Ein Kirchliches Kreditinstitut ist eine Bank mit konfessionellem Hintergrund. In Deutschland existiert eine Reihe von Banken im Umfeld der evangelischen und katholischen Kirche. Sie unterstützen die kirchliche Arbeit durch die finanzielle Absicherung von Kirche und Diakonie und bieten ethische Geldanlagemöglichkeiten.

Seit den 2000er Jahren "erleben die kirchlichen Banken geradezu einen Boom", sagte Professor Udo Steffens von der Frankfurt School of Finance & Management 2009.

Kirchliche Banken in Deutschland
Die meisten Kirchlichen Kreditinstitute haben die Rechtsform einer eingetragenen Genossenschaft (e.G.) und gehören dem Bundesverband der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken an.

Liste der kirchlichen Banken (gestaffelt nach Jahresumsatz):

Banken mit römisch-katholischem Hintergrund
 Liga Bank in Regensburg ist eine der ältesten katholischen Banken in Deutschland und einzige katholische Bank in Süddeutschland.
 DKM Darlehnskasse Münster, eine der vier katholischen Banken in NRW.
 Bank im Bistum Essen, eine der vier katholischen Banken in NRW.
 Bank für Kirche und Caritas in Paderborn, eine der vier katholischen Banken in NRW.
 Pax-Bank in Köln, älteste kirchliche Bank in Deutschland.
 Bank für Orden und Mission (eine Zweigniederlassung der VR Bank Untertaunus eG) in Idstein, Untertaunus, investiert das bei ihr angelegte Geld unter Berücksichtigung ethischer Grundsätze. Sie vergibt keine Kredite. Ein Teil des Geschäftsgewinns fließt an die Missionszentrale des Franziskanerordens für konkrete Hilfsprojekte zugunsten notleidender Menschen in aller Welt.
 Steyler Bank in Sankt Augustin tätigt ihre Investitionen ebenfalls nach ethischen Kriterien. Dabei arbeitet sie auf der Basis des Frankfurt-Hohenheimer Leitfadens und ist Mitglied im Verein Corporate Responsibility Interface Center. Gewinne werden ausschließlich zur Unterstützung der Hilfsprojekte der Steyler Missionare verwendet.

Banken mit evangelischem Hintergrund
 Bank für Kirche und Diakonie eG – KD-Bank in Dortmund betreut rund 7.000 Institutionen sowie 31.000 christlich orientierte Privatkunden (Stand 2012). Die Bank führte für die Wertpapieranlagen einen Nachhaltigkeitsfilter ein, der sich an den Zielen des konziliaren Prozesses (Frieden, Gerechtigkeit und Bewahrung der Schöpfung) orientiert. Weitere Schwerpunkte der Tätigkeit sind die Vergabe von Krediten für gemeinnützige Projekte im Bereich der evangelischen Kirche und ihrer Diakonie.
 Evangelische Bank entstanden 2014 durch Fusion der
Evangelische Kreditgenossenschaft Kassel (EKK) bedient die Kirchen im Süddeutschen Raum.
 Evangelische Darlehnsgenossenschaft in Kiel bedient die norddeutschen Landeskirchen.

Banken mit freikirchlichem Hintergrund
 Spar- und Kreditbank Evangelisch-Freikirchlicher Gemeinden (SKB), als Bank der Baptisten in Deutschland in den 1930er Jahren gegründet, vergibt die Bank Darlehen an Gemeinden, diakonische Einrichtungen und Werke im Bund Evangelischer Freikirchlicher Gemeinden in Deutschland KdöR. Inzwischen arbeitet die Bank auch mit Gemeinden außerhalb des Bundes zusammen.
 Spar- und Kreditbank des Bundes Freier evangelischer Gemeinden (SKB) in Witten ist die Spar- und Kreditbank des Bundes Freier evangelischer Gemeinden in Deutschland und als solche Finanzpartner der Einrichtungen, Werke und angeschlossenen Gemeinden des Bundes sowie deren Mitarbeiter, Mitglieder und Freunde. Die SKB wurde im Jahr 1925 gegründet.

Kirchliche Banken und Kirchenfinanzen
Einen Großteil ihres Geldes deponieren die deutschen Kirchen in den kirchlichen Banken. Der Spiegel taxierte im Jahr 2001 die Einlagen kirchlicher Organisationen bei den religiösen Geldinstituten auf insgesamt 42 Milliarden D-Mark. Die Kirchen unterhalten Kirchen-Depots mit Aktien und Investmentpapieren bei den Kreditinstituten.

Ethische Anlagen bei Kirchlichen Banken
Nach Meinung des Infodienstes AnlageABC können alle 15 Kirchenbanken in Deutschland einen ethischen Anspruch mit dem Thema Geldanlage verbinden. Vor dem Hintergrund, dass Geldanlagen unter besonderer Beachtung ethischer Grundsätze eine immer größere Bedeutung einnehmen, werden kirchliche Banken auch für Privatkunden interessanter. Das Volumen dieser Anlagen hat sich in Deutschland seit dem Jahr 2005 bis 2012 mehr als verdreifacht und beträgt rund 16 Milliarden Euro (2012).

Einig sind sich die meisten kirchlichen Banken, dass sie Investitionen in Rüstungsindustrie, Atomkraft, Pornografie, Tabak sowie Betriebe, die gegen Menschen- und Arbeitsrechte verstoßen, ablehnen.

Die internationale Non-Profit Organisation "Christian Finance Observatory" (OFCCFO) hat im August 2015 ein Charta der christlichen Ethischen Finanzen in mehreren Sprachen veröffentlicht (Französisch, Englisch, Italienisch, Russisch).

Kritik
In der Vergangenheit wurde die Umsetzung ethischer Anlagekriterien bei den deutschen Kirchenbanken häufig angezweifelt. So berichtete der Spiegel 2009, dass die katholische Pax-Bank hohe Summen in Aktien von Rüstungs- und Tabakkonzernen angelegt habe. Der damalige Vorstandsvorsitzende der Pax-Bank, Christoph Berndorff, bestätigte die Angaben und sagte, die Bank würde in Zukunft nicht mehr in solche Unternehmen investieren. Die Pax-Bank hatte zusammen mit der katholischen Liga Bank knapp 578.000 Euro bei dem Rüstungsunternehmen BAE Systems angelegt. Der weltweit tätige Konzern mit Sitz in London produziert unter anderem Atom-U-Boote, Raketensysteme und Kampfflugzeuge.

Kirchliche Banken in Österreich
In Österreich besitzt die katholische Kirche mehrheitlich die Privatbank Bankhaus Schelhammer & Schattera. Sie wurde als Privatbank gegründet, versteht sich aber – nachdem die katholische Kirche Mehrheitseigner wurde – als die Bank der Kirche in Österreich.

Kirchliche Banken in der Schweiz
In der Schweiz gibt es keine kirchliche Bank.

Banken mit ökumenischem Hintergrund
Die Ökumenische Entwicklungsgenossenschaft Oikocredit vermittelt die Anlagegelder ihrer Mitglieder als faire Kredite an Unternehmen und Genossenschaften in armen Ländern. Zurzeit sind rund 65 Prozent der Darlehen an Mikrofinanzinstitutionen vergeben, die anderen 35 Prozent gehen als Direktkredite an Unternehmen vor allem in den Bereichen Landwirtschaft, Nahrungsmittelverarbeitung und Kleingewerbe.

Banken der Katholischen Kurie
Das Istituto per le Opere di Religione (IOR) (deutsch Institut für die religiösen Werke, allgemein bekannt als "Vatikanbank") ist eine Bank im Besitz des Heiligen Stuhles. Sie ist formell keine Staatsbank der Vatikanstadt, obwohl sie auch deren Aufgaben erfüllt. Die Bank kam kirchenintern und öffentlich in den letzten Jahrzehnten immer wieder wegen undurchsichtiger Strukturen und Geschäften sowie Machtintrigen in die Kritik.

Am 23. September 2009 setzte Papst Benedikt XVI. Angelo Caloia als Präsident des IOR sowie den gesamten Aufsichtsrat ab. 2012 standen Korruptionsvorwürfe gegen Kardinalstaatssekretär Tarcisio Bertone (die "Nummer zwei" nach dem Papst) im Raum. Der Präsident der Vatikanbank Ettore Gotti Tedeschi war im Mai 2012 entlassen worden. Gotti Tedeschi, der als "Experte für Finanzethik" galt, hatte seit dem 2009 an der Spitze der Vatikanbank gestanden. Ziel der Bestellung Gotti Tedeschi war es, das IOR auf sichere Füße zu stellen und mehr Transparenz zu schaffen sowie die innerhalb der EU geltenden Regelungen zur Verhinderung von Geldwäsche einzuhalten. Gotti Tedeschi galt nicht nur als ein Experte für "Finanzethik", ihm wurden gute Verbindungen innerhalb der römisch-katholischen Kirche sowie zum Opus Dei nachgesagt.

Daneben gibt es als Finanzbehörde des Vatikans die Apostolische Kammer (lat.: Camera Apostolica). Im Mittelalter war die Apostolische Kammer die päpstliche Finanzbehörde, seit Papst Pius X. ist sie hingegen nur noch während einer Sedisvakanz befugt, die Güter des Apostolischen Stuhls zu verwalten.

Einzelnachweise

Kirchliches Kreditinstitut


est une autrice japonaise. Son livre Hyakunen doro (La  boue des ) a remporté le  Prix Akutagawa et le49ème Prix Shincho.

Biographie
Yuka Ishii est née à Hirakata, Osaka et y a vécu pendant ses premières années d'école. Elle déménage ensuite à Tōkyō, où elle sort diplômée de l'Université Waseda. Elle occupe divers emplois à temps partiel, notamment vendeuse de grands magasins et hôtesse de snacks, tout en écrivant des histoires pendant son temps libre. Après avoir manqué remporter un prix littéraire à , elle retourne chez ses parents à Osaka pour essayer d'écrire à plein temps. En 2000, elle décide de reprendre ses études à Tōkyō, pour étudier le bouddhisme à l'Université de Tokyo.

En 2014, Ishii déménage à Madras (Chennai), en Inde, où son mari travaille comme chercheur en langue sanskrite, et elle-même donne des cours de japonais.

Elle fait ses débuts littéraires à  avec son roman Hyakunen doro La  boue des ), sur les conséquences d'une inondation qui ne se produit qu'une fois par siècle. L'histoire est basée sur ses expériences à Madras lors des inondations de 2015 dans le sud de l'Inde. Hyakunen doro remporte le prix Shincho des Nouveaux Écrivains. Il remporte également le prestigieux prix Akutagawa, qu'elle a partagé avec Chisako Wakatake.

Gabriel García Márquez et Yukio Mishima sont deux de ses auteurs préférés

Références

Liens externes

Lauréat du prix Akutagawa
Romancière japonaise
Romancier japonais du XXIe siècle
Naissance en 1963

Yuka Ishii


Onthophagus versus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por D'Orbigny em 1913.

Referências

Ligações externas

versus
Coleópteros descritos em 1913

Onthophagus versus


تحديد النشاط  هو عملية تحديد أنشطة البرنامج الزمني المعينة التي يتطلب تنفيذها لتحقيق مخرجات المشروع المختلفة.

انظر أيضا
نشاط (إدارة مشروعات)
 نهج الإطار المنطقي

مصادر
- دليل للدليل المعرفي لإدارة المشروعات - الطبعة الثالثة
Project Management Body of Knowledge

إدارة المشاريع

تحديد النشاط (إدارة مشروعات)


Eugene Thacker est un philosophe, poète et auteur américain. Il enseigne la théorie des médias à la New School de New York. Sa pensée est souvent associée au nihilisme et au pessimisme. Les ouvrages de Thacker incluent In the Dust of This Planet (qui fait partie de sa trilogie Horror of Philosophy ) et Infinite Resignation.

Formation

Thacker a obtenu un Bachelor of Arts à l'Université de Washington, ainsi qu'un Master of Arts et un doctorat de philosophie en littérature comparée de l'Université Rutgers .

