The University of Fribourg (; ) is a public university located in Fribourg, Switzerland.

The roots of the university can be traced back to 1580, when the notable Jesuit Peter Canisius founded the Collège Saint-Michel in the City of Fribourg. In 1763, an academy of law was founded by the state of Fribourg which formed the nucleus of the present law faculty. The University of Fribourg was finally created in 1889 by an Act of the parliament of the Swiss Canton of Fribourg.

The University of Fribourg is Switzerland's only bilingual university and offers full curricula in both French and German, two of Switzerland's national languages. Students number about 10,000; there are about 200 tenured professors and 700 other academic teaching and research personnel. The Misericorde Campus, constructed between 1939 and 1942, was designed by the architects Honegger and Dumas, students of Swiss architect Le Corbusier.

There are five faculties: Catholic theology, law, natural sciences, humanities, and economics & social sciences.

History

The university owes its earliest origin to the foundation of the Jesuit College St. Michel on Belze Hill by Peter Canisius in 1580 at the invitation of the government of Fribourg. In 1763, an Academy of Law was founded, housed in the Albertinium (now a Dominican residence). In 1834, the cantonal library was formed from works brought to Fribourg (from Catholic monasteries) for safekeeping. The College St. Michel was closed following the expulsion of the Jesuits from Fribourg after the canton's defeat in the Sonderbund war.

In 1886, Georges Python, founder of the cantonal bank and State Counsellor for Fribourg (M.P. in the upper house of the Swiss parliament) became Director of Public Education. He raised funds through a lottery and was
granted some 2,500,000 CHF by the canton. The cantonal library became integrated with that of the university and the academy became the Faculty of Law. In 1939, the university moved to a new campus constructed on the former cemetery of Misericorde, ceding St. Michel to one of Fribourg's gymnasia, which took the name College St. Michel. During the Second World War, the university set up "university camps" along with the University of Zürich, HEC in St. Gall and a Lycée camp at Wetzikon provided a wide variety of courses to educate Polish prisoners of war.

The Perolles campus was constructed on the site of a former wagon factory.

Although many lectures were originally in Latin, Fribourg is now the only French/German bilingual university in the world (45% French and 55% German). The town itself is 70% French and 30% German. This fact, coupled with the traditional dominance of French as the language of the city aristocracy explains why French has remained so dominant in university administration and in the AGEF (Association Générale des Etudiants Fribourgois), the Student's Union. To commemorate the centenary of the university, La Poste issued a stamp depicting the figures Science and Sagesse.

Recent developments

In 2005, the university inaugurated its Perolles 2 campus, to which the Faculty of Economics and Social Science relocated. The university has the third largest collection of Biblical antiquities in the world after the British Museum and the Cairo Museum. Fribourg has also developed FriMat, a centre of excellence in nanotechnology. As part of the BeNeFri association comprising the Universities of Berne, Neuchâtel and Fribourg, students at any one of these universities may take courses at another in the association and still receive credit at their home institution. The academic degrees were the Demi-Licence, Licence, DEA / DESS, Doctorate. The university now follows the requirements of the Bologna process.

The University of Fribourg launched for the 2009–2010 academic year a new postgraduate law programme, the Master of Laws in Cross-Cultural Business Practice (MLCBP), an LL.M taught entirely in English.

Campuses

Fribourg has no central campus and its buildings are located throughout the city.
The main sites are:
Misericorde - Humanities and central administration (including the famous Senate room)
Perolles - Science
Perolles 2 - Economics & Social Sciences
Regina Mundi - Psychology
BCU centrale - Main Library
Pierre Aeby - Department of Classical Philology
Bonnesfontaines - Pedagogy
Stade St. Leonard - University Stadium

Faculties
The Fribourg University is divided into five faculties:

 The Faculty of Humanities is the largest faculty with about 4,600 students. They follow courses and seminars in the fields of philosophy, historical sciences, languages, literature, education, psychology or social sciences.
 The Faculty of Law has about 1,900 students. The program includes national and international law; both subjects areas can be followed bilingual.
 The Faculty of Theology is the largest and the most international of Switzerland, and, with Lucerne, it is the only state university in Switzerland to have a Faculty of Catholic Theology.
 Approximately 1,400 students are enrolled in one of the four Bachelor programmes and one of the seven Master programmes of the Faculty of Management, Economics and Social Sciences. The faculty is composed of four departments: business management, economics, computer science, media and communication. In addition, the international institute of management in technology (iimt) and the Verbandsmanagement Institute (VMI) are attached to the Faculty.
 The Faculty of Science and Medicine was founded in 1896 and comprises seven departments: biology, chemistry, geosciences, computer science, mathematics, medicine and physics. These cover 14 fields: biochemistry, biology, chemistry, geography, computer science, human medicine and dentistry (Bachelor), mathematics, neuroscience, pharmacy, physics, biomedical sciences, environmental sciences, earth sciences (geology) and sport. The Adolphe Merkle Institute (AMI) is an interdisciplinary research institute of the Faculty of Sciences devoted to fundamental and application-oriented research and teaching in the domain of soft nanomaterials.

Traditions

Dies Academicus - On this day in November every year, no lectures are held. Festivities begin with Mass in the Chapel of the Collège St. Michel. The members of the university then proceed to the Aula Magna (Great Hall) in solemn procession. After an address by the rector and a prominent guest speaker, honorary degrees are awarded. The student guilds attend in ceremonial dress including swords.
Corporations - These are similar to the Studentenverbindungen in Germany and Austria, but there is no de facto constraint to participate as it is in the student nations at the universities of Uppsala, Lund and Helsinki. They maintain Central European student traditions and meet at least once a week around a Stammtisch ("regulars' table") in order to socialise, drink and sing together. They tend to be organised on linguistic lines. One of them is still engaged in dueling, while the other corporations in Fribourg already rejected this tradition at the time they were founded, amongst others for religious reasons. Membership has often been considered advantageous for those wishing to pursue a career in business, politics or law. Most of Fribourg's student corporations belong to the formerly Catholic Schweizerischer Studentenverein. An example is AV Fryburgia.
The Day of Welcomes (Jour D'Accueil) - Similar to Freshers' Week in anglophone universities. New students are invited to the Aula Magna, where they are welcomed to Fribourg by the Rector and the Syndic (Mayor of the City of Fribourg). This is followed by a meal in the university mensa provided by the city, where new students are expected to dine with the rest of the faculty to which they have been admitted.
Every year, the Catholic Church holds collections during masses throughout Switzerland. Known as Fribourg Sunday, the funds raised are mainly used to award scholarships to foreign priests by the Faculty of Theology.

Branding

The university seal depicts a cross and bishop's ring representing the university's Catholic ethos on a shield of black and white, representing the canton of Fribourg. The logo of the university is a blue stylized "F" (with triangles echoing the facade structure of the Miséricorde Building and symbolizing the Alps) and the name of the university in Latin.

Notable alumni and faculty

Writers and academics
Patrick Aebischer, former president of the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
Pietro Balestra, Swiss economist specialized in econometrics
Hans Wolfgang Brachinger, German mathematician and econometrician
Mary Daly, feminist theologian and advocate of parthenogenesis
Reiner Eichenberger, Chair of the Center for Public Finance at the University of Fribourg
Lionel Groulx (1878–1967), Québécois priest and historian
Chantal Martin Soelch, Swiss clinical psychologist, academic, and author.
Vincas Mykolaitis, Lithuanian poet and writer
Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, Professor of New Testament at the Ecole Biblique in Jerusalem
Hugo Obermaier, prehistorian and anthropologist
Kazys Pakštas, geographer, founder of Lithuanian Geographical Society
Michel Plancherel, mathematician
Eleanor Purdie (1872–1929), philologist; first woman to obtain a doctorate  from the University of Fribourg
Gonzague de Reynold, writer and academic, author of Cités et pays suisse
Léon Savary, writer and journalist
Csaba Szabo, pharmacologist
Wilhelm Schmidt, Austrian linguist, anthropologist, and ethnologist
Winfried Sebald, German writer
Peter Thullen, mathematician
Peter Trudgill, British sociolinguist and dialectologist
Werner Ulrich, Swiss social scientist and practical philosopher, one of the originators of "critical systems thinking" (CST)
Eliseo Verón, sociologist
Luc E. Weber, Rector Emeritus of the University of Geneva
Jean Zermatten, academic and Chair of U.N. Commission on the Rights of the Child
Maurice Zermatten, writer, winner of the Schiller International Prize

Clergy
Gilberto Agustoni, Prefect Emeritus of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature
Michael Browne O.P., Master General of the Order of Preachers
Georges Cottier, official theologian to the Papal Household (under John Paul II), Secretary of the International Theological Commission
Clemens August Graf von Galen
Bernard Genoud, Bishop of Geneva, Lausanne and Fribourg
Basil Hume, former archbishop of Westminster
Franciszek Macharski, former archbishop of Cracow
Rupert Mayer Blessed, Jesuit critic of the Nationalist Socialist Regime
Peter Hildebrand Meienberg, East African missionary.
Gaspard Mermillod, attended the Jesuit Seminary that was the forerunner of the university; Cardinal Beer takes its name from him
Aloisius Joseph Muench, Bishop of Fargo, North Dakota
Christoph Schönborn, Archbishop of Vienna
Henri Schwery, Bishop of Sion
Angelo Scola, Patriarch of Venice
Prince Max von Sachsen, Bishop, Prince of Saxony and son of King George of Saxony and Donna Maria Anna, the Infanta of Portugal
Dom Henry Wansbrough OSB
Albert Ziegler SJ, Swiss theologian, ethicist and author
Anton Rohner ON, Swiss clergy, philosopher and professor

Politics
Elijah Malok Aleng, former Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Sudan and President of the Bank of Southern Sudan (2005–2011)
Gerard Batliner, former Head of Government (Regierungschef) of Liechtenstein (1962–1970)
Joseph Bech, Luxembourgian politician and 15th Prime Minister of Luxembourg
Juan Carlos I, King of Spain
Corina Casanova, Federal Chancellor of Switzerland 2008–2015
Enrico Celio, President of the Swiss Confederation 1943, 1948
Flavio Cotti, President of the Swiss Confederation 1991, 1998
Joseph Deiss, Federal Chancellor 1999–2006, President of the Swiss Confederation 2004, President of the United Nations General Assembly 2010–11
Kurt Furgler, President of the Swiss Confederation 1977, 1981 and 1985
Martine Brunschwig Graf, Swiss politician, member of the Swiss National Council
Otmar Hasler, Prime Minister of Liechtenstein 2001–09
Hans Hürlimann, President of the Swiss Confederation 1979
Arnold Koller, President of the Swiss Confederation 1990, 1997
Giuseppe Lepori, Federal Chancellor and Consigliere del popolo (M.P.) for Ticino
Richard Thomas McCormack, US Ambassador to the Organization of American States 1985–1989, US Under Secretary of State for Economic and Agricultural Affairs 1989–1991
Ruth Metzler, Federal Chancellor, Member of the Swiss Federal Council 1999–2003, Vice President of the Swiss Confederation 2003
Stanisław Mieroszewski, member of the Imperial Council of Austria
Juli Minoves, Andorran ambassador, plenipotentiary, and political scientist
Ignacy Mościcki, President of Poland 1926–1939
Giuseppe Motta, Federal Chancellor (Swiss Cabinet member) 1911–40 (President of the Swiss Confederation 1915, '20, '27, '32, '37), President of the League of Nations 1924–25
Jean-Marie Musy, Federal Chancellor, Member of the Swiss Federal Council
Albert Pintat, head of the government of Andorra
Bill Press, U.S. political commentator and former Chairman of the Democratic Party of California
Simonetta Sommaruga,  Member of the Swiss Federal Council 2010–present, President of the Swiss Confederation 2015
Ludwig von Moos, President of the Swiss Confederation 1964, 1969
Chaim Weizmann, first President of Israel
Sérgio Vieira de Mello, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 2002-2003 and UN Special Representative for Iraq 2003

Business and economics
 Jean-Marie Ayer co-founder of Dartfish, chairman and CEO 1999–2003
Albert M. Baehny, Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Geberit Group since January 1, 2005
Heinrich Burk, former CEO of ACNielsen
Urs Felber, Swiss industrialist, philanthropist and design pioneer
Stephan Klapproth, Swiss journalist and television presenter
Adolphe Merkle, founder of Vibro-Meter International AG, Adolphe Merkle Foundation
Marc Moret, former Chairman of Sandoz, uncle of Daniel Vasella's wife
Klaus Martin Schwab, German economist, the founder and executive chairman of the World Economic Forum
Arthur Dunkel (1932–2005), Swiss (Portuguese-born) administrator and a professor at the University of Fribourg; director-general of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 1980–1993

Sports
René Fasel, president of the International Ice Hockey Federation
Gianni Infantino, current FIFA president

Architecture
Mario Botta, founder of the Academy of Architecture at Mendrisio (Honoris Causa)

Judiciary
Giusep Nay, president of the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland 2005–2006, 1988–2006
Alois Pfister, member of the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland
Antonin Gregory Scalia, U.S. Justice
Luzius Wildhaber, Swiss judge; first President of the European Court of Human Rights

Media
Andrea Jansen, journalist, Swiss National Television

Arts
Three of the members of the medieval ensemble Freiburger Spielleyt are graduates of the university's early music program.

