Amylose is a polysaccharide made of α-D-glucose units, bonded to each other through α(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It is one of the two components of starch, making up approximately 20–30%. Because of its tightly packed helical structure, amylose is more resistant to digestion than other starch molecules and is therefore an important form of resistant starch.

Structure

Amylose is made up of α(1→4) bound glucose molecules. The carbon atoms on glucose are numbered, starting at the aldehyde (C=O) carbon, so, in amylose, the 1-carbon on one glucose molecule is linked to the 4-carbon on the next glucose molecule (α(1→4) bonds). The structural formula of amylose is pictured at right.  The number of repeated glucose subunits (n) is usually in the range of 300 to 3000, but can be many thousands.

There are three main forms of amylose chains can take. It can exist in a disordered amorphous conformation or two different helical forms. It can bind with itself in a double helix (A or B form), or it can bind with another hydrophobic guest molecule such as iodine, a fatty acid, or an aromatic compound. This is known as the V form and is how amylopectin binds to amylose in the structure of starch. Within this group, there are many different variations. Each is notated with V and then a subscript indicating the number of glucose units per turn. The most common is the V6 form, which has six glucose units a turn. V8 and possibly V7 forms exist as well. These provide an even larger space for the guest molecule to bind.

This linear structure can have some rotation around the phi and psi angles, but for the most part bound glucose ring oxygens lie on one side of the structure. The α(1→4) structure promotes the formation of a helix structure, making it possible for hydrogen bonds to form between the oxygen atoms bound at the 2-carbon of one glucose molecule and the 3-carbon of the next glucose molecule.

Fiber X-ray diffraction analysis coupled with computer-based structure refinement has found A-, B-, and C- polymorphs of amylose. Each form corresponds to either the A-, the B-, or the C- starch forms. A- and B- structures have different helical crystal structures and water contents, whereas the C- structure is a mixture of A- and B- unit cells, resulting in an intermediate packing density between the two forms.

Physical properties
Because the long linear chains of amylose more readily crystallize than amylopectin (which has short, highly branched chains), high-amylose starch is more resistant to digestion. Unlike amylopectin, amylose is soluble in water. It also reduces the crystallinity of amylopectin and how easily water can infiltrate the starch. The higher the amylose content, the less expansion potential and the lower the gel strength for the same starch concentration. This can be countered partially by increasing the granule size.

Function
Amylose is important in plant energy storage. It is less readily digested than amylopectin; however, because of its helical structure, it takes up less space compared to amylopectin. As a result, it is the preferred starch for storage in plants.  It makes up about 30% of the stored starch in plants, though the specific percentage varies by species and variety.

The digestive enzyme α-amylase is responsible for the breakdown of the starch molecule into maltotriose and maltose, which can be used as sources of energy.

Amylose is also an important thickener, water binder, emulsion stabilizer, and gelling agent in both industrial and food-based contexts. Loose helical amylose chains have a hydrophobic interior that can bind to hydrophobic molecules such as lipids and aromatic compounds. The one problem with this is that, when it crystallizes or associates, it can lose some stability, often releasing water in the process (syneresis). When amylose concentration is increased, gel stickiness decreases but gel firmness increases.  When other things including amylopectin bind to amylose, the viscosity can be affected, but incorporating κ-carrageenan, alginate, xanthan gum, or low-molecular-weight sugars can reduce the loss in stability. The ability to bind water can add substance to food, possibly serving as a fat replacement. For example, amylose is responsible for causing white sauce to thicken, but, upon cooling, some separation between the solid and the water will occur. Amylose is known for its good film forming properties, hence carrying a potential importance in food packaging.  Excellent film forming behavior of amylose was studied already in 1950s. Amylose films are better for both barrier properties and mechanical properties when compared to the amylopectin films.

In a laboratory setting, it can act as a marker. Iodine molecules fit neatly inside the helical structure of amylose, binding with the starch polymer that absorbs certain known wavelengths of light. Hence, a common test is the iodine test for starch. Mix starch with a small amount of yellow iodine solution. In the presence of amylose, a blue-black color will be observed. The intensity of the color can be tested with a colorimeter, using a red filter to discern the concentration of starch present in the solution. It is also possible to use starch as an indicator in titrations involving iodine reduction. It is also used in amylose magnetic beads and resin to separate maltose-binding protein

Recent studies
High-amylose varieties of rice, the less sticky long-grain rice, have a much lower glycemic load, which could be beneficial for diabetics.

Researchers have identified the Granule Bound Starch Synthase (GBSS) as the enzyme that specifically elongates amylose during starch biosynthesis in plants. The waxy locus in maize encodes for the GBSS protein. Mutants lacking the GBSS protein produce starch containing only amylopectin, such as in waxy corn. In Arabidopsis leaves, another gene, encoding the Protein Targeting to STarch (PTST) protein, is required in addition to GBSS for amylose synthesis. Mutants lacking either protein produce starch without amylose. Genetically modified potato cultivar Amflora by BASF Plant Science was developed to not produce amylose.

See also
 Amflora, genetically modified low amylose potato (high in amylopectin)
 Amylomaize, high amylose maize starch
 Russet Burbank potato, high amylose potato cultivar

References

External links

Polysaccharides
Starch

Amylose


Lord Howe Island (; formerly Lord Howe's Island) is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, part of the Australian state of New South Wales. It lies  directly east of mainland Port Macquarie,  northeast of Sydney, and about  southwest of Norfolk Island. It is about  long and between  wide with an area of , though just  of that comprise the low-lying developed part of the island.

Along the west coast is a sandy semi-enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon. Most of the population lives in the north, while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island, Mount Gower (). The Lord Howe Island Group comprises 28 islands, islets, and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself, the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball's Pyramid about  to the southeast of Howe. To the north lies a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands called the Admiralty Group.

The first reported sighting by Europeans of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788, when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply, was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island. On the return journey, Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession. It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry, and was permanently settled in June 1834. When whaling declined, the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms, which remains a key component of the island's economy. The other continuing industry, tourism, began after World War II ended in 1945.

The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales and is regarded legally as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board, which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage. The island's standard time zone is UTC+10:30, or UTC+11 when daylight saving time applies. The currency is the Australian dollar. Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney, Brisbane, and Port Macquarie.

UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance. Most of the island is virtually untouched forest, with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes, the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts, the world's southernmost barrier coral reef, nesting seabirds, and the rich historical and cultural heritage. The Lord Howe Island Act 1981 established a "Permanent Park Preserve" (covering about 70% of the island). The island was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 and the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park.

Bioregion
Lord Howe Island is part of the IBRA region Pacific Subtropical Islands (code PSI) and is subregion PSI01 with an area of .  In the WWF ecoregion system, Lord Howe Island constitutes the entirety of the 'Lord Howe Island subtropical forests' ecoregion (WWF ID#AA0109).  This ecoregion is in the Australasian realm, and the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome.  The WWF ecoregion has an area of 14 km2.

History

Prehistory
Before European discovery and settlement, Lord Howe Island apparently was uninhabited, and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific. No evidence to suggest prehistoric human activity has ever been found on Lord Howe Island, even after an extensive archaeological investigation in 1996. In Australian Archaeology Atholl Anderson concluded in 2003 that, "the case for no pre-European settlement on Lord Howe Island is now more compelling than before" and that "the absence of pre-European settlement on Lord Howe Island is not easily explained. At 16 km2 it is twice the size of Pitcairn Island and half the size of Norfolk Island, two other remote subtropical islands that were inhabited prehistorically, and it had a biota very similar to that of Norfolk Island."

1788–1834: First European visits

The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender  (the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships), which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island. On the return journey of 13 March 1788, Ball observed Ball's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession. Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney. Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Ball's Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time.

Many names on the island date from this time, and also from May of the same year, when four ships of the First Fleet, , , Lady Penrhyn and , visited it. Much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors such as David Blackburn, Master of Supply, and Arthur Bowes Smyth, surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn.

Smyth was in Sydney when the Supply returned from the first voyage to Norfolk Island. His journal entry for 19 March 1788 noted that "the Supply, in her return, landed at the island she [discovered] in going out, and all were very agreeably surprised to find great numbers of a fine turtle on the beach and, on the land amongst the trees, great numbers of fowls very like a guinea hen, and another species of fowl not unlike the landrail in England, and all so perfectly tame that you could frequently take hold of them with your hands but could, at all times, knock down as many as you thought proper, with a short stick. Inside the reef also there were fish innumerable, which were so easily taken with a hook and line as to be able to catch a boat full in a short time. She brought thirteen large turtles to Port Jackson and many were distributed among the camp and fleet."

Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen (Gallirallus sylvestris), white gallinule (Porphyrio albus), and Lord Howe pigeon (Columba vitiensis godmanae) were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter. As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction, these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record. Over the next three years, the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles, and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets. Between 1789 and 1791, the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago, then south into Australian and New Zealand waters. The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales and southern right whales (Eubalaena australis).

The island was subsequently visited by many governments and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific, including many from the American whaling fleet, so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement, with some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors. Between July and October 1791, the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days, the deck work was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry. Whale oil was to become Australia's most profitable export until the 1830s, and the whaling industry shaped Lord Howe Island's early history.

1834–1841: Settlement

Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834, when the British whaling barque Caroline, sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe, landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach. They left three men, George Ashdown, James Bishop, and Chapman, who was employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station. The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock. They landed with (or acquired from a visiting ship) their Māori wives and two Māori boys. Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement, which had a supply of fresh water, and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach.

