Structural alignment attempts to establish homology between two or more polymer structures based on their shape and three-dimensional conformation. This process is usually applied to protein tertiary structures but can also be used for large RNA molecules. In contrast to simple structural superposition, where at least some equivalent residues of the two structures are known, structural alignment requires no a priori knowledge of equivalent positions. Structural alignment is a valuable tool for the comparison of proteins with low sequence similarity, where evolutionary relationships between proteins cannot be easily detected by standard sequence alignment techniques. Structural alignment can therefore be used to imply evolutionary relationships between proteins that share very little common sequence. However, caution should be used in using the results as evidence for shared evolutionary ancestry because of the possible confounding effects of convergent evolution by which multiple unrelated amino acid sequences converge on a common tertiary structure.

Structural alignments can compare two sequences or multiple sequences. Because these alignments rely on information about all the query sequences' three-dimensional conformations, the method can only be used on sequences where these structures are known. These are usually found by X-ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy. It is possible to perform a structural alignment on structures produced by structure prediction methods. Indeed, evaluating such predictions often requires a structural alignment between the model and the true known structure to assess the model's quality. Structural alignments are especially useful in analyzing data from structural genomics and proteomics efforts, and they can be used as comparison points to evaluate alignments produced by purely sequence-based bioinformatics methods.

The outputs of a structural alignment are a superposition of the atomic coordinate sets and a minimal root mean square deviation (RMSD) between the structures. The RMSD of two aligned structures indicates their divergence from one another. Structural alignment can be complicated by the existence of multiple protein domains within one or more of the input structures, because changes in relative orientation of the domains between two structures to be aligned can artificially inflate the RMSD.

Data produced by structural alignment

The minimum information produced from a successful structural alignment is a set of residues that are considered equivalent between the structures. This set of equivalences is then typically used to superpose the three-dimensional coordinates for each input structure. (Note that one input element may be fixed as a reference and therefore its superposed coordinates do not change.) The fitted structures can be used to calculate mutual RMSD values, as well as other more sophisticated measures of structural similarity such as the global distance test (GDT, the metric used in CASP). The structural alignment also implies a corresponding one-dimensional sequence alignment from which a sequence identity, or the percentage of residues that are identical between the input structures, can be calculated as a measure of how closely the two sequences are related.

Types of comparisons
Because protein structures are composed of amino acids whose side chains are linked by a common protein backbone, a number of different possible subsets of the atoms that make up a protein macromolecule can be used in producing a structural alignment and calculating the corresponding RMSD values. When aligning structures with very different sequences, the side chain atoms generally are not taken into account because their identities differ between many aligned residues. For this reason it is common for structural alignment methods to use by default only the backbone atoms included in the peptide bond. For simplicity and efficiency, often only the alpha carbon positions are considered, since the peptide bond has a minimally variant planar conformation. Only when the structures to be aligned are highly similar or even identical is it meaningful to align side-chain atom positions, in which case the RMSD reflects not only the conformation of the protein backbone but also the rotameric states of the side chains. Other comparison criteria that reduce noise and bolster positive matches include secondary structure assignment, native contact maps or residue interaction patterns, measures of side chain packing, and measures of hydrogen bond retention.

Structural superposition
The most basic possible comparison between protein structures makes no attempt to align the input structures and requires a precalculated alignment as input to determine which of the residues in the sequence are intended to be considered in the RMSD calculation. Structural superposition is commonly used to compare multiple conformations of the same protein (in which case no alignment is necessary, since the sequences are the same) and to evaluate the quality of alignments produced using only sequence information between two or more sequences whose structures are known. This method traditionally uses a simple least-squares fitting algorithm, in which the optimal rotations and translations are found by minimizing the sum of the squared distances among all structures in the superposition. More recently, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods have greatly increased the accuracy of the estimated rotations, translations, and covariance matrices for the superposition.

Algorithms based on multidimensional rotations and modified quaternions have been developed to identify topological relationships between protein structures without the need for a predetermined alignment. Such algorithms have successfully identified canonical folds such as the four-helix bundle. The SuperPose method is sufficiently extensible to correct for relative domain rotations and other structural pitfalls.

Evaluating similarity
Often the purpose of seeking a structural superposition is not so much the superposition itself, but an evaluation of the similarity of two structures or a confidence in a remote alignment. A subtle but important distinction from maximal structural superposition is the conversion of an alignment to a meaningful similarity score. Most methods output some sort of "score" indicating the quality of the superposition. However, what one actually wants is not merely an estimated  "Z-score" or an estimated E-value of seeing the observed superposition by chance but instead one desires that the estimated E-value is tightly correlation to the true E-value. Critically, even if a method's estimated E-value is precisely correct on average, if it lacks a low standard deviation on its estimated value generation process, then the rank ordering of the relative similarities of a query protein to a comparison set will rarely agree with the "true" ordering.

Different methods will superimpose different numbers of residues because they use different quality assurances and different definitions of "overlap"; some only include residues meeting multiple local and global superposition criteria and others are more greedy, flexible, and promiscuous.  A greater number of atoms superposed can mean more similarity but it may not always produce the best E-value quantifying the unlikeliness of the superposition and thus not as useful for assessing similarity, especially in remote homologs.

Algorithmic complexity

Optimal solution
The optimal "threading" of a protein sequence onto a known structure and the production of an optimal multiple sequence alignment have been shown to be NP-complete. However, this does not imply that the structural alignment problem is NP-complete. Strictly speaking, an optimal solution to the protein structure alignment problem is only known for certain protein structure similarity measures, such as the measures used in protein structure prediction experiments, GDT_TS and MaxSub. These measures can be rigorously optimized using an algorithm capable of maximizing the number of atoms in two proteins that can be superimposed under a predefined distance cutoff. Unfortunately, the algorithm for optimal solution is not practical, since its running time depends not only on the lengths but also on the intrinsic geometry of input proteins.

Approximate solution
Approximate polynomial-time algorithms for structural alignment that produce a family of "optimal" solutions within an approximation parameter for a given scoring function have been developed. Although these algorithms theoretically classify the approximate protein structure alignment problem as "tractable", they are still computationally too expensive for large-scale protein structure analysis. As a consequence, practical algorithms that converge to the global solutions of the alignment, given a scoring function, do not exist. Most algorithms are, therefore, heuristic, but algorithms that guarantee the convergence to at least local maximizers of the scoring functions, and are practical, have been developed.

Representation of structures
Protein structures have to be represented in some coordinate-independent space to make them comparable. This is typically achieved by constructing a sequence-to-sequence matrix or series of matrices that encompass comparative metrics: rather than absolute distances relative to a fixed coordinate space. An intuitive representation is the distance matrix, which is a two-dimensional matrix containing all pairwise distances between some subset of the atoms in each structure (such as the alpha carbons). The matrix increases in dimensionality as the number of structures to be simultaneously aligned increases. Reducing the protein to a coarse metric such as secondary structure elements (SSEs) or structural fragments can also produce sensible alignments, despite the loss of information from discarding distances, as noise is also discarded. Choosing a representation to facilitate computation is critical to developing an efficient alignment mechanism.

Methods
Structural alignment techniques have been used in comparing individual structures or sets of structures as well as in the production of "all-to-all" comparison databases that measure the divergence between every pair of structures present in the Protein Data Bank (PDB). Such databases are used to classify proteins by their fold.

DALI
A common and popular structural alignment method is the DALI, or Distance-matrix ALIgnment method, which breaks the input structures into hexapeptide fragments and calculates a distance matrix by evaluating the contact patterns between successive fragments. Secondary structure features that involve residues that are contiguous in sequence appear on the matrix's main diagonal; other diagonals in the matrix reflect spatial contacts between residues that are not near each other in the sequence. When these diagonals are parallel to the main diagonal, the features they represent are parallel; when they are perpendicular, their features are antiparallel. This representation is memory-intensive because the features in the square matrix are symmetrical (and thus redundant) about the main diagonal.

When two proteins' distance matrices share the same or similar features in approximately the same positions, they can be said to have similar folds with similar-length loops connecting their secondary structure elements. DALI's actual alignment process requires a similarity search after the two proteins' distance matrices are built; this is normally conducted via a series of overlapping submatrices of size 6x6. Submatrix matches are then reassembled into a final alignment via a standard score-maximization algorithm — the original version of DALI used a Monte Carlo simulation to maximize a structural similarity score that is a function of the distances between putative corresponding atoms. In particular, more distant atoms within corresponding features are exponentially downweighted to reduce the effects of noise introduced by loop mobility, helix torsions, and other minor structural variations. Because DALI relies on an all-to-all distance matrix, it can account for the possibility that structurally aligned features might appear in different orders within the two sequences being compared.

