Spanish verbs form one of the more complex areas of Spanish grammar. Spanish is a relatively synthetic language with a moderate to high degree of inflection, which shows up mostly in Spanish conjugation.

As is typical of verbs in virtually all languages, Spanish verbs express an action or a state of being of a given subject, and like verbs in most Indo-European languages, Spanish verbs undergo inflection according to the following categories:

 Tense: past, present, or future
 Number: singular or plural
 Person: first, second or third
 T–V distinction: familiar or formal
 Mood: indicative, subjunctive, or imperative
 Aspect: perfective or imperfective (distinguished only in the past tense as preterite and imperfect)
 Voice: active or passive

The modern Spanish verb paradigm (conjugation) has 16 distinct complete forms (tenses), i.e. sets of forms for each combination of tense, mood and aspect, plus one incomplete tense (the imperative), as well as three non-temporal forms (the infinitive, gerund, and past participle). Two of the tenses, namely both subjunctive futures, are now obsolete for most practical purposes.

The 16 "regular" forms (tenses) include 8 simple tenses and 8 compound tenses. The compound tenses are formed with the auxiliary verb haber plus the past participle. Verbs can be used in other forms, such as the present progressive, but in grammar treatises they are not usually considered a part of the paradigm but rather periphrastic verbal constructions.

Accidents of a verb
A verbal accident is defined as one of the changes of form that a verb can undergo. Spanish verbs have five accidents. Every verb changes according to the following:

Person and number
Spanish verbs are conjugated in three persons, each having a singular and a plural form. In some varieties of Spanish, such as that of the Río de la Plata Region, a special form of the second person is used.

Spanish is a pro-drop language, meaning that subject pronouns are often omitted.

First person
The grammatical first person refers to the speaker ("I"). The first person plural refers to the speaker together with at least one other person.

 (Yo) soy: "I am"
 (Nosotros/Nosotras) somos: "We are"; the feminine form nosotras is used only when referring to a group that is composed entirely of females; otherwise, nosotros is used.

Second person
The grammatical second person refers to the addressee, the receiver of the communication ("you"). Spanish has different pronouns (and verb forms) for "you," depending on the relationship, familiar or formal, between speaker and addressee.

Singular forms
 (Tú) eres : "You are"; familiar singular; used when addressing someone who is of close affinity (a member of the family, a close friend, a child, a pet). It is also the form used to address a deity.
 (Vos) sos: "You are"; familiar singular; generally used in the same way as tú. Its use is restricted to some areas of Hispanic America; where tú and vos are both used, vos is used to denote a closer affinity.
 (Usted) es: "You are"; formal singular; used when addressing a person respectfully, someone older, someone not known to the speaker, or someone of some social distance. Although it is a second-person pronoun, it uses third-person verb forms (and object pronouns and possessives) because it developed as a contraction of vuestra merced (literally, "your mercy" or "your grace").

Plural forms
 (Vosotros/Vosotras) sois: "You (all) are"; familiar plural; used when addressing people who are of close affinity (members of the family, friends, children, pets). The feminine form vosotras is used only when addressing a group composed entirely of females; otherwise, vosotros is used. Used primarily in Spain but is also used in Equatorial Guinea and the Philippines, though it may appear in old, formal texts from other countries, such as the first initial line of the Argentine national anthem ("Oíd, mortales, el grito sagrado").
 (Ustedes) son: "You (all) are"; formal plural where vosotros is used; both familiar and formal plural elsewhere. Where it is strictly formal, used when addressing people respectfully or addressing people of some social distance. Like usted, it uses third-person verb forms, for the same reasons.

Third person
The grammatical third person refers to a person or thing other than the speaker or the addressee.

Singular forms
 (Él) es: "He/it is"; used for a male person or a thing of masculine (grammatical) gender.
 (Ella) es: "She/it is"; used for a female person or a thing of feminine (grammatical) gender.
 (Ello) es: "It is"; used to refer to neuter nouns such as facts, ideas, situations, and sets of things; rarely used as an explicit subject.

Plural forms
 (Ellos) son:  "They are"; used for a group of people or things that includes at least one person or thing of masculine (grammatical) gender.
 (Ellas) son: "They are"; used for a group of people or things that are all of feminine (grammatical) gender.

Mood
Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. In Spanish, every verb has forms in three moods. In older classifications there was a fourth mood, the conditional, that included the two conditional tenses (simple and compound), but nowadays those tenses are included in the indicative mood.

 Indicative mood: The indicative mood, or evidential mood, is used for factual statements and positive beliefs. The Spanish conditional, although semantically expressing the dependency of one action or proposition on another, is generally considered indicative in mood, because, syntactically, it can appear in an independent clause.
 Subjunctive mood: The subjunctive mood expresses an imagined, possible or desired action in the past, present, or future.
 Imperative mood: The imperative mood expresses direct commands, requests, and prohibitions. In Spanish, using the imperative mood may sound blunt or even rude in some social settings, so it should be used with care.

Tense
The tense of a verb indicates the time when the action occurs. It may be in the past, present, or future.

Impersonal or non-finite forms of the verb
Non-finite verb forms refer to an action or state without indicating the time or person, and it is not conjugated for subject. Spanish has three non-finite forms: the infinitive, the gerund, and the past participle.

Infinitive
The infinitive is generally the form found in dictionaries. It corresponds to the English "base-form" or "dictionary form" and is usually indicated in English by "to _" ("to sing," "to write," etc.). The ending of the infinitive is the basis of the names given in English to the three classes of Spanish verbs:

 "-ar" verbs (primera conjugación ["first conjugation"])
 Examples: hablar ("to speak"); cantar ("to sing"); bailar ("to dance")

 "-er" verbs (segunda conjugación ["second conjugation"])
 Examples: beber ("to drink"); leer ("to read"); comprender ("to understand")

 "-ir" verbs (tercera conjugación ["third conjugation"])
 Examples: vivir ("to live"); sentir ("to feel"); escribir ("to write")

Gerund
Although in English grammar the gerund refers to the -ing form of the verb used as a noun, in Spanish the term refers to a verb form that behaves more like an adverb. It is created by adding the following endings to the stem of the verb (i.e. the infinitive without the last two letters):

 -ar verbs: -ando
 Examples: hablando ("speaking"); cantando ("singing"); bailando ("dancing")

 -er verbs: -iendo
 Examples: bebiendo ("drinking"); leyendo (with spelling change; "reading"); comprendiendo ("understanding")

 -ir verbs: -iendo
 Examples: viviendo ("living"); sintiendo (with stem-vowel change; "feeling"); escribiendo ("writing")
Certain verbs have irregular gerund forms:
 Most -ir verbs undergo a predictable stem-vowel change: sentir → sintiendo, medir → midiendo, repetir → repitiendo, dormir → durmiendo, morir → muriendo. One -er verb also belongs to this group: poder → pudiendo.
 In verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, the spelling of the -iendo ending is changed to -yendo:  oír → oyendo, caer → cayendo, leer → leyendo, traer → trayendo, construir → construyendo, huir → huyendo. The "stemless" verb ir belongs to this group, with yendo.
 For -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in  or , the -iendo ending is reduced to -endo: tañer → tañendo, bullir → bullendo.

The gerund has a variety of uses and can mean (with haciendo, for example) "doing/while doing/by doing/because of one's doing/through doing" and so on. It is also used to form progressive constructions, such as estoy haciendo ("I am doing"). The gerund cannot be used as an adjective and generally has no corresponding adjectival forms. The now-mostly archaic present participle, which ended in -ante or -iente and formerly filled this function, in some cases survives as such an adjective (e.g. durmiente ("sleeping"), interesante ("interesting")), but they are limited, and in cases where it does not, other constructions must be used to express the same ideas: where in English one would say "the crying baby", one would say in Spanish el bebé que llora ("the baby who's crying"; llorante is archaic).

Past participle

The past participle corresponds to the English -en or -ed form of the verb. It is created by adding the following endings to the verb stem:

 -ar verbs: -ado
 Examples: hablado ("spoken"); cantado ("sung"); bailado ("danced")

 -er verbs: -ido
 Examples: bebido ("drunk"); leído (requires accent mark; "read"); comprendido ("understood")

 -ir verbs,: -ido
 Examples: vivido ("lived"); sentido ("felt"); hervido ("boiled")

The past participle, ending invariably in -o, is used following the auxiliary verb haber to form the compound or perfect: (Yo) he hablado ("I have spoken"); (Ellos) habían hablado ("They had spoken"); etc.

When the past participle is used as an adjective, it inflects for both gender and number – for example, una lengua hablada en España ("a language spoken in Spain").

Voice
In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target, or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.

Verbal aspect
Verbal aspect marks whether an action is completed (perfect), a completed whole (perfective), or not yet completed (imperfective).

 Perfect: In Spanish, verbs that are conjugated with haber ("to have [done something]") are in the perfect aspect.
 Perfective: In Spanish, verbs in the preterite are in the perfective aspect.
 Imperfective: In Spanish, the present, imperfect, and future tenses are in the imperfective aspect.

Conjugation

In this page, verb conjugation is illustrated with the verb hablar ("to talk," "to speak").

The indicative

The indicative mood has five simple tenses, each of which has a corresponding perfect form. In older classifications, the conditional tenses were considered part of an independent conditional mood, but now are grouped with the indicative. Continuous forms (such as estoy hablando) are usually not considered part of the verbal paradigm, though they often appear in books addressed to English speakers who are learning Spanish. Modern grammatical studies count only the simple forms as tenses, and the other forms as products of tenses and aspects.

Simple tenses (tiempos simples)
The simple tenses are the forms of the verb without the use of a modal or helping verb. The following are the simple tenses and their uses:

Present (presente)
The present tense is formed with the endings shown below:

Uses

The present is used to indicate the following:

 Punctual present: This expresses an action that is being done at the very moment.

María habla con Juan por teléfono = "María is speaking with Juan on the telephone"

 Continuous present or durative present: This expresses an action that is being done from the moment of speaking, extending into the past and future.

Yo vivo en Madrid = "I live in Madrid"
El museo exhibe las obras de Miró = "The museum is exhibiting works by Miró"

 Habitual present: This expresses an action that is regularly and habitually being done.

María va al campo todos los sábados = "María goes to the countryside every Saturday"

 Gnomic present: This expresses general truths that are not bounded by time.

Dos más dos son cuatro = "Two plus two equals four"
Los planetas giran alrededor del sol = "The planets revolve around the sun"

 Historical present: This expresses an action that happened in the past but is accepted as historical fact.

Fernando Magallanes descubre las Filipinas el 15 de marzo de 1521 = "Ferdinand Magellan discovers the Philippines on March 15th, 1521"

 An immediate future (near future): This expresses an action that will be done in the very near future with a high degree of certainty.

Este junio, viajo a España  = "This June, I am travelling to Spain"

 Imperative value: In some areas of Spain and Hispanic America, the present can be used (with an exclamatory tone) with an imperative value.

¡Ahora te vas y pides disculpas al señor Ruiz! = "Now go and apologize to Mr. Ruiz!"

Imperfect (pretérito imperfecto)
The imperfect is formed with the endings shown below. There are three irregular verbs in the imperfect tense: ser, ir and ver:

Uses

The imperfect is used to express the following:

 Habitual action in the past: This use expresses an action done habitually in an indefinite past. It does not focus on when the action ended.

