North Sulawesi () is a province of Indonesia.  It is located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia. It borders the Philippine province of Davao Occidental and Soccsksargen regions of the Philippines to the north, the Maluku Sea to the east, Gorontalo and Celebes Sea to the west and the Gulf of Tomini to the southwest. With the outlying island of Miangas to its north, it is the northernmost island of Indonesia. The province's area is , and its population was 2,270,596 according to the 2010 census; this rose to 2,621,923 at the 2020 Census, while the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 2,659,543. North Sulawesi is known as a heaven for divers around the world.

The province's capital and largest city is Manado, which is also the main gateway and the economic center of the province. Other major towns includes Tomohon and Bitung in the northern (Minahasa) half of the province, and Kotamobagu in the southern (Bolaang Mongondow) half. There are 41 mountains with an altitude ranging from . Most geologic conditions in the province are consisted mainly of young volcanic regions, with numerous eruptions and many active volcanic cones that adorn the central Minahasa, Bolaang Mongondow and Sangihe Islands.

North Sulawesi in the past was an area of potential spices, rice and gold which became a battleground for the interests of economic hegemony between the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and the Kingdoms around this area, which ultimately led to political and military struggles. The past of this region also became the trading route between west and east and the spread of Christianity, Islam and belief or religion brought by Chinese merchants. The Portuguese first landed on the area at the 16th century. Following decades of war between the Portuguese, the Spanish and the Dutch to control the area, the area ultimately fell to the Dutch at the 17th century. The Dutch ruled the area for three centuries, before being ousted by the Japanese on the eve of World War II. Following the Japanese surrender in 1945, the Dutch briefly regained possession of the area, before finally leaving in 1949 following the Round Table Conference, in which the Dutch recognized the newly created United States of Indonesia (RIS). Thus, North Sulawesi was incorporated into the territory of the State of East Indonesia (NIT). Because it was not in accordance with the will of the people, NIT was finally dissolved and then merged into the Republic of Indonesia. On 17 August 1950, the RIS was officially disbanded and then re-formed as the unitary state of the Republic of Indonesia. The island of Sulawesi was governed briefly as a single province, before being separated into several different provinces. Thus, the province of North Sulawesi was created on 14 August 1959. The western half of this area (as that time comprising the Gorontalo Regency and the newly created Boalemo Regency) was separated from North Sulawesi on 5 December 2000 and established as the province of Gorontalo.

Etymology
The area around North Sulawesi used to be called Minahasa. The name is still used sometimes to refer to the province. The word Minahasa is etymologically derived from the words Mina-Esa (Minaesa) or Maesa which means being one or uniting, meaning hope to unite various sub-ethnic groups of Minahasa consisting of Tontemboan, Tombulu, Tonsea, Tolour (Tondano), Tonsawang, Ponosakan, Pasan and Bantik. The word "Minahasa" itself was only used during the colonial era. "Minahasa" is generally interpreted as "having become one". Based on several historical documents, the word "Minahasa" is firstly used by J.D. Schierstein, the Dutch regent of Manado, in his report to the Governor of Maluku on 8 October 1789. The word "Minahasa" in his report is defined as Landraad or "State Council" or "Regional Council".

History

Pre-Colonial Era
Archaeological research has revealed signs of human life in North Sulawesi from 30,000 years ago, based on evidence in the cave Liang Sarru on the island of Salibabu. Other evidence shows life about 6,000 years ago on the Passo Hillside Site in Kakas District and 4,000 years ago to early AD at the Liang Tuo Mane'e cave in Arangkaa on Karakelong Island.

Colonial Period
At the end of the 16th century, the Portuguese and Spanish arrived in North Sulawesi. When Europeans arrived, the Ternate Sultanate had influence in North Sulawesi, frequented by Bugis traders from South Sulawesi. The wealth of Minahasa's natural resources made Manado a strategic port for European traders going to and from Maluku. The Portuguese were the first European colonizers to arrive in North Sulawesi, a Portuguese ship anchored on an island off Manado in the Kingdom of Manado in 1521. The northern islands of the peninsula were under the control of the Sultanate of Maguindanao during the time. The Spanish ship docked on the island of Talaud and Siau, on to Ternate. The Portuguese built a fort at Amurang. Spain built a Fort in Manado, giving Spain control of the Minahasa Peninsula. Resistance against Spanish occupation culminated in 1660–1664. Dutch ships landed in Manado City in 1660, assisting the Minahasa Confederation against Spain. The members of the Minahasa Confederation entered into a Trade Agreement with the VOC. This trade cooperation agreement gave the VOC monopoly on trade, gradually imposing its will, eventually leading to the 1700s resistance in Ratahan, culminating in the Dutch Minahasa-War in 1809–1811 at Tondano.

Spain had colonized the Philippines and made  Minahasa a coffee plantation with imported South American coffee because of its fertile land. Manado was further developed by Spain to become a center of coffee trade for Chinese merchants. In the 16th century one of the first Indo-Eurasian communities in the archipelago appeared in Manado. The first king of Manado, Muntu Untu (1630) was half Spanish. Spain then handed over Minahasa to the Portuguese in exchange for 350,000 ducats in a treaty. The rulers of Minahasa sent Supit, Pa'at, and Lontoh to ally with the Dutch to expel the Portuguese from Minahasa. In 1655 they excelled, building their own fortress in 1658 and drove out the last Portuguese a few years later.

By the beginning of the 17th century the Dutch had overthrown the sultanate of Ternate, and began to gain influence from Spain and Portugal. In 1677 the Dutch conquered the Sangir archipelago, two years later, Robert Padtbrugge, the governor of Maluku, visited Manado. His arrival resulted in an agreement with the Minahasan chiefs who led to Dutch domination for the next 300 years although the direct rule by the Dutch only began in 1870. The Dutch helped unify the Minahasa confederation, and in 1693. Dutch influence flourished with the spreading of Christianity and European culture in the land of Minahasa. The missionary schools in Manado in 1881 were one of the first attempts of mass education in Indonesia, providing an opportunity for graduates to find employment in the civil service, military, and high positions in the Dutch East Indies government. Minahasa relations with the Dutch were often poor. Causing a war between the Dutch and Tondano in 1807 and 1809. Eventually the Dutch and Minahasa became very close, with Minahasa often referred to as the 12th Dutch province. In 1947, some Manadonese formed a political movement of Twapro, short for Twaalfde Provincie (Twelfth Province) who appealed for formal integration of Minahasa into the Kingdom of the Netherlands.

Independence
During Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies the Allies bombed Manado greatly in 1945. During the Indonesian War of Independence, there was a split between pro-Indonesian and pro-Dutch residents. The appointment of Sam Ratulangi as the first governor of Sulawesi then succeeded in winning Minahasan support to the Republic of Indonesia. After Indonesian independence, Indonesia was divided into 8 provinces, and Sulawesi was one of these provinces. In 1946 the State of East Indonesia was formed in Sulawesi, and later became a state within the United States of Indonesia. The State of East Indonesia was dissolved, and merged into the Republic of Indonesia as part of a then unified Sulawesi Province.

In March 1957, Sulawesi military leaders held a confrontation with the central government, with demands for greater regional autonomy. They called for more active development, a fairer distribution of taxes, assistance against Abdul Kahar Muzakkar's rebellion in South Sulawesi, and a central government cabinet headed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta in balance. At first the movement of the 'Permesta' (Charter of the Struggle of the Universe) was merely a movement of reform rather than a separatist movement.

Negotiations between the central government and Sulawesi military leaders prevented violence in South Sulawesi, but Minahasan leaders were not satisfied with the outcome of the agreement and the movement broke out. Fearful of southern dominance, Minahasan leaders declared their own North Sulawesi autonomous state in June 1957. At that time the central government had controlled South Sulawesi, but in the North there were no strong figures of the central government and there were rumors that the United States was arming the PRRI rebellion in Sumatra, which has links with Minahasan leaders.

The possibility of foreign intervention prompted the central government to request military assistance from southern Sulawesi. The Permesta forces were later removed from Central Sulawesi, Gorontalo, Sangihe Islands, and Morotai in Moluccas. The United States then halted resistance, and in June 1958 central government forces landed in Minahasa. The Permesta uprising ended in mid-1961.

The effects of the Sumatra and Sulawesi rebellions  was ultimately counterproductive, with central government authority increasing while regional autonomy weakened, radical nationalism strengthened than pragmatic moderation, communist party power and Sukarno increased while Mohammad Hatta was weakened, with the establishing of Guided Democracy () in 1958. But the demands of the Minahasa peoples for the province of their own would not end, and in 1964 the People's Representative Council enacted Law no. 13 officially creating the province of North Sulawesi, with Manado as provincial seat. 14 August 1959 was designated as the anniversary of the province.

Since the 1998 reforms, the Indonesian government has begun to adopt laws that enhanced regional autonomy. Two years later, the city of Gorontalo and two Muslim-majority regencies of the province were separated to form Gorontalo Province.

Environment

Climate
Climate areas of North Sulawesi include tropical ones affected by muzon winds. In the months of November to April the West winds bring rain on the north coast, whereas in May to October a dry south wind changes. Uneven rainfall with annual rates ranging from , and the number of rainy days between 90 and 139 days. Temperatures are at every level up to the height of the cool as the city area Tomohon, Langowan in Minahasa Regency, Modoinding in Minahasa Selatan Regency, Kotamobagu city, and Modayag and Pasi in Bolaang Mongondow Regency. The area that receives the most rainfall is the Minahasa area. Temperatures average . The average maximum air temperature was recorded at  and the minimum average air temperature was .

The air humidity was 73.4%. However, the temperature is also affected by the altitude of the place above sea level. The higher the location, the lower the temperature also, with the calculation of every  increase can lower the temperature by around .

Geography

The province of North Sulawesi is located in the northern peninsula of Sulawesi Island and is one of three provinces in Indonesia which has geoposition, geostrategy and geopolitical advantages and is located on the Pacific Rim. The other two provinces are North Sumatra and Aceh Special Region. Viewed from geographical location, North Sulawesi is located at 0.30–4.30 North Latitude (Lu) and 121–127 East Longitude (BT). The position of the peninsula stretches from east to west with the northernmost regions are the Sangihe and Talaud Islands. The archipelago is adjacent to neighboring Philippines. The area of North Sulawesi has boundaries:

Most of the mainland area of North Sulawesi Province consists of mountains and hills interspersed by the valleys that make up the land. The mountains are located with a height above  above sea level. Some mountains in North Sulawesi are Mount Klabat () in North Minahasa, Mount Lokon (), Mount Mahawu () in Tomohon, Mount Soputan () in Southeast Minahasa, Mount Dua Saudara () in Bitung, Mount Awu (), Mount Space (), Mount Karangketang (), Mount Dalage (), in Sangihe and Talaud, Mount Ambang (), Mount Gambula () and Mount Batu Balawan ().

