Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein (24. april 1870 – 16. oktober 1948) var en tysk general. Han var med i en gruppe tyske officerer, som hjalp med at lede den osmanniske hær under 1. verdenskrig. Kress von Kressenstein var med i Otto Liman von Sanders militærmission i Tyrkiet, som ankom til Tyrkiet kort inden udbruddet af 1. verdenskrig.

Von Kressenstein stammede fra en patricierfamilie i Nürnberg. Hans far, Georg Kress von Kressenstein (1840–1911), var højesteretsdommer. Von Kressenstein trådte ind i den bayerske hær som fændrik i artilleriet i 1888.
"Kress" er i øvrigt en del af familienavnet, ikke et fornavn så "Kress von Kressenstein" er således hele efternavnet.

1. verdenskrig

Palæstina

Von Kressenstein sluttede sig til Djemal Pashas armé i Palæstina som ingeniørofficer og senere stabschef. Djemal Pasha fik af den tyrkiske leder Enver Pasha til opgave at erobre eller ødelægge Suez-kanalen. Denne operation kaldes den Første Suez-offensiv og den blev gennemført i januar 1915. Kress von Kressenstein havde ansvar for at bygge særlige både til krydsning af kanalen (pontoner) foruden at organisere fremrykningen over Sinaiørkenen. Ørkenen blev krydset uden større tab, men briterne var opmærksomme på den osmanniske fremmarch og angrebet på Suez-kanalen kom ikke som nogen overraskelse for forsvarerne. De osmanniske styrker blev let slået tilbage, og efter to dages kampe trak de sig tilbage. Kress von Kressensteins særlige pontoner blev aldrig anvendt.

Mere end et år gik indtil osmannerne forsøgte et nyt angreb på Suez-kanalen. Med Djemal Pasha som overordnet leder fra sin base i Damaskus, anførte Kress von Kressenstein igen en større osmannisk armé gennem Sinaiørkenen. Dette angreb stødte mod stærke britiske befæstninger ved Romani, 40 km øst for kanalen. Den osmanniske armé forberedte et større angreb på Romani, som løb af stablen den 3. august 1916 (se slaget ved Romani for en detaljeret beskrivelse). Angrebet blev slået tilbage og igen trak osmannerne sig tilbage til deres baser i Palæstina.

Briterne reagerede med egne angreb. De erobrede nogle små osmanniske forter i Sinai, byggede en jernbane og lagde vandrør gennem ørkenen og angreb derpå det osmanniske fort i Gaza. Kress von Kressenstein havde kommandoen over det osmanniske forsvar sammen med den osmanniske general Tala Bey. I det første slag om Gaza (marts 1917), blev briterne besejret, hvilket mest skyldtes de fejl de begik. I det Andet slag om Gaza i april 1917 blev briterne igen besejret, denne gang skyldtes det i første række Kress von Kressenstein.

Briterne udskiftede deres generaler med general Edmund Allenby. Osmannerne udskiftede også deres øverste generaler og indsatte den tidligere chef for den tyske generalstab, general Erich von Falkenhayn. Kress von Kressenstein blev beholdt som chef for den 8. osmanniske armé, som forsvarede Gaza og han blev også tildelt Preussens højeste militære orden Pour le Mérite.

I november 1917 gennembrød briterne under general Allenby de osmanniske stilinger i slaget ved Beersheba og det tredje slag om Gaza. Det lykkedes Kress von Kressenstein at trække sine besejrede tropper tilbage i relativ god stand til nye stillinger længere mod nord.

Kaukasus

I midten af 1918, mens den osmannisk-tysk alliance var ved at bryde sammen, blev Kress von Kressenstein sendt afsted med en lille tysk ekspeditionsstyrke til Georgien, som var under tysk beskyttelse efter dets uafhængighed. Han hjalp med at forhindre Den Røde Hærs invasion af den georgiske region Abkhasien.

Senere liv
Efter 1. verdenskrig fortsatte Kress von Kressenstein sin karriere i Reichswehr indtil han tog sin afsked i 1929. Han døde i München i 1948.

Han skrev sine erindringer om sin tid i Mellemøsten:
 Mit den Türken zum Suezkanal. Vorhut-Verlag Otto Schlegel. Berlin 1938. .
 Meine Mission im Kaukasus. Manuskript (PDF-fil; 172 KB)

Dekorationer
 Pour le Mérite (Preussen)
 Ridder af Max Joseph militærordenen (Bayern)
 Officer i den militære fortjenstorden (Bayern)
 Redder af den Hohenzollernske husorden
 Jernkorset af 1914, 1. klasse (Preussen)
 Medjidieordenen, 4. klasse (Osmanniske rige)

Kilder
 "Biography of Kreß von Kressenstein fra First World War.com"  (hentet 9. januar 2006)
 "The Great War and the only Triumphant Campaign of 1917"  Om Allenbys felttog i Palæstina i 1917 (hentet 9. januar)
 "Journal of the T. E. Lawrence Society – Autumn 1997"  Omtaler Kress von Kressensteins monografi om felttoget.
 Fromkin, David (1989). A Peace to End All Peace. Avon Books.

Eksterne kilder
 http://davidpaitschadse.blogspot.com/2010/08/meine-mission-im-kaukasus-general-der.html

Generaler fra Tyskland
Tysklands militære personel i 1. verdenskrig
Friherrer fra Tyskland
Tyskere i 1800-tallet
Tyskere i 1900-tallet

Friedrich Kress von Kressenstein


Bohr atom modeli, Niels Henrik Bohr tarafından 1913 yılında, Rutherford atom modelinden yararlanılarak öne sürülmüştür.

Bohr atom modeli öncesi diğer atom modellerinde, atomun çekirdeğinde, (+) yüklü protonların bulunduğu, çekirdeğin etrafında dairesel yörüngelerde elektronların dolaştığı ifade edildi. Bu elektronların çekirdek etrafında nasıl bir yörüngede dolaştığı, hız ve momentumlarının ne olduğu ile ilgili bir netice ortaya konmadı. Bohr ise atom teorisinde elektronların hareketini bu noktadan inceledi.

Bohr kuramının varsayımları
1913 yılında Niels Bohr, hidrojen atomunun spektrum çizgilerini ve Planck'ın kuantum kuramını kullanarak Bohr kuramını ileri sürdü. Bu bilgiler ışığında Bohr varsayımları (postulatları) şöyle özetlenebilir:

 Bir atomdaki elektronlar çekirdekten belli uzaklıktaki yörüngelerde hareket eder ve bu yörüngelerdeki açısal momentumu h/2'nin tam katlarıdır (Burada h, Planck sabiti,  ise pi sayısıdır). Her kararlı hâlin sabit bir enerjisi vardır.
 Herhangi bir kararlı enerji seviyesinde elektron dairesel bir yörüngede hareket eder. Bu yörüngelere enerji düzeyleri veya kabukları denir.
 Elektron kararlı durumlardan birinde bulunurken atom ışınım yayınlamaz. Ancak, yüksek enerji düzeyinden daha düşük enerji düzeyine geçtiğinde, seviyeler arasındaki enerji farkına eşit bir ışık kuantumu (paketi) yayınlar. Burada E = Eson-Eilk bağıntısı geçerlidir.
 Elektron hareketinin mümkün olduğu kararlı düzeyler, K, L, M, N, O gibi harflerle veya en düşük enerji düzeyi 1 olmak üzere, her enerji düzeyi + bir tam sayı ile belirlenir ve genel olarak "n" İle gösterilir. (n: 1,2,3 ...¥)

Uyarılmış atom
Bohr atom modeline göre, çekirdeğe en yakın enerji seviyesinde dairesel hareket yapan elektron kararlıdır, ışık yaymaz.
Elektrona yeterli enerji verilirse elektron bulunduğu enerji seviyesinden daha yüksek enerji seviyesine sıçrar. Atom bu durumda kararsızdır. Kararlı hale gelmek için elektron tekrar eski enerji seviyesine dönerken almış olduğu enerji seviyesine eşit enerjide bir foton (ışık) fırlatır. Atom bu şekilde ışıma yapar.

Bohr Atom Modelindeki eksiklikler ve yanlışlar
 Elektronlar çok hızlı olduğu için sadece klasik fizik değil, görelilik de göz önüne alınmalıdır.
 Bohr Atom Modeli, sadece tek elektronlu atomların (hidrojen) spektrumlarını açıklayabilir. Çok elektronlu atomların spektrumlarını açıklayamaz.
 Bohr Atom Modelinde dalga-parçacık ikiliği (De Broglie Hipotezi) göz önüne alınmamıştır.
 Heisenberg belirsizlik ilkesine göre atomdaki elektronun yeri ve hızı, aynı anda, tam bir kesinlikle belirlenemez. Bundan dolayı "yörünge" kavramı yanlıştır.
 Nötron yoktur. Nötronlar, 1932 yılında James Chadwick tarafından keşfedilmiştir.
Atom ve moleküller arası bağların oluşmasını açıklamada yetersiz kalmıştır.

Dış bağlantılar
 Bohr Atom Modeli - KBT Bilim

Kaynakça
 Bohr Atom Modeli - taner.balikesir.edu.tr
 https://web.archive.org/web/20131211073049/http://atominsan.net/atom-kuramlari/rutherford-atom-kurami.html

Model
Atom modelleri
Hidrojen fiziği
Atom fiziği

Bohr modeli


قديل بلدية قديل أحد أكبر بلديات ولاية وهران عاصمتها الادراية هي قديل الواقعة تقريبا وسط البلدية بتضاريس خلابة أي كثرة الجبال الغابية بالإضافة إلى انها من البلديات الساحلية التي تطل على البحر الأبيض المتوسط بحيث توجد أحد أجمل القرى السيايحة هناك التي تدعى كريشتل وبدورها تعتبر أحد الموانئ المهمة وقديل البلدية التي تحمل رقم 9 حسب التقسيم الادراي لولاية وهران
المناخ
تعتبر قديل إحدى المدن التي تمتلك مناخ متوسطي ففي الشتاء تسقط الأمطار بكميات معتبرة ووفيرة مع ارتفاع الرطوبة وكثرة الرياح وصيف حار نوعا ما مع ارتفاع الرطوبة وسقوط أمطار قليلا وبشكل نادر صيفا
قديل اليوم
قديل اليوم أو قديل المعاصرة التي تشتهر بكثرة المحلات وكثرة المرافق التي لا يستطيع الإنسان الاستغناء عنها كالمستشفيات والحدائق العمومية ونلاحظ تسوع مدينة قديل التي بدأت السكنات والعمارات تجتاحها ووفرة المواصلات التي تجوب شوارعها يوما بعد يوما والطرقات السليمة
قديل من حيث التضاريس
قديل من المدن التي تغلب عليها التضاريس فهناك أحياء قائمة فوق الجبل مثل حي الحمار في قديل بالإضافة إلى وجود غابة توجد بها مياه حلوة تعتبر مركز لجلب المياة الحلوة التي بات سكان قديل لا يقومون بنشطاتهم اليومية بدونها

مراجع

بلديات ولاية وهران

قديل


O Chevrolet Trailblazer é um SUV crossover de porte compacto produzido pela General Motors sob a marca Chevrolet desde 2020. Ele está posicionado entre o Trax, um pouco menor, e o médio Equinox (segmento C).

Visão geral

O Trailblazer foi lançado em 16 de abril de 2019, na 18ª Exposição Internacional da Indústria Automobilística de Xangai, junto do Tracker, que substituiu o Trax. O Trailblazer é voltado para mercados desenvolvidos, enquanto o Tracker é voltado para mercados emergentes. Desenvolvido pela GM Korea, o Trailblazer é montado em Incheon, na Coréia do Sul, enquanto o modelo do mercado chinês é produzido em Yantai, Xantum, na China pela SAIC-GM.

O Trailblazer fez sua estreia na América do Norte no Salão do Automóvel de Los Angeles em novembro de 2019 e as vendas começaram no início de 2020 como um veículo do ano modelo 2021. Existem cinco níveis de equipamento disponíveis: L, LS, LT, Activ e RS. Os dois últimos vinham de fábrica com escapamento duplo e recursos top de linha. Os modelos Activ e RS também apresentam teto bicolor.