Cuando era pequeño, hablaba español con mi abuela = "When I was young, I spoke Spanish with my grandmother"

 An action interrupted by another action: This expresses an action that was in progress when another action took place.

Tomábamos la cena cuando entró Eduardo  = "We were having dinner when Eduardo came in"

General description of the past: This expresses a past setting, as, for example, the background for a narrative.

Todo estaba tranquilo esa noche. Juan Eduardo miraba el partido de fútbol con su amigo Alejandro. Comían unas porciones de pizza. = "Everything was calm that night. Juan Eduardo was watching the football match with his friend Alejandro. They were eating some slices of pizza."

Preterite (pretérito indefinido)
The preterite is formed with the endings shown below:

Uses

The preterite is used to express the following:

 An action that was done in the past: This use expresses an action that is viewed as a completed event. It is often accompanied by adverbial expressions of time, such as ayer, anteayer, or la semana pasada.

Ayer, encontré la flor que tú me diste = "Yesterday, I found the flower that you gave me"

 An action that interrupts another action: This expresses an event that happened (and was completed) while another action was taking place.

Tomábamos la cena cuando entró Eduardo = "We were having dinner when Eduardo came in"

A general truth: This expresses a past relationship that is viewed as finished.

Las Filipinas fueron parte del Imperio Español = "The Philippines were part of the Spanish Empire"

Future (futuro simple or futuro imperfecto)
The future tense uses the entire infinitive as a stem. The following endings are attached to it:

Uses

The future is used to express the following:

 A future action: This expresses an action that will be done in the future.

El año próximo, visitaré Buenos Aires = "Next year, I shall/will visit Buenos Aires"

 Uncertainty or probability: This expresses inference, rather than direct knowledge.

¿Quién estará tocando a la puerta? — Será Fabio. = "Who (do you suppose) is knocking at the door? — It must be Fabio". (An analogous use of the future tense occurs in English, as in "That'll be Fabio".)

 Command, prohibition, or obligation:

No llevarás a ese hombre a mi casa = "Do not bring that man to my house" or, more accurately, "You will not bring that man to my house"; this form is also used to assert a command, prohibition, or obligation in English. The biblical Ten Commandments are commonly expressed in the future tense in Spanish (e.g. No matarás).

 Courtesy:

¿Te importará encender la televisión? = "Would you mind turning on the television?"

Another common way to represent future time is with a present indicative conjugation of ir, followed by a, followed by an infinitive verb: Voy a viajar a Bolivia en el verano ("I'm going to travel to Bolivia in the summer"). The difference between the use of the two forms varies according to dialect, but the "ir a + [infinitive]" construction tends to be more colloquial. Also, this construction—unlike the simple future form—is not used in the "probability" sense to express conjecture.

Simple conditional (condicional simple or pospretérito)
As with the future, the conditional uses the entire infinitive as the stem.  The following endings are attached to it:

Uses

The conditional is used to express the following:

 Courtesy: Using this mood softens a request, making it more polite.

Señor, ¿podría darme una copa de vino? = "Sir, could you give me a glass of wine?"

 Polite expression of a desire (using querer):

Querría ver la película esta semana = "I would like to see the film this week"

 In a then clause whose realization depends on a hypothetical if clause:

Si yo fuera rico, viajaría a Sudamérica = "If I were rich, I would travel to South America"

 Speculation about past events (the speaker's knowledge is indirect, unconfirmed, or approximating):

¿Cuántas personas asistieron a la inauguración del Presidente? — No lo sé; habría unas 5.000 = "How many people attended the President's inauguration? — I do not know; there must have been about 5,000")

 A future action in relation to the past: This expresses future action that was imagined in the past.

Cuando era pequeño, pensaba que me gustaría ser médico = "When I was young, I thought that I would like to be a doctor"

 A suggestion:

Yo que tú, lo olvidaría completamente = "If I were you, I would forget him completely"

Compound tenses (tiempos compuestos)
All the compound tenses are formed with haber followed by the past participle of the main verb. Haber changes its form for person, number, and the like, while the past participle remains invariable, ending with -o regardless of the number or gender of the subject.

Present perfect (pretérito perfecto)
In the present perfect, the present indicative of haber is used as an auxiliary, and it is followed by the past participle of the main verb. In most of Spanish America, this tense has virtually the same use as the English present perfect:
Te he dicho mi opinión = "I have told you my opinion"

In most of Spain the tense has an additional use—to express a past action or event that is contained in a still-ongoing period of time or that has effects in the present:
Este mes ha llovido mucho, pero hoy hace buen día = "It has rained a lot this month, but today is a fine day"

Occasionally tener and llevar are used with the past participle of a transitive verb for an effect that is similar to the present perfect. In these cases the participle usually agrees in gender and number with the direct object:
Ya tengo compradas las entradas para nosotros. = "I have already bought the tickets for us" (Speaking of the effects in the present)
Llevo grabados tres discos = "I have recorded three records"

Past perfect or pluperfect (pretérito pluscuamperfecto)
In this tense, the imperfect form of haber is used as a modal, and it is followed by the past participle of the main verb:

 (yo) había + past participle
 (tú) habías + past participle
 (él/ella/ello/usted) había + past participle
 (nosotros/nosotras) habíamos + past participle
 (vosotros/vosotras) habíais + past participle
 (ellos/ellas/ustedes) habían + past participle

Uses

The past perfect is used to express the following:

 A past action that occurred prior to another past action:

Yo había esperado tres horas cuando él llegó = "I had waited for three hours when he arrived"

Past anterior (pretérito anterior)
The past anterior combines the preterite form of haber with the past participle of the main verb. It is very rare in spoken Spanish, but it is sometimes used in formal written language, where it is almost entirely limited to subordinate (temporal, adverbial) clauses. Thus, it is usually introduced by temporal conjunctions such as cuando, apenas, or en cuanto. It is used to express an action that ended immediately before another past action:

 (yo) hube + past participle
 (tú) hubiste + past participle
 (él/ella/ello/usted) hubo + past participle
 (nosotros/nosotras) hubimos + past participle
 (vosotros/vosotras) hubisteis + past participle
 (ellos/ellas/ustedes) hubieron + past participle

For example:
Cuando hubieron llegado todos, empezó la ceremonia = "When everyone had arrived, the ceremony began"
Apenas María hubo terminado la canción, su padre entró = "As soon as Maria had finished the song, her father came in"

It is often replaced by either the preterite or the pluperfect, with the same meaning:

Apenas María terminó la canción, su padre entró
Apenas María había terminado la canción, su padre entró

Future perfect (futuro compuesto)
The future perfect is formed with the future indicative of haber followed by the past participle of the main verb:

 (yo) habré + past participle
 (tú) habrás + past participle
 (él/ella/ello/usted) habrá + past participle
 (nosotros/nosotras) habremos + past participle
 (vosotros/vosotras) habréis + past participle
 (ellos/ellas/ustedes) habrán + past participle

For example:
Habré hablado = "I shall/will have spoken"

It is used to indicate a future action that will be finished right before another action:

Cuando yo llegue a la fiesta, ya se habrán marchado todos = "When I get to the party, everyone will already have left"

Conditional perfect or compound conditional (condicional compuesto or antepospretérito)
The conditional perfect refers to a hypothetical past action.

For example:

Yo habría hablado si me hubieran/hubiesen dado la oportunidad = "I would have spoken if they had given me the opportunity to"

The imperative
The imperative mood has three specific forms, corresponding to the pronouns tú, vos, and vosotros (tú and vos are used in different regional dialects; vosotros only in Spain). These forms are used only in positive expressions, not negative ones. The subjunctive supplements the imperative in all other cases (negative expressions and the conjugations corresponding to the pronouns nosotros, él/ella, usted, ellos/ellas, and ustedes).

The imperative can also be expressed in three other ways:
 Using the present or future indicative to form an emphatic command: Comerás la verdura ("You will eat the vegetables")
 The first person plural imperative ("Let's...") can also be expressed by Vamos a + infinitive: ¡Vamos a comer!
 Indirect commands with que: Que lo llame el secretario ("Have the secretary call him")

Affirmative imperative (imperativo positivo)
The positive form of the imperative mood in regular verbs is formed by adding the following to the stem:

The singular imperative tú coincides with the third-person singular of the indicative for all but a few irregular verbs.  The plural vosotros is always the same as the infinitive, but with a final -d instead of an -r in the formal, written form; the informal spoken form is the same as the infinitive. The singular vos drops the -r of the infinitive, requiring a written accent to indicate the stress.

Negative imperative (imperativo negativo)
For the negative imperative, the adverb no is placed before the verb, and the following endings are attached to the stem:

Note that in the imperative, the affirmative second-person forms differ from their negative counterparts; this is the only case of a difference in conjugation between affirmative and negative in Spanish.

Emphasizing the subject
If one wishes to place emphasis on the subject of a command, it is placed after the verbal word:
 Hazlo tú = "You do it"
 No lo diga usted = "Don't you [polite] say it"

Examples

Positive command forms of the verb comer

Negative command forms of the verb comer

The pronominal verb comerse

Note that the pronouns precede the verb in the negative commands as the mode is subjunctive, not imperative: no te comas/comás; no se coma/coman; no nos comamos; no os comáis.

The verb ir

The pronominal verb irse is irregular in the second person plural normative form, because it does not drop the -d or the -r:
 ¡idos! (vosotros): "Go away!" (plural for informal address, prescribed by the Real Academia Española but extremely uncommon)
 ¡iros! (vosotros): "Go away!" (common in Spain, recently admitted by the Real Academia Española)

The subjunctive

The subjunctive mood has a separate conjugation table with fewer tenses. It is used, almost exclusively in subordinate clauses, to express the speaker's opinion or judgment, such as doubts, possibilities, emotions, and events that may or may not occur.

Simple tenses (tiempos simples)

Present subjunctive (presente de subjuntivo)
The present subjunctive of regular verbs is formed with the endings shown below:

Imperfect subjunctive (imperfecto de subjuntivo)

The imperfect subjunctive can be formed with either of two sets of endings:  the "-ra endings" or the "-se endings", as shown below.  In Spanish America, the -ra forms are virtually the only forms used, to the exclusion of the -se forms.  In Spain, both sets of forms are used, but the -ra forms are predominant as well.

Imperfect subjunctive, -ra forms

Imperfect subjunctive, -se forms

Future subjunctive (futuro (simple) de subjuntivo)
The future subjunctive is no longer used in modern language, except in legal language and some fixed expressions.  The following endings are attached to the preterite stem:

For example:
Cuando hablaren... = "Whenever they might speak..."

Compound tenses (tiempos compuestos)
In the subjunctive mood, the subjunctive forms of the verb haber are used with the past participle of the main verb.

Present perfect subjunctive (pretérito perfecto de subjuntivo)
Cuando yo haya hablado... = "When I have spoken..."

Pluperfect subjunctive (pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo)
Si yo hubiera hablado... or Si yo hubiese hablado... = "If I had spoken..."

Future perfect subjunctive (futuro compuesto de subjuntivo)
Like the simple future subjunctive, this tense is no longer used in modern Spanish.
Cuando yo hubiere hablado... = "When I shall have spoken..."