The lakes in this area potentially have economic value for the development of the field of tourism, irrigation and energy. The lakes are Lake Tondano with an area of  in Minahasa, Lake Moat covering  in East Bolaang Mongondow. In general, rivers are used for various purposes, among others, for irrigation as well as a source of electricity and drinking water sources. The rivers are Tondano River (), Poigar River (), Ranoyapo River (), Talawaan River () in Minahasa. Other major rivers are located in Bolmong and Bolmut namely Dumoga River (), Sangkub River (), Ongkaw River ().

Along the coast of North Sulawesi, both on the mainland coast and on the coast of the islands, there are several headlands (Indonesian: Tanjung) and bays (Indonesian: Teluk). Some of the prominent headlands are Tanjun Atep, Tanjung Pulisan, Tanjung Salimburung, Tanjung Kelapa in Minahasa. Tanjung Binta, Tanjung Dulang, Tanjung Flesko and Tanjung Tanango in Bolmong. While in Sangihe and Talaud namely Tanjung Binta, Tanjung Barurita, Tanjung Bulude, Tanjung Bunangkem, Tanjung Buwu and Tanjung Esang. The well-known bays of this region include Amurang Bay, Teluk Belang, Manado Bay, Kema Bay (Minahasa and Manado), Tombolata Bay, Taludaa Bay and Bolaang Telun (Bolmong), Manganitu Bay, Map Bay, Miulu Bay, Dago Bay and Ngalipeang Bay (Sangihe and Talaud). The cape and bay are known as places of trade and tourism.

The structure of the land in North Sulawesi in the form of Latosol covering  spread in several areas, among others: Tagulandang, Tamako, Manganitu, Kendahe, Tabukan Utara, Esang, Pineleng, Tomohon, Tombariri, Airmadidi, Kakas, Eris, Kombi, Tareran, Passi, Modayag, Pinolocian and Bolaang. Alluvial soil structure of  spread over several regions, including the Tabukan Tengah, Lirung, Likupang, Wori, Tombasian, Tenga, New Tompaso, Belang and Tondano.

Regosol soil structure covering  spread across several areas, among others, Klabat, Dua Saudara, Soputan and North Bitung, Dimembe, Airmadidi, Langowan, Tombasian, Tombatu and Tumpaan. Soil structure andosol of , spread across several areas between: in Tomohon, Kawangkoan, Tompaso, Langowan, and Modoinding. Apart from the structure of the land mentioned, others including soil types complex covering an area of approximately 76.5 percent of total area of North Sulawesi province so that the area was fertile for agriculture.

Flora and Fauna
In general, the varieties of flora and fauna in North Sulawesi are similar to those in other parts of Indonesia, except for some animals not found in other areas such as Deer, Maleo, Taong, Mini Tarsius Spectrum in Bitung City Nature Reserve And Coelacanth off the coast of Manado. This area there are no wild animals except the type of snake and crocodile that there are not many.

In the sea off North Sulawesi, there are several species of fish, coral, and plankton. Several types of famous marine fish and is one source of foreign exchange, among others: tuna, skipjack, yellow tail, lobsters, and others. The condition of flora can be said that the mainland of North Sulawesi partly dominated by forest. Forest cover ranges from  from sea level to mountain tops with various types of good quality timber, including ebony (wooden) iron wood, linggua wood, cempaka wood, wooden nantu, gopasa wood, meranti wood, There are also rattan, and various types of Dammar. In addition, there are many plantation crops such as coconut, nutmeg, and cloves.

Demographics
The slowest growing regency was that of the Sangihe Islands. In 2010, about 68% were Christian (predominantly Protestant with a sizable Catholic minority), one of the few exceptions in the predominantly Muslim Indonesia, due to the prominent Dutch missionary activity during the colonial era.  Also, because the Muslim-majority region of Gorontalo (then comprising a city and two regencies) was split off to form a new province on 5 December 2000. There are also Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist minorities. The largest ethnic groups are the Minahasan in the north of the province and the Mongondow to the south.  The province's chief city is Manado with a population of 454,606 people according to the mid 2022 official estimate.

Religion

Most of the people of North Sulawesi adhere to Christianity, the next is Islam and then Hinduism. Christianity is the majority religion in those districts and cities of the Islands and Minahasa, while Islam is the majority religion in the districts and cities in the Bolaang Mongondow. Most of the Christians in North Sulawesi adhere to Protestantism, while significant minority Roman Catholic communities also exist in Manado and Bitung. Chinese folk religions such as Confucianism and Taoism also exist, which is mostly concentrated in Manado, which has a significant Chinese population. Manado also has a significant Judaism community. Currently, the only synagogue in Indonesia is located in Manado. There are an estimated 800 people in Manado who adhere to Judaism. As the Indonesian government only recognizes six religions and traditional faith, those who adhere to other religions or faiths can choose to put one of the officially recognized religions or traditional faith, or Kepercayaan Terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa (Believe in One Almighty God) on their ID cards.

Ethnicity

The Minahasan is the dominant ethnic group in the province. They are the most populous ethnic group in the Minahasa Peninsula. They mostly lived in areas covering Bitung City, Manado City, Tomohon City, Minahasa Regency, North Minahasa Regency, South Minahasa Regency and Southeast Minahasa Regency. Other ethnic groups are the Bolaang Mongondow, Sangihe, Talaud and Siau. Ethnicity in North Sulawesi is more heterogeneous then other parts of Indonesia. The Minahasan and Bolaang Mongondow are spread almost throughout the region of North Sulawesi mainland. The Sangihe, Talaud and Siau mostly inhabit the Sangihe Islands, Talaud Island, and Lembeh Island, especially in coastal areas north, east and west of mainland North Sulawesi. The Bajau people are seafaring nomads who has migrated from the Sulu Archipelago in the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao. They inhabits several coastal villages of North Sulawesi in the northern part of North Minahasa Regency.

In addition to the natives, North Sulawesi is also home to migrants. There are a significant Chinese population in North Sulawesi, especially around the city of Manado. The Chinese are also one of the first people to have contact with the local people before the Europeans came. According to the discovery of Chinese ancient letters in the Tompaso area, Minahasa shows the cultural interaction between the Chinese and Minahasa have existed since the Han dynasty. Most of the Chinese population in North Sulawesi are from the Hakka dialect group, while small numbers of Hokkien and Cantonese populations also exist.

Other ethnic groups such as the Javanese and the Sundanese also exist. They are mostly migrated from where they come from due to the Transmigration program enacted by the Dutch during the colonial era until the Suharto era. They generally live in urban areas, such as Manado and Bitung.

Language
Indonesian is the official language of the province, as well as of other parts of Indonesia. Official documents released by the provincial government as well as road signs are all written in Indonesia. However, Manado Malay is the lingua franca of the province. This language resembles Indonesian but with a distinct accent and dialect. Some of the vocabulary are derived from Dutch, Portuguese and other foreign languages. Manado Malay is often used for day-to-day communication between different ethnic groups. Minahasan languages are spoken by the Minahasan people. They are spread around the central and northern part of the province. In the Minahasa area, five (5) distinct languages are spoken: Tonsawang, Tontemboan, Toulour, Tonsea and Tombulu. To the south, the Mongondow language and the Gorontalo language are spoken. In the islands to the north which borders the Philippines, the Visayan languages are used by the local people.

Other languages spoken are Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese. They are mostly spoken by migrants coming from other parts of Indonesia. As Manado has a significant Chinese population, Hakka is also spoken by some Chinese people. Some other Chinese dialects are also spoken, such as Hokkien and Cantonese. English and Mandarin are widely understood in areas where there is a large tourism industry, such as the Bunaken National Park. Older generations tend to understand Dutch and Portuguese. People who lived in islands near the borders of the Philippines may understand Tagalog.

Administrative divisions

Following the separation of Central Sulawesi as a separate province in 1964, North Sulawesi was composed of four regencies () - Minahasa, Sangihe Islands, Bolaang Mongondow and Gorontalo - and the independent city () of Manado. The city of Bitung was separated from Minahasa Regency on 15 August 1990 to become a second independent city. On 4 October 1999 a new Boalemo Regency was created from part of Gorontalo Regency, but on 5 December 2000 both Gorontalo Regency and the new Boalemo Regency were split off from the province to become jointly a new Gorontalo Province. Further regencies were created from 2002 onwards - Talaud Islands on 10 April 2002 from part of Sangihe Islands Regency, North Minahasa on 18 December 2002 from part of Minahasa Regency, and South Minahasa - and the independent city of Tomohon - on 25 February 2003 from further parts of Minahasa Regency. Further new regencies followed on 2 January 2007 - North Bolaang Mongondow and the independent city of Kotamobagu from parts of Bolaang Mongondow Regency, the Sitaro Islands from part of Sangihe Islands Regency, and Southeast Minahasa from part of South Minahasa Regency. Two further regencies were created on 24 June 2008 from further parts of Bolaang Mongondow Regency - East Bolaang Mongondow and South Bolaang Mongondow.

The province is thus now divided into eleven regencies () and four independent cities (), listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022.

References

External links

Provinces of Indonesia
1959 establishments in Indonesia
States and territories established in 1959

North Sulawesi


Spaniens Grand Prix 2016 (officielt navn: Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2016) var et Formel 1-løb som blev arrangeret 15. maj 2016 på Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya i Montmeló, Spanien. Det var den femte runde i Formel 1-sæsonen 2016 og det 58. Spaniens Grand Prix.

Løbet blev vundet af Red Bulls Max Verstappen, som kørte sit første løb for Red Bull efter at være blevet skiftet fra Toro Rosso med Daniil Kvjat samme uge. Dette var Verstappens første sejr i Formel 1, og med en alder på 18 år og 227 dage blev han den yngste nogensinde til at vinde et Formel 1-løb, en rekord som tidligere tilhørte Sebastian Vettel. På anden- og tredjepladsen kom Ferrari-kørerne Kimi Räikkönen og Sebastian Vettel. Mercedes-kørerne Nico Rosberg og Lewis Hamilton kolliderede med hinanden på første omgang og måtte udgå af løbet.

Resultater

Kvalifikation

Løbet

Noter til tabellerne:
  - Kevin Magnussen kom i mål som nummer 14, men blev efter løbet idømt en tidsstraf på ti sekunder for at have forårsaget en kollision med Jolyon Palmer.

Stillingen i mesterskaberne efter løbet

Kørermesterskabet

Konstruktørmesterskabet

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Formel 1 2016
Spaniens Grand Prix

Spaniens Grand Prix 2016


The history of perpetual motion machines dates at least back to the Middle Ages. For millennia, it was not clear whether perpetual motion devices were possible or not, but modern theories of thermodynamics have shown that they are impossible. Despite this, many attempts have been made to construct such machines, continuing into modern times. Modern designers and proponents sometimes use other terms, such as "overunity", to describe their inventions.

History

Pre-19th century
There are some unsourced claims that a perpetual motion machine called the "magic wheel" (a wheel spinning on its axle powered by lodestones) appeared in 8th-century Bavaria. This historical claim appears to be unsubstantiated though often repeated.