Royalty
Karl Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern

See also
 List of largest universities by enrollment in Switzerland
 List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945)
 List of universities in Switzerland
 Education in Switzerland
 Bible and Orient Museum
 Science and technology in Switzerland
 List of colleges and universities by country
 List of colleges and universities

Notes and references

External links

 Information's about the University of Fribourg
 See Master of Laws in Cross-Cultural Business Practice, the University of Fribourg's new LL.M Programme

Educational institutions established in 1889
Public universities
Buildings and structures in the canton of Fribourg
University of Fribourg
1889 establishments in Switzerland

University of Fribourg


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ දේශීය ක්ෂීරපායි විශේෂ 91 හඳුනාගෙන ඈත. ඉන් විශේෂ 16 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට ආවේනික වේ. මේ අතර 2007 දී පර්යේෂණ කණ්ඩායමක් සිංහරාජ රක්ෂිත වනාන්තරයෙන් හමුවූ නව හික්-මීයන් විශේෂයක් (Crocidura hikmiya) විස්තර කරන ලද අතර, මේ නව විශේෂය ශ්‍රී ලංකාවෙන් හඳුනා ගත් 17 වෙනි ආවේනික ක්ෂීරපායි විශේෂය වේ.

ගෝත්‍රය ප්‍රයිමේට්: අග්‍රේෂයෝ

ගෝත්‍රය රොඩෙන්ෂියා: මූෂිකයෝ

ගෝත්‍රය සොරිකොමෝෆා: හික් මීයෝ සහ වැලි මීයෝ

ගෝත්‍රය ආටියොඩැක්ටිලා: යුග්ම-කුර සතුන්

ගෝත්‍රය කානිවෝරා: මාංසභක්ෂකයෝ

මූලාශ්‍ර

ශ්‍රී ලංකා‍වට පමණක් ආවේනික සත්තු

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට පමණක් ආවේණික ක්‍ෂීරපායී නාමාවලිය


Monolith Productions, Inc. is an American video game developer based in Kirkland, Washington. The company has been a subsidiary of Warner Bros. Games since August 2004.

History
Monolith Productions was founded on October 25, 1994, by Brian Goble, Brian Waite, Bryan Bouwman, Garrett Price, Jace Hall, Paul Renault, and Toby Gladwell.

Co-founder Brian Goble had this to say regarding the company name.

The company is best known for the Blood, No One Lives Forever and F.E.A.R series. Monolith developed the LithTech game engine which was used for most of their games starting with Shogo: Mobile Armor Division in September 1998. Between 1997 and 1999, Monolith also published games–some developed by the studio, some by third parties.

In 2004, Monolith Productions was acquired by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment (now Warner Bros. Games).

In 2014, the company released the title Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor with a sequel entitled Middle-earth: Shadow of War being released in 2017.

In 2021, the company announced that they are developing a video game starring Wonder Woman.

Video games

Developed

Published

References

External links
Official website
Monolith Productions profile on MobyGames
Monolith Productions entry on Giant Bomb

2004 mergers and acquisitions
Companies based in Kirkland, Washington
American companies established in 1994
Video game companies established in 1994
Video game companies of the United States
Video game development companies
Warner Bros. Games
1994 establishments in Washington (state)

Monolith Productions


محمد تراث نبي  هو فيلم أمريكي تصل مدته إلى ساعتين مزج سيرة النبي محمد مقتصرًا على الروايات الصحيحة بسيرة عائلات وشخصيات إسلامية تصارع البقاء في الولايات المتحدة الأميركية. صديقان يهوديان اعتنقا الإسلام، وحاولا أن يقدما شيءً للدين الجديد الذي آمنا به بعد رحلة طويلة من البحث عن الحقيقة. فقدما هذا الفيلم في إخراج فني راقٍ، وتوزيع درامي مثير للأحداث يغوص إلى أعماق الشخصية الإسلامية، ويمزج الماضي بالحاضر، وكأنه يقول لنا:
«هذا محمد... وهؤلاء أتباع محمد». عرض الفيلم شخصية النبي -- بصورة مؤثرة جدًا، ابتدأت بمسلسل متوالٍ من الأحداث من قُبيل ولادته إلى حين وفاته، يرويها مفكرون ومؤرخون غربيون، ومسلمون مقيمون في الغرب.

القيم الإسلامية

حاول الفيلم أن يوصل حقيقة النبي محمد—بخطاب منطقي هادئ يلامس العقلية الغربية، ويجيب عن كل التساؤلات والشُّبه التي يكثر تداولها في أميركا والغرب بشكل عام بأسلوب منطقي متدرّج مع أحداث السيرة النبوية، كما أن الفيلم لم يكتف فقط بعرض أحداث حياة النبي ، بل أبرز من خلالها القيم الإسلامية الحقيقية التي انبنت عليها شخصية النبي ، ثم ينتقل المشهد بعدها إلى نماذج حية من المسلمين في أميركا تعيش حياتها وفق هذه القيم... قيم الإصلاح والعدل والعطاء والإيجابية والتفاعل.
تولت شبكة (PBS) التلفزيونية الأميركية إنتاج هذا الفيلم الذي استغرق إعداده ثلاث سنوات. ولم يكن الفيلم جديدًا على الساحة الفنية، لكن إساءة الصحيفة الدنماركية للنبي  ساعدت في تسليط الضوء عليه مجددًا، فقد عرض الفيلم لأول مرة في قناة (PBS) يوم الأربعاء 18 من ديسمبر الساعة التاسعة مساءً من عام 2002م، وشاهده الملايين في أميركا وعرض من دون فواصل إعلانية على 340 محطة أميركية مغطيا بذلك 97 في المئة من الولايات المتحدة الأميركية وامكن ساعتها متابعة الفيلم الوثائقي في الوقت ذاته في جنوب كندا.
ترجم الفيلم إلى الكثير من اللغات وبثه في (national geographic channel) في ديسمبر من العام 2003 والتي تغطي قطاعا كبيرا من الولايات المتحدة وكندا بالإضافة إلى الكثير من البلدان الأخرى، وفي 20 يونيو العام 2006 اعيد بث الفيلم على تلفزيون زقهيلثس بتصريح من PBS كما اعيد بثه في جميع أنحاء الدنمارك في الثاني والعشرين من أبريل العام 2006 عقب نشر الرسوم المسيئة عن النبي محمد علاوة على ذلك استعان به المجلس القومي للكنائس فيالولايات المتحدة بغرض شن حملة للمساعدة في تعريف مسيحيي أميركا بالدين الإسلامي
ولإزالة سوء الفهم والحد من الصور الذهنية والنمطية حول الإسلام ونبي الإسلام والمسلمين.

واعيد بث الفيلم أكثر من 500 مرة في مختلف القنوات الأميركية وترجم إلى الكثير من اللغات كما عرض الفيلم في الكثير من الدول ومتوافر في أكثر من 23 الف مدرسة ومكتبة أميركية ولضمان انتشار الفيلم وتحقيقا لغرضه فقد ارسلت نسخة من هذا الفيلم إلى كل سيناتور في جميع أنحاء أميركا وكذلك إلى كل عضومن أعضاء مجلس النواب ووضعت نحو15.000 نسخة من الفيلم في المدارس العامة في جميع أنحاء الولايات المتحدة.
ولقد عرضته آلاف المؤسسات بما فيها الجامعات (على سبيل المثال جامعة هارفرد وجامعة كاليفورنيا وجامعة يال) والمعارض (معرض سميثونيان) والمنظمات والهيئات الدينية (المجلس الوطني للكنائس الأميركية والجمعية الإسلامية لأميركا الشمالية) بالإضافة إلى المؤسسات الأخرى مثل مؤسسة رويترز كونغرس.

تجاهل غريب

وعلى الرغم من الجهل الكبير بالفيلم في البلدان العربية، والتجاهل الغريب من قبل قنوات العالم العربي للفيلم، إلا أنه قوبل بالحماس الشديد من مشاهدي قناة (PBS) حيث وصل إلى البريد الإلكتروني للقناة أكثر من (630.000) رسالة، من نحو373.000 مستخدم فقط في أول شهر من عرضه، علاوة على ذلك فقد تلقى مكتب PBS في واشنطن العاصمة 5000 رسالة في أول أسبوعين من عرض الفيلم بالإضافة إلى آلاف الرسائل الأخرى التي تلقتها المواقع الإلكترونية التابعة للشركات والمؤسسات المشتركة في هذا الفيلم أما في الصحافة الأميركية فجاءت أكثر المراجعات التي كتبت عن الفيلم في أكثر من مئة صحيفة أميركية ايجابية ومتفاعلة مع الإنجاز المتميز وفي شتاء العام 2003 أصبح إصدار الفيديو وإصدار ال DVD من فيلم «محمد: تراث نبي» هما أعلى المبيعات لدى PBS على مدى أشهر عدة.

يهوديان أسلما
مايكل وولف هو صانع الفيلم الأول، ولد لأب يهودي وأم مسيحية، ذهب لإفريقية، كان مهتمًا منذ صغره بقضية العنصرية وتأثيراتها على البشرية، اضطر للعيش في إفريقية ثلاث سنوات، وهناك لاحظ أن لا وجود للعرقية.. فلا فرق بين الأسود والأوروبي.. حيث الإسلام وحّدهم.
في منتصف العشرينات من عمره ذهب للمغرب وهناك كانت بداية إسلامه.قائلًا: «كان الحج أبرز شيء جذبني للإسلام قبل أن أُسلم. وعندما أصبحت مسلماً بعد عشرين عاماً من التفكير في الأمر كان أول ما أردت فعله هو الذهاب للحج، وعندما طفت حول الكعبة -لأول مرة- كنت في حالة
انبهار، أنت في الواقع تضع الله في مركز حياتك».أما صديقه الآخر (ألكسندر كرونمر Alexander Kronemer) فلم تختلف حياته هو الآخر عن حياة صديقه، اعتنق الإسلام بعد عملية بحث عن الحقيقة يقولها عن نفسه بعد مراجعة لفيلم «آلام المسيح». ألكسندر أحد صناع فيلم محمد وهو مؤلف ومحاضر وصانع لأفلام وثائقية في الإسلام وحوار الحضارات.ولد ألكسندر لأب يهودي وأم مسيحية، كتب العديد من المقالات في مختلف الصحف
الأميركية وحاضر في عدد من المحاضرات عن الإسلام خاصة بعد أحداث الحادي عشر من سبتمبر.أما Michael Schwarz (مايكل شيرز) وهو مخرج هذا الفيلم له خبرة طويلة في مجال الإخراج التلفزيوني تزيد على العشرين عامًا، بعد ذلك انتقل للعمل كصانع لأفلام وثائقية لقناة (PBS)،
درس في ماليزيا وسنغافورة في صناعة التقارير المصورة.
قامت شركة (Kikim Media) بإنتاج الفيلم وهي شركة متخصصة من عشرين سنة في التحقيقات الصحفية، مستخدمة أحدث التقنيات الفنية المتوفرة من إنترنت أو تلفزيون، مع متابعة دقيقة لصحة المعلومات. شعارها «قصة حقيقية، تُنشر بصدق، يمكنها أن تغير في حياة الناس».
وشارك في إنتاج الفيلم (Unity Productions Foundation) (UPF) وهي منظمة غير ربحية تُعنى بإنتاج أفلام عن الثقافات في العالم، وبالأخص الروحية منها لزيادة التفاهم والتعاون بين شعوب العالم، ويُعدّ هذا الفيلم هو الأول من إنتاجها. يُذكر أن عائلة القرشي السعودية ذات المشاريع التجارية قد ساهمت في دعم هذا الفيلم، وهي كما سماها الفيلم: (The Qureishi Family نتج عن عرض الفيلم مشروع (the islam project) الذي يُعنى بتنشيط الوعي الإسلامي في جميع القطاعات الاجتماعية وبإشراف أكثر من منظمة، وقد صرحت منظمة (Active Voice)
وهي تحت مظلة (PBS) أنه من أنجح البرامج التي وصلت إلى جمهور كبير، ولا يزال هذا المشروع قائمًا. كما أُرفق مع الفيلم خدمة إضافية تعرض خطوات الحج خطوة، خطوة عن طريق الفلاش.

