UFO is a 1970 British science fiction television series about the covert efforts of an international defence organisation (under the auspices of the United Nations) to prevent an alien invasion of Earth. It was created by Gerry Anderson and Sylvia Anderson with Reg Hill, and produced by the Andersons and Lew Grade's Century 21 for Grade's ITC Entertainment company.

A single series of 26 episodes (including the pilot) was filmed over the course of more than a year; a five-month production break was caused by the closure of MGM-British Studios in Borehamwood, where the show was initially made. Production then moved to Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire. UFO was first broadcast in the UK and Canada in 1970, and in the US syndication over the next two years. It also has been rerun on UKTV channel Drama.

The Andersons' live-action science fiction movie Doppelgänger (also known as Journey to the Far Side of the Sun) is considered an immediate precursor to UFO, which was their first entirely live-action TV series. (Their previous shows had used marionettes.) The series featured actors, costumes, props, locations and music that had appeared in the film, and 11 cast members of the film appeared in at least one episode of UFO.

Following syndication in the US and initial favourable ratings, a possible second series was planned; initially entitled UFO 1999, this eventually became Space: 1999, but with a totally different cast from UFO.

Storyline
The series' premise is that in 1980 (a date indicated repeatedly in the opening credits), Earth is being visited by aliens from a dying planet, who are abducting humans and harvesting their organs for their own bodies. The alien incursions may also be a prelude to a possible full-scale invasion. The series' main cast of characters are the staff of a secret, high-technology international military agency called SHADO (an acronym for Supreme Headquarters Alien Defence Organisation) established by the governments of the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, France and Germany (believed to be West Germany as the city of Bonn is mentioned along with Washington, Paris and Moscow) to defend Earth and humanity against the mysterious aliens and learn more about them, while at the same time keeping the threat of an alien invasion hidden from the public.

Cast
UFO had a large ensemble cast; many of its members would come and go during the course of the series, with some actors—such as George Sewell and Gabrielle Drake—leaving midway through the series, during the production break necessitated by the change of studio facilities. It is established early on that SHADO personnel rotate between positions, so the occasional disappearance of characters—some of whom would later return in other positions—fits the concept of the series. Also, owing to the scheduling of the series not reflecting the production order, some episodes featuring departed cast members were not broadcast until late in the series, which can give the impression that no major cast changes occurred. Only Ed Bishop appeared in every episode.

Main characters
 Colonel Edward "Ed" Straker (Ed Bishop), Commander-in-chief of SHADO, is a former American Air Force colonel, pilot and astronaut originally from Boston, Massachusetts, who organised SHADO following a series of UFO attacks in 1970. Straker masquerades as the head of Harlington-Straker Film Studios, SHADO Headquarters being located directly below the studio.
 Colonel Paul Foster (Michael Billington) is introduced in the second episode "Exposed". A former test pilot, his plane was critically damaged when SHADO's Sky One intercepted and destroyed a UFO flying near Foster's jet. His persistent investigation of the incident threatened to expose SHADO's existence, so Straker offered him a position with SHADO.
 Lieutenant Gay Ellis (Gabrielle Drake), seen as Moonbase commander during the first half of the series. Lt. Ellis is occasionally portrayed as lacking self-confidence, and at other times as a take-charge officer. She is briefly reassigned to SHADO HQ when it is suggested that she may be romantically involved with interceptor pilot Mark Bradley ("Computer Affair").
 Colonel Alec Freeman (George Sewell), Second-in-command of SHADO, a former pilot and intelligence officer, is SHADO's first officer (and very first operative recruited into SHADO by Straker) for 17 episodes in the series (Sewell left following the change of studios, being later unavailable when series production resumed at Pinewood Studios). Freeman is Straker's closest friend and right-hand man and, occasionally, his muscle.
 General James Henderson (Grant Taylor), President of IAC, Straker's superior officer, serves as the president of the International Astrophysical Commission, which is a front for SHADO and is responsible for obtaining funds and equipment from various governments to keep SHADO operational. Straker and Henderson clash frequently over the needs of SHADO and economic realities.
 Colonel Virginia Lake (Wanda Ventham) first appears in the opening episode ("Identified"), as the chief designer for Westbrook Electronics, the contractor for the SHADO's Utronics faster-than-light tracking system. During the last eight episodes, Lake returned to take over the post of SHADO first officer, replacing Alec Freeman.
 Captain Peter Carlin (Peter Gordeno), during the first third of the series, Carlin is the commander of the submarine Skydiver and pilot of its interceptor aircraft, Sky One. In 1970, Carlin and his sister found a UFO and were attacked; he was shot and wounded and his sister vanished. He joined SHADO in the hope of finding out what happened to his sister, and eventually learned that her organs had been harvested in "Identified." Gordeno left the show after six episodes because he wanted to avoid typecasting.
 Lieutenant Nina Barry (Dolores Mantez) is one of Straker's first recruits into SHADO. Barry works as a space tracker at Moonbase and later replaces Lieutenant Ellis as its commanding officer. She also serves aboard Skydiver in "Sub-Smash".
 Captain Lew Waterman (Gary Myers) is initially an interceptor pilot on the Moon; he is later promoted to captain, and replaces Peter Carlin as commanding officer of Skydiver and pilot of Sky One.
 Lieutenant Keith Ford (Keith Alexander) is a former television interviewer who became a founding member of SHADO and its main communications officer. Actor Keith Alexander left the series after the production break, so the character disappears at the two-thirds mark of the series.
 Lieutenant Ayshea Johnson (Ayshea Brough) is a SHADO headquarters officer in 14 episodes, and later becomes SHADO's communications officer following the departure of Lt. Ford.
 Doctor Douglas Jackson (Vladek Sheybal) is the SHADO psychiatrist and science officer. He serves a number of capacities within SHADO, including acting as prosecution officer during the court-martial of Paul Foster. It is implied that "Douglas Jackson" is not the character's birth name, as he speaks with a strong Eastern European accent.
 Lieutenant Joan Harrington (Antonia Ellis) another Moonbase operative, was one of the organisation's earliest recruits, as seen in "Confetti Check A-O.K.".
 Miss Ealand (Norma Ronald) is a SHADO operative who masquerades as Straker's movie studio secretary. She is the first line of defence against anyone entering SHADO HQ via Straker's office/elevator. The character is not seen in most of the post-studio change episodes, being replaced in two episodes by Miss Holland, played by Lois Maxwell.
 Lieutenant Mark Bradley (Harry Baird) is a Caribbean-born interceptor pilot based on the Moon. He becomes romantically involved with Lieutenant Ellis for a time, leading to a temporary assignment at SHADO HQ on Earth, and later briefly assumes the position of Moonbase commander. Baird left the series after filming four episodes, but appeared in stock footage in two later episodes.

Minor characters
One of the female Moonbase operatives, Joanna, was played by Shakira Baksh, who later married Michael Caine. Producer Gerry Anderson later said that he had lost his temper with her so badly on the set of UFO that he always feared the idea of running into Michael Caine at some actors' function, and being punched on the nose by him.

Interceptor pilot Steve Minto was played by Steven Berkoff.

Lieutenant Sylvia Howell, a Skydiver technician, was played by Georgina Moon.

Broadcast
Owing to the fragmented nature of the ITV network in the United Kingdom at the time, the 26 episodes of UFO were broadcast out of production order, and every broadcaster showed the episodes in a different sequence. The list below, drawn from Chris Bentley's The Complete Book of Gerry Anderson's UFO, details the running order shown on ATV (in the Midlands).
The North American DVD release of the series usually follows the production order, with a few diversions; a website ufoseries.com for the show offers seven possibilities of viewing sequence. According to The Complete Gerry Anderson, the episode "Exposed" was intended to be aired second, but it was produced fifth and appears as the fifth episode in the American DVD release. It was only when the entire series was repeated by BBC Two in 1996–1997 that the series was shown in chronological production order in the UK for the first time.

Episodes

Episode timeline
On the website shadolibrary.org, Deborah Rorabaugh has created a timeline of events in chronological order, using a few known dates and facts. For example, "Exposed" should come before all other episodes featuring Paul Foster, and there are a few definitive dates given (two newspaper dates, a death and script date). UFO Episode Timing.

Episode viewing lists
  Prod: The studio production order.
  ATV: "Official" ITC sequence. This is the sequence in which the episodes were originally scheduled to be broadcast in the UK by ATV Midlands.
  UFO Series: Recommended order by Marc Martin of http://www.ufoseries.com.
  Fanderson: Recommended by Fanderson and used on British DVDs.
  ITC: Order used for VHS release in the UK.

Compilation films
A number of the episodes were cut and compiled to create compilation films.

United Kingdom
Invasion: UFO was a 1980 compilation of scenes from "Identified", "Computer Affair", "Reflections in the Water", "Confetti Check A-Ok", "The Man Who Came Back" and "E.S.P." featuring new title music.

Italy
Italian producers KENT and INDIEF made compilation films which met mixed reviews. The films used music tracks from the James Bond films From Russia with Love and Thunderball, for UFOs composer, Barry Gray, had his name confused with Bond composer John Barry.

 UFO – Allarme rosso... attacco alla Terra! (, KENT, 1973) from episodes "The Cat with Ten Lives", "The Psychobombs" and "Timelash"
 UFO – Distruggete Base Luna (, KENT, 1973)  from episodes "The Cat with Ten Lives", "Confetti Check A-Ok", "Flight Path", "The Psychobombs", "A Question of Priorities" and "Kill Straker!"
 UFO – Prendeteli vivi (, INDIEF, 1974) from episodes "Computer Affair", "Ordeal", "The Sound of Silence", "Destruction" and "Reflections in the Water"
 UFO – Contatto Radar... stanno atterrando...! (, INDIEF, 1974) from episodes "Exposed", "Survival", "Court Martial" and "Sub-Smash"
 UFO – Annientate SHADO... Uccidete Straker... Stop! (, KENT, 1974) from episodes "Identified", "Computer Affair" and "Reflections in the Water"

Japan
A subtitled Invasion: UFO was released in Japan as the first of eight VHS and Betamax tape UFO volumes by Emotion Video in 1984, and on Laserdisc format.

Production

Concept

Following lukewarm ratings for Joe 90 (1968–1969) and the cancellation of children's espionage television series The Secret Service (1969) after only one series, Lew Grade approached Gerry Anderson to look into creating his first live-action TV series. Anderson worked with his wife, Sylvia, and producer Reg Hill to create a science fiction adventure series based on UFOs. Anderson said the core idea for the series was that UFO sightings were a common issue during the late 1960s, and that the idea of aliens harvesting human organs came from the work of Christiaan Barnard and his pioneering transplant operations. The creative team initially envisioned an organisation called UFoeDO (Unidentified Foe Defence Organisation), which was to become the secret SHADO (Supreme Headquarters Alien Defence Organisation).

Many of the props and actors that had appeared in the Anderson-produced 1969 movie Doppelgänger were utilised in the series. The creators looked ten years ahead and placed the series in a 1980s future. Sylvia Anderson also designed the costumes for the show, including the Moonbase uniforms and purple wigs that female staff wore; the wigs were to become a major reference point for the series.

UFO featured key motifs and plot elements that shared a conceptual continuity with nearly all of Anderson's previous television work. Every series from Supercar onward focused on the heroic exploits of a secret but benevolent group or agency (the Supercar team, World Space Patrol, WASP, International Rescue, Spectrum, WIN, BISHOP, SHADO), operating from a remote or hidden base, and equipped with futuristic technology and/or advanced transport vehicles, whose mission is to protect the people of Earth from danger and disaster, and counter the nefarious schemes of a sinister, devious and elusive enemy (Masterspy, the Subterrains, the Aquaphibians, The Hood, The Mysterons, the aliens).

In addition to the shift from using marionettes to real actors, another key point of difference is that while Anderson's previous series were explicitly made for all ages, UFO was a deliberate attempt to court young adult and adult viewers. Some UFO episodes included serious adult themes such as divorce, drug use, the challenge of maintaining work/family balance, mind control, alien abduction, illegal organ harvesting, and murder.

Filming
Principal photography commenced in April 1969 with production based at MGM-British Studios in Borehamwood. Seventeen episodes were filmed at these studios before they closed at the end of 1969. Production resumed at Pinewood Studios when studio space became available in June 1970, making UFO a 17-month-long production by the time the final nine episodes were completed. After the break, George Sewell (who played Alec Freeman) and Gabrielle Drake (Lt. Gay Ellis) were no longer available, and left the series.

Due to the series being shown out of production order, their omission was not overly noticeable. Previously, Harry Baird, who played interceptor pilot Mark Bradley, had left the series after just four episodes, citing contractual problems (although he reappeared in a few later episodes from stock footage). Also, Skydiver Captain Peter Carlin, played by Peter Gordeno, left after eight episodes out of a fear of being typecast.

The different writers and directors, as well as a production break when MGM-British Studios was closed, resulted in episodes of varying quality.

