Acest glosar conține termeni din domeniul științifico-fantastic (literatură, film, teatru, televiziune, radio).

A
 autor - o persoană care crează o lucrare în genul științifico-fantastic; poate fi un scriitor, regizor de film sau de teatru etc.

C
 călătoria în timp - conceptul de mișcare între diferite momente de timp într-un mod analog cu mișcarea unui corp între diferite puncte în spațiu, fie prin trimiterea de corpuri (sau, în unele cazuri, doar informații) înapoi în timp într-un moment anterior prezentului, fie prin trimiterea de obiecte înainte în timp, din prezent spre viitor, fără a fi nevoie de trăirea experienței în intervalul de timp care survine (cel puțin nu într-un ritm normal). Vezi și Listă de ficțiuni cu călătorii în timp.
 convenție - întâlniri ale fanilor genului științifico-fantastic; din punct de vedere istoric, aceste convenții s-au concentrat în primul rând pe literatură, însă multe dintre ele s-au extins și la alte căi de exprimare, cum ar fi filme, televiziune, benzi desenate, animații și jocuri.
 cyberpunk -  subgen al științifico-fantasticului care are loc într-un cadru futurist care tinde să se concentreze asupra unei "combinații de societăți decăzute și de înaltă tehnologie", care prezintă progrese tehnologice și științifice avansate, cum ar fi inteligența artificială și cibernetica, care sunt juxtapuse cu o ordine socială degradată sau radicală.
 cyborg - un personaj din literatura de anticipație sub forma unui hibrid creier-mașină-microprocesor; robot.

D
 dieselpunk - un subgen similar steampunkului care combină estetica tehnologiei pe bază de motorină din perioada interbelică până în anii 1950 cu tehnologie retro-futuristă și sensibilități postmoderne.
 distopie -  antiteza unei societăți utopice sau chiar a unei utopii.  O societate distopică se caracterizează prin prezența uneia din formele de guvernare autoritariste sau totalitare sau printr-o formă oarecare de opresiune sau de control social. Termenul provine din limba greacă, în care prefixul dis- are de obicei sensuri negative (ca în "disforic") în timp ce topos înseamnă "loc". Vezi și: Listă de autori de literatură distopică,  Listă de filme distopice,  Listă de romane distopice

E
 Epoca de Aur - o perioadă în care genul științifico-fantastic a beneficiat de o atenție sporită din partea publicului cititor și în care multe scrieri clasice au fost publicate (perioada sfârșitul anilor 1930 - începutul anilor 1950)
 extratereștri - v. viață extraterestră

F
 fandom - un fandom SF este o subcultură ai cărei membri sunt legați de pasiunea comună pentru științifico fantastic.
 fanzin -  (cuvânt creat din engleză fans magazine - revistă a fanilor) este o publicație neprofesionistă și neoficială produsă de fanii unui fenomen cultural particular (muzică, SF) care are o durată de viață efemeră și tiraj foarte limitat.

G
 Golden Age - v. Epoca de Aur.

H
 hard -  un gen al științifico-fantastic-ului în care se pune accentul pe detaliile științifice sau tehnice, ori pe acuratețea științifică, sau pe ambele.
 hiperspațiu -  o metodă de călătorie, fiind descrisă ca o regiune alternativă a spațiului coexistentă cu propriul nostru univers, în care se poate ajunge cu ajutorul unui câmp de energie sau a unui alt dispozitiv. Călătoria în hiperspațiu este frecvent descrisă ca o călătorie cu o viteză superluminică.

I
 inteligența artificială - inteligență a unor dispozitive artificiale non-biologice
 istorie alternativă (sau ucronie) - lucrare care prezintă o rescriere a istoriei datorate modificării unui eveniment din trecut, ce reprezintă punctul de divergență de unde evenimentele încep a se desfășura altcumva decât s-au desfășurat de fapt. Punctul de divergență poate fi rezultatul unei călătorii în timp, mai exact, călătoria în trecut.

K
 Kaijū (în japoneză 怪獣) - un sub-gen al filmelor științifico-fantastice cu monștri. Kaijū are sensul de bestie/creatură ciudată. În filmele Kaijū apar creaturi mari de orice formă, care atacă de obicei un oraș important sau intră în luptă cu alți monștri.

M
 marțian- un locuitor nativ al planetei Marte. Cuvântul marțian este folosit și pentru a descrie un colonist uman al planetei Marte. Vezi și viață extraterestră

N
 Noul val -  un termen care se aplică lucrărilor științifico-fantastice produse în anii 1960 și 1970. Aceste lucrări se caracterizată printr-un grad ridicat de experimentare, atât ca formă cât și în conținut, având o sensibilitate literară sau artistică  și cu accentul pus pe soft spre deosebire de științifico-fantasticul hard. Termenul noul val este împrumutat dintr-o mișcare a filmului francez cunoscută sub numele de noul val francez (Nouvelle vague)

P
 postcyberpunk - un (sub-)gen științifico-fantastic care a apărut din mișcarea cyberpunk și își concentrează atenția cu privire la evoluțiile tehnologice în cadrul societății din viitorul apropiat (ca și în lucrările cyberpunk). În lucrările postcyberpunk sunt examinate frecvent efectele sociale cauzate de răspândirea mijloacelor de comunicare, a geneticii și/sau nanotehnologiei. Spre deosebire de cyberpunk-ul "clasic" personajele principale încearcă să îmbunătățească societatea, sau cel puțin să protejeze status quo-ul de o degradare ulterioară.
 premiu SF - premiu de recunoaștere a activității unor autori, editori și ilustratori. Premiile sunt oferite și lucrărilor acestora (romane, filme, benzi desenate etc). Cele mai importante sunt premiile Hugo, ce se acordă anual la fiecare congres Worldcon, organizat de voluntari; cel de-al doilea set de premii se acordă de către criticii de specialitate și se numesc premiile Nebula. Alte premii: Locus, Saturn, Campbell, Philip K. Dick, Clarke, Seiun,  SRSFF Ion Hobana și BSFA.

R
 realitate alternativă - v. univers paralel
 realitate augmentată - o extensie în lumea reală a realității virtuale
 realitate virtuală - ambianțe artificiale create pe calculator care oferă o simulare a realității atât de reușită, încât utilizatorul poate căpăta impresia de prezență fizică aproape reală, atât în anumite locuri reale, cât și în locuri imaginare.
 realitate simulată - o ipoteză conform căreia realitatea ar putea fi de exemplu doar o simulare pe calculator care nu poate fi deosebită de "adevărata" realitate. Este posibil ca această realitate simulată să fie populată de minți conștiente care pot fi sau nu pot fi pe deplin conștiente de faptul că trăiesc în interiorul unei simulări. Realitatea simulată este un concept destul de diferit de actualul concept, realizabil tehnologic, al realității virtuale. Realitatea virtuală este, teoretic, ușor de identificat în raport cu realitatea "reală", iar participanții ei nu se îndoiesc de natura a ceea ce li se întâmplă. Prin contrast, în realitatea simulată participanții ei pot sau nu pot distinge cât de "reală" este realitatea în care se află. Vezi și Realitatea simulată în ficțiune.
 religie - un sistem de credințe despre viața de după moarte, îngeri, divinitate, geneză, demoni, profeți etc. într-o lume științifico-fantastică. Vezi și Listă de idei religioase în științifico-fantastic.

 revoltă cibernetică -  un scenariu în care o inteligență artificială (fie un singur supercomputer, o rețea de calculatoare, sau, uneori, o întreagă "rasă" de mașini inteligente) decide că oamenii (și/sau alte ființe organice non-umane) sunt o amenințare (fie pentru mașini sau pentru ei înșiși), sunt inferioare sau sunt asupritori și încearcă să-i distrugă sau să-i înrobească sub stăpânirea mașinii. În acest scenariu fictiv, oamenii sunt adesea descriși că folosesc foarte mult diferite calități "umane", cum ar fi exprimarea emoțiilor, ilogica, ineficiența, duplicitatea, imprevizibilitatea sau exploatarea unor reguli de gândire presupune rigide și lipsite de inovație ale inteligenței artificiale.
 robot - un operator mecanic sau virtual, artificial. Robotul este un sistem compus din mai multe elemente: mecanică, senzori și actuatori precum și un mecanism de direcționare. Mecanica stabilește înfățișarea robotului și mișcările posibile pe timp de funcționare. Senzorii și actuatorii sunt întrebuințați la interacțiunea cu mediul sistemului. Mecanismul de direcționare are grijă ca robotul să-și îndeplinească obiectivul cu succes, evaluând de exemplu informațiile senzorilor. Acest mecanism reglează motoarele și planifică mișcările care trebuiesc efectuate. Roboții cu formă umană sunt numiți androizi.

S
 singularitate tehnologică - temă a științifico-fantasticului în care inteligența artificială este conștientă de sine, mult superioară oamenilor și are diferite relații cu aceștia (război, colaborare, oculte, indiferență).
 steampunk -  un subgen al științifico-fantasticului proeminent în anii 1980-1990. Lucrările steampunk modelează o lume imaginară care și-a însușit cu desăvârșire utilizarea mașinilor cu abur. Termenul este asociat cu cyberpunk, și adesea linia subiectului prezintă o istorie alternativă.
 soft -  un gen al științifico-fantastic-ului în care se pune accentul mai mult pe narațiune și pe elementele fantastice ale acestuia și mai puțin (sau deloc) pe detaliile științifice-tehnice și pe acuratețea științifică.

Ș
 științifico-fantastic - un gen artistic prezent cu precădere în literatură și cinematografie, a cărui temă principală este impactul științei și tehnologiei asupra societății și persoanelor.

T
 teleportare (în fizică și în științifico-fantastic) -  un proces de deplasare a unui obiect dintr-un loc în altul, mai mult sau mai puțin instantaneu, fără ca obiectul să parcurgă spațiul dintre cele două poziții. Teoretic au fost inventate mai multe metode de teleportare (teleportare cu găuri în spațiu-timp, gaură de vierme), dar experimental au fost confirmate numai teleportarea cuantică și psihică.

U
 ucronie -istorie alternativă
 univers paralel (sau realitate alternativă) -  o ipotetică realitate separată autonomă. Un grup specific de universuri paralele este denumit "multivers", deși acest termen poate fi folosit și pentru a descrie posibilele universuri paralele care constituie realitatea fizică. În timp ce termenii "univers paralel" și "realitate alternativă" sunt sinonimi și, în general, pot fi folosiți alternativ în cele mai multe cazuri, există uneori o conotație suplimentară implicită a termenului de "realitate alternativă" care implică faptul că realitatea este o variantă a realității noastră. Termenul de "univers paralel" este mai generalist, fără nici o conotație care ar implica o relație, sau lipsa de relație, cu universul nostru. Un univers în care legile naturii sunt foarte diferite - de exemplu, unul în care nu există limitări relativiste și viteza luminii poate fi depășită - ar putea fi considerat, în general, un univers paralel, dar nu și o realitate alternativă. Definiția corectă din mecanica cuantică pentru universurile paralele este că sunt "universuri care sunt separate între ele printr-un singur eveniment cuantic."

V
 viață extraterestră - viață din spațiul cosmic, viață al cărei mediu natural nu este Pământul. Acest concept se referă la orice tip sau formă de viață, de la cele mai simple sisteme biologice (de ex. virusuri și procariote) până la cele mai complexe forme de viață cu inteligență proprie și organizare socială.
 viteză superluminică - viteză de deplasare mai mare ca viteza luminii

W
 western științifico-fantastic - o lucrare de ficțiune care combină elementele științifico-fantastice cu cele western.