بيئة مكة
يبدأ الفيلم بتوصيف سريع لبيئة مكة قبيل بعثة النبي ، حيث كانت الجزيرة العربية تواجه إعصار الفناء، والثارات الداخلية، والجوع، والخرافة، وكانت القبيلة أكثر الأشياء قداسة عند العرب، لكن النبي محمد جاء وأعطاهم الأمل والأمان من جديد، والآن يتبعه مليار ومائتا مليون مسلم، في أميركا وحدها سبعة ملايين مسلم. تتوزع سيرة النبي  بترتيب متناسق ينساب بين متحدثين رئيسين في الفيلم منهم (آرمستونج) مؤلفة كتاب «محمد»، والداعية حمزة يوسف، والبريفسور شريف بسيوني، وأستاذ الدراسات الإسلامية سيد حسين، و (جون فول) أستاذ التاريخ الإسلامي... وتبدأ السيرة بولادته  مرورًا بالأحداث الكبرى في حياته: رحلاته التجارية إلى الشام، ومن ثم زواجه بخديجة -رضي الله عنها- إلى خلواته في الصحراء وغار حراء حين نزل الوحي عليه، وكانت نقطة التحول الكبرى.

يتوقف الفيلم مع قصة إطفائي أميركي مقيم في الولايات المتحدة، قادته عنصرية أميركا إلى التفكير في الإسلام حتى وجد فيه حياته. ثم يعود المشهد إلى حياة النبي ، حيث وصلت إلى أوائل أيام الدعوة، في مرحلة «وأنذر عشيرتك الأقربين»، ومن مراحل الإنذار والصدع بالدعوة، يتوقف الفيلم ليجيب عن سؤال: ما هو القرآن؟ ليفصل في الجواب طرق نزول الوحي على النبي ، وكيف كان النبي يلقيه على أصحابه ثم يدونه كتّأب الوحي. وفي ذات السياق تقول المؤرخة «آرمستونج»: لقد كان القرآن مؤثرًا وساحرًا ليس فقط في محتواه، بل في جماله الذي يؤثر في غير الناطقين بالعربية أيضًا.

الإنسان الكامل

وتضيف: على الرغم من هذا الوحي الذي يأتي عن طريق الاتصال الإلهي كان محمد يحرص دائمًا على التأكيد على عدم ألوهيته، وطالما حذّر أتباعه من أن يفعلوا به ما فعله المسيحيون مع عيسى، المسلمون أخذوا الأمر بجدية، لكنهم يرون في محمد الإنسان الكامل الذي تجسد
الإسلام من خلاله. ثم ينتقل الفيلم إلى مشهد آخر فبعد المضايقات التي لاقاها النبي  في وبعد سنوات الحصار الشديدة التي عانى منها المسلمون في مكة، ومن ثم وفاة عمه أبو طالب وزوجته خديجة، وبعد ثلاث عشرة سنة من الدعوة ولم تزد الأمور إلا سوء، كان ينتظر الرسول  أعظم تجربة في حياته كنبي، وهي الإسراء والمعراج.

بعد تفصيل لحادثة الإسراء المعراج، يتحول الفيلم إلى حدث آخر من أهم أحداث السيرة النبوية وهي الهجرة إلى المدينة، وفيها بدأت الدولة الإسلامية الأولى، وجاء الإذن المحدود بالقتال والدفاع عن النفس، ليخوض الفيلم في تفاصيل أكبر الغزوات التي تعرض لها المسلمون، وهي غزوة بدر، وغزوة أحد، وغزوة الخندق... لكنه يتوقف بعدها مع المفهوم الخاطئ للجهاد الذي قاد إلى عمليات
الحادي عشر من سبتمبر، مدعمًا هذا الحديث بمشاهد من معاناة الجالية المسلمة في أميركا بعد حادث تفجير مركز التجارة العالمي.

يستمر الفيلم في طريقة المزج المميزة بين تفاصيل السيرة النبوية والقيم الإسلامية العميقة في الشخصية الإسلامية المعاصرة، إضافة إلى نماذج حية من مسلمين مقيمين في أميركا.ويصل الفيلم إلى حجة الوداع، وبتوصيف إنساني بديع يعرض الفيلم آخر اللحظات في حياة النبي  التي بدأت واضحة من خلال كلماته في خطبته في حجة الوداع، ومن ثم عودته إلى المدينة وبداية معاناته مع المرض.

فكرة الفيلم

ذكر «الكس كرونيمر» منتج الفيلم في تصريحات لموقع «سويس انفو» عن الإنترنت يوم الثلاثاء 17/12/2002 ان فكرة إنتاج هذا الشريط راودته عندما كان يشارك في شبكة CNN في تغطية شعائر الحج العام 1998 وعلم أن تلك التغطية تابعها رقم قياسي من المشاهدين في أنحاء العالم وصل إلى أكثر من 600 مليون مشاهد.

بعد عودة كرونيمر من تغطية شعائر الحج، اتصل بصديقه الكاتب الأميركي المسلم «مايكل وولف»، واتفقا على الشروع في جمع الأموال اللازمة لإنتاج فيلم خاص عن حياة النبي محمد وتراثه الخالد، وكيف أنه تمكن من تغيير تاريخ العالم خلال 23 عاما، وما زال يواصل التأثير العميق في حياة ألف ومائتي مليون مسلم في العالم. ويستهدف الفيلم -كما يوضح كرونيمر- تعريف الشعب الأميركي والمشاهدين في الغرب بحقيقة الإسلام، بعيدا عن الصور النمطية السلبية التي تُروِّج لها هوليود أحيانا.

كل عناصر التشويق

من خلال معرفة كرونيمر كمحاضر وكاتب بما يعجب الجمهور الأميركي في طريقة السرد، وإعجاب الأميركيين بقصص النجاح الشخصي والتغلب على الصعاب والتحديات، وجد الكاتب ألكس كرونيمر في حياة وسيرة الرسول محمد كل عناصر التشويق من خلال صعود سلم النجاح الشخصي لطفل وُلِد يتيما في مجتمع قبلي لم يكن يبشر بفرصة له في الارتقاء، ومع ذلك تمكن من خلال أمانته وكرم أخلاقه وإخلاصه في العمل أن يصبح أعظم شخصية في التاريخ البشري.

أضاف كرونيمر أن سيرة النبي محمد تُجسِّد كذلك الصراع بين الخير والشر، وبين التوحيد والشرك، وهي قصة مألوفة لدى غالبية المسيحيين من خلال قصص النبيين موسى وداود وغيرهما. لذلك سيسهل عليهم استيعاب سيرة كفاح النبي محمد. كان التحدي الكبير الذي واجه منتجي الفيلم هو كيفية تقديم قصة حياة النبي محمد في فيلم على الشاشة دون عرض أماكن حياته والشخصيات الرئيسية من الصحابة. لم يكن من المناسب الاكتفاء باستخدام مناظر خلابة للصحراء في مكة ولقطات بارعة للشروق والغروب على رمال تلك
الصحراء، ولمشاهد طواف ملايين الحجاج حول الكعبة الشريفة؛ لذلك طرأت لمنتج الفيلم فكرة أن يتم تعريف المشاهدين بحياة الرسول وسنته من خلال الأثر الباقي لتراثه في حياة المسلمين، وخصوصا المسلمين في الولايات المتحدة وتجاربهم.

في أول نصف ساعة من الفيلم الذي تبلغ مدته حوالي ساعتين، يمزج مخرج الفيلم بطريقة ماهرة بين صوت الراوي ومشاهد للمسلمين من كافة الأجناس حول الكعبة، يجمعهم صوت مؤذن يدعو للصلاة، ويتخلل الحقائق المنسابة بصوت الراوي مقاطع من تعليقات المؤرخين وخبراء الأديان وأساتذة مرموقين في الدراسات الإسلامية. من هؤلاء المعلقين البروفيسور «جون فول» أستاذ الدراسات الإسلامية بجامعة «جورج تاون» الأميركية، والدكتور شريف بسيوني المصري الأميركي مؤلف كتاب «مقدمة إلى الإسلام» الصادر عام 89 الذي يشرح فيه جوانب مختلفة من السيرة النبوية، والعلاقة بين الديانات الثلاثة. والمؤرخة البريطانية «كارين أرمسترونج» التي أشارت إلى أن النبي محمد تمكن خلال 23 عاما منذ نزول الوحي عليه من تحويل شبه الجزيرة العربية من ساحة للمعارك والمصادمات القبلية الشرسة إلى مجتمع يسوده الأمن والأمان، سرعان ما انطلقت منه شعلة الحضارة الإسلامية إلى العالم أجمع.

نماذج من مسلمي أميركا

من خلال عدد من الشخصيات العادية من المسلمين الأميركيين، يتعرف المشاهد الأميركي على مبادئ الديانة الإسلامية من خلال القرآن والسنة النبوية، مثل وحدانية الخالق، وأنه إذا كان المؤمن مطيعا لربه فيجب أن يكون في خدمة عبادة، وأن المسلمين يتحملون مسؤولية إنصاف المظلومين وإحقاق الحق، وأنه من خلال الأعمال الصالحة يتحمل المؤمن مسؤولية اختيار طريق النجاة، وأنه إذا أراد المسلم إصلاح المجتمع الذي يعيش فيه فعليه أن يبدأ بنفسه أولا من خلال جهاد النفس.

من الشخصيات التي تقابلنا خلال الفيلم «كبفين جيمس» ضابط المطافئ في مدينة نيويورك الذي دخل إلى الإسلام في شبابه، والمهندس المعماري «ديزي خان» الذي نظم برنامجا للفنانين المسلمين يردون فيه على الحملة التي شُنت ضد المسلمين بعد أحداث 11 سبتمبر2001،
و«نجاح بازي» ممرضة العناية المركزية في ديربورن. رغم أن هذه المقابلات صرفت الانتباه عن سرد تاريخ حياة الرسول فإنها زودت المشاهدين بالعناصر الرئيسية التي تفسر وتشرح تراث النبي. باستخدام لوحات الخط العربي التي رسمها الفنان الأميركي المسلم محمد زكريا يتعرف من يشاهد الفيلم الوثائقي الجديد على مآثر خالدة من توصيات الرسول الكريم التي تعيش يوميا في ممارسات المسلمين الحياتية كقوله «يسر ولا تعسر»، و«لا ضرر ولا ضرار».

تصحيح المفاهيم

يُعتبر هذا الفيلم بالنسبة للأميركيين غير المسلمين منجما ذهبيا يتعرفون من خلاله على بساطة النبي وأمانته التي تظهر من خلال عرض حياته. ويطول التعليق المصاحب للفيلم أحيانًا؛ في محاولة لتصحيح بعض المفاهيم الخاطئة الشائعة عن الإسلام؛ حيث يتبع الفيلم مسارا جميلا بين المهارة في تحليل وشرح الصور الشائعة عن المسلمين؛ مثل: لماذا منح الله للرجل المسلم أن يتزوج 4 نساء، وكذلك شرح مفهوم الجهاد. وفي الواقع فإن مدة الفيلم التي تبلغ ساعتين ليست كافية لتصحيح المفاهيم الخاطئة عن الإسلام، بالإضافة لسرد قصة النبي، لكن المؤلف «مايكل وولف» أحد منتجي الفيلم يقول في مقابلة خاصة لشبكة «إسلام أون لاين.نت» الثلاثاء 17-12-2002: «هذا برنامج وثائقي تلفزيوني، وواجهتنا في إنتاجه تحديات كثيرة.. حيث كنا في حاجة لضغط المادة وانتقاء المعلومات».
وتابع وولف: «إن الفيلم الذي استغرق إعداده 4 أعوام كان من الممكن أن يصبح أفضل كثيرا لو كان لدينا عامان آخران.. وأتمنى أن يفتح الفيلم الطريق للآخرين، ويشجعهم على عمل أفلام أفضل منه».

