Lama, Lamma, or Lamassu (Cuneiform: , ; Sumerian: lammař; later in Akkadian: lamassu; sometimes called a lamassus) is an Assyrian protective deity.

Initially depicted as a goddess in Sumerian times, when it was called Lamma, it was later depicted from Assyrian times as a hybrid of a human, bird, and either a bull or lion—specifically having a human head, the body of a bull or a lion, and bird wings, under the name Lamassu. In some writings, it is portrayed to represent a goddess. A less frequently used name is shedu (Cuneiform: , ; Sumerian: alad; Akkadian, šēdu), which refers to the male counterpart of a lamassu. Lamassu represent the zodiacs, parent-stars or constellations.

Goddess Lama

The goddess Lama appears initially as a mediating goddess who precedes the orans and presents them to the deities. The protective deity is clearly labelled as Lam(m)a in a Kassite stele unearthed at Uruk, in the temple of Ishtar, goddess to which she had been dedicated by king Nazi-Maruttash (1307–1282 BC). It is a goddess wearing a ruffled dress and wearing a horned tiara symbolizing the deity, with two hands raised, in sign of prayer. A. Spycket proposed that similar female figures appearing in particular in glyptics and statuary from the Akkadian period, and in particular in the presentation scenes (common especially in the Paleo-Babylonian era) were to be considered as Lam(m)a. This opinion is commonly followed and in artistic terminology these female figures are generally referred to as Lam(m)a. From Assyrian times, Lamma becomes a hybrid deity, half-animal, half-human.

Iconography

From Assyrian times, lamassu were depicted as hybrids, with bodies of either winged bulls or lions and heads of human males. The motif of a winged animal with a human head is common to the Near East, first recorded in Ebla around 3000 BC. The first distinct lamassu motif appeared in Assyria during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser II as a symbol of power.

Assyrian sculpture typically placed prominent pairs of lamassu at entrances in palaces, facing the street and also internal courtyards. They were represented as "double-aspect" figures on corners, in high relief. From the front they appear to stand, and from the side, walk, and in earlier versions have five legs, as is apparent when viewed obliquely. Lumasi do not generally appear as large figures in the low-relief schemes running round palace rooms, where winged genie figures are common, but they sometimes appear within narrative reliefs, apparently protecting the Assyrians.

The colossal entrance figures were often followed by a hero grasping a wriggling lion, also colossal in scale and in high relief. In the palace of Sargon II at Dur-Sharrukin, a group of at least seven lamassu and two such heroes with lions surrounded the entrance to the "throne room", "a concentration of figures which produced an overwhelming impression of power." They also appear on cylinder seals. Notable examples include those at the Gate of All Nations at Persepolis in Iran, the British Museum in London, the Louvre in Paris, the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad, the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the University of Chicago Oriental Institute. Several examples left in situ in northern Iraq were destroyed in the 2010s by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant when they occupied the area, as were those in the Mosul Museum.

Terminology
Lamassu represent the zodiacs, parent-stars, or constellations. They are depicted as protective deities because they encompass all life within them. In the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, they are depicted as physical deities as well, which is where the lamassu iconography originates, physical representations or embodiments of divine higher principles associated with specific celestial origins. Although lamassu had a different iconography and portrayal in the culture of Sumer, the terms "lamassu", "alad", and "shedu" evolved throughout the Assyro-Akkadian culture from the Sumerian culture to denote the Assyrian-winged-man-bull symbol and statues during the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Eventually, female lamassu were identified as "apsasû".

The motif of the Assyrian-winged-man-bull called Aladlammu and Lamassu interchangeably is not the lamassu or alad of Sumerian origin, which were depicted with different iconography. These monumental statues were called aladlammû or lamassu which meant "protective spirit". In Hittite, the Sumerian form  is used both as a name for the so-called "tutelary deity", identified in certain later texts with the goddess Inara, and a title given to similar protective deities.

Mythology

The lamassu is a celestial being from ancient Mesopotamian religion bearing a human head, symbolising intelligence, a bull's body, symbolizing strength; and wings of an eagle to symbolize freedom. Sometimes it had the horns and the ears of a bull.  It appears frequently in Mesopotamian art. The lamassu and shedu were household protective spirits of the common Assyrian people, becoming associated later as royal protectors, and were placed as sentinels at entrances. The Akkadians associated the god Papsukkal with a lamassu and the god Išum with shedu.

To protect houses, the lamassu were engraved in clay tablets, which were then buried under the door's threshold. They were often placed as a pair at the entrance of palaces. At the entrance of cities, they were sculpted in colossal size, and placed as a pair, one at each side of the door of the city, that generally had doors in the surrounding wall, each one looking toward one of the cardinal points.

In modern culture
The British 10th Army, which operated in Iraq and Iran in 1942–1943, adopted the lamassu as its insignia. A bearded man with a winged bull body appears on the logo of the United States Forces – Iraq.

A man with a bull's body is found among the creatures that make up Aslan's army in The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis. He appears at the Stone Table, challenging the White Witch "with a great bellowing voice". In the film Alexander (2004), lamassu are seen at the Ishtar Gate in Babylon. In the Disney film Aladdin (1992), a gold lamassu can be found in the scene where Aladdin and Abu enter the cave in the desert to find the lamp. And, in the "Star Wars" prequel: Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones, Lama Su is the name of the Kaminoan cloner who tells Obi-Wan Kenobi about Jango Fett being the clone army's template.

Michael Rakowitz, a Northwestern University professor of Art Theory & Practice, won a Fourth Plinth commission to recreate the Lamassu that stood in Nineveh, Iraq, from 700 BC until it was destroyed by ISIS in 2015. Rakowitz's sculpture will be displayed in London's Trafalgar Square beginning in 2018.

Lamassu appear in the novel Magic Rises, the 6th book of the Kate Daniels series by Ilona Andrews.

Games
Lammasu [sic] and shedu are two distinct types of good-aligned creatures in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, with lammasu having the bodies of winged lions and shedu depicted as human-headed winged bulls.

Lammasu appear in the Magic: The Gathering trading card game as the white card Hunted Lammasu in the Ravnica expansion, as well as the white card Venerable Lammasu found in the Khans of Tarkir expansion.

In the Games Workshop miniatures wargame, Warhammer Fantasy Battle, the Lamasu was a mount for the Chaos Dwarf army. It has since returned as part of the Storm of Magic expansion release.

A lammasu briefly appears in the Fablehaven series.

In the video game Heroes of Might and Magic VI, the lamasu [sic] is a recruitable elite creature of the necropolis faction (undead).

Lamassu is an enemy in the Neo Babylon levels of Spelunky 2, and in the Neo Babylon level set in the Cosmic Ocean section.

A Lamassu appears in Axiom Verge 2 as a godly machine, designed to protect against interlopers.

A Lamassu appears in Prince of Persia 3D at the end of the Floating Ruins level, where the prince rides on it to the Cliffs. It is also appears in the ending of the game, where the Prince and Princess ride it to an unknown destination.

The Lamassu is one of the character backgrounds in the role-playing game Troika!.

Gallery

See also

 Anzû (older reading: Zû), Mesopotamian monster
 Apis
 Buraq
 Centaur
 Cherubim
 Chimera, Greek mythological hybrid monster
 Enlil
 Griffin or griffon, lion-bird hybrid
 Harpy
 Jinn
 Kamadhenu, Hindu bovine goddess
 Lakhmu, Akkadian deity also known as Lammasu
 Manticore, Persian sphinx-like creature
 Mermaid
 Minotaur
 Mythological hybrid
 List of hybrid creatures in mythology
 Pamola, the Abenaki-origin indigenous American "winged-moose" spirit protecting Mount Katahdin
 Pegasus, winged stallion in Greek mythology
 Sharabha, Hindu mythology: lion-bird hybrid
 Simurgh, Iranian mythical flying creature
 Sphinx, mythical creature with lion's body and human head
 Thunderbird (mythology)
 Yali, Hindu mythological lion-elephant-horse hybrid
 Ziz, giant griffin-like bird in Jewish mythology

Citations

General references
 Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art),

External links

 Webpage about the Šêdu in the Louvre Museum

Assyrian art and architecture
Avian humanoids
Cattle deities
Mesopotamian goddesses
Mesopotamian legendary creatures
Horned deities
Human-headed mythical creatures
Lion goddesses
Sphinxes
Sumerian art and architecture
Tutelary goddesses

Lamassu


Glazba u 1931. godini.

Svijet

Izdanja
Objavljeni studijski, koncertni i kompilacijski albumi, singlovi, maksi singlovi, EP-ovi.
Za poznate glazbenike koje su tad objavili djelo, ali nisu ga objavili nosaču zvuka kod izdavačke kuće, nego u vlastitom izdanju, to ulazi ovdje. Isto vrijedi i za one glazbenike koji (ni)su djelovali u doba kad nije bilo nosača zvuka, nego su djelo objavili u pisanom obliku.

Koncertne turneje
Održane koncertne turneje.

Istaknuti koncerti
Povijesno važni koncerti, prvi povijesni koncert nekog glazbenog subjekta ili posljednji (oproštajni) koncert nekog glazbenog subjekta.

Osnivanja
Osnivanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, sastava, prvi glazbeni angažman, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa, pokretanje glazbene manifestacije, izgradnja poznate koncertne dvorane ili otvaranje poznatog glazbenog kluba, pojava (nastanak ili dolakak) glazbenog pravca i sl.

Gašenja i raspuštanja
Gašenja ili preuzimanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, sastava, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa, glazbene manifestacije, raspuštanja glazbenih subjekata i sl.

Rođenja
Rođenja poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.

Smrti
Smrti poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.

Ostalo
Uvođenje novih nosača zvuka, medijskog servisa i distribucijskog kanala i sl.

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Festivali

Nagrade

Izdanja
Objavljeni studijski, koncertni i kompilacijski albumi, singlovi, maksi singlovi, EP-ovi.
Za poznate glazbenike koje su tad objavili djelo, ali nisu ga objavili nosaču zvuka kod izdavačke kuće, nego u vlastitom izdanju, to ulazi ovdje. Isto vrijedi i za one glazbenike koji (ni)su djelovali u doba kad nije bilo nosača zvuka, nego su djelo objavili u pisanom obliku.

Osnivanja
Osnivanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, udruga, sastava, prvi glazbeni angažman, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa, pokretanje glazbene manifestacije, izgradnja poznate koncertne dvorane ili otvaranje poznatog glazbenog kluba, pojava (nastanak ili dolakak) glazbenog pravca i sl.

Gašenja i raspuštanja
Gašenja ili preuzimanja poznatih izdavačkih kuća, sastava, glazbenih emisija na radiju, televiziji, glazbenih časopisa, glazbene manifestacije, raspuštanja glazbenih subjekata i sl.

Rođenja
Rođenja poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.
Dušan Prašelj, hrvatski dirigent, skladatelj, zborovođa, melograf, kulturni djelatnik

Smrti
Smrti poznatih glazbenika i osoba u svezi s glazbom.

Ostalo
Uvođenje novih nosača zvuka, medijskog servisa i distribucijskog kanala i sl.

Izvori

1931.
Godine 20. stoljeća

Glazba u 1931.


O L'Open 35 de Saint-Malo foi um torneio de tênis realizado em Saint-Malo, França.

Esse torneio começou em 1996 como um evento de US$ 25.000 do Circuito feminino da ITF, e era jogado em quadras de saibro ao ar livre.

A partir de 2021 ele passou a ser um evento WTA 125, o WTA Challenger de Saint-Malo com um prêmio em dinheiro de € 92.742.

Evolução do nome do torneio
 1996–2013: Open GDF Suez de Bretagne
 2014–2017: L'Open Emeraude Solaire de Saint-Malo
 (2018–): L'Open 35 de Saint-Malo

Resultados passados

Simples

Duplas

Ligações externas

 Tournament Information na ITF

Torneios de tênis na França
Fundações em 1996

L'Open 35 de Saint-Malo


Chronologie de la bande dessinée

2021 en bande dessinée – 2022 en bande dessinée - 2023 en bande dessinée

Événements
 Festival d'Angoulême 2022 : prévu du 27 au , il est reporté en mars, du 17 au 20.

