The September Massacres were a series of killings of prisoners in Paris that occurred in 1792, from Sunday, 2 September until Thursday, 6 September, during the French Revolution.  Between 1,176 and 1,614 people were killed by fédérés, guardsmen, and sans-culottes, with the support of gendarmes responsible for guarding the tribunals and prisons, the Cordeliers, the Committee of Surveillance of the Commune, and the revolutionary sections of Paris.

With widespread fear that foreign and royalist armies would attack Paris, and that the imprisoned Swiss mercenaries would be freed to join them, on 1 September the Legislative Assembly called for volunteers to gather the next day on the Champs de Mars. On 2 September, around 1:00 pm, Georges Danton delivered a speech in the assembly, stating: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death. The bell we are about to ring... sounds the charge on the enemies of our country." The massacres began around 2:30 PM in the middle of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, and within the first 20 hours more than 1,000 prisoners were killed.

The next morning, the surveillance committees of the commune published a circular that called on provincial patriots to defend Paris by eliminating counter-revolutionaries, and the secretary, Jean-Lambert Tallien, called on other cities to follow suit. The massacres were repeated in a few other French cities; in total 65–75 incidents were reported.

The exact number of victims is not known, as over 440 people had uncertain fates, including from 22 to 200 Swiss soldiers. The identity of the perpetrators, called  "septembriseurs", is poorly documented, but a large number were Parisian national guards and provincial federates who had remained in the city since their arrival in July. 72% of those killed were non-political prisoners including forgers of assignats (galley convicts), common criminals, women, and children, while 17% were Catholic priests.

The minister of the interior, Roland, accused the commune of the atrocities. Charlotte Corday held Jean-Paul Marat responsible, while Madame Roland blamed Georges Danton. Danton was also accused by later French historians Adolphe Thiers, Alphonse de Lamartine, Jules Michelet, Louis Blanc and Edgar Quinet of doing nothing to stop them.

According to modern historian Georges Lefebvre, the "collective mentality is a sufficient explanation for the killing". Historian Timothy Tackett deflected specific blame from individuals, stating: "The obsession with a prison conspiracy, the desire for revenge, the fear of the advancing Prussians, the ambiguity over who was in control of a state that had always relied in the past on a centralized monarchy: all had come together in a volatile mixture of anger, fear, and uncertainty."

Background

The Duke of Brunswick's manifesto

In April 1792 France declared war on the Habsburg monarchy, prompting the War of the First Coalition. In July, an army under the Duke of Brunswick, and composed mostly of Prussians, joined the Austrian side and invaded France. As the army advanced, Paris went into a state of hysteria, especially after the Duke issued the "Brunswick Manifesto" on 25 July. His avowed aim was
to put an end to the anarchy in the interior of France, to check the attacks upon the throne and the altar, to reestablish the legal power, to restore to the king the security and the liberty of which he is now deprived and to place him in a position to exercise once more the legitimate authority which belongs to him.

The manifesto threatened the French population with instant punishment should it resist the imperial and Prussian armies or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The manifesto was frequently described as unlawful and offensive to national sovereignty. Its authorship was frequently in doubt.

Revolutionaries like Marat and Hébert preferred to concentrate on the internal enemy. On 3 August Pétion and 47 sections demanded the deposition of the king.

The insurrection of the Paris Commune

On the evening of 9 August 1792, a Jacobin insurrection overthrew the leadership of the Paris municipality, proclaiming a new revolutionary commune headed by transitional authorities. The next day the insurrectionists stormed the Tuileries Palace. King Louis XVI was imprisoned with the royal family, and his authority as king was suspended by the Legislative Assembly. The following day the royalist press was silenced.

A provisional executive (conseil exécutif) was named and busied itself with reorganizing or solving questions concerning the police, justice, the army, navy, and paper money, but actual power now rested with the new revolutionary commune, whose strength resided in the mobilized and armed sans-culottes, the lower classes of Paris, and fédérés, armed volunteers from the provinces that had arrived at the end of July. The 48 sections of Paris were equipped with munitions from the plundered arsenals in the days before the assault, substituting for the 60 national guard battalions.

Supported by a new armed force, the commune dominated the Legislative Assembly and its decisions. The commune pushed through several measures: universal suffrage was adopted, the civilian population was armed, all remnants of noble privileges were abolished and the properties of the émigrés were sold. These events meant a change of direction from the political and constitutional perspective of the Girondists to a more social approach given by the commune as expressed by Pierre-Joseph Cambon: "To reject with more efficacy the defenders of despotism, we have to address the fortunes of the poor, we have to associate the Revolution with this multitude that possesses nothing, we have to convert the people to the cause."

Besides these measures, the commune engaged in a policy of political repression of all suspected counter-revolutionary activities. Beginning on 11 August, every Paris section named surveillance committees (committees of vigilance) for conducting searches and making arrests. It was mostly these decentralized committees, rather than the commune as a whole, which engaged in the repression of August and September 1792. Within a few days each section elected three commissioners to take seats in the insurrectionary commune, one of them was Maximilien Robespierre.

To ensure that there was some appropriate legal process for dealing with suspects accused of political crimes and treason, rather than arbitrary killing by local committees, a revolutionary tribunal, with extraordinary powers to impose the death sentence without any appeal, was installed on 17 August. Robespierre, who had proposed this measure, refused to preside over the tribunal, arguing that the same man ought not to be a denouncer, an accuser, and a judge.

Already, on 15 August, four sections called for all priests and imprisoned suspects to be put to death before the volunteers departed. Robespierre proposed to erect a pyramid on Place Vendôme to remember the victims of 10 August. On 19 August the nonjuring priests were ordered to leave the country within two weeks, which meant before 2 September 1792. In Paris, all monasteries were closed and would soon be in use as hospitals, etc. The remaining religious orders were banned by the law of 15 August. Marat left nothing in doubt when he urged "good citizens to go to the Abbaye, to seize priests, and especially the officers of the Swiss guards and their accomplices and run a sword through them". From 15 to 25 August, around 500 detentions were registered; some were sent to Orléans. Half the detentions were of nonjuring priests, but even priests who had sworn the required oath were caught in the wave.

Prussian advance and Paris reaction
Around 26 August, news reached Paris that the Prussian army had crossed the French border and occupied Longwy without a battle. Roland proposed that the government should leave Paris, whereas Robespierre suggested in a letter to the sections of the commune that they should defend liberty and equality and maintain their posts, and die if necessary. The assembly decreed that all the non-juring priests had to leave Paris within eight days and the country within two weeks. In the evening, in the presence of 350,000 people, a funeral ceremony was held in the gardens of the Tuileries for those killed while storming the Tuileries.

On 28 August, the assembly ordered a curfew for around two days.
 The city gates were closed; all communication with the country was stopped. At the behest of Justice Minister Danton, thirty commissioners from the sections were ordered to search in every (suspect) house for weapons, munition, swords, carriages and horses. "They searched every drawer and every cupboard, sounded every panel, lifted every hearthstone, inquired into every correspondence in the capital.  As a result of this inquisition, more than 1,000 "suspects" were added to the immense body of political prisoners already confined in the jails and convents of the city."

On 29 August, the Prussians attacked Verdun. When this news arrived it escalated panic in the capital; the situation was highly critical.

Throughout August, the Legislative Assembly, which had been greatly diminished as more than half of the deputies had fled since the storming of the Tuileries, had acquiesced to the activities of the commune and its sections. On 30 August, the Girondins Roland and Marguerite-Élie Guadet tried to suppress the influence of the commune, which they accused of exercising unlawful power. The assembly, tired of the pressures, declared the commune illegal and suggested the organization of communal elections and a doubling of the number of seats. However, the assembly canceled the decree the next day at the request of Jacques-Alexis Thuriot. The balance of power was disrupted and the conflict between the Girondins and the Montagnards would influence the progress of the French Revolution.

On 1 September the prisons were full. The citizens of Paris were told to prepare themselves for the defense of the country and gather immediately upon the sound of the tocsin. Their imminent departure from the capital provoked further concern about the crowded prisons, now full of counter-revolutionary suspects who might threaten a city deprived of so many of its defenders.

Marat called for a "new blood-letting", larger than the one on 10 August.  Marat and his Committee of Surveillance of the Commune organized the massacres, first voting to round up 4,000 mostly ordinary people, "suspects" of the committee, agreed to kill them in "whole groups," voting down a Marat proposal to murder them by setting them on fire, then finally agreeing to a proposal by Billaud-Varennes to "butcher them". The bulk of the butchers were made up of "Marseilles," "hired assassins" from the prisons of Genoa and Sicily, paid twenty-four dollars, whose names were listed by "M. Granier de Cassagnac." The rest were murderers and others previously imprisoned for violent crimes released ahead of time from the prisons they would soon be returning to for the massacres.

The British ambassador reported:
A party at the instigation of someone or other declared they would not quit Paris, as long as the prisons were filled with Traitors (for they called those so, that were confined in the different Prisons and Churches), who might in the absence of such a number of Citizens rise and not only effect the release of His Majesty but make an entire counterrevolution.

On 1 September, the gates of the city closed the days before, were opened on the orders of Pétion, providing an opportunity for suspects to flee the capital. According to Louis-Marie Prudhomme people still profited from the opportunity on Sunday morning 2 September. (Verdun capitulated  on 2 September gaining a clear westward path to Paris.) The Assembly decreed arming the volunteers; a third would stay in Paris and defend the city with pikes, the others were meant for the frontier and the trenches. It further decreed that traitors who refused to participate in the defense or hand over their arms deserved death. The sections, gathered in the town hall, decided to remain in Paris; Marat proposed to have Roland and his fellow Girondist Brissot arrested.  The commune ordered the gates closed and an alarm gun fired. After the tocsin was rung around 14:00, 50 or 60,000 men enrolled for the defense of the country on the Champs de Mars.

On 2 September, around 13:00, Georges Danton, a member of the provisional government, delivered a speech in the assembly: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death." "The bell we are about to ring is not an alarm signal; it sounds the charge on the enemies of our country." After the applause, he continued, "To conquer them we must dare, dare again, always dare, and France is saved." His speech acted as a call for direct action among the citizens, as well as a strike against the external enemy.    Madame Roland and Hillary Mantel weren't the only ones who thought his speech was responsible for inciting the September Massacres, also Louis Mortimer−Ternaux.

Madame de Stael
Around 4 in the afternoon Madame de Staël, as ambassadress of Sweden, who lived in Rue du Bac near Champ de Mars, tried to flee through crowded streets but her carriage was stopped and the crowd forced her to go to the Paris town hall, where Robespierre presided. (However, according to Maximilien's sister Charlotte, he never presided over the insurrectionary commune. According to Louvet de Couvrai he "governed" the Paris Conseil Général of the département.) Late in the evening, she was conveyed home, escorted by the procurator Louis Pierre Manuel. The next day the secretary-general to the Commune of Paris, Tallien, arrived with a passport and accompanied her to the barrier.

Massacres

The first massacre began in the quartier Latin around 14:30 on Sunday afternoon when 24 non-juring priests were being transported to the prison de l'Abbaye near the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, after being interrogated by Billaud-Varenne in the town hall. One of the carriages, escorted by Fédérés, was attacked after an incident. The fédérés killed three men in the middle of the street, before the procession arrived at the prison. Eighteen of the arrested were taken inside. They then mutilated the bodies, "with circumstances of barbarity too shocking to describe" according to the British diplomatic dispatch. One of their victims was the former minister of foreign affairs Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin. Roch-Ambroise Cucurron Sicard was recognized as a beneficent priest and released.

