In classical statistical mechanics, the equipartition theorem relates the temperature of a system to its average energies. The equipartition theorem is also known as the law of equipartition, equipartition of energy, or simply equipartition. The original idea of equipartition was that, in thermal equilibrium, energy is shared equally among all of its various forms; for example, the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom in translational motion of a molecule should equal that in rotational motion.

The equipartition theorem makes quantitative predictions. Like the virial theorem, it gives the total average kinetic and potential energies for a system at a given temperature, from which the system's heat capacity can be computed. However, equipartition also gives the average values of individual components of the energy, such as the kinetic energy of a particular particle or the potential energy of a single spring. For example, it predicts that every atom in a monatomic ideal gas has an average kinetic energy of  in thermal equilibrium, where  is the Boltzmann constant and T is the (thermodynamic) temperature. More generally, equipartition can be applied to any classical system in thermal equilibrium, no matter how complicated. It can be used to derive the ideal gas law, and the Dulong–Petit law for the specific heat capacities of solids. The equipartition theorem can also be used to predict the properties of stars, even white dwarfs and neutron stars, since it holds even when relativistic effects are considered.

Although the equipartition theorem makes accurate predictions in certain conditions, it is inaccurate when quantum effects are significant, such as at low temperatures.  When the thermal energy  is smaller than the quantum energy spacing in a particular degree of freedom, the average energy and heat capacity of this degree of freedom are less than the values predicted by equipartition. Such a degree of freedom is said to be "frozen out" when the thermal energy is much smaller than this spacing. For example, the heat capacity of a solid decreases at low temperatures as various types of motion become frozen out, rather than remaining constant as predicted by equipartition. Such decreases in heat capacity were among the first signs to physicists of the 19th century that classical physics was incorrect and that a new, more subtle, scientific model was required. Along with other evidence, equipartition's failure to model black-body radiation—also known as the ultraviolet catastrophe—led Max Planck to suggest that energy in the oscillators in an object, which emit light, were quantized, a revolutionary hypothesis that spurred the development of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.

Basic concept and simple examples

The name "equipartition" means "equal division," as derived from the Latin equi from the antecedent, æquus ("equal or even"), and partition from the noun, partitio ("division, portion"). The original concept of equipartition was that the total kinetic energy of a system is shared equally among all of its independent parts, on the average, once the system has reached thermal equilibrium. Equipartition also makes quantitative predictions for these energies. For example, it predicts that every atom of an inert noble gas, in thermal equilibrium at temperature , has an average translational kinetic energy of , where  is the Boltzmann constant. As a consequence, since kinetic energy is equal to (mass)(velocity)2, the heavier atoms of xenon have a lower average speed than do the lighter atoms of helium at the same temperature. Figure 2 shows the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for the speeds of the atoms in four noble gases.

In this example, the key point is that the kinetic energy is quadratic in the velocity. The equipartition theorem shows that in thermal equilibrium, any degree of freedom (such as a component of the position or velocity of a particle) which appears only quadratically in the energy has an average energy of  and therefore contributes  to the system's heat capacity. This has many applications.

Translational energy and ideal gases

The (Newtonian) kinetic energy of a particle of mass , velocity  is given by

where ,  and  are the Cartesian components of the velocity . Here,  is short for Hamiltonian, and used henceforth as a symbol for energy because the Hamiltonian formalism plays a central role in the most general form of the equipartition theorem.

Since the kinetic energy is quadratic in the components of the velocity, by equipartition these three components each contribute  to the average kinetic energy in thermal equilibrium. Thus the average kinetic energy of the particle is , as in the example of noble gases above.

More generally, in a monatomic ideal gas the total energy consists purely of (translational) kinetic energy: by assumption, the particles have no internal degrees of freedom and move independently of one another. Equipartition therefore predicts that the total energy of an ideal gas of  particles is .

It follows that the heat capacity of the gas is  and hence, in particular, the heat capacity of a mole of such gas particles is , where NA is the Avogadro constant and R is the gas constant. Since R ≈ 2 cal/(mol·K), equipartition predicts that the molar heat capacity of an ideal gas is roughly 3 cal/(mol·K). This prediction is confirmed by experiment when compared to monatomic gases.

The mean kinetic energy also allows the root mean square speed  of the gas particles to be calculated:

where  is the mass of a mole of gas particles. This result is useful for many applications such as Graham's law of effusion, which provides a method for enriching uranium.

Rotational energy and molecular tumbling in solution

A similar example is provided by a rotating molecule with principal moments of inertia ,  and . According to classical mechanics, the rotational energy of such a molecule is given by

where , , and  are the principal components of the angular velocity. By exactly the same reasoning as in the translational case, equipartition implies that in thermal equilibrium the average rotational energy of each particle is . Similarly, the equipartition theorem allows the average (more precisely, the root mean square) angular speed of the molecules to be calculated.

The tumbling of rigid molecules—that is, the random rotations of molecules in solution—plays a key role in the relaxations observed by nuclear magnetic resonance, particularly protein NMR and residual dipolar couplings. Rotational diffusion can also be observed by other biophysical probes such as fluorescence anisotropy, flow birefringence and dielectric spectroscopy.

Potential energy and harmonic oscillators
Equipartition applies to potential energies as well as kinetic energies: important examples include harmonic oscillators such as a spring, which has a quadratic potential energy

where the constant  describes the stiffness of the spring and  is the deviation from equilibrium. If such a one-dimensional system has mass , then its kinetic energy  is

where  and  denote the velocity and momentum of the oscillator. Combining these terms yields the total energy

Equipartition therefore implies that in thermal equilibrium, the oscillator has average energy

where the angular brackets  denote the average of the enclosed quantity,

This result is valid for any type of harmonic oscillator, such as a pendulum, a vibrating molecule or a passive electronic oscillator. Systems of such oscillators arise in many situations; by equipartition, each such oscillator receives an average total energy  and hence contributes  to the system's heat capacity. This can be used to derive the formula for Johnson–Nyquist noise and the Dulong–Petit law of solid heat capacities. The latter application was particularly significant in the history of equipartition.

Specific heat capacity of solids

An important application of the equipartition theorem is to the specific heat capacity of a crystalline solid. Each atom in such a solid can oscillate in three independent directions, so the solid can be viewed as a system of  independent simple harmonic oscillators, where  denotes the number of atoms in the lattice. Since each harmonic oscillator has average energy , the average total energy of the solid is , and its heat capacity is .

By taking  to be the Avogadro constant , and using the relation  between the gas constant  and the Boltzmann constant , this provides an explanation for the Dulong–Petit law of specific heat capacities of solids, which stated that the specific heat capacity (per unit mass) of a solid element is inversely proportional to its atomic weight. A modern version is that the molar heat capacity of a solid is 3R ≈ 6 cal/(mol·K).

However, this law is inaccurate at lower temperatures, due to quantum effects; it is also inconsistent with the experimentally derived third law of thermodynamics, according to which the molar heat capacity of any substance must go to zero as the temperature goes to absolute zero. A more accurate theory, incorporating quantum effects, was developed by Albert Einstein (1907) and Peter Debye (1911).

Many other physical systems can be modeled as sets of coupled oscillators. The motions of such oscillators can be decomposed into normal modes, like the vibrational modes of a piano string or the resonances of an organ pipe. On the other hand, equipartition often breaks down for such systems, because there is no exchange of energy between the normal modes. In an extreme situation, the modes are independent and so their energies are independently conserved. This shows that some sort of mixing of energies, formally called ergodicity, is important for the law of equipartition to hold.

Sedimentation of particles

Potential energies are not always quadratic in the position. However, the equipartition theorem also shows that if a degree of freedom  contributes only a multiple of  (for a fixed real number ) to the energy, then in thermal equilibrium the average energy of that part is .

There is a simple application of this extension to the sedimentation of particles under gravity. For example, the haze sometimes seen in beer can be caused by clumps of proteins that scatter light. Over time, these clumps settle downwards under the influence of gravity, causing more haze near the bottom of a bottle than near its top. However, in a process working in the opposite direction, the particles also diffuse back up towards the top of the bottle. Once equilibrium has been reached, the equipartition theorem may be used to determine the average position of a particular clump of buoyant mass . For an infinitely tall bottle of beer, the gravitational potential energy is given by

where  is the height of the protein clump in the bottle and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Since , the average potential energy of a protein clump equals . Hence, a protein clump with a buoyant mass of 10 MDa (roughly the size of a virus) would produce a haze with an average height of about 2 cm at equilibrium. The process of such sedimentation to equilibrium is described by the Mason–Weaver equation.

History

The equipartition of kinetic energy was proposed initially in 1843, and more correctly in 1845, by John James Waterston. In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell argued that the kinetic heat energy of a gas is equally divided between linear and rotational energy. In 1876, Ludwig Boltzmann expanded on this principle by showing that the average energy was divided equally among all the independent components of motion in a system. Boltzmann applied the equipartition theorem to provide a theoretical explanation of the Dulong–Petit law for the specific heat capacities of solids.

The history of the equipartition theorem is intertwined with that of specific heat capacity, both of which were studied in the 19th century. In 1819, the French physicists Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit discovered that the specific heat capacities of solid elements at room temperature were inversely proportional to the atomic weight of the element. Their law was used for many years as a technique for measuring atomic weights. However, subsequent studies by James Dewar and Heinrich Friedrich Weber showed that this Dulong–Petit law holds only at high temperatures; at lower temperatures, or for exceptionally hard solids such as diamond, the specific heat capacity was lower.

Experimental observations of the specific heat capacities of gases also raised concerns about the validity of the equipartition theorem. The theorem predicts that the molar heat capacity of simple monatomic gases should be roughly 3 cal/(mol·K), whereas that of diatomic gases should be roughly 7 cal/(mol·K). Experiments confirmed the former prediction, but found that molar heat capacities of diatomic gases were typically about 5 cal/(mol·K), and fell to about 3 cal/(mol·K) at very low temperatures. Maxwell noted in 1875 that the disagreement between experiment and the equipartition theorem was much worse than even these numbers suggest; since atoms have internal parts, heat energy should go into the motion of these internal parts, making the predicted specific heats of monatomic and diatomic gases much higher than 3 cal/(mol·K) and 7 cal/(mol·K), respectively.

A third discrepancy concerned the specific heat of metals. According to the classical Drude model, metallic electrons act as a nearly ideal gas, and so they should contribute  to the heat capacity by the equipartition theorem, where Ne is the number of electrons. Experimentally, however, electrons contribute little to the heat capacity: the molar heat capacities of many conductors and insulators are nearly the same.

Several explanations of equipartition's failure to account for molar heat capacities were proposed. Boltzmann defended the derivation of his equipartition theorem as correct, but suggested that gases might not be in thermal equilibrium because of their interactions with the aether. Lord Kelvin suggested that the derivation of the equipartition theorem must be incorrect, since it disagreed with experiment, but was unable to show how. In 1900 Lord Rayleigh instead put forward a more radical view that the equipartition theorem and the experimental assumption of thermal equilibrium were both correct; to reconcile them, he noted the need for a new principle that would provide an "escape from the destructive simplicity" of the equipartition theorem. Albert Einstein provided that escape, by showing in 1906 that these anomalies in the specific heat were due to quantum effects, specifically the quantization of energy in the elastic modes of the solid. Einstein used the failure of equipartition to argue for the need of a new quantum theory of matter. Nernst's 1910 measurements of specific heats at low temperatures supported Einstein's theory, and led to the widespread acceptance of quantum theory among physicists.

General formulation of the equipartition theorem

The most general form of the equipartition theorem states that under suitable assumptions (discussed below), for a physical system with Hamiltonian energy function  and degrees of freedom , the following equipartition formula holds in thermal equilibrium for all indices  and :

Here  is the Kronecker delta, which is equal to one if  and is zero otherwise. The averaging brackets  is assumed to be an ensemble average over phase space or, under an assumption of ergodicity, a time average of a single system.

