Ne pas confondre avec bactériophage, qui est un type de virus s'attaquant aux bactéries.

Un bactérivore est un organisme, exclusivement microscopique, qui se nourrit de bactéries.

Exemples
En Zoologie, de nombreuses espèces de nématodes, incluant l'animal modèle Caenorhabditis elegans, sont bactérivores. L'espèce Halicephalobus mephisto, qui est un extrêmophile, vivant à de grandes profondeurs, est également un bactérivore.

En Botanique, l'algue Cafeteria roenbergensis est également bactérivore.

Références

 Rôle des interactions bactéries - nématodes bactérivores sur la disponibilité du N et P au sein de la rhizosphère du riz sur sol ferrallitique à Madagascar: mécanismes et facteurs de contrôle. Thèse présentée par Mahafaka Severine Patricia RANOARISOA, le 29 janvier 2018 (lien vers HAL - archives ouvertes, site visité le 16 mars 2022)

Liens externes

Bactérie
Écologie

Bactérivore


Jesus H. Christ is an expletive interjection that refers to the Christian religious figure of Jesus Christ. It is typically uttered in anger, surprise, or frustration; although often with humorous intent.

Use of "Jesus Christ" in a profane manner is regarded by some as blasphemous and in violation of the Ten Commandments.

History

The earliest use of the phrase is unknown, but in his autobiography, Mark Twain (1835–1910) observed that it was in general use even in his childhood. Twain refers to an episode from 1847, when he was working as a printer's apprentice; Roger Smith (1994) tells the tale thus:

[Twain] recounts a practical joke a friend played on a revival preacher when Twain was an apprentice in a printing shop that Alexander Campbell, a famous evangelist then visiting Hannibal, hired to print a pamphlet of his sermon. While checking the galleys, Twain's fellow apprentice, Wales McCormick, found he had to make room for some dropped words, which he managed by shortening Jesus Christ on the same line to J. C. As soon as Campbell had read the proofs, he swept indignantly into the shop and commanded McCormick, "So long as you live, don't you ever diminish the Savior's name again. Put it all in." The puckish McCormick obeyed, and then some: he set Jesus H. Christ and printed up all the pamphlets.Draper (1993) offers further details: the printing shop was the printing facility for the Hannibal Courier. Avoiding "J. C." required three of 16 pages to be reset.

Roger Smith suggests that "Jesus H. Christ" is a specifically American profanity, and indicates that at least in his experience it is uttered primarily by men. British author Michael Quinion likewise specifies the phrase as belonging to American English.

Stress pattern
Multiple authors emphasize the practice of placing a strong stress on the "H", relating it in various ways to expletive infixation. Thus Quinion writes:

Its long survival must have a lot to do with its cadence, and the way that an especially strong stress can be placed on the H. You might also think of it as an example of emphatic infixing that loosely fits the models of words like abso-bloody-lutely or tribu-bloody-lation.

Similar remarks were made by the linguist Dwight Bolinger, who mentions "Jesus H. Christ" in a discussion of the strategies used by English speakers to add additional stresses to "highly charged words" for purposes of emphasis. Horberry suggests "The strong emphasis on the H somehow improves the rhythm of its host phrase." The Green's Dictionary of Slang says "the H is redundant other than for rhythm".

Etymology

Using the name of Jesus Christ as an oath has been common for many centuries, but the precise origins of the letter H in the expression are obscure. While many explanations have been proposed, the most widely accepted derivation is from the divine monogram of Christian symbolism. The symbol, derived from the first three letters of the Greek name of Jesus (), is transliterated iota-eta-sigma, which can look like IHS,  (with lunate sigma), JHS or JHC ("J" was historically a mere variant of "I").

For how this learned-sounding abbreviation could have served as the basis for vulgar slang, Smith offers the hypothesis that it was noticed by ordinary people when it was worn as a decoration on the vestments of Anglican (i.e., in America, Episcopal) clergy. The "JHC" variant would particularly invite interpretation of the "H" as part of a name.

False etymology
While the above is the most likely origin of the "H", there are other popular false etymologies. One commonly held origin is as an initial for the name "Harold", which is mentioned by Smith as the basis of a variant form, "Jesus Harold Christ". The "Harold" may arise from a common misinterpretation (often by children) of the phrase in the Lord's Prayer, "Our Father who art in heaven hallowed be thy name." This phrase can be mistakenly interpreted as specifying the name of the Deity ("thy name is ... "), rather than the true reading, which is "may thy name be hallowed". The confusion would arise from the phonetic similarity of hallowed (IPA [ˈhæloʊd]) to Harold (IPA [ˈhærəld]).

Variants
The number of variant forms, usually with "H" replaced by something longer, is vast. In addition to the folk etymology of Jesus Harold Christ, Smith lists Jesus Holy Christ, Jesus Hecking Christ, and Jesus H. Particular Christ. Green's Dictionary of Slang lists Jesus H!, Jesus H. Crow!, Jesus H. Johnson!, Jesus H. Mahogany Christ!, Jesus hopping Christ!, Jesus Johnnycake Christ!, Jeezus K. Reist! Jesus X. Christ! J.H. Christ!, and Judas H. Christ!.

For Smith, the very presence of so many spelled-out variants is part of the humor—and blasphemy—inherent in "Jesus H. Christ". He suggests that the H offers "the power of taking the Lord's name in vain by adding something to it that the imagination is invited to complete: What does the H. stand for? — whatever the errant imagination proposes and the imaginer is disposed to enjoy."

Citations

General and cited references
 Bolinger, Dwight (1986). Intonation and its parts: melody in spoken English. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Cited extract may be read on line at Google Books: .
 Bottoms, Stephen J. (2000). Albee: Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

 Draper, Mark (1993). "Alexander Campbell", article in Christie Graves Hamric (ed.) The Mark Twain Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis.
 Falvey, Kate (2010). Dark humor in Edward Albee's "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?". In Harold Bloom and Blake Hobby, eds., Dark Humor. Infobase Publishing.
 Horberry, Roger (2010). Sounds good on paper: How to bring business language to life. A&C Black. Cited passages may be read online at Google Books: .
 Lennox, Doug (2013). Now you know absolutely everything. Dundurn. Cited extract can be read on Google Books: .
 Quinion, Michael (2009). Why is Q Always Followed by U?: Word-Perfect Answers to the Most-Asked Questions About Language. Penguin UK.
 Ransom, Ian (2006) Waiting for the Rapture. iUniverse.
 Salinger, J. D. (1951). The Catcher in the Rye. New York: Little, Brown.

External links

 Explanation from WorldWideWords by Michael Quinion (supports the IHC theory)
 Harold be thy name! (has an interesting connection to Epistle of Barnabas (9:6—7) (written between 70 and 190 AD) which says "The eighteen is I (=ten) and H (=8)—you have Jesus".)

Cultural depictions of Jesus
English phrases
Slang

Jesus H. Christ


Talihsiz Serüvenler Dizisi, Lemony Snicket mahlasını kullanan yazar Daniel Handler tarafından yazılıp Brett Helquist tarafından resimlendirilen bir roman serisidir.

İlk kitap Kötü Günler Başlarken, 30 Eylül 1999'da Rupert Murdoch'ın sahip olduğu HarperCollins Çocuk Kitaplığı'ndan çıktı. Serinin 13. ve son kitabı olan Son, 13 Ekim 2006'da çıktı.

Kitapların film versiyonunda ilk üç kitap olan Kötü Günler Başlarken, Sürüngen Odası ve Uçuruma Bakan Pencere'''nin öyküleri anlatılmaktadır. Film Türkiye'de de Lemony Snicket'ın Talihsiz Serüvenler Dizisi adıyla 17 Aralık 2004 tarihinde gösterime girdi.

2015'te Netflix serinin dizi uyarlamasını yapmaya karar vermiştir. Birinci sezon çekimlerine 2016 Mart'ında başlamış,13 Ocak 2017'de gösterime girmiştir.

 Dağıtım

 Kitaplar

Seriyi içine alan on üç kitap sırayla şunlardır:

 Kötü Günler Başlarken
 Sürüngen Odası
 Uçuruma Bakan Pencere
 Bitik Orman
 Katı Kurallar Okulu
 Alacakaranlık Bulvarı
 Karga Laneti
 Dehşet Hastanesi
 Karnaval Ucubeleri
 Kaygan Yamaç
 Mantar Mahşeri
 Evvelki Tehlike
 Son

Seriyle bağlantılı olan ancak Türkiye'de satışa sunulmayan diğer kitaplar ise; The Beatrice Letters, Lemony Snicket: The Unauthorized Autobiography. Serinin cep kitapları; The Bad Beginning or, Orphans! ve The Reptile Room or, Murder!. Tüm kitaplardan komik alıntıları içeren Horseradish: Bitter Truths You Can't Avoid. de bir Lemony Snicket eseridir.

 Sesli Kitaplar
Serinin sesli kitaplarını oyuncu Tim Curry okumaktadır. Üç, dört ve beşinci kitapları Yazar Daniel Handler seslendirmiştir. Tim Curry 6. kitaptan 13. kitaba kadar seslendirmiştir. Her kitabın başlangıcında olduğu gibi "Sevgili okur" diye başlayıp "Anlayışlı editörüme" diyerek gelecek kitapta olacaklara dair ipuçları vererek bitirir. Sesli kitaplardaki müzikler müzik albümünde olduğu gibi The Gothic Archies tarafından seslendirilmiştir.

 Müzik Albümü

Ekim 2006'da The Gothic Archies grubunun The Tragic Treasury: Songs from A Series of Unfortunate Events'' albümü satışa sunuldu. Albümdeki şarkılar, serinin 13 kitabıyla ilgili yazıldı. 2 adet fazladan şarkı ile 15 şarkılık albümün şarkılarını söyleyen ve yazan Stephin Merritt'tir.
Şarkıların isimleri sırayla şunlardır.

 Scream and Run Away
 In the Reptile Room
 The World is a Very Scary Place
 Dreary, Dreary
 When You Play the Violin
 This Abyss
 Crows
 Smile! No One Cares How You Feel
 Freakshow
 How Do You Slow This Thing Down?
 A Million Mushrooms
 Things Are Not What They Appear
 Shipwrecked
 Walking My Gargoyle
 We Are the Gothic Archies

Dış bağlantılar
 Lemony Snicket'ın resmi web sitesi

Sinemaya uyarlanmış Amerikan romanları

Talihsiz Serüvenler Dizisi


Neculai Predica (n. 23 mai, 1964) este un actor de film, radio, televiziune, scenă și voce.

Biografie

Dublaj
 Ed, Edd și Eddy - Kevin si Johnny (Cartoon Network)
 Fetițele Powerpuff - Mojo Jojo (Cartoon Network)
 Looney Tunes - Yosemite Sam, Taz, Elmer Fudd si Wile E. Coyote
 Uimitoare lume a lui Gumball - Richard Watterson (Cartoon Network)
 Un show obișnuit - Rigby (Cartoon Network)
 Să-nceapă aventura - Jake (Cartoon Network)
 Johnny Test - Bling Bling (Cartoon Network)
 Inazuma Eleven - Kevin Dragonfly si Bobbie Shearer (Cartoon Network)
 Robotboy - Doney, Dr. Kamikazi (Sezoanele 1 și 2) (Cartoon Network)

Filmografie
 Queen Marie of Romania (2019)
 Moștenirea (2010)
 Schimb valutar (2008)
 California Dreamin' (Nesfârșit) (2007)
 Bunraku (2010)
 Ulița spre Europa (2004)

Referințe

Legături externe
 predica-8077/ Neculai Predica pe CineMagia
 Neculai Predica pe IMDb

Nașteri în 1964
Nașteri pe 23 mai
Actori de film români
Actori de radio români
Actori de teatru români
Actori de televiziune români
Actori de voce români
Actori români
Actori români din secolul al XX-lea
Actori români din secolul al XXI-lea
Actori români în viață

Neculai Predica


Yoshii () may refer to:

Places
Yoshii, Fukuoka, a former town in Fukuoka Prefecture
Yoshii, Gunma, a former town in Gunma Prefecture
Yoshii, Nagasaki, a former town in Nagasaki Prefecture
Yoshii, Okayama (Akaiwa)  (吉井町), a former town in Akaiwa District, Okayama Prefecture
Yoshii, Okayama (Shitsuki)  (芳井町), a former town in Shitsuki District, Okayama Prefecture

Other uses
Yoshii (surname)

Yoshii


Adolf VII. (der Milde) (* um 1327; † 26. Januar 1390) war Graf von Holstein-Kiel (um 1359–1390) und Graf von Holstein-Plön (um 1359–1390).

Leben
Seine Eltern waren  Johann III. der Milde (* ca. 1297; † 27. September 1359) und Katharina († 1327), Tochter des Glogauer Herzogs Heinrich III. und Witwe des Markgrafen Johann V. von Brandenburg (1302–1317). Seine Frau war Anna von Mecklenburg-Schwerin (* 1343; † 1415), die er im Dezember 1362 heiratete.

Adolf VII. regierte überwiegend in Frieden. Den von seinem Vater hinterlassenen Anteil an Holstein vermehrte er durch Erwerb der Haseldorfer Marsch, die ihm 1375 und 1378 vom  Erzbischof zu Bremen pfandweise übertragen wurde, später aber nicht wieder eingelöst wurde und seitdem mit Holstein in Verbindung geblieben war.