Z

Note

Bibliografie
 Dr. Octavian Laiu - Dicționar de cuvinte și noțiuni din SF-ul românesc, jocuridecuvinte.ro

științifico-fantastic
Liste SF

Glosar de termeni științifico-fantastici


Cromatografia pe strat subțire, câteodată denumită și cromatografie în strat subțire (cu acronimul TLC, din ) este o metodă de separare de tipul cromatografiei, folosită pentru separarea unor amestecuri nevolatile. Cromatografia pe strat subțire se realizează cu ajutorul unei bucăți mici de hârtie sau plastic, care conține un strat subțire de material adsorbant, de obicei silica gel, oxid de aluminiu (alumină) sau celuloză.

Metodă
Acest strat subțire de material adsorbant este numit faza staționară, deoarece este componentul imobil al sistemului. După aplicarea substanței de analizat pe placă, materialul va adsoarbe ceea ce se numește faza mobilă, adică solventul (sau amestecul de solvenți) care a fost ales. Solventul va urca în placă cu ajutorul capilarității. Întrucât diferiții componenți ai amestecului de analizat se deplasează cu viteze difere pe placa cromatografică, se obține separarea acestora.

Vezi și
 Cromatografie
 Electroforeză

Referințe

s

Cromatografie pe strat subțire


An Najas indica in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl Ludwig von Willdenow, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Adelbert von Chamisso. An Najas indica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Najas, ngan familia nga Hydrocharitaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Najas

Najas indica


Der SV Viktoria Stralsund war ein deutscher Sportverein (SV) aus Stralsund. Der Verein, in dem ausschließlich Fußball gespielt wurde, existierte von 1924 bis 1934. Heimstätte war das Stadion Schleusenbrücke.

Verein
Viktoria Stralsund wurde im Jahr 1924 als eigenständiger Fußballverein von Spielern des MTV 1860 Stralsund unter der Bezeichnung SV Viktoria Stralsund gegründet. Der Club trat in Vorpommern zunächst innerhalb der Meisterschaften des Norddeutschen Fußball-Verbandes an, wechselte dann ab 1925 in die Meisterschaft des Baltischen Rasen- und Wintersport-Verbandes.

Auf sportlicher Ebene qualifizierte sich der Club in der kurzen Zeit seines Bestehens in Vorpommern nie für die norddeutsche-bzw. baltische Endrunde.

1933 gelang der Viktoria der Aufstieg zur neu geschaffenen Gauliga Pommern. Das Heimspiel am 21. Januar 1934 in der Gauliga gegen den PSV Stettin wurde drei Minuten vor Schluss beim Stand von 1:8 abgebrochen, nachdem Zuschauer auf das Spielfeld gelaufen waren. Der Deutsche Fußball-Bund sperrte die Stralsunder Mannschaft bis zum 30. April 1934, zwei Spieler wurden vom Spielbetrieb auf Lebenszeit ausgeschlossen; alle ausstehenden Spiele wurden mit 0:2 Punkten gegen Stralsund gewertet, der Verein stieg mit nur zwei Punkten aus der Liga ab.

Bereits in der Folgesaison wurde der Club aufgelöst, die Mannschaft wurde wieder in den MTV 1860 Stralsund integriert.

Statistik
 1927/1928: Ligaklasse Pommern Bezirk III, 7. Platz (14 Sp., 4 g., 3 u., 7 v., 40:45 Tore, 11:17 Punkte)
 1928/1929: Ligaklasse Pommern Bezirk III, 2. Staffel
 1929/1930: Ligaklasse Vorpommern-Rügen, Staffel I
 1930/1931: Ligaklasse Vorpommern-Rügen, Meister
 1932/1933: Verbandsliga Vorpommern-Rügen, Staffel Nord
 1933/1934: Gauliga Pommern West, 7. Platz (12 Sp., 1 g., 0 u., 11 v., 12:42 Tore, 2:22 Punkte)

Literatur
 Hardy Grüne: Viktoria Stralsund. In: Enzyklopädie des deutschen Ligafußballs. Band 7: Vereinslexikon. AGON-Sportverlag, Kassel 2001, ISBN 3-89784-147-9.

Einzelnachweise

Stralsund
Viktoria
Gegründet 1924
Aufgelöst 1945
Ehemaliger Fußballverein aus Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
TSV 1860 Stralsund

SV Viktoria Stralsund


Remission je debitantski studijski album američkog heavy metal sastava Mastodon. Diskografska kuća Relapse Records objavila ga je 28. svibnja 2002. godine, a uradak je ponovno objavljen 21. listopada 2003. godine.

O albumu
Skupina je većinu pjesama napisala mnogo prije nego što je snimila album. "Workhorse" je premijerno izvedena u Memphisu u srpnju 2001. godine. Skladbe "Trampled Under Hoof", "Trilobite", "Where Strides The Behemoth", "Crusher Destroyer" i "Mother Puncher" odsvirala je 7. kolovoza 2001. godine u emisiji radijske stanice WFMU, dok je pjesma "Trainwreck" napisana dok je još Eric Saner bio član grupe.

Na početku pjesme "Crusher Destroyer" čuje se rika tiranosaura iz filma Jurski park, u sceni kad u džipu Lex kaže ime svoga brata, "Timmy!", dok ih napada tiranosaur.

"Crusher Destroyer" pojavila se i u videoigri Tony Hawk's Underground iz 2003. godine. Godine 2002. "March of the Fire Ants" pojavila se na sedmoinčnom split albumu na kojem se nalazila i pjesma "Hung, Drawn and Quartered" grupe High on Fire. Nakon ponovne objave Remissiona ta se pjesma našla na kompilacijama Contaminated 5.0, MTV2 Headbangers Ball i Take Action!, Vol. 4 compilations. "Where Strides the Behemoth" was included on Contaminated 6.0 and From the Shadows - Metal for the Modern Era.

Do 2006. godine Remission je u SAD-u prodan u 49.000 primjeraka.

Tematika i naslovnica
Basist Troy Sanders komentirao je da album simbolizira element vatre. Međutim, Remission je bio jedini Mastodonov nekonceptualni album sve do objave The Huntera 2011. godine.

U intervjuu s mrežnim časopisom Lollipop 2004. godine Brann Dailor objasnio je da je Remission album koji mu je pomogao nositi se sa smrću svoje sestre:

Ponovna objava
Uradak je ponovno objavljen 21. listopada 2003. godine, na isti dan kad i glazbeni spot za pjesmu "March of the Fire Ants". Često se prikazivao na Uraniumu i Headbangers Ballu, a među motivima u tom spotu jest čovjek kojeg se iskapa i postavlja na tron.

Deluxe inačica albuma, objavljena kao digipak, sadrži bonus DVD koji prikazuje profesionalno snimljen koncert koji se održao 1. prosinca 2002. u Atlanti, kao i prethodno neobjavljenim materijalom. Uz to, ta inačica albuma sadrži obradu pjesme "Emerald" grupe Thin Lizzy, koja se na CD-u pojavljuje kao bonus pjesma.

Popis pjesama

Recenzije
Remission je uglavnom dobio pozitivne kritike. AllMusicov Brian O'Neill dodijelio mu je četiri zvjezdica od njih pet i izjavio da je na njemu prisutna "tehnična ekstaza" sa "složenim dijelovima koji se približavaju proporcijama progresivnog rocka". Također je džezističko bubnjanje "južnjačkog prizvuka" i čiste gitare na pjesmi "Ol'e Nessie" usporedio sa skupinom The Allman Brothers Band.

Bryan Haywood iz Pitchfork Medije dao mu je devet od deset bodova i pohvalio je produkciju na albumu, a za bubnjara Branna Dailora komentirao je da je izvanredan glazbenik. "Služe se dovoljno [matematikom] da aranžmani budu raznobojni, ali ne toliko da gitarske rifove visoke kvalitete zakompliciraju složenošću nalik onoj Dream Theatera. A protuteža tome je divan, staromodni metal stav u stilu Black Sabbatha." Dodao je: "Cijeli taj paket zvuči bezvremenski, ali na taj nevjerojatan način koji nikad prije niste čuli."

Časopis Kerrang! naveo je Remission na popisu "13 ključnih sludge albuma".

Osoblje

Mastodon
Brann Dailor – bubnjevi
Troy Sanders – bas-gitara, vokali
Brent Hinds – gitara, vokali
Bill Kelliher – gitara

Ostalo osoblje
Matt Bayles – produkcija, snimanje, miksanje
Matthew Jacobson – izvršni producent
Dangerous Dave Shirk – masteriranje
Matt Washburn – digitalno uređivanje
Paul Romano – ilustracije

Izvori

Albumi iz 2002.
Američki glazbeni albumi

Remission


An Aloe lucile-allorgeae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Werner Rauh. An Aloe lucile-allorgeae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aloe, ngan familia nga Xanthorrhoeaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Madagascar. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aloe

Aloe lucile-allorgeae


Biološki sat ili biološki oscilator kod većine vrsta živih bića omogućava organizmima koordinaciju svojih bioloških procesa i ponašanja s dnevnim i sezonskim promjenama u dnevno-noćnim ciklusima.

Kao biokemijski mehanizam titra (oscilira) periodom od točno 24 sata kojima svakodnevno dobiva podražaje i signale iz okoline, prvenstveno dnevnog svjetla i tame. Središnji je mehanizam za upravljanje biološkim ritmovima. Sastoji se od tri dijela:

 Središnji titrajnik s periodom 24 sata.
 Niz ulaznih puteva u središnji titrajnik za uključivanje kronobiološkog sata.
 Niz izlaznih puteva vezanih za različite faze titrajnika za regulaciju otvorenih ritmova u biokemiji i fiziologiji.

Namješta se u skladu s promjenama uvjeta u okruženju, na osnovu sposobnosti organizma za osjećanje vanjskih vremenskih znakova.

Izvori

Biologija

Biološki sat


The Fiordland penguin (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), also known as the Fiordland crested penguin (in Māori, tawaki or pokotiwha), is a crested penguin species endemic to New Zealand. It currently breeds along the south-western coasts of New Zealand's South Island as well as on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Because it originally ranged beyond Fiordland, it is sometimes referred to as the New Zealand crested penguin. It is occasionally found in Australia.

Taxonomy
The Fiordland crested penguin was described in 1845 by English zoologist George Robert Gray, its specific epithet derived from the Ancient Greek pachy-/παχυ- "thick" and rhynchos/ρύγχος "beak". It is one of six species in the genus Eudyptes, the generic name derived from the Ancient Greek eu/ευ "good" and dyptes/δύπτης "diver".

Description

This species is a medium-sized, yellow-crested, black-and-white penguin, growing to approximately  long and weighing on average , with a weight range of . It has dark, bluish-grey upperparts with a darker head, and white underparts. Its broad, yellow eyebrow-stripe extends over the eye and drops down the neck. It can be distinguished from the similar erect-crested penguin (Eudyptes sclateri) and Snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus) in having no bare skin around the base of its bill. Female Fiordland penguins lay a clutch of two eggs where the first-laid egg is much smaller than the second egg, generally hatches later, and shows higher mortality, demonstrating a brood reduction system that is unique from other avian groups.

