Kenneth Lane Thompson (doğum 4 Şubat 1943) Amerikalı bir bilgisayar bilimcisi.Thompson, kariyerinin büyük bir bölümünde orijinal Unix işletim sistemini tasarlayıp uyguladığı Bell Labs'ta çalıştı. Ayrıca C programlama dilinin doğrudan selefi olan B programlama dilini de icat etti. Bununla beraber Plan 9 işletim sisteminin yaratıcılarından ve ilk geliştiricilerinden biriydi. Thompson, 2006'dan beri Go programlama dilini birlikte icat ettiği Google'da çalışmaktadır.

Diğer dikkate değer katkıları arasında düzenli ifadeler üzerine yaptığı çalışmalar ve ilk bilgisayar metin editörleri olan QED ve ed, UTF-8 karakter kodlamasının tanımı, satrançta oyun sonu tabloları ve satranç makinesi Belle'nin de içerisinde bulunduğu satranç üzerine çalışmaları vardır.

Hayatın erken dönemi ve eğitim
Thompson, New Orleans'ta doğdu. Thompson, programlamayı nasıl öğrendiği sorulduğunda, "Mantıktan her zaman etkilenmiştim ve ilkokulda bile ikili aritmetik problemler üzerinde çalışıyordum, bunun gibi şeyler. Sadece büyülendiğim için." demiştir.

Thompson, UC Berkeley'den 1965'te Lisans ve 1966'da Yüksek Lisans derecesi aldı ve burada yüksek lisans tezi danışmanı Elwyn Berlekamp oldu.

Kariyeri ve araştırmaları

Thompson, 1966'da Bell Labs tarafından işe alındı. 1960'larda Bell Labs'ta Thompson ve Dennis Ritchie, Multics işletim sistemi üzerinde çalıştılar. Thompson, Multics'i yazarken aynı zamanda Bon programlama dilini geliştirdi ve Ayrıca Space Travel (Uzay Yolculuğu) adlı bir video oyunu da yaptı. Daha sonra Bell Labs, MULTICS projesinden çekildi. Thompson, oyunu oynamaya devam etmek için eski bir PDP-7 makinesi buldu ve bunun üzerine Space Travel'i yeniden yazdı. Sonunda, Thompson tarafından geliştirilen araçlar Unix işletim sistemi haline geldi: Thompson ve Ritchie liderliğindeki aralarında Rudd Canaday'ın da bulunduğu bir ekip hiyerarşik dosya sistemi, komut satırı yorumlayıcısı ve yardımcı küçük programlar geliştirdi. 1970 yılında Brian Kernighan, "MULTICS" kelimesi üzerinde bir kelime oyunu yaparak "Unix" adını önerdi. Unix üzerindeki ilk çalışmasının ardından Thompson, Unix'in bir sistem programlama diline ihtiyaç duyduğuna karar verdi ve Ritchie'nin C'sinin öncüsü olan B'yi geliştirdi.

1960'larda, Thompson ayrıca düzenli ifadeler üzerinde çalışmaya başladı. Thompson, QED editörünün içinde düzenli ifadeler ile metin arama özelliği de olan CTSS versiyonunu geliştirdi. QED ve Thompson'un ed'den (Unix'teki standart metin editörü) sonraki editörü, düzenli ifadelerin popülaritesine büyük katkıda bulundu ve düzenli ifadeler Unix metin işleme programlarında yaygınlaştı. Bugün düzenli ifadelerle çalışan hemen hemen tüm programlar, Thompson'un gösterimlerinin bazı varyantlarını kullanır. Ayrıca, ifade eşleşmesini daha hızlı hale getirmek için kullanılan Thompson'ın yapım algoritmasını da icat etti.

1970'ler

1970'ler boyunca, Thompson ve Ritchie, Unix işletim sistemi üzerinde birlikte çalıştı. 2011 yılında yapılan bir röportajda Thompson, Unix'in ilk sürümlerinin kendisi tarafından yazıldığını ve sonra Ritchie'nin sistemi desteklemeye başladığını ve geliştirilmesine yardımcı olduğunu belirtti.

Thompson'un Unix geliştirmesinden gelen geri bildirimler, C programlama dilinin geliştirilmesinde de etkili oldu. Thompson daha sonra C dilinin "sistemin gözden geçirme ve düzeltme işlemleriyle biriyle gelişti bu nedenle sistem programlama için mükemmel hale geldi" diyecektir.

1975'te Thompson, Bell Labs'tan maaşlı bir izin aldı ve mezun olduğu UC Berkeley'e gitti. Orada, Sürüm 6 Unix'in bir PDP-11/70 bilgisayara kurulmasına yardım etti. Berkeley'deki Unix daha sonra Berkeley Yazılım Dağıtımı (BSD) olarak bilinen Berkeley'in kendi sistemi olarak devam etti.

Ken Thompson, Unix'in (1971) ilk sürümü için "chess" adlı bir satranç oynama programı yazdı. Daha sonra Thompson, Joseph Condon ile birlikte donanım destekli dünya şampiyonu satranç bilgisayarı Belle'yi geliştirdi. Ayrıca satranç oyun sonlarının eksiksiz bir listesini oluşturmak için oyun sonu tabloları olarak da bilinen programlar yazdı ve bilgisayarın tüm 4, 5 ve 6 taşlı oyun sonları için, satranç oynayan bilgisayar programlarının içinde kayıtlı bir konuma ulaşıldığında "mükemmel" hareketler yapmasına izin verir. Daha sonra, satranç oyun sonu uzmanı John Roycroft'un yardımıyla Thompson ilk sonuçlarını CD-ROM'da dağıttı. 2001 yılında, ICGA Journal dergisi neredeyse bir sayının tamamını Ken Thompson'ın bilgisayar satrancına yaptığı çeşitli katkılara ayırdı.

1980'ler

1980'ler boyunca, Thompson ve Ritchie, Unix Araştırmaları üzerinde çalışmaya devam etti. 1980'lerin ortalarında, Bell Labs'da Unix'in yerini alacak yeni bir işletim sistemi üzerinde çalışma başladı. Thompson, Unix'in ilkelerini kullanan yeni bir işletim sistemi olan Bell Labs'ın Plan 9'un tasarımında ve uygulanmasında etkili oldu, ancak bunları daha geniş bir şekilde tüm büyük sistem tesislerine uyguladı. Araştırma Unix'in sonraki sürümlerinin parçası olan mk ve rc gibi bazı programlar da Plan 9'a dahil edildi.

Thompson, Bjarne Stroustrup için C++ programlama dilinin ilk sürümlerini içinde programlar yazarak test etti, ancak daha sonra sürümler arasındaki sık uyumsuzluklar nedeniyle C++ ile çalışmayı reddetti. Thompson, 2009 yılında yapılan bir röportajda, C++ ile ilgili olumsuz bir görüş ifade ederek, "Pek çok şeyi yarı iyi yapar ve sadece birbirini dışlayan bir fikirler yığınıdır." demiştir.

1990'lar
1992'de Thompson, Rob Pike ile birlikte UTF-8 kodlama şemasını geliştirdi. UTF-8 kodlaması, o zamandan beri World Wide Web için baskın karakter kodlaması haline geldi ve 2019'da tüm web sayfalarının %90'ından fazlasını oluşturdu. 1990'larda, taşınabilir bir sanal makineye dayanan başka bir araştırma işletim sistemi olan Inferno işletim sistemi üzerinde çalışmalar başladı. Thompson ve Ritchie, Bell Labs'taki diğer araştırmacılarla birlikte Inferno ile işbirliğine devam etti.

2000'ler
2000 yılının sonlarında, Thompson, Bell Labs'tan emekli oldu. 2006 yılına kadar Entrisphere Inc.'de üye olarak çalıştı ve şu anda Google'da Seçkin Mühendis olarak çalışıyor. Son çalışmalar, Go programlama dilinin ortak tasarımını içeriyor. Go'nun diğer orijinal yazarlarıyla birlikte kendisine atıfta bulunarak şöyle der:

2009'daki başka bir röportajına göre, Thompson artık Linux tabanlı bir işletim sistemi kullanıyor.

Ödüller

Ulusal Akademiler
1980'de Thompson, verimliliği, genişliği, gücü ve stili bir neslin mini bilgisayarlardan yararlanmasına rehberlik eden bir işletim sistemi olan UNIX'i tasarladığı için Ulusal Mühendislik Akademisi'ne seçildi.
1985'te Ulusal Bilimler Akademisi (NAS) üyeliğine seçildi.

Turing Ödülü
1983'te Thompson ve Ritchie, "genel işletim sistemleri teorisini geliştirmeleri ve özellikle UNIX işletim sisteminin uygulanması" için Turing Ödülü'nü birlikte aldı. Kabul konuşması "Reflections on Trusting Trust"(Güvene Güvenmek Üzerine Düşünceler)'idi.

IEEE Richard W. Hamming Madalyası
1990'da hem Thompson hem de Dennis Ritchie, Elektrik ve Elektronik Mühendisleri Enstitüsü'nden (IEEE) "UNIX işletim sistemi ve C programlama dilinin oluşturulması" dolayısıyla IEEE Richard W. Hamming Madalyası'nı aldı.

Bilgisayar Tarihi Müzesi Üyesi
1997'de hem Thompson hem de Ritchie, "UNIX işletim sisteminin birlikte oluşturulması ve C programlama dilinin geliştirilmesi" için Bilgisayar Tarihi Müzesi Üyesi olarak kabul edildi.

Ulusal Teknoloji Madalyası
27 Nisan 1999'da Thompson ve Ritchie, birlikte bilgisayar donanımı, yazılımı ve ağ iletişiminde muazzam ilerlemelere yol açan UNIX işletim sistemi ve C programlama dilini birlikte icat ettikleri için Başkan Bill Clinton'dan 1998 Ulusal Teknoloji Madalyası'nı birlikte aldı. sistemleri ve tüm bir endüstrinin büyümesini teşvik etti, böylece Bilgi Çağında Amerikan liderliğini güçlendirdi.

Tsutomu Kanai Ödülü
1999 yılında, Elektrik ve Elektronik Mühendisleri Enstitüsü, Thompson'ı "onlarca yıldır dağıtılmış sistemler çalışması için kilit bir platform olan UNIX işletim sistemini yaratmadaki rolü" nedeniyle ilk Tsutomu Kanai Ödülünü almaya seçti.

Japonya Ödülü
2011 yılında, Thompson, Dennis Ritchie ile birlikte, Unix işletim sisteminin geliştirilmesindeki öncü çalışmalardan dolayı Japonya Bilgi ve İletişim Ödülü'ne layık görüldü.

Kişisel hayat
Ken Thompson evli ve bir oğlu var.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 https://archive.today/20120525231611/http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/ken/trust.html Turing Ödülü kabul konuşması
 http://kemalguvenli.blogspot.com/2011/11/guvenilen-guven-uzerine-dusunceler.html  Turing Ödülü kabul konuşmasının Türkçe çevirisi
 https://web.archive.org/web/20050830142055/http://www.cs.bell-labs.com/who/ken/ Bell Laboratuvarlarındaki sayfası

1943 doğumlular
Amerikalı bilgisayar bilimcileri
Bilgisayar öncüleri
Programlama dili tasarımcıları
Turing Ödülü sahipleri
Yaşayan insanlar
Louisiana doğumlular
Bell Labs bilim insanları

Ken Thompson


The railway track or permanent way is the elements of railway lines: generally the pairs of rails typically laid on the sleepers or ties embedded in ballast, intended to carry the ordinary trains of a railway. It is described as permanent way because in the earlier days of railway construction, contractors often laid a temporary track to transport spoil and materials about the site; when this work was substantially completed, the temporary track was taken up and the permanent way installed.

