance level and the supported character sets are defined by the implementation. Although many of the mechanisms defined by the ISO/IEC 2022 standard are infrequently used, several established encodings are based on a subset of the ISO/IEC 2022 system. In particular, 7-bit encoding systems using ISO/IEC 2022 mechanisms include ISO-2022-JP (or JIS encoding), which has primarily been used in Japanese-language e-mail. 8-bit encoding systems conforming to ISO/IEC 2022 include ISO/IEC 4873 (ECMA-43), which is in turn conformed to by ISO/IEC 8859, and Extended Unix Code, which is used for East Asian languages. More specialised applications of ISO 2022 include the MARC-8 encoding system used in MARC 21 library records.

Designation escape sequences

The escape sequences for switching to particular character sets or encodings are registered with the ISO-IR registry (except for those set apart for private use, the meanings of which are defined by vendors, or by protocol specifications such as ARIB STD-B24) and follow the patterns defined within the standard. Character encodings making use of these escape sequences require data to be processed sequentially in a forward direction, since the correct interpretation of the data depends on previously encountered escape sequences.

Specific profiles such as ISO-2022-JP may impose extra conditions, such as that the current character set is reset to US-ASCII before the end of a line. Furthermore, the escape sequences declaring the national character sets may be absent if a specific ISO-2022-based encoding permits or requires this, and dictates that particular national character sets are to be used. For example, ISO-8859-1 states that no defining escape sequence is needed.

Multi-byte characters

To represent large character sets, ISO/IEC 2022 builds on ISO/IEC 646's property that a seven-bit character representation will normally be able to represent 94 graphic (printable) characters (in addition to space and 33 control characters); if only the C0 control codes (narrowly defined) are excluded, this can be expanded to 96 characters. Using two bytes, it is thus possible to represent up to 8,836 (94×94) characters; and, using three bytes, up to 830,584 (94×94×94) characters. Though the standard defines it, no registered character set uses three bytes (although EUC-TW's unregistered G2 does, as does the similarly unregistered CCCII).

For the two-byte character sets, the code point of each character is normally specified in so-called row-cell or kuten form, which comprises two numbers between 1 and 94 inclusive, specifying a row and cell of that character within the zone. For a three-byte set, an additional plane number is included at the beginning. The escape sequences do not only declare which character set is being used, but also whether the set is single-byte or multi-byte (although not how many bytes it uses if it is multi-byte), and also whether each byte has 94 or 96 permitted values.

Code structure

Notation and nomenclature
ISO/IEC 2022 coding specifies a two-layer mapping between character codes and displayed characters. Escape sequences allow any of a large registry of graphic character sets to be "designated" into one of four working sets, named G0 through G3, and shorter control sequences specify the working set that is "invoked" to interpret bytes in the stream.

Encoding byte values ("bit combinations") are often given in column-line notation, where two decimal numbers in the range 00–15 (each corresponding to a single hexadecimal digit) are separated by a slash. Hence, for instance, codes 2/0 (0x20) through 2/15 (0x2F) inclusive may be referred to as "column 02". This is the notation used in the ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard itself. They may be described elsewhere using hexadecimal, as is often used in this article, or using the corresponding ASCII characters, although the escape sequences are actually defined in terms of byte values, and the graphic assigned to that byte value may be altered without affecting the control sequence.

Byte values from the 7-bit ASCII graphic range (hexadecimal 0x20–0x7F), being on the left side of a character code table, are referred to as "GL" codes (with "GL" standing for "graphics left") while bytes from the "high ASCII" range (0xA0–0xFF), if available (i.e. in an 8-bit environment), are referred to as the "GR" codes ("graphics right"). The terms "CL" (0x00–0x1F) and "CR" (0x80–0x9F) are defined for the control ranges, but the CL range always invokes the primary (C0) controls, whereas the CR range always either invokes the secondary (C1) controls or is unused.

Fixed coded characters
The delete character DEL (0x7F), the escape character ESC (0x1B) and the space character SP (0x20) are designated "fixed" coded characters and are always available when G0 is invoked over GL, irrespective of what character sets are designated. They may not be included in graphical character sets, although other sizes or types of whitespace character may be.

General syntax of escape sequences
Sequences using the ESC (escape) character take the form ESC [...] , where the ESC character is followed by zero or more intermediate bytes () from the range 0x20–0x2F, and one final byte () from the range 0x30–0x7E.

The first  byte, or absence thereof, determines the type of escape sequence; it might, for instance, designate a working set, or denote a single control function. In all types of escape sequences,  bytes in the range 0x30–0x3F are reserved for unregistered private uses defined by prior agreement between parties.

Control functions from some sets may make use of further bytes following the escape sequence proper. For example, the ISO 6429 control function "", which can be represented using an escape sequence, is followed by zero or more bytes in the range 0x30–0x3F, then zero or more bytes in the range 0x20–0x2F, then by a single byte in the range 0x40–0x7E, the entire sequence being called a "control sequence".

Graphical character sets
Each of the four working sets G0 through G3 may be a 94-character set or a 94n-character multi-byte set. Additionally, G1 through G3 may be a 96- or 96n-character set.

In a 96- or 96n-character set, the bytes 0x20 through 0x7F when GL-invoked, or 0xA0 through 0xFF when GR-invoked, are allocated to and may be used by the set. In a 94- or 94n-character set, the bytes 0x20 and 0x7F are not used. When a 96- or 96n-character set is invoked in the GL region, the space and delete characters (codes 0x20 and 0x7F) are not available until a 94- or 94n-character set (such as the G0 set) is invoked in GL. 96-character sets cannot be designated to G0.

Registration of a set as a 96-character set does not necessarily mean that the 0x20/A0 and 0x7F/FF bytes are actually assigned by the set; some examples of graphical character sets which are registered as 96-sets but do not use those bytes include the G1 set of I.S. 434, the box drawing set from ISO/IEC 10367, and ISO-IR-164 (a subset of the G1 set of ISO-8859-8 with only the letters, used by CCITT).

Combining characters
Characters are expected to be spacing characters, not combining characters, unless specified otherwise by the graphical set in question. ISO 2022 / ECMA-35 also recognizes the use of the backspace and carriage return control characters as means of combining otherwise spacing characters, as well as the CSI sequence "Graphic Character Combination" (GCC) (CSI 0x20 (SP) 0x5F (_)).

Use of the backspace and carriage return in this manner is permitted by ISO/IEC 646 but prohibited by ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 and by ISO/IEC 8859, on the basis that it leaves the graphical character repertoire undefined. ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 does, however, permit the use of the GCC function provided that the sequence of characters is kept the same and merely displayed in one space, rather than being over-stamped to form a character with a different meaning.

Control character sets
Control character sets are classified as "primary" or "secondary" control code sets, respectively also called "C0" and "C1" control code sets.

A C0 control set must contain the ESC (escape) control character at 0x1B (a C0 set containing only ESC is registered as ISO-IR-104), whereas a C1 control set may not contain the escape control whatsoever. Hence, they are entirely separate registrations, with a C0 set being only a C0 set and a C1 set being only a C1 set.

If codes from the C0 set of ISO 6429 / ECMA-48, i.e. the ASCII control codes, appear in the C0 set, they are required to appear at their ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 locations. Inclusion of transmission control characters in the C0 set, besides the ten included by ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 (namely SOH, STX, ETX, EOT, ENQ, ACK, DLE, NAK, SYN and ETB), or inclusion of any of those ten in the C1 set, is also prohibited by the ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard.

A C0 control set is invoked over the CL range 0x00 through 0x1F, whereas a C1 control function may be invoked over the CR range 0x80 through 0x9F (in an 8-bit environment) or by using escape sequences (in a 7-bit or 8-bit environment), but not both. Which style of C1 invocation is used must be specified in the definition of the code version. For example, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies CR bytes for the C1 controls which it uses (SS2 and SS3). If necessary, which invocation is used may be communicated using announcer sequences.

In the latter case, single control functions from the C1 control code set are invoked using "type Fe" escape sequences, meaning those where the ESC control character is followed by a byte from columns 04 or 05 (that is to say, ESC 0x40 (@) through ESC 0x5F (_)).

Other control functions
Additional control functions are assigned to "type Fs" escape sequences (in the range ESC 0x60 (`) through ESC 0x7E (~)); these have permanently assigned meanings rather than depending on the C0 or C1 designations. Registration of control functions to type "Fs" sequences must be approved by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2. Other single control functions may be registered to type "3Ft" escape sequences (in the range ESC 0x23 (#) [...] 0x40 (@) through ESC 0x23 (#) [...] 0x7E (~)), although no "3Ft" sequences are currently assigned (as of 2019).

The following escape sequences are assigned for single control functions:

Escape sequences of type "Fp" (ESC 0x30 (0) through ESC 0x3F (?)) or of type "3Fp" (ESC 0x23 (#) [...] 0x30 (0) through ESC 0x23 (#) [...] 0x3F (?)) are reserved for single private use control codes, by prior agreement between parties. Several such sequences of both types are used by DEC terminals such as the VT100, and are thus supported by terminal emulators.

Shift functions
By default, GL codes specify G0 characters and GR codes (where available) specify G1 characters; this may be otherwise specified by prior agreement. The set invoked over each area may also be modified with control codes referred to as shifts, as shown in the table below.

An 8-bit code may have GR codes specifying G1 characters, i.e. with its corresponding 7-bit code using Shift In and Shift Out to switch between the sets (e.g. JIS X 0201), although some instead have GR codes specifying G2 characters, with the corresponding 7-bit code using a single-shift code to access the second set (e.g. T.51).

The codes shown in the table below are the most common encodings of these control codes, conforming to ISO/IEC 6429. The LS2, LS3, LS1R, LS2R and LS3R shifts are registered as single control functions and are always encoded as the escape sequences listed below, whereas the others are part of a C0 or C1 control code set (as shown below, SI (LS0) and SO (LS1) are C0 controls and SS2 and SS3 are C1 controls), meaning that their coding and availability may vary depending on which control sets are designated: they must be present in the designated control sets if their functionality is used. The C1 controls themselves, as mentioned above, may be represented using escape sequences or 8-bit bytes, but not both.

Alternative encodings of the single-shifts as C0 control codes are available in certain control code sets. For example, SS2 and SS3 are usually available at 0x19 and 0x1D respectively in T.51 and T.61. This coding is currently recommended by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 for applications requiring 7-bit single-byte representations of SS2 and SS3, and may also be used for SS2 only, although older code sets with SS2 at 0x1C also exist, and were mentioned as such in an earlier edition of the standard. The 0x8E and 0x8F coding of the single shifts as shown below is mandatory for ISO/IEC 4873 levels 2 and 3.

Although officially considered shift codes and named accordingly, single-shift codes are not always viewed as shifts, and they may simply be viewed as prefix bytes (i.e. the first bytes in a multi-byte sequence), since they do not require the encoder to keep the currently active set as state, unlike locking shift codes. In 8-bit environments, either GL or GR, but not both, may be used as the single-shift area. This must be specified in the definition of the code version. For instance, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies GL, whereas packed EUC specifies GR. In 7-bit environments, only GL is used as the single-shift area. If necessary, which single-shift area is used may be communicated using announcer sequences.

The names "locking shift zero" (LS0) and "locking shift one" (LS1) refer to the same pair of C0 control characters (0x0F and 0x0E) as the names "shift in" (SI) and "shift out" (SO). However, the standard refers to them as LS0 and LS1 when they are used in 8-bit environments and as SI and SO when they are used in 7-bit environments.

The ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard permits, but discourages, invoking G1, G2 or G3 in both GL and GR simultaneously.

Registration of graphical and control code sets
The ISO International register of coded character sets to be used with escape sequences (ISO-IR) lists graphical character sets, control code sets, single control codes and so forth which have been registered for use with ISO/IEC 2022. The procedure for registering codes and sets with the ISO-IR registry is specified by ISO/IEC 2375. Each registration receives a unique escape sequence, and a unique registry entry number to identify it. For example, the CCITT character set for Simplified Chinese is known as ISO-IR-165.

Registration of coded character sets with the ISO-IR registry identifies the documents specifying the character set or control function associated with an ISO/IEC 2022 non‑private-use escape sequence. This may be a standard document; however, registration does not create a new ISO standard, does not commit the ISO or IEC to adopt it as an international standard, and does not commit the ISO or IEC to add any of its characters to the Universal Coded Character Set.