The general equipartition theorem holds in both the microcanonical ensemble, when the total energy of the system is constant, and also in the canonical ensemble, when the system is coupled to a heat bath with which it can exchange energy. Derivations of the general formula are given later in the article.

The general formula is equivalent to the following two:

If a degree of freedom xn appears only as a quadratic term anxn2 in the Hamiltonian H, then the first of these formulae implies that

which is twice the contribution that this degree of freedom makes to the average energy . Thus the equipartition theorem for systems with quadratic energies follows easily from the general formula. A similar argument, with 2 replaced by s, applies to energies of the form anxns.

The degrees of freedom xn are coordinates on the phase space of the system and are therefore commonly subdivided into generalized position coordinates qk and generalized momentum coordinates pk, where pk is the conjugate momentum to qk. In this situation, formula 1 means that for all k,

Using the equations of Hamiltonian mechanics, these formulae may also be written

Similarly, one can show using formula 2 that

and

Relation to the virial theorem

The general equipartition theorem is an extension of the virial theorem (proposed in 1870), which states that

where t denotes time. Two key differences are that the virial theorem relates summed rather than individual averages to each other, and it does not connect them to the temperature T. Another difference is that traditional derivations of the virial theorem use averages over time, whereas those of the equipartition theorem use averages over phase space.

Applications

Ideal gas law

Ideal gases provide an important application of the equipartition theorem. As well as providing the formula

for the average kinetic energy per particle, the equipartition theorem can be used to derive the ideal gas law from classical mechanics. If q = (qx, qy, qz) and p = (px, py, pz) denote the position vector and momentum of a particle in the gas, and
F is the net force on that particle, then

where the first equality is Newton's second law, and the second line uses Hamilton's equations and the equipartition formula. Summing over a system of N particles yields

By Newton's third law and the ideal gas assumption, the net force on the system is the force applied by the walls of their container, and this force is given by the pressure P of the gas. Hence

where  is the infinitesimal area element along the walls of the container. Since the divergence of the position vector  is

the divergence theorem implies that

where  is an infinitesimal volume within the container and  is the total volume of the container.

Putting these equalities together yields

which immediately implies the ideal gas law for N particles:

where  is the number of moles of gas and  is the gas constant. Although equipartition provides a simple derivation of the ideal-gas law and the internal energy, the same results can be obtained by an alternative method using the partition function.

Diatomic gases

A diatomic gas can be modelled as two masses,  and , joined by a spring of stiffness , which is called the rigid rotor-harmonic oscillator approximation. The classical energy of this system is

where  and  are the momenta of the two atoms, and  is the deviation of the inter-atomic separation from its equilibrium value. Every degree of freedom in the energy is quadratic and, thus, should contribute  to the total average energy, and  to the heat capacity. Therefore, the heat capacity of a gas of N diatomic molecules is predicted to be : the momenta  and  contribute three degrees of freedom each, and the extension  contributes the seventh. It follows that the heat capacity of a mole of diatomic molecules with no other degrees of freedom should be  and, thus, the predicted molar heat capacity should be roughly 7 cal/(mol·K). However, the experimental values for molar heat capacities of diatomic gases are typically about 5 cal/(mol·K) and fall to 3 cal/(mol·K) at very low temperatures. This disagreement between the equipartition prediction and the experimental value of the molar heat capacity cannot be explained by using a more complex model of the molecule, since adding more degrees of freedom can only increase the predicted specific heat, not decrease it. This discrepancy was a key piece of evidence showing the need for a quantum theory of matter.

Extreme relativistic ideal gases

Equipartition was used above to derive the classical ideal gas law from Newtonian mechanics. However, relativistic effects become dominant in some systems, such as white dwarfs and neutron stars, and the ideal gas equations must be modified. The equipartition theorem provides a convenient way to derive the corresponding laws for an extreme relativistic ideal gas. In such cases, the kinetic energy of a single particle is given by the formula

Taking the derivative of  with respect to the  momentum component gives the formula

and similarly for the  and  components. Adding the three components together gives

where the last equality follows from the equipartition formula. Thus, the average total energy of an extreme relativistic gas is twice that of the non-relativistic case: for  particles, it is .

Non-ideal gases

In an ideal gas the particles are assumed to interact only through collisions. The equipartition theorem may also be used to derive the energy and pressure of "non-ideal gases" in which the particles also interact with one another through conservative forces whose potential  depends only on the distance  between the particles. This situation can be described by first restricting attention to a single gas particle, and approximating the rest of the gas by a spherically symmetric distribution. It is then customary to introduce a radial distribution function  such that the probability density of finding another particle at a distance  from the given particle is equal to , where  is the mean density of the gas. It follows that the mean potential energy associated to the interaction of the given particle with the rest of the gas is

The total mean potential energy of the gas is therefore , where  is the number of particles in the gas, and the factor  is needed because summation over all the particles counts each interaction twice.
Adding kinetic and potential energies, then applying equipartition, yields the energy equation

A similar argument, can be used to derive the pressure equation

Anharmonic oscillators

An anharmonic oscillator (in contrast to a simple harmonic oscillator) is one in which the potential energy is not quadratic in the extension  (the generalized position which measures the deviation of the system from equilibrium). Such oscillators provide a complementary point of view on the equipartition theorem. Simple examples are provided by potential energy functions of the form

where  and  are arbitrary real constants. In these cases, the law of equipartition predicts that

Thus, the average potential energy equals , not  as for the quadratic harmonic oscillator (where ).

More generally, a typical energy function of a one-dimensional system has a Taylor expansion in the extension :

for non-negative integers . There is no  term, because at the equilibrium point, there is no net force and so the first derivative of the energy is zero. The  term need not be included, since the energy at the equilibrium position may be set to zero by convention. In this case, the law of equipartition predicts that

In contrast to the other examples cited here, the equipartition formula

does not allow the average potential energy to be written in terms of known constants.

Brownian motion

The equipartition theorem can be used to derive the Brownian motion of a particle from the Langevin equation. According to that equation, the motion of a particle of mass  with velocity  is governed by Newton's second law

where  is a random force representing the random collisions of the particle and the surrounding molecules, and where the time constant τ reflects the drag force that opposes the particle's motion through the solution. The drag force is often written ; therefore, the time constant  equals .

The dot product of this equation with the position vector , after averaging, yields the equation

for Brownian motion (since the random force  is uncorrelated with the position ). Using the mathematical identities

and

the basic equation for Brownian motion can be transformed into

where the last equality follows from the equipartition theorem for translational kinetic energy:

The above differential equation for  (with suitable initial conditions) may be solved exactly:

On small time scales, with , the particle acts as a freely moving particle: by the Taylor series of the exponential function, the squared distance grows approximately quadratically:

However, on long time scales, with , the exponential and constant terms are negligible, and the squared distance grows only linearly:

This describes the diffusion of the particle over time. An analogous equation for the rotational diffusion of a rigid molecule can be derived in a similar way.

Stellar physics

The equipartition theorem and the related virial theorem have long been used as a tool in astrophysics. As examples, the virial theorem may be used to estimate stellar temperatures or the Chandrasekhar limit on the mass of white dwarf stars.

The average temperature of a star can be estimated from the equipartition theorem. Since most stars are spherically symmetric, the total gravitational potential energy can be estimated by integration

where  is the mass within a radius  and  is the stellar density at radius ;  represents the gravitational constant and  the total radius of the star. Assuming a constant density throughout the star, this integration yields the formula

where  is the star's total mass. Hence, the average potential energy of a single particle is

where  is the number of particles in the star. Since most stars are composed mainly of ionized hydrogen,  equals roughly , where  is the mass of one proton. Application of the equipartition theorem gives an estimate of the star's temperature

Substitution of the mass and radius of the Sun yields an estimated solar temperature of T = 14 million kelvins, very close to its core temperature of 15 million kelvins. However, the Sun is much more complex than assumed by this model—both its temperature and density vary strongly with radius—and such excellent agreement (≈7% relative error) is partly fortuitous.

Star formation
The same formulae may be applied to determining the conditions for star formation in giant molecular clouds. A local fluctuation in the density of such a cloud can lead to a runaway condition in which the cloud collapses inwards under its own gravity. Such a collapse occurs when the equipartition theorem—or, equivalently, the virial theorem—is no longer valid, i.e., when the gravitational potential energy exceeds twice the kinetic energy

Assuming a constant density  for the cloud

yields a minimum mass for stellar contraction, the Jeans mass

Substituting the values typically observed in such clouds (, ) gives an estimated minimum mass of 17 solar masses, which is consistent with observed star formation. This effect is also known as the Jeans instability, after the British physicist James Hopwood Jeans who published it in 1902.

Derivations

Kinetic energies and the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
The original formulation of the equipartition theorem states that, in any physical system in thermal equilibrium, every particle has exactly the same average translational kinetic energy, . However, this is true only for ideal gas, and the same result can be derived from the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. First, we choose to consider only the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of velocity of the z-component

with this equation, we can calculate the mean square velocity of the -component

Since different components of velocity are independent of each other, the average translational kinetic energy is given by

Notice, the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution should not be confused with the Boltzmann distribution, which the former can be derived from the latter by assuming the energy of a particle is equal to its translational kinetic energy.

As stated by the equipartition theorem. The same result can also be obtained by averaging the particle energy using the probability of finding the particle in certain quantum energy state.

Quadratic energies and the partition function
More generally, the equipartition theorem states that any degree of freedom  which appears in the total energy  only as a simple quadratic term , where  is a constant, has an average energy of  in thermal equilibrium. In this case the equipartition theorem may be derived from the partition function , where  is the canonical inverse temperature. Integration over the variable  yields a factor

in the formula for . The mean energy associated with this factor is given by

as stated by the equipartition theorem.

General proofs
General derivations of the equipartition theorem can be found in many statistical mechanics textbooks, both for the microcanonical ensemble and for the canonical ensemble.
They involve taking averages over the phase space of the system, which is a symplectic manifold.

To explain these derivations, the following notation is introduced. First, the phase space is described in terms of generalized position coordinates  together with their conjugate momenta . The quantities  completely describe the configuration of the system, while the quantities  together completely describe its state.

Secondly, the infinitesimal volume

of the phase space is introduced and used to define the volume  of the portion of phase space where the energy  of the system lies between two limits,  and :

In this expression,  is assumed to be very small, . Similarly,  is defined to be the total volume of phase space where the energy is less than :

Since  is very small, the following integrations are equivalent

where the ellipses represent the integrand. From this, it follows that  is proportional to

where  is the density of states. By the usual definitions of statistical mechanics, the entropy  equals , and the temperature  is defined by

The canonical ensemble
In the canonical ensemble, the system is in thermal equilibrium with an infinite heat bath at temperature  (in kelvins). The probability of each state in phase space is given by its Boltzmann factor times a normalization factor , which is chosen so that the probabilities sum to one

where . Using Integration by parts for a phase-space variable  the above can be written as

where , i.e., the first integration is not carried out over . Performing the first integral between two limits  and  and simplifying the second integral yields the equation

The first term is usually zero, either because  is zero at the limits, or because the energy goes to infinity at those limits. In that case, the equipartition theorem for the canonical ensemble follows immediately

Here, the averaging symbolized by  is the ensemble average taken over the canonical ensemble.

