A light fighter or lightweight fighter is a fighter aircraft towards the low end of the practical range of weight, cost, and complexity over which fighters are fielded. The light or lightweight fighter retains carefully selected competitive features, in order to provide cost-effective design and performance.

A well-designed lightweight fighter is able to match or better a heavier type plane-for-plane in many missions, and for lower cost. The lightweight class can therefore be strategically valuable.

In attempts to scale this efficiency to still lower cost, some manufacturers have in recent years adopted the term "light fighter" to also refer to light primarily air-to-ground attack aircraft, some of which are modified trainer designs. These lower cost lightweight attack aircraft have become known as light combat aircraft (LCA's), and are sometimes considered to include some multirole light fighters.

From 1926 the light fighter concept has been a regular thread in the development of fighter aircraft, with some notable designs entering large-scale use.

Design aims
A key design goal of light/lightweight fighter design is to satisfy standard air-to-air fighter effectiveness requirements at minimum cost. These criteria, in order of importance, are the ability to benefit from the element of surprise, to have numerical superiority in the air, to have superior maneuverability, and to possess adequate weapon systems effectiveness. Light fighters typically achieve a surprise advantage over larger aircraft due to smaller visual and radar signatures, which is important since in the majority of air-to-air kills, the element of surprise is dominant.  Their comparative lower cost and higher reliability also allows for greater numbers per budget. Finally, while a single engine light fighter would typically only carry about half the weapons load of a heavy twin engine fighter, its surprise and maneuverability advantages often allow it to gain positional advantage to make better use of those weapons.

A requirement for low cost and therefore small fighters first arose in the period between World War I and World War II. Examples include several RAF interceptor designs from the interwar era and French "Jockey" aircraft of the immediate pre-World War II. None of these very light fighters enjoyed success into World War II, as they were too hampered in performance. Similar to the meaning of lightweight fighter today, during World War II the term "small fighter" was used to describe a single engine aircraft of competitive performance, range, and armament load, but with no unnecessary weight and cost.

Effectiveness

The modern view of light/lightweight fighters is as a capable weapon intended to satisfy the main criteria of air-to-air combat effectiveness, which in order of importance, are:

1. Superiority in the element of surprise, to be aware of the enemy before they are aware of you. In past combats, surprise advantage has been mostly based upon small visual and radar signatures, and having good visibility out of the cockpit. Surprise is a significant advantage, since historically in about 80% of air-to-air kills, the victim was unaware of the attacker until too late.

Small fighters like the F-5 with a planform area of about  or the F-16 at about , compared to about  for the F-15, have a much lower visual profile. The small fighter is typically invisible to opposing pilots beyond about , whereas a larger fighter such as the F-15 is visible to about .  This is a non-linear advantage to the light fighter opposing a heavy fighter. Additionally, smaller targets take longer to visually acquire even if they are visible. These two factors together give the light fighter pilot much better statistical odds of seeing the heavy fighter first and setting up a decisive first shot. Once the small fighter sees and turns towards the opponent its very small frontal area reduces maximum visual detection range to about .

Given similar technology, smaller fighters typically have about two thirds the radar range against the same target as heavy fighters. However, this cannot be counted upon to give the large fighter a winning advantage, as larger fighters with typical radar cross sectional area of about  are detectable by a given radar at about 50% farther range than the   cross section of the light fighter. This approximately balances these trade-offs, and can sometimes favor the lightweight fighter. For example, from the front the F-15 actually presents about  radar cross sectional area, and has been typically defeated by opposing F-16 forces not only in close dogfighting combat, but also in extensive Beyond Visual Range (BVR) trials. Also, airborne fighter radars are limited: their coverage is only to the front, and are far from perfect in detecting enemy aircraft. Although radar was extensively used by the United States in the Vietnam War, only 18% of North Vietnamese fighters were first detected by radar, and only 3% by radar on fighter aircraft.  The other 82% were visually acquired.

The modern trend to stealth aircraft is an attempt to maximize surprise in an era when Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles are becoming more effective than the quite low effectiveness BVR has had in the past.

2. Numerical superiority in the air, which implies the need for lower procurement cost, lower maintenance cost, and higher reliability. Not even taking into account the sometimes superior combat capability of lighter aircraft based on surprise and maneuverability, the pure numbers issue of lower cost and higher reliability (higher sortie rates) also tends to favor light fighters. It is a basic outcome of Lanchester's laws, or the salvo combat model, that a larger number of less-sophisticated units will tend to be successful over a smaller number of more advanced ones; the damage dealt is based on the square of the number of units firing, while the quality of those units has only a linear effect on the outcome. This non-linear relationship favors the light and lightweight fighter.

Additionally, as pilot capability is actually the top consideration in maximizing total effectiveness of the pilot-aircraft system, the lower purchase and operational cost of light fighters permits more training, thus delivering more effective pilots.  For example, as of 2013, total heavy F-15C operating cost is reported at US$41,900 per hour, and light F-16C cost at US$22,500 per hour.

3. Superior maneuverability, which in maneuvering combat allows getting into superior position to fire and score the kill.  This is a function of achieving lower wing loading, higher thrust to weight ratio, and superior aerodynamics.  This is sometimes described colloquially as "wrapping the smallest possible airframe around the most powerful available engine." Professional analysis through 4th generation fighters shows that among heavier fighters only the F-15 has been generally competitive with lighter fighters, and its maneuvering performance is exceeded by several lighter fighters such as the F-16.  Light fighters have no inherent aerodynamic advantage for speed and range, but when designed to be as simple as possible they do tend to have lower wing loading and higher thrust to weight ratio.  Additionally, smaller fighters are lower in inertia, allowing a faster transient response in maneuvering combat.

4. Weapon systems effectiveness. This area is one where the light fighter can be at a disadvantage, since the combat load of a single engine light fighter is typically about half of a twin engine heavy fighter. However, modern single engine light fighters such as the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the Saab JAS 39 Gripen generally carry similar cannon and air-to-air missile fighter weapons as heavier fighters. Actual aerial combat in the modern era is of short duration, typically about two minutes, and as only a small fraction of this is spent actually firing, modest weapons load outs are generally effective. The ideal weapons load for a modern fighter is considered to be an internal gun and two to four guided missiles, a load that modern light fighters are fully capable of while maintaining high agility. For example, the JAS 39 Gripen, despite being the lightest major fighter in current production, carries a combat load of a 27mm cannon and up to six air-to-air missiles of the same types as carried by heavy fighters. Additionally, combat experience shows that weapons systems "effectiveness" has not been dominated by the amount of weaponry or "load out", but by the ability to achieve split second kills when in position to do so.

Concept summary

Superior technology has often been quoted as a strong factor favoring the heavy fighter. The specific argument usually presented is that heavy fighters have superior radar range and longer range BVR missiles that take advantage of that range. This radar range advantage is one of the major reasons for the existence of the modern heavy fighter, but it has not turned out to be a significant advantage in air combat history to date for several reasons. A major reason has been because long range BVR missile shots have often been unusable, and often unreliable when they could be taken. The weight of the larger missiles also reduces performance and range needed to get in position to fire. Due to these factors, between 1958 and 1982 in five wars there were 2,014 missile firings by fighter pilots engaged in air-to-air combat, but there were only four beyond-visual-range kills.

The more general and often misunderstood argument for more technology that has been historically assumed to favor heavy fighters is not just better radar but better systems support for the fighter pilot in other ways as well. Examples include all weather capability, precise electronic navigation, electronic counter-measures, data-linking for improved information awareness, and automation to lighten pilot workload and keep the pilot focused on tasks essential to combat.  This was a compelling argument, as the greatest factor in the effectiveness of a fighter plane has always been the pilot. Quoting a prominent reference, "Throughout the history of air combat, a few outstanding fighter pilots, typically less than five percent of the whole, have run up large scores at the expense of their less gifted brethren. The numerical imbalance was such that a large number of high scorers was needed. The quest was on to turn each fighter pilot into an ace, and technology seemed the easiest, and the only way to achieve it. This was the idea underlying the first two American superfighters; the F-14 Tomcat and the F-15 Eagle."

While the technology advantage for heavy fighters that better supported the pilot may well have been a valid point in the 1970s (when the F-14 and F-15 first entered service), this advantage has not been maintained over time. Engine performance improvements have improved load carry capability, and with more compact electronics, the lightweight fighter has, from the 1980s onwards, had similar pilot enhancing technical features.  The lightweight fighter carries equally effective weapons including BVR missiles, and has similar combat range and persistence. The modern lightweight fighter achieves these competitive features while still maintaining the classic advantages of better surprise, numbers, and maneuverability. Thus, the lightweight fighter natural advantages have remained in force despite the addition of more technology to air combat.

Due to their lower costs, modern light fighters equip the air forces of many smaller nations. However, as budgets have limits for all nations, the optimum selection of fighter aircraft weight, complexity, and cost is an important strategic issue even for wealthy nations. The budgetary and strategic significance of light fighters is illustrated by the defense investment at stake. As an example where well referenced data is available, though numerous trial and combat references consider the lightweight F-16 to be as good or better on a per plane as the excellent but expensive F-15, fielding and maintaining a light fighter force based on the F-16 is approximately half the cost of the same number of F-15's. The US Air Force reports the total loaded cost per hour (as of 2013) of operating the F-16C to be ~US$22,500 per hour, while that of the heavy F-15C is $41,900 per hour. Numerous authoritative sources report that it takes about 200 to 400 flight hours per year to maintain fighter pilot proficiency.

Lanchester's laws on military superiority suggest that any technical superiority of the heavy fighter on a unit basis will not always translate to winning wars. For example, late in WWII the greatly superior German Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter, flown by the finest pilots Germany had left, many of them very high scoring aces with kill counts far in excess of Allied pilots, in its relatively small numbers suffered heavy losses and was unable to fundamentally alter the air war over Germany. Such issues are relevant to future military planning and deployments.

History

Interwar period

The light fighter class originally stemmed from concern at the growing size and cost of the frontline fighters in the 1920s. During the late 1920s and 1930s the light fighter would receive significant attention, especially in France.

One early light fighter project was the French Air Force's 'Jockey' interceptor program of 1926. Several aircraft, including the Nieuport-Delage NiD 48 and Amiot 110, were trialed without much success as they offered little over aircraft already in production In the late 1920s the British similarly issued specification F.20/27 for a short-range fast-climbing daylight interceptor. The de Havilland DH.77 and Vickers Jockey monoplanes were among seven designs tendered to meet the specification but neither went into production, the heavier but faster biplane Hawker Fury being preferred.

Despite the failure of their Jockey program, the French returned to lightweight fighters during the 1930s as a means to expand France's fleet of aircraft and counter the buildup of the German air force. This focused on light wooden fighters that could be built quickly without affecting production of other aircraft. A mid-thirties specification requiring fixed undercarriage produced two prototypes and in 1936 a revised requirement for retractable gear resulted in three prototypes. The most numerous of the two designs which went into production was the Caudron C.714. Delivery began in early 1940, but less than 100 had been built before the fall of France. Although underpowered, it was of necessity used by Polish air force pilots serving in France.

WWII

There was debate before and during World War II about the optimum size, weight and number of engines for fighter aircraft. During the war, fighters in the light to middle-weight range proved to be the most effective. Properly designed with competitive power to weight and thrust to drag ratios, these aircraft out-performed heavy fighters in combat due to greater surprise and maneuverability.  They were also more cost effective, allowing greater numbers to be deployed as a combat advantage. Some single-engined fighters (including the P-51 Mustang and A6M Zero) could also match or beat the range of their heavy twin-engined counterparts.

