Eurus veya Euros, Yunan mitolojisinde doğu rüzgârının tecessümü ve tanrısı. Eos ve Astraeus'un oğludur. Notus (Güney rüzgârı), Boreas (Kuzey rüzgârı) ve Zephyrus (Batı rüzgârı) erkek kardeşleridir. Erkek kardeşleriyle beraber Anemoi (Rüzgârlar) olarak anılırlar. Roma mitolojisinde ona Vulturnus denirdi.

Yunan tanrıları
Doğa tanrıları

Eurus


الشراكة الشرقية هو مشروع بدأ العمل به في الاتحاد الأوروبي. والذي قدمه وزير خارجية بولندا بمساعدة من السويد في مجلس الاتحاد الأوروبي للشؤون العامة والعلاقات الخارجية في بروكسل في 26 مايو 2008. افتتح الشراكة الشرقية في براغ يوم 7 مايو 2009.

التاريخ

الاقتراح
الشراكة الشرقية هدفت لاستكمال البعد الشرقي والاتحاد من أجل المتوسط من خلال توفير منتدى لمناقشة مؤسسية لاتفاقيات التأشيرة واتفاقيات التجارة الحرة واتفاقات الشراكة الإستراتيجية مع جيران الاتحاد الأوروبي الشرقيينمع تجنب موضوع الانضمام إلى الاتحاد الأوروبي المثير للجدل. نطاق الشراكة الجغرافي يتألف من أرمينيا، وأذربيجان، وجورجيا، ومولدوفا وأوكرانيا. روسيا البيضاء ستشارك فقط على المستوى التقني (بسبب معارضة الاتحاد الاوروبى لألكسندر لوكاشينكو، الذي تعتبره دكتاتوراً)، في حين أن روسيا سوف تدعى للمشاركة في بعض المبادرات المحلية، على سبيل المثال كالينينغراد أوبلاست. وخلافا مع الاتحاد من أجل المتوسط، الشراكة الشرقية لن يكون لها أمانة خاصة بها، ولكن سيتحكم فيها بصورة مباشرة من قبل المفوضية الأوروبية.

وتمت مناقشته في المجلس الأوروبي في 19 يونيو و20 يونيو عام 2008، مع مناقشة الاتحاد من أجل المتوسط.

أيدت جمهورية التشيك الاقتراح تأييداً تاماً، في حين أن بلغاريا ورومانيا أظهرت حذراً وخوفاً من أن انضمامهما يمكن أن يقوض شراكتهما في منطقة البحر الأسود منتدى للحوار والشراكة ومنظمة التعاون الاقتصادي للبحر الأسود. ومن ناحية أخرى ألمانيا، وفرنسا وغيرهما ليست راضية تماماً بسبب احتمال ان تكون الشراكة الشرقية بمثابة نقطة انطلاق لعضوية في الاتحاد الأوروبي (وبخاصة لأوكرانيا)، في حين أن بولندا وغيرها من الدول الشرقية رحبت في هذا الصدد.

الأعضاء

أعضاء الشراكة الشرقية هم دول ما بعد الحقبة السوفيتية أوكرانيا، وروسيا البيضاء، ومولدوفا، وأذربيجان، وأرمينيا، وجورجيا، والإتحاد الأوروبي. هناك الكثير من الجدل حول انضمام روسيا البيضاء إلى الشراكة حيث يعتبرها الاتحاد الأوروبي سلطة دكتاتورية. في نهاية المطاف دعوت روسيا البيضاء للمشاركة في الاتحاد الأوروبي بسبب مخاوف من تأثير روسيا الكبير عليها.

العلاقة الثنائية بين الاتحاد الأوروبي وأوكرانيا

أوكرانيا هي واحدة من ست دول ما بعد الاتحاد السوفيتي التي دعيت من قبل الاتحاد الأوروبي للمساهمة في الإطار التعاونى الجديد المتوقع حينها «الشراكة الشرقية». ومع ذلك، أشارت كييف إلى أنها ما زالت متشائمة من «القيمة المضافة» لها من هذة المبادرة. في الواقع بدأت أوكرانيا مع الاتحاد الأوروبي في مفاوضات جديدة لتعزيز السياسات وإبرام اتفاقيات التجارة الحرة. كذلك، كان هناك بعض التقدم في تحرير نظام التأشيرات على الرغم من المشاكل المستمرة في تأشيرات قانطى دول الاتحاد الأوروبي لدخولهم أوكرانيا.

هذا هو السبب لماذا أوكرانيا لها نظرة محددة لمشروع الشراكة الأوروبية. وفقًا للرئاسة الأوكرانية، فيجب أن تتفق، في حالة بلده، لأهداف السياسة الخارجية الإستراتيجية؛ أي الاندماج مع الاتحاد الأوروبي.
وحتى الآن وثائق الشراكة الأوروبية (إعلان المجلس الأوروبي في مارس 2009) لم يؤكد أولويات التكامل السياسي والاقتصادي، أو إلغاء تأشيرات السفر.

وقد أعربت أوكرانيا عن حماسها للمشروع. وقال نائب رئيس الوزراء الأوكراني هريهوري نيميرايا (Hryhoriy Nemyria) أن المشروع هو طريق لتطوير البلد وأنهم يرحبوا بسياسة الشراكة الأوروبية؛ لأنها تستخدم «بحكم الواقع» نفس أساليب مرشحين الاتحاد الأوروبي.

تحت الشراكة الشرقية، توصلت بولندا وأوكرانيا لاتفاق جديد من خلاله تستبدل التقشيرات بتصريحات مبسطة تسمح للأوكرانيين المقيمين داخل الحدود بـ30 كم بالانتقال على جانبي الحدود. سيستفيد حوالى 1.5 مليون شخص بهذة الاتفاقية والتي فعلت ابتداءً من 1 يونيو 2009.

العلاقة مع روسيا
أعربت روسيا عن مخاوفها بشأن الشراكة الشرقية، والتي تنظر إليها على أنها محاولة لتوسيع «منطقة نفوذ» الاتحاد الأوروبي في البحث عن النفط والغاز. كما اتهمت روسيا الاتحاد الأوروبي بوضع ضغوط لا مبرر لها على روسيا البيضاء باقتراح أنها قد تكون مهمشة إذا إتبعت روسيا في الاعتراف باستقلال كل أوسيتيا الجنوبية، وأبخازيا عن جورجيا. «هل هذا هو الترويج للديمقراطية أم هذا ابتزاز؟ ان ذلك يدور حول سحب البلدان من المواقع التي تريد أن تأخذها باعتبارها دولاً ذات سيادة» قالها وزير الخارجية الروسي سيرغي لافروف متسائلاً.

رفض وزير الخارجية السويدي كارل بيلت تعليق السيد لافروف قائلاً في منتدي بروكسيل: «إن موقف روسيا» غير مقبول على الإطلاق«، الشراكة الشرقية ليست مد «منطقة نفوذ»، بل الفرق هو ان هذه الدول اختارت بنفسها طوعاً الانضمام إليها». وأضاف «موقف الاتحاد الأوروبي مع جورجيا ليس ابتزازاً ولكنه دفاعاً عن مبادئ الاتحاد الأوروبي والقانون الدولي، والذي علي روسيا أيضاً احترامه».

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 اللجنة الأوروبية: الشراكة الشرقية

الاتحاد الأوروبي في 2009
أوروبا الشرقية
علاقات الاتحاد الأوروبي الخارجية
العلاقات بين أوكرانيا والاتحاد الأوروبي
تكامل أوروبي
علاقات أذربيجان الخارجية
علاقات أرمينيا الخارجية
علاقات أوكرانيا الخارجية
علاقات بيلاروس الخارجية
علاقات جورجيا الخارجية
غرب آسيا
معاهدات دخلت حيز التنفيذ بواسطة الاتحاد الأوروبي
منظمات دولية في أوروبا

الشراكة الشرقية


Hrvatski lokalni izbori u Banovini Hrvatskoj 1940., održani su u 625 općinâ Banovine Hrvatske 19. svibnja 1940. godine, a u 33 općine 26. svibnja i 2. lipnja. To su bili prvi izbori nakon sporazuma Cvetković - Maček i uspostave autonomne hrvatske Banovine u sastavu Kraljevine Jugoslavije. Izbori nisu održani u gradovima i nekim jadranskim županijama koje graniče s Italijom ili su im susjedne. Samo muškarci stariji od 24 godine mogli su glasovati. Glasovanje je bilo javno i odvijalo se glasom.

U izborima je došlo do premoćne pobjede Hrvatske seljačke stranke (HSS) i Samostalne demokratske stranke (SDS), vladajućih stranaka Banovine Hrvatske, koje su zajedno dobile većinu u 90% općina. Srpske neovisne liste, podržane od organizacija koje su se protivile sporazumu Cvetković-Maček, osvojile su oko 5% općina. Jugoslavenska radikalna zajednica (JRZ), vladajuća stranka Kraljevine Jugoslavije, pretrpjela je težak poraz i izgubila kontrolu u 80% općina koje su ranije držale.

Zbog izbijanja Drugoga svjetskog rata, invazije na Jugoslaviju 1941. godine i naknadnog razdoblja komunističke vladavine, to su bili posljednji višestranački izbori u Hrvatskoj do parlamentarnih izbora 1990. godine, gotovo točno pedeset godina kasnije.

Pozadina
Dne 26. kolovoza 1939. godine uspostavljena je autonomna Banovina Hrvatska u sastavu Kraljevine Jugoslavije. Nastala je po sporazumu koji su u ime jugoslavenske vlade potpisali Dragiša Cvetković i Vladko Maček, vođa Hrvatske seljačke stranke (HSS). Hrvatska banovina obuhvaćala je cijelu Savsku i Primorsku, kao i dijelove Drinske, Zetske i Dunavske banovine. Glavni grad joj je bio Zagreb, a Ivan Šubašić iz HSS-a imenovan je banom Hrvatske.