The DALI method has also been used to construct a database known as FSSP (Fold classification based on Structure-Structure alignment of Proteins, or Families of Structurally Similar Proteins) in which all known protein structures are aligned with each other to determine their structural neighbors and fold classification. There is an searchable database based on DALI as well as a downloadable program and web search based on a standalone version known as DaliLite.

Combinatorial extension
The combinatorial extension (CE) method is similar to DALI in that it too breaks each structure in the query set into a series of fragments that it then attempts to reassemble into a complete alignment. A series of pairwise combinations of fragments called aligned fragment pairs, or AFPs, are used to define a similarity matrix through which an optimal path is generated to identify the final alignment. Only AFPs that meet given criteria for local similarity are included in the matrix as a means of reducing the necessary search space and thereby increasing efficiency. A number of similarity metrics are possible; the original definition of the CE method included only structural superpositions and inter-residue distances but has since been expanded to include local environmental properties such as secondary structure, solvent exposure, hydrogen-bonding patterns, and dihedral angles.

An alignment path is calculated as the optimal path through the similarity matrix by linearly progressing through the sequences and extending the alignment with the next possible high-scoring AFP pair. The initial AFP pair that nucleates the alignment can occur at any point in the sequence matrix. Extensions then proceed with the next AFP that meets given distance criteria restricting the alignment to low gap sizes. The size of each AFP and the maximum gap size are required input parameters but are usually set to empirically determined values of 8 and 30 respectively. Like DALI and SSAP, CE has been used to construct an all-to-all fold classification database  from the known protein structures in the PDB.

The RCSB PDB has recently released an updated version of CE, Mammoth, and FATCAT as part of the RCSB PDB Protein Comparison Tool. It provides a new variation of CE that can detect circular permutations in protein structures.

Mammoth
MAMMOTH  approaches the alignment problem from a different objective than almost all other methods.  Rather than trying to find an alignment that maximally superimposes the largest number of residues, it seeks the subset of the structural alignment least likely to occur by chance. To do this it marks a local motif alignment with flags to indicate which residues simultaneously satisfy more stringent criteria: 1) Local structure overlap 2) regular secondary structure 3) 3D-superposition 4) same ordering in primary sequence. It converts the statistics of the number of residues with high-confidence matches and the size of the protein to compute an Expectation value for the outcome by chance. It excels at matching remote homologs, particularly structures generated by ab initio structure prediction to structure families such as SCOP, because it emphasizes extracting a statistically reliable sub alignment and not in achieving the maximal sequence alignment or maximal 3D superposition.

For every overlapping window of 7 consecutive residues it computes the set of displacement direction unit vectors between adjacent C-alpha residues.  All-against-all local motifs are compared based on the URMS score.  These values becomes the pair alignment score entries for dynamic programming which produces a seed pair-wise residue alignment. The second phase uses a modified MaxSub algorithm: a single 7 reside aligned pair in each proteins is used to orient the two full length protein structures to maximally superimpose these just these 7 C-alpha, then in this orientation it scans for any additional aligned pairs that are close in 3D. It re-orients the structures to superimpose this expanded set and iterates until no more pairs coincide in 3D. This process is restarted for every 7 residue window in the seed alignment. The output is the maximal number of atoms found from any of these initial seeds. This statistic is converted to a calibrated E-value for the similarity of the proteins.

Mammoth makes no attempt to re-iterate the initial alignment or extend the high quality sub-subset. Therefore, the seed alignment it displays can't be fairly compared to DALI or TM align as it was formed simply as a heuristic to prune the search space.  (It can be used if one wants an alignment based solely on local structure-motif similarity agnostic of long range rigid body atomic alignment.)  Because of that same parsimony, it is well over ten times faster than DALI, CE and TM-align. It is often used in conjunction with these slower tools to pre-screen large data bases to extract the just the best E-value related structures for more exhaustive superposition or expensive calculations.

It has been particularly successful at analyzing "decoy" structures from ab initio structure prediction. These decoys are notorious for getting local fragment motif structure correct, and forming some kernels of correct 3D tertiary structure but getting the full length tertiary structure wrong. In this twilight remote homology regime, Mammoth's e-values for the CASP protein structure prediction evaluation have been shown to be significantly more correlated with human ranking than SSAP or DALI. Mammoths ability to extract the multi-criteria partial overlaps with proteins of known structure and rank these with proper E-values, combined with its speed facilitates scanning vast numbers of decoy models against the PDB data base for identifying the most likely correct decoys based on their remote homology to known proteins.

SSAP
The SSAP (Sequential Structure Alignment Program) method uses double dynamic programming to produce a structural alignment based on atom-to-atom vectors in structure space. Instead of the alpha carbons typically used in structural alignment, SSAP constructs its vectors from the beta carbons for all residues except glycine, a method which thus takes into account the rotameric state of each residue as well as its location along the backbone. SSAP works by first constructing a series of inter-residue distance vectors between each residue and its nearest non-contiguous neighbors on each protein. A series of matrices are then constructed containing the vector differences between neighbors for each pair of residues for which vectors were constructed. Dynamic programming applied to each resulting matrix determines a series of optimal local alignments which are then summed into a "summary" matrix to which dynamic programming is applied again to determine the overall structural alignment.

SSAP originally produced only pairwise alignments but has since been extended to multiple alignments as well. It has been applied in an all-to-all fashion to produce a hierarchical fold classification scheme known as CATH (Class, Architecture, Topology, Homology), which has been used to construct the CATH Protein Structure Classification database.

Recent developments
Improvements in structural alignment methods constitute an active area of research, and new or modified methods are often proposed that are claimed to offer advantages over the older and more widely distributed techniques. A recent example, TM-align, uses a novel method for weighting its distance matrix, to which standard dynamic programming is then applied. The weighting is proposed to accelerate the convergence of dynamic programming and correct for effects arising from alignment lengths. In a benchmarking study, TM-align has been reported to improve in both speed and accuracy over DALI and CE.

Other promising methods of structural alignment are local structural alignment methods. These provide comparison of pre-selected parts of proteins (e.g. binding sites, user-defined structural motifs)  against binding sites or whole-protein structural databases. The MultiBind and MAPPIS servers  allow the identification of common spatial arrangements of physicochemical properties such as H-bond donor, acceptor, aliphatic, aromatic or hydrophobic in a set of user provided protein binding sites defined by interactions with small molecules (MultiBind) or in a set of user-provided protein–protein interfaces (MAPPIS). Others provide comparison of entire protein structures  against a number of user submitted structures or against a large database of protein structures in reasonable time (ProBiS). Unlike global alignment approaches, local structural alignment approaches are suited to detection of locally conserved patterns of functional groups, which often appear in binding sites and have significant involvement in ligand binding. As an example, comparing G-Losa, a local structure alignment tool, with TM-align, a global structure alignment based method. While G-Losa predicts drug-like ligands' positions in single-chain protein targets more precisely than TM-align, the overall success rate of TM-align is better.

However, as algorithmic improvements and computer performance have erased purely technical deficiencies in older approaches, it has become clear that there is no one universal criterion for the 'optimal' structural alignment. TM-align, for instance, is particularly robust in quantifying comparisons between sets of proteins with great disparities in sequence lengths, but it only indirectly captures hydrogen bonding or secondary structure order conservation which might be better metrics for alignment of evolutionarily related proteins. Thus recent developments have focused on optimizing particular attributes such as speed, quantification of scores, correlation to alternative gold standards, or tolerance of imperfection in structural data or ab initio structural models. An alternative methodology that is gaining popularity is to use the consensus of various methods to ascertain proteins structural similarities.

RNA structural alignment
Structural alignment techniques have traditionally been applied exclusively to proteins, as the primary biological macromolecules that assume characteristic three-dimensional structures. However, large RNA molecules also form characteristic tertiary structures, which are mediated primarily by hydrogen bonds formed between base pairs as well as base stacking. Functionally similar noncoding RNA molecules can be especially difficult to extract from genomics data because structure is more strongly conserved than sequence in RNA as well as in proteins, and the more limited alphabet of RNA decreases the information content of any given nucleotide at any given position.