Adolf VII. starb am 26. Januar 1390, ohne Söhne zu hinterlassen. Sein Anteil an Holstein mit der Insel Fehmarn wurde vom Grafen Nikolaus von Holstein-Rendsburg und dessen drei Neffen in Besitz genommen. Die Grafen der schauenburgischen Linie machten ebenfalls  Erbansprüche geltend, wurden aber durch eine Geldsumme und den Bezirk Nienland (Neuland, Herrschaft Herzhorn) sowie durch einige Grundstücke an der Elbe abgefunden, so dass sich von da an ganz Holstein mit Ausnahme des schauenburgischen Anteils im Besitze der Rendsburger Linie befand. Zugleich wurde bei dieser Veranlassung zwischen den beiden Linien ein Vertrag über gegenseitiges Erbrecht abgeschlossen. Dieser bestand im Wesentlichen darin, dass nach dem Aussterben einer der beiden Linien deren Anteil mit allen dazu erworbenen Lehen und Besitzungen erblich an die andere Linie fallen und alle Lehen zu gesamter Hand erworben werden sollten.

Literatur
 Jürgen Bremer: Geschichte Schleswig-Holsteins bis zum Jahre 1848. Schröder, Kiel 1864, S. 143.

Graf (Holstein)
Familienmitglied des Hauses Schauenburg (Linie Holstein-Itzehoe)
Geboren im 14. Jahrhundert
Gestorben 1390
Mann

Adolf VII. (Holstein-Kiel)


Galli í skilningi kröfuréttar er þegar greiðsla uppfyllir ekki gæðaeiginleika samkvæmt samningi, lagafyrirmælum eða annarra sjónarmiða. Í kröfurétti er meginreglan sú að aðilar samnings eigi rétt á gallalausum greiðslum. Hvers kyns frávik frá því sem var samið um getur falið í sér galla í þessum skilningi, svo sem ef hlutur var afhentur á öðrum tíma eða öðrum stað en samið var um, eða jafnvel að hann var í öðrum lit.

Kröfuréttur
Lögfræði

Galli (lögfræði)


Fagot, ahşap nefesli çalgıdır. Fagot, çift kamışlı ve tek parçalı bir enstrüman olan Curtal'dan, 16. yüzyıl'da Avrupa'da türemiştir. Ses aralığı (İng.: range) 3,5 oktav olan, akçaağaç, ahşabı ve metal borudan yapılan fagotun uzunluğu 1,3 metre, borunun açılmış haliyle 2,5 metredir.

Yapısı
Ana hatlarıyla fagot, konik biçimde oyulmuş ve ikiye katlanmış bir borunun geliştirilmiş halidir. Genellikle akçaağaçtan yapılır. Dört parçanın birleşmesinden oluşur.

 Kalak
 Çizme. (çift borulu bölüm)
 Bas. (veya Uzun)
 Tenor.

Çizme bölümü en alttadır. Çizmenin içi yan yana oyulmuş ve alttan birbirine "U" şeklinde bağlanmış iki borudan oluşur. Çizmenin üzerine kanat ve bas bölümü yan yana takılır. Bas bölümün üstüne de kalak eklenir. Kalak bölümünün en üstüne "S" şeklinde kıvrılmış metal bir boru takılır. "Es borusu" denilen bu borunun ucuna da Kor angle ninkinden biraz daha büyük olan çift kamışlı ağızlık takılır. Sol el yukarıda, yan yana olan kanat ve bas bölümlerinin perdelerini denetleyebilecek şekilde, sağ el ise aşağıdaki çizme bölümünü üzerindeki perdeleri kullanabilecek şekilde tutulur. Bu tutuş, en üstteki kalak bölüğmü sol omuz yönüne, en alttaki çizme bölümü ise sağ kalça yönüne olmak üzere çapraz biçimdedir. Fagot, çalıcının boynuna takılan askı ile desteklenir.

Boehm mekanizması fagotta başarılı olmamıştır. Günümüzde genellikle iki sistem vardır. Alman Heckel (Heykel okunur) sistemi ve Fransız Buffet (Büfe okunur) sistemi. Alman sistemi fagotlar daha yaygındır. Fagot aktarımsız bir çalgıdır. Nota üzerinde yazılan sesleri çıkarır. Kalın sesleri için Fa anahtarı, ince sesler için dördüncü çizgi Do anahtarı kullanılır.

Ses alanı

İkinci ek çizgideki Si bemol sesinden itibaren incelerek neredeyse 4 oktavlık bir ses alanına sahiptir. Bu ses genişliği içerisindeki dia tonik ve kromatik bütün sesler elde edilir. En ince seslerin çalınması oldukça güçtür. En ince (Do anahtarı, ikinci ek çizgideki) Si bemol sesinden sonraki sesler pek kullanılmaz. Fagotun esas sesleri en kalın sesi olan Si bemol 'den dördüncü çizgideki Fa notasına kadar olan bölümdür. Bu seslerden sonraki sesler ikinci doğuşkanlar olarak (bir oktav incesi) elde edilirler. Daha incedeki sesler için esas seslerin üçüncü doğuş kanları (1 oktav ve tam 5'li aralık) olarak elde edilirler. Tüm tahta nefeslilerde olduğu gibi, fagotta da özellikle ince seslerin elde edilme şekli çalıcıya ya da çalgının yapısına bağlıdır.

Tınlama bölgeleri

Fagot, üç farklı tınlama bölgesine sahiptir.

 Kalın ses bölgesi: En kalın sesi olan Si bemolden bir oktav incesindeki Si bemol sesine kadar olan kısımdır. Koyu, dolgun ve zengin bir tınısı vardır. En kalın beş aralık içindeki sesleri kısık sesle çalmak çok güçtür.

 Orta ses bölgesi: Dizek üzerinde ikinci aralıktaki Do'dan, bir oktav incesindeki birinci ek çizgi do'ya kadar olan kısımdır. Bu sesler soluk, kuru, yumuşak, ağırbaşlı ve bağlı pasajlarda bariton insan sesini andıran bir tını özelliği gösterir.

 İnce ses bölgesi: Birinci ek çizgi üzerindeki Re'den ve ondan sonraki ince notalardır. Sesler inceldikçe yoğunlaşır, En ince sesleri kaba ve rahatsız edici olabilir.

Teknik olanakları
Fagotta  çift dil ve üç dil mümkündür. Tril ve tremololar bakımından diğer üflemeli çalgılara göre oranla daha kısıtlıdır. Bunların dışında, oldukça hızlı tempolarda bağlı veya dilli, diatonişk ve kromatik pasajlar, arpejler, hızlı tekrarlanan notalar ve stakato (İt. staccato) olarak geniş aralıklı atlamalar rahatlıkla çalınır.

Orkestradaki görevi

Fagot orkestrada tek başına veya basklarnet ile birlikte tahta nefesli grubun çaldığı armonilerin bas partisini çalmakla beraber sık sık viyolonsellerle de unison çalarak, yaylı çalgıların bas seslerini güçlendirmek ya da farklı bir karakter yaratmak için kullanılır. Her zaman bir bas çalgısı olarak kullanılmaz. Çoğu zaman da orta ses bölgesinde arka plan akorların orta partilerini doldurur. Özellikle orta ses bölgelerinde legato pasajlarda ciddi, ağırbaşlı bir hava yaratır. Ayrıca, müziğe neşeli bir karakter veren büyük aralıklı staccato atlamalar (fagotta çok sevilen bir tekniktir) esprili, neşeli bir etki sağlayabilir. Bu atlamalar özellikle yukarı doğru yapılınca etkili olur.

Fagotun sesi diğer aletler tarafından kolayca örtülür, dolu orkestra tınısı içinde kaybolur. Özellikle fagot için solo partiler yazarken bu hususu göz önünde bulundurmak gerekir.

Fagot diğer aletlerle çok iyi bir şekilde birleştirilebilir, katlamalarda kullanılabilir. Genelde bu katlama bir hatta iki oktav yukarıda çalan aletlere uygulanır. Fagot bu amaçla genelde sol - sol¹ notaları arasında kullanılır. Obuanın aksine fagot katlama aleti olarak kullanılınca ön plana çıkmaz, katladığı aletin melodisi daha iyi duyulur. Bunun nedeni fagotun belli bir ses bölgesinde -güncelleme yapıp o ses bölgesi belirtilecektir- nötr bir ses rengi olmasıdır. Bu nedenle fagot rengi bu bileşimde arka planda kalır.

Geçmişte kullanılmış iki cins fagottan bahsetmek gerekir: Bunlardan bir tanesi olan tenor fagot (İng.: tenoroon) normal fagottan bir beşli yukarıdaki; dörtlü fagot denen diğer alet ise (Alm.: Quartfagott) normal fagottan bir dörtlü aşağıdaki ses alanında duyulur.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Fagot hakkında bilgi

Fagot


Als Samuelson-Bedingung (auch: Samuelson-Musgrave-Bedingung) bezeichnet man in der mikroökonomischen Theorie der Wirtschaftspolitik eine Bedingung dafür, wann in einer Ökonomie öffentliche Güter effizient bereitgestellt werden. Dabei versteht man unter öffentlichen Gütern solche Güter, die zum einen von einer Vielzahl an Personen konsumiert werden können, ohne dass diese sich dabei gegenseitig behindern, und von deren Konsum zum anderen niemand ausgeschlossen werden kann. Die Samuelson-Bedingung besagt dann im einfachsten Fall einer Ökonomie mit zwei Gütern – einem privaten und einem öffentlichen Gut –, dass eine Allokation dieser Güter genau dann Pareto-effizient ist, wenn die Grenzrate der Transformation zwischen den beiden Gütern gerade der Summe der haushaltsspezifischen Grenzraten der Substitution zwischen den Gütern entspricht.

Der Name der Bedingung geht auf den amerikanischen Ökonomen Paul Samuelson zurück, der sie erstmals 1954 in einem Artikel im The Review of Economics and Statistics formulierte.

Intuition
Die Grenzrate der Substitution gibt an, auf wie viele Einheiten des privaten Gutes eine Person verzichtet, wenn sie dafür eine Einheit des öffentlichen Gutes erhält, es handelt sich also um eine (Grenz-)Zahlungsbereitschaft. Die Grenzrate der Transformation entspricht den Grenzkosten des öffentlichen Gutes in Einheiten des privaten Gutes.

Deshalb besagt die Bedingung, dass bei Pareto-Effizienz die Summe der Zahlungsbereitschaften mit den Grenzkosten übereinstimmt. Bei privaten Gütern stimmt hingegen jede einzelne Zahlungsbereitschaft mit den Grenzkosten überein. Der Unterschied erklärt sich daher, dass die Bereitstellung des öffentlichen Gutes mehreren Personen zugutekommt, die Bereitstellung eines privaten Gutes aber nur einer Person.

Formaler Rahmen (Samuelson-Modell) und Herleitung
Betrachtet sei eine Ökonomie mit zwei produzierten Gütern  und zwei Haushalten . Es sei nun a ein privates (rivalisierendes) Konsumgut (zum Beispiel ein Fahrrad) und b ein (nicht-rivalisierendes) öffentliches Gut (zum Beispiel die Landesverteidigung). Die insgesamt vorhandene Menge der beiden Güter betrage  bzw. . Sei weiter  die Menge von k, die der Haushalt i konsumiert. Für a gilt nun gemäß der Definition eines privaten Gutes, dass , und für b nach Definition eines öffentlichen Gutes, dass .

Die beiden Haushalte verfügen jeweils über eine stetige und konkave (ordinale) Nutzenfunktion , die strikt positiv sei. Sei weiter  eine Transformationsfunktion  mit  für alle k und es gelte . Auf einer so definierten Transformationskurve liegen alle technologisch effizienten Produktionspläne – Ineffizienzen bei der Güterproduktion sind also ausgeschlossen.

Der Ansatz von Samuelson besteht darauf aufbauend darin, aus der Menge der auf der Transformationskurve liegenden Allokationen jene Allokationen zu finden, durch die der Nutzen von Haushalt 1 maximiert wird, gegeben ein gewisses Nutzenniveau von Haushalt 2. Da die Haushalte symmetrisch sind, entspricht dies gerade der Bedingung für die Pareto-Optimalität einer Allokation. Das Maximierungsproblem lautet entsprechend

 unter den Nebenbedingungen

[1] ,

[2] ,

[3]  und

[4] ,

was zur Lagrange-Funktion

führt. Aus den korrespondierenden Optimalitätsbedingungen folgt das wichtige Resultat

Die Effizienzbedingung für einen sozialen Planer lautet also, dass die Summe der haushaltsspezifischen Grenzraten der Substitution (GRS) – mit anderen Worten: die Summe der individuellen marginalen Zahlungsbereitschaften – der Grenzrate der Transformation (GRT) entsprechen muss. Dies ist eben die Samuelson-Bedingung. Berücksichtigt man die Bedeutung der GRS und der GRT, lässt sich vereinfacht sagen, dass eine Pareto-optimale Allokation gerade so beschaffen sein muss, dass die Summe der Mengen des privaten Gutes, die die Konsumenten für eine zusätzliche Einheit des öffentlichen Gutes aufzugeben bereit wären, gleich der Menge des privaten Gutes sein muss, die tatsächlich benötigt wird, um diese zusätzliche Einheit zu produzieren.

Erweitert man das Modell um weitere Haushalte, ändert sich an dem Ergebnis prinzipiell nichts, es ist dann eben für n Haushalte
,
wohingegen für private Güter wie üblich die Effizienzbedingungen

gelten. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass die kompetitive Marktlösung zu einer ineffizient geringen Bereitstellung des öffentlichen Gutes führt, dass also mithin die Summe der individuellen GRS größer als die GRT ist (Unterfinanzierung).

