The Channel Dash (, Operation Cerberus) was a German naval operation during the Second World War. A  (German Navy) squadron comprising the two s, the heavy cruiser  and their escorts was evacuated from Brest in Brittany to German ports. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau had arrived in Brest on 22 March 1941 after the success of Operation Berlin in the Atlantic. More raids were planned and the ships were refitted at Brest. The ships were a threat to Allied trans-Atlantic convoys and RAF Bomber Command attacked them from 30 March 1941. Gneisenau was hit on 6 April 1941 and Scharnhorst on 24 July 1941, after dispersal to La Pallice. In late 1941, Adolf Hitler ordered the  (OKM; German Navy High Command) to plan an operation to return the ships to German bases against a British invasion of Norway. The short route up the English Channel was preferred to a detour around the British Isles for surprise and air cover by the  and on 12 January 1942, Hitler gave orders for the operation.

The British exploited decrypts of German radio messages coded with the Enigma machine, air reconnaissance by the RAF Photographic Reconnaissance Unit (PRU) and agents in France to watch the ships and report the damage caused by the bombing. Operation Fuller, a joint Royal Navy-RAF contingency plan, was devised to counter a sortie by the German ships against Atlantic convoys, a return to German ports by circumnavigating the British Isles, or a dash up the English Channel. The Royal Navy had to keep ships at Scapa Flow in Scotland in case of a sortie by the  from Norway. The RAF had sent squadrons from Bomber and Coastal commands overseas and kept torpedo bombers in Scotland ready for Tirpitz, which limited the number of aircraft available against a dash up the Channel, as did the winter weather which reduced visibility and blocked airfields with snow.

On 11 February 1942, the ships left Brest at  and escaped detection for more than twelve hours, approaching the Strait of Dover without discovery. The  provided air cover in  (Operation Thunderbolt) and as the ships neared Dover, the British belatedly responded. Attacks by the RAF, Fleet Air Arm, Navy and bombardments by coastal artillery were costly failures but Scharnhorst and Gneisenau were damaged by mines in the North Sea (Scharnhorst was out of action for a year). By 13 February, the ships had reached German ports; Winston Churchill ordered an inquiry into the  and The Times denounced the British fiasco. The  judged the operation a tactical success and a strategic failure because the threat to Atlantic convoys had been sacrificed for a hypothetical threat to Norway. On 23 February, Prinz Eugen was torpedoed off Norway and after being repaired, spent the rest of the war in the Baltic. Gneisenau went into dry dock and was bombed on the night of  never to sail again; Scharnhorst was sunk at the Battle of the North Cape on 26 December 1943.

Background

Port of Brest, 1940–1941

German commerce raiding against British north Atlantic convoys was made easier by the capture of Norway and France in 1940. An abortive sortie by the cruiser  ended at Brest, at the west end of the Brittany peninsula, on 27 December 1940. After five weeks of bombing by RAF Bomber Command to no effect, the ship put to sea on 1 February 1941, sank numerous ships and returned on 14 February, before sailing to Germany using the roundabout route via the Denmark Strait the next day, reaching Kiel on 28 March. The commerce raids in the north Atlantic during the winter of 1940–1941 by Scharnhorst-class battleships  and , the heavy cruisers  and Admiral Hipper sank  of British shipping, a higher rate than German surface ships achieved for the rest of the war. The British reformed 19 Group for Coastal Command in January 1941, which kept watch on the German ships at Brest; Scharnhorst and Gneisenau arrived at the port of Brest on 22 March 1941.

British air offensive, 1941

From 10 January to mid-April 1941, Bomber Command aimed  of bombs at the ships in Brest harbour. Winston Churchill issued the Battle of the Atlantic directive on 9 March, directing the priority of the British war effort temporarily to counter the German campaign against Atlantic convoys. 1 PRU of the RAF discovered Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in port on 28 March and Bomber Command flew about  against the ships in Brest, through poor weather for the next two months. Gneisenau needed an overhaul of her engine room and entered dry dock on 4 April. When the water was pumped out of the dry dock, an unexploded bomb was found between the stocks under the ship. The ship had to be carefully refloated and removed before the bomb could be defused. Gneisenau was moored in an exposed position in the roadstead, where it was photographed by a 1 PRU Spitfire on 5 April. Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers attacked at dawn next day; one aircraft found the harbour through the haze and torpedoed Gneisenau on the starboard side, seriously damaging the reserve command centre.

Gneisenau went back into dry dock and on the night of  it was hit four times and suffered two near misses. One of the hits did not explode but the others jammed 'B' turret and distorted the armoured deck near it, made about a third of the crew quarters uninhabitable by fire and blast damage, destroyed the kitchens and bakery and affected some gunnery control systems. Scharnhorst was not damaged but the bomb hits on the docks delayed its refit, which included a substantial overhaul of its machinery; the boiler superheater tubes had a manufacturing defect that had plagued the ship throughout Operation Berlin. Repairs had been expected to take ten weeks but delays, exacerbated by British minelaying in the vicinity, caused them to miss  (Operation Rhine Exercise). The sortie by  and  into the North Atlantic went ahead and Bismarck was sunk; Prinz Eugen returned to Brest on 1 June. The loss of Bismarck severely limited the freedom of action of the German surface fleet, after Hitler ordered that capital ships must operate with much greater caution.

During the summer, small formations of the new RAF four-engined heavy bombers attacked Gneisenau, Prinz Eugen and Scharnhorst; Prinz Eugen was hit on the night of  and put out of action. The sailing on 21 July of Scharnhorst to La Pallice, the deep-water port of La Rochelle down the French Atlantic coast, forestalled an attempt by Bomber Command to attack the ships in Brest by surprise. Scharnhorst was attacked by six Short Stirling bombers on the evening of 23 July; about six German fighters intervened and one bomber was shot down. The attack on Brest took place in daylight on 24 July, with a loss of  La Pallice was bombed again by fifteen Handley Page Halifaxes. One bomber failed to find La Pallice and the rest were met by  and anti-aircraft fire () and all  were hit, affecting their bomb aiming. Five bombers were shot down, five were seriously damaged and Scharnhorst was hit five times. While returning to Brest containing  of seawater, Scharnhorst was attacked by a Beaufort but shot it down before it could drop its torpedo.

From 28 March to the end of July,  of bombs were dropped in   Bomber Command, which also sent  sorties, with another  Coastal Command, laying  off Brest; the British lost  three being minelayers. For the next two months, Bomber Command made frequent small attacks, then  attacked on the night of  followed by  on the night of  Frequent small attacks were resumed and about  were made from July to December. At the start of the month, the Brest Group was made the Bomber Command priority again and from 11 December, bombing and minelaying took place nightly. When Prinz Eugen was found out of drydock on 16 December, a plan for a big night raid followed up by a day raid was implemented, with a  raid on the night of  and a daylight raid by  bombers on the afternoon of 18 December, escorted by ten fighter squadrons. Gneisenau was slightly damaged and dock gates were smashed, stranding Scharnhorst for a month, for a loss of six bombers. Heavy attacks continued all month and another day raid by Halifaxes was made on 30 December. From 1 August to 31 December,  of high explosive and  of incendiaries were dropped, eleven heavy bombers were shot down and considerable damage was inflicted on the docks and the town but none of the ships were hit again. Gneisenau was damaged on the evening of 6 January and 37 per cent of Bomber Command sorties between 10 December and 20 January 1942 were flown against the ships at Brest.

Ultra

Ultra was the code name used by British military intelligence for signals intelligence obtained by breaking German radio and teleprinter communications, including signals encrypted by Enigma, a German electro-mechanical rotor cipher machine. The decryption was carried out at the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park and the information was passed on to operational commands. From May 1941, Bletchley could read the Enigma Home Waters setting used by surface ships with few failures or interruptions, which combined with the PRU and reports from agents kept watch on the ships at Brest. By April 1941, the British knew that the three ships had been hit but not the extent of the damage.

From 16 to 23 December, Enigma decrypts showed that the gunners of the ships were on the Baltic, conducting gunnery training. Next day, the Admiralty warned that an attempt to break out was likely. On 25 January 1942, the ships were photographed in the harbour and two short periods in dry dock by two ships were seen. From the end of January to early February, torpedo boats, minesweepers and destroyers joined the big ships; together with news that the battleship Tirpitz in Norway had moved to the south, this led the Admiralty to issue an appreciation on 2 February that the three ships were going to attempt to sail up the channel and sent the signal Executive Fuller, the order to begin the operation to prevent the German Fleet from breaking into the North Atlantic. Next day Enigma and RAF photographic reconnaissance (PR) found that the number of German ship reinforcements from Brest to the Hook of Holland had risen to seven destroyers, ten torpedo-boats, more than   and many smaller craft.

Norway Hypothesis

During 1941, Hitler decided that the Brest Group should return to home waters in a "surprise break through the Channel", as part of a plan to thwart a British invasion of Norway. OKM preferred the Denmark Strait passage to Germany and  (Grand Admiral) Erich Raeder called a journey along the English Channel impossible. Hitler said that the break-out should be planned with no training period, since British intelligence was bound to find out and have the ships bombed. Hitler ordered that a period of bad weather should be chosen, when the bulk of the RAF would be grounded.  (vice admiral) Kurt Fricke (Chief of Staff of the  SKL, Maritime Warfare Command) opposed Hitler but was allowed only a short time to review the policy. On 12 January 1942, Raeder again opposed the channel route but planned for it, provided that Hitler took the final decision.

Hitler noted that the ships at Brest had diverted British bombing from Germany but that the advantage would end as soon as the ships were sufficiently damaged. Vice Admiral Otto Ciliax outlined a plan for a standing start at night to gain surprise and to pass the Strait of Dover,  wide and the narrowest part of the Channel, during the day, to benefit from fighter cover at the danger point. The  refused to guarantee that the  available could protect the ships but Hitler accepted the plan. Hitler ordered that the battleship Tirpitz, already in Norway, was to be moved south to Trondheim. At a conference on 22 January, Hitler announced that all ships and U-boats should assemble for the defence of Norway and on 25 January,  Karl Dönitz (, BdU, Commander of Submarines) was ordered to withdraw eight submarines to patrol off Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Scotland. Despite protests from Dönitz, another twelve U-boats were reserved for Norway, along with the surface ships being concentrated in Norwegian waters.

Prelude

Operation Cerberus

Hitler preferred the Channel route and responsibility was delegated to  (Naval Command West, Admiral Alfred Saalwächter) for planning and operational directions; Ciliax, was commander of the Brest Group (flagship, Scharnhorst). Care was taken to choose the best route to avoid British minefields and to steam at high speed. Minesweepers cleared channels through the British mines and marked with buoys (from 3 to 9 February, Bomber Command laid 98 mines in the channels). U-boats were sent for meteorological observations and several destroyers steamed westward down the Channel to Brest to strengthen the escort screen. To have the longest period of darkness possible, the departure was to be four days before the new moon and at  to benefit from a spring tide flowing up the Channel, which would add speed and possibly lift the ships over mines.

Air cover was to be provided by the  and six destroyers would escort the Brest Group on the first leg, to be joined by ten E-boats at dawn; a mixture of E-boats, R-boats and small craft would join at Cap Gris Nez. During January, the  and  rehearsed for the operation but the ships had lost seaworthiness and many technicians and experts had been transferred from Brest to more pressing duties. By 9 February, the ships had completed their trials in Brest roads and the sortie was set for 11 February. Morale of the crews was high, no sabotage had occurred at Brest and the crews went ashore freely. Among locals there was no doubt that the ships were preparing to depart and as a deception, tropical helmets were brought on board, French dock workers loaded oil barrels marked "For Use in the Tropics" and false rumours were spread around town.

Hans Jeschonnek,  chief of staff, refused to guarantee the success of Cerberus or to reinforce the fighter forces in the west. Adolf Galland was given command of the air operation, to be called  (Operation Thunderbolt). Details of the plan were arranged with  (Colonel) Karl Koller, chief of staff of  (Air Fleet 3  Hugo Sperrle). Some training units were mobilised to make up for the bulk of the  being absent in the Soviet Union. The  (signals intelligence service, General Wolfgang Martini) attempted to jam British radio-telephone frequencies by using a technique to increase atmospheric interference and reduced the performance of British coastal radars by slowly increasing their jamming. Dornier Do 217s of  (Bomber Wing 2) were to fly electronic deception sorties over the western Channel to divert British aircraft.  ( [Air Force General] Joachim Coeler) prepared to bomb RAF bases in south-western England and to attack British naval forces attempting to intercept the Brest Group. Fernaufklärungsgruppe 123 (Long-range Reconnaissance Wing 123) was to keep watch on both ends of the Channel and support .