This was a cashless society; the settlers bartered their stores of water, wood, vegetables, meat, fish, and bird feathers for clothes, tea, sugar, tools, tobacco, and other commodities not available on the island, but it was the whalers' valuation that had to be accepted. These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson (later joined by John Foulis), whose employees and others then settled on the island.

1842–1860: Trading provisions
The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) would also be put into the island. Rover's Bride, a small cutter, became the first regular trading vessel. Between 1839 and 1859, five to 12 ships made landfall each year, occasionally closer to 20, with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef. In 1842 and 1844, the first children were born on the island. Then in 1847, Poole, Dawson, and Foulis, bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales government, abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained. One family, the Andrews, after finding some onions on the beach in 1848, cultivated them as the "Lord Howe red onion", which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease.

In 1849, just 11 people were living on the island, but soon the island farms expanded. In the 1850s, gold was discovered on mainland Australia, where crews would abandon their ships, preferring to dig for gold than risk their lives at sea. As a consequence, many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade, which peaked between 1855 and 1857. In 1851, about 16 people were living on the island. Vegetable crops now included potatoes, carrots, maize, pumpkin, taro, watermelon, and even grapes, passionfruit, and coffee. Between 1851 and 1853, several aborted proposals were made by the NSW government to establish a penal settlement on the island.

From 1851 to 1854, Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald, which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific (1852–1856), completed the island's first hydrographic survey. On board were three Scottish biologists, William Milne (a gardener-botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden), John MacGillivray (naturalist) who collected fish and plant specimens, and assistant surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald. Together, these men established much basic information on the island's geology, flora, and fauna.

Around 1853, a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle, captained by Ichabod Handy. George Campbell (who died in 1856) and Jack Brian (who left the island in 1854) arrived, and the third, Nathan Thompson, brought three women (called Botanga, Bogoroo, and a girl named Bogue) from the Gilbert Islands. When his first wife Botanga died, he then married Bogue. Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach. Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue.

In 1855, the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act.

1861–1890: Scientific expeditions
From the early 1860s, whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum, the onset of the California Gold Rush, and the American Civil War—with unfortunate consequences for the people of the island. To explore alternative means of income, Thompson, in 1867, purchased the Sylph, which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney (mainly pigs and onions). It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph's Hole off Old Settlement Beach but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873, which added to the woes of the island at that time.

In 1869, the island was visited by magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder. He was accompanied by Charles Moore, director of the Botanic Gardens in Sydney, and his assistant William Carron, who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne, who by 1875, had catalogued and published 195 species. Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald, a surveyor, and Mr. Masters from the Australian Museum. Together, they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people, their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves. Around this time, a downturn of trade began with the demise of the whaling industry, and sometimes six to 12 months passed without a vessel calling. The older families lost interest in market gardening with the provisions rotting in the storehouses.

From 1860 to 1872, 43 ships had collected provisions, but from 1873 to 1887, fewer than a dozen had done so. This prompted some activity from the mainland. In 1876, a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year. He suggested that coffee be grown, but the kentia palm was already catching world attention. In 1878, the island was declared a forest reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator. He encouraged schools, tree-planting, and the palm trade, dynamited the north passage to the lagoon, and built roads. He also managed to upset the residents, and parliamentarian Bowie Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation. With Wilson was a team of scientists who included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department, W. Condor from the Survey Department, J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens, and A. Morton from the Australian Museum. J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the island and its residents. A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit, which recommended that Armstrong be replaced. Meanwhile, the population had increased considerably and included 29 children; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed. This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations, the Australian Museum, Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens, and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens.

1890–1999
In 1883, the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased. By 1932, with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda, tourism became the second-largest source of external income after palm sales to Europe. Morinda was replaced by  in 1932, and she in turn by other vessels. The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie.

The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm (Howea forsteriana) was first exported to Britain, Europe, and America, but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 (see below).

The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931, when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a de Havilland Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane. It was damaged there in an overnight storm, but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney. After World War II, in 1947, tourists arrived on Catalina and then four-engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay, Sydney, and landing on the lagoon, the journey taking about 3½ hours. When Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974, the seaplanes were eventually replaced with QantasLink twin-engined turboprop Dash 8–200 aircraft.

21st century
In 2002, the Royal Navy destroyer  struck Wolf Rock, a reef at Lord Howe Island, and almost sank. In recent times, tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation.

On 17 October 2011, a supply ship, M/V Island Trader, with 20 tons of fuel, ran aground in the lagoon. The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo.

The 2016 film The Shallows starring Blake Lively was largely filmed on the island.

During the COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales, a public health order was issued on 22 March 2020 that declared Lord Howe Island a public risk area and directed restricted access. As of that date there were no known cases of COVID-19 on the Island.

One of the most contentious issues amongst islanders in the 21st century is what to do about the rodent situation. Rodents have only been on the island since the  ran aground in 1918, and have wiped out several endemic bird species and were thought to have done the same to the Lord Howe Island stick insect. A plan in 2016 was made to drop 42 tonnes of rat bait across the island, but the community was heavily divided.

The island was due to be declared rodent-free in October 2021, two years after the last live rat was found, but a living male and pregnant female were discovered in April 2021. The eradication, contrary to many community reservations, has seen birds, insects, and plants flourish at levels not seen in decades.

Demographics
As at the 2016 census, the resident population was 382 people, and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400. Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations. Residents now work in the kentia palm industry, tourism, retail, some fishing, and farming. In 1876 on Sundays, games and labour were suspended, but no religious services were held. Nowadays, the area known locally as Church Paddock has Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Adventist churches, the religious affiliations on the island being 30% Anglican, 22% no religion, 18% Catholic and 12% Seventh Day Adventist. The ratio of the sexes is roughly equal, with 47% of the population in the age group 25–54 and 92% holding Australian citizenship.

Governance and land tenure

Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855, although, until at least 1876, the islanders lived in "a relatively harmonious and self-regulating community". In 1878, Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a forest reserve, but as a result of ill feeling, and an enquiry, he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 (he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present-day Transit Hill). After his removal, the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913, when a Sydney-based board was formed; in 1948, a resident superintendent was appointed. In 1913, the three-man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established, mostly to regulate the palm seed industry, but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954.

The Lord Howe Island Board is an NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act 1953, to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales. It reports directly to the state's Minister for Environment and Heritage and is responsible for the island's care, control, and management. Its duties include the protection of World Heritage values; the control of development; the administration of Crown Land, including the island's protected area; provision of community services and infrastructure; and regulating sustainable tourism. In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five-member board. The board also manages the Lord Howe Island kentia palm nursery, which together with tourism, provides the island's only source of external income. Under an amendment bill in 2004, the board now comprises seven members, four of whom are elected from the islander community, thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy. The remaining three members are appointed by the minister to represent the interests of business, tourism, and conservation. The full board meets on the island every three months, while the day-to-day affairs of the island are managed by the board's administration, with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988.

Land tenure has been an issue since the first settlement, as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land. Original settlers were squatters. The granting of a  lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints, and a few short-term leases ("permissive occupancies") were granted. In 1913, with the appointment of a board of control, permissive occupancies were revoked and the board itself given permissive occupancy of the island. Then the Lord Howe Island Act 1953 made all land the property of the Crown. Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks up to  for residential purposes. Short-term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture, so in 1955, 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted. The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more. An active debate exists concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the board of resident islanders about long-term planning for visitors, and issues relating to the environment, amenities, and global heritage.

Parliamentary representation

New South Wales
As a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales, Lord Howe Island was not represented in parliament until the 1894 New South Wales colonial election following the passage of the Parliamentary Electorates and Elections Act, 1893. Since 1894, Lord Howe Island has been included in the following New South Wales Legislative Assembly districts:

As part of the redistribution of electoral districts for the 2023 state election, a proposal was received to move Lord Howe Island back into the electorate of Sydney. However, the NSW Electoral Commission eventually decided to retain the island within the electorate of Port Macquarie.

Commonwealth
Since 1901, Lord Howe Island has been included in the following Australian House of Representatives electoral divisions:

Economy

Kentia palm industry
The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King, a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876, who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Overseas trade began in the 1880s, when one of the four palms endemic to the island, the kentia palm (Howea forsteriana), which grows naturally in the lowlands, was found to be ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well-to-do in Britain, Europe, and the United States. The assistance of mainland magistrate, Frank Farnell, was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906, he became company director of the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery, whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney-based seed company. However, the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues.

The kentia palm (known locally as the thatch palm, as it was used to roof the houses of the early settlers) is popular worldwide as a decorative palm that grows well both outdoors (in sufficiently warm climates) and indoors; the mild climate of the island has led to the evolution of a palm that can tolerate low light, a dry atmosphere, and lowish temperatures — ideal for indoor conditions, particularly in higher-end venues such as hotel lobbies, galleries and large foyers where their high price (thanks to their relative rarity) is no disincentive to their use. Up until the 1980s, the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high-quality seedlings. The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high-quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS/NZS ISO 9002.

Seed is gathered from both natural forests and plantations, most collectors being descendants of the original settlers. The seed is then germinated in soilless media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination. After testing, seedlings are picked, washed (bare-rooted), sanitized, and certified, then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export. Nursery profits, in turn, are used in projects that enhance the island's ecosystems. The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm (Howea belmoreana) and other native plants of special interest.

By the late 1980s, annual exports had begun to provide a revenue of over A$2 million, constituting the only major industry on the island apart from tourism.

