Pforzheim () is a city of over 125,000 inhabitants in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg, in the southwest of Germany.

It is known for its jewelry and watch-making industry, and as such has gained the nickname "Goldstadt" ("Golden City"). With an area of , it is situated about halfway between the cities of Stuttgart and Karlsruhe at the confluence of three rivers (Enz, Nagold and Würm). It marks the frontier between Baden and Württemberg, being located on Baden territory. From 1535 to 1565, it was the home to the Margraves of Baden-Durlach.

The City of Pforzheim is a Stadtkreis, meaning it is both a municipality and a district at the same. Also, it hosts the administrative offices of the Enz district that surrounds the city.

During World War II, Pforzheim was bombed by the Allies a number of times. The largest raid, and one of the most devastating area bombardments of World War II, was carried out by the Royal Air Force (RAF) on the evening of 23 February 1945. Nearly one third of the town's population, 17,600 people, were killed in the air raid, and about 83% of the town's buildings were destroyed. The Allies believed that precision instruments were being produced here for use in the German war effort and that the town was a transport centre for the movement of German troops.

From 1945 to 1948, Pforzheim (after the initial French occupation) was administered by the United States military and was part of the short-lived state of Württemberg-Baden. In the 20 years following the end of the war, Pforzheim was gradually rebuilt. The town reflects the architecture of the postwar period and has some landmark buildings of the 1950s.

Geography

Pforzheim is located at the northern rim of the eastern part of the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) and the rim of the hilly country of the Kraichgau, in an open valley at the confluences of the rivers Würm and Nagold, as well as the rivers Nagold and Enz. Due to its location, this city is also called the "three-valleys town" (Drei-Täler Stadt) or the "Gateway to the Black Forest" (Pforte zum Schwarzwald / Porta Hercynia).

Pforzheim and its surrounding area belongs to the "Densely Populated Area Karlsruhe/Pforzheim". Pforzheim has the functions of a regional center (Mittelzentrum) for the towns and municipalities Birkenfeld (Enz), Eisingen, Engelsbrand, Friolzheim, Heimsheim, Ispringen, Kämpfelbach, Keltern, Kieselbronn, Königsbach-Stein, Mönsheim, Neuenbürg, Neuhausen, Neulingen, Niefern-Öschelbronn, Ölbronn-Dürrn, Remchingen, Straubenhardt, Tiefenbronn, Wiernsheim, Wimsheim and Wurmberg.

Neighbouring communities
The following towns and communities share borderlines with the City of Pforzheim. Below they are mentioned in clockwise order, beginning to the north of the city. Except for Unterreichenbach, which belongs to the district of Calw, all of them are part of the Enz district.

Ispringen, Neulingen, Kieselbronn, Niefern-Öschelbronn, Wurmberg, Wimsheim, Friolzheim, Tiefenbronn, Neuhausen (Enz), Unterreichenbach, Engelsbrand, Birkenfeld (Enz), Keltern and Kämpfelbach.

City wards
The city of Pforzheim consists of 16 city wards. The communities Büchenbronn, Eutingen an der Enz, Hohenwart, Huchenfeld and Würm, which by way of the latest regional administrative reform during the 1970s were incorporated into Pforzheim's administration, are represented by independent community councils and community administrations. In important matters concerning any of these communities the opinions of the respective community councils must be taken into consideration. However, final decisions on the matter will be made by the Pforzheim city council.
 City center (Innenstadt)
 Northern ward (Nordstadt)
 Eastern ward (Oststadt)
 Southeastern ward (Südoststadt)
 Southwestern ward (Südweststadt)
 Western ward (Weststadt)
 Arlinger
 Brötzingen
 Buckenberg and Hagenschieß; including Altgefäll, Haidach and Wald-Siedlung
 Büchenbronn including Sonnenberg
 Sonnenhof
 Dillweißenstein
 Eutingen an der Enz including Mäuerach
 Hohenwart
 Huchenfeld
 Würm

Climate

History

It was settled by the Romans earlier than the current centers of Stuttgart and Karlsruhe were. These colonists constructed a ford through the river, shortly past the confluence of the three rivers, for their military highway. Due to this strategic location, Pforzheim later became a center for the timber-rafting trade, which transported timber from the Black Forest via the rivers Wuerm, Nagold, Enz and down the Neckar and Rhine to, among other markets, the Netherlands for use in shipbuilding. Their timbers were also used to construct the foundations for Amsterdam, which was built in a swamp.

Since 90: A settlement was established by Roman citizens at the Enz River near the modern Altstädter Brücke (old town bridge). Archeological surveys have unearthed several artifacts of that period which are kept and displayed in the Kappelhof Museum. The settlement was located where the Roman military road connecting the military camp Argentoratum (nowadays Strasbourg in France) and the military camp at Cannstatt (now a suburb of Stuttgart) at the Upper Germanic Limes border line of the Roman Empire crossed the Enz river.

This place was known as Portus (meaning "river crossing, harbor"), which is believed to be the origin of the first part of the city's name "Pforzheim". A Roman milestone (the so-called 'Leugenstein') from the year 245 was excavated in modern times at present-day Friolzheim; it is marked with the exact distance to 'Portus' and is the first documented evidence of the settlement.

259/260: The Roman settlement 'Portus' was destroyed completely, as the Frank and Alemanni tribes overran the Upper Germanic Limes border line of the Roman Empire and conquered the Roman administered area west of the Rhine River. From then on, over an extended period of time, historical records about the settlement were not available.

6th/7th century: Graves from this period indicate that the settlement had been continued.

1067: The settlement was mentioned as "Phorzheim" for the first time, in a document by Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Visits to Pforzheim by Heinrich IV in 1067 and 1074 are documented.

Before 1080: The "old town" of Pforzheim was awarded market rights (Marktrecht). At that time Pforzheim belonged to the estate of Hirsau Monastery, according to monastery documents.

From 1150: Establishment of the "new town" west of the "old town" at the foot of the Schlossberg (palais hill) under Margrave Hermann V.

1200: The town charter of the "new town" was mentioned for the first time in a document. The "old town" continued to exist as a legally independent entity.

1220: The Margraves of Baden selected Pforzheim as their residence. This resulted in the "new town" becoming prominent.

1240: A mayor of Pforzheim was mentioned in a document for the first time.

13th/14th century: Pforzheim enjoyed its first period of flourishing. A group of influential patricians emerged. They developed the financial markets of those days. The town drew its income from the wood trade, timber rafting, the tannery trade, textile manufacturing, and other crafts. Documents mention mayor, judge, council and citizens.

The town walls surrounding the new town were completed about 1290. During this era, three Roman Catholic orders established their convents in town (the Franciscan order established their domicile within the town wall at present-day Barfuesserkirche (the choir of which remains), the Dominican sisters order established their domicile outside the walls of the old town near Auer Bridge, and the Prediger cloister was located east of the Schlossberg, probably inside the town walls). Outside the town wall and across the Enz river, the suburb Flösser Quarters (the home of the timber-floating trade) was established. Next to the western town wall, the suburb of Brötzingen gradually developed.

The Margraves of Baden considered Pforzheim as their most important power base up to the first half of the 14th century. Under Margrave Bernard I (Bernhard I), Pforzheim became one of the administrative centers of the margraviate.

1322: Holy Ghost Hospital was founded at Tränk Street (present-day Deimling Street).

15th century
Various fraternities, also known as guilds, among people working in the same trade were established: The fraternity of tailors in 1410, the fraternity of bakers on 14 May 1422, the fraternity of the weavers in 1469, the fraternity of the wine-growers in 1491, the fraternity of the skippers and timber raftsmen in 1501, and the fraternity of the carters in 1512. Members of the same fraternity assisted each other in various ways, for example with funerals and in cases of sickness. In a sense, the fraternities were early forms of health and life insurance.

8–9 August 1418: Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor visits Margrave Bernard I (Bernhard I) in Pforzheim. On this occasion the mint of the Margraves of Baden in Pforzheim was mentioned. Mint master was Jakob Broeglin between 1414 and 1431. The emperor appointed the master of the Pforzheim mint, Jakob Bröglin, and Bois von der Winterbach for five years as Royal Mint Masters of the mints of Frankfurt and Nördlingen. The Margrave was appointed as their patron.

1447: The wedding of Margrave Charles I (Karl I) of Baden with Katharina of Austria, the sister of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (Friedrich III), was celebrated in Pforzheim with great pomp (including tournaments and dances).

1455: Johannes Reuchlin, the great German humanist, was born in Pforzheim on 29 January (he died in Stuttgart on 30 June 1522). He attended the Latin School section of the monastery school run by the Dominican order of Pforzheim in the late 1460s. Later, partly due to Reuchlin's efforts, the Latin School of Pforzheim developed into one of the most prominent schools in southwestern Germany, named Reuchlin-Gymnasium. The school's teachers and pupils played an outstanding role in the dissemination of the ideas of humanism and the protestant reformation movement. The most famous pupils included Reuchlin himself, Reuchlin's nephew Philipp Melanchthon, and Simon Grynaeus.

1460: Margrave Charles I established a kind of monastery (Kollegialstift) at the site of Schlosskirche St. Michael, turning the church into a collegiate church. There were also plans to establish a university in Pforzheim, but this plan had to be abandoned because Margrave Charles I lost the Battle of Seckenheim.

1463: Margrave Charles I was forced to transfer the palace and the town of Pforzheim as a fiefdom to the Elector Palatine after losing the Battle of Seckenheim. He then began to build a new palace in modern Baden-Baden. Christoph I, Margrave of Baden-Baden finally moved the residence of the margraves to Baden-Baden. This gradually ended the first period of Pforzheim's flourishment. The rich merchants gradually left the town, which declined to the status of a country town of mostly small traders.

1486: The Weavers Ordinance (Wollweberordnung) for the towns Pforzheim und Ettlingen was approved by Christoph I, Margrave of Baden-Baden. This was a contract concerning the town privileges of Pforzheim. This regulation of the weaving trade did not allow the formation of a regular guild (Zunft).

1491: A contract between Christoph I, Margrave of Baden-Baden and the citizens of Pforzheim was concluded, granting the town of Pforzheim several privileges concerning taxes and business.

1496: Foundation of the first printer's shop by Thomas Anshelm. During the first half of the 16th century Pforzheim's printers contributed significantly to the establishment of this (in those days) new medium.

16th century
1501: Christoph I, Margrave of Baden-Baden enacted the "Ordinance on the timber rafting profession in Pforzheim". The single timber logs that were floated from the deeper Black Forest areas down the Enz, Nagold and Wuerm rivers were bound together in the Au area to form larger timber rafts. Those rafts were then floated down the lower Enz, Neckar and Rhine rivers. The timber rafting stations of Weissenstein, Dillstein and Pforzheim were well known in the profession.

