Issues relating to the State of Israel and aspects of the Arab–Israeli conflict and more recently the Iran-Israel conflict occupy repeated annual debate times, resolutions and resources at the United Nations. Since its founding in 1948, the United Nations Security Council, has adopted 79 resolutions directly related to the Arab–Israeli conflict as of January 2010.

The adoption on November 29, 1947, by the United Nations General Assembly of a resolution recommending the adoption and implementation of a plan of partition of Mandatory Palestine was one of the earliest acts of the United Nations. This followed the report of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine. Since then, it has maintained a central role in this region, including the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Palestinian People. The UN has sponsored several peace negotiations between the parties, the latest being the 2002 Road map for peace.

History

UN Partition Plan for Palestine

The United Nations General Assembly on 15 May 1947 created the Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) in response to a United Kingdom government request that the General Assembly "make recommendations under article 10 of the Charter, concerning the future government of Palestine". UNSCOP was "to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine." UNSCOP consisted of representatives of eleven members: Australia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, India, Iran, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, Uruguay and Yugoslavia. In the final report of 3 September 1947, seven members of the Committee in Chapter VI "expressed themselves, by recorded vote, in favour of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union" (reproduced in the Report). The Plan proposed "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem". The Palestinian Arabs and members of the Arab League had rejected any partition of Palestine.

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly passed Resolution 181 (commonly known as the UN Partition Plan for Palestine) which recommended the adoption and implementation of a slightly modified version of the UNSCOP majority Partition Plan, by 33 votes in favor, 13 against, and 10 abstentions, achieving the required two-thirds majority. The resolution was rejected by the Palestinian Arabs; and all members of the Arab League voted against.

UN Mediator in Palestine

Within a few days of the passing of the Partition Plan (Resolution 181), full scale Jewish–Arab fighting broke out in Palestine. It also led to anti-Jewish violence in Arab countries, and to a Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries. In an attempt to mediate the continuing Jewish–Arab fighting in Palestine, UN General Assembly by Resolution 186 of 14 May 1948 called for the appointment of  "United Nations Mediator in Palestine".

Also on 14 May 1948, the day on which the British Mandate of Palestine was to expire, Israel declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel". The territory of Israel was to be that of the Jewish State proposed in Resolution 181.

On the day after the British Mandate expired, on 15 May, five neighbouring Arab states invaded and rapidly occupied much of the Arab portion of the Partition Plan, and threatening to take the whole of Palestine. In the introduction to the cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the UN Secretary-General on 15 May 1948, the Arab League gave reasons for its "intervention": "On the occasion of the intervention of Arab States in Palestine to restore law and order and to prevent disturbances prevailing in Palestine from spreading into their territories and to check further bloodshed". The invasion changed the dynamic of the region, transforming a two-state plan into a war between Israel and the Arab world.

Folke Bernadotte was appointed Mediator on 20 May 1948. Bernadotte succeeded in achieving a truce by May–June 1948 during which the British evacuated Palestine. He proposed two alternate partition plans, the second calling for a reduction in the size of the Jewish State and loss of sovereignty over the harbour city of Haifa. Both were rejected. Lehi, a Zionist group, assassinated him and his aide, UN observer Colonel André Serot on 17 September 1948. Bernadotte was succeeded by Ralph Bunche, who was successful in bringing about the signing of the 1949 Armistice Agreements.

Resolution 194 - Status of Jerusalem and refugees

On 11 December 1948, Resolution 194 reiterated the UN's claim on Jerusalem and resolved in paragraph 11 "that the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date". This resolution, accepted immediately by Israel, is the foundation of the claim of a Palestinian right of return. The Arab states initially opposed this resolution, but within a few months, began to change their position, and became the strongest advocates of its refugee and territorial provisions.

Resolution 194 also called for the creation of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine (UNCCP), consisted of France, Turkey and the United States. UNCCP proposed the Lausanne Conference of 1949. The conference lasted five months and was unsuccessful. After the failure of the conference, the UNCCP continued for some more years, but did not achieve any significant success. But the conference was noteworthy as the first proposal by Israel to establish the 1949 armistice line between the Israeli and Arab armies, the so-called green line, as the border of the Jewish state. This line has acquired an after-the-fact international sanction.

Following the failure at Lausanne to settle the problem of Palestinian refugees, UNRWA was created by resolution 302 (IV) of December 1949 to provide humanitarian aid to this group.

The UNCCP published its report in October 1950. It is noteworthy as the source of the official number of Palestinian Arab refugees (711,000). It again reiterated the demands for UN control over Jerusalem and for the return of Palestinian refugees.

Membership of United Nations

On the declaration of independence, a Provisional government of Israel was established; and while military operations were still in progress, the Provisional government was promptly recognised by the United States as the de facto authority of Israel, followed by Iran (which had voted against the UN partition plan), Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania, and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first country to recognise Israel de jure on 17 May 1948, followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, and South Africa. The United States extended de jure recognition after the first Israeli election, on 31 January 1949.

On 15 May 1948, one day after the declaration of its establishment, Israel applied for membership of the United Nations, but the application was not acted on by the Security Council. Israel's second application was rejected by the Security Council on 17 December 1948 by a 5 to 1 vote, with 5 abstentions. Seven votes in favor were required in order to approve the application. Syria was the sole negative vote; the U.S., Argentina, Colombia, the Soviet Union and Ukraine voted in favor; and Belgium, Britain, Canada, China and France abstained.

Israel's application was renewed in 1949 after the Israeli elections. The Security Council by UN Security Council Resolution 69 on 4 March 1949 voted 9 to 1 in favour of membership, with Egypt voting no and Great Britain abstaining. Those voting in favour were: China (ROC), France,  United States, Soviet Union, Argentina, Canada, Cuba, Norway, and Ukrainian SSR. Great Britain said it had decided to abstain because it believed Israel did not agree with United Nations' principles, citing Israel's refusal to allow Jerusalem to be internationally governed in accordance with the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.

Admission to Israel's membership was conditional on Israel's acceptance and implementation of Resolutions 181 (the Partition Plan) and 194 (besides other things, on status of Jerusalem and the return of Palestinian refugees). On 11 May 1949, the General Assembly by the requisite two-thirds majority approved the application to admit Israel to the UN by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 273. The vote in the General Assembly was 37 to 12, with 9 abstentions. Those that voted for were: Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Byelorussia, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Iceland, Liberia, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Ukraine, South Africa, Soviet Union, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Yugoslavia. Those that voted against were six of the then seven members of the Arab League (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Yemen) as well as Afghanistan, Burma, Ethiopia, India, Iran and Pakistan. Those abstaining were: Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, El Salvador, Greece, Siam, Sweden, Turkey and United Kingdom. Many of the countries that voted in favour or had abstained had already recognised Israel before the UN vote, at least on a de facto basis.

1950s

David Ben-Gurion, the Israeli Prime Minister at the time, supported sending Israeli troops to join UN forces in Korea. However, the political party Mapam was opposed to such measures as it favoured relations with North Korea over the South. As a compromise, instead of sending troops, the government sent $100,000 in medical and food supplies to the South Korean government.

After the failure of early attempts at resolution, and until 1967, discussion of Israel and Palestine was not as prominent at the UN. Exceptions included border incidents like the Qibya massacre, the passage of Security Council Resolution 95 supporting Israel's position over Egypt's on usage of the Suez Canal, and most prominently the 1956 Suez Crisis.

Following the closing of the Suez canal by Egypt, Israel, France and Great Britain attacked Egypt starting October 29, 1956. The First emergency special session of the United Nations General Assembly was called on November 1 to address that crisis. On November 2, the General Assembly adopted the United States' proposal for Resolution 997 (ES-I); it called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all forces behind the 1949 armistice lines and the reopening of the Suez Canal. The emergency special session consequently adopted a series of enabling resolutions which established the UNEF, the first UN peacekeeping force. On November 7, David Ben-Gurion declared victory against Egypt, renounced the 1949 armistice agreement with Egypt and added that Israel would never agree to the stationing of UN forces on its territory or in any area it occupied. Eventually, Israel withdrew from the Sinai but with conditions for sea access to Eilat and a UNEF presence on Egyptian soil. By April 24, 1957, the canal was fully reopened to shipping.

1960s

In 1961, the regional groups were created at the UN. From the onset, Arab and Muslim countries blocked the inclusion of Israel in the Asia group (see Regional Groups below).

After months of debate in the Security Council and General Assembly before, during and after the 1967 Six-Day War, United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 was adopted. It became a universally accepted basis for Arab-Israeli and later, Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. In it, the Land for peace principle was spelled out. This resolution is one of the most discussed, both within and outside of the UN.

In November 1967, Gunnar Jarring was appointed as the UN special envoy for the Middle East peace process. The Jarring Mission was unsuccessful.

The Six-Day War of 1967 generated a new wave of Palestinian refugees who were not covered by the original UNRWA definition. From 1991, the UN General Assembly has adopted an annual resolution allowing the 1967 refugees within the UNRWA mandate.

In 1968, the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Palestinian People was created to investigate Israeli settlements in occupied Arab territories, and other matters. It has continued to generate yearly General Assembly resolutions and other documents.

1970s

The Israeli–Palestinian conflict gained prominence following the emergence of Palestinian armed groups, especially the Palestine Liberation Organization and the increased political strength of the Arab group as the main suppliers of petroleum to the Western world. At the UN, the Arab group also gained the support of the Soviet Bloc against Israel allied to the US.

In rapid succession, several events brought the Palestinian struggle to the forefront: the 1972 Olympic Munich massacre, the 1973 Yom Kippur War, the ensuing 1973 oil crisis and, in 1975, the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War.

The Geneva Conference of 1973 was an attempt to negotiate a solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict. No comprehensive agreement was reached, and attempts in later years to revive the Conference failed.

In 1973, a General Assembly resolution about Apartheid "Condemns in particular the unholy alliance between Portuguese colonialism, Apartheid and Zionism." This statement was reused in the preamble to resolution 3379.

About the 1974 UNESCO decision to exclude Israel from its membership, Julian Huxley, the first Director of UNESCO, wrote to The Times to complain. UNESCO defended this decision with two statements in 1974 and 1975. Israel's membership was renewed two years later.

Starting in 1974, 1967 territories were named "Occupied Arab Territories" in UN documents. In 1982, the phrase "Occupied Palestinian Territories" became the usual name. This phrase was not used at the UN prior to 1967, when the same territories were under military occupation by Jordan and Egypt.

The Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People was created in 1975 and of the United Nations Division for Palestinian Rights in 1977. Also in 1977, the International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People was first celebrated on November 29 the anniversary of resolution 181.

The 1975 UN Resolution 3379 stated "that Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination". The resolution was preceded by resolutions adopted at the United Nations-sponsored World Conference of the International Women's Year in 1975. Resolution 3379 was sponsored by 25 Arab states; 72 voted for, 35 voted against and 32 abstained.

In his speech to the UN General Assembly after the resolution's passage, US Ambassador to the UN Daniel Patrick Moynihan, declared that the US "does not acknowledge, it will not abide by, it will never acquiesce in this infamous act." Israeli Ambassador Chaim Herzog told his fellow delegates this resolution was "based on hatred, falsehood and arrogance. Hitler," he declared, "would have felt at home listening to the UN debate on the measure."

The 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty was a landmark event. Egyptian president Anwar Sadat is credited for initiating the process, following the failure of the UN-mediated peace negotiations, notably the Geneva Conference. The secret negotiations at Camp David in 1978 between Sadat, Menachem Begin and Jimmy Carter, and the treaty itself essentially bypassed UN-approved channels. The Camp David Accords (but not the Treaty itself) touch on the issue of Palestinian statehood. Egypt, Israel, and Jordan were to agree a way to establish elected self-governing authority in the West Bank and Gaza. Egypt and Israel were to find means to resolve the refugee problem.

The General Assembly was critical of the accords. General Assembly Resolution 34/65 (1979) condemned "partial agreements and separate treaties". It said that the Camp David accords had "no validity insofar as they purport to determine the future of the Palestinian people and of the Palestinian territories occupied by Israel since 1967". In protest, the General Assembly did not renew the peace-keeping force in the Sinai peninsula, the UNEF II, despite requests by the US, Egypt and Israel, as stipulated in the treaty. To honor the treaty despite the UN's refusal, the Multinational Force and Observers was created, which has always operated independently of the UN. Egypt was expelled from the Arab League for a period of ten years.

1980s

Between 1980 and 1988, some states made attempts to expel Israel from the General Assembly. For example, the credentials committee received in 1985 a letter signed by 34 Muslim states and the USSR.  These attempts were unsuccessful.

The Palestinian National Council adopted in Algiers in 1988 the declaration of independence of the State of Palestine. The UN has not officially recognised this state but, by renaming the PLO observer as the Palestine observer, can be seen as having done so unofficially. In July 1998, the General Assembly adopted resolution 52/250 conferring upon Palestine additional rights and privileges, including the right to participate in the general debate held at the start of each session of the General Assembly, the right of reply, the right to co-sponsor resolutions and the right to raise points of order on Palestinian and Middle East issues.

1990s

Following sixteen years of intense diplomatic pressure by the US, the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379, which determined that "Zionism is a form of racism", of 1975 was revoked in 1991 by resolution 46/86 as a precondition for the participation of Israel to the Madrid Conference.

