Clavariadelphus truncatus (Lucien Quélet, 1886 ex Marinus Anton Donk, 1933) sin. Clavaria truncata (Lucien Quélet, 1886), din încrengătura Basidiomycota, în ordinul Gomphales, familia Gomphaceae și de genul Clavariadelphus, denumit în popor club coral pilugele trunchiate, este o ciupercă comestibilă care coabitează, fiind un simbiont micoriza (formează micorize pe rădăcinile arborilor). Acest soi destul de rar se dezvoltă în România, Basarabia și Bucovina de Nord, solitar sau în grupuri mici, numai pe sol calcaros, fiind un indicator pentru calcar în pădurile de conifere cu molizi și brazi, unde se dezvoltă. Evită deplin terenuri cu gnais, granit și gresie. Specia crește numai de la o altitudine de cel puțin 400 m în sus, până la peste 1350 m, chiar preferând regiunile montane. La câmpie lipsește. Timpul apariției este din (iulie) august până în noiembrie.

Numele generic se trage din cuvintele (=între altele măciucă) și (= vulvă, purcel), iar epitetul din cuvântul latin (=trunchiat, ciuntit, limitat, incomplet).

Istoric
Deși deja Elias Magnus Fries a descris specia sub numele Craterellus pistillaris în cartea sa Epicrisis systematis mycologici, seu synopsis hymenomycetum, din 1838, numele binomial valabil este Clavaria truncata care a fost creat de micologul francez (Lucien Quélet în opera sa Enchiridion Fungorum in Europa Media et Praesertim in Gallia Vigentium din 1886, o denumire folosită în mai multe cărți micologice până în prezent (2019).

Numele curent corect însă este Clavariadelphus truncatus, determinat de micologul olandez Marinus Anton Donk (1908-1972) în publicația sa Revisie van de Nederlandse Heterobasidiomyceteae (uitgez. Uredinales en Ustilaginales) din 1933.

Toate celelalte sinonime nu sunt folosite și pot fi neglijate. Numele de familie Clavariadelphaceae propus de micologul Edred John Henry Corner (1906-1996) în 1970 nu este acceptat de Mycobank.

Descriere

 Corpul fructifer: cărnos și ferm în tinerețe, cu un diametru în partea de sus de 4-6 (8) cm și o înălțime de 8-12 (15) cm, are o formă tipică de măciucă cu aspect rupt, fiind în creștet aplatizat, chiar cu o teșitură și cu o margine adesea mărgelată și înfipt adânc în stratul din care crește și topit cu miceliul. Este plin pe dinăuntru. Suprafața exterioară este inițial netedă, mai târziu ridată longitudinal, zgrunțuroasă, încrețită, și la bază ocazional slab flocoasă. Coloritul acestei ciuperci destul de neobișnuite este la început galben strălucitor, mai târziu, în partea superioară, cea fertilă, ocru-gălbui până la portocaliu-maroniu, iar spre bază, în partea sterilă, este albicios până albicios gălbui. Sporii se formează pe suprafața părții superioare.
 Piciorul: nu există într-adevăr, dar stratul steril, pe dinafară de un colorit mai deschis, seamănă tare.
 Carnea: este în tinerețea ciupercii fermă, după unii chiar ceva elastică, devenind în vârstă moale și spongioasă. După o secțiune se colorează la aer brun-roșiatic. Mirosul este foarte plăcut de ciuperci, gustul savuros, distinctiv dulcișor.
 Caracteristici microscopice: are spori netezi, elipsoidali cu baza țuguiată, granulați respectiv cu o picătură mare în interior, hialini (translucizi), neamiloizi (nu se decolorează cu reactivi de iod) și măsoară 9-13 × 5-7 microni. Pulberea lor este alb-gălbuie. Basidiile (celulele purtătoare de spori) fusiform-cilindrice cu o dimensiune de 70-115 x 7-10 microni, poartă 2-4 sterigme destul de lungi. Nu prezintă cistide. Hifele sunt septate, cu fibule.
 Reacții chimice: Carnea se colorează cu anilină de fenol maroniu, cu Hidroxid de potasiu roșu deschis, cu sulfat de fier gri-verzui și cu tinctură de Guaiacum imediat albastru.

Confuzii
Pilugelele trunchiate pot fi confundate cu specii asemănătoare mai mult sau mai puțin comestibile, în primul rând cu Clavariadelphus pistillaris, dar în stadiu tânăr de asemenea cu Clavaria argillacea, Clavariadelphus ligula, Clavariadelphus sachalinensis precum Hypocrea alutacea sau chiar și cu necomestibila Xylaria polymorpha înante de a deveni brună.

Specii asemănătoare în imagini

Valorificare
Clubul coral este comestibil și gustos în stadiu tânăr (exemplare mai bătrâne sunt moi și spongioase), dar, consumat crud, poate să efectueze probleme gastrointestinale. El este de ingerat cel mai bine prăjit, chiar și ca desert, dar poate fi de asemenea conservat în oțet sau ulei.

Ciuperca prezintă proprietăți antimicrobiene. Mai departe, conținutul acidului clavaric 24,25-dihidroxi-2- (3-hidroxi-3-metilglutaril) -lanostanon- (3) perturbă proteina farnesiltransferazei (o enzimă implicată în tumor-geneză), care este de valoare terapeutică pentru tratamentul anumitor tipuri de cancer. Diverse studii au sugerat că interferența cu anumite procese de modificare post-translațională par să aibă o selectivitate destul de ridicată pentru țintirea celulelor care prezintă fenotipuri tumorale. Astfel a provocat o reducere a creșterii de tumoare în experimente cu șoareci.

Trebuie menționat, că specia conține un compus medicinal semnificativ asemănător izoprenului și acumulează zinc precum radioactivul cesiu 137.

Note

Bibliografie
 Bruno Cetto: "I funghi dal vero", vol. 1-7, Editura Arte Grafiche Saturnia, Trento 1976-1993 (pentru cercetarea în total)
 Marcel Bon: "Pareys Buch der Pilze", Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2012, ISBN 978-3-440-13447-4
 Rose Marie Dähncke: "1200 Pilze in Farbfotos", Editura AT Verlag, Aarau 2004, ISBN 3-8289-1619-8
 Ewald Gerhard: "Der große BLV Pilzführer" (cu 1200 de specii descrise și 1000 fotografii), Editura BLV Buchverlag GmbH & Co. KG, ediția a 9-a, München 2018, ISBN 978-3-8354-1839-4
 Jean-Louis Lamaison & Jean-Marie Polese: "Der große Pilzatlas", Editura Tandem Verlag GmbH, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-8427-0483-1
 J. E. și M. Lange: "BLV Bestimmungsbuch - Pilze", Editura BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München, Berna Viena 1977, ISBN 3-405-11568-2
 Gustav Lindau, Eberhard Ulbrich: "Die höheren Pilze, Basidiomycetes, mit Ausschluss der Brand- und Rostpilze", Editura  J. Springer, Berlin 1928
 Till E. Lohmeyer & Ute Künkele: "Pilze – bestimmen und sammeln", Editura Parragon Books Ltd., Bath 2014, ISBN 978-1-4454-8404-4
 Meinhard Michael Moser: " Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze - Kleine Kryptogamenflora Mitteleuropas", ediția a 5-ea, vol. 2, Editura Gustav Fischer, Stuttgart 1983

Legături externe

 Clavariadelphus truncatus, film
 Clavariadelphus truncatus, film în limba polonă

Gomphaceae
Micoriză
Ciuperci comestibile
1838 în știință

Clavariadelphus truncatus


حرارة  هي جماعة قروية تابعة لإقليم آسفي ضمن جهة دكالة عبدة بالمغرب. بلغ مجموع عدد سكان حرارة حسب إحصاءات 2004 حوالي 23711 نسمة من بينهم 1 أجنبي يعيشون في 3868 أسرة.

النمو الديموغرافي

إحصاء عام

وصلات خارجية
 تلاعب بصفقة في حد حرارة
 بيع فيلات مزودة بماء غير صالح للشرب و كهرباء مسروق في آسفي
 الرياضة والتنمية البشرية بجماعة حد احرارة
 احتجاج ساكنة جماعة احرارة على تأخر توزيع العلف والشعير المدعم

مصادر

أماكن مأهولة في إقليم آسفي
جماعات قروية في المغرب
جماعات قروية في إقليم آسفي
جماعات قروية في جهة مراكش آسفي

حرارة (المغرب)


La Demanda Hicksiana (conocida también como demanda compensada de Hicks), en el marco de la teoría del consumidor, representa las variaciones en la cantidad demandada de un bien cuando varía el precio del mismo, ajustándose el ingreso o renta nominal del consumidor con el fin de que la utilidad (o curva de indiferencia) se mantenga constante en la misma posición del precio inicial, vale decir, a diferencia de la proposición Marshalliana, Hicks asume que el ingreso o renta real debe permanecer constante, existiendo por lo tanto un cambio en la relación de precios de los bienes ex ante que tenía el consumidor.

La demanda de Hicks es la demanda de un consumidor sobre un conjunto de bienes que minimiza su gasto al tiempo que ofrece un nivel fijo de utilidad. Es en realidad una función, que se conoce como la función de demanda de Hicks o  función de demanda compensada. La función obtiene su nombre de John Hicks.

Relación con otras funciones
Las funciones de demanda de Hicks son a menudo convenientes para la manipulación matemática, ya que no requieren que el ingreso o la riqueza del consumidor sean representadas. Además, la función a minimizar es lineal en , por lo que el problema de optimización se simplifica. Sin embargo, la Demanda Marshalliana en la forma del  que describe la cantidad demandada dado p y un ingreso w son más fáciles de observar directamente.

La función de demanda de Hicks está íntimamente relacionada con la función de gasto. Si el consumidor es una función de utilidad función convexa

La demanda Hicksiana y los cambios de precios compensados

Las curvas de Demanda Marshalliana con pendiente descendente muestran el efecto de los cambios en los precios sobre la cantidad demandada. A medida que sube el precio de un bien, presumiblemente la cantidad del bien demandado disminuirá, manteniendo la riqueza y otros precios constantes. Sin embargo, este precio cambia debido tanto al efecto de ingreso como al efecto de sustitución. El efecto de sustitución es un cambio de precio que altera la pendiente de la restricción presupuestaria pero deja al consumidor en la misma curva de indiferencia (es decir, en el mismo nivel de utilidad). Por este efecto, el consumidor se postula para sustituir el bien que se convierte comparativamente menos costoso. Si el bien en cuestión es un bien normal, entonces el efecto ingreso del aumento en el poder adquisitivo a partir de una caída del precio refuerza el efecto de sustitución. Si el bien es un bien inferior, entonces el efecto de ingreso compensará en algún grado el efecto de sustitución.

La función de demanda Hicksiana también tiene pendiente descendente, pero aísla el efecto de sustitución al suponer que el consumidor recibe una compensación lo suficientemente exacta como para comprar un paquete en la misma curva de indiferencia. La demanda de Hicksian ilustra la nueva canasta de consumo del consumidor después del cambio de precio, al tiempo que recibe una compensación que permite al consumidor estar tan feliz como antes (para mantenerse en el mismo nivel de utilidad). Si la función de demanda de Hicks es "más pronunciada" que la demanda de Marshall, el bien es un bien normal; de lo contrario, lo bien es inferior.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Teoría del consumidor
Epónimos relacionados con la economía

Demanda Hicksiana


Topkapı Hastanesi 1984 yılında Doç. Dr. Edip Uğurcan Kürklü ve eşi Sema Kürklü tarafından kurulan Türkiye'nin ilk özel kalp hastanesidir. 1988 yılında Edip Kürklü'nun vefatından sonra, 1996 yılına kadar varlığını bilfiil sürdürdü.

Topkapı Hastanesi


ديديه سيناك ( في سانت دينيس)  لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في خط الدفاع .

لعب سيناك في أندية لنس (1977-1988) بوردو (1988-1995) تولوز (1995-1996) كريتيل (1996-1998) .

ساهم سيناك في تتويج نادي بوردو ببطولة دوري الدرجة الثانية موسم 1991/1992 .

شارك سيناك مع منتخب فرنسا في 3 مباريات دولية في الفترة من 1984 إلى 1987 .