Cultural impact on episodes
Some episodes feature downbeat or tragic elements. In "Flight Path", a SHADO operative who has been blackmailed into giving crucial data to the aliens redeems himself by thwarting a sneak attack on Moonbase, but is killed in the attempt, and dies not knowing that his wife has been murdered by an alien agent. In "Survival", after another sneak attack on Moonbase, an injured Col. Foster encounters an alien on the lunar surface but, although the alien unexpectedly befriends and helps him, a misunderstanding leads to the alien being killed by SHADO operatives. "Confetti Check A-O.K." is almost entirely devoted to the breakdown of Straker's marriage under the strain of maintaining secrecy, owing to the classified nature of his duties. "A Question of Priorities" hinges on Straker having to choose between diverting a SHADO aircraft to deliver life-saving medical supplies to his critically injured son, or allow the aircraft to continue its mission to intercept an alien who appears to want to surrender to SHADO.

Another episode, "The Square Triangle", centres on a woman and her lover who plan to murder her husband. When they accidentally kill an alien from a downed UFO instead, SHADO intervenes and doses the guilty pair with amnesia drugs. Straker realises, however, that the drugs will not affect their basic motivation and, worse, he cannot reveal the truth to local legal authorities. The end credits of this episode run over a scene set in the near future, showing the woman visiting her husband's grave and then walking away to meet her lover.

Some critics complained that the emphasis on down-to-earth relationships weakened the show's science fiction premise and were also a means of saving money on special effects. Others countered that the characters were more well-rounded than in other science fiction shows, and that science fiction concepts and special effects in themselves did not preclude realistic action and interaction and believable, emotionally engaging plots.

UFO confused broadcasters in Britain and the United States, who could not decide if it was a show for adults or for children. In the UK, the first episodes were originally shown in the 5:15pm 'tea-time' slot on Saturdays, and then on Saturday mornings during an early repeat, by both Southern Television — which began broadcasting UFO almost two months before the London area — and London Weekend Television. The fact that the Andersons were primarily associated with children's programming did not help matters. This confusion and erratic broadcast schedules are considered contributing factors in its cancellation, although UFO is credited with opening the door to moderately successful runs of later live-action, adult-oriented programming by Anderson such as The Protectors and Space: 1999.

SHADO

To defend against the aliens, a secret organisation called SHADO, the Supreme Headquarters, Alien Defence Organisation, is established. Operating under the cover (as well as literally beneath the premises) of the Harlington-Straker Studios movie studio in England, SHADO is headed by Commander Edward Straker (Ed Bishop), a former United States Air Force colonel and astronaut, whose "cover" is his role as the studio's chief executive.

Establishing the main character and principal location as the chief executive of a movie studio was a cost-saving move by the producers: the Harlington-Straker Studio was the actual studio where the series was being filmed, originally the MGM-British Studios in Borehamwood (later moved to Pinewood Studios) — although the exterior of the Harlington-Straker studio office block seen throughout the series was actually Neptune House, an office building at ATV Elstree Studios, also in Borehamwood. Pinewood's studio buildings and streetscapes were used extensively in later episodes, particularly "Timelash" and "Mindbender" — the latter featuring scenes that show the behind-the-scenes workings of the UFO sets, when Straker briefly finds himself hallucinating that he is an actor in a TV series and all his SHADO colleagues are likewise actors. In "The Man Who Came Back", the main set for The Devils, then in production at Pinewood, can be seen in the background of several scenes.

Typical of Anderson's work, the studio-as-cover concept served multiple practical and narrative functions: It was simple and cost-effective for the production, it provided an engaging vehicle for the viewer's suspension of disbelief, it eliminated the need to build an expensive exterior set for the SHADO base, and it combined the all-important "secret" cover (concealment and secrecy are always central themes in Anderson dramas) with at least nominal plausibility. A studio was a business where unusual events and routines would not be remarkable or even noticed. Comings and goings at odd times, the movement of people and unusual vehicles, equipment and material would not create undue interest and could easily be explained away as sets, props, or extras.

Another recurring Anderson leitmotif was the concept of the mechanical conveyor (e.g. the automatic boarding tubes of the Stingray and the Thunderbird craft). In UFO this took several forms – Straker's "secret" office doubles as a secret elevator that takes him down to the SHADO control centre located beneath the studio, and the pilots of the Moonbase interceptors and the amphibious Sky One jet interceptor slide down boarding chutes to board their craft. The interceptors then rise from their hangar via elevating platforms to a launch pad disguised as a lunar crater. The device of the personnel boarding chute or conveyor served both narrative and practical functions – like firefighters responding to a fire alarm by sliding down the fireman's pole to board the fire engine, these personnel chutes/conveyors signified to the audience that the characters were embarking on a perilous mission; they were also a carry-over from the previous marionette series and were one of several plot devices (e.g. the Thunderbirds hover-bikes) which Anderson and his team devised to provide a fast-paced, futuristic and visually exciting way to move the action forward, whilst also minimising or eliminating the undesirable comical effect of seeing the marionettes walking, which might otherwise undercut the dramatic tension of the sequence.

Special effects
The special effects, supervised by Derek Meddings, were produced with limited resources. In a refinement of the underwater effect developed for Stingray, Meddings' team devised a disconcerting effect – a double-walled visor for the alien space helmets, which could be gradually filled from the bottom up with green-dyed water. When filmed from the appropriate angle it produced an illusion of the helmet filling up and submerging the wearer's head. The series also revisited and improved on the clever and cost-effective aquatic effects originally devised for Stingray. The submerged launch of Sky One was filmed on a special set dressed to look like an underwater location; a thin, glass-walled water tank containing small fish and equipped with small air-bubble generators was placed in front of the camera, the set behind the tank was filled with smoke, and set elements were agitated with fans to simulate water movement, creating a surprisingly convincing underwater scene without any of the high cost or technical problems associated with real underwater filming.

SHADO equipment
SHADO has a variety of high-tech hardware and vehicles at its disposal to implement a layered defence of Earth. Early warnings of alien attack would come from SID, the Space Intruder Detector, an unmanned computerised tracking satellite that constantly scans for UFO incursions. The forward line of defence is Moonbase from which the three lunar Interceptor spacecraft, that fire a single explosive warhead, are launched. The second line of defence includes Skydiver, a submarine mated with the submersible, undersea-launched Sky One interceptor aircraft, which attacks UFOs in Earth's atmosphere. The last line of defence is ground units including the armed, IFV-like SHADO Mobiles, fitted with caterpillar tracks.

On Earth, SHADO also uses two SHADAIR aircraft, a Seagull X-ray supersonic jet (e.g. in the episode "Identified") and a transport plane (e.g. in the episode "A Question of Priorities"); a transatlantic Lunar Carrier with a separating Lunar module (e.g. in "Computer Affair"); a Helicopter (actually, a small VTOL aeroplane with large rotating propellers, e.g. in the episode "Ordeal"); and a Radio-controlled (Space) Dumper (e.g. in "The Long Sleep"). Also, the Moonbase has hovercraft-like Moon Hoppers/Moonmobiles that can be deployed for transportation or reconnaissance.

The special effects (as in all Anderson's shows of this era) were supervised by Derek Meddings, and the vehicles were designed by Meddings and his assistant Michael Trim. As with all these Anderson series, the look and narrative action of UFO relied heavily on the groundbreaking miniature props and special effects sequences created by Meddings and his team, who devised a range of innovative low-cost, high-quality techniques used to create very convincing miniature sets and locations and miniature action scenes featuring ground transportation, underwater, atmospheric and space travel, and dramatic explosion effects. The large-scale miniature vehicles and craft used for close-up filming were extremely detailed and combine innovative design with a high level of fine workmanship. Most production miniatures typically consisted of a mixture of custom-made elements and detail pieces 'cannibalised' from commercial scale model kits.

As with all the Anderson/Century 21 programmes of that period, very few original series props and miniatures have survived, and these are now highly valuable collector's items. Miniatures from the series known to still exist include:

 Two of the alien 'flying saucer' UFO miniatures
 A single large-scale miniature of Sky One
 One large-scale and one small-scale miniature of the Moonbase Interceptors (which survived because they were given to Dinky for production of its Interceptor toys)
 The (badly damaged) front section only of the smaller miniature of the Space Intruder Detector (SID)
 The large-scale model of the SID2 orbital shuttle
 One prime mover of Marker Universal Transporter truck (the lorry and trailer used to secretly transport the SHADO Mobile vehicles to their operation sites)
 One large-scale SHADO ambulance
 One large-scale Harlington-Straker Studio transport truck (The model, based on the Mk 1 Ford Transit, had previously appeared in the final Supermarionation series The Secret Service)

UFOs
The extraterrestrial spacecraft can readily cross the vast distances between their planet and Earth at many times the speed of light (abbreviated and pronounced as "SOL"; e.g., "SOL one decimal seven" is 1.7 times the speed of light), but are too small to carry more than a few crew members. Their time on station is limited: UFOs can only survive for a couple of days in Earth's atmosphere before they deteriorate and finally explode. The UFOs can survive for far longer underwater; one episode, "Reflections in the Water", deals with the discovery of a secret undersea alien base and shows one UFO flying straight out of an extinct volcano, which Straker describes as "a back door to the Atlantic". A special underwater version of the standard UFO design is seen in "Sub-Smash". In flight they are surrounded by horizontally spinning vanes, and emit a distinctive pulsing electronic whine that sounds like a Shoooe-Wheeeh! (produced by series composer Barry Gray on an ondes Martenot). The craft is armed with a laser-type weapon, and conventional explosive warheads can destroy it. The personal arms of the aliens resemble shiny metal submachine guns; these have a lower rate of fire than those used by SHADO. Later episodes, such as "The Cat with Ten Lives", show the aliens using other weapons, such as a small device that paralyses victims.

Aliens
Notably for science fiction, the alien race is never given a proper name, either by themselves or by human beings; they are simply referred to as "the aliens". They are humanoid in appearance, and the post mortem examination of the first alien captured reveals that they are harvesting organs from the bodies of abducted humans to prolong their lifespans. However, the later episode "The Cat with Ten Lives" suggests that these "humanoids" are actually beings subject to alien mind control, and one "alien" body recovered was suspected of being completely Homo sapiens, "possessed" by one of the alien minds—a concept central to Anderson's previous Supermarionation series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons. Their faces are stained green by the hue of a green oxygenated liquid, which is believed to cushion their lungs against the extreme acceleration of interstellar flight; this liquid is contained in their helmets. To protect their eyes, the aliens wear opaque sclera contact lenses with small pinholes for vision. The show's opening sequence begins by showing the image of one of these contact lenses being removed from an obviously real eye with a small suction cup, even though the lens is not shown in contact with the eye. The entire lens-removal sequence is shown in the pilot episode.

Only two of the alien suits were made, so at no point in the series are more than two of the aliens seen on screen at any one time. In the episode "Ordeal", Paul Foster is carried by two aliens while he is wearing an alien space suit, but one of those two aliens is always off-screen when Foster is on-screen.

The alien spacesuit costumes were made of red spandex. At the start of production, the alien spacesuits were ornamented with brass chain mesh, as seen in the episode "Survival". Later, this was replaced by silvery panels. In reality, the dark vertical bands on the sides of the helmets were slits meant to allow the actors to breathe.

Look of the show

The Andersons never explained at the time why female Moonbase personnel uniformly wore mauve or purple wigs, silver catsuits, and extensive eye make-up. Furthermore, their unusual apparel is never discussed in the series. Gerry Anderson has since commented that it made them look more futuristic and that it filmed better under the bright lights, while Sylvia Anderson said she believed wigs would become accepted components of military uniforms by the 1980s. However, in an interview given toward the end of her life, Sylvia explained that the decision was a combination of visual appeal and practicality - the wigs provided a striking and futuristic look, but they also saved the production the considerable time and expense of having to style the hair of each of the female Moonbase staff for each episode, as well as keeping the 'look' of the hairstyles consistent from episode to episode. However, whenever female Moonbase personnel visited Earth (as Ellis and Barry did from time to time), their lunar uniforms and wigs were never worn.
The show's fictional conception of futuristic dress can be compared to André Courreges' actual futurist  'Space Designs' really worn just before the show's time.

Ed Bishop, who had naturally dark hair, initially bleached his hair for Straker's unique white-haired look. After the break in production he began wearing a white wig. Until not long before his death he possessed one of the wigs he wore on the show, and took great delight in displaying it at science fiction conventions and on TV programmes. In the episode "Mindbender", Stuart Damon is seen wearing the same white wig, although deliberately ill-fitting, in a dream sequence segment. Bishop also kept a Certina watch that was specially made for his character.

Other male characters in the series also wore wigs, again because the Andersons felt that they would become fashionable for both sexes by the 1980s. Michael Billington does not wear a wig in early episodes; these can be identified by his receding hairline and long sideburns.

On both Skydiver and Moonbase, SHADO pilots enter their interceptor craft by sliding down tubes. This is an allusion to the Andersons' earlier series Thunderbirds, which had the characters reaching their craft in similar fashion. This was owing to the difficulty of getting a puppet into a cockpit easily and in a natural way.

