Erik Homburger Erikson (born Erik Salomonsen; 15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a German-American child psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He coined the phrase identity crisis.

Despite lacking a university degree, Erikson served as a professor at prominent institutions, including Harvard, University of California, Berkeley, and Yale. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century.

Early life
Erikson's mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen, Denmark. She was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Erik's biological father except that he was a non-Jewish Dane. On discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt am Main in Germany where Erik was born on 15 June 1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. She fled due to conceiving Erik out of wedlock, and the identity of Erik's birth father was never made clear.

Following Erik's birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, Germany. In 1905 she married a Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homburger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsen's name was changed to Erik Homburger, and in 1911 he was officially adopted by his stepfather. Karla and Theodor told Erik that Theodor was his real father, only revealing the truth to him in late childhood; he remained bitter about the deception all his life.

The development of identity seems to have been one of Erikson's greatest concerns in his own life as well as being central to his theoretical work. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent "identity confusion" in his European days. "My identity confusion", he wrote "[was at times on] the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis." Erikson's daughter wrote that her father's "real psychoanalytic identity" was not established until he "replaced his stepfather's surname [Homburger] with a name of his own invention [Erikson]." The decision to change his last name came about as he started his job at Yale, and the "Erikson" name was accepted by Erik's family when they became American citizens. It is said his children enjoyed the fact they would not be called "Hamburger" any longer.

Erik was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion. Due to these mixed identities, he was a target of bigotry by both Jewish and gentile children. At temple school, his peers teased him for being Nordic; while at grammar school, he was teased for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, but he lacked a general interest in school and graduated without academic distinction. After graduation, instead of attending medical school as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, much to the liking of his mother and her friends.

Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erik dropped out of school and began a lengthy period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos and others. For children from prominent German families, taking a "wandering year" was not uncommon. During his travels he often sold or traded his sketches to people he met. Eventually, Erik realized he would never become a full-time artist and returned to Karlsruhe and became an art teacher. During the time he worked at his teaching job, Erik was hired by an heiress to sketch and eventually tutor her children. Erik worked very well with these children and was eventually hired by many other families that were close to Anna and Sigmund Freud. During this period, which lasted until he was twenty-five years old, he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious, and national identity.

Psychoanalytic experience and training
When Erikson was twenty-five, his friend Peter Blos invited him to Vienna to tutor art at the small Burlingham-Rosenfeld School for children whose affluent parents were undergoing psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Anna noticed Erikson's sensitivity to children at the school and encouraged him to study psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, where prominent analysts August Aichhorn, Heinz Hartmann, and Paul Federn were among those who supervised his theoretical studies. He specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult. Simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute. This and his Montessori diploma were to be Erikson's only earned credentials for his life's work.

United States
In 1930 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer and artist whom Erikson had met at a dress ball. During their marriage, Erikson converted to Christianity. In 1933, with Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, the burning of Freud's books in Berlin and the potential Nazi threat to Austria, the family left an impoverished Vienna with their two young sons and emigrated to Copenhagen. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of residence requirements, the family left for the United States, where citizenship would not be an issue.

In the United States, Erikson became the first child psychoanalyst in Boston and held positions at Massachusetts General Hospital, the Judge Baker Guidance Center, and at Harvard Medical School and Psychological Clinic. This was while he was establishing a singular reputation as a clinician. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, where he worked at the Institute of Social Relations and taught at the medical school.

Erikson continued to deepen his interest in areas beyond psychoanalysis and to explore connections between psychology and anthropology. He made important contacts with anthropologists such as Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, and Ruth Benedict. Erikson said his theory of the development of thought derived from his social and cultural studies. In 1938, he left Yale to study the Sioux tribe in South Dakota on their reservation. After his studies in South Dakota, he traveled to California to study the Yurok tribe. Erikson discovered differences between the children of the Sioux and Yurok tribes. This marked the beginning of Erikson's life passion of showing the importance of events in childhood and how society affects them.

In 1939 he left Yale, and the Eriksons moved to California, where Erik had been invited to join a team engaged in a longitudinal study of child development for the University of California at Berkeley's Institute of Child Welfare. In addition, in San Francisco, he opened a private practice in child psychoanalysis.

While in California he was able to make his second study of American Indian children when he joined anthropologist Alfred Kroeber on a field trip to Northern California to study the Yurok.

In 1950, after publishing the book, Childhood and Society, for which he is best known, Erikson left the University of California when California's Levering Act required professors there to sign loyalty oaths. From 1951 to 1960 he worked and taught at the Austen Riggs Center, a prominent psychiatric treatment facility in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where he worked with emotionally troubled young people. Another famous Stockbridge resident, Norman Rockwell, became Erikson's patient and friend. During this time he also served as a visiting professor at the University of Pittsburgh where he worked with Benjamin Spock and Fred Rogers at Arsenal Nursery School of the Western Psychiatric Institute.

He returned to Harvard in the 1960s as a professor of human development and remained there until his retirement in 1970.  In 1973 the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Erikson for the Jefferson Lecture, the United States' highest honor for achievement in the humanities.  Erikson's lecture was titled Dimensions of a New Identity.

Theories of development and the ego

Erikson is credited with being one of the originators of ego psychology, which emphasized the role of the ego as being more than a servant of the id. Although Erikson accepted Freud's theory, he did not focus on the parent-child relationship and gave more importance to the role of the ego, particularly the person's progression as self. According to Erikson, the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self-awareness and identity. Erikson won a Pulitzer Prize and a US National Book Award in category Philosophy and Religion for Gandhi's Truth (1969), which focused more on his theory as applied to later phases in the life cycle.

In Erikson's discussion of development, he rarely mentioned a stage of development by age. In fact he referred to it as a prolonged adolescence which has led to further investigation into a period of development between adolescence and young adulthood called emerging adulthood. Erikson's theory of development includes various psychosocial crises where each conflict builds off of the previous stages. The result of each conflict can have negative or positive impacts on a person's development, however, a negative outcome can be revisited and readdressed throughout the life span. On ego identity versus role confusion: ego identity enables each person to have a sense of individuality, or as Erikson would say, "Ego identity, then, in its subjective aspect, is the awareness of the fact that there is a self-sameness and continuity to the ego's synthesizing methods and a continuity of one's meaning for others". Role confusion, however, is, according to Barbara Engler, "the inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member of one's own society." This inability to conceive of oneself as a productive member is a great danger; it can occur during adolescence, when looking for an occupation.

Erikson's theory of personality

The Erikson life-stages, in order of the eight stages in which they may be acquired, are listed below, as well as the "virtues" that Erikson has attached to these stages, (these virtues are underlined).