Écrits

Nihilisme, pessimisme, réalisme spéculatif

Le travail de Thacker est associé au nihilisme et au pessimisme philosophiques, ainsi qu'aux philosophies contemporaines du réalisme spéculatif et de la collapsologie. Son petit livre Cosmic Pessimism définit le pessimisme comme « la forme philosophique du désenchantement ». Comme Thacker le déclare : « Le pessimisme est le côté nocturne de la pensée, un mélodrame de la futilité du cerveau, une poésie écrite dans le cimetière de la philosophie.

En 2018, le nouveau livre de Thacker, Infinite Resignation a été publié par Repeater Books . Infinite Resignation se compose de fragments et d'aphorismes sur la nature du pessimisme, mêlant expérience personnelle et recherche philosophique. Thacker s'inscrit dans le prolongement d'écrivains tels que Thomas Bernhard, EM Cioran, Osamu Dazai, Søren Kierkegaard, Clarice Lispector, Giacomo Leopardi, Fernando Pessoa et Arthur Schopenhauer. Le New York Times a noté que « Thacker a convié cette assemblée d'éloquents renfrognés à une grande fête, et il s'est révélé être un excellent hôte. . . Ce livre fournit son lot de désarroi et de compagnons de fortune."  Un critique écrit du livre : " Infinite Resignation a sa place aux côtés de Nietzsche et Schopenhauer. . . Comme toutes les grandes œuvres de philosophie, ce livre invitera les lecteurs à remettre en question leurs croyances profondes sur la façon dont le monde fonctionne et la façon dont le monde devrait fonctionner. . . La voix de Thacker est calme, un murmure désespéré dans le vide qui est à la fois envoutant et déchirant."

L'ouvrage philosophique majeur de Thacker est After Life, publié par l'University of Chicago Press. Dans ce document, Thacker soutient que l'ontologie de la vie opère par le biais d'une scission entre « la vie » et « le vivant », rendant possible un « déplacement métaphysique » dans lequel la vie est pensée via un autre terme métaphysique, tel que le temps, la forme ou esprit : « Chaque ontologie de la vie pense à la vie en termes de quelque chose d'autre que la vie... que quelque chose d'autre que la vie est le plus souvent un concept métaphysique, tel que le temps et la temporalité, la forme et la causalité, ou l'esprit et immanence"  Thacker retrace ce thème chez Aristote, Dionysius l'Aréopagite, John Scottus Eriugena, théologie négative, Emmanuel Kant, et Georges Bataille, montrant comment ce triple déplacement est aussi vivant dans la philosophie d'aujourd'hui. After Life comprend également des comparaisons avec la philosophie arabe, japonaise et chinoise.

L'essai de suivi de Thacker "Darklife: Negation, Nothingness, and the Will-to-Life in Schopenhauer" discute de l'ontologie de la vie en termes de négation, d'éliminativisme et de "relation inverse entre logique et vie". Plus précisément, Thacker soutient que la philosophie de Schopenhauer pose une « vie sombre » en opposition à « l'ontologie de la générosité » des penseurs idéalistes allemands tels que Hegel et Schelling. Thacker a également écrit dans la même veine sur le rôle de la négation et du « néant » dans l'œuvre du philosophe mystique Meister Eckhart. En fin de compte, Thacker plaide pour un scepticisme à l'égard de la « vie » : « La vie n'est pas seulement un problème de philosophie, mais un problème pour la philosophie.

Horreur et philosophie
Le livre le plus lu de Thacker est In the Dust of This Planet, qui fait partie de sa trilogie Horror of Philosophy.  Dans ce document, Thacker explore l'idée du « monde impensable » tel que représenté dans le genre de la fiction d'horreur, dans les philosophies du pessimisme et du nihilisme et dans les philosophies du mysticisme apophatique (« ténèbres »). Dans le premier volume, Dans la poussière de cette planète, Thacker appelle l'horreur de la philosophie « l'isolement de ces moments où la philosophie révèle ses propres limites et contraintes, des moments où la pensée affronte de manière énigmatique l'horizon de sa propre possibilité ». Thacker distingue le "monde-pour-nous" (la vision du monde centrée sur l'humain) et le "monde-en-soi" (le monde tel qu'il existe objectivement), de ce qu'il appelle le "monde-sans-nous". " : "le monde-sans-nous se situe quelque part entre les deux, dans une zone nébuleuse à la fois impersonnelle et horrible."  Dans ce volume et les autres de la trilogie, Thacker parle d'un large éventail d'œuvres : HP Lovecraft, Algernon Blackwood, Edgar Allan Poe, Dante's Inferno, Les Chants de Maldoror du comte de Lautréamont, le mythe de Faust, l'artiste manga Junji Ito, contemporain les auteurs d'horreur Thomas Ligotti et Caitlín Kiernan, le film d'horreur K et la philosophie de Schopenhauer, Rudolph Otto, le mysticisme médiéval ( Meister Eckhart, Angela de Foligno, Jean de la Croix ), la philosophie occulte et la philosophie de l'école de Kyoto.

Les écrits de Thacker sur la philosophie et l'horreur s'étendent à ce qu'il appelle les médias sombres, ou technologies intermédiaires entre le naturel et le surnaturel, et indiquent les limites de la perception et de la connaissance humaines. De même, Thacker a écrit une série d'essais sur la « nécrologie », définie comme la décadence ou la désintégration du corps politique. Thacker discute de la peste, de la possession démoniaque et des morts-vivants, en s'appuyant sur l'histoire de la médecine, la biopolitique, la théologie politique et le genre de l'horreur.

Philosophie, Science, Technologie
Les travaux antérieurs de Thacker adoptent des approches de la philosophie des sciences et de la technologie et examinent la relation entre la science et la science-fiction. Des exemples sont son livre Biomedia, et ses écrits sur la bioinformatique, la nanotechnologie, la bioinformatique, les systèmes adaptatifs complexes, l'intelligence en essaim et la théorie des réseaux. Le concept de biomédia de Thacker est défini comme suit : « Le biomédia implique la recontextualisation informatique de composants et de processus biologiques, à des fins qui peuvent être médicales ou non médicales... et avec des effets autant culturels, sociaux et politiques que scientifiques. " Thacker précise : « les biomédias font continuellement la double exigence que l'information se matérialise... les biomédias dépendent d'une compréhension du biologique comme informationnelle mais non immatérielle. »  Dans son livre The Global Genome: Biotechnology, Politics, and Culture, Thacker se penche sur les développements de l'ingénierie tissulaire où les appareils techno-mécaniques disparaissent complètement de sorte qu'il semble que la technologie soit le corps naturel. Selon les mots de Thacker, « la biotechnologie est donc invisible mais immanente ».

En 2013, Thacker, avec Alexander Galloway et McKenzie Wark, a publié le livre co-écrit Excommunication: Three Inquiries in Media and Mediation . En ouverture du livre, les auteurs demandent « Est-ce que tout ce qui existe, existe pour moi présenté et représenté, pour être médiatisé et remédié, pour être communiqué et traduit ? Il y a des situations médiatrices dans lesquelles l'hérésie, l'exil ou le bannissement l'emportent, et non la répétition, la communion ou l'intégration. Il existe certains types de messages indiquant qu'« il n'y aura plus de messages ». Donc pour chaque communication il y a une excommunication corrélative."  Cette approche a été désignée sous le nom de « New York School of Media Theory ».

Autres écrits
La poésie et la fiction de Thacker sont apparues dans diverses anthologies littéraires et magazines. Thacker a produit des projets d'art du livre, et un anti-roman intitulé An Ideal for Living, dont le poète et écrivain conceptuel américain Kenneth Goldsmith a déclaré : « c'est un livre important... ces pages s'inspirent de Burroughs et Gibson, tout en pointant de manière prémonitoire vers le chemin d'écriture basé sur le Web qui prendrait au cours de la prochaine décennie. »  Dans les années 1990, Thacker, avec Ronald Sukenick et Mark Amerika, a créé Alt-X Press, pour lequel il a édité l'anthologie d'écriture expérimentale Hard_Code.

Thacker est un contributeur de la section The Japan Times Books, où il a écrit sur le travail de Junji Ito, Osamu Dazai, Haruo Sato, Keiji Nishitani, Izumi Kyōka, Edogawa Rampo et la poésie de la mort zen.

Thacker a écrit une chronique pour le Mute Magazine basé à Londres intitulée "Occultural Studies", écrivant sur des sujets tels que le poète surréaliste Robert Desnos, la philosophie de Schopenhauer, les écrits d'horreur de Thomas Ligotti et la musique de And Also The Trees.

Thacker a écrit des Préfaces aux éditions anglaises des œuvres d'EM Cioran, publiées par Arcade Press. Il a fourni la préface et les annotations au roman d'horreur de 1988 de Clive Barker , Cabal, dans une édition spéciale publiée par Fiddleblack Press. Thacker fait partie du groupe éditorial de Schism, une presse philosophique et littéraire underground.

Thacker a contribué à des livres en édition limitée produits par Zagava Press, y compris son essai sur la vie et les écrits de J.-K. Huysmans. Thacker a également participé à la série de colloques et de publications sur la « théorie du black metal ».

D'autres activités
Thacker a également collaboré avec des artistes et des musiciens. Ceux-ci incluent le collectif d'art Fakeshop, qui a présenté l'art et l'installation à Ars Electronica, ACM SIGGRAPH 2000, et la 2000 Whitney Biennial. Thacker a également collaboré avec Biotech Hobbyist et a co-écrit un livre d'art Creative Biotechnology: A User's Manual.. En 1998, Thacker a produit un CD de noise music publié par Extreme Records  ainsi qu'un split CD avec Merzbow /Masami Akita, faisant partie du Extreme Records Merzbow Box Set sorti en 2000.

Influence
Dans une interview avec le Wall Street Journal, Nic Pizzolatto, créateur et écrivain de True Detective, cite In the Dust of This Planet de Thacker comme une influence sur la série télévisée, en particulier la vision du monde du personnage principal Rust Cohle, ainsi que plusieurs autres livres : Nihil Unbound de Ray Brassier, The Conspiracy Against the Human Race de Thomas Ligotti , Confessions of an Antinatalist de Jim Crawford et Better Never Have Been de David Benatar.

En septembre 2014, le Radiolab du WNYC a diffusé une émission intitulée "In the Dust of This Planet". Le programme a retracé l'appropriation du livre du même nom de Thacker dans l'art contemporain, la mode, la vidéo musicale et la culture populaire. Le livre de Thacker et le podcast Radiolab ont été couverts par Glenn Beck sur TheBlazeTV. Thacker a commenté les « mèmes du nihilisme » dans une interview : « Est-ce par hasard qu'à un moment où nous avons pris une conscience aiguë des défis concernant le changement climatique mondial, nous avons également créé cette bulle de médias sociaux ? Je trouve que les médias sociaux et la culture médiatique sont généralement un cirque insipide, désespéré et auto-glorifiant de solipsisme spécifique à l'espèce - ironiquement, la stupidité de notre espèce pourrait être son seul héritage."

Thacker et son livre In the Dust of This Planet sont référencés par la chaîne YouTube Wisecrack.

L'auteur de bandes dessinées Warren Ellis cite comme influence les philosophies nihilistes de Thacker et Peter Sjöstedt-H pour sa série Karnak: The Flaw in All Things de 2017. une ré-imagination du personnage original de Marvel Inhumans Karnak.

L'écriture de Thacker et Thomas Ligotti est citée comme une influence sur l'album 2021 The Nightmare of Being du groupe de death metal mélodique de Göteborg At The Gates. Thacker a également fourni les paroles de la chanson "Cosmic Pessimism".