ISO-IR registered escape sequences are also used encapsulated in a Formal Public Identifier to identify character sets used for numeric character references in SGML (ISO 8879). For example, the string  can be used to identify the International Reference Version of ISO 646-1983, and the HTML 4.01 specification uses  to identify Unicode. The textual representation of the escape sequence, included in the third element of the FPI, will be recognised by SGML implementations for supported character sets.

Character set designations
Escape sequences to designate character sets take the form ESC  [...] . As mentioned above, the intermediate () bytes are from the range 0x20–0x2F, and the final () byte is from the range 0x30–0x7E. The first  byte (or, for a multi-byte set, the first two) identifies the type of character set and the working set it is to be designated to, whereas the  byte (and any additional  bytes) identify the character set itself, as assigned in the ISO-IR register (or, for the private-use escape sequences, by prior agreement).

Additional  bytes may be added before the  byte to extend the  byte range. This is currently only used with 94-character sets, where codes of the form ESC ( !  have been assigned. At the other extreme, no multibyte 96-sets have been registered, so the sequences below are strictly theoretical.

As with other escape sequence types, the range 0x30–0x3F is reserved for private-use  bytes, in this case for private-use character set definitions (which might include unregistered sets defined by protocols such as ARIB STD-B24 or MARC-8, or vendor-specific sets such as DEC Special Graphics). However, in a graphical set designation sequence, if the second  byte (for a single-byte set) or the third  byte (for a double-byte set) is 0x20 (space), the set denoted is a "dynamically redefinable character set" (DRCS) defined by prior agreement, which is also considered private use. A graphical set being considered a DRCS implies that it represents a font of exact glyphs, rather than a set of abstract characters. The manner in which DRCS sets and associated fonts are transmitted, allocated and managed is not stipulated by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 itself, although it recommends allocating them sequentially starting with  byte 0x40 (@); however, a manner for transmitting DRCS fonts is defined within some telecommunication protocols such as World System Teletext.

There are also three special cases for multi-byte codes. The code sequences ESC $ @, ESC $ A, and ESC $ B were all registered when the contemporary version of the standard allowed multi-byte sets only in G0, so must be accepted in place of the sequences ESC $ ( @ through ESC $ ( B to designate to the G0 character set.

There are additional (rarely used) features for switching control character sets, but this is a single-level lookup, in that (as noted above) the C0 set is always invoked over CL, and the C1 set is always invoked over CR or by using escape codes. As noted above, it is required that any C0 character set include the ESC character at position 0x1B, so that further changes are possible. The control set designation sequences (as opposed to the graphical set ones) may also be used from within ISO/IEC 10646 (UCS/Unicode), in contexts where processing ANSI escape codes is appropriate, provided that each byte in the sequence is padded to the code unit size of the encoding.

A table of escape sequence  bytes and the designation or other function which they perform is below.

Note that the registry of  bytes is independent for the different types. The 94-character graphic set designated by ESC ( A through ESC + A is not related in any way to the 96-character set designated by ESC - A through ESC / A. And neither of those is related to the 94n-character set designated by ESC $ ( A through ESC $ + A, and so on; the final bytes must be interpreted in context. (Indeed, without any intermediate bytes, ESC A is a way of specifying the C1 control code 0x81.)

Also note that C0 and C1 control character sets are independent; the C0 control character set designated by ESC ! A (which happens to be the NATS control set for newspaper text transmission) is not the same as the C1 control character set designated by ESC " A (the CCITT attribute control set for Videotex).

Interaction with other coding systems
The standard also defines a way to specify coding systems that do not follow its own structure.

A sequence is also defined for returning to ISO/IEC 2022; the registrations which support this sequence as encoded in ISO/IEC 2022 comprise (as of 2019) various Videotex formats, UTF-8, and UTF-1. A second  byte of 0x2F (/) is included in the designation sequences of codes which do not use that byte sequence to return to ISO 2022; they may have their own means to return to ISO 2022 (such as a different or padded sequence) or none at all. All existing registrations of the latter type (as of 2019) are either transparent raw data, Unicode/UCS formats, or subsets thereof.

Of particular interest are the sequences which switch to ISO/IEC 10646 (Unicode) formats which do not follow the ISO/IEC 2022 structure. These include UTF-8 (which does not reserve the range 0x80–0x9F for control characters), its predecessor UTF-1 (which mixes GR and GL bytes in multi-byte codes), and UTF-16 and UTF-32 (which use wider coding units).

Several codes were also registered for subsets (levels 1 and 2) of UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32, as well as for three levels of UCS-2. However, the only codes currently specified by ISO/IEC 10646 are the level-3 codes for UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32 and the unspecified-level code for UTF-8, with the rest being listed as deprecated. ISO/IEC 10646 stipulates that the big-endian formats of UTF-16 and UTF-32 are designated by their escape sequences.

Of the sequences switching to UTF-8, ESC % G is the one supported by, for example, xterm.

Although use of a variant of the standard return sequence from UTF-16 and UTF-32 is permitted, the bytes of the escape sequence must be padded to the size of the code unit of the encoding (i.e. 001B 0025 0040 for UTF-16), i.e. the coding of the standard return sequence does not conform exactly to ISO/IEC 2022. For this reason, the designations for UTF-16 and UTF-32 use a without-standard-return syntax.

For specifying encodings by labels, the X Consortium's Compound Text format defines five private-use DOCS sequences.

Code structure announcements
The sequence "announce code structure" (ESC SP (0x20) ) is used to announce a specific code structure, or a specific group of ISO 2022 facilities which are used in a particular code version. Although announcements can be combined, certain contradictory combinations (specifically, using locking shift announcements 16–23 with announcements 1, 3 and 4) are prohibited by the standard, as is using additional announcements on top of ISO/IEC 4873 level announcements 12–14 (which fully specify the permissible structural features). Announcement sequences are as follows:

ISO/IEC 2022 code versions

Six 7-bit ISO 2022 code versions (ISO-2022-CN, ISO-2022-CN-EXT, ISO-2022-JP, ISO-2022-JP-1, ISO-2022-JP-2 and ISO-2022-KR) are defined by IETF RFCs, of which ISO-2022-JP and ISO-2022-KR have been extensively used in the past. A number of other variants are defined by vendors, including IBM. Although UTF-8 is the preferred encoding in HTML5, legacy content in ISO-2022-JP remains sufficiently widespread that the WHATWG encoding standard retains support for it, in contrast to mapping ISO-2022-KR, ISO-2022-CN and ISO-2022-CN-EXT entirely to the replacement character, due to concerns about code injection attacks such as cross-site scripting.

8-bit code versions include Extended Unix Code. The ISO/IEC 8859 encodings also follow ISO 2022, in a subset stipulated in ISO/IEC 4873.

Japanese e-mail versions

ISO-2022-JP
 is a widely used encoding for Japanese, in particular in e-mail. It was introduced for use on the JUNET network and later codified in IETF RFC 1468, dated 1993. It has an advantage over other encodings for Japanese in that it does not require 8-bit clean transmission. Microsoft calls it Code page 50220. It starts in ASCII and includes the following escape sequences:
 ESC ( B to switch to ASCII (1 byte per character)
 ESC ( J to switch to JIS X 0201-1976 (ISO/IEC 646:JP) Roman set (1 byte per character)
 ESC $ @ to switch to JIS X 0208-1978 (2 bytes per character)
 ESC $ B to switch to JIS X 0208-1983 (2 bytes per character)

Use of the two characters added in JIS X 0208-1990 is permitted, but without including the IRR sequence, i.e. using the same escape sequence as JIS X 0208-1983. Also, due to being registered before designating multi-byte sets except to G0 was possible, the escapes for JIS X 0208 do not include the second -byte .

The RFC notes that some existing systems did not distinguish ESC ( B from ESC ( J, or did not distinguish ESC $ @ from ESC $ B, but stipulates that the escape sequences should not be changed by systems simply relaying messages such as e-mails. The WHATWG Encoding Standard referenced by HTML5 handles ESC ( B and ESC ( J distinctly, but treats ESC $ @ the same as ESC $ B when decoding, and uses only ESC $ B for JIS X 0208 when encoding. The RFC also notes that some past systems had made erroneous use of the sequence ESC ( H to switch away from JIS X 0208, which is actually registered for ISO-IR-11 (a Swedish variant of ISO 646 and World System Teletext).

Versions with halfwidth katakana
Use of ESC ( I to switch to the JIS X 0201-1976 Kana set (1 byte per character) is not part of the ISO-2022-JP profile, but is also sometimes used. Python allows it in a variant which it labels ISO-2022-JP-EXT (which also incorporates JIS X 0212 as described below, completing coverage of EUC-JP); this is close in both name and structure to an encoding denoted ISO-2022-JPext by DEC, which furthermore adds a two-byte user-defined region accessed with ESC $ ( 0 to complete the coverage of Super DEC Kanji. The WHATWG/HTML5 variant permits decoding JIS X 0201 katakana in ISO-2022-JP input, but converts the characters to their JIS X 0208 equivalents upon encoding. Microsoft's code page for ISO-2022-JP with JIS X 0201 kana additionally permitted is Code page 50221.

Other, older variants known as JIS7 and JIS8 build directly on the 7-bit and 8-bit encodings defined by JIS X 0201 and allow use of JIS X 0201 kana from G1 without escape sequences, using Shift Out and Shift In or setting the eighth bit (GR-invoked), respectively. They are not widely used; JIS X 0208 support in extended 8-bit JIS X 0201 is more commonly achieved via Shift JIS. Microsoft's code page for JIS X 0201-based ISO 2022 with single-byte katakana via Shift Out and Shift In is Code page 50222.

ISO-2022-JP-2
 is a multilingual extension of ISO-2022-JP, defined in RFC 1554 (dated 1993), which permits the following escape sequences in addition to the ISO-2022-JP ones. The ISO/IEC 8859 parts are 96-character sets which cannot be designated to G0, and are accessed from G2 using the 7-bit escape sequence form of the single-shift code SS2:
 ESC $ A to switch to GB 2312-1980 (2 bytes per character)
 ESC $ ( C to switch to KS X 1001-1992 (2 bytes per character)
 ESC $ ( D to switch to JIS X 0212-1990 (2 bytes per character)
 ESC . A to switch to ISO/IEC 8859-1 high part, Extended Latin 1 set (1 byte per character) [designated to G2]
 ESC . F to switch to ISO/IEC 8859-7 high part, Basic Greek set (1 byte per character) [designated to G2]

ISO-2022-JP with the ISO-2022-JP-2 representation of JIS X 0212, but not the other extensions, was subsequently dubbed ISO-2022-JP-1 by RFC 2237, dated 1997.

IBM Japanese TCP
IBM implements nine 7-bit ISO 2022 based encodings for Japanese, each using a different set of escape sequences: IBM-956, IBM-957, IBM-958, IBM-959, IBM-5052, IBM-5053, IBM-5054, IBM-5055 and ISO-2022-JP, which are collectively termed "TCP/IP Japanese coded character sets". CCSID 9148 is the standard (RFC 1468) ISO-2022-JP.

JIS X 0213
The JIS X 0213 standard, first published in 2000, defines an updated version of ISO-2022-JP, without the ISO-2022-JP-2 extensions, named ISO-2022-JP-3. The additions made by JIS X 0213 compared to the base JIS X 0208 standard resulted in a new registration being made for the extended JIS plane 1, while the new plane 2 received its own registration. The further additions to plane 1 in the 2004 edition of the standard resulted in an additional registration being added to a further revision of the profile, dubbed ISO-2022-JP-2004. In addition to the basic ISO-2022-JP designation codes, the following designations are recognized:
 ESC ( I to switch to JIS X 0201-1976 Kana set (1 byte per character)
 ESC $ ( O to switch to JIS X 0213-2000 Plane 1 (2 bytes per character)
 ESC $ ( P to switch to JIS X 0213-2000 Plane 2 (2 bytes per character)
 ESC $ ( Q to switch to JIS X 0213-2004 Plane 1 (2 bytes per character, ISO-2022-JP-2004 only)

Other 7-bit versions
 is defined in RFC 1557, dated 1993. It encodes ASCII and the Korean double-byte KS X 1001-1992, previously named KS C 5601-1987. Unlike ISO-2022-JP-2, it makes use of the Shift Out and Shift In characters to switch between them, after including ESC $ ) C once at the start of a line to designate KS X 1001 to G1.

 and ISO-2022-CN-EXT are defined in RFC 1922, dated 1996. They are 7-bit encodings making use both of the Shift Out and Shift In functions (to shift between G0 and G1), and of the 7-bit escape code forms of the single-shift functions SS2 and SS3 (to access G2 and G3). They support the character sets GB 2312 (for simplified Chinese) and CNS 11643 (for traditional Chinese).