Literatur
 Andreu Mas-Colell, Michael Whinston und Jerry Green: Microeconomic Theory. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1995, ISBN 0-195-07340-1.
 Michael Pickhardt: Fifty Years after Samuelson's "The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure": What are we Left With? In: Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 28, Nr. 4, 2006, S. 439–460, .
 Agnar Sandmo: Public Goods. In: Steven N. Durlauf und Lawrence E. Blume (Hrsg.): The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. 2. Aufl. Palgrave Macmillan, Internet http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/article?id=pde2008_P000245&edition=current#sec1 (Online-Ausgabe).
 Paul Samuelson: The Pure Theory of Public Expenditure. In: The Review of Economics and Statistics. 36, Nr. 4, 1954, S. 387–389 ().

Anmerkungen

Mikroökonomie
Finanzwissenschaft
Wirtschaftspolitik

Samuelson-Bedingung


Sergey Vladimirovich Goryachev (em russo: Сергей Владимирович Горячев; 22 de outubro de 1970 – 12 de junho de 2023) foi um major-general russo que serviu como comandante da 201.ª base militar russa, no Tajiquistão, e como Chefe de Estado-Maior do 35.º Exército de Armas Combinadas da Rússia.

Biografia
Sergei Goryachev nasceu em 22 de outubro de 1970, na cidade de Ozherelye, na Oblast de Moscou, na União Soviética. Em 1994, ele se formou na Escola Superior de Comando Aerotransportado de Riazã e se formou na Academia de Armas Combinadas das Forças Armadas da Federação Russa em 2008.

Originalmente comandante de um pelotão de reconhecimento, Goryachev posteriormente atuou como chefe assistente de reconhecimento de um regimento e mais tarde como vice comandante de uma companhia de reconhecimento, comandante de uma companhia de reconhecimento e comandante de um batalhão paraquedista. De 2011 a 2013, ele foi vice comandante de uma brigada separada de rifle motorizado do exército de armas combinadas do Distrito Militar Ocidental, um dos comandos operacionais da Rússia. Em março de 2013, foi nomeado chefe do Grupo Operacional das Forças Russas na Transnístria. Desde 14 de novembro de 2018, foi nomeado comandante da 201.ª Base Militar Russa, no Tajiquistão, concedendo medalhas departamentais aos operadores de tanque da base militar.

Em 2022, Goryachev foi substituído na 201.ª Base pelo Coronel Evgeny Kovylin e serviu na invasão da Ucrânia pela Rússia. Ao longo da invasão, Goryachev foi o comandante da 5.ª Brigada de Tanques Separada e foi promovido a Chefe do Estado-Maior do Exército. Uma postagem no serviço de mensagens Telegram relatou que Goryachev e vários outros oficiais de alta patente foram mortos em 12 de junho de 2023 em um ataque, supostamente por um míssil Storm Shadow lançado pelas Forças Armadas da Ucrânia contra posições das Forças Armadas Russas na região do Oblast de Zaporíjia, na Ucrânia. Ele tinha 52 anos.

Honras

 Ordem de Coragem
 Ordem de Mérito Militar
 Ordem por Mérito à Pátria

Ver também

 Lista de generais russos mortos durante a invasão da Ucrânia em 2022

Mortos em combate
Militares da Rússia
Naturais do oblast de Moscou
Invasão da Ucrânia pela Rússia (2022–presente)

Sergey Goryachev


حروب التنين فيلم من إنتاج سنة 2007 يحكي قصة أسطورة كورية قديمة عن مخلوق غير معروف يثير الرعب والفزع والدمار أينما حل، وأنه سيعود ويهدد كوكب الأرض مرة ثانية.

القصة
يقوم أحد الصحفيين يدعى «إثيان كيندريك» بالتحري عن أصل الحكاية ويصل في نهاية الأمر إلى التعرف إلى فتاة تدعة «سارة» يكتشف فيما بعد بأنها مصابة بمرض غريب وهي التي كانت من المفترض أن تقوم بمساعدته في مهمته.

يحاول الاثنان الذهاب إلى مدينة لوس أنجلوس التي يهددها هذا المخلوق بالإبادة والدمار من أجل إنقاذ أهلها لكنهما يتعرضان في رحلتهما إلى المستحيل بعينه حيث يعانيان طوال الرحلة من الفوضى والاضطراب وإلى مزيد من الدمار والهدم والإبادة. يصل الاثنان أخيرا إلى أبواب المدينة فهل يتمكنا من اللحاق بالزمن وإنقاذ السكان من هول الكارثة التي تنتظرهم؟

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أفلام إثارة إنتاج عقد 2000
أفلام إنتاج 2007
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 2000
أفلام باللغة الكورية
أفلام تقع أحداثها في لوس أنجلوس
أفلام حركة درامية في عقد 2000
أفلام درامية 2007
أفلام رعب إنتاج 2007
أفلام سجلها ستيف جابلونسكي
أفلام عن تنانين
أفلام كورية جنوبية في عقد 2000
أفلام مصورة في لوس أنجلوس
أفلام مصورة في لوس أنجلوس (كاليفورنيا)
أفلام مغامرات فانتازيا
أفلام مغامرات فانتازيا أمريكية
أفلام وحوش عملاقة

حروب التنين


El pinchador glauco (Diglossa glauca), también denominado diglosa azul, picaflor ojiamarillo o diglosa ojiamarilla (en Colombia), pinchaflor ojidorado (en Ecuador) o pincha-flor azul intenso (en Perú), es una especie de ave paseriforme de la familia Thraupidae, perteneciente al numeroso género Diglossa. Es nativo de regiones andinas del noroeste y oeste de América del Sur.

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye a lo largo de la pendiente oriental de la cordillera de los Andes desde el suroeste de Colombia (oeste de Caquetá), hacia el sur por el este de Ecuador, este de Perú, hasta el oeste de Bolivia (Cochabamba).

Esta especie es considerada bastante común en sus hábitats naturales: el dosel y los bordes de selvas húmedas principalmente entre 1000 y 1900 m de altitud, a menores elevaciones que cualquier otro pinchaflor.

Descripción
Es la única especie de picaflor con ojos amarillos brillantes.

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie D. glauca fue descrita por primera vez por los zoólogos británicos Philip Lutley Sclater y Osbert Salvin en 1876 bajo el mismo nombre científico; su localidad tipo es: «Nairapi, Bolivia».

Etimología
El nombre genérico femenino Diglossa proviene del griego «diglōssos» que significa de lengua doble, que habla dos idiomas; y el nombre de la especie «glauca» proviene del latín «glaucus»: glauco, gris azulado, también brillante, reluciente.

Taxonomía
La especie Diglossa caerulescens era incluida en un género monotípico Diglossopis, al cual posteriormente se incorporaron otras tres especies, D. cyanea, D. indigotica y la presente; sin embargo, los datos genético-moleculares de ADNmt indican que dicho grupo no es monofilético, a pesar del color azul predominante en todas.

Los amplios estudios filogenéticos recientes demuestran que la presente especie es hermana del par formado por  Diglossa caerulescens y D. cyanea.

Subespecies
Según las clasificaciones del Congreso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC) y Clements Checklist/eBird v.2019 se reconocen dos subespecies, con su correspondiente distribución geográfica:

 Diglossa glauca tyrianthina , 1930 – pendiente oriental de los Andes del suroeste de Colombia (Nariño) y Ecuador.
 Diglossa glauca glauca , 1876 – sureste de Perú (Junín) hasta las yungas del oeste de Bolivia (La Paz y Cochabamba)

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Videos, fotos y sonidos de Diglossa glauca en eBird.
 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Diglossa glauca en xeno-canto.

Aves de los Andes
Aves de América del Sur
glauca
Taxones descritos por Philip Lutley Sclater
Taxones descritos por Osbert Salvin
Animales descritos en 1876

Diglossa glauca


ميرا أنور عوض (بالعبرية: מירה עווד, ولدت بتاريخ 1 حزيران يونيو 1975) هي عربية إسرائيلية مغنية وممثلة وشاعرة غنائية، تعيش حالياً في تل أبيب في إسرائيل, وهي أول عربية يتم اختيارها لتمثل إسرائيل في مسابقة يوروفيجن للأغاني، وكانت الأولى مع المغنية أخينوعم نيني عند غناء أغنية  مع كلمات عربية في المسابقة.

حياتها

ولدت ميرا عوض في الرامة - الجليل لأب عربي من الجليل (أنور)، وهو طبيب بحكم مهنته، وأم بلغارية اسمها سنييانكا. درست في مدرسة ريمون للجاز والموسيقى المعاصرة في رمات هشارون، إسرائيل.

منذ عام 2013 تعيش في تل أبيب مع زوجها يهودي، كوستا موغولابيتش.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من الرامة (عكا)
إسرائيليون من أصل بلغاري
عرب 48
كاتبات أغان إسرائيليات
كتاب أغان إسرائيليون
مسيحيون إسرائيليون
مسيحيون عرب إسرائيليون
مغنو بوب إسرائيليون
مغنيات إسرائيليات
مغنيات إسرائيليات في القرن 21
مغنيات في القرن 21
ممثلات إسرائيليات
ممثلات مسرح إسرائيليات
مواليد 1395 هـ
مواليد 1975
مواليد في كرمئيل
نساء عرب 48

ميرا عوض


Darknet (internetul întunecat) este un tip de rețea suprapusă ce face parte din rețeaua globală de internet. Darknet poate fi accesat numai cu software specific, configurații, sau  autorizație, folosind de multe ori protocoale de comunicații și porturi non-standard. Termenul "darknet" este deseori confundat cu deepweb.

În darknet, site–urile și alte servicii online apar ascunse nefiind indexate de motoarele de căutare. Potrivit specialiștilor, 80% din informațiile care circulă online sunt "ascunse" căutărilor obișnuite și nu pot fi găsite prin Google.

Rețele tipice darknet sunt Tor, I2P, Freenet, Hornet și rețelele friend-to-friend (F2F) folosite pentru partajarea de fișiere cu o conexiune P2P.

Origini
Termenul darknet a apărut încă din anul 1970, folosit pentru a se referi la rețelele izolate din ARPANET, care mai târziu a evoluat în Internet .
Mai recent, în anul 2002, a fost popularizat prin publicarea articolului The Darknet and the Future of Content Distribution, scris de Peter Biddle, Paul England, Marcus Peinado, și Bryan Willman, angajații companiei Microsoft.
Cercetătorii Microsoft susțin că existența darknet a fost principalul obstacol în calea dezvoltării eficiente a tehnologiei DRM.
Termenul a fost folosit din nou în mass-media, în revistele The Economist, Wired și Rolling Stone; este de asemenea, titlul unei cărți de J.D. Lasica publicată în anul 2005.

Utilizări
Rețelele darknet pot fi utilizate de regulă pentru diferite motive, cum ar fi:

protejarea confidențialității utilizatorilor de la direcționare și supraveghere
criminalitate informatică (hacking, fraudă, fals, sabotaj etc.)
comerțul de bunuri restricționate pe alte piețe
partajarea de fișiere (pornografie, fișiere confidențiale, software piratat etc.)

Software folosit
Rețelele darknet necesită configurații de rețea specifice sau software instalat:

Tor: este rețeaua anonimă cea mai populară care are de asemenea propriul browser de navigare
I2P: ale cărui situri sunt numite "Eepsites".
Freenet: versiunea 0.7, în special pentru serviciul friend-to-friend (F2F)
RetroShare: transferuri de fișiere anonime
GNUnet
Metanet
anoNet
Zeronet: software open source cu care se poate alcătui o rețea de tip peer-to-peer pentru utilizatorii Tor
OneSwarm: pentru rețeaua  F2F
Syndie: software folosit pentru distribuirea de forumuri pe rețele anonime I2P, Tor și Freenet.
Tribler: partajare de fișiere
Wippien: P2P și VPN
StealthNet: bazat pe RetroShare
SafetyGate: este o soluție comercială.

Precauții
Datorită anonimității pe care o oferă aceste rețele, darknet a început să fie folosită și pentru activități ilegale, de genul traficului de droguri și de arme, pornografiei infantile, plata în monede virtuale precum bitcoin. Unele dintre cele mai populare site-uri au fost Silk Road, devenit cunoscut ca ebay-ul sau Amazonul drogurilor, Agora, și Evolution.

Referințe și note

Legături externe

  Partea-ascunsa-a-internetului-asasini-arme-si-droguri
  Darknet.org
  darknetmarkets.org
 Hornet Tor alternative for high-speed anonymous browsing revealed
 Black-markets overview

Vezi și
 Dark web
Bitcoin
Deep Web
 I2P
P2P
Rețea privată virtuală
Securitatea rețelelor de calculatoare
Tor
 Dark Net, serial TV

Rețele anonime

Darknet


La contraction budgétaire expansionniste est une théorie économique selon laquelle l'austérité économique, ou une politique de rigueur, peuvent avoir pour effet de stimuler la croissance économique. Il s'agit d'une conclusion de l'ordolibéralisme.

Concept
La théorie de la contraction budgétaire expansionniste soutient que la croissance économique passe non pas par une augmentation des dépenses publiques, mais par leur réduction. L'assainissement des finances publiques permettrait de générer de la confiance, et donc stimulerait l'investissement ou encore l'innovation. A contrario, la politique budgétaire expansionniste (hausse des dépenses) aurait des effets dépressifs sur la production.

Les effets de la contraction expansionniste passent par plusieurs canaux. Premièrement, si les ménages anticipent une baisse des impôts (due à la baisse des dépenses), leur revenu anticipé augmente. Les agents économiques vont alors augmenter leur consommation. Deuxièmement, parce que les ménages considèrent que la fiscalité a des effets distorsifs sur l'activité économique, la baisse de l'imposition va les inciter à consommer plus. Cette hausse de la consommation est supposément supérieure à la baisse des dépenses.