Foi lançado nas Filipinas em outubro de 2021. Importado da Coreia do Sul, reutilizou notavelmente o nome do Trailblazer anterior, baseado no Colorado, que foi descontinuado no mesmo ano.

Em 16 de janeiro de 2020, o Trailblazer foi lançado na Coreia do Sul. O modelo do mercado coreano é maior em dimensão do que os Trailblazers vendidos em outros mercados, com comprimento de 4.425 mm e largura de 1.810 mm.

Trailblazer
Automóveis de 2019
Veículos com tração dianteira
Veículos com tração 4×4
Veículos que utilizam transmissão continuamente variável

Chevrolet Trailblazer (crossover)


In the history of video games, the fourth generation of video game consoles, more commonly referred to as the 16-bit era, began on October 30, 1987, with the Japanese release of NEC Home Electronics' PC Engine (known as the TurboGrafx-16 in North America). Though NEC released the first console of this era, sales were mostly dominated by the rivalry between Sega and Nintendo across most markets: the Sega Mega Drive (Sega Genesis in North America) and the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES; Super Famicom in Japan). Cartridge-based handheld consoles became prominent during this time, such as the Nintendo Game Boy (1989), Atari Lynx (1989), Sega Game Gear (1990) and TurboExpress (1990).

Nintendo was able to capitalize on its success in the previous, third generation, and managed to win the largest worldwide market share in the fourth generation as well. Sega, however, was extremely successful in this generation and began a new franchise, Sonic the Hedgehog, to compete with Nintendo's Super Mario series of games. Several other companies released consoles in this generation, but none of them were widely successful. Nevertheless, there were other companies that started to take notice of the maturing video game industry and begin making plans to release consoles of their own in the future.  While as with prior generations, game media still continued to be primarily provided on ROM cartridges, though the first optical disk systems, such as the Philips CD-i, were released to limited success. As games became more complex, concerns over video game violence, namely in titles such as Mortal Kombat and Night Trap, led to the eventual creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board.

The emergence of fifth generation video game consoles, circa 1994, did not significantly diminish the popularity of fourth generation consoles for a few years. In 1996, however, there was a major drop in sales of hardware from this generation and a dwindling number of software publishers supporting fourth generation systems, which together led to a drop in software sales in subsequent years. This generation ended with the discontinuation of the Neo Geo in 2004.

Differences from third generation consoles

Features that distinguish some fourth generation consoles from third generation consoles include:

 16-bit microprocessors
 Multi-button game controllers with many buttons (3 to 8)
 Parallax scrolling of multi-layer tilemap backgrounds
 Large sprites (up to 64×64 or 16×512 pixels), 80–380 sprites on screen, 16–96 sprites per scan line
 Elaborate color, 64 to 4096 colors on screen, from palettes of 512 (9-bit) to 65,536 (16-bit) colors
 Stereo audio, with multiple channels and digital audio playback (PCM, ADPCM, streaming CD-DA audio)
 Advanced music synthesis (FM synthesis and/or wavetable sample-based synthesis)

Additionally, in specific cases, fourth generation hardware featured:

 Backgrounds with pseudo-3D scaling and rotation
 Sprites that can individually be scaled and rotated
 Flat-shaded 3D polygon graphics
Surround sound support
 CD-ROM support via add-ons, allowing larger storage space and full motion video playback

Home systems

TurboGrafx-16

The PC Engine was the result of a collaboration between Hudson Soft and NEC and launched in Japan on October 30, 1987. It launched under the name TurboGrafx-16 in North America on August 29, 1988.

Initially, the PC Engine was quite successful in Japan, partly due to titles available on the then-new CD-ROM format. NEC released a CD add-on in 1990 and by 1992 had released a combination TurboGrafx and CD-ROM system known as the TurboDuo.

In the United States, NEC used Bonk, a head-banging caveman, as their mascot and featured him in most of the TurboGrafx advertising from 1990 to 1994. The platform was well received initially, especially in larger markets, but failed to make inroads into the smaller metropolitan areas where NEC did not have as many store representatives or as focused in-store promotion.

The TurboGrafx-16 failed to maintain its sales momentum or to make a strong impact in North America. The TurboGrafx-16 and its CD combination system, the Turbo Duo, ceased manufacturing in North America by 1994, though a small amount of software continued to trickle out for the platform.

Mega Drive/Genesis

The Mega Drive was released in Japan on October 29, 1988. The console was released in New York City and Los Angeles on August 14, 1989, under the name Sega Genesis, and in the rest of North America later that year. It was launched in Europe and Australia on November 30, 1990, under its original name.

Sega built their marketing campaign around their new mascot Sonic the Hedgehog, pushing the Genesis as the "cooler" alternative to Nintendo's console and inventing the term "Blast Processing" to suggest that the Genesis was capable of handling games with faster motion than the SNES. Their advertising was often directly adversarial, leading to commercials such as "Genesis does what Nintendon't" and no scream at all.

When the arcade game Mortal Kombat was ported for home release on the Genesis and Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo decided to censor the game's gore, but Sega kept the content in the game, via a code entered at the start screen. Sega's version of Mortal Kombat received generally more favorable reviews in the gaming press and outsold the SNES version three to one. This also led to Congressional hearings to investigate the marketing of violent video games to children, and to the creation of the Interactive Digital Software Association and the Entertainment Software Rating Board. Sega concluded that the superior sales of their version of Mortal Kombat were outweighed by the resulting loss in consumer trust, and cancelled the game's release in Spain to avoid further controversy. With the new ESRB rating system in place, Nintendo reconsidered its position for the release of Mortal Kombat II, and this time became the preferred version among reviewers. The Toy Retail Sales Tracking Service reported that during the key shopping month of November 1994, 63% of all 16-bit video game consoles sold were Sega systems.

The console was never popular in Japan (being regularly outsold by the PC Engine), but still managed to sell 40 million units worldwide. By late 1995, Sega was supporting five different consoles and two add-ons, and Sega Enterprises chose to discontinue the Mega Drive in Japan to concentrate on the new Sega Saturn. While this made perfect sense for the Japanese market, it was disastrous in North America: the market for Genesis games was much larger than for the Saturn, but Sega was left without the inventory or software to meet demand.

Super NES

Nintendo executives were initially reluctant to design a new system, but as the market transitioned to the newer hardware, Nintendo saw the erosion of the commanding market share it had built up with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Nintendo's fourth-generation console, the Super Famicom, was released in Japan on November 21, 1990; Nintendo's initial shipment of 300,000 units sold out within hours. The machine reached North America as the Super Nintendo Entertainment System on August 23, 1991, and Europe and Australia in April 1992.

Despite stiff competition from the Mega Drive/Genesis console, the Super NES eventually took the top selling position, selling 49.10 million units worldwide, and would remain popular well into the fifth generation of consoles. Nintendo's market position was defined by their machine's increased video and sound capabilities, including exclusive first-party franchise titles such as F-Zero, Super Mario World, Star Fox, Super Mario Kart, Donkey Kong Country, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and Super Metroid.

Compact Disc Interactive (CD-i)

The CD-i format was announced in the late 1980s, with the first machines compatible with the format being released in 1991. The Philips CD-i's main selling point was that it was more than a game machine and could be used for multimedia needs. Due to an agreement between Nintendo and Philips about an abortive CD add-on for the SNES (which eventually evolved into Sony's PlayStation), Philips also had rights to use some of Nintendo's franchises. The CD-i was a commercial failure and was discontinued in 1998, selling only 1 million units worldwide despite several partnerships and multiple versions of the device, some made by other manufacturers.

Neo Geo

Released by SNK in 1990, the Neo Geo was a home console version of the major arcade platform. Compared to its console competition, the Neo Geo had much better graphics and sound, however the prohibitively expensive launch price of US$649.99 and games often retailing at over $250 made the console only accessible to a niche market. A less expensive version, retailing for $399.99, did not include a memory card, pack-in game or extra joystick.

Add-ons
Nintendo, NEC and Sega also competed with hardware peripherals for their consoles in this generation. NEC was the first with the release of the TurboGrafx CD system in 1990. Retailing for $399.99 at release, the CD add-on was not a popular purchase, but was largely responsible for the platform's success in Japan. The Sega CD was released with an unusually high price tag ($300 at its release) and a limited library of games. A unique add-on for the Sega console was Sega Channel, a subscription-based service (a form of online gaming delivery) hosted by local television providers. It required hardware that plugged into a cable line and the Genesis.

Nintendo also made two attempts with the Satellaview and the Super Game Boy. The Satellaview was a satellite service released only in Japan and the Super Game Boy was an adapter for the SNES that allowed Game Boy games to be displayed on a TV in color. Nintendo, working along with Sony, also had plans to create a CD-ROM drive for the SNES (plans that resulted in a prototype version of the Sony PlayStation), but eventually decided not to go through with that project, opting to team up with Philips in the development of the add-on instead (contrary to popular belief, the CD-i was largely unrelated to the project).

European importing

The fourth generation was also the era when the act of buying imported US games became more established in Europe, and regular stores began to carry them. The PAL region has a refresh rate of 50 Hz (compared with 60 Hz for NTSC) and a vertical resolution of 625 interlaced lines (576 effective), compared with 525/480 for NTSC. Because the simulation speed of contemporary game systems was directly linked to the output frame rate, which was in turn synchronized with the TV's refresh rate, this meant that the game would run more slowly on a PAL television. The smaller number of vertical lines in the NTSC signal would also lead to black bars appearing on the top and bottom of a PAL television. Developers often had a hard time converting games designed for the American and Japanese NTSC standard to the European and Australian PAL standard. Companies such as Konami, with large budgets and a healthy following in Europe and Australia, readily optimized several games (such as the International Superstar Soccer series) for this audience, while most smaller developers did not.

Also, few RPGs were released in Europe because the market for the genre was not as large as in Japan or North America, and the increasing amount of time and money required for translation as RPGs became more text-heavy, in addition to the usual need to convert the games to the PAL standard, often made localizing the games to Europe a high-cost venture with little potential payoff. As a result, RPG releases in Europe were largely limited to games which had previously been localized for North America, thus reducing the amount of translation required.

Popular US games imported at this time included Final Fantasy IV (known in the US as Final Fantasy II), Final Fantasy VI (known in the US as Final Fantasy III), Secret of Mana, Street Fighter II, Chrono Trigger, and Super Mario RPG.  Secret of Mana and Street Fighter II would eventually receive official release in Europe, whilst Final Fantasy IV, Final Fantasy VI, Chrono Trigger and Super Mario RPG would be released in Europe years later on other consoles or formats outside of this generation.

Comparison

CD-supported consoles

Other consoles

Worldwide sales standings

Handheld systems

The first handheld game console released in the fourth generation was the Game Boy, on April 21, 1989. It went on to dominate handheld sales by an extremely large margin, despite featuring an 8-bit microprocessor and a low-contrast, unlit monochrome screen while all three of its leading competitors had color. Three major franchises made their debut on the Game Boy: Tetris, the Game Boy's killer application; Pokémon; and Kirby. With some design (Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light) and hardware (Game Boy Color) changes, it continued in production in some form until 2008, enjoying a better than 18-year run.

The Atari Lynx included hardware-accelerated color graphics, a backlight, and the ability to link up to sixteen units together in an early example of network play when its competitors could only link 2 or 4 consoles (or none at all), but its comparatively short battery life (approximately 4.5 hours on a set of alkaline cells, versus 35 hours for the Game Boy), high price, and weak games library made it one of the worst-selling handheld game systems of all time, with less than 500,000 units sold.

