Lucy Crane, née le  et morte le , est une écrivaine, critique d'art et traductrice anglaise. Elle travaille sur des histoires pour enfants et des comptines et a donné des conférences sur les beaux-arts en Angleterre.

Biographie
Crane est née à Liverpool en 1842. Elle est la fille du portraitiste et peintre miniaturiste Thomas Crane. Son frère aîné Thomas et son frère cadet Walter sont tous deux devenus des artistes renommés. La famille Crane déménage de Liverpool à Torquay en 1845. Lucy Crane est ensuite allée à l'école à Londres et, en 1859, la famille quitte Torquay pour Londres. Dès son plus jeune âge, Crane fait preuve d'un goût et d'une habileté considérables pour le dessin et le coloriage. Les circonstances, cependant, ont tourné son attention vers le travail d'enseignement général et elle a trouvé un emploi comme gouvernante. Elle est devenue une musicienne accomplie et s'est non seulement distinguée pour sa délicatesse de toucher en tant qu'exécutante, mais aussi pour le raffinement classique de son goût et sa connaissance de l'italien ancien et du vieil anglais.

Carrière
Crane travaille sur des comptines et des histoires pour enfants. Elle traduit la collection  des Frères Grimm de l'allemand vers l'anglais en 1882. Sa traduction reste fidèle au texte d'origine. Ses retouches se concentrent sur la fluidité du texte et elle adoucit les scènes violentes. Ses connaissance en musique lui permettent de fournir un bon rendu des chansons insérées dans les contes. Elle travaille également avec son père et son frère Walter Crane sur un certain nombre de projets. Elle écrit des couplets originaux pour des rimes telles que , ,  pour les  (littéralement « livres-jouets ») colorés de Walter, dont certains ont été publiés dans Argosy Magazine. La sélection et l'arrangement des accompagnements des chansons enfantines du  et du  sont également d'elle.

Au cours des dernières années de sa vie, Crane donne des conférences à Londres sur les beaux-arts. Certaines de ses visions de l'art sont socialistes et sont influencées par John Ruskin et Thomas Carlyle. Six de ses conférences sont publiées sous le titre  à titre posthume en 1882 par Macmillan Publishers.

Elle meurt le , chez un ami à . Son travail a été éclipsé en partie par la célébrité de son frère Walter.

Œuvres

  Rumpelstiltskin : A German Folk Tale from the Brothers Grimm (1971), traduit par Lucy Crane (Scott, Foresman, 1970) (Illustré par Kinuko Y. Craft)

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Liens externes

  Œuvres de Lucy Crane sur le Projet Gutenberg
  Livres de et sur Lucy Crane sur Internet Archive

Naissance en septembre 1842
Journaliste britannique du XIXe siècle
Traductrice anglaise
Femme de lettres anglaise
Personnalité anglaise du XIXe siècle
Critique d'art britannique
Décès en mars 1882
Décès à 39 ans
Naissance à Liverpool

Lucy Crane


The year 1984 in science and technology involved some significant events.

Astronomy and space exploration
 February 7 – Astronauts Bruce McCandless II and Robert L. Stewart make the first untethered space walk.
 The National Radio Astronomy Observatory in the United States converts the 36-foot radio telescope on Kitt Peak (originally built in 1967) to the ARO 12m Radio Telescope.

Biology
 First known case of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, in England.
 The enzyme telomerase is discovered by Carol W. Greider and Elizabeth Blackburn in the ciliate Tetrahymena.
 Danish physiologist Steen Willadsen first successfully uses cells from early embryos  to clone a mammal (sheep) by nuclear transfer at the British Agricultural Research Council's Institute of Animal Physiology, Cambridge.

Chemistry and physics
 Peter Kramer and Dan Shechtman publish their discoveries of what will soon afterwards be named quasicrystals.
 Hiroshi Kobayashi and colleagues announce synthesis of tetrakis(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)borate ("BARF").

Computer science
 January 24 – Apple Computer places the Macintosh personal computer on sale in the United States. It will be the first successful PC to use a graphical user interface.
The first edition of language documentation Common Lisp the Language (known as CLtL1) is published in the United States.

History of science
 Robert Gwyn Macfarlane publishes Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth.

Paleontology
 The fossil skeleton of the hominid "Turkana Boy" is discovered in Kenya.

Physiology and medicine
 February 3 – Dr. John Buster and the research team at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center announce history's first embryo transfer from one woman to another resulting in a live birth.
 April 22 – Dr. Robert Gallo and Margaret Heckler of United States Public Health Service announce the discovery of HTLV-III as the virus that causes AIDS.
 May 10 – Barbara H. Bowman and Oliver Smithies show that variations in haptoglobins are due to genetic polymorphisms.

Technology
 May 5 – Itaipu Dam in South America begins to generate hydroelectricity.
 July 21 – In Jackson, Michigan, a factory robot crushes a worker against a safety bar in apparently the first robot-related death in the United States.

Awards
 Nobel Prizes
 Physics – Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer
 Chemistry – Robert Bruce Merrifield
 Medicine – Niels K. Jerne, Georges J. F. Köhler, César Milstein
 Turing Award – Niklaus Wirth

Births
 May 14 – Mark Zuckerberg, American computer programmer and entrepreneur, co-founder of social media platform Facebook
 December 2 – Maryna Viazovska, Ukrainian-born mathematician

Deaths
 January 8 – Eerik Kumari (b. 1912), Estonian ornithologist and academic
 February 21 – Anna Baetjer (b. 1899), American toxicologist.
 April 8 – Pyotr Kapitsa (b. 1894), Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate.
 April 15 – Grete Hermann (b. 1901), German mathematician and philosopher
 May 13 – Stanislaw Ulam (b. 1909), Polish American mathematician.
 May 24 – Sir Stanley Hooker (b. 1907), English aeronautical engineer.
 August 6 – Abraham Lilienfeld (b. 1920), American epidemiologist.
 August 11 – George Streisinger (b. 1927), Hungarian American molecular biologist, the first person to clone a vertebrate.
 October 20 – Paul Dirac (b. 1902), English-born physicist.
 November 20 – Charles C. Conley (b. 1933), American mathematician working on dynamical systems.
 December 20 – Stanley Milgram (b. 1933), American social psychologist.

References

20th century in science
1980s in science

1984 in science


Ara nesil, Türk Edebiyatı'nda Tanzimat sonrası ikinci kuşak olan, Recaizade Mahmud Ekrem, Muallim Naci ve Abdülhak Hâmid'le Servet-i Fünûn edebiyatı arasında yer alan yazarlara verilen addır. 1884-1896 dönemi için söylenir. Beşir Fuad, Fazlı Necib, Mehmed Celal, Nâbizâde Nâzım, Hasan Fehmi, Mehmet Mahfî adları ara nesilde anılanlardan birkaçıdır.

Servet-i Fünûn ile Tanzimat ikinci kuşağı arasında köprü vazifesi gören Ara Nesil ile ilgili ilk bilgileri Mehmet Kaplan'ın Tevfik Fikret Şiiri üzerine yaptığı çalışma ile vermiştir. Servet-i Fünûn Dönemi yeniliklerinin başlangıcını içeren Ara Nesil, Tanzimat Dönemi'nin yerini yeni bir edebi oluşuma bırakmaya başladığının sinyallerini vermektedir. Servet-i Fünûn edebiyatını hazırlayan pek çok tartışmanın yaşandığı bu dönemde ekol olarak öne çıkan sanatçılar;  Abdülhak Hamid Tarhan, Recaizade Mahmut Ekrem ve Muallim Naci'dir. II. Abdülhamid'in baskıcı yönetiminin ilk zamanına denk geldiği için bu edebi oluşumda politik ve sosyal konulara rastlanılmaz.

Gazetenin yerini dergiciliğe, toplum için sanat anlayışının yerini sanat için sanat anlayışına bırakmaya başlamış olduğu dönemde Batı'dan alınan yeni edebi şekiller denenmiş, Servet-i Fünûn'da sıklıkla görülen tablo altına şiir yazma Ara Nesil sanatçıları tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Klasik edebiyat anlayışından beri devam eden kafiye göz için mi kulak için mi tartışmaları "kulak için kafiye" anlayışı ile bu dönemde netlik kazanmıştır. Eski şiir anlayışı devam ederken yeni şiir anlayışının da yerleştiği bu dönemde Türk edebiyatının ilk kadın romancısı olarak kabul edilen Fatma Aliye, Muhadarat romanı ile dikkat çekmektedir.

Dönem sanatçıları eleştiri türünde de eser vermeye vermiş, edebi türleri tanıtmaya çalışmışlardır. Türk edebiyatının ilk pozitivisti olan Beşir Fuat, "Haver" ve "Güneş" adlı iki dergi çıkarmıştır bu dönemde. Beşir Fuat'ın başlatmış olduğu "Hayaliyyun-Hakikiyyun" olarak bilinen edebi tartışma, bu dönemin önemli edebi tartışmaları arasında yer almaktadır.

Batılı gibi düşünüp Türk gibi yazmaya önem verilen döneme çeşitli adlandırmalar yapılmış, Ahmet Rasim içinde yer aldığı bu oluşuma "Mutavassıtîn" demiştir. "Ara Nesil" adlandırması ise Mehmet Kaplan tarafından yapılmıştır.

Dış bağlantılar
 turkdiliveedebiyati.com - Ara Nesil

Edebiyat terimleri

Ara nesil (edebiyat)


Probele sportive de navigație la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016 s-au desfășurat în perioada 5–21 august 2016 pe Marina da Glória în Golful Guanabara. S-au pus la bătaie zece medalii de aur.

Clase ambarcațiunilor
În comparație cu Jocurile Olimpice din 2012 de la Londra, probele de navă cu chilă (Elliott 6m și clasa Star) au fost eliminate. O probă de skiff a fost adăugată la feminin (49erFX) și o probă de catamaran (Nacra 17) a fost reintrodusă.

Rezultate

Masculin

Feminin

Mixt

Clasament pe medalii
Legendă
 Țara-gazdă

Legături externe
     Navigație  pe rio2016.com

Sporturi la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016
2016

Navigație la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016


L'ambassade du Canada en Islande est la représentation diplomatique du Canada en Islande. Ses bureaux sont situés au Túngata 14, dans la capitale islandaise Reykjavik.

Mission

Cette ambassade est responsable des relations entre le Canada et l'Islande et offre des services aux Canadiens en sol islandais.

Histoire

Les relations diplomatiques entre le Canada et l'Islande sont établies en janvier 1948. Initialement, l'envoyé de Norvège agissait simultanément comme envoyé en Islande.

Ambassadeurs
Cette représentation diplomatique canadienne est dirigée par un chef de mission qui porte le titre d'ambassadeur extraordinaire et plénipotentiaire.

