{{Ficha de parque
|nombre          = Institut de Botanique de Cayenne
|otros nombres   = Institut de Botanique de Cayenne
|imagen          = Desmodium incanum closeup.jpg
|tamaño imagen   = 250px
|descripción     = 'Hojas de Desmodium incanum, una de las especies de la Guayana Francesa.|mapa            = French_Guiana_in_France_(special_marker).svg
|tamaño mapa     = 250px
|pie mapa        = Ubicación del Institut de Botanique de Cayenneen Cayenne-Cayena, La Guyane-Guayana Francesa.
|x = 72     |y     = 119
|tipo            = Jardín botánico

|localización    = ,  Región de La Guyane française-Guayana Francesa  Departamento de La Guyane-Guayana FrancesaCayenne-Cayena.
|vías adyacentes = Ronte de Montabo, B.P. 165
|inauguración    = 1965
|operador        = Estatal.
}}
El Instituto Botánico de Cayena (en francés: Institut de Botanique de Cayenne) es un jardín botánico de administración estatal dedicado a la investigación botánica que se encuentra en la ciudad de Cayena, Guayana Francesa.

El código de identificación del Institut de Botanique de Cayenne como miembro del "Botanic Gardens Conservation Internacional" (BGCI), así como las siglas de su herbario es CAY'.

 Localización Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement'', Ronte de Montabo, B.P. 165, 97323 Cayenne, La Guyane, France-Francia.

Planos y vistas satelitales.

Se puede visitar previa cita.

Historia
Fue creado en 1965 por parte del estado, con la intención de investigar las especies vegetales del territorio de la Guayana Francesa para su aprovechamiento y mejora de la economía de la zona.

Colecciones
Entre las plantas de especial interés se encuentran especies endémicas de la Flora de la Guayana de áreas submontanas.

Incluye el herbario de La Guayana con aproximadamente más de 100 000 especímenes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Página del jardín botánico en el BGCI
 Relación de Jardines botánicos de Francia

Instituto

Instituto Botánico de Cayena


La Fin de Louis XI est un film muet français réalisé par Georges Denola, sorti en 1912.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre : La Fin de Louis XI
 Réalisation : Georges Denola
 Scénario :
 Photographie :
 Montage :
 Producteur :
 Société de production : Série d'Art Pathé Frères (S.A.P.F.)
 Société de distribution : Pathé Frères
 Pays d'origine :
 Langue : film muet avec les intertitres en français
 Format : Noir et blanc — 35 mm — 1,33:1 — Muet
 Genre : Film dramatique, Film historique
 Métrage :  mètres
 Durée : 7 minutes 30
 Dates de sortie :
  :
  :

Distribution
 x

À noter
 Une version italienne coproduite par la filiale italienne de Série d'Art Pathé Frères (S.A.P.F.) (Il Film d'Arte Italiana) et Milanese Film a été tournée simultanément, réalisée par , avec Ermete Novelli dans le rôle de Louis XI.

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Henri Bousquet, Catalogue Pathé des années 1896 à 1914, Bures-sur-Yvette, Éditions Henri Bousquet, 1994-2004

Articles connexes
 Liste de films français sortis en 1912

Liens externes

 La Fin de Louis XI sur le site de la Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé

Film français sorti en 1912
Film dramatique français
Film historique français
Film réalisé par Georges Denola
Film en français
Film muet français
Film français en noir et blanc
Film distribué par Pathé
Janvier 1912

La Fin de Louis XI


Defileele Uzului reprezintă o serie de defilee situate pe valea râului Uz.

Datorită tectonicii regiunii și caracterului transversal al văii sale, Uzul curge prin mai multe sectoare înguste cu aspect de defileu, formate în gresiile dure ale flișului extern. Sectoarele de defileu alternează cu mici bazinete de eroziune. Astfel:

 primul defileu se află în Munții Ciucului și se întinde între bazinetul de la Ocoliș (în ), format în structurile flișului intern (cretacic) și cel de la Valea Uzului. Primul defileu cuprinde unele sectoare cu aspect de chei săptate în gresie de tipul celei de Tarcău (Cheile Uzului), astfel că în această zonă, pragurile și repezișurile albiei se succed la intervale mici. Este cel mai lung dintre defilee.
 al doilea defileu se află între bazinetul de la Valea Uzului și cel de la Poiana Uzului, între rama nordică a  Munților Nemira și Munții Ciucului. Acest al doilea defileu (găsit cu numele de Defileul Uzului) este cel mai frumos dintre cele trei. Traversează o zonă puternic împădurită, cu excepția micii poieni de la "Chibritărie" și este mai scurt ca primul, fără a-și pierde însă din caracterul de spectaculozitate. Astfel valea, care din loc în loc își schimbă direcția datorită alternanței rocilor cu durități diferite,  este străjuită de versanți abrupți cu trene mari de grohotișuri mascate de pădurea care coboară pînă la nivelul apei și blocuri imense. Pe acest sector se găsesc cascadele Uzului: Nasolea Mare și Nasolea Mică, în apropierea acestora valea îngustându-se, pentru a căpăta un profil de pantă de 7,2 m/km. Materialul detritic de dimensiuni mari este observabil pe versantul situat între Bărzăuța (afluent de dreapta) și cascada Nasolea Mare.
 al treilea sector este reprezentat de către un scurt defileu la "Pivniceri" (Cheile Pivniceri), unde o  bară de gresie eocenă închide bazinetul Poiana Uzului și unde s-a construit barajul lacului de acumulare.

Cel de-al doilea defileu se mai regăsește în literatura română și respectiv în cea maghiară și sub alte nume, de Strâmtoarea Uzului ori de Kistölgyesi-szoros, Üzi-szoros, Alcsíki Tölgyes-átjáró și Kõkert-szoros. La scurtă distanță de intrarea sa în amonte era traversat de vechea graniță dintre Regatul României și Austro-Ungaria, aici găsindu-se în acele vremuri un punct vamal numit Vama Uzului.

Sectoarele de defileu, ca de altfel întreaga vale a Uzului, sunt străbătute de drumul județean Dărmănești — Valea Uzului — Sînmartin (DJ 123).

Referințe

Bibliografie
 Albotă, Mihail; Nemira + Munții Nemira – Harta turistică; Ed. Sport-Turism; București; 1983 (1982: harta)
 Rusu, Constantin & Talabă, I. & Lupașcu, Gh.; Ciucului + Rusu Constantin & Stănescu, C. (cartograf); Harta; 1988, Colecția Munții Noștri; Ed. Abeona; 1992
Lectură suplimentară
 Grigore, M; Defileuri, chei și văi de tip canion în România; Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică; București; 1989
  Az Üzi-szoros; A "Turistaság és Alpinizmus", 1917 ápr. f. 10 képpel

Geografia județului Bacău
Canioane și defilee în România
Bazinul Siret
Văi din România

Defileele Uzului


In Malay, Yang di-Pertuan Besar, literally "He Who Is Made Chief Ruler", is a title given to the head of state in segments of the Malay Archipelago.

In Malaysia
 Also known as Yamtuan Besar, it is the title of the elected monarch of the state of Negeri Sembilan in Malaysia. The monarch is himself one of the nine Malay rulers and electors of the federal Yang di-Pertuan Agong (High King).
 It is a subsidiary title of the Sultan of Kedah, the Sultan of Kelantan, the Sultan of Perak and the Sultan of Terengganu
 Other historical figures, especially the monarchs of the ancient Johor Empire (circa. 17th-19th century), had the title used to differentiate from the "Yang di-Pertuan Muda" ("Under King") - who is usually not Malay but Bugis. However, this was a secondary title, the primary title being sultan.
 A peculiar occurrence in Terengganu history was that, after Sultan Zainal Abidin I died, his youngest son, Sultan Mansur Riayat Shah I was enthroned as Sultan with the title Yang di-Pertuan Kecil (during his minority), while his oldest son, Ku Tanang Wangsa held the Yang di-Pertuan Besar title equivalent to Regent.

In Indonesia
In colonial Indonesia, the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies was styled: Yang Mulia Sri Paduka Yang Dipertuan Besar.
 Secondary title of the Sultans of Asahan (in Sumatra), Sultan of Riau-Lingga and Sultan of Siak Sri Indrapura (the latter two are located Sumatra, which broke away from the Johor Empire)
 The original title of the Tuan Besar of  (in the Indonesian province of Borneo)

References

Noble titles of Indonesia
Noble titles of Malaysia
Malaysian monarchy
Malaysian nobility
Royal titles

Yang di-Pertuan Besar


Roerdalen (; ) er en kommune og en by, beliggende i den sydlige provins Limburg i Nederlandene. Kommunens areal er på 93,84 km², og indbyggertallet er på 20.675 pr. 1. april 2016.

Kernerne
Roerdalen Kommunen består af følgende landsbyer og bebyggelser. Indbyggertal per 1. januar 2014:

Aan de Berg, Etsberg, Holst, Lerop, Paarlo, Reutje ('t Räötje, Varst, Vlodrop-Station en Zittard

Galleri

Eksterne henvisninger

 Kommunens hjemmeside

Byer i Limburg
Kommuner i Limburg

Roerdalen


Michael Benjamin Bay (born February 17, 1965) is an American film director and producer. He is best known for making big-budget, high-concept action films characterized by fast cutting, stylistic cinematography and visuals, and extensive use of special effects, including frequent depictions of explosions. The films he has produced and directed, which include Armageddon (1998), Pearl Harbor (2001) and the Transformers film series (2007–present), have grossed over  worldwide, making him one of the most commercially successful directors in history.

He is co-founder of commercial production house The Institute, a.k.a. The Institute for the Development of Enhanced Perceptual Awareness. He co-owns Platinum Dunes, a production house which has remade horror films, including The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003), The Amityville Horror (2005), The Hitcher (2007), Friday the 13th (2009) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (2010).

Despite his commercial success at the box office, Bay's work is generally held in low esteem by film critics. While The Rock (1996), Transformers (2007), 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi (2016), and  Ambulance (2022) received moderately positive reviews, most of his other films, particularly the four Transformers sequels, have been received negatively by critics.

Early life and education
Bay was born in Los Angeles. He was raised by his adoptive parents Harriet, a bookstore owner and child psychiatrist, and Jim, a Certified Public Accountant. He was raised Jewish. His grandfather was from Russia. His cousin, Susan Bay, is the widow of Star Trek actor Leonard Nimoy (whom he eventually cast as the voice actor for Sentinel Prime in Transformers: Dark of the Moon). He attended the exclusive Crossroads School in Santa Monica, California.

Bay often traces his interest in action films back to an incident during his childhood. As a boy, he attached some firecrackers to a toy train and filmed the ensuing fiery disaster with his mother's 8 millimeter camera. The fire department was called and he was grounded.

Bay got his start in the film industry interning with George Lucas when he was 15, filing the storyboards for Raiders of the Lost Ark, which he thought was going to be terrible. His opinion changed after seeing it in the theater and he was so impressed by the experience that he decided to become a film director. He graduated from Wesleyan University in 1986, majoring in both English and film. He was a member of the Psi Upsilon fraternity and a favorite student of film historian Jeanine Basinger. For his graduate work, he attended Art Center College of Design in Pasadena where he also studied film.

Career

1992–2005: Breakthrough and stardom
Bay began working at Propaganda Films, directing commercials and music videos, two weeks after finishing his postgraduate degree. His 90-second World War II–inspired Coca-Cola advertisement was picked up by Capitol Records. His first national commercial was for the Red Cross, which won a Clio Award in 1992. He directed Goodby, Silverstein & Partners' "Aaron Burr" commercial as part of the "Got Milk?" ad campaign for the California Milk Processors Board in 1993, which also won a Grand Prix Clio Award for Commercial of the Year.

Bay's success in music videos gained the attention of producers Jerry Bruckheimer and Don Simpson, who selected him to direct his first feature-length film, Bad Boys. It was shot in Miami in 1994 and starred Will Smith and Martin Lawrence. The action film was a breakout role for Smith, who was making a transition from television at the time. Shooting in Miami was a good experience for Bay, who would later own a home in the city and spend a great deal of time there. The film was completed for $19 million and grossed a remarkable $141 million in the summer of 1995. Bay's success led to a strong partnership and friendship with Jerry Bruckheimer.

His follow-up film, The Rock (1996), an action movie set on Alcatraz Island and in the San Francisco Bay area, starred Sean Connery, Nicolas Cage and Ed Harris. It was produced by Jerry Bruckheimer and Don Simpson, the latter of whom died five months before its release. The film is dedicated to him. Connery and Cage won 'Best On-Screen Duo' at the MTV Movie Awards in 1997, and the film was nominated for an Academy Award in the Best Achievement in Sound category for the work of Greg P. Russell, Kevin O'Connell and Keith A. Wester. After the success of The Rock, Bay established his production company Bay Films, with a two-picture deal with Disney.