The third major handheld of the fourth generation was the Game Gear. It featured graphics capabilities roughly comparable to the Master System (better colours, but lower resolution), a ready made games library by using the "Master-Gear" adaptor to play cartridges from the older console, and the opportunity to be converted into a portable TV using a cheap tuner adaptor, but it also suffered some of the same shortcomings as the Lynx. While it sold more than twenty times as many units as the Lynx, its bulky design – slightly larger than even the original Game Boy; relatively poor battery life – only a little better than the Lynx; and later arrival in the marketplace – competing for sales amongst the remaining buyers who did not already have a Game Boy – hampered its overall popularity despite being more closely competitive to the Nintendo in terms of price and breadth of software library. Sega eventually retired the Game Gear in 1997, a year before Nintendo released the first examples of the Game Boy Color, to focus on the Nomad and non-portable console products.

Other handheld consoles released during the fourth generation included the TurboExpress, a handheld version of the TurboGrafx-16 released by NEC in 1990, and the Game Boy Pocket, an improved model of the Game Boy released about two years before the debut of the Game Boy Color. While the TurboExpress was another early pioneer of color handheld gaming technology and had the added benefit of using the same game cartridges or 'HuCards' as the TurboGrafx16, it had even worse battery life than the Lynx and Game Gear – about three hours on six contemporary AA batteries – selling only 1.5 million units.

List of handheld consoles

Other handheld game consoles

Software

Milestone titles
 Chrono Trigger (SNES) by Square is frequently listed among the greatest video games of all time.
 Dragon Quest V and VI (SFC) by Chunsoft, Heartbeat, and Enix were released on the Japanese Super Famicom, as well as remakes of the first three games originally released for the NES and a dungeon crawler spin-off: Torneko's Great Adventure, which started Chun Soft's popular Fushigi no Dungeon series.
 Donkey Kong Country (SNES) by Rare and Nintendo turned the tide of the console war in favor of Nintendo and became the best-selling game since Super Mario Bros. 3, largely due to its impressive graphics.
 FIFA International Soccer (Genesis, SNES) by Extended Play Productions and EA Sports has been described as one of the most influential sports games ever made.
 Garou: Mark of the Wolves (Arcade, Neo Geo AES) by SNK is considered one of the best fighting games, as well as the "swan song" of the generation. receiving praise for its hand-drawn graphics, and the game's tight and streamlined control scheme.
 Gunstar Heroes (Genesis) by Treasure and Sega is considered one of the best action games of the generation.
 John Madden Football (1990) (Genesis, SNES) by Park Place Productions and EA Sports played an important role in the early success of both the Genesis console and Electronic Arts.
 Super Metroid (SNES) by Nintendo Research & Development 1 and Nintendo is still regarded by many gaming organizations as one of the "best games of all time."
 Mortal Kombat (Arcade, Genesis, SNES) by Midway Games garnered heated controversy over its violent themes, with the uncensored Genesis version outselling the SNES version by nearly three-to-one, ultimately leading to a U.S. Congressional hearing and the creation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board.
 NHLPA Hockey '93 (Genesis, SNES) by Park Place Productions and EA Sports is considered one of the most outstanding sports games ever made.
 Phantasy Star II (Genesis) by Sega Consumer Development Division 2 and Sega has been cited as one of the best and most influential console RPGs.
 Secret of Mana (SNES) by Square reintroduced the Seiken Densetsu series, originally conceived as a Final Fantasy spin-off, to Europe and North America.
 Sonic the Hedgehog (Genesis) by Sonic Team and Sega was Sega's bid to compete head-to head with Nintendo's Mario franchise, played a critical role in the success of the Genesis, and received widespread critical acclaim as one of the greatest games ever made, kickstarting a successful franchise.
 Street Fighter II (Arcade, Genesis, SNES, PC Engine) by Capcom was the second game in the series to produce a lasting fanbase and set many of the trends seen in fighting games today, most notably its colorful selection of playable fighters from different countries across the globe. As of 2008, it is Capcom's best-selling consumer game of all time.
 Streets of Rage 2 (Genesis) by Sega AM7 and Sega is considered the best beat 'em up of the generation.
 Super Monaco GP (Arcade, Genesis) by Sega set a new standard for realism in console racing games.
 Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island (SNES) by Nintendo Entertainment Analysis & Development (Nintendo EAD) and Nintendo is considered perhaps the finest 2D platformer.
 The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past (SNES) by Nintendo EAD and Nintendo courted popularity that was larger than that of its predecessors on the NES. It was one of the few action-adventures to be released early in the SNES's lifecycle. Zelda II on the NES had been mostly action-based and was side-scrolling, while A Link to the Past drew more inspiration from the original Zelda game with its top-down adventure format.
 Thunder Force IV (Genesis) by Technosoft is considered one of the best shooters on the Genesis, receiving praise for its graphics, including the vertical and parallax scrolling for illustrating the immense environments.
 Ys Book I & II (TurboGrafx) by Nihon Falcom was among the first video games mass released on CD-ROM, when released in Japan in 1989 and in North America in 1990. In addition to receiving praise for its story and gameplay, the game pioneered several technical features, such as voice acting, animated cut scenes, and pre-recorded soundtracks, which would become industry standards later in the decade.

See also

 1980s in video games
 1990s in video games
 Capcom Power System Changer
 Konix Multisystem
 Third generation of video game consoles
 Fifth generation of video game consoles

Notes

References

History of video game consoles 04
04
.Consoles04
.Consoles04
.Consoles04
1980s video games
1990s video games
2000s video games
Video game consoles04
Video game consoles04
Video game consoles04

Fourth generation of video game consoles


Die Abenteuer des Monsieur Vidocq (Les Nouvelles Aventures de Vidocq) ist eine französische Fernsehserie, die von Januar 1971 bis Dezember 1973 vom französischen Fernsehsender ORTF ausgestrahlt wurde.

Handlung
Die Fernsehserie wurde nach Motiven aus den Memoiren von Eugène François Vidocq erstellt und stellt die Abenteuer des früheren Gefängnisinsassen, der zum Polizisten wird, dar. Sie spielt Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts.

Episodenliste
 La caisse de fer (Erstausstrahlung: 5. Januar 1971; in Deutschland: 11. September 1971)
 Les trois crimes de Vidocq (Erstausstrahlung: 12. Januar 1971; in Deutschland: 25. September 1971)
 Les chevaliers de la nuit (Erstausstrahlung: 19. Januar 1971; in Deutschland: 9. Oktober 1971)
 Les chauffeurs du Nord (Erstausstrahlung: 16. Februar 1971; in Deutschland: 23. Oktober 1971)
 Échec à Vidocq (Erstausstrahlung: 23. Februar 1971; in Deutschland: 6. November 1971)
 Les banquiers du crime (Erstausstrahlung: 2. März 1971; in Deutschland: 20. November 1971)
 La bande à Vidocq (Erstausstrahlung: 29. Oktober 1973; in Deutschland: 22. Januar 1976)
 Les assassins de l'empereur (Erstausstrahlung: 5. November 1973; in Deutschland: 29. Januar 1976)
 Les bijoux du roi (Erstausstrahlung: 12. November 1973; in Deutschland: 5. Februar 1976)
 Vidocq et l'archange (Erstausstrahlung: 19. November 1973; in Deutschland: 12. Februar 1976)
 Les deux colonels (Erstausstrahlung: 26. November 1973; in Deutschland: 19. Februar 1976)
 L'épingle noire (Erstausstrahlung: 3. Dezember 1973; in Deutschland: 26. Februar 1976)
 Vidocq et compagnie (Erstausstrahlung: 10. Dezember 1973; in Deutschland: 4. März 1976)

Weblinks

 Fanseite über die Fernsehserie auf lugrassot.chez-alice.fr
 Eintrag im Fernsehlexikon

Fernsehserie (Frankreich)
Fernsehserie der 1970er Jahre
Kriminal-Fernsehserie

Die Abenteuer des Monsieur Vidocq


Tulumbacılar, Osmanlı Devleti'nde Yeniçeri Ocağı'na bağlı olarak Dergâh-ı Âli Tulumbacı Ocağı adıyla 1720 yılında kurulan itfaiye teşkilatıdır. Yeniçeri Ocağı'nın 1826'da kaldırılmasıyla bu ocak da lağvedildi. 1827 yılında yarı askerî bir İtfaiye Teşkilatı kuruldu.

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun askeriyesi
İtfaiyecilik

Tulumbacılar


زلزال كريت العام 365 ميلادية كان زلزالا تحت البحر وقع تقريبا وقت شروق شمس 21 يوليو 365 ميلادية شرقي البحر المتوسط.

كان مركز الزلزال قرب جزيرة كريت، ويقدر علماء الجيولوجيا اليوم قوة الزلزال وقتها بنحو 8 درجات على مقياس ريختر وربما أكثر، مسبب دمارا واسعا في وسط وجنوبي اليونان ، شمال ليبيا، قبرص وصقلية  حيث دمر جميع المباني تقريبا في جزيرة كريت.

كما تسبب الزلزال في غرق مناطق ساحلية بأكملها تحت مياه البحر المتوسط، وتبعه موجات تسونامي طالت الساحل الشرقي للبحر المتوسط بما فيها الإسكندرية ودلتا النيل حيث تسببت في مقتل الآلاف والقاء السفن قرابة الميلين داخل اليابسة.
ترك الزلزال تأثيرا عميقا في ذاكرة أواخر العصور القديمة، حيث أشار عدد من المؤلفين والكتاب في تلك الفترة إلى ذلك الحدث في أعمالهم.

صور
آثار الزلزال كما تبدو علفي مواقع أثرية:

مصادر

365
البحر الأبيض المتوسط
تاريخ صقلية
تاريخ قبرص
تسوناميات في اليونان
تسوناميات في مصر
زلازل القرن 4
زلازل في كريت
زلازل في ليبيا
الإمبراطورية البيزنطية في عقد 360
كوارث طبيعية في القرن 4

زلزال كريت 365


The following is a table of U.S. state, federal district and territory nicknames, including officially adopted nicknames and other traditional nicknames for the 50 U.S. states, the U.S. federal district, as well as five U.S. territories.

State, federal district, and territory nicknames
Official state, federal district, and territory nicknames are highlighted in bold. A state nickname is not to be confused with an official state motto.

See also

List of U.S. state and territory mottos
List of demonyms for U.S. states
List of city nicknames in the United States
List of provincial and territorial nicknames in Canada
 Lists of nicknames: nickname list articles on Wikipedia

Notes

References

External links
Information about U.S. State Nicknames

Nicknames
Nicknames
United States State
Lists of regional nicknames
Nicknames

List of U.S. state and territory nicknames


Enrique Amorim (July 25, 1900 – July 28, 1960) was an Uruguayan novelist and writer, best known for his story Las quitanderas  whose plot centers on rural prostitution; also known for his left-wing politics.

Biography
Enrique Amorim was born in Salto, Uruguay to parents who were wealthy cattle ranchers. His father was from a Portuguese background, his mother Basque. Amorim travelled extensively in Europe and Latin America, developing acquaintanceships and friendships with many of the leading literary figures of his time. He eventually had a house built in Salto, designed by Le Corbusier.

In the 1920s Amorim wrote for the Argentine leftist magazine Los Pensadores and published with the press Claridad, both associated with the left-leaning Buenos Aires-based Boedo group.
In 1947 Amorim officially joined the Communist Party of Uruguay. He was also responsible for the erection of a monument in Salto to commemorate Federico García Lorca, the poet and playwright killed by Francisco Franco's forces in the opening weeks of the Spanish Civil War.

He is mentioned in Borges' story "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius".