 Hope, Basic trust vs. basic mistrust—This stage covers the period of infancy, 0–1½ years old, which is the most fundamental stage of life, as this is the stage that all other ones build on. Whether the baby develops basic trust or basic mistrust is not merely a matter of nurture. It is multi-faceted and has strong social components. It depends on the quality of the maternal relationship. The mother carries out and reflects her inner perceptions of trustworthiness, a sense of personal meaning, etc. on the child. An important part of this stage is providing stable and constant care of the infant. This helps the child develop trust that can transition into relationships other than parental. Additionally, children develop trust in others to support them. If successful in this, the baby develops a sense of trust, which "forms the basis in the child for a sense of identity." Failure to develop this trust will result in a feeling of fear and a sense that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
 Will, Autonomy vs. shame—This stage covers early childhood around 1½–3 years old and introduces the concept of autonomy vs. shame and doubt. The child begins to discover the beginnings of their independence, and parents must facilitate the child's sense of doing basic tasks "all by themselves."  Discouragement can lead to the child doubting their efficacy.  During this stage the child is usually trying to master toilet training. Additionally, the child discovers their talents or abilities, and it is important to ensure the child is able to explore those activities. Erikson states it is essential to allow the children freedom in exploration but also create an environment welcoming of failures. Therefore, the parent should not punish or reprimand the child for failing at the task. Shame and doubt occurs when the child feels incompetent in ability to complete tasks and survive. Will is achieved with success of this stage. Children successful in this stage will have "self-control without a loss of self-esteem."
 Purpose, Initiative vs. guilt—This stage covers preschool children from ages three to five. Does the child have the ability to do things on their own, such as dress themselves? Children in this stage are interacting with peers, and creating their own games and activities. Children in this stage practice independence and start to make their own decisions. If allowed to make these decisions, the child will develop confidence in their ability to lead others. If the child is not allowed to make certain decisions, then a sense of guilt develops. Guilt in this stage is characterized by a sense of being a burden to others, and the child will therefore usually present themselves as a follower as they lack the confidence to do otherwise. Additionally, the child is asking many questions to build knowledge of the world. If the questions earn responses that are critical and condescending, the child will also develop feelings of guilt. Success in this stage leads to the virtue of purpose, which is the normal balance between the two extremes.
 Competence, Industry vs. inferiority—This area coincides with the "latency" period of psychoanalysis and covers school age children before adolescence. Children compare their self worth to others around them. Friends can have a significant impact on the growth of the child. The child can recognize major disparities in personal abilities relative to other children. Erikson places some emphasis on the teacher, who should ensure that children do not feel inferior. During this stage the child's friend group increases in importance in their life. Often during this stage the child will try to prove competency with things rewarded in society, and also develop satisfaction with their abilities. Encouraging the child increases feelings of adequacy and competency in ability to reach goals. Restriction from teachers or parents leads to doubt, questioning, and reluctance in abilities and therefore may not reach full capabilities. Competence, the virtue of this stage, is developed when a healthy balance between the two extremes is reached.
 Fidelity, Identity vs. role confusion—This section deals with adolescence, meaning those between twelve and eighteen years old. This occurs when we start to question ourselves and ask questions relevant to who we are and what we want to accomplish. Who am I, how do I fit in? Where am I going in life? The adolescent is exploring and seeking for their own unique identity. This is done by looking at personal beliefs, goals, and values. The morality of the individual is also explored and developed. Erikson believes that if the parents allow the child to explore, they will determine their own identity. If, however, the parents continually push them to conform to their views, the teen will face identity confusion. The teen is also looking towards the future in terms of employment, relationships, and families. Learning the roles they provide in society is essential since the teen begins to develop the desire to fit into society. Fidelity is characterized by the ability to commit to others and acceptance of others even with differences. Identity crisis is the result of role confusion and can cause the adolescent to try out different lifestyles.
 Love, Intimacy vs. isolation—This is the first stage of adult development.  This development usually happens during young adulthood, which is between the ages of 18 and 40. This stage marks a transition from just thinking about ourselves to thinking about other people in the world. We are social creatures and as a result need to be with other people and form relationships with them. Dating, marriage, family and friendships are important during this stage in their life. This is due to the increase in the growth of intimate relationships with others. It is important to note that ego development earlier in life (middle adolescence) is a strong predictor of how well intimacy for romantic relationships will transpire in emerging adulthood. By successfully forming loving relationships with other people, individuals are able to experience love and intimacy. They also feel safety, care, and commitment in these relationships. Furthermore, if individuals are able to successfully resolve the crisis of intimacy versus isolation, they are able to achieve the virtue of love. Those who fail to form lasting relationships may feel isolated and alone.
 Care, Generativity vs. stagnation—The second stage of adulthood happens between the ages of 40 and 65. During this time people are normally settled in their lives and know what is important to them. A person is either making progress in their career or treading lightly in their career and unsure if this is what they want to do for the rest of their working life.  Also during this time, a person may be raising their children. If they are a parent, then they are reevaluating their life roles. This is one way of contributing to society along with productivity at work and involvement in community activities and organizations. Individuals that exercise the concept of generativity believe in the next generation and seek to nurture them in creative ways through practices such as parenting, teaching, and mentoring. Having a sense of generativity can be considered significant for both the individual and the society, exemplifying their roles as effective parents, leaders for organizations, etc. If a person is not comfortable with the way their life is progressing,  they're usually regretful about the decisions that they have made in the past and feels a sense of uselessness.
 Wisdom, Ego integrity vs. despair—This stage affects the age group of 65 and on. During this time an individual has reached the last chapter in their life and retirement is approaching or has already taken place. Individuals in this stage must learn to accept the course of their life or they will look back on it with despair. Ego-integrity means the acceptance of life in its fullness: the victories and the defeats, what was accomplished and what was not accomplished. Wisdom is the result of successfully accomplishing this final developmental task. Wisdom is defined as "informed and detached concern for life itself in the face of death itself." Having a guilty conscience about the past or failing to accomplish important goals will eventually lead to depression and hopelessness. Achieving the virtue of the stage involves the feeling of living a successful life.
 For the Ninth Stage see Erikson's stages of psychosocial development § Ninth Stage.

Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as virtues, a term used in the context of Erikson's work as it is applied to medicine, meaning "potencies". These virtues are also interpreted to be the same as "strengths", which are considered inherent in the individual life cycle and in the sequence of generations. Erikson's research suggests that each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another, not rejecting one end of the tension or the other. Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, 'trust' and 'mis-trust' must both be understood and accepted, in order for realistic 'hope' to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly, 'integrity' and 'despair' must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable 'wisdom' to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage.

Erikson's psychology of religion
Psychoanalytic writers have always engaged in nonclinical interpretation of cultural phenomena such as art, religion, and historical movements. Erik Erikson gave such a strong contribution that his work was well received by students of religion and spurred various secondary literature.