The microcanonical ensemble
In the microcanonical ensemble, the system is isolated from the rest of the world, or at least very weakly coupled to it. Hence, its total energy is effectively constant; to be definite, we say that the total energy  is confined between  and . For a given energy  and spread , there is a region of phase space  in which the system has that energy, and the probability of each state in that region of phase space is equal, by the definition of the microcanonical ensemble. Given these definitions, the equipartition average of phase-space variables  (which could be either  or ) and  is given by

where the last equality follows because  is a constant that does not depend on . Integrating by parts yields the relation

since the first term on the right hand side of the first line is zero (it can be rewritten as an integral of H − E on the hypersurface where ).

Substitution of this result into the previous equation yields

Since  the equipartition theorem follows:

Thus, we have derived the general formulation of the equipartition theorem

which was so useful in the applications described above.

Limitations

Requirement of ergodicity

The law of equipartition holds only for ergodic systems in thermal equilibrium, which implies that all states with the same energy must be equally likely to be populated. Consequently, it must be possible to exchange energy among all its various forms within the system, or with an external heat bath in the canonical ensemble. The number of physical systems that have been rigorously proven to be ergodic is small; a famous example is the hard-sphere system of Yakov Sinai. The requirements for isolated systems to ensure ergodicity—and, thus equipartition—have been studied, and provided motivation for the modern chaos theory of dynamical systems. A chaotic Hamiltonian system need not be ergodic, although that is usually a good assumption.

A commonly cited counter-example where energy is not shared among its various forms and where equipartition does not hold in the microcanonical ensemble is a system of coupled harmonic oscillators. If the system is isolated from the rest of the world, the energy in each normal mode is constant; energy is not transferred from one mode to another. Hence, equipartition does not hold for such a system; the amount of energy in each normal mode is fixed at its initial value. If sufficiently strong nonlinear terms are present in the energy function, energy may be transferred between the normal modes, leading to ergodicity and rendering the law of equipartition valid. However, the Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem states that energy will not be exchanged unless the nonlinear perturbations are strong enough; if they are too small, the energy will remain trapped in at least some of the modes.

Another simple example is an ideal gas of a finite number of colliding particles in a round vessel. Due to the vessel's symmetry, the angular momentum of such a gas is conserved. Therefore, not all states with the same energy are populated. This results in the mean particle energy being dependent on the mass of this particle, and also on the masses of all the other particles.

Another way ergodicity can be broken is by the existence of nonlinear soliton symmetries. In 1953, Fermi, Pasta, Ulam and Tsingou conducted computer simulations of a vibrating string that included a non-linear term (quadratic in one test, cubic in another, and a piecewise linear approximation to a cubic in a third). They found that the behavior of the system was quite different from what intuition based on equipartition would have led them to expect. Instead of the energies in the modes becoming equally shared, the system exhibited a very complicated quasi-periodic behavior. This puzzling result was eventually explained by Kruskal and Zabusky in 1965 in a paper which, by connecting the simulated system to the Korteweg–de Vries equation led to the development of soliton mathematics.

Failure due to quantum effects

The law of equipartition breaks down when the thermal energy  is significantly smaller than the spacing between energy levels. Equipartition no longer holds because it is a poor approximation to assume that the energy levels form a smooth continuum, which is required in the derivations of the equipartition theorem above. Historically, the failures of the classical equipartition theorem to explain specific heats and black-body radiation were critical in showing the need for a new theory of matter and radiation, namely, quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.

To illustrate the breakdown of equipartition, consider the average energy in a single (quantum) harmonic oscillator, which was discussed above for the classical case. Neglecting the irrelevant zero-point energy term, its quantum energy levels are given by , where  is the Planck constant,  is the fundamental frequency of the oscillator, and  is an integer. The probability of a given energy level being populated in the canonical ensemble is given by its Boltzmann factor

where  and the denominator  is the partition function, here a geometric series

Its average energy is given by

Substituting the formula for  gives the final result

At high temperatures, when the thermal energy  is much greater than the spacing  between energy levels, the exponential argument  is much less than one and the average energy becomes , in agreement with the equipartition theorem (Figure 10). However, at low temperatures, when , the average energy goes to zero—the higher-frequency energy levels are "frozen out" (Figure 10). As another example, the internal excited electronic states of a hydrogen atom do not contribute to its specific heat as a gas at room temperature, since the thermal energy  (roughly 0.025 eV) is much smaller than the spacing between the lowest and next higher electronic energy levels (roughly 10 eV).

Similar considerations apply whenever the energy level spacing is much larger than the thermal energy. This reasoning was used by Max Planck and Albert Einstein, among others, to resolve the ultraviolet catastrophe of black-body radiation. The paradox arises because there are an infinite number of independent modes of the electromagnetic field in a closed container, each of which may be treated as a harmonic oscillator. If each electromagnetic mode were to have an average energy , there would be an infinite amount of energy in the container. However, by the reasoning above, the average energy in the higher-frequency modes goes to zero as ν goes to infinity; moreover, Planck's law of black-body radiation, which describes the experimental distribution of energy in the modes, follows from the same reasoning.

Other, more subtle quantum effects can lead to corrections to equipartition, such as identical particles and continuous symmetries. The effects of identical particles can be dominant at very high densities and low temperatures. For example, the valence electrons in a metal can have a mean kinetic energy of a few electronvolts, which would normally correspond to a temperature of tens of thousands of kelvins. Such a state, in which the density is high enough that the Pauli exclusion principle invalidates the classical approach, is called a degenerate fermion gas. Such gases are important for the structure of white dwarf and neutron stars. At low temperatures, a fermionic analogue of the Bose–Einstein condensate (in which a large number of identical particles occupy the lowest-energy state) can form; such superfluid electrons are responsible for superconductivity.

See also
 Kinetic theory
 Quantum statistical mechanics

Notes and references

Further reading

  ASIN B00085D6OO

External links
 Applet demonstrating equipartition in real time for a mixture of monatomic and diatomic gases
 The equipartition theorem in stellar physics, written by Nir J. Shaviv, an associate professor at the Racah Institute of Physics in the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Physics theorems
Laws of thermodynamics
Statistical mechanics theorems

Equipartition theorem


São João Portekiz'de Abrantes belediyesine bağlı olan, 2,27 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 1850 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

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Abrantes

São João (Abrantes)


L'affaire Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie, également appelée Allégations de génocide au regard de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, est une affaire portée devant la Cour internationale de justice (CIJ), le principal organe judiciaire des Nations unies. Elle a été soumise par l'Ukraine le  contre la Russie à la suite de l'invasion de la première par la seconde en 2022. La Russie a cherché à justifier en partie par des allégations selon lesquelles l'Ukraine se serait livrée à des actes de génocide dans les oblasts de Lougansk et de Donetsk. L'Ukraine a déclaré que ces demandes avaient donné lieu à un différend au titre de la Convention de 1948 pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide et a fondé sa demande sur la compétence de la CIJ pour résoudre les différends impliquant la Convention. Le , le tribunal a jugé que la Russie devait  en Ukraine, en attendant la décision finale sur l'affaire.

Application
La demande de l'Ukraine visait à . Son principal argument était que . L'Ukraine a cherché à établir que ces actes de la Russie n'avaient aucun fondement dans la convention sur le génocide et a demandé une réparation intégrale pour ces actes illicites.

L'Ukraine a également accusé la Russie de planifier des  et a affirmé que les  forces armées russes .

Procédure de mesures provisoires
Les premières audiences de l'affaire ont eu lieu le 7 mars 2022 au Palais de la Paix à La Haye, aux Pays- Bas  pour déterminer le droit de l'Ukraine à des mesures provisoires. La délégation russe n'a pas comparu pour ces procédures, mais a soumis une déclaration écrite.

Le 16 mars 2022, le tribunal a statué à 13 contre 2 que la Russie devait  qu'elle avait commencées le 24 février 2022 en Ukraine, avec la dissidence du vice-président Kirill Gevorgian, de Russie, et du juge Xue Hanqin, de Chine. Le tribunal a également appelé à l'unanimité .

En plus d'un bref résumé de sa décision, la CIJ a rendu une ordonnance de  expliquant son raisonnement. Six juges ont déposé des déclarations séparées expliquant leur point de vue individuel sur l'affaire, dont le vice-président Gevorgian et le juge Xue.

Bien que les décisions de la Cour soient contraignantes pour les États membres, la Cour n'a aucun moyen d'exécuter directement ses ordonnances. Dans de rares cas, les pays ont ignoré les décisions dans le passé.

Raisonnement du tribunal
La Cour a d'abord déterminé qu'elle était compétente pour ordonner une mesure provisoire , qui habilite la CIJ à résoudre les différends relatifs à l'interprétation, à l'application ou à l'exécution de la Convention. La Cour a expliqué que l' s'appliquait parce que la Russie et l'Ukraine ont un différend sur la question de savoir si un génocide a lieu à Donetsk et Louhansk.

La Cour a ensuite estimé que l'Ukraine avait  sur son territoire. Cette conclusion s'explique notamment par le fait que la Cour ne disposait d'aucune preuve étayant les allégations de génocide de la Russie. La Cour a également jugé  que la Convention, à la lumière de son objet et de son but, autorise une partie contractante à recourir unilatéralement à la force sur le territoire d'un autre État dans le but de prévenir ou de punir un génocide présumé.

La Cour a ensuite déterminé qu'il existait un lien plausible entre les droits revendiqués par l'Ukraine en vertu de la Convention sur le génocide et la principale mesure provisoire qu'elle demandait  bien qu'elle ait estimé qu'un tel lien faisait défaut pour deux autres formes de mesures demandées par l'Ukraine. Les deux droits revendiqués par l'Ukraine étaient le droit  et le droit .

Enfin, la cour a jugé qu'il existe un risque réel et imminent qu'un préjudice irréparable soit causé aux droits de l'Ukraine et que la situation en Ukraine était suffisamment urgente pour justifier une mesure provisoire. Sur cette question, la Cour a estimé que .

Déclarations séparées
Le vice-président Gevorgian et le juge Xue n'étaient pas d'accord sur le fait que la CIJ était compétente, écrivant que l'Ukraine cherchait réellement à se prononcer sur la légalité de l'invasion russe et que cela ne soulevait pas de véritable différend en vertu de la convention sur le génocide. Le juge Mohamed Bennouna a également exprimé des doutes quant à l'applicabilité de la convention sur le génocide, mais a déclaré : .

Le juge ad hoc Yves Daudet a écrit séparément pour critiquer la CIJ d'avoir ordonné à la fois à l'Ukraine et à la Russie , arguant que . Les opinions individuelles des deux juges restants ont fourni des motifs supplémentaires à l'appui de l'ordonnance du tribunal.

Réactions à la décision
Peu de temps après la publication de la décision, le président ukrainien Volodymyr Zelensky a salué la décision comme une victoire complète pour son pays, affirmant qu'ignorer l'ordre isolerait davantage la Russie. Le secrétaire général de l'ONU, António Guterres, a déclaré que cette décision renforçait ses appels répétés à la paix.

Le lendemain, les ministres des Affaires étrangères du Groupe des sept ont publié une déclaration conjointe accusant la Russie de mener une  et appelant le pays à se conformer à la décision du tribunal. L'attaché de presse présidentiel russe, Dmitri Peskov, a rejeté la décision, affirmant que la Russie ne pouvait pas  et que, sans le consentement des deux parties, la décision n'était pas valide.

À la suite d'un sommet extraordinaire à Bruxelles, les dirigeants de l'OTAN ont publié une déclaration commune condamnant les attaques russes contre des civils et appelant la Russie à suspendre immédiatement les opérations militaires, comme l'a ordonné le tribunal.

Articles connexes
 Conflit russo-ukrainien
 Casus belli
 Enquête de la Cour pénale internationale en Ukraine

Références

Liens externes
 Allégations de génocide au regard de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Ukraine c. Fédération Russe)  Dans : icj-cij.org.

