Xavier Kurt Naidoo (), cunoscut și după numele său de scenă Kobra, este un cantautor german ce abordează stilurile Soul și R&B și un actor de ocazie.

Carieră
Născut și crescut în Mannheim, Naidoo a avut câteva joburi în gastronomie și în industria muzicală înainte să se mute în Statele Unite, în 1990, unde și-a lansat primul său album integral în limba engleză "Seeing Is Believing" sub nume său de scenă Kobra, în 1994. Momentan, locuiește în țara sa natală, Germania.

După ce a fost backing vocalist pentru Rödelheim Hartreim Projekt și alte trupe, Xavier și-a lansat primul său album în limba germană "Nicht von dieser Welt", în 1998, unde a și câștigat ECHO Award și MTV Europe Music Award. Vânzând peste un milion de copii în total, a produs șase single-uri, printre care "Seine Straßen și "Sie sieht mich nicht", ultimul fiind folosit ca și temă muzicală pentru "Astérix & Obélix Take on Caesar" (1999). După mediatizata sa plecare din trupa 3P, și-a lansat al treilea său album "Zwischenspiel – Alles für den Herrn". A fost cotat în Top 5 melodii de către topurile muzicale "Wo willst du hin?" și "Abschied nehmen", ceea ce a dus la o colaborare cu RZA, membru și producător al Wu-Tang Clan, cu care a și lansat primul său single care a atins locul unu în topuri.

Cunoscut pentru vocea sa cu inflexiuni soul și pentru versurile cu mesaj creștin, a colaborat cu ceva artiști cunoscuți: Deborah Cox și cu artista elvețiană Stress. A fost component al trupei Söhne Mannheims ("Fii orașului Mannheim") înainte să devină faimos, iar, după ce popularitatea sa a crescut, s-a întors în trupă pentru a-i ajuta să devină și ei faimoși. Astăzi, Xavier face un du-te-vino între înregistrarea noului său album și mersul în turnee cu Söhne Mannheims. A intrat și în grupuri cum ar fi  Brothers Keepers și caritate, Signs of the Times (Semnele Timpului), în 2013.

În 2012, a colaborat cu Xavas, un duo printre care se află și Kool Savas, un rapper de origine turco-gemanică.

În 2013, a lansat colaborarea "Eye Opener", produsă de Kris Menace.

Viața personală
Tatăl său este din Africa de Sud și este jumătate indian-jumătate german. Mama sa este tot din Africa de Sud, dar are rădăcini irlandeze.

Viața politică
Xavier Naidoo este un adept al teoriilor conspirației în ceea ce privește atacurile teroriste din 11 septembrie 2001.

Spiritualitate și religie
Muzica sa a conținut o ideologie utopică, panteistă, cu privire la opiniile sale politice. Deși ia drept model creștinismul, islamul și rastafarianismul, se concentrează și preia ad-literam Vechiul Testament, fiind ca un profet ce prevestește apocalipsa.

Discografie

Albume de studio
 Seeing Is Believing (1993)
 Nicht von dieser Welt (1998)
 Zwischenspiel / Alles für den Herrn (2002)
 Telegramm für X (2005)
 Alles kann besser werden (2009)
 Mordsmusik (2013) (ca și Der Xer)
 Bei meiner Seele (2013)
 Tanzmusik (Xavier lebt hier nicht mehr) (2014) (ca și Der Xer)

Albume Live
 Live (1999)
 Alles Gute vor uns (2003)
 Wettsingen in Schwetzingen - MTV Unplugged (2008)
 Alles kann besser werden - Live in Oberhausen (2010)

Filmografie
Tatort - Die kleine Zeugin (TV, 2000)
Auf Herz und Nieren (2001)

Musicaluri
Human Pacific (1995)
People (1998)

Premii
1999: MTV Europe Music Award - "Best German Act"
2000: ECHO - "Best National Male Artist - Rock/Pop"
2002: Goldene Stimmgabel
2002: Comet - "Best Act National"
2002: MTV Europe Music Award - "Best German Act"
2004: Amadeus Award - "Record of The Year" for "Ich kenne nichts (Das so schön ist wie Du)"
2006: Goldene Kamera - "Pop National"
2006: ECHO - "Best National Male Artist - Rock/Pop"
2014: Das Goldene Brett vorm Kopf

Note

Cantautori
Actori germani
Cântăreți germani
Germani în viață
Germani cunoscuți sub pseudonimele folosite

Xavier Naidoo


Parachlaenius es un  género de coleópteros adéfagos de la familia Carabidae.

Especies
Comprende las siguientes especies:

 Parachlaenius bequaerti Alluaud, 1930
 Parachlaenius diacritus Alluaud, 1930
 Parachlaenius discolor Alluaud, 1930
 Parachlaenius emini Kolbe, 1894
 Parachlaenius marshalli Straneo, 1947
 Parachlaenius punctatus (Laferte-Senectere, 1853)
 Parachlaenius rhodesianus Straneo, 1947
 Parachlaenius ruandanus Burgeon, 1935
 Parachlaenius trochantericus (Kolbe, 1894)
 Parachlaenius violaceus Peringuey, 1899

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Parachlaenius en ION
 Nomenclator Zoologicus

Chlaeniina

Parachlaenius


August Ulrich von Hardenberg (* 5. November 1709; † 13. September 1778 in Hannover) war ein deutscher, hannoverscher Diplomat, Geheimrat und Kriegsrat.

Leben
August Ulrich von Hardenberg entstammte dem niedersächsischen Adelsgeschlecht derer von Hardenberg. Seine älteren Brüder waren der Geheimrat und Gartenarchitekt Friedrich Karl von Hardenberg und der Feldmarschall Christian Ludwig von Hardenberg, zwei jüngere Brüder, der Oberst Hans Christoph (* 1703, ⚔ 1747) und Georg Wilhelm (1705–1774), waren Offiziere.

Er studierte zuerst an der Alma Ernestina in Rinteln, dann an der Universität Helmstedt, wo er unter Professor Kress seine Dissertation schrieb.

Nach dem Studium wurde von Hardenberg Hofrat an der Justiz-Kanzlei in Hannover, stieg dann zum Kriegsrat und anschließend zum geheimen Rat auf. Hardenberg blieb in hannoverschen Diensten, obwohl ihm der König von Preußen die Stellung als Assessor beim Reichskammergericht in Wetzlar angeboten hatte, wo von Hardenberg auch sein Examen bestanden hatte.

Der als gelehrter Gesprächspartner geschätzte August Ulrich von Hardenberg war zeitweilig Gesandter am landgräflich hessischen Hof in Kassel. 1743 heiratete er Wilhelmine Charlotte, geborene von Wendt. Die beiden hatten jedoch keine Kinder.

Nachwirkungen
 Das denkmalgeschützte Grabmal von Hardenbergs findet sich auf dem Gartenfriedhof in Hannover.

Literatur
 Johann Wolf: Geschichte des Geschlechts von Hardenberg, mit 123 Urkunden, Band 2, S. 212 f. (books.google.de)

Einzelnachweise

Beamter (Deutschland)
Politiker (Hannover)
Hannoverscher Diplomat
Gesandter in Hessen-Kassel
Person (Rinteln)
August Ulrich
Person (Helmstedt)
Deutscher
Person (Kassel)
Geboren 1709
Gestorben 1778
Mann

August Ulrich von Hardenberg


An Sporobolus aldabrensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Stephen Andrew Renvoize. An Sporobolus aldabrensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sporobolus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Sporobolus

Sporobolus aldabrensis


Joost van den Vondel (; 17 November 1587 – 5 February 1679) was a Dutch playwright, poet, translator and writer. He is generally regarded as the greatest writer in the Dutch language as well as an important figure in the history of Western literature. In his native country, Vondel is often called the "Prince of Poets" and the Dutch language is sometimes referred to as "the language of Vondel". His oeuvre consists of 33 plays, a large number of poems in different genres and forms, an epic poem and many translations of predominantly classical literature. Vondel lived in the Dutch Republic during the Eighty Years' War and became the leading literary figure of the Dutch Golden Age.

Although Vondel was born in Cologne, his family, who were Mennonites, originally came from Antwerp, but had to flee after the fall of the city in 1585. They settled in Cologne, but were persecuted there as well. Eventually they moved to Amsterdam in the then newly formed Dutch Republic. In Amsterdam, Vondel joined the Chamber of rhetoric, a literary society where members studied and composed poetry together. This was the start of his long career as a writer. In 1610 he married Mayken de Wolff, with whom he had five children, of which three died in infancy. A pivotal moment in Vondel's life was his conversion to Catholicism, which was met with controversy in the then dominant Protestant society of the Dutch Republic. In his later life Vondel dedicated himself almost exclusively to his dramatic work and religious poetry. He wrote plays until he was 80 years old and eventually died in Amsterdam at the age of 91.

Vondel's earliest known poem dates from 1605 and he continued to write poetry until his death in 1679. The first play Vondel wrote was Het Pascha in 1612 and his last Noach, written in 1667. Vondel primarily wrote tragedies, of which a great deal were written in the period between 1654 and 1667. Although his Palamedes (1625) and Gijsbrecht van Aemstel (1637) are acclaimed works, the tragedies he wrote after 1654 are considered to be the highlights of his oeuvre. Plays like Lucifer, Jephta, Adam in ballingschap (Adam in exile) and Noach are among Vondel's most celebrated works and are consistently ranked among the greatest works of Dutch literature. Especially Lucifer is almost by common consent regarded as Vondel's masterpiece. Like his plays, Vondel's poetry is highly acclaimed as well, in particular for his virtuosic style and mastery of verse. Notable poems include Het stockske van Oldenbarneveldt (The Cane of Oldenbarnevelt) and Kinder-lijck (Childlike), about the death of his son. Vondel's epic Joannes de Boetgezant, about the life of John the Baptist, has been called "the greatest Dutch epic" and would become a model for heroic poems in the 18th century.

Life

Early life

Vondel was born on 17 November 1587 on the Große Witschgasse in the Free imperial city of Cologne, Holy Roman Empire. His family were originally Catholics from Antwerp (at the time part of the Spanish Netherlands), but had to flee in 1585 after the fall of the city, for becoming Anabaptists of the Mennonite faith. His father, also named Joost van den Vondel, and mother, Sara Cranen (who was the daughter of Peter Cranen, an important poet from Antwerp), lived in Cologne when their eldest son Joost was born. As Mennonites, however, they were barely tolerated in Cologne and eventually the repression against Mennonites grew to such an extent that, in 1595, the city officials informed that all local Mennonites had to leave Cologne within fourteen days. The Vondel family was left adrift and lived at Frankfurt am Main, Bremen, Emden, and Utrecht, before eventually settling at Amsterdam in the newly formed Dutch Republic.

Joost van den Vondel the Elder managed to acquire Dutch citizenship, which enabled him to set up a business, on 27 March 1597, and he became a silk merchant on the Warmoesstraat. Amsterdam at the time was in the process of taking over the position of Antwerp as the most important trading centre of the Low Countries and was soon becoming the wealthiest city of the Dutch Republic. In part this was made possible by the enormous influx of migrants, chiefly from the Southern Netherlands (roughly 60.000 to 80.000 people migrated from the south to Amsterdam, on a population of around 115.000 in 1622). These migrants brought their own (literary) culture, especially the Chamber of rhetoric - a literary society that occupied an important place in the culture of the Low Countries - would prove to be vital for the (literary) upbringing of Vondel.

