Jenson Alexander Lyons Button  (born 19 January 1980) is a British racing driver. He won the 2009 Formula One World Championship when he drove for the Brawn GP team. After his F1 career, he became champion of the 2018 season of the Super GT Series alongside Naoki Yamamoto, with whom he shared a Honda racing car at Team Kunimitsu. He currently competes part-time in the NASCAR Cup Series, driving the No. 15 Ford Mustang for Rick Ware Racing with support from Stewart-Haas Racing and sponsorship from Mobil 1.

Button began karting at the age of eight and achieved early success, before progressing to car racing in the British Formula Ford Championship and the British Formula 3 Championship. He first drove in F1 with Williams for the 2000 season. The following year he switched to Benetton, which at the start of the 2002 season became the Renault team, and then for the 2003 season he moved to BAR. He finished third in the 2004 World Drivers' Championship, before falling to ninth in the 2005 championship. BAR was subsequently renamed and became the Honda team for the 2006 season, during which Button won his first Grand Prix at the , after 113 races.

Following the withdrawal of Honda from the sport in December 2008, Button was left without a team for the 2009 season. In February 2009, Ross Brawn led a management buyout of Honda, creating Brawn GP and recruiting Button as a driver. Button went on to win a record-equalling six of the first seven races of the 2009 season, securing the World Drivers' Championship at the , having led on points all season; his success also helped Brawn GP to secure the World Constructors' Championship.

At the start of the 2010 season, he moved to McLaren, partnering fellow British racer Lewis Hamilton. After finishing fifth for the team in 2010, Button ended the 2011 season as runner-up, before falling to fifth in the 2012 championship. Four more seasons with McLaren resulted in no further victories and he retired from Formula One at the end of 2016, making a one-off return at the  to deputise for Fernando Alonso. From the 306 races that Button started, he won 15, qualified on pole position 8 times, took 50 podium finishes and scored 1,235 championship points.

Early life and education
Button was born on 19 January 1980 in Frome, Somerset and brought up in nearby Vobster, Mells. He is the fourth child of the half-South African Simone Lyons and former rallycross driver John Button from London's East End, who was well known in the United Kingdom during most of the 1970s for racing his Volkswagen Type 1, which was nicknamed the Colorado Beetle. Jenson's parents met in Newquay at a young age and were reunited after a musical concert at Longleat. According to John, Jenson was named after his Danish friend and rallycross opponent Erling Jensen, changing the "e" to an "o" to differentiate it from Jensen Motors, while Simone recalls that she named him Jenson after noticing a Jensen sports car and thought the change of spelling would be "more mannish".

Button enjoyed racing from an early age, racing a BMX bike with friends after school, and began watching Formula One (F1) motor racing with his father around the age of five or six. He idolised four-time world champion Alain Prost for his calm personality and intellectual approach to driving. After his parents divorced when he was seven, he and his three elder sisters were brought up by their mother in Frome. Button was educated at Vallis First School, Selwood Middle School and Frome Community College. His karting career limited his studying and he left school with one GCSE. Button failed his first driving test for driving between two cars on a narrow road.

Karting career
Button's father gave him a 50cc bike for his seventh birthday; he discarded it after half an hour because it lacked speed, which would have required his father to remove its restrictor, and he disliked his father's idea of progressing to the 80cc category. John talked to rallycross driver and Ripspeed car accessories owner Keith Ripp at an Earl's Court racing car show about his son; Kipp recommended the purchase of a Zip go-kart suited for the newly formed Cadets class for eight to twelve year-old karters for the young boy. Button received the kart as a Christmas present in 1987 and he began karting at the Clay Pigeon Raceway in May 1988 aged eight following repeated questions by club members to his father on when Button would start racing.

He was required to drive on slick tyres on a wet track because his father wanted him to learn car control on a sodden surface and taught him basic driving techniques by standing at a corner and pointing to where his son should brake. In 1989, aged nine, Button won the British Super Prix. Midway through the year, his father spoke to him about progressing to the club level since others noticed he was competitive, which Button was interested in. He won all 34 races of the 1991 British Cadet Kart Championship and the title with team Wright Karts. Afterwards Button told his father his objective was to compete in F1 and he was given a map to chart his progress in karting. The two agreed to give each other more autonomy and Button was mentored by mechanic Dave Spencer in moving from the Cadets to Juniors class. Spencer told him to be more aggressive and less smooth driving Junior karts because they have more power than a Cadet kart. Button was also required to manage the condition of his tyres to retain grip.

Further successes followed, including three British Open Kart Championship wins. A series of sub-par performances in 1992 gave Button doubts over his ability to win races and he told his father he wanted to continue racing after dismissing the suggestion of two months away from karting. The family telephoned Spencer for advice; he and Button's father constructed the young boy's karts and influenced his school headteacher to change his fitness regime and had to eschew unhealthy beverages. Spencer helped him to observe and concentrate on how others drove their karts, and continued to coach Button until his youngest son Danny died in a multi-kart accident at the Hunts Kart Racing Club in Kimbolton, Cambridgeshire in December 1994.

Button was fourth in the 1994 RAC British Junior Championship after losing the opportunity to claim the title through a series of accidents. He joined the Birel team for that year's Junior Intercontinental A European Championship and raced as a professional in the Junior Intercontinental A Italian Winter Championship. He was the youngest runner-up of the Formula A World Championship at age 15. Button was signed to drive Tecno-Rotax karts for Team GKS, coming fifth in the 1996 European Formula A Championship, third in the Formula A World Cup, and third in the American Championship. In 1997, he was moved to the top-level of karting Formula Super A by his team. Button won the Ayrton Senna Memorial Cup for finishing second in the 1997 Japanese World Cup, and became the youngest driver and first Briton to claim the European Super A Championship. He also was runner-up in the Winter Cup before the European Super A Championship.

Junior car career
Aged 18, Button moved into single seater car racing after his mentor Paul Lemmens spoke to racing manager and former driver Harald Huysman about him. He was signed to businessman David Robertson and Huysman's managerial stable, who found him sponsorship to continue driving. Robertson wanted Button to test a Carlin Motorsport Dallara F3 Mugen-Honda car at the Pembrey Circuit and quickly became acclimated with a more powerful vehicle and extra downforce. Huysman and Robertson wanted Button to enter Formula Three (F3) but Button said he could not do so with his inexperience in car racing and did not want to enter the category for fear of immediately being uncompetitive. Button instead moved to Formula Ford for the 1998 season. He took the British Formula Ford Championship in a Haywood Racing Mygale SJ98 car with nine victories and won the season-ending Formula Ford Festival at Brands Hatch. Button also finished runner-up in the European Formula Ford Championship with one victory from four races.

At the end of 1998, Button won the annual Autosport BRDC Award, which included a test in a McLaren MP4/14 F1 car that he received in November 1999. Huysman and Robertson sought a seat for him in F3 and spoke to Promatecme team owner Serge Saulnier, who did not want to sign Button because he was not part of Renault's driver academy. Additional lobbying from Mygale and Lemmens convinced Sauliner to give Button a test at the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours in France. He impressed Saulnier and accepted his offer to drive at Promatecme. Salunier taught Button on the downforce of F3 cars and how to maintain it.

Button drove in the British Formula 3 International Series in 1999 in a slightly underpowered Renault-Dallara F399 car compared to the Mugen-Honda engine, with guidance from trainer-physiotherapist Josef Leberer. Amongst more experienced racers, he won three times—at Thruxton, Pembrey and Silverstone—to finish the season as the top rookie driver, and third overall. He finished fifth and second respectively in the Marlboro Masters and Macau Grand Prix, losing out by 0.035 seconds to Darren Manning in Macau. Button was required to decide on his future post-season. He did not want another year in F3 and twice tested a higher-tier Formula 3000 (F3000) car with both the Super Nova Racing and Fortec Motorsport teams at the Jerez circuit in Spain, which he disliked because its sequential gearbox forced him to drive aggressively, and found the cars somewhat heavy.

Formula One career

Williams (2000)

In November 1999, Button had his McLaren test prize at the Silverstone club circuit in a MP4/13 car and impressed team owner Ron Dennis. He also tested for the Prost team at the Circuit de Catalunya after the team owner Alain Prost was impressed by Button's ability and asked him to test. Prost offered Button a drive at his F3000 squad before becoming his F1 team's test driver for one season to prepare for competitive driving. He did not commit because Prost had not prepared to fulfill the promise of a F1 seat. Huysman and Robertson declined Dennis' offer for Button to join the McLaren team and a seat from Jaguar chairman Jackie Stewart.

A vacant race seat became available at the Williams team following the departure of two-time CART champion Alessandro Zanardi.  Other contenders for the seat included sports car driver Jörg Müller and Japanese Formula Three champion Darren Manning. On 24 December 1999, team founder and principal Frank Williams telephoned Button, who first thought it a joke, and asked whether he was ready to drive in F1 to which he said no. Button's father instructed him to tell Williams he was indeed ready. Button talked with Williams and BMW motorsport director Gerhard Berger and a 'shoot-out' test was arranged between Button and F3000 racer and test driver Bruno Junqueira at Jerez in a Williams FW21B car modified by being fitted with an BMW engine. with Button securing the drive, even though the majority of the team's engineers preferred Junqueira. This made him Britain's youngest ever F1 driver, beating the previous record held by Stirling Moss. Button did not hold a FIA Super Licence and the FIA president Max Mosley required him to complete  on two consecutive days of testing and support from 18 of the 26 members of the F1 Commission. The FIA chose to issue him with a super licence regardless. Button worked with a physiotherapist to help build his strength to drive an F1 car.

A sixth-place finish at the season's second race in Brazil made him the youngest driver in history to score a point. In his first six races, he qualified higher than his teammate Ralf Schumacher twice, and was consistently close in pace. However, Williams had intended to use Button only until they could exercise their option to buy the highly rated Juan Pablo Montoya out of his contract at Chip Ganassi Racing. A dip in Button's form, combined with Montoya's victory in the 2000 Indianapolis 500, led to Montoya being announced as his replacement midway through the season. Williams chose not to sell Button's contract, keeping the right to recall him in 2003. He went to Benetton Formula on a two-year loan.

Button's best qualification of the season was third place in the  at Spa-Francorchamps; and his best result was fourth in the . After concerns about his inexperience, he made a few errors during the season, the most notable coming in the  at Monza. Under safety car conditions Button swerved to avoid the pack which had bunched up, and crashed into a barrier. Button finished his debut season in eighth place with 12 points.

Enstone based teams (2001–2002)

Benetton (2001)

For , Button partnered experienced driver Giancarlo Fisichella at Benetton, which had recently been purchased by Renault. His car was very uncompetitive due to a lack of power steering and horsepower to the faster teams coupled with a lack of pre-season testing and he was consistently outperformed by his teammate. He finished 17th in the Drivers' Championship with a total of two points scored; his best result was a fifth-place finish at the . His poor form led to speculation he would be replaced before the end of the year; team principal Flavio Briatore said, "Either he shows he's super-good or he leaves the top echelon of drivers", and reportedly offered him the chance to leave. Briatore believed Button's inexperience showed as he struggled to help his team set up a competitive car. His lack of success combined with an extravagant lifestyle led some press publications to dub him a "playboy".