Following the 1993 Oslo peace accords between Israel and the PLO, followed in 1994 by the Israel–Jordan peace treaty, the language of yearly General Assembly resolutions was modified to reduce criticism of Israeli actions. Moreover, between 1993 and 1995 the Security Council never directly condemned Israel. During this period, the Security Council also denounced terrorism against Israel for the first time. The most central resolution adopted during this warming trend toward Israel came on December 14, 1993, when 155 member states endorsed the Israel-Palestinian and the Israel-Jordan agreements and granted "full support for the achievements of the peace process so far". This resolution was the first UN call for Middle East peace that did not criticize Israel. In October 1993, for the first time since 1981, the Arab members of the UN did not challenge Israel's seat at the General Assembly.

2000s

The year 2000 saw the failure of the Camp David peace negotiations and the beginning of the Second Intifada.

In 2003, the Israeli West Bank barrier became another subject of criticism. It was declared illegal by both the General Assembly and the International Court of Justice. The Court found that the portions of the wall beyond the Green Line and the associated regime that had been imposed on the Palestinian inhabitants is illegal. The Court cited illegal interference by the government of Israel with the Palestinian's national right to self-determination; and land confiscations, house demolitions, the creation of enclaves, and restrictions on movement and access to water, food, education, health care, work, and an adequate standard of living in violation of Israel's obligations under international law. The UN Fact Finding Mission and several UN Rapporteurs subsequently noted that in the movement and access policy there has been a violation of the right not to be discriminated against on the basis of race or national origin.

A series of terrorist attacks in March 2002 prompted Israel to conduct Operation Defensive Shield. The fiercest episode was the battle of Jenin in the UNRWA administered refugee camp of Jenin, where 75 died (23 IDF soldiers, 38 armed and 14 unarmed Palestinians) and 10% of the camp's buildings destroyed. The UN send a first visiting mission. A separate fact-finding mission was mandated by the Security Council but blocked by Israel, a move condemned in General Assembly resolution 10/10 (May 2002). This mission was replaced by a report which was widely commented in the media. Many observers noted that the UN dropped the accusations of massacre made by Palestinians during and soon after the battle, and reproduced in the annex 1 of the report.

The Road map for peace is, since 2002, the latest and current effort by the UN to negotiate peace in the region. This document was initially proposed by US president George W. Bush and sponsored by a quartet of the US, Russia, the European Union and the UN. The official text is in the form of a letter to the Security Council, not a General Assembly or Security Council resolution. It generated a series of changes: the sidelining of Yasser Arafat and the unilateral withdrawal of Jewish settlers and the Israeli forces from occupied territories, notably the Gaza strip. Progress is now stalled.

In 2003, Israel sought to gain support for a resolution of its own, the first it had introduced since 1976. The resolution called for the protection of Israeli children from terrorism. The resolution was worded to be very similar to General Assembly resolution 58/155 (December 22, 2003) titled " Situation of and assistance to Palestinian children". Israel withdrew the draft after a group of nations belonging to the Non-Aligned Movement, led by Egypt, insisted on including amendments that would have transformed the document into an anti-Israel resolution. The changes demanded were the altering of all references to "Israeli children" to read "Middle Eastern children," and the insertion of harsh condemnation of Israeli "military assaults," "occupation" and "excessive use of force" before any mention of Arab terrorism. The draft was withdrawn and never came to vote.

Security Council Resolution 1544 (2004) reiterated the obligation of Israel, the occupying Power, to abide scrupulously by its legal obligations and responsibilities under the Fourth Geneva Convention, and called on Israel to address its security needs within the boundaries of international law.

In 2005, the UN approached Israel with a request that it contribute IDF troops, especially military medical units, to UN peacekeeping missions such as those in Haiti, Kosovo, Congo, and Liberia. The UN also expressed interest in purchasing Israeli-made military equipment for UN peacekeepers, especially night-vision goggles and telecommunications equipment.

The Israeli representative was elected in 2005 to the symbolic position of vice-president of the 60th UN General Assembly.

On December 11, 2007, the General Assembly adopted a resolution on agricultural technology for development sponsored by Israel. The Arab group proposed a series of amendments referring to the Palestinian occupied territories, but these amendments were rejected. The Tunisian representative said: "The Arab Group was convinced that Israel was neither interested in agriculture nor the peace process." This group demanded a vote on the resolution, an unusual demand for this kind of country-neutral resolution.  "The representative of the United States (...) expressed disappointment with the request for a recorded vote because that could send a signal that there was no consensus on the issues at stake, which was not the case. The United States was saddened by the inappropriate injection into the agenda item of irrelevant political considerations, characterized by inflammatory remarks that devalued the importance of the United Nations agenda". The resolution was approved by a recorded vote of 118 in favour to none against, with 29 abstentions. The abstentions were mainly from the Arab Group, with the notable exception of Pakistan which voted in favour.

2010s

In February 2011, the United States vetoed a draft resolution to condemn all Jewish settlements established in the occupied Palestinian territory since 1967 as illegal. The resolution, which was supported by all other Security Council members and co-sponsored by over 120 nations, would have demanded that "Israel, as the occupying power, immediately and completely ceases all settlement activities in the occupied Palestinian territory, including East Jerusalem and that it fully respect its legal obligations in this regard." The U.S. representative, Susan E. Rice, said that while it agreed that the settlements were illegal, the resolution would harm chances for negotiations. Israel's deputy Foreign Minister, Daniel Ayalon, said that the "UN serves as a rubber stamp for the Arab countries and, as such, the General Assembly has an automatic majority," and that the vote "proved that the United States is the only country capable of advancing the peace process and the only righteous one speaking the truth: that direct talks between Israel and the Palestinians are required." Palestinian negotiators, however, have refused to resume direct talks until Israel ceases all settlement activity.

On January 31, 2012, the United Nations independent "International Fact-Finding Mission on Israeli Settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territory" filed a report stating that Israeli settlements led to a multitude of violations of Palestinian human rights and that if Israel did not stop all settlement activity immediately and begin withdrawing all settlers from the West Bank, it potentially might face a case at the International Criminal Court. It said that Israel was in violation of article 49 of the fourth Geneva convention forbidding transferring civilians of the occupying nation into occupied territory. It held that the settlements are "leading to a creeping annexation that prevents the establishment of a contiguous and viable Palestinian state and undermines the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination." After Palestine's admission to the United Nations as a non-member state in September 2012, it potentially may have its complaint heard by the International Court. Israel refused to co-operate with UNHRC investigators and its foreign ministry replied to the report saying that "Counterproductive measures – such as the report before us – will only hamper efforts to find a sustainable solution to the Israel-Palestinian conflict. The human rights council has sadly distinguished itself by its systematically one-sided and biased approach towards Israel."

Issues

Legality of the State of Israel

Resolution 181 laid a foundation within international law and diplomacy for the creation of the state of Israel; as it was the first formal recognition by an international body of the legitimacy of a Jewish state, to exist within a partition of the territory along with an Arab state.

The UN followed the practice of the Paris Peace Conference and the League of Nations regarding the creation of states. Religious and minority rights were placed under the protection of the United Nations and recognition of the new states was conditioned upon acceptance of a constitutional plan of legal protections. Israel acknowledged that obligation, and Israel's declaration of independence stated that the State of Israel would ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex, and guaranteed freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture. In the hearings before the Ad Hoc Political Committee that considered Israel's application for membership in the United Nations, Abba Eban said that the rights stipulated in section C. Declaration, chapters 1 and 2 of UN resolution 181(II) had been constitutionally embodied as the fundamental law of the state of Israel as required by the resolution. The instruments that he cited were the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, and various cables and letters of confirmation addressed to the Secretary General. Eban's explanations and Israel's undertakings were noted in the text of General Assembly Resolution 273 (III) Admission of Israel to membership in the United Nations, May 11, 1949.,

Allegations of bias

In recent years, the Middle East was the subject of 76% of country-specific General Assembly resolutions, 100% of the Human Rights Council resolutions, 100% of the Commission on the Status of Women resolutions, 50% of reports from the World Food Programme, 6% of United Nations Security Council resolutions and 6 of the 10 Emergency sessions.

These decisions often criticize Israel for its "occupation of Palestinian land and its oppression of Palestinians." A number of observers have described this criticism as excessive.  For example, according to the UN Association of the UK, General Assembly resolutions in the period 1990–2003 show bias against Israel, condemnation of violence against Palestinians, but only occasional discussion of violence against Israelis. In addition, the UNHRC was criticized in 2007 for failing to condemn other alleged human rights abusers besides Israel.

The United States has been criticized as well by the OIC and other Arab organisations, for vetoing most Security Council decisions critical of Israel, the so-called Negroponte doctrine. Since 1961, Israel has been barred from the Asian regional group. In 2000, it was offered limited membership in the Western European and Others Group. On 29 November 2012, the UN General Assembly adopted United Nations General Assembly resolution 67/19 changing Palestine's "entity" status to "non-member state" by a vote of 138 to 9, with 41 abstentions. Some sources claim that these measures implicitly recognised its sovereignty.

In an interview on December 16, 2016, UN Secretary General, Ban Ki Moon, said that the UN has issued a "disproportionate volume of resolutions, reports and conferences criticizing Israel."

In 2002, the PLO issued a report comparing the international response to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict to similar situations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Kuwait, Rwanda, East Timor, and Iraq. It contended that the international community, and the Security Council in particular, displayed pro-Israel bias because, in these other cases, "the international community has both condemned violations of international law and has taken action to ensure that the violations cease. In the case of the Palestinian–Israeli conflict, however, while the same condemnations have been issued against Israel, absolutely no enforcement action has been taken."

A 2005 report by the United States Institute of Peace on UN reform said that, contrary to the UN Charter's principle of equality of rights for all nations, Israel is denied rights enjoyed by all other member-states, and that a level of systematic hostility against it is routinely expressed, organized, and funded within the United Nations system.

In a lecture at the 2003 UN conference on antisemitism, Anne Bayefsky said:
There has never been a single resolution about the decades-long repression of the civil and political rights of 1.3 billion people in China, or the more than a million female migrant workers in Saudi Arabia being kept as virtual slaves, or the virulent racism which has brought 600,000 people to the brink of starvation in Zimbabwe. Every year, UN bodies are required to produce at least 25 reports on alleged human rights violations by Israel, but not one on an Iranian criminal justice system which mandates punishments like crucifixion, stoning, and cross-amputation. This is not legitimate critique of states with equal or worse human rights records. It is demonization of the Jewish state.

Legal scholar Robert A. Caplen wrote that institutional bias against Israel within the UN has deprived the country of its ability to exercise lawfully those rights accorded to member states under the UN Charter.

In October 2010, Canada lost to Portugal in a vote for a seat at the Security Council. Several observers attributed this loss to the pro-Israel policy of Canada at the UN, including Canadian PM Stephen Harper.

On August 16, 2013, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon stated in a meeting with Israeli students that there was a biased attitude towards the Israeli people and Israeli government at the UN. He described this as "an unfortunate situation." A few days later, Ban Ki-Moon retracted those comments, stating: "I don't think there is discrimination against Israel at the United Nations".

General Assembly

A few countries have consistently supported Israel's actions in the UN, such as the United States of America and the states of Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau all of which are associated states of the U.S. Recently Australia, under the leadership of John Howard, and Canada, under the leadership of Stephen Harper, have also supported Israel at the UN. Many European countries usually adopt a neutral stance, abstaining from the ongoing condemnations of Israel and supporting the foundation of a Palestinian state. Such countries include France, Russia, and Germany.

A study published by the UN Association of the UK, reviewing the language of General Assembly resolutions about Israel between 1990 and 2003, found that:

resolutions adopted in the same period by the General Assembly were far more explicit in their condemnation of Israel. (...) Violence perpetrated against Israeli civilians, including the use of suicide bombers, is mentioned only a few times and then in only vague terms. Violence against Palestinian civilians, on the other hand, is described far more explicitly. Israeli occupying forces are condemned for the "breaking of bones" of Palestinians, the tear-gassing of girls' schools and the firing on hospitals in which a specific number of women were said to be giving birth. Another trend noted in General Assembly Resolutions is a progressively more anodyne tone towards Israel throughout the period examined. This is reflected in a decreasing tendency of resolutions to specify Israeli culpability in policies and practices reviewed by the General Assembly; compare, for example, General Assembly resolution 47/70 (1992) with 58/21 (2003).

As noted above, this trend towards a more anodyne tone regarding Israel at the General Assembly followed the signature of the Oslo Accords in 1993. This UN-UK report concludes that "criticism is not necessarily a product of bias, and it is not the intention here to suggest that UNGA and UNSC reproaches of Israel stem from prejudice. From the perspective of the UN, Israel has repeatedly flouted fundamental UN tenets and ignored important decisions."

The 61st session of the General Assembly (2006–07) adopted 61 country-specific resolutions (see graph above). The Israeli delegation alleged:
21 of those resolutions focused on and unfairly criticized Israel. The resolutions are usually initiated by members of the Arab Group, and are adopted by a wide margin ("Automatic Majority") in the General Assembly

US envoy Susan Rice said in August 2009 "The assembly continues to single out Israel for criticism and let political theater distract from real deliberation."

Caroline Glick writes that "Due to the UN's unvarnished belligerence toward it, in recent years a consensus has formed in Israel that there is nothing to be gained from cooperating with this openly and dangerously hostile body".