Bibliographie

 Hard Code : Narration de la société en réseau . Edité par Eugène Thacker. Presse Alt-X, 2002. .
 Biomédia . Presse de l'Université du Minnesota, 2004.
 Creative Biotechnology: A User's Manual, co-écrit avec Natalie Jeremijenko et Heath Bunting. Locus+, 2004.
 Le génome mondial : biotechnologie, politique et culture . Presse MIT, 2005.
 The Exploit: A Theory of Networks, co-écrit avec Alexander R. Galloway . Presses de l'Université du Minnesota, 2007.
 Après la vie . Presse de l'Université de Chicago, 2010.
 Dans la poussière de cette planète (Horror of Philosophy Vol. 1). Zéro Livres, 2011.
 Leper Creativity: The Cyclonopedia Symposium, co-édité avec Ed Keller et Nicola Masciandaro . Livres Punctum, 2012.
 Excommunication: Three Inquiries in Media and Mediation, co-écrit avec Alexander R. Galloway et McKenzie Wark. Presses de l'Université de Chicago, 2013.
 Dark Nights of the Universe, co-écrit avec Daniel Colucciello Barber, Nicola Masciandaro, Alexander R. Galloway et François Laruelle. [NOM] Publications, 2013.
 And They Were Two in One and One in Two, co-édité avec Nicola Masciandaro. Schism Press, 2014.
 Corpse spéculatif étoilé (Horror of Philosophy Vol. 2). Zéro Livres, 2015.
 Des tentacules plus longs que la nuit (Horror of Philosophy Vol. 3). Zéro Livres, 2015.
 Cosmic Pessimism, avec des dessins de Keith Tilford . Éditions univoques, 2015.
 Démission infinie . Répéteur de livres, 2018.
 Un idéal à vivre : un anti-roman (édition 20e anniversaire). Schism Press, 2020.
 Arthur Schopenhauer, De la souffrance du monde . Édité avec une introduction par Eugene Thacker. Répéteur de livres, 2020.
 The Repeater Book of the Occult, co-édité avec Tariq Goddard . Répéteur de livres, 2021.

Références

Liens externes

 La nouvelle école : Eugene Thacker
 Radiolab - In the Dust of This Planet, interview de Radiolab avec Eugene Thacker, Simon Critchley, Jad Abumrad et autres, WNYC (8 septembre 2014)
 Horror of Philosophy: Three Volumes, interviewé par Carla Nappi sur New Books Network (2015)
 Reportage New Yorker (9-16 juillet 2018)
 Entretien VICE avec Zachary Siegel (8 août 2018)
 L'interview de Quietus avec Michael J. Brooks (28 octobre 2018)
 Entretien Creative Independent avec Meredith Graves (8 novembre 2018)
 Entretien O32c Magazine avec Daniel Beatty Garcia (juillet 2019)
 Les saints patrons du pessimisme - A Writer's Pantheon, extrait de Infinite Resignation @ LitHub (2018)
 Entretien "Pessimisme, Futilité et Extinction" Théorie, Culture & Société avec Thomas Dekeyser (17 mars 2020).
 Entretien "On Suffering" avec Brad Evans, Los Angeles Review of Books (1er février 2021).
 "Comment Algernon Blackwood a transformé la nature en une horreur sublime" LitHub (2021).

Étudiant de l'université de Washington
Professeur à la New School
Étudiant de l'université Rutgers
Auteur d'aphorismes
Critique littéraire américain
Poète américain du XXIe siècle
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Eugene Thacker


Prvenstvo Nogometnog saveza općine Split je bila liga četvrtog ranga natjecanja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1971./72.
Sudjelovalo je 12 klubova, a prvak je bio Mosor iz Žrnovnice.

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

Izvori:

Povezani članci
 Dalmatinska nogometna liga – Južna skupina 1971./72.
 Dalmatinska nogometna liga – Sjeverna skupina 1971./72.
 Nogometno prvenstvo otoka Hvara 1972.

Izvori
 Duško Marović, Andrija Križević-Drina: Šest decenija Nogometnog saveza općine Split : 1920 - 1980, Split, 1980. str. 87
 Jurica Gizdić: 90 godina Splitsko-dalmatinskog nogometnog saveza, Split, 2010., , str. 75
 Jurica Gizdić: 80 godina kliškog Uskoka, Klis, 2010., , str. 56-57
 Jurica Gizdić: Od Kolektivca do Postira sardi : 1948. – 2008., Postira, 2008.,
 Jurica Gizdić: NK Dugopolje 1952. – 2002. : 50 godina nogometa u Dugopolju, Dugopolje, 2002., , str. 43-44
 Marinko Perić: Povijest sporta Cetinske krajine, Sinj, 1989, str. 180
 nk-oskotok.bloger.index.hr, NK OSK Otok - Sezone OSK-a kroz povijest (SFRJ) , objavljeno 9. lipnja 2011., pristupljeno 27. listopada 2017.

1971-72
1971-72 Split
Split

Prvenstvo NSO Split 1971./72.


Tjasmyn (, ) er en biflod til Dnepr fra højre i Kirovohrad og Tjerkasy oblast i Ukraine. Tjasmyn udmunder i Krementjukreservoiret, er 161 km lang og har et afvandingsareal på 4.540 km². Middelvandføringen er 6,6 m³/s.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger )

Bifloder til Dnepr
Floder i Kirovohrad oblast
Floder i Tjerkasy oblast

Tjasmyn


An Cynorkis calanthoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Friedrich Fritz Wilhelm Ludwig Kraenzlin. An Cynorkis calanthoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cynorkis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Cynorkis

Cynorkis calanthoides


Unterbessenbach ist ein Ortsteil der Gemeinde Bessenbach im unterfränkischen Landkreis Aschaffenburg in Bayern. Das Kirchdorf hat 35 Einwohner.

Lage
Er liegt auf der Gemarkung von Keilberg an der St 2307 zwischen Hösbach-Bahnhof und Keilberg. In unmittelbarer Nähe verläuft die Bundesautobahn 3 und die Aschaff.

Baudenkmäler
Elf Objekte sind in die Liste der Baudenkmäler in Unterbessenbach eingetragen. Bedeutendstes Baudenkmal ist das Schloss Unterbessenbach.

Weblinks

Ort im Landkreis Aschaffenburg
Geographie (Bessenbach)
Kirchdorf (Siedlungstyp)

Unterbessenbach


Jakob Wassermann (în ; ) a fost un scriitor și romancier german de origine evreiască.

Biografie
Născut în Fürth, Wassermann a fost fiul unui negustor și a rămas orfan de mamă de la o vârstă fragedă. El a arătat de timpuriu un interes literar și a publicat frsgmente literare în ziare de mică importanță. Pentru că tatăl său era reticent în a-i sprijini ambițiile sale literare, el a început o scurtă perioadă de ucenicie cu un om de afaceri din Viena.

Și-a terminat serviciul militar la Würzburg. După aceea, el a locuit în sudul Germaniei și la Zürich. În 1894 s-a mutat la München. Aici a lucrat ca secretar și apoi ca redactor la ziarul Simplicissimus. În acest timp el i-a cunoscut pe scriitorii Rainer Maria Rilke, Hugo von Hofmannsthal și Thomas Mann.

În 1896 a publicat primul său roman, Melusine (numele său înseamnă "omul apelor" în germană, în timp ce un "Melusine" (sau "Melusina") este un personaj din foclorul și legendele europene, un spirit feminin al apelor proaspete în râurile și izvoarele sacre).

Din 1898 a fost critic de teatru la Viena. În 1901 s-a căsătorit cu Julie Speyer, de care a divorțat în 1915. Trei ani mai târziu, el s-a căsătorit din nou cu Marta Karlweis.

După 1906, el a trăit alternativ la Viena sau la Altaussee in der Steiermark, unde a murit în 1934, după o boală gravă.

În 1926 a fost ales în Academia Prusacă de Arte. El a demisionat în 1933, evitând la limită excluderea sa de către naziști. În același an, cărțile sale au fost interzise în Germania din cauza originii sale evreiești.

Opera literară a lui Wassermann include poezii, eseuri, romane și povestiri. Cele mai importante lucrări ale sale sunt considerate romanul Der Fall Maurizius (1928) și autobiografia Mein Weg als Deutscher und Jude (1921), în care a discutat despre relația tensionată între identitățile germană și evreiască.

El a murit pe 1 ianuarie 1934, la casa lui din Alt-Aussee, Austria, în urma unui atac de cord.

Lucrări

 Melusine (roman, 1896)
   Die Juden von Zirndorf (titlu în limba engleză: The Dark Pelerinaj)  (roman, 1897)
 Schläfst du, Mutter?  (nuvelă, 1897)
 Die Geschichte der jungen Renate Fuchs (roman, 1900)
 Der Moloh (roman, 1902)
 Der niegeküsste Mund (povestiri, 1903)
 Die Kunst der Erzählung (eseu, 1904)
 Alexander von Babylon (roman, 1905)
 Donna Johanna von Castilien (povestiri, 1906)
 Die Schwestern (nuvele - Donna Johanna von Castilien, Sara Malcolm, Clarissa Mirabel  - 1906)
 Caspar Hauser oder Die Trägheit des Herzens (roman, 1908)
   Die Gefangenen auf der Plassenburg (povestire, 1909)
 Die Masken des Erwin Reiners (1910)
  Der goldene Spiegel (nuvelă, 1911)
  Geronimo de Aguilar (poveste, 1911)
  Faustina (povestire, 1912)
 Der Mann von vierzig Jahren (roman, 1913)
 Das Gänsemännchen (roman, 1915)
 Christian Wahnschaffe (roman, 1919) (traducere în limba engleză sub titlul: The World's Illusion)
 Die Prinzessin Girnara, Weltspiel und Legende (piesă de teatru, 1919)
 Mein Weg als Deutscher und Jude (autobiografie, 1921)
  Imaginäre Brücken (studii și eseuri, 1921)
  Sturreganz (povestire, 1922)
  Ulrike Woytich (roman, 1923)
  Faber, oder die verlorenen Jahre (roman, 1924)
 Laudin und die Seinen (roman, 1925)
   Das Amulett (nuvelă, 1926)
   Der Aufruhr um den Junker Ernst (nuvelă, 1926)
 Das Aur von Caxamalca (povestiri, 1928)
  Christoph Columbus (biografie, 1929)
  Selbstbetrachtungen (reflecții, 1931)
 Romanul trilogie:
 Der Fall Maurizius (The Maurizius Case) (1928)
 Etzel Andergast (publicat în SUA ca "Dr. Kerkhoven") (1931)
 Joseph Kerkhovens dritte Existenz (1934)

Note

Bibliografie
 John Carl Blankenagel: The writings of Jakob Wassermann. Boston, The Christopher publishing house, 1942.
 Henry Miller: Reflections on The Maurizius case: a humble appraisal of a great book. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Capra Press, 1974.
 Alice Cohn Hanberg: The humanism of Jakob Wassermann. Thesis-University of California. Microfilm. Los Angeles, University of California, Library Photographic Service, 1953.
 Stephen H. Garrin: The concept of justice in Jakob Wassermann's trilogy. Bern: Lang, 1979.

Legături externe

 Guide to the Jakob Wassermann Autographs Collection at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York.

Nașteri în 1873
Decese în 1934
Evrei germani
Scriitori germani
Scriitori evrei

Jakob Wassermann


Safalı, Çiçekdağı - Kırşehir ili Çiçekdağı ilçesine bağlı köy
 Safalı, Kandıra - Kocaeli ili Kandıra ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Safalı, Çarşamba - Samsun ili Çarşamba ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Safalı


is a Japanese sweet roll most commonly filled with red bean paste. Anpan can also be prepared with other fillings, including white beans (shiro-an), green beans (uguisu-an), sesame (goma-an), and chestnuts (kuri-an).

History

Anpan was first made in 1875, during the Meiji period, by  (木村安兵衛 Kimura Yasubei), a samurai who lost his job with the rise of the Imperial Japanese Army and the dissolution of the samurai as a social class. The Meiji era was a period in which Japan was becoming increasingly modernized, and many samurai who lost their jobs were given work that was totally new to them. The role of a baker was one such job.

One day, while wandering around the area where many employed in new jobs worked, Kimura found a young man making bread, and decided to start his own bakery, named Bun'eidō (文英堂). In 1874, he moved to Ginza and renamed the bakery Kimuraya (木村屋), now Kimuraya Sohonten (:ja:木村屋總本店). At that time, however, the only recipe for bread known in Japan was for making a salty and sour-tasting bread, ill-suited to Japanese tastes at the time. Kimura thus figured out how to make bread akin to manjū, raising the dough with traditional sakadane liquid yeast. He then filled the bread with a bean paste wagashi and sold the resulting rolls as snacks. Anpan became popular not only because of its taste, but also because the Japanese were interested in anything new and foreign at this time.

Emperor Meiji and Empress Shōken later acquired a fondness for anpan after Kimura, via chamberlain Yamaoka Tesshū, prepared it for them to eat during hanami. Concerned with their appearance, he decorated them with a salt-pickled sakura in the middle of each bun. These anpan were presented to the emperor and empress on April 4, 1875, after which the emperor requested anpan from Kimura on a regular basis. Because of its newfound association with royalty, the popularity of anpan, and bread as a whole, increased throughout Japan.