The earliest tracks consisted of wooden rails on transverse wooden sleepers, which helped maintain the spacing of the rails. Various developments followed, with cast iron plates laid on top of the wooden rails and later wrought iron plates or wrought iron angle plates (angle iron as L-shaped plate rails). Rails were also individually fixed to rows of stone blocks, without any cross ties to maintain correct separation. This system also led to problems, as the blocks could individually move. The first version of Isambard Kingdom Brunel's  broad gauge system used rails laid on longitudinal sleepers whose rail gauge and elevation were pinned down by being tied to piles (conceptually akin to a pile bridge), but this arrangement was expensive and Brunel soon replaced it with what became the classic broad gauge track, in which the piles were forgone and transoms, similar to sleepers, maintained the rail gauge. Today, most rail track uses the standard system of rail and sleepers; ladder track is used in a few applications.

Developments in manufacturing technologies has led to changes to the design, manufacture and installation of rails, sleepers and the means of attachments. Cast iron rails,  long, began to be used in the 1790s and by 1820,  wrought iron rails were in use. The first steel rails were made in 1857 and standard rail lengths increased over time from . Rails were typically specified by units of weight per linear length and these also increased. Railway sleepers were traditionally made of Creosote-treated hardwoods and this continued through to modern times. Continuous welded rail was introduced into Britain in the mid 1960s and this was followed by the introduction of concrete sleepers.

Wooden tracked systems

Plank ways

The earliest use of a railway track seems to have been in connection with mining in Germany in the 12th century.  Mine passageways were usually wet and muddy, and moving barrows of ore along them was extremely difficult.  Improvements were made by laying timber planks so that wheeled containers could be dragged along by manpower.  By the 16th century, the difficulty of keeping the wagon running straight had been solved by having a pin going into a gap between the planks.  Georg Agricola describes box-shaped carts, called "dogs", about half as large again as a wheelbarrow, fitted with a blunt vertical pin and wooden rollers running on iron axles.  An Elizabethan era example of this has been discovered at Silvergill in Cumbria, England, and they were probably also in use in the nearby Mines Royal of Grasmere, Newlands and Caldbeck.  Where space permitted round-section wooden tracks to take trucks with flanged wheels were installed: a painting from 1544  by the Flemish artist Lucas Gassel shows a coppermine with rails of this type emerging from an adit.

Edged rails

A different system was developed in England, probably in the late 16th century, near Broseley for conveying coal from mines, sometimes drift mines down the side of the Severn Gorge to the River Severn. This, probably a rope-hauled incline plane, had existed 'long before' 1605. This probably preceded the Wollaton Wagonway of 1604, which has hitherto been regarded as the first.

In Shropshire, the gauge was usually narrow, to enable the wagons to be taken underground in drift mines. However, by far the greatest number of wagonways were near Newcastle upon Tyne, where a single wagon was hauled by a horse on a wagonway of about the modern standard gauge. These took coal from the pithead down to a staithe, where the coal was loaded into river boats called keels.

Wear of the timber rails was a problem. They could be renewed by turning them over, but had to be regularly replaced. Sometimes, the rail was made in two parts, so that the top portion could easily be replaced when worn out. The rails were held together by wooden sleepers, covered with ballast to provide a surface for the horse to walk on.

Early iron rails
Cast iron strips could be laid on top of timber rails, and the use of such materials probably occurred in 1738, but there are claims that this technology went back to 1716.  In 1767, Ketley ironworks began producing cast iron plates, which were fixed to the top of wooden rails with nails, to provide a more durable running surface. This construct was known as strap-iron rail (or strap rail) and was widely used on pre-steam railways in the United States. Although relatively cheap and quick to build, they were unsuited to heavy loads and required 'excessive maintenance'. Train wheels rolling over the spikes loosened them, allowing the rail to break free and curve upwards sufficiently that a car wheel could get beneath it and force the end of the rail up through the floor of the car, writhing and twisting, endangering passengers. These broken rails became known as "snake heads".

When wrought iron became available, wrought iron plates provided an even more durable surface. The rails had projecting lugs (or ears) with a hole to enable them to be fixed to the underlying wooden rail.

Iron plateways

An alternative was developed by John Curr of Sheffield, the manager of the Duke of Norfolk's colliery there. This had a L-shaped rail, so that the flange was on the rail rather than on the wheel. This was also used by Benjamin Outram of Butterley Ironworks and William Jessop (who became a partner in them in 1790). These were used to transport goods for relatively short distances down to canals, though Curr's ran between the manor colliery and Sheffield town. These rails are referred to as plates, and the railway is sometimes called a plateway. The term "platelayer" also derives from this origin. In theory, the unflanged wheels could have been used on ordinary highways, but in practice this was probably rarely done, because the wagon wheels were so narrow that they would have dug into the road surface.

The system found wide adoption in Britain. Often, the plates were mounted on stone blocks, and sometimes without sleepers, but that was liable to cause the rails to spread apart, increasing the gauge. Railways of this kind were widely used in south Wales, particularly to transport limestone down to the ironworks, and then to take the iron to a canal, sometimes several miles away, which took the products to market. The rails were at first made of cast iron, typically in lengths of , spanning between stone blocks.

The stone blocks had been assumed to be permanent, but experience quickly showed that they settled and gradually moved under traffic, creating chaotic track geometry and causing derailments. Another problem was that the running surface was liable to become obstructed by stones, displaced from the ballast. An alternative was to use an iron tie bar to keep the rails to the proper gauge, incorporating a shoe in which the rail was fixed.

An example of this was the Penydarren or Merthyr tramway. This was used by Richard Trevithick to demonstrate a pioneer locomotive in 1804, using one of his high pressure steam engines, but the engine was so heavy that it broke many of the rails.

Early edge rails
Cast iron edge rails were used by Thomas Dadford Jr. when building the Beaufort and Blaenavon lines to the Monmouthshire canal in 1793. These were rectangular,  in width with a depth of  and  in length, and required flanges on the wagon wheels. The same year, Benjamin Outram used edge rails on the Cromford Canal. T-shaped beams were used by William Jessop on the Loughborough-Nanpantan line in 1794, and his sons used I-shaped beams in 1813–15 on a railway from Grantham to Belvoir Castle. Samples of these rails are held in the Science Museum, London.

A short-lived alternative was the fish-bellied profile, first used by Thomas Barnes (1765–1801) at Walker Colliery, near Newcastle in 1798, which enabled rails to have a longer span between blocks. These were T-section edge rails, three feet long and laid on transverse stone sleepers. These were still made of cast iron.

Butt and lap joints
The earliest rails had square butt joints, which were weak and difficult to keep in alignment. George Stephenson introduced lapped joints, which maintained their alignment quite well.

Modern edge rails

The breakthrough came when John Birkinshaw of Bedlington Ironworks in Northumberland developed rolled wrought iron rails in 1820 in  lengths, as used for the Stockton and Darlington Railway. This was strong enough to bear the weight of a locomotive and of a train of wagons (or carriages) pulled by it. This marks the beginning of the modern rail era. This system was instantly successful, although some false starts took place. Some early rails were made in a T cross section, but the lack of metal at the foot limited the bending strength of the rail, which has to act as a beam between supports.

As metal technologies improved, these wrought iron rails were made progressively somewhat longer, and with a heavier, and therefore stronger, cross-section. By providing more metal in the foot of the rail, a stronger beam was created, achieving much better strength and stiffness, and a section was created similar to the bullhead rail section still visible today. This was expensive, however, and the promoters of early railways struggled with decisions about the appropriate weight (and therefore strength, and cost) of their rails.

At first, the rail section was almost symmetrical top-to-bottom, and was described as a double-headed rail. The intention was to invert the rail after the top surface had become worn, but rails tend to develop chair gall, an attrition of the rail where it is supported in the chairs, and this would have made running on the former bottom surface impossibly noisy and irregular. It was better to provide the extra metal on the top surface and gain extra wear there without the need to invert the rail at its half life.

Many railways preferred a flat bottom rail section, where the rails could be laid directly on the sleepers, representing a marked cost saving. Indenting of the sleeper was the problem; where the traffic was heavy, it became necessary to provide a sole plate under the rails to spread the load on the tie, partly vitiating the cost saving. However, in main line situations, this form found almost universal adoption in North America and Australia, and in much of continental Europe. The United Kingdom persisted with bullhead rail in main line use, with widespread introduction of flat-bottom rail only starting in about 1947.

Steel rails
The first rails made from steel were made in 1857, when Robert Forester Mushet remelted scrap steel from an abortive Bessemer trial, in crucibles at Ebbw Vale ironworks, and were laid experimentally at Derby railway station on the Midland Railway in England. The rails proved far more durable than the iron rails they replaced and remained in use until 1873. Henry Bessemer supplied 500 tons of steel blooms to the London and North Western Railway's rail mill at Crewe in 1860. Several other companies began producing steel rails in the following years. The transition to steel rails was hastened by the introduction of open hearth steelmaking. William Siemens set up his Landore steelworks partly to supply rail to the Great Western Railway. A boom in rail production followed, but a banking crisis in America slowed the rate at which railways were built there and orders to British rail producers. The British iron and steel industry went into a recession, which particularly affected the wrought iron sector. When demand for rails began to grow again, it was largely for steel rails, which were more durable than those of iron.

Associated features

Sleepers

Timber sleepers, that is transverse beams supporting the two rails that form the track, replaced the individual stone blocks formerly used. This system has the major advantage that maintenance adjustments to the track geometry did not disrupt the all-important track gauge. The alignment of the track could be adjusted by shifting the sleepers bodily, without loss of gauge. Softwood was widely used, but its life was limited if it was not treated with preservative, and some railways set up creosoting plants for the purpose. Creosote-treated hardwood is now widely used in North America and elsewhere.

By now relatively long (perhaps 20 ft) wrought iron rails supported in chairs on timber cross-sleepers, were in use—a track form recognisable today in older track.

Steel sleepers were tried as an alternative to timber; Acworth writing in 1889 describes the production of steel sleepers on the London & North Western Railway, and there is an illustration showing rolled channel section (shallow upturned "U" shapes) with no shaped ends, and with three-part forged chairs riveted direct. However steel sleepers seem not to have enjoyed widespread adoption until about 1995. Their dominant usage now is for life extension of existing track on secondary routes. They have a significant advantage on weak formations and poor ballast conditions, as the bearing area is at a high level, immediately under the rail seat.

Rail fastenings

The early cast iron rails of the 18th century and before used integral fixings for nailing or bolting to the railroad ties. Strap rails introduced in the late 18th century, of cast and later rolled iron were nailed to wooden supports via countersunk holes in the metal. The introduction of rolled rail profiles in the 1820s such as the single flanged T parallel rail and later double flanged T parallel rail required the use of chairs, keys to hold the rail, and bolts or spikes to fix the chair. The flat bottomed rail invented by Robert L. Stevens in 1830 was initially spiked directly to wooden sleepers, later tie plates were used to spread the load and also keep the rail in gauge with inbuilt shoulders in the plate. Outside North America a wide variety of spring based fastening systems were later introduced in combination with baseplates and flat bottomed rail, these are now ubiquitous on main line high speed railways.