Former Israeli ambassador Dore Gold wrote that "The Palestinians understand that the automatic support they receive at the UN enables them to implement restrictions on Israel's right of self-defense. For this reason, the Palestinians have never abandoned the use of one-sided resolutions at the UN General Assembly, even during the most optimistic times of the peace process."

In an opinion piece in the Jerusalem Post, Efraim Chalamish said that, in 2010, "Israel and the United Nations have significantly improved their relationships over the past few months.(...) Nowadays, the government is promoting its legitimate membership status by enhanced participation in more balanced UN forums, such as the Economic and Social Council, while still presenting a hawkish approach towards hostile and one-sided forums, including the Human Rights Council in Geneva."

Regional Groups

The United Nations Regional Groups were created in 1961. From the onset, the majority of Arab countries within the Asia group blocked the entry of Israel in that group. Thus, for 39 years, Israel was one of the few countries without membership to a regional group and could not participate in most UN activities. On the other hand, Palestine was admitted as a full member of the Asia group on April 2, 1986.

In 2000, Israel was admitted to the Western European and Others Group (WEOG) but Israel's membership is limited to activities at the UN's New York City headquarters. Elsewhere, Israel is an observer, not a full member, in WEOG discussions and consultations. Therefore, Israel cannot participate in UN talks on human rights, racism and a number of other issues. The Human Rights Council meets in Geneva, UNESCO in Paris.

In December 2007, Israel was voted by WEOG to represent the grouping in consultations for two UN agencies: HABITAT, the UN Human Settlement Program, and UNEP, the UN Environment Program. Both these agencies are based in Nairobi.

Shebaa farms

The status of seven small villages collectively known as the Shebaa farms, located at the Lebanon-Syria border, is controversial. Some evidences support a Syrian territory, others a Lebanese territory.

The United Nations considers this territory as Syrian which has, since the 1967 Six day war, been occupied by Israel. Following the 1978 Israel-Lebanon war, the Security Council accepted the report of UN-mandated cartographers stating that "as of 16 June 2000 Israel has withdrawn its forces from Lebanon in accordance with resolution 425 (1978)" In accordance with this decision, the current map from UNIFIL shows this territory as Syrian.

Hezbollah is an armed Lebanese group originally formed to repel the 1982 Israeli occupation of South Lebanon. Since 2000, it continues to fight occupation of Lebanon by Israel, using the Shebaa farms as justification.  Following the 2006 Israel-Lebanon war, the UN accepted at the request of the Lebanese government to re-evaluate the ownership of this territory. This promise was included in the text of Security Council resolution 1701. In August 2008, the Lebanese govt adopted Hezbollah's claim to the "right of Lebanon's people, the army and the resistance to liberate all its territories in the Shebaa Farms, Kfarshuba Hill and Ghajar".

A Lebanon Independent Border Assessment Team (LIBAT) was mandated by the UN but has not yet reported on this issue.

United States policy at the UN

The U.S. has vetoed over forty condemnatory Security Council resolutions against Israel; almost all U.S. vetoes cast since 1988 blocked resolutions against Israel, on the basis of their lack of condemnation of Palestinian terrorist groups, actions, and incitement. This policy, known as the Negroponte doctrine, has drawn both praise and criticism.

UN Human Rights Council

According to UN Watch, an NGO, the UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC) had, as at August 2015, issued more condemnations of Israel than of all other member states combined.

At its Second Special Session in August 2006, the UNHRC voted to establish a Commission of Inquiry to investigate allegations that Israel systematically targeted Lebanese civilians during the 2006 Israel–Lebanon conflict. The Commission noted that its report on the conflict would be incomplete without fully investigating both sides, but that "the Commission is not entitled, even if it had wished, to construe [its charter] as equally authorizing the investigation of the actions by Hezbollah in Israel".

The Special Rapporteur on the question of Palestine to the previous UNCHR, the current UNHRC and the General Assembly was, between 2001 and 2008, John Dugard. The mandate of the Rapporteur is to investigate human rights violations by Israel only, not by Palestinians.  Dugard was replaced in 2008 with Richard Falk, who has compared Israel's treatment of Palestinians with the Nazis' treatment of Jews during the Holocaust. Like his predecessor, Falk's mandate only covers Israel's human rights record. Commenting on the end of Falk's mandate in May 2014, US delegate Samantha Power cited Falk's "relentless anti-Israeli bias" and "his noxious and outrageous perpetuation of 9/11 conspiracy theories."

Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann, a former UNGA president, was elected to the UNHRC Advisory Committee in June 2010.

Many observers have made allegations of anti-Israel bias. The Economist wrote: "In its fourth regular session, which ended in Geneva on March 30, [2007,] the 47-member council again failed to address many egregious human-rights abuses around the world. (...) Indeed, in its nine months of life, the council has criticised only one country for human-rights violations, passing in its latest session its ninth resolution against Israel." In 2007 Human Rights Watch noted the UNHRC disproportionate focus on Israel and accused it of failing to take action on other countries facing human rights crises. Similar accusations were voiced by Freedom House, the Washington Post, Kofi Annan, Ban Ki-moon, US President George W. Bush, and members of the European Parliament. The UNHRC President himself, Doru Costea, said in 2007 that the council should "not place just one state under the magnifying glass".

Renewed accusations of an anti-Israel agenda at the UNHCR were voiced by the ADL, and by an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal. In a report on UNHCR activities between June 2007 and June 2009, Freedom House found some improvement but noted that "Israel remained the target of an inordinate number of both condemnatory resolutions and special sessions."

Esther Brimmer of the United States State Department said on 15 September 2010 "we must remedy the [UNHR]Council's ongoing biased and disproportionate focus on Israel." US Congress member Ileana Ros-Lehtinen called for defunding of the HRC over its excessive criticism of Israel. The Daily News (New York) denounces the apparent bias at UNHCR in two editorials. Current United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Navi Pillay, denied the accusations of anti-Israel bias at the UNHCR. Addressing UNHCR in February 2011, Hillary Clinton denounced its "structural bias against Israel". In March 2012, the UNHRC was further criticised by the United States over its anti-Israel bias. It took particular exception to the council's Agenda Item 7, under which at every session, Israel's human rights record is debated. No other country has a dedicated agenda item. The US Ambassador to the UNHRC, Eileen Chamberlain Donahoe, said that the United States was deeply troubled by the "Council's biased and disproportionate focus on Israel." She said that the hypocrisy was further exposed in the UN Golan Heights resolution that was advocated "by the Syrian regime at a time when it is murdering its own citizens". On March 24, 2014, US delegate to the UNHRC, Samantha Power, qualified the anti-Israel bias of this committee as "beyond absurd".

In March 2012, UNHCR was criticised for facilitating an event featuring a Hamas politician. The Hamas parliamentarian had spoken at an NGO event in the UN Geneva building. Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu castigated the UNHRC's decision stating: "He represents an organization that indiscriminately targets children and grown-ups, and women and men. Innocents – is their special favorite target." Israel's ambassador to the UN, Ron Prosor, denounced the speech, stating that Hamas was an internationally recognized terrorist organization that targeted civilians. "Inviting a Hamas terrorist to lecture to the world about human rights is like asking Charles Manson to run the murder investigation unit at the NYPD", he said.

Fact Finding mission on the 2008 Gaza War (Goldstone report)

A fact finding mission on human rights violations during the 2008 Gaza War between Israel and Hamas administration in Gaza was called by January 12, 2009, UNHRC, which limited the investigation to "violations (...) by the occupying Power, Israel, against the Palestinian people throughout the Occupied Palestinian Territory, particularly in the occupied Gaza Strip" but, before any investigation, it already "Strongly condemns the ongoing Israeli military operation carried out in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, particularly in the occupied Gaza Strip, which has resulted in massive violations of the human rights of the Palestinian people".

Former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and Ireland President Mary Robinson refused to head the mission because she "felt strongly that the Council's resolution was one-sided and did not permit a balanced approach to determining the situation on the ground."

On 3 April 2009, Richard Goldstone was named head of the mission. In a 16 July interview, he said "at first I was not prepared to accept the invitation to head the mission". "It was essential," he continued, to expand the mandate to include "the sustained rocket attack on civilians in southern Israel, as well as other facts." He set this expansion of the mandate as a condition for chairing the mission. The next day, he wrote in the New York Times "I accepted because the mandate of the mission was to look at all parties: Israel; Hamas, which controls Gaza; and other armed Palestinian groups." The UNHRC press release announcing his nomination documents the changed focus of the mission. Writing in The Spectator, commentator Melanie Phillips said that the resolution that created the mandate allowed no such change and questioned the validity and political motivations of the new mandate.

Israel thought that the change of the mandate did not have much practical effect.

Israel refused to cooperate with the Goldstone Mission and denied its entry to Israel, while Hamas and Palestinian National Authority supported and assisted the Mission.

In January, months before the mission, Professor Christine Chinkin, one of the four mission members, signed a letter to the London Sunday Times, asserting that Israel's actions "amount to aggression, not self-defense" and that "the manner and scale of its operations in Gaza amount to an act of aggression and is contrary to international law". She authored the final report.

Israel concluded that "it seemed clear beyond any doubt that the initiative was motivated by a political agenda and not concern for human rights" and therefore refused to cooperate with it  – in contrast to its policy to cooperate fully with most of the international inquiries into events in the Gaza Operation.

The mission report was published on 15 September 2009. As noted in the press release, the mission concluded "that serious violations of international human rights and humanitarian law were committed by Israel in the context of its military operations in Gaza from December 27, 2008, to January 18, 2009, and that Israel committed actions amounting to war crimes, and possibly crimes against humanity. The Mission also found that Palestinian armed groups had committed war crimes, as well as possibly crimes against humanity."

Goldstone, however, explained that what he had headed was not an investigation, but a fact-finding mission. "If this was a court of law, there would have been nothing proven", Goldstone said, emphasizing that his conclusion that war crimes had been committed was always intended as conditional. Nevertheless, the report itself is replete with bold and declarative legal conclusions seemingly at odds with the cautious and conditional explanations of its author.

Reactions to the report's findings were varied. The report was not immediately ratified by a UNHRC resolution. This step was postponed to March 2010. This delay is attributed to diplomatic pressure from Western members of the council, including the US which joined in April 2009 and, surprisingly, from the Palestinian Authority representative.
About the U.S. pressure, UNHRC representative Harold Hongju Koh described the U.S. participation to the council as "an experiment" with the Goldstone report being the first test.

The report was finally ratified by 14 October UNHRC resolution A/HRC/S-12/L.1. Like the January 12 resolution but unlike the report, this ratification condemns Israel, not Hamas. The "unbalanced focus" of the ratification was criticized by U.S. State Department spokesman Ian Kelly, U.S. ambassador to the UNHRC Douglas Griffiths and Richard Goldstone himself.

On 1 April 2011, Goldstone retracted his claim that it was Israeli government policy to deliberately target citizens, saying "If I had known then what I know now, the Goldstone Report would have been a different document".  On 14 April 2011 the three other co-authors of the United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict of 2008–2009, Hina Jilani, Christine Chinkin and Desmond Travers, released a joint statement criticizing Goldstone's recantation of this aspect of the report. They all agreed that the report was valid and that Israel and Hamas had failed to investigate alleged war crimes satisfactorily.

Commission of inquiry on the 2014 Gaza conflict

On 23 July 2014, during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict, the UNHRC adopted resolution S-21 for a commission of inquiry to "investigate all violations of international humanitarian law and international human rights law in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, particularly in the occupied Gaza Strip, in the context of the military operations conducted since 13 June 2014". The apparent anti-Israel bias in the mandate of the commission was denounced by Gregory J. Wallance in The Guardian and by the US, Canadian and Australian delegates to the UNHRC during the debate of the resolution.

UNESCO

UNESCO also adopts yearly resolutions for the preservation of the old Jerusalem, a UNESCO world heritage site included in the List of World Heritage in Danger.

In 2007, an emergency session of UNESCO was held to discuss Israeli archaeological excavations at the Mughrabi ascent in the Old City of Jerusalem. The session report said that the excavations were "a naked challenge by the Israeli occupation authorities" to the UN position on the status of Jerusalem. Following a fact-finding mission, Israel was exonerated of blame by the executive board. UNESCO never criticized repeated episodes of mechanized excavations within the Temple Mount ground by the Muslim Waqf, and is financing a museum within the al-Aqsa Mosque compound (the Temple Mount). The museum closed for non-Muslims in 2000 and this situation has not changed until the time of this note, June 2014.

2001 Durban conference against racism

During the World Conference against Racism held in Durban in 2001, the accusation that "Zionism is a form of racism" resurfaced.

In an editorial about the 2001 Durban's World Conference against Racism, Ronald Eissens of "I CARE" (Internet Centre Anti Racism Europe) wrote "All through the NGO Forum, there have been Antisemitic incidents. The Arab Lawyers Union had a stall in the NGO exhibition tents displaying gross Antisemitic cartoons. Copies of the infamous Protocols of the Elders of Zion were being sold. When the ISC was asked to do something against the Antisemitic cartoons they decided that the cartoons were not racist but 'political'".