The basic ISO-2022-CN profile uses ASCII as its G0 (shift in) set, and also includes GB 2312 and the first two planes of CNS 11643 (due to these two planes being sufficient to represent all traditional Chinese characters from common Big5, to which the RFC provides a correspondence in an appendix):
 ESC $ ) A to switch to GB 2312-1980 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G1]
 ESC $ ) G to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 1 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G1]
 ESC $ * H to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 2 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G2]

The ISO-2022-CN-EXT profile permits the following additional sets and planes.
 ESC $ ) E to switch to ISO-IR-165 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G1]
 ESC $ + I to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 3 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 ESC $ + J to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 4 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 ESC $ + K to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 5 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 ESC $ + L to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 6 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 ESC $ + M to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 7 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]

The ISO-2022-CN-EXT profile further lists additional Guobiao standard graphical sets as being permitted, but conditional on their being assigned registered ISO 2022 escape sequences:
 GB 12345 in G1
 GB 7589 or GB 13131 in G2
 GB 7590 or GB 13132 in G3

The character after the ESC (for single-byte character sets) or ESC $ (for multi-byte character sets) specifies the type of character set and working set that is designated to. In the above examples, the character ( (0x28) designates a 94-character set to the G0 character set, whereas ), * or + (0x29–0x2B) designates to the G1–G3 character sets.

ISO-2022-KR and ISO-2022-CN are used less frequently than ISO-2022-JP, and are sometimes deliberately not supported due to security concerns. Notably, the WHATWG Encoding Standard used by HTML5 maps ISO-2022-KR, ISO-2022-CN and ISO-2022-CN-EXT (as well as HZ-GB-2312) to the "replacement" decoder, which maps all input to the replacement character (�), in order to prevent certain cross-site scripting and related attacks, which utilize a difference in encoding support between the client and server. Although the same security concern (allowing sequences of ASCII bytes to be interpreted differently) also applies to ISO-2022-JP and UTF-16, they could not be given this treatment due to being much more frequently used in deployed content.

ISO/IEC 4873

A subset of ISO 2022 applied to 8-bit single-byte encodings is defined by ISO/IEC 4873, also published by Ecma International as ECMA-43. ISO/IEC 8859 defines 8-bit codes for ISO/IEC 4873 (or ECMA-43) level 1.

ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 defines three levels of encoding:

Level 1, which includes a C0 set, the ASCII G0 set, an optional C1 set and an optional single-byte (94-character or 96-character) G1 set. G0 is invoked over GL, and G1 is invoked over GR. Use of shift functions is not permitted.
Level 2, which includes a (94-character or 96-character) single-byte G2 and/or G3 set in addition to a mandatory G1 set. Only the single-shift functions SS2 and SS3 are permitted (i.e. locking shifts are forbidden), and they invoke over the GL region (including 0x20 and 0x7F in the case of a 96-set). SS2 and SS3 must be available in C1 at 0x8E and 0x8F respectively. This minimal required C1 set for ISO 4873 is registered as ISO-IR-105.
Level 3, which permits the GR locking-shift functions LS1R, LS2R and LS3R in addition to the single shifts, but otherwise has the same restrictions as level 2.

Earlier editions of the standard permitted non-ASCII assignments in the G0 set, provided that the ISO/IEC 646 invariant positions were preserved, that the other positions were assigned to spacing (not combining) characters, that 0x23 was assigned to either £ or #, and that 0x24 was assigned to either $ or ¤. For instance, the 8-bit encoding of JIS X 0201 is compliant with earlier editions. This was subsequently changed to fully specify the ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV / ISO-IR No. 6 set (ASCII).

The use of the ISO/IEC 646 IRV (synchronised with ASCII since 1991) at ISO/IEC 4873 Level 1 with no C1 or G1 set, i.e. using the IRV in an 8-bit environment in which shift codes are not used and the high bit is always zero, is known as ISO 4873 DV, in which DV stands for "Default Version".

In cases where duplicate characters are available in different sets, the current edition of ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 only permits using these characters in the lowest numbered working set which they appear in. For instance, if a character appears in both the G1 set and the G3 set, it must be used from the G1 set. However, use from other sets is noted as having been permitted in earlier editions.

ISO/IEC 8859 defines complete encodings at level 1 of ISO/IEC 4873, and does not allow for use of multiple ISO/IEC 8859 parts together. It stipulates that ISO/IEC 10367 should be used instead for levels 2 and 3 of ISO/IEC 4873. ISO/IEC 10367:1991 includes G0 and G1 sets matching those used by the first 9 parts of ISO/IEC 8859 (i.e. those which existed as of 1991, when it was published), and some supplementary sets.

Character set designation escape sequences are used for identifying or switching between versions during information interchange only if required by a further protocol, in which case the standard requires an ISO/IEC 2022 announcer sequence specifying the ISO/IEC 4873 level, followed by a complete set of escapes specifying the character set designations for C0, C1, G0, G1, G2 and G3 respectively (but omitting G2 and G3 designations for level 1), with an -byte of 0x7E denoting an empty set. Each ISO/IEC 4873 level has its own single ISO/IEC 2022 announcer sequence, which are as follows:

Extended Unix Code

Extended Unix Code (EUC) is an 8-bit variable-width character encoding system used primarily for Japanese, Korean, and simplified Chinese. It is based on ISO 2022, and only character sets which conform to the ISO 2022 structure can have EUC forms. Up to four coded character sets can be represented (in G0, G1, G2 and G3). The G0 set is invoked over GL, the G1 set is invoked over GR, and the G2 and G3 sets are (if present) invoked using the single shifts SS2 and SS3, which are used as CR bytes (i.e. 0x8E and 0x8F respectively) and invoke over GR (not GL). Locking shift codes are not used.

The code assigned to the G0 set is ASCII, or the country's national ISO 646 character set such as KS-Roman (KS X 1003) or JIS-Roman (the lower half of JIS X 0201). Hence, 0x5C (backslash in US-ASCII) is used to represent a Yen sign in some versions of EUC-JP and a Won sign in some versions of EUC-KR.

G1 is used for a 94x94 coded character set represented in two bytes. The EUC-CN form of  and EUC-KR are examples of such two-byte EUC codes. EUC-JP includes characters represented by up to three bytes (i.e. SS3 plus two bytes) whereas a single character in EUC-TW can take up to four bytes (i.e. SS2 plus three bytes).

The EUC code itself does not make use of the announcer or designation sequences from ISO 2022; however, it corresponds to the following sequence of four announcer sequences, with meanings breaking down as follows.

Compound Text (X11)
The X Consortium defined an ISO 2022 profile named Compound Text as an interchange format in 1989. This uses only four control codes:  (), NL (newline, coded as , ),  () and  (in its 8-bit representation ), with the SDS () CSI sequence being used for bidirectional text control. It is an 8-bit code using G0 and G1 for GL and GR, and follows ISO-8859-1 in its initial state. The following F-bytes are used:

For specifying encodings by labels, X11 Compound Text defines five private-use DOCS sequences:  () for variable-length encodings, and  through  for fixed-length encodings using one through four bytes respectively. Rather than using another escape sequence to return to ISO 2022, the two bytes following the initial escape sequence specify the remaining length in bytes, coded in base-128 using bytes . The encoding label is included in ISO 8859-1 before the encoded text, and terminated with  ().

Comparison with other encodings

Advantages
 As ISO/IEC 2022's entire range of graphical character encodings can be invoked over GL, the available glyphs are not significantly limited by an inability to represent GR and C1, such as in a system limited to 7-bit encodings. It accordingly enables the representation of large set of characters in such a system. Generally, this 7-bit compatibility is not really an advantage, except for backwards compatibility with older systems. The vast majority of modern computers use 8 bits for each byte.
 As compared to Unicode, ISO/IEC 2022 sidesteps Han unification by using sequence codes to switch between discrete encodings for different East Asian languages. This avoids the issues associated with unification, such as difficulty supporting multiple CJK languages with their associated character variants in a single document and font.

Disadvantages
 Since ISO/IEC 2022 is a stateful encoding, a program cannot jump in the middle of a block of text to search, insert or delete characters. This makes manipulation of the text very cumbersome and slow when compared to non-stateful encodings. Any jump in the middle of the text may require a backup to the previous escape sequence before the bytes following the escape sequence can be interpreted.
 Due to the stateful nature of ISO/IEC 2022, an identical and equivalent character may be encoded in different character sets, which may be designated to any of G0 through G3, which may be invoked using single shifts or by using locking shifts to GL or GR. Consequently, characters can be represented in multiple ways, meaning that two visually identical and equivalent strings can not be reliably compared for equality.
 Some systems, like DICOM and several e-mail clients, use a variant of ISO-2022 (e.g. "ISO 2022 IR 100") in addition to supporting several other encodings. This type of variation makes it difficult to portably transfer text between computer systems.
 UTF-1, the multi-byte Unicode transformation format compatible with ISO/IEC 2022's representation of 8-bit control characters, has various disadvantages in comparison with UTF-8, and switching from or to other charsets, as supported by ISO/IEC 2022, is typically unnecessary in Unicode documents.
 Because of its escape sequences, it is possible to construct attack byte sequences in which a malicious string (such as cross-site scripting) is masked until it is decoded to Unicode, which may allow it to bypass sanitisation. Use of this encoding is thus treated as suspicious by malware protection suites, and 7-bit ISO 2022 data (except for ISO-2022-JP) is mapped in its entirety to the replacement character in HTML5 to prevent attacks. Restricted ISO 2022 8-bit code versions which do not use designation escapes or locking shift codes, such as Extended Unix Code, do not share this problem.
 Concatenation can pose issues. Profiles such as ISO-2022-JP specify that the stream starts in the ASCII state and must end in the ASCII state. This is necessary to ensure that characters in concatenated ISO-2022-JP and/or ASCII streams will be interpreted in the correct set. This has the consequence that if a stream that ends in a multi-byte character is concatenated with one that starts with a multi-byte character, a pair of escape codes are generated switching to ASCII and immediately away from it. However, as stipulated in Unicode Technical Report #36 ("Unicode Security Considerations"), pairs of ISO 2022 escape sequences with no characters between them should generate a replacement character ("�") to prevent them from being used to mask malicious sequences such as cross-site scripting. Implementing this measure, e.g. in Mozilla Thunderbird, has led to interoperability issues, with unexpected "�" characters being generated where two ISO-2022-JP streams have been concatenated.

See also
 ISO 2709
 ISO/IEC 646
 ISO-IR-102
 C0 and C1 control codes
 CJK
 MARC standards
 Mojibake
 luit
 ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2

Footnotes

References

Standards and registry indices cited

Registered code sets cited

Internet Requests For Comment cited

Other published works cited

Further reading

External links
 ISO/IEC 2022:1994
 ISO/IEC 2022:1994/Cor 1:1999
 ECMA-35, equivalent to ISO/IEC 2022 and freely downloadable.
 International Register of Coded Character Sets to be Used with Escape Sequences, a full list of assigned character sets and their escape sequences
 History of Character Codes in North America, Europe, and East Asia from 1999, rev. 2004
 Ken Lunde's CJK.INF: a document on encoding Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (CJK) languages, including a discussion of the various variants of ISO/IEC 2022.

Character sets
Ecma standards
02022

ISO/IEC 2022


Çakırlar, Tufanbeyli - Adana ili Tufanbeyli ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Çakırlar, Konyaaltı - Antalya ili Konyaaltı ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Çakırlar, Yapraklı - Çankırı ili Yapraklı ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Kargı - Çorum ili Kargı ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Düzce - Düzce ili merkez ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Kemah - Erzincan ili Kemah ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Kelkit - Gümüşhane ili Kelkit ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Bergama - İzmir ili Bergama ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Çakırlar, Tosya - Kastamonu ili Tosya ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Simav - Kütahya ili Simav ilçesine bağlı köy
 Çakırlar, Yatağan - Muğla ili Yatağan ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Çakırlar, Akçakale - Şanlıurfa ili Akçakale ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Çakırlar, Yerköy - Yozgat ili Yerköy ilçesine bağlı köy

Çakırlar


ألفرد يودل  قائد عسكري ألماني (10 مايو 1890 -16 أكتوبر 1946) ولد يودل في بافاريا.