Carmes prison

In the late afternoon 115 priests in the former convent of Carmelites, detained with the message they would be deported to French Guiana, were massacred in the courtyard with axes, spikes, swords and pistols by people with a strong patois accent. They forced the priests one by one to take the oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and "swear to be faithful to the nation and to maintain liberty and equality or die defending it".

Some priests hid in the choir and behind the altar. Several tried to get away by climbing in the trees and over the walls and making their escape through the Rue Cassette.

At around 1700 hours, a group of 200 "Septembriseurs" came to the house of Roland on Place Dauphine to arrest him, but, as he was at the ministry, they went there.

Prison de l'Abbaye

Between 19:00 and 20:00, the group of fédérés, etc. was back at the Abbaye prison. The Abbaye prison was located in what is now the Boulevard Saint-Germain just west of the current Passage de la Petite Boucherie. The door was closed, but the killing was resumed after an intense discussion with Manuel, the procurator, on people's justice and failing judges. Manuel and Jean Dussaulx belonged to a deputation sent by the "Conseil Général" of the commune to ask for compassion. They were insulted and escaped with their lives.

A tribunal composed of twelve people presided over by Stanislas-Marie Maillard, started the interrogation by asking the prisoner why he or she was arrested. A lie was fatal, and the prisoners were summarily judged and either freed or executed. Each prisoner was asked a handful of questions, after which the prisoner was either freed with the words "Vive la nation" and permitted to leave, or sentenced to death with the words "Conduct him to the Abbaye" or "Let him go", after which the condemned was taken to a yard and was immediately killed by a waiting mob consisting of men, women, and children.

The massacres were opposed by the staff of the prison, who allowed many prisoners to escape, one example being Pauline de Tourzel. The Prison de l'Abbaye contained a number of prisoners formerly belonging to the royal household, as well as survivors of the Swiss Guards from the royal palace. Among them were the royal governesses Marie Angélique de Mackau and Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ de Tourzel; the ladies-in-waiting the Princess de Tarente and the Princess de Lamballe; the queen's ladies-maids Marie-Élisabeth Thibault and Mme Bazile; the dauphin's nurse St Brice; the Princesse de Lamballe's lady's maid Navarre; and the valets of the king, Chamilly and Hue. All ten former members of the royal household were placed before the tribunals and freed from charges, with the exception of the Princess de Lamballe, whose death would become one of the most publicized of the September Massacres. Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ de Tourzel was released on order of Manuel by the Commune.

Of the Swiss Guard prisoners 135 were killed, 27 were transferred, 86 were set free, and 22 had uncertain fates. According to George Long 122 died and 43 people were released. The victims had to leave behind money, jewelry, silver, gold, assignats, but also an Aeneid which widely regarded as Virgil's masterpiece. Most of the victims' clothes were pierced with spade marks and had bloodstains. According to Louvet four armed men came to the house of Roland to get paid. On Monday morning nine o'clock, Billaud-Varenne came to the Abbaye prison and declared that the tribunal should stop stealing and would get paid by the Commune. At ten Maillard and his twelve judges resumed their work. In three days 216 men, and only three women were massacred in the Abbey. De Virot, responsible for the safeguarding of large stocks of weapons stored in the Hotel des Invalides, and his daughter survived.

Conciergerie, Saint Firmin and Bernardins

Late in the afternoon, they went to Tour Saint-Bernard (belonging to a confiscated monastery Collège des Bernardins, located in the Sansculotte district) where forgers of assignats were jailed. (Almost all of them were locked up in the previous three months.) The pattern of semi-formal executions followed by the popular tribunals was for condemned prisoners to be ordered "transferred" and then taken into the prison courtyard where they would be cut down. One man was released after he was recognized as a thief. The participants in the killing received bread, wine and cheese, and some money.

In the early evening, groups broke into another Paris prison, the Conciergerie, via an open door in a side stair. The massacre was more uncontrolled in the Conciergerie than in the Prison de l'Abbaye. In the Conciergerie, the staff did not cooperate by turning the prisoners to the mob; instead, the mob broke into the cells themselves. The massacre continued from late evening through the night until morning. Of 488 prisoners in the Conciergerie, 378 were killed during the massacre. One woman in the Conciergerie, Marie Gredeler, a bookseller who was accused of murder, was tied to a pole, killed, and mutilated.

According to Prudhomme people sat on the stairs of the Palace of Justice watching the butchery in the courtyard. Not far away Restif de la Bretonne saw bodies piled high on Pont au Change in front of the Châtelet, then thrown in the river. He recorded the atrocities he witnessed in Les Nuits de Paris (1794).

Before midnight the seminary Saint Firmin was visited by just four men, who killed all the seminarians. All of them were detained in August according to Cassignac; the average age of the prisoners was 47. At 2.30 in the morning, the Assembly was informed that most of the prisons were empty. The next morning the Assembly was still involved with the defense of the city; Hérault de Séchelles presided. It decided the other prisoners had to wait for their trial because of a temporary lack of judges.

Bicêtre and Salpêtrière

Bicêtre, a hospital for men and boys that also served as a prison for beggars and the homeless, was visited twice that day after a rumor that there were thousands of rifles stored there. The commander brought seven cannons. According to Cassignac François Hanriot and his battalion were present; 56 prisoners were released. The average age of the 170 victims was 24–25 years, 41 were between 12 and 18 years old, and 58 were under 20.  Mayor Pétion did not have much influence discussing humanity with them.

At dawn Salpêtrière, a hospice for women and girls to which a prison was attached, was visited. The number of victims is exactly known: 35 women, including 23 underaged. The average age of the 35 victims was 45 – only one of them, Marie Bertrand, a diocesan from Dyon, was 17 years old – and 52 were released according to Cassignac.

The end

On Tuesday afternoon the killing in the Abbey finally stopped. Police commissioners Etienne-Jean Panis and Sergent-Marceau gave orders to wash away all the blood from the stairs and the courtyard, to spread straw, to count the corpses, and to dispose of them on carts to avoid infections. A contract was signed with the gravedigger of the nearby Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris, who also had to purchase quicklime. On 5 September, the day of the election, it was perfectly quiet in Paris according to Le Moniteur Universel. There were still 80 prisoners in "La Force".

On 6 September the massacres finally ended. The next day the gates were opened, but it was impossible to travel to another department without a passport.

Contemporary reports

In a letter from 25 January 1793 Helen Maria Williams accused Robespierre and Danton, saying that Marat was only their instrument. Francois Buzot, a Girondin, mentions Camille Desmoulins and Fabre d'Eglantine.

According to Galart de Montjoie, a lawyer and royalist, in those days everyone believed the Fédérés from Marseille, Avignon and Brest were involved in the killing. About 800–1000 were staying in barrack, but moved supposedly to where events would take place.  It seems around 300 Fédérés from Brest and 500 from Marseille were then lodged in Cordeliers Convent. Servan planned to give them military training before using them to supplement the army at the front.

 According to Robert Lindet, Adolphe Thiers, George Long, and Stanley Loomis not an outburst of passion, but coldly and carefully organized.

Numbers

According to Pierre Caron there were almost 2,800 prisoners in early September. Between 1,250 and 1,450 prisoners were condemned and executed. According to Caron and Bluche 70% of the victims were killed in a 20-hour interval. Among the victims were 223 nonjuring Catholic priests and (arch)bishops who refused to submit to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 81 Swiss guards, and 40–80 political suspects, mostly royalists, aristocrats, and some former judges and ministers including the queen's best friend, the Princesse de Lamballe, the only political victim in "La petite Force".

The lives of about 1,250–1,600 prisoners brought before the people's courts were saved. In a few cases people were acclaimed as "patriots" by Robespierre, Tallien, Desmoulins, and Danton. Several prisoners for debts or alimony were released by Louis Pierre Manuel or by the police before 2 September.

A total of nine prisons were violently entered during the five days of the massacres before the killings concluded on the night of 6–7 September; four were not visited (Sainte-Pélagie Prison, Prison Saint-Lazare, Tour du Temple and palais Bourbon). About 700 surviving Swiss soldiers, locked up in Palais Bourbon, marched to the town hall to take the oath and joined the volunteers. After initially indiscriminate slayings, ad hoc popular tribunals were set up to distinguish between "enemies of the people" and those who were innocent, or at least were not perceived as counter-revolutionary threats. In spite of this attempted sifting, estimated three-quarters of the 1,250–1,450 killed were not counter-revolutionaries or "villains", but included all the galley convicts, forgers of assignats, 37 women (including the Princess de Lamballe and Marie Gredeler) and 66 children. Some priests and women were of age, about prostitutes or insane not much is known.

Killings outside Paris

On 3 September the  surveillance committees of the Commune, on which Marat now served, published a circular that called on provincial Patriots to defend Paris and asked that, before leaving their homes, they eliminate counter-revolutionaries. Marat advised the entire nation "to adopt this necessary measure".

A circular letter was sent to regional authorities by Deforgues, an assistant of Danton, and Tallien, the secretary of the Paris Commune, advising that "ferocious conspirators detained in the prisons had been put to death by the people".

The Girondins afterward made much of this circular, but there is no evidence that it had any influence. As before, murders in the provinces continued: the blood-letting did not cease until the countryside was purged.  Smaller-scale executions took place in Reims, Meaux, and Lyon on 2, 4 and 9 September.  Most notable was the killing of 44 political prisoners near Château de Versailles transported from the High Court in Orléans back to Paris, the 9 September massacres. The next day Brissot wrote in "Le Patriote français", his newspaper: "No doubt you will be told that it is a vengeance of the people; it will be a slander. The people were not involved in this event."

Official role

According to Timothy Tackett:  "For a period of some 48 hours between the 29th and 31 August, the whole of Paris was systematically searched by the national guard for lurking conspirators and hidden arms. By that time section assemblies were already passing motions demanding "the death of conspirators before the departure of citizens".

On 31 August the Committee of Vigilance was created with Panis and Sergent-Marceau. According to Madame de Staël on 31 August "it was already known, that only those who were destined to be massacred were sent to that prison [of the Abbey]."

On 1 September the Commune declared a state of emergency by decreeing that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-bodied citizens convened in the Champ de Mars.

On Sunday 2 September the 1792 French National Convention election started. Robespierre publicly accused Brissot and the Brissotins of plotting with the Duke of Brunswick. Marat was appointed as one of the six additional members of the Committee of Vigilance, but without the approval of the Executive Council.

According to Adolphe Thiers on Sunday morning 2 September: "The keeper of the Abbaye sent away his children in the morning. Dinner was served to the prisoners two hours before the accustomed time, and the knives were taken from their plates."

Such municipal and central government as existed in Paris in September 1792 was preoccupied with organizing volunteers, supplies, and equipment for the armies on the threatened frontiers. Accordingly, there was no attempt to assuage popular fears that the understaffed and easily accessed prisons were full of royalists who would break out and seize the city when the national guards and other citizen volunteers had left for the war. According to Madame Roland Danton responded to an appeal to protect the prisoners with the comment: "To hell with the prisoners! They must look after themselves." On 3 September Roland said: "Yesterday was a day that we should perhaps throw a veil on." The other members of the provisional government – Clavière, Lebrun-Tondu, Monge and Servan, involved in organizing the country did not do much to stop the killing, or could not foresee or prevent these excesses. Mayor Pétion de Villeneuve turned a blind eye when he visited Bicêtre. Olympe de Gouges and Brissot's newspaper were the only ones condemning the September murders.

Debate in the Convention

The Brissotins in the Convention first attacked Danton; he was asked to resign as minister on the 25th but forced to step down on 9 October. He kept his seat in the Convention as deputy. Then the Brissotins decided to attack Robespierre and Marat.

