Daniel Charles Brandenstein (born January 17, 1943) is the Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer of United Space Alliance. He is a former Naval Aviator, test pilot and NASA astronaut, who flew four Space Shuttle missions. He also served as Chief of the Astronaut Office from 1987 to 1992.

Career

Military
After graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in mathematics and physics from the University of Wisconsin–River Falls, and having been a member of Phi Sigma Kappa, Brandenstein entered active duty with the U.S. Navy in September 1965 and was attached to the Naval Air Training Command for flight training. He was designated a Naval Aviator at Naval Air Station Beeville, Texas, in May 1967 and then proceeded to attack squadron VA-128 for A-6 Intruder fleet replacement training. From 1968 to 1970, while attached to VA-196 flying A-6s, he participated in two combat deployments on board the aircraft carriers  and  to Southeast Asia where he flew 192 combat missions in the Vietnam War. In subsequent assignments, he was attached to VX-5 for the conduct of operational tests of A-6 weapons systems and tactics; and to the Naval Air Test Center, where upon graduation from the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, he conducted tests of electronic warfare systems in various Navy aircraft. Brandenstein carried out a nine-month deployment to the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean on board USS Ranger while attached to VA-145, flying A-6 Intruders during the period March 1975 to September 1977. Before reporting to the Johnson Space Center in Houston as an astronaut candidate, he was attached to VA-128 as an A-6 flight instructor.

NASA
Selected by NASA in January 1978, Brandenstein became an astronaut in August 1979. He was ascent spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) and a member of the astronaut support crew for STS-1 (the first flight of the Space Shuttle). He was subsequently assigned to the STS-2 astronaut support crew and was the ascent CAPCOM for the first two Space Shuttle flights. A veteran of four space flights—STS-8 (August 30 – September 3, 1983), STS-51-G (June 17–24, 1985), STS-32 (January 9–20, 1990), and STS-49 (May 7–16, 1992) -- Brandenstein has logged over 789 hours in space. Following his second space flight, he served as the Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations. Between April 1987 and September 1992 Brandenstein served as Chief of the Astronaut Office.

He retired from NASA and the United States Navy in October 1992.

Brandenstein was a pilot on STS-8, his first flight, which was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 30, 1983. This was the third flight for the Orbiter Challenger and the first mission with a night launch and night landing. During the mission, crew members deployed the Indian National Satellite (INSAT-1B); operated the Canadian-built Remote Manipulator System (RMS) with the Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA); operated the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System (CFES) with live cell samples; conducted medical measurements to understand biophysiological effects on space flight and activated various Earth resources and space science experiments along with four "Getaway Special" canisters. STS-8 completed 98 orbits of the Earth in 145 hours before landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1983.

On his second mission (June 17–24, 1985), Brandenstein commanded the crew of STS-51-G aboard the Orbiter Discovery. During this seven-day mission, crew members deployed communications satellites for Mexico (Morelos), the Arab League (Arabsat) and the United States (AT&T Telstar). They used the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to deploy and later retrieve the SPARTAN satellite, which performed 17 hours of X-ray astronomy experiments while separated from the Space Shuttle. In addition, the crew activated the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF) and six "Getaway Specials", they also participated in biomedical experiments and conducted a laser tracking experiment as part of the Strategic Defense Initiative. The mission was accomplished in 112 Earth orbits over approximately 170 hours.

Brandenstein then commanded the crew of STS-32 (January 9–20, 1990). In the longest Shuttle mission to date, crew members aboard the Orbiter Columbia successfully deployed the Syncom IV-F5 satellite, and retrieved the 9,724 kg (21,393 lb) Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) using the RMS. They also conducted a variety of mid-deck experiments, including the Microgravity Disturbance Experiment (MDE) using the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA), Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE), Latitude/Longitude Locator (L3), Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), Characterization of Neurospora Circadian Rhythms (CNCR) and the IMAX camera. Additionally, numerous medical test objectives, including in-flight Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP), in-flight aerobic exercise and muscle performance were conducted to evaluate human adaptation to extended duration missions. Following 173 orbits of the Earth in 261 hours, the mission ended with a night landing in California.

Brandenstein also commanded the crew of STS-49 (May 7–16, 1992), on the maiden flight of the new Space Shuttle Endeavour. During this mission, the crew conducted the initial test flight of Endeavour, performed a record four EVAs (space walks) to retrieve, repair and re-deploy the International Telecommunications Satellite (INTELSAT) and to demonstrate and evaluate numerous EVA tasks to be used for the assembly of the Space Station 'Freedom'. Additionally, a variety of medical, scientific and operational tests were conducted throughout the mission. STS-49 logged 213 hours in space and 141 Earth orbits before landing at Edwards AFB, where the crew conducted the first test of the Endeavour's drag chute.

Special honors and awards
He was awarded the Defense Superior Service Medal with oak leaf cluster, the Legion of Merit, the Distinguished Flying Cross, the Defense Meritorious Service Medal, 17 Air Medals, the Navy Commendation Medal with oak leaf cluster and Valor device, a Meritorious Unit Commendation, two NASA Distinguished Service Medals, two NASA Outstanding Leadership Medals, four NASA Space Flight Medals, the National Defense Service Medal, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, the Vietnam Service Medal, a Sea Service Deployment Ribbon, the French Legion of Honor, the Medal of King Abdul Aziz (Saudi Arabia), the Vietnam Air Gallantry Cross, the Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation and the Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal. He is a Distinguished Alumnus at the University of Wisconsin, River Falls; an Honorary Doctor of Engineering at the Milwaukee School of Engineering; an Honorary Doctor of Science from the University of Wisconsin-River Falls. Brandenstein is a recipient of the SETP Iven C. Kincheloe Award, the AIAA Haley Space Flight Award, the Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI) Yuri Gagarin Gold Medal and the American Astronautical Society Flight Achievement Award. He was inducted into the Wisconsin Aviation Hall of Fame in 1992.

References

External links

Spacefacts biography of Daniel Brandenstein

1943 births
Living people
United States Navy astronauts
United States Astronaut Hall of Fame inductees
People from Watertown, Wisconsin
American Lutherans
University of Wisconsin–River Falls alumni
United States Naval Test Pilot School alumni
United States Navy captains
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy personnel of the Vietnam War
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Air Medal
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
Recipients of the NASA Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Air Gallantry Cross
Recipients of the Gallantry Cross (Vietnam)
American chief operating officers
Space Shuttle program astronauts
Military personnel from Wisconsin

Daniel Brandenstein


روابط إيضافية

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من برونيك
إيطاليون ألمانيو اللغة الأم
إيطاليون من أصل نمساوي
رياضيون من برونيك
لاعبات كرة مضرب إيطاليات
لاعبو كرة مضرب أولمبيون من إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة مضرب في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2016
مواليد 1987

كارين كناب


Zulma Nélida Brandoni de Gasparini (La Plata, 15 de maio de 1944) é uma paleontóloga e zoóloga argentina. Ela é conhecida por descobrir os fósseis do dinossauro Gasparinisaura, que recebeu seu sobrenome.

Carreira
Nascida na cidade de La Plata, na Argentina, em 15 de maio de 1944, Brandoni de Gasparini formou-se em zoologia pela Universidade Nacional de La Plata em 1966 e obteve seu doutorado em Ciências Naturais em 1973.

Zulma Brandoni de Gasparini foi reconhecida internacionalmente na década de 1990 por liderar a equipe que descobriu a Gasparinisaura. Ela é uma especialista reconhecida em reptilianos mesozóicos da América do Sul.

Em 1972, iniciou sua carreira científica no Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas e Técnicas (CONICET), no qual foi promovida em 2003 ao grau de Pesquisadora Superior. Atualmente é professora de Paleontologia de Vertebrados na Universidade Nacional de La Plata.

Honrarias
Brandoni de Gasparini recebeu, entre outros reconhecimentos, o Prêmio "Bernardo Houssay" do CONICET (1987), o Prêmio ao Mérito da Associação Paleontológica Argentina (2001) e o Prêmio Florentino Ameghino da Academia Nacional de Exatas e Naturais Ciências (2002). Recebeu o Prêmio Pellegrino Strobel em 2013.

Mulheres cientistas do século XXI
Mulheres cientistas do século XX
Argentinos de ascendência italiana
Alunos da Universidade Nacional de La Plata
Zoólogos com abreviatura do nome
Mulheres na paleontologia
Biólogas
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1994
Paleontólogos da Argentina
Biólogos da Argentina
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)
Professores da Universidade Nacional de La Plata

Zulma Brandoni de Gasparini


Pigen og skoene er en kortfilm fra 1959 instrueret af Ib Schmedes efter manuskript af Ib Schmedes.

Handling

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1959

Pigen og skoene


Ulsberg Station (Ulsberg stasjon) er en tidligere jernbanestation på Dovrebanen, der ligger i Rennebu kommune i Norge.

Stationen blev åbnet officielt 20. september 1921 sammen med den sidste del af banen mellem Dombås og Støren. Stationen skulle egentlig have heddet Austberg, men den blev åbnet som Ulsberg. Den blev fjernstyret 24. juni 1968 og gjort ubemandet 1. oktober 1970. Betjeningen med persontog blev indstillet 28. maj 1989 men genoptaget fra 29. august 1993 til 11. juni 2000. Derefter har stationen fungeret som fjernstyret krydsningsspor.

I en kort periode fra 15. december 1917 blev stationen drevet provisorisk, efter at strækningen mellem Gisna og Berkåk var gjort færdig.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Noter

Stationer på Dovrebanen
Jernbanestationer i Norge uden persontrafik
Etableret i 1921
Jernbanestationer i Trøndelag

Ulsberg Station


نظام كشف التسلل  هو برنامج و/ أو جهاز مصمم للكشف عن محاولات الوصول غير المرغوب بها إلى نظام الحاسب الآلي أو محاولة تعطيل هذا النظام بشكل عام والتلاعب به، وذلك من خلال شبكة العمل، مثل إنترنت. هذه المحاولات يمكن أن تستخدم عدة أشكال للهجمات، على سبيل المثال، بواسطة كسر الحماية التي تتعلق بحقوق النسخ أو الطبع، أو استخدام برامج ضارة و/ أو استخدام الموظفين الساخطين على شركتهم أو ما شابه. نظام كشف التسلل لا يمكنه كشف الهجمات ضمن حركة مرورية مشفرة.

نظام كشف التسلل يستخدم للكشف عن عدة أنواع من التصرفات المريبة التي يمكن أن تنتهك نظام الحاسب الأمني وتفقده موثوقيته. هذا يتضمن هجمات الشبكة ضد الخدمات الضعيفة، البيانات التي تدفع الهجمات على التطبيقات، الهجمات القائمة على استضافة الامتيازات، الدخول غير المصرح به والوصول إلى المفات الحساسة، والبرامج الضارة (الفيروسات، حصان طروادة، والديدان).