Prix et récompenses
 Prix BD Fnac France Inter : 1984, adaptation du roman de George Orwell par Xavier Coste.
 Prix Tournesol : Le potager Rocambole de Laurent Houssin et Luc Bienvenu
 Le Grand prix de la ville d'Angoulême, désigné par un vote des auteurs, est attribué à l'autrice québécoise Julie Doucet.
 Le Fauve d'or : prix du meilleur album est attribué à Écoute, jolie Márcia de l'auteur brésilien Marcello Quintanilha.

Meilleures ventes en France
 Le Monde sans fin par Christophe Blain et Jean-Marc Jancovici chez Dargaud :
 L'Arabe du futur  tome 6 : Une jeunesse au Moyen-Orient (1994-2011) par Riad Sattouf chez Allary :
 One Piece tome 1 par Eiichirō Oda  chez Glénat :
 Blake et Mortimer tome 29 : Huit Heures à Berlin par Jean-Luc Fromental et José-Louis Bocquet chez Blake et Mortimer :
 Spy × Family tome 1 par Tatsuya Endō chez Kurokawa  :
 Naruto tome 1 par Masashi Kishimoto  chez Kana :
 Mortelle Adèle tome 19 : Face de Beurk! par Mr Tan chez Tourbillon:
 One Piece tome 9 par Eiichirō Oda  chez Glénat :
 Spy × Family tome 7 par Tatsuya Endō chez Kurokawa :
 Naruto tome 2 :par Masashi Kishimoto  chez Kana :
Source : GFK

Nouveaux albums

Franco-belge

Comics

Mangas

Érotique

Décès

 6 janvier : Tony Tallarico, dessinateur de comics américain, né en 1933 ;
 10 janvier : Shinji Mizushima, mangaka né en 1939 ;
 11 janvier : Dimitri, de son vrai nom Guy Mouminoux, auteur français né en 1927 ;
 23 janvier : Jean-Claude Mézières, dessinateur français né en 1938 ;
 1er février : Brian Augustyn, éditeur et scénariste de comics américain né en 1954 ;
 11 février : Mel Keefer, auteur de bande dessinée américain, né en 1926 ;
 21 février : Miguel Gallardo, auteur espagnol né en 1955 ;
  : Mia Ikumi, mangaka japonaise née en  ;
 25 mars : Birago Balzano, dessinateur italien de bandes dessinées, né en 1936 ;
 26 mars : Garry Leach, auteur britannique de bande dessinée, né en 1954 ;
 7 avril : Fujiko Fujio A, mangaka né en 1934 ;
 8 avril : Stelio Fenzo, dessinateur et scénariste de bande dessinée italien, né en 1932 ;
 23 avril :
 Daniel Bardet, scénariste de bande dessinée français, né en 1943 ;
 Justin Green, auteur américain de comics underground né en 1945 ;
 24 avril : Daniel Bardet, scénariste français né en 1943 ;
 28 avril : Neal Adams, auteur américain né en 1941 ;
 6 mai : George Pérez, dessinateur et scénariste de comics américain né en 1954 ;
 30 mai : Jacques Nicolaou, auteur français né en 1930 ;
 1er juin : Serge Diantantu, auteur de bande dessinée congolais, né en 1960 ;
 16 juin : Tim Sale, dessinateur américain de comics né en 1956 ;
  : Kazuki Takahashi, mangaka ;
 7 juillet : Robert C. Harvey, auteur de bande dessinée et critique de bande dessinée américain, né en 1937 ;
 21 juillet : Alan Grant, scénariste de comics écossais né en 1949 ;
  :
 Dubu (Jang Seong-rak), dessinateur de manhwa sud-coréen ;
 Sid Jacobson, scénariste de comics américain, né en 1929 ;
 11 août : Jean-Jacques Sempé, dessinateur français, né en 1932 ;
 18 août : Tom Palmer, dessinateur et encreur de bande dessinée américain, né en 1941 ;
 20 août : Patrick Nordmann, auteur de bande dessinée suisse, né en 1949 ;
 24 août : Lily Renée, dessinatrice de comics autrichienne puis américaine, née en 1921 ;
 1er septembre : Diane Noomin, auteure américaine de comics underground, née en 1947 ;
 17 septembre : Isami Ishii, mangaka, né en 1941 ;
 21 septembre : François Corteggiani, scénariste français né en 1953 ;
 3 octobre : Kim Jung Gi, illustrateur et dessinateur sud coréen né en 1975 ;
 18 octobre : Jean Teulé, romancier et auteur de bande dessinée français, né en 1953 ;
 7 novembre : Kevin O'Neill, illustrateur de comics britannique ;
 8 novembre : Pierre Chéry, auteur de bande dessinée français, né en 1927 ;
 9 novembre : Carlos Pacheco, dessinateur de comics espagnol;
 11 novembre : Pierre Fournier, scénariste et dessinateur québécois de bande dessinée, né en 1949 ;
 23 novembre : José Ruy, auteur de bande dessinée portugais, né en 1930 ;
 30 novembre : Aline Kominsky-Crumb, dessinatrice de comics américaine, née en 1948 ;
 12 décembre : Gosaku Ōta, mangaka, né en 1948 ;
 21 décembre : Claude Dubois, illustrateur et scénariste de bande dessinée français, né en 1934.

Notes et références

Chronologie de la bande dessinée
Bande dessinée

2022 en bande dessinée


Ulrich Baumgartner ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Ulrich Baumgartner (Kunsttischler) (um 1580–1652), deutscher Kunsttischler
 Ulrich Baumgartner (Kulturmanager) (1918–1984), österreichischer Kulturmanager und Regisseur
 Ulrich Julius Baumgartner (1920–2014), Schweizer Architekt

Ulrich Baumgartner


Pomorski muzej, muzej u Zadru.

Povijest
Zbirku u svezi s razvitkom pomorstva zadarskog kraja stvara se 1958. godine. Bila je pri tadašnjem Institutu za historijske i ekonomske nauke JAZU u Zadru, a zahvaljujući nastojanju dr. Vjekoslava Maštrovića i djelatnika tadašnjeg instituta. Namjera je bila da zbirka preraste u muzejsku. Povodom proslave 100. obljetnice početka rada JAZU 1966. godine svečano je otvoren Pomorski muzej u Zadru. Zadaća mu je bila skupljati građu u svezi s pomorstvom zadarskog kraja. Muzej to nikad nije postao u stvarnosti, premda je nosio to ime, nego je cijelo vrijeme bio tek zbirka unutar Instituta. 1960-ih i 1970-ih prikupljeno je više 450 izložaka. Zbirka nije rasla sljedećih 20 godina zbog organizacijskih, materijalnih, kadrovskih i administrativnih razloga, a velikosrpska agresija i gotovo odsječenost često granatiranog Zadra nije dala nikakvih mogućnosti nalaska ni sigurnosti novih prostora. Ipak, posjete su bile moguće. Seoba zbirke u današnje adaptirane prostore bila je početkom 2002. godine, uz pomoć Grada Zadra. Nalazi se u bivšoj restauratorskoj radionici. Prostori su tri velike i jedna mala izložbena dvorana. Izlošci su predstavljeni kronološki. Prva dvorana: prapovijest, antika i starohrvatsko pomorstvo. Druga dvorana: razdoblje jedrenjaštva i parobrodarstva. Treća dvorana: razdoblje suvremenog motornog brodarstva. U maloj prostoriji su predmeti, fotografije i članci u svezi s tragedijom tankera Petra Zoranića. Ispred zgrade je zbirka željeznih brodskih sidara. Cjeline zbirke su:  cjelinama: Sidra, Brodski dijelovi i ukrasi, Oružje, Slike, grafike i crteži, Instrumenti za plovidbu, Brodska oprema, Modeli brodova, Havarija broda "Petar Zoranić", Zemljovidi i globusi, Pomorske uspomene, Ribarski predmeti, Arhiv i Priručna knjižnica. Namjerava se premjestiti zbirku na zadarski poluotok.

Izvori

Muzeji u Hrvatskoj
Zadar

Pomorski muzej u Zadru


دورس يناوش  أديبة وممثلة مسرحية ألمانية، ولدت في 30 أغسطس 1925 في تيبليتس شونا (تقع حاليا في شمال التشيك) وتوفيت .

أعمالها

كتبت دورس يناوش العديد من كتب الأطفال بالإضافة إلى روايات مرحة للبالغين. وضمن سلسلة ميفي Meffi-Reihe ترجمت ميفي الشيطان الصغير الأحمر والتي كتبتها في عام 1971 إلى الإسبانية والإيطالية.

ومن رواياتها للبالغين روايتها Jungfrau Sucht Löwen والتي صدرت في عام 1986.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

كاتبات ألمانيات في القرن 20
كاتبات ألمانيات في القرن 21
مواليد 1925
مواليد في تبليتسه

دورس يناوش


Podsavezna nogometna liga Tuzla, također i kao "Tuzlanska podsavezna liga" je bila liga petog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1962./63.  Sudjelovalo je 11 klubova, a prvak je bio "Lukavac".

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Međupodsavezna liga Tuzla 1962./63.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 "Godišnjak FSJ 1962-63", Beograd, 1963., ISSN: 0351-2894, str. 252

1962-63 Tuzla
Tuzla
1962-63 Tuzla

Podsavezna nogometna liga Tuzla 1962./63.


The Human Development Index is a United Nations measure of well-being in a country.

HDI may also refer to:
PSA HDi engine, a diesel automobile engine by Peugeot/Citroën
Hexamethylene diisocyanate, an organic compound used to make polymers such as polyurethane
HDi Interactive Format (formerly iHD), a trademark for Microsoft's implementation of advanced interactivity for HD DVD
Histone deacetylase inhibitor, compounds used in psychiatry and neurology, and with anticancer potential
HDI-30 connector, an external SCSI connector by Apple
HDI-45 connector, a video connector by Apple
Heroux-Devtek Inc., a manufacturer of aircraft undercarriages
Hdi language of Cameroon and Nigeria
HDI-Arena, a sports stadium in Hanover, Germany
HDI (Help Desk Institute), a division of UBM Technology Group
Highest density interval, a method for choosing a credible interval in Bayesian statistics

HDI (disambiguation)


The Aftermath (sau Zombie Aftermath) este un film de groază SF american din 1982 regizat de Steve Barkett.

Prezentare
Trei astronauți se întorc pe Pământ după un holocaust nuclear, deși unul moare la aterizare din cauza unui accident. Cei doi supraviețuitori, Newman (Steve Barkett) și Matthews, se întâlnesc cu niște mutanți înainte de a descoperi că orașul Los Angeles a fost complet distrus.

Căutând adăpost, bărbații se refugiază într-un conac abandonat. Newman întâlnește mai târziu un băiat, Chris, ascuns într-un muzeu cu curatorul (Forrest J Ackerman). După ce curatorul moare, Newman îl ia pe Chris în grija sa. În timp ce  caută provizii într-o zi, Newman și Chris se întâlnesc cu Sarah, care fuge de o bandă de bicicliști nelegiuiți condusă de Cutter (Sid Haig). Acești supraviețuitori decid să lupte împotriva acestei bande în pustietatea post-apocaliptică.

Distribuție
Steve Barkett as Newman
Lynne Margulies as Sarah
Sid Haig as Cutter
Christopher Barkett as Chris
Alfie Martin as Getman
Forrest J Ackerman as Museum curator
Jim Danforth as Astronaut Williams
Linda Stiegler as Helen
Adrian Torino as Bruce Will
Levi Shanstan as Arnold Swatch / The Mummy
Ramon Sumabal as Brad Pet
Michael Eugene Romero as Silver-ster the Gold
Jerone Meehleib as The lover Boy Irbo

Note

Legături externe

Filme din 1982
Filme în limba engleză
Filme SF de groază
Filme SF din anii 1980
Filme de groază din anii 1980
Filme cu holocaust nuclear
Filme despre astronauți
Filme postapocaliptice

The Aftermath (film)


Virgül, 1997 yılının Ekim ayından itibaren 2009 yılının sonuna kadar 12 yıl boyunca istikrarlı ve kesintisiz olarak Pusula Yayıncılık tarafından aylık, son yılında ise iki ayda bir yayımlanmış bir edebiyat, düşün ve eleştiri dergisidir. Yeni çıkan kitapların eleştiri ve tanıtımlarının yanında, sahaf sayfalarındaki eski kitapların da tanıtıldığı, dönem itibarıyla yayın yönetmenliğini Orhan Koçak'ın yaptığı, yazı işleri müdürlüğünüyse Mustafa Arslantunalı'nın yürüttüğü dergi aynı zamanda birçok yeni şair, yazar ve eleştirmeni de Türk edebiyatına kazandırmaya öncülük etmiştir.