Works

Novels
 La carreta (1929)
 El paisano Aguilar (1934)
 La edad despareja (1938)
 El caballo y su sombra (1941) (English translation The Horse and His Shadow (Scribner 1943))
 La luna se hizo con agua (1944)
 El asesino desvelado (1946)
 Feria de farsantes (1952)
 Eva Burgos (1960)

Books of short stories
 Amorim (1923)
 Horizontes y bocacalles (1926)
 Tráfico (1927)
 La trampa del pajonal (1928)
 Del 1 al 6 (1932)
 La plaza de las carretas (1937)
 Después del temporal (1953)

Books of poems
 Veinte años (1920)
 Visitas al cielo (1929)
 Poemas uruguayos (1935)
 Dos poemas (1940)
 Primero de Mayo (1949)
 Quiero (1954)
 Sonetos de amor en verano (1958)

Plays
 La segunda sangre (1950)
 Don Juan 38 (1958)

References
 K.E.A. Mose Enrique Amorim: The Passion of a Uruguayan (Madrid :Plaza Mayor, 1973)
 Alvaro Miranda Enrique Amorim // Enfoques críticos sobre Enrique Amorim (Montevideo: Editores Asociados, 1990)
 Leonardo Garet La pasión creadora de Enrique Amorim (Montevideo: Editores Asociados, 1990)

External links

 Much of the information in this article comes from http://www.todo-argentina.net/Literatura_argentina/Biografias_de_literatura/enrique_amorim.htm.
 Biographical notes on Amorim and other famous natives of Salto
 IMDB filmography
 F. Scott Helwig "Narrative Techniques in the Novels of Enrique Amorim" (dissertation)

1900 births
1960 deaths
People from Salto, Uruguay
Uruguayan Marxist writers
Uruguayan people of Portuguese descent
Uruguayan communists
Uruguayan dramatists and playwrights
Male dramatists and playwrights
Uruguayan novelists
Male novelists
Uruguayan male short story writers
Uruguayan short story writers
20th-century novelists
20th-century dramatists and playwrights
20th-century short story writers

Enrique Amorim


Bettendorf ist eine Stadt (mit dem Status City) im Scott County im Osten des US-amerikanischen Bundesstaates Iowa am Westufer des Mississippi, der die Grenze zu Illinois bildet. Bettendorf ist neben Davenport in Iowa sowie Moline, East Moline und Rock Island in Illinois eine der sogenannten Quad Cities. Bei der Volkszählung im Jahr 2020 hatte Bettendorf 39.102 Einwohner.

Geografie
Bettendorf liegt im Osten von Iowa am Mississippi, der die Grenze zu Illinois bildet. Bettendorf liegt auf 41°33′00″ nördlicher Breite und 90°29′37″ westlicher Länge und erstreckt sich über eine Fläche von 57,8 km², die sich auf 55,0 km² Land- und 2,8 km² Wasserfläche verteilen.

Am gegenüberliegenden Mississippiufer liegen die Städte Moline und East Moline, im Westen grenzt das Stadtgebiet von Bettendorf unmittelbar an Davenport, die größte Stadt der Quad Cities. Weitere Nachbarorte sind Riverdale (4,1 km südöstlich), Panorama Park (4,1 km ostsüdöstlich), Le Clair (12,1 km ostnordöstlich) und Eldridge (22,0 km nordwestlich)

Die nächstgelegenen größeren Städte sind Iowas Hauptstadt Des Moines (273 km westlich), Wisconsins Hauptstadt Madison (264 km nordöstlich), Chicago (270 km östlich) und St. Louis in Missouri (399 km südlich).

Namensvergabe
Die Gründung des Ortes erfolgte in den 1840er Jahren. Nach dem Besitzer einer Taverne mit angeschlossener Tanzhalle bekam das Dorf den Namen Lilienthal. Im Jahr 1858 erfolgte die erste Umbenennung. Das Dorf hieß nun Gilbert, zu Ehren von Elias Gilbert, der den ursprünglichen Standort parzellieren und besiedeln ließ. Zu dieser Zeit waren die überwiegend deutschen Einwohner als Landwirte, Facharbeiter und Kleinunternehmer beschäftigt.

Nach zwei Bränden Anfang des Jahres 1902, schlugen die Industriellen William P. Bettendorf (1857–1910) und dessen Bruder Joseph W. Bettendorf (1864–1933), Söhne des Einwanderers Michael Betteldorf aus Nohn in der Eifel, den Bürgern vor, ihr Eisenwagengeschäft von Davenport nach Gilbert zu verlegen, wenn ihnen die alte Gilbert-Farm als Standort für ihre Fabrik übereignet würde. Es wurden Spenden von Anwohnern und Unternehmen gesammelt, um die 15.000 US-Dollar für den Kauf des Grundstücks aufzubringen, und die Fabrik wurde nach Gilbert verlegt. Im Januar 1903 beantragte die Stadt, die zu dieser Zeit nur etwa 440 Einwohner zählte, die Eingliederung und eine erneute Namensänderung in Bettendorf zu Ehren der Brüder, deren Fabrik für die frühe Entwicklung der Stadt von außerordentlicher Bedeutung war. Bis 1920 war das Bettendorfer Werk das größte Eisenbahnwagenwerk westlich des Mississippi und beschäftigte 3.000 Mitarbeiter.

Verkehr
Bettendorf liegt am den Iowa-Abschnitt der Great River Road bildenden U.S. Highway 67. Durch die nördlichen Stadtteile verläuft in West-Ost-Richtung die Interstate 80, die die kürzeste Verbindung von Chicago nach Des Moines bildet. Die westliche Begrenzung des Stadtgebietes von Bettendorf wird größtenteils von der Interstate 74 und dem auf der gleichen Strecke verlaufenden U.S. Highway 6 gebildet.

Durch Bettendorf verläuft eine Bahnlinie der BNSF Railway, die entlang des gesamten Laufes des Mississippi führt.

An das Luftverkehrsnetz ist Bettendorf über den Davenport Municipal Airport (17,8 km nordwestlich) und den Quad City International Airport (16,3 km südlich am Südrand von Moline) angeschlossen.

Demografische Daten

Nach der Volkszählung im Jahr 2010 lebten in Bettendorf 33.217 Menschen in 13.329 Haushalten. Die Bevölkerungsdichte betrug 603,9 Einwohner pro Quadratkilometer.

Ethnisch betrachtet setzte sich die Bevölkerung zusammen aus 91,9 Prozent Weißen, 2,2 Prozent Afroamerikanern, 0,2 Prozent amerikanischen Ureinwohnern, 3,1 Prozent Asiaten sowie aus anderen ethnischen Gruppen; 1,8 Prozent stammten von zwei oder mehr Ethnien ab. Unabhängig von der ethnischen Zugehörigkeit waren 3,6 Prozent der Bevölkerung spanischer oder lateinamerikanischer Abstammung.

In den 13.329 Haushalten lebten statistisch je 2,43 Personen.

25,5 Prozent der Bevölkerung waren unter 18 Jahre alt, 59,7 Prozent waren zwischen 18 und 64 und 14,8 Prozent waren 65 Jahre oder älter. 51,4 Prozent der Bevölkerung war weiblich.

Das jährliche Durchschnittseinkommen eines Haushalts lag bei 65.604 USD. Das Prokopfeinkommen betrug 35.932 USD. 5,8 Prozent der Einwohner lebten unterhalb der Armutsgrenze.

Söhne und Töchter (Auswahl)
 Michael Grumley (1942–1988), Autor

Weblinks

 Offizielle Website
 www.city-data.com - Bettendorf, Iowa

Einzelnachweise

Gemeindegründung 1903

Bettendorf (Iowa)


Nagrada za ljudska prava (Sarajevski filmski festival) je nagrada koja se dodjeljuje na Sarajevskom filmskom festivalu. Nagrada se daje najboljem filmu iz natjecateljskog programa - dokumentarni film, koji se bavi temom ljudskih prava. Prvi put je dodijeljena 2004. godine, na 10. izdanju festivala, i od tada je postala tradicionalna nagrada. Nagradu za ljudska prava pruža Savezno ministarstvo vanjskih poslova Švicarske.

Dobitnici nagrade

Više informacija
Sarajevski filmski festival
Srce Sarajeva
Posebna nagrada žirija

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Službene stranice
 Sarajevski filmski festival na IMDb-u

Sarajevski filmski festival
Bosanskohercegovačka filmska umjetnost


O terrorismo no Níger concentra-se principalmente nas áreas fronteiriças do Níger com o Mali e o Burkina Faso (oeste), a Líbia (norte) e a Nigéria (no sul), especialmente com as incursões do grupo terrorista Boko Haram no Lago Chade e da al Qaeda no Magrebe Islâmico e do Estado Islâmico do Grande Saara que operam na região sulista de Tillabéri. Em 2010 começaram os sequestros de estrangeiros e em maio de 2013 ocorreu o primeiro atentado de caráter jihadista terrorista. O Níger pertence ao G5 do Sahel, um grupo que coordena políticas de desenvolvimento e segurança.

Contexto
O Níger está situado em um local estratégico no Sahel, onde nos últimos anos a ação de grupos terroristas aumentou. Os terroristas jihadistas, segundo especialistas como o sociólogo e pesquisador nigerino Souley Adji, realizam uma estratégia de guerrilha no Níger, como em todo o Sahel, o que dificulta a ação dos militares nigerinos que não têm treinamento em táticas de intervenção. A situação também é complicada pelas fronteiras porosas, pelo fato de três quartos dos 1.276.000 quilômetros quadrados do país serem desérticos e que as pessoas que os grupos terroristas recrutam são jovens da própria população, segundo o especialista em governação na África Arji Saidou. Por outro lado, o Mali é um país de trânsito para a imigração clandestina para a Europa.

Organizações terroristas envolvidas
Entre os grupos jihadistas que operam na área estão a Al-Qaeda no Magrebe Islâmico criada em 2007, o Movimento pela Unidade e Jihad na África Ocidental (MUJAO) desde 2013, o Boko Haram com duas facções desde 2016: Jamā'at Ahl as-Sunnah lid-Da'wah wa'l-Jihād e o Estado Islâmico na África Ocidental, este último vinculado ao Estado Islâmico.

Ações terroristas

Algumas das ações terroristas mais relevantes incluem ataques suicidas, sequestros e atentados bombistas.

Em 22 de janeiro de 2009, homens armados sequestraram um casal suíço, uma mulher alemã e um homem britânico. Em fevereiro, a Al-Qaeda no Magreb alegou ter sequestrado os quatro turistas, bem como o diplomata canadense Robert Fowler em dezembro. Fowler e três outros foram libertados em abril, enquanto o britânico Edwin Dyer foi executado em junho.
Em 28 de dezembro do mesmo ano, três turistas sauditas foram mortos e outros três feridos em um ataque perto de Djambala. Um quarto saudita morreu dois dias depois.

Em janeiro de 2011, em Niamey, dois jovens franceses são sequestrados em um restaurante e posteriormente executados durante a intervenção do exército francês que tentou impedir a fuga dos sequestradores..

Em 23 de maio de 2013 ocorreram os ataques de Agadez e Arlit. Foram os primeiros ataques suicidas de caráter salafista-jihadista no Níger. Até aquele momento haviam ocorrido somente sequestros de estrangeiros. Foram reivindicados pelo Movimento pela Unidade e Jihad na África Ocidental (MUJAO) e pelos Signatários com Sangue de Mokhtar Belmokhtar que atingiram um acampamento militar em Agadez e uma mina de urânio do grupo nuclear francês Areva em Arlit, com dezenas de mortos, a maioria militares.

Em outubro de 2013, os últimos quatro reféns dos sete funcionários da Areva e da subcontratada Satom que foram sequestrados em Arlit em 2010 pela Al Qaeda no Magrebe Islâmico, foram libertados.

Entre fevereiro de 2015 e março de 2017, segundo dados do Escritório das Nações Unidas para a Coordenação de Assuntos Humanitários, pelo menos 455 civis foram mortos, sequestrados ou feridos por ataques do Boko Haram na região de Diffa, no extremo sudeste. Quanto às baixas militares, são estimadas em 250 em todo o território, juntamente com dezenas de sequestros de militares.

Esforços de contraterrorismo
Em abril de 2010, Mali, Mauritânia, Níger e Argélia criaram o Comité de Estado-Maior Operacional Conjunto (Cémoc) com sede em Tamanrasset (sul da Argélia), que possui um centro de informações de segurança em Argel e se reúne a cada seis meses. Até 2014 esta organização nunca desenvolveu operações transfronteiriças conjuntas.

Em fevereiro de 2014, o G5 do Sahel foi criado para coordenar políticas de desenvolvimento e segurança. Integram o grupo: Burkina Faso, Chade, Mali, Mauritânia e Níger.