نظام كشف التسلل يمكن أن يكون مؤلفاً من عدة مكونات: جهاز استشعار  الذي يولد الأحداث الأمنية، لوحة تحكم  لمراقبة الأحداث والتنبيهات والتحكم بأجهزة الاستشعار، ومحرك عام الذي يقوم بتسجيل إدخالات الأحداث المتلقاة من خلال أجهزة الاستشعار في قاعدة بيانات ويستخدم نظام من القواعد التي يتخذها لتوليد التنبيهات من الأحداث الأمنية التي حددت. هنالك العديد من الطرق لتصنيف أنظمة كشف التسلل بالاعتماد على نوع وموقع أجهزة الاستشعار والمنهجيات المستخدمة على هذا المحرك للقيام بتوليد التنبيهات. في العديد من أنظمة الكشف عن التسلل البسيطة جميع هذه العناصر تكون مجتمعة في جهاز واحد أو عدة أجهزة.

تعرف على الأنظمة التالية
 نظام كشف التسلل بالاعتماد على الشبكة اختصاراً (NIDS)
 المضيف-المستند على نظام كشف التسلل اختصاراً (HIDS)
 البروتوكول-المستند على نظام كشف التسلل اختصاراً (PIDS)
 تطبيق البروتوكول-المستند على نظام كشف التسلل اختصاراً (APIDS)
 الوضع الشاذ-المستند على نظام كشف التسلل
 نظام منع التسلل اختصاراً (IPS)
 نظام الناعة المصطنعة اختصاراً (AIS)
 الوكيل المستقل لكشف التسلل اختصاراً (AAFID)

أنظمة كشف تسلل مجانية
 سنورت
 Endian Firewall
 أنتانجل
 Bro NIDS
 Prelude Hybrid IDS
 OSSEC HIDS

فاحصات الضعف

نظام منع التسلل

أنظمة كشف تسلل محترفة
 كات نت
d͡ʑd͡ʑd͡zt͡ʃ

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 أنظمة كشف التسلل الفئة في مشروع الدليل المفتوح
 الأمن السلبي نظام IDS مثال
 دليل لاكتشاف ومنع اٍختراق النظم (IDPS), المعهد الوطني للمعايير والتقنية CSRC منشور خاص SP 800-94, released 02/2007
 سوفت بانوراما : كشف التسلل (مسائل عامة)
 اٍي دي أس التهرب مع يونيكود
 مقال مجلة لينكس
 Intrusion Detection/Protection شجرة نظم التصنيف
 Cross Reference Anomaly Processing: CRAP
 يمكنك معرفة المزيد من المعلومات بالنقر هنا.

أمن الحاسوب
أمن شبكات الحاسوب
إدارة النظم

نظام كشف التسلل


The Eighth Air Force (Air Forces Strategic) is a numbered air force (NAF) of the United States Air Force's Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC). It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. The command serves as Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike, one of the air components of United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM). The Eighth Air Force includes the heart of America's heavy bomber force: the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the Rockwell B-1 Lancer supersonic bomber, and the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress heavy bomber aircraft.

Established on 22 February 1944 by the redesignation of VIII Bomber Command at RAF Daws Hill in High Wycombe, England, the Eighth Army Air Force (8 AAF) was a United States Army Air Forces combat air force in the European Theater of World War II (1939/41–1945), engaging in operations primarily in the Northern Europe area of responsibility; carrying out strategic bombing of enemy targets in France, the Low Countries, and Germany; and engaging in air-to-air fighter combat against enemy aircraft until the German capitulation in May 1945. It was the largest of the deployed combat Army Air Forces in numbers of personnel, aircraft, and equipment.

During the Cold War (1945–1991), 8 AF was one of three Numbered Air Forces of the United States Air Force's Strategic Air Command (SAC), with a three-star general headquartered at Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts commanding USAF strategic bombers and missiles on a global scale. Elements of 8 AF engaged in combat operations during the Korean War (1950–1953); Vietnam War (1961–1975), as well as Operation Desert Storm (1990–1991) over Iraq and occupied Kuwait in the First Persian Gulf War.

Overview
Eighth Air Force is one of two active duty numbered air forces in the Air Force Global Strike Command. Eighth Air Force, with headquarters at Barksdale Air Force Base in Bossier Parish, Louisiana, supports U.S. Strategic Command, and is designated as U.S. Strategic Command's Task Force 204, providing on-alert, combat-ready forces to the president. The mission of "The Mighty Eighth" is to safeguard America's interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and overseas locations. Its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is "Peace Through Strength."

The Eighth Air Force team consists of more than 16,000 Regular Air Force (e.g., active duty), Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve professionals operating and maintaining a variety of aircraft capable of deploying air power to any area of the world. This air power includes the heart of America's heavy bomber force, deploying the Rockwell B-1 Lancer, Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit and the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. The Mighty Eighth's B-52 force consists of 76 bombers assigned to two active duty wings, the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana and the 5th Bomb Wing at Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota, and one reserve wing, the 307th Bomb Wing at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. The B-2 force consists of 20 bombers assigned to the active duty 509th Bomb Wing along with the Missouri Air National Guard's associate 131st Bomb Wing at Whiteman AFB, Missouri. The B-1 force consists of 62 bombers assigned to the active duty 7th Bomb Wing at Dyess AFB, Texas and the 28th Bomb Wing at Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota.  The 131st Bomb Wing is operationally-gained by AFGSC and 8 AF from the Air National Guard, while the 307th Bomb Wing is operationally-gained from Air Force Reserve Command and 10th Air Force.

Major General Mark E. Weatherington assumed command of 8th Air Force on 12 June 2020.

History: World War II

Eighth Air Force was established as VIII Bomber Command on 19 January 1942 and activated at Langley Field, Virginia on 1 February.  It was reassigned to Savannah Army Air Base, Georgia on 10 February 1942. An advanced detachment of VIII Bomber Command was established at RAF Daws Hill, near RAF Bomber Command Headquarters at RAF High Wycombe, on 23 February in preparation for its units to arrive in the United Kingdom from the United States. The first combat group of VIII Bomber Command to arrive in the United Kingdom was the ground echelon of the 97th Bombardment Group, which arrived at RAF Polebrook and RAF Grafton Underwood on 9 June 1942.

Start of offensive operations against Nazi-occupied territory

The VIII Bomber Command launched its first raid in North-western Europe on 4 July 1942, when six RAF Douglas A-20 Havocs flown by crews of the 15th Bombardment Squadron (Light) (accompanied by another six Bostons from the more experienced No. 226 Squadron RAF) commanded by Captain Charles C. Kegelman attacked four airfields in the Netherlands. Alerted to the attack, the airfield defences were prepared for the raid when it arrived. The right propeller of Kegelman's Boston was shot away by flak while over the target at De Kooy Airfield Further ground fire caused damage to his right wing, and the engine caught fire. Kegelman's aircraft lost altitude and even bounced off the ground, but he was able to bring the damaged bomber home and received the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) from General Spaatz on 11 July. This was the first DSC earned by a member of the Eighth Air Force in World War II. The other American-flown Boston had been shot down over De Kooy

Regular combat operations by the VIII Bomber Command began on 17 August 1942, when the 97th Bombardment Group flew twelve Boeing B-17E Flying Fortresses on the first VIII Bomber Command heavy bomber mission of the war from RAF Grafton Underwood, attacking the Rouen-Sotteville marshalling yards in France. Colonel Frank A. Armstrong may have been the commander of the 97th, but at the time of the raid, not yet left seat qualified. On this mission, he sat in the co-pilot's seat of the lead B-17, Butcher Shop The pilot in command and leader of this historic mission was Paul Tibbets, who on 6 August 1945, dropped the first Atomic Bomb, Little Boy, on Hiroshima from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, Enola Gay.

During World War II, the offensive air forces of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) came to be classified as strategic or tactical. A strategic air force was that with a mission to attack an enemy's war effort beyond his front-line forces, predominantly production and supply facilities, whereas a tactical air force supported ground campaigns, usually with objectives selected through co-operation with the armies.

In Europe, Eighth Air Force was the first USAAF strategic air force, with a mission to support an invasion of continental Europe from the British Isles. Eighth Air Force carried out strategic daytime bombing operations in Western Europe from airfields in eastern England as part of the Combined Bomber Offensive.

World War II (1944–1945)

On 4 January 1944, the Consolidated B-24 Liberators and B-17s based in England flew their last mission as a subordinate part of VIII Bomber Command. On 22 February 1944, a massive reorganization of American airpower took place in Europe. The original Eighth Air Force was redesignated as the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF).  VIII Bomber Command, re-designated as Eighth Air Force, and Ninth Air Force were assigned to (USSTAF).

VIII Bomber Command, after redesignation as Eighth Air Force, was assigned VIII Fighter and VIII Air Support Commands under its command. This is from where the present-day Eighth Air Force's history, lineage and honors derive.

General Carl Spaatz returned to England to command the USSTAF. Major General Jimmy Doolittle relinquished command of the Fifteenth Air Force to Major General Nathan F. Twining and on January 6, 1944, took over command of the Eighth Air Force from Lieutenant General Ira C. Eaker at RAF Daws Hill. Doolittle was well known to American airmen as the famous "Tokyo Raider" and former air racer. His directive was simple: "Win the air war and isolate the battlefield."

Spaatz and Doolittle's plan was to use the US Strategic Air Forces in a series of co-ordinated raids, code-named Operation 'Argument' (popularly known as 'Big Week' )  and supported by RAF night bombing, on the German aircraft industry at the earliest possible date.

Big Week

Cold and clear weather was predicted for the last week of February 1944. On the night of 19–20 February, the RAF bombed Leipzig with 823 aircraft. The Eighth Air Force's effort was over 1,000 B-17s and B-24s and over 800 fighters. The RAF provided sixteen squadrons of North American P-51 Mustangs and Supermarine Spitfires. In all, twelve aircraft factories were attacked, with the B-17s heading to Leipzig – Junkers Ju 88 production and – Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters), Bernburg-Strenzfeld (Junkers Ju 88 plant) and Oschersleben (AGO plant making Focke Wulf  Fw 190A fighters).

The B-24s hit the Gothaer Waggonfabrik (production of Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters), the Fw 190 Arado Flugzeugwerke plant at Tutow and Heinkel's "Heinkel-Nord" headquarters at Rostock, which produced He 111 bombers. The Luftwaffe, conversely, was undertaking the sixth major raid of the "Baby Blitz" the following night (20/21 February), with only some 165 German aircraft sortieing against British targets.

The raids on the German aircraft industry comprising much of "Big Week" caused so much damage that the Germans were forced to disperse aircraft manufacturing eastward, to safer parts of the Reich.