On 29 October 1792, the Convention reviewed these recent events. Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray accused Robespierre of creating a personality cult, governing the Paris "Conseil General" and paying the "Septembriseurs". Marat was accused of being asocial and establishing a dictatorship. He was taken by surprise and had to be defended by Danton. Robespierre was given eight days to reply. On 5 November Robespierre stated that Marat had visited him only once since January. He insisted that most of the victims were aristocrats, which wasn't the case. He admitted the arrests at the end of August were illegal, as illegal as the revolution, the fall of the monarchy and the Bastille. He asked the convention: "Citizens, did you want a revolution without revolution?" Robespierre, Danton, and Marat insisted that the "new bloodletting" had been a spontaneous popular movement. Their opponents, the Girondins, spoke of a systematically planned conspiracy.  Louvet de Couvrai who published his speech was no longer admitted to the Jacobin Club.

Political repercussions
The massacres first damaged the political position of the Girondins, who seemed too moderate, and later the Jacobins, who seemed too bloodthirsty. A new mayor Nicolas Chambon was installed on 1 December 1792. On 4 February 1793 Robespierre defended the September massacres as necessary. On 13 February Pierre Gaspard Chaumette received a list of victims in the La Force Prison.

It was Servan's proposal to bring armed volunteers from the provinces. He was arrested during the Terror, but released in February 1795. In 1796 24 or 39 craftsmen and small businessmen were accused; although only three were condemned. The vinegar maker Damiens was sentenced to twenty years of imprisonment.

Martyrs

One hundred and fifteen churchmen killed in the Carmes Prison were beatified by Pope Pius XI on 17 October 1926. Among the martyrs were Pierre-Louis de la Rochefoucauld, bishop of Saintes; Jean-Marie du Lau d'Alleman, archbishop of Arles; François-Joseph de la Rochefoucauld, bishop of Beauvais; and Ambroise Chevreux, the last superior-general of the monastic Congregation of Saint Maur.

See also
 The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy
 List of events named massacres

Notes and citations

Bibliography
 Blanc, L. (1855) Histoire de la Révolution Française, vol. VII. FUREURS DE LA GIRONDE
 Bluche, F. (1986) Septembre 1792 : logiques d'un massacre.
 Caron, P. (1935) Les Massacres de Septembre
 Israel, J. (2014) Revolutionary Ideas, p. 267-277
 Loomis, S. (1964) Paris in the Terror. New York: Dorset Press.  online
 Scott, S.F. & B. Rothaus, eds. (1985) Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution 1789–1799.  Vol. 2 pp. 891–97.
 Tulard, J. & J-F. Fayard and A. Fierro (1998) Histoire et Dictionnaire de la Révolution Française.

Further reading
 F. Furet (1989) Terror. In: A critical dictionary of the French Revolution
 Hibbert, Christopher (1980) The Days of the French Revolution. William Morrow, New York.
 Schama, Simon (1992) Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution pp. 629–39.
 Tackett, Timothy (2011) "Rumor and Revolution: The Case of the September Massacres", French History and Civilization Vol. 4, pp. 54–64.

Eyewitnesses
 Madame de Staël (1818) Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution, Band 2, p. 68
 La Vérité toute entière sur les vrais acteurs de 2. Septembre 1792 par Jean Claude Hippolyte Méhée de la Touche
 Histoire de la conjugation de Maximilien Robespierre
 Nicolas-Edme Restif de la Bretonne (1793) Les nuits de Paris, ou Le spectateur nocturne, p. 371-394
 The September Massacres witnessed by Earl Gower, a British diplomat

Fictional accounts
 Dickens, Charles, A Tale of Two Cities (1859).
 Henty, George Alfred, In the Reign of Terror.
 Neville, Katherine, The Eight (1988).

External links
 "The September Massacres : 2–7 Sept. 1792" (archived link)
 Thomas Carlyle on the September Massacres
 Massacre de 2, 3, 4, 5 et 6 septembre (print)
 Les massacres de Septembre (1910) by Lenotre, G

1792 events of the French Revolution
Massacres in 1792
Anti-Catholicism in France
1790s in Paris
Massacres in France
Prison massacres
Terrorist incidents in France
People killed in the French Revolution
Massacres committed by France
1792 murders in Europe
Georges Danton

September Massacres


Karlova nagrada (njem. Karlspreis) jedna je od najcjenjenijih europskih nagrada i dodjeljuje se osobama koje promiču europsko jedinstvo.
Nagrada je nazvana po Karlu Velikom i vezana je za Aachen, gdje se dodjeljuje svake godine. Nagrada je osnovana 1950. godine a troškove nagrade snosi grad Aachen.

Dobitnici nagrade
 1950. Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi
 1951. Hendrik Brugmans
 1952. Alcide de Gasperi
 1953. Jean Monnet
 1954. Konrad Adenauer
 1956. Sir Winston S. Churchill
 1957. Paul Henri Spaak
 1958. Robert Schuman
 1959. George C. Marshall
 1960. Joseph Bech
 1961. Walter Hallstein
 1963. Edward Heath
 1964. Antonio Segni
 1966. Jens Otto Krag
 1967. Joseph Luns
 1969. Europska komisija
 1970. François Seydoux de Clausonne
 1972. Roy Jenkins
 1973. Salvador de Madariaga
 1976. Leo Tindemans
 1977. Walter Scheel
 1978. Konstantin Karamanlis
 1979. Emilio Colombo
 1981. Simone Veil
 1982. kralj Juan Carlos I.
 1984. Karl Carstens
 1986. Narod Luksemburga
 1987. Henry A. Kissinger
 1988. François Mitterrand i Helmut Kohl
 1989. Brat Roger (Taizé)
 1990. Gyula Horn
 1991. Václav Havel
 1992. Jacques Delors
 1993. Felipe González Márquez
 1994. Gro Harlem Brundtland
 1995. Franz Vranitzky
 1996. kraljica Beatrix od Nizozemske
 1997. Roman Herzog
 1998. Bronisław Geremek
 1999. Tony Blair
 2000. Bill Clinton
 2001. György Konrád
 2002. Euro
 2003. Valéry Giscard d'Estaing
 2004. Pat Cox
 2004. Posebna nagrada: papa Ivan Pavao II.
 2005. Carlo Azeglio Ciampi
 2006. Jean-Claude Juncker
 2007. Javier Solana
 2008. Angela Merkel
 2009. Andrea Riccardi
 2010. Donald Tusk
 2011. Jean-Claude Trichet
 2012. Wolfgang Schäuble
 2013. Dalia Grybauskaitė
 2014. Herman Van Rompuy
 2015. Martin Schulz
 2016. papa Franjo
 2017. Timothy Garton Ash
 2018. Emmanuel Macron
 2019. António Guterres
 2020./21. Klaus Iohannis
 2022. Marija Kolesnikova, Svetlana Tihanovskaja, Veronika Cepkalo
 2023. Volodimir Zelenski i ukrajinski narod

Nagrade

Karlova nagrada


Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Türkçe: Doğa Felsefesinin Matematiksel İlkeleri) veya kısaca Principia, Sir Isaac Newton tarafından 5 Temmuz 1687'de yayımlanan üç ciltlik çalışmadır. Kitabın basım masraflarını Edmond Halley (gök bilimci, Halley kuyrukluyıldızına adı verilen bilim insanı) kendi cebinden karşılamıştır. Kitap deri ciltli olup kitaba 9 şilin fiyat biçilmişti. Ancak piyasaya daha ucuz bir baskısı da sunulmuştu. Kitabın dili Latince olduğundan geniş kitlelere ulaşamamıştır. Klasik mekanik'in temellerini oluşturan Newton'un hareket kanunlarını ve kütleçekim kanunu da içerir. Newton bu kitapta diferansiyel hesapla değil, geometrik ispatlarla çalışmıştır. Kitapta ispatlar geometri ile yapılmış, evrensel kütleçekimi açıklanmış ve cisimlerin kütleleri ile doğru orantılı, mesafeleri ile ters orantılı birbirlerini çektiklerini açıklamıştır.

Kitap Newton tarafından üç ana bölüme ayrılmıştır. Birinci bölümde Galileo'nun deneylerinden övgü ile söz eder ve Kepler kanunlarını matematiksel olarak ispatlar. Bu bölümde kendi ismi ile anılan Newton hareket yasalarını açıkladı. İkinci bölümde akışkan içindeki hareketleri incelemiştir ve en iyi gemi tasarımı için öneriler koymuştur. Bu bölümde dalga hareketlerini matematiksel incelemesi ilgi çekmiştir.

Dış bağlantılar

Latince versiyonları

 Cambridge University, Cambridge Digital Library High resolution digitised version of Newton's own copy of the first edition, interleaved with blank pages for his annotations and corrections.
 1687: Newton's 'Principia', first edition (1687, in Latin). High-resolution presentation of the Gunnerus Library's copy.
 1687: Newton's 'Principia', first edition (1687, in Latin).
 Principia (in Latin, annotated). 1833 Glasgow reprint (volume 1) with Books 1 & 2 of the Latin edition annotated by Leseur, Jacquier and Calandrini 1739–42 (described above).
 Project Gutenberg
 Archive.org

İngilizce çeviriler

 Andrew Motte, 1729, first English translation of third edition (1726)
 Vikikaynak, Partial
 Google books, vol.1 with Book 1.
 Google books, vol.2 with Books 2 and 3. (Book 3 starts at p.200.) (Google's metadata wrongly labels this vol.1).
 Partial HTML
 Robert Thorpe 1802 translation
 N. W. Chittenden, ed., 1846 "American Edition" a partly modernized English version, largely the Motte translation of 1729.
 Vikikaynak
 Archive.org #1
 Archive.org #2
 Percival Frost 1863 translation with interpolations Archive.org
 Florian Cajori 1934 modernization of 1729 Motte and 1802 Thorpe translations
 , Ian Bruce has made a complete translation of the third edition, with notes, on his website.

Diğer bağlantılar
 In Search of Principia, regarding online editions
 David R. Wilkins of the School of Mathematics at Trinity College, Dublin has transcribed a few sections into TeX and METAPOST and made the source, as well as a formatted .pdf available at Extracts from the Works of Isaac Newton

Kaynakça

1687 kitapları
Fizik kitapları
Matematik kitapları
Latince kitaplar
İngiliz kitapları
Doğa felsefesi
Isaac Newton kitapları


El Apeadero de Cabeda (Alfena) es un apeadero situado en la zona sur de Alfena, en la denominada aldea de Cabeda dentro del municipio de Valongo, en el Distrito de Porto, Região Norte; dentro de la subregión de Grande Porto.

Se encuentra en el PK 2 de la Línea del Duero y la infraestructura cuenta con dos vías ferroviarias.

En la actualidad cuenta con servicios regionales, interregionales y urbanos de Comboios de Portugal que operan dentro de la línea del Duero.

Cabeda
Cabeda
Valongo

Apeadero de Cabeda


The Magic Door (also known as The Magic Door Television Theatre) was a Jewish educational television series, aimed at providing  kiruv (outreach) to Jewish children in the Chicago metropolitan area but intended to appeal to all children in the 5-to-9-age group. The show was produced by the Chicago Board of Rabbis, and premiered January 1, 1962. The show ran weekly until January 1, 1982. It aired at 9:00 AM every Sunday on WBBM-TV.