Relations entre la Russie et l'Ukraine
Droit pénal international
Droit de la guerre
Crime de guerre lors de l'invasion russe de l'Ukraine en 2022
Invasion de l'Ukraine par la Russie en 2022
2022 en Russie
2022 en Ukraine
Jurisprudence de la Cour internationale de justice
Pages avec des traductions non relues
Février 2022

Ukraine c. Fédération de Russie (2022)


Bohol (tidligere Bool) er en ø i landsdelen Visayas på Filippinerne. Bohol er samtidig en provins med hovedstad i Tagbilaran City.

Provinsen Bohol, oprettet den 10. marts 1917, består af øen Bohol (3.865 km²) og nogle omliggende mindre øer. Panglao er den eneste anden større ø (90 km²), de øvrige er småøer.

Bohol, Filippinernes 10. største ø, ligger mellem øerne Cebu i nord, Negros og Siquijor i vest, Leyte i øst, og Mindanao og Camiguin mod syd.
Sproget på Bohol er cebuano; den lokale dialektvariant kaldes boholano.

Provinsen er en populær turistdestination med strande og hoteller. Chocolate Hills, omkring 1000 runde kalkformationer, er den mest populære attraktion. The formations kan ses på land fra højereliggende steder , eller fra luften ved ture med ultralette fly. Panglao Island, lige sydvest for Tagbilaran, er berømt for sine dykkerlokationer og ligger på mange dykkeres top ti. Filippinske tarsier eller spøgelsesaber, der er blandt verdens mindste primater, lever på øen.

Et stræde adskiller øerne Cebu og Bohol, og der tales samme sprog på begge øer, men med en lidt forskellig udtale. Bohols klima er gennerelt tørt, med mest regn i månederne fra juni til oktober. Det er varmest ved kysterne. De fleste indbyggere er katolikker, men der er også mange protestanter af forskellige retninger, og medlemmer af Iglesia ni Cristo.

Carlos P. Garcia, den ottende præsident i republikken (1957–1961) blev født i Talibon.

15. oktober 2013 blev Bohol ødelagt af et jordskælv med en styrke på 7,2 på richterskalaen, hvis epicenter lå 6 km syd for byen Sagbayan. Jordskælvet, som også ramte Cebu, kostede 156 mennesker livet, og kvæstede 374. Blandt de mange ødelagte bygninger mange af byens gamle kirker.

Politisk inddeling
Bohol er delt i 1 bykommune og 47 "municipalities" (landkommuner).

Bykommune
 Tagbilaran City

Landkommuner (municipalities)

Historie

Fra 1200 til koloniseringen 1565
der vides intet om Bohols befolkning før det 13. århundrede. Bohols første indfødte bosatte sig på Anda-halvøen. Det antages at en gruppe kaldt "lutaoene" ankom til Bohol fra det nordlige Mindanao omkring år 1200. De byggede en bosættelse på den vestlige del af Bohol. Denne landsby er blevet kaldt "kongedømmet Dapitan".

Magellan-ekspeditionen kom i 1521 til øerne Panglao og Bohol, og næste gang øboerne kom i kontakt med europæere var i 1526. Da købte høvding Sikatuna en spansk sømand som havde overlevet et skibbrud i Visayas-havet, taget til fange på Mindanao og solgt som slave.

I 1563 plyndrede portugiserne og deres allierede fra Krydderiøerne (Molukkerne) øboernes lille hovedstad Dapitan. Byen blev derefter forladt.

I 1565 ankom en ny spansk ekspedition, ledet af Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. Den havde sejlet fra Mexico. Efter et mislykket forsøg på at slå sig ned på Cebu havnede de på Bohol. Der gjorde de sig til venner med to lokale høvdinger, Datu Sikatuna og Datu Sigala, og fik hjælp af dem til at nedkæmpe den lokale datu (høvding) i Cebu og etablere sig der. Efter få år var også Bohol underlagt Spanien, og blev administrativt tilordnet spaniolernes støttepunkt på Cebu.

Fra kristningen til Dagohoys oppstand (1596 – 1744)
Ikke lang tid efter kom katolske missionærer fra jesuitterordenen. De etablerede sig i 1596 i Baclayon, men efter et muslimsk raid i 1600 flyttede de deres hovedkvarter ind til Loboc.

To antispanske oprør fandt sted på øen. Det første blev ledet af Tamblot og begyndte i december 1621. Det blev slået ned på under et år. Efter dette udbyggede og styrkede spanierne deres tilstedeværelse på Bohol. Det var ikke primært en urolig lokalbefolkning man frygtede, men de stadige Moro-raids fra Mindanao.

Det var i perioden som fulgte at en række af øens kirker blev bygget ved hjælp af lokale arbejdere, blandt dem kirkerne i Baclayon (den står nu er resultat af ændringer fra 1724) og Loboc.

Frem til 1733 havde jesuitterne grundlagt seks bosættelser (kaldt reducciones): Loboc, Baclayon, Jagna, Talibon, Inabanga og Maribojoc. Her kunne folket bo, her t var det lettere at beskytte dem mod Moro-raid, at kristne dem – og opkræve skatter af dem.

Dagohoys opstand, Bohol river sig løs fra spaniolene (1744 – 1829)
Det andet antispanske oprør kom i 1744. Den dybere årsag var at befolkningen ikke ville udkommanderes til tvangsarbejde, men den udløsende faktor var en anden. Opstanden blev ledet af Francisco Sendrijas (kaldt Dagohoy) efter at hans bror hans var blevet dræbt, og den katolske sognepræst næktede at begrave ham – præsten hævdede at den døde havde duelleret, og da det indebar ekskommunikation, kunne han ikke få en en kristen begravelse.

Francisco Dagohoy blev rasende på præsten, og fik mange med sig. Den 24. januar 1744 startede opstanden med drabet på den italienske sognepræst i Jagna, pater Giuseppe Lamberti S.J. Kort tid efter dræbte Dagohoy også pater Morales, og opstanden spredte sig så over hele Bohol. Dagohoy nedkæmpede de spansk-filippinske styrker som blev sat ind mod ham. Han erklærede øens uafhængighed og etablerede en selvstændig regering i bjergene, og var i stand til at udøve kontrol med hovedparten af øen. Også efter Dagohoys død fortsatte opstanden, og spaniolerne holdt kun nogle få landsbyer lands sydkysten.

I løbet af de følgende 85 år mislykkedes det for ikke mindre end 20 spanske generalguvernører, fra Gaspar de la Torre (1739–45) til Juan Antonio Martínez (1822–25), at få bugt med oprøret. Men i 1845 blev general Mariano Ricafort generalguvernør for Filippinerne (1825–30). Han sendte en stor spansk-filippinsk styrke som gik til angreb den 7. maj 1827. Men det skulle tage mere end et års hårde kampe før det selvstændige Bohol var erobret og oprøret slået ned. De fleste af Dagohoy-oprørets styrker blev benådet, og blev genbosat i nye landsbyer i lavlandet. Disse landsbyer hedder i dag Batuanan, Cabulao, Catigbian og Vilar (Bilar).

Det spanske styres sidste år (1830–1899)
Efter den spanske generobring gik Bohol ind i en fredelig periode. Frem til den 22. juli 1854 forblev øen en del af residencia de Cebu (provinsen Cebu), men fra da blev den sammen med Siquijor udskilt som en egen politisk-militær provins. Ved folketællingen i 1879 havde den en befolkning på 253.103 mennesker.

Det spanske styres sluttede i april 1899. Spaniolerne rejste og i en kort periode var Bohol et "Gobierno de Canton," en provins ledet af fremstående boholanoer i den uafhængige filippinske republik proklameret af Emilio Aguinaldo.

Amerikansk kolonisering og japansk okkupation (1900-1941-1945-1946)
Efter knapt et år var selvstyret ovre, for den 17. marts 1900 landsatte amerikanerne styrker i Tagbilaran for at overtage kontrollen under Den filippinske-amerikanske krig. Boholanoene organiserede sig til modstand. De blodige kampe pågik i flere måneder. Amerikanerne nedbrændte 20 af Bohols 35 småbyer, dræbte tusindvis af filippinere. Den 23. december 1900 overgav boholanerne sig.

Amerikanerne begyndte snart at reorganisere styret og iværksætte reformer. Veje blev anlagt og skoler bygget, og levekårene begyndte at bedre sig. I 1917 blev Bohol en selvstændig provins.

Den anden verdenskrig kom for alvor til Bohol den 17. maj 1942, da japanerne landsatte tropper i Tagbilaran. Tre tunge år fulgte. Der blev organiseret en modstandsbevægelse som drev guerillakrig mod japanerne. Amerikanske styrker vendte tilbage til Bohol den 11. april 1945, og blev denne gang modtaget som befriere.

Den 4. juli 1946 blev Bohol del af den selvstændige filippinske republik. Provinshovedsædet Tagbilaran fik bystatus den 1. juli 1966.

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

 Provinsens websted

Provinser i Filippinerne
Øer i Filippinerne

Bohol


Meyve suyu veya sebze suyu, doğal olarak meyve ve sebze dokusunda bulunan sıvıdır. Meyve suları, ısı veya çözücü kullanılmadan, taze meyvelerin ezilmesi veya sıkıştırılması ile hazırlanılır. Örneğin, portakal suyu portakal meyvesinin özütüdür. Suyu almak için meyve sıkacağı ve meyve presi kullanılır.

Meyve suları en çok cam şişe, Tetra Brik, Tetra Pak ve plastik şişe ambalajlarında satışa sunulmaktadır.

Meyve suyu genellikle bir içecek olarak tüketilir. Milkshake, smoothie veya diğer içeceklerde bir bileşen veya tatlandırıcı olarak kullanılır. Pastörizasyon yöntemlerinin gelişmesi ve fermantasyon kullanılmadan muhafaza edilmesinin ardından popüler bir içecek seçeneği olarak ortaya çıktı.

Meyve suları genellikle sağlık açısından algılanan yararlar için tüketilir. Örneğin, doğal veya eklenmiş C vitamini, folik asit ve potasyum içerir. Meyve suyu, sağlık yararları sunan karotenoidler, polifenoller ve C vitamini gibi besinler sağlar.

Türleri
Bazı popüler meyve suyu türleri elma suyu, armut suyu, portakal suyu, vişne suyu, greyfurt suyu, ananas suyu, domates suyu, hint kirazı suyu, üzüm suyu, yabanmersini suyu, salatalık suyu, havuç suyu, kenevir suyu, şalgam, zerdeçal suyu ve nar suyu'dur, ama diğer popüler türleri de var.

Hazırlık
Meyve suyu, meyve veya sebze etinin mekanik olarak sıkılması veya yumuşatılmasıyla (bazen soğuk preslenme olarak adlandırılır) hazırlanır. Meyve sularının muhafazası ve işlenmesi için yaygın yöntemler arasında konserve, pastörizasyon, konsantre etme, dondurma, buharlaştırma ve püskürtmeli kurutma yer alır.

İşleme yöntemleri meyve suları arasında farklılık gösterse de, meyve sularının genel işleme yöntemi gıda kaynağının yıkanması ve ayrılması, suyu çıkarma, süzme, filtreleme ve arıtma, pastörizasyon harmanlama, doldurma, mühürleme ve sterilizasyon, soğutma, etiketleme ve paketleme işlemlerini içerir.