Erikson's psychology of religion begins with an acknowledgement of how religious tradition can have an interplay with a child's basic sense of trust or mistrust. With regard to Erikson's theory of personality as expressed in his eight stages of the life cycle, each with their different tasks to master, each also included a corresponding virtue, as mentioned above, which form a taxonomy for religious and ethical life. Erikson extends this construct by emphasizing that human individual and social life is characterized by ritualization, "an agreed-upon interplay between at least two persons who repeat it at meaningful intervals and in recurring contexts." Such ritualization involves careful attentiveness to what can be called ceremonial forms and details, higher symbolic meanings, active engagement of participants, and a feeling of absolute necessity.  Each life cycle stage includes its own ritualization with a corresponding ritualism: numinous vs. idolism, judicious vs. legalism, dramatic vs. impersonation, formal vs. formalism, ideological vs. totalism, affiliative vs. elitism, generational vs. authoritism, and integral vs. dogmatism.

Perhaps Erikson's best-known contributions to the psychology of religion were his book length psychobiographies, Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History, on Martin Luther, and Gandhi's Truth, on Mohandas K. Gandhi, for which he remarkably won the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award. Both books attempt to show how childhood development and parental influence, social and cultural context, even political crises form a confluence with personal identity. These studies demonstrate how each influential person discovered mastery, both individually and socially, in what Erikson would call the historical moment. Individuals like Luther or Gandhi were what Erikson called a Homo Religiosus, individuals for whom the final life cycle challenge of integrity vs. despair is a lifelong crisis, and they become gifted innovators whose own psychological cure becomes an ideological breakthrough for their time.

Personal life
Erikson married Canadian-born American dancer and artist Joan Erikson (née Sarah Lucretia Serson) in 1930 and they remained together until his death.

The Eriksons had four children: Kai T. Erikson, Jon Erikson, Sue Erikson Bloland, and Neil Erikson. His eldest son, Kai T. Erikson, is an American sociologist. Their daughter, Sue, "an integrative psychotherapist and psychoanalyst", described her father as plagued by "lifelong feelings of personal inadequacy". He thought that by combining resources with his wife, he could "achieve the recognition" that might produce a feeling of adequacy.

Erikson died on 12 May 1994 in Harwich, Massachusetts. He is buried in the First Congregational Church Cemetery in Harwich.

Bibliography

Major works
 Childhood and Society (1950)
 Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History (1958)
 Insight and Responsibility (1966)
 Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968)
 Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (1969)
 Life History and the Historical Moment (1975)
 Toys and Reasons: Stages in the Ritualization of Experience (1977)
 Adulthood (edited book, 1978)
 Vital Involvement in Old Age (with J. M. Erikson and H. Kivnick, 1986)

Collections
 Identity and the Life Cycle. Selected Papers (1959)
 "A Way of Looking at Things – Selected Papers from 1930 to 1980, Erik H. Erikson" ed. by S. Schlein, W. W. Norton & Co, New York, (1995)

See also
 Erikson Institute

References

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

External links

1902 births
1994 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century German male writers
20th-century American psychologists
Analysands of Anna Freud
Converts to Christianity from Judaism
American developmental psychologists
Ego psychology
German Christians
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
American people of Danish descent
German people of Danish-Jewish descent
German psychoanalysts
Jewish psychoanalysts
Jewish philosophers
Harvard University Department of Psychology faculty
Harvard Medical School faculty
Jewish American social scientists
National Book Award winners
Writers from Frankfurt
People from Stockbridge, Massachusetts
Psychologists of religion
Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction winners
University of Pittsburgh faculty
American Christians
American psychoanalysts
People with acquired American citizenship
20th-century American writers
Austen Riggs Center physicians
20th-century American Jews

Erik Erikson


La Bredene Koksijde Classic 2022 ou Bredene Coxyde Classic 2022 est la  édition de cette course cycliste masculine sur route, auparavant appelée Handzame Classic. Elle a lieu le  dans la province de Flandre-Occidentale, en Belgique, entre Bredene et Coxyde. Elle fait partie du calendrier UCI ProSeries 2022 en catégorie 1.Pro. Elle est remportée par l'Allemand Pascal Ackermann (UAE Emirates) qui signe une seconde victoire dans cette course.

Présentation

Parcours

Équipes
Vingt équipes participent à cette Bredene Koksijde Classic : neuf WorldTeams, neuf ProTeams et deux équipes continentales.

Récit de la course
Le groupe de cinq échappés est repris par le peloton à 8 kilomètres de l'arrivée. Mais c'est sans compter sur l'un des fuyards, le Belge Thibau Verhofstadt (Tarteletto Isorex) qui repart seul en tête et fait de la résistance encore pendant deux kilomètres avant que le regroupement général ne s'opère. L'Allemand Pascal Ackermann (UAE Emirates) s'impose au sprint devant le Français Hugo Hofstetter (Arkéa-Samsic) et le tenant du titre belge Tim Merlier (Alpecin-Fenix).

Classements

Classement final

Classement UCI
La course attribue des points au classement mondial UCI 2022 selon le barème suivant :

Liste des participants

Notes et références

Liens externes

2022
Cyclisme en Belgique en 2022
Cyclisme sur route en 2022
Cyclisme en mars 2022
Sport en Belgique en mars 2022

Bredene Koksijde Classic 2022


Prochilodus vimboides é uma espécie de peixe caraciforme da família dos proquilodontídeos (Prochilodontidae). É endêmica do Brasil e ocorre nos rios costeiros do país desde o Jequitinhonha ao norte até o Paraíba, porções orientais do alto Paraná e bacia do São Francisco. Pode medir até 46,5 centímetros. Em 2005, foi classificada como vulnerável na Lista de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo; em 2014, como quase ameaçada no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Ameaçada de Extinção no Estado de São Paulo e vulnerável no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção do Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio); e em 2018, como vulnerável na Lista Vermelha do Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção do ICMBio.

Prochilodus
Peixes de Minas Gerais
Peixes da Bahia
Fauna da Mata Atlântica
Espécies citadas no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Brasileira Ameaçada de Extinção
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Fauna Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Espécies citadas no Livro Vermelho da Fauna Ameaçada de Extinção no Estado de São Paulo

Prochilodus vimboides


في نظرية النسبية العامة، يُستعمل مصطلح أفق الحدث باعتباره حد موجود في الزمكان، كمنطقة تحيط بالثقب الأسود أو الثقب الدودي، ضمنه لا تؤثر الحوادث بالملاحظ الخارجي. السبب ببساطة أن الضوء المنبعث من داخل أفق الحدث لا يمكن له أن يتجاوز هذا الحد للوصول إلى الراصد الخارجي (الجهة الأخرى لأفق الحدث) بسبب الثقالة والجاذبية القوية للثقب الأسود.