However, because of the increasing interest in RNA structures and because of the growth of the number of experimentally determined 3D RNA structures, few RNA structure similarity methods have been developed recently. One of those methods is, e.g., SETTER which decomposes each RNA structure into smaller parts called general secondary structure units (GSSUs). GSSUs are subsequently aligned and these partial alignments are merged into the final RNA structure alignment and scored. The method has been implemented into the SETTER webserver.

A recent method for pairwise structural alignment of RNA sequences with low sequence identity has been published and implemented in the program FOLDALIGN. However, this method is not truly analogous to protein structural alignment techniques because it computationally predicts the structures of the RNA input sequences rather than requiring experimentally determined structures as input. Although computational prediction of the protein folding process has not been particularly successful to date, RNA structures without pseudoknots can often be sensibly predicted using free energy-based scoring methods that account for base pairing and stacking.

Software

Choosing a software tool for structural alignment can be a challenge due to the large variety of available packages that differ significantly in methodology and reliability. A partial solution to this problem was presented in  and made publicly accessible through the ProCKSI webserver. A more complete list of currently available and freely distributed structural alignment software can be found in structural alignment software.

Properties of some structural alignment servers and software packages are summarized and tested with examples at Structural Alignment Tools in Proteopedia.Org.

See also

 Multiple sequence alignment
 List of sequence alignment software
 Structural Classification of Proteins
 SuperPose
 Protein superfamily

References

Further reading
 Bourne PE, Shindyalov IN. (2003): Structure Comparison and Alignment. In: Bourne, P.E., Weissig, H. (Eds): Structural Bioinformatics. Hoboken NJ: Wiley-Liss.
 Yuan X, Bystroff C. (2004) "Non-sequential Structure-based Alignments Reveal Topology-independent Core Packing Arrangements in Proteins", Bioinformatics. Nov 5, 2004

Protein methods

Structural alignment


Das Kampfgeschwader 4 "General Wever" war ein Verband der Luftwaffe im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Es war nach Walther Wever benannt, der als Chef des Generalstabes der Luftwaffe am 3. Juni 1936 tödlich verunglückte. Aufgrund dieses Ehrennamens waren die Geschwaderangehörigen berechtigt am rechten Unterarm einen Ärmelstreifen mit der Aufschrift "General Wever" zu tragen. Als Kampfgeschwader, ausgestattet mit Bombern, erst vom Typ Heinkel He 111, dann mit der Junkers Ju 88 und zuletzt mit der Heinkel He 177 führte es Luftangriffe mit Bomben auf zugewiesene Ziele durch. Das Geschwader beteiligte sich am Überfall auf Polen, dem Norwegenfeldzug, dem Westfeldzug, der Luftschlacht um England, dem Balkanfeldzug und dem Deutsch-Sowjetischen Krieg. Nach der bedingungslosen Kapitulation der Wehrmacht am 8. Mai 1945 wurde es aufgelöst.

Aufstellung
Das Geschwader entstand am 1. Mai 1939, nach dem neuen Benennungsschema der Luftwaffe, durch die Umbenennung des seit 1. April 1936 aufgestellten Kampfgeschwaders 253. Dieses hatte am 4. Juni 1936 den Ehrennamen General Wever erhalten. Die Geschwaderangehörigen trugen seitdem am rechten Unterarm einen Ärmelstreifen mit der Aufschrift "General Wever". Anlass war der tödliche Flugzeugabsturz des Chefs des Generalstabes der Luftwaffe Walther Wever drei Tage zuvor. Am 1. Mai 1939 wurde aus der I. bis III./KG 253 die I. bis III./KG 4. Der Ehrenname blieb erhalten. Eine IV. (Ergänzungs-)Gruppe kam am 18. Juni 1940 hinzu.

Die Heimathorste waren für den Stab und die II. Gruppe in Erfurt (), für die I. Gruppe in Gotha (), für die III. Gruppe in Nordhausen () und für die IV. (Ergänzungs-)Gruppe in Faßberg ().

Anfangs war das Geschwader mit der Heinkel He 111 ausgestattet. Im Sommer 1940 erhielt die III. Gruppe Junkers Ju 88, verließ aber im Oktober den Geschwaderverband als sie zum Kampfgeschwader 30 wechselte. Ab Dezember 1942 rüstete die I. Gruppe auf die Heinkel He 177 um. Im Oktober 1943 tauschte jeweils die I. Gruppe des Kampfgeschwaders 4 und 100 den Geschwaderverband. Die Geschwaderkennung war 5J.

Gliederung
Der Geschwaderstab führte die I. bis IV. Gruppe die wiederum in Staffeln unterteilt waren. Die 1. bis 3. Staffel gehörte der I. Gruppe, die 4. bis 6. Staffel der II. Gruppe, die 7. bis 9. Staffel der III. Gruppe und die 10. bis 12. Staffel der IV. Gruppe an. Jede Staffel wurde von einem Staffelkapitän geführt und war in vier Ketten mit je drei Flugzeugen unterteilt. Daraus ergab sich eine Sollstärke von 36 Flugzeugen in den drei Staffeln plus  ein Flugzeug für den Gruppenkommandeur, also 37 Maschinen, in jeder Gruppe. Dies ergab bei vier Bombergruppen 148 Flugzeuge und, plus 4 Flugzeuge für den Geschwaderkommodore und seinen Stab, somit eine Sollstärke von 152 Flugzeugen für das gesamte Geschwader. Die IV. Gruppe war eine Ergänzungsgruppe und nahm in der Regel nicht an Kampfeinsätzen teil. In ihr wurden frisch ausgebildete oder rekonvaleszente Flieger eine Zeitlang an die Frontbedingungen gewöhnt und geschult, bevor sie in eine der drei Einsatzgruppen wechselten. Darum hatte sie meist ihren Standort in der Heimatbasis des jeweiligen Geschwaders.

Geschichte

Überfall auf Polen

Am 1. September 1939 bei Beginn des Überfalls auf Polen war das Geschwader der 2. Fliegerdivision in der Luftflotte 4 unterstellt. Der Stab und die II. Gruppe lagen in Oels () und die I. und III. Gruppe in Langenau (). Alle Gruppen waren mit der Heinkel He 111P ausgestattet. In dieser Version verfügte der Bomber über zwei Daimler-Benz DB 601-Motoren mit zusammen 2200 PS. Damit erreichte er eine Höchstgeschwindigkeit von bis zu 390 km/h und eine Bombenzuladung von 2000 kg.

Anfangs bombardierte das Geschwader Eisenbahneinrichtungen und Militärflugplätze. So griff die I. Gruppe am 1. und 2. September die Flugplätze der polnischen Luftwaffe in Deblin und Krakau an. Vom 3. bis 6. September attackierten Teile des Geschwaders Bahnhöfe in Ostpolen, bevor es anschließend die Weichselbrücken und Warschau bombardierte. Ab dem 9. September unterstützten Teile des Geschwaders die 8. Armee der Heeresgruppe Süd in der Schlacht an der Bzura. Am 21./22. September zog sich das Geschwader von der Front zurück und nahm die Plätze in Erfurt-Bindersleben, Gotha und Nordhausen ein.

Unternehmen Weserübung

Bei der Besetzung Norwegens im Rahmen des Unternehmens Weserübung stand das Geschwader unter dem Kommando des X. Fliegerkorps. Im Vorfeld dieses Unternehmens hatte es eine intensive Ausbildung im Seeminenlegen und in der Durchführung von Nachtangriffen erhalten. Die III. Gruppe erhielt ab Januar ihre ersten Bomber vom Typ Junkers Ju 88A-1. Im Vergleich zur bisher verwendeten Heinkel He 111P hatte sie mit ihren zwei Junkers Jumo 211-Motoren 150 PS mehr Leistung. Damit erreichte sie eine um 70 km/h höhere Geschwindigkeit und eine um 400 kg höhere Bombenlast als die He 111P.

Die II. Gruppe nahm am 9. April, bei Beginn des Unternehmens, mit anderen Bomberverbänden an einen Überflug über Kopenhagen teil, um Stärke zu demonstrieren und die dänische Regierung einzuschüchtern. Daraufhin ließ sie den Widerstand nach wenigen Stunden einstellen. Die I. Gruppe bezog daraufhin ab dem 20. April den Flugplatz Aalborg-West und zwei Tage später den Flugplatz Kastrup als Basis.

Ab dem 30. April 1940 kämpften die I. und die II. Gruppe, vom norwegischen Flughafen Oslo-Fornebu () aus, im süd- und mittelnorwegischen Raum. Dabei versenkte eine Junkers Ju 88 der III. Gruppe am 9. April das norwegische Torpedoboot Æger () vor Stavanger. Dabei kamen 75 Norweger ums Leben. Später, am 16. April versenkte eine Heinkel He 111 der II. Gruppe den schwedischen Frachter Mertainen auf der Fahrt von Narvik nach Newcastle.