Early designs of perpetual motion machines were done by Indian mathematician–astronomer Bhaskara II, who described a wheel (Bhāskara's wheel) that he claimed would run forever.

A drawing of a perpetual motion machine appeared in the sketchbook of Villard de Honnecourt, a 13th-century French master mason and architect. The sketchbook was concerned with mechanics and architecture. Following the example of Villard, Peter of Maricourt designed a magnetic globe which, if it were mounted without friction parallel to the celestial axis, would rotate once a day. It was intended to serve as an automatic armillary sphere.

Leonardo da Vinci made a number of drawings of devices he hoped would make free energy. Leonardo da Vinci was generally against such devices, but drew and examined numerous overbalanced wheels.

Mark Anthony Zimara, a 16th-century Italian scholar, proposed a self-blowing windmill.

Various scholars in this period investigated the topic. In 1607 Cornelius Drebbel in "Wonder-vondt van de eeuwighe bewegingh" dedicated a Perpetuum motion machine to James I of England. It was described by Heinrich Hiesserle von Chodaw in 1621. Robert Boyle devised the "perpetual vase" ("perpetual goblet" or "hydrostatic paradox") which was discussed by Denis Papin in the Philosophical Transactions for 1685. Johann Bernoulli proposed a fluid energy machine. In 1686, Georg Andreas Böckler, designed a "self operating" self-powered water mill and several perpetual motion machines using balls using variants of Archimedes' screws. In 1712, Johann Bessler (Orffyreus), claimed to have experimented with 300 different perpetual motion models before developing what he said were working models.

In the 1760s, James Cox and John Joseph Merlin developed Cox's timepiece. Cox claimed that the timepiece was a true perpetual motion machine, but as the device is powered by changes in atmospheric pressure via a mercury barometer, this is not the case.

In 1775, the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris made the statement that the Academy "will no longer accept or deal with proposals concerning perpetual motion."

Industrial Revolution

19th century
In 1812, Charles Redheffer, in Philadelphia, claimed to have developed a "generator" that could power other machines. The machine was open for viewing in Philadelphia, where Redheffer raised large amount of money from the admission fee. Redheffer moved his machine to New York, after his cover was blown in Philadelphia, while applying for government funding. It was there that Robert Fulton exposed Redheffer's schemes during an exposition of the device in New York City (1813). Removing some concealing wooden strips, Fulton found a catgut belt drive went through a wall to an attic. In the attic, a man was turning a crank to power the device.

In 1827, Sir William Congreve, 2nd Baronet devised a machine running on capillary action that would disobey the principle that water seeks its own level, so to produce a continuous ascent and overflow. The device had an inclined plane over pulleys. At the top and bottom, there travelled an endless band of sponge, a bed and, over this, again an endless band of heavy weights jointed together. The whole stood over the surface of still water. Congreve believed his system would operate continuously.

In 1868, an Austrian, Alois Drasch, received a US patent for a machine that possessed a "thrust key-type gearing" of a rotary engine. The vehicle driver could tilt a trough depending upon need. A heavy ball rolled in a cylindrical trough downward, and, with continuous adjustment of the device's levers and power output, Drasch believed that it would be possible to power a vehicle.

In 1870, E.P. Willis of New Haven, Connecticut made money from a "proprietary" perpetual motion machine. A story of the overcomplicated device with a hidden source of energy appears in the Scientific American article "The Greatest Discovery Ever Yet Made". Investigation into the device eventually found a source of power that drove it.

John Ernst Worrell Keely claimed the invention of an induction resonance motion motor. He explained that he used "etheric technology". In 1872, Keely announced that he had discovered a principle for power production based on the vibrations of tuning forks. Scientists investigated his machine which appeared to run on water, though Keely endeavoured to avoid this. Shortly after 1872, venture capitalists accused Keely of fraud (they lost nearly five million dollars). Keely's machine, it was discovered after his death, was based on hidden air pressure tubes.

1900 to 1950
In 1900, Nikola Tesla claimed to have discovered an abstract principle on which to base a perpetual motion machine of the second kind. No prototype was produced. He wrote:

David Unaipon, Australian inventor, had a lifelong fascination with perpetual motion. One of his studies on Newtonian mechanics led him to create a shearing machine in 1910 that converted curvilineal motion into straight line movement. The device is the basis of modern mechanical shears.

In the 1910s and 1920s, Harry Perrigo of Kansas City, Missouri, a graduate of MIT, claimed development of a free energy device. Perrigo claimed the energy source was "from thin air" or from aether waves. He demonstrated the device before the Congress of the United States on December 15, 1917. Perrigo had a pending application for the "Improvement in Method and Apparatus for Accumulating and Transforming Ether Electric Energy". Investigators report that his device contained a hidden motor battery.

Popular Science, in the October 1920 issue, published an article on the lure of perpetual motion.

Modern era

1951 to 1980
During the middle of the 20th century, Viktor Schauberger studied about vortex in water. He discovered that fluids flow throw special natural corn shaped pipes without much resistance (superlamellar flows). He discovered and proof that implosion events appear when water hit eggs shaped rocks, resulting in a reducing of temperature instead of arising behind that rocks.
Studying the mountain trout he also observed that fishes use the hydrodynamic implosion mechanism to allow to minimize the energy required to remain still or to perform lightning sprints against the current.   Since his death in 1958, people are still studying his works. However, they are now regarded as pseudoscience.

In 1966, Josef Papp (sometimes referred to as Joseph Papp or Joseph Papf) supposedly developed an alternative car engine that used inert gases. He gained a few investors but when the engine was publicly demonstrated, an explosion killed one of the observers and injured two others. Papp blamed the accident on interference by physicist Richard Feynman, who later shared his observations in an article in Laser, the journal of the Southern Californian Skeptics. Papp continued to accept money but never demonstrated another engine.

On December 20 of 1977, Emil T. Hartman received  titled "Permanent magnet propulsion system". This device is related to the Simple Magnetic Overunity Toy (SMOT).

Paul Baumann, a German engineer, developed a machine referred to as the "Testatika" and known as the "Swiss M-L converter" or "Thesta-Distatica".

Guido Franch reportedly had a process of transmuting water molecules into high-octane gasoline compounds (named Mota fuel) that would reduce the price of gasoline to 8 cents per gallon. This process involved a green powder (this claim may be related to the similar ones of John Andrews (1917)). He was brought to court for fraud in 1954 and acquitted, but in 1973 was convicted. Justice William Bauer and Justice Philip Romiti both observed a demonstration in the 1954 case.

In 1958, Otis T. Carr from Oklahoma formed a company to manufacture UFO-styled spaceships and hovercraft. Carr sold stock for this commercial endeavour. He also promoted free energy machines. He claimed inspiration from Nikola Tesla, among others.

In 1962, physicist Richard Feynman discussed a Brownian ratchet that would supposedly extract meaningful work from Brownian motion, although he went on to demonstrate how such a device would fail to work in practice.

In the 1970s, David Hamel produced the Hamel generator, an "antigravity" device, supposedly after an alien abduction. The device was tested on MythBusters where it failed to demonstrate any lift-generating capability.

Howard Robert Johnson developed a permanent magnet motor and, on April 24, 1979, received .[The United States Patent office main classification of his 4151431 patent is as an "electrical generator or motor structure, dynamoelectric, linear" (310/12).] Johnson said that his device generates motion, either rotary or linear, from nothing but permanent magnets in rotor as well as stator, acting against each other. He estimated that permanent magnets made of proper hard materials should lose less than two percent of their magnetization in powering a device for 18 years.

In 1979, Joseph Westley Newman applied for a patent on a direct current electrical motor which, according to his book The Energy Machine of Joseph Newman did more mechanical work than could be accounted for by the electrical power supplied to it.  Newman's patent application was rejected in 1983.
Newman sued the US Patent and Trademark Office in US District Court, which ordered the National Bureau of Standards to test his machine; they informed the Court that Newman's device did not produce more power than supplied by the batteries it was connected to, and the Court found against Newman.

1981 to 1999
Dr. Yuri S. Potapov of Moldova claims development of an over-unity electrothermal water-based generator (referred to as "Yusmar 1"). He founded the YUSMAR company to promote his device. The device has failed to produce over unity under tests.

Clean Energy Technologies, Inc. (CETI) claimed development of a device called the Patterson power cell that outputs small yet anomalous amounts of heat, perhaps due to cold fusion. Skeptics state that inaccurate measurements of friction effects from the cooling flow through the pellets may be responsible for the results.

Dave Jones created a device in 1981 using a seemingly constantly rotating bicycle wheel sealed in a plexiglass container. He created it as a scientific joke, always stating that it was a fake and not a true perpetual motion machine, but to date no one has yet discovered how the device works. Before he died of cancer in 2017, his brother Peter persuaded him to write down the secret behind the wheel, which he sent in a letter to Martyn Poliakoff, a chemist at the University of Nottingham. Adam Savage examined the wheel in 2023, which was housed at the Royal Society, producing a video of the event, in which he suspected that an electrical mechanism of some kind drove the device.

2000s

The motionless electromagnetic generator (MEG) was built by Tom Bearden. Allegedly, the device can eventually sustain its operation in addition to powering a load without application of external electrical power. Bearden claimed that it didn't violate the first law of thermodynamics because it extracted vacuum energy from the immediate environment. Critics dismiss this theory and instead identify it as a perpetual motion machine with an unscientific rationalization. Science writer Martin Gardner said that Bearden's physics theories, compiled in the self-published book Energy from the Vacuum, are considered "howlers" by physicists, and that his doctorate title was obtained from a diploma mill. Bearden then founded and directed the Alpha Foundation's Institute for Advanced Study (AIAS) to further propagate his theories. This group has published papers in established physics journals and in books published by leading publishing houses, but one analysis lamented these publications because the texts were "full of misconceptions and misunderstandings concerning the theory of the electromagnetic field." When Bearden was awarded  in 2002, the American Physical Society issued a statement against the granting. The United States Patent and Trademark Office said that it would reexamine the patent and change the way it recruits examiners, and re-certify examiners on a regular basis, to prevent similar patents from being granted again.

In 2002, the GWE (Genesis World Energy) group claimed to have 400 people developing a device that supposedly separated water into H2 and O2 using less energy than conventionally thought possible. No independent confirmation was ever made of their claims, and in 2006, company founder Patrick Kelly was sentenced to five years in prison for stealing funds from investors.

In 2006, Steorn Ltd. claimed to have built an over-unity device based on rotating magnets, and took out an advertisement soliciting scientists to test their claims. The selection process for twelve began in September 2006 and concluded in December 2006. The selected jury started investigating Steorn's claims. A public demonstration scheduled for July 4, 2007 was canceled due to "technical difficulties". In June 2009, the selected jury said the technology does not work.