The convoy route was divided into three sectors using the  (Fighter Sector) boundaries but to ensure local control Max Ibel, the former commander of  (Fighter Group 27) was appointed  (, Fighter Controller: Ship) and embarked on Scharnhorst as a signals officer to communicate with  units during the operation. Eight rehearsals, involving around  were made from 22 January to 10 February. The  (day fighter wings) and the night fighters of  (Night Fighter Wing 1), were swiftly to prepare aircraft for the next sortie by rearming and refuelling in no more than thirty minutes. Galland decided that the aircraft should fly high and low cover, the low groups flying under British coastal radar. A standing patrol of least  was to be maintained, in two formations of eight aircraft for their patrol altitudes, with each formation in two  of four aircraft. One  was to fly out to sea and one towards land in a zigzag and all  were to fly back and forth along the line of ships in wide figures of eight, in radio silence. Every sortie was timed to allow the fighters  over the ships, just enough time for relieved units to refuel, rearm and return. During , the relieving sortie arrived after only 20 minutes which meant that fighter cover for half the dash would be

Operation Fuller

In April 1941, the Royal Navy and the RAF devised Operation Fuller, a plan for combined operations against the ships in Brest should they sortie. Vice-Admiral Bertram Ramsay of the Dover Command was to be responsible for operations to confront a German squadron sailing up the Channel, with continuous co-ordinated attacks by Coastal Command, the Navy and RAF. British coastal radar had a range of about  and with the five standing air patrols, the planners expected a dash up the Channel easily to be discovered, even at night or in bad weather. As soon as the alarm was raised, the offensive provisions of Fuller would begin. The  of the Dover and Ramsgate flotillas, with a Motor Gun Boat (MGB) escort, would make torpedo attacks from . The boats would be followed up by Fairey Swordfish torpedo-bombers with fighter escorts and by Beaufort torpedo-bombers; the coastal guns at Dover would fire for as long as the ships were in range; Bomber Command would attack any ship damaged enough to have been slowed or brought to a stop.

As the German ships moved beyond the Straits of Dover, six Harwich-based destroyers of the Nore Command would make torpedo attacks and the RAF would continue bombing and also lay mines in the paths of the ships. Bomber Command intended to have  at four hours' notice (about  of its operational strength), by reserving around  from each group. Of the other  half would continue operations against Germany and the rest would be preparing for operations next day. The aircraft reserved for Fuller were rotated and weather permitting,  bomb Brest. Fighter Command would escort the torpedo-bombers with fighters from 10 Group in the south-west and the  squadrons of 11 Group in the south-east. Each service arm had exchanged liaison officers at headquarters and operations rooms but did not use a common communications system.

Readiness

The preliminaries of the German manoeuvre, especially minesweeping in the Channel and the transit of destroyers to Brest, led the Admiralty to issue a forecast that a sortie into the Atlantic was improbable and that a move to sheltered waters by a dash up the Channel rather than via the Denmark Strait or into the Mediterranean to Italian ports was to be expected. Next day the Nore Command was ordered to keep six destroyers on call in the Thames and be ready to send six torpedo boats to reinforce those at Dover. The fast Abdiel-class minelayers  and  were detached to Plymouth Command to mine the Brest approaches and to Dover to mine the eastern exit of the Channel respectively. Most submarines were in the Mediterranean but two training boats were sent into the Bay of Biscay. On 6 February,  the only modern submarine in home waters, was allowed to sail into Brest Roads, the commander using information supplied through Ultra on minefields, swept channels and training areas. The six operational Swordfish torpedo-bombers of 825 Squadron Fleet Air Arm [FAA] (Lieutenant-Commander Eugene Esmonde) were moved from RNAS Lee-on-Solent to RAF Manston in Kent, closer to Dover.

The RAF alerted its forces involved in Operation Fuller to indefinite readiness and on 3 February, 19 Group, Coastal Command began night reconnaissance patrols by Air to Surface Vessel Mk II (ASV) equipped Lockheed Hudsons, supposedly able to detect ships at  range. Patrol line Stopper was already being flown off Brest and Line South East from Ushant to the Isle de Bréhat and Habo from Le Havre to Boulogne began. Coastal Command had three Beaufort torpedo-bomber squadrons in Britain, 42 Squadron at RAF Leuchars in Scotland,  of 86 Squadron and 217 Squadron in Cornwall and seven 217 Squadron aircraft at Thorney Island (Portsmouth). Two days later, Enigma showed that Ciliax had joined Scharnhorst and with the recent exercises, led the Admiralty to predict an impending departure. On 8 February, in a break in the weather, PR found that the ships were still in harbour, Scharnhorst was in dock and that another two destroyers had arrived.

Air Chief Marshal Philip Joubert de la Ferté, Air Officer Commanding (AOC) Coastal Command, sent an appreciation to Fighter and Bomber commands, that a sortie could be expected any time after 10 February. The Coastal Command groups were alerted and 42 Squadron was ordered to fly its  south to Norfolk (the move was delayed until next day by snow on the airfields in East Anglia). Air Vice Marshal J. E. A. Baldwin, AOC Bomber Command, stood down half of its bombers and reduced the other  from four to two hours' notice, without informing the Admiralty. On 11 February, Sealion moved towards Brest on the afternoon tide, found nothing and returned at  to re-charge batteries, ready for another try the next day. The German ships had been scheduled to depart Brest at  but were delayed by a Bomber Command raid, which had been ordered after photo-reconnaissance had found the ships still in harbour with torpedo booms deployed at  For the previous week, Enigma had been providing information that the Germans were minesweeping on a route that made a dash up the Channel a certainty and with reference to captured charts gave away the German route, which was passed on by the Admiralty at  on 12 February. (The daily naval Enigma Home Waters settings for  took Bletchley Park until 15 February to break.)

Battle

Night, 11/12 February

A British agent in Brest was unable to signal that the Brest Group was departing because of German wireless jamming; Sealion, patrolling outside the harbour, had withdrawn to recharge its batteries. Patrol Stopper, near Brest, was being flown by an ASV Hudson from 224 Squadron when the Brest Group assembled outside the port at  At the patrol height of  the ASV had a range of about  but the Hudson was flying south-west as the ships turned towards Ushant and received no contact. The last eight minutes of the next Stopper sortie came within about  of the ships but received no contact on the radar.

Line South East ran past Ushant to the vicinity of Jersey, to find a sortie from Brest which had turned up the Channel. The Brest Group crossed Line South East at  early on 12 February but the Hudson patrol was not there, having been ordered to return when its ASV failed. Joubert was short of aircraft and sent no replacement, also because Stopper had reported nothing untoward and if the Brest Group had sailed before Stopper began, it would already have passed Line South East. Habo, the third patrol line, from Cherbourg to Boulogne was conducted as usual, until a dawn fog was forecast over British airfields and the aircraft was called back at  when the Brest Group was still west of the line.

12 February

Morning

The only patrol over the Channel was the routine dawn patrol by Fighter Command from Ostend, south to the mouth of the Somme, which the Brest Group passed at  From  RAF radar operators under Squadron Leader Bill Igoe, using an un-jammed radar frequency, noticed four plots of German aircraft circling in places north of Le Havre, which at first were thought to be air-sea rescue operations. At  11 Group RAF Fighter Command realised that the plots were moving north-east at  and sent two Spitfires to reconnoitre at  about the time that news reached Fighter Command headquarters that radar-jamming had begun at  and that the station at Beachy Head was detecting surface ships. Radar stations in Kent reported two large ships off Le Touquet at  and when the Spitfire patrol landed at  having kept radio silence, the pilots reported a flotilla off Le Touquet (near Boulogne) but not the capital ships.

News of the sighting was rushed to 11 Group and the Navy at Dover by  (One pilot then mentioned a big ship and a certain sighting was received as he was being debriefed.) By coincidence, two senior fighter pilots from RAF Kenley had decided to fly an intruder mission to the French coast at  while the other pilots were grounded due to the bad weather. The pair spotted two Messerschmitt Bf 109s (Bf 109) and attacked, then found themselves over a German flotilla of two big ships, a destroyer screen and an outer ring of E-boats. The Spitfires were dived on by about  fighters and escaped through anti-aircraft fire from the ships, strafed an E-boat and made off at wave-top height. After they landed at  the pilots reported that the German ships had been  off Le Touquet at  by  the alarm had been raised that the Brest Group was entering the Straits of Dover with air cover.

At  Bomber Command had been alerted that the Brest Group was near Dover and warned the groups to be ready. Including aircraft that had flown the night before and those at four hours' notice, Air Marshal Richard Peirse had about  but the  on two hours' notice had been loaded with semi-armour-piercing bombs which were effective only if dropped from  or higher. Visibility was poor with rain and  to  cover, down to  and unless there were breaks in the cloud just when needed the task was impossible. Peirse ordered general-purpose bombs to be loaded, which could only cause superficial blast damage and attacks at low altitude, in the hope that the attacks would distract the Brest Group as Coastal Command and the Navy made torpedo attacks.

Noon

At Dover in 1940, there were four  guns with a range of , two  guns with a range of , two modern 6-inch batteries with  range and four more 9.2-inch guns on new mountings with a range of  and then  with supercharging. (After the fall of France, Axis ships could avoid the Dover mine barrage by sailing close to the French coast.) A supercharged naval  gun could fire shells  but was difficult to use against moving targets. The South Foreland Battery of the Dover guns, with their new K-type radar set, tracked the ships of the Brest Group coming up the Channel towards Cap Gris Nez.

At  the Dover guns fired their first salvo but with visibility down to , there could be no observation of the fall-of-shot. The gunners hoped that the radar would detect the shell splashes and allow corrections to be made, although this method had never been tried before. "Blips" on the K-set clearly showed the ships zig-zagging but not where the shells were landing. Full battery salvo firing began and the four 9.2-inch guns fired  at the German ships, which were moving out of range at  and all missed. German sources state that the fleet had already passed Dover when the coastal artillery opened fire and that the shells landed well astern of the major German units. The coastal guns ceased fire when light naval forces and torpedo-bombers began to attack and by  the German ships passed beyond the effective range of the British radar.

Afternoon
The six Swordfish torpedo-bombers of 825 Squadron FAA, took off from Manston at  after Esmonde decided that he could wait no longer, meeting the Spitfire escorts of 72 Squadron at  all setting off for a point  north of Calais. The escorts of 121 Squadron and 401 Squadron were late and tried to rendezvous en route to the ships but missed them and turned back to search for the Swordfish at Manston. The Spitfires of 72 Squadron flying close escort sighted the German ships at  but were bounced by Bf 109s and FW 190s and lost contact with the Swordfish. The first section of three torpedo-bombers pressed on through the destroyer screen and Esmonde's aircraft was shot down before he could launch his torpedo. The other two aircraft continued through the German anti-aircraft barrage, dropped torpedoes and then ditched their aircraft which had been hit by flak. The second section of three Swordfish were seen to cross over the destroyer screen and disappear in the cloud and smoke. While the German fighter escorts were absent, two sections (eight aircraft) of 452 Squadron RAAF strafed several German ships and silenced the return fire of a destroyer, for a cracked perspex hood to one Spitfire.

The five operational Motor Torpedo Boats (MTBs) based at Dover left harbour at  and sighted the German warships, at  The RAF fighter cover for this attack was not airborne in time, one MTB had engine-trouble and the rest found their approach blocked by twelve E-boats in two lines. The defective MTB fired torpedoes at the extreme range of  before returning to Dover; the rest were not able to get much closer and torpedoed through the gap between the E-boat lines, mistakenly claiming a hit on Prinz Eugen. Two motor gun boats (MGBs) arrived from Dover in time to defend the last MTB from a German Narvik-class destroyer. Two more MTBs had left Ramsgate at  but approached from too far astern of the German squadron and were unable to get into a position to attack before deteriorating weather and engine problems forced them to turn back.

Several Whirlwind fighters on a routine patrol were intercepted by the fighter screen at  The seven Beauforts at Thorney Island were closest to the Brest Group when it was sighted. Two Beauforts had been bombed up and one went unserviceable, before the other four took off at  The four Beauforts were late to meet their fighter escorts at Manston and the torpedo-bombers and fighters were ordered independently to the German ships. The position, course and speed of the Brest Group was given by voice (R/T) to the Spitfires and Morse (W/T) to the Beauforts. The torpedo-bombers failed to receive the orders, because 16 Group forgot that they had been fitted with R/T for Operation Fuller. When the Beauforts reached Manston they circled with numerous fighters which appeared to ignore them. Two Beauforts flew to the French coast, found nothing and landed at Manston where the confusion was resolved. The other two aircraft had already landed at Manston, where the crews found out what was going on and set off for the Belgian coast, arriving at  (when the Nore Command destroyers were attacking). Both bombers flew through the German flak and attacked Prinz Eugen, dropping their torpedoes at , to no effect.