Renault (2002)

In , Benetton was re-branded as Renault, and Jarno Trulli joined the team to partner Button. In a bid to improve his public image over the pre-season interval, he changed his social life habits, spending more time training, and separating from Robertson and Huysman to join John Byfield's sport managerial stable after Briatore talked to Button about Byfield. In late 2001, Briatore invited Button to spend ten days at a ranch in Kenya, to become acquainted with his peers and do physical training to eliminate a shoulder and back problem that had hindered him in 2001. Button spent a lot of time working with his engineering team and felt there was an improved understanding between them; Button described himself as "very confident" for the season.

At the season's second race in Malaysia, he was set for his first podium before a rear suspension problem on the final lap dropped him to fourth place. Button's performances were greatly improved from 2001 because his car had power steering and launch control; although often outqualified by Trulli, he showed the faster race pace to outscore his more experienced teammate. Despite Button's performances, and his desire to stay with Renault, he was told by Briatore by telephone that test driver Fernando Alonso would replace him in 2003. Briatore faced criticism for his decision, but stated "time will tell if I am wrong"; he would also accuse Button of being a "lazy playboy". In July, Button signed a two-year contract with a two-year option for British American Racing (BAR) with the option for a further two years after that to replace the outgoing Olivier Panis, partnering 1997 world champion Jacques Villeneuve, after discussions with several teams fell through. An important factor in his decision was the chance to work with David Richards, the BAR team principal, and he was impressed with the team's long-term programme. He finished the season seventh with 14 points.

Brackley based teams (2003–2009)

BAR (2003–2005)

2003
Button faced early hostility from new teammate Villeneuve, who said Button "should be in a boy band" and was not on speaking terms with him. Their relationship did not improve after the first race in Australia: Villeneuve was due to pit, but stayed out an extra lap and made a pit stop when Button was due in, leaving Button waiting in the pit lane while Villeneuve's car was serviced. Villeneuve blamed it on "radio problems", but both Button and Richards hinted that they did not believe him. Button scored eight points in the first six races, including a fourth place at the . His relationship with Villeneuve improved thereafter because of his better performance and said the comments were caused by inter-team changes. A high speed crash for Button during Saturday qualifying in Monaco briefly knocked him unconscious, and he was detained in hospital overnight. Despite the accident Button still wanted to race, but was withdrawn by his team on medical advice. He was cleared to race for the following Grand Prix in Montreal. Button continued to outperform his teammate and this helped rebuild his previously faltering reputation. Just before the final race in Japan, Villeneuve lost his seat at BAR, so Button was partnered with Takuma Sato; he took his second fourth place of the season, and finished ninth in the Drivers' Championship with 17 points.

2004
The  season was the first in which Button was the more experienced driver in his team. He was ambitious for the season, saying he wanted to challenge consistently for points and podium finishes. He took his first podium in the second race of the year—third-place at the . He followed it up two weeks later with another third-place in Bahrain. In the next race at Imola, he took his first pole position and finished second behind Michael Schumacher. He took 10 podiums in 18 races, and scored no points in three. Button came third in the Drivers' Championship and helped BAR to take second in the Constructors' Championship.

In August, Button became embroiled in a contract dispute. On 5 August, Button chose to leave BAR and signed a two-year contract to return to Williams. He did so because BAR were not a works manufacturer team but Williams were in a partnership with BMW and felt they could help him win the Drivers' Championship. This was surprising, as Button was enjoying his best season to date, while Williams had been struggling. BAR insisted they had the right to exercise their option to retain Button. His management argued that the BAR option was not valid because it contained a clause allowing him to leave if BAR risked losing their Honda engines. They felt the new contract signed mid-year for Honda to supply engines to BAR was not definitive, and thus Button was free to move. The dispute went to F1's Contract Recognition Board, who ruled in favour of BAR on 20 October, forcing Button to stay with the team. Button separated from his manager John Byfield as a result, saying he had been badly advised. He asked his friend Richard Goodard to manage him, and employed a personal assistant in restructuring his organisation.

2005

Despite the feud, Button insisted he had BAR's backing, and was optimistic for the  season. He was unable to deal with regulation changes concerning aerodynamics and his car lacked pace as a result. Button was disqualified from third place at the  after race scrutineers found his car had a second fuel tank inside the main one, that when drained, made his car underweight. The FIA International Court of Appeal banned Button and his team from the next two races as a result. Following his return, he took the second pole position of his career in Montreal, but crashed out after an error while running third. After the , Button scored in all of the remaining races with two third-place finishes in Germany and Belgium to end the season in ninth place on 37 points.

For the second year in a row, Button had contract disputes involving BAR and Williams. Button had signed a pre-contract to drive for Williams in , but he now believed his prospects of achieving his maiden Grand Prix victory would be better at BAR, and that his Williams contract was not binding. Frank Williams insisted the contract was fully binding, and that there would be "absolutely no turning back"; his team required Button to fulfill some contractual obligations with sponsors. After several weeks of talks, Williams agreed to release Button in exchange for an estimated £18 million in compensation.

Honda (2006–2008)

2006

BAR was renamed Honda prior to 2006 following a buyout by the Japanese manufacturer and Button was partnered by the experienced Rubens Barrichello. Honda granted Button equal status and he would receive no preferential treatment alongside Barrichello. The new team performed well in testing, helped by the extra resources now available from Honda, and Button was confident in the car. He had been frustrated by not converting his increasing experience and confidence in his driving into success in 2005 and was excited about Honda's car and engine development enabling race victory challenges.  Button scored points in five of the first eleven races, finishing third at the second round, the , and pole position for the following . The first win of his career was at a rain-affected  from a 14th position start – the 113th Grand Prix start of his career. Button finished fourth or fifth at each of the next five races and ended the season with a podium finish at the final round in Brazil. Over the last six races of the season, he scored more points (35) than any other driver.

2007

In , Button again drove with Honda alongside Barrichello. He was unable to partake in pre-season testing because of two hairline fractures to his ribs, sustained in a karting incident in late 2006. His Honda RA107 car had an aerodynamic imbalance from lacking grip after Shuhei Nakamoto was appointed Senior Technical Director following the departure of Geoff Willis. His year was worse than in 2006, driving within the middle of the field and usually qualifying outside of the top ten. He scored six points over the course of the season for 15th overall with a best finish of fifth at the rain-affected .

2008

Button stayed with Honda for , and continued to be partnered by Barrichello. He and a group of friends went to Lanzarote to establish a base to train for the upcoming season. Button was confident since the technical director Ross Brawn became Honda's team principal and noticed wind tunnel designs of the car. Button began working with human performance coach Michael Collier that year. The Honda RA108 proved to be uncompetitive, and he scored three points that year because he finished sixth at the .

On the morning of 4 December 2008, the global economic crisis caused Honda to withdraw from F1, leaving Button's chances of a drive in  dependent on the team finding a buyer. He was informed of the news by Goodard the day before and Button changed his plans to discuss the withdrawal with colleagues and not the performance of his 2009 car. He declined an offer to drive for Red Bull Racing's junior team Toro Rosso because they would not give him a podium-winning car and they wanted sponsorship funding.

Brawn GP (2009)
Brawn purchased the Honda team for a nominal fee and renamed it as Brawn GP in early March 2009. Button signed a contract to drive for the team in , and took a pay cut as part of the agreement. Although he was installed by bookmakers as a 100–1 outsider for the championship, Button's Brawn BGP 001 car was quick and reliable in pre-season testing in Europe due to an efficient aerodynamic package, a powerful Mercedes-Benz V8 engine and grippy slick tyres. The car's seat was lowered to make him comfortable.

Button won six of the first seven races with four pole positions, having benefited from a double diffuser design making him and the Toyota and Williams teams faster than others.  Once the major teams had introduced their own reconfigured diffusers Button's dominance ended, averaging sixth position in the following ten races and scoring 35 points after accumulating 61 in the first seven. This was due to the team spending 10 per cent of its allocated £7 million budget on developing the car and Button's smooth driving style preventing him from generating heat into its tyres in cold weather. At the , Button was hampered in qualifying by a poor choice of tyres in the wet weather and could achieve 14th position. His championship campaign was boosted by Vettel qualifying 16th, but team-mate and closest rival Barrichello qualified on pole. In the race, Button finished fifth, taking enough points to secure the championship with one round remaining. At the final race of the season, the , Button qualified behind Barrichello again, but was able to achieve a podium by coming third.

In the off-season, Brawn and team principal Nick Fry informed Button they wanted him to sign an extension to his contract and be paired with Nico Rosberg. Button asked for a commitment to car development for 2010 and a close to a repeat performance of the 2009 season. Brawn and Fry said Mercedes would buy-out Brawn GP without locating potential sponsors, which Button found unappealing and told his manager Richard Goodard he desired a new challenge.

McLaren (2010–2017)

Goodard telephoned McLaren team principal Martin Whitmarsh to enquire about a drive for Button. Whitmarsh did not believe Button would leave Brawn GP since they had won the Championship; Goodard mentioned McLaren's competitiveness at the end of 2009 and partnering 2008 world champion Lewis Hamilton appealed to Button. Discussions took place at the team's headquarters in Woking and a three-year deal was signed soon after. Button said he moved because he wanted the motivation and challenge from competing alongside Hamilton, but Whitmarsh cautioned the two before the start of the season he would observe any relationship problems between them.

2010

Button won at the  and the  in variable weather to take the lead of the Drivers' Championship. He later finished second in Turkey after a miscommunication with his team caused him to battle Hamilton for the victory. This cooled his relationship with Hamilton who believed McLaren favoured Button. He followed with two podium finishes and a trio of points scoring finishes to remain in contention for the championship. Button retired at the  after Vettel hit him and punctured the radiator of his car. Second at Monza was followed by a fourth place in both Singapore and Japan. During the  weekend, Button and his entourage were threatened by a number of criminals in the favelas on his way back from qualifying at Interlagos; nobody was harmed during the incident. Button was mathematically eliminated from retaining the title with a fifth place in the race and took fifth in the championship with third in Abu Dhabi.

2011

Button's MP4-26 car for  was built around his taller frame from intra-team input in late 2010. He believed the introduction of Pirelli tyres that season would suit his smooth driving style and said a world championship victory would make it difficult for him to retire from F1. Button began the season by finishing no lower than sixth in the first six races with three podium results. He won the rain-affected  after two collisions dropped him to the back of the field and overtaking Vettel when the latter ran wide on the slippery track on the final lap. Button then won the , which was held in similar weather, and the , but his results over the course of the season mathematically eliminated him from championship contention when Vettel took the title in Japan. Button took 3 victories and 12 podium finishes to finish runner-up with 270 points.

2012

Whitmarsh wanted Button to remain at McLaren for the next three years while the latter held talks with Ferrari about a race seat in 2013. Before the 2011 Japanese Grand Prix, he signed a three-year extension to his contract with McLaren. Button was satisfied with the new MP4-27 car due to McLaren finding a regulation loophole banning the blowing of exhaust gases over parts of the vehicle to improve downforce. A victory in the season-opening  and two-second-place finishes at the  and the  were the highlights of his first half of the season. His overall performance in the first seven races fell due to difficulty in generating temperature and the correct amount of grip into the new Pirelli short-life front tyres due to his smooth driving style and him switching brake materials multiple times to try and fix the issue made it worse. Button changed the set-up of his car and adapted himself to the tyres to retain temperature for better performance. The rest of Button's season saw him achieve wins in Belgium and Brazil and top-five finishes in five of the next seven rounds for fifth overall with 188 points.