1501 was also the year for which an outbreak of the plague (probably the bubonic plague) is recorded in the Swabian chronicle Annalium Suevicorum by Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen professor Martin Grusius, published 1596. It is not known how many of Pforzheim's citizens died in that year, but there are reports of 500 deceased in the close by city of Calw and about 4000 in Stuttgart, which accounted for approximately one quarter to one half of the populations of those towns. Outbreaks of the disease were reported for many places in southwestern Germany, Bohemia, the Alsace region in nowadays France, Switzerland, and Italy. Common graves with massive numbers of human bones at the cemetery of St. Michael Church and the cemetery on the estate of the Dominican order near nowadays Waisenhausplatz found during the last century may indicate that hundreds of citizens became the victims of the plague. There are indications that a fraternity for taking care of the sick and removing the bodies of the deceased from houses was formed in 1501, whose members later on stayed together and became known as the choral society Singergesellschaft, which is still active today as the Loebliche Singergesellschaft of 1501. (They are probably one of the oldest clubs in Europe).

1520s: The ideas of the protestant religious movement advanced by Martin Luther spread rapidly in Pforzheim. Its most prominent promoters were Johannes Schwebel, a preacher at Holy Ghost church (Heiliggeistkirche), and Johannes Unger, the principal of the Dominican Latin school.

1535–1565: Due to the heritage division of the clan of the Margraves of Baden, Margrave Ernst of Baden made Pforzheim the residential town of his family line. He decided to use the Schlosskirche St. Michael as the entombment site for his family line.

1549: A large fire caused severe damage to the town.

1556: After the conclusion of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555, Margrave Karl II introduced Lutheranism (Protestantism) as the state religion in the district Baden-Durlach, which included Pforzheim. The (Catholic) monasteries were gradually shut down.

1565: Margrave Karl II chose Durlach as the new residential town. Pforzheim stayed one of the administrative centers of Baden.

17th century
1618: At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants of Pforzheim is estimated to have been between 2500 and 3000. This was the largest town among all towns in Baden, even though at that time it had already declined somewhat.

1645: Toward the end of the Thirty Years' War the "old town" was burned down by Bavarian (i.e. Catholic) troops. It was rebuilt, but without the former fortifications, which gave it the status of a village-like settlement. It soon vanished from historical records. The "new town" had survived.

1688–1697: The "War of the Palatinian Succession" (also called the Nine Years War) caused tremendous destruction in Southwestern Germany. The French "sun king" Louis XIV's efforts to expand the territory of France up to the Upper Rhine river and to put the Elector Palatine under pressure to severe its ties with the League of Augsburg included the Brûlez le Palatinat! tactics of destroying major towns on both sides of the Rhine river. These tactics seem to have been mainly the idea of the French war minister, François Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois.

Pforzheim was occupied by French troops on 10 October 1688. Commanding officer is said to have been Joseph de Montclar. The town was forced to accommodate a large number of soldiers and had to pay a large amount of "contributions" to the French. When the army unit was about to depart early in the morning of 21 January 1689 (obviously because an army of the Holy Roman Empire had been approaching), they set many major buildings on fire, including the palais, the city hall, and vicarages. About 70 houses (i.e. one quarter of all houses) and part of the town's fortifications were reportedly destroyed.

Between 2 and 4 August, the French army under the general command of Marshal Jacques Henri de Durfort de Duras again crossed the Rhine river and began the destruction of major towns in Baden. On 10 August 1689, a French army unit under the command of General Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac appeared in front of Pforzheims town gates, but this time the town refused to surrender. In response, the French army began shelling the town with cannons from the Rod hill located southwest of the town, and the several hundred soldiers of the German imperial command, who were defending the town, were forced to surrender. After a short period of looting, the French troops set the inner town area on fire on 15 August, which made that area uninhabitable for several weeks. Then the French moved on.

During the following two years, French troops stayed away from Pforzheim, but the economic situation of the town was miserable. In addition to this, the reconstruction of the town and the repairs of the fortifications under the supervision of Johann Matthaeus Faulhaber, the chief construction officer of the Margraviate Baden, required a lot of efforts. The accommodation of an imperial garrison under the command of (then) colonel Count Palffy also was a heavy burden.

In 1691, Louvois instructed his marshals to destroy those towns which were to serve as winter quarters for imperial troops, explicitly including Pforzheim, and then continue to Wuerttemberg for further destructions. After the French troops had crossed the Rhine river under the command of Marshal Guy Aldonce de Durfort de Lorges at Philippsburg on 3 August 1691, they assaulted the Margraves' residential town of Durlach and 1,200 cavalry men, 300 dragoons and 1,200 infantry men advanced toward Pforzheim where they arrived in the morning on 9 August and surrounded the town. When the approximately 200 imperial soldiers under the command of Captain Zickwolf and other men in the town refused to surrender, the siege began. After shelling the town during the day and the following night, the resistance of the town broke down and on 10 August in the morning the French forced the town gates open, occupied and looted it (although with little success, as there was not much left to be taken away). On 12 August, the French moved on, this time refraining from setting houses on fire. The fortification had again been damaged, though (the White Tower, the Auer Bridge Gate, the Upper Mill and the Nonnen Mill were burnt down). The French also stole all church bells, except for one minor one.

On 20 September 1692, again crossed the Rhine river under the general command of Marshal Guy Aldonce de Durfort de Lorges, and advanced toward Durlach and Pforzheim. On 24 September, 2,000 cavalry soldiers and 1,200 infantry and artillery troops under the command of Marshal Noël Bouton de Chamilly, moved to Pforzheim, where the town and 600 soldiers of the imperial German army in town surrendered without any military engagements. The rest of the French army arrived on 27 September under the command of Marshal de Lorges. On the same day, the French army moved on to Oetisheim near Mühlacker and attacked an imperial army unit of 4,000 cavalry men under the command of Duke Frederick Charles of Württemberg-Winnental in their camp. As they were taken by surprise, they withdrew hastily and lost several hundred men, either killed or captured by the French. (The Duke himself was among the French prisoners.) On 28 September, the French army returned to Pforzheim and established a camp. It was reported that the entire Enz valley between the village of Eutingen east of Pforzheim and the village of Birkenfeld west of Pforzheim was occupied by the 30,000 French soldiers' camps. From their base in Pforzheim, French army units obviously under the leadership of Marshal de Chamilly advanced along the river valleys of Nagold and Würm and looted and destroyed the villages and towns of Huchenfeld, Calw, Hirsau, Liebenzell and Zavelstein. They also destroyed Liebeneck castle about 10 kilometres from Pforzheim towering above the Würm valley, where part of the Pforzheim town archives were hidden. The archive was burned. Another part of the town archive as well as documents of Baden administrative office had been brought to Calw, where they went up in flames, too.

When the French troops left after about one week of occupation, they again looted Pforzheim and put it on fire. This time, all houses which had survived the two previous fires, were destroyed. In the Au suburb, only three houses survived. The Au bridge was heavily damaged. Only four houses survived in the Broetzingen suburb. The town church of St. Stephen and a large part of the Dominican monastery complex were also destroyed. The Castle Church (Schlosskirche) of St. Michael was heavily damaged, and the family tombs of the Margraves of Baden in the church were desecrated by the soldiers. The last remaining church bell and the churches' clockworks were stolen as well. The town wall was damaged again, including the town gates. After the week-long presence of 30,000 soldiers in a town of only a few thousand citizens, all food was gone, including the seeds saved for next spring's sowing season. Every tree and grapevine on the valley slopes had been used up as firewood. The French army reached their camp in Philippsburg on 5 October 1692.

18th century
1718: Inauguration of the "institution for orphans, the mad, the sick, for discipline and work" in a building of the former Dominican order Convent by the Enz river. Fifty years later this institution was to become the incubator of Pforzheim's jewellery and watchmaking industries.

1715–1730: During this period, there was a prolonged dispute between Pforzheim's citizens and the Margrave of Baden concerning the privileges granted to the town in 1491, which the Margrave considered obsolete and therefore demanded significantly higher tax payments from Pforzheim citizens. The issue was taken all the way to the Imperial Court of Justice, where the town's motion was defeated.

1767: Establishment of a watch and jewellery factory in the orphanage. This led to Pforzheim's jewellery industries. Watchmaking was given up later on.

19th century
1805–06: A typhus epidemic in Pforzheim caused many deaths, disrupting the town's economy.

1809: The Administrative District Pforzheim of Baden was split into a Municipal District Administration Pforzheim and two Rural Districts.

1813: The two Rural Districts were combined to form the Rural District Administration Pforzheim.

1819: Municipal District Pforzheim and Rural District Pforzheim are merged to form the Higher District Administration Pforzheim.

1836: Ferdinand Öchsle in Pforzheim invented a device for measuring the sugar content in freshly pressed grape juice for assessing the future quality of wine (Mostwaage). It is still in use in the winery business.

1861–62: Pforzheim was connected to the German railway network with the completion of a section of the Karlsruhe–Mühlacker line between Wilferdingen and Pforzheim.

1863: The railway section between Pforzheim and Mühlacker was completed, thus establishing railway traffic between the capital of Baden, Karlsruhe, and the capital of Württemberg, Stuttgart.

1864: The Higher District Administration Pforzheim was made the Regional Administration Pforzheim.

1868: The Enz Valley Railway between Pforzheim and Wildbad was completed.

1869: Establishment of the first workers' union in Pforzheim, the "Pforzheim Gold(-metal) Craftsmen's Union".

1874: The section of the Nagold Valley Railway between Pforzheim and Calw was completed.

1877: Inauguration of the Arts and Crafts School (Kunstgewerbeschule; now incorporated into Hochschule (University) Pforzheim).

1888: Bertha Benz and her two sons arrived in Pforzheim on the first "long-distance" drive in the history of the automobile in a car manufactured by her husband Carl Benz in order to visit relatives. She had started her drive in Mannheim, which is located about  from Pforzheim. The very first gasoline-powered automobile with an internal combustion engine of the inventor had hit the roads only two years earlier after a patent for this new technology had been granted to Karl Benz on 29 January 1886. She bought the gasoline necessary for her trip back home in a "pharmacy" in Pforzheim. During the trip, Bertha Benz had to make repairs with a hairpin to open a blocked fuel line, and after returning home, suggested to her husband that another gear be provided in his automobile for climbing hills. To commemorate this first long-distance journey by automobile, the Bertha Benz Memorial Route was officially approved as a route of industrial heritage of mankind in 2008. Now everybody can follow the  of signposted route from Mannheim via Heidelberg to Pforzheim and back.

1893: Inauguration of the Pforzheim Synagogue.