The SHADO HQ and Moonbase control consoles, computer units, lighting panels and spacesuits make numerous appearances in later TV shows of the 1970s such as Doctor Who, Timeslip, Doomwatch, The Tomorrow People, The Goodies, The New Avengers, Star Maidens and Blake's 7, as well as feature films such as Diamonds Are Forever, Carry On Loving and Confessions of a Pop Performer. An alien spacesuit can also be seen in the Children's Film Foundation production Kadoyng.

Sylvia Anderson, having had made a pair of very sheer trousers for actor Patrick Allen to wear in the episode "Timelash", later regretted not having had the nerve to ask him to wear a jockstrap underneath, and commented on the DVD release of the series that "you should not be able to tell which side anybody's 'packet' is on".

The futuristic, gull-winged cars driven by Straker and Foster were originally built for the Anderson movie Doppelgänger. During the shooting of UFO, David Lowe and Sydney Carlton raised funds to form a company called The Explorer Motor Company, dedicated to the mass production of these cars for sale to the public. A plastic mould was made of the Straker car, in preparation for mass production, but the company never got off the ground. Both Ed Bishop and Michael Billington commented that the futuristic cars were "impossible to drive", partly because the steering wheel was designed for looks rather than functionality. The show also made limited use of American models, which were unfamiliar to British viewers. These supposedly futuristic vehicles included a 1965 Ford Galaxie station wagon and an Oldsmobile Toronado.

The Blue SHADO Jeeps, six-wheeled light utility vehicles, were originally supplied for Doppelgänger. Using modified Austin Mini Moke chassis with an extra rear axle, the marine ply, fibreglass and perspex bodies, fitted for the film were modified, with the windscreen moved rearwards. As with the other SHADO vehicles, gull-wing doors, operated by a prop man out of shot, were fitted. Later episodes, such as "Timelash" saw these doors omitted, presumably for ease of filming.

The episode "Survival" shows that SHADO's Moonbase is in the Mare Imbrium, or in the northeast part of it, according to a map that Foster and an alien studied while they were stranded on the surface. The map is a real one.

On the Carlton DVD commentary for the first episode, Gerry Anderson noted that perhaps the programme's most dated aspect was its tobacco and alcohol consumption, although in the 1980 of real-life England and America there was still plenty of smoking indoors and many executives had bars in their offices. Straker has a futuristic home bar in his office, from which Col. Freeman partakes fairly regularly. While Straker himself does not drink, he is regularly seen smoking in SHADO headquarters, his tobacco of choice being either a cigarette or what appears to be a slim panatela cigar, complete with holder. And despite the high-tech milieu and enclosed environments, smoking is seen throughout the show, as it often was in 1970s British television drama. As a consequence, some of the sequences in the bunker of SHADO HQ are seen through a slight smoky haze. Similarly, many of the medical staff smoke whilst on duty, and smoking is even permitted on board the closed environment of the Skydiver, where Capt. Carlin is shown idly flicking through magazines with a cigarette in hand. Most striking of all, Moonbase personnel also light up frequently.

Second series and Space: 1999
Two years after the 26 episodes were completed, the series was syndicated on American television. Many stations which carried the series were affiliated with CBS; they tended to schedule the show in the Saturday evening hour leading into All in the Family, the hugely popular comedy which was the highest-rated program on all of U.S. television at the time. (The FCC had mandated that the major networks give back the first half-hour of the evening schedule to local stations, as an attempt to limit the networks' dominance in programming at the expense of independent producers.) Naturally, the ratings of UFO were initially promising enough to prompt ITC to commission a second series.

As the Moon-based episodes appeared to have proven more popular than the Earth-based stories, ITC insisted that in the new series, the action would take place entirely on the Moon. Gerry Anderson proposed a format in which SHADO Moonbase had been greatly enlarged to become the organisation's main headquarters, and pre-production on UFO 2 began with extensive research and design for the new Moonbase. These developments had precedent in the earlier episodes: a subplot of "Kill Straker!" sees Straker negotiating with SHADO's financial supporters for funding to build more moonbases within 10 years. However, when ratings for the syndicated broadcasts in America dropped towards the end of the run, ITC cancelled the second series plans. Unwilling to let the UFO 2 pre-production work go to waste, Anderson instead offered ITC a new series idea, unrelated to UFO, in which the Moon would be blown out of Earth orbit taking the Moonbase survivors with it. This proposal developed into Space: 1999.

Media

VHS release
In 1986-1987, Channel 5 released a seven-volume VHS collection of episodes (volumes 2-7), preceded by the compilation film Invasion: UFO (volume 1), while a similar series was later released by ITC in 1993.

DVD release
The complete series was released on DVD in the UK and in North America in 2002 and in Australia in 2007. Bonus features include a commentary by Gerry Anderson on the pilot episode "Identified", and an actor's commentary by Ed Bishop on the episode "Sub-Smash". There are also deleted scenes, stills and publicity artwork.

In 2002, A&E Home Entertainment, under licence from Carlton International Media Limited released the complete series on Region 1 (US/North America) DVD.

Merchandise
As with many Anderson productions, the series generated a range of merchandising toys based on the SHADO vehicles. The classic Dinky die-cast range of vehicles featured robust yet finely finished products, and included Straker's futuristic gull-winged gas turbine car, the SHADO mobile and the missile-bearing Lunar Interceptor, though Dinky's version of the interceptor was released in a lurid metallic green finish unlike the original's stark white. Like the Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet models, the original Dinky toys are now prized collectors' items. All the major vehicles, characters, and more have been produced in model form many times over by a large number of licensee companies; the Anderson shows and their merchandise have always had widespread popularity, but they are especially popular in Japan.

Revivals
Several attempts have been made to either revive or remake the series.

Australian company Bump Map, run by Albert Hastings, pitched a revival of UFO to one of Australia's major TV production companies in 1995/6. Also in 1996, Ed Bishop briefly corresponded with independent Australian film maker/UFO fan Adrian Sherlock about an unofficial revival called Damon Dark: Shadofall. Funding for the project fell through, but the script has been made into a fan-made audio production and uploaded to YouTube, and it continues as an independent series.

Film
In 2009, it was announced that producer Robert Evans and ITV Global would produce a big-screen adaptation of the series. Ryan Gaudet and Joseph Kanarek were to write the script, which was to be set in 2020. It was claimed that the UFO movie would be visual effects supervisor Matthew Gratzner's directorial debut and that Joshua Jackson would play Col. Paul Foster. Ali Larter was linked to the role of Col. Virginia Lake.

Producers Avi Haas and Matthew Gratzner posted on the official UFO film website that the film was under development and planned for a summer 2013 release. However, nothing was completed, and the film's web page is no longer available.

UFO stories in other media

Stories set in the Gerry Anderson UFO series have appeared in various media:

 Two novelisations based on the series, written by John Burke under the pseudonym "Robert Miall", were published in the UK and America:
UFO (published in the USA as UFO-1: Flesh Hunters). Novelises portions of the TV episodes Identified, Exposed, Close Up and Court Martial.
UFO 2 (published in the USA as UFO-2: Sporting Blood). Novelises the TV episodes Computer Affair, The Dalotek Affair and Survival .
 UFO comic strips were published in the comics Countdown and TV Action.
 Between 1991 and 1999, Entropy Express (based in Brighton, South Australia) published seven issues of a periodical called Flightpath, containing 39 text stories set in the UFO universe. These include a crossover with Bergerac and another with Predator.
 UFO episodes were adapted as photocomics in the Italian publication I film di UFO ("The UFO films").
 There was a hardback annual for the series that featured text stories.
 Much fan-fiction has been written in this series' scenario.
 An Italian-language board game of the race game type was published, called "Distruggete Base Luna" ("Destroy Moonbase"; in reference to the compilation movie), with up to four players, each representing an alien trying to penetrate Moonbase, and one player representing Straker in charge of Moonbase.
 The video game X-COM: UFO Defense, is heavily inspired by this series. The game sees the aliens use telepathy to control the soldiers, as in "The Cat with Ten Lives". In the sequel X-COM: Terror from the Deep aliens have built liveable environments in the sea forcing you to go on "scuba-diving" missions to find and destroy their main control centre as seen in the finale of "Reflections in the Water". Also, aliens not killed during a crash landing or battle but captured go under autopsy to further the understanding of the aliens' motives, as in "Computer Affair". A remake of X-COM: UFO Defense entitled XCOM: Enemy Unknown was released in 2012; it had connections to the original show and featured a nod to the show in some of the dialogue: "Some nut calling himself 'Commander Straker' has been all over the news, ranting about 'SHADO agents'."
 Character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto has admitted inspiration from UFO for the character designs for Gendo Ikari and Kozo Fuyutsuki in Neon Genesis Evangelion (from Straker and Freeman respectively).

Translations
 French: UFO – Alerte dans l'espace (France - O.R.T.F.)
 German: Ufo – Weltraumkommando S.H.A.D.O.
 Japanese: Nazo no Enban Yū-Efu-Ō (謎の円盤UFO, UFO: The Mysterious Saucers)
 Italian: UFO (Italy - R.A.I. TV) and Minaccia dallo spazio (Switzerland (canton of Ticino) - T.S.I. TV)
 Spanish: OVNI (although the Spanish 2007 DVD release title remains UFO)

See also

 The Indestructible Man, a Doctor Who novel with a scenario derived from various Gerry Anderson story scenarios, including UFO.

References

Further reading

External links

UFO episode guide on the Fanderson website
UFO, Countdown, and TV Action comic strip stories
Episode reviews at The Anorak Zone

1970 British television series debuts
1970s British science fiction television series
1971 British television series endings
Alien abduction in television
Aviation television series
British science fiction adventure television series
English-language television shows
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
Space adventure television series
Television series about alien visitations
Television series about the Moon
Television series by ITC Entertainment
Television series produced at Pinewood Studios
Television series set in the 1980s
Television series set in the future
Television shows filmed at Pinewood Studios
Television shows shot at MGM-British Studios

UFO-related television

UFO (British TV series)


Sota Kasahara (født 9. maj 1976) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Otsuka Pharmaceutical og Mito HollyHock.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Sota Kasahara


El Papiro Magdalena o Papiro Magdaliniense es el conjunto de los fragmentos: ,  y probablemente también el  (en la numeración Gregory-Aland). Estos fragmentos en papiro transmiten parte del capítulo 26 del Evangelio según Mateo.

Historia
Fue comprado en Luxor, Egipto, en 1901 por el Reverendo Charles Bousfield Huleatt (1863–1908), quien identificó los fragmentos en griego como porciones del Evangelio según Mateo (26:23, 31) y los presentó al Colegio Magdalena, Oxford, en donde los catalogaron como P. Magdalen Greek 17 (P. Magdalena griego 17) (Gregory-Aland 64); a partir de entonces tienen este nombre. Finalmente, cuando los fragmentos fueron publicados por Colin H. Roberts en 1953, ilustrados con una fotografía, la escritura fue caracterizada como "un antecesor antiguo de los llamados 'Unciales bíblicos'" que comenzaron a surgir a finales del . El estilo uncial se muestra en el Códice Vaticano y el Códice Sinaítico. El análisis paleográfico comparativo ha sido clave para la datación del manuscrito: el resultado es c. 200 d. C.

Los fragmentos están escritos en ambos lados, probando contundentemente que venía de un códice más bien que de un rollo. Otros fragmentos publicados en 1956 por Ramon Roca-Puig, catalogados como P. Barc. Inv. 1 (Gregory-Aland 67), también fueron determinados por Roca-Puig y Roberts de provenir del mismo códice que los fragmentos Magdalena; este es un punto de vista que ha mantenido el consenso académico.

Fecha

La fecha para el 64 originalmente se asignó al  por Charles Huleatt, quién donó el manuscrito al Colegio Magdalena; luego el papirólogo A. S. Hunt estudió y fechó el manuscrito para principios del . Pero debido a que pensaba que era un fechado demasiado posterior para el manuscrito, Colin Roberts publicó el manuscrito y le dio una fecha para el c. 200, que fue confirmada por otros tres papirólogos importantes: Harold Bell, T. C. Skeat y E. G. Turner, y desde entonces esta ha sido la fecha aceptada en general para el 64.

Pero más tarde en 1994, mucha publicidad rodeó al nuevo fechado de Carsten Peter Thiede del papiro Magdalena para mediados del  (37 a 70 E.C.). Su artículo oficial apareció en Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (Diario de papirología y epigrafía) el año siguiente. El texto para el lego fue coescrito con Matthew d'Ancona y presentado como The Jesus Papyrus (El Papiro Jesús), Weidenfeld & Nicolson, Londres, 1996. (también publicado como: Eyewitness to Jesus (Testigo ocular de Jesús), 1996, Nueva York: Doubleday). Después de comparar los fragmentos con una antigua carta comercial que se encontró en Egipto, el profesor Thiede afirmó que el documento egipcio "se parece al Papiro Magdalena casi como un mellizo... en apariencia general y en la forma y disposición de las letras individuales". La nueva datación de Thiede, en general, ha sido vista con escepticismo por los eruditos bíblicos ya establecidos.