2013

Button was joined at McLaren by Ferrari Driver Academy graduate Sergio Pérez for  and their relationship was cooler because the latter entered the team hastily. He was appointed a director of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association (GPDA) in March 2013. McLaren built the MP4-28 car not in advance of regulation changes for , but from scratch. This caused Button to drive an unstable car with understeer, a lack of downforce and severe tyre degradation. After finishing ninth at the season-opening , McLaren introduced components from the MP4-27 onto the MP4-28, which had no significant effect and Button continued to attain sub-par results throughout the season with a best of fourth at the season-ending . He was ninth overall with 73 points. Button was involved in aggressive driving from his teammate Pérez early in the season in Bahrain and Monaco, annoying him.

2014–2015

He activated the terms of his contract to stay with McLaren for 2014 in September 2013, but considered taking a sabbatical from F1 following the unexpected death of his father in Monaco in January 2014. Button was joined by Kevin Magnussen, with whom he was able to build a rapport, and the MP4-29 car had an understeer from lacking front downforce and an unstable rear. He finished third at the season-opening  after Red Bull Racing driver Daniel Ricciardo was disqualified for a fuel flow consumption infringement and his team lost a subsequent appeal against the decision. It would turn out to be his final career podium. Button achieved a quartet of fourth-place finishes and scored points seven more times for eighth in the Drivers' Championship and 126 points. Button qualified better than Magnussen ten times and scored twice as many points.

Button became unenthusiastic over F1 and the press speculated on his future in the sport with rumors Alonso would be Magnussen's teammate in . He wanted to remain at McLaren but was made insecure about his career and told himself to concentrate on the present and not be concerned about the future. Dennis did not want Button to drive for McLaren but fellow team shareholder Mansour Ojjeh told him Button should remain over Magnussen after reviewing the situation. Negotiations between Button and McLaren racing director Éric Boullier and team owner Ron Dennis concluded with an agreement for Button to continue racing on 10 December. Button agreed to take a pay cut, with his contract containing the option for a second year; McLaren or Button were able to activate clauses to break the contract after the season if one of the parties desired it. Button struggled in 2015 due to an unreliable and an underpowered Honda engine lacking straightline speed, securing four top-ten finishes and a best result of sixth at the . He was rarely able to progress past the first qualifying session and took 16th in the Drivers' Championship with 16 points.

2016–2017

He was retained by the McLaren team for  following contractual discussions with Dennis and meetings with aerodynamics and engineers at the McLaren Technology Centre (MTC). Button received a 50 per cent pay rise by staying at McLaren for another year. He had considered returning to the Williams team but decided against it. His car's new Honda engine was more powerful and allowed him to challenge for points-scoring finishes but reliability continued to hinder him and McLaren. He finished 15 of the 21 races that year, qualifying a season-high third at the , the highest start for the McLaren-Honda partnership. Button went on to finish the race a season-high sixth. He was unable to finish higher than eighth thereafter and ended his full-time career with a suspension failure at the season-ending . Button took 15th in the Drivers' Championship with 21 points finishing better than Alonso five times and qualifying higher on four occasions.

Before the , he told Dennis he planned to retire after the season. Dennis asked Button to wait before returning for discussion to which he said he had already decided. He suggested Button take a sabbatical and mull over the decision to retire while resting and made Button an ambassador for McLaren. He would work in the team's simulator at MTC, represent them at sponsor functions and attempt to help them in car development. Button was retained by McLaren as reserve driver with the option to return to full-time racing for the team in  if he and McLaren agreed to it. He was replaced as a GPDA director by Romain Grosjean. In April 2017, Boullier asked Button to drive in lieu of the Indianapolis 500-bound Alonso at the  and agreed after Goodard told him there was no way to get out of the commitment because he was contractually bound to drive. He prepared in the team's simulator instead of testing in Bahrain because he would learn nothing by not driving on a narrow street circuit. He retired late in the race following a collision with Sauber driver Pascal Wehrlein that damaged his car.

In November 2017, Button was replaced as McLaren reserve driver by 2017 FIA Formula Three European champion Lando Norris for 2018. His contract with McLaren expired without renewal at the end of 2017 allowing him to focus on other racing ventures.

Williams senior advisor (2021)
In January 2021, Button rejoined Williams as a senior advisor on a multi-year deal. He will work with their race and Williams Academy drivers on-track and at the team's headquarters and conduct ambassadorial duties for the team. Button focuses on the entire team and not one specific department but could not enter Williams' premises due to travel restrictions from the United States, and COVID-19 protocols restricted his mixing with team since he was in the Sky Sports broadcasting bubble.

Super GT career

Button became interested in Super GT in about 2011, and discussions with Honda led to his series debut at the 2017 Suzuka 1000km in a NSX-GT for Team Mugen with teammates Hideki Mutoh and Daisuke Nakajima. The trio finished 12th following two penalties and two tyre punctures. He also considered racing as a third driver for Acura Team Penske's IMSA SportsCar Championship team, but was rejected. Button drove the full 2018 Super GT Series for Team Kunimitsu in the No. 100 GT500-class Honda NSX-GT alongside Naoki Yamamoto; Button wanted to drive a Bridgestone-shod car and drivers recommended Yamamoto because he speaks English. Button's team helped him to communicate better, adapt to the series and its culture. He and Yamamoto won at Sportsland Sugo and took two-second-place finishes to enter the season-ending race at Twin Ring Motegi equal on points with the TOM'S duo of Ryō Hirakawa and Nick Cassidy. He held off Hirakawa to win the GT500 title by three points and was the first rookie champion since Toranosuke Takagi in 2005.

For the 2019 season, Button remained at Team Kunimitsu alongside Yamamoto in the renumbered No. 1 Honda. In an incident-filled season, Button and Yamamoto were taken out of the lead in the opening round at Okayama, a mistimed safety car at the second Fuji race and a poor tyre choice in the rain at Sugo cost the team possible victories. The pair achieved two podium finishes at both Fuji rounds and a sixth place at Motegi to finish eighth in the GT500 Drivers' Championship with 37 points. In October 2019, he drove the final two races of the season-ending Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM) round at the Hockenheimring in his Team Kunimitsu NSX car as Honda's wild card entry. He finished 9th in the first race and 16th in the second. Button did not enter the "Super GT × DTM Dream Race" at Fuji Speedway because his contract did not oblige him to do so, and left Super GT after 2019 because he did not want to fly frequently from the United States to Japan and wanted to explore other racing series.

Sports car career
Button made his endurance racing debut at the 1999 24 Hours of Spa, sharing a BMW Team Raffanelli 320i E46 with David Saelens and Tomáš Enge in the SP class, and retiring after 22 laps with fuel tank failure. Button agreed to drive most of the 2018–19 FIA World Endurance Championship sharing a BR Engineering BR1 car in the Le Mans Prototype 1 (LMP1) class with Vitaly Petrov and Mikhail Aleshin for SMP Racing. Making his FIA World Endurance Championship debut at the 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans, electronic problems dropped the car down the order before the team retired with an engine failure late in the race with Button driving at the time. He finished fourth at the 6 Hours of Fuji and third at the following 6 Hours of Shanghai. Button missed the 1000 Miles of Sebring and 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps because of Super GT commitments, and the 2019 24 Hours of Le Mans because his fiancée was due to give birth to their first child.

He made his British GT debut in the 2020 season's final round, the three-hour Silverstone 500, sharing the No. 3 Jenson Team Rocket RJN McLaren 720S GT3 with team co-owner Chris Buncombe. The two finished the race in 14th position. Button drove Hendrick Motorsports's NASCAR Next Gen Chevrolet Camaro ZL1 Garage 56 entry alongside sports car driver Mike Rockenfeller and NASCAR racer Jimmie Johnson at the 2023 24 Hours of Le Mans. The trio completed 285 laps and were 39th overall following a drive line fault late in the event. He is set to enter the ten-hour Petit Le Mans (part of the IMSA SportsCar Championship) driving JDC-Miller MotorSports' Porsche 963 alongside Rockenfeller and Tijmen van der Helm after broadcasting commitments prevented his entry to the Sahlen's Six Hours of The Glen.

Other racing ventures
Button was invited to the Race of Champions six times: in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2015 and 2017, reaching the semi-finals of the Nations Cup with Andy Priaulx for Team Autosport in 2007 and 2008 and finishing second in 2009. His best performance in the Race of Champions were the semi-finals in 2009. In 2019, Button drove off-road races in a Rocket Motorsports-entered Brenthel Industries Spec 6100 TT class truck with Buncombe and managing director Mazen Fawaz his co-drivers. This came about when Button told Buncombe they would race the Baja 1000 as Buncombe's 40th birthday present and sought vehicle components. Navigated by Terry Madden, he finished no higher than the top 20 in the Mint 400 with retirements in the Vegas to Reno and the Baja 1000.

In 2020, while motor racing was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Button participated in eSports races.  In January 2021, Button launched JBXE to compete in the all-electric SUV off-road racing series Extreme E from the 2021 season on. Button made his first foray into historic racing at the 2021 Goodwood Revival, partaking in the Stirling Moss Trophy and the Royal Automobile Club TT Celebration races. He was set to drive an FC1-X car for the Xite Energy Racing team in the all-electric Group E category for the 2022–23 season of the off-road Nitro Rallycross series. However, he withdrew from the rest of the season after one round.

Button ran three NASCAR Cup Series races in 2023 for Rick Ware Racing in the No. 15 car, starting with the 2023 EchoPark Automotive Grand Prix at Circuit of the Americas. At Circuit of the Americas, he finished 18th. At Chicago Street Course, he finished 21st. At Indy, he finished 28th.

Driving style

Button has a smooth driving style; journalist Mark Hughes wrote in 2009, "Button has a fantastic feel for how much momentum can be taken into a corner and this allows him to be minimal in his inputs—his steering and throttle movements in particular tend to be graceful and beautifully co-ordinated." This allows him to perform well in wet-weather where the front of the car tends to slide more than the rear, and many believe his smooth style better preserves the tyres during a race. He adapted his style in go-karts and transferred it to more powerful machinery. Since 2000, Button has braked with his left foot, by dragging the brake pedal and stopping the car in less time to control and modulate power. He likes to turn into a corner early under braking and balance the car on pedal application and steering, creating more strain in tyre loads for a longer physical lap but allowing for a higher minimum corner entry speed and allowing Button to adapt to a changeable or slippery track.

He is comfortable driving a car with understeer, prefers the rear to be stable into corners and on which he is able to lean on leaving them, and rarely locks the inside of his front tyres. His smooth driving also means he cannot generate the necessary tyre temperature on a cool track. Button occasionally cannot get his tyres to operate efficiently over a single lap in qualifying because his gentle steering produces less energy into the wheel. His driving gave him additional thought time and be less prone to making an error for improved consistency in races and notices events without the team necessarily instructing him on what to do. Button accurately exploits grip on a damp corner to adapt to his limits earlier than other drivers. During 2001 and 2007, when traction control was legal in F1, he was able to control the throttle pedal to prevent wheelspin, allowing him to be as fast due to his feel for grip exiting a turn.