تولى سيناك تدريب نادي لنس لفترة بسيطة في سنة 2001 .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم من سان دوني
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
حائزون على ميداليات في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1984
حاصلون على ميداليات أولمبية في كرة القدم
فرنسيون فازوا بالميدالية الذهبية الأولمبية
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو بوردو
لاعبو تولوز
لاعبو كريتيل
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون أولمبيون
لاعبو كرة قدم في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 1984
لاعبو لنس
لاعبو منتخب فرنسا لكرة القدم
مدربو كرة قدم فرنسيون
مواليد 1958
مواليد في سان دوني
رياضيون من سان دوني

ديديه سيناك


1969 වර්ෂයේ බුද්ධශ‍්‍රාවක ධර්ම පීඨය නමින් ආරම්භවූ මෙම උත්තුංග අධ්‍යාපන ආයතනය 1996 වර්ෂයේ සිට බුද්ධශ‍්‍රාවක භික්‍ෂු විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය නමින් ද 2012 වර්ෂයේ සිට ශී‍්‍ර ලංකා භික්‍ෂු විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය නමින්ද පවතියි. එහෙත් ආරම්භයේදී පැවති පනතේ අරමුණු එසේම පවතියි. පරිපාලන ව්‍යුහයේ දී උත්තරීතර සභාව, පාලක සභාව, සනාතන සභාව සහ අධ්‍යයන කටයුතු මෙහෙයවන පීඨ මණ්ඩල ප‍්‍රධාන වශයෙන් පෙනෙයි. සිසුන්ගේ දැනුම් ක්‍ෂෙත‍්‍රය සපුරාලන සුවිසල් පුස්තකාලය ශිෂ්‍ය ඥානය මැන බලන විභාග අංශය, සරසවි හදවත ශක්තිමත් කරන ඉතා වැදගත් අංශයන් ය.

විෂයයන් සහ පාඨමාලා

Degree Programmes

 Bachelor of Arts (General)
 Bachelor of Arts (Special) - Buddhist Philosophy
 Bachelor of Arts (Special) - Buddhist Civilization
 Bachelor of Arts (Special) - Pali
 Bachelor of Arts (Special) - Sanskrit
 Bachelor of Arts (Special) - Archaeology
 Bachelor of Education (Special)

පන්ති පවත්වන ස්ථානයන්

පහත සඳහන් ස්ථානයන්හි පන්ති පැවැත්වේ

අනුරාධපුර දිස්ත්‍රික්කය, ශ්‍රී ලංකාව
ශ‍්‍රී ලංකා භික්ෂු විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය, ශී‍්‍ර ලංකා භික්ෂු විශ්වවිද්‍යාල මාවත, පුත්තලම් පාර, අනුරාධපුර

පහත සඳහන් පන්ති පවත්වනු ලබයි

 විශාල ප්‍රමාණයේ කණ්ඩායම් පන්ති (සිසුන් 20 ට වැඩි)

පහත සඳහන් භාෂා වලින් පන්ති පවත්වනු ලබයි

 සිංහල

 English

ශ්‍රී ලංකා භික්ෂු විශ්වවිද්‍යාලය


A temporada de tufões no Pacífico de 1973 não tem limites oficiais; durou o ano todo em 1973, mas a maioria dos ciclones tropicais tende a se formar no noroeste do Oceano Pacífico entre junho e dezembro. Essas datas delimitam convencionalmente o período de cada ano em que a maioria dos ciclones tropicais se forma no noroeste do Oceano Pacífico.

O escopo deste artigo é limitado ao Oceano Pacífico, ao norte do equador e a oeste da linha internacional de data. As tempestades que se formam a leste da linha de data e ao norte do equador são chamadas de furacões; veja a temporada de furacões de 1973 no Pacífico. As tempestades tropicais formadas em toda a bacia do Pacífico Ocidental receberam um nome do Joint Typhoon Warning Center. As depressões tropicais nesta bacia têm o sufixo "W" adicionado ao seu número. As depressões tropicais que entram ou se formam na área de responsabilidade das Filipinas recebem um nome da Administração de Serviços Atmosféricos, Geofísicos e Astronômicos das Filipinas ou PAGASA. Muitas vezes, isso pode resultar na mesma tempestade com dois nomes.

Resumo da temporada

25 depressões tropicais se formaram este ano no Pacífico Ocidental, das quais 21 se tornaram tempestades tropicais. 12 tempestades atingiram a intensidade do tufão, das quais 3 atingiram a força do supertufão.

Sistemas

Tempestade Tropical Severa Wilda (Atring)

A Tempestade Tropical Wilda se formou como um distúrbio a leste das Filipinas. Ele viajou para o noroeste e se tornou uma depressão tropical ao atingir Lução em 30 de junho. Atravessou a ilha e se tornou uma tempestade tropical ao entrar no Mar da China Meridional em 1 de julho. Ele viajou para o norte e atingiu o sul da China no dia 3. Os remanescentes de Wilda se dissiparam no interior alguns dias depois.

Tufão Anita

Tufão Billie (Bining)

A Tempestade Tropical Billie, que se desenvolveu em 12 de julho a leste das Filipinas, se fortaleceu rapidamente nos dias 14 e 15 para super tufão . Ele seguiu para o norte, flutuando em intensidade pelos próximos 3 dias. Uma crista crescente sobre o Mar do Japão forçou Billie para o noroeste, onde enfraqueceu muito, primeiro para uma tempestade tropical no dia 18, depois para uma depressão tropical no dia 19 ao passar pelo nordeste da China. A tempestade se dissipou no dia 20.

Tufão Dot

O Tufão Dot atingiu Hong Kong causando ventos fortes de tempestade, matando uma pessoa.

Tempestade Tropical Severa Clara

Tufão Ellen

Tempestade Tropical Fran (Kuring)

Tufão Georgia

Tufão Iris (Daling)

Tempestade Tropical Hope

Depressão Tropical 11W

Tempestade Tropical Joan (Elang)

Tempestade Tropical Severa Kate (Goring)

Depressão Tropical 14W

Tufão Louise (Huling)

Tufão Marge (Ibiang)

Ainão, a cidade de Qionghai Jiaji registrou uma pressão central mínima de 937,8 hPa quando Marge pousou. Marge matou 903 pessoas em Hainan. Marge fez seu desembarque final em Thanh Hoa, Vietnã, em 15 de setembro.

Tufão Nora (Luming)

A monção gerou uma depressão tropical a leste das Filipinas em 1 de outubro. Sob fracas correntes de direção, serpenteou para oeste, onde as condições favoráveis permitiram que se fortalecesse, primeiro para uma tempestade tropical no dia 2, depois para um tufão no dia 3. Nora continuou para o noroeste e aprofundou explosivamente nos dias 5 e 6 para  super tufão. Na época, tinha uma pressão central mínima de 875 milibares, a pressão mais baixa já registrada na época e atualmente empatada em 9º. O tufão enfraqueceu enquanto se dirigia para o noroeste e atingiu o nordeste de Luzon no dia 7 como um . Nora continuou para o noroeste, enfraquecendo para um tufão mínimo ao atingir o sudeste da China no dia 10. O tufão causou 18 fatalidades, com mais de US$ 2 milhões em danos.

Tufão Opal

Tufão Patsy (Miling)

Tufão Ruth (Narsing)

27 pessoas morreram quando o Tufão Ruth cruzou Lução em 15 de outubro e causou $ 5 milhões em danos. Ruth continuou para o noroeste, e atingiu a Ilha de Ainão e Quang Ninh, Vietnã no dia 19, respectivamente.

Tempestade Tropical Severa Sarah

Em 12 de novembro, esse sistema surgiu na Baía de Bengala e se tornou o Ciclone Tropical 37-73.

Tempestade Tropical Severa Thelma

Tempestade Tropical Severa Vera (Openg)

Um dos ciclones tropicais mais fortes a atingir Vissaias quando entrou em 20 de novembro, embora o sistema não tenha atingido o status de tufão. A tempestade tropical Openg afetou cerca de 3,4 milhões de pessoas.

Nomes de tempestade
Os ciclones tropicais do Pacífico Norte Ocidental foram nomeados pelo Joint Typhoon Warning Center. A primeira tempestade de 1973 foi chamada de Wilda e a última foi chamada de Vera.

Filipinas

A Administração de Serviços Atmosféricos, Geofísicos e Astronômicos filipinos usa seu próprio esquema de nomenclatura para ciclones tropicais em sua área de responsabilidade. A PAGASA atribui nomes às depressões tropicais que se formam dentro de sua área de responsabilidade e a qualquer ciclone tropical que possa se mover para dentro de sua área de responsabilidade. Caso a lista de nomes para um determinado ano se revele insuficiente, os nomes são retirados de uma lista auxiliar, os primeiros 10 dos quais são publicados todos os anos antes do início da temporada. Esta é a mesma lista usada para a temporada de 1969. A PAGASA usa seu próprio esquema de nomenclatura que começa no alfabeto filipino, com nomes femininos filipinos terminando com "ng" (A, B, K, D, etc. ).

Efeitos da temporada
Esta tabela listará todas as tempestades que se desenvolveram no noroeste do Oceano Pacífico a oeste da Linha Internacional de Data e ao norte do equador durante 1973. Incluirá sua intensidade, duração, nome, áreas afetadas, mortes, pessoas desaparecidas (entre parênteses) e totais de danos. Os valores de classificação e intensidade serão baseados em estimativas conduzidas pelo JMA, no entanto, devido à falta de informações nessa época, os ventos sustentados foram registrados pelo JTWC. Todos os números de danos serão em 1973 USD. Danos e mortes de uma tempestade incluirão quando a tempestade foi uma onda precursora ou uma baixa extratropical.

|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || China meridional ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Wilda (Atring) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, China ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Anita ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vietname, Tailândia ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Billie (Bining) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, Ilhas Ryukyu, China ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Dot ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || China, Ilhas Ryukyu, Península da Coreia ||  Desconhecido ||  ||
|-
|Clara ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Ellen ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Japão ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Ilhas Marianas ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Fran (Kuring) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Georgia ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || China ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Iris (Daling) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Ilhas Ryukyu, Coreian Peninsula ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Hope ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|11W ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Joan (Elang) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, Taiwan, China ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Taiwan ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Kate (Goring) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, China meridional, Vietname ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Taiwan, Ilhas Ryukyu, China ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|14W ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || China meridional, Vietname ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Louise (Huling) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, China meridional ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Marge (Ibiang) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, China meridional ||  Desconhecido ||  ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Nora (Luming) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, China meridional || $ ||  ||
|-
|Opal ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vietname, Camboja, Laos ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Patsy (Miling) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, Vietname ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Ruth (Narsing) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Ilhas Carolinas, Filipinas, China meridional || $ ||  ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vietname ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Ilhas Marianas ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Palau ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|Sarah ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Vietname, Camboja, Tailândia ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Thelma ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas, Vietname, Tailândia ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|Vera (Openg) ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas ||  Desconhecido ||  Desconhecido ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Malásia ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-
|TD ||  || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Filipinas ||  Nenhum ||  Nenhum ||
|-

Ver também

 Temporada de furacões no Pacífico de 1973
 Temporada de furacões no oceano Atlântico de 1973
 Temporada de ciclones no Índico Norte de 1973
 Ciclone na região da Austrália: 1972–73 1974–75
 Temporadas no Pacífico Sul: 1972–73 1974–75
 Temporada no Oceano Índico Sudoeste: 1972–73 1974–75

Referências

Ligações externas

1973
1973
1973 WPAC

Temporada de tufões no Pacífico de 1973


Jamaican culture consists of the religion, norms, values, and lifestyle that define the people of Jamaica. The culture is mixed, with an ethnically diverse society, stemming from a history of inhabitants beginning with the original inhabitants of Jamaica (the Taínos). The Spaniards originally brought slavery to Jamaica. Then they were overthrown by the English. Jamaica later gained emancipation on 1 August 1838, and independence from the British on 6 August 1962. Black slaves became the dominant cultural force as they suffered and resisted the harsh conditions of forced labour. After the abolition of slavery, Chinese and Indian migrants were transported to the island as indentured workers, bringing with them ideas from their country.

Language
The official language of Jamaica is Jamaican Standard  English, which is used in all official circumstances in the country. In addition to English, there is a creole derivative called Jamaican Patois (pronounced patwa) which is the common dialect among Jamaican citizens.

Religion

By far, the largest religion in Jamaica is the Christian faith. The Anglican Church, Catholic Church, Methodist Church, Baptists, Seventh-Day and the Church of God are present throughout the country. Many old churches have been carefully maintained and/or restored. The Rastafari movement is a derivative of the larger Christian culture, but its origins were influenced by rising consciousness of Africa, and an awareness of political events in that continent. There is also a small number of Jewish synagogues in Jamaica, dating from the 17th century along with a few mosques.