Türk ve dünya edebiyatındaki yaşanan gelişmeleri ve sorunları birçok edebiyatçının virgülünde barındıran dergi, bu alışkanlığın noktasını ekonomik zorluklar ve dağıtım sorunları yüzünden 131. sayısında istemeden de olsa yayın hayatını sona erdirerek vermiştir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Virgül dergisi resmi sitesi ve arşivi

Türk edebiyat dergileri
Türkçe dergiler
Yayımı sona eren Türkiye dergileri
Türkiye'de yayımlanan aylık dergiler

Virgül (dergi)


Maximino Pérez Díaz (Ciudad de Esquipulas, Guatemala, 15 de diciembre de 1947-Ciudad de Guatemala, Guatemala, 11 de abril de 2006), fue un maestro, empresario, y político esquipulteco. Fue alcalde del Municipio de Esquipulas, en el periodo 1993-1996, por el partido D.C.

Biografía

Nació el 15 de diciembre de 1947, en la Ciudad de Esquipulas, se graduó de Maestro en Educación Primaria en el Instituto EDIVER, y termina sus estudios universitarios graduándose de Profesor de Enseñanza Media, durante su gobierno municipal ayudó a las familias de bajos recursos y reconoció a los Personajes Importantes de Esquipulas, durante su gobierno se le colocó el nombre Mario Salazar Grande a la calle donde vive actualmente el artista y pintor Mario Salazar Grande, fallece el 27 de octubre de 1997, tras un accidente automovilístico muy cerca de la Ciudad de Guatemala, en el cual según explicaciones de los forenses dijeron: que había muerto de un paro cardíaco, esto provocó el accidente.

Carrera política

Alcaldía

En septiembre de 1992, se postula como candidato a la Alcaldía de Esquipulas, por el partido Democracia Cristiana Guatemalteca, donde sale triunfante de las elecciones y se convierte en el Alcalde del Municipio de Esquipulas.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Nacidos en Esquipulas
Fallecidos en Ciudad de Guatemala
Alcaldes de Esquipulas

Maximino Pérez


Tom Kilburn CBE (* 11. August 1921 in Dewsbury, Yorkshire; † 17. Januar 2001 in Manchester) war ein britischer Computer-Pionier.

Kilburn studierte Mathematik an der Universität Cambridge, an der er 1942 seinen Abschluss mit Auszeichnung machte. Danach arbeitete er im Zweiten Weltkrieg in der Gruppe von Frederic Calland Williams im Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) in Malvern an der Radarentwicklung.

1946 ging er an die Fakultät für Elektrotechnik der University of Manchester, blieb aber in Kontakt mit Williams beim TRE und gemeinsam mit Geoff Tootill entwickelten sie 1947 die Williamsröhre, die als elektronischer Speicher bei vielen frühen Computern Verwendung fand (sie konnte 2048 Bits speichern). Auch in Manchester benutzten sie die Röhre für die Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), auch Baby genannt. Sie war 1948 fertig und der erste elektronische Computer mit gespeichertem Programm. Die Arbeit wurde in der Entwicklung der Manchester Mark I fortgesetzt (1949) und in Zusammenarbeit mit der Ferranti Ltd. im Ferranti Mark I Computer, der Februar 1951 auf den Markt kam. Er war vor der UNIVAC der erste kommerziell vertriebene Computer – neun Exemplare wurden ausgeliefert. 1954 folgte eine schnellere Version mit Gleitkommazahl-Arithmetik und Experimente mit transistorisierten Computern wurden unternommen (1953, 1955). Das führte 1956 zum MUSE Projekt eines transistorisierten Computers mit Magnetkernspeicher und 1 MIPS Leistung. 1959 beteiligte sich auch Ferranti, was zur ATLAS führte, die 1962 in Betrieb ging. Sechs Atlas Computer wurden gebaut (davon drei in eingeschränkter Version).

1964 wurde die Computer Gruppe der Universität zur Fakultät für Informatik (Computer Science) und Kilburn wurde Professor. 1966 begann er das Projekt des MU 5 Computers, der zwar nicht zu einem kommerziellen Produkt führte, dessen Architektur aber teilweise in die 2900 Serie von ICL (zu denen die Computer-Sparte von Ferranti nun gehörte) übernommen wurde. Der MU 5 ging 1972 an der Universität in Betrieb und war der letzte Großrechner, der an der Universität entwickelt wurde. Kilburn ging 1981 in den Ruhestand.

1965 wurde er Fellow der Royal Society, deren Royal Medal er 1978 erhielt, 1982 erhielt er den Computer Pioneer Award der IEEE und 1973 wurde er zum Commander of the British Empire (CBE) ernannt. 1971 erhielt er den W. Wallace McDowell Award und 1983 den Eckert-Mauchly Award von ACM und IEEE.

Weblinks
 Biographie bei computer50.org (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Informatiker
Hochschullehrer (University of Manchester)
Entwickler eines Computersystems
Computerpionier
Commander des Order of the British Empire
Mitglied der Royal Society
Brite
Geboren 1921
Gestorben 2001
Mann

Tom Kilburn


التعريف اللغوي للاسم : ما يُعْرف به الشيءُ ويستدلُّ به عليه

الاسم هو كلمة بصيغة الاسم (لغة) أو أكثر تستخدم للتعريف بشخص أو حيوان أو غيرها وذلك لتمييزه عن الآخر. قد تستخدم الأسماء للتعريف بمجموعة أو صنف معين كما تستخدم للتعريف بالأفراد. الاسم الشخصي هو اسم يستخدم للتعريف بشخص بعينه.

لا يقتصر استخدام الأسماء على الإنسان، وإنما يتسع ليشمل طيف واسع من الحيوانات، النباتات أو الأشياء.

الأسماء في اللغة
الاسْمُ فِي اللُّغَةِ العَرَبِيَّةِ مِنْ حَيْثُ مَعنَاه يُطلق على الآتي:

 إنْسَان: مِثْل: مُحَمَّد، عَبْد اللَّهِ، إبْرَاهِيم، عَائِشَة، خَدِيجَة زَيْنَب، هِنْد.

 حَيَوَان: مِثْل: أَسَد، جَمَل، ثُعْبَان، سَمَكَة، نَمْلَة، بَقَرَة، دَجَاجَة.

 نَبَات: مِثْل: زَهْرَة، شَجَرَة تُفَّاح، مَوْز عِنَب، بَصَل، خِيَار.

 جَمَاد: مِثْل: كِتَاب، قَلَم، مَكْتَب، بَيْت، سيارة، حقيبة، غَسَّالَة.

 بَلَد: مِثْل: مِصْر، اليمن، مَالِيزْيَا، بغداد، مَكَّة، وَاشِنْطُن.

 مَعْنَى: مِثْل: حُبّ، كُرْه، اجْتِهَاد، قِرَاءَة   حِفْظ.

 اسْم اسْتِفْهَام: مِثْل: مَا، مَاذَا، مَتَى، مَنْ، كَيْفَ، أَيْنَ، كَمْ.

 اسْم مَوْصُول: مِثْل: الَّذِي، الَّتِي، الَّذِينَ.

 اسْم إشَارَةٍ: مِثْل: هَذَا، هَذِهِ، هَؤُلَاء ذَلِكَ.

 صِفَة: مِثْل: طَوِيل، قَصِير، كَبِير، صَغِير.

 ضَمِير: مِثْل: أَنَا، أَنْتَ، أَنْتِ، هُوَ، هِيَ، نَحْنُ أنْتُم.

 ظَرْف: مِثْل: فَوْقَ، تَحْتَ، أمَامَ، خَلْفَ، بَيْنَ.

معنى الاسم ولغاته

 أولاً معنى الاسم ولغاته:

الاسم في الأصل هو: العلامة توضع على الشيء يعرف بها.

وقد ذكر الجوهري أن في الاسم أربع لغات:

اسم واسم بكسر الهمزة وضمها، وسم وسم بكسر السين وضمها.

    وقال ابن يعيش النحوي: «وقد ذكر فيه لغة خامسة، قالوا: (سمى) بزنة هدى وعلى. وأنشدوا: (والله أسماك سما مباركا)، ولا حجة في ذلك، لاحتمال أن يكون على لغة من قال (سم) ونصبه لأنه مفعول ثان». وقد أيده ابن هشام في هذا الاحتمال، لكنه صحح هذه اللغة بدليل آخر هو ما حكاه صاحب الإفصاح من قول بعضهم: ما سماك.

وقال الأشموني: إن في الاسم «عشر لغات منقولة عن العرب: اسم وسم وسما مثلثة، والعاشرة سماة. وقد جمعتها في قولي:

لغات الاسم قد حواها الحصر في بيت شعر وهو هذا الشعر اسم وحذف همزه والقصر مثلثات مع سماة عشر»

وقد أنهيت لغات الاسم إلى «ثمان عشرة لغة، جمعها العلامة الدنوشري في بيت واحد من الطويل، فقال:

سماء وسم واسم سماة كذا سما وزد سمة واثلث أوائل كلها»

 ثانيا اشتقاق الاسم:

ثمة خلاف مشهور بين نحاة البصرة والكوفة بشأن تحديد أصل اشتقاق الاسم، فقد ذهب الكوفيون إلى أنه مشتق من (الوسم) وهو العلامة، وذهب البصريون إلى أنه مشتق من (السمو) وهو العلو.

فأصل الاسم على رأي الكوفيين (وسم) حذفت فاؤه التي هي الواو، وعوض عنها بالهمزة، وإنما سمي اسما، لأنه سمة توضع على الشيء يعرف بها.

وأصله على رأي البصريين (سمو) على وزن (حمل) أو (سمو) على وزن (قفل)، ثم حذفت لامه التي هي الواو، وعوض عنها الهمزة في أوله . «وإنما لقب هذا النوع اسما، لأنه سما بمسماه فرفعه وكشف معناه»، أو لأنه «سما على مسماه وعلا على ما تحته من معناه». وهناك توجيهان آخران للتسمية على مذهب البصريين:

 أولهما: أنه إنما سمي اسما، لأنه سما على الفعل والحرف، «لكونه يخبر به ويخبر عنه، والفعل يخبر به ولا يخبر عنه، والحرف لا يخبر به ولا يخبر عنه».

 والثاني: «لأنه علا بقوته على قسمي الكلام: الحرف والفعل . والاسم أقوى منهما الإجماع، لأنه الأصل».ومرد التعجب من هذين التوجيهين إلى أن القائل بهما يعتمد على ما استحدثه النحاة من تقسيم الكلمة اصطلاحاً إلى اسم وفعل وحرف، غفلة عن تأخر هذه القسمة زمانا عن وضع الاسم لمعناه لغة، إضافة إلى عدم الالتفات إلى أن الاسم بمعناه اللغوي شامل لأقسام الكلمة الثلاثة، " فإن كلا منها علامة على معناه».

وقد لاحظ العلماء في مقام الموازنة بين الرأيين، أن «ما ذهب إليه الكوفيون وإن كان صحيحاً من جهة المعنى، إلا أنه فاسد من جهة التصريف». ويمكن إجمال الدليل الذي سيق لتصحيح رأي البصريين بما يلي : أنه لو صح رأي الكوفيين لوجب أن يقال في تصغير الاسم : وسيم، وفي جمعه : أوسام، وفي اشتقاق الفعل منه : وسمت . وكل ذلك غير جائز ولم يقل به أحد . بل قالوا في تصغيره : سمي، وفي جمعه : أسام، وفي اشتقاق الفعل منه : سميت . وهذا كله مناسب لاشتقاق الاسم من السمو لا من الوسم . ويذكر أن أبا إسحاق الزجاج (ت ـ 311 هـ) هو أول من ذكر اشتقاق الاسم من السمو، واستدل عليه بدليلي الجمع والتصغير  ، وأما الاستدلال باشتقاق الفعل منه، فقد أورده أول مرة ابن الخشاب (ت ـ 567 هـ). وهناك دليل آخر على صحة مذهب البصريين طرحه ابن الخشاب أيضا، وجعله ابن الأنباري أول المؤيدات لمذهب البصريين، وخلاصته : إن القاعدة كون التعويض في غير محل الحذف . فالأصل في ما حذف أوله أن يعوض في آخره، وفي ما حذف آخره أن يعوض في أولة . فالهمزة في أول (ابن) عوض عن الواو المحذوفة من آخره، وأصله (بنو)، والتاء في آخر (عدة) عوض عن الواو المحذوفة من أوله، وأصله (وعد). ولما كانت الهمزة في أول (اسم) للتعويض، دل ذلك على أن المحذوف آخره . وهذا يثبت كونه مشتقا من (سمو لا من (وسم). وقد أشكل على هذا الدليل بعدم اطراد القاعدة المذكورة . قال أبو حيان : إن التعويض قد يكون في موضع المعوض عنه . وقال ابن جني: لا يلزم فيا لمعوض أن يكون في موضع المعوض عنه.