Continuous tenses
In Spanish grammar, continuous tenses are not formally recognized as in English. Although the imperfect expresses a continuity compared to the perfect (e.g., te esperaba ["I was waiting for you"]), the continuity of an action is usually expressed by a verbal periphrasis (perífrasis verbal), as in estoy leyendo ("I am reading"). However, one can also say sigo leyendo ("I am still reading"), voy leyendo ("I am slowly but surely reading"), ando leyendo ("I am going around reading"), and others.

The passive

"True" passive
The "true" passive is formed with ser + the past participle, which in this case behaves like a normal adjective. Thus:
 Yo soy amado = "I [masc.] am loved"
 Tú eras amada = "You [fem.] were being loved"
 Nosotros seremos amados = "We [masc.] will be loved"
 Ellas habrían sido amadas = "They [fem.] would have been loved"

The "true" passive is used in a variety of situations, but its use is somewhat more limited than that of its English counterpart.

Se passive
In the third person, reflexive constructions are often used to express ideas that could also be expressed in the passive. In such constructions, the recipient of the action is said to do the action to itself. Thus:
 Se habla español = "Spanish is spoken" (lit. "Spanish speaks itself")
 Se me dio el libro = "The book was given to me" (lit. "The book gave itself to me")
 Se perdieron los datos = "The data were lost" (lit. "The data lost themselves")
 Se puede hacer [ello] = "It can be done" (lit. "It can do itself")

The se passive is very common in the third person, but equivalent constructions cannot be used for the first and second persons: Yo me amo always translates to "I love myself" and never "I am loved".

Irregular verbs

A considerable number of verbs change the vowel e in the stem to the diphthong ie, and the vowel o to ue. This happens when the stem vowel receives the stress. These verbs are referred to as stem-changing verbs. Examples include pensar ("to think"; e.g., pienso ["I think"]), sentarse ("to sit"; e.g., me siento ["I sit"]), empezar ("to begin"; e.g., empiezo ["I begin"]), volver ("to return"; e.g., vuelvo ["I return"]), and acostarse ("to go to bed"; e.g., me acuesto ["I go to bed"]).

Virtually all verbs of the third conjugation (-ir), if they have an -e- or -o- as the last vowel of their stem, undergo a vowel-raising change whereby e changes to i and o changes to u, in some of their forms (for details, see Spanish irregular verbs). Examples include pedir ("to ask for"; e.g., pide ["he/she asks for"]), competir ("to compete"; e.g., compite ["he/she competes"]), and derretirse ("to melt"; e.g., se derrite ["it melts"]).

The so-called I-go verbs add a medial -g- in the first-person singular present tense (making the Yo ["I"] form end in -go; e.g., tener ["to have"] becomes tengo ["I have"]; venir ["to come"] becomes vengo ["I come"]). The -g- is present in the present subjunctive of such verbs.  These verbs are often irregular in other forms as well.

Usage

Contrasting simple and continuous forms

There is no strict distinction between simple and continuous forms in Spanish as there is in English. In English, "I do" is one thing (a habit) and "I am doing" is another (current activity). In Spanish, hago can be either of the two, and estoy haciendo stresses the latter. Although not as strict as English, Spanish is stricter than French or German, which have no systematic distinction between the two concepts at all. This optionally continuous meaning that can be underlined by using the continuous form is a feature of the present and imperfect. The preterite never has this meaning, even in the continuous form, and the future has it only when it is in the continuous form.

Present
¿Qué haces? could be either "What do you do?" or "What are you doing?"
¿Qué estás haciendo? is only "What are you doing?"

Imperfect
¿Qué hacías? could be either "What did you use to do?" or "What were you doing?"
¿Qué estabas haciendo? is only "What were you doing?"

Preterite
¿Qué hiciste? is "What did you do?"
¿Qué estuviste haciendo? is "What were you doing (all of that time)?"

Note that since the preterite by nature refers to an event seen as having a beginning and an end, and not as a context, the use of the continuous form of the verb only adds a feeling for the length of time spent on the action. The future has two main forms in Spanish, the imperfect (compound) future and the simple one. The difference between them is one of aspect. The compound future is done with the conjugated ir (which means "to go," but may also mean "will" in this case) plus the infinitive and, sometimes, with a present progressive verb added as well.

Future
 ¿Qué vas a hacer? is "What are you going to do?" (implies that it will be done again, as in a routine)
 ¿Qué vas a estar haciendo? is "What are you going to be doing?" (does not necessarily imply that it will be done)
¿Qué harás? is "What will you do?" (will be completed immediately, or done just once)
¿Qué estarás haciendo? is "What will you be doing?"

Contrasting the present and the future

Both the present and the future can express future actions, the latter more explicitly so. There are also expressions that convey the future.
Mi padre llega mañana = "My father arrives tomorrow"
Mi padre estará llegando mañana = "My father will be arriving tomorrow"
Mi padre va a llegar mañana = "My father is going to arrive tomorrow" (future with ir)
Mi padre llegará mañana = "My father will arrive tomorrow" (future tense)
Mi padre está a punto de llegar = "My father is about to arrive" (immediate future with estar a punto)

The future tense can also simply express guesses about the present and immediate future:
¿Qué hora es? Serán las tres = "What time is it?" "It is about three (but I have not checked)"
¿Quién llama a la puerta?  Será José = "Who is at the door?  It must be José"

The same is applied to imperfect and conditional:
¿Qué hora era? Serían las tres = "What time was it?" "It was about three (but I had not checked)"
¿Quién llamaba a la puerta? Sería José = "Who was at the door? It must have been José"

Studies have shown that Spanish-speaking children learn this use of the future tense before they learn to use it to express future events  (the English future with "will" can also sometimes be used with this meaning). The other constructions detailed above are used instead. Indeed, in some areas, such as Argentina and Uruguay, speakers hardly use the future tense to refer to the future.

The future tense of the subjunctive mood is also obsolete in practice. As of today, it is only found in legal documents and the like. In other contexts, the present subjunctive form always replaces it.

Contrasting the preterite and the imperfect

Fundamental meanings of the preterite and the imperfect
Spanish has two fundamental past tenses, the preterite and the imperfect. Strictly speaking, the difference between them is one not of tense but of aspect, in a manner that is similar to that of the Slavic languages. However, within Spanish grammar, they are customarily called tenses.

The difference between the preterite and the imperfect (and in certain cases, the perfect) is often hard to grasp for English speakers. English has just one past-tense form, which can have aspect added to it by auxiliary verbs, but not in ways that reliably correspond to what occurs in Spanish. The distinction between them does, however, correspond rather well to the distinctions in other Romance languages, such as between the French imparfait and passé simple / passé composé or between the Italian imperfetto and passato remoto / passato prossimo.

The imperfect fundamentally presents an action or state as being a context and is thus essentially descriptive. It does not present actions or states as having ends and often does not present their beginnings either. Like the Slavic imperfective past, it tends to show actions that used to be done at some point, as in a routine. In this case, one would say Yo jugaba ("I used to play"), Yo leía ("I used to read"), or Yo escribía ("I used to write").

The preterite (as well as the perfect, when applicable) fundamentally presents an action or state as being an event, and is thus essentially narrative. It presents actions or states as having beginnings and ends. This also bears resemblance to the Slavic perfective past, as these actions are usually viewed as done in one stroke. The corresponding preterite forms would be Yo jugué ("I played"), Yo leí ("I read") or Yo escribí ("I wrote").

As stated above, deciding whether to use the preterite or the imperfect can present some difficulty for English speakers. But there are certain topics, words, and key phrases that can help one decide if the verb should be conjugated in the preterite or the imperfect. These expressions co-occur significantly more often with one or the other of the two tenses, corresponding to a completed action (preterite) or a repetitive action or a continuous action or state (imperfect) in the past.

Key words and phrases that tend to co-occur with the preterite tense:

 ayer ("yesterday")
 anteayer ("the day before yesterday")
 anoche ("last night")
 durante dos siglos ("for two centuries")
 por un rato ("for a while")
 el otro día ("the other day")

 entonces ("then")
 luego ("then"; "and then")
 esta mañana ("this morning")
 esta tarde ("this afternoon")
 la semana pasada ("last week")

 el mes pasado ("last month")
 el año pasado ("last year")
 hace dos días/años ("two days/years ago")
 de repente ("suddenly")
 en 1954, etc. (years)

 el 25 de enero, etc. (dates)
 durante ("during")
 muchas veces ("many times")
 dos/tres veces ("twice"/"three times")
 tantas veces ("so many times")

 varias veces ("several times")
 nunca ("never")
 tan pronto como ("as soon as")
 después de que ("after")
 desde que ("since")

E.g.: Esta mañana comí huevos y pan tostado ("This morning I ate eggs and toast")

Key words and phrases that tend to co-occur with the imperfect tense:

 a menudo ("often")
 a veces ("sometimes")
 cada día ("every day")
 cada semana ("every week")
 cada mes ("every month")
 cada año ("every year")
 con frecuencia ("frequently")
 de vez en cuando ("from time to time")

 en aquella época ("at that time")
 frecuentemente ("frequently")
 generalmente ("usually")
 todas las semanas ("every week")
 todos los días ("every day")
 todo el tiempo ("all the time")
 constantemente ("constantly")

 mientras ("while")
 regularmente ("regularly")
 por lo general ("generally")
 todavía ("still")
 ya ("already")
 Eran las tres, etc. ("It was three o'clock," etc.)
 Estaba nublado, etc. ("It was cloudy," etc.)

E.g.: Cada año mi familia iba a Puerto Rico. ("Each year my family went to Puerto Rico.")

Comparison with English usage
The English simple past can express either of these concepts.  However, there are devices that allow us to be more specific.  Consider, for example, the phrase "the sun shone" in the following contexts:
"The sun shone through his window; John knew that it was going to be a fine day."
"The sun was shining through his window; John knew that it was going to be a fine day."
"The sun shone through his window back in those days."
"The sun used to shine through his window back in those days."
"The sun shone through his window the moment that John pulled back the curtain."

In the first two, it is clear that the shining refers to the background to the events that are about to unfold in the story. It is talking about what was happening.  One has a choice between making this explicit with the past continuous, as in (2), or using the simple past and allowing the context to make it clear what is intended, as in (1). In Spanish, these would be in the imperfect, optionally in the imperfect continuous.

In (3) and (4), it is clear that the shining refers to a regular, general, habitual event. It is talking about what used to happen. One has a choice between making this explicit with the expression "used to," as in (4), or using the simple past and allowing the context to make it clear what we mean, as in (3). In Spanish, these would be in the imperfect, optionally with the auxiliary verb soler.

In (5), only the simple past is possible. It is talking about a single event presented as occurring at a specific point in time (the moment John pulled back the curtain). The action starts and ends with this sentence. In Spanish, this would be in the preterite (or alternatively in the perfect, if the event has only just happened).