Tourism

Lord Howe Island is known for its geology, birds, plants, and marine life. Popular tourist activities include scuba diving, birdwatching, snorkelling, surfing, kayaking, and fishing. To relieve pressure on the small island environment, only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time. The island is reached by plane from Sydney Airport or Brisbane Airport in less than two hours. The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a national park.

Facilities
With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time, facilities are limited; they include a bakery, butcher, general store, liquor store, restaurants, post office, museum, and information centre, a police officer, a ranger, and an ATM at the bowling club. Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie. The island has a small four-bed hospital and dispensary. A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds. Diesel-generated power is 240 volts AC, complemented by 1.3 MW solar power and 3.7 MWh battery. No public transport or mobile phone coverage is available, but public telephones, fax facilities, and internet access are, as well as a local radio station and newsletter, The Signal.

Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units. The currency is the Australian dollar, and there are two banks. No camping facilities are on the island and remote-area camping is not permitted. To protect the fragile environment of Ball's Pyramid (which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Lord Howe Island stick insect), recreational climbing there is prohibited. No pets are allowed without permission from the board. Islanders use tanked rainwater, supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes.

Activities

As distances to sites of interest are short, cycling is the main means of transport on the island. Tourist activities include golf (9-hole), lawn bowls, tennis, fishing (including deep-sea game fishing), yachting, windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, and boat trips (including glass-bottom tours of the lagoon). Swimming, snorkelling, and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon, as well as off Tenth of June Island, a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops  to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls. Other diving sites are found off Ball's Pyramid,  away, where trenches, caves, and volcanic drop-offs occur.

Bushwalking, natural history tours, talks, and guided walks take place along the many tracks, the most challenging being the eight-hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower. The island has 11 beaches, and hand-feeding the  kingfish (Seriola lalandi) and large wrasse at Ned's Beach is very popular. Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1–5, they include—in the north: Transit Hill 2-hour return, ; Clear Place, 1– to 2-hour return; Stevens Reserve; North Bay, 4-hour return, ; Mount Eliza; Old Gulch, 20-minute return, ; Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout, 3 or 5-hour return,  and—in the south: Goat House Cave, 5-hour return, ; Mount Gower, 8-hour return, ; Rocky Run and Boat Harbour; Intermediate Hill, 45-minute return, ; and Little Island, 40-minute return, . Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board.

Geography

Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, the island is  east of mainland Port Macquarie,  northeast of Sydney, and about  from Norfolk Island to its northeast. The island is about  long and between  wide with an area of . Along the west coast is a semienclosed, sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand, the most accessible of the island's 11 beaches.

Both the north and south sections of the island are the high ground of the relatively untouched forest, in the south comprising two volcanic mountains, Mount Lidgbird () and Mount Gower which, rising to , is the highest point on the island. The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley. In the north, where most of the population lives, high points are Malabar () and Mount Eliza (). Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming, an airstrip, and housing.

The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands, islets, and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself, the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Balls Pyramid, a  eroded volcano about  to the southeast, which is uninhabited by humans but bird-colonised. It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect, formerly thought to be extinct. To the north is the Admiralty Group, a cluster of seven small, uninhabited islands. Just off the east coast is  Mutton Bird Island, and in the lagoon is the  Blackburn (Rabbit) Island.

Geological origins

Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7-million-year-old shield volcano, the product of eruptions that lasted for about 500,000 years. It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf, the Lord Howe Rise, which is  long and  wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin. The shelf is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent. The Lord Howe Seamount Chain is defined by coral-capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for  and including the Middleton ( away) and Elizabeth ( away) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve. This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot, so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of  per year (see plate tectonics).

The Lord Howe Seamount Chain is parallel to the  Tasmantid Seamount Chain. Because detailed compositional analysis elsewhere has suggested that as well as individual compositional maturation with time within an individual seamount chain, there may be underlying shared mantle plume sources in such parallel chains, this issue has been examined with samples from Lord Howe Island.  These samples share certain compositional analysis similarities with the volcanics from Taupo Bank which would be consistent with a common or similar mantle plume source.

Basalts and calcarenite

Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island. The first about 6.9 million years (Mya) ago produced the northern and central hills, while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6.3 Mya by successive basalt (an extrusive igneous rock) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera (crater) and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs (at Malabar and Mount Gower) occasionally interspersed with dikes (vertical lava intrusions). Geological pyroclastic remnants of a volcanic eruption can be seen on the  Roach Island (where the oldest rocks occur) and Boat Harbour as tuff (ash), breccia (with angular blocks), and agglomerate (rounded 'bombs'). Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise, water depths reach  falling to  to the west of the rise. From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands, the island has been calculated to erode to 1/40th of its original size.

Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite, coral sand, blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130,000 and 20,000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation. In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs, land and marine snails, and the extinct giant horned turtle (Meiolania platyceps) which is not closely related to any living kind of turtle. The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon; the barrier reef, at 31°30'S, is the most southerly in the world. Beach sands, rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite, as on the mainland, are made of fragments of shell, coral, and coralline algae, together with basalt grains, and basaltic minerals such as black diopside and green olivine. The lowland consists of alluvial soils.

The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200,000 years, taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs.

Climate
Lord Howe Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa under the Köppen climate classification).

In general, the summers are warm and humid with erratic rainfall, but occasionally heavy, while in winter it is very mild with rainfall more or less uniform. There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa. Winds are frequent and salt-laden, being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter. July is the windiest month, and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds. The island has 67.8 clear days, annually.

Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island. Rainfall records are maintained in the north, where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud-shrouded mountains of the south. Wide variations in rainfall can occur from year to year. July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures around  and no frost. Average maximum temperatures range from  in the winter to  in the summer. The humidity averages in the 60–70% range year-round, becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months.

The average temperature of the sea ranges from  in July, August, and September to  in March.

Flora and fauna

Plants

Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests. It is part of the Australasian realm and shares many biotic affinities with Australia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia. In geological terms at 7 million years old, Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent, its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea, carried by the wind, water, or birds, possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed, enabling island hopping. Nevertheless, it has been sufficiently remote for long enough to evolve endemic species.

The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera: Negria, Lordhowea, Howea, Lepidorrhachis, and Hedyscepe. Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island, the two islands sharing some endemic species, for example, the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis. The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia. Also, a small but clear link exists with the plants of Vanuatu. The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical southeastern Queensland. A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species such as the wedding lily (Dietes robinsoniana) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa.

The flora of the island is relatively untouched, with a large number of rare plants, 44% being endemic to the island. With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys to ridges, plains, and misty mountain tops, habitat is available for a wide range of plant communities, which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped. Many of the island's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits, where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats, from sea level to the summits. With the increased humidity brought by the clouds on Mount Gower and the other mountain tops, the range of endemic plants include mosses, ferns and flowering plants.

One of the best-known plant genera endemic to Lord Howe Island is Howea, an endemic genus of palms (Arecaceae) that are commonly known as kentia palms and are popular houseplants. Mosses include Spiridens muelleri. There are 57 species of ferns, of which 25 are endemic: they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island, especially the higher parts of Mount Gower, perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains. Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis are the other two palm genera that are also endemic to the island.

Since the rodent eradication program, researchers have observed an increase in the amount of growth and seeds, especially of the "larger, fleshy, fruited plants", previously eaten by rats. As the understorey grows thicker, this in turn will provide habitat for small animals such as snails and insects, which in turn provide food for the birds.

Communities and special plants

Plant communities have been classified into nine categories: lowland subtropical rainforest, submontane rainforest, cloud-forest and scrub, lowland swamp forest, mangrove scrub and seagrass, coastal scrub and cliff vegetation, inland scrub and herbland, offshore island vegetation, shoreline and beach vegetation, and disturbed vegetation.
Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor. Banyan (Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots; it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned's Beach. Pandanus tree (Pandanus forsteri) has spectacular teepee-like prop roots and pineapple-like fruits that are orange-red when mature, the tough leaves being used for basketry. It occurs in damp areas such as creek beds, and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track. Ten species of orchids are on the island, the most noticeable being the bush orchid (Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum) on lowland trees and rocks, bearing cream flowers from August to September. Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include, on the mountain slopes, the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose (Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa), the massed, small, yellow flowers of corokia (Corokia carpodetoides), orange, plump flowers of pumpkin tree (Negria rhabdothamnoides), and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree (Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii). The kava bush has large, aromatic, heart-shaped leaves. After heavy rain, the endemic glowing mushroom Mycena chlorophanos, and Omphalotus nidiformis, can be found in the palm forests.

The palms are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places, the kentia being of special economic importance. All four species are endemic to the island, often occurring in dense, pure stands, the one that has proved such a worldwide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm (Howea forsteriana). This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in 'hands' of three to five, while the curly palm (H. belmoreana), which occurs on slightly higher ground, has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary 'hands'. Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and a mature specimen of one is growing in the island nursery. On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m, the big mountain palm (Hedyscepe canterburyana) occurs; it has large, golf ball-sized fruits, while the little mountain palm (Lepidorrhachis mooreana) has marble-sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits.

Images of native flora

Animals
No snakes nor poisonous or venomous animals or plants occur, and no dangerous daytime sharks are found off the beaches, although tiger sharks have been reported on the cliff side of the island.

Birds

A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island. Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and many more migratory species occur on the island and its adjacent islets, many tame enough that humans can get quite close. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an endemic bird area, and the Permanent Park Preserve as an important bird area because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens, most of the breeding population of providence petrels, over 1% of the world population of another five seabird species, and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies.

Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island. Red-tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs, where they perform acrobatic courting rituals. Between August and May, thousands of flesh-footed and wedge-tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day. From the Little Island Track between March and November, one of the world's rarest birds, the providence petrel, also performs courtship displays during winter breeding, and it is extremely tame. The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century, though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island. The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews and the black-winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island.

The flesh-footed shearwater, which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring-autumn, once had its chicks harvested for food by the islanders. The wedge-tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets, though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island. Breeding white-bellied storm petrels was another discovery by Roy Bell. Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round. Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned's and Middle Beaches, North Bay, and Blinkey Beach; the most numerous of the island's breeding seabirds, their eggs were formerly harvested for food. Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes, while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch, and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows.

Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler, Lord Howe silvereye, and Lord Howe currawong. The iconic endemic rail, the flightless Lord Howe woodhen, is the only surviving member of its genus; its ancestors could fly, but with no predators and plenty of food on the island, this ability was lost. This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals, so by the 1970s, the population was less than 30 birds. From 1978 to 1984, feral animals were removed and birds were raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild. The population is now relatively safe and stable.

List of endemic birds

Lord Howe currawong, Strepera graculina crissalis (vulnerable, subspecies of pied currawong)
Lord Howe golden whistler, Pachycephala pectoralis contempta (least concern, subspecies of golden whistler)
Lord Howe silvereye, Zosterops lateralis tephropleurus (vulnerable, subspecies of silvereye)
Robust white-eye, Zosterops strenuus (extinct)
Lord Howe gerygone, Gerygone insularis (extinct)
Lord Howe fantail, Rhiphidura fuliginosa cervina (extinct, subspecies of NZ fantail)
Lord Howe starling, Aplonis fusca hulliana (extinct, subspecies of extinct Tasman starling)
Lord Howe thrush, Turdus poliocephalus vinitinctus (extinct, subspecies of Island thrush)
Lord Howe parakeet, Cyanoramphus subflavescens (extinct)
Lord Howe boobook, Ninox novaeseelandiae albaria (extinct)
Lord Howe woodhen, Gallirallus sylvestris (endangered)
Lord Howe swamphen, Porphyrio albus (extinct)
Lord Howe pigeon, Columba vitiensis godmanae (extinct)

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians

Only one native mammal remains on the islands, the large forest bat. The endemic Lord Howe long-eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct, possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats.

Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group: the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko. Both are rare on the main island, but more common on smaller islands offshore. The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland. During the Pleistocene the giant terrestrial horned turtle Meiolania platyceps was endemic to the island, but this is currently thought to have gone extinct before human occupation as a result of postglacial sea-level rise.

Invertebrates

The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the accidental introduction of rats when the SS Makambo ran aground near Ned's Beach on 15 June 1918. In 2001, a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball's Pyramid, has been successfully bred in captivity, and is nearing re-introduction to the main island. The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summers. Another endemic invertebrate, the Lord Howe flax snail (or Lord Howe Placostylus), has also been affected by the introduction of rats. Once common, the species is now endangered and a captive-breeding program is underway to save the snail from extinction. An endemic species that is likely to have become extinct due to human-introduced rats was the large rove beetle Hesperus gigas (Lea, 1929) comb. nov. (formerly Cafius gigas Lea, 1929) (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae).

Marine life

Marine environments are near-pristine with a mixture of temperate, subtropical, and tropical species derived from cool-temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current, which flows from the Great Barrier Reef, in summer. Of the 490 fish species recorded, 13 are endemic and 60% are tropical. The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish, while game fish include marlin, tuna, and giant kingfish called "greenbacks". Over 80 species of corals occur in the reefs surrounding the islands. Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island.

Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in the vicinity, but very little about their biology in the area is known due to a lack of studies and sighting efforts caused by locational conditions. Bottlenose dolphins are the most commonly observed and are the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents, while some other dolphin species have also been observed. Humpback whales are the only large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating past the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than those migrating along the Australian continent.

Historically, migratory whales such as blue, fin, and sei whales were very abundant in the island waters but were severely reduced in numbers to near-extinction by commercial and illegal hunts, including the mass illegal hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s to 1970s. Southern right and sperm whales were most severely hunted among these, hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers. These two were likely once seasonal residents around the island, where right whales prefer sheltered, very shallow bays, while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters.

Conservation

About 10% of Lord Howe Island's forests have been cleared for agriculture, and another 20% has been disturbed, mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep, goats, and pigs. As a result, 70% of the island remains relatively untouched, with a variety of plants and animals, many of which are endemic, and some of which are rare or threatened. Two species of plants, nine terrestrial birds, one bat, and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778. Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea, Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis, a woody daisy Lordhowea insularis, the tree Negria, the leech Quantenobdella howensis, three annelid worm genera (Paraplutellus, Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella), an isopod shrimp Stigmops, a hemipteran bug Howeria, and a cricket Howeta.

The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey (published in 1974), which has guided the island conservation program. In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a "Permanent Park Preserve" over the north and south ends of the island. Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, which has a ranger stationed on the island. The island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982.

Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. This consists of a state marine park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to three nautical miles around the island and including Ball's Pyramid. It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage. In total the Marine Park covers about .

Feral animals and plants
Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food sources in the early 1800s; the goats destroyed shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs ate eggs and chicks and disturbed the land by rooting for food. Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans. The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule, the white-throated pigeon, the red-crowned parakeet, and the Tasman booby, which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the 19th century, either from overhunting for food or protection of crops. Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860. In 1918, the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the S.S. Makambo, which ran aground at Ned's Beach. This triggered a second wave of extinctions, including the vinous-tinted thrush, the robust white-eye, the Lord Howe starling, the Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone, as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and the decimation of palm fruits. Bounties were offered for rats and pig tails and 'ratting' became a popular pursuit. Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low. The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by, or competition with, the Tasmanian masked owls, which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population. Stray dogs are also a threat, as they could harm the native woodhen and other birds.

Invasive plants such as Crofton weed and Formosa lily occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated, but others are currently being managed. In 1995, the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants on the island, chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper, but also cherry guava, Madeira vine, Cotoneaster, Ochna, and Cestrum. This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000. Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and re-vegetate some formerly cultivated areas. An environmental unit was created by the board and it includes a flora management officer and a permanent weed officer. Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place, supported by improved education and quarantine procedures.

Introduced species that harmed Lord Howe's native flora and fauna, namely feral pigs, cats, and goats, were eradicated by the early 2000s.

In July 2012, the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker announced that the Australian and New South Wales governments would each contribute 50% of the estimated A$9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island, using the aerial deployment of poison baits. The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial. Around 230 woodhens were captured before the rodent eradication commenced in early 2019. Following the successful eradication of the rodents, all woodhens and currawongs were released across the island in late 2019 and early 2020.

A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen's numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000, which is close to carrying capacity.

Climate change
According to an analysis by eminent Australian academic Tim Flannery, the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming, with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature. The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate-change solution occurred at Lord Howe Island in 2011, the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry.

Heritage listings
The Lord Howe Islands Group was inscribed on the World Heritage List for its unique landforms and biota, its diverse and largely intact ecosystems, its natural beauty, and its habitats for threatened species. It also has significant cultural heritage associations in the history of NSW.

Lord Howe Island and adjacent islets, Admiralty Islands, Mutton Bird Islands, Ball's Pyramid, and associated coral reefs and marine environs were added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007, based on the World Heritage List.

Lord Howe Island was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.

In September 2019 it was revealed that, in 2017, federal environment minister Josh Frydenberg overruled a recommendation from his department to install two wind turbines. The project, which would have substantially reduced the island's dependence on diesel-powered electricity generators, had been considered not to endanger the island's heritage status and was supported by the islanders.

Sport
 Lord Howe Island Bowling Club
 Lord Howe Island Golf Club

See also

 Jim Lacey, former administrator
 List of islands of Australia

Citations

General and cited references

Attribution

Further reading

External links

 Official site of the Lord Howe Island Board
 World heritage listing (Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities)
 Lord Howe Island Act, 1953 (Australian Legal Information Institute)

Australian National Heritage List
Ecoregions of Australia
Extinct volcanoes
Hotspot volcanoes
Important Bird Areas of New South Wales
Island restoration
Islands of New South Wales
Islands of the Tasman Sea
Miocene shield volcanoes
New South Wales State Heritage Register
Polygenetic shield volcanoes
Tourist attractions in New South Wales
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Unincorporated areas of New South Wales
Volcanoes of New South Wales
Volcanoes of the Pacific Ocean
Volcanoes of Zealandia
World Heritage Sites in New South Wales
IBRA subregions
Endemic Bird Areas

Lord Howe Island


Taşlıyük, Samsun ilinin Vezirköprü ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe

Coğrafya
Samsun iline 125 km, Vezirköprü ilçesine 10 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Vezirköprü'nün mahalleleri

Taşlıyük, Vezirköprü


La tangara de garganta gris (Chlorospingus canigularis) es una especie de ave en la familia Thraupidae.

Distribución
Se encuentra en Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panamá, Perú y Venezuela.

Hábitat
Su hábitat natural son los bosques secos tropicales o subtropicales, bosques húmedos subtropicales o tropicales de tierras bajas y montanos húmedos subtropicales o tropicales.

Referencias

 BirdLife International 2004. Chlorospingus canigularis. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.  Consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2011.

Aves del Neotrópico
canigularis
Taxones descritos por Frédéric de Lafresnaye
Animales descritos en 1848

Chlorospingus canigularis


Kovrčavi kelj je povrće sa zelenim ili ljubičastim lišćem iz porodice kupusnjača (lat. Brassiceae).