Distribution and habitat
This penguin nests in colonies among tree roots and rocks in dense temperate coastal forest. It breeds along the shores in the West Coast of the South Island, south of about Bruce Bay and the Open Bay Islands, around Fiordland and Foveaux Strait, and on Stewart Island/Rakiura and its outlying islands. Fossils of this species have been found as far north as the northern end of the South Island, and they probably once nested in the North Island as well. Their range drastically reduced by hunting in Polynesian times, and they are now only found in the least-populated part of New Zealand. The species is also present in Australia.

Diet
The main prey species reported are cephalopods (85%, mainly arrow squid, Nototodarus sloanii), followed by crustaceans (13%, primarily krill, Nyctiphanes australis) and fish (2%, mainly red cod and hoki). However, the importance of cephalopods might be exaggerated. Prey taken seems to vary between Codfish Island and northern Fiordland.

Conservation
Fiordland crested penguins are classed as vulnerable to extinction by the IUCN, and their status was changed from vulnerable to endangered by the Department of Conservation in 2013. Surveys in the 1990s counted 2,500 pairs, though this was likely an underestimate; based on historic trends, the population is probably continuing to decline. The main threats are introduced predators such dogs, cats, rats, and especially stoats. They are also vulnerable to human disturbance, fleeing nests and leaving chicks exposed to predators.

References

External links

 State of Penguins: Fiordland penguin – detailed and current species account of (Eudyptes pachyrhynchus)
 The Tawaki Project - Current research project on Fiordland penguins
 Fiordland penguins from the International Penguin Conservation website
 Penguin World: Fiordland penguin
 www.pinguins.info information about all species of penguins

 Fiordland penguin - www.penguins.com.au
 Fiordland penguin discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 24 March 2017
Fiordland Crested Penguin, New Zealand Birds Online

Eudyptes
Penguins
Birds of the South Island
Fiordland
Vulnerable fauna of Oceania
Birds described in 1845
Taxa named by George Robert Gray
Endemic birds of New Zealand

Fiordland penguin


Svijet

Natjecanja

Svjetska natjecanja
 Svjetsko prvenstvo u vaterpolu u Fukoji u Japanu

Kontinentska natjecanja

Europska natjecanja

Osnivanja

Gašenja

Stadioni, dvorane i infrastruktura

Rekordi

Nagrade

Ostali događaji

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Natjecanja

Timski športovi

Pojedinačni športovi

Osnivanja
25. kolovoza, ŽNK Marjan postaje ŽNK Hajduk

Gašenja

Stadioni, dvorane i infrastruktura

Rekordi

Nagrade

Ostali događaji

Rođenja

Smrti

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Šport u 2021.


Trinidad og Tobago deltog første gang i olympiske lege under sommer-OL 1948 i London. Nationen har siden deltaget i samtlige efterfølgende sommerlege, bortset fra 1960 i Rom, hvor nationen deltog som en del af Vestindiske Føderation. Trinidad og Tobago deltog første gang i vinterlegene i 1994 i Lillehammer og har i alt deltaget i tre vinterlege.

Medaljeoversigt

Eksterne henvisninger
 Trinidad og Tobagos OL-statistik  på Sports-reference.com

Trinidad og Tobago ved sommer-OL
Trinidad og Tobago ved vinter-OL
OL

Trinidad og Tobago ved OL


O Campeonato Italiano de Futebol de 1987–88, denominada oficialmente de Serie A 1987–1988, foi a 86.ª edição da principal divisão do futebol italiano e a 56.ª edição da Serie A. O campeão foi o Milan que conquistou seu 11.º título na história do Campeonato Italiano. O artilheiro foi o Argentino Diego Maradona, do Napoli, com 15 gols.

Regulamento

A Temporada 1987–88 foi a última com 16 clubes. Com o objetivo de aumentar a Serie A de 1988–89 para 18 clubes, houve apenas dois rebaixamentos para essa edição do campeonato.

Nessa Período, o campeonato italiano seguia a seguinte forma de pontuação: 2 pontos por vitória, 1 por empate e 0 por derrota.

Resumo da Temporada

Contratações

As contratações mais notáveis da temporada incluíram Van Basten e Ruud Gullit pelo , Ian Rush pela , Vincenzo Scifo pela Internazionale e Rudi Völler pela Roma.

Resumo do Campeonato

O Napoli, que começou o campeonato como favorito, após conquistar uma dobradinha nacional na temporada anterior, tendo vencido a Serie A de 1986–87, e a Coppa Italia de 1986–87, foi líder isolado na primeira metade do campeonato italiano,  chegando a segunda metade do campeonato com 5 pontos de vantagem sobre o vice-líder Milan.

Entretanto, depois de vários tropeços em jogos importantes, no embate entre os dois clubes que acabaria decidindo a liderança do campeonato, o Milan acabaria vencendo por 3x2.
Na última partida, o Milan enfrentou o , com um empate sendo o suficiente para o clube milanês se sagrar campeão após 9 anos.

Consequências
O Título do Milan, após 9 anos marcados por escândalo de manipulação de resultados, rebaixamentos para a Segunda divisão da Itália, marcou o início de uma nova era na história do clube: Comandados por Arrigo Sacchi, o  viria a ser Bicampeão da Liga dos Campeões da UEFA nas temporadas 1988–89 e 1989–90.
O Napoli por sua vez, continuaria nos próximos 2 anos a competir em alto nível na Serie A: sendo vice-campeão novamente na temporada de 1988–89, e vencendo a competição pela segunda vez em 1989–90, além do título da Copa da UEFA de 1988–89.

Classificação

 a. O  venceu a Coppa Italia de 1987–88.

Play-Off 6°Lugar

O Play-Off serviu para determinar, entre os dois clubes empatados em pontos, qual  iria conquistar o sexto lugar e a vaga na Copa da UEFA de 1988–89.

A Juventus venceu nos pênaltis e se classificou para a Copa da UEFA de 1988–89.

Artilharia

Campeonato Italiano de Futebol - Série A

Campeonato Italiano de Futebol - Série A (1987–88)


Milimetre, Uluslararası Birim Sistemi'nin (International System of Units) tarifine göre, metrenin binde biri değerindeki bir uzunluk birimidir. Milimetre metrik sistem'in bir parçasıdır. Alan hesaplamalarında milimetrekare, hacim hesaplamalarında ise milimetreküp adını alır.

Diğer uzunluk birimleriyle eşitlikleri
1 milimetre;
 0.001 metreye (m),
 0.1 santimetreye (cm)
 yaklaşık 0.03937 inçe eşittir.

Unicode sembolleri
Çince, Japonca ve Korece yazı karakteriyle uyumlu olması amacıyla Unicode; milimetre, milimetrekare ve milimetreküp için bazı semboller öngörmüştür:
 milimetre (㎜) - code 339C
 milimetrekare (㎟) - code 339F
 milimetreküp (㎣) - code 33A3

Ayrıca bakınız
 Uluslararası Birim Sistemi
 Metrik Sistem

Dış bağlantılar
 Ölçüm Birimleri

Uzunluk birimleri

Milimetre


Le siège de Marrakech est une bataille décisive opposant les Almohades aux Almoravides à Marrakech, capitale almoravide, entre 1146 et 1147. La prise de la ville marque la fin définitive de l'Empire almoravide. Abd al-Mumin devient le premier calife almohade.

Contexte

Déroulement

Selon l'ouvrage historique d'Al-Baydaq, après avoir ordonné la fabrication d'échelles pour les adosser aux remparts de la ville, Abd al-Mumin les partagea entre les différentes tribus. Pour l'assaut final, les Hintata et Ahl Tinmel entrent dans la ville du côté de Bab Doukkala, les Sanhadja et Abid Makhzen pénètrent du côté de Bab-al-Dabbagin, puis enfin les Haskoura et Ahl Qabail du côté de Bab Yintan.

Sources

Notes

Sources bibliographiques

Références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Francophone

Marrakech (1146-1147)
Marrakech (1146-1147)
Marrakech (1146-1147)
Marrakech (1146-1147)
Marrakech (1146-1147)

Siège de Marrakech (1146-1147)


Siberian Yupiks, or Yuits (), are a Yupik people who reside along the coast of the Chukchi Peninsula in the far northeast of the  Russian Federation and on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska. They speak Central Siberian Yupik (also known as Yuit), a Yupik language of the Eskimo–Aleut family of languages.

They are also known as Siberian or Eskimo (). The name Yuit (юит, plural: юиты) was officially assigned to them in 1931, at the brief time of the campaign of support of Indigenous cultures in the Soviet Union. Their self-designation is Yupighyt (йупигыт) meaning "true people".

Sirenik Eskimos also live in that area, but their extinct language, Sireniki Eskimo, shows many peculiarities among Eskimo languages and is mutually unintelligible with the neighboring Siberian Yupik languages.

Material culture

Traditional crafts
The Siberian Yupik on St. Lawrence Island live in the villages of Savoonga and Gambell, and are widely known for their skillful carvings of walrus ivory and whale bone, as well as the baleen of bowhead whales. These even include some "moving sculptures" with complicated pulleys animating scenes such as walrus hunting or traditional dances.

Dwelling

The winter building of Chaplino Eskimos (Ungazighmiit) was a round, dome-shaped building. It is called yaranga in the literature, the same word referring also to the similar building of the Chukchi. In the language of Chaplino Eskimos, its name was . There was a smaller cabin inside it at its back part, the , used for sleeping and living. It was separated from the outer, cooler parts of the yaranga with haired reindeer skins and grass, supported by a cage-like framework. But the household works were done in the room of the yaranga in front of this inner building, and also many household utensils were kept there. In winter storms, and at night also the dogs were there. This room for economical purposes was called .

Other types of buildings among Chaplino Eskimos  include a modernized type, and  that was used for summer.

Spiritual culture

Shamanism
Many Indigenous Siberian cultures had persons working as mediator (between human and beings of the belief system, among others) — usually termed as "shamans" in the literature. As Eskimo cultures were far from homogeneous (although had some similarities), thus also shamanism among Eskimo peoples had many variants.

Siberian Yupiks had shamans as well. Compared to the variants found among Eskimo groups of America, shamanism among Siberian Yupiks stressed more the importance of maintaining good relationship with sea animals. Ungazighmiit people (the largest of Siberian Yupik variants) had s, who received presents for the shamanizing, healing. This payment had a special name,  — in their language, there were many words for the different kinds of presents and payments and this was one of them. (The many kinds of presents and the words designating them were related to the culture: fests, marriage etc.; or made such fine distinctions like "thing, given to someone who has none", "thing, given, not begged for", "thing, given to someone as to anybody else", "thing, given for exchange" etc.).

Fighting the spirit of smallpox

The Even people, a tribe that lived on the far eastern side of Russia, believed that the spirit of smallpox could be seen as a Russian woman with red hair. A local shaman would be there to greet migrating reindeer herders (who sometimes brought the disease with them). If the shaman saw the spirit of the disease in the caravan, several shaman worked together to fight it off with a seance. Others in the tribe helped with this ritual.

Tradition says that the smallpox spirit changed from a woman to a red bull when she was attacked. The spirit of smallpox was supposed to be very powerful, and if the shaman's ritual failed, all the local people would die. The spirit would only spare two people to bury all the rest. But if the ritual worked, the spirit would be forced to leave.

Name giving
Similarly to several other Indigenous cultures, the name-giving of a newborn baby among Siberian Yupik meant that a deceased person was affected, a certain rebirth was believed. Even before the birth of the baby, careful investigations took place: dreams, events were analyzed. After the birth, the baby's physical traits were compared to those of the deceased person. The name was important: if the baby died, it was thought that he/she has not given the "right" name. In case of sickness, it was hoped that giving additional names could result in healing.