كان معجبًا بنابليون بونابارت، وساعد أدولف هتلر في تقليده. فشل كمستشار عسكري شخصي لهتلر في محاولة إثنائه عن طموحاته الطاغية.

وقّع على استسلام ألمانيا غير المشروط في ريمس عام في 7 مايو 1945م، وكان وقتها رئيسًا لهيئة عمليات القيادة العليا للقوات المسلحة الألمانية، وانتهت بذلك الحرب العالمية الثانية في أوروبا.

حوكم في محكمة نورنبيرغ وأدين باتهامه بارتكاب جرائم حرب ثُم أُعدم. اعلنت براءته غيابيا سنة 1953 بعد إعدامه.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أفراد عسكريون من مملكة بافاريا
أشخاص أعدموا بتهمة جرائم ضد الإنسانية
أشخاص أعدموا من بافاريا
أشخاص أعدموا من قبل المحكمة العسكرية الدولية في نورنبيرغ
أشخاص في عملية أوفرلورد
أشخاص من فورتسبورغ
أشخاص من مملكة بافاريا
أفراد الجيش الألماني في الحرب العالمية الأولى
أفراد الرايخسفير
أفراد عسكريون من فورتسبورغ
ألمان أدينوا بجريمة العدوان الدولية
ألمان في الحرب العالمية الثانية
ألمان مدانون بجرائم ضد الإنسانية
ألمان مسيحيون سابقون
جنرالات فيرماخت
حاصلون على وسام صليب الحرية من الدرجة الأولى
حاصلون على وسام ميشيل الشجاع من الدرجة الثانية
سياسيون ألمان
ضباط ألمانيا النازية
عسكريون ألمان في الحرب العالمية الأولى
قادة الحرب العالمية الثانية
قادة عسكريون ألمان
قادة عسكريون معدومون
قتلة جماعيون معدومون
كاثوليك سابقون
كولونيل عام في الجيش الألماني (فيرماخت)
متقلدو صليب الفارس الحديدي مع أوراق البلوط
متقلدو مشبك الصليب الحديدي من الدرجة الأولى
مرتكبو المحرقة
مواليد 1890
وفيات 1946

ألفرد يودل


وزارة المياه والكهرباء السعودية هي وزارة سعودية سابقة كانت مسؤولة عن الإشراف على توفير وسائل الطاقة بالمملكة العربية السعودية كالمياه والكهرباء . كان الوزير المكلف عبدالرحمن الفضلي هو آخر وزير يشرف على هذه الوزارة، وكان قطاع المياه تابعا لوزارة الزراعة وقطاع الكهرباء تابعا لقطاع الصناعة حتى صدر الأمر الملكي بدمجهما تحت وزارة مستقلة.

نشأة الوزارة
مع بزوغ الفجر الجديد للدولة السعودية الحديثة على يد مؤسسها الملك عبد العزيز، بدأ التطور في كل المجالات ومنها مجالي المياه والكهرباء. فقد أولى الملك عبد العزيز اهتمامه لتوفير سبل الراحة والرفاهية للسكان في كافة أنحاء المملكة، فكانت البداية من مكة المكرمة والمدينة المنورة لتلبية حاجة السكان والوافدين إليهما من حجاج بيت الله الحرام، فأمر يفي عام 1344هـ بتعمير وإصلاح كل من عين زبيدة بمكة المكرمة وعين الزرقاء بالمدينة المنورة، كما وجه عناية المسؤولين في الدولة بتوفير مياه الشرب للحجاج ولأبناء البادية وذلك بحفر الآبار وإنشاء الخزانات وأحواض تجميع مياه السيول على الطرق التي سلكها الحجاج وأبناء البادية في تنقلاتهم.

وفي عام 1348هـ أصدر الملك عبد العزيز أوامره باستيراد جهازين لتكثيف وتقطير مياه البحر المالحة، شكلت نواه أول محطة لتحلية مياه البحر المالحة بالمملكة عرفت باسم (الكنداسة).

كما أدرك الملك عبد العزيز أهمية الكهرباء في المجتمع وتطوره، فأعطى الأولوية لإضاءة الحرمين الشريفين (المسجد الحرام والمسجد النبوي) فكانت الإنطلاقه عام 1327هـ بإضاءة المسجد النبوي الشريف بالمدينة المنورة من مولدين أحدهما يعمل بالفحم والآخر يعمل بالكيروسين، وفي عام 1338هـ تمت إضاءة الحرم المكي الشريف، وفي تاريخ 1/1/1345هـ (1925م) صدرت أول مناقصة لإنارة الحرم الشريف بمبلغ 6 قروش أميري عن كل لمبه، تلا ذلك انطلاق المياه والكهرباء في مدن المملكة مدينة بعد مدينة وقرية بعد قرية وهجرة بعد هجرة، لتبدأ رحلة الحياة معلنة مولد أمة حديثة.

المبادرات

مشروع صفـا ( نظام خدمة العملاء والفواتير )
هو مشروع لربط معاملات خدمات العملاء والفواتير على مستوى مديريات المملكة، وربط قاعدة بيانات العملاء، وبيانات كميات الاستهلاك في أنحاء المملكة، ولقد تم اختيار منتج شركة أوراكل العالمية (CC&B Customer Care & Billing) لما يوفره هذا التطبيق من تحسين لكافة مراحل التعامل مع العملاء وسيطبق على عدة مراحل على مستوى المديريات، بدايةً من مديرية المياه بمنطقة المدينة المنورة، يليها باقي مديريات المملكة.

مشروع شــامل ( تطبيق أنظمة تخطيط الموارد GRP)
شامل هو مشروع تطبيق لأنظمة تخطيط الموارد الحكومية، واختارت الوزارة أنظمة أوراكل (eBusiness Suite) لهذا المشروع. تطبيقات أنظمة أوراكل تحتوي على مجموعة كبيرة من التطبيقات تم اختيار أربعة تطبيقات رئيسية وهي المعنية بالشؤون المالية والإدارية والتي سوف تكون حجر الأساس لتطبيق أنظمة أخرى من أنظمة أوراكل المتعددة في المستقبل.

ومن أهداف المشروع:

 توحيد إجراءات و سياسات العمل.
 نظام واحد متكامل يدمج عمل الإدارات المختلفة.
 تحسين مستوى الأداء والكفاءة لإدارة العمليات.
 تطبيق أفضل الممارسات العالمية وتبسيط إجراءات وسياسات العمل الحالية.

وزراء المياه والكهرباء منذ تأسيسها

وصلات خارجية
الموقع الرسمي للشركة السعودية للكهرباء

مصادر

انحلالات في عهد الملك سلمان بن عبد العزيز
وزارات الماء
وزارات سعودية سابقة

وزارة المياه والكهرباء (السعودية)


Jacob Claus Andreas Carl Albert Næser (født 10. september 1841 i København, død 25. marts 1913 sammesteds) var en dansk grosserer, kaptajn og etatsråd.

Næser var søn af kaptajn i Søetaten August Næser og Wincentine f. Schønberg. Han blev handelsuddannet og fik ansættelse som prokurist hos sin svoger, grosserer August Liebmann. Han deltog i den 2. Slesvigske Krig i 1864, hvor han udmærkede sig som officer, særligt under Stormen 18. april.

Ved sin hjemkomst var Næser en respekteret militærmand, som ofte var omtalt i pressen som usædvanlig heltemodig. Han gjorde indtog i det københavnske selskabsliv og giftede sig i 1873 med Hedevig Carla f. Berling, datter af avisudgiver Carl Berling. Ved dette ægtskab blev han medejer af Berlingske Tidende og tilegnede sig derved en større formue. Han ejede bl.a. Lindencrones Palæ, hvor han i flere år samlede det københavnske bourgeoisi. Nok overtog Næser sin svogers forretning, men hans sociale status var dog væsentligst betinget af hans officerskarriere og hans giftermål. Han blev siden udnævnt kaptajn og etatsråd.

Næser var en kendt skikkelse i de københavnske gader, hvor han til sin død spadserede gennem Strøget med sin nystrøgne silkehat. Han levede sine sidste år en tilbagetrukket tilværelse, bl.a. i sin sommervilla i Ordrup. Han døde 25. marts 1913 efter længere tids svagelighed. Han fik to sønner, præsten Carl Næser og lægen Vincent Næser med sin hustru.

Kilder
 Berlingske Tidende 26. marts 1913

Referencer

Danskere i 1800-tallet
Danskere i 1900-tallet
Personer fra København
Grosserere fra Danmark
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog (afdøde)
Etatsråder fra Danmark
Officerer fra Danmark
Medlemmer af Komiteen til Raadhusets kunstneriske Udsmykning

Albert Næser


Gašpar Stankovački (?, oko 1555. - ?, 30. lipnja  1596.), zagrebački biskup (1588. – 1596.) i hrvatski ban (1595. – 1596.), porijeklom iz plemićke obitelji.

Godine 1585. postao je prepoštom zagrebačkog Kaptola, a tri godine kasnije imenovan je za biskupa. Brinuo se za obnovu zagrebačke katedrale koja je stradala u građanskom ratu za vrijeme biskupa Šimuna Erdődyja.

Krajem 1595. imenovan je hrvatskim banom, u službu je uveden 11. siječnja 1596. godine, a umro je već u ljeto iste godine.

Bilješke

Vanjske poveznice

 Gašar Stankovački - zg-nadbiskupija.hr

 Hrvatski biskupi
Hrvatski banovi
Zagrebački biskupi i nadbiskupi

Gašpar Stankovački


{{Infookvir album
|ime_albuma     = Chemical Invasion
|ime_glazbenika = Tankard
|vrsta          = studijski album
|s_albuma       =
|slika          = Tankard - Chemical Invasion.jpeg
|žanr           = thrash metal
|datum          = listopad 1987.
|snimanje       = lipanj - kolovoz 1987.
|studio         = Musiclab Studio (Berlin, Njemačka)
|trajanje       = 39:21
|izdavač        = Noise
|producent      = Harris Johns
|recenzija      = <ul>AllMusic
|kronologija    =
|album_prije    = Zombie Attack
|godina0        = 1986.
|godina         = 1987.
|album_poslije  = The Morning After
|godina2        = 1988.
|ostalo         =
}}

Chemical Invasion drugi je studijski album njemačkog thrash metal sastava Tankard. Album je objavljen u listopadu 1987. godine, a objavila ga je diskografska kuća Noise Records.

Popis pjesama

Osoblje
Tankard
Andreas "Gerre" Geremia — vokali
Frank Thorwarth — bas-gitara
Axel Katzmann — gitara
Andy Boulgaropoulos — gitara
Oliver Werner — bubnjevi
Ostalo osoblje
Harris Johns — produciranje, miksanje
Sebastian Krüger — omot albuma
Axel Katzmann — miksanje
Buffo Schnädelbach — fotografija

Izvori

Albumi iz 1987.
Albumi sastava Tankard

Chemical Invasion


Le groupe des muscles semi-épineux (ou muscles demi-épineux selon l'ancienne terminologie) comprend  trois muscles appartenant au groupe des muscles transversaires épineux :

 Le muscle semi-épineux de la tête
 Le muscle semi-épineux du cou
 Le muscle semi-épineux du thorax.

Muscle semi-épineux de la tête
Voir l'article détaillé.

Muscle semi-épineux du cou

Description

Origine
Le muscle semi-épineux du cou (ou muscle demi-épineux de la nuque selon l'ancienne terminologie) s'insère par une série de fibres musculo-tendineuses sur les apophyses transverses des 5 ou 6 premières vertèbres thoraciques.

Trajet
Le muscle semi-épineux du cou est plus épais que le muscle semi-épineux du thorax.

Terminaison
Il se termine par des fibres musculo-tendineuses sur les apophyses épineuses de  toutes les vertèbres cervicales.

Le faisceau relié à l'atlas étant le plus long est principalement musculaire.