The parents of Vondel valued good education and made sure their son went to a proper school. It is thought that Vondel may have been a pupil of the famous mathematician and educator Willem Bartjens, to whom he would later dedicate an ode. Apart from mathematics, Bartjens taught German, French and wrote poems. Not long after Vondel received his first education he started writing poems. Vondel's first biographer, Gerard Brandt, remarked that Vondel was very young when he first started writing poetry. It is not known how old Vondel was when he wrote his first poems, though his earliest known poem dates from 1605 and was written when he was 17 years old. The poem was written for the marriage of a girl in his neighborhood and was signed with Liefde verwinnet al (Love conquers all), with which Vondel signed all of his early verses. By 1606 he was a member of the Chamber of rhetoric Het Wit Lavendel (The White Lavender), a literary society founded by Flemish migrants from the Spanish Netherlands. The choice for this Chamber of rhetoric was obvious considering the roots of Vondel's family. It was at this place where Vondel wrote the first of his occasional poetry. In 1606 he received Mennonite adult baptism and the following year his father died, so Vondel was brought into the family business of selling silk as a partner. Vondel's early poetry was still heavily influenced by the poetry of the Chamber of rhetoric, especially the poetry fellow mennonite Karel van Mander. His early poems were eventually anthologized in the work Den nieuwen verbeterden lust-hof (The New Improved Pleasure Garden) of 1607. In the last months of 1610 Vondel married Mayken de Wolff, with whom he had five children, of which three died in infancy.

Early works

In 1612 Vondel wrote his first play titled Het Pascha (Passover), which dramatizes the events of the Book of Exodus and features an epilogue comparing the liberation of the enslaved Israelites from Biblical Egypt to Christ's redemption of the human race and to the success of the Dutch Revolt against King Philip II of Spain, which was still ongoing at the time when Vondel wrote his play. It has been said that, though the power and splendor of his verse is already apparent in Het Pascha, it also lacked consistency. Nonetheless, the work was received well by both the public and critics, and was praised by Gerbrand Bredero in an ode. Apart from the virtuosic poetry, Het Pascha already contained two important aspects that would later turn out to be exemplary for Vondel's work: firstly the usage of literature to comment on political matters, and secondly an admiration for classical antiquity. After this Vondel continued to write occasional poetry and went on to write the play Hierusalem verwoest (Jerusalem destroyed) in 1620. This work was the first play that was structurally entirely based upon classical literature, in this case Seneca's Troades. Apart from classical literature, Vondel's work also underwent a strong influence from French literature, in the case of Hierusalem verwoest the work of Robert Garnier, and in general the work of Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas. In the period between 1613 and 1620 Vondel learnt Latin at the local Latin school, and by 1620 he was able to read the most important Latin writers, particularly Virgil, Seneca and later Ovid.

In this period two other significant events occurred in his life. Firstly, Vondel apparently recovered from what Gerard Brandt called "a long, languishing sickness, which greatly weakened him, exhausting his spirits and making him long for death". It is now thought that Vondel probably suffered from depression, since he mentioned he was suffering from "melancholia" in a letter. Secondly, in 1618 the tragedy of the arrest and execution of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt happened, which may also have contributed to Vondel's melancholy. At the time there was a conflict in the Dutch Republic between the Arminians (also called Remonstrants) on the one side, and the Calvinists led by Franciscus Gomarus (also called Counter-Remonstrants), on the other side. Vondel, who gradually became one of the most vocal advocates for religious toleration, sided with the Arminians and had great admiration for the religious tolerance propagated by Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (who was not only the political leader of the Remonstrants, but also as Land's Advocate the de facto leader of the Dutch Republic). As a consequence, the trial and subsequent execution of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt by Maurice of Orange not only had a great impact on Vondel, it also resulted in religious persecution of followers of Roman Catholicism, Anabaptism and Arminianism.

Apart from the effect that this event had on Vondel personally, especially with regard to his mental health, it also led him to put his outrage into words; even five years later, in 1625, when he published his play Palamedes. There probably is no other play in the Dutch literature of the 17th century that sparked so much controversy and conversation. Although the play dealt with a minor story from the Trojan war - namely the betrayal of Palamedes by Odysseus and Diomedes (supported by the commander of the Greeks, Agamemnon) - the story was in reality an allusion on the trial and execution of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. In the play, the unjust killing of Palamedes represents the unfair trial of Van Oldenbarnevelt, and likewise, the tyrannical Agamemnon represents the dictatorial behavior of Maurice of Orange. Although the play is a allusion, it was never Vondel's intention to conceal the message for his readers, nor were the connotations to Van Oldenbarnevelt a mystery to the contemporary audience; everyone immediately understood what the play was really about. Also the fact that Vondel put his name on the title page and sent a copy of the work to his colleague Constantijn Huygens, indicates that he had no problem to make a statement under his own name. Although this affair eventually led him to be heavily fined by the authorities, his play, however, proved to be widely popular and went through seven editions.

Around the same time Vondel made acquaintance with the poet Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft at the home of fellow poet Roemer Visscher, who died shortly after they met in 1620. It was there that Vondel also met the two daughters of Roemer Visscher who were talented poets as well: Maria Tesselschade Visscher and Anna Visscher. These meetings at the house of Roemer would later continue with a more diverse group of people, including Constantijn Huygens, Gerbrand Bredero, Casparus Barlaeus, Gerardus Vossius, Dirck Sweelinck (the son of Jan Pieterszoon) and P.C. Hooft as the central figure. This gathering of people, who represented the culture and science of the Dutch Republic, would later be referred to as the Muiderkring and would get a legendary status in the cultural history of The Netherlands. As a result of the meetings at the house of Roemer Visscher, Vondel would write one of his greatest poems, Het lof der zee-vaert (The Praise of Seafaring), a secular 478-verse poem with the subject of overseas trade as a means to provide peace and prosperity. The poem ends with a direct reference to the meetings at the house of Roemer Visscher.

After the publication of Palamedes and the controversy that followed, Vondel went into another period of melancholy, but he recovered quickly and after that he published poems in quick succession. Besides The Praise of Seafaring, the most notable of these poems is the long poem Roskam (Curry Comb) wherein he denounced the selfishness and greed of the regents. Roskam is one of the many satires Vondel wrote throughout his life, most notably in the form of poetry, but also in the form of plays like Palamedes.

Conversion to Catholicism

After Maurice of Orange died in 1625, he was succeeded by his half-brother Frederick Henry, who was eventually capable of reconciling the differences within the Dutch Republic. In 1630, the council of Amsterdam even granted the Remonstrants new freedom of worship, which was praised by Vondel in his Inwying van den Christen tempel t'Amsterdam (Consecration of the Christian Temple of Amsterdam). Around the same time Vondel was elected dean or "prince" of the Chamber of rhetoric Het Wit Lavendel of which he was a member since his youth. An important event that occurred a year later was the founding of the Athenaeum Illustre of Amsterdam in 1631, the predecessor of the University of Amsterdam, with Gerard Vossius and Caspar Barlaeus as the first professors; two of Vondel's close friends. Both would remain in contact with him, especially Vossius, whose library would provide Vondel with a wealth of knowledge which he would draw upon when writing his later tragedies.

Later that year, Hugo Grotius, who, after his trial, received a prison sentence and famously escaped from Loevestein Castle, returned from exile in France in the hope of receiving rehabilitation. Vondel now finally met the scholar he admired so much and was able to have a conversation with him about the conception of a "Christian-classical epic" in emulation of the classical poet Virgil and the Christian poet Torquato Tasso. The work in progress, called Constantinade, was to be based on the life of Constantine the Great, after whom Vondel also named his recently born son. Grotius apparently approved of the idea, since Grotius had sympathy for a general reconciliation between Christians, based on law and ecclesiastical history, such as the situation of the early church in the first few centuries AD; an idea that was in accordance with Vondel's own pleas for peace and toleration. Not soon after this meeting, in 1632, Vondel's son Constantine died. As a consequence Vondel wrote the poem Kinder-lijck (meaning both Child-like [sic] and Child's corpse – cf. the obsolete English word 'lych'), to express his grief. This work eventually went on to become one of the most famous poems in the history of Dutch literature.

Not long after the death of Constantine, Vondel's 8-year-old daughter Saartje also died, in 1633 (about which he wrote a lament), and two years later another blow in his personal life occurred when his wife Mayken died in 1635. Meanwhile, at least five canto's of his epic Constantinade were finished, but for some reason Vondel stopped writing his great work and gradually lost interest in finishing it; possibly for lack of creative energy as a result from the losses he had to endure.

A few years later more uplifting events occurred, when in 1637 the architect Jacob van Campen led the drastic renovation of the First Dutch Academy (where the most important plays in the city were performed), to replace the small wooden building for a stately stone building; the Theatre of Van Campen. Whether Vondel was asked to write a play for the opening of the newly build theatre, or whether he wrote the play on his own initiative, is not clear. What is clear, however, is that Vondel wrote the play Gijsbrecht van Aemstel rather quickly, so that by 1637, only six months after the start of the renovation, the play was ready to be performed at the opening of the Stadsschouwburg. The subject of Gijsbrecht van Aemstel was taken from the history of Amsterdam and involved the murder of Floris V, Count of Holland. Vondel encountered a history that involved the historical figure of Gijsbrecht IV of Amstel, who allegedly played a role in the assassination, and whose castle in Amsterdam was besieged as a revenge for his involvement. Vondel modelled the play after Virgil's Aeneid, where the siege of Troy and the subsequent sack of the city were used as parallels for contemporary Amsterdam. Although the play sparked a lot of controversy because of the Catholic imagery Vondel included, the highly dramatic play would eventually become one of his supreme achievements and would establish his reputation as a tragedian for centuries to come. Vondel dedicated Gijsbrecht van Aemstel to his friend Grotius, who, although he never saw a performance of it because of his exile, regarded this "beautifully embellished history" as "an immortal work".

In the period after the publication of Gijsbrecht van Aemstel, Vondel gradually began considering the genre of the play as more important than the epic, and as a result not only began writing more plays, but also started translating the plays from Ancient Greece (partly because of his growing fascination with the theatre of ancient Greece). Through his humanist friends he became acquainted with the Greek tragedies, and the first tragedy he translated was Electra by Sophocles. In the same year, in 1639, the play Maeghden (Maidens) was published; a dramatization of the history of Saint Ursula. More importantly, however, was the play Gebroeders (Brothers) in 1640, since it was the first of his tragedies to be written entirely after the Greek model, and moreover, it had success with both scholars and the general public.

Somewhere around 1641 one of the most significant events in Vondel's life occurred, namely his conversion to Catholicism. His conversion to Catholicism didn't came entirely out of nowhere, since Vondel already showed sympathy for Catholicism by using Catholic imagery in plays such as Gijsbrecht van Aemstel and Maidens. Exactly when his conversion took place is not entirely clear, but most scholars agree that it must have been around 1641 (although Brandt and Jacob van Lennep date it between 1639 and 1640). Because Vondel never left a justification as to why he converted to Catholicism, it remains a guess what his motivations might have been. What certainly helped was the fact that his daughter Anna already converted to the Catholic faith and his friend Hugo Grotius earlier made pleas for a reconciliation between Christians and a return to the church of the first centuries AD. According to Smits-Veldt, Vondel apparently favored the idea of "a united community of believers for whom ecclesiastical authority was binding" over the internal struggles in for instance his own Mennonite community, where only the Bible can be a source of faith. His conversion in any case resulted in two important works that were directly related to his new faith. The first of which was the tragedy of 1646 Maria Stuart (Mary Stuart), in which the Catholic queen Mary was portrayed as an innocent victim of the bloodthirsty Elizabeth I. As with many of his previous plays, also this play had a strong political dimension and was very controversial. Firstly, it angered the Calvinists, who were abhorred by the glorification of Catholicism, and secondly, it offended the people who did not wish to see their one-time ally in the war against Spain, Elizabeth I, to be portrayed as a rebel. The second work of this period that dealt with his Catholic convictions is a long epic-didactic poem called Altaergeheimenissen (Secrets of the Altar, 1645), in which Vondel provides a plea in favor of the Sacraments of the Catholic Church. Although Vondel also defended his new faith in De heerlijkheid der kerke (On the Church), Altaergeheimenissen is one of the few instances in his oeuvre where he deals explicitly with his Catholic faith. In the centuries that followed Altaergeheimenissen eventually went on to be regarded as one of Vondel's most beautiful and important works.