See also

History of science

References

Further reading
 Dircks, Henry. (1870). Perpetuum Mobile: Or, A History of the Search For Self-Motive Power, From the 13th to the 19th Century With an introductory essay. Second Series. London. W. Clowes and Sons
 Verance, Percy. (1916). Perpetual Motion: Comprising a History of the Efforts to Attain Self-Motive Mechanism with a Classified, Illustrated Collection and Explanation of the Devices Whereby it Has Been Sought and Why They Failed, and Comprising Also a Revision and Re-Arrangement of the Information Afforded by "Search for Self -Motive Power During The 17th, 18th and 19th Centuries," London, 1861, and "A History of the Search for Self-Motive Power from the 13th to The 19th Century," London, 1870, by Henry Dircks, C. E., LL. D., Etc.. 20th Century Enlightenment Specialty Co.
 Ord-Hume, Arthur W. J. G. (1977). Perpetual Motion: The History of an Obsession. St. Martin's Press. .
 Angrist, Stanley W., "Perpetual Motion Machines". Scientific American. January 1968.
 Hans-Peter, "Perpetual Motion Chronology". HP's Perpetuum Mobile.
 MacMillan, David M., et al., "The Rolling Ball Web , An Online Compendium of Rolling Ball Sculptures, Clocks, Etc".
 Lienhard, John H., "Perpetual motion". The Engines of Our Ingenuity, 1997.
 "Patents for Unworkable Devices ". The Museum of Unworkable Devices .
 "Perpetual Motion Pioneers  (The Movers and Shakers)". The Museum of Unworkable Devices.
 Boes, Alex, "Museum of Hoaxes".
 Kilty, Kevin T., "Perpetual Motion". 1999.
 The Basement Mechanic's Guide to Testing Perpetual Motion Machines

External links

Gousseva, Maria, "Alleged Creation of Perpetual Energy Source Splits Scientific Community". Pravda.ru.
 Bearden, Tom, "Perpetual motion vs. "working machines creating energy from nothing" ". 2003, Revised 2004.
Perpetuum mobile page by Veljko Milković.

Perpetual motion machines
Perpetual motion machines

History of perpetual motion machines


Circassians, also called Cherkess or Adyghe (Adyghe and ), are an indigenous Northwest Caucasian ethnic group and nation native to the historical country-region of Circassia in the North Caucasus. As a consequence of the Circassian genocide perpetrated by the Russian Empire in the 19th century during the Russo-Circassian War, most Circassians were exiled from their homeland in Circassia to modern-day Turkey and the rest of the Middle East, where most of them are today. In the early 1990s, the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization estimated that there are as many as 3.7 million Circassians in diaspora in over 50 countries.

The Circassian language is the ancestral language of the Circassian people, and Islam has been the dominant religion among them since the 17th century. Circassia has been repeatedly invaded since ancient times; its isolated terrain coupled with the strategic value external societies have placed on the region have greatly shaped the Circassian national identity.

The national flag of the Circassians, the Circassian flag consists of a green field charged with 12 gold stars and, in the center, three crossed arrows. The stars represent the 12 historical Circassian provinces: the Abzakh, the Besleney, the Bzhedugh, the Hatuqway, the Kabardians, the Mamkhegh, the Natukhaj, the Shapsugh, the Chemirgoy, the Ubykh, the Yegeruqway and the Zhaney.

Circassians have played major roles in areas where they settled: in Turkey, those of Circassian origin have had massive influence, being instrumental in the Turkish War of Independence and among the elites of Turkey's intelligence agency; in Jordan, they founded the capital city, Amman, and continue to play a major role in the country; in Syria, they served as the guards of the Allies against the Nazis and still have high positions; in Libya, they serve in high military positions; in Egypt, they were part of the ruling class and contributed to business life during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha.

Soviet and Russian administrations divided historical Circassia into the republics of Adygea, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, and Krasnodar Krai, and southwestern parts of Stavropol Krai. Accordingly, Circassians have been designated as Adygeans in Adygea, Kabardians in Kabardino-Balkaria, Cherkess in Karachay-Cherkessia, and Shapsug in Krasnodar Krai; all four are essentially the same people. Today, approximately 800,000 Circassians remain in historical Circassia while 4,500,000 live elsewhere.

Ethnonyms

Adyghe

The Circassians refer to themselves as Adyghe (also transliterated as Adyga, Adiga, Adige, Adığe, Adyge, Adygei). According to one view, the name derives from Atyghe () meaning "high [in altitude]" to signify a mountaineer, as the Circassian people have lived in and near the mountains for thousands of years.

Circassian, Cherkess
The word Circassian ( ) is an exonym, Latinized from Russian Cherkess (; ), which is of debated origin. The term, in Russian, was traditionally applied to all Circassians before Soviet times, but it has since usually referred only to Circassians living in northern Karachay-Cherkessia, a federal subject of Russia, where they are indigenous and were about 12% of the population in 2010. In English, it still refers to all Circassians.

The origin of the term "Circassian" is disputed. One view is that its root stems from Turkic languages, and means "head choppers" or "warrior killers", because of the Circassians' battle practices. Others argue that the term comes from Mongolian Jerkes, meaning "one who blocks a path". Some believe it comes from the ancient Greek name of the region, Siraces. According to another view, its origin is Persian and combines two parts, kar ("mountain") and kās ("region", in Pahlavi), meaning "mountainous region". The spelling Cherkess may be an abbreviation of Persian Chahār-kas ("four people"), denoting four tribes. Ali ibn al-Athir (died c. 1232/3) and Ibn Khaldun (died 1406) used the term Jahārkas, but the Persian hypothesis remains uncertain.

In early Russian sources, Circassians are called Kasogi, but one view holds that the modern term "Cherkes" derives from Kerket, the name of one of the ancient Circassian tribes.

In languages spoken geographically close to the Caucasus, the native people originally had other names for the Circassians (such as Georgian: ჯიქი, Jiqi), but with Russian influence, the name has been settled as Cherkess. It is the same or similar in many world languages that cite these languages.

The Encyclopaedia Islamica adds: "The Cherkess: the Kabardians and the western Adyghe people share a common language, which is spoken by the north-western Caucasian people, and belongs to the family known as Abkhazian-Adyghe".

In Medieval Oriental and European texts, the Adyghe people were known by the name Cherkess/Circassians. In Persian sources, Charkas/Cherkes is used to refer to the "actual" Circassians of the northwest Caucasus, and in some occasions as a general designation for Caucasians who live beyond Derbent (Darband).

Soviet policy

Despite a common self-designation and a common Russian name, Soviet authorities divided the nation into four different peoples and applied four designations to Circassians remaining in the historic lands of Circassia:
Kabardian, Circassians of Kabardino-Balkaria (Circassians speaking the Kabardian language, one of two indigenous peoples of the republic)
Cherkess (), Circassians of Karachay-Cherkessia (Circassians speaking the Cherkess, i.e. Circassian, language, one of two indigenous peoples of the republic who are mostly Besleney Kabardians. The name "Cherkess" is the Russian form of "Circassian" and was used for all Circassians before Soviet times.)
Adyghe or Adygeans, the indigenous population of the Kuban including Adygea and Krasnodar Krai
Shapsug, the indigenous historical inhabitants of Shapsugia. They live in the Tuapse District and the Lazarevsky City District (formerly the Shapsugsky National District) of Sochi, both in Krasnodar Krai and in Adygea.

History

Origins

Genetically, the Adyghe have shared ancestry partially with neighboring peoples of the Caucasus, with some influence from other regions. The most prevalent SNP haplotypes among all Circassian tribes is G2-YY1215 (43%); others are R1a-M198* (13%), G2-YY9632 (9%), J2-M172* (7%), sharing a single common ancestor 3,000 years ago, with the largest demographic growth between 2,000 and 1,500 years ago. Prevalence of the G2-YY1215 haplogroup is larger on the Western Caucasus and decreases to the east, while G2-YY9632 has the opposite tendency. R1a-M198* is shared with Balkars, Karachays and Kuban Cossacks.

The Circassian language, also known as Cherkess, is in the Northwest Caucasian language family. Archaeological findings, mainly of dolmens in Northwest Caucasus region, indicate a megalithic culture in the Northwest Caucasus.

The ancestors of present-day Circassians are known as the Sind-Maeot tribes. Archaeological research shows that these tribes were the indigenous people of the Caucasus. Some researchers have claimed there may be links between Circassians and Indo-European-speaking communities, and some have argued that there are connections between Circassians and Hatti, who are from ancient Anatolian peoples, but these theories are not widely accepted. According to genetic tests performed on Circassians, their closest relatives are Ingush, Chechens and Abkhazians.

Pseudoscientific claims
Turkish nationalist groups and proponents of modern-day Pan-Turkism have claimed that the Circassians are of Turkic origin, but no scientific evidence supports this claim and it has been strongly denied by ethnic Circassians, impartial research, linguists, and historians around the world. The Circassian language does not share notable similarities to the Turkish language, except for borrowed words. According to various historians, the Circassian origin of the Sind-Meot tribes refutes the claim that the Circassians are of Turkic ethnic origin.

German racial theorists, after discovering an intimate similarity between the skull shapes of Caucasians, declared that Europeans, North Africans, and Caucasians were of a common race, termed "Caucasian" or later "Caucasoid". Scientific racism emphasized the superior beauty of the Circassian people, referring to them as "how God intended the human race to be", leading to the 18th century stereotype of the Circassian beauty. Circassian organizations worldwide declared that they do not endorse such racist claims.

Medieval period
Feudalism began to emerge among Circassians by the 4th century. As a result of Armenian, Greek and Byzantine influence, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 3rd and 5th centuries. During that period, Circassians (known at the time as Kassogs) began to accept Christianity as a national religion, but did not abandon all elements of their indigenous religious beliefs. Circassians established many states, but could not achieve political unity. From around 400, wave after wave of outsiders began to invade the lands of the Adyghe people, who were also known as the Kasogi (or Kassogs) at the time. They were conquered first by the Bulgars (who originated on the Central Asian steppes). Outsiders sometimes confused the Adyghe people with the similarly named Utigurs (a branch of the Bulgars). After the Khazar state dissolved, the Adyghe people were integrated around the end of the 1st millennium AD into the Kingdom of Alania. Between the 10th and 13th centuries Georgia had influence on the Adyghe Circassian peoples. In the medieval era there was a Circassian kingdom called Zichia (; ) or Zekchia.

In 1382, Circassian slaves took the Mamluk throne, the Burji dynasty took over and the Mamluks became a Circassian state. The Mongols, who started invading the Caucasus in 1223, destroyed some of the Circassians and most of the Alans. The Circassians lost most of their lands during the ensuing Golden Horde attacks and had to retreat to the back of the Kuban River. In 1395 Circassians fought violent wars against Tamerlane, and although they won the wars, Tamerlane plundered Circassia.