The next day, over 900 bombers and 700 fighters of Eighth Air Force hit more aircraft factories in the Braunschweig area. Over 60 Luftwaffe fighters were shot down, with a loss of 19 US bombers and 5 US fighters. On 24 February, with the weather clearing over central Germany, the Eighth Air Force sent over 800 bombers, hitting Schweinfurt and attacks on the Baltic coast, with a total of 11 B-17s being lost. Some 230 B-24s hit the Messerschmitt Bf 110 assembly plant at Gotha with a loss of 24 aircraft.

On 22 February 1944, due to many mistakes, Nijmegen was bombed by twelve aircraft of the 446th Bombardment Group and two aircraft of the 453rd. They did not realize that they were over Dutch territory. 850 civilians, including children on their way to school, were among the casualties.

On 25 February, both the Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces hit numerous targets at Fürth airfield, Augsburg and Regensburg, attacking Messerschmitt Bf 110 and Bf 109 plants. The 8th lost 31 bombers, the 15th lost 33.

Berlin

Less than a week after "Big Week", Eighth Air Force made its first attack on the Reich's capital, Berlin. The RAF had been making night raids on Berlin since 1940 with heavy raids in 1943 and nuisance de Havilland Mosquito raids in daylight, but this was the first major daylight bombing raid on the German capital. On 6 March 1944, over 700 heavy bombers along with 800 escort fighters of the Eighth Air Force hit numerous targets within Berlin, dropping the first American bombs on the capital of the Third Reich. On 8 March, another raid of 600 bombers and 200 fighters hit the Berlin area again, destroying the VKF ball-bearing plant at Erkner. The following day, on 9 March, H2X radar-equipped B-17s mounted a third attack on the Reich capital through clouds. Altogether, the Eighth Air Force dropped over 4,800 tons of high explosive on Berlin during the first week of March. The photograph shows housing destroyed by the RAF during night raids.

On 22 March, over 800 bombers, led by H2X radar equipped bombers hit Berlin yet again, bombing targets through a thick rainy overcast causing more destruction to various industries. Because of the thick clouds and rain over the area the Luftwaffe did not attack the American bomber fleet, as the Germans believed that because of the weather the American bombers would be incapable of attacking their targets. Even so, the "pathfinder" bombers of the RAF Alconbury-based 482d Bomb Group proved very capable of finding the targets and guiding the bombers to them.

Prelude to Operation Overlord

In a prelude to the invasion of France, American air attacks began in February 1944 against railroad junctions, airfields, ports and bridges in northern France and along the English Channel coastline. Fighters from both Eighth and Ninth Air Forces made wide sweeps over the area, mounting strafing missions at airfields and rail networks. By 6 June, Allied fighter pilots had succeeded in damaging or destroying hundreds of locomotives, thousands of motorized vehicles, and many bridges. In addition, German airfields in France and Belgium were attacked.

On 1 May, over 1,300 Eighth Air Force heavy bombers made an all-out attack on the enemy's rail network, striking at targets in France and Belgium. On 7 May, another 1,000 bombers hit additional targets along the English Channel coast, hitting fortifications, bridges and marshaling areas.

On D-Day, over 2,300 sorties were flown by Eighth Air Force heavy bombers in the Normandy and Cherbourg invasion areas, all aimed at neutralizing enemy coastal defenses and front-line troops.

Defeat of the Luftwaffe

The P-51 Mustang first entered squadron service in Europe with the British in early 1942; the Allison V-1710-engined P-51A (Mustang I) having much success with the RAF, although it found the aircraft's performance inadequate at higher altitudes. Rolls-Royce engineers rapidly realized that equipping the Mustang with a Rolls-Royce Merlin engine with its two speed, two stage supercharger would substantially improve performance. Also, by using a four-bladed propeller, rather than the three-bladed one used on the P-51A, the performance was greatly improved; the XP-51B achieved a level speed of 441 mph at , over  faster than the Allison-engined P-51A at that altitude. At all heights, the rate of climb was approximately doubled.

The USAAF now finally had an aircraft that could compete on equal terms with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 and the later models of the Messerschmitt Bf 109. The USAAF was finally fully sold on the Mustang, and a letter contract for 2200 P-51Bs was issued. The engine was to be the Packard V-1650-3, based on the Rolls-Royce Merlin Mk68.

In late 1943, the P-51B Mustang was introduced to the European Theater by the USAAF. It could fly as far on its internal fuel tanks as the P-47 could with drop tanks. However, the P-51B was introduced as a tactical fighter, so the first deliveries of the P-51B in November 1943 were assigned to three groups in the tactical Ninth Air Force at the expense of VIII Bomber Command, whose need for a long range escort fighter was critical. The first escort mission for the bombers was not flown until 5 December.

As the new commander of the Eighth Air Force since January 1944, Major General Jimmy Doolittle's major influence on the European air war occurred early that year when he made a critical change to the policy requiring escorting fighters to remain with the bombers at all times. With Doolittle's permission, American fighter pilots on bomber defense missions would primarily be flying far ahead of the bombers' combat box formations in air supremacy mode, literally "clearing the skies" of any Luftwaffe fighter opposition heading towards the target. This strategy fatally disabled the twin-engined Zerstörergeschwader heavy fighter wings and their replacement, single-engined Sturmgruppen of heavily armed Fw 190As, clearing each force of bomber destroyers in their turn from Germany's skies throughout most of 1944. As part of this game-changing strategy, especially after the bombers had hit their targets, the USAAF's fighters were then free to strafe German airfields and transport while returning to base, contributing significantly to the achievement of air superiority by Allied air forces over Europe.

The effect of the Mustangs, fully operating as an air supremacy fighter force, on the Luftwaffe defenders was arguably swift and decisive. The result was that the Luftwaffe was notable by its absence over the skies of Europe after D-Day and the Allies were starting to achieve air superiority over the continent. Although the Luftwaffe could, and did, mount effective attacks on the ever-larger formations of Allied heavy bombers, the sheer numbers of B-17s and B-24s attacking enemy targets was overwhelming the German fighter force, which simply could not sustain the losses the Eighth Air Force bombers and fighters were inflicting on it.  In order to quickly assemble these formations, specially outfitted assembly ships were created from older bombers.

By mid-1944, Eighth Air Force had reached a total strength of more than 200,000 people (it is estimated that more than 350,000 Americans served in Eighth Air Force during the war in Europe). At peak strength, Eighth Air Force had forty heavy bomber groups, fifteen fighter groups, and four specialized support groups. It could, and often did, dispatch more than 2,000 four-engine bombers and more than 1,000 fighters on a single mission to multiple targets.

By 1945, all but one of the Eighth Air Force fighter groups were equipped with the P-51D.

Destroying the German oil industry

Eighth Air Force did not strike at oil industry targets until 13 May 1944 when 749 bombers, escorted by almost 740 fighters, pounded oil targets in the Leipzig area and at Brüx in Czechoslovakia. At the same time, a smaller force hit an Fw 190 repair depot at Zwickau. Over 300 German fighters attacked the bomber forces, losing almost half its aircraft, with claims of upwards of 47 Luftwaffe fighters by American fighter pilots. However, the Luftwaffe was successful in shooting down 46 bombers in a very unequal fight.

After D-Day, attacks on the German oil industry assumed top priority which was widely dispersed around the Reich. Vast fleets of B-24s and B-17s escorted by P-51Ds and long-range P-38Ls hit refineries in Germany and Czechoslovakia in late 1944 and early 1945. Having almost total air superiority throughout the collapsing German Reich, Eighth Air Force hit targets as far east as Hungary, while Fifteenth Air Force hit oil industry facilities in Yugoslavia, Romania, and northeastern Italy. On at least eighteen occasions, the Merseburg refineries in Leuna, where the majority of Germany's synthetic fuel for jet aircraft was refined, was hit. By the end of 1944, only three out of ninety-one refineries in the Reich were still working normally, twenty-nine were partially functional, and the remainder were completely destroyed.

Casualties and awards
These missions, however, carried a high price. Half of the U.S. Army Air Forces' casualties in World War II were suffered by Eighth Air Force (more than 47,000 casualties, with more than 26,000 dead). Seventeen Medals of Honor went to Eighth Air Force personnel during the war. By war's end, they had been awarded a number of other medals to include 220 Distinguished Service Crosses, and 442,000 Air Medals. Many more awards were made to Eighth Air Force veterans after the war that remain uncounted. There were 261 fighter aces in the Eighth Air Force during World War II. Thirty-one of these aces had 15 or more aircraft kills apiece. Another 305 enlisted gunners were also recognized as aces.

One notable Eighth Air Force casualty was Brigadier General Arthur W. Vanaman, Chief of Intelligence, who was captured by the Germans in northern France on 27 June 1944, becoming the highest-ranked American POW captured in Europe during the war.

Victory in Europe

In January 1945, the Luftwaffe attempted one last major air offensive against the Allied Air Forces. Over 950 fighters had been sent west from the Eastern Front for "Operation Bodenplatte". On 1 January, the entire German fighter force in the West, comprising combat aircraft from some eleven Jagdgeschwader day fighter wings, took off and attacked 27 Allied airfields in northern France, Belgium and the southern part of the Netherlands in an attempt by the Luftwaffe to cripple Allied air forces in the Low Countries of Europe. It was a last-ditch effort to keep up the momentum of the German forces during the stagnant stage of the Battle of the Bulge (Unternehmen Wacht am Rhein). The operation was a pyrrhic success for the Luftwaffe as the losses suffered by the German air arm were irreplaceable and over 300 Luftwaffe aircraft were shot down, mostly by Allied anti-aircraft guns. The losses of the Allied Air Forces were replaced within weeks. The operation failed to achieve air superiority, even temporarily, and the German Army continued to be exposed to air attack.

First seen by Allied airmen during the late summer of 1944, it wasn't until March 1945 that German jet aircraft started to attack Allied bomber formations in earnest. On 2 March, when Eighth Air Force bombers were dispatched to attack the synthetic oil refineries at Leipzig, Messerschmitt Me 262As attacked the formation near Dresden. The next day, the largest formation of German jets ever seen, most likely from the Luftwaffe's specialist 7th Fighter Wing, Jagdgeschwader 7 Nowotny, made attacks on Eighth Air Force bomber formations over Dresden and the oil targets at Essen, shooting down a total of three bombers.

However, the Luftwaffe jets were simply too few and too late to have any serious effect on the Allied air armadas now sweeping over the Reich with near-impunity. A lack of fuel and available pilots for the new jets greatly reduced their effectiveness. The Me 262A was a difficult foe for the P-47s and P-51s, possessing a distinct speed advantage. Allied bomber escort fighters would fly high above the bombers – diving from this height gave them extra speed, thus reducing the speed difference. The Me 262 was also less maneuverable than the P-51 and so trained Allied pilots could turn tighter than an Me 262A. However, the only reliable way of dealing with the jets, as with the even faster Me 163B Komet rocket fighters, was to attack them on the ground and during takeoff and landing. Luftwaffe airfields that were identified as jet and rocket bases, such as Parchim and Bad Zwischenahn, were frequently bombed, and Allied fighters patrolled over the fields to attack jets trying to land. The Luftwaffe countered by installing flak alleys along the approach lines in order to protect the Me 262s from the ground and providing top cover with conventional fighters during takeoff and landing. Nevertheless, in March and April 1945, Allied fighter patrol patterns over Me 262 airfields resulted in numerous losses of jets and serious attrition of the force.