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

نبذة عن الفيلم

الإسلام في 2002
أفلام أمريكية في عقد 2000
أفلام إنتاج 2002
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية 2002
أفلام تلفزيونية 2002
أفلام عن محمد
أفلام وثائقية أمريكية
أفلام وثائقية عن الإسلام

محمد تراث نبي (فيلم)


Boomer Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Boomer Township (Iowa)
 Boomer Township (North Carolina)

Boomer Township


{{Infoboks tidligere land
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Den fyrstendømmet Catalonien (Catalansk: Principat de Catalunya, Latin: Principatus Cathaloniæ, Occitansk: Principautat de Catalonha, Fransk: Principauté de Catalogne, Spansk: Principado de Cataluña) var en af de middelalderlige og tidligt moderne politiske enhed eller staten i den nordøstlige Iberiske Halvø. Under det meste af sin historie var det i dynastiske union med Kongeriget Aragonien, der udgør Aragoniens krone. Mellem 13 og 18 århundreder var omkranset af Kongeriget Aragonien til vesten, Kongeriget Valencia mod syd, Kongeriget Frankrig og de feudale herredømme Andorra mod nord og Middelhavet mod øst. Udtrykket "Fyrstendømmet Catalonien" forblev i brug indtil den Anden spanske republik, når brugen faldt på grund af dens historiske forhold til monarkiet. I dag er udtrykket Principat (Fyrstendømmet) bruges primært til at henvise til den selvstyrende region i Catalonien i Spanien, som adskiller sig fra de Catalanske Lande. og som regel også den historiske region Roussillon i det sydlige Frankrig.

De amter, der ville i sidste ende gøre op Fyrstendømmet Catalonien var efterhånden samlet under reglen om Greven af Barcelona. I 1137, Grevskabet Barcelona og Kongeriget Aragonien blev samlet under en enkelt dynastiet, skabe, hvad moderne historikere Aragoniens krone; men, Aragonien og Catalonien har bevaret deres egen politiske struktur og juridiske traditioner. På grund af disse juridiske forskelle og deres brug af forskellige sprog—Aragoniske og catalanske—en officiel anerkendelse af den catalanske Amter som en selvstændig politisk enhed med sine egne institutioner, love og politiske fællesskab blev nødvendigt. Under Alfons jeg Troubador (regerede 1164-1196), Catalonien blev betragtet som en juridisk enhed, for første gang. Stadig udtrykket Fyrstendømmet Catalonien var ikke anvendes lovligt, indtil det 14 århundrede, da det blev anvendt til de territorier, der er fastslået af Domstolene i Catalonien.

Dens institutionelle system har udviklet sig gennem århundreder, om oprettelse af organer (som Corts Catalanes eller Generalitat) og lovgivning (Constitucions, der stammer fra Usatges af Barcelona), som begrænsede den kongelige magt og sikret den politiske model af "pactism". Catalonien har bidraget til yderligere at udvikle Kronen handel og militære, de fleste betydeligt, deres flåde. Catalanske sprog blomstrede og udvidet, efterhånden som flere områder blev tilføjet til Kronen, herunder Valencia, de Baleariske Øer, Sardinien, Sicilien, Napoli og Athen, der udgør en thalassokrati over Middelhavet. Den krise af det 14 århundrede, i slutningen af reglen i Hus i Barcelona (1410) og en borgerkrig (1462-1472) svækkede rolle i Fyrstendømmet i internationale anliggender.

Ægteskabet af Ferdinand 2. af Aragonien og Isabella 1. af Castilien i 1469, at grundlaget for Monarkiet i Spanien. I 1492 den spanske kolonisering af Amerika begyndte, og den politiske magt begyndte at flytte væk i retning af Castilien. Spændingerne mellem de catalanske institutioner og Monarkiet, sammen med de bønder oprør provokerede Angreb' Krig (1640-1659). Ved Traktat af Pyrenæerne den Roussillon blev afstået til Frankrig. Under Krigen om den spanske arvefølgekrig (1701-1714), Aragonien støttet Ærkehertug Karl af Habsburg. Efter overgivelsen af Barcelona i 1714, kong Filip 5. af Bourbon, som er inspireret af den model der i Frankrig indført abolutism og en samlende administration på tværs af Spanien, undertrykke Aragonien og vedtaget Nueva Planta dekreter, der forbyder de vigtigste catalanske politiske institutioner og rettigheder og indgå i Kronen af Castilien som en provins.

Se også
 Cataloniens historie

Noter

Catalonien
Spaniens historie
Catalonien

Fyrstendømmet Catalonien


Henrik Schück (2 de novembro de 1855 - 3 de outubro de 1947) foi um historiador literário, professor universitário e escritor sueco.

Biografia
Johan Henrik Emil Schück foi professor na Universidade de Lund de 1890 a 1898. Ele foi professor na Universidade de Uppsala de 1898 a 1920 e depois reitor de 1905 a 1918. Ele foi membro da Academia Sueca de 1913 a 1947, ocupando a cadeira 3. Ele serviu como membro do Comitê Nobel da academia de 1920 a 1947. 1936. Foi Presidente do Conselho da Fundação Nobel 1918–1929. Ele também foi membro da Real Academia Sueca de Letras, História e Antiguidades e da Real Academia Sueca de Ciências.

Em 1880 Schück foi um dos fundadores da Sociedade Sueca de Literatura em Uppsala. Ele desenvolveu uma reputação como um dos principais pesquisadores históricos literários. Trabalhou no desenvolvimento de estudos de literatura histórica com o professor universitário e bibliotecário da Biblioteca Nobel da Academia Sueca, Karl Johan Warburg (1852-1918). Eles editaram a Illustrerad svensk litteraturhistoria que cobre a literatura sueca para o período até 1870. Ele também escreveu uma série de biografias de figuras históricas, incluindo Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson, Olaus Petri, Rei Gustav III, bem como William Shakespeare.

Obras selecionadas

 William Schakspere, hans lif och verksamhet, (1883-1884)
 Skrifter i svensk litteraturhistoria, (1887)
 Våra äldsta historiska folkvisor, (1891)
 Lars Wivallius, hans lif och dikter, 2 vol., (1893–95)
 Allmän litteraturhistoria, (várias versões)
 Bidrag até svensk bokhistoria, (1900)
 Engelbrekt (1915)
 Illustrerad svensk litteraturhistoria, três volumes; com Karl Warburg (1917-18)

Referências

Fontes

 Johannesson, Hans-Erik e Lars Lönnroth (1990) Den Svenska Litteraturen VII ISBN 91-34-51422-8
 Este artigo é total ou parcialmente baseado em material de Nordisk familjebok, Schück, Johan Henrik Emil 1855-1947.

Links externos

 Henrik Schück
 LIBRIS - Nationella bibliotekssystem

Escritores da Suécia
Alunos da Universidade de Uppsala

Henrik Schück


R je programski jezik i programsko okruženje za statističke izračune i grafikone. R je izvedba S programskog jezika inspirirana Scheme-om. Originalni tvorci R-a su Ross Ihaka i Robert Gentleman sa sveučilišta Auckland na Novom Zelandu, a sada ga razvija R Development Core Team.

Jezik R postao je standard među statističarima i široko se koristi za razvoj statističkog softvera i analizu podataka.

R je dio GNU projekta. Izvorni je kod besplatan i pod uvjetima GNU General Public Licence, a unaprijed sastavljene binarne verzije nude se za različite operativne sustave. R koristi sučelje naredbenog retka, ali postoji i više grafičkih korisničkih sučelja.

Povijest
R je implementacija programskog jezika S nadahnuta programskim jezikom Scheme. S je razvio John Chambers 1976. godine za vrijeme rada u Bell Labs. Postoje razlike između dva prethodno spomenuta programska jezika, međutim velik dio koda napisanog za "S" stoji nepromijenjen. R su razvili Ross Ihaka i Robert Gentleman sa Sveučilišta Auckland na Novom Zelandu, a trenutno ga nadograđuje i razvija R Development Core Team. R je dobio ime po dvojici izvornih autora, a dijelom i kao igra riječi, jer je S naziv programskog jezika na temelju kojeg je nastao R. Projekt je započeo 1992. godine, prva verzija objavljena je 1995. godine, a stabilna beta verzija 2000.

Značajke
R pruža širok raspon statističkih (linearni i nelinearni modeli, klasični statistički testovi, analiza vremenskih serija, klasifikacije, klasteri, itd.) i grafičkih tehnika. R je dizajniran kao pravi programski jezik, a korisnicima omogućuje dodatne funkcije definiranjem novih funkcija. Postoji nekoliko važnih razlika, ali R može koristiti velik dio nepromijenjenog S koda. Većina R-ovog sustava također je napisana na ovom jeziku, što korisnicima olakšava oblikovanje algoritama. Za zahtjevne zadatke mogu se povezati i pokrenuti C, C ++ i Fortran kod. Napredni korisnici mogu napisati C kôd za izravno upravljanje R objektima.

R se može proširiti putem korisničkih paketa koji omogućuju upotrebu specijaliziranih statističkih alata. Budući da je inspiriran S-om, R ima bolju podršku za objektno orijentirano programiranje od ostalih statističkih programskih jezika. Proširivost R-a također je olakšana jezičnim rasponom.

Još jedna prednost Ra-a su njegove grafičke mogućnosti, koje pružaju grafiku dovoljno dobre kvalitete za objavljivanje u publikacijama koja uključuje matematičke simbole. R ima vlastiti format dokumenta poput LaTeX- a, koji se koristi za predstavljanje sveobuhvatne dokumentacije, putem Interneta u brojnim formatima ili u tiskanom obliku.

Osim kao okruženje za statističke izračune i razvoj softvera, R se također može koristiti kao općeniti alat za izračunavanje matrica izvedbe usporedive s GNU Octave i MATLAB-om. Sučelje RWeka dodano je popularnom Weka softveru za rudarenje podataka koji omogućuje mogućnost pisanja i čitanja u arff formatu.

R paketi
Mogućnosti R-a proširuju se pomoću takozvanih paketa koje izrađuju i objavljuju korisnici, a koji omogućuju upotrebu specijaliziranih statističkih alata, alata za grafički prikaz (npr. Ggplot2), alate za uvoz / izvoz podataka, za izradu izvješća (knitr, Sweave) itd. Ovi su paketi razvijeni prvenstveno u R-u, ali ponekad se u razvoju koriste i Java, C ili Fortran.

Primjeri

Osnovna sintaksa
Sljedeći primjer prikazuje osnovnu sintaksu i upotrebu naredbenog retka.

Prilikom unosa koda poželjno je koristiti strelice sastavljene od dva znaka <-, ali je moguće koristiti i znakove jednakosti =.

> x <- 1:6 # Create a numeric vector in the current environment
> y <- x^2 # Create vector based on the values in x.
> print(y) # Print the vector's contents.
[1] 1 4 9 16 25 36

> z <- x + y # Create a new vector that is the sum of x and y
> z # return the contents of z to the current environment.
[1] 2 6 12 20 30 42

> z_matrix <- matrix(z, nrow=3) # Create a new matrix that turns the vector z into a 3x2 matrix object
> z_matrix
     [,1] [,2]
[1,]    2 20
[2,]    6 30
[3,]   12 42

> 2*t(z_matrix)-2 # Transpose the matrix, multiple every element by 2, subtract 2 from each element in the matrix, and return the results to the terminal.
     [,1] [,2] [,3]
[1,]    2 10 22
[2,]   38 58 82

> new_df <- data.frame(t(z_matrix), row.names=c('A','B')) # Create a new data.frame object that contains the data from a transposed z_matrix, with row names 'A' and 'B'
> names(new_df) <- c('X','Y','Z') # set the column names of new_df as X, Y, and Z.
> print(new_df)  #print the current results.
   X Y Z
A 2 6 12
B 20 30 42

> new_df$Z #output the Z column
[1] 12 42

> new_df$Z==new_df['Z'] && new_df[3]==new_df$Z # the data.frame column Z can be accessed using $Z, ['Z'], or [3] syntax, and the values are the same.
[1] TRUE

> attributes(new_df) #print attributes information about the new_df object
$names
[1] "X" "Y" "Z"

$row.names
[1] "A" "B"

$class
[1] "data.frame"

> attributes(new_df)$row.names <- c('one','two') ## access and then change the row.names attribute; can also be done using rownames()
> new_df
     X Y Z
one 2 6 12
two 20 30 42

Funkcije
Jedna od prednosti R-a je lakoća stvaranja novih funkcija. Objekti ostaju lokalni za funkciju i mogu se vratiti u bilo koji tip podataka.
# Declare function "f" with parameters "x", "y"
# that returns a linear combination of x and y.
f <- function(x, y) {
  z <- 3 * x + 4 * y
  return(z) # the return() function is optional here
}
> f(1, 2)
[1] 11

> f(c(1,2,3), c(5,3,4))
[1] 23 18 25

> f(1:3, 4)
[1] 19 22 25

Modeliranje i grafički prikazi
R ima ugrađenu podršku za modeliranje podataka i grafiku. Sljedeći primjer prikazuje kako R može lako generirati i iscrtati linearni model.

