In the philosophy of mind, panpsychism () is the view that the mind or a mindlike aspect is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of reality. It is also described as a theory that "the mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe." It is one of the oldest philosophical theories, and has been ascribed to philosophers including Thales, Plato, Spinoza, Leibniz, William James, Alfred North Whitehead, Bertrand Russell, and Galen Strawson. In the 19th century, panpsychism was the default philosophy of mind in Western thought, but it saw a decline in the mid-20th century with the rise of logical positivism. Recent interest in the hard problem of consciousness and developments in the fields of neuroscience, psychology, and quantum physics have revived interest in panpsychism in the 21st century.

Overview

Etymology

The term panpsychism comes from the Greek pan (πᾶν: "all, everything, whole") and psyche (ψυχή: "soul, mind"). "Psyche" comes from the Greek word ψύχω (psukhō, "I blow") and may mean life, soul, mind, spirit, heart, or "life-breath". The use of "psyche" is controversial because it is synonymous with "soul", a term usually taken to refer to something supernatural; more common terms now found in the literature include mind, mental properties, mental aspect, and experience.

Concept
Panpsychism holds that mind or a mind-like aspect is a fundamental and ubiquitous feature of reality. It is also described as a theory in which "the mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe". Panpsychists posit that the type of mentality we know through our own experience is present, in some form, in a wide range of natural bodies. This notion has taken on a wide variety of forms. Some historical and non-Western panpsychists ascribe attributes such as life or spirits to all entities (animism). Contemporary academic proponents, however, hold that sentience or subjective experience is ubiquitous, while distinguishing these qualities from more complex human mental attributes. They therefore ascribe a primitive form of mentality to entities at the fundamental level of physics but do not ascribe mentality to most aggregate things, such as rocks or buildings.

Terminology
The philosopher David Chalmers, who has explored panpsychism as a viable theory, distinguishes between microphenomenal experiences (the experiences of microphysical entities) and macrophenomenal experiences (the experiences of larger entities, such as humans).

Philip Goff draws a distinction between panexperientialism and pancognitivism. In the form of panpsychism under discussion in the contemporary literature, conscious experience is present everywhere at a fundamental level, hence the term panexperientialism. Pancognitivism, by contrast, is the view that thought is present everywhere at a fundamental level—a view that had some historical advocates, but no present-day academic adherents. Contemporary panpsychists do not believe microphysical entities have complex mental states such as beliefs, desires, and fears.

Originally, the term panexperientialism had a narrower meaning, having been coined by David Ray Griffin to refer specifically to the form of panpsychism used in process philosophy (see below).

History

Antiquity

Panpsychist views are a staple in pre-Socratic Greek philosophy. According to Aristotle, Thales (c. 624 – 545 BCE), the first Greek philosopher, posited a theory which held "that everything is full of gods." Thales believed that magnets demonstrated this. This has been interpreted as a panpsychist doctrine. Other Greek thinkers associated with panpsychism include Anaxagoras (who saw the unifying principle or arche as nous or mind), Anaximenes (who saw the arche as pneuma or spirit) and Heraclitus (who said "The thinking faculty is common to all").

Plato argues for panpsychism in his Sophist, in which he writes that all things participate in the form of Being and that it must have a psychic aspect of mind and soul (psyche). In the Philebus and Timaeus, Plato argues for the idea of a world soul or anima mundi. According to Plato:
 This world is indeed a living being endowed with a soul and intelligence ... a single visible living entity containing all other living entities, which by their nature are all related.

Stoicism developed a cosmology that held that the natural world is infused with the divine fiery essence pneuma, directed by the universal intelligence logos. The relationship between beings' individual logos and the universal logos was a central concern of the Roman Stoic Marcus Aurelius. The metaphysics of Stoicism finds connections with Hellenistic philosophies such as Neoplatonism. Gnosticism also made use of the Platonic idea of anima mundi.

Renaissance

After Emperor Justinian closed Plato's Academy in 529 CE, neoplatonism declined. Though there were mediaeval theologians, such as John Scotus Eriugena, who ventured what might be called panpsychism, it was not a dominant strain in philosophical theology. But in the Italian Renaissance, it enjoyed something of a revival in the thought of figures such as Gerolamo Cardano, Bernardino Telesio, Francesco Patrizi, Giordano Bruno, and Tommaso Campanella. Cardano argued for the view that soul or anima was a fundamental part of the world, and Patrizi introduced the term panpsychism into philosophical vocabulary. According to Bruno, "There is nothing that does not possess a soul and that has no vital principle." Platonist ideas resembling the anima mundi (world soul) also resurfaced in the work of esoteric thinkers such as Paracelsus, Robert Fludd, and Cornelius Agrippa.

Early modern
In the 17th century, two rationalists, Baruch Spinoza and Gottfried Leibniz, can be said to be panpsychists. In Spinoza's monism, the one single infinite and eternal substance is "God, or Nature" (Deus sive Natura), which has the aspects of mind (thought) and matter (extension). Leibniz's view is that there are infinitely many absolutely simple mental substances called monads that make up the universe's fundamental structure. While it has been said that George Berkeley's idealist philosophy is also a form of panpsychism, Berkeley rejected panpsychism and posited that the physical world exists only in the experiences minds have of it, while restricting minds to humans and certain other specific agents.

19th century
In the 19th century, panpsychism was at its zenith. Philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, C.S. Peirce, Josiah Royce, William James, Eduard von Hartmann, F.C.S. Schiller, Ernst Haeckel, William Kingdon Clifford and Thomas Carlyle as well as psychologists such as Gustav Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt, Rudolf Hermann Lotze all promoted panpsychist ideas.

Arthur Schopenhauer argued for a two-sided view of reality as both Will and Representation (Vorstellung). According to Schopenhauer, "All ostensible mind can be attributed to matter, but all matter can likewise be attributed to mind".

Josiah Royce, the leading American absolute idealist, held that reality is a "world self", a conscious being that comprises everything, though he didn't necessarily attribute mental properties to the smallest constituents of mentalistic "systems". The American pragmatist philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce espoused a sort of psycho-physical monism in which the universe is suffused with mind, which he associated with spontaneity and freedom. Following Pierce, William James also espoused a form of panpsychism. In his lecture notes, James wrote:
Our only intelligible notion of an object in itself is that it should be an object for itself, and this lands us in panpsychism and a belief that our physical perceptions are effects on us of 'psychical' realities

English philosopher Alfred Barratt, the author of Physical Metempiric (1883), has been described as advocating panpsychism.

In 1893, Paul Carus proposed a philosophy similar to panpsychism, "panbiotism", according to which "everything is fraught with life; it contains life; it has the ability to live."

20th century
Bertrand Russell's neutral monist views tended toward panpsychism. The physicist Arthur Eddington also defended a form of panpsychism. The psychologists Gerard Heymans, James Ward and Charles Augustus Strong also endorsed variants of panpsychism.

In 1990, the physicist David Bohm published "A new theory of the relationship of mind and matter," a paper based on his interpretation of quantum mechanics. The philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen has described Bohm's view as a version of panprotopsychism.

One widespread misconception is that the arguably greatest systematic metaphysician of the 20th century, Alfred North Whitehead, was also panpsychism's most significant 20th-century proponent. This misreading attributes to Whitehead an ontology according to which the basic nature of the world is made up of atomic mental events, termed "actual occasions". But rather than signifying such exotic metaphysical objects—which would in fact exemplify the fallacy of misplaced concreteness Whitehead criticizes—Whitehead's concept of "actual occasion" refers to the "immediate experienced occasion" of any possible perceiver, having in mind only himself as perceiver at the outset, in accordance with his strong commitment to radical empiricism.

Contemporary
Panpsychism has recently seen a resurgence in the philosophy of mind, set into motion by Thomas Nagel's 1979 article "Panpsychism" and further spurred by Galen Strawson's 2006 realistic monist article "Realistic Monism: Why Physicalism Entails Panpsychism." Other recent proponents include American philosophers David Ray Griffin and David Skrbina, British philosophers Gregg Rosenberg, Timothy Sprigge, and Philip Goff, and Canadian philosopher William Seager. The British philosopher David Papineau, while distancing himself from orthodox panpsychists, has written that his view is "not unlike panpsychism" in that he rejects a line in nature between "events lit up by phenomenology [and] those that are mere darkness."

The integrated information theory of consciousness (IIT), proposed by the neuroscientist and psychiatrist Giulio Tononi in 2004 and since adopted by other neuroscientists such as Christof Koch, postulates that consciousness is widespread and can be found even in some simple systems.

In 2019 cognitive scientist Donald Hoffman published The Case Against Reality: How evolution hid the truth from our eyes. Hoffman argues that consensus reality lacks concrete existence, and is nothing more than an evolved user-interface. He argues that the true nature of reality are abstract "conscious agents". Science editor Annaka Harris argues that panpsychism is a viable theory in her 2019 book Conscious, though she stops short of fully endorsing it.

Panpsychism has been postulated by psychoanalyst Robin S. Brown as a means to theorizing relations between "inner" and "outer" tropes in the context of psychotherapy. Panpsychism has also been applied in environmental philosophy by Australian philosopher Freya Mathews, who has put forward the notion of ontopoetics as a version of panpsychism.

The geneticist Sewall Wright endorsed a version of panpsychism. He believed that consciousness is not a mysterious property emerging at a certain level of the hierarchy of increasing material complexity, but rather an inherent property, implying the most elementary particles have these properties.

Varieties
Panpsychism encompasses many theories, united only by the notion that mind in some form is ubiquitous.

Philosophical frameworks

Cosmopsychism
Cosmopsychism hypothesizes that the cosmos is a unified object that is ontologically prior to its parts. It has been described as an alternative to panpsychism, or as a form of panpsychism. Proponents of cosmopsychism claim that the cosmos as a whole is the fundamental level of reality and that it instantiates consciousness. They differ on that point from panpsychists, who usually claim that the smallest level of reality is fundamental and instantiates consciousness. Accordingly, human consciousness, for example, merely derives from a larger cosmic consciousness.

Panexperientialism
Panexperientialism is associated with the philosophies of, among others, Charles Hartshorne and Alfred North Whitehead, although the term itself was invented by David Ray Griffin in order to distinguish the process philosophical view from other varieties of panpsychism. Whitehead's process philosophy argues that the fundamental elements of the universe are "occasions of experience", which can together create something as complex as a human being. Building on Whitehead's work, process philosopher Michel Weber argues for a pancreativism. Goff has used the term panexperientialism more generally to refer to forms of panpsychism in which experience rather than thought is ubiquitous.

Panprotopsychism
Panprotopsychists believe that higher-order phenomenal properties (such as qualia) are logically entailed by protophenomenal properties, at least in principle. This is similar to how facts about H2O molecules logically entail facts about water: the lower-level facts are sufficient to explain the higher-order facts, since the former logically entail the latter. Similarly, adherents of panprotopsychism believe that "protophenomenal" facts logically entail the existence of consciousness. Protophenomenal properties are usually picked out through a combination of functional and negative definitions: panphenomenal properties are those properties that logically entail phenomenal properties (a functional definition), which are themselves neither physical nor phenomenal (a negative definition).

Panprotopsychism is advertised as a solution to the combination problem: the problem of explaining how the consciousness of microscopic physical things might combine to give rise to the macroscopic consciousness of the whole brain. Because protophenomenal properties are by definition the constituent parts of consciousness, it is speculated that their existence would make the emergence of macroscopic minds less mysterious. The philosopher David Chalmers argues that the view faces difficulty with the combination problem. He considers it "ad hoc", and believes it diminishes the parsimony that made the theory initially interesting.

Russellian monism

Russellian monism is a type of neutral monism. The theory is attributed to Bertrand Russell, and may also be called Russell's panpsychism, or Russell's neutral monism. Russell believed that all causal properties are extrinsic manifestations of identical intrinsic properties. Russell called these identical internal properties quiddities. Just as the extrinsic properties of matter can form higher-order structure, so can their corresponding and identical quiddities. Russell believed the conscious mind was one such structure.