A laurel wreath

One of the consequences of his conversion was that Vondel more or less alienated himself from several of his friends, such as P.C. Hooft, Barlaeus and Huygens. The matter of Vondel's conversion was considered to be especially inconvenient since he was generally regarded as the greatest living poet of the Dutch Republic. As a gesture of reconciliation Vondel dedicated several works to his friends, for example his prose translations of the three great works by Virgil, the Georgics, the Eclogues and the Aeneid, were dedicated to P.C. Hooft. Meanwhile, the Eighty Years' War, of which the events had such a big impact on Vondel's life, came to an end with the Treaty of Munster. To celebrate this important event he decided to write a pastoral inspired by Giovanni Battista Guarini's work Il Pastor Fido and Virgil's Georgics, but also with the latest theoretical insights as formulated by Vossius in his recently published Institutiones poeticae (Institutes of Poetics) with regard to its structure; this work became Leeuwendalers (Lion Fallers), his only pastoral play.

Vondel's understanding of Vossius's Institutiones poeticae, a compilation of everything that was known at the time about ancient poetics (but the work also covered principles regarding the composition of music and drama), was important for the dramatic development of his future tragedies. The first of these tragedies, Salomon, was written around the same time as Leeuwendalers and was published in 1648. In the play Vondel demonstrated his deepened knowledge of the principles of the Ancient Greek drama, largely because of his careful study of the notions that were theorized by Aristotle in his Poetics. Of particular importance in this light was his admission that he previously violated the Aristotelian requirement that if an action was to arouse "terror and empathy", the protagonist should be neither entirely good nor entirely bad; this demand was to be of seminal importance for his future plays, in particular for his tragedy Lucifer of 1654.

Around this time several of his long-time friends died; first Grotius who succumbed to a shipwreck in 1645, then Hooft who passed away in 1647, followed by the suicide of Barlaeus in 1648 and eventually the death of Vossius in 1649. Vondel continued to write occasional poetry, for instance the elegy on the death of his friend Vossius. The highlights of his poetry of this time are two occasional poems in particular, the first is his long ode to the construction of the Royal Palace of Amsterdam (at the time the new city hall) called Inwydinge van 't stadhuis t'Amsterdam (Inauguration of the Amsterdam Town Hall); this work has been called "the most beautiful ode to Amsterdam ever written". The second noteworthy poem is, together with Kinder-lijck, arguably his most famous poem, Het stockske van Oldenbarneveldt (The Cane of Oldenbarnevelt, referring to the cane with which Oldenbarnevelt was said to have walked to the scaffold) of 1657. Almost 40 years after the execution of Van Oldenbarnevelt, Vondel apparently was still preoccupied with what happened; which shows how great the impact of the event must have been. One of the most glorious moments in his professional life occurred in 1653, when, aged sixty-five, he was crowned with a laurel wreath at the festival of St. Lucas by some hundred poets, painters and lovers of art, to honor him in recognition of his uncontested mastery of the art of poetry.

The apotheosis of what Vondel achieved as a playwright occurred one year later with the publication of what many would call his absolute masterpiece, Lucifer (1654). In Lucifer Vondel not only achieves what has been called "a triumph of the poetic imagination", but also a dramatic effect that is the result of characters who are at the height of their powers, but have conflicting aspirations, so that their relationships are leading to the greatest tensions. For this reason this work has been called "Vondel's Baroque piece par excellence", since the greatest contrasts and conflicts - typical for the Baroque - are the subject matter of the work. The play, which is in essence the primordial conflict between good and evil, is about the rebellion against God and the two consequences it had, namely the Fall of the Angels and the Fall of Man. Although the play is about the battle between good and evil, one of the most acclaimed aspects of the work is the fact that its characters, especially Lucifer, are much more complex and do not act either entirely good or evil. In February 1654, the authorities unexpectedly removed the performance of Lucifer from the repertoire; this time the controversy was apparently not of a political nature, as with Palamedes, or because the play included Catholic imagery (the Catholic elements in Lucifer were absent), but simply because of the sacrilegious aspect of "showing the high matter of the depths of God".

Later years and death

With the completion of Lucifer, Vondel was at the peak of his artistic powers. Meanwhile, in his private life the business of selling silk that was started by his father, was handed over to his son Joost jr. in 1652. In the same year the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–54) broke out and caused great poverty in Amsterdam; as a result Joost jr. went bankrupt and his father had to take over his debts. Vondel then was given a job as bookkeeper at the municipal pawnbroking bank, which provided him with an above-average income, until he turned 80 and was dismissed with the retention of his salary. In the meantime - as a result of his debts - Vondel's son Joost went to the East Indies in 1659 and died on the outward journey; along with the death of his wife Mayken, this was certainly his biggest personal tragedy. It has been said that all the plays Vondel wrote in the early 1660s - many of which are in-depth explorations of the father-son relationship - are really about sorrow over the loss of his son.

In the same year Joost jr. died, he published his play Jephta (Jephthah) in which he explored the principles of the Aristotelian tragedy that he encountered in Vossius' work even further. The play, based on a work by the Scottish humanist George Buchanan, is especially notable for conforming even more to the Aristotelian tragedy; he even went so far as to make of it "a model tragedy". This is for instance visible in the protagonist of the piece, Jephta, who is neither completely good, nor completely bad. For many Jephta is considered to be one of the highlights of Vondel's dramatic work. Even though the three tragedies he wrote after Jephta all deal with father-son relationships, the central subject of Koning David in ballingschap (King David Exiled), Koning David herstelt (King David Restored) and Samson (all published in 1660) is really that of a change of state (staetveranderinghe), a subject that is already present in his Jephta with its reversal of fortune from happiness to sadness. Three years later Vondel interrupted his plays based on biblical themes and wrote two plays - both dealing with the themes of guilt, justice and punishment - that were based on secular stories; the first play, Batavische gebroeders, used an episode from the revolt of the Batavians against Rome as told by Tacitus, and the second, Faëton, used the mythological story about the son of Apollo from the Metamorphoses.

A year earlier, in 1662, Vondel produced what has been called "the greatest Dutch epic", Joannes de Boetgezant, about the life of John the Baptist. Whereas Vondel's previous attempt, with Constantinade, at writing an epic was abandoned for unknown reasons, Joannes de Boetgezant became the first successful biblical epic of the Dutch Republic. Vondel's model departed from the Virgilian-Tassonian model with regard to its didactic bias, but retained the characteristic motif of the epic since Tasso of the duality between good and evil. Joannes de Boetgezant would become a model for heroic poems in the 18th century. The motif of good versus evil that pervaded Joannes de Boetgezant became a central theme in his final three plays Adam in ballingschap (Adam Exiled) of 1664, and Zungchin and Noach, both published in 1667. Especially the publication of Adam in ballingschap and Noach are significant for the completion of the trilogy that Vondel intended with Lucifer. At the same time, Adam in ballingschap and Noach are also considered to be two of the most "characteristic and admirable highlights of Vondel's imagination." With his last three plays, Vondel tried to harmonize the duality of good and evil with that of the change of state theme, to achieve a synthesis of all of his work from the previous two decades.

From the publication of Noach onwards, which was completed when he was 80 years old, Vondel no longer wrote long poems. Because of his old age, his daughter Anna had moved in with her father to take care of him. As a result of an outbreak of the plague in Amsterdam in 1664 (which cost the lives of 24000 people; 10% of the population), his grandson Adriaan died in 1664 and not much later also his granddaughter Maria. Although Vondel's family lived relatively prosperous, partly because of an inheritance they received from one of the widows of Joost jr., disaster struck the family once more when also Vondel's grandson Willem died in 1670 and not much later his daughter Anna in 1675. As a result, Vondel's only remaining grandchild Justus and his wife moved in with him. In the meantime the Third Anglo-Dutch War broke out, along with the Rampjaar in 1672; events that were particularly devastating for Vondel, because Johan de Witt, who was greatly admired by him for defending the policy of toleration, was murdered by an angry mob. About this tragedy Vondel wrote a short poem. At the end of his life Vondel was occasionally visited by friends, such as his first biographer Gerard Brandt and the painter Philips de Koninck, who made several drawings and paintings of Vondel. On the 5th of February 1679 Vondel died at the age of 91.

Works

In his lifetime, Vondel produced a considerable amount of literary works in a great variety of different genre's and different forms. He wrote thirty-three plays, hundreds of poems - consisting of occasional poetry, satires, ode's, sonnets and didactic poems - an epic and numerous translations of Classical and contemporary literature. His work is considered by many to be remarkable for its virtuosity, especially with regard to his use of language and verse. In his work, especially in his dramatic output, Vondel is rarely lighthearted; his work is generally concerned with the great questions of human history, for example how state and law function, the essence of good and evil, matters relating to guilt and punishment, and especially how mankind relates to God. With regard to that last aspect, it can be said that mankind's lack of certainty and freedom of the will are two important motifs in Vondel's dramatic work. What applies to his dramatic work, can also be said about his poetry: Vondel writes mostly about the general essences of things, even when he writes for specific occasions, Vondel generally tends to transcend the matter to a more abstracted level of truths and values; his own feelings and sentiments are in that respect not his primary concern. Vondel's main objective in writing drama's for instance, is not so much entertainment, but the increasing of competence, as the theatre was for Vondel especially a means that could be used to elevate the spectator; it had the function of conveying knowledge.

Regardless of the abstraction in his work, Vondel was also a deeply engaged writer, it has been said that "everything that was to be seen in the world of his time, lives in his work, in some way or another". It is with his literary work that Vondel took part in the great debates of his time, for instance the theological-political struggle between the Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants, the trial of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, the politics of toleration or the occasional poetry for regents and stadtholders. The sources Vondel drew upon for his works were generally the poets and playwrights from the classical period; according to W.A.P. Smit his most important literary influences were Du Bartas, Seneca, Virgil, Grotius, Vossius, Sophocles, Euripides and Tasso. Indeed, Vondel was highly influenced by the playwrights of Ancient Greece, but at the same time he tried to use their own concept of emulation (aemulatio) to not only imitate their work, but also improve on it. Besides his indebtedness to classical literature, his work is at the same time deeply rooted in Christian philosophy and the humanism as encountered in the works of Erasmus; especially with an adherence to a form of religious toleration.