Elements of ancient African religions remain, especially in remote areas throughout the island. Some of these practices are described generally as Obeah,
Kumina, or Pocomania. Though the congregations are small, they are visited by many Christians and non-Christians seeking an experience they have not found in the churches. It is estimated that as much as 40% of the population secretly seek the services of the African traditional religious healers (also called Obeah workers) when confronted with serious problems that conventional medicine cannot remedy.

The Bahá'í Faith arrived in Jamaica in 1943, brought by an American Bahá'í pioneer, Dr. Malcolm King. In 2003, as part of the 60th anniversary celebration of the establishment of Bahá'í in Jamaica, the Governor General of Jamaica, Sir Howard Cooke, proclaimed a National Bahá'í Day to be held annually on 25 July. In 2005, the community of about 5000 celebrated their activity and presence in Jamaica with the international Bahá'í choir, The Voices of Bahá. The choir performed at Ward Theater and the University of the West Indies' Chapel, with proceeds earmarked to two Jamaican charities, (one serving families of policemen slain in the line of duty, and the one Denham Town Golden Age Home).

Other religions practiced in Jamaica include Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.

Rastafari

Originating in the 1930s, one of the most prominent, internationally known aspects of Jamaica's African-Caribbean culture is the Rastafari movement, particularly those elements that are expressed through reggae music. In the 1970s and early 1980s, Bob Marley became the most high-profile exponent of the Rastafari culture and belief system. His reputation as an innovative musician devoted to his faith has continued to grow since his death, so that by 2004 his greatest hits compilation, Legend, had sold 20 million copies worldwide, making him arguably the world's most famous Jamaican in the music industry, and certainly the nation's biggest-selling recording artist.

Rastafari itself is a monotheistic belief system, based on teachings found in the Old Testament and the New Testament – particularly the Book of Revelation. However, what distinguishes Rastafari from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, (which also cite Abrahamic beliefs), is that Rastas believe in the divinity of the Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.

Hailed by Rastas as H.I.M. (His Imperial Majesty), Haile Selassie I is regarded as God himself, the true descendant of Solomon, and the earthly embodiment of Jah (God) – in what believers see as a fulfillment of prophecy regarding the second coming of the Messiah.

Those Rasta beliefs, which are not explicitly mentioned in the Bible (such as the specific name of H.I.M. "Haile Selassie"), are not gathered into a single holy text. Instead, Rasta beliefs are primarily shared through a community of songs, chants, and oral testimonies, as well as in written texts (including websites). The extensive use of song makes Rastafari a particularly musical source of Jamaican culture.

Rasta cultural traditions include wearing their hair in uncut, uncombed strands known as dreadlocks (in adherence to the Nazarite vow), as well as eating unprocessed (natural) foods which are called Ital. However, neither tradition is regarded as compulsory – many people who wear dreadlocks are not Rastas, and many Rastas do not wear them.

One of the most controversial cultural traditions is Rastas' use of ganja as a sacrament which is smoked to aid in reasoning (contemplation and discussion) during their religious rituals. Cannabis is a strictly prohibited substance in Jamaica, so its use by Rastas means the movement is in a more-or-less permanent state of tension with police authorities.

In its Jamaican homeland, Rastafari is a minority culture and receives little in the way of official recognition. Jamaica is an overwhelmingly Christian country, so Rasta beliefs and practices – such as the divinity of H.I.M Hailie Selassie – are sometimes regarded as pagan by Christian Jamaicans. (Some Rastas also express hostility towards aspects of Christianity.) Nevertheless, the artistic contributions of the movement, particularly by Bob Marley, are widely respected. Marley was awarded the Jamaican Order of Merit in 1981, and there are two official monuments to him.

Rastas can be found in many countries outside Jamaica and among many non-Jamaicans. Because it is not a centrally organised religion, there is no way of knowing how many devotees there are.

Dance
Dance has always been important to Jamaica – from colonial times until the present. Early folk rhythms and movements often enhanced Christian religious celebrations or were associated with Christian holidays. More recently, dances have become associated with the music of Jamaica, particularly dancehall styles.

Dance theatre is also growing in importance. Rex Nettleford, Eddy Thomas, Tony Wilson,  Olive Lewin, and Edna Manley are five Jamaicans whose influences on the arts – music and dance in particular – have been extremely important. Nettleford, Thomas, and Ivy Baxter formed the National Dance Theatre Company in 1962. Other important Jamaicans in dance theatre have included the Tony Award-winning choreographer Garth Fagan (The Lion King on Broadway).

Dancehall, or reggae, music has inspired a number of dance styles as well. To understand the evolution of popular dance, it helps to understand the musical progression. Ska music, with fast beats, also had fast dances. The slow to rocksteady also developed slower dances, allowing dancers to stay on the floor longer. Reggae is associated with many things, including the Rastafarian movement, but influenced the newer styles.

Dancehall music often creates its own dances based on moves in the lyrics of the songs themselves. Soca music from Trinidad and Tobago is popular with most of the popular artists from Trinidad, but many soca Jamaican artists such as Byron Lee, Fab 5, and Lovindeer are famous but also represent Jamaican music.

Daggering is a form of dance originating from Jamaica. The dance incorporates dry sex, wrestling and other forms of frantic movement.

Bruckins is a Jamaican dance performed to celebrate Emancipation Day.

Theatre
Jamaica's earliest theatre was built in 1682. Several more theatres opened in the 1700s and 1800s, attracting performances by both professional touring companies and amateur groups. But performances weren't limited to official venues. Many took place in houses, stores, courthouses, and enclosed outdoor spaces large enough to hold them. During this period, classic plays such as Shakespeare were most often produced. However, the Jewish and French communities became large enough to merit productions aimed at them, too.

After the abolishment of slavery, Jamaicans began fusing music, humour, and dance into public theatrical performances. Although it took many years for true Jamaican styles to develop, eventually they became more prevalent than European works. Today's most popular theatrical form in Jamaica, pantomime, began in the 1940s as a fusion of English pantomime with Jamaican folklore. Another popular style, "Roots" (Grassroots) Theatre, evolved in the 1960s and 1970s. These riotous bawdy tales remained crowd favourites in Kingston's open-air theatres.

One artist involved in root plays is Winsome (code name), a Jamaican writer and producer chronicled in Deborah Thomas' book "Modern Blackness". Winsome handled all the publicity for her plays herself, and ended up putting them on in the rural areas surrounding Kingston – the city theaters refused to house her plays because of their controversial nature. In her plays, Winsome explores how sex, money, and power interact every day for Jamaicans. In 1997, Winsome wrote and produced a root play entitled Ruff Rider, in which family, sexual abuse, love, work, and friendship all intersect. According to author Thomas, author of, "In all of her work, the sympathetic characters are those she portrays as struggling to balance their own pursuit of individual gain with 'living well together' with others. As they negotiate the fine lines between egalitarianism and hierarchy, her characters also contribute to the public debate regarding the gendered dimensions of respectability and reputation."

Other notable roots play figures include Ralph Holness, Ginger Knight, Balfour Anderson, Michael Denton, Ian Reid, Paul Beil, Everton Dawkins, Luke Ellington (Lukington), Buddy Pouyat and the late Hyacinth Brown.

Literature and writing

Derek Walcott, a Nobel Prize laureate, born and educated in St. Lucia, attended college in Jamaica. Other significant writers from the island include Claude McKay and Louis Simpson. Plays and works in Jamaican English, or patois, attract special attention. Louise Bennett, Andrew Salkey and Mikey Smith have contributed to this phenomenon by writing works in patois. Ian Fleming wrote his famous James Bond novels while living in Jamaica. Jean Rhys is also well known for her novel Wide Sargasso Sea, which was set in Jamaica.  Jamaican writer Marlon James won the 2015 Man Booker Prize for his novel A Brief History of Seven Killings.

Jamaican authors are always faced with the decision of writing in standard English for a huge worldwide audience, or in the local patois, for a much smaller, but more trendy, audience. Jamaican films with patois sound-tracks such as The Harder They Come (1972) require sub-titles for export to general markets. In general, the use of patois severely limits the potential audience for the otherwise universal Jamaican message.

Recent poets laureate of Jamaica include Mervyn Morris (appointed in 2014) and his successor Lorna Goodison, appointed in 2017.

Film

Jamaica's film industry is not widely known, but it is growing. The Harder They Come, Rasta Rockett, Shottas, Third World Cop, Rockers, Countryman, Dancehall Queen & " Real Ghetto Youths" are a few of the best-known Jamaican movies. However, many popular Hollywood movies have also been filmed in Jamaica. A short list includes The Blue Lagoon, Cocktail, Cool Runnings and James Bond films, Dr. No, Live and Let Die and No Time to Die.

Jamaica's leading annual film event The Reggae Film Festival takes place each February in Jamaica's capital city, Kingston. Members of Jamaica's film industry gather here to make new links and many new projects have grown from the event.

Jamaica has many talented film makers but there is a great lack of available funds and resources for filmmakers. Since the creation of the Reggae Film Festival there have been many new films made in Jamaica and the event has given the industry a real boost, this combined with the recent CARICOM European film treaty which enables Jamaican filmmakers to seek funding in Europe, has opened up a new door for film makers looking to apply for funding and this will hopefully make a real difference to the future of the industry.

Other more recent feature films made in Jamaica are: 'Almost Heaven', 'Roots Time', 'Wah Do Dem', 'Concrete Jungle', 'Redemption Paradise', 'Real Ghetto Youths', and 'Smile Orange'.

Sport

Woodwork, furniture, and metalwork
Jamaicans have a long history of fine craftsmanship in wood and metal. Jamaica was home to many excellent furniture factories dating from colonial times, and Jamaican "Georgian" furniture was exported to the metropolitan countries.
Jamaica is in the Caribbean so its exports of furniture is important.

See also

 Jamaican art
 Jamaican English
 Jamaican Georgian architecture
 John Canoe, ritual
 Kariba suit
 List of museums in Jamaica
 Mauger (Jamaican Patois term)
 Music of Jamaica
 National Gallery of Jamaica
 Nine nights, funerary tradition
 Public holidays in Jamaica
 Pushcart derby, street race
 Ratchet knife
 Jamaican cuisine

References

Further reading
 Mordecai, Martin and Pamela. Culture and Customs of Jamaica. Greenwood Press. 2001.
 Hill, Errol. The Jamaican Stage, 1655–1900: Profile of a Colonial Theatre. University of Massachusetts Press. 1992.

External links
 The Company Dance Theatre Jamaica
 Jamaica National Heritage Trust
 Embracing their African roots – More Jamaicans identifying with African culture — PoliticalArticles.NET
 Jamaican art and culture in the tourism sector, an interview with Jane Issa
 Jamaican art and culture reflectively captured in photography by Max Earle

Culture of Jamaica


قصر البلبيسي هو منزل تراثي أثري قديم يقع في العاصمة الأردنية عمان، الدوار الأول في جبل عمان، كان ملكاً لإسماعيل باشا البلبيسي الذي قدم من مدينه السلط إلى مدينة عمّان في العشرينات من القرن و هو أول قصر في الأردن و كان يستقبل فيه ضيوف الملك عبد الله الأول المؤسس
ما زال القصر لابناء إسماعيل باشا البلبيسي.

المراجع

المصادر
 ترميم منطقة الدوار الأول يعيد الحياة إلى قلب عمان القديمة- جريدة الغد الأردنية للصحفية ميساء زريقات

متاحف في مدينة عمان
مواقع أثرية في الأردن

قصر البلبيسي


طفل أنابيب أو طفل الأنبوب في الطب ؛ عرف العالم هذا التعبير لأول مرة عام 1978 عندما ولدت الطفلة لويس براون وهي أول طفلة أنابيب في العالم. وقد أمكن بهذه الطريقة التغلب على بعض العوائق التي تمنع حدوث الحمل عند المرأة مثل أنسداد قناة فالوب أو ضعف الحيوانات المنوية عند الرجل. ويتم اللجوء إلى طفل أنبوب الاختبار أو البوتقة في الحالات التي يتعذر فيها التلقيح الطبيعي للبويضة داخل الرحم بسبب ضعف النطاف أو مشاكل في الرحم.

إنَّ ما يجري في عملية طفل الأنبوب هو أنَّ عمليةَ الإخصاب تحدث خارجَ جسم المرأة، حيث يتم تنشيط أو تجهيز المبيضين للزوجة بأدوية مساعدة لإنتاج عدد أكبر من البويضات، ثم يتم سحب هذه البويضات جراحياً في وقت محدد تكون فيه كاملة النضج لتُخَصَّب في المختبر باستخدام الحيوانات المنوية التي أُخِذَت من عيِّنة للسائل المنوي للزوج. تبدأ مرحلة انقسام الخلية فيقوم الطبيب بزرع الجنين في رحم الأم حيث ينمو طبيعيا حتى الولادة. ويتم زرع الجنين أو البويضة المخصبة في رحم الأم بعد 5 أيام من تخصيبها.