Westfeldzug

Mit Beginn des Westfeldzuges verlegte das gesamte Geschwader in den norddeutschen Raum. Der Stab und die II. Gruppe startete vom Fliegerhorst Faßberg (), die I. Gruppe von Gütersloh () und die III. Gruppe von Delmenhorst () aus. Es griff Ziele in den Niederlanden an und war dem Fliegerkorps z.b.V. 2 in der Luftflotte 2 unterstellt. Erste Ziele waren der Flugplatz der niederländischen Luftwaffe in Waalhaven und Flugabwehrstellungen. Am 11. Mai 1940 griff das Geschwader den Hafen von Rotterdam an und versenkte dabei die Passagierschiffe Statendam (28.291 BRT) und Veendam (15.450 BRT) sowie den Zerstörer Van Galen. Dem allgemeinen Vormarsch des Heeres folgend griff es unterstützend in die Bodenkämpfe ein oder Flugplätze und Eisenbahnstrecken an. Ab dem 26. Mai griff das Geschwader in die Schlacht von Dünkirchen ein und intervenierte gegen die eingeschlossenen alliierten Truppen die dann über den Ärmelkanal evakuiert wurden.
Am 3. Juni nahm das Geschwader am Unternehmen Paula teil, um die letzten noch vorhandenen Flugzeuge der Armée de l'Air und die Flugzeugindustrie zu zerstören. Da die französische Luftwaffe allerdings vorgewarnt war, gelang es nicht auf den angegriffenen 13 Flugplätzen nennenswerte Schäden anzurichten. Insgesamt wurden nur 16 Flugzeuge am Boden zerstört und 6 beschädigt. Von den angegriffenen 15 Fabriken wurden nur 3 erwähnenswert beschädigt. Dabei kamen 254 Zivilisten ums Leben und 652 wurden verletzt. Auf deutscher Seite gingen vier Bomber und sechs Jagdflugzeuge verloren.

In der zweiten Phase des Feldzugs (Fall Rot) ab dem 5. Juni griff das Geschwader französische Hafenstädte an der Küste des Ärmelkanals um Evakuierungen von alliierten Truppen nach Großbritannien zu erschweren. Auch die Eisenbahnanlagen und -strecken zur Küste hin waren ein Ziel der Bomber. Nach dem am 25. Juni in Kraft getretenen Waffenstillstand nahm es Plätze in den Niederlanden, in Soesterberg, Eindhoven und Amsterdam-Schiphol ein.

Luftschlacht um England

Im Juli 1940 schulte der Geschwaderstab die I. und II. Gruppe auf die Verwendung von Luftminen um. Grund dafür war die bevorstehende Luftschlacht um England, an der das Geschwader im Rahmen der 9. Fliegerdivision der Luftflotte 2 teilnahm. Inzwischen lagen der Stab und die I. Gruppe in Soesterberg (), die II. Gruppe in Eindhoven () und die III. Gruppe in Amsterdam (). Auch erhielten die Gruppen mit der Heinkel He 111H eine verbesserte Version des Bombers. Diese hatte gegenüber dem Vorgängermodell mit ihren zwei Junkers Jumo 211-Motoren 200 PS mehr Leistung und eine um 10 km/h höhere Höchstgeschwindigkeit von jetzt 400 km/h. Die mitführbare Bombenlast erhöhte sich um 500 kg auf 2500 kg.

Im Juni griff das Geschwader Hafenanlagen in Wales an. Dabei wurde in der Nacht des 18./19. September der Gruppenkommandeur der II. Gruppe, Major Dietrich Freiherr von Massenbach mit seiner Heinkel He 111P-4 (Geschwaderkennung 5J+DC), von einer Blenheim der 23 Squadron, geflogen von Flight Lieutenant Duke-Woolley beschossen, so dass er nahe Cley Next the Sea auf dem Strand notlanden musste und in Kriegsgefangenschaft kam. Bei den anschließenden Angriffen auf die britische Insel war das Geschwader bei allen Großangriffen auf London beteiligt. Weitere Schwerpunkte waren Hull, Bristol, Liverpool und Belfast. In der Nacht des 14./15. November nahm das Geschwader an einem Luftangriff auf Coventry teil, der mit 515 Bombern geflogen wurde. Dabei warfen sie etwa 500 Tonnen Sprengbomben, 50 Luftminen und 36.000 Brandbomben ab, so das 568 Menschen ums Leben kamen und etwa 1000 Menschen verletzt wurden.

Im Januar 1941 verlegte die 2. Staffel auf den Flugplatz Comiso () auf Sizilien. Dort diente sie innerhalb des X. Fliegerkorps als Minenstaffel. Sie verminte mehrfach den Sueskanal und ab April griechische Gewässer. Auf den ausgelegten Minen sanken am 4. bzw. 5. Februar 1941 die Frachter Aghios Georgios und Ranee sowie am 23. April 1942 vor Suez das britische Motorschiff Jersey.

Balkanfeldzug
Als am 6. April 1941 der Balkanfeldzug begann, unterstand die II. Gruppe des Kampfgeschwaders 4 der Luftflotte 4. Von Wien-Aspern () aus war sie, zusammen mit anderen Geschwadern, am Luftangriff auf Belgrad beteiligt. Dabei gab es mindestens 2271 Opfer und etwa 9000 Häuser wurden zerstört oder beschädigt. Anschließend attackierte sie den Hafen von Piräus in dem Schiffe und Anlagen beschädigt wurden. In der weiteren Folge verlegte die II. Gruppe am 21. April ins rumänische Ziliştea (), da sich die Kampftätigkeit weiter in den griechischen Raum verlagerte.

Zeitgleich verlegte die 4. Staffel in die irakische Hauptstadt Bagdad. Unter dem Kommando des Sonderstabes F bekämpfte sie britische Truppen, die den Irak besetzt hielten.

Deutsch-Sowjetischer Krieg
1941
Beim Beginn des Angriffs auf die Sowjetunion war lediglich die II. Gruppe dem IV. Fliegerkorps der Luftflotte 4 im Südabschnitt der Ostfront unterstellt. Sie war immer noch in Ziliştea stationiert. Von dort aus legte sie Minen im Schwarzen Meer, vor Sewastopol und Nikolajew. Auf diesen Luftminen sanken am 22./23. Juni der Schlepper SP-12, die Dnepr, ein Schwimmkran und der Zerstörer Bystry; weitere Kriegsschiffe wurden beschädigt. Ab Mitte Juli versammelte sich das gesamte Geschwader auf dem Fliegerhorst Prowehren () um von hier aus in die Kämpfe einzugreifen. Neben der Verminung der Ostseeinseln Oesel und Dagö nahm das Geschwader auch an den Luftangriffen auf Moskau teil. Bei der am 2. Oktober beginnenden Schlacht um Moskau war die III. Gruppe dem VIII. Fliegerkorps der Luftflotte 2 unterstellt.

1942
Im Jahr 1942 leisteten die I. und II. Gruppe Heeresunterstützung im Nord- und Mittelabschnitt der Ostfront. Am 4. und 5. April nahmen sie am Unternehmen Eisstoß teil. Zusammen mit Teilen der Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 und 2, des Kampfgeschwaders 1 und des Jagdgeschwaders 54 griffen sie Kriegsschiffe der Baltischen Flotte im Leningrader Hafen an. Dabei wurden Beschädigt wurden dabei das Schlachtschiff Oktjabrskaja Rewoljuzija durch vier Bombentreffer, der Kreuzer Maksim Gorki durch sieben Treffer mittleren Kalibers, die Kreuzer Kirow und Petropawlowsk und der Zerstörer Silny durch je einen schweren Treffer sowie der Zerstörer Grosjaschtschi, der Minenleger Marti und das Schulschiff Swir durch leichtere Treffer. Außerdem wurden die Zerstörer Stoyki und Swirepy beschädigt sowie die Unterseeboote M-79, P-2 und P-3. Auch wurden wieder Mineneinsätze im Finnischen Meerbusen und der Kronstädter Bucht geflogen. Am 22. Juli fiel der Gruppenkommandeur der II. Gruppe, Hauptmann Hermann Kühl, als seine He 111H-6 nach einem Einsatz im Donbogen nahe Charkow abstürzte. Von Oktober bis Dezember flog die III. Gruppe, von San Pancrazio () in Italien aus, Versorgungseinsätze zur Unterstützung der deutschen Truppen in Nordafrika. Zum Jahreswechsel 1942/43 verlegte sie in den Südabschnitt der Ostfront, um Versorgungsflüge in den Kessel von Stalingrad zu unternehmen.