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Ambassade d'Islande au Canada
 Relations entre le Canada et l'Islande
 Représentations diplomatiques du Canada

Liens externes
 Site officiel de l'ambassade du Canada en Islande

Références

Islande
Canada

Ambassade du Canada en Islande


An Sparganium erectum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl von Linné. An Sparganium erectum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sparganium, ngan familia nga Typhaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 S. e. erectum
 S. e. microcarpum
 S. e. neglectum

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Sparganium

Sparganium erectum


Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau (hrv. "Industrijsko udruženje proizvođača vozila"), skraćeno IFA, naziv je bivšeg konglomerata i udruge tvrtki za proizvodnju vozila u Istočnoj Njemačkoj. IFA je proizvodila bicikle, motocikle, laka komercijalna vozila, automobile, dostavna vozila i teške kamione.

Vozila

Dvotočkaši

Automobili

Kamioni i teža vozila

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Njemački proizvođači automobila

Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau


جزيرة داس جزيرة إماراتية تقع في أقصى جنوب الخليج العربي في منتصف المسافة بين أبو ظبي وقطر على بعد حوالي 170 كيلومتر شمال غرب العاصمة الإماراتية أبو ظبي التي تتبع لها الجزيرة. وتحتوي على مطار ومخازن للنفط ومنشئات نفطية وأنابيب للتصدير من حقول النفطية التي حولها في أم الشيف وزاكم. وهي القاعدة الصناعية الرئيسة تتم معالجة وتخزين وتصدير كميات النفط والغاز المنتَجة من حقلي أم الشيف وزكم.
توفر الجزيرة مستويات معيشة متطورة للمجتمع متعدد الجنسيات الذي يقطن الجزيرة.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لجزيرة داس:

مراجع

أبو ظبي
جزر إمارة أبو ظبي

جزيرة داس


Bonde das Maravilhas (brevemente conhecido como As Maravilhas entre 2020 e 2022) é um grupo brasileiro de funk carioca criado em 2011 em Niterói. O grupo alcançou projeção nacional com as canções "Quadradinho de Oito" e "Aquecimento das Maravilhas".

História
Em meados de 2011, cinco adolescentes (Joyce, Karoline, Thaysa, Rafaela e Thalia) da comunidade Complexo do Serrão em Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, criaram um grupo de dança dedicado a vídeos caseiros de funk carioca enviados para a plataforma YouTube. Pouco tempo após as divulgações, o grupo ganhou notoriedade local pelas coreografias ousadas e parcerias com artistas de funk da região. O então chamado "Bonde das Maravilhas" alcançou relativa fama após parcerias com Nego do Borel (até então conhecido como MC Nego do Borel), como "Super Poder" e "Brincadeira das Maravilhas"; e Mc Maneirinho (então conhecido artisticamente como DJ Diogo do Serrão).

No ano seguinte, o grupo alcançou projeção nacional com as canções "Quadradinho de Oito" e "Aquecimento das Maravilhas", cujos videoclipes viralizaram nas plataformas digitais em poucas semanas tornando-se uma das tendências coreográficas do funk brasileiro. Em pouco tempo, no entanto, duas de suas dançarinas se afastaram por estarem grávidas, o que causou uma forte polêmica envolvendo o fato de serem menores de idade.

O grupo foi reformulado diversas vezes, mas manteve relativo sucesso ao longo dos anos seguintes, chegando à realização de uma transmissão ao vivo recordista de visualizações no YouTube em 2020. Com a saída da vocalista Thaysa em 2020, o grupo passou várias reformulações de elenco até sua total paralisação em 2021 devido a questões de patrocínio e aquisição da marca pelo produtor Gree Cassua.

Impedidas de usar o nome original do grupo, as dançarinas Thamyres, Karoline, Larissa, Rafaela e Renata reinventaram o grupo como 'As Maravilhas'. Desde sua criação, o grupo lançou os singles "Senta que é uma Maravilha" (disponível nas plataformas de streaming desde maio de 2021) e "Bunda de Ioiô 2.0" além de diversos videoclipes em formato caseiro publicados no YouTube.

Integrantes

Atuais
 Thammy Maravilha (vocalista)
 Karol Maravilha (dançarina)
 Scarlight Maravilha (dançarina)
 Kim Glimberg (dançarina)
 Gaby Silva (dançarina)

Antigas
Thaysa Maravilha (vocalista)
 Rafaela Maciel (dançarina)
 Renatinha Maciel (dançarina)
Kathy (dançarina)
Joyce (dançarina)
Thalia (dançarina)
 Laryssa Moraes (dançarina)

Discografia

Álbuns
 Quebra Quebra (2016)
 Maravilhas (2019)

Singles
 "Senta que é uma Maravilha"  (2021)
 "Bunda de Ioiô 2.0" (2022)
 "Ensaio das Maravilhas" (2023)

Ligações externas

Grupos de funk carioca
Bandas do estado do Rio de Janeiro
Bandas formadas em 2020

Bonde das Maravilhas


හොලිවුඩ් නිලියකි. සැමියා වූ රොනල්ඩ් රේගන් අ.එ.ජ. ජනාධිපත් ධුරයට පත්වූ විට එරට ජනාධිපති ආර්යාව බවට පත්විය.

විවාහය

නිලියෝ

නැන්සි රේගන්


Austin Guerrero (Chula Vista, California, Estados Unidos, 24 de marzo de 1989) es un futbolista estadounidense de padre mexicano. Juega como portero y su equipo actual es el San Diego Loyal de laUSL Championship.

Clubes

Selección nacional
Ha tenido participación con la selección de Estados Unidos en la categoría Sub-20.

Referencias

Futbolistas nacionalizados en México
Futbolistas de México
Futbolistas del Portland Timbers
Futbolistas de los Tigres de la UANL
Futbolistas del Chicago Fire
Futbolistas del Altamira Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Club Puebla
Futbolistas del Alianza Fútbol Club (Panamá)
Futbolistas del North Carolina Football Club
Futbolistas del Reno 1868 FC
Futbolistas del San Diego Loyal SC
Emigrantes estadounidenses hacia México
Guardametas de fútbol

Austin Guerrero


Skål for Ida er en dansk kortfilm fra 2012 instrueret af Sarah Amalie Næsby og efter manuskript af Thomas Glud og Sarah Amalie Næsby.

Handling
Ida har en fantastisk mor, bare ærgerligt at hun er alkoholiker. Idas far er langt væk i verden, men dybt inde i Idas hjerte. Han er indianer og bor i Amerika og Idas 10 års fødselsdag indledes med at sende en røgsky-invitation til ham fra altanen. Da gæsterne ankommer, gør Ida alt hvad hun kan for at skjule moderens last for dem. Moderen underholder med historier om Idas far, men snart bliver hun fuld og ubehagelig, og måske er den eneste, der kan hjælpe en indianer?

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark
Dukkefilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2012

Skål for Ida


An Tragus mongolorum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jisaburo Ohwi. An Tragus mongolorum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tragus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Tragus

Tragus mongolorum


قرية الكرفاب هي إحدى قرى الولاية الشمالية، محافظة مروي. وتبعد حوالي 50 كلم غرب مدينة كريمة. تقع الكرفاب في الضفة الشمالية لنهر النيل حيث أنه في هذه المنطقة يجري نهر النيل تقريبًا من الشرق إلى الغرب. لكن أهل هذه المناطق يسمون الضفة الشمالية بالشرق، والضفة الجنوبية بالغرب، وذلك لاعتبارهم أن النيل يجري دوماً من الجنوب إلى الشمال. يحد هذه القرية شرقًا قرية الأراك وغربًا البرصة وجنوبًا نهر النيل وشمالًا سلسلة جبال ابن عوف. المسافة بين النهر والجبل مسافة ضيقة لذلك تمتد البيوت في شكل شريط طويل بعد الشريط الزراعي الضيق. تمتد الكرفاب من الشرق إلى الغرب مسافة 6 كيلومترات.

من أهم الموارد لهذه المنطقة هي الزراعة وتربية الماشية. ومن أهم المنتجات الزراعية التمور والقمح والفول.
البيوت في منطقة الكرفاب مبنية من المواد المحلية مثل الطين وبعض التربة اللزجة الموجودة في سفوح الجبال ومعها بعض الحصي.

قرى السودان

الكرفاب


Štefica Krištof-Markan (Zagreb, 16. kolovoza 1936. - Zagreb, 29. travnja 2019.), bila je hrvatska kuglačica, višestruka svjetska prvakinja i košarkašica. Po struci je bila nastavnica.

Životopis
Rodila se u Zagrebu. Premda po struci nastavnica, radila je kao višegodišnja glavna tajnica Hrvatskog kuglačkog saveza. Od 1950. do 1965. igrala je košarku u AKK Mladost iz Zagreba. Kuglala je od 1968. godine u kuglačkom klubu Tekstilac iz Zagreba. Bila je članica zagrebačkih kuglačkih klubova: Tekstilac, Mladost i Trešnjevka. Dvaput je bila druga sa svojim klubom na Europa pokalu. Od 2002. klub je spojen s kuglačkim klubom Sunce. Kuglala je na 13 svjetskih prvenstava. Za reprezentaciju je nastupila 150 puta. Osvojila je 14 odličja, od čega 6 zlatnih, 5 srebrnih i 3 brončana. Četiri odličja je osvojila na pojedinačnom Svjetskom kupu. Višestruka je prvakinja Jugoslavije i poslije Hrvatske. Bila je svjetska rekorderka 1980. i 1984. godine. Na svjetskim je prvenstvima osvajala odličja u paru s Biserkom Perman (prvakinje 1980. i 1984., te bronca 1992.). Obnašala dužnost glavne tajnice Hrvatskoga kuglačkog saveza, a na tom mjestu je dočekala mirovinu. Do zadnjeg dana života volonterski je radila s djecom, najmlađim hrvatskim kuglačima. Umrla je u Zagrebu 29. travnja 2019. godine.

Priznanja
Dobila je sljedeća priznanja:
 Četiri je puta proglašena najboljom športašicom Zagreba.
 Dvaput je proglašena za najbolju športašicu Hrvatske, 1976. i 1980.
 Jednom je proglašena najboljom športašicom Jugoslavije.
 Nagrada HOO-a Matija Ljubek: 2000.

Izvori

Životopisi, Zagreb
Hrvatski košarkaši
Hrvatski kuglači

Štefica Krištof-Markan


Marele Zid Chinezesc (în ) este o povestire scrisă de Franz Kafka în 1917. Ea nu a fost publicată până în 1931, la șapte ani după moartea lui. Max Brod a selectat povestiri și le-a publicat în colecția Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer.

Conținutul povesterii este o parabolă care a fost publicată separat cu titlul "Un Mesaj de la Împărat" în anul 1919, în colecția Ein Landarzt ("Un doctor de țară"). Unele subteme ale povestirii includ motivul pentru care zidul a fost construit bucată cu bucată (în secțiuni mici, în mai multe locuri diferite), relațiile de la chinezi, cu trecut și prezent și prezența imperceptibilă a împăratului. Povestea este spusă la persoana întâi de către un bărbat mai în vârstă, dintr-o provincie sudică.

Prima traducere în limba engleză a fost realizată de Willa și Edwin Muir și a fost publicat de Martin Secker la Londra, în 1933. Ea a apărut în Marele Zid din China. Povești și Reflecții (New York: Schocken Books, 1946).