ماذا نعني بعملية أطفال الأنابيب

هو إخصاب البويضة بالحيوان المنوي في أنابيب الاختبار بعد أخذ البويضات الناضجة من المبيض لتوضع مع الحيوانات المنوية الجيدة فقط بعد غسلها حتى يحصل الإخصاب. ثم تعاد البويضة المخصبة إلى الأم. تستغرق هذه العملية من يومين - خمسة أيام وهذه الطريقة تُعطى الخيار الأفضل لاختيار أفضل الأجنة لنقلها إلى الأم بعد إخصابها خارج الرحم. وتعطى كذلك مجالاً أكبر لاحتمال الحمل في الدورة الواحدة لأنه يمكن نقل أكثر من جنين واحد إلى داخل الرحم.

متی ینصح استخدام عملیّة أطفال الأنابيب؟

یمكن استخدام عملیة أطفال الأنابيب الیوم لعلاج العقم الذي یظهر إثر أسباب مختلفة:
 انسداد أنبوب أو أنبوبین للرّحم في المرأة
 الأسباب الرّجولة لعلاج العقم مثل قلة النّطف، الإثارة الضّعیفة أوشكل السّائل المنوي الغیر طبیعي للنّطف.
 الاضطراب في عملیة الإباضة
 ضعف المبیض أو انخفاض احتیاطي المبیض الأنثوي لأسباب مثل انقطاع الطّمث المبكّر أو الابتلاء بالسّرطان.
 العقم لأسباب مجهولة
 إصابة الزوجة بمرض بطانة الرحم الهاجرة.
 وجود أجسام في عنق الرحم مضادة للحيوانات المنوية.

تطور عام 2010
في خريف عام 2010 حصل العالم البريطاني روبرت إدواردز الذي قام بتخصيب أول بويضة خارج رحم الأم ب جائزة نوبل في الطب. كما قامت مجموعة من العلماء في جامعة ستانفورد، ب كاليفورنيا بتحسين طريقة التخصيب وزرع البويضة المخصبة في رحم المرأة. فقد كانت الطريقة حتي الآن تتطلب انتظار الأطباء 5 أيام بعد تخصيب عدة بويضات في البوتقة واختيار أصلحها من بينهم وزرعها في رحم الأم، على أساس أن البويضة المخصبة التي تنمو في البوتقة وتتحمل النمو خارج رحم الأم تلك المدة هي الأصلح لنمو الجنين. ولكن الانتظار 5 أيام في البوتقة له مخاطره أيضا إذ أن نمو البويضة في البوتقة غير طبيعي، مما قد يتسبب في تشوه ما للطفل فيما بعد.

والطريقة الجديدة تتضمن مراقبة البويضات المخصبة بالفيلم وتتبعها. وبعد إجراء الاختبار على نحو 240 حالة توصلوا إلى أن ثلاثة شواهد تبين أي تلك البويضات هي الأصلح: ملاحظة أيهم تقوم بالانقسام الأول قبل الأخرى ات، والشاهدتان الأخرتان هي تعيين الزمن بين أنقسامات تالية، حيث كلما يتم الانقسام سريعا كلما كانت البويضة المخصبة أصلح. وتبين تلك الطريقة بنسبة نجاح تبلغ 93% أي من تلك البويضات المخصبة يمكن أن تعيش لمدة 5 أيام في البوتقة.

بذلك يمكن للطبيب معرفة البويضة المخصبة الصالحة للزراعة في رحم الأم خلال يومين إثنين بعد التخصيب. ومن المتوقع أن يرتفع معدل نجاح التخصيب في الأنبوب الذي يبلغ حاليا نحو 30% مع تطبيق الطريقة الجديدة.

اقرأ أيضا
 عملية الحقن المجهري
 نقل البويضة الملقحة إلى قناة فالوب
 نقل الأعراس إلى داخل قناة فالوب
 خارج الحيوية
 روبرت إدواردز
 نقل الأجنة
 عدم الإنجاب

مراجع

اختراعات بريطانية
إجراءات تناسلية أنثوية
حمل
طب الخصوبة
علم الأحياء البردي

طفل أنابيب


تنص مبرهنة أويلر في الهندسة الرياضية التي سميت على اسم ليونهارد أويلر على أنه من الممكن التعبير عن المسافة d بين مركز الدائرة المحيطة ومركز الدائرة المحاطة لمثلث بالعلاقة:

حيث R وr هما نصف قطر الدائرة المحيطة والدائرة المحاطة على الترتيب.

من الممكن استنتاج متراجحة أويلر من هذه المبرهنة على الشكل:

نشر أويلر هاته المبرهنة عام 1767.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

متباينات هندسية
مقالات تحوي براهين
هندسة المثلث

مبرهنة أويلر (هندسة رياضية)


"Moon River" is a song composed by Henry Mancini with lyrics by Johnny Mercer. It was originally performed by Audrey Hepburn in the 1961 movie Breakfast at Tiffany's, winning an Academy Award for Best Original Song. The song also won the 1962 Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. In 1999, Mancini's recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.

The song has been recorded by many other artists. It became the theme song for Andy Williams, who first recorded it in 1962 (and performed it at the Academy Awards ceremony that year). He sang the first eight bars of the song at the beginning of each episode of his eponymous television show and named his production company and venue in Branson, Missouri, after it; his autobiography is called "Moon River" and Me. Williams' version was never released as a single, but it charted as an LP track that he recorded for Columbia on a hit album of 1962, Moon River and Other Great Movie Themes. In 2022, Williams' rendition of the song was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress.

The song's success was responsible for relaunching Mercer's career as a songwriter, which had stalled in the mid-1950s because rock and roll had replaced jazz standards as the popular music of the time. The song's popularity is such that it has been used as a test sample in a study on people's memories of popular songs. Comments about the lyrics have noted that they are particularly reminiscent of Mercer's youth in the southern United States and his longing to expand his horizons. Robert Wright wrote in The Atlantic Monthly, "This is a love sung [sic] to wanderlust. Or a romantic song in which the romantic partner is the idea of romance."<ref>Wright, Robert. "Andy Williams's Moon River – Decoded and Vindicated at Last!", The Atlantic Monthly, September 27, 2012, accessed January 6, 2016</ref> An inlet near Savannah, Georgia, Johnny Mercer's hometown, was named Moon River in honor of him and this song.

Versions
Original
Mercer and Mancini wrote the song for Audrey Hepburn to sing in the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. The lyrics, written by Mercer, are reminiscent of his childhood in Savannah, Georgia, including its waterways. As a child, he had picked huckleberries in summer, and he connected them with a carefree childhood and Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn. Although an instrumental version is played over the film's opening titles, the lyrics are first heard in a scene where Paul "Fred" Varjak (George Peppard) discovers Holly Golightly (Hepburn) singing the song, accompanying herself on the guitar while sitting on the fire escape outside their apartments.

There was an eruption of behind-the-scenes consternation when a Paramount Pictures executive, Martin Rackin, suggested removing the song from the film after a tepid Los Angeles preview. Hepburn's reaction was described by Mancini and others in degrees varying from her saying, "Over my dead body!" to her using more colorful language to make the same point.

An album version was recorded by Mancini and his orchestra and chorus (without Hepburn's vocal) on December 8, 1960. It was released as a single in 1961 and became a number 11 hit in December of that year. Due to unpublished charts in Billboard, Joel Whitburn's Top Adult (Contemporary) Songs variously reported the song as a number 3 or number 1 easy listening hit. Mancini's original version was also featured in the film Born on the Fourth of July (1989). In 1993, following Hepburn's death, her version was released on an album titled Music from the Films of Audrey Hepburn. In 2004, Hepburn's version finished at number 4 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.

Early recordings

"Moon River" was a hit single for Jerry Butler in late 1961. Released simultaneously with Mancini's, it reached number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 3 Easy Listening in December, two weeks before Mancini's recording reached the same chart ranking. British singer Danny Williams had a hit version of the song that reached number one in the UK in the final week of 1961.

Although Andy Williams never released the song as a single, his LP Moon River and Other Great Movie Themes (1962), was certified gold in 1963 for selling one million units. The album reached number 3 on the Billboard Top 200, eventually selling more than two million copies by 1967. In 2002, a 74-year-old Andy Williams sang the song at the conclusion of the live NBC special telecast celebrating the network's 75th anniversary. In 2018, Andy Williams' version on Columbia Records was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2022, Andy Williams' recording of the song was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry.

Chart history
Henry Mancini & Orchestra

Jerry Butler

Danny Williams

Later versions
Hundreds of versions of the song have been recorded and it has been featured in many media.Testa, Jessica. "13 'Moon River' Covers, In Memory of Andy Williams", BuzzFeed, September 26, 2012, accessed January 6, 2016 Mercer recorded the song in 1974 for his album My Huckleberry Friend. In 2007, saxophonist Dave Koz recorded a version from his standards music album, At the Movies, sung by Barry Manilow. In 2013, Neil Finn and Paul Kelly performed the song on their Goin' Your Way Tour, during which their performance at the Sydney Opera House Concert Hall was recorded for the live album, Goin' Your Way, released the same year. The title of the album comes from a phrase in the song's chorus: "Wherever you're goin', I'm goin' your way". Lawrence Welk's 1961 instrumental version was featured in Mad Men season 6, episode 13, "In Care Of" (2013). A version of the song was featured in Asif Kapadia's documentary film, Amy (2015), about Amy Winehouse. Winehouse's version, sung at age 16 with the National Youth Jazz Orchestra in 2000, is the opening song in the film.The Telegraph listed, among prominent covers of the song, those by Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Sarah Vaughan, Louis Armstrong, Sarah Brightman and Chevy Chase (in the comedy film Fletch). Other stars who have covered the song include Rod Stewart in Fly Me to the Moon... The Great American Songbook Volume V (2010), which charted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200, Barbra Streisand in The Movie Album (2003), a Grammy-nominated gold album, and Frank Ocean, who released a cover on Valentine's Day 2018 that debuted in the Top 10 of the Billboard Hot R&B chart. Diffuser.fm named these the "Top 5 Alt-Rock" versions of the song: Morrissey, Glasvegas, R.E.M., The Killers and Josh Ritter. Jacob Collier's a capella cover won the 2020 Grammy Award for Best Arrangement, Instrumental or A Cappella.

See also
"Charade" (1963 song)The Sweetheart Tree"Days of Wine and Roses" (song)Moon River'' radio program
List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 1960s

References

External links

1960s ballads
1960s jazz standards
1961 singles
1961 songs
Andy Williams songs
Aretha Franklin songs
Barbra Streisand songs
Best Original Song Academy Award-winning songs
Christmas number-one singles in the United Kingdom
Danny Williams (singer) songs
Film theme songs
Frank Sinatra songs
Grammy Award for Record of the Year
Grammy Award for Song of the Year
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Jerry Butler songs
Judy Garland songs
Louis Armstrong songs
Number-one singles in New Zealand
Perry Como songs
Pop ballads
RCA Victor singles
R.E.M. songs
Rod Stewart songs
Songs about rivers
Songs about Georgia (U.S. state)
Songs with lyrics by Johnny Mercer
Songs with music by Henry Mancini
Songs written for films
The Killers songs
UK Singles Chart number-one singles
United States National Recording Registry recordings
Vee-Jay Records singles
Westlife songs

Moon River


Born Villain —en español: Nacido Villano— es el octavo álbum de estudio de la banda estadounidense de rock industrial Marilyn Manson, lanzado el 1 de mayo de 2012 por la discográfica Hell, etc. a través de Cooking Vinyl Records. Se trata del primer trabajo de la banda tras la rescisión de su contrato con Interscope Records.
Según Billboard, fue uno de los proyectos más esperados con millones de reproducciones al instante de haberse publicado el vídeo-tráiler de Born Villain. En las entrevistas a los miembros de la banda, estos describieron el estilo del álbum como "death metal suicida" y apuntaron al hecho de que se trataba de un álbum conceptual. En noviembre de 2010, Twiggy Ramirez declaró: "Tenemos un nuevo disco en el que estamos trabajando aún pero está casi hecho. Probablemente salga el próximo año.[...] Creo que es nuestro mejor disco; es decir, todo el mundo dice eso siempre, pero creo que este es nuestro mejor trabajo hasta ahora".