Further examples
Cuando tenía quince años, me atropelló un coche = "When I was fifteen years old, a car ran over me"
The imperfect is used for "was" in Spanish because it forms the background to the specific event expressed by "ran over", which is in the preterite.
Mientras cruzaba/estaba cruzando la calle, me atropelló un coche = "While I crossed/was crossing the road, a car ran over me"
In both languages, the continuous form for action in progress is optional, but Spanish requires the verb in either case to be in the imperfect, because it is the background to the specific event expressed by "ran over", in the preterite.
Siempre tenía cuidado cuando cruzaba la calle = "I was always/always used to be careful when I crossed/used to cross the road"
The imperfect is used for both verbs since they refer to habits in the past. Either verb could optionally use the expression "used to" in English.
Me bañaba = "I took baths"
The preterite is used if this refers to a single action or event—that is, the person took a bath last night.
Me bañé = "I took a bath"
The imperfect is used if this refers to any sort of habitual action—that is, the person took a bath every morning. Optionally, solía bañarme can specifically express "I used to take baths".
Tuvo una hija = "She had a daughter"
The preterite is used if this refers to an event—here, a birth.
Tenía una hija = "She had a/one daughter"
The imperfect is used if this refers to the number of children by a certain point, as in "She had one daughter when I met her ten years ago; she may have more now". A description.

Note that when describing the life of someone who is now dead, the distinction between the two tenses blurs.  One might describe the person's life saying tenía una hija, but tuvo una hija is very common because the person's whole life is viewed as a whole, with a beginning and an end.  The same goes for vivía/vivió en... "he lived in...".

Perhaps the verb that English speakers find most difficult to translate properly is "to be" in the past tense ("was"). Apart from the choice between the verbs ser and estar (see below), it is often very hard for English speakers to distinguish between contextual and narrative uses.
Alguien cogió mis CD.  ¿Quién fue? = "Someone took my CDs.  Who was it?"
Here the preterite is used because it is an event.  A good clue is the tense in which cogió is.
Había una persona que miraba los CD.  ¿Quién era? = "There was a person who was looking at the CDs.  Who was it?"
Here the imperfect is used because it is a description (the start and end of the action is not presented; it is something that was in progress at a certain time). Again, a good clue is the tense of the other verbs.

Contrasting the preterite and the perfect
The preterite and the perfect are distinguished in a similar way as the equivalent English tenses. Generally, whenever the present perfect ("I have done") is used in English, the perfect is also used in Spanish.  In addition, there are cases in which English uses a simple past ("I did") but Spanish requires a perfect.  In the remaining cases, both languages use a simple past.

As in English, the perfect expresses past actions that have some link to the present.  The preterite expresses past actions as being past, complete and done with.  In both languages, there are dialectal variations.

Frame of reference includes the present: perfect
If it is implicitly or explicitly communicated that the frame of reference for the event includes the present and the event or events may therefore continue occurring, then both languages strongly prefer the perfect.
With references including "this" including the present
Este año me he ido de vacaciones dos veces = "This year I have gone on vacation twice"
Esta semana ha sido muy interesante = "This week has been very interesting"
With other references to recent periods including the present
No he hecho mucho hoy = "I have not done much today"
No ha pasado nada hasta la fecha = "Nothing has happened to date"
Hasta ahora no se me ha ocurrido = "Until now it has not occurred to me"
With reference to someone's life experience (his/her life not being over)
¿Alguna vez has estado en África? = "Have you ever been in Africa?"
Mi vida no ha sido muy interesante = "My life has not been very interesting"
Jamás he robado nada = "Never have I stolen anything"

Frame of reference superficially includes the present: perfect
Sometimes expressions like "today", "this year", and "this week" are used to express the idea these periods are over. This requires the simple past in English. For example, in December one might speak of the year in the simple past because we are assuming that all of that year's important events have occurred and one can talk as though it were over. Other expressions—such as "this weekend", if today is Monday—refer to a period which is definitely over; the word "this" just distinguishes it from other weekends.  There is a tendency in Spanish to use the perfect even for this type of time reference, even though the preterite is possible and seems more logical.
Este fin de semana hemos ido al zoo = "This weekend we went to the zoo"
Hoy he tenido una jornada muy aburrida = "Today I had a very boring day at work"

Consequences continue into the present: perfect
As in English, the perfect is used when the consequences of an event are referred to.
Alguien ha roto esta ventana = "Someone has broken this window" (the window is currently in a broken state)
Nadie me ha dicho qué pasó aquel día = "Nobody has told me what happened that day" (therefore, I still do not know)
These same sentences in the preterite would purely refer to the past actions, without any implication that they have repercussions now.

In English, this type of perfect is not possible if a precise time frame is added or even implied. One cannot say "I have been born in 1978," because the date requires "I was born," despite the fact there is arguably a present consequence in the fact that the person is still alive. Spanish sporadically uses the perfect in these cases.
He nacido en 1978 (usually Nací en 1978) = "I was born in 1978"
Me he criado en Madrid (usually Me crié en Madrid) = "I grew up in Madrid"

The event itself continues into the present: perfect or present
If the event itself has been happening recently and is also happening right now or expected to continue happening soon, then the preterite is impossible in both languages. English requires the perfect, or better yet the perfect continuous. Spanish requires the perfect, or better yet the present simple:
Últimamente ha llovido mucho / Últimamente llueve mucho = "It has rained / It has been raining a lot recently"
This is the only use of the perfect that is common in colloquial speech across Latin America.

Dialectal variation
In the Canary Islands and across Latin America, there is a colloquial tendency to replace most uses of the perfect with the preterite. This use varies according to region, register, and education.
 ¿Y vos alguna vez estuviste allá? = ¿Y tú alguna vez has estado allí? = "And have you ever been there?"

The one use of the perfect that does seem to be normal in Latin America is the perfect for actions that continue into the present (not just the time frame, but the action itself). Therefore, "I have read a lot in my life" and "I read a lot this morning" would both be expressed with leí instead of he leído, but "I have been reading" is expressed by he leído.

A less standard use of the perfect is found in Ecuador and Colombia. It is used with present or occasionally even future meaning. For example, Shakira Mebarak in her song "Ciega, Sordomuda" sings,
Bruta, ciega, sordomuda, / torpe, traste, testaruda; / es todo lo que he sido = "Clumsy, blind, dumb, / blundering, useless, pig-headed; / that is all that I had been"

Contrasting the subjunctive and the imperative

The subjunctive mood expresses wishes and hypothetical events. It is often employed together with a conditional verb:

Desearía que estuvieses aquí. = "I wish that you were here."
Me alegraría mucho si volvieras mañana. = "I would be very glad if you came back tomorrow."

The imperative mood shows commands given to the hearer (the second person). There is no imperative form in the third person, so the subjunctive is used. The expression takes the form of a command or wish directed at the hearer, but referring to the third person. The difference between a command and a wish is subtle, mostly conveyed by the absence of a wishing verb:

Que venga el gerente. = "Let the manager come.", "Have the manager come."
Que se cierren las puertas. = "Let the doors be closed.", "Have the doors closed."

With a verb that expresses wishing, the above sentences become plain subjunctive instead of direct commands:

Deseo que venga el gerente. = "I wish for the manager to come."
Quiero que se cierren las puertas. = "I want the doors (to be) closed."

Contrasting the present and the future subjunctive

The future tense of the subjunctive is found mostly in old literature or legal language and is even misused in conversation by confusing it with the past tense (often due to the similarity of its characteristic suffix, -ere, as opposed to the suffixes of the past tense, -era and -ese). It is very rare otherwise.

It survives in the common expression sea lo que fuere and the proverb allá donde fueres, haz lo que vieres (allá donde can be replaced by a la tierra donde or si a Roma).

The proverb illustrates how it used to be used:
With si referring to the future, as in si a Roma fueres....  This is now expressed with the present indicative: si vas a Roma... or si fueras a Roma...
With cuando, donde, and the like, referring to the future, as in allá donde fueres....  This is now expressed with the present subjunctive: vayas adonde vayas...

Contrasting the preterite and the past anterior

The past anterior is rare nowadays and restricted to formal use. It expresses a very fine nuance: the fact that an action occurs just after another (had) occurred, with words such as cuando, nada más, and en cuanto ("when", "no sooner", "as soon as").  In English, one must use either the simple past or the past perfect; Spanish has something specific between the two.
En cuanto el delincuente hubo salido del cuarto, la víctima se echó a llorar = "As soon as the criminal (had) left the room, the victim burst into tears"

The use of hubo salido shows that the second action happened immediately after the first. Salió might imply that it happened at the same time, and había salido might imply it happened some time after.

However, colloquial Spanish has lost this tense and the corresponding nuance, and the preterite must be used instead in all but the most formal of writing.

Contrasting ser and estar

The differences between ser and estar are considered one of the most difficult concepts for non-native speakers. Both ser and estar translate into English as "to be", but they have different uses, depending on whether they are used with nouns, with adjectives, with past participles (more precisely, passive participles), or to express location.

Only ser is used to equate one noun phrase with another, and thus it is the verb for expressing a person's occupation ("Mi hermano es estudiante"/"My brother is a student"). For the same reason, ser is used for telling the date or the time, regardless of whether the subject is explicit ("Hoy es miércoles"/"Today is Wednesday") or merely implied ("Son las ocho"/"It's eight o'clock").

When these verbs are used with adjectives, the difference between them may be generalized by saying that ser expresses nature and estar expresses state. Frequently—although not always—adjectives used with ser express a permanent quality, while their use with estar expresses a temporary situation. There are exceptions to the generalization; for example, the sentence "Tu mamá está loca" ("Your mother is crazy") can express either a temporary or a permanent state of craziness.

Ser generally focuses on the essence of the subject, and specifically on qualities that include:
 Nationality
 Possession
 Physical and personality traits
 Material
 Origin

Estar generally focuses on the condition of the subject, and specifically on qualities that include:
 Physical condition
 Feelings, emotions, and states of mind
 Appearance

In English, the sentence "The boy is boring" uses a different adjective than "The boy is bored". In Spanish, the difference is made by the choice of ser or estar.
El chico es aburrido uses ser to express a permanent trait ("The boy is boring").
El chico está aburrido uses estar to express a temporary state of mind ("The boy is bored").

The same strategy is used with many adjectives to express either an inherent trait (ser) or a transitory state or condition (estar). For example:
"María es guapa" uses ser to express an essential trait, meaning "María is a good-looking person."
"María está guapa" uses estar to express a momentary impression: "María looks beautiful" (a comment on her present appearance, without any implication about her inherent characteristics).

When ser is used with the past participle of a verb, it forms the "true" passive voice, expressing an event ("El libro fue escrito en 2005"/"The book was written in 2005"). When the past participle appears with estar, it forms a "passive of result" or "stative passive" ("El libro ya está escrito"/"The book is already written"—see Spanish conjugation).

Location of a person or thing is expressed with estar—regardless of whether temporary or permanent ("El hotel está en la esquina"/"The hotel is on the corner"). Location of an event is expressed with ser ("La reunión es en el hotel"/"The meeting is [takes place] in the hotel").

Contrasting haber and tener

The verbs haber and tener are easily distinguished, but they may pose a problem for learners of Spanish who speak other Romance languages (where the cognates of haber and tener are used differently), for English speakers (where "have" is used as a verb and as an auxiliary), and others. Haber derives from Latin habeō, with the basic meaning of "to have". Tener derives from Latin teneō, with the basic meaning of "to hold", "to keep". As habeō began to degrade and become reduced to just ambiguous monosyllables in the present tense, the Iberian Romance languages (Spanish, Gallician-Portuguese, and Catalan) restricted its use and started to use teneō as the ordinary verb expressing having and possession.