> x <- 1:6 # Create x and y values
> y <- x^2
> model <- lm(y ~ x)  # Linear regression model y = A + B * x.
> summary(model)  # Display an in-depth summary of the model.

Call:
lm(formula = y ~ x)

Residuals:
      1 2 3 4 5 6
 3.3333 -0.6667 -2.6667 -2.6667 -0.6667 3.3333

Coefficients:
            Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept)  -9.3333 2.8441  -3.282 0.030453 *
x 7.0000 0.7303 9.585 0.000662 ***
---
Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1

Residual standard error: 3.055 on 4 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared:  0.9583, Adjusted R-squared:  0.9478
F-statistic: 91.88 on 1 and 4 DF,  p-value: 0.000662

> par(mfrow = c(2, 2))  # Create a 2 by 2 layout for figures.
> plot(model)  # Output diagnostic plots of the model.

Mandelbrotov skup
Sljedeći primjer prikazuje R kod koji izračunava Mandelbrotov skup kroz prvih 20 ponavljanja jednadžbe z = z2 + c za različite konstante c.

Osim toga, ovaj primjer prikazuje:
 korištenje vanjskih knjižnica koje su razvile zajednice (zvane paketi), u ovom slučaju caTools paket
 višedimenzionalne nizove brojeva koji se koriste kao osnovni tip podataka, pogledajte varijable C, Z i X.

install.packages("caTools")  # install external package
library(caTools)             # external package providing write.gif function
jet.colors <- colorRampPalette(c("red", "blue", "#007FFF", "cyan", "#7FFF7F",
                                 "yellow", "#FF7F00", "red", "#7F0000"))
dx <- 1500                    # define width
dy <- 1400                    # define height
C  <- complex(real = rep(seq(-2.2, 1.0, length.out = dx), each = dy),
              imag = rep(seq(-1.2, 1.2, length.out = dy), dx))
C <- matrix(C, dy, dx)       # reshape as square matrix of complex numbers
Z <- 0                       # initialize Z to zero
X <- array(0, c(dy, dx, 20)) # initialize output 3D array
for (k in 1:20) {            # loop with 20 iterations
  Z <- Z^2 + C               # the central difference equation
  X[,, k] <- exp(-abs(Z))   # capture results
}
write.gif(X, "Mandelbrot.gif", col = jet.colors, delay = 100)

Sučelje

Grafičko korisničko sučelje
 RKWard - proširivo grafičko korisničko sučelje i integrirano razvojno okruženje okruženje za R.
 RStudio - međuplatformsko integrirano razvojno okruženje otvorenog koda (također se može pokrenuti na Linux poslužitelju).
 Deducer - grafičko korisničko sučelje za analizu podataka (slično SPSS / JMP / Minitab).
 Java GUI for R - Nezavisni R terminal i uređivač koji se temelji na Javi (poznat i kao JGR).
 Rattle GUI - cross-platform grafičko korisničko sučelje otvorenog koda zasnovano na RGtk2 (R za Gimp Tool Kit).
 R Commander - višeplatformsko grafičko korisničko sučelje zasnovano na tcltk.
 RExcel - povezivanje aplikacije Microsoft Excel s programskim jezikom R.
 RGUI - dolazi s prekompajliranom verzijom R-a za Microsoft Windows.
 RWe - omogućuje rudarenje podataka pomoću Weka i statističku analizu u R-u.
 Tinn-R - program otvorenog koda koji uključuje razvojno okruženje s isticanjem sintakse, slično, na primjer MATLAB-u. Tinn-R dostupan je samo za Microsoft Windows.
 R Tools for Visual Studio - dodatak za Microsoft Visual Studio, koji omogućuje upotrebu R jezika.

Jezici skriptiranja

R funkcije su dostupne u nekoliko skriptnih jezika kao što su Python (RPY paket), Perl (Statistics::R modul), Ruby (RSRuby knjižnica) i F # (R Type Provider). Skriptiranje je moguće i putem Littlera te RDEMO-a.

useR! konferencije
Službeno godišnje okupljanje korisnika R naziva se "useR!". Prva takva konferencija održana je u Austriji u svibnju 2004. godine. Konferencija nije održana 2005. godine, ali se zato održaval svake naredne godine, obično naizmjenično između lokacija u Europi i Sjevernoj Americi. Lista održanih konferencija:

 useR! 2006., Beč, Austrija
 useR! 2007., Ames, Iowa, SAD
 useR! 2008., Dortmund, Njemačka
 useR! 2009., Rennes, Francuska
 useR! 2010., Gaithersburg, Maryland, SAD
 useR! 2011., Coventry, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo
 useR! 2012., Nashville, Tennessee, SAD
 useR! 2013., Albacete, Španjolska
 useR! 2014., Los Angeles, Kalifornija, SAD
 useR! 2015., Aalborg, Danska
 useR! 2016., Stanford, Kalifornija, SAD
 useR! 2017., Bruxelles, Belgija
 useR! 2018., Brisbane, Australija
 useR! 2019., Toulouse, Francuska
 useR! 2020., St. Louis, Missouri, SAD (održano online zbog pandemije COVID-19)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Službena stranica R-a

Programski jezici

R (programski jezik)


Calycinerne (fra gr. kalyks, bæger, krater) er en strukturel superfamilie af proteiner, der har en fælles 3D struktur baseret på en beta-barrel, men den strukturelle lighed fremgår dog ikke direkte af de primære aminosyre-sekvenser. Den fælles struktur medfører sammenlignelige funktioner: Binding og transport af hydrofobe molekyler.
På grundlag af funktion og lokalisering skelnes mellem tre distinkte grupper calyciner: Lipocaliner,  FABPs (fatty acid-binding proteins, fedtsyre-bindende proteiner) og avidiner.

Lipocaliner
Lipocalinerne udgør en varieret og voksende familie af hovedsagelig små secernerede proteiner. De har en høj affinitet og selektivitet for hydrofobe molekyler og er generelt betragtet som extracellulære transport-proteiner, som f.eks. RBP (det retinol-bindende protein), der transporterer retinol (en form af vitamin A i blodet til mål-cellerne.

FABP
De fedtsyre-bindende proteiner (FABPs) er næste eksklusivt intracellulære proteiner, der binder hydrofobe molekyler, der indgår i lipid-metabolismen. Disse proteiner er f.eks. cRBP, det cellulære retinol-bindende protein, der transporterer retinol inde i cellen.

Avidiner
Avidiner som f.eks. streptavidin, et lille opløsligt protein fra bakterien Streptomyces avidinii, og dets homolog, æggehvide-proteinet avidin, er proteiner med en bemærkelsesværdig høj affinitet for vitaminet biotin såvel som andre hydrofobe ligander.

Den fælles struktur
Den fælles struktur er domineret af en beta-barrel  med otte antiparallelle beta-kæder som kan binde og holde et hydrofobt molekyle.  FABP består dog of en beta-barrel med to antiparallelle beta-kæder. Beta-kæderne benævnes ofte A-H.

I modsætning til de membranbundne proteiner med en struktur baseret på beta-barrel, vender calycinerne de hydrofobe aminosyre-rester indad og de hydrofile aminosyre-rester udad.

Eksterne links og henvisninger

 The avidin-biotin system
Proteiner

Calycin


El Gran Premio Donetsk (oficialmente: Grand Prix of Donetsk) es una carrera ciclista profesional ucraniana que se disputa en Donetsk y sus alrededores.

Creada en 2007 como carrera amateur por etapas, desde el 2009 pasó a ser carrera de un día formando parte del UCI Europe Tour, dentro de la categoría 1.2 (última categoría del profesionalismo).

Palmarés
En amarillo: edición amateur.

Palmarés por países

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Gran Premio Donetsk (sitiodeciclismo.net)
 Gran Premio Donetsk (cqranking.com)

Donetsk
Donetsk
Deporte en Donetsk
Donetsk

Gran Premio Donetsk


Bimöhlen er en by og en kommune i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Bad Bramstedt-Land i
den vestlige del af Kreis Segeberg. Kreis Segeberg ligger i den sydøstlige del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.

Geografi
Bimöhlen ligger omkring fire kilometer øst for Bad Bramstedt og tolv kilometer syd for Neumünster. Motorvejen A7 fra Hamborg mod Flensburg går gennem den vestlige del af kommunen.

Bebyggelsen Hof Weide og en del af Wildpark Eekholt ligger i kommunens område, som er en del af landskabet Holsteiner Auenland.

Åen Osterau som kan besejles med kano går gennem kommunen, og en del af ådalen udgør habitatområdet "Osterautal" . Hasenmoor i den sydlige del af kommunen er Naturschutzgebiet.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Kommunens websted
 Statistikamt Nord – Bevölkerung der Gemeinden in Schleswig-Holstein 4. Quartal 2014 (XLSX-Data) (Fortschreibung auf Basis des Zensus 2011)

Byer i Slesvig-Holsten
Kommuner i Slesvig-Holsten
Byer i Kreis Segeberg

Bimöhlen


Et Normalår eller normalt år er det, man forbinder med et normalt kalenderår, dvs. et år med 365 kalenderdage og intet andet. Normalår er med andre ord nøje forbundet med den periode, det tager for Jorden at fuldføre et helt kredsløb omkring Solen.

I den nutidige, gregorianske kalender, har normalåret 365 dage. Dette står i modsætning til de såkaldte skudår, som har 366 dage. Denne uregelmæssighed skyldes den kendsgerning, at jordens omløbstid ikke – som man plejer at sige – varer 365 døgn, men i stedet 365,242181 døgn (status pr. 1/1 2000 ). Kalenderen giver plads til den ekstra fjerdedel ved at indskyde en skuddag hvert fjerde år (kaldet skudår), sådan at februar måned i disse år varer 29 dage og ikke som normalt 28 dage. Tilbage står en rest på ekstra 0,006 døgn, og det korrigeres der for ved kun at lade hvert fjerde hele århundrede være skudår.

Se også
 Normalår (energiteknologi)

Kilder/referencer

Tidsenheder
År
Kalendere

Normalår


La Marseillaise, Fransa'nın ulusal marşıdır. 1792 yılında Fransa'nın Avusturya ve Prusya ile savaştığı dönemde, Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle tarafından Chant de guerre pour l'armée du Rhin (Türkçede "Ren Ordusu İçin Savaş Türküsü" anlamına gelir) Strazburg'da bestelenen 'La Marseillaise', 1795 yılında Fransa'nın ulusal marşı olarak kabul edildi.

Sanılanın aksine Napolyon, La Marseillaise'yi devrimci fikirleri yansıttığı için kaldırmamıştır. Napolyon'un marşı sevmediği doğru, ancak yerine getirdiği Chant du départ, La Marseillaise kadar devrimci fikirler içeriyordu. Bu marş Napolyon'a 10 Ağustos 1792 Ayaklanmasını ve İsviçreli muhafızların katledilişini hatırlatıyordu (dehşete kapılmış bir seyirci olduğunu unutmamak gerek). Ama marşı kesinlikle yasaklamadı.