On 7 April 1945, the Luftwaffe flew its most desperate and deadliest mission, with the dedicated aerial ramming unit Sonderkommando Elbe. This operation involved German pilots of the unit ramming their worn-out Bf 109Gs, each barely armed with only one MG 131 machine gun and 50 rounds of ammunition, into American bombers in order to get the Allies to suspend bombing raids long enough for the Germans to make a significant amount of Me 262A jet fighters. The 8th Air Force was targeted in this operation. Fifteen Allied bombers were attacked, eight were successfully destroyed.

On 7 April, Eighth Air Force dispatched thirty-two B-17 and B-24 groups and fourteen Mustang groups (the sheer numbers of attacking Allied aircraft were so large in 1945 that they were now counted by the group) to targets in the small area of Germany still controlled by the Nazis, hitting the remaining airfields where the Luftwaffe jets were stationed. In addition, almost 300 German aircraft of all types were destroyed in strafing attacks. On 16 April, this record was broken when over 700 German aircraft were destroyed on the ground.

The end came on 25 April 1945 when Eighth Air Force flew its last full-scale mission of the European War. B-17s hit the Skoda armaments factory at Pilsen in Czechoslovakia, while B-24s bombed rail complexes in Bad Reichenhall and Freilassing, surrounding Hitler's mountain retreat at Berchtesgaden.

Pacific Theater
Following the end of the war in Europe in May 1945 plans were made to transfer some of the B-17/B-24 heavy bomber groups of Eighth Air Force to the Pacific Theater of Operations and upgrade them to Boeing B-29 Superfortress Very Heavy (VH) bomb groups. As part of this plan, Eighth Air Force headquarters was reassigned to Sakugawa (Kadena Airfield), Okinawa, on 16 July 1945, being assigned to the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific without personnel or equipment.

On Okinawa, Eighth Air Force derived its headquarters personnel from the inactivated XX Bomber Command, and Lieutenant General James H. Doolittle assumed command, being reassigned from England on 19 July. The command controlled three airfields on Okinawa, Bolo, Futema, and Kadena Airfield. The Eighth received its first B-29 Superfortress on 8 August 1945.

Eighth Air Force's mission in the Pacific was initially to organize and train new bomber groups for combat against Japan. In the planned invasion of Japan, the mission of Eighth Air Force would be to conduct B-29 Superfortress raids from Okinawa in coordination with Twentieth Air Force operating from airfields in the Mariana Islands.

Units assigned to Eighth Air Force in the Pacific were:

 Headquarters, 301st Fighter Wing
 Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 November 1945
 318th Fighter Group (P-47N Thunderbolt)
 Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 November 1945
 413th Fighter Group (P-47N Thunderbolt)
 Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 November 1945
 507th Fighter Group (P-47N Thunderbolt)
 Ie Shima Airfield, Okinawa, 31 July – 29 January 1946

 Headquarters, 316th Bombardment Wing
 Kadena Airfield Okinawa, 5 September 1945 – 7 June 1946
 22d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
 Kadena Airfield Okinawa, 15 August – 23 November 1945
 333d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
 Kadena Airfield, Okinawa, 5 August 1945 – 28 May 1946
 346th Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
 Kadena Airfield, Okinawa, 7 August 1945 – 30 June 1946
 382d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress
 Northwest Field, Guam, 8 September – 16 December 1945
 Note: Only 420th Bombardment Squadron of group arrived with B-29 Aircraft, 464th and 872d Bomb Squadrons only ground echelons arrived. Air Echelon of squadrons with assigned aircraft remained in United States until inactivation.
 383d Bombardment Group, (B-29 Superfortress)
 West Field, Tinian, 12 September – 19 December 1945

The atomic bombings of Japan led to the Japanese surrender before Eighth Air Force saw action in the Pacific theater. Eighth Air Force remained in Okinawa until 7 June 1946.

History

Strategic Armed Command

World War II proved what the proponents of air power had been championing for the previous two decadesthe great value of strategic forces in bombing an enemy's industrial complex and of tactical forces in controlling the skies above a battlefield. As a result, Eighth Air Force was incorporated into the new SAC.

On 7 June 1946, Headquarters Eighth Air Force was reassigned without personnel or equipment from Okinawa to MacDill Field in Florida, becoming SAC's second numbered air force. At MacDill, Eighth Air Force headquarters were manned chiefly by personnel from the 58th Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy, stationed at Fort Worth Army Air Field in Fort Worth, Texas. The organization reported administratively to the Fifteenth Air Force in Colorado Springs, Colorado. That base assignment lasted until 1 November 1946, when SAC transferred the Eighth to Fort Worth (later renamed Carswell AFB).

Bomb units

Both Davis-Monthan and Fort Worth Army Airfields were B-29 training bases during World War II, and the Eighth Air Force Bomb Groups were simply activated at the same field and on the same day as the original Army Air Force Continental Air Forces training bomb groups were inactivated. The assets of the former training units were simply assigned to Eighth Air Force. This was largely so that the Air Force could perpetuate the names of groups that had distinguished themselves in World War II.

These bomb wings were drastically undermanned and under equipped. At the close of 1946, they shared only a handful of operational bombers, all B-29 Superfortresses. Although there were many available which were returned from Twentieth Air Force in the Pacific Theater they were war-weary from the many long combat missions flown during the war. However, it was believed that a strong strategic air arm equipped with B-29s would deter a possible aggressor from attacking the United States for fear of massive retaliation with nuclear weapons.

By the late 1940s, the B-17 Flying Fortresses and Consolidated B-24 Liberators used in the European Theater of the war were thoroughly obsolete as combat aircraft and were mostly sent to the smelters. A handful remained in service performing non-combat duties through the mid-1950s as air-sea rescue aircraft (SB-17, SB-24); photo-reconnaissance aircraft (RB-17, RB-24), and as unmanned target drones (QB-17) and their controllers (DB-17).

The Eighth Air Force under SAC initially consisted of the following:
 Fort Worth Army Air Field (Later Carswell Air Force Base), Texas
 58th Bombardment Wing (later Air Division)
 Moved from March Field, California 8 May 1946
 Moved to Andrews AFB, Maryland 1 March 1948 (Inactivated 16 October 1948)
 449th Bombardment Group
 Moved from McCook Army Air Field, Nebraska December 1945 (McCook AAF Closed)
 Inactivated on 4 August 1946
 7th Bombardment Group
 Activated on 1 October 1946
 7th Bombardment Wing established on 17 November 1947. 7th Bomb Group assigned as subordinate unit.

Personnel and equipment from the inactivated 449th Bomb Group were reassigned to the 7th Bomb Group (later 7th Bomb Wing). The command staff and all personnel of the 58th Bomb wing were eliminated on 1 November 1946 and the organization was reduced to a paper unit. For two years, the wing remained in this status until the 58th Bomb Wing was inactivated on 16 October 1948.
 Davis-Monthan AAF (Later Davis-Monthan Air Force Base), Arizona
 40th Bombardment Group
 Moved from March Field, California, 8 May 1946
 Inactivated on 1 October 1946
 444th Bombardment Group
 Moved from Merced AAF, California 6 May 1945
 Inactivated on 1 October 1946
 43rd Bombardment Group
 Activated on 4 October 1946
 43d Bombardment Wing established on 3 November 1947. 43d Bomb Group assigned as subordinate unit.

Personnel and equipment from the inactivated 40th and 444th Bomb Groups were reassigned to the 43d Bomb Group
 Roswell AAF (Later Walker Air Force Base), New Mexico
 509th Bombardment Group
 Reassigned from North Field, Tinian on 8 November 1946
 509th Bombardment Wing established on 3 November 1947. 509th Bombardment Group assigned as subordinate unit.

The Eighth Air Force was specifically charged with the atomic mission; however, only the 509th Composite Group at Roswell AAF had B-29s that had the capability to drop nuclear weapons – the 7th Bomb Group at Fort Worth AAF was modifying their aircraft to carry the atomic bomb.
 Smoky Hill AAF (Later Smoky Hill Air Force Base), Kansas Transferred from Fifteenth Air Force, 16 May 1948
 301st Bombardment Wing
 Moved to Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, 1 August 1949. Smoky Hill AFB Inactivated.

From 1946 through 1949, what little money became available was used to buy new planes (Boeing B-50 Superfortress, Convair B-36 Peacemaker) for SAC, and as the newer aircraft became available, the older B-29s were sent to storage depots or sent to Air Force Reserve units for training missions.

Fighter units
SAC was founded by the men who fought in World War II, who knew the importance of fighter escorts. In its early days, SAC had fighter wings for the escorting its aircraft equipped with the new F-82E Twin Mustang along with long range F-51H Mustangs and F-47N Thunderbolts, all of which were designed late in World War II for use in the planned invasion of Japan. SAC fighter wings assigned to Eighth Air Force were:
 27th Fighter Wing (F-82E Twin Mustang)
 Activated at Kearney AFB, Nebraska on 27 July 1947
 Reassigned to Bergstrom AFB, Texas on 16 March 1949 (Base Closed)
 31st Fighter Wing (F-47N Thunderbolt)
 Activated at Turner AFB, Georgia on 25 June 1947
 Inactivated on 16 June 1952
 33d Fighter Wing (F-51H Mustang, F-80C Shooting Star)
 Attached to 509th Bombardment Wing, Very Heavy, Walker AFB, New Mexico 17 November 1947
 Reassigned to Otis AFB, Massachusetts, 15 November 1948
 82d Fighter Wing (F-51D Mustang)
 Activated at Grenier AFB, New Hampshire on 12 April 1947
 Inactivated 2 October 1949

Fighter escorts were no longer needed once SAC was equipped with Boeing B-47 Stratojet and then Boeing B-52 Stratofortress jet bombers carrying nuclear bombs. As the nuclear weapons carried by the bombers were so powerful that only one plane was assigned to a target that might have previously needed a whole bomb group of aircraft. Although SAC fighter squadrons upgraded to Republic F-84F Thunderstreak jet fighters in the early 1950s, the new jet bombers flew so high and so fast there was little danger of them being intercepted by enemy fighters. By 1955, SAC no longer needed its fighters and these fighter units were transferred to Tactical Air Command and utilized in a tactical role.

In 1949, a realignment of responsibilities for SAC's two air forces occurred. Fifteenth Air Force relocated to March Air Force Base, California. As part of this realignment, most SAC bomber forces west of the Mississippi River were reassigned to 15th AF. Those east of the Mississippi were assigned to SAC's other strategic air force, Eighth Air Force, which moved to Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts, where it commanded all SAC bases in the eastern United States.