Ima velike žilave listove, vrlo kovrčave, dobro izraženoga okusa. Boja im varira od blijedo zelene do tamnozelene, ponekad do zelene obojene u plavo. Listovi nisu dobro zaobljeni, karakteristika je izražena latinskom riječju, koja opisuje ovu sortu kelja «acephala» i koja znači «bez glavice». Listovi nadjačavaju finu bjelkastu i vrlo vlaknastu stabljiku i mogu doseći od 30 do 40 cm. Dekorativan je pa su razvijene ukrasne sorte.

Kovrčavi kelj jedna je od najotpornijih sorti iz porodice kupusnjača; može podnijeti temperature do -15 ° C, ali ne voli visoke temperature. Najviše se preporuča za izradu zelenih sokova, čipsa od kelja i sličnih jela i ne pada sirovi tako teško na želudac kao glavati kelj. Kovrčavi se kelj uzgaja potpuno isto kao i sve ostale vrste kelja i vrijede ista pravila kod uzgoja, bolesti i nametnika. Budući da je otporan na hladne temperature i lako raste, kovrčavi kelj vrlo je cijenjeno zimsko povrće, posebno u Škotskoj, Njemačkoj, Nizozemskoj i Skandinaviji. Danas se jede širom svijeta.

Kovrčavi kelj prvo se uzgajao na mediteranskom području i zvao se kupus i prije pojave sadašnjega kupusa. U rimsko doba bio je značajna kultura; u srednjem vijeku postao je osnovna namirnica na selu, a u Sjedinjene Američke Države donijeli su ga Englezi u 17. stoljeću.

Galerija

Izvori

Brassica oleracea
Povrće

Kovrčavi kelj


2005 yılında İzmir'de organize edilen Universiade spor organizasyonudur.

Yirmi birincisi 2001 yılında, Çin'in Pekin kentinde, yirmi ikincisi 2003 yılında Güney Kore'nin Daegu kentinde yapılan Üniversite Yaz Oyunları'nın yirmi üçüncüsü 11 - 21 Ağustos 2005 tarihleri arasında İzmir'de gerçekleştirmiştir.

Logo

XXIII Dünya Üniversite yaz oyunları amblemi, İzmir Körfezi'nin kuşbakışı görüntüsünden esinlenerek "U" harfi şeklini almıştır. Pürüzsüz anahattı ile Universiade ruhu uyumu ve bütünlüğüne vurgu yaparken, Universiade'ın "U" şeklindeki, çok kültürel özelliğini simgeleyen amblemi ile de uyum sağlamıştır.

Maskot
Efe, İzmir 2005 Yaz Universiad oyunlarının resmî maskotudur. (Oyunların hazırlık ve Organizasyon Komitesi Pazarlama ve Halkla İlişkiler Komisyonu Başkan Yardımcısı) Abdurrahman Tekin tarafından çizilen karakter, İzmir'de görülen nadir türlerden yalıçapkını'ndan esinlenmiştir. Maskot adını, Türkçe isim olarak da kullanılan, bölgenin folklorik karakterleri olan Türk Kurtuluş Savaşı sırasında savaşan, cesur savaşçılardan, efe'lerden almıştır.

Tesisler

2005 Yaz Üniversite Oyunları'ndaki Spor Branşları

İzmir'in ev sahipliğini üstlendiği oyunlar; 10 zorunlu ve 4 isteğe bağlı spor dalında gerçekleştirilmiştir.

 Atletizm
 Basketbol
 Dalma
 Eskrim
 Futbol
 Güreş
 Jimnastik

 Okçuluk
 Sutopu
 Tekvando
 Tenis
 Voleybol
 Yelken
 Yüzme

Bu branşlardan güreş, okçuluk, tekvando ve yelken; İzmir kentinin önerisiyle oyunlara dahil olan spor dallarıdır.

Madalya tablosu

Katılan ülkeler

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  Ekvator

  El Salvador

  Güney Afrika

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  Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti

  Kongo

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Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 FISU İzmir 2005 Üniversite Yaz Oyunları İnternet Sayfası

Dünya Üniversite Yaz Oyunları
Türkiye'de düzenlenen uluslararası spor müsabakaları
İzmir'de spor
Dünya Üniversite Yaz Oyunları
Yaz Üniversite Oyunları
Yaz Üniversite Oyunları

2005 Dünya Üniversite Yaz Oyunları


Körleşme (Die Blendung, tam Türkçe çevirisi: Kamaşma), 1981 Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahibi Elias Canetti'nin ilk olarak 1935'te Almanya'da yayımlanmış tek romanı.

Yazıldığı dönem
Körleşme, yazıldığı dönem açısından ve yazarı açısından içinde çeşitli ipuçları barındıran çağının ötesinde bir edebi eserdir. 1930'ların başında Nasyonal Sosyalizm'in ayak seslerinin yeni duyulmaya başladığı bir dönemde, yahudi kökenli bir Alman vatandaşı olan Elias Canetti tarafından yazılmıştır. Canetti'nin kitle ve iktidar ilişkisine duyduğu yakın ilgi bu ilk kitabında bile yoğun şekilde hissedilir. Canetti bu romanı yazdığında henüz 26 yaşındaydı.

Kitap, I. Dünya Savaşı ile II. Dünya Savaşı arasındaki dönemde, Almanya'nın ilk dünya savaşının yenilgisini üzerinden atamadığı ve yenilgi psikolojisinin faşizme önayak olduğu bir dönemi, bu dönemde faşizme taban olacak sıradan insanları tüm çıplaklığıyla anlatır.

Kitabın anti-kahramanı, bir sinolog olan Kien'in tüm tutkusu kitapları ve bilimdir. Tüm dünyası 25 bin kitap içeren evinden ibaret olan Kien kendini dış dünyadan soyutlamış, kendinden başka herkesi değersiz, cahil, küçük gören kibirli ve bencil aydının bir prototipidir.

Konusu
Kitap üç bölümden oluşmaktadır:

Dünyasız Bir Kafa : Evinde dışarı adım atmayan kitapları ve bilimi ile yaşayan Kien'in ev içindeki hayatını anlatan bu bölümde, hizmetçisi Therese'ye, kitaplarına gösterdiğine inandığı yakın ilgiden dolayı yakınlaşması ve evlenmesi anlatılır. Bölüme verilen isimden anlaşılacağı gibi, Kien'in kafasında oluşturduğu, dış dünyadan tamamen bağımsız iç dünyasında yaşar. Bu bölümde, bu dünyasız kafa tüm açıklığıyla ortaya serilir.

Kafasız Bir Dünya : İkinci bölümde, evinden dışarı hiç çıkmamış, insanlarla ilişki kurmayı bilinçli olarak reddetmiş Kien, eski hizmetçisi, yeni karısı Therese tarafında sokağa atılır ve daha önce tanımadığı bir dünyaya zorunlu bir adım atar. Küçük gördüğü, değersiz bulduğu insanların elinde oyuncak olması, oradan oraya savrulması anlatılır bu bölümde. Bu dünya, rasyonaliteden uzak, kafasız bir dünyadır.

Kafadaki Dünya : Bu bölümde, tüm yaşadıklarından sonra kafasında oluşturduğu yeni dünyanın delilik sınırlarına getirdiği Kien'in trajik sonu anlatılır.

20. yüzyıl Alman romanları
1935 romanları
Almanca romanlar
Elias Canetti kitapları
Konusu Viyana'da geçen romanlar

Körleşme (roman)


Wakefield war einer der Wahlkreise, die zur Wahl des australischen Repräsentantenhauses genutzt werden. Der Wahlkreis wurde 1903 gegründet und lag nördlich von Adelaide. Er erstreckte sich von Salisbury, einem Stadtteil von Adelaide, bis nach Clare. Auch die Nordostküste des Gulf Saint Vincent bis Port Wakefield gehörte zum Wahlkreis. 2018 wurde die Auflösung des Wahlkreises beschlossen.

Bei der letzten Wahl gewann Nicholas David Champion (* 1972) von der Australian Labor Party. Am 18. Mai 2019 wurde er Abgeordneter des neu gegründeten Wahlkreises Spence, der einen Teil des Gebietes von Wakefield abdeckt.

Abgeordnete

Wahlkreis in Australien
Politik (South Australia)
Geographie (South Australia)

Wakefield (Wahlkreis, Australien)


Hamadoun Ibrahim Issébéré est un poète, homme politique et diplomate  malien, né au Pays Dogon, dans le cercle de Douentza, précisément dans le petit village d'Assakarba vers 1948 et mort en mai 2007.

Biographie

Formation
Hamadoun Ibrahim Issebere commence sa scolarité dans une médersa puis il entre à l'école française où il suit  les études primaires jusqu'à l'obtention de son certificat d'études primaires bien avant son entrée au collège moderne de Mopti, qui devient le lycée Hammadoun Dicko de Sévaré de 1960- 1964.

Compte-tenu son vif intérêt pour les études et sa rarissime passion pour les lettres, il fait des études de lettres au lycée Askia-Mohamed et décroche son baccalauréat en 1967, puis il poursuit ses études à l'ENSUP (École normale supérieure de Bamako) et obtient un diplôme de lettres modernes en 1971.