In 1998, Bay again collaborated with Jerry Bruckheimer, this time as a co-producer, as well as directing the action-adventure film Armageddon. The film, about a group of tough oil drillers who are sent by NASA to deflect an asteroid from a collision course with Earth, starred Bruce Willis, Billy Bob Thornton, Ben Affleck and Liv Tyler. It was nominated for four Oscars at the 71st Academy Awards, including Best Sound, Best Visual Effects, Best Sound Editing and Best Original Song. It earned $9.6 million on its opening day and $36.5 million through the first weekend. Its budget of $140 million was one of the highest of the summer of 1998. It went on to gross over $553 million worldwide, the highest-grossing film of that year.

In 2001, Bay directed Pearl Harbor, starring Ben Affleck, Josh Hartnett, Kate Beckinsale and Cuba Gooding, Jr. It was released on Memorial Day weekend in 2001, again produced by Bay with Jerry Bruckheimer. It received four Academy Award nominations, including Best Sound, Best Visual Effects, Best Sound Editing and Best Song. Kevin O'Connell received another nomination for Best Sound, but did not win. Pearl Harbor won in the category for Sound Editing, making it Bay's first (and, to date, only) film to win an Oscar. Bay also directed the music video for the nominated track "There You'll Be" by vocal artist Faith Hill.

Bay reteamed with Will Smith and Martin Lawrence for Bad Boys II, a sequel that was Bay's fifth collaboration with Jerry Bruckheimer. It grossed $138 million domestically, enough to cover the production budget, and $273 million worldwide, almost twice as much as the first movie. In 2005, Bay directed The Island, a science fiction film starring Ewan McGregor and Scarlett Johansson. It was the first film Bay made without Jerry Bruckheimer as a producer. It cost $126 million to produce and earned $36 million domestically and $127 million overseas, for a total of $163 million. Bay said that he was not comfortable with the domestic marketing campaign, as it confused the audience about the film's true subject.

2007–2016

In 2007, he teamed up with executive producer Steven Spielberg to direct Transformers, a live action film based on the Transformers franchise. Released in July 2007, by November of that year it had made over $709 million worldwide.

Bay returned as director and executive producer for Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, which was released on June 24, 2009 and grossed over $832 million worldwide. Although it received mostly negative reviews by critics, including aggressively critical reviews by American film critics such as Roger Ebert, Michael Phillips and David Denby (who referred to Bay as "stunningly, almost viciously, untalented"), the film was well received by its intended audience and one of the highest-grossing of 2009. In 2010, it earned seven Golden Raspberry Award nominations, and won three: Worst Picture, Worst Director and Worst Screenplay. It was also one of the best-selling DVD and Blu-ray Discs of 2009, second only to Twilight in DVD format, and the #1 of all time in Blu-ray format until it was surpassed by Blu-ray sales of James Cameron's Avatar in April 2010.

Bay directed Transformers: Dark of the Moon, released on June 29, 2011, which grossed $1.123 billion globally. His next film was a comparatively small one he had been developing for years, called Pain & Gain. The true crime story, based on events described in a Miami New Times article by Pete Collins, concerns a group of bumbling bodybuilders working together to commit a robbery. It starred Mark Wahlberg, Dwayne Johnson, Anthony Mackie, Tony Shalhoub and Ed Harris.

Bay produced DreamWorks' I Am Number Four, based on a series of novels by Pittacus Lore published by HarperCollins Children's Books. D. J. Caruso (Eagle Eye, Disturbia) directed.

A fourth Bay-directed Transformers movie, Transformers: Age of Extinction, was released in June 2014. Starring Mark Wahlberg, it earned $1.1 billion at the global box office. On January 12, 2016, Paramount Pictures released 13 Hours, which Bay produced and directed, based on the 2012 Benghazi attack. While the lowest-grossing film of Bay's career at the box office, it went on to massive DVD sales on its digital release in May 2016, earning over $40 million in home video revenue.

2017–present
On May 23, 2017, Bay was honored with his own hand-and-footprint ceremony at The TCL Chinese Theatre. His English mastiff, Rebel, put her paw in the cement with him.

Bay's fifth Transformers film as director, Transformers: The Last Knight, was released on June 21, 2017. It grossed $68.5 million in its five-day North American opening weekend, the franchise's lowest opening, and $605 million worldwide. In a 2016 Rolling Stone interview, Bay said it would be his final Transformers film as director.

In 2018, it was announced that Bay would direct the Netflix action thriller film 6 Underground, starring Ryan Reynolds, Mélanie Laurent, Manuel Garcia-Rulfo, Adria Arjona, Corey Hawkins, Ben Hardy and Dave Franco. It was released on December 13, 2019. In August 2019, Bay signed to direct the action film Black Five for Sony Pictures. However, the film, which was set to begin production in 2020, was put on hold because of the COVID-19 pandemic, and Bay subsequently moved on to direct Ambulance.

Bay produced the pandemic-themed thriller Songbird starting Demi Moore, Craig Robinson, Paul Walter Hauser and Peter Stormare. He is set to direct the dystopian thriller Little America, which was scheduled to film in California sometime in 2020.

In 2021, it was reported that Bay requested financial compensation from film studio Paramount Pictures for indirectly limiting his income as a result of Paramount cutting the theatrical-only run of A Quiet Place Part II from 90 to 45 days due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Bay, and other producers as well as actors for the film, as is typically the case, receive payment in part based on box-office performance, and a reduction in the theatrical run's exclusivity affected the pay they received.

Bay's next film was 2022's Ambulance, starring Jake Gyllenhaal, Yahya Abdul-Mateen II, and Eiza González. It follows two bank robbers who hijack an ambulance and take two hostages. Shot during the COVID-19 pandemic in Los Angeles, it was released in the US on April 8, 2022 by Universal Pictures.

In February 2023, Bay was hired to direct and executive produce an untitled action drama series for A&E Studios and Amazon Studios.

Production and effects companies

Platinum Dunes

Bay founded production house Platinum Dunes with fellow producers Brad Fuller and Andrew Form in 2001.

Digital Domain

Bay and Wyndcrest Holdings, a Florida-based investment firm, acquired the digital effects company Digital Domain from James Cameron and Stan Winston in 2006, infusing the struggling business with a $50 million investment. Digital Domain considered an initial public offering in 2009 but withdrew the offer due to lack of interest. It was sold to the production group Beijing Galloping Horse in 2012.

The Institute
After leaving Propaganda Films, Bay and producer Scott Gardenhour, also formerly at Propaganda, formed The Institute for the Development of Enhanced Perceptual Awareness (now known as The Institute), to produce commercials and other projects. Through The Institute, Bay has directed and produced spots for Victoria's Secret, Lexus, Budweiser, Reebok, Mercedes-Benz, and Nike. One of his Victoria's Secret ads was for the 2009 "A Thousand Fantasies" holiday campaign.

451 Media Group
Bay co-founded 451 Media Group with Doug Nunes (who serves as CEO), and with John and Anthony Gentile, who previously marketed brands such as Micronauts, Visionaries, Sky Dancers and the Power Glove. In 2015, the company announced an interactive publishing division to offer "augmented reality" content from printed graphic novels with digital video. The graphic novels employ Touchcode technology from T+ink (previously used in the Power Glove), in which ink used in the printing process unlocks access to exclusive content that is housed on the Machinima Network, which is transferred to users' touch-screen-enabled mobile devices when the printed books are touched to those devices. The company's premiere slate of graphic novels was unveiled at the October 2015 New York Comic Con. The creators involved included Scott Rosenberg, Skip Woods, George Pelecanos, Mark Mallouk, Clay McLeod Chapman and Peter and Paul Williams.

Rogue Initiative
In June 2016, Bay joined The Rogue Initiative, a production studio and technology company, as a strategic advisor and stakeholder. The studio merges Hollywood production with interactive talent to generate story-driven content for games, mobile, virtual reality, mixed reality, television and feature film. As part of the partnership, Bay will develop and direct a multiplatform action-adventure game and cinematic VR experiences, based on an original IP conceived by him.

Personal life
Bay lives in Miami with his three English mastiffs, named for characters in his films. As a boy, he donated his Bar Mitzvah money to an animal shelter and often includes his dogs in his films. Bonecrusher appeared as Mikaela's dog "Bones" in Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. Mason, his first English mastiff, was named for John Patrick Mason, played by Sean Connery in The Rock. Mason appeared as Marcus's dog in Bad Boys II and as Miles' dog in Transformers; he died during production of the latter film in March 2007.

Bay is not married and has no children. He previously dated sportscaster Lisa Dergan.

In a 2016 Rolling Stone interview, Bay said that his net worth was around $500 million. He owned a $50 million Gulfstream G550 jet, as well as a Bentley, a Range Rover, an Escalade, a Ferrari, a Lamborghini, and two Camaros from the Transformers franchise.

Filmography

Critical reception

Despite his box office success, Bay's work has been poorly received by film critics, and his name is often used pejoratively in art-house circles. Bay has responded to his critics, saying: "I make movies for teenage boys. Oh, dear, what a crime." Besides accusing him of making films that pander to a young demographic, critics and audiences have been critical of elements of Bay's filmmaking style such as the overuse of Dutch angles, extreme patriotism, overly broad and sophomoric humor, excessive product placement, oversaturated orange and teal color grading, reusing footage from his previous films, and his preference of action and spectacle over story and characters. Another point of contention with Bay's films is his portrayal and use of offensive racial stereotypes as comedic relief; a notable alleged example being the characters Skids and Mudflap in Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen.

Bay has also been accused of heavily objectifying women in his films, with critics describing Bay's manner of filming actresses as "lascivious" and "pornographic". He has faced criticism for routinely making sexist remarks and showing female characters in a stereotypical light. He came under scrutiny for firing Megan Fox in retaliation after she made comments about him mistreating her on the set of the Transformers films and compared him to Hitler and Napoleon. Bay published an open letter written by three anonymous members of the crew of Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen that referred to Fox as, among other things, "Ms. Sourpants", "porn star", "unfriendly bitch", and "dumb-as-a-rock".

In 2009, it was reported that Fox, at the age of 15, was made to wash Bay's car while auditioning for Transformers. In 2020, Fox revisited the incident and denied that she was underaged (for Transformers) or "made to 'wash' or work on someone's cars in a way that was extraneous from the materials in the actual script." Fox was 15 when she first appeared as a bikini-clad extra in the Bay film Bad Boys II.

Actress Kate Beckinsale also spoke out publicly by reporting that she was body-shamed and regularly criticized for her appearance by Bay during the making of Pearl Harbor.

Six of Bay's films have been nominated for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Picture and Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Director (Armageddon, Pearl Harbor, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, Transformers: Dark of the Moon, Transformers: Age of Extinction and Transformers: The Last Knight), with Revenge of the Fallen and Age of Extinction winning the award for "Worst Director". Revenge of the Fallen also became the first film by Bay and also the highest-grossing film to be awarded "Worst Picture".

Conversely, some critics and actors have praised Bay's films and style. Film historian Jeanine Basinger has described him as "the most cinematic and fluid and unafraid director", while Scott Foundas of Variety has lauded his "grand, epic vision" and positively compared him to William Wyler. Actress Scarlett Johansson wrote that Bay is "a truly ambitious storyteller who celebrates characters actors and leading men and women alike."

Accolades

References

External links

 The Institute

1965 births
Living people
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American Jews
21st-century American male actors
Action film directors
Advertising directors
American adoptees
American film directors
American film producers
American male film actors
American music video directors
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American television producers
Art Center College of Design alumni
Crossroads School alumni
Directors Guild of America Award winners
Film directors from Los Angeles
Film producers from California
Jewish American film directors
Jewish American film producers
Jewish American male actors
Psi Upsilon
Science fiction film directors
Skydance Media people
Television commercial directors
Wesleyan University alumni

Michael Bay


İlk Bulgar devleti 681 yılında karadenizin kuzeyinde Asparuh Han tarafından kurulmuş, ve 1018 yılında Bizans tarafından yenilgiye uğrayana kadar varolmuştur.

Bulgar hükümdarlar 9. yüzyıla kadar Orta Asya'dan getirdikleri Han unvanını kullanmış, I. Simeon döneminden itibaren Çar unvanını almışlardır. Bir süre iki unvan birlikte kullanılmış ve sonunda sırf Çar unvanı kalmıştır.

İkinci Bulgar Devleti 1186'da kurulmuş ve 1396'da Osmanlı hakimiyeti altına girmelerine kadar var olmuştur. 1878 yılında Bulgarlar tekrar bağımsızlıklarına kavuşmuş ve üçüncü Bulgar devletini kurmuşlardır. Üçüncü Bulgar devleti ilk başta bir kraliyet olarak kurulmuş. I. Ferdinand 1908 yılında Çar unvanını elde etmiştir ve böylece bu unvanı tekrar Bulgaristan'a geri getirmiştir. 1946 yılında ama, Bulgaristan'da bir referandum ile kraliyet kaldırılmıştır.