Referințe

Legături externe
 Textul integral: "Marele Zid din China"

Povestiri de Franz Kafka

Marele Zid Chinezesc (povestire)


An Rhodospatha kraenzlinii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Luis Aloysius, Luigi Sodiro. An Rhodospatha kraenzlinii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Rhodospatha, ngan familia nga Araceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ecuador. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Rhodospatha

Rhodospatha kraenzlinii


José Chavez y Chavez (1851 – 1924) fue un forajido del estado de Nuevo México. Se decía que era de ascendencia mexicano-estadounidense y nativa americana. Chavez y Chavez se convirtió en un forajido a una edad relativamente joven, cuando se unió al grupo de Billy the Kid.

Biografía
Chavez y Chavez se unió a Billy the Kid en sus veinte años, después de haber cometido una serie de pequeños robos y otros delitos, Chavez y Chavez resultaría útil a la banda de Billy the Kid . Junto con Billy y los otros cuatro miembros de la banda, Chavez y Chavez participó en la Guerra del Condado Lincoln que duró desde 1878 hasta 1879.

Chavez y Chavez conoció a Billy the Kid, Jim French, Fred Waite, Charlie Bowdre, John Middleton, y Tom O'Folliard después de que decidió unirse al grupo de Tunstall-McSween en su guerra contra el grupo de James Joseph Dolan (guerra del condado de Lincoln). Este grupo, los Reguladores del Condado de Lincoln, como se les llamaba, estaba compuesto por cuarenta y cinco pistoleros que incluían a José Chavez y Chavez. En algún momento de su mandato como miembro de los Reguladores, Chavez y Chavez conoció a Billy the Kid y sus otros amigos, uniéndose al grupo después.

El 28 de febrero de 1878, John Tunstall fue asesinado. El 1 de abril del mismo año, el sheriff de Lincoln, un respaldo de Dolan, fue asesinado por la banda de the Kid, y Chavez y Chavez se atribuyó a sí mismo este asesinato.

Con el tiempo, más muertes de ambos bandos siguieron, dando lugar al incendio de la casa McSween el 19 de julio. Catorce personas vivían en la casa, incluyendo McSween y su esposa, así como doce cowboys. Seis personas murieron en el incendio, pero todos los miembros de la banda de the Kid fueron capaces de escapar.

En marzo de 1879, el Gobernador de Nuevo México Lew Wallace comenzó una lucha contra la delincuencia en ese estado, y una de sus prioridades era detener la guerra en curso entre los respaldos de los Dolan y los Tunstall-McSween. Con esto en mente, Wallace formó los Rifles Montados del Condado de Lincoln, un grupo del cual Chavez y Chavez se convirtió en un miembro, como privado. Los "Rifles Montados" fracasaron en sus propósitos, sin embargo, el grupo solo duró unos tres meses, un período durante el cual Chavez y Chavez se mantuvo con la banda de Billy.

Chavez y Chavez presuntamente declaró, junto a Billy the Kid, en la corte para tratar de implicar al Ejército en relación con el incendio de la casa McSween y posteriores muertes que ocurrieron durante los incendios. Se cree que, en 1880, Chavez y Chavez asesinó a un convicto peligroso en una cárcel de Nuevo México.

José Chavez y Chavez quedó a la deriva después de la muerte de Billy the Kid, viajando a través del suroeste de Estados Unidos, a veces sin ningún destino en particular en mente. Él consiguió llegar a Las Vegas (Nuevo México), a tiempo para encontrar a Bob Ford, el asesino oficial de Jesse James. Según la leyenda; los dos habían acordado un juego de disparos entre ellos. Tan impresionado quedó Ford con las habilidades con las armas de Chavez y Chavez, que huyó inmediatamente después de que se le pidió tener un duelo contra Chavez y Chavez.

Chavez y Chavez pronto se convirtió en un policía. Pero al parecer no fue capaz de dejar su vida como un desesperado, haciéndose amigo con Vicente Silva y uniéndose a las dos bandas de Silva, incluyendo Las Gorras Blancas, un grupo que fue vinculado luego por muchos anglos como un grupo de bandidos, y por la mayoría de los nativos hispanos de Nuevo México como luchadores por la libertad. Otro grupo de Silva, "Sociedad de Bandidos" fue acusado por los recientes inmigrantes anglosajones a Nuevo México de haber operado de manera similar a la mafia, tratando de obtener beneficios, obligando a la gente a salir de sus propiedades.

Vicente Silva ordenó el asesinato de Patricio Maes, que se llevó a cabo el 22 de octubre de 1892 por Chavez y Chavez, Eugenio Alarid y Julián Trujillo. En febrero de 1893, el grupo mató al cuñado de Silva, Gabriel Sandoval. Sin embargo, la muerte de Sandoval se volvió contra Silva, cuando su esposa comenzó a preocuparse por el paradero de su hermano. Cuando Silva ordenó a Chavez y Chavez, Alarid y Trujillo matar a su esposa, los tres hombres armados se preocuparon por el estado mental de Silva; decidieron matarlo, así que estaban cavando la tumba de la esposa de Silva, y así; Silva y su esposa fueron asesinados por Chavez y Chavez, Alarid y Trujillo mientras Silva les llevó a su esposa a ellos.

En 1894, algunos hombres fueron arrestados y llevados a los tribunales de la ley
en relación con el asesinato de Patricio Maes. Chavez y Chavez se convirtió en un fugitivo, pero fue finalmente arrestado el 26 de mayo. Un jurado lo encontró culpable y se le dio la pena de muerte. Un segundo juicio llegó, y a Chavez y Chavez se le dio de nuevo la pena de muerte. Esta decisión fue revocada más tarde por un nuevo gobernador de Nuevo México, que se sintió obligado a conmutar la sentencia de Chavez y Chavez a la vida en la cárcel en su lugar, dada la publicidad que este caso obtuvo y la presión del público hacia el Gobierno para perdonar la vida de Chavez y Chavez en el tiempo.

Durante un disturbio en la cárcel, Chavez y Chavez ayudó a la policía. Posteriormente, el 11 de enero de 1909, el gobernador de Nuevo México George Curry le concedió un indulto.

Para los quince años restantes de su vida, Chavez y Chavez llevó una vida relativamente tranquila, y murió de causas naturales en su hogar en 1924, con un amigo a su lado.

En la cultura popular
 En la película de 1988, Young Guns, y su secuela de 1990, Young Guns II, Chavez y Chavez fue interpretado por Lou Diamond Phillips. En la secuela, y contrariamente a la historia real, Chavez y Chavez muere a consecuencia de una herida de bala de un encuentro con Pat Garrett y su grupo de caza.

 Chavez y Chavez es también el nombre de un personaje en el videojuego GUN. Aparece como un miembro de la Resistencia, dirigida por Clay Allison. Al principio, cuando el protagonista del juego Colton White trabaja para Hoodoo Brown, él junto a Dave Rudabaugh y John Joshua Webb le persiguen hasta un rancho y le pierden. Más tarde, cuando Colton se une a la Resistencia, Chavez y Chavez le ayuda a defender a Allison de los enemigos.

Referencias

Bandidos del viejo oeste estadounidense
Personas de Nuevo México
Mexicano-estadounidenses

José Chavez y Chavez


La nigüenta es la figura que representa a una niña sentada extirpándose las niguas. Se considera el amuleto para la suerte por excelencia de los costarricenses; también es amuleto de colombianos, dominicanos, entre otros países de América Latina.

Historia
La imagen de la nigüenta representa a una niña que está sentada desnuda, extirpándose las niguas. La nigua es una especie de pulga (Tunga penetrans), muy pequeña, que se encuentra principalmente en campos cubiertos de hierba, cerca de lagos y bosques. Únicamente las niguas bebés (en estado de larva) afectan a los humanos y animales introduciéndose entre los dedos pulgares de los pies.

En Costa Rica
La nigüenta representa al amuleto de la suerte por excelencia, según Dionisio Cabal. Llegó a Costa Rica a finales del , probablemente desde Europa. Su imagen se asemeja a la escultura del Niño de la espina o Spinario, una escultura de un niño desnudo que está extrayéndose una espina del pie.

Según la arqueóloga Ana Yensy Herrera en su obra "Aquellas estatuillas que nos acompañan de mujeres, vírgenes y nigüentas", el origen de la Nigüenta puede estar relacionado con la representación de mujeres chamanes en la sociedad precolombina, las cuales jugaron un papel fundamental en la intercesión entre humanos y entidades espirituales; ellas también podían realizar sanidades por medio de dones naturales y de poderes otorgados por la misma sociedad.

Cualquiera que sea la razón por la cual se origina la nigüenta, según Dionisio Cabal en Costa Rica se le conoce como un elemento que atrae la suerte; da protección a la casa al atarle cintas rojas; se obtiene bienestar familiar si se le amarran cintas amarillas y blancas; y da suerte en la lotería si se le coloca debajo un billete de lotería doblado. También se cree que se puede escribir un deseo en un papel y adherirlo a la nigüenta para que este se haga realidad. También, al principio de cada año se le adjunta un saco pequeño con granos de arroz y frijoles, con el fin que provea suficiente alimento para ese año. Finalmente, se le coloca cerca una fotografía de un ser querido que, por cualquier razón, se haya ido, para que este regrese a casa. Como es el caso de otros amuletos, para que la nigüenta funcione excepcionalmente, esta se debe haber sido recibida como un regalo de una persona apreciada.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Perfil de la Nigüenta
 Artículo en La Nación
 Artículo en Al Día
 Niguas

Tradiciones
Identidad
Fantasmas de Costa Rica
Amuletos

Nigüenta


El Preludio y fuga en do mayor, BWV 547 es una pieza escrita para órgano por el compositor barroco alemán Johann Sebastian Bach. Fue compuesta por el año 1725, en general se presume que la pieza fue escrita en Leipzig, sin embargo algunos investigadores sostienen que se gestó en Weimar.

Análisis

Preludio
El compás de 9/8 del comienzo del preludio es bastante inusual, son notas repetidas en medio de la escala ascendente cuando empieza el tema, Bach cubre el intervalo de una octava durante la reproducción de diez notas. Una vez se ejecutan las notas ascendentes de la melodía principal (que se irá repitiendo a lo largo de la pieza) entran los pedales a modo de respuesta. Al comienzo preludio, el pedal va proyectando notas de bajo descendentes, después, solo con los manuales se interpreta una melodía, para que nuevamente vuelvan a entrar los pedales a modo de respuesta. Los pedales toman un papel muy importante durante todo el preludio, ejecutándose constantemente notas de bajo.

Su ambiente doméstico, pastoral continúa a lo largo, con el apoyo de la polifonía maestra. La parte casi de ostinato del pedal da un constante recuerdo del compás de 9/8 y se deriva de la voz de soprano en la segunda medida del preludio. A veces, la escritura manual tiene algunas reminiscencias que se pueden escuchar en las Variaciones Goldberg.