Religious or mystical ontologies

Advaita Vedānta

Advaita Vedānta is a form of idealism in Indian philosophy which views consensus reality as illusory. Anand Vaidya and Purushottama Bilimoria have argued that it can be considered a form of panpsychism or cosmopsychism.

Animism and hylozoism

Animism maintains that all things have a soul, and hylozoism maintains that all things are alive. Both could reasonably be interpreted as panpsychist, but both have fallen out of favour in contemporary academia. Modern panpsychists have tried to distance themselves from theories of this sort, careful to carve out the distinction between the ubiquity of experience and the ubiquity of mind and cognition.

Buddha-nature

The term Buddha-nature is the English translation of the classical Chinese term 佛性 (or fó xìng in pinyin), which is in turn a translation of the Sanskrit tathāgatagarbha. Tathāgata refers to someone (namely the Buddha) having arrived, while garbha translates into the words embryo or root.

Broadly speaking, Buddha-nature can be defined as the ubiquitous dispositional state of being capable of obtaining Buddhahood. In some Buddhist traditions, this may be interpreted as implying a form of panpsychism. Graham Parks argues that most "traditional Chinese, Japanese and Korean philosophy would qualify as panpsychist in nature."

The Huayan, Tiantai, and Tendai schools of Buddhism explicitly attributed Buddha-nature to inanimate objects such as lotus flowers and mountains. Similarly, Soto Zen master Dogen argued that "insentient beings expound" the teachings of the Buddha, and wrote about the "mind" (心,shin) of "fences, walls, tiles, and pebbles". The 9th-century Shingon Buddhist thinker Kukai went so far as to argue that natural objects such as rocks and stones are part of the supreme embodiment of the Buddha. According to Parks, Buddha-nature is best described "in western terms" as something "psychophysical."

Scientific theories

Conscious realism

Conscious realism is a theory proposed by Donald Hoffman, a cognitive scientist specialising in perception. He has written numerous papers on the topic which he summarised in his 2019 book The Case Against Reality: How evolution hid the truth from our eyes. Conscious realism builds upon Hoffman's former User-Interface Theory. In combination they argue that (1) consensus reality and spacetime are illusory, and are merely a "species specific evolved user interface"; (2) Reality is made of a complex, dimensionless, and timeless network of "conscious agents".

The consensus view is that perception is a reconstruction of one's environment. Hoffman views perception as a construction rather than a reconstruction. He argues that perceptual systems are analogous to information channels, and thus subject to data compression and reconstruction. The set of possible reconstructions for any given data set is quite large. Of that set, the subset that is homomorphic in relation to the original is minuscule, and does not overlap with the subset that is efficient or easiest to use.

For example, consider a graph, such as a pie chart. A pie chart is easy to understand and use not because it is perfectly homomorphic with the data it represents, but because it isn't. If a graph of, for example, the chemical composition of the human body were to look exactly like a human body, then we could not understand it. It is only because the graph abstracts away from the structure of its subject matter that it can be visualized. Alternatively, consider a graphical user interface on a computer. The reason graphical user interfaces are useful is that they abstract away from lower-level computational processes, such as machine code, or the physical state of a circuit-board. In general, it seems that data is most useful to us when it is abstracted from its original structure and repackaged in a way that is easier to understand, even if this comes at the cost of accuracy. Hoffman offers the "fitness beats truth theorem" as mathematical proof that perceptions of reality bear little resemblance to reality's true nature. From this he concludes that our senses do not faithfully represent the external world.

Even if reality is an illusion, Hoffman takes consciousness as an indisputable fact. He represents rudimentary units of consciousness (which he calls "conscious agents") as Markovian kernels. Though the theory was not initially panpsychist, he reports that he and his colleague Chetan Prakash found the math to be more parsimonious if it were. They hypothesize that reality is composed of these conscious agents, who interact to form "larger, more complex" networks.

Integrated information theory

Giulio Tononi first articulated Integrated information theory (IIT) in 2004, and it has undergone two major revisions since then. Tononi approaches consciousness from a scientific perspective, and has expressed frustration with philosophical theories of consciousness for lacking predictive power. Though integral to his theory, he refrains from philosophical terminology such as qualia or the unity of consciousness, instead opting for mathematically precise alternatives like entropy function and information integration. This has allowed Tononi to create a measurement for integrated information, which he calls phi (Φ). He believes consciousness is nothing but integrated information, so Φ measures consciousness. As it turns out, even basic objects or substances have a nonzero degree of Φ. This would mean that consciousness is ubiquitous, albeit to a minimal degree.

The philosopher Hedda Hassel Mørch's views IIT as similar to Russellian monism, while other philosophers, such as Chalmers and John Searle, consider it a form of panpsychism. IIT does not hold that all systems are conscious, leading Tononi and Koch to state that IIT incorporates some elements of panpsychism but not others. Koch has called IIT a "scientifically refined version" of panpsychism.

In relation to other theories

Because panpsychism encompasses a wide range of theories, it can in principle be compatible with reductive materialism, dualism, functionalism, or other perspectives depending on the details of a given formulation.

Dualism

David Chalmers and Philip Goff have each described panpsychism as an alternative to both materialism and dualism. Chalmers says panpsychism respects the conclusions of both the causal argument against dualism and the conceivability argument for dualism. Goff has argued that panpsychism avoids the disunity of dualism, under which mind and matter are ontologically separate, as well as dualism's problems explaining how mind and matter interact. By contrast, Uwe Meixner argues that panpsychism has dualist forms, which he contrasts to idealist forms.

Emergentism

Panpsychism is incompatible with emergentism. In general, theories of consciousness fall under one or the other umbrella; they hold either that consciousness is present at a fundamental level of reality (panpsychism) or that it emerges higher up (emergentism).

Idealism

There is disagreement over whether idealism is a form of panpsychism or a separate view. Both views hold that everything that exists has some form of experience. According to the philosophers William Seager and Sean Allen-Hermanson, "idealists are panpsychists by default". Charles Hartshorne contrasted panpsychism and idealism, saying that while idealists rejected the existence of the world observed with the senses or understood it as ideas within the mind of God, panpsychists accepted the reality of the world but saw it as composed of minds. Chalmers also contrasts panpsychism with idealism (as well as materialism and dualism). Meixner writes that formulations of panpsychism can be divided into dualist and idealist versions. He further divides the latter into "atomistic idealistic panpsychism," which he ascribes to David Hume, and "holistic idealistic panpsychism," which he favors.

Neutral monism

Neutral monism rejects the dichotomy of mind and matter, instead taking a third substance as fundamental that is neither mental nor physical. Proposals for the nature of the third substance have varied, with some theorists choosing to leave it undefined. This has led to a variety of formulations of neutral monism, which may overlap with other philosophies. In versions of neutral monism in which the world's fundamental constituents are neither mental nor physical, it is quite distinct from panpsychism. In versions where the fundamental constituents are both mental and physical, neutral monism may lead to panpsychism, panprotopsychism, or dual aspect theory.

In The Conscious Mind, David Chalmers writes that, in some instances, the differences between "Russell's neutral monism" and his property dualism are merely semantic. Philip Goff believes that neutral monism can reasonably be regarded as a form of panpsychism "in so far as it is a dual aspect view." Neutral monism, panpsychism, and dual aspect theory are grouped together or used interchangeably in some contexts.

Physicalism and materialism

Chalmers calls panpsychism an alternative to both materialism and dualism. Similarly, Goff calls panpsychism an alternative to both physicalism and substance dualism. Strawson, on the other hand, describes panpsychism as a form of physicalism, on his view the only viable form. Panpsychism can be combined with reductive materialism but cannot be combined with eliminative materialism because the latter denies the existence of the relevant mental attributes.

Arguments for

Hard problem of consciousness

It evidently feels like something to be a human brain. This means that when things in the world are organised in a particular way, they begin to have an experience. The questions of why and how this material structure has experience, and why it has that particular experience rather than another experience, are known as the hard problem of consciousness. The term is attributed to Chalmers. He argues that even after "all the perceptual and cognitive functions within the vicinity of consciousness" are accounted for, "there may still remain a further unanswered question: Why is the performance of these functions accompanied by experience?"

Though Chalmers gave the hard problem of consciousness its present name, similar views were expressed before. Isaac Newton, John Locke, Gottfried Leibniz, John Stuart Mill, Thomas Henry Huxley, Wilhelm Wundt, all wrote about the seeming incompatibility of third-person functional descriptions of mind and matter and first-person conscious experience. Likewise, Asian philosophers like Dharmakirti and Guifeng Zongmi discussed the problem of how consciousness arises from unconscious matter. Similar sentiments have been articulated through philosophical inquiries such as the problem of other minds, solipsism, the explanatory gap, philosophical zombies, and Mary's room. These problems have caused Chalmers to consider panpsychism a viable solution to the hard problem, though he is not committed to any single view.

Brian Jonathan Garrett has compared the hard problem to vitalism, the now discredited hypothesis that life is inexplicable and can only be understood if some vital life force exists. He maintains that given time, consciousness and its evolutionary origins will be understood just as life is now understood. Daniel Dennett has called the hard problem a "hunch", and maintains that conscious experience, as it is usually understood, is merely a complex cognitive illusion. Patricia Churchland, also an eliminative materialist, maintains that philosophers ought to be more patient: neuroscience is still in its early stages, so Chalmers's hard problem is premature. Clarity will come from learning more about the brain, not from metaphysical speculation.

Solutions
In The Conscious Mind (1996), Chalmers attempts to pinpoint why the hard problem is so hard. He concludes that consciousness is irreducible to lower-level physical facts, just as the fundamental laws of physics are irreducible to lower-level physical facts. Therefore, consciousness should be taken as fundamental in its own right and studied as such. Just as fundamental properties of reality are ubiquitous (even small objects have mass), consciousness may also be, though he considers that an open question.

In Mortal Questions (1979), Thomas Nagel argues that panpsychism follows from four premises:

 P1: There is no spiritual plane or disembodied soul; everything that exists is material.
 P2: Consciousness is irreducible to lower-level physical properties.
 P3: Consciousness exists.
 P4: Higher-order properties of matter (i.e., emergent properties) can, at least in principle, be reduced to their lower-level properties.

Before the first premise is accepted, the range of possible explanations for consciousness is fully open. Each premise, if accepted, narrows down that range of possibilities. If the argument is sound, then by the last premise panpsychism is the only possibility left.

 If (P1) is true, then either consciousness does not exist, or it exists within the physical world.
 If (P2) is true, then either consciousness does not exist, or it (a) exists as distinct property of matter or (b) is fundamentally entailed by matter.
 If (P3) is true, then consciousness exists, and is either (a) its own property of matter or (b) composed by the matter of the brain but not logically entailed by it.
 If (P4) is true, then (b) is false, and consciousness must be its own unique property of matter.

Therefore, if all four premises are true, consciousness is its own unique property of matter and panpsychism is true.

Mind-body problem

In 2015, Chalmers proposed a possible solution to the mind-body problem through the argumentative format of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. The goal of such arguments is to argue for sides of a debate (the thesis and antithesis), weigh their vices and merits, and then reconcile them (the synthesis). Chalmers's thesis, antithesis, and synthesis are as follows:
 Thesis: materialism is true; everything is fundamentally physical.
 Antithesis: dualism is true; not everything is fundamentally physical.
 Synthesis: panpsychism is true.
(1) A centerpiece of Chalmers's argument is the physical world's causal closure. Newton's law of motion explains this phenomenon succinctly: for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Cause and effect is a symmetrical process. There is no room for consciousness to exert any causal power on the physical world unless it is itself physical.

(2) On one hand, if consciousness is separate from the physical world then there is no room for it to exert any causal power on the world (a state of affairs philosophers call epiphenomenalism). If consciousness plays no causal role, then it is unclear how Chalmers could even write this paper. On the other hand, consciousness is irreducible to the physical processes of the brain.

(3) Panpsychism has all the benefits of materialism because it could mean that consciousness is physical while also escaping the grasp of epiphenomenalism. After some argumentation Chalmers narrows it down further to Russellian monism, concluding that thoughts, actions, intentions and emotions may just be the quiddities of neurotransmitters, neurons, and glial cells.