There were two main theme songs for The Magic Door. The first, "A Room Zoom Zoom", was based on the children's song "A Ram Sam Sam". The second, written by Charles Gerber, was set to a melody from Beethoven's "Pastorale" Symphony No. 6:

The main characters of the series included "Tiny Tov" (an actor reduced via special effects to appear as a kind of elf) and his cousin "Tina Tova". Tiny lived in a house that was made out of an acorn; the entrance was the Magic Door. Before entering the Magic Door to reach the town of Torahville, Tiny would sing a tune with the lyrics,

In addition to Tiny and Tina, there were puppet characters, including Bubbe Beaver, Icky Witch, Rabbi and Mrs. Moreh, Max the Mailbox, Rumplemyer Dragon, Bunny Rabbit, Buddy, Worthington Warlock, and many others.

In the early days of the series, Tiny Tov would travel back through time riding his Magic Feather. Later on the program evolved into presenting moral topics. There would be a "Hebrew Word of the Day" that related to whatever values were being taught. Each week, Tiny Tov would educate Jewish children on Jewish history, sharing stories from Torah and Jewish tradition. Every episode would include a brief Hebrew lesson, stepping through the Aleph-Bet (Hebrew alphabet).

The characters of Tiny Tov and his cousin Tina Tova were created by Irv Kaplan, who later moved to Israel and was instrumental in the creation of Israeli Educational Television. There were four Tiny Tov actors in all. At the show's start, Irv Kaplan played the role. From 1970 to 1973, Tiny Tov was portrayed by Emmy-nominated actor Jerry (Jerome) Loeb. The second player was Charles Gerber, who also created the song lyrics. Rabbi Joe Black was the last Tiny Tov. Tina Tova was played by Fran (Uditsky) Moss. The first puppeteer was Helen Cirkle.

Another outreach children's program of the same name was produced and aired by WMAL-TV (now WJLA) in Washington, D.C. from 1969 to 1976, though it has no connection other than the name.

In the 1980s, a follow-up series was produced, Beyond the Magic Door.

Actor Dan Castellaneta (the voice of Homer Simpson and other characters on The Simpsons television series) was a semi-regular performer on The Magic Door and its spinoff, Beyond the Magic Door, from 1981 until 1984.

Beyond the Magic Door
Beyond The Magic Door was a children's television show on WBBM-TV in Chicago, Illinois in the early 1980s.  The show was a sequel of sorts to the earlier program The Magic Door Television Theatre.

The theme song began with the following lyrics:

Rusty Steiger acted as the main puppeteer. Ken Raabe acted as a puppeteer. One of his characters included J. P. Potter, a disembodied hand wielding a cigar. David C. Waite was an ensemble cast member.  Dan Castellaneta briefly played the role of Detective Farblonget, which was taken over by John Szostek. In 1984 Beyond The Magic Door won an Emmy Award in the category: Series for Children's Programming. Winning Station: WBBMTV, Mindy Soble, Producer; Allen Stecher, Producer.

References

External links

Jews and Judaism in Chicago
Jewish outreach
Television series about Jews and Judaism
1962 American television series debuts
1982 American television series endings
1960s American children's television series
1970s American children's television series
1980s American children's television series
Local children's television programming in the United States
American television shows featuring puppetry
Religious educational television series
Chicago television shows
American children's education television series

The Magic Door


Tura, pojam iz teorije grafova. Vrsta je staze. Da bi neka staza bila tura, mora biti zatvorena.

Izvori

Teorija grafova

tour

Tura (teorija grafova)


Alphonse François Marie Guérin (født 9. august 1817 i Ploërmel, Morbihan, død 21. februar 1895 i Paris) var en fransk kirurg.

Guérin studerede i Paris, blev interne 1840, anatomisk assistent 1843, tog doktorgraden 1847 med en afhandling De la fièvre purulente. Han var derefter prosektor 1849—53 og hospitalskirurg 1850 og blev overkirurg ved Saint-Louis 1863 og ved Hôtel-Dieu 1872. Han skrev Mémoire sur les rétrécissements de l'urèthre (1857), og den senere ofte udgivne Traité de chirurgie opératoire (1855), Maladies des organes génito-externes de la femme (1864). Guérins berømmelse skyldes blandt andet hans teori om septikæmiens genese ved levende småorganismer i luften, en doktrin, som han oprindelig var kommet ind på i sin these, i hvilken han hævdede, at en miasmatisk forgiftning var årsagen til en purulent infektion. I 1870, da hospitalerne var overfyldte med sårede, slog den uhyre dødelighed blandt de opererede ham, og Guérin mente da, at miasmerne kunne være lignende smålegemer, som de, Pasteur havde påvist i luften, og for at undgå dem, indførte han, med held, en forbinding med vat. Han fremlagde 1878 denne opfindelse, et af de første stadier af den moderne vatforbinding, i Akademiet, af hvilket han var blevet medlem 1868, og hvis præsident han var fra 1881. Metoden skildrede han i Du pansement ouaté et de son application à la thérapeutique chirurgicale (1885).

Kilder

Kirurger
Læger fra Frankrig
Franskmænd i 1800-tallet

Alphonse Guérin


Dorian, 1996 yılında kurulan Türk rock grubu.

Tarihçe
1996'da İlkin Kitapçı,Kaya Ertanhan ve Bahadır Çakır tarafından kurulan Dorian son halini 2002 yılında aldı. 2002 yılı grup için daha da ciddi bir müzik yaklaşımının ve ilerlemenin göstergesi oldu. Başlayan festival performansları ve çeşitli konserlerle adını daha sık duyurmaya başlayan Dorian, yapılan beste ve çeşitli yorumları stüdyo dışına taşımaya başladı.

Albüm çalışmalarını hızlandırıp aynı zamanda da çeşitli barlarda, cover çalışmalarının yanında bestelerini de insanlara dinletmeye çalışan grup belli bir noktada durup sadece albüm çalışmalarına odaklandı. Kendi tarzını yaratırken onlara ilham olan grup ve sanatçıların gölgesinde fazla kalmadan ilerlemeye çalışan grup, zaman zaman drum&bass, acid jazz, Anadolu ve tasavvuf ezgilerini müziğinde yerinde kullanmaya özen göstermeye gayret etti.
9. Efes Dark Roxy Müzik Günlerine "Rüyadan" adlı parçasıyla katılan grup 20.000 kişilik internet oyuyla jüri özel ödülü alarak yoluna devam etti. Aradan geçen zamanı albumlerini tamamlamaya ayıran grup 2005 yılı Mart ayında Türkiye'de tarzları için olabilecek en iyi global müzik firması olan EMI Müzik ile anlaştı. Albüm kayıtlarına Nisan ortasında ATM stüdyosunda giren Dorian, albüm içerisine 9 parça yer verdi. Albümün prodüktörlüğünü kendisi yapan Dorian, "Yeniden Hayata" olarak belirledikleri ilk albümlerini piyasaya sürdü.

Albümün çıkış şarkısı "Bakma Yüzüme" oldu. Uçman Balaban ve Onur Sönmez yönetmenliğinde çekilen klip şarkı kadar büyük beğeni topladı. Albümde sırasıyla "Gel Gör Beni" ve "Yeniden Hayata" şarkılarına klip çekildi. Grup, ilk albümün getirdiği başarı sayesinde pek çok şehirde konser verdi; birçok önemli festivalde yer aldı.

İlk albümün ardından uzun bir süre sessiz kalmayı seçti Dorian. Bu süre içinde yeni albüm çalışmaları devam etti ve gruba bu sırada dandadadan ve 123'ten tanınan "keyboard" Burak Irmak katıldı.

Yeni albüm öncesi ilk ses 2013 yılında yayınladıkları "İstanbul" çalışmasıyla geldi.8 yıl aradan Dorian cephesinden gelen ilk çalışma olan bu single büyük ilgi gördü ve yeni albüm daha da merakla beklenmeye başlandı.

Yeni albüm "Dorian" Şubat 2014 yılında Onair music etiketiyle piyasaya çıktı. Yeni albüm "Dorian"'da da 9 şarkıya yer veren grubun çıkış şarkısı Özgür Biber yönetmenliğinde klibi çekilen "Eşsiz ve Zamansız" oldu.
"Dorian" albümünün lansman konseri Salon İKSV'de 5 şubat 2014 yılında gerçekleştirildi.
Şu an İstanbul'da konserler vermeye devam eden grup, sonbaharda turneye çıkmayı planlamaktadır.

Ödülleri
 9. Efes Dark Roxy Müzik Günleri - Jüri Özel Ödülü (Rüyadan)
 Yuxexes 2005'in en iyileri - En İyi Kapak (Yeniden Hayata)

Grup üyeleri
 İlkin Kitapci - (vokal)
 Memet İncili - (gitar)
 Alex Tintaru - (bas gitar)
 Murat Ötünç - (gitar)
 Afşar Yağcıoğlu - (davul)
 Burak Irmak - (keyboard)

Diskografi
 Yeniden Hayata (2006)
 Dorian (2014)

Kaynakça
Genel

Özel

Dış bağlantılar
 dorian official facebook
 dorian official twitter

Türk rock müzik grupları
1996'da kurulan müzik grupları

Dorian


Strýčice (deutsch Stritschitz) ist eine Gemeinde in Tschechien. Sie liegt sieben Kilometer südöstlich von Netolice in Südböhmen und gehört zum Okres České Budějovice.

Geographie
Strýčice befindet sich am rechten Ufer des Baches Babický potok unterhalb der Einmündung des Lužický potok im Vorland des Blanský les. Östlich des Dorfes liegt der Teich Dehtář. Im Nordosten erhebt sich der Na Středním (441 m), südlich der Zádušní vrch (454 m), im Südwesten die Kamenná (485 m) und im Nordwesten der Na Klínu (451 m).

Nachbarorte sind Sedlovice und Němčice im Norden, Radošovice und Tupesy im Nordosten, Dehtáře im Osten, Holubovská Bašta, Curna, Špicuk und Čakov im Südosten, Záboří und Lipanovice im Süden, Dobčice und Horní Chrášťany im Südwesten, Chvalovice im Westen sowie Lužice, Babice und Zvěřetice im Nordwesten.

Geschichte
Südlich des Dorfes befinden sich am Fuße des Zádušní vrch Reste einer
frühzeitlichen Siedlung. Unweit davon ist im Wald Bory - Na Perku eine Gruppe von vier niedrigen Hügelgräbern erhalten.

Die erste schriftliche Erwähnung von Strischicz erfolgte am 3. Juli 1292 in einer Urkunde über einen Gebietstausch zwischen König Wenzel II., Oneš von Němčice und dem Kloster Hohenfurth, bei dem das Zisterzienserkloster im Austausch gegen Němčice und weitere Güter Strischicz erhielt. Während der Hussitenkriege wurde das Dorf durch das Heer Jan Žižkas auf dem Weg nach Goldenkron geplündert. Die Pandemie der Pest von 1520/21 ließ das Dorf veröden. Die Herren von Rosenberg als Schutzherren des Klosters ließen die dem Kloster gehörigen verödeten Dörfer in den 1530er Jahren mit Pfälzer Schwaben wiederbesiedeln. Am 28. Februar 1822 gelang Abt Isidor Teutschmann die Loslösung des Klosters von der Herrschaft Krumau. Im Jahre 1840 bestand Stritzitz / Strčice aus 8 Häusern mit 57 Einwohnern. Im Dorf bestanden die Pfarrkirche, das Pfarrhaus, die Schule und ein Wirtshaus. Stritzitz war Pfarrdorf für die deutschsprachigen Ortschaften Saboř, Linden (Lipanovice), Dobschitz (Dobčice), Roschowitz und Kolowitz; es war Zentrum einer deutschen Sprachinsel in Südböhmen. Bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts blieb das Dorf zur Stiftsherrschaft Hohenfurth untertänig.