Ballast

Track was originally laid directly on the ground, but this quickly proved unsatisfactory and some form of ballast was essential to ensure good drainage, spread the load and retain the track in position. The natural ground is rarely strong enough to accept the loading from locomotives without excessive settlement, more so in wet conditions; a layer of ballast under sleepers reduces the bearing pressure on the ground, tends to keep them in place and resist displacement, and keeps the permanent way well-drained.

Ballast in early days was usually locally available mineral product, such as gravel or reject material from coal and iron mining. The Great North of Scotland Railway used rounded river gravel, which does not constrain movement as much as sharp-edged stone. In later years slag, a by-product of steel making, and ash from steam locomotives was used. Modern practice is to employ sharp-edged stone crushed within a narrow size range.

Gauges

Early track gauges

The early railways were almost exclusively local concerns involved with conveying minerals to some waterway; for them the gauge of the track was adopted to suit the wagons intended to be used, and it was typically in the range 4 ft to 4 ft 8½ in, and at first there was no idea of the need for any conformity with the gauge of other lines. When the first public railways developed, George Stephenson's skilful innovation meant that his railways were dominant and the  gauge he used was therefore the most widespread. As early notions of linking up different railway systems evolved, this gauge secured general adoption. It is more or less an accident of history that this gauge—which suited the wagons already in use at the colliery where George Stephenson had been an engine man—became the British standard gauge: it was exported to most of Europe and North America.

Reference is sometimes made to the "gauge" of ruts in stone roadways at ancient sites such as Pompeii, and these are often asserted to be about the same as Stephenson's gauge. Of course the ruts were made by the wheels of carts, and the carts were of a sensible size for horse-drawn carts prior to the industrial era, pretty much the same as the size of the pre-railway carts at the colliery where Stephenson worked: that is the only connection.

Broad gauge track

When Isambard Kingdom Brunel conceived the Great Western Railway (GWR), he sought an improved design for his railway track and accepted none of the previous received wisdom without challenge. The 4 ft 8½in gauge had been fine for small mineral trucks on a horse-drawn tramway, but he wanted something more stable for his high speed railway. The large diameter wheels used in stage coaches gave better ride quality over rough ground, and Brunel originally intended to have his passenger carriages carried in the same way—on large diameter wheels placed outside the bodies of the carriages. To achieve this he needed a wider track gauge and he settled on the famous  broad gauge. (It was later eased to 7 ft 0¼in). When the time came to build the passenger carriages, they were designed conventionally with smaller wheels under the bodies after all, but with a seven-foot track gauge the bodies could be much wider than on the standard gauge. His original intention to have the wheels outside the width of the bodies was abandoned.

Brunel also looked at novel track forms, and decided to use a continuously supported rail. Using longitudinal timbers under each rail, he achieved a smoother profile while not requiring such a strong rail section, and he used a shallow bridge rail for the purpose. The wider, flat foot also meant that the chair needed by the bullhead section could be dispensed with. The longitudinal timbers needed to be kept at the proper spacing to retain the gauge correctly, and Brunel achieved this by using timber transoms—transverse spacers—and iron tie-bars. The whole assembly was referred to as the baulk road—railwaymen usually call their track a road. Initially, Brunel had the track tied down to timber piles to prevent lateral movement and bounce, but he had overlooked the fact that the made ground, on which his track was supported between piles, would settle. The piles remained stable and the ground between them settled so that his track soon had an unpleasant undulation, and he had to have the piles severed, so that the track could settle more or less uniformly. A variant of the baulk road can still be seen today on many older under-bridges where no ballast was provided. The design varies considerably, but in many cases longitudinal timbers are supported directly on the cross-girders, with transoms and tiebars to retain the gauge, but of course with modern rails and base-plates or chairs. The longitudinal sleepers are somewhat similar to modern-day Ladder track.

The group of railways that had Brunel as their engineer were successful and the broad gauge track spread throughout the west of England, South Wales, and the West Midlands. But, as the British railway network spread, the incompatibility of the two systems became a serious blockage, as a wagon could not be sent from one system to the other without transshipping the goods by hand. A Gauge Commission was appointed to determine national policy. The Broad Gauge was technically superior but conversion of the standard gauge routes to broad would have meant reconstructing every tunnel, bridge and station platform, whereas universal adoption of the standard gauge only required the progressive conversion of the track itself. The broad gauge was doomed, and no further independent broad gauge lines could be built.

The existing broad gauge routes could continue, but as they had no development potential it was only a matter of time before they were eventually converted to standard. In the meantime, an extensive mileage of mixed gauge track was installed, where each line had three rails to accommodate trains of either gauge. There were some instances of mixed gauge trains being run, where wagons of each gauge were run in a single train. The legacy of the broad gauge can still be seen where there seems to be an unnecessarily wide space between station platforms.

Twentieth century and beyond

1900 to 1945
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the form of British track had converged on the use of wrought iron bullhead rails supported in cast iron chairs on timber sleepers, laid in some form of ballast. In North America, the standard was T-rails and tie plates fastened to timber crossties with cut spikes. Many railways were using very light rails and, as locomotive weights and speeds increased, these became inadequate. Consequently, on main lines, the rails in use were made progressively heavier (and stronger). Metallurgical processes improved and better rails, including some of steel, came into use. From a maintenance point of view, the rail joints were the source of most of the work, and as steel-making techniques improved it became possible to roll steel rails of increased length—reducing the number of joints per mile. The standard length became 30 ft (9 144mm), then 45 ft (13 716mm) and finally 60 ft (18 288mm) rails became the norm. For main line use, the standard rail section became the 95BH section, weighing 95 lb per yard (47.13 kg per metre). For secondary routes, a lighter 85BH (42.16 kg per metre) section was used.

Flat bottom rails were still seen as undesirable for British main line railway use, despite their successful use in North America, although some lightly operated British railways used them, generally spiked direct to the sleepers. Under heavy usage, they indent the sleepers severely and the incremental cost of a base-plate appeared at this early date, to rule the flat bottom section out.

Timber sleepers were expensive and not durable, and the railways' engineers had strong—and conflicting—views about the best wood species and the best preservative treatments. The railways moved towards standardisation on a softwood sleeper preserved by pressure injection of creosote, measuring 8 ft 6in (2 591 mm) long by 10in (254mm) by 5in (127mm). Chairs were secured to the sleepers by trenails (steel spikes driven through a timber sleeve) or three chair-screws on first class routes. The GWR alone among the main line railways kept to its own standard, the 00 rail at 97½ lb/yd (48.365 kg per metre), and with two fangbolts securing each chair to the sleeper, with the head of the bolt under the sleeper and a nut above the chair—more secure but much more difficult to adjust.

Some experiments were made before 1945 with reinforced concrete sleepers, in most cases with bullhead chairs mounted on them. This was in response to the very high price of the best (most durable) timber, but reinforced concrete sleepers were never successful in main line use. Concrete pots were also used in sidings; they are sometimes called twin-block sleepers, and consisted of two concrete blocks each mounted with a chair, and an angle iron connecting them and retaining the gauge.

Post-war developments
At the end of the Second World War in 1945, the British railways were worn out, having been patched up following war damage without the availability of much new material. The country was economically in a weak situation also, and for nearly a decade after the war, materials—especially steel and timber—were in very short supply. Labour too was seriously restricted in availability.

The railway companies became persuaded that the traditional bullhead forms of track needed revision, and after some experimentation a new flat bottom rail format was adopted. The British Standard sections were unsuitable and a new profile, a 109 lb/yard rail, was made the new standard. In 60 ft lengths, laid on steel baseplates on softwood sleepers, it was to be the universal standard. The fastenings were to be of a resilient steel type, and for secondary routes a 98 lb/yd rail was adopted. Regional variations still persisted, and hardwood sleepers and Mills clip fastenings were favoured on the Eastern Region, for example.

The new designs were successful, but they introduced many challenges, especially as the availability of experienced track maintenance staff became acutely difficult, and poorly maintained flat bottom track seemed more difficult to keep in good order than poorly maintained bullhead track. The greater stiffness of flat-bottom was an advantage, but it tended to straighten out between the joints on curves; and flat bottom's rigidity led to high vertical impact forces at badly maintained joints and this resulted in high volumes of fatigue fractures at the joints. Moreover, the elastic rail fastenings had little resistance to rail creep—the propensity of the rails to move gradually in the direction of traffic, and the workload of pulling back the rails to regulate the joints was surprisingly high.

Long welded rails
Much of the work of maintaining the track was at the joints, especially as the stiff rails became dipped, and the joint sleepers took a hammering. Pre-war experiments with long welded rail lengths were built upon, and in the years from 1960 long rail lengths were installed, at first on hardwood sleepers but soon on concrete sleepers. For example, the first long welded rail (almost ) on the UK's East Coast Main Line was laid in 1957, just south of Carlton-on-Trent, resting on rubber pads to resist rail creep. In this pioneering stage, some catastrophic mistakes in detailed design were made, but from about 1968 continuous welded rail became a reliable standard for universal installation on main and secondary routes. The form adopted used pre-stressed concrete sleepers and a 110A rail section—a slight improvement on the 109 rails previously used—the A was to distinguish it from the British Standard 110 lb/yd rail section, which was unsuitable. Rail fastenings eventually converged onto a proprietary spring clip made by the Pandrol company which was the exclusive form of fastening in Britain for about 30 years.

The welded track was to be laid on six to twelve inches (15 to 30 centimetres) of crushed stone ballast, although this was not always achieved, and the bearing capacity of the formation was not always taken into account, leading to some spectacular formation failures.

A further enhancement to the rail profile produced the 113A section, which was the universal standard until about 1998; detail improvements to the sleepers and ballast profile completed the picture and the general form of the track had stabilised. This format is now in place over 99% of the first-class main lines in Britain, although the CEN60 (60 kg/m) rail section was introduced in the UK during the 1990s. This has a wider rail foot and is taller than the 113A section so is incompatible with standard sleepers.

Track renewal trains have now replaced labour-intensive permanent way gangs. Long welded rail was hard to install manually. An early demonstration of mechanised track-laying with two  lengths of long welded rail took place on the Fighting Cocks branch in 1958. The two lengths were loaded on ten wagons, attached to the existing track by a steel rope and drawn back at  a minute. As the train moved back, the old rails were levered out and the new ones dropped into the chairs. A hoist on the rear wagon dropped the last part of the rail into place.

Track gauge

As stated, the general track gauge in Britain was . In the later 1950s, general track maintenance standards deteriorated rapidly due to labour shortages and, on some routes, faster freight train speeds. Freight trains consisted almost entirely of short wheelbase (10 ft) four-wheeled wagons carried on a very stiff elliptical leaf spring suspension, and these wagons showed a rapid rate of increase in derailments.

In response to the dynamic behaviour ("hunting") of the wagons, the permitted speed of the wagons was reduced to 45 mph and, on new installations of continuously welded track on concrete sleepers, to reduce the track gauge by one-eighth of an inch to 4 ft 8⅜in (1432mm). In practice this change caused more problems than it cured and it was returned on renewals to 1435mm with effect from 1996. The gauge is set by the positioning of the cast-in fixings, so it is not a simple task to re-gauge existing track; it also creates problems with spot replacement of sleepers. Many sleepers were made with the reduced track gauge but  standard gauge versions have also been manufactured in more recent times.