Problem of substance

Rather than solely trying to solve the problem of consciousness, Russell also attempted to solve the problem of substance, which is arguably a form of the problem of infinite regress.

(1) Like many sciences, physics describes the world through mathematics. Unlike other sciences, physics cannot describe what Schopenhauer called the "object that grounds" mathematics. Economics is grounded in resources being allocated, and population dynamics is grounded in individual people within that population. The objects that ground physics, however, can be described only through more mathematics. In Russell's words, physics describes "certain equations giving abstract properties of their changes." When it comes to describing "what it is that changes, and what it changes from and to—as to this, physics is silent." In other words, physics describes matter's extrinsic properties, but not the intrinsic properties that ground them.

(2) Russell argued that physics is mathematical because "it is only mathematical properties we can discover." This is true almost by definition: if only extrinsic properties are outwardly observable, then they will be the only ones discovered. This led Alfred North Whitehead to conclude that intrinsic properties are "intrinsically unknowable."

(3) Consciousness has many similarities to these intrinsic properties of physics. It, too, cannot be directly observed from an outside perspective. And it, too, seems to ground many observable extrinsic properties: presumably, music is enjoyable because of the experience of listening to it, and chronic pain is avoided because of the experience of pain, etc. Russell concluded that consciousness must be related to these extrinsic properties of matter. He called these intrinsic properties quiddities. Just as extrinsic physical properties can create structures, so can their corresponding and identical quiddites. The conscious mind, Russell argued, is one such structure.

Proponents of panpsychism who use this line of reasoning include Chalmers, Annaka Harris, and Galen Strawson. Chalmers has argued that the extrinsic properties of physics must have corresponding intrinsic properties; otherwise the universe would be "a giant causal flux" with nothing for "causation to relate", which he deems a logical impossibility. He sees consciousness as a promising candidate for that role. Galen Strawson calls Russell's panpsychism "realistic physicalism." He argues that "the experiential considered specifically as such" is what it means for something to be physical. Just as mass is energy, Strawson believes that consciousness "just is" matter.

Max Tegmark, theoretical physicist and creator of the mathematical universe hypothesis, disagrees with these conclusions. By his account, the universe is not just describable by math but is math; comparing physics to economics or population dynamics is a disanalogy. While population dynamics may be grounded in individual people, those people are grounded in "purely mathematical objects" such as energy and charge. The universe is, in a fundamental sense, made of nothing.

Quantum mechanics
In a 2018 interview, Chalmers called quantum mechanics "a magnet for anyone who wants to find room for crazy properties of the mind," but not entirely without warrant. The relationship between observation (and, by extension, consciousness) and the wave-function collapse is known as the measurement problem. It seems that atoms, photons, etc. are in quantum superposition (which is to say, in many seemingly contradictory states or locations simultaneously) until measured in some way. This process is known as a wave-function collapse. According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, one of the oldest interpretations and the most widely taught, it is the act of observation that collapses the wave-function. Erwin Schrödinger famously articulated the Copenhagen interpretation's unusual implications in the thought experiment now known as Schrödinger's cat. He imagines a box that contains a cat, a flask of poison, radioactive material, and a Geiger counter. The apparatus is configured so that when the Geiger counter detects radioactive decay, the flask will shatter, poisoning the cat. Unless and until the Geiger counter detects the radioactive decay of a single atom, the cat survives. The radioactive decay the Geiger counter detects is a quantum event; each decay corresponds to a quantum state transition of a single atom of the radioactive material. According to Schrödinger's wave equation, until they are observed, quantum particles, including the atoms of the radioactive material, are in quantum state superposition; each unmeasured atom in the radioactive material is in a quantum superposition of decayed and not decayed. This means that while the box remains sealed and its contents unobserved, the Geiger counter is also in a superposition of states of decay detected and no decay detected; the vial is in a superposition of both shattered and not shattered and the cat in a superposition of dead and alive. But when the box is unsealed, the observer finds a cat that is either dead or alive; there is no superposition of states. Since the cat is no longer in a superposition of states, then neither is the radioactive atom (nor the vial or the Geiger counter). Hence Schrödinger's wave function no longer holds and the wave function that described the atom—and its superposition of states—is said to have "collapsed": the atom now has only a single state, corresponding to the cat's observed state. But until an observer opens the box and thereby causes the wave function to collapse, the cat is both dead and alive. This has raised questions about, in John S. Bell's words, "where the observer begins and ends."

The measurement problem has largely been characterised as the clash of classical physics and quantum mechanics. Bohm argued that it is rather a clash of classical physics, quantum mechanics, and phenomenology; all three levels of description seem to be difficult to reconcile, or even contradictory. Though not referring specifically to quantum mechanics, Chalmers has written that if a theory of everything is ever discovered, it will be a set of "psychophysical laws", rather than simply a set of physical laws. With Chalmers as their inspiration, Bohm and Pylkkänen set out to do just that in their panprotopsychism. Chalmers, who is critical of the Copenhagen interpretation and most quantum theories of consciousness, has coined this "the Law of the Minimisation of Mystery."  The many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics does not take observation as central to the wave-function collapse, because it denies that the collapse happens. On the many-worlds interpretation, just as the cat is both dead and alive, the observer both sees a dead cat and sees a living cat. Even though observation does not play a central role in this case, questions about observation are still relevant to the discussion. In Roger Penrose's words:I do not see why a conscious being need be aware of only "one" of the alternatives in a linear superposition. What is it about consciousnesses that says that consciousness must not be "aware" of that tantalising linear combination of both a dead and a live cat? It seems to me that a theory of consciousness would be needed for one to square the many world view with what one actually observes.Chalmers believes the tentative variant of panpsychism outlined in The Conscious Mind (1996) does just that. Leaning toward the many-worlds interpretation due to its mathematical parsimony, he believes his variety of panpsychist property dualism may be the theory Penrose is seeking. Chalmers believes that information will play an integral role in any theory of consciousness because the mind and brain have corresponding informational structures. He considers the computational nature of physics further evidence of information's central role, and suggests that information that is physically realised is simultaneously phenomenally realised; both regularities in nature and conscious experience are expressions of information's underlying character. The theory implies panpsychism, and also solves the problem Penrose poses. On Chalmers's formulation, information in any given position is phenomenally realised, whereas the informational state of the superposition as a whole is not. Panpsychist interpretations of quantum mechanics have been put forward by such philosophers as Whitehead, Shan Gao, Michael Lockwood, and Hoffman, who is a cognitive scientist. Protopanpsychist interpretations have been put forward by Bohm and Pylkkänen.

Quantum theories of consciousness have yet to gain mainstream attention. Tegmark has formally calculated the "decoherence rates" of neurons, finding that the brain is a "classical rather than a quantum system" and that quantum mechanics does not relate "to consciousness in any fundamental way."

In 2007, Steven Pinker criticized explanations of consciousness invoking quantum physics, saying: "to my ear, this amounts to the feeling that quantum mechanics sure is weird, and consciousness sure is weird, so maybe quantum mechanics can explain consciousness," a view echoed by physicist Stephen Hawking. In 2017, Penrose rejected these characterizations, stating that disagreements are about the nature of quantum mechanics.

Arguments against

Theoretical issues

One criticism of panpsychism is that it cannot be empirically tested. A corollary of this criticism is that panpsychism has no predictive power. Tononi and Koch write: "Besides claiming that matter and mind are one thing, [panpsychism] has little constructive to say and offers no positive laws explaining how the mind is organized and works."

John Searle has alleged that panpsychism's unfalsifiability goes deeper than run-of-the-mill untestability: it is unfalsifiable because "It does not get up to the level of being false. It is strictly speaking meaningless because no clear notion has been given to the claim." The need for coherence and clarification is accepted by David Skrbina, a proponent of panpsychism.

Many proponents of panpsychism base their arguments not on empirical support but on panpsychism's theoretical virtues. Chalmers says that while no direct evidence exists for the theory, neither is there direct evidence against it, and that "there are indirect reasons, of a broadly theoretical character, for taking the view seriously." Notwithstanding Tononi and Koch's criticism of panpsychism, they state that it integrates consciousness into the physical world in a way that is "elegantly unitary."

A related criticism is what seems to many to be the theory's bizarre nature. Goff dismisses this objection: though he admits that panpsychism is counterintuitive, he argues that Einstein's and Darwin's theories are also counterintuitive. "At the end of the day," he writes, "you should judge a view not for its cultural associations but by its explanatory power."

Problem of mental causation

Philosophers such as Chalmers have argued that theories of consciousness should be capable of providing insight into the brain and mind to avoid the problem of mental causation. If they fail to do that, the theory will succumb to epiphenomenalism, a view commonly criticised as implausible or even self-contradictory. Proponents of panpsychism (especially those with neutral monist tendencies) hope to bypass this problem by dismissing it as a false dichotomy; mind and matter are two sides of the same coin, and mental causation is merely the extrinsic description of intrinsic properties of mind. Robert Howell has argued that all causal functions are still accounted for dispositionally (i.e., in terms of the behaviors described by science), leaving phenomenality causally inert. He concludes, "This leaves us once again with epiphenomenal qualia, only in a very surprising place." Neutral monists reject such dichotomous views of mind-body interaction.

Combination problem
The combination problem (which is related to the binding problem) can be traced to William James, but was given its present name by William Seager in 1995. The problem arises from the tension between the seemingly irreducible nature of consciousness and its ubiquity. If consciousness is ubiquitous, then in some versions of panpsychism every atom (or every bit, depending on the theory) has a minimal level of it. How then, as Keith Frankish puts it, do these "tiny consciousnesses combine" to create larger conscious experiences such as "the twinge of pain" he feels in his knee? This objection has garnered significant attention, and many have attempted to answer it. None of the proposed answers has gained widespread acceptance.

Concepts related to this problem include the classical sorites paradox (aggregates and organic wholes), mereology (the philosophical study of parts and wholes), Gestalt psychology, and Leibniz's concept of the vinculum substantiale.

See also
Concepts

 Anima mundi (World soul)
 Egregore
 Gaia hypothesis
 Holographic Universe
 Mana (Mandaeism)
 Maya (illusion)
 Microcosm–macrocosm analogy
 Monadology
 Monistic idealism
 Mythopoeic thought
 Noosphere
 Pandeism
 Pantheism
 Panentheism
 Philosophy of mind
 Reflexive monism

 Transpersonal psychology

People

 Paul Carus
 Gerard Heymans
 Aleksei Kozlov
 Iain McGilchrist
 Gordon Pask
 Friedrich Paulsen
 Galen Strawson
 Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
 Alfred North Whitehead
 Mary Whiton Calkins

Notes

Further reading

External links
List of online classic papers on panpsychism
Online papers on panpsychism, by various authors, compiled by David Chalmers
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Panpsychism
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Panpsychism

Theory of mind
Pantheism
Nonduality

Panpsychism


Uma Pitada de Sorte é um filme brasileiro de 2022 do gênero comédia, dirigido por Pedro Antonio e estrelado por Fabiana Karla no papel da sonhadora Pérola, uma animadora de festas infantis que sonha se tornar chef. A produção foi distribuída pela Downtown Filmes e Paris Filmes.

Sinopse
Pérola vive com a mãe e um irmão menor adotivo. Seu grande sonho é ser reconhecida como Chef e enquanto seu desejo não se torna realidade, a moça trabalha como animadora de festas infantis e Sous Chef (o segundo no comando de uma cozinha) em um restaurante na Zona Sul do Rio. Tudo começa a mudar na vida de Pérola quando ela é aprovada num teste para ser auxiliar de um Chef renomado em um programa de televisão.

Elenco

Ligações externas

Filmes do Brasil de 2022
Filmes em língua portuguesa
Filmes de comédia romântica do Brasil
Filmes de comédia romântica da década de 2020

Uma Pitada de Sorte


Teatrul Maghiar de Stat "Csiky Gergely" este o instituție publică culturală cu activitatea teatrală de limbă maghiară din Timișoara, de sine stătătoare din anul 1957. Predecesoarea sa a fost secția maghiară a Teatrului de Stat din Timișoara, înființată ca și teatru profesionist în anul 1953. Numele teatrului a fost dat după dramaturgul maghiar Gergely Csiky.