Meyveler toplandıktan ve yıkandıktan sonra, iki otomatik yöntemden biri ile meyve suyu ekstrakte edilir.  Birinci yöntemde, alt fincanda sivri metal borular bulunan iki metal kap bir araya gelerek kabuğunu çıkarır ve meyvenin etini metal tüpün içinden zorlar.  Meyvenin suyu daha sonra tüpteki küçük deliklerden dışarı çıkar. Kabuklar daha sonra kullanılabilir ve daha sonra kullanım için geri kazanılan yağları çıkarmak için yıkanır. İkinci yöntem, meyvelerin suyunu çıkaran raybalara tabi tutulmadan önce ikiye kesilmesini gerektirir. Meyve suyu filtrelendikten sonra buharlaştırıcılarda konsantre edilerek meyve suyunun boyutu 5 kat azaltılır, bu da nakliyeyi kolaylaştırır ve son kullanma tarihini uzatır.  Meyve suları, suyu çıkarmak için vakum altında ısıtılarak ve ardından yaklaşık 13 santigrat dereceye kadar soğutarak konsantre edilir.  Bir meyve suyundaki suyun yaklaşık üçte ikisi çıkarılır. Meyve suları, konsantre halde de satılabilir. Tüketici konsantre meyve suyuna su ekler.

Meyve suları daha sonra pastörize edilir ve genellikle hala sıcakken kaplara doldurulur. Sıcakken bir kaba meyve suyu dökülürse, olabildiğince çabuk soğutulur.  Isıya dayanamayan ambalajlar, doldurmak için steril koşullar gerektirir.  Kapları sterilize etmek için hidrojen peroksit gibi kimyasallar kullanılabilir. Tesisler günde 1 ila 20 ton arasında üretim yapabilir.

İşleme
Meyve sularında ısı pastörizasyonuna alternatif olarak yüksek yoğunluklu darbeli elektrik alanları kullanılmaktadır.  Isıl işlemler bazen kaliteli, mikrobiyolojik stabil bir ürün yapamaz. Bununla birlikte, yüksek yoğunluklu darbeli elektrik alanları (PEF) ile işlemenin, rafta stabil ve güvenli bir ürün sağlamak için meyve sularına uygulanabileceği bulundu. Ayrıca darbeli elektrik alanlarının taze benzeri ve besin değeri yüksek bir ürün sağladığı görülmüştür. Darbeli elektrik alanı işleme, gıda muhafazası için bir tür termal olmayan yöntemdir.

Darbeli elektrik alanları, mikropları etkisiz hale getirmek için kısa elektrik darbeleri kullanır.  Ek olarak, PEF kullanımı, gıdanın kalitesi üzerinde minimum zararlı etkilere neden olur.  Darbeli elektrik alanları, mikroorganizmaları öldürür, ısıl işlemlere kıyasla gıdanın orijinal renginin, lezzetinin ve besin değerinin daha iyi korunmasını sağlar.  Bu koruma yöntemi, sıvı sular arasına iki elektrot yerleştirerek ve ardından mikrosaniyeler ila milisaniyeler arasında yüksek voltaj darbeleri uygulayarak çalışır. Yüksek voltaj darbeleri 10 ila 80 kV / cm aralığındadır.

Meyve suyunun işlem süresi, darbe sayısı ile efektif darbe süresi çarpılarak hesaplanır.  Darbelerin yüksek voltajı, meyve suyunda mevcut olabilecek mikrobiyal inaktivasyona neden olan bir elektrik alanı üretir.  PEF sıcaklıkları, ısıl işlemde kullanılan sıcaklıkların altındadır.  Yüksek voltaj işleminden sonra, meyve suyu aseptik olarak paketlenir ve soğutulur.  Meyve suyu ayrıca işlemden gelen birkaç iyonun varlığından dolayı elektriği aktarabilir. Elektrik alanı meyve suyuna uygulandığında, elektrik akımları sıvı meyve suyuna akabilir ve meyve suyundaki yüklü moleküller nedeniyle etrafa aktarılabilir.  Bu nedenle, darbeli elektrik alanları mikroorganizmaları etkisiz hale getirebilir, raf ömrünü uzatabilir. Ayrıca orijinal, taze preslenmiş meyve suyuyla benzer kaliteyi korurken meyve suyunun enzimatik aktivitesini azaltabilir.

Meyve suyu markaları

Ayrıca bakınız
 Komposto
 Kompot
 Hoşaf
 Limonata

Kaynakça

Alkolsüz içecekler

Meyve suyu


أندرو ديكسون وايت  ولد في 7 نوفمبر 1832 وتوفي في 4 نوفمبر 1918 دبلوماسي أمريكي وكاتب راحل وهو من مؤسسي جامعة كورنيل.

حياته
ولد في هومر بنيويورك، بعد قضاء عام في كليات هوبارت ووليام سميث تحول إلى جامعة يايل، في جامعة يايل كان زميل ل دانيال كويت جيلمان الذي أصبح فيما بعد أول رئيس لجامعة جون هوبكينز.

الاثنان كانوا تابعين لمجتمع سكل أند بونز السري وكان وايت أيضا عضوا في أخوية ألفا سيجما، وكان يخدم هذه الأخوية ككاتب ينشر بها مقالاته.

بعد تخرجه من جامعة يايل ،قضى ثلاث سنين في أوروبا يدرس ويتعلم قبل أن يعود إلى الولايات المتحدة كبروفيسير في التاريخ والأدب الإنجليزي في جامعة ميتشيغان.

في 1850 أسس وايت ومالك ويسترن يونيون عزرا كورنيل جامعة كورنيل في أيزاكا بنيويورك وأصبح وايت أول رئيس للمدرسين بالجامعة، وبعد النظر عنده في عملية القيادة والإدارة كانت السبب في جعل الجامعة مؤسسة تعليمية ناجحة في هذا الوقت.

انظر أيضا
 صورة لأندرو ديكسون وايت عام 1885.
 صورة لأندرو ديكسون وايت عام 1910.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أمريكيون أسقفيون في القرن 19
اتفاقيتا لاهاي 1899 و1907
أشخاص من هومر (نيويورك)
أعضاء الجمعية الأثرية الأمريكية
أعضاء مجلس شيوخ ولاية نيويورك
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة ميشيغان
أعضاء هيئة تدريس كلية التاريخ في جامعة كورنيل
أمريكيون مناهضون للعبودية
جامعو كتب ومقتنيات أمريكيون
جمهوريون من ولاية نيويورك
خريجو كلية ييل
دبلوماسيون أمريكيون في القرن 19
رؤساء الجمعية التاريخية الأمريكية
رؤساء جامعة كورنيل
رؤساء وأعضاء منظمة المؤرخين الأمريكيين
سفراء الولايات المتحدة لدى ألمانيا
سفراء الولايات المتحدة لدى روسيا
سياسيون أمريكيون في القرن 19
علماء أمريكيون
كتاب ذكور أمريكيون في القرن 19
كتاب عن الدين والعلم
كتاب غير روائيين ذكور أمريكيون
محبو كتب أمريكيون
معاداة الكاثوليكية
معاداة الكاثوليكية في الولايات المتحدة
معاداة المسيحية
معاداة المسيحية في الولايات المتحدة
مواليد 1832
مواليد في هومر (نيويورك)
مؤرخون أمريكيون
مؤرخون أمريكيون في العلم
مؤرخون أمريكيون في القرن 19
مؤرخون من ولاية نيويورك
ناشطون من ولاية نيويورك
نقاد الكاثوليكية
نقاد المسيحية
نقاد أمريكيون في المسيحية
وفيات 1918

أندرو ديكسون وايت


La Universidad de Hull (University of Hull) es una universidad inglesa, fundada en 1927 y ubicada en Hull, una ciudad de Yorkshire del Este. Aunque se la considera una universidad pequeña, en las décadas recientes se ha expandido, con la construcción de los edificios principales tradicionales y salas especiales para profesores. El campus principal se encuentra en un distrito residencial del norte de Hull en Cottingham Road y alberga la Escuela de Medicina Hull York, una iniciativa conjunta con la Universidad de York. La universidad tiene también un campus más pequeño en Scarborough, en la costa de Yorkshire del Norte. El Hull University Union (en español, Sindicato de la Universidad de Hull) representa los intereses de los estudiantes de la universidad.

La Biblioteca Brynmor Jones, perteneciente a la universidad, fue el lugar de trabajo del célebre poeta Philip Larkin, quien fue el bibliotecario principal durante treinta años. La Philip Larkin Society organiza actividades en recuerdo de Larkin, incluyendo el festival Larkin 25, organizado durante todo 2010 en asociación con el establecimiento. La biblioteca también fue el lugar de trabajo del antiguo poeta laureado Andrew Motion y del director de cine Anthony Minghella. Lord Wilberforce fue el canciller de la universidad desde 1978 hasta 1994; lo sucedió Robert Armstrong hasta 2006 y luego Virginia Bottomley, la canciller actual, que ostenta el cargo desde abril de 2006.

Los alumnos de la Universidad de Hull se han destacado en el campo académico, periodístico y literario. Algunos estudiantes destacados son el antiguo Primer Ministro Lord Prescott de Kingston-upon-Hull (John Prescott), el científico social Lord Anthony Giddens, el poeta Roger McGough, el periodista John McCarthy, el presidente de The Coca-Cola Company Muhtar Kent y el político y escritor Chris Mullin.

Historia

En 1927, el duque de York (quien luego se convertiría en Jorge VI del Reino Unido) depositó la piedra fundacional del University College Hull, en ese momento una facultad externa de la Universidad de Londres. El edificio fue construido sobre tierras donadas por el Hull City Council y por los benefactores locales Thomas Ferens y G. F. Grant. Un año más tarde, abrieron los primeros catorce departamentos, dedicados a las ciencias y las artes, con treinta y nueve estudiantes. En ese momento, la facultad consistía de un edificio, el edificio Venn (nombrado en honor al matemático John Venn, nacido en Hull). El edificio es el centro administrativo de la universidad.

El escudo original fue diseñado por Sir Algernon Tudor-Craig en 1928. Los símbolos son la antorcha, que representa el aprendizaje; la rosa, que simboliza a Yorkshire; la corona ducal, del escudo de la ciudad de Hull; la flor de lis por Lincolnshire y la paloma, símbolo de la paz, del escudo de armas de Thomas Ferens. Estos símbolos fueron utilizados más tarde para crear el logo moderno de la universidad.

Decreto Real
La universidad obtuvo su Decreto Real en 1954, lo cual sirvió para que brindara títulos por sí misma, convirtiéndola en la tercera universidad de Yorkshire y en la decimocuarta en Inglaterra. En 1960 se construyó la Biblioteca Brynmor Jones, y diez años más tarde se le añadió una extensión. Durante la década de 1960 se añadieron más edificios, cuyas alturas iban disminuyendo desde el centro del campus a lo largo del perímetro.

Tecnología de cristal líquido
En 1972, George Gray y Ken Harrison crearon cristales líquidos estables a temperatura ambiente en los laboratorios de química de la universidad, que tuvieron un éxito inmediato en la industria de la electrónica y en los productos al consumidor. Esto llevó a que Hull fuese la primera universidad en obtener el Queen's Award for Technological Achievement (en español, "Premio de la Reina al Logro Tecnológico") por el desarrollo conjunto de materiales de larga duración que posibilitaron las pantallas de cristal líquido.

Campus Scarborough
En el año 2000, las autoridades de la universidad compraron el sitio del University College Scarborough en Filey Road, Scarborough, para convertirlo en el Campus Scarborough de la Universidad de Hull. Tres años más tarde, en 2003, adquirieron los edificios del campus adyacente de la Universidad de Lincoln, que, desde el año académico de 2005, se convirtió en el campus occidental de la universidad. En la actualidad, en el lugar se erige la Escuela de Medicina Hull York y la recientemente reubicada Escuela de Finanzas, que se compone por tres edificios: Wharfe, Derwent y Esk.

Centro Histórico de Hull
El Centro Histórico de Hull, que abrió en 2010, se encuentra en un edificio nuevo en Worship Street, en el centro de la ciudad de Hull. Une las colecciones de la biblioteca de la ciudad y los archivos de la universidad y la encargada de mantenerlo es una asociación entre la biblioteca local y la de la universidad.