Several events in the late 1940s reversed the drawdown of United States strategic forces. The 1948 blockade of West Berlin by the Eastern bloc and the outbreak of the Cold War caused the United States to deploy SAC's B-29 bomber force back to the United Kingdom and West Germany. Communist victories in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 meant that the United States would have to expand SAC to address these potential threats both in Europe as well as Asia.

By the time of the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, Eighth Air Force consisted of the following units:

 Carswell Air Force Base, Texas
 7th Bombardment Wing (B-36 Peacekeeper)
 11th Bombardment Wing (inactive)
 Biggs AFB, Texas
 97th Bombardment Wing (B-29 Superfortress)
 Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona
 43d Bombardment Wing (B-29, B-50 Superfortress)
 Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota
 28th Bombardment Wing (B-36 Peacekeeper)

 Walker AFB, New Mexico
 6th Bombardment Wing (B-36 Peacekeeper)
 509th Bombardment Wing (B-29, B-50 Superfortress)
 Chatham AFB, Georgia
 2d Bombardment Wing (B-29, KB-50 Superfortress)
 Bergstrom AFB Texas
 27th Fighter-Escort Wing (F-84 Thunderstreak)

Korean War
On 25 June 1950, the armed forces of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) invaded South Korea. On 27 June, the United Nations Security Council voted to assist the South Koreans in resisting the invasion. Although Eighth Air Force's strategic bomber force was not committed to combat in Korea, the Eighth deployed the 27th Fighter Escort Wing for combat action in Korea and earned numerous honors and awards for their combat record during the Korean War.

On 21 January 1951, Lt. Col. William Bertram, commander of the 523rd Fighter-Escort Squadron, shot down the first MiG-15 for the wing and became the first F-84 pilot with a confirmed MiG kill. Two days later, on 23 January, the 27th FEW participated in the raid on Sinuju Airfield in North Korea and shot down four more MiG-15s. By the time the group rotated back to the United States, they had flown more than 23,000 combat hours in more than 12,000 sorties.

For its Korean War service, the 27th Fighter-Escort Wing received the Distinguished Unit Citation, covering the period of 26 January through 21 April 1951, for their actions in Korea.

The 27th was relieved of its duties supporting U.N. forces in Korea and returned to Bergstrom AFB on 31 July 1951, but was redeployed to Misawa AB, Japan during 6 October 1952 – 13 February 1953 to provide air defense.

Cold War

With the end of fighting in Korea, President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had taken office in January 1953, called for a "new look" at national defense. The result: a greater reliance on nuclear weapons and air power to deter war. His administration chose to invest in the Air Force, especially Strategic Air Command. The nuclear arms race shifted into high gear. The Air Force retired nearly all of its piston-engined B-29/B-50s and they were replaced by new Boeing B-47 Stratojet aircraft. By 1955 the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress would be entering the inventory in substantial numbers, as prop B-36s were phased out of heavy bombardment units rapidly.

Also after the deployment of forces to Far East Air Force to engage in combat over Korea, the history of Eighth Air Force becomes indistinguishable from that of SAC. The Eighth's weapons inventory also changed to include KC-135 air refuelers and intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Atlas, Titan I and Titan II, and all Minuteman models.

At the same time, aerial refueling techniques were improved to the extent that Eighth Air Force bombers could still reach targets in Europe and Asia even if overseas bases were destroyed by an enemy attack. To reduce the risk to its bomber fleet in the United States, Eighth Air Force aircraft stood nuclear alert, providing a deterrent against an attack on the United States by the Soviet Union. It dispersed its planes to a large number of bases across the United States so as not to have too many concentrated at a single location.

Vietnam War
In 1965, Eighth Air Force entered combat again, this time in Southeast Asia. At first, the Eighth deployed its B-52 bomber and KC-135 tanker units from the U.S. to operating bases in Guam, Okinawa and Thailand. Then in April 1970, SAC moved the Eighth without personnel or equipment to Andersen AFB Guam, absorbing resources of the 3d Air Division. At Andersen AFB, the Eighth took over the direction of all bombing and refueling operations in Southeast Asia. The intensive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong during 11 days in December 1972, known as Operation Linebacker II, was but one highlight of those war years. Importantly, the Eighth's bombing effectiveness influenced the North Vietnamese to end hostilities. With the end of combat in Southeast Asia, the Eighth Air Force moved without personnel or equipment to Barksdale Air Force Base Louisiana on 1 January 1975, absorbing the resources of Second Air Force.

In the 1980s, the Eighth participated in several key operations such as running the tanker task force for Operation Urgent Fury in 1983 and directing all air refueling operations for Operation El Dorado Canyon in 1986 and Operation Just Cause in 1989.

Operations over Iraq
The Eighth's units played a key role in the 42-day Gulf War in 1991. An Eighth Air Force unit, the 2d Bomb Wing, spearheaded the air campaign by dispatching B-52s from Barksdale to launch conventional air-launched cruise missiles against Iraqi targets. Eighth Air Force bomb wings, stationed in the Persian Gulf region, also attacked Iraq's Republican Guard forces and numerous key strategic targets, while other units provided air refueling and tactical reconnaissance throughout the conflict. As a headquarters, the Eighth had another important role in victory over Iraqi forcesoperating the logistics supply and air refueling bridge between the U.S. and gulf region.

History from June 1992

Fifteen months after Operation Desert Storm, the Air Force reorganized. Eighth Air Force was relieved from assignment to Strategic Air Command and assigned to the new Air Combat Command (ACC) on 1 June 1992.

Under ACC, Eighth Air Force provides command and control, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C2ISR); long-range attack; and information operations forces to Air Force components and warfighting commands. Eighth Air Force trains, tests, exercises and demonstrates combat-ready forces for rapid employment worldwide.

Eighth Air Force also provides conventional forces to U.S. Joint Forces Command and provides nuclear capable bombers, specified Global Strike assets, and C2ISR capabilities to U.S. Strategic Command (STRATCOM). Eighth Air Force also supports STRATCOM's Joint Force Headquarters – Information Operations and serves as the command element for Air Force wide computer network operations.

Under ACC, the Eighth received control over active duty, Air Force Reserve, and Air National Guard units in the central U.S. and two overseas locations. Then in January 1994, ACC reorganized Eighth Air Force as a general purpose Numbered Air Force (NAF) with a warfighting mission to support the U.S. Joint Forces and U.S. Strategic Commands. Support to the latter command included the operation of Task Force 204 (bombers).

Since 1994, the Eighth has participated in a string of contingency operations, such as the 1996 Operation "Desert Strike" against Iraq] the 1998 Operation "Desert Fox" (similarly named but in no way associated with Field Marshal Erwin Rommel) against Iraq, which featured the B-1 Lancer in its combat debut, and 1999 Operation "Allied Force" against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which involved the B-2A Spirit. The "Allied Force" campaign also marked the Eighth's return to Europe and the participation of U.S. bombers in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) first combat operation. Altogether, the Eighth's bombers flew 325 sorties to drop over 7 million pounds of ordnance on a nation slightly smaller than the state of Colorado.

In 2000, the Air Force decided to integrate information operations into Eighth Air Force. The integration process started on 1 February 2001, when the Air Force realigned the Air Intelligence Agency (AIA) under ACC and assigned the 67th Information Operations Wing and the 70th Intelligence Wing to the Eighth. The reorganization transformed the Eighth into the only information operations and bomber NAF in the Air Force. For the Mighty Eighth, that change heralded an interesting future, one that bring further restructuring, different aircraft system purchases, and a new challenging mission to the NAF.

While posturing itself for that mission change, the Eighth also supported Operation Enduring Freedom in which the Air Force operates against targets in Afghanistan, and Operation Noble Eagle for the defense of North American airspace. Throughout the first six months of Enduring Freedom, the Mighty Eighth's bombers were instrumental in the eradication of many targets and opposing combatants in Afghanistan.

Major General James C. Dawkins Jr. assumed command of 8th Air Force on 20 August 2018, after having served as the Deputy Director for Nuclear, Homeland Defense, and Current Operations on the Joint Staff at the Pentagon, Washington, D.C. On 12 June 2020, he was succeeded by Major General Mark E. Weatherington, who had previously served as deputy commander of Air Education and Training Command at Joint Base San Antonio in Randolph, Texas.

Air Force Global Strike Command

Under Air Force Global Strike Command since 1 Feb 2010, Eighth Air Force controls strategic bomber (e.g., B-2 Spirit and B-52 Stratofortress, and B-1 Lancer) forces throughout the United States and overseas locations. Eighth Air Force carries out its warfighting missions under U.S. Strategic Command and the air component commands of the other regional Unified combatant commands. Eighth Air Force has five Regular Air Force bomb wings, two Air Reserve Total Force Integration bomb wings (one in Air Force Reserve Command and one in the Air National Guard), and one detachment in the continental United States.

Bomber wings of the 8th Air Force include:
 Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana
 2d Bomb Wing, B-52H
 307th Bomb Wing, B-52H (AFRC)
 Dyess Air Force Base, Texas
 7th Bomb Wing, B-1B
 Ellsworth Air Force Base, South Dakota
 28th Bomb Wing, B-1B
 Minot Air Force Base, North Dakota
 5th Bomb Wing, B-52H
 Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri
 509th Bomb Wing, B-2A
 131st Bomb Wing (Associate), B-2A (ANG)

 AFGSC Direct Reporting Units (DRU)
 576th Flight Test Squadron – Vandenberg Air Force Base, California
 595th Command and Control Group – Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska

Lineage, assignments, components, and stations

Lineage
 Established as VIII Bomber Command on 19 January 1942 and activated 1 February 1942.
 Redesignated the Eighth Air Force on 22 February 1944.
 Redesignated: Eighth Air Force (Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike) on 3 June 2008.