Switches and crossings

Terminology is difficult for "switches and crossings" (S&C) previously "points and crossings", or "fittings".

Early S&C allowed only a very slow speed on the subsidiary route (the "turnout"), so geometrical design was not too important. Many older s&c units had a loose joint at the heel so that the switch rail could turn to close to the stock rail or open from it. When the switch rail was closed, a reasonable alignment was secured; when it was open, no wheel could run on it so it did not matter.

As speeds rose, this was no longer feasible and the switch rails were fixed at the heel end, and their flexibility enabled the toe end to open and close. Manufacture of the switch rails was a complex process, and that of the crossings even more so. Speeds on the subsidiary route were rarely higher than 20 mph except in very special designs, and great ingenuity was employed to give a good ride to vehicles passing through at speed on the main line. A difficulty was the common crossing where continuous support to wheels passing was difficult, and the point rail was planed to protect it from direct impact in the facing direction, so that a designed irregularity in support was introduced.

As faster speeds were required, more configurations of s&c were designed, and a very large number of components, each specific to only one type of s&c, was required. At faster speeds on the turnout road, the divergence from the main route is much more gradual, and therefore a very considerable length of planning of the switch rail is required.

About 1971, this trend was reversed with the so-called vertical s&c, in which the rails were held vertical, rather than at the customary 1 in 20 inclination. With other simplifications, this considerably reduced the stockholding required for a wide range of s&c speeds, although the vertical rail imposes a loss of the steering effect and the ride through new vertical s&c is often irregular.

Continuous welded rail

Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) was developed in response to the observation that the bulk of track maintenance work takes place at the joints. As steel production and manufacturing processes improved, the rail lengths installed were progressively increased, and the logical extension of this would be to eliminate the joints altogether.

A major obstacle to doing so is thermal expansion: the rails expand in higher temperatures. Without joints, there is no room for the rails to expand; as the rails get warmer, they will develop an enormous force in trying to expand. If prevented from expanding, they develop a force of 1.7 tonnes (17 kN) for every 1 degree Celsius of temperature change in a practical rail section.

If a small cube of metal is compressed between the jaws of a press, it will contract—that is it will be squashed somewhat—and a very large force can be resisted by it without ultimate failure. However, if a long piece of metal of the same cross section is compressed, it will deform sideways into a bow shape; the process is called buckling, and the compressive force it can withstand is very much less.

If the long thin piece of metal could be constrained to prevent it from buckling (e.g. by being contained inside a tube) then it can resist a much higher compressive force. If the rails can be constrained in a similar way, they can be prevented from buckling. The weight of the track resists buckling upwards, so buckling is most likely to take place laterally. This is prevented by:

 providing heavy sleepers, that generate friction on the ballast bed
 ensuring that the sleepers are well supported on consolidated ballast to enable the generation of the friction
 providing consolidated ballast around the sides of the sleepers to provide additional friction
 heating the rails when they are installed and fastened in cool or cold weather, so that the expansion on the hottest days is less than otherwise
 making sure that any rail added if rail breaks during cold weather is removed before warm weather returns.
 making sure that curves do not line themselves inward during cold weather sufficiently to make buckling more likely when warm weather returns
 taking precautions when track maintenance work is performed in hot weather, and making sure ballast is sufficiently consolidated before full-speed operation is resumed.

If the rail is held so that it cannot expand at all, then there is no limit on the length of rail that can be handled.  (The expansive force in a one-foot length of rail at a certain temperature is the same as in a mile or 100 mile length of rail.)  Early continuous welded rail was installed in limited lengths only because of technological limitations. However at the end of the CWR section where it abutted older, ordinary jointed track, that track would be unable to resist the expansive force and the jointed track might be forced to buckle. To prevent that, special expansion switches, sometimes called breathers, were installed. The expansion switches could accommodate a considerable expansive movement—typically four inches (100mm) or so—in the end section of the CWR without passing the movement on to the jointed track.

The CWR is installed and fastened down at an optimum temperature, to ensure that the highest possible expansive force is limited. This temperature is called the stress-free temperature, and in the UK it is . It is in the upper range of ordinary outdoor temperatures, and the actual installation work tends to be done at cooler temperatures. Originally the rails were physically heated to the stress-free temperature with propane gas heaters; they were then rattled with hand bars to eliminate any binding, preventing even expansion, and then clipped down. Since about 1963 however hydraulic jacks are used to physically stretch the rails while they are supported on temporary rollers. By stretching the rails to the length they would be if they were at the stress-free temperature, then there is no need to heat them; they can just be clipped down before the jacks are released.

The CWR rails are made by welding ordinary rails together. For many years, rails could only be made in lengths of up to 60 ft (18m 288mm) in Britain, and the factory welding process made them into 600, 900 or 1200 ft lengths, depending on the factory. The process used was a flash-butt process in which high electrical currents are used to soften the rail end, and the ends are then forced together by rams. The flash-butt process is very reliable, providing that the factory ensured good geometry of the rail ends.

The long rails could be conveyed to site by a special train, and unloaded on to the ground (by chaining the end in position and pulling the train out from underneath the rails). The long rails had to be welded together (or to adjacent track) using a site welding process; and, after initial experimentation, the proprietary Thermit welding process was used. This was an alumino-thermic process in which a powder 'portion' was ignited; the aluminium was the fuel and a metallurgically appropriate composition of molten steel descended into the gap between the rail ends, contained in refractory moulds.

The original SmW process was very sensitive to operator skill, and as the welding was usually the final process before returning the track to traffic, time pressure was sometimes applied resulting in unwanted improper welds. The improved SkV process was less sensitive and over the years weld quality improved.

The issue of buckling is not restricted to CWR, and jointed track has suffered buckles in the past.  The fish-plates at joints need to be removed and greased annually (the requirement was relaxed to bi-annually in 1993) and where this was omitted or where ballast conditions were especially weak, buckling took place in hot weather. In addition, if rails were allowed to creep, it was always possible that several successive joints might close up, so that the expansion gap was lost, with inevitable results at the onset of hot weather.

See also

 Clearance car
 List of track gauges
 Loading gauge
 Overhead lines
 Rail gauge
 Rail lengths
 Rail profile
 Rail sabotage
 Railroad switch (points)
 Rail tracks
 Rail terminology
 Railway platform
 Strap iron rail
 Structure gauge
 Third rail
 Tramway track

References

Sources

 h
History of rail transport

History of the railway track


Un alcalide est un composé chimique où les atomes de métal alcalin sont des anions (ions négatifs) avec une charge ou un état d'oxydation égal à −1. Avant la découverte des alcalides dans les années 1970, les métaux alcalins n'apparaissaient dans les sels que sous forme de cations (ions positifs) avec une charge ou un état d'oxydation égal à +1. Ces types de composés présentent un intérêt théorique par leur stoechiométrie inhabituelle et leurs faibles potentiels d'ionisation. Les composés alcalins sont chimiquement liés aux électrures, des sels dans lesquels les électrons piégés sont les anions.

Composés de métaux alcalins « normaux »
Les métaux alcalins forment de nombreux sels stables bien connus. Le chlorure de sodium (sel de table courant), Na + Cl −, joue le rôle d'un métal alcalin tel que le sodium. Dans la formule empirique de ce composé ionique, l'ion sodium chargé positivement est équilibré par un ion chlorure chargé négativement. L'explication du Na + stable est que la perte d'un électron du sodium élémentaire pour produire un cation avec une charge de +1 produit une configuration électronique à couche fermée stable.

Nomenclature et cas connus
Il existe des alcalis connus pour certains des métaux alcalins :

 Sodure ou natride, Na −
 Potasside ou kalide, K −
 Rubide, Rb −
 Céside, Cs −

Les alcalis des autres métaux alcalins n'ont pas encore été découverts :

 "Lithides", Li −
 "Francides", Fr −

Exemples
Normalement, les alcalides sont thermiquement labiles en raison de la forte réactivité de l'anion alcalide, qui est théoriquement capable de rompre la plupart des liaisons covalentes, y compris les liaisons carbone-oxygène dans un cryptand typique. L'introduction d'un ligand cryptand spécial contenant des amines au lieu de liaisons éther a permis l'isolement de kalides et de natrides stables à température ambiante.

Plusieurs alcalis ont été synthétisés :

 Un composé dans lequel les ions hydrogène sont encapsulés par l'adamanzane a été observé, connu sous le nom de natrure d'hydrogène ou « hydrure de sodium inverse » (H + Na − ).
 Le natride de crypte de sodium, [Na( cryptand[2.2.2] )] + Na −, a été observé. Ce sel contient à la fois Na + et Na −. Le cryptand isole et stabilise le Na +, l'empêchant d'être réduit par le Na − .
 L'azacryptand-sodure de baryum, Ba 2+ (H 5 Azacryptand[2.2.2] − )Na − ⋅2MeNH 2, a été synthétisé.
 Des dimères de sodium cationique et anionique ont été observés.

Références

Métal alcalin
Anion
Composé du césium
Composé du rubidium
Composé du potassium
Composé du sodium

Alcalide


Christian Benteke Liolo (Kinshasa, Republica Democratică Congo; 3 decembrie din 1990) este un fotbalist internațional belgian de origine congoleză. Joacă ca atacant și actuala lui echipă este Crystal Palace din Premier League.

A fost născut în Kinshasa, Congo în 1990. El și familia lui au fugit în timpul regimului lui Mobutu și a emigrat în Liège, Belgia.

Cariera

Belgia
Benteke a jucat în rândurile tineretului lui JS Pierreuse și apoi la Standard Liège înainte de a trece la Genk. A revenit la Standard în ianuarie 2009. Pe 7 august 2009 s-a alăturat lui KV Kortrijk ca împrumut. A petrecut sezonul următor ca împrumut la Mechelen, ca parte a transferului lui Aloys Nong, care s-a mutat de la Mechelen la Standard Liège. S-a întors la Genk , în 2011, a marcat 19 goluri în 37 de meciuri în timpul unui sezon la club.

Aston Villa
Pe 31 august 2012, a plecat în Premier League. Aston Villa a plătit în jur de £ 7 milioane de Lire sterline. Benteke a spus că a fost un vis devenit realitate a juca în Premier League și i-a mulțumit jucătorilor și directorului tehnic de la KRC Genk pentru transferul lui. Pe 15 septembrie 2012, Benteke a marcat la debutul său pentru Aston Villa în victoria, 2-0 cu Swansea City, după ce a intrat ca substitut lui Andreas Weimann.

Pe 29 aprilie 2013 Christian Benteke a marcat primul său hat-trick cu tricoul lui Aston Villa în victoria echipei sale, 6-1 cu Sunderland pe Villa Park, care a fost un record absolut în istoria clubului, de a fi primul jucător pentru a ajunge la cifra de 18 goluri într-un singur sezon pentru "ticăloși".

După genialul primul sezon în Birmingham a atras interesul mai multor dintre cele mai bune cluburi din Anglia, Benteke a prezentat o cerere de transfer la clubul său, pe 8 iulie 2013.

Liverpool FC
În sezonul 2014-15 Liverpool îl transferă pe Benteke pe o suma de aproape 46 de milioane de euro. A anotat primul lui gol cu Bournemouth în a doua etapă.

Crystal Palace
Pe 20 august 2016, semnează cu Crystal Palace pe 26 de milioane de lire sterline.