Driver number
For the 2014 season, the FIA created a new sporting regulation allowing a driver to select a unique car number for use throughout their F1 career. Button chose the number 22, which was the one he was assigned in his 2009 championship season.

Endorsements and philanthropy
The BBC signed Button to promote its BBCi digital television interactive service from December 2003 to January 2004. He is a brand ambassador for Head & Shoulders, and appeared in advertising campaigns for the company. Other companies that Button has done business with are Hilton, Hugo Boss, Santander Bank, Tag Heuer, Vodafone. and Baylis & Harding. As a result of Button's endorsement money and Mercedes salary, he was listed as one of the world's top-earning drivers in motorsports by Forbes between June 2012 and June 2013. He and multi-sport brand Dare 2b collaborated on a men's ski range of clothing and accessories called AW20 in 2020. Button worked with car builder Ant Anstead, designer Mark Stubbs and business adviser Roger Behle to relaunch luxury coach maker Radford in early 2021.

Button is also involved in charitable work through the creation of The Jenson Button Trust. Established in March 2010, the Trust selects and nominates a number of charitable beneficiaries that receive funding. He is a patron of Make-A-Wish Foundation UK granting the wishes of terminally ill children and young persons, a sport ambassador for both The Prince's Trust and the Princess Charlene of Monaco Foundation, and supports the Sean Edwards Foundation. Button is part of Johnnie Walker's Join The Pact initiative to promote responsible drinking, and began the Pink for Papa campaign in 2014 following the death of his father to raise funding for the Henry Surtees Foundation.

Button ran a restaurant, Victus, in Harrogate from 2011 to 2012. In 2012, he, Goodard and public relations officer James Williamson founded sports agency The Sports Partnership to provide public relations services and management to the sporting industry. Button, Buncombe and team principal Bob Neville founded sports car team Jenson Team Rocket RJN in late 2018. He was on the judging panel of the 2003 UK F1 Drivers' Challenge broadcast on the Five television programme Be A Grand Prix Driver, voiced his own character in the animated cartoon series Tooned, and since the , has analysed select races for Sky Sports F1.

Public image
Button has received a varying amount of press coverage from minor to extensive on his F1 career and personal life; this effect has been labelled "Buttonmania". Prior to winning the 2009 championship, his lack of success led critics to label him "a nearly man" and "a pin-up and lightweight" for his photogenic appearance, but it ceased following his success. Ben Anderson of Autosport notes that the driver "is rarely picked as one of grand prix racing's true elite drivers" and is not "discussed in the same breath as those, such as Schumacher and Ayrton Senna" due to "a lack of absolute dynamism behind the wheel in difficult technical circumstances – perhaps holds him back from being regarded as among the true elite." Writing for The New York Times, Brad Spurgeon said that Button's F1 debut began a trend of teams signing young drivers and how they would cope with pressure, performance and the media in the championship. BBC Sport's Andrew Benson called him "urbane and eloquent. Good-looking and charismatic, he is a marketing person's dream, and has a ready wit that can edge into sarcasm if he is impatient or uncomfortable with a situation."

Button finished second to footballer Ryan Giggs in voting for the 2009 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award. He also won the BBC West Country's Sports Personality of the Year and the Laureus World Breakthrough of the Year award. He won the 2000 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Newcomer Award for finishing eighth in that year's F1 season, the Lorenzo Bandini Trophy in 2001, and the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy as the most successful British or Commonwealth driver in a season five times: from 2004 to 2006, 2009 and 2011. Button was voted the Autosport Rookie of the Year in 2000, the International Racing Driver Award in 2004 and 2009, and the British Competition Driver of the Year in 2003, 2009, 2011 and 2012. He won the BRDC Gold Star in 2004 and 2009, and was inducted into the FIA Hall of Fame in 2017.

He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2010 New Year Honours for services to motorsport. Button's home town, Frome, has named a street and a footbridge carrying the River Frome after him, and has awarded him the freedom of the town. Button received an honorary doctorate in engineering from the University of Bath in December 2016. He has authored five books about his life and career.

Personal life
His hobbies include mountain biking, competing in triathlons and bodyboarding. He also maintains an automobile collection. He was engaged to the English actress and singer Louise Griffiths before ending their five-year relationship in 2005. Button was married to his long-time Japanese girlfriend and model Jessica Michibata from 2014 to 2015. He married American model Brittny Ward in 2022 with whom he has a son and a daughter. They currently reside in Los Angeles. Button supports Bristol City Football Club.

On 3 August 2015, Button and his then wife Jessica were burgled at a rented Saint-Tropez home while staying with friends when robbers looted the house and stole belongings worth £300,000 including his wife's £250,000 engagement ring. Reports suggested that the couple might have been gassed through the air conditioning system prior to the burglars' entry into the building.

Racing record

Career summary

† As Button was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score championship points.

Complete Spa 24 Hours results

Complete Formula One results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number denotes the finishing position)

 Half points awarded as less than 75% of race distance was completed.
 Button did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.

Complete Super GT results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number denotes the finishing position)

24 Hours of Le Mans results

Complete FIA World Endurance Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap; small number denotes the finishing position)

Complete Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters results

† As Button was a guest driver, he was ineligible to score championship points.

Complete British GT Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)

† Not eligible for points.

Complete Extreme E results
(key)

NASCAR
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)

Cup Series

Complete IMSA SportsCar Championship results

Bibliography

Notes

References

External links

1980 births
Living people
21st-century English memoirists
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
24 Hours of Spa drivers
BAR Formula One drivers
Benetton Formula One drivers
Brawn Formula One drivers
BRDC Gold Star winners
English autobiographers
British Formula Three Championship drivers
English expatriate sportspeople in Monaco
English expatriate sportspeople in the United States
English Formula One drivers
English racing drivers
English male triathletes
Formula Ford drivers
Formula One race winners
Formula One World Drivers' Champions
Honda Formula One drivers
Karting World Championship drivers
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
McLaren Formula One drivers
Members of the Order of the British Empire
People from Frome
Renault Formula One drivers
Sportspeople from Somerset
Williams Formula One drivers
British GT Championship drivers
Haywood Racing drivers
OAK Racing drivers
Team Kunimitsu drivers
SMP Racing drivers
Extreme E drivers
Super GT drivers
Sports car racing team owners
Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters drivers
Mugen Motorsports drivers
English people of South African descent
NASCAR drivers
Hendrick Motorsports drivers
JDC Motorsports drivers
WeatherTech SportsCar Championship drivers

Jenson Button


البنك التونسي الكويتي ، كان اسمه البنك التونسي الكويتي للتنمية  حتى عام 2007. هو بنك تمتلكه في الأصل تونس والكويت بحصص متساوية، وفي 23 أكتوبر 2007، تحصلت مجموعة صندوق الادخار الفرنسية  على 60% من رأس مال البنك بإحالة قدرها 300 مليون دينار تونسي. تحتفظ مجموعة صندوق الادخار في مجلس الإدارة بستّة مقاعد بينما تحتفظ الدولتان التونسيّة والكويتيّة بمقعدين لكلّ منهما.

بنوك تونس
بنوك الكويت
تأسيسات سنة 1980 في الكويت
شركات مقرها مدينة تونس

البنك التونسي الكويتي


Firewatch este un joc video first-person de aventură și mister, dezvoltat de Campo Santo și publicat de Campo Santo și Panic. Jocul a fost lansat în februarie 2016 pentru Linux, Microsoft Windows, OS X, PlayStation 4, și ulterior pentru Xbox One în septembrie 2016.

Povestea urmărește un pădurar pe nume Henry, din Pădurea Națională Shoshone, în anul 1989, la puțin timp după incendiile din Yellowstone din 1988. La o lună după ce a primit slujba, lucruri stranii încep să se petreacă, atât lui, cât și superioarei sale, Delilah, care se leagă cu niște evenimente ce s-au petrecut în acel loc în urmă cu câțiva ani. Henry interacționează cu Delilah folosind o stație de emisie-recepție, jucătorul având opțiuni de replici pentru a comunica. Schimburile sale de replici cu Delilah influențează felul în care se dezvoltă relația dintre cei doi. Jocul a fost regizat de Olly Moss și Sean Vanaman, scenariul scris de Chris Remo, Jake Rodkin, Moss și Vanaman, și produs de Gabe McGill și artista Jane Ng. Lumea jocului a fost modelată de Ng, și s-a bazat pe o pictură de-a lui Moss. Designul este inspirat din reclamele New Deal de la Serviciul Național al Parcurilor și de cercetări întreprinse la Parcul Național Yosemite.

Jocul a fost primit pozitiv de către critici, la capitolele poveste, personaje, dialog, gameplay, și design, dar finalul a fost criticat. Firewatch a câștigat premiul de Cea mai bună experiență vizuală 3D la premiile Unity 2016, Cel mai bun joc independent la Premiile Golden Joystick 2016, Cea mai bună narațiune la Premiile Game Developers Choice 2017 și Cel mai bun joc de debut la Premiile British Academy Games 2017. La sfârșitul anului 2016, jocul a fost vândut în peste 1 milion de copii. Un film bazat pe acest joc este în dezvoltare.

Gameplay

Firewatch este un joc video first-person de aventură care are loc în statul american Wyoming în anul 1989. Jucătorul își asumă rolul lui Henry, un pădurar ce este trimis în Pădurea Națională Shoshone. Prin explorarea mediului înconjurător, Henry descoperă indicii despre întâmplările misterioase din vecinătate, care au legătură cu răscolirea turnului său în timp ce el patrula, dar și despre o figură sumbră care apare ocazional și îl privește de la depărtare.

Singura formă de comunicare a lui Henry este o stație de emisie-recepție, prin care o poate contacta pe superioara sa, Delilah. Jucătorii pot alege dintr-un număr de replici pentru a interacționa cu ea sau pot alege să nu comunice cu ea. Alegerile jucătorului vor influența tonul relației acestuia cu Delilah. Pe vreme ce povestea avansează, noi zone vor fi disponibile jucătorului. Jocul conține și un ciclu noapte-zi. Obiectele găsite în sălbăticie pot fi păstrate pentru utilizări ulterioare.

Povestea

După incendiile din Yellowstone din 1988, Henry (Rich Sommer) acceptă slujba de pădurar în Pădurea Națională Shoshone, după ce soția sa, Julia, a fost recent diagnosticată cu un stadiu timpuriu de demență. În prima zi, Delilah (Cissy Jones), o altă pădurară, îl contactează printr-o stație de emisie-recepție pentru a investiga niște artificii lansate ilegal lângă lac. Acolo, el găsește două adolescente ce făceau plajă nud, care îl acuză că le spiona. Pe drumul înapoi, el găsește o peșteră închisă și observă o figură stranie. Henry își descoperă turnul răscolit.