Germany

The German Messerschmitt Bf 109 entered service in 1937 as a high speed interceptor and became the most-produced fighter in history, with nearly 34,000 built. The design philosophy of the Bf 109 was to wrap a small airframe around a powerful engine using Messerschmitt's "lightweight construction" principle, which aimed to minimize the weight and number of separate parts in the aircraft. By concentrating wing, engine and landing gear weight in the firewall, the structure of the Bf 109 could be made relatively light and simple. The Bf 109 was the second-smallest major fighter aircraft of World War II and the lightest in the European theater. The "E" version used in the Battle of Britain had an empty weight of . The more heavily armed and powerful G version used later in the war had an empty weight of . In comparison, its main fighter opponents weighed .

Japan

The lightest major fighter of World War II was the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero naval fighter. Entering service in 1940 and remaining in use throughout the war, it had an empty weight of  for the A6M2 version, which was extremely light even by the standards of its time. The design team leader, Jiro Horikoshi, intended it to be as light and agile as possible, embodying the qualities of a samurai sword. With Japanese engine technology lagging behind that of the west, but required to out-perform western fighters, the designers minimised weight to maximize range and maneuverability. This was achieved by methods including the use of light weaponry and the absence of armour and self-sealing fuel tanks. Early in World War II the Zero was considered the most capable carrier-based fighter in the world, and the extremely long range meant that the Zero could appear in and strike locations where Japanese air power was otherwise not expected to reach. In early combat operations, the Zero gained a reputation as an excellent dogfighter, achieving a kill ratio of 12 to 1. However, Japan was unable to keep improving the aircraft through the war, primarily limited by lagging engine technology, and by mid-1942 a combination of new tactics and the introduction of better aircraft enabled the Allied pilots to engage the Zero on equal or superior terms. For instance, the larger and heavier Grumman F6F Hellcat had superior performance to the Zero in all aspects other than manoeuvrability. Combined with the US Navy's superior training standards, units equipped with the type achieved a large victory-to-loss ratio against the Zero and other Japanese aircraft.

United Kingdom

The Royal Air Force entered World War II with two modern single-engined fighters forming the majority of the fighter force of the RAF – the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hawker Hurricane. Initially introduced as bomber interceptors, both started with eight machine gun armament but changed to cannons in the course of the war.

The Spitfire, designed by R. J. Mitchell, entered service in 1938 and remained in production throughout the war. The empty weight of the Battle of Britain-era Spitfire IIA was , increasing to  in a later variant. It was highly maneuverable and was generally a match for its German opponents. Most Spitfires had a Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, but later variants used one of the most powerful engines of the war – the Rolls-Royce Griffon. The Spitfire was produced and improved throughout the war but was complex to build and had limited range. In other respects it was considered an outstanding fighter.

The Hawker Hurricane played an important role in the Battle of Britain, but its performance was inferior to the Spitfire and during the war was removed from frontline duty as a fighter and used for ground attack. Production ceased in mid-1944. The Hurricane IIC weighed  empty.

United States
 On the eve of the war, the United States Army Air Corps contracted for several "very light" fighter designs based on the Ranger V-770 engine, an air-cooled inverted V12 engine, that delivered up to 700 hp. Two prototypes were the Bell XP-77 (empty weight ) and the Douglas XP-48 (empty weight ). Problems with the engine and performance and a perceived lack of need saw both programs canceled. However, they were specifically defined as "light" or "very light" fighter aircraft.

Instead, the US developed a number of standard pursuit fighters, the most efficient being the relatively lightweight North American P-51 Mustang. The P-51 was more economical, costing less per air-to-air kill than any other American aircraft.

The United States Navy, also made aware of lightweight advantages by combat results, ordered a lighter version of the Grumman F6F Hellcat, which at  empty weight had limited maneuverability and rate of climb. The planned Grumman F8F Bearcat replacement used the same engine, but with empty weight reduced to  had excellent performance. It entered production too late to see combat in World War II. Postwar, it equipped 24 fighter squadrons in the Navy and a smaller number in the Marines. Navy author James Perry Stevenson called the Bearcat "the quintessential lightweight fighter".

USSR
The Soviet Yakovlev Yak-3, which entered service in 1944, was an attempt to develop the smallest and lightest fighter around the  V-12 Klimov M-107 engine. As this engine was not available in time, the  Klimov M-105 was substituted, with a resulting empty weight of . Despite the reduced power, the Yak-3 had a top speed of . The Yak-3 could out-turn the German Bf 109 and Fw 190. German pilots were ordered to avoid dogfights with the Yak-3 at low level.

The Soviet Yakovlev Yak-9 was also a lightweight fighter, initially using the M-105 engine. With an empty weight , it was among the lighter major fighters of World War II. A development of the Yakovlev Yak-7, it entered combat in late 1942 and was the Soviet Union's most-produced fighter with 16,769 built. At low altitudes, the Yak-9 was faster and more maneuverable than the Bf 109. However, its armament of one cannon and one machine gun was relatively light.

Early jet age

The Luftwaffe's Heinkel He 162 Volksjäger of 1945 was a very deliberate attempt at producing a low cost jet fighter without materials that were in short supply at the end of the war. It was a low cost emergency fighter, one of several designs for the Emergency Fighter Program using rockets or jets, which could be built by unskilled labour and would be flown by inexperienced pilots to defend the Third Reich. With an empty weight of , it was very light even for the time. The He 162A was powered by a BMW 003 engine. With a top speed of  at normal thrust at sea level, and  at , it was about  faster than Allied fighters but had no more than 30 minutes fuel. Test pilots reported it to be a fine handling and conceptually well designed aircraft, and considered its problems to be rushed delivery more than any fundamental design flaws. It never formally entered operational service, and did not receive the benefit of being flown by well trained pilots using a well considered operational plan. Only 120 were delivered to units, and it scored only a few kills in experimental use before the war ended.

After World War II fighter design moved into the jet era, and many jet fighters followed the successful World War II formula of highly efficient mostly single-engine designs. Prominent early examples include the British mid-50s Folland Gnat, the American North American F-86 Sabre, Northrop F-5 and the Soviet Mikoyan MiG-15.

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 was a Soviet jet fighter developed shortly after World War II. It weighed  empty and was one of the first successful jet fighters to use swept wings for high transonic speeds. It first saw service in the Chinese Civil War. In combat during the Korean War, it outclassed straight-winged jet day fighters. Some 18,000 were produced.

The North American F-86 Sabre, a transonic jet fighter manufactured from 1949, was the United States's first swept wing fighter. With an empty weight of  it was nearly 40 per cent heavier than the MiG-15, but light compared with today's fighters. The F-86 had a bubble canopy, small size, moderate cost, high maneuverability, and an armament of six  calibre machine guns. It could turn faster than any modern fighter. It saw combat against the Mig 15 in high-speed dogfights during the Korean War. Considered (with the MiG 15) as one of the best fighters in the Korean War, it was the most-produced Western jet fighter, with total production of 9,860 units. It continued as a front-line fighter in numerous air forces until 1994.

The Folland Gnat was a British private venture design for a light fighter and was the product of "Teddy" Petter's theories about fighter aircraft design. Although only adopted by the UK as a trainer, the Gnat served successfully as a fighter for the Indian Air Force and was in service from 1959 to 1979. India produced an improved derivative of it, the HAL Ajeet. With an empty weight of  it was the lightest successful post-World War II jet fighter, though at the cost of shorter range compared to other fighters. The Gnat is credited as having shot down seven Pakistani F-86s in the 1965 war, for the loss of two Gnats downed by PAF fighters. During the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Indian Gnats shot down several Pakistani F-86s without loss. The Gnat was successful against the capable F-86 flown by well-trained Pakistani pilots because its smaller size allowed a superior level of surprise and greater agility in dogfighting.

In the early 1950s, the NATO NBMR-1 competition for a cheap "light weight tactical strike fighter" able to carry conventional or tactical nuclear weapons and operate from dispersed airfields with minimum ground support led to designs including the French SNCASE Baroudeur, Breguet Taon and Dassault Étendard VI, the Italian Aeritalia G.91 and Aerfer Ariete. Other competitors included the Northrop F-5A. The British chose to continue production of the Hawker Hunter, while the French decided to work independently of the competition. Italy produced the Fiat G.91 while the competition was underway and, in 1957, this was selected as NATO's standard strike fighter. With an empty weight of  it was very light for a jet fighter. The G.91 entered service with the Italian Air Force in 1961, with the West German Luftwaffe, in 1962, and later with the Portuguese Air Force. It was in production for 19 years, with production ceasing in 1977 with 756 aircraft built.

In the mid-1950s, it was realized that fighter costs were escalating to possibly unacceptable levels, and some companies sought to reverse the trend to heavier and more expensive fighters. A prominent result was the Mach 1.3 to Mach 1.6,  Northrop F-5. Smaller, cheaper and simpler than the contemporary F-4 Phantom, the F-5 had excellent performance and was popular on the export market. It was perhaps the most effective US-produced fighter in the 1960s and early 1970s, with a high sortie rate, low accident rate, high maneuverability, and an effective armament of 20mm cannon and heat-seeking missiles. Though the United States never procured the F-5 for main line service, it did adopt it as an opposing forces (OPFOR) "aggressor" for dissimilar training role because of its small size and similarity in performance to the Soviet MiG-21. It also participated in large scale trials of aircraft and missile effectiveness. In the extensive 9 month long AIMVAL/ACEVAL trial at Nellis AFB in 1977, the F-5 "Red Force" was quite effective against the considerably larger F-14 Tomcat naval fighter and F-15 Eagle single seat fighters making up the "Blue Force". These modern aircraft are approximately five to ten times more expensive than the various versions of the F-5. The final result was the F-5 fighting the more modern fighters to an effective plane for plane draw. In direct combat against the similar MiG-21 (which performed well against American fighters in Vietnam), the F-5 is known to have scored 13 victories against 4 losses. Just under 1000 of the F-5A Freedom Fighter were sold worldwide, and another 1,400 of the updated F-5E Tiger II version. As of 2016 the F-5 remains in service with many nations, some of which have undertaken extensive upgrade programs to modernize its abilities with digital avionics and radar guided missiles.

The light middleweight Saab 35 Draken was a second to third generation Mach 2 fighter produced from 1955 to 1974 and in service for 45 years, with empty weights from 6,577 kg (14,500) to . It was a double-delta wing single-engine fighter. Its steeply swept inner delta wing allowed for a high cruise speed. The double-delta, with a shallower rake at the outer wing, improved maneuverability. It was designed to be cheap enough for small countries and simple enough to be maintained by conscripted mechanics. Its high acceleration, light wing loading, and extreme maneuverability enabled it to be an excellent dogfighter. However, it had an overly complex fire control system. It remained in service until 2005.

The French Dassault Mirage III is another late 2nd/early 3rd generation delta wing Mach 2 fighter. Stemming from a French requirement for a lightweight all-weather interceptor, it has been in service since 1961. With an empty weight of  in the "E" version with added ground attack capability, the Mirage III is a light fighter by modern standards (though twice as heavy as initial Mirage I). Its maneuverability, modest cost, reliability and armament of 30mm cannons and heat seeking missiles proved effective. It served the French Air Force and was exported to many countries. It performed very well for Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967 and Yom Kippur War of 1973. However, Argentina's Mirage IIIs were out-performed by British Sea Harriers during the Falklands War of 1982.

Similar in size to the F-5, the Russian Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 entered service in 1959, was produced until 1985, and is still in widespread use today. The late Generation 2 to Generation 3, Mach 2 MiG-21 has an empty weight of , and has served nearly 60 nations. It shot down 37 to 104 US Phantoms, in the Vietnam War, with the Phantoms shooting down 54 to 66 MiG-21s in return. In December 1966 the MiG-21 pilots of the 921st FR downed 14 F-105s without any losses. Its weaknesses include poor visibility and relatively short range, but has otherwise proven to be a capable fighter.