The company Wellendorff, a family-owned jewellery producing until now, is founded by Ernst Alexander Wellendorff. The enterprise sells many kinds of jewelry at the highest level worldwide.

20th century
From 1900: Revival of the Pforzheim watchmaking industry.

1905: The western borough Brötzingen was incorporated into the administration Pforzheim.

1906: The 1. FC Pforzheim football club was defeated by VfB Leipzig with a score of 1–2 in the final game of the German football championship.

1907: Julius Epple founded Aristo, the watch brand, benefitting from the bull market for wristwatches in the 1920s.

1914–1918: Pforzheim was not a battlefield in World War I, but 1600 men from Pforzheim lost their lives as soldiers on the battlefields.

1920s: The Pforzheim watchmaking industry thrived due to the new popularity of wrist-watches.

1927: Stowa, another well-known German watch brand from Pforzheim, was founded by Walter Storz in Hornberg, moving the business to Pforzheim in 1935. Walter's son, Werner, eventually takes over the business.

From 1933: Along with the installation of the Nazi government in Germany the local subsidiaries of all political parties, groups and organizations other than the NSDAP were gradually disbanded in town. Public life as well as individual affairs were increasingly affected by Nazi influences. Persecution of Jewish fellow citizens occurred in Pforzheim, too, with boycotts of Jewish shops and companies.

1938: Establishment of the municipal Jewellery Museum.

1938: On 9 November, the so-called Kristallnacht, the Pforzheim Synagogue (see WWW-site) of the Jewish community was so badly damaged by Nazi activists that it had to be demolished later on.

1939: Regional Administration Pforzheim (Bezirksamt) was converted to the Rural District Pforzheim (Landkreis) with Pforzheim city as its administrative site. However, the town itself became a district-less administrative body.

1940: Deportation of Jewish citizens of Pforzheim to the concentration camp in Gurs (France). Only 55 of the 195 deported persons escaped from the holocaust.

World War II

In 1944, many factories were converted to produce weaponry such as anti-aircraft shells, fuses for bombs, and allegedly even parts for the V-1 and V-2 rockets.

On the evening of 23 February 1945, Pforzheim was bombed in one of the most devastating area bombardments of World War II. Carried out by the Royal Air Force, the air raid killed about one quarter of the town's population, over 17,000 people, and destroyed about 83% of the town's buildings. The mission order to bomb Pforzheim issued by RAF Bomber Command states as the intention of the raid on Pforzheim "to destroy built up area and associated industries and rail facilities". The bombardment was carried out as part of the British carpet bombing campaign. The town was put on the target list for bombardments in November 1944 because it was thought by the Allies to be producing precision instruments for use in the German war effort and as transport centre for the movement of German troops.

There were also several minor raids in 1944 and 1945.

After the main attack, about 30,000 people had to be fed by makeshift public kitchens because their housing had been destroyed. Almost 90% of the buildings in the core city area had been destroyed. Many Pforzheim citizens were buried in mass graves at Pforzheim's main cemetery because they could not be identified. There are also many graves of complete families. Among the dead were several hundred foreigners who had been in Pforzheim as forced labor workers.

The inner-city districts were severely depopulated. According to the State Statistics Bureau (Statistisches Landesamt), in the Market Square area (Marktplatzviertel) in 1939 there were 4,112 registered inhabitants, in 1945 none (0). In the Old Town area (Altstadtviertel) in 1939 there were 5,109 inhabitants, in 1945 only three persons were still living there. In the Leopold Square area, in 1939 there were 4,416 inhabitants, in 1945 only 13.

The German Army Report of 24 February 1945 devoted only two lines to reporting the bombardment: "In the early evening hours of February 23, a forceful British attack was directed at Pforzheim." RAF Bomber Command later assessed the bombing raid as the one with "probably the greatest proportion (of destroyed built-up area) (of any target) in one raid during the war".

In early April, as the Allied forces and notably the French Army advanced toward Pforzheim, the local German military commander gave orders to destroy the electric power generating plant and those gas and water supply lines that were still working, but local residents succeeded in persuading the staff sergeant in charge of the operation to refrain from this action in the face of the imminent and seemingly inevitable surrender of the German military. Likewise, orders were issued for the destruction of those bridges that had remained unscathed (some of the bridges had been destroyed by the air strikes of 23 February, others damaged or destroyed earlier in the war). Only the Iron (Railway) Bridge in Weißenstein ward was saved by citizens who pulled off the fuse wiring from the explosive devices which had already been installed, and dropped it into Nagold river. On 8 April, French troops, including an armored vehicle unit, moved into Pforzheim from the northwest, and were able to occupy the area north of Enz river, but the area south of the Enz river was defended by a German infantry unit using artillery. Fighting was especially fierce in Broetzingen. The French army units (including an Algerian and Moroccan unit) suffered heavy losses; among the dead was the commander of the army unit, Capitaine Dorance. The advance of the French army came to a halt temporarily, but with the support of fighter-bomber aircraft and due to the bad condition of the defenders - which included many old men and young boys who had been drafted into the Volkssturm - the French troops took possession of the vast rubble field which once was the a residential town of the Baden Margraves on 18 April.

The three months of French occupation were reportedly marked by hostile attitudes on both the French army side and the Pforzheim population's side; incidents of rape and looting, mainly by Moroccan soldiers, were also reported. Au Bridge (Auerbruecke) and Wuerm Bridge received makeshift repairs by the French military. The US Army, which replaced the French troops on 8 July 1945, helped repair Goethe Bridge, Benckiser Bridge, Old Town Bridge (Altstädterbrücke) and Horse Bridge (Roßbrücke) in 1945 and the following year. The relationship between the population and the US military was reportedly more relaxed than had been the case with the French army.

Post-World War II
1945–1965: Pforzheim was gradually rebuilt, giving Pforzheim a quite modern look. In September 1951 the Northern Town Bridge (Nordstadtbrücke) was inaugurated (the ceremony was attended by then Federal President Prof. Dr. Theodor Heuss). Jahn Bridge followed in December 1951, Werder Bridge in May 1952, the rebuilt Goethe Bridge in October 1952, and the rebuilt Old Town Bridge was inaugurated in 1954.

1955: On the occasion of the 500th birthday anniversary of Johannes Reuchlin, the city of Pforzheim established the Reuchlin Prize and awarded it for the first time in the presence of then President of the Federal Republic of Germany (West-Germany), Prof. Dr. Theodor Heuss.

1961: Inauguration of the culture center "Reuchlinhaus", which from then on housed the Jewellery Museum, the Arts and Crafts Association, the City Library, the Homeland Museum (Heimatmuseum), and the City Archives.

1968: On 10 July shortly before 22:00, Pforzheim and its surrounding areas were hit by a rare tornado. It was rated F4 on the Fujita scale. Two persons died under a collapsing wall in nearby Ottenhausen and more than 200 were injured, and 1750 buildings were damaged. Across the town between Buechenbronn ward and the village of Wurmberg the storm caused severe damage to forest areas (i.e. most trees fell to the ground). During the first night and the following days the soldiers of the French 3rd Husar Regiment and the US Army Unit, which were still stationed at the Buckenberg Barracks, helped clear the streets of a lot of fallen trees (especially in the Buckenberg/Haidach area). It took about four weeks to carry out the most necessary repairs on buildings. The overhead electric contact wires for the electric trolley buses then still operating in town and the streetcar transport system to the village of Ittersbach were never repaired; those transport systems were retired.

1971–1975: The townships of Würm, Hohenwart, Buechenbronn, Huchenfeld and Eutingen were incorporated into the city administration.

1973: Inauguration of the new Pforzheim City Hall.

1973 As part of the reform of administrative districts, the rural district of Pforzheim was incorporated into the newly established Enz rural district, which has its administration in Pforzheim. But the city of Pforzheim itself remains a district-less city. In addition, Pforzheim became the administrative center of the newly formed Northern Black Forest Region.

1975 On 1 January, the population exceeded 100.000 and Pforzheim gained the status of a "large city" (Grossstadt).

1979: Inauguration of the Pforzheim City Museum.

1983: Inauguration of the "Technical Museum of the Jewellery and Watchmaking Industry" and the "Citizens Museum".

1987: Inauguration of the City Convention Center.

1987/1990: Inauguration of the City Theater at the Waisenhausplatz.

1989: Sister City agreement with the City of Gernika, Spain.

1990: Sister City agreement with the City of Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France.

1991: Sister City agreement with the City of Vicenza, Italy.

1992: State Gardening Expo in Pforzheim. Enzauenpark was created and part of the Enz river was re-naturalized.

1994: Inauguration of the cultural institution "Kulturhaus Osterfeld".

1994: Merger of the Pforzheim Business School and the Pforzheim School of Design to form the Pforzheim University of Applied Sciences in Design, Technology and Business.

1995: Inauguration of the Archeological Site Kappelhof.

21st century
2000: Inauguration of the Pforzheim Gallery.

2002: In November, during excavation works for a new shopping center in the center of the city, a power shovel hit a  bomb that had not detonated during the bombardment of 1945. On a Sunday, about 5000 citizens temporarily left their homes as a precaution while specialists defused and disposed of the latest of a large number of unexploded bombs found in Pforzheim's grounds since 1945.

2006: The Timex Group introduced a line of high-end watches engineered in Pforzheim over a five-year period, to six sigma standards. The technology used miniaturization with digital sensors and microprocessors driving independent motors and dial hands — to enable a range of specialized complications atypical to non-digital, analog watches — an array of functions that would either be impossible or highly impractical in a mechanical movement.

Demographics

Administrative unions
Formerly independent communities and districts which were incorporated into the City of Pforzheim.

Population
The table below shows the number of inhabitants for the past 500 years. Until 1789 the numbers represent estimates, after that they represent census results or official recordings by the Statistics Offices or the city administration.

The population growth diagram show that the largest growth rates were recorded between about 1830 and 1925, which was the period following the political reorganisation of Europe agreed upon at the Vienna Congress of 1815 after the violent period that was so much dominated by Napoleon Bonaparte of France. This high population growth period coincided with the period of intensive industrialisation of Germany. Population growth weakened due to the effects of World War I and World War II. The population declined sharply due to the destruction on 23 February 1945, and increased sharply in the post-World War II era due to high economic growth levels in West-Germany and the rapid rebuilding efforts in Pforzheim. Earlier setbacks were recorded during the Thirty Years' War period in the 17th century.

Immigration
The table below lists the largest immigrant groups of Pforzheim .

Religions
After margrave Karl II of Baden in 1556 installed the Protestant Reformation in the Margraviate of Baden, of which Pforzheim was the capital in those days, Pforzheim continued to be a Protestant town for several centuries. The congregations in Pforzheim were affiliated with the deanery (Dekanat) of Pforzheim of the Protestant National Church of Baden, unless they were members of one of the independent churches (Freikirche).