Nakon što je HSS postigao svoj glavni cilj, hrvatsku autonomiju u Jugoslaviji, morao se suočiti s mnogim novim i teškim izazovima preuzimanja političke odgovornosti u Hrvatskoj i očekivanja biračkog tijela. Zbog izbijanja Drugoga svjetskog rata, politički lideri u Jugoslaviji željeli su smiriti Njemačku i uskladiti zemlju s Trećim Reichom, vežući svoj izvoz vitalnih ratnih materijala (aluminij, žito itd.) u Njemačku. Teška ekonomska situacija, kao posljedica rata, snažno je pogodila osiromašene seljake i radnike u Hrvatskoj, koji su se još uvijek oporavljali se od Velike depresije 1930-ih. Cijena hrane u Hrvatskoj porasla je od 50% (govedina) do 100% (brašno, krumpir, grah) između kolovoza 1939. i ljeta 1940. godine. Rastegnuta socijalna nejednakost i razočaranje nedostatkom dubokih političkih i društvenih promjena za koje su mnogi očekivali da će se dogoditi nakon što je Hrvatska stekla svoju autonomiju ubrzo je rezultiralo porastom potpore komunistima i desničarskim strankama. Prosvjedi i demonstracije protiv rastućih životnih troškova, nestašice hrane i goriva, visoke nezaposlenosti i nejednakosti, kao i približavanja rata, postajali su sve češći. Vlasti HSS-a reagirale su progonom sindikata, komunista, podzemnih ustaša, kao i jugoslavenskih i srpskih nacionalista, sve se više oslanjajući na njegovu paravojnu zajednicu Zaštita. Tijekom prosvjeda komunista u Splitu 17. prosinca 1939. godine policija je pucala na gomilu, ozlijedivši mnoge i ubivši mladog radnika brodogradilišta i člana komunističke partije, nogometaša Vicka Buljanovića. Njegov sprovod sljedećeg dana privukao je 25.000 ljudi, dok je 12.000 sudjelovalo u masovnom štrajku u Splitu i okolini.

Nakon terorističkih napada koji su uključivali podmetanje eksploziva na javnim mjestima u Zagrebu, hrvatska je vlada u veljači 1940. godine zabranila ustaške časopise (među kojima Hrvatski narod) i internirala 50 članova ustaša u zatvor u Lepoglavi, među kojima je bio i Mile Budak.

Po sporazumu Cvetković-Maček kojim je uspostavljena hrvatska autonomija, predviđeni su izbori za Hrvatski sabor. Od kolovoza 1939. godine, u nedostatku hrvatskog zakonodavnog tijela, ban Šubašić upravljao je uredbama i izvršnim naredbama. Napokon, 14. siječnja regent Pavle Karađorđević posjetio je glavni grad Hrvatske, Zagreb, i potpisao izborni zakon za izbore u Saboru. Pripremajući ove izbore za izbor prvog hrvatskog parlamenta nakon izbora za Sabor Kraljevine Hrvatske i Slavonije 1913. godine, trebali su se održati lokalni izbori u općinama. Posljednji lokalni izbori 1936. godine i najnoviji parlamentarni izbori 1938. godine, iako su ometani režimskim nasiljem, policijskim opstrukcijama i povremenim žrtvama, pokazali su snažnu potporu vođenju HSS-a vladajućim strankama i kralju Jugoslavije.

U travnju je ban Ivan Šubašić donio izvršnu naredbu s detaljnim pravilima za lokalne izbore. Izbornoj listi koja će dobiti relativnu većinu trebalo je dodijeliti trećinu mjesta u vijeću, a preostale dvije trećine trebalo bi podijeliti među listama u odnosu na njihove glasove prema proporcionalnoj d'Hondtovoj metodi. Po starim pravilima, stranci s relativnom većinom odmah su dodijeljene dvije trećine mandata. Predsjednik vijeća (gradonačelnik) trebao je biti izabran na tajnom glasanju u vijeću, s time da nije nužno morao biti iz redova vijećnika. Gradski službenici (javni bilježnici, rizničari) postali su zaposlenici Banovine, ne više lokalni. Ban Hrvatske je također imao pravo pregrupirati općine, ukinuti ih i promijeniti njihove granice. Šubašić je to pravo iskoristio za pregrupiranje općina u Posavini, okrugu Derventa, Brčko i Gradačac.

Šubašić je 22. travnja raspisao izbore za 19. svibnja. Zbog Drugoga svjetskog rata koji je zahvatio veći dio Europe i Kraljevine jugoslavenske vojske stavljen je na viši stupanj pripravnosti, mnogi muškarci su pozvani služiti u rezervnim trupama ili sudjelovati u vojnim vježbama. HSS je odlučio ne raspisivati izbore u gradovima, već samo u općinama. U gradovima je hrvatska vlada pod vodstvom HSS-a imenovala članove HSS-a za gradonačelnike ili povjerenike. U travnju, nakon pojačanih srpskih nacionalističkih aktivnosti koje su odbacile sporazum Cvetković-Maček, vlada je također raspustila općine u Kistanju i Obrovcu s većinskom srpskom zajednicom. Raspuštene su i općine Smilčić i Skradin.

Dne 10. svibnja njemačka vojska napala je Nizozemsku i Francusku, pojačavajući rat. Nizozemska se predala 15. svibnja. Do 17. svibnja Nijemci su okupirali Bruxelles i nadvladali veći dio Belgije, stigavši do francuskoga kanala. Ti su događaji imali dubok utjecaj na javno mnijenje u Jugoslaviji.

Žensko glasovanje
Jugoslavenski magazin Žena danas započeo je kampanju u listopadu 1939. godine za širenje biračkog prava na žene. Socijalistički sindikati i komunisti u Hrvatskoj podržali su akciju. Međutim, ženska organizacija HSS-a usprotivila se tome, izjavivši da će vodstvo stranke odlučiti kada je najbolji trenutak za uvođenje ženskog biračkog prava u Hrvatskoj.

Kampanja

Ban Šubašić je krajem 1939. godine posjetio manje razvijene regije u Lici i Dalmaciji, obećavajući javne radove na infrastrukturi. Glavni tajnik Hrvatske seljačke stranke Juraj Krnjević obišao je Hrvatsku, obilazeći općinske i okružne stranačke organizacije pokušavajući riješiti neke sporove, ujediniti frakcije i vratiti dijelove stranke. Na primjer, razlike u mišljenjima o određenim imenovanjima i pitanju podrške štrajku metalskih radnika u Slavonskom Brodu otuđile su okružnu stranačku organizaciju od nacionalnog vodstva HSS-a; jer je brodski HSS odbio podržati stranačku liniju i podijelio se na mnoge frakcije, cijela je okružna organizacija raspuštena u ožujku 1940. godine, unatoč 37-6 glasova o povjerenju predsjedniku stranke za Brod. Općenito, Krnjević je pokušao uvjeriti disidente i podsjetio stranački kadar na važnost izbora. Iako je imao uspjeha u Dubrovniku, ipak, prema povjesničaru G. Jakovčevu, samo je u Dalmaciji bilo 70 popisa HSS-ovih disidenata (npr. Ston, Šipan,  Makarska itd. ). Krnjević se također pokušao pozabaviti ekonomskim problemima, izjavivši na skupu u Splitu da Hrvatska mora biti ravnopravnija i da HSS neće dopustiti da neki budu milijunaši, dok drugi gladuju. Maček je pokušao umanjiti važnost izbora, idući čak dotle da im ne pridaje "nikakvu političku važnost", jer u njima igraju neke lokalne, pa čak i osobne posebnosti. U cirkularnoj napomeni HSS-ovim organizacijama podsjetio ih je neka prvo razmotre ekonomske interese prilikom izbora kandidata za vijećnike i gradonačelnike. Međutim, bilo je važno ukloniti protuustavne snage (posebno JRZ) s položaja vlasti u Hrvatskoj i pokazati snagu HSS-a i SDS-a.

Zbog zabrane i progona Kraljevskog jugoslavenskog režima od 1921. godine, hrvatski komunisti su se morali kandidirati na izborima kao Stranka radnog naroda, SRN. Po povjesničaru Sibe Kvesiću, žandarmerija i lokalne vlasti često su maltretirali komuniste i njihove pristaše, šireći glasine i prijeteći biračima koji su namjeravali glasovati za komuniste. U nekim su mjestima sudske ili upravne vlasti snažno pritiskale da zabrane SRN-u stavljanje kandidata zbog bilo kakvih pogrešaka.

Politički protivnici sporazuma Cvetković-Maček i uspostave Banovine Hrvatske imali su različite strategije za natjecanje na izborima. Jugoslavenske nacionalne stranke (JNS) u Hrvatskoj, kojom je predsjedao Grga Budislav Angjelinović, odlučila je da se ne natječe na izborima, dok je stranački kadar i frakcije pod senatorom Petrom Zecem savjetovala da sastave liste u nekim općinama, zajedno s jugoslavenskim radikalima (JRZ) i drugim srpskim strankama. Obično su ih nazivali "nestranački srpski popisi". Srpski nacionalisti tvrdili su da je hrvatska banovina Mačekova diktatura i da samo unitarna i centralizirana Kraljevina Jugoslavija može donijeti prosperitet hrvatskim Srbima. Neki od njih otvoreno su se zalagali za otcjepljenje općina i županija s većinskom srpskom zajednicom od Hrvatske u Banovini i pridruživanje susjednoj Vrbaskoj banovini sa većinskim Srbima. Predsjednik JRZ-a, jugoslavenski premijer Cvetković, pozvao je Srbe Hrvatske da daju svoje glasove za JRZ kao pokazivanje podrške unitarnoj Jugoslaviji.

Dne 1. svibnja hrvatski komunisti organizirali su masovni štrajk u Zagrebu u znak obilježavanja Međunarodnog dana radnika tvrdeći da je stopa sudjelovanja u štrajku blizu 90%. Komunistički aktivisti i prosvjednici, pretežno studenti, blokirali su tramvajsko skladište i tako spriječili funkcioniranje zagrebačkih tramvaja cijeli dan. Pridružio im se i Sindikat radnika tramvaja. Prosvjednici su se sukobili s policijom i paravojnom postrojbom HSS-a (Zaštita), zbog čega su ranjeni brojni ljudi. Ovo je bio prvi put da su u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji radnici odlučili organizirati masovne štrajkove i prosvjede 1. svibnja.

Dne 17. svibnja, samo dva dana uoči izbora, Ban Šubašić odgodio je na neodređeno vrijeme izbore u općinama u Kastvu, Čabaru, Delnicama, Sušaku, Benkovcu i šibenskom okrugu. Hrvatska vlada službeno je izjavila da ih je izuzela zbog blizine jadranskog vojnog područja koje okružuje važne pomorske luke. Naime, ova operativna zona stavljena je pod pripravnost nakon početka Drugoga svjetskog rata jer je graničila s Italijom ili je bila u susjedstvu s talijanskom obalom, jer je Jugoslavija bila oprezna zbog mogućeg talijanskog napada. Međutim, drugi su sumnjali da izbori tamo nisu održani zbog toga što su neke od ovih općina bila uporišta komunista (poput Tisnog, Zlarina i Vodica, u kojima su komunisti pobijedili 1936. godine), jer bi očekivana komunistička pobjeda tamo učinila slabosti HSS-a vrlo vidljivim. Istodobno, Ban Šubašić odgodio je izbore u Brčkome i Gradačcu i općini Konavle za 26. svibnja, a u okrugu Derventa kao i općinama Pazarište, Brestovsko, Kloštar Ivanić, Bosiljevo, Šamac i Cvetlin za 2. lipnja.