Philip Comfort y David Barret en su libro Text of the Earliest NT Greek Manuscripts (El texto de los manuscritos griegos más antiguos del NT) sugieren una fecha más general de 150–175 para el manuscrito, también para 4 y 67, de los cuales ellos argumentan que vienen del mismo códice. El 4 fue utilizado como material para la unión de "un códice de Filón, escrito a finales del siglo III y encontrado en una jarra que había sido tapiada en una casa, en Coptos [en 250]". Si el 4 fue parte de este códice, entonces el códice podría haber sido escrito aproximadamente 100 años antes, o más antes. Comfort y Barret también mostraron que este 4/64/67 tiene afinidades con un número de papiros de finales del .

Comfort y Barret "suelen afirmar una fecha más temprana para muchos manuscritos incluidos en su volumen de lo que podrían ser admitidas por otros paleógrafos". El Novum Testamentum Graece (Nuevo Testamento Griego), una referencia estándar para los testimonios griegos, enlista al 4 y al 64/67 por separado, dando una primera fecha al , aunque por último se asignó al c. 200.
También Charlesworth ha concluido 'que el 64+67 y el 4, aunque escritos por el mismo escriba, no son del mismo ... códice'.

Véase también
 Lista de papiros del Nuevo Testamento

Notas

Referencias
 Charlesworth, SD (2007) T. C. Skeat, P64+67 and P4, and the Problem of Fibre Orientation in Codicological Reconstruction, New Test. Stud. Vol.53, pp. 582–604,

Imágenes
 p64 verso
 Literal Translation of the Original Greek New Testament

Enlaces externos
 Peter M. Head, "The date of the Magdalen Papyrus of Matthew: A Response to C.P. Thiede": published in Tyndale Bulletin 46 (1995) p. 251-285; el artículo sugiere que Thiede ha sobreestimado la cantidad de similitud estilística entre P64 y varios manuscritos griegos palestinos y subestimado la fuerza del consenso académico de una fecha alrededor del año 200 d.C.
 University of Münster, New Testament Transcripts Prototype. Select P64/67 from 'manuscript descriptions' box
 T. C. Skeat, The Oldest Manuscript of the Four Gospels?, in: T. C. Skeat and J. K. Elliott, The collected biblical writings of T. C. Skeat, Brill 2004, pp. 158–179.

Magdalena
Manuscritos bíblicos del siglo II
Papiros en idioma griego
Manuscritos del Nuevo Testamento en griego antiguo
Evangelio de Mateo
Egipto en el siglo II

Papiro Magdalena


بي إم بي-3  هي مركبة قتالية مدرعة روسية تعد من أحدث العربات من هذا النوع في الترسانة الروسية(السوفيتية-سابقا). تم تطويرها في بداية الثمانينات، حتى عام 1987 حيث ظهرت في صفوف القوات المدرعة السوفيتية.

التسليح
يعتبر تسلح هذه الناقلة فريد من نوعه، حيث سُلحت بمدفع عيار 100 ملم طور ليعمل مع أنظمة توجيه إلكترونية معتمدة على مقياس مسافات ليزري وأجهزة تصوير حراري بصوره تلفازية ونظام shtora-1 الفريد للتشويش الصوري (حيث يطلق حزمة من أشعة التحت الحمراء ترسم جدار أمام أجهزة رؤية المدرعات المعادية) وأخيرا تم أضافة نظام Arena (صورة رقم 2) المضاد للصواريخ الموجهة (المضادة للدبابات). أضافة لهذا المدفع، تم تركيب مدفع رشاش من عيار (30 ملم) بصور متوازية للمدفع (100 ملم) محمل على نفس القاعدة لهذا المدفع. إضافة إلى مدفعين رشاش من عيار (7.62 ملم) موجودة على الجوانب الأمامية للمدرعة.

التطوير
استمر التطوير والتحديث حيث شمل زيادة ألواح التدريع وأضافة دروع تفاعلية من الجيل الرابع لتوفر أعلى درجات الأمان لطاقم المدرعة. أما بالنسبة لوحدة الطاقة، فلقد تم تحميل محرك يعمل بوقود الديزل بقوة (860 حصان)، وناقل سرعة تلقائي لزيادة المناورة والسلاسة في الحركة بالتالي زيادة النجاة المدرعة وزيادة دقة الإصابة لهذه المدرعة أثناء الحركة.

تعد بي أم بي ديريفاتسيا نسخة أكتر تطورا من عربة بي أم بي–3.

مواصفات فنية تكتيكية
 طاقم العربة 3 أفراد بالإضافة إلى 7 أفراد للمشاة
 طول العربة 7.2 م
 عرض العربة 3.23 م
 المسافة بين سطح الأرض وقاع العربة 450 مم
 أسلحة العربة مدفع عيار 100 مم، ومدفع آلي عيار 30 مم ورشاش عيار 7.62 مم وصواريخ موجهة مضادة للدبابات
 قدرة المحرك القصوى 450 – 500 حصان
 سرعة العربة 70 كم في الساعة
 السرعة على سطح الماء 10 كم في الساعة
 احتياط الحركة 600 كم

المستخدمون

تستخدم المدرعة من قبل الجيش الروسي وبعض الدول التي لا تزال تربطها علاقات دفاعية مع روسيا الأتحادية.
  - 693
  - 652
  - 120
  - 70
  - 43
 - 283
 -  300

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 عربة المشاة القتالية «بي ام بي- 3» روسيا اليوم

مركبات الدعم الناري
مركبات برمائية
مركبات عسكرية 1980–1989
مركبات عسكرية روسية
مركبات مشاة قتالية روسية
مركبات مشاة قتالية مجنزرة

بي إم بي-3


Düzgün dairesel hareket, sabit bir kuvvetin etkisinde, bir çember üzerinde süratin değişmediği harekettir.

Periyot ve frekans

Periyot
Düzgün dairesel harekette bir tam dolanım için geçen süredir.  ile gösterilir. Birimi saniyedir.

Frekans
Düzgün dairesel hareket yapan cismin bir saniyedeki dolanım sayısıdır.  ile gösterilir. Birimi Hertz dir.

Periyot ve frekans arasında,  bağıntısı vardır.

Hız

Çember üzerinde dolanan bir cisim, Şekil 1 deki gibi  kadar yol alırken yarıçap vektörü aynı anda  açısı kadar bir açı tarar. Bu nedenle dairesel hareketlerde; biri çizgisel, diğeri açısal olmak üzere iki çeşit hız tanımlanır.

Çizgisel hız
Şekil 1 deki gibi düzgün dairesel hareket yapan bir cismin, daire yayı üzerinde birim zamanda aldığı yola çizgisel hız denir.
Çizgisel hız vektörü () daire yayına tam teğet olup, yarıçap vektörüne diktir.

Düzgün doğrusal harekette;
 (veya ) idi. Cisim dairenin tüm çevresini dolanırsa,  kadar yol alır ve bu esnada bir periyot  kadar zaman geçer.

Bu nedenle çizgisel hız ifadesi;

şeklinde bulunur. Çizgisel hızın birimi metre / saniye dir.

Açısal hız
Cismi merkeze bağlayan yarıçap vektörünün, birim zamanda radyan cinsinden taradığı açıya açısal hız denir, ω ile gösterilir. Birimi rad/s dir.

Dairesel hareket yapan bir cismi merkeze bağlayan yarıçap vektörü bir tam devir yaptığında,  radyan açı tarar ve bu esnada bir periyot  kadar zaman geçer. O hâlde açısal hız;

  olur.

Çizgisel hız ile açısal hız arasındaki bağıntı ise;

  olmak üzere

  olur.

İvme ve kuvvet

Merkezcil ivme

Dairesel bir yörüngede sabit hızla dönen bir cismin, eşit zaman aralıklarıyla çizilmiş hız vektörleri Şekil 3 teki gibi olur. Bu hız vektörlerinin büyüklükleri eşit, yönleri ise farklıdır.

Hız vektörlerinin başlangıç noktaları ortak bir noktada toplanırsa ardışık  hız değişim vektörlerinin eşit büyüklükte, fakat farklı yönlerde olduğu görülür  süresindeki hız değişim vektörü  ise, ortalama ivme vektörü;

  olur.

Ani ivme vektörleri, hız vektörlerine diktir.

Düzgün dairesel hareket yapan bir cisim,  yarıçaplı çember üzerinde bir devir yaptığında, hız vektörü de tam bir devir yaparak başlangıçtaki yönüne gelir. Diğer bir deyişle, hız vektörünün ucu,  yarıçaplı bir dairenin  çevresini  zamanda döner. Hızdaki değişim;  olduğundan;

olur. Çizgisel hızın  değeri ivme bağıntısında yerine yazılırsa;

  veya

bulunur.

Dairesel harekette bu ivmeye merkezcil ivme denir.

Buradaki  işareti   vektörüyle   ivme vektörünün aynı doğrultuda ve ters yönlü olduğunu gösterir (Şekil 4).

Merkezcil kuvvet
Her ivme, kendi yönünde bir net kuvvet tarafından oluşturulur. Düzgün dairesel harekette de cisme ivme kazandıran kuvvet dinamiğin temel prensibi olan  dan;

Bu kuvvetin yönü, ivme ile aynı yönlü olup yörüngenin merkezine doğrudur. Bu kuvvete merkezcil kuvvet denir. Kuvvetin büyüklüğü,  hızı ile  yarıçapına bağlı olarak;

şeklinde de yazılabilir.

Merkezkaç kuvveti

Dairesel harekette merkezkaç kuvveti adı verilen bir kuvvet daha vardır. Newton yasalarının geçerli olduğu bir referans sisteminde böyle bir kuvvet yoktur. Bu kuvvetin çıkma sebebi gözlemcinin sistemde Newton yasalarını uygulayabilmek için varsaydığı eylemsizlik kuvvetidir (Şekil 5).

Düzgün dairesel hareketin uygulamaları
 Eğimli viraj
 Yatay viraj

Dönme
Hareket
Klasik mekanik

Düzgün dairesel hareket


Monica Bellucci (d. 30 Eylül 1964), İtalyan oyuncu ve eski model.

Yaşamı
"Monica Anna Maria Bellucci" Città di Castello, Umbria, İtalya'da nakliyat şirketi sahibi Luigi Bellucci ile ressam Maria Gustinelli'nin kızı olarak dünyaya geldi. 16 yaşında Liceo Classico isimli okula başladığı sıralarda modellikle tanıştı. İlkin, Perugia Üniversitesinde avukatlık kariyerinde ilerlemek için hukuk eğitimi gördüğü sıralarda okul masraflarını karşılamak amacıyla modellik yaptı. Fakat modelliğin cazibesi Monica'yı hukuk eğitiminden uzaklaştırdı. 1,73 m boyundaki Bellucci, 1988'de Avrupa'nın moda merkezlerinden biri olan Milano'ya taşındı ve güzelliği ile kısa sürede dikkat çekti. Bir süre sonra Elite Model Management ile anlaşan Bellucci, 1989'dan itibaren önce Paris'te göze çarptı, ardındansa Avrupa dışında New York'ta da tanınan bir model hâline geldi. Fransız Elle dergisi gibi dergiler için poz verdikten sonra Giuseppe Tornatore'nin çektiği Dolce & Gabbana'nın Black & White reklam filminde oynadı.

1989'da oyunculuğa geçmek için dersler almaya başlayan Bellucci, 1990'ların başında birkaç televizyon filminde küçük roller aldı. 1992 yılında ilk büyük sinema denemesi olan ve Gary Oldman, Winona Ryder, Anthony Hopkins ve Keanu Reeves'in başrollerinde olduğu Francis Ford Coppola filmi Bram Stoker's Dracula'da, Dracula'nın vampir kadınlarından birini canlandıran Bellucci, 2000'e kadar yaklaşık 20 filmde küçüklü büyüklü rollerde oynadı. 2000 yapımı Giuseppe Tornatore filmi Malena'da genç ve güzel dul bir kadın olan 'Malena' karakterini canlandıran Bellucci, bu başrol sayesinde büyük dikkat çekti. İngilizce konuşulan çevrelerde de büyük alkış toplayan Malena'nın ardından 2002 yapımı Astérix & Obélix: Mission Cléopâtre'da 'Kleopatra'yı oynadı. Nihayet aynı yıl Gaspar Noé'nin büyük yankı yapan filmi Dönüş Yok'ta oynadığı başrolle dünya çapında üne kavuştu.

2003 yılında Matrix Reloaded ve Matrix Revolutions'ta 'Persephone' karakterini canlandıran Bellucci, 2004'te Mel Gibson'ın, senaryosunu yazdığı ve yönettiği The Passion of the Christ'ta Mary Magdelene karakterini oynadı. Bellucci'ye The Passion of the Christ'taki rolünden ötürü birçok hayranı tarafından Roman Catholic (Katolik) yakıştırması yapıldı. Bellucci, film hakkında 'The Big Question' adlı belgeselde şu açıklamayı yaptı:

"Ben agnostik (bilinemezci) birisiyim, yine de bütün dinlere saygım ve ilgim var. Eğer inandığım bir şey varsa o da gizemli bir enerji olduğu ve bu sayede okyanusların dolduğu, insanların ve doğanın birleştiğidir."