Ayrıca bakınız
 İşçilerin Marseillaise'i

Dış bağlantılar
 Dinle  (La Marseillaise) / Dinle  (Casablanca: Die Wacht am Rhein + La Marseillaise)
 Dinle  (Pyotr Çaykovski 1812 Uvertürü) / Dinle  (The Beatles All You Need Is Love 'nin girişi)

Kaynakça

1792'de eserler
Ulusal marşlar
Fransa'nın ulusal sembolleri
Fransızca şarkılar
Dünya Dijital Kütüphanesi

La Marseillaise


المصران، قرية من قرى دائرة حاسي بحبح في ولاية الجلفة تبعد عن مقر البلدية بنحو 12 كم و 38 كم عن مقر الولاية، يمر بها الطريق الوطني رقم 01 وطريق السكة الحديدة منذ سنة 1912م وهي قرية كانت عامرة أيام الاستعمار، إذ كانت بها مقاه وملهى ليلي وحوانيت تجارية مطلع القرن العشرين وبها محطة للقطار، وبقيت كذلك إلى الاستقلال لكنها مع الأيام اندثرت معالم هذ القرية بمبانيها الطوبية البالية. وفي نهاية العقد السادس من القرن الماضي بنيت بها مدرسة صغيرة ثم ألحق بها حجرة أخرى فيما بعد لتعليم صغار الأطفال في المرحلة الابتدائية.
والمصران هي منطقة رعوية سهبية واد موسمي تربة مالحة يقع بالزاغز الغربي الذي يشمل سبخة ومناطقة رعوية واسعة تمتد إلى عدة كيلومترات جنوب غرب مدينة حاسي بحبح.ومن أهم نباتاته الموالح: الطرفاء والصنوبر الحلبي والصفصاف، القطف، الرقل، الرقيلة، اليسريف، والجل، وبوقريبة، وأهم أعشابه التالمة رقيقة الأوراق وغليظتها، والكيكوط والتالقودة واللبين واليجيرة والقرنينة والنفيخ والعكاز والمدهون والحارة وبعض النباتات الزهيرة كالجميرة والخافور وغيرهما ونباتات أخرى على سبيل الذكر لا الحصر...وأهم حيوناته الغنم والآبل والبقر والماعز وهي مكسوب السكان وحيوانات اليفة أخرى كالحصان والبغل والحمار...ومن أهم حيواناتها البرية المتوحشة ألارنب زالجربوع والقنفذ والثعلب والذئب والخنزير البري والثعبان والعقرب واليعسوب والجراد والخنافس بأنواعها والجرذ والقطا والصرندي والترش والقبرة والزراع بنوعيه بوربقة وزراع البقر والبوفسية والنعيج وأم سيسي والدوري«الزاوش» والزرزور، سواق الإبل، الهدهد، القط البري، الجحموم، والسمان، والغرانق «الغرنوق».

ثم مع بداية العقد الثامن من القرن الماضي تم بناء مستوصف «قاعة للعلاج» ومكتب بريدي حول فيما بعد إلى مركز أمني وبنيت مساكن اجتماعية بالموازاة مع الطريق الوطني رقم 1 لتكون هذه المساكن لبنة القرية الجديدة وتم فتح محلات ودكاكين للتزود بأهم المواد الغذائية وغيرها.
 وهناك مشروع لبناء مسجد لأحد المحسنين في طريق الإنجاز باسم مسجد النور.
كما تم تزويد السكان بالطاقة الكهربائية ولا يزال السكان في أمس الحاجة لربطهم بغاز المدينة الذي لا يبعد عن القرية سوى بضعة أمتار فقط غرب النسيج العمراني محاذاة بالمذرسة القديمة.

معالم القرية:
الحمام المعدني (حمام المصران) ويسمى أيضا بحمام الصوندا الذي لا يبعد عنها سوى بحولي 04 كم إلى الشمال في الطريق الوطني رقم 01، ويبعد عن مدينة حاسي بحبح بـ 08 كم إلى الجنوب في الطريق الوطني رقم 01.
حمام الرمل بكثبان الريان الرميلية التي تبعد عن القرية بحوالي 02 كم إلى الشرق.

قرى ولاية الجلفة

المصران (قرية)


Jan van de Velde II (Rótterdam o Delft, en torno a 1593 – Enkhuizen, 1641) fue un grabador, dibujante y pintor holandés. Su fama radica principalmente en sus grabados al aguafuerte, especialmente los de paisajes, que influyeron en otros artistas como Rembrandt.

Carrera
Fue miembro de una saga de artistas; su padre Jan I era calígrafo y maestro, su primo Esaias van de Velde un importante pintor de paisajes, y su hijo Jan van de Velde (III) sería pintor de bodegones.

El lugar de nacimiento de Jan van de Velde II es discutido; creció en Rótterdam pero no está claro si nació allí o en Delft.

Se formó como grabador en Haarlem, con Jacob Matham, hijastro del célebre Hendrick Goltzius. En 1614 ingresó en la Guilda (gremio) de San Lucas de Haarlem e inició la producción de numerosos grabados, en ocasiones copiando diseños ajenos. Hacia 1616 se fecha el de La estrella de los Magos, escena de género copiada de Pieter de Molijn, y ha de ser de la misma época otro grabado de los mismos autores: Martes de carnaval. Ambas imágenes se singularizan por su ambientación nocturna, con luces tenebristas. Van de Velde II las grabó a buril, técnica que relegaría a favor del aguafuerte. Hay ejemplares de ambos grabados en el Museo Británico de Londres.

Se especializó en temas de paisaje, que grababa con rapidez; con apenas 24 años, en 1617, ya había producido más de cien planchas, muchas de ellas según diseños originales.

Sus paisajes destacan por su simplicidad y naturalismo, en oposición a los idealizados, de origen manierista, que todavía entonces predominaban. Rembrandt los tendría en cuenta al grabar los suyos.

Posteriormente Van de Velde II prefirió grabar diseños ajenos, así como retratos (que suman unos cincuenta).

Aleccionó a su hijo Jan Jansz van de Velde, también llamado Jan van de Velde III (Haarlem, 1620-Enkhuizen, 1662), quien se especializó en el género del bodegón; en España hay un ejemplo de él en el Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza.

Referencias

Grabadores de los Países Bajos del siglo XVII
Nacidos en Róterdam

Jan van de Velde II


The Smiling Ghost é um filme de comédia de terror estadunidense de 1941 dirigido por Lewis Seiler e estrelado por Wayne Morris, Alexis Smith e Alan Hale.

Elenco
 Wayne Morris como Alexander "Lucky" Downing
 Alexis Smith como Elinor Bentley
 Alan Hale como Norton
 Brenda Marshall como Lil Barstow
 Lee Patrick como Rose Fairchild
 David Bruce como Paul Myron
 Helen Westley como Avó Bentley
 Willie Best como Clarence
 Charles Halton como tio-avô Ames Bentley
 Richard Ainley como primo Tennant Bentley
 Roland Drew como Tio Hilton Fairchild
 George Meader como Sr. Dinwiddie
 Clem Bevans como Sexton

Recepção
A crítica do New York Times ao filme datada de 26 de setembro de 1941 de Bosley Crowther é geralmente desfavorável, observando que a história é previsível e fútil. Ele também critica a maior parte do elenco, embora elogie as atuações de Willie Best e Alexis Smith.

Filmes dos Estados Unidos de 1941
Filmes em língua inglesa
Filmes em preto e branco
Filmes de comédia de terror dos Estados Unidos
Filmes de mistério dos Estados Unidos
Filmes de mistério da década de 1940
Filmes noir
Filmes baseados em peças de teatro
Filmes da Warner Bros.
Filmes baseados em obras de Philip Wylie

The Smiling Ghost


Nacistički vlak s blagom, urbana legenda o nestalom nacističkom vlaku natovarenom zlatom i brojnim drugim blagom kojeg su nacisti sakrili negdje na području jugozapadne Poljske 1945. godine, u zadnji danima Drugog svjetskog rata. Usprkos potragama za vlakom i njegovim blagom koje su poduzete od 1945. godine nadalje, uključujući i angažman poljske vojske u potrazi za blagom za vrijeme Hladnog rata, vlak s blagom nije pronađen. Znanstvenici vjeruju da takav vlak nije nikada ni postojao i da je pričao o njemu produkt fantazije.

Urbane legende
Blago

Nacistički vlak s blagom


A paper machine (or paper-making machine) is an industrial machine which is used in the pulp and paper industry
to create paper in large quantities at high speed. Modern paper-making machines are based on the principles of the Fourdrinier Machine, which uses a moving woven mesh to create a continuous paper web by filtering out the fibres held in a paper stock and producing a continuously moving wet mat of fibre. This is dried in the machine to produce a strong paper web.

The basic process is an industrialised version of the historical process of hand paper-making, which could not satisfy the demands of developing modern society for large quantities of a printing and writing substrate. The first modern paper machine was invented by Louis-Nicolas Robert in  France in 1799, and an improved version patented in Britain by Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier in 1806.

The same process is used to produce paperboard on a paperboard machine.

Process sections

Paper machines usually have at least five distinct operational sections:

 Forming section, commonly called the wet end, is a continuous rotating wire mesh which removes water from the paper by sucking it out of suspension via vacuum.
 Press section, where the wet fibre web passes between large rolls loaded under high pressure to squeeze out as much water as possible.
 Drying section, where the pressed sheet passes partly around, in a serpentine manner, a series of steam heated drying cylinders.  Drying removes the water content down to a level of about 6%, where it will remain at typical indoor atmospheric conditions. Infra-red driers are also used to supplement cylinder drying where required.
 Size Press section, where the semi-dried paper is applied with a thin layer of starch and/ or other chemicals to improve several paper properties, reduce dusting and air permeability, increase stiffness, bursting strength and short span compression
 Calender section, where the dried paper is smoothened under high loading and pressure.  Only one nip (where the sheet is pressed between two rolls) is necessary in order to hold the sheet, which shrinks through the drying section and is held in tension between the press section (or breaker stack if used) and the calender.  Extra nips give more smoothing, but at some expense to paper strength. The calendar section can either be a  part of the machine (On-line) or in a separate part of the paper mill (Off-line).
 Reel section, where paper coming out of the machine is wound onto individual spools for further processing.
There can also be a coating section to modify the surface characteristics with coatings such as kaolin clay, alternatively known as china clay. This section can be on-line or off-line as well.

History
Before the invention of continuous paper making, paper was made in individual sheets by stirring a container of pulp slurry and either pouring it into a fabric sieve called a sheet mould or dipping and lifting the sheet mould from the vat. While still on the fabric in the sheet mould, the wet paper was pressed to remove excess water. The sheet was then lifted off to be hung over a rope or wooden rod to air dry.

Fourdrinier machine

In 1799, Louis-Nicolas Robert of Essonnes, France, was granted a patent for a continuous paper making machine. At the time, Robert was working for Saint-Léger Didot, with whom he quarreled over the ownership of the invention. Didot believed that England was a better place to develop the machine but due to the turbulence of the French Revolution, he could not go there himself, so he sent his brother-in-law, John Gamble, an Englishman living in Paris. Through a chain of acquaintances, Gamble was introduced to the brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers of London, who agreed to finance the project. Gamble was granted British patent 2487 on October 20, 1801. The Fourdrinier machine used a specially woven fabric mesh conveyor belt (known as a wire, as it was once woven from bronze) in the forming section, where a slurry of fibre (usually wood or other vegetable fibres) is drained to create a continuous paper web. The original Fourdrinier forming section used a horizontal drainage area, referred to as the drainage table.

With the help of Bryan Donkin, a skilled and ingenious mechanic, an improved version of the Robert original was installed at Frogmore Paper Mill, Apsley, Hertfordshire, in 1803, followed by another in 1804. A third machine was installed at the Fourdriniers' own mill at Two Waters. The Fourdriniers also bought a mill at St Neots intending to install two machines there, and the process and machines continued to develop.

Close to Frogmore Mill in Apsley, John Dickinson designed and built an alternate machine type; a Cylinder Mould Machine in 1809.

Thomas Gilpin is most often credited for creating the first U.S cylinder type papermaking machine at Brandywine Creek, Delaware in 1817. This machine was a cylinder mould machine. The Fourdrinier machine wasn't introduced into the USA until 1827.

Similar designs
Records show Charles Kinsey of Paterson, NJ had already patented a continuous process papermaking machine in 1807.  Kinsey's machine was built locally by Daniel Sawn and by 1809 the Kinsey machine was successfully making paper at the Essex Mill in Paterson.  Financial stress and potential opportunities created by the Embargo of 1807 eventually persuaded Kinsey and his backers to change the mill's focus from paper to cotton and Kinsey's early papermaking successes were soon overlooked and forgotten.

Gilpin's 1817 patent was similar to Kinsey's, as was the John Ames patent of 1822.  The Ames patent was challenged by his competitors, asserting that Kinsey was the original inventor and Ames had been stealing other people's ideas, their evidence being the employment of Daniel Sawn to work on his machine.

Related inventions
The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.

Pulp types and their preparations

The plant fibres used for pulp are composed mostly of cellulose and hemi-cellulose, which have a tendency to form molecular linkages between fibres in the presence of water.  After the water evaporates the fibres remain bonded.  It is not necessary to add additional binders for most paper grades, although both wet and dry strength additives may be added.

Rags of cotton and linen were the major source of pulp for paper before wood pulp.  Today almost all pulp is of wood fibre.  Cotton fibre is used in speciality grades, usually in printing paper for such things as resumes and currency.