Glasovanje
Samo muškarci stariji od 24 godine mogli su glasovati. Glasovanje je bilo javno; birač je morao glasno izjaviti svoje ime i listu za koju je želio glasati. U mnogim je općinama jedina lista koja se izborila na izborima bila HSS-ova. U nekim općinama (Andrijaševci, Retkovci, Opuzen, Gunja i Farkaševac) došlo je do sukoba birača i incidenata, pa su se izbori morali ponoviti ili odgoditi za tjedan dana. Izbori su održani u 620 općina 19. svibnja, dok su neke županije glasale tjedan dana kasnije ili u lipnju. Nakon preusmjeravanja Šubašića prije lokalnih izbora, krajem 1940. godine u Hrvatskoj je Banovini ukupno bilo 693 općine i 25 gradova unutar 99 okruga. Dvije od tih općina nastale su nakon održavanja lokalnih izbora.

Zbog prekrajanja teritorija općinskih granica neposredno prije izbora, ponajviše u povezivanju Cavtata koji je naginjao JRZ-u s Grudom koja je naginjala HSS-u radi formiranja nove općine (Konavle) južno od Dubrovnika ili zbog poziva Samostalne demokratske stranke (SDS), za promjene granica u Bosanskoj Posavini oko Odžaka, neki Bošnjaci i Srbi bojkotirali su tamošnje izbore.

Rezultati izbora
Koalicija HSS-SDS osvojila je većinu općina i uspostavila potpunu političku kontrolu nad teritorijom Banovine Hrvatske. Preliminarni rezultati izbora 19. svibnja pokazali su da je samo HSS osvojio većinu u 425 općina, SDK u 106, SDS u 27, HSS i Muslimanska organizacija HSS u 4, HSS i Nijemci u 1, Muslimanska organizacija HSS-a u 2, SDK s drugim skupinama u 1, a SDS s drugim srpskim strankama u 1. JRZ je osvojio većinu u 20 općina, JRZ i Poljoprivrednici u 1, zajedničke liste Srba u 8, Srpski nestranački popisi u 18, nestranački gradski popisi u 2, neovisni popisi u 2, Poljoprivrednici u 1, ljevičari u 1, Nijemci u 3, a etničke manjinske liste u 2.

Izbori su pokazali nešto slabljenje podrške glavnim političkim strankama.  Nakon lokalnih izbora 1936. HSS je osvojio većinu u 512 od 612 općina u Savskoj i Primorskoj banovini, što otprilike odgovara kasnije uspostavljenoj hrvatskoj Banovini.  U primorskoj banovini HSS je 1936. godine osvojio 75 od 94 općine (80%).

Rezultati su bili posebno loši za Jugoslavensku radikalnu uniju (JRZ), koja je osvojila većinu u 21 općini, u odnosu na 108 u kojima su imali vlast prije izbora. U 195 općina s apsolutnom ili relativnom većinskom srpskom većinom od 121.429 birača JRZ i neovisne liste Srba osvojile su 36.502 glasa, a samo SDS 15.183, dok je koalicija HSS-SDS (SDK) osvojila 44.262 glasa.  JRZ je većinu svojih prethodno održanih općina izgubio SDK i SDS.

Komunisti su osvojili većinu u vijećima u Sinju,  Trogiru, Komiži i Vrboskoj (2/3 većina), trećinu glasova u Omišu, i četvrtinu u Makarskoj u Dalmaciji. U Vrgorcu su komunisti zauzeli drugo mjesto i osvojili su 8 mjesta u vijeću, dok su u Smiljanu na ponovljenim izborima izgubili 4 glasa, osvojivši i 8 mjesta u vijeću.

Nezavisne njemačke etničke liste osvojile su većinu u 5 općina. Etnički Nijemci također su se našli na drugim listama, uglavnom na HSS-ovim ulaznicama. Zajednička HSS-njemačka lista pobijedila je u jednoj općini. Sve u svemu, etnički hrvatski Nijemci osvojili su 177 mandata u 45 općina.

Izbori u 20 općina održani su 26. svibnja, a u 13 općina 2. lipnja. Vlada je 5. lipnja objavila ispravljene rezultate za neke općine.

Izlaznost
Budući da je hrvatske izbore 1936. godine hrvatska oporba predvođena HSS-om koristila za uklanjanje neke samouprave od središnjih jugoslavenskih vlasti, izlaznost je iznosila oko 80%. Odziv u 1940. godini bio je značajno niži u mnogim područjima, djelomično odražavajući nezadovoljstvo i nezainteresiranost stanovništva. U cijelom osječkom okrugu odaziv je bio 50,89% (4.708 glasalo je od 9.250), u Drnišu 52,11%, dok je u Daruvaru izlaznost 48% (4.076 glasova). U nekim dijelovima područja Daruvara on je bio čak 21%. Budući da su komunisti bili administrativno zabranjeni u nadmetanju s izborima u Visu, mnogi su se odlučili suzdržati kao znak prosvjeda, čime je odziv bio 50%. S druge strane, Kraljevine jugoslavenske oružane snage mobilizirale su mnoge ljude koji su bili sposobni za vojnu službu u svojoj mobilizaciji iz 1939./40.

Sažetak

 Mandati (19. svibnja)

 Općine zbirno

Općine

Posljedice
Izabrani članovi općinskog vijeća sastali su se nakon izbora kako bi osnovali vijeće i između sebe izabrali načelnika općine. Članovi komunističkog vijeća u Trogiru i Visu odbili su položiti zakletvu na vjernost kralju i zbog toga su njihovi mandati postali ništavni. Po Jakovčevu, 60 općina u Dalmaciji prosvjedovalo je zbog krivotvorina i nepravilnosti. U Vrboskoj, jednoj od rijetkih općina koje su osvojili komunisti, vlada je izbore proglasila nevažećim, a potom ih ponovila 28. srpnja. Dovodeći birače iz Dolu i drugdje i zastrašujući komuniste, HSS je uspio osigurati većinu. Radnička lista s Perom Nagulićem na listiću izgubila se na listi HSS-a na čelu s Mihovilom Stojšićem.

U Kninu, gdje je srpska nacionalistička nestranačka lista pod dr. Nikom Novakovićem dobila 27 od 36 vijećnika, hrvatska vlada raspustila je kninsko gradsko vijeće i za gradonačelnika imenovala tajnika lokalnog HSS-a, Vicu Musića.

U Boboti su se svi općinski vijećnici izabrani na nestranačkoj srpskoj listi odlučili pridružiti SDS-u, razočarani izbornim rezultatima u istočnoj Slavoniji.

Maček je proglasio izbore "90% pobjede za stranke sporazuma", naglašavajući tvrdnju da je SDS osvojio većinu među hrvatskim Srbima. Unatoč tome što je prethodno umanjio političku važnost izbora, on je rezultate smatrao "lekcijom" za stranke protiv sporazuma. Ubrzo nakon izbora, imajući u vidu incidente koji su se dogodili, zabranio je Šubašiću neovlašteno zabraniti sva javna okupljanja, skupove ili prosvjede, osim vjerskih događaja.

Izvori

 Knjige i časopisi

 Članci iz vijesti

Literatura
 Konjević, Mile (1973). "Općinski izbori u banovini Hrvatskoj 19. maja 1940. godine", Prilozi Instituta za istoriju Sarajevo 9(1)
 Dr. Juraj Krnjević: političko djelovanje od 1929. do 1941 - Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Institutional Repository
 Boban, Ljubo. "Previranja na selu u Banovini Hrvatskoj", Istorija XX veka, II., Beograd, 1961.
 Kolar-Dimitrijević, Mira (1976). "Utjecaj fašizma na ekonomsko-socijalnoj politici Hrvatske do travnja 1941. godine", Zbornik fašizam i neofašizam, CDD, Zagreb, 221. – 233.
 Jelić-Butić, Fikreta. Prilog proučavanja djelatnosti ustaša do 1941. godine
 Išek, Tomislav (1991. ). Hrvatska seljačka stranka u Bosni i Hercegovini 1929. – 1941., Sarajevo: Institut za istoriju, 1991.
 Boban, Ljubo (1974) Maček i politika HSS-a od 1928. do 1941., Zagreb, Liber, knjiga I. II.

Stranice s nepregledanim prijevodima
Banovina Hrvatska
Izbori u Hrvatskoj
Izbori u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji

Lokalni izbori u Banovini Hrvatskoj 1940.


Kurt Jooss (12 January 1901 – 22 May 1979) was a famous German ballet dancer and choreographer mixing classical ballet with theatre; he is also widely regarded as the founder of Tanztheater. Jooss is noted for establishing several dance companies, including most notably, the Folkwang Tanztheater, in Essen.

Life and career
Jooss was born in Wasseralfingen, Germany.  From an early age he was interested in singing, drama and visual arts, he also played the piano and was a keen photographer. He began his career in the 1920s and from 1920 to 1924 studied under and danced lead roles in the choreography of Rudolf von Laban (who was a trained visual artist and developer of dance theory) and the movement named Ausdruckstanz. Jooss used narratives and modern theatre styles to make performable works of Dance Theatre, further developing the work of Laban and his system of notation. Within a year of leaving Laban, Jooss took the opportunity to establish his own dance company called, Die Neue Tanzbühne. It was here Jooss met Fritz Cohen, the Jewish composer who worked with Jooss on many of his famous pieces.

Jooss and Cohen shared the belief that choreography and musical composition should evolve together to give expression of the dramatic idea in unified style and form. In 1925 Jooss and Sigurd Leeder joined a group of artists and opened a new dance school called "Westfälische Akademie für Bewegung, Sprache und Musik". Jooss and Leeder went to Paris in 1926 to study classical ballet with Russian ballerina Lubov Egorova.

In 1927 Jooss and Leeder's work Dance of Death was criticised for being too avant-garde; this resulted in the theatre of Münster changing personnel and programs. Because of this, many of Jooss's colleagues left. The same year Jooss moved the "Westfälische Akademie" to Essen, and it became the Folkwang Schule.

Jooss disliked plotless dances and preferred themes that addressed moral issues. Naturalistic movement, large-scale unison and characterisation were used by Jooss to address political concerns of the time. His most important choreographic work, The Green Table (1932), had won first prize at an international competition for new choreography held by the Archives Internationales de la Danse in Paris in 1932. It was a strong anti-war statement, and was made a year before Adolf Hitler became the chancellor of Germany. The Green Table is considered his most popular piece.