Amulets
Amulets could be manifested in many forms, and could protect the person wearing them or the entire family, and there were also hunting amulets. Some examples:
 a head of raven hanging on the entrance of the house, functioning as a familiar amulet;
 figures carved out of stone in shape of walrus head or dog head, worn as individual amulets;
 hunting amulets were attached to something or worn. About the effige of orca on the tools of the marine hunter, see the beliefs concerning this peculiar marine mammal below.

Concepts regarding the animal world
The orca, wolf, raven, spider, whale, were revered animals. Also folklore (e.g. tale) examples demonstrate this. For example, a spider saves the life of a girl. The motif of spider as a benevolent personage, saving people from peril with its cobweb, lifting them up to the sky in danger, is present also in many tales of Sireniki Eskimos (as mentioned, their exact classification inside Eskimo peoples is not settled yet).

It was thought that the prey of the marine hunt could return to the sea and become a complete animal again. That is why they did not break the bones, only cut them at the joints.

Orca and wolf
In the tales and beliefs of this people, wolf and orca are thought to be identical: orca can become a wolf or vice versa. In winter, they appear in the form of wolf, in summer, in the form of orca. Orca was believed to help people in hunting on the sea — thus the boat represented the image of this animal, and the orca's wooden representation hang also from the hunter's belt. Also small sacrifices could be given to orcas: tobacco was thrown into the sea for them, because they were thought to help the sea hunter in driving walrus. It was believed that the orca was a help of the hunters even if it was in the guise of wolf: this wolf was thought to force the reindeer to allow itself to be killed by the hunters.

Whale
It is thought that during the hunt only those people who have been selected by the spirit of the sea could kill the whale. The hunter has to please the killed whale: it must be treated as a guest. Just like a polite host does not leave a recently arrived dear guest alone, thus similarly, the killed whale should not be left alone by the host (i.e. by the hunter who has killed it). Like a guest, it should not get hurt or feel sad. It must be entertained (e.g. by drum music, good foods). On the next whale migration (whales migrate twice a year, in spring to the north and in the autumn back), the previously killed whale is sent off back to the sea in the course of a farewell ritual. If the killed whale was pleased to (during its being a guest for a half year), then it can be hoped that it will return later, too: thus, also the future whale hunts will succeed.

Celestial concepts
In a tale, the sky seems to be imagined arching as a vault. Celestial bodies form holes in it: beyond this vault, there is an especially light space.

See also

 Siberian Yupik language
 Yupik languages
 Yupik
 Eskimo
 Naukan people of the Chukchi Peninsula
 Eskimo yo-yo
 Whistled language

References

Citations

Bibliography

English

 Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. .

 de Reuse, Willem J. (1994). Siberian Yupik Eskimo: The language and its contacts with Chukchi. Studies in indigenous languages of the Americas. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. .

Russian

  The transliteration of author's name, and the rendering of title in English:
  The transliteration of author's name, and the rendering of title in English:
  The transliteration of author's name, and the rendering of title in English:

Further reading
 Krupnik, Igor, and Nikolay Vakhtin. 1997. "Indigenous Knowledge in Modern Culture: Siberian Yupik Ecological Legacy in Transition". Arctic Anthropology. 34, no. 1: 236.

External links
  Tales rendered in English; the song texts both in English and in original. Large PDF file requiring considerable computation resources.
  HTML format, the original language versions of the song texts are omitted.
  Collection of 27 texts collected by Rubtsova in 1940–1941. Translated into English and edited by Vakhtin. (The English version is the last file at the bottom of the page.) Downloadable from UAF's site licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.

 Eskimo Language page of Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia
 Ethnologue report
 The Asiatic (Siberian) Eskimos

 Endangered Languages in Northeast Siberia: Siberian Yupik and other Languages of Chukotka by Nikolai Vakhtin
 Krupnik, Igor and Mikhail Chlenov (2007). The end of "Eskimo land": Yupik relocation in Chukotka, 1958-1959 Études/Inuit/Studies 31 (1-2) pp 59–81.
 Smithsonian Institution, Alaska Native Collections, St. Lawrence Island Yupik
  Г.А. Меновщиков: Азиатских эскимосов язык is a summary of the Chaplino dialect. It can be read among other articles, collected under name Языки мира — Палеоазиатские языки (Languages of the world — Paleoasian languages).
  Support for Siberian Indigenous Peoples Rights (Поддержка прав коренных народов Сибири)—see the section on Eskimos
  Духовная культура (Spiritual culture), subsection of Support for Siberian Indigenous Peoples Rights (Поддержка прав коренных народов Сибири)
  A radio interview with Russian scientists about Eskimos
  ICC Chukotka, the regional office of Inuit Circumpolar Council

Photographs

  Rendering in English: Ungaziq settlement, Kunstkamera, Russian Academy of Sciences.
  Ungaziq is the name-giving settlement for the largest Siberian Yupik group, Ungazighmiit. Enlarged versions of the above series, select with the navigation arrows or the form.
  Rendering in English: Naukan settlement, Kunstkamera, Russian Academy of Sciences.
  Enlarged versions of the above series, select with the navigation arrows or the form.
  "Nita Tokoyu of Gambell, St. Lawrence Island, sews a gut parka with Kakhsogon (left) and Wiyi (right) standing by".
  "Yupik men wear gut parkas in this image of a St. Lawrence Island house interior, c1825".

Siberian Yupik
Yupik
Indigenous peoples in the Arctic
Alaska Native ethnic groups
Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East
People from Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Chukchi Sea

Siberian Yupik


El término Peschani (, "arenoso") puede referirse a:

Localidades

Peschani (Anapa, Krasnodar), localidad del ókrug urbano de la ciudad-balneario de Anapa del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia
Peschani (Korenovsk, Krasnodar), localidad del raión de Korenovsk del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia.
Peschani (Séverskaya, Krasnodar), localidad del raión de Séverskaya del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia.
Peschani (Tbilískaya, Krasnodar), localidad del raión de Tbilískaya del krai de Krasnodar, en Rusia.
Peschani (Múrmansk), localidad del óblast de Múrmansk, en Rusia.
Peschani (Rostov), localidad del óblast de Rostov, en Rusia.

Peschani (Ucrania), localidad de Ucrania.

Otros

Peschani (mar de Laptev), isla del mar de Láptev, en Rusia.
Peschani (mar Caspio), isla del mar Caspio en la bahía de Bakú, en Azerbaiyán.
Peschani (Nueva Zembla), isla del archipiélago de Nueva Zembla, en Rusia.
Peschani (península), península del krai de Primorie, en Rusia.

Peschani


Alt Cosel ( Stare Koźle) ist eine Ortschaft in Oberschlesien. Alt Cosel liegt in der Gemeinde Birawa im Powiat Kędzierzyńsko-Kozielski (Landkreis Kandrzin-Cosel) in der polnischen Woiwodschaft Oppeln.

Geographie

Geographische Lage
Das Straßendorf Alt Cosel liegt vier Kilometer nördlich vom Gemeindesitz Birawa (Bierawa), 5 Kilometer südlich von der Kreisstadt Kędzierzyn-Koźle (Kandrzin-Cosel) und 45 Kilometer südöstlich von der Woiwodschaftshauptstadt Oppeln. Der Ort liegt in der Nizina Śląska (Schlesische Tiefebene) innerhalb der Kotlina Raciborska (Ratiborer Becken). Alt Cosel liegt am rechten Ufer der Oder.

Durch den Ort führt die Woiwodschaftsstraße Droga wojewódzka 408. Östlich des Dorfes verläuft die Bahnstrecke Kędzierzyn-Koźle–Bohumín mit dem Halt Kędzierzyn-Koźle Azoty. Weiterhin östlich des Dorfes gelegen befindet sich ein Teilstück des ehemalig geplanten Donau-Oder-Kanal.

Nachbarorte
Nachbarorte von Alt Cosel sind im Norden Brzezetz (Brzeźce), im Süden der Gemeindesitz Birawa (Bierawa) und im Südwesten auf der gegenüberliegenden Oderseite Landsmierz (Landzmierz).

Geschichte

Der Ort wurde 1223 erstmals urkundlich erwähnt.

Nach dem Ersten Schlesischen Krieg 1742 fiel Alt Cosel mit dem größten Teil Schlesiens an Preußen.

Nach der Neuorganisation der Provinz Schlesien gehörte die Landgemeinde Alt Cosel ab 1818 zum Landkreis Cosel im Regierungsbezirk Oppeln. 1845 bestanden im Dorf eine katholische Pfarrkirche, eine katholische Schule, eine Mühle, ein Vorwerk sowie 68 Häuser. Im gleichen Jahr lebten in Alt Cosel 560 Menschen, davon zwei evangelisch. 1855 lebten 772 Menschen im Ort. 1865 hatte der Ort 10 Bauern, 15 Gärtner, 46 Häusler. Die katholische Schule wurde im gleichen Jahr von 278 Schülern besucht. 1874 wurde der Amtsbezirk Slawentzitz gegründet, welcher die Landgemeinden Alt Cosel, Birawa, Brzezetz, Goschütz, Jacobswalde, Kandrzin-Pogorzelletz, Klein Althammer, Lenartowitz, Libischau, Medar-Blechhammer, Miesce, Ortowitz, Sackenhoym, Slawentzitz und Slawentzitz Kolonie und die Gutsbezirke Alt Cosel, Birawa, Brzezetz, Goschütz, Jacobswalde, Kandrzin-Pogorzelletz, Klein Althammer, Lenartowitz, Libischau, Medar-Blechhammer, Miesce, Ortowitz und Slawentzitz umfasste. 1885 zählte der Ort 813 Einwohner.

Bei der Volksabstimmung in Oberschlesien am 20. März 1921 stimmten 414 Wahlberechtigte für einen Verbleib bei Deutschland und 236 für Polen. Alt Cosel verblieb beim Deutschen Reich. Im Rahmen des Dritten Schlesischen Aufstandes kam es im Dorf 1921 zu schweren Kämpfen, wobei zahlreiche Häuser und die Nepomukkirche schwer zerstört wurden. 1933 zählte Alt Cosel 1233, 1939 wiederum 1361 Einwohner. Bis 1945 befand sich der Ort im Landkreis Cosel.

1945 kam der bisher deutsche Ort unter polnische Verwaltung und wurde in Stare Koźle umbenannt und der Woiwodschaft Schlesien angeschlossen. 1950 kam der Ort zur Woiwodschaft Oppeln. 1999 kam der Ort zum neugegründeten Powiat Kędzierzyńsko-Kozielski. Am 23. April 2007 wurde in der Gemeinde Birawa, der Stare Koźle angehört, Deutsch als zweite Amtssprache eingeführt.  Am 10. Januar 2011 erhielt der Ort zusätzlich den amtlichen deutschen Ortsnamen Alt Cosel. 2012 zählte das Dorf 832 Einwohner.

Wappen

Alte Siegel der Gemeinde Alt Cosel zeigen eine nach rechts gekehrte stehende Ziege auf zwei gekreuzten Balken oder auch wahrscheinlich auf landwirtschaftlichen Werkzeugen. Es weist somit auf den damaligen landwirtschaftlich geprägten Charakter des Ortes hin. Zudem handelt es sich um ein redendes Wappen.