Nach der Aufhebung der Patrimonialherrschaften bildete Stritzitz / Stričitz ab 1850 einen Ortsteil der Gemeinde Saborz in der Bezirkshauptmannschaft Budějovice/Budweis. Im Jahre 1914 lebten in dem Dorf 74 Einwohner, davon 72 Deutsche und 2 Tschechen. 1924 eröffnete eine Dorfschule und 1927 eine Bürgerschule, an denen in deutscher Sprache unterrichtet wurde. Als Antwort auf den zunehmenden deutschen Nationalismus bildete sich 1930 in Stritschitz eine Ortsgruppe der tschechischen Národní jednota pošumavská, die im Dorf 1930 die Jubilejná škola svatováclavska (Jubiläumsschule des hl Wenzel) einrichtete. Nach dem Münchner Abkommen wurde Stritschitz zusammen mit Sabor 1938 dem Deutschen Reich zugeschlagen. Die tschechische Schule wurde geschlossen und als Depot der Nationalsozialisten genutzt. Das Dorf gehörte bis 1945 zum Kreis Krummau an der Moldau. Nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkrieges kam Strýčice zur Tschechoslowakei zurück und wurde wieder Teil des Okres České Budějovice. Ein Teil der deutschen Bevölkerung wurde vertrieben. Im Jahre 1950 erfolgte die Umgemeindung nach Radošovice. 1985 wurde Strýčice zusammen mit Radošovice nach Žabovřesky eingemeindet. Strýčice löste sich am 24. November 1990 nach einem Referendum wieder los und bildete erstmals in seiner Geschichte eine eigene Gemeinde.

In Strýčice besteht eine Grundschule der I. und II. Stufe, deren Einzugsgebiet sich auf 24 Dörfer erstreckt.

Gemeindegliederung
Für die Gemeinde Strýčice sind keine Ortsteile ausgewiesen. Zu Strýčice gehört der Wohnplatz U Brožů.

Strýčice ist eine der wenigen Gemeinden des Landes, die keinen eigenen Katastralbezirk bilden. Ein entsprechender Antrag wurde nach langen Verhandlungen abschlägig beschieden, so dass die 195 ha umfassenden Gemeindefluren weiterhin zum Katastralbezirk Radošovice u Českých Budějovic gehören.

Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Pfarrkirche St. Peter und Paul, das von einem Friedhof umgebene Bauwerk bildet das Zentrum des Dorfes. Der ursprünglich romanische Bau entstand im 13. Jahrhundert und wurde später im spätgotischen Stil erweitert. Die älteste Glocke stammt aus dem Jahre 1585. Auf dem Kirchturm befindet sich ein Storchennest.
 Reitinger-Mühle, die westlich des Dorfes gelegene Wassermühle ist seit dem 14. Jahrhundert nachweislich. Die heutige gemauerte Mühle wurde 1842 errichtet und 1899 erweitert. Im Jahre 1911 wurden die beiden Wasserräder durch Turbinen ersetzt. Der Mühlenbetrieb wurde 1975 eingestellt, das Wasserkraftwerk besteht weiterhin.
 Schulmuseum Strýčice, es entstand 1986 im Erdgeschoss der Grundschule und wurde nach dem Hochwasser von 2004 wiederhergestellt. Seine Exponate stellen die früheren bäuerlichen Fertigkeiten dar.
 Mehrere Gehöfte im südböhmischen Bauernbarock im Blata-Stil mit verzierten Stuckfassaden und eingeschossigem Speicher

Einzelnachweise

Literatur

Weblinks

 Präsentation auf den Webseiten der Mikroregion Blanský les - podhůří
 Darstellung des Schulmuseums
 Präsentation auf selskebaroko.unas.cz

Sprachinsel
Ersterwähnung 1292

Strýčice


Europsko prvenstvo u vaterpolu za žene – Budimpešta 2020. 17. je izdanje ovog natjecanja koje je održano u Budimpešti od 12. do 25. siječnja 2020. godine. Branitelj naslova bila je reprezentacija Nizozemske. Treći put se ženski turnir održao u Budimpešti, nakon 2001. i 2014. godine. Hrvatska je nastupila treći put zaredom, a ukupno četvrti put u povijesti. Svoj drugi naslov u povijesti, prvi nakon 2014. godine, osvojila je reprezentacija Španjolske.

Sastavi

  Hrvatska – Alexandra Ratković, Dina Lordan, Petra Bukić, Emmi Miljković, Matea Skelin, Domina Butić, Ivana Butić, Ema Carević, Ana Miroslavić, Mia Topić, Julija Božan, Bruna Barišić, Natasha Trojan Jimenez; izbornik Marijo Ćaleta

Turnir

Ždrijeb skupina održan je 22. listopada 2019. godine.

Skupina A

12. siječnja 2020.

13. siječnja 2020.

15. siječnja 2020.

17. siječnja 2020.

19. siječnja 2020.

Skupina B

12. siječnja 2020.

13. siječnja 2020.

15. siječnja 2020.

17. siječnja 2020.

19. siječnja 2020.

Izbacivanje

Povezani članci

 Europsko prvenstvo u vaterpolu – Budimpešta 2020.

Izvori

Europska vaterpolska prvenstva
 2020


Benito Ramón Hermida Maldonado (1736-1814), homme politique espagnol ;
 Jeremy Hermida (1984- ), joueur de baseball américain ;
 José Antonio Hermida (1978- ), coureur cycliste espagnol ;
 Manuel Hermida Losada (1924-2005), footballeur espagnol ;
 Sandra Hermida Muñiz (1972- ), productrice et directrice de production espagnole ;
 Tania Hermida (1968- ), réalisatrice et femme politique équatorienne.

Hermida


γ-Decalacton ist das Lacton der γ-Hydroxydecansäure und kommt in verschiedenen Lebensmitteln als Aromastoff vor. Dabei sind zwei chirale Konfigurationen zu unterscheiden (siehe Cahn-Ingold-Prelog-Konvention):

 (R)-(+)-γ-Decalacton besitzt ein pfirsichartiges, fruchtiges Aroma
 (S)-(−)-γ-Decalacton besitzt ein kokosartiges, fettiges Aroma

Vorkommen

In der Natur kommt größtenteils (R)-(+)-γ-Decalacton vor, wobei der Enantiomerenüberschuss oft über 80 % liegt. Dieses ist für das Aroma von Aprikosen (Marillen, Prunus armeniaca) ausschlaggebend und ist – zusammen mit anderen Lactonen – auch für das Aroma von Pfirsichen (Prunus persica) prägend. Aber auch in anderem Obst, z. B. in Ananas, Erdbeeren, Maracuja und Mango, ist (R)-(+)-γ-Decalacton als Aromastoff enthalten.

Das Aroma von Camembert enthält γ-Decalacton. Allerdings ist für den Geschmack von Käse das δ-Decalacton wichtiger.

Herstellung
(R)-γ-Decalacton wird mit Hilfe von Mikroorganismen (Hefen und Pilze wie Candida, Monilia, Sporobolomyces u. a.) fermentativ über die Zwischenstufe Ricinolsäure aus Ricinusöl gewonnen und Lebensmitteln zugesetzt. Seltener wird γ-Decalacton aus Decansäureethylester (oft isoliert aus Kokosnußöl) mittels Mucor circinelloides erzeugt. Synthetisch kann γ-Decalacton aus 3-Bromdecansäure nach Erhitzen mit Natriumcarbonat gewonnen werden.

Einzelnachweise

Butyrolacton
Aromastoff (EU)
Futtermittelzusatzstoff (EU)

Γ-Decalacton


Luogosanto (sardisk: Locusàntu, Logusàntu) er en by og en kommune (comune) i provinsen Sassari i regionen Sardinien i Italien. Byen ligger i 321 meters højde og har 1.883 indbyggere (2016). Kommunen har et areal på 135,07 km² og grænser til kommunerne Aglientu, Arzachena, Luras og Tempio Pausania.

Referencer

Henvisninger

Kommuner i provinsen Sassari

Luogosanto


පුරාණ භාරතීය හින්දු ප්‍රේම වෘතාන්තයකි.හරි එහෙනම් අපි ගියා  සිංහල නාට්‍යයක් ද මේ ඇසුරින් නිමවා තිබේ.
ප්‍රබන්ධ
වේදිකා නාට්‍ය

නල දමයන්ති


Sergej Kúzhúgetovítsj Shojgú (rússneska: Сергей Кужугетович Шойгу; f. 21. maí 1955) er rússneskur stjórnmálamaður og hershöfðingi. Hann hefur verið varnarmálaráðherra Rússlands frá árinu 2012. Shojgú var áður ráðherra neyðarástandsmála frá 1991 til 2012 og sveitarstjóri Moskvufylkis í stuttan tíma árið 2012. Shojgú er einn af nánustu bandamönnum Vladímírs Pútín Rússlandsforseta og hefur verið nefndur sem hugsanlegur eftirmaður hans.

Æviágrip
Faðir Sergej Shojgú, Kúzhúget Shojgú (1921-2010) var Túvani en móðir hans, Alexandra Jakovlevna (1924-2011) var Rússi af úkraínskum ættum. Árið 1977 útskrifaðist Sergej úr Fjöltækniháskólanum í Krasnojarsk. Næsta áratuginn vann hann við byggingaframkvæmdir og hlaut smám saman stjórnunarstöður. Árið 1988 varð hann embættismaður hjá Kommúnistaflokknum í Abakan og síðan hjá ungliðahreyfingunni Komsomol. Árið 1990 flutti Shojgú frá Síberíu til Moskvu.

Shojgú vakti athygli stjórnvalda í byrjun tíunda áratugarins með hæfni sinni við að stilla til sátta og varð árið 1991 ráðherra neyðarástandsmála, sem var embætti sem hann hafði sjálfur fundið upp. Í þessu embætti mætti Shojgú oft á vettvangi náttúruhamfara og hryðjuverkaárása með teymi öryggissérfræðinga og hafði umsjón með ýmsum öryggisaðgerðum. Hann varð á þessum tíma hátt skrifaður bæði meðal rússneskra valdsmanna og meðal almennra borgara. Shojgú var álitinn hugsanlegur arftaki Borísar Jeltsín á forsetastól.

Frá 1999 til 2001 var Shojgú leiðtogi stjórnmálaflokksins Einingar. Eftir að Eining rann inn í nýja stjórnmálaflokkinn Sameinað Rússland undir forystu Vladímírs Pútín árið 2001 varð Shojgú einn af þremur leiðtogum flokksins. Shojgú hefur átt sæti í æðstaráði Sameinaðs Rússlands síðan þá.

Árið 1999 var Shojgú sæmdur æðstu heiðursorðu Rússlands, Hetju rússneska sambandsríkisins. Shojgú var sveitarstjóri Moskvufylkis í nokkra mánuði árið 2012.

Varnarmálaráðherra Rússlands (2012–)

Þann 6. nóvember 2012 var Shojgú útnefndur varnarmálaráðherra eftir afsögn Anatolíj Serdjúkov. Greint var frá þessari uppstokkun í rússneskum fréttablöðum í nóvember 2012. Útnefningin kom á óvart þar sem Shojgú hafði aldrei gegnt herþjónustu, átti ekkert bakland innan rússneska hersins og forystuaðferðir hans höfðu fallið í grýttan jarðveg hjá gömlum herforingjum. Útnefning Shojgú kom innan fárra vikna frá því að Valeríj Gerasímov var útnefndur yfirmaður rússneska herráðsins og var því álitin tengd henni.