In 1933 Jooss was forced to flee Germany when the Nazis asked him to dismiss the Jews from his company and he refused. Jooss and Leeder (and doubtless Fritz Cohen and other members of his original company) took refuge in the Netherlands before resettling in England. After touring in Europe and America, Jooss and Leeder opened a school at Dartington Hall in Devon. A piece he choreographed at this time was a light-hearted one (in comparison to The Green Table) named "Ball in Old Vienna (1932)".

In 1934, whilst in England Jooss added new works to his repertoire, including Pandora (1944), contained disturbing images of human disaster and tragedy, which was later interpreted by some as foretelling the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan a year later.

With his company, the Jooss Ballet went on world tours until his company disintegrated in 1947.

Jooss left England in 1949 to return to Essen, Germany. Jooss continued to teach and choreograph for 19 years. One of his students from this period was the choreographer Pina Bausch.

He retired in 1968 and died in Heilbronn, West Germany, 11 years later, aged 78, from injuries sustained in an automobile accident.

Kurt Jooss works are still performed today, especially The Green Table. Anna Markard (Jooss' daughter) supervised companies that perform his works until her death, conserving authenticity of the author of Dance Theatre.

References

Further reading
 The New Ballet: Kurt Jooss and his work. AV Coton, 1946.
 The Dance Theatre of Kurt Jooss. Edited by Suzanne K. Walther. Routledge, Choreography and Dance Studies, Volume 7, 1994,
 Kurt Jooss: The Evolution of an Artist, Suzanne K. Walther
 The West German dance theatre,
 Jooss the teacher, Anna Markard
 Dance of Death: Kurt Jooss and the Weimar Years, Suzanne K. Walther
 Kurt Jooss, The Green Table. Anna Markard; edited by Ann Hutchinson Guest. Routledge,
 Kurt Jooss, The Green Table. Anna Markard
 "The Some of the Parts: Prosthesis and Function in Bertolt Brecht, Oskar Schlemmer, and Kurt Jooss", Kate Elswit. Modern Drama, Volume 51, Number 3, Fall 2008, pp. 389–410, University of Toronto Press
 "The Some of the Parts: Prosthesis and Function in Bertolt Brecht, Oskar Schlemmer, and Kurt Jooss", Kate Elswit
 "The Micropolitics of Exchange: Exile and Otherness after the Nation", Kate Elswit. The Oxford Handbook of Dance and Politics, edited by Randy Martin, Rebekah Kowal, and Gerald Siegmund. Oxford University Press, 2017.
 "The Micropolitics of Exchange: Exile and Otherness after the Nation", Kate Elswit

External links
 Kurt Jooss' Green Table Restaging and Dance Symposium in Taiwan, 2010
 "Lecture on a Jooss Ballet" (by Bengt Hager), The New York Times,15 April 1992
 Kurt Jooss Ballets – "Vintage Photographs of 3 Jooss Ballets" – Exhibition at Gendell Gallery

Ballet choreographers
German choreographers
German male ballet dancers
Modern dancers
1901 births
1979 deaths

Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Academic staff of the Folkwang University of the Arts
Road incident deaths in West Germany
20th-century German ballet dancers

Kurt Jooss


Guacamole ((; informally shortened to guac in the United States since the 1980s) is an avocado-based dip, spread, or salad first developed in Mexico. In addition to its use in modern Mexican cuisine, it has become part of international cuisine  as a dip, condiment and salad ingredient.

Etymology and pronunciation

The name comes from Classical Nahuatl  , which literally translates to 'avocado sauce', from āhuacatl  'avocado' + mōlli  'sauce'. In Mexican Spanish, it is pronounced . In American English, it tends to be pronounced , and this pronunciation is also common in British English, but  is more common.

History
Avocado seeds were first found in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico around 9,000–10,000 years ago (7000–8000 BCE) and had been domesticated by various Mesoamerican groups by 5000 BCE. They were likely cultivated in the Supe Valley in Peru as early as 3100 BCE. In the early 1900s, avocados frequently went by the name alligator pear.  In the 1697 book, A New Voyage Round the World, the first known description of a guacamole recipe (though not known by that name) was by English privateer and naturalist William Dampier, who in his visit to Central America during one of his circumnavigations, noted a native preparation made of grinding together avocados, sugar, and lime juice.

Guacamole has increased avocado sales in the U.S., especially on Super Bowl Sunday and Cinco de Mayo. The rising consumption of guacamole is most likely due to the U.S. government lifting a ban on avocado imports in the 1990s and the growth of the U.S. Latino population.

Ingredients
Guacamole is traditionally made by mashing peeled, ripe avocados and salt with a molcajete y tejolote (mortar and pestle). Recipes often call for lime juice, cilantro, onions, and jalapeños. Some non-traditional recipes may call for sour cream, tomatoes, basil, or peas.

Due to the presence of polyphenol oxidase in the cells of avocado, exposure to oxygen in the air causes an enzymatic reaction and develops melanoidin pigment, turning the sauce brown. This result is generally considered unappetizing, and there are several methods (some anecdotal) that are used to counter this effect, such as storing the guacamole in an air-tight container or wrapping tightly in plastic to limit the surface area exposed to the air.

Composition and nutrients
As the major ingredient of guacamole is raw avocado, the nutritional value of the dish derives from avocado vitamins, minerals and fats, providing dietary fibre, several B vitamins, vitamin K, vitamin E and potassium in significant content (see Daily Value percentages in nutrient table for avocado). Avocados are a source of saturated fat, monounsaturated fat and phytosterols, such as beta-sitosterol. They also contain carotenoids, such as beta-carotene, zeaxanthin and lutein.

Similar dishes

Mantequilla de pobre
 is a mixture of avocado, tomato, oil, and citrus juice. Despite its name, it predates the arrival of dairy cattle in the Americas, and thus was not originally made as a butter substitute.

Guasacaca

Thinner and more acidic, or thick and chunky, guasacaca is a Venezuelan avocado-based sauce; it is made with vinegar, and is served over parrillas (grilled food), arepas, empanadas, and various other dishes. It is common to make the guasacaca with a little hot sauce instead of jalapeño, but like a guacamole, it is not usually served as a hot sauce itself. It is pronounced "wasakaka" in Latin America.

Commercial products
Prepared guacamoles are available in stores, often available refrigerated, frozen or in high pressure packaging which pasteurizes and extends shelf life if products are maintained at .

Holiday

National Guacamole Day is celebrated on the same day as Mexican Independence Day, September 16.

In popular culture

On November 20, 2022, Municipo de Peribán, Mexico achieved the Guinness World Records for the largest serving of guacamole. The serving weighed 4,972 kg (10,961 lb) and had 500 people help prepare it.

See also

 Avocado sauce
 List of avocado dishes
 List of dips
 List of condiments
 List of Mexican dishes
 Mole sauce
 Salsa (sauce)

References

Bibliography
 Hartel, Richard W and Hartel, AnnaKate (March 1, 2009), Food Bites: the Science of the Foods We Eat; Springer Science & Business Media,

External links

Condiments
Cuisine of the Southwestern United States
Dips (food)
Guatemalan cuisine
Mexican cuisine
Mexican garnish
New Mexican cuisine
Tex-Mex cuisine
Vegan cuisine
Vegetable dishes
Avocado dishes

Guacamole


Earl of Dysart (pronounced ) is a title in the Peerage of Scotland. It was created by King Charles I in 1643 for William Murray and has been held continuously since then by his descendants.

Creation
The title was granted in 1643 to William Murray, who had earlier represented Fowey and East Looe in the English House of Commons. He was made Lord Huntingtower at the same time, also in the Peerage of Scotland. Murray had been a lifelong friend of King Charles I, in fact having been his whipping boy while the latter was Prince of Wales.

Succession
Murray was succeeded by his daughter, Elizabeth, the 2nd Countess. In 1670 she resigned the peerage and received a new grant thereof by patent with precedency of her father, and with remainder to her heirs of the body, failing which to her heirs whatsoever. Lady Dysart married, firstly, Sir Lionel Tollemache, 3rd Baronet (see Tollemache baronets for the earlier history of this title), and, secondly, John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale.
She was succeeded by her son from her first marriage, Lionel, the 3rd Earl, who had already succeeded his father as 4th Baronet. Lord Dysart notably represented Orford and Suffolk in the House of Commons and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Suffolk, but declined the offer of an English barony. His son, Lionel Tollemache, Lord Huntingtower pre-deceased him and the title was inherited by his grandson, Lionel Tollemache, 4th Earl of Dysart in 1727. The 4th Earl was elected High Steward of Ipswich and Knight of the Thistle. The title passed to the 4th Earl's eldest son, Lionel, who became 5th Earl in 1770. The 5th Earl died without issue in 1799 and the title passed to his brother, Wilbraham, former Member of Parliament for Northampton and Liskeard, who became the 6th Earl at the age of 60.

The Tollemache baronetcy became extinct in 1821 when  Wilbraham died leaving no direct descendants. The Scottish titles were inherited by the 5th and 6th Earls' sister, Louisa Tollemache, the 7th Countess, widow of John Manners, then aged 75. On succeeding to the titles Lady Dysart assumed by Royal licence the surname and arms of Tollemache (or Talmash).

Louisa's eldest son and heir apparent, William Tollemache, Lord Huntingtower, was created a Baronet, of Hanby Hall in the County of Lincoln, in the Baronetage of Great Britain in 1793. However, he predeceased his mother and Lady Dysart was succeeded by her grandson, Lionel the 8th Earl (the son of Lord Huntingtower), who had already succeeded his father as 2nd Baronet. Lionel represented Ilchester in Parliament 1827–30. Lionel's son, William Tollemache, Lord Huntingtower, predeceased him in 1872 and, on his death in 1878, was succeeded by his grandson, William, the 9th Earl, Lord-Lieutenant of Rutland.

On the death of the 9th Earl the baronetcy and Scottish peerages separated. The baronetcy was inherited by a male heir, Lyonel, (see Tollemache Baronets for later history of this title) while the lordship and earldom passed to his niece Wynefryde Agatha, the 10th Countess (1889–1975). She was the daughter of Agnes Mary Manners Talmash (sister of the 9th Earl) and her husband Charles Norman Lindsay Tollemache Scott.

Lady Dysart married Owain Edward Whitehead Greaves and was succeeded in 1975 by their eldest daughter Rosamund Agnes Greaves (1914–2003), the 11th Countess. In 2003 her sister Katherine Grant of Rothiemurchus (1918–2011), the widow of Lieutenant-Colonel John Peter Grant of Rothiemurchus MBE, became the 12th Countess.  the titles are held by her only son, the 13th Earl, who succeeded his mother in 2011.