Envolvimento dos Estados Unidos

Até outubro de 2017, os Estados Unidos realizavam trabalho de inteligência militar no Níger com drones e treinavam tropas nigerinas. Na sequência da emboscada de Tongo Tongo, na fronteira com o Mali, na qual morreram quatro soldados estadunidenses e cinco nigerinos, o governo do Níger autorizou os Estados Unidos a realizarem bombardeamentos aéreos contra terroristas em território nigerino, dando um salto importante na luta contra o terrorismo no país.

Ver também
Terrorismo no Burquina Fasso

Terrorismo no Níger


Druga HNL u sezoni 2020./21. je natjecanje za drugoligaške hrvatske klubove. Liga se sastoji od 18 momčadi. Igra se dvokružnim sustavom (34 kola).
Prvak ostvaruje direktan plasman u 1. HNL.
Kao posljedica pandemije COVID-19 u svijetu i Hrvatskoj, više je utakmica odgađano.
Prvak lige je postao "Hrvatski dragovoljac" iz Zagreba dok su iz lige ispali Junak iz Sinja i Međimurje iz Čakovca, a Hajduk II je objavio da gasi svoju momčad.

U lipnju su 3 momčadi treće HNL igrale kvalifikacije za popunu druge HNL u sezoni 2021/2022, Belišće (prvak 3. HNL – Istok), Jarun (prvak 3. HNL – Središte) i Mladost Ždralovi (prvak 3. HNL – Sjever).  Prvo su u pretkolu igrali Mladost Ždralovi i Jarun gdje je Jarun prošao u finale kvalifikacija s 1:0 (igrano u Bjelovaru) a u finalu su pobijedili Belišće 2:0 i time se plasirali u Drugu HNL sezone 2021./2022.

Momčadi

Ljestvica

Rezultati
Sezona 2020./21. odigrava se u 34 natjecateljska kola.
''Posljednje ažuriranje: 25. lipnja 2021.

Najbolji strijelci lige
Izvori:

Strijelci 10 i više pogodaka:

 ''Ažurirano: 25. lipnja 2021.

Povezani članci
 1. HNL 2020./21.
 3. HNL 2020./21.
 4. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 5. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 6. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 7. rang HNL-a 2020./21.
 Hrvatski kup 2020./21.

Vanjske poveznice
 druga-hnl.com, Službene stranice 2. HNL
 2. HNL na stranicama Hrvatskog nogometnog saveza

Izvori
 druga-hnl.com, Raspored i rezultati natjecanja Druge HNL
 druga-hnl.com, Glasila
 hns-cff.hr/natjecanja/druga-hnl
 hns-cff.hr/natjecanja/druga-hnl (2020./21.), wayback arhiva
 int.soccerway.com, 2. HNL 2020./21.
 rsssf.com, ''Croatia 2020/21, 2. HNL
 sportnet.hr, Druga HNL 2020/21

2020-21
 2

2. HNL 2020./21.


Von Neumann mimarisi veri ve komutları tek bir yığıncak (depolama) biriminde bulunduran bilgisayar tasarı örneğidir. Paralel mimariler dışında Turing makinesi'nin ilkelerini uygulayan her bilgisayarı tanımlamak için kullanılır. Merkezi işlem biriminin bağımsızlığı dolaylı olup, "saklı yazılım bilgisayarı" (stored program computer) ile eşanlamlı olarak kullanılır.

Tarihçe
İlk hesap makineleri değişmez yazılımlara (veya programlara) sahiptiler. Bir makine hangi işlemi gerçekleştirmesi için tasarlandıysa sadece onu yerine getirebiliyordu. Günümüzde bazı basit bilgisayarlar hâlâ bu yapıyı kullanmaktadırlar. Bu tür bilgisayarların yeni bir görevi yerine getirebilmesi için donanımlarının tekrar tasarlanması zorunludur.

Bu zorlukların aşılması "saklı yazılım bilgisayarı" ilkesi ile gerçekleşmiştir. Söz konusu makinenin yürütebileceği bir dizi komutun tanımlanması ile bilgisayarlar çok daha esnek bir yapıya kavuştular. Komut ve verinin aynı biçimde saklanması ise, bu ilke sayesinde yazılımın kolayca değiştirilebilmesine olanak tanımıştır.

Saklı yazılım tasarımı, ayrıca yazılımların çalıştırılmaları esnasında kendilerini değiştirebilmelerini mümkün kılar. Bu özelliğin nedeni ise, geçmişte doğan, komutların bulunaklarını (adreslerini) değiştirebilme gereksinimidir. Günümüzde dizin yazmacı sayesinde bu sorun çözülmüştür, ancak kendini değiştiren yazılımların hatalarının ayıklanması son derece güç olduğundan yaygınlık kazanamamışlardır. Daha büyük ölçekte, komutları veri olarak kullanabilmek, derleyicilerin ana ilkesi olup, yazılımların yazılım yazmasına izin verir.

von Neumann mimarisinin dar geçit sorunu dışında, en olumsuz yanı hatalı yazılımların kendilerine, işletim sistemine ve hatta diğer yazılımlara zarar verebilmeleridir, örneğin arabellek taşması (buffer overflow) gibi.

İlk tasarılar
"von Neumann mimarisi" ad olarak John von Neumann'ın 30 Haziran 1945 tarihli makalesine dayanır. Bu makale genel amaçlı bir saklı yazılım bilgisayarının tasarısı üzerinedir. Saklı yazılımı bilgisayarı fikri Moore Elektrik Mühendisliği Okulu'nda von Neumann'dan önce de bilinmekteydi, ancak kim tarafından ortaya atıldığı bilinmemektedir.

John William Mauchly ve J. Presper Eckert ENIAC üzerine olan çalışmaları sürerken de saklı yazılım bilgisayarı hakkında bir makale yayımlamışlardır (1943). Ancak ENIAC'ın tasarım sürecinde delikli kartlardan veri okunması çok yavaş kaldığından, makine sabit yazılım ilkesine göre tasarlanmıştır.

Alan Turing ise 19 Şubat, 1946 tarihinde Pilot ACE adlı bir saklı yazılım bilgisayarının tam tasarımını yayımlamıştır.

Von Neumann dar geçidi
Bellek ile Merkezi işlem biriminin (MİB) ayrılması von Neumann dar geçidi olarak bilinen soruna yol açmaktadır. Bu sorun MİB ile bellek arası veri taşıma hızının, bellek miktarına göre çok düşük olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Öyle ki, MİB zamanın büyük çoğunluğunu bellekten istenilen verinin gelmesini beklemekle geçirir. Son yıllarda MİB'lerin hızları ile bellek erişim hızlarının arasındaki farkın açılması ile bu sorun daha da büyümüştür.

Sorunu hafifletmek adına arabellek (cache memory) ve dal kestirimi (branch prediction) uygulayımbilimleri geliştirilmiştir.

Evrim

1960 ve 1970'lerde bilgisayarlar küçülmeye ve hızlanmaya başladı, dolayısıyla mimarileri de evrim geçirdi. Örneğin bellek-haritalı G/Ç giriş ve çıkış cihazlarının hafıza ile aynı şekilde değerlendirilmesine izin veriyor. Yalnızca bir sistem veri yolu kullanılarak düşük bütçeyle modüler bir sistem oluşturulabilir. Bazen bu pratiğe mimarinin "düzene sokulması" () denir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Harvard mimarisi
 Turing makinesi

Kaynakça

Bilgisayar mimarisi
Flynn sınıflandırması
Bilgisayar türleri
Manchester Üniversitesi
1940'lar bilgisayarla ilgili tanıtımları

Neumann mimarisi


Food sovereignty is a food system in which the people who produce, distribute, and consume food also control the mechanisms and policies of food production and distribution. This stands in contrast to the present corporate food regime, in which corporations and market institutions control the global food system. Food sovereignty emphasizes local food economies, sustainable food availability, and centers culturally appropriate foods and practices. Changing climates and disrupted foodways disproportionately impact indigenous populations and their access to traditional food sources while contributing to higher rates of certain diseases; for this reason, food sovereignty centers indigenous peoples. These needs have been addressed in recent years by several international organizations, including the United Nations, with several countries adopting food sovereignty policies into law. Critics of food sovereignty activism believe that the system is founded on inaccurate baseline assumptions; disregards the origins of the targeted problems; and is plagued by a lack of consensus for proposed solutions.

Definition

The term "food sovereignty" was first coined in 1996 by members of Via Campesina, an international farmers' organisation, and later adopted by several international organisations, including the World Bank and United Nations. In 2007, the "Declaration of Nyéléni" provided a definition which was adopted by 80 countries; in 2011 it was further refined by countries in Europe. As of 2020, at least seven countries had integrated food sovereignty into their constitutions and laws.

History
Aligned somewhat with the tenets of the Slow Food organization, the history of food sovereignty as a movement is relatively young. However, the movement is gaining traction as more countries  take significant steps towards implementing  food systems that address inequities.

Global gatherings
At the 2007 Forum for Food Sovereignty in Sélingué, Mali,  500 delegates from more than 80 countries adopted the "Declaration of Nyéléni", which says in part:

Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems. It puts those who produce, distribute and consume food at the heart of food systems and policies rather than the demands of markets and corporations. It defends the interests and inclusion of the next generation. It offers a strategy to resist and dismantle the current corporate trade and food regime, and directions for food, farming, pastoral and fisheries systems determined by local producers. Food sovereignty prioritises local and national economies and markets and empowers peasant and family farmer-driven agriculture, artisanal fishing, pastoralist-led grazing, and food production, distribution and consumption based on environmental, social and economic sustainability.

In April 2008 the International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development (IAASTD), an intergovernmental panel under the sponsorship of the United Nations and the World Bank, adopted the following definition: "Food sovereignty is defined as the right of peoples and sovereign states to democratically determine their own agricultural and food policies."

Government food sovereignty policy
Issues of  food production, distribution and access are seldom apolitical or without criticism. For example, the adoption of the Green Revolution in countries across the globe has increased world food production but has not "solved" the problem of world hunger. Food sovereignty advocates argue this is because the movement did not address access to land or distribution of economic power. Others argue that food sovereignty is based on incorrect baseline assumptions around the role of subsistence farming in government policy. Agrarian aspects of food sovereignty put the movement in conflict with globalisation, industrialisation, and urbanisation trends.

After Hugo Chávez was elected president of Venezuela in 1998, a new constitution was approved by the people of Venezuela which included the right to food as one of its basic civil rights. The government set up  missions to deliver the various constitutional rights. Several missions related to food and farming were established by Chávez' government to provide equitable food access. Among these were the Misión Alimentación, Misión Vuelvan Caras, Misión Mercal and Misión Zamora. Later the Gran Misión AgroVenezuela was created to increase domestic agricultural production. Among the strategies used to increase food sovereignty for Venezuelans were land reform, agroecology, use of traditional crops and biological pest control and the establishment of subsidised food outlets such as Arepera Socialista, Café Venezuela and Cacao Venezuela.

In September 2008, Ecuador enshrined food sovereignty in its constitution. As of late 2008, a law is in the draft stages that is expected to expand upon this constitutional provision by banning genetically modified organisms, protecting many areas of the country from extraction of non-renewable resources, and to discourage monoculture. The law as drafted will also protect biodiversity as collective intellectual property and recognize the Rights of Nature.

Since then Mali, Bolivia, Nepal, Senegal and Egypt (2014 Constitution) have integrated food sovereignty into their national constitutions or laws.

Indigenous food sovereignty

Global Issues

Climate
Climate change is impacting the food security of indigenous communities as well, including Pacific Islanders and those in the Circumpolar North, due to rising sea levels or erosion.

Cuisine
Activists claim that native food sovereignty is also appropriated as a cuisine for mainstream dining because indigenous foods are framed to be culturally authentic, desired by those outside of these communities. Ingredients that are cultural staples, which are harder for these populations to find, are displaced due to a greater demand for access outside of indigenous populations.