Rapports

Innervation
Il est innervé par des rameaux des branches postérieures des nerfs spinaux.

Vascularisation

Action
Par contraction bilatérale : extension de la colonne cervicale.

Par contraction mono latérale :  inclinaison homolatérale de la colonne cervicale.

Muscle semi-épineux du thorax

Description

Origine
Le muscle semi-épineux du thorax (ou muscle demi-épineux du dos selon l'ancienne terminologie) naît d'une série de petits tendons sur les apophyses transverses de la sixième à la dixième vertèbre thoracique

Trajet
Le muscle semi-épineux du thorax est constitué de faisceaux musculaires minces et étroits intercalés entre des tendons très longs.

Terminaison
Il se termine par des tendons sur les apophyses épineuses des quatre vertèbres thoraciques supérieures et des deux vertèbres cervicales inférieures.

Rapports

Innervation
Il est innervé par des rameaux des branches postérieures des nerfs spinaux.

Vascularisation

Action
Par contraction bilatérale : extension de la colonne thoracique.

Par contraction mono latérale :  inclinaison homolatérale de la colonne thoracique.

Galerie

Références

semi-épineux
semi-épineux
semi-épineux

Muscle semi-épineux


Les régions de bien-être (, ) sont un organisme public, indépendant des municipalités et du Gouvernement, chargé des services sociaux, de santé et de secours d'urgence en Finlande.

Présentation
Le 23 juin 2021, le Parlement a adopté le projet de loi de réforme sociale et de santé.
Selon la loi concernant la mise en œuvre de la réforme, les tâches et la responsabilité organisationnelle des services sociaux et de santé et de secours sont transférées des municipalités aux régions de bien-être au  janvier 2023.

Administration
L'organe décisionnel le plus élevé de la région de bien-être est le conseil régional qui est responsable du fonctionnement, de l'administration et des finances des services de bien-être.
Les délégués et commissaires adjoints du conseil de comté sont élus lors des élections des régions du bien-être pour un mandat de quatre ans.
Le nombre de délégués est de 59 à 89, selon la population de la région du bien-être.
Sur la base des données démographiques d'août 2021, les nombres de délégués à élire aux élections régionales finlandaises de 2022 sont :
 59 conseillers : régions du bien-être d'Ostrobotnie centrale, Kainuu, Uusimaa de l'Est, Carélie du Sud, Savonie du Sud, Vallée de la Kymi, Carélie du Nord, Kanta-Häme, Ostrobotnie, Laponie et Ostrobotnie du Sud.
 69 conseillers: régions du bien-être d'Uusimaa central, Päijät-Häme, Satakunta, Savonie du Nord, Finlande centrale et Vantaa–Kerava.
 79 conseillers: régions du bien-être d'Ostrobotnie du Nord, Uusimaa de l'Ouest, Finlande-propre et Pirkanmaa.

Les premières élections des conseillers des régions des services de bien-être ont eu lieu le 23 janvier 2022.

Transferts patrimoniaux

Le patrimoine des services sociaux, de santé et de secours des communes et groupements de communes est transféré et devient la propriété des régions de services de bien-être selon les principes suivants :
 Les actifs et passifs des districts hospitaliers et des districts de soins spéciaux des associations de communes sont transférés aux régions de services de bien-être conformément à la loi.
 Les biens mobiliers, les contrats et les dettes et autres engagements des services sociaux et sanitaires et de secours des communes et groupements de communes sont transférés aux régions de services de bien-être sans indemnisation.
 Les régions de services de bien-être louent les locaux médico-sociaux et de secours restant la propriété des communes pour une durée transitoire de trois ans (+1 année optionnelle).
 L'actif, le passif, et les obligations des services sociaux, de santé et de secours de la ville d'Helsinki restent la propriété de la ville d'Helsinki. Les actifs du District hospitalier d'Helsinki et de l'Uusimaa (HUS) sont transférés au Groupe HUS.

Financement des régions
Les activités des services de bien-être sont principalement financées par des fonds publics et aussi par les paiements des usagers.
Le niveau de départ du financement par l'État en 2023 est basé sur la moyenne des comptes annuels de 2021 et des budgets 2022 des services sociaux municipaux et des services de secours.
Les coûts seront ramenés aux niveaux de 2022. Le montant total du financement sera revu annuellement en tenant compte de l'augmentation estimée du besoin de services, de l'évolution estimée du niveau des coûts et de l'évolution de l'étendue et de la qualité des actions pour lesquelles les espaces sociaux sont organisés.

Les régions de bien-être ont le droit de décider de l'utilisation et de l'attribution des fonds en toute autonomie.
L'orientation du gouvernement (ministère des Affaires sociales et de la Santé), qui finance les activités, est mise en œuvre dans le cadre du processus annuel d'orientation et d'évaluation entre le ministère et le secteur de l'aide sociale.

Liste des régions de bien-être
Selon la loi sur la mise en œuvre et l'application de la réforme des services sociaux et de santé et de secours, les 21 zones de protection sociale suivantes sont créées en Finlande à compter du  juillet 2021.
La ville d'Helsinki et la province d'Åland ont la responsabilité d'organiser les services sociaux et de santé et de secours sur leurs territoires respectifs.

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Élections régionales finlandaises de 2022
 Administration territoriale de la Finlande
 Régions de Finlande

Liens externes

 Soteuudistus

Région de services de bien-être en Finlande

Régions de bien-être en Finlande


A madrugada é o período do dia que vai entre 0:00 (meia-noite) até (amanhecer), situando-se entre a noite e a manhã.

Partes de um dia

Madrugada


Turnul cu ceas din Botevgrad, construit în 1866, este unul din simbolurile orașului și unul din cele . Clopotele ceasului sună la fiecare oră fixă, numărul de bătăi corespunzând orei.

Istorie

Construcția turnului a fost parte a unui proiect de construcții pe scară largă în 1866, cu ocazia recunoașterii satului Samundjievo ca oraș și centru raional, la propunerea lui . Arhitectul general a fost  din Vraceș. Mecanismul ceasului a fost realizat de fierarul Gencho Nakov, locuitor al orașului, iar clopotul a fost confecționat de maistrul Lazar Dimitrov din Bansko.

Inițial, partea de sus a turnului era decorată cu o "căsuță de lemn" și o figurină turcească, care la oră fixă ieșea din căsuță și se "închina". După  față de Imperiul Otoman, simbolul turcesc a fost dat jos și incendiat.

În 1924, lângă turn a fost construit un centru comunitar. După o jumătate de secol, centrul comunitar a fost demolat, conform planului de restaurare a turnului, iar in locul său a fost plantat un arbore de duglas (Pseudotsuga). Copacul a crescut aproape până la înălțimea turnului și este, tradițional, decorat de Crăciun. Fiind amplasat destul de aproape de turn, arborele, în opinia unor specialiști, amenință cu rădăcinile sale structura clădirii.

De-a lungul timpului, monumentul de arhitectură a suferit o mulțime de construcții, reparații, măsuri de conservare și restaurare, menite să conserve aspectul clădirii și stilul caracteristic epocii renașterii bulgare.

Turnul este unul dintre cele . Ștampila pentru acest obiect se află în muzeul de istorie.

Descriere

Turnul cu ceas este unul dintre puținele monumente de arhitectură ale Botevgradului care datează din anii renașterii bulgare (începutul secolului al XX-lea). Este situat în centrul orașului și închide perspectivele tuturor străzilor care duc spre el.

Arhitectură
Înălțimea turnului este de 30 m, astfel acesta este cel mai înalt turn cu ceas din Bulgaria. Caracteristici distinctive sunt elementele baroc și frescele albastre care decorează cornișele ondulate. Arhitectura amintește de casele din Plovdiv și Koprivștița, cu unele elemente orientale. Partea de jos a turnului, în formă de pătrat, este zidită din piatră și are o înălțime de 11 m. O ușă conduce în interior, către scările din interior. Partea de sus este reprezentată de două prisme hexagonale: cea inferioară cu laturi ondulate, cea superioară cu laturi drepte și cu bază mai mică. În cea din urmă este montat ceasul.

La construcție au fost folosite pietre de la carierele de lângă Bojenița și lemn din zona Vraceș. În 1870, pe vârful turnului a fost instalată o giruetă.

Ceasul
De la baza turnului până la mecanismul ceasului conduc niște scări de lemn, construite în spirală.

Mecanismul original al ceasului a fost confecționat de Gencho Nakov "Kantardjiata" și este expus la Muzeul de Istorie din Botevgrad. Mecanismul curent a fost făcut de unul din meșterii muzeului . Ceasul bate la oră fixă, anunțând ora prin numărul de bătăi de clopot. Bătaia clopotelor se aude la o distanță de 3 km.

Galerie de imagini

Exterior

Interior

Note

Legături externe

Clădiri și structuri din Bulgaria
Clădiri și structuri din 1866
Turnuri din Bulgaria

Turnul cu ceas din Botevgrad


Andressa Alves da Silva (født 10. november 1992), mest kendt som Andressa Alves, er en brasiliansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for FC Barcelona i Primera Division og for Brasilien.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Profil hos TheFinalBall.com
 Profil hos Montpellier HSC
 Andressa Alves  – 2015 Pan American Games profil

Kvindelige fodboldlandsholdsspillere fra Brasilien
Fodboldspillere fra FC Barcelona Femení
Fodboldspillere fra Montpellier HSC (kvinder)

Andressa Alves


Jeane Manson (d. 1 Ekim 1950) Cleveland, Ohio, ABD doğumlu, Amerikalı ancak Fransa'ya yerleşmiş şarkıcı. Asıl adı "John" olmakla birlikte erkek olarak karıştırılmasın diye "Jeane" olarak değiştirmiştir.

Babası yazar, annesi ressam ve şarkıcı olan sanatçı Meksika'da büyümüştür. Sanatçı Kaliforniya'daki Orange Coast College'da müzik eğitimi, Lee Strasberg's Actor's Studio'da da drama eğitimi almıştır.

1970'lerin popüler olan Jeane Manson, Ağustos 1974'te Playboy için poz verip playmate olmuştur. Eurovizyon sunuculuğundan sonra Türkiye'yi ziyaretinde Türk Playboy'u için de poz vermiştir.

1979'da Lüksemburg adına Eurovizyon şarkı yarışmasına katılan Jeane Manson "J'ai Déjà Vu Ça Dans Tes Yeux" adlı şarkı ile 13. olmuştur.

Diskografi

Filmleri
 Young Nurses (1973)
 Dirty O'Neil (1974)
 The Terror Circus (1974)
 Bons baisers de Hong Kong (1975) (Love & Kisses From Hong Kong)
 Acrobate, L' (1976) (The Acrobat)

Dış bağlantılar
 Resmi sayfası ve (Fransızca)
 IMDB sayfası

1950 doğumlular
Cleveland, Ohio doğumlu müzisyenler
Amerikalı kadın şarkıcılar
Yaşayan insanlar

Jeane Manson


An Gomesa itapetingensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Vitorino Paiva Castro ngan Guy Robert Chiron, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mark W. Chase och Norris Hagan Williams. An Gomesa itapetingensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Gomesa, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Gomesa

Gomesa itapetingensis


12926 Brianmason este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
12926 Brianmason este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Takapuna de J. L. Schiff și C. J. Schiff. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,69 ua, o excentricitate de 0,22 și o înclinație de 8,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 12001-13000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

12926 Brianmason


Conservação de metadados refere-se às políticas de dados para atentar aos requisitos legais de arquivo de metadados.

As diferentes políticas sobre a conservação de metadados focam-se nas preocupações legais quanto às garantias de privacidade digital, regulando quem tem acesso aos metadados, o tempo de conservação e as regras de armazenamento.

União Europeia
A 15 de Março de 2006 a União Europeia adoptou a Directiva de Retenção de Metadados.

Esta directiva tinha uma prazo de transposição para a legislação dos Estados-membros da União Europeia de 18 meses, com 18 meses adicionais para a transposição de algumas das partes.

Em Abril de 2011 a Comissão Europeia publicou um relatório a avaliar a directiva, que levanta preocupações graves sobre os custos de conformidade e sobre a infracção ao direito fundamental à privacidade e à protecção de dados pessoais de acordo com a legislação Europeia. Em resposta ao relatório, a Autoridade Europeia para a Proteção de Dados expressou algumas preocupações sobre a directiva, sublinhando que ela não cumpria os requisitos impostos pelos direitos fundamentais à privacidade e à protecção de dados.