Plays

Although Vondel produced thirty-three plays in his life, eight of his plays were translations of mainly classical works. Almost all of his plays are tragedies, with the exception of Leeuwendalers, which is a pastoral work and Het Pascha, which is a tragicomedy. Vondel's development as a playwright was largely subject to his reading and translations of works on Ancient Greek theatre and the poetics of Seneca and Aristotle in particular. According to the literary historian W.A.P. Smit, four turning points in the oeuvre of Vondel can be made, which makes it possible to divide his dramatic output in five periods. The first period covers the years between 1610 and 1620; when in 1612 Vondel wrote his first play Het Pascha, and eight years later, in 1620, Hierusalem verwoest. This period is characterized by a highly symbolic style of which especially Hierusalem verwoest is very much indebted to Seneca's work. The second period covers the years after 1620 until 1640 and has to be seen against the backdrop of Vondel's acquaintance with P.C. Hooft, Laurens Reael and other members of the Muiderkring on the one hand, and his acquaintance with the works of Virgil, Seneca and Tasso on the other. This period produced the play Amsteldamsche Hecuba (1626), but more significant is his highly dramatic work Palamedes from 1625, in which Vondel used the mythology of the eponymous Greek hero to function as an allegory for the execution of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, whilst at the same time taking side in the religious-political debate that dominated the Dutch Republic at the time. The second great work of this period is his tragedy set in medieval Holland Gijsbrecht van Aemstel, about the siege and the subsequent sack of Amsterdam. This play, written for the opening of the new Theatre of Van Campen, is probably his most famous and frequently performed play. The last play of this period is the work Maeghden (Maidens), about the legend of Saint Ursula, in which Vondel showed a new affinity with the Ancient Greek drama.

The third period, from 1640 until 1648, starts with the play Gebroeders (Brothers) about the moral struggle of King David, who is forced by the command of God to execute seven descendants of Saul. Vondel's translation of Sophocles' Elektra was according to W.A.P. Smit a vital impulse for the start of this period, because of the Sophoclean emphasis of the emotional effect that the struggles in the protagonist could have on the inner self. In the same year Vondel wrote two plays about Joseph, Joseph in Dothan and Joseph in Egypten, that completed a trilogy with his earlier translated work by Hugo Grotius Sophompaneas. These plays, along with Gijsbrecht van Aemstel proved to be highly popular and were the peak of his success at the theatre of Amsterdam. A year later, in 1641, Vondel published his play Peter en Pauwels, a Roman Catholic drama about the martyrdom of Saint Peter and Saint Paul; a play that was far less popular than his previous ones. In 1646, Vondel produced a second play influenced by Catholicism, Maria Stuart, this time about the execution of the Scottish queen Mary Stuart. The last play that marked this period is Vondel's only pastoral play Leeuwendalers (Lion Fallers), a celebration piece for the end of the Eighty Years' War, in which peasants and hunters from North and South finally end their longstanding conflict.

The beginning of the fourth period of Vondel's dramatic work is marked by the influence that Gerardus Vossius and especially Vossius' translations of the poetics of Aristotle had on Vondel. The period starts in 1648 with the work Salomon; a highly popular tragedy about the downfall of King Salomon. This period produced some of the greatest works Vondel has written, especially the publication of what many would call his masterpiece Lucifer, which deals with the rebellion of Lucifer against God and the subsequent Fall of the Angels and the Fall of Man. But also Jephta, a play about the sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter to God, is regarded as one of Vondel's finest works and "a pinnacle of his dramatic art". Another play that Vondel produced in this period is Salmoneus about the wicked King of Eleia who wants to be worshipped as Zeus. The fifth period W.A.P. Smit discerns, is the last period in the development of Vondel's dramatic work. According to Smit it begins in 1660, and once again with a translation of a work by Sophocles; this time Oedipus Rex. This period covers, with nine plays by far the most productive period in Vondel's career, and is dominated by Vondel's choice of centralizing the insight of Sophocles of a change of state (staetveranderinghe) in the protagonist. His first two plays of this period are Koning David in ballingschap (King David Exiled) and Koning David herstelt (King David Restored) and deal with King David's conflict with his son Absalom; both plays are regarded as two of the highlights of this period. In 1661 the play Samson was published, about Samson's humiliation and revenge. And one year later the play Adonias which tells the story of Adonijah and is attempt to get rid of his younger brother Salomon. The play Batavische gebroeders (Batavian Brothers) is an exception with regard to its secular subject: the revolt of Gaius Julius Civilis and his brother against the Roman Empire. In the same year, 1663, Vondel wrote the tragedy Faëton about the hubris of the son of the sun god Helios. The tragedy Adam in ballingschap (Adam in exile) that Vondel wrote in 1664, which tells the story of the fall of Adam and Eve, is today considered as one of the absolute highlights of Vondel's oeuvre. Three years later, in 1667, Vondel published his last two plays. The first Zunghchin (Chongzhen), deals with the end of the Ming dynasty in 1644, when the Chongzhen Emperor took his own life. Vondel's acclaimed swan song is the tragedy Noach, which not only completed the trilogy he intended to make with Lucifer and Adam in ballingschap, but can also be seen as a synthesis of everything he made before; W.A.P. Smit refers to it as "not only Vondel's last tragedy, but also his most surprising one".

Poems

Although as a playwright, Vondel worked in primarily one specific genre; the tragedy, as a poet he covered almost every poetic genre: ode's, elegies, satires, occasional poetry, paeans, obituary poetry, hymns and sonnets. Vondel's work as a poet has to be seen in the context of the tradition of the Chamber of rhetoric, which were literary societies that originated in the Southern Netherlands in the 15th century, but spread to the Northern provinces, where members studied and composed poetry together especially for specific occasions. From 1606, if not earlier, Vondel was a member of 't Wit Lavendel' (The White Lavender). Many of his poems were written for specific occasions and are therefore occasional poetry, but at the same time, the occasional poems were sometimes written as e.g. hymns, or sometimes as e.g. funerary poetry; and are therefore overlapping in terms of genre. The characteristics that apply to Vondel's plays, can to a certain extent also be applied to Vondel's poetry. Like many of his plays, Vondel used his poems to comment on political, religious and cultural matters. And just like in his plays, Vondel aims to elevate the reader of his poetry and at the same time to propagate a certain point of view (often of a moralistic and didactic nature) on an abstract level of truths and values. The model Vondel used for his poems is derived from classical literature. But whereas his plays are modelled on the Ancient Greek playwrights and the poetics of Aristotle, his poetry is more indebted to Virgil, Ovid and especially Horace (i.e. his poetry, but also his theoretical work Ars Poetica). Apart from the influences of Latin literature, the works of the French poet Guillaume de Salluste Du Bartas were also an important influence.

An acclaimed and controversial aspect of Vondel's poetic oeuvre is without question his satires ('hekeldichten'). Most of the satires Vondel wrote were written in the early period of his life, until 1654, whilst later in his life he generally seemed to have lost interest in commenting on political struggles and was more preoccupied with religious matters and his dramatic work. The highlight of Vondel's satires are represented by two large poems published in 1630, the first of which Roskam (Curry-comb) is a denunciation of the selfishness and greed of the regents, whilst the second, Harpoen (Harpoon), is a satire in which Vondel attacks the intolerance of preachers. The "brutal ferocity of his satirical verse" was - just like many of his plays - highly controversial at the time and this prevented his satires from being published even thirty years later. In the years 1625 until 1632, Vondel wrote most of his satires, around 32 in total, with great variety in tone and subject matter. The execution of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was a subject that was clearly important to Vondel, as can be seen in the satire ''Geuze-vesper'' (Beggar's Vespers), which hits out at Van Oldenbarnevelt's judges. With his satires, Vondel took part in the political debates of his time, and, as he himself wrote in Roskam, couldn't remain silent to what he considered in his heart to be injustice.

Apart from the satires, Vondel's odes are another important aspect of his poetry. His ode's were written to a large extent as occasional poetry, for instance for the occasion of the opening of buildings, such as the poem Inwying van den Christen tempel t'Amsterdam (Consecration of the Christian Temple of Amsterdam) for the inauguration of the first Remonstrant church building in Amsterdam, in 1630. Another notable example is the Inwydinge van 't stadhuis t'Amsterdam (Inauguration of the Amsterdam Town Hall), which has been called "the most beautiful ode to Amsterdam ever written". In his Aan de beurs van Amsterdam (To the Commodity Exchange of Amsterdam), he praised the architecture of Hendrick de Keyser, but also emphasized the unreliability of fortune and the volatility of fate; an abstraction to universal values that was a common technique in Vondel's poetry. Apart from the many ode's on buildings, Vondel also wrote ode's to a great variety of different subjects; an example of this is his great poem Lof der Zeevaert (In Praise of Seafaring) of 1623, which celebrates overseas trade. Other examples are a large number of ode's to different people, such as his ode for Erasmus, an ode to Michiel de Ruyter or his Zegezang ter eeren van Fredrik Hendrik prince van Oranje; an ode to Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange.

Two other important aspects of his poetic output are his obituary poems (or elegies) and his religious poems. Throughout his life, Vondel wrote poems to commemorate or lament the loss of people who were either close to him or close to his friends. Two of the most famous examples of this kind of poetry are the poems Kinder-lijck (meaning both Child-like and Child's corpse) and Uitvaart van mijn dochtertje (Funeral of my little daughter), that Vondel wrote for the loss of his son Constantijn (in 1632) and for the loss of his daughter Saartje (in 1633). But Vondel also wrote similar poetry for others, for instance his Vertroostinge aan Geeraerdt Vossivs (Consolation to Geeraerdt Vossius) for his friend Gerard Vossius who lost his son Dionys. Many of these poems have a similar tendency in that they relate the consolation somehow to a kind of Christian-stoic attitude, an example of this can be found in the last stanza of Vondel's consolation to Vossius. Apart from his obituary poetry, of which many have a thematic nature that is deeply Christian, Vondel also wrote poetry to account for his religious convictions. Two poems in particular stand out, first his Altaergeheimenissen (Secrets of the Altar) of 1645, about the Sacraments of the Catholic Church, and secondly De heerlijkheid der kerke ("On the Church") which deals with Vondel's vision of the history Catholic Church; i.e. the origin of the church and its contemporary place in the world.

Style

Vondel's style is influenced by the cultural-historical environment to which he was subject; in that light the lyrical poetry of the Chamber of rhetoric was vital for his poetry throughout his career, but also the characteristics of the Baroque is essential to explain his style. The poetry of the Chamber of rhetoric is characterized by an emphasize on technical poetry, with lots of rhyme (end rhyme as well as internal rhyme) and lots of embellishment with e.g. exotic words, alliteration and onomatopoeia. The characteristics of the baroque can be discerned in both the poetic and dramatic works of Vondel, for instance in his Lucifer the typical aspects of the Baroque are present with the emphasis on the colossal and the overwhelming. But his style is also with regard to the use of language typically baroque: lots of rhetoric, lots of antithesis (which enhances the drama) and the language is usually sensitive and sensual with regard to the use of metaphors. The abundance of language, with its rich imagery, extended comparisons, sound effects and "the majestic rhythm of his alexandrines" can therefore be explained through Vondel being a writer of the Baroque, but also through his connection with the Chamber of rhetoric. Vondel's dramatic works, but also many of his poems, are generally written by employing alexandrines (i.e. iambic hexameters with masculine and feminine endings). But there are exceptions, for instance his tragedy  Jephta and the chori of his plays, deviate from the standard practice of using alexandrines. The style of his verses is furthermore characterized by a great virtuosity in terms of rhyme and rhythm; in that light, it has been argued that "Vondel was a language virtuoso; more than that, he was a builder of language."