Neuere Wappen zeigen einen nach rechts gekehrten Ziegenkopf, ähnlich dem Wappen von Cosel, das drei Ziegenköpfe zeigt.

Sehenswürdigkeiten

Johannes-Nepomuk-Kirche
Die römisch-katholische St.-Johannes-Nepomuk-Kirche wurde zwischen 1806 und 1808 errichtet. Sie befindet sich südwestlich Teil des Dorfes. Während Kampfhandlungen bei den Aufständen in Oberschlesien, beim Dritten Aufstand 1921, wurde die Kirche durch Artelellierbeschuss schwer beschädigt. Bis 1922 wurde die Kirche vereinfacht wieder aufgebaut. Der einschiffige Kirchenbau besitzt einen Glockenturm, welcher von einer niedrigen, kugelförmigen Kuppel bekrönt wird. Die Kirche steht seit 1966 unter Denkmalschutz.

Weitere Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Dorffriedhof mit erhaltenen deutschen Grabmäler – seit 1990 unter Denkmalschutz
 Denkmal für die Gefallenen des Ersten Weltkriegs an der Nepomukkirche
 Denkmal für die Gefallenen des Zweiten Weltkriegs auf dem Dorffriedhof
 Grabmal für die Gefallenen der Oberschlesischen Aufstände
 Schulgebäude aus Backstein
 Pfarrhaus

Vereine
 Deutscher Freundschaftskreis
 Freiwillige Feuerwehr OSP Stare Koźle
 Fußballverein LZS Stare Koźle

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Gemeinde Birawa
Ort in Schlesien
Ort der Woiwodschaft Opole
Ersterwähnung 1223
Straßendorf

Alt Cosel


The Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) is the United States Army's second highest military decoration for soldiers who display extraordinary heroism in combat with an armed enemy force. Actions that merit the Distinguished Service Cross must be of such a high degree that they are above those required for all other U.S. combat decorations, but which do not meet the criteria for the Medal of Honor. The Army Distinguished Service Cross is equivalent to the Naval Services' Navy Cross, the Air and Space Forces' Air Force Cross, and the Coast Guard Cross. Prior to the creation of the Air Force Cross in 1960, airmen were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

The Distinguished Service Cross was first awarded during World War I. In addition, a number of awards were bestowed for actions which took place before World War I. In many cases, the medal was awarded to soldiers who had received a Certificate of Merit for gallantry; at the time, this certificate was the only other honor for gallantry the Army could present to combatants in lieu of a Medal of Honor. Others were furnished in belated recognition of actions which occurred in the Philippine–American War, during the Boxer Rebellion, and Pancho Villa Expedition.

The Distinguished Service Cross is distinct from the Distinguished Service Medal, which is awarded to Army soldiers in recognition of exceptionally meritorious service to the government of the United States in a duty of great responsibility. The Distinguished Service Cross is only awarded for actions in combat, while the Distinguished Service Medal has no such restriction.

Description
A cross of bronze,  high and  wide with an eagle on the center and a scroll below the eagle bearing the inscription "FOR VALOR". On the reverse side, the center of the cross is circled by a wreath with a space for engraving the name of the recipient.

Service ribbon
The service ribbon is  wide and consists of the following stripes:
  Old Glory Red 67156;
  White 67101;
  Imperial Blue 67175;
  White;
  Old Glory Red.

Criteria
The Distinguished Service Cross is awarded to a person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army (or in the Air Force, before 1960), distinguishes themselves by extraordinary heroism not justifying the award of a Medal of Honor; while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States; while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing/foreign force; or while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party. The act or acts of heroism must have been so notable and have involved risk of life so extraordinary as to set the individual apart from their comrades.

Components
The following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Cross:
 Decoration (regular size): MIL-D-3943/4. NSN 8455-00-269-5745 for decoration set. NSN 8455-00-246-3827 for individual replacement medal.
 Decoration (miniature size): MIL-D-3943/4. NSN 8455-00-996-50007.
 Ribbon: MIL-R-11589/50. NSN 8455-00-252-9919.
 Lapel Button (a colored enameled replica of service ribbon): MIL-L-11484/1. NSN 8455-00-253-0808.

Additional awards of the Army Distinguished Service Cross are denoted with oak leaf clusters.

Background
The Distinguished Service Cross was established by President Woodrow Wilson on January 2, 1918. General John J. Pershing, Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Forces in France, had recommended that recognition other than the Medal of Honor be authorized for the United States Army for valorous service rendered in like manner to that awarded by the European Armies. The request for the establishment of the medal was forwarded from the Secretary of War to the President in a letter dated December 28, 1917. The Act of Congress establishing this award (193-65th Congress), dated July 9, 1918, is contained in . The establishment of the Distinguished Service Cross was promulgated in War Department General Order No. 6, dated January 12, 1918.

The first style of the Distinguished Service Cross was designed by Captain Aymar E. Embury II, Engineers Officer Reserve Corps, and World War I artist Lieutenant J. Andre Smith. The first medals were struck by the United States Mint from a sculpture by Gaetano Cecere, who went on to design the Soldier's Medal.  It was decided that minor changes were needed to make the medal more attractive. In light of the urgency in supplying the decorations to General Pershing, the first one hundred medals were struck from the original design. They were sent on the understanding that replacements in the second design (also numbered from 1 to 100) would be provided once they were available.  Embury made the modifications with the plaster model for the second (and current) version made by John R. Sinnock, who also sculpted various other medals, including the Purple Heart.

Army Regulation (AR) 670–1, governing the wear and appearance of army uniforms and insignia, and its associated guide specify that the Distinguished Service Cross appears second in the order of precedence of U.S. military decorations, preceded only by the Medal of Honor. Policy for awards, approving authority, supply, and issue of decorations is contained in AR 600-8-22.   provides for a 10% increase in retired pay for enlisted personnel who have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and retired with more than 20 years of service.

Awarding history

World War I

During World War I, 6,309 awards of the Distinguished Service Cross were made to 6,185 recipients. Several dozen Army soldiers, as well as eight marines and two French Army officers, received two Distinguished Service Crosses.

A handful, mostly United States Army Air Service aviators, were decorated three or more times. Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, the top U.S. ace of the war, was awarded a record eight Distinguished Service Crosses, one of which was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, while flying with the 94th Aero Squadron. Fellow aviators Captain Douglas Campbell, also of the 94th, and First Lieutenant Frank O'Driscoll "Monk" Hunter of the 103rd Aero Squadron each received five. Another 94th aviator, Major Reed McKinley Chambers, was awarded four Distinguished Service Crosses. Three aviators received three Distinguished Service Crosses First Lieutenant Murray K. Guthrie of the 13th Aero Squadron, First Lieutenant Ralph A. O'Neill of the 147th Aero Squadron, and Glen A. Preston, an aerial observation pilot with the 99th Aero Squadron. Among other prominent aviators were Brigadier General Billy Mitchell, the Chief of Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force; Second Lieutenant Frank Luke of the 27th Aero Squadron, who was honored with the Medal of Honor and two Distinguished Service Crosses; and Sumner Sewall of the 95th Aero Squadron, recipient of two Distinguished Service Crosses, who served as Governor of Maine from 1941 to 1945. Edward Peck Curtis, also of the 95th Aero Squadron received the Distinguished Service Cross as a first lieutenant.

Colonel John H. Parker, the commander of the 102nd Infantry Regiment, 26th Division, was the only ground soldier in World War I to receive four Distinguished Service Crosses. First Lieutenant Oscar B. Nelson of the 168th Infantry Regiment, 42nd Division, was honored three times, the third award being posthumous.

Several men who had previously received the Medal of Honor received the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I. Most notable of these was Marine Corps legend, Sergeant Major Daniel Daly, who was twice decorated with the Medal of Honor, and who received the Distinguished Service Cross for heroism as First Sergeant of the 73rd Company, Sixth Marine Regiment, during the Battle of Belleau Wood in June 1918. Colonel Charles E. Kilbourne, who received the Medal of Honor in the Philippine Insurrection, was decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross as chief of staff of the 89th Division. First Lieutenant James B. McConnell, also decorated with the Medal of Honor for actions in the Philippines as a private with the 33rd Infantry, received the Distinguished Service Cross posthumously as a first lieutenant with the 4th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Division.

Marine Corps Colonel Hiram I. Bearss, recipient of the Medal of Honor in the Philippines, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross while attached to the 102nd Infantry Regiment, 26th Division. Marine Gunner Henry L. Hulbert, also a recipient of the Navy Medal of Honor in the Philippines, received the Distinguished Service Cross for bravery while serving with the 5th Marine Regiment during the Battle of Belleau Wood. Spanish–American War Medal of Honor recipient John H. Quick also received the Distinguished Service Cross at Belleau Wood as Sergeant Major of the Sixth Marine Regiment.

Besides Rickenbacker, several men received both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross during World War I. Navy recipients were John Henry Balch, a U.S. Navy Pharmacist's Mate, and Joel T. Boone, a U.S. Navy Lieutenant (Medical Corps), both attached to the Sixth Marine Regiment. Army recipients were Private Daniel R. Edwards of the 3rd Machine-Gun Battalion, 1st Division, Colonel William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan of the 165th Infantry Regiment, 42nd Division, and Second Lieutenant Samuel I. Parker of the 28th Infantry Regiment, 1st Division.

Two recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross during World War I went on to earn the Medal of Honor in World War II – Major (later Brigadier General) Theodore Roosevelt Jr. of the 26th Infantry Regiment, 1st Division, son of the former president, and Brigadier General (later General of the Army) Douglas MacArthur of the 42nd Division. Other recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I who went on to acclaim in World War II include George S. Patton Jr. and Carl Spaatz.

Among other prominent recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross during World War I were Brigadier General John L. Hines, decorated as commanding general of the 1st Brigade, 1st Division, and Major General Charles Pelot Summerall, decorated as commanding general of the 1st Division, who both went on to serve as Chief of Staff of the United States Army. Private Sam Ervin of the 28th Infantry Regiment, 1st Division, went on to serve as a United States Senator from the state of North Carolina. Major Dwight F. Davis, decorated as Assistant Chief of Staff of the 69th Infantry Brigade, 35th Division, founded the Davis Cup international tennis competition and served as United States Secretary of War in the Coolidge Administration. Father John B. DeValles, chaplain (first lieutenant), known as the Angel of the Trenches for administering to the needs of both Allied and German soldiers. He founded the first Portuguese parochial school at the Espirito Santo Church in Fall River, Massachusetts. B. Caroll Reece, decorated as a First Lieutenant with the 102nd Infantry Regiment, 26th Division, went on to represent the state of Tennessee in the United States House of Representatives for a total of 17 terms. Twenty one African American soldiers from the 370th Infantry Regiment received the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) for action in both the Meuse–Argonne and Oise–Aisne campaigns.