The 42 Squadron Beauforts from Scotland had to divert to RAF Coltishall in Norfolk because of snow but the torpedoes to be loaded were over 100 miles away at RAF North Coates in Lincolnshire and came by road too late. Nine of the aircraft had flown south with torpedoes on and took off at  leaving the other four behind to rendezvous with their fighter escorts and several Hudsons, intended to create a diversion. The Beauforts reached Manston at  and tried to formate behind the Hudsons, which did the same thing; attempts to get the fighters to join the formation also failed. The Beaufort crews had been briefed that they would be escorted all the way, the fighters that they were to cover the Dover Strait in general and the aircraft circled Manston for thirty minutes, each formation under the impression that another one was leading. The Beaufort commander then set off, using the position of the Brest Group given at Coltishall and six Hudsons followed, the other five circling and waiting for the fighters, before giving up and landing at

The Beauforts and Hudsons flew towards the Dutch coast and lost touch in the cloud and rain but the Hudsons made ASV contact and attacked the ships, two being shot down for no result. Six of the Beauforts then attacked through the flak and released their torpedoes, also with no effect. (The other three Beauforts had already attacked, possibly against British destroyers.) The two 217 Squadron Beauforts that had flown earlier had reached Manston, set off again independently and made ASV contact, attacking Scharnhorst at  The remaining Beauforts at St Eval in Cornwall had been sent to Thorney Island, arriving at  to refuel and be briefed to link with fighters at Coltishall in East Anglia, where they arrived at  to find no escorts waiting. The Beauforts pressed on to a position sent by wireless and at  as dark fell, with visibility down to  and the cloud base at only  saw four German minesweepers. One bomber attacked a "big ship" but flak damage jammed the torpedo and as night fell around  the rest turned for Coltishall; two Beauforts were lost to flak or the weather.

Evening

The first wave of  Halifax and Stirling heavy bombers took off from  and most found the target area from  Thick low cloud and intermittent rain hid the view and only ten crews could see the German ships for long enough to bomb. The  of the second wave took off from  and reached the vicinity of the ships from  and at least  The last wave of  began at  and reached the Brest Group from  and nine were able to drop their bombs. Only  the aircraft that returned managed to attack the ships and  were shot down by flak or lost after flying into the sea; twenty bombers were damaged and no hits were achieved.

The destroyers ,  of the 21st Flotilla and , ,  and  of the 16th Flotilla (Captain Charles Pizey), from Nore Command were First World War-vintage and usually escorted east coast convoys. The ships were practising gunnery off Orford Ness in the North Sea when alerted at  The destroyers sailed south to intercept the Brest Group but it steamed much faster than expected and to catch up, Pizey took the destroyers over a German minefield. At  just before the destroyers attacked, north of the Scheldt Estuary, Scharnhorst had hit a mine and was stopped for a short time, before resuming at about . At  the destroyers made radar contact at  and visual contact at  at  Walpole had already dropped out with engine trouble; as the other five emerged from the murk, they were immediately engaged by the German ships. The destroyers pressed on to  and two destroyers fired torpedoes; Worcester closed further and was hit by return fire from Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen, then the last two destroyers attacked but all their torpedoes missed.

Night 12/13 and 13 February

Scharnhorst had fallen behind after hitting a mine and at  Gneisenau hit a magnetic mine off Terschelling. The mine exploded some distance from the ship, making a small hole on the starboard side and temporarily knocking a turbine out of action. After about thirty minutes, the ship continued at about  and as Scharnhorst sailed through the same area, it hit another mine at  both main engines stopped, steering was lost and fire control was damaged. The ship got under way with the starboard engines at  making  and carrying about  of seawater. Scharnhorst arrived at Wilhelmshaven at  on 13 February, with damage that took three months to repair. Gneisenau and Prinz Eugen reached the Elbe at  and tied up at Brunsbüttel North Locks at  After receiving Ultra intelligence about German minesweeping in the German Bight, Bomber Command had laid  mines along the swept channel on 6 February and  the next day. When the route of the channel was more accurately plotted on 11 February, four mines were laid, then more on 12 February when the Channel Dash was on. Enigma decrypts revealed the mining of the German ships but the news was kept secret by the British to protect the source.

Aftermath

Analysis

Ciliax sent a signal to Admiral Saalwächter in Paris on 13 February,

OKM called Cerberus a tactical victory and a strategic defeat. In 2012, Ken Ford wrote that the German ships had exchanged one prison for another and that Bomber Command raids from  terminally damaged Gneisenau. Operation Fuller had failed, a British destroyer had been severely damaged and  had been lost in  fighter,  and  Command sorties. British public opinion was appalled and British prestige suffered at home and abroad. A leading article in The Times read,

In 1955, Hans Dieter Berenbrok, a former  officer, writing under the pseudonym Cajus Bekker, judged the operation a necessity and a success. He quoted Raeder "…we are all convinced we cannot leave the ships in Brest any longer". Raeder wrote that the operation was necessary because of a lack of training opportunities for the crews, lack of battle experience and the general situation made raiding operations in the "old pattern out of the question". According to Bekker, Hitler and Raeder shared the conviction that if the ships remained in Brest that they would eventually be disabled by British air raids.

Stephen Roskill, the British naval official historian, wrote in 1956 that the German verdict was accurate. Hitler had exchanged the threat to British Atlantic convoys for a defensive deployment near Norway against a threat that never materialised. Roskill wrote that the British had misjudged the time of day when the German ships would sail but this mistake was less influential than the circumstantial failures of Coastal Command reconnaissance to detect the ships which had been at sea for  four of them after dawn had broken, before the alarm was raised. Churchill ordered a Board of Enquiry (under Sir Alfred Bucknill), which criticised Coastal Command for failing to ensure that a dawn reconnaissance was flown to compensate for the problems of the night patrols off Brest and from Ushant to the Isle de Bréhat. The inquiry also held that there should have been more suspicion of the German radar jamming on the morning of 12 February and that involving Bomber Command in an operation for which it was untrained was a mistake.

The board found that the delay in detecting the German ships led to the British attacks being made piecemeal, against formidable German defensive arrangements and that the few aircraft and ships that found the group were "cut to pieces". In 2012, Ken Ford wrote that the inquiry was, perforce, a whitewash, blaming instrument failures rather than incompetence but the report was still kept secret until 1946. In 1991, John Buckley wrote that the ASV Hudsons had been forbidden to use flares off Brest, because of the presence of Sealion and that one of the technical faults to an ASV could have been repaired, had the operator carried out a fuze check properly. Joubert was criticised for complacency, in not sending replacement sorties, despite his earlier warning that the Brest Group was about to sail, because of the assumption in Operation Fuller since 6 April 1941, that a day sailing was certain,

The Dash exposed many failings in RAF planning, that only three torpedo-bomber squadrons with  were in Britain, that training had been limited by the lack of torpedoes and the example of Japanese tactics had been ignored. The effectiveness of Bomber Command against moving ships was shown to be negligible and the failure to ensure unity of command before Operation Fuller began, led to piecemeal attacks using unsuitable tactics.

R. V. Jones, Assistant Director of Intelligence (Science) at the Air Ministry during the war, wrote in his memoir, that for several days, army radar stations on the south coast had been jammed. Lieutenant-Colonel Wallace, a member of the army Radar Interception Unit, had reported this through the chain of command. On 11 February, Wallace had called for Jones to assist him in bringing attention to the German radar jamming. A gradual increase in the jamming had misled most operators to its intensity. Martini had unobtrusively made the British radar cover "almost useless". Jones quoted Francis Bacon,

and included an anecdote of the chain of command breaking down under the shock of the Brest Group sailing so far up the Channel undiscovered. Air marshals were said to have sat on each other's desks, thinking of pilots they could telephone to find the ships; even after the Brest Group had been found, contact was lost several times. In 1955, Jones met Captain Giessler, the Navigating Officer on Scharnhorst, who said that the worst time in the operation was the thirty minutes that Scharnhorst was stationary, after hitting a mine just beyond Dover; in the low cloud none of the British aircraft found them. In the Official History of the Royal Canadian Air Force (1994) Brereton Greenhous et al. wrote that the Canadian 401 Squadron had been sent "to intervene in a battle between German E-boats and British MTBs"; 404 Squadron was ordered

and 411 Squadron had been ordered on an "E-boat search". "The 'Channel block' had failed ignominiously".

In the German semi-official history Germany in the Second World War (2001), Werner Rahn wrote that the operation was a tactical success but that this could not disguise the fact of a strategic withdrawal. Brest was a location from which the  had anticipated much success, especially after the Japanese entry into the war had diverted Allied resources to the Pacific, creating new opportunities for offensive action in the Atlantic. Rahn also noted that some members of the German Naval War Staff took the view that German war potential had reached its limit and that

In 2018, Craig Symonds wrote of the futility of keeping heavy units in Brest,

Scharnhorst later joined Tirpitz in Norwegian waters as a threat to Allied Arctic convoys of World War II supplying the USSR.

Casualties

British aircraft losses to the  were two Blenheims, four Whirlwinds, four Wellingtons, six Hurricanes, nine Hampdens and ten Spitfires.  gunners shot down all six Swordfish and a Hampden bomber. Worcester lost  killed, four died of wounds and  of the complement of  ship was out of action for  In 2014, Steve Brew recorded 230–250 killed and wounded. The  torpedo boats Jaguar and  damaged by bombing, two sailors were killed and several men were badly wounded by bomb splinters and small-arms fire; the  lost 17 aircraft and eleven pilots. In 1996, Donald Caldwell gave 23 aircrew killed, four being fighter pilots from  and that 22  aircraft were shot down, of which seven were fighters.

Subsequent operations

Gneisenau entered a floating dry dock at Kiel and was hit twice by RAF bombers, on the night of  One bomb hit the battleship on her forecastle and penetrated the armoured deck. The explosion ignited a fire in the foremost magazine, which detonated, throwing the forward turret off its mount. The damage prompted the German Naval Staff to rebuild Gneisenau to mount the six  guns originally planned, rather than repair the ship and the damaged bow section was removed to attach a longer one. By early 1943, the ship had been sufficiently repaired to begin the conversion but after the failure of German surface forces at the Battle of the Barents Sea in December 1942, Hitler ordered the work to stop. On 23 February, Prinz Eugen was torpedoed by a British submarine off Norway and put out of action until October; then spent the rest of the war in the Baltic. On 28 March, the British raided St Nazaire in Operation Chariot and destroyed the Normandie dock, the only one in France capable of accommodating the largest German warships. Scharnhorst participated in Operation Zitronella against Spitzbergen on 8 September 1943 and was sunk at the Battle of the North Cape on 26 December.

Memorial and commemorations

A granite memorial to all Britons involved in Operation Fuller was erected in Marine Parade Gardens in Dover, to mark the 70th Anniversary Remembrance of the event in 2012. Sailors from  provided a Guard of Honour as part of the parade held to mark the unveiling.

On 10 February 2017, at the Fleet Air Arm memorial church at RNAS Yeovilton (HMS Heron), a ceremony and flypast by four Wildcat HMA2 helicopters of 825 Naval Air Squadron was conducted, marking the 75th anniversary of Lieutenant-Commander Esmonde and 825 Naval Air Squadron's attack.

See also
 Operation Kita

Notes

Footnotes

References

Books

Theses

Websites

Further reading
Books

Journals

Theses

External links

 Nafziger: Kriegsmarine Order of Battle
 Nafziger: Luftflotte 3, Order of Battle, 12 February 1942
 Obituary Lieutenant-Commander Edgar Lee 2009
 The Channel Dash Association
 Channel Dash War Memorial, Dover (2012, Panoramio)
 Asmussen, J. Scharnhorst, The History: Operation Cerberus (11–13 February 1942)
 Destroyer net, HMS Worcester
 Operations of 452 Sqn RAAF

Conflicts in 1942
Atlantic and Arctic theatres of World War II
Naval battles of World War II involving Germany
Naval battles of World War II involving the United Kingdom
Naval aviation operations and battles
Naval operations of the Kriegsmarine
February 1942 events
Germany–United Kingdom military relations
Military history of the English Channel

Channel Dash


ألساندرو دي لورينزو دي ميديشي الملقب بالأسمر (فلورنسا، 22 يوليو 1510 - فلورنسا، 6 يناير 1537) دوق بيني ثم دوق فلورنسا (منذ 1532)، وحاكم فلورنسا من 1530 حتي 1537، وإن كان غير شرعي فهو آخر أفراد الفرع الأميري لسلالة ميديشي من حكام فلورنسا وكان أول من نـُصب دوقاً وراثياً على المدينة.

اعتـُرف به ابناً غير شرعي للورينزو الثاني دي ميديشي حفيد لورنزو الرائع، ولكن الكثير يظنون أنه ابن غير شرعي للكاردينال جوليو دي ميديشي (الذي سيصبح لاحقاً البابا كليمنس السابع). من غير الواضح ما إذا كان من أم سوداء، ربما ولد من علاقة جمعت جوليو بخادمة سمراء بمنزل آل ميديشي، حددت هويتها في الوثائق باسم سيمونيتا دا كوليفيكيو (كوليفيكيو في سابينا)، وتشير مصادر أخرى بأن والدته كانت فلاحة من الريف الروماني. على أي حال بسبب لون بشرته لـُقـّب بالأسمر.