Indigenous food sovereignty in the United States
Native Americans have been directly impacted in their ability to acquire and prepare their food and this disruption of traditional diets has resulted in health problems, including diabetes and heart disease.  Indigenous food sovereignty activists in the United States assert that the systematic displacement of indigenous communities has led to mass food insecurity.  Activist groups advocate for revitalization of traditional practices, development of local food economies, the right to food, and seed sovereignty.

Indigenous people's food sovereignty and food security are closely related to their geographical location. Traditional indigenous foodways in the United States are tied to the ancestral homelands of Native American populations, especially for those with strong subsistence traditions. For instance, it is taught among the Muckleshoot that "the land that provides the foods and medicines we need are a part of who we are."

The disruption of traditional foodways is described to be tied to the disruption of the connection between traditional Native land and their people, a change Rachel V. Vernon describes as being tied to "racism, colonialism, and the loss of autonomy and power."  Pre-colonial lands were expansive and thriving with traditional foods.  Because of disease and war, Native peoples in the early 20th century were directly impacted in their ability to acquire and prepare their food. In addition to this, relocation away from ancestral lands further limited traditional foodways. Many indigenous people in the United States now live in food deserts. Due to inadequate or inhibited access to food, indigenous peoples suffer disproportionately from food insecurity compared to the rest of the US population. At reservations, the "'highly processed, high sugar, high fat, and processed foods,'" further contributed to health issues in Native populations, leading to indigenous peoples in the United States having the highest rates of diabetes and heart disease in the nation. In addition to this, a majority of Native peoples also live off-reservation, and so are even further removed from traditional foodways.

Because Native American nations are sovereign from the United States, they receive little help in rehabilitating traditional foodways. As defined by the National Congress of American Indians, tribal sovereignty ensures that any decisions about the tribes with regard to their property and citizens are made with their participation and consent. The United States federal government recognizes Native American tribes as separate governments, opposed to "special interest groups, individuals, or ... other type of non-governmental entity."

History

Prior to the colonization of the Americas, Native Americans had a diverse diet and food culture, procuring food in various ways across tribes. Depending on the region, Indigenous people sourced their food by hunting, fishing, gathering, and farming. Native food pathways revolved around the "three sisters," or corn, beans, and squash, as staples in their diet. Hunting, gathering, and fishing were the primary means of collecting food.

These balanced ecosystems were disrupted by European settler colonialism following Christopher Columbus' "discovery" of America in 1492. Upon European arrival, the Indigenous peoples of America were stripped of their supplies and even starved out as a tactic for colonial control over Native lands. Domesticated animals were introduced into America by European settlers, bringing with them new diseases. Colonizers targeted food stores specifically and drastically changed Native American diets, their ability to acquire resources, and produce food.

New food systems put in place by American settlers, have over time forced a dependency upon processed and mass-produced food on Indian reservations and indigenous communities at large. Native tribes have been forced into a position of food insecurity and put in a place in society where there is no ability to afford other sources of healthy or food that is organically farmed. With a loss of food sovereignty, there was also a loss of land, as Indians were relocated and forcibly assimilated. Following Congress' passing of the Indian Appropriations Act in 1851, all Indigenous people were forced onto Indian reservations, losing the ability to cultivate the earth and rely on traditional means of living.

Activism
Native Americans today fight for food sovereignty as a means to address health, returning to culturally traditional foods for healing. Returning to traditional eating is challenging, considering an extensive history of relocation and cultural genocide.  Many Native American histories of traditional culture foods have been lost or are now difficult to recreate.

Indigenous food sovereignty activists in the United States assert that indigenous communities have been systematically displaced from their traditional foodways, which has led to mass food insecurity. It is argued that the most effective way to achieve food security for indigenous groups is to increase their agency in food production. Some activists also argue for food sovereignty as a means of healing historical trauma and as a means of decolonizing their communities. In the United States the Indigenous Food Systems Network and the Native American Food Sovereignty Alliance work towards education and policy-making concerned with food and farming security. Another group focused on requiring food and energy sovereignty is the White Earth Anishnaabeg from Minnesota, who focus on a variety of foods, planting and harvesting them using traditional methods, a form of decolonization. Such groups meet to establish policies for food sovereignty and to develop their local food economies at summits such as the Diné Bich'iiya' Summit in Tsaile, Arizona, which focused on Navajo traditional foods.

Indigenous food sovereignty activists also often advocate for seed sovereignty, and more generally for plant breeders' rights. Seed saving is important to indigenous communities in the United States because it provides those communities with a stable food source and holds cultural importance. In addition, seed sovereignty advocates often argue that seed saving is an important mechanism in creating agricultural systems that can adapt to climate change.

Food sovereignty research and projects
In 2021, a comprehensive literature review of IFS (Indigenous Food Sovereignty) and the effectiveness of food sovereignty principles concluded that Indigenous people in the United States and Canada have higher rates of obesity, food insecurity, and Type 2 diabetes than the general population.

Government projects supporting indigenous food systems are new attempts to uplift indigenous communities and are in amateur stages of development. Other countries adopted Indigenous food programs years before the U.S., including Canada. The Canadian Food Guide (CFG) was created in January 2019 as a means to include multicultural diets, instead of basing food standards on one or few cultures — the guide includes Indigenous diets and involved Indigenous populations in consultation.

In 2021, the United States' Department of Agriculture launched the Indigenous Food Sovereignty Initiative. This initiative is designed to "promote traditional food ways" as, similar to Canada, USDA programs have not historically encompassed Indigenous food pathways and diets. The USDA has partnered with organizations already serving Indigenous tribes: The Indigenous Seed Keepers Network, Linda Black Elk & Lisa Iron Cloud, Intertribal Buffalo Council, North American Traditional Indigenous Food Systems, Intertribal Agriculture Council, and the University of Arkansas - Indigenous Food and Agriculture Initiative.

Non-governmental projects, such as the "Good Life" project in Ecuador, are spearheaded by independent organizations and Indigenous community members. The "Good Life" suggests that there are alternative methods of action through Indigenous community development that do not involve governmental funding or state provisioning. In Ecuador, the Indigenous community has developed the "Good Life" project which drifts away from capitalist and western understandings of what a community needs, and rather focuses on cultivating community success through harmony with the people, nature, and defending their land — essentially working directly within an Indigenous community to reclaim food sovereignty.

Organizations in the United States have adopted similar models to Ecuador's "Good Life" project. In California, the UC Berkeley organization, CARES (the Community Assessment of Renewable Energy and Sustainability) works with the PPN (Pinoleville Pomo Nation) in Ukiah, California, to support their tribal sovereignty. This Indigenous community has been working with CARES over the years to design sustainable housing and energy that reflect its culture.

Narragansett people exercised their own food sovereignty initiative by reappropriating landscapes, seascapes, estuaries, spaces, and built places from a Rhode Island "Farm", which had, in earnest after 1690, sustained southern New England proprietorship, land banks, and currency within a Greater Caribbean plantation complex. This carrying trade became a potential leg of the Triangular trade, although historians also argue that the self-contained carrying trade belied the triangle as a sequential circuit. Despite the antebellum rise of "Greater Northeast" industrial agriculture, the southern New England "Farms" and the carrying trade in Caribbean sugar, molasses, rice, coffee, indigo, mahogany, and pre-1740 "seasoned slaves", began to dissipate by the Election of 1800 and largely collapsed into agrarian ruins by the War of 1812.

The expansion of the Narragansett tribal project garnered media coverage and incited scholars to reevaluate a diminished focus on, or complete absence of, such "Farms", their proprietors, their multipurpose Pacers, seaport carriers, land banks, and Narragansett foodways in extant studies on Eastern Woodland Algonquian communities by both historians and anthropologists.

Seed sovereignty
Seed sovereignty can be defined as the right "to breed and exchange diverse open-sourced seeds." It is closely connected to food sovereignty, as seed sovereignty activists argue for the practice of seed saving partly as a means of increasing food security.  These activists argue that seed saving allows for a closed food system that can help communities gain independence from major agricultural companies. Seed sovereignty is distinct from food sovereignty in its emphasis on seed saving specifically, rather than food systems in their entirety. Seed sovereignty activists often argue for seed saving based on environmental reasoning, not just food justice ones. They argue that seed saving fills an important role of restoring biodiversity to agriculture, and producing plant varieties that are more resilient to change climatic conditions in light of climate change.

Food sovereignty versus food security

Food sovereignty
Movements to reclaim sovereignty over food have existed around the world for centuries; however, the concept of "food sovereignty" itself emerged in 1996. Food sovereignty was initially defined by "small-scale producers [who] organized as the transnational social movement La Vía Campesina (LVC), and was launched globally at the 1996 United Nations World Food Summit." It is a concept that explains how the industrialization of food pathways has decreased one's freedom to choose one's own food source."Food sovereignty movements work hard to increase local community control of the production, processing, and distribution of food, as this is seen as a necessary condition for liberating communities from oppression," which has transformed food movements toward building more overall security.

In fall 2003, Peter Rosset argues in Food First'''s Backgrounder that "food sovereignty goes beyond the concept of food security... [Food security] means that... [everyone] must have the certainty of having enough to eat each day[,] ... but says nothing about where that food comes from or how it is produced." Food sovereignty includes support for smallholders and for collectively owned farms, fisheries, etc., rather than industrializing these sectors in a minimally regulated global economy. In another publication, Food First describes "food sovereignty" as "a platform for rural revitalization at a global level based on equitable distribution of farmland and water, farmer control over seeds, and productive small-scale farms supplying consumers with healthy, locally grown food."

 Food Security
In the 90's the Food and Agriculture Organization defined food security as "all people, at all times, hav[ing] physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life." Despite the fact that food security has become more widely understood in the US as availability and access to nutritious foods all the time, this definition is not universally applicable. For instance, in the European Union, "the official food insecurity indicator includes the unaffordability of 'a meal with meat, chicken or fish every second day'" This definition differs greatly from food insecurity measurements of the US for instance.The existence of contradicting markers of food insecurity happening globally reflects different research and interpretations of that research.

Food security, emphasises access to adequate nutrition for all, which may be provided by food from one's own country or from global imports. In the name of efficiency and enhanced productivity, it has therefore served to promote what has been termed the "corporate food regime": large-scale, industrialised corporate farming based on specialized production, land concentration and trade liberalisation. Critics of the food security movement claim that its inattention to the political economy of the corporate food regime blinds it to the adverse effects of that regime, notably the widespread dispossession of small producers and global ecological degradation.

 Criticisms of the Green Revolution
The Green Revolution, which  refers to developments in plant breeding between the 1960s and 1980s that improved yields from major cereal crops, is upheld by some proponents of food security as a success story in increasing crop yields and combating world hunger. The policy focused primarily in research, development and transfer of agricultural technology, such as hybrid seeds and fertilisers, through massive private and public investment that went into transforming agriculture in a number of countries, starting in Mexico and India. However, many in the food sovereignty movement are critical of the green revolution and accuse those who advocate it as following too much of a Western culture technocratic program that is out of touch with the needs of majority of small producers and peasants.

While the green revolution greatly increased food production and averted famine, world hunger continues because it did not address the problem of access. Food sovereignty advocates argue that the green revolution failed to alter the highly concentrated distribution of economic power, particularly access to land and purchasing power. Critics also argue that the green revolution's increased use of herbicides caused widespread environmental destruction and reduced biodiversity in many areas.

 Academic perspectives

 Food Regime theory

According to Philip McMichael, a "world agriculture" under the WTO Agreement on Agriculture ("food from nowhere") represents one pole of the "central contradiction" of the present regime.  He is interested in the food sovereignty movement's potential to escalate the tension between this and its opposing pole, the agroecology-based localism ("food from somewhere") advocated by various grassroots food movements. Offering slightly different conclusions, recent work by Harriet Friedmann suggests that "food from somewhere" is already being co-opted under an emergent "corporate-environmental" regime  (cf. Campbell 2009).