Troisièmement, la réduction de l'emploi public et la baisse anticipée des impôts pour les entreprises provoque chez les entrepreneurs un optimisme qui les conduit à investir plus. Cela est d'autant plus fort qu'une hausse des profits est anticipée. Enfin, une baisse des dépenses doit impliquer une baisse des taux d'intérêt de court terme, ce qui provoque par ricochet une baisse des taux longs, rendant l'investissement moins coûteux.

Critiques et limites
Il n'existe pas de consensus au sein des économistes au sujet de cette théorie. Les études sur le sujet tendent à montrer que la contraction budgétaire est plus expansionniste lorsque la contraction est due à une chute des dépenses qu'à une hausse des impôts. Une étude de Giudce et al. en 2003 tend à montrer que l'effet expansionniste a lieu lorsque les dépenses primaires sont réduites par le gouvernement. Certains soutiennent qu'une contraction budgétaire ne peut être expansionniste que lorsque la dette publique est élevée.

D'autres études pointent du doigt les failles tant théoriques qu'empiriques de cette théorie. Dans son livre Lutter contre les zombies, Paul Krugman souligne que s'il a bien existé des contractions budgétaires qui n'ont pas empêché une augmentation concomitante de la croissance, ces cas ont été rares. La plupart du temps, l'austérité provoque une récession.

Histoire
Herbert Hoover soutient la théorie de la contraction budgétaire expansionniste durant la Grande Dépression, sans réussite. Cette théorie a été particulièrement soutenue par des hommes et femmes politiques en Allemagne à partir des années 1980.

Notes et références

Macroéconomie
Finances publiques

Contraction budgétaire expansionniste


Rauda Morcos é uma poetisa palestina e ativista LGBTIQ que vive em Haifa, em Israel. Em 2003, ela foi declarada lésbica por um jornal nacional, levando à demissão de seu emprego, agressões físicas e ataques ao seu carro. Ela então criou o Aswat, o primeiro grupo palestino dedicado a apoiar lésbicas.

Carreira
Em 2003, Morcos perdeu o emprego como educadora de jovens depois de ser entrevistada pelo Yedioth Ahronoth (tabloide israelense) sobre sua poesia. A jornalista prometeu não revelar sua orientação sexual, mas depois a denunciou como lésbica, o que a levou a ser agredida fisicamente e seu carro ser danificado várias vezes. Ela recebeu ameaças anônimas e estava preocupada com sua vida.

Morcos então criou a Aswat ("Vozes") em 2003 como uma organização de apoio a lésbicas e mulheres bissexuais, intersexuais, queer, transexuais, transgêneros e questionadoras. A organização é sediada em Haifa e foi o primeiro grupo regional a oferecer apoio a lésbicas palestinas. A Comissão Internacional de Direitos Humanos de Gays e Lésbicas (agora OutRight Action International) entregou seu Prêmio Felipa de Souza a Morcos em maio de 2006, reconhecendo seu trabalho com Aswat. Ela foi a primeira pessoa árabe a receber o prêmio. A Aswat realizou sua primeira conferência em Haifa em 2007, com 350 participantes.

Assumindo uma postura pós-colonial, Morcos argumentou que organizações de ajuda aos direitos humanos dos Estados Unidos e da Europa Ocidental podem ser condescendentes com as comunidades árabes. Ela também chamou a atenção para as ligações entre a repressão israelense de palestinos e gays, criticando o movimento israelense pelos direitos LGBT por não se concentrar mais nisso.

Morcos trabalhou como consultora regional para organizações como a Astraea Lesbian Foundation for Justice, a Coalition of Women for Peace, o Fundo Global para Mulheres, Human Rights Watch e Mama Cash. Em 2012, ela trabalhava como freelancer para a Hivos, uma organização holandesa de ajuda ao desenvolvimento, e estudava direito no Carmel Academic Center em Haifa.

Ativismo
Morcos disse em 2008 que palestinos gays às vezes são chantageados pelo serviço de inteligência a colaborarem ou são denunciados por sua sexualidade.

Em agosto de 2020, Morcos falou sobre uma mudança positiva no tratamento da comunidade palestina aos membros LBGTQ após o funeral de Ayman Safieh, que era um dos principais membros da comunidade queer palestina.

Pessoas vivas
Ativistas dos direitos LGBT de Israel
Pessoas LGBT de Israel
Feministas lésbicas
Naturais de Haifa
Poetas da Palestina
LGBT na Palestina
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (LGBTQIA+)

Rauda Morcos


Ibrahim Aliyu, né le  à Kano au Nigeria, est un footballeur nigérian jouant au poste d'ailier droit au Dynamo de Houston en MLS.

Biographie

En club
Né à Kano au Nigeria, Ibrahim Aliyu commence sa carrière professionnelle dans son pays natal, à l'Oasis FC, club basé à Lagos, puis au Footwork FC, club basé à Kano. Le 7 février 2020, il rejoint la Croatie pour s'engager avec le Lokomotiva Zagreb. Il joue son premier match en professionnel le , lors d'une rencontre de championnat face au NK Istra 1961. Il entre en jeu en cours de partie, et les deux équipes se neutralisent ce jour-là (0-0 score final). Il inscrit son premier but contre le Dinamo Zagreb, le , pour sa troisième apparition en championnat avec le club. Son but permet à son équipe d'égaliser (1-1 score final).

Le , Aliyu se fait remarquer en réalisant son premier doublé, face au NK Istra 1961, en championnat. Il permet ainsi à son équipe de s'imposer (4-0 score final).

Le , Aliyu est transféré au Dynamo de Houston, franchise de Major League Soccer, pour un montant estimé à 2,1 millions d'euros. Il signe avec la formation texane un contrat de trois ans.

En sélection
En , Ibrahim Aliyu est appelé pour jouer avec l'équipe du Nigeria des moins de 20 ans afin de disputer la Coupe d'Afrique des nations des moins de 20 ans 2019 organisée au Niger. Évoluant à la pointe de l'attaque, Aliyu joue quatre matchs et son équipe est battue en demi-finale par le Mali, après une séance de tirs au but.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Footballeur nigérian
Joueur du Lokomotiva Zagreb
Joueur du Dynamo de Houston
Naissance à Kano
Naissance en janvier 2002

Ibrahim Aliyu


''මෙම ලිපිය පරිගණක ජාල වල (Computer networks) දත්ත පැකැට්ටු මාරුව ( packet switching) පිළිබඳව කරුණු සාකච්චා කරයි..

පෙදෙසි ජාල වල දත්ත මාරුව සිදු කිරීම (LAN switching)  යනු පෙදෙසි ජාල තුළ/අතර දත්ත පැකැට්ටු හුවමාරු කර ගැනීම සඳහා භාවිතා කරන එක් ක්‍රමවේදයකි. වේගවත්, දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූ ක්‍රමවේදයන් මගින් දත්ත දහරාවන් පෙදෙසි ජාල තුල නියමිත ස්ථාන වෙත යොමු කිරීම සඳහා දත්ත පැකට්ටු මාරු කිරීමේ ක්‍රමවේදයන් යොදා ගන්නා නිසා  ජාල සැළසුම් නිර්මාණය කිරීමේදී  එම ක්‍රමවේදයන් ඉතා වැදගත් වේ.

2 වන ස්ථර ස්ව්ච මගින් දත්ත මාරුව සිදු කිරීම
2 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූවකි, එනම් එය දත්ත පැකට්ටු ඉදිරියට යොමු කිරීම සඳහා ධාරකයාගේ ජාළ අතුරු මුහුණත් කාඩ්පතෙහි (NICs)  මාද්‍ය ප්‍රවේශ පාළක ලිපිනය (MAC Address)  භාවිතා  කරයි. පෙරීමේ වගු ( MAC ලිපින වගු වශයෙන්ද හඳුන්වන) සෑදීම සඳහා ජාළ ස්විච වැඩසටහන්, විශේෂී සන්ගෘහිත පරිපථ (ASICs) භාවිතා කරයි. 2 වන ස්ථර  ස්විච පිළිබඳ සිතිය හැකි එක් ආකාරයක් වන්නේ එය බහු කවුළු බ්‍රිජයක් (multiport  bridge) ළෙස සිතීමයි.

2 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරු කිරීම, පහත සඳහන් දෑ සළසා දේ
 දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූ සේතු ලෑම (MAC)
 වේගවත් දත්ත සම්ප්‍රේශනය
 අධික වේගය
 අඩු අන්තර්හිතතාවය
 අඩු පිරිවැය

දත්ත පැකැට්ටු වලට කිසිදු වෙනෙසක් නොවන නිසා 2 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව ඉතා කාර්‍යක්ෂම වේ. ඒ මෙහිදී වෙනෙසක් සිදු වන්නේ දර්ත පැකට්ටු බහාලුමට වන නිසාත් එසේ වන්නේ දත්ත පැකට්ටු එකිනෙකට අසමාන මාද්‍ය හරහා ගමන් ගන්නා විට පමණක් වන නිසාත් ය. (ඊතර්නෙට් හි සිට එෆ්.ඩී.ඩී.අයි. වෙත මාරු වීම )  ක්‍රියාකාරී පරිගණක සමූහයක් (workgroup) අතර සම්බන්ධතාව ඇති කිරීම සඳහාත් ජාළ ඛණ්ඩ කිරීම([ගැටුම් බල ප්‍රදේෂ] අවසන් කිරීම ) සඳහාත් 2 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරු කිරීම භාවිතා කරයි. මෙය, වැඩිපුර ජාළ ඛණ්ඩ සහිත පැරණි 10BaseT හවුල් ජාළ (shared networks) වලට වඩා පැතලි ජාළ නිර්මාණය කිරීම සඳහා මඟ පාදා දේ. 2 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව ජාල අධෝව්‍යුහය තුළ නව සංරචක වැඩි දියුණු කිරීම සඳහා උපකාරී වී ඇත.
 ජාල පොකුරු — අත්ථ්‍ය පෙදෙසි ජාල (virtual LANs) සෑදීම මගින් ස්විච සහිත ජාල තුළ ප්‍රචාරණ බල ප්‍රදේශ (broadcast domains) සෑදිය හැකි නිසා සේවාදායක තව දුරටත් භෞතික ස්ථාන අතර බෙදා හරිනු නොලැබේ. එනම් එම සෑම සේවාදායකයක්ම මධ්‍ය ස්ථානයක පවත්වා ගනිමින් තව දුරටත් එම එක් සේවාදායකයකට දුරස්ත ඒකකයක වූ ක්‍රියාකාරී පරිගණක සමූහයක කොටසක් ළෙස කටයුතු කළ හැක.
අන්තඃජාල —වෙබ් තාක්ෂණය මත පදනම් වූ සේවාලාභී/සේවාදායක සන්නිවේදනය සඳහා මඟ පාදා දේ.

මෙම නව තාක්ෂණික ක්‍රම මගින් වැඩි දත්ත ප්‍රමාණයක් උප පෙදෙසි ජාළ වල සිට ප්‍රධාන ජාල (routed networks) වෙත අතුළු කිරීමට ඉඩ සලසා දී ඇති අතර මෙහෙදී රවුටර වල ක්‍රියාකාරීත්ව සීමාවන් භාධකයක් වීමට ඉඩ ඇත.

සීමාවන්
2 වන ස්ථර ස්විච වල, බ්‍රිජ සහිත ජාල වල ඇති සීමාවන් දැකිය හැකිය. ජාලය නිර්මාණය සඳහා 80/20 නීතිය භාව්තා කර ඇත්නම් එම ජාලය සඳහා බ්‍රිජ භාවිතා කිරීම සුදුසු වන බව මතක තබා ගන්න. එවැනි ජාල වල දී පරිෂීලකයා සිය කාලයෙන් සියයට අසූවක් පමණම සිය ජාල ඛන්ඩය තුළ ගත කරයි.

බ්‍රිජ සහිත ජාළ, ගැටුම් බලප්‍රදේශ (collision domains) ඉවත් කළද, සම්පූර්ණ ජාලයම එක් ප්‍රචාර්ණ බලප්‍රදේශයක් (broadcast domain) ළෙස පවතී. ඒ ආකාරයටම 2 වන ස්ථර ස්විච (බ්‍රිජ ) වලට ප්‍රචාරණ බලප්‍රදේශ ඉවත් කළ නොහැකිය. මේ නිසා ජාලය තුළ ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය පිළිබඳ ගැටළු අතිවිය හැකි අතර  ජාලයේ විෂාලත්වය සීමා වීමට ඉඩ ඇත. මේ නිසා 2 වන  ස්ථර ස්විච මගින්, අන්තර්ජාල තුල ඇති රවුටර සම්පූර්ණයෙන් ම ප්‍රතිස්ථාපනය කළ නොහැකිය.

3 වන ස්ථර ස්ව්ච මගින් දත්ත මාරුව සිදු කිරීම
රවුටරයක හා 3 වන ස්ථර ස්විචයක වෙනස්කම වන්නේ පරිපාළකයා (Administrator) විසින් ඒවායේ භෞතික ක්‍රියාවට නැංවීම කරන ආකාරයයි. එසේම පැරණි රවුටර යොමු කිරීම් තීරණ ගැනීම සඳහා ක්ෂුද්‍ර සකසන (micro processors) භාවිතා කළ අතර ස්විච දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූ පැකැට්ටු මාරු කිරීමේ ක්‍රියාවලිය පමනක් සිදු කරනු ලැබීය. කෙසේ වුවත් පැරණි අධි තාක්ෂණික රවුටර සතුව  දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූ වෙනත් ක්‍රියාකාරීතවයන් ද පැවතුනි. වඩාත් ලාභදායී ළෙස රවුටර ප්‍රතිස්ථාපනය කිරීමටත් අධි ක්‍රියාකාරී පෙදෙසි ජාළ දත්ත හැසිරවීමටත් ඇති හැකියාව නිසා 3 වන ස්ථර ස්ව්විච පෙදෙසි ජාල තුළ ඕනෑම ස්ථානයක භාවිතා කළ හැකිය. 3 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව සම්පූර්ණයෙන්ම දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූ එකක් වන අතර සියළුම පැකැට්ටු යොමු කිරීම් දෘඪාංග ASICs  මගින් පාලනය කරයි. 3 වන ස්ථර ස්ව්විච වල ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය පැරණි රවුටර වල ක්‍රියාකාරීතවයටම සමාන වේ. එම ක්‍රියාවලියන් පහත දක්වා ඇත.