Haber: expressing existence
Haber can be used as an impersonal verb expressing existence ("there is/are"). When used impersonally, haber has a special present-tense form: hay instead of ha. The y is presumed to be a fossilized form of the mediaeval Castilian clitic pronoun y or i, once meaning "there", but now semantically empty, historically cognate with French y, Catalan hi and Italian vi from Latin ibi.

Unlike in English, in standard Spanish the thing that "is there" is not the subject of the sentence, and therefore there is no agreement between it and the verb (there is often agreement though in dialectal Spanish). This echoes constructions seen in languages such as French (il y a = "it there has"), Catalan (hi ha = "[it] there has"), and even Chinese (有 yǒu = "[it] has"):

Hay un gato en el jardín. = "There is a cat in the garden."
En el baúl hay fotografías viejas. = "In the trunk there are some old photos."

To form perfect constructions, the past participle habido is used:

 Ha habido mucha confusión de esto. = "There's been a lot of confusion about this."
 Ha habido pocos hasta ahora. = "There have been few so far."

It is possible, in certain types of emphasis, to put the verb after the object:

¿Revistas hay? = "Are there any magazines?"

There is a tendency to make haber agree with what follows, as though it were the subject, particularly in tenses other than the present indicative. There is heavier stigma on inventing plural forms for hay, but hain, han, and suchlike are sometimes encountered in non-standard speech. The form habemos is common (meaning "there are, including me"); it very rarely replaces hemos to form the present perfect tense in modern language, and in certain contexts it is even acceptable in formal or literary language:

Había un hombre en la casa. = "There was a man in the house."
Había unos hombres en la casa. = "There were some men in the house." (standard)
Habían unos hombres en la casa. = "There were some men in the house." (non-standard)
En esta casa habemos cinco personas. = "In this house there are five of us." (non-standard)
Habría habido muchos más si supiera. = "There would have been a lot more if I knew." (standard)
Nos las habemos con un gran jugador. = "We are confronting a great player." (standard)

As an existential verb, haber is never used other than in the third person. To express the existence of a first or second person, the verb estar ("to be [located/present]") or existir ("to exist") is used, and there is subject–verb agreement.

Haber: impersonal obligation
The phrase haber que (in the third person singular and followed by a subordinated construction with the verb in the infinitive) carries the meaning of necessity or obligation without specifying an agent. It is translatable as "it is necessary", but a paraphrase is generally preferable in translation. Note that the present-tense form is hay.

Hay que abrir esa puerta. = "That door needs opening", "We have to open that door".
Habrá que abrir esa puerta. = "That door will need opening", "We are going to have to open that door".
Aunque haya que abrir esa puerta. = "Even if that door needs to be opened".

This construction is comparable to French il faut and Catalan cal. Hay que always goes with the infinitive.

Haber: personal obligation
A separate construction is haber de + infinitive. It is not impersonal. It tends to express a certain nuance of obligation and a certain nuance of future tense, much like the expression "to be to". It is also often used similarly to tener que and deber ("must", "ought to"). Note that the third personal singular of the present tense is ha.

Mañana he de dar una charla ante la Universidad = "Tomorrow I am to give a speech before the University".
Ha de comer más verduras = "She/he ought to eat more vegetables".

Haber: forming the perfect
Haber is also used as an auxiliary to form the perfect, as shown elsewhere. Spanish uses only haber for this, unlike French and Italian, which use the corresponding cognates of haber for most verbs, but cognates of ser ("to be") for certain others.

Ella se ha ido al mercado = "She has gone to the market"
Ellas se han ido de paseo = "They have gone on a walk"
¿Habéis fregado los platos? = "Have you (all) done the washing-up?"

Tener
Tener is a verb with the basic meaning of "to have", in its essential sense of "to possess", "to hold", "to own".  As in English, it can also express obligation (tener que + infinitive). It also appears in a number of phrases that show emotion or physical states, expressed by nouns, which in English tend to be expressed by "to be" and an adjective.

Mi hijo tiene una casa nueva = "My son has a new house"
Tenemos que hablar = "We have to talk"
Tengo hambre = "I am hungry" (lit. "I have hunger")

There are numerous phrases like tener hambre that are not literally translated in English, such as:
tener hambre = "to be hungry"; "to have hunger"
tener sed = "to be thirsty"; "to have thirst"
tener cuidado = "to be careful"; "to have caution"
tener __ años = "to be __ years old"; "to have __ years"
tener celos = "to be jealous"; "to have jealousy"
tener éxito = "to be successful"; "to have success"
tener vergüenza = "to be ashamed"; "to have shame"

Note: Estar hambriento is a literal translation of "To be hungry", but it is rarely used in Spanish nowadays.

Negation

Verbs are negated by putting no before the verb.
Other negative words can either replace this no or occur after the verb:
Hablo español = "I speak Spanish"
No hablo español = "I do not speak Spanish"
Nunca hablo español = "I never speak Spanish"
No hablo nunca español = "I do not ever speak Spanish"

Expressing movement

Spanish verbs describing motion tend to emphasize direction instead of manner of motion. According to the pertinent classification, this makes Spanish a verb-framed language. This contrasts with English, where verbs tend to emphasize manner, and the direction of motion is left to helper particles, prepositions, or adverbs.

"We drove away" = Nos fuimos en coche (lit. "We went (away) by car")
"He swam to Ibiza" = Fue a Ibiza nadando (lit. "He went to Ibiza swimming")
"They ran off" = Huyeron corriendo (lit. "They fled running")
"She crawled in" = Entró a gatas (lit. "She entered on all fours")

Quite often, the important thing is the direction, not the manner. Therefore, although "we drove away" translates into Spanish as nos fuimos en coche, it is often better to translate it as just nos fuimos.  For example:

Verbal nouns
Spanish verbal nouns (e.g. "running", "coming", "thinking" in English) are identical in form to the infinitive of the verb from which they are derived, and their gender is masculine. They are generally used with the definite article, and enclitic pronouns attach to them as they would to a normal infinitive. Thus:

 el comer = "eating"
 el correr = "running"
 el no esperar = "not waiting"
 el darte un libro = "giving you a book"
 el guardárselos = "saving them for him/her/you/them"

See also
 Romance verbs

References

Verbs
Indo-European verbs

Spanish verbs


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NGC 7243


الخيلانيات  ثدييات بطيئة ومنطوية ظهرت أول مرة في العصر الآيوسيني المبكر وتعيش في المياه الاستوائية وشبه الاستوائية تمتلك أجساما ضخمة وسميكة ويتوفر منهم 5 أنواع حية وبعض أنواعها منقرضة مثل بقر البحر النجمي. تتغذى على الطحالب والأسماك الصدفية والميتة.

تنمو حيوانات الخيلانيات إلى ما بين 2.5 و 4 أمتار (8.2 و 13.1 قدمًا) في الطول و 1500 كيلوغرام (3300 رطل) في الوزن. كانت بقرة البحر التاريخية ستيلر أكبر سمكة صفراء عاشت على قيد الحياة، ويمكن أن تصل أطوالها إلى 10 أمتار (33 قدمًا) ووزنها من 5 إلى 10 أطنان (5.5 إلى 11.0 طنًا قصيرًا).

تمتلك الخيلانيات جسمًا مغزليًا كبيرًا لتقليل السحب عبر الماء. لديهم عظام ثقيلة تعمل كثقل موازنة لمقاومة طفو دهونهم. لديهم طبقة رقيقة من الجلد وبالتالي فهي حساسة لتقلبات درجات الحرارة، والتي تسبب الهجرات عندما تنخفض درجة حرارة الماء بشكل منخفض للغاية. إن صفارات الإنذار بطيئة الحركة، وعادة ما تتحرك بسرعة 8 كيلومترات في الساعة (5.0 ميل في الساعة)، لكنها يمكن أن تصل إلى 24 كيلومترًا في الساعة (15 ميلًا في الساعة) في دفعات قصيرة. يستخدمون شفاههم القوية لإزالة الأعشاب البحرية، ويستهلكون 10-15٪ من وزن الجسم يوميًا.

انظر أيضا

 نجيل بحري

مراجع

رتب الثدييات
أصنوفات سماها يوهان كارل ويليام إيليجر

خيلانيات


Sylwia Jaśkowiec (Myślenice, 1. ožujka 1986.) je poljska skijaška trkačica, trostruko sudionik Olimpijskih igara (Vancouver 2010., Soči 2014., Pyeongchang 2018.).

Osvojila je brončanu medalja na Svjetskome prvenstvu 2015. godine u Falunu (štafeta sprint, zajedno s Justynom Kowalczyk).

Izvori
 Profil na fis-ski.com

Trkači na skijama
Poljski nordijski skijaši

Sylwia Jaśkowiec


Ben-Hur este un film epic istoric american din 2016 regizat de Timur Bekmambetov. Rolurile principale sunt interpretate de actorii Jack Huston, Morgan Freeman, Toby Kebbell, Nazanin Boniadi și Rodrigo Santoro. Este o ecranizare a romanului lui Lew Wallace, "Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ" ("Ben-Hur: O poveste despre Hristos", apărut în 1880). Premiera filmului a avut loc la 9 august 2016 în Mexico City și la 19 august 2016 în SUA. Este produs de Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer și distribuit de Paramount Pictures.

Prezentare

Un nobil, Judah Ben-Hur (Jack Huston), este acuzat pe nedrept de o tentativă de asasinat de către prietenul său din copilărie Messala (Toby Kebbell).  El supraviețuiește ani de sclavie sub stăpânirea romană și încearcă să se răzbune.

Distribuție
 Jack Huston ca Judah Ben-Hur
 Morgan Freeman ca Sheik Ilderim
 Toby Kebbell ca Messala
 Nazanin Boniadi ca Esther
 Rodrigo Santoro ca Iisus Hristos
 Sofia Black D'Elia ca Tirzah
 Ayelet Zurer ca Naomi
 Moisés Arias ca Gestas
 Pilou Asbæk ca Pontius Pilate

 Marwan Kenzari ca Druses
 Edoardo Purgatori ca  Sclav furios
 Haluk Bilginer ca Simonides

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
Listă de filme creștine
Listă de filme bazate pe Biblie

Filme din 2016
Filme americane
Filme în limba engleză
Filme regizate de Timur Bekmambetov
Ecranizări de romane americane
Filme epice
Filme MGM
Filme Paramount Pictures
Filme creștine
Filme cu acțiunea în antichitate
Filme cu acțiunea în secolul I
Filme istorice

Ben-Hur (film din 2016)


15056 Barbaradixon este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
15056 Barbaradixon este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Las Cruces de David S. Dixon. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,00 ua, o excentricitate de 0,09 și o înclinație de 1,8° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 15001-16000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1998
Centura de asteroizi

15056 Barbaradixon


Horabach (früher auch Hornbach oder Herrabach genannt) ist ein Gemeindeteil der Gemeinde Neusitz im Landkreis Ansbach (Mittelfranken, Bayern).

Geografie
Der Weiler liegt am Erlbacher Bach, einem rechten Zufluss des Kirnberger Mühlbachs. Dieser fließt rechts in die Tauber. 0,5 km nördlich erhebt sich der Schloßberg (). Eine Gemeindeverbindungsstraße führt nach Neusitz (1,5 km nordwestlich) bzw. nach Södelbronn (0,8 km südöstlich).