الاسم في الاصطلاح
استعمل النحاة الاسم بمعنيين اصطلاحيين :

أولهما ما يقابل الفعل والحرف، والثاني ما يقابل الكنية واللقب .

أما استعمال الاسم بالمصطلح الأول فهو قديم قدم النحو، ومرد ذلك إلى أن تقسيم الكلمة إلى اسم وفعل وحرف هو حجر الأساس في البحث النحوي، وعليه تتفرع مسائله . وأن مراجعة ما أثبته سيبويه في كتابه عمن تقدمه تظهر بوضوح أن استعمال أقسام الكلمة في معانيها الاصطلاحية كان أمرا مستقرا لدى النحاة قبله، وأن اهتمامهم كان منصبا على تنويع تلك الأقسام وبيان أحكامها . بل إن كثيرا من المصادر العربية القديمة تنسب تقسيم الكلمة إلى اسم وفعل وحرف إلى الإمام علي عليه السلام وأنه عهد إلى أبي الأسود الدؤلي أن ينحو نحوه ويعمل على إتمامه.

وقد مر تعريف الاسم بهذا المصطلح بمرحلتين :

 المرحلة الأولى : التعريف بالمثال .

قال سيبويه: «الاسم : رجل وفرس وحائط». وعلل النحاة بعده عدم تعريفه الاسم بالحد، بأنه «ترك تحديده ظنا منه أنه غير مشكل»  ، أو بأن الاسم لا حد له فاكتفى فيه بالمثال، أو لأنه «عول على أنه إذا كان الفعل محدودا والحرف محصورا معدودا، فما فارقهما فهو اسم»  ، أو لأنه «لما حد الفعل والحرف تميز عنده الاسم» (33) .

ويلاحظ على التعليل الأخير أن سيبويه لم يحد الحرف، بل عرفه بشكل يجعل تمييزه متوقفا على معرفة حد كل من الاسم والفعل، إذ قال : الحرف «ما جاء لمعنى وليس باسم ولا فعل».

 المرحلة الثانية :

تعريفان محكيان عن سيبويه التعريف بذكر علامة الاسم أو صفته .

التعريف الأول : أن الاسم ما صلح أن يكون فاعلا .

والثاني : أن الاسم هو المحدث عنه.

وعرفه الكسائي بقوله : «الاسم ما وصف».

وقال ابن السراج : «الاسم ما جاز الإخبار عنه».

وقال الفراء : «الاسم ما احتمل التنوين والإضافة أو الألف واللام».

وقال هشام الضرير : «الاسم ما نودي».

وقال الزمخشريّ : «الاسم ما دلّ على معنى في نفسه دلالة مجرّدة من الاقتران».

وقال ابن الحاجب : «الاسم ما دلّ على معنى في نفسه غير مقترن بأحد الأزمنة الثلاثة».

أنواع الأسماء

الأسماء في اللغة العربية كثيرة ومتنوعة وهناك منها أنواع كثيرة.

جامد ومشتق
ينقسم الاسم لنوعين رئيسيين جامد ومشتق:
 الاسم الجامد: هو ما لم يؤخذ من غيره وهو مرتجل وضع للدلالة على معنى بعينه (مثل: شمس وزراعة)(جميع المصادر أسماء جامدة واسم المرة واسم الهيئة. وهو على نوعين:

 اسم ذات: ويشمل كل ما يدرك بالحواس وله حيز في الوجود (مثل: إنسان وأرض).
 اسم معنى: ويشمل ما دل على معنى يدرك بالذهن، ويشمل المصادر الدالة على أحداث (مثل شجاعة وإرادة).

 الاسم المشتق: هو الذي يؤخذ من غيره ويدل على ذات ويحمل معنى وصفيا (مثل: دائم وكتوم)وهو يشمل اسم الفاعل واسم المفعول واسمى الزمان والمكان اسم التفضيل وصيغ المبالغة واسم الآلة.

مذكر ومؤنث
الاسم باعتبار الجنس

المرء هو الإنسان وينقسم إلى.....

 اسم مذكر: وهو الاسم الدال على الذكور. مثل: رجل وسيد وصبي وولد ومراهق وفتى وشاب.
 اسم مؤنث: وهو الاسم الدال على الإناث. مثل: امرأة وست وسيدة وآنسة وصبية وبنت ومراهقة وفتاة وشابة.

وينقسم كلاهما إلى حقيقي ومجازي كما وينقسم المؤنث إلى قياسي وسماعي.

من ناحية صرفية
كما يُقَسَّم الاسم من ناحية صرفية إلى:

 اسم مقصور: وهو الاسم الذي ينتهي بألف لينة لازمة وتقدر عليه حركات الإعراب الثلاث. مثل عصا وعمى.
 اسم ممدود: وهو الاسم المعرَب الذي في آخره همزة قبلها ألف زائدة. مثل: سماء وزهراء.
 اسم منقوص: وهو كل اسم معرَب في آخره ياء لازمة أصليّة غير مُشدَّدة مكسور ما قبلها. مثل: الوادي، والماضي.
 اسم صحيح: وهو أيّ اسم لم يُشمَل في الأنواع الثلاثة السابقة. مثل موسوعة ورجل.

أقسام أخرى

 اسم الجمع: وهو الاسم الدال على ثلاثة فأكثر بلا زيادة أو تغيير وليس له واحد من لفظه. مثل: قوم ورهط.
 اسم الجنس: وهو على نوعين جمعي وإفرادي.

تصنيف الاسم من حيث العدد:

قد يكون الاسم مفرداً أو قد يكون الاسم مُثنىً أو جمعاً،

وكما يلي:

1- الاسم المفرد :

هو ما يشير إلى شيء واحد من الأشياء أو الأشخاص أو

حتى الحيوانات، ككلمة خروف أو كلمة قلم أو كلمة رَجُل.

2- الاسم المُثنى :

ويدُل الاسم المثنى إلى اثنين من الأشخاص أو الأشياء

هو ذلك الاسم الذي يُصاغ بزيادة ياء ونون إلى آخره في

حالتي النصب والجر مثل أكلت التُفَاحتِين ومررت بالرجُلَينِ أو زيادة ألف ونون في حالة الرفع مثل اجتهد الطالبان .

3- الجَمع :

يدل الجمع إلى أكثر من اثنين أو اثنتين أو ثلاثة،

يأتي الجَمع في مجموعة أشكال  علي سبيل المثال كجمع

المُذكر السالم، وايضا جمع المُؤنث السالم، بالإضافة الي

جمع التكسير، ولكل جَمع من هذه الجُموع السابقة حالاته

الصرفيه الخاصة به.

على سبيل المثال وليس الحصر: يُصاغ جمع المذكر

السالم بزيادة واو ونون في حالة الرفع فقط، في حين انه عندم

يُصاغ جمع المؤنث السالم بزيادة ألف وزيادة تاء في جميع

حالاته الصرفية، لكنه يرفع بالضمة وُينصب ويُجر بالكسرة.

أسماء الأفعال
و يُقصد بها تلك الألفاظ التي تحل في محل الفعل

في الإعراب وتعمل أسماء الفعل بعمل الفعل فترفع الفاعل وتنصب المفعول به، وكل أسماء الأفعال تستخدم بصيغة واحدة، للمفرد والمثنى والجمع، والمذكر والمؤنث إلا إذا اتصل اسم الفعل بكاف الخطاب (إذا كان أصله شبه جملة)، فإن هذه الكاف تتغير، تبعا لتغير المخاطب. وتمتاز أسماء الأفعال بأنها تكون غير قابلة للصرف فهي تأتي مبنية دوماً، وتجدر الإشارة إلى أن أسماء الأفعال تنقسم إلى

قسمين رئيسيين

وهما اسم الفعل السماعي (مرتجل)، واسم الفعل المنقول.

وهي كالآتي:

اسم الفعل السماعي (مرتَجل):

1- أسماء أفعال الفعل الماضي:

وهي:

(هَيْهاتَ) أي: بَعُدَ .

(شتّان) أي: افترقَ.

(شُكانَ وسُرعانَ) (بتثليثِ أوَّلهما) أي: أسرعَ.

(بُطآنَ) بضمِّ الباءِ وكسرها وسكون الطاءِ) أي: أبطئِ. ويكون

الفاعل في اسم الفعل الماضي اسماً ظاهراً، أو ضميراً

للغائب مستتراً جوازا.

2- أسماء أفعال الفعل المضارع:

وهي:

(أُف) بمعنى : أتضجر.

(آه) بمعنى: أتوجع.

(وَيْ) بمعنى : أتعجب.

(قَطْ) بمعنى : يكفي.

3- أسماء أفعال الفعل الأمر:

(آمين) بمعنى: استجب.

(صه) بمعنى: اسكت.

(حيِّ) بمعنى: أقْبِلْ. كما في نداء الأذان:(حيِّ على الصلاة

– حيِّ على الفلاح).

(إِيه) بمعنى : زِدْني.

(مَهْ) بمعنى: كُفَّ.مثل:(مَهْ عن هذا الحديث).

اسم الفعل المنقول :

وهو ما استُعمِل في غير اسم الفعل، ثم نُقِلَ إليه. وهو على

ثلاثة أشكال :

1- عن جار ومجرور. مثل:(إليك عني) بمعنى : ابتعد .

و (إليك الكتاب) بمعنى خذه.

2- عن ظرف.

مثل:(أمامك) بمعنى تقدَّم.و (مكانك) بمعنى: اثبت.

3- عن مصدر.

مثل: (رويدك) بمعنى: تمهَّل.

قائمة بأشهر أسماء الافعال

مراجع

انظر أيضًا
 الاسم (لغة)
 اسم العائلة

أسماء
صناعة معجمية
علم (نحو)
مفاهيم في المنطق
منطق فلسفي

اسم


Oldsmobile Alero var en stor mellemklassebil fra det amerikanske bilmærke Oldsmobile, som i Europa blev solgt under varemærket Chevrolet.

Modellen kom på markedet i april 1998 som efterfølger for Oldsmobile Achieva. Alero var tilmed den sidste nye mellemklassemodel fra mærket Oldsmobile og også den sidste bilmodel, som blev solgt under dette varemærke.

Produktionen sluttede i april 2004.

Historie
Alero var designet af designstudiet Alero Alpha, som i 1997 præsenterede en futuristisk designet sportscoupé på bilmesser.

Seriebilen fandtes som firedørs sedan og todørs coupé. Modellen delte platform og motorer med Pontiac Grand Am, Chevrolet Malibu og Oldsmobile Cutlass; alle disse modeller var bygget på General Motors' N-platform.

Motorprogrammet omfattede en firecylindret 2,4-litersmotor og en 3,4-liters V6-motor. Begge motorerne var som standard udstyret med automatgear.

Bilerne havde som standard et omfangsrigt komfortudstyr med bl.a. aircondition, fartpilot, alarm, el-ruder og antispinregulering.

Alero blev i nogle europæiske lande solgt under navnet Chevrolet Alero, men kun som sedan.

Produktionen blev afsluttet med specialserien Final 500. Disse 500 sidste Alero'er var udstyret med specielle emblemer, hvis design orienterede sig mod historiske Oldsmobile-logoer, mørkerød metallak og en mærkat med bilens løbende nummer.

Den sidste Alero Final 500 var ligeledes den sidste Oldsmobile-bil, som blev bygget. Den er i dag udstillet på Ransom Eli Olds Transportation Museum.

Noter

Litteratur
 Flammang, James M./Kowalke, Ron: Standard Catalog of American Cars 1976–1999. Kraus Publishing, Iola 1999.