 තාර්කික ලිපිනයන්(Logical Address) මත පදනම් වෙමින් මාර්ග තීරණය කිරීම
 3 වන මාධ්‍ය චෙක්ස්ම් ධාවනය ( ශීර්ෂකය මත පමණි )
 ටයිම් ටු ලිව් (TTL) භාවිතය
 විකල්ප තොරතුරු සැකසීම හා ඒවාට ප්‍රතිචාර දැක්වීම
 සාමාන්‍ය ජාළ කළමනාකරණ ප්‍රොටොකෝලය (SNMP) යාවත්කාලීන කිරීම හා කළමනාකරණ තොරතුරු මූල (MIB) තොරතුරු සමඟ කළමනාකරණය
 ආරක්ෂාව සැපයීම

3 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව මගින් ලැබෙන ප්‍රතිලාභ පහත දැක් වේ

  දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වූ, දත්ත ඉදිරියට යොමු කිරීම
 අධි ක්‍රියාකාරී පැකැට්ටු මාරුව
 අධි වේගී පරිමාණය (scalability) කිරීමේ හැකියාව
 අඩු පමාව
 තොටක්(port) සඳහා වන පිරිවැය අවම වීම
 ප්‍රවාහ ගණකාධිකරණය
 ආරක්ෂාව
 සේවා ගුණත්වය ( QoS )

4 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව සිදු කිරීම
4 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව එම ස්තරයට අයත් වැඩසටහන් ( ටෙල් නෙට්, එෆ්.ටී.පී. ) සමඟින් වන 3 වන ස්තර දත්ත මාරු කිරීමේ ක්‍රමවේදයක් ළෙස සැලකිය හැකිය.

4 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුව 3 වන ස්තරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුවට අමතරව, ප්‍රවාහන ස්ථරය (transport layer) තුළ හමුවන මාර්ගගතකිරීමේ තීරණ සඳහා ඉවහල් වන තොට අංක, භාවිතයෙන්   සිදුවන මාර්ගගතකිරීම සිදු කරයි.

මෙම තොට අංක RFC 1700 හි දක්වා ඇත

මාර්ගගත කිරීමේ තීරණ (routing decisions) ගැනීම සඳහා 4 වන ස්ථරයෙහි තොරතුරු භාවිතා කරයි.  උදාහරණයක් ලෙස 4 වන ස්ථර තොට අංක භාවිතා කරෙමින් විස්තෘත ප්‍රවෙශ ලැයිස්තු (extended access lists) පැකැට්ටු පෙරීම සිදු කරයි. තවත් උදාහරණයක් වන්නේ සිස්කො අධි තාක්ෂනික රවුටර වල NetFlow ස්විචින් මගින්  ගනකාධිකරණ තොරතුරු එකතු කිරීම යි.

ජාල පරිපාලකයාගේ අභිමතය පරිදි, දත්ත ලබාදීමේ මූලිකත්වය වැඩසටහන අනුව වෙනස් කොට, 4 වන ස්ථර ස්ව්ච සැකසීමේ හැකියාව 4 වන ස්ථරය තුළ දත්ත මාරුවෙහි ඇති විශාලම ප්‍රතිලාභයයි.

උදාහරණයක් ළෙස පරිශීලකයන් කිහිප දෙනෙක් වීඩියෝ කණ්ඩායමක් ළෙස නම් කොට වීඩියෝ විද්‍යුත්මාධ්‍ය සාකච්ඡාව අනුව වැඩි ප්‍රමුකත්වයක් හෝ කලාප පළලක් එම කණ්ඩායමට ලබා දිය හැකිය.

බහු-ස්ථර තුළ දත්ත මාරුව සිදු කිරීම (MLS)
බහු ස්ථර දත්ත මාරුව, දෙවන තුන්වන හා හතරවන ස්ථර වල දත්ත මාරු කිරීමේ ක්‍රම එකට එක් කොට භාවිතා කිරීම මගින් අධි වේගී පරිමාණය කිරීමක් හා අඩු පමාවක් සහිතව ක්‍රියා කරයි.මෙම ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වය ලබා ගැනීම සඳහා එය ජාල පරිපාළක විසින් පෙර සකසනු ලබන මිනුම් පාදක කොටගෙන සාදන විශාල පෙරීමේ වගු භාවිතා කරයි.

බහු ස්ථර දත්ත මාරුව මගින් ඉතා වේගයෙන් දත්ත හුවමාරු කරගැනීම හා සම්ප්‍රෙශනය කළ හැකි අතර එය  3  වන ස්තරය තුළ මාර්ගගත කිරීම සිදු කිරීම මගින් රවුටර වල පවතින දුර්වලතා නිසා ඇති වන භාදක අවම කරයි. මෙම තාක්ෂණය "route once, switch many". යන අදහස මත පදනම් වී ඇත.

බහු-ස්ථර තුළ දත්ත මාරුව මගින් මාර්ගගත කිරීමේ තීරණ පහත දේ මත පදනම් වී ගත හැකිය

 ඩේටා ලින්ක් රාමුව මත පවතින මූල/ ඉලක්ක MAC ලිපිනය
 ජාල ස්ථරය (network layer) මත පවතින මූල/ඉලක්ක IP  ලිපිනය
 ජාල ස්ථර හෙඩරයහි ඇති ප්‍රොටොකෝලය
 ප්‍රවාහන ස්ථරයහි ඇති මූල/ඉලක්ක තොට අංකය

රවුටින්/ස්විචින් යන දෙකම දෘඪාංග මත පදනම් වී ඇති නිසා 4 වන හා 3 වන ස්ථර ස්විච අතර ක්‍රියාකාරීත්ව තත්ත්වයන් හි වෙනසක් නොමැත.

මේවාද බලන්න
 ජාල ස්විචය. (LAN switch)
 සංයුක්ත ස්විචය (Content Switch)
නේවාසික වාහල (Residential Gateway)

බාහිර පිටු

පෙදෙසි ජාලවල දත්ත හුවමාරුව


Flugten til Sverige er en film instrueret af Suvi Helminen.

Handling
En kold oktobernat i 1943 forsøger Sonja og Fanny at krydse Øresund. De er ni voksne og en baby i en robåd. Sonja flygter med sin lillebror, og Fanny er på flugt med sin far og storebror. Undervejs er de blevet adskilt fra deres øvrige familiemedlemmer. De ror ud fra Snekkersten med kurs mod den svenske kyst, men nogle kilometer ude på havet begynder der at trænge vand ind i båden, og pludselig går bunden ud.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2013

Oplysningsfilm fra Danmark
Film om 2. verdenskrig fra Danmark

Flugten til Sverige


يمكن تقسيم لهجة حضرموت في جنوب الجزيرة العربية إلى لهجة الوادي ولكنة الساحل واللهجات البدوية المختلفة (مثل اللهجة الضنية). فلهجة الوادي هي لسان سكان المدن ولها خصائصها الصوتية والصرفية والنحوية وفيها بعض المفردات التي جاءت من تأثير الهجرة إلى جنوب شرقي آسيا وشرق أفريقيا. ولكنة ساحل حضرموت وفيها بعض المفردات من تأثير الهجرة إلى الهند. كما توجد في الحضرمية عامة بعض المفردات التي تعود إلى المرحلة الاستعمارية البريطانية وقد بدأت هذه المفردات الدخيلة على اللهجة في الداخل والساحل في الاختفاء نتيجة للتغيرات الاجتماعية والاقتصادية في المنطقة.

النظام الصوتي لِلَكْنَة حضرموت اليمنية
تتميز اللهجة الحضرمية بخصائص معينة منها قلب الجيم ياء في بعض مدن وقرى الساحل. أما في وادي دوعن وبعض المدن الأخرى فإن الجيم تنطق صوتاً غارياً انفجارياً مجهوراً أو جيماً معطشة. كما تنطق القاف صوتاً حنكياً انفجارياً مجهوراً. أما الضاد والظاء فقد دمجا في صوت واحد هو الظاء في حضرموت الداخل. كما دمجا في الضاد في حضرموت الساحل.

النظام الصرفي لِلهجة
تتصف اللهجة بخصائص صرفية معينة تميزها عن باقي اللهجات في الجزيرة العربية واللهجات العربية الأخرى. فعلى سبيل المثال، يتأثر كل من ضمير المتكلم المنفصل والمتصل بجنس المتكلم أنا/ ـنا (مذكر) في" أنا طالب"/ "علمنا أستاذي" وأني/ ـني (مؤنث) في "أني طالبة"/"علمني أستاذي"(تتشابه معها بعض دول الخليج مثل البحرين (لهجة بحرانية) حيث تقول الأنثى: أني طالبة). أما ضمير المتكلم المنفصل والمتصل للجمع فهو نحنا (للجنسين) فحين نقول في الفصحى" نحن أبناء عمر"، نقول في الحضرمية "نحنا أبناء عمر". أما الصيغ الصرفية للفعل فهي الأخرى تختلف عن الفصحى في جوانب كثيرة. فصيغة تفاعل على سبيل المثال يمكن إمالة الألف فيها إلى تفيعل ويؤدى ذلك إلى تَغَيُّر في المعنى كما هو الحال في الأفعال "شردوا" (هربوا) و" تشاردوا" (هربوا، واحداً وراء الآخر) و" تشيردوا" (تهربوا).كما تشيع في اللهجة صيغ المبالغة والتكرار، شأنها شأن بعض اللهجات العربية الجنوبية الحديثة والأثيوبية. فافعل كسر على سبيل المثال يمكن استخدامه في صيغة فَوعل للمبالغة كما في "كوسر في اللعب" (لعب بعنف - في كرة القـدم) والصيغة المُصَحَّفَة التكرارية فَعْوَل كـما في كسْوَر في عبارة "كسور من الضحكات (أطلق سـلسلة من الضحـكات).

كذلك نزيد عن السؤال بالفصحى «ماذا بك؟» تقال للرجل «إيه بك» وللأنثى «إيه بش» (مع إخفاء الهاء في إيه).
وأيضاً ضمير المستقبل «سوف (سوف ليست ضمير هي حرف غير عامل. يختص بالفعل المضارع ويخلصه للمستقبل)» يستخدم بدلاً عنه «با..» في بداية العبارة مثلاً «سيصبح/سيكون لك..» تقال للرجل «بايقع لك..» وللأنثى «بايقع لش..». أو «سنفعل» تقال: «بانسوي/بانلقي..».
وفي الترحيب حين قولك بمرحبا يقول الحضارمة «حيابك/حيابكم».

المعجم
تزخر اللهجة الحضرمية بالكثير من المفردات الفصيحة القديمة التي لا توجد في الفصحى المعاصرة أواللهجات العربية الأخرى. كما تشترك مع العربية الجنوبية في كثير من المفردات. ونتيجة لعلاقة الحضارم بجنوب شرقي آسيا وشرق أفريقيا، يزخر قاموس اللهجة بالكثير من المفردات الأجنبية. إلا انه بتوقف الهجرة إلى تلك البلاد في العقود الأخيرة، بدأت تلك المفردات في الاختفاء وخصوصا في اللهجة المحكية.

المصادر

انظر أيضاً
 حضرموت

وصلات خارجية

حضارم
لهجات اليمن
حضرمية

لهجة حضرمية


Eu + Eu = Eu este un film românesc din 1969 regizat de Ion Popescu Gopo.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1969 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1969

Eu + Eu = Eu


Le Championnat d'Ouganda féminin de football est une compétition de football féminin opposant les meilleurs clubs d'Ouganda.

Histoire

Palmarès
Le tableau suivant présente les champions et vice-champions d'Ouganda par année :

Tableau d'honneur

Notes et références

Compétition de football en Ouganda
Ouganda


Die Armblütige Scheinhasel oder Armblütige Blumenhasel (Corylopsis pauciflora) ist ein primelgelb blühender Strauch aus der Familie der Zaubernussgewächse (Hamamelidaceae). Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet der Art liegt in Japan und Taiwan. Sie wird häufig als Zierstrauch verwendet.

Beschreibung
Die Armblütige Scheinhasel ist ein dicht verzweigter, feintriebiger Strauch mit kahlen Trieben, der eine Wuchshöhe bis 2 Meter erreicht. Die Laubblätter sind in Blattstiel und Blattspreite gegliedert. Der Stiel ist 5 bis 10 Millimeter lang, dünn und behaart. Die Blattspreite ist einfach, eiförmig-oval bis breit eiförmig, 3 bis 6,5 Zentimeter lang und 2 bis 3,5 Zentimeter breit, spitz mit schiefer, gerundeter oder mehr oder weniger herzförmiger Basis und oberhalb der Mitte buchtig und stachelspitzig gezähntem Blattrand. Es werden sechs bis acht Nervenpaare gebildet. Die Blattoberseite ist hellgrün und kahl, die Unterseite ist blaugrün und auf den Blattadern und am Blattrand leicht silbrig behaart.