1998'de İtalyan Max Payne dergisine ve GQ dergisine çıplak takvim çekimleri yapan Bellucci, 1999'da Maxim dergisinin '50 En Seksi Kadın Listesi'nde 6. iken, 2002'deki '100 En Seksi Kadın Listesi'nde 9. oldu. Aynı yıl ünlü internet sitesi Askmen'de 'En Çok Arzulanan Kadın' ('Most Desirable Woman') seçildi ve 2004'te 'Dünyadaki En Güzel 100 Kadın' ('Most Beautiful Women in the World') listesinde 1. sırada yer aldı. 8 Kasım 2004'te Fransız TV şovu 'La Plus Belle Femme du Monde'da izleyiciler tarafından dünyanın en güzel kadını seçilen Bellucci, 2005'te de FHM dergisinin 'Dünyanın 100 En Seksi Kadını Listesi'nde 89. sırada yer aldı.

Özel hayatı
Monica Bellucci, 1989'dan 1995'e kadar aktör Nicola Farron ile nişanlı kaldı. 1999 yılında Dobermann ve Dönüş Yok da dâhil olmak üzere birçok filmde beraber oynadığı ünlü Fransız sinema oyuncusu Jean-Pierre Cassel'in oğlu Vincent Cassel ile evlenen Bellucci, 12 Eylül 2004'te Roma'da Deva adında bir kız çocuğu dünyaya getirdi. 2004 yılında kızına hamile iken İtalyan kanunlarına göre sadece evli çiftlerin tüp bebek sahibi olabilmelerini protesto etmek amacıyla İtalyan Vanity Fair dergisine çıplak pozlar vermiştir. Monica Bellucci ile eşinin, aralarındaki ilişkinin rutinleşmemesi için ayrı evlerde yaşadıkları bilinmektedir. 2010'da Leonie isminde ikinci kızı dünyaya geldi. 2013'te boşandı.

Sinema kariyeri
Bellucci, Bram Stoker's Drucula'da rol aldığından beri pek çok filmde oynamıştır. Güzelliği, oyunculuğundan daha fazla değerlendirme konusu olsa da özellikle Malena ve Dönüş Yok filmlerindeki performansı beğeni toplamıştır. 2006 Cannes Film Festivali'nde jüri üyeliği yapan Bellucci, bir röportajında ünlü İtalyan sanatçılar; Sophia Loren ve Claudia Cardinale'nin, oyunculuğunun esin kaynakları olduklarını söylemiştir. Başarılı oyunculuğunun yanı sıra Monica Bellucci, Avrupa ve Amerika dergileri ve internet siteleri tarafından birçok defa "En Güzel" ve "En Seksi" kadın seçilmiştir.

Filmografi
 Vita coi figli (1990) - Elda
 The Raffie (1991) - Francesca
 Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992) - Dracula'nın Gelini
 L'appartement (1996) - Lisa
 Dobermann (1997) - Nat the Gypsy
 Franck Spadone (2000) - Laura
 Under Suspicion (2000) - Chantal Hearst
 Malèna (2000) - Malèna Scordia
 Le Pacte des Loups (aka Brotherhood of the Wolf) (2001) - Sylvia
 Astérix & Obélix: Mission Cléopâtre (2002) - Cleopatra
 Dönüş Yok (2002) - Alex
 Tears of the Sun (2003) - Lena Fiore Kendricks
 Ricordati di me (2003) - Alessia
 The Matrix Reloaded (2003) - Persephone
 The Passion of the Christ (2004) - Mary Magdalene
 She Hate Me (2004) - Simona Bonasera
 The Brothers Grimm (2005) - The Mirror Queen
 Combien tu m'aimes? (2005) - Daniela
 Manuale d'amore 2 - Capitoli successivi (2006) - Lucia
 The Stone Council (2006) - Diane Thiberge
 Shoot 'Em Up (2007) - Donna Quintano
 Heart Tango (2007)
 Le deuxième souffle (2007) - Manouche
 Wild Blood (2008) - Luisa Ferida
 Don't Look Back (2009) - Jeanne
 The Private Lives of Pippa Lee (2009) - Gigi Lee
 Baarìa - La porta Del Vento (2009) - Bricklayer's girlfriend
 Omaggio a Roma (2009) - Tosca
 The Whistleblower ma (2010)
 The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010) - Veronica
 Manuale d'amore 3 (2011) - Viola
 A Burning Hot Summer (2011) - Angèle
 Gergedan Mevsimi (2012) - Mina
 Ville-Marie (2015) - Sophie Bernard
 James Bond Spectre (2015) - Lucia Sciarra
 On the Milky Road (2016) - Nevesta
 Mozart in the Jungle (2016) - Alessandra
 Nekrotronic (2018) - Finnegan
 Call My Agent! (2018) - Kendisi
 The Best Years of a Life (2019) - Elena
 Spider in the Web (2019) - Angela
 Radical Eye: The Life and Times of Tina Modotti (2020) - Tina Modotti

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Monica Bellucci


Neotapesia graddonii er tegund smásveppa af doppuætt (Dermateaceae). Á Íslandi hefur Neotapesia graddonii aðeins fundist á dauðum greinum fjalldrapa í Fnjóskadal.

Tilvísanir

Doppuætt

Neotapesia graddonii


Felix, İspanya'nın on yedi özerk bölgesinden en kalabalık ikinci bölge olan Endülüs'e bağlı; İspanya'nın güneyinde bulunan Almería eyaletine bağlı belediyedir. 2009 yılındaki nüfusu 654 kişidir. Belediye, 81.26 km²'lik bir alanı kaplamaktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynak: INE (Spain)

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  Felix  - Sistema de Información Multiterritorial de Andalucía

Almería belediyeleri

Felix, İspanya


Militia-samtök í Bandaríkjunum eru einkarekið herlið. Þó að meðlimir Militia-samtaka hafi mismunandi hugmyndir og markmið, þá er almennt talið að þeir séu frjálshyggjumenn á móti sköttum, hafi andúð á innflytjendum og styðju endurreisnarviðhorf sem eru í anda suðurríkjanna. Þeir óttast yfirvofandi og raunverulega hættu harðstjórnar í Bandaríkjunum. Sumir telja að það verði að berjast gegn harðstjórn með vopnavaldi og trúa á sannleiksgildi samsæriskenningar New World Order.

Um miðjan tíunda áratug seinustu aldar voru Militia-samtök virk í öllum ríkjum Bandaríkjanna. Það var metið að meðlimir þeirra væru á bilinu 20 til 60 þúsund.

Saga
Militia-samtök voru til fyrir níunda áratuginn en hreyfingin jókst töluvert á tíunda áratugnum eftir að mörg deilumál Militia-manna og ríkisins vöktu athygli fjölmiðla. Waco árásin 1993 í Texas og skotbardaginn milli alríkislögreglunnar (FBI) og Randy Weaver á Ruby Ridge 1992 vakti athygli almennings á Milita-hreyfingunni. Sprengjuárásin í Oklahoma City 19. apríl 1995 vakti athygli þjóðrinnar þar sem Timothy McVeigh sem framdi árásina var tengdur Michigan Militia-samtökunum. Þessi áhugi leiddi til þess að sífelt fleiri Bandaríkjamenn gengu til liðs við Milita-hreyfinguna.

Bandaríska dómsmálaráðuneytið gaf út skýrslu 1999 um mögulega ógn Militusamtaka en í henni var haldið fram að það stafaði engin ógn af slíkum samtökum. Árið 2001 virtist vera fækkun í Militia-hreyfingunni en þátttakan í henni náði hápunkti árið 1996. Anti-Defamation League hefur hins vegar greint frá því að fjöldi meðlima hafi tvöfaldast frá árinu 2008 og það hafi verið fjölgun í kjölfar kjörs Obama forseta. The Southern Poverty Law Center gerði mat 2018 þar sem talið var að það væru 612 hópar á móti alríkisstjórninni á landsvísu, þar á meðal 216 Militia-samtök. Hóparnir eru mjög virkir og ADL hefur greint mikla aukningu á ofbeldisverkum hægrimanna árið 2018. Militia-samtök hafa nýlega tekið þátt í nokkrum áberandi mótmælaaðgerðum, þar á meðal Bundy Standoff árið 2014 og hernám Malheur National Wildlife Refuge árið 2016.

Boogaloo-hreyfingin
Ein áberandi Militia-hreyfing er svokölluð Boogaloo-hreyfingin. Hreyfingin byrjaði 2012 en hefur orðið meira áberandi sem hópur gagnmótmælenda gegn BLM-hreyfingunni. Meðlimir hreyfingarinnar segjast aðhyllisast róttækri hægristefnu og eru andsnúir ríkisvaldnu. Þeir telja að eignarhald á skotvopnum sé aðal réttur þeirra og eru á móti skotvopnalögum. Þeir segjasy vera að undirbúa sig fyrir annað Borgarstríð í Bandaríkjunum svo þeir geti barist gegn það sem þeir myndu lýsa sem ofrríki vinstrimanna.

Montana Freemen-málið
Í mars 1996 umkringdu lögregluþjónar alríkislögreglunnar höfuðstöðvar Militia-samtakanna Montana Freemen. Montana Freemen höfðu tekið sér afmarkað landsvæði og lýst því yfir að þeir væru að segja sis úr Bandaríkjunum og væru tilbúnir til að verja sig. Þeir sögðust athyllast kristna trú og hugmyndafræði og höfnuðu lögmæti Seðlabankans. Carl Ohs, þingmaður í Montana, reyndi að að ræða við hópinn en gafst að lokum upp. Hlé var loksins gert þegar leiðtogar öfga hægrimanna yfirgáfu hópinn. Loksins var friðsamleg úrlausn fundinn þegar hópurinn gafst upp eftir 81 dag og 14 af svonenfdum Freemen stóðu frammi fyrir ákærum sem tengdust því að dreifa milljónum dollara í sviknum ávísunum og ógna lífi alríkisdómara.

Gretchen Whitmer mannránamálið
Fyrir kosningarnar í Bandaríkjunum árið 2020 hafa lögreglumenn, þingmenn og hópar sem fylgjast með öfgastefnum og varað við aukinni ógn öfgahægri hópa. Anti-Defamation League skilgreindi Michigan sem ríki þar sem hægri öfl áttu rætur sínar og þar sem fjöldi Militia-samtaka eru virk. Frá júní til september 2020 skipulögðu 14 menn tengdir Milita-samtökunum  Wolverine Watchmen að ræna Gretchen Whitmer, demókrata ríkisstjóra Michigan. Adam Fox og Barry Croft voru öfgahægrimenn og voru þeir sakaðir um að vera höfuðpaurar samsærisins.

Atburðarás
Í yfirlýsingu, sem lögð var fram 10. október 2020, sagði Richard Trask, alríkislögreglumaður, að lögreglunni væri fyrst kunnugt um samsæri mannanna eftir fund í Dublin, Ohio 6. júní. Trask fullyrti að fundurinn hefði átt sér stað og aðalríkislögreglan hefði haft uppljóstrara á staðnum. Það var þá sem þeir fréttu að Adam Fox og Barry Croft hefðu rætt möguleikann á að steypa sitjandi ríkisstjóra af stóli. Áætlunin var upphaflega frekar óljós sagði Trask. Mennirnir ræddu um að ræna Ralph Northam, demókrata, ríkisstjóra Virginíu, eða Whitmer, ríkisstjóra Michigan. Hvaða skref sem þeir ætluðu sér að taka vissu þeir að þeir gætu ekki gert það einir. Þeir ákvaðu að það þyrfti að taka fleiri í hópinn og hvöttu hver annan til að tala við kunningja sína og koma skilaboðum sínum á framfæri. Það var þá sem Adam Fox hafði samband við Militia-samtökin Wolverine Watchmen. 27. júlí fullyrti alríkislögreglan að Fox hefði gert sérstaka áætlun um að ræna Whitmer í sumarbústað hennar. Í öllu þessu ferli var uppljóstrari ríkisstjórnarinnar á fullu í að fylgjast með, hlusta á og taka upp. Eftir að búið var að skipuleggja mannránið voru allir samsærismennirnir handteknir aðfaranótt 7. október og ákærur lagðar fram á hendur þeim daginn eftir. Húsleitarheimildir og handtökur voru framkvæmdar víðsvegar um Michigan. Handtökurnar voru gerðar í samvinnu alríkis- og ríkisyfirvalda þegar kom í ljós að samsærismennirnir vildu ræna Whitmer fyrir kosningarnar 2020.

Viðbrögð
Whitmer þakkaði lögreglunni í streymi fyrir að hún skyldi hafa náð að handsama þessa menn og varpaði sök á Trump forseta fyrir að neita að fordæma öfgasinnaða hægrihópa. Hún tók síðar fram í tísti að samsærismennirnir væru hryðjuverkamenn en það ætti ekki að tengja sök þeirra við Milita-samtök. Dana Nessel, dómsmálaráðherra Michigan, kallaði málið "eitt stærsta mál í seinni tíð" og merkti málið sem "frekar fordæmalaust" í eðli sínu.