بمجرد توليه السلطة في فلورنسا، وبدأ بتحويل مؤسسات الجمهورية (أوجبت معاهدة تسليم المدينة باحترامه) الذي أنهه كوزيمو الأول، ابن عمه البعيد وخليفته. لعيشه الطويل ببلاط شارل الخامس الامبراطورى جلب معه المستخدمين إلى فلورنسا، كؤلئك حراس اللاندسكنيشت المسلحين بالمطارد والمحيطين به والذين صدموا أرعبوا الفلورنسيين.

بدأت لإعطاء طابع «أميري» حكومته، وبقضاءه على رموز المؤسسات البلدية العزيزة على الفلورنسيين. من بين أهم تلك المبادرات من دون شك تكليف بنفينوتو تشيليني بإعداد عملات بقطع مختلفة عن الفيورين عليها صورته. كما أمر ألساندرو (مجدداً ضد المعاهدات) بتسليم جميع الأسلحة الخاصة التي يملكها المواطنون، الأمر الذي لم يحل دون قتله، فقد أوقع به ابن عمه بعيد لورينزينو دي ميديشي واغتاله. خشية انطلاق الانتفاضة إذا ما تسرب خبر موته، لف مسؤولون من آل ميديشي جثة ألساندرو في سجادة وحـُملت سراً إلى مقبرة سان لورينزو، حيث تم دفنه على عجل.

لم يبق من المؤسسات الجمهورية لم يبقي سوى مجلس شيوخ رمزي، منذ عام 1532 بثمانية وأربعين عضواً يعينون مدى الحياة بسلطة صنع قرار هزيلة ومستهلكة، بماأن المنصب ظل شرف كبير لكامل فترة دوقية توسكانا اللاحقة.

تزوج الابنة غير الشرعية (ثم تمت شرعنتها) للإمبراطور شارل الخامس، مارغريت هابسبورغ في 18 يناير 1536، وإن لم يكن للزوجين أبناء.

الأبناء

مراجع

أشخاص من جمهورية فلورنسا القرن 16
أشخاص من فلورنسا
إيطاليون في القرن 16
جرائم 1537
حكام فلورنسا
دوقات فلورنسا
قادة دول مغتالون
ملوك القرن 16 في أوروبا
مواليد 1510
مواليد في فلورنسا
ميديشي
نبلاء إيطاليون في القرن 16
وفيات 1537
وفيات في فلورنسا

ألساندرو دي ميديشي


Turkmenia may refer to:
Turkmenistan:
 Another name for the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic
 The present sovereign state of Turkmenistan
 2584 Turkmenia

Turkmenia


An Pterostylis turfosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher. An Pterostylis turfosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pterostylis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Pterostylis

Pterostylis turfosa


Radu Constantin (n. 19 apr. 1926, Adjud) a fost un politician comunist român, primar al Bucureștiului în perioada iunie 1988 - 7 februarie 1989.

Nașteri cu dată necunoscută
Politicieni români din secolul al XX-lea
Primari ai Bucureștiului
Membri ai Partidului Comunist Român

Radu Constantin


This is a list of scientific laws named after people (eponymous laws). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym.

See also
 Eponym
 Fields of science
 List of eponymous laws (overlaps with this list but includes non-scientific laws such as Murphy's law)
 List of legislation named for a person
 List of laws in science
 Lists of etymologies
 Scientific constants named after people
 Scientific phenomena named after people
 Stigler's law of eponymy

Further reading

scientific laws named after people
Scientific laws
Lists of things named after scientists

List of scientific laws named after people


NGC 7020 (NGC 7021) je lećasta galaktika u zviježđu Paunu. Naknadno je utvrđeno da je NGC 7021 ista galaktika.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7020
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7020 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
   DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7000 - 7049

7020

NGC 7020


Lake Edward (locally Rwitanzigye or Rweru) is one of the smaller African Great Lakes.  It is located in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift, on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Uganda, with its northern shore a few kilometres south of the equator.

History

Henry Morton Stanley first saw the lake in 1888, during the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. The lake was named in honour of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, son of then British monarch Queen Victoria, and later to become King Edward VII.

In 1973, Uganda and Zaire (DRC) renamed it Lake Idi Amin after Ugandan dictator Idi Amin. After his overthrow in 1979, it recovered its former name.

In 2014, the lake was the center of an oil dispute. SOCO international entered the premises of the Virunga National Park where the lake is situated to prospect for oil. However, villagers and workers who attempted to stop the oil company from entering the area were beaten up and even kidnapped and tortured. Plans to redraw the lines of Virunga's boundaries and exclude the lake were taken into consideration. However, since the Park is a world heritage site and the lake is part of it such plans naturally go against the World Heritage Convention.

Geography

Topography and drainage
Lake Edward lies at an elevation of , is  long by  wide at its maximum points, and covers a total surface area of , making it the 15th-largest on the continent. The lake is fed by the Nyamugasani River, the Ishasha River, the Rutshuru River, the Ntungwe River, and the Rwindi River. Lake George to the northeast empties into it via the Kazinga Channel. Lake Edward empties to the north via the Semliki River into Lake Albert.

The western escarpment of the Great Rift Valley towers up to  above the western shore of the lake. The southern and eastern shores are flat lava plains. The Ruwenzori Mountains are  north of the lake.

Volcanism
The region shows much evidence of volcanic activity over the last 5000 years. The Katwe-Kikorongo and Bunyaruguru Volcanic Fields, with extensive cones and craters, lie either side of the Kazinga Channel on the northwest shore of the lake. It is thought that Lakes George and Edward used to be joined as one larger lake, but lava from these fields flowed in and divided it, leaving only the Kazinga Channel as the remnant of the past union. To the south lies the May-ya-Moto thermally active volcano  away, and the Nyamuragira volcano in the western Virunga Mountains lies  south, but its lava flows have reached the lake in the past.

The Katwe-Kikorongo field features dozens of large craters and cones covering an area of  by  between lakes Edward and George, and includes seven crater lakes. The largest of these, the  long Lake Katwe, occupies a crater  across and is separated from Lake Edward by just  of land. The crater is about  deep, and Lake Katwe's surface is about  lower than Lake Edward's. It is remarkable that the volcanic origin of this area southeast of the Ruwenzoris was not known until it was reported by G. F. Scott Elliot in 1894. Stanley visited Lake Katwe in 1889 and noted the deep depression, the salinity of the lake, and a spring of sulphurous water nearby, but he failed to connect this to volcanism.

High-resolution analyses of the elemental composition of calcite and biogenic silica (BSi) content in piston cores from Lake Edward, equatorial Africa, document complex interactions between climate variability and lacustrine geochemistry over the past 5400 years.

The similarly sized Bunyaruguru field on the other side of the Kazinga Channel contains about 30 crater lakes, some of which are larger than Katwe.

Settlements

Lake Edward lies completely within the Virunga National Park (Congo) and the Queen Elizabeth National Park (Uganda) and does not have extensive human habitation on its shores, except at Ishango (DRC) in the north, home to a park ranger training facility. About two-thirds of its waters are in the DRC and one third in Uganda. Apart from Ishango, the main Congolese settlement in the south is Vitshumbi, while the Ugandan settlements are Mweya and Katwe in the northeast, near the crater lake of that name, which is the chief producer of salt for Uganda. The nearest cities are Kasese in Uganda to the northeast and Butembo in the DRC to the northwest, which are respectively about  and  distant by road.

Ecology
Lake Edward is home to many species of fish, including populations of Bagrus docmak, Oreochromis niloticus, Oreochromis leucostictus, and over 50 species of Haplochromis and other haplochromine species, of which only 25 are formally described. Fishing is an important activity among local residents. Fauna living on the banks of the lake – including chimpanzees, elephants, crocodiles, and lions – are protected by the national parks. The area is also home to many perennial and migratory bird species.

Decline of hippos and tilapia
In the 1970s, Lake Edward held a population of around 29,000 hippos in and around the area of the lake. But due to an increase in poaching over the years, there has been a 95% decline in the population, with the population plummeting to only a few hundred by the end of 2006. A terrestrial census was conducted in 2019 assessing that the population was now at 1,500 individuals. The hippopotamus is often poached for its large amount of meat as well as the ivory found in its teeth. Fueled by the high prices that hippo meat and ivory fetch, poachers are consistently hunting for these animals, which is causing a negative impact not only on the hippopotamus population, but the Lake Edward ecosystem and the local fishermen that depend on the lake for survival.

The hippopotamus population is extremely important to the ecosystem of Lake Edward due to being a keystone species. Hippos produce dung, which feed tilapia, a once abundant fish species found in Lake Edward. One hippo could produce around 25 kilograms or 55 pounds of dung per day, which could feed thousands of tilapia within the ecosystem. With the hippopotamus population declining due to poaching, the food they provide to the tilapia fish started to disappear as well. This has caused an immense decline in the tilapia population, as the decreasing hippo population cannot support the same amount of the tilapia fish species as it did before, causing a growing problem not only for the ecosystem, but the fishermen within the villages that surround Lake Edward.

Being so close to Lake Edward, the villages that are within the area often rely on the fish, specifically tilapia, to support their families with food and money. In the past, Lake Edward could support the fish demand for the entire eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The lake had a production capacity of between 15,000 and 20,000 metric tons of tilapia annually, with an estimate of around 700 fishing canoes on the lake. Due to the decline of hippos in the area because of poaching, this has impacted the amount of tilapia in the lake, which has caused the fishermen in the nearby villages to suffer, as well as the rest of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Many markets are unable to sustain their own fish, now having to import fish from other areas to continue with their business.

Though, the declining hippo populations are not the only threat to the tilapia in Lake Edward. Due to the decrease in tilapia populations, spawning areas and fisheries for the fish are off limits to fishermen. But some rebel groups as well as robbers or illegal fishers are trying their luck at these areas, often causing even more problems when trying to conserve and increase the tilapia population in the area. Because of this, many villages around Lake Edward as well as the ecosystem of Lake Edward are suffering.

2018 Lake Edward Skirmish
On July 6, 2018, there was a naval skirmish between the two nations of Uganda and Democratic Republic of the Congo on Lake Edward. This skirmish began as a result of Congolese naval vessels being sent to investigate reports of the Ugandan navy apprehending several Congolese fishing vessels, and civilians. This clash resulted in the death of one person, and the wounding of three others.

Early reports by local Congolese officials claim that seven were killed in the clash, however, this has not been backed up by either national government. On July 9, North Kivu official Muhindo Kyakwa claimed twelve Congolese fishermen had been killed in the clashes.

References

External links

 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
 World Lake Database

Lakes of the Great Rift Valley
Lakes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Lakes of Uganda
Democratic Republic of the Congo–Uganda border
International lakes of Africa
African Great Lakes

Lake Edward


Bu madde MS 6 yılı içindir.

Olaylar

Doğumlar
 Milonia Caesonia - Roma İmparatoriçesi, İmparator Caligula'nın dördüncü karısı (ö. 41)
 Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus - Julio-Claudian hanedanı mensubu Roma İmparatorları ile yakın akrabalık bağlarına sahip Roma soylusu (ö. 30)
 Yuhanna - Hristiyanlık inancına göre İsa'nın 12 havarisinden biri (ö. 100)

Ölümler
 Kleopatra Selene II - Kleopatra VIII  olarak da bilinen Ptolemaik Prenses ve Yunan kökenli Ptolemaik Kraliçe VII. Kleopatra ve Romalı Triumvir Marcus Antonius'un tek kızı (d. MÖ 40)

6


En la geología la matriz es el material de grano fino de una roca en el que se incluyen otros mayores, que constituyen el esqueleto o fábrica. La matriz puede estar compuesta de partículas de arcilla o fragmentos de minerales, rocas o fósiles.

Se distingue del cemento en que este último está formado por cristales de minerales que han crecido o recrecido in situ, rellenando los huecos de la roca, en ocasiones obliterando la textura original.

Referencias

Conceptos relacionados con la petrología
Sedimentología

Matriz (geología)


قناة المجد العلمية هي إحدى قنوات شبكة المجد الفضائية، تقوم بتعليم العلوم الشرعية إلكترونياً وعلى الهواء مباشرة من خلال برنامج الأكاديمية الإسلامية المفتوحة الذي يعتمد منهج الفصول الدراسية والمستويات ويبث محاضرتين كل يوم مدة المحاضرة قريب من الساعتين. الطلاب يدخلون من خلال موقع الأكاديمية الإسلامية المفتوحة إلى قاعة المحاضرات ويستمعون إلى الشيخ المحاضر على الهواء مباشرة (بالإضافة إلى مشاهدته على القناة) ويمكنهم سؤاله أو الإجابة على أسئلته مباشرة وبعد إنتها الفصل الدراسي يقوم المحاضرون في الأكاديمية باختبار كافة الطلاب ثم تصحيح الإجابات وإعطاء الدرجة. وصل عدد المشتركين في الأكاديمية الإسلامية المفتوحة في شهرها الأول أكثر من 17,000 (سبعة عشر ألفاً).
كما تقدم القناة -إضافةً إلى الأكاديمية الإسلامية برامج تثقيفية في موسم الحج، ويتوقف بث القناة أثناء العيدين.
والقناة تبث على قمر Arabsat2B كما تبث على رسيفر المجد.