Die IV. (Ergänzungs-)Gruppe, stationiert auf französischen Plätzen wie Laon-Athies und Avord, deren primäre Aufgabe die Ausbildung neuer Besatzungen war, flog 1942 Einsätze bei der alliierten Landung bei Dieppe und beim Kanaldurchbruch der deutschen Schlachtschiffe Scharnhorst und Gneisenau.

1943
Im Jahr 1943 blieb das Geschwader im Süd- und Mittelabschnitt der Ostfront aktiv. Am 13. Mai stürzte der Gruppenkommandeur der III. Gruppe, Hauptmann Ernst Koch mit seiner Heinkel He 111H (Geschwaderkennung 5J+FD) nach dem Start vom Fliegerhorst Saky ins Schwarze Meer und verstarb. Vom 5. bis 22. Juni nahm das Geschwader an den Luftangriffen auf Gorki und Jaroslawl teil. In Nachtangriffen, zusammen mit anderen Kampfgeschwadern, sollten das Panzerwagenwerk "Molotow" und das Kunstkautschukwerk Jaroslawl angegriffen werden. Dabei kamen in Gorki 282 Menschen ums Leben, bei 527 Verletzten und 52 Gebäude des Werkes wurden zerstört. In Jaroslawl wurden über 120 Menschen getötet, rund 150 weitere verletzt und über 200 Gebäude (darunter einige Werkshallen des Kautschukwerkes) vollständig zerstört. Der Stab, die II. und III. Gruppe nahmen anschließend am Unternehmen Zitadelle teil. Unter der Luftflotte 6 der 1. Fliegerdivision zugeteilt, unterstützten sie den nördlichen Angriffskeil beim letztlich gescheiterten Angriff in Richtung Kursk.

Die I. Gruppe wechselte Anfang 1943 auf die Fliegerhorste Gutenfeld und ab Februar nach Lechfeld. Hier erfolgte die Umrüstung auf die Heinkel He 177A-1, einem schweren viermotorigen Bomber mit zwei flüssiggekühlten Doppel-V12-Kolbenmotoren Daimler-Benz DB 610 mit je 2950 PS Startleistung, die eine Geschwindigkeit von 488 km/h und eine Bombenlast von bis zu 7300 kg ermöglichten. Im Oktober schied die I. Gruppe aus dem Geschwaderverband aus, als sie mit der I. Gruppe des Kampfgeschwaders 100 die Bezeichnung tauschte.

1944
Auch 1944 war das Geschwader mit der I. bis III. Gruppe im Süd- und Mittelabschnitt der Ostfront zur Heeresunterstützung tätig. In der Anfangsphase des sowjetischen Sommeroffensive Operation Bagration griff das Geschwader in der Nacht vom 22. zum 23. Juni mit Bombern vom Typ Heinkel He 111H-20, von den Fliegerhorsten Bialystok-Zawady () und Focşani/Süd (), den im Rahmen der Operation Frantic von US-amerikanischen Flugzeugen, unter anderem der 452nd Bomb Group (Heavy), benutzten Flugplatz Poltawa () an. Dabei wurden 43 US-amerikanische B-17-Bomber am Boden zerstört und weitere 26 beschädigt. Außerdem wurden ein Munitionsdepot und 900.000 Liter Flugbenzin vernichtet. Der US-amerikanische General Carl A. Spaatz bezeichnete Poltawa später als "den besten Angriff, denn die Luftwaffe jemals gegen die United States Army Air Forces ausführte". Im Herbst bezog das Geschwader Flugplätze in Ungarn, z. B. in Debrecen.

1945
Letzte Einsätze waren 1945 die Versorgung der eingeschlossenen Städte Budapest und Breslau sowie Berlin. Der letzte Liegeplatz vor der Kapitulation am 8. Mai 1945 war für den Stab, die I. und III. Gruppe Hradec Králové () und für die II. Gruppe Eggebek ().

Kommandeure

Geschwaderkommodore

Gruppenkommandeure
 I. Gruppe
 Oberstleutnant Nikolaus-Wolfgang Maier, 1. Mai 1939 bis 14. November 1939
 Oberstleutnant Hans-Joachim Rath, 24. November 1939 bis 30. Mai 1940
 Major Hans von Ploetz, 3. Juni 1940 bis 30. Juni 1940
 Hauptmann Friedrich Meissner, 3. Juli 1940 bis 14. Dezember 1940
 Major Erich Schult, 22. Dezember 1940 bis 27. Januar 1941
 Hauptmann Klaus Nöske, 28. Januar 1941 bis 16. Februar 1941
 Major Robert-Heinrich von Groddeck, 1. Juni 1941 bis 25. August 1941
 Major Klaus Nöske, 12. September 1941 bis 30. Dezember 1941
 Major Heinz Alewyn, 4. Januar 1942 bis 21. März 1942
 Hauptmann Helmuth Boltze, 26. März 1942 bis 20. September 1942 †
 Major Wolfgang Wetterer, 25. September 1942 bis 16. Juni 1943
 Hauptmann Hans-Gotthelf von Kalckreuth, 1. Juni 1943 bis 21. Oktober 1943
 Major Hansgeorg Bätcher, 21. Oktober 1943 bis 13. Februar 1944
 Major Ernst Göpel, 24. März 1944 bis 15. März 1945
 Hauptmann Rolf Rannersmann, 16. März 1945 bis 8. Mai 1945

 II. Gruppe
 Oberstleutnant Wolfgang Erdmann, 1. Mai 1939 bis 30. September 1939
 Major Dietrich Freiherr von Massenbach, 1. Oktober 1939 bis 19. Juni 1940
 Oberstleutnant Gottlieb Wolff, 3. Juli 1940 bis 15. Juni 1942
 Major Rolf Walter von Samson Himmelstjerna, Juli 1942 bis 22. September 1942
 Major Karl von Knauer, 23. September 1942 bis 27. Oktober 1942
 Oberstleutnant Heinz-Joachim Schmidt, 28. Oktober 1942 bis 10. Januar 1943
 Major Reinhard Graubner, 30. Januar 1943 bis 1. Juli 1944
 Major Karl-Otto Hesse, 1. Juli 1944 bis 8. Mai 1945

 III. Gruppe
 Major Wilhelm Evers, 1. Mai 1939 bis 1. Dezember 1939
 Major Wolfgang Neudörffer, 1. Dezember 1939 bis 14. April 1940
 Major Ernst Kusserow, 15. April 1940 bis 8. Juni 1940
 Major Erich Bloedorn, 19. Juni 1940 bis 1. November 1940
 Major Wolfgang Bühring, 1. Februar 1941 bis 30. November 1941
 Hauptmann Hermann Kühl, 25. November 1941 bis 22. Juli 1942 †
 Major Wolfgang Queisner, 31. Juli 1942 bis 5. September 1942
 Major Werner Klosinski, 21. Oktober 1942 bis 30. April 1943
 Hauptmann Ernst Koch, 1. Mai 1943 bis 13. Mai 1943 †
 Major Kurt Neumann, 20. Mai 1943 bis März 1944
 Major Ernst-Dietrich von Tellemann, 26. März 1944 bis 26. Juni 1944
 Major Reinhard Graubner, 2. Juli 1944 bis 4. Dezember 1944
 Hauptmann Herbert von Kruska, 5. Dezember 1944 bis 8. Mai 1945

 IV. Gruppe
 Major Gerd Roth, 18. Juni 1940 bis 17. Juni 1943
 Major Karl Alber, 19. Juni 1943 bis 15. August 1944

Auszeichnungen
Bekannte Träger des Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes oder höherer Stufen des Kampfgeschwaders 4.