استندت فكرة أفق الحدث في الأصل إلى سرعة هروب الضوء، مما يعني أن الضوء المنبعث من حدود أفق الحدث يمكن أن يهرب، ويمكن للضوء المنبعث داخل أفق الحدث أن يعبر بشكل مؤقت ولكنه سيعود. قُدّم تعريف دقيق في وقت لاحق بأنه حد لا يمكن أن تؤثر الأحداث بعده على أي مراقب خارجي على الإطلاق. تسبب هذا التعريف الدقيق لأفق الحدث بحدوث مفارقات في المعلومات وجدار الحماية، لذا يفترض ستيفن هوكينج أن يكون هناك أفق واضح لاستخدامه.

في النسبية العامة، أفق الحدث هو منطقة في الزمكان لا يمكن للضوء أن يفلت منها بالكامل لأن شد الجاذبية لجسم ضخم يصبح كبيرًا لدرجة تجعل الهروب مستحيلًا. يرتبط أفق الحدث عادةً بالثقوب السوداء، ولكنه يمكن -من حيث المبدأ - أن ينشأ ويتطور في مناطق مسطحة تمامًا من الزمكان إذا كان هيكل المادة الرقيق والمجوف والمتناظر كرويًا ينهار في فراغ الزمكان.

يبدو أن أي كائن يقترب من الأفق من ناحية الراصد يتباطأ ولا يمر أبدًا عبر الأفق، مع تحول صورته إلى اللون الأحمر أكثر فأكثر مع مرور الوقت. هذا يعني أن الطول الموجي للضوء المنبعث من الكائن يزداد كلما تحرك الكائن بعيدًا عن الراصد.

أفق حدث الثقب الأسود غائي بطبيعته، وهذا يعني أننا بحاجة إلى معرفة الزمكان المستقبلي للكون لتحديد الموقع الحالي للأفق، وهو أمر مستحيل بشكل أساسي.

أفق الحدث للثقب الأسود
أحد أفضل الأمثلة المعروفة لأفق الحدث مستمدة من وصف النسبية العامة للثقب الأسود، حيث تصفه بأنه كائن سماوي ضخم للغاية، لا يمكن لأي مادة أو إشعاع قريب الهروب من مجال جاذبيته. غالبًا ما يوصف هذا بأنه الحد الذي تكون فيه سرعة هروب الثقب الأسود أكبر من سرعة الضوء. هناك وصف أكثر دقة وهو أنه في هذا الأفق تُشوّه جميع المسارات الشبيهة بالضوء (المسارات التي يمكن أن يأخذها الضوء)، وبالتالي جميع المسارات الموجودة في مخروط الضوء الأمامي للجسيمات داخل الأفق، بحيث تقع بعيدًا في الثقب. بمجرد أن تصبح الجسيمات داخل الأفق، يصبح الانتقال إلى الثقب أمرًا لا مفر منه مثل التحرك للأمام في الوقت المناسب، ويمكن اعتباره في الواقع مكافئًا للقيام بذلك اعتمادًا على نظام الإحداثيات الزمكاني المستخدم.

يعمل سطح نصف قطر شفارتزشيلد بمثابة أفق حدث في جسم غير دوار يتلاءم داخل نصف القطر (على الرغم من أن الثقب الأسود الدوار يعمل بشكل مختلف قليلاً). نصف قطر شفارتزشيلد للكائن يتناسب مع كتلته. من الناحية النظرية، ستصبح أي كمية من المواد ثقبًا أسودًا إذا ضُغط في مساحة تتناسب مع نصف قطر شفارتزشيلد المقابل لها. بالنسبة لكتلة الشمس، يبلغ هذا نصف القطر حوالي 3 كيلومترات، وبالنسبة للأرض حوالي 9 ملليمترات. في الممارسة العملية، لا تملك الأرض ولا الشمس الكتلة اللازمة وبالتالي لا تمتلك قوة الجاذبية اللازمة للتغلب على ضغط انفطار الإلكترون والنيوترون. إن الحد الأدنى للكتلة المطلوبة لنجم قادر على الانهيار إلى ما وراء هذه الضغوط هو حد كتلة توف، وهو ما يقرب من ثلاث كتل شمسية.

آفاق حدث الثقب الأسود يساء فهمها على نطاق واسع. من الأفكار الشائعة -على الرغم من أنها خاطئة- هي فكرة أن الثقوب السوداء تفرغ المواد في الجوار، حيث لا يمكنها استهلاك المواد أكثر من أي جاذب ثقالي آخر. كما هو الحال مع أي كتلة في الكون، يجب أن تدخل المادة في نطاق جاذبيته لإمكانية وجود أسْر أو دمج مع أي كتلة أخرى. من الشائع بالمثل فكرة أن المادة يمكن ملاحظتها وهي تسقط في ثقب أسود، ولكن هذا غير ممكن. يمكن للفلكيين اكتشاف أقراص التراكم حول الثقوب السوداء فقط، والتي عندها تتحرك المواد بهذه السرعة بحيث يؤدي الاحتكاك إلى إشعاع عالي الطاقة يمكن اكتشافه. بالمثل، تُخرج بعض المواد من أقراص التراكم هذه على طول محور دوران الثقب الأسود، مما يخلق تدفقات مرئية عندما تتفاعل هذه التدفقات مع مادة مثل الغاز البينجمي أو عندما تصادف أنها تستهدف الأرض مباشرة. علاوة على ذلك، فإن الراصد البعيد لن يرى شيئًا يصل إلى الأفق. بدلاً من ذلك، يبدو أن الكائن يمضي ببطء أكثر في الوقت الذي يقترب فيه من الفتحة، في حين أن أي ضوء ينبعث منه سوف يصبح لونه أحمر أكثر فأكثر.

أفق الحدث الكوني
في علم الكون، يمثل أفق الحدث الخاص بالكون المرصود أكبر مسافة مسايرة يمكن للضوء المنبعث منها الآن أن يصل إلى الراصد في المستقبل. هذا يختلف عن مفهوم أفق الجسيمات، الذي يمثل أكبر مسافة مسايرة حيث يمكن أن يصل الضوء المنبعث في الماضي إلى الراصد في وقت معين. بالنسبة للأحداث التي تتجاوز تلك المسافة، لم يتح للضوء الوقت للوصول إلى موقعنا، حتى لو كان قد انبعث في الوقت الذي بدأ فيه الكون، كما تعتمد طريقة تغير أفق الجسيمات مع مرور الوقت على تمدد الكون. إذا كان للتمدد خصائص معينة، فهناك أجزاء من الكون لا يمكن ملاحظتها أبدًا بغض النظر عن المدة التي ينتظرها الراصد لوصول الضوء المنبعث من تلك المناطق. ماضي الحد الذي عنده لايمكن ملاحظة الحدث على الإطلاق هو أفق الحدث، ويمثل الحد الأقصى لأفق الجسيمات.