Eftir úkraínsku byltinguna árið 2014 og misheppnaðar aðgerðir rússnesku alríkislögreglunnar (FSB) til að binda á hana enda skipaði Vladímír Pútín rússneska hernum undir stjórn Shojgú að hernema og innlima Krímskaga  í Rússland. Í kjölfar þessara atburða var Shojgú sóttur til saka í Úkraínu fyrir að "stofna vopnaðar vígasveitir."

Í desember 2015 stýrði Shojgú hernaðarinngripi Rússa í sýrlensku borgarastyrjöldina sem gerði Bashar al-Assad Sýrlandsforseta kleift að ná yfirhöndinni gagnvart uppreisnarmönnum.

Shojgú hefur farið ásamt Vladímír Pútín í opinberar heimsóknir til ýmissa ríkja, þar á meðal Sýrlands, Katar og Ísraels. Þar sem slíkar ferðir teljast almennt á verksviði utanríkismála fremur en varnarmála hafa stjórnmálaskýrendur túlkað þetta sem staðfestingu á auknu mikilvægi hersins í rússneskum stjórnmálum.

Sem varnarmálaráðherra lét Shojgú stofna nýja netvarnadeild og sameina rússneska flug- og geimherinn í nýjar loftvarnadeildir. Hann hefur búið svo um hnútana að erfiðara sé fyrir unga Rússa að sleppa við herþjónustu. Árið 2017 lét hann breyta einkennisbúningum rússneska hersins til að gera þá líkari sovéskum einkennisbúningum frá árinu 1945, sem kallaðir eru "búningar sigurvegarans." Shojgú hefur umsjón með GRU, leyniþjónustu rússneska hersins. Stofnunin er grunuð um að hafa á öðrum áratugi 21. aldar framið fjölda pólitískra morða í Evrópu. Shojgú náði fram hækkun á fjárframlögum til rússneska hersins og jók áhrif sín og vinsældir í Kreml. Hann hefur verið kallaður "maðurinn sem kom hernum aftur til æðstu metorða í Kreml á kostnað leyniþjónustunnar" eða "táknmynd hervæðingarinnar í Rússlandi."

Rússneskir ríkisfjölmiðlar hafa gert mikið úr vináttu Shojgú og Vladímírs Pútín frá lokum annars áratugar 21. aldar. Því hefur verið bent á Shojgú sem mögulegan eftirmann Pútíns.

Þann 25. febrúar var Shojgú settur á lista bandaríska fjármálaráðuneytisins yfir rússneskra ráðamenn sem sæta persónulegum refsiaðgerðum í Bandaríkjunum. Hann hefur verið skilgreindur sem ógn við bandarískt þjóðaröryggi vegna hlutverks hans við innrás Rússa í Úkraínu.

Shojgú er einn fárra á æðstu stöðum í Rússlandi sem hafa verið í áhrifastöðu bæði á valdatíð Borísar Jeltsín og Vladímírs Pútín. Undir lok ágúst 2022 voru hins vegar orðrómar á kreiki um að Pútín hefði að mestu ýtt Shojgú til hliðar frá ákvarðanatöku vegna slælegs árangurs við innrásina í Úkraínu. Pútín tæki nú við skýrslum frá hershöfðingjum sínum án milligöngu Shojgú.

Einkahagir
Shojgú á tvær dætur, Júlíu (f. 1977) og Kseníu (f. 1991).

Tilvísanir

Varnarmálaráðherrar Rússlands

Sergej Shojgú


The coat of arms of the Gambia has been in use since 18 November 1964. It depicts two lions holding an axe and hoe, supporting a shield that depicts another pair of hoe and axe, crossed. Atop the shield is set the heraldic helmet and an oil palm as a crest. At the bottom is the national motto: Progress – Peace – Prosperity. The Gambian coat of arms also appeared in the fly of the Gambian air force ensign.

Overview
The two lions represent the colonial history of The Gambia as part of the British Empire. The crossed axe and hoe represent the importance of agriculture to The Gambia. They are also considered to represent the two major ethnic groups of The Gambia: the Mandinka and the Fulani. The crest, a palm tree, is also a vital national tree.

The design was created by Nicholas Potin, a government employee with the Department of Surveys, who won a national competition to design it.

Variations
Coat of arms of Gambia Armed Forces service branches had variations:
 Coat of arms used by the Gambian Army had a crossed sword in the shield.
 Coat of arms used by the Gambian Navy had an anchor in the shield.
 Coat of arms used by the Gambian Air Force had an eagle above national coat of arms.

See also
Flag of the Gambia

References

External links
Image of Gambian coat of arms

National symbols of the Gambia
Gambia
Gambia
Gambia
Gambia
Gambia

Coat of arms of the Gambia


Cizye, İslam ülkelerinde Müslüman olmayanlardan alınan bir vergi türüdür. Kaynağını Tevbe suresi 29. ayetinden alır;

"Kendilerine kitap verilenlerden, Allah'a ve ahiret gününe inanmayan, Allah'ın ve Resûlü'nün haram kıldığını haram tanımayan ve hak dini (İslam'ı) din edinmeyenlerle, küçük düşürülüp cizyeyi kendi elleriyle verinceye kadar savaşın. ''

İslam devletinin tabiyetinde olan gayrimüslimlerin (Ehl-i Zimmet) Allah'ın gönderdiği kitaplara inanan Hristiyan ve yahudilerden(Ehl-i Kitap), şeriata uygun olarak alınan (Şer'î) bir vergidir.

Osmanlı Devleti'nde, Müslüman olmayanlara İslamiyet'i kabul etmeleri ya da cizye ödemeleri karşılığı hayatta kalmaları ya da savaşarak ölmeleri seçenekleri sunulurdu. Cizye vergisi verenler (Cizyegüzar), mal ve can güvenliği ile her türlü hakları bakımından devletin koruması altına alınır, din, günlük yaşayış ve ekonomik faaliyetlerinde serbest bırakılırdı.

Cizye, gayrimüslim vatandaşların hür ve mükellef olan erkeklerinden, yılda bir kez alınan baş vergisiydi.  Sakatlardan, kadınlardan, çocuklardan ve  din görevlilerinden alınmazdı. Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Paşa'nın 1689 yılında sadrazamlığa getirilmesinden sonra yapılan vergi düzenlemesinde cizyenin toplanması bazı esaslara bağlanarak merkeze bağlı  Cizyedarlık görevi oluşturuldu. Cizye, maaşı devlet tarafından ödenen cizyedar denilen memurlar tarafından toplanmaya başlandı.

Osmanlı Devleti'nde cizye vergisi 1855'e kadar uygulandı ve Islahat Fermanı ile hem vergi hem de cizyadarlık görevi kaldırıldı; yerine askerlik hizmetlerinden muafiyet vergisi (Bedel-i askeriye) getirildi; II. Meşrutiyetle birlikte Müslüman olmayanlara da askerlik görevi getirilince bu vergi de son buldu.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Haraç

Dipnotlar

Kaynakça

Osmanlı Devleti'nde vergiler

Cizye


فَادُو (بالبرتغالية: fado القدر، النصيب) هو شكل موسيقي يرجع ظهوره لأوائل القرن التاسع عشر في البرتغال. تتميز موسيقى فادو بالألحان والكلمات الحزينة، وهي غالبا ما تتحدث عن البحر والفقر، لكن هذا لا يعني أن الفادو لا تتكلم عن مواضيع أخرى.

ترتبط الكلمة غالبا بالكلمة البرتغالية سَوْدَادِ (saudade) والتي تعني الحنين.
يرى الخبراء أن موسيقى فادو هي مزيج من موسيقى الزنوج الأفارقة مع ألحان برتغالية، وتأثير عربي. هناك نوعان من موسيقى فادو الأولى فادو لشبونة والآخر فادو قلمرية، ويعتبر فادو لشبونه هو الأكثر شعبية، كما أن التصفيق هو الطريقة التي يتم فيها تحية فادو لشبونة، أما فادو قلمرية فإن النحنحة هي الطريقة التي يتم بها تحية موسيقى فادو.

مراجع

أنواع موسيقية
روائع التراث الشفهي اللامادي للإنسانية
موسيقى برتغالية

فادو


Humorism, the humoral theory, or humoralism, was a system of medicine detailing a supposed makeup and workings of the human body, adopted by  Ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers.

Humorism began to fall out of favor in the 17th century and it was definitively disproved in the 1850s with the advent of germ theory, which was able to show that many diseases previously thought to be humoral were in fact caused by microbes.

Origin

The concept of "humors" (chemical systems regulating human behaviour) became more prominent from the writing of medical theorist Alcmaeon of Croton (c. 540–500 BC). His list of humors was longer and included fundamental elements described by Empedocles, such as water, earth, fire, air, etc. The concept of "humors" may have origins in Ancient Egyptian medicine, or Mesopotamia, though it was not systemized until ancient Greek thinkers. The word humor is a translation of Greek , chymos (literally juice or sap, metaphorically flavor). Early texts on Indian Ayurveda medicine presented a theory of three humors (doṣas), which they sometimes linked with the five elements (pañca-bhūta): earth, water, fire, air, and space.

Hippocrates is usually credited with applying this idea to medicine. In contrast to Alcmaeon, Hippocrates suggested that humors are the vital bodily fluids: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Alcmaeon and Hippocrates posited that an extreme excess or deficiency of any of the humors (bodily fluid) in a person can be a sign of illness. Hippocrates, and then Galen, suggested that a moderate imbalance in the mixture of these fluids produces behavioral patterns. One of the treatises attributed to Hippocrates, On the Nature of Man, describes the theory as follows:

The Human body contains blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These are the things that make up its constitution and cause its pains and health. Health is primarily that state in which these constituent substances are in the correct proportion to each other, both in strength and quantity, and are well mixed. Pain occurs when one of the substances presents either a deficiency or an excess, or is separated in the body and not mixed with others. The body depends heavily on the four humors because their balanced combination helps to keep people in good health. Having the right amount of humor is essential for health. The pathophysiology of disease is consequently brought on by humor excesses and/or deficiencies.

The existence of fundamental biochemical substances and structural components in the body remains a compellingly shared point with Hippocratic beliefs, despite the fact that current science has moved away from those four Hippocratic humors.

Although the theory of the four humors does appear in some Hippocratic texts, other Hippocratic writers accepted the existence of only two humors, while some refrained from discussing the humoral theory at all. Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, as a medical theory retained its popularity for centuries, largely through the influence of the writings of Galen (129–201 AD). The four essential elements—humors—that make up the human body, according to Hippocrates, are in harmony with one another and act as a catalyst for preserving health. Hippocrates' theory of four humors was linked with the popular theory of the four elements (earth, fire, water, and air) proposed by Empedocles, but this link was not proposed by Hippocrates or Galen, who referred primarily to bodily fluids. While Galen thought that humors were formed in the body, rather than ingested, he believed that different foods had varying potential to act upon the body to produce different humors. Warm foods, for example, tended to produce yellow bile, while cold foods tended to produce phlegm. Seasons of the year, periods of life, geographic regions, and occupations also influenced the nature of the humors formed. As such, certain seasons and geographic areas were understood to cause imbalances in the humors, leading to varying types of disease across time and place. For example, cities exposed to hot winds were seen as having higher rates of digestive problems as a result of excess phlegm running down from the head, while cities exposed to cold winds were associated with diseases of the lungs, acute diseases, and "hardness of the bowels", as well as ophthalmies (issues of the eyes), and nosebleeds. Cities to the west, meanwhile, were believed to produce weak, unhealthy, pale people that were subject to all manners of disease. In the treatise, On Airs, Waters, and Places, a Hippocratic physician is described arriving to an unnamed city where they test various factors of nature including the wind, water, and soil to predict the direct influence on the diseases specific to the city based on the season and the individual.