Since the 19th century at the latest Catholics settled in Pforzheim again. They are affiliated with the deanery of Pforzheim, which belongs to the Archdiocese of Freiburg.

Other denominations and religious sects in Pforzheim are:
 Israelite Congregation
 Islamic Congregation
 Adventist Congregation
 Jehovah's Witnesses
 Baptist Church
 Salvation Army
 Methodist Church
 Church of Christ, Scientist

Politics

City council
The city council of Pforzheim consists of the Oberbürgermeister (mayor) as its president and 40 elected (part-time) councillors. It is democratically elected by the citizens for a period of five years. The last election was on 26 May 2019. The city council is the main representative body of the city and determines the goals and frameworks for all local political activities. It makes decisions about all important issues regarding the public life and administration of the city and directs and monitors the work of the city administration. It forms expert committees in order to deal with specialized issues.

Lord mayors
At an early stage, the town administration was led by the mayor (Schultheiss) who used to be appointed by the lord (owner) of the town. Later on, there was a council with a mayor leading it, who since 1849 holds the title "Oberbürgermeister". The terms of office of the mayors until 1750 are unknown. Only the names of the mayors are mentioned in historical documents.

The coat of arms

The coat of arms of Pforzheim city shows in the left-hand half of a shield an inclined bar in red color on a golden background, and the right-hand half is divided into four fields in the colors red, silver, blue and gold. The city flag is white-blue.

The inclined bar can be traced back to the 13th century as the symbol of the lords (owners) of Pforzheim, which later on also became the National Coat of Arms of Baden, but its meaning is unknown. Since 1489 the coat of arms in its entire form can be verified, but its meaning is not known, either. Current coloring has been used only since 1853; in earlier times the coloring was different.

Economy and infrastructure
Pforzheim is one of the regional centers (Oberzentrum) in Baden-Württemberg and has one of the highest densities of industrial activity in the state.

Pforzheim is historically an important jewelry and watch-making centre in Germany. Due to this reason, Pforzheim is nicknamed as Golden City. Jewelry and watch-making industry is first set up by Jean François Autran after receiving an edict from then overlord Margrave Karl Friedrich von Baden. This enterprise is later joined by other commercial enterprises and helped Pforzheim to become an important manufacturing city. Pforzheim accounts for just under 70 percent of the total sales of the German jewelry and silverware industry and around 80 percent of all the pieces of jewelry exported by Germany come from Pforzheim.

However, a smaller fraction of the economy nowadays is dedicated to producing the traditional products of watches and jewellery. Only 11,000 people are employed in the jewelry and watch-making industries. Two thirds of all employment positions are made available in the areas of metal processing, dental industry electronics and electro-technology. The mail order companies (Bader, Klingel, Wenz) with their sales volumes in the order of millions of Euros occupies a leading position in Germany. Tourism is gaining importance. In this respect the city benefits from its favorable Three-Valleys location at the gateway to the Black Forest, and related to this, from the starting points of a large number of hiking, cycling and waterway routes. The European long-distance trail E1 passes through Pforzheim. It is also the starting point of the Black Forest Hiking Routes Westweg, Mittelweg and Ostweg.

Transport
Pforzheim is located on the Karlsruhe–Mühlacker line, part of the legacy railway between Karlsruhe and Stuttgart. Pforzheim Hauptbahnhof, the central station, is a junction station, as two Black Forest branch lines start here: the Enz Valley Railway to Bad Wildbad, and the Nagold Valley Railway to Calw, Nagold and Horb. Since the 1990s, the Karlsruhe tram-train system has been extended to Pforzheim: since 2019, the local service to Karlsruhe is the S5 tram-train continuing into Karlsruhe city centre and Wörth am Rhein. In addition, tram-train S6 links Pforzheim via the Enz Valley Railway with the town centre of Bad Wildbad. In addition to tram-trains, regional trains operated by Go-Ahead Baden-Württemberg, SWEG Bahn Stuttgart and DB Regio Baden-Württemberg offer connections to Karlsruhe, Mühlacker, Bietigheim-Bissingen and Stuttgart (routes IRE1 and MEX17a), as well as to Tübingen via Calw (RB73). Also, some Intercity trains operated by Deutsche Bahn serve Pforzheim on its Karlsruhe-Stuttgart-Nuremberg route.

Local bus service in Pforzheim is currently franchised to DB Südwestbus, operating 13 urban bus routes. In addition, there are regional bus services to surrounding places.

All regional trains, tram-trains and buses within Pforzheim and the surrounding Enzkreis are marketed under the brand of the Verkehrsverbund Pforzheim-Enzkreis (VPE), offering mutually integrated fares.

Between 1900 and 1968 a metre-gauge light railway existed between Pforzheim and Ittersbach, connected there to the still existing Busenbach–Ittersbach railway.

The A8 Autobahn (Perl–Bad Reichenhall) runs by just to the north of the city. The city can be accessed via four A8 exits. In addition, the B10 (Lebach–Augsburg) and B294 (Gundelfingen–Bretten) and B463 (Pforzheim–Nagold) run through the city.

Major local enterprises
 Wellendorff Gold-Creationen GmbH & Co. KG, worldwide selling, family-owned jewellery since 1893
 Victor Mayer GmbH & Co. KG, Workmaster of Fabergé
 Amazon, logistics centre
 Durowe, watch movement manufacturer
 Schmid Machine Tools
 Klingel Mail Order Company
 Bader Mail Order Company
 Wenz Mail Order Company
 Witzenmann GmbH (Specialized Metal Goods)
 Mapal WWS
 Thales (Electronics)
 Allgemeine Gold- und Silberscheideanstalt (metal processing)
 Sparkasse Pforzheim Calw (Local financial services company)
 Bernhard Forster GmbH (Forestadent) (Orthodontic Products Manufacturer)

Media
The daily newspapers Pforzheimer Zeitung (independent) and the Pforzheimer Kurier, which is a regional edition of Badische Neueste Nachrichten (BNN) with main editorial offices in Karlsruhe, are published in Pforzheim.

Courts of Justice
Pforzheim is the site of a Local Court of Justice, which belongs to the District Court and Higher District Court Precinct of Karlsruhe. It is also the domicile of a local labor court.

Authorities
Pforzheim is the domicile of the following public authorities and public incorporated bodies:
 Pforzheim Employment Exchange (a federal government agency; Arbeitsagentur Pforzheim).
 Pforzheim Internal Revenue Agency (a state agency; Finanzamt Pforzheim)
 Northern Black Forest Chamber of Commerce (a public incorporated body; IHK Nordschwarzwald). The precinct of the chamber is the Northern Black Forest Region.
 Northern Black Forest Regional Association (a public incorporated body; Regionalverband Nordschwarzwald).

Educational institutions
 Pforzheim University of Applied Sciences (Hochschule Pforzheim – Hochschule fuer Gestaltung, Technik und Wirtschaft) enrolls about 5400 students. It was formed in 1992 by way of merging the former Pforzheim School of Design (Fachhochschule für Gestaltung) and Pforzheim Business School (Fachhochschule für Wirtschaft) and additionally establishing the Faculty of Engineering. The Pforzheim School of Design had its roots in the Ducal Academy of Arts and Crafts and Technical School for the Metal Processing Industry, established 1877. The Pforzheim Business School was the successor institution of the National Business College, which was established in 1963. The campuses of the Faculty of Design and the Faculties of Economics and Engineering are located at separate sites in the city area. The Pforzheim University of Applied Sciences fosters international exchange. Among other relationships, it is affiliated with the NIEBES Association and has close academic ties to Osijek University of Croatia and academic exchange programs with many institutions abroad, among them Auburn University, the University of Wyoming, Brigham Young University and the Illinois Institute of Technology, in Chicago, of the United States of America.
 The Goldsmith and Watchmaking Vocational School is one of the two schools of its kind in Europe. It is attended by many students from abroad.
 The general qualification for university admission (Abitur) can be obtained through an education at the Reuchlin-Highschool, the Kepler-Highschool, the Hebel-Highschool, the Theodor-Heuss-Highschool, the Hilda-Highschool, the Schiller-Highschool, the Fritz-Erler-Highschool (economics-oriented high school), the Heinrich-Wieland-Highschool (technology-oriented high school), the Johanna-Wittum-Highschool (home economics-oriented high school), as well as the Waldorfschule.
 Pforzheim also has many schools providing the mandatory general elementary and secondary education (Grundschule, Realschule) as well an institution which is dedicated to further education of grown-ups (Volkshochschule). There are also several state-run vocational schools leading to professional diplomas in the crafts and trades.

Culture and places of interest

Theatre
 Municipal Theatre of Pforzheim (opera, operetta, dance, musical, drama)

Orchestras
 Pforzheim Chamber Orchestra – This orchestra was founded by Friedrich Tilegant in 1950. It participated in the world premiere of a work of Boris Blacher and has a good reputation beyond the region.
 Symphony Orchestra of the City of Pforzheim

Museums
 Archeological Site Kappelhof – Roman and medieval excavation objects
 Civic Museum Eutingen
 Museum on the German Democratic Republic (former east Germany)
 The Center of Fellow-Countrymen Associations (Landsmannschaften; especially those from eastern Europe)
 The Pforzheim Minerals Museum
 The Pforzheim Gallery (paintings)
 Reuchlinhaus
 The Pforzheim Jewellery Museum in the Reuchlinhaus
 The Pforzheim City Museum Pforzheim (on city history)
 The Technical Museum of the Jewellery and Watchmaking Industry of Pforzheim
 Weissenstein Station – On Railway History in the area of Pforzheim
 Roman Estate in the Kanzlerwald (the excavated remains of an estate built by Roman settlers)
 The Product Exhibition of Pforzheim (jewellery) Companies (Industriehaus)
 The Exhibition of Precious Stones by Widow Mrs. Schuett

Cultural institutions
 The House of Culture Osterfeld (a sociocultural center: theater, music, dance, cabaret, musical, arts, exhibitions etc.)
 Kupferdaechle (The Copper Roof Teenage Culture Center)
 The Puppet Theater of Raphael Muerle / The Marionette Stage Mottenkaefig
 The Communal Cinema of Pforzheim
 CongressCenter Pforzheim (CCP)
 City Library

Notable examples of architecture

Pre-war
 The Archive Building (Archivbau)
 The House of Industry (Industriehaus)
 The Arch Bridge at Dillweißenstein
 The ruins of Liebeneck Castle
 District office tower (Bezirksamtsturm)
 Leitgastturm
 Seehaus (formerly a hunting villa of the Margrave; now a popular destination for Sunday afternoon walks away from the city)
 The Old Grapes Press of Brötzingen
 Hachel Tower
 The Copper Hammer (Kupferhammer; a traditional water-powered sledge hammer which was used for metal forming)