Note

Timișoara
Maghiari din România
Cultura în Timișoara
Fondări în 1957

Teatrul Maghiar de Stat „Csiky Gergely” din Timișoara


جبل حشِيشينَة جبل يقع بولاية قبلي من الجنوب الغربي التونسي، جنوب شرقي مدينة قفصة وشمال شط الفجاج وشرق جبل سيف اللحام. يبلغ ارتفاعه 515 . ولا يعيش في هذا الجبل أي شخص باستئناء قبائل بدوية متنقلة.

حشيشينة

جبل حشيشينة


Monotropa er ættkvísl blómplantna af lyngætt ættuð frá norðurhveli.

Tegundir
Tegundir eru ýmist taldar tvær til fjórar
 Monotropa brittonii Small - SA-Bandaríkin (Flórída og N&S-Karólína)
 Monotropa coccinea Zucc - Suðurhluti N-Ameríku og M-Ameríka
 Monotropa hypopitys L. - Sníkjurót - Mjög víða á norðurhveli (stundum talin til ættkvíslarinnar Hypopitys)
 Monotropa uniflora L. - Pípurót - N-Ameríka og Asía

Tilvísanir

Lyngætt

Monotropa


Adrian Miličević (20. srpnja 1998.), hrvatski mladi rukometni reprezentativac iz Karlovca. Igrač PPD Zagreba. Igrao za Hrvatsku na Europskom prvenstvu u rukometu M 18 2016. godine na kojem je Hrvatska igrala finale, u sastavu Radočaj, Panjan; Špruk, Koncul, Martinović, Strbad, Raguž, Lučin, Grahovac, Bahtijarević, Šarac, Jaganjac, Vusić, Miličević, Turčić, Curiš, izbornik: Luka Panza).

Izvori

Hrvatski rukometaši
Životopisi, Karlovac

Adrian Miličević


Egalitarian communities are groups of people who have chosen to live together, with egalitarianism as one of their core values. A broad definition of egalitarianism is "equal access to resources and to decision-making power." For example, decision-making is done by consensus or another system in which each person has a voice; it is not done hierarchically with only one or a few people making choices that will affect the whole group. If the group shares assets (income, vehicles, etc.), they are distributed equitably throughout the group, and each member has access to more-or-less the same resources as any other member. Egalitarian communities are a type of commune (some communal groups are not egalitarian in nature).

An "egalitarian decision" is a decision made by a group as opposed to a single individual. The decision may be made by committee or elected members but still is an egalitarian decision.

The Federation of Egalitarian Communities is a network of communal groups in North America with values including egalitarianism, non-violence, income-sharing and cooperation.

See also
 Acorn Community
 Drop City
 East Wind Community
 Equality Colony
 Kommune Niederkaufungen
 L'Arche
 Twin Oaks Community

External links
 Dacha Project
 Federation of Egalitarian Communities
 Intentional Communities Website
 Directory of Communes in the Communities Directory
 Communities magazine
 Intentional Communities Wiki
 Twin Oaks Communities Conference Conference focused on education about living in Community.

Types of communities

Egalitarian community


Ron Meadows (Liverpool, 7 de fevereiro de 1964), é um engenheiro britânico. Ele é atualmente o diretor esportivo da equipe de Fórmula 1 da Mercedes.

Carreira
Depois de se formar na escola, Meadows começou um aprendizado como mecânico na TWR em 1980. Em 1987, ele se tornou o mecânico-chefe e mais tarde o chefe de equipe da Middlebridge Racing na Fórmula 3000 e mudou para a Ran Vortex em 1991. Após vários anos como gerente de equipe, em 1995, Meadows mudou-se para os Estados Unidos para trabalhar como gerente de equipe da Walker Racing na IndyCar Series.

Com sua vasta experiência gerencial, Meadows foi caçado pela nova equipe de Fórmula 1 da British American Racing (BAR) para se tornar o gerente da equipe, que iria fazer sua estreia no Campeonato Mundial de Fórmula 1 em . Sua primeira tarefa foi montar a sede da equipe de corrida em Brackley, no Reino Unido. Meadows permaneceu com a equipe quando ela foi transformada na Honda Racing F1 e, em seguida, assumiu o papel de diretor esportivo em 2008. Em 2009, ele ajudou a Brawn GP a vencer os Campeonatos Mundiais de Pilotos e Construtores e permaneceu com a equipe quando ela foi transformada na equipe da Mercedes.

Engenheiros automotivos do Reino Unido
Pessoas da Fórmula 1
Naturais de Liverpool

Ron Meadows


إنجيل برلين المجهول هو نص جزئي غير كامل من بقايا إنجيل لم يعرف إلا سنة 1991. يصنف الإنجيل ضمن أبوكريفا العهد الجديد باسم إنجيل المخلص. يتألف من قطع مخطوطة كتاب جلدي أصابتها النار.

تاريخ المخطوطة
حصل متحف برلين المصري سنة 1961 على المخطوطة (باسم بردية بروليننسيس Papyrus Berolinensis 22220). لم تعرف محتويات المخطوطة حتى سنة 1991 أي بعد 30 سنة من الحصول عليها بسبب العدد الكبير من المخطوطات المماثلة التي تنتظر الدراسة. أعلن عن محتويات المخطوطة في محاضرة عام 1996 لتشارلز هدريك Charles W. Hedrick، والذي ترجمها مع بول ميركي Paul Mirecki (سنة 1999. ترجمها أيضا بارت إهرمان عام 2003. بسبب تمزق المخطوطة يمكن ترتيب محتوياتها بأكثر من طريقة مما يسمح بعدة ترجمات ونقاشات عامة (انظر المراجع).

يبدو أن المخطوطة تعود للقرن السادس. وبسبب التأثر الهيليني على المفردات والقواعد ربما تكون مترجمة عن أصل يوناني مفقود. يعتقد أن النص اليوناني المفترض قد كتب في نهاية القرن الثاني أو أول القرن الثالث الميلادي، وذلك حسب ما يدل الأسلوب والعقيدة فيها. ليس الإنجيل إنجيل رواية أو قصة (مثل الأناجيل القانونية) بل عبارة عن حوار، وهذا الشكل استخدم كثيرا في القدم للتعليم.

المحتويات غنوصية بشكل كبير، فالخلاص فقط لمن يفهم المعرفة (غنوسيس) السرية، وهناك تشابهات مع إنجيل بطرس. وفيه يقوم المخلص غير المذكور بالاسم (يفترض أنه عيسى/يسوع) بنقاش رسله بشكل شخصي أكثر مما يرى في غيره من الأناجيل.

وهناك تقليل من أهمية الصلب، لاعتباره قسما من رحلة سماوية، وهذه فكرة تتوافق مع الرؤية الغنوصية للعالم. وفيه يخاطب المخلص الصليب كأنه شخص حي وصاحب وليس أداة قتل.

مراجع

 Charles W. Hedrick and Paul A. Mirecki, 1999. Gospel of the Savior: A New Ancient Gospel (Santa Rosa, California: Polebridge Press) ISBN 0-944344-68-2
 Stephen Emmel, 2002. "The Recently Published Gospel of the Savior (unbekanntes Berliner Evangelium): Righting the Order of Pages and Events," in Harvard Theological Review 95 pp 45–72 (abstract)
 Charles W. Hedrick, 2003. "Caveats to a 'Righted Order' of the Gospel of the Savior," in Harvard Theological Review  96 pp 229–238 (abstract).
 Bart D. Ehrman, 2003. Lost Scriptures (Oxford).
 Early Christian Writings: The Gospel of the Saviour

وصلات خارجية
 إنجيل المخلص
 ملاحظات حول الإنجيل

أبوكريفا ضائعة
أناجيل غنوصية
مخطوطات القرن 6
نصوص مسيحية
نصوص مسيحية في القرن 2
نصوص مسيحية في القرن 3
نصوص في أقباط

إنجيل برلين المجهول


2-MeO-difenidin, vrsta psihotropne tvari. Uvrštena je u Hrvatskoj na temelju Zakona o suzbijanju zlouporabe droga na Popis droga, psihotropnih tvari i biljaka iz kojih se može dobiti droga te tvari koje se mogu uporabiti za izradu droga, pod Popis droga i biljaka iz kojih se može dobiti droga, pod 2. Popis psihotropnih tvari i biljaka, Odjeljak 1 - Psihotropne tvari sukladno Popisu 1. Konvencije UN-a o psihotropnim tvarima iz 1971. godine. Kemijsko ime je metilni ester 2-(9-(cikloheksilmetil)-9H-karbazol-3-karboksamido)-3,3-dimetilbutanske kiseline.

Izvori

Psihotropne tvari

2-MeO-difenidin


Cruelty Free International is an animal protection and advocacy group that campaigns for the abolition of all animal experiments. They organise certification of cruelty-free products which are marked with the symbol of a leaping bunny.

It was founded in 1898 by Irish writer and suffragette, Frances Power Cobbe, as the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection. In 2012, the BUAV joined with the New England Anti-Vivisection Society to establish a new international organisation to campaign against the testing of cosmetics on animals—Cruelty Free International. This was launched by BUAV supporter Ricky Gervais. In 2015, the parent organisation merged into this new organization, taking its name and branding for all its activities.

Background

BUAV was founded on 14 June 1898 by Frances Power Cobbe during a public meeting in Bristol, England. Known at first as the British Union, or "the Union", it campaigned at first against the use of dogs in vivisection, and came close to achieving success with the 1919 Dogs (Protection) Bill, which almost became law. Tentative discussion toward amalgamation with the National Anti-Vivisection Society (NAVS), including during the early 1960s under the contemporary NAVS Committee Secretary, Wilfred Risdon, could not be successfully concluded. In recent years, it successfully lobbied the British government into abolishing the oral  test in the 1990s. The BUAV was also closely involved in the lobbying which led to the adoption in the European Union of the 7th Amendment to the Cosmetics Directive, which effectively banned both the testing of cosmetics products and their ingredients on animals and also the sale of products in the EU which have been animal-tested anywhere in the world.

Focus
In recent years, the organisation has focused on a number of new areas, including the promotion of non-animal tested products; the European Union's REACH proposal to test tens of thousands of chemicals on millions of animals; and the use of non-human primates in experimentation. It acts as the secretariat of the European Coalition to End Animal Experiments (ECEAE), established in 1990, and its chief executive, Michelle Thew, acts as chief executive of the coalition.

It helps consumers to identify and purchase products that have not been tested on animals through its Humane Cosmetics and Humane Household Products Standards (HCS and HHPS). These are audited accreditation schemes for retail companies which confirm that neither their products nor their ingredients are tested on animals. These standards are also run in a number of European countries and in the United States. A list of approved companies is available and regularly updated on their website. It also runs a primate sanctuary in Thailand for 50 rescued macaques.

Undercover investigations
Undercover investigations included the exposure of the breeding and supply of monkeys from Nafovanny in Vietnam for experimentation in Europe and the US. and Covance's contract testing laboratory in Germany. It pursued a judicial review against the Home Office as a result of its findings in the Cambridge investigation. The High Court ruled in support of the Government in three of the four issues, and in favour of the BUAV on one issue, though this was later overturned on appeal with the Home Office awarded costs. Other investigations in 2007 highlighted the primate trade from Malaysia and Spain.

See also
 Blue Cross (animal charity)
 Brown Dog affair, a political controversy about vivisection that raged in Edwardian England from 1903 until 1910.
 Cambridge University primate experiments
List of animal rights groups
 Nafovanny
 Women and animal advocacy

References

Further reading
The archives of the BUAV (ref U DBV) are held at the Hull History Centre and details of holdings on its online catalogue.

External links
Website
YouTube channel

1898 establishments in the United Kingdom
Animal rights organizations
Animal welfare organisations based in the United Kingdom
Anti-vivisection organizations
International organisations based in London
Organisations based in the London Borough of Islington
Toxicology in the United Kingdom

Cruelty Free International


Cette liste de spirales mathématiques inventorie les noms, les images et quelques propriétés de spirales définies en mathématiques et dessinées en dimension deux ou trois.