A fundamental idea of Hippocratic medicine was the endeavor to pinpoint the origins of illnesses in both the physiology of the human body and the influence of potentially hazardous environmental variables like air, water, and nutrition, and every humor has a distinct composition and is secreted by a different organ. Aristotle's concept of eucrasia—a state resembling equilibrium—and its relationship to the right balance of the four humors allow for the maintenance of human health, offering a more mathematical approach to medicine.

The imbalance of humors, or dyscrasia, was thought to be the direct cause of all diseases. Health was associated with a balance of humors, or eucrasia. The qualities of the humors, in turn, influenced the nature of the diseases they caused. Yellow bile caused warm diseases and phlegm caused cold diseases. In On the Temperaments, Galen further emphasized the importance of the qualities. An ideal temperament involved a proportionally balanced mixture of the four qualities. Galen identified four temperaments in which one of the qualities (warm, cold, moist, or dry) predominated, and four more in which a combination of two (warm and moist, warm and dry, cold and dry, or cold and moist) dominated. These last four, named for the humors with which they were associated—sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic—eventually became better known than the others. While the term temperament came to refer just to psychological dispositions, Galen used it to refer to bodily dispositions, which determined a person's susceptibility to particular diseases, as well as behavioral and emotional inclinations.

Disease could also be the result of the "corruption" of one or more of the humors, which could be caused by environmental circumstances, dietary changes, or many other factors. These deficits were thought to be caused by vapors inhaled or absorbed by the body. Greeks and Romans, and the later Muslim and Western European medical establishments that adopted and adapted classical medical philosophy, believed that each of these humors would wax and wane in the body, depending on diet and activity. When a patient was suffering from a surplus or imbalance of one of the four humors, then said patient's personality and/or physical health could be negatively affected.

Therefore, the goal of treatment was to rid the body of some of the excess humor through techniques like purging, bloodletting, catharsis, diuresis, and others. Bloodletting was already a prominent medical procedure by the first century, but venesection took on even more significance once Galen of Pergamum declared blood to be the most prevalent humor. The volume of blood extracted ranged from a few drops to several litres over the course of several days, depending on the patient's condition and the doctor's practice.

Four humors
Even though humorism theory had several models that used two, three, and five components, the most famous model consists of the four humors described by Hippocrates and developed further by Galen. The four humors of Hippocratic medicine are black bile (, ), yellow bile (, ), phlegm (, ), and blood (, haima). Each corresponds to one of the traditional four temperaments. Based on Hippocratic medicine, it was believed that for a body to be healthy, the four humors should be balanced in amount and strength. The proper blending and balance of the four humors was known as "eukrasia".

Humorism theory was improved by Galen, who incorporated his understanding of the humors into his interpretation of the human body. He believed the interactions of the humors within the body were the key to investigating the physical nature and function of the organ systems. Galen combined his interpretation of the humors with his collection of ideas concerning nature from past philosophers in order to find conclusions about how the body works. For example, Galen maintained the idea of the presence of the Platonic tripartite soul, which consisted of "thumos (spiritedness), epithumos (directed spiritedness, i.e. desire), and Sophia (wisdom)". Through this, Galen found a connection between these three parts of the soul and the three major organs that were recognized at the time: the brain, the heart, and the liver. This idea of connecting vital parts of the soul to vital parts of the body was derived from Aristotle's sense of explaining physical observations, and Galen utilized it to build his view of the human body. The organs (named organa) had specific functions (called chreiai) that contributed to the maintenance of the human body, and the expression of these functions is shown in characteristic activities (called energeiai) of a person. While the correspondence of parts of the body to the soul was an influential concept, Galen decided that the interaction of the four humors with natural bodily mechanisms were responsible for human development and this connection inspired his understanding of the nature of the components of the body.

Galen recalls the correspondence between humors and seasons in his On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, and says that, "As for ages and the seasons, the child (παῖς) corresponds to spring, the young man (νεανίσκος) to summer, the mature man (παρακµάζων) to autumn, and the old man (γέρων) to winter". He also related a correspondence between humors and seasons based on the properties of both. Blood, as a humor, was considered hot and wet. This gave it a correspondence to spring. Yellow bile was considered hot and dry, which related it to summer. Black bile was considered cold and dry, and thus related to autumn. Phlegm, cold and wet, was related to winter.

Galen also believed that the characteristics of the soul follow the mixtures of the body, but he did not apply this idea to the Hippocratic humors. He believed that phlegm did not influence character. In his On Hippocrates The Nature of Man, Galen stated: "Sharpness and intelligence (ὀξὺ καὶ συνετόν) are caused by yellow bile in the soul, perseverance and consistency (ἑδραῖον καὶ βέβαιον) by the melancholic humor, and simplicity and naivety (ἁπλοῦν καὶ ἠλιθιώτερον) by blood. But the nature of phlegm has no effect on the character of the soul (τοῦ δὲ φλέγµατος ἡ φύσις εἰς µὲν ἠθοποιῗαν ἄχρηστος)." He further said that blood is a mixture of the four elements: water, air, fire, and earth.

These terms only partly correspond to modern medical terminology, in which there is no distinction between black and yellow bile, and phlegm has a very different meaning. It was believed that the humors were the basic substances from which all liquids in the body were made. Robin Fåhræus (1921), a Swedish physician who devised the erythrocyte sedimentation rate, suggested that the four humors were based upon the observation of blood clotting in a transparent container. When blood is drawn in a glass container and left undisturbed for about an hour, four different layers can be seen: a dark clot forms at the bottom (the "black bile"); above the clot is a layer of red blood cells (the "blood"); above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the "phlegm"); the top layer is clear yellow serum (the "yellow bile").

Many Greek texts were written during the golden age of the theory of the four humors in Greek medicine after Galen. One of those texts was an anonymous treatise called On the Constitution of the Universe and of Man, published in the mid-19th century by J. L. Ideler. In this text, the author establishes the relationship between elements of the universe (air, water, earth, fire) and elements of the man (blood, yellow bile, black bile, phlegm). He said that:

 The people who have red blood are friendly. They joke and laugh about their bodies, and they are rose tinted, slightly red, and have pretty skin.
 The people who have yellow bile are bitter, short tempered, and daring. They appear greenish and have yellow skin.
 The people who are composed of black bile are lazy, fearful, and sickly. They have black hair and black eyes.
 Those who have phlegm are low spirited, forgetful, and have white hair.

Seventeenth century English playwright Ben Jonson wrote humor plays, where character types were based on their humoral complexion.

Blood
It was thought that the nutritional value of the blood was the source of energy for the body and the soul. Blood was believed to consist of small proportional amounts of the other three humors. This meant that taking a blood sample would allow for determination of the balance of the four humors in the body. It was associated with a sanguine nature (enthusiastic, active, and social). The seasonal association of blood is the spring because the natural characteristics (partially true) found in individuals was associated with being hot and wet.

Yellow bile
Yellow bile was associated with a choleric nature (ambitious, decisive, aggressive, and short-tempered). It was thought to be fluid found within the gallbladder, or in excretions such as vomit and feces. The associated qualities for yellow bile are hot and dry with the natural association of summer and fire. It was believed that an excess of this humor in an individual would result in emotional irregularities such as increased anger or behaving irrationally.

Black bile
Black bile was associated with a melancholy nature, the word "melancholy" itself deriving from the Greek for "black bile", μέλαινα χολή (melaina kholé). Depression was attributed to excess or unnatural black bile secreted by the spleen.
Cancer was also attributed to an excess of black bile concentrated in a specific area. The seasonal association of black bile was to autumn as the cold and dry characteristics of the season reflect the nature of man.

Phlegm
Phlegm was associated with a phlegmatic nature, thought to be associated with reserved behavior. The phlegm of humorism is far from phlegm as it is defined today. Phlegm was used as a general term to describe white or colorless secretions such as pus, mucus, saliva, sweat, or semen. Phlegm was also associated with the brain, possibly due to the color and consistency of brain tissue. The French physiologist and Nobel laureate Charles Richet, when describing humorism's "phlegm or pituitary secretion" in 1910, asked rhetorically, "this strange liquid, which is the cause of tumours, of chlorosis, of rheumatism, and cacochymia – where is it? Who will ever see it? Who has ever ever seen it? What can we say of this fanciful classification of humors into four groups, of which two are absolutely imaginary?" The seasonal association of phlegm is winter due to the natural properties of being cold and wet.

Humor production
Humors were believed to be produced via digestion as the final products of hepatic digestion. Digestion is a continuous process taking place in every animal, and it can be divided into four sequential stages. The gastric digestion stage, the hepatic digestion stage, the vascular digestion stage, and the tissue digestion stage. Each stage digests food until it becomes suitable for use by the body. In gastric digestion, food is made into chylous, which is suitable for the liver to absorb and carry on digestion. Chylous is changed into chymous in the hepatic digestion stage. Chymous is composed of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. These four humors then circulate in the blood vessels. In the last stage of digestion, tissue digestion, food becomes similar to the organ tissue for which it is destined.

If anything goes wrong leading up to the production of humors, there will be an imbalance leading to disease. Proper organ functioning is necessary in the production of good humor. The stomach and liver also have to function normally for proper digestion. If there are any abnormalities in gastric digestion, the liver, blood vessels, and tissues cannot be provided with the raw chylous, which can cause abnormal humor and blood composition. A healthy functioning liver is not capable of converting abnormal chylous into normal chylous and normal humors.

Humors are the end product of gastric digestion, but they are not the end product of the digestion cycle, so an abnormal humor produced by hepatic digestion will affect other digestive organs.

Relation to jaundice
According to Hippocratic humoral theory, jaundice is present in the Hippocratic Corpus. Some of the first descriptions of jaundice come from the Hippocratic physicians (icterus). The ailment appears multiple times in the Hippocratic Corpus, where its genesis, description, prognosis, and therapy are given. The five kinds of jaundice mentioned in the Hippocratic Corpus all share a yellow or greenish skin color.

A modern doctor will undoubtedly start to think of the symptoms listed in contemporary atlases of medicine after reading the clinical symptoms of each variety of jaundice listed in the Hippocratic Corpus. Despite the fact that the Hippocratic physicians' therapeutic approaches have little to do with contemporary medical practice, nonetheless, their capacity for observation as they described the various forms of jaundice is remarkable. In the Hippocratic Corpus, the Hippocratic physicians make multiple references to jaundice. At that time, jaundice was viewed as an illness unto itself rather than a symptom brought on by a disease.

Unification with Empedocles's model
Empedocles's theory suggested that there are four elements: earth, fire, water, and air, with the earth producing the natural systems. Since this theory was influential for centuries, later scholars paired qualities associated with each humor as described by Hippocrates/Galen with seasons and "basic elements" as described by Empedocles.

The following table shows the four humors with their corresponding elements, seasons, sites of formation, and resulting temperaments:

Influence and legacy

Islamic medicine

Medieval medical tradition in the Golden Age of Islam adopted the theory of humorism from Greco-Roman medicine, notably via the Persian polymath Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine (1025). Avicenna summarized the four humors and temperaments as follows:

Perso-Arabic and Indian medicine
The Unani school of medicine, practiced in Perso-Arabic countries, India, and Pakistan, is based on Galenic and Avicennian medicine in its emphasis on the four humors as a fundamental part of the methodologic paradigm.