Assignments
 Eighth Air Force (later United States Strategic Air Forces), 22 February 1944
 United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific, 16 July 1945
 Pacific Air Command, United States Army, 6 December 1945 (redesignation of U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific)
 Strategic Air Command, 7 June 1946
 Air Combat Command, 1 June 1992
 Air Force Global Strike Command, 1 August 2010

Major components
Commands
 VIII Air Force Composite Command: 22 Feb 1944 – 1 Feb 1945
 VIII Air Force Service Command: 22 Feb 1944 – 16 Jul 1945
 VIII Fighter Command: 22 Feb 1944 – 16 Jul 1945

Divisions during World War II

.
3d Bombardment (later, 3d Air) Division
 1st Bombardment (later, 1st Air) Division

Operated the B-17F/G Flying Fortress with "Triangle" tail codes between 22 February 1944 and 16 July 1945
Headquartered at Brampton Grange, Brampton, Cambridgeshire

 1st Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Bassingbourn (Call sign: Goonchild/Swordfish)
 91st Bombardment Group (Triangle-A), RAF Bassingbourn
 381st Bombardment Group (Triangle-L), RAF Ridgewell
 398th Bombardment Group (Triangle-W), RAF Nuthampstead
 482d Bombardment Group (No Tail Code), (B-17, B-24) RAF Alconbury
 RADAR-equipped pathfinder group. Attached to: VIII Composite Command, 14 Feb 1944 – 1 Jan 1945
 40th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Thurleigh (Call sign: Bullpen/Foxhole)
 92d Bombardment Group (Triangle-B), RAF Podington
 305th Bombardment Group (Triangle-G), RAF Chelveston
 306th Bombardment Group (Triangle-H), RAF Thurleigh
 41st Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Molesworth (Call sign: Fatgal/Cowboy)
 303d Bombardment Group (Triangle-C), RAF Molesworth
 379th Bombardment Group (Triangle-K), RAF Kimbolton
 384th Bombardment Group (Triangle-P), RAF Grafton Underwood
 94th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Polebrook (Call sign: Ragweed/Woodcraft)
 351st Bombardment Group (Triangle-J), RAF Polebrook
 401st Bombardment Group (Triangle-S), RAF Deenethorpe
 457th Bombardment Group (Triangle-U), RAF Glatton
 67th Fighter Wing, Walcot Hall, Northamptonshire (Attached from VIII Fighter Command) (P-51D/K Mustang) (Call sign: Mohair)
 20th Fighter Group, RAF Kings Cliffe
 352d Fighter Group, RAF Bodney
 356th Fighter Group, RAF Martlesham Heath
 359th Fighter Group, RAF East Wretham
 364th Fighter Group, RAF Honington
 1st Scouting Force, (Attached to: 364th FG), RAF Honington

 2d Bombardment (later, 2d Air) Division
Operated B-24D/H/J/L/M Liberator with "Circle" tail codes until early February, 1944. Later designation was by various color vertical tail fins with contrasting horizontal, vertical, or diagonal stripes designating a specific bomb group between 22 February 1944 and 25 June 1945
Headquartered at Ketteringham Hall Norwich, Norfolk

 2d Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Hethel (Call sign: Winston/Bourbon)
 389th Bombardment Group (Circle-C, Black/White Vertical ), RAF Hethel
 445th Bombardment Group (Circle-F, Black/White Horizontal), RAF Tibenham
 453d Bombardment Group (Circle-J, Black/White Diagonal), RAF Old Buckenham
 14th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Shipdham (Call sign: Hambone/Hardtack)
 44th Bombardment Group (Circle-A), RAF Shipdham
 392d Bombardment Group (Circle-D), RAF Wendling
 491st Bombardment Group (Circle-Z), RAF North Pickenham (Aug 1944 – 16 Jul 1945)
 20th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Hardwick (Call sign: Pinestreet/Bigbear)
 93d Bombardment Group (Circle-B), RAF Hardwick
 446th Bombardment Group (Circle-H), RAF Bungay
 448th Bombardment Group (Circle-I), RAF Seething
 489th Bombardment Group (Circle-W), RAF Halesworth (Aug 1944 – 16 Jul 1945)
 95th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Halesworth (May–Aug 1944) (Call sign: Shamrock)
 489th Bombardment Group (Circle-W), RAF Halesworth
 491st Bombardment Group (Circle-Z), RAF North Pickenham
 96th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Horsham St Faith (Call sign: Redstar/Lincoln)
 458th Bombardment Group (Circle-K), RAF Horsham St. Faith
 466th Bombardment Group (Circle-L), RAF Attlebridge
 467th Bombardment Group (Circle-P), RAF Rackheath
 65th Fighter Wing (Attached from VIII Fighter Command), Saffron Walden (P-51D/K Mustang) (Call sign: Colgate)
 4th Fighter Group, RAF Debden
 56th Fighter Group, RAF Boxted (P-47D Thunderbolt)
 355th Fighter Group, RAF Steeple Morden
 361st Fighter Group, RAF Bottisham then RAF Little Walden
 2d Scouting Force, (Attached to: 355th FG), RAF Steeple Morden

Operated B-17F/G Flying Fortress with Square tail codes between 22 February 1944 and 16 July 1945
Headquartered at RAF Honington, Thetford, Norfolk

 4th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Bury St Edmunds (Call sign: Franklin/Hotshot)
 Redesignated from: 92d Combat Bombardment Wing, 22 November 1944
 Redesignated from: 4th Bombardment Wing (Provisional), 16 February 1945
 94th Bombardment Group (Square-A), RAF Bury St. Edmunds
 447th Bombardment Group (Square-K), RAF Rattlesden
 486th Bombardment Group (Square-O/W), RAF Sudbury
 (Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
 487th Bombardment Group (Square-P), RAF Lavenham
 (Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
 13th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Horham (Call sign: Zootsuit/Fireball)
 95th Bombardment Group (Square-B), RAF Horham
 100th Bombardment Group (Square-D), RAF Thorpe Abbotts
 390th Bombardment Group (Square-J), RAF Framlingham
 45th Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Snetterton Heath (Call sign: Zootsuit/Fireball)
 96th Bombardment Group (Square-C), RAF Snetterton Heath
 388th Bombardment Group (Square-H), RAF Knettishall
 452d Bombardment Group (Square-L), RAF Deopham Green
 93d Combat Bombardment Wing, RAF Mendlesham, (Call sign: Zootsuit/Fireball)
 34th Bombardment Group (Square-S), RAF Mendlesham
 (Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
 385th Bombardment Group (Square-G), RAF Great Ashfield
 490th Bombardment Group (Square-T), RAF Eye
 (Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
 493d Bombardment Group (Square-S), RAF Debach
 (Converted from B-24s to B-17s, Summer 1944)
 66th Fighter Wing, Sawston Hall, (Attached from VIII Fighter Command) (P-51D/K Mustang) (Call sign: Oilskin)
 55th Fighter Group, RAF Wormingford
 78th Fighter Group, RAF Duxford
 339th Fighter Group, RAF Fowlmere
 353d Fighter Group, RAF Raydon
 357th Fighter Group, RAF Leiston
 3d Scouting Force, (Attached to: 55th FG), RAF Wormingford

 Special Groups: as of 1 Jan 1945
 36th Bombardment Squadron, (B-24H/J)
 Radar/Electronic-countermeasure operations: August 1944 – April 1945
 RAF Cheddington

Divisions (Strategic Air Command)

 6th Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 2 Jul 1966
 13th Strategic Missile Division: 1 Jul 1963 – 1 Jul 1965
 17th Strategic Aerospace Division: 1 Jul 1963 – 31 Mar 1970
 19th Air Division: 16 Feb 1951 – 1 Jul 1955; 1 Jan 1975 – 30 Sep 1988
 21st Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 1 Jan 1959
 38th Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 1 Nov 1959
 42d Air Division: 10 Mar 1951 – 1 Apr 1955; 15 Jul 1959 – 9 Jul 1991
 45th Air Division: 8 Oct 1954 – 18 Jan 1958; 20 Nov 1958 – 31 Mar 1970; 1 Jan 1975 – 15 Jun 1989
 47th Air Division: 10 Feb 1951 – 1 Apr 1955

 57th Air Division: 4 Sep 1956 – 2 Jul 1969
 801st Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 15 Mar 1965
 802d Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 1 Jan 1959
 810th Air Division: 16 Jun 1952 – 1 Apr 1955
 817th Air Division: 1 Feb 1956 – 31 Mar 1970
 818th Air Division: 1 Jul 1955 – 1 Jan 1959
 820th Air (later, 820 Strategic Aerospace) Division: 1 Feb 1956 – 25 Jun 1965.
 822d Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 2 Sep 1966
 823d Air Division: 1 Jan 1959 – 31 Mar 1970

Wings
 2d Bomb Wing, 16 Jun 1988 – present
 5th Bomb Wing, 1 Jun 1991 – present
 7th Bomb Wing, 1 Oct 2015 – present
 9th Reconnaissance Wing, 1 Oct 2002 – 1 October 2009
 28th Bomb Wing, 1 Oct 2015 – present
 67th Information Operations (later, 67th Network Warfare) Wing, 1 Feb 2001
 509th Bombardment (later, 509th Bomb) Wing, 29 Mar 1989 – present
 552d Air Control Wing, 1 Oct 2002 – 1 Oct 2009

Groups
 92d Bombardment Group: August 1942 – Spring 1943
 94th Bombardment Group: 19–25 May 1943
 95th Bombardment Group: 19–25 May 1943
 97th Bombardment Group: 20 May – 14 September 1942
 100th Bombardment Group: c. 4 June 1943 – 4 June 1943
 301st Bombardment Group: c. 9 August 1942 – 14 September 1942
 305th Bombardment Group: 10 September–c. 12 September 1942
 322d Bombardment Group: c. 15 November – c. 1 December 1942
 385th Bombardment Group: c. 8−13 July 1943
 386th Bombardment Group: 4–15 June 1943
 388th Bombardment Group, 10–13 6 July 1943
 389th Bombardment Group, 29 June 1943
 445th Bombardment Group: 5–9 November 1943
 446th Bombardment Group, 5–9 November 1943
 452d Bombardment Group: January 1944
 479th Fighter Group: 15–16 May 1944; c. 4−16 July 1945
 492nd Bombardment Group: April 1944

Centers
 608th Air Operations Center (formerly 608th Air Operations Group and 608th Air and Space Operations Center), 1 Jan 1994 – present
 Air Force Information Operations: 1 May 2007 – present

Stations

 RAF Daws Hill, England, 22 Feb 1944
 Sakugawa (Kadena Airfield), Okinawa, 16 Jul 1945
 MacDill Field, Florida, 7 Jun 1946
 Fort Worth Army Air Field (later, Griffiss Air Force Base; Carswell Air Force Base), Texas, 1 Nov 1946

 Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts, 13 Jun 1955
 Post-Attack Command and Control System Facility, Hadley, 1958–1970
 Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, 1 Apr 1970
 Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, 1 Jan 1975 – present

List of commanders

See also
Target for Today – ninety-four-minute depiction of an Operation Pointblank mission from 1944.
Mighty Eighth Air Force Museum
Eighth Air Force Museum
David Wade, past commander

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Anderson, Christopher J. The Men of the Mighty Eighth: The U.S. 8th Air Force, 1942–1945 (G.I. Series N°24). London : Greenhill, 2001.
 Astor, Gerald. The Mighty Eighth: The Air War in Europe as told by the Men who Fought it. New York: D.I. Fine Books, 1997.
 Bowman, Martin. 8th Air Force at War: Memories and Missions, England, 1942–1945. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1994.
 Bowman, Martin. Castles in the Air: The Story of the Men from the US 8th Air Force. Walton-on-Thames, UK: Red Kite, 2000.
 Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Office of Air Force History, 1961, republished 1983..
 Freeman, Roger A. and Winston G. Ramsey. Airfields of the Eighth: Then and Now. London: After the Battle, 1978. Republished 1992.
 Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth: Units, Men and Machines – A History of the US 8th Air Force. 1970. .
 Revised as The Mighty Eighth: a History of the Units, Men and Machines of the Us 8th Air Force. Cassell & Co., 2000. .
 Freeman, Roger A. et al. The Mighty Eighth War Diary. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1981.
 Freeman, Roger A. (Ed.) The Mighty Eighth in Art. London: Arms & Armour, 1995.
 Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth in Colour. London: Arms & Armour, 1991.
 New Edition as The Mighty Eighth: The Colour Record. London: Cassell & Co., 2001.
 Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth War Diary. 1990. .
 Freeman, Roger A. Mighty Eighth War Manual. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1984.
 Freeman, Roger A. The Mighty Eighth: Warpaint and Heraldry. London: Arms & Armour, 1997.
 Lambert, John W. The 8th Air Force: Victory and Sacrifice: A World War II Photo History. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2006. .
 McLachlan, Ian and Russell J. Zorn. Eighth Air Force Bomber Stories: Eye-Witness Accounts from American Airmen and British Civilians of the Perils of War. Yeovil, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1991.
 McLaughlin, (Brigadier General) J. Kemp. The Mighty Eighth in World War II: A Memoir. Kentucky University Press, 2000.