Bulgar hükümdarları

Bulgar hükümdarların tablosu

Hükümdar
Hükümdar listeleri

Bulgar hükümdarların listesi


Google Summer of Code (GSoC) ජාත්‍යන්තර වාර්ෂික වැඩසටහන පළමු වරට 2005 මැයි  සිට අගෝස්තු  දක්වා පැවත් වුනි. මෙම වැඩසටහනෙදි තම ව්‍යාපෘතිය නිදහස් හා විවෘත මූලාශ්ර මෘදුකාංග බාවිතයෙන් කේතනය කොට සාර්ථකව නිම කරන සිසුන් හට  Google සමාගම විසින් සම්මාන දීමනාවක් ලෙස (ඇමරිකානු $ .5,500 ක, 2016 වන විට) පිරිනැමීම සිදු කරයි. මෙම වැඩසටහන වයස අවුරුදු 18 හෝ ඊට වැඩි වයස් විශ්වවිද්යාල සිසුන් සඳහා විවෘත වේ.

Google Summer of Code අදහස ඉදිරිපත් කරන ලද්දෙ Google සමාගමෙ නිර්මාතෘන් වන සර්ජි බ්‍රින් සහ ලැරී පේජ් විසිනි. 2007 සිට 2009 වන තෙක් මෙම වැඩසටහන කළමනාකරනය කරන ලද්දෙ, 2006 වසරේ සිට මෙයට සම්බන්ද වු  ලෙස්ලි හොතොර්න්  විසිනි.  2010 සිට 2015 දක්වා කැරොල් ස්මිත් හටද, 2016 දී ස්ටෙෆනි ටේලර් හටද මෙම වැඩසටහනනෙ කළමනාකරිත්වය පවරුනි.

දළ විශ්ලේෂණය
අවශ්‍ය සුදුසුකම්  සැපිරු සිසුන්ට, තමා වැඩ කිරීමට කැමති මෘදුකාංග කේතන ව්‍යාපෘතිය සඳහා
අයදුම්පත් 5ක් මෙම වැඩසටහන වෙත ඉදිරිපත් කිරීමට පුලුවන. මෙම අයදුම්පත් පසුව අදාල උපදේශක සංවිධානය විසින් ඇගයීමට ලක් කරයි.  සෑම සංවිධානයක් විසින්ම තමන්ට ලැබුණු ව්‍යාපෘති යෝජනා සඳහා උපදේශකයන්  නම් කළ යුතු වෙ. මෙම උපදේශකයින් සංවිධානයට ලැබුණු අයදුම්පත් ශ්‍රේණි ගත කර සුදුසු යෝජනාවන් අනුමත කරයි. පසුව Google සමාගම විසින් මෙම සංවිධාන වෙත ලැබුණු අයදුම්පත් සංඛ්‍යාව සලකා බලා එමසංවිධානට ලැබිය යුතු ව්‍යාපෘති ගනණ තීරණය කරයි.

කිසි‍යම් සිසුවෙකු එකකට වඩා වැඩි සංවිධාන තුල සලුකුණු වෙ ඇත්නම් , Google සමාගම මැදිහත්වි එම සිසුවා ඇතුලත් විය යුතු සංවිධානය තීරනය කරයි. අනිත් උපදේශක සංවිධානය එම සිසුවා ඉවත් කර නව ව්‍යාපෘති යෝජනවක් සඳහා අනුමතිය ලබගැනිම හෝ එම අවස්ථාව  අනිත් සංවිධාන වලට ලබා දේ.

Google සමාගම විසින් 2005-2016 කාල පරිච්ජේදයට අදාලව ප්‍රකාශ කරන ලද විශිශ්ට පසල් 15 පහත පරිදි වේ.

යොමු

බාහිර සබැඳි

Google Summer of Code


An Puya macrura in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Christian Mez. An Puya macrura in nahilalakip ha genus nga Puya, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Peru. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Puya

Puya macrura


Teatao Teannaki (Abaiang, 1936. – Betio, 11. listopada 2016.) bio je političar i diplomat, drugi predsjednik otočne države Kiribati.

Životopis
Rođen je na otoku Abaiangu 1936. godine, gdje je pohađao osnovnu i srednju školu.

Političku karijeru započinje u Skupštinskom domu. Između 1979. i 1991. godine vršio je dužnost potpredsjednika države u vladi Ieremie Tabaija. Tijekom 1987. godine služio je mandat Ministra unutarnjih poslova, nakon čega je do 1991. godine bio i Ministar financija. Na predsjedničkim izborima 1991. godine odnosi pobjedu i zajedno sa suradnicima iz Nacionalne progresivne stranke sastavlja vladu.

Predsjednički mandat obnašao je između 1991. i 1994. godine. Prve dvije godine mandata bio je i Ministar vanjskih poslova. Na izborima 1994. godine porazio ga je Teburoro Tito.

Nakon predsjedništva, do 2015. godine radio je u državnoj diplomaciji, nakon čega se ponovno aktivira u stranci. U novoj vladi, između veljače i listopada 2016. godine, obnašao je dužnost predsjednika Skupštinskog doma.

Umro je 11. listopada 2016. godine od srčanog udara u Betiu, u 80. godini života.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 David R. James, Politika Kiribatija i kleveta: slučaj Teannakija protiv Tita , Sveučilište južnog Pacifika, (pristupljeno 17. veljače 2017.)

Kiribatski predsjednici
Diplomati
Potpredsjednici
Kiribatski političari
Političari nakon Drugog svjetskog rata
Političari nakon 1989.

Teatao Teannaki


La monarchie ghanéenne est le régime politique en vigueur au Ghana entre 1957 et 1960. Le dominion du Ghana partage alors son monarque avec le Royaume-Uni et d'autres États souverains appelés royaumes du Commonwealth.

Ancienne colonie britannique, le Ghana obtient son indépendance le . La reine  reste chef de l'État et est alors spécifiquement titrée « reine du Ghana ». La plupart de ses pouvoirs constitutionnels sont délégués au gouverneur général qui est son représentant dans le pays. En effet, comme d'autres pays du Commonwealth, le système politique ghanéen est basé sur le système de Westminster, dans lequel le chef de l'État joue un rôle purement honorifique.

La monarchie est abolie le  par la proclamation de la république du Ghana, qui continue toutefois de reconnaître la reine  comme chef du Commonwealth. Le président du Ghana remplace la reine comme chef d'État.

Histoire
Le Ghana est le premier pays d'Afrique occidentale à obtenir son indépendance. La loi sur l'indépendance du Ghana votée par le Parlement du Royaume-Uni en 1957 transforme la colonie britannique de la Côte-de-l'Or en État souverain et indépendant sous le nom de « dominion du Ghana », le , avec la reine  comme chef d'État. La princesse Marina, duchesse de Kent, représente la reine aux célébrations de l'indépendance. Le , la princesse ouvre officiellement le premier Parlement du Ghana indépendant, au nom de la reine, en prononçant le discours du Trône.

Rôle constitutionnel

Le dominion du Ghana est l'un des royaumes du Commonwealth qui partagent la même personne comme monarque et chef d'État.

Après la loi de 1957 sur l'indépendance du Ghana, aucun ministre du gouvernement britannique ne peut conseiller la reine sur les questions relatives au Ghana. Pour toutes les affaires ghanéennes, la souveraine est conseillée uniquement par ses ministres ghanéens. La reine est représentée dans le pays par un gouverneur général, nommé par elle sur avis du gouvernement ghanéen. Théoriquement, la reine détient de vastes pouvoirs constitutionnels, mais en pratique, tous ces pouvoirs sont exercés par le gouverneur général.

La reine du Ghana et l'Assemblée nationale constituent le Parlement du Ghana. Toutes les lois ghanéennes ne sont promulguées qu'avec l'octroi de la sanction royale ; celle-ci est accordée par le gouverneur général, au nom de la souveraine. Le gouverneur général du Ghana est également chargé de convoquer, de proroger et de dissoudre le Parlement, à la demande du gouvernement.

Le gouverneur général nomme les ministres ghanéens et peut les révoquer à sa discrétion.

Distinctions honorifiques
Au sein des royaumes du Commonwealth, le monarque est considéré comme le fons honorum (source d'honneurs). Ainsi, la souveraine, en tant que monarque du Ghana, décerne des récompenses et des honneurs au Ghana en son nom. La plupart d'entre eux sont décernés sur l'avis du gouvernement de Sa Majesté.

Titre de la reine

La reine  possède officiellement un titre différent dans tous les royaumes du Commonwealth. Jusqu'en 1957, le Ghana fait partie de l'Empire britannique, et  y règne en tant que reine du Royaume-Uni. Après l'indépendance, un nouveau titre est adopté afin de préciser l'aspect distinct de la monarchie ghanéenne. À partir du , le titre de la reine au Ghana est le suivant :

Entre le  et le , la reine conserve son titre britannique, soit : .

Abolition de la monarchie
Après le référendum constitutionnel du , le Ghana adopte une nouvelle Constitution remplaçant le monarque et le gouverneur général par un président. Celle-ci entre en vigueur le  suivant. Le Ghana cesse alors d'être un royaume du Commonwealth, mais reste membre de l'organisation dirigée par  en tant que république du Commonwealth.  déclare à cette occasion dans un message adressé aux Ghanéens : .

Visites royales
Dans son message de Noël de 1958, la reine annonce que le duc d'Édimbourg et elle se rendront au Ghana, à la fin de l'année 1959. Pour célébrer cette visite, le gouvernement ghanéen commande une nouvelle pièce de  à l'effigie de la reine et portant l'inscription . Cependant, cette pièce n'est jamais frappée, la visite étant reportée en raison de la grossesse de la reine. Cette annulation contrarie fortement le Premier ministre du Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah, ce qui amène  à le recevoir au château de Balmoral pour lui assurer qu'elle effectuerait une visite à Accra ultérieurement. En , le prince Philip effectue une visite de six jours au Ghana.

Alors que la république a été proclamée un an auparavant, la reine  visite finalement le Ghana du  au . Au cours de sa visite, la reine exécute une danse remarquée avec Kwame Nkrumah, désormais président, qui, selon de nombreux spécialistes, constitue un moment symbolique dans l'histoire du Commonwealth. Devant les craintes que le Ghana ne se rapproche trop de l'URSS, la reine insiste durant sa visite pour que le pays ne quitte pas le Commonwealth.

 effectue une nouvelle visite en république du Ghana du  au .

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Histoire du Ghana
 Liste des chefs d'État du Ghana

Références

Histoire du Ghana
Ghana
Ghana

Monarchie ghanéenne


داء الليشمانيات مجموعة من الأمراض الطفيلية يسببها عدد من أنواع الأوالي من جنس الليشمانيا. تتفاوت تظاهرات المرض من آفات جلدية تشفى عفوياً (داء الليشمانيات الجلدي) إلى مرض جهازي فتّاك (داء الليشمانيات الحشوي).

ينتقل داء الليشمانيات عن طريق لدغة أنثى حشرات من أسرة (تحت عائلة) الفواصد.

الوبائيات

حلقة العدوى

مشروحة بتفصيل أكثر في فقرة دورة حياة الليشمانيا.

عندما تلدغ أنثى الفواصد حيواناً مصاباً بداء الليشمانيات لتحصل على وجبة الدم الضرورية لنضوج بيوضها، فإنها تبتلع مع الدم الخلايا التي تحوي الشكل اللاسوطي لليشمانيا، فتتحول الخلايا في معيها إلى سوطيات تلتصق بجدار المعي وتتكاثر حتى تكاد تسده، ثم تهاجر إلى خرطومها؛ وعندما تلدغ الحشرة المضيف التالي يحدث لديها قلس فتدخل السوطيات مع لعابها إلى دم المضيف الفقاري الجديد حيث تغزو البلعميات وتتحول إلى الشكل اللاسوطي وتتكاثر ضمن الخلايا.

الحدوث
تنتشر أدواء الليشمانيات في المناطق المدارية وشبه المدارية من كل القارات المأهولة عدا أستراليا. المرض متوطِّن في 88 بلداً (21 بلداً في العالم الجديد و67 بلداً في العالم القديم). وبين هذه البلدان 16 بلداً متطوراً و72 بلداً نامياً، ومن بين هذه الأخيرة يدخل 13 بلداً في عداد البلدان الأقل نماءً. تقدّر منظمة الصحة العالمية الوقوع السنوي بنحو مليوني حالة، نصف مليون حالة من داء الليشمانيات الحشوي ومليون ونصف حالة من داء الليشمانيات الجلدي. ويُقدَّر الانتشار بنحو 12 مليون حالة، وحجم الجمهرة تحت الخطر 350 مليون شخص.

يزداد انتشار المرض في الفئات الفقيرة من المجتمع، نتيجة الاكتظاظ وعدم إتاحة خدمات الوقاية والتشخيص والعلاج ونقص الوعي الصحي.