مراجع

قنوات المجد الفضائية

المجد العلمية


The Seven Little Foys este un film de comedie american din 1955 regizat de Melville Shavelson. În rolurile principale joacă actorii Bob Hope, Milly Vitale și George Tobias.

Distribuție
 Bob Hope ca Eddie Foy
 Milly Vitale ca Madelenie Morando Foy
 George Tobias ca Barney Green
 Angela Clarke ca Clara Morando
 Herbert Heyes ca Judge
 Richard Shannon ca Stage Manager
 Billy Gray ca Bryan Lincoln Foy
 Lee Erickson ca Charley Foy
 Paul De Rolf ca Richard Foy
 Lydia Reed ca Mary Foy
 Linda Bennett ca Madeleine Foy
 Jimmy Baird ca Eddie Foy Jr.
 Tommy Duran ca Ivring Foy
 Jimmy Conlin ca Stage Mgr
 James Cagney ca George M. Cohan

Note

Legături externe

Filme din 1955
Filme în limba engleză
Filme de comedie din anii 1950
Filme de comedie americane
Filme de comedie
Debuturi regizorale
Filme Paramount Pictures

The Seven Little Foys


HD 30443 est une étoile binaire ainsi qu'une une étoile carbonée de la constellation du Cocher. Selon la mesure annuelle de sa parallaxe par le satellite Gaia, elle se situe à environ  de la Terre.

Caractéristiques
HD 30443 est une binaire spectroscopique avec une période orbitale de  (soit environ ). Sa composante visible est une étoile carbonée particulière. Son atmosphère stellaire est très pauvre en métaux, ce qui indique qu'elle est une âgée. Sa métallicité est de [Fe/H] ≤ -1.68 et elle possède les caractéristiques des étoiles à CH. Elle est très probablement membre du disque mince de la Voie lactée. Sa température de surface est de .

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Étoile carbonée
 Étoile chimiquement particulière

Lien externe

Notes et références

Constellation du Cocher
Binaire spectroscopique
Étoile chimiquement particulière
Étoile de type spectral C
030443
Objet du catalogue 2MASS
022403
057440
Objet du catalogue Tycho
Objet du catalogue IRAS

HD 30443


Ariel José Krasouski (Montevideo, 31 de mayo de 1958) es un exfutbolista y actual entrenador de fútbol uruguayo. Como jugador se desempeñaba en el medio campo y su primer club fue el Wanderers.

Carrera

Comenzó su carrera en 1976 jugando para el Club Atlético Central de San José de Mayo. Luego pasó a Montevideo Wanderers Fútbol Club. Integró el plantel hasta el año 1981, en el que se trasladó a la Argentina para formar parte del Boca Juniors. En 1986 se trasladó a San Lorenzo, hasta el año 1987, cuando se suma nuevamente a las filas de Boca Juniors. Continuó en el equipo hasta el año 1989. Ese año se fue a Estudiantes de Río Cuarto, hasta el año siguiente. En 1990 regresó a Uruguay para unirse a las filas de Liverpool, en donde se mantuvo por un año. En 1991 se marchó al Rentistas, continuando en el club hasta el año 1992. Luego se marchó al River Plate de su país natal. Rescindió su contrato en el año 1993, cuando se suma como parte del plantel de Basáñez y continuó hasta 1994. En 1994 se marchó al Fénix, en donde finalmente se retira en 1995 .

Como jugador también integró la selección uruguaya tanto de sub-20 como de mayores.

Clubes

Como futbolista

Como entrenador

Palmarés

Como jugador

Torneos nacionales

Torneos internacionales

Referencias

Nacidos en Montevideo
Futbolistas de Uruguay
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Uruguay en los años 1970
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Uruguay en los años 1980
Futbolistas del Montevideo Wanderers Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Boca Juniors en los años 1980
Futbolistas del Club Atlético San Lorenzo de Almagro
Futbolistas de la Asociación Atlética Estudiantes
Futbolistas del Liverpool Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Rentistas
Futbolistas del Club Atlético River Plate (Uruguay)
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Basáñez
Futbolistas del Centro Atlético Fénix
Entrenadores de fútbol de Uruguay
Entrenadores del Defensor Sporting
Entrenadores del Tacuarembó Fútbol Club
Entrenadores del Club Sportivo Miramar Misiones
Entrenadores del Paysandú Fútbol Club
Entrenadores del Rampla Juniors Fútbol Club

Ariel Krasouski


An Eleocharis blakeana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Lawrence Alexander Sidney Johnson ngan O.D.Evans. An Eleocharis blakeana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eleocharis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eleocharis

Eleocharis blakeana


يشير مصطلح يسوع التاريخي إلى محاولات معرفة سيرة وتعاليم يسوع الناصري من قبل المؤرخين حسب الطرق التاريخية النقدية. تستعمل هذه الطريقة النقد الكتابي لتحليل نصوص الأناجيل كمصادر أولية لسيرة حياة يسوع مع مصادر غير الكتاب المقدس لإعادة بناء الخلفية التاريخية والثقافية لمنطقة يهوذا في القرن الأول.

تقريباً يتفق جميع العلماء في تاريخ العصور القديمة على وجود يسوع في التاريخ. وإعادة محاولة بناء سيرة يسوع التاريخي مبنية على رسائل بولس والأناجيل، في حين أن العديد من المصادر غير الإنجيلية تشهد أيضًا على تاريخية وجود يسوع. منذ القرن الثامن عشر، تم إجراء ثلاث مهام بحثية منفصلة عن يسوع التاريخي، كل منها ذو خصائص مميزة ووضعت لها معايير بحث جديدة ومختلفة.

يختلف العلماء حول معتقدات يسوع وتعاليمه، فضلاً عن دقة الحسابات الكتابية، لكن الحدثان الوحيدان اللذان يخضعان لموافقة «شبه عالمية» بين العلماء هما أن معمودية يسوع على يد يوحنا المعمدان وحادثة صلبه بأمر من الحاكم الروماني بيلاطس البنطي. عادةً ما يؤكد علماء يسوع التاريخي أنه كان يهوديًا من الجليليين وعاش في زمن من التوقعات الماشيحية ونهاية الزمن. بعض الباحثين يقرون بتصريحات الأناجيل بنهاية العالم، بينما يصور آخرون «ملكوت الله» على أنه أخلاقي، وليست نهاية العالم في طبيعتها.

غالبًا ما اختلفت صور يسوع التي تم بناؤها في هذه العمليات عن بعضها البعض، وعن الصورة العقائدية التي صورت في حسابات الإنجيل. تتمثل الصور الرئيسية ليسوع الناتجة عن المسعى الثالث في ما يلي: نبي رؤيوي، وشافٍ كاريزماتي، وفيلسوف تشاؤمي، ومشيح يهودي، ونبي تغيير اجتماعي،  ولكن هناك اتفاق علمي قليل على صورة واحدة، أو على الطرق اللازمة لبناء ذلك. وهناك، مع ذلك، تداخل الصفات بين الأشكال المختلفة، والعلماء الذين يختلفون حول بعض السمات قد يتفقون على سمات آخرى.

الوجود التاريخي
يتفق معظم العلماء والباحثين في العصور القديمة على أن يسوع كان موجودًا.. ويؤكد المؤرخ مايكل غرانت أنه إذا تم تطبيق المعايير التقليدية للنقد النصي التاريخي على العهد الجديد «لا يمكننا بعد الآن أن نرفض وجود يسوع أكثر مما يمكننا أن نرفض وجود مجموعة من الشخصيات الوثنية التي لا يتم التساؤل أبداً عن واقعها كشخصيات تاريخية». وليس هناك ما يدل على أن الكتّاب في العصور القديمة والذين عارضوا المسيحية شككوا في وجود يسوع.

التوافق على يسوع

المعمودية والصلب

هناك اختلاف واسع بين العلماء حول تفاصيل حياة يسوع المذكورة في روايات الإنجيل، وحول معنى تعاليمه. يختلف العلماء حول تاريخ حلقات محددة موصوفة في الروايات الإنجيلية ليسوع،  لكن معظم العلماء المعاصرين يعتبرون معمودية وصلب يسوع حقائق تاريخية.

المعمودية
إن وجود يوحنا المعمدان في نفس الإطار الزمني ليسوع، وإعدامه في نهاية المطاف من قبل هيرودوس أنتيباس يشهد عليه المؤرخ يوسيفوس فلافيوس في القرن الأول والأغلبية الساحقة من العلماء المعاصرين ينظرون إلى وثائق يوسيفوس فلافيوس لأنشطة يوحنا المعمدان على أنها حقيقية. إحدى الحجج المؤيدة لتاريخ معمودية يسوع على يد يوحنا المعمدان هو معيار الإحراج، أي أنها قصة لم تكن الكنيسة المسيحية الأولى ترغب في ابتكارها. هناك حجة أخرى استخدمت لصالح تاريخ المعمودية وهي أن العديد من الوثائق تشير إليها، وعادةً ما يطلق عليه معيار الإثبات المتعدد. من الناحية التقنية، لا يضمن الإثبات المتعدد المصداقية، لكنه يحدد فقط العصور القديمة.ومع ذلك، بالنسبة لمعظم العلماء، جنباً إلى جنب مع معيار الإحرج فإنه يضفي مصداقية لمعمودية يسوع من قبل يوحنا المعمدان كونه حدث تاريخي.

الصلب
ينظر جون بول ميير إلى صلب يسوع كحقيقة تاريخية ويذكر أنه، بناءًا على معيار الإحراج، ما كان للمسيحيين أن يخترعوا الموت المؤلم لقائدهم. يذكر ميير أن هناك عددًا من المعايير الأخرى - معيار الإثبات المتعدد (أي التأكيد بأكثر من مصدر واحد)، ومعيار التماسك (أي أنه يتناسب مع العناصر التاريخية الأخرى) ومعيار الرفض (بمعنى أنه لا تتنازع مع المصادر القديمة) - ساعدت في تأسيس صلب يسوع كحدث تاريخي. ذكر إيدي وبويد أنه تم إثبات الآن بقوة أن هناك تأكيد غير مسيحي على صلب يسوع، في إشارة إلى ذكر الحدث في وثائق يوسيفوس فلافيوس وتاسيتس.

معظم الباحثين والعلماء في البحث الثالث عن يسوع التاريخي يعتبرون صلبًا لا جدال فيه،  كما يفعل بارت إيرمان،  وجون دومينيك كروسان،  وجيمس دان. وعلى الرغم من اتفاق العلماء على تاريخية صلب يسوع، إلا أنهم يختلفون حول السبب والسياق لذلك، على سبيل المثال. يدعم كل من إد باريش ساندرز وبولا فردريكسن تاريخية صلب يسوع، لكنهم يؤكدون أن يسوع لم يخبِر بصلبه، وأن تنبئه بالصلب هو قصة مسيحية. كما يرى المؤرخ اليهودي غزا فرمش صلب يسوع كحدث تاريخي لكنه يعتقد أن هذا كان بسبب تحدي يسوع للسلطة الرومانية.