Eksterne henvisninger

 Test af Chevrolet Alero V6 i Teknikens Värld

Bilmodeller
Store mellemklassebiler
Coupéer
Forhjulstrukne biler
Biler introduceret i 1998
Biler fra 1990'erne
Biler fra 2000'erne

Oldsmobile Alero


Zarazne bolesti čije je sprječavanje i suzbijanje od interesa za Republiku Hrvatsku određene su Zakonom o zaštiti pučanstva od zaraznih bolesti iz 1992. godine. Zarazne bolesti u smislu tog zakona su:
1. Aktivna tuberkuloza (Tuberculosis activa)
2. Bjesnoća (Rabies)
3. Botulizam (Botulismus)
4. Brill-Zinsserova bolest (Morbus Brill-Zinsser)
5. Bruceloza (Brucellosis)
6. Crni prišt (Anthrax)
7. Crvenka (Rubeola)
8. Difterija (Diphtheria)
9. Dizenterija (Dysenteria)
10. Dječja paraliza (Poliomyelitis anterior acuta)
11. Ehinokokoza (Echinococcosis)
12. Enterokolitis (Enterocolitis)
13. Enteroviroze (Enteroviroses)
14. Erizipel (Erysipelas)
15. Gripa (Influenza)
16. Guba (Lepra)
17. Helmintoze (Helmintoses)
18. Hemoragijska groznica s bubrežnim sindromom (Febris haemorrhagica cum syndroma renale)
19. Hripavac (Pertussis)
20. Infekcijska mononukleoza (Mononucleosis infectiosa)
21. Kapavac (Gonorrhoea)
22. Klamidijaza (Chlamydiasis) i ostale SPB
23. Kolera (Cholera)
24. Kozice, herpes zoster (Varicella, herpes zoster)
25. Krpeljni meningoencefalitis (Meningoencephalitis acarina)
26. Kuga (Pestis)
27. Legionarska bolest (Legionellosis)
28. Leptospiroze (Leptospiroses)
29. Lišmanijaza kožna/visceralna (Leishmaniasis cutanea/visceralis)
30. Lyme-borelioza (Lyme-borreliosis)
31. Malarija (Malaria)
32. Meningokokni meningitis, sepsa (Meningitis epidemica, sepsis)
33. Meningitis bakterijski (ostali) (Meningitis)
34. Ospice (Morbilli)
35. Ornitoza-psitakoza (Ornithosis-psittacosis)
36. Papatači groznica (Febris pappataci)
37. Pjegavac (Typhus exanthematicus)
38. Povratna groznica (Febris recurrens)
39. Q groznica (Febris Q)
40. Rikecioze (ostale) (Rickettsioses)
41. Salmoneloza (Salmonelloses)
42. Sifilis (Syphilis)
43. Sindrom stečenog nedostatka imuniteta (SIDA/AIDS, kopnica)
44. Streptokokna upala grla, šarlah (Angina streptococcica, scarlatina)
45. Svrab (Scabies)
46. Tetanus (Tetanus)
47. Toksoplasmoza (Toxoplasmosis)
48. Trbušni tifus (Typhus abdominalis)
49. Trihineloza (Trichinellosis)
50. Trovanje hranom (osim salmonele) (Toxiinfectio alimentaris)
51. Tularemija (Tularemia)
52. Upala pluća (Pneumonija, bronchopneumonia)
53. Ušljivost glave/tijela (Pediculosis capitis/corporis)
54. Virusna žutica (Hepatitis virosa)
55. Virusne hemoragijske groznice (Febres haemorrhagicae virosae)
56. Virusni meningitis (Meningitis virosa)
57. Zarazna upala mozga (Encephalitis)
58. Zaušnjaci (Parotitis epidemica)
59. Žuta groznica (Febris flava)
60. Nosilaštvo HBsAg (hepatitis B površinski antigen)
61. Nosilaštvo protutijela na HIV
62. Nosilaštvo Salmonella typhi.

Ako se pojavi opasnost i od drugih zaraznih bolesti koje mogu ugroziti pučanstvo Republike Hrvatske, Vlada Republike Hrvatske može odrediti, da se za zaštitu pučanstva od tih zaraznih bolesti primjenjuju sve ili pojedine mjere predviđene Zakonom o zaštiti pučanstva od zaraznih bolesti.

Izvori

Epidemiologija
Politika Hrvatske


Coláiste Iognáid SJ (), a bilingual secondary school, is located on Sea Road in Galway, Ireland. It was founded in 1645 and has had numerous locations over the years before its current home. The college is a co-educational, non-fee-paying secondary school and one of a number of Jesuit schools in Ireland. There are approximately 600 pupils in the school.

Organisation
Coláiste Iognáid is run by a board of management comprising parent, teacher, and Jesuit representatives. It is non-fee-paying, co-educational, and has no school uniforms. Students study there from ages thirteen to eighteen and sit the Junior and Leaving Certificate examinations. Each of the six-year groups is divided into four classes. The four groups are Gaeilge ("Irish Stream"), Xavier, Loyola, and Collins (G, X, L, C). Students are taught in similar ability classes throughout the school. The school is known locally as the 'Jes'.

In the fourth year ("Transition Year"), all students are reassigned into one of four classes, Brebeuf, Gonzaga, Ricci, or Claver (B, G, R, C). The classes return to the initial four groups in the fifth year for Irish classes only. The reorganisation of the groups for the fourth year is part of the school's "Transition Year" programme. While the Transition Year is optional in some Irish schools, it is compulsory in Coláiste Iognáid.

History

Since 1620, the Jesuits have, with some involuntary intermissions, been working with and for the people of Galway. In 1645 their first school was founded through the generosity of Edmund Kirwan. While the language of the classroom was Latin, only the Jesuits with a fluent command of Irish were sent on the "Irish Mission".

The school, which was incorporated into a Jesuit residence in the present Abbeygate Street, continued in Galway through a time of political upheaval and military activity.

In 1859, at the request of the Bishop of Galway, the Jesuits once more took up residence in the city, this time in Prospect Hill and served in the nearby St. Patrick's Church. Within a year they had opened a college near the site of the present Bank of Ireland at 19 Eyre Square. The college's present location on Sea Road dates from 1863, when it was built the same year as the Jesuit church next door, St Ignatius Church.

The modern phase of Coláiste Iognáid began in 1929. The local enthusiasm for the language revival efforts of the emerging Republic of Ireland was to be served by a re-invigorated Coláiste Iognáid, which became an Irish-medium School in 1931.

In 1967, in contrast with its foundation of 1620, Coláiste Iognáid became part of the "non-fee-paying" secondary school system. In 1969, with the co-operation of management and staff, coupled with the help of parents, past pupils, and friends of the Jesuits, the present main school building, the Griffin Building, was built.

In 1974, when the school population was increased to provide three-form entry, one co-educational form became the Irish-medium Scoil Gaeilge. Following consultation with staff and Jesuits, the school established the Board of Management in 1980 to take shared responsibility for all aspects of the school – the first agreed board of its kind in Ireland.

In 1982, the school underwent a buildings programme. This produced a new science block (O'Reilly Building), a refurbished classroom block (Andrews Building), a library, and art, computer, and co-educational facilities. The Colombian Hall was refurbished and an indoor sports area was added. Co-education was extended to the whole school in 1984, to become the first fully co-educational secondary school in the city.

The senator Pádraig Ó Céidigh taught at Coláiste Iognáid for a time.

Rectors
 Rev. MacArdle, S.J.
 Rev. Henry Foley, S.J.
 Rev. William Dargan, S.J.
 Rev. John Hughes, S.J.
 Rev. Andrew O'Reilly, S.J.
 Rev. Fergal McGrath, S.J., B.A., D.Phil.

Education

Coláíste Íognáíd is a non-fee-paying, co-educational, secondary school, comprising Jesuit and lay staff and catering to a broad spectrum of social and academic intake. The school has a three-form entry. One form offers education through Irish up to Junior Certificate and all three forms offer mixed-ability teaching.

Curriculum
In the three-year junior cycle all pupils follow the Junior Certificate syllabus in the core subjects of Irish, English, maths, French, commerce, science, geography, history, S.P.H.E., and C.S.P.E., as well as religion and physical education.  There are also options to study home economics, technical graphics, art, music (each student studies one of these), and German, which can be chosen instead of French.

Transition year follows the Junior Certificate and comprises a selection of courses designed within the school and taught as modules. The subjects taken are as follows: accounting, art - design & craft, career guidance, computers, English (in 4 modules - media studies, modern fiction, drama, creative writing), French, Gaeilge, geography, German, history, home economics, safety, home maintenance, mathematics, music, P.E., religious education, science, Spanish, and social studies.

In the two-year Senior cycle pupils prepare for the Leaving Certificate. In addition to religious education, pupils study Irish, English, maths, French, and a choice of three from chemistry, accountancy, German, art, physics, geography, economics, music, biology, history, business, home economics (social and scientific), and design and communication graphics.

Sport and extracurricular activities

Staff, parents, and former pupils undertake extracurricular activities voluntarily. It is expected that each pupil will participate in at least one of the activities provided. As circumstances allow, the school provides the following sports: rowing, Gaelic football, rugby, hockey, soccer, basketball, canoeing, athletics, swimming and mountaineering.

Gaelic football is now very popular in the school. And in 2017, both the Junior Gaelic Football team and the Juvenile team have qualified for their respective Connacht finals. The Junior team played Glenamaddy and the Juvenile team (U-15) played Garbally College.

Pupils also participate in various clubs and cultural activities such as debating (Irish and English), drama, social action, and orchestra. With many of the nearby schools, extra-curricular activities pupils enter city, provincial, and national competitions like Feile Scoil Dramaiochta, Feis Cheoil na hÉireann, Concern and Denny debates, the Young Scientist Competition, golf, and the various blitz, cup, and league fixtures and regattas.

The school also produces a public musical/drama each year which the fifth years perform.

Basketball

The Jes has teams participating in regional girls' competitions at the senior and under-16 level and in boys' competitions in the under-16, second, and first-year age groups.

Debating

The school had a long history of debating and competes both nationally and internationally. As of 2015, it has had the highest tabbing for eight consecutive years. The current society, founded in 2007 by students Leah Colclough and Ciaran Garrett (winner of 2012 ESU John Smith Memorial International Mace), convenes every week and is open to all students. It competes in every major national and many international competitions available to students.

From 2006 to 2016, the society won the Denny Schools' Debating Connacht Title (now known as the "West of Ireland Debating Championship") eleven times. The school won the "double" at this level in 2010, winning the individual championship and the team award. In 2012 the society took part in a record 17 separate competitions around Ireland. In 2014 and 2015, the school won the "double".

The school was represented in the National Junior Mace finals every year of its existence and also qualified for ICYD nine times (2010,2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017).

In 2015 (Frank O'Neill and Eoghan Finn) and 2017 (Kate Duggan and Conor O'Sullivan), the school qualified for Cambridge Senior International.

From 2008 to 2009 and in 2014, 2015,2016, the society won both the NUIG Junior and Senior Maces as well as being runners up in the All-Ireland Denny Schools Debating Competition.   Students featured as representatives to the Irish National Session of the European Youth Parliament and were selected to the National Schools' Debate Team.  Two other students won the UCD Law Society Mace. Andrew Forde, won the Galway Public Speaking award and he and Eoghan Finn represented Ireland at the European Youth Parliament. From 2011 to 2012, the pair won the West of Ireland Schools Senior Debate Final, the Belvedere Junior Mace, the St. Conleth's Junior Mace, the Coláiste na hInse Junior Mace, the Trinity Senior Pro-Am Final, and the NUIG "Alan Kerins" Mace. From 2012 to 2013, the society were champions at the West of Ireland Senior Final, the Coláiste na hInse Junior Mace, and the National Junior Mace 2013. In September 2015 the school won the 2015 Belvedere Junior Mace chaired by Joe Duffy. They won the same competition again in 2016 with Conor O'Sullivan and Harry Redfern.

Liam Carton, Fionn Ryan and Kate Duggan won the Galway Advertiser City Schools Competition in 2016.

The school won the West of Ireland Debating Competition in 2014. The following year, in 2015, the school won it again, meaning that since its first involvement in 2004 the school has won it most of any school.

Since 2013 the school has run its own Junior Mace as part of the National Junior Mace event. It won it in 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017. In 2016 the school mace qualified 2 teams for ICYD Cambridge 2017, these speakers were among the top 88 young speakers in the world.