Carrière
Il commence sa carrière professionnelle en tant qu'enseignant de français au lycée de Banankoro, il dispense des cours à l'École Normale Technique d'Enseignement Féminin (ENTEF) et aussi au lycée de Ségou jusque vers 1977. Il occupe les fonctions du directeur de l'Institut National des Arts de Bamako (I.N.A) en 1977. Il se lance dans la politique et devient membre du bureau national des jeunes de l'U.D.P.M. (Union démocratique du peuple malien), un parti politique qui est sous la houlette de l'ancien président malien Moussa Traoré. Il est élu représentant des jeunes au sein de la commission d'organisation  du premier congrès du parti. Issebere fait preuve d'un niveau d'intelligence très élevé et se caractérise au travers de ses idéologies anti-conformistes, qui conduisent et contribuent énormément à sa nomination au poste du représentant de la jeunesse malienne auprès du Mouvement Panafricain de la Jeunesse qui siégeait en Alger, au bout de vingt ans environ. Au cours de son séjour en Alger, Issebere aura l'opportunité de voyager à travers le monde en raison des missions qu'on lui confient et rencontre des gens de renom.

Il est auteur des Boutures du soleil publié en 1981 par les éditions Saint-Germain-des-Prés.

Bibliographie
 Vertiges et Horizons, 1973
 La Souche en fleurs, 1974
 Clameur d'antan et Soleil présents, 1976, prix de l'ACCT
 Les Boutures du soleil, 1981

Distinctions
 Grand prix de l'ACCT pour Les Boutures du soleil

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Littérature africaine
 Poésie
 Littérature malienne
 liste d'écrivains africains

Liens externes

Naissance en 1948
Naissance au Mali
Enseignant du XXe siècle
Poète malien
Ambassadeur du XXe siècle
Décès à 50 ans
Décès à Dakar
Décès en mai 2007

Hamadoun Ibrahima Issébéré


Heibergsgade er en gade i Indre By i København, der går fra Peder Skrams Gade til Nyhavn. Den er opkaldt efter opkaldt efter dramatikeren Johan Ludvig Heiberg (1791-1860). Gaden ligger i forlængelse af Harald Landers Gade, der var en del af Heibergsgade indtil 2018. På den vestlige side af den nuværende gade ligger Kunsthal Charlottenborg, mens der på den østlige side ligger traditionelle etageejendomme.

Historie

Gaden ligger i kvarteret Gammelholm. Det meste af området var indtil 1859 en del af Orlogsværftet, men på området for den nuværende Heibergsgade lå forgængeren for den nuværende Botanisk Have indtil 1872. Efter at værftet og haven var flyttet, blev området bebygget med primært etageejendomme i løbet af 1860'erne og 1870'erne. I den forbindelse blev der anlagt ni nye gader, der overvejende blev opkaldt efter søhelte og teaterpersoner. Heibergsgade blev således i 1869 opkaldt efter dramatikeren Johan Ludvig Heiberg (1791-1860), der havde været chef for Det Kongelige Teater for enden af gaden fra 1849 til 1856. Teatrets nuværende bygning blev opført i 1872-1874 efter tegninger af Vilhelm Dahlerup og Ove Petersen. Bag den lå en magasinbygning, der var forbundet med teatret med en mellembygning over Heibergsgade, der dengang fortsatte til Holmens Kanal. Magasinbygningen og mellembygningen blev erstattet af en ny magasinbygning i 1983-1986, hvilket betød at Heibergsgade blev afkortet til Tordenskjoldsgade.

I september 2017 foreslog Det Kongelige Teater, at Heibergsgade mellem Tordenskjoldsgade og Peder Skrams Gade skulle omdøbes til Harald Landers Gade. Baggrunden var at man ønskede at markere en stor balletfestival i 2018 og at hylde den store balletmester Harald Lander (1905-1971). Navneændringen ville kun berøre indgangen til teatrets balletskole i nr. 7 og Laboratoriet for Gips i nr. 9. De to hjørnebygninger på den modsatte side af gaden ville ikke blive berørt, idet de har adresse til henholdsvis Tordenskjoldsgade og Peder Skrams Gade. Vejnavnenævnet under Københavns Kommune var positive overfor forslaget. Under den efterfølgende høring indkom der en enkelt indsigelse fra Indre By Lokaludvalg, der var principielt imod at ændre navne på dele af gader, idet hyldesten ikke ville fremstå oprigtig. Et nyt navn til en hel gade, for eksempel hele Heibergsgade, kunne nævnet dog ikke gå med til, da det ville få betydning for mange beboere. Derudover var der ikke udsigt til anlæg af nye gader i nærheden, der kunne have fået navnet. På den baggrund fastholdt nævnet forslaget til navneændringen og indstillede det til godkendelse i Teknik- og Miljøudvalget. Udvalget godkendte det ved sit møde 26. februar 2018 med syv stemmer mod fire, hvorefter det nye navn trådte i kraft 27. marts 2018.

Bebyggelse

Langs den vestlige side af den nuværende Heibergsgade ligger Kunsthal Charlottenborg, tidligere Charlottenborg Udstillingsbygning, der blev opført efter tegninger af Albert Jensen og Ferdinand Meldahl i 1880-1883. Kunstakademiet, der afholdt årlige udstillinger på Charlottenborg ved Kongens Nytorv led af pladsmangel, så for at råde bod på det opførtes den trefløjede bygning. Den toetages bygning blev udført med en stor vestibule i midten og syv sale på første sal foruden en række mindre lokaler på begge etager. Adgang til bygningen sker fra Nyhavn og Kongens Nytorv. Ud mod Heibergsgade ligger der en smal græsplæne med træer, der er afskærmet fra gaden af et hegn. I området mellem udstillingsbygningen og Det Kongelige Teaters bygninger ligger Billedhuggerhaven, der benyttes af Kunstakademiets afdeling for billedhuggerkunst. Billedhuggerhaven er afskærmet fra gaden af en mur. Både Kunsthallen, muren og Billedhuggerhaven blev fredet i 1988.

På den anden side af gaden ligger der traditionelle etageejendomme. I den sydlige ende knækker støder Peder Skrams Gade og Herluf Trolles Gade op til gaden på et punkt, hvor den knækker. På grunden mellem de tre gader opførte murermester Weber ejendommen Heibergsgade 10-12 / Peder Skrams Gade 1 / Herluf Trolles Gade 2 i 1879. Ejendommens kælder, stue og førstesal er kvaderfuget, og flere steder, blandt andet på den korte side mod Heibergsgade, er første, anden og tredje sal fremspringende. På siden mod Heibergsgade vidner teksten "J.C. Hempel's Handelshus og Fabriker A/S" om, at en skibsfarvevirksomhed tidligere havde til huse her. Bygningen tilhører nu andelsboligforeningen Peder Skrams Gård.

Hjørneejendommen Heibergsgade 14 / Herluf Trolles Gade 1 blev opført af murermester Wettenberg i 1879. Bygningen er rigt dekoreret med frontoner og balustrader. Heibergsgade 16 blev opført af snedkermester Holm i 1879. Her er kælder, stue og førstesal også kvaderfuget. På ande, tredje og fjerde sal er vinduerne sandstensindrammede, idet de tre midterste vinduer på anden sal desuden er forsynet med trekantsfrontoner. Hjørneejendommen Heibergsgade 18 / Nyhavn 4 blev opført af murermester N. Petersen i 1877. Den er forsynet med en forhøjning på hjørnet, der giver det et tårnagtigt præg. Fra 1997 til 2013 var bygningen ejet af Det Konservative Folkeparti, der havde hovedkontor her.

Litteratur
 København før og nu - og aldrig, bind 2 Gammelholm og Frederiksholm af Steffen Linvald. Forlaget Palle Fogtdal, 1987.

Eksterne henvisninger

Noter

Gader i Indre By (København)
Gammelholm

Heibergsgade


La théorie lagrangienne des champs est un formalisme de la théorie classique des champs.

C'est l'analogue de la théorie des champs de la mécanique lagrangienne. La mécanique lagrangienne est utilisée pour analyser le mouvement d'un système de particules discrètes chacune ayant un nombre fini de degrés de liberté. La théorie lagrangienne des champs s'applique aux continus et aux champs, qui ont un nombre infini de degrés de liberté.

L'une des motivations du développement du formalisme lagrangien sur les champs, et plus généralement de la théorie classique des champs, est de fournir une base mathématique propre pour la théorie quantique des champs, qui est notoirement en proie à des difficultés formelles qui la rendent inacceptable en tant que théorie mathématique. Les lagrangiens présentés ici sont identiques à leurs équivalents quantiques, mais, en traitant les champs comme des champs classiques, et non comme des champs quantiques, on peut fournir des définitions et obtenir des solutions aux propriétés compatibles avec l'approche formelle classique des mathématiques des équations aux dérivées partielles. Cela permet de formuler des solutions sur des espaces aux propriétés bien caractérisées, comme les espaces de Sobolev. Elle permet de fournir différents théorèmes, allant des preuves d'existence à la convergence uniforme de séries formelles, jusqu'aux cadres généraux de la théorie du potentiel. De plus, l'intuition et la clarté sont obtenues par des généralisations aux variétés riemanniennes et aux faisceaux de fibres, permettant à la structure géométrique d'être clairement discernée et démêlée des équations de mouvement correspondantes. Une vision plus claire de la structure géométrique a, à son tour, permis d'utiliser des théorèmes très abstraits de la géométrie pour mieux comprendre, allant du théorème de Chern-Gauss-Bonnet et du théorème de Riemann-Roch au théorème de l'indice d'Atiyah-Singer et à la théorie de Chern-Simons.