Fuga
Debido a que la última nota del tema en sí inicia con un empuje a la dominante, se convierte en un participante activo en los pasajes de desarrollo de la pieza. Así, el sujeto es parte tanto de la armónica, como de secciones estables de la fuga. Esto hace que sea difícil para el oyente encontrar un equilibrio en la pieza. A diferencia de algunas de las fugas anteriores de Bach, las repeticiones del sujeto no son simplemente la repetición de las referencias del material de apertura, si embargo proporcionan una sutil forma de trabajo a través del proceso de fuga. La armonía se mueve hacia el "plano", las tonalidades, finalmente descansan en la tónica menor durante un tiempo. Bach retrasa la entrada del pedal hasta aproximadamente dos tercios de la fuga. Después de esta espectacular entrada de los pedales, comienza el camino de regreso a la tónica. Como para compensar las peregrinaciones armónicas anteriores, la fuga cierra con un pedal tónico sostenido.

Referencias
 Prelude and Fugue in Eb, BWV552 ('St. Anne's')

Enlaces externos
 Piezas de JS Bach

Composiciones para órgano de Johann Sebastian Bach
Composiciones de 1725

Preludio y fuga en do mayor, BWV 547


Bechi steht für:
 Bechí, Gemeinde in der spanischen Provinz Castellón

Bechi ist der Familienname folgender Personen:
 Gino Bechi (1913–1993), italienischer Sänger und Schauspieler
 Guglielmo Bechi (1791–1852), italienischer Architekt und Archäologe
 Luigi Bechi (1830–1919), italienischer Maler

Siehe auch:
 Becchi

Bechi


Muammalar, divan şiirinde, başta Esma'ül Hüsna (Allah'ın doksan dokuz güzel ismi) olmak üzere konusu insan ismi olan manzum bilmeceler. Kelime "gizli, örtülü, anlaşılması güç veya işaret remiz yoluyla söylenmiş söz" anlamlarına gelir. Muammalar lügazlardan farklıdır. Muammalar Allah'ın isimlerinden biri veya insan ismi için düzenlenirken lügazlar her şey hakkında düzenlenirler. Yalnız muammaların bazen lügaz, hatta âşık edebiyatında bir çeşit bilmece (âşkı -muamma) karşılığı olarak da kullanıldığı görülür. Muamma alanında en çok eser veren şairimiz Emri (Edirneli Emrullah Çelebi) olmuştur. Muammanın düzenlenmesinde ebced hesabı kullanılır. Burada sorulan bir isimdir. Muamma söyleyenlere muamma-guy, muammayı çözene ise muamma-küşa denir. Genellikle çözüm ikinci mısradadır. Arap edebiyatından İran edebiyatına onlardan da Türk edebiyatına geçmiştir. Türk edebiyatında Ahmedi ilk muamma yazan kişidir. Muamma söyleyen diğer şahsiyetler: Mu'in, Emri, Sürur.

Örnek:

Bende yok sab-ü sükun sende vefadan zerre
İki yoktan ne çıkar fikr edelim bir kerre

Nabi (Na ve bi Farsçada olumsuzluk ekleridir yani iki tane 'yok' birleşince "Nabi" olur.)

Türlerine göre Divan nazımı

Muamma


The pharmaceutical industry discovers, develops, produces, and markets pharmaceutical drugs for the use as medications to be administered to patients (or self-administered), with the aim to cure and prevent diseases, or alleviate symptoms.  Pharmaceutical companies may deal in generic or brand medications and medical devices. They are subject to a variety of laws and regulations that govern the patenting, testing, safety, efficacy using drug testing and marketing of drugs. The global pharmaceuticals market produced treatments worth $1,228.45 billion in 2020 and showed a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 1.8%.

History

Mid-1800s – 1945: From botanicals to the first synthetic drugs

The modern era of pharmaceutical industry began with local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role of distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid-1800s, and from discoveries resulting from applied research. Intentional drug discovery from plants began with the isolation between 1803 and 1805 of morphine – an analgesic and sleep-inducing agent – from opium by the German apothecary assistant Friedrich Sertürner, who named this compound after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus.  By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from  tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis. The development of synthetic chemical methods allowed scientists to systematically vary the structure of chemical substances, and growth in the emerging science of pharmacology expanded their ability to evaluate the biological effects of these structural changes.

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and amphetamine
By the 1890s, the profound effect of adrenal extracts on many different tissue types had been discovered, setting off a search both for the mechanism of chemical signalling and efforts to exploit these observations for the development of new drugs. The blood pressure raising and vasoconstrictive effects of adrenal extracts were of particular interest to surgeons as hemostatic agents and as treatment for shock, and a number of companies developed products based on adrenal extracts containing varying purities of the active substance. In 1897, John Abel of Johns Hopkins University identified the active principle as epinephrine, which he isolated in an impure state as the sulfate salt. Industrial chemist Jōkichi Takamine later developed a method for obtaining epinephrine in a pure state, and licensed the technology to Parke-Davis.  Parke-Davis marketed epinephrine under the trade name Adrenalin. Injected epinephrine proved to be especially efficacious for the acute treatment of asthma attacks, and an inhaled version was sold in the United States until 2011 (Primatene Mist). By 1929 epinephrine had been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion.

While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of epinephrine and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma.  Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects but produced sensations of exhilaration and palpitations. Amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encephalitic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications. It received approval as a New and Nonofficial Remedy from the American Medical Association for these uses in 1937, and remained in common use for depression until the development of tricyclic antidepressants in the 1960s.

Discovery and development of the barbiturates

In 1903, Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering disclosed their discovery that diethylbarbituric acid, formed from the reaction of  acid, phosphorus oxychloride and urea, induces sleep in dogs. The discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Systematic investigations of the effect of structural changes on potency and duration of action led to the discovery of phenobarbital at Bayer in 1911 and the discovery of its potent anti-epileptic activity in 1912.  Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, and as of 2014, remains on the World Health Organizations list of essential medications. The 1950s and 1960s saw increased awareness of the addictive properties and abuse potential of barbiturates and amphetamines and led to increasing restrictions on their use and growing government oversight of prescribers.  Today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy.

In 1958, Leo Sternbach discovered the first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium). Dozens of other benzodiazepines have been developed and are in use, some of the more popular drugs being diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin), and lorazepam (Ativan). Due to their far superior safety and therapeutic properties, benzodiazepines have largely replaced the use of barbiturates in medicine, except in certain special cases. When it was later discovered that benzodiazepines, like barbiturates, significantly lose their effectiveness and can have serious side effects when taken long-term, Heather Ashton researched benzodiazepine dependence and developed a protocol to discontinue their use.

Insulin
A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas.  In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas.  In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study and found that injections of pancreatic extract reversed the symptoms produced by pancreas removal.  Soon, the extract was demonstrated to work in people, but development of insulin therapy as a routine medical procedure was delayed by difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity.  The researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the company's experience with large scale purification of biological materials.  Chemist George B. Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced.  Under pressure from Toronto University and a potential patent challenge by academic scientists who had independently developed a similar purification method, an agreement was reached for non-exclusive production of insulin by multiple companies.  Prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months.

Early anti-infective research: Salvarsan, Prontosil, Penicillin and vaccines
The development of drugs for the treatment of infectious diseases was a major focus of early research and development efforts; in 1900, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and diarrhea were the three leading causes of death in the United States and mortality in the first year of life exceeded 10%.

In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic anti-infective drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim of the Institute of Experimental Therapy in Berlin. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan.  Ehrlich, noting both the general toxicity of arsenic and the selective absorption of certain dyes by bacteria, hypothesized that an arsenic-containing dye with similar selective absorption properties could be used to treat bacterial infections.  Arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and was found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease untl then had been incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death.

Ehrlich's approach of systematically varying the chemical structure of synthetic compounds and measuring the effects of these changes on biological activity was pursued broadly by industrial scientists, including Bayer scientists Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk. This work, also based on the testing of compounds available from the German dye industry, led to the development of Prontosil, the first representative of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics.  Compared to arsphenamine, the sulfonamides had a broader spectrum of activity and were far less toxic, rendering them useful for infections caused by pathogens such as streptococci.  In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery. Nonetheless, the dramatic decrease in deaths from infectious diseases that occurred prior to World War II was primarily the result of improved public health measures such as clean water and less crowded housing, and the impact of anti-infective drugs and vaccines was significant mainly after World War II.

In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the antibacterial effects of penicillin, but its exploitation for the treatment of human disease awaited the development of methods for its large scale production and purification.  These were developed by a U.S. and British government-led consortium of pharmaceutical companies during the world war.

There was early progress toward the development of vaccines throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885, Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921, resulting in 15,520 deaths.  In 1923, parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese Encephalitis. Hilleman later moved to Merck, where he played a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

Unsafe drugs and early industry regulation

Prior to the 20th century, drugs were generally produced by small scale manufacturers with little regulatory control over manufacturing or claims of safety and efficacy. To the extent that such laws did exist, enforcement was lax. In the United States, increased regulation of vaccines and other biological drugs was spurred by tetanus outbreaks and deaths caused by the distribution of contaminated smallpox vaccine and diphtheria antitoxin.  The Biologics Control Act of 1902 required that federal government grant premarket approval for every biological drug and for the process and facility producing such drugs.  This was followed in 1906 by the Pure Food and Drugs Act, which forbade the interstate distribution of adulterated or misbranded foods and drugs. A drug was considered misbranded if it contained alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, or any of several other potentially dangerous or addictive drugs, and if its label failed to indicate the quantity or proportion of such drugs.  The government's attempts to use the law to prosecute manufacturers for making unsupported claims of efficacy were undercut by a Supreme Court ruling restricting the federal government's enforcement powers to cases of incorrect specification of the drug's ingredients.

In 1937 over 100 people died after ingesting "Elixir Sulfanilamide" manufactured by S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee.  The product was formulated in diethylene glycol, a highly toxic solvent that is now widely used as antifreeze.  Under the laws extant at that time, prosecution of the manufacturer was possible only under the technicality that the product had been called an "elixir", which literally implied a solution in ethanol.  In response to this episode, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which for the first time required pre-market demonstration of safety before a drug could be sold, and explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims.

The post-war years, 1945–1970

Further advances in anti-infective research

The aftermath of World War II saw an explosion in the discovery of new classes of antibacterial drugs including the cephalosporins (developed by Eli Lilly based on the seminal work of Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham), streptomycin (discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory), the tetracyclines (discovered at Lederle Laboratories, now a part of Pfizer), erythromycin (discovered at Eli Lilly and Co.) and their extension to an increasingly wide range of bacterial pathogens.  Streptomycin, discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers in 1943, became the first effective treatment for tuberculosis.  At the time of its discovery, sanitoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were an ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission.

A Federal Trade Commission report issued in 1958 attempted to quantify the effect of antibiotic development on American public health. The report found that over the period 1946–1955, there was a 42% drop in the incidence of diseases for which antibiotics were effective and only a 20% drop in those for which antibiotics were not effective. The report concluded that "it appears that the use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors have limited the epidemic spread and thus the number of these diseases which have occurred". The study further examined mortality rates for eight common diseases for which antibiotics offered effective therapy (syphilis, tuberculosis, dysentery, scarlet fever, whooping cough, meningococcal infections, and pneumonia), and found a 56% decline over the same period. Notable among these was a 75% decline in deaths due to tuberculosis.