The US's Vought F-8 Crusader used in Vietnam weighed , as compared with  for an F-4 Phantom. It was a simple, supersonic, single engine, gun- and heat-seeker armed fighter in front-line service from 1957 to 1976. It had no radar except a simple ranging gunsite radar. The US claims the Crusader (up to 1968) shot down six enemy aircraft for every loss, compared with 2.4 for every Phantom lost. The three F-8s shot down in air-to-air were all lost to MiG-17 cannon fire.

The first few decades of the jet fighter era showed a combat history similar in general trend to that of the propeller fighters of World War II. So long as lighter fighters are of sufficient power-to-weight ratio and airframe sophistication, and flown by similarly skilled pilots, they tend to dominate over heavier fighters using surprise, numbers, and maneuverability. However, one significant difference did emerge in design strategy in the early jet fighter era. In World War II fighter design was strongly influenced by the seeking of higher speeds that were valuable in combat in order to close with the enemy or to escape. This trend was instinctively continued in some jet fighters through the 3rd generation (F-4 at Mach 2.23) and into the 4th generation (F-14 at Mach 2.35 and F-15 at Mach 2.5+). The aerodynamic requirements to operate at such speeds add considerable complexity, weight, and cost to the airframe.  But, these Mach 2 and above class speeds have zero utility in combat. Combat speeds never exceed Mach 1.7 and seldom 1.2, for two reasons. First, it requires extensive use of the afterburner, which typically increases fuel consumption by about a factor of three or even four, and rapidly reduces operational radius. Second, speeds even above about Mach 0.7 to Mach 1 (depending on circumstances) so widen the turn radius in maneuvering combat that the fighter is thrown too wide to get a tracking solution on an opponent. Speed had reached the limit of its practical combat value, such that optimum fighter design required understanding the penalties the endless search for higher speed was imposing, and sometimes deliberately choosing not to accept those penalties.

Supersonic era

As supersonic performance, with afterburning engines and modern missile armament, became the norm the Soviet Mikoyan MiG-21, the French Mirage III, and the Swedish Saab Draken entered service. The next generation of lightweight fighters included the American F-16 Fighting Falcon, Swedish JAS 39 Gripen, Indian HAL Tejas, Korean FA-50, Japanese Mitsubishi F-2, Chinese Chengdu J-10 and Pakistani CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder. The high practical and budgetary effectiveness of modern light fighters for many missions is why the US Air Force adopted both the F-15 Eagle and F-16 in a "hi/lo" strategy of both an outstanding but expensive heavy fighter and a lower cost but also outstanding lightweight fighter. The investment to maintain a competitive modern lightweight fighter air force is approximately $90M to $130M (2013 dollars) per plane over a 20-year service life, which is approximately half the cost of heavy fighters so understanding fighter aircraft design trade-offs and combat effectiveness is of national level strategic importance.

In the 1960s and 1970s, a US-based "Fighter Mafia", led by colonels John Boyd , Everest "Rich" Riccione and analyst Pierre Sprey advocated for production of a 4th generation light fighter. Despite heavy fighter losses in the Vietnam War, most senior US Air Force leaders still opposed the light fighter concept. After much debate, General Dynamics designed the successful F-16. Its competitor, the Northrop YF-17, led to the successful McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet Navy fighter as a cheaper alternative to the F-14. The F-16 offered excellent air-to-air combat performance due partly to its fly-by-wire control system, which improved agility. When not burdened by heavy air-to-ground weapons, the F-16 had the longest range of any US fighter at the time. The F-16 and F/A-18 later added significant weight to become multirole fighters with strong air-to-ground capabilities, pushing them towards the "middleweight" range of modern fighters.

The Soviet counterpart to the F-16 and F/A-18, the Mikoyan MiG-29, was originally part of the Perspektivnyy Lyogkiy Frontovoy Istrebitel (LPFI, or "Advanced Lightweight Tactical Fighter") program.

In the 1980s the privately developed F-5G, later renamed the Northrop F-20 Tigershark, aimed to correct weaknesses in the aging F-5 while maintaining small size and low cost. Its empty weight was . Its General Electric F404 engine produced 60 per cent more power than the F-5, and it had a higher climb rate and acceleration, better cockpit visibility, and more modern radar. Chuck Yeager, test pilot and the first man to break the sound barrier, referred to the F-20 as "the finest fighter" of the mid-1980s. Despite its high performance and cost effectiveness, the F-20 lost out for foreign sales against the similarly capable, more expensive F-16, which was being procured in large numbers by the US Air Force and was viewed as having greater support. The Tigershark was cancelled having made no sales.

The HAL Tejas has an empty weight of , and is the lightest fighter among current production light fighters. Introduced into limited service in 2014, with 16 IOC specification aircraft delivered to January 2020, it was the lowest-cost fighter aircraft with competitive air-to-air capability in production at that time, at an equivalent cost of US$27 million. A further 16 fighter aircraft, in a FOC specification, and 8 dual seat trainer aircraft have been ordered, are expected to be delivered by the middle of 2021. The design is similar to the Mirage III and JAS 39 Gripen, being a light tailless delta-wing single-engine fighter with ground attack capability.

The French Dassault Mirage 2000 was designed for the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) in the late 1970s, as a lightweight single-engine fighter. Based on the Mirage III, it entered service in 1982, and has since evolved into a multirole aircraft. In heavier multirole form, it has empty weight of . More than 600 were built and it has served in the air forces of nine nations.

South Korea's KAI T-50 Golden Eagle, designed by Lockheed Martin with Korea Aerospace Industries, is based on the F-16 multirole-fighter. Its latest variant, the FA-50 Fighting Eagle, is designated as a light fighter and trainer. It uses the same air frame as the T-50 advanced trainer introduced in August 2002. It is now deployed with South Korean Air Force and the Philippine Air Force.

The CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder light fighter was developed jointly by China's Chengdu Aircraft Corporation and Pakistan's Pakistan Aeronautical Complex in the early 2000s. it was inducted into the Pakistan Air Force in February 2010. At least 66 aircraft have been delivered to Pakistan. More aircraft are scheduled to be introduced in 2018. A twin-seater variant was undergoing flight testing as of late 2015.

The JAS 39 Gripen is a single-engine light fighter manufactured by the Swedish aerospace company Saab. With an empty weight of  it is the second lightest fighter in production as of 2016. Though primarily an air superiority fighter, the design has effective air-to- ground capability as well. Its delta wing offers high cruise and super-cruise (above Mach 1 without using after-burner), low wing-loading and high maneuverability. It can operate from short airstrips and  sections of road, can be serviced by moderately trained mechanics, and has high sortie rates. Among Western 4th generation fighters the Gripen has the lowest operating cost at about $4,700 per flight hour (as of 2012). The lowest operating cost in current range of fighters discussed above is of HAL Tejas of about $4,000. Among western fighters, next best operating cost fighter is the F-16 at about $7,000 per flight hour. The Gripen has relaxed stability fly-by-wire flight controls for maximum agility, a top speed of Mach 2, a 27mm cannon, heat-seeking missiles, and radar-guided missiles.

Current trends
The issue of where a fighter is best positioned on the weight, cost, and complexity curve is still a contentious issue. Stealth technology (airframe and engine design that strongly reduce radar and heat signatures) seeks to emphasize the most important feature of fighter effectiveness, the element of surprise. So far it has been featured only on heavier and more expensive fighters, specifically the F-22 Raptor and F-35 Lightning II. These fighters are not only stealthy, but also have information or combat awareness advantages due to active electronically scanned array (AESA) radars, and data linking for external cuing of enemy position and friendly force status. Their combination of near invisibility to conventional radars, superior combat awareness, networking, and reliable Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles, enables them to get deep inside the enemy's OODA loop and destroy enemy fighters before their pilots are even aware of the threat.

Fighter drones (see Unmanned combat aerial vehicle) are under development, driven by the same tactical and cost effectiveness principles of light fighters. Their perceived advantages include not only cost and numbers, but the fact that their software based "pilot" does not require years of training, is always at the same peak effectiveness for each aircraft (unlike the human pilot case where the top 5% of pilots have historically scored about 50% of all kills), is not physiologically limited, and does not have a life to lose if the aircraft is lost in combat.  Though there is cultural resistance to replacement of human fighter pilots and also concerns about entrusting life and death decisions to robot software, such fighter drones are expected to eventually be implemented.

Bibliography

Notes

References

Fighter aircraft

Light fighter


La Autopista Seward y conocida en inglés como Seward Highway es una carretera estatal ubicada a 368 millas (562 km) al oeste de Valdez en el estado de Alaska. La autopista inicia en el Sur en la antigua terminal de la Autopista Marina de Alaska en Seward hacia el Este en el anillo periférico de Anchorage. La autopista tiene una longitud de 204 km (127 mi). La Autopista Seward también forma parte de la Ruta de Alaska 1 y 9.

Mantenimiento
Al igual que las carreteras estatales, las carreteras federales, la Autopista Seward es administrada y mantenida por el Departamento de Transporte y Servicios Públicos de Alaska por sus siglas en inglés DOT&PF.

Localidades principales
La Autopista Seward es atravesada por las siguientes localidades.
Seward, milla 0 (km 0)
Bear Creek, milla 6
Moose Pass, milla 29 (km 47)
Tern Lake Junction (Autopista Sterling), milla 37 (km 60)
Hope, vía la Autopista Hope, milla 57 (km 91)
Portage Glacier y Whittier, via Portage Glacier Road, milla 79 (km 127)
Girdwood y Alyeska Resort, vía la Autopista Alyeska, milla 90 (km 145)
Anchorage, milla 127 (km 204)

Véase también

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial de DOT&PF
 Lista de Autopistas por estado

Carreteras estatales de Alaska
Transporte de Anchorage

Autopista Seward


ඩැනියෙල් විටෝරි

භාෂාව

නරඹන්න

සංස්කරණය කරන්න

Daniel Luca Vettori ONZM (උපත 1979 ජනවාරි 27) යනු නවසීලන්ත ක්‍රිකට් පුහුණුකරුවෙක් වන අතර නවසීලන්ත ක්‍රිකට් කණ්ඩායමට සියලු ආකෘතිවලින්  ක්‍රීඩා කළ හිටපු ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි.  ඔහු නවසීලන්තය වෙනුවෙන් 200 වැනි ටෙස්ට් කුසලානය වේ.