 Criticisms

 Wrong baseline assumptions
Some scholars argue that the Food Sovereignty movement follows wrong baseline assumptions, citing that small-scale farming is not necessarily a freely chosen lifestyle and farmers in least developed and highly developed countries do not face the same challenges. These critics claim the Food Sovereignty movement may be right about the mistakes of neoliberal economic ideology, but it is silent about the fact that many famines actually occurred under socialist and communist regimes that pursued the goal of food self-sufficiency (cf. Aerni 2011).

 Political-jurisdictional model
There is a lack of consensus within the food sovereignty movement regarding the political or jurisdictional community at which its calls for democratisation and renewed "agrarian citizenship"  are directed.  In public statements, the food sovereignty movement urges strong action from both national governments and local communities (in the vein of the indigenous rights movement, Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) . Elsewhere it has also appealed to global civil society to act as a check against abuses by national and supranational governing bodies.

Those who take a radically critical view on state sovereignty would argue against the possibility that national sovereignty can be reconciled with that of local communities (see also the debate about multiculturalism and indigenous autonomy in Mexico ).

 Crisis of the peasantry?
In its strong reassertion of rural and peasant identities, the food sovereignty movement has been read as a challenge to modernist narratives of inexorable urbanisation, industrialisation of agriculture, and de-peasantisation.  However, as part of ongoing debates over the contemporary relevance of agrarianism in classical Marxism, Henry Bernstein is critical of these accounts. He claims that such analyses tend to present the agrarian population as a unified, singular and world-historical social category, failing to account for:
 a population's vast internal social differentiation (North/South, gender and class positionalities);
 the conservative, cultural survivalist tendencies of a movement that has emerged as part of a backlash against the perceived homogenising forces of globalisation (Boyer discusses whether food sovereignty is a counter or anti-development narrative)  Berstein claims that these accounts cannot escape a certain agrarian populism (or agrarianism). For a response to Bernstein, see McMichael (2009).

 See also

 2007–2008 world food price crisis
 Land grabbing
 Permaculture
 United Nations Decade of Family Farming
 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants

 Footnotes

 Literature
 Annette Desmarais, Nettie Wiebe, and Hannah Wittman (2010). Food Sovereignty: Reconnecting Food, Nature and Community. Food First Books.
 Choplin, Gérard; Strickner, Alexandra; Trouvé, Aurélie [Hg.] (2011). Food sovereignty - towards a new agricultural and food policy in Europe  (Ernährungssouveränität - Für eine andere Agrar- und Lebensmittelpolitik in Europa). Mandelbaum Verlag.

 Five Acres and Independence

 External links
 European Forum for Food Sovereignty - Krems, Austria, August 2011
 Indigenous Food Systems Network
 Native American Food Sovereignty Alliance
 Nyéléni First International Forum for Food Sovereignty (Sélingué, Mali - February 2007) and International newsletter'' - voice of the movement for Food Sovereignty
 War on Want's Food Sovereignty programme
 "FOOD SOVEREIGNTY: towards democracy in localized food systems" by Michael Windfuhr and Jennie Jonsén, FIAN. ITDG Publishing - working paper. 64pp. 2005. Provides information on the Food Sovereignty Policy Framework. Links to many key statements and documents produced over the past decade. Downloadable PDF available.
 "International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty". The International NGO/CSO Planning Committee - IPC is a global network of NGOs/CSOs concerned with food sovereignty issues and programs. The IPC serves as a  mechanism for diffusion of information on food sovereignty and food security issues.
 Food sovereignty and rural youth (MIJARC)
 Michel Pimbert, 2010. IIED. Towards Food Sovereignty. Reclaiming autonomous food systems
"What is food sovereignty?"  - World Development Movement

Food security
Sovereignty

Food sovereignty


An Calamagrostis nutkaensis in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Jan Svatopluk Presl, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel. An Calamagrostis nutkaensis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Calamagrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Calamagrostis

Calamagrostis nutkaensis


2. ŽNL Istarska u sezoni 2017./18. predstavlja 2. rang županijske lige u Istarskoj županiji, te ligu šestog ranga hrvatskog nogometnog prvenstva.
U ligi sudjeluje 12 klubova. Ligu je osvojio "Jedinstvo Omladinac" iz Nedeščine.

Sudionici
 Brtonigla-Nova Vas
 Dajla
 Iskra Vinež
 Jedinstvo Omladinac Nedešćina
 Kaštelir Labinci
 Mladost Rovinjsko Selo
 Muntić
 Plomin
 Pula ICI
 Rabac
 Šišan
 Vodnjan

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka
Ažurirano 8. lipnja 2018.

 Izvori:

Poveznice
 2. ŽNL Istarska
 3. ŽNL Istarska 2017./18.
 Nogometni savez Županije Istarske
 nszi.hr, 2. ŽNL Istarska
 nszi.hr, Bilteni
 istrasport.eu, 2. ŽNL Istarska
 istrasport.eu, 2. ŽNL Istarska, ljestvica

Izvori
 nszi.hr, 2. ŽNL Istarska , pristupljeno 22. prosinca 2017.
 istrasport.eu, 2. ŽNL Istarska, ljestvica , pristupljeno 8. lipnja 2018.
 nszi.hr, Bilten, br. 45 (408/2018) (rezultati 22. kola i konačna ljestvica), objavljeno 30. svibnja 2018., preuzeto 8. lipnja 2018.

2017-18
Istarska-2

2. ŽNL Istarska 2017./18.


Elise Wattendorf (* 25. November 1961) ist eine ehemalige Schweizer Mittel- und Langstreckenläuferin.

Werdegang
Bei den Crosslauf-Weltmeisterschaften belegte sie 1980 in Paris Platz 42 und 1981 in Madrid Platz 57.

1981 siegte sie bei der Course de l'Escalade. 1982 wurde sie über 1500 m Schweizer Hallenmeisterin und Siebte bei den Leichtathletik-Halleneuropameisterschaften in Mailand.

Persönliche Bestzeiten
 1500 m: 4:15,7 min, 17. Juli 1980, Paris
 Halle: 4:20,04 min, 7. März 1982, Mailand
 3000 m: 9:20,76 min, 15. Juni 1980, Winterthur
 Halle: 9:44,35 min, 25. Januar 1981, Magglingen

Einzelnachweise

1500-Meter-Läufer (Schweiz)
Langstreckenläufer (Schweiz)
Schweizer
Geboren 1961
Frau

Elise Wattendorf


Quintus Petilius Secundus, Roma İmparatorluğu adına görev yaptığı Almanya'nın Bonn kentinde MS 65'te hayatını kaybeden, anıt-mezarı 1755 yılında ortaya çıkarılan lejyoner (paralı asker). Araştırmalar, Quintus Petilius Secundus'un 5 yıllık görev süresinin ardından, 25 yaşında öldüğünü ortaya koymuştur.

Lejonerin Mezar-Taşı

Quintus Petilius Secundus'un günümüzde Bonn'daki Ren Eyalet Müzesi'nde sergilenen anıt-mezarındaki yazı şöyledir:

 Q(uintus) PETILIVS Q(uinti)F(ilius) O(u)FEN(tina tribu)
 SECVNDVS DOM(o)
 MEDIO(lano)MILES LEG(ionis)
 XV PRIM(igeniae) ANN(oruum) XXV
 STIP(endiorum) V
 H(eres) ex (T(estamentum) F(aciendum) C(uravit)

Latince metnin çevirisi:

 Ben Oufentina bölgesinden, Quintus'un oğlu Quintus Petilius Secundus
 memleketim Milano'dur
 XV Primigenia birliğine bağlı bir asker olarak görev yaparken 25'inde öldüm
 5 yıl hizmetin ardından
 Bu mezar, vasiyetim üzerine mirasçılarım tarafından hazırlandı.

40 doğumlular
65 yılında ölenler
Antik Romalı askerî personel

Quintus Petilius Secundus


Die Vier Tage von Neapel (italienisch: Quattro giornate di Napoli) bezeichnen den Zeitraum vom 27. bis zum 30. September 1943, in dem sich die Bevölkerung Neapels während des Zweiten Weltkriegs in einem Aufstand selbst von der Besatzung durch deutsche Truppen befreite.

Erst einen Tag später, am 1. Oktober, marschierten die ersten alliierten Truppen in Neapel ein.

Geschichte

Hintergrund
Zwischen 1940 und 1943 war Neapel wiederholt Ziel alliierter Luftangriffe, die in der Stadt schwere Schäden verursachten und rund 20.000 Einwohner das Leben kostete. Über 3.000 Zivilisten starben bei dem Luftangriff am 4. August 1943. Nach der Bekanntgabe des Waffenstillstands von Cassibile am 8. September 1943 herrschte bald Chaos in der Stadt, da sich italienische Militärverbände auflösten und zivile Behörden ihre Dienste angesichts der Machtübernahme durch deutsche Militärkommandos nur noch eingeschränkt leisteten.

Für zusätzliche Unruhe sorgte die keine hundert Kilometer entfernte Landung der Alliierten bei Salerno einen Tag nach Bekanntgabe des Waffenstillstandes am 9. September. Dem deutschen Generalstab war bewusst, dass man sich bald aus Süditalien zurückziehen musste und bereitete dementsprechende ARLZ-Maßnahmen vor, die auf dem Prinzip der verbrannten Erde beruhten und auch das Stadtgebiet von Neapel betrafen.

Nachdem es bereits Anfang September zu Schüler- und Studentenprotesten gegen den Krieg gekommen war, intensivierten sich solche Aktionen in den Tagen nach dem Waffenstillstand; sie richteten sich nunmehr jedoch gegen die deutsche Besatzungsmacht. Am 10. September kam es zu ersten blutigen Zusammenstößen zwischen italienischen Soldaten, die von einigen Zivilisten unterstützt wurden, und deutschen Truppen auf der Piazza del Plebiscito und in den angrenzenden Gärten am Palazzo Reale. Einen Tag darauf erließ General Hermann Balck, Kommandeur des für den Bereich Neapel zuständigen XIV. Panzerkorps, den Befehl, jeden bewaffneten Widerstand "brutal und ohne Rücksicht auf die Zivilbevölkerung" niederzuschlagen. Dieser Befehl kann als Präzedenzfall für die Radikalisierung der weiteren deutschen Kriegsführung in Süditalien angesehen werden.

In der Folge eskalierte die Gewalt. Nach dem Tod zweier deutscher Soldaten im Hafen von Neapel wurde der Stadtteil am Hafen von drei schweren deutschen Flakbatterien unter Beschuss genommen.   Am 12. September wurde als Vergeltung für vier getötete deutsche Soldaten  die Nationalbibliothek im Palazzo Reale in Brand gesteckt, auf eine Menschenansammlung geschossen und im Golf von Neapel etliche Schiffe versenkt. Der neue deutsche Stadtkommandant, Oberst Walter Scholl, verkündete den Belagerungszustand und verhängte Ausgangssperren. Die Zivilbevölkerung wurde verpflichtet, ihre Waffen binnen 24 Stunden abzugeben; für jeden getöteten deutschen Soldaten kündigte man die Exekution von 100 italienischen Zivilisten an. Zivilisten wurden noch am 12. September an verschiedenen Orten in Neapel und Umgebung zusammengetrieben, um die Exekution italienischer Soldaten und Polizisten zu verfolgen, die sich in unterschiedlicher Weise der Besatzungsmacht widersetzt hatten. Diese Maßnahmen beruhigten die Lage in Neapel nur oberflächlich. Von rund 30.000 Männern im Alter zwischen 18 und 33 Jahren, die man in vier Stadtteilen zur Zwangsarbeit in Norditalien und Deutschland verpflichten wollte, meldeten sich 150. Es folgten Razzien und Exekutionen. Am 23. September befahl Stadtkommandant Scholl die Räumung aller entlang der Küste gelegenen Häuser Neapels. Bei einer Distanz von 300 Metern vom Meer betraf dies etwa 240.000 Bürger, die in wenigen Stunden ihre Wohnungen verlassen mussten. Auf diese Weise sollte ein militärischer Sicherheitsbereich entlang des Hafens gebildet werden, was auf dessen Zerstörung hindeutete.