Post-war

 The Main Railway Station
 The former main post office and Brötzingen post office
 Reuchlinhaus
 Goldener Adler Building at Leopoldplatz
 former Public Health Authority building (Gesundheitsamt) at Blumenhof
 District Court Building
 The Old and New City Hall
 Stadtbau Building (Architect: Luigi Snozzi)
 Sparkasse Tower
 Churches:
 The Palais and Monastery Church St. Michael (Schloss- und Stiftskirche); it is the city's landmark.
 The Old Town Church St. Martin (Altstadtkirche; Protestant)
 Resurrection Church (Auferstehungskirche; Protestant)
 The Bare Feet Church (Barfüsserkirche; Catholic)
 Christ Church of Brötzingen (Protestant)
 The Protestant City Church (Stadtkirche)
 Sacred Heart Church (Herz-Jesu-Kirche; Catholic)
 St. Matthew Church (Matthäuskirche; Protestant). This church was designed by architect Eiermann and is a precursory structure of the famous New Berlin Memorial Church (Gedächtniskirche)
 St. Francis Church (Catholic)
 Other Temples
 The Islamic Mosque
 The notable New Synagogue (1890) was lost on Kristallnacht

Other sites of interest
 The Alpengarten Pforzheim, closed since 2006
 The Main Cemetery (Hauptfriedhof)
 Wallberg. The debris from the destroyed town (23 February 1945) was dumped onto this hill. The Wallberg-Monument on the top is meant to remind people of the city's history; it was erected in 2005 on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the bombing raid.
 The Game Animals Zoo (Wildpark Pforzheim)
 Brötzingen Valley Stadium. This is the classical soccer stadium of the 1. FC Pforzheim soccer club of 1896, which was inaugurated in 1913. It accommodated a record number of "15.000 to 20.000" spectators on the occasion of the match between South Germany against Central Hungary in 1920. In the post-Second-World-War era it accommodated 12.000 spectators at the cup matches 1. FC Pforzheim – 1. FC Nürnberg (score 2–1 after extra time; 1961) and 1. FCP – Werder Bremen (score 1–1 after extension; 1988). The soccer club (simply called the "club"), which during its history supplied the first national team captain and a total of eleven first league players, had to file for bankruptcy in February 2004 and for the first time in history is playing in the fifth league, i.e. the Soccer Association's Northern Baden League, during the 2004–05 season. In 1906, the club lost the final of the German Football Championship against VfB Leipzig 1–2 in Nuremberg.
 The Weststadtpark in the borough Maihälden, an extensive park area

Twin towns and sister cities

Pforzheim is twinned with:

  Gernika-Lumo, Spain (1989)
  Saint-Maur-des-Fossés, France (1989)
  Vicenza, Italy (1991)
  Irkutsk, Russia (2007)
  Nevşehir, Turkey (2007)
  Częstochowa, Poland (2007)
  Győr-Moson-Sopron, Hungary (2007)
  Osijek, Croatia (2008)

Notable people

 Johannes Reuchlin (1455–1522), humanist and philosopher
 Nikolaus Gerbel (1485–1560), humanist and jurist
 Philipp Jakob Becker (1763–?), painter
 Christopher Bechtler (1782–1843), gold smith and mechanician
 Karl Heinrich Baumgaertner (1798–1886), pathologist
 Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Roller (1802–1878), psychiatrist
 Bertha Benz (1849–1944), wife of Karl Benz
 Victor Mayer (1857–1946), entrepreneur
 Guillermo Kahlo (1871–1941), father of Frida Kahlo
 Heinrich Otto Wieland (1877–1957), chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
 Erich Rothacker (1888–1965), philosopher and sociologist
 Fritz Todt (1891–1942), engineer and head of Organisation Todt
 Julius Moser (1882–1970), entrepreneur
 Erich Rothacker (1888–1965), philosopher and sociologist
 Robert Faas (1889–1914), footballer
 Emil Georg Bührle (1890–1956), Swiss industrialist
 Marius Hiller (1892–1964), footballer
 Hans Ferdinand Mayer (1895–1980), physicist and electrical engineer
 Hellmut Maneval (1898–1967), footballer
 Karl Abt (1899–1985), painter
 Adolf Rosenberger (1900–1967), race car driver and merchant
 Theodor Burkhardt (1905–1958), footballer
 Fritz Dietrich (1905–1945), musicologist and composer
 Hans Henninger (1905–1937), stage and film actor
 Leah Horowitz (1933–1956), Israeli hurdler
 Laura Perls (1905–1990), psychoanalyst
 Herbert Witzenmann (1905–1988), writer and researcher
 Wolfgang Preisendanz (1920–2007), Germanist and literary scholar
 Fritz Rau (1930–2013), concert manager
 Werner Tochtermann (1934–2021), chemist and university lecturer
 Manfred Mohr (born 1938), artist, pioneer of the digital art
 Jochen Hasenmayer (born 1941), cave diver
 Wolfgang Heinz (born 1942), criminologist and legal scientist
 Dieter Kosslick (born 1948), director of the Berlinale Film Festival
 Peter Bofinger (born 1954), economist and a former member of the German Council of Economic Experts
 Tomas Maier (born 1957), fashion designer
 Jürgen Elsässer (born 1957), journalist and political activist
 Stefan Mappus (born 1966), economist and politician (CDU)
 Oliver Forster (born 1968), sports commentator and moderator
 Jan Kopp (born 1971), composer, musicologist and publicist
 Florian Ross (born 1972), composer, jazz pianist and bandleader
 Philipp Mohr (born 1972), German-American architect and designer
 Marcello Craca (born 1974), German-Italian tennis player
 Logan McCree (born 1977), DJ and pornographic actor; birth name "Philipp Tanzer"
 Nicola Thost (born 1977), snowboarder and Olympic champion
 Jeff S. Klotz (born 1990), Author, publisher, museum director and entrepreneur
 Vincenzo Grifo (born 1993), footballer
 Robin Hack (born 1998), footballer

Honorary citizens
 1939 Alfons Kern, historian
 1965 Johann Peter Brandenburg, politician (FDP/DVP), Member of State Parliament, Lord Mayor of Pforzheim
 1985 Willi Weigelt, politician (SPD), Lord Mayor of Pforzheim
 1991 Richard Ziegler, painter
 1998 Rolf Schweizer, church music director

Miscellaneous topics
 The Freemasons Lodge "Reuchlin" is located in Pforzheim.
 Fool's Garden, an internationally successful rock band, has its origins in Pforzheim.

Gallery

References

Citations

Notes

External links

 Pforzheim as a destination - Presented in travel magazine

Baden
Cities in Baden-Württemberg
Holocaust locations in Germany
Karlsruhe (region)

Pforzheim


Kammesjukker er en dansk kortfilm fra 2003 med instruktion og manuskript af Jan T. Jensen og Per Rands.

Handling
Simon og Kasper er meget forskellige, men da de bliver presset, står de sammen.

Medvirkende
 Kim Sønderholm - Simon
 Bo Thomasen - Kasper
 Hanne Paludan Kristensen - Lea
 Ulrik Cold - Clas
 Nikolaj Gregersen - Bent
 Nynne Bugat - Bartender
 Melany Denise - Pige i bar #1
 Diana Bock - Pige i bar #2
 Morten B. Høstrup - Mand i bar
 Siham Sâdawi - Jogger
 Helene Faraj - Jogger
 Gabriella Jensen - Kvinde i bar
 Michael Tranekjer - Mand i bar

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2003

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Kammesjukker


Der Wartberg Verlag ist ein deutscher Verlag mit Sitz in Gudensberg. Begonnen hat der nordhessische Verlag als Regionalverlag mit historischen Bildbänden zu regionalen und stadtgeschichtlichen Themen. Doch mit der Reihe "Wir vom Jahrgang" ist er längst im ganzen Bundesgebiet präsent und darüber hinaus auch in Frankreich und Österreich.

Verlagsgeschichte

Nachdem der damalige Verleger Peter Wieden 1984 mit einem historischen Bildband über den Kasseler Stadtteil Harleshausen einen unerwarteten Erfolg hatte, gab er seinen Arbeitsplatz als Stadtjugendpfleger in Gudensberg auf, um sich künftig dem Verlagsgeschäft zu widmen. Seit Peter Wieden im September 1984 sein Gewerbe zum "Verlag von Büchern" anmeldete, hat der Wartberg Verlag weit über 2190 Titel zu beinahe allen Städten und Regionen aufgelegt. Die Bilanzsumme für das Jahr 2015 betrug 3.916.705,32 Euro.

Verlagsprogramm

Wie es früher war
In dieser Reihe werden Städte und Regionen anhand von historischen Fotos vorgestellt. Seit 1985 erschienen in dieser Reihe 110 Bände, teilweise in der zweiten Auflage.

Wir vom Jahrgang
Im Jahr 2005 führte der Verlag die Geschenkbuchreihe "Wir vom Jahrgang ...: Kindheit und Jugend" ein, 2007 folgte die Reihe "Wir vom Jahrgang ... - Aufgewachsen in der DDR". Die Bände werden jeweils von Autoren eines bestimmten Jahrgangs geschrieben, die darin das kollektive Gedächtnis ihrer Altersgenossen an ihre Jugendjahre wiedergeben. In beiden Reihen wurden mittlerweile zusammen 333 Bände veröffentlicht. Nach Angaben des Wartberg Verlags wurden von den Jahrgangsbänden insgesamt über 2,5 Millionen Exemplare verkauft. Seit September 2010 erscheint die Reihe unter dem Titel "Nous, les enfants de …" auch in Frankreich, wofür in Paris ein Verlagsbüro eingerichtet wurde. Seit Frühjahr 2011 erscheint die Reihe auch in Österreich.

Autoren

Weblinks
 Offizielle Webseite

Einzelnachweise

Gudensberg
Buchverlag (Deutschland)
Unternehmen (Schwalm-Eder-Kreis)
Gegründet 1984
Verlag (Hessen)

Wartberg Verlag


Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is one of the most important regulatory enzymes () of glycolysis. It is an allosteric enzyme made of 4 subunits and controlled by many activators and inhibitors. PFK-1 catalyzes the important "committed" step of glycolysis, the conversion of fructose 6-phosphate and ATP to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and ADP. Glycolysis is the foundation for respiration, both anaerobic and aerobic.  Because phosphofructokinase (PFK) catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation to convert fructose-6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and ADP, it is one of the key regulatory steps of glycolysis.  PFK is able to regulate glycolysis through allosteric inhibition, and in this way, the cell can increase or decrease the rate of glycolysis in response to the cell's energy requirements.  For example, a high ratio of ATP to ADP will inhibit PFK and glycolysis. The key difference between the regulation of PFK in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is that in eukaryotes PFK is activated by fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.  The purpose of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate is to supersede ATP inhibition, thus allowing eukaryotes to have greater sensitivity to regulation by hormones like glucagon and insulin.