Aperçu
En théorie des champs, la variable indépendante est remplacée par un événement dans l'espace-temps (x, y, z, t), ou plus généralement par un point s sur une variété riemannienne. Les variables dépendantes sont remplacées par la valeur d'un champ à ce point de l'espace-temps  de sorte que les équations du mouvement sont obtenues au moyen d'un principe d'action, écrit comme :

où laction, , est une fonctionnelle des variables dépendantes , leurs dérivés et s lui-même

où les parenthèses indiquent  ; et s = { s α } désigne l'ensemble des n variables indépendantes du système, y compris la variable de temps, et est indexé par α = 1, 2, 3…, n. La typographie calligraphique, , est utilisé pour désigner la densité, et  est la forme volume de la fonction de champ, c'est-à-dire la mesure du domaine de la fonction de champ.

Dans les formulations mathématiques, il est courant d'exprimer le lagrangien en tant que fonction sur un fibré, dans lequel les équations d'Euler–Lagrange peuvent être interprétées comme spécifiant les géodésiques sur le fibré. Le manuel d'Abraham et Marsden a fourni la première description complète de la mécanique classique en termes d'idées géométriques modernes, c'est-à-dire en termes de variétés tangentes, de variétés symplectiques et de géométrie de contact. Le manuel de Bleecker a fourni une présentation complète des théories des champs en physique en termes de fibrés invariants de jauge. De telles formulations étaient connues ou suspectées depuis longtemps. Jost continue avec une présentation géométrique, clarifiant la relation entre les formes hamiltoniennes et lagrangiennes, décrivant les structures spinorielles à partir des premiers principes, etc. Les recherches actuelles portent sur les structures affines non rigides, (parfois appelées « structures quantiques ») dans lesquelles on remplace les occurrences d'espaces vectoriels par des algèbres tensorielles. Cette recherche est motivée par la compréhension révolutionnaire des groupes quantiques en tant qu' (Les groupes de Lie sont, en un sens, « rigides », car ils sont déterminés par leur algèbre de Lie. Lorsqu'ils sont reformulés sur une algèbre tensorielle, ils deviennent « souples », ayant des degrés de liberté infinis ; voir par exemple l'Algèbre de Virasoro.).

Définitions

En théorie lagrangienne des champs, le lagrangien en tant que fonction des coordonnées généralisées est remplacé par une densité lagrangienne, fonction des champs du système et de leurs dérivées, et éventuellement des coordonnées spatiales et temporelles elles-mêmes. En théorie des champs, la variable indépendante t est remplacée par un événement dans l'espace-temps ( x, y, z, t ) ou encore plus généralement par un point s sur une variété.

Souvent, la «densité lagrangienne» est simplement appelée «lagrangienne».

Champs scalaires
Pour un unique champ scalaire , la densité lagrangienne prendra la forme :

et pour plusieurs champs scalaires :

En mathématiques, les champs scalaires s'entendent comme des coordonnées sur un faisceau de fibres, et les dérivées du champ s'entendent comme des sections du .

Champs vectoriels, champs tensoriels, champs spinneurs
Ce qui précède peut être généralisé pour les champs de vecteurs, les champs de tenseurs et les champs de spineurs. En physique, les fermions sont décrits par des champs de spineurs. Les bosons sont décrits par des champs tensoriels, qui incluent des champs scalaires et vectoriels comme cas particuliers.

Par exemple, s'il y a  champs scalaires à valeurs réelles, , alors la variété de champ est  . Si le champ est un champ vectoriel réel, alors la variété de champ est isomorphe à  .

Action
L'intégrale temporelle du Lagrangien est appelée l'action et est notée  . En théorie des champs, une distinction est parfois faite entre le lagrangien , dont l'intégrale de temps est l'action

et la densité lagrangienne , que l'on intègre sur tout l'espace-temps pour obtenir l'action :

L'intégrale de volume spatial de la densité lagrangienne est le lagrangien ; en 3D,

L'action est souvent appelée fonctionnelle d'action, en ce sens qu'elle est fonction des champs (et de leurs dérivées).

Forme volumique
En présence de gravité, ou lors de l'utilisation de coordonnées curvilignes générales, la densité lagrangienne  comprendra un facteur de  . Cela garantit que l'action est invariante sous les transformations de coordonnées générales. Dans la littérature mathématique, l'espace-temps est considéré comme une variété riemannienne  et l'intégrale devient alors la forme volume

Ici le  est le produit en coin et  est la racine carrée du déterminant  du tenseur métrique  sur  . Pour un espace-temps plat ( par exemple espace-temps de Minkowski ), l'unité de volume est un, c'est-à-dire  et donc il est généralement omis lorsque l'on parle d'un espace temps plat. De même, l'utilisation des symboles de produits en coin n'offre aucun aperçu supplémentaire sur le concept ordinaire de volume dans le calcul multivarié, et ceux-ci sont donc également abandonnés. Certains manuels plus anciens, par exemple Landau et Lifschitz écrivent  pour la forme volumique, puisque le signe moins convient aux tenseurs métriques de signature (+ − − − ) ou ( − +++) (puisque le déterminant est négatif, dans les deux cas). Lorsque l'on parle de la théorie des champs sur les variétés riemanniennes générales, la forme de volume est généralement écrite dans la notation abrégée  où  est l'étoile Hodge. C'est-à-dire,

et donc

Il n'est pas rare que la notation ci-dessus soit considérée comme superflue, et l'on retrouve donc fréquemment la forme :

Cependant, même si elle n'est pas explicitement écrite, la forme volume est implicitement présente dans cette intégrale.

Équations d'Euler – Lagrange
Les équations d'Euler-Lagrange décrivent le flux géodésique du champ  en fonction du temps. En prenant la variation par rapport à , on obtient

En résolvant, avec respect des conditions aux limites, on obtient les équations d'Euler–Lagrange :

Exemples
Un grand nombre de systèmes physiques ont été formulés en termes de Lagrangiens sur les champs. Ci-dessous nous retrouverons des exemples communs tirés de manuels traitant de la théorie des champs.

Gravité newtonienne
La densité lagrangienne pour la gravité newtonienne est :

avec Φ le potentiel gravitationnel, ρ la masse volumique et G en m 3 ·kg −1 ·s −2 la constante gravitationnelle. La densité  a des unités de joules par mètre cube (J.m-3). Ici, le terme d'interaction fait intervenir une masse volumique continue ρ en kg·m −3 . Ceci est nécessaire car l'utilisation d'une source ponctuelle pour un champ entraînerait des problèmes mathématiques dans le calcul.

Ce lagrangien peut s'écrire sous la forme , avec le  fournissant un terme cinétique, et l'interaction  le terme potentiel. Voir aussi la théorie de la gravitation de Nordström pour savoir comment cela pourrait être modifié pour faire face aux changements au fil du temps. Cette forme est reprise dans l'exemple suivant d'une théorie de champ scalaire.

La variation de l'intégrale par rapport à Φ est :

Par intégration par parties, rejet de l'intégrale totale et division par δΦ, la formule devient :

ce qui équivaut à :

ce qui donne le théorème de Gauss pour la gravité.

Théorie des champs scalaires

Le lagrangien pour un champ scalaire se déplaçant dans un potentiel  peut être écrit comme

Ce n'est pas un hasard si la théorie scalaire ressemble au lagrangien du manuel de premier cycle   pour le terme cinétique d'une particule de point libre écrit comme  . La théorie scalaire est la généralisation de la théorie des champs d'une particule se déplaçant dans un potentiel. Quand le  est le potentiel du chapeau mexicain, les champs résultants sont appelés les champs de Higgs.

Voir aussi

 Calcul des variations
 Théorie des champs
 équations d'Euler-Lagrange
 Dérivée fonctionnelle

 coordonnées généralisées
 mécanique hamiltonienne
 théorie hamiltonienne des champs
 lagrangien (physique)
 coordonnées eulériennes et lagrangiennes
 mécanique lagrangienne
 point de Lagrange
 système de Lagrange
 théorème de Noether
 principe de moindre action
 théorie du champ scalaire

Notes et références
Notes

Références

Liens externes

Théorie quantique des champs
Calcul des variations
Physique mathématique
Physique théorique

Lagrangien (théorie des champs)


Shinsuke Sakimoto (født 14. april 1982) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Gamba Osaka.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Shinsuke Sakimoto


Miltonia spectabilis, também conhecido como bailarina, é uma espécie de  planta do grupo Miltonia.

Miltonia spectabilis é a espécie tipo do gênero, e ocorre na Floresta Atlântica, sobretudo nos estados do Rio de Janeiro e Espírito Santo. É facilmente reconhecida pelas pétalas brancas e labelo rosa estriado de veias mais escura. As inflorescências unifloras com as brácteas agrupadas no ápice, formando um envelope são bastante peculiares (caráter compartilhado com Miltonia moreliana que, entretanto, tem fenologia, cores e formato do labelo diferentes).

Taxonomia
A espécie foi decrita em 1837 por John Lindley.

São conhecidas as seguintes subspécies de Miltonia spectabilis Lindl.:
Os seguintes sinônimos já foram catalogados:
 Macrochilus fryanus  Knowles & Westc.
 Miltonia bicolor  B.S.Williams
 Miltonia spectabilis aspersa  Rchb.f.
 Miltonia spectabilis bicolor  G.Nicholson
 Miltonia spectabilis lineata  L.Linden & Rodigas
 Miltonia spectabilis porphyroglossa  Rchb.f.
 Miltonia spectabilis radians  Rchb.f.
 Miltonia spectabilis rosea  auct.
 Miltonia spectabilis virginalis  Lem.
 Oncidium spectabile  (Lindl.) Beer

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil.

Distribuição
A espécie é encontrada nos estados brasileiros de Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo.