As críticas levaram a que a directiva fosse levada ao Tribunal Irlandês, que depois o levou ao Tribunal de Justiça da União Europeia. O Tribunal Constitucional Austríaco juntou-se ao caso, que culminou com o tribunal a declarar a 8 de Abril de 2014 a Directiva 2006–24/EC inválida por violar direitos fundamentais.

Metadados
Privacidade da informação

Conservação de metadados


Steve Bales (né le 7 octobre 1942) est un ancien ingénieur et contrôleur de vol de la NASA. Il est surtout connu pour son rôle lors de l'alunissage d'Apollo 11.

Jeunesse
Bales est né à Ottumwa, Iowa, et a grandi dans la ville voisine de Fremont. Son père était concierge d'école et sa mère esthéticienne. Dès son plus jeune âge, il s'est intéressé à l'espace et à l'âge de 13 ans, il a été profondément touché par une émission télévisée Le Monde merveilleux de Disney qui parlait de l'avenir des voyages dans l'espace. "Cette émission", a-t-il dit plus tard, "probablement plus que toute autre chose, m'a poussé à étudier l'ingénierie aérospatiale. Et ce n'était pas la chose ordinaire à faire pour un garçon élevé dans une petite communauté agricole de l'Iowa."

Il est diplômé de l'Université d'État de l'Iowa avec un Bachelor en génie aéronautique et a été embauché par la NASA en décembre 1964.

Carrière à la NASA
À la NASA, il a été affecté à la branche Flight Dynamics en tant qu'officier d'orientation, un contrôleur de vol chargé de déterminer l'emplacement de l'engin spatial dans l'espace et de surveiller les systèmes de guidage à bord. Il était contrôleur suppléant pour Gemini 3 et Gemini 4 et a effectué sa première mission en tant que contrôleur de vol sur Gemini 10 alors qu'il n'avait que vingt-trois ans.

Apollo 11
Bales est surtout connu pour avoir été officier de guidage (ou GUIDO) lors de l'atterrissage lunaire d'Apollo 11 alors qu'il avait la responsabilité de traiter plusieurs problèmes qui auraient pu mettre fin à la mission. Alors qu'il surveillait la position et la vitesse du module lunaire, il a failli avorter la mission lorsqu'il est devenu clair qu'une erreur de navigation s'était produite. Le vaisseau spatial se déplaçait à /s plus rapide qu'il n'aurait dû l'être et était à mi-chemin de ses limites d'abandon. Cependant, Bales a continué à surveiller les données et la situation est restée stable.

Les dernières minutes de l'atterrissage ont été ponctuées par des alarmes de programme provenant du calculateur de guidage. Ces alarmes signalaient un "dépassement de capacité", ce qui signifiait que l'ordinateur pouvait ne pas être en mesure d'assurer ses tâches informatiques. Bales a dû déterminer très rapidement si cela était grave. Si les tâches informatiques hautement prioritaires n'étaient effectivement pas accomplies, il devait demander l'annulation de l'alunissage. Après plusieurs secondes, il a informé le directeur de vol Gene Kranz que l'alunissage pouvait se poursuivre malgré les alarmes.

Alors que Bales est parfois crédité d'avoir pris la décision par lui-même, comme tous les contrôleurs de vol, il était soutenu par une équipe d'ingénieurs « en coulisses ». Le spécialiste en informatique de 24 ans, Jack Garman, a d'abord reconnu la signification de l'alarme et a déterminé que la situation était acceptable. Comme Bales l'a dit plus tard, « Très franchement, Jack, qui avait mémorisé ces choses, a dit "ça va", avant même que je puisse me rappeler dans quel groupe il se trouvait. » La décision finale d'appeler ou non un abandon (ou dans le jargon JSC, « ne pas déclencher les alarmes ») incombe entièrement à Bales, ainsi que la responsabilité en cas de problème.

La décision de Bales en tant que GUIDO de poursuivre l'atterrissage était appropriée et Apollo 11 a atterri en toute sécurité. Lorsque le président Richard Nixon a décerné la médaille présidentielle de la liberté aux trois astronautes d'Apollo 11, Bales a également été honoré d'avoir été choisi pour accepter un prix d'excellence du groupe de la NASA au nom de l'ensemble de l'équipe des opérations de la mission. Nixon a dit à l'époque : "C'est le jeune homme, quand les ordinateurs semblaient confus et quand il aurait pu dire Stop, ou quand il aurait pu dire Attendez, a dit, Go."

Carrière ultérieure
Bales a ensuite eu une longue carrière à la NASA et est finalement devenu directeur adjoint des opérations au Centre spatial Lyndon B. Johnson. En 1996, il quitte la NASA et prend un poste chez Amspec Chemical dans le New Jersey.

Au cinéma
Bales a été joué par Andy Milder dans la mini-série HBO De la Terre à la Lune en 1998. Il a également été interviewé dans le documentaire History Channel Failure Is Not an Option, le documentaire Nova To the Moon et le podcast BBC World Service 13 Minutes To The Moon.

Références

Bibliographie

Liens externes

 Console audio d'Apollo 11 Landing

Étudiant de l'université d'État de l'Iowa
Naissance en octobre 1942

Steve Bales


المكتبة الرقمية العالمية  مكتبة رقمية التي أنشئت بدعم منظمة الأمم المتحدة للتربية والعلم والثقافة بالتعاون مع مكتبة الكونغرس الأمريكي.
أعلنت المكتبة أن مهمتها هي تعزيز التفاهم الدولي والتعليم لتبادل الثقافات بواسطة الإنترنت.

تاريخ الإنشاء

كان جيمس بيلنجتون مدير مكتبة الكونغرس، قد اقترح في عام 2005 إنشاء مكتبة رقمية عالمية مسترعيا الانتباه إلى أن مشروعا كهذا «يعود بالنفع على الشعوب حيث يُعلي شأن الثقافات المختلفة بعمقها وتفرّدها من خلال مشروع عالمي واحد». وقد تم تبني الفكرة عقب طرحها بشكل رسمي في منظمة اليونسكو عام 2006، لينضم إلى المشروع شركاء دوليون؛ من بينهم: اليونسكو، والاتحاد الدولي لجمعيات المكتبات (IFLA)، بالإضافة إلى عدد من المكتبات الكبرى في قارات آسيا وأوروبا وأفريقيا والأمريكيتين.

اللغات

تم عرض المكتبة بسبعة لغات وهي:
 اللغة العربية
 اللغة الإسبانية
 اللغة الإنجليزية
 اللغة البرتغالية
 اللغة الروسية
 اللغة الصينية
 اللغة الفرنسية

مواصفات المكتبة

بيانات تعريفية متسقة
كل مادة في المكتبة توصف بمعلومات تعريفية متسقة تخص مكان وزمان وموضوع المادة، ويساعد هذا على كشف أي صِلات بين المواد المختلفة، وتحسِّن بيانات التعريف قدرة محركات البحث الخارجية على العثور على المادة المطلوبة.

لمحات تعريفية مرفقة
توفر المكتبة لمحة تعريفية عن كل مادة تشرح فيها ماهية المادة وسبب أهميتها، وهي طريقة مصممة لإثارة الفضول.

لغات متعددة
توفر المكتبة الرقمية العالمية بياناتها مترجمة إلى سبع لغات: العربية، والصينية، والإنجليزية، والفرنسية، والبرتغالية، والروسية والإسبانية.

الشركاء

Partners in the World Digital Library project include:

 مكتبة الإسكندرية الجديدة
 مكتبة جامعة براون
 مركز دراسات التاريخ المكسيكي
 المركز الوطني للوثائق والمحفوظات
 مؤسسة قطر للتربية والعلوم وتنمية المجتمع
 مكتبة كولومبوس التذكارية
 دار الكتب والوثائق القومية
 المعهد الوطني لعلم الإنسان والتاريخ
 الاتحاد الدولي لجمعيات ومؤسسات المكتبات
 دار الكتب والوثائق الوطنية
 جون كارتر مكتبة براون
 المكتبة الوطنية الإسبانية
 جامعة الملك عبد الله للعلوم والتقنية
 مكتبة الكونغرس
 مكتبة ولاية جنوب أستراليا
 مكتبة ماما حيدرة التذكارية
 هيئة أبوظبي للثقافة والتراث
 إدارة الأرشيف والوثائق الوطنية
 المكتبة المركزية الوطنية
 مكتبة البرلمان الوطني
 مكتبة البرازيل الوطنية
 مكتبة ويلز الوطنية
 المكتبة الوطنية الصينية
 المكتبة الوطنية الفرنسية
 مكتبة إسرائيل الوطنية
 مكتبة روسيا الوطنية
 مكتبة صربيا الوطنية
 المكتبة الوطنية السويدية
 مكتبة أوغندا الوطنية
 المعهد الملكي لدراسات جنوب شرق آسيا والكاريبي
 المكتبة الوطنية الروسية
 جمعية تطوان أسمير
 المكتبة الجامعية في براتيسلافا
 مكتبة جامعة بريتوريا
 مكتبة برلين الحكومية
 مكتبة ويلكوم
 مكتبة جامعة ييل
 مكتبة بوريس يلتسين الرئاسية
 مكتبة مقاطعه بافاريا
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 المكتبة الوطنية في هولندا
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 موقع المكتبة الرقمية العالمية العربي
 اليونسكو تطلق أكبر مكتبة رقمية عالمية بسبع لغات - الجزيرة الوثائقية

اليونسكو
مكتبة الكونغرس
مواقع ويب أسست في 2009
موسوعات

المكتبة الرقمية العالمية


Valerie Anne Poxleitner alias Lights (* 11. April 1987 in Timmins, Ontario) ist eine kanadische Musikerin.

Leben
Poxleitner wurde im kanadischen Timmins geboren. Da ihre Eltern oft umzogen, verbrachte sie ihre Schulzeit unter anderem auf den Philippinen und in Jamaica. Die Familie kehrte 1997 nach Kanada zurück. Poxleitner wandte sich dann der Musik zu und schrieb bald erste Musikstücke. Im Alter von 18 Jahren zog sie zuhause aus und ließ sich in Toronto nieder. Mehrere ihrer Musikstücke, darunter February Air wurden von der kanadischen Einzelhandelskette Old Navy für eine Werbekampagne genutzt.

Im April 2008 erschien ihre erste selbstbetitelte EP Lights, die Platz 3 des MuchMusic Countdowns erreichte. Die Nachfolgesingle Drive My Soul erreichte dann Platz 1 bei MuchMusic. Die Single gewann mehrere Preise. Es folgte eine erste Tournee durch Kanada, die USA und Großbritannien.

2009 erschien das Debütalbum The Listening, das Mitte November 2011 in Kanada mit einer Goldenen Schallplatte ausgezeichnet wurde. Am 4. Oktober 2011 veröffentlichte Lights ihr zweites Studioalbum Siberia, für das sie mit der Gruppe Holy Fuck und Rapper Shad zusammengearbeitet hatte. Lights nahm 2010 die Lieder Don't Go und Crucify Me mit der britischen Band Bring Me the Horizon und ebenso 2013 mit der amerikanischen Band Blessthefall den Song Open Water auf. Siberia wurde ebenfalls mit einer Goldenen Schallplatte ausgezeichnet.

Am 12. Mai 2012 heiratete Lights Beau Bokan, Sänger der Band Blessthefall. Beide hatten sich auf einem Konzert der Gruppe Taking Back Sunday kennengelernt. Am 15. Februar 2014 brachte sie ihr erstes Kind zur Welt.