ඩැනියෙල් විටෝරි

ONZM

විටෝරි 2011 දී ඕක්ලන්ඩ් රජයේ මන්දිරයේදී

පුද්ගලික තොරතුරු සම්පූර්ණ නම Daniel Luca VettoriBorn27 ජනවාරි 1979 (වයස 42)

ඕක්ලන්ඩ්, නවසීලන්තය අන්වර්ථ නාමය මාර්තා, හැරී පොටර්[1]උස අඩි 6 අඟල් 3  (මීටර් 1.91 ) පිතිකරණය වමතින් පන්දු යැවීම මන්දගාමී වමත් ඕතොඩොක්ස් භූමිකාවAll-rounder ජාත්‍යන්තර තොරතුරු ජාතික පැත්ත

නවසීලන්තය (1997–2015)

ටෙස්ට් මංගල්‍යය (කැප් 200)6 පෙබරවාරි 1997 වි එංගලන්තය අවසන් ටෙස්ට්26 නොවැම්බර් 2014 වි පකිස්තානODI මංගල (කැප් 101)25 මාර්තු 1997 වි ශ්‍රී ලංකා අවසන් ODI29 මාර්තු 2015 v ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව ODI කමිස අංක 2015 v ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව ODI කමිස අංක 201 සැප්තැම්බර් 2020 සැප්තැම්බර් 2020 සැප්තැම්බර් 2020 සැප්තැම්බර් 2020 දෙසැම්බර් 2014.  PakistanDomestic කණ්ඩායම informationYearsTeam1996 / 97-2014 / 15Northern Districts2003Nottinghamshire2006Warwickshire2008-2010Delhi Daredevils2009 / 10Queensland2011-2012Royal චැලෙන්ජර්ස් Bangalore2011 / 12-2014 / 15Brisbane Heat2014-2015Jamaica Tallawns

මූලාශ්‍රය: ESPNcricinfo, 13 පෙබරවාරි 2016

පදක්කම් වාර්තාව

නියෝජනය කරමින්  නවසීලන්ත පිරිමි ක්‍රිකට් පොදුරාජ්‍ය මණ්ඩලීය ක්‍රීඩා1998 ක්වාලාලම්පූර් කණ්ඩායම් තරගය

ඔහු 2007 සහ 2011 අතර නවසීලන්ත නායකයා විය. විටෝරි ටෙස්ට් ඉතිහාසයේ කඩුලු 300ක් සහ ලකුණු 3,000ක් රැස් කළ අටවැනි ක්‍රීඩකයා වේ.  ඔහු වයස අවුරුදු 18 දී 1996-97 දී නවසීලන්තය නියෝජනය කළ ලාබාලතම ක්‍රීඩකයා වේ  තොප්පි 284ක් සමඟින්.  විටෝරි යනු වමතින් ඕතඩොක්ස් දඟ පන්දු යවන පන්දු යැවීමේ තුන් ඉරියව් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි.

ඔහු විශිෂ්ට හැරීමකට වඩා නිරවද්‍යතාවය, පියාසර කිරීම සහ කපටිකම සහ ඔහුගේ වේග විචලනය සඳහා ප්‍රසිද්ධය.  2015 ක්‍රිකට් ලෝක කුසලානයෙන් පසු විටෝරි සියලු ආකාර ක්‍රිකට් වලින් විශ්‍රාම යන බව නිවේදනය කළේය.

ඩැනියල් විටෝරි


Malena Pichot (Buenos Aires, 6 de julio de 1982) es una actriz, comediante, escritora, guionista, directora y feminista argentina.

En 2008 alcanzó la fama con sus videos de «La loca de mierda», publicados en YouTube. Después de tener participaciones en unitarios, protagonizó y guionizó la serie Cualca (2012-2014), su spin-off Por ahora (2014), las miniseries Jorge (2013), Mundillo (2015), Tarde Baby (2018), el show Estupidez compleja (2018), el cortometraje Leonor (2020) y la película Finde (2021).

Además, Pichot realiza presentaciones de stand up y conduce, desde 2016, el programa radial «Furia Bebé».

Biografía

1982-2009: Primeros años y La Loca de Mierda

Creció entre los barrios porteños de Belgrano y Núñez. Es hija de un anestesista, Horacio "Pelusa" Pichot, y de María Pichot, profesora de expresión corporal y escritora. Tiene un hermano mayor, Alejo, que es fotógrafo. Su primo es el exjugador argentino de rugby Agustín Pichot.

A lo largo de su vida estudió canto, guitarra, piano, teatro y letras en la UBA.

En agosto de 2008 canalizó sus vivencias en un video de dos minutos y medio con el título: La Loca de Mierda, que terminó subiendo al sitio web YouTube. Para mediados de 2009 llevaba editados unos 25 sketches humorísticos a modo de videoblog, que fueron vistos por miles de personas.
Debido a la difusión que tuvieron sus videos, en septiembre de 2009, los directivos de la página web latina del canal MTV la contrataron y comenzaron a emitir nuevos videos.

2009-2012: Radio y participaciones especiales
Tuvo una serie de presentaciones en Buenos Aires con el monólogo Concheta pero con gracia.
Poco después empezó a trabajar como comentarista en el programa Falso Impostor, por FM Rock & Pop. Participó como guionista ―armaba los bloques de los testimonios― en la serie de televisión Ciega a citas (entre octubre de 2009 y mayo de 2010), por Canal 7.

En 2011 formó parte del elenco de la comedia dramática El hombre de tu vida (serie del canal Telefé dirigida por Juan José Campanella, ganador del premio Óscar), donde también fue guionista.
El hombre de tu vida fue protagonizada por Guillermo Francella, Mercedes Morán, Luis Brandoni, Germán Kraus, Tupac Larriera y ella, quien hizo el personaje de la profesora Silvina, alias «la Pesada». Este programa la llevó a recibir una nominación para los Premios Martín Fierro en el rubro Revelación.

También protagonizó, junto a Cristina Banegas y Gloria Carrá, el capítulo «Sin cobertura» de la serie Televisión por la inclusión. Desde 2010 hasta 2014 realizó un espectáculo teatral como comediante del género stand up con Ezequiel Campa, que al principio se llamó Ellos y más tarde Campa-Pichot.
Durante el 2011, tuvo su propio programa de radio llamado Frankenstein, en AM750, y formó parte del programa Falso impostor de la radio Rock & Pop.

2012-2016: Popularidad con Cualca, más series y stand up
Desde el 6 de febrero de 2012, y hasta finales de ese año, tuvo una sección llamada Cualca en el programa Duro de domar, en la cual presentaba y participaba en sketchs humorísticos junto a un grupo de actores y compañeros, con los que escribía el guion y los diversos temas que trataban.
El éxito de la serie hizo que una segunda temporada fuera emitida gracias al aporte de los fanes a través de Idea.me. Un spin-off, Por ahora, fue emitido en el canal Cosmopolitan TV.

El 4 de marzo de 2013 debutó en la radio Nacional Rock, en el programa Burundanga junto a Gillespi donde permaneció hasta 2015. Por su trabajo, obtuvo otra nominación, aunque esta vez sería en los Premios Éter, en el rubro «Humorista.»

En 2015, creó la miniserie Mundillo protagonizada por ella misma y sus antiguos compañeros de Cualca, Julián Lucero y Charo López. A la vez, comenzó a realizar shows de stand up ―en diferentes teatros de Argentina, Latinoamérica y Europa― bajo el título de Persona, junto con López, Vanesa Strauch y Ana Carolina. El espectáculo es descrito como «un musical hipócrita y sobre todo un show travesti.»

2016-presente: Furia Bebé, especial de Netflix y libros
Desde 2016 conduce Furia Bebé, de lunes a viernes de 16:00 a 18:00 en Futurock FM.

En 2017, junto con Charo López, lanzaron su primer libro, titulado Hermostra: Cómo ser hermosa, sexy, joven y hermosa. Al año siguiente, ambas comediantes,  junto con Strauch y Carolina, crearon Tarde Baby. La miniserie de 8 episodios fue producida por UN3 e incluye el debut como codirectora de Pichot.

El 2 de marzo de 2018, Malena estrenó en Netflix su especial de stand up Estupidez Compleja. El especial, que fue grabado en el Bebop Jazz Club de Buenos Aires, donde discute temas como el sexo, el lenguaje y el aborto.

En 2019, publicó Enojate, Hermana, una compilación de más de 30 artículos propios publicados en Página 12 entre 2017 y 2019 referidos a temáticas de género y feminismo.

Vida personal
Malena estuvo en una relación con Julián Kartún, líder de El Kuelgue, en 2011, mientras filmaban la primera temporada de Cualca. Desde 2012 hasta 2019 y nuevamente desde el 2020, está en pareja con Leandro Lopatín, guitarrista de las bandas Turf y Poncho. Además, Malena y Leandro Lopatín tienen un hijo juntos llamado Rafael Lopatín Pichot, quien nació el 12 de junio de 2023.

Controversias
Pichot, usuaria frecuente de Twitter y  feminista desde 2012, ha generado controversias a lo largo de su carrera debido a las declaraciones que ha hecho sobre algunas figuras del espectáculo argentino, como Baby Etchecopar, Jorge Lanata, Cacho Castaña, Juan Darthés y otros más.

Trayectoria

Producciones

Otros trabajos

Series web

Cine

Stand up

Teatro y Streaming

Radio

Videos musicales

Publicaciones

Artículos

Premios y nominaciones

Referencias
38. <<"Saqué un tipazo de mi cuerpo": Malena Pichot presentó a su hijo con un tierno posteo y reveló el nombre>> Consultado el 16 de junio de 2023.

Enlaces externos

Actores de teatro de la ciudad de Buenos Aires
Actores de televisión de la ciudad de Buenos Aires
Guionistas de televisión de Argentina
Humoristas de Argentina
Ateos de Argentina
Feministas de Argentina
Actrices de Argentina
Artistas de comedia en vivo de Argentina
Mujeres humoristas
Mujeres Youtubers
Argentinas del siglo XXI

Malena Pichot


يقصد بكلمة انتقال بشكل عام الحركة من مكان إلى آخر؛ وقد تشير إلى أحد المعاني التالية:

في الرياضيات

في العلوم

الفيزياء

الكيمياء

علم الأحياء

في الطب

في علم النفس

في الهندسات

الاتصالات

السيارات

في الديانات

انتقال (توضيح)


Plantae Preissianae, (abreviado Pl. Preiss.), es un libro con descripciones botánicas que fue escrito por Johann Georg Christian Lehmann y editado en Hamburgo con el nombre de Plantae Preissianae sive enumeratio plantarum : quas in Australasia Occidentali et meridionali-occidentali annis 1838-1841 collegit Ludovicus Preiss, partim ab aliis partim a se ipso determinas descriptas illustratas edidit Christianus Lehmann en el año 1844—1847, en 2 volúmenes y siete partes.

Publicación
 Volumen n.º 1(1): 3-160. 19-21 Sep 1844;
 Volumen n.º 1(2): 161-320. 9-11 Feb 1845;
 Volumen n.º 1(3): 321-480. 14-16. Aug 1845;
 Volumen n.º 1(4): 481-647, pref., etc. 3-5 Nov 1845;
 Volumen n.º 2(1): 3-160. 26-28 Nov 1846;
 Volumen n.º 2(2-3): 161-499, pref., etc. 2-5 Aug 1848.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Descripción en IPNI

Libros de botánica de Alemania del siglo XIX
Libros de 1844
Ciencia de 1844
Alemania en 1844

Plantae Preissianae


A Casa na Rua Alexandre Herculano, n.º 1 é um edifício histórico na vila da Odemira, na região do Alentejo, em Portugal.

Descrição
O edifício consiste numa antiga casa de habitação abastada, situada num local nobre da vila de Odemira, uma vez que a sua fachada principal está orientada para a Praça da República, onde se situa o edifício dos Paços do Concelho, O imóvel em si não está classificado, mas integra-se na protegida do Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina.

Apresenta uma arquitectura vernacular, inspirada claramente pelos modelos construtivos tradicionais da região, que é combinada com vários elementos tardo-barrocos e e neoclassicistas. A influência da arquitectura tradicional pode ser constatada pela presença de cinco janelas de sacada no segundo piso, que realçam também a sua aparência aristocrática. O estilo barroco encontra-se principalmente nos vários recursos decorativos, podendo ser considerado já bastante tardio, tendo em conta a origem oitocentista do imóvel, sendo de destacar o recorte mistilíneo da janela de sacada central e da sua varanda. Quanto à inspiração neoclássica, esta pode ser encontrada no mirante, que é rematado por um frontão triangular suportado por cunhais apilastrados. A casa apresenta uma planta de forma trapezoidal e irregular, e tem as coberturas de forma diferenciada, com um telhado de três águas para o corpo principal, sendo as duas águas laterais parcialmente prolongadas, de forma a proteger o mirante.