A similar scene was described by Anne Bayefsky The Qatar delegate said, according to official UN records:
the Israeli enmity towards the Palestinians, and its destruction of their properties and economy do not stem from its desire to subjugate them to the arrogance of power only, but also from its strong sense of superiority which relegates the Palestinians to an inferior position to them. Ironically enough, the Israeli security is sacred when balanced against the Palestinian security and all the Israeli heinous violations are justified as a means to bring back every Jew to a land that they raped from its legitimate owners and denied them their right to claim it back.

In a 2002 interview with the BBC, Mary Robinson said that some good came out of the conference, "but I also admit that it was an extremely difficult conference. That there was horrible anti-Semitism present – particularly in some of the NGO discussions. A number people came to me and said they've never been so hurt or so harassed or been so blatantly faced with an anti-Semitism."

Navanethem Pillay, the current United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, published in 2008 a similar opinion of the event

2009 Durban Review conference

The April 2009 Durban Review Conference held in Geneva, was boycotted by nine western countries. During an official speech at this conference, Iran president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said:
some powerful countries (...) under the pretext of protecting the Jews they made a nation homeless with military expeditions and invasion. They transferred various groups of people from America, Europe and other countries to this land. They established a completely racist government in the occupied Palestinian territories. And in fact, under the pretext of making up for damages resulting from racism in Europe, they established the most aggressive, racist country in another territory, i.e. Palestine. The Security Council endorsed this usurper regime and for 60 years constantly defended it and let it commit any kind of crime.(...) The global Zionism is the complete symbol of racism, which with unreal reliance on religion has tried to misuse the religious beliefs of some unaware people and hide its ugly face.

During his speech, all European representatives walked out. The outcome document makes no reference to Israel or Palestinians.

Resolution 3379
The 1975 Resolution 3379, which determined that "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination" was revoked by Resolution 4686 in 1991. Twenty-five states voted against this revocation, twenty-one of which have predominantly Muslim inhabitants. During the first-ever conference on antisemitism at the UN, in 2004, Kofi Annan said that the UN record on antisemitism had sometimes fallen short of the institution's ideals, and that he was glad that the "especially unfortunate" 1975 General Assembly resolution equating Zionism with racism had been rescinded.

The "Zionism is a form of racism" concept reappeared in 2001 World Conference against Racism in Durban. Zouheir Hamdan (Lebanon) claimed that "One (Israeli) minister described the Palestinians as serpents, and said they reproduced like ants. Another minister proposed that Palestinians in Israel be marked with yellow cards". A draft resolution denounced the emergence of "movements based on racism and discriminatory ideas, in particular the Zionist movement, which is based on racial superiority.". The draft was removed following the departure of the US and Canadian delegates. General Assembly President Father Miguel D'Escoto Brockmann repeated the accusation in a speech during the 2008 International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People.

On January 24, 2008, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Louise Arbour welcomed the entry into force of the Arab Charter on Human Rights which states: "Article 2(3) All forms of racism, Zionism and foreign occupation and domination constitute an impediment to human dignity and a major barrier to the exercise of the fundamental rights of peoples; all such practices must be condemned and efforts must be deployed for their elimination."

Arbour subsequently distanced herself from some aspects of the charter. The charter is listed in the web site of her office, among texts adopted by international groups aimed at promoting and consolidating democracy

Direct involvement of UN personnel in conflict
There have been occasional reports of UN personnel becoming caught up in hostilities.

Indian peacekeepers of the UNIFIL peace mission in Southern Lebanon were accused of complicity in the 2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid, in which three Israel Engineering Corps soldiers were killed and their bodies captured after Hezbollah fighters infiltrated into Israel. According to the Israeli newspaper Ma'ariv, Hezbollah bribed several Indian troops with hundreds of thousands of dollars in return for participating in the kidnapping and secretly negotiated with them to make sure that they would participate. Israeli investigators who were sent to India to question the suspected soldiers were told that Hezbollah had paid them large sums of money for their cooperation.

On November 22, 2002, during a gun battle between the IDF and Islamic Jihad militants, Iain Hook, UNRWA project manager of the Jenin camp rehabilitation project, was killed by Israeli gunfire. A soldier had reportedly mistaken him for a militant and a cellphone in his hand for a gun or grenade.

On May 11, 2004, Israel said that a UN ambulance had been used by Palestinian militants for their getaway following a military engagement in Southern Gaza,

In 2004, Israel complained about comments made by Peter Hansen, head of UNRWA. Hansen had said that there were Hamas members on the UNRWA payroll, and that he did not see that as a crime, they were not necessarily militants, and had to follow UN rules on staying neutral.

On July 26, 2006, Israeli aircraft and artillery attacked a well-marked, long-standing UNIFIL position, killing four UNIFIL peacekeepers. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called the bombing "deliberate", while Israel claimed that Hezbollah had fighters that fired from the vicinity of that position, and had sheltered near it to avoid an Israeli counterstrike.

In 2008, the Israeli Defense Ministry accused UNIFIL of intentionally concealing information to the Security Council about Hezbollah military activity south of the Litani river, in violation of its mandate.

In January 2009 during the Gaza War, a number of people were killed by Israeli bombing outside a school run by the UNRWA; the number and identity of victims is disputed (see Al-Fakhura school incident for details.) Initially, the UN accused Israel of directly bombing the school. Maxwell Gaylord, the UN humanitarian co-ordinator for the Palestinian territories, described the incidents as tragic. Israel claims that a Hamas squad was firing mortar shells from the immediate vicinity of the school. Hamas denies this claim. In February 2009, Gaylord said that the UN "would like to clarify that the shelling and all of the fatalities took place outside and not inside the school". The headquarters of the UNRWA in Gaza was also shelled on January 15. Tons of food and fuel were destroyed. Israel claims that militants ran for safety inside the UN compound after firing on Israeli forces from outside. UNRWA spokesman Chris Gunness dismissed the Israeli claims as "baseless".

In March 2012, UN official Khulood Badawi, an Information and Media Coordinator for the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, tweeted a picture of a Palestinian child covered in blood captioned the picture with "Another child killed by #Israel... Another father carrying his child to a grave in #Gaza." It was later stated that the picture was published in 2006 and was of a Palestinian girl who had died in an accident unrelated to Israel. Israel's Ambassador to the United Nations Ron Prosor called for her dismissal, stating that she was "directly engaged in spreading misinformation". He accused her conduct as deviating from "the organization's responsibility to remain impartial" and said that such actions "contribute to incitement, conflict and, ultimately, violence."

She later tweeted that she mistakenly had tweeted an old photo. Ma'an News Agency reported a week later that the hospital medical report on the dead girl read that she died "due to falling from a high area during the Israeli strike on Gaza". There are differing accounts of how the Israeli air strike, reported to be as little as 100 meters away, may have caused the accident.

Cooperation with UN missions
In December 2008, Israel detained Richard Falk, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the occupied Palestinian territory, and denied him transit to West Bank on his official mission.

On 30 August 2022, outgoing UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet said "In 2020, the 15 international staff of my Office in Palestine – which has been operating in the country for 26 years – had no choice but to leave. Subsequent requests for visas and visa renewals have gone unanswered for two years. During this time, I have tried to find a solution to this situation, but Israel continues to refuse to engage." She went on to say "Israel's treatment of our staff is part of a wider and worrying trend to block human rights access to the occupied Palestinian territory. This raises the question of what exactly the Israeli authorities are trying to hide." The Israeli mission to the UN in Geneva accused her office of being a "mouthpiece for Palestinian Authority."

See also

List of the UN resolutions concerning Israel
Permanent Representative of Israel to the United Nations
UN Watch

Notes

References

Further reading

Kim, Soo Yeon and Bruce Russett, "The New Politics of Voting Alignments in the United Nations General Assembly", International Organization Vol. 50, No. 4 (Autumn, 1996), pp. 629–652 The New Politics of Voting Alignments in the United Nations General Assembly

External links
 Permanent Mission of Israel to the UN
Israel-UN relations; an uneasy relationship, Backgrounder article updated July 2007, from the Permanent Mission of Israel to the UN.

United Nations
Criticism of the United Nations

Israel and the United Nations


නගර ආශ්‍රිත ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය, පොදුවේ එක්සත් ජනපදය තුළ සුන්බුන් හෝ කුණු ලෙසද, බ්‍ර්තාන්‍යය තුල කසල හෝ කුණු ලෙසද හඳුන්වනු ලැබේ. ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය යනු මහජනතාව විසින් එදිනෙදා ඉවතලන භාණ්ඩ වලින්  සමන්විත අපද්‍රව්‍ය වර්ගයකි. "කුණු" ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් අහාරාමය අපද්‍රව්‍ය සහ බැහැර කරන අපද්‍රව්‍ය ලෙස නම් කරනු ලබන අතර මේවා වෙන වෙනම එකතු කරනු ලැබේ.

සංයුතිය
නගර ආශ්‍රිත ඝණ අපද්‍රව්‍ය  සංයුතිය නගරසභාවෙන්  නගර සභාවට කාලය සමග සැලකිය යුතු ලෙස විශාල වශයෙන් වෙනස් වේ. හොඳින් දියුණු අපද්‍රව්‍ය ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීයකරණ පද්ධතිය සහිත නගර සභා වල අපද්‍රවය ප්‍රවාහය, දිරා නොයන ප්ලාස්ටික් සහ ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය  කළ නොහැකි ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් සමන්විත වේ. 20 වැනි සියවසේ ආරම්භයේ දී, එක්සත් රාජධානියේ ගෘහ අපද්‍රව්‍ය අතරින් බහුතරය (53%) විවෘත ගිනි ගැනීම් වලින් හට ගන්නා ගල් අඟුරු අළු වලින්  සමන්විත විණි. සැලකිය යුතු ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණ ක්‍රියාකාරකම් තොර සංවර්ධිත ප්‍රදේශවල ප්‍රධාන වශයෙන් ආහාරමය අපද්‍රව්‍යය, වෙළෙඳපොළ අපද්‍රව්‍ය, අංගන  අපද්රව්ය, ප්ලාස්ටික් භාජන,   නිෂ්පාදන ඇසුරුම් ද්‍රව්‍ය සහ අනෙකුත් විවද නේවාසික, වාණිජ, ආයතනික, සහ කර්මාන්ත මූලාශ්ර වලින් නිකුත් කරනු ලබන අපද්‍රව්‍ය  වලින් සමන්විත වේ. නගර ආශ්‍රිත ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය අර්ථකථනයේදී කර්මාන්ත ආශ්‍රිත  අපද්‍රව්‍ය, කෘෂිකාර්මික අපද්‍රව්‍ය, සෞඛ්‍ය සේවය ආශ්‍රිත අපද්‍රව්‍ය, විකිරණශීලි අපද්‍රව්‍ය හෝ මලබොර අන්තර්ගත නොවේ. අදාල ප්‍රදේශ වල අපද්‍රවය එකතුකිරිම සිදුකරනු ලබන්නේ මහනගර සභා මගිනි. අවශේෂ අපද්‍රව්‍ය යන පදය අර්ථකතනයේදී එයට අදල වන්නේ ගෘහ ආශ්‍රිත ප්‍රදේශ වලින් ඉවත දමන වෙන්කිරීමට නොහැකි හෝ නැවත සකස් කිරීමට නොහැකි අපද්‍රවයි.  අපද්‍රව්‍ය ක්‍රම කිහිපයක් යටතේ වර්ගීකරනය කල හැක නමුත් පහත ලය්ස්තුව මගින් සාමාන්‍ය වර්ගීකරණය දැක්වේ:

 ජෛවහායන අපද්‍රව්‍ය: ආහාරමය සහ මුළුතැන්ගේ අපද්‍රව්‍ය, හරිත අපද්‍රවය, කඩදාසි(බොහොමයක් ද්‍රව්‍ය ප්‍රතිචක්‍රිකරණය කල හැකි අතර නමුත් සමහරක් කොම්පෝස්ට් බවට පත්කිරීම අපහසුවේ.))
 ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය කළහැකි ද්‍රව්‍ය: කඩදාසි, කාඩ්බෝඩ්, වීදුරු, බෝතල්, භාජන, ටින් කෑන්, ඇලුමිනියම් කෑන්, ඇලුමිනියම් තීරු, යකඩ, සමහර ප්ලාස්ටික්, රෙදි, ඇඳුම්, ටයර්, වියලි කෝෂ, වැනි දේ.
 නිෂ්ක්‍රීය අපද්‍රව්‍ය: ඉදිකිරීම් ආශ්‍රිත අපද්‍රව්‍ය සහ කඩා දැමීම් ආශ්‍රිත අපද්‍රව්‍ය.
 විදුලි සහ ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික අපද්‍රව්‍ය: විදුලි උපකරණ, විදුලි බල්බ, රෙදි සෝදන යන්ත්‍ර, රූපවාහිනි යන්ත්‍ර, පරිඝනක, තිර, ජංගම දුරකථන, එලාම් ඔරලෝසු, අත් ඔරලෝසු වැනිදේ,
 සංයුක්ත අපද්‍රව්‍ය : ඇදුම් ආශ්‍රිත කසල, සෙල්ලම් බදු වැනි ප්ලස්ටික් අපද්‍රව්‍ය
 අන්තරායකාරි අපද්‍රව්‍ය වලට බොහෝ තීන්ත වර්ග, රසායනික ද්‍රව්‍ය ටයර් වර්ග, වියලි කෝෂ, විදුලි බල්බ, විදුලි උපකරණ අන්තර්ගත වේ.
 විෂ අපද්‍රව්‍ය වලට කෘමිනාශක, වල්නාශක සහ දිලීරනාශක අයත් වේ.
 ජෛව වෛද්‍ය අපද්‍රව්‍ය, කල් ඉකුත් වූ ඖෂධ වර්ග වැනි දේ,

ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය කළමනාකරණයේ සංරචක

නගර ආශ්‍රිත ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය කර්මාන්ත වල ප්‍රධාන සංරචක හතරකි:  ප්‍රතිචක්‍රිකරණය, කොම්පොස්ට්කරණය, බැහැර කිරීම, සහ පිළිස්සීම මගින් අපද්‍රව්‍ය ශක්තිය බවට පත්කිරීම.  සියලු අපද්‍රව්‍ය  ධාරා කළමනාකරණයට  යෙදිය හැකි එක් ප්‍රවේශයක් නොමැත, එමනිසා පරිසර ආරක්ෂණ ආයතනය, ඇමරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ෆෙඩරල් ආයතනය, නාගරික ඝණ අපද්‍රව්‍ය  සඳහා ශ්‍රේණිගත කිරීම සදහා  ධුරාවලියක් සංවර්ධනය කර ඇත. මෙම අපද්‍රව්‍ය කළමනකරණ ධුරාවලිය ගොඩනගනු ලැබුවේ පාරිසරික ශක්තිමත් බව, මුලාශ්‍ර අඩුවශයෙන් භාවිතය සහ නැවත භාවිතය , ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය හෝ කොම්පොස්ට්කරණය , ශක්ති යථා තත්වයට පත්කිරීම, ප්‍රතිකාරය සහ බැහැර කරීම මත පදනම් වූ කැමැත්ත වැඩි තැන සිට අඩු තැන  දක්වා පෙළගැස්වූ අදියර 4ක් අනුසාරයෙනි.