Se publicaron tres sencillos del álbum ("No Reflection", "Slo-Mo-Tion" y "Hey Cruel World...") y un cortometraje de pre-lanzamiento titulado Born Villain. El grupo apoyó el álbum con la gira Hey Cruel World... Tour, y ofreció una serie de conciertos conjuntos con Rob Zombie y Alice Cooper en sendas giras que recibieron el nombre de Twins of Evil Tour y Masters of Madness Tour, respectivamente. El álbum debutó en el n.º 10 del Billboard 200. Vendió unas 38 000 copias en los Estados Unidos, mientras que a nivel mundial vendió 170 000 hasta la fecha.

Antecedentes

Las letras de 'Born Villain' fueron escritas durante el transcurso de la gira Etc... Tour, en 2009. El 3 de diciembre de 2009 se dio a conocer que la banda Marilyn Manson ya no formaba parte de Interscope Records desde hacía tiempo. Manson afirmó: "Incluso hemos estado escribiendo las letras durante la gira, así que creo que la gente tendrá un nuevo disco mucho antes de lo que piensan". En abril de 2010, Warner confirmó en los Revolver Golden Gods Awards que la banda había grabado un total de 13 canciones.

El 24 de febrero de 2011, Ginger Fish, a la sazón baterista del grupo, publicó un comunicado que decía que se alejaba de la banda para probar nuevas experiencias y que le deseaba lo mejor a sus hermanos. El 2 de septiembre del mismo año se conoció el nombre del nuevo álbum: 'Born Villain'. El 22 de noviembre el teclista, baterista y productor Chris Vrenna anunció que dejaba la banda con el siguiente comunicado: "Estoy increíblemente orgulloso del trabajo que hice con Marilyn Manson y espero el lanzamiento de Born Villain. Les deseo el bien a mis hermanos pero una vez que se completó la grabación sentí que era hora de retomar otras facetas de mi carrera, como los trabajos de producción, música para películas y otras colaboraciones musicales."

Desempeño Comercial

El álbum logró entrar en las listas de los 10 más vendidos en 6 países y en la semana de su lanzamiento se situó en el número 10 de los 200 más vendidos según Billboard. Born Villain superó en 2 semanas las ventas de The High End of Low.

Tráiler
Para promocionar el álbum se publicó Born Villain, un cortometraje dirigido por el actor Shia LaBeouf. La idea de la película se originó cuando Manson y LaBeouf se conocieron en un concierto de The Kills.

Premios

Loudwire

La canción No Reflection recibió una nominación en los premios Loudwire 2012, en la categoría Mejor canción del año 2012. El álbum también recibió una nominación como Mejor Álbum de rock del año 2012.

Grammy Awards
En noviembre de 2012, se anunciaron los nominados de la entrega en los Grammy 2013, en la cual Marilyn Manson obtuvo una nominación en la categoría Mejor Interpretación de Hard Rock/Metal con el tema No Reflection, pero perdió frente a la canción "Love Bites (So Do I)" de la banda estadounidense Halestorm.

Portada
La portada es una fotografía tomada por Lindsay Usich, donde esta el perfil de Manson mirando hacia la derecha, con una escala de colores azulados, mostrando el título "Marilyn Manson - Born Villain" en la parte de abajo

Lista de canciones
das las letras escritas por Marilyn Manson.

Posiciones

 Ventas por país y venta mundial

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Web Oficial del film Born Villain
 Born Villain en "The Marilyn Manson Wiki"

Álbumes de 2012
Álbumes de Marilyn Manson
Álbumes de Cooking Vinyl
Álbumes en inglés
Álbumes de metal alternativo
Álbumes de heavy metal

Born Villain


Stjepan Škrobić, hrvatski graditelj koji je djelovao u austro-ugarskoj Hercegovini. Nije utvrđeno je li bio inženjer ili tehničar i je li na projektima bio crtač ili projektant. U Mostaru je djelovao kao baumeister od 1905. do 1910. Projektirao je 1905. zgradu Napretka u Liska ulici, 1906. stambenu zgradu Davida Fromera u istoj ulici, te jednokatnicu Marka Nuića zapadno od Bolničke ulice, 1910. Potpisnik novogradnje Ilije Ivaniševića u Srednjoj ulici 1902., ali za tu se zgradu mora razjasniti autorstvo između njega i Dragutina Köhlera.

Ne zna se točno koliko je djece Stjepan imao, ali znamo za jednog sina po imenu Petar Škrobić koji je imao troje djece.

Izvori

Životopisi, Mostar
Hrvatski arhitekti
Kultura Hrvata Bosne i Hercegovine

Stjepan Škrobić


Odometrul (contor de parcurs sau kilometraj) (din greacă ὁδός, "cale", și -μέτρον, măsură) este un dispozitiv conceput pentru a măsura distanța parcursă de un vehicul. De obicei, aceasta este indicată pe afișaj cu cuvântul "ODO" pentru distanța totală și "DST" pentru distanțe parțiale.

Vitezometrul funcționează împreună cu contorul de parcurs, deoarece calculul se face între distanța parcursă și timpul în cauză, generând viteza curentă. Astăzi, funcția odometrului poate fi efectuată și prin intermediul GPS.

Referințe

Vezi și
 Vitezometru

Legături externe

Autovehicule
Instrumente de măsură
Componente de vehicule

Odometru


Die Probabilistische Sicherheitsanalyse (PSA), auch Probabilistische Risikoanalyse (PRA)  genannt, untersucht die Risiken von Industrieanlagen mittels der Methoden der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung und Systemanalyse.

Die drei wesentlichen Untersuchungsgegenstände der Analyse sind:
 Was kann versagen?
 Wie wahrscheinlich ist es?
 Was sind die Auswirkungen?

Historie der PSA
Aus dem Erfahrungsstand der Zuverlässigkeitsanalyse der Neunzehnhundertfünfziger- und sechzigerjahre heraus wurde die Methode der quantitativen Risikoanalyse entwickelt. Sie bedient sich damit gleichermaßen der Methoden der Zuverlässigkeit (Technik).

Ein Pionier der quantitativen Risikobewertung war in England F. Reg Farmer, der 1967 mit der Risiko-Grenzkurve (auch "Farmer-Kurve" genannt) die methodische Grundlage für die quantitative Risikobewertung industrieller Anlagen schuf.
Die Risiko-Grenzkurve leitet sich aus dem Produkt von Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit und Schadensausmaß eines Unfalls ab und legt die Überlegung zugrunde, dass, je größer das Schadensausmaß eines Unfalls ist, desto geringer die Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit sein muss, und entsprechend umgekehrt.

Farmer wies auch darauf hin, dass in der Risikobewertung (z. B. eines Kernkraftwerkes) das gesamte Spektrum möglicher Unfälle zu betrachten ist und nicht nur ein "größter anzunehmender Unfall" (GAU, engl. "Maximum Credible Accident" – MCA), wie es bis dahin in der Kerntechnik üblich gewesen war.

In der amerikanischen Reaktorsicherheitsstudie "WASH 1400" von 1975 (sogen. "Rasmussen-Studie") wurden die quantitativen Unfallrisiken zweier Kernkraftwerke (KKW) erstmals umfassend analysiert. Die Ereignisbaum- und Fehlerbaumanalyse sind dabei die vorherrschenden analytischen Instrumentarien der PSA, in denen die Gesamtheit der möglichen Unfallabläufe erfasst, modelliert und quantifiziert wird. Die Fehlerbaumanalyse (vgl. Fault Tree Analysis Handbook) stammt aus der Luft- und Raumfahrttechnik. Das in der PSA erstellte Risikomodell der Gesamtanlage besteht danach aus einer Vielzahl ineinander verzahnter Ereignis- und Fehlerbäume. Bei großtechnischen Anlagen wie einem Kernkraftwerk kann das Risikomodell und die dabei anfallenden großen Datenmengen nur noch mittels eines Rechenprogramms quantifiziert und qualitätsgesichert werden.

Mit der Reaktorsicherheitsstudie "WASH 1400" erfolgte auch eine wesentliche Weiterentwicklung der Methoden der PSA:
 Ausfallmodelle redundanter Systeme und Komponenten mit redundanzübergreifenden Fehlern (CCF - Analyse, Common Cause Failure).
 Human Factor Analyse (Übernahme der Erfahrungen aus dem militärischen Bereich).
 Ermittlung probabilistischer Größen seltener Ereignisse, wie das Versagen von Rohrleitungen oder Behältern, das Bersten der Kraftwerks-Turbine, anlageninterne Überflutungen, Absturz schwerer Lasten, anlagenexterne Ereignisse wie Flugzeugabsturz, Erdbeben und Hochwasser.

Sie setzte damit – nicht nur in der Kerntechnik – Maßstäbe für alle weiteren Risikoanalysen. In Deutschland wurde die "Deutsche Risikostudie für Kernkraftwerke" für das KKW Biblis nach den methodischen Ansätzen von "WASH 1400" erstellt und gilt in Deutschland als eine Referenzanalyse für Kernkraftwerke.

Risikoanalysen kommen heute in allen Industriebereichen, wie der Kerntechnik, Luftfahrt, Bahn, Schifffahrt, Chemie, Petrochemie und Staudämmen, zur Anwendung.

Bedeutende Risiko-Größen

Human Factor
Mit dem Unfall im amerikanischen Kernkraftwerk Three Mile Island von 1979 wurden diverse Schwächen im Bereich der Mensch-Maschine-Schnittstelle, der Personalqualifikation und des Unfallmanagements sichtbar. Das Unfallereignis löste weltweite Nachrüstungen der KKW sowie eine intensive Weiterentwicklung der Methoden zur Human Factor Analyse aus.

Anlageninterner Brand
Im Kernkraftwerk Browns Ferry, in Alabama, USA entwickelte sich 1975 ein schwerer anlageninterner Brand, der zum Ausfall mehrerer Sicherheitssysteme führte. Der Auslöser des Brandes war eine brennende Kerze, die das Instandsetzungspersonal zur Erkennung einer Lüftungsleckage im Kabelkanal des KKW verwendet hatte. Die Risiko-Größe "anlageninterner Brand" wurde durch dieses Ereignis deutlich, die in dieser Form bisher unterschätzt wurde. In WASH 1400 wurde das Ereignis Brand noch nicht betrachtet.
Eine intensive Entwicklung der probabilistischen Brandgefahren-Analyse wurde damit eingeleitet. Sie ist heute Standard in der PSA.

Sicherheitskultur
Im russischen Kernkraftwerk Tschernobyl ereignete sich 1986 der bislang schwerste Unfall in der Kernenergieerzeugung. Ausgangspunkt des Unfalls war eine Versuchsdurchführung zur Bestimmung der Sicherheitseigenschaften der Anlage, die während des Abfahrens der Anlage stattfand. Unzulänglichkeiten des Versuchsprogramms, unerwartete Bedingungen während der Versuchsdurchführung und ungeplante Eingriffe des Betriebspersonals führten in der Summe zu einer "prompt überkritischen Leistungsexkursion" des Reaktors und damit zu seinem katastrophalen Versagen.
Die Unfallursachenanalyse offenbarte erhebliche Defizite im Sicherheitsmanagement und in der Aufsicht der Anlage. Die Bedeutung des Anlagenmanagements und der Sicherheitskultur (engl. "safety culture") auf das Anlagenrisiko wurde offenkundig.

Unfallursachenanalysen in praktisch allen anderen Industriebereichen, aber auch in der Medizin und Pharmazeutik, offenbarten gleichermaßen diese Einflussgröße. In allen Sicherheitsstandards der verschiedenen Industriebereiche finden sich heute entsprechende Anforderungen an ein Sicherheitsmanagement bzw. Risikomanagement.

Methoden zur Bewertung der Risiko-Größe "Sicherheitskultur" existieren bislang lediglich in qualitativer Form.

Durchführung einer PSA

Die PSA wird nach folgenden Arbeitsschritten erstellt:
Identifikation der Gefahrenpotentiale, die in einer Anlage enthalten sind (wie Gefahrstoffe, radioaktive Spaltprodukte).
Beschreibung der Sicherheitstechnik, der Maßnahmen und Barrieren, die die Gefahrenpotentiale einschließen und deren Freisetzung verhindern.
Bestimmung der Störfälle, die zu einer Freisetzung der Gefahrenpotentiale führen können (störfallauslösende Ereignisse, engl. "intitiating events").
Festlegung des Spektrums der störfallauslösenden Ereignisse.
Analyse der Störfallabläufe und der Wirkungsweise der Systemtechnik unter den Störfallbedingungen sowie Umsetzung der Störfallabläufe in Ereignis- und Fehlerbäume (sie bilden das probabilistische Modell in der PSA, das mit den Methoden der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung quantifiziert werden kann).
Ermittlung der Eingangsgrößen in das probabilistische Modell, den Zuverlässigkeitsdaten, HF-, CCF-Daten (Wahrscheinlichkeitsgrößen) und den Instandsetzungszeiten und Prüfintervallen (Zustandsänderungsgrößen) der Komponenten des Systems.
Quantifizierung des probabilistischen Modells.
Bewertung der Risikoergebnisse, Feststellung der führenden Risikobeiträge (Systemschwachstellen) und der möglichen risikosenkenden Maßnahmen.