Die Blütenstände sind kurze Ähren von zwei bis fünf Blüten auf kurzen, kahlen Stielen. Die basalen Tragblätter sind eiförmig-rundlich, 8 bis 10 Millimeter lang, innen hellgrün, außen rot und kahl. Die Tragblätter der Einzelblüten sind breit eiförmig, 7 bis 8 Millimeter lang, kahl bis glänzend behaart. Die Vorblätter sind etwas kürzer als die Tragblätter. Die Kelchblätter sind dreieckig, kahl mit stumpfer Blattspitze. Die Kronblätter sind breit eiförmig und 6 bis 7 Millimeter lang. Die Schuppen des Diskus sind ungelappt mit gestutzter Spitze. Die Staubblätter sind 5 bis 6 Millimeter lang und hellgelb. Der Fruchtknoten ist kahl, die Griffel sind 5 bis 6 Millimeter lang und gelb. Die Kapselfrüchte sind 6 bis 8 Millimeter lang und kahl.

Die Armblütige Scheinhasel blüht von Mai bis Juli, die Früchte reifen von Juli bis September.

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 24.

Vorkommen und Standortansprüche
Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet liegt in Japan auf der Insel Honshū und auf Taiwan. Die Armblütige Scheinhasel wächst in kühlfeuchten Wäldern in 200 bis 300 Metern Höhe auf durchlässigen, frischen bis feuchten, sauren bis neutralen, sandig- oder kiesig-humosen, mäßig nährstoffreichen Böden an lichtschattigen und wintermilden Standorten. Die Art ist frostempfindlich.

Systematik
Die Armblütige Scheinhasel (Corylopsis pauciflora) ist eine Art aus der Gattung der Scheinhaseln (Corylopsis) in der Familie der Zaubernussgewächse (Hamamelidaceae). Dort wird sie der Tribus Corylopsideae in der Unterfamilie Hamamelidoideae zugeordnet. Philipp Franz von Siebold und Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini haben die Art 1836 in der Flora Japonica erstbeschrieben. Der Gattungsname Corylopsis leitet sich von Corylos, dem Gattungsnamen der Haseln, und vom griechischen Wort "opsis" für "Aussehen" ab. Er entspricht damit dem deutschen Namen Scheinhaseln und verweist auf die Ähnlichkeit von Laubblättern und Blütenständen mit denen der Haseln. Das Artepitheton pauciflora stammt aus dem Lateinischen und bedeutet "armblütig" nach der im Gegensatz zu den anderen Arten der Gattung reduzierten Anzahl an Einzelblüten.

Verwendung
Die Armblütige Scheinhasel wird häufig aufgrund der dekorativen und duftenden Blüten und der eindrucksvollen Herbstfärbung als Zierstrauch verwendet.

Nachweise

Literatur

 Andreas Roloff, Andreas Bärtels: Flora der Gehölze. Bestimmung, Eigenschaften und Verwendung. Mit einem Winterschlüssel von Bernd Schulz. 3., korrigierte Auflage. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 2008, ISBN 978-3-8001-5614-6, S. 220.

 Helmut Genaust: Etymologisches Wörterbuch der botanischen Pflanzennamen. 3., vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage. Nikol, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-937872-16-7 (Nachdruck von 1996).

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Thomas Meyer: Datenblatt mit Bestimmungsschlüssel und Fotos bei Flora-de: Flora von Deutschland (alter Name der Webseite: Blumen in Schwaben)

Zaubernussgewächse

Armblütige Scheinhasel


The Baths of Caracalla () in Rome, Italy, were the city's second largest Roman public baths, or thermae, after the Baths of Diocletian. The baths were likely built between AD 212 (or 211) and 216/217, during the reigns of emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla. They were in operation until the 530s and then fell into disuse and ruin.

Both during and since their operation as baths, they served as inspiration for many other notable buildings, ancient and modern, such as the Baths of Diocletian, the Basilica of Maxentius, the original Pennsylvania Station in New York City, Chicago Union Station and the Senate of Canada Building. Artworks recovered from the ruins include famous sculptures such as the Farnese Bull and the Farnese Hercules.

Today the Baths of Caracalla are a tourist attraction.

History

Construction

Construction of the baths was probably initiated by emperor Septimius Severus and completed during the reign of his son, Caracalla. They were inaugurated in AD 216. The baths were located in the southern area of the city, Regio XII Piscina Publica, where members of the Severan family commissioned other construction works: the Via Nova leading to the baths and the Septizodium on nearby Palatine Hill. The site chosen for the baths formerly belonged to a vast garden estate known as the , developed by Gaius Asinius Pollio during the reign of Augustus. The Farnese Bull sculptural group that was later moved into the Baths of Caracalla was already present at the site in the time of Pollio, who had imported it to display in his gardens.

The estate of Pollio was appropriated by Caracalla to build his baths; the existing structures were demolished in some cases to their ground floors, filled in with earth and incorporated into the foundations of the new complex. The remains of one of these structures, a noble  (house), were excavated initially by Francesco Ficoroni in the mid-18th century and again in 1860–67 by G.B. Guidi. Recently this two-storey domus deep below the baths, built in 134-138 during the reign of Hadrian, and partially demolished in 206 has been opened to the public revealing lavishly decorated frescoed ceilings and a lararium, a room dedicated to Roman and Egyptian gods.

For work to have been mostly completed in the time of Caracalla, workers would have to have installed over  of material every day for six years.

Work on additional decorations continued under Caracalla's successors Elagabalus and Severus Alexander. The baths were likely mostly finished by 235. Later renovations were conducted under Aurelian (after a fire) and by Diocletian. Under Constantine the Great the caldarium was modified.

The building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burning coal and wood underneath the ground to heat water provided by a dedicated aqueduct. The baths were free and open to the public.

Late antiquity

The baths were fully functional in the 5th century when they were referred to as one of the seven wonders of Rome. Olympiodorus of Thebes mentions a capacity of 1,600. This is interpreted to refer to the maximum number of simultaneous visitors, as the daily capacity is thought to have been 6,000 to 8,000 bathers.

The baths remained in use until the 6th century. In the mid-4th century a Christian pilgrimage site came into being, known as the , close to the baths near the Church of Santi Nereo e Achilleo. The baths thus became useful to pilgrims and the Church community for their water supply. In 537 during the Gothic War, Vitiges of the Ostrogoths laid siege to Rome and severed the city's water supply. Shortly thereafter the baths were abandoned. Located too far away from the still-populated area of Rome, the baths were mostly disused but in the 6th and 7th centuries were apparently used for the burials of pilgrims who died after being cared for in the nearby xenodochium of Santi Nereo e Achilleo. Some simple tombs from this era have been found inside the bath area.

Popes Adrian I, Sergius II and Nicholas I may have had some work done on the aqueduct through the 9th century.

The earthquake of 847 destroyed much of the building, along with many other Roman structures.

Other uses

At least since the 12th century the baths were used as a quarry for construction materials, and of decorative pieces to be reused in churches and palaces (e.g. in Pisa Cathedral and Santa Maria in Trastevere).

During the 14th century, the area was used as vineyards and gardens. In the 15th century, Pope Pius II used stone from the Baths in the construction of the Loggia of the Benediction at St. Peter's Basilica. In 1524, Pope Clement VII granted an excavation license to Cardinal Lorenzo Pucci to remove unlimited quantities of columns, marble, travertine and other ancient stone from the Baths of Caracalla for a new palace the Cardinal was building near St. Peter's. In the mid-16th century Clement's successor Pope Paul III had excavations conducted in the area during the construction of his new villa. Substantial architectural decoration remained standing at this time, as documented in the drawings of the Renaissance architects Andrea Palladio, Giovanni Antonio Dosio and Antonio da Sangallo the Elder.

The excavations of Paul III between 1545 and 1547 uncovered many large statues made of marble and bronze, as well as innumerable architectural fragments, lamps, intaglios, and cameos. The quantity of materials was so great that a museum was created to house the collection, known as the Museo Farnese (relocated to the  Real Museo Borbonico in the late 18th century). The pope granted the area to the Roman Seminary of the Jesuits. It was used as a playground for children. Philip Neri may have brought children from his oratory here—he is believed to have commissioned the fresco Madonna supported by an angel still located in the natatio.

Between the 16th and 18th centuries interest in the structure was rekindled and several famous architects made drawings of the ruins (Andrea Palladio, Giovanni Battista Falda, Giambattista Nolli and Giuliano da Sangallo).

The aqueduct serving the baths was in use up to the 19th century. The Aqua Antoniniana aqueduct, a branch of the earlier Aqua Marcia also worked on under Diocletian, was specifically built to serve the baths.

Excavation and restoration

In 1824, excavations at the baths were conducted by Count Egidio di Velo, whose findings included the mosaics showing athletes now at the Vatican Museums. Further work followed by Luigi Canina in the frigidarium (until the mid-19th century) and then by Battista Guidi (1860–7).

From 1866 to 1869 restoration work in the central part of the complex revealed a torso of Hercules, porphyry columns and figure-adorned capitals. In 1870, the area became the property of the Italian government and Pietro Rosa conducted excavations in the eastern palaestra. In 1878–9, Giuseppe Fiorelli discovered mosaics in the caldarium and western palaestra.

From the early 20th century, excavations expanded into the outer areas of the complex and downward, revealing the subterranean passages, including a Mithraeum (see below). Systematic work on the galleries, started in the 18th and 19th centuries, resumed after 1901. On the eastern side more work was done in the late 1930s, when an opera stage was installed in the caldarium. Except for some sketches no documentation of these restorations survives.

Further restoration work took place in the 1980s, when thick vegetation and illegally built houses in the area were cleared away. The southern wall with its cisterns, the southwestern library and the octagonal hall known as the Temple of Jupiter were restored at that point. In 1998–9, the opera stage was dismantled and modern visitor facilities were added to the baths. They reopened to the public in 2001.

The baths were the only archaeological site in Rome to be damaged by an earthquake near L'Aquila in 2009. They  experienced minor damage in August 2016 from an earthquake in central Italy.

Description

Overview

The bath complex covered approximately . The complex is rectangular, measuring 337 m × 328 m. Its construction involved the moving of a substantial amount of earth, as parts of the nearby hills had to be removed or leveled into platforms. Several million bricks were used in the construction. The baths contained at least 252 columns, 16 of which had a height of over 12 m.

Water was carried to the baths by the then newly constructed Acqua Antoniniana, from the major Acqua Marcia. The exact path of the aqueduct supplying the baths is not known as only a few segments have been discovered. The aqueduct connected to the southern side of the baths where it filled 18 cisterns. These in turn were connected by lead pipes with the baths proper.

The baths followed the "great Imperial baths" blueprint for Roman baths. They were more a leisure centre than just a series of baths. Besides being used for bathing, the complex also offered facilities for taking walks, reading/studying, exercise and body care. The main building stood in the centre with no connections to the surrounding walls, which housed the cisterns, two symmetrical libraries (south), two large exedras (east and west) and tabernae (shops) to the north. The surviving library measures 38 m × 22 m. Between the outer wall and the central complex were gardens (xystus).

The axis of the baths was laid out in a northeast to southwest fashion to make use of the sun's heat. The caldarium faced southwest, the frigidarium northeast. Overall, the bath area was arranged along a single linear axis. However, dressing rooms and palaestra were arranged symmetrically on both sides of the building, giving easier access and facilitating the flow of people in and out of the thermal area, thus increasing the number of potential users of the baths.

The bath main building was 214 m × 110 m and the height to the top of the roof line was 44 m (145 ft); it covered  and could hold an estimated 1,600 bathers.

Interior

The baths were the second to have a public library within the complex. Like other public libraries in Rome, there were two separate and equal sized rooms or buildings; one for Greek language texts and one for Latin language texts. The surviving library had three walls covered by niches (a total of 32) that housed the books. A larger niche in the middle of the southern wall likely contained a statue. A masonry ledge in front of the three other walls probably served as a bench. The floor is made from marble.

The baths consisted of a central frigidarium (cold room) measuring  under three groin vaults  high, a double pool tepidarium (medium), and a circular caldarium (hot room)  in diameter, as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling and boxing were practiced). The northeastern end of the bath building contained a natatio or swimming pool. The caldarium had seven pools, the frigidarium four, the tepidarium two. Next to the caldarium were saunas (laconica).

The central room was the frigidarium, whose high roof was supported by eight giant columns made from Egyptian granite. Walls and floor were made from marble. The hall served a dual purpose: It was a meeting place and transition area for visitors heading for other parts of the bath. It also housed the cold baths, in the form of four pools, two of which were connected to the tepidarium and two of which communicated with the natatio via some waterfalls. In the middle of the frigidarium was another circular pool (now at the Archaeological Museum at Naples) surrounding a fountain. It was flanked by two additional brick pools.

The caldarium was a circular room with marble floors and topped by a dome of almost 36 m diameter, close to the size of the Pantheon's dome. The weight of the dome was carried by just eight masonry pillars. Between them were glass windows that helped heat the large room (and reduced the weight of the walls). Its seven pools measured 9.5 m × 5 m (depth of 1 m). Only six of these remain. The seventh was replaced by a small apse during the restoration by Constantine.

The Olympic-sized natatio pool measured 50 m × 22 m. The walls rose to more than 20 m and the northern façade was structured by three huge columns made from grey granite. Between those columns were niches on several levels that housed ornamental statues.

The natatio was roofless with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to direct sunlight into the pool area. The entire bath building was on a raised platform  high to allow for storage and furnaces under the building.