Hammond-málið
Hammond íkveikjumálið var dómsmál sem fjallaði um 20 ára langa deilu milli Harney-sýslu í Oregon búgarðinum og Dwight Lincoln Hammond, Jr. og syni hans Steven Dwight Hammond. Árið 2012 voru þeir báðir ákærðir fyrir að hafa kveikt tvo skógarelda á árunum 2001 og 2006 og að lokum sakfelldir. Þeir vissu að þeir myndu fá lágmarksrefsinu, þ.e.a.s. fimm ára fangelsisdóm, svo þeir sömdu við lögregluna um að viðurkenna afbrotið. Eftir að þessi samningur var gerður voru feðganir dæmdir í nokkurra mánaða fangelsi. Árið 2015 ógilti áfrýjunardómstóll Bandaríkjanna þann dóm vegna þess að fangelsisdómurinn var styttri en það sem lögbundna lágmarkið krafðist. Héraðsdómstóllinn þurfti þar af leiðandi að taka upp málið aftur. Héraðsdómur dæmdi þá í kjölfarið í fimm ára fangelsi.

Hernám Malheur National Wildlife Refuge
Árið 2015 vakti Hammond-málið athygli Ammon Bundy - fyrrum leigubílstjóra í Phoenix, Arizona; og sonar Cliven D. Bundy, sem lék í aðalhlutverk í baráttunni gegn BLM-hreyfingunni árið 2014. Í nóvember 2015 fóru Bundy og félagar hans aað vekja athygli á Hammond-málinu í samfélagsmiðlum. Næstu vikurnar hittu Bundy og bandamaður hans Ryan Payne sýslumanninn í Harney-sýslu, David Ward, til að gera ítarlegar áætlanir um það sem þeir lýstu sem friðsamlegum mótmælum í Burns. Þrátt fyrir að Ward segðist hafa samúð með stöðu Hammond feðgunum, hafnaði hann beiðni Bundy og Payne. Ward sagðist síðar hafa fengið líflátshótanir í tölvupósti í kjölfarið. Það sem Ward vissi ekki var að Bundy og Payne voru samtímis að skipuleggja yfirtöku á dýraathvarfinu Malheur National Wildlife Refuge.

2. janúar 2016 skipulagði vopnaður hópur tengdur Milita-hreyfingunni friðsamlegra göngu í mótmælaskyni til að mótmæla fangelsisdómum yfir feðgunum. Nokkrir meðlimir hópsins, meðal annars Bundy, Payne, Jon Ritzheimer, fóru frá fjöldanum nokkra stund og héldu áfram til Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. Þeir settust að í athvarfinu og settu upp vígi. Bundy sagðist hafa byrjað að stjórna víginu eftir að hafa fengið guðleg skilaboð þar sem honum var skipað að gera það. Herskái hópurinn krafðist þess að alríkisstjórn Bandaríkjanna afsalaði sér eignarhaldi á dýraathvarfinu, og lýsti yfir vilja til að taka þátt í vopnuðum átökum. Dwight og Steven Hammond studdu ekki athvarfið. Þeir tilkynntu af fúsum og frjálsum vilja að þeir skyldu afplána afganginn af fangelsisdómum. 26. janúar voru Bundy og fjórir aðrir Militia-menn handteknir þegar þeir yfirgáfu athvarfið. Einn vígamaður særðist lítillega við handtökuna, og annar, Robert "LaVoy" Finicum, var skotinn til bana af lögreglumönnum meðan hann var að sögn að ná í byssu sína. Nokkrar aðrar handtökur fylgdu í kjölfarið og 11. febrúar lauk hernáminu þegar fjórir síðustu Militia-mennirnir gáfust upp fyrir lögreglu. Alls voru 26 manns, þar á meðal Bundy og Payne, ákærðir samkvæmt alríkislögum fyrir samsæri, en fleiri ákærur voru lagðar fram á sínum tíma. Hinn 27. október 2016 voru Bundy og 6 aðrir sakborningar sýknaðir í héraðsdómi alríkisins af öllum ákærum um samsæri og brot á vopnum. 10. júlí 2018 náðaði Trump Hammond-feðgana.

Tilvísanir

Militiahreyfingin (Bandaríkin)


Alyuvar çökelme hızı (ESR), kandaki alyuvarların çökme hızıdır.

Çökelme ya da sedimantasyon deneyi denilen inceleme yöntemiyle ölçülür. Birçok hastalıkta tanıya yardımcı bir inceleme kaynağıdır.

Kan testleri

Alyuvar çökelme hızı


حركة تركيا الفتاة أو الشباب الأتراك   هي حركة إصلاح سياسية في أوائل القرن العشرين أرادت استبدال الملكية المطلقة للسلطنة العثمانية بحكومة دستورية. وقادوا تمردًا ضد الحكم المطلق للسلطان عبد الحميد الثاني سنة 1908. وبعد تلك الثورة، ساهم حزب تركيا الفتاة في تأسيس عصر المشروطية الثانية 1908، مما أدى إلى دخول حقبة ديمقراطية  لأول مرة في تاريخ البلاد.

بالرغم من أن عبد الحميد الثاني قد عمل مع العثمانيين الشباب لإصدار الدستور العثماني، إلا أنه انقلب وحل البرلمان وأعاد الحكم المطلق سنة 1878، وتميزت تلك الفترة بالاستخدام المفرط للشرطة السرية لإسكات المعارضة، والمذابح المرتكبة ضد الأقليات. فظهرت حركة تركيا الفتاة أو الشباب الأتراك التي جمعت المعارضون الدستوريون لنظامه وأبرزهم الأمير صباح الدين وأحمد رضا وغيرهم من المثقفين الآخرين. ومع أن الاسم يخص الشباب الأتراك إلا أن الحركة ضمت العديد من العرب والألبان واليهود وفي البداية الأرمن و. لتنظيم المعارضة قام طلاب الطب التقدميون وهم إبراهيم تيمو وعبد الله جودت وآخرون بتشكيل منظمة سرية تسمى جمعية الاتحاد العثماني (لاحقًا جمعية الاتحاد والترقي)، والتي نمت حتى ضمت المنفيين وموظفي الخدمة المدنية وضباط الجيش. وعندما اندلعت ثورة تركيا الفتاة سنة 1908 ظهر الضباط المؤيدون لجمعية الاتحاد والترقي في مسيرات في اسطنبول، فاضطر عبد الحميد إلى إعادة الدستور. أسفرت محاولة الانقلاب المعاكس عن خلعه.

ضمت حركة تركيا الفتاة مجموعة غير تقليدية من المثقفين والثوار الليبراليين العلمانيين، ما جمعهم هو معارضة نظام عبد الحميد، وإعادة إصدار دستور 1876 والتحديث، ولكنهم اختلفوا حول مستقبل السلطنة. فبعد الثورة بدأت الحركة بالانقسام إلى فصيلين رئيسيين: فصيل أكثر ليبرالية ومؤيد لللامركزية ولكنه خرج منها وكون جمعية المشاريع واللامركزية وحزب الحرية العثماني والحرية والائتلاف. أما الفصيل الآخر فكان الجناح القومي التركي الراديكالي المؤيد للمركزية الذي بقي في جمعية الاتحاد والترقي وهيمن عليها. استمر صراع الجماعتين على السلطة حتى سنة 1913 عندما اغتيل الصدر الأعظم محمود شوكت باشا، مما مكن لجمعية الاتحاد والترقي بالسيطرة على جميع المؤسسات. أسست القيادة الجديدة (الباشوات الثلاثة) نظام الحزب الواحد ومارست سيطرة مطلقة على الدولة العثمانية، وساهمت بدخول السلطنة في الحرب العالمية الأولى إلى جانب دول اتفاقية المحور خلال الحرب. وأيضا خطط نظام الاتحاد والترقي ونفذ  وهو جزء من سياسات التتريك.

وبعد الحرب عاد الصراع بين مجموعتي تركيا الفتاة، فاستعاد حزب الحرية والائتلاف السيطرة على الحكومة العثمانية، وقام بتطهيرها من الاتحاديين بمساعدة قوات الحلفاء، فهرب الباشاوات الثلاثة إلى المنفى. ولكن لم يدم حكم الحرية والائتلاف طويلاً، مع قيام مصطفى كمال باشا (أتاتورك) بإثارة المشاعر القومية في الأناضول سرعان ما انهارت السلطنة العثمانية.

ويُستخدم مصطلح "Young Turk" للدلالة على «شخص متمرد يحاول السيطرة على موقف أو منظمة بالقوة أو المناورة السياسية».

التاريخ

المنشأ
استوحى التنظيم فكرته من حركة إيطاليا الفتاة السياسية، حيث أن بداية حركة تركيا الفتاة أتت من التنظيمات السرية «لطلبة جامعات الطب التقدمية وطلبة ضباط»، وبالتحديد العثمانيون الشباب، الذين دفعوا إلى العمل السري كما هي جميع المعارضة السياسية بعد إلغاء دستور 1876 وانهاء الحقبة الدستورية الأولى على يد عبد الحميد الثاني في 1878 بعد عامين فقط. وكانت الحركة ترغب بإحياء البرلمان العثماني ودستور 1876 الذي كتبه التقدمي مدحت باشا.

مؤتمر المعارضة العثمانية

عقد المؤتمر الأول للمعارضة العثمانية في الساعة 8 مساءًا يوم 4 فبراير 1902، في منزل جيرمان بونتاليس العضو في معهد فرنسا. كان بالمؤتمر 47 مندوبًا، ولكنه مغلق أمام الجمهور. أراد المندوبون الأرمن إجراء النقاشات باللغة الفرنسية، ولكن الآخرين رفضوا هذا الاقتراح. وقد حاول الأمير صباح الدين سد الانقسام في هذا المؤتمر، ولكنه فشل مما عمق التنافس بين مجموعته وجمعية الاتحاد والترقي بزعامة أحمد رضا بك.

انعقد المؤتمر الثاني للمعارضة العثمانية في باريس بفرنسا سنة 1907. وحضره زعماء المعارضة بما في ذلك أحمد رضا وصباح الدين بك وخاتشاتور مالوميان من الاتحاد الثوري الأرمني. كان الهدف هو توحيد جميع الأحزاب، بما فيها جمعية الاتحاد والترقي التابع لتركيا الفتاة، من أجل إحداث ثورة لإعادة الدستور.

1906–1908
أصبحت حركة تركيا الفتاة حركة منظمة حقيقية، وتكون جمعية الاتحاد والترقي مظلة تنظيمية. فقاموا بتجنيد الأفراد الذين يأملون في إقامة ملكية دستورية في الدولة العثمانية. وفي 1906 أسس محمد طلعت جمعية الحرية العثمانية في سالونيك، حيث جند بنشاط أعضاء من قاعدة الجيش الثالث، ومنهم الرائد إسماعيل أنور. في سبتمبر 1907 أعلنت الجمعية أنها ستعمل مع المنظمات الأخرى تحت مظلة جمعية الاتحاد والترقي. ولكن واقعيا فإن قيادة جمعية الحرية العثمانية قد هيمنت بقوة على الاتحاد والترقي.

ثورة تركيا الفتاة

في سنة 1908 واجهت الدولة العثمانية . حيث بدأ القيصر نيكولاس الثاني وفرانز جوزيف اللذان اهتما بمنطقة البلقان بتنفيذ سياستيهما من عملية البلقنة التي بدأت منذ 1897، وقد أتت مراحلها الأخيرة. وبحلول 1903 كانت هناك مناقشات حول إنشاء الرقابة الإدارية تديرها مجالس استشارية روسية ونمساوية في المقاطعات المقدونية. اضطر عبد الحميد إلى قبول هذه الفكرة، رغم أنه تمكن لفترة طويلة من تخريب تنفيذها.

ولكن كانت الدلائل تشير إلى أن لعبة السياسة تلك على وشك الإتمام. ففي 13 مايو 1908 تمكنت قيادة جمعية الاتحاد والترقي مع انضمام قوة مكتسبة حديثًا، من إبلاغ السلطان عبد الحميد الثاني بالتهديد المكشوف بأن «السلالة العثمانية ستكون في خطر» إذا لم يعيد الدستور العثماني الذي كان قد علقه في سنة 1878. وبدأ الجيش الثالث الذي كان في مقدونيا مسيرته نحو القصر في الآستانة يوم 12 يونيو 1908. على الرغم من معارضة عبد الحميد في البداية لفكرة التخلي عن السلطة المطلقة، إلا أنه أجبر في 24 يوليو 1908 على إعادة الدستور، فكان بداية الحقبة الدستورية الثانية للسلطنة.