Prince Inal, who owned land in the Taman peninsula during the 1400s, established an army and declared that his goal was to unite the Circassians under a single state. They were divided into many states at that time, but after declaring his own princedom, Inal conquered all of Circassia one by one. Circassian nobles and princes tried to prevent Inal's rise, but Inal and his supporters defeated 30 Circassian lords. After successfully uniting the Circassians, Inal still wanted to include the closely related Abkhazians. Inal, who won the war in Abkhazia, officially conquered Northern Abkhazia and the Abkhaz people recognized his rule. One of the stars on the flag of Abkhazia represents Inal. He divided his lands between his sons and grandchildren in 1453 and died in 1458. After that, Circassian tribal principalities were established, including Chemguy, founded by Temruk; Besleney, founded by Beslan; Kabardia, founded by Qabard; and Shapsug, founded by Zanoko.

Early modern period

In the 17th century, under the influence of the Crimean Tatars and of the Ottoman Empire, large numbers of Circassians converted to Islam from Christianity.

In 1708, Circassians paid tribute to the Ottoman sultan in order to prevent Tatar raids, but the sultan did not fulfill the obligation and the Tatars raided all the way to the center of Circassia, robbing everything they could. For this reason, Kabardian Circassians announced that they would never pay tribute to the Crimean Khan and the Ottoman Sultan again. The Ottomans sent their army of at least 20,000 men to Kabardia under the leadership of the Crimean Khan Kaplan-Girey to conquer the Circassians and ordered that he collect the tribute. The Ottomans expected an easy victory against the Kabardinians, but the Circassians won because of the strategy set up by Kazaniko Jabagh during the battle of Kanzhal.

The Crimean army was destroyed in one night on 17 September 1708. The Crimean Khan Kaplan-Giray barely managed to save his life, and was humiliated, all the way to his shoes taken, leaving his brother, son, field tools, tents and personal belongings. In 2013, the Institute of Russian History of the Russian Academy of Sciences recognized that the Battle of Kinzhal Mountain with the paramount importance in the national history of Circassians, Balkarians and Ossetians.

Circassian Genocide

In 1714, Peter I established a plan to occupy the Caucasus. Although he was unable to implement this plan, he laid the political and ideological foundation for the occupation to take place. Catherine II started putting this plan into action. The Russian army was deployed on the banks of the Terek River.

The Russian military tried to impose authority by building a series of forts, but these forts in turn became the new targets of raids and indeed sometimes the highlanders actually captured and held the forts. Under Yermolov, the Russian military began using a strategy of disproportionate retribution for raids. Russian troops retaliated by destroying villages where resistance fighters were thought to hide, as well as employing assassinations, kidnappings and the execution of whole families. Because the resistance was relying on sympathetic villages for food, the Russian military also systematically destroyed crops and livestock and killed Circassian civilians. Circassians responded by creating a tribal federation encompassing all tribes of the area. In 1840 Karl Friedrich Neumann estimated the Circassian casualties at around one and a half million. Some sources state that hundreds of thousands of others died during the exodus. Several historians use the phrase "Circassian massacres" for the consequences of Russian actions in the region.In a series of sweeping military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864... the northwest Caucasus and the Black Sea coast were virtually emptied of Muslim villagers. Columns of the displaced were marched either to the Kuban [River] plains or toward the coast for transport to the Ottoman Empire... One after another, entire Circassian tribal groups were dispersed, resettled, or killed en masse. Circassians established an assembly called "Great Freedom Assembly" in the capital city of Shashe (Sochi) on June 25, 1861. Haji Qerandiqo Berzedj was appointed as the head of the assembly. This assembly asked for help from Europe, arguing that they would be forced into exile soon. However, before the result was achieved, Russian General Kolyobakin invaded Sochi and destroyed the parliament and no country opposed this.

In May 1864, a final battle took place between the Circassian army of 20,000 Circassian horsemen and a fully equipped Russian army of 100,000 men. Circassian warriors attacked the Russian army and tried to break through the line, but most were shot down by Russian artillery and infantry. The remaining fighters continued to fight as militants and were soon defeated. All 20,000 Circassian horsemen died in the war.  The war ended officially on May 21, 1864. The place where this war took place is known today as Krasnaya Polyana. "Krasnaya Polyana" means red meadow. It takes its name from the Circassian blood flowing from the hill into the river.

The proposal to deport the Circassians was ratified by the Russian government, and a flood of refugee movements began as Russian troops advanced in their final campaign. Circassians prepared to resist and hold their last stand against Russian military advances and troops. With the refusal to surrender, Circassian civilians were targeted one by one by the Russian military with thousands massacred and the Russians started to raid and burn Circassian villages, destroy the fields to make it impossible to return, cut trees down and drive the people towards the Black Sea coast.

Although it is not known exactly how many people are affected, researchers have suggested that at least 75%, 90%, 94%, or 95% -97% of the ethnic Circassian population are affected. Considering these rates, calculations including those taking into account the Russian government's own archival figures, have estimated a loss 600,000-1,500,000. Ivan Drozdov, a Russian officer who witnessed the scene at Qbaada in May 1864 as the other Russians were celebrating their victory remarked:

The Ottoman Empire regarded the Adyghe warriors as courageous and well-experienced. It encouraged them to settle in various near-border settlements of the Ottoman Empire in order to strengthen the empire's borders.

According to Walter Richmond,
Circassia was a small independent nation on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea. For no reason other than ethnic hatred, over the course of hundreds of raids the Russians drove the Circassians from their homeland and deported them to the Ottoman Empire. At least 600,000 people lost their lives to massacre, starvation, and the elements while hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homeland. By 1864, three-fourths of the population was annihilated, and the Circassians had become one of the first stateless peoples in modern history.

As of 2020, Georgia was the only country to classify the events as genocide, while Russia actively denies the Circassian genocide, and classifies the events as a simple migration of "undeveloped barbaric peoples".

Post-exile period
As early as 1859, the Russian government had sought potential avenues for expelling the native Circassian population, and found a solution in the Ottoman Empire. Despite their numerous historical and ongoing disputes, the two empires negotiated on the impending migrations and resettlements. The Russians promised a gradual process that would see the Ottomans ultimately receive fewer than 100,000 Circassians. The Circassians would first be moved, or coerced to move, to the Circassian Black Sea coast, from which Ottoman boats would take them to designated ports in Anatolia. The recently formed Ottoman Muhacirin Komisyonu, or Emigrant Commission, would coordinate both the retrieval and resettlement of the Circassians throughout the Ottoman Empire. The process of expulsion had already begun even before the end of the Russo-Circassian war; the first Circassians had begun to arrive in small numbers as early as 1859, mainly consisting of wealthier aristocrats.

Even prior to the end of the Russo-Circassian War, expelled Circassians had begun to crowd the Circassian coast in far greater numbers than the Ottomans had anticipated, easily reaching tens of thousands at a time. Conditions on the beaches were dismal, as those waiting for Ottoman-chartered ships contended with insufficient supplies of food and shelter, occasional raids from Russian soldiers, and outbreaks of typhus and smallpox that were only exacerbated by the cramped and unsanitary conditions. By 1864, hundreds of thousands of Circassians had either already entered the Ottoman Empire or still languished on the Circassian coast awaiting transit, even as far greater numbers arrived following the Russo-Circassian War's conclusion. What was intended to be an orderly, gradual expulsion quickly eroded over the following months, as the Ottomans overcrowded boats and neglected previously enforced safety regulations. Numerous boats sank, unable to safely accommodate these larger loads, while the overcrowded conditions helped disease spread even further among both the Circassian migrants and the Ottoman crews.

Upon their arrival, the Emigrant Commission attempted to relocate most of the new arrivals as quickly as possible to alleviate the strain on Ottoman port cities, and began to settle the Circassians throughout the Ottoman Empire. The exiled Circassians were resettled in the Empire's remaining Balkan territories, in Ottoman Syria and Transjordan, and Anatolia, while a smaller number were resettled into the Empire's major cities.

In January 1922, the Soviet government created an autonomous oblast which was the predecessor of the Karachay-Cherkess Republic.

The actions of the Russian military in acquiring Circassian land through expulsion and massacres have given rise to a movement among descendants of the expelled ethnicities for international recognition of the perpetration of genocide.
On 20 May 2011 the Georgian parliament voted in a 95 to 0 declaration that Russia had committed genocide when it engaged in massacres against Circassians in the 19th century.

Culture

Adyghe society prior to the Russian invasion was highly stratified. While a few tribes in the mountainous regions of Adygeya were fairly egalitarian, most were broken into strict castes. The highest was the caste of the "princes", followed by a caste of lesser nobility, and then commoners, serfs, and slaves. In the decades before Russian rule, two tribes overthrew their traditional rulers and set up democratic processes, but this social experiment was cut short by the end of Adyghe independence.

Language

Circassians mainly speak the Circassian languages, two mutually intelligible languages of the Northwest Caucasian language family, namely Adyghe (West Circassian) and Kabardian (East Adyghe). Adyghe is based on Temirgoy (Chemirgoy) dialect, while Kabardian is based on the dialect of the same name. Circassians also speak Russian, Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew in large numbers, having been exiled by Russia to lands of the Ottoman Empire, where the majority of them live today, and some to neighboring Persia, to which they came primarily through mass deportations by the Safavids and Qajars or, to a lesser extent, as muhajirs in the 19th century.

Linguists divide the Northwest Caucasian languages into three branches, namely Circassian (Adyghe and Kabardian), Ubykh (consisting only of the Ubykh language, which is considered to have diverged from the Circassian languages and is now a dead language), and Abazgi (Abkhaz and Abaza). The Ubykhs lived on the Black Sea coast, around the city of Sochi, the capital of Circassia, north of Abkhazia.

Although related, Abazgi and Circassian are mutually unintelligible. Abazgi is spoken by Abkhazians and the Abazins. The Abkhazians lived on the coast between the Circassians and the Georgians, were organized as the Principality of Abkhazia and were involved with the Georgians to some degree. The Abazins or Abaza, their relatives, lived north of the mountains and were involved with Circassia proper. They extended from the mountain crest northeast onto the steppe and partially separated the Kabardians from the rest. Sadz were either northern Abkhazian or eastern Abaza, depending on the source.

Walter Richmond writes that the Circassian languages in Russia are "gravely threatened." He argues that Russian policy of surrounding small Circassian communities with Slavic populations has created conditions where Circassian languages and nationality will disappear. By the 1990s, Russian had become the standard language for business in the Republic of Adygea, even within communities with Circassian majority populations.

Religion

Ancestors of modern Adyghe people gradually went through following various religions: ancient polytheist beliefs, Christianity, and then Islam.

It is the tradition of the early church that Christianity made its first appearance in Circassia in the first century AD via the travels and preaching of the Apostle Andrew. Subsequently, Christianity spread throughout the Caucasus between the 4th century and the 6th century.

A small Muslim presence in Circassia has existed since the Middle Ages, but widespread Islamization occurred after 1717, when Sultan Murad IV ordered the Crimean Khans to spread Islam among the Circassians, with the Ottomans and Crimeans seeing some success in converting members of the aristocracy who would then ultimately spread the religion to their dependents. Moreover, the ever increasing threat of an invasion from Russia helped expedite the already centuries long process of gradual islamization of the region.