Diskografie

Alben
 2009: The Listening
 2011: Siberia
 2013: Siberia Acoustic
 2014: Little Machines
 2016: Midnight Machines
 2017: Skin and Earth
 2019: Skin and Earth Acoustic
 2022: Pep

EPs
 2008: Lights
 2010: Acoustic
 2012: Siberia (Remixed)
 2012: iTunes Session

Kompilationen
 2013: Siberia Acoustic

Singles
 2008: Drive My Soul (CA: )
 2009: Saviour (CA: )
 2009: Every Day (mit Ten Second Epic)
 2009: The Listening
 2009: Ice
 2010: Second Go
 2010: My Boots
 2010: Wavin' Flag (mit Young Artists for Haiti)
 2011: Everybody Breaks a Glass
 2011: Toes
 2012: Banner
 2012: Where the Fence Is Low
 2012: True Colors (mit Artists Against Bullying)
 2013: Cactus in the Valley (feat. Owl City)
 2013: Up We Go (CA: )
 2013: No One Knows Who We Are (mit Kaskade & Swanky Tunes)
 2015: Running with the Boys
 2015: Zero Gravity (mit Borgeous)
 2017: Giants
 2017: Skydiving
 2018: Drama Free (mit Deadmau5)
 2019: Amateurs (mit Sleepy Tom)
 2019: Love Me (mit Felix Cartal)
 2019: Happy Xmas (War Is Over)

Auszeichnungen und Nominierungen
 2009: Juno-Award: "New Artist of the Year"
 2012: Nominiert für den Juno-Award: "Pop album of the Year" für Siberia
 2015: Juno Award: "Pop album of the Year" für Little Machines
 2018: Juno Award: "Pop album of the Year" für Skin & Earth
 2020: Juno Award: "Dance Recording of the Year" für Love Me (mit Felix Cartal)

Quellen

Weblinks

 Offizielle Website
 Lights bei YouTube

Popmusiker
Kanadier
Geboren 1987
Frau

Lights (Musikerin)


Koordinacija hrvatskih i katoličkih udruga s područja Tuzlanske županije je koordinacija udruga iz BiH, udruga Hrvata i katolika.

Koordinacija djeluje od 2005. godine. Okuplja mnoge istaknute Hrvate katolike iz Tuzlanske županije. Svrha ove koordinacije je promicanje ustavom zajamčenih prava, zajedničkih interesa i ciljeva hrvatskog naroda s područja Tuzlanske županije. Premda je u naslovu hrvatska i katolička, ne zanemaruje interese ni i prava ostalih građana koji se nalaze na području te županije. Udruga je osnovana zato što osnivači smatraju da osobe koje su na pozicijama po svojoj savjesti i svijesti trebaju pomoći onome tko je obespravljen. Članovi kroz ovu koordinaciju pokušavaju zajednički pomoći ljudima koji žive na prostoru te županije u kojoj živi oko 25.000 Hrvata katolika.

Koordinaciju čine: Tuzlanski dekanat, Franjevački samostan sv. apostola Petra i Pavla Tuzla, KŠC Sv. Franjo Tuzla, Udruga obitelji poginulih i nestalih u Domovinskom ratu HVO Soli, HVIDRA, Udruga veterana i dragovoljaca HVO Soli, HKD Napredak podružnice Tuzla, Lukavac, Živinice i Gradačac, Društvo Hrvatski dom Tuzla, Udruga Hrvatska žena, NK Zrinjski Husino, Kuglaški klub Zrinjski Ljubače, Radio postaja Soli, Hrvatski teatar Soli, HKD Ljubače, ŽO HDZ BiH Soli Tuzla, ŽO NHI Tuzla, HKDU Tuzla i Hrvatsko novinsko društvo Tuzla.

Izvori

Kultura Hrvata Bosne i Hercegovine
Tuzlanska županija


Alburgh ist der Name mehrerer Orte:

 Alburgh (Norfolk), Vereinigtes Königreich
 Alburgh (Vermont), USA

Siehe auch:
 Alburg (Begriffsklärung)

Alburgh


An Eriocaulon obtriangulare in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Kimp.. An Eriocaulon obtriangulare in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eriocaulon, ngan familia nga Eriocaulaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ivory Coast. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eriocaulon

Eriocaulon obtriangulare


Óscar Luis Celada (Luarca, Asturias, España, 9 de marzo de 1966) es un exfutbolista y médico deportivo español.

Trayectoria
Llegó a la Escuela de fútbol de Mareo en 1985 procedente del Luarca C. F. y debutó con el Real Sporting de Gijón en la segunda vuelta de la temporada 1988-89, tras regresar de una cesión en el U. P. Langreo durante la primera parte de la campaña. Disputó quince partidos y consiguió dos goles. En el club asturiano permaneció cinco años más, convirtiéndose en un jugador importante y con un buen número de participaciones en cada temporada.

En el verano de 1994 llegó con la carta de libertad al Real Zaragoza. Participó en diecinueve encuentros de Liga y conquistó el que fue su mayor logro como jugador: la Recopa de Europa que el club maño ganó al Arsenal F. C. Óscar permaneció en el Zaragoza durante la campaña 1995-96 como titular, pero en la 1996-97 perdió protagonismo, al disputar sólo nueve partidos a lo largo de todo el campeonato.

Para el ejercicio 1997-98 recaló en la U. D. Las Palmas, en Segunda División. Especialmente destacados fueron sus datos en ese año, pues disputó treinta y siete partidos en los que anotó tres goles. Siguió en el equipo amarillo otra campaña más. Su último club como profesional fue el Universidad de Las Palmas C. F., con el que obtuvo el ascenso a Segunda División en junio de 2000; sin embargo, en la campaña siguiente, previa a su retirada, no pudo contribuir a mantener la categoría.

Tras su retirada
Licenciado en Medicina y Cirugía, y especialista en Traumatología del Deporte, ejerció como colaborador en la Real Federación Española de Atletismo. Posteriormente, fue también becario del Consejo Superior de Deportes y trabajó en el equipo del doctor Guillén en la clínica Cemtro de Madrid.

En junio de 2008 llegó al Real Zaragoza para trabajar a las órdenes del doctor Villanueva como médico de la primera plantilla. Unos meses después, y gracias a la mediación de Fernando Hierro, se incorporó a la RFEF como médico de la selección, actuando como máximo responsable en esta parcela durante la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 2010. El 22 de septiembre de 2014 concluyó su vinculación con el Real Zaragoza. El 7 de julio de 2017 se anunció su contratación por el Club Atlético de Madrid para el cargo de médico del primer equipo.

Clubes

Palmarés

Copas internacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Nacidos en Luarca
Futbolistas de Asturias
Futbolistas del Real Sporting de Gijón "B"
Futbolistas del Unión Popular de Langreo
Futbolistas del Real Sporting de Gijón en los años 1980
Futbolistas del Real Sporting de Gijón en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Real Zaragoza en los años 1990
Futbolistas de la Unión Deportiva Las Palmas en los años 1990
Futbolistas de la Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Club de Fútbol
Médicos de Asturias

Óscar Celada


Posta pullarını ve posta pullarıyla ilgili zarfları ve benzeri nesneleri toplama ve biriktirme işlemine pul koleksiyonculuğu böyle koleksiyon yapan kişilere ise pul koleksiyoncusu denir. Dünyada günümüzde yüz milyon civarında pul koleksiyoncusu olduğu tahmin edilmektedir.

Pul koleksiyonculuğu, pulları inceleyen bilim dalı olan filateli ile karıştırılmamalıdır. Her ne kadar filateli, pul koleksiyonculuğunu da içinde bir alt dal olarak barındırsa da pul koleksiyonculuğundan ibaret değildir. "Pul koleksiyonculuğu" yerine filateli kelimesinin kullanımı yaygın bir hatadır.

Tarihçe
Pul koleksiyonculuğu ilk defa Birleşik Krallık'ta 1840 yılında Penny Black denilen pul ile başlamıştır. Bu pulun üzerinde genç Kraliçe Victoria'nın resmi bulunmaktaydı. Pul, dantelleri olmadığı için makasla kesilerek kullanılmıştır. Penny black'in kullanılmayan örnekleri çok seyrek iken, kullanılan örnekleri oldukça yaygındır ve durumuna göre 25-150 dolar arası satılır hale gelmiştir.

Çocuklar ve gençler, 1860'lı yılların başlarında ve 1870'lerde pul biriktirmeye başlamışlar, yetişkinler ise bu durumu çocukça bir hareket olarak değerlendirmişlerdir.

1800'lerin sonlarında artık büyüyen bu koleksiyonculardan bazıları, sistematik olarak posta pullarını biriktirmeye başlamışlar ve konuyla ilgili kaynaklar yayınlamışlardır.

1920'lerin sonuna kadar pul koleksiyoncularının sayısı çok artmamışsa da, bu tarihten sonra pul değerlerinin yükselmesi ile halkın ilgisi artmaya başlamıştır. Bu erken dönem posta pulların pek azının iyi şartlarda saklanmış olması değerlerinin hızla artmasının nedenidir. Bu eski pulların özellikle ikili, üçlü veya daha büyük bloklar olarak bulunması çok zordur.

1920'lerde görülen bu hızlı artış nedeni ile pek çok Amerikalı koleksiyoncu ileride değerinin hızla artacağı ümidi ile dönemin ABD pullarını stoklamıştır. Doğal olarak 1930'lu yılların pulları böyle çok miktarda stoklandığı ve kolaylıkla bulunduğu için değerlerinin artması da söz konusu olmamıştır. Bugün aradan 70 yıldan fazla geçmesine rağmen ABD'de 1930'lu yıllara ait pek çok pulu üzerinde yazılı değere yakın fiyat ile satın almak mümkün olabilmekte ve hatta bu dönem pulları bugün bile bazı kişilerce postada kullanılmaktadır.

1930 yılından beri basılan pek çok Amerikan pulu kolaylıkla ve fazla para harcanmadan elde edilebilir. Buna karşılık üzerinde yazılı değer yüksek olan pullardan bazılarının değeri önemli oranda artmıştır. Örnek olarak 2,60 $ değerli ABD Graf Zeplin pulu yüksek fiyatlar ile satılmaktadır. Diğer yüksek fiyatlara satılan pullar ise bulunması zor olan erörler, popüler ülkelere ait hatıra blokları, tabaka numaralı pullar gibi nispeten biraz daha zor bulunan pullardır.

Türk pullarında ise, İkinci Dünya Savaşı sonrasında refah seviyesinin bir miktar yükselmesiyle pul koleksiyoncuları sayıca artmış ve zorlukla bulunan erken dönem pulların fiyatları çok hızlı şekilde yükselmiştir. Koleksiyoncular, hatta koleksiyoncu olmayanlar bile değerlerinin hızla artacağı ümidi ile 1940'ların sonlarına ve 1950'li yıllara ait pulları bol miktarda alarak stoklamışlardır. Günümüzde aradan 60 yıldan fazla geçmesine karşılık bu döneme ait pulları rahatlıkla bulmak ve ucuz fiyatlardan almak imkânı vardır. Buna karşılık koleksiyoncular bazı hatıra blokları, resmi pullar ve erörler için zor bulunmaları nedeni daha yüksek fiyatlar ödemektedirler. Zamkı diğerlerine oranla daha hassas olan pullar saklanmaları sırasında bozulabildiği için, bunlarında koleksiyonluk temiz durumda olanların fiyatları daha yüksektir.

Pul koleksiyonculuğunun geleceği
Günümüzde telekomünikasyon imkânlarının gelişmesi ve elektronik ortam kullanımının yaygınlaşması ile pul koleksiyonculuğunun artık sona ermekte olduğu ve benzeri kötümser yorumlar yapanlar artmaktadır. Buna karşılık 20. yüzyıl başlarında telgraf, kısa bir dönem sonra telefonun geliştirilmesi ile benzeri yorumlar yapanlar olduğu düşünüldüğünde bu kötümser yorumların doğru olup olmadığı ancak zaman ile anlaşılabilecektir. Günümüzde klasik döneme ait olan pulların değeri sürekli arttığı için basit bir uğraşı alanı olarak değil bir yatırım alanı olarak görülmekte ve nadir olan pullar ile zarflar sürekli yeni rekorlar kırmaktadırlar. Pul koleksiyonculuğunun geleceği konusunda iyimser olanlar bu kırılan rekorların kendilerini doğruladığını iddia etmekte ve pul koleksiyonlarının değerlerinin gittikçe artacağını savunmaktadırlar.

Pul nasıl toplanır?

Pul koleksiyonculuğu geçmişte damgalı pulların biriktirilmesi ile başlamıştır. Koleksiyoncuların ellerine geçen zarfları biriktirip pullarını usulüne uygun olarak çıkararak toplaması, fazlalarını aralarında değiş tokuş etmeleri şeklinde uygulanan geçmişteki yöntemler günümüzde geçerliliğini yitirmiştir. Bunun kuşkusuz en önemli nedeni posta gönderilerinde artık pul yerine çoğunlukla ücret ödeme makinesi kullanılmasıdır. Bir ücret ödemeden ele geçen damgalı pulların toplanabilmesi, bunların ayrılarak incelenmesi ve pul kataloglarında aranarak sıraya dizilmesi şeklindeki klasik diyebileceğimiz yöntemlerin geçerliliği son derece azalmıştır.