Hockey
From 2001 to 2006 the Senior Girls Hockey Team won Senior A leagues and represented Connacht at the National Finals.

In the 2005-2006 year a Senior B team was submitted for the first time since 1989. The team submitted in 1989 was the school's first hockey team and they won the competition. The following year they moved down to the C Division. They went on to win the league, defeating Salerno B 2–1 in the final.

In 2008 and 2009 the Senior team won the Connacht Schools Senior Cup with victories over Taylor's Hill and Our Lady's Bower Secondary School, Athlone, respectively in the finals. They then participated in the 2008-2009 ESB Kate Russell All-Ireland Girls Schools Finals where they beat Foyle and Londonderry College 3–2 in the final.

In 2010, Coláiste Iognáid hosted the Kate Russell All-Ireland Championships at Dangan Sports Ground.

Rowing

Coláiste Iognáid Rowing Club (CIRC) has won various regional and national trophies as well as having members represent Ireland in international competitions.

In the 2005–2006 season, the women's junior crew won the women's junior eights and fours championships of Ireland and became the Connaught Tribune Team of the Year. Four oarswomen from the club represented Ireland at the Home Internationals. Later in the year, the school bought new boats and oars.

The school had students representing Ireland in the Home International and Coupe de la Jeunesse competitions in 2007 and 2008. The Jes also sent crews to Ghent, Belgium, for the annual KRSG international regatta. There the men's crew finished first in the junior-18 fours. At the 2008, Coup de la Jeunesse at the NRC, Cork, Eddie Mullarkey was in the two-bow seat of the men's coxed four that took silver.

In 2008 the women won the all-Ireland junior women's eights title. In the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, Cormac Folan, a former student, competed in the bowseat of the Heavyweight Four, finishing 10th overall. Another ex-Jes rower, Paul Murray, won gold at the Universiade in Lithuania. That year, Cormac Folan of Freeport in Bearna represented Ireland in Rowing at the 2008 Summer Olympics.

At the 2009 European Junior Rowing Championships at Vichy, France, Zoe Mannion and Aifric Keogh, representing Ireland, finished second to Britain to win a silver medal in the women's junior pairs. Three weeks previously, rowing as Coláiste Iognáid, the pair won the junior title at the Irish National Rowing Championships held in Cork.

In 2016, the women won the junior 15 and 16 8s at the Irish Championships.

At the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games Aifric Keogh was part of the bronze medal-winning women's coxless four team.

Rugby

The Jes S (Senior XV) have been the most successful side in Connacht since the new millennium, having won the Connacht Schools Senior Cup a record Eight times (2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2016 and 2017). In all since the School's first Cup win 1924, the school has a record of having won the Senior Cup on 14 occasions (second in the all time winners list) from 1913 to 2017, with several further final appearances.

In the 2007–2008 season the school progressed to the Connacht Schools Senior Cup Final where they met Marist College, Athlone and won 10–7. In 2008–2009, the Jes beat Sligo Grammar School 10–3 to record their 11th victory in this competition and move up to third in the all-time-winners list. In 2011, the Jes beat Sligo Grammar again in the semi-finals 30–5. The Jes returned to the final for season 2015/16, resulting in the Cup returning to Sea Road after a 16–15 win over Garbally College. The Cup was retained in the 2016–17 season when Summerhill College, Sligo were beaten 13–7.

The Junior Rugby Team (Jes J) reached the final of the Connacht Schools Junior Cup in recent years in 2006 and lost to Garbally 12–20. In 2015 they lost to CBS Roscommon and most recently in 2017 the lost narrowly to Garbally College by 17–13. The junior side have been Connacht Champions on four occasions (1918, 1978, 1981,1987) and have been finalists in 1999 and 1989 though records are incomplete.

Soccer

In 2008-09 there were squads from three different age groups representing the school – first year, under-14s, and under 16s.

The under-14 and under-16 teams qualified for the knockout round of the Connacht schools cup – both coming through their groups through disqualification.

The senior squad reached the semi-final of the Connacht schools competition in 2014, losing to Summerhill College of Sligo.

Ultimate frisbee

The Jes Ultimate Frisbee Society (JUFS) started in 2014. It is a student-organised club. JUFS was the first in NUI Galway's Schools Ultimate Frisbee Programme. Both JUFS and the NUIG ultimate frisbee teams train together on a weekly basis. Although the JUFS is a senior-student-only club, a junior team is in the planning.

Other sports
Unlike other schools in Galway, the Jes had no adjacent playing fields in the early 2000s yet both the under-19 boys and the under 16-girls made it to the All Ireland finals in 2008. In 2009, the under-16 basketball team again made it to the All Irelands. Since the launch of the new building, the school now has playing fields and several other sporting facilities including a basketball court and a gym.

The school also has a mountaineering club.

Other activities

Coláiste Iognáid has a music department and stages a musical each year. The 2008 musical was Grecian Nights, an adaptation of "Mamma Mia!", in 2009, it was "Back to the '80s", 2010 was "Guys and Dolls", 2015 "Grease" and in 2016 it was "Happy Days", in 2017 it was Carl Hession's original musical "Hot House", in 2018 it was "Guys and Dolls, and in 2019 it was "Little Shop of Horrors" which came runner up in the GUM awards for Best Show.

Notable former students

Rugby union internationals
 Eric Elwood
 Eoin Griffin
 Eoin McKeon
 Claire Molloy
 Daniel Riordan
Miscellaneous
 Micheál Breathnach, writer
 William Joyce, Nazi propaganda broadcaster
 Proinsias Mac Aonghusa, journalist
 Frank Hugh O'Donnell
 Sean O'Rourke, RTÉ radio presenter
 Harry McGee, political correspondent with The Irish Times
 Seán Duignan, journalist, newsreader, political aide and writer
 Bobby Molloy, government minister
 Paul O'Higgins, legal scholar
 Fr.Peter Yorke - Irish American Priest, pastor of St. Peter's Church in Archdiocese of San Francisco and Labor activist
Aifric Keogh, rower and Olympic Medallist

Notable staff
 Johnny Geraghty, former Galway footballer

Scoil Iognáid

Associated with Coláiste Iognáid is Scoil Iognáid (English: St Ignatius School). It is a national school and is the main primary school of the college, located on Bothar Na Sliogan, 200m from the college.

It was founded by the Jesuits in 1971 and, like the college, was administered by them. It is also bi-lingual and coeducational. As of 2012 it had 550 pupils.

See also
 List of Jesuit sites in Ireland
 List of Jesuit schools

References

External links
  Coláiste Iognáid site
 Pierre Favre Archive at Coláiste Iognaid site
 Colaiste Iognaid Rowing Club site

1645 establishments in the British Empire
Boys' schools in the Republic of Ireland
Buildings and structures in Galway (city)
Educational institutions established in the 1640s
Education in Galway (city)
Jesuit secondary schools in Ireland
Secondary schools in County Galway

Coláiste Iognáid


Kirtland's warbler (Setophaga kirtlandii), also known in Michigan by the common name jack pine bird, or the jack pine warbler, is a small songbird of the New World warbler family (Parulidae). Nearly extinct just 50 years ago, populations have recovered due to conservation efforts. It requires large areas, greater than 160 acres (65 hectares), of dense young jack pine for its breeding habitat. This habitat was historically created by wildfire, but today is created through the harvest of mature jack pine (Pinus banksiana), and planting of jack pine seedlings.

The population of the species spends the spring and summer in their breeding range in the Great Lakes region of Canada (Ontario) and the United States (Wisconsin and Michigan, especially in the northeastern Lower Peninsula), and winters in the West Indies.

Taxonomy
This species was first recorded by Europeans relatively late for a bird from eastern North America. The first specimen was shot at sea somewhere between the Abaco Islands of The Bahamas and Cuba in mid-October 1841 by the ornithologist Samuel Cabot III. However, the specimen was unrecognized as a new species in the private collection of Cabot's father, Boston merchant Samuel Cabot Jr., until it made its way to the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution in the 1860s.

Ten years later the holotype, a juvenile male, was shot on Jared Potter Kirtland's farm near Cleveland, Ohio, in mid-May 1851. It was used to formally describe the species as Sylvicola kirtlandii by Spencer Fullerton Baird in 1852. Baird first attributed the collection to Charles Pease (Kirtland's son-in-law) in his 1852 description, but by 1858 he had changed his story and was attributing it to Kirtland.

In 1858 Baird moved the species, still then only known from his single specimen, to the genus Dendroica, where it remained until the 2010s, when it was reclassified into Setophaga.

By 1865 only four individuals were known to have been collected. Baird lists the male specimen from the Cabot collection, the holotype, a first female specimen shot in 1860 near Cleveland and preserved by R. K. Winslow, and a fourth (which Winslow mentioned had also been killed near Cleveland but had not been preserved). Local naturalist Philo Romayne Hoy also mentioned having possibly seen the species once near the village of Racine, Ohio, in the 1850s.

Etymology
Baird decided to name the bird after Jared Potter Kirtland: "a gentleman to whom, more than any one living, we are indebted for a knowledge of the Natural History of the Mississippi Valley". The generic epithet Setophaga is from the genitive case of Ancient Greek σής, transliterated as sḗs, meaning "moth", and , meaning "eating".

Description

Male Kirtland's warblers have bluish-grey upper body parts, with dark streaks on the back, yellow bellies, and dark streaks on the flanks and sides. It has black lores (cheeks) and a distinctive, large and conspicuous broken white eye ring, which it only shares with Setophaga coronata. Females and juveniles are similar, but are browner on the wings and back and are not as boldly or brightly marked. It frequently bobs its tail up and down, which is uncommon in northern warblers. At  and , it is the largest of the numerous warblers formerly classified in the genus Dendroica and is now the largest of the 35 or so species in the currently-accepted Setophaga genus. The Kirtland warbler has a wingspan of . Its mating song is a loud chip-chip-chip-too-too-weet-weet often sung from the top of a snag (dead tree) or northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) clump. This song can be heard over 400m away in good conditions. In its overwintering grounds it does not sing but makes loud "chip" noises from low in dense bushes.

The eggs are a "delicate" pinkish white when fresh, fading to a dull white after a time. There are a few scattered sprinkles in various shades of brown and pink, these sprinkles and blotches concentrated at the top or form a sort of wreath at the larger end. The egg is not very glossy. It is 18 by 14mm in size. The shell is very thin.

Similar species
Baird compared and found it most similar to Setophaga coronata, finding it best distinguishable by having a nearly uniformly yellow belly, no conspicuous yellow rump or crown, less black in the feathers of the crown, and a considerably larger and stouter bill and feet. Henninger mentions he finds it to have a certain resemblance to S. magnolia. In The Bahamas it may be misidentified with S. dominica flavescens.

Hybrids
In late October 1997 a large hybrid Setophaga warbler was netted in the low elevation dry scrublands of the southernmost Dominican Republic, which based on morphology (plumage colour and anatomical measurements of size) and geography was most likely a hybrid between S. kirtlandii and S. fusca.

Distribution
It was originally only known from Kirtland's home state of Ohio. In the mid 20th century the breeding range of Kirtland's warbler was reduced to a very limited area in the north of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. In recent years, breeding pairs have been found in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, Wisconsin, and southern Ontario due to the expanding population. The birds winter in Cuba, The Bahamas and the nearby Turks and Caicos Islands, where they are found on all islands investigated. A number also overwinter on Hispaniola, in the Dominican Republic. Overwintering birds have been collected and sighted a number of times in Florida. It has been recorded as a rare accidental on Bermuda and Jamaica, and there is an uncorroborated report from coastal Mexico. It has also been observed in the summer in Québec, although it is not known to breed there.

Individuals first migrate from The Bahamas west to Florida and South Carolina in the second half of April to early May, and from there move further northwest and westwards until they reach the Mississippi River, which they then follow upstream to the mouth of the Ohio River during May. They reach their breeding grounds early in June, and then leave their breeding range between August and October.

Ecology
The Kirtland's warbler's summer breeding habitat is in northern Michigan. Breeding habitat is where a bird lays its eggs and raises its babies. The Kirtland's warbler only builds its nests on the ground in young jack pine forests found in Michigan and sometimes Wisconsin.