عناصر تاريخية أخرى
بالإضافة إلى العنصرين التاريخيين المعمودية والصلب، يعزو الباحثون مستويات مختلفة من اليقين إلى جوانب أخرى مختلفة من حياة يسوع، على الرغم من عدم وجود اتفاق عالمي بين العلماء حول هذه البنود:
 دعا يسوع تلاميذه: يرى جون بول ميير دعوة التلاميذ نتيجة طبيعية للمعلومات المتاحة عن يسوع.. يقبل نيكولاس رايت أن هناك اثني عشر تلميذاً، لكن يرى أن قائمة أسمائهم لا يمكن تحديدها على وجه اليقين. لا يتفق جون دومينيك كروسان على ذلك، قائلاً إن يسوع لم يدع التلاميذ، وكان لديه نهج «مفتوح للجميع» بشكل متساوٍ، ولم يفرض أي تسلسل هرمي وكان يكرز للجميع على قدم المساواة.
 تطهير يسوع للهيكل.
 كان يسوع يهوديًا من منطقة الجليل ولد في الفترة من 7 إلى 2 قبل الميلاد وتوفي من 30 إلى 36 ميلاديًا.
 عاش يسوع فقط في منطقة الجليل واليهودية: ويرفض معظم العلماء أن هناك أي دليل على أن يسوع قد سافر أو درس خارج الجليل واليهودية بعد بلوغه.
 يشير التلمود إلى "يسوع الناصري" عدة مرات والعلماء مثل أندرياس كوستينبرغر وروبرت فان فورست يظنون أن بعض هذه الإشارات تعود إلى يسوع. الناصرة غير مذكورة في العهد القديم، والأناجيل المسيحية تصورها كقرية غير مهمة، وفي إنجيل يوحنا تذكر الآية أمنَ النـّاصرةِ يُمكِنُ أن يَخرُجَ شيءٌ صالِـحٌ؟". يذكر كريج س. كينر أنه نادراً ما تنازع العلماء على أن يسوع كان من الناصرة، فهي قرية صغيرة غامضة لا تستحق الابتكار. ويوافق جيرد ثيسن على هذا الإستنتاج. يذكر القرآن "يسوع ابن مريم" أربع عشرة مرة، ويصوره كنبي مميز، وإن لم يكن "ابن الله"، ولا يشير إلى الناصرة.
 تكلم يسوع باللغة الآرامية كما وتحدث أيضًا بالعبرية واليونانية. وهي اللغات المنطوقة في منطقة الجليل واليهودية خلال القرن الأول، مع كون اللغة الآرامية اللغة السائدة.
 بعد وفاة يسوع استمر تلاميذه في رسالته، وتعرض بعض تلاميذه للإضطهاد.

إقترح بعض العلماء المزيد من الإمكانيات التاريخية الإضافية مثل:
 يمكن تقدير التسلسل الزمني التقريبي ليسوع من مصادر غير مسيحية، وتأكيده من خلال ربطها بحسابات العهد الجديد.
 عاش يسوع فقط في الجليل واليهودية،  ولم يسافر أو درس خارج الجليل واليهودية.
 الإدعاءات حول مظهر يسوع أو أصله العرقي هي في الغالب ذاتية، مبنية على القوالب النمطية الثقافية والاتجاهات الاجتماعية بدلاً من التحليل العلمي.
 يمكن تأريخ معمودية يسوع على يد يوحنا المعمدان تقريبًا من مراجع يوسيفوس فلافيوس) إلى تاريخ ما قبل 28-35.
 كان الموضوع الرئيسي لتعاليم يسوع هو مملكة الله، وقدم هذا التعليم من خلال الأمثال والتي كانت مفاجئة ومربكة في بعض الأحيان.
 علّم يسوع أخلاق المغفرة، كما هو مذكور في الأمثال مثل «ن ضربك على خدك الأيمن فأدر له الأيسر».
 كان تاريخ صلب يسوع في وقت مبكر من عام 36 ميلادي، وذلك على أساس تواريخ حكم بيلاطس البنطي والذي كان الحاكم الروماني لمقاطعة يهودا من 26 م حتى 36 م.

نظرية أسطورة يسوع

«يسوع لم يكن موجودًا قَطُّ»
هي الافتراض القائل بأن يسوع الناصري لم يكن موجودًا، أو إذا كان، فإنه لم يقم بأي دور في تأسيس المسيحية، ولا فيما يتعلق بالروايات الأناجيل. في القرن الحادي والعشرين، كان هناك عدد من الكتب والأفلام الوثائقية حول هذا الموضوع. على سبيل المثال، كتب إيرل دوهرتي أن يسوع ربما كان شخصًا حقيقيًا، لكن حساباته الكتابية تكاد تكون خيالية تمامًا. كثير من المؤيدين لهذه النظرية يستخدمون حجة ثلاثية وضعت لأول مرة في القرن التاسع عشر: أن العهد الجديد ليس له قيمة تاريخية، وأنه لا توجد إشارات غير مسيحية إلى يسوع من القرن الأول، وأن المسيحية كانت وثنية أو ذات جذور أسطورية. ومع ذلك، فقد حدد العلماء المعاصرون الديانة المسيحية في سياق الديانات التوحيدية.

في الدراسات الحديثة، تعد نظرية أسطورة يسوع نظرية هامشية، ولكنها مقبولة بين عدد قليل من الأكاديميين. وعلى الرغم من هذا، لا يزال هناك توافقًا قويًا في الدراسات التوراتية النقدية التاريخية على وجود يسوع في التاريخ وحياة يسوع التاريخي في القرن الأول الميلادي في فلسطين الرومانية. ويختلف العلماء حول تاريخية فترات محددة مذكورة في روايات الكتاب المقدس حول يسوع. إلا أن هناك حدثين متوافق عليهما تقريبًا تاريخيًا، وهما معمودية يسوع على يد يوحنا المعمدان، وصلبه بأمر الحاكم الروماني بيلاطس البنطي.

التيار الرئيسي والنقد
منذ عام 1970، قام علماء مختلفون مثل يواكيم جيرمياس وإد باريش ساندرز بتتبع عناصر من المسيحية للتنوع في اليهودية في القرن الأول وتجاهل آراء القرن التاسع عشر بأن يسوع كان يعتمد على آلهة وثنية سابقة. وتم ذكر وجود يسوع في نصوص خارج الكتاب المقدس، وهي مدعومة من قبل مؤرخين حقيقيين. ويرى علماء التاريخ الفروق بين محتوى النبوءات اليهودية المسيحية وحياة يسوع، مما قوض وجهات النظر التي اخترعت أن يسوع يهودي مدراش. وجود تفاصيل حياة يسوع في كتابات بولس، والاختلافات بين الخطابات والأناجيل، تكفي لمعظم العلماء لفصل إدعاءاتهم الأسطورية فيما يتعلق ببولس. يقول الباحث والعالم في العهد الجديد جيرد ثييسان يقول: «هناك إجماع علمي واسع على أننا نستطيع الوصول إلى يسوع التاريخي من خلال التقليد السينوبتيكي». ويضيف العالم بارت إيرمان «إن فصل الأناجيل عن السجل التاريخي ليس عادلاً ولا علمياً». وإذا لم يكن يسوع موجودًا «فإن أصل الإيمان للمسيحيين الأوائل يبقى لغزًا محيرًا». ويقول إيدي وبويد إن أفضل تاريخ يمكن أن يؤكد أنه احتمال، ومع ذلك فإن احتمال وجود يسوع كان مرتفعًا جدًا، حيث يقول بارت إيرمان «لقد خلص جميع المؤرخين والعلماء إلى أن يسوع كان موجودًا كشخصية تاريخية».

يتفق علماء العصور القديمة المعاصرون على أن يسوع موجود وشخصية تاريخية، ويشير العلماء الكتابيون والمؤرخون الكلاسيكيون أن نظريات عدم وجوده قد تم دحضها بفعالية. وكتب المؤرخ جيمس دان: «اليوم تقريباً جميع المؤرخين، سواء كانوا مسيحيين أم لا، يقبلون أن يسوع كان موجوداً». في مراجعة عام 2011 لحالة العلم الحديث، كتب بارت إيرمان (وهو علماني لاأدري) أن يسوع «موجود بالتأكيد، كما يوافق على ذلك كل باحث مختص في العصور القديمة، مسيحي أو غير مسيحي». ويوافق روبرت برايس (وهو ملحد ينكر وجود يسوع) على أن منظوره يتعارض مع آراء غالبية العلماء. ويقول مايكل غرانت (مؤرخ وكلاسيكي) أنه «في السنوات الأخيرة، لم يسبق لأي عالم جاد أن فكر في افتراض عدم وجود ليسوع، أو على أي حال، قليل جدًا، ولم ينجحوا في دحض تاريخية يسوع»،  ويقول ريتشارد أ. بوريدج «هناك من يجادل بأن يسوع هو نسج من خيال الكنيسة، وأنه لم يكن هناك أبدًا يسوع. يجب أن أقول إنني لا أعرف أي عالم نقدي محترم يقول ذلك بعد الآن».

انظر أيضا
 ميلاد يسوع
 اكتتاب كيرينيوس
 مخطوطات الكتاب المقدس
 نقد الكتاب المقدس
 تجانس الأناجيل
 الخلفية التاريخية للعهد الجديد
 نظرة العهد الجديد لحياة يسوع
 الخط الزمني للمسيحية

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 Historical Jesus Theories, a survey by Peter Kirby of the views of a number of scholars
 PBS Frontline: From Jesus to Christ
 NT Biblical Studies Articles at Apollos.ws, including links to online articles on the historical Jesus
 The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede by ألبرت شفايتزر، translated by W. Montgomery
 Articles about the historical Jesus by وليام لين كرايغ

 Jesus in Kashmir, The Lost Tomb by Suzanne Olsson. Publishing Gateway. 2020. ISBN 978-0-578-49626-9
 Unofficial page of Nicholas Wright, including articles on Jesus

نقد كتابي
وفيات في القدس
يسوع

يسوع التاريخي


متلازمة الأنف الأبيض  هو اسم مرض حيوان أصاب وقتل حوالي 80 إلى 90 بالمئة من الخفافيش وبالألاف في مغارات السبات سنة 2008 بأمريكا الشمالية.

اصيبت بعض الأنواع المهددة بالانقراض مثل خفاش انديانا وبعض أنواع الخفافيش البنية الصغيرة.

تم اكتشاف المرض في ولاية نيويورك الأمريكية شتاء 2007م وبداية 2008م وليس مفهوم بشكل جيد حتى الآن (8000 إلى 11000 خفاش ميت حسب تقديرات الحكومة الأمريكية)

نلاحظ غزوا طفيليا يظهر في شكل حلقة حول فم وخطم الحيوانات المصابة، وهذه الإصابة يمكن ان تكون ثانوية أو مرفقة باصابة فيروسية أو بكتيريا.

كل أنواع الخفافيش لا تتكاثر بسرعة (مولود واحد في السنة)،وبذلك تشكل هذه الإصابة تهديدا لأنواع الخفافيش التي تعيش في هذه المنطقة.

بعض الخبراء يقدرون ان هذه الإصابة عرفت بالأخطر منذ 5 فيفري 2008م والتي هددة الخفافيش.

الوبائية
لم يحدد حتى الآن اصل، أسباب ولا حتى العوامل المفاقمة للمرض.
 جغرافيا الإصابة:
 أمريكا الشمالية: اصيبت ولايات شمال شرق الولايات المتحدة بالمرض سنة 2007م وبشكل أكبر سنة 2008 م.
 دول أوروبا : بعض الحالات المكتشفة لكن في حاجة إلى تثبت.

التشريح المرضي
أدى تشريح الخفافيش المصابة بالولايات المتحدة إلى الكشف عن التهاب الرئتين' والخفافيش النافقة كانت هزيلة جدا وموجودة بالقرب من مخارج الكهوف وليس بداخلها اين من المفروض ان تكون اين توجد درجة حرارة ونسبة رطوبة مناسبة.ربما كانت تبحث عن جو ألطف (اٍصابتها بالحمى)أو للبحث عن صيد (لتعويض الضعف الذي اصابها).

الاحتياطات
في الولايات المتحدة منذ العام 2008م هناك مراقبة للمواقع المصابة. وطلب من مستكشفي الكهوف التقليل من زياراتهم وتعقيم ادواتهم، وهناك حظر لزيارة بعض الكهوف.

تحركات
10 مارس 2008 العديد من المنظمات الغير حكومية ارسلت مندوبين إلى الحكومة الفدرالية الأمريكية لرسم خطط استعجالات ومراقبة، وطالبت هذه المنظمات بتمويل لمشاريع البحث في هذا المرض.

مراجع

أمراض الخفاشيات
أمراض حيوانية المنشأ
أمراض فطرية حيوانية
استغوار
علم البيئة التجمعي
متلازمات في الحيوانات
متلازمات في ثدييات

متلازمة الأنف الأبيض


Forsetakosningar í Bandaríkjunum 1980 fóru fram þriðjudaginn 4. nóvember 1980. Ronald Reagan fylkisstjóri Kaliforníu og George H. W. Bush unnu sigur á Jimmy Carter sitjandi forseta og Walter Mondale sitjandi varaforseta.

Niðurstöður

Sjá einnig
 Kosningar í Bandaríkjunum 1980

Tilvísanir

Kosningar í Bandaríkjunum 1980
1980

Forsetakosningar í Bandaríkjunum 1980


Sara Pellegrini, née le  à Varel, est une fondeuse italienne.

Biographie
En 2007, pour ses débuts officiels, elle dispute ses premières manches dans la Coupe OPA, antichambre de la Coupe du monde, y obtenant une place dans le top 30, puis une  dans le top dix. En 2009, Pellegrini reçoit sa première sélection avec l'équipe nationale à l'occasion des Championnats du monde des moins de 23 ans à Praz de Lys - Sommand, où elle est au mieux  de la poursuite.