Bekannte Geschwaderangehörige
 Heinz-Ulrich Beuther (1923–1990), war 1979 bis 1980 als Brigadegeneral der Luftwaffe der Bundeswehr, Kommandeur des Lufttransportkommandos
 Kurt Dahlmann (1918–2017), war von 1958 bis 1978 Chefredakteur der Allgemeinen Zeitung in Namibia
 Lothar von Heinemann (1905–1997), war von 1958 bis 1960, als Brigadegeneral der Luftwaffe der Bundeswehr, Chef des Stabes des Führungsstabes der Luftwaffe
 Ernst Kusserow (1903–1968), war von 1961 bis 1963, als Brigadegeneral der Luftwaffe der Bundeswehr, Amtschef des Luftwaffenamtes
 Hans von Ploetz (1904–1993), saß von 1951 bis 1956 für die FDP im Hessischen Landtag
 Werner Utter (1921–2006), war ein Autor von luftfahrtbezogenen Büchern und einer der ersten Piloten der Deutschen Lufthansa, die nach dem Krieg eine Lizenz als Flugkapitän erhielten

Literatur

Weblinks
 DEUTSCH-RUSSISCHES PROJEKT ZUR DIGITALISIERUNG DEUTSCHER DOKUMENTE IN ARCHIVEN DER RUSSISCHEN FÖDERATION, Originaldokumente zum Kampfgeschwader 4 vom 25. August 1939 bis 27. September 1939

Einzelnachweise

Kampf #:4
Gegründet 1939
Aufgelöst 1945

Kampfgeschwader 4 „General Wever“


Amanda Ammar est une fondeuse canadienne, née le  à Saint Albert.

Biographie
Membre du club de Canmore, elle fait ses débuts en Coupe du monde en  à Vernon, puis marque ses premiers points pour le classement général à Canmore avec une  place sur le quinze kilomètres classique. Quelques semaines plus tard, elle honore sa première sélection majeure, prenant part aux Jeux olympiques à Turin, se classant  du sprint,  du dix kilomètres et dixième avec le relais. Elle venait de finir deux fois dans le top dix aux Championnats du monde junior à Kranj, avec une sixième place au cinq kilomètres et une septième place à la poursuite.

Aux Championnats du monde des moins de 23 ans en 2007, à Tarvisio, elle est notamment  du dix kilomètres libre, soit son meilleur résultat dans la compétition. En 2007, elle parvient à finir la première édition du Tour de ski.
À partir de 2008 ses apparitions en Coupe du monde se font rares, du fait notamment d'une pause entre 2009 et 2011 et doit attendre 2013 pour remporter enfin le classement général de la Coupe nord-américaine. À l'été 2013, elle souffre de douleurs au pied a cause d'un névrome de Morton.

Aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2014, à Sotchi, elle finit  du skiathlon,  du dix kilomètres classique et  du trente kilomètres libre. Elle devient ensuite championne du Canada sur le trente kilomètres classique, pour sa dernière course de sa carrière sportive.

Palmarès

Jeux olympiques

Légende :
  : pas d'épreuve
 — : Non disputée par Ammar

Coupe du monde
Meilleur classement général :  en 2006.
Meilleur résultat individuel : .

Classements en Coupe du monde

Championnats nationaux
Championne du Canada sur trente kilomètres classique en 2014.

Références

Liens externes

Naissance en février 1986
Fondeuse canadienne
Fondeuse aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2006
Fondeuse aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2014
Naissance à Saint Albert (Alberta)

Amanda Ammar


Mreža anarhista (engl. Network of Anarchists) je anarhistička organizacija koja trenutno djeluje na području Istre i Kvarnera te sjeverozapada Hrvatske, a čiji su ciljevi;  Potaknuti kulturu otpora i solidarnosti u narodu kao konstantne vrijednosti, bez obzira na stranke na vlasti. Sudjelovati u progresivnim socijalnim gibanjima (od prosvjeda, blokada do konkretne ispomoći radnicima u sukobu s gazdama i/ili vlastima), kako bi što više ljudi kvalitetno, rame uz rame, upoznali s anarhističkom praksom i teorijom. Popularizirati temeljne ideje anarhizma – direktnu demokraciju (ravnopravno odlučivanje), federalizam (autonomija pojedinca i kolektiva), direktnu akciju (djelovanje bez posrednika) i solidarnost među radnicima, seljacima, studentima te ostalim ugroženim društvenim skupinama. Povezati anarhističke individue i potaknuti osnivanje anarhističkih grupa na području Istre i Kvarnera, te intenzivirati njihovu suradnju. Izgrađivati infrastrukturu otpora (kulturne i sportske projekte, izdavaštva, autonomne prostore, organizacije za samopomoć i borbu, kontra-informacijske projekte) kao protutežu kapitalizmu i državi, te projekciju u radikalno drugačiju budućnost.

Mreža anarhosindikalista i Mreža anarhista (Hrvatska)

Mreža anarhosindikalista osnovana je u veljači, 2008. u Zadru, a Lokalna grupa Pula potvrdila je svoje postojanje na na 2. Kongresu MASA-e u rujnu iste godine održanom upravo u Puli. Pripadnici pulske grupe aktivni su u Infoshopu Mica-Maca u Društvenom centru Rojc od 2008. do 2009. godine, sudjeluju na prosvjedima u prosincu 2008. godine "Stegnite vi remen bando lopovska!", kao i u akcijama podrške pobuni u Grčkoj nakon policijskog ubojstva mladog anarhiste u Ateni. Prvu sindikalnu akciju puljani su organizirali 2009. godine protiv poslodavca koji nije isplatio plaće radnicima u jednoj krojačkoj radionici, pri čemu se angažirala i policija pošto je zahtjeve za plaćom poslodavac ocijenio kao prijetnju.

Spojem lokalnih radnika i novopridošlih studenata iz Istre stvara se anarhistički kružok koji prerasta u Lokalnu grupu Rijeka službeno ulazeći u Mrežu anarhosindikalista na 3. Kongresu MASA-e u Zagrebu 21. – 22. ožujka 2009.  U sklopu djelovanja unutar okvira Mreže anarhosindikalista, riječka grupa organizira brojne prosvjede protiv socijalnih rezova vladajućih (2008., 2011., 2013.), solidarnosti sa štrajkovima radnika i pojedinim ustancima poput onih u Grčkoj (2008.) i u BiH (2014.), te protiv Europske unije (2011.). Godinu 2011. obilježilo je postojanje Slobodarskog bloka, pomoću kojeg smo okupili zainteresirane za organizaciju prosvjeda na osnovama direktne demokracije i direktne akcije, te kratkotrajno postojanje Mreže uzajamne pomoći koja je trebala biti nastavak djelovanja Slobodarskog bloka i Koordinacije prosvjeda Rijeka. Uz organizaciju prosvjeda, riječka grupa organizira brojne ulične akcije protivljenja parlamentarnim izborima, nacionalizmu, te policijskom nasilju. Vrijedno spomena je i poticanje i organizacija blokade fakulteta (2009.) na Sveučilištu u Rijeci (FFRI, APURI, EFRI) s ciljem "besplatnog obrazovanja" (potpuno javno financirano visokoškolsko obrazovanje). O okupaciji i blokadi Filozofskog fakulteta u Rijeci snimljen je i dokumentarni film Plenumovie, koji se prikazivao na raznim domaćim i stranim filmskim festivalima. Poveznica između nas i studenata je bila grupa Autonomni studenti.

Od 01. srpnja 2013. 'riječki ogranak' Mreže anarhosindikalista izlazi iz navedene organizacije, mijenjajući svoje ime u Mreža anarhista Rijeka (MASA Rijeka). Razloge izlaska iz MASA-e navode u svome priopćenju 'Kraj jedne faze djelovanja riječke grupe' u kojem između ostaloga navode: "Danas možemo i javno reći kako smo u praksi odavno napustili organizacijske okvire Mreže anarho-sindikalista, djelujući kao autonomna ideološka grupa socijalnih anarhista, koja nastoji vlastitim primjerom i argumentiranjem utjecati na šire društvene slojeve". U isto vrijeme Mrežu anarhosindikalista napušta i Lokalna grupa Pula, a svoje oživljavanje doživljava u odnosu s Rijekom 2015. godine i mijenjajući svoje ime u Mreža anarhista Istra, koja svoju aktivnost pokazuje kroz anti-parlamentarnu kampanju, sudjelovanje u prosvjedima protiv poreza (2017.) i prosvjedom za očuvanje Uljanika (veljača, 2018.), protunacionalističku kampanju (poput amaterskog košarkaškog turnira "Zakucajmo nacionalizam" kolovoza 2018.) solidariziranje s prosvjednim štrajkom uljanikovaca i borbom brodograditelja u Puli i Rijeci (kolovoz, 2018.).