In popular culture
"Anpan" is often used as slang for recreational inhalation of paint thinner.

The picture book and anime series Anpanman is about a superhero whose head is made of anpan.

References

 .
 .

Japanese breads
Japanese desserts and sweets
Sweet breads

Anpan


Arthur Roy Brown, DSC & Bar (23 de dezembro de 1893 - 9 de março de 1944) foi um ás da aviação canadense da Primeira Guerra Mundial, creditado com dez vitórias aéreas. A Força Aérea Real creditou oficialmente a Brown o abate de Manfred von Richthofen, o "Barão Vermelho", embora agora seja considerado quase certo por historiadores, médicos e especialistas em balística que Richthofen foi realmente morto por uma metralhadora disparando do solo.

Ver também

Militares do Canadá

Arthur Roy Brown


An Epidendrum amblostomoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Frederico Carlos Hoehne. An Epidendrum amblostomoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Epidendrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Epidendrum

Epidendrum amblostomoides


Logan Maile Lei Tom (* 25. Mai 1981 in Napa, Kalifornien, Vereinigte Staaten) ist eine US-amerikanische Volleyball- und Beachvolleyballspielerin. Sie nahm an vier olympischen Turnieren teil und wurde 2002 Vize-Weltmeister.

Karriere
Logan Tom spielte von 1999 bis 2002 an der Stanford University in Kalifornien. Seit 2002 spielt die Ausnahmespielerin auf verschiedenen Kontinenten, wobei sie in jedem Jahr den Verein wechselte: 2002/03 bei MRV Minas in Belo Horizonte in Brasilien und 2003/04 bei Monte Schiavo Jesi in Italien, wo die die Silbermedaille beim CEV-Pokal gewann. Mit dem Ligakonkurrenten Chieri Volley Club gewann sie 2004/05 den Top Teams Cup, bevor sie 2005/06 bei VBC Voléro Zürich in der Schweiz spielte. 2006/07 gewann sie mit dem spanischen Verein Marichal Teneriffa in der Champions League die Bronzemedaille. 2007/08 spielte sie bei Dynamo Moskau in Russland, 2008/09 bei Hisamitsu Springs in Japan, 2009/10 bei Asystel Novara in Italien, 2010/11 bei Guangdong Evergrande in China und 2011/12 bei Fenerbahçe Universal in der Türkei, mit dem sie Sieger der Champions League wurde. Seit 2012 spielt Logan Tom wieder in Brasilien bei Unilever Vôlei.

Logan Tom debütierte 2000 mit 19 Jahren in der US-amerikanischen Nationalmannschaft, wo sie bei den Olympischen Spielen in Sydney den vierten Platz belegte. Sie nahm 2004 an den Olympischen Spielen in Athen und belegte hier Platz fünf. Bei den Olympischen Spielen 2008 in Peking gewann sie die Silbermedaille. Logan Tom nahm an drei Weltmeisterschaften teil, wobei sie 2002 in Deutschland Vize-Weltmeister wurde. Sie belegte zahlreiche Medaillenränge beim World Grand Prix, beim World Cup, bei den NORCECA-Meisterschaften sowie bei den Panamerikanischen Spielen. Bei den Olympischen Spielen 2012 in London gewann sie erneut die Silbermedaille.

Auch im Beachvolleyball war Logan Tom aktiv. 2006 und 2007 spielte sie auf der US-amerikanischen AVP-Tour u. a. an der Seite von Holly McPeak, mit der sie 2007 auch zweimal auf der FIVB World Tour antrat.

Weblinks
 Profil bei USA Volleyball (englisch)

 Artikel Moerser SC
 Profil bei der FIVB (englisch)

Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2000
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2004
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2008
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2012
Volleyballnationalspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
Volleyballspieler (VK Dynamo Moskau)
Beachvolleyballspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
Olympiateilnehmer (Vereinigte Staaten)
Teilnehmer an den Panamerikanischen Spielen (Vereinigte Staaten)
Spanischer Meister (Volleyball)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1981
Frau

Logan Tom


Richard Hugh Blackmore (14 Nisan 1945), İngiliz gitarist ve bestecidir. 1968'da Deep Purple'ı kuran üyelerden biriydi. Grup, gitar riff'leri ile org müziğini harmanlayarak hard rock müzik yapıyordu. Blackmore, gitar riff'leri bestelemede çok yetenekli olmasının yanı sıra hem klasik müzik etkileri taşıyan hem de blues temelli sololarıyla tanınır.

Solo kariyeri sırasında Blackmore, barok müzik etkilerini hard rock unsurlarıyla birleştiren hard rock grubu Rainbow'u kurdu ancak Rainbow zaman içinde popüler ana akım rock tarzına yöneldi. Daha sonra, eşi Candice Night ile birlikte geleneksel folk rock projesi Blackmore's Night'ı kurdu ve vokalisti merkez alan bir müzik tarzına geçiş yaptı.

Blackmore, eski bir Deep Purple üyesi olarak Nisan 2016'da Rock and Roll Hall of Fame'e kabul edildi. Guitar World ve Rolling Stone gibi yayınlar Blackmore'u tüm zamanların en büyük ve en etkili gitaristlerinden biri olarak göstermektedir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Blackmore's Night Resmi Sitesi

Yaşayan insanlar
Britanyalı heavy metal gitaristler
Solo gitaristler
1945 doğumlular
İngiliz gitaristler
Deep Purple
Rainbow
Deep Purple üyeleri

Ritchie Blackmore


Leuconotha este un gen de insecte lepidoptere din familia Uraniidae.

Cladograma conform Catalogue of Life:

Referințe

Leuconotha

Leuconotha


A Guerra Anglo-Nepalesa (1 de novembro de 1814 – 4 de março de 1816), também conhecida como Guerra dos Gurkha, foi travada entre o exército Gurkha do Reino do Nepal (atual Nepal) e as forças britânicas da Companhia das Índias Orientais (atual Índia). Ambos os lados tinham planos de expansão ambiciosos para o norte montanhoso do subcontinente indiano. A guerra terminou com a assinatura do Tratado de Sugauli em 1816, que cedeu alguns territórios controlados nepaleses a Companhia Britânica das Índias Orientais

Referências

http://www.bilder-aus-nepal.de/Pages/Philatelie/ANGLO-NEPALESE-1816.html

Anglo-nepalesa
Anglo-nepalesa
Relações entre Nepal e Reino Unido
Século XIX no Nepal

Guerra Anglo-nepalesa


|}
Die Bahnstrecke Limbach (Sachs)–Oberfrohna war eine Nebenbahn in Sachsen. Sie verlief von Limbach nach Oberfrohna (heute Ortsteile der Stadt Limbach-Oberfrohna) und wurde 2000 stillgelegt.

Geschichte

Die Strecke Limbach (Sachs)–Oberfrohna wurde am 1. Juli 1913 als Erweiterung der schon bestehenden Strecken Limbach–Wittgensdorf und Limbach–Wüstenbrand eröffnet. Pläne aus dem 19. Jahrhundert sahen eine nie realisierte Weiterführung der Strecke bis Wolkenburg vor, wo sie in die Bahnstrecke Glauchau–Wurzen eingemündet hätte. Einige Orte im Herzogtum Sachsen-Altenburg stellten bereits im Jahr 1885 einen Antrag auf Errichtung einer Bahnstrecke von Altenburg über Ziegelheim und Waldenburg bis nach Limbach, welche jedoch ebenfalls nicht realisiert wurde.

In der DDR-Zeit verlagerte man einen Großteil des Reiseverkehrs auf schnellere und häufiger verkehrende Buslinien. Der Winterfahrplan 1981 wies trotzdem sieben Personenzugpaare aus, die teilweise von und nach Karl-Marx-Stadt Hbf (Chemnitz) verkehrten.

Der gesellschaftliche Umbruch im Osten Deutschlands 1989/90 war mit erheblichen Veränderungen verbunden. Innerhalb kürzester Zeit stellte ein Großteil der Betriebe im Einzugsgebiet ihre Produktion ein, was zu einem drastischen Einbruch der Verkehrsleistung im Personen- und Güterverkehr führte. Der Fahrplan 1993 war vor allem am Berufsverkehr ausgerichtet, am Wochenende verkehrten nur vier Zugpaare. Der letzte Fahrplan 1999 wies dagegen wieder acht Zugpaare in einem Zweistundentakt aus, die sämtlich von und nach Chemnitz Hbf durchgebunden wurden. Am 14. Juni 1999 wurde der Personenverkehr im Abschnitt Limbach – Oberfrohna kurzfristig auf Busse im Schienenersatzverkehr umgestellt, nachdem bereits seit 1. Januar 1995 kein Güterverkehr mehr stattgefunden hatte.

Am 24. Februar 2000 genehmigte das Eisenbahnbundesamt (EBA) die Stilllegung der Strecke, juristisch vollzogen wurde sie am 31. Mai 2000.

Seit dem 11. Dezember 2005 verkehrt zwischen Chemnitz, Limbach und Oberfrohna die Schnellbuslinie 526 im Bahnersatzverkehr für die Kursbuchstrecke 526 mit drei Halten in Limbach-Oberfrohna, sowie weiteren drei in der Chemnitzer Innenstadt. Durchgeführt wird der Betrieb von der Regionalverkehr Erzgebirge (ehemals Autobus Sachsen GmbH) in Kooperation mit der City-Bahn Chemnitz. Eine Besonderheit ist die Linienführung über die Bundesautobahn 4, wodurch die Fahrzeit lediglich 30 Minuten beträgt.

Am 27. und 28. September 2008 fand erstmals seit der Stilllegung der Strecke wieder ein Schienenverkehr anlässlich des Festwochenendes zu 125 Jahren Stadtrecht von Limbach zwischen den Bahnhöfen Limbach und Oberfrohna statt. Für die Fahrten wurde eine Motordraisine des VSE mit Beiwagen eingesetzt, mit der bis zu 10 Personen transportiert werden konnten.

Zukunft

Im Rahmen des Chemnitzer Modells soll Limbach-Oberfrohna über Teile der stillgelegten Eisenbahnstrecke Wittgensdorf–Oberfrohna an die Chemnitzer Stadtbahn angebunden werden. Die Planungen seitens Limbach-Oberfrohna und Chemnitz sehen hierzu eine mögliche Trasse über Kändler, Chemnitz-Röhrsdorf und Chemnitz-Zentrum vor. 2003 wurde mehrheitlich vom Rat der Stadt eine entsprechende Variante favorisiert, deren Kosten auf 16 Mio. Euro geschätzt werden. Im Verlauf des Jahres 2010 sollte über Fördermittel zur Verwirklichung des Projektes entschieden werden. Der Freistaat Sachsen lehnt es demnach ab, den Eigenanteil an den Entwicklungskosten für neue Hybrid-Schienenfahrzeuge zu leisten.

Der Bau würde jedoch nicht vor 2015 beginnen. Mit einer Fertigstellung der Strecke wäre nach aktuellem Stand frühestens im Jahr 2019 zu rechnen. Die Kosten für das Projekt werden auf etwa 90 Mio. Euro geschätzt, wovon 60 % vom Bund, 25 % vom Freistaat und 15 % vom Verkehrsverbund Mittelsachsen übernommen werden sollen. Da der Verkehrsverbund Mittelsachsen jedoch bis 2014 34. Mio. Euro weniger Mittel vom Freistaat erhalten wird, ist eine planmäßige Fertigstellung der Trasse bis 2019 nicht sicher. Im Juli 2012 wurde bekannt, dass auch die Deutsche Regionaleisenbahn den erneuten Bahnbetrieb zwischen Oberfrohna und Kändler prüfen will.

Streckenbeschreibung

Verlauf
Die nur zwei Kilometer lange Strecke befindet sich heute im Norden der Stadt Limbach-Oberfrohna. Sie beginnt am Bahnhof Limbach (Sachs), der am Ostring (Stadtteil Limbach) liegt und verläuft nach Westen zum Bahnhof Oberfrohna an der Lindenstraße (Stadtteil Oberfrohna). Die Gleise auf der stillgelegten Strecke sind noch vorhanden.