Spirales du plan

Spirales et hélices de l'espace

Remarque : dans toute la suite, les équations données en coordonnées sphériques utilisent les notations suivantes
  pour la distance au pôle;
  pour la colatitude;
  pour la longitude.

Bibliographie

traduit de l'original en espagnol de 1899, revu et très augmenté. Réédition: dans les Obras sobre Matemática, volume  V, 1908–1915; Chelsea Publishing Co, New York, 1971; Éditions Jacques Gabay, Paris, 1995 .

Références

Voir aussi

Spirale

Liste de spirales mathématiques


La mezquita Nueva del Viernes () es una mezquita en Trabzon, Turquía. Fue construida durante la época bizantina como la iglesia de San Eugenio (en griego: Μονή Αγίου Ευγενίου), dedicada a Eugenio de Trebisonda, el santo patrón de la ciudad.

No se sabe exactamente cuándo se construyó la iglesia, sin embargo los investigadores consideran que era una basílica. Una inscripción de 1291 se ha encontrado cerca de ella. Sin embargo, durante el sitio de Trebisonda en 1222, el sultán Malik, enfurecido por la resistencia de los habitantes de la ciudad, ordenó que las paredes superiores fueran derribadas y los pisos rotos y arrancados, por lo que es probable que la estructura actual se haya construido en años posteriores.

Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer, historiador austriaco, que visitó Trebisonda a principios del siglo , menciona que vio restos de pinturas de los emperadores de Trebisonda desde Alejo I hasta Alejo III en el interior, cada uno con una inscripción que indica el título y el nombre de los súbditos; aunque en el momento en que el arqueólogo francés Gabriel Millet inspeccionó el edificio, las inscripciones habían desaparecido, Millet confirmó que las huellas de las pinturas quedaban a la izquierda de la entrada: «una persona que llevaba el loros; otra parece sostener un cetro;  a la derecha, un tercero se arrodilla, presentando un objeto, sin duda la iglesia que él fundó, a un santo sentado y vestido como un mártir en traje bizantino».

El edificio actual no tiene narthex ahora, pero hay tres naves. El ábside medio es redondeado en el interior y pentagonal en el exterior. El minarete fue añadido al área alrededor de la puerta norte de la iglesia, que fue convertida en una mezquita después de la conquista otomana en 1461. El mihrab de piedra (hornacina) es de estilo barroco, y el minbar (púlpito) es de madera con ninguna ornamentación.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Imperio de Trebisonda
Iglesias bizantinas de Turquía
Mezquitas de Turquía con cúpula
Trebisonda
Lugares religiosos convertidos en mezquitas
Iglesias del siglo XIII
Arquitectura de Turquía del siglo XIII

Mezquita Nueva del Viernes (Trabzon)


Rowlandius solanllyae est une espèce de schizomides de la famille des Hubbardiidae.

Distribution
Cette espèce est endémique de la province de Puerto Plata en République dominicaine. Elle se rencontre à Sosúa dans la grotte Cueva de los Murciélagos.

Description
Le mâle holotype mesure .

Étymologie
Cette espèce est nommée en l'honneur de Solanlly Carrero Jiménez.

Publication originale
 Teruel, 2021 : Una especie nueva de Rowlandius Reddell & Cokendolpher, 1995 (Schizomida: Hubbardiidae), del norte de República Dominicana. Revista Iberica de Aracnologia, , .

Notes et références

Hubbardiidae
Espèce de schizomides (nom scientifique)
Faune endémique de République dominicaine

Rowlandius solanllyae


Fagociti su bijele krvne stanice koja štite tijelo putem konzumiranja (fagocitoze) štetnih stranih čestica, bakterija, i mrtvih ili umirućih stanica.

Njihovo ime potiče od grč. "phagein" - "da jede", i "-cit", biološkog sufiksa koji označava "stanicu". Oni su esencijalni za borbu protiv infekcija i za imunitet. Fagociti su važni širom životinjskog carstva i visoko su razvijeni kod kralježnjaka. Jedna litra ljudske krvi sadrži oko šest milijardi fagocita. Fagocite je otkrio 1882. Ilja Iljič Mečnikov dok je studirao larve morske zvijezde. Mečnikov je nagrađen za ovo otkriće Nobelovom nagradom za fiziologiju ili medicinu 1908. godine. Fagociti su prisutni kod mnogih vrsta. Neke amebe se ponašaju kao makrofagni fagociti, što sugerira da su se fagociti pojavili rano tijekom evolucije živih bića.

Fagociti kod ljudi i životinja nazivaju se "profesionalnim" ili "neprofesionalnim" u ovisnosti od toga koliko su efektivni u izvođenju fagocitoze. U profesionalne fagocite uvrštavaju se: neutrofili, monociti, makrofage, dendritske stanice, i mastociti. Glavna razlika između profesionalnih i neprofesionalnih fagocita je što profesionalni fagociti imaju molekulske receptore na svojoj površini koji mogu detektirati štetne objekte, kao što su bakterije, koji se normalno ne nalaze u tijelu. Fagociti su presudni u borbi protiv infekcija, kao i za održavanje zdravoga tkiva, jer uklanjaju mrtve i umiruće stanice, koje su dosegle kraj njihovog životnog vijeka.

Tijekom infekcije, kemijski signali privlače fagocite do mjesta gdje su patogeni napali tijelo. Te kemikalije mogu potječi od bakterija ili od drugih fagocita koji su već prisutni. Fagociti se kreću putem metode zvanog hemotaksa. Kad fagociti dođu u kontakt s bakterijama, receptori na površini fagocita vežu se za njih. To vezivanje dovodi do fagocitnoga "gutanja" bakterija. Neki fagociti ubijaju progutane patogene putem oksidanasa ili dušikova (II) oksida. Nakon fagocitoze, makrofage i dendritske stanice mogu isto tako sudjelovati u prezentaciji antigena. To je proces kojim fagociti premještaju dijelove razgrađenog materijala na svoju površinu. Taj materijal se tim putem prikazuje drugim stanica imunosnog sustava. Neki fagociti zatim putuju u tjelesne limfne čvorove i prikazuju materijal bijelim krvnim zrncima zvanim limfociti. Ovaj proces je važan za nastanak imunosti. Međutim, mnogi patogeni su evoluirali metode za izbjegavanje napada fagocita.

Izvori

Literatura

  Website

Vanjske poveznice

Sastav krvi

Fagociti


Bitinya Krallığı veya Bitinya (Yunanca: Βιθυνία Bithynia), M.Ö. 377 ve M.Ö. 64  yılları arasında Nikomedia (İzmit) başkentli, İzmit Körfezi, İstanbul, Sakarya, Düzce ve Bursa arasında kalan bölgede hüküm sürmüş, Trakya kökenli Bitinler tarafından kurulmuş devlet. Aynı zamanda ülke toprakları coğrafî bir tâbir olarak da sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır. Osmanlı Devleti'nin kurulduğu bölge de içerisinde bulunur.

Coğrafya
Antik Çağ ve Roma İmparatorluğu döneminde Marmara Denizi'ni çevreleyen Nicomedia, Kalkedon, Cius ve Apamea pek çok kenti kapsayan verimli topraklara sahip bir bölgedir. Strabo, Antik Anadolu coğrafyasını anlattığı Geographika adlı eserinde Mithridates Eupator'u yenen Romalı komutan Pompeius'un yıktığı Pont Krallığı'nın Karadeniz ve Kalkedon ağzına kadar olan bölümlerini Bitinya Krallığı'nın idaresi altına verdiğini, bu bölgede Bitin adlı bir halkın yaşadığını bildirmiştir. Sahil bölgelerinde oldukça verimli vadilere sahip olan bölge genelde dağlık ve ormanlık alanlarla kaplıdır. En önemli dağ antik Misya'da yer alan Bursa Uludağ'dır.

Tarihi
Bölge adını Thak kökenli Bitinlerden almıştır. Herodot, Bitinlerin Trakya'dan Anadolu'ya geçtiğini belirtmektedir. Bu kavimler M.Ö. 11. yüzyıl civarında bölgeye göç etmişlerdi. M.Ö. 7. yüzyıldan itibaren Lidya içerisinde yer alan Bitinya bölgesi, M.Ö. 513/512 yıllarında I. Darius'un Trakya seferinden sonra Hellespontus Frigyası'na bağlandı. Büyük İskender'in M.Ö. 334 yıldındaki Granikos Savaşında Persleri yenmesine kadar da onların yönetiminde kalmıştır.

Büyük İskender'in komutanı Kalas bölgeyi ele geçirmeye çalışmış, Botiras'ın oğlu Bas Kalas'ı yenmiştir. Bas'ın oğlu Zipoites zamanında Bitinya Krallığı sağlam zeminler üzerine oturtulmuştur. Oğlu I. Nikomedes zamanında ise ülke sınırları genişlemiştir.

M.Ö. 74 yılında IV. Nikomedes krallığı bir vasiyetle Roma İmparatorluğu'na bırakınca, Roma egemenliğine giren bölgeyi Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus tarafından M.Ö. 64 yılında oluşturulan Bitinya - Pontus Eyaleti'ne bağlanmıştır.

Bitinya kentleri
 Prousa/Prussa - Bursa
 Apollonıa/Apolyond - Gölyazı
 Myrleıa - Mudanya
 Kios - Gemlik
 Besbikos - İmralı Adası
 Nikaia, İlirya - Ìznik
 Posedion burnu- Bozburun, Armutlu
 Ksenodokhion - Yalova
 Basilinopolis - Çeltikçi
 Prainetos - Karamürsel
 Nikomedeia - Ìzmit

Bitinya kralları
 Bas (M.Ö. 377 - M.Ö. 327)
 Zipoites (M.Ö. 327 - M.Ö. 279)
 I. Nikomedes (M.Ö. 279 - M.Ö. 250)
 IV. Nikomedes (? - M.Ö. 64)

Kaynakça

Anadolu tarihindeki eski devletler
Roma İmparatorluğu'nun coğrafyası
İznik
Bursa tarihi
Kocaeli tarihi
Sakarya tarihi
Bilecik tarihi
Düzce tarihi
Yalova tarihi
Bolu tarihi
Kastamonu tarihi
Bartın tarihi
Zonguldak tarihi
MÖ 290'larda kurulan bölgeler ve ülkeler
Türkiye'deki antik bölgeler

Bitinya


L'attentat du 19 février 2022 de Beledweyne est survenu le 19 février 2022 lorsqu'un kamikaze des shebabs a tué 14 personnes dans un restaurant de Beledweyne, en Somalie.

Contexte
Le groupe militant islamiste shebabs, la branche somalienne d'Al-Qaïda, a commencé son insurrection pendant la phase 2006-2009 de la guerre civile somalienne. En 2009, ils ont perpétré un attentat suicide à la voiture piégée dans un hôtel à Beledweyne, dans la région d'Hiiraan, dans l'État de Hirshabelle, tuant 57 personnes. Le groupe militant y a participé à des combats  et .

Attentat
Dans la matinée du 19 février 2022, un kamikaze a fait exploser une bombe dans un restaurant à Beledweyene. Il a tué 14 personnes, dont un candidat aux élections du même mois, et en a blessé au moins 12 autres. Le même jour, les shebabs ont revendiqué la responsabilité de l'attaque.

Notes et références

Février 2022
2022 en Somalie
Terrorisme en 2022
Attentat en Somalie
Harakat al-Chabab al-Moudjahidin
Explosion en 2022
Attentat-suicide
Attentat à la bombe

Attentat du 19 février 2022 de Beledweyne


Dietmar Blaas ist ein deutscher Diplomat und seit 2010 Botschafter in Mauretanien.

Laufbahn
Nach dem Abitur absolvierte Blaas ein Studium und trat anschließend in den Auswärtigen Dienst ein. Nach Abschluss der Laufbahnprüfung für den höheren Dienst fand er verschiedene Verwendung in der Zentrale des Auswärtigen Amtes in Bonn und Berlin sowie bei unterschiedlichen Auslandsvertretungen.