A fachada principal da casa, caiada em tons brancos, está orientada no sentido Sudoeste, e está organizada num só pano e em dois registos, divididos por uma moldura de argamassa caiada em cinzento. A fachada termina lateralmente em cunhais cinzentos em argamassa, suportados por socos também naquele material. No topo apresenta um entablamento caiado igualmente a branco, e depois um beirado. No centro do rés-do-chão abre-se a entrada principal da casa, com moldura em cantaria e verga recta, tendo duas janelas em cada lado, todas com moldura em cantaria, sendo as duas do lado direito protegidas por grades em ferro forjado. No primeiro andar abrem-se cinco janelas de sacada com moldura de cantaria, sendo a central de verga curva e chave saliente com uma estrela. Todas as janelas apresentam uma varanda de ferro forjado sobre base em cantaria, que na central é recortada, e assente sobre mísulas que ladeiam o portal no piso térreo. Em cima do beirado encontra-se o mirante, com um só pano ladeado por cunhais, e encimado por um frontão com beirado. É rasgado por uma janela de sacada, com moldura de cantaria rematada por três pilastras, que terminam no frontão. Em frente do mirante situa-se uma varanda em ferro forjado.

A fachada virada a Noroeste é só de um pano, e tem uma porta e quatro janelas no piso térreo, e cinco janelas no primeiro andar, enquanto que a face Sudeste também só possui um pano, e é rasgada por uma porta no rés-do-chão e quatro janelas no primeiro piso. No interior, o portal abre-se para um átrio, onde se destaca o pavimento em seixos rolados brancos e negros, formando um padrão. Ao fundo deste átrio situa-se a escadaria principal, cujo acesso é feito por um arco em asa de cesto, cuja sanca ostenta a inscrição Anno 1840.

História
De acordo com uma inscrição no interior, o imóvel poderá ter sido concluído em 1840. Desde os princípios do século XXI, o prédio foi ocupado por diversas entidades, tendo por exemplo sido a primeira sede da Associação de Artesãos do Concelho de Odemira, formada em 2002, Em 2001 albergava a TAIPA - Organização Cooperativa para o Desenvolvimento Integrado do Concelho de Odemira, em 2005 a ADELICO - Associação para o Desenvolvimento Integrado do Concelho de Odemira, e em 2006 o gabinete de atendimento da cooperativa INDE - Intercooperação e Desenvolvimento.

Ver também
Lista de património edificado em Odemira
Castelo de Odemira
Cineteatro de Odemira
Estação dos Correios de Odemira
Fontanário da Praça Sousa Prado
Igreja da Misericórdia de Odemira
Igreja Paroquial de Santa Maria de Odemira
Marcos da Barca de Odemira
Moinho de Vento de Odemira

Ligações externas

Odemira
Residências do distrito de Beja
Fundações em Portugal em 1840
Arquitetura barroca em Portugal

Casa na Rua Alexandre Herculano n.º 1, Odemira


صوفيا مايلز ؛ ممثلة إنجليزية من مواليد 18 مارس 1980. من أشهر أفلامها تريستيان اند ايسلود مع جيمس فرانكو.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
إنجليز من أصل روسي
إنجليز من أصل ويلزي
حائزون على جائزة بافتا (أشخاص)
ممثلات أطفال إنجليزيات
ممثلات أفلام إنجليزيات
ممثلات إنجليزيات في القرن 20
ممثلات إنجليزيات في القرن 21
ممثلات تلفزيون إنجليزيات
ممثلات مسرح إنجليزيات
ممثلات من أصل روسي
ممثلات من لندن
مواليد 1980
مواليد في لندن
مؤديات صوت إنجليزيات

صوفيا مايلز


රුචිර ශමන් අක්මීමන පල්ලියගුරුගේ  (1968 ජනවාරි 22) යනු ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ක්‍රිකට් විනිසුරුවරයෙකු සහ හිටපු පළමු පෙළ ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකු වේ. දකුණත් පිතිකරුවෙකු හා මධ්‍ය වේග පන්දු යවන්නෙකු සේ සැළකෙන ඔහු බ්ලූම්ෆීල්ඩ් හා මලළ ක්‍රීඩා සමාජය, හලාවත මේරියන්ස් ක්‍රිකඩ් සමාජය, නන්ඩෙස්ක්‍රිප්ට්ස් ක්‍රිකට් සමාජය සහ ආදි කේම්බ්‍රියන්ස් ක්‍රිකට් සමාජය වැනි සමාජ උදෙසා ක්‍රීඩා කොට තිබේ. 1989/90 සමයේ ඇරඹුණු සිය ක්‍රීඩා දිවිය තුල මුල් පෙල කඩුලු 200 කට වඩා වැඩි ප්‍රමාණයක් හා ලකුණු 4000 ප්‍රමානයක් ඔහු හිමිකරගෙන ඇත.

මූලාශ්‍ර

1968 උපත්
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෝ

රුචිර පල්ලියගුරුගේ


Adarnaz I. od Iberije (gruz. ადარნასე I), iz dinastije Hosroidi, bio je predsjedavajući knez Iberije od 627. do 637./642. godine.

Bio je sin Bakura III., posljednjeg kralja Iberije, i nasljedni vojvoda (eristavi) Kahetije. Godine 627. pomagao je bizantsko-hazarskoj vojsci u opsadi Tbilisija, a bizantski car Heraklije postavio ga je za vladara Iberije, prethodno pogubivši pro-sasanidskog kneza Stjepana I. Negdje između 637. i 642. godine (tj. nakon bitke kod Kadisije i prije bitke kod Nahavanda) pridružio se svojim snagama albanskom knezu Džavanširu u napadu na iranske garnizone u Albaniji.

Prema povjesničaru iz 7. stoljeća, Movsesu Dashuranciju, Adarnaz je nosio tri bizantska naslova. Povjesničar umjetnosti Vahtang Džobadze identificira ga s počasnim konzulom Adarnazeom (Adarnaz hypatos) zabilježenim na natpisu iz samostana Džvari u Mcheti. Kiril Tumanov, međutim, tvrdi da je ovaj Adarnaz zapravo Adarnaz II. s kraja 7. stoljeća. Njegovi su drugi naslovi vjerojatno "patricij" i vjerojatno "stratilat".

Izvori

Hosroidi
Kneževi Iberije

Adarnaz I. od Iberije


Hatlon, (Tacikçe: Хатлон) Tacikistan'ı oluşturan dört vilayetten (Вилоят/Viloyat) en büyük nüfusa sahip olanıdır. Ülkenin güneybatısında yer alan vilayetin yüzölçümü, 24,600 kilometrekare kadardır. Ve daha küçük 25 yönetim birimine ayrılmıştır. 2016 yılı nüfus sayımlarında ilin genel nüfusu 3,048,200 olarak açıklanmıştır. Nüfusun genel geçim kaynağı tarımdır. En çok yetiştirilen ürün pamuktur. Nüfusun % 3'ü sanayi sektöründe çalışır. Vilayetin merkezi Kurgantepe şehridir. Nüfusun %85'ini Tacikler, geri kalanını da Özbekler ve çok az sayıda Rus oluşturur.

Tacikistan'ın illeri

Hatlon (il)


Çay TV, Karadeniz merkezli yayın yapan ve Karadeniz Bölgesi'nin gündemi ile ilgili haberler veren ulusal bir kanaldır. 2 Mart 1995'te yayına başladı. Ardından 31 Ağustos 2005'te uydu yayınına geçti. Türksat ve Digiturk yayını yapmaktadır.

1995'te kurulan televizyon kanalları ve istasyonları
Türkçe televizyon kanalları
Türkiye'deki yerel televizyon kanalları
Rize ilinde kültür

Çay TV


George Vlad (n. 1891, Făgăraș – d. 1978, Brașov) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
S-a născut în Făgăraș, în 1891. A fost membru al Secției române a P.S.D. Ungaria înainte de 1918. În 1920 a fost principalul organizator al grevei generale de la Uzina Electrică din Făgăraș. În mai 1921 a fost delegat la Congresul de constituire a P.C.R., votând afilierea la Internaționala Comunistă. A decedat în 1978.

Activitatea politică

A participat la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918 ca delegat al cercului electoral Făgăraș din partea organizației socialiste locale.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
Neamțu, Gelu, Vaida-Voevod, Mircea, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. I+II)
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1891
Decese în 1978
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

George Vlad


Una turbobomba es una turbomáquina formada por dos componentes básicos: una bomba rotodinámica y una turbina de gas propulsora. A menudo están montadas solidarias sobre el mismo eje, pero que también pueden ir engranadas. El objetivo de una turbobomba es generar un flujo de un fluido, generalmente líquido, a presión para alimentar una cámara de combustión u otro dispositivo.

Las turbobombas pueden ser de dos tipos en función del tipo de bomba: con bomba centrífuga, en la que el bombeo se lleva a cabo expulsando un fluido a alta velocidad, o una bomba axial, en el que la alternancia de álabes rotativos y estáticos aumenta la presión del fluido gradualmente.

Las bombas axiales tienen un diámetro reducido pero proporcionan un aumento de presión relativamente bajo, por lo que necesitan varias fases de compresión. Las bombas centrífugas son mucho más potentes pero su diámetro es mucho mayor.

Las turbobombas funcionan de manera muy similar a las unidades turbo de los motores alternativos, con la salvedad de que trabajan con fluidos incompresibles. Una presión más elevada del combustible permite el suministro de combustible a la cámaras de combustión de alta presión en motores de alto rendimiento.

Tipo de turbobomba

Las turbobombas se dividen en dos tipos según el tipo de bomba que empleen: centrífuga o axial. La morfología de la turbina no se suele considerar.

Turbobomba centrífuga

La mayoría de turbobombas son centrífugas. El líquido entra radialmente en la bomba cerca del eje y el rotor, también llamado rodete, acelera el fluido a alta velocidad. El líquido pasa a través de un difusor que es un tubo de forma progresivamente ampliada, que permite la recuperación de la presión dinámica a estática. El difusor convierte la energía cinética en altas presiones (no es raro cientos de bar), y si la toma de contrapresión no es demasiado alta, se puede lograr altas tasas de flujo.

Turbobomba axial
También existen turbobombas axiales. En este caso el eje esencialmente tiene alabes unidos al eje y el fluido es forzado por estos paralelos al eje principal de la bomba. En general, las bombas axiales generan presiones mucho más bajas que las bombas centrífugas, no es infrecuente unos pocos un bares. Sin embargo, poseen su utilidad - se utilizan comúnmente bombas axiales como "inductores" de las bombas centrífugas, elevan la presión de entrada a la bomba centrífuga lo suficiente para prevenir un exceso de cavitación. Este efecto también se puede conseguir presurizando los depósitos.

Características de las turbobombas
Aunque las turbobombas puede ser de una gran simplicidad, diseñar una de gran rendimiento es una tarea difícil. Mientras que una bomba bien diseñada y depurada puede alcanzar entre el 70 al 90% de eficiencia, sin embargo, no son infrecuentes las cifras de menos de la mitad. La baja eficiencia puede ser aceptable en algunas aplicaciones, pero en los cohetes es un grave problema. Turbobombas de cohetes son importantes y bastante problemático que los vehículos de lanzamiento con cierto sarcasmo se han descrito como 'una turbobomba unida a un cohete'- hasta el 55% del costo total se puede deber a esta.