Geschichte
In der Gemarkung Horabach weisen Fundstücke auf eine Besiedlung in der Bronzezeit hin. Auf dem Schloßberg befand sich eine Abschnittsburg – Hornburg genannt –, die im frühen Mittelalter errichtet wurde. In einer Urkunde, die im Zeitraum zwischen 1255 bis 1275 entstanden sein muss wird ein Heinrich von Hornburg erwähnt. Die Hornburg ist noch im Mittelalter abgegangen.

Der Ortsname Horabach leitet sich von einem gleichlautenden Gewässernamen ab, dessen Bestimmungswort "hor" (mhd. Sumpf) ist. Im späten Mittelalter gab es in Horabach drei Grundherren. Die Rothenburger Dominikanerinnen erhielten 1255 vom Reichsküchenmeister Lupold von Nordenberg einen Anteil, der auch Anwesen in Horabach umfasste. 1331 waren es vier Güter. Des Weiteren war das Rothenburger Spital begütert. Sie kauften 1320 von Ritter Konrad von Tanne u. a. ein Gut samt Fischweiher in Horabach. Die Rothenburger Johanniter besaßen ein Gut, das sie 1302 für 27 Pfund Heller von Dietrich von Hornburg kauften.

1449 führte Markgraf Albrecht Achilles gegen die Reichsstadt Rothenburg Krieg und brannte dabei u. a. Horabach nieder. Der Wiederaufbau erfolgte von 1450 bis 1452.

1800 gab es in dem Ort acht Haushalte, die alle der Reichsstadt Rothenburg untertan waren.

Mit dem Gemeindeedikt (frühes 19. Jahrhundert) wurde der Ort dem Steuerdistrikt und der Ruralgemeinde Neusitz zugewiesen.

Bodendenkmal
 Abschnittswall unbestimmten Alters auf dem Schloßberg.

Einwohnerentwicklung

Religion
Der Ort ist seit der Reformation evangelisch-lutherisch geprägt und nach Heilig Kreuz (Neusitz) gepfarrt. Die Einwohner römisch-katholischer Konfession sind nach St. Johannis (Rothenburg ob der Tauber) gepfarrt.

Unternehmen
In Horabach gibt es drei landwirtschaftliche Betriebe.

Literatur

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Geographie (Neusitz)
Ort im Landkreis Ansbach
Weiler in Mittelfranken

Horabach


Viriathus (also spelled Viriatus; known as Viriato in Portuguese and Spanish; died 139 BC) was the most important leader of the Lusitanian people that resisted Roman expansion into the regions of western Hispania (as the Romans called it) or western Iberia (as the Greeks called it), where the Roman province of Lusitania would be finally established after the conquest.

Viriathus developed alliances with other Celtic groups, even far away from his usual theatres of war, inducing them to rebel against Rome. He led his army, supported by most of the Lusitanian and Vetton tribes as well as by other Celtic and Iberian allies, to several victories over the Romans between 147 BC and 139 BC before being betrayed by them and murdered while sleeping. Of him, Theodor Mommsen said, "It seemed as if, in that thoroughly prosaic age, one of the Homeric heroes had reappeared."

Etymology
There are several possible etymologies for the name Viriathus. The name can be composed of two elements: Viri and Athus.
Viri may come from:
the Indo-European root *uiros, "man", relating to strength and virility;
the Celtic *uiro- 'man'; and the older forms viros, viri, viro, viron from which derived the Old Irish word for man, fir;
from *uei-, as in the viriae or Celtiberian "twisted armbands" used by warriors (Pliny XXIII, 39);
the Latin viri (pronounced "wee-ree", coming from the Indo-European root above) meaning man, hero, person of courage, honor, and nobility.

It is cognate to the Welsh name Gwriad and possibly to the Irish name Ferdiad.

The Celtic elite used the title  uiros ueramos, meaning the 'highest man' and the Latin equivalent would be summus vir.

According to the historian Schulten, Viriathus had a Celtic name.

Viriathus' life

Little is known about Viriathus. The only reference to the location of his native tribe was made by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, who claims he was from the Lusitanian tribes of the ocean side.

He belonged to the class of warriors, the occupation of the minority ruling elites. He was known to the Romans as the dux of the Lusitanian army, as the adsertor (protector) of Hispania, or as an imperator, probably of the confederated Lusitanian and Celtiberian tribes.

Livy described him as a shepherd who became a hunter, then a soldier, thus following the path of most young warriors, the iuventus, who devoted themselves to cattle raiding, hunting and war.

According to Appian, Viriathus was one of the few who escaped when Galba, the Roman governor, massacred the flos iuventutis, the flower of the young Lusitanian warriors, in 150 BC.

Two years after the massacre, in 148 BC, Viriathus became the leader of a Lusitanian army.

Viriathus was thought by some to have a very obscure origin, although Diodorus Siculus also says that Viriathus "approved himself to be a prince" and that he said he was "lord and owner of all". His family was unknown to the Romans who were familiar with the native aristocratic warrior society.
His personality and his physical and intellectual abilities as well as his skills as a warrior were described by several authors. He was a man of great physical strength, probably in the very prime of life, an excellent strategist, and possessor of a brilliant mind. Some authors claim that the ancient authors described Viriathus with the precise features of a Celtic king.

He was described as a man who followed the principles of honesty and fair dealing and was acknowledged for being exact and faithful to his word on the treaties and alliances he made. Livy gives him the title of vir duxque magnus with the implied qualities that were nothing more than the ideals of the ancient virtues.

A more modern current claims Viriathus belonged to an aristocratic Lusitanian clan who were owners of cattle. For Cassius Dio, he did not pursue power or wealth, but carried on the war for the sake of military glory. His aims could then be compared to pure Roman aristocratic ideals of that time: to serve and gain military glory and honor. Viriathus did not fight for war spoils or material gain, like common soldiers.

The Lusitanians honored Viriathus as their Benefactor, (Greek: euergetes), and Savior (Greek: soter), typically Hellenistic honorifics used by kings like the Ptolemies.

Some authors assert that he was probably from the Herminius Mons (Serra da Estrela), in the heart of Lusitania, (in central Portugal) or the Beira Alta region.

Most of his life and his war against the Romans are part of legend and Viriathus is considered the earliest Portuguese national hero, given the fact that he was the leader of the confederate tribes of Iberia who resisted Rome. The historian Appianus of Alexandria in his book about Iberia (in the section Historia Romana, Roman History), commented that Viriathus "killed numerous Romans and showed great skill".

Viriathus of Silius Italicus

It has been argued that Silius Italicus, in his epic poem entitled Punica, mentions a former Viriathus who would have been a contemporary of Hannibal. He is referenced as primo Viriatus in aeuo, and was a leader of the Gallaeci and of the Lusitanians.

The historical Viriathus would be the one who received the title of regnator Hiberae magnanimus terrae, the "magnanimous ruler of the Iberian land".

Conquest of Lusitania by Rome

In the 3rd century BC, Rome started its conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. The Roman conquest of Iberia began during the Second Punic War, when the senate sent an army to Iberia to block Carthaginian reinforcements from helping Hannibal in the Italian Peninsula. This began Roman involvement in 250 years of subsequent fighting throughout Iberia, resulting in its eventual conquest in 19 BC with the end of the Cantabrian Wars. The Lusitanian War is one of the most well documented episodes of the conquest.

Rome's dominion of Iberia met with much opposition. In 197 BC, Rome divided the southeastern coast of Iberia into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, and two elected praetors were assigned to command the legions. As with many other tribes of Iberia, the inhabitants of the Lusitanian castros, or citanias, would have been granted peregrina  stipendiaria but remaining an autonomous (Greek: αὐτονόμων) country through treaties (foedus).

Lusitania's rich land was praised by ancient authors. Polybius  in his Histories, "speaking of the natural wealth of Lusitania [...], tells us that owing to the favorable climate both men and animals are very prolific, and the land is constantly productive."

The Romans charged the native tribes with heavy taxes: a fixed vectigal or land-tax, the tributum and a certain quantity of cereals. Taxes were not the only source of income; mine exploitation and peace treaties were a source of denarius as well as war spoils and war prisoners who were sold as slaves. The indigenous towns had to deliver their own treasures to the Romans, which left them only with their yearly earnings to pay the taxes. In 174 BC, when Publius Furius Philus was accused of paying very little for the cereals that Iberia was compelled to deliver to Rome, Cato defended the interests of the native tribes. The exploitation and extortion reached such an extreme degree in the provinces that Rome had to create a special tribunal and laws, like the Lex Calpurnia created in 149 BC.

Revolts
The Lusitanians revolted first in 194 BC against the Romans. Iberia was divided between the tribes that supported Roman rule and the tribes that revolted against Roman rule, as they had been divided before by those who supported the Carthaginian and those who supported Romans.

This period was marked by a number of broken treaties either by the Roman generals, or their senate, that would not ratify the treaties, or by the native people.

In 152 BC the Lusitanians made a peace agreement with Marcus Atilius, after he conquered Oxthracae, Lusitania's biggest city. In Roman law, peregrini dediticii was the designation given to peoples who had surrendered themselves after taking up arms against the Romans. The terms offered were such that, as soon as Atilius returned to Rome, they rebelled and broke the treaty. Then they attacked the tribes that were Roman subjects and that had sided with the Romans in helping to attack and plunder the Lusitanian towns. Possibly the Lusitanians recovered some of the booty the Romans had divided with those tribes.

In 151 BC the Celtiberians who had become Roman allies, fearing the revenge of the rebels who considered them traitors, asked the Romans to punish the rebellious tribes who had broken out into war and that the legions should remain in Iberia to protect them.

Massacre of the Lusitanians
The praetor of Hispania Ulterior, Servius Sulpicius Galba commanded the Roman troops in Iberia c.150 BC, and at the same time Lucius Licinius Lucullus was appointed Governor of the Hispania Citerior and commander of an army. In the year 151 BC, Lucullus  "being greedy of fame and needing money", made a peace treaty with the Caucaei, of the Vaccaei tribe, after which he ordered his men to kill all the tribe's adult males, of which it is said only a few out of 30,000 escaped.

Servius Sulpicius Galba joined forces with Lucius Licinius Lucullus and together started to depopulate Lusitania. While Lucullus invaded the country from the east, Galba attacked it from the south. Unable to sustain a war on two fronts, the Lusitanian troops suffered several losses in engagements with the Romans. Fearing a long siege and the destruction the Roman siege engines would cause in their towns, the Lusitanians sent an embassy to Galba to negotiate a peace treaty, although for the Romans it would be perceived as the Deditio in dicionem, the surrender. The Lusitanians hoped they could at least renew the former treaty made with Atilius. Galba received the Lusitanian embassy politely, and a peace treaty was agreed on the terms proposed by him. He commanded them to leave their homes and remain in open country. The Lusitanians probably lost their city and possessions and their land would have become Ager Publicus. The conquest of a territory, unless it had been given special conditions, could imply the acquisition, by the Romans, of the conquered territory and all that it contained.

The treaty turned out to be a trap, like the one Lucullus had prepared for the Caucaei. When the unarmed Lusitanians, among them Viriathus, were gathered together by Galba to hand over their weapons and to be split into three groups (two of the points of the treaty that had been negotiated) and allocated to new lands, the trap was sprung. With the promise that they would be given new lands they waited unaware while Galba's army surrounded them with a ditch, to prevent them from escaping. Afterwards, Roman soldiers were sent in and began to massacre all the males of military age. The survivors are said to have been sold into slavery in Gaul.