A doua zi, Delilah îi cere lui Henry să investigheze niște linii de comunicație căzute. Acolo, el descoperă firele tăiate și un bilet de la fete. El și Delilah hotărăsc să le sperie bine de tot, iar acesta găsește locul unde au campat, dar este abandonat. Un bilet lăsat de fete în acel loc îi acuză pe Henry că le-a distrus locul de campare și că le-a furat lucrurile personale.

Ulterior, Henry găsește un rucsac vechi și un aparat foto de unica folosință, care îi aparțin unui băiat pe nume Brian, iar Delilah îi spune că el a fost fiul lui Ned (Mac Brandt), un coleg pădurar. Ned era un om ce își petrecea timpul doar în aer liber și care bea foarte mult datorită experiențelor traumatizante din Războiul din Vietnam, în timp ce fiul său, Brian, adora poveștile de fantezie și jocurile de roluri. Deși regulile companiei nu permiteau angajaților să-și aducă copii la turn, Delilah ascundea asta față de superiorii ei pentru că Brian era simpatic. Brian și Ned au dispărut la un moment dat fără urmă.

Cele două adolescente sunt date dispărute. Temându-se de o investigație, Delilah minte și spune că nici ea și nici Henry nu le-au văzut vreodată pe fete. A doua zi la lac, Henry descoperă un radio și un bilet care conține conversațiile sale cu Delilah. Este doborât și descoperă după ce se trezește că biletul și radioul au dispărut. Henry descoperă și intră într-o zonă guvernamentală de cercetare și descoperă echipamente de supraveghere, dar și numeroase rapoarte despre viețile lor private și stenograme cu conversațiile dintre el și Delilah. După ce confiscă un dispozitiv de urmărire, părăsește zona.

Henry și Delilah pun la cale distrugerea taberei guvernamentale, dar se răzgândesc. În timp ce Henry se întoarce, cineva incendiază tabăra. Folosind dispozitivul de urmărire, el găsește un rucsac ce conține cheile de la poarta peșterii. Delilah raportează că cineva se află în turnul lui Henry; când acesta ajunge acolo, găsește un walkman cu conversațiile incriminatorii în care el și Delilah plănuiau să distrugă tabăra.

După ce Henry intră în peșteră, cineva încuie poarta imediat. El găsește o ieșire separată și descoperă un locșor folosit de Brian pentru a scăpa de tatăl său atunci când acesta încerca să-l învețe cum să se cațere. Henry continuă să exploreze cu ajutorul echipamentului rămas la tabăra lui Brian și descoperă cadavrul mumificat al lui Brian la fundul cavernei. Delilah este supărată și se învinovățește pentru că i-a permis lui Brian să stea.

Următoarea zi, incendiul din tabăra guvernamentală devine periculos, iar un ordin de evacuare este trimis fiecărui pădurar. În timp ce Henry se pregătește să plece, semnalul dispozitivului începe să bipăie. Urmărește semnalul și descoperă o casetă de la Ned, în care acesta mărturisește că moartea lui Brian a fost un accident, datorită lipsei băiatului de experiență la cățărat. Nedorind să se întoarcă în societate, Ned a hotărât să trăiască în sălbăticie. Henry găsește tabăra lui Ned, împreună cu lucruri de la zona guvernamentală, de la turnuri și de la adolescente; Delilah confirmă că ele sunt în siguranță. Tabăra guvernamentală folosea echipamentul pentru a studia fauna, dar Ned îl utiliza pentru a se asigura că nimeni nu-l va găsi și pentru a-l speria pe Henry. Delilah îl învinovățește pe Ned pentru moartea lui Brian și pleacă cu elicopterul, spunându-i lui Henry să se întoarcă la soția sa. El se duce la turnul ei, acolo unde un elicopter îl așteaptă, iar el și Delilah își iau la revedere prin radio.

Dezvoltare

Firewatch este primul joc video al celor de la Campo Santo, și a fost creat de Jake Rodkin și Sean Vanaman, foști directori de creație la The Walking Dead; Nels Anderson, designer al jocului Mark of the Ninja; și artistul Olly Moss. Chris Remo a fost implicat în multe aspecte ale designului, și a fost și compozitorul jocului.

Dezvoltarea pentru Firewatch a început dintr-o pictură de-a lui Moss. Jane Ng, artista principală de la Campo Santo, i-a fost dată misiunea de a transpune pictura lui Moss într-un mediu 3D, dar să păstreze stilul și elementele viziunii sale artistice. Lui Moss, care era cunoscut pentru lucrările sale grafice, i s-a alăturat lui Vanaman și Rodkin în fondarea Campo Santo, după ce a petrecut mulți ani lucrând la periferia dezvoltatorilor de jocuri. Pentru a crea respectiva pictură, Moss s-a inspirat din afișe ale Serviciului Național al Parcurilor din era New Deal. Echipa de dezvoltare a întreprins și o călătorie cu cortul prin Parcul Național Yosemite, pentru inspirație, unde au vizitat un turn de veghe construit în același fel ca și cel din joc. Jocul este inspirat și din experiența lui Vanaman și Anderson, care au crescut în partea rurală a Wyoming-ului.

Firewatch rulează pe motorul grafic Unity. Ng nu a fost de acord cu uneltele pentru crearea copacilor, și a modelat manual 23 de tipuri de copaci care au fost plasați în joc de 4.600 de ori. Un shader modificat a fost implementat pentru a produce un foliaj mai stilizat și simplificat. Turnurile din joc au fost construite conform specificațiilor guvernului, utilizându-se mărimea standard a buștenilor, după ce prima încercare a lui Ng a fost nesatisfăcătoare.

Interacțiunea prin stații de emisie-recepție din Firewatch este inspirată din relația jucătorului cu personajul Atlas din BioShock, precum și din sistemul de dialog din jocurile The Walking Dead.  Într-un anumit moment al dezvoltării, s-a intenționat ca protagonistul să poată comunica cu mai multe personaje, precum drumeți, dar ideea a fost abandonată datorită timpului scurt pe care echipa și l-a impus. Echipa a sperat să evite lucrul la sincronizarea dialogului cu mișcarea buzelor și să reducă animațiile necesare datorită numărului mic de oameni și al resurselor.

Primul capitol al jocului conține melodia "Push Play" a lui Joy Chun și Nate Bosley, de pe albumul lor synthwave Lets Get Electric (2014), care descrie un act de synthpop din anii '80, cunoscut ca și Cheap Talk. Melodia "Tell It to My Heart" a lui Taylor Dayne a fost cealaltă alegere, dar Vanaman a considerat piesa ca fiind prea impunătoare, dar și prea costisitoare pentru a fi licențiată. Când a realizat că ar costa prea mult și să comande un cântec, Remo a căutat o piesă în stilul anilor '80, realizată de un artist independent, ceea ce a dus la folosirea melodiei "Push Play". Piesa conține o combinație de chitară electrică și chitară acustică, chitară bas și orgă, cu mostre de la Fender Rhodes în locul pianului. Remo a cântat el însuși la instrumente.

Jocul a fost anunțat în martie 2014, lansarea sa fiind inițial programată pentru anul 2015. La GDC, compania a găzduit un playtest public, iar artista Jane Ng a găzduit o expoziție cu designul și estetica jocului, numită The Art of Firewatch. În 2015, echipa a participat la E3 și a confirmat că singura consolă pe care va fi lansat jocul va fi PlayStation 4. Cu toate acestea, o versiune pentru Xbox One s-a lansat în America de Nord pe 21 septembrie 2016, conținând un tur audio și un mod free-roam. Din cauza problemelor de rating, versiunea a fost amânată pentru Europa până pe data de 30 septembrie
 și pentru Australia și Noua Zeelandă până pe data de 14 octombrie.

Utilizatorii de HTC Vive și ochelari VR Oculus Rift pot face un tur al turnului lui Henry prin aplicația Destinations de pe Steam. Pentru acest lucru, scena a fost reconstruită cu ajutorul motorului de joc Source.
 Firewatch a devenit compatibil pentru PlayStation 4 Pro odată cu lansarea sa din 10 noiembrie, suportând rezoluție 4K și HDRI. Modul free-roam a devenit disponibil ulterior și pentru PlayStation 4 Pro și Steam.

Având un parteneriat cu Limited Run Games, Campo Santo a distribuit 10.000 de copii ale jocului pentru PlayStation 4. 4.800 de copii au devenit disponibile pe site-ul Limited Run Games începând cu 16 decembrie 2016, în timp ce 2.500 au devenit disponibile pe site-ul Campo Santo începând cu 16 ianuarie 2017.

În aprilie 2018, Campo Santo a anunțat că jocul va fi lansat pentru Nintendo Switch ulterior în anul respectiv. Ulterior s-a specificat că portarea pentru Nintendo Switch reprezintă o versiune extrem de optimizată a jocului și că actualizarea va fi disponibilă și pentru alte platforme. În plus, versiunea pentru Nintendo Switch va conține câteva elemente exclusive.

Recepție

Firewatch a primit recenzii "majoritar favorabile", conform site-ului Metacritic.

Steven Hansen de la Destructoid a lăudat gameplay-ul asistat de arborele de dialog, precum și vocile personajelor. Cel mai bun lucru al jocului, conform lui Hansen, a fost "coeziunea tematică", care orbita în jurul izolării auto-impuse. Sunetul a fost lăudat pentru că evoca un simț al fricii Hitchcockian. Jeff Cork de la Game Informer a scris, "Am fost imediat atras de lumea jocului, parțial datorită puterii secvenței introductive simple, dar și datorită noutății de a lua parte la ceva așa de obișnuit". Cork a observat că dialogul interactiv, cu toate că este simplu, "aduce viață jocului" și a numit conversațiile "naturale" și "incitante". El s-a distrat explorând mediul forestier, dar cu toate acestea a simțit finalul ca fiind nesatisfăcător în comparație cu întâmplările din poveste.

Scott Butterworth de la GameSpot a crezut că uneltele de navigație – un compas compact și o hartă din hârtie – au fost "captivante" dar "ocazional frustrante". A mai considerat că frumusețea vizuală a cadrului a încurajat explorarea și a notat că sunetul completa atmosfera. Alegerea dezvoltării personajelor prin dialog a fost "curajoasă" și "admirabilă", el spunând că este "o ilustrație răbdătoare și verosimilă a cum doi oameni ajung să se bazeze și să le pese unul de celălalt". Conform lui Butterworth, vocea personajelor a fost splendidă și plină de nuanță emoțională, de vreme ce el s-a atașat de personaje.
 Justin Towell de la GamesRadar a descris Firewatch ca fiind "una dintre cele mai fascinante distracții pe care le-am experimentat". El a lăudat vocile personajelor, pentru că au definit personalitățile fiecăruia. Towell a adăugat că muzica și sunetul au lucrat bine împreună la atmosferă. Cu toate acestea, el a remarcat și câteva probleme de continuitate, care l-au lăsat nedumerit. Ryan McCaffrey de la IGN a lăudat realismul cadrului, aclamând gameplay-ul și designul stilizat. El a lăudat și scenariul, spunând că vocile personajelor au fost punctul forte al jocului. Despre povestire, McCaffrey a spus, "Este tensionată, înspăimântătoare, și amuzantă – uneori toate în același moment. Nu multe jocuri se pot lăuda cu asta". El a considerat finalul polarizator, datorită creșterii promițătoare a poveștii. Colin Campbell de la Polygon a apreciat folosirea umorului și a empatiei în dezvoltarea personajelor și a considerat că misterul din joc a dat roade, iar povestea este "elegantă" și "satisfăcătoare". El a criticat finalul, spunând că este nereușit.