Betriebsstellen
Limbach (Sachs)

Der Bahnhof Limbach wurde am 8. April 1872 zusammen mit der Bahnstrecke Neukieritzsch–Chemnitz und der in Wittgensdorf ob Bf in diese mündenden Bahnstrecke Limbach–Wittgensdorf eröffnet. 1897 folgte die Eröffnung der Strecke nach Wüstenbrand und 1913 die der Strecke nach Oberfrohna, wodurch der Bahnhof Limbach zu einem Knotenpunkt wurde.

Er trug folgende Namen:
 bis 1902: Limbach
 bis 1904: Limbach bei Chemnitz
 bis 1911: Limbach (Sachsen)
 bis 1933: Limbach (Sa)
 seit 1933: Limbach (Sachs)

1950 endete der Personenverkehr auf der Bahnstrecke nach Wüstenbrand. Danach fanden auf einem Teilstück noch Fahrten im Güterverkehr bis Röhrsdorf (letztmals 1959) bzw. zum Umspannwerk Röhrsdorf und zum Bahnhof Kändler (bis 1994) statt.

Seit der Einstellung des Personenverkehrs auf den Strecken von Wittgensdorf ob Bf über Limbach bis Oberfrohna im Jahr 2000 und der Stilllegung im Jahr 2003 ist der Bahnhof außer Betrieb. Eine Reaktivierung im Rahmen des Chemnitzer Modells ist denkbar. Das Areal des Bahnhofs befindet sich am Ostring und vermittelt einen verwahrlosten Eindruck. Im Jahr 2015 wurden der Mittelbau des Empfangsgebäudes sowie die Empfangs- und die Gepäckhalle abgerissen. Die beiden mehrstöckigen Seitenflügel blieben dabei erhalten.

Oberfrohna

Der Bahnhof Oberfrohna wurde am 1. Juli 1913 durch Verlängerung der Bahnstrecke von Limbach errichtet. Da die aus dem 19. Jahrhundert stammenden Planungen zur Verlängerung der Strecke zum Bahnhof Wolkenburg an der Bahnstrecke Glauchau–Wurzen (Muldentalbahn) nie realisiert wurden, blieb der Bahnhof eine Endhaltestelle.

Seit der Einstellung des Personenverkehrs im Jahr 1999/2000 und der Stilllegung der Strecke im Jahr 2003 ist der Bahnhof seit dem 14. Juni 1999 außer Betrieb. Eine Reaktivierung im Rahmen des Chemnitzer Modells ist denkbar. Der Bahnhof ist über die Lindenstraße erreichbar. Das Empfangsgebäude ist noch vorhanden.

Literatur

Weblinks

 Die Bahnhöfe auf sachsenschiene.de

Einzelnachweise

Bahnstrecke in Sachsen
Limbach-Oberfrohna
Bahnstrecke Limbach Oberfrohna

Bahnstrecke Limbach–Oberfrohna


Comunitatea flamandă ( ; ; ), conform articolului 2 din Constituție, este una din cele trei comunități instituționale ale Belgiei și este constituită din toți locuitorii Regiunii Flamande, precum și din locuitorii neerlandofoni ai Regiunii Capitalei Bruxelles. Spre deosebire de Comunitatea franceză din Belgia, competențele Comunității flamande au fost unite cu cele ale Regiunii Flamande și sunt exercitate de un parlament ales în mod direct și care își are sediul în Bruxelles.

Istoric
Reforme instituționale succesive au transformat Belgia dintr-un stat unitar într-unul federal. Prima reformă a statului, din 1970, a introdus "comunitățile culturale" ca prim element de descentralizare și a dus la formarea comunităților culturale neerlandeză, franceză și germană. Prin a doua reformă a statului, din 1980, comunitățile culturale au devenit "comunități", având mai multe competențe în materie de drepturile persoanelor. Au fost stabilite regiunile teritoriale valonă și flamandă, iar comunitățile și regiunile au fost dotate cu propriile parlamente și guverne. Comunitatea culturală neerlandeză a fost redenumită Comunitatea flamandă.

Prin legea specială din 8 august 1980, aprobată cu o majoritate de două treimi a parlamentului federal belgian și cu majorități absolute de grupurile parlamentare flamand și francofon, Comunitatea flamandă a fuzionat cu Regiunea Flamandă, conform articolului 137 al Constituției Belgiei, contribuind la o simplificare instituțională care nu există în partea franceză. Astfel, competențele Regiunii sunt exercitate de Comunitate, a cărei capitală a fost stabilită în Bruxelles, oraș situat în afara teritoriului Regiunii Flamande, dar care face parte din Comunitatea flamandă. De asemenea, există un sigur parlament și un singur guvern flamand, ambele având sediile în Bruxelles.

Prerogative

Conform Constituției Belgiei, Comunitatea flamandă are competențe legale asupra următoarelor domenii:
 educație (cu excepția cerințelor pentru obținerea gradelor universitare, a vârstei minime, respectiv maxime pentru educația obligatorie și a pensiilor profesorilor);
 cultură;
 legislație lingvistică în municipalitățile monolingve neerlandofone;
 anumite aspecte ale sistemului de ajutoare sociale, sănătate și alocații pentru copii;
 cooperare internațională în toate ariile de competență ale Comunității.

Deoarece instituțiile Comunității flamande (parlamentul și guvernul) au absorbit și prerogativele Regiunii Flamande, ele au devenit astfel competente și în materie de politici regionale, precum:
 agricultura (deși o mare parte a acestui domeniu este decisă de Uniunea Europeană);
 lucrări publice și dezvoltare economică regională;
 autorități locale;
 mediul înconjurător;
 mobilitate;
 energie (deși energia nucleară rămâne la nivel federal).

Membrii Parlamentului flamand aleși în Regiunea Capitalei Bruxelles nu au drept de vot în afacerile Regiunii flamande, ci doar în afacerile comunității, deoarece afacerile ce privesc regiunea lor sunt gestionate de Parlamentul Regiunii Bruxelles. Din punct de vedere legal, în Regiunea Capitalei Bruxelles, Comunitatea flamandă nu răspunde de persoane individuale, ci de instituții flamande precum școlile, teatrele, librăriile sau muzeele. Totuși, persoanele care locuiesc în Bruxelles pot opta din proprie inițiativă pentru anumite politici ale Comunității flamande.

Limbi
Limba oficială a Comunității flamande este neerlandeza. Minoritățile vorbesc numeroase limbi materne, cele mai răspândite fiind franceza, idiș, turca, araba, berbera, italiana, spaniola, engleza și germana. Multe din aceste grupuri lingvistice sunt de imigrație recentă, dar evreii, prezenți încă din Evul Mediu, formează cea mai veche comunitate care și-a păstrat identitatea.

Comparativ cu majoritatea regiunilor din Țările de Jos, dialectele istorice ale poporului flamand sunt încă puternice și diferă în funcție de localitate. Totuși, după Al Doilea Război Mondial, influența televiziunii și radioului, educația extinsă și sporirea mobilității peroanelor pe teritoriul regiunii au dus la o deteriorare a dialectelor tradiționale "pure", în special în cazul tinerilor. Unele diferențe între dialecte se erodează și, mai ales în localitățile sau suburbiile cu un influx considerabil din alte regiuni, au apărut noi dialecte intermediare, cu diverse grade de influență din neerlandeza standard (în ). În neerlandeză, acestea sunt numite adesea tussentaal ("între-limbi", termen utilizat pentru neerlandeza aproape standard, dar impregnată cu diverse cuvinte din dialect) sau, mai degrabă derogatoriu, verkavelingsvlaams ("flamandă parcelată", termen folosit pentru amalgame realizate din mai multe dialecte "pure" și vorbite mai ales în noile suburbii locuite de persoane influențate de dialecte diferite). În ultimii ani au apărut inițiative locale menite să salveze dialectele tradiționale și diversitatea lor. Spre exemplu, începând din anul 2013, ceremoniile oficiale ale căsătoriilor civile în anumite comune din Regiunea Bruxelles se pot desfășura la primării în dialectul flamand bruxellez.

În Bruxelles, dialectul local este influențat puternic de limba franceză, atât în pronunție cât și în vocabular. În prezent, majoritatea flamanzilor de la Bruxelles nu mai vorbește dialectul bruxellez. Acest lucru se datorează în parte numărului relativ mare de tineri flamanzi care se mută în Bruxelles, după o lungă perioadă în care foarte mulți alții au părăsit orașul, făcând loc unei masive imigrări francofone.

În anumite municipalități situate de-a lungul granițelor administrative cu Regiunea valonă și Regiunea Capitalei Bruxelles, persoanele de limbă franceză se bucură de anumite "facilități lingvistice". Acestea includ printre altele dreptul de a primi documentele oficiale scrise în limba lor maternă. De facilități similare se bucură și vorbitorii de limbă neerlandeză în anumite comune valone vecine cu Regiunea flamandă, vorbitorii de germană în două comune din aria lingvistică franceză din Regiunea valonă, precum și francofonii care trăiesc pe teritoriul Comunității germanofone.

Limitele geografice ale comunităților obligă Comunitatea franceză să asigure educația de bază în neerlandeză în municipalitățile sale cu facilități pentru neerlandofoni, iar Comunitatea flamandă să finanțeze școli franceze în municipalitățile sale cu facilități pentru francofoni.

Instituțiile flamande din Bruxelles
Prerogativele Regiunii flamande pot fi transmise la nivel provincial, dar nu există un asemenea echivalent și în Regiunea Capitalei Bruxelles. Aceasta exercită ea însăși multe competențe privind diverse sarcini și responsabilități teritoriale care sunt, în mod normal, atribuțiile provinciilor. Prerogativele comunitare în Bruxelles (educația, cultura și protecția socială) sunt exercitate de cele două comunități instituționale implicate, cea flamandă și cea franceză. În acest scop, Comunitatea flamandă a înființat un consiliu și un executiv local ales (Comisia Comunitară Flamandă, în , prescurtat "VGC") care să răspundă de luarea deciziilor la nivel intermediar și la serviciile publice. VGC a însărcinat apoi instituții locale, municipale, care să se ocupe de serviciile publice pur locale în aceste arii ale Comunității (numite gemeenschapscentra, centre comunitare).

Mass-media
Flandra deține o companie de radio și televiziune oficială, Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroep, prescurtat VRT. Începând din 1989, au fost înființate și câteva companii private care transmit servicii de radio sau televiziune la nivelul Regiunii flamande. Există, de asemenea, și operatori "regionali", a căror arie de transmisie este limitată la mici părți din Regiunea flamandă. Presa scrisă este dominată de un număr de cotidiene "de calitate" (precum De Tijd, De Morgen și De Standaard), câteva cotidiene "populare" (precum Het Laatste Nieuws și Het Nieuwsblad) și un număr foarte mare de reviste generaliste sau specializate.

Cultură
Cultura este una din prerogativele Comunității flamande. Guvernul flamand oferă subsidii de operare sau pentru proiecte diverselor organizații culturale, în funcție de planul lor de politici. Șapte organisme culturale sunt recunoscute oficial drept Instituții ale Comunității flamande:

 Ancienne Belgique
 Concertgebouw Bruges
 deFilharmonie
 deSingel
 Centrul artistic Vooruit
 Opera și Baletul Flamand
 Filarmonica din Bruxelles și Corul Radio Flamand

Note

Comunitatea flamandă din Belgia

Comunitatea flamandă din Belgia


Landsbyen og dens Ungdom er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1946 instrueret af Just Thorning og efter manuskript af Thomas Christensen.

Handling
Filmen er en agitation for, at der både på kommunalt plan og i de enkelte landbrug gøres en større indsats for at fremme landbo- og landsbyungdommens interesse for god udnyttelse af fritiden.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1946

Landsbyen og dens Ungdom


The North American A-5 Vigilante is an American carrier-based supersonic bomber designed and built by North American Aviation (NAA) for the United States Navy. Before the 1962 unification of Navy and Air Force designations, it was designated A3J.

Development of the A-5 had started in 1954 as a private venture by NAA, who sought to produce a capable supersonic long-distance bomber as a successor to the abortive North American XA2J Super Savage. It was a large and complex aircraft that incorporated several innovative features, such as being the first bomber to feature a digital computer, while its ability to attain speeds of up to Mach 2 while carrying a nuclear strike payload was also relatively ambitious for the era. The US Navy saw the value of such a bomber, leading to a contract for its full development and production being issued to the firm on 29 August 1956. The type performed its first flight just over two years later, on 31 August 1958.