The relocation of an entire tribe, accompanied by slaughter or their reduction to the status of slaves was a punishment often inflicted on native populations who took part in revolts.

Galba distributed a little of the plunder to the army and a little to his friends, the native tribes that sided with him, and kept the rest. This incited a massive rebellion, with the entire Lusitanian tribe mustering as they waged war for three years against Rome, but met with many failures.

Three years after the massacre, the rebellion was on the verge of defeat when Viriathus appeared and offered himself as leader. Through his understanding of Roman military methods he saved the rebel Lusitanians by a simple though clever escape plan. Viriathus became the leader of the Lusitanians and caused much grief to the Romans in revenge for the massacre of his people.

The "War of Fire"

The war with Viriathus was called "War of Fire" by the Greek historian Polybius of Megalopolis. Two types of war were carried on by Viriathus, bellum ('war'), when he used a regular army, and latrocinium, when the fighting involved small groups of combatants and the use of guerrilla tactics. For many authors Viriathus is the model of the guerrilla fighter.

Nothing is known about Viriathus until his first feat of war in 149 BC. He was with an army of ten thousand men that invaded southern Turdetania.

Rome sent the praetor Caius Vetilius to fight the rebellion. He attacked a group of Lusitanian warriors who were out foraging, and after several of them were killed, the survivors took refuge in a place that was surrounded by the Roman army. They were about to make a new agreement with the Romans when Viriathus, mistrusting the Romans, proposed an escape plan. The Lusitanians, inflamed by his speech, made him their new commander. His first act was to rescue the trapped and resisting Lusitanians whom he then commanded, first by lining up for battle with the Romans, then scattering the army as they charged. As each wave broke apart and fled in different directions to meet up at a later location, Viriathus with 1,000 chosen men held the army of 10,000 Romans in check by being in a position to attack. Once the rest of the army had fled, he and the thousand men escaped as well.  Having effectively saved all of the Lusitanians soldiers, he immediately fortified the loyalty of the people around himself.

Viriathus organized an attack against Caius Vetilius in Tribola. Since the Romans were better armed, he organized guerrilla tactics and sprang imaginative ambushes. Charging with iron spears, tridents and roars, the Lusitanians defeated Vetilius, killing 4,000 out of 10,000 soldiers, including Vetilius himself. In response, Celtiberians were hired to attack the Lusitanians, but were destroyed. After that incident, the Lusitanians clashed with the armies of Gaius Plautius, Claudius Unimanus and Gaius Negidius, all of whom were defeated. During this period Viriathus inspired and convinced the Numantine and some Gauls to rebel against Roman rule.

To complete the subjugation of Lusitania, Rome sent Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus, with 15,000 soldiers and 2,000 cavalry to strengthen Gaius Laelius Sapiens who was a personal friend of Scipio Aemilianus Africanus. Despite accomplishing the retreat of the Lusitanians in an initial victory, Aemilianus returned to Rome without having taken down Viriathus, and the Romans lost most of his reinforcements in Ossuma and  Beja in Alentejo. This gave the Lusitanians access to what is today's Spanish territory, modern Granada and Murcia. The results of Viriathus's efforts as well as those of the Numantine War caused many problems in Rome, the most notable being a drop in legionary recruitment rates.

Learning of these events, Rome sent one of its best generals, Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, to Iberia. Near Sierra Morena, the Romans fell into a Lusitanian ambush. Viriathus did not harm the Romans and let the soldiers and Servilianus go in exchange for a peace treaty that recognised Lusitanian rule over the land they dominated. This agreement was ratified by the Roman Senate and Viriathus was declared "amicus populi Romani", (), an ally of the Roman people.

However, the peace brought by the treaty displeased Quintus Servilius Caepio, who got himself appointed successor to his brother, Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus, in the command of the army and administration of affairs in Iberia. In his reports to the Roman Senate he claimed that the treaty was in the highest degree dishonourable to Rome. Livy seemed to have a different opinion as he writes it was a stain on Servilianus' military career but comments that the treaty was, aequis, fair.  The senate authorised Q. Servilius Caepio, on his request, to harass Viriathus as long as it was done secretly. The treaty was in effect for one year. During that time Q. Servilius Caepio harassed Viriathus and kept pressuring with his reports until he was authorised publicly to declare war.

Death
Knowing that the Lusitanian resistance was largely due to Viriathus' leadership, Caepio bribed Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus, who had been sent by Viriathus as an embassy to establish peace (Appian). These ambassadors returned to their camp and killed Viriathus while he was sleeping. Eutropius claims that when Viriathus' assassins asked Quintus Servilius Caepio for their payment he answered that "it was never pleasing to the Romans, that a general should be killed by his own soldiers.", or in another version more common in modern Portugal and Spain, "Rome does not pay traitors who kill their chief". Quintus Servilius Caepio was refused his Triumph by the Senate.

After the death of Viriathus, the Lusitanians kept fighting under the leadership of Tautalus (Greek: Τάυταλος).

Laenas would finally give the Lusitanians the land they originally had asked for before the massacre. Nevertheless, total pacification of Lusitania was only achieved under Augustus. Under Roman rule, Lusitania and its people gradually acquired Roman culture and language.

Viriathus stands as the most successful leader who ever opposed the Roman conquest in Iberia. During the course of his campaigns he was only defeated in battle against the Romans once, and from a military standpoint can be said to have been one of the most successful generals to have ever opposed Rome's expansion. Ultimately, even the Romans recognized that it was more prudent to use treachery rather than open confrontation to defeat the Lusitanian uprising. Some fifty years later, the renegade Roman general Quintus Sertorius, at the head of another insurrection in Iberia, would meet a similar fate.

Legacy
Viriathus became an enduring symbol of Portuguese nationality and independence, portrayed by artists and celebrated by its people throughout the centuries. In his epic poem Os Lusíadas, Luís Vaz de Camões exalts Viriathus' great deeds.

The flag of the Spanish province of Zamora, called la seña bermeja, has eight red stripes, which traditionally have been associated to the eight victories of Viriathus over the Romans. The historical authenticity of this origin is disputed.

There is a street in Madrid named after him, in Chamberí neighborhood (near the metro station 'Iglesia'). The same is true of Lisbon, Zamora and many other towns in Spain and Portugal.

The planet HD 45652 b was named Viriato in 2019 after Viriathus.

Film and television
 The Spanish television series Hispania, la leyenda (2010–2012) is loosely based on his life and exploits. He was played by Roberto Enríquez.
 The History Channel's "Barbarians Rising" (2016) features the story of Viriathus in its first episode entitled "Resistance". Jefferson Hall played Viriathus.

See also

 Ambiorix
 Alaric I
 Ardaric
 Arminius
 Autaritus
 Battle of Baduhenna Wood
 Bato (Daesitiate chieftain)
 Boudica
 Fritigern
 Gainas
 Gaius Julius Civilis
 John of Gothia
 Spartacus
 Totila
 Tribigild
 Vercingetorix

Notes

References

Further reading
 Ribeiro, Ângelo and Saraiva, José Hermano História de Portugal I — A Formação do Território QuidNovi, 2004 ().
 Loução, Paulo Alexandre: Portugal, Terra de Mistérios Ésquilo, 2000 (third edition; ).
 Muñoz, Maurício Pastor: Viriato, A Luta pela Liberdade Ésquilo, 2003 (third edition; ).
 Freitas do Amaral, Diogo: Viriato ; Lisboa: Bertrand, 2004 ()
 Silva, Luis: "Viriathus and the Lusitanian Resistance to Rome", Pen & Sword, South Yorkshire, UK, 2013 ()

139 BC deaths
Lusitanians
Celtic warriors
Spanish rebels
Year of birth unknown

Viriathus


කිඹුල් හූනා, කබර හූනා, ගස් හූනා හෙවත් කුඹුක් හූනා යනු දකුණු සහ බටහිර ආසියාවේ ජීවත්වන හූනන් විශේෂයකි.

ආශ්‍රිත

කිඹුල් හූනා


أَنْتِيُوك ضاحية سان فرانسيسكو وأوكلاند، تقع في مقاطعة كونترا كوستا بولاية كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 6 فبراير، 1872.

التركيبة السكانية
حدّد مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة بيانات التركيبة السكانية لأنتيوك في تعداد الولايات المتحدة. في ما يلي، التركيبة السكانية حسب تعدادي 2000 و2010.

تعداد عام 2000
بلغ عدد سكان أنتيوك 90,532 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000، وبلغ عدد الأسر 29,338 أسرة وعدد العائلات 23,173 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 30,116 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 65.33% من البيض و9.75% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.93% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و7.40% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.40% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و9.23% من الأعراق الأخرى و6.97% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و22.12% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 29,338 أسرة كانت نسبة 50.7% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 60.3% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 13.5% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك،  بينما كانت نسبة 5.1% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 21% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 15.9% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 5.4% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 3.07، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 3.42.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 32.3 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 32.3% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 8.2% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 32.3% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 19.7% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 7.1% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. يوجد لكل 100 أنثى 96.2 ذكر، ويوجد لكل 100 أنثى في الثامنة عشر من عمرها فما فوق 92.3 ذكر.

بلغ متوسط دخل الأسرة في المدينة 60,359 دولارًا، أما متوسط دخل العائلة فبلغ 64,723 دولارًا. وكان متوسط دخل الذكور 50,152 دولارًا مقابل 34,203 دولارًا للإناث. وسجل دخل الفرد الخاص بالمدينة 22,152 دولارًا. وكانت نسبة 6.5% من العائلات ونسبة 8.5% من السكان تحت خط الفقر، وكان من هؤلاء نسبة 11.7% تحت سن الثامنة عشر ونسبة 6.3% في الخامسة والستين من العمر وما فوق.