Sources of rags often appear as waste from other manufacturing such as denim fragments or glove cuts.  Fibres from clothing come from the cotton boll.  The fibres can range from 3 to 7 cm in length as they exist in the cotton field.  Bleach and other chemicals remove the colour from the fabric in a process of cooking, usually with steam.  The cloth fragments mechanically abrade into fibres, and the fibres get shortened to a length appropriate for manufacturing paper with a cutting process.  Rags and water dump into a trough forming a closed loop.  A cylinder with cutting edges, or knives, and a knife bed is part of the loop. The spinning cylinder pushes the contents of the trough around repeatedly.  As it lowers slowly over a period of hours, it breaks the rags up into fibres, and cuts the fibres to the desired length.  The cutting process terminates when the mix has passed the cylinder enough times at the programmed final clearance of the knives and bed.

Another source of cotton fibre comes from the cotton ginning process.  The seeds remain, surrounded by short fibres known as linters for their short length and resemblance to lint.  Linters are too short for successful use in fabric.  Linters removed from the cotton seeds are available as first and second cuts.  The first cuts are longer.

The two major classifications of pulp are chemical and mechanical.  Chemical pulps formerly used a sulphite process, but the kraft process is now predominant.  Kraft pulp has superior strength to sulphite and mechanical pulps and kraft process spent pulping chemicals are easier to recover and regenerate. Both chemical pulps and mechanical pulps may be bleached to a high brightness.

Chemical pulping dissolves the lignin that bonds fibres to one another, and binds the outer fibrils that compose individual fibres to the fibre core.  Lignin, like most other substances that can separate fibres from one another, acts as a debonding agent, lowering strength.  Strength also depends on maintaining long cellulose molecule chains.  The kraft process, due to the alkali and sulphur compounds used, tends to minimize attack on the cellulose and the non-crystalline hemicellulose, which promotes bonding, while dissolving the lignin. Acidic pulping processes shorten the cellulose chains.

Kraft pulp makes superior linerboard and excellent printing and writing papers.

Groundwood, the main ingredient used in newsprint and a principal component of magazine papers (coated publications), is literally ground wood produced by a grinder.  Therefore, it contains a lot of lignin, which lowers its strength.  The grinding produces very short fibres that drain slowly.

Thermomechanical pulp (TMP) is a variation of groundwood where fibres are separated mechanically while at high enough temperatures to soften the lignin.

Between chemical and mechanical pulps there are semi-chemical pulps that use a mild chemical treatment followed by refining.  Semi-chemical pulp is often used for corrugating medium.

Bales of recycled paper (normally old corrugated containers) for unbleached (brown) packaging grades may be simply pulped, screened and cleaned.  Recycling to make white papers is usually done in a deinking plant, which employs screening, cleaning, washing, bleaching and flotation. Deinked pulp is used in printing and writing papers and in tissue, napkins and paper towels. It is often blended with virgin pulp.

At integrated pulp and paper mills, pulp is usually stored in high density towers before being pumped to stock preparation.  Non integrated mills use either dry pulp or wet lap (pressed) pulp, usually received in bales.  The pulp bales are slushed in a [re]pulper.

Stock (pulp) preparation

Stock preparation is the area where pulp is usually refined, blended to the appropriate proportion of hardwood, softwood or recycled fibre, and diluted to as uniform and constant as possible consistency. The pH is controlled and various fillers, such as whitening agents, size and wet strength or dry strength are added if necessary.  Additional fillers such as clay, calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide increase opacity so printing on reverse side of a sheet will not distract from content on the obverse side of the sheet.  Fillers also improve printing quality.

Pulp is pumped through a sequence of tanks that are commonly called chests, which may be either round or more commonly rectangular.  Historically these were made of special ceramic tile faced reinforced concrete, but mild and stainless steels are also used.  Because fibre and fillers are denser than water and tend to settle out quickly and also fibres are attracted together to form clumps called floc, low consistency pulp slurries are kept agitated in these chests by propeller like agitators near the pump suction at the chest bottom.

In the following process, different types of pulp, if used, are normally treated in separate but similar process lines until combined at a blend chest:

From high density storage or from slusher/pulper the pulp is pumped to a low density storage chest (tank).  From there it is typically diluted to about 4% consistency before being pumped to an unrefined stock chest.  From the unrefined stock chest stock is again pumped, with consistency control, through a refiner.  Refining is an operation whereby the pulp slurry passes between a pair of discs, one of which is stationary and the other rotating at speeds of typically 1,000 or 1,200 RPM for 50 and 60 Hz AC, respectively.  The discs have raised bars on their faces and pass each other with narrow clearance.  This action unravels the outer layer of the fibres, causing the fibrils of the fibres to partially detach and bloom outward, increasing the surface area to promoting bonding. Refining thus increases tensile strength.  For example, tissue paper is relatively unrefined whereas packaging paper is more highly refined. Refined stock from the refiner then goes to a refined stock chest, or blend chest, if used as such.

Hardwood fibres are typically 1 mm long and smaller in diameter than the 4 mm length typical of softwood fibres. Refining can cause the softwood fibre tube to collapse resulting in undesirable properties in the sheet.

From the refined stock, or blend chest, stock is again consistency controlled as it is being pumped to a machine chest. It may be refined or additives may be added en route to the machine chest.

The machine chest is basically a consistency levelling chest having about 15 minutes retention. This is enough retention time to allow any variations in consistency entering the chest to be levelled out by the action of the basis weight valve receiving feedback from the on line basis weight measuring scanner. (Note: Many paper machines mistakenly control consistency coming out of the machine chest, interfering with basis weight control.)

Operation
There are four main sections on this paper machine. The forming section makes the pulp into the basis of for sheets along the wire. The press section, which removes much of the remaining water via a system of nips formed by rolls pressing against each other aided by press felts that support the sheet and absorb the pressed water. The dryer section of the paper machine, as its name suggests, dries the paper by way of a series of internally steam-heated cylinders that evaporate the moisture. Calenders are used to make the paper surface extra smooth and glossy. In practice calender rolls are normally placed vertically in a stack.

Forming section or wet end

From the machine chest stock is pumped to a head tank, commonly called a "head tank" or stuff box, whose purpose is to maintain a constant head (pressure) on the fiber slurry or stock as it feeds the basis weight valve.  The stuff box also provides a means allowing air bubbles to escape. The consistency of the pulp slurry at the stuff box is in the 3% range.  Flow from the stuff box is by gravity and is controlled by the basis weight valve on its way to the fan pump suction where it is injected into the main flow of water to the fan pump.  The main flow of water pumped by the fan pump is from a whitewater chest or tank that collects all the water drained from the forming section of the paper machine. Before the fiber stream from the stuff box is introduced, the whitewater is very low in fiber content.  The whitewater is constantly recirculated by the fan pump through the headbox and recollected from the wire pit and various other tanks and chests that receive drainage from the forming wire and vacuum assisted drainage from suction boxes and wet fiber web handling rolls.  On the way to the head box the pulp slurry may pass through centrifugal cleaners, which remove heavy contaminants like sand, and screens, which break up fibre clumps and remove oversized debris. The fan pump ultimately feeds the headbox, whether or not any centrifugal cleaners or screens are present.

The purpose of the headbox is to create turbulence in order to keep the fibers from clumping together and to uniformly distribute the slurry across the width of the wire. Wood fibers have a tendency to attract one another, forming clumps, the effect being called flocculation.  Flocculation is lessened by lowering consistency and or by agitating the slurry; however, de-flocculation becomes very difficult at much above 0.5% consistency.  Minimizing the degree of flocculation when forming is important to physical properties of paper.

The consistency in the headbox is typically under 0.4% for most paper grades, with longer fibres requiring lower consistency than short fibres.  Higher consistency causes more fibres to be oriented in the z direction, while lower consistency promotes fibre orientation in the x-y direction. Higher consistency promotes higher calliper (thickness) and stiffness, lower consistency promotes higher tensile and some other strength properties and also improves formation (uniformity).  Many sheet properties continue to improve down to below 0.1% consistency; however, this is an impractical amount of water to handle. (Most paper machine run a higher headbox consistency than optimum because they have been sped up over time without replacing the fan pump and headbox. There is also an economic trade off with high pumping costs for lower consistency).

The stock slurry, often called white water at this point, exits the head box through a rectangular opening of adjustable height called the slice, the white water stream being called the jet and it is pressurized on high speed machines so as to land gently on the moving fabric loop or wire at a speed typically between plus or minus 3% of the wire speed, called rush and drag respectively.  Excessive rush or drag causes more orientation of fibres in the machine direction and gives differing physical properties in machine and cross directions; however, this phenomenon is not completely avoidable on Fourdrinier machines.

On lower speed machines at 700 feet per minute, gravity and the height of the stock in the headbox creates sufficient pressure to form the jet through the opening of the slice.  The height of the stock is the head, which gives the headbox its name.  The speed of the jet compared to the speed of the wire is known as the jet-to-wire ratio.  When the jet-to-wire ratio is less than unity, the fibres in the stock become drawn out in the machine direction.  On slower machines where sufficient liquid remains in the stock before draining out, the wire can be driven back and forth with a process known as shake.  This provides some measure of randomizing the direction of the fibres and gives the sheet more uniform strength in both the machine and cross-machine directions.  On fast machines, the stock does not remain on the wire in liquid form long enough and the long fibres line up with the machine.  When the jet-to-wire ratio exceeds unity, the fibers tend to pile up in lumps.  The resulting variation in paper density provides the antique or parchment paper look.

Two large rolls typically form the ends of the drainage section, which is called the drainage table.  The breast roll is located under the flow box, the jet being aimed to land on it at about the top centre.  At the other end of the drainage table is the suction (couch) roll.  The couch roll is a hollow shell, drilled with many thousands of precisely spaced holes of about 4 to 5 mm diameter.  The hollow shell roll rotates over a stationary suction box, normally placed at the top centre or rotated just down machine.  Vacuum is pulled on the suction box, which draws water from the web into the suction box.  From the suction roll the sheet feeds into the press section.

Down machine from the suction roll, and at a lower elevation, is the wire turning roll. This roll is driven and pulls the wire around the loop. The wire turning roll has a considerable angle of wrap in order to grip the wire.

Supporting the wire in the drainage table area are a number of drainage elements.  In addition to supporting the wire and promoting drainage, the elements de-flocculate the sheet.  On low speed machines these table elements are primarily table rolls.  As speed increases the suction developed in the nip of a table roll increases and at high enough speed the wire snaps back after leaving the vacuum area and causes stock to jump off the wire, disrupting the formation.  To prevent this drainage foils are used.  The foils are typically sloped between zero and two or three degrees and give a more gentle action.  Where rolls and foils are used, rolls are used near the headbox and foils further down machine. Ultrasonic foils can also be used, creating millions of pressure pulses from imploding cavitation bubbles which keep the fibres apart, giving them a more uniform distribution.

Approaching the dry line on the table are located low vacuum boxes that are drained by a barometric leg under gravity pressure. After the dry line are the suction boxes with applied vacuum.  Suction boxes extend up to the couch roll.  At the couch the sheet consistency should be about 25%.

Variations of the Fourdrinier forming section
The forming section type is usually based on the grade of paper or paperboard being produced; however, many older machines use a less than optimum design.  Older machines can be upgraded to include more appropriate forming sections.

A second headbox may be added to a conventional fourdrinier to put a different fibre blend on top of a base layer. A secondary headbox is normally located at a point where the base sheet is completely drained. This is not considered a separate ply because the water action does a good job of intermixing the fibers of the top and bottom layer. Secondary headboxes are common on linerboard.

A modification to the basic Fourdrinier table by adding a second wire on top of the drainage table is known as a top wire former. The bottom and top wires converge and some drainage is up through the top wire. A top wire improves formation and also gives more drainage, which is useful for machines that have been sped up.

The Twin Wire Machine or Gap former uses two vertical wires in the forming section, thereby increasing the de-watering rate of the fibre slurry while also giving uniform two sidedness.

There are also machines with entire Fourdrinier sections mounted above a traditional Fourdrinier. This allows making multi-layer paper with special characteristics. These are called top Fourdriniers and they make multi-ply paper or paperboard. Commonly this is used for making a top layer of bleached fibre to go over an unbleached layer.

Another type forming section is the cylinder mould machine invented by John Dickinson in 1809, originally as a competitor to the Fourdrinier machine. This machine uses a mesh-covered rotating cylinder partially immersed in a tank of fibre slurry in the wet end to form a paper web, giving a more random distribution of the cellulose fibres. Cylinder machines can form a sheet at higher consistency, which gives a more three dimensional fibre orientation than lower consistencies, resulting in higher caliper (thickness) and more stiffness in the machine direction (MD). High MD stiffness is useful in food packaging like cereal boxes and other boxes like dry laundry detergent.