The nature of his work is to a certain extent directly connected to his style. It can be said that his work, especially his dramatic work, can best be understood as symbolic, rather than psychological; in the sense that Vondel strives to use the characters of his plays as symbolic for mankind in general. The drama in Vondel's tragedies for instance are drama's of idea's, in particular idea's that are related to religious matters. For this reason, the individual characterization and development of the inner life of the characters of his play is only given to a certain extent; the real drama that rages in the protagonists's mind is achieved with Vondel's poetry. His poetry is therefore a crucial element of his dramatic work, since style is being employed to create the tension of his work and the conflicts with which his characters are confronted. In this sense, it can be said that there is a preference in Vondel's style to narrate the developments of the play, rather than the usage of overflowing personal emotions; as a result his drama's have a clear epic style.

Legacy

Influence

Vondel's work had an enormous impact on Dutch literature. It has been argued that even in the late nineteenth century, Dutch poetry was still colored by Vondel's language. Vondel's plays continued to be read and performed after his death, although certainly not all of his plays continued to be performed, Gijsbrecht van Aemstel however did, as it was performed annually on New Year's Day and the days that followed. During the 18th century, although the dominant style switched to French classicism, Vondel's work was still admired, for instance by Balthasar Huydecoper, as representing the "language of the Parnassus". Although his work was less acclaimed in comparison to the previous century, he was still a source of inspiration for 18th century writers such as Johannes le Francq van Berkhey. The same goes for the work of Lucretia van Merken, one of the most important Dutch poets and playwrights of the 18th century, who was profoundly influenced by Vondel's writings and even modeled her plays after his work. Another example is Willem Bilderdijk, the most important figure of 18th and 19th century Dutch literature, who explicitly called Vondel his master and his example. In the 19th century, partly because of the influence of Romanticism, with the emphasis on poetic originality and genius, Vondel's work was more appreciated. Two authors of the 19th century were important in giving his work renewed attention. The first was Jacob van Lennep, who was vital in arranging and editing his complete works and eventually established Vondel's reputation as the national poet of The Netherlands. The second was Joseph Albert Alberdingk Thijm, who championed his work and at the same time emphasized his Catholicism. Moreover, some of the most important literary figures of the 19th and early 20th century were distinctly influenced by Vondel's work, examples are Guido Gezelle, Hendrik Tollens, Albert Verwey and Herman Gorter.

Apart from his influence on works of Dutch-language literature, Vondel's work had significant - although at the same time limited - influence abroad; to a large extent this had to do with the fact that his work was not translated during his life in any other language but German. Because of the German translations of his work, Vondel had an important influence on German Baroque literature, especially on the dramatic works of this period. Particularly the works of Andreas Gryphius, the creator and master of German Baroque tragedy, were significantly influenced by his plays. Since Andreas Gryphius lived in The Dutch Republic for several years, it is assumed that he visited the performance of Vondel's plays. Gryphius was in any case well acquainted with his work; he translated Vondel's Gebroeders into German, and moreover, his verse and style, as well as his dramatic technique, were derived from the plays of Vondel. Partly through Gryphius, but also through motifs that were common in Vondel's drama's, playwrights like Daniel Casper von Lohenstein and Johann Christian Hallmann were indebted to his work as well. Another significant influence that Vondel had on German literature was through the work of "the father of German literature" Martin Opitz, who was particularly influenced with regard to the structure of the rhythm and meter of his verses.

A controversial and ongoing discussion, is the possible influence Vondel had on the works of John Milton. During the 1880s, it was suggested by George Edmundson, that John Milton drew inspiration from Vondel's Lucifer (1654) and Adam in ballingschap (1664) for the writing of his epic poem Paradise Lost (1667).  Subsequently, this view has been heavily criticized and today there is consensus among scholars that there is not a direct influence of Lucifer on Paradise Lost, but rather a common use of the biblical creation story as the main source of both works, and possibly similarities of Vondel and Milton both using Hugo Grotius' Adamus Exul as a model for their work. According to Watson Kirkconnell, Edmundson merely demonstrated, "scores of parallels." However, writing in 1952, Kirkconnell laid out his case that Milton was aware of Vondel. To prove that Milton knew the Dutch language, Kirkconnell quoted letter by Roger Williams to John Winthrop, "The Secretary of the Council, Mr. Milton, for my Dutch I read him, read me many more languages." Edmundson departs from a similar premise, namely that John Milton had a proficient knowledge of the Dutch language, and argues that Milton was acquainted with Vondel's work. Similarly, it has been argued that Milton at least knew who Vondel was, since Milton met Vondel's friend Hugo Grotius in Paris and was well acquainted with Franciscus Junius, who lived in England for many years. These matters led Kirkconnell - just like Edmundson - to believe that Vondel's Samson was in fact a major influence upon Milton's Samson Agonistes. The discussion remains unresolved, although it can be said that "Edmundson may have gone too far in a few respects in asserting Milton's indebtedness, (...) the other extreme by denying every relationship between Vondel and Milton" goes too far as well.

Critical reputation

Vondel is generally regarded as the greatest playwright and poet in the history of Dutch language literature. In his native country he is often referred to as "the Prince of Poets" and Dutch is sometimes - especially in France - called "the language of Vondel". Although his plays are generally considered to be his masterpieces, Vondel is equally acclaimed for his poetry. It has been said that Dutch lyric poetry reached the sublime in the work of Vondel, not only in the lyric "but in all genres". Theodoor Weevers for instance writes that Vondel "surpasses all Dutch poets by his versatility, by the scope and profundity of his thought, and by his apparently effortless command of all metrical forms with the exception of one, the sonnet, in which his achievement, although notable, is second to that of Hooft." Vondel was revered during his lifetime, by the 1640s he was already generally acknowledged as the greatest living poet in the Dutch Republic. This assessment was emphasized in 1653, when he was crowned with a laurel wreath at the festival of St. Lucas, to honor him "in recognition of his uncontested mastery of the art of poetry". When Vondel died, the pallbearers were given a memorial coin showing the poet on one side and on the other the inscription: "The country's oldest and greatest poet." In the centuries that followed, the view of Vondel as the greatest poet the Dutch language has produced, has not changed, although he has certainly not been without criticism, for instance with regard to his Catholicism or with regard to the structural choices of his plays. Nevertheless, from the 19th century onwards Vondel's play Lucifer has been regarded as a masterpiece and the absolute highlight of his oeuvre. In that light Albert Verwey remarked that "Vondel's work is like a mountain with a statue on top. That statue is his Lucifer."

It has been said that Vondel's European importance lies in the fact that "his drama (...) is a consummation in classical (Sophoclean) form of the late medieval drama as it had become a Dutch tradition." A similar view is voiced by Jan Konst, who wrote: "Nowhere in the Europe of the 1660s does one find plays that breathe the spirit of Aristotle, that execute his ideas to such an extent as Vondel's tragedies." Moreover, it has been said, for instance by P.H. Albers, that Vondel "is the greatest poet the Netherlands has produced, one who is distinguished in every form and who occupies a place among the best poets of all time." Over the course of centuries many writers made analogies to significant poets and playwrights of other languages to illustrate Vondel's mastery of versification. Examples include comparisons to Dante Alighieri, William Shakespeare, Pedro Calderón de la Barca and Johann Wolfgang Goethe. Similar comparisons have been voiced by Watson Kirkconnell, who said "Vondel is to the Netherlands what Shakespeare is to England." Or Sir Edmund Gosse: "Not merely is he to Holland all that Camoens is to Portugal and Mickiewicz is to Poland, but he stands on a level with these men in the positive value of his writings." And Jean Stals, who translated Vondel's work into French and wanted to give it "its rightful place" amidst Dante, Corneille, Racine, Goethe, Schiller, Shakespeare, "not to mention the old ones." Indeed, Vondel's work, although acclaimed, is generally not well known outside of the Netherlands and Flanders, and for that reason many of the analogies sparked discussion because of flawed comparisons, since the writers who were being compared differ in many important respects. In that light, the novelist Frans Kellendonk wrote: "Indeed, Vondel is not a Dante, not a Shakespeare, not a Corneille. Vondel is Vondel."

Commemoration

Over the centuries, many commemorations were initiated for Vondel. The veneration for Vondel in the Netherlands started in the late 19th century and probably reached the highpoint with the Commemoration of 1937, when a solemn meeting in Amsterdam was held and a commemoration book was published as a permanent contribution. Today, almost all cities in the Netherlands have at least one street named after Vondel, just like his native Cologne, where there is a Vondelstraße in the Neustadt-Süd-district. Another commemorative example is the Dutch five guilder banknote, which bore Vondel's portrait from 1950 until they were discontinued in 1990.

Arguably the most important commemoration for Vondel is Amsterdam's biggest park, the Vondelpark, especially with the statue of Vondel in the northern part of the park. The statue was erected in 1867 and made by the sculptor Louis Royer; the plinth for the statue was designed by the famous architect Pierre Cuypers.

See also
 Western literature
 Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature
 Dutch Golden Age
 Dutch-language literature
 Johan van Oldenbarnevelt
 Hugo Grotius

References

Notes

References

Sources
Books

Articles and online

External links

 Joost van den Vondel  at the Project Laurens Janszoon Coster
 Joost van den Vondel at the Digital library for Dutch literature
 Joost van den Vondel: Profiel at the National Library of the Netherlands
 Complete digitized copy of Lucifer, 1654

1587 births
1679 deaths
17th-century Dutch dramatists and playwrights
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Neoclassical writers
Roman Catholic writers
Translators of Ancient Greek texts
Translators to Dutch
Writers from Amsterdam

Joost van den Vondel


Iquique Şili'nin kuzeyinde yer alan bir liman şehri ve bölgesidir. Hem Iquique bölgesinin hem de Tarapacá bölgesinin başkentidir. Pasifik Okyanusu sahilinde yer alan Iquique şehri batıda Atacama Çölü'nün bir parçası olan Pampa del Tamarugal ile komşudur. 2011 nüfus sayımına göre şehrin nüfusu 180.601'dir.  Iquique bölgesinin merkezi konumunda olan şehir 19. yüzyılda Atacama Çölü'de yapılan Potasyum nitrat madencilik çalışmaları sırasında oldukça gelişmiştir. Köken olarak bir Peru şehri olan Iquique  Pasifik Savaşı'ndan sonra Şili'nin himayesine geçmiştir. Günümüzde Şili'nin iki serbest ekonomik bölgesinden birisidir.

Tarihçe

Her ne kadar şehir 16. yüzyılda kurulmuş olsa da Camanchacos olarak bilinen yerli halkın burada M.Ö. 7.000'lerden beri yaşadığına dair kanıtlar bulumuştur. İspanyol İmparatorluğu'nun koloni döneminde Peru Kral Vekilliği'nin bir parçası olan şehir 19. yüzyılın sonlarına kadar Peru'nun himayesindeydi. Peru himayesindeyken Iquique şehrinin gelişimindeki en önemli neden Atacama Çölü'nde yapılan sodyum nitrat maden çalışmalarıydı.

1835 Temmuz'nda Beagle adlı gemiyle Güney Amerika'ya yaptığı seyahat sırasında Charles Darwin Iquique'ye de uğramış ve bu şehrin "su ve yakacak odun gibi gündelik ihtiyaçlarına" bile sahip olmadığını, bunların oldukça uzak mesafelerden getirildiğini belirtmişti. Darwin bu sehayeti sırasında sodyum nitrat madenlerini de ziyaret  etti.