එකතු කිරීම
ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය එකතු කිරීමේ ක්‍රියාකාරී අංගයක් ලෙස ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය සහ ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය කල හැකි ද්‍රව්‍ය එකතු කිරීම පමණක් නොව මෙම ද්‍රව්‍ය එකතු කිරීමෙන් පසු අපද්‍රව්‍ය බැහැර කරන  ස්ථාන දක්වා ප්‍රවාහනය කිරීමද අයත්ය. මෙම බැහැර කරන ස්ථාන ද්‍රව්‍ය සැකසුම් ස්ථානයක්, හුවමාරු ස්ථානයක් හෝ ගොඩකළ බිමක් විය හැක.

මුලාශ්‍ර තුල අපද්‍රව්‍ය පාලනය කිරීම, වෙන්කිරීම, ගබඩා කිරීම සහ සැකසුම් කිරීම.
අපද්‍රව්‍ය පාලනය කිරීම සහ වෙන්කිරීම අපද්‍රව්‍ය කළමනාකරණයට අයත් ක්‍රියාකාරකම් වන අතර මෙය අපද්‍රව්‍ය ගබඩා කරන භාජන තුල ගබඩා කිරීමෙන් පසු සිදුවන ක්‍රියාවකි. පාලන ක්‍රියාවලිය ප්‍රධාන ලෙස ආවරණය වන්නේ පටවනු ලැබූ අපද්‍රව්‍ය භාජන පිහිටි ස්ථාන අනුවයි. එකිනෙකට වෙනස්  ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය  වෙන්කිරීම ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය සහිත මුලාශ්‍ර පාලනයේ සහ ගබඩා කිරීමේ ක්‍රියාවලියේ ප්‍රධාන අංගයක් වේ.

ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය වෙන්කිරීම සහ සැකසීම සහ පරිවර්තනය
මුලශ්‍රයේදී වෙන් කරන ලද අපද්‍රව්‍ය ආපසු ලබා ගැනීම සඳහා අද පාවිච්චි කරනු ලබන උපක්‍රම හා පහසුකම් යටතේ බැම්මවල් අසල එකතුව (එක්සත් රාජධානියේ  'ක්‍රබ්ස්ය්ඩ්'), අතහැර දැමීම, මිලදී ගන්න ආපසු මධ්යස්ථාන ඇතුළත් වේ. මුලශ්‍රයේදී වෙන් කරන ලද අපද්‍රව්‍ය අපද්‍රව්‍ය වෙන් කිරීම හා සැකසුම්  කිරීම හා සමමිශ්‍රිත අපද්‍රව්‍ය වල වෙන්කිරීම සාමාන්යෙන් සිදුවන්නේ ද්‍රව්‍ය යථා තත්වයට ගැනීමේ පහසුකම, මාරු කිරීම ස්ථාන, දහන පහසුකම් හා බැහැර වන අඩවිවලය.

මාරු කිරීම හා ප්‍රවාහනය
මෙම අනාගය අවස්ථා දෙකකින් සමන්විතය. පළමුව, අපද්‍රව්‍ය විශාල ප්‍රවාහන උපකරණ සඳහා කුඩා එකතුව වාහනයේ සිට මාරු කර ඇත. ඉන්පසු අපද්‍රව්‍ය සැකසීම හෝ බැහැරලන අඩවිය වෙත, සාමාන්යයෙන් දිගු දුර ප්‍රමාණයක්, ප්‍රවාහනය කරයි.

බැහැර කිරීම

අද, ඉඩම් පිරවීම හෝ ඉඩම් පුර පැතිරවීම මගින් අපද්‍රව්‍ය බැහැර කිරීම සියලු ඝණ අපදව්ය වල අවසාන ඉරනම වී ඇති අතර  මෙම අපද්‍රව්‍ය වන්නේ බිම් පිරවුම් අඩවිය වෙත සෘජු  ප්රවාහනය කල නේවාසිකව එකතු වූ අපද්‍රව්‍ය, ද්‍රව්‍ය යථා තත්වයට පත් කිරීම මගින් අවශේෂ වූ ද්‍රව්‍ය (MRFs), දහනය මගිනි ඉතිරි වී තිබෙන ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය, කොම්පෝස්ට්, හෝ විවිධ ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය සැකසීමේ පහසුකම් මගින් ලබා ගත් අනෙකුත් ද්‍රව්‍ය වේ. නවීන සනීපාරක්ෂක බිම් පිරවුම් තවකාලික කුණුගොඩක් නොවේ; එය කෘමීන් සහ භූගත ජලය අපවිත්‍ර වීමෙන් සිදුවන ප්‍රශ්න වැනි මහජන සෞඛ්‍ය හෝ ආරක්ෂාවට අනවශ්‍ය උවදුරු නිර්මාණය නොකර ඉඩම් ඝණ අපද්‍රව්‍ය බැහැර කිරීම, සඳහා යොදා ගන්නා ඉංජිනේරු පහසුකම් වේ.

නැවත භාවිතා කිරීම
පසුගිය වසර කිහිපය තුල Freegal හෝ  Freecycle Network වැනි පාරිසරික සංවිධාන ඔවුන්ගේ සජිවී නැවත භාවිතා කරනු ලබන ජාල සදහා විශාල ජනප්‍රියත්වයක් ලබාගෙන ඇත. මෙම ජාල මගින් ලෝකය පුරා ඇති මිනිසුන් විසින් ඉවත දමන නැවත භාවිතා කිරීමට හෝ ප්‍රතිචක්‍රීකරණය කිරීමෙන් ප්‍රතිඵලයක් ගත නොහැකි ද්‍රවයන්ගේ සජීවී ලේඛනයක් සපයනු ලබයි. එම නිසා මෙම අන්තර්ජාලය පදනම් කරගත් සේවාවන් බිම් ගොඩකිරීමෙන් ඇතිවෙන දුෂණය අවම කරන අතර ආර්ථික දීමනාවන් ප්‍රවර්ධනය කරනු ලබයි.

බිම් ගොඩ කිරීම
බිම් ගොඩ වීම සිදුවන්නේ ඉඩම් තුල කුණු ගොඩගැසීම තුලිනි. කුණු දැමීමේ ක්‍රම එකිනෙකට වෙනස්ය. බොහෝ විට එය නම්කරන ලද විශාල ප්‍රදේශයක, සාමාන්‍යයෙන් වලක හෝ කුණු කන්දක විය හැක. කුණු දැමීමෙන් පසු විශාල යන්ත්‍ර මගින් කුණු සම්පිණ්ඩනය කරනු ලබයි. කුණු දමන වලවල් පිරුණු පසු එම වලවල් ප්ලාස්ටික් තහඩුවක් යොදාගෙන "මුද්‍රා" කරනු ලැබීම සහ  කුණු වල අඩි කිහිපයක් ආවරණය කරනු ලැබිම සිදුකරනු ලබයි. මෙම ක්‍රමය එක්සත් ජනපදය තුල පවතින ප්‍රාථමික කුණු දැමීමේ ක්‍රමයක් වන අතර එයට හේතුව වනුයේ අවම පිරිවැය සහ උතුරු ඇමෙරිකාව තුල භාවිතයට නොගත් ඉඩම් ප්‍රමාණය අධික විමය. බිම් ගොඩකිරීම දුෂණයේ ඇති භයානකතවය මතුකර දක්වන අතර භූ ජලය ආධුලනය කිරිමටද හැක. දුෂණයේ ලකුණු විනාශකිරීමේ සමාගම් මගින් අවරනය කරනු ලබන අතර බොහෝවිට සාක්ෂියක් දැකීමට අපහසුය. සුන් බුන් ගොඩවල් සැගවීම සදහා මෙම බිම්ගොඩ කිරීමේ ප්‍රදේශ විශාල තාප්ප වලින් හෝ වැටවල් වලින් වට කිරීම සිදු කරනු ලබයි. විශාල වශයෙන් තිබෙන දුගඳ රසායනික ද්‍රවය ඉවත් කරනු ලබන පුද්ගලයන් විසින් බිම් ගොඩ කිරීමේ ස්ථාන අසල වාතයට ඉසිම් සිදු කිරම සිදු කරනු ලබන අතර  එමගින් ශාක තුල තිබෙන අපද්‍රව්‍ය වල සාක්ෂි සැගවීම් සිදුවේ.

ශක්ති උත්පාදනය
ශක්ති උත්පාදනය සදහා නගර ආශ්‍රිත ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය යොදාගනු ලැබේ.කලින් ගොඩනගන ලද තාක්ෂණයන් කිහිපයක් ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය ශක්ති උත්පාදනය සදහා සකස් කිරීම පිරිසිදුව සහ බොහෝ ආර්ථික අතින් වාසි ගෙන දෙන ලෙස සකස් කරනු  ලබන අතර,  ගොඩ කල බිම් වල අන්තර්ගත ගෑස් ග්‍රහණය, දහනය, තාපවිච්චේදනය ,වාෂ්පීකරණය සහ ප්ලැස්මා චාප වාෂ්පීකරණය.අපද්‍රව්‍ය පුළුස්සනු ලබන යන්ත්‍රෝපකරණ මගින් විශාල දුෂක විමෝචනය කරන අතරතුර, මෑත කාලින නියාමන වෙනස්කම් සහ නව තාක්ෂණික ක්‍රමෝපායන් සැලකිය යුතු ලෙස මෙම උත්සුකය අවම කරනු ලබයි. පරිසර ආරක්ෂණ ආයතනය (EPA) මගින් 1995 දී සහ 2000 වසර වලදී පිරිසිදු වාතය පිළිබද පනත යටතේ පනවන ලද නීති රෙගුලාසි මගින් සාර්ථක ලෙස අපද්‍රව්‍ය ශක්තිය බවට පත්කිරීමේදී  dioxine නිකුත් කිරීම 99% ක ප්‍රතිශතයකට වඩා අවම කරනු ලැබූ අතර රසදිය නිකුත් කිරිම 90% අඩු කරන ලදී. මෙම වර්ධනයන් EPA මගින් 2013 වසරේදී සදහන් කරනු ලැබූ අතර, අපද්‍රව්‍ය ශක්තිය බවට පත්කිරීම ක්‍රියාවලිය විදුලි මුලාශ්‍ර වලට වඩා පාරිසරික බලපෑම් වලින් තොර හොද ශක්ති මුලාශ්‍රයක් වන බව සදහන් කිරීමද සිදු කර ඇත.

මූලාශ්‍ර

නාගරික ඝන අපද්‍රව්‍ය


Berylliumfluoride er en uorganisk forbindelse med den kemiske formel BeF2. Dette hvide faststof er det centrale forstadie til fremstilling af berylliummetal.  Dets struktur minder om kvarts, men  er stærkt opløseligt i vand.

Eksterne henvisninger
 IARC-monograf "Beryllium and Beryllium Compounds"
 National Pollutant Inventory: Beryllium og forbindelser
 National Pollutant Inventory: Fluorid og forbindelser
 Farer ved Berylliumfluorid
 MSDS hvorfra LD50 figurerer

Berylliumforbindelser

Berylliumfluorid


David Amiel, né à Paris le , est un conseiller politique et homme politique français. Il est député de Paris depuis .

Biographie

David Amiel, né à Paris le 28 novembre 1992, suit ses études secondaires  au sein du lycée Louis-le-Grand. Après son baccalauréat, il rejoint le lycée Henri-IV en hypokhâgne, puis l'École normale supérieure (promotion 2011), et enfin l'université de Princeton, aux États-Unis.

En 2015, il travaille comme stagiaire dans l'équipe du ministre de l'Économie et des Finances, Emmanuel Macron.