The Vigilante was introduced by the US Navy during June 1961; it succeeded the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior as the Navy's primary nuclear strike aircraft, but its service in this capacity was relatively brief due to the deemphasising of manned bombers in American nuclear strategy. A far larger quantity of the RA-5C tactical strike reconnaissance variant were also procured by the service, which saw extensive service during the Vietnam War. It also established several world records in both long-distance speed and altitude categories. During the mid-1970s, the withdrawal of the type commenced after a relatively short service life, largely due to the aircraft being expensive and complex to operate, as well being a victim of post-Vietnam military cutbacks.

Development

Origins
The late 1940s and early 1950s were marked by a series of fast-paced advancements in the field of aviation. The aircraft manufacturer North American Aviation (NAA) was one of a large number of companies that sought to harness these recent innovations in developing a new generation of aircraft. During early 1954, the company embarked on a private study into a conceptual carrier-based, long-range, all-weather strike bomber, that would be capable of supersonic speeds while carrying a sizable payload. This aircraft was envisioned as a successor to the abortive North American XA2J Super Savage. Much of this early work was undertaken by NAA's recently acquired Columbus division, overseen by chief of preliminary design Frank G Compton.

During the mid-1950s, the notion of a nuclear-armed aircraft capable of speeds of up to Mach 2 was considered to be quite ambitious, and only more so for that same aircraft to be operable under the unavoidable constraints imposed by aircraft carrier operations. In terms of its basic configuration, the conceptual aircraft featured twin-engines and high-mounted wing, as did the XA2J, but differed substantially by being highly swept and adopting jet propulsion.  According to aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, NAA's design incorporated numerous advanced technology features, such as being the first supersonic bomber to be designed with a slim forward fuselage, as well as being the first with fully-variable wedge-type side air intakes. The company's preliminary design studies had been typically centred around a twin vertical fin/rudder arrangement, but this was substituted for a single large all-moving vertical fin as design definition proceeded.

This proposal, which was referred to the North American General Purpose Attack Weapon (NAGPAW) concept, was promptly evaluated by the United States Navy. The service produced numerous challenging demands, including the somewhat contradictory necessity of both a high speed of Mach 2 and the ability to take off from an aircraft carrier at maximum weight with no head-wind, also known as wind-over-the-deck, to assist the take-off. Compton's team were able to reconcile these performance requirements into the design. Following these changes, US Navy officials voiced their approval of the design and advocated for its procurement. During July 1955, an initial design contract, which included the production of a mockup, was issued to NAA. During September 1956, a follow-on contract for the production of a pair of flight-worthy prototypes, was awarded to the firm.

On 31 August 1958, one of these prototypes performed the type's maiden flight from Columbus, Ohio. By this point, the role envisioned for the aircraft within the US Navy had shifted somewhat. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, officials had viewed the aircraft through the lens of the Korean War and placed a high value on performing low-level conventionally-armed attack missions, but had subsequently shifted towards viewing the in-development bomber as a successor to the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior in the strategic nuclear attack role instead. Thus, the design team implemented a somewhat unorthodox bomb bay as to accommodate the stowage of a nuclear weapon, which was also designed to accommodate both fuel tanks and reconnaissance payloads.

Further development

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, NAA worked on an improved bomber model, designated A-5B. This took advantage of the zero-wind requirement's elimination to considerably increase the aircraft's maximum weight, the fuselage being redesigned with a hump back to accommodate additional fuel. The wings were also redesigned with enlarged trailing-edge flaps and fully-blown flaps; these changes, when carrying four external drop tanks, roughly doubled the bomber's range. Development was halted after only six A-5Bs had been completed due to a shift in the US Navy's strategic focus that placed less value on manned bombers.

The majority of Vigilantes were of a reconnaissance configuration, designated RA-5C. It had a slightly greater wing area and added a long canoe-shaped fairing under the fuselage for a multi-sensor reconnaissance pack, which housed an APD-7 side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), AAS-21 infrared line scanner, and camera packs, as well as improved electronic countermeasures. An AN/ALQ-61 electronic intelligence system could also be carried. The RA-5C retained the AN/ASB-12 bombing system, and could, in theory, carry weapons, although it never did in service. Later-build RA-5Cs had more powerful J79-10 engines with afterburning thrust of 17,900 lbf (80 kN). The reconnaissance Vigilante weighed almost five tons more than the strike version with almost the same thrust and an only modestly enlarged wing, resulting in reduced acceleration and climb rate, though it remained fast in level flight.

The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) considered acquiring the RA-5C as its principal bomber to succeed its fleet of English Electric Canberras. Various other aircraft, such as the McDonnell F-4C/RF-4C, Dassault Mirage IVA, and the BAC TSR-2 were also considered for the role. However, the General Dynamics F-111C, a variant of the TFX (F-111) tailored to fulfil the requirements of the RAAF, was procured to meet the service's needs instead. Due to the F-111C's protracted development, a team of RAAF officers advocated for an interim fleet of 36 Vigilantes to be acquired by the RAAF, having determined that the aircraft satisfied the service's requirements and could be delivered within a shorter time frame. The Australian Government rejected this advice and no such procurement occurred.

Design
The North American A-5 Vigilante was a supersonic carrier-based bomber. At the time of its introduction, the Vigilante was one of the largest and by far the most complex aircraft to operate from an aircraft carrier. It was furnished with a high-mounted swept wing with a boundary-layer control system (blown flaps) to improve low-speed lift. It lacked ailerons; instead, roll control was provided by spoilers in conjunction with differential deflection of the all-moving tail surfaces, which were paired with a relatively large all-moving single vertical stabilizer. The use of aluminum-lithium alloy for wing skins and titanium for critical structures was also unusual for the era; other exotic materials included the use of a gold coating to reflect heat in key areas such as the bomb bay. The wings, vertical stabilizer and the nose radome all folded to enable easier stowage onboard aircraft carriers.

Two widely-spaced General Electric J79 turbojet engines were supplied with air through inlets with variable intake ramps. While the same engine was used by several other US military aircraft, such as the Convair B-58 Hustler and the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, the powerplants used on the A-5 differed in some ways, such as the use of a somewhat uncommon air-impingement starter along with a single igniter. Both engines were equipped with constant-speed drives for alternators to generate a steady 30kVA for the onboard electrical systems, a hydraulically-driven emergency supply generated by a ram air turbine was also installed.

The electronics of the Vigilante were relatively advanced and complex at the time of its entry to service. It incorporated one of the first "fly-by-wire" systems on an operational aircraft, along with mechanical/hydraulic backup. Other elements of its avionics include a computerized AN/ASB-12 nav/attack system incorporating a head-up display ("Pilot's Projected Display Indicator" (PPDI), one of the first), multi-mode radar, radar-equipped inertial navigation system (REINS, based on technologies developed for North American's Navaho missile), closed-circuit television camera under the nose, and an early digital computer known as "Versatile Digital Analyzer" (VERDAN) to operate it all. According to Gunston and Gilchrist, the Vigilante was the first bomber to feature a digital computer. It was operated by a crew of two, a pilot and a bombardier-navigator (BN), that were seated in tandem; both were provided with North American HS-1A ejection seats. On the reconnaissance-orientated aircraft; the bombardier-navigator was replaced by a reconnaissance/attack navigator (RAN) instead.

Given its original design as a carrier-based, supersonic, nuclear heavy attack aircraft, the Vigilante's main armament was carried in an unusual "linear bomb bay" between the engines in the rear fuselage, which allowed the bomb to be dropped at supersonic speeds. The single nuclear weapon, commonly the Mk 28 bomb, was attached to two disposable fuel tanks in the cylindrical bay in an assembly known as the "stores train". A set of extendable fins was attached to the aft end of the most rearward fuel tank. These fuel tanks were to be emptied during the flight to the target and then jettisoned with the bomb by an explosive drogue gun. The stores train was propelled rearward at about  per second (30 knots) relative to the aircraft. It then followed a ballistic path. In practice, the system was not reliable and no live weapons were ever carried in the linear bomb bay. In the RA-5C configuration, the bay was used solely to accommodate fuel. On three occasions, the shock of the catapult launch caused the fuel cans to eject onto the deck; this phenomenon reportedly resulted in one aircraft loss.

Early production Vigilante were outfitted with a pair of wing pylons, which were intended primarily for drop tanks. The second Vigilante variant, the A3J-2 (A-5B), featured two additional wing hardpoints, for a total of four, and also incorporated internal tanks for an additional 460 gallons of fuel (which added a pronounced dorsal "hump"). In practice, these hardpoints were rarely used. Other improvements to the type included blown flaps on the leading edge of the wing and stronger landing gear. While designated by the US Navy as a "heavy" aircraft, the A-5 was surprisingly agile; without the drag of bombs or missiles, even escorting fighters found that the clean airframe and powerful engines made the Vigilante very fast at high and low altitudes. However, its high approach speed and high angle of attack contributed to a high workload during carrier landings.

Operational history

Designated A3J-1, the Vigilante first entered service with Heavy Attack Squadron Three (VAH-3) in June 1961 at Naval Air Station Sanford, Florida, replacing the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior in the heavy attack, e.g., "strategic nuclear strike" role. All variants of the Vigilante were built at North American Aviation's facility at Port Columbus Airport in Columbus, Ohio, alongside the North American T-2 Buckeye, T-39 Sabreliner and OV-10 Bronco.

Under the Tri-Services Designation plan implemented under Robert McNamara in September 1962, the Vigilante was redesignated A-5, with the initial A3J-1 becoming A-5A and the updated A3J-2 becoming A-5B. The subsequent reconnaissance version, originally A3J-3P, became the RA-5C.

The Vigilante's early service proved troublesome, with many teething problems for its advanced systems. Although these systems were highly sophisticated, the technology was in its infancy and its reliability was poor. Although most of these reliability issues were eventually worked out as maintenance personnel gained greater experience with supporting these systems, the aircraft tended to remain a maintenance-intensive platform throughout its career.

The A-5's service coincided with a major policy shift in the U.S. Navy's strategic role, which switched to emphasize submarine-launched ballistic missiles rather than manned bombers. As a result, in 1963, procurement of the A-5 was ended and the type was converted to the fast reconnaissance role. The first RA-5Cs were delivered to VAH-3, the A-5A and A-5B Replacement Air Group (RAG)/Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS), subsequently redesignated as Reconnaissance Attack Squadron Three (RVAH-3), at Naval Air Station Sanford, Florida in July 1963. As they transitioned from the attack version to the reconnaissance version, all Vigilante squadrons were subsequently redesignated from VAH to RVAH.

Under Commander, Reconnaissance Attack Wing One (COMRECONATKWING ONE), a total of 10 RA-5C squadrons were ultimately established. RVAH-3 continued to be responsible for the stateside-based RA-5C training mission of flight crews, maintenance and support personnel, while RVAH-1, RVAH-5, RVAH-6, RVAH-7, RVAH-9, RVAH-11, RVAH-12, RVAH-13 and RVAH-14 routinely deployed aboard , , , , , , , ,  and eventually the s to the Atlantic, Mediterranean and Western Pacific.

Eight of ten squadrons of RA-5C Vigilantes also saw extensive service in the Vietnam War starting in August 1964, carrying out hazardous medium-level post-strike reconnaissance missions. Although it proved fast and agile, 18 RA-5Cs were lost in combat: 14 to anti-aircraft fire, 3 to surface-to-air missiles, and 1 to a MiG-21 during Operation Linebacker II. Nine more RA-5Cs were lost in operational accidents while serving with Task Force 77. Due, in part, to these combat losses, 36 additional RA-5C aircraft were built from 1968 to 1970 as attrition replacements.

In 1968, Congress closed the aircraft's original operating base of Naval Air Station Sanford, Florida and transferred the parent wing, Reconnaissance Attack Wing One, all subordinate squadrons and all aircraft and personnel to Turner AFB, a Strategic Air Command (SAC) Boeing B-52 Stratofortress and Boeing KC-135 base in Albany, Georgia. The tenant SAC bomb wing was then inactivated and control of Turner AFB was transferred from the Air Force to the Navy with the installation renamed Naval Air Station Albany. In 1974, after barely six years of service as a naval air station, Congress opted to close Naval Air Station Albany as part of a post-Vietnam force reduction, transferring all RA-5C units and personnel to Naval Air Station Key West, Florida.