The family seat is now The Doune of Rothiemurchus, near Aviemore, Inverness-shire.

Earls of Dysart (1643/1670)
1643: William Murray, 1st Earl of Dysart (c.1600–1655)
1655: Elizabeth Tollemache, 2nd Countess of Dysart (1626–1698)
1698: Lionel Tollemache, 3rd Earl of Dysart (1649–1727)
1727: Lionel Tollemache, 4th Earl of Dysart (1708–1770)
1770: Lionel Tollemache, 5th Earl of Dysart (1734–1799)
1799: Wilbraham Tollemache, 6th Earl of Dysart (1739–1821)
1821: Louisa Tollemache, 7th Countess of Dysart (1745–1840)
1840: Lionel William John Tollemache, 8th Earl of Dysart (1794–1878)
1878: William John Manners Tollemache, 9th Earl of Dysart (1859–1935)
1935: Wenefryde Agatha Scott, 10th Countess of Dysart (1889–1975)
1975: Rosamund Agnes Greaves, 11th Countess of Dysart (1914–2003)
2003: Katherine Grant of Rothiemurchus, 12th Countess of Dysart (1918–2011)
2011: John Peter Grant of Rothiemurchus, 13th Earl of Dysart (b. 1946)

The heir apparent is the present holder's only son, James Patrick Grant of Rothiemurchus, Lord Huntingtower (b. 1977).
The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son, John Peter Grant of Rothiemurchus, Master of Huntingtower (b. 2011).

See also
Baron Tollemache
Tollemache baronets
Tollemache family

References

Sources

Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

External links

Cracroft's Peerage page
European Heraldry page

1643 establishments in Scotland
Earldoms in the Peerage of Scotland
Noble titles created in 1643
Peerages created with special remainders

Earl of Dysart


Salcera puede referirse a:

 El nombre común de la planta Salix atrocinerea.
 El nombre común de la planta Salix cantabrica.

Salcera


Dracaena pinguicula (Sansevieria pinguicula) es una especie de Dracaena (Sansevieria)  perteneciente a la familia de las asparagáceas, originaria de  África.

Descripción
Es una planta herbácea geófita erecta con tallo corto que alcanza un tamaño de 30 cm de alto. las hojas en número de 5-7, con la sección transversal de medio punto, de 12-30 cm de largo, 2.8-3.5 cm de ancho, carnosa, de manera uniforme de color verde, el lado que da hacia el interior cóncavo-angular con bordes, el lado externo convexo, estrechándose hacia el ápice, la superficie superior profundamente canalizada, los márgenes de color marrón,  con 2-7, más o menos definidas, ranuras longitudinales, redondeadas. La inflorescencia en forma de panícula subterminal erecta de 15-32 cm de largo, ramificada en la mitad superior, con 4-6 flores por racimo. El fruto es una baya globosa.

Distribución
Se distribuye por el noroeste de Kenia.

Taxonomía
Sansevieria pinguicula fue descrita por Peter René Oscar Bally y publicado en Candollea 19: 145, en el año 1964.
Etimología
Sansevieria nombre genérico que debería ser "Sanseverinia" puesto que su descubridor, Vincenzo Petanga, de Nápoles, pretendía dárselo en conmemoración a Pietro Antonio Sanseverino, duque de Chiaromonte y fundador de un jardín de plantas exóticas en el sur de Italia. Sin embargo, el botánico sueco Thunberg que fue quien lo describió, lo denominó Sansevieria, en honor del militar, inventor y erudito napolitano Raimondo di Sangro (1710-1771), séptimo príncipe de Sansevero.

pinguicula: epíteto latino que significa "gruesa".

Referencias

Enlaces externos

pinguicula
Flora de África tropical oriental
Flora de África continental
Plantas descritas en 1964
Plantas descritas por P.R.O.Bally
Plantas de interior

Sansevieria pinguicula


Porta San Gennaro jedna su od drevnih vrata grada Napulja, smještena jugozapadno od ruba trga Piazza Cavour, tik uz prometnu Via Foria i vode do pješačke uličice, istočno i paralelno s Via Duomo.

Povijest
Ovo nije izvorna lokacija ovih vrata, za koja dokumenti navode da je bila izvorni portal koji je vodio na sjever iz grada, prema katakombama San Gennaro. Dokumenti prije 1000. godine govore o vratima ovog imena, legenda kaže da su bila u vrijeme kasnog Rimskog Carstva. Čini se da je nekoć stajao nekih 100 metara južno na istoj uličici, uz crkvu Gesù delle Monache, a premjestio ga je 1537. španjolski potkralj Don Pedro de Toledo, u svojim nastojanjima da proširi grad. Pritom je srušio kule koje su okruživale vrata. One su vjerojatno bile slične onima koje sada okružuju Porta Capuana.

U vratima se nalazi mala kapelica, a sjeverni prilaz ima obnovljenu fresku (1656.) koja pripada Mattii Pretiju, jedini ostatak freski koje je on naslikao na sedam gradskih vrata, a ova prikazuje San Gennara i Franju Ksaverskog kako pokazuju pobožnost prema Bezgrešnoj i Djetetu kao ex voto da poštedi grad od kuge. Južni pristup ima poprsje San Gaetana (1659.) Bartolomea Morija koje su postavili članovi teatinskog reda. Unutarnja vrata, uz edikulu Djevice, imaju malu kapelu-crkvu, San Francesco dei Cocchieri, sada dekonsekriranu i zatvorenu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

San Gennaro

Porta San Gennaro


Juniorski prvaci Hrvatske u nogometu za sezonu 2016./17. su bili nogometaši Lokomotive iz Zagreba.

Prva liga

Drugi rang

Završnica prvenstva nogometnih središta
Igrano u Splitu od 21. do 25. lipnja 2017.

 slobodnadalmacija.hr
 sportarena.hr
 sofascore.com
 glas-slavonije.hr

Povezani članci
 Prvenstvo Hrvatske za kadete 2016./17.
 Prvenstvo Hrvatske za pionire 2016./17.

Izvori
 prvahnl.hr, 1. HNL Juniori , pristupljeno 22. svibnja 2017.
 scoresway.com, 1. HNL Juniori, pristupljeno 22. svibnja 2017.
 nk-osijek.hr, Juniori I - 1. HNL ,  pristupljeno 22. svibnja 2017.
 nkistra1961.hr, Juniori U-19 – tablica i rezultati 2016./2017. , pristupljeno 22. svibnja 2017.

2016-17
j-p

Prvenstvo Hrvatske u nogometu za juniore 2016./17.


Tribology is the science and engineering of understanding friction, lubrication and wear phenomena for interacting surfaces in relative motion. It is highly interdisciplinary, drawing on many academic fields, including physics, chemistry, materials science, mathematics, biology and engineering. The fundamental objects of study in tribology are tribosystems, which are physical systems of contacting surfaces. Subfields of tribology include biotribology, nanotribology and space tribology. It is also related to other areas such as the coupling of corrosion and tribology in tribocorrosion and the contact mechanics of how surfaces in contact deform.
Approximately 20% of the total energy expenditure of the world is due to the impact of friction and wear in the transportation, manufacturing, power generation, and residential sectors.

This section will provide an overview of tribology, with links to many of the more specialized areas.

Etymology
The word tribology derives from the Greek root τριβ- of the verb , tribo, "I rub" in classic Greek, and the suffix -logy from , -logia "study of", "knowledge of". Peter Jost coined the word in 1966, in the eponymous report which highlighted the cost of friction, wear and corrosion to the UK economy.

History

Early history
Despite the relatively recent naming of the field of tribology, quantitative studies of friction can be traced as far back as 1493, when Leonardo da Vinci first noted the two fundamental 'laws' of friction. According to Leonardo, frictional resistance was the same for two different objects of the same weight but making contact over different widths and lengths. He also observed that the force needed to overcome friction doubles as weight doubles. However, Leonardo's findings remained unpublished in his notebooks.

The two fundamental 'laws' of friction were first published (in 1699) by Guillaume Amontons, with whose name they are now usually associated. They state that:
 the force of friction acting between two sliding surfaces is proportional to the load pressing the surfaces together
 the force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact between the two surfaces.
Although not universally applicable, these simple statements hold for a surprisingly wide range of systems. These laws were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (in 1785), who noticed that static friction force may depend on the contact time and sliding (kinetic) friction may depend on sliding velocity, normal force and contact area.

In 1798, Charles Hatchett and Henry Cavendish carried out the first reliable test on frictional wear. In a study commissioned by the Privy Council of the UK, they used a simple reciprocating machine to evaluate the wear rate of gold coins. They found that coins with grit between them wore at a faster rate compared to self-mated coins. In 1860, Theodor Reye proposed . In 1953, John Frederick Archard developed the Archard equation which describes sliding wear and is based on the theory of asperity contact.

Other pioneers of tribology research are Australian physicist Frank Philip Bowden and British physicist David Tabor, both of the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University. Together they wrote the seminal textbook The Friction and Lubrication of Solids (Part I originally published in 1950 and Part II in 1964). Michael J. Neale was another leader in the field during the mid-to-late 1900s. He specialized in solving problems in machine design by applying his knowledge of tribology. Neale was respected as an educator with a gift for integrating theoretical work with his own practical experience to produce easy-to-understand design guides. The Tribology Handbook, which he first edited in 1973 and updated in 1995, is still used around the world and forms the basis of numerous training courses for engineering designers.

Duncan Dowson surveyed the history of tribology in his 1997 book History of Tribology (2nd edition). This covers developments from prehistory, through early civilizations (Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt) and highlights the key developments up to the end of the twentieth century.

The Jost report
The term tribology became widely used following The Jost Report published in 1966. The report highlighted the huge cost of friction, wear and corrosion to the UK economy (1.1–1.4% of GDP). As a result, the UK government established several national centres to address tribological problems. Since then the term has diffused into the international community, with many specialists now identifying as "tribologists".