المشروطية الثانية

خلال العطلة البرلمانية لتلك الحقبة، عقد أعضاء تركيا الفتاة أول مؤتمر مفتوح لهم في سالونيكا في سبتمبر وأكتوبر 1911. ومن هناك أعلنوا سلسلة من السياسات التي تشمل نزع سلاح المسيحيين، ومنعهم من شراء الممتلكات، والمستوطنات الإسلامية في الأراضي المسيحية والعثمنة الكاملة لجميع رعايا الدولة، إما عن طريق الإقناع أو بقوة السلاح. ولكن وحدة الأعضاء التي نشأت من ثورة تركيا الفتاة قد بدأت بالانقسام في مواجهة حقيقة استمرار تفكك الدولة العثمانية، خاصة مع بداية حروب البلقان سنة 1912. وبحلول 1913 حظرت جمعية الاتحاد والترقي جميع الأحزاب السياسية الأخرى، وأنشأت دولة الحزب الواحد. فأصبح البرلمان العثماني مجرد واجهة للتصديق على القرارات، بينما كانت النقاشات السياسية الحقيقية تجري داخل اللجنة المركزية للاتحاد والترقي.

الحرب العالمية الأولى

في 2 نوفمبر 1914 دخلت الدولة العثمانية الحرب العالمية الأولى إلى جانب قوى المركز. فأصبح الشرق الأوسط في الحرب العالمية الأولى مسرحًا للعملبات. حيث ساهمت الدولة العثمانية في الحرب -مع بعض المساعدة من قوى المركز الأخرى- ضد الحلفاء وخاصة البريطانيين والروس. رفضت القوى الأوروبية الكبرى من خلال مفاوضات دبلوماسية سرية للغاية قيادة تركيا الفتاة الدولة العثمانية للتحالف مع ألمانيا. فقد احتاجت تركيا الفتاة إلى تحديث شبكات الاتصالات والنقل في السلطنة دون أن يضعوا أنفسهم في أيدي المصرفيين الأوروبيين. كان الأوروبيون يمتلكون بالفعل جزءًا كبيرًا من نظام السكك الحديدية في البلاد، ومنذ سنة 1881 كانت إدارة الديون الخارجية العثمانية المتعثرة بيد الأوروبيين. وخلال الحرب كانت إمبراطورية تركيا الفتاة «مستعمرة اقتصادية على وشك الانهيار التام».

في نهاية الحرب مع انهيار بلغاريا واستسلام ألمانيا، استقال طلعت باشا وحكومة الاتحاد والترقي في 13 أكتوبر 1918، ووقعت هدنة مودروس على متن سفينة حربية بريطانية في بحر إيجه. وفي 2 نوفمبر هرب أنور وطلعت وجمال مع حلفائهم الألمان من إسطنبول إلى المنفى.

مذابح الأرمن والأكراد 1915–1918

أثرت الصراعات خلال حملة القوقاز والحملة الفارسية وحملة جاليبولي على الأماكن التي فيها الأرمن بأعداد كبيرة. قبل إعلان الحرب في المؤتمر الأرمني في أرضروم، طلب ممثلو جمعية الاتحاد والترقي الحاكمة من الأرمن العثمانيين ممثلة في الاتحاد الثوري الأرمني تسهيل غزو ما وراء القوقاز من خلال التحريض على التمرد بين الأرمن الروس ضد الجيش القيصري في حالة وجود جبهة القوقاز. كان الأرمن مستعدين تمامًا للبقاء مخلصين لحكومتهم، لكنهم أعلنوا عدم قدرتهم على الموافقة على الاقتراح الآخر، وهو تحريض مواطنيهم تحت الحكم الروسي على التمرد. أدى رفض الأرمن العثمانيين لهذا الشرط إلى عواقب وخيمة لأنفسهم. ولعلمها عن صراع محتمل مع الأرمن الروس، قررت الحكومة العثمانية في سبتمبر 1914 أن الأجانب (الأرمن الروس) والأرمن الأتراك سيكونون مسؤولون في الحرب ضد روسيا.

نُفذت عملية الإبادة على مرحلتين وقد أمر بها الباشاوات الثلاثة بصفتها جزءاً من سياسة التتريك المفروضة بالقوة. في المرحلة الأولى قُتل الذكور البالغون جماعياً، في المرحلة الثانية، أجبرت النساء والأطفال والشيوخ، حسب قانون التهجير، على المشي في مسيرات موت حتى بادية الشام في عامي 1915 و1916م حيث تعرضوا لعمليات نهب واغتصاب وقتل دورياً، وتشير التقديرات إلى أن عدد من أجبر على هذه المسيرات يتراوح بين 800 ألف حتى 1.2 مليون أرمني وبأن 200 ألفاً منهم على الأقل كانوا لا يزالون على قيد الحياة في نهاية 1916م.

قام جاكوب كونزلر رئيس مستشفى تبشيري في أورفة بتوثيق عمليات تطهير عرقي واسعة النطاق للأكراد خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى. وقدم سردا مفصلا لترحيلهم من أرضروم وبدليس في شتاء 1916. حيث اُتهِموا بأنهم عناصر تخريبية وطابور خامس، وقد ينحازون إلى الجانب الروسي في الحرب. من أجل الغاء هذا التهديد، شرعت الحكومة العثمانية في عمليات ترحيل الأكراد من مناطق جاباتشجور وبالو وموش وأرضروم وبدليس. تم إجبار حوالي 300000 شخص على التحرك جنوبا إلى أورفة ثم غربا إلى عينتاب ومراش. وفي صيف 1917 نقلوا إلى منطقة قونية في وسط الأناضول. وكان قادة الاتحاد والترقي يهدفون من خلال هذه الإجراءات إلى القضاء على تهديداتهم الظاهرية وترحيلهم من أراضيهم وتشتيتهم بجيوب صغيرة في المجتمعات المنفية. وبعد انتهاء الحرب العالمية الأولى تم ترحيل ما يصل إلى 1,200,000 أرمني وكردي قسراً من . ونتيجة لذلك مات حوالي نصف النازحين بسبب البرد والجوع والمرض أو كانوا ضحايا قطع الطرق والعمل القسري.

الأيديولوجيا

الفلسفة المادية والوضعية

كان المبدأ التوجيهي لحركة تركيا الفتاة هو تحويل مجتمعهم إلى مجتمع لا يلعب فيه الدين أي دور تبعي، وهو تناقض صارخ مع التوجه الديني الذي حكم الدولة العثمانية منذ نشأتها. ومع ذلك سرعان ما أدرك أعضاء تركيا الفتاة صعوبة نشر هذه الفكرة بين الفلاحين العثمانيين المتدينين وحتى بين الكثير من النخبة. وهكذا بدأوا يشيرون إلى أن الإسلام نفسه كان ماديًا. بالمقارنة مع الجهود اللاحقة التي بذلها المفكرون المسلمون، مثل محاولة التوفيق بين الإسلام والاشتراكية، كان هذا مسعى صعبًا للغاية. على الرغم من مواصلة بعض الأعضاء السابقين في جمعية الاتحاد والترقي جهودهم في هذا المجال بعد ثورة 1908، إلا أن العلماء استنكروا ذلك بشدة، واتهموهم «بمحاولة تغيير الإسلام إلى شكل آخر وإنشاء دين جديد مع تسميته بالإسلام».

لقد أثارت الفلسفة الوضعية بزعمها بأنها دين العلم إعجاب أعضاء الحركة بشدة، فاعتقدوا أنه يمكن التوفيق بينها وبين الإسلام بسهولة أكبر من النظريات المادية الشعبية. يُعتقد أن اسم الجمعية (جمعية الاتحاد والترقي) مستوحى من شعار رائد الوضعية أوغست كونت النظام والتقدم. عملت الوضعية أيضًا لتكون قاعدة لحكومة قوية ومرغوبة.

حكومة مركزية
بعد أن استولت جمعية الاتحاد والترقي على السلطة في انقلاب 1913 ثم اغتيال محمود شوكت باشا، شرعت في سلسلة من الإصلاحات من أجل زيادة المركزية في السلطنة، وهو جهد ماضٍ منذ إصلاحات التنظيمات في القرن الماضي في عهد السلطان محمود الثاني. ورفض العديد من مؤسسي حركة تركيا الفتاة تلك الفكرة، خاصة أولئك الذين شكلوا حزب الحرية والائتلاف ضد الاتحاد والترقي. وهناك أحزاب أخرى عارضت الاتحاد والترقي مثل حزب رابطة المشاريع الخاصة واللامركزية بزعامة الأمير صباح الدين والحزب العثماني للامركزية الإدارية العربي، وكليهما جعل أجندتهما الرئيسية هي معارضة مركزية جمعية الاتحاد والترقي.

القومية

خضعت الحركة لتحول تدريجي نحو القومية. بدءًا من التنظيمات التي ساهم فيها بالبداية أعضاء عثمانيين غير أتراك، وقد اعتنقت «تركيا الفتاة» أيديولوجية الدولة الرسمية: وهو مفهوم العثمانية. إلا أن الوطنية العثمانية فشلت في أن تضرب جذورها خلال المشروطية الأولى والسنوات التي تلتها. فقد رفض العديد من المثقفين العثمانيين غير الأتراك الفكرة بسبب استخدامها الحصري للرموز التركية. وتدريجيا بدأ القوميون الأتراك يأخذون اليد العليا في السياسة، وبعد مؤتمر 1902 ازداد التركيز على القومية. في هذا الوقت اختار أحمد رضا استبدال مصطلح «عثماني» بكلمة «تركي»، ونقل التوجه من القومية العثمانية إلى القومية التركية.

أبرز أعضاء تركيا الفتاة
ومن بين القادة والأيديولوجيين البارزين:
 مؤلفي كتيبات ونشطاء:
 يوسف آقجورا صحفي من التتار ذو أيديولوجية قومية علمانية، كان ضد مفهوم العثمانية ودعم الفصل بين الدين والدولة.
 عثمان حمدي بك رسام يوناني عثماني وصاحب أول مدرسة فنية متخصصة في إسطنبول (تأسست عام 1883).
 عمانوئيل قره صو أفندي، محام وعضو في عائلة كاراسو اليهودية السفاردية المعروفة.
 محمد جاويد بك من دونمة من سالونيك، من عائلة يهودية الأصل لكن مسلم بالدين منذ القرن السابع عشر، وكان ؛ شنق سنة 1926 بتهمة الخيانة.
 عبد الله جودت من أنصار المادية البيولوجية والعلمانية
 مارسيل صموئيل رافائيل كوهين (المعروف أيضًا باسم موئيز كوهين)، مولود لعائلة يهودية في سالونيكا العثمانية، أحد الآباء المؤسسين للقومية التركية ومنظراً لعقيدة كل الترك.
 آغا أفندي أسس أول صحيفة تركية، وبصفته مدير مكتب البريد فقد أدخل طابع البريد إلى السلطنة (على الرغم من وفاته عام 1885 فقد كُرِّم لتأسيسه أول صحيفة تركية).
 ضياء كوك ألب قومي تركي من ديار بكر عالم إعلامي ورائد في علم الاجتماع، متأثر بالثقافة الأوروبية الغربية الحديثة.
 طلعت باشا لم يعرف دوره قبل الثورة.
 أحمد رضا عمل على تحسين حالة الفلاحين العثمانيين. شغل منصب وزير الزراعة ثم وزير التربية والتعليم.
 ضباط الجيش
 أحمد نيازي بك محرض وقائد ثورة تركيا الفتاة.
 أنور باشا أحد قادة ثورة تركيا الفتاة ثم أصبح سياسي بارز لاحقًا.
 أيوب صبري أحد قادة ثورة تركيا الفتاة.
 بكر فكري مشارك بارز في ثورة تركيا الفتاة.
 عاطف كامشيل مشارك بارز في ثورة تركيا الفتاة.

النتائج والإرث
نقلت صحيفة (The Los Angeles Examiner) عن مؤسس تركيا الحديثة مصطفى كمال أتاتورك في صفحتها الأولى يوم 1 أغسطس 1926 شجبه لحركة تركيا الفتاة وخاصة جمعية الاتحاد والترقي:

زعم المؤرخ أوغور أوميت أنغور، في كتابه صنع تركيا الحديثة: الأمة والدولة في شرق الأناضول: أن «حزب الشعب الجمهوري الذي أسسه مصطفى كمال هو وريت جمعية الاتحاد والترقي واستمر في سياسات التطهير العرقي لسلفه. في شرق الأناضول حتى سنة 1950. حتى تحولت تركيا إلى دولة متجانسة عرقيا».

فيما يتعلق بمصير الباشوات الثلاثة، فقد اغتيل اثنان منهم: طلعت باشا وجمال باشا على يد رعايا أرمن بعد فترة وجيزة من نهاية الحرب العالمية الأولى أثناء وجودهم في المنفى في أوروبا خلال ، وهي عملية انتقامية ضد مرتكبي الإبادة الجماعية للأرمن. اغتال سوغومون تهليريان الذي قُتلت عائلته في الإبادة الجماعية للأرمن، المنفي طلعت باشا في برلين وتم تبرئته لاحقًا من قبل هيئة محلفين ألمانية. كما قُتل جمال باشا بالمثل على يد ستيبان دزاغيكيان وبدروس دير بوغوسيان وأرداشش كيفوركيان لارتكابه «جرائم ضد الإنسانية»  في تبليسي الجورجية. قُتل الباشا الثالث أنور باشا في معركة ضد وحدة للجيش الأحمر بقيادة هاكوب ملكوميان بالقرب من بلدجوان في طاجيكستان (تركستان آنذاك).