Referințe

Fotbaliști ai Aston Villa FC
Fotbaliști ai FC Liverpool
Nașteri în 1990

Christian Benteke


ගෞතම බුදුන් වහන්සේගේ පරිනිර්වාණයෙන් පසුව ගතවූ මුලිම වසරයි. ප්‍රථම ධර්ම සංගායනාව මෙම වසරේදී පවත්වන ලදී.

විශේෂ සිදුවීම්
 ආන්න්ද හිමි රහත්වීම

බු.ව. 1

බු.ව. 1


Bradley Cooper  (Philadelphia, 5. siječnja 1975.), američki je glumac i producent.

Životopis
Cooper je rođen u Philadelphiji u irsko–talijanskoj obitelji (otac Irac, a majka Talijanka), a ima i sestru imenom Holly. Kao mali patio je od upale srednjeg uha što mu je otežavalo djetinjstvo.

U jednom je intervjuu rekao kako je kao mali bio usamljen te da mu je u tim trenucima pomagala molitva s obzirom na to da je dolazio iz katoličke obitelji. Vrlo rano mu se pojavila želja za filmskim platnom i to kada je s ocem gledao film Davida Lyncha Čovjek-slon. Kao tinejdžer bio je problematična osoba pa je čak s 15 godina bio uhićen zbog problema s alkoholom.

Pohađao je Germantown Academy, u predgrađu Philadelphije, a nakon toga upisao je katoličko sveučilište Villanova, no ubrzo odlazi Washington na Sveučilište Georgetown gdje i diplomira. Ubrzo nakon toga posjećuje se glumi. U New Yorku upisuje glumački tečaj za što je trebao podići krediti, a otplaćivao ga je od zarade koju je dobivao kao zaštitar u jednom hotelu.

Osobni život
Cooper je nekoliko puta bio u braku. Najprije se oženio s glumicom Jennifer Esposito s kojom se rastao nakon četiri mjeseca. Zatim se od 2015. viđa s manekenkom Irinom Shayk s kojom se nije oženio, ali ima kćer Leiju. Ubrzo je prekinuo s Irinom te se tokom snimanja filma Zvijezda je rođena počeo viđati s Lady Gagom.

Filmska karijera
Najprije je imao sporedne uloge u pojedinim televizijskim serijama poput Seks i grada i Zakon i reda. U Seks i gradu glumio je jednog od mnogih dečki s kojim je Sarah Jessica Parker bila u vezi, a u nagrađivanoj seriji Alias dobio je i jednu od glavnih uloga što će mu postati odskočna daska na velika platna. Također je vodio dokumentarnu emisiju The Lonely Planet koja se snimala i u Hrvatskoj.

Prva filmska uloga bila mu je u filmu Neželjeni gost iz 2005. godine, dok je popularnost stekao 2009. godine filmom Mamurluk redatelja Todda Phillipsa.

Odabrana filmografija

Nagrade

Oscari

Zlatni globus

BAFTA

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

 Službena stranica

Američki filmski glumci
Dobitnici BAFTA-e
Američki filmski producenti

Bradley Cooper


La route régionale 303 () est une route régionale allant de Viiala à Akaa jusqu'à Sääksmäki à Valkeakoski en Finlande.

Présentation
La seututie 303 est une route régionale de Pirkanmaa.

Parcours
 Akaa
 Viiala,
 Toijala
 Valkeakoski
 Kolikkoinmäki

Références

Annexes

Liens externes

Articles connexes
 Seututie

303

Transport à Valkeakoski
Transport à Akaa

Seututie 303


Psyché (título original en francés; en español, Psique) es una tragedia lírica en un prólogo y cinco actos con música de Jean-Baptiste Lully y libreto en francés de Thomas Corneille, basado en El asno de oro de Apuleyo. Se estrenó en la Ópera de París el 19 de abril de 1678.

Lully utilizó esta historia por primera vez el año 1671 en una tragedia – ballet con libreto de Molière, Pierre Corneille y Philippe Quinault. Los autores conservaron los intermedios de la versión tragedia-ballet y reemplazaron los diálogos hablados por recitativos y reforzaron el papel de los dioses a expensas de los personajes humanos. Psyché fue la primera de las dos colaboraciones de Lully y Corneille.

Esta ópera rara vez se representa en la actualidad; en las estadísticas de Operabase aparece con sólo 4 representación para el período 2005-2010, siendo la primera de Lully.

Referencias

Lois Rosow. "Psyché." The im abatraz
New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Ed. Stanley Sadie. Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 14 de febrero de 2010 ocfordmusiconline.

Enlaces externos

Óperas de 1678
Óperas de Jean-Baptiste Lully
Óperas en francés
Óperas estrenadas en París
Mitología grecorromana en la ópera
Óperas basadas en obras de Molière

Psyché


Isla Solarte (también conocida como Cayo Nancy o Cayo Solarte) es una isla de 8 kilómetros cuadrados situada a sólo 1 milla al este de Bocas del Toro, en la provincia de Bocas del Toro, Panamá. La comunidad de Ngöbe Buglé compuesta por pescadores vive en la isla sin electricidad o teléfonos, obteniendo el agua de un pozo.

Un centro médico, más tarde conocido como Punta Hospital fue construido sobre una colina en el extremo occidental de la isla por la empresa estadounidense United Fruit Company para el tratamiento de pacientes con fiebre amarilla y la malaria en el año de 1899, pero fue cerrado y se trasladó a la localidad de Almirante en 1920. La isla se localiza en las coordenadas geográficas

Véase también
 Geografía de Panamá
 Geografía de América

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de localización de la isla

Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro

Isla Solarte


ක්‍රිපූ 99 යනු, පූර්ව-ජූලියානු රෝමානු දින දසුනෙහි වසරකි. එකල එය හැඳින්වුනේ, අන්ටෝනියුස්ගේ සහ අල්බිනුස්ගේ රාජ්‍යතාන්ත්‍රික වසර (හෝ, එතරම් ප්‍රචලිත නොවන අයුරින්, අබ් ඌර්බෙ කෝන්ඩිටා 655 වසර) ලෙසිනි. මෙම වසර සඳහා ක්‍රිපූ 99 යන නාමය භාවිත වීම ඇරඹුනේ මුල්  මධ්‍යතන යුගයේදී, වසර නම් කිරීම සඳහා යුරෝපයේ ප්‍රචලිත භාවයට පත් ක්‍රමය ලෙසින් ක්‍රිස්තු වර්ෂ දින දසුන් යුගය ඇරඹීම හා සමගය.

සිද්ධි
 ස්ථානය අනුව

 රෝමානු ජනරජය
 කොන්සල්වරු: අවුලුස් පොස්ටුමිනුස් අල්බිනුස් සහ මාර්කුස් අන්ටෝනියුස් කථිකයා.

උපත්
 ලුක්‍රිටියුස්, ලතින් දර්ශනවේදියා සහ කවියා (d. c.ක්‍රිපූ 55 )

මරණ
 ගායියුස් මේමියුස් රෝමානු දේශපාලනඥයා සතුරකු විසින් මරා දැමිණි.
 ගායියුස් සර්විලියුස් ග්ලෝසියා,  ගායියුස් මේමියුස්ගේ ඝාතකයා (සිය දිවි නසා ගැනුම)

ආශ්‍රිත

ග්‍රෙගරි දිනදසුනේ අවුරුදු
පූර්ව-ජූලියානු රෝමානු දින දසුනෙහි අවුරුදු

ක්‍රිපූ 99


Öküzgözü, Elazığ ve Malatya bölgesi civarlarında yetişen siyah renkli bir üzüm çeşididir. Öküzgözü, büyük taneli, sulu bir üzümdür.
Şarapçılıkta kullanılır. Öküzgözü, Türkiye'de yetiştirilen en iri üzüm olarak bilinmesine karşın adı üzümün iriliğinden değil öküz gözü gibi koyu renkli olmasından gelmektedir. Taneleri oval ve koyu renklidir ve etlidir. Kabukları, boğazkereye göre incedir. Öküzgözü asmasının yaprakları geniş ve girintisizdir. Şarapları zarif, yoğun kırmızı meyvemsi, dolgun ve orta tanenlidir. İyi örnekleri yıllandırmaya uygundur. Son zamanlarda Ege bölgesinde Denizli civarında da yetiştirilmeye başlanmış olup özellikle Çal ve Güney ilçelerinde yetiştirilmektedir. Geleneksel olarak; buzbağ adı verilen Türk kupajında Boğazkere ile harmanlanıp şişelenir. Ancak son dönemde artan bir şekilde Monosepaj olarak kendi başına da şişelenmektedir.

Türk üzüm çeşitleri
Kırmızı şarap üzüm çeşitleri

Üzüm çeşitleri

Öküzgözü


Noville is a municipality of the canton of Vaud in Switzerland, located in the district of Aigle.

History
Noville is first mentioned in 903 as Nova villa.  In 1162-1173 it was mentioned as Nouila.  Due to the similarity between the names Noville and the neighboring municipality of Villeneuve (Villa Nova) it is very difficult to identify which village is being mentioned in older records.

Charlie Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field near Noville after being stolen by Roman Wardas and Gantcho Ganev in an attempt to extort money from his widow, Oona Chaplin.

Geography

Noville has an area, , of .  Of this area,  or 41.5% is used for agricultural purposes, while  or 35.1% is forested.   Of the rest of the land,  or 8.5% is settled (buildings or roads),  or 4.2% is either rivers or lakes and  or 10.5% is unproductive land.

Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.4% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.3%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 1.3%.  Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests.  Of the agricultural land, 34.8% is used for growing crops and 5.8% is pastures.  Of the water in the municipality, 0.6% is in lakes and 3.6% is in rivers and streams.

The municipality is located in the Aigle district, on a small hill above the right bank of the Rhone river where it enters Lake Geneva.  It consists of the village of Noville and the hamlet of Crebelley.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Azure, a Griffin rampant Or langued and armed Gules.

Demographics
Noville has a population () of .  , 14.2% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 10.1%.  It has changed at a rate of 5.4% due to migration and at a rate of 4.6% due to births and deaths.

Most of the population () speaks French (579 or 89.5%), with German being second most common (32 or 4.9%) and Italian being third (17 or 2.6%).

Of the population in the municipality 207 or about 32.0% were born in Noville and lived there in 2000.  There were 230 or 35.5% who were born in the same canton, while 103 or 15.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 83 or 12.8% were born outside of Switzerland.

In  there were 7 live births to Swiss citizens and 1 birth to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 4 deaths of Swiss citizens.  Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 3 while the foreign population increased by 1.  There was 1 Swiss woman who emigrated from Switzerland.  At the same time, there were 4 non-Swiss men and 1 non-Swiss woman who immigrated from another country to Switzerland.  The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 6 and the non-Swiss population increased by 3 people.  This represents a population growth rate of 1.3%.

The age distribution, , in Noville is; 75 children or 10.8% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 102 teenagers or 14.6% are between 10 and 19.  Of the adult population, 61 people or 8.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old.  70 people or 10.0% are between 30 and 39, 136 people or 19.5% are between 40 and 49, and 95 people or 13.6% are between 50 and 59.  The senior population distribution is 90 people or 12.9% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 39 people or 5.6% are between 70 and 79,there are 26 people or 3.7% who are 80 and 89, and there are 3 people or 0.4% who are 90 and older.