المقياس لتحديد ما إذا كان أفق الجسيمات للكون موجودًا يكون كما يلي. تُعرف المسافة المسايرة dp:

في هذه المعادلة، a هي عامل المقياس، c هي سرعة الضوء، و t0 هو عمر الكون. إذا كان dp → ∞ (على سبيل المثال، النقاط تعسفيًا بقدر ما يمكن ملاحظتها)، فلا يوجد أفق حدث موجود، وإذا كان dp ≠ ∞، فسيكون هناك أفق.

من الأمثلة على النماذج الكونية دون أفق الحدث، تلك الأكوان التي تهيمن عليها المادة أو الإشعاع، ومثال على نموذج كوني له أفق حدث، ذلك الكون الذي يهيمن عليه الثابت الكوني.

الأفق الظاهر لجسيم متسارع
إذا كان الجسيم يتحرك بسرعة ثابتة في كون غير متمدد خالٍ من حقول الجاذبية، فإن أي حدث يحدث في هذا الكون سيكون في النهاية مرئيًا بواسطة الجسيم، لأن مخاريط الضوء الأمامية من هذه الأحداث تتقاطع مع خط العالم للجسيمات. من ناحية أخرى، إذا كان الجسيم يتسارع، فإنه في بعض المواقف لن تتقاطع المخاريط الضوئية لبعض الأحداث مع الخط العالمي للجسيمات. في ظل هذه الظروف، يوجد أفق ظاهر في الإطار المرجعي للجسيمات (المتسارعة)، ويمثل حدودًا لا يمكن ملاحظة مايحدث ورائها.

على سبيل المثال، يحدث هذا مع جسيم متسارع بشكل منتظم. يظهر الخط البياني للزمكان لهذا الموقف في الصورة نحو اليمين. مع تسارع الجسيم، يقترب -ولكن لا يصل أبدَا- من سرعة الضوء فيما يتعلق بالإطار المرجعي الأصلي. في الرسم البياني للزمكان، يكون مساره عبارة عن قطع زائدي أي خط مقارب بزاوية 45 درجة (مسار شعاع الضوء). إن الحدث الذي فيه حافة مخروط الضوء عبارة عن هذا الخط المقارب أو بعيد عنه لا يمكن ملاحظته بواسطة الجسيم المتسارع.

التفاعل مع أفق الحدث
من المفاهيم الخاطئة المتعلقة بآفاق الأحداث، وخاصة آفاق أحداث الثقب الأسود، أنها تمثل سطحًا ثابتًا يدمر الكائنات التي تقترب منها. في الممارسة العملية، يبدو أن جميع آفاق الحدث على بعد مسافة بعيدة عن أي راصد، والكائنات المرسلة نحو أفق الحدث لا تظهر أبدًا في عبورها من وجهة نظر الراصد المرسل (حيث لا يتقاطع مخروط الضوء لأفق حدث عابر أبدًا مع الخط العالمي للمراقب ). لمحاولة جعل كائن ما قريب من الأفق ثابتًا بالنسبة للراصد، فإنه يتطلب تطبيق قوة يزداد حجمها بشكل غير محدود (تصبح بلا حدود) كلما اقتربت.

في حالة وجود أفق يدركه مراقب متسارع بشكل متسق في مساحة فارغة، سيبدو أن الأفق يبقى على مسافة ثابتة من الراصد بغض النظر عن كيفية تحرك محيطه.

في حالة الأفق المحيط بالثقب الأسود، سوف يتفق الراصدون الموجودون بشكل ثابت بالنسبة لجسم بعيد على مكان الأفق، ويبدو أن ذلك يسمح للراصد بلمس الأفق عند إنزاله بواسطة حبل، إلا أنه من الناحية العملية لا يمكن القيام بذلك. المسافة الحقيقية نحو الأفق محدودة، لذا سيكون طول الحبل المطلوب محدودًا أيضًا، ولكن إذا أُنزل الحبل ببطء (بحيث تكون كل نقطة على الحبل تقريبًا في إحداثيات شوارزشيلد)، فإن التسارع الصحيح (قوة جي) الذي تعاني منه النقاط الأقرب من الأفق قد تقترب من اللانهاية، لذلك سيتمزق الحبل، وإذا أُنزل الحبل بسرعة (ربما حتى في حالة السقوط الحر)، فعندئذ يمكن للراصد الموجود أسفل الحبل أن يمس أفق الحدث أو يعبره. ولكن بمجرد حدوث ذلك، يكون من المستحيل سحب قاع الحبل للخارج من أفق الحدث لأنه إذا سُحب الحبل، فإن القوى على طول الحبل تزداد دون قيود حيث أنها تقترب من أفق الحدث وفي وقت ما يجب أن يقطع الحبل. علاوة على ذلك، لا يحدث القطع في أفق الحدث، وإنما يحدث في نقطة ما حيث يمكن للراصد الثاني مراقبة ذلك.

يمكن للراصدين الذين يعبرون أفق حدث الثقب الأسود حساب اللحظة التي عبروها، لكنهم لن يروا أو يشعروا بأي شيء خاص يحدث في تلك اللحظة. من حيث المظهر البصري، يلاحظ الراصدون الذين يسقطون في الثقب أن المنطقة السوداء التي تشكل الأفق تقع على مسافة واضحة أسفلهم، ولا يواجهون أبدًا عبور هذا الأفق المرئي. ستظهر الكائنات الأخرى التي دخلت الأفق على طول المسار الشعاعي نفسه ولكن في وقت سابق أسفل الراصد ولكن لا تزال فوق الموضع المرئي للأفق، وإذا انخفضت بما فيه الكفاية، فيمكن للمراقب الإتصال معهم قبل أي يُدمر أي واحد منهم من قِبل التفرد الجذبوي. إن زيادة قوى المد والجزر (وتأثيرها في نهاية المطاف مع تفرد الحفرة) هما التأثيران الوحيدان الملاحظان على النحو المحلي. في الثقوب السوداء النجمية الحقيقية، يحدث التأثير المعكروني في وقت مبكر، وتمزق قوات المد والجزر المواد قبل أفق الحدث. ومع ذلك، في الثقوب السوداء الهائلة -والتي توجد في مراكز المجرات- يحدث التأثير المعكروني داخل أفق الحدث.