Between the World Wars
In the immediate aftermath of World War I, 62 awards were made for actions in North Russia and Siberia during the Russian Civil War. Also, approximately 132 retroactive awards were made for actions in previous conflicts, including the Indian Wars, the Spanish–American War, the Philippine Insurrection, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Mexican border conflicts. Fifteen soldiers previously awarded Certificates of Merit for non-combat gallantry between 1899 and 1917 were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

Prominent among post-World War I Distinguished Service Cross recipients for acts before that war was General J. Franklin Bell, Chief of Staff of the Army from 1906 to 1910. A recipient of the Medal of Honor during the Philippine Insurrection, in 1925 he was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross for bravery in the Spanish–American War in 1898. In 1920, General Peyton C. March, then serving as Chief of Staff of the Army, was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross for bravery in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War when he was a 1st lieutenant. March's successor, General of the Armies John J. Pershing, received a Distinguished Service Cross in 1941 for bravery during the Philippine Insurrection. Second Lieutenant Gordon Johnston and Corporal Arthur M. Ferguson, both Medal of Honor recipients for the Philippine Insurrection, were also awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for other acts of bravery in the Philippines. Future Governor of American Samoa Otto Dowling received the cross for displaying bravery while responding to a fire at Lake Denmark Powder Depot, which he commanded at the time.

Among the recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross for Siberia and North Russia were Robert L. Eichelberger, who would earn a second medal in World War II, and Sidney C. Graves, who had previously received a Distinguished Service Cross in World War I.

World War II
During World War II, just over 5,000 awards were made. Army Air Forces Lieutenant Colonel John C. Meyer, Major General James A. Van Fleet, and Master Sergeant Llewellyn Chilson were three-time recipients. Jeannette Guyot and Virginia Hall were the only two women to receive the award.

A number of recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross in earlier conflicts were again honored in World War II. Chester Hirschfelder, who as a captain with the 5th Machine Gun Battalion, 2nd Infantry Division, had received his first Distinguished Service Cross in 1918, received two more in 1944 as a colonel commanding the 9th Infantry Regiment of that same division. Three recipients of two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War IDouglas MacArthur, Hanford MacNider and Harry H. Semmesreceived their third in World War II. A handful of men who had received the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I received a second in World War II. Among these were George S. Patton Jr., whose second Distinguished Service Cross came as commanding general of the Seventh Army in Sicily, and Fred L. Walker, commander of the U.S. 36th Infantry Division in the breakout from Anzio and advance on Rome. Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was awarded for valor in Siberia in 1919, received a second for valor in New Guinea in the Buna campaign of 1942–43.

A little over fifty soldiers (and one sailor) received two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War II. The sailor was John D. Bulkeley, who also received the Medal of Honor and the Navy Cross and was one of the most highly decorated Americans of World War II. Among Army recipients of two Distinguished Service Crosses were Creighton W. Abrams Jr., later the Chief of Staff of the Army, William O. Darby, one of the fathers of the U.S. Army Rangers, and Robert T. Frederick, commander of the U.S-Canadian 1st Special Service Force. Six men of the 82nd Airborne Division received two Distinguished Service Crosses: Charles Billingslea, James M. Gavin, Arthur F. Gorham, Matthew B. Ridgway, Reuben Henry Tucker III and Benjamin H. Vandervoort. Several fighter pilots also received two Distinguished Service Crosses, including Donald Blakeslee, Paul P. Douglas Jr., William E. Dyess, Dominic "Don" Gentile, Gerald R. Johnson, Charles "Mac" MacDonald, James B. Morehead, Jay T. "Cock" Robbins, David C. Schilling, Jesús A. Villamor, William T. Whisner Jr. and Ray S. Wetmore. Bomber pilot Richard H. Carmichael also received two Distinguished Service Crosses.

The commander of Easy Company of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, U.S. 101st Airborne Division, Richard Winters, received a Distinguished Service Cross for his role in the assault on Brecourt Manor on D-Day; a member of the 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment, U.S. 101st Airborne Division, Harrison C. Summers received a Distinguished Service Cross for his role on the assault to capture a building complex nearby designated "WXYZ" on the field order map.

During World War II, twelve soldiers, three airmen, and two sailors received both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross: from the Army, Bernard P. Bell, Maurice L. "Footsie" Britt, Herbert H. Burr, Leonard A. Funk, Gerry H. Kisters, James M. Logan, George L. Mabry Jr., Douglas MacArthur, Audie L. Murphy, Junior J. Spurrier, Jack L. Treadwell and Jonathan M. Wainwright; from the Army Air Forces, Richard I. Bong, Horace S. Carswell Jr. and Thomas B. McGuire Jr.; and from the Navy, John D. Bulkeley and Samuel D. Dealey (who also received four Navy Crosses). One World War II Distinguished Service Cross recipient, Raymond Harvey, would earn the Medal of Honor in the Korean War.

General Paul W. Tibbets, commander of the 509th Composite Group (509 CG), was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by General Spaatz for piloting the Enola Gay, the B-29 Superfortress plane which dropped the first nuclear bomb on Hiroshima.

Korean War
In the Korean War, there were just over 800 awards, of which over 300 were posthumous.

Robert R. Martin, colonel with the 24th Infantry Division was a first recipient in the Korean war.

Lloyd L. "Scooter" Burke, a lieutenant with the 1st Cavalry Division, Benjamin F. Wilson, a master sergeant with the 7th Infantry Division, Lewis Millett, a captain with the 27th Infantry Regiment and Air Force fighter ace George A. Davis Jr., each earned both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross in Korea.

Colonel Arthur Champeny, previously decorated for bravery at Saint-Mihiel in September 1918 and a second time at Santa Maria Infante, Italy in May 1944, received a third Distinguished Service Cross in September 1950. Fighter pilot William T. Whisner, recipient of two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War II, was awarded a third in Korea.

Ten World War II recipients received a second Distinguished Service Cross in Korea. Among these were John T. Corley, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was earned in North Africa in March 1943 with the 1st Infantry Division and whose second was earned in August 1950 with the 25th Infantry Division, Hobart R. Gay, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was earned in 1944 as Chief of Staff of George S. Patton's Third Army and whose second was earned in 1950 as commanding general of the 1st Cavalry Division, and Walton Walker, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was earned in 1944 as commanding general of XX Corps and whose second was earned in 1950 as commanding general of Eighth Army. Nine men received two Distinguished Service Crosses in Korea. Among these was Edward Almond, the commanding general of X Corps.

Korean War Distinguished Service Cross recipient First Lieutenant Richard E. Cavazos would earn a second Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam and rise to full general, becoming the first Hispanic-American four-star general. Korean War Distinguished Service Cross recipient Ralph Puckett Jr. would also receive a second Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam in command of a battalion of the 101st Airborne Division. Thomas Tackaberry would earn a Distinguished Service Cross in 1952 as a company commander and two more in Vietnam. U.S. Air Force ace Ralph Parr earned a Distinguished Service Cross in 1953 in Korea and an Air Force Cross in Vietnam.

Three marines earned both the Navy Cross and the Army Distinguished Service Cross in Korea: Homer Litzenberg, Raymond Murray, and Marine Corps legend Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller. "Chesty" Puller had previously earned four Navy Crosses in Nicaragua and World War II, while Murray was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in the 1st Marine Division's historic breakout from the Chosin Reservoir area to the sea at Hamhung, and two days later took part in the action which earned him his second Navy Cross. Murray had earned his first Navy Cross on Saipan during World War II.

Other notable Korean War recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross include Harold K. Johnson, later Chief of Staff of the Army, and Herbert B. Powell, later Ambassador to New Zealand (1963–67). Along with Gen. Johnson, at least five other Korean War Distinguished Service Cross recipients later rose to four-star rank: Paul L. Freeman Jr., Clark L. Ruffner (decorated in 1951 as commander of the 2nd Infantry Division), John L. Throckmorton and John H. "Iron Mike" Michaelis (who had commanded the 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment in Normandy). Welborn G. Dolvin, decorated as a lieutenant colonel with the 25th Infantry Division, rose to lieutenant general. MG Ned D. Moore, who earned a Distinguished Service Cross as a colonel in August 1950, had previously served as Chief of Staff of the 101st Airborne Division in the Battle of the Bulge and later rose to major general. Olinto M. Barsanti went on to command the 101st Airborne in Vietnam. Guy S. Meloy went on to command the 82nd Airborne. 1st Lt. Joseph G. Clemons Jr. for his actions during the Pork Chop Hill, he would later command the 198th Infantry Brigade in the Vietnam War and Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón on 1951, from 65th Infantry Regiment (United States), upgraded to Medal of Honor on 2014 by President Barack Obama

Among the 14 foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross in the Korean War was Sinasi Sukan (Şinasi Sükan), a captain with 3rd Brigade Turkish Army who has lost his leg during Vegas War, Kenneth Muir, a major with the 1st Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, British Army, who also posthumously received the Victoria Cross. Other foreign recipients came from the Belgian, British, French, Greek, Philippine, South Korean and Turkish armies. Soldiers serving with the Greek Expeditionary Force received 6 Distinguished Service Crosses in total during the Korean War.

Vietnam War
There were just over 1,000 awards in the Vietnam War, almost 400 of which were posthumous.

Patrick Brady, a helicopter pilot with the 44th Medical Brigade, and Robert L. Howard, a Special Forces NCO, received both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam. Major General Keith L. Ware, who had earned the Medal of Honor in World War II and who was killed in action in September 1968, received a posthumous Distinguished Service Cross.

James F. Hollingsworth, who received a Distinguished Service Cross in April 1945 as commander of 2nd Battalion, 67th Armored Regiment, received a second award in November 1966 as assistant division commander of the 1st Infantry Division, and a third in March 1967 as acting division commander of the 1st Infantry Division. He was the subject of the narrative "The General Goes Zapping Charlie Cong". Thomas H. Tackaberry, who received his first Distinguished Service Cross in Korea, received a second in September 1966 as a battalion commander with the 1st Cavalry Division and a third in September 1969 as commander of the 196th Infantry Brigade, Americal Division. Both later rose to lieutenant general.

One World War II recipient, William E. DePuy, and two Korean War recipients, Richard E. Cavazos and Ralph Puckett Jr., received a second Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam. Both DePuy and Cavazos would later rise to full general.

Besides Hollingsworth and Tackaberry, eleven other soldiers earned two Distinguished Service Crosses in Vietnam. Two, John R. Deane Jr. and Barry R. McCaffrey, later rose to full general, and a third, Henry E. Emerson, retired as a lieutenant general. McCaffrey also served as Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy during the Clinton Administration. Colonel David H. Hackworth, who also received ten Silver Stars in Korea and Vietnam, later rose to prominence as a military affairs journalist. George S. Patton IV, son of a two-time Distinguished Service Cross recipient, received two Distinguished Service Crosses in 1968 as commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment. Sergeant Adelbert Waldron III, twice awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1969 as a sniper with the 9th Infantry Division, is credited with 109 confirmed kills, the most among U.S. snipers. Dennis Tomcik, a first lieutenant with the 47th Infantry Regiment, was twice awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for two separate actions in 1968 in the Kien Hoa Province.

Among other notable Vietnam War Distinguished Service Cross recipients were several who later rose to full general. Among these, besides DePuy and Cavazos, were Paul F. Gorman, who later commanded the U.S. Southern Command; Robert C. Kingston, the first commander-in-chief of U.S. Central Command; James J. Lindsay, who later commanded the U.S. Special Operations Command; Timothy J. Grogan, who later served as the deputy chief of staff for doctrine at the Army's Training and Doctrine Command at Fort Monroe; and Louis C. Menetrey, who wore three hats as Commander, United Nations Command, R.O.K./U.S. Combined Forces Command and U.S. Forces Korea. John W. Vessey Jr., decorated for valor during Operation Junction City in March 1967, rose to become Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, retiring in 1985. Frederick C. Weyand was decorated in 1967 as commanding general of the 25th Infantry Division. He would serve as Chief of Staff of the Army from 1974 to 1976. Bernard W. Rogers, decorated in March 1967 as assistant division commander of the 1st Infantry Division, succeeded General Weyand as Chief of Staff of the Army and subsequently became NATO's Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). Alexander M. Haig Jr., also decorated in March 1967 as a battalion commander in the 1st Infantry Division, preceded General Rogers as SACEUR, and became Secretary of State in the Reagan Administration. Former West Point football All-American, then Captain Bill Carpenter, "The Lonesome End", received the award in 1966, and would go on to retire as a major general.