Los problemas más comunes son:
 un flujo excesivo desde el borde alta de presión a la entrada de baja presión a lo largo de la holgura entre la carcasa de la bomba y el rotor
 recirculación excesiva de líquido de entrada.
 excesiva turbulencia del fluido que sale de la carcasa de la bomba.
 daños por cavitación en las superficies del impulsor en zonas donde el líquido esta a baja presión.

Además, es fundamental construir la forma precisa del propio rotor. Y otro problema es la lubricación, ya que además de girar a altas velocidades las temperaturas son muy distintas, ya que la turbina puede funcionar con gases de escape calientes, el combustible estar a temperatura ambiente y el comburente ser criogénico.

Empleo

Aeronáutica
Uno de los usos más habituales es para bombear a presión combustible y comburente a la cámara de combustión de los motores cohete. Esto es necesario para los grandes cohetes líquidos, ya que forzar a los líquidos a fluir por simple presurización de los tanques a menudo no es factible, la alta presión necesaria conllevaría a tanques muy resistente y por consiguiente pesados. Los 20 bares es la frontera, por debajo de esta presión se suele emplear un ciclo con persurización de los tanques y por encima turbobombas.

En los motores estatorreactor también se suele emplear una turbobomba para el suministro de combustible. La turbina es accionado directamente por el aire externo de la corriente libre o internamente por el flujo de aire desviado desde la entrada de cámaras de combustión. En ambos casos la corriente de escape de la turbina se vierte al exterior.

Bombeo
Existen turbobombas en las cuales la turbina está alimentada por vapor. Se utilizan cuando hay una fuente de vapor disponible, por ejemplo, el las de calderas de los barcos a vapor. Las turbinas de gas se utilizan generalmente cuando la electricidad o el vapor no está disponible y las restricciones de lugar o de peso no permiten de otras fuentes de energía mecánica.

Historia

Desarrollo inicial
Los pioneros de los cohetes, como Hermann Oberth, ya consideraron el empleo de bombas de alta presión para realizar grandes misiles.

A mediados de 1935 Wernher von Braun emprendió un proyecto de una bomba de combustible con la firma alemana Klein, Schanzlin & Becker que poseía experiencia en la construcción de grandes bombas contraincendios.

El cohete V-2 utilizaba la descomposición del peróxido de hidrógeno a través de un generador de vapor Walther para alimentar una turbo bomba sin ningún mecanismo de control. Dichas turbobombas se fabricaban en la planta de Heinkel en Jenbach, las turbobombas y la cámara de combustión de las  V-2 se han probado y adaptado para evitar que la bomba sobrepresurice la cámara. El primer motor se encendido con éxito en septiembre, y el 16 de agosto de 1942, un cohete de prueba se detuvo en el aire y se estrelló debido a un fallo en el turbo. El primer lanzamiento exitoso de una V-2 se realizó el 3 de octubre de 1942.

Desarrollo de postguerra 1947 a 1949

Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial el desarrollo continuó principalmente en EE. UU. y en la URSS.

Estados Unidos de América
Por parte de EE.UU. el ingeniero principal para el desarrollo de la turbobomba de Aerojet fue George Bosco. Durante la segunda mitad de 1947, Bosco y su equipo estudiaron el trabajo de sobre turbobomba de otros y realizaron estudios preliminares de diseño. Representantes de Aerojet visitaron la Universidad de Ohio, donde Florant estaba trabajando en bombas para hidrógeno, y consultaron con Dietrich Singelmann, un experto alemán en bombas en Wright Field. Bosco posteriormente utilizó los datos de Singelmann en el primero diseño de una bomba para hidrógeno de Aerojet.

A mediados de 1948, Aerojet había seleccionado las bombas centrífugas, tanto para hidrógeno como para oxígeno líquidos. Obtuvo unas pocas bombas radial de paletas alemanas de la Marina de EE. UU. y las puso a prueba durante la segunda mitad del año.

A finales de 1948, Aerojet había diseñado, construido y probado una bomba de hidrógeno líquido de 15 cm de diámetro. Inicialmente se utilizó rodamientos de bolas que rodaban limpios y secos, debido a que las bajas temperaturas impedían la lubricación convencional. La bomba funcionó por primera vez a baja velocidad para permitir que sus partes se enfríe a temperatura de funcionamiento. Cuando los indicadores de temperatura mostraron que el hidrógeno líquido había llegado a la bomba, se hizo un intento para acelerar el 5000 a 35000 revoluciones por minuto. La bomba falló y el examen posterior de las piezas apuntaban a un fallo de los rodamientos, así como en el impulsor. Después de algunas pruebas, se utilizaron super-rodamientos de precisión, lubricado por el aceite atomizado y dirigido por una corriente de nitrógeno gaseoso. En la próxima ejecución, los rodamientos funcionado de manera satisfactoria, pero las tensiones eran demasiado grandes para los rodetes soldados y salieron despedidos. Se realizó de nuevo mecanizando un bloque sólido de aluminio. Se término a tiempo, ya que el contrato tenía menos de seis meses para finalizar. Los siguientes dos ensayos con la nueva bomba fueron una gran decepción, los instrumentos no mostró flujo significativo o aumento de la presión. El problema se debía a la salida del difusor de la bomba, que era demasiado pequeño y se enfría lo suficientemente durante el ciclo de enfriamiento de modo que limita el flujo. Esto fue corregido mediante la adición de los orificios de ventilación en la carcasa de la bomba, las rejillas de ventilación se abrían durante el enfriamiento y se cerraban cuando la bomba estaba fría. Con esta modificación, se realizaron dos ensayos adicionales en marzo de 1949 y ambos tuvieron éxito. El caudal y la presión se encontraban de acuerdo aproximadamente con las predicciones teóricas. La presión máxima fue de 26 atmósferas y el flujo de 0,25 kilogramos por segundo.

Unión Soviética

El estudio de material capturado y el desarrollo de nuevos motores recayó sobre la Agencia de Diseño y Laboratorio de Dinámica de Gases (OKB-456), bajo la dirección de Valentín Glushkó. En 1957 lograron unos motores, RD-107 y RD-108, lo suficientemente potentes para crear el primer misil intercontinental ICBM del mundo, el R-7.

Desarrollo posterior

En los primeros tiempos las gases necesarios para accionar la turbina provenían de un generador de gas. En los primeros modelos el gas se producía por la descomposición catalítica del peróxido de hidrógeno siguiendo las ideas de Walter, pero más adelante el generador de gas es una pequeña cámara de combustión en la que se quema una pequeña parte del propulsor y los gases producidos por la combustión impulsan la turbina unida a las bombas. La energía necesaria para hacer girar las turbinas: desde 370 kW en el pequeño motor HM-7 (60 kN de empuje) hasta los 41 MW en el motor F1. Gran parte de esta energía se pierde y los motores más potentes llamados "combustión por etapas", que se recupera a costa de una mayor complejidad: el combustible de todo y la parte de la cámara de combustión a través de un de pre-combustión, en lugar del generador de gas antes de la turbina puede provocar que el gas producido es reinyectado en la cámara de combustión principal.

En los motores actuales más potentes las turbobombas puede alcanzar alta presión: 423 bares en la salida de la bomba del motor criogénico SSME del transbordador espacial, 270 bar para el motor del cohete japonés H2, altas velocidades de rotación (100 000 rpm para el motor de turbobomba del hidrógeno Vinci ),  flujo (4 toneladas por segundo para el SSME) y junto a las temperaturas extremas de los propelentes criogénicos convierte a las turbobomba en la parte más complejas el diseño de un cohete.

Véase también
 Bomba de inyección

Referencias

Motores

Turbobomba


قرية مرو هي إحدى القرى التابعة لمدينة إربد الواقعة بمحافظة إربد في الأردن.

تقع البلدة على بعد 7 كم شمال شرق مدينة إربد، كلمه مرو تعني الحجارة البيضاء أي الصفا - بالعاميه - ولكثرة وجودها في البلدة أطلق عليها هذا الاسم منذ أكثر من 180 عام. وعدد سكانها ما يقارب 4000 نسمة.

تاريخها
وجد فيها آثار تعود إلى لحضارات الآدومية وللغساسنة، ووجدت فيها أيضا آثار رومانية واسلامية. وفي صدرالاسلام تمكن القائد الإسلامي شرحبيل بن حسنة من ضم قرى حوران سنة 13هـ 634م وحدثت معركة اليرموك في تلك الفترة حيث تمكن خالد بن الوليد في تلك المعركة من التغلب على الرومان سنة 636م 15هـ منهيا الوجود الروماني هناك. وفي فترة حكم المماليك والعثمانيين كانت تابعة لولاية الشام / لواء عجلون / ناحية السرو.

جغرافيتها
كجزء من سهل حوران فإن الطبيعة الجفرافية لبلده مرو تتميز بالسهول المنبسطة ذات المناخ المتوسطي الملائمه للزراعات الحقلية وزراعة الحبوب غير أن البلدة القديمة كانت قد قامت على هضبة تتوسط البلدة حيث يتمركز معظم السكان بمنطقة تعرف بالجنزير فقبل عام 1971 لم يكن هناك منازل الا داخل الجنزير وقد أحيطت هذه الهضبة بالسهول الزراعية ومن كل الجهات حتى تكاد تبدو كجزيرة وسط بحر من الأشجار. ولكن في العقدين الاخيرين أخذ اهالي البلده بالزحف العمراني على هذه السهول الزراعية.

الموقع
يحدها من الغرب قرية بيت راس وحريما ومن الجنوب  حكما ومن الشرق المغير وقرية الشجرة أما من الشمال فتحدها قرية علعال، وتبلغ مساحتها فتبلغ 8 الاف دونماً.

انظر أيضًا
 مدينة إربد
 محافظة إربد

مراجع

قرى الأردن
قرى محافظة إربد

مرو (إربد)


المنطقة الخضراء هو فيلم إثارة حربي أمريكي، بريطاني وفرنسي، من تأليف براين هليجليند وإخراج بول غرينغراس، الفيلم مبني على كتاب الحياة الأمبراطورية في مدينة الزمرد من كتابة الصحافي راجيف جاندراسيكاران. الفيلم من بطولة مات ديمون، أيمي رايان، جريج كينيار وبريندن غليسون.
تدور أحداث الفيلم حول ضابط في الجيش الأمريكي روي ميلر الذي ينشق محاولاً إيجاد أسلحة دمار شامل في العراق بعد اكتشافه معلومات أستخباراتية خاطئة.
فشل الفيلم في شباك التذاكر جامعاً 94 مليون دولار مقابل ميزانية صنعه التي قدرت ب100 مليون. لكنه تلقى مراجعات إيجابية من قبل النقاد.