داء الليشمانيات مرض حيواني المنشأ في الأصل، والمستودع (أو الخازن) الطبيعي لأغلب أنواع الطفيلي أنواع مختلفة من الحيوانات. ولكل نوع من الليشمانيات طيف من الحيوانات الخازنة. وبناءً على هذا يُقسم داء الليشمانيات وبائياً إلى داء الليشمانيات حيواني المنشأ (جلدي وحشوي) وداء الليشمانيات بشري المنشأ (جلدي وحشوي).

تصنف منظمة الصحة العالمية داء الليشمانيات بين الأمراض المهملة.

داء الليشمانيات الجلدي

يُقدَّر انتشاره بنحو 10 ملايين شخص في 82 بلداً، ووقوعه في بلدان الشرق الأوسط والمغرب العربي نحو 350 ألف حالة. أكثر من 90% من حالات داء الليشمانيات الجلدي تحدث في أفغانستان وإيران والمملكة العربية السعودية والجمهورية العربية السورية في العالم القديم، وفي البرازيل وبيرو في العالم الجديد. ويدخل ضمن هذا التصنيف، مع الشكل الجلدي، داء الليشمانيات الجلدي المخاطي.

داء الليشمانيات الجلدي حيواني المنشأ
الليشمانيا الكبيرة أهم مسبب له في العالم القديم، ومستودعها بعض القوارض الصحراوية وشبه الصحراوية، خاصة من أسرة اليرابيع. تعيش هذه القوارض في جحور عميقة الجو فيها دافئ ورطب يساعد على تكاثر الحشرة الناقلة للمرض. ويسرى المرض بشكل طبيعي بين القوارض ويصيب الإنسان عندما يعمل أو يعيش في المناطق المسكونة بالحيوانات المستودعة. ولا يكون الإنسان في هذه الحالة مصدراً للعدوى. ينتشر هذا الشكل من المرض بالدرجة الأولى في المناطق الريفية من الشرق الأوسط وشمال أفريقيا وآسيا الوسطى. أما في العالم الجديد فهناك العديد من أنواع الليشمانيات التي تسبب الشكل الجلدي أو الجلدي المخاطي، وتُجمع في معقد (أي مجموعة أنواع متقاربة) الليشمانيا البرازيلية L. braziliensis complex ومعقّد الليشمانيا المكسيكية L. mexicana complex. مستودعها القوارض الصغيرة وبعض الحيوانات البرية الكبيرة.

تم الإبلاغ عن إصابات جلدية أولية بالليشمانيا الطفلية من لبنان وفرنسا.

داء الليشمانيات الجلدي بشري المنشأ
ينحصر في العالم القديم، والمسبب الرئيسي له هو الليشمانيا المدارية، مصدر العدوى الإنسان. يمكن أن يصيب الكلاب والقوارض والوَبْر، لكن لم يثبت دورها كمصدر للعدوى، مع أنه لا يمكن استبعاد هذا الاحتمال تماماً، ففي تجارب مخبرية أمكن نقل العدوى من الجرذان إلى الفواصد، حتى عندما كانت الجرذان المصابة خالية من علامات واضحة للمرض. وهذا الشكل يمكن أن يسبب أوبئة، حيث يكفي أن ينتقل أشخاص مصابون إلى منطقة خالية من المرض سابقاً، بشرط أن تكون الحشرات الناقلة متوفرة، كي تبدأ السراية هناك، كما حصل في مخيمات اللاجئين الأفغان في الباكستان. ينتشر بالدرجة الأولى في المدن والتجمعات السكانية الكبيرة نسبياً، مثل كابول عاصمة أفغانستان ومشهد في إيران وحلب في سوريا. وكابول من أكبر بؤر المرض في السنوات الأخيرة، حيث قدّرت منظمة الصحة العالمية في سنة 2002 عدد الإصابات فيها بـ200 ألف حالة، ومعدل الانتشار بـ12% من السكان، ويعزى هذا إلى كثرة الهجرة أو عودة المهاجرين مع وفود مستمر لأشخاص جدد ليس لديهم أي مناعة ضد المرض. بلغ عدد الحالات المسجلة في مشهد في سنة 2002 نحو 5000 حالة، وفي حلب في سنة 2007 أكثر من عشرة آلاف حالة.

من الأشكال النادرة نسبياً الإصابات الجلدية الأولية الناجمة عن الليشمانيا الدونوفانية، والتي تسبب عادةً داء الليشمانيات الحشوي في الهند والسودان.  داء الليشمانيات الجلدي التالي لكالا آزار شكل آخر لهذا المرض، ويتظاهر بآفات جلدية منتشرة تظهر عادةً بعد عدة سنوات من الشفاء من داء الليشمانيات الحشوي بشري المنشأ المعالج بمركبات الأنتيمون في نحو 50-60% من حالات كالا آزار في أفريقيا الشرقية ونحو 5-10% من الحالات في الهند.

داء الليشمانيات الحشوي

وله شكلان، حيواني المنشأ وبشري المنشأ. أكثر من 90% من حالاته تقع في البرازيل وبنغلاديش والسودان ونيبال والهند.

داء الليشمانيات الحشوي حيواني المنشأ
تسببه الليشمانيا الطفلية، ومستودعه حيوانات من فصيلة الكلبيات، كالكلاب المنزلية والشاردة والثعالب وبنات آوى. ينتشر في حوض البحر الأبيض المتوسط ويصيب بالدرجة الأولى الأطفال دون العاشرة من العمر. وفي أمريكا الجنوبية يسمى مسببه الليشمانيا الشاغاسية، وهي تُعتبر حالياً مرادفاً لليشمانيا الطفلية للعالم القديم.

داء الليشمانيات الحشوي بشري المنشأ
تسببه الليشمانيا الدونوفانية، ويسبب أوبئة خطيرة في شبه القارة الهندية وبلاد شرق أفريقيا مع معدلات إماتة عالية. يتظاهر بحمى (لهذا يسمى باللغة الهندية كالا آزار، أي الحمى السوداء) وضخامة كبد وطحال وفقر دم. المرض مميت إذا لم يُعالَج. تتعقد مكافحته بزيادة معدلات فشل العلاج بمركبات الأنتيمون، دواء الصف الأول؛ ففي الهند قدّرت دراسات مختلفة معدلات الفشل في منتصف التسعينات من القرن العشرين بين ثلث وثلثي المرضى.

الإمراض
تتكاثر السوطيات في المعي المتوسط للفاصدة، وتنتشر تدريجياً خلال ما يقارب أسبوع إلى الأجزاء العليا من سبيلها الهضمي فتسدّه بأجسامها وبهلامة تفرزها. وإنثاء لدغ الفاصدة لمضيفها، فإنها لا تستطيع البلع، فيحدث عندها قلس فتحقن السوطيات في جلد المضيف؟

لا يتجاوز عدد السوطيات المحقونة في أغلب الأحيان 600 طفيلي، ولكن في ربع الحالات تقريباً يزيد عددها على الألف وقد يصل إلى مئة ألف.

تصل العدلات إلى مكان اللدغة أولاً، فتبتلع السوطيات. لا تتغير الليشمانيات داخل العدلات ولا تتكاثر؛ وعندما تصل العدلات إلى مرحلة الاستماتة يتخلص الجسم منها بواسطة البلاعم، وبذلك تصل الليشمانيات إلى داخل البلاعم ضمن العدلات دون أن تؤدي إلى تفاعل مناعي. البلاعم هي الخلايا المضيفة الرئيسية لليشمانيا في الفقاريات، وبداخلها تتحول السوطيات إلى شكلها اللاسوطي.

تمكث اللاسوطيات داخل البلاعم في ما يسمى بالفجوة الحاملة للطفيلي، وتتشكل هذه الفجوة من اندماج اليبلوع باليحلول والدخلول، وفيها تتحول السوطيات إلى لاسوطيات. وتحدث خلال هذا التحول تغيرات في شكل الطفيلي حيث تتحول السوطيات المتطاولة ذات سوط طويل إلى خلايا بيضوية ذات سوط قصير، وفي استقلابه من أجل التكيف مع الوسط الحامضي داخل الفجوة، وفي التركيب البيوكيميائي لغشاء الخلية. يستغرق هذا التحول بين يومين إلى خمسة أيام. تستطيع اللاسوطيات أن تعيش في الوسط الحامض لهذه الفجوات وأن تتغذى على محتوياتها. تتكاثر اللاسوطيات ببطء، حيث تستغرق دورة الانقسام نحو 24 ساعة.

يتشكل الارتشاح في داء الليشمانيات الجلدي في الجلد مكان اللدغة ويحوي البلاعم بالدرجة الأولى، وكذلك خلايا لمفانية وخلايا بلازمية، أما في داء الليشمانيات الحشوي فتتشكل بؤر العدوى في أعضاء الجملة الشبكية البطانية.

التشخيص
يعتمد التشخيص على القصة المرضية والفحص السريري، ويتم تأكيده بكشف الطفيلي.

في داء الليشمانيات الجلدي:
 الفحص المجهري المباشر: تؤخذ المادة المرضية من الآفة ببزلها أو أخذ خزعة، وتُفحص مجهرياً بعد التلوين لكشف الشكل اللاسوطي للطفيلي. هذا الفحص سهل وقليل التكلفة ويتطلب خبرة عامل مخبر أو ممرض مدرَّب. تصل حساسيته إلى 70-80%.
 الزرع: يمكن إجراء الزرع على أوساط خاصة مثل وسط NNN بدرجة حرارة 26°م، وذلك يتطلب مخبراً مجهزاً بحاضنة مع تبريد وخبراتٍ كافية، ووقتاً طويلاً، وحساسية الزرع أقل منها في الفحص المجهري المباشر.
 اختبار الليشمانين: يكشف فرط التحسس الآجل (مثل اختبار التوبركولين)، وله المحددات نفسها، فهو يدل على التعرض ولذلك لا يمكن استخدامه لتمييز المرض الفعال عن تعرض سابق للعامل الممرض، ولكن يمكن أن يكون له فائدة في المسوح السكانية.
 اختبارات مرتكزة إلى PCR عالية الحساسية والنوعية، لكنها مكلفة وتتطلب تجهيزات معقدة وخبرات عالية، لذا يقتصر استخدامها حالياً على الأغراض البحثية.

العلاج
تختلف حساسية مختلف أنواع الليشمانيات للأدوية المختلفة، ولذلك لا يمكن تعميم المعلومات من تجارب على نوع معين من الليشمانيات على غيره من الأنواع؛ كما أن البحوث في مجال المعالجة قليلة، والكثير من التجارب السريرية يجرى بدون تحديد النوع المسبب، خاصةً في داء الليشمانيات الجلدي، لأن مناطق توطن مختلف أنواع مسببات الليشمانيا الجلدية يمكن أن تتطابق، بخلاف داء الليشمانيات الحشوي.

يمكن تقسيم خيارات العلاج إلى دوائية ولادوائية، والدوائية إلى مجموعية وموضعية. يتطلب داء الليشمانيات الحشوي معالجات دوائية مجموعية حتماً.

المعالجات الدوائية المجموعية
مركبات الأنتيمون خماسية التكافؤ تستعمل لمعالجة داء الليشمانيات منذ عقود. يوجد مركبان: ستيبو غلوكونات الصوديوم (sodium stibogulconate)، الاسم التجاري Pentostam، ويعطى حقناً عضلياً أو وريدياً، وميغلومين أنتيمونيات (meglumine antimoniate)، الاسم التجاري Glucantime، ولا يعطى حقناً وريدياً. الشوط العلاجي يتألف من 10 حقن إلى 20 حقنة يومياً.

فعاليتها متفاوتة حسب النوع المسبب ووجود المقاومة الدوائية. مركبات الأنتيمون سامة ولها محاذير استعمال وأعراض جانبية، فهو سام للأوردة عند الحقن الوريدي، يمكن أن يسبب خللاً في الناقلية القلبية لذا تتم مراقبة مخطط القلب الكهربائي أثناء التسريب الوريدي، كما يمكن أن يسبب التهاب البنكرياس أو يؤدي إلى التأق. ومن أعراضه الجانبية الغثيان والإقياء وطعم معدني في الفم وآلام مفصلية وعضلية. الحقن العضلي يخفض خطر التهاب الوريد أو اضطرابات نظم القلب، إلا أنه مؤلم للغاية. يوجد خطر تطور المقاومة الدوائية، كما حدث في ولايتي بيهار وأوتار براديش الهنديتين.

أمفوتيريسين B من الأدوية الفعالة ضد جميع أنواع الليشمانيات لكن استعماله محدود نتيجة سميته، يُستخدَم كعلاج صف ثاني في حال المقاومة للأنتموان. توجد له صيغة دوائية مقرونة بجسيمات شحمية سميتها أقل لكنها أغلى.

باروموميسين قيد تجارب الطور الثالث حالياً.

ميلتيفوسين(miltefosine): الدواء الفموي الوحيد ذو فعالية مثبتة ضد داء الليشمانيات الحشوي، حتى المقاوم لمركبات الأنتيمون. تم تطويره أساساً كمضاد للسرطان، لذا يتصف بكامن ماسخ ويتطلب الحذر عند وصفه للنساء في سن الإنجاب. كما أن طول نصف عمره قد يساعد على تطور المقاومة ضده.