 Miller, Kent D. Fighter Units & Pilots of the 8th Air Force September 1942 – May 1945. Volume 1 Day-to-Day Operations – Fighter Group Histories. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. .
 Miller, Kent D. and Nancy Thomas. Fighter Units & Pilots of the 8th Air Force September 1942 – May 1945. Volume 2 Aerial Victories – Ace Data. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2001. .
 Ramsey, Winston G. [Editor]. Airfields of the Eighth. London: 1978.
 Scutts, Jerry. Lion in the Sky: US 8th Air Force Fighter Operations, 1942–1945. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd., 1987.
 Smith, Graham. The Mighty Eighth in the Second World War. Newbury: Countryside Books, 2001.
 Steijger, Cees. A History of USAFE. Voyageur, 1991. .
 Strong, Russell A. A Biographical Directory of the 8th Air Force, 1942–1945. Manhattan, Kansas: Military Affairs – Aerospace Historian, 1985.
 Werrell, Kenneth P. & Robin Higham. Eighth Air Force Bibliography : An Extended Essay & Listing of Published & Unpublished Materials. Manhattan, Kansas: Military Affairs – Aerospace Historian, 1981 (Second Edition 1997, Strasburg, Pennsylvania: 8th Air Force Memorial Museum Foundation, 1997).
 Woolnough, John H. (Ed.) The 8th Air Force Album: The Story of the Mighty Eighth Air Force in WW II. Hollywood, Florida: 8th AF News, 1978.
 Woolnough, John H. (Ed.) The 8th Air Force Yearbook: The current Status of 8th AF Unit Associations, 1980. Hollywood, Florida: 8th AF News, 1981.
 Woolnough, John H. (Ed.) Stories of the Eighth: An Anthology of the 8th Air Force in World War Two. Hollywood, Fla.: 8th AF News, 1983.

 Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. .

External links
 USAF Fact Sheets: Eighth Air Force History
 Eighth Air Force official website
 Eighth Air Force Archive at Penn State
 Eight Air Force tactical mission report of Operation Shuttle
 Establishment of the Eighth Air Force in the United Kingdom
 The Ruhr – one of the main target of the 8th USAAF in Europe, 1943–1945
 Map of 8th Air Force airfields in England 1942–1945
 Eighth Air Force Historical Society
 A 1956 LIFE photo of every plane in the Eighth Air Force's arsenal

 4th Fighter Group Association, 65 Fighter Wing, 8th Air Force World War II
 Replica WWII 8th AF Briefing Room at U.S. Veterans Memorial Museum
 National Museum of the Mighty Eighth Air Force Savannah, Georgia
  Stories of the 448th – Stories of those whose paths crossed the threshold of Seething Airfield

1942 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
08 Air Force
Military units and formations in Louisiana
Military units and formations of the United States in the Cold War
08
World War II strategic bombing units

Eighth Air Force


Animation:Master is a 3D character animation application offered by Hash, Inc. that includes tools for modeling, rigging, animating, texturing, lighting and rendering. Although Animation:Master was developed for and is targeted towards independent artists, with a workflow optimized to enable one artist to create a rendered animated piece from start to finish, the workflow also presents economic advantages for larger workgroups.

The software uses a proprietary spline mesh technology to perform modeling and animation, and it is different in this sense from polygon mesh or NURBS-based programs. The system used is called patch-based modeling. It uses multiple intersecting splines to create surfaces, called patches. Patches present an efficiency in that one patch can  describe a complex curved surface that would require many facets to approximate in flat polygons.

Aside from the typical 4-sided patches common in many spline modeling environments, Animation:Master can also create 3 and 5-sided patches which enable mesh topologies not possible in other applications.

To learn more about Animation:Master's features, see Animation:Master Features.

Version history
Animation:Master is the successor program to Martin Hash's Animation:Apprentice (1987) and Animation:Journeyman (1990)

Version  1 (1992) was marketed as "Will Vinton's Playmation" in conjunction with the Will Vinton Studio.  The Mac version was released in 1993.

Version  2 (1993) was released as Martin Hash's 3D Animation.  The pro version was named Animation:Master.

Version 3 (1994) introduced full 3D inverse kinematics (IK).

Version  4 (1996) added particle effects known as "blobbies".  This was the last version to use ".seg" as its primary model format. This was the last version made available in a Unix port.  Future versions would be available for Macintosh and Windows.

Version  5 (1997) was a major advance, removing the requirement in previous versions that characters be broken into parts and reassembled in the boning process.  It also added numerous skeleton "constraints" which enabled the development of advanced character animation rigs.

Version  9 (2001) Scripting, Expressions

Version 10 (2003) Soft-body Dynamics, Radiosity

Version 11 (2004) SDK (enables 3rd party plug-ins).

Version 12 (2005) Cloth, Layered Rendering into OpenEXR image format.

Version 13 (2006) Hair, Rigid-body Dynamics, File formats now XML based.

Version 14 (2007) Ambient Occlusion (AO), Image-based Lighting (IBL)

Version 15 (2008) Liquids, Baked Materials, Hash Animation:Master Realtime (HA:MR) integration

Version 16 (2011) 64-bit Version, Netrenderer-integration with Multicore-support, 3d connexion device support, OBJ-MDD-Animation-Export, overall performance-boost

Version 17 (2012) Snap to Surface, Animation:Master Answers, SSE4 instruction support, Create your own "Support"-page, deactivated Animate-Mode indicator , Hi-res Simulation

Version 18 (2013/2014) Screen Space Ambient Occlusion render setting, OpenGL3 (and higher), Windows 32bit Direct3D realtime driver removed, GPU-post effects and native support for SAO, Polygon export with additional high subdivision level (up to 4096) especially suited for 3d printing, Polygon mode (OpenGL3 only), GPU Postprocess effects

Version 19 (2017) Save before rendering, bullet physics,

References

Sources
"Martin Hash's 3D Animation V Reference Manual" ©1997 Hash, Inc.
"Martin Hash's Animation:Master Reference Guide Revision 98" ©1998 Hash, Inc.
"Animation:Master '98 Manual Addendum" ©1998 Hash Inc.
"Martin Hash's Animation:Master Reference Guide" ©2000 Hash, Inc.
"Animation:Master Technical Reference" online documentation for Animation:Master v11.1 ©2003 Hash, Inc.
"Animation:Master Technical Reference" online documentation for Animation:Master v12.0 ©2004 Hash, Inc.
"Animation:Master Technical Reference" online documentation for Animation:Master v13.0 ©2005 Hash, Inc.
"Technical Reference Martin Hash's Animation:Master" ©2008 Martin D. Hash
"The Art of Animation:Master" ©2008 Martin D. Hash

External links
Hash, Inc. website
Hall of Fame
Animation:Master User Forum
Creative Mac review, May 25, 2005
AWN Review, December 20, 2002

3D graphics software
animation software

Animation:Master


Die Estoril Open 2009 waren ein Tennisturnier, das vom 3. bis 9. Mai 2010 in Oeiras stattfand. Es war Teil der ATP World Tour 2010 und wurde im Freien auf Sand ausgetragen. In derselben Woche wurden in Belgrad die Serbia Open sowie in München die BMW Open gespielt, die genau wie die Estoril Open zur Kategorie ATP World Tour 250 zählten.

Titelverteidiger im Einzel war Roger Federer, der dieses Jahr nicht mehr am Turnier teilnahm. Im Finale besiegte der Spanier Albert Montañés den US-Amerikaner James Blake (Tennisspieler) in drei Sätzen mit 5:7, 7:66 und 6:0. Damit gewann der seinen zweiten Einzeltitel seiner Karriere. Titelverteidiger im Doppel waren Jeff Coetzee und Wesley Moodie. Nur Moodie nahm am Turnier teil und schied im Halbfinale aus. Im Doppel-Finale siegten Eric Butorac und Scott Lipsky gegen Martin Damm und Robert Lindstedt in zwei Sätzen mit 6:3 und 6:2.

Das Teilnehmerfeld der Einzelkonkurrenz bestand aus 32 Spielern, jenes der Doppelkonkurrenz aus 16 Paaren. Das Gesamtpreisgeld betrug 398.250 Euro, die gesamten finanziellen Verbindlichkeiten lagen bei 450.000 Euro.

Qualifikation
Die Qualifikation fand vom 1. bis 3. Mai 2009 statt. Ausgespielt wurden vier Qualifikantenplätze, die zur Teilnahme am Hauptfeld des Turniers berechtigten.

Folgende Spieler hatten die Qualifikation überstanden und spielten im Hauptfeld des Turniers:

Preisgelder und Weltranglistenpunkte
Es wurden die folgenden Preisgelder und Weltranglistenpunkte für das Erreichen der jeweiligen Runde ausgezahlt bzw. gutgeschrieben. Spieler, die über die Qualifikation ins Hauptfeld einzogen, erhielten die angegebenen Qualifikationspunkte zusätzlich zu denen für das Erreichen der jeweiligen Runde. Ansonsten sind die Beträge nicht kumulativ zu verstehen. Preisgelder für den Doppelwettbewerb gelten pro Team.