Facultades académicas

Facultad de Ciencias (FoS)
Decano: Profesor Stephen M. Kelly
Departmentos: Ciencias biológicas, Química, Ciencias de la Computación, Ingeniería, Centro para las Ciencias ambientales y marinas (Campus Scarborough), Geografía, Física, Psicología, Ciencias del Deporte, Ciencias de la Salud y Fisiología del ejercicio.

Artes y Ciencias Sociales (FASS)
Decano: Profesora Alison Yarrington
Departmentos: Criminología y Ciencias Sociales (incluyendo Trabajo social), Teatro y Música, Inglés, Estudios de género, Historia, Humanidades, Leyes, Lenguas modernas (francés, alemán, italiano y español), Estudios políticos e internacionales, Artes y medios nuevos y Trabajo social.

Salud y Cuidado Social (FHSC)
Decano: Vacante por el momento.
Departmentos: Enfermería, Estudios aplicados de la salud

Facultad de Educación (FoE)
Decana: Dina Lewis
Centros: Estudios Educacionales, Aprendizaje de por vida y Escuela de Educación Scarborough.

Escuela de Medicina Hull York (HYMS)
Decano: Profesor Tony Kendrick
Se inauguró en octubre de 2003, en el campus occidental. Los estudiantes de Medicina reciben títulos conjuntos de Hull y York. Incluye la 'International Society for the Study of Cough' con base en el hospital de Castle Hill, en Castle Road, Cottingham. Los alumnos de tercer y cuarto año también reciben entrenamiento en los hospitales de Scunthorpe, Grimsby y Scarborough.

Instituto Médico de Posgrado (PGMI)
Director: Profesor Nicholas D. Stafford
Establecido en 1994. Una de las secciones del PGMI es el Instituto de Investigación del Cáncer de Yorkshire.

Escuela de Finanzas de la Universidad de Hull (HUBS)

Decano: Profesor Terry Williams

Establecida en agosto de 1999, la Escuela de Finanzas tiene alrededor de 3500 estudiantes provenientes de cien países.

Instituto Wilberforce (WISE)
Director: Profesor David Richardson
El Instituto Wilberforce para el estudio de la Esclavitud y la Emancipación se encuentra en Oriel Chambers, High Street, en la antigua ciudad de Hull. Brinda servicios de posgrado para estudios en el campo de la esclavitud y los derechos humanos y ofrece títulos en Estudios de la Esclavitud.

Centro de estudios de la Historia Marítima
 Director: Dr David J Starkey
El Centro de estudios de la Historia Marítima de la universidad ofrece títulos en Historia e Historia Marítima, un diploma en línea en Historia Marítima e investigaciones de posgrado en el mismo campo. Está ubicada en la antigua ciudad de Hull.

Profesores destacados
Richard Beeman - experto en historia estadounidense (1976–77)
Jacob Bronowski - matemático (1934–42).
George William Gray, desarrollador del cristal líquido, ganador del Premio Kioto y de la Medalla Leverhulme otorgada por la Royal Society
Chris Langton, desarrollador de un sistema de detección temprana de la osteoporosis utilizando ondas ultrasónicas
Philip Larkin (bibliotecario de la universidad entre 1955 y 1985), poeta, novelista y crítico de jazz
Sir Andrew Motion, poeta laureado (1999–2009)
Stuart Palmer, responsable por descubrimientos notables en el campo de la densidad ósea por ultrasonido

Alumnos notables
Anthony Giddens - sociólogo inglés y consejero político de Tony Blair y Bill Clinton
Roger McGough - poeta y presentador
Anthony Minghella - dramatista
Dr. Catherine O'Brien es una escritora, universitaria, periodista, crítica y teórica de cine británica.
Lord Prescott - político
Nicholas Liverpool - juez en Antigua y Montserrat y Presidente de Dominica
Gabriel Salazar - Historiador y Premio Nacional de Historia

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Universidad de Hull
 The Lawns visto desde arriba
 The Lawns en el sitio web de la universidad
 Hull University Union

Universidad de Hull


Inspectoratul General pentru Imigrări (IGI) este o structură de specialitate a administrației publice centrale din România, instituție publică cu personalitate juridică, în subordinea Ministerului Administrației și Internelor.
A fost înființat în anul 2012 prin reorganizarea Oficiului Român pentru Imigrări în vederea prevenirii și combaterii imigrației ilegale.

Note

Legături externe
www.igi.mai.gov.ro  - Site web oficial

Autorități din România

Inspectoratul General pentru Imigrări


Frau Berlinermauer er en dansk kortfilm fra 2009, der er instrueret af Julia Herskovits.

Handling

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2009

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Frau Berlinermauer


Torsted Sogn (på tysk Kirchspiel Taarstedt) er et sogn i det sydlige Angel i Sydslesvig, tidligere i Slis Herred (Gottorp Amt), nu i Torsted Kommune i Slesvig-Flensborg Kreds i delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

I Torsted Sogn findes flg. stednavne:
 Kjusballe (Kiusballig)
 Torsted (også Thorsted, Taarstedt)
 Ågeby (også Aageby, Wester Akeby)

Litteratur
 Jens Peter Trap: Statistisk-topographisk beskrivelse af hertugdømmet Slesvig, Kjøbenhavn 1864, side 525

Eksterne henvisninger
 Torsted Menighed / Kirchengemeinde Taarstedt

Sogne i Sydslesvig

Torsted Sogn (Sydslesvig)


Christian Theodor von Meien (* 8. Januar 1781 in Hellinghausen, Grafschaft Lippe; † 30. November 1857 auf Gut Exten) war ein deutscher  Gutsbesitzer, Verwaltungsjurist und Politiker.

Leben
Auf der Domäne Hellinghausen aufgewachsen, studierte Christian Theodor von Meien an der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Rechtswissenschaft. Dort schloss er sich 1801 den Erlanger Westfalen (1794–1809) an. Nach Abschluss des Studiums trat er in den Lippischen Staatsdienst ein. Ab 1807 war er Auditor im Amt Schötmar und später Amtmann im Amt Horn. Die Fürstin Pauline berief ihn 1817 in die Staatsregierung, in der er zunächst als Regierungsassessor und 1820 als Regierungsrat fungierte. 1850 wurde er von Fürst Leopold II. zum Regierungspräsidenten des Fürstentums Lippe ernannt und hatte das Amt auch noch unter dessen Nachfolger Fürst Leopold III. bis 1853 inne. Von 1817 bis 1853 hatte er die lippische Politik entscheidend mitgeprägt.
Durch seine Heirat mit Johanna Luise Wilhelmine Grimmell im Jahre 1809 wurde er Besitzer des Ritterguts Exten, das sich bis heute im Besitz der Familie von Meien befindet.

Literatur
 Norbert Hohaus: Das Anschreibebuch des Regierungsrates Christian von Meien, Lebensverhältnisse einer Detmolder Beamtenfamilie im frühen 19. Jahrhundert, 1991, ISBN 3-925670-42-4
 Ernst-Hermann Grefe: Die Mediatisierungsfrage und das Fürstentum Lippe in den Jahren 1848–1849, Diss., 1965, S. 6

Weblinks

 Rittergut Exten

Einzelnachweise

Wirklicher Geheimer Rat
Amtmann (Fürstentum Lippe)
Staatsminister (Fürstentum Lippe)
Verwaltungsjurist
Geboren 1781
Gestorben 1857
Mann

Christian Theodor von Meien


Ibiquera es un municipio del estado de Bahía, en el Brasil. Su población estimada en 2004 era de 3 806 habitantes.

Topónimo
"Ibiquera" es un término proveniente de la lengua tupí que significa "tierra durmente", a través de la unión de los término yby ("tierra") y ker ("dormir").

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Bahía

Ibiquera


Corinnoidea es una superfamilia de arañas araneomorfas, constituida por dos familias de arañas con ocho ojos:
 Corinnidae: 87 géneros, 1016 especies
 Liocranidae: 30 géneros, 183 especies

Referencias
 Platnick, Norman I. (2012): The world spider catalog, version 12.5. American Museum of Natural History.
 Texas A&M University, Department of Entomology - Synopsis of the described Araneae of the World.

Corinnoidea


Le raïon de Krasnohrad (en ) est un raïon situé dans l'oblast de Kharkiv en Ukraine. Son chef-lieu est Krasnohrad.

Références

Krasnohrad

Raïon de Krasnohrad


ستيفان كريم الشعراوي  (؛ مواليد 27 أكتوبر 1992) هو لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي، يلعب في مركز الجناح مع روما في الدوري الإيطالي ولمنتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم. يطلق عليه Il Faraone (الفرعون)، لأن والده مصري.

بدأ مسيرته المهنية مع نادي جنوى، ووقع مع ميلان في عام 2011 بعد إعارة ناجحة مع بادوفا. نظرًا لكونه أحد أكثر الشباب الواعدين من جيله، في عام 2012، تم اختيار الشعراوي كأحد أفضل اللاعبين الذين ولدوا بعد عام 1991 من قبل مجلة دون بالون، واحتل المرتبة 52 في قائمة أفضل لاعبي كرة القدم في العالم. أمضى موسم 2015–16 على سبيل الإعارة مع موناكو ومن ثم روما، قبل أن يوقع بشكل دائم مع الأخير.

على الصعيد الدولي، مثل إيطاليا في الفئات السنية من تحت 16 سنة إلى تحت 21 سنة. في أغسطس 2012، شارك في أول مباراة دولية له مع منتخب إيطاليا الأول خلال مباراة ودية ضد إنجلترا، وفي نوفمبر 2012 سجل أول هدف دولي له ضد فرنسا. مثل إيطاليا في كأس القارات 2013، حيث احتل المركز الثالث، وشارك في بطولة أمم أوروبا 2016.

مسيرته الكروية

جنوى
بدأ الشعراوي مسيرته المهنية مع نادي جنوى في سن الرابعة عشرة.

في 21 ديسمبر 2008، عندما كان عمره 16 عامًا، شارك لأول مرة في الفريق، ولعب عشر دقائق في مباراة خارج أرضه أمام كييفو. وهو ثامن أصغر لاعب في تاريخ الدوري الإيطالي يشارك في الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الأولى. كان ظهوره الوحيد لهذا الموسم على الرغم من جعل مقاعد البدلاء عدة مرات.

في يونيو 2010، أُعير إلى بادوفا لموسم 2010–11 في الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية. في فترة الإعارة التي قضاها في بادوفا، سرعان ما شارك كعنصر أساسي في الفريق، قاد النادي الفينيسي إلى نهائيات التصفيات حيث خسر أمام نوفارا. وحصل على جائزة أفضل لاعب في دوري الدرجة الثانية في عام 2011.

ميلان

في 25 يونيو 2011، وقع الشعراوي مع نادي ميلان الإيطالي مقابل 20 مليون يورو رسوم انتقال (10 مليون يورو بالإضافة إلى ألكسندر ميركل). في 18 سبتمبر 2011، شارك الشعراوي لأول مرة مع ميلان على ملعب سان باولو في مباراة الخسارة 1–3 أمام نابولي في دوري الدرجة الأولى. بعد ثلاثة أيام، بعد أن دخل كبديل عن المصاب ألكساندر باتو، سجل هدفه الأول مع النادي، وتعادل فريقه 1–1 على أرضه أمام أودينيزي.