Der Aufstand

Auslöser der Insurrektion war eine für den 27. September angeordnete Razzia, die durch Truppen des zur 16. Panzer-Division gehörenden Panzer-Grenadier-Regiments 79 ausgeführt wurde. Bei der Operation wurden mehrere tausend Einwohner, die Angaben schwanken je nach Quelle zwischen 2000, laut deutschen Einsatzberichten, und 8000 Personen laut ANPI, festgenommen, die als Zwangsarbeiter verschleppt werden sollten. Etwa 400 bis 500 bewaffnete Zivilisten, die sich der Maßnahme widersetzten, verwickelten die deutschen Truppen in Kämpfe, die sich rasch auf weitere Bereiche der Stadt ausdehnten und den ganzen Tag andauerten. Die ersten Kämpfe brachen dabei im Stadtviertel Vomero aus, als ein deutsches Fahrzeug von Aufständischen mit Waffengewalt angehalten und der Fahrer erschossen wurde. Besonders umkämpft waren eine Waffenkammer im Castel Sant'Elmo und die Gegend um das Museo di Capodimonte. Gegen Ende des Tages erbeuteten die Aufständischen in einigen Kasernen weitere Waffen.

Für die deutschen Besatzungstruppen in Neapel wurde die Lage am 27. September kritisch. Sie waren nicht nur in zahlreiche Kämpfe verwickelt, sondern bald auch von den Aufständischen eingeschlossen und die Einheiten zum Teil versprengt. Das XIV. Panzerkorps musste zur Verstärkung ein weiteres Bataillon des Panzer-Grenadier-Regiments 79 heranführen. Letzteres hatte die Aufgabe die Umschließung  aufzubrechen und die Verbindungen mit den deutschen Einheiten herzustellen, was unter empfindlichen Verlusten nur zum Teil gelang. Erst gegen Abend konnte eine Verbindung mit dem Stadtkommandanten Scholl hergestellt werden. Eine "Säuberungsaktion" der Stadt war nach Ansicht der deutschen Besatzungstruppen unvermeidlich geworden.

Am 28. September nahm die Zahl der Aufständischen zu. Heftige Schießereien gab es im Stadtteil Materdei, an der Porta Capuana, um das Castel Nuovo am Hafen, bei Monteoliveto und an anderen Orten. Dabei richteten sich die Aufständischen nicht nur gegen die deutschen Besatzungstruppen, sondern auch gegen italienische Faschisten, die an den Razzien teilgenommen hatten. Im Stadtteil Vomero konzentrierten deutsche Einheiten Gefangene auf dem Sportplatz Campo Sportivo del Littorio, heute Stadio Arturo Collana, die am folgenden Tag nach Verhandlungen frei kamen.

Die zunehmenden Aufstände blieben auch am folgenden 29. September unkoordiniert; erste Führungsstrukturen der Resistenza waren andernorts erst im Aufbau. Auf der Piazza Giuseppe Mazzini griffen deutsche Einheiten mit Kampfpanzern an, was 12 Aufständische das Leben kostete. Zu schweren Kämpfen kam es auch im Arbeiterviertel Ponticelli, wo deutsche Soldaten wahllos Zivilisten umbrachten. Schauplatz von Kämpfen war auch die Gegend um den Flugplatz Capodichino. Beim deutschen Hauptquartier im Corso Vittorio Emanuele, das mehrmals angegriffen worden war, begannen Verhandlungen zwischen Oberst Walter Scholl und dem italienischen Oberleutnant Enzo Stimolo: man einigte sich grundsätzlich auf die Freilassung der italienischen Gefangenen und im Gegenzug auf den freien Abzug der deutschen Truppen.

Während die deutschen Truppen am 30. September mit dem Abzug aus Neapel begannen, erklärte sich der Lehrer Antonio Tarsia in Curia zum Anführer der Aufständischen und übernahm das Kommando in Neapel. Die Kämpfe in der Stadt gingen noch weiter: von den Höhen von Capodimonte beschossen deutsche Truppen noch den ganzen Tag die Gegend zwischen Port'Alba und der Piazza Mazzini, und auch um die Porta Capuana dauerten die Gefechte an. Abziehende deutsche Truppen töteten weiter wahllos Zivilisten und steckten Gebäude in Brand, darunter die Villa Montesano in San Paolo Bel Sito mit den ausgelagerten wertvollsten Beständen des Staatsarchivs Neapel, in der unersetzliche historische Urkunden verbrannten.

Bewertung und Folgen
Der Abzug der deutschen Truppen erfolgte auch wegen der alliierten Truppen, die sich Neapel von Nocera Inferiore aus näherten. Am Vormittag des 1. Oktober 1943 erreichten die ersten alliierten Einheiten die zu großen Teilen zerstörte Innenstadt Neapels. Wie viele Menschen während der vier Tage von Neapel ihr Leben ließen, konnte nicht abschließend geklärt werden, vermutlich waren es auf italienischer Seite zwischen 500 und 600. Aus diesen Zahlen geht allerdings nicht hervor, wie viele Aufständische bei den Kampfhandlungen starben oder wie hoch die Anzahl der Toten bei der Zivilbevölkerung war, die durch Repressalien der deutschen Besatzungstruppen umkamen. Ebenso wenig ist die sehr wahrscheinlich wesentlich geringere Anzahl der Gefallenen deutschen Soldaten und die der italienischen Faschisten bekannt.

Welche deutschen Einheiten alle an den Massakern an der Zivilbevölkerung während der vier Tage von Neapel beteiligt waren, ist nicht vollständig geklärt. An den Aktionen in Neapel waren neben Einheiten der 16. Panzer-Division auch Einheiten der Fallschirm-Panzer-Division 1 Hermann Göring, der 3. und 15. Panzergrenadier-Division sowie dem Stadtkommandanten Scholl unterstellte Truppen beteiligt.

Nach dem Abzug der deutschen Besatzungstruppen waren die Kämpfe um die Stadt allerdings noch nicht beendet. Zwar wurde ein bereits anbefohlener Luftangriff der deutschen Luftwaffe im letzten Moment abgesagt, dafür wurde die Stadt aber von den Deutschen unter Artilleriefeuer genommen. Zudem hatten deutsche Pioniere bei ihrem Rückzug zahlreiche Gebäude vermint und mit Zeitzündern versehen. Zwar konnte ein Großteil dieser Minen aufgespürt und unschädlich gemacht werden, eine in der Hauptpost versteckte Mine explodierte jedoch eine Woche nach der Befreiung und forderte weitere 30 Tote und 80 Verletzte.

Der Aufstand von Neapel wurde von breiten Teilen der Bevölkerung getragen, auch wenn die Deutschen abwertend von einem vom "Pöbel" getragenen Aufstand sprachen. An den vier Tagen von Neapel beteiligten sich nicht nur politisch aktive Antifaschisten, sondern auch Intellektuelle aus der Oberschicht, Soldaten und Offiziere der italienischen Armee sowie Arbeiter aus den Arbeitervierteln der Stadt und Bauern aus dem Umland. Dabei war es kein politisch motivierter oder organisierter Aufstand, sondern eine spontane Reaktion auf die durchgeführten Razzien und Zwangsdeportationen sowie auf die Demontage und Zerstörung der Industrie- und Hafenanlagen. Auch wenn die Alliierten bei ihrem Einzug in die Stadt am 1. Oktober eine weitgehend zerstörte Infrastruktur vorfanden, konnte der Großteil der geplanten Deportationen verhindert werden.

Die vier Tage von Neapel wirkten sich mehrfach auf die folgenden Ereignisse in Italien aus. Angefacht durch den Erfolg der Aufständischen kam es an den ersten Oktobertagen zu Widerstandsaktionen an mehreren Orten im Gebiet nördlich von Neapel, das immer noch von den deutschen Truppen besetzt war, die am Fluss Volturno eine neue Verteidigungslinie bezogen. Auf den Widerstand reagierten die sich zurückziehenden deutschen Truppen mit äußerster Härte. Die Brutalität, mit der dabei auch gegen Zivilisten, darunter Frauen und Kinder, vorgegangen wurde, war sicher eine Reaktion auf die gewalttätigen Angriffe in Neapel, die die Deutschen so nicht erwartet hatten. Den Aussagen von kriegsgefangenen deutschen Soldaten ist zu entnehmen, dass man die bislang als schlecht eingestufte Kampfmoral der Italiener nach dem 30. September neu bewerten musste. Zugleich befürchtete man Schlimmes für die Zukunft.

Unmittelbar nach den Ereignissen in Neapel wurde eine Gewaltspirale ausgelöst, die eine Eigendynamik entwickelte, gegen die selbst das Oberkommando Südwest vergeblich vorging. Der von Generalfeldmarschall Kesselring am 8. Oktober 1943 herausgegebene Befehl an die Truppe, keine Exekutionen ohne vorherige Autorisierung des OB Südwest durchzuführen, blieb weitgehend ungehört. Allein in den Provinzen Caserta und Neapel wurden bis November 1943 etwa 1500 Menschen durch deutsche Einheiten getötet.

Gedenken

Die Stadt Neapel wurde nach dem Krieg für den Aufstand mit der goldenen Tapferkeitsmedaille ausgezeichnet. Postum erhielten diese höchste militärische Auszeichnung Italiens vier minderjährige Aufständische: der elfjährige Gennaro Capuozzo, der dreizehnjährige Filippo Illuminato, sowie die beiden siebzehnjährigen Pasquale Formisano und Mario Menichini. Es wurden auch silberne und bronzene Tapferkeitsmedaillen sowie einige Kriegsverdienstkreuze an Aufständische verliehen.

Der 28. September ist heute in Italien ein nationaler Gedenktag, an dem landesweit eine besondere Beflaggungsregel gilt. Die vier Tage von Neapel bilden einen der bedeutendsten Ausgangspunkte des bewaffneten Widerstands der Resistenza, der am 25. April 1945 in Norditalien seinen Abschluss fand und dessen mit dem Tag der Befreiung Italiens gedacht wird.

In Neapel wurden ein Platz, ein Straßentunnel, eine U-Bahn-Haltestelle und eine Schule nach den Vier Tagen von Neapel benannt. Etliche Gedenktafeln erinnern an Kämpfe und Opfer. An der Riviera di Chiaia ist ein Denkmal den zahlreichen minderjährigen Aufständischen gewidmet.

Film
 Die vier Tage von Neapel (Kriegsfilm, 1962, Regie  Nanni Loy) (YouTube-Link)
 Der Weg zurück (Komödie, 1960, Regie Luigi Comencini)

Literatur
 Giuseppe Aragno: Le Quattro Giornate di Napoli - Storie di Antifascisti. Edizioni Intra Moenia, Neapel 2017, ISBN 9788874212033.
 Carlo Gentile: I crimini di guerra tedeschi in Italia 1943–1945. Einaudi, Turin 2015, ISBN 978-88-06-21721-1.
 Carlo Gentile: Wehrmacht und Waffen-SS im Partisanenkrieg. Italien 1943–1945 (= Krieg in der Geschichte. Band 65). Schöningh, Paderborn 2012, S. 95–98. ISBN 978-3-506-76520-8; .
 Gerhard Schreiber: Deutsche Kriegsverbrechen in Italien. Täter, Opfer, Strafverfolgung. C.H. Beck, München 1996, ISBN 9783406392689.

Weblinks

 Kurzbeschreibung der Vier Tage von Neapel auf den Internetseiten der Nationalen Partisanenvereinigung Italiens ANPI (italienisch)
 Umfassende Darstellung auf den Internetseiten der ANPI Brindisi (italienisch)

Verwandte Artikel
 Liste von Massakern in der Zeit der deutschen Besetzung Italiens
 Maddalena Cerasuolo
 Gennaro Capuozzo
 Schrank der Schande
 Vincenzo Stimolo

Einzelnachweise

Italien im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Neapel
Aktion des Widerstands im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Neapel
Neapel
Kriegsverbrechen der Wehrmacht
Geschichte Neapels
Ereignis 1943

Vier Tage von Neapel