, there were 246 people who were single and never married in the municipality.  There were 344 married individuals, 29 widows or widowers and 28 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 253 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.4 persons per household. There were 64 households that consist of only one person and 18 households with five or more people.  Out of a total of 262 households that answered this question, 24.4% were households made up of just one person and there were 4 adults who lived with their parents.  Of the rest of the households, there are 83 married couples without children, 91 married couples with children There were 8 single parents with a child or children.  There were 3 households that were made up of unrelated people and 9 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.

 there were 135 single-family homes (or 66.5% of the total) out of a total of 203 inhabited buildings.  There were 31 multi-family buildings (15.3%), along with 27 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (13.3%) and 10 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (4.9%).  Of the single-family homes 27 were built before 1919, while 18 were built between 1990 and 2000.  The greatest number of single-family homes (28) were built between 1981 and 1990.  The most multi-family homes (10) were built before 1919 and the next most (7) were built between 1919 and 1945.  There was 1 multi-family house built between 1996 and 2000.

 there were 273 apartments in the municipality.  The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 74.  There were 6 single-room apartments and 101 apartments with five or more rooms.  Of these apartments, a total of 228 apartments (83.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 33 apartments (12.1%) were seasonally occupied and 12 apartments (4.4%) were empty.  , the construction rate of new housing units was 0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Sights
The entire village of Noville is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Politics
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 38.08% of the vote.  The next three most popular parties were the SP (21.26%), the FDP (17.21%) and the LPS Party (6.68%).  In the federal election, a total of 212 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 46.5%.

Economy
, Noville had an unemployment rate of 2.1%.  , there were 77 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 23 businesses involved in this sector.  76 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 13 businesses in this sector.  183 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 33 businesses in this sector. There were 345 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 44.1% of the workforce.

 the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 295.  The number of jobs in the primary sector was 65, all of which were in agriculture.  The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 72 of which 28 or (38.9%) were in manufacturing and 43 (59.7%) were in construction.  The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 158.  In the tertiary sector; 99 or 62.7% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 4 or 2.5% were in the movement and storage of goods, 21 or 13.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 8 or 5.1% were in the information industry, 5 or 3.2% were the insurance or financial industry, 3 or 1.9% were technical professionals or scientists, 6 or 3.8% were in education.

, there were 140 workers who commuted into the municipality and 226 workers who commuted away.  The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 1.6 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering.  About 10.7% of the workforce coming into Noville are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 9% used public transportation to get to work, and 61.7% used a private car.

Religion
From the , 168 or 26.0% were Roman Catholic, while 380 or 58.7% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.  Of the rest of the population, there was 1 member of an Orthodox church who belonged, and there were 5 individuals (or about 0.77% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.  There was 1 individual who was Jewish, and 12 (or about 1.85% of the population) who were Islamic.  There were 2 individuals who were Buddhist and 2 individuals who belonged to another church.  50 (or about 7.73% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 26 individuals (or about 4.02% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Noville about 254 or (39.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 58 or (9.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).  Of the 58 who completed tertiary schooling, 53.4% were Swiss men, 27.6% were Swiss women, 12.1% were non-Swiss men.

In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 93 students in the Noville school district.  In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 205 children of which 96 children (46.8%) received subsidized pre-school care.  The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years.  There were 49 students in the municipal primary school program.  The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 44 students in those schools.

, there were 12 students in Noville who came from another municipality, while 86 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Charlie Chaplin Incident
On 1 March 1978, Charlie Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by two unemployed mechanics, Roman Wardas and Gantcho Ganev. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from his widow, Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in Noville.

References

Cultural property of national significance in the canton of Vaud

Noville, Switzerland


Morten Mølholm Hansen (født 13. december 1961) har siden 2015 været adm. direktør i Danmarks største idrætsorganisation, Danmarks Idrætsforbund (DIF), og generalsekretær i Danmarks Olympiske Komité.

Uddannelse
Morten Mølholm har en uddannelse som cand.scient. pol. fra Institut for Statskundskab, Aarhus Universitet (1990) og har en tillægsuddannelse i journalistik fra Danmarks Journalisthøjskole (1989) og en masteruddannelse i corporate communication fra Copenhagen Business School (2008).

Karriere
Forud for sin ansættelse som direktør i DIF har Morten Mølholm været ansat i Kulturministeriet og i DIF som bl.a. kommunikationschef og udviklingschef. Han har gennem årene været udpeget til en række tillidshverv, bl.a. som bestyrelsesmedlem i Anti Doping Danmark (1999-2005 samt 2011-2015), i Idrættens Analyseinstitut (2005-2012), i Fonden Aarhus som europæisk kulturby 2017 (2012-2018), EU's ekspertgruppe vedr. tv-rettigheder og store sportsbegivenheder (2002-2005) og i kulturminister Jytte Hildens kulturpolitiske tænketank (1993-96). Han sidder i dag bl.a. i den internationale olympiske komite, IOCs, Communication Commission (2015-) og en række priskomiteer.

Han har gennem årene skrevet en række bøger, kronikker, debatindlæg og artikler om idrætslige og samfundsmæssige temaer, bl.a. om ændringer i befolkningens motionsvaner, udfordringer inden for børne- og ungdomsidrætten, den olympiske bevægelse og eliteidrætten samt samfundsmæssige problemstillinger som vilkår for frivillige, doping, seksuelle overgreb, integration, matchfixing og socialt udsatte.

Morten Mølholm var en del af den efterforskningsgruppe (2013-2015), der undersøgte omfanget og karakteren af doping i dansk cykelsport fra 1990'erne og frem til 2015. I DIF har han også arbejdet med at bekæmpe matchfixing og seksuelle overgreb inden for idrætten, lige som han arbejder for at give idrætstilbud til socialt udsatte, sindslidende og soldaterveteraner samt fremme ligestilling inden for idrætten. Han er medlem af The Gender Diversity Roundtable Denmark, et udvalg nedsat af FN og Boston Consulting Group (BCG) med det formål at dele erfaringer på tværs af erhvervslivet, uddannelsesinstitutioner og idrætten, som skal bidrage til at øge antallet af kvindelige ledere i Danmark.

Han har som direktør for DIF arbejdet med at skabe de økonomiske rammer for både Danmarks olympiske satsning ved OL i Tokyo og samarbejdet med DGI om 'Bevæg dig for livet', hvor det er målet, at 600.000 flere danskere skal dyrke idræt i løbet af de næste 10 år.

Udmærkelser
Han blev i 2017 optaget i Kraks Blå Bog  og blev i 2018 Ridder af Dannebrog.

Privat
Morten Mølholm er næstældste i en søskendeflok på fire, søn af overlæge Jens Erik Mølholm Hansen og statsaut. musikpædagog Lene Rosendal. Han er opvokset i Gentofte og har studeret i Aarhus, men bor i dag i Birkerød med sin hustru, psykolog Ditte Tang Johansen, og deres to døtre, Anna og Karoline. Han har spillet bordtennis på konkurrenceniveau og dyrker i dag fodbold, badminton og tennis på motionsniveau. Han er i sin fritid frivilligt bestyrelsesmedlem i Birkerød Tennisklub.

Kilder

Personer i Kraks Blå Bog

Morten Mølholm Hansen


Onthophagus stockwelli é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Howden & Young em 1981.

Referências

Ligações externas

stockwelli
Coleópteros descritos em 1981

Onthophagus stockwelli


The Ocean Race 2022-2023 est la  d'une course à la voile autour du monde en monocoque, en équipage et avec escales. Le départ d'Alicante, en Espagne, prévu en 2021, puis en 2022, est donné le . L'épreuve se conclut à Gênes, en Italie, le .

The Ocean Race 2022-2023 aligne cinq prototypes Imoca et six monotypes VO65, avec deux classements séparés. Seuls les Imoca effectuent le tour du monde en sept étapes. Les VO65 ne courent que la première et les deux dernières étapes.

Le classement général s'établit non pas au temps, mais aux points. Des régates portuaires sont là pour départager d'éventuels ex aequo.

Le gagnant du tour du monde des Imoca est le bateau américain  Racing Team, skippé par Charlie Enright. Le gagnant de la coupe des VO65 est le bateau polonais Windwhisper Racing Team, skippé par l'Espagnol  et le Néo-Zélandais Daryl Wislang.

Deux classes de voiliers, deux parcours, deux trophées

Le tour du monde des Imoca : trophée The Ocean Race

La grande nouveauté de cette édition est de faire courir le tour du monde en équipage non plus par des monotypes VO65 comme cela se faisait depuis 2014, mais par des Imoca, prototypes conçus pour le Vendée Globe et la navigation en solitaire. L'équipe de l'Imoca vainqueur du tour du monde reçoit le trophée The Ocean Race.

Cinq Imoca sont engagés dans ce tour du monde en équipage et en sept étapes. La classe Imoca espère attirer ainsi une plus grande quantité de sponsors et les organisateurs espèrent attirer un nombre croissant d'Imoca au fil des éditions.

Pour les Imoca, le surcoût lié à la participation à The Ocean Race reste abordable. Il est en tout cas bien moins élevé que ne l'était un budget VO65 dans les éditions précédentes. D'abord, explique Marine Derrien, team manager d'Holcim-PRB, parce qu'il y a moins d'équipiers à bord d'un Imoca. Ensuite parce qu'un team Imoca engage de toute façon chaque année un ou deux millions de frais de fonctionnement : il suffit d'y ajouter un extra de deux à quatre millions pour financer une participation à The Ocean Race.

Trois étapes pour les VO65 : trophée The Ocean Race VO65 Sprint Cup

Les VO65 quant à eux ne font pas le tour du monde. Ils courent trois des sept étapes : ,  et . Leur classement est bien entendu distinct de celui des Imoca. Six VO65 sont engagés. Le vainqueur remporte un tout nouveau trophée, The Ocean Race VO65 Sprint Cup.

Principe du classement général

Dans le tour du monde des Imoca comme dans le trophée des VO65, le classement général ne tient pas compte des temps réalisés, mais se joue aux points. Chaque étape rapporte des points :
  au ,  au , etc. ;
  au ,  au , etc.

Une étape non terminée ne rapporte pas de point.

Points des régates portuaires

Des régates portuaires rapportent des points, selon le même principe que les étapes :
  au , etc. ;
  au , etc. ;
  en cas de forfait.

Le total des points des régates portuaires n'est pas additionné à celui des étapes. Il sert à départager deux bateaux qui termineraient à égalité de points dans le classement général.

Participants

À chaque étape, un Imoca embarque quatre marins et un journaliste ; un VO65 embarque neuf marins et un journaliste. Les autres équipiers restent à terre. Aux escales, des remplacements peuvent s'effectuer.

En Imoca, les milles parcourus par un équipier peuvent jouer un rôle dans une éventuelle sélection pour le Vendée Globe 2024. Ils sont assortis d'un coefficient de 0,25 : quatre milles parcourus dans The Ocean Race équivalent à un mille parcouru dans une course en solitaire. Toutefois ces milles de sélection que rapporte The Ocean Race sont limités à .

Étapes

Le parcours théorique de ce tour du monde est de .
 La  (Le Cap-Itajaí), la plus longue, rapporte deux fois des points : une première attribution se fait en franchissant le  est (au sud de l'Australie).
 La  (Newport-Aarhus) rapporte le double de points.
 Dans la  (Aarhus-La Haye), les Imoca et les VO65 ont des parcours différents.
 Les Imoca descendent d'abord vers le sud, enroulent trois marques (la troisième à Kiel, en Allemagne), puis remontent vers le nord pour contourner la péninsule du Jutland.
 Les VO65 montent tout de suite vers le nord et doivent enrouler trois marques (la première à Langesund, en Norvège).