Vânzări
La o lună după ce s-a lansat, jocul a fost vândut în peste 500.000 de copii. La sfârșitul anului 2016, jocul a fost vândut în peste 1 milion de copii.

Premii

Film
În septembrie 2016, a fost anunțat că editorul Campo Santo a intrat într-un parteneriat cu casa de producție Good Universe pentru a adapta jocul într-un film.

Referințe

Legături externe

Jocuri pentru Linux
Jocuri pentru Mac OS X
Jocuri pentru PlayStation 4
Jocuri pentru PlayStation Network
Jocuri pentru Windows
Jocuri video dezvoltate în Statele Unite
Jocuri video din 2016

Firewatch


Senador Teotônio Vilela es un municipio brasileño del estado de Alagoas. Su población estimada en 2004 era de 40.584 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página de la prefectura

Localidades de Alagoas

Teotônio Vilela


An Stelis patinaria in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer ngan Alexander Charles Hirtz. An Stelis patinaria in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stelis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stelis (Orchidaceae)

Stelis patinaria


الحزب الاشتراكي البريطاني
هو حزب سياسي ذو توجه ماركسي. تأسس عام 1904.
الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى (SPGB) هو حزب إشتراكى سياسى في المملكة المتحدة. حزب ثورى ماركسى معارض للإصلاحية.
لقد تم إنشاء الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى مستوحياً الفكرة من الإتجاه الإشتراكى للحركة الاشتراكية في كندا، وذلك بعد طرد الأعضاء بواسطة هنرى هيندمان من الاتحاد الديمقراطى الإجتماعى في المملكة المتحدة.

التاريخ
في 12 يونيو عام 1904 تم تأسيس الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى، مما يجعله أقدم حزب إشتراكى نشط في المملكة المتحدة. كان جاك فيتزجيرالد عضواً في الاتحاد الديمقراطى الإجتماعى وقد تم طرده لقيامه بتدريس النظرية الماركسية الاقتصادية، ثم أصبح بعد ذلك عضواً بارزاً في الأعضاء المؤسسين للحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى.
والهدف الحالي اليوم هو نفسه الذي اتفق عليها لأعضاء المؤسسون. وهو «إنشاء نظام للمجتمع يقوم على الملكية المشتركة والسيطرة الديمقراطية على وسائل وأدوات إنتاج وتوزيع الثروة من قبل في مصلحة المجتمع بأسره».

في 1 سبتمبر 1904، تم نشرالعدد الأول للحزب الاشتراكي ونشرت أعداد جديدة كل شهردون انقطاع منذ ذلك الحين. في عام 1904 غادر الحزب الدولى الثانى بسبب إصلاحه

وقد تضمنت الكتيبات الأولية «الاشتراكية والدين» وإعادة طبع كتاب «الفن والعمل والاشتراكية» لوليام موريس وترجمة كتاب «من الحرف اليدوية إلى الرأس مالية», و «الطبقة الرأس مالية» و «الطبقة العاملة» لكارل كوتسكى. كما نشرت ايضاً المناقشات والتي تتضمن مناقشات جاك فيتزجيرالد ضد الحزب الليبرالى (هل يجب على الطبقة العاملة دعم الطبقة الليبرالية؟) في عام 1911, حزب العمل الإشتراكى (منتدى عمال جوفان المفتوح 1931) ونقاش ايدجار هاردكاسل ضد «الاتحاد الفيدرالى» (هل يجب على الاشتراكين دعم الاتحاد الفيدرالى) في عام 1940.

في الحرب العالمية الأولى، تم حظر تصدير النماذج الاشتراكية من قبل وزارة الداخلية بموجب لوائح الدفاع 27 و 57. على الرغم من أن الحزب الاشتراكي عارض الطليعة بما في ذلك اللينينية، وكان المنشور الوحيد في بريطانيا لطباعة مقال من البلاشفة في عام 1915 الذي دعا لإنهاء الحرب. وقد عارض الحزب الاشتراكى كل حرب منذ تأسيسه.

في عام 1937 صرح السير ويليام بودكين للبرلمان النيوزيلندي بأن «المعيار الاشتراكي» كان «السلطة الأكثر تميزا في العالم الاشتراكي في الإمبراطورية البريطانية».

فترة ما بعد الحرب
خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية تجنبا لعديد من الأعضاء التجنيد الإلزامى فتوقت الحرب من خلال كونهم معارضين للحرب، ولكن المعارضة الاشتراكية للحرب كان عليها رقابة شديدة. وفي عام 1945، شارك الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى في انتخابها لعام الأول معالم رشح كليفور دغروفيز، وبعد فترة وجيزة من الحرب العالمية الثانية، انتقل الحزب إلى مكتبه الرئيسي الحالي في شارع كلفام هاي. ولم يقم الحزب أبدا بحملة من أجل إجراء الإصلاحات وسعى دائما إلى الانتخاب في بيان صريح للاشتراكية.

خلال الخمسينيات، نشر الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى «جريدة المنتدى» للنقاش بين الأعضاء، مما أدى في نهاية المطاف إلى رحيل رئيساً لحزب الرئيسي توني تيرنر. في عام 1969، ونشر الحزب منشور واحد متعدد اللغات لمرة واحدة يسمى «الاشتراكية العالمية 69».في عام 1975، نشر أحدا لأعضاء تاريخ غير رسمي للحزب (النصب التذكاري لروبرت بارلتروب). ناقش فيه إدغار هاردكاسلفر ونتبينشر المحافظ سير كيثجوزي ففي عام 1975، والتقى الحزب الاشتراكي جبهة العمل العمالية تونيبن في عام 1980.

في عام 1991، غادر الحزب بعض الأعضاء البارزين بما فيهم إدغارهار دكاسل، والذين كانوا في فروع لندن التي تم حلها. شكل العديد من هؤلاء الأعضاء «الدراسات الاشتراكية» وقاموا بنشر عدد كل ثلاثة أشهر بنفس الاسم.

القرن ال 21
في عام 2004, قام الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى بنشر «الاشتراكية أو استعد أموالك» وهو كتاب يحتوى على مقالات من تاريخ المعيار الإشتراكى. وكان إصدار يونيو 2004 من المعيار الإشتراكى إصداراً مميزاً لإحياء الذكرى المئوية للحزب وشرح تاريخ الحزب.
في عام 2014, شارك الحزب الإشتراكى لبريطانيا العظمى في انتخابات البرلمان الأوربى وظهروا لأول مرة على التلفاز في قناه البى بى سى. وفي عام 2015 شارك مرشح الحزب في الانتخابات ضد جيرمى كوربين. كما تم إعلان بيرني ساندرز كمشارك في المعيار الاشتراكى في عام 2016.

المصادر

أحزاب بريطانيا
أحزاب سياسية أسست في 1904

الحزب الاشتراكي البريطاني


25240 Qiansanqiang este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
25240 Qiansanqiang este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Xinglong în cadrul programului Beijing Schmidt CCD Asteroid Program. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,79 ua, o excentricitate de 0,09 și o înclinație de 3,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 25001-26000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1998
Centura de asteroizi

25240 Qiansanqiang


was a village located in Hidaka District, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the village had an estimated population of 2,499 and a density of 28.72 persons per km². The total area was 87.02 km².

On May 1, 2005, Nakatsu, along with the town of Kawabe, and the village of Miyama (all from Hidaka District), was merged to create the town of Hidakagawa.

External links
Nakatsu official village website
Hidakagawa official town website

Dissolved municipalities of Wakayama Prefecture

Nakatsu, Wakayama


Montserrado County is a county in the northwestern portion of the West African nation of Liberia containing its national capital, Monrovia. One of 15 counties that comprise the first-level of administrative division in the nation, it has 17 sub political  districts.  As of the 2008 Census, it had a population of 1,118,241, making it the most populous county in Liberia.  The area of the county measures , the smallest in the country. Bensonville serves as the capital.

Created in 1847 at the foundation of the country, the county is the oldest in Liberia.  Montserrado's County Superintendent is Nyenekon Beauty Snoh-Barcon. The county is bordered by Bomi County to the west, Bong County to the north, and Margibi County to the east. The southern part of Montserrado lies on the Atlantic Coast.

Geography
Located on the coast in the northwestern third of Liberia, Montserrado County is bordered by three counties. The Atlantic Ocean makes up the county's southern border, while Bomi County lies on the western border. Bong County is to the north and Margibi County to the east. The land is mainly alluvial soils, primarily clay, washed seaward from the streams and rivers of the interior valleys. In the lowlands on the coast grow palm trees, mangrove woods, and savanna grasslands with tropical forest covering the interior hills and valleys. Rivers include the St. Paul, Mesurado, Du, and Po.

The climate is tropical with dry and wet seasons. Annual precipitation measures approximately . From May to November is the rainy season, followed by the dry season from December through April. During the dry season winds from the Sahara Desert called the Harmattan create wild temperature fluctuations from December to the beginning of March.

Districts
Careysburg District and Todee District are the two statutorily created districts in the county. Commonwealth District, Greater Monrovia District and St. Paul River District are also recognized, but are not officially recognized as administrative districts. There are 21 townships, seven cities, one borough, and two chiefdoms contained within these districts. Administration varies by subunit with a governor running the borough, mayors in charge of cities, commissioners administering townships, and superintendents controlling districts.

Commonwealth's population is 11,876.

Careysburg's population is 29,712. The main ethnic groups are Kpelle, Bassa, Mano, Kissi, Loma, and Gola. Both the White Plains Water Treatment Plant and the Mount Coffee Hydropower Project are in the district.

Todee District's population is 33,998 with farming the primary economic activity. The district is run by chiefdoms and clan systems, as the county contains a large number of native African communities.

The most populous district in the county and the nation, Greater Monrovia District, is home to 970,824 people.  Employment is mainly informal, small scale trade and government employment through the national government or foreign governments. The population has members of each of Liberia's 16 main tribes.

St. Paul River District is the second most populous district in the county with 71,831 residents. Residents are primarily Christians and a member of the Bassa, Dey, or Kpelle tribes. Farming and fishing are the main economic activities along with some small scale trading. The district has one paved road.

Demographics
Montserrado is the smallest county by size, but largest by population comprising approximately 33% of Liberia's total population. The population density is , the highest in Liberia. The county had a population of 491,078 at the 1984 Census. The average household size was 4.7 people, a decrease from 5.4 at the 1984 Census. The county capital of Bensonville has a population of 4,089.

Males outnumber females in the county with 585,833 to 558,973. Christians compose an estimated 68.2% of the population, with Muslims totaling 31.8%. All of Liberia's 16 main tribal groups are represented in the ethnic make up of the county. Kpelle speaking groups represent 52% of the population while Bassa speakers comprise 21%, followed by Lorma with 6%, Kru with 4%, and all others with 3% or less each.