Probabilistische Eingangsdaten
Die probabilistischen Eingangsgrößen in der PSA sind:
 Häufigkeiten der störfallauslösenden Ereignisse.
 Ausfallraten und Instandsetzungszeiten der Komponenten.
 Nichtverfügbarkeiten der Teilsysteme durch vorbeugende Instandhaltung.
 Fehlerraten gemeinsam verursachter Ausfälle redundanter Komponenten (CCF-Ausfälle, engl. "common cause failures").
 Fehlerraten von Personalhandlungen (HF-Daten).

Die probabilistischen Eingangsdaten werden entweder aus der Betriebserfahrung der betrachteten Anlage (anlagenspezifische Daten) oder von anderen vergleichbaren Anlagen (generische Daten) übernommen.
Die gewonnenen Zuverlässigkeitskenngrößen stellen zugleich Indikatoren (Sicherheitsindikatoren) für das Sicherheitsverhalten einer Anlage dar, insbesondere hinsichtlich systematischer Fehler und Alterungsprozesse. Sie geben frühzeitig Hinweise auf Defizite und Anlass für korrigierende Maßnahmen.

Unschärfe und Grenzen der Analyse
Die quantitativen Ergebnisse einer probabilistischen Risikoanalyse sind generell mit Unschärfen behaftet. Es werden die folgenden Arten von Unschärfe unterschieden:

Modellunschärfe
Die Abbildung des realen Systems im Risikomodell unter den Bedingungen der Störfall- oder Unfallsituationen stellt immer nur eine grobe Annäherung an die realen Abläufe dar. Simulationen von Unfallszenarien sowie die Auswertung von Unfallabläufen bei gleichartigen Systemen dienen der Verbesserung der Modellbildung.

Datenunschärfe und Parameterunschärfe
Die Zuverlässigkeitskenngrößen  unterliegen einerseits der "statistischen Streuung" und anderseits der "technischen Streuung".
Die "statistische Streuung" kann durch eine möglichst große Stichprobe reduziert werden. Die "technische Streuung" ergibt sich aus dem Umstand, dass die zur Datenauswertung herangezogenen Komponenten in der Art und in ihrem Betriebsverhalten mit der betrachteten Komponente in der Regel nicht vollständig übereinstimmen. Die dadurch bedingte Unsicherheit ist in der Regel größer als die der "statistischen Streuung".

Unschärfe durch unzureichenden Kenntnisstand
Die Unfallerfahrung lehrt, dass der Kenntnisstand über die – in einer komplexen Industrieanlage – möglichen Störfallabläufe in der Regel unvollständig ist (vgl. Abschn. Bedeutende Risiko-Größen), d. h., dass das Risikomodell die Realität nur unvollständig wiedergibt.

Risiko-Bewertung

Bewertung der absoluten Risikogröße
Das quantitative Gesamtergebnis der Risikoanalyse, bestehend aus der Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit und den Auswirkungen der untersuchten Unfallabläufe, gibt Aufschluss über die Kollektiv- und Individualrisiken der Bevölkerung in der Umgebung der Anlage.

Der Bewertungsansatz "MEM" ("Minimale endogene Mortalität") basiert auf der minimalen Sterberate eines Menschen (im Lebensalter vom 5. bis zum 15. Lebensjahr) von 2·10−4/Jahr. Das zulässige Risiko soll deutlich unter diesem Wert liegen und wird mit 1·10−5/Jahr angesetzt (europäische Bahn-Norm EN 50126, 1997).

In der Luftfahrt müssen nach ARP 4761
und ARP 4754 je nach Schweregrad der Auswirkungen eines Fehlers die folgenden Wahrscheinlichkeiten nachgewiesen werden:
 10−5/Flugstunde für die Kategorie "Major"
 10−7/Flugstunde für die Kategorie "Hazardous" bzw. "Severe Major"
 10−9/Flugstunde für die Kategorie "Catastrophic"

Vergleichende Risikobewertung
Eine praktizierte Bewertung der quantitativen Risikoergebnisse ist der Vergleich mit anderen industriellen Risiken oder alternativen Anlagenkonzepten und Systemen.

Das GAMAB-Prinzip (Globalement au moins aussi bon - Generell mindestens so gut): ein neues System soll wenigstens so sicher bzw. risikoarm sein, wie irgendein bereits existierendes vergleichbares System (vgl. europäischen Bahn-Norm EN 50126, 1997). In der chemischen Industrie wird hierfür der Begriff "Best practice" angewendet.

Das "ALARP"-Prinzip ("As low as reasonably practical") leitet sich aus dem Verhältnismäßigkeitsgrundsatz ab, wonach immer – und soweit möglich und praktikabel – risikosenkende Maßnahmen durchgeführt werden sollen.

Bewertung der Risiko-Importanzen
Die Risikoanalyse liefert – über das quantitative Gesamtergebnis hinaus – Informationen über einzelne Risikobeiträge (Risiko-Importanzen) der Systemtechnik und Betriebsweise und damit Ansatzpunkte zu deren Optimierung (als Schwachstellenanalyse bezeichnet).

Anwendungsbereiche der PSA

Sicherheitsüberprüfungen
In Deutschland müssen kerntechnische Anlagen regelmäßig einer Sicherheitsüberprüfung unterzogen werden. Sie umfasst drei Teile: deterministische Sicherheitsstatusanalyse, probabilistische Sicherheitsanalyse und deterministische Sicherungsanalyse.

Living PSA
In der Risikoanalyse wird üblicherweise der zu analysierende Systemzustand zum Zeitpunkt der Analyse festgelegt, eingefroren (engl. "snapshot in time"). Spätere Veränderungen der Anlagentechnik oder neue Kenntnisstände über Daten und Modelle der PSA bleiben darin unberücksichtigt.
Aufgabe der "Living PSA" ist es daher, die PSA über die Lebensdauer einer Anlage aktuell zu halten. Sie findet Verwendung bei der sicherheitstechnischen Betriebsführung einer Anlage, zur Bewertung von geplanten, technischen Änderungen sowie für Schulungszwecke des Betriebspersonals.

Risk Informed Regulation
In den USA stützt sich das Genehmigungs- und Aufsichtsverfahren für Kernkraftwerke wesentlich auf die PSA ab. Mit dem "Policy Statement der NRC" von 1995 werden folgende Ziele gesetzt:
 Umfassende Anwendung der PSA in allen Entscheidungsprozessen zur Reaktorsicherheit.
 Verbesserung der Risikobewertung durch neuere Erkenntnisse aus Ereignissen aus dem Reaktorbetrieb.
 Optimierung der Verteilung der verfügbaren Ressourcen mittels Risikoanalyse.
 Bewertung von systemtechnischen Änderungen mittels Risikoanalyse unter Beachtung der allgemeinen Sicherheitsprinzipien.
 Verbesserung der PSA-Instrumentarien, z. B. durch Schaffung eines PSA-Standards.

Literatur

Kerntechnik
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC):
 NUREG-0492, "Fault Tree Handbook", W. E. Vesely, F. F. Goldberg, N. H. Roberts, D. F. Haasl, 1981
 NUREG/CR-2300, "PRA Procedures Guide: A Guide to the Performance of Probabilistic Risk Assessments for Nuclear Power Plants"
 NUREG CR-2815, "Probabilistic Safety Assessment (PSA) Procedure Guide", 1985
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), "Standard for Probabilistic Risk Assessment for Nuclear Power Plants (NPP) Applications", ASME RA-S-1999

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
 "Development and Application of Level 1 Probabilistic Safety Assessment for Nuclear Power Plants", Specific Safety Guide Series No. SSG-3, April 27, 2010
 "Development and Application of Level 2 Probabilistic Safety Assessment for Nuclear Power Plants", Specific Safety Guide Series No. SSG-4, May 25, 2010

Bundesamt für Strahlenschutz (BfS):
 "Methoden zur probabilistischen Sicherheitsanalyse für Kernkraftwerke", Dez. 1996, BfS-KT-16-97
 "Daten zur Quantifizierung von Ereignisablaufdiagrammen und Fehlerbäumen", März 1997, BfS-KT-18/97

Die Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD-Arbeitskreis Risk Assessment) veröffentlicht "Technical Opinion Paper", in denen Grundsatzaussagen über die Eigenschaften der probabilistischen Sicherheitsanalyse gemacht werden:
 The Role of Quantitative PSA Results in NPP Safety Decision-Making
 The Role of Living PSA in NPP Safety Decision-Making
 Human Reliability Analysis in PSA
 Fire Probabilistic Safety Assessment for NPP
 Seismic PSA.

Chemie, Öl- und Gasindustrie
Health and Safety Executive, "Application of QRA in operational safety issues", 2002

NORSOK STANDARD Z-013 Risk and emergency preparedness analysis, 1. September 2001

American Petroleum Institute API-Publication 581, Base Resource Document – Risk-Based Inspection

OREDA – Offshore and Onshore Reliability Data Handbook

Bahnindustrie
EN 50126: Bahnanwendungen - Spezifikation und Nachweis der Zuverlässigkeit, Verfügbarkeit, Instandhaltbarkeit, Sicherheit (RAMS); Deutsche Fassung:1999

The international handbook on Engineering Safety Management (iESM) (ersetzt das 2012 zurückgezogene Yellow Book – "Engineering Safety Management")

Einzelnachweise

Risikomanagement

Probabilistische Sicherheitsanalyse


Femtochemistry is the area of physical chemistry that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales (approximately 10−15 seconds or one femtosecond, hence the name) in order to study the very act of atoms within molecules (reactants) rearranging themselves to form new molecules (products). In a 1988 issue of the journal Science, Ahmed Hassan Zewail published an article using this term for the first time, stating "Real-time femtochemistry, that is, chemistry on the femtosecond timescale...".    Later in 1999, Zewail received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his pioneering work in this field showing that it is possible to see how atoms in a molecule move during a chemical reaction with flashes of laser light.

Application of femtochemistry in biological studies has also helped to elucidate the conformational dynamics of stem-loop RNA structures.

Many publications have discussed the possibility of controlling chemical reactions by this method, but this remains controversial. The steps in some reactions occur in the femtosecond timescale and sometimes in attosecond timescales, and will sometimes form intermediate products. These reaction intermediates cannot always be deduced from observing the start and end products.

Pump–probe spectroscopy
The simplest approach and still one of the most common techniques is known as pump–probe spectroscopy. In this method, two or more optical pulses with variable time delay between them are used to investigate the processes happening during a chemical reaction. The first pulse (pump) initiates the reaction, by breaking a bond or exciting one of the reactants. The second pulse (probe) is then used to interrogate the progress of the reaction a certain period of time after initiation. As the reaction progresses, the response of the reacting system to the probe pulse will change. By continually scanning the time delay between pump and probe pulses and observing the response, workers can reconstruct the progress of the reaction as a function of time.

Examples

Bromine dissociation
Femtochemistry has been used to show the time-resolved electronic stages of bromine dissociation. When dissociated by a 400 nm laser pulse, electrons completely localize onto individual atoms after 140 fs, with Br atoms separated by 6.0 Å after 160 fs.

See also
 Attophysics (1 attosecond = 10−18 s)
 Femtotechnology
 Ultrafast laser spectroscopy
 Ultrashort pulse
 Flash photolysis

References

Further reading

 Femtochemistry: Ultrafast Dynamics of the Chemical Bond, Ahmed H Zewail, World Scientific, 1994

External links
 Controlling and probing atoms and molecules with ultrafast laser pulses, PhD Thesis

Physical chemistry
Ultrafast spectroscopy
Articles containing video clips
Photochemistry

Femtochemistry


Paul Smith Jr. (født 6. oktober 1982 i Liverpool, Merseyside, England) er en britisk professionel bokser. Han havde den britiske titel i mellemvægt i 2008, den britiske titel supermellemvægt to gange mellem 2009 og 2014 og har tre gange udfordret om en super-mellemvægt verdensmesterskabs-titel.

Amatørkarriere
Smith startede boksning i alder af ni i Rotunda amatørbokseklub og kæmpede i Sydafrika, Usbekistan og Danmark hvor han repræsenterede England. Han kommer fra en familie af boksere, og han og sine brødre (Stephen, Liam og Callum) blev den første gruppe søskende til alle vinde ABA titlerne.  Paul vandt sølvmedaljer for sit land i 2001 ved Copenhagen Cup i København og ved Commonwealth Games i 2002, hvor han tabte til canadiske Jean Pascal med to point;  Smith skrev herefter kontakt med Frank Warren og blev professionel.