طاقم التمثيل
 مات ديمون يلعب دور روي ميلر، نائب ضابط يساعد ضابط كبير في وكالة الاستخبارات المركزية في البحث عن اسلحة الدمار الشامل. ديمون انظم للفيلم بناءً على ضمانة أن الإنتاج سوف ينتهي في 14 ابريل، 2008 لكي يستطيع البدأ في العمل على فيلم The Informant من إخراج ستيفن سودبيرج في خضم صعوبات الجدولة التي سببها إضراب نقابة الكتاب الأمريكية 2007.
 أيمي رايان تلعب دور لوري داين، مبعوثة أجنبية من قبل صحيفة وال ستريت جورنال للتحري عن ادعاءات الحكومة الأمريكية بوجود أسلحة دمار شامل.
 جريج كينيار يلعب دور كلار باونتدستون، ضابط في وكالة الاستخبارات المركزية.
 جايسن ازاك يلعب دور ضابط عسكري أمريكي.
 بريندا غليسون يلعب دور مدير مكتب وكالة الاستخبارات المركزية في بغداد.
 مارتن ماك دوغال يلعب دور السيد شين، مساعد مدير مكتب وكالة الاستخبارات المركزية في بغداد.
 خالد عبد الله - فريدي، يلعب دور عراقي جريح (يحب سماع أغاني برايان آدامز)، خالد عبد الله اختير للتمثيل في هذا الفيلم بعدما أثار إعجاب المخرج بأدائه في فيلم يونايتد 93 (2006). الممثل تحضر لدوره بتعلمه للهجة العراقية وقراءة مدونات عراقية مثل Riverbend وعلى قيد الحياة في بغداد.
 انتوني كورون يلعب دور عقيد.
 تومي كامببيل يعلب دور قائد مروحية اتصالات.
 بول ماك أنتوش يلعب دور ضابط في وكالة الاستخبارات المركزية.
 بيغال ناعور يلعب دور محمد الراوي - ضابط عراقي كبير يتم البحث عنه.
 شين هيوز يلعب دور نائب ضابط في الجيش الأمريكي.
 الممثل المغربي إدريس الروخ بدور المخبر لدى جنرالات العراق

الأنتاج
بعد الانتهاء من تصوير فيلم The Bourne Ultimatum في يناير 2007، أعلن المخرج بول جرينجراس نيته لتصوير فيلم مستنبط أحداثه من كتاب الحياة الامبراطورية في المدينة الزمردية من تأليف الصحفي راجيف جاندراسيكاران الذي يعمل في صحيفة واشنطن بوست. قام المخرج بكتابة نص سيناريو مقتبس أحداثه من الكتاب، وبالعمل مع الباحثين كيت سولومن وميكايل برونر الذان ساعدناه في إخراج فيلم يونايتد 93.

ذكرت أخبار أن النص تم العمل عليه وتطور بصورة أفضل مما هو عليه في نص فيلم The Bourne Ultimatum الذي تعرض للكثير من التغييرات أثناء الإنتاج. في الحقيقة طلب من كاتب المشاهد توم ستوبارد بكتابة النص من أجل جرينجراس، لكنه كان مشغولاً جداً، لذلك قام برايان هيلجلاند بدلاً منه بالتعاون مع المخرج لتهيئة شكل مقدمة الفيلم. جرينجراست ابدى رغبته في مات ديمون الذي عمل معه في فيلم The Bourne Supremacy وThe Bourne Ultimatum لشغل دور البطولة في هذا الفيلم، وقام الممثل بالانضمام للمشروع في يونيو 2007. انضم الممثلون أيمي رايان، جريج كينيار، انتوني كرون لاحقاً في ينياير 2008، قال جرينجراس حول مدى أهمية أحداث الفيلم «الفيلم لا يجب ان يقيد من اجل الحوار الوطني، السينما لن تدخل مع الاحداث التي تؤثر على حياتنا قريباً جداً.»

كان من المفروض البدء بإنتاج المنطقة الخضراء في اواخر عام 2007، لكن عوضاً عن ذلك بدأ الإنتاج في إسبانيا في 10 يناير، 2008، وانتقل بعدها إلى القنيطرة المغرب ثم بعدها ينتهي التصوير في بريطيانيا في ديسمبر، 2008.

القصة
يحكي فيلم «المنطقة الخضراء» قصة الرقيب روري ميلر، المكلف بالبحث عن أسلحة الدمار الشامل في مناطق متعددة في العراق، ويبدأ الفيلم بوصول القائد العراقي الإداري الجديد المعرفة بالزبيدي، إلا أنه وفي كل عملية بحث، يخرج خالي الوفاض، عاجزا عن العثور على أي من الأسلحة التي يقوم المصدر الخفي للاستخبارات الأمريكية بالإبلاغ عنها.

تتطور الأحداث لاحقا، لتبدأ الشكوك تساور ميلر بشأن المصدر نفسه، والأسلحة التي لم يتم العثور عليها حتى اليوم، خصوصا مع معلومات قدمها أحد المسؤولين الكبار في وكالة الاستخبارات الأمريكية، مفادها أن المعلومات خاطئة، ولم تساعد حتى اليوم في العثور على هذه الأسلحة.وفي هذه اللحظة، يقف ميلر أمام فريقين، أحدهما يحاول الكشف عن كذبة تمت لتبرير هذه الحرب، والفريق الآخر، يحاول إسكات الجانب الآخر لتبرير موقفه. وبما أن هذا الفيلم هو فيلم هوليوودي، فبالطبع سيختار ميلر الجانب الخيّر، ويحاول الكشف عن الكذبة التي أطلقها أحدهم لزج الولايات المتحدة في هذه الحرب الطويلة.

ويدخل في الصراع عراقي يدعى فريد عانى من جرائم صدام حسين وأعوانه، فيساعد الأمريكيين في الوصول إلى الجنرال محمد الراوي، أحد القادة السابقين في حزب البعث، والمسؤول عن برنامج أسلحة الدمار الشامل العراقي. تتطور الأحداث فيما بعد، ليلتقي ميلر وجهاً لوجه مع الراوي، ويدور بينهما حوار طويل بشأن هذه الأسلحة، وليكتشف ميلر أن الكذبة هي فعلا كذبة، وأن هذا البرنامج تم وقفه في حرب الخليج الثانية، أي في عام 1990. يحاول ميلر إقناع الراوي بالمثول أمام المسؤولين الأمريكيين والإعلام العالمي للاعتراف بهذه الحقائق، إلا أن الأحداث العنيفة لاحقا، وإقدام العراقي فريد على قتل الراوي، يهدم جميع هذه الآمال أمام ميلر. ولاحقا، وبمساعدة صحفية أمريكية، يقوم ميلر بإرسال تقريره إلى جميع وسائل الإعلام لتتكشف الكذبة أمام العالم بأسره. هناك ثلاث محاور في الفيلم تميزت بشكل واضح، ورسمت خطأ واضحا للحرب الأمريكية في العراق.

أبعاد الفيلم
البعد الأول هو عندما طلب مسؤول الاستخبارات الأمريكية من ميلر حث أحد السجناء العراقيين على عدم الاستجابة لتحقيقات محققين أمريكيين، وفي تلك اللحظة يبدي ميلر استغرابه، وكأنه يتساءل عن الانقسام الدائر بينهم كأمريكيين، فيجيبه مسؤول الاستخبارات ببساطة: «هل أنت ساذج؟» وهو دلالة على أن الداخل الأمريكي يشهد انقساما حادا بشأن هذه الحرب.

البعد الثاني هو جلب الأمريكيين لعراقيين من الخارج ليقودوا البلاد، ومن ثم اكتشافهم أن العراقيين منقسمون على أنفسهم، ما بين سني وشيعي وكردي، وبالتالي فإن الأمريكيين أدخلوا أنفسهم في متاهة يصعب اليوم الخروج منها.

البعد الأخير وهو الأهم هو اللقطة الأخيرة في الفيلم، والتي يظهر فيها ميلر راكبا سيارة عسكرية مع مجموعته، متجهين نحو أحد آبار النفط العراقية، وهنا ينتهي الفيلم، ليترك المشاهد مع السبب الحقيقي لغزو الأمريكيين للعراق، ألا وهو النفط، فكاتب الفيلم ومخرجه يريان أن الاستيلاء على آبار النفط العراقية وحراستها هو سبب الرئيسي لوجود الأمريكيين هنا. الفيلم مأخوذ عن نص للكاتب راجيف تشاندراسيكاران، وكتابة برايان هيلجيلاند، إخراج بول غرينغراس، وبطولة كل من مات ديمون، وغريغ كينير، وإيمي رايان، وسعيد فرج.

ويعتبر هذا الفيلم هو التعاون الثالث بين غرينغراس وديمون بعد فلمي سلسلة «بورن».

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية في عقد 2010
أفلام إثارة سياسية
أفلام إثارة وحركة أمريكية
أفلام إثارة وحركة إسبانية
أفلام إثارة وحركة إنتاج عقد 2010
أفلام إثارة وحركة بريطانية
أفلام إثارة وحركة فرنسية
أفلام إثارة وحركة في 2010
أفلام إستوديو كانال
أفلام إنتاج 2010
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 2010
أفلام بريطانية في عقد 2010
أفلام تقع أحداثها في بغداد
أفلام تقع أحداثها في سنة 2003
أفلام حرب أمريكية
أفلام حرب العراق
أفلام حربية إنتاج عقد 2010
أفلام حركة مبنية على أحداث حقيقية
أفلام حروب مبنية على أحداث حقيقية
أفلام سجلها جون باول
أفلام عن قوة دلتا
أفلام فرنسية
أفلام فرنسية في عقد 2010
أفلام مصورة في استديوهات لونجكروس
أفلام مصورة في المغرب
أفلام مصورة في إسبانيا
أفلام مصورة في إنجلترا
أفلام من إخراج بول غرينغراس
أفلام من إنتاج اريك فيلنر
أفلام من إنتاج تيم بيفان
أفلام وركينغ تايتلز فيلمز
العراق في القصص الخيالية

المنطقة الخضراء (فيلم)


Dallıbel, Tunceli ilinin Mazgirt ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün eski ismi "Beroç" olup 1960 yılı nüfus sayımından itibaren Dallıbel adıyla kayıtlarda yer almaktadır.

Coğrafya
Tunceli il merkezine 48 km, Mazgirt ilçesine 15 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Mazgirt belde ve köyleri

Dallıbel, Mazgirt


Die Base Naval de Rota der spanischen Marine liegt zwischen den Ortschaften Rota und El Puerto de Santa María am Nordufer der Bucht von Cádiz. Sie hat eine Fläche von 24,68 km² und gehört damit zu den größten Marinestützpunkten Europas. Auf der Basis befinden sich u. a. ein Militärflugplatz mit einer Fläche von 2,71 km² und Hafenanlagen mit drei Piers.

Die Basis wird neben der Armada Spaniens auch von der United States Navy mitbenutzt. Grundlage hierfür ist ein 1953 in der Frühzeit des Kalten Krieges geschlossenes Abkommen zwischen den beiden Staaten, als Spanien unter Franco nicht zur NATO gehörte. Die Marinebasis untersteht einem spanischen Konteradmiral. Die äußere Sicherheit der Basis obliegt Spanien allein, im Innern gibt es jedoch eine gemeinsame Militärpolizei beider Nationen. Die US Navy belegt zirka 80 % der Fläche der Basis.

Seit Februar 2014 ist das erste von vier Aegis-Kriegsschiffen der US Navy in Rota stationiert, um Europa im Rahmen der National Missile Defense vor Atomraketen zu beschützen. Hierzu wurde die Basis in fünfjähriger Bauzeit modernisiert und ausgebaut. Neben landseitigen Erweiterungen, hierzu wurden dem Meer 60.000 m² Neuland abgerungen, wurde die Pier 1 um 300 m verlängert und eine weitere, die Pier 4, neu erstellt. Für kleinere Einheiten entstand zusätzlich eine Hilfspier, und auch RoRo-Schiffe können seither be- und entladen werden.

Armada Española
Die Basis ist Heimat von folgenden schwimmenden Einheiten der spanischen Flotte:
 Grupo de Acción Naval 1
 41ª Escuadrilla de Escoltas mit sechs Fregatten der Santa-María-Klasse
 Versorgungsschiffe Patiño und Marqués de la Ensenada
 Grupo de Acción Naval 2 (COMGRUP 2)
 Amphibisches Angriffsschiff Juan Carlos I
 Amphibische Docktransportschiffe der Galicia-Klasse
 Panzerlandungsschiff Pizarro

Rota ist die Landbasis sämtlicher Luftfahrzeuge der Armada. Die Flotilla de Aeronaves gliedert sich in sechs fliegende Staffeln.

Neben den fliegenden und schwimmenden Verbänden ist Rota Sitz verschiedener Landdienststellen.