Habitat
In their winter habitat, they have been found primarily in low "coppice" habitat, especially areas which have been cleared for slash-and-burn agriculture but have regrown after abandonment (98% of all records), with a preference for dense shrubbery with small openings here and there, no canopy and low ground cover. It has otherwise been found in all habitats on the islands, including, albeit uncommonly, suburban gardens and Bahamian pineyards, with the exception of high coppice which has never been clear cut -it has never been seen here. With rare exceptions this bird is almost always sighted from the ground to 3m high (98%).

For breeding habitat it requires large areas of young jack pine on sandy soil. Kirtland's warblers occur in greatest numbers in large areas that have been clear cut or where a large wildfire has occurred. For breeding they require stands of young (6 to 20 year old, 2–4 m high) jack pine trees. Other common plants in this habitat are blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense) and various grasses. Although it was initially believed to exclusively require jack pine stands, more recent research has found that the bird will also breed in some places in young stands of red pine (Pinus resinosa) of 10 to 15 years old. When the pine stands grow so tall so as to lose their lowest branches near the forest floor, the environment no longer provides sufficient cover. Such stands are ideally densely stocked with young pines, but also contain small occasional patches of open areas or with sparse tree cover.

Controversy
The status of the overwintering habitat has been contentious, with researchers disagreeing. Mayfield (1992, 1996) first stated that the bird inhabits the shrub layer. Lee et al. (1997) also believed that the warbler inhabits shrubs, but they concluded that the species is entirely dependent on pineyards, stating that before the advent of deforestation of the high coppice after the colonisation of The Bahamas by pre-colonial Lucayan peoples, the bird must have been restricted to the northwestern islands which harbour these pineyards and absent from central, eastern and southern islands such as Eleuthera. Sykes and Clench (1998), basing their analysis on 96 unambiguous records of both collected specimens and observations on thirteen different islands, as well as almost 451 observations over three months of the same two banded individuals on Eleuthera, refuted the claim, finding that by far most records were from regrown coppice after abandonment of agricultural fields. Like Mayfield, they state many of the earlier records used by Lee et al. were tainted by misidentification with S. dominica flavescens, a similar-looking subspecies that was not adequately described or illustrated at the time of the recordings. A few months later, Haney et al. (1998) published a repudiation of Sykes and Clench based on 101 warbler records, wherein they claimed the warblers do not prefer scrub coppice and reiterated their earlier assertion that the primary habitat of the birds was pineyards. They went even further in concluding that the world population of the warbler was not limited by the situation in their breeding range in Michigan, but that historic fluctuations in their population were instead being determined by the status of the pineyards in Bahamas. A detailed study by Wunderle et al. (2010) using a much larger sample size of new data from 153 capture sites and 499 observations, and investigations of the diet, found that Sykes and Clench had been correct, and there was no validity to the assertions of Lee, Walsh-McGehee and Haney. Jones et al. (2013), researching the warbler on an island where pineyards had never grown, hypothesized that a sampling bias for birds in pineyards had skewed the results of the research presented by Haney et al. Despite the evidence, Birdlife International, which performs the IUCN Red List assessments, has consistently shown preference for the Haney et al. interpretation, stating that the conclusion that "changes in population have occurred contemporaneously with the degradation and recovery of the north Bahamas pine ecosystem" is more compelling than that the recovery efforts in Michigan were having effects on the population size.

Haney et al. stated that another reason that this warbler was most likely restricted to the pineyards habitat was because there was no low coppice habitat available until the arrival of the first human colonists on the islands, the Lucayans some 1,000 years ago, due to there being no mechanism that could destroy the natural high coppice of the islands. However, in 2007, Wunderle et al. pointed out that hurricanes might produce such young successional habitat, albeit with no empirical evidence; they theorized that perhaps this warbler species had specifically evolved to take advantage of such weather phenomena.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/global/iitf/pubs/proc_iitf_2007_Wunderle001.pdf |title=The potential role of hurricanes in the creation and maintenance of Kirtlands warbler winter habitat in the Bahamian Archipelago |last1=Wunderle |first1=Jr., Joseph M. |last2=Currie |first2=David |last3=Ewert |first3=David N. |date=2007 |conference=The 11th Symposium on the Natural History of the Bahamas, 23–27 June 2005 |book-title=Proceedings of the 11th Symposium on the Natural History of the Bahamas |editor=Beverly J. Rathcke |editor2=William K. Hayes |publisher=Gerace Research Center |location=Gerace Research Center (formerly the Bahamian Field Station) on San Salvador Island, Bahamas |pages=121–129 |isbn=978-0-935909-81-4 |doi=10.1890/0012-9623(2005)86[112a:TSOTNH]2.0.CO;2 |access-date=7 March 2020}}</ref>

Behaviour
Yearlings and first-time breeders explore to find new breeding grounds, but ringed males have been observed to loyally return to the same nesting locality years after year; a male first ringed at CFB Petawawa in Ontario in 2006 returned for six consecutive years. This individual is estimated to have reached the age of nine, but in general the species are thought to have much shorter lifespans; males usually become four years old, and females are thought to only survive for 2.5 years on average.

One study found that 85% of the singing males are able to attract mates.

A warbler occupies a breeding territory of 2.7 to 3.4ha depending on location, but a larger wintering territory of 6.9 to 8.3ha depending on the island. They construct their nests on the ground, well concealed by lowest living branches of the jack pines and other vegetation. The nest is usually at the base of a tree, next to a down log or other structure. Eggs are laid in May to June.

Diet
It depends heavily during overwintering on the berries of Lantana involucrata, which is a very common successional shrub a few years after agriculture has been abandoned in a particular field. It is also said to eat the berries of Erithalis fruticosa and Chiococca alba. Of 331 observations of two warblers on Eleuthera in 1986, 76% were of foraging on Lantana, 8% were in Tournefortia volubilis, 4% in snowberry, 3.5% in Acacia rigens, 3.3% in Erithalis, 1.8% in Zanthoxylum fagara, and 1% Casuarina equisetifolia. Plants they were found foraging in at less than 1% were Sideroxylon salicifolium, Pithecellobium keyense, Tabebuia bahamensis and Scleria lithosperma. In its summering range this species feeds on blueberries and on insects such as spittlebugs, aphids and ants.

Interactions with other species

Jack pine is a species of pine with a distribution that spans almost across North America. Its cones open only after trees have been cleared away by forest fires or, after logging, in the summer sun. The ice age climate was somewhat drier overall and almost all of its present-day range was covered by solid ice as late as 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. Pollen analysis shows that the jack pine was almost non-existent between the Appalachian Mountains and the Great Plains during this period, with the possible exception of tiny isolated relict populations, which presents a mystery as to where the Kirtland's warbler survived during this period. Mayfield suggests that the species was restricted during this age to the southeastern Atlantic coast, which might explain its modern overwintering range in the Bahamas as opposed to Mexico, as well as why it appears to be closer related to Caribbean warbler species. The jack pine and the warbler likely colonized the Midwest around 10,000 years ago.

Without human intervention, the warblers are severely impacted by nest parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird. Blue jays prey on the nests and are a nuisance species because individual jays repeatedly allow themselves to get caught in the same traps used to exterminate the cowbirds of the nesting region.

Conservation

The Kirtland's Warbler Conservation Team is an integral part of post-delisting monitoring efforts and provides an important forum for sharing information, coordinating management efforts and ensuring that effective adaptive management occurs.

This is according to google

Decline
As global climate changed after the ice age through the last 10 millennia or so, jack pine, and consequently also Kirtland's warbler, shifted their habitat north. The cold-hardy jack pine now grows as far as north as the Northwest Territories.

The Kirtland's warbler has historically always been rare, with the species first recorded quite late for a bird from the eastern USA between the 1840s to 1851, only four or five birds seen in the first two decades after, and the breeding grounds and first nest not recorded in 1903 in Michigan.

It is still unclear to scientists how a species with such narrow habitat requirements was able to survive to modern times. One theory is that during the ice ages, which lasted much longer than interglacials, Kirtland's warbler had a more stable distribution and habitat; i.e. the species exists as a glacial relict during geologically brief periods of warming global temperatures. It is quite possible that colonization by Europeans actually temporarily boosted populations of the bird. Most of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan was once covered in vast tracts of old growth white pine (Pinus strobus), the final stage of succession in the woodlands of that region, but these were all harvested by the early 19th century for construction in the growing cities and towns around the Great Lakes and along the East Coast. This created the conditions for the extensive woodlots of jack pine, a pioneer species, found today.

In 1871, fed by dry conditions, high winds and piles of logging slash, a massive forest fire swept through lower Michigan, with another largefire in The Thumb of the Lower Peninsula, and a further huge forest fire on the Wisconsin-Michigan border and yet another around Windsor, Ontario. In 1881 another massive conflagration burned down the forests in The Thumb, which eliminated the last of the original white pine woodlands of Michigan. This period coincides with the era where most Kirtland's warbler specimens were collected, reflecting a possible peak in population size. However ornithologists were then unaware where it bred, and almost all these birds were taken in The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos or along the migration route. While no warblers were seen or killed in The Bahamas by the collector Henry Bryant in the 1850s and 1860s (despite his extensive searches), many dozens of warblers were recorded on almost all of the islands by the 1880s and 1890s. Charles Johnson Maynard collected 24 from New Providence during one two and a half month excursion in 1884. Maynard was a prolific collector, securing in this and subsequent years another ten on the same island almost a dozen on Eleuthera, and a further two on Cat Island, but many other collectors were able to obtain quite a number of specimens in The Bahamas during these decades.

In July 1903, the taxidermist Norman Asa Wood was presented with a specimen by a student at the University of Michigan, and promptly travelled to the area it was killed, where he found the first nest ever recorded for the species near the banks of the Au Sable River. He also found a second nest; both nests had chicks and one held a single unhatched egg. Wood killed all the birds he could (eight managed to escape his gun), and secured the nests and egg. He tried to rear some of the chicks, but these soon died. Including chicks, he returned to the city with fifteen specimens, the biggest collection of the species at the time in the USA. It was thus one of the last bird species of North America to have its nesting habits discovered. The following year Edward Arnold travelled to a nearby locality in June and found the third nest ever, with four eggs. He was able to capture both the male and female on the nest simply with his hands. Including these, 25 birds had been taken in Michigan by 1904, and another eight recorded, which made it clear that Michigan was the main stronghold of the breeding range of this warbler.

Considering the vernacular name of this bird was "jack pine bird" in Michigan, Wood was certainly not the first to discover that this species is specifically resident in jack pines, but in 1904 he was the first to publish these findings in a scientific journal. Woods also noted that, even in its breeding haunts, the bird was quite rare, and was not present in all areas of jack pine. This same year the migration route was first detailed in a paper by Charles C. Adams. Adams used dates of records of this bird in different states to show it migrated according to a very tight schedule, but used quite a broad route north spanning from the Mississippi River to South Carolina. He thought this might indicate that there were more breeding grounds to the west and east than those in Michigan which Woods had publicised. The records Adams was using are from the 1880s and 1890s and birds were shot as far west as Missouri and Minnesota, areas where the species has not been seen since.

In the 1920s, a recognised expert on this species was a Chicago teenager named Nathan F. Leopold (most well known for being one half of the crime pair Leopold and Loeb) who, in his scientific journal articles, published a number of important discoveries. One was that the age of the jack pines in a stand is the most pertinent determinant in the suitability of a particular terrain as a breeding habitat for the species, and another discovery was that the population was subject to a deleterious brood parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird.

Kirtland's warbler is highly susceptible to nest parasitism by this cowbird. Brown-headed cowbirds feed mostly on seeds from grasses and weeds, with some crop grains. Insects such as grasshoppers and beetles, often caught as cows and horses stir them into movement, make up about a quarter of a cowbird's diet. Development and fragmentation of forests in the eastern United States have allowed brown-headed cowbirds to greatly expand their range eastward. One study from 1931 to 1971 found 59% of the warbler nests parasitised in comparison to 5% of the nests in the study area of all other bird species combined, another study found 48% from 1903 to 1949; another found 86% rate of parasitism; and a last study found 69% of the warbler nests afflicted from 1957 to 1971. In 1971 the third decennial census counted 201 singing males, whereas the 1961 census had found 501 breeding pairs, showing a 60% decrease in population over the 1960s.