Federacija za anarhističko organiziranje (Slovenija & Hrvatska)

Od 20. do 22. lipnja 2014. održan je u Sloveniji VI. Kongres Federacije za anarhistično organiziranje (FAO, Slovenija) na kojem je Mreža anarhista Rijeka (MASA Rijeka, nekadašnja članica Mreže anarhosindikalista) postala punopravna članica, istovremeno postajući i članica Internacionale Anarhističkih Federacija (IAF-IFA). U siječnju 2017. na regularnom sastanku anarhističke federacije FAO (Slovenija & Hrvatska) grupa potvrđuje svoje planove i prve korake za operativnošću kao Mreža anarhista u Istri i na Kvarneru, čime postaje regionalna mreža ostajući članica FAO-IFA.

Izdavaštvo

Mreža anarhista gotovo na regularnoj bazi izdaje glasilo, pamflete, ali i video materijal.

Društvo otpora je glasilo mreže. Prvi broj je izašao 01. svibnja 2013. Svi brojevi su dostupni i kao online izdanja. Sedmi broj glasila predstavljen je u radijskoj emisiji Revija na ledu (15. epizoda).

Pamfleti mreže su uobičajen način komunikacije sa sličnomišljenicima, simpatizerima i znatiželjnicima, a svi su online pohranjeni kako bi uvijek bili dostupni uz povremenu prisutnost fizičke distribucije na raznim anarhističkim i antifašističkim manifestacijama u Hrvatskoj, ali i šire. Od pamfleta bi izdvojili one za koje autorstvo preuzima mreža, a oni su; Protiv nacionalizma u Hrvatskoj, Bakunjinovo anarhističko naslijeđe, Uistinu slobodno i organizirano društvo i Istarski anarhisti.

Video materijal se uz razne video propagandne uratke na društvenim mrežama odnosi i na kratki dokumentaristički film 'Glavom kroz zid - vrijedilo je' (listopada 2020.), koji je premijerno prikazan u Kino klubu Barut u Beogradu (4. studenog 2020.). Vijest o filmu uz anarhističke medije, od kojih bi spomenuli Indymediju iz Atene i medijski projekt A.N.A. (Agencia de Noticias Anarquistas) iz Brazila, prenio je i Glas Istre.

Internacionalna događanja

Mreža anarhista od samih svojih početaka raspolaže s internacionalnim kontaktima, te kao takva sudjeluje na nekoliko internacionalnih okupljanja.

U kolovozu 2012. delegati riječke grupe sudjeluju na internacionalnom anarhističkom događanju (Rencontre Internationale de l'Anarchisme) koje se održalo u Saint Imieru (Švicarska) povodom 140. obljetnice osnivanja Anarhističke Internacionale. Zajedno s anarhistima iz Anarchist Federation (Britanija i Irska) i iz Alternative libertaire (Francuska) održavaju predavanje na temu povratka ekstremne desnice i fašizma u Europi i anarhističkog protivljenja nacionalizmu. Iz predavanja je proizašao i pamflet Protiv nacionalizma u Hrvatskoj koji je dostupan i online.  U sklopu internacionalnog okupljanja članovi riječke grupe prisustvuju kao promatrači na IX. kongresu Internacionale anarhističkih federacija.

U listopadu 2015. s delegacijom anarhističke federacije FAO prisustvuju u Grčkoj na dva anarhistička skupa, na balkanskome u Solunu koji se odvijao od 11. do 14. listopada, te na mediteranskom na Kreti u Hanji od 16. do 18. listopada. Uz oba dva skupa delegacija uzima aktivno učešće na prosvjedima održanim u Solunu i u Hanji, prvi se ticao solidarnosti sa žrtvama bombaškog napada ISIS-a u Suruçu (Turska), a drugi solidarnosti s izbjeglicama koji svakodnevno pristižu u Grčku s Bliskog istoka.

U kolovozu 2016. s delegacijom anarhističke federacije FAO prisustvuju u Njemačkoj (Frankfurt na Majni) na X. kongresu Internacionale anarhističkih federacija (IAF-IFA), u sklopu kojeg izlažu na jednoj radionici o "strategijama borbe protiv nacionalizma" zajedno s Anarchist Federation (Britanija i Irska) pred internacionalnom publikom. Kongres je zapamćen po pristupanju novih anarhističkih federacija iz Latinske Amerike.

Ljeto 2018. za Mrežu anarhista donosi politički izlet s delegacijom FAO u Atenu i Eksarhiju, u sklopu regularnih susretanja s anarhističkim federacijama na sastancima Internacionale anarhističkih federacija (IAF-IFA). Domaćini su bili Anarhistička Politička Organizacija (APO-IFA), a iskustva o anarhističkim projektima Atene zabilježena su u 9. broju Društva otpora, čiji je članak preveden i na španjolski za poznatu anarhističku stranicu Alasbarricadas.org.

Susretanje s represijom

Dvoje pripadnika mreže napadnuto je od strane policije nakon prosvjeda protiv privatizacije javnih dobara 01. ožujka 2013. u Rijeci, pri čemu je ozlijeđen jedan policajac, ali i najmanje dvoje prosvjednika koji su nasilno privedeni i protiv kojih je pokrenut kazneni postupak 2014. U razdoblju od 2015. do 2016. održano je 10 ročišta, uključujući i nepravomoćnu presudu, pri Općinskom sudu u Rijeci gdje je dvoje anarhista proglašeno krivima. Za jednoga je presuda glasila 10 mjeseci zatvora ako se prekrši 2 godine uvjetne kazne (za kazneno djelo protiv javnog reda i mira, pokušaj prisile prema službenoj osobi i nanošenje teške tjelesne ozljede policajcu), a za drugu 6 mjeseci zatvora u slučaju prekršenja uvjetne kazne od 1 godine (za kazneno djelo protiv javnog reda i mira, pokušaj prisile prema službenoj osobi). Zbog ovog slučaja je pokrenuta međunarodna Inicijativa Protiv političke represije u Rijeci,  koja je uspjela okupiti podršku iz Hrvatske, Slovenije, BiH, Srbije, Makedonije, Italije, Francuske, Švicarske, Austrije, Njemačke, Irske, Švedske, Bugarske, Čilea, Češke, Salvadora, Brazila i dr. zemalja. Izjavu okrivljenoga nakon presude prenio je Radio Borba. U veljači 2018. godine Županijski sud u Splitu ukinuo je presudu Općinskog suda u Rijeci i vratio postupak na početak. Kazneni postupak još uvijek traje.

Jedan pripadnik mreže je bio u kaznenom postupku zbog sumnje da je uništavao imovinu 19. prosinca 2015. ("žilet žicu") na granici za Slovenijom (u Istri) na graničnom prijelazu Kaštel/Dragonja uz kanal Sv. Odorika. Slovensko tužiteljstvo je na kraju odbacilo optužnicu u 2016. godini zbog pomanjkanja dokaza.

Izvori

Anarhizam
Aktivizam

Mreža anarhista


Cephalotaxus wilsoniana er sígrænt tré frá Tævan. Tegundin er stundum talin afbrigði af Cephalotaxus harringtonii.

Tilvísanir

Gagnviðarætt

Cephalotaxus wilsoniana


El Grupo de Apoyo de la Policía de las Naciones Unidas (también conocido como UNPSG por las siglas en inglés de United Nations Police Support Group) fue una operación multinacional de mantenimiento de la paz desplegada en Croacia entre enero y octubre de 1998. Creado con la aprobación de la resolución 1145 del Consejo de Seguridad del 19 de diciembre de 1997,  el UNPSG reemplazó a la Administración de Transición de las Naciones Unidas en Eslavonia del Este, Baranja y Sirmia Occidental (UNTAES) en el desempeño de funciones de supervisión policial.

El objetivo principal del UNPSG fue la supervisión de la policía croata, en específico en labores relacionadas con el retorno de refugiados por las tensiones étnicas existentes. La sede del UNPSG se emplazó en Vukovar aunque el enlace de las Naciones Unidas se mantuvo en Zagreb. El contingente de la misión, a septiembre de 1998, era de 114 policías de 18 países diferentes apoyados por personal civil de las Naciones Unidas de origen local e internacional. La dirección de la misión estaba bajo cargo de la figura de Representante del Secretario General, ocupado entonces por el sirio Souren Seraydarian.

Cumplido el mandato de la misión, las labores de supervisión a la policía fueron transferidas a la OSCE a partir del 16 de octubre de 1998.