المعالجات الدوائية الموضعية
هذه لا تُستخدم إلاّ في داء الليشمانيات الجلدي
حقن مركبات الأنتيمون الخماسية ضمن الآفة كما هو موصوف أعلاه. فعاليتها تقارب فعالية الإعطاء المجموعي أو تفوقها قليلاً، ومن محاسنها أن الجرعة المجموعية تكون أقل، وكذلك السمية والأعراض الجانبية والمخاطر. التركيز الموضعي (ضمن الأفة) يكون عالياً جداً، ولكنه ينخفض بسرعة على الأرجح. تواتر الحقن يختلف من بلد إلى آخر، وكذلك مدة الشوط العلاجي، من حقن كل يومين ثلاث مرات مع استراحة شهر، إلى حقن مرتين بالأسبوع أو أسبوعياً أو كل أسبوعين لعدة أسابيع متتالية. لا يمكن تطبيقه عندما تكون الآفات كثيرة أو ضخمة أو تقع في مناطق يصعب حقنها.

معالجات أخرى حقناً ضمن الآفة تمت تجربة حقن بعض المركبات الأخرى ضمن الآفة، مثل مترونيدازول أو كبريتات الزنك، ولكن النتائج لم يتم تأكيدها في تجارب أخرى مستقلة.

معالجات سطحية توجد تجارب فردية لتركيبات جلدية، مثل مرهم باروموميسين أو سلفات الزنك وغيرها، لكن لم تثبت فعالية أي منها في تجارب مستقلة.

المعالجات اللادوائية
 المعالجة بالبرد، أي تجميد الآفات بالآزوت السائل أو الثلج الجاف. يمكن أن تكون فعالة في الآفات الجديدة بمفردها أو بالمشاركة مع معالجات دوائية. دراسات الفعالية محدودة، مع أن التبريد يُستعمل منذ عقود.
 المعالجة بالحرارة، بتطبيق مصدر حراري تقليدي أو مصدر لأمواج كهرطيسية بذبذبة الراديو. الدراسات محدودة.
 التبخير بالليزر: الدراسات قليلة لكن النتائج تبدو مشجعة.
 الكي من المعالجات الشعبية وربما الفعالة، لكن الندبة المتشكلة قد تكون أكبر من الندبة التي تتشكل بالشفاء العفوي.
 الاستئصال الجراحي قليل الفعالية بسبب احتمال النكس.

الإنذار
التواجد في الاحياء والغابات التي قد يوجد فيها هذا النوع من الحشرات المسببة لداء الليشمانيات مثل الفاصدة الباباتاسية وبعش الحيوانات البرية مثل القردة.

الوقاية والمكافحة
تستعمل اللقاحات في بعض البلدان للوقاية من انتشار المرض.

انظر أيضًا
 وليم بوغ ليشمان

وصلات خارجية
 خلاصة الليشمانيا: موقع منظمة الصحة العالمية يحوي خريطة تفاعلية ووصلات إلى مصادر ومعلومات عن وبائيات المرض.

المراجع

أمراض الكلاب
أمراض جلدية
أمراض حيوانية المنشأ
أمراض مدارية
أمراض منقولة بناقل
أمراض مهملة
عدوى طفيلية ولسعات وعضات للجلد

داء الليشمانيات


Le chemin de fer à voie étroite de la Vistule (en polonais : Nadwiślańska Kolejka Wąskotorowa) (avant : le chemin de fer à voie étroite de Nałęczów, en polonais Nałęczowska Kolej Dojazdowa, NKD) est un chemin de fer à voie étroite dont l'écartement des rails est de . Il est situé à l'ouest de la Voïvodie de Lublin, dans les districts d'Opole et de Puławy. Il est le seul chemin de fer de ce type dans la voïvodie qui fonctionne encore. La gare ferroviaire centrale avec les installations techniques se trouve au village Karczmiska Pierwsze, et la voie étroite se connecte avec la voie normale à la gare Nałęczów Wąskotorowy sur le tronçon de Dęblin à Lublin.

Le district d'Opole est propriétaire du chemin de fer et l'Administration des voies de district à Opole Lubelskie, qui siège à Poniatowa, en est gestionnaire. Chaque dimanche de mai à la fin septembre, on organise les trajets sur un itinéraire : Karczmiska – Opole Wąskotorowe – Karczmiska – Polanówka – Karczmiska et le feu de camp, on peut aussi visiter la gare historique et assister parfois à des projections des films.

Historique

Débuts – le chemin de fer de la sucrerie

Jan Kleniewski, industriel et propriétaire foncier, possesseur de la sucrerie Zagłoba, était initiateur de la création du chemin de fer. Les premiers chemins de fer ont été fondés en vue de desservir cette sucrerie. Entre 1892 et 1893, le chemin provisoire avec des rails en bois a fonctionné pendant une courte période, en circulant entre la métairie Polanówka et la sucrerie. Au début, les wagonnets chargés de 5-6 tonnes ont été tirés par les chevaux. En 1900, on a créé le chemin de fer entre Zagłoba (la métairie à Brzozowa) et l'embarcadère à Kępa Chotecka (). Jusqu'en 1914, la famille Kleniewski a successivement développé le chemin de fer. En 1911, ils ont construit le tronçon du chemin de Zagłoba à Wymysłów avec une branche de Szczekarków, via Wilków à la rive de la Vistule. Au début, on utilisait la traction de chevaux (le matériel roulant ferroviaire se composait de 10 wagonnets, de 2 plateformes et de quelques chevaux) et en 1912, on a acheté les premières locomotives à vapeur.

Parallèlement, l'autre chemin a été créé pour desservir la sucrerie Opole ; en 1908, on a construit la voie ferrée entre cette sucrerie et la mine de la tourbe de Łaziska, et entre 1911 et 1913, le segment menant jusqu'au port de Piotrawin a été créé.

En été 1915, les Russes, en se retirant, ont détruit les sucreries et les chemins de fer – ils ont démonté les rails et noyé les trains dans la Vistule.

Temps de gloire – les chemins de fer publics
Après le retrait des Russes, le territoire est passé sous l'occupation autrichienne. La famille Kleniewski a reconstruit quelques tronçons du chemin de fer et le  octobre 1916, on a ouvert le nouveau tronçon de la voie jusqu'à la gare de la voie normale de Wąwolnica (Nałęczów d'aujourd'hui). De plus, on a introduit le trafic régulier de passagers sur la voie de Wąwolnica à Opole.

Après la Première Guerre mondiale, le chemin de fer ( au total) a été repris par le Ministère de chemins de fer, la partie du chemin a été privatisée plus tard. En 1928, le chemin sur la distance de  appartenait à l'État. Dans les années 1920, le chemin figurait dans les documents de l'entreprise « Chemins de fer de l'État polonais » (en polonais : Polskie Koleje Państwowe, PKP) en tant que « la voie entre Nałęczów et Opole avec une branche entre Karczmiska et Rybaki ». Les trains de passagers circulaient seulement sur la voie de Wąwolnica/Nałęczów à Opole. On utilisait entre autres les automotrices à combustion interne. On a aussi introduit le transport touristique entre Piotrawin et Nałęczów. En 1938, on a introduit le nom « le chemin de fer de Nałęczów » et on a créé une branche pour pouvoir arriver aux usines électrotechniques à Poniatowa (qui faisaient partie de la Région Industrielle Centrale).

On utilisait les locomotives à vapeur, achetées dans l'usine à Kołomyja en Russie jusqu'aux années 1950. Dans les années 1920, on a apporté les wagons plus grands, de 8 et de , et au cours de la décennie suivante on a apporté encore une fois la locomotive à vapeur (Px29 pesant ) fabriquée au niveau national. La famille Kleniewski investissait toujours dans le développement du chemin de fer en achetant entre autres les deux locomotives. Dans l'entre-deux-guerres, elle a  construit les fragments de rails à Opole Lubelskie et à Piotrawin.

À part des lignes de PKP, dans l'entre-deux-guerres, il y avait aussi les chemins de fer de la sucrerie Opole : le tronçon du chemin à Piotrawin avec ses embranchements, et la nouvelle voie à Świdno (la traction à vapeur), dans la sucrerie il y avait aussi les rails pour les wagonnets manuels. Parfois, sur les voies à la sucrerie, on réalisait le transport de passagers. En plus, il y avait la ligne de Szczekarków par Wilków jusqu'à la rive de la Vistule (le segment menant à la rive de la Vistule a été démonté plus tard) et le chemin de fer hippomobile privé de Niezabitów à Łubki, qui a été démonté probablement peu après la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale la ligne de Zagłoba à Kępa Chotecka a été construite de nouveau (en 1942) et le chemin de fer industriel a été créé à Bełżyce (on envisageait de le connecter avec le NKD). Lors de l'occupation, les Allemands ont créé un camp de prisonniers soviétiques et de Juifs en utilisant le chemin de fer pour le transport des prisonniers. En 1944, les nazis ont exporté la partie du matériel roulant ferroviaire et ils ont noyé l'autre partie dans la Vistule. Le reste a été caché dans les forêts grâce aux habitants de la région. Les automotrices appartenant au chemin de fer ont été retrouvées à Wrocław après la guerre.

Après la guerre, PKP a repris le dernier tronçon du chemin de fer appartenant à la famille Kleniewski (la voie jusqu'à Piotrawin). On envisageait de créer la voie sur le pont de la Vistule avec Starachowice (on n'a construit que le court segment entre Starachowice et Iłża). Après la guerre, PKP a aussi introduit les trains à Poniatowa et à Wilków (dans les années 1950). Cependant, dans les années 1960, on a supprimé la ligne du transport de passagers à Wilków et depuis ce moment-là, ce segment de chemin de fer servait seulement pour le transport de marchandises.

En 1959, on a construit le contournement du village Niezdów sur la ligne de sucrerie de Opole à Piotrawin à cause du danger de l'incendie, provoqué par les locomotives à vapeur. À peu près la décennie plus tard, la sucrerie a supprimé son réseau ferroviaire : en 1968, on a démonté la ligne à Piotrawin et en 1970, on a supprimé la ligne à Świdno. Jusqu'à la fin de l'activité de la sucrerie, seulement l'embranchement avec les rails sont restés intacts. En même temps, on a démonté les rails à Kępa Potocka ; premièrement, on a démantelé le fragment de Brzozowa à Kępa Chotecka et ensuite le reste.

Cependant, PKP toujours modernisait son réseau ; en 1968, on a introduit les locomotives diesels roumaines Lxd2, ce qui a mis la fin à la traction à vapeur – la dernière locomotive à vapeur (Px48) a été retirée en 1980. On a aussi introduit les convoyeurs pour transporter les wagons à voie normale et les rails plus lourds, adaptés au matériel roulant nouveau. En 1998, on a introduit les nouveaux wagons de passagers (Bxhpi) de la production roumaine.

En 1990, l'établissement employait . Après 1989, la demande en matière du transport de passagers et de marchandises ont commencé à baisser fortement. En 1991, les trains de passagers ont cessé de circuler vers le village Poniatowa et quatre ans plus tard, on a supprimé la dernière ligne ferroviaire permanente à Opole. En revanche, on a introduit les trains touristiques spéciaux. En 1994, on a transporté  en 35 trains touristiques, et en 1998, il y avait  en 187 trains. On a aussi transporté  de marchandises, surtout du charbon fin en 1998. Cependant, le chemin de fer était toujours déficitaire et le PKP a décidé d'arrêter le trafic à la fin de 2001. En plus, en 1999, un camion a endommagé le viaduc à Rogalów.

Histoire la plus récente – le chemin de fer touristique
Le PKP a transféré la propriété de tous les chemins de fer à l'administration du district d'Opole Lubelskie. On a donné les rails et le matériel roulant ferroviaire en 2002. Les terrains et les bâtiments ont été transférés en 2008. Les autorités du district ont choisi le nouvel opérateur – l'Association du Transport Ferroviaire Local qui a géré le transport entre 2003 et 2008. Le train touristique « Nadwiślanin » circulait régulièrement : certains dimanches d'avril à octobre sur la ligne de Nałęczów Wąskotorowy à Karczmiska Polana (avec un feu de camp organisé à la clairière). En plus, une fois par an, en septembre, « le train de pèlerinage » circulait sur la ligne Opole Wąskotorowe – Wąwolnica – Nałęczów Wąskotorowy – Wąwolnica (en 2008, on a raccourci les lignes à Wąwolnica à cause du dommage du viaduc). On a aussi réalisé les trajets spéciaux à la demande sur certains tronçons du chemin de fer. On envisageait aussi de faire la reprise des passages des trains de marchandises, mais en pratique, le seul trajet de ce type a été organisé en 2003. À la fin de 2008, l'Association du Transport Ferroviaire Local a renoncé à la gestion du chemin de fer à cause de non rentabilité. L'Administration des voies du district d'Opole Lubelskie est devenue gestionnaire nouveau et en été 2011, le chemin de fer a repris son activité sous le nom « Le chemin de fer à voie étroite de la Vistule ». En 2012, le chemin de fer a transporté plus de . En 2013, durant le saison (de mai à septembre), le chemin de fer fonctionnait à la demande sur les lignes de Karczmiska à Polanówka, de Karczmiska à Opole Lubelskie et de Karczmiska à Poniatowa. Après la reconstruction du viaduc endommagé de Rogalów et la rénovation du tronçon de Nałęczów à Karczmiska, on envisage de rétablir le trafic. On a planifié de le faire entre 2017 et 2019, mais les travaux d'un montant de presque 8,5 million de zlotys (y compris  de fonds de l'UE) ont été décalés à des années 2018-2020. L'étendue des travaux couvre l'échange de 10 mille traverses, la rénovation de trois ponts, d'un viaduc, de 39 ponceaux et de 21 passages à niveau. On va créer les nouveaux quais (entre autres à Kębło, près du sanctuaire marial, à Opole Lubelskie, à Niezabitów, à Wąwolnica et à Nałęczów), les traversées et les parkings. Au futur, on revitalisera aussi le segment de Karczmiska à Wilków (avec la reconstruction des rails à la rive de la Vistule), cependant les délais ne sont pas fixés.