Ces données proviennent du site officiel de The Ocean Race.

Déroulement du tour du monde des Imoca

. Alicante-Mindelo

Le départ de la première étape Alicante-Mindelo est donné le . , des conditions très dures attendent les marins. En doublant cabo de Gata, ils sont cueillis par un vent d'ouest soutenu, avec des rafales à plus de . Ils serrent la côte espagnole pour éviter le plus gros de la furie. Un intense duel de virements de bord s'engage alors entre Hour Racing () et Holcim-PRB (). Des avaries surviennent sur Holcim-PRB, notamment un trou dans la grand-voile. On procède à des réparations provisoires. Puis  Hour Racing déchire . Le changement de voile le ralentit, ce qui permet à son poursuivant de se rapprocher. Dans le sud de Marbella, Holcim-PRB vire le premier sur tribord, et peu après le vent tourne légèrement au nord, lui conférant un avantage décisif. Il est désormais en tête. Il embouque le premier le détroit de Gibraltar. Il débouche le premier dans l'Atlantique, ce qui lui permet de creuser l'écart en remontant le long de la côte espagnole. Devant San Fernando, il vire le premier pour faire route sud-ouest, avec une heure d'avance sur  Hour Racing.

Durant tout le reste de l'étape, il contient les assauts de  Hour Racing. Il arrive en tête à Mindelo le .  Hour Racing finit , deux heures et  plus tard.

. Mindelo-Le Cap

Blessé durant la première étape, Boris Herrmann ne prend pas le départ de la deuxième, Mindelo-Le Cap. Il confie Team Malizia à Will Harris. Yann Eliès vient compléter l'équipage. Benjamin Dutreux se retire également de cette étape, et c'est Robert Stanjek qui prend le commandement de Guyot Environnement. Le départ est donné le . Grâce à une option « est », Guyot Environnement traverse avec brio le Pot au noir : entré à la , il en sort à la , et va garder celle-ci jusqu'au contournement de l'anticyclone de Sainte-Hélène. Mais son option « est » le conduit trop près des déformations capricieuses de l'anticyclone. Il s'y fait piéger. Comble d'infortune, il déchire son grand spi. Il perd le contact avec les autres bateaux.

À l'approche du Cap, le franchissement d'une dorsale provoque un rapprochement des quatre premiers : le , à  de l'arrivée, ils se tiennent en . En début de nuit, ils en terminent avec la dorsale. Mais, dans la matinée , une nouvelle zone de vents faibles défend l'accès au Cap. Team Malizia, positionné au sud, est ralenti plus que les autres. À quelque  de l'arrivée, Holcim-PRB trouve l'angle optimal. En une demi-heure, il passe de la  à la . Il termine en vainqueur. Biotherm finit ,  et  plus tard.  Racing finit , à  et  de Biotherm. Ayant gagné les deux premières étapes, Holcim-PRB () reste en tête au classement général devant  Racing ().

. Le Cap-Itajaí

Le départ de Le Cap-Itajaí, l'étape la plus longue de l'histoire de la course () est donné le . Le , un délaminage structurel contraint Guyot Environnement, alors , à faire demi-tour vers Le Cap, où il va annoncer son retrait de la . Toujours le , un système de hautes pressions venu de l'ouest rattrape les bateaux — à l'exception du leader, Holcim-PRB, qui réussit à se maintenir au nord-ouest d'une dépression qui le précède vers l'est. Holcim va naviguer ainsi plusieurs jours à la lisière de ce système, sans forcer, calquant sa moyenne sur la vitesse de déplacement de celui-ci (un peu plus de ), mais dans des rafales et des grosses vagues. Pendant ce temps, ses trois poursuivants restent prisonniers de la zone de vents faibles et de forte houle. Ce n'est que le  qu'ils trouvent une sortie par l'ouest. Il leur faut maintenant contourner l'anticyclone par le sud. Holcim affiche une avance de  sur Biotherm ().

Puis le trio de poursuivants est porté par un front, tandis quHolcim est ralenti à son tour par des zones de hautes pressions. ,  Racing établit un nouveau record de distance parcourue en , en monocoque de  et en équipage. , Biotherm n'est plus qu'à  d'Holcim. Il vient de lui reprendre  en une semaine. , la mer est bien rangée, propice à la vitesse, et les concurrents sont stimulés par l'approche de la porte de parcours , où des points sont attribués. Chacun des quatre bateaux fait tomber le record des . C'est finalement Holcim qui a le dernier mot : , vers , heure française, il vient de parcourir  en , soit une moyenne de  (sous réserve d'homologation). À , il remporte les cinq points de la demi-étape, tandis qu'un duel serré oppose Malizia à . Et c'est Malizia qui décroche la ,  derrière Holcim.

L'écart entre Holcim et ses poursuivants ne cesse de se réduire. Le , dans le sud de la Nouvelle-Zélande, les bateaux se regroupent. Le leader va changer plusieurs fois. , les quatre bateaux se tiennent en . , à  des côtes chiliennes, Malizia prend la tête. , c'est lui qui double le premier le cap Horn. Il remporte ainsi le Trophée des quarantièmes rugissants. Holcim le suit à , tandis que les deux autres bateaux sont laissés à .

Les deux premiers remontent ensemble l'Atlantique sud. Au matin du , au large de Mar del Plata, Holcim profite d'une zone de calmes pour prendre la tête. Dans l'après-midi, à l'approche de l'Uruguay, une dépression rejoint les deux bateaux, qui vont vivre les  les plus dures de l'étape, avec un vent particulièrement instable, passant du nord au sud-ouest, des rafales à plus de  et une mer très mauvaise. Holcim connaît un dysfonctionnement de pilote automatique. Il se couche plusieurs fois . Dans un empannage catastrophique, trois lattes de grand-voile cassent. La décision est prise d'assurer la deuxième place en privilégiant la sécurité. Holcim laisse partir Malizia. À la mi-journée du , celui-ci le devance de . Le , à , heure française, Malizia arrive à Itajaí en vainqueur de l'étape. Holcim est à . Il termine  et  plus tard. Avec , il conserve la première place au classement général ; tandis qu'avec  Malizia ravit la deuxième place à  Hour Racing.

. Itajaí-Newport

Pour la quatrième étape, Boris Herrmann se retire, laissant une nouvelle fois le commandement de Malizia à Will Harris. Le Français Christopher Pratt vient compléter l'équipage. Le départ est donné le . , au large d'Itaipava, Holcim-PRB,  au classement général, mène de  devant  Hour Racing, lorsqu'il démâte. Le , Escoffier annonce qu'il abandonne l'étape en cours.

Les quatre autres bateaux marchent groupés. La lutte est serrée entre  Racing et Malizia, qui vont s'échanger la première place une douzaine de fois jusqu'à l'arrivée. Le , au large de Maceió, Guyot Environnement perd du terrain. Biotherm reste au contact des deux premiers, mais, le , il éprouve des difficultés à sortir du Pot au noir et perd quelque . Les 4 et , il se retrouve prisonnier d'une zone sans vent n'apparaissant . Il creuse son retard d'une centaine de milles. Le , à  de Newport, dans un coup de vent, Guyot Environnement démâte. L'empoignade continue entre  et Malizia. Le , après , ,  et  de course, c'est  Racing qui a la satisfaction d'arriver le premier à Newport, son port d'attache, avec une avance de  sur Team Malizia.

Au classement général, Holcim-PRB () reste en tête.  Racing et Team Malizia sont  ( chacun) — avec un avantage pour , qui a engrangé  de plus que Malizia au classement des régates portuaires.

. Newport-Aarhus

Le départ de l'étape Newport-Aarhus est donné le . , aux prises avec des avaries, Biotherm prend du retard, ce qui lui fait « rater le train » d'une dépression particulièrement propice.

En effet, les 24 et , les trois bateaux de tête bénéficient, en avant du front, de conditions de vitesse  : une mer relativement plate, une brise du sud de 25 à .  Racing est en tête, suivi dHolcim-PRB et de Team Malizia. Tous trois battent le record de distance parcourue en , en Imoca et en équipage, record qu'avait établi Holcim-PRB au cours de la troisième étape (). Le , peu après minuit, Holcim-PRB signe une nouvelle performance : , soit une moyenne de . Il ne s'agit plus seulement d'un record des  Imoca. Holcim-PRB pulvérise le record absolu des monocoques, établi en 2015 () par Comanche, un bateau de  mené par Ken Read et un équipage de . Mais, le même jour, vers , Malizia fait encore mieux quHolcim :  (sous réserve d'homologation), soit une moyenne de .

Biotherm, qui a rencontré de tout autres conditions, voit son retard porté à plus de . Pour comble de malchance, il casse un hauban.  Racing arrive près des côtes de Norvège le , en fin de matinée. Holcim suit à , Malizia à .

 Racing finit en vainqueur à Aarhus le , à . Il vient de parcourir  en , ,  et , soit une étonnante moyenne sur le fond de . Holcim-PRB termine un peu plus de quatre heures plus tard, talonné à  par Team Malizia.

Les points de cette étape sont doublés. Au classement général,  Racing () devance maintenant Holcim-PRB ().

. Aarhus-La Haye

La sixième étape, la plus courte, est un parcours côtier de . , équipier dans la quatrième étape, prend dans la sixième le commandement dHolcim-PRB, en remplacement de Kevin Escoffier. Guyot Environnement est au départ. La course est menée presque de bout en bout par  Racing. À l'approche de , il a fort à faire avec les attaques dHolcim-PRB, qui lui-même est serré de près par Team Malizia. Le bateau américain remporte sa troisième victoire consécutive. Il est suivi dHolcim-PRB à , et de Malizia à . Au classement général,  conforte sa place de premier, avec maintenant deux points d'avance sur Holcim.

. La Haye-Gênes

Le , les bateaux s'élancent dans la septième et dernière étape. Celle-ci commence par un parcours imposé en baie de . Sur ce tracé préliminaire, dix-sept minutes après le départ, Guyot Environnement aborde  Racing. Guyot se retire de l'étape. Le lendemain,  Hour se retire lui aussi de l'étape, et demande au jury une réparation en points.

Le long des côtes portugaises, dans des vents faibles, l'écart se resserre entre les trois Imoca. Le , au nord des côtes marocaines, ils se tiennent en un demi-mille.

Le 26, les bateaux sont toujours groupés. C'est donc à l'approche de l'arrivée que l'étape va se jouer. Dans la nuit du 26 , vers , à l'entrée du golfe de Gênes, les vents sont très légers. Holcim-PRB est en tête comme il l'a été pendant la plus grande partie de l'étape. Team Malizia est à , en . Il se sépare des deux autres bateaux, et va chercher des petits airs au nord, le long de la côte italienne. À , à  de l'arrivée, il prend la tête. Biotherm s'est rapproché à son tour de la côte. Il , mais ne peut rattraper Malizia.

Le , à , après ,  et  de course, Team Malizia remporte à Gênes sa deuxième étape. Il vient de parcourir  à la vitesse moyenne sur le fond de . Biotherm termine , une heure et trente-six minutes plus tard.