United States Navy

Die Marinebasis der U.S. Navy ist Teil der Basis der spanischen Marine. Die Aufgabe der US-Basis ist die Unterstützung der 6. Flotte im Mittelmeer, des Air Mobility Command und der Military Sealift Command's Maritime Prepositioning Squadrons. Die USA betreiben auf der Basis auch ein Krankenhaus (U. S. Naval Hospital Rota), 801 Wohngebäude, 426 sonstige Gebäude, diverse Geschäfte, Gastronomien, eine Grundschule (David Glasgow Farragut Elementary School), eine Gesamtschule (David G. Farragut High School) sowie Außenstellen der Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Navy College, Rota Community College, University of Maryland, David Glasgow Farragut Schools und University of Oklahoma. Auf und in der Nähe der Basis arbeiten und leben ca. 3000 US-Amerikaner.

Folgende Einheiten sind hier stationiert (Auswahl):
 Fleet Air Reconnaissance Squadron Two (VQ-2)
 Air Mobility Support Squadron (AMSS)
 Naval Computer and Telecommunications Area Master Station (NCTAMS)
 Naval Criminal Investigative Service Resident Agency
 Naval European Meteorology and Oceanography Center (NEMOC)
 Naval Leader Training Unit
 Naval Legal Service Office (NLSO)
 Naval Media Center (NMC)
 Naval Mobile Construction Battalion (NMCB)
 Naval Security Group Activity (NSGA)
 vier "Aegis"-Zerstörer der Arleigh-Burke-Klasse:
 USS Donald Cook (DDG-75) (2014 bis 2021)
 USS Ross (DDG-71) (2014 bis 2022)
 USS Porter (DDG-78) (2015 bis 2022)
 USS Carney (DDG-64) (2015 bis 2020)
 USS Roosevelt (DDG-80) (seit 2020)
 USS Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) (seit 2021)
 USS Paul Ignatius (DDG-117) (seit 2022)
 USS Bulkeley (DDG-84) (seit 2022)

Der Stützpunkt ist Sitz des Commander, U.S. Naval Activities Spain, in Personalunion Commanding Officer of Naval Station, Rota. Militärflugzeuge starteten u. a. von Rota aus, um den Internationalen Militäreinsatz in Libyen 2011 zu führen.

Im Jahre 1992 war der Flugplatz der Marinebasis ein möglicher Notlandeplatz des Space Shuttle bei einem Startabbruch.

Einzelnachweise

Verkehrsbauwerk in Andalusien
Rota
Rota
Marine (Spanien)
Rota
Rota
Rota
Erbaut in den 1950er Jahren
Rota (Stadt)
Beziehungen zwischen Spanien und den Vereinigten Staaten
Rota
Bauwerk in der Provinz Cádiz

Marinebasis Rota


Indulis Emsis (born 2 January 1952) is a Latvian biologist and politician. He was Prime Minister of Latvia for ten months in 2004, the first Green politician to lead a country in the history of the world. He was Speaker of the Saeima, the Latvian parliament from 2006 to 2007. Emsis' political views are described as rather conservative, unusual for members of green parties around the world.

Early life
Emsis graduated from Riga First Secondary School in 1970 and graduated from the University of Latvia with a degree in biology in 1975. In 1986, he received his PhD, also in biology. Until 1990, he worked as a research scientist in environmental science. From 1976 to 1987 Emsis worked as a research associate at the scientific production association "Silava", and head of its labor protection laboratory between 1987 and 1989. Emsis also worked as deputy chairman of the Soviet Latvia's State Nature Protection Committee.

Start of political career
In 1990, he became one of founders of Latvian Green Party (LZP) and served as Minister for the environment in the 1990s, working especially for a clean Baltic Sea. He is currently one of the three chairpersons of the Latvian Green Party, which forms a part of Union of Greens and Farmers.
Emsis was included on the Green ticket for the 5th Saeima elections in 1993. Emsis was appointed special assignments minister of natural protection in
Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development in the government of Valdis Birkavs in 1993. Emsis also held the office in the government of Māris Gailis in 1994.

Emsis was elected to the 6th Saeima from the ticket of LNNK/LZP in 1995. As a member of the 6th Saeima, Emsis was elected to the parliament's Economic Policy Committee. Emsis was appointed special assignments minister of environment in the ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development when Andris Šķēle's government was approved in 1995. Emsis again assumed the post when Šķēle returned with a new government in 1997, and also held it in the government of Guntars Krasts.

In 1996, Emsis was awarded the Three Star Order (3rd category). In 1998, Emsis was appointed head of a task force to prepare a development program for Latvia's small ports, and chairman of committee for assessment of conformity of beaches and yacht ports. In 1998, Emsis joined the parliamentary group of the Labor Party, Union of Christian Democrats and LZP. He was included on the three parties' joint ticket for the 7th Saeima elections. In 1998, Emsis assumed the post of Prime Minister Vilis Krištopans' non-staff advisor on environmental protection issues.

In 2000, LZP congress nominated Emsis as the party's candidate for Riga mayor ahead of municipal elections. Emsis was elected to the Riga City Council form LZP ticket in March 2001, he worked as deputy chairman of the city council's City Development Committee.

In October 2002, Emsis was included on the ZZS ticket for the 8th Saeima elections. Emsis was elected to Saeima, and was appointed deputy chairman of the ZZS parliamentary group. Emsis was elected head of the Economic, Agricultural, Environmental and Regional Policy Committee, he also worked on the Public Expenditure and Audit Committee.

As prime minister
After the resignation of New Era Party leader Einars Repše's government, President Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga assigned Emsis to form a new government; the Saeima voted Emsis' government in office in March 2004.

On 9 March 2004, he became the prime minister of Latvia, leading a centre-right minority government consisting of The Greens and Farmers union, Latvia's First Party and Latvian People's Party. For most of time, the government was also supported by the leftist National Harmony Party.

Emsis was the first member of a Green party to become Prime Minister of a country. On 28 October 2004, the government fell as the Saeima voted 39–53 against the government's budget proposal for the year 2005. He left office on 2 December 2004, when parliament confirmed Aigars Kalvītis of the People's Party as Prime Minister.

Speaker of Saeima
Emsis returned to the Saeima in December 2004. In October 2006, Emsis was elected to the 9th Saeima from the ticket of the Union of Greens and Farmers. On 7 November 2006, he was elected Speaker of Saeima, defeating Sandra Kalniete of the New Era Party by 74 votes to 22.

COVID-19
On 12 December 2021, Emsis made public statements on COVID-19 treatment very far removed from the scientific consensus.

References

1952 births
Living people
People from Limbaži Municipality
Latvian Green Party politicians
Prime Ministers of Latvia
Ministers of the Environment of Latvia
Speakers of the Saeima
Deputies of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Latvia
Deputies of the 6th Saeima
Deputies of the 8th Saeima
Deputies of the 9th Saeima
Riga State Gymnasium No.1 alumni
University of Latvia alumni

Indulis Emsis


Burfjorden (nordsamisk: Buvrovuotna) er en fjordarm af Kvænangen i  Kvænangen kommune i Troms og Finnmark   fylke  i Norge. Fjorden har indløb mellem Slettneset i sydvest og Storengneset i nordøst og går 8 kilometer mod syd til bygden Burfjord i bunden af  fjorden.

Nord for Storengneset går Lille Altafjorden mod øst til Alteidet. Storeng er en lille bygd på østsiden af fjorden ved indløbet. Buktenes er en bygd på vestsiden  næsten helt inderst i fjorden.

Europavej E6 går langs hele østsiden af fjorden, mens fylkesvej 363 (Troms) går langs vestsiden.

Kilder og henvisninger

Fjorde i Troms og Finnmark
Kvænangen

Burfjorden


Nummer-et hits i Norge i 2018 er en liste over de singler der lå nummer et på den norske singlehitliste i 2018. Den var udarbejdet af International Federation of the Phonographic Industry og Nielsen Soundscan, og udgives af VG-lista.

Historie

Referencer

Se også
 Musik i 2018

Norge i 2018
2018
Musik i 2018

Nummer-et hits i Norge i 2018


(24 de enero de 1981) es un luchador profesional japonés, más conocido por su nombre artístico TARUcito. Nomura es famoso por sus apariciones en Toryumon.

Carrera

Toryumon (2000-2003)
En diciembre de 2000, Takashi debutó en Toryumon México bajo el nombre de TARUcito, una versión más pequeña y ligera de TARU. Inicialmente luchando sólo en combates de comedia, TARUcito fue luego enviado a Toryumon 2000 Project (T2P), donde asistió a TARU en su feudo con Kinya Oyanagi. Pese a los resultados mixtos de este enfrentamiento, TARUcito fue hecho miembro del grupo Crazy MAX (CIMA, SUWA & Don Fujii), al que TARU pertenecía, y se convirtió en su mánager. Al final de 2002, después del cierre de T2P, Nomura se retiró de la lucha libre.

Posteriormente, en 2003, TARUcito hizo su retorno, apareciendo en Toryumon X, como uno de los miembros de Mini Crazy MAX (Mini CIMA, SUWAcito & Small Dandy Fujii). Sin embargo, poco después Nomura volvió a su retiro y fue sustituido por un segundo TARUcito, Yasuhito Doukan, que no llegó a hacer su debut.

En lucha
 Movimientos finales
 TARU Driller (Over the shoulder sitout belly to belly piledriver) - adoptado de TARU
 Flechita (Arm trap cross-legged stepover toehold con el oponente apoyado sobre su cabeza)
 Headlock takedown derivado en wrenching side headlock

 Movimientos de firma
 Brainbuster
 Double jump moonsault
 Jumping cradle pin
 Low blow
 Múltiples stiff roundhouse kicks al torso del oponente

 Luchadores dirigidos
 Crazy MAX (CIMA, SUWA, TARU & Don Fujii)
 Mini Crazy MAX (Mini CIMA, SUWAcito & Small Dandy Fujii)

Referencias

Luchadores profesionales de Japón

Takashi Nomura


In heraldry, a flaunch (; also called flanches or flanks) are among the ordinaries or subordinaries, consisting of two arcs of circles protruding into the field from the sides of the shield.  The flaunch is never borne singly.

Plain flaunches are seen in the coats of Hulbert Paul Lindahl Silver and Gillian Patricia Birtwhistle.  They may be of different tinctures, as in the coat of the Free State Women's Agricultural Union (South Africa) where they are orange/tenny and azure.

Flaunches may touch each other, as in the coat of Bradley Hook.

Like any ordinary, they may
 be charged with other things, as in the English coats of Harlow District Council and Forest of Dean District Council.
 have colourings other than plain ones, as in the English coat of Hoylake Urban District Council and the Canadian one of the Central Saanich (British Columbia) Police Service.
 have ornamented edges, as in the Welsh coat of Maesteg Town Council.

A very rare variation is square flaunches, as in the coat of Sheila-Marie Suzanne Cook and the coat of the US Coastguard Cutter Sequoia.  Parker's glossary, s.v. Flaunches, cites two similar coats for Mosylton or Moselton with square flaunches.

Diminutive
While supposedly the diminutives of flaunches are flasques and voiders (which likewise cannot be borne singly), these  exist only very rarely in modern heraldry, and in practice cannot be distinguished from flaunches.  An example occurs in the coat of Liddell-Grainger of Ayton (second quarter for Liddell), "Argent fretty gules; two voiders or;..." (Scots Public Register, volume 38, page 3).

As a debruisement
Some early heraldic writers say that the illegitimate son of a noblewoman must bear her arms with "a surcoat"; that is, on (large) flaunches around a blank center.

References

Heraldic ordinaries

Flaunch