ما وراء النسبية العامة
يُعتقد أن وصف آفاق الأحداث التي تقدمها النسبية العامة غير مكتمل. عند صياغة الظروف التي تحدث فيها آفاق الحدث باستخدام صورة أكثر شمولًا عن الطريقة التي يعمل بها الكون -والتي تشمل كلاً من النسبية وميكانيكا الكم- فمن المتوقع أن يكون لآفاق الحدث خصائص مختلفة عن تلك المتوقعة باستخدام النسبية العامة وحدها. في الوقت الحالي، من المتوقع أن يكون التأثير الأساسي لتأثيرات الكم هو أن تمتلك آفاق الأحداث درجة حرارة وبالتالي تنبعث منها إشعاعات. بالنسبة إلى الثقوب السوداء، يظهر هذا كإشعاع هوكينج، والسؤال الأكبر حول كيفية امتلاك الثقب الأسود لدرجة الحرارة هو جزء من موضوع الديناميكا الحرارية للثقب الأسود.

وفقًا لفرضية جدار الحماية للثقب الأسود المثيرة للجدل، فإن المادة التي تدخل في ثقب أسود ستحترق عند جدار حماية عالي الطاقة موجود في أفق الحدث.

يُوفر بديل من خلال مبدأ التكامل، والذي بموجبه -في المخطط الخاص بالراصد البعيد- تُعادل حرارة المادة المسخنة في الأفق وويُعاد إرسالها كإشعاع هوكينج، بينما في مخطط مادة الراصد الساقطة، لا تزال مستمرة دون إزعاج عبر المنطقة الداخلية وتُدمر عند التفرد. لا تنتهك هذه الفرضية نظرية عدم الاستنساخ نظرًا لوجود نسخة واحدة من المعلومات وفقًا لأي مراقب معين. يُقترح في الواقع تكامل الثقب الأسود من خلال قوانين التوسع في الأوتار التي تقترب من أفق الحدث، مما يشير إلى أنها في مخطط شوارزشيلد تمتد لتشمل الأفق وتتحول إلى غشاء سميك بطول بلانك.

من المتوقع أن يتطلب الوصف الكامل لآفاق الأحداث نظرية جاذبية كمية. إحدى هذه النظريات المرشحة هي نظرية إم، ونظرية المرشحة الأخرى هي الجاذبية الكمية الحلقية.

مراجع

النسبية العامة
ثقوب سوداء
ظاهرة فيزيائية
فيزياء فلكية
مفاهيم فيزيائية
فترات في العلوم والتكنولوجيا

أفق الحدث


Svjatogorska lavra (ukr. Свято-Успенська Святогірська Лавра) je pravoslavni manastir Ukrajinske pravoslavne Crkve Moskovske patrijaršije kod grada Svjatogorska u Donjeckoj oblasti. Nalazi se na stijeni uz desnu obalu rijeke Sjeverni Donjec.

Povijest
Osnovan je u 14. ili 15. stoljeću, a kao osnivač spominje se prepodobni Josif. Prvi put se spominje 1526. godine u zapisima austrijskoga diplomata, barona Sigismunda von Herbersteina.

Manastir je bio od velikoga značaja za vrijeme Ruskog Carstva pa je 1787. po naredbi ruske carice Katarine Velike obnovljen. Godine 1790., manastir dobiva u vlasništvo feldmaršal Grigorij Potemkin. Najveći procvat imao je za vrijeme cara Nikolaja I. Romanova u 19. stoljeću.

Do prije Prvoga svjetskoga rata, manastirski kompleks je imao oko 600 redovnika, a za vrijeme komunizma pretvoren je u rezidenciju. Manastir je srušen 1922. godine. Nakon raspada Sovjetskog Saveza manastir je ponovno obnovljen i otvoren 1992. godine.

Galerija

Manastiri u Ukrajini

Svjatogorska lavra


Alvações do Corgo ist eine Gemeinde im nordportugiesischen Kreis Santa Marta de Penaguião (Distrikt Vila Real). Sie umfasst eine Fläche von  km² und hat  Einwohner (Stand ).

Die Gemeinde liegt etwa zweieinhalb Kilometer östlich der Kreisstadt Santa Marta de Penaguião am Fluss Corgo. Wirtschaftlich ist der Ort von Landwirtschaft, Wein- und Olivenanbau geprägt.

Zu den Sehenswürdigkeiten gehören die Pfarrkirche, die Capela da Azinheira sowie zwei Meilensteine aus Granit.

Schutzpatron des Ortes ist der heilige Antonius, dessen Fest jährlich am 13. Juni gefeiert wird.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Santa Marta de Penaguião

Alvações do Corgo


Ronald John Garan, Jr. (30 de octubre de 1961) es un astronauta de la NASA. Luego de graduarse en 1982 en la State University of New York College at Oneonta, se incorporó a la Fuerza Aérea de Estados Unidos, siendo ascendido a teniente segundo en 1984. Recibió instrucción como piloto de F-16, y voló misiones de combate en la Guerra del Golfo. Antes de convertirse en astronauta fue Oficial de Operaciones del 40th Flight Test Squadron (FTS). Primero voló como Especialista de misión en la misión STS-124 de la Estación Espacial Internacional (ISS). Regresó a la ISS el 4 de abril de 2011 para permanecer seis meses como miembro de la Expedición 27.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Biografía en la NASA
 Spacefacts biography of Ronald J. Garan, Jr.
 FragileOasis.org Blog

Astronautas de Estados Unidos
Nacidos en Yonkers

Ronald John Garan


Na historiografia, o positivismo histórico ou documental é a crença de que os historiadores devem buscar a verdade objetiva do passado, permitindo que as fontes históricas "falem por si mesmas", sem interpretação adicional. Nas palavras do historiador francês Fustel de Coulanges, como positivista, "não sou eu quem estou falando, mas a própria história". A forte ênfase colocada pelos positivistas históricos nas fontes documentais levou ao desenvolvimento de métodos de crítica de fontes, que buscam eliminar preconceitos e revelar fontes originais em seu estado primitivo.

A origem da escola positivista histórica está particularmente associada ao historiador alemão do século XIX Leopold von Ranke, que argumentou que o historiador deveria procurar descrever a verdade histórica "wie es eigentlich gewesen ist" ("como realmente era") - embora historiadores do conceito, como Georg Iggers, argumentaram que seu desenvolvimento deveu-se mais aos seguidores de Ranke do que ao próprio Ranke.

O positivismo histórico foi criticado no século XX por historiadores e filósofos da história de várias escolas de pensamento, incluindo Ernst Kantorowicz na Alemanha de Weimar — que argumentou que "o positivismo ... enfrenta o perigo de se tornar romântico quando afirma que é possível encontrar a Flor Azul da verdade sem preconceitos" – e Raymond Aron e Michel Foucault na França do pós-guerra, que postularam que as interpretações são sempre, em última análise, múltiplas e que não haveriam uma verdade objetiva final a ser recuperada. Em seu postumamente publicado 1946 The Idea of History, o historiador inglês R. G. Collingwood criticou o positivismo histórico por confundir fatos científicos com fatos históricos, que são sempre inferidos e não podem ser confirmados pela repetição, e argumentou que seu foco na "coleção de fatos" deu aos historiadores "domínio sem precedentes sobre problemas de pequena escala", mas "fraqueza sem precedentes em lidar com problemas de grande escala".