In the county 10% of the population was considered food insecure, with 35% listed as highly vulnerable, 43% as moderately vulnerable, and 13% were listed as food secure regarding access to sustenance as of October 2006. Residents lived mainly in owner occupied dwellings, which made up 61% of households. Seventeen percent rented their homes with an average cost of 341 LD, and 22% lived rent free in their home.

Government
Each county in Liberia is headed by a superintendent appointed by the Liberian President. Montserrado's county superintendent is Beauty Barcon. Other executive office include commissioners for districts and townships, line ministries, and an assistant superintendent that focuses on development.  The county is divided into five districts, seven cities, one borough, twenty-one townships, seven clans, and two chiefdoms. A district superintendent heads each of the two statutory districts.

Judicially, the county has eight total courts between probate, justice of the peace, and magisterial courts. The Liberian National Police have 844 officers spread across 33 stations in the county, as of October 2007. Additionally, the National Police Training Academy is in Montserrado County in Paynesville City. Other national government employees assigned to the county include tax collectors, revenue agents, and customs officials.

Flag

The county flag contains green, brown, blue, and red. Half is red and half is blue, split along a diagonal line running from the lower left hand corner to the upper right hand corner. Blue comprises the top half and symbolizes that Montserrado was the first county. Red is on the bottom and represents the bloodshed from wars between tribal members and the African-American settlers. In the center lies a circle with trees which celebrate agriculture and the soil. There is a small Liberian flag in the upper left corner.

Economy
The county contains the most and the largest markets in the entire country. One of these is the Red Light market in Paynesville where a variety of consumer goods are sold out of wheelbarrows and old intermodal containers. Markets include daily markets, primarily for food, and weekly markets. The Red Light market and the Duala markets serve as distribution markets for incoming goods from the rural parts of Liberia.

Due to a lack of formal employment, many engage in informal businesses and trading.  As of October 2006, employment in the county is primarily self-employment with only 17% of households having members that were salaried employees. The largest income generation activity was through petty trade or small business, with 46% of households engaged in these activities. This was followed by 25% for making charcoal, 19% for temporary employment, and 18% for palm oil/nut production and sales. The national government is the county's single largest employer.

Agriculture is small part of economy, with the main crops consisting of cassava (90% of all crops), rice (16%), other vegetables (18%), corn (16%), sweet potatoes or eddoes (8%), plantain or bananas (8%), and pulses (1%). Livestock is mainly pigs, chickens, and ducks. Commercial crops grown include cocoa, coconuts, sugarcane, pineapple, kola nuts, palm oil, and rubber. Some palm oil is produced on government owned farms in Mt. Coffee and Fendell.

Rubber plantations are located in the Todee and Careysburg districts. These include the Morris American Rubber Company in Todee that employs 600 and the Liberia Resources Corporation in Careysburg with 300 employees. Overall rubber production accounts for eight percent of household income in Montserrado County. Small scale mineral extraction occurs for gold and diamonds. Other resource extraction activities include logging and fishing.

The Central Bank of Liberia is located in Monrovia, with other commercial banks also operating in Montserrado County, including the International Bank. The main port is the Freeport of Monrovia, the country's busiest port. The port has one wharf and four piers, though one pier cannot be used due to a sunken ship. Air travel available at Spriggs Payne Airport in Monrovia and Roberts International Airport in Robertsfield. Roberts is the only international airport in Liberia, and Payne along with Roberts have the only paved runways in the nation. Limited public transportation is available in the capital via the Monrovia Transit Authority. Passenger and freight rail service is available from the private company Geoservices between Monrovia and the Bong mines.

Education
The county had a total of 947 students enrolled in school in 1910.
In 1948, the missionaries from the Pentecostal faith opened a school in Mein Clan in Todee District. Additional primary schools were built in the 1970s, while in 1976 the University of Liberia opened the Fendall branch campus in Louisiana. Bentol City added a high school in 1978. The University of Liberia's main campus is located in Monrovia, and includes the country's only law school in the Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law.

Enrollment in primary schools in the county totaled 314,409 students, which was 35% of the total number for the nation as a whole. Students attended a total of 1,096 schools in the county. Thirty three percent of county residents had no formal education, while 27% had attended some elementary school. Seven percent completed elementary school, 19% had some high school education, and 11% completed high school. One percent each of residents completed college, attended college, or have received a vocational education. Enrollment for school age children is 70%, with 76% for males and 65% for females.

Culture
The Liberian National Museum is located in Monrovia, while the city also hosts two football stadiums, the National Complex and Antoinette Tubman Stadium. Media include STAR radio, The Daily Talk news boards, and The Analyst newspaper.

The majority of the county's population is Christian. with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monrovia serving as the head of the Catholic Church.

Infrastructure
The Liberia Water and Sewer Corporation provides water to some parts of the county. Prior to the civil wars it used water from the Mount Coffee Hydropower Project to supply water and some sewage disposal. There are approximately 13,000 wells in the county and 518 hand pumps. In health care, the county has eight hospitals, nine health centers, and approximately 93 medical clinics functioning as of 2008. Montserrado County has limited access to electricity, with the majority of power being generated by privately owned generators. The county is not served by any public communications, though cellular communications are available through four private companies. Ashmun Street is the main street in Monrovia, while the People's Bridge crosses the Mesurado River.

History

On December 11, 1821, officials from the United States arrived aboard the vessel Alligator under the command of Captain Robert F. Stockton at Mesurado Bay. Stockton and Dr. Eli Ayers negotiated to acquire the land in and around the bay from the native chiefs for a settlement by free negroes before sailing to Sierra Leone to pick up these colonists.

On January 7, 1822, the former slaves arrived and settled Providence Island on the Mesurado River under the auspices of the American Colonization Society (ACS), and by April they had moved to the mainland. A Kentucky state affiliate of the ACS was formed in 1828, and members raised money to transport Kentucky blacks — freeborn volunteers as well as slaves set free on the stipulation that they leave the United States — to Africa.  The Kentucky society bought a  site along the Saint Paul River and named it Kentucky in Africa. Clay-Ashland was the colony's main town.

Within the next two decades, approximately 3,200 ex-slaves, having either escaped from their shareholders or being born free, arrived in the Montserrado County area from Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, and Saint Lucia and Jamaica. As opportunities increased, former slaves moved through Grand Cape Mount, Bomi County, Montserrado and Margibi County to seek employment and prosperity. Many of the communities in the county are named for the pioneers who settled the area and their former homes in America.

The Liberian Herald began printing in 1830 in Monrovia and was the first newspaper in Liberia. In 1832, the Dey-Golah War erupted between the colonists and the native tribes. There was one battle, with the colonists from Monrovia defeating the Dey and Golah (Gola) combined group. In 1847, the colony declared its independence and Montserrado was the first of the Republic of Liberia's counties to sign the Declaration of Independence on July 26, 1847. At the time of creation, the county was composed of three administrative districts in Bomi, Gibi, and Marshall with Monrovia as the county capital. In 1885, the first municipal water supply system was completed in Monrovia.

The first County Inspector was appointed in 1949 by President Tubman, followed by President Tolbert's appointment of the first County Superintendent in 1973. A railroad was constructed in the mid 1960s from Monrovi'a port through Todee District by the Bong Mining Company. The Mount Coffee Hydropower Project's first phase was completed in 1966. Rubber and palm oil plantations were started in the 1960s and 1970s, while a factory for producing clothing was built in 1979 in Bentol City.

In 1974, the county capital was moved by President Tolbert from Monrovia to his hometown of Bensonville. In 1976, an Assistant Superintendent was added to focus on development in Montserrado County. Bomi Territory in the western portion of the county became Bomi County in 1983. In 1984, Marshall and Gibi territories were combined and became neighboring Margibi County to the east.

Virginia saw the construction of the Unity Conference Center and Hotel Africa in 1979. During the civil strife of the 1980s into the early 2000s much of the county's infrastructure was looted and left unmaintained. In July 2008, parts of the county received the worst flooding in its recorded history.

References

External links
List of villages
Place name codes

Counties of Liberia
1847 establishments in Liberia

Montserrado County


Un flashback (sau analepsă) este o scenă intercalată într-o operă literară sau cinematografică care duce narațiunea într-un moment din trecut. Flashback-urile sunt adesea folosite pentru a povesti evenimente care au avut loc înaintea secvenței principale de evenimente pentru a completa povestea. Un termen opus este flashforward (sau prolepsă) care dezvăluie evenimente care vor avea loc în viitor. Atât flashback-ul, cât și flashforward-ul sunt folosite pentru a completa o poveste, pentru a dezvolta un personaj sau pentru a adăuga structură narațiunii. În literatură, analepsa internă este un flashback într-un timp imediat anterior momentului actual al narațiunii, dar care nu este anterior momentului în care începe narațiunea; analepsa externă este un flashback într-un timp anterior celui în care începe narațiunea.

În filme și televiziune există tehnici de filmare și efecte vizuale pentru a alerta privitorul că acțiunea prezentată este un flashback sau flashforward; de exemplu, marginile imaginii pot fi în mod deliberat neclare, imaginea poate fi tăiată sau mișcată,  sau colorată în mod neobișnuit, în tonuri sepia sau monocromă atunci când narațiunea centrală este în culori.

Exemple notabile

Literatură
Un exemplu timpuriu de analepsă este în Ramayana și Mahabharata, în care povestea principală este relatată printr-o poveste în ramă ce are loc la o dată ulterioară. Un alt exemplu antic apare în Odiseea, în care acțiunea principală este povestită unui ascultător de către Ulise, prin flashback-uri.

O altă folosire timpurie a acestei tehnici într-un mister detectivistic are loc în "Cele trei mere", o poveste din cele O mie și una de nopți. Povestea începe cu descoperirea cadavrului unei tinere femei. După ce criminalul se dezvăluie singur mai târziu, el povestește motivele crimei printr-o serie de flashback-uri care duc la descoperirea trupului ei mort, la începutul poveștii. Flashback-urile sunt, de asemenea, utilizate în mai multe alte povești din O mie și una de nopți, precum "Sinbad marinarul" și "Orașul de Aramă".

Analepsa a fost utilizată pe scară largă de scriitorul Ford Madox Ford și de poetul, scriitorul, istoricul și mitologul Robert Graves.

Cartea Podul din San Luis Rey (1927) de Thornton Wilder este precursoarea narațiunilor moderne despre catastrofe în literatură și film, prezentând un singur dezastru care unește destinele mai multor victime, ale căror vieți sunt apoi explorate prin intermediul unor flashback-uri ale evenimentelor ce au condus la dezastru.

Analepsa este folosită, de asemenea, în Noaptea lui Elie Wiesel.

Dacă flashback-uri au durate lungi și sunt în ordine cronologică, se poate spune că acestea formează prezentul poveștii, în timp ce restul poveștii este format din flash forward-uri. Dacă flashback-urile sunt prezentate într-o ordine necronologică, momentul în care are loc povestea poate fi ambiguu: un astfel de exemplu este în Abatorul cinci, unde narațiunea sare în timp înainte și înapoi, astfel încât nu există, de fapt, nici un timp prezent.