2007 wurde er als Nachfolger von Horst-Wolfram Kerll, der wiederum Botschafter in Tunesien wurde, Botschafter in Paraguay und bekleidete dieses Amt bis zu seiner Ablösung durch den bisherigen Botschafter in Kuba, Claude Robert Ellner, im Jahr 2010.

Seit 2010 ist Dietmar Blaas als Nachfolger von Eberhard Schanze, der wiederum Botschafter in Ghana wurde, Botschafter in Mauretanien.

Weblinks
 Homepage der Botschaft in Nouakchott

Einzelnachweise

Deutscher Botschafter in Paraguay
Deutscher Botschafter in Mauretanien
Deutscher
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Mann

Dietmar Blaas


Dolaşım sistemi veya kardiyovasküler sistem maddelerin vücuttaki dolaşımını sağlayan organ sistemidir.

Dolaşım sisteminin olmaması
Dolaşım sistemine sahip olmayan canlılara örnek olarak yassı solucan (Platyhelminthes filumu) verilebilir. Bu canlının vücut boşluğunda herhangi bir kaplayıcı tabaka veya sıvı bulunmamaktadır. Sindirim sistemine açılan bir ağza sahiptirler.

Açık dolaşım sistemi

Bu tip dolaşım sistemi yumuşakçalar ve eklembacaklılar gibi omurgasızların büyük bir kısmında görülür. Bu canlılarda hemosöl olarak adlandırılan vücut boşluklarında dolaşım sıvısı organları doğrudan sarar (yıkar) ve kan (dolaşım sıvısı) ile interstisyel sıvı (doku sıvısı) arasında ayrışma yoktur. Bu birleşik sıvıya hemolenf denir. Hayvan hareket ederken oluşan kas hareketleri hemolenf hareketini sağlar fakat sıvı akışını bir bölümden diğerine yönlendirilmesi kısıtlıdır. Kalp gevşediğinde kan açık gözenekler (por) aracılığıyla kalbe döner.

Hemolenf vücudun içini (hemosöl) tamamen kapsar ve tüm hücreleri sarar. Hemolenf su, inorganik tuzlar ve organik bileşiklerden oluşur. Birincil oksijen taşıyıcı molekül ise hemosiyanindir. Kılcal kan damarları bulunmaz.

Ayrıca, hemosit olarak adlandırılan hücreler vardır ki bunlar hemolenfte bağımsız bir şekilde gezer ve antropod bağışıklık sisteminde rol alırlar. Kanın damarlardan geçerek vücut boşluğuna aktıktan sonra toplanarak kalbe dönmesidir. Açık dolaşım derisi dikenlilerde (denizkestanesi, denizyıldızı vb.), eklem bacaklılarda (örümcek, arı, sinek vb.) ve yumuşakçalarda (deniz anası, istiridye, midye vb.) görülür.

Kapalı dolaşım sistemi
Kapalı dolaşım sisteminin ana yapıları kalp, kan ve kan damarlarıdır.

Tüm omurgalıların ve halkalı solucanlar (Annelida filumu) ile kafadanbacaklıların (Cephalopoda sınıfı) dolaşım sistemleri kapalıdır; yani kan, kan damarlarından oluşan sistemden çıkmaz - bu damarlar sisteminin içinde dolaşır. Kan damarları arter (atardamar), kapiler (kılcaldamar) ve venlerden (toplardamar) oluşur. Arterler oksijenlenmiş kanı dokulara taşırken, venler oksijenlenmemiş kanı geri kalbe taşır. Kan arterlerden venlere kılcal damarlar yoluyla geçer ki kılcal damarlar en ince ve en çok sayıdaki kan damarlarıdır. Kan damarları genişleyerek (vazodilasyon) veya daralarak (vazokonstriksiyon) kanın gerekli bölgelere yönlendirilmesini sağlayabilir. Örneğin, yoğun egzersiz sırasında kan bağırsaklardan, o anda yoğun bir şekilde besin ve oksijene ihtiyaç duyan iskelet kaslarına yönlendirilebilir.

Memelilerin dolaşım sistemlerinde kan bir tam dolaşımda kalpten iki kez geçer. Pulmoner dolaşım yani küçük dolaşım, kanı kalp ile akciğer arasında taşır; sistemik dolaşım yani büyük dolaşım da kanı kalp ile vücudun diğer bölümleri arasında taşır.

Balıkların dolaşım sistemlerinde ise kan bir tam dolaşımda kalpten bir kez geçer. Kan kalpten solungaçlara pompalanır ve sonra doğrudan vücudun kalanına akar. Kan solungaçları terk ettikten sonra basıncı büyük oranda düşer; bu nedenle, memelerin dolaşım sistemine oranla, hayatî organlara kan akışı hem daha yavaş hem de daha az basınçlıdır. Bu tip bir dolaşım sistemi memelilere uygun değildir, zira bu kadar düşük basınçta böbrekler etkili biçimde çalışamaz.Kısacası kanın kalp ve damarlar sistemiyle çalışmasıdır. Kapalı dolaşım ilk kez toprak solucanında görülmüştür. Omurgalıların tamamında kapalı dolaşım vardır. Balıklarda kalp 2 odacıklıdır ve vücutlarında kirli kan dolaşır. Kurbağalarda kalp 3 odacıklıdır ve vücutlarında kirli kan dolaşır. Sürüngenlerde kalp 3 odacıklıdır ve kalp karıncığında yarım perde vardır. Timsahlarda perde tamdır, kirli ve temiz kan panizza adı verilen bir kanalda karışır.

Omurgasız canlılarda dolaşım sistemi

Daha ilkel canlılardaki dolaşımın tipik örneği, süngerlerdeki ve sölenterelerdeki dolaşımdır. Bu canlıların içinde yaşadıkları su, beden çeperindeki deliklerden orta boşluğa doğru çekilir. Suyun akışı kirpikçiklerin düzenli hareketleriyle sürdürülür ve suyun "boşaltım deliği" (osculum) adı verilen delikten yukarı doğru dolaşımı sağlanır. Bu tür dolaşım, beden hücrelerinin içinde yüzdükleri sıvının oksijen ve besin maddelerinin tükenmeyeceği bir biçimde yeniden dolmasını sağlar.

Daha yüksek derecede gelişmiş canlılarda, sözgelimi yosun hayvanlarında, iplikkurtlarında ve tekerlekli-kurtlarda, sıvılar ilkel orta boşluk (psödosölom) içinde, genellikle beden hareketleriyle hareket ettirilir. Bazı ilkel yumuşakçalarda, orta boşluk, gerçek kalbin bir ön taslağı sayılabilecek kalp zarı boşluğu olarak işlev görür. Bu boşluk kanallar aracılığıyla üreme bezlerine ve böbreklere bağlıdır.

Eklem bacaklıların çoğunda, tulumlularda ve birçok yumuşakçada, hemolenfi (ilkel kan), edimsel damarların ve özelleşmiş bir dolaşım organı olan hemosölün içine pompalayan, gelişmiş bir kalp vardır. Bu canlılarda hemolenf, doku boşluklarına geçip, sonra genişlemiş boşlukların (sinüsler) içinden kalbe döner.
Bu tür gelişmenin son aşaması, derisidikenliler, sülükler, solucanlar, çokkıllılar ve yumuşakçalarda görülen kapalı dolaşım sistemidir. Kapalı dolaşım sistemlerinde, taşınma ortamı, omurgasızlardakİ hemolenf gibi, tam bir kapalı devre oluşturan özelleşmiş damarlarla sınırlıdır.

Omurgasızların kalpleri, sağımsal hareketlerle iş gören basit damarlardan, kasılıcı kasları bulunan, kendi boşlukları içinde basınç yaratan gerçek kalplere kadar değişir. Omurgasızların bile, dolaşım sistemleri üstünde önemli ölçüde bir denetimleri vardır; bu sistemlerdeki basınç ve sıvı akışı ölçümleri, harekete, çevre ısısına, vb. etkilere oldukça büyük bir uyum olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır.

Omurgalılarda dolaşım sistemi
Omurgalılar kapalı bir dolaşım sistemleri bulunmasıyla ayırt edilirler; bu sistemlerin en gelişmiş olanı, insanın temsil ettiği yüksek derecede gelişmiş primatlardadır. Omurgalılardaki kapalı sistemler, öbekten öbeğe önemli ölçüde değişir; bazıları, tek bir sistem halinde birleşmiş solunum organlarıyla ve genel beden dokularıyla bir düzenlenmiştir. Daha ileri omurgalılarda, kan kalpten çift geçiş yapar; birinci geçişte kanı solunum organlarına (solungaçlara ya da akciğerlere), ikincisinde de bedenin öbür dokularına taşır. Omurgalıların çoğunluğunda, klorokruorinler (demirli porfirinle bileşmiş bir pigment), hemoeritrinler (demirli ama porfirinle bileşmiş olmayan pigment) ya da hemosiyanin (bakırlı bir solunum pigmenti) içeren dolaşım sıvıları bulunur. Bütün bu pigmentler, dolaşımdaki sıvının oksijen taşıma yeteneğini artırır. Çok ender istisnalar bir yana, omurgalılarda kan, son derece etkili bir oksijen taşıma aracısı olan ve bir proteine (globin) bağlı bir demir-porfirinden (hem) oluşan hemoglobin içerir. Bazı omurgasızlarda da hemoglobin bulunmakla birlikte, bu hemoglobin genellikle dolaşım ya da sölom sıvısında çözünmüş durumdadır. Yüksek derecede gelişmiş omurgasızlarda (derisi-dikenliler ve daha yüksek omurgasızlar) hemoglobin, özel kan hücreleri içinde bulunur. Omurgalılarınsa tümünde, bu tür hücreler içinde hemoglobin vardır.
Balıklarda solungaç bulunduğu halde dolaşım bu genel yapıya uyar.
Yuvarlakağızlılarda ve kelebeklerde kalp, kanı solungaçlara iter; sonra, sırt aortu aracılığıyla bedenin geri kalan bölümlerine dağıtır. Bu ilkel hayvanlarda bile başlıca kan damarları üstünde nispeten ilerlemiş bir denetim vardır ve kalp verimi, egzersizin getirdiği gereksinmelere göre ayarlanır.Bazı ilkel omurgalılarda (keskisolungaçlılar ve yuvarlakağızlılar) kalbin içinde, yeniden dolmasına yardım eden bir negatif basınç oluşur. Kemikli balıklarda bu tür bir doluş desteği bulunmaz. Bazı yuvarlakağızlılarda, sıvıyı yarı açık boşluklara (sinüsler) hareket ettirmeye yardımcı ikincil kalpler bulunur.

İkiyaşayışlılarda ve sürüngenlerde, kalp üç odacıklıdır ama akış düzeni, kalbin iki ayrı pompa gibi etkili işlev görmesine olanak sağlar.

İnsanda dolaşım sistemi
İnsan kalbi, yaşamı boyunca çalışır ancak ölünce durur. Kalp atışının 2 ya da 4 dakikadan uzun süre durması, kalıcı beyin yıkımına yol açar. Kalbin kendi kasına kan sağlaması da sürekli çalışmasına bağlıdır; birkaç dakikadan uzun süre kan kesilirse, kalp kası çok fazla zarar görüp, bir daha çalışmayacak biçimde durur. İnsanda dolaşım sistemi, iki büyük dolaşım, akciğer dolaşımı (küçük dolaşım) ve büyük (sistemik) dolaşım, biçiminde örgütlenmiştir. Her dolaşımın kendi pompası vardır. Her iki pompa, tek bir organ halinde bütünleşmiştir. Beden dokularından dönen kan, superior vena kava ve inferior vena kava ile kalbin sağ yanının üstodacığı olan sağ kulakçığa (sağ atrium) dökülür. Bu odacığın kasları kasılınca, kanı kalbin sağ yanının büyük pompa odacığı olan sağ karıncığa (sağ ventrikül) geçmeye zorlar ki bu da kasılınca, kanı akciğer atardamarına gönderir, kan buradan akciğerdeki damarlara taşınır. Bu akciğer damarları içinde kan, havadan çok ince zarlarla ayrılmış bir durumdadır. Burada basit yayınma aracılığıyla oksijen kana girer, karbondioksitse kandan geçer ve ayrılır. Ardından bu temizlenmiş ve tazelenmiş kan, sol kulakçığa (sol atrium) geçer. Sol kulakçıktan kan, sol karıncığa (sol ventrikül) geçer. Sol karıncığın kas çeperi çok güçlüdür ve kasıldığı zaman kanı oldukça büyük bir basınçla, aort adı verilen büyük atardamar aracılığıyla, büyük dolaşıma iter. Sol karıncığın kasılma güçleri tarafından aort içinde oluşturulan basınç, kanı bedenin bütün dokularına, gereksinimlerini karşılayacak miktarda götürmeye yetecek büyüklüktedir.