Os argumentos historicistas contra as abordagens positivistas na historiografia incluem que a história difere de ciências como a física e a etologia na teoria e no método; que muito do que a história estuda não é quantificável e, portanto, quantificar é perder em precisão; e que métodos experimentais e modelos matemáticos geralmente não se aplicam à história, de modo que não é possível formular leis gerais (quase absolutas) na história.

História
Positivismo

Positivismo histórico


Luusalmi  (en , en , en ) est une municipalité du raïon de Kalevala en république de Carélie.

Géographie
Luusalmi est situé sur la rive ouest du détroit reliant les lacs Keski-Kuittijärvi et Ala-Kuittijärvi, à 23 kilomètres en longeant le Keski-Kuittijärvi ou à 75 km par la route au sud-est d'Uhtua.
La municipalité de Luusalmi a une superficie de .

Luusalmi est bordé  par les municipalités du raïon de Louhi, Kiestinki au nord, Ambarnyi au nord-est, ainsi que du raïon de Kalevala Jyskyjärvi et Uhtua à l'est, Borovoi au sud, Kostamus au sud et la Finlande à l'ouest.
La majeure partie de son territoire est forestière.

Le village est desservi par l'autoroute 86K-38 (Borovoy-Luusalmi).

Démographie
Recensements (*) ou estimations de la population

Bibliographie

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes

Village dans la république de Carélie
Raïon de Kalevala

Luusalmi


Leiden University Medical Center (Dutch: Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum) or LUMC is the university hospital affiliated with Leiden University, of which it forms the medical faculty. It is located in Leiden, Netherlands. LUMC is a modern university medical center for research, education and patient care. Its research practice ranges from pure fundamental medical research to applied clinical research.

Patient care
The hospital has clinical departments of all medical specialties, and acts as a tertiary referral centre for the northern part of the province of South Holland. Special units include:
 Ophthalmology
 Neurosurgery
 Cardiothoracic surgery
 Neonatal and pediatric surgery and intensive care
 Pediatric oncology
 Orthopedic medicine
 Biliary surgery
 Rheumatology
 Level I trauma center

Research
The LUMC aims at identifying the causes of disease, improving diagnosis, prevention, and ultimately developing effective treatments. Within LUMC different specialists work together around research themes. Combining cross-border expertise may solve biomedical problems and bring answers not found when working in a stand-alone fashion. The themes are:
 Vascular and Regenerative medicine
 Immunity, Infection and Tolerance
 Translational Neuroscience
 Cancer Pathogenesis and Therapy
 Ageing
 Innovation in Health Strategy and Quality of Care
 Biomedical Imaging

Education
LUMC offers a large range of education and hosts the Faculty of Medicine of Leiden University. Education is seen as a joint responsibility of students and professors and a critical scientific attitude and curiosity are valued highly. Enjoying studies and student life is also considered to be important. LUMC offers the following university courses:
 Bachelor and master in Medicine
 Bachelor and master in Biomedical Sciences
 Bachelor in Clinical Technology (joined programme with TU Delft and Erasmus MC)
 Master in Vitality and Ageing.
 Master in Pharmacy
 Electives and exchange options for international students
LUMC also offers continuing education and training for doctors, scientists and other healthcare professionals. Continuing education is organized by the departments Boerhaave Nascholing and Educatie Zorgsector.

History of LUMC

In the very first teaching hospital in the Caeciliagasthuis in Leiden (now the Boerhaave Museum) professors gave bedside lectures – for example, Herman Boerhaave, in the 18th century. Several times, patients and professors moved to larger and better furnished premises and in 1873 the first university hospital to be built as such opened its doors on Steenstraat (it now houses the National Museum for Ethnology).

At the time, the building did justice to nursing practices and operation techniques, but after a few decades it was already obsolete. More laboratory space was needed, and safer and more comfortable conditions for patients and staff alike. The new hospital on Rijnsburgerweg, built in the early 1920s on the basis of the pavilion system, made way in the 1980s and 1990s for the present Building 1 of the LUMC.

Medicine has changed and developed beyond recognition over the centuries. After World War II, fundamental research became an increasingly important task of Leiden University's Faculty of Medicine. The Biomedical Science study programme is an expression of this. In patient care, high technology treatments have come in the place of admissions lasting weeks or months.

The many years of collaboration between the university and the teaching hospital acquired greater permanence in 1996 when the hospital and medical faculty merged to form Leiden University Medical Center, with patient care, instruction, study programmes, continuing education and research as its five core tasks.

The opening of two new buildings on 1 December 2006 was the fulfilment of a wish of long standing: all the core tasks are now under one roof. The various buildings are linked by skyways and tunnels, thus symbolising the interrelationship of the core tasks.

In 2016 Leiden University Medical Centre founded a branch at Campus The Hague, with research, teaching and a training programme for GPs.

PREVENT-nCoV consortium

Leiden University Medical Center is part of the PREVENT-nCoV consortium comprising ExpreS2ion Biotechnologies, AdaptVac (a joint-venture between ExpreS2ion Biotechnologies and the University of Copenhagen spin-out NextGen Vaccines), the Institute for Tropical Medicine Tübingen, The Department of Immunology and Microbiology (ISIM) at the University of Copenhagen, and the Laboratory of Virology at Wageningen University and Research. In March 2020 the consortium was awarded an EU Horizon 2020 grant of €2.7million for the development of a COVID-19 vaccine candidate.

See also
 Universiteit Leiden
 Leiden
 Homunculus loxodontus

References

External links
  LUMC

Medical Centre
Teaching hospitals in the Netherlands
Academic health science centres
Hospitals established in 1873
1873 establishments in the Netherlands

Leiden University Medical Center


Saint James ori St. James se poate referi la,

Locuri

Africa de Sud

 Saint James, Cape Town, oraș, situat în False Bay.

Australia

 Saint James, New South Wales, localitate din statul australian New South Wales,
 Saint James, Victoria, localitate din statul australian Victoria,
 Saint James, Western Australia, localitate din statul australian Western Australia,

Barbados

 Saint James, Barbados, localitate din Barbados.

Canada

 Saint James, Manitoba, localitate din provincia ,
 Fort Saint James, localitate din provincia , municipalitate,
 Saint James Parish, New Brunswick, parohie (unitate administrativă britanică, similară sau inferioară comitatului, a se vedea  parish) din provincia canadiană .

Franța

 Saint-James, comună și sat din Departamentul Manche.