Significant Christian and pagan presence remained among some tribes such as the Shapsugs and Natukhai with Islamization pressures implemented by those loyal to the Caucasus Imamate. Sufi orders including the Qadiri and Nakshbandi orders gained prominence and played a role in spreading Islam.

Today, a large majority of Circassians are Muslim, significantly fewer Habze, atheists and Christians. Among Christians, Catholicism, originally introduced along the coasts by Venetian and Genoese traders, today constitutes just under 1% of Kabardins, notably including those in Mozdok and some of those Kursky district. Among Muslims, Islamic observance varies widely between those who only know a few prayers with a Muslim identity that is more "cultural" than religious, to those who regularly observe all requirements.

Both Islam and the Habze are identified as national characteristics even by those that do not practice. Today, Islam is a central part of life in many Circassian diaspora communities, such as in Israel, while in the Circassian homeland Soviet rule saw an extensive process of secularization, and there is wide influence of many social norms which contradict Islamic law, such as widespread norms like social alcohol consumption; in Israel, meanwhile, such non-Islamic social norms are not present.

In the modern times, it has been reported that they identify primarily as Muslims. There have also been reports of violence and threats against those "reviving" and diffusing the original Circassian pre-Islamic faith. The relationship between habze and Islam varies between Circassian communities; for some, there is conflict between the two, while for others, such as in Israel, they are seen as complementary philosophies. In 2005, a representative sample study of younger generation of Circassians aged 20–35 found that some 26% of those surveyed identified as irreligious.

Traditional social system

Society was organized by Adyghe khabze, or Circassian custom. Many of these customs had equivalents throughout the mountains. The seemingly disorganized Circassians resisted the Russians. The aristocracy was called warq. Some aristocratic families held the rank of Pshi or prince and the eldest member of this family was the Pshi-tkhamade who was the tribal chief. Below the warq was the large class to tfokotl, roughly yeomen or freemen, who had various duties to the warq.

They were divided into clans of some sort. Below them were three classes approximating serfs or slaves. Of course, these Circassian social terms do not exactly match their European equivalents. Since everything was a matter of custom, much depended on time, place, circumstances and personality. The three 'democratic' tribes, Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abdzakh, managed their affairs by assemblies called Khase or larger ones called Zafes.

Decisions were made by general agreement and there was no formal mechanism to enforce decisions. The democratic tribes, who were perhaps the majority, lived mainly in the mountains where they were relatively protected from the Russians. They seem to have retained their aristocrats, but with diminished powers. In the remaining 'feudal' tribes power was theoretically in the hands of the Pshi-tkhamade, although his power could be limited by Khases or other influential families.

In addition to the vertical relations of class there were many horizontal relations between unrelated persons. There was a strong tradition of hospitality similar to the Greek xenia. Many houses would have a kunakskaya or guest room. The duty of a host extended even to abreks or outlaws. Two men might be sworn brothers or kunaks. There were brotherhoods of unrelated individuals called tleuzh who provided each other mutual support. It was common for a child to be raised by an atalyk or foster father. Criminal law was mainly concerned with reconciling the two parties. Adyghe khabze is sometimes called adat when it is contrasted to the kind of Islamic law advocated by people like Imam Shamil.

Traditional clothing

The traditional female clothing ( ) was very diverse and highly decorated and mainly depends on the region, class of family, occasions, and tribes. The traditional female costume is composed of a dress ( ), coat ( ), shirt, pant ( ), vest ( ), lamb leather bra ( ), a variety of hats ( ), shoes, and belts ( ).

Holiday dresses are made of expensive fabrics such as silk and velvet. The traditional colors of women's clothing rarely includes blue, green or bright-colored tones, instead mostly white, red, black and brown shades are worn. The Circassian dresses were embroidered with gold and silver threads. These embroideries were handmade and took time to complete as they were very intricate.

The traditional male costume ( ) includes a coat with wide sleeves, shirt, pants, a dagger, sword, and a variety of hats and shoes. Traditionally, young men in the warriors' times wore coat with short sleeves—in order to feel more comfortable in combat. Different colors of clothing for males were strictly used to distinguish between different social classes, for example white is usually worn by princes, red by nobles, gray, brown, and black by peasants (blue, green and the other colors were rarely worn).

A compulsory item in the traditional male costume is a dagger and a sword. The traditional Adyghean sword is called shashka. It is a special kind of sabre; a very sharp, single-edged, single-handed, and guardless sword. Although the sword is used by most of Russian and Ukrainian Cossacks, the typically Adyghean form of the sabre is longer than the Cossack type, and in fact the word Shashka came from the Adyghe word "Sashkhwa" () which means "long knife". On the breast of the costume are long ornamental tubes or sticks, once filled with a single charge of gunpowder (called gaziri cartridges) and used to reload muskets.

Traditional cuisine

The Adyghe cuisine is rich with different dishes. In the summer, the traditional dishes consumed by the Adyghe people are mainly dairy products and vegetable dishes. In the winter and spring the traditional dishes are mainly flour and meat dishes. An example of the latter is known as ficcin.

Circassian cheese is considered one of the more famous types of cheeses in the North Caucasus.

A popular traditional dish is chicken or turkey with sauce, seasoned with crushed garlic and red pepper. Mutton and beef are served boiled, usually with a seasoning of sour milk with crushed garlic and salt.

Variants of pasta are found. A type of ravioli may be encountered, which is filled with potato or beef.

On holidays the Adyghe people traditionally make haliva () (fried triangular pastries with mainly Circassian cheese or potato), from toasted millet or wheat flour in syrup, baked cakes and pies. In the Levant there is a famous Circassian dish which is called Tajen Alsharkaseiah.

Traditional crafts
The Adyghes have been famous for making carpets ( ) or mats worldwide for thousands of years.

Making carpets was very hard work in which collecting raw materials is restricted to a specific period within the year. The raw materials were dried, and based on the intended colours, different methods of drying were applied. For example, when dried in the shade, its colour changed to a beautiful light gold colour. If it were dried in direct sun light then it would have a silver colour, and if they wanted to have a dark colour for the carpets, the raw materials were put in a pool of water and covered by poplar leaves ( ).

The carpets were adorned with images of birds, beloved animals (horses), and plants, and the image of the Sun was widely used.

The carpets were used for different reasons due to their characteristic resistance to humidity and cold, and in retaining heat. Also, there was a tradition in Circassian homes to have two carpets hanging in the guest room, one used to hang over rifles ( ) and pistols (), and the other used to hang over musical instruments.

The carpets were used to pray upon, and it was necessary for every Circassian girl to make three carpets before marriage. These carpets would give the grooms an impression as to the success of their brides in their homes after marriage.

Tribes
From the late Middle Ages, a number of territorial- and political-based Circassian tribes or ethnic entities began to take shape. They had slightly different dialects.

Dialects came to exist after Circassia was divided into tribes after the death of Inal of Kabardia, who united Circassia for the last time before its short reunion during the Russo-Caucasian War. As the logistics between the tribes became harder, each tribe became slightly isolated from one another, thus the people living under the banner of each tribe developed their own dialects. In time, the dialects they speak were named after their tribes.

At the end of the Caucasian War most Circassians were expelled to the Ottoman Empire, and many of the tribes were destroyed and the people evicted from their historical homeland in 1864.

The twelve stars on the Circassian flag symbolize the individual tribes of the Circassians; the nine stars within the arc symbolize the nine aristocratic tribes of Adygea, and the three horizontal stars symbolize the three democratic tribes. The three democratic tribes or tribes were the Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abdzakh. They managed their affairs by assemblies while the other tribes were controlled by "princes" or Pshi. The twelve tribes are the Abdzakh, Besleney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, Kabardian, Mamkhegh, Natukhai, Shapsug, Temirgoy, Ubykh, Yegeruqwai, and Zhaney.

Adyghe tribes with remnants still in Circassia are: Kabarda (the largest), the Temirgoy and Bzhedug in Adygea, and the Shapsug near Tuapse and to the north of Tuapsiysiy Rayon of Krasnodarskiy Kray. There are also a few Besleney and Natukhai villages, and an Abdzakh village. The majority tribes in diaspora are Kabardian, Abdzakh, and Shapsug.

Other Adyghe groups
Small tribes or large clans that are included in one of the twelve Adyghe tribes:

The Circassian tribes can be grouped and compared in various ways:

The narrow Black Sea coast was occupied, from north to south by the Natukhai, Shapsug, and Ubykh. The main part of the Natukhai and Shapsug tribes were located in the north of the mountains. The Natukhai were enriched by trade since their coast was not backed by high mountains and opened onto the steppe.
 The north slope was inhabited, from north to south, by the Natukhai, Shapsug, and Abdzakh. They seem to have been the most populous tribes after the Kabarda and its inland location gave then some protection from Nogai and Cossack raiding.
 In the far west were three small tribes that were absorbed into the Natukhai and disappeared. These were the Adele  on the Taman peninsula and the Shegak and Chebsin ( and ) near Anapa.
 Along the Kuban were the Natukhai, Zhaney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, and Temirgoy. The tribes along the Kuban and Laba rivers were exposed to Nogai and Cossack raiding than those in the interior.
 On the east, between the Laba and Belaya, from north to south, were the Temirgoy, Yegeruqwai (), Makhosh (), and Besleney. The Besleney were a branch of the Kabardians. Along the Belaya River were the Temirgoy, the ill-documented Ademey () and then the Mamkhegh near the modern Maykop.
The Guaye () are poorly documented. The Tchelugay lived west of the Makhosh. The Hakuch lived on the coast south of the Natukhai. Other groups are mentioned without much documentation. There are reports of tribes migrating from one place to another, again without much documentation. Some sketch maps show a group of Karachays on the upper Laba without any explanation.
 In the Far east the Kabarda occupied about a third of the north Caucasus piedmont from mid Circassia proper eastward to the Chechen country. To their north were the Nogai nomads and to the south, deeper in the mountains, were from west to east, the Karachays, Balkars, Ossetes, Ingushes, and Chechens. The Kabardians were fairly advanced, interacted with the Russians from the sixteenth century and were much reduced by plague in the early nineteenth century.

Circassian diaspora

Much of Adyghe culture was disrupted after the conquest of their homeland by Russia in 1864. The Circassian people were subjected to ethnic cleansing and mass exile mainly to the Ottoman Empire, and to a lesser extent Qajar Iran and the Balkans. This increased the number of Circassians in the region and even created several entirely new Circassian communities in the states that got created after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. However, Adyghe have also lived outside the Caucasus region since the Middle Ages. They were particularly well represented in Turkey and Egypt.