Significance
Despite considerable research since the Jost Report, the global impact of friction and wear on energy consumption, economic expenditure, and carbon dioxide emissions are still considerable. In 2017, Kenneth Holmberg and Ali Erdemir attempted to quantify their impact worldwide. They considered the four main energy consuming sectors: transport, manufacturing, power generation, and residential. The following were concluded:
 In total, ~23% of the world's energy consumption originates from tribological contacts. Of that, 20% is to overcome friction and 3% to remanufacture worn parts and spare equipment due to wear and wear-related.
 By taking advantage of the new technologies for friction reduction and wear protection, energy losses due to friction and wear in vehicles, machinery and other equipment worldwide could be reduced by 40% in the long term (15 years) and 18% in the short term (8 years). On a global scale, these savings would amount to 1.4% of GDP annually and 8.7% of total energy consumption in the long term.
 The largest short term energy savings are envisioned in transport (25%) and in power generation (20%) while the potential savings in the manufacturing and residential sectors are estimated to be ~10%. In the longer term, savings would be 55%, 40%, 25%, and 20%, respectively.
 Implementing advanced tribological technologies can also reduce global carbon dioxide emissions by as much as 1,460 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2) and result in 450,000 million Euros cost savings in the short term. In the long term, the reduction could be as large as 3,140 MtCO2 and the cost savings 970,000 million Euros.

Classical tribology covering such applications as ball bearings, gear drives, clutches, brakes, etc. was developed in the context of mechanical engineering. But in the last decades tribology expanded to qualitatively new fields of applications, in particular micro- and nanotechnology as well as biology and medicine.

Fundamental concepts

Tribosystem

The concept of tribosystems is used to provide a detailed assessment of relevant inputs, outputs and losses to tribological systems. Knowledge of these parameters allows tribologists to devise test procedures for tribological systems.

Tribofilm

Tribofilms are thin films that form on tribologically stressed surfaces. They play an important role in reducing friction and wear in tribological systems.

Stribeck curve

The Stribeck curve shows how friction in fluid-lubricated contacts is a non-linear function of lubricant viscosity, entrainment velocity and contact load.

Physics

Friction

The word friction comes from the Latin "frictionem", which means rubbing. This term is used to describe all those dissipative phenomena, capable of producing heat and of opposing the relative motion between two surfaces. There are two main types of friction:
 Static friction Which occurs between surfaces in a fixed state, or relatively stationary.
 Dynamic friction Which occurs between surfaces in relative motion.

The study of friction phenomena is a predominantly empirical study and does not allow to reach precise results, but only to useful approximate conclusions. This inability to obtain a definite result is due to the extreme complexity of the phenomenon. If it is studied more closely it presents new elements, which, in turn, make the global description even more complex.

Laws of friction
All the theories and studies on friction can be simplified into three main laws, which are valid in most cases:
 First Law of Amontons Friction is independent of the apparent area of contact.
 Second Law of Amontons The frictional force is directly proportional to the normal load.
 Third Law of Coulomb Dynamic friction is independent of the relative sliding speed.

Static friction
Consider a block of a certain mass m, placed in a quiet position on a horizontal plane. If you want to move the block, an external force  must be applied, in this way we observe a certain resistance to the motion given by a force equal to and opposite to the applied force, which is precisely the static frictional force .

By continuously increasing the applied force, we obtain a value such that the block starts instantly to move. At this point, also taking into account the first two friction laws stated above, it is possible to define the static friction force as a force equal in modulus to the minimum force required to cause the motion of the block, and the coefficient of static friction  as the ratio of the static friction force . and the normal force at block , obtaining

Dynamic friction
Once the block has been put into motion, the block experiences a friction force with a lesser intensity than the static friction force . The friction force during relative motion is known as the dynamic friction force . In this case it is necessary to take into account not only the first two laws of Amontons, but also of the law of Coulomb, so as to be able to affirm that the relationship between dynamic friction force , coefficient of dynamic friction k and normal force N is the following:

Static and dynamic friction coefficient

At this point it is possible to summarize the main properties of the static friction coefficients  and the dynamic one .

These coefficients are dimensionless quantities, given by the ratio between the intensity of the friction force and the intensity of the applied load , depending on the type of surfaces that are involved in a mutual contact, and in any case, the condition is always valid such that: .

Usually, the value of both coefficients does not exceed the unit and can be considered constant only within certain ranges of forces and velocities, outside of which there are extreme conditions that modify these coefficients and variables.

The following table shows the values of the static and dynamic friction coefficients for common materials:

Rolling friction
In the case of bodies capable of rolling, there is a particular type of friction, in which the sliding phenomenon, typical of dynamic friction, does not occur, but there is also a force that opposes the motion, which also excludes the case of static friction. This type of friction is called rolling friction. Now we want to observe in detail what happens to a wheel that rolls on a horizontal plane. Initially the wheel is immobile and the forces acting on it are the weight force  and the normal force given by the response to the weight of the floor.

At this point the wheel is set in motion, causing a displacement at the point of application of the normal force which is now applied in front of the center of the wheel, at a distance b, which is equal to the value of the rolling friction coefficient. The opposition to the motion is caused by the separation of the normal force and the weight force at the exact moment in which the rolling starts, so the value of the torque given by the rolling friction force is

What happens in detail at the microscopic level between the wheel and the supporting surface is described in Figure, where it is possible to observe what is the behavior of the reaction forces of the deformed plane acting on an immobile wheel.

Rolling the wheel continuously causes imperceptible deformations of the plane and, once passed to a subsequent point, the plane returns to its initial state. In the compression phase the plane opposes the motion of the wheel, while in the decompression phase it provides a positive contribution to the motion.

The force of rolling friction depends, therefore, on the small deformations suffered by the supporting surface and by the wheel itself, and can be expressed as , where it is possible to express b in relation to the sliding friction coefficient  as , with r being the wheel radius.

The surfaces
Going even deeper, it is possible to study not only the most external surface of the metal, but also the immediately more internal states, linked to the history of the metal, its composition and the manufacturing processes undergone by the latter.

it is possible to divide the metal into four different layers:
 Crystalline structure – basic structure of the metal, bulk interior form;
 Machined layer – layer which may also have inclusions of foreign material and which derives from the processing processes to which the metal has been subjected;
 Hardened layer – has a crystalline structure of greater hardness than the inner layers, thanks to the rapid cooling to which they are subjected in the working processes;
 Outer layer or oxide layer – layer that is created due to chemical interaction with the metal's environment and from the deposition of impurities.

The layer of oxides and impurities (third body) has a fundamental tribological importance, in fact it usually contributes to reducing friction. Another fact of fundamental importance regarding oxides is that if you could clean and smooth the surface in order to obtain a pure  "metal surface", what we would observe is the union of the two surfaces in contact. In fact, in the absence of thin layers of contaminants, the atoms of the metal in question, are not able to distinguish one body from another, thus going to form a single body if put in contact.

The origin of friction
Contact between surfaces is made up of a large number of microscopic regions, in the literature called asperities or junctions of contact, where atom-to-atom contact takes place.  The phenomenon of friction, and therefore of the dissipation of energy, is due precisely to the deformations that such regions undergo due to the load and relative movement.  Plastic, elastic, or rupture deformations can be observed:

 Plastic deformations – permanent deformations of the shape of the bumps;
 Elastic deformations – deformations in which the energy expended in the compression phase is almost entirely recovered in the decompression phase (elastic hysteresis);
 Break deformations – deformations that lead to the breaking of bumps and the creation of new contact areas.

The energy that is dissipated during the phenomenon is transformed into heat, thus increasing the temperature of the surfaces in contact. The increase in temperature also depends on the relative speed and the roughness of the material, it can be so high as to even lead to the fusion of the materials involved.

In friction phenomena, temperature is fundamental in many areas of application.  For example, a rise in temperature may result in a sharp reduction of the friction coefficient, and consequently, the effectiveness of the brakes.

The cohesion theory
The adhesion theory states that in the case of spherical asperities in contact with each other, subjected to a  load, a deformation is observed, which, as the load increases, passes from an elastic to a plastic deformation. This phenomenon involves an enlargement of the real contact area , which for this reason can be expressed as:

where D is the hardness of the material definable as the applied load divided by the area of the contact surface.

If at this point the two surfaces are sliding between them, a resistance to shear stress t is observed, given by the presence of adhesive bonds, which were created precisely because of the plastic deformations, and therefore the frictional force will be given by

At this point, since the coefficient of friction is the ratio between the intensity of the frictional force and that of the applied load, it is possible to state that

thus relating to the two material properties: shear strength t and hardness. To obtain low value friction coefficients  it is possible to resort to materials which require less shear stress, but which are also very hard. In the case of lubricants, in fact, we use a substrate of material with low cutting stress t, placed on a very hard material.

The force acting between two solids in contact will not only have normal components, as implied so far, but will also have tangential components. This further complicates the description of the interactions between roughness, because due to this tangential component plastic deformation comes with a lower load than when ignoring this component. A more realistic description then of the area of each single junction that is created is given by

with  constant and a "tangent"  force  applied to the joint.

To obtain even more realistic considerations, the phenomenon of the third body should also be considered, i.e., the presence of foreign materials, such as moisture, oxides or lubricants, between the two solids in contact. A coefficient c is then introduced which is able to correlate the shear strength t of the pure "material" and that of the third body

 with 0 < c < 1.

By studying the behavior at the limits it will be that for c = 0, t = 0 and for c = 1 it returns to the condition in which the surfaces are directly in contact and there is no presence of a third body. Keeping in mind what has just been said, it is possible to correct the friction coefficient formula as follows:

In conclusion, the case of elastic bodies in interaction with each other is considered.

Similarly to what we have just seen, it is possible to define an equation of the type

where, in this case, K depends on the elastic properties of the materials. Also for the elastic bodies the tangential force depends on the coefficient c seen above, and it will be

and therefore a fairly exhaustive description of the friction coefficient can be obtained

Friction measurements
The simplest and most immediate method for evaluating the friction coefficient of two surfaces is the use of an inclined plane on which a block of material is made to slide. As can be seen in the figure, the normal force of the plane is given by , while the frictional force is equal to . This allows us to state that the coefficient of friction can be calculated very easily, by means of the tangent of the angle in which the block begins to slip. In fact we have

Then from the inclined plane we moved on to more sophisticated systems, which allow us to consider all the possible environmental conditions in which the measurement is made, such as the cross-roller machine or the pin and disk machine. Today there are digital machines such as the "Friction Tester" which allows, by means of a software support, to insert all the desired variables. Another widely used process is the ring compression test. A flat ring of the material to be studied is plastically deformed by means of a press, if the deformation is an expansion in both the inner and the outer circle, then there will be low or zero friction coefficients. Otherwise for a deformation that expands only in the inner circle there will be increasing friction coefficients.

Lubrication

To reduce friction between surfaces and keep wear under control, materials called lubricants are used. Unlike what you might think, these are not just oils or fats, but any fluid material that is characterized by viscosity, such as air and water. Of course, some lubricants are more suitable than others, depending on the type of use they are intended for: air and water, for example, are readily available, but the former can only be used under limited load and speed conditions, while the second can contribute to the wear of materials.