Hour Racing Team remporte le tour du monde

Le , le jury international accorde une réparation à . Cette réparation n'a pas été calculée en points, mais en places : au vu de la moyenne de ses classements dans les six premières étapes (, moyenne arrondie  par le jury),  est reclassé à la  de la dernière étape. Dans un cas de réparation, le classement des autres bateaux ne change pas : dans le classement de l'étape,  est donc  avec Biotherm ( chacun), et Holcim-PRB  et garde ses . Avec  au classement général,  Racing Team remporte le tour du monde, devant Holcim-PRB ().

Incidents et abandons

Boris Herrmann, skipper de Team Malizia, s'ébouillante le pied. Sur conseil des médecins, il ne participe pas à l'étape suivante, par risque d'infection.

Le , deux jours après l'arrivée au Cap, l'équipe de  Hour Racing découvre de gros dommages sur les deux foils. Le comité de course autorise leur remplacement.

Peu après le départ, Biotherm casse . Le chariot de grand-voile va trop loin lors de l'empannage, il s'arrache de l'extrémité du rail, et les roulements du système sont perdus. Le bateau fait demi-tour pour réparer et remplacer. Puis  Hour Racing casse deux extrémités de lattes de grand-voile. Il y a deux lattes de rechange à bord, mais l'équipage ne veut pas s'en priver pour une si longue étape. Il attend donc que son équipe technique lui en apporte deux nouvelles.

Le , le  de Team Malizia se détache du hook, tombe à l'eau et se coince dans le foil et la quille. L'incident exige une inspection de la tête de mât. Rosalin Kuiper y monte, et détecte une fissure de  de long, au-dessus du premier ris. L'équipage se voit déjà faisant demi-tour vers Le Cap. Puis il décide de tenter la difficile réparation. Rosalin Kuiper et Will Harris se relaient plusieurs heures durant, à  au-dessus de l'eau : ponçage, pose de patchs de carbone enduits de résine, laminage.

Le , Guyot Environnement est victime d'une rupture du sandwich de la coque. Il est contraint de faire demi-tour. Au Cap, l'équipage apprend que le temps de réparation est estimé à . Aussi, le , Dutreux et Stanjek signifient-ils leur retrait de la , afin d'être prêts dans les temps pour le départ de . Guyot Environnement gagne Itajaí, au Brésil, en traversant l'Atlantique.

Le , des fissures sont détectées sur les deux safrans de  Hour Racing. Le plus endommagé est remplacé. Des réparations sont tentées.

Le   Racing annonce une importante déchirure sur sa grand-voile, . C'est peut-être impossible à réparer en mer. Après avoir envisagé une escale en Tasmanie ou en Nouvelle-Zélande, l'équipage décide de continuer.

Le , à l'approche du cap Horn, Malizia enfourne. Rosalin Kuiper, qui dort, est éjectée de sa bannette et se blesse à la tête. Le médecin de la course diagnostique une commotion cérébrale. Il prescrit du repos et recommande une surveillance attentive.

Le , Biotherm percute un ofni au large de l'Argentine. Le foil et son système de cale sont sévèrement endommagés. Une voie d'eau se déclare.

Le , cinquième jour de l'étape, dans des vents modérés (16 à ), Holcim-PRB démâte, à  de la côte brésilienne. Il fait demi-tour, sous gréement de fortune, pour gagner Rio. Un mât est disponible à Lorient, chez le constructeur Lorima. Quatre solutions s'offrent à l'équipe :
 faire livrer le mât à Newport et finir la  sous gréement de fortune, pour grappiller un point. Mais Holcim ne serait pas dans les temps pour prendre, le , le départ de la  (où le nombre de points est doublé) ;
 faire livrer le mât par bateau à Rio, et finir la  avec ce mât. Là encore, le délai semble trop court ;
 faire livrer le mât par avion à Rio ;
 expédier Holcim par cargo à Newport (environ  de mer) et faire livrer le mât là-bas.

Holcim arrive le  à Rio. Escoffier annonce qu'il opte pour la quatrième solution et que, par conséquent, il abandonne l'étape en cours. Le , Holcim est chargé sur un cargo qui, dès le lendemain, fait route vers Newport. Le , le mât arrive aux États-Unis. Le , le cargo transportant Holcim-PRB arrive à Newport. L'Imoca est mis à l'eau. Le lendemain, il est remâté.

Le , par un vent de 35 à , Guyot Environnement marche sans voile d'avant, avec trois ris dans la grand-voile, lorsque le mât se casse en trois morceaux. Il commence à endommager la coque et à traîner dans le foil. L'équipage récupère les outriggers, la bôme et le radar, mais doit se séparer des voiles, du mât et des câbles. Gagner Newport au moteur paraît difficile : la distance est importante (), le vent est de face et les conditions sont mauvaises. Halifax, au Canada, est plus proche (). Ravitaillé en carburant par un cargo, Guyot Environnement progresse sous gréement de fortune et au moteur pendant cinq jours. Il arrive à Halifax le . Tandis que les autres concurrents disputent la cinquième étape, il est transporté par roulier jusqu'en Europe. L'équipe acquiert le mât de rechange de  Hour Racing. Le bateau entre en chantier à Kiel, en Allemagne, pour réparer les dégâts causés sur la coque, les foils, les safrans et les paliers de quille, et remâter. Après six jours de travaux, Guyot Environnement peut reprendre la mer. Il arrive à Aarhus le , veille du départ de la sixième étape.

Le , cinquième jour de l'étape,  Hour Racing percute ce que l'équipage suppose être un mammifère marin. Charlie Dalin souffre d'une petite commotion cérébrale et le journaliste embarqué Amory Ross d'une blessure à l'épaule.

Le , Biotherm connaît une panne de pilote automatique, puis voit son J3 — bas-étai du mât — tomber sur le pont. Le mât tient bon. Le , à quelque  de l'arrivée, le hauban bâbord casse. L'équipage sécurise le mât à l'aide de drisses, et poursuit sa route à vitesse réduite, sous voiles d'avant. Les trois autres bateaux arrivent à Aarhus le . Comme les instructions de course l'y autorisent, l'organisation raccourcit l'étape pour Biotherm. Elle fixe sa ligne d'arrivée au méridien de référence, à  d'Aarhus. Le bateau franchit cette ligne le , terminant l'étape en , ce qui le fait bénéficier de . Il relâche dans le port norvégien de Kristiansand, le , pour remplacer son hauban. Il repart cinq heures plus tard. Arrivé dans la soirée du  à Aarhus, il peut le lendemain disputer — et gagner — la régate portuaire.

À Aarhus, le , Kevin Escoffier annonce son retrait de la course pour les deux dernières étapes. Un incident survenu lors d'une soirée, à Newport, serait à l'origine de cette décision, prise par lui-même et non par son sponsor. Quant aux circonstances, Jean-Luc Denéchau, président de la Fédération française de voile, admet le  que . Kevin Escoffier, de son côté, entend évoquer devant la FFV .

Le ,  après le départ, Guyot Environnement, bâbord amures, éperonne  Racing, qui est tribord amures et par conséquent prioritaire. Les deux bateaux reviennent au port, très endommagés (étrave trouée, bout-dehors cassé pour Guyot, coque percée pour ). Guyot annonce le soir même son retrait de l'étape. Le ,  annonce à son tour son retrait de l'étape. Il dépose une demande de réparation en points auprès du jury international. Après trois jours de travaux, il reprend la mer, souhaitant arriver à temps à Gênes pour y disputer le  la dernière régate portuaire. Guyot Environnement, après des , est convoyé vers Les Sables-d'Olonne. Le ,  Racing arrive à Gênes.

Sept régates portuaires

Déroulement de la VO65 Sprint Cup

. Alicante-Mindelo

Dès le , deuxième jour de course, la flottille des VO65 rencontre un fort vent de face. Viva México déchire sa grand-voile. Il est contraint de faire escale à Almería. Il va y rester deux jours. , à l'entrée du détroit de Gibraltar, le Polonais Windwhisper Racing Team ravit la première place au Portugais Mirpuri Foundation Racing Team. Celui-ci s'aventure par deux fois dans le DST. Par la suite, il reconnaît sa faute, due à des , et se retire de l'étape. Windwhisper reste en tête jusqu'à Mindelo, où il arrive le . Le Néerlandais Team Jajo termine .

. Aarhus-La Haye

Windwhisper Racing Team remporte à La Haye sa deuxième victoire consécutive. Au classement général, il mène de trois points devant Team Jajo.

. La Haye-Gênes

, le skipper de Windwhisper, ne peut participer à la dernière étape. Il est remplacé par le Néo-Zélandais Daryl Wislang. Le départ est donné le . , au nord de la Bretagne, les VO65 progressent groupés, dans une pression légère. Voyant une grosse brise arriver, Windwhisper fait le choix d'une route nord. Ainsi, au sortir de la Manche, il est le premier à bénéficier d'un vent soutenu. Très vite il creuse un écart de 30 à . Durant la descente le long de la péninsule Ibérique, il ne cesse d'augmenter son avance :  au cap Finisterre,  en franchissant en tête le  — ce qui lui vaut le Vasco da Gama Mirpuri Foundation Prize — et  à Gibraltar.

En Méditerranée, Windwhisper marche vers l'est, le long des côtes marocaines, puis algériennes. Ses poursuivants restent dans l'ouest, remontant le long des côtes d'Espagne. Doit-il les rejoindre afin de les contrôler ? Ce serait prudent, mais la route deviendrait lente pour lui. Il décide de ne pas se préoccuper des autres bateaux. Il persévère dans l'option la plus rapide pour lui, remontant à l'est des Baléares. Il poursuit la course détaché, sans être inquiété.

Le , à , après une course de , ,  et , Windwhisper Racing Team remporte à Gênes sa troisième victoire consécutive, avec  d'avance. Team Jajo , un peu plus de  plus tard.

Au classement général, avec , Windwhisper remporte la VO65 Sprint Cup, devant Team Jajo, .

Quatre régates portuaires

Avis sur l'édition

Dans un entretien avec Jacques Guyader, sur ouest-france.fr, Johan Salén, copropriétaire de The Ocean Race, donne son avis sur l'édition 2023, dans laquelle il voit un épisode de transition entre deux époques, celle de la Volvo Ocean Race et celle de The Ocean Race. Tout le travail mené en concertation avec la classe Imoca était destiné à . Néanmoins Johan Salén s'étonne que l'événement bénéficie d'aussi peu de retours médiatiques en France. En France, dit-il, existe  avec d'autres courses très importantes — .

Il déplore les deux démâtages de la . Il note avec satisfaction que la classe Imoca se penche sur la question, et envisage des mâts .

La course dure cinq mois et demi. Faut-il revenir à sept mois et demi, comme sur la Volvo Ocean Race ? ou au contraire faire plus court ? Salén répond que les équipes sont satisfaites de la formule actuelle. Elles ne souhaitent pas que l'on rallonge la durée de la course. Et les sponsors quant à eux ne veulent pas qu'on la raccourcisse, car cela signifierait enlever des escales, et ils tiennent beaucoup aux escales.

Johan Salén admet que certaines équipes manquaient de préparation, par manque d'argent ou par manque de temps, notamment en raison de la longue période du covid-19. Certaines équipes trouvent la logistique de cette épreuve trop coûteuse. Salén estime que, par rapport aux éditions précédentes, on a réussi à simplifier et à faire moins cher. Et il espère  dans ce sens.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

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