Pul koleksiyonu yapanların bugün tercih etmesi gereken bilinçli ve sistemli bir koleksiyon ortaya çıkarmak olmalıdır. Türk pulları koleksiyonu yapanların yeni çıkan pulları sistemli ve eksiksiz olarak edinmesi gerekmektedir, eksiksizden anlaşılması gereken ise anma pullarının, posta pullarının, özel blokların ve resmi pulların ayrım yapmadan toplanması gerektiğidir. Bu şekilde sistemli olarak alınan pullar ile koleksiyon ileri götürülürken geçmiş seneleri de imkânlar ölçüsünde yıllık takım halinde alarak koleksiyonunun geriye götürülmesi de önerilir. Bir diğer seçenek ise "konulu pul koleksiyonu" yapmaktır, seçilecek konu bilgi sahibi olunan bir konu olabileceği gibi ilgi duyulan ve bilgi edinilmek istenen bir konu da olabilir, bir konuyu pullar aracılığı ile bir hikâye olarak anlatmak da seçilebilir.

Pul edinmenin en ucuz yöntemi PTT filateli abonesi olmaktır. Hangi pulun değerinin artacağını önceden belirlemek zor olduğu için PTT tarafından çıkarılan bütün pulların ayrımsız olarak alınması doğru olacaktır. Koleksiyon ileri doğru götürülürken pul katalogları yardımı ile geçmişte çıkarılan pullar incelenerek olanaklar çerçevesinde geriye götürülmesi önerilmektedir. Pullar internette bulunan alış-veriş sitelerindeki güvenilir satıcılardan alınabileceği gibi pul dükkânlarından da alınabilir. Fiyatları yüksek pullar için ise senede birkaç defa açık arttırma (müzayede) yapan kuruluşların satışlarından veya güvenilir pul tüccarlarından pulların görülerek alınması en doğrusudur. Koleksiyonların geliştirilmesinde en önemli şey bilgi olduğundan bilgi sahibi olana kadar beklenmeli ve imkânların zorlanmamasına dikkat edilmelidir.

Pul koleksiyonculuğunda kullanılan terimler
 Posta pulları (Sürekli Pullar): Bu pullar çok sayıda  basılır ve posta hizmetlerinde sürekli geçerli oldukları için "sürekli posta pulları" olarak da adlandırılırlar. Pullarda Atatürk ve Türk Meşhurları, Anadolu bitkileri, kır çiçekleri gibi konulara yer verilir.
 Resmi posta pulları: 5584 sayılı Posta Kanunu'nun 21.maddesi gereğince genel bütçeye giren devlet daireleriyle katma ve özel bütçeli dairelerin, belediyelerin ve bunlara bağlı idare ve kurumların postaya verdikleri her türlü posta gönderilerinin ücretlerinin ödenmesinde kullanılmak üzere bastırılan pullardır.
 Anma pulları (Hatıra pulları): Farklı konulara özel tasarımlarla hazırlanan bu pullar, tarihi, sosyal ve kültürel varlıklarımız, önemli olaylar, meşhur kişilerin doğum ve ölüm yıldönümleri, turistik yerler, nadir bitki ve hayvanlar gibi konuları anmak için basılır.
 Artı değerli hatıra pulları: 9.6.1958 gün ve 7127 sayılı yasa gereği Sosyal Yardım Kurumlarının verdikleri hizmetlere maddi katkıda bulunmak için PTT Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından yılda bir veya iki kez basılan pullardır. Bu pulların üzerinde yazan posta değerinin yanında "+" ifadesi ile ilave değeri de gösterilir.
 Uçak pulu: Uçakla gönderilecek postalar için öngörülen ücretlerde bastırılan ve üzerlerinde havacılıkla ilgili resimler bulunan pullardır.
 Otomat pulu (ATM): Özel makinelerde ihtiyaca uygun değerde üretilen posta pullarıdır.
 Tematik pul: Hayvan, bitki, spor, meşhur adamlar, tablolar, taşıtlar gibi belli konuların resimlerini taşıyan pullardır.
 Bandaletli pullar: Basılan pul tabakasında pulların yanında pullar ile aynı büyüklükte ayrılan bölümlere çeşitli yazılar ve desenlerin basıldığı pullardır.
 Takse pulu: Postaya verildiği sırada ücreti hiç ödenmemiş veya eksik ödenmiş posta gönderilerinin alıcılarından veya gerektiğinde göndericilerinden alınan ücretler için kullanılan pullardır.
 Tet-Beş: Birbirine ters olarak basılmış iki pula denir. Bunlar baş başa ters, yan yana ters ve ayak ayağa ters basılmış olabilir.
 Föyye: Üzerinde dantelli veya dantelsiz bir veya birkaç pul basılmış olan ve kenarlarında çoğu zaman yazılar taşıyan küçük pul tabakasıdır.
 Sürşarj: Daha önceden tedavüle çıkartılmış olan pulları tekrar kullanmak gayesi ile üzerlerindeki değerlerini değiştirerek veya değiştirmeksizin başka bir olayı anmak veya pulun çıkarılış amacını değiştirmek için yeni yazılar, rakamlar veya motifler basılması işlemidir.
 Posta pulu karneleri: Genelde 10-20 adet posta pulundan oluşan bir veya daha fazla, küçük karne yaprağının karton bir kapak içinde kıvrılarak yerleştirilmesi ile oluşur.
 Erör: Değerli kağıtların basımı veya zımbalanması sırasında oluşan hataya denir. Örneğin, baskı kalıbındaki hatadan dolayı meydana gelen klişe erörü, baskı işlemi sırasında herhangi bir rengin basılmasının unutulması sonucunda oluşan renk erörü, perforaj işleminde unutulan zımbalama sonucu oluşan kısmen ve/veya tamamen dantelsiz erörü gibi.
 Varyete: Bir pulun Posta İşletmesinin kontrolü altında ve çok sayıda farklı şekillerde basılmasıdır. Varyete hatalı baskı (erör) değildir.
 Portföy: Bir hatıra pulu için bastırılan ve içinde söz konusu anma pulu, bununla ilgili ilk gün zarfı , kart veya öteki yayınlar bulunan filatelik dosyadır.
 Santre: Bir pulun resmini çevreleyen çerçevenin (formanın) pul kağıdının tam ortasına basılmış olması halidir. Bu pulda resim, dantelli kenarlardan eşit uzaklıktadır.
 Seri: Aynı isim altında çıkarılan aynı veya değişik değerdeki birden fazla pulların tamamına bir seri adı verilir.
 4'lü Blok: Birbirinden ayrılmamış, 2'si üstte, 2'si altta 4 puldan meydana gelen pul grubudur.
 Lejand: Pul üzerindeki yazılara verilen isimdir.
 Şarniyer: Pulların bir albüme tutturulmasına yarayan küçük zamklı şeffaf kağıt parçasına verilen isimdir.
 İlk gün zarfı (FDC): Bir posta pulunun veya posta pulu serisinin satışa sunulduğu ilk gün zarfa yapıştırılarak damgalanması ile hazırlanan zarflara verilen isimdir.
 Özel gün zarfı: Üzerlerine yapıştırılan pula özel bir filatelik damga basılan, damga konusu ile ilgili yazı ve motifler taşıyan özel zarflardır.
 Marj: Pul tabakalarının ve anma bloklarının kenarlarında ve pulların çerçeveleri dışında kalan baskısız kısımlardır.
 Antiye: Üzerinde alınacak ücreti gösterir pul baskısı bulunan resimli veya resimsiz posta kartlarına verilen isimdir.
 Perforaj: Tabakalardaki ve anma bloklarındaki pulların birbirinden kolayca ayrılabilmeleri için aralarına özel zımba makinesiyle yapılan delik açma işlemidir.
 Emisyon: Bir değerli kağıdın veya pulun belirtildiği gün kullanıma çıkarılmasına denir.
 Dantel: Perforaj işlemi sonunda pulların kenarlarında oluşan doğrusal hat şeklindeki delik dizisine dantel denir. Lineer, kutu ve blok dantel türleri vardır.
 Forma: Pul üzerindeki resimli kısmın, kenar açıklıkları hariç, boyutuna verilen isimdir. Örneğin 25×40 mm gibi.
 Tiraj: Pul ve/veya değerli kağıtların baskı adedine denir.
 Filigran: Pulların basımındaki sahteciliği önlemek için bazı pulların kağıdında bulunan ve kuvvetli ışığa veya siyah zemin üzerine tutulduğunda fark edilebilen şekil, yazı veya motif gibi işaretlere denir.
 Maksimumkart: Posta pulundaki temayla uyumlu karpostalın, resimli yüzüne yapıştırılmış olan pula tatbik edilmiş olan damganın hepsinin birbiriyle bağlantılı olduğu kartlardır.
 Flam: Ücret ödeme makinalarında tarih damgasının yanına basılan 3,3 x 4,4 cm. boyutunda, dörtgen şeklinde olup, içinde reklam, slogan vb. bulunan damga izidir.

Pulların satılması
Pul koleksiyonculuğu kültürel bir uğraşı olarak görülmeli ve yapılan koleksiyondan parasal kazançlar elde etmek asıl amaç olmamalıdır; asıl amaç zamanın hoşa giden bir uğraşı ile değerlendirilmesidir ve koleksiyon yapmanın kişinin bilgisine ve kültürüne yapacağı katkıların göz önüne alınması gerekir. Bütün bunlara karşın doğal olarak yıllarca emek verilen bir koleksiyona harcanan paraların bir karşılığı olmalıdır.

Pul koleksiyonunun maddi değerini aşağı yukarı belirlemek için ilk yapılması gereken bir pul kataloğu edinilerek, koleksiyonun maddi değerinin katalog fiyatları kullanılarak hesaplanmasıdır. Bu şekilde hesaplanan fiyat esas olarak bir referanstır. Koleksiyonda katalog fiyatı yüksek pullar yok ise yapılabilecek şey koleksiyonu birkaç pul tüccarına gösterip fiyat alarak değerlendirmek olacaktır. Şu unutulmamalıdır ki sistemli ve eksiksiz bir koleksiyon benzerlerine göre daha kolay değerini bulacaktır, ancak sistemsiz yapılan koleksiyonları belki değerlendirmek bile mümkün olmayacaktır. Eğer koleksiyonda katalog değeri yüksek pullar var ise bunların açık arttırmalarda değerlendirilmesi düşünülmelidir.

Pullar içinde diğer pek çok mal veya ürün gibi fiyatlarının yükseldiği ve indiği dönemler vardır, pullarını elden çıkarmak isteyenlerin bu dönemleri göz önüne alması da ayrıca önemlidir. Eğer pulların fiyatlarının düşük olduğu bir dönemde koleksiyon elden çıkartılmak istenirse koleksiyonun maddi karşılığı alınamayabilir, koleksiyonun fazla bir maddi harcama yapmadan ileri götürülebileceği ve ileride daha yüksek bir fiyat ile satılabileceği unutulmamalıdır.

Kullanılan araçlar ve yöntemler
Pul toplamak için herhangi bir araca gerek duyulmamaktadır. Ancak koleksiyoncuların çoğu, pullarını daha iyi sergilemek, korumak ve inceleyebilmek için önemli harcamalar yapmaktan kaçınmazlar.

Pulları muhafaza etmenin en kolay ve en ucuz yolu bunların şeffaf selofan zarflarda toplanması, zarfların da nem, güneş ve sıcaktan uzak bir kutuya konulması şeklinde yapılabilir. Ancak bu yöntemin uygulanması pulların sergilenmesi veya başka şekillerde kullanılmasında pek işe yaramamaktadır.

Pulların albümlere yerleştirilmesi durumunda ise koleksiyonlar çok daha kolay gözden geçirilebilmekte ve sergilenebilmektedirler. Pullar koleksiyoncunun tercihine bağlı olarak, ülkeler, konular ve hatta sonuçta göze hoş gelmek kaydıyla, ebatlarına göre bile sergilenebilmektedirler.

Pul koleksiyonculuğu