Tissue machines typically form the paper web between a wire and a special fabric (felt) as they wrap around a forming roll. The web is pressed from the felt directly onto a large diameter dryer called a yankee. The paper sticks to the yankee dryer and is peeled off with a scraping blade called a doctor. Tissue machines operate at speeds of up to 2000 m/min.

Press section

The second section of the paper machine is the press section, which removes much of the remaining water via a system of nips formed by rolls pressing against each other aided by press felts that support the sheet and absorb the pressed water. The paper web consistency leaving the press section can be above 40%.  Pressing is the second most efficient method of de-watering the sheet (behind free drainage in the forming section) as only mechanical action is required.

The number of press rolls, their arrangement and the arrangement and type of felts used are influenced by the grades of paper being produced and the desired operational characteristics of the machine.

Press felts historically were made from wool. However, today they are nearly 100% synthetic. They are made up of a polyamide woven fabric with thick batt applied in a specific design to maximise water absorption.

Presses can be single or double felted. A single felted press has a felt on one side and a smooth roll on the other. A double felted press has both sides of the sheet in contact with a press felt. Single felted nips are useful when mated against a smooth roll (usually in the top position), which adds a two-sidedness—making the top side appear smoother than the bottom. Double felted nips impart roughness on both sides of the sheet. Double felted presses are desirable for the first press section of heavy paperboard.

Simple press rolls can be rolls with grooved or blind drilled surface. More advanced press rolls are suction rolls. These are rolls with perforated shell and cover. The shell made of metal material such as bronze or stainless steel is covered with rubber or a synthetic material. Both shell and cover are drilled throughout the surface. A stationary suction box is fitted in the core of the suction roll to support the shell being pressed. End face mechanical seals are used for the interface between the inside surface of the shell and the suction box. For the smooth rolls, they are typically made of granite rolls. The granite rolls can be up to  long and  in diameter.

Conventional roll presses are configured with one of the press rolls is in a fixed position, with a mating roll being loaded against this fixed roll. The felts run through the nips of the press rolls and continues around a felt run, normally consisting of several felt rolls. During the dwell time in the nip, the moisture from the sheet is transferred to the press felt. When the press felt exits the nip and continues around, a vacuum box known as an Uhle Box applies vacuum (normally -60 kPa) to the press felt to remove the moisture so that when the felt returns to the nip on the next cycle, it does not add moisture to the sheet.

Some grades of paper use suction pick up rolls that use vacuum to transfer the sheet from the couch to a lead in felt on the first press or between press sections.  Pickup roll presses normally have a vacuum box that has two vacuum zones (low vacuum and high vacuum). These rolls have a large number of drilled holes in the cover to allow the vacuum to pass from the stationary vacuum box through the rotating roll covering. The low vacuum zone picks up the sheet and transfers, while the high vacuum zone attempts to remove moisture. Unfortunately, at high enough speed centrifugal force flings out vacuumed water, making this less effective for dewatering. Pickup presses also have standard felt runs with Uhle boxes. However, pickup press design is quite different, as air movement is important for the pickup and dewatering facets of its role.

Crown Controlled Rolls (also known as CC Rolls) are usually the mating roll in a press arrangement. They have hydraulic cylinders in the press rolls that ensure that the roll does not bow. The cylinders connect to a shoe or multiple shoes to keep the crown on the roll flat, to counteract the natural "bend" in the roll shape due to applying load to the edges.

Extended Nip Presses (or ENP) are a relatively modern alternative to conventional roll presses. The top roll is usually a standard roll, while the bottom roll is actually a large CC roll with an extended shoe curved to the shape of the top roll, surrounded by a rotating rubber belt rather than a standard roll cover. The goal of the ENP is to extend the dwell time of the sheet between the two rolls thereby maximising the de-watering. Compared to a standard roll press that achieves up to 35% solids after pressing, an ENP brings this up to 45% and higher—delivering significant steam savings or speed increases.  ENPs densify the sheet, thus increasing tensile strength and some other physical properties.

Dryer section

The dryer section of the paper machine, as its name suggests, dries the paper by way of a series of internally steam-heated cylinders that evaporate the moisture. Steam pressures may range up to 160 psig. Steam enters the end of the dryer head (cylinder cap) through a steam joint and condensate exits through a siphon that goes from the internal shell to a centre pipe.  From the centre pipe the condensate exits through a joint on the dryer head.  Wide machines require multiple siphons.  In faster machines, centrifugal force holds the condensate layer still against the shell and turbulence generating bars are typically used to agitate the condensate layer and improve heat transfer.

The sheet is usually held against the dryers by long felt loops on the top and bottom of each dryer section.  The felts greatly improve heat transfer.  Dryer felts are made of coarse thread and have a very open weave that is almost see through,  It is common to have the first bottom dryer section unfelted to dump broke on the basement floor during sheet breaks or when threading the sheet.

Paper dryers are typically arranged in groups called sections  so that they can be run at a progressively slightly slower speed to compensate for sheet shrinkage as the paper dries. Some grades of paper may also stretch as they run through the machine, requiring increasing speed between sections.  The gaps between sections are called draws.

The drying sections are usually enclosed to conserve heat.  Heated air is usually supplied to the pockets where the sheet breaks contact with the driers.  This increases the rate of drying. The pocket ventilating tubes have slots along their entire length that face into the pocket.  The dryer hoods are usually exhausted with a series of roof mounted hood exhausts fans down the dryer section.

Size Press
Additional sizing agents, including resins, glue, or starch, can be added to the web to alter its characteristics. Sizing improves the paper's water resistance, decreases its ability to fuzz, reduces abrasiveness, and improves its printing properties and surface bond strength.  These may be applied at the wet (internal sizing) or on the dry end (surface sizing), or both. At the dry end sizing is usually applied with a size press. The size press may be a roll applicator (flooded nip) or Nozzle applicator . It is usually placed before the last dryer section.  Some paper machines also make use of a 'coater' to apply a coating of fillers such as calcium carbonate or china clay usually suspended in a binder of cooked starch and styrene-butadiene latex.  Coating produces a very smooth, bright surface with the highest printing qualities.

Calender section

A calender consists of two or more rolls, where pressure is applied to the passing paper. Calenders are used to make the paper surface extra smooth and glossy. It also gives it a more uniform thickness. The pressure applied to the web by the rollers determines the finish of the paper.

Reel section

After calendering, the web has a moisture content of about 6% (depending on the furnish). The paper is wound onto metal spools using a large cylinder called a reel drum. Constant nip pressure is maintained between the reel drum and the spool, allowing the resulting friction to spin the spool. Paper runs over the top of the reel drum and is wound onto the spool to create a master roll.

To be able to keep the paper machine running continuously, the reel must be able to quickly switch from winding a finished roll to an empty spool without stopping the flow of paper. To accomplish this, each reel section will have two or more spools rotating through the process. Using an overhead crane, empty spools will be loaded onto two primary arms above the reel drum. When the master roll reaches its maximum diameter, the arms will lower the new spool into contact with the reel drum and a machine behind the drum will run a tape along the moving sheet of paper, swiftly tearing it and attaching incoming paper onto the new spool. The spool is then lowered onto the secondary arms, which steadily guide the spool away from the reel drum as the diameter of paper on the spool increases.

The roll hardness should be checked, obtained and adjusted accordingly to insure that the roll hardness is within the acceptable range for the product.

Winder section
Reels of paper wound up at the end of the drying process are the full trimmed width, minus shrinkage from drying, of the web leaving the wire.  In the winder section reels of paper are slit into smaller rolls of a width and roll diameter range specified by a customer order. To accomplish this the reel is placed on an unwind stand and the distances between the slitters (sharp cutting wheels), are adjusted to the specified widths for the orders.  The winder is run until the desired roll diameter is reached and the rolls are labeled according to size and order before being sent to shipping or the warehouse.  A reel usually has sufficient diameter to make two or more sets of rolls.

Glossary

broke: waste paper made during the paper making process, either made during a sheet break or trimmings.  It is gathered up and put in a repulper for recycling back into the process.

consistency: the percent dry fiber in a pulp slurry.

couch: French meaning to lie down.  Following the couch roll the sheet is lifted off the wire and transferred into the press section.

dandy roll: a mesh covered hollow roll that rides on top of the Fourdrinier. It breaks up fiber clumps to improve the sheet formation and can also be used to make an imprint, as with laid paper. See also watermark.

fan pump: the large pump that circulates white water from the white water chest to the headbox.  The pump is a special low pulse design that minimizes the effect of vane pulses which would cause uneven basis weight of paper in the machine direction known as barring. The flow from the fan pump may go through screens and cleaners, if used.  On large paper machines fan pumps may be rated in tens of thousands of gallons per minute.

felt: a loop of fabric or synthetic material that goes between press rolls and serves as a place to receive the pressed out water.  Felts also support the wet paper web and guide it through the press section. Felts are also used in the dryer section to keep the sheet in close contact with the dryers and increase heat transfer.

filler: a finely divided substance added to paper in the forming process.  Fillers improve print quality, brightness and opacity.  The most common fillers are clay and calcium carbonate. Titanium dioxide is a filler but also improves brightness and opacity.  Use of calcium carbonate filler is the commonly used in alkaline papermaking, while kaolin clay is prevalent in acidic papermaking.  Alkaline paper has superior ageing properties.

formation: the degree of uniformity of fiber distribution in finished paper, which is easily seen by holding paper up to the light.

headbox: the pressure chamber where turbulence is applied to break up fiber clumps in the slurry.  The main job of the headbox is to distribute the fiber slurry uniformly across the wire.

nip: the contact area where two opposing rolls meet, such as in a press or calender.

pH: the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Alkaline paper has a very long life.  Acid paper deteriorates over time, which caused libraries to either take conservation measures or replace many older books.

size: a chemical or starch, applied to paper to retard the rate of water penetration.  Sizing prevents bleeding of ink during printing, improving the sharpness of printing.

slice: the adjustable rectangular orifice, usually at the bottom of the headbox, through which the whitewater jet discharges onto the wire.  The slice opening and water pressure together determine the amount and velocity of whitewater flow through the slice.  The slice usually has some form of adjustment mechanism to even out the paper weight profile across the machine (CD profile), although a newer method is to inject water into the whitewater across the headbox slice area, thereby using localized consistency to control CD weight profile.

stock: a pulp slurry that has been processed in the stock preparation area with necessary additives, refining and pH adjustment and ready for making paper

web: the continuous flow of un-dried fiber from the couch roll down the paper machine

white water: filtrate from the drainage table.  The white water from the table is usually stored in a white water chest from which it is pumped by the fan pump to the headbox.

wire: the woven mesh fabric loop that is used for draining the pulp slurry from the headbox. Until the 1970s bronze wires were used but now they are woven from coarse mono-filament synthetics similar to fishing line but very stiff.

Materials

Stainless steels are used extensively in the Pulp and Paper industry for two primary reasons, to avoid iron contamination of the product and their corrosion resistance to the various chemicals used in the paper making process. Type 316 stainless steel is a common material used in paper machines.

See also

 Paper chemicals
 Continuous production
 Cutting stock problem

Notes

References

External links
 Patent for Louis-Nicolas Robert
  Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
  Institute of Paper Science and Technology at Georgia Tech
 Fourdrinier machine description from Paper Manufacturing in the United States, 1916
 Biography of Henry Fourdrinier from Dictionary of National Biography, 1889
 British Association of Paper Historians
 Video: Frogmore Mill in Apsley; Victorian era Fourdrinier machine
 Quality Control System QCS

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الهادي المثلوثي (1950- )، أحد القياديين البعثيين التونسيين.
 أستاذ في قسم الجغرافيا بكلية الآداب والفنون والإنسانيات بجامعة منوبة-تونس.
 انضم إلى الهيئة التأسيسية لحركة البعث في تونس خلال مؤتمرها الاستثنائي المنعقد في 13 نوفمبر/تشرين الثاني 1988.
 عضو اللجنة الوطنية لمقاومة الصهيونية، تونس .
 يتولى حاليا التكلم باسم حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي (تونس).
 كتب العديد من المقالات التي ضمنها مواقفه من القضايا القومية أساسا وخاصة منها العراق وفلسطين....

أكاديميون تونسيون
بعثيون
سياسيون تونسيون
مواليد 1950

الهادي المثلوثي