Seria Harry Potter folosește un dispozitiv magic numit Pensieve, care schimbă natura flashback-urilor de la un simplu dispozitiv narativ la un eveniment direct trăit de personaje, care sunt astfel în măsură să ofere comentarii.

Os Lusíadas este o poveste despre călătoria lui Vasco da Gama spre India și înapoi. Narațiunea începe atunci când ei au ajuns în Africa, dar revine rapid  înapoi la începutul poveștii, care este atunci când au plecat din Portugalia.

Film
Creatorul tehnicii flashback-ului în cinematografie a fost D. W. Griffith.

Flashback-urile au fost utilizate pentru prima dată în epoca sonorului în fimul City Streets (1931) al lui Rouben Mamoulian, dar au fost rare până în 1939, când, în Wuthering Heights al lui William Wyler, la fel ca în romanul original al lui Emily Brontë, menajera Ellen narează povestea principală vizitatorului nocturn Lockwood, care a fost martorul urmăririi frenetice de către Heathcliff a ceea ce este aparent o fantomă. Mai faimos,  filmul Le jour se lève al lui Marcel Carne relatează aproape întreaga poveste prin flashback: povestea începe cu uciderea unui om într-un hotel. În timp ce criminalul, interpretat de Jean Gabin, este înconjurat de poliție, sunt folosite mai multe flashback-uri pentru a povesti care a fost motivul crimei de la începutul filmului.

Unul dintre cele mai faimoase exemple de flashback are loc în filmul Cetățeanul Kane (1941) al lui Orson Welles. Protagonistul, Charles Foster Kane, moare la început, rostind cuvântul "Rosebud". Restul filmului este format din interviurile luate de un reporter prietenilor și asociaților lui Kane, într-un efort inutil de a descoperi ce înseamnă cuvântul rostit de Kane. Pe măsură ce interviurile continuă, piesele vieții lui Kane se desfășoară în flashback. Se crede că utilizarea unor flashback-uri neconvenționale de către Welles ar fi fost influențată de filmul The Power and the Glory al lui William K. Howard.

Deși folosite, de obicei, pentru a clarifica povestea principală, flashback-urile pot servi, de asemenea, ca un narator nesigur. Filmul Stage Fright (1950) al lui Alfred Hitchcock este notoriu pentru prezentarea unui flashback care nu relatează adevărul, ci prezintă o minciună spusă de un martor. Reconstituirile multiple și contradictorii ale unei crime în documentarul The Thin Blue Line (1988) al lui Errol Morris sunt prezentate ca flashback-uri bazate pe mărturii divergente. Filmul Rashomon (1950) al lui Akira Kurosawa este unul dintre cele mai celebre cazuri de relatări divergente ale unui eveniment.

Uneori, un flashback este introdus într-un film, chiar dacă nu a existat așa ceva în sursa originală care a stat la baza filmului. Ecranizarea din 1956 a muzicalului Carousel  al lui Rodgers și Hammerstein a folosit un flashback deoarece intriga din Carusel a fost atunci considerată neobișnuit de puternică pentru un film muzical. În versiunea de film a muzicalului Camelot (1967) al lui Alan Jay Lerner, a fost adăugat un flashback nu pentru a atenua răsturnarea de situație de mai târziu, ci pentru că spectacolul a fost criticat pentru schimbarea prea bruscă a tonului de la comedie la tragedie.

Un bun exemplu de flashback și flashforward în același film este prima scena din La jetée (1962). Așa cum aflăm câteva minute mai târziu, ceea ce vedem în această scenă este un flashback în trecut, din moment ce timpul prezent al diegezei filmului este un timp imediat ulterior celui de-al Treilea Război Mondial. Cu toate acestea, după cum vom afla la finalul filmului, acea scenă este, de asemenea, o prolepsă, deoarece bărbatul muribund pe care-l vede băiatul este, de fapt, el însuși. Cu alte cuvinte, el își vede proleptic propria moarte. Avem astfel o analepsă și o prolepsă în aceeași scenă.

Ocazional, o poveste poate conține un flashback într-un alt flashback, iar cel mai vechi exemplu cunoscut este L'Atlantide al lui Jacques Feyder. În filmul The Man who Shot Liberty Valance (1962) al lui John Ford, acțiunea principală a filmului este relatată în flashback, cu scena uciderii lui Liberty Valance având loc ca un flashback în flashback. Alte exemple care conțin flashback-uri în flashback-uri sunt filmul japonez Lone Wolf Isazo (1968) și Fantoma de La Operă (2004), unde aproape întreaga acțiune (petrecută în 1870) este relatată ca un flashback din 1919 (în alb-negru) și conține alte flashback-uri; de exemplu, secvența în care Madame Giry salvează Fantoma dintr-un spectacol ciudat. O poveste extrem de complicată poate conține flashback-uri în flashback-uri în flashback-uri, ca în Six Degrees of Separation, Passage to Marseille și The Locket. Aceasta tehnică este o marcă distinctivă a regizorului de film Upendra, al cărui film futurist Super (2010) are acțiunea în anul 2030 și conține mai multe flashback-uri ce au loc în perioada 2010-2015, prezentând o Indie utopică.

Satyajit Ray a experimentat flashback-ul în filmul The Adversary (Pratidwandi, 1972), folosind tehnica flashback-urilor foto negative.

Televiziune
Serialele de televiziune Quantico,  Kung Fu, Psych, Cum am cunoscut-o pe mama voastră, Grounded for Life și Nu-i vina mea! folosesc flashback-uri în fiecare episod. Flashback-urile au fost, de asemenea, o caracteristică predominantă a emisiunii de televiziune LOST. Multe filme polițiste folosesc în mod curent flashback-ul în ultimul act pentru a prezenta vinovatul: de exemplu, Verdict crimă, Banacek, Columbo.

Referințe

Tehnici narative

Flashback


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The World of Null-A, sometimes written The World of Ā, is a 1948 science fiction novel by Canadian-American writer A. E. van Vogt. It was originally published as a three-part serial in 1945 in Astounding Stories. It incorporates concepts from the General Semantics of Alfred Korzybski.  The name Ā refers to non-Aristotelian logic.

Plot summary
Gilbert Gosseyn (pronounced go sane), a man living in an apparent utopia where those with superior understanding and mental control rule the rest of humanity, wants to be tested by the giant Machine that determines such superiority. However, he finds that his memories are false.  In his search for his real identity, he discovers that he has extra bodies that are activated when he dies (so that, in a sense, he cannot be killed), that a galactic society of humans exists outside the Solar system, a large interstellar empire wishes to conquer both the Earth and Venus (inhabited by masters of non-Aristotelian logic), and he has extra brain matter that, when properly trained, can allow him to move matter with his mind.

Publication history
The novel originally appeared as a serial entitled "The World of Ā" in the August 1945 to October 1945 issues of the magazine Astounding Science Fiction, which was edited by John W. Campbell, Jr.

Van Vogt significantly revised and shortened the tale for the 1948 novel release.  Like the serial, the 1948 hardcover (Simon & Schuster) and the 1950 hardcover (Grosset & Dunlap) editions were entitled The World of Ā.  To reduce printing costs, the 1953 and 1964 Ace Books paperback editions were entitled The World of Null-A, and the symbol Ā was replaced with "null-A" throughout the text. The 1970 revision kept this change, added some brief new passages to chapters 10, 24, and 35, and also included a new introduction in which van Vogt defended the controversial work, but also admitted that the original serial had been flawed.

Critical reception

It won the Manuscripters Club Award. It was listed by the New York area library association among the hundred best novels of 1948. World of Null-A has been translated into nine languages, and when first published, created the French Science Fiction Market all by itself - according to Jacques Sadoul, editor of Editions OPTA.  The World of Null-A finished second in the Retro Hugo award voting for Best Novel of 1945 presented in 1996 at L.A.con III.

For many years, two quotes appeared on the paperback editions of this novel.  "Without doubt one of the most exciting, continuously complex and richly patterned science fiction novels ever written!" - Groff Conklin; and "One of those once-in-a-decade classics!" - John Campbell.

In 1945, the novel was the subject of an extended critical essay by fellow author and critic Damon Knight.  In the review, which was later expanded into "Cosmic Jerrybuilder: A. E. van Vogt", Knight writes that "far from being a 'classic' by any reasonable standard, The World of Ā is one of the worst allegedly-adult science fiction stories ever published."  Knight criticizes the novel on four main levels:

In his author's introduction to the 1970 revised edition, van Vogt acknowledges that he has taken Knight's criticisms seriously, thus the reason for his revising the novel so many years after its original publication.

In 1974 Damon Knight walked back his original criticisms:

Sequels
The World of Null-A was followed by the sequel, The Pawns of Null-A (also known as The Players of Null-A, 1956), and much later by a follow-up, Null-A Three (1984).

In 2008 John C. Wright wrote a new chapter to the story of Gilbert Gosseyn, Null-A Continuum, in the style of van Vogt.

References

External links

 The World of Null-A as serialized in Astounding Science Fiction, parts one, two, and three at the Internet Archive

1948 American novels
1948 science fiction novels
American philosophical novels
General semantics
Non-classical logic
Novels by A. E. van Vogt
Novels first published in serial form
Simon & Schuster books
Works originally published in Analog Science Fiction and Fact

The World of Null-A


The Missing 8 é um web anime original (ONA) do animador Naoki Yoshibe produzido pelo estúdio Wit. O primeiro episódio da série estreou no Youtube em 28 de dezembro de 2021.

O conceito de The Missing 8 foi apresentado em 10 de julho de 2019 em um videoclipe de Fuzi e Neru. Um segundo vídeo com Neru  foi lançado em 5 de março de 2020. Os dois primeiros episódios estão sendo transmitidos em japonês com legendas em inglês.

Enredo
A história gira em torno dos andróides Poppy e Punkun, que vivem em um planeta onde os humanos são lendários. Seu mundo é composto por andróides, robôs, peixes do céu e criaturas destrutivas chamadas Dragonewts. Um dia, uma nave espacial humana cai no planeta e muda tudo.

No primeiro episódio, são apresentados os protagonistas, dois andróides chamados Poppy e Punkun, que têm personalidades totalmente opostas, mas ainda se dão muito bem. Enquanto Poppy recita a história de Lux, o humano, para Punkun, este último fica um pouco irritado com o motivo de Poppy estar tão fascinada por um ser fictício. Logo eles se deparam com alguns Dragonewts, que são criaturas destrutivas que aterrorizam os outros.

No episódio seguinte, a história dá uma reviravolta emocionante. Um misterioso meteoro cai no planeta, que acaba por ser uma nave espacial. Mãe, a criadora de todos os andróides, recebe de Poppy um relatório sobre o meteoro e imediatamente fica agitada com sua realidade.

Produção
Produzida com um orçamento reduzido, esta série adota uma animação muito limitada ou mesmo inexistente (um pouco em modo motion comic), apostando sobretudo na qualidade do visual e da história que pretende contar. O projeto contou com direção de Naoki Yoshibe e design de animação de Riku e Ao Fujimori.

Ligações externas
Site oficial

Séries de anime
Séries de televisão de anime de 2021
Animes de 2021
Animes e mangás de ficção científica

The Missing 8