Deprem bölgesinde yer alan şehir başta 1868 Arica depremi, 1877 Iquique depremi ve 2005 Tarapacá depremi olmak üzere birçok kez yıkıma uğramıştır.  Son büyük deprem olan ve 13 Haziran 2005'te meydana gelen Tarapaca depremi 7.9 Richter ölçeğindeydi.

Bolivya ile Şili arasında Atacama Çölü'ndeki sınır anlaşmazlıkları nedeniyle 1879 yılında başlayan Pasifik Savaşı'nın bir parçası olan ve 21 Mayıs 1879'da gerçekleşen Iquique Deniz Savaşı anısına 21 Mayıs Şili'de Donanma Günü olarak kutlanmaktadır. Bu savaş sonucunda Şili, Peru'ya ait bazı bölgeleri topraklarına kattı.

Coğrafya
Iquique, Atacama Çölü'nün batısında, Pasifik ile Kordiller (sahile yakın sıradağlar) arasında yer alır. Deniz seviyesinden yaklaşık 50 m yüksektedir.

İklim sıcak ve ısı yıllık ortalama 18 °C civarındadır. Çok ender olarak yağış alır. Geçmişte 14 yıl boyunca yağış almadığı olmuştur.

Turizm ve ekonomi

Iquiquie bugün deniz tatili bölgesidir. Uzun kumsalları ziyaretçileri buraya çektiği için turizm git gide artan bir rol oynar. Ayrıca şehirde düzenli olarak kültürel organizasyonlar düzenlenir.

Şehir çok sayıda palmiyeli bulvarlara sahiptir.

Iquiquie'nin, Şili'nin Antofagasta'daki limanla beraber en önemli ikinci güherçile limanı, bugün anlamını artık kaybetmiştir. Şehir bugün balık ve petrol ürünlerinin işlendiği bir endüstri merkezidir. Şehrin yaklaşık 20 km uzağında Aeropuerto International Diego Aracena havaalanı bulunur.

Kaynakça

Tarapacá bölgesi'ndeki şehirler
Şili'deki liman kentleri

Iquique


الجوف قرية تقع في معتمدية الزريبة بولاية زغوان بالوسط التونسي.

انظر أيضا

مواضيع ذات علاقة
 معتمدية الزريبة.
 ولاية زغوان.

جوف

الجوف (زغوان)


Connor (de «Conchobar») es un nombre irlandés que significa «Familiar del Lobo», «Amante de Lobos» o «Aullido de Lobos»), a veces deletreado «Conor» cuando se usa como nombre, refiriéndose a:

Nombre propio

Personas

Connor Autumn Estrada (2013), femenina Mexicana, 2o en el mundo con el nombre Connor para una mujer.

 Connor McGregor (1988), luchador de la UFC.

Connor Acuña (2005), campeón universal en fisicoculturismo
Connor Barwin (1986), Jugador de fútbol estadounidense.
Connor Gibbs (2001), actor canadiense.
Connor Grimes (1983), Jugador de hockey canadiense.
Connor Hughes (1983), Jugador de fútbol estadounidense.
Connor Murphy (1993), Jugador de hockey estadounidense.
Connor Paolo (1990), actor estadounidense.
Connor Robertson (1981), Jugador de béisbol estadounidense.
Connor Wickham (1993), Jugador de fútbol inglés.

Personajes ficticios
 Connor, un personaje principal de la serie Ángel.
 Connor Costello, un personaje de All Saints.
 Connor Murphy, un personaje de "Dear Evan Hansen".
 Connor Deslauriers, un personaje de Degrassi: The Next Generation.
 Connor Hawke, un héroe de DC comics.
 Connor Kent, Superboy, de DC comics, clonado de Superman y Lex Luthor.
 Connor Leonhardt, personaje principal de la novela Azrátem el Asesino de Asesinos.
 Connor Ratohnhakéton Kenway, Assassin, antepasado de Desmond Miles y protagonista de Assassin's Creed III.
 Connor MacLeod, el protagonista de las películas Highlander.
 Connor McManus, uno de los protagonistas de The Boondock Saints.
 Connor Owens, un personaje de la serie Ugly Betty.
 Connor Temple, un personaje de la serie Primeval.
 Connor, un personaje de la película The Navigator: A Medieval Odyssey.
 Connor, un personaje creado por Ellis Duffield en el webcomic FreakAngels.
 Connor, uno de los personajes principales de Detroit: Become Human interpretado por el actor Bryan Dechart.

Referencias

en:Connor (given name)

Connor


13. breddegrad kan henvise til:

 13. nordlige breddekreds
 13. sydlige breddekreds

13. breddegrad


Édgar Hernández (Reynosa, Tamaulipas 27 de agosto de 1982) es un exfutbolista mexicano. Su último equipo fue el club necaxa

Trayectoria
Estuvo con América en 2004 pero no debutó. Su presentación en el máximo circuito fue con Tigres en el Apertura 2005, Leonardo Álvarez lo mandó al campo en el minuto 70 por Rogelio Rodríguez enfrentando a las Chivas, estuvo ahí hasta el Clausura 2007. Llegó a Jaguares para jugar del Apertura 2007 al Bicentenario 2010, con Puebla en Apertura 2010 y Clausura 2011. Regresó con los Chiapanecos en el Apertura 2011.

Equipos

Campeonatos nacionales

Nacidos en Reynosa
Futbolistas de Tamaulipas
Futbolistas de los Tigres de la UANL
Futbolistas del Chiapas Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Club Puebla
Futbolistas del Querétaro Fútbol Club
Futbolistas de los Alebrijes de Oaxaca
Guardametas de fútbol de México
Futbolistas del Club Necaxa en los años 2020

Édgar Hernández


Yanardağ ya da volkanik dağ, magmanın (Dünya'nın iç tabakalarında bulunan, yüksek basınç ve yüksek sıcaklıkla erimiş kayalar) yeryüzünden dışarı püskürerek çıktığı coğrafi yer şekilleridir. Güneş Sistemi'nde bulunan kayalık gezegen ve uydularda (bazıları çok aktif olan) birçok yanardağ olmasına rağmen, bu olgu, en azından Dünya'da, genellikle tektonik plaka sınırlarında görülür. Ne var ki, sıcak nokta yanardağlarında önemli istisnalar vardır. Yanardağların araştırıldığı bilim dalına volkanoloji (yanardağ bilimi) denir.

Öte yandan magma düşük oranlarda (%52'den az) silikat içerirse lava "mafik" adı verilir ve püskürürken çok akışkan hâle gelir. Uzun mesafelerce akabilir. Mafik lav akışının iyi bir örneği, İzlanda'nın neredeyse coğrafî merkezindeki bir püskürme yarığının aşağı yukarı 8.000 yıl önce oluşturduğu Büyük Thjórsárhraun akıntısıdır. Bu lav akıntısı, 130 km ötedeki denize varıncaya kadar akmaya devam etmiş ve 800 km²lik bir alanı kaplamıştır. Felsik ve mafik terimleri yerine bazen daha eski olan "asidik" ve "bazik" terimlerinin kullanıldığı görülür; ancak bu terimler artık daha az kullanılır olmuşlardır.

Etimoloji
Volkan kelimesi Türkçeye Fransızcadan geçmiş olup Türkçedeki ilk kullanımı 1862'ye tarihlenmiştir. Fransızcaya ise İtalyanca dilinden aktarılmıştır ve kökensel olarak İtalya'da yer alan Vulcano volkanik adası ile ilişkilidir. Adanın ismi ise Roma mitolojisindeki demircilik, ateş ve yanardağ tanrısı Vulcanus'dan türemiştir. Yanardağ kelimesi ise Türkçe kaynaklarda ilk olarak 1876 yılında kullanılmıştır. 19. yy sonlarında aynı kökten ortaya çıkmış bürkân (بركان) kelimesi ise modern Arap dillerinde yaygındır ve Osmanlıcaya yeni Mısır Arapçasından alınmıştır. Osmanlıcada yanardağlar için kûh-i ateşfeşân kullanımı da yer almıştır.

Yanardağ türleri
 Kalkan yanardağlar: Şekli kalkana benzeyen dağlar oluşturacak şekilde zamanla biriken yüksek miktarda lav çıkartan yanardağlar çoklukla Havai ve İzlanda'da görülürler. Lav akışları genellikle çok kızgın ve çok akışkan olup uzun akıntılara neden olurlar. Yeryüzündeki en büyük lav kalkanı, 120 km çapındaki ve deniz tabanından zirvesine 9.000 m yüksekliğindeki Mauna Loa'dır. Mars'taki Olympus Mons, bir kalkan yanardağıdır ve Güneş Sistemi'nde şimdiye kadar keşfedilmiş olan en yüksek dağdır.
 Lav kalkanının daha küçük olanlarına "lav kubbesi" (), "lav konisi" ve "lav kümbeti" adı verilir.
 Volkanik koniler, yanardağın ağzında biriken ufak kaya parçacıkları fırlatan püskürmelerden dolayı oluşur. Bu püskürmeler, 30–300 m yüksekliğinde, koni şeklinde tepeler oluşturur ve nispeten kısa ömürlü olurlar.
 Japonya'daki Fuji Dağı, İtalya'daki Vezüv, Antarktika'daki Erebus ya da kuzeybatı Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki Rainier gibi stratovolkanlar ya da kompozit yanardağlar, hem lav akıntılarından hem de püskürtülerden oluşmuş yüksek, koni şeklinde dağlardır.
 Süper yanardağlar, geniş çanakları olan, kıtasal yıkım ve küresel iklim değişiklikleri yaratma potansiyelleri bulunan yanardağ sınıfına verilen addır. Bu sınıftaki yanardağlara aday olarak Yellowstone Millî Parkı ve Toba Gölü gösterilebilir; ancak kesin bir tanımlama yapmak, asgari bir tanımlayıcı şart bulunmadığı için çok zordur.

Yanardağlar genellikle ya tektonik plaka sınırlarında ya da sıcak noktalarda yer alırlar. Yanardağlar uyuyan (etkin olmayan) ya da faal (aktif -neredeyse sürekli çıkış ve kesikli püskürmeler) olabilirler, önceden tahmin edilemeden hâlâ değiştirebilirler.

Karadaki yanardağlar genellikle, çıkışların yıllar içinde sürekli birikmesiyle koni ya da kül konisi şeklini alırlar. Suyun altında ise, yanardağlar genellikle fazlasıyla dik sütunlar oluşturur ve yıllar içinde okyanus yüzeyine çıkarak yeni adacıklar hâline gelirler.

Yanardağ etkinlikleri genellikle depremler, sıcak su kaynakları, çamur kazanları ve kaynaçlar gibi yer etkinlikleriyle beraber görülürler. Püskürmelerden önce genellikle düşük şiddette depremler görülür.

Şaşırtıcı olsa da, volkan bilimciler, etkin yanardağların sınıflandırılmasında fikir birliğine varmamışlardır. Bir yanardağın yaşam süresi, birkaç aydan birkaç milyon yıla kadar değişebilir. Bu tür bir sınıflandırma yapmak, insanların, hatta bazen uygarlıkların bile varlık süreleri göz önüne alındığında anlamsız görünebilir. Örneğin, yeryüzündeki yanardağların birçoğu, geçen birkaç binyılda birçok kez püskürmüşlerdir, ama günümüzde herhangi bir etkinlik göstermemektedirler. Bu tür yanardağların uzun ömürleri göz önüne alındığında çok etkin oldukları söylenebilir. Ancak ömürlerimiz düşünülürse etkin değildirler. Bu tanımı daha da karmaşıklaştıran ise, harekete geçen ama püskürmeyen yanardağlardır. Bu yanardağlar etkin midir?