Aortun, kanı bedenin değişik bölümlerine taşıyan birçok kolu vardır. Bu kolların da tümü daha küçük kollara ayrılır; bu daha küçük kollar da, sonunda milyonlarca küçük kan damarı ortaya çıkacak biçiminde kollara ayrılmayı sürdürür. Dolaşımın en küçük atardamarlarına atardamarcık adı verilir.

Dolaşım sistemi içindeki kan akışı

Genel olarak kanın akışı,sıvıların akış yasalarını izler. Temel yasa,aşağıdaki denklemle gösterilir:
akış=basınç/direnç.

Kalp-damar fizyolojisinde, akış değeri olarak genellikle kalp verimi alınır; basınç, ortalama atardamar basıncıdır; dirençse, küçük kan damarının içindeki özellikle de atardamarcıklar içindeki akış dirençtir. Daha ayrıntılı bir biçimde, ağdalı sıvıların esnek olmayan borular içinden akışına uygulanan denklem, Poiseuille denklemi diye adlandırılır. Bu denklemle kan akışı, kabaca tanımlanabilir. Bununla birlikte, söz konusu denklem, akışkanın Newton tanımına uyan gerçek bir akışkan olduğunu kabul eder; oysa kan böyle bir akışkan değildir; denklem aynı zamanda boruların katı olduğunu varsayar; oysa kan damarlarının çeperleri katı değildir; ayrıca denklem akışkanın pürüzlülüğünün değişmez olduğunu kabul eder; oysa kanın pürüzlülüğü değişmez değildir. Gene de, kan akışının denetimi konusunda yaklaşık da olsa bilgi edinmek bakımından, Poiseuille denklemi yararlıdır.
Kanın büyük ve orta büyüklükteki akışı, nabızla yansır. Nabız kılcaldamarların atardamar uçlarında söner ve zor fark edilecek bir duruma gelir. Fizyologlar, kan damarları içindeki akışı ve basınç vurusunun iletimini tanımlayan ayrıntılı kuramlar geliştirmişlerdir ve dirençli öğelerin, özellikle de atardamarcıkların etkisi çok iyi anlaşılmıştır.

Kan dolaşımının denetimi
Basınç-akış ilişkisi, kan dolaşımı denetiminin temelini oluşturur. Dolaşımın bütün denetimi, kalp kası ya da atardamarcık düz kası tarafından sağlanır. Kalp verimi, öncelikle kalp hızıyla, atardamar basıncı kalp verimiyle ve çevresel dirençle, yerel doku ağları içinden kanın akışıyla, atardamar kasılması ya da gevşemesiyle denetlenir.

Kalp kası ve dolaşım sisteminin düz kasları, beynin soğaniliğinde bulunan kalp damar merkezlerinden çıkan sinirler tarafından denetlenir.

Tarihçe
M.Ö. 4. yüzyılda, kalbin kapakçıkları Hippokrat okuluna bağlı bir hekim tarafından keşfedilmiştir. Fakat, kapakçıkların görevi o dönemlerde anlaşılamamıştır. Ölümden sonra, kan venlerde (toplardamar) toplandığından, arterler (atardamar) boş görünür. Bu nedenle antik anatomistler bu damarların hava ile dolu olduğunu düşünmüş ve bu damarların hava dağıtma görevine sahip olduğu kanısına varmışlardı.

Herofilus venler ile arterleri ayırsa da, nabzın doğrudan arterlerin bir özelliği olduğu düşünmüştür. Erasistratus yaşam sırasında kesildiklerinde arterlerin kanadığını gözlemlemiştir. Buradan da arterlerden kaçan (çıkan) havanın yerini kanın, venler ile arterler arasındaki küçük damarlar aracılığıyla, doldurduğunu düşünmüştür. Böylece kan akışını ters olarak düşünse de, ilk kez kılcal damar fikrini ortaya atmıştır.

M.S. 2. yüzyılda Yunan hekim Galen kan damarlarının kan taşıdığını bilmekteydi ve venöz (koyu kırmızı) ve arteriyel (açık kırmızı ve daha duru) kanı tanımlamış, görevlerinin farklı ve ayrı olduğunu belirtmişti. Büyüme ve enerji, karaciğerde kilüsten oluştuğuna inandığı venöz kanın özellikleriyken, arteriyel kan kalpten gelmekteydi ve hava içerdiği için canlılık vermekteydi. Kan oluştuğu (yaratıldığı/üretildiği) yerlerden vücudun tüm bölümlerine akar ve buralarda tüketilirdi. Kalbe veya karaciğere giden kanın geri dönüşü yoktu. Kalp kanı pompalamadığı gibi, kalbin hareketi diyastol sırasında kanı emmekteydi ve kan arterlerin (kendi) nabızları sayesinde hareket etmekteydi. Ayrıca, Galen arteriyel kanın, venöz kanın sol karıncıktan sağa 'gözenekler' yardımıyla geçmesi ve havanın da akciğerlerden pulmoner arter yoluyla kalbin sol tarafına geçmesi sonucu oluştuğunu düşünmekteydi. Arteriyel kan oluştuğu sırada 'isli' (duman rengi) buharların oluştuğunu ve bunların yine pulmoner arter yardımıyla, dışarı verilmesi için, akciğerlere geçtiğini de düşünmüştür.

İbn Nefis, 1242'de, insan vücudundaki kan dolaşımını doğru biçimde tanımlayan ilk kişidir. Anatomik bilgisi doğrultusunda el-Nefis pulmoner dolaşım konusunda şöyle bir çıkarımda bulunmuştur:

"... kanın kalbin sağ odasından sol odasına varması gerekmektedir, fakat bu ikisi arasında doğrudan bir geçiş (yolu) bulunmamaktadır. Kalbin kalın septumu delikli olmadığı gibi, bazılarının düşündüğü gibi görünür gözenekler veya Galen'in düşündüğü gibi görünmeyen gözenekler içermez. Kan kalbin sağ odasından vena arteriosa (pulmoner arter) aracılığıyla akciğerlere akar, maddelerine dağılır, hava ile karışır ve arteria venosadan (pulmoner ven) geçerek, kalbin sol odasına ulaşır..."

Bunun dışında kalbin ihtiyaç duyduğu oksijen ve besinleri koroner arterler yoluyla aldığı yönünde bir önerme de ortaya atmıştır.

1552'de ise Michael Servetus aynı tanımı yaptı ve Realdo Colombo da bunu kanıtladı. Yine de tüm bu sonuçlar genel olarak yaygın biçimde kabul edilmemişti.

Sonunda, Hieronymus Fabricius'un öğrencilerinden biri olan William Haryvey bazı deneylerden sonra 1628'de insan dolaşım sistemini keşfettiğini duyurdu ve bu konuda etkili bir kitap (Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus) yayımladı. Bu çalışma zamanla tıp dünyasına doğru anlayışı kabul ettirdi. Harvey arterler ile venleri bağlayan kılcal damar sistemini tanımlayamamıştı; bunlar daha sonra Marcello Malpighi tarafından tanımlanmıştır.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Dolaşım durması
 Kardiyoloji
 Lenf sistemi (Lenfatik sistem)
 Kan damarları

Dış bağlantılar
 Vücudumuzdaki Sistemler
 İnteraktif İnsan Dolaşım Sistemi Matematik Modelleri, Prof. A.C. Guyton'ın Dolaşım Sistem Modellerine İnternet Üzerinden Erişim ve Eğitim Amaçlı Kullanımları (İngilizce)
 Hülya Zeytinoğlu, Canlılarda Dolaşım ve Dolaşım Sistemi, Ünite 7, Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi. (PDF)
 aof.edu.tr - Dolaşım Sistemi Fizyolojisi, Ünite 6 (PDF)
 Kalp ve damar hastalıkları üzerine genel bilgi

Kaynakça
 Iskandar, Albert Z. "Comprehensive Book on the Art of Medicine by Ibn al-Nafis". Erişim tarihi: 2 Mayıs 2005.
  Michael Kent, Advanced Biology, Oxford University Press, 2000. - The Cardiovascular System, s. 119.

Dolaşım sistemi


The Specials is the debut album by British ska revival band the Specials. Released on 19 October 1979 on Jerry Dammers' 2 Tone label, the album is seen by some as the defining moment in the UK ska scene. Produced by Elvis Costello, the album captures the disaffection and anger felt by the youth of the UK's "concrete jungle"—a phrase borrowed from Bob Marley's 1973 album Catch a Fire—used to describe the grim, violent inner cities of 1970s Britain. The album features a mixture of original material and several covers of classic Jamaican ska tracks.

A live version of "Too Much Too Young" was later released on a five-track EP, The Special AKA Live!, which went to number one on the UK charts. "'A Message to You, Rudy" was also released as a single. A digitally remastered edition also featuring promotional videos to "Gangsters" and "Too Much Too Young" as enhanced content was released by EMI in 2002. In 2013, NME ranked it at number 260 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time".

Composition
Musically, The Specials encapsulates the first wave of British ska, greatly reworking the original sound of 1960s Jamaican ska. The music shares the infectious energy and humour of the original sound, but injects new-found anger and punk sensibility. The resulting sound is considerably less laid-back and "Caribbean" sounding than original ska, and dispensed with much of the percussion and the larger horn sections used in the older variety. The Specials also brought guitar to the front of the mix; it had often been a secondary instrument in Jamaican ska.

Several of the album's songs are covers of older Jamaican songs. "Monkey Man" had been a hit for Toots & the Maytals in 1969, "Too Hot" was a Prince Buster original from 1966, and the opening track, "A Message to You, Rudy" was a Dandy Livingstone single in 1967. "You're Wondering Now" was originally performed by duo Andy & Joey and later covered by The Skatalites; the vocal version was recorded by Andy & Joey in 1964. Other tracks are reworkings of Jamaican originals: "Too Much Too Young" was based on Lloyd Charmers' "Birth Control" and "Stupid Marriage" draws heavily on the Prince Buster hit "Judge 400 Years" (also known as "Judge Dread").

Trombonist Rico Rodriguez, who performed on many '50s and '60s Jamaican recordings before moving to London in 1962, played on the band's version of "A Message to You, Rudy", as he had on the original recording 15 years previously. Rodriguez's appearance on the album considerably added to the album's credentials.

Critical reception

Reviews of the album in the UK music press were mixed. NME praised the album, saying, "Although the predominant musical influence is black (ska, bluebeat, reggae and soul), it's wrapped in ferocious rock'n'roll: the kind of hybrid that so many other British bands have tried to contrive but, in comparison, failed to make convincing ... This album embraces two decades of black and white music, gives it perspective and then goes on to reflect the modern rock'n'roll culture ... It's the kind of album that's musically fathomless and it will probably establish The Specials as true hopes for the '80s. At the very least this debut is essential for anybody who wants to know what's going on in rock'n'roll today". Smash Hits was also positive, saying it had "some excellent original touches" and that the lyrics were "very strong". The reviewer went on to praise Costello's "first rate production" and finished his review by saying that the album was a "very promising debut and highly recommended".