En début d'année 2011, elle atterit sur son premier podium en Coupe OPA à Ramsau et gagne sa première manche en 2014 à Campra, ce qui l'aide à terminer deuxième du classement général. Elle ses débuts dans la Coupe du monde en décembre 2013 à Davos ().

En 2017, l'Italienne est sélectionnée pour le trente kilomètres des Championnats du monde à Lahti, pour arriver .

En 2018, elle prend part aux Jeux olympiques à Pyeongchang, où elle finit,  du dix kilomètres libre,  du skiathlon et  du trente kilomètres classique.

C'est lors du Tour de ski 2018-2019, qu'elle franchit la barre du top trente en Coupe du monde, terminant  du classement final et  de la dernière étape, soit son meilleur résultat dans l'élite. Aux Championnats du monde 2019, elle obtient le résultat de  à deux reprises.

Elle prend sa retraite sportive en 2021, avec son actif six titres de championne d'Italie, quatre en relais et deux en sprint par équipes.

Palmarès

Jeux olympiques d'hiver

Légende :
  : pas d'épreuve
 — : Non disputée par Pellegrini

Championnats du monde

Légende :
  : pas d'épreuve
 — : Non disputée par Pellegrini

Coupe du monde
 Meilleur classement général :  en 2021.
 Meilleur résultat individuel : .

Classements en Coupe du monde

Coupe OPA
Deuxième du classement général en 2014, 2018 et 2020.
20 podiums individuels, dont 6 victoires.
1 victoire en relais.

Références

Liens externes

Naissance à Varel
Naissance en mai 1986
Fondeuse italienne
Personnalité italienne du XXIe siècle
Fondeuse aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2018

Sara Pellegrini


Kapıkaya, Karaisalı - Adana ili Karaisalı ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Kozan - Adana ili Kozan ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Amasya - Amasya ili merkez ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kapıkaya, Mutki - Bitlis ili Mutki ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kapıkaya, İliç - Erzincan ili İliç ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kapıkaya, Tortum - Erzurum ili Tortum ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Sarıcakaya - Eskişehir ili Sarıcakaya ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Aliağa - İzmir ili Aliağa ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Bergama - İzmir ili Bergama ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Onikişubat - Kahramanmaraş ili Onikişubat ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Simav - Kütahya ili Simav ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kapıkaya, Battalgazi - Malatya ili Battalgazi ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Bafra - Samsun ili Bafra ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kapıkaya, Kurtalan - Siirt ili Kurtalan ilçesine bağlı köy

Kapıkaya


La Orquesta del Hollywood Bowl (en inglés Hollywood Bowl Orchestra o HBO por sus siglas) es una orquesta sinfónica gestionada por la Asociación de la Orquesta Filarmónica de Los Ángeles e interpreta la gran mayoría de veces en el Hollywood Bowl.

John Mauceri dirigió la orquesta desde su fundación en 1990 hasta que dejó el cargo justo antes del inicio de la temporada 2006 del Hollywood Bowl. A lo largo de este tiempo, ocupó los cargos de Director orquestal, Director orquestal principal y, por último, Director. En la actualidad ostenta el título de Director Fundador.

Todavía no se ha encontrado un sustituto que reemplace las funciones que venía llevando Mauceri. En marzo de 2008, Thomas Wilkins fue nombrado Director principal invitado de la orquesta por un periodo de dos años comenzando el verano de 2008.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Página web oficial
 Biografía de John Mauceri con bastante información sobre la Orquesta del Hollywood Bowl

Hollywood Bowl
Hollywood Bowl
Música de California
Organizaciones fundadas en 1990
Música en 1990
Estados Unidos en 1990

Orquesta del Hollywood Bowl


Dan Manoliu () este un fost senator român, ales în Legislatura 2016-2020.

Controverse
Pe 31 octombrie 2022 Dan Manoliu a fost condamnat definitiv de Înalta Curte de Casație și Justiție la 2 ani de închisoare cu suspendare pentru ucidere din culpă.

Vezi și
 Legislatura 2016-2020 (Senat)
 Parlamentul României

Legături externe
 Activitatea parlamentară

Politicieni români în viață
Senatori români 2016-2020
Membri ai Partidului Social Democrat
Nașteri în 1962
Nașteri pe 23 decembrie

Dan Manoliu


An Dactyloctenium in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Dactyloctenium in nahilalakip ha familia nga Poaceae.

An kladograma hini sumala ha Catalogue of Life:

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Dactyloctenium

Dactyloctenium


An Spodiopogon rhizophorus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Pilg.. An Spodiopogon rhizophorus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Spodiopogon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Spodiopogon

Spodiopogon rhizophorus


Mariana Francisca de Jesús Torres y Berriochoa (Espanha, 1563 — Quito, Equador, 16 de fevereiro de 1635) foi uma das fundadoras do primeiro Convento de freiras Concepcionistas (Ordem da Imaculada Conceição) na América, bem como sua segunda abadessa.  Foi também a vidente das aparições de Nossa Senhora do Bom Sucesso em Quito, Equador.

Chegada a América e Aparições
Nascida Mariana Torres Cádiz, era filha de Diego Torres Cádiz e Dona María Berriochoa Álvaro.

No ano 1556, graças à petição para que se fundasse um Convento de freiras da Ordem da Imaculada Conceição (Concepcionistas), Mariana de Jesús Torres foi eleita para vir a América e cumprir esta solicitação. No dia 8 de setembro do ano de 1579, aos 15 anos, ela consagrou-se ao Senhor.

Foi sempre muito espiritual e por sua constante penitência destacou-se na comunidade.

Entre 1582 e em 1634 pôde viver as aparições marianas de Nossa Senhora do Bom Sucesso. É conhecida por seu biógrafo como "Freira que morre três vezes" pois supostamente se comprovou que morreu em 1582, mas depois seguiu vivendo até sua segunda morte o 17 de setembro de 1588, ressuscitou e voltou a morrer o 16 de janeiro de 1635 à idade de 72 anos.

Referências

Místicos católicos

Mariana de Jesús Torres


Lorenz Brentano (født 4. november 1813 i Mannheim, død 18. september 1891 i Chicago) var en tysk politiker.

Brentano blev 1837 sagfører i sin fødeby og valgtes 1845 til Badens andet kammer; hørte såvel her som i den tyske nationalforsamling 1848 til yderste venstre. Maj 1849 valgtes han til medlem af Badens provisoriske regering, skønt han ikke selv havde taget del i opstanden, og søgte her at holde igen imod Struves yderliggående planer, samt at opnå forståelse med storhertugen. I slutningen af juni samme år måtte han flygte til Schweiz og udvandrede senere til Nordamerika; var først landmand i Michigan og blev 1859 sagfører i Chicago, samt udgiver af et stort tyskt blad. 1872—76 var Brentano amerikansk konsul i Dresden.

Kilder

Politikere fra Tyskland

Lorenz Brentano


الضَّيْوَن الإفريقي أو القط البري الإفريقي أو القط الصحراوي . هو قط بري يُعتقد أنه انحدر من نويعات أخرى منذ زهاء 131000 سنة خلت. وبعض من هذه الحيوانات استئنست قبل نحو 10000 سنة مضت في جزيرة قبرص. حيث تعتبر من أسلاف القطط المستأنسة. كما أن بقايا القطط المستأنسة دُفنت إلى جوار الموتى من البشر في مقابرهم قبل نحو 9500 سنة في جزيرة قبرص.

اُكتشف من قبل علماء الحيوان في أوروبا حديثاً وذلك في سبعينات القرن التاسع عشر، وهو يعيش في شمال إفريقيا وخصوصاً جنوب السواحل الليبية أي في الصحراء الكبرى والصحراء الليبية، وينتمي إلى فصيلة السنوريات رتبة اللواحم.

الخصائص
يراوح لون القط البري الإفريقي ما بين البني الرملي والأصفر الرصاصي مع خطوط سوداء عند الذيل والاسود. في حين أن فراء القط أقصر من فراء القطط البرية الأوروبية.

يبلغ طول القط (الرأس والجسم) من 45 إلى 75 سنتيمتر، أما ذيله فيبلغ من 20 إلى 30 سنتيمتر، ويملك أذنين كبيرتين. ويمتلك هذا القط شعر تحت أخمص قدميه يقيه من حرارة رمال الصحراء نهاراً.

السلوك
طعامه الأساسي الجرذان والفئران إضافة إلى الثدييات الصغيرة، وحين تسنح الفرص فهو يتناول أيضا الحشرات والزواحف والطيور وبيضها.

يتمتع القط البري الإفريقي بقدرة كبيرة على الرؤية الليلية وهو حيوان ناشط ليلاً وأثناء الفجر مثل أغلب حيوانات الصحراء، أما وقته أثناء النهار فيقضيه نائماً في إحدى الجحور.

فترة حمل الإناث ما بين 56 و69 يوماً، وتلد الأنثى في العام مرة أو مرتين وخلال الموسم الممطر لتوفر الغذاء، وفي كل مرة تلد ما بين اثنين إلى خمس قطيطات التي تولد عمياء، وتظل تحت رعاية الأم ما بين خمسة إلى ستة أشهر. ويمكن أن تكبر القطيطات لتكون بحجم الأم في غضون عام لتكون مستقلة.

تعيش القطط الصحراوية تلك مدة عشرين عاماً. ويعد هذا القط صياد وشرس، لكن يمكن تدجين هذا النوع وخاصة إذا كان صغير جداً.

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

أصنوفات سماها غيورغ فوستر
ثدييات الجزائر
ثدييات السودان
ثدييات الشرق الأوسط
ثدييات الصومال
ثدييات المغرب
ثدييات النيجر
ثدييات إثيوبيا
ثدييات إريتريا
ثدييات بوتسوانا
ثدييات تشاد
ثدييات تنزانيا
ثدييات تونس
ثدييات جنوب إفريقيا
ثدييات جنوب غرب آسيا
ثدييات غرب إفريقيا
ثدييات في شمال إفريقيا
ثدييات ليبيا
ثدييات مصر
ثدييات ناميبيا
ثدييات وصفت في 1780
سنوريات إفريقيا
قط (جنس)
قطط

ضيون إفريقي


In molecular biology, a chromatosome is a result of histone H1 binding to a nucleosome, which contains a histone octamer and DNA. The chromatosome contains 166 base pairs of DNA. 146 base pairs are from the DNA wrapped around the histone core of the nucleosome. The remaining 20 base pairs are from the DNA of histone H1 binding to the nucleosome. Histone H1, and its other variants, are referred to as linker histones. Protruding from the linker histone are linker DNA. Chromatosomes are connected to each other when the linker DNA of one chromatosome binds to the linker histone of another chromatosome.

Picture
https://www.rcsb.org/pdb/explore.do?structureId=4QLC

References

Molecular biology

Chromatosome


Mištar je pogranično naseljeno mjesto u općini Čajniču, Republika Srpska, BiH. Nalazi se kod granice sa Srbijom, zapadno od ušća rječice Tuhovo u Radojnu. U blizini je enklava a Republike Srbije koja je dio Strmca u općini Priboju, a prema jugu je tromeđa BiH – Crna Gora – Srbija. Ova enklava nije isto što i enklava BiH u Srbiji koju čine sela Sastavci, Kasidoli, Crnuzi, Luka.

Godine 1985. pripojena su Mištaru naselja Tulešići i Tupci (Sl.list SRBiH, br.24/85).

Stanovništvo

Izvori

Naselja u Republici Srpskoj
Čajniče

Mištar


Francisco Javier Agea Sánchez (né le  à Navaluenga) est un coureur cycliste espagnol.

Biographie
Dans les catégories de jeunes, Fran Agea court au sein de la Fondation Victor Sastre dans sa région natale. Il est notamment champion de Castille-et-León et meilleur grimpeur du Tour d'Alava en 2017 chez les juniors (moins de 19 ans).

En 2018, il rejoint le club cantabre Gomur pour ses débuts espoirs (moins de 23 ans). Deux ans plus tard, il obtient son premier résultat notable en terminant septième du championnat d'Espagne espoirs à Úbeda. Lors de la saison 2021, il se distingue en remportant le Trophée Guerrita, manche de la Coupe d'Espagne amateurs, ainsi qu'une étape du Tour de Galice.

Il passe finalement professionnel en 2022 dans l'équipe continentale Rádio Popular-Boavista, au Portugal.

Palmarès et résultats

Palmarès par année
 2021
 Trophée Guerrita
  du Tour de Galice
  de la Clásica Agoncillo

Classements mondiaux

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Liens externes

Coureur cycliste espagnol
Naissance en février 1999
Naissance dans la province d'Ávila
Sportif de Castille-et-León

Francisco Agea


Stanisław Adam Sygnet (* 6. September 1924 in Krępa Kościelna; † 1. November 1985 in Sandomierz) war ein polnischer Geistlicher und Weihbischof in Sandomierz.