تعداد عام 2010
بلغ عدد سكان أنتيوك 102,372 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2010، وبلغ عدد الأسر 32,252 أسرة وعدد العائلات 25,023 عائلة مقيمة في المدينة. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 34,849 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للمدينة بنسبة 48.92% من البيض و17.26% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.87% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و10.46% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.80% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و13.98% من الأعراق الأخرى و7.72% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و31.68% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 32,252 أسرة كانت نسبة 45.5% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 52.7% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 17.7% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك،  بينما كانت نسبة 7.1% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 22.4% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 16.4% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 5.5% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 3.15، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 3.52.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 33.8 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 28.1% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 10.3% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 26.8% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 25.9% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 8.8% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. وتوزع التركيب الجنسي للسكان بنسبة 48.7% ذكور و51.3% إناث.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لأنتيوك:

أعلام
 جوني بيرك
 جوزيف إدوارد غالو
 مات رايلي
 ديفيد دوغلاس
 إدي لاك
 نيل شيريدان

مراجع

أنتيوك
أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1850
أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1872
تأسيسات سنة 1850 في كاليفورنيا
تأسيسات سنة 1872 في كاليفورنيا
سياسيون أمريكيون في القرن 21
مدن في مقاطعة كونترا كوستا (كاليفورنيا)
مدن كاليفورنيا
مدن منطقة خليج سان فرانسيسكو

أنتيوك


පේරු නිළ වශයෙන් පේරු සමුහාණ්ඩුව බටහිරින් දකුණු ඇමරිකාවෙහි පිහිටි රටකි. එය මායිම් වන්නේ උතුරින් ඉක්වදෝරය හා කොලොම්බියා, නැගෙනහිරින් බ්‍රසීලය, ගිණිකොණින් බොලිවියා, දකුණින් චිලී සහ බටහිරින් පැසි‍පික් සාගරයටයි. පේරුවියන් රාජ්‍ය නෝටේ චිකො(Norte Chico) ශිෂ්ඨාචාරයට නෑකම් කියයි. එය ලෝකයේ ඇති පැරණිතම ශිෂ්ඨාචාරයයි. පසුව කොලොම්බියාව ඇමරිකා තුල ඇති විශාලතම රාජ්‍ය අධිරාජ්‍යය බවට පත්වුනි. 16 වන ශතවර්ෂයේ දී ස්පාඤ්ඤ අධිරාජ්‍යය එම ප්‍රදේශය යටත් කරගත් අතර එහි ප්‍රතිරාජ පදවියක් ගොඩ නගන ලදි. එහි දකුණු ඇමරිකා ජනපද බොහොමයක් ඇතුළත් විය. 1821 නිදහසෙන් පසු පේරු රාජ්‍ය දේශපාලන අස්ථාරභාවය, ෆිස්කල් අර්බුද හා ස්ථාවරත්ව කාලපරිච්ඡේද හා ආර්ථික වර්ධනයන් ද වේ. පේරු පළාත් 25 බෙදුණු ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදී සමුහාණ්ඩුවක නියෝජිතයෙකි. භුගෝලාත්මකව බැලු කල පේරු පැසිෆික් වෙරළතීරයේ නිසරු බිම්, ඇන්ඩ්ස් කදු මුදුන් හා ඇමේසන්හි නිවර්තන වනාන්තරවලට විවිධත්වයක් දක්වයි. එය උසස් මානව සංවර්ධිත දර්ශකයක් හා දිළිඳු ජනගහනය 36% කි. එහි මුලික ආර්ථිකයක් වන්නේ කෘෂිකර්මය, ධීවර කර්මාන්තය, පතල්, රෙදිපිළි නිෂ්පාදකයන්ය. එහි ජනගහනය මිලියන 29 හා බහුවාර්ගික රටකි. එහි ඇමරින්ඩියන්ස්, යුරෝපීයන්, අප්‍රිකානු සහ ආසියානුවන් ඇතුළත් වේ. රාජ්‍ය භාෂාව වන්නේ ස්පාඤ්ඤය. සැළකිය යුතු ප්‍රමාණයක් ක්වෙච්චුවා (Quechua) සහ අනෙකුත් භාෂාවන් කථා කරයි. මෙම සංස්කෘතික මිශ්‍රණය තුල කලාව, ඉවුම් පිහුම්, සාහිත්‍ය හා සංගීතය අඩංගු වේ.

මූලාශ්‍ර

පේරූ

පෙරූ


Biyoteknoloji; hücre ve doku biyolojisi kültürü, moleküler biyoloji, mikrobiyoloji, genetik, fizyoloji ve biyokimya gibi doğa bilimlerinin yanı sıra makine mühendisliği, elektrik-elektronik mühendisliği ve bilgisayar mühendisliği gibi mühendislik dallarından yararlanarak, DNA teknolojisiyle bitki, hayvan ve mikroorganizmaları geliştirmek, özel bir kullanıma yönelik ürünleri oluşturmak ya da dönüştürmek için biyolojik sistemleri, canlı organizmaları ya da türevlerini kullanan uygulamaların tümüne verilen addır.

Biyoteknoloji, temel bilim buluşlarını kısa sürede yararlı ticari ürünlere dönüştürebilmesiyle bir anlamda kendi talebini de yaratabilir. Bu yönüyle de diğer teknolojilerden ayrılır. Örneğin sıcak su kaynaklarında yaşayan bakterilerin birinden elde edilen yüksek sıcaklığa dayanıklı bir enzim, günümüzde uygulama ve temel bilim çalışmalarının ayrılmaz bir parçası olan PCR'nin önemli bir girdisidir. Biyoteknoloji uygulamaları; mikrobiyoloji, biyokimya, moleküler biyoloji, hücre biyolojisi, immünoloji, protein mühendisliği, enzimoloji ve biyoproses teknolojileri gibi farklı alanları bünyesinde toplar. Bu nedenle de biyoteknoloji birçok bilimsel disiplinle karşılıklı ilişki içinde gelişir.

Bitki, hayvan veya mikroorganizmaların tamamı ya da bir parçası kullanılarak yeni bir organizma (bitki, hayvan ya da mikroorganizma) elde etmek veya var olan bir organizmanın genetik yapısında arzu edilen yönde değişiklikler meydana getirmek amacı ile kullanılan yöntemlerin tamamına Biyoteknoloji denmektedir.

Biyoteknoloji, insan, hayvan ve bitki hücrelerinin fonksiyonlarını anlamak ve değiştirmek amacıyla uygulanan çeşitli teknikleri ve işlemleri tanımlamak için kullanılan bir terimdir. Canlıların iyileştirilmesi ya da endüstriyel kullanımına yönelik ürünler geliştirilmesini, modern teknolojinin doğa bilimlerine uygulanmasını kapsar.

Uygulamalar

 Canlı Klonlama
5 Temmuz 1996'da Dolly isimli bir koyun klonlandı. Bir koyunun meme dokusundan bir hücre alarak bunu çekirdeği çıkartılmış bir yumurtaya aktarıldı ve elektrik şoku verilerek Dolly oluşturuldu.

 İnsan sağlığına yönelik olarak proteinlerin üretilmesi
 Bazı hormon, antikor, vitamin ve antibiyotik üretilmesi
 Çok zor şartlara sahip çevrelerde (sıcak, kurak, tuzlu...) yaşayan organizmaların enzimlerini ve biyomoleküllerini saflaştırarak bunların sanayide kullanılması
 Yeni sebze ve meyve üretimi
 İnsandaki zararlı genlerin elemine edilmesi
 Aşı, pestisit, tıbbi bitki üretimi
 İnsanın zarar görmüş veya işlevini kaybetmiş organ ve dokularının değiştirilmesi için yapay organ ve doku üretimi
 Parlayan tütün üretilmesi

CRISPR/Cas9 ve Genetik

2020'de Nobel Kimya ödülü alan  Emmanuelle Charpentier ve Jennifer A. Doudna, tarafından icat edilen genetik düzenleme teknolojisi CRİSPR/Cas9, Kümelenmiş Düzenli Aralıklı Kısa Palindromik Tekrar Dizileri (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) isminin kısaltılmışıdır. 2005 yılında CRISPR genleri üzerine çalışan 3 farklı grubun araştırmaları ve keşfi ile kanıtlandı.
Araştırmalar sonucu keşfedilen şey, CRISPR kümelerinde bulunan aralık genlerinin, o canlıyı enfekte eden bazı virüsler ile aynı dizilime sahip olduğuydu. Bir virüs DNA'sı ile aynı dizilime sahip aralık genine sahip olmak, o virüse karşı bir direnç oluşturuyordu.aktif bir Cas9, DNA'yı yüksek hassaslıkta ve doğrulukta kesebilmeleri için gereken tek şey o DNA'nın dizisini kesebilecek bir makastı. Bundan hareketle DNA'nın bu baz dizisine denk gelen RNA molekülü oluşturuldu ve bu RNA molekülü Cas9 proteini ile birleştirilerek bir kompleks yapıldı.

CRİSPR/Cas9: Cas9 isimli DNA kesebilen bir enzim ve Guide RNA denilen Cas9 enziminin kesilinmesini istediği yere götüren bir "rehber RNA"dan oluşur. Bu teknoloji sayesinde insanlık DNA'sı değiştirilebilen insanlar yaratabilir.

Açık kaynaklı biyoteknoloji
Açık kaynaklı biyoteknoloji açık kaynaklı fikirlerin geliştirildiği ve desteklendiği kurumlar, açık kaynaklı yazılımlar ve açık kaynaklı veritabanları ve veri paylaşım formatlarından oluşmaktadır.

Ayrıca bakınız
Avrupa Biyoteknoloji Derneği

Kaynakça

Biyoteknoloji


ماريانو غارسيا رامون  ( مواليد 30 سبتمبر 1950 في مدريد ، إسبانيا ) هو مدرب كرة قدم إسباني ولاعب سابق دولي إسباني لعب معظم فتراته مع ريال مدريد وحقق معهم ستة بطولات دوري وثلاثة بطولات كأس وبطولتين كأس الاتحاد الأوروبي.

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مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إسبان
حراس مرمى كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من مدريد
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو ريال أوفييدو
لاعبو ريال مدريد
لاعبو كرة قدم إسبان
لاعبو كرة قدم من مدريد
لاعبو كرة قدم من منطقة مدريد
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا تحت 23 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إسبانيا لكرة القدم للهواة
مدربو الدوري الإسباني
مدربو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
مدربو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية ب
مدربو ريال سبورتينغ خيخون
مدربو ريال مدريد
مدربو ريال مدريد كاستيا
مدربو كرة قدم إسبان
مدربو نادي ألباسيتي
مدربو نادي سالامانكا
مدربو نادي قادش
مدربو نادي قرطبة
مدربو نادي لاس بالماس
مدربو نومانسيا
مواليد 1950
مواليد في مدريد

ماريانو غارسيا ريمون


عيون الغزلان هي قرية لبنانية من قرى قضاء عكار في محافظة الشمال. تقع في تجمع للقرى يسمى الهضبات.

يقدّر عدد السكّان المسجّلين في سجلات الأحوال الشخصية بنحو 463 نسمة ينتمون إلى المذهب السنّي. ويبلغ عدد المنازل في البلدة نحو 25 منزلاً.

المراجع

القيطع
مدن لبنان

عيون الغزلان


Pointe-au-Père is a district (secteur) of the city of Rimouski, Quebec, which is located in the central part of the Bas-Saint-Laurent region in eastern Quebec at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Its population was 4,240 in 2002, the year it merged with Rimouski. It is named after Father Henri Nouvel, who celebrated the first mass there in 1663.

Pointe-au-Père lighthouse along with the Site historique maritime de la Pointe-au-Père museum are major regional tourist attractions.

Murderer Dr Crippen was arrested when the steam ship , on which he was trying to escape with his mistress, who was disguised as his son, reached Pointe-au-Père.

On May 29, 1914, the RMS Empress of Ireland sank in the Saint Lawrence River near this village, with a loss of 1,012 lives.

Pointe-au-Père tide station serves as the reference point for measuring mean sea level for the North American Vertical Datum of 1988, which is the reference point for determining altitude in North America.

Since 1986, the Government of Canada officially created the Pointe-au-Père National Wildlife Area, which houses a variety of fauna and flora, very popular for bridwatchers.

Notes

External links
 Site  historique maritime de la Pointe-au-Père
 Ville de Rimouski

Former municipalities in Quebec
Communities in Bas-Saint-Laurent
Rimouski
1663 establishments in the French colonial empire
Populated places disestablished in 2002

Pointe-au-Père, Quebec