En 2018, le chemin de fer a transporté  en exploitant les rails de .

Tronçons du chemin de fer à voie étroite de Nałęczów, existant aujourd'hui

 Nałęczów Wąskotorowy (connecté avec la voie normale) – Wąwolnica – Niezabitów – Obliźniak (la halte ferroviaire) – Wymysłów – Karczmiska Pierwsze
 Karczmiska Pierwsze – Głusko (la halte ferroviaire) – Leszczyniec – Rozalin
 Rozalin – Opole Wąskotorowe
 l'embranchement d'Opole Wąskotorowe – les entrepôts de tabac à Opole Lubelskie (fermé aujourd'hui)
 l'embranchement d'Opole Wąskotorowe – la sucrerie Opole (on a liquidé la plupart de rails sur le terrain de la sucrerie)
 Rozalin – Poniatowa
 L'embranchement menant à l'ancienne coopérative communale à Poniatowa (fermé aujourd'hui)
 L'embranchement menant aux anciennes usines Eda de Poniatowa (on a supprimé la plupart de rails sur le terrain des usines)
 Karczmiska Pierwsze – Karczmiska Polana – Polanówka – Żmijowiska – Urządków – Wilków Wąskotorowy (aujourd'hui seulement une partie de cette ligne est accessible à cause du vol des rails entre Polanówka et Żmijowiska en 2004)

La dénomination des stations, basée sur les derniers horaires de PKP :
 Karczmiska Polana – l'arrêt dans le trajet touristique, installé après la liquidation du trafic de passagers
 Leszczyniec – la station ne figure que dans les horaires les plus vieux (jusqu'en 1924)
 Nałęczów Wąskotorowy – à l'origine nommée Wąwolnica H.B., ensuite Wąwolnica Dworzec et Wąwolnica Wąska, le nom actuel a été introduit en 1925. La station de chemin de fer à voie étroite et l'une de chemin de fer à voie normale se sont situées dans le village Drzewce-Kolonia
 Wąwolnica - à l'origine nommée Wąwolnica Std. (en 1918), ensuite Wąwolnica Miasto, le nom actuel a été introduit en 1925
 Wilków Wąskotorowy – la station se trouve dans le village Wilków-Kolonia
 Żmijowiska – à l'origine nommée Szczekarków (selon le registre de 1926), la station est située dans le village Szczekarków-Kolonia

Tronçons supprimés

 Le chemin de fer hippomobile privé de Niezabitów à Łubki (un court embranchement de la station Niezabitów à l'autre côté de la voie existait plus tard dans cet endroit)
 L'embranchement sur la ligne Rozalin – Opole Wąskotorowe, dans le village Ruda Opolska
 L'embranchement sur la station Opole Wąskotorowe – la coopérative communale à Opole Lubelskie
 L'ancienne coopérative communale à Poniatowa – le centre de Poniatowa
 L'embranchement sur la ligne Karczmiska – Polanówka à la gravière près du village Karczmiska Pierwsze
 L'embranchement sur la ligne Żmijowiska – la briqueterie à Szczekarków-Kolonia
 Żmijowiska – l'établissement de transformation des fruits et des légumes (l'ancienne sucrerie) Zagłoba – la métairie Brzozowa (aujourd'hui le village Kolonia-Brzozowa) – Kępa Chotecka (la rive de la Vistule)
 L'embranchement dans le village Zagłoba
 Wilków Wąskotorowy – la rive de la Vistule, près du village Machów-Czupel

Attention : Zagłoba figure dans le registre de stations, de haltes et de cales de PKP de 1926 sous le nom de Rybaki.

Chemins de la sucrerie Opole (supprimés), connectés avec le chemin de fer à voie étroite par le terrain de la sucrerie

 La sucrerie Opole- Świdno
 l'embranchement à la coopérative laitière du district d'Opole Lubelskie
 l'embranchement entre les villages Skoków et Puszno Skokowskie
 l'embranchement dans le village Puszno Skokowskie
 La sucrerie Opole – Niezdów – Łaziska – Janiszów – Piotrawin (la rive de la Vistule)
 le contournement du village Niezdów
 Łaziska – la métairie Łaziska Średnie
 l'embranchement dans le village Łaziska
 Janiszów – Głodno

Chemins de fer à voie étroite supprimés aux environs de Nałęczów

 Le chemin de fer industriel Bełżyce - l'écartement des rails probablement est de . Il a été construit entre 1940 et 1941. On a envisagé de le connecter avec NKD, après la guerre (1944-1945) il a été démonté par les habitants de la région
 Le chemin de fer de la sucrerie Garbów – au nord de la station Nałęczów il y a un réseau du chemin de fer à voie étroite de , appartenant à la sucrerie Garbów, connecté avec le chemin de fer à voie normale. Pourtant, ce chemin de fer n'a pas été directement connecté avec le NKD. L'échange du matériel roulant entre les deux chemins à voie étroite a été réalisé avec les plateformes faites des travées mobiles posées en travers de la ligne à voie normale.
 Le chemin de fer de la sucrerie Lublin – il a été situé à l'est de Nałęczów, L'un de chemins à voie étroite de la sucrerie Lublin, exploité plus tard par la sucrerie Garbów, a été situé près de la station Sadurki.
 Le chemin de fer de la briqueterie Łopatki - l'écartement des rails probablement est de . Au début, il a mené de la briqueterie à la cale dans la station Łopatki (la voie normale). Ensuite, il a été transféré et il menait de la briqueterie à la fosse d'extraction d'argile. Le chemin a été supprimé dans les années 1990.

Matériel roulant
Aujourd'hui :
 Les locomotives à combustion interne Lxd2-283 et 297 (fonctionnant), Lxd2-348 (mise à côté)
 Les wagons de passagers A20D-P de la série Bxhpi de la production de l'entreprise FAUR
 Les wagons de passagers d'été (la série BTxhi)
 CWO Lyd2-02 (inactive)

Références

Écartement étroit
Voïvodie de Lublin

Chemin de fer à voie étroite de la Vistule


Pedi may refer to:

Places
 Pedi, Peren, a village in Nagaland, India

People
 Tom Pedi, 20th century American actor
 Christine Pedi, American television and theatre actress

Culture
Pedi people
Pedi language

Prefixes and related abbreviations
Pedi-, with various roots and meanings pertaining to children, feet, and soil
Pediatrics, sometimes abbreviated "pedi"
Pedicab, sometimes abbreviated "pedi"
Pedicure, sometimes abbreviated "pedi"

Other uses
Pedi (sheep)

Language and nationality disambiguation pages

Pedi


An Goodyera rostellata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Oakes Ames ngan Charles Schweinfurth. An Goodyera rostellata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Goodyera, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Goodyera

Goodyera rostellata


Maralköy (Gürcüce: მინდიეთი; translit.: "mindieti"), Artvin ilinin Borçka ilçesine bağlı bir köydür. Eski adı Mindieti'dir. Bir Gürcü köyü olan Mindieti, tarihsel Maçaheli bölgesinin Türkiye tarafında kalan köylerinden biridir. Bugünkü sınırları eski Kavtareti köyünün bir kısmını da kapsamaktadır.

Maralköy endemik flora ve faunaya sahip doğası ve şelalesiyle de bilinmektedir.

Köyün eski adı
Bugün Maralköy adını taşıyan yerleşim yerinin bilinen en eski adı Mindieti'dir (მინდიეთი). Bir Gürcü köyün olan Mindieti'nin adı Türkçeye Mindiyet olarak girmiştir. Nitekim Muvahhid Zeki, 1927'de yayımlanan Artvin Vilayeti Hakkında Malumatı Umumiye adlı Osmanlıca kitabında köyün eski adını Mindiyet (مندیت) olarak yazmıştır. 93 Harbi'nde (1877-1878) Artvin bölgesini ele geçirmiş olan Ruslar ise, 1886 yılındaki nüfus sayımında köyün adını Gürcücesine uygun biçimde Mindieti (Миндиэти) olarak kaydetmiştir. Bu tarihten birkaç yıl sonra Maçaheli bölgesini dolaşan Gürcü araştırmacı Zakaria Çiçinadze de köyün adını Mindieti (მინდიეთი) olarak yazmıştır.

Mindieti adı Gürcüce kişi adı olan Mindia'dan (მინდია) geliyor olabilir. Bu durumda Mindieti, "Mindia'nın toprakları" anlamına gelir. Nitekim Gürcü tarihçi Zakaria Çiçinadze, bugün Gürcistan'ın Kartli bölgesinde Mindiaşvili soyadını taşıyanların (მინდიაშვილები / Mindiaşvilebi) Osmanlıların halkı Müslümanlaştırması sırasında bu köyden göç ettiğini belirtmiştir.

Coğrafya
Köy; Artvin il merkezine 88 km, Borçka ilçe merkezine 56 km uzaklıktadır.

Demografi
Tarihsel Tao-Klarceti bölgesinin Acara kısmında, Maçaheli vadisinde yer alan Mindieti'de kadın ve erkeğin birlikte sayıldığı ilk nüfus tespiti Rus idaresi sırasında yapılmıştır. 1886 yılındaki bu tespite göre Mindieti'de 233 kişi yaşıyor ve nüfusun tamamı Gürcülerden oluşuyordu. Mindieti, Batum sancağında (okrug) Aşağı Acara kazasına (uçastok) bağlı Zeda-Hertvisi (Yukarı Hertvisi) nahiyesinin köylerinden biriydi. Bu nahiyenin bugün Türkiye'de bulunan kısmında tamamı Gürcülerden oluşan 712 kişi vardı ve bu nüfusun yaklaşık % 33'ü Mindieti'de yaşıyordu.

Mindieti'nin Türkiye sınırları içinde kalmasından bir yıl sonra, 1922 yılındaki nüfus cetveline göre köyde 37 hanede 326 kişi yaşıyordu. Hane başına ortalama 8,8 kişi düşmesi, köydeki ailelerin kalabalık bir nüfusa sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Öte yandan 1886 yılından itibaren nüfusun önemli oranda artması, bu tarihten sonra köyden Osmanlı ülkesine göçün olmadığına işaret etmektedir. Oysa Maçaheli bölgesini dolaşmış olan Gürcü tarihçi Zakaria Çiçinadze 1893'te Mindieti köyünden 40 hanenin göç etmiş olduğunu belirtmiştir. Bu kaynağa dayanarak bu göçün 93 Harbi'nin hemen sonrasında, 1886 nüfus sayımından önce gerçekleştiği söylenebilir. Hane başına 5-8 arasında bir nüfus veri olarak alınırsa, köyden 200 ila 320 kişinin göç etmiş olduğu söylenebilir.

Mindieti'nin adının Maralköy olarak değiştirilmesinden sonra, 1926 yılında yapılan nüfus sayımında 40 hanede 357 kişi yaşıyordu. Bu nüfusun 167'si kadın, 190'ı erkekti. Bu tarihte hane başına ortalama 8,9 kişi düşmesi, Mindieti'nin kalabalık aile olarak yaşama geleneğine sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak bunun başka bir açıklaması, yoksulluk ve ekilebilir arazilerin sınırlı olması nedeniyle ailelerin bölünmeme yolunu seçmiş olması olabilir.

Son tespitlere göre Maralköy'de 148'i erkek ve 133'ü kadın olmak üzere 281 kişi yaşamaktadır. Nüfusun giderek azalması köyden kente göçün bir sonucu olabilir.