روما
في 26 يناير 2016، انضم الشعراوي إلى روما في صفقة إعارة حتى 30 يونيو 2016، مقابل رسوم انتقال قدرها 1.4 مليون يورو. تضمنت الاتفاقية خيارًا لجعل الصفقة دائمة، مقابل رسوم قدرها 13 مليون يورو، قبل بداية موسم 2016–17. بعد أربعة أيام، في أول مشاركة له في روما، سجل هدفًا على طريقة العقرب في الدقيقة 48 من مباراة الفوز 3–1 على أرضه أمام نادي فروسينوني؛ قبل أن يسجل في الدقيقة 94 بعد ثلاثة أيام في المباراة التالية ضد ساسولو ليحقق الفوز 2–0 خارج أرضه.

في 21 يونيو 2016، اختار روما شراء إعارة الشعراوي من ميلان مقابل 13 مليون يورو، وإبقائه في النادي حتى عام 2020. في 20 مايو 2017، سجل هدفين ضد كييفو ليساعد روما في الفوز 5–3 حيث واصل سلسلة الفوز.

شانغهاي غرينلاند شينهوا
في 8 يوليو 2019، انضم الشعراوي إلى نادي شانغهاي غرينلاند شينهوا في الدوري الصيني الممتاز.

مسيرته الدولية

كان الشعراوي مؤهلًا للعب مع مصر بسبب والده، لكن المدرب حسن شحاتة نفى قوله . نظرًا لأن والده كان يتمتع أيضًا بالجنسية من العيش هناك سابقًا، فإن الشعراوي كان مؤهلاً أيضًا للعب فنزويلا.

بدأ الشعراوي اللعب مع منتخب إيطاليا تحت 17 سنة، وشارك في كل من بطولة أوروبا تحت 17 سنة 2009 وكأس العالم تحت 17 سنة 2009.

شارك لأول مرة مع منتخب إيطاليا تحت 21 سنة في 15 نوفمبر 2011، في مباراة في التصفيات ضد المجر.

في 15 أغسطس 2012، ظهر الشعراوي لأول مرة مع منتخب إيطاليا الأول، بعد هزيمة 1–2 في مباراة ودية ضد إنجلترا. سجل الشعراوي هدفه الأول مع إيطاليا في ظهوره الثالث، في 14 نوفمبر 2012 في مباراة الفوز فيا المباراة الودية 2–1 ضد فرنسا.

مثل إيطاليا في كأس القارات 2013، ولعب لأول مرة في البطولة في المباراة الأخيرة للمجموعة ضد البلد المضيف البرازيل، حيث دخل كبديل عن أليساندرو ديامانتي في آخر 19 دقيقة من الهزيمة 4–2. عاد للمشاركة في مباراة تحديد المركز الثالث، ولعب المباراة بأكملها وسجل ركلة جزاء في المباراة التي فازت فيها إيطاليا على الأوروغواي.

لم يتم ضم الشعراوي في تشكيلة إيطاليا المشاركة بكأس العالم 2014، بعد أن غاب غن معظم موسم 2013–14 بسبب الإصابة.

في 10 أكتوبر 2015، أنهى الشعراوي حالة جفاف لمدة ثلاث سنوات، وسجل هدف الفوز في المباراة التي فازت فيها إيطاليا 3–1 على أذربيجان في مباراة تصفيات بطولة أمم أوروبا 2016؛ كان هذا هو هدفه الدولي الأول منذ نوفمبر 2012، وضمن هذا الفوز لإيطاليا مكان في بطولة أمم أوروبا 2016. في 31 مايو 2016، تم تعيينه في تشكيلة أنطونيو كونتي المكونة من 23 لاعباً للبطولة القادمة. شارك لمرة الوحيد في البطولة في 22 يونيو، حيث دخل كبديل في مباراة المجموعات الأخيرة لإيطاليا، والتي انتهت بالهزيمة 1–0 أمام أيرلندا.

حياته الشخصية
ولد ستيفان الشعراوي في سافونا لأب مصري وأم سويسرية إيطالية.

صرح الشعراوي لصحيفة لا ريبوبليكا وقال: . وأضاف الشعراوي: .

الرعاية
في عام 2012، وقع الشعراوي عقد رعاية مع شركة نايكي الأمريكية لصناعة الملابس والمعدات الرياضية. ظهر في إعلان  الجديد إلى جانب ماريو غوتزه وإدين هازارد ورحيم ستيرلينغ وكريستيان إريكسن وثيو والكوت في نوفمبر 2012.

ظهر الشعراوي على الغلاف الإيطالي للعبة فيفا 14، إلى جانب نجم الغلاف العالمي ليونيل ميسي.

الإحصائيات

النادي

المنتخب

الأهداف الدولية
اعتبارً من 13 نوفمبر 2017. قائمة الأهداف والنتائج مع منتخب إيطاليا الأول.

الإنجازات

النادي
 جنوى
 بطولة بريمافيرا الوطنية (1): 2009–10
 كوبا إيطاليا بريمافيرا (1): 2008–09
 كأس السوبر بريمافيرا (1): 2009

المنتخب
 إيطاليا
 كأس القارات: المركز الثالث 2013

المنتخب
 بطولة أوروبا تحت 17 سنة فريق البطولة (1): 2009
 لاعب العام في دوري الدرجة الثانية الإيطالي (1): 2011
 جائزة غران غالا ديل كالسيو لأفضل لاعب شاب في الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الأولى (1): 2012
 بالون دارجينتو: 2012–13

الملاحظات

المراجع

وصلات خارجية

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إيطاليون مغتربون
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من سافونا
إيطاليون من أصل سويسري
إيطاليون من أصل مصري
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في الصين
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في موناكو
رياضيون إيطاليون من أصل إفريقي
رياضيون من سافونا
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو إيه سي ميلان
لاعبو بطولة أمم أوروبا 2016
لاعبو جنوى
لاعبو دوري السوبر الصيني
لاعبو روما
لاعبو كأس القارات 2013
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الصين
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في موناكو
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الصين
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في موناكو
لاعبو كرة قدم من ليغوريا
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم تحت 16 سنة
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم تحت 17 سنة
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم تحت 18 سنة
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم تحت 19 سنة
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم للشباب
لاعبو موناكو
لاعبو نادي بادوفا
لاعبو نادي شنغهاي شينهوا
لاعبون مسلمون في أوروبا
مسلمون إيطاليون
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1413 هـ
مواليد 1992
مواليد في سافونا

ستيفان الشعراوي


Cedreloideae, potporodica jasenjačevki (Meliaceae). Sastoji se od 14 rodova , tipični je rod drveća Cedrela, sa 16 vrsta iz Meksika, Srednje i Južne Amerike i Kariba.

Tribusi

 Chukrasia A. Juss. (1 sp.)
 Schmardaea H. Karst. (1 sp.)
 Capuronianthus J.-F. Leroy (2 spp.)
 Lovoa Harms (2 spp.)
 Entandrophragma C. DC. (11 spp.)
 Toona (Endl.) M. Roem. (6 spp.)
 Cedrela P. Browne (16 spp.)
 Soymida A. Juss. (1 sp.)
 Neobeguea J.-F. Leroy (3 spp.)
 Pseudocedrela Harms (1 sp.)
 Swietenia Jacq. (4 spp.)
 Khaya A. Juss. (8 spp.)
 Xylocarpus J. Koenig (3 spp.)
 Carapa Aubl. (20 spp.)

Izvori

Jasenjačevke

Cedreloideae


CAC 40 (Cotation Assistée en Continu) je najvažniji burzovni indeks u Francuskoj. Početna vrijednost indeksa - 1000 bodova - je utvrđena 31. prosinca 1987. godine.

Izračun indeksa
Indeks se izračunava kao aritmetički prosjek cijena dionica ponderiranih kapitalizacijom 40 najvećih tvrtki koje kotiraju na burzi Euronext Paris. Svaka od četrdeset tvrtki ima svoj indeks, koji se ponderira prema vrijednosti njezinih vrijednosnih papira dostupnih na tržištu. Ponderi se razlikuju od tvrtke do tvrtke ovisno o njezinoj kapitalizaciji u slobodnom prometu. Tijekom vaganja, tvrtka se skraćuje na maksimalnu težinu od 15% u CAC 40.
Od 1. prosinca 2003. pri izračunu kapitalizacije uzimaju se u obzir samo dionice u slobodnom prometu.
Indeks se izračunava svakih 30 sekundi radnim danima burze od 9:00 do 17:30 CET.

Kriteriji odabira
Sastav CAC 40 obnavlja se tromjesečno od strane odbora stručnjaka, Conseilcientifique des indices (CSI). Promjene uvijek stupaju na snagu trećeg petka u ožujku, lipnju, rujnu i prosincu. Broj dionica u slobodnom prometu pregledava se svakog rujna.

Izvori

Financije

CAC 40


La Coupe des Pays-Bas de football 1970-1971, nommée la KNVB beker, est la  édition de la Coupe des Pays-Bas. La finale se joue le 5 mai 1970 au Stade Feijenoord à Rotterdam puis sera rejoué au stade olympique d'Amsterdam le 20 mai 1971, les deux finalistes n'ayant pu se départager lors de la première finale.

Le club vainqueur de la coupe est qualifié pour la Coupe des coupes 1971-1972.

Finale
Le 5 mai 1970 à Rotterdam, l'Ajax Amsterdam et le Sparta Rotterdam font match nul 2 à 2, Johan Cruyff marque en fin de rencontre son deuxième but, égalisateur, qui envoie les deux équipes en prolongation. Comme aucun but ne sera marqué dans la prolongation, la finale doit être rejouée.

Le 20 mai à Amsterdam, l'Ajax Amsterdam bat le Sparta Rotterdam 2 à 1 et remporte son sixième titre. L'Ajax termine également vice-champion cette saison, et remporte la Coupe d'Europe des clubs champions, ce qui le qualifie de nouveau pour cette compétition. Le Sparta Rotterdam disputera quant à lui la Coupe des coupes 1971-1972.

Notes et références

Lien externe
 tous les résultats de la compétition sur rsssf.com

1970-1971
Pays-Bas
Football
Football


Svengali  é um filme britânico de 2013 dirigido por John Hardwick, escrito por Jonny Owen e estrelado por Martin Freeman, Vicky McClure, Matt Berry, Michael Socha, Michael Smiley, Vauxhall Jermaine e Natasha O'Keeffe. O filme foi produzido pela Root Films.

Sinopse
Dixie (Jonny Owen) é um carteiro de Gales do Sul e fanático por música. Toda a sua vida ele sonhou em descobrir uma grande banda e então um dia, vasculhando o YouTube, ele os encontra. 'Os parabéns prematuros'. Ele os caça e oferece seus serviços de gerenciamento. Eles são jovens, arrogantes, sexy e absolutamente magníficos. Colocando sua demo em uma fita cassete, Dixie sai para as ruas de Londres... Dixie inocente e de olhos arregalados embarca em uma montanha-russa pela indústria mais infame de todas. Sua parceira e sua sanidade em tudo isso é sua alma gêmea Michelle (Vicky McClure). Todo dia é uma batalha para Dixie, totalmente quebrado e trabalhando por nada para conseguir seus amados shows de banda, seus egos crescem com o estrelato. Quanto mais sucesso os Prems forem, maiores serão as chances de Dixie perdê-los. Ele tem que decidir quais são suas verdadeiras prioridades na vida... seu amor pela música ou seu amor por Michelle.

Elenco

Festival de Cinema de Edimburgo
Svengali foi selecionado para estrear no 67º Festival Internacional de Cinema de Edimburgo. Também foi indicado ao Prêmio Michael Powell; um prêmio que homenageia o melhor longa-metragem britânico.