On the other hand, Vivien Goldman in Melody Maker was disappointed, observing that "this album's drawbacks are exposed all the more vividly in the light of its missed potential ... producer Elvis Costello seems incapable of producing a rhythm—by that I mean pop, as well as reggae". The review expanded upon this comment, saying, "A key word is pace. The Specials—a great band to party to—can't sustain the shock of having the speed of certain numbers halved. When the pace on record doubles—as in 'Too Much Too Young'—The Specials suddenly make sense". Goldman also criticised the lack of understanding of a female point of view in certain songs, but concluded on a positive note: "Perhaps I'm extra critical, because I (still) have great hopes for the future of The Specials". Sounds agreed that the album had not fulfilled its potential, saying, "There are no rough edges to upset you, nothing new to shock you ... The Specials seem to have lost the attacking, forward-looking, forward moving, almost militant momentum that was witnessed and promised from the beginning".

The Specials was ranked among the top ten albums of the year for 1979 by NME.

Legacy
In a retrospective review, AllMusic described the record as "a perfect moment in time captured on vinyl forever... It was an utter revelation—except for anyone who had seen the band on-stage, for the album was at its core a studio recording of their live set, and at times even masquerades as a gig". It felt the album captured the feeling of "Britain in late 1979, an unhappy island about to explode", and that "The Specials managed to distill all the anger, disenchantment, and bitterness of the day straight into their music". In 2008, BBC Music agreed that the economic and political conditions of the day had heightened the record's impact, saying, "To understand the impact of this spearhead of the ska revival on early Thatcherite Britain you have to imagine something so left field and yet so apt occurring today. It was as if depression-era dustbowl ballads suddenly became hip again in this era of global economic meltdown. Hardly anyone would have predicted that a musical form so tied to its Afro-Caribbean heritage (as well as its less cool skinhead connections) could, almost overnight, become the trendiest thing across the nation". It concluded that The Specials "was a classic example of a band making an almost perfect first album, acting as both a mission statement (the rise of right wing groups opposed by the message of Two Tone equality) and as an alternative way to have fun without having to pogo or spit ...The Specials remains a snapshot of a bleaker time, and a wrily comical antidote to political and cultural indifference anywhere". However, Mojos David Hutcheon, reviewing the reissue, felt that "Specials doesn't feel quite as exciting as it did 23 years ago".

In June 2000, Q placed The Specials at number 38 on its list of the 100 greatest British albums ever. Pitchfork featured The Specials at number 42 on its list of the 100 best albums of the 1970s. Rolling Stone listed the album at number 68 on its list of the 100 best albums of the 1980s, as the album was not released in the US until 1980. In 2013, NME ranked The Specials at number 260 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time".

Track listing
Side one
 "A Message to You Rudy" (Dandy Livingstone) – 2:53
 "Do the Dog" (Rufus Thomas; arrangement by Jerry Dammers) – 2:09
 "It's Up to You" (Dammers, The Specials) – 3:25
 "Nite Klub" (Dammers, The Specials) – 3:22
 "Doesn't Make It Alright" (Dammers, Dave Goldberg, Mark Harrison) – 3:26
 "Concrete Jungle" (Roddy Byers) – 3:18
 "Too Hot" (Cecil Campbell) – 3:09

Side two
 "Monkey Man" (Toots Hibbert) – 2:45
 "(Dawning of A) New Era" (Dammers) – 2:24
 "Blank Expression" (Dammers, The Specials) – 2:43
 "Stupid Marriage" (Dammers, Mark Harrison, Neville Staple, Cecil Campbell) – 3:49
 "Too Much Too Young" (Dammers, acknowledgment to Lloyd Charmers) – 6:06*
 "Little Bitch" (Dammers)† – 2:31
 "You're Wondering Now" (Clement Seymour) – 2:36

* Canadian and some US pressings of the album have a shorter, 2:16 version of this song.

† On some US releases, the song "Gangsters" (Dammers, Cecil Campbell) appears between "Too Much Too Young" and "Little Bitch". In Australia and New Zealand, "Gangsters" was included between "Do the Dog" and "It's Up to You".

Personnel
The Specials
 Terry Hall – vocals
 Neville Staple – vocals
 Lynval Golding – rhythm guitar, vocals
 Roddy Radiation (Roderick Byers) – lead guitar, vocals (on "Concrete Jungle")
 Horace Panter – bass guitar
 John Bradbury – drums
 Jerry Dammers – keyboards
Guest musicians
 Rico Rodriguez – trombone
 Dick Cuthell – horns
 Chrissie Hynde – vocals on "Nite Klub"
Technical
Dave Jordan - engineer
Carol Starr, Chalkie Davies - sleeve design

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

References

1979 debut albums
The Specials albums
Albums produced by Elvis Costello
2 Tone Records albums

The Specials (album)


Muchacha al piano (La obertura de Tannhäuser) es una pintura al óleo sobre lienzo realizada en 1869 por el pintor Paul Cézanne. Se conserva en el Museo del Hermitage de San Petersburgo.

La pintura muestra a una joven (su hermana) sentada al piano, mientras una mujer mayor (su madre) cose a su lado. El pintor quiso rendir homenaje a Richard Wagner, a quien admiraba profundamente, citando en el título a Tannhäuser, la ópera creada por el compositor alemán representada en París por primera vez en 1861.

Se representa una escena intimista, hogareña, en la que aparecen elementos de Jas de Bouffan, la casa veraniega que el padre del pintor adquirió una década antes. De hecho, el sillón aparece en otras obras de esa época, como Retrato de Louis-Auguste Cézanne, padre del artista, leyendo 'l'Evénement.

Referencias

Véase también
Anexo:Cuadros de Cézanne

Enlaces externos

Colecciones del Museo del Hermitage
Cuadros de Francia de los años 1860
Escenas de género
Cuadros de 1869
Francia en 1869

Muchacha al piano


Attention Tour (estilizado em letras maiúsculas) foi a sexta turnê mundial da artista musical estadunidense Miley Cyrus, em suporte de seu sétimo álbum de estúdio Plastic Hearts (2020), a primeira desde a Milky Milky Milk Tour realizada em 2015.

É a primeira vez que Miley retorna para concertos na América do Sul, isso desde 2014 com a Bangerz Tour. Os shows ocorreram em festivais de música como o Lollapalooza, e aconteceram nos Estados Unidos, Argentina, Chile, Colômbia, Brasil e México.

Antecedentes

Em maio de 2019, Cyrus lançou o seu segundo extended play (EP) She Is Coming, no qual originalmente planejado em ser o primeiro de três EPs de seis canções cada –seguido por She Is Here e She Is Everything– que juntos formariam o seu sétimo álbum de estúdio, She Is Miley Cyrus. No entanto, devido à sua cirurgia nas cordas vocais, a estréia de sua participação na série Black Mirror, seu divórcio em 2020 e a pandemia de COVID-19, os dois últimos (EP) foram cancelados e o álbum completo adiado e retrabalhado. Assim, em novembro de 2020, a cantora lançou o seu tão aguardado sétimo álbum de estúdio entitulado dessa vez como Plastic Hearts. Em 2021, após 8 anos na RCA, Miley decidiu encerrar o contrato com a gravadora, assinando posteriormente com a Columbia Records.

Músicas
O repertório original da turnê consistia em vinte e duas canções, das quais seis foram do álbum Plastic Hearts (2020), incluindo seu primeiro single: "Midnight Sky". Também incluiu dez singles lançados entre os anos de 2007 e 2019; estes em ordem cronológica são: "See You Again", "7 Things", "Fly on the Wall", "The Climb", "Party in the U.S.A.", "We Can't Stop", "23", "Wrecking Ball", "Nothing Breaks Like a Heart" e "Mother's Daughter", esta última foi adicionada de última hora após a música parar no primeiro lugar no iTunes no Brasil, graças a uma campanha de fãs brasileiros pedindo para incluí-la no repertório. Também incluía três músicas que não eram singles; "SMS (Bangerz)" e "4x4" do álbum Bangerz (2013), e "Dooo It!" do álbum Miley Cyrus & Her Dead Petz (2015). Cyrus também regravou as músicas "Jolene", "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" de Dolly Parton e Cher, respectivamente, incluindo também elementos de "Where Is My Mind?" " do Pixies durante "We Can't Stop". Nenhuma música do álbum "Younger Now" foi interpretada na turnê.

Repertório
A setlist contém algumas músicas de todos os sete álbuns de estúdio da cantora, além de trazer repertórios antigos e de seus dois EP's.

 "Attention" (intro)
 "We Can't Stop" (com elementos de Where Is My Mind?)
 "WTF Do I Know"
 "Plastic Hearts"
 "Hearts Of Glass"
 "Mother's Daughter"
 "4x4"
 "SMS (Bangerz)" com Britney Spears
 "Dooo It!"
 "23"
 "Never Be Me"
 "7 Things"
 "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" (cover de Cher)
 "See You Again"
 "Fly on the Wall"
 "High"
 "Nothing Breaks Like a Heart"
 "Jolene" (cover de Dolly Parton)
 "Midnight Sky"
 "The Climb"
Encore
 "Wrecking Ball" x "Nothing Compares 2 U"
 "Party in the U.S.A."

Álbum ao vivo
Ao final do show em São Paulo, Cyrus anunciou seu primeiro álbum ao vivo entitulado Attention: Miley Live, que continha gravações em formato de áudio do concerto da cantora em Los Angeles. O álbum foi lançado no dia 01 de abril contendo 20 faixas, além de conter uma versão deluxe lançada no dia 29 de abril incluíndo mais 06 faixas, já essas de dois concertos na América do Sul.

Datas

Apresentações canceladas

</center>

Turnês musicais de 2022
Turnês de Miley Cyrus

Attention Tour


Henrik Aerenlund Pedersen ( n. 1966, Copenhague, Dinamarca ) es un naturalista botánico, y curador danés . Sus intereses de investigación son la flora de Dinamarca y sus alrededores, taxonomía y biología de las Orchidaceae, y biología de la conservación.

Es profesor asociado del Jardín Botánico de la Universidad de Copenhague, formando parte del Museo de Historia Natural de Dinamarca

Algunas publicaciones
 . 2009. Notes on the orchid flora of Thailand. 6 pp.

Libros
 . 2010. Danmarks Vilde Orkideer. Editor Gyldendal A/S. 291 pp. ISBN 87-02-06386-7 en línea

 ------------------------------, ---------------------. 2000. Ophrys: the bee orchids of Europe. Edición ilustrada de Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 296 pp. ISBN 1-84246-152-4

 ------------------------------, . 1997a. A revised subdivision and bibliographical survey of Dendrochilum (Orchidaceae). Volumen 130 de Opera botanica. Editor Council for Nordic Publications in Botany, 85 pp. ISBN	8788702375

 ------------------------------. 1997b. The genus Dendrochilum (Orchidaceae) in the Philippines: a taxonomic revision. Volumen 131 de Opera botanica. Editor Council for Nordic Publications in Botany, 205 pp. ISBN 87-88702-40-5

 ------------------------------, . 1996. Planteliv langs oldtidsstien: en introduktion til plantesamfund og vegetationsudvikling (Vegetación a lo largo del antiguo camino: una introducción a las comunidades de plantas y desarrollo de la vegetación). Editor Moesgård Museum, 23 pp. ISBN 87-87334-25-9

 ------------------------------. 1993. The genus Pteroceras (Orchidaceae): a taxonomic revision. Volumen 117 de Opera botanica. Editor Council for Nordic Publications in Botany, 64 pp. ISBN	8788702715

Honores
Miembro de
 Comité para la asignación de la Flora de Europa
 Consejo editorial de la Flora de Tailandia
 Monitoreo de las Orquídeas danesas
 Comité de apoyo de Geocenter Møns Klint
 Asesoría nacional de Flora Nórdica

Epónimos

Especies vegetales
 (Alliaceae) Nothoscordum pedersenii Ravenna

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Botánicos de Dinamarca del siglo XX
Naturalistas de Dinamarca
Curadores de Dinamarca
Escritores en danés
Escritores en inglés
Botánicos de Dinamarca del siglo XXI
Nacidos en Copenhague

Henrik Aerenlund Pedersen