Tarihçe
Mindieti'nin kuruluşuna dair bilgi mevcut değildir. Bununla birlikte bu köyde ve komşu köy Hertvisi'de kalelerin varlığı, Maçaheli bölgesindeki yerleşim yerlerinin tarihinin en geç erken Orta Çağa kadar uzandığını göstermektedir.  Mindieti, bulunduğu bölge itibarıyla antik çağda Kolheti Krallığı sınırları içinde kalıyordu. Erken Orta Çağda,  Gürcü Krallığı döneminde, Gürcü Ortodoks Kilisesi'nin piskoposluklarından biri olan Tbeti Piskoposluğu sınırları içinde yer alıyordu. Tbetis Sulta Matiane (12-16. yüzyıl) adlı elyazmasında, Mindieti'nin değil ama Şavşat'taki Tbeti Kilisesi'ne köylülerin bağış yapmış olmasından dolayı Maçaheli bölgesinin diğer köyleri olan Akria, Hertvisi, Zedvake, Evprati, Çikuneti, Çhutuneti'nin adları geçer. Mindieti, geç Orta Çağda Samtshe-Saatabago'nun (1268-1625) sınırları içinde kalıyordu. Köy 16. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Osmanlı Devleti egemenliğine girdi.

Yaklaşık üç yüzyıl Osmanlı idaresinde kalan Mindieti'yi 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı'nda Ruslar geçirdi. Bu savaştan yaklaşık sekiz yıl sonra, 1886 yılında yapılan nüfus sayımına göre Mindieti Batum sancağının (okrug) Aşağı Acara kazasına (uçastok) bağlı bir köydü. Aşağı Acara kazasına bağlı Zeda-Hertvisi nahiyesinde yer alıyordu. Bu nahiyenin bugün Türkiye'de bulunan kısmında Mindieti'nin dışında Akria (Акриа), Efrat / Eprat (Ефрат / Эпрат), Zed-Vake (Зед-Ваке), Kvabistavi (вабис-Тави) ve Zeda-Hertvisi (Зеда-Хертвиси) köyleri yer alıyordu.

Daha sonraki tarihte köyü dolaşmış olan Gürcü tarihçi Zakaria Çiçinadze, Mindieti'nin güzel bir köy olduğunu, el değmemiş ormanları bulunduğunu, bu karanlık ormanlarda çok balarısı olduğunu yazmıştır. Mindieti bugün de aynı biçimde zengin flora ve faunaya sahip olduğu için Maçaheli'nin diğer köyleriyle birlikte biyosfer rezerv alanı (Camili Biyosfer Rezerv Alanı) ilan edilmiştir.

Mindieti, I. Dünya Savaşı'nın sonlarına doğru Rus ordusunun bölgeden çekilmesinin ardından, 1918-1921 arasında bağımsız olan Gürcistan sınırları içinde kaldı. 1921'de Kızıl Ordu'nun Gürcistan'ı işgali sırasında Türk birlikleri  de Ardahan, Artvin ve Batum bölgelerini işgal etti. Ankara Hükümeti'nin 16 Mart 1921'de Sovyet Rusya'yla imzaladığı Moskova Antlaşması'yla Mindieti'nin de içinde yer aldığı Artvin ve Ardahan Türkiye'ye bırakıldı.

Mindieti, Türkiye'ye sınırları içinde kalmasından bir yıl sonra, 1922 tarihli nüfus cetveline göre Artvin vilayetinin Borçka kazasına bağlı Maçaheli nahiyesi sınırları içinde yer alıyordu. Mindieti'nin adı 1925'te Maralköy olarak değiştirildi. Bununla birlikte Mindieti (Mindiyet) adı halk arasında bugün de kullanılmaktadır. 1926 nüfus sayımında Maralköy Artvin vilayeti merkez kazasına bağlı Maçaheli nahiyesinin bir köyüydü. Mindieti 1928 tarihli  Son Teşkilat-i Mülkiyede Köylerimizin Adları adlı Osmanlıca yayında köy Maraklköy adıyla yer almasına karşın, Dahiliye Vekaleti'nin 1933'te yayımladığı Köylerimiz adlı yayınında Çoruh vilayetinin Borçka kazasında Mindiyet olarak geçmektedir.

Tarihsel yapılar
Mindieti'de bilinen tarihsel yapılar Mindieti Kalesi ile bu köyün İremeti mahallesinde yer alan İremeti Camii'dir. Mindieti'yle sınır köy olan Camili'deki Hertvisi Kalesi gibi Mindieti Kalesi de tamamen yıkıldığı için bugün bu yapının özelliklerini ve tarihini tespit etmek mümkün değildir.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Macahel.Com
 MacahelBizimdir.Org
 Macahel Vakfı
 Macaheli Net

Artvin tarihi
Tao-Klarceti
Borçka belde ve köyleri

Maralköy


Universitatea McGill este una dintre cele mai vechi universități din Canada, fiind înființată în 1821. Chiar dacă campusul principal se află în orașul francofon Montréal, Québec, cursurile se desfășoară în limba engleză.

Universitatea cuprinde 11 facultăți cu 11 secții (școli) de studii avansate:

 Facultatea de Științe Agricole și Științe ale Mediului (Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences)
 Facultatea de Arte (Faculty of Arts)
 Facultatea de Medicină Dentară (Faculty of Dentistry)
 Facultatea de Pedagogie (Faculty of Education)
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In mathematics, finite field arithmetic is arithmetic in a finite field (a field containing a finite number of elements) contrary to arithmetic in a field with an infinite number of elements, like the field of rational numbers.

There are infinitely many different finite fields. Their number of elements is necessarily of the form pn where p is a prime number and n is a positive integer, and two finite fields of the same size are isomorphic. The prime p is called the characteristic of the field, and the positive integer n is called the dimension of the field over its prime field.

Finite fields are used in a variety of applications, including in classical coding theory in linear block codes such as BCH codes and Reed–Solomon error correction, in cryptography algorithms such as the Rijndael (AES) encryption algorithm, in tournament scheduling, and in the design of experiments.

Effective polynomial representation
The finite field with pn elements is denoted GF(pn) and is also called the Galois field of order pn, in honor of the founder of finite field theory, Évariste Galois. GF(p), where p is a prime number, is simply the ring of integers modulo p. That is, one can perform operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication) using the usual operation on integers, followed by reduction modulo p. For instance, in GF(5),  is reduced to 2 modulo 5. Division is multiplication by the inverse modulo p, which may be computed using the extended Euclidean algorithm.

A particular case is GF(2), where addition is exclusive OR (XOR) and multiplication is AND. Since the only invertible element is 1, division is the identity function.

Elements of GF(pn) may be represented as polynomials of degree strictly less than n over GF(p). Operations are then performed modulo R where R is an irreducible polynomial of degree n over GF(p), for instance using polynomial long division. The addition of two polynomials P and Q is done as usual; multiplication may be done as follows: compute  as usual, then compute the remainder modulo R. This representation in terms of polynomial coefficients is called a monomial basis (a.k.a. 'polynomial basis').

There are other representations of the elements of GF(pn); some are isomorphic to the polynomial representation above and others look quite different (for instance, using matrices). Using a normal basis may have advantages in some contexts.

When the prime is 2, it is conventional to express elements of GF(pn) as binary numbers, with the coefficient of each term in a polynomial represented by one bit in the corresponding element's binary expression. Braces ( "{" and "}" ) or similar delimiters are commonly added to binary numbers, or to their hexadecimal equivalents, to indicate that the value gives the coefficients of a basis of a field, thus representing an element of the field. For example, the following are equivalent representations of the same value in a characteristic 2 finite field:

Primitive polynomials
There are many irreducible polynomials (sometimes called reducing polynomials) that can be used to generate a finite field, but they do not all give rise to the same representation of the field.

A monic irreducible polynomial of degree  having coefficients in the finite field GF(), where  for some prime  and positive integer , is called a primitive polynomial if all of its roots are primitive elements of GF(). In the polynomial representation of the finite field, this implies that  is a primitive element. There is at least one irreducible polynomial for which  is a primitive element. In other words, for a primitive polynomial, the powers of  generate every nonzero value in the field.

In the following examples it is best not to use the polynomial representation, as the meaning of  changes between the examples. The monic irreducible polynomial  over GF(2) is not primitive. Let  be a root of this polynomial (in the polynomial representation this would be ), that is, . Now , so  is not a primitive element of GF(28) and generates a multiplicative subgroup of order 51.  Consider the field element  (in the polynomial representation this would be ). Now . As all the roots of this primitive polynomial are primitive elements,   is a primitive element of GF(28) ( and no smaller power does). GF(28) has 128 generators (see Number of primitive elements). Having  as a generator for a finite field is beneficial for many computational mathematical operations.

Addition and subtraction
Addition and subtraction are performed by adding or subtracting two of these polynomials together, and reducing the result modulo the characteristic.

In a finite field with characteristic 2, addition modulo 2, subtraction modulo 2, and XOR are identical. Thus,

Under regular addition of polynomials, the sum would contain a term 2x6. This term becomes 0x6 and is dropped when the answer is reduced modulo 2.

Here is a table with both the normal algebraic sum and the characteristic 2 finite field sum of a few polynomials:

In computer science applications, the operations are simplified for finite fields of characteristic 2, also called GF(2n) Galois fields, making these fields especially popular choices for applications.

Multiplication

Multiplication in a finite field is multiplication modulo an irreducible reducing polynomial used to define the finite field. (I.e., it is multiplication followed by division using the reducing polynomial as the divisor—the remainder is the product.) The symbol "•" may be used to denote multiplication in a finite field.

Rijndael's (AES) finite field
Rijndael (standardised as AES) uses the characteristic 2 finite field with 256 elements, which can also be called the Galois field GF(28). It employs the following reducing polynomial for multiplication:

x8 + x4 + x3 + x + 1.

For example, {53} • {CA} = {01} in Rijndael's field because

 {|
|-
| || (x6 + x4 + x + 1)(x7 + x6 + x3 + x)
|-
| = || (x13 + x12 + x9 + x7) + (x11 + x10 + x7 + x5) + (x8 + x7 + x4 + x2) + (x7 + x6 + x3 + x)
|-
| = || x13 + x12 + x9 + x11 + x10 + x5 + x8 + x4 + x2 + x6 + x3 + x
|-
| = || x13 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x9 + x8 + x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x
|}

and

 {|
|-
| || x13 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x9 + x8 + x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x2 + x mod x8 + x4 + x3 + x1 + 1
|-
| = || (11111101111110 mod 100011011)
|-
| = || {3F7E mod 11B} = {01}
|-
| = || 1 (decimal)
|}

The latter can be demonstrated through long division (shown using binary notation, since it lends itself well to the task. Notice that exclusive OR is applied in the example and not arithmetic subtraction, as one might use in grade-school long division.):

           11111101111110 (mod) 100011011
          ^100011011
           01110000011110
           ^100011011
            0110110101110
            ^100011011
             010101110110
             ^100011011
              00100011010
               ^100011011
                000000001

(The elements {53} and {CA} are multiplicative inverses of one another since their product is 1.)

Multiplication in this particular finite field can also be done using a modified version of the "peasant's algorithm". Each polynomial is represented using the same binary notation as above. Eight bits is sufficient because only degrees 0 to 7 are possible in the terms of each (reduced) polynomial.

This algorithm uses three variables (in the computer programming sense), each holding an eight-bit representation. a and b are initialized with the multiplicands; p accumulates the product and must be initialized to 0.

At the start and end of the algorithm, and the start and end of each iteration, this invariant is true: a b + p is the product. This is obviously true when the algorithm starts. When the algorithm terminates, a or b will be zero so p will contain the product.

 Run the following loop eight times (once per bit). It is OK to stop when a or b is zero before an iteration:
 If the rightmost bit of b is set, exclusive OR the product p by the value of a. This is polynomial addition.
 Shift b one bit to the right, discarding the rightmost bit, and making the leftmost bit have a value of zero. This divides the polynomial by x, discarding the x0 term.
 Keep track of whether the leftmost bit of a is set to one and call this value carry.
 Shift a one bit to the left, discarding the leftmost bit, and making the new rightmost bit zero. This multiplies the polynomial by x, but we still need to take account of carry which represented the coefficient of x7.
 If carry had a value of one, exclusive or a with the hexadecimal number 0x1b (00011011 in binary). 0x1b corresponds to the irreducible polynomial with the high term eliminated. Conceptually, the high term of the irreducible polynomial and carry add modulo 2 to 0.
 p now has the product

This algorithm generalizes easily to multiplication over other fields of characteristic 2, changing the lengths of a, b, and p and the value 0x1b appropriately.

Multiplicative inverse

The multiplicative inverse for an element a of a finite field can be calculated a number of different ways:

 By multiplying a by every number in the field until the product is one. This is a brute-force search.
 Since the nonzero elements of GF(pn) form a finite group with respect to multiplication,  (for ),  thus the inverse of a is a.
 By using the extended Euclidean algorithm.
 By making logarithm and exponentiation tables for the finite field, subtracting the logarithm from pn − 1 and exponentiating the result.
 By making a modular multiplicative inverse table for the finite field and doing a lookup.
 By mapping to a composite field where inversion is simpler, and mapping back.
 By constructing a special integer (in case of a finite field of a prime order) or a special polynomial (in case of a finite field of a non-prime order) and dividing it by a.