Bilim insanları genellikle, püsküren ya da yeni gaz çıkışları veya beklenmedik deprem etkinliği gibi hareketlilikler gösteren yanardağları etkin olarak kabul ederler. Birçok bilim insanı, yazılı tarihte püskürdüğü bilinen yanardağların da etkin olduğunu kabul ederler. Yazılı tarihin bölgeden bölgeye farklılıklar gösterdiğini, örneğin Akdeniz'de 3.000 yıl geriye, ABD'nin Büyük Okyanus kıyısında 300 yıl, Havai'de ise 200 yıl geriye kadar gittiğini göz önünde bulundurmak gerekir.

Uyuyan yanardağlar, şu an (yukarıdaki tanıma göre) etkin olmayan, ama her an hareketlenmesi ya da patlaması muhtemel yanardağlardır.

Sönmüş yanardağlar ise, bilim insanlarının bir daha püskürmelerini olası görmedikleri yanardağlardır. Bir yanardağın gerçekten sönmüş olup olmadığının belirlenmesi zordur. Örneğin, çanakların milyonlarca yıllık ömürleri olduğu bilindiğinden, on binlerce yıl püskürmemiş bir çanağın sönmüş değil uyuyan olarak tanımlanması gerekir. Yellowstone Millî Parkı'nda bulunan Yellowstone Çanağı, en az 2.000.000 yaşındadır ve 70.000 yıldan beri hiç püskürmemiştir, fakat bilim insanları tarafından sönmüş olarak tanımlanmaz. Doğrusu, çanak sık sık depremler yarattığı, etkin bir jeotermal sistemi bulunduğu ve yüzeyi hızlı değiştiği için, birçok bilim insanı tarafından çok etkin bir yanardağ olarak kabul edilir.

Teoride yanardağlar

Oluşum

Yeryuvarlağının iç kesimlerinin çoğu gibi, magmanın hareketleri ve dinamikleri de fazla iyi anlaşılamamıştır. Ancak bir püskürmenin yanardağın altında bulunan katı bir tabakaya (Dünya'nın kabuğuna) doğru magmanın hareket ederek bir "magma odacığı"nı işgal etmesinin ardından geldiği bilinmektedir. Sonunda, odacıktaki magma yukarı doğru itilir ve gezegenin yüzeyine lav olarak yayılır ya da yükselen magma civardaki yer şekillerinde bulunan suyu ısıtır ve patlamalı buhar çıkışlarına neden olur. Bu çıkışlar ya da magmadan kaçan gazlar, kaya, kül, volkanik cam veya volkanik külün kuvvetli bir şekilde fırlatılmasına yol açar. Püskürmeler daima kuvvetli olmasa da, akıntı veya büyük patlamalar şeklinde olabilirler.

Karada bulunan çoğu yanardağ yok edici plaka marjlarında oluşurlar, yani okyanus kabuğu, daha yoğun olduğu için kıta kabuğunun altına itilir. Hareketli bu plakaların arasındaki sürtünme okyanus kabuğunun erimesine neden olur ve düşen yoğunluk yeni oluşan magmanın yükselmesine yol açar. Magma yükseldikçe kıta kabuğundaki zayıf alanlardan geçer ve bir veya daha çok yanardağ olarak püskürür. Örneğin, St. Helens Yanardağı, okyanus plakası olan Juan de Fuca Plakası ve kıta plakası olan Kuzey Amerika Plakası arasındaki marjdan içeride, karadadır.

Duman olarak düşünülen, su buharı ve çoklukla kükürt buharlarıyla karışmış çok büyük miktarlarda ince tozdur. Ateş gibi görünen ise püsküren maddelerin parlamasıdır. Parlamanın nedeni, yüksek sıcaklıktır ve bu parlama toz ve buhar bulutlarından yansır ve bu yansıma da ateşe benzer.

Bir yanardağın en şüpheli bölümü, genellikle kabaca dairesel olan ve içindeki menfez(ler)den (yarıklardan) gaz, lav ve püskürtü şeklinde magma çıkan krateridir. Bir kraterin boyutları büyük olabilir ve bazen derinliği de çok fazla olabilir. Bu tarzda çok büyük şekillere genellikle kaldera denir. Bazı yanardağlar yalnızca kraterlerden oluşurlar ve dağları neredeyse hiç yoktur, fakat çoğu kez krater, inanılmaz yüksekliklere ulaşabilen dağın tepesindedir. Ana bir kraterle sonlanan yanardağlara genelde konik denir.

Yanardağ konileri genelde daha küçük boyutlarda, arada püskürmelerle havaya fırlatılan (püskürtü) kaya kütlelerinin de bulunduğu seyrek külden oluşmuş yapılardır. Yanardağın kraterinde içinden sürekli buhar çıkışı ve kül ve kaya püskürmesi olan birden fazla koni bulunabilir. Bazı yanardağlarda bu koniler dağın derinliklerindeki yarıklarda yer alabilir.

Püskürmeleri tahmin etmek
Bilim, henüz yanardağ püskürmelerinin tam olarak ne zaman meydana geleceğini tahmin edememektedir; ancak geçmişte püskürme olasılığını tahmin etmekte ilerlemeler kaydedilmiştir.

Volkan bilimciler, püskürmeleri tahmin etmek için aşağıdaki belirtileri kullanırlar:

Sismisite
Yanardağlar uyanırlarken ve püskürmeye hazırlanırlarken her zaman sismik hareket (küçük depremler ve sarsıntılar) gösterirler. Bazı yanardağlar sürekli düşük düzeyde sismik faaliyet gösterirler ama bu faaliyetteki bir artış, patlamaya işaret edebilir. Ortaya çıkan depremlerin türleri, nerede başlayıp bittikleri de önemli sinyallerdir. Volkanik sismisite üç ana biçimde görülür: kısa dönemli depremler, uzun dönemli depremler ve dalgalı sarsıntı.

Kısa dönemli depremler fay depremleri gibidirler. Bunlar, magma yukarı doğru çıkarken gevrek kayanın kırılmasından ortaya çıkarlar. Bu kısa dönemli depremler magmanın yüzeye yakın bir yerde büyüdüğünü işaret eder.

Uzun dönemli depremlerin, bir yanardağın "tesisat sistemindeki" gaz basıncının artışına işaret ettiği düşünülür. Bu depremler, ev tesisatlarında bazen duyulan tangırtıları andırır. Bu salınımlar, yanardağ kubbesinin altındaki magma odacıkları düşünülürse, bir bölmedeki akustik titreşimlere eşdeğerdir.

Dalgalı sarsıntı, yüzey altında sürekli bir magma hareketi olduğu zaman ortaya çıkar.

Sismik örüntüler, karmaşık ve yorumlanması zor olgulardır. Ancak artan faaliyet, özellikle de uzun dönemler baskın olmaya başlayıp dalgalı sarsıntılar olunca korku yaratırlar.

Aralık 2000'de, Meksika'daki Ulusal Felaket Önleme Merkezi'ndeki bilim insanları, Meksika Kenti dışındaki Popocatépetl Yanardağı'nın püskürmesini iki gün öncesinden tahmin ettiler. Tahmin, İsviçreli bir volkan bilimci olan M. Chouet tarafından yapılan ve uzun dönemli salınımların artışı üzerine sürdürülen araştırmalar sonucunda yapıldı. Hükûmet 10 binlerce kişiyi şehirden uzaklaştırdı. 48 saat sonra, yanardağ püskürdü. Bu püskürme, Popocatépetl Yanardağı'nın bin yıl boyunca karşılaşılan en büyük püskürmesiydi.

Yeryüzü şeklinin bozulması
Yanardağın şişmesi, yüzeye yakın bir yerde magma biriktiğini gösterir. Etkin bir yanardağı gözlemleyen bilim insanları genellikle dağın eteklerindeki eğimi ölçer ve şişmedeki değişim oranını gözlerler. Artan bir şişme oranı, özellikle de kükürtdioksit çıkışlarında ve dalgalı sarsıntılarda bir artış varsa, kısa bir süre içinde gerçekleşebilecek bir püskürme ya da patlamayı işaret eder.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Dünyanın En Büyük Yanardağı - Tamu Massif

Volkanizma

Yanardağ


Soleado ist ein textloses Lied, das der Italiener Ciro Dammicco komponierte und unter seinem Pseudonym "Zacar" veröffentlichte. Mit einem deutschen Text, gesungen von Michael Holm, wurde es 1974 unter dem Titel Tränen lügen nicht bekannt. Ebenso wurde die Melodie für das Weihnachtslied When a Child Is Born adaptiert.

Das Lied basiert auf einer früheren Komposition Le rose blu, die Ciro Dammicco 1972 veröffentlichte. 1974 wurde es vom Daniel Sentacruz Ensemble aufgenommen, dem Dammicco angehörte. Diese Version, die sich durch eine von einem Chor getragene Melodieführung ohne einen Liedtext (Vokalise) auszeichnet, platzierte sich in den Hitparaden der Schweiz, Österreich und Schweden unter den zehn bestverkauften Singles. Von weiteren Künstlern erschienen unterschiedlich erfolgreiche Coverversionen.

Coverversionen
Unter anderem wurden Versionen von Künstlern wie Percy Faith, Paul Mauriat oder Mireille Mathieu aufgenommen. Michael Holm sang die deutschsprachige Vokalversion Tränen lügen nicht, die 1974 ein Nummer-1-Hit in Deutschland wurde. In der Schweiz kam Holm damit auf Platz 4, in Österreich auf Platz 2 der Hitparade.

Die Melodie wurde 1976 auch für das Weihnachtslied When a Child Is Born verwendet, das von Johnny Mathis gesungen und ein Weihnachts-Nummer-eins-Hit im Vereinigten Königreich wurde. Dieser Titel wurde wiederum unter anderem von Boney M., Kenny Rogers, Bing Crosby und The Moody Blues aufgenommen. In Ungarn sang Zsuzsa Cserháti 1978 eine Coverversion, die den Titel Édes kisfiam (Mein süßes kleines Kind) trägt. Die italienische Musikgruppe Elio e le Storie Tese trägt eine eigenständige Coverversion auf ihren Neujahrskonzerten vor, die sie Buon Anno Nuovo ("Frohes neues Jahr") betitelt hat. Der tschechische Sänger Karel Gott sang eine Coverversion mit dem Titel Měl jsem rád a mám (Ich liebte und tue es immer noch).

Eine Parodie mit dem Titel Dänen lügen nicht trug Otto Waalkes auf seinen Tourneen vor. Weitere Parodien veröffentlichten Hermann Hoffmann (Meine Herta) sowie Udo Jürgens (Trainer lügen nicht). Mark 'Oh veröffentlichte Ende 1994 eine englischsprachige Rave-Variante mit dem Titel Tears Don't Lie, die in Deutschland ebenfalls zum Nummer-1-Hit wurde. Gigi D'Agostino machte aus der Melodie von Soleado einen Trance-Remix.

Einzelnachweise

Lied 1974
Schlager (Lied)
Nummer-eins-Hit

Soleado


Zhe Cui (en ), née le  à Heze (Shandong), est une haltérophile handisport chinoise concourant en -45 kg. Elle est quadruple médaillée d'argent paralympique (2008, 2012, 2016, 2020) et possède un titre mondial (2021).

Carrière
Elle est victime de la poliomyélite à l'âge de deux ans et perd l'usage de ses jambes. Son histoire est l'une de celles racontées dans le documentaire Comme des phénix : L'esprit paralympique.