De mai 2017 à mars 2019, David Amiel est un des conseillers d'Emmanuel Macron au palais de l'Élysée au côté d'Alexis Kohler, secrétaire général de la présidence. Il y assure la coordination entre les conseillers techniques. Il quitte ce poste pour assurer la promotion de son essai Le progrès ne tombe pas du ciel écrit avec Ismaël Emelien. Ils y décortiquent la « société de la frustration » et la « sécession des classes populaires » et théorisent le « progressisme » comme la seule réponse possible au populisme. Selon un proche du président, l'ouvrage se veut la « colonne vertébrale idéologique » du macronisme. L'ouvrage, qui ne se vend qu'à , est accueilli sèchement par la critique qui regrette son manque de fond au profit d'un soutien absolu à l'action du Président.

En 2019, il rejoint l'équipe de Benjamin Griveaux en vue des élections municipales de 2020 à Paris. Après la défaite de la majorité présidentielle dans la capitale, il siège dans l'opposition comme conseiller du 15e arrondissement. Il s'oppose à la tour Triangle, milite pour l'ouverture de la rue du Commerce le dimanche et travaille sur les problèmes de sécurité dans le quartier de Beaugrenelle.

Professionnellement, il intègre le groupe La Poste, mais y reste moins d'un an, rejoignant de nouveau l'entourage d'Emmanuel Macron où il pilote le programme du président candidat à l'élection présidentielle 2022.

Lors des élections législatives de 2022, il est candidat dans la 13e circonscription de Paris sous l'étiquette Ensemble. Arrivé en tête au premier tour, il est élu député au second tour avec  des suffrages face à la candidate de la NUPES Aminata Niakaté. Il devient membre de la commission des Finances de l'Assemblée nationale.

Résultats électoraux

Élections législatives

Ouvrage

Avec Ismaël Emelien, Le progrès ne tombe pas du ciel, Paris, Fayard, 2019 .

Références

Article connexe
 Présidence d'Emmanuel Macron

Liens externes

Naissance en mars 1992
Naissance à Paris
Élève de l'École normale supérieure
Présidence d'Emmanuel Macron
Député de la XVIe législature de la Ve République
Député de Paris
Député membre de La République en marche

David Amiel


Don't Drink the Water  est un film américain réalisé par Howard Morris, sorti en 1969, basé sur une pièce de théâtre de Woody Allen.

Synopsis
Après un détournement d'avion, un traiteur américain et sa famille se retrouvent accusés d'espionnage en Bulgarie et se réfugient à l'ambassade américaine, temporairement dirigée par le fils de l'ambassadeur.

Fiche technique
 Titre : Don't Drink the Water
 Réalisation : Howard Morris
 Scénario :  et  d'après une pièce de théâtre de Woody Allen
 Producteurs : Charles H. Joffe et Jack Rollins
 Producteur exécutif : Joseph E. Levine
 Photographie : Harvey Genkins
 Musique : Patrick Williams
 Distribution : AVCO Embassy Pictures
 Pays d'origine : États-Unis
 Genre : comédie
 Durée : 100 minutes
 Date de sortie : 1969

Distribution
 Jackie Gleason : Walter Hollander
 Estelle Parsons : Marion Hollander
 Ted Bessell : Axel Magee
 Joan Delaney : Susan Hollander
 Michael Constantine : Krojack
 Howard St. John : Ambassadeur Magee
 Danny Meehan : Kilroy
 Richard Libertini : Père Drobney
 Avery Schreiber : The Sultan
 Mark Gordon : Mirik
 Phil Leeds	: Sam
 Pierre Olaf : Chef

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 1969
Comédie américaine
Woody Allen
Adaptation d'une pièce de théâtre américaine au cinéma

Don't Drink the Water (film)


Gabriel kan henvise til:

 Gabriel – et drengenavn
 Gabriel (film fra 2007) – australsk action-horror film fra 2007
 Gabriel (missil) – israelsk anti-skib missil
 Gabriel (Drengene fra Angora) – figur i Drengene fra Angora
 Ærkeenglen Gabriel
 Gabriel A/S

Gabriel (flertydig)


Ulla-Britt Söderlund (født 12. august 1943,  død 21. juli 1985) var en svensk/dansk kostumedesigner og kostumier. Hun designede kostumer til omkring 20 film i Sverige, Danmark og England. I 1976 vandt hun en Oscar for bedste kostumer sammen med Milena Canonero for deres arbejde på Stanley Kubricks film Barry Lyndon. For de fleste danskere er hun mest kendt for sit arbejde på tv-serien Matador.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kostumier fra Sverige
Svenskere i 1900-tallet
Oscar for bedste kostumer
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog (afdøde)

Ulla-Britt Söderlund


Sun Wei ( Sūn Wěi) () este un scrimer chinez specializat pe sabie, laureat cu bronz individual la Jocurile Asiatice din 2014.

S-a calificat la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016 de la Rio de Janeiro, fiind unul din cei doi mai bine clasați din zona Asia-Oceania.

Referințe

Legături externe
  Prezentare  la Federația Chineză de Scrimă

Scrimeri chinezi
Sportivi chinezi în viață
Sabreri
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016

Sun Wei


Alain Bancquart (født 20. juni 1934 i Dieppe, Frankrig, død den 26. januar 2022) var en fransk komponist, organist, professor, violinist og bratschist.

Bancquart studerede komposition, violin og bratsch på Musikkonservatoriet i Paris hos bl.a. Darius Milhaud. Han spillede som violinist i forskellige orkestre såsom Orchestre National de France og Orchestre Radio France.

Bancquart komponerede i moderne stil som inkorporerer kvarttoner og mikrointervaller blandet med neoklassisk stil.

Han skrev ni symfonier, kammersymfoni, koncerter, strygekvartetter, orkesterværker, sonater for mange instrumenter etc.

Udvalgte værker

 Symfoni (i tre satser) (1963) - for 3 slagtøjsspillere, pauker, klaver og strygeorkester
 Symfoni nr. 1 (1981) - for orkester
 Symfoni nr. 2 (1981) - for orkester
 Symfoni nr. 3 (1983) - for orkester
 Symfoni nr. 4 (1987) - for orkester
 Symfoni nr. 5 (1992) - for orkester
 Symfoni nr. 6 "Til minde om Louis Saguer" (2006) - for orkester
 Symfoni nr. 7 (2009) - for strygeorkester
 Symfoni nr. 8 (2018) - for 9 stemmer og orkester
 kammersymfoni (1980) - for solofløjte og solocello og kammerorkester
 Symfoni Koncertante (1980) - for harpe, strygeorkester og bølger

Kilde
 Om Alain Bancquart på Musicweb-international.com

Komponister fra Frankrig
Violinister fra Frankrig
Bratschister
Organister fra Frankrig
Professorer fra Frankrig

Alain Bancquart


Brigidau ist:

 der deutsche Name eines galiziendeutschen Dorfes, siehe Laniwka
 der offizielle deutsche Name eines polnischen Dorfes zwischen 1943 und 1945, siehe Rozdrażew

Brigidau


A Declaração de Indulgência foi a tentativa de Charles II da Inglaterra de estender a liberdade religiosa aos protestantes inconformistas e católicos romanos em seus reinos, suspendendo a execução das Leis Penais que puniam os recusantes da Igreja da Inglaterra. Charles emitiu a Declaração em 15 de março de 1672.

Foi altamente polêmico e Sir Orlando Bridgeman, filho de um bispo, renunciou ao cargo de Lorde Guardião do Grande Selo, porque se recusou a aplicar o Grande Selo a ele, considerando-o generoso demais para os católicos.

Em 1673, o Cavalier Parliament (o mais longo parlamento inglês e mais longo do que qualquer parlamento britânico ou do Reino Unido até hoje, durando quase 18 anos do reinado de um quarto de século de Charles II da Inglaterra) obrigou Charles a retirar a declaração e implementar, em seu lugar, o primeiro dos Test Acts (1673), que exigia que qualquer pessoa que ingressasse no serviço público na Inglaterra negasse a doutrina católica da transubstanciação e tomasse a comunhão anglicana. Quando o sucessor abertamente católico de Charles II, Jaime II, tentou emitir uma Declaração de Indulgência semelhante, uma ordem de tolerância religiosa geral, tornou-se uma das queixas que levaram à Revolução Gloriosa que o derrubou do trono.

História da Inglaterra
Carlos II de Inglaterra

Declaração Real de Indulgência


308 هـ هي سنة في التقويم الهجري امتدت مقابلةً في التقويم الميلادي بين سنتي 920 و921.

وفيات

انظر أيضًا
 أحداث ومواليد ووفيات وقعت في الفترة الأولى من سنة 308 هـ
 أحداث ومواليد ووفيات وقعت في الفترة الثانية من سنة 308 هـ

مراجع

تقويم هجري

308 هـ


منطقة الحمامة تقع شمال مدينة البيضاء، وتبعد 25 كم عن مدينة البيضاء
وهي مدينة ساحلية ويوجد بها استراحه كانت للملك إدريس،
وتتميز بوجود العديد من المصائف، وبمناخها المعتدل.
وهي تتبع بلدية الساحل

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في شعبية الجبل الأخضر
قرى ومدن الجبل الأخضر

الحمامة (ليبيا)


Matthew Abram Groening (d. 15 Şubat 1954), Amerikalı Emmy ödülü sahibi karikatürist ve The Simpsons'la Futurama çizgi dizilerinin ve Life in Hell ile Disenchantment çizgi romanlarının yapımcısıdır.

Oregon'da Springfield kasabasında yetişen Groening, 1977 yılında, 23 yaşında, yazar olmak için Los Angeles'a taşındı ve "Life in Hell" adlı çizgi romanını yazmaya başladı. Life in Hell çizgi romanı, Hollywood yazar ve yapımcısı aynı zamanda "Gracie Films" kurucusu James L. Brooks'un dikkatini çekti. 1985 yılında Brooks, Groening ile temasa geçti ve gelecek için tam belirginleşmeyen animasyon film projeleri için anlaştılar. Bu proje, FOX variety adı altında "The Tracey Ullman Show" için hazırlanan ve "Bumpers"(şimdiki adı ile "The Simpsons Short") isimli kısa animasyon filmleri oldu. Brooks, Groening'den show için "Life in Hell" karakterlerini uyarlamasını istedi. Ve groening hemen, 15 dakika içinde, isminin "Simpsons Family" olmasına karar verdi. Kısa animasyonlar 1989 yılında seriye dönüşerek dünya çapında bir fenomen haline geldi.

Groening, Simpsons ana karakterlerinin isimlerini ise kendi aile üyelerinden seçti. Anne ve babası Margaret (Marge) ve Homer; kız kardeşleri Lisa ve Margaret (Maggie). Kendisini ise apaçık isimlendirmek yerine brat'ten çeviri sözcük "bart"ı seçti. Ayrıca, polis memuru "Wiggum" annesinin hizmetçisinin ismiydi ve diğer "Flanders, Lovejoy, Powell, Quimby, Kearney, ve Terwilliger" gibi bazı karakterlerin isimlerini ise Oregon şehri cadde ve sokak isimlerinden seçti.

Groening ayrıca 1999-2003 yılları arasında yayınlanan "Futurama" adlı yetişkinlere yönelik esprileri, ünlü filmlere yaptığı göndermeleri, sahne aralarına serpiştirilmiş detaylarıyla kendisine milyonlarca hayran kazanan ve en beğenilen animasyon dizilerinden birisini yarattı.

Matt Groening 25 Emmy Ödülü'ne aday gösterildi ve 10 tane "Emmy Ödülü" kazandı. Ayrıca 2000 yılında aday gösterildiği "National Cartoonist Society Reuben Ödülü"nü 2002 yılında kazandı. 2004 yılında ise "British Comedy Ödülü"nü kazandı.

Dış bağlantılar
 Mathan Rabin tarafın dan Matt Groening'le söyleşi - The A.V. Club

Yaşayan insanlar

1954 doğumlular
Portland, Oregon doğumlular
Amerikalı karikatüristler
Amerikalı satiristler
Amerikalı agnostikler
Reuben Ödülü
Simpsonlar
21. yüzyılda Amerikalı erkek oyuncular
Amerikalı erkek dizi oyuncuları
Annie Ödülü sahipleri

Matt Groening


Aiken County can refer to

 Aiken County, South Carolina
 Aiken County, Minnesota: former name of Aitkin County, Minnesota

Aiken County


Hagåtña (spænska: Agaña) er höfuðstaður bandaríska yfirráðasvæðisins á Gvam. Hagåtña var áður helsta byggðin á eyjunni, en er nú annað minnsta þorpið, bæði að stærð og íbúafjölda. Íbúar eru um 1.000. Stærsti bærinn á Gvam er Dededo með um 45 þúsund íbúa.

Gvam

Hagåtña


Orlando L. Serrell (født 1968) er amerikaner, der er kendt for sin evne til at huske hver dag siden han var omkring ti år og vejret disse dage. Hans evne er blevet sammenlignet med dem, der hører til autisme.