Implementation tricks

Generator based tables
When developing algorithms for Galois field computation on small Galois fields, a common performance optimization approach is to find a generator g and use the identity:

to implement multiplication as a sequence of table look ups for the logg(a) and gy functions and an integer addition operation. This exploits the property that every finite field contains generators. In the Rijndael field example, the polynomial  (or {03}) is one such generator. A necessary but not sufficient condition for a polynomial to be a generator is to be irreducible.

An implementation must test for the special case of a or b being zero, as the product will also be zero.

This same strategy can be used to determine the multiplicative inverse with the identity:

Here, the order of the generator, , is the number of non-zero elements of the field.  In the case of GF(28) this is . That is to say, for the Rijndael example: .  So this can be performed with two look up tables and an integer subtract. Using this idea for exponentiation also derives benefit:

This requires two table look ups, an integer multiplication and an integer modulo operation. Again a test for the special case  must be performed.

However, in cryptographic implementations, one has to be careful with such implementations since the cache architecture of many microprocessors leads to variable timing for memory access.  This can lead to implementations that are vulnerable to a timing attack.

Carryless multiply
For binary fields GF(2n), field multiplication can be implemented using a carryless multiply such as CLMUL instruction set, which is good for n ≤ 64. A multiplication uses one carryless multiply to produce a product (up to 2n − 1 bits), another carryless multiply of a pre-computed inverse of the field polynomial to produce a quotient = ⌊product / (field polynomial)⌋, a multiply of the quotient by the field polynomial, then an xor: result = product ⊕ ((field polynomial) ⌊product / (field polynomial)⌋). The last 3 steps (pclmulqdq, pclmulqdq, xor) are used in the Barrett reduction step for fast computation of CRC using the x86 pclmulqdq instruction.

Composite field
When k is a composite number, there will exist isomorphisms from a binary field GF(2k) to an extension field of one of its subfields, that is, GF((2m)n) where . Utilizing one of these isomorphisms can simplify the mathematical considerations as the degree of the extension is smaller with the trade off that the elements are now represented over a larger subfield. To reduce gate count for hardware implementations, the process may involve multiple nesting, such as mapping from GF(28) to GF(((22)2)2). There is an implementation constraint, the operations in the two representations must be compatible, so explicit use of the isomorphism is needed. More precisely, the isomorphism will be denoted by map(), it is a bijection that maps an element of GF(2k) to GF((2m)n), satisfying:  and , where the operations on the left side occur in GF(2k) before mapping and the operations on the right side occur in GF((2m)n) after mapping. The isomorphism is usually implemented with a k row by k bit matrix, used to perform a matrix multiply over GF(2) of an element of GF(2k) treated as a k row by 1 bit matrix. Define α as a primitive element of GF(2k), and β as a primitive element of GF((2m)n). Then βj = map(αj) and αj = map−1(βj). The values of α and β determine the mapping matrix and its inverse. Since the actual math is performed in GF((2m)n), the reducing polynomial for GF((2m)n) is usually primitive and β = x in GF((2m)n). In order to meet the compatibility constraint for addition and multiplication, a search is done to choose any primitive element α of GF(2k) that will meet the constraint. In the case where reducing polynomial for GF(2k) is primitive, an alternate mapping method is possible: the 1 bit coefficients of the reducing polynomial for GF(2k) are interpreted as m bit elements 0 or 1 of GF(2m), and there will be m primitive factors of degree n, any of which can be used as the reducing polynomial for GF((2m)n). Mapping to a composite field can be generalized to map GF(pk) to a composite field such as GF((pm)n), for p any prime.

Program examples

C programming example
Here is some C code which will add and multiply numbers in the characteristic 2  finite field of order 28, used for example by Rijndael algorithm or Reed–Solomon, using the Russian peasant multiplication algorithm:

/* Add two numbers in the GF(2^8) finite field */
uint8_t gadd(uint8_t a, uint8_t b) {
	return a ^ b;
}

/* Multiply two numbers in the GF(2^8) finite field defined
 * by the modulo polynomial relation x^8 + x^4 + x^3 + x + 1 = 0
 * (the other way being to do carryless multiplication followed by a modular reduction)
 */
uint8_t gmul(uint8_t a, uint8_t b) {
	uint8_t p = 0; /* accumulator for the product of the multiplication */
	while (a != 0 && b != 0) {
        if (b & 1) /* if the polynomial for b has a constant term, add the corresponding a to p */
            p ^= a; /* addition in GF(2^m) is an XOR of the polynomial coefficients */

        if (a & 0x80) /* GF modulo: if a has a nonzero term x^7, then must be reduced when it becomes x^8 */
            a = (a << 1) ^ 0x11b; /* subtract (XOR) the primitive polynomial x^8 + x^4 + x^3 + x + 1 (0b1_0001_1011) – you can change it but it must be irreducible */
        else
            a <<= 1; /* equivalent to a*x */
        b >>= 1;
	}
	return p;
}

This example has cache, timing, and branch prediction side-channel leaks, and is not suitable for use in cryptography.

D programming example
This D program will multiply numbers in Rijndael's finite field and generate a PGM image:
/**
Multiply two numbers in the GF(2^8) finite field defined
by the polynomial x^8 + x^4 + x^3 + x + 1.
*/
ubyte gMul(ubyte a, ubyte b) pure nothrow {
    ubyte p = 0;

    foreach (immutable ubyte counter; 0 .. 8) {
        p ^= -(b & 1) & a;
        auto mask = -((a >> 7) & 1);
        // 0b1_0001_1011 is x^8 + x^4 + x^3 + x + 1.
        a = cast(ubyte)((a << 1) ^ (0b1_0001_1011 & mask));
        b >>= 1;
    }

    return p;
}

void main() {
    import std.stdio, std.conv;
    enum width = ubyte.max + 1, height = width;

    auto f = File("rijndael_finite_field_multiplication.pgm", "wb");
    f.writefln("P5\n%d %d\n255", width, height);
    foreach (immutable y; 0 .. height)
        foreach (immutable x; 0 .. width) {
            immutable char c = gMul(x.to!ubyte, y.to!ubyte);
            f.write(c);
        }
}

This example does not use any branches or table lookups in order to avoid side channels and is therefore suitable for use in cryptography.

See also
 Zech's logarithm

References

Sources
 (reissued in 1984 by Cambridge University Press ).

External links

 Wikiversity: Reed–Solomon for Coders – Finite Field Arithmetic

Arithmetic
Arithmetic
Articles with example D code
Articles with example C code

Finite field arithmetic


ملعب رويال بافوكينغ، هو ملعب رياضي في مدينة راستينبورج، جنوب أفريقيا، مخصص لرياضتي الرغبي وكرة القدم، افتتح في 1999، ويتسع ل44,530 مشجعاً، وقد سمي الملعب بهذا الاسم نسبة إلى شعب بافوكينغ الذين يمتلكون أسهماً في مناجم البلاتين الموجودة بالمنطقة.

استضاف الملعب ستة مباريات في بطولة كأس العام 2010 التي نظمتها جنوب إفريقيا. كما استضاف أربع مباريات في كأس القارات 2009.

مراجع

تأسيسات سنة 1999 في إفريقيا الجنوبية
روستنبرغ
ملاعب اتحاد الرغبي في جنوب إفريقيا
ملاعب ألعاب قوى المضمار والميدان في جنوب إفريقيا
ملاعب رياضية في الشمالية الغربية
ملاعب رياضة اكتملت في 1999
ملاعب كأس العالم 2010
ملاعب كأس العالم للرغبي
ملاعب كأس القارات 2009
ملاعب كرة قدم في جنوب إفريقيا
ملاعب كرة القدم في جنوب إفريقيا

ملعب رويال بافوكينغ


Lycopodioideae, potporodica papratnjača, dio porodice Lycopodiaceae.

Sastoji se od 8 rodova

Rodovi
 Diphasium C. Presl ex Rothm. (4 spp.)
 Dendrolycopodium A. Haines (5 spp.)
 Austrolycopodium Holub (7 spp.)
 Pseudodiphasium Holub (1 sp.)
 Pseudolycopodium Holub (1 sp.)
 Lycopodium L. (7 spp.); − crvotočina, prečica, vilin vinac
 Spinulum A. Haines (2 spp.)
 Diphasiastrum Holub (20 spp.); − difazijastrum.

Izvori

Crvotočnice

Lycopodioideae


Les ligaments costo-xiphoïdiens (ou ligaments chondro-xiphoïdiens ) sont des bandes fibreuses inconstantes qui relient les surfaces antérieure de l'extrémité médiale du septième cartilage costal, et parfois celles du sixième, à la face antérieure du processus xiphoïde.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Thorax

Ligament costo-xiphoïdien


The title Duke of Gordon has been created once in the Peerage of Scotland and again in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

The Dukedom, named after the Clan Gordon, was first created for the 4th Marquess of Huntly, who on 3 November 1684 was created Duke of Gordon, Marquess of Huntly, Earl of Huntly and Enzie (all three of which he already held by an older creation), Viscount of Inverness, and Lord Strathaven, Balmore, Auchindoun, Garthie and Kincardine. On 2 July 1784, the 4th Duke was created Earl of Norwich, in the County of Norfolk, and Baron Gordon, of Huntley in the County of Gloucester, in the Peerage of Great Britain. The principal family seat was Gordon Castle. The Dukedom became extinct in 1836, along with all the titles created in 1684 and 1784.

Most of the Gordon estates passed to the son of the 5th Duke's eldest sister, the 5th Duke of Richmond, whose main seat was Goodwood House in Sussex. In 1876 his son, the 6th Duke of Richmond and Lennox, was created Duke of Gordon, of Gordon Castle in Scotland, and Earl of Kinrara, in the County of Inverness. Thus, the Duke holds four dukedoms (including the French title Duke of Aubigny in the defunct Peerage of France), more than any other person in the realm; or (not counting the putative French title) three, equal since 2022 to Prince William, Duke of Cornwall, of Rothesay and of Cambridge.

Dukes of Gordon, first Creation (1684)
Other titles: Marquess of Huntly (1599), Marquess of Huntly (1684), Earl of Huntly (1445), Earl of Enzie (1599), Earl of Huntly and Enzie and Viscount of Inverness (1684), Lord Gordon of Badenoch (1599) and Lord Badenoch, Lochaber, Strathavon, Balmore, Auchidon, Garthie and Kincardine (1684)
George Gordon, 1st Duke of Gordon (1649–1716) was until 1684 merely Marquess of Huntly
Alexander Gordon, 2nd Duke of Gordon (c. 1678–1728), only son of the 1st Duke
Cosmo George Gordon, 3rd Duke of Gordon (c. 1720–1752), eldest son of the 2nd Duke
Other title (4th Duke): Earl of Norwich and Baron Gordon of Huntly, in the county of Gloucester (GB, 1784) and Baron Mordaunt (En, 1529)
Alexander Gordon, 4th Duke of Gordon (1743–1827), eldest son of the 3rd Duke
George Duncan Gordon, 5th Duke of Gordon (1770–1836), elder son of the 4th Duke

Dukes of Gordon, second Creation (1876)
Other titles: Duke of Richmond (1675), Duke of Lennox (1675), Earl of March (1675), Earl of Darnley (1675), Earl of Kinrara, in the county of Inverness (1876), Baron of Settrington, in the county of York (1675) and Lord of Torboulton (1675)
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, 6th Duke of Lennox, 1st Duke of Gordon (1818–1903), eldest son of the 5th Duke of Richmond, himself nephew of the above 5th Duke of Gordon
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 7th Duke of Richmond, 7th Duke of Lennox, 2nd Duke of Gordon (1845–1928), eldest son of the 6th Duke
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 8th Duke of Richmond, 8th Duke of Lennox, 3rd Duke of Gordon (1870–1935), eldest son of the 7th Duke
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, Lord Settrington (1899–1919), eldest son of the 8th Duke (at that point Earl of March), died without issue
Frederick Charles Gordon-Lennox, 9th Duke of Richmond, 9th Duke of Lennox, 4th Duke of Gordon (1904–1989), second son of the 8th Duke
Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox, 10th Duke of Richmond, 10th Duke of Lennox, 5th Duke of Gordon (1929-2017), eldest son of the 9th Duke
Charles Gordon-Lennox, 11th Duke of Richmond, 11th Duke of Lennox, 6th Duke of Gordon  (b. 1955), only son of the 10th Duke
the duke's heir apparent: Charles Henry Gordon-Lennox (b. 1994), the 11th Duke's eldest son

Family Tree

See also
Gordon Highlanders
Gordon Riots
Duke of Richmond
Duke of Lennox

References

External links
Duke of Gordon

Extinct dukedoms in the Peerage of Scotland
Dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom

1684 establishments in Scotland
1836 disestablishments in Scotland
1876 establishments in the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1684
Noble titles created in 1876
Noble titles created for UK MPs

Duke of Gordon