During the years 1940–1955, the rate of decline in the U.S. death rate accelerated from 2% per year to 8% per year, then returned to the historical rate of 2% per year. The dramatic decline in the immediate post-war years has been attributed to the rapid development of new treatments and vaccines for infectious disease that occurred during these years.
Vaccine development continued to accelerate, with the most notable achievement of the period being Jonas Salk's 1954 development of the polio vaccine under the funding of the non-profit National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. The vaccine process was never patented but was instead given to pharmaceutical companies to manufacture as a low-cost generic.  In 1960 Maurice Hilleman of Merck Sharp & Dohme identified the SV40 virus, which was later shown to cause tumors in many mammalian species.  It was later determined that SV40 was present as a contaminant in polio vaccine lots that had been administered to 90% of the children in the United States. The contamination appears to have originated both in the original cell stock and in monkey tissue used for production. In 2004 the National Cancer Institute announced that it had concluded that SV40 is not associated with cancer in people.

Other notable new vaccines of the period include those for measles (1962, John Franklin Enders of Children's Medical Center Boston, later refined by Maurice Hilleman at Merck), Rubella (1969, Hilleman, Merck) and mumps (1967, Hilleman, Merck)  The United States incidences of rubella, congenital rubella syndrome, measles, and mumps all fell by >95% in the immediate aftermath of widespread vaccination. The first 20 years of licensed measles vaccination in the U.S. prevented an estimated 52 million cases of the disease, 17,400 cases of mental retardation, and 5,200 deaths.

Development and marketing of antihypertensive drugs
Hypertension is a risk factor for atherosclerosis, heart failure, coronary artery disease, stroke, renal disease, and peripheral arterial disease, and is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, in industrialized countries. Prior to 1940 approximately 23% of all deaths among persons over age 50 were attributed to hypertension. Severe cases of hypertension were treated by surgery.

Early developments in the field of treating hypertension included quaternary ammonium ion sympathetic nervous system blocking agents, but these compounds were never widely used due to their severe side effects, because the long-term health consequences of high blood pressure had not yet been established, and because they had to be administered by injection.

In 1952 researchers at Ciba discovered the first orally available vasodilator, hydralazine.  A major shortcoming of hydralazine monotherapy was that it lost its effectiveness over time (tachyphylaxis).  In the mid-1950s Karl H. Beyer, James M. Sprague, John E. Baer, and Frederick C. Novello of Merck and Co. discovered and developed chlorothiazide, which remains the most widely used antihypertensive drug today. This development was associated with a substantial decline in the mortality rate among people with hypertension. The inventors were recognized by a Public Health Lasker Award in 1975 for "the saving of untold thousands of lives and the alleviation of the suffering of millions of victims of hypertension".

A 2009 Cochrane review concluded that thiazide antihypertensive drugs reduce the risk of death (RR 0.89), stroke (RR 0.63), coronary heart disease (RR 0.84), and cardiovascular events (RR 0.70) in people with high blood pressure. In the ensuring years other classes of antihypertensive drug were developed and found wide acceptance in combination therapy, including loop diuretics (Lasix/furosemide, Hoechst Pharmaceuticals, 1963), beta blockers (ICI Pharmaceuticals, 1964) ACE inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers. ACE inhibitors reduce the risk of new onset kidney disease [RR 0.71] and death [RR 0.84] in diabetic patients, irrespective of whether they have hypertension.

Oral Contraceptives
Prior to the Second World war, birth control was prohibited in many countries, and in the United States even the discussion of contraceptive methods sometimes led to prosecution under Comstock laws.  The history of the development of oral contraceptives is thus closely tied to the birth control movement and the efforts of activists Margaret Sanger, Mary Dennett, and Emma Goldman. Based on fundamental research performed by Gregory Pincus and synthetic methods for progesterone developed by Carl Djerassi at Syntex and by Frank Colton at G.D. Searle & Co., the first oral contraceptive, Enovid, was developed by G.D. Searle & Co. and approved by the FDA in 1960.  The original formulation incorporated vastly excessive doses of hormones, and caused severe side effects.  Nonetheless, by 1962, 1.2 million American women were on the pill, and by 1965 the number had increased to 6.5 million. The availability of a convenient form of temporary contraceptive led to dramatic changes in social mores including expanding the range of lifestyle options available to women, reducing the reliance of women on men for contraceptive practice, encouraging the delay of marriage, and increasing pre-marital co-habitation.

Thalidomide and the Kefauver-Harris Amendments

In the U.S., a push for revisions of the FD&C Act emerged from Congressional hearings led by Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee in 1959. The hearings covered a wide range of policy issues, including advertising abuses, questionable efficacy of drugs, and the need for greater regulation of the industry. While momentum for new legislation temporarily flagged under extended debate, a new tragedy emerged that underscored the need for more comprehensive regulation and provided the driving force for the passage of new laws.

On 12 September 1960, an American licensee, the William S. Merrell Company of Cincinnati, submitted a new drug application for Kevadon (thalidomide), a sedative that had been marketed in Europe since 1956. The FDA medical officer in charge of reviewing the compound, Frances Kelsey, believed that the data supporting the safety of thalidomide was incomplete. The firm continued to pressure Kelsey and the FDA to approve the application until November 1961, when the drug was pulled off the German market because of its association with grave congenital abnormalities. Several thousand newborns in Europe and elsewhere suffered the teratogenic effects of thalidomide. Without approval from the FDA, the firm distributed Kevadon to over 1,000 physicians there under the guise of investigational use. Over 20,000 Americans received thalidomide in this "study," including 624 pregnant patients, and about 17 known newborns suffered the effects of the drug.

The thalidomide tragedy resurrected Kefauver's bill to enhance drug regulation that had stalled in Congress, and the Kefauver-Harris Amendment became law on 10 October 1962. Manufacturers henceforth had to prove to FDA that their drugs were effective as well as safe before they could go on the US market. The FDA received authority to regulate advertising of prescription drugs and to establish good manufacturing practices. The law required that all drugs introduced between 1938 and 1962 had to be effective. An FDA - National Academy of Sciences collaborative study showed that nearly 40 percent of these products were not effective. A similarly comprehensive study of over-the-counter products began ten years later.

1970–1990s

Statins

In 1971, Akira Endo, a Japanese biochemist working for the pharmaceutical company Sankyo, identified mevastatin (ML-236B), a molecule produced by the fungus Penicillium citrinum, as an inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, a critical enzyme used by the body to produce cholesterol.  Animal trials showed very good inhibitory effect as in clinical trials, however a long-term study in dogs found toxic effects at higher doses and as a result mevastatin was believed to be too toxic for human use.  Mevastatin was never marketed, because of its adverse effects of tumors, muscle deterioration, and sometimes death in laboratory dogs.

P. Roy Vagelos, chief scientist and later CEO of Merck & Co, was interested, and made several trips to Japan starting in 1975. By 1978, Merck had isolated lovastatin (mevinolin, MK803) from the fungus Aspergillus terreus, first marketed in 1987 as Mevacor.

In April 1994, the results of a Merck-sponsored study, the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study, were announced. Researchers tested simvastatin, later sold by Merck as Zocor, on 4,444 patients with high cholesterol and heart disease. After five years, the study concluded the patients saw a 35% reduction in their cholesterol, and their chances of dying of a heart attack were reduced by 42%. In 1995, Zocor and Mevacor both made Merck over US$1 billion. Endo was awarded the 2006 Japan Prize, and the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award in 2008. For his "pioneering research into a new class of molecules" for "lowering cholesterol,"

21st Century
Since several decades, biologics have been rising in importance in comparison with small molecules treatments. The biotech subsector, animal health and the Chinese pharmaceutical sector have also grown substantially. On the organisational side, big international pharma corporations have experienced a substantial decline of their value share. Also, the core generic sector (substitutions for off-patent brands) has been downvalued due to competition.

Torreya estimated the pharmaceutical industry to have a market valuation of US$7.03 trillion by February 2021 from which US$6.1 trillion is the value of the publicly traded companies. Small Molecules modality had 58.2% of the valuation share down from 84.6% in 2003. Biologics was up at 30.5% from 14.5%. The valuation share of Chinese Pharma grew from 2003 to 2021 from 1% to 12% overtaking Switzerland who is now ranked number 3 with 7.7%. The United States had still by far the most valued pharmaceutical industry with 40% of global valuation.

Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions
A 2022 article articulated this notion succinctly by saying "In the business of drug development, deals can be just as important as scientific breakthroughs", typically referred to as pharmaceutical M&A (for mergers and acquisitions).  It highlighted that some of the most impactful of the remedies of the early 21st Century were only made possible through M&A activities, specifically noting Keytruda and Humira.

Research and development

Drug discovery is the process by which potential drugs are discovered or designed. In the past, most drugs have been discovered either by isolating the active ingredient from traditional remedies or by serendipitous discovery. Modern biotechnology often focuses on understanding the metabolic pathways related to a disease state or pathogen, and manipulating these pathways using molecular biology or biochemistry. A great deal of early-stage drug discovery has traditionally been carried out by universities and research institutions.

Drug development refers to activities undertaken after a compound is identified as a potential drug in order to establish its suitability as a medication. Objectives of drug development are to determine appropriate formulation and dosing, as well as to establish safety. Research in these areas generally includes a combination of in vitro studies, in vivo studies, and clinical trials. The cost of late stage development has meant it is usually done by the larger pharmaceutical companies. The pharmaceuticals and biotechnology industry spends more than 15% of its net sales for Research & Development which is in comparison with other industries by far the highest share.

Often, large multinational corporations exhibit vertical integration, participating in a broad range of drug discovery and development, manufacturing and quality control, marketing, sales, and distribution. Smaller organizations, on the other hand, often focus on a specific aspect such as discovering drug candidates or developing formulations. Often, collaborative agreements between research organizations and large pharmaceutical companies are formed to explore the potential of new drug substances. More recently, multi-nationals are increasingly relying on contract research organizations to manage drug development.

The cost of innovation

Drug discovery and development are very expensive; of all compounds investigated for use in humans only a small fraction are eventually approved in most nations by government-appointed medical institutions or boards, who have to approve new drugs before they can be marketed in those countries. In 2010 18 NMEs (New Molecular Entities) were approved and three biologics by the FDA, or 21 in total, which is down from 26 in 2009 and 24 in 2008. On the other hand, there were only 18 approvals in total in 2007 and 22 back in 2006. Since 2001, the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research has averaged 22.9 approvals a year.
This approval comes only after heavy investment in pre-clinical development and clinical trials, as well as a commitment to ongoing safety monitoring. Drugs which fail part-way through this process often incur large costs, while generating no revenue in return. If the cost of these failed drugs is taken into account, the cost of developing a successful new drug (new chemical entity, or NCE), has been estimated at US$1.3 billion (not including marketing expenses). Professors Light and Lexchin reported in 2012, however, that the rate of approval for new drugs has been a relatively stable average rate of 15 to 25 for decades.