Orlando Serrell var dog ikke født autist, og besad ikke egentlige specielle talenter. Hans nuværende talenter begyndte at tage form, da han 15. januar 1979 som 10-årig blev ramt af en baseball-bold i venstre side af hovedet. Serrell faldt til jorden, men rejste sig op og spillede videre uden medicinsk hjælp, blandt andet fordi han ikke fortalte sine forældre om episoden. Han led efter episoden af hovedpine i lang tid, men dette stoppede på et tidspunkt. Da hans pine var væk, indså han, at han var i stand til at huske hver eneste dag siden ulykken. Han kunne huske vejrforholdene og sin omtrente position på en hvilken som helst dag siden da.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Orlando Serrells officielle side

Personer fra USA

Orlando Serrell


ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ජීවීන්ගෙන් ලබා ගන්නා ආහාර, ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ආහාර ලෙස හඳුන්වයි. මෙම ආහාර පරිභෝජනයට ගැනීම නිසා මිනිස් සෞක්‍යය කෙරෙහි අහිතකර බලපෑම් ඇතිවිය හැකිද යන්න පිළිබඳව සැක පහළ වී තිබේ.
ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ආහාර පරිභෝජනය නිසා,
මිනිස් දේහය තුළ ආසාත්මික ප්‍රතික්‍රියා ඇතිකළ හැකිද?
මිනිස් සිරුරට විෂ විය හැකිද?
නව ජාන, මිනිස් සෛල වලට හුවමාරු විය හැකිද?
නොදන්නා අයුරකින් සෞක්‍යමය ගැටළු ඇතිකළ හැකිද? ආදී ගැටළු ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ආහාර පරිභෝජනය පිළිබඳව පැනනැගී ඇත. මේ නිසා බොහෝ දෙනා ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ආහාර පරිභෝජනයෙන් වැලකි සිටීමට කටයුතු කරති. නමුත් ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ආහාර පරිභෝජනය නිසා මිනිසාට සෞක්‍ය ගැටළු ඇතිවිය හැකි බවක් විද්‍යාත්මකව තහවුරු වී නොමැත.

අර්ථ දැක්වීම

ඉතිහාසය

ක්‍රියාවලිය

බෝග

පලතුරු සහ එළවළු

ඉරිඟු

සෝයා

සහල්

තිරිඟු

ජීව විද්‍යාව

ප්‍රවේණිකව විකරණය කල ආහාර


Magnus Karl Olof Arvedson (born 25 November 1971) is a Swedish former professional ice hockey left winger who played 7 seasons in the National Hockey League for the Ottawa Senators and Vancouver Canucks. He also competed in the men's tournament at the 2002 Winter Olympics. He is currently the head coach of Bofors IK in the Swedish HockeyAllsvenskan.

Playing career
A late bloomer, Arvedson didn't become a regular in the Swedish Elite League until 1994 at the age of 23. However, over the next few seasons he became a top performer with Färjestads BK, and was selected to represent Sweden at the 1997 World Championships. Following a strong performance there in helping his team to a silver medal, Arvedson was selected 119th overall in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft by the Ottawa Senators.

Arvedson stepped straight into Ottawa's lineup in the 1997–98 season, establishing himself as a top-notch defensive forward and finishing the year with 26 points. In 1998–99, he would have the strongest year of his career - promoted to a scoring line, he finished the season with 21 goals and 47 points. He also finished as runner up to Jere Lehtinen in voting for the Frank J. Selke Trophy as the NHL's top defensive forward, losing a close vote (Lehtinen had 23 1st-place votes to Arvedson's 19).

Arvedson continued his strong play over the next two seasons, although he would be hobbled by the injury bug, missing over 30 games both years. However, when healthy his offensive numbers continued to improve, as he recorded 32 goals and 61 points in just 98 games between 1999 and 2001. However, his production (or lack thereof) in the playoffs was starting to become an issue. In 22 career playoff games, he had yet to score a goal and had added a meagre two assists, and took a large portion of the blame for the playoff woes of the Senators, who had been knocked out in the first round three years in a row after excellent regular seasons.

Healthy again in 2001–02, Arvedson registered 12 goals and 39 points, and finished top-10 in Selke voting. He did manage his first two playoff goals, although he was again criticized for his performance as Ottawa was knocked out in the second round by the Toronto Maple Leafs. In 2002–03, he recorded 16 goals and 37 points, but added just a single playoff goal in 18 games as the Senators were knocked out in the conference finals.

Looking to move in a different direction, Ottawa showed limited interest in re-signing Arvedson when he became an unrestricted free agent, and he signed with the Vancouver Canucks for the 2003–04 season. After a slow start, Arvedson caught fire when placed mid-season on a line with Daniel and Henrik Sedin. However, while in the middle of the best goal-scoring streak of his career, six goals in five games, he took a knee-on-knee hit from Bryan Marchment of the Toronto Maple Leafs, ending his season and ultimately his NHL career.

In the summer of 2004, with the 2004 NHL work stoppage impending, he signed with his old club Färjestads BK, for the upcoming year. However, during a pre-season game he injured his back which forced him to retire.

In 434 career NHL games, Arvedson recorded 100 goals and 125 assists for 225 points, along with 241 penalty minutes. He also added 3 goals and 8 assists for 11 points in 52 playoff games.

Coaching career
On 30 March 2007 he became the new head coach of the Swedish Elitserien club Mora IK.

After Mora IK had played Kvalserien 2008 and lost its Elitserien status, Arvedson became the new head coach of the Swedish HockeyAllsvenskan club Bofors IK on 9 April 2008.  He was replaced midseason after his team was at the bottom of the standings.

He coached Sweden's Division-2 team, Forshaga IF for the 2011-12 season.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

References

External links

1971 births
Färjestad BK players
Living people
Ottawa Senators draft picks
Ottawa Senators players
Ice hockey people from Karlstad
Swedish expatriate ice hockey players in Canada
Swedish ice hockey left wingers
Vancouver Canucks players
Olympic ice hockey players for Sweden
Ice hockey players at the 2002 Winter Olympics

Magnus Arvedson


مستشفى الخالدي هي مستشفى تأسست في عمان، جبل عمان في عام 1978 من قبل الدكتور إبراهيم الخالدي. يقع المستشفى في شارع أبن خلدون بالقرب من الدوار الرابع وتعد المستشفى أول مستشفى خاص في الأردن حيث أسس الدكتور أبراهيم الخالدي المستشفى كمستشفى ولادة ولكن فيما بعد تم توسعت المستشفى في عام 1994 واكتملت التوسعة في عام 1997 حيث أصبحت المستشفى تضم العديد من التخصصات ومن أهمها تخصصات القلب والشرايين.

نبذة
يحتل مستشفى ومركز الخالدي الطبي المرتبة الأولى من حيث الريادة في تقديم الرعاية الصحية المتميزة في الأردن والمنطقة. إن الأطباء والجراحين العاملين في المستشفى والمتميزين على مستوى المملكة، بالإضافة إلى مرافق المركز المزودة بأحدث المعدات التشخيصية والعلاجية، وبالتعاون مع فريق تمريضي عالي التدريب، كلها عوامل جعلت من هذا الصرح المركز الطبي الرائد في الأردن، فهو المركز الطبي الوحيد في القطاع الخاص الذي وقع عليه اختيار من اللجنة الملكية لشؤون الصحة بهدف الدراسة ووضع أسس الأجندة الوطنية التي دعا إليها جلالة الملك عبد الله الثاني فيما يخص قطاع الرعاية الصحية في المملكة للعشرين سنة القادمة.

تأسس مستشفى ومركز الخالدي الطبي في عام 1978 كمستشفى للتوليد، إلاّ أنه اليوم يحتوي على 160 سريراً، منها 27 سريراً مخصصا للعناية الحثيثة مما يجعلها أكبر وحدة للعناية الحثيثة في الأردن في القطاع الخاص، هذا عدا عن انه قد تم تخصيص 5 أسرة من هذه الوحدة لوحدة الجلطات الدماغية الفائقة التخصص والتي تم إنشاؤها وتشغيلها حديثاً. علاوة على ذلك فإن مستشفى ومركز الخالدي الطبي يضم سبع غرف عمليات جديدة تم مؤخراً تحديثها وتزويدها بأحدث المعدات وأنظمة غرف العمليات. إضافة إلى الصيدلية التي تعمل 24 ساعة، وقسم الطوارئ الذي يعمل على مدار الساعة، وهو مزود بشكل تام لإجراء عمليات جراحية بسيطة، وإنعاش القلب والتنفس، وغرف لإجراء عمليات العظام البسيطة، كما يوجد فيه قسم للمراقبة الدقيقة يحتوي على عشرة أسرة وتقدم فيه أفضل خدمات الطوارئ الممكنة. ومن العوامل المكملة لخدمات الطوارئ المتوفرة لدينا، هو فريق الإسعاف الخاص بالمستشفى، وهو فريق عالي التدريب والتخصص إضافة إلى ثلاثة سيارات إسعاف تعمل على مدار الساعة.

من المحاور الجوهرية في الخدمات الطبية المتميزة هو برنامج مستشفى ومركز الخالدي الطبي الصارم لمكافحة الالتهابات المعدية الذي يتم تطبيقه لضبط ومنع الامراض المعدية. وهو مصمم لتحديد المرضى والموظفين العاملين أو المعرضين للإصابة بالالتهابات المعدية، وفي نفس الوقت تم تشكيل لجنة لمكافحة وضبط عدوى المستشفيات، وذلك كي تقوم بتقديم التعليمات حول ما هو متوفر وما يستجد من إجراءات للحد من انتشار للالتهابات المعدية بين المرضى وكذلك الزوار والموظفين.

يسعى مستشفى ومركز الخالدي الطبي لامتلاك أحدث المعدات الطبية والتكنولوجيا المتقدمة لاستخدامها في التشخيص الدقيق لمختلف المجالات الطبية التالية:
 الطب العام
 أمراض الأطفال
 أمراض القلب
 أمراض الجهاز الهضمي
 أمراض الكلى
 الأمراض الصدرية
 أمراض الدماغ والأعصاب
 أمراض الدم والأورام
 أمراض الغدد الصماء
 الجراحة العامة وجراحة المنظار
 النسائية، الإخصاب والمساعدة على الحمل
 جراحة الأطفال
 جراحة القلب والصدر
 جراحة العظام والعمود الفقري
 جراحة العمود الفقري بالتداخل الجراحي المحدود
 جراحة الدماغ والأعصاب
 الجراحات التجميلية
 جراحة الأنف والأذن والحنجرة
 جراحة الوجه والفكين
 جراحة الكلى والمسالك البولية
 طب وجراحة العيون
 جراحة زراعة الأعضاء وزراعة النخاع

شهادات الجودة
حصلت مستشفى الخالدي نتيجة تميزها على العديد من التكاريم والشهادات ومن أهما شهادة الأيزو التي حصلت عليها في عام 2006 و تم اعتمادها من مجلس اعتماد المؤسسات الصحية HCAC.

إتفاقية لاهي
وقع مركز ومستشفى الخالدي الطبي اتفاقية تعاون طبي شاملة مع مركز ومستشفى لاهي ومقره بمدينة بوسطن الأمريكية، تهدف إلى بناء نظام رعاية طبية مستدام يقدم خدمات طبية متميزة بجودة عالية.

ووفقا للاتفاقية فإنه بإمكان زوار مركز ومستشفى الخالدي الطبي الحصول على الخدمات الطبية المقدمة في مركز لاهي عبر الاستشارات التي سيوفرها أطباء المركز الأمريكي، وسيقوم الأطباء الأردنيون بمركز الخالدي باجراء عمليات جراحية مشتركة مع الأطباء الأمريكيين بلاهي.

تأسيسات سنة 1978 في الأردن
مستشفيات مدينة عمان
مستشفيات الأردن

مستشفى الخالدي


විශාල මෝය හෝ සමුදුර ජලය ජලජ පරිසර පද්ධතියේ කොටස් වේ.
ජලජ පරිසර පද්ධතියක කොටස් මෝය කට සහ වෙරළබඩ ජලාශ වේ.  ජලජ පරිසර පද්ධතියක් යනු ජලාශයක පිහිටි පරිසර පද්ධතියකි.  එකිනෙක අතර සහ සම්බන්ධයෙන් යුත් ජීවීන් වර්ග සහ ඔවුන්ගේ පරිසර ජලජ පරිසර පද්ධතියක්  තුළ හමුවේ.  සමුද්‍ර පරිසර පද්ධති සහ මිරිදිය පරිසර පද්ධති වශයෙන් ප්‍රධාන පරිසර පද්ධති දෙකක් ඇත.

වර් ග

සාමුද්ය

කරදිය පරිසර පද්ධතිය පෘථිවි භූමියෙන් 71% වඩා ගෙන ඇති අතර ආසන්න වශයෙන් පෘථිවියේ ජල සම්පතෙන් 97% රඳා ගෙන සිටී.මෙම පද්ධති ලෝකයේ දළ ප්‍රාථමික නිෂ්පාදිතයෙන් 32% උත්පාදනය කරයි.කරදිය පද්ධති මිරිදිය ජලජ පද්ධති වලින් වෙනස් වන්නේ ඒවායේ විවිධ සංයෝග ද්‍රාවණ වී ඇති නිසාය.විශේෂයෙන්ම ලවණ වර්ග කරදියේ ද්‍රාව්‍යව ඇත.මුහුදු ජලයේ දිය වී ඇති ද්‍රව්‍ය වලින් 85%ම සෝඩ්යම් හා ක්ලෝරීන්ය.මුහුදු ජලයේ ලවණතාව ජල කොටස් දහසකට 35 කි.(35 ppt). නමුත් මෙම ලවණතාව විවිධ කරදිය පද්ධති වලදී වෙනස් වේ.
කරදිය පරිසර පද්ධතිය පහත කොටස් වලට බෙදිය හැක.සාගරික (මහද්වීපික තැටිය වසා සිටින සාගරයේ නොගැඹුරු කොටස) ; ගැඹුරු (පතුල හෝ ගැඹුරුම ජලය ), නිතල (පතුලේම වූ උපස්තරය) , අන්තර්-උදම් (වඩදිය හා බාදිය අතර පිහිටන ප්‍රදේශය) වූ පුනිල මෝය , ලවණ වගුරු බිම,කොරල් පර සහ ජලතාපී විවර (රසායනිකව සංස්ලෝපිත සල්ෆර් බැක්ටීරියා මගින් ආහාර මූල්‍ය සපයයි.)