What we try to achieve by means of these materials is a perfect fluid lubrication, or a lubrication such that it is possible to avoid direct contact between the surfaces in question, inserting a lubricant film between them. To do this there are two possibilities, depending on the type of application, the costs to address and the level of "perfection" of the lubrication desired to be achieved, there is a choice between:
 Fluidostatic lubrication (or hydrostatic in the case of mineral oils) – which consists in the insertion of lubricating material under pressure between the surfaces in contact;
 Fluid fluid lubrication (or hydrodynamics) – which consists in exploiting the relative motion between the surfaces to make the lubricating material penetrate.

Viscosity

The viscosity is the equivalent of friction in fluids, it describes, in fact, the ability of fluids to resist the forces that cause a change in shape.

Thanks to Newton's studies, a deeper understanding of the phenomenon has been achieved. He, in fact, introduced the concept of laminar flow: "a flow in which the velocity changes from layer to layer". It is possible to ideally divide a fluid between two surfaces (, ) of area A, in various layers.

The layer in contact with the surface , which moves with a velocity v due to an applied force F, will have the same velocity as v of the slab, while each immediately following layer will vary this velocity of a quantity dv, up to the layer in contact with the immobile surface , which will have zero speed.

From what has been said, it is possible to state that the force F, necessary to cause a rolling motion in a fluid contained between two plates, is proportional to the area of the two surfaces and to the speed gradient:

At this point we can introduce a proportional constant , which corresponds to the dynamic viscosity coefficient of the fluid, to obtain the following equation, known as Newton's law

The speed varies by the same amount dv of layer in layer and then the condition occurs so that dv / dy = v / L, where L is the distance between the surfaces  and , and then we can simplify the equation by writing

The viscosity  is high in fluids that strongly oppose the motion, while it is contained for fluids that flow easily.

To determine what kind of flow is in the study, we observe its Reynolds number

This is a constant that depends on the fluid mass  of the fluid, on its viscosity  and on the diameter L of the tube in which the fluid flows. If the Reynolds number is relatively low then there is a laminar flow, whereas for   the flow becomes turbulent.

To conclude we want to underline that it is possible to divide the fluids into two types according to their viscosity:

 Newtonian fluids, or fluids in which viscosity is a function of temperature and fluid pressure only and not of velocity gradient;
 Non-Newtonian fluids, or fluids in which viscosity also depends on the velocity gradient.

Viscosity as a function of temperature and pressure
Temperature and pressure are two fundamental factors to evaluate when choosing a lubricant instead of another. Consider the effects of temperature initially.

There are three main causes of temperature variation that can affect the behavior of the lubricant:

 Weather conditions;
 Local thermal factors (like for car engines or refrigeration pumps);
 Energy dissipation due to rubbing between surfaces.

In order to classify the various lubricants according to their viscosity behavior as a function of temperature, in 1929 the viscosity index (V.I.) was introduced by Dean and Davis. These assigned the best lubricant then available, namely the oil of Pennsylvania, the viscosity index 100, and at the worst, the American oil of the Gulf Coast, the value 0. To determine the value of the intermediate oil index, the following procedure is used: two reference oils are chosen so that the oil in question has the same viscosity at 100 °C, and the following equation is used to determine the viscosity index

This process has some disadvantages:

 For mixtures of oils the results are not exact;
 There is no information if you are outside the fixed temperature range;
 With the advancement of the technologies, oils with V.I. more than 100, which can not be described by the method above.

In the case of oils with V.I. above 100 you can use a different relationship that allows you to get exact results

where, in this case, H is the viscosity at  of the oil with V.I. = 100 and v is the kinematic viscosity of the study oil at .

We can therefore say, in conclusion, that an increase in temperature leads to a decrease in the viscosity of the oil. It is also useful to keep in mind that, in the same way, an increase in pressure implies an increase in viscosity. To evaluate the effects of pressure on viscosity, the following equation is used

where  is the pressure viscosity coefficient p,  is the viscosity coefficient at atmospheric pressure and  is a constant that describes the relationship between viscosity and pressure.

Viscosity measures
To determine the viscosity of a fluid, viscosimeters are used which can be divided into 3 main categories:
 Capillary viscometers, in which the viscosity of the fluid is measured by sliding it into a capillary tube;
 Solid drop viscometers, in which viscosity is measured by calculating the velocity of a solid that moves in the fluid;
 Rotational viscometers, in which viscosity is obtained by evaluating the flow of fluid placed between two surfaces in relative motion.

The first two types of viscometers are mainly used for Newtonian fluids, while the third is very versatile.

Wear

The wear is the progressive involuntary removal of material from a surface in relative motion with another or with a fluid. We can distinguish two different types of wear: moderate wear and severe wear. The first case concerns low loads and smooth surfaces, while the second concerns significantly higher loads and compatible and rough surfaces, in which the wear processes are much more violent. Wear plays a fundamental role in tribological studies, since it causes changes in the shape of the components used in the construction of machinery (for example). These worn parts must be replaced and this entails both a problem of an economic nature, due to the cost of replacement, and a functional problem, since if these components are not replaced in time, more serious damage could occur to the machine in its complex. This phenomenon, however, has not only negative sides, indeed, it is often used to reduce the roughness of some materials, eliminating the asperities. Erroneously we tend to imagine wear in a direct correlation with friction, in reality these two phenomena can not be easily connected. There may be conditions such that low friction can result in significant wear and vice versa. In order for this phenomenon to occur, certain implementation times are required, which may change depending on some variables, such as load, speed, lubrication and environmental conditions, and there are different wear mechanisms, which may occur simultaneously or even combined with each other:
 Adhesive wear;
 Abrasive wear;
 Fatigue wear;
 Corrosive wear;
 Rubbing wear or fretting;
 Erosion wear;
 Other minor wear phenomena (wear by impact, cavitation, wear-fusion, wear-spreading).

Adhesive wear
As known, the contact between two surfaces occurs through the interaction between asperities. If a shearing force is applied in the contact area, it may be possible to detach a small part of the weaker material, due to its adhesion to the harder surface. What is described is precisely the mechanism of the adhesive wear represented in the figure. This type of wear is very problematic, since it involves high wear speeds, but at the same time it is possible to reduce adhesion by increasing surface roughness and hardness of the surfaces involved, or by inserting layers of contaminants such as oxygen, oxides, water, or oils. In conclusion, the behavior of the adhesive wear volume can be described by means of three main laws

 Law 1 – Distance The mass involved in wear is proportional to the distance traveled in the rubbing between the surfaces.
 Law 2 – Load The mass involved in wear is proportional to the applied load.
 Law 3 – Hardness The mass involved in wear is inversely proportional to the hardness of the less hard material.

An important aspect of wear is emission of wear particles into the environment which increasingly threatens human health and ecology. The first researcher who investigated this topic was Ernest Rabinowicz.

Abrasive wear
The abrasive wear consists of the cutting effort of hard surfaces that act on softer surfaces and can be caused either by the roughness that as tips cut off the material against which they rub (two-body abrasive wear), or from particles of hard material that interpose between two surfaces in relative motion (three-body abrasive wear). At application levels, the two-body wear is easily eliminated by means of an adequate surface finish, while the three-body wear can bring serious problems and must therefore be removed as much as possible by means of suitable filters, even before of a weighted machine design.

Fatigue wear
The fatigue wear is a type of wear that is caused by alternative loads, which cause local contact forces repeated over time, which in turn lead to deterioration of the materials involved. The most immediate example of this type of wear is that of a comb. If you slide a finger over the teeth of the comb over and over again, it is observed that at some point one or more teeth of the comb come off. This phenomenon can lead to the breaking of the surfaces due to mechanical or thermal causes. The first case is that described above in which a repeated load causes high contact stresses. The second case, however, is caused by the thermal expansion of the materials involved in the process. To reduce this type of wear, therefore, it is good to try to decrease both the contact forces and the thermal cycling, that is the frequency with which different temperatures intervene. For optimal results it is also good to eliminate, as much as possible, impurities between surfaces, local defects and inclusions of foreign materials in the bodies involved.

Corrosive wear
The corrosive wear occurs in the presence of metals that oxidize or corrode. When the pure metal surfaces come into contact with the surrounding environment, oxide films are created on their surfaces because of the contaminants present in the environment itself, such as water, oxygen or acids. These films are continually removed from the abrasive and adhesive wear mechanisms, continually recreated by pure-contaminating metal interactions. Clearly this type of wear can be reduced by trying to create an 'ad hoc' environment, free of pollutants and sensible to minimal thermal changes. Corrosive wear can also be positive in some applications. In fact, the oxides that are created, contribute to decrease the coefficient of friction between the surfaces, or, being in many cases harder than the metal to which they belong, can be used as excellent abrasives.

Rubbing wear or fretting
The rubbing wear occurs in systems subject to more or less intense vibrations, which cause relative movements between the surfaces in contact within the order of nanometers. These microscopic relative movements cause both adhesive wear, caused by the displacement itself, and abrasive wear, caused by the particles produced in the adhesive phase, which remain trapped between the surfaces. This type of wear can be accelerated by the presence of corrosive substances and the increase in temperature.

Erosion wear
The erosion wear occurs when free particles, which can be either solid or liquid, hit a surface, causing abrasion. The mechanisms involved are of various kinds and depend on certain parameters, such as the impact angle, the particle size, the impact velocity and the material of which the particles are made up.

Factors affecting wear
Among the main factors influencing wear we find
 Hardness
 Mutual Solubility
 Crystalline structure

It has been verified that the harder a material is, the more it decreases. In the same way, the less two materials are mutually soluble, the more the wear tends to decrease. Finally, as regards the crystalline structure, it is possible to state that some structures are more suitable to resist the wear of others, such as a hexagonal structure with a compact distribution, which can only deform by slipping along the base planes.

Wear rate
To provide an assessment of the damage caused by wear, we use a dimensionless coefficient called wear rate, given by the ratio between the height change of the body  and the length of the relative sliding .

This coefficient makes it possible to subdivide, depending on its size, the damage suffered by various materials in different situations, passing from a modest degree of wear, through a medium, to a degree of severe wear.

Instead, to express the volume of wear V it is possible to use the Holm equation

  (for adhesive wear)
  (for abrasive wear)

where W / H represents the real contact area, l the length of the distance traveled and k and  are experimental dimensional factors.