Industry-wide research and investment reached a record $65.3 billion in 2009. While the cost of research in the U.S. was about 34.2 billion between 1995 and 2010, revenues rose faster (revenues rose by 200.4 billion in that time).

A study by the consulting firm Bain & Company reported that the cost for discovering, developing and launching (which factored in marketing and other business expenses) a new drug (along with the prospective drugs that fail) rose over a five-year period to nearly $1.7 billion in 2003. According to Forbes, by 2010 development costs were between $4 billion to $11 billion per drug.

Some of these estimates also take into account the opportunity cost of investing capital many years before revenues are realized (see Time-value of money). Because of the very long time needed for discovery, development, and approval of pharmaceuticals, these costs can accumulate to nearly half the total expense. A direct consequence within the pharmaceutical industry value chain is that major pharmaceutical multinationals tend to increasingly outsource risks related to fundamental research, which somewhat reshapes the industry ecosystem with biotechnology companies playing an increasingly important role, and overall strategies being redefined accordingly. Some approved drugs, such as those based on re-formulation of an existing active ingredient (also referred to as Line-extensions) are much less expensive to develop.

Product approval
In the United States, new pharmaceutical products must be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as being both safe and effective. This process generally involves submission of an Investigational New Drug filing with sufficient pre-clinical data to support proceeding with human trials. Following IND approval, three phases of progressively larger human clinical trials may be conducted. Phase I generally studies toxicity using healthy volunteers. Phase II can include pharmacokinetics and dosing in patients, and Phase III is a very large study of efficacy in the intended patient population. Following the successful completion of phase III testing, a New Drug Application is submitted to the FDA. The FDA reviews the data and if the product is seen as having a positive benefit-risk assessment, approval to market the product in the US is granted.

A fourth phase of post-approval surveillance is also often required due to the fact that even the largest clinical trials cannot effectively predict the prevalence of rare side-effects. Postmarketing surveillance ensures that after marketing the safety of a drug is monitored closely. In certain instances, its indication may need to be limited to particular patient groups, and in others the substance is withdrawn from the market completely.

The FDA provides information about approved drugs at the Orange Book site.

In the UK, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency approves and evaluates drugs for use. Normally an approval in the UK and other European countries comes later than one in the USA.  Then it is the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), for England and Wales, who decides if and how the National Health Service (NHS) will allow (in the sense of paying for) their use.  The British National Formulary is the core guide for pharmacists and clinicians.

In many non-US western countries, a 'fourth hurdle' of cost effectiveness analysis has developed before new technologies can be provided. This focuses on the 'efficacy price tag' (in terms of, for example, the cost per QALY) of the technologies in question. In England and Wales NICE decides whether and in what circumstances drugs and technologies will be made available by the NHS, whilst similar arrangements exist with the Scottish Medicines Consortium in Scotland, and the Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee in Australia. A product must pass the threshold for cost-effectiveness if it is to be approved. Treatments must represent 'value for money' and a net benefit to society.

Orphan drugs

There are special rules for certain rare diseases ("orphan diseases") in several major drug regulatory territories. For example, diseases involving fewer than 200,000 patients in the United States, or larger populations in certain circumstances are subject to the Orphan Drug Act. Because medical research and development of drugs to treat such diseases is financially disadvantageous, companies that do so are rewarded with tax reductions, fee waivers, and market exclusivity on that drug for a limited time (seven years), regardless of whether the drug is protected by patents.

Global sales

In 2011, global spending on prescription drugs topped $954 billion, even as growth slowed somewhat in Europe and North America. The United States accounts for more than a third of the global pharmaceutical market, with $340 billion in annual sales followed by the EU and Japan. Emerging markets such as China, Russia, South Korea and Mexico outpaced that market, growing a huge 81 percent.

The top ten best-selling drugs of 2013 totaled $75.6 billion in sales, with the anti-inflammatory drug Humira being the best-selling drug worldwide at $10.7 billion in sales. The second and third best selling were Enbrel and Remicade, respectively. The top three best-selling drugs in the United States in 2013 were Abilify ($6.3 billion,) Nexium ($6 billion) and Humira ($5.4 billion). The best-selling drug ever, Lipitor, averaged $13 billion annually and netted $141 billion total over its lifetime before Pfizer's patent expired in November 2011.

IMS Health publishes an analysis of trends expected in the pharmaceutical industry in 2007, including increasing profits in most sectors despite loss of some patents, and new 'blockbuster' drugs on the horizon.

Patents and generics
Depending on a number of considerations, a company may apply for and be granted a patent for the drug, or the process of producing the drug, granting exclusivity rights typically for about 20 years. However, only after rigorous study and testing, which takes 10 to 15 years on average, will governmental authorities grant permission for the company to market and sell the drug. Patent protection enables the owner of the patent to recover the costs of research and development through high profit margins for the branded drug. When the patent protection for the drug expires, a generic drug is usually developed and sold by a competing company. The development and approval of generics is less expensive, allowing them to be sold at a lower price. Often the owner of the branded drug will introduce a generic version before the patent expires in order to get a head start in the generic market. Restructuring has therefore become routine, driven by the patent expiration of products launched during the industry's "golden era" in the 1990s and companies' failure to develop sufficient new blockbuster products to replace lost revenues.

Prescriptions
In the U.S., the value of prescriptions increased over the period of 1995 to 2005 by 3.4 billion annually, a 61 percent increase. Retail sales of prescription drugs jumped 250 percent from $72 billion to $250 billion, while the average price of prescriptions more than doubled from $30 to $68.

Marketing

Advertising is common in healthcare journals as well as through more mainstream media routes. In some countries, notably the US, they are allowed to advertise directly to the general public. Pharmaceutical companies generally employ salespeople (often called 'drug reps' or, an older term, 'detail men') to market directly and personally to physicians and other healthcare providers. In some countries, notably the US, pharmaceutical companies also employ lobbyists to influence politicians. Marketing of prescription drugs in the US is regulated by the federal Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987. The pharmaceutical marketing plan incorporates the spending plans, channels, and thoughts which will take the drug association, and its items and administrations, forward in the current scene.

To healthcare professionals
The book Bad Pharma also discusses the influence of drug representatives, how ghostwriters are employed by the drug companies to write papers for academics to publish, how independent the academic journals really are, how the drug companies finance doctors' continuing education, and how patients' groups are often funded by industry.

Direct to consumer advertising

Since the 1980s, new methods of marketing for prescription drugs to consumers have become important. Direct-to-consumer media advertising was legalised in the FDA Guidance for Industry on Consumer-Directed Broadcast Advertisements.

Controversies

Drug marketing and lobbying

There has been increasing controversy surrounding pharmaceutical marketing and influence. There have been accusations and findings of influence on doctors and other health professionals through drug reps including the constant provision of marketing 'gifts' and biased information to health professionals; highly prevalent advertising in journals and conferences; funding independent healthcare organizations and health promotion campaigns; lobbying physicians and politicians (more than any other industry in the US); sponsorship of medical schools or nurse training; sponsorship of continuing educational events, with influence on the curriculum; and hiring physicians as paid consultants on medical advisory boards.

Some advocacy groups, such as No Free Lunch and AllTrials, have criticized the effect of drug marketing to physicians because they say it biases physicians to prescribe the marketed drugs even when others might be cheaper or better for the patient.

There have been related accusations of disease mongering (over-medicalising) to expand the market for medications. An inaugural conference on that subject took place in Australia in 2006. In 2009, the Government-funded National Prescribing Service launched the "Finding Evidence – Recognising Hype" program, aimed at educating GPs on methods for independent drug analysis.

Meta-analyses have shown that psychiatric studies sponsored by pharmaceutical companies are several times more likely to report positive results, and if a drug company employee is involved the effect is even larger. Influence has also extended to the training of doctors and nurses in medical schools, which is being fought.

It has been argued that the design of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and the expansion of the criteria represents an increasing medicalization of human nature, or "disease mongering", driven by drug company influence on psychiatry. The potential for direct conflict of interest has been raised, partly because roughly half the authors who selected and defined the DSM-IV psychiatric disorders had or previously had financial relationships with the pharmaceutical industry.

In the US, starting in 2013, under the Physician Financial Transparency Reports (part of the Sunshine Act), the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has to collect information from applicable manufacturers and group purchasing organizations in order to report information about their financial relationships with physicians and hospitals. Data are made public in the  Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website. The expectation is that relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent.

In a report conducted by OpenSecrets, there were more than 1,100 lobbyists working in some capacity for the pharmaceutical business in 2017. In the first quarter of 2017, the health products and pharmaceutical industry spent $78 million on lobbying members of the United States Congress.

Medication pricing

The pricing of pharmaceuticals is becoming a major challenge for health systems. A November 2020 study by the West Health Policy Center stated that more than 1.1 million senior citizens in the U.S. Medicare program are expected to die prematurely over the next decade because they will be unable to afford their prescription medications, requiring an additional $17.7 billion to be spent annually on avoidable medical costs due to health complications.

Regulatory issues
Ben Goldacre has argued that regulators – such as the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the UK, or the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States – advance the interests of the drug companies rather than the interests of the public due to revolving door exchange of employees between the regulator and the companies and friendships develop between regulator and company employees. He argues that regulators do not require that new drugs offer an improvement over what is already available, or even that they be particularly effective.

Others have argued that excessive regulation suppresses therapeutic innovation and that the current cost of regulator-required clinical trials prevents the full exploitation of new genetic and biological knowledge for the treatment of human disease.  A 2012 report by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology made several key recommendations to reduce regulatory burdens to new drug development, including 1) expanding the FDA's use of accelerated approval processes, 2) creating an expedited approval pathway for drugs intended for use in narrowly defined populations, and 3) undertaking pilot projects designed to evaluate the feasibility of a new, adaptive drug approval process.

Pharmaceutical fraud

Pharmaceutical fraud involves deceptions which bring financial gain to a pharmaceutical company. It affects individuals and public and private insurers. There are several different schemes used to defraud the health care system which are particular to the pharmaceutical industry. These include: Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Violations, Off Label Marketing, Best Price Fraud, CME Fraud, Medicaid Price Reporting, and Manufactured Compound Drugs. Of this amount $2.5 billion was recovered through False Claims Act cases in FY 2010. Examples of fraud cases include the GlaxoSmithKline $3 billion settlement, Pfizer $2.3 billion settlement and Merck & Co. $650 million settlement. Damages from fraud can be recovered by use of the False Claims Act, most commonly under the qui tam provisions which rewards an individual for being a "whistleblower", or relator (law).

Every major company selling atypical antipsychotics—Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly and Company, Pfizer, AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson—has either settled recent government cases, under the False Claims Act, for hundreds of millions of dollars or is currently under investigation for possible health care fraud. Following charges of illegal marketing, two of the settlements set records in 2009 for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations. One involved Eli Lilly's antipsychotic Zyprexa, and the other involved Bextra, an anti-inflammatory medication used for arthritis. In the Bextra case, the government also charged Pfizer with illegally marketing another antipsychotic, Geodon; Pfizer settled that part of the claim for $301 million, without admitting any wrongdoing.