කරදිය පරිසර පද්ධතියක හමුවන ජීවී පන්තිවලට දුඹුරු ඇල්ගී, ඩයිනෝනැල්ගේටිඩ ,කොරල් ,ශීර්ෂ පාදිකයන් ,ශලනචර්මිය සහ මෝරුන් ඇතුළත් වේ.කරදිය පරිසර පද්ධතියෙන් අල්ලා ගන්නා මත්ස්‍යයින් සත්ව ජනගහණයෙන් ලබා ගන්නා විශාලතම වාණිජ ආහාරය වේ.
කරදිය පරිසර පද්ධතියට මුහුණපාන ගැටළු වන්නේ දරා ගත නොහැකි කරදිය සම්පත් උපයෝජනය,ජල දූෂණ‍ය සහ වෙරළබඩ ප්‍රදේශවල ඉඳිකරන ගොඩනැගිලි වේ.

මිරිදිය
මිරිදිය පරිසර පද්ධති පෘතුවියෙහි සම්පුර්ණ වර්ග ඵලයෙන් 0.8% ක ප්‍රමාණයක් ආවරණය කරන අතර එය පෘතුවියෙහි සියළුම ජල ප්‍රමාණයෙන් 0.009% ක්වේ. ඒවා මගින් ආසන්න වශයෙන් 3% ක් වු ශුද්ධ ප්‍රාථමික නිෂ්පාදනයක් සැප‍යේ. මෙම මිරිදිය පරිසර පද්ධති වල ලොව පුරා මෙතෙක් හඳුනාගෙන ඇති මත්ස්‍ය විශේෂ වලින් 41% ක් ජීවත් වේ.

මිරිදිය පරිසර පද්ධති වල ප්‍රධාන වර්ග තුනක් ඇත.

	Lentic හෙවත් සෙමින් බැසයන ජලය අන්තර්ගත ජල එක්රැස්වීම් පොකුණු සහ කුඩා ජලාශයි.
	Lotic වේගයෙන් බැසයන ජලය සහිත ඇල මාර්ග සහ ගංඟාවන්
	Wetlands වගුරු බිම් හෙවත් යම්කිසි කාලයකදී ජලයට යටවෙන ජලයෙන් සංතෘප්ත පසක් සහිත ප්‍රදේශයක්

විල් ආශ්‍රිත පරිසර පද්ධති කලාප ක‍ීපයකට බෙදා දැක්විය හැකිය. ඒවා , (විවෘත අක්වෙරළ ආශ්‍රිත ජලය) ගැඹුරු, සමුද්‍රාශ්‍රිත (වෙරළාසන්න නොගැඹුරු ජලය) සහ ගංඟා ඉවුරු බද (යම්කිසි ජලකදක් මගින් මායිම් වන බිම් ප්‍රදේශයක්) යනුවෙනි. විල් වල වඩාත් වැදගත් උප වර්ගිකරණයන් දෙකක් වනුයේ පොකුණු සහ ජලාශයන්ය. පොකුණු යනු කුඩා විල් වන අතර ඒවා තෙත් බිම් ආශ්‍රිතව පිහිටා ඇත. බොහෝ විල් සහ ඒවායෙහි පිහිටා ඇති කලපු ක්‍රමක්‍රමයෙන් පෝෂක සංඝටක වලින් අණූන බවට පත් වන අතර සුපෝෂණය නම් ක්‍රියාවලියක් මගින් කා‍බනික අවල්ම්භනයන්ගෙන් පිරි පවති. මෙම විල් වල ජලාධාරක ප්‍රදේශ වල සිදුවන මානව ක්‍රියාකාරකම් හේතුවෙන් මෙකි සුපෝෂණය නම් ක්‍රියා වලිය සීඝ්‍ර වී ඇත.

ගංඟා ශ්‍රිත පරිසර පද්ධති වල ප්‍රධාන කලාපයන් තීරණය වී ඇත්තේ ගං පත්ලෙහි අනුක්‍රමණයන්හෝ ගංඟා ජල ධාරාවේ වේගය අනුවය. වඩාත් වේගයෙන් චලනය වන කැළඹිලි සහිත ජලයෙහි ද්‍රාව්‍ය ඔක්සිජන් ඉතා විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක් අන්තර් ගත වන අතර එමගින් වඩාත් සෙමින් බැසයන ජලයට වඩා ඉහළ ජෛව විවිධත්වයක් ලබාදේ. මෙම වෙනස්කම් දෙක මත පදනම්ව ගංඟාවන් ඉහළ බිම් සහ පහළ බිම් ගංඟාවන් ලෙසට වර්ගිකරණයකට ලක්කර ඇත. ගංඟාශ්‍රිත වනාන්තර වල ප්‍රධාන ආහාර ප්‍රභවය වී ඇත්තේ ගංගා වල ඉවුරුබද ප්‍රදේශ වලින් උපදින ද්‍රව්‍යයන් වේ. නමුත් වඩාත් පළල් ගංඟාවන් සහ උඩුවියන් ස්ථරයක් නොමැති වනාන්තර ආසන්න ගංඟාවන්ට ආහාර ප්‍රභවය සපයන්නේ ඇල්ගි වලිනි. ප්‍රතිස්‍රෝතගාමි මත්ස්‍යයින් ද පෝෂණය සදහා වඩාත් වැදගත් ප්‍රභවයකි. ගංඟාවන් සඳහා බලපවත්නා පාරිසරික තර්ජනයන් වනුයේ ජල හිඟය, වේලි ඉදිකිරීම රසායනික දුෂණය සහ හඳුන්වාදෙන හානිකර ජිවි විශේෂයි.

තෙත් බිම් වඩාත් ප්‍රමුඛව සෑදි ඇත්තේ ඒවායෙහි සංතෘප්ත පසට අනුවර්තනය වී ඇති සනාල ශාකයන්ගෙනි. තෙත් බිම් යනු වඩාත් ඉහල නිශ්පාදනයක් ඇති ස්වාභාවික පරිසර පද්ධතියක් වන අතර එසේ වන්නේ ඒවා ජලයට සහ පසට වඩාත් සමීප වශයෙන් පිහිටා ඇති බැවිනි. ඒවා‍යෙහි මෙකි නිෂ්පාදනශීලිතාවය නිසාම මෙම තෙත් බිම් බොහෝ අවස්ථා වලදී අගල් සහ වේලි ඉදිකිරීම මගින් කෘෂිකාර්මික අවශ්‍යතාවයන් සදහා වියලි බිම් බවට පරිවර්තනය කර ඇත. ඒවායෙහි විල් වලට සහ ගංඟාවන්ට සමීපව පිහිටා ඇති නිසා ඒවා බොහෝ අවස්ථාවන්හිදි මානව වාසස්ථානය සඳහා සංවර්ධනය වී ඇත.

පොකුණු

මෙය විශේෂ වර්ගයක මිරිදිය පරිසර පද්ධතියක් වන අතර ඒවා එම ප්‍රදේශයෙහි සියළුම ජීවි හට මුලික පෝෂක ප්‍රභවය සපයන ස්වයං පෝෂි ඇල්ගි වලින් නිර්මාණය වී ඇත. පොකුණු පරිසර පද්ධතියක විශාලතම විලෝපිකයා වනුයේ මත්ස්‍යයින් වන අතර ඒ අතර කුඩා කෘමීන් සහ ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජිවින් පවති. මීට අමතරව එහි ජීවින් සමුහයක් සිටින අතර ඔවුන් කුඩා බැක්ටිරියාවන්ගේ සිට දිය නයින්, කුරුමිණියන්, ජලාශ්‍රිත මකුණන් සහ ඉබ්බන් වැනි විශාල ජීවින් ද සිටිති.

මේවාත් බලන්න
 ජලාශ්‍රිත ව්‍යුහයන් නාමාවලිය
 ජල චක්‍රය

පරිසර පද්ධති
ජලය

ජලාශ්‍රිත පරිසර පද්ධති


Hudsonelpidia es un género extinto de un pequeño ictiosaurio parvipelviano hallado en la Columbia Británica en Canadá.

Descripción
Hudsonelpidia es conocido solo por el holotipo, un esqueleto casi completo que preseva el cráneo. Fue recuperado en la localidad de Jewitt Spur en la formación Pardonet, que data de mediados del Noriense en el Triásico Superior, hace cerca de 210 millones de años. Fue encontrado en la costa norte de Peace Reach, un brazo del lago Williston. Hudsonelpidia tiene una posición muy estable en muchos análisis cladísticos. La familia Hudsonelpidiidae fue nombrada por McGowan y Motani en 2003 para incluir a este género.

Etimología
Hudsonelpidia fue nombrado por Chris McGowan en 1995 y la especie tipo es Hudsonelpidia brevirostris.

Referencias

Ictiosaurios del Triásico Superior
Ictiosaurios de América del Norte

Hudsonelpidia


Thomas Horst Loew (* 28. März 1961 in Nürnberg) ist ein deutscher Facharzt für Psychiatrie, Psychosomatik und Psychotherapeut.

Leben
Loew studierte von 1982 bis 1989 Medizin an den Universitäten Florenz, Ulm und Erlangen-Nürnberg. 1990 wurde er promoviert. Seinen Facharzt erhielt er 1995 für Psychotherapeutische Medizin und 1999 für Psychiatrie. 1997 habilitierte sich Loew. Er hat daneben auch die Zusatzbezeichnungen Medizininformatik und Psychoanalyse. Sein wissenschaftliches Interesse gilt weiterhin den körperorientierten Methoden in der Medizin, insbesondere der Funktionellen Entspannung, für die er auch Lehrbeauftragter ist, und der Versorgungsforschung. Er engagiert sich seit 1998 in der Weiterbildung von Ärzten im Verfahren psychodynamische Psychotherapie. 1994 wurde er für eine prospektive randomisierte kontrollierte Studie zu einer Entspannungstechnik mit dem Continentale-Förderpreis für Naturheilverfahren ausgezeichnet, 2000 erhielt er zusammen mit Norbert Hartkamp, Peter Henningsen, Martin Sack, Carl E. Scheid den Deutsche-Krankenversicherung-Cochrane-Preis für die Erstellung der Leitlinien Somatoforme Störungen.

Loew ist seit 2001 planmäßiger Professor für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie an der Universität Regensburg und Chefarzt der dortigen psychosomatischen Abteilung, außerdem Chefarzt der psychosomatischen Station der Klinik Donaustauf.

2000 bis 2004 war er Vizepräsident der Deutschen Fachgesellschaft für tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie und ist seit 2002 auch Mitherausgeber des Organs der Gesellschaft, der "Psychodynamischen Psychotherapie" im Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgart. Von 2004 bis 2009 war er 1. Vorsitzender der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychosomatische Medizin und Ärztliche Psychotherapie, die 2006 aus der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie sowie der Allgemeinen Ärztlichen Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie hervorging und das Gebiet in Deutschland vertritt.
2006 gründete er die Ärztliche Psychotherapie und Psychosomatische Medizin, die im Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgart, vierteljährlich erscheint.
2012 wurde Loew als Nachfolger von Günter R. Clausen zum Vorsitzenden der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Ärztliche Hypnose und Autogenes Training gewählt und 2015 wiedergewählt. Ebenfalls 2012 wurde er auch Vizepräsident der Gesellschaft Europäischer Ärzte für Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie (Association of European Physicians for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, AEPM). Er engagiert sich in einem Verein zur Ausbildung von Traumahelfern in Regensburg.

Schriften (Auswahl)
 1990: Der Volvulus des Intestinaltrakts (Promotion, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg)
 1998: mit Peter Joraschky und Volker Köllner: Wenn die Seele den Körper leiden läßt, Trias Verlag, Stuttgart ISBN 978-3893734184
 1999: Funktionelle Magen-Darm-Beschwerden, Centaurus Verlag, Pfaffenweiler ISBN 978-3825502560
 2009: mit Peter Joraschky und Frank Röhricht (Hrsg.) Körpererleben und Körperbild, Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgart ISBN 978-3794524259
 2011: Mitwirkung bei Dieter Ebert: Psychiatrie systematisch, 8. Auflage, UNI-MED Verlag, Bremen ISBN 978-3837412789

Weblinks
 Thomas Loew bei Researchgate researchgate

Einzelnachweise

Psychiater
Psychosomatiker
Mediziner (20. Jahrhundert)
Mediziner (21. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Regensburg)
Deutscher
Geboren 1961
Mann
Absolvent der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Thomas Loew