Subterranean features

Discovered in 1912 by Ettore Ghislanzoni, the Mithraeum at the baths is considered the largest documented gathering space for the worshippers of Mithra, the Persian god in vogue with the military and mostly lower-class men, in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The mithraeum was approximately  long and  wide with a cross-vaulted ceiling. It can be only roughly dated by the two main events associated with the baths: the mithraeum was created after the complex was completed circa AD 217 and it was probably no longer in use when the aqueduct supplying the complex was cut in the 530s.

The floor of the main room was covered with a black and white mosaic. Benches lined the walls. A fresco portraying Mithra (or a torch bearer) is on the western wall. The only other ornamentation was a marble block, roughly carved into the shape of a snake. In the floor near the entrance a circular pit was found covered with a marble slab, with a terracotta bowl containing the remains of staves of wheat. A rectangular hole in the floor gives access to a small tunnel that runs under the center of the main hall into an adjoining room, where there is an entrance/exit with staircase. This, a unique feature in a mithraeum, has been controversial. Most scholars view this as a fossa sanguinis, a ritual pit over which the bull at the center of the Mithraic mythology was slaughtered, bathing one or more initiates in its blood. Others think it was used as a sort of stage trap door allowing a person to stage a surprising entry into the room.

In a nearby room, a statue of Aphrodite Anadyomene was found in 1912. It is now located in the Museo Nazionale Romano at the Baths of Diocletian.

Apart from housing the mithraeum, the tunnels served to heat the baths and as sewers for the outflow of water. They were also used to store the fuel for the furnaces – which are estimated to have burned around 10 tons of wood per day. Storage capacity had been estimated at more than 2,000 t of wood.

Overall, these tunnels ran for hundreds of metres underneath the main structure. They were lit by skylight-type windows that allowed the air to circulate, thus keeping the stored wood from rotting.

An underground water mill was excavated beginning in 1912. First thought to be medieval in origin it is now considered to date to Antiquity. It may have been a part of the original workings of the baths. Fire damage indicates it was burned in the 3rd century, but rebuilt with some alterations.

Dimensions

Principal dimensions
Precinct maximum:
Internal:
Central Block overall:
 Natatio (swimming pool):
 Frigidarium:           , height of
 Caldarium:        , height of
Internal courts:

Quantities of materials
Pozzolana:
Quick lime:
Tuff:
Basalt for foundations:
Brick pieces for facing:                17.5 million
Large Bricks:                           520,000
Marble columns in Central block:    252
Marble for columns and decorations:

Estimated average labour figures on site
Excavation:    5,200 men
Substructure:  9,500 men
Central Block: 4,500 men
Decoration:    1,800 men

The  columns of the frigidarium were made of granite and they weighed close to .

Works of art

The baths were originally ornamented with high-quality sculptures, estimated to have numbered more than 120. Despite their location in one of the city's working class areas, of all the antique baths in Rome the Baths of Caracalla were found to have contained the most lavish assortment of statues. Although many were destroyed in the Middle Ages to make lime, beginning in the 16th century under Pope Paul III Farnese, sculptures were excavated from the area to serve as decorations in newly built palazzi.

Among the well-known pieces recovered from the Baths of Caracalla are the Farnese Bull (probably from the eastern palaestra) and Farnese Hercules (from the frigidarium), now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples; others are in the Museo di Capodimonte there. One of the many statues is the colossal  statue of Asclepius.

Two granite tubs from the frigidarium were taken to Piazza Farnese where they still serve as fountains, made by Girolamo Rainaldi. A granite column from the natatio was taken to Florence by Cosimo I de' Medici in Piazza Santa Trinita. It is now known as the Column of Justice. In the Lateran Collection of the Vatican Museums are mosaics composed of rectangular panels depicting athletes, which were discovered in 1824 in two of the library exedrae to the east and west of the baths complex. They have been restored and are on display in the Gregoriano Profano Museum.

Cultural impact

The Baths of Caracalla (and especially the central frigidarium) had a significant impact on the architecture of many later buildings. In Roman times, these included the Baths of Diocletian and the Basilica of Maxentius.

In the 19th and early 20th century, the design of the baths was used as the inspiration for several modern structures, including St George's Hall in Liverpool, the original Pennsylvania Station (demolished in 1963) in New York City, and the current Senate of Canada Building in Ottawa.

The main halls of Penn Station, the Senate of Canada Building and Chicago Union Station made use of direct copies of the frigidarium's architecture.

Use as a cultural venue

Opera and concerts
The central part of the bath complex (the caldarium) was the summer home of the Rome Opera company from 1937 to 1993. In 2001, use of the venue by the opera resumed but it now uses a temporary movable stage outside of the main structure, which reduces the stress on the antique ruins.

It is also a concert venue, having achieved fame as the venue and backdrop for the first Three Tenors concert in 1990.

Sporting
The area was used for the Rome Grand Prix four times between 1947 and 1951.

At the 1960 Summer Olympics, the venue hosted the gymnastics events.

Film

The baths were used as a filming location for John Wick: Chapter 2.

Visiting
The extensive ruins of the baths have become a popular tourist attraction. The baths are open to the public for an admission fee. Access is limited to certain areas/walkways to avoid additional damage to the mosaic floors.

See also

List of Roman public baths

References

External links
1960 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 1. pp. 76, 79.
1960 Summer Olympic official report. Volume 2. Part 1. p. 345.
Caracalla Thermal Baths
High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Baths of Caracalla | Art Atlas

Buildings and structures completed in the 3rd century
Caracalla
Olympic gymnastics venues
Ruins in Italy
Severan dynasty
Venues of the 1960 Summer Olympics
Tourist attractions in Rome
National museums of Italy
Caracalla
Rome R. XXI San Saba

Baths of Caracalla


Podolci je manja hrid u hrvatskom dijelu Jadranskog mora, kod otoka Cresa.
Nalazi se nasuprot Nerezina, na izlazu iz uvale Jaz, nedaleko od rta Seke i malog naselja Podolci. Izduljena je oblika i pruža se u pravcu sjever - jug.

Površine je 1968 m² i visine 1 metar.

U Državnom programu zaštite i korištenja malih, povremeno nastanjenih i nenastanjenih otoka i okolnog mora Ministarstva regionalnoga razvoja i fondova Europske unije, spominje se pod "manje nadmorske tvorbe (hrid različitih oblika i veličine)".

Izvori

Kvarnerski otoci

Podolci (hrid)


In mathematics, a solution set is the set of values that satisfy a given set of equations or inequalities.

For example, for a set  of polynomials over a ring ,
the solution set is the subset of  on which the polynomials all vanish (evaluate to 0), formally

The feasible region of a constrained optimization problem is the solution set of the constraints.

Examples
 The solution set of the single equation  is the set {0}.
 For any non-zero polynomial  over the complex numbers in one variable, the solution set is made up of finitely many points.
 However, for a complex polynomial in more than one variable the solution set has no isolated points.

Remarks
In algebraic geometry, solution sets are called algebraic sets if there are no inequalities. Over the reals, and with inequalities, there are called semialgebraic sets.

Other meanings
More generally, the solution set to an arbitrary collection E of relations (Ei) (i varying in some index set I) for a collection of unknowns , supposed to take values in respective spaces , is the set S of all solutions to the relations E, where a solution  is a family of values  such that substituting  by  in the collection E makes all relations "true".

(Instead of relations depending on unknowns, one should speak more correctly of predicates, the collection E is their logical conjunction, and the solution set is the inverse image of the boolean value true by the associated boolean-valued function.)

The above meaning is a special case of this one, if the set of polynomials fi if interpreted as the set of equations fi(x)=0.

Examples

 The solution set for E = { x+y = 0 } with respect to  is S = { (a,−a) : a ∈ R }.
 The solution set for E = { x+y = 0 } with respect to  is S = { −y }. (Here, y is not "declared" as an unknown, and thus to be seen as a parameter on which the equation, and therefore the solution set, depends.)
 The solution set for  with respect to  is the interval S = [0,2] (since  is undefined for negative values of x).
 The solution set for  with respect to  is S = 2πZ (see Euler's identity).

See also
 Equation solving
 Extraneous and missing solutions

Equations

Solution set


Bari–Barletta-banen er en regional jernbanestrækning i den italienske region Apulien. Den drives af det private trafikselskab Ferrotramviaria.

Strækningen åbnedes i 1965 som erstatning for en smalsporet jernbanestrækning med damplokomotiver.

Fra engang i 1990'erne er strækningen blevet moderniseret bl.a. med dobbelstpor på en del af strækningen: november 2004 fra Bitonto til Ruvo, april 2005 fra Palese til Bitonto og januar 2006 fra Fesca til Palese.

Fra 22. december 2008 bliver den del af strækningen der ligger i selve Bari også anvendt af Baris bybane. Strækningen var tidligere kendt som Ferrovia Bari Nord, men kaldes nu Ferrovie del Nord Barese.

Den 12. juli 2016 klokken ca. 11:30 kolliderede to persontog frontalt nær Andria, nord for Bari.

Jernbanestrækninger i Italien
Etableret i 1965

Bari-Barletta-banen


CTP sintase é uma enzima envolvida na biossíntese de pirimidina que interconverte UTP e CTP.

Mecanismo de reação

CTP (trifosfato de citidina ou citidina trifosfato) sintetase catalisa a última etapa comprometida na biossíntese de nucleotídeos de pirimidina:

ATP + UTP + glutamina → ADP + Pi + CTP + glutamato

É a enzima limitante da taxa para a síntese de nucleotídeos de citosina de ambas as vias de recuperação "de novo" e de uridina.

A reação prossegue pela fosforilação dependente de ATP de UTP no átomo 4 de oxigênio, tornando o 4 de carbono eletrofílico e vulnerável à reação com amônia. A fonte do grupo amino no CTP é glutamina, que é hidrolisado em um domínio de glutamina amidotransferase para produzir amônia. Este é então canalizado através do interior da enzima para o domínio da sintetase. Aqui, a amônia reage com o intermediário 4-fosforilo UTP.

Isozimas

Duas isozimas com atividade de CTP sintase existem em humanos, codificados pelos seguintes genes:

 CTPS – CTP sintase 1
 CTPS2 – CTP sintase 2

Ligases

CTP sintase


O tráfico de mercúrio compreende o contrabando e o comércio ilegal de mercúrio no mundo, vinculado intimamente com o processo de extração de ouro no garimpo, amplamente praticado na América do Sul, especialmente nos garimpos brasileiros, peruanos, boliviano, entre outros países do continente. O contrabando desse elemento é motivado pela regulação existente na sua aquisição, reforçada pelo acúmulo de evidências do impacto humano e ambiental que produz, e acompanha a expansão global do garimpo no século XXI, principalmente na América do Sul. O tráfico do mercúrio coincide com as redes criminais que amparam a logística da extração de ouro pelo garimpo, como também sua comercialização. Segundo um relatório das Nações Unidas, entre 2005 e 2015, a demanda de mercúrio no garimpo superou seu uso em outras atividades, como na produção de dispositivos eletrônicos, mobilizando, estima-se, entre 1,500 e 2,500 toneladas do metal.

A magnitude da mobilização de mercúrio ilegal indica a existência de sofisticadas redes de tráfico internacional, dominado por quadrilhas de estrutura análoga ao crime organizado, capazes de operar a logística internacional de produção, transporte, e corrupção burocrática que antecede seu emprego no garimpo.

O fortalecimento da regulação em torno do mercúrio nos Estados Unidos da América e na Europa, na década de 2010, responsáveis pela maior parte do fornecimento durante o século XX e início do século XXI, provocou uma alteração das redes de comércio global, abrindo lugar para um novo grupo de fornecedores para o mercado ilegal latino-americano, especialmente o México, China e Indonésia, tendência que se acentua a partir de 2011. O México foi o principal exportador de mercúrio para o Peru, porém, quando este tomou medidas restringindo a importação desse metal, as exportações foram redirecionadas para a Bolívia, a partir da qual redes ilegais continuam enviando o material para os garimpos peruanos. A China, de maneira análoga, fornece mercúrio diretamente para a Guiana, a partir da qual é redistribuido para o Brasil, Venezuela, Colômbia.

Contaminação por mercúrio

Regulamentação do mercúrio

Convenção de Minamata

Países chave

Fornecedores

China

México

Indonésia

Consumo e distribuição ilegal

Peru
O Peru, não obstante o declínio do tráfico a partir da ratificação da Convenção de Minamata em 2015, continua à funcionar como nódulo de distribuição do mercúrio ilegal pela América do Sul, principalmente através das fronteiras porosas com o Brasil, Equador, e Bolívia. Esse tráfico ocorre tanto pela mobilização de grandes quantidades, por vezes centenas de quilos, quanto, mais frequentemente, um tráfico difuso e minúsculo, através de frascos que cruzam discretamente as fronteiras. Segundo investigações, pessoas com autorização para adquirir mercúrio no Peru, o que inclui empresários e políticos influentes, tem participação no fornecimento do mercado ilegal.

Bolívia
A Bolívia é o segundo maior importador de mercúrio do mundo, segundo uma estimativa de 2020, tornando-se o epicentro do tráfico após o fortalecimento regulatório no Peru. A principal origem do mercúrio na Bolívia é o México, importado de maneira legal, facilitado por lacunas na regulação, e subsequentemente desviado para a redistribuição nos garimpos do país e fora, especialmente nas fronteiras com o Brasil, Peru e Chile.

Guiana
Na Guiana, os mecanismos regulatórios existentes tem pouco vigor no controle da importação do mercúrio, apesar de ter sido um dos países à ratificar a Convenção de Minamata em 2014, estabelecendo um limite de 34.500 quilogramas por ano. Ainda assim, investigações mostram que as autoridades guianesas negligenciam a importação informal abundante. Dessa maneira, além de alimentar a atividade garimpeira interna, o país funciona como um centro do tráfico de mercúrio para países vizinhos como o Suriname, Venezuela e Brasil, especialmente no extremo-norte, no estado de Roraima.