On 2 July 2012, GlaxoSmithKline pleaded guilty to criminal charges and agreed to a $3 billion settlement of the largest health-care fraud case in the U.S. and the largest payment by a drug company. The settlement is related to the company's illegal promotion of prescription drugs, its failure to report safety data, bribing doctors, and promoting medicines for uses for which they were not licensed. The drugs involved were Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran for off-label, non-covered uses. Those and the drugs Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex were involved in the kickback scheme.

The following is a list of the four largest settlements reached with pharmaceutical companies from 1991 to 2012, rank ordered by the size of the total settlement. Legal claims against the pharmaceutical industry have varied widely over the past two decades, including Medicare and Medicaid fraud, off-label promotion, and inadequate manufacturing practices.

Physician roles

In May 2015, the New England Journal of Medicine emphasized the importance of pharmaceutical industry-physician interactions for the development of novel treatments, and argued that moral outrage over industry malfeasance had unjustifiably led many to overemphasize the problems created by financial conflicts of interest.  The article noted that major healthcare organizations, such as National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health, the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, the World Economic Forum, the Gates Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, and the Food and Drug Administration had encouraged greater interactions between physicians and industry in order to improve benefits to patients.

Response to COVID-19

In November 2020 several pharmaceutical companies announced successful trials of COVID-19 vaccines, with efficacy
of 90 to 95% in preventing infection.  Per company announcements and data reviewed by external analysts, these vaccines are priced at $3 to $37 per dose.  The Wall Street Journal ran an editorial calling for this achievement to be recognized with a Nobel Peace Prize.

Doctors Without Borders warned that high prices and monopolies on medicines, tests, and vaccines would prolong the pandemic and cost lives. They urged governments to prevent profiteering, using compulsory licenses as needed, as had already been done by Canada, Chile, Ecuador, Germany, and Israel.

On 20 February, 46 US lawmakers called for the US government not to grant monopoly rights when giving out taxpayer development money for any coronavirus vaccines and treatments, to avoid giving exclusive control of prices and availability to private manufacturers.

In the United States the government signed agreements in which research and development and/or the building of manufacturing plants for potential COVID-19 therapeutics was subsidized.  Typically, the agreement involved the government taking ownership of a certain number of doses of the product without further payment.  For example, under the auspices of Operation Warp Speed in the United States, the government subsidized research related to COVID-19 vaccines and therapeutics at Regeneron, Johnson and Johnson, Moderna, AstraZeneca, Novavax, Pfizer, and GSK. Typical terms involved research subsidies of $400 million to $2 billion, and included government ownership of the first 100 million doses of any COVID-19 vaccine successfully developed.

American pharmaceutical company Gilead  sought and obtained orphan drug status for remdesivir from the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) on 23 March 2020. This provision is intended to encourage the development of drugs affecting fewer than 200,000 Americans by granting strengthened and extended legal monopoly rights to the manufacturer, along with waivers on taxes and government fees. Remdesivir is a candidate for treating COVID-19; at the time the status was granted, fewer than 200,000 Americans had COVID-19, but numbers were climbing rapidly as the COVID-19 pandemic reached the US, and crossing the threshold soon was considered inevitable. Remdesivir was developed by Gilead with over $79 million in U.S. government funding. In May 2020, Gilead announced that it would provide the first 940,000 doses of remdesivir to the federal government free of charge.  After facing strong public reactions, Gilead gave up the "orphan drug" status for remdesivir on 25 March. Gilead retains 20-year remdesivir patents in more than 70 countries. In May 2020, the company further announced that it was in discussions with several generics companies to provide rights to produce remdesivir for developing countries, and with the Medicines Patent Pool to provide broader generic access.

Developing world

Patents
Patents have been criticized in the developing world, as they are thought to reduce access to existing medicines. Reconciling patents and universal access to medicine would require an efficient international policy of price discrimination. Moreover, under the TRIPS agreement of the World Trade Organization, countries must allow pharmaceutical products to be patented. In 2001, the WTO adopted the Doha Declaration, which indicates that the TRIPS agreement should be read with the goals of public health in mind, and allows some methods for circumventing pharmaceutical monopolies: via compulsory licensing or parallel imports, even before patent expiration.

In March 2001, 40 multi-national pharmaceutical companies brought litigation against South Africa for its Medicines Act, which allowed the generic production of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) for treating HIV, despite the fact that these drugs were on-patent. HIV was and is an epidemic in South Africa, and ARVs at the time cost between US$10,000 and US$15,000 per patient per year. This was unaffordable for most South African citizens, and so the South African government committed to providing ARVs at prices closer to what people could afford. To do so, they would need to ignore the patents on drugs and produce generics within the country (using a compulsory license), or import them from abroad. After international protest in favour of public health rights (including the collection of 250,000 signatures by Médecins Sans Frontières), the governments of several developed countries (including The Netherlands, Germany, France, and later the US) backed the South African government, and the case was dropped in April of that year.

In 2016, GlaxoSmithKline (the world's sixth largest pharmaceutical company) announced that it would be dropping its patents in poor countries so as to allow independent companies to make and sell versions of its drugs in those areas, thereby widening the public access to them. GlaxoSmithKline published a list of 50 countries they would no longer hold patents in, affecting one billion people worldwide.

Charitable programs
In 2011 four of the top 20 corporate charitable donations and eight of the top 30 corporate charitable donations came from pharmaceutical manufacturers.  The bulk of corporate charitable donations (69% as of 2012) comes by way of non-cash charitable donations, the majority of which again were donations contributed by pharmaceutical companies.

Charitable programs and drug discovery & development efforts by pharmaceutical companies include:
 "Merck's Gift", wherein billions of river blindness drugs were donated in Africa
 Pfizer's gift of free/discounted fluconazole and other drugs for AIDS in South Africa
 GSK's commitment to give free albendazole tablets to the WHO for, and until, the elimination of lymphatic filariasis worldwide.
 In 2006, Novartis committed US$755 million in corporate citizenship initiatives around the world, particularly focusing on improving access to medicines in the developing world through its Access to Medicine projects, including donations of medicines to patients affected by leprosy, tuberculosis, and malaria; Glivec patient assistance programs; and relief to support major humanitarian organisations with emergency medical needs.

See also

References

External links

Pharmacology
Pharmacy
Industries (economics)

Pharmaceutical industry


Pholidocarpus ist eine in Südostasien heimische Palmengattung.

Merkmale
Die Vertreter sind große, einzelstämmige, zwittrige Fächerpalmen. Sie sind bewehrt und blühen mehrmals. Der Stamm ist aufrecht und mit unauffälligen, ringförmigen Blattnarben besetzt. Die Palmen können mit 45 m sehr hoch werden.

Die Chromosomenzahl ist nicht bekannt.

Blätter
Die Blätter sind induplicat gefaltet und costapalmat. Bei Jungpflanzen sind die Blätter marzeszent, verbleiben also nach dem Absterben an der Pflanze. Bei Palmen mit ausgebildetem Stamm fallen die Blätter nach dem Absterben unter dem eigenen Gewicht ab. Die Blattscheide zerfällt in eine Masse von verwobenen, rötlichbraunen Fasern. Der Blattstiel ist lang, kräftig und behaart. An der Oberseite ist er leicht gefurcht, an der Unterseite rundlich oder kantig. Die Ränder des Stiels sind mit kräftigen, waagrechten Stacheln besetzt. Die adaxiale Hastula ist gut ausgebildet, dreieckig, ringähnlich, die abaxiale Hastula ist unauffällig oder fehlt.

Die Blattspreite ist entlang der adaxialen Faltkanten fast bis zur Hastula geteilt, so dass drei- bis vierfach gefaltete Segmente entstehen. Diese Segmente sind weiter unterteilt entlang der adaxialen Faltkanten auf zwei Dritteln bis der Hälfte des Blattradius, so dass einfach gefaltete Untersegmente entstehen.

Blütenstände
Die Blütenstände stehen zwischen den Blättern (interfoliar). Sie wachsen aus dem Blattscheidenmund und ragen bogig aus der Krone hervor. Bis zu fünf Blattachseln bilden gleichzeitig Blütenstände. Sie sind vierfach verzweigt. Der Blütenstandsstiel ist kräftig. Das Vorblatt ist röhrig, zweikielig und leicht aufgeblasen. Es gibt ein bis fünf Hochblätter am Blütenstandsstiel. Diese sind kräftig, röhrig und reißen im Alter unregelmäßig auf. Die Blütenstandsachse ist länger als der Stiel. Hier sind die Hochblätter eher entfernt stehend, jedes trägt einen Seitenast erster Ordnung. Die blütentragenden Achsen (Rachillae) sind kahl oder behaart, eher abstehend, und tragen die Blüten in spiraliger Anordnung. Die Blüten stehen einzeln oder zu zweit oder dritt auf niedrigen Erhebungen. Sie stehen in den Achseln von kleinen, dreieckigen Hochblättern und besitzen jede eine kleine Brakteole.

Blüten
Die Blüten sind zwittrig, sitzend und goldgelb. Der Kelch ist becherförmig, flach dreizipfelig und kahl bis leicht behaart. Die Krone ist fast bis zur Basis in drei dreieckige, valvate, kahle bis leicht behaarte Zipfel geteilt. Es sind sechs Staubblätter vorhanden, deren Filamente zu einer auffälligen Röhre verbunden sind, aber nicht mit der Krone verbunden. Die Röhre ist flach sechslapig, mit kurzen, schlanken freien Filamenten am Ende, an denen eher rundliche bis längliche, dorsifixe und latrorse Antheren stehen. Das Gynoeceum besteht aus drei Fruchtblättern und ist deutlich konisch, behaart. Die Fruchtblätter sind basal frei, apikal aber zu einem langen, schlanken Griffel verwachsen. Die Narbe ist punktförmig. Die Samenanlage setzt basal an und ist anatrop.

Der Pollen ist ellipsoidisch, und symmetrisch oder leicht asymmetrisch. Die Keimöffnung ist ein distaler Sulcus.

Früchte und Samen
Die Frucht entwickelt sich aus einem Fruchtblatt. Sie ist sehr groß und kugelig. Die Narbenreste stehen apikal, sind aber kaum sichtbar. Das Perikarp ist massiv entwickelt: das Exokarp ist glatt oder in zahlreiche, niedrige braune Korkwarzen zerfallen. Das Mesokarp ist dick, eher fleischig und häufig von radial verlaufenden Fasern durchzogen. Das Endokarp ist krustenartig. Der Samen setzt seitlich oder nahe der Basis an. Er hat ein massives, homogenes Endosperm. An einer Seite wird das Endosperm aber von einer großen Einbuchtung der Samenschale eingedrückt. Der Embryo sitzt annähernd basal oder seitlich.

Verbreitung und Standorte
Die Gattung kommt nur in Südostasien vor. Das Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von Süd-Thailand über die Malaiische Halbinsel bis Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi und zu den Molukken. Auf der Malaiischen Halbinsel, Sumatra und Borneo stellen die Arten auffallende Palmen der Tiefländer dar, die häufig in Süßwasser- und Torf-Sumpfwäldern zu finden sind. Selten sind sie auf nicht vernässten Böden zu finden.