The first census of the species was performed in 1951, organised in part by a young Harold F. Mayfield, who would eventually spend the rest of life researching this species. 432 males were counted, half of these in just two areas where fires had raged in the 1930s. The second of what was supposed to be a decennial census program in 1961 showed an increase in population, with 502 males counted; many of these were still found at the sites of the two 1930s fires, a quarter was now resident at the site of a large fire from 1946.

The population reached a low of 167 singing males in 1974, and in 1994 only  of suitable breeding habitat was available.

Recovery
It was listed as endangered in the US in 1967. In 1971 a recovery plan was developed. The plan entailed the management of state and federal land through clear cutting, controlled burning and planting jack pine to expand suitable nesting habitat for Kirtland's warbler, as well as having the government acquire more land for this purpose. The other components were to limit public access land during nesting season, to conduct annual censuses of the warbler population, and lastly to intensively control the cowbird population.

A 1966 study found that shooting and trapping the cowbirds could reduce parasitism from 65% to 21%, and in 1972 cowbird control efforts commenced. The cowbird traps were 4 by 4 ft. and 6 ft. high with a recessed entrance hole at the top, and worked using sunflower seed bait, tape recorders playing birdsongs and decoy cowbirds which attracted more cowbirds. Cowbirds are asphyxiated in plastic bags using car exhaust fumes. Once a day during breeding season, or when the traps had collected 30 to 40 birds, the traps were serviced to destroy cowbirds. Other trapped bird species were banded and released, and some twelve cowbirds were left in the trap as decoys. Less cowbirds are caught as the season progresses, and radio-tracked cowbirds indicate that females are sedentary during the season. In the first year, 1972, 2,200 cowbirds were eliminated using a single trap, and only 6% of the warbler nests in the region were parasitised compared to 69% previously. Average clutch size in the region almost doubled. In 1973 the program was expanded to four traps, which caught 3,300 cowbirds and resulted in no parasitism that year. That same year 216 singing male warblers were recorded an increase of 9.2% from the 200 males recorded in 1972, and the first increase recorded ever. Thus the control program was considered a success, and the following year 22 cowbird traps were deployed, removing over 4,000 cowbirds across the region. Although only 167 singing male warblers were recorded in 1974, nevertheless the large number of fledglings meant the traps were effective. As of 2016, the cowbird traps still capture 4,000 cowbirds a season. Effective blue jay management involves transporting a few hundred jays a year dozens of miles away to be released.

Today the habitat of Kirtland's warbler is no longer being preserved by prescribed burns as these have proved too difficult to control (a forest service employee named James Swiderski was immolated during one of these burns in 1980),Radio Lab Weighing Good Intentions and the species is entirely dependent on staggered harvests by the timber industry for its survival. Some 76,000 hectares are reserved for this purpose on the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, of which some 15,000 are maintained as young jack pine breeding habitat for the bird. The Michigan Department of Natural Resources, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the U.S. Forest Service coordinate the clear cutting of tracts of 50 year old jack pines on 23 Kirtland's warbler management units. These managed units total . After cutting new trees are planted in a specified pattern to mimic the natural habitat the warbler needs, with clearings and dense thickets.

In 2004 Kirtland's warbler had been observed in Ontario and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and rarely recorded in northwest Ohio, where the numbers of recorded birds are increasing. Beginning in 2005 a small number have been observed in Wisconsin. In 2007 three Kirtland's warbler nests were discovered in central Wisconsin and one at CFB Petawawa in Ontario, providing a sign that they are recovering and expanding their range once again. The Wisconsin population continues to grow, with 53 individuals and twenty nests recorded in 2017.

In the IUCN Red List the Kirtland's warbler was classified as vulnerable to extinction since 1994, but was listed as near threatened in 2005 due to its recovery. Although there seemed to be no more than 5,000 Kirtland's warblers as of late 2007, four years earlier they had numbered just 2500–3000. Since the recovery plan began in the 1970s, the numbers of Kirtland's warbler have steadily risen, with an estimated population of 5,000 in 2016. A world total of 2,365 singing males were reported in the 2015 census. By 2018 there were an estimated 2,300 pairs and the population had continued to grow over the previous sixteen years according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Midwest Region. In 2019 the population has been above the recovery goal of 1,000 pairs for seventeen years.

The birds depend on The Bahamas and adjacent territories during winter; in 1998 their winter habitat was judged to be extremely widespread and it was calculated that there is enough area and habitat in the Bahamas to house a population of roughly more than 500,000 birds. The most destructive threat in the winter range are thought to be house cats, at least on some islands.

If Haney et al. are correct in arguing that the species does not overwinter in scrub coppice habitats in The Bahamas, but instead in pineyards, and the abundance of this species is in fact limited by changes in this pineyard habitat, the conservation efforts in Michigan may be insufficient for species recovery. Some Michigan locals have questioned the cost and point of the program. Habitat and cowbird management cost $1 million per year as of 2003. In the 1990s this was garnered from a carbon sequestration fund, but that source of financing has been terminated. Management costs were estimated at $1.5 to 2 million per year in 2008, however, the payments by timber companies for the sale of jack pine for manufacturing paper and wood pulp offsets some costs, and the species brings bird-watching tourists to the region which is an economic boon to local businesses. Survival of this species will require management that will need to continue in perpetuity. An endowment fund to ensure a permanent funding source for the species has been discussed as an option.

There is a Kirtland's warbler festival in Roscommon, Michigan, which is sponsored in part by Kirtland Community College (which is named in honour of the bird). The festival is held annually during the first full weekend of June.Kirtland Warbler Festival

Canada
Until 2007 Kirtland's warblers had never been known to have bred in Canada, with the exception of one ambiguous possible record from near Midhurst, Ontario in 1945. The first bird was collected in the country in 1900 when a specimen was secured on Toronto Island. The bird was then seen in the country in 1916 at the army base of CFB Petawawa by a military dentist, Paul Harrington; the same dentist made the third sighting of Canada at the same location in 1939, and in the next 65 years a bit more than two dozen sightings of the bird were made in the country, although only a few are verified. In 1979 it was declared an endangered species of Canada on the basis that it may have once bred in Ontario. In 2006 suddenly three birds were recorded at Petawawa, and the subsequent year the first ever nest was recorded at the same locality. The habitat at this location appears to have been maintained due to fires stemming from military training exercises. After 2007 the bird has bred almost every year at Petawawa, with the birds here fledged 27 young by 2014, and it has been reported at additional locations in central Ontario.

The government of Ontario published a recovery strategy for the Kirtland's warbler in 2016. A new mixed red and jack pine stand was planted at a location in Simcoe County in 2018 in the hopes of attracting the warbler, of which a sighting in the area had earlier been reported. Red pine was interspersed with the jack pine because the latter is relatively worthless as lumber, and it was hoped this configuration would make the project more economically sustainable.

Delisting
Prior to being delisted from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered mammals and birds in 2019,https://www.fws.gov/Midwest/endangered/birds/Kirtland/Kirtland's Warbler Press Release - FINAL with logos.pdf the Kirtland's warbler had been listed as "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Since delisting, continued monitoring is being used to ensure that the species remains secure.

Protected areas
It has been regularly recorded in the following protected areas:
Abaco National Park, Abaco, The Bahamas.
Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada.
Hartwick Pines State Park, Michigan, USA.
Huron-Manistee National Forests, Michigan, USA.
Lucayan National Park, Grand Bahama, The Bahamas.
Point Pelee National Park, Essex County, Ontario, Canada.
Rand Nature Centre (as Pinelands Wilderness Sanctuary), Grand Bahama, The Bahamas.
Tawas Point State Park, Michigan, USA.

See also
 Mutualism (biology)
 Kirtlands Warbler Wildlife Management Area

References

Further reading
Clench, Mary Heimerdinger (1973). "The Fall Migration Route of Kirtland's Warbler". Wilson Bulletin 85 (4): 417–428.

Mayfield, Harold (1960). "The Kirtland's Warbler". Cranbrook Institute of Science Bulletin'' (40): 1–242.
 .

External links

 http://www.uptownupdate.com/2015/05/rare-bird-alights-at-montrose-harbor.html
 Kirtland's warbler at All About Birds
 Kirtland's warbler, Michigan Department of Natural Resources
 The Nature Conservancy Songbirds: Kirtland's warbler
 Endangered species program, Kirtland's warbler, US Fish and Wildlife Service
 Stamps

Kirtland's warbler
Native birds of the Eastern United States
Environment of Michigan
Endangered fauna of the United States
Kirtland's warbler
ESA endangered species
Kirtland's warbler

Kirtland's warbler


In mathematics and solid state physics, the first Brillouin zone (named after Léon Brillouin) is a uniquely defined primitive cell in reciprocal space.  In the same way the Bravais lattice is divided up into Wigner–Seitz cells in the real lattice, the reciprocal lattice is broken up into Brillouin zones. The boundaries of this cell are given by planes related to points on the reciprocal lattice. The importance of the Brillouin zone stems from the description of waves in a periodic medium given by Bloch's theorem, in which it is found that the solutions can be completely characterized by their behavior in a single Brillouin zone.

The first Brillouin zone is the locus of points in reciprocal space that are closer to the origin of the reciprocal lattice than they are to any other reciprocal lattice points (see the derivation of the Wigner–Seitz cell). Another definition is as the set of points in k-space that can be reached from the origin without crossing any Bragg plane.  Equivalently, this is the Voronoi cell around the origin of the reciprocal lattice.

There are also second, third, etc., Brillouin zones, corresponding to a sequence of disjoint regions (all with the same volume) at increasing distances from the origin, but these are used less frequently.  As a result, the first Brillouin zone is often called simply the Brillouin zone.  In general, the n-th Brillouin zone consists of the set of points that can be reached from the origin by crossing exactly n − 1 distinct Bragg planes. A related concept is that of the irreducible Brillouin zone, which is the first Brillouin zone reduced by all of the symmetries in the point group of the lattice (point group of the crystal).

The concept of a Brillouin zone was developed by Léon Brillouin (1889–1969), a French physicist.

Within the Brillouin zone, a constant-energy surface represents the loci of all the -points (that is, all the electron momentum  values) that have the same energy. Fermi surface is a special constant-energy surface that separates the unfilled orbitals from the filled ones at zero kelvin.

Critical points

Several points of high symmetry are of special interest – these are called critical points.

Other lattices have different types of high-symmetry points. They can be found in the illustrations below.

See also

 Fundamental pair of periods
 Fundamental domain

References

Bibliography

External links
Brillouin Zone simple lattice diagrams by Thayer Watkins
Brillouin Zone 3d lattice diagrams by Technion.
DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package – "Brillouin Zones"
Aflowlib.org consortium database (Duke University)
AFLOW Standardization of VASP/QUANTUM ESPRESSO input files (Duke University)

Crystallography
Electronic band structures
Vibrational spectroscopy

Brillouin zone


Prolaz La Désirade (francuski: Canal de La Désirade) je tjesnac na Karibima. Odvaja otok La Désirade, od Grande-Terrea (Gvadalupa).

Povijest
Vode prolaza La Désirade dugo su bile poznate kao vrlo opasne, a prijelazi su bili povijesno opasni, barem do dolaska novih trajektnih brodova.

No, postoji i, možda prije svega, povijesni razlog vezan za činjenicu da je u osamnaestom stoljeću na otoku La Désirade bio leprozorij. Osim toga, otok se koristio i kao zemlja progonstva za nepoželjne s kraljevog dvora.

Izvori

Tjesnaci u Gvadalupi
Tjesnaci Atlantskog oceana (Sjeverna Amerika)

Prolaz La Désirade


The Assassin er en kampsport film instrueret af taiwanske instruktør Hou Hsiao-Hsien fra 2015. Filmen vandt instruktørprisen på filmfestivalen i Cannes 2015.

Medvirkende
 Qi Shu som Nie Yinniang
 Chen Chang som Tian Ji'an
 Shao-Huai Chang som Chiang Nu
 Nikki Hsin-Ying Hsieh som Huji
 Fang Mei som Yinniangs bedstemor
 Zhen Yu Lei som Tien Xing
 Ethan Juan som Xia Jing
 Dahong Ni som Nie Feng
 Jacques Picoux som Lady Tians lærer
 Satoshi Tsumabuki som Spejlpudseren

Kilder

Eksterne henvisninger

Kampsportsfilm fra Kina
Kampsportsfilm fra Hongkong
Mandarinsprogede film

The Assassin (film)