Einzel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Doppel

Setzliste

Ergebnisse

Weblinks und Quellen
 Offizielle Homepage des Turniers

Turnier der ATP World Tour 2009
Tennisturnier in Oeiras

Estoril Open 2009/Herren


Lindö steht für folgende geographischen Objekte in Schweden:
 Lindo (Norrköping), Ort (Tätort) in der Gemeinde Norrköping, Östergötlands län
 Lindo (Furingstad), Ort (Småort) im  Kirchspiel Furingstad, Gemeinde Norrköping, Östergötlands län

 Lindö gård, Landsitz in der Gemeinde Nyköping, Södermanlands län

 Lindö, ehemalige Insel, Teil der Insel Trossö-Kalvö-Lindö bei Havstenssund, Schweden

Siehe auch:
 Lindø, Insel in Dänemark

Lindö


El chelys ( ), era un instrumento musical de cuerda, la lira común en la música de la Antigua Grecia. La caja de resonancia tenía una parte posterior convexa hecha con el caparazón de una tortuga o bien de madera.

Descripción
La palabra "chelys" se empleaba para hacer alusión a la lira más antigua de los griegos, que se decía que había sido inventada por Hermes. Según el "Himno homérico a Hermes" (475), los sonidos de la música le atrajeron mientras caminaba por las orillas del Nilo. Se dio cuenta de que esos sonidos procedían del caparazón de una tortuga a través del cual estaban unos tendones estirados que el viento había puesto en vibración.

La denominación chelys se ha aplicado arbitrariamente desde las épocas clásicas a los diversos instrumentos de cuerda, algunos de cuerda frotada y otros de cuerda pulsada, probablemente debido a la parte posterior que era bastante abombada. Athanasius Kircher aplicó el nombre de chelys a una clase de viola con ocho cuerdas en su tratado Musurgia universalis. Numerosas representaciones de los chelys o testudo pueden verse en las vasijas griegas, en las cuales se representa con un caparazón real; un buen ejemplo se da en Le Antichità di Ercolano (vol. i. p1. 43). Propertius (iv. 6) llama al instrumento el "lyra testudinea". Joseph Justus Scaliger fue probablemente el primer escritor en prestar atención a la diferencia entre chelys y cítara.

Véase también
 Cítara
 Phorminx
 Salpinx
 Trigonon

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

«Chelys-Lira, Grecia, 400 BCE» en Smith College
«Instrumentos de la Antigua Grecia» en HomoEcumenicus.com

Instrumentos musicales de la Antigua Grecia
Cordófonos

Chelys


London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB) var en organisation, der var ansvarlig for den lokale kollektive trafik i London og omegn fra 1933 til 1948. Som med alle andre trafikselskaber i London fra 1933 til 2000 var det offentlige navn og brandet London Transport.

Historie
LPTB blev dannet gennem London Passenger Transport Act 1933, der trådte i kraft 13. april 1933. Lovforslaget var fremsat af Herbert Morrison, der var Transportminister i Labour-regeringen indtil 1931. Det lykkedes at få rullet behandlingen af lovforslaget videre til det nye parlamentariske samling under den tiltrædende nationalregering med begrundelse i, at lovforslaget var et såkaldt hybridforslag, der var fremsat af staten, men havde direkte indflydelse på private organisationer. Selvom den nye regering hovedsageligt var domineret af de konservative, valgte de at fortsætte med lovforslaget uden nogen markante ændringer, på trods af den omfattende overtagelse af private virksomheder til den offentlige sektor, som lovforlaget indebar. 1. juli 1933 blev LPTB til, og det dækkede området "London Passenger Transport Area".

Bestyrelsen
LPTB bestod af en formand og seks andre medlemmer. Medlemmerne blev valgt i fællesskab af besidderne af fem tillidsposter, som beskrevet i loven:

 Formanden for London County Council;
 En repræsentant fra London and Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee;
 Formanden for Committee of London Clearing Banks;
 Præsidenten for Law Society; og
 Præsidenten for Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales.

Loven krævede at bestyrelsesmedlemmerne skulle være "personer, der har stor erfaring og har vist dygtighed indenfor transport-, industrielle, kommercielle eller finansielle anliggender eller i varetagelsen af offentlige anliggender og, i tilfælde af to medlemmer, skal være personer, der har haft ikke mindre end seks års erfaring i lokaladministration indenfor London Passenger Transport Area."

Den første formand og næstformand var Lord Ashfield og Frank Pick, der havde haft lignende stillinger hos Underground Group. Bestyrelsesmedlemmerne havde en embedsperiode på mellem tre og syv år og kunne genudnævnes.

Medlemmer
 Lord Ashfield, 1933-1947
 Frank Pick, 1933-1940
 Sir John Gilbert (London County Council), 1933-1934
 Sir Edward Holland (Surrey County Council), 1933-1939
 Patrick Ashley Cooper, direktør i Bank of England, senere Sir Patrick og guvenør for Hudson's Bay Company
 Sir Henry Maybury, anlægsingeniør, formand for London and Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee, 1933-1943
 John Cliff, sekretær for Transport and General Workers Union, 1933-1947
 Charles Latham, (London County Council) 1935-1947
 Colonel Forester Clayton, 1939-1947
 William Charles Henry Whitney (medstifter)
 Colonel C G Vickers, 1941-47
 William Neville, 1946-47
 Sir Gilfrid Craig, 1944-46
 Sir Edward Hardy, 1946-47
 Geoffrey Hayworth, 1942-47

Latham og Cliff blev formand og næstformand hos efterfølgeren London Transport Executive i 1947.

London Passenger Transport Area
London Passenger Transport Area havde en omtrentlig radius på 48 km fra Charing Cross og strækte sig længere ud, end hvad der sidenhen officielt blev grænserne til Greater London, til Baldock mod nord, Brentwood mod øst, Horsham mod syd og High Wycombe mod vest.

Ansvarsområder
Gennem lovgivningen overtog LPTB de følgende anliggender:

Jernbaner
 Underground Electric Railways Company of London, der kontrollerede:
 London Electric Railway, bestyrerselskabet af:
 Bakerloo line
 Piccadilly line
 Hampstead & Highgate line (nu Northern lines Charing Cross-, Edgware- og High Barnet-grene)
 City and South London Railway (nu Northern lines Bank- og Morden-grene)
 Central London Railway
 District Railway
 Metropolitan Railway, der kontrollerede:
 Great Northern & City Railway

Sporveje
 London County Council Tramways (269 km rute, inklusive spor ejet af Borough of Leyton og City of London og 1.713 sporvogne)
 Middlesex County Council (68,6 km rute, leaset til Metropolitan Electric Tramways)
 Hertfordshire County Council (34,6 km rute, leaset til Metropolitan Electric Tramways)
 City of London (0,4 km rute, opereret af London County Council)
 Barking Corporation (opereret af Ilford Corporation, London County Council og East Ham Corporation siden 1929) (2,9 km rute)
 Bexley og Dartford Urban District Councils (fælles foretagende siden 1921) (16,6 km rute og 33 sporvogne)
 Croydon Corporation Tramways (14,9 km rute og 55 sporvogne)
 East Ham Corporation Tramways (13,4 km rute og 56 sporvogne)
 Erith Urban District Council Tramways (6,4 km)
 Ilford Urban District Council Tramways (11,5 km rute og 40 sporvogne)
 Leyton Corporation Tramways (opereret af London County Council siden 1921) (14,5 km rute)
 Walthamstow Urban District Council Light Railways (14,4 km rute og 62 sporvogne)
 West Ham Corporation Tramways Corporation (26,2 km rute og 134 sporvogne)
 London United Tramways (46,8 km rute, 150 sporvogne og 61 trolleybusser)
 Metropolitan Electric Tramways (86,1 km rute, hvoraf 15,1 km var ejet af selskabet, 74,4 km leaset fra Middlesex County Council og 34,6 km fra Hertfordshire County Council, samt 316 sporvogne)
 South Metropolitan Electric Tramways (21,1 km rute og 52 sporvogne)

Busser og rutebiler
 London General, London General Country Services, Overground, Tilling & British Automobile Traction, Green Line Coaches

Videre historie
LPTB var bemyndiget til at indgå koordineringsaftaler med fjerntogsjernbaneselskaberne angående deres forstadsruter.

92 transportforetagender inkl. datterselskaber, med en samlet kapital på ca. £120 millioner, kom ind under LPTB. Bybusser, trolleybusser, undergrundstog og sporvogne blev malet rød ("Underground Red" eller "London General Red"), mens rutebiler og busser på landet blev malet grøn, med rutebilerne brandet "Green Line Coaches". "UNDERGROUND"-branding, der allerede var i brug på det meste af de dybtliggende "tube"-baner, blev udvidet til alle baner og stationer. Navnet siges at være opfundet af Albert Stanley, 1. Baron Ashfield i 1908, da han var administrerende direktør for Underground Group.

LPTB igangsatte et £35 millioner kapitalinvesteringsprogram, der udvidede trafikken og ombyggede mange eksisterende aktiver, de fleste under paraplyen "New Works Programme" fra 1935 til 1940. Selvom kun ca. £21 millioner af kapitalen blev brugt før 2. verdenskrig, medførte det forlængelser til Central, Bakerloo, Northern og Metropolitan lines, nye tog og vedligeholdelsesdepoter, omfattende ombygninger af mange centralt beliggende stationer (så som Aldgate East), og udskiftning af størstedelen af sporvognsnetværket til, hvad der skulle blive et af verdens største trolleybussystemer. I løbet af denne periode blev to ikoner for London Transport set for første gang: 1938-tubetog og RT-bussen. Selvom programmet blev nedskåret og forsinket af 2. verdenskrigs udbrud, leverede det også nogle nøgleelementer af de nuværende overjordiske dele af Underground-systemet. Den mest dybdegående ændring, der blev gennemført af bestyrelsen gennem programmet, var gennem overgangen fra sporvejs- til trolleybusdrift som tidligere omtalt. I 1933 opererede LPTB 526 rutekilometer sporveje og 29 rutekilometer med trolleybuses. I 1948 var disse summer hhv. 164 og 410 kilometer. Sporvognene forsvandt endegyldigt i 1952, og dette blev mødt med beklagelser blandt dele af personalet og befolkningen, men med henblik på brugerpåvirkning var dette formentlig den mest synlige og dramatiske ændring i perioden.

LPTB fortsatte med at udvikle selskabsidentiteten, design og reklamer, der var iværksat af Underground Group. Dette omfattede stationer designet af Charles Holden, busgarager af arkitekter som Wallis, Gilbert & Partners, og flere beskedne konstruktioner så som busstoppesteder og læskure. Plakaterne og markedsføring fra LPTB var ofte i eksemplarisk kvalitet og er stadig meget eftertragtede.

LPTB blev i 1948 erstattet af London Transport Executive gennem Transport Act 1947. De blev reelt nationaliseret, men med betydelig selvbestemmelse. LPTB fortsatte med at eksistere som en juridisk enhed indtil likvidation 23. december 1949.

Kilder
 T C Barker and Michael Robbins, A History of London Transport, Volume two – the Twentieth Century to 1970, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1974

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 The Railway Archive – London Passenger Transport Act, 1933 (25 MB)

Passenger Transport Board
Trafikselskaber
Etableret i 1933
Ophørt i 1948

London Passenger Transport Board


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