First Lieutenant Norman A. Mordue received the Distinguished Service Cross for valor in May 1967 while serving with the 1st Cavalry Division. He was appointed to the U.S. federal bench in 1998 and in 2006 became the Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of New York. Eldon Bargewell, decorated in 1971 as a staff sergeant with MACV-SOG, was later commissioned and as of early 2006 was a major general on the staff of Multi-National Force Iraq and the only Vietnam-era DSC recipient still on active duty. David Christian, described as the "Youngest Most Decorated Officer of the Vietnam War", received the Distinguished Service Cross recipient while leading a long range reconnaissance patrol of the 1st Infantry Division, and later became a prominent advocate for veterans.

Among Distinguished Service Cross recipients for valor in the early battles in Vietnam were four members of the 1st Cavalry Division decorated for valor in the Battle of Ia Drang Valley in November 1965 – Lt. Col. Hal Moore, Major Bruce Crandall and two other members of their unit. The actions of all four were later portrayed in the film "We Were Soldiers", based on Hal Moore's book on the battle. Crandall's Distinguished Service Cross was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to him in February 2007.

Six Distinguished Service Crosses were awarded to Son Tay raiders, participants in the November 1970 attempt to rescue U.S. POWs in North Vietnam. Among the recipients were Special Forces soldiers Richard J. "Dick" Meadows and Arthur D. "Bull" Simons.

1975 to present
After the Vietnam War, the Distinguished Service Cross has been awarded multiple times. , it has been awarded 16 times for actions during Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan. , the Distinguished Service Cross has been awarded 13 times for actions during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Master Sergeant David R. Halbruner was awarded the medal for his actions during the 2012 Benghazi attack; there has also been only one award for actions during the 2015 Bamako hotel attack.

Operation Enduring Freedom

Major Mark E. Mitchell, 3rd Battalion, 5th Special Forces Group, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his leading his team against a numerically superior enemy force to free an American held captive at Qala-i-Jang Fortress, Mazar-e Sharif, Afghanistan between 25 and 28 November 2001. MSgt Brendan W. O'Connor, 2nd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross after he removed his body armor to reach to a pair of wounded teammates and render medical aid to them, while under fire, on 24 June 2006.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

Colonel James H. Coffman Jr., 1st Iraqi Special Police Commando Brigade, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for defending a police station in Mosul from an insurgent attack on 14 November 2004.

Notable recipients

Note that the inclusion of one, or more, Oak Leaf Clusters signifies each additional Distinguished Service Cross awarded to that recipient.

Revocation
In a number of cases, an award of the Distinguished Service Cross has later been revoked. In most cases, this has been for one of three reasons: the award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor, duplicate awards had been made to the same recipient for the same action by two different headquarters, or the award had been revoked to allow republication with a new and revised award citation. Such revocations have occurred over the history of the decoration.

One of the earliest such cases involves one of the most famous American soldiers of World War I, Alvin York, who initially received a Distinguished Service Cross which was upgraded to the Medal of Honor. And as noted above under "Notable Recipients", top American World War I ace pilot Eddie Rickenbacker originally received eight DSCs, but one was upgraded in 1930 to the Medal of Honor. In 1980, MSG Roy P. Benavidez, a U.S. Army Special Forces veteran, had his Vietnam-era DSC upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to him by President Reagan at a Pentagon ceremony on February 24, 1981.

A number of DSC revocations and upgrades to the Medal of Honor were the result of reviews initiated by the Army or mandated by the United States Congress. In the early 1990s the Army began a review of discrimination against black soldiers in World War II, none of whom had received the Medal of Honor but several of whom had received lesser awards. Later, the Department of Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996 provided for a "Review Regarding Upgrading of Distinguished-Service Crosses and Navy Crosses Awarded to Asian-Americans and Native American Pacific Islanders for World War II Service" and the National Defense Authorization Act for 2002 provided for a "Review Regarding Award of Medal of Honor to Certain Jewish American and Hispanic American War Veterans". There is currently a petition circulating to upgrade the Distinguished Service Cross of Major Richard Winters to a Medal of Honor.

In January 1997, as a result of its review, the Army revoked six awards of the Distinguished Service Cross to black soldiers and upgraded them to the Medal of Honor. These were to Vernon Baker, Edward A. Carter Jr., John R. Fox, Willy F. James Jr., Charles L. Thomas and George Watson. In 2001, the Army officially revoked 21 awards of the Distinguished Service Cross and one of the Silver Star to Asian-American soldiers, mostly Japanese-American, whose awards were upgraded to the Medal of Honor. Among those whose DSC was upgraded was U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye. Others include Francis B. Wai and Rudolph B. Davila.

Jon E. Swanson, posthumously awarded a DSC in 1972, had this revoked in November 2005 (Department of the Army General Order No. 9 of 2005), after his DSC was upgraded to the Medal of Honor in December 2002 (Department of the Army General Order No. 14 of 2002). Another Vietnam War helicopter pilot, Bruce P. Crandall, was awarded the DSC in June 2001 (General Order No. 25 of 2001). This award was rescinded in November 2005 when a new citation was issued (General Order No. 9 of 2005), but the DSC itself was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented in February 2007 (the DSC was revoked in General Order No. 3 of 2007).

See also

 Awards and decorations of the United States Army
 Non-U.S. recipients of U.S. gallantry awards
 Puerto Rican recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross

References

External links

 Distinguished Service Cross Recipients, World War I, 1917–1918
 US Army Institute of Heraldry: Distinguished Service Cross
 Home of Heroes page on the Distinguished Service Cross
 Legion of Valor
 Military Times Hall of Valor, Distiniguished Service Cross
 DSC Database – Database of all DSC recipients

Awards and decorations of the United States Army
Awards established in 1918
Courage awards

Distinguished Service Cross (United States)


La estación de Rizhsky (en ruso: Рижский вокзал, Rizhsky vokzal) o estación de Riga, es una estación de ferrocarril de Moscú, Rusia. Fue inaugurada en 1901 y debe su nombre a su ubicación en la zona Rizhskaya, al norte de la ciudad, y por ser la estación que alberga la línea ferroviaria a Riga. La estación fue inaugurada con el nombre de Vindavsky, que mantuvo hasta 1930, y desde ese año fue renombrada en tres ocasiones más: Mar Báltico (1931-1942), Rzhev (1943-1946) y Rizhsky, nombre que conserva actualmente. Además de la estación, el edificio es sede del Museo del Ferrocarril de Moscú.

Historia
El edificio de la estación comenzó a construirse en 1897 y se terminó en 1901 para la construcción de la línea de ferrocarril Moscú-Vindavo-Rýbinsk (hoy, línea Moscú-Riga). El arquitecto fue Stanislav Brzhozovsky, autor de la estación de Vitebsky de San Petersburgo. La construcción de la estación se llevó a cabo bajo la supervisión de Yuliĭ Fëdorovich Diderikhs.

Trenes y destinos

Larga distancia

Otros destinos

Destinos suburbanos
Los trenes suburbanos de cercanías (elektrichka) conectan la estación de Rizhsky con las localidades de Krasnogorsk, Nakhabino, Dedovsk, Istra y Volokolamsk.

Enlaces externos

Sitio web oficial
Ferrocarriles Letones (Latvijas dzelzceļš)
Ferrocarriles rusos (Российские Железные Дороги) (en inglés) (en ruso)
Museo del Ferrocarril de Moscú

Rizhsky
Edificios y estructuras de Moscú
Transporte de Moscú
Estaciones de ferrocarril inauguradas en 1901
Rusia en 1901

Estación Rizhsky


was a district located in Mie Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the district had an estimated population of 70,117 and a density of 150.14 persons per km2. The total area was 467.00 km2.

Until the day before the dissolution on December 31, 2005, the district had 3 towns and a village.

On January 1, 2006, the towns of Hakusan, Ichishi and Karasu, and the village of Misugi, along with the towns of Anō, Geinō and Kawage, and the village of Misato (all from Age District), and the city of Hisai, were merged into the expanded city of Tsu. Ichishi District was dissolved as a result of this merger.

District Timeline
 June 1, 1891 - The village of Sada changed its name to Yamato.
 July 1, 1929 - The village of Yano was elevated to town status and changed its name to Karasu.
 April 1, 1931 - The village of Hon was merged into the town of Hisai.
 July 1, 1939 - The village of Takachaya was merged into the city of Tsu.
 November 3, 1940 - The villages of Ieki and Sakai were merged to create the town of Ieki.
 June 15, 1952 - The village of Unde was merged into the city of Tsu.
 October 15, 1954 - The villages of Asaka and Matsugasaki was merged into the city of Matsusaka.
 January 15, 1955 - The villages of Oi, Hase, Kawai and Takaoka were merged to create the town of Ichishi.
 March 1, 1955 - The municipalities of Hisai, Monou, Togi, Shikiri, Inaba and Sakakibara were merged to create the new town of Hisai.
 March 15, 1955:
 The municipalities of Ieki, Omitsu, Kawaguchi, Yamato and Yatsuyama were merged to create the town of Hakusan.
 The villages of Nakago, Toyochi, Nakagawa, Toyoda, Nakahara, and parts of Ukigo were merged to create the town of Ureshino. The remaining parts of Ukigo was merged into the city of Matsusaka.
 The villages of Takahara, Yachi, Taronama, Iseji, Yawata, Taki and Shimonokawa were merged to create the village of Misugi.
 March 21, 1955 - The villages of Komenosho, Tenpaku, Tsuru and Onoe were merged to create the village of Mikumo.
 August 1, 1970 - The town of Hisai was elevated to city status.
 April 1, 1986 - The village of Mikumo was elevated to town status.
 January 1, 2005 - The towns of Ureshino and Mikumo, along with the towns of Iinan and Iitaka (both from Iinan District), were merged into the expanded city of Matsusaka.
 January 1, 2006 - The towns of Hakusan, Ichishi and Karasu, and the village of Misugi, along with the towns of Anō, Geinō and Kawage, and the village of Misato (all from Age District), and the city of Hisai, were merged into the expanded city of Tsu. Ichishi District was dissolved as a result of this merger.

See also
 List of dissolved districts of Japan

Former districts of Mie Prefecture

Ichishi District, Mie


The Vickers Wellesley was a medium bomber that was designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Vickers-Armstrongs at Brooklands near Weybridge, Surrey. It was one of two aircraft to be named after Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, the other being the Vickers Wellington.

The Wellesley was developed during the early 1930s in response to Specification G.4/31. The biplane Vickers Type 253 was effectively an early incarnation of the aircraft, sharing its radical geodesic airframe and many other features. The Type 253 was determined to be the best submission received by the Air Ministry, thus an order for 150 production aircraft was issued. As a private venture, Vickers has also developed the monoplane Type 256; following flight testing of this aircraft, the order placed for the Type 253 was converted for the Type 256 instead.