Wear measurement
In experimental measurements of material wear, it is often necessary to recreate fairly small wear rates and to accelerate times. The phenomena, which in reality develop after years, in the laboratory must occur after a few days. A first evaluation of the wear processes is a visual inspection of the superficial profile of the body in the study, including a comparison before and after the occurrence of the wear phenomenon. In this first analysis the possible variations of the hardness and of the superficial geometry of the material are observed. Another method of investigation is that of the radioactive tracer, used to evaluate wear at macroscopic levels. One of the two materials in contact, involved in a wear process, is marked with a radioactive tracer. In this way, the particles of this material, which will be removed, will be easily visible and accessible. Finally, to accelerate wear times, one of the best-known techniques used is that of the high pressure contact tests. In this case, to obtain the desired results it is sufficient to apply the load on a very reduced contact area.

Applications

Transport and manufacturing
Historically, tribology research concentrated on the design and effective lubrication of machine components, particularly for bearings. However, the study of tribology extends into most aspects of modern technology and any system where one material slides over another can be affected by complex tribological interactions.

Traditionally, tribology research in the transport industry focused on reliability, ensuring the safe, continuous operation of machine components. Nowadays, due to an increased focus on energy consumption, efficiency has become increasingly important and thus lubricants have become progressively more complex and sophisticated in order to achieve this. Tribology also plays an important role in manufacturing. For example, in metal-forming operations, friction increases tool wear and the power required to work a piece. This results in increased costs due to more frequent tool replacement, loss of tolerance as tool dimensions shift, and greater forces required to shape a piece.

The use of lubricants which minimize direct surface contact reduces tool wear and power requirements. It is also necessary to know the effects of manufacturing, all manufacturing methods leave a unique system fingerprint (i.e. surface topography) which will influence the tribocontact (e.g. lubricant film formation).

Research

Fields

Tribology research ranges from macro to nano scales, in areas as diverse as the movement of continental plates and glaciers to the locomotion of animals and insects. Tribology research is traditionally concentrated on transport and manufacturing sectors, but this has considerably diversified. Tribology research can be loosely divided into the following fields (with some overlap):
 Classical tribology is concerned with friction and wear in machine elements (such as rolling-element bearings, gears, plain bearings, brakes, clutches, wheels and fluid bearings) as well as manufacturing processes (such as metal forming).
 Biotribology studies friction, wear and lubrication in biological systems. The field is gaining importance as human lifetime expectancy increases. Human hip and knee joints are typical biotribology systems.
 Green tribology aims to minimize the environmental impact of tribological systems along their entire lifecycle. In particular, green tribology aims to reduce tribological losses (e.g., friction and wear) using technologies with minimal environmental impact. This is in contrast to traditional tribology, where the means of reducing tribological losses are not holistically evaluated.
 Geotribology studies friction, wear, and lubrication of geological systems, such as glaciers and faults.
 Nanotribology studies tribological phenomena at nanoscopic scales. The field is becoming increasingly important as devices become smaller (e.g. micro/nanoelectromechanical systems, MEMS/NEMS), and research has been aided by the invention of Atomic Force Microscopy.

 Computational tribology aims to model the behavior of tribological systems through multiphysics simulations, combining disciplines such as contact mechanics, fracture mechanics and computational fluid dynamics.
 Space tribology studies tribological systems that can operate under the extreme environmental conditions of outer space. In particular, this requires lubricants with low vapor pressure that can withstand extreme temperature fluctuations.
 Open system tribology studies tribological systems that are exposed to and affected by the natural environment.
 Triboinformatics is an application of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Big Data methods to tribological systems.

Recently, intensive studies of superlubricity (phenomenon of vanishing friction) have sparked due to increasing demand for energy savings. Furthermore, the development of new materials, such as graphene and ionic liquids, allows for fundamentally new approaches to solve tribological problems.

Societies

There are now numerous national and international societies, including: the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) in the US, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and Institute of Physics (IMechE Tribology Group, IOP Tribology Group) in the UK, the German Society for Tribology (Gesellschaft für Tribologie), the Korean Tribology Society (KTS), the Malaysian Tribology Society (MYTRIBOS), the Japanese Society of Tribologists (JAST), the Tribology Society of India (TSI), the Chinese Mechanical Engineering Society (Chinese Tribology Institute) and the International Tribology Council.

Research approach
Tribology research is mostly empirical, which can be explained by the vast number of parameters that influence friction and wear in tribological contacts. Thus, most research fields rely heavily on the use of standardized tribometers and test procedures as well component-level test rigs.

See also

Footnotes

References

External links

Friction
Engineering mechanics
Materials science
Materials degradation
Metallurgy
Mechanical engineering

Tribology


Helene Weigel, (d. 12 Mayıs 1900, Viyana - ö. 6 Mayıs 1971, Berlin), Avusturyalı tiyatro oyuncusudur.

Yahudi bir avukatın kızı olan Weigel, 1930'da Almanya Komünist Partisi'ne üye oldu. Kocası Bertolt Brecht'in 1956'da ölümünün ardından Berliner Ensemble'nin sanat yönetmenliğini üstlendi. Dikkat çeken oyunları arasında "Pelagea Vlassova", "Die Mutter", "Antigone", "Die Waffen von Seňora Carrar" ve "Mutter Courage" sayılabilir.

1900 doğumlular
Viyana doğumlu oyuncular
1971 yılında ölenler
Yahudi asıllı Avusturyalılar
Doğu Alman siyasetçiler
Doğu Alman kadınlar
Alman kadın tiyatro oyuncuları
Almanya Komünist Partisi

Helene Weigel


Måkläppen er et naturreservat som stikker ud mod syd fra Falsterbo-halvøen. Det er dannet ved at sandrevler har lagt sig over en morænekærne. Måkläppens naturreservat och naturvårdsförening er Sveriges ældste, oprettet i 1899.

Måkläppen ændrer hele tiden udseende da sand bygges på og fjernes af havstrømme, vind, storme og højvande. Disse processer udøver abrasion, stranderosion, som bortfører sandet som tidligere var landet der.

På Måkläppen yngler mange arter havfugle, og er et vigtigt område for spættet sæl og gråsæl. På grund av områdets art er der totalt adgangsforbud fra første februar til 30. oktober.

Beroende på hvordan revlerne ændrer sig kan man ved promenade langs sandrevlerne støde på små eller større rester af træskibe, der er op til flere hundrede år gamle

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

 Info fra kommunen
 Måkläppen, Länsstyrelsen i Skåne län

Naturreservater i Skåne

Måkläppens naturreservat


An Pleurothallis barbata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Frederic Westcott. An Pleurothallis barbata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pleurothallis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pleurothallis

Pleurothallis barbata


Abrictosaurus (Grekçe:uyanık kertenkele), Erken Jura devri'nde şimdiki Güney Afrika'da yaşamış olan Heterodontosauridae familyasından bir theropod dinozor cinsi.

Otoburdurlar. Boyları ise yaklaşık 1,2 metre (4 feet) olup kiloları ise 45 kilo kadardır.

Bu dinozor fosilinin kalıntısının iki tanesi Lesotho'nun Qacha's Nek District kasabası ve Güney Afrika'nın Cape Province şehirlerinde bulunmuştur,  200 ya da 190 milyon yıl önce yaşadıkları tahmin edilmektedir. Bu dinozorlarının çamur yataklara yuva yaptıkları tahmin edilir. Yavrularına 1 ila 2 hafta süresince baktıkları düşünülmüktedir. Ömürlerinin ise, 5 ila 6 yıl olduğu tahmin edilmektedir.

Yapılan araştırmalar sonucu bu mevsimlik oluşum taşkın yataklar ya da kum tepeciklerin koruması için olduğu kanısına varıldı.

Kaynakça

Heterodontosauridae
Jura devri dinozorları
Afrika dinozorları
1974'te tanımlanan fosil taksonları

Abrictosaurus


Cafer Bey, Nejat Uygur'un başrolünde oynadığı 1970 yapımı siyah beyaz bir Tunç Başaran filmidir. Charlie Chaplin'in City Lights (1931) adlı filminden uyarlanmıştır.

Oyuncular
 Nejat Uygur
 Ülkü Özen
 Avni Dilligil
 Mümtaz Ener
 Cevat Kurtuluş
 Şaziye Moral
 Mürüvvet Sim
 Müjdat Gezen

1970 çıkışlı Türk filmleri
Tunç Başaran'ın yönettiği filmler
Türk romantik komedi-drama filmleri
Türk siyah-beyaz filmleri
Uyarlama filmler
Mike Rafaelyan'ın görüntülediği filmler
Hürrem Erman'ın yapımcısı olduğu filmler
Tunç Başaran'ın senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Bülent Oran'ın senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Burhan Bolan'ın senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
1970'lerde Türkçe filmler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri filmlerin Türk yeniden yapım filmleri
Erman Film filmleri
Körler ile ilgili Türk filmleri
1970 çıkışlı dramatik filmler
1970 çıkışlı komedi filmleri

Cafer Bey


Lucija Borčić ( - ) est une autrice, poétesse et traductrice espérantiste croate.

Biographie
Lucija Borčić nait le  à , sur l'île de Vis, en Croatie, d'un père pêcheur. Elle travaille comme comptable et administratrice. Elle occupe pendant  le poste de présidente de l'association des arts plastiques de Croatie. Elle apprend l'espéranto en 1940 à Zagreb. À partir de 1946, elle participe à l'association d'espéranto Bude Borjan à Zagreb, où elle occupe les postes d'administratrice, de trésorière, de secrétaire et de présidente. Elle donne de nombreux cours. Elle occupe le rôle de secrétaire et de membre de la commission d'examen dans la ligue croate d'espéranto et la fédération yougoslave d'espéranto. En 1953, elle co-organise le  congrès universel à Zagreb. À partir de 1952, elle traduit en espéranto de la prose et de la poésie croate. À partir de 1977, elle écrit en espéranto. En 2001, elle publie son recueil de poèmes . En 1985, elle reçoit le prix Clelia Conterno pour le poème . Elle est membre et déléguée de l'Association universelle d'espéranto. Elle est membre de l'Association des auteurs et autrices espérantophones. Depuis 2001, elle est membre honoraire de l'Association universelle d'espéranto. En 2008 et 2009, elle écrit deux dictionnaires, l'un espéranto-croate et l'autre croate-espéranto, qui contiennent respectivement 42000 et  d'un total de 1000 pages. Elle meurt le  à Zagreb.

Critiques de Pulsas la viv'
Dans son analyse de 2002, Jorge Camacho analyse les poèmes de Lucija Borčić comme .

Œuvres

Traductions

Œuvres originales

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Liens externes

 Marija Belošević, Lucija Borčić (1921-2015): plej fruktodona kroata tradukistino, KAEST 2020
 Retrorigardo al intensa vivo

Naissance en juillet 1921
Naissance en Yougoslavie
Décès en novembre 2015
Décès à Zagreb
Décès à 94 ans

Lucija Borčić