Despite the Vigilante's useful service, it was expensive and complex to operate and occupied significant amounts of precious flight deck and hangar deck space aboard both conventional and nuclear-powered aircraft carriers at a time when carrier air wings, with the introduction of the F-14 Tomcat and S-3 Viking, were averaging 90 aircraft, many of which were larger than their predecessors. With the end of the Vietnam War, disestablishment of RVAH squadrons began in 1974, with the last Vigilante squadron, RVAH-7, completing its final deployment to the Western Pacific aboard USS Ranger in late 1979. The final flight by an RA-5C took place on 20 November 1979 when a Vigilante departed Naval Air Station Key West, Florida. Reconnaissance Attack Wing One was subsequently disestablished at Naval Air Station Key West in January 1980.

The Vigilante did not end the career of the A-3 Skywarrior, which would carry on as photo reconnaissance aircraft, electronic warfare platforms, aerial refueling tankers, and executive transport aircraft designated as RA-3A/B, EA-3A/B, ERA-3B, EKA-3B, KA-3B, and VA-3B, into the early 1990s.

Fighters replaced the RA-5C in the carrier-based reconnaissance role. The RF-8G version of the Vought F-8 Crusader, modified with internal cameras, had already been serving in two light photographic squadrons (VFP-62 and VFP-63) since the early 1960s, operating from older aircraft carriers unable to support the Vigilante. The Marine Corps' sole photographic squadron (VMFP-3) would also deploy aboard aircraft carriers during this period with RF-4B Phantom II aircraft. These squadrons superseded the Vigilante's role by providing detachments from the primary squadron to carrier air wings throughout the late 1970s and early-to-mid-1980s, until the transfer of the recon mission to the Navy's fighter squadron (VF) community operating the F-14 Tomcat. Select models of the F-14 Tomcat would eventually carry the multi-sensor Tactical Airborne Reconnaissance Pod System (TARPS) and the Digital Tactical Air Reconnaissance Pod (D-TARPS). Up to present day, the weight of carrier-based fighters such as the F-14 Tomcat and Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet have evolved into the same  class as the Vigilante.

Records
On 13 December 1960, Navy Commander Leroy A. Heath (pilot) and Lieutenant Larry Monroe (bombardier/navigator) established a world altitude record of  in an A3J Vigilante carrying a 1,000-kilogram payload, beating the previous record by over . This new record held for more than 13 years. The attempt was accomplished by reaching a speed of Mach 2.1, then pulling up to create a ballistic trajectory beyond the altitude at which its wings could continue to function. The engines flamed out in the thin atmosphere, and the aircraft rolled onto its back. This had already been experienced in previous flights, and so the pilot simply released the controls and the aircraft regained control naturally as it descended back into the thicker air of the lower atmosphere.

Variants

XA3J-1 (NA247) Prototypes, two built, one converted to RA-5C, one crashed 1959.
A3J-1 58 built, 6 cancelled, survivors re-designated A-5A in 1962, 42 converted to RA-5C.
A3J-2 18 built, redesignated A-5B, 5 completed as XA3J-3P (YA-5C), all converted to RA-5C.
XA3J-3P 5 x A3J-2 completed from A3J-2 order without reconnaissance systems and assigned to pilot familiarization, later converted to RA-5C.
A3J-3P 20 built, re-designated RA-5C.
A-5A A3J-1 re-designated.
A-5B A3J-2 re-designated.
YA-5C The 5 XA3J-3P aircraft re-designated, before conversion to RA-5C
RA-5C Reconnaissance aircraft, 77 contracted, 8 cancelled, 69 built, plus 20 redesignated and 61 converted from earlier variants
NA-247 Proposed U.S. Air Force variant in 1958 with an XLR46-NA-2 rocket installed in linear bomb bay.engine
NR-349 Proposed Improved Manned Interceptor for U.S. Air Force with three J79 engines and an armament of six AIM-54 Phoenix missiles.

Operators

United States Navy

Aircraft on display

A-5A
BuNo 146697 – Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Lexington Park, Maryland. It is the oldest Vigilante on display and the only one still in its original A3J/A-5A nuclear attack bomber configuration.It is now a monument fixed on a pedestal.

An additional example of an A-5A destined for restoration as a museum aircraft, BuNo 146698, was destroyed when it was being relocated by Army helicopter from Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst, New Jersey to a new location. When the A-5A became unstable in flight, the helicopter crew was forced to jettison the aircraft from altitude.

RA-5C
 BuNo 149289 – Pima Air & Space Museum in Tucson, Arizona. It was transferred from long-term storage at nearby Davis-Monthan Air Force Base and it carries the markings of RVAH-3.
 BuNo 151629 - Pueblo Weisbrod Aircraft Museum (formerly the Fred E. Weisbrod Museum/International B-24 Museum) in Pueblo, Colorado. It has been restored and currently displays the markings of RVAH-7 while assigned to Carrier Air Wing 9 aboard .
 BuNo 156608 - Naval Support Activity Mid-South, formerly Naval Air Station Memphis, Tennessee. It was the last operational RA-5C aircraft and it carries the markings of its last squadron, RVAH-7, during its final deployment with Carrier Air Wing 2 aboard  in 1979.
 BuNo 156612 - Naval Air Station Key West, Florida. "Gate guard" aircraft located just inside the main gate. It carries the markings of RVAH-3.
 BuNo 156615 - Castle Air Museum at the former Castle Air Force Base, California in 2012. This aircraft was formerly located on the Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake Range. This particular RA-5C was the last Vigilante to land aboard the  while assigned to RVAH-7 in August 1979 during the last Vigilante overseas carrier deployment.
 BuNo 156621 – New York State Aerosciences Museum (ESAM) in Glenville, New York. It was initially on display at the former US Naval Photographic School at Naval Air Station Pensacola.  In 1986, it was shipped up the East Coast by barge and placed on display aboard the USS Intrepid Museum in New York City. In 2005, this RA-5C was acquired by ESAM. The aircraft suffered minor damage to its fuselage aft of the wing root while being moved from the aircraft carrier Intrepid to a barge while supported by slings. It is currently (as of 2010) undergoing restoration for display. It carries the markings of the RA-5C Fleet Replacement Squadron (FRS), RVAH-3.
 BuNo 156624 – National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola. It is displayed in the markings of RVAH-6 per that squadron's final cruise with Carrier Air Wing 8 aboard  in 1978.
 BuNo 156632 – Orlando Sanford International Airport (formerly Naval Air Station Sanford) in Sanford, Florida.  It was placed there on 30 May 2003 as a memorial to A-5A and RA-5C aircrewmen and support personnel who served at NAS Sanford. On loan from the National Museum of Naval Aviation, the aircraft was transferred from the Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR) Weapons Division at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, California and is marked as an RVAH-3 aircraft.
 BuNo 156638 – Naval Air Station Fallon, Nevada. It was transferred from Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, California and was previously marked as an RVAH-6 aircraft in a Vietnam-era jungle camouflage paint scheme, as an RVAH-12 aircraft in traditional Cold War gray/white paint scheme, and currently as an RVAH-7 aircraft in traditional gray/white paint scheme.
 BuNo 156641 – USS Midway Museum in San Diego, California. It carries the markings of RVAH-12 and RVAH-7  Both squadrons represented on the tail of the aircraft.
 BuNo 156643 – Patuxent River Naval Air Museum, at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. It was transferred from Naval Air Station Key West and is displayed as a test aircraft operated by the Patuxent River Flight Test Division in the 1970s. It was the last RA-5C built.

Specifications (A-5A/A3J-1 Vigilante)

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Buttler, Tony. American Secret Projects: Fighters & Interceptors 1945–1978. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2007. .
 Buttler, Tony. "Database: North American A3J/A-5 Vigilante". Aeroplane, Vol. 42, No. 7, July 2014. pp. 69–84.
 Butowski, Piotr and Jay Miller. OKB MiG: A History of the Design Bureau and Its Aircraft. Leicester, UK: Midland Counties Publications, 1991. .
 Dean, Jack. "Sleek Snooper." Airpower, Volume 31, No. 2, March 2001.
 Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996. .
 Eden. Paul. Modern Military Aircraft Anatomy. London: Amber Books, 2009. .
 Ellis, Ken, ed. "North American A-5 Vigilante" (In Focus). Flypast, August 2008.
 Goodspeed, M. Hill. "North American Rockwell A3J (A-5) Vigilante". Wings of Fame, Volume 19, pp. 38–103. London: Aerospace Publishing, 2000. .

 Gunston, Bill. Bombers of the West. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1973, pp. 227–35. .
 Gunston, Bill and Peter Gilchrist. Jet Bombers: From the Messerschmitt Me 262 to the Stealth B-2. Osprey, 1993. .

 Powell, Robert. RA-5C Vigilante Units in Combat (Osprey Combat Aircraft #51). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004. .
 Siuru, William. "Vigilante: Farewell to the Fleet's Last Strategic Bomber!" Airpower, Volume 11, No. 1, January 1981.
 Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1965–66. London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1965.

 Taylor, John W.R. "North American A-5 Vigilante." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the Present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. .
 Thomason, Tommy H. "Strike from the Sea". North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2009.  .
 Wagner, Ray. American Combat Planes. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, third edition, 1982. .

 Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000.

External links

 The story of the A-5 Vigilante (Documentary)

Aircraft first flown in 1958
Carrier-based aircraft
High-wing aircraft
A-05 Vigilante
Twinjets
North American AJ3 Vigilante
North American RA-5 Vigilante

North American A-5 Vigilante


Steam frigates (including screw frigates) and the smaller steam corvettes, steam sloops, steam gunboats and steam schooners, were steam-powered warships that were not meant to stand in the line of battle. There were some exceptions like for example the French Napoléon class steam ship of the line  was meant to stand in the line of battle, making it the world's first steam battleship.  The first such ships were paddle steamers. Later on the invention of screw propulsion enabled construction of steam-powered versions of the traditional ships of the line, frigates, corvettes, sloops and gunboats.

Evolution

First steam warships
The first small vessel that can be considered a steam warship was the Demologos, which was launched in 1815 for the United States Navy. From the early 1820s, the British Navy began building a number of small steam warships including the armed tugs  and , and by the 1830s the navies of America, Russia and France were experimenting with steam-powered warships. Hellenic sloop-of-war Kartería (Καρτερία; Greek for "Perseverance") was the first steam-powered warship to be used in combat operations in history. It was built in 1825 in an English shipyard for the revolutionary Hellenic Navy during the Greek War of Independence, on the order of Capt Frank Abney Hastings, a former Royal Navy officer who had volunteered his services to the Hellenic Navy.

Frigate classification
The frigate and corvette were 'ships'. For a vessel to be called a 'ship' it had to have full rigging, i.e. square rigs on three masts. If it had only fore-and-aft rig on the mizzen mast, it was not a ship. Ships were classified as: ships of the line, frigates and corvettes.

The upper limit for a ship to be still considered a frigate was that it had only one covered gun deck. If a ship had two covered gun decks, it was no longer a frigate, but a ship of the line. A confusing circumstance arose when in the early nineteenth century the forecastle and quarterdecks of most big ships were joined to become a complete flush deck above. These ships continued to be frigates, e.g HMS Constance (1846).

The lower limit for a ship to still be considered a frigate was that its gun deck was covered. If a ship had only a single open gun deck it was considered to be 'corvette build'. If a ship had a single covered gun deck, it was at least a frigate.

In general a frigate was commanded by a captain and a corvette by a lieutenant.

Paddle frigates
This first generation of steam warships were "paddle warships" (in the categories of frigate, sloop, gunvessel or other). They used paddlewheels mounted on either side or in the center. Paddle steamers were severely limited in the armaments they could mount. Paddle wheel propulsion also had very serious effects on sailing quality. The placement of the machinery and wheels in the middle of the ship conflicted with having the main mast there, and so the sail plan of paddle frigates was less than ideal. Another characteristic that slowed down these vessels was that the paddle wheels would rotate in the water freely when the ship was sailing.