Leben
Der Sohn von Jan Signet und Zofia geb. Karbowiak besuchte das Gymnasium und trat nach dem Abitur 1947 ins Priesterseminar in Sandomierz ein. Am 25. Mai 1952 empfing er durch Weihbischof Franciszek Jop die Priesterweihe. Nach fünfjähriger Arbeit studierte er Moraltheologie an der Katholischen Universität Lublin, unterrichtete ab 1962 am Priesterseminar in Sandomierz, wurde dort Präfekt, stellvertretender Rektor und von 1973 bis 1976 Rektor des Seminars.

Am 20. September 1976 ernannte ihn Papst Paul VI. zum Weihbischof in Sandomierz und zum Titularbischof von Sufasar. Die Bischofsweihe spendete ihm am 24. Oktober 1976 der Apostolische Administrator von Sandomierz, Bischof Piotr Gołębiowski; Mitkonsekratoren waren Jan Jaroszewicz, der Bischof von Kielce, und Walenty Wójcik, Weihbischof in Sandomierz.

Seine letzte Ruhestätte fand er in der Krypta der Kathedrale von Sandomierz.

Weblinks

  (polnisch)

Weihbischof
Titularbischof
Römisch-katholischer Bischof (20. Jahrhundert)
Römisch-katholischer Theologe (20. Jahrhundert)
Pole
Geboren 1924
Gestorben 1985
Mann

Stanisław Adam Sygnet


Participarea României la cel de-Al Doilea Război Balcanic a constat într-o intervenție militară în perioada 10-31 iulie 1913 și semnarea unui tratat de pace la 10 august la București. Cu acordul Franței și Rusiei, armata română a început să-și mobilizeze trupele la 3 iulie, la începutul celui de-al doilea război balcanic. În timpul războiului, a ocupat sudul Dobrogei și a forțat Bulgaria să facă pace, amenințând imediat capitala Sofia.  România, care a păstrat neutralitatea militară în Primul Război Balcanic, a intrat în război ca factor de stabilitate în regiune, împotriva Bulgariei. Armata română a jucat un rol decisiv în înfrângerea Bulgariei.

Fundal
Al doilea război balcanic a început la 30 iunie 1913 când Bulgaria, fără declarație oficială de război, și-a atacat foștii aliați din primul război balcanic: Serbia și Grecia.

Cu acordul Franței și Rusiei, armata română a început să mobilizeze în patru zile, între 3-6 iulie, 437.000 de soldați. La 10 iulie s-a dat acordul de intrare în Bulgaria, ca o respingere publică  a acordului cu Austro-Ungaria.

Intervenție militară
Conform planurilor operaționale, Comandamentul român și-a împărțit forțele în două grupuri: o forță majoră, armata Dunării, condusă de prințul Ferdinand care să se deplaseze spre capitala Sofia și un grup separat (Corpul V de Armată comandat de generalul Ioan Culcer) pentru acțiunile din Dobrogea.

Armata Dunării a fost formată din opt divizii de infanterie (împărțite în corpurile de armată 1, 2, 3 și 4), două divizii de infanterie de rezervă și două divizii de cavalerie.

Armata română a pierdut mai puțin de 100 de soldați în lupte, dar a suferit puternic de pe urma unei epidemii de holeră.

Tratatul de la București
La 31 iulie, România a acceptat un armistițiu din partea Bulgariei.

În conformitate cu prevederile tratatului de pace de la București, Bulgaria ceda României porțiunea cunoscută ca Dobrogea de Sud (Cadrilaterul), de la vest de Tutrakan (Turtucaia) până la malul vestic al Mării Negre, la sud de Kranevo (Ecrene). Cadrilaterul avea o suprafață de aproximativ 6.960 km², o populație de circa 286.000 de locuitori și includea fortăreața Silistra și orașele Turtucaia (port la Dunăre) și Balcic (port la Marea Neagră).

În plus, Bulgaria se obliga să distrugă toate fortărețele existente și să nu construiască altele la Ruse ori la Șumen, sau în orice alt loc dintre aceste două puncte, sau pe o rază de 20 km în jurul Balcicului.

Urmări
Războaiele balcanice au constituit începutul depărtării României de Puterile Centrale, în ciuda existenței unui tratat, și apropierea acesteia de Antanta.

Câțiva ani mai târziu, trupele române au fost implicate în Primul Război Mondial de partea Antantei.

Note

Lectură suplimentară
 Hitchins, Keith, România 1866-1947, București, Ed. Humanitas, 1998
  Iordache, Anastasie, Criza politică din România și războaiele balcanice 1911-1913, București, Editura Paideia, 1998
 Căzan, Gh. Nicolae, Rădulescu-Zoner, Șerban, România și Tripla Alianță 1878-1914, București, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1979
 Istoria Românilor, sub redacția lui Gheorghe Platon, vol. VII, tom II, București, Editura Enciclopedică, 2003

Legături externe
 Un secol de la Pacea de la București, marcat printr-o conferința internațională extraordinară, 5 noiembrie 2013, Historia Ro, Adevărul

Vezi și
 Regimentul Războieni No. 15 (1913)

1913 în România
1913 în Bulgaria
România în Al Doilea Război Balcanic


Christopher Larkin er en skuespiller, der er bedst kendt for rollen som Monty Green i The 100.

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra Sydkorea

Christopher Larkin


Proterije Aleksandrijski (? - 457.), mučenik i patrijarh Aleksandrije od 451. do 457. godine.

Povijest

Proterija je, između 8. listopada i 1. studenog 451. godine, za patrijarha izabrao Kalcedonski sabor kako bi zamijenio dotadašnjeg aleksandrijskog patrijarha Dioskura I. Aleksandrijskog, kojeg je isto Vijeće svrgnulo s položaja patrijarha radi njegovih antikalcendonskih uvjerenja (usp. Evagrius Scholasticus, Crkvena povijest, knjiga 2, poglavlje 5).

Šizma
Njegovo stupanje na mjesto patrijarha označava početak šizme od 451. godine između koptske crkve i grčkih pravoslavnih patrijarha Aleksandrije koja nikada nije bila u potpunosti razriješena a koja je doživjela kulminaciju 536. godine kada se se dvije crkve definitivno razdvojile.
Budući da je aleksandrijska crkva bila uglavnom antikalcedonska, nasilno se suprotstavila svrgavanju patrijarha Dioskura koji je također bio antikalcedonskih uvjerenja, kako bi na njegovo mjesto došao kalcedonac Proterije. Konačno, 457. godine, antikalcedonska struja u Aleksandriji je izabrala Timoteja Eilurosa kao patrijarha Aleksandrije, te se na taj način suprotstavila Proteriju, kojega je nakon toga do smrti mučila koptska rulja. (Evagrius Scholasticus, 2, 8).

Ubojstvo je izazvalo oštre komentare skupine biskupa iz raznih rimskih provincija, ali i većih regija, koji su u nekoliko pisama bili poslani bizantskom caru Leonu I. Tračaninu (457. – 474.).

Štovanje

Smatra se svetim u Istočnim pravoslavnim Crkvama. Koptski pravoslavci ga ne priznaju papom, koji umjesto toga priznaju i Dioskora i Timoteja jer su u to vrijeme oni bili pape.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 St Proterius of Alexandria Zbirka životopisa Svetaca (Orthodox Synaxarion)

Ekumenski sabori
Sirijski kršćanski kler
Patrijarsi

Proterije Aleksandrijski


Hasan Kundakçı (1937, Afyonkarahisar - 16 Ocak 2023, İstanbul) Türk asker. Eski Özel Harp Dairesi Başkanı.

1955'te Kuleli Askerî Lisesinden, 1957'de Kara Harp Okulundan piyade asteğmen rütbesiyle mezun oldu. Piyade Okulundaki sınıf eğitimini 1959'da tamamlamayı müteakip 1961-1962 yıllarında, 12. Kore Bölüğü'nde takım komutanlığı, 1965-1967 yıllarında Ağrı ve Tendürek Dağları'nda sınır bölük komutanlığı yaptı. 1979-1980 yıllarında Kıbrıs'ta 230. Piyade Alayı komutanlığı yaptı. 1984'te tuğgeneralliğe yükseldi. İki yıl 70. Mekanize Piyade Tugayı komutanlığı ve Siirt'te Sıkıyönetim komutan yardımcılığı görevini yürüttü. 1986 yılında Özel Harp Dairesi başkanlığına atandı. 1970'li yıllarda Atina'da askerî ataşe olarak görev yaptı. 1994-95 yıllarında Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi ve Kuzey Irak üzerinde çok etkili bir askerdi. 1993-95 yılları arasında Diyarbakır Jandarma Asayiş Bölge Komutanı olarak görev yapmıştır.  20 Mart 1995 tarihli PKK'ya ağır darbe vuran Cudi Dağı Operasyonu'nu yönetti. Kıbrıs Türk Barış Kuvvetleri Komutanı olarak görev yaptığı sırada 14 Ağustos 1996 günü Rum gösterici Solomos Solomou'nun bayrak direğine tırmanırken vurulup öldürülmesiyle Kıbrıs Rum Kesimi'nin başvurusu üzerine Interpol tarafından hakkında kırmızı bülten çıkarıldı. 1996'da görev süresi 1 yıl uzatıldı ve 1997 yılında emekli oldu. Evli ve iki çocuk babasıdır.

22 Ekim 1993 günü Diyarbakır'ın Lice ilçesinde militanlar ile güvenlik güçleri arasında başlayan çatışmada Tuğgeneral Bahtiyar Aydın, başına isabet eden bir kurşunla vurulmuş, Jandarma Asayiş Komutanı Korgeneral Hasan Kundakçı ve yardımcısı Tümgeneral İlker Başbuğ'u taşıyan helikopter yoğun kanas ateşi altında Diyarbakır'ın Lice ilçesi üzerine gelip alçalmaya başlamış ve 55 yaralı ve hasta askerin bulunduğu iddia edilen okulun bahçesine inmiştir.

Telsizle haberleştiği iddia edilen PKK'lıların, "Hasta, sakat fark etmez, 55 asker iyi skandal olur" dediği iddia edildi. Korgeneral Kundakçı askerlerin motive olabilmesi için Arkadaşlar teröristler sizi gözlerine kestirmiş, biraz sonra saldıracaklarmış. Yataklarınızda basılarak öleceğinize, mevzide çarpışarak ölünüz. Sizin için zor olduğunu biliyorum ama, hemen kalkın, aşağıda toplanın demiştir. 55 yaralı asker 2 general ve yaverleri ile 2 pilot toplam 61 asker çatışmaya başlamışlar, ilçenin doğusunda 20-25 kilometre mesafede militanlarla çatışma halindeki Askeri kışladaki birlikler gelene kadar (14 saat sonra) çatışma bitmiştir.

2017 yılında Vatan Partisi'ne katıldı.

16 Ocak 2023'te hayatını kaybetti.

Eserleri

Kaynakça

1937 doğumlular
Sandıklı doğumlular
Kuleli Askerî Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Kara Harp Okulunda öğrenim görenler
Piyade subaylar
Vatan Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
2023 yılında ölenler
İstanbul'da ölenler
Kalp yetmezliğinden ölenler
Zincirlikuyu Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler

Hasan Kundakçı


Buddy Clinton (August 7, 1997 – January 2, 2002), a male chocolate-colored Labrador Retriever, was one of two pets kept by the Clinton family while Bill Clinton was President of the United States. The Clintons' other pet was a cat named Socks.

Life

Clinton acquired Buddy as a three-month-old puppy from Caroline County, Maryland, in December 1997. He named him after his late great-uncle, Henry Oren "Buddy" Grisham, who had died the previous June and whom Clinton often cited as a major influence on his life.
Socks did not get along with the frisky Buddy, so the White House had to keep the two in separate quarters. Since this arrangement would be no longer possible in the Clintons' smaller home in New York, Socks was left under the care of Bill Clinton's secretary, Betty Currie.

Death
According to a police report, Buddy was killed by a car while "playfully chasing a contractor" who had left the Clinton home in Chappaqua, New York, on January 2, 2002. The Clintons were not home at the time of the accident; their home was being watched by Secret Service agents. The agents rushed Buddy to an animal hospital where he was pronounced dead.

In June 2002, Clinton acquired another chocolate Lab whom he named "Seamus".

Cultural references
First Lady Hillary Clinton wrote a children's book called Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets in 1998. It included excerpts from more than 50 letters written to the First Pets by children and more than 80 photographs of Socks and Buddy.

Buddy was a central character in Rick Cleveland's 2005 one-man show My Buddy Bill, relating the writer's fictional friendship with Bill Clinton, which began when both men discovered their common interest in dogs.

See also
 United States presidential pets
 List of individual dogs
 List of Labrador Retrievers
 Socks (cat)

References

External links

1997 animal births
2002 animal deaths
Bill Clinton
Caroline County, Maryland
Hillary Clinton
Road incident deaths in New York (state)
United States presidential dogs

Buddy (dog)