Notas
A página incorpora conteúdo em CC-BY-SA 4.0 obtido de van den Berg, C. 2020. Miltonia em Flora do Brasil 2020. Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro. Disponível em: <https://floradobrasil2020.jbrj.gov.br/reflora/floradobrasil/FB11859>. Acesso em: 20 abr. 2022

Miltonia
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Plantas descritas em 1837

Miltonia spectabilis


බේකර්ස් ඇල්ල ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පිහිටා තිබෙන සුන්දරම දියඇලි වලින් එකක් වේ. බෙලිහුල් ඔයේ අතු ගංගාවකින් හටගන්නා මෙම දියඇල්ල, හෝර්ටන් තැන්න ජාතික වනෝද්‍යානයේ පිහිටා ඇත.

දියඇල්ලෙහි සමස්ත උස මීටර් 20 ක් පමණ වෙයි. බේකර්ස් ඇල්ල සොයාගත්, ප්‍රකට ගවේෂකයෙකු වූ ශ්‍රීමත් සැමුවෙල් බේකර්ගේ නාමයෙන් මේ දියඇල්ල නම්කොට තිබේ.

මේවාද බලන්න
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දියඇලි

ආශ්‍රිත

බාහිර සබැඳි

 බේකර්ස් දියඇල්ල

 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දියඇලි

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දිය ඇලි

බේකර්ස් ඇල්ල


6383 Tokushima este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
6383 Tokushima este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Tokushima de Masayuki Iwamoto și Takeshi Urata. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,00 ua, o excentricitate de 0,06 și o înclinație de 11,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 6001-7000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1988
Centura de asteroizi

6383 Tokushima


José María Linares-Rivas (Madrid, España; 17 de marzo de 1901-Ciudad de México, México; 13 de abril de 1955) fue un actor, locutor, escritor y guionista español. Trabajó ampliamente en teatro y radio en todo Iberoamérica, Francia y Filipinas. Es mayormente recordado por el cine de España, Cuba y México en donde interpretó en varias ocasiones papeles de hombres mundanos y villanos elegantes.

Biografía

José María Linares-Rivas y Laguno nace en Madrid, el 17 de marzo de 1901, hijo del abogado Emilio Linares-Rivas y Astray-Caneda y Enriqueta de Laguno y González-Valdés, su tío fue el eminente dramaturgo Manuel Linares Rivas. Proveniente de un linaje de escritores, actores, militares y políticos, José María dominaba el francés, el italiano y el inglés. Realiza estudios de leyes y de medicina en la Escuela de San Carlos y se traslada a Valladolid. Cinco años más tarde recorre Italia para optar por la pintura. Al regresar a su país, hasta intenta torear en una plaza pero desiste a la primera embestida.

Debuta como actor de teatro tras una apuesta con el director Romero Marchent, que tenía en escena la comedia Antes Bésame en el Teatro Fontalba. Tras su actividad teatral como autor e intérprete en que incluso llegó a dar 4 funciones diarias, hace su debut en cine a principios de los años 30, filmando cintas como La Dolorosa y Destino de mujer en 1934, Madrid se divorcia (1935) y Centinela, alerta! (1937). A fines de la década, tras los problemas políticos del país (guerra civil) inicia una gira por toda América Latina.

Llegando a Cuba en 1938, mientras se recuperaba de una operación por apendicitis conoce a quien sería su esposa, la poetisa, escritora y periodista Sarah Cabrera (1913-1983), quien luego incursionaría también en el guionismo, locución y actuación. Linares-Rivas aceptó filmar tres cintas en la isla: El romance del palmar (1938), Mi tía de América y Estampas habaneras ambas de (1939).

Después de su estadía en Cuba, Linares-Rivas continúa con su gira por Sudamérica con su compañía teatral y radial, al lado de Sarah Cabrera filmando Carambola (1939), pasando por Bogotá, Quito e instalándose por largo tiempo en Perú, en donde dirige la Asociación de Artistas Aficionados y actúa en numerosas obras de teatro y radiofónicas. A finales de los años 40 viaja a México, siguiendo su trabajo en teatro y regresando al cine con una exitosa película en la que trabaja con su compatriota, también exiliada Emilia Guiu: Pecadora (1947), ante el éxito de ésta le dan nuevos personajes en films como Los amores de una viuda (1949), protagonizada por Rosario Granados; Cita con la muerte (1949), con Carmen Montejo y Lilia Prado; La venenosa (1949) con Gloria Marín; La virgen desnuda (1950) con Susana Guízar y Gustavo Rojo; Doña Diabla (1950) en la que trabaja con la diva sonorense María Félix y por la que logra su primera nominación al Ariel; Lodo y armiño (1951), su película favorita y en donde actúa al lado de su compatriota Armando Calvo; En carne viva (1951), con la rumbera cubana Rosa Carmina; La noche avanza (1952) de Roberto Gavaldón protagonizada por Pedro Armendáriz y Rebeca Iturbide; El rebozo de Soledad (1952), también de Gavaldón; Me traes de un ala (1953) con el cómico Germán Valdés "Tin Tan" y Silvia Pinal; Las tres perfectas casadas (1953) con Arturo de Córdova y por la que logra su segunda nominación; Mis tres viudas alegres (1953); El monstruo resucitado (1954), cinta de culto por los amantes del terror y en la que interpreta al deforme doctor Ling que crea un monstruo "guapo" (Carlos Navarro) y se enamora de la hermosa Nora (Miroslava).

Otras cintas importantes de su filmografía fueron Huellas del pasado y La Loca con Libertad Lamarque; Un extraño en la escalera (1954), cinta consagratoria de Silvia Pinal donde Linares-Rivas tiene una extraordinaria actuación; Historia de un abrigo de mink (1955), en un duelo de actuación con Columba Domínguez y Ensayo de un crimen (1955) junto a Rita Macedo, última película que filmaran Miroslava Stern y también
Linares-Rivas fallecidos a inicios del año. Esta película fue realizada por Luis Buñuel, a quien conoció desde 1937 cuando este último codirigió Centinela, alerta! en la que Linares-Rivas participaba.

A pesar de que en México no alcanzó el estatus estelar como el que consiguieron sus compatriotas Jorge Mistral y Armando Calvo, Linares-Rivas logró aclamadas actuaciones como antagónico principal, dando soporte y fuerza a los filmes en que participó. Indudablemente, logró un merecido prestigio dentro de la industria cinematográfica mexicana en su mejor etapa.

José María Linares-Rivas muere el 13 de abril de 1955 en la Ciudad de México. Está sepultado en la Rotonda de Actores del Panteón Jardín, en la misma ciudad.

Reconocimientos

Premios Ariel

Bibliografía
 Francisco Martínez de la Vega, El Exilio español en México, 1939-1982, Salvat, 1982, ISBN 968-16-1300-7, 9789681613006
 Heriberto García Rivas, Historia de la literatura mexicana, Volumen 4, Textos Universitarios, S. A. [distribuidores: Librería de Manuel Porrúa, 1974

Enlaces externos

 [ Nominación al Ariel]
 Semblanza Biográfica y fotografías
 Escena de Historia de un abrigo de mink

Actores de Madrid
Actores de cine de España
Actores de teatro de España
Actores de cine de Cuba
Actores de teatro de Perú
Actores de cine de México
Actores de la Época de oro del cine mexicano
Actores de teatro de México
Exiliados del franquismo en México
Nacidos en Madrid
Fallecidos en Ciudad de México

José María Linares-Rivas


Jonathan Richardson der Ältere (* 1665 in London; † 28. Mai 1745 in Bloomsbury) war ein britischer Porträtmaler, Kunsttheoretiker und Kunstsammler.

Leben
Richardson wuchs bei seinem Stiefvater auf. Erst als 20-Jähriger studierte er die Malerei bei John Riley und entwickelte ein Talent in der Porträtmalerei, dass er bald Godfrey Kneller und Michael Dahl in Perfektion gleichkam. Erst Joshua Reynolds ließ Richardson in Vergessenheit geraten.

Einer seiner Schüler war Thomas Hudson, später der "Maler des britischen Establishments", der auch von Richardson porträtiert wurde und schließlich eine seiner Töchter heiratete.

Richardson war nicht nur ein früher Kunstsammler, vielmehr war seine allmählich aufgelöste Sammlung an Zeichnungen vom Umfang her eine der größten aller Zeiten.

Sein Sohn war der Maler und Drucker Jonathan Richardson der Jüngere (1694–1771).

Schriften
 An Essay on the Theory of Painting. London 1715. 2. Auflage 1725 (Digitalisat).
 Two discourses. I. An essay on the whole art of criticism, as it relates to painting … II. An argument in behalf of the science of a connoisseur. Churchill, London 1719; .
 An Account of Some of the Statues, Bas-Reliefs, Drawings, and Pictures in Italy. Knapton, London 1722; .
 The works of Jonathan Richardson, containing I. The theory of painting. II. Essay on the art of criticism. III. The science of a connoisseur. London 1773.

Literatur
 Irene Haberland: Jonathan Richardson (1666–1745). Die Begründung der Kunstkennerschaft. Dissertation. Universität Bonn 1989. Lit, Hamburg, Münster 1991, ISBN 3-88660-536-1 (Bonner Studien zur Kunstgeschichte. Band 2).
 Georg Kaspar Nagler: Neues allgemeines Künstler-Lexicon. 1843, S. 126; .

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Maler (London)
Maler des Barock
Porträtmaler
Kunstsammler
Brite
Geboren 1665
Gestorben 1745
Mann

Jonathan Richardson