Systematik
Die Gattung Pholidocarpus  wird innerhalb der Familie Arecaceae in die Unterfamilie Coryphoideae, Tribus Trachycarpeae, Subtribus Livistoninae gestellt. Die Monophylie der Gattung wurde noch nicht untersucht. Pholidocarpus ist möglicherweise die Schwestergruppe von Johannesteijsmannia.

In der World Checklist of Selected Plant Families der Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, werden folgende Arten anerkannt:

 Pholidocarpus ihur : Sie kommt vom nördlichen Sulawesi bis Maluku vor.
 Pholidocarpus kingianus : Sie kommt auf der Malaiischen Halbinsel vor.
 Pholidocarpus macrocarpus : Sie kommt von Thailand bis Sumatra vor.
 Pholidocarpus majadum : Sie kommt nur auf Borneo vor.
 Pholidocarpus mucronatus : Sie kommt nur im westlichen Sumatra vor.
 Pholidocarpus sumatranus : Sie kommt nur im westlichen Sumatra vor.

Pholidocarpus wurde von Carl Ludwig Blume 1830 erstbeschrieben, Typusart ist Pholidocarpus ihur. Der Gattungsname leitet sich von den altgriechischen Wörtern für Schuppe und Frucht ab und bezieht sich auf die korkig-warzigen Früchte der meisten Arten.

Belege
 John Dransfield, Natalie W. Uhl, Conny B. Asmussen, William J. Baker, Madeline M. Harley, Carl E. Lewis: Genera Palmarum. The Evolution and Classification of Palms. Zweite Auflage, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 2008, ISBN 978-1-84246-182-2, S. 268–270.

Einzelnachweise

Palmengewächse
Arecaceae

Pholidocarpus


Barakdağı, Adana ilinin Karaisalı ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Adana iline 85 km, Karaisalı ilçesine 35 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

 Yerelnet

Karaisalı'nın mahalleleri

Barakdağı, Karaisalı


Richard Martin West (born 1941) is a Danish astronomer and discoverer of astronomical objects with a long career at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) and at the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

He discovered numerous comets, including Comet West (C/1975 V1), which was one of the brightest comets of the 1970s, and the periodic comets 76P/West–Kohoutek–Ikemura and 123P/West–Hartley.

He is also credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of 40 minor planets between 1976 and 1986, including 2146 Stentor and 2148 Epeios, two Trojan asteroids. Together with Hans-Emil Schuster, he co-discovered the Phoenix Dwarf galaxy.

Early life and education

West was born in Copenhagen in 1941. He completed high school in 1959 and then achieved a degree in astronomy and astrophysics from University of Copenhagen in 1964.

Career at ESO
Richard West began working at ESO in 1970, when he joined as Assistant Astronomer to the ESO Director General, Adriaan Blaauw. His career took a leap in 1972, when he charged one of the first and largest scientific programmes of ESO: the Sky Atlas Laboratory project to systematically map the southern hemisphere.

West was a leading figure in helping out and establishing serious collaborations with the scientific communities of the Central and Eastern European countries in the wake of the political, social and economical turmoil following the collapse and dismantling of the Soviet block in the early 1990s.

West retired in 2005, after a continuous employment at ESO.

Positions

Richard West focussed a lot of his worklife on the organizational matters of the international scientific community in addition to science communications in general. He held a number of influential positions:
 Assistant General Secretary of the IAU in 1979–1982.
 General Secretary of the IAU (1982–1985).
 Presided over a number of IAU Commissions, including Commission 20 from 1988 to 1991.
 Member of the Executive Committee of ICSU.

Awards and honors
 Rosenkjaer Prize. A prestigious award in Denmark, given for outstanding science or culture communication.
 The main-belt asteroid 2022 West was named in his honor.

List of discovered minor planets

References

External links
 Richard West's homepage

1941 births
21st-century Danish astronomers
20th-century Danish astronomers
Discoverers of asteroids
Discoverers of comets

Living people
University of Copenhagen alumni
Scientists from Copenhagen

Richard Martin West


إن كنت تريد مقالة في علم الأحياء عن الخنفساء فاذهب إلى خنافس.

الجعران أو أبو الجعل هو فاينس سيراميكي أخضر اللون مشكل في شكل خنفسة الروث كان قدماء المصريون يصنعونها للزينة . يرجع شكل الجعران إلى حشرة سوداء من عاداتها تكوير الجيف والقاذورات والروث(الدمان) ووضع بيوضها فيها ودحرجتها أمامها وتجميعها في جحرها ثم لتقتات عليها تحفظ فيها بيضاتها . أطلق عليها قدماء المصريين اسم خِپـرِر . وعندما بدأ ظهور الكتابة استخدمت صورته لكتابة كلمة معقدة هي الفعل خبر بمعنى (يأتي إلى الوجود )، ثم صار بمعنى (يكون) أو (يصير).

ومن بين الصور الغريبة المحفوظة في وادي الملوك، خنفساء ضخمة سوداء تخرج من الرمل تسحب كرة متوهجة . ويفسر بلوتارخ هذا - دون أن يبتعد على ما يبدو عن التفسير المصري القديم - فيقول : (أما عن خنفساء الجعران فالمعتقد أنه ليس لها إناث وكل الجعارين ذكور، فتضع بذرتها في حبة من مادة تشكلها على هيئة كرة وتجرها وراءها وهي تدفعها بأرجلها الخلفية، محاكية بفعلها هذا مسيرة الشمس من الشرق إلى الغرب).

استعملت الجعارين المصرية في الأغراض العامة، فكانت أختاما كالأختام الأسطوانية وأزرار الأختام التي على صورة الحيوانات والخواتم الذهبية الضخمة، وإذا وضعت فصا لخاتم أو عقد أمكن أن تختم بها سدادات الأواني، والخطابات، والمزاليج ضد عبث اللصوص.

كما كانوا يحملونها كتمائم واقية من الشر، إذ كانوا يعتقدون أن تلك الحشرة تجدد نفسها بنفسها . شابه المصري القديم الذي كان يعبد إله الشمس رع بين تلك الخنفساء ذات الكرة، تكورها وتجرها خلفها، وتختفي بها في الرمال ثم تظهر وكأنها خلق جديد باحتفاء الشمس أثناء الليل وظهورها من جديد في الصباح . فكان المصري القديم يمثل رع في النهار بقرص الشمس، ويمثله في شكل الجعران في الليل (أنظر الصورة أعلاه).

استخداماتها

وجدت في قبور قدماء المصريين أعداد كبيرة من الجعران من الفاينس وهو مادة سيراميكية لونها أخضر يميل إلى الأزرق، مكتوب عليها بالهيروغليفة إما للاستخدام كأختام أو لكتابة تعاويذ وطلاسم عليها . في عصرنا الحديث يكثر تزويرها وأنتجت منها آلاف صنعت سريعا غير متقنة، والنقوش التي عليها مكتوبة بطريقة رديئة وقد لا يكون لها معنى . وأصبح من الضروري الاستعانة بالخبراء لمعرفة الجعران الأصلي من الجعران الزائف .

وما زالت هذه البسيطة التي تباع في مناطق البحر المتوسط منذ العصور القديمة أكثر التذكرات المصرية شيوعا، ورغم العثور على الآلاف من الجعارين في الأكوام والمقابر فلا يزال التزييف على أشده لسد حاجة الطلبات الدائمة.

ويتراوح طول الجعارين المصنوعة من الحجر الصلب مثل سليكات الماغنسيوم الصابونية المصقولة، أو الحجر الجيرى أو الفيانس ما بين 1 سم إلى 10 سم، كما يتراوح شكلها من الطبيعي إلى شبه الجعران ومن الخنفساء التي نقشت عليها الأجنحة نقشا واضحا إلى الجعران ذي رأس الكبش . وغالبا ما ينقش البطن أو الجانب المسطح للجعران إما بالكتابة أو بالرسوم تبعا للغرض المقصود من الجعران . فكثير من الجعارين كانت أختاما تحمل اسم الموظف وألقابه . ونقشت على بعضها الأمنيات مثل (عام سعيد لفلان) أو الأحكام الشائعة، مثل :(راحة البال خير من الغضب) و (آمون قوة الوحيد) وعدد كبير منها يحمل أسماء ملكية نقشت من أجل الصفات التي تعبر عنها، فيعبر الاسم الأول (من خبر رع) لتحوتمس الثالث ، ومعناه الحرفي (عسى أن يستمر رع في جلب الحياة) . واتخذ رمز الجعران في التعبير عن الدوام والاستمرارية على كثير من الأشياء الصغيرة حتى الحقبة المتأخرة.

أصدر قدماء المصريين الجعارين التاريخية بنفس الطريقة التي تصدر بها النياشين التذكارية . وتضم المجموعة الصغرى اسم الملك متبوعا باسم ولقب المهدى إليه ووظيفته، وتحمل المجموعة الكبرى على الجانب المسطح للجعارين الكبيرة أخبارا قصيرة بالإضافة إلى الأسماء.

والرسوم المنقوشة على الجعارين المزخرفة عديدة وتشمل الزخارف الزجزاجية والحلزونية، ورسوما أخرى تتضمن طلاسم واقية، كما تخفى أحيانا بعض الألغاز وصور الآلهة والملوك . وأحيانا تكون الرسوم عبارة عن مناظر حقيقية وحيوانات مقدسة.

كذلك يمكن تحديد تاريخ طبقة أرضية أثرية بواسطة الجعارين عند الإفتقار إلى أي دليل آخر . فإذا عثر على طبقة ما بها جعارين، استطاع الخبير أن يحل رموزها وأسرارها كما يفعل خبير النقود والنياشين القديمة، بذلك يتعرف على تاريخها . ومن الممتع حقا أن نستقرئ حياة مصر الاقتصادية والاجتماعية والدينية من الجعارين وحدها.

كان عدد كبير من جعارين القلب الكبير المصنوعة غالبا من الحجر الصلب أو من الفيانس وتحدها أجنحة الصقور طلاسم جنائزية خاصة، وإذ كانت توضع بين طيات أكفان الموتى أو ترصع بها الحلى الصدرية، فكثيرا ما كانت تنقش عليها الفقرة الثلاثون من كتاب الموتى التي يوضح بها السلوك المنتظر من القلب السحري أثناء احتفال وزن القلب : (أي قلبي، يا أوفى جزء من كياني لا تقف شاهدا ضدي أمام المحكمة....لأنك الإله الموجود في جسمي، وخالقي المحافظ على أعضائي).

صور جعارين مكتوب عليها

اقرأ أيضا

 مقبرة سن-نيجم
 مقبرة تحتمس الثالث
 وادي الملوك
 دير المدينة
 خادم في مكان الحقيقة
 أوشبتي
 فاينس
 صولجان واس

مراجع

أختام
تعويذات
حشرات في الثقافة
حشرات في الفن
حقبة العمارنة
رموز مصرية قديمة
فراعنة الأسرة المصرية الثامنة عشر
مفاهيم مصرية قديمة
هيروغليفية مصرية
وادي الملوك
حشرات في الدين

جعران فرعوني