The vast majority of the Wellesley's production run were supplied to the Royal Air Force (RAF), a total of six squadrons under RAF Bomber Command operated the type at its peak. A high-profile demonstration of the aircraft's capabilities was conducted during early November 1938 via a flight of three Wellesleys that flew non-stop for two days from Ismailia, Egypt to Darwin, Australia, a distance of , setting a world distance record in the process. While the type was considered to be obsolete by the start of the Second World War and thus unsuited to the European air war, the Wellesley was operated overseas in the desert theatres of East Africa, Egypt and the Middle East. The final Wellesley-equipped unit, 47 Squadron, ended its use of the type as a maritime reconnaissance aircraft, during September 1942.

Design and development

Background
The Wellesley's origins stretch back to the early 1930s, during which time Vicker's management were making great efforts to secure more business in the fixed-wing aircraft sector following the decision to discontinue airship production. Several of its designs around this period, often made in response to various specifications issued by the Air Ministry, revolved around a conventional biplane configuration, albeit larger than most contemporaries and being fitted with more powerful engines to match. While some of these proposals never went beyond the drawing board, they often harnessed the work of Barnes Wallis to save weight without compromising on strength by using light alloy structures.

During 1931, the Ministry released Specification G.4/31, which called for a general purpose aircraft that was capable of carrying out level bombing, army co-operation, dive bombing, reconnaissance, casualty evacuation and torpedo bombing. Vickers quickly took an interest in the requirement and gave its design team the task of producing its response. The team devised three separate conceptual aircraft, two being monoplanes with alternative engines fitted, and the third being a biplane design, known as the Vickers Type 253. Following the submission of these three design outlines to Air Ministry in November 1931, it accepted the Type 253, and issued an initial development contract to Vickers during April 1932.

Even as work proceeded on the construction of the Type 253 prototypes, Vicker's design office continued to independently work on a monoplane submission to fulfil the specification. This aircraft incorporated a geodesic airframe, which had been derived from Wallis' earlier work for the airship R100. According to aviation author C. F. Andrews, this design choice was a radical shift from established practices of the era, which had been virtually unchanged since the First World War Wallis pursued this as it enabled substantial weight savings to be made via unheard of strength-to-weight ratios. The Type 253 also incorporated some of this structural design, but not to the full extent of the in-development monoplane.

Following their delivery, the Type 253 prototypes were subject to competitive testing of their fulfilment of the specification's various criteria against a range of competing aircraft, including the Fairey G.4/31, Westland PV-7, Handley Page HP.47, Armstrong Whitworth A.W.19, Blackburn B-7, Hawker P.V.4 and the Parnall G.4/31. From this, it was recognised that the Type 253 was the best submission, leading to Vickers receiving an order for 150 aircraft.

Type 246
The private venture monoplane, which received the internal designation Vickers Type 246 continued to make progress. On 19 June 1935, it performed its maiden flight from Brooklands, piloted by Vickers' Chief Test Pilot J "Mutt" Summers, and was promptly offered to the Royal Air Force (RAF). This aircraft possessed superior performance, but did not attempt to meet the multi-role requirements of the specification, having been designed to perform the bomber role only. On 23 July 1934, the G.4/31 monoplane was damaged in a crash, it was rebuilt as a pre-production series Type 246 to support the latter's development.

Andrews observed that the Wellesley absorbed an abnormally high level of engineering development resources, largely due to the novel structure used throughout its airframe. Extensively metallurgical research was needed, along with various structural test rigs to validate the airframe's strength. The fabrication of the curved frames needed for its geodesic structure necessitated the development of new powered machinery that greatly improved production times over the hand-operated methods used at the start of the pre-production phase; the same machinery was subsequently used on various wartime and postwar aircraft, such as the Vickers VC10 jetliner. Andrews alleges that Vickers had also considered adopting stressed-skin construction for the Wellesley as well.

Into production

During September 1935, an initial order for 96 Type 246s was substituted for the Type 253 order, which received the service name Wellesley. In August 1936, the contract was revised, including a new requirement for the production model of the aircraft to be powered by the Bristol Pegasus XX radial engine. On 30 January 1937, the first production Wellesley performed its maiden flight from Brooklands, it was delivered for type tests at RAF Martlesham Heath on 18 March.

The RAF ultimately ordered a total of 176 aircraft to a newly-written Specification 22/35. During March 1937, quantity production of the Wellesley commenced, with all aircraft being produced over a 14 month period. By March 1938, 176 aircraft were in service, 57 of which were on home bases. Around this time, the RAF examined various options for improving the Wellesley, including provisions for a third crew member amidship as a navigator, while the bomb-aimers' prone position was also an area of attention. Due to vibration encountered when the bomb-container doors were open, these were eliminated with little resulting impact on drag. The Wellesley's initial wing lacked sufficient strength, leading to most aircraft being built with a revised design, while eight early examples were later retrofitted with the improved wing.

The Wellesley was a single-engine monoplane with a very high 8.83 aspect ratio wing and a manually operated, retractable undercarriage. As it was not known how the geodetic structure could cope with being disrupted by a bomb bay, the Wellesley's bomb load was instead carried in a pair of streamlined panniers underneath the wings. The Wellesley Mk I had two cockpits but this was slightly changed in what was unofficially dubbed the Wellesley Mk II, whose pilot's canopy was extended to cover the navigator/bomb aimer's position that had been buried in the fuselage. The gunner retained a separate canopy. Only the pilot was provided with flight controls. The aircraft was furnished with a three-axis autopilot.

Operational history

The RAF received its first Wellesleys in April 1937: they served with No. 76 Squadron RAF at Finningley. The aircraft eventually equipped six RAF Bomber Command squadrons in the UK. Five aircraft with provisions for three crew members were modified for long-range work with the RAF Long-Range Development Flight. Additional modifications included the fitting of Pegasus XXII engines and extra fuel tanks. On 5 November 1938, three of these aircraft under command of Squadron Leader Richard Kellett flew non-stop for two days from Ismailia, Egypt to Darwin, Australia  setting a world distance record. All three aircraft broke the record, but No. 2 aircraft landed in West Timor,  short of the objective. The Wellesley's record remained unbroken until November 1945. This flight is still the longest by an aircraft with a single piston engine.

By the outbreak of the Second World War, the Wellesley had been entirely phased out by all home-based squadrons, with only four examples remaining in Britain; however, the type remained in service with three squadrons based in the Middle East. To replace the Wellesley, RAF Bomber Command had received large numbers of more capable twin-engined bombers, such as the Handley Page Hampden, Armstrong Whitworth Whitley, and the Vickers Wellington, the latter shared its geodesic structure with the Wellesley.

Following the Italian declaration of war on 10 June 1940, the remaining Wellesley squadrons participated in the East African Campaign against Italian forces in Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somaliland. Although obsolete, the Wellesley formed a major part of the British Commonwealth bomber forces, mainly carrying out raids targeting Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. Sudan-based Wellesleys carried out their first bombing mission on 11 June 1940, against Asmara in Eritrea. Three days later, they were involved in their first air combat, when Capitano Mario Visintini, future top-scoring biplane ace of the Second World War, intercepted a pair of Wellesleys from 14 Squadron on their way to bomb Massawa. Visintini, who was flying a Fiat CR.42 Falco, shot down the aircraft K7743, flown by Pilot Officer Reginald Patrick Blenner Plunkett. It was the first of Visintini's 16 air victories in Eastern Africa.

In the early part of the campaign, fighter escort was not available and when caught by CR.42s, Wellesleys proved vulnerable to the Italian biplane fighter. Despite this, the Wellesley continued to be sent on bombing raids, bombing Addis Ababa from Aden on 18 August. The Wellesley continued in use against the Italians over East Africa until November 1941, when Gondar, the last Italian-held town, fell to Commonwealth and Ethiopian forces. The final Wellesley-equipped unit, 47 Squadron, was then switched to maritime reconnaissance duties over the Red Sea, continuing in this role until September 1942.

While the Wellesley was not a significant combat aircraft, the design principles that were tested in its construction were put to good use with the Wellington medium bomber, which became one of the mainstays of Bomber Command in the early years of the European war. During February 1940, three Wellesleys (K7728, K7735 and K8531) were sold to Egypt to serve in the Royal Egyptian Air Force.

Variants
Type 281 Wellesley
 Company designation for the Wellesley bomber.
Type 287 Wellesley Mk I
 Two, and later three-seat medium bomber aircraft. The Wellesley Mk I had separate canopies for pilot and gunner's cockpits.
Wellesley Mk II
 Unofficial designation used for examples with an extended canopy covering pilot and bomb aimer.
Type 289
 Engine testbed to test the Hercules HE15 radial piston engine.
Type 291
 Blind-flying model.
Type 292
 Five aircraft modified for long-distance flying by the RAF's Long-Range Development Unit Flight. Alterations included extensive development work with a fuel dumping system to allow an emergency landing early in a long-distance flight when the weight of fuel would cause the aircraft to exceed its maximum landing weight. Visible differences included NACA-type long-chord cowlings. Three were used on the record-breaking flight.
Type 294
 Prototype with strengthened wing for cutting barrage balloon cables.
Type 402
 Three-seat experimental aircraft.

Operators

 South African Air Force

 Royal Air Force
 No. 7 Squadron RAF
 No. 14 Squadron RAF
 No. 35 Squadron RAF
 No. 45 Squadron RAF
 No. 47 Squadron RAF
 No. 76 Squadron RAF
 No. 77 Squadron RAF
 No. 117 Squadron RAF
 No. 148 Squadron RAF
 No. 207 Squadron RAF
 No. 223 Squadron RAF
 No. 267 Squadron RAF

Specifications (Wellesley)

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Andrews, C.F. Vickers Aircraft Since 1908. London: Putnam, 1969.
 Andrews, C.F. and E.B. Morgan. Vickers Aircraft since 1908. London: Putnam, Second Edition 1999. .
 Barfield, Norman. Vickers Wellesley Variants (Aircraft in Profile 256). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Limited, 1973.
 Crosby, Francis. The World Encyclopedia of Bombers. London: Anness Publishing Ltd., 2007. .
 Massimello, Giovanni and Giorgio Apostolo. Italian Aces of World War Two. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2000. .
 Spick, Mike: The complete fighter ace – All the World's Fighter Aces, 1914–2000. London, Greenhill Books, 1999. .
 Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. .
 Murray, Iain R. Bouncing-Bomb Man: The Science of Sir Barnes Wallis. Yeovil, Somerset, UK: J.H. Haynes & Co Ltd., 2009. .
 Skulski, Przemysław: Fiat CR.42 Falco. Redbourn, UK: Mushroom Model Publications, 2007. .
 Sutherland, Jon & Diane Canwell: Air War East Africa 1940–41 The RAF versus the Italian Air Force. Barnsley (South Yorkshire) Pen and Sword Aviation, 2009. .
 "The Wellesley: Geodetics in Action." Air International, Volume 18, No. 1, July 1980, pp. 25–33, 49–50. Bromley, Kent, UK: Pilot Press. .

1930s British bomber aircraft
Wellesley
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1935
Barnes Wallis

Vickers Wellesley


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Culen (škot. Cuilén mac Ildulb) (? - Lothian, 971.), kralj Pikta i Albe (Škota) od 967. do smrti, 971. godine. Osporio je svom rođaku, kralju Dubhu, pravo na škotsku krunu, ali je poražen u bitci kod Forresa. Međutim, vjeruje se da ga je sljedeće godine dao uhvatiti, zarobiti i ubiti, nakon čega je zasjeo na prijestolje.

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