Brasil

Equador

Referências

Bibliografia

Mercúrio (elemento químico)
Contrabando
Garimpo

Tráfico de mercúrio


Solarna masa (M☉) je standardna jedinica mase u astronomiji, približno 2×1030 kg. Često se koristi za opisivanje masa drugih zvijezda, kao i zvjezdanih nakupina, maglica, galaksija i crnih rupa. Identična je masi Sunca.

 M☉ = (1.98847±0.00007)×1030 kg (oko 2 kvintilijuna kg)

Solarna masa je otprilike 333 000 puta veća od Zemljine mase (M🜨), i oko 1047 puta veća od mase Jupitera.

Slične jedinice
Jedna solarna masa, M, može se pretvoriti u povezane jedinice:

 27 068 510 ML (Masa Mjeseca)
 332946 M⊕ (Zemljina masa)
 1047.35 MJ (Jupiterova masa)
 1 988.55 Jotatona

Solarna masa često je također korisna u općoj teoriji relativnosti za izražavanje masa u jedinicama vremena.

Povezani članci

 Chandrasekharova granica
 Gaussova gravitacijska konstanta
 Sunce

Izvori

Mjerne jedinice u astronomiji
Sunce
Mjerne jedinice za masu

Solarna masa


El marketing de contenidos o mercadeo de contenido () es el arte de entender exactamente qué necesitan saber los usuarios para  crear contenidos relevantes que destaquen a las marcas. En otras palabras, consiste en crear y distribuir contenido relevante para clientes y potenciales clientes con el objetivo de atraerlos hacia la empresa y conectar con ellos. No es, por tanto, contenido promocional sino útil y relevante para los usuarios y para la empresa que ha de ser aportado mediante formatos adecuados.

Se entiende por contenido cualquier tipo de publicación ya sea:
 Social (posts, tuits, actualizaciones en redes sociales...),
 Online (newsletter, libros electrónicos...),
 Papel (revista corporativa...)
 Multimedia (vídeos, pódcast...).

De acuerdo con el Content Marketing Institute el marketing de contenidos puede definirse como:

Diferencias con una estrategia de contenidos
 Aunque se utilizan de forma similar, son conceptos diferentes:
 Marketing de contenidos: cómo generar conversación alrededor del contenido, es decir, cómo usarlo para atraer la atención, compromiso y participación. Cercano al trabajo de la comunicación y el marketing tradicional.
 Estrategia de contenidos: procesos para estructurar, organizar, gestionar y crear el contenido. Qué decir (mensajes, temas, puntos de vista…), a quién y cómo expresarlos.

Beneficios del marketing de contenidos
El marketing de contenidos, además de crear un valor único que eleva la visibilidad de nuestra marca, permite entregar a las audiencias información consistente y valiosa para ganar su lealtad utilizando un amplio espectro de piezas de información que incluye desde newsletters, historias de éxito y white papers, hasta eBooks, artículos editoriales y publicaciones en medios sociales, entre otras.

 Diferenciación frente a la competencia. El marketing de contenidos permite a las empresas llegar antes que la competencia a sus clientes, si esta no tiene creada una estrategia basada en los contenidos. Asimismo, si la competencia tiene una estrategia implementada, el marketing de contenidos permite crear un estilo personal distintivo y segmentado.
 Segmentación. No todo el mundo compra todos los productos. Con el marketing de contenidos, las empresas se dirigen únicamente a aquellos clientes potenciales que ya están interesados en sus productos, sin molestar a nadie que, en principio, no lo están.
 Credibilidad. Al haber eliminado el intrusismo publicitario, la comunicación se hace más natural, puesto que ambas partes comparten un interés común. La confianza llega cuando los contenidos publicados son fruto de la experiencia y la profesionalidad y por tanto se convierten en información cualificada y referencia del sector.
 Engagement o vínculo. La mentalidad comercial actual se parece mucho, paradójicamente, a la mentalidad comercial anterior a la masificación urbana, donde cierto grado de cosificación llevó a que tanto los comercios como los clientes pensaran que la única relación posible entre ambos era la de la compra-venta. Ahora, crear vínculos más allá de la transacción económica es fundamental para fidelizar clientes, y una estrategia efectiva es ayudar e (in)formar mediante contenidos a esos clientes más allá de que lo pidan y, por supuesto, más allá de que compren. En este sentido las redes sociales son determinantes.
 Posicionamiento. El marketing de contenidos permite llegar con un bajo costo a clientes potenciales a través de las búsquedas que realizan en la web.
 Producir prospectos constantemente: el marketing de contenido produce tres veces más prospectos que las tácticas convencionales.
 Los costos a largo plazo: son más bajos porque el 98 por ciento de los especialistas en marketing dicen que el retorno de la inversión del marketing de contenido vale la pena. La generación de prospectos puede volverse seis veces más asequible en general.
 El reconocimiento de marca: crece a pesar de ser intangible y difícil de cuantificar en términos concretos, pero es lo que permite que las marcas perduren y se conviertan en las marcas preferidas de los consumidores.
 Es la entrada a una estrategia inbound: el marketing de contenidos puede ser la apertura a una estrategia inbound que transforme la forma en que ves tu empresa y el marketing en general.

Características
El campo del marketing de contenidos es un subconjunto del marketing digital y se destaca de otras tácticas de marketing debido a una serie de rasgos distintivos. A continuación se muestra una descripción de los elementos clave del marketing de contenidos.

 Enfoque en el cliente: una de las características clave del marketing de contenidos es que pone un fuerte énfasis en los deseos, necesidades y consultas de su público objetivo. El contenido debe crearse teniendo en cuenta las preocupaciones y los problemas de la audiencia, y debe ofrecer soluciones prácticas y valiosas. Esto mejora las posibilidades de que los usuarios se conviertan en clientes y embajadores de la marca, al mismo tiempo que ayuda a la empresa a conectarse con su mercado objetivo.
 Relevancia y valor: el contenido de marketing debe ser valioso para los usuarios y pertinente para el mercado objetivo de la empresa. Para mantener el interés de la audiencia, el contenido debe ser educativo, práctico, entretenido o motivador. Las empresas pueden establecerse como expertos en su nicho y aumentar la lealtad y satisfacción de los clientes mediante la producción de contenido de alta calidad.
 Coherencia y consistencia: La estrategia de marketing de contenidos debe ser constante y consistente para tener éxito. La producción de contenido debe ser un proceso continuo que beneficie continuamente a la audiencia en lugar de un esfuerzo de una sola vez. La necesidad de que el contenido esté en consonancia con la identidad y los valores de la marca es otro aspecto de la coherencia. Esto ayuda a crear una imagen de marca sólida y reconocible en la mente de los clientes.
 Personalización y flexibilidad: el marketing de contenidos debe ser flexible y adaptable para satisfacer las demandas de una audiencia en constante cambio. Las empresas deben estar preparadas para cambiar su contenido para adaptarse a los requisitos y preferencias de su mercado objetivo. Otro elemento esencial del marketing de contenidos es la personalización, que permite a las empresas adaptar sus ofertas a las preferencias e intereses de cada usuario individual, mejorando así la utilidad y relevancia del contenido. Para diferenciarse de la competencia y atraer a la audiencia, el marketing de contenidos necesita una cantidad significativa de creatividad e innovación. Las empresas deben ser capaces de producir contenido atractivo, único y distinto de lo que está disponible actualmente en su sector. Para mantenerse al día con las tendencias y modificaciones en la forma en que las personas consumen contenido en línea, la innovación también es fundamental.

El marketing de contenidos se centra en la creación de contenidos que puedan ser útiles a los usuarios. Logrando que realicen una acción en específico o interactúen con el contenido, este tipo de interacción es medida a través del engagement. Sin embargo el marketing de contenidos también debe lograr al menos alguno de estos objetivos:

 Informar
 Instruir
 Entretener
 Generar una emoción

Una de las características más importantes del marketing de contenidos es lo que significa para una marca la creación de sus propias audiencias.

¿Por qué es necesario el marketing de contenidos?
El marketing de contenidos es esencial porque genera valor de marca, o la idea de que a medida que produce contenido más valioso, su marca se volverá cada vez más valiosa con el tiempo. Y cuanto más ayude a su audiencia, más autoridad ganará su marca en su industria.

El marketing de contenidos es necesario por varias razones:

 Atraer a clientes potenciales: El marketing de contenidos permite a las empresas atraer a clientes potenciales de forma no intrusiva mediante la creación de contenido relevante y valioso para ellos. De esta manera, las empresas pueden construir relaciones de confianza con su audiencia y aumentar su visibilidad online.
 Educar y entretener: El contenido de calidad puede educar e informar a la audiencia sobre temas relevantes para el sector de la empresa, lo que ayuda a establecer la empresa como un líder en su área de negocio. Además, el contenido también puede entretener y capturar la atención de la audiencia, lo que aumenta la probabilidad de que los consumidores se involucren con la empresa y compren sus productos o servicios.
 Mejorar la visibilidad en motores de búsqueda: La creación de contenido de calidad y relevante para la audiencia puede ayudar a mejorar la visibilidad de la empresa en los resultados de búsqueda de Google y otros motores de búsqueda. Esto se debe a que los motores de búsqueda prefieren contenido de calidad y relevante en sus resultados de búsqueda.
 Fortalecer la marca: El marketing de contenidos ayuda a construir una marca sólida y coherente. La creación de contenido de calidad que se alinea con los valores de la empresa y su estrategia de marca puede ayudar a establecer una identidad de marca única y atractiva para los consumidores.
 Generar confianza: La creación de contenido de calidad y relevante para la audiencia puede ayudar a generar confianza en la empresa y sus productos o servicios. Esto se debe a que el contenido puede demostrar la experiencia y conocimiento de la empresa en su sector de negocio, lo que aumenta la probabilidad de que los consumidores confíen en la empresa y compren sus productos o servicios.
 Ayuda con la conversión: El marketing de contenidos permite que los usuarios que siguen a la marca en diferentes Social media aprendan cada vez más de los productos y servicios y sus beneficios. De esta forma, con el paso del tiempo va incrementando su deseo por obtenerlos y pasan de ser solamente usuarios a convertirse en potenciales clientes.

Notoriedad y visibilidad de la marca
Las empresas orientadas a la extensión de su abarcamiento con gran cantidad de clientes manifiestan deseo de prestar atención al aumento del número de visitantes, bien como al número de estas interacciones. Los índices tradicionales de volumen incluyen el número de visitantes de la página y el número de cartas electrónicas recogidas, pero el tiempo pasado en la página y el paso a otras páginas / fotografías son unos índices buenos de participación. Ya que la mayoría de empresas toma conciencia de la importancia de colocación regular de su contenido es un problema principal con el que entran en colisión, y consiste en hacer el contenido aún más atractivo.Medidas de los índices de notoriedad y visibilidad de la marca:
 número de visitantes de la página;
 tiempo pasado en la página;
 paso por las páginas / fotografías;
 número de las cartas recogidas.

Integración necesaria con otras disciplinas del marketing digital
El marketing de contenidos no es una disciplina que se pueda aplicar como una estrategia aislada, sino que debe estar alineada y planificada en concordancia con el resto de estrategias digitales de la empresa u organización. Su puesta en marcha repercute directamente en las estrategias de SEO, social media, entre otras.

Puesto que el contenido puede tratarse de un artículo, un vídeo, una imagen, etc. este puede ser usado en blogs, páginas web corporativas, redes sociales u otras plataformas donde se comparte la información. La no integración del resto de estrategias puede llevar a no completar los resultados que permite poner en marcha una estrategia de Marketing de Contenidos.

Referencias

Mercadotecnia

Marketing de contenidos


Ghislain Luyeye Mvete, né le  à Kinshasa, est un joueur de football international congolais. Il réalise la majeure partie de sa carrière en faveur du TP Mazembe.

Biographie

Il participe avec le TP Mazembe à la Coupe du monde des clubs de la FIFA en 2009. Il joue deux matchs lors de cette compétition.

Mvete reçoit quatre sélections en équipe de République démocratique du Congo lors de l'année 2011. Il joue son premier match le 8 janvier 2011, en amical contre le Kenya (victoire 1-0).

Palmarès
 DC Motema Pembe
 Championnat de RD Congo (1) :
 Champion : 2005.

 Tout Puissant Mazembe
 Championnat de RD Congo (3) :
 Champion : 2006, 2007 et 2009.

 Ligue des champions de la CAF (2) :
 Vainqueur : 2009 et 2010.

Références

Liens externes

Naissance à Kinshasa
Naissance en avril 1981
Footballeur international congolais (RDC)
Joueur du Tout Puissant Mazembe
Joueur de l'AS Vita Club
Joueur des Diables Noirs de Brazzaville

Luyeye Mvete


Andriy Vassylyovytch Taran (en ), né le  à Francfort-sur-l'Oder (République démocratique allemande), est un chef militaire ukrainien  et une personnalité politique.

Carrière politique
En 2019 il est le responsable de la campagne de Ihor Smechko avec la parti Force et honneur, mais avec 3.82% ils ne franchissent pas le seuil des 5% et n'envoient personne au parlement.

Il a été le seizième ministre de la Défense de l'Ukraine. Il est également lieutenant général à la retraite des forces armées de l'Ukraine. Le  il est nommé ambassadeur de l'Ukraine en Slovènie.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Ministre ukrainien de la Défense
Naissance en mars 1955
Naissance à Francfort-sur-l'Oder
Général ukrainien du XXIe siècle

Andriy Taran