The armament of paddle frigates compared badly with their sail-only counterparts. Paddle frigates could not have a traditional full broadside because of the space taken by the machinery and the paddle wheels. The weight of the machinery and coal these ships carried was a perhaps even more serious problem. It meant that the designers had to limit the weight of all other 'cargo', including artillery. Therefore the armament of steam vessels had to follow a different concept: Because of their ability to move against the wind they could be assumed to be able to choose their distance to sail-only ships. Under these circumstances the very heavy guns that were deemed to fire too slowly for close-quarters combat did become useful because they had a high effective range. Meanwhile, the development of heavy shell guns like the ML 8-inch shell gun provided a long range weapon that could sink a ship with a single hit. The only means to counter it was to develop heavier solid shot cannon that had an even higher effective range. All this generally led to equipping early steamers with only a few very heavy guns, both shell guns and solid shot guns. These were often mounted on pivots and slides.

Paddle frigates were used extensively during the Opium Wars, Mexican–American War, Crimean War and American Civil War. An unintended quality was that the lack of broadside batteries gave them very spacious decks. Combined with being immune to contrary winds, this made them ideal for large scale troop transport. By 1870 most had been scrapped or sold into civilian service.

Royal Navy
By 1840 the Royal Navy had commissioned two ships that had been designed as steam paddle frigates.  and the slightly larger  had both been constructed to have a full battery on their gun deck, next to carrying guns on their upper decks. However, Gorgon was so deep in the water that her gun ports had to be shut permanently. Cyclops had been designed to carry 16 32-pounders on the main deck, but these could not be fitted. Both ships therefore failed to become true frigates, but were nevertheless very successful. The Cyclops would be taken as a model to build six more of these steam frigates (Vulture, Firebrand, Gladiator, Sampson, Dragon and Centaur). On 31 May 1844 the Admiralty then officially adopted the term 'Steam frigate'. All these ships became steam (paddle) frigates of the second class, except for Gorgon, which became a sloop.

The rating of Cyclops as a 'steam frigate' was surprising: she was rigged as a brig (with only two masts), and carried all her guns on the upper deck Other aspects did explain this classification. The Cyclops was commanded by a captain and had at least been planned to have a 'complete' covered gun deck. The crew of 175 men was a reduced crew. By counting 13 men for every two 32-pounders, the designed complement would be 175 + (8*13) = 284 men, almost matching that of a fifth rate frigate. Another reason to rate the Cyclops as a frigate was that with her size of 1,190 bm tons, she was of the same size as the fifth rate frigates like those of the Seringapatam-class frigate of 1,150 bm tons. As the RN lacked a corvette category, the alternative would have been to rate her as a sloop, but even ship-rigged sloops did not get near her size. When the RN started to use the designation corvette, the Cyclops and her six near sisters were re-classified as corvettes in the 1850s.

In 1844 the Admiralty also discerned steam frigates of the first class, these steam frigates had guns on two decks. The steam frigates of the 'first class' were comparable to regular fourth rate sailing frigates in terms of size, and got near them in armament. The first of these was the paddle steamer  commissioned in 1843. She had been the sailing fifth rate frigate Penelope of 1829. In 1842 she was lengthened by 63 feet, and was fitted with the largest naval steam engines yet seen, generating nearly 700 horsepower. She had a 330 men crew, and was armed with 10 68-pounders on the main deck, and on the forecastle and quarterdeck: two 85 cwt pivot guns, 10 42-pounders carronades and 4 howitzers.

Penelope was followed by even bigger ships like  and . Other steam frigates first class, like  were a bit smaller. Only five first class steam paddle frigates would be built by the Royal Navy. The RN also built some more steam frigates of the second class, surprisingly with guns on two decks.

U.S. Navy
The U.S. Navy likewise started with a general 'steamer' class. In 1842 it consisted of: The Fulton II of 4 guns, commissioned in 1837. The Union (with a horizontal submerged paddle). She was not yet armed, but would later also have 4 guns. The Poinsett (1840) was a smaller craft that would later be armed with 2 guns. By then the US navy already had the screw corvette Princeton under construction.

The first steam frigates of the United States were the USS Mississippi and Missouri. These were two very big steam paddle frigates commissioned in 1841 and 1842. They each displaced 3,220t and had 10 big Paixhans guns. By 1850 the U.S. paddle steamers were divided in classes. The Mississippi was designated a steam frigate, and so where the Susquehanna and Powhatan, each with 9 heavy guns, and the San Jacinto and Saranac each with 6 heavy guns. The next class were the 'steamers first class', containing the Fulton, Michigan and Alleghany. Seven other steamers were 'less than first class'

Russian Navy
The Russian Tsarist Navy also had a sizable fleet of paddle steam frigates. The first of these were imported from America, but by the time of the Crimean War the Russians were producing their own steamships. The 1841 steam frigate Kamchatka had 16 guns on two decks, and was therefore comparable to the big frigates of the English and American navies. See also List of Russian steam frigates.

French Navy
The first useful steam vessel of the French Navy was the Sphinx of 160 hp and 913t displacement. She was used in the invasion of Algiers in 1830. She was not very useful as a warship, but she was very useful for maintaining communications with Algeria. The subsequent campaign caused a huge demand for frequent and reliable communication with Algeria, and so about two dozen ships were built to the model of the Sphinx.  The deplorable side effect was a stagnation in French steam vessel engineering. Continuing the Sphinx type meant that France was not developing something that resembled a steam frigate.

Later on, the French state wanted to establish packet boat lines to New York, the West Indies and Brasil. The French navy wanted to have big steam frigates with heavy artillery. In 1840 these ideas were combined in a law that granted a credit of 28,400,000 francs for the construction of 14 ships of 450 hp, and 4 of 220 hp. The frigates built for this service soon proved to be no match for the ships of the Cunard Line. A project that loaned four of them to a commercial company soon failed. The Gomer was the first of these large frigates, and created quite a sensation. She was 70.5 m long between perpendiculars, had a beam of 12.7 m and displaced about 2,800 t. On the trial run she was armed with 20 30-pounders on the main deck, and on the upper 2 * 22 cm and 2 * 16 cm and had a complement of 300 men. However, in actual use this artillery proved to be way more than what the Gomer could handle. It had to be reduced to 2 * 80 and 6 * 30. It meant that the Gomer had failed as a steam frigate. The same could be said of her (near) sisters of 450 hp, the Asmodéee and l'Infernal.

Screw frigates
Screw warships were built with steam engines and screw propellers for propulsion. The first functional propeller, a shortened version of the Archimedes' screw, was invented independently by Francis Pettit Smith and John Ericsson in 1835. The technology of propeller or 'screw' propulsion was proven by 1845 after the Royal Navy evaluated the performance of Smith's seagoing steamship  in comparison with their own fleet of paddle steamers. The basic fighting capabilities of the screw warship were almost as good as those of the traditional sailing ship. Apart from spending weight on machinery and coal, the screw ship retained the full broadside battery lay-out. It therefore had a nearly as powerful armament as a sail-only ship. Unlike the paddle ship it had no vulnerable paddle-boxes. The ability to pick a fight or to evade a fight was what made the screw frigate superior to any sail-only ship.

The screw frigate retained a full sail-plan, and this was not only due to conservatism. The primary reason was a lack of coal supplies around the globe. This was an especially important consideration for frigates, which often operated independently on the far side of the world. The insufficient reliability of early steam engines was also a reason to maintain at least some sails. An often overlooked reason to have sails was the cost of coal. In 1848 the sail frigate  was estimated to cost 64 GBP daily to operate. , of the same weight of armament, was estimated to cost 88 GBP daily. But, the latter was without the cost of coal, estimated at 4 pounds 5 shillings per hour of steaming.

The 'screw frigates', built first of wood and later of wrought iron, continued to perform the traditional role of the frigate until late in the 19th century.

By the late 1840s many navies were building screw-driven warships or converting sailing ships to include screw propulsion. In 1852 the French navy commissioned the Napoleon, the first screw driven battleship. With that all sailing warships had gotten a screw driven equivalent.

Royal Navy
By the time that the Royal Navy launched its first screw frigate, , it already had two screw sloops in commission. The 9 gun sloop , launched in 1843, was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel and featured an advanced two-bladed propeller that influenced the design of his later passenger steamer . Amphion had 28 32-pounders and 8 heavier guns. The size and armament of British wooden screw frigates then rapidly increased.  of 1853 was 65 m long, displaced 3,125 t, had twenty-eight 8 inch 65 cwt shell guns and twenty-two 32-pounders. The RN's first battleship designed for steam propulsion was . She was 70 m long, displaced 4,614 t, and had thirty-four 8-inch 65 cwt and fifty-six 32-pounders. In 1852–1853, the distinction between battleship and frigate was still a matter of size and number of gun decks.

The improved screw propeller invented by Brunel also enabled the Victorian Royal Navy to extend the service life of obsolete sail-powered ships of the line.  and , first commissioned during the War of 1812, were fitted with steam locomotive boilers in 1845 for the Franklin expedition. The paddle sloop  was later rebuilt with a propeller for service in the Crimean War.

In the late 1850s the screw frigate began to take a different form than traditional ships of the line. The RN's last battleship, the 91 gun  laid down in 1858, was 75 m long and displaced 5,700 t. The screw frigate  was much smaller at 3,915 t, but nevertheless much longer at 87 m. This development of much longer frigates culminated in  of 1858. Mersey had 40 heavy shell guns, reached an overall length of over 100 m and displaced 5,463 t. A wooden construction proved to be too weak for a ship of this length. The next steps were frigates with an iron or composite hull: the armored frigate and the unarmored frigate.

French Navy
The Pomone of 1842 was the first French screw frigate. She was 52 m long, 13.5 m wide, and had a slightly changed sail plan of a 46 gun frigate. She had 18 30-pounders on the gun deck, and 8 80-pounders and 8 other guns on the upper decks. The engine of the Pomone was 220 hp, giving her a speed of 7.5 knots. Using both sail and engine she could make 10.5 kn. Sailing before the wind, however she reached 12 kn without engines.

The French navy next built the L'Isly, converted a number of sailing frigates, and built a range of successful corvettes. In 1852 a program for a number of first rate frigates was started. The Impératrice Eugénie class of 5 ships was built according to a design by Henri Dupuy de Lôme.  Georges Baptiste François Allix designed the Souveraine. On average these ships displaced 3,800 t and reached 12 kn on trials. In 1857 the French government decided to have 6 big and 14 smaller frigates.

Armored frigates
From 1859, armor was added to ships based on existing frigate and ship of the line designs. The additional weight of the armour on these first ironclad warships meant that they could have only one gun deck, and they were technically frigates, even though they were more powerful than existing ships-of-the-line and occupied the same strategic role. The phrase 'armoured frigate' remained in use for some time to denote a sail-equipped, broadside-firing type of ironclad. For a time, they were the most powerful type of vessel afloat.

Towards the end of the 19th century, the term 'frigate' fell out of use. Armoured vessels were designated as either 'battleships' or 'armoured cruisers', while unarmoured vessels including frigates and sloops were classified as 'unprotected cruisers'.

Survivors
The only surviving screw frigate is the Danish Jylland.

The steam sloop HMS Gannet  spent many years as a training ship and is now preserved at Chatham.

The Dutch steam frigate HNLMS Bonaire is currently undergoing restoration as a museum ship.

ARA Uruguay of the Argentinian navy is the last surviving steam and sail corvette.

The Japanese frigate Kaiyō Maru was rebuilt as a museum ship in 1990.

See also

List of frigate classes of the Royal Navy
Screw sloop

References

Notes

External links

Naval history
Ship types

Steam frigate


Alkyoneus () ist in der griechischen Mythologie

 Alkyoneus, ein Gigant
 Alkyoneus (Gatte der Koronis)
 Alkyoneus (Sohn des Diomos), der dem Ungeheuer Sybaris geopfert werden soll
 Alkyoneus (Genosse des Memnon), ein Aithioper, Gefährte des Memnon
 Alkyoneus (Priester), ein Priester des Apollon
 Alkyoneus (Genosse des Phineus), Teilnehmer an der Hochzeit des Perseus
 Alcyoneus (Galaxie), eine ungewöhnlich große Radiogalaxie

Alkyoneus (Begriffsklärung)