Turkey

Turkey has the largest Adyghe population in the world, around half of all Circassians live in Turkey, mainly in the provinces of Samsun and Ordu (in Northern Turkey), Kahramanmaraş (in Southern Turkey), Kayseri (in Central Turkey), Bandırma, and Düzce (in Northwest Turkey), along the shores of the Black Sea; the region near the city of Ankara. All citizens of Turkey are considered Turks by the government, but it is estimated that approximately two million ethnic Circassians live in Turkey. The "Circassians" in question do not always speak the languages of their ancestors, and in some cases some of them may describe themselves as "only Turkish". The reason for this loss of identity is mostly due to Turkey's Government assimilation policies and marriages with non-Circassians. Circassians are regarded by historians to play a key role in the history of Turkey. Some of the exilees and their descendants gained high positions in the Ottoman Empire. Most of the Young Turks were of Circassian origin. Until the end of the First World War, many Circassians actively served in the army. In the period after the First World War, Circassians came to the fore in Anatolia as a group of advanced armament and organizational abilities as a result of the struggle they fought with the Russian troops until they came to the Ottoman lands. However, the situation of the Ottoman Empire after the war caused them to be caught between the different balances of power between Istanbul and Ankara and even become a striking force. For this period, it is not possible to say that Circassians all acted together as in many other groups in Anatolia. The Turkish government removed 14 Circassian villages from Gönen and Manyas regions in December 1922, May and June 1923, without separating women and children, and drove them to different places in Anatolia from Konya to Sivas and Bitlis. This incident had a great impact on the assimilation of Circassians. After 1923, Circassians were restricted by policies such as the prohibition of Circassian language, changing village names, and surname law Circassians, who had many problems in maintaining their identity comfortably, were seen as a group that inevitably had to be assimilated.

Cyprus Circassians had settled in Cyprus during the Memluk period. However these were mainly members of Memluk Army and majority of them left the island during the Venetian period. Even though, Circassians have arrived to the island during the Ottoman Empire from Caucasus by ships and they settled Limasol Circassian Farm (Cerkez Ciftlik) and villages of Larnaca; Arsos (Yiğitler), Vuda, Tremetousa (Erdemli), Paralimni in October, 1864. Cypriot Circassians had joined the Turkish Cypriot Community and some of them the Greek Cypriot Community. Although they lost their original language and culture, they still view themselves as Circassian.

Syria

Circassians play a major role in the history of Syria. In Syria, they settled mainly in the Golan Heights. Prior to the Six-Day War of 1967, the Adyghe people – then estimated at 30,000 in number – were the majority group in the Golan Heights region. The most prominent settlement in the Golan was the town of Quneitra. The total number of Circassians in Syria is estimated at between 50,000 and 100,000. In 2013, as tensions between the Baath government and the opposition forces escalated, Syrian Circassians said they were exploring returning to Circassia. Circassians from different parts of Syria, such as Damascus, have moved back to the Golan Heights, believed to be safer. Some refugees have been reportedly killed by shelling. Circassians have lobbied the Russian and Israeli governments to help evacuate refugees from Syria; Russia has issued some visas.

Israel

In Israel, the Adyghe initially settled in three places—in Kfar Kama, Rehaniya, and in the region of Hadera. Due to a malaria epidemic, the Adyghe eventually abandoned the settlement near Hadera. Though Sunni Muslim, Adyghe within Israel are seen as a loyal minority who serve in the Israeli armed forces.

Jordan

The Circassians had a major role in the modern history of Jordan. Circassian refugees started arriving in Ottoman Transjordan after their expulsion from the Ottoman Balkans during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Between 1878 and 1904, Circassians founded (or re-established) five sites: Amman (1878), Wadi al-Sir (1880), Jerash (1884), Na'ur (1901), and al-Rusayfa (1904). Amman was primarily a Circassian village until World War I. Amman grew rapidly thanks to Circassian agricultural labor and trade, and mercantile investment from Damascus, Nablus, and Jerusalem, made possible by the construction of the Hejaz Railway.

Over the years, various Adyghe have served in distinguished roles in the kingdom of Jordan. Adyghes have served as a prime minister (Sa'id al-Mufti), as ministers (commonly at least one minister should represent the Circassians in each cabinet), as high-ranking officers, etc., and due to their important role in the history of Jordan, Adyghe form the Hashemites' honour guard at the royal palaces. They represented Jordan in the Royal Edinburgh Military Tattoo in 2010, joining other honour guards such as the Airborne Ceremonial Unit.

Egypt

During the 13th century the Mamluks seized power in Cairo. Some 15th-century Circassian converts to Islam became Mamluks and rose through the ranks of the Mamluk dynasty to high positions, some becoming sultans in Egypt such as Qaitbay, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt (1468–1496). The majority of the leaders of the Burji Mamluk dynasty in Egypt (1382–1517) had Circassian origins, while also including Abkhaz, Abaza, and Georgian peoples whom the Arab sultans had recruited to serve their kingdoms as a military force. With the rise of Muhammad Ali Pasha (who ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848), most senior Mamluks were killed by him in order to secure his rule and the remaining Mamluks fled to Sudan.

Most Circassian communities in Egypt were assimilated into the local population.  several thousand Adyghe reside in Egypt; in addition to the descendants of Burji Mamluks of Adyghe origin, there are many who descend from royal Circassian consorts or Ottoman pashas of Circassian origin as well as Circassian muhajirs of the 19th century.

Iraq

Adyghe came to Iraq directly from Circassia. They settled in all parts of Iraq—from north to south—but most of all in Iraq's capital Baghdad. Many Adyghe also settled in Kerkuk, Diyala, Fallujah, and other places. Circassians have played major roles in different periods throughout Iraq's history, and made great contributions to political and military institutions in the country, to the Iraqi Army in particular. Several Iraqi prime ministers have been of Circassian descent.

Iran

Iran has a significant Circassian population. It once had a very large community, but the vast amount were assimilated in the population in the course of centuries. The Safavid (1501–1736) and Qajar (1789–1925) dynasties saw the importing and deporting of large numbers of Circassians to Persia, where many enjoyed prestige in the harems and in the élite armies (the so-called ghulams), while many others settled and deployed as craftsmen, labourers, farmers and regular soldiers. Many members of the Safavid nobility and élite had Circassian ancestry and Circassian dignitaries, such as the kings Abbas II of Persia (reigned 1642–1666) and Suleiman I of Persia (reigned 1666–1694). While traces of Circassian settlements in Iran have lasted into the 20th century, many of the once large Circassian minority became assimilated into the local population.
However, significant communities of Circassians continue to live in particular cities in Iran, like Tabriz and Tehran, and in the northern provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran.

Notable places of traditional Circassian settlement in Iran include Gilan Province, Fars Province, Isfahan, and Tehran (due to contemporary migration). Circassians in Iran are the nation's second largest Caucasus-derived nation after the Georgians.

Rest of Western Asia
Significant communities live in Jordan, Syria (see Circassians in Syria), and smaller communities live in Israel (in the villages of Kfar Kama and Rehaniya—see Circassians in Israel). Circassians are also present in Iraq. Baghdad, Sulaymaniyah, and Diyala comprise the country's main cities with Circassians, though lesser numbers are spread in other regions and cities as well.

Rest of Europe

Out of 1,010 Circassians living in Ukraine (473 Kabardian Adyghe (Kabardin), 338 Adygean Adyghe, and 190 Cherkessian Adyghe (Cherkess)—after the existing Soviet division of Circassians into three groups), only 181 (17.9%) declared fluency in the native language; 96 (9.5%) declared Ukrainian as their native language, and 697 (69%) marked "other language" as being their native language. The major Adyghe community in Ukraine is in Odesa.

There is a small community of Circassians in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina (where the surname "Čerkez" exists) and North Macedonia. A number of Adyghe also settled in modern Bulgaria and in Northern Dobruja, which now belongs to Romania (see Circassians in Romania, in 1864–1865, but most fled after those areas became separated from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. The small part of the community that settled in Kosovo (the Kosovo Adyghes) moved to the Republic of Adygea in 1998, after the reprisals of the Serbian occupation forces became heavily intensified. The majority of the community, however, remained in Kosovo where they have been well established and integrated into Kosovan society. Many members of this community can be identified as they carry the family name "Çerkezi", or "Qerkezi". This community is also well established in the Republic of North Macedonia, usually mingling with the Albanian Muslim population.
Circassians can be found also in Albania but totally assimilated. The surname "Çerkezi" or "Çekrezi" is carried by this families.

There are Circassians in Germany and a small number in the Netherlands.

North America
Numerous Circassians have also immigrated to the United States and settled in Upstate New York, California, and New Jersey. There is also a small Circassian community in Canada.

Sochi Olympics controversy

The 2014 Winter Olympics facilities in Sochi (once the Circassian capital) were built in areas that were claimed to contain mass graves of Circassians who were killed during genocide by Russia in military campaigns lasting from 1860 to 1864.

Adyghe organizations in Russia and the Adyghe diaspora around the world requested that construction at the site stop and that the Olympic Games not be held at the site of the Adyghe genocide, to prevent desecration of Adyghe graves. According to Iyad Youghar, who headed the lobby group International Circassian Council: "We want the athletes to know that if they compete here they will be skiing on the bones of our relatives." The year 2014 also marked the 150th anniversary of the Circassian Genocide which angered the Circassians around the world. Many protests were held all over the world to stop the Sochi Olympics, but were not successful.

Depictions in art

See also
 List of Circassians
 Circassian beauties
 Circassians in Israel
 Idar of Kabardia

References

Sources

Further reading
 Jaimoukha, Amjad, The Circassians: A Handbook; New York, Palgrave, 2001; London, Routledge Curzon, 2001. .
 Jaimoukha, Amjad, Circassian Culture and Folklore: Hospitality Traditions, Cuisine, Festivals & Music (Kabardian, Cherkess, Adigean, Shapsugh & Diaspora), Bennett and Bloom, 2010.

 Bell, James Stanislaus, Journal of a residence in Circassia during the years 1837, 1838, and 1839 .
 Richmond, Walter. The Circassian Genocide, Rutgers University Press, 2013.
 Rasizade, Alec. Book review: Let Our Fame be Great, by Oliver Bullough (London: Penguin Books, 2011, 512 pages). = Debatte: Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe (London: Taylor & Francis), December 2011, volume 19, issue 3, pages 689–692.

External links

 International Circassian Association.
 Britannica – "Circassian".
 Famous Circassians.
 Map of the diaspora.

Ethnic groups in Europe
Ethnic groups in the Middle East
Ethnic groups in Iran
Ethnic groups in Iraq
Ethnic groups in Israel
Ethnic groups in Jordan
Ethnic groups in Russia
Ethnic groups in Tunisia
Ethnic groups in Algeria
Ethnic groups in Saudi Arabia
Ethnic groups in Syria
Ethnic groups in Turkey
Muslim communities of Russia
History of Kuban
History of the North Caucasus
Indigenous peoples of Europe
Peoples of the Caucasus
Ethnic groups in Bulgaria
Ethnic groups in Egypt
Ethnic groups in Albania
Ethnic groups in Libya
Ethnic groups in Kosovo
Muslim communities of the Caucasus

Circassians


Nos últimos anos, o Montenegro aumentou os seus esforços para implementar as medidas preventivas e legislativas necessárias para conter a corrupção. Por exemplo, as disposições antis-suborno do Código Penal, bem como as leis sobre lavagem de dinheiro, conflito de interesses, acesso à informação e financiamento político foram reforçadas, enquanto as atividades de conscientização e treinamento de funcionários públicos em padrões de integridade foram reforçadas foi intensificado.