Professionelle karriere
Smith karriere har indeholdt mange kampe hovedsagelig i Storbritannien, Tyskland og USA. Han har bokset mod Andre Ward og Arthur Abraham om WBO supermellemvægt-titlen to gange. Den første var en kontroversiel afgørelse.

The Contender
Den 4. september 2007 sluttede Smith sig til 9 andre håbefulde boksere som en del af sæson tre af  The Contender . Smith slog rivaliserende David Banks fra Portland, Oregon og sluttede med en sejr til Smith ved split-decision. Men da Smith havde det laveste antal point totalt ud af de resterende boksere, blev han diskvalificeret. Sejren over David Banks blev kæmpet i Pasadena i Californien og blev sendt på ESPN og ITV; Ray Leonard sagde Smith lod sin vrede påvirker hans evner. Smith blev efterladt med to skader, den ene på hans næse og den anden omkring hans øje; dette betød, at han var medicinsk uegnet til at fortsætte konkurrencen uanset sine præstationer.

Udover dette har han bokset og tabt til bemærkelsesværdige brittiske boksere Steven Bendall, James DeGale, George Groves og tyske Tyron Zeuge om WBA-verdensmesterskabstitlen (2017).

Referencer

Boksere fra Storbritannien
Boksere fra England
Personer fra Liverpool

Paul Smith (bokser)


Religija u Irskoj zastupljena je s nekoliko vjerskih zajednica.

Povijest
Irska je tradicijski rimokatolička zemlja. Unatoč gotovo tisućljeća engleske vlasti i pritisaka anglikanaca, pritisaka (v. plantažiranje Irske, krumpirova glad), velikim iseljavanjima, ostala je odana rimokatoličanstvu. Ulaskom u EEZ Irska je i dalje bila rimokatolička, a velikim ekonomskim napredkom (keltski tigar) privukla je radnu snagu iz drugih djelova EU i svijeta i time je narastao broj i udjel drugih vjera.

Većina crkava organizirana je na otočkoj osnovici, što znači da obuhvaća i Republiku Irsku i Sjevernu Irsku, dio Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
Irski Putnici (eng. Irish Travellers, irs. Lucht Siúil; vlastito nazivanje: Minkiers, Pavees) tradicijski su prihvatili vrlo poseban stav prema Katoličkoj Crkvi, usredotočavajući se na likove poput "liječećih svećenika".  Još šire se nastavlja tradicija vizija, često izvan sankcija Crkve.

Vjerska struktura
Procjene koje navodi CIA iz 2011. govore o sljedećem vjerskom sastavu:
 rimokatolici 84,7%
 anglikanci Irske Crkve 2,7%
 ostali kršćani 2,7%
 muslimani 1,1%
 ostali 1,7%
 nespecificirano 1,5%
 nikoje vjere 5,7%

Popisom stanovništva u Irskoj 2011. utvrđeno je ovo stanje:
 rimokatolici 84,16%
 bez vjere 5,88%
 anglikanci Irske Crkve 2,81%
 nisu odgovorili 1,59%
 muslimani 1,07%
 pravoslavni 0,99%
 ostali kršćani (prezbiterijanci 0,54%, Apostolska Crkva/pentekostalci 0,31%...) 1,7%
 ostale vjere (hinduisti 0,23% i dr.) 0,8%

Galerija

Vidi
 religija na otoku Irskoj

Izvori

Religija u Irskoj


Jørgen W. Frøhlich (født 1945 i Stockholm) er en dansk forfatter. Frøhlich voksede op nord for København. Han blev dagbladsjournalist og senere chefredaktør men har i lange perioder beskæftiget sig med teologi og eksistentialisme på akademisk niveau. Han har senest udsendt romanerne Og mens englene græder (2015) og Røster fra en sauna (2017). Pigen på balkonen (2023).

Udover sin forfattervirksomhed er Jørgen W. Frøhlich aktiv i den offentlige debat bl.a. i Politiken, Berlingske, Kristeligt Dagblad og Jyllands-Posten med indlæg om tro, eksistens og almene samfundsforhold.

Referencer

Journalister fra Danmark
Chefredaktører fra Danmark
Romanforfattere fra Danmark
Dansksprogede forfattere fra Danmark

Jørgen W. Frøhlich


Quality Street er en type slik, der består af blanding individuelt indpakkede karameller og chokolader med forskellig fyld og smag. De bliver produceret af Nestlé. Quality Street blev fremstillet første gang i Halifax i West Yorkshire, England i 1936. Det fik navn efter skuespillet af samme navn skrevet af J. M. Barrie.

Varianter

Indholdet i Quality Street har ændret sig over årene. I oktober 2017 var der 13 smage i pakkerne, der hver kan kendes på sin form og farven på papiret. De er enten baseret på chokolade eller karamel, og er som følger:

"The Purple One" mælkechokolade fyldt med hasselnød og karamel (lilla papir)
Green Triangle hazelnut noisette (grønt papir, trekantet sølvpapir)
Chocolate Toffee Finger (guldpapir, pind)
Strawberry Delight (rødt papir, rund)
Caramel Swirl (gult papir, rund, sølvpapir)
Milk Choc Block (grønt papir)
Orange Crunch (orange papir, oktagonal, sølvpapir)
Orange Creme (orange papir)
Fudge (pink papir)
Coconut Eclair (blåt papir)
Toffee Penny (guldpapir, rund)
Honeycomb Crunch (gyldent brunt papir)
Toffee Deluxe (brunt papir)
Greenie in a Bottle (turkisgrønt papir)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Nestlé
Chokolade

Quality Street (slik)


Konusunu George Orwell'in Hayvanlar Çiftliği isimli kitabından alan, Pink Floyd albümü. Sonradan telif hakları davalarına konu olacak "domuz" sembolü bu albümde ortaya çıkmıştır. Animals, Rick Wright ile Roger Waters arasındaki sorunların billurlaştığı albümdür aynı zamanda. Britannia Row Stüdyolarında Nisan-Kasım 1976 tarihleri arasında kayıtları yapılmıştır. Birleşik Krallık'ta 23 Ocak 1977, ABD'de 2 Şubat 1977'de yayınlanmıştır.

Konu
Animals, George Orwell'in politik fablı Hayvan Çiftliği temel alınarak yapılmıştır. Roman stalinizm'i eleştirirken, albüm kapitalizm'i eleştirir niteliktedir. Domuzlar yöneticileri, köpekler kanun adamlarını, koyunlar halkı sembolize eder. Ayrıca Sheep şarkısı, Eski Ahit'teki "Psalm 23" ayetine göndermede bulunur (Tanrı benim çobanımdır.). Pigs on the Wing ise diğer üç şarkının öfkesini yumuşatan umut dolu bir aşk şarkısıdır.

Şarkı listesi
Tüm şarkılar Roger Waters tarafından yazılmıştır.

 Dogs'un orijinal adı "You Gotta Be Crazy" olup, 1974 ve 1975 yıllarındaki konserlerde çalınmıştır.
 Sheep'in orijinal adı "Raving and Drooling" olup, Dogs gibi o da 1974 ve 1975 yıllarındaki konserlerde çalınmıştır.
 Pigs on the Wing, Roger Waters'ın sonradan karısı olacak Caroline'e yazdığı aşkı konu edinen şarkılardır. Albüm konsepti içindeki yerleri ise zorluklara karşı birlikteliliğin önemine yaptıkları vurgulmadır.

Albüm Kapağı
Kapak fikri Roger Waters'dan çıkmıştır, uygulamayı ise Storm Thorgerson'ın firması Hipgnosis yapmıştır. Waters kapakta kullanılacak fotoğrafın çekiminde hile yani fotomontaj yapılmaması konusunda ısrarcı olmuş, bu yüzden Hipgnosis çaresiz, büyük bir domuz balonu yaptırmıştır. Battersea Güç Santrali'nde fotoğraf çekimi yapılacağı gün kaçarsa vurması için bir nişancı ile balon getirilmiş. Fakat, hava çok kötü olunca çekim ertlenmiş, ertesi gün ise  rüzgarın etkisiyle balonu tutan ipler kopmuş ve 11 kişilik fotoğrafçı, 3 kişilik film ekibi, yöneticiler ve kalan ekibin gözleri önünde; nişancı tekrar gelmesi söylenmediğinden gelmediği için domuz gökyüzünde kaybolmuştur. Sonuç olarak domuz kapağa fotomontajla eklenmiştir. Daha sonra domuz Kent yakınlarında bir çiftçinin tarlasında bulunmuştur.

Grup Üyeleri
 David Gilmour - Gitar, bass, vokal, talkbox, synthesizer
 Roger Waters - Vokal, bass, akustik gitar, ritim gitar, vocoder, tape effects, kapak dizaynı
 Richard Wright - Hammond org, Fender Rhodes piyano, Yamaha piyano, ARP synthesizer, backing vocals
 Nick Mason - Davul, perküsyon, teyp efektleri, kapak dizaynı

Katkıda Bulunanlar
 Snowy White - Gitar ("Pigs On The Wing" (8-track cartridge versiyonu))
 Brian Humphries - Mühendis
 Storm Thorgerson - Kapak Dizaynı
 Aubrey Powell - Kapak dizaynı

Liste Başarıları
Birleşik Krallık'ta 2, ABD'de 3. sıraya çıkmıştır. Daha fazla yükselememesinin ve üst sıralarda az kalmasının sebebi şarkıların uzunluğu ve bass'ın radyolarda çalmaya izin vermeyecek tonda olmasıdır. ABD'de 12 Şubat 1977'de Altın, 10 Mart 1977 Platin ödülü almıştır. Selefi olan Dark Side of the Moon (albüm) ve Wish You Were Here'a kıyasla düşük bir başarıya sahiptir.

Albüm Hakkında Söylenenler
 "This was a bit of a return to the group feel, quite a cheerful session as I remember. We did it in our own studio, which we'd just built. By now Roger was in full flow with the ideas, but he was also really keeping Dave down, and frustrating him deliberately" (Grup ruhuna geri dönüş olduğunu söyleyebilirm bu albüm için, bol bol güldüğümüzü hatırlıyorum. Yeni yaptığımız kendi stüdyomuzda kaydettik. Bu dönemde Roger yeni fikirlerle dolup taşıyordu ama aynı zamanda Dave'i gerçekten zorluyor onu engelliyordu)... Nick Mason
 "On Animals I was the prime musical force. Roger was the motivator and lyric writer." (Animals'ta esas müzikal güç bendim. Roger şarkı sözlerini yazan, hareketi sağlayandı)... Dave Gilmour

1977 albümleri
Pink Floyd albümleri
Progresif rock albümleri
Konsept albümler

Animals (albüm)


Pykrete er et frossent kompositmateriale, der oprindeligt blev fremstillet af ca. 14 % savsmuld eller anden form for pulp (som papir) og ca. 86 % is (6 til 1 i forhold til vægt). Pykrete har en række usædvanlige egenskaber, bl.a. at det smelter meget langsomt som følge af materialets lave varmeledningsevne samt voldsomt forbedret styrke og sejhed i forhold til is. Disse fysiske egenskaber gør materialet sammenligneligt med beton, så længe det holdes frossent. Under Anden verdenskrig foreslog Geoffrey Pyke materialet som kandidat til bygning af et enormt hangarskib til den britiske royale flåde.

Pykrete er lidt vanskeligere at fremstille end beton, da det udvider sig i frysningsprocessen. Det kan dog repareres og vedligeholdes med havvand som råmateriale. Blandingen kan støbes i alle former og fryses, og det er slidstærkt, så længe det holdes under frysepunktet. Modstandsdygtigheden mod deformitet forbedres ved at sænke temperaturen til -15° C.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger
 Pykrete - Ice Ships in the Rockies
 Proposed WW2 aircraft carrier
 Pykrete ... or, The Myth that Wouldn't Die...

Beton
Vandis
Kompositmaterialer

Pykrete


Yoga - en vej til lykke er en dokumentarfilm fra 1975 instrueret af Hagen Hasselbalch efter manuskript af samme.