Irlanda

 Saint James's Gate Brewery, berărie din Dublin, faimoasă pentru producerea berii Guinness și a magazinului său de desfacere Guinness Storehouse.

Jamaica

 Parohia Saint James, Jamaica, una din cele 14 parohii ale statului insular Jamaica, și una din cele cinci parohii ale comitatului Cornwall.

Noua Zeelandă

 Saint James Station, New Zealand, fostă stație meteorologică, aflată la altitudine ridicată, actualmente pământ conservat;
 Saint James Theatre, Auckland, fostă sală de teatru și cinema și
 Saint James Theatre, Wellington, actuală sală de teatru.

Regatul Unit (United Kingdom)

 Saint James's, zonă urbană cunoscută din City of Westminster, Londra centrală,
 Westminster Saint James, fostă parohie (unityate administrativă britanică), ocupând aproximativ aceeași suprafață ca zona urbană de mai sus,
 Saint James's Palace, clădire din Londra,
 Saint James's Club, fost club de bărbați din Piccadilly,
 Court of Saint James's, sediu a diverse ceremonii diplomatice ale monarhului britanic,
 Saint James's Street, stradă din centru Londrei, aflată în zona omonimă,
 Saint James's Theatre, teatru cu 1.200 de locuri din zona Saint James's,
 Saint James's Hotel and Club, hotel din Londra,
 Saint James' Park, Newcastle upon Tyne, sedul clubului sportiv de fotbal Newcastle United,
 Saint James End, Northampton, zonă urbană din orășelul Northampton,
 Saint James's Church of England High School, școală secundară din Greater Manchester și
 Saint James's University Hospital, Leeds, spital dedicat predării medicinei aplicate.

Singapore

 Saint James Power Station, fostă stație de nod energetic convertită într-un ansamblu de edificii.

Spania

 Drumul Sfântului Iacob, drumul obișnuit al pelerinajului spre Catedrala din Santiago de Compostela, Spania

Trinidad and Tobago

 Saint James, Trinidad și Tobago, unul din districtele orașului port Port of Spain din statul bi-insular Trinidad și Tobago.

Statele Unite ale Americii

 Saint James, Arkansas, comunitate neîncorporată din comitatul Stone, statul american Arkansas (a se vedea  Saint James, Arkansas),
 Saint James, Illinois, comunitate neîncorporată din Wheatland Township (Statele Unite ale Americii)Township, comitatul Fayette, statul american Illinois (a se vedea  Saint James, Illinois),
 Saint James, Indiana, cătun aflat la aproximativ la 1,6 km de Haubstadt în Johnson Township, comitatul Gibson, Indiana și la circa 400 m nord de comitatul Comitatul Vanderburgh, Indiana;
 Saint James, Louisiana, comunitate neîncorporată din parohia omonimă, Saint James, statul Louisiana;
 Saint James, Maryland, loc de recenzare (în original CDP) în comitatul Washington, statul Maryland;
 Saint James, Michigan, comunitate neîncorporată și  loc desemnat pentru recenzare din comitatul Charlevoix, statul american  (a se vedea  Saint James, Michigan);
 Saint James, Minnesota, oraș și sediul comitatului Watonwan, statul Minnesota, cu o populație de 4.605 la 1 aprilie 2010, data recensământului Statelor Unite din 2010.;
 Saint James, Missouri, oraș cu o populație de 4.216 de oameni conform datelor recensământului din 2010 din comitatul Phelps, Missouri;
 Saint James, Nebraska, comunitate comunitate neîncorporată din comitatul Comitatul Cedar, statul american  (a se vedea  Saint James, Nebraska),
 Saint James, New York,  cătun și loc desemnat pentru recensământ din Suffolk, Statele Unite, cu o populație de 13.338 la data de 1 aprilie 2010;
 Saint James, North Carolina, orașel (town în limba engleză) din comitatul Brunswick, , cu o populație de 3.165 la data recensământului din 2010,, parte a  zonei metropolitane Myrtle Beach.
 Saint James, Ohio
 Saint James Court Art Show in Louisville, Kentucky
 Saint James High School, Horry County, South Carolina
 Saint James Middle School, also in Horry County, South Carolina
 Parohia Saint James, Louisiana, parohie (echivalentul unui comitat) din statul american Louisiana,
 Saint James School (Montgomery, Alabama)
 Saint James Theatre, sală de teatru din Broadway, din New York City.

Vietnam

 Cape Saint James ori Cape Saint Jacques, former colonial names for Vũng Tàu

Oameni

Nume de familie

 Rebecca St. James (born 1977), Australian-American Christian pop and rock artist and actress
 Susan Saint James (born 1946), American actress and activist
 Lyn St. James (born 1947), retired professional IndyCar driver

Sfinți

 James (brother of Jesus), also known as 'the Lord's brother', "the Brother of Jesus' or 'James the Just'; considered the author of the Epistle of James in the New Testament, and the first bishop of Jerusalem
 James, son of Zebedee, apostle, brother of John the Apostle, sometimes called "James the Great"
 James, son of Alphaeus, apostle (sometimes identified as 'James the Just')
 James the Less, son of Clopas and Mary of Clopas, often identified with the son of Alphaeus
 Jacob of Nisibis, 4th century bishop
 James Intercisus, 5th century Persian, cut into pieces for expression of his beliefs
 James the Deacon, 7th century missionary to England
 Saint James Matamoros, 8th century Spanish legend
 One of the Ethiopian martyrs Abraham, Ethnus, Acrates, James, and John
 Blessed James Salomoni, Venetian priest and ascetic

Biserici

 St. James' Church (disambiguation), several churches around the world
 St James the Great (disambiguation), several churches around the world

Stații de cale ferată

 Saint James station (disambiguation), mai multe stații de cale ferată aflate în diverse locuri din lume.

Vase maritime

 HMS St. James (D65), a Battle-class destroyer of the British Royal Navy, commissioned in 1946 and broken up in 1961

Alte utilizări

 St. James's Day Battle, between the Dutch and the English, on 4 and 5 august 1666
 Saint James Church massacre, a massacre perpetrated on St James Church, Cape Town, South Africa
 St James Holdings, Mike Ashley's holding company for Newcastle United
 St Jimmy, a character from the album and Broadway musical American Idiot
 St. James Place, a property in the board game Monopoly

A se vedea și

 St James's House (disambiguation)
 James (disambiguation)
 Santiago (name)
 San Diego (disambiguation)
 St. Jacob (disambiguation)
 Jakob (disambiguation)
 St. James Township (disambiguation)

Referințe

Dezambiguizare
Nume proprii
Pagini de dezambiguizare referitoare la denumiri geografice
Pagini de dezambiguizare referitoare la persoane

Saint James