Structure
Mammalian PFK1 is a 340kd tetramer composed of different combinations of three types of subunits: muscle (M), liver (L), and platelet (P). The composition of the PFK1 tetramer differs according to the tissue type it is present in. For example, mature muscle expresses only the M isozyme, therefore, the muscle PFK1 is composed solely of homotetramers of M4. The liver and kidneys express predominantly the L isoform. In erythrocytes, both M and L subunits randomly tetramerize to form M4, L4 and the three hybrid forms of the enzyme (ML3, M2L2, M3L). As a result, the kinetic and regulatory properties of the various isoenzymes pools are dependent on subunit composition. Tissue-specific changes in PFK activity and isoenzymic content contribute significantly to the diversities of glycolytic and gluconeogenic rates which have been observed for different tissues.

PFK1 is an allosteric enzyme and has a structure similar to that of hemoglobin in so far as it is a dimer of a dimer. One half of each dimer contains the ATP binding site whereas the other half the substrate (fructose-6-phosphate or (F6P)) binding site as well as a separate allosteric binding site.

Each  subunit of the tetramer is 319 amino acids and consists of two domains: one that binds the substrate ATP, and the other that binds fructose-6-phosphate. Each domain is a b barrel, and has cylindrical b sheet surrounded by alpha helices.

On the opposite side of the each subunit from each active site is the allosteric site, at the interface between subunits in the dimer. ATP and AMP compete for this site. The N-terminal domain has a catalytic role binding the ATP, and the C-terminal has a regulatory role

Mechanism
PFK1 is an allosteric enzyme whose activity can be described using the symmetry model of allosterism whereby there is a concerted transition from an enzymatically inactive T-state to the active R-state. F6P binds with a high affinity to the R state but not the T state enzyme. For every molecule of F6P that binds to PFK1, the enzyme progressively shifts from T state to the R state. Thus a graph plotting PFK1 activity against increasing F6P concentrations would adopt the sigmoidal curve shape traditionally associated with allosteric enzymes.

PFK1 belongs to the family of phosphotransferases and it catalyzes the transfer of γ-phosphate from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate. The PFK1 active site comprises both the ATP-Mg2+ and the F6P binding sites. Some proposed residues involved with substrate binding in E. coli PFK1 include Asp127 and Arg171. In B. stearothermophilus PFK1, the positively charged side chain of Arg162 residue forms a hydrogen-bonded salt bridge with the negatively charged phosphate group of F6P, an interaction which stabilizes the R state relative to the T state and is partly responsible for the homotropic effect of F6P binding. In the T state, enzyme conformation shifts slightly such that the space previously taken up by the Arg162 is replaced with Glu161. This swap in positions between adjacent amino acid residues inhibits the ability of F6P to bind the enzyme.

Allosteric activators such as AMP and ADP bind to the allosteric site as to facilitate the formation of the R state by inducing structural changes in the enzyme. Similarly, inhibitors such as ATP and PEP bind to the same allosteric site and facilitate the formation of the T state, thereby inhibiting enzyme activity.

The hydroxyl oxygen of carbon 1 does a nucleophilic attack on the beta phosphate of ATP.  These electrons are pushed to the anhydride oxygen between the beta and gamma phosphates of ATP.

Regulation
PFK1 is the most important control site in the mammalian glycolytic pathway. This step is subject to extensive regulation since it is not only highly exergonic under physiological conditions, but also because it is a committed step – the first irreversible reaction unique to the glycolytic pathway. This leads to a precise control of glucose and the other monosaccharides galactose and fructose going down the glycolytic pathway. Before this enzyme's reaction, glucose-6-phosphate can potentially travel down the pentose phosphate pathway, or be converted to glucose-1-phosphate for glycogenesis.

PFK1 is allosterically inhibited by high levels of ATP but AMP reverses the inhibitory action of ATP. Therefore, the activity of the enzyme increases when the cellular ATP/AMP ratio is lowered. Glycolysis is thus stimulated when energy charge falls. PFK1 has two sites with different affinities for ATP which is both a substrate and an inhibitor.

PFK1 is also inhibited by low pH levels which augment the inhibitory effect of ATP. The pH falls when muscle is functioning anaerobically and producing excessive quantities of lactic acid (although lactic acid is not itself the cause of the decrease in pH). This inhibitory effect serves to protect the muscle from damage that would result from the accumulation of too much acid.

Finally, PFK1 is allosterically inhibited by PEP, citrate, and ATP.  Phosphoenolpyruvic acid is a product further downstream the glycolytic pathway. Although citrate does build up when the Krebs Cycle enzymes approach their maximum velocity, it is questionable whether citrate accumulates to a sufficient concentration to inhibit PFK-1 under normal physiological conditions. ATP concentration build up indicates an excess of energy and does have an allosteric modulation site on PFK1 where it decreases the affinity of PFK1 for its substrate.

PFK1 is allosterically activated by a high concentration of AMP, but the most potent activator is fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, which is also produced from fructose-6-phosphate by PFK2. Hence, an abundance of F6P results in a higher concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-BP). The binding of F-2,6-BP increases the affinity of PFK1 for F6P and diminishes the inhibitory effect of ATP. This is an example of feedforward stimulation as glycolysis is accelerated when glucose is abundant.

PFK activity is reduced through repression of synthesis by glucagon. Glucagon activates protein kinase A which, in turn, shuts off the kinase activity of PFK2. This reverses any synthesis of F-2,6-BP from F6P and thus de-activates PFK1.

The precise regulation of PFK1 prevents glycolysis and gluconeogenesis from occurring simultaneously. However, there is substrate cycling between F6P and F-1,6-BP. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (FBPase) catalyzes the hydrolysis of F-1,6-BP back to F6P, the reverse reaction catalyzed by PFK1. There is a small amount of FBPase activity during glycolysis and some PFK1 activity during gluconeogenesis. This cycle allows for the amplification of metabolic signals as well as the generation of heat by ATP hydrolysis.

Serotonin (5-HT) increases PFK by binding to the 5-HT(2A) receptor, causing the tyrosine residue of PFK to be phosphorylated via phospholipase C. This in turn redistributes PFK within the skeletal muscle cells. Because PFK regulates glycolytic flux, serotonin plays a regulatory role in glycolysis

Genes
There are three phosphofructokinase genes in humans:
 PFKL – liver
 PFKM – muscle
 PFKP – platelet

Clinical significance
A genetic mutation in the PFKM gene results in Tarui's disease, which is a glycogen storage disease where the ability of certain cell types to utilize carbohydrates as a source of energy is impaired.

Tarui disease is a glycogen storage disease with symptoms including muscle weakness (myopathy) and exercise induced cramping and spasms, myoglobinuria  (presence of myoglobin in urine, indicating muscle destruction) and compensated hemolysis. ATP is a natural allosteric inhibitor of PFK, in order to prevent unnecessary production of ATP through glycolysis. However, a mutation in Asp(543)Ala can result in ATP having a stronger inhibitory effect (due to increased binding to PFK's inhibitory allosteric binding site).

Phosphofructokinase mutation and cancer: In order for cancer cells to meet their energy requirements due to their rapid cell growth and division, they survive more effectively when they have a hyperactive phosphofructokinase 1 enzyme.  When cancer cells grow and divide quickly, they initially do not have as much blood supply, and can thus have hypoxia (oxygen deprivation), and this triggers O-GlcNAcylation at serine 529 of PFK. This modification inhibits PFK1 activity and supports cancer proliferation, in contrast with the view that high PFK1 activity is necessary for cancer. This may be due to redirecting glucose flux towards the pentose phosphate pathway to generate NADPH to detoxify reactive oxygen species.

Herpes simplex type 1 and phosphofructokinase: Some viruses, including HIV, HCMV and Mayaro affect cellular metabolic pathways such as glycolysis by a MOI-dependent increase in the activity of PFK. The mechanism that Herpes increases PFK activity is by phosphorylating the enzyme at the serine residues. The HSV-1 induced glycolysis increases ATP content, which is critical for the virus's replication.

See also
PFK2 (converts fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 2,6-bisphosphate through on site, or the opposite, on another site)
PFP (reversibly interconverts fructose 6-phosphate and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate using inorganic pyrophosphate rather than ATP)
Fructose bisphosphatase (hydrolyses fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate)

References

External links

 Proteopedia.org Phosphofructokinase

EC 2.7.1
Glycolysis

Phosphofructokinase 1


Brahian Milton Alemán Athaydes (Montevideo, Uruguay; 23 de diciembre de 1989) es un futbolista profesional uruguayo. Juega como mediocampista y su equipo actual es el Club Atlético Banfield de La Liga Profesional de Fútbol Argentino Brahian Alemán será jugador de Banfield. También quedó marcado por violentos "bautismo" del fútbol y, supuesto, abuso sexual con su grupo denominado «Los Ninjas» en Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata a los juveniles que ascendían a Primera División.

Trayectoria

Inicios
Se inició en las juveniles de Danubio Fútbol Club y quedó libre debido a su altura en ese momento, por lo que decidió fichar para Defensor Sporting club en el que fue ascendido al primer equipo en el año 2009, pero debutó en 2010. El siguiente año recibe la dorsal número 10 y se vuelve pieza clave del equipo que finalizó 6° en el Apertura 2011/2012.

Unión
A mediados de 2012 se incorporó a Unión de Santa Fe, club que adquirió el 50% de su pase y con el que firmó un contrato por cuatro temporadas.

Arsenal
A mediados de 2014 es cedido a préstamo a Arsenal de Sarandí por 18 meses, con cargo y sin opción de compra.

Barcelona Sporting Club
Por sus buenas actuaciones es contratado por Barcelona Sporting Club por un año a préstamo, con opción a compra, para disputar Copa Libertadores 2015 y el Campeonato Ecuatoriano de Fútbol 2015.