Notas

Filmes da Universal Pictures
Filmes do Reino Unido de 2013
Filmes de comédia do Reino Unido
Filmes de comédia da década de 2010
Filmes em língua inglesa

Svengali (2013)


Yüzüklerin Efendisi: Kralın Dönüşü (özgün adı: The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King), Peter Jackson'ın yönetmenliğini yaptığı, J. R. R. Tolkien'in Yüzüklerin Efendisi kitaplarının ikinci ve üçüncü bölümlerinden uyarlanan 2003 yılında gösterime giren fantezi filmidir. Yüzüklerin Efendisi film serisinin Yüzük Kardeşliği ve İki Kule'den sonra üçüncü filmidir.

Filmin olay örgüsünde Sauron, Orta Dünya'yı ele geçirmek için son fetihleri başlatmasıyla Büyücü Gandalf ve Rohan Kralı Théoden'in  Gondor'a yardıma gitmesi, Aragorn'un Gondor'u savunması ve hayalet orduyu bulmaya gitmesi, Frodo Baggins ve Samwise Gamgee'nin Gollum tarafından ihanete uğraması ve Mordor'a gidip Yüzük'ü yok etmeye çalışmaları anlatıldı.

17 Aralık 2003 tarihinde gösterime giren Yüzüklerin Efendisi: Kralın Dönüşü, tüm zamanların en çok gişe hasılatı kazanan filmlerinden biri oldu. Film toplamda 126.96.36.1991 Amerikan doları kazandı. Ayrıca on bir dalda Akademi Ödülü'ne aday olan film, aday olduğu bütün kategorileri kazandı ve Ben-Hur (1959) ve Titanik (1997) ile birlikte bunu başaran filmlerden biri oldu. Ayrıca En İyi Film dalında Akademi Ödülü kazanan tek fantezi türündeki film oldu. Filmin sinemalarda gösterilen kurgusuna 52 dakika daha eklenerek hazırlanan Uzatılmış Özel Versiyon 14 Aralık 2004 tarihinde DVD olarak dağıtıldı.

Oyuncular

Ödülleri

 2003 En İyi Sanat Yönetmeni Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Kostüm Tasarımı Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Yönetmen Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Film Kurgusu Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Film Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Makyaj Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Özgün Müzik Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Özgün Şarkı Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Uyarlama Senaryo Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Görsel Efekt Akademi Ödülü
 2003 En İyi Ses Kurgusu Akademi Ödülü

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

  Sinemalar.com profili

Kralın Dönüşü
2003 çıkışlı dramatik filmler
2000'lerde fantastik macera filmleri
2000'lerde devam filmleri
2000'lerde İngilizce filmler
Epik fantezi filmleri
Fantastik savaş filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri epik filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri fantastik macera filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri karanlık fantezi filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri devam filmleri
Yeni Zelanda dramatik filmleri
Yeni Zelanda epik filmleri
Yeni Zelanda fantastik macera filmleri
Yeni Zelanda devam filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri-Yeni Zelanda ortak yapımı filmler
Peter Jackson'ın yönettiği filmler
Howard Shore'un müziğini yaptığı filmler
Fran Walsh'un senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Peter Jackson'ın senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Philippa Boyens'in senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Barrie M. Osborne'ün yapımcısı olduğu filmler
Fran Walsh'ın yapımcısı olduğu filmler
Peter Jackson'ın yapımcısı olduğu filmler
New Line Cinema filmleri
WingNut Films filmleri
Hareket yakalama tekniğini kullanan filmler
Rotoskop filmler
En İyi Film Akademi Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Özgün Müzik Akademi Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Özgün Müzik Akademi Ödülü kazanan filmler
En İyi Ses Miksajı Akademi Ödülü kazanan filmler
En İyi Görsel Efekt Akademi Ödülü kazanan filmler
En İyi Drama Filmi Altın Küre Ödülü sahipleri
BAFTA En İyi Film Ödülü kazananlar
Çevrimiçi Sinema Eleştirmenleri Topluluğu En İyi Film Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Film Empire Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Dramatik Sunum Hugo Ödülü kazanan eserler
En İyi Senaryo Nebula Ödülü kazanan eserler
En İyi Fantastik Film Saturn Ödülü sahipleri
Yeni Zelanda'da çekilmiş filmler
Kuşatma filmleri
Mitolojik cüceler ile ilgili filmler
Popüler kültürde Kelt mitolojisi
Popüler kültürde Fin mitolojisi
En İyi Film New York Film Eleştirmenleri Birliği Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Film Chicago Sinema Eleştirmenleri Derneği Ödülü sahipleri
Sinema Filminde Oyuncu Kadrosu Tarafından Üstün Performans Ekran Oyuncuları Derneği Ödülü sahipleri

Yüzüklerin Efendisi: Kralın Dönüşü


Crkva Svih Svetih u selu Čačvini, Grad Trilj, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Crkva Svih Svetih je stara župna crkva. Nalazi se pod tvrđavom Čačvinom. Zvonik joj je na pročelju i građena je u 18. st.

Zaštita
S tvrđavom Čačvinom je skupa pod oznakom Z-3920 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "arheološka graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene sakralne građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Katoličke crkve u Hrvatskoj
Građevine u Trilju

Crkva Svih Svetih ispod Čačvine


Húsfell er um 285 metra fjall suður af Höfuðborgarsvæðinu og rétt norðan við  Helgafell og suðaustan við Búrfellsgjá. Þrjú sveitarfélög eiga landamörk á fjallinu: Garðabær, Kópavogur og Hafnarfjörður. Húsfellsbruni, nálægt hraun er kennt við fjallið. Húsfell liggur á sömu sprungurein og Helgafell og má með því telja að það sé jarðfræðilega líkt Helgafelli.

Fjöll á Íslandi
Höfuðborgarsvæði Íslands

Húsfell


Daniela Laura Herrero (născută la 19 august 1985) este o cântăreață, actriță și compozitoare argentiniană. Este cunoscută pentru rolul personajului Mariana Pagliaro din Costumbres argentinas.

Discografie
 Daniela Herrero (2001)
 No voy a mentirte (2003)
 El espejo (2005)
 Altavoz (2010)
 Madre (2012)
 En Un Segundo (2015)

Note

Legături externe

 Daniela Herrero la Allmusic

Nașteri în 1985
Nașteri pe 19 august
Actrițe argentiniene
Cântărețe argentiniene
Oameni în viață

Daniela Herrero


Le dème de Vérmio, en  / Dímos Vermíou,  est un ancien dème du district régional de Kozáni, en Macédoine-Occidentale, Grèce. Depuis 2010, il est fusionné au sein du dème d'Éordée.

Selon le recensement de 2011, la population du dème s'élève à .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Dème en Macédoine-Occidentale
Ancien dème en Grèce

Dème de Vérmio


{| class="infobox vcard" style="font-size:90%; width:21em; text-align:left;"
Nedžib Đozo

|-
!
Rođen4. svibnja 1958., Sarajevo
Borilačke vještineKarate  Džiju-džicu
Nivo8. Dan karate  2. Dan džiju-džicu
UčiteljSalko Ćurić
|}

Nedžib Đozo (Sarajevo, 4. svibnja 1958.), bosanskohercegovački majstor borilačkih vještina, jedan od prvih karate majstora u Bosni i Hercegovini. Nositelj je 8. Dana u karateu i 2. Dana u džiju-džicu. Suprug je Suzani Đozi.

Životopis

Nedžib Đozo je rođen 4. svibnja 1958. godine u Sarajevu. Karate je počeo vježbati 1973. godine u Karate klubu Bosna. Sensei mu je bio
Salko Ćurić. Godine 1979. Đozo je položio za majstorsko zvanje (1. Dan) u karateu pred komisijom u kojoj su bili Salko Ćurić, Slobodan Vučinić i japanski učitelj Takashi Yamaguchi. Kao odličan natjecatelj i u borbama i u katama, Nedžib Đozo postaje prvotimac KK Bosna i ističe se kao natjecatelj kako u Bosni i Hercegovini, tako i u SFR Jugoslaviji i to u pojedinačnoj, ali i u ekipnoj konkurenciji. Nastupao je u najmasovnijoj, srednjoj kategoriji boraca.

Godine 1993. u Sarajevu osniva karate klub, u kojem je i danas glavni instruktor. Đozo je državni sudac i aktivan član Karate saveza Bosne i Hercegovine, izbornik reprezentacije Bosne i Hercegovine u katama za seniore. Instruktor je samoobrane i borilačkih vještina za pripadnike policije.

Izvori

Vanjske povezice
 Sarajevski karate klub Stari Grad

Životopisi, Sarajevo
Bosanskohercegovački karatisti
Bosanskohercegovačke džiju-džicuke

Nedžib Đozo


Arrabalera es una película argentina en blanco y negro dirigida por Tulio Demicheli sobre su propio guion escrito en colaboración con Ulyses Petit de Murat según la obra  Un tal Servando Gómez de Samuel Eichelbaum que se estrenó el 25 de abril de 1950 y que tuvo como protagonistas a Tita Merello, Santiago Gómez Cou y Mario Fortuna.

Sinopsis
Una mujer embarazada huye de su esposo que la maltrata y se va a vivir con otro hombre. El hijo crece desconociendo su origen pero al enterarse defenderá a su padre biológico.

Reparto

Comentarios
La crónica de la revista Set que el filme era "dentro de su carácter una buena película…el criollo de la ciudad…que en determinado momento de su vida pasa sin exageraciones al drama profundo de su existencia apacible y hace valer su hombría con la punta de un cuchillo" en tanto Manrupe y Portela opinan que se trata de un "clásico de Merello en una de sus mejores actuaciones. Y Demichelli en su ópera prima, teatral, alejada del original de Eichelbaum, pero de interés en algunos momentos de buen manejo dramático".

Premio
La Academia de Artes y Ciencias Cinematográficas de la Argentina le otorgó el premio Cóndor Académico a Tita Merello como la mejor actriz protagionista de 1950.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Información sobre Arrabalera en el sitio del cine nacional

Películas basadas en obras de teatro
Películas de Artistas Argentinos Asociados
Películas en blanco y negro de Argentina

Arrabalera


Aist, ruski mikrosatelit. Razvila ga je skupina studenata, poslijediplomanata i znanstvenika sa Samarskog zrakoplovnog sveučilišta u suradnji s CCKB-Progress. Ovi sateliti mjere geomagnetsko polje, nove male svemirske vozilske buseve, metode za smanjiti mikroubrzanja na najmanju razinu i mjeriti mikrometeoroide prirodna i umjetna podrijetla. Lansirani su ovi Aisti: Aist-1 (2013-078C) i Aist-2 (2013-015D) te Aist 2D (2016-026B).

Izvori
Heavens-above (engl.)
NASA (engl.)
Planet4589.org Tablični prikaz podataka o satelitima (engl.)
N2YO Satellite Database - Tehnical Details - Real Time Satellite Tracking and Predictions (engl.)
Gunter's Space Page SKRL-756 1,2 (engl.)
Gunter's Space Page Aist 1 1,2 (147 KS) (engl.)

Vanjske poveznice
N2YO.com Search Satellite Database (engl.)
Celes Trak SATCAT Format Documentation (engl.)
Kunstman  Satellites in Orbit (engl.)

Astronautika u Rusiji
Umjetni sateliti

Aist


Fibrinogen je po kemijskom sastavu bjelančevina, nalazi se u krvi. Nalazi se u krvnoj plazmi te je jedan od specifičnih proteina u njenom sastavu.

Fibrinogen je protein koji sudjeluje u zgrušavanju krvi. Pod djelovanjem drugih čimbenika zgrušavanja stvara ugrušak i tako sprječava gubitak krvi. Stvara se isključivo u jetri, a njegovo povećanje povezano je i s upalama, tumorima, traumama, opeklinama.

Povišene vrijednosti fibrinogena mogu se normalno naći u trudnoći.

izvor

 Fiziologija
Sastav krvi

Fibrinogen