No entanto, a corrupção continua sendo um problema sério no país. A Comissão Europeia constata no seu Relatório de Progresso de 2013 que a eficiência na luta contra a corrupção é limitada por alterações legislativas frequentes e pela atitude negligente das autoridades responsáveis pela aplicação da lei para investigar alegações de corrupção, especialmente as que envolvem funcionários de alto nível.

Áreas
No Relatório de Competitividade Global do Fórum Econômico Mundial 2013–2014, os executivos entrevistados classificam o acesso ao financiamento, corrupção e burocracia ineficiente como os fatores mais problemáticos para fazer negócios em Montenegro. O suborno ativo e passivo é proibido pelo Código Penal Montenegrino, e os funcionários do governo estão sujeitos a requisitos mais rigorosos nos termos da Lei de Prevenção de Conflitos de Interesse, que estipula que eles só podem receber presentes apropriados de pequeno valor (não excedendo o valor de EUR 50).

O Índice de Percepção de Corrupção de 2017 da Transparency International classificou o país em 64º lugar entre 180 países.

Montenegro
Montenegro
Sociedade de Montenegro

Corrupção em Montenegro


Şaban Yıldırım (d. 25 Ocak 1970, Adapazarı) Türk eski futbolcu, teknik direktör.

Futbolculuk kariyeri

Kulüp takımları kariyeri
Futbola Sakaryaspor altyapısında başladı ve aktif futbolculuk hayatı boyunca Sakaryaspor, Denizlispor, Bursaspor ve Çanakkale Dardanelspor'da forma giydi. 2000-01 sezonun sonunda aktif futbola veda etti.

Teknik direktörlük kariyeri
Futbola vedasindan sonra antrenörlük hayatına altyapısında yetiştiği Sakaryaspor'un genç takımında başladı. 2003-04 sezonunda Sakaryaspor'un A takımının başına geçti. Sezon sonunda takımı Süper Lig'e çıkarak ilk başarısını elde etti. Sonra sırasyıa Samsunspor, İstanbulspor, Mardinspor'u çalıştırdıktan sonra, 2006/2007 sezonu ortasında tekrar Sakaryaspor'un başına getirildi.2009 yılında küme düşmesiyle görevden alındı. 2009-2010 sezonunun 19. haftasında Elazığspor'un başına geçti. Elazığspor'u sonunculuktan beşinciliğe yükseltti ve kümede kalmasını sağladı. Sezon sonunda Elazığspor'dan anlaşarak ayrıldı.

2010 sezonunda Sakaryaspor'un başına geçti ve takımı 2. Lig play-off şampiyonu yaparak 1. Lig'e yükselmesini sağladı. 2011-12 sezonunun 5. haftasinin ardından katıldığı yerel TV kanalında sporla ilgili değerlendirme yaparken, programa telefonla katılan Sakaryaspor yöneticisi Cihan Yıldırım tarafından görevden alındığı bildirildi.
Bu olaydan sonra Kasım 2011'da Sakaryaspor yönetiminin değışmesi üzerine yeni yönetim tarafından ilk olarak tekrar teknik direktörlük görevine getirildi. Takımın kötü gidişi üzerine 15 Şubat 2012'de kendi isteğiyle görevinden ayrıldı.2023 sezonunda Karaman Futbol Kulübü'nün teknik direktörlüğüne getirildi.

Teknik direktör başarıları

Kulüp

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

1970 doğumlular
Adapazarı doğumlular
Türk erkek futbolcular
Resim aranan futbolcular
Türk teknik direktörler
Defans futbolcuları
Çanakkale Dardanelspor futbolcuları
Bursaspor futbolcuları
Denizlispor futbolcuları
İnegölspor teknik direktörleri
Sakaryaspor futbolcuları
Süper Lig futbolcuları
Sakaryaspor teknik direktörleri
Elazığspor teknik direktörleri
Pendikspor teknik direktörleri
Sarıyer SK teknik direktörleri
1. Lig teknik direktörleri
Yaşayan insanlar
1. Lig futbolcuları

Şaban Yıldırım


Tiphede Kirke ligger i Tiphede Sogn i Herning Kommune (Viborg Stift), mellem Abildå og Trehøje Bakker.

Bygningen
Kirken er bygget i rødt tegl som en korskirke med tårnet i korsskæringen. Kirkeklokken hænger i et træskelet ved indgangen i kampestenshegnet om kirkegården.

Historie
Oprindeligt dominerede heden store dele af Vestjylland, og det gjaldt også for området, hvor Tiphede Kirke nu ligger. Det var et meget sparsomt befolket område, og i århundreder lå der bare en enkelt gård, Tep Hedegaard, inden for et meget stort areal. Dette ændrede sig så småt i begyndelsen af det 19. århundrede, hvor der efterhånden blev udskiftet flere ejendomme fra Tep Hedegaard, senere kendt som Tiphede Skovgaard og nu Nørgaard. Der blev opdyrket større og større dele af heden, og flere folk flyttede hertil. Samtidig fandt en religiøs vækkelse sted over hele landet, så der opstod et behov for flere kirker i hedeegnene.

I 1882 blev der indsendt en ansøgning fra en gruppe beboere om at opføre en kirke i området ved Tiphede. Kirkekommissionen fra Ribe Stift besøgte stedet det følgende år, og ejeren af en af de udskiftede gårde, Søndergaard, skænkede et stykke jord til opførelsen. Størstedelen af beløbet til opførelsen skulle bevilges fra staten, så kirke skulle på finansloven. Dette trak ud til 1899, hvor bevillingen til selve kirkebygningen blev givet (præsteembedet blev først bevilget året efter). Tiphede Kirke blev nu bygget i løbet af 1900, og den blev indviet 27. januar 1901.

Der er foretaget betydelige restaureringer af kirken i hvert fald to gange: I 1972 blev gulvet sænket, koret forandret og døbefonten og prædikestolen udskiftet, og i 2000 blev den oprindelige døbefont genindsat, ligesom den oprindelige prædikestol fik en plads i kirkens kor.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Tiphede Kirke hos KortTilKirken.dk

Kirker i Herning Kommune
Kirker i Viborg Stift

Tiphede Kirke


Hélio Castroneves (Ribeirão Preto, Brazil, 10. svibnja, 1975.) je brazilski vozač automobilističkih utrka. Trenutno se natječe u IndyCar prvenstvu za momčad Penske.

Rezultati u CART-u

Rezultati u IRL-u / IndyCaru

Indianapolis 500

Vanjske poveznice
 IndyCar - Helio Castroneves
 Helio Castroneves na racing-reference.info

Vozači IndyCar serije
Brazilski automobilisti

Hélio Castroneves


Come Back, Little Sheba may refer to:

 Come Back, Little Sheba (play), a play by William Inge
 Come Back, Little Sheba (1952 film), a film based on the play, starring Burt Lancaster and Shirley Booth
 Come Back, Little Sheba (1977 film), a television film adaptation of the play, starring Laurence Olivier and Joanne Woodward
 "Come Back Little Sheba", a song by Patti Smith, a B-side from the single "Summer Cannibals"

Come Back, Little Sheba


يعد اتحاد المهندسين الزراعيين العرب  (الإنجليزية : Arab Agricultural Engineers Union) والذي تأسس عام 1968 في دمشق منظمة مهنية علمية شعبية، تأسس برغبة من منظمات المهندسين الزراعيين العرب القائمة في الوطن العربي، إيمانا من تلك المنظمات بالدور الرائد الذي تلعبه المنظمات غير الحكومية في تحقيق ما تصبوا إليه الشعوب العربية من تطور اقتصادي، ورخاء معيشي، ودعم نضالها في مواجهة التحديات السياسية والاقتصادية، وأن تنظيمها في اتحادات عربية من الخطى الجادة على طريق التكامل العربي الهادف إلى تحقيق الوحدة الاقتصادية والاجتماعية العربية.

الاعضاء
 نقابة المهندسين الزراعيين السوريين
 جمعية المهندسين الزراعيين البحرينية
 عمادة المهندسين التونسيين
 الاتحاد الوطني للمهندسين والتقنيين الزراعيين الجزائري
 اتحاد المهندسين الزراعيين السودانيين
 نقابة المهندسين الزراعيين الأردنيين
 نقابة المهندسين الزراعيين الفلسطينيين
 نقابة المهندسين الزراعيين العراقيين
 جمعية المهندسين الزراعيين الكويتية
 المجلس الإتحادي لنقابتي المهندسين في لبنان
 النقابة العامة للمهن الهندسية الزراعية بالجماهيرية الليبية
 نقابة المهن الزراعية المصرية
 جمعية المهندسين الزراعيين المغاربة
 نقابة المهن الزراعية اليمنية

الاهداف
تتلخص اهداف الاتحاد في :
 الإسهام في تحقيق الأهداف القومية للأقطار العربية. -
 العمل على رفع شأن مهنة الهندسة الزراعية وتطويرها والارتقاء بمستواها العلمي لتفي بمتطلبات النهضة وتحقيق زراعة عربية متطورة.
 تنشيط تبادل الخبرات ونتائج البحوث الزراعية بين الأقطار العربية.
 العمل مع الجامعات والوزارات والجهات العلمية الأخرى في الوطن العربي للارتقاء بمستوى الاختصاص الزراعي
 بذل أقصى الجهود لتحقيق أهداف التنمية الاقتصادية في المجال الزراعي.
 دعم المنظمات المنضمة للإتحاد والتنسيق والربط بينهما كوحدة متكاملة.

مجلة المهندس الزراعي العربي
بدأ الاتحاد باصدار مجلة الزراعي العربي، وصدر العدد الأول عام 1980 هي مجلة فصلية (4 اعداد في العام)

المقر الرئيسي
في دمشق

الموقع الرسمي
 الموقع الرسمي aaunion.org

المصادر

انظر أيضاً
 جامعة الدول العربية

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي لاتحاد المهندسين الزراعيين العرب

الزراعة في الوطن العربي
جمعيات متخصصة
منظمات أسست في 1968
منظمات جامعة الدول العربية
منظمات غير حكومية
منظمات مقرها في دمشق
مهندسون زراعيون

اتحاد المهندسين الزراعيين العرب


En fløjtespiller fortæller om fem fjender er en dansk oplysningsfilm, der er instrueret af Maiken Enggaard og Lotte Bach Hansen.

Handling
Historiefortælleren tager imod seerne med fløjtespil på flodbredden. Floden fører ind i den tætte regnskov til Emberá-indianernes landsby. Flodvejen er eneste adgang til landsbyen, hvor mange af stammens traditioner har overlevet blandet op med moderne ting. Men fremtiden tegner dyster.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2008

Oplysningsfilm fra Danmark