Su debut en el "Ídolo Ecuatoriano" se produjo el 15 de febrero del 2015, es pieza clave en el juego ante Independiente del Valle donde el equipo consigue su primera victoria guiado por Brahian y su buena creación de juego. Hace su primera asistencia, en la derrota frente al Club Deportivo El Nacional de Quito el 22 de febrero. Sus primeros goles los hace en Copa Libertadores 2015 todos ante el Atlético Nacional de Medellín. El primero lo hace el 11 de marzo por la tercera jornada por Copa Libertadores al primer minuto de juego. Mientras los siguientes goles los hace el 19 de marzo por la cuarta jornada al minuto 46 y 51 con lo que Barcelona dio vuelta al resultado

En su estadía en Barcelona jugó 43 partidos, marcó 13 goles, y dio 12 asistencias, por su entrega y buen juego se ganó el cariño de la hinchada "canaria" e inclusive dijo en una entrevista que "Si regresa a Ecuador, solo jugaría en Barcelona", cosa que no cumplió tras fichar por Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito en el 2016.

Tras el deseo de quedarse en Barcelona y en Ecuador, Alemán estaba cediendo en las negociaciones para poder quedarse, pero el club estaba pasando por una crisis económica y no pudieron comprar su carta pase a Unión de Santa Fe que estaba por los 2 millones de dólares.

Liga de Quito
Tras fuertes ofertas de clubes como Club Atlético Huracán y de Club Atlético Newell's Old Boys de Argentina, y de Club Nacional de Football y de Peñarol, los dos grandes del fútbol uruguayo, decide sorpresivamente fichar por Liga de Quito, pedido por Claudio Borghi.

Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata
El 11 de enero de 2017 se incorporó al equipo de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata como refuerzo pedido por el DT Gustavo Alfaro.

El año 2017 Brahian firma por un año por el Tripero, para disputar el verano en la Primera División de Argentina, donde su equipo esta en el puesto 8 de 30 equipos.

Al-Ettifaq
En julio de 2018 se anuncia su partida a la Liga Profesional Saudí, específicamente al Al-Ettifaq Club, por una suma aproximadamente de 1.500.000 dólares.

Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata
Regresa nuevamente a su ex club Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata, para apenas llegar, heredara la camiseta n° 10, y volver a dejar a su club en lo más alto.

Clubes

Estadísticas
 Actualizado al 3 de septiembre de 2023

Palmarés

Campeonatos nacionales

Copas amistosas

Distinciones individuales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en BDFA
 Ficha en livefutbol

Nacidos en Montevideo
Futbolistas del Defensor Sporting Club
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Unión (Santa Fe) en los años 2010
Futbolistas del Arsenal Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Barcelona Sporting Club
Futbolistas de la Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito
Futbolistas del Club de Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata
Futbolistas del Ettifaq F. C.

Brahian Alemán


Kattehale kan henvise til

 Kattehale-familien, en plantefamilie
 Kattehale (slægt), en planteslægt i Kattehale-familien
 Kattehale (plante), en plante i Kattehale-familien
 Kattehale (bebyggelse), en bebyggelse

 Kattehale Mose, en mose i Nordsjælland

Kattehale


.et Etiyopya için internet ülke kodu üst seviye alan adıdır. (CcTLD)

Etiyopya'da iletişim
Etiyopya medyası
et

.et


Costi Ioniță (n. 14 de enero de 1978; Constanza, Rumania) es un cantante de manele y productor musical de Rumania. Durante su carrera musical ha descubierto varios talentos en Rumania y es considerado el artífice del manele moderno. Sin embargo, su trabajo más reconocido ha sido como productor musical, logrando varios premios, entre ellos el de "Mejor productor de Europa del Este" en 2009. En ese año formó el grupo musical Sahara junto a la cantante búlgara Andrea, con quien logró su primer éxito internacional. En 2011 se convirtió en el primer productor rumano en ser nominado a un premio Grammy y fue por su sencillo con Sahara "I Wanna".

Posteriormente, y tras el abandono de Andrea, continuó produciendo a otras artistas de Europa del Este como la serbia Ana Kokić o la exitosa cantante de pop folk búlgara Galena.

Biografía
Nacido en Constanza, comenzó su carrera musical cantando música tradicional rumana. Sin embargo, ha alcanzado fama como miembro del chico pop Valahia, disfrutando de varios éxitos. En 1999, comenzó a experimentar con Manele, un estilo musical compuesto de los Balcanes. En 2000, colaboró con Adrian Minune, el famoso vocalista de Of, viaţa mea ("Oh, mi vida"), uno de los primeros grandes éxitos de su tipo en Rumania. Después de la disolución de Valahia en 2002, comenzó una carrera en solitario, centrándose en el manele. En este período, colaboró con varios conocidos cantantes de maneles. A diferencia de algunos homólogos romaníes, Costi Ioniţă no usa un apodo.

Discografía
Sencillos
 2012: "Love 2 Party" con Celia, Mohombi
 2015: "Habibi (I Need Your Love)" con Shaggy, Faydee & Mohombi
 2015: "Te Quiero Mas" con Shaggy, Faydee, Farruko, Don Omar & Mohombi
 2015: "Universal Love" (Edward Maya con Andrea & Costi)
 2018: "Harem" (Edward Maya con Emilia & Costi)

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Sitio web oficial
oficial de Sahara

Cantantes masculinos de Rumania
Cantantes de pop de Rumania
Cantantes en rumano
Productores discográficos de Rumania
Nacidos en Constanza (Rumania)

Costi Ioniță


Víctor Mercante (Merlo, 1870 - Los Andes, 1934) fue un pedagogo argentino que contribuyó a la difusión de la educación laica y pública en Argentina.

Vida

Víctor Mercante era hijo de inmigrantes italianos. Su padre era un agricultor empobrecido y su madre descendía de una familia de la nobleza de Liguria. Víctor Mercante nace en el pueblo de Merlo y cuando tiene siete años de edad, los Mercante regresan a Italia para retornar a la Argentina tres años después, en 1880 y se vuelven a instalar en el pueblo rural de Merlo. Su hermano, Alejandro, fue matemático y a él se vincula la instalación de varias de las primeras usinas eléctricas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires como también la de Posadas, Provincia de Misiones.

En Merlo, Mercante fue pupilo de un destacado maestro, el italiano Bernardo Moretti.

Mercante cursa el magisterio en la Escuela Normal de Paraná. En 1890 Mercante comienza a trabajar como maestro en una escuela normal de la Provincia de San Juan.

Por pedido de Joaquín V. González , organizó la Sección Pedagógica en la Universidad de La Plata, basamento de la actual Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación.

En 1908 presidió la Sociedad Psicológica de Buenos Aires. Figura emblemática de la intelectualidad científica. Fue el primer argentino que se entrevistó con Sigmund Freud.

En 1914 asume como Decano de la recién creada Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, la primera de ese tipo en Sudamérica. Bajo la influencia de las teorías francesas y la pedagogía científica, Víctor Mercante escribe "Metodología". Se trata de una obra de referencia de varias generaciones, en el país.

A partir de su inclinación por el positivismo pedagógico, llevó adelante prácticas biometristas, que implicaban mediciones e información biológica. De este modo sienta las bases de la llamada la psicología experimental y así de la antropología física. Se imponía por su estilo y no por la fuerza, ya que usaba la sugestión.

Entre los hitos de su carrera, se encuentra el de haber sido un impulsor de la escuela positiva lombrosiana en Argentina. El trascendente legado de Mercante incluye una serie de obras, además de la mencionada anteriormente. Tal es el caso de Archivos de Pedagogía y Ciencias Afines, Charlas pedagógicas, de 1925, Maestros y Educandos, publicado en 1927. También fue autor de textos para alumnos, así como de tratados  científicos sobre la que se presentaba como una novedosa disciplina, la paidología. Su definición la describe como la ciencia que estudia todo lo relativo a la infancia y su buen desarrollo físico e intelectual.

En 1934 Mercante representa a Argentina en el Congreso Internacional de Educación, en Chile, y cuando se disponía a regresar, la muerte lo sorprende en la ciudad de Los Andes.

Su sobrino, Héctor Eduardo Mercante (Pehuajó, 26-10-1906 - La Plata, 28-06-1988), fue un destacado médico y político. Ministro de Salud (el primero en ese cargo creado en 1947) y de Gobierno de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (hasta 1952). En 1975, fue Rector de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata que su tío supo ayudar a  organizar, siendo destituido por el golpe militar del 24 de marzo de 1976.

Obra
 Museos escolares argentinos y la escuela moderna, 1893
 Metodología de la enseñanza primaria, 1916
 La crisis de la pubertad y sus consecuencias pedagógicas, 1918

Referencias

Pedagogos de Argentina
Merlenses

Víctor Mercante


Loki, İskandinav mitolojisinde kötülük ve kurnazlık tanrısı. Kimi tasvirlerde boynuzludur. Ayrıca şekil değiştirme yeteneğine sahiptir. Loki'nin Angrboda ile evliliğinden Jörmungandr, Fenrir ve Hel adında çocukları vardır. Sigyn ile olan evliliğinden ise Narfi ve Vali adlı iki çocuğu bulunmaktadır. Loki aynı zamanda cinsiyet değiştirebilen bir tanrıdır. Bir aygırı baştan çıkartması gerektiği zaman, bir kısrağa dönüşmüş ve dönüşümden Sleipnir doğmuştur. Sekiz bacaklı bu atı Loki, Odin'e hediye etmiştir.

Mitoloji

Kökeni
Loki, aslında bir Buz Devidir. Babası Farbauti annesi ise Laufey'dir. Aesir Tanrılarının Buz Devleriyle olan savaşlarında, Tanrılara önemli bilgiler vermiştir. Odin, Loki'nin yardımını kabul etmiş ve kendisini kan kardeşi olarak Aesir Tanrılarının yanına almıştır. Marvel evreninde geçen Thor'un üvey kardeşi olduğu bilgisi kurmacadır.

Balder'in Ölümü ve Loki'nin Cezası
Loki karmaşık bir karaktere sahiptir. Diğer Aesir Tanrıları'na oyunlar oynayarak eğlenir. En önemli tuzaklarından biri kör Tanrı Hodr'ı kandırarak, Odin'in oğlu Balder'in öldürülmesini sağlamak olmuştur. Bu hareketinden sonra Odin'in kan kardeşlik bağından çıkarılmış, dünyanın derinliklerindeki bir mağaraya hapsedilmiştir.

Loki mağarada öldürülen oğlu Narfi'nin bağırsaklarıyla bir taşa bağlanmış olarak yatmaktadır. Tepesindeki sarkıtlara dolanmış dev yılanın ağzından akan zehir gözlerine damlamakta ama eşi Sigyn elindeki tahta kapla Loki'yi korumaya çalışmaktadır. Ancak kap dolduğu zaman, boşaltmak için uzaklaştığında Loki zehirden etkilenmekte ve bu da İskandinav inançlarında depremlere sebep olmaktadır. Bu ceza İskandinav mitolojisinde mahşer günü olarak adlandırılan Ragnarok'a kadar devam edecektir.