Western medicine

The humoralist system of medicine was highly individualistic, for all patients were said to have their own unique humoral composition. From Hippocrates onward, the humoral theory was adopted by Greek, Roman and Islamic physicians, and dominated the view of the human body among European physicians until at least 1543 when it was first seriously challenged by Andreas Vesalius, who mostly criticized Galen's theories of human anatomy and not the chemical hypothesis of behavioural regulation (temperament).

Typical 18th-century practices such as bleeding a sick person or applying hot cups to a person were based on the humoral theory of imbalances of fluids (blood and bile in those cases). Methods of treatment like bloodletting, emetics and purges were aimed at expelling a surplus of a humor. Apocroustics were medications intended to stop the flux of malignant humors to a diseased body part.

16th-century Swiss physician Paracelsus further developed the idea that beneficial medical substances could be found in herbs, minerals and various alchemical combinations thereof. These beliefs were the foundation of mainstream Western medicine well into the 17th century. Specific minerals or herbs were used to treat ailments simple to complex, from an uncomplicated upper respiratory infection to the plague. For example, chamomile was used to decrease heat, and lower excessive bile humor. Arsenic was used in a poultice bag to 'draw out' the excess humor(s) that led to symptoms of the plague. Apophlegmatisms, in pre-modern medicine, were medications chewed in order to draw away phlegm and humors.

Although advances in cellular pathology and chemistry criticized humoralism by the 17th century, the theory had dominated Western medical thinking for more than 2,000 years. Only in some instances did the theory of humoralism wane into obscurity. One such instance occurred in the sixth and seventh centuries in the Byzantine Empire when traditional secular Greek culture gave way to Christian influences. Though the use of humoralist medicine continued during this time, its influence was diminished in favor of religion.  The revival of Greek humoralism, owing in part to changing social and economic factors, did not begin until the early ninth century.  Use of the practice in modern times is pseudoscience.

Modern use
Humoral theory was the grand unified theory of medicine, before the invention of modern medicine, for more than 2000 years. The theory was one of the fundamental tenets of the teachings of the Greek physician-philosopher Hippocrates (460–370 BC), who is regarded as the first practitioner of medicine, appropriately referred to as the "Father of Modern Medicine".

With the advent of the "Doctrine of Specific Etiology", the humoral theory's demise hastened even further. This demonstrates that there is only one precise cause and one specific issue for each and every sickness or disorder that has been diagnosed. Additionally, the identification of messenger molecules like hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters suggests that the humoral theory has not yet been made fully moribund. Humoral theory is still present in modern medical terminology, which refers to humoral immunity when discussing elements of immunity that circulate in the bloodstream, such as hormones and antibodies.

Modern medicine refers to humoral immunity or humoral regulation when describing substances such as hormones and antibodies, but this is not a remnant of the humor theory. It is merely a literal use of humoral, i.e. pertaining to bodily fluids (such as blood and lymph).

The concept of humorism was not definitively disproven until 1858. There were no studies performed to prove or disprove the impact of dysfunction in known bodily organs producing named fluids (humors) on temperament traits simply because the list of temperament traits was not defined up until the end of the 20th century.

Culture
Theophrastus and others developed a set of characters based on the humors. Those with too much blood were sanguine. Those with too much phlegm were phlegmatic. Those with too much yellow bile were choleric, and those with too much black bile were melancholic. The idea of human personality based on humors contributed to the character comedies of Menander and, later, Plautus.
Through the neo-classical revival in Europe, the humor theory dominated medical practice, and the theory of humoral types made periodic appearances in drama. The humors were an important and popular iconographic theme in European art, found in paintings, tapestries, and sets of prints.

The humors can be found in Elizabethan works, such as in The Taming of the Shrew, in which the character Petruchio, a choleric man, uses humoral therapy techniques on Katherina, a choleric woman, in order to tame her into the socially acceptable phlegmatic woman. Some examples include: he yells at the servants for serving mutton, a choleric food, to two people who are already choleric; he deprives Katherina of sleep; and he, Katherina and their servant Grumio endure a cold walk home, for cold temperatures were said to tame choleric temperaments.

The theory of the four humors features prominently in Rupert Thomson's 2005 novel Divided Kingdom.

See also
 Classical element
 Comedy of humours
 Three Doshas of Ayurveda
 Five temperaments
 Mitama
 Wu Xing (Five Principles of Chinese philosophy)

References

Bibliography

Conrad, Lawrence I. The Western Medical Tradition 800 BC to AD 1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Edwards. "A treatise concerning the plague and the pox discovering as well the meanes how to preserve from the danger of these infectious contagions, as also how to cure those which are infected with either of them". 1652.
Emtiazy, M., Keshavarz, M., Khodadoost, M., Kamalinejad, M., Gooshahgir, S. A., Shahrad Bajestani, H., ... Alizad, M. (2012). Relation between Body Humors and Hypercholesterolemia: An Iranian Traditional Medicine Perspective Based on the Teaching of Avicenna. Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 14(3), 133–138.

Moore, Philip. "The hope of health wherin is conteined a goodlie regimente of life: as medicine, good diet and the goodlie vertues of sonderie herbes, doen by Philip Moore." 1564.
Burton, Robert. 1621. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Book I, New York 2001, p. 147:  "The radical or innate is daily supplied by nourishment, which some call cambium, and make those secondary humors of ros and gluten to maintain it [...]".

Williams, William F. Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013.

External links
 BBC Radio4's In Our Time. Episode on the four humors in MP3 format, 45 minutes.

Humorism
Obsolete medical theories
Ancient Greek medicine
Mythological substances

Humorism


Das Evangelische Diözesanmuseum in der Kärntner Gemeinde Fresach ist eine Gedenkstätte für die Geschichte des Protestantismus in Kärnten und ganz Österreich. Es verbindet seine Ausstellung im ältesten und nunmehr einzig original erhaltenen Toleranzbethaus mit einem anlässlich der Kärntner Landesausstellung 2011 "500 Jahre Protestantismus in Kärnten" errichteten Ausstellungsgebäude, das mit dem Landesbaupreis 2011 ausgezeichnet wurde.

Toleranzbethaus
Die evangelische Gemeinde Fresach wurde 1782, ein Jahr nach dem Toleranzpatent Kaiser Joseph II., wiedergegründet. Sie war damit Ende des Jahres eine von sechs Kärntner Gemeinden, die die Bedingungen des Patents erfüllten (mindestens 500 Personen oder 100 Familien).
1784 konnte das Bethaus eingeweiht werden. Wie gefordert liegt es abseits der Straße, ohne Turm und Glocken, mit kleinen Fenstern und Eingang von der Hinterseite. Kirchenbänke wurden von den Gemeindegliedern selbst gezimmert. Der Bedeutung der Predigt im Protestantismus entsprechend wurde die Kanzel in der zentralen Achse des Gebäudes über dem Altar eingebaut (Kanzelaltar). Das Gebäude ist einzigartig, weil es als ältestes und einziges von ehemals 50 österreichischen Bethäusern im Originalzustand erhalten ist. Das Haus war in Funktion bis 1951, als man die neue evangelische Kirche oberhalb des Hauses bauen konnte. Das zugehörige Pfarrhaus vom Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts steht ebenfalls unter Denkmalschutz. Die Pfarrei nutzte das Gebäude für den Aufbau einer Sammlung von Zeugnissen zur Geschichte der verfolgten Protestanten in der Diözese Kärnten und Osttirol, die bald durch ihr Bekanntwerden als Evangelisches Diözesanmuseum Exponate aus ganz Österreich aufnehmen konnte. Langjähriger Leiter war nach seiner Pensionierung der Bischof Oskar Sakrausky, der die Sammlung auch begründet hatte. Die historische Buchsammlung von 850 Werken wurde ins Handbuch der historischen Buchbestände aufgenommen. Neben diesen Büchern zeigt das Museum liturgische Gegenstände, Bilder, Medaillen, Übersichtstafeln, Photographien, Archivalien und Briefe.

Neues Museumsgebäude
Anlässlich der Landesausstellung wurde Bethaus und Pfarrhaus umfassend renoviert und dazu ein Ausstellungs- und Veranstaltungsgebäude gebaut. Architekt war Bernhard Marte, ein Architekt der Neuen Vorarlberger Bauschule. Der Spatenstich fand im April 2010 statt. Die Eröffnung war im Mai 2011. Von den Kosten von 4,2 Millionen Euro trug das Bundesland Kärnten 80 % und die Kommunalgemeinde 400.000 Euro.

Träger des Museums ist der Verein für evangelische Glaubensüberlieferung in Kärnten.

Einbindung
Das Museum will als Stätte der Toleranz in die Region wirken. Es ist auch Station auf dem evangelischen Pilgerweg Weg des Buches, der von Passau bis Arnoldstein an der slowenischen Grenze geht und an den Bücherschmuggel der Evangelischen zur Zeit der Gegenreformation erinnert.

Literatur
 Oskar Sakrausky: Das evangelische Diözesanmuseum in Fresach, Hg.: Verein für evangelische Glaubensüberlieferung in Kärnten, Fresach 1985, ISBN 3-853-78247-7, (9783853782477)
 Alexander Hanisch-Wolfram: Auf den Spuren der Protestanten in Kärnten, Verlag Johannes Heyn, Klagenfurth 2010, Einleitung/Geschichtsteil 500 Jahre Protestantismus in Kärnten PDF (Zugriff April 2012)

Weblinks
 Landesausstellung Nachfolgeausstellungen

Einzelnachweise

Fresach
Fresach
Bibliothek in Kärnten
Fresach
Evangelische Superintendentur A. B. Kärnten und Osttirol
fresach
Geschichte des Protestantismus in Österreich
Diözesanmuseum in Österreich
Christliches Museum in Österreich
Gedenkstätte in Österreich
Museum des Protestantismus
Fresach
Denkmal in Kärnten

Evangelisches Diözesanmuseum Fresach


نيومان  هي إحدى مدن مقاطعة ستانيسلاوس، كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 10 يونيو، 1908.

أعلام
 فرانك سيلفا

مراجع

مدن كاليفورنيا

مدن في مقاطعة ستانيسلوس (كاليفورنيا)

نيومان (كاليفورنيا)


Karst van der Meulen (* 1949 in Sneek, Friesland) ist ein niederländischer Filmschaffender.

Er studierte an der Niederländischen Filmakademie von Amsterdam. In der Vergangenheit arbeitete er als Regisseur, Drehbuchautor, Filmeditor und Produzent. Er produzierte als Regisseur viele Jugendfilme und -serien. Seine bekanntesten Jugendserien sind "Thomas en Senior" (1988), "De Zevensprong" (1981), auch bekannt als "Das Geheimnis des siebten Weges". Seine Produktionen und Drehbücher wurden mehrfach ausgezeichnet. Er arbeitete als Trainee für die Children's Film Foundation in London und war für die Barrandov Studios in Prag tätig. Karst van der Meulen ist mit Lenie 't Hart  (* 16. Oktober 1941) verheiratet. Seine Frau war bis 2014 Direktorin einer Seehundschutz-Einrichtung mit Sitz in den Niederlanden. Seit seiner Heirat ist er vor allem für die Public Relation zuständig. Außerdem produzierte er die Dokumentation "It's a beautiful day" über die Arbeit seiner Frau.

Quellen
 imdb.com
 film1.nl

Weblinks

 Interview auf nlfilmdoek.nl (niederländisch)
 Foto mit Ehefrau

Einzelnachweise

Filmregisseur
Drehbuchautor
Niederländer
Geboren 1949
Mann

Karst van der Meulen