مصادر

مراجع

فهارس
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مصادر أخرى
 Necati Alkan, "The Eternal Enemy of Islam: Abdullah Cevdet and the Baha'i Religion", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Volume 68/1, pp. 1–20; online at Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
 .
 ديفيد فرومكين، سلام ما بعده سلام
 M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution: The Young Turks, 1902–1908, دار نشر جامعة أكسفورد 2001,

 Hasan Kayali. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997
 ستيفن كينزر، Crescent and Star: Turkey Between Two Worlds, Farrar, Straus and Giroux 2001,
 Yves Ternon, Empire ottoman : Le déclin, la chute, l'effacement, Paris, édition du Félin, 2002,
  - Discusses how the ideals of the الثورة الفرنسية affected the Young Turks

الإصلاح في الدولة العثمانية
سياسة الدولة العثمانية
قومية تركية
مجموعات متمردة في تركيا
مذابح آشورية

تركيا الفتاة


Johann August Roderich von Stintzing (* 8. Februar 1825 in Altona; † 13. September 1883 in Oberstdorf) war ein deutscher Jurist und Rechtshistoriker.

Leben
Roderich Stintzing war ein Sohn des Altonaer Arztes Johann Wilhelm Stintzing (* 30. Dezember 1789 in Rendsburg; † 17. Juli 1859 in Altona) und dessen am 25. März 1824 geheirateter Frau Wilhelmine Elisabeth Niemann (* 21. März 1794 in Kiel; † 21. April 1866 in Hamburg). Der Großvater väterlicherseits, der Kaufmann und Reeder Johann Georg Stintzing (1739–1818), stammte ursprünglich aus Franken und hatte sich in Rendsburg angesiedelt. August Christian Niemann, der Großvater mütterlicherseits, war Professor der Staats- und Forstwissenschaften an der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel.

Nach dem Besuch des Gymnasiums in Altona und dem Abitur auf dem Akademischen Gymnasium in Hamburg studierte Stintzing von 1841 bis 1848 Rechtswissenschaften an den Universitäten Jena, Heidelberg, Berlin und Kiel. Einen besonderen Einfluss erhielt er in Heidelberg vom Juristen Adolph von Vangerow, in Kiel von Karl Otto von Madai und in Berlin vom Rechtsphilosophen Friedrich Julius Stahl. Während seines Studiums gehörte Stintzing 1843 bis 1845 der Jenaischen Burschenschaft an. In Heidelberg wurde er 1845 Mitglied des burschenschaftlichen Neckarbundes und später der Burschenschaft Teutonia.

Trotz des schleswig-holsteinischen Aufstandes, in dem er 1848 einem Studenten-Freikorps angehört hatte, legte Stintzing in Kiel beim Oberappellationsgericht sein Juristisches Staatsexamen mit Auszeichnung ab. Danach war er in Plön als Rechtsanwalt und Notar tätig. Nach dem Ende des schleswig-holsteinischen Krieges ging er 1851 nach Heidelberg, wo  Stintzing am 5. Januar 1852 zum Doktor der Rechte promoviert wurde.

Im Anschluss an eine kurze Zeit als Privatdozent wurde er zu Ostern 1854 an die Universität Basel als ordentlicher Professor für Römisches Recht berufen. Dort wirkte er 1856 als Rektor der Universität. Im Herbst 1857 nahm Stintzing einen Ruf an die Universität Erlangen an, wo er 1864/65 ebenfalls Rektor war. 1870 wechselte er an den Lehrstuhl für Römisches Recht der Universität Bonn, wo er der Nachfolger von Eduard Böcking wurde. 1875/76 amtierte er als Rektor der Universität.

1861 erhielt Stintzing das Ritterkreuz I. Klasse des Verdienstordens vom Heiligen Michael und 1868 wurde er durch die Verleihung des Ritterkreuzes der Verdienstordens der Bayerischen Krone in den persönlichen Adelsstand erhoben. Er wurde Geheimer Justizrat und wirkte als Gemeinderat in Bonn.

1883 starb er an den Folgen eines Sturzes.

Familie
Stintzing heiratete am 1. Mai 1850 in Plön Franziska Karoline Bokelmann (1828–1908), die Tochter des dänischen Ministerresidenten und geheimen Legationsrats Georg Wilhelm Bokelmann (1779–1847) und dessen 1820 geheirateter Frau Sophie Sillem. Aus der Ehe stammen sieben Kinder, von denen ihn vier Söhne und zwei Töchter überlebten:
 Wilhelm (1851–1939), Oberregierungsrat ⚭ 22. Juni 1878 Julie Epner
 Charlotte (1852–1933) ⚭ 2. Oktober 1877 Heinrich Sievers
 Roderich (1854–1933), Professor der Medizin
 ⚭ 5. Oktober 1884 Hanna Rühle
 ⚭ 5. April 1904 Gertrud Keferstein
 Wolfgang (1856–1921)
 Franziska (1859–1943) ⚭ 24. Juni 1885 Walter Bleibtreu
 Otto (1865–1922)
 Konrad (1867–1876)

Werke
 Ulrich Zasius. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Rechtswissenschaft im Zeitalter der Reformation. Basel 1857
 Geschichte der populären Literatur des römisch-kanonischen Rechts in Deutschland. Leipzig 1867 u. Nachdruck Scientia, Aalen 1967
 Geschichte der Deutschen Rechtswissenschaft. Herausgegeben und fortgeführt von Ernst Landsberg. 4 Bände. Oldenbourg, München 1880–1910 u. Neudruck bei Scientia, Aalen 1978

Literatur

 Helge Dvorak: Biographisches Lexikon der Deutschen Burschenschaft. Band I: Politiker. Teilband 9: Nachträge. Koblenz 2021, S. 171–172. (Online-PDF)

Weblinks

 Roderich von Stintzing: Geschichte der populären Literatur des römisch-kanonischen Rechts in Deutschland am Ende des fünfzehnten und im Anfang des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts. Hirzel Verlag, Leipzig 1867. - Digitalisat der UB Heidelberg

Rechtswissenschaftler (19. Jahrhundert)
Rechtshistoriker
Rektor (Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg)
Hochschullehrer (Erlangen)
Rektor (Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn)
Hochschullehrer (Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn)
Rektor (Universität Basel)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Basel)
Geheimer Justizrat
Notar (Deutschland)
Rechtsanwalt (Deutschland)
Träger des Verdienstordens der Bayerischen Krone (Ritter)
Ritter III. Klasse des Verdienstordens vom Heiligen Michael
Person in der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Erhebung
Burschenschafter (19. Jahrhundert)
Politiker (Bonn)
Deutscher
Geboren 1825
Gestorben 1883
Mann

Roderich von Stintzing


එල්ලේ ක්‍රීඩාවේ දක්ෂ පැරණිතම ක්‍රීඩකයින් රාශියක් ඇත එම අයවලුන්ගේ විස්තර පහතින් දක්වා ඇතත් තවත් ජාතික එල්ලේ ශුරයින් මෙන්ම ශුරතා දිනාගන්නා ලද ක්‍රීඩකයින් බොහෝය.එල්ලේ ජාතික කණ්ඩායමක් නොමැති වුවද,ගම්භද නගරබද තරග මෙන්න එල්ලේ ජාතික ශුරතා තරග මාලාවන් හිදී ශුරයින් වශයෙන් කුසලතා සහ සහතිකලත් දිනාගන්නා ලද බොහෝ ක්‍රීඩකයිනද නැත්තේ නොවේ.

බලන්න
 එල්ලේ ක්‍රිඩාව පිළිබද.......ශ්‍රී_ලංකා_එල්ලේ
 ශ්‍රී ලංකා එල්ලේ ක්‍රීඩාවේ විස්තර
 එල්ලේwww.srilankaelle.com එල්ලේ ක්‍රීඩාව වෙනුවෙන් ලියවුන ප්‍රථම වෙබ් පිටුව

එල්ලේ
ක්‍රීඩා
එල්ලේ ක්‍රීඩක ක්‍රීඩිකාවෝ

දක්ෂතම පැරණි ක්‍රීඩකයින්


Azerbaycan alfabesi (), Azerbaycan'da ilk olarak 1929 yılında kullanılmaya başlanan ancak 1939 yılında Sovyetler'in reddetmesi nedeniyle kullanımdan kaldırılan ve ülkenin bağımsızlığıyla 1991'den bu yana yeniden Azericenin yazımında kullanılmaya başlanan Latin alfabesine dayanan alfabedir. Azerice, Yakutçadan sonra Latin alfabesiyle yazılan ikinci Türk dilidir.

Tarih ve Gelişme

10. yüzyılda İslamiyeti kabul eden Selçuklu Hanedanı gibi diğer Oğuz boyları da Arap alfabesini kullanmaya başlamışlardı. Güney Azerbaycan (Azerice: جنوبی آذربایجان - گونئی آذربایجان; Cənubi Azərbaycan)'da Azeriler, Farsça öğrenim görme mecburiyetinde kalmışlar ve Arap alfabesini öğrenmişlerdir.İran'daki Azerbaycan Türkleri günümüzde de Arap alfabesini kullanmaktadırlar.

19. yüzyılda Azeri aydınlarından olan Mirza Fetali Ahundov (Az: Mirzə Fətəli Axundov), Arap alfabesini değiştirip, yerine yeni bir Latin alfabesi getirmiştir. En son 1922 yılında, Bakü'de Yeni Türk əlifba komitəsi (Јени түрк əлифба комитəси; Yeni Türk Alfabe Komitesi) tarafından yeni bir Latin alfabesi oluşturuldu.

1929'dan 1939'a kadar

Aa, Bв, Cc, Çç, Dd, Ee, Əə, Ff, Gg, , Hh, Ii, Ьь, Jj, Kk, Qq, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, , Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Vv, Xx, Yy, Zz,

1939'dan 1958'e kadar
Аа, Бб, Вв, Гг, Ғғ, Дд, Ее, Ёё, Әә, Жж, Зз, Ии, Йй, Кк, Ққ, Лл, Мм, Оо, Өө, Пп, Рр, Сс, Тт, Уу, Үү, Фф, Хх, Һh, Цц, Чч, , Шш, Щщ, ъ, Ыы, ь, Ээ, Юю, Яя, ' (apostrof)

1958'den 1991'e kadar
Аа, Бб, Вв, Гг, Ғғ, Дд, Ee, Әә, Жж, Зз, Ии, Ыы, Јј, Кк, Ҝҝ, Лл, Мм, Нн, Оо, Өө, Пп, Рр, Сс, Тт, Уу, Үү, Фф, Хх, Һһ, Чч, Ҹҹ, Шш, ' (apostrof)

1991'den 1992'ye kadar
Aa, Ää, Bb, Cc, Çç, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Ğğ, Hh, Xx, Iı, İi, Jj, Kk, Qq, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Üü, Vv, Yy, Zz

1992'den sonra
Aa, Bb, Cc, Çç, Dd, Ee, Əə, Ff, Gg, Ğğ, Hh, Xx, Iı, İi, Jj, Kk, Qq, Ll, Mm, Nn, Oo, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Üü, Vv, Yy, Zz

Azerbaycan alfabesi, ə, x, ve q harfleri haricinde Türk alfabesinin aynısıdır.

Harfler

Ayrıca bakınız
 Ortak Türkçe Alfabesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Azərbaycan dili
 Nəsimi adına Dilçilik İnstitutu

Alfabe
Latin alfabesinden türeyen alfabeler
Türk alfabesi

Azeri alfabesi


Hatay, İzmir'in Konak ve Karabağlar ilçelerinin ortak semtlerinden biridir.

Yönetim olarak, İzmir Anakenti sınırları içinde kalan ve İzmir'in yönetsel, sanatsal, kültürel ve ticari (tecimsel) açıdan en önemli ilçesi olan Konak belediyesine bağlıdır. İnönü Caddesi'nin güney tarafı 6 Mart 2008 tarihinde kabul edilen 5747 sayılı Bakanlar Kurulu kararıyla kurulmuş olan Karabağlar ilçesine bağlanmştır.

En önemli caddesi İnönü Caddesi'dir. Bu caddede işyerleri sıralanmıştır. Bayramyeri'nden Üçkuyular Meydanı'na kadar uzanmaktadır. Haftanın belli günleri değişik yerlerde pazar kurulmaktadır. Denize doğru yokuş aşağı yürüyünce Mithatpaşa Caddesine ve sahile ulaşabilirsiniz. Yukarı doğru çıkarsanız Yeşilyurt, Basın sitesi gibi semtlere ulaşırsınız. Yerleşim denize doğru yokuş aşağı bir görünüm oluşturmaktadır. Bu nedenle evlerin alt katlarına veya bodrum katlarına yağmur sularından oluşan sel baskınları olabilmektedir.

Konak'ın semtleri
Karabağlar'ın semtleri

Hatay, Konak


108205 Baccipaolo este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
108205 Baccipaolo este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la San Marcello Pistoiese de Luciano Tesi și Giuseppe Forti. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,52 ua, o excentricitate de 0,04 și o înclinație de 7,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 108001-109000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2001
Centura de asteroizi

108205 Baccipaolo