Ragnarok
Ragnarok geldiğinde Loki, Heimdall ile dövüşecek, bu dövüşün galibi olmayacak ve her ikisi de savaşta ölecektir. Ragnarok'un ardından yeni yaşam başlayacaktır.

Popüler kültür
Black metal grubu Black Omen'in Loki Causer Of Ragnarok, Amon Amarth'ın As Loke Falls, Shape Shifter gibi şarkılarına ve efsane Heavy Metal grubu Manowar'ın Loki God of Fire adlı şarkısına konu olmuştur.

Loki, aynı zamanda Marvel Comics Thor çizgi romanlarında da bir karakter olarak yer almıştır. The Avengers ve Thor filmlerinde Loki, Tom Hiddleston tarafından canlandırılmıştır. Ayrıca Disney+ platformu için çekilen Loki dizisinde de Tom Hiddleston canlandırmaktadır.

Ayrıca Smite adli MOBA oyununda ve Warframe adlı oyunda karakterdir.

Yetenekleri

 Manipülasyon
 Enerji patlamaları
 İllüzyon (yanılsama)
 Boyutlararası ışınlanma
 Şekil değiştirme
 Telepati
 Dayanıklılık
 Büyü ustası

Kaynakça

Aesir
İskandinav tanrıları
Cermen mitolojisindeki devler
Jötnarlar
İskandinav mitolojisi
Düzenbaz tanrılar
Cermen mitolojisi
Devler
Thor
Kurgusal büyücüler

Loki


Combo Xingú fue una banda chilena fundada en 1971 en la ciudad de Santiago, conformada por estudiantes y egresados del Conservatorio Nacional de Música, así como por exintegrantes de la banda Beat Combo. Estaba dirigida por el director de orquesta Sergio Arellano y tuvo una corta vida, disolviéndose en 1973 pero dejando dos álbumes oficiales como legado, además de algunos trabajos en compañía con otros reconocidos artistas, como el tema «Por Chile» que aparece en el sencillo «Ramona» compartido con la reconocida banda Quilapayún. Esta banda es una de las primeras agrupaciones chilenas en incursionar en el funk.

A pesar de ser identificada con la Nueva Canción Chilena y la Fusión latinoamericana, la banda se caracterizó por interpretar versiones de músicos de rock de habla inglesa.

Integrantes

 Sergio Arellano: piano, órgano y dirección
 Raúl Muñoz: percusión
 Nelson Gamboa: contrabajo
 Patricio Lobos: guitarra
 Manuel Muñoz: trompeta
 Esteban Moya: saxo tenor
 Fernando Fiori: voz (1972-1973)
 Luis Ortiz: batería (1972-1973, de Los Ángeles Negros)

Discografía
 1971 - Combo Xingú
 1972 - Xingú

Sencillos
 1971 - Ramona / Por Chile

Referencias

Cantautores de la Nueva canción
Grupos de fusión latinoamericana
Grupos de folclore de Chile
Grupos de música de los años 1970
Octetos de música de Chile

Combo Xingú


IG Metall — sindicato
 Imunoglobulina M — anticorpo
 Iniciativa sobre Mercados Globais — centro estadunidense de pesquisas cuja sigla em inglês é IGM
 Instituto Gonçalo Moniz — centro brasileiro de pesquisas
 Istituto Geografico Militare — órgão governamental italiano
 Primeira Guerra Mundial — conflito bélico do século XX

Desambiguações de siglas

IGM


Sir Charles Algernon Parsons,  (13 June 1854 – 11 February 1931) was an Anglo-Irish engineer, best known for his invention of the compound steam turbine, and as the eponym of C. A. Parsons and Company. He worked as an engineer on dynamo and turbine design, and power generation, with great influence on the naval and electrical engineering fields. He also developed optical equipment for searchlights and telescopes.

Career and commercial activity

Parsons was born into an Anglo-Irish family in London as the youngest son of the famous astronomer William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse. (The family seat is Birr Castle, County Offaly, Ireland, and the town of Birr was called Parsonstown, after the family, from 1620 to 1901.)

With his three brothers, Parsons was educated at home in Ireland by private tutors (including John Purser), all of whom were well versed in the sciences and also acted as practical assistants to the Earl in his astronomical work. (One of them later became, as Sir Robert Ball, Astronomer Royal for Ireland.) Parsons then read mathematics at Trinity College, Dublin and at St. John's College, Cambridge, graduating from the latter in 1877 with a first-class honours degree. He joined the Newcastle-based engineering firm of W.G. Armstrong as an apprentice, an unusual step for the son of an earl. Later he moved to Kitsons in Leeds, where he worked on rocket-powered torpedoes.

Steam turbine engine

In 1884 Parsons moved to Clarke, Chapman and Co., ship-engine manufacturers operating near Newcastle, where he became head of their electrical-equipment development. He used Regnault's large collection of steam properties ("data of the physicists") to develop a turbine engine turning at 18,000 RPM in 1884 and immediately utilised the new engine to drive an electrical generator, which he also designed. Parsons' steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionised marine transport and naval warfare.

Another type of steam turbine at the time, invented by Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) in the 1880s, was an impulse design that subjected the mechanism to huge centrifugal forces and so had limited output due to the weakness of the materials available. Parsons explained in his 1911 Rede Lecture that his appreciation of the scaling issue led to his 1884 breakthrough on the compound steam-turbine:

It seemed to me that moderate surface velocities and speeds of rotation were essential if the turbine motor was to receive general acceptance as a prime mover. I therefore decided to split up the fall in pressure of the steam into small fractional expansions over a large number of turbines in series, so that the velocity of the steam nowhere should be great...I was also anxious to avoid the well-known cutting action on metal of steam at high velocity.

 Founding Parsons and Company

In 1889 he founded C. A. Parsons and Company in Newcastle to produce turbo generators to his design. In the same year he set up the Newcastle and District Electric Lighting Company (DisCO). In 1890, DisCo opened Forth Banks Power Station, the first power-station in the world to generate electricity using turbo generators.
In 1894 he regained certain patent rights from Clarke Chapman. Although his first turbine was only 1.6% efficient and generated a mere 7.5 kilowatts, rapid incremental improvements in a few years led to his first megawatt turbine, built in 1899 for a generating plant at Elberfeld in the German Empire.

 Marine steam turbine applications

Also interested in marine applications, Parsons founded the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in Newcastle. Famously, in June 1897, his turbine-powered yacht, Turbinia, turned up unannounced at the Navy Review for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria at Spithead, on 26 June 1897, in front of the Prince of Wales, foreign dignitaries, and Lords of the Admiralty. Moving at speed at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee Fleet Review off Portsmouth, to demonstrate the great potential of the new technology. The Turbinia moved at ; the fastest Royal Navy ships using other technologies reached . Part of the speed improvement came from the slender hull of the Turbinia.

Within two years the destroyers HMS Viper and  were launched with Parsons' turbines, soon followed by the first turbine-powered passenger ship, Clyde steamer TS King Edward in 1901; the first turbine transatlantic liners RMS Victorian and Virginian in 1905; and the first turbine-powered battleship,  in 1906, all of them driven by Parsons' turbine engines. ( Turbinia is housed in a purpose-built gallery at the Discovery Museum, Newcastle.)

 Honours and awards

Parsons was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1898, received their Rumford Medal in 1902 and their Copley Medal in 1928, and delivered their Bakerian Lecture in 1918. He served as the president of the British Association from 1916 to 1919. He was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924 at Toronto. Knighted in 1911, he became  a member of the Order of Merit in 1927. In 1929 the Iron and Steel Institute awarded him the Bessemer Gold Medal.

 Surviving companies

The Parsons turbine company survives in the Heaton area of Newcastle as part of Siemens, a German conglomerate. In 1925 Charles Parsons acquired the Grubb Telescope Company and renamed it Grubb Parsons. That company survived in the Newcastle area until 1985.

Parsons also designed the Auxetophone, an early compressed-air gramophone.

 Personal life and death

In 1883, Parsons married Katharine Bethell, the daughter of William F. Bethell. They had two children: the engineer and campaigner Rachel Mary Parsons (b. 1885), and Algernon George "Tommy" Parsons (b. 1886), who was killed in action during World War I in 1918, aged 31.

They had a London home at 1 Upper Brook Street, Mayfair, from 1918 to 1931.

Sir Charles Algernon Parsons died on 11 February 1931, on board the steamship Duchess of Richmond'' while on a cruise with his wife. The cause of death was given as neuritis. A memorial service was held at Westminster Abbey on 3 March 1931. Parsons was buried in the parish church of St Bartholomew's in Kirkwhelpington in Northumberland.

His widow, Katharine, died at her home in Ray Demesne, Kirkwhelpington, Northumberland in 1933. Rachel Parsons died in 1956; stableman Denis James Pratt was convicted of her manslaughter.

In 1919, Katharine and her daughter Rachel co-founded the Women's Engineering Society with Eleanor Shelley-Rolls, Margaret, Lady Moir, Laura Annie Willson, Margaret Rowbotham and Janetta Mary Ornsby, which is still in existence today. Sir Charles was initially a supportive member of the organisation until his wife's resignation.

Commemoration

Parsons' ancestral home at Birr Castle in Ireland houses a museum detailing the contribution the Parsons family have made to the fields of science and engineering, with part of the museum given over to the engineering work of Charles Parsons.

Parsons is depicted on the reverse of an Irish silver 15 Euros silver Proof coin that was struck in 2017.

The Irish Academy of Engineering awards The Parsons Medal, named after Charles Parsons, every year to an engineer that has made an exceptional contribution to the practice of engineering. Previous winners include Prof. Tony Fagan (2016), Dr. Edmond Harty (2017), Prof. Sir John McCanny (2018) and Michael McLaughlin (2019).

Selected works

 E-book: "The Steam Turbine and Other Inventions of Sir Charles Parsons"
 The Steam Turbine (Rede Lecture, 1911)
 Charles Parsons' grand-nephew, Michael Parsons in his 1968 Trinity Monday Discourse.

References

Further reading

External links

 Sir Charles Parsons Symposium, excerpts from Transactions of the  Newcomen Society

1854 births
1931 deaths
19th-century Anglo-Irish people
20th-century Anglo-Irish people
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Bessemer Gold Medal
English engineers
English knights
English inventors
British steam engine engineers
British inventors
Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the Royal Society
Irish engineers
Irish knights
Irish inventors
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Marine engine manufacturers
Members of the Order of Merit
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
People associated with electricity
People from County Offaly
Engineers from Tyne and Wear
Presidents of the British Science Association
Presidents of the Institute of Physics
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Steam turbines
Turbines
Younger sons of earls
Women's Engineering Society
Recipients of Franklin Medal

Charles Algernon Parsons