Handling
De fleste vesterlændige tror, at yoga er en slags gymnastik. Det er det også. Men yoga er mere end et system af øvelser til gavn for den legemlige sundhed. Det er i nok så høj grad et system til udvikling af sjælelig sundhed. Gennem besøg hos en række af yogaens store læremestre, guruerne, i yoga-centre, ashramaer, og samtaler med deres disciple, sadhakas, belyser filmen yoagaens fire grundformer: Karma, Bhakti, Raja og Jnana. Der er optaget scener til filmen i Indien, Spanien, Schweiz, Sverige, Nepal og Danmark. Det meste af filmen har dog fokus på Swami Narayananandas ashram midt i Jylland, på Gyllingnæs.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1975
Yoga

Yoga - en vej til lykke


Guillermo Carlos Morigi (nacido el 1 de marzo de 1974 en Caseros, Buenos Aires, Argentina) es un exfutbolista argentino. Jugaba de centrocampista y su primer club fue Vélez Sarsfield.

Carrera

Comenzó su carrera en 1993 jugando para Vélez Sarsfield. Jugó para el club hasta 1997. Ese año se trasladó a España para formar parte del plantel del Valencia CF, manteniéndose ahí hasta el año 1999. Ese año, Guillermo regresó a la Argentina para unirse nuevamente a las filas de Vélez Sarsfield hasta el año 2002. Ese año se unió a Racing Club, cuando en 2003 se fue a Ecuador para unirse al Barcelona SC de Ecuador, en el cual se retiró en 2004.
Actualmente es el técnico interino del club Atlético Veléz Sarsfield.

Clubes

Referencias
 Ficha en BDFA

Futbolistas de Tres de Febrero
Futbolistas de las inferiores del Club Atlético Vélez Sarsfield
Futbolistas del Club Atlético Vélez Sarsfield
Futbolistas del Valencia Club de Fútbol en los años 1990
Futbolistas del Racing Club en los años 2000
Futbolistas del Barcelona Sporting Club
Caseños

Guillermo Morigi


Ston () is a settlement and a municipality in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County of Croatia, located at the south of isthmus of the Pelješac peninsula.

History
Because of its geopolitical and strategic position, Ston has had a rich history since ancient times. Located at the gates of the peninsula, surrounded by three seas, protected by four hills, rich in fresh water and saltwater, fertile plains, it has been an important political, cultural and ecclesiastical centre. There may have been a bishop at Ston as early as the late 7th or early 8th century.

Initially it was an Illyrian settlement until the Romans established their own colony there, in 167 BC.

In 533, at Salona, a diocese was established in Sarsenterum for the Zachlumia (Hum) area, which belonged to the church in Ston (Pardui). Later Sarsenterum was destroyed, most likely at the time of the Avars' campaign. Since Ston was not reached by the Avars, it was spared and became the seat of the local župa. As the secular and ecclesial powers grew, it is assumed that after the disappearance of Sarsenterum, Ston became a local ecclesiastical center. The diocese is first mentioned in 877, as an institution from an earlier time, and the bishop is listed as a suffragan of the metropolis of Split. With the establishment of a metropolis in Ragusa, Ston became a suffragan of the latter.

Upon the arrival of the South Slavs, the area of the Neretva (from the northern Herzegovina mountains to Rijeka Dubrovačka) was organized as the principality of Zachlumia - same as Neretva, Primorje and Zahulje, which also belonged to Ston with Rat (Pelješac) and Mljet. Local rulers acknowledged the supremacy of the Byzantine Empire. After Mihailo Višević, who acknowledged the authority of the Bulgarian Emperor Simeon, Zachlumia was ruled over by different dynasties. Around 950, it was briefly ruled by the Serbian Prince Časlav. At the end of the 10th century, Samuilo was the Lord of Zachlumia, and the dukedom belonged to the Doclean King Jovan Vladimir. In 1168, the dukedom and Zachlumia were conquered by Stefan Nemanja. Thirty years later, Zachlumia was invaded by Andrija, the Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia. In 1254, Béla IV of Hungary conquered Bosnia and Zachlumia. From 1304, Zachlumia was ruled by Mladen II Šubić, then again for a short period by a Serbian župan, and then became part of the medieval Bosnian state, acquired by Stjepan Kotromanić in 1325, until it was finally sold to Dubrovnik.

The old Ston was located on the slopes of the hills of Gorica and St. Michael, south of the Ston field. There were several early Christian churches, the largest of which was St. Stephen's Church. The bishopric church of Mary Magdalene stood until it was bombed by the Allies in 1944. The only church that still remains is the church of St. Michael, built in the middle of the late antique castrum.

The original old town was demolished in the earthquake of 1252. With the arrival of the Republic, a new city was built on today's location. When renovations were made at the church of St. Michael at the top of the hill, fragments of Roman decorative plaster, Roman tombstones and antique ceramics were found, confirming this assumption. According to some sources, Ston experienced a destructive civil war in 1250, and in these conflicts the city suffered a great deal of destruction.

The turbulent times at the beginning of the 14th century spread across the entire country of Zahumlje. The usurpation by the Branivojević brothers, forced the people of Dubrovnik to fight them in 1326 with the help of Stjepan Kotromanić. That year, Dubrovnik occupied Ston. The Dubrovnik people immediately began to build and establish a new Ston, to defend the Pelješac and protect the slaves from which they had earned big revenue. Since the conflict between the Bosnian Ban and the king of Zahumlje, Dubrovnik purchased Pelješac with Ston from both rulers in 1333.

The first cathedral was that of St. Mary Magdalene in Gorica. The church of Our Lady of Lužina was built in the 10th century. The cathedral of St. Blaise was built in 1342 by decision of the Senate after Ston joined the Republic of Ragusa, on the site of the present damaged parish church. From then on, Ston was an integral part of the Republic until its fall, and was its second most important city.

In 1333, Dubrovnik began the planned construction of the fortresses of Ston () and Little Ston () on the present site. The cladding between the two towns along their entire length consisted of large walls which were supposed to defend Pelješac. This whole complex of fortifications, unique in Europe, was built in a short period of time.

The downfall of the Republic of Dubrovnik took place due to the sudden and often incomprehensible operations in the 19th century. The city walls of Little Ston were demolished to suppress malaria. The monumental stone fortification complex of Ston suddenly collapsed in preparation for the official visit by the Austrian Emperor, Franz Joseph - the stones became a quarry for nearby new outcrops and foundations. The restoration of the stone monuments and the reconstruction of the fortifications and the tower resumed only after 1945, however they were again damaged in the Croatian War of Independence (1991-1995), followed by the devastating earthquake of 1996. Recently, thanks to the Society of Friends of the Dubrovnik Walls, the stone forts and towers are being reconstructed, so that the monumental stonewall complex now begins to live again in its old dignity.

Demographics
According to the 2021 census, its population was 2,491, with 500 living in the town proper. In 2011 it was 2,407.

Cultural monuments

Walls of Ston

After the Republic of Dubrovnik acquired the Pelješac in 1334, it required the protection of Ston. First, in thirty years, one of the longest defense walls in Europe was erected on one side of the peninsula, and according to a unique project, two new towns were planned: southern Ston and northern Little Ston with the aim of encompassing people to preserve the boundaries and work in solanas the state had acquired. Between 1461 and 1464, the Florentine architect Michelozzo commissioned the building of the wall by the order of the Dubrovnik Republic. The Great Wall is 1200 m long, and was built to ensure protection from neighbours. The chronicles state that the construction of the wall lasted for 18 months and cost 12,000 ducats.

The fortress of Ston was one of the largest construction projects of the time, with an original length of 7000 m, consisting of the walls of Ston and Little Ston. The Great Wall consists of three fortresses, and the walls and fortresses are flanked by 10 rounds of 31 squares and 6 semi-circular bastions. The complex defense corps has been shaped over the course of four centuries, due to the development of weapons.

The walls were of great importance because they were defending the saltworks that gave 15,900 ducats every year to the Dubrovnik Republic, the shellfish farm and the city itself.

In 1667, about 0.5 km of walls were destroyed in a catastrophic earthquake, and the walls were significantly damaged in the earthquakes in 1979 and 1996.

In 2004, work on the restoration of obsolete walls was started, with the aim of facilitating visits to the area between Ston and Little Ston. It was assumed that the works would be completed by May 2008, but only the original part of the Ston Bridge was rebuilt. The reconstruction of the Great Wall in Ston, worth about five million kuna (€673,000), was completed, and it was announced that the stone walls with public entrance fee will be opened in May 2009. Part of the wall is open to the public since October 2009 for a fee. Until 2013, the original part of the city, the road have been restored. It takes 15 minutes to get to the first part, and 30 minutes to get from the Great to the Small Wall. Today the greater part of the walls have been restored.

See also
Orebić

Gallery

References

Sources
Ćosić, Stjepan. "The Nobility of the Episcopal Town of Ston (Nobilitas civitatis episcopalis Stagnensis) Dubrovnik Annals, Vol. No. 5, 2001.
Gudelj, Krešimira. "Coastal toponymy of the Ston region," Folia onomastica Croatica, Vol. No. 20, 2011Melita Peharda, Mirjana Hrs-Brenko, Danijela Bogner, "Diversity of bivalve species in Mali Ston Bay, Adriatic Sea,"  Acta Adriatica, Vol. 45 No. 2, 2004.
Lupis, Vinicije B. , "Mediaeval crucifixes from Ston and its surrounding area," Starohrvatska prosvjeta, Vol. III No. 38, 2011.
Miović, Vesna. "Emin (Customs Officer) as Representative of the Ottoman Empire in the Republic of Dubrovnik," Dubrovnik Annals 7 (2003): pp. 81–88.
Tomšić, Sanja, and Josip Lovrić. "Historical overview of oyster culture in Mali Ston Bay," Naše more, Znanstveno-stručni časopis za more i pomorstvo, Vol. 51 No. 1-2, 2004.
Andrej Žmegač. "The Ston Fortification Complex - Several Issues," Prilozi povijesti umjetnosti u Dalmaciji, Vol. 39 No. 1, 2005

External links

Ston - Geographical info

Populated places in Dubrovnik-Neretva County
Municipalities of Croatia
Populated coastal places in Croatia

Ston


O Campeonato Mundial de Voleibol Masculino Sub-19 de 2023 foi a 18.ª edição deste torneio bienal juvenil organizado pela Federação Internacional de Voleibol (FIVB). O torneio ocorreu entre os dias 2 e 11 de agosto e contou com a participação de 20 seleções.

Pela primeira vez na história, em ambas as categorias e gêneros, a França conquistou o título de um Campeonato Mundial da FIVB ao derrotar a seleção iraniana na final por 3 sets a 1. Na disputa pela medalha de bronze, a seleção coreana derrotou pelo mesmo placar a seleção dos Estados Unidos e completou o pódio do torneio.  O ponteiro francês Mathis Henno foi eleito o melhor jogador do campeonato.

Equipes participantes
Um total de 20 seleções se classificaram para o Campeonato Mundial Sub-19 de 2023. Além da Argentina, que se classificou automaticamente como anfitriã do torneio, as outras 19 seleções se classificaram em cinco competições continentais.

Locais das partidas

Regulamento
A competição foi disputada por 20 seleções mundiais, distribuídas proporcionalmente em quatro grupos, A, B, C e D, todas se enfreando em cada grupo, resultando em 16 times classificados para a disputa das oitavas de final e as demais disputaram as posições do décimo sétimo ao vigésimo lugar.

Sorteio dos grupos
O sorteio dos grupos foi realizado no dia 31 de março em Lausanne, na Suíça, e foi transmitido ao vivo no canal Volleyball World no YouTube.

Fase de grupos

As partidas seguem o horário local (UTC−3).

 Grupo A

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 Grupo B

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 Grupo C

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 Grupo D

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Fase final
 17º – 20º lugar

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 Chaveamento final

 Oitavas de final

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 Quartas de final

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 Semifinais

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 Terceiro lugar

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 Final

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 5º – 8º lugar

 5º – 8º lugar

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 Sétimo lugar

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 Quinto lugar

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 9º – 16º lugar

 9º – 16º lugar

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 9º – 12º lugar

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 Décimo primeiro lugar

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 Nono lugar

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 13º – 16º lugar

 13º – 16º lugar

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 Décimo quinto lugar

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 Décimo terceiro lugar

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Classificação final

Premiações

Individuais
Os atletas que se destacaram individualmente foramː

Most Valuable Player (MVP)
  Mathis Henno
Melhor oposto
  Thomas Pujol
Melhor levantador
  Amir Tizi-Oualou
Melhor líbero
  Seyed Morteza Tabatabaei

Melhores ponteiros
  Mathis Henno
  Lee Woojin
Melhores centrais
  Joris Seddik
  Armin Ghelichniazi

Ver também
Campeonato Mundial de Voleibol Masculino Sub-21 de 2023

Ligações externas

Campeonato Mundial de Voleibol Masculino Sub-19
Desporto na Argentina em 2023
Mundial