Referencias

Misiones de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas
Relaciones internacionales de Croacia
Croacia en 1998


Jovović ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Blagoje Jovović (1922–1999), serbischer Agent des jugoslawischen Geheimdienstes
 Igor Jovović (* 1982), montenegrinischer Basketballtrainer
 Radomir Jovović (* 1979), serbischer Badmintonspieler

Jovović


Erlenmoos () is a municipality in the district Biberach, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is near Ochsenhausen. Its mayor is Mrs. Alexandra Scherer. Erlenmoos has about 1000 inhabitants. The villages of Edenbachen, Eichbühl and Oberstetten belong to Erlenmoos.
Erlenmoos used to belong to Ochsenhausen Abbey.

Notable people

 Gerhard Hess (1731–1802), Benediktiner monk and Historian, born in Oberstetten

References

Biberach (district)
Württemberg

Erlenmoos


An Sinochasea trigyna in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Yi Li Keng. An Sinochasea trigyna in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sinochasea, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Sinochasea

Sinochasea trigyna


Aceasta este o listă de filme britanice din 1978:

Lista

Note

Legături externe
 Filme britanice din 1978 la Internet Movie Database

Vezi și
1978 în Marea Britanie
1978 în film
1978 în televiziune

 *Listă
britanice
Liste de filme britanice

Listă de filme britanice din 1978


Brigada de Eliberare a Eufratului (în arabă: Liwa Tahrir al-Furat) este o miliție siriană majoritar arabă care operează în Războiul Civil Sirian ca parte a Consiliului Militar Manbij (CMM) înființat de Forțele Democratice Siriene.

History
Brigada de Eliberare a Eufratului a fost fondată în Manbij ca parte a CMM în octombrie 2016. Inițial cu un efectiv de 250 de oameni, miliția s-a extins în timp, recrutând în special arabi din orașul Manbij și din împrejurimi. Unii din luptătorii ei sunt foști membri ai Armatei Siriene Libere care au abandonat rebeliunea împotriva lui Bashar al-Assad din cauza crescândei radicalizări islamiste a forțelor anti-guvernamentale.

Curând după formarea ei, Brigada de Eliberare a Eufratului a luptat contra Statului Islamic în Irak și Levant (SIIL) la vest de Manbij, în Bătălia de la al-Bab, în timpul căreia s-a afirmat că a fost bombardată de Forțele Aeriene Turce pe 20 noiembrie. În aprilie 2017, elemente ale Brigăzii de Eliberare a Eufratului au făcut parte dintr-un contingent de 200 luptători ai CMM care a fost trimis la al-Thawrah pentru a sprijini Forțele Democratice Siriene în capturarea orașului de la SIIL. Sub comanda lui Ibrahim Semho, miliția a luat parte și la bătălia pentru eliberarea autoproclamatei capitale a SIIL, Raqqa. Alte părți ale grupării au rămas pe linia frontului la vest de Manbij, unde cel puțin un luptător al Brigăzii a fost capturat de rebelii sprijiniți de Turcia, în mai 2017.

Ideologie
Brigada de Eliberare a Eufratului a fost creată încă de la început ca o grupare multietnică și pro-democratică. Scopul ei declarat este să contribuie la punerea bazelor unei Sirii federale și democratice. De asemenea, miliția se opune islamismului radical.

Referințe

Unități militare și facțiuni ale Războiului Civil Sirian
Forțele Democratice Siriene
Armata Siriană Liberă
Fondări în 2016

Brigada de Eliberare a Eufratului


Daisuke Nitta (født 11. maj 1980) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Avispa Fukuoka.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Daisuke Nitta


Ortaköy Spor Kulübü (OSK), 1930 yılında İstanbul'un Beşiktaş ilçesinde, Ortaköy semtinde kurulan spor kulübüdür. Bölgesel Amatör Lig'de mücadele etmektedir.

Tarihçe
1930 yılında Turuncu-siyah renklerle kurulan kulüp, Ortaköy Gençlik Kulübü adını almıştır. 1933-1934 sezonunda ise Rum vatandaşların kurmuş olduğu Ortaköy Spor Kulübü, Ortaköy Gençlik Kulübü'ne iltihak etmesi sonucu Ortaköy semtindeki iki spor kulübü tek çatı altında birleşti.

1950'li yıllarda "atletizm" branşını kapatmak zorunda kalan kulüp, 1973 yılında da "masa tenisi" branşını kapattı. 1975 yılına kadar futbol ve basketbol şubesinin faaliyetleriyle devam eden kulüp, 1972-1974 yılları arasında tekrar atletizm ve buna ilave olarak voleybol şubesini de açarak faaliyetini sürdürdü. Ortaköy Spor Kulübü'nün futbol takımı ise birçok İstanbul lig müsabakasında mücadele etti. Ortaköy Spor Kulübü basketbol takımı, 1991-1992 sezonu sonunda Basketbol Süper Ligi'ne yükselerek aynı sezon içinde Türkiye Kupası finalisti olma başarısını gösterdi. 1992-1998 yılları arasında da Basketbol Süper Ligi'nde mücadele etti.

Kulüp başkanları

Kayıtlardaki bazı kulüp başkanları şu kişilerdir:

 Abdurrahim Yavuz (1962-63, 1967-68)
 Esat Eker (1968-69)
 Türkay Pekel (1964-66)
 Ayfer Atay (1969-70, 1973-75, 1976-77, 1982-83)
 İlhan Yenilmez (1970-71, 1974-76)
 Canip Talay (1971-72)
 Yurdaşen Karahasan (1977-79)
 Ali Hatipoğlu (1976-77, 1983-84, 1990-1)
 Müslüm Arkaş (1981-1982)-(1984-1985)
 Talât Mete (1985-1986)-(1986-1987)-(1989-1990)-(1992)-(1999-2000)
 Turan Dereli (1985-1986)-(1986-1987)-(1989-1990)
 Zafer Şen (1990-1991)
 Ali Hatipoğlu (1991-1992)-(1992-1993)-(1997-1998)-(1998-1999)
 Sinan Kasımoğlu (2000-2001)-(2001-2002)-(2002-2003)
 Cevdet Fidan (2003-2004)-(2004-2005)
 Sabri Ergin (2005-2006)-(2006-2007)
 Murat Uluhan (2008-2009)
 Cemil Gören (2009-2011)
 Muzaffer Fatih Çankaya (2011-2012)
 Erdal Kara (2017-)

Dış bağlantılar

 TBLStat.net Takım Profili

Ortaköy SK


Krajiška partizanska četa, partizanska postrojba NOVH.

Uvjeti su se stvorili nakon partizanske likvidacije domobranskog garnizona u Zadvarju. Nakon napada 20. kolovoza 19434. koji je uspješno okončan sljedećeg dana, naredbom Štaba Grupe udarnih bataljona, stvorena je Komanda mjesta Zadvarje. Za zapovjednika je stavljen Venko Mimica. Za pomoćnika zapovjednika određen je Mladen Marušić, a kao zamjenik zapovjednika određen je Đuro Pejković. Stvorene su i postrojbe pri Komandi mjestaza osiguranje i ine poslove. Zauzimanjem Zadvarja, susjednih sela i zaseoka, od ljudstva s terena Krajiške općine u Šestanovcu je 24. kolovoza stvorena Krajiška partizanska četa. Pri stvaranju imala je 58 boraca, za zapovjednika je određen Ivan Trogrlić,a za političkog komesara Tadija Pejković. Od stvaranje je djelovala na terenu Krajiške općine, a bila je potčinjena Komandi mjesta. Takvi su odnosi bili sve do rasformiranja postrojbe 13. listopada 1943. kada je ljudstvo čete raspoređeno po postrojbama Mosorskog partizanskog odreda. Tadija Pejković postavljen je na dužnost komesara 2. čete 3. bataljona, a Ivan Trogrlić je raspoređen na mjesto zapovjednika 1. čete 2. bataljona.

Po komesaru Tadiji Pejkoviću se je do 1990. godine zvala osnovna škola u Šestanovcu, otvorena 1963. u novoj zgradi.

Izvori

postrojbe NOV i PO Hrvatske
Čete NOVJ-a

Krajiška partizanska četa


Darly Zophi de Paula (født 25. august 1982 i Ponte Nova, Brasilien) er en spansk håndboldspiller af brasiliansk oprindelse, som spiller for Gloria Bistrița .  Hun har tidligere spillet for det brasilianske håndboldlandshold, hvor hun blandt andet deltog ved OL i 2004 og OL i 2008.

Referencer

Håndboldspillere fra Brasilien
Håndboldspillere fra CS Gloria 2018 Bistrița-Năsăud
Håndboldspillere fra Spanien

Darly Zoqbi de Paula