Pour ses premiers Jeux en 2008, elle remporte la médaille d'argent en -40 kg derrière l'Ukrainienne Lidiia Soloviova, métal qu'elle conserve lors des Jeux de 2012 derrière la Turque Nazmiye Muslu. En 2016, pour ses troisième Jeux, Zhe Cui remporte une nouvelle fois la médaille d'argent, en -41 kg. Aux Jeux paralympiques d'été de 2020, elle rafle une quatrième fois l'argent derrière la nigériane Latifat Tijani.

Elle détient également un troisième titre mondial obtenu lors des Mondiaux 2021 à Tbilissi.

Références

Liens externes

Haltérophile chinoise
Médaillée d'argent paralympique chinoise
Haltérophile (femme) aux Jeux paralympiques d'été de 2008
Haltérophile (femme) aux Jeux paralympiques d'été de 2012
Haltérophile (femme) aux Jeux paralympiques d'été de 2016
Haltérophile (femme) aux Jeux paralympiques d'été de 2020
Cas de poliomyélite
Naissance en décembre 1986
Naissance dans la province du Shandong

Zhe Cui


Peter Gelhard Naturdärme ist ein im Jahre 1964 gegründetes Familienunternehmen zur Herstellung von Naturdarmprodukten für die Wurstherstellung. Kunden des Unternehmens sind nationale und internationale Unternehmen der fleischverarbeitenden Industrie, mittelständische Wursthersteller sowie der Fleischerei-Fachgroßhandel. Der Hauptsitz liegt in Ransbach-Baumbach im Westerwald.

Geschichte
Die Familie des Firmengründers Peter Gelhard, eine alte Kaufmannsfamilie aus Ransbach, betrieb bereits seit 1825 eine Labproduktion, zu der später der Handel mit Naturdärmen hinzukam. Nach dem Tod seines Vaters machte sich Peter Gelhard selbstständig und gründete die Firma Peter Gelhard Naturdärme. Die Eintragung ins Handelsregister erfolgte am 10. März 1964. Zusammen mit seiner 1992 verstorbenen Frau Romy Gelhard vergrößerte er das Unternehmen weiter und baute seit den 1980er Jahren auch die internationalen Geschäftsbeziehungen aus. Es wurden eigene Produktionsstätten in China und im europäischen Ausland sowie eine Firma zur Beschaffung von Rohware für Schafsdärme in Australien errichtet.

Durch den Wachstum des Unternehmens wurde erneut eine größere Produktionsfläche nötig. Im Industriegebiet in Ransbach-Baumbach wurden weitere Flächen erworben und das Unternehmen auf eine Fläche von 83.000 Quadratmetern ausgebaut, auf der bis 1996 Bürokomplexe, Lager- und Kühlhallen sowie Produktionsflächen errichtet wurden.

Am 6. Januar 2011 brach das Dach einer drei Jahre zuvor erbauten Lagerhalle ein, weil das Tauwasser nicht abfließen konnte und das Gewicht dann von der Dachkonstruktion nicht mehr getragen werden konnte. Es befanden sich keine Personen in dem Gebäude, doch es entstand ein Gesamtschaden von ungefähr 250.000 €.

Die Unternehmensleitung teilen sich der Gründer, Peter Gelhard, und dessen Sohn, Arnd Gelhard. Petra Gelhard-Fuchs, die Tochter des Firmengründers, verantwortet das zentrale Marketing.

Produkte
Das Unternehmen beschafft und veredelt Naturdarmprodukte von Schaf, Schwein und Rind. An drei Produktions- und Lagerstandorten in Deutschland, in Polen und in China werden die Naturdarm-Rohwaren verarbeitet, konfektioniert und distribuiert.

Unternehmensdaten
Weltweit werden Stand 2011 über 1.600 Mitarbeiter beschäftigt. Das Unternehmen ist ein von der EU zugelassener und kontrollierter Betrieb zur Sortierung und Verarbeitung von Naturdärmen, die Produkte tragen die Zulassungsnummer EV 11-001 C. Es ist Mitglied im Zentralverband Naturdarm e. V., im Europäischen Naturdarmverband ENSCA und im Internationalen Naturdarmverband INSCA. Nach einer Erstzertifizierung im August 2007 bestand das Unternehmen im August 2011 die Anforderungen zum International Food Standard (IFS).

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Produzierendes Unternehmen (Westerwaldkreis)
Ransbach-Baumbach

Peter Gelhard Naturdärme


TCG Atmaca (P-322), Türk Deniz Kuvvetleri'nde görev yapmış Kartal sınıfı hücumbot. Üzerinde 2 adet torpido 2 adet uçaksavar topu barış durumunda 2 savaş durumunda 4 adet olmak üzere penguen ısı güdümlü füze bulunmaktadır, 3420 hp gücünde 4 ana makinesi vardır. Maksimum hızı 42 deniz milidir.

TCG Atmaca (P-322), 23 Ağustos 2013 tarihinde hizmet dışına çıkarılmıştır.

Kaynakça

TCG Atmaca (P-322)


Uncular, Kahramanmaraş ilinin Elbistan ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Kahramanmaraş iline 192 km, Elbistan ilçesine 32 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Elbistan'ın mahalleleri

Uncular, Elbistan


El Combate de Calientes fue un hecho de armas de la Guerra del Pacífico ocurrido el 2 de septiembre de 1881.

El 1.º de septiembre la columna guerrillera que mandaba el coronel Pacheco Céspedes, compuesta de 150 hombres, llegó a Palca donde tuvo conocimiento que la caballería y artillería chilena forrajeaban en la cabecera del poblado de Pachia por lo que avanzó en esa dirección con la intención de sorprender a los piquetes chilenos. Al caer la noche del día siguiente atacó el poblado de Calientes, llamado así por los baños termales del lugar, ocupado por 30 hombres del batallón Rancagua los que mandados por el teniente Arias emprenden la retirada con dirección a Pachia en busca de refuerzos teniendo en la misma 9 muertos y 2 prisioneros, capturando también los peruanos 11 sables y 17 caballos. Reorganizados los chilenos con las fuerzas que ocupaban Pachia y a favor de una carga dada por los carabineros de Maipú lograron detener el avance de Pacheco, retirándose por el momento los peruanos tras tener 4 muertos, 2 heridos y perder 24 caballos. El ataque de Pacheco sobre Pachia se iniciaría a las primeras horas del día siguiente.

Referencias

Batallas de la campaña de la Breña (1881-1883)
Historia del departamento de Tacna
Conflictos en 1881
Chile en 1881
Perú en 1881

Combate de Calientes


Le Mouvement pour le changement et la prospérité ( abrégé MCAP) est un parti politique à Montserrat, un territoire d'outre-mer autonome du Royaume-Uni.

Histoire

Le parti est fondé en  en prenant la succession du . Lors des , il recueille  des suffrages, remportant quatre sièges. Bien qu'il s'agisse alors du plus grand parti au , un gouvernement de coalition est formé par le Parti démocratique de Montserrat (MDP), le Nouveau mouvement populaire de libération (NPLM) et un député indépendant.

Aux , le MCAP remporte six des neuf sièges, son chef de l'époque, Reuben Meade, devient ministre en chef. Cependant, lors des élections de 2014, le parti est réduit à deux sièges.

Aux élections de 2019, le MCAP remporte cinq sièges sur neuf, son nouveau chef Easton Taylor-Farrell devient le nouveau Premier ministre.

Résultats électoraux

Élections législatives

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Politique à Montserrat
 Premier ministre de Montserrat
 Assemblée législative de Montserrat

Liens externes

Parti politique à Montserrat
Parti politique fondé en 2005


10412 Tsukuyomi este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
10412 Tsukuyomi este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Nachi-Katsuura de Yoshisada Shimizu și Takeshi Urata. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,98 ua, o excentricitate de 0,06 și o înclinație de 11,2° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 10001-11000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1997
Centura de asteroizi

10412 Tsukuyomi


ميلوس سيستيك ، من مواليد 8 أغسطس 1956 ، لاعب كرة قدم يوغسلافي سابق.

لعب مع منتخب يوغسلافيا لكرة القدم.

مسيرته الكروية
لعب ميلوش شيستيتش خلال مسيرته الاحترافية مع 5 أندية في واحد وعشرون موسمًا وسجل خلالها 69 هدفًا ضمن 354 مباراة. حيث فاز في موسمين بالكأس وفي ستة مواسم بالدوري.

خاض ميلوش شيستيتش مسيرته مع نادي النجم الأحمر بلغراد في موسم 1973–74 ليلعب معه اثنا عشر موسمًا، مشاركًا في 216 مباراة سجل خلالها 44 هدفًا. ثم انتقل إلى نادي أولمبياكوس في موسم 1984–85 واستمر معه طيلة ثلاثة مواسم، حيث شارك في 50 مباراة سجل خلالها 11 هدفًا. لينتقل بعدها إلى نادي فويفودينا في موسم 1987–88 واستمر معه طيلة ثلاثة مواسم، مشاركًا في 60 مباراة سجل خلالها 9 أهداف. ثم انتقل إلى نادي زيمون في موسم 1989–90 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا في 18 مباراة سجل خلالها 3 أهداف. هذا وانتقل لاحقًا إلى نادي أو إف كيه بيوغراد في موسم 1990–91 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في 10 مباريات سجل خلالها هدفين.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية صرب
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية يوغوسلافيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية يوغوسلافيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في اليونان
لاعبو كرة قدم من مقاطعة سريم
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من ستارا بازوفا
رياضيون يوغوسلافيون مغتربون في اليونان
صرب البوسنة والهرسك
فائزون بميداليات ذهبية في الألعاب المتوسطية ليوغوسلافيا
فائزون بميداليات في الألعاب المتوسطية في كرة القدم
لاعبو الدوري اليوغوسلافي الأول
لاعبو الدوري اليوناني
لاعبو النجم الأحمر بلغراد
لاعبو أو إف كيه بيوغراد
لاعبو أولمبياكوس
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 1984
لاعبو فويفودينا
لاعبو كأس العالم 1982
لاعبو كرة قدم صرب مغتربون
سيستيك
لاعبو كرة قدم في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1980
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في اليونان
لاعبو كرة قدم يوغوسلاف أولمبيون
لاعبو كرة قدم يوغوسلاف مغتربون
سيستيك
لاعبو منتخب يوغوسلافيا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب يوغوسلافيا لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي زيمون
منافسون في ألعاب البحر الأبيض المتوسط 1979
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1956
مواليد في بانيا لوكا
يوغوسلافيون مغتربون في اليونان
رياضيون من مقاطعة سريم

ميلوش شيستيتش


دافيدي مارتشيني  (مواليد 23 فبراير 1981 في بورتوماجيوري - إيطاليا) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى ليفورنو الإيطالي منذ 2009 في مركز الوسط الأيمن .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الرابعة
لاعبو بولونيا
لاعبو سان مارينو كالشيو
لاعبو كالياري
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو كييفو فيرونا
لاعبو نادي تريستينا
لاعبو نادي سبال
لاعبو نادي سبيزيا
لاعبو نادي ليفورنو
مدربو كرة قدم إيطاليون
مواليد 1981
مواليد في بورتومادجوري
لاعبو كرة قدم من إميليا-رومانيا

دافيدي مارتشيني


ODCI may refer to:

 Office of the Director of Central Intelligence, a historical post (1946-2005) in the United States of America
 Oracle Data Cartridge Interface, a component of Oracle Database

ODCI