Șantajul emoțional se referă la constrângerile exercitate asupra unei persoane instabile din punct de vedere emoțional, slăbiciune intens exploatată de manipulator.

Având în vedere ca șantajul este îndreptat asupra emoțiilor, aplicarea lui poate zădărnici o persoană în așa fel încât poate fi înșelată, de exemplu legat de afecțiunea umană acolo unde emoțiile sunt puternic influențate de elementul șantajului.

Emoțiile pot varia, niciuna nu poate fi constantă, iubirea față de cineva poate fi mai mare într-o zi bună si poate fi mai mică in altă zi. Nu va fi constantă pe tot parcursul unei relații sau căsnicii. Emoțiile pot face ca un om să fie calm sau nervos, iubitor sau să urască, vesele sau trist iar șantajul este un atac la sentimentele pe care le are o persoană fată de manipulator.  El este folosit pentru a obține ceea ce în mod normal omul nu ar aproba sau nu ar fi de acord față de cel care șantajează.

Vezi și
 Bullying
 Traumă psihică

Emoție
Abuz

Șantaj emoțional


Iconography, as a branch of art history, studies the identification, description and interpretation of the content of images: the subjects depicted, the particular compositions and details used to do so, and other elements that are distinct from artistic style. The word iconography comes from the Greek  ("image") and  ("to write" or to draw).

A secondary meaning (based on a non-standard translation of the Greek and Russian equivalent terms) is the production or study of the religious images, called "icons", in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. This usage is mostly found in works translated from languages such as Greek or Russian, with the correct term being "icon painting".

In art history, "an iconography" may also mean a particular depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing and gestures. The term is also used in many academic fields other than art history, for example semiotics, media studies, and archaeology, and in general usage, for the content of images, the typical depiction in images of a subject, and related senses.  Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies.
When referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition.

Scholarship

Foundations
Early Western writers who took special note of the content of images include Giorgio Vasari, whose Ragionamenti interpreted the paintings in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Ragionamenti reassuringly demonstrates that such works were difficult to understand even for well-informed contemporaries. Lesser known, though it had informed poets, painters and sculptors for over two centuries after its 1593 publication, was Cesare Ripa's emblem book Iconologia. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessing's study (1796) of the classical figure Amor with an inverted torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in, rather than the other way round.

Iconography as an academic art historical discipline developed in the nineteenth-century in the works of scholars such as Adolphe Napoleon Didron (1806–1867), Anton Heinrich Springer (1825–1891), and Émile Mâle (1862–1954) all specialists in Christian religious art, which was the main focus of study in this period, in which French scholars were especially prominent.  They looked back to earlier attempts to classify and organise subjects encyclopedically like Cesare Ripa and Anne Claude Philippe de Caylus's Recueil d'antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques, grècques, romaines et gauloises as guides to understanding works of art, both religious and profane, in a more scientific manner than the popular aesthetic approach of the time. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, and other publications useful in identifying the content of art.  Mâle's  l'Art religieux du XIIIe siècle en France (originally 1899, with revised editions) translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print.

Twentieth-century
In the early-twentieth century Germany, Aby Warburg (1866–1929) and his followers Fritz Saxl (1890–1948) and Erwin Panofsky (1892–1968) elaborated the practice of identification and classification of motifs in images to using iconography as a means to understanding meaning. Panofsky codified an influential approach to iconography in his 1939 Studies in Iconology, where he defined it as "the branch of the history of art which concerns itself with the subject matter or meaning of works of art, as opposed to form," although the distinction he and other scholars drew between particular definitions of "iconography" (put simply, the identification of visual content) and "iconology" (the analysis of the meaning of that content), has not been generally accepted, though it is still used by some writers.

In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, and Meyer Schapiro continued under his influence in the discipline.  In an influential article of 1942, Introduction to an "Iconography of Mediaeval Architecture", Richard Krautheimer, a specialist on early medieval churches and another German émigré, extended iconographical analysis to architectural forms.

The period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history.  Whereas most iconographical scholarship remains highly dense and specialized, some analyses began to attract a much wider audience, for example Panofsky's theory (now generally out of favour with specialists) that the writing on the rear wall in the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck turned the painting into the record of a marriage contract.  Holbein's The Ambassadors has been the subject of books for a general market with new theories as to its iconography, and the best-sellers of Dan Brown include theories, disowned by most art historians, on the iconography of works by Leonardo da Vinci.

Technological advances allowed the building-up of huge collections of photographs, with an iconographic arrangement or index, which include those of the Warburg Institute and the Index of Medieval Art (formerly Index of Christian Art) at Princeton (which has made a specialism of iconography since its early days in America). These are now being digitised and made available online, usually on a restricted basis.

With the arrival of computing, the Iconclass system, a highly complex way of classifying the content of images, with 28,000 classification types, and 14,000 keywords, was developed in the Netherlands as a standard classification for recording collections, with the idea of assembling huge databases that will allow the retrieval of images featuring particular details, subjects or other common factors.  For example, the Iconclass code "71H7131" is for the subject of "Bathsheba (alone) with David's letter", whereas "71" is the whole "Old Testament" and "71H" the "story of David".   A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably many types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin and the German Marburger Index.  These are available, usually on-line or on DVD.  The system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr.

Brief survey of iconography

Religious images are used to some extent by all major religions, including both Indian and Abrahamic faiths, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition. Secular Western iconography later drew upon these themes.

Indian religious iconography
Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings.  Other features include the aureola and halo, also found in Christian and Islamic art, and divine qualities and attributes represented by asana and ritual tools such as the dharmachakra, vajra, chhatra, sauwastika, phurba and danda.  The symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features.  Under the influence of tantra art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates; this is an especially strong feature of Tibetan art. The art of Indian Religions esp. Hindus in its numerous sectoral divisions is governed by sacred texts called the Aagama which describes the ratio and proportion of the icon, called taalmaana as well as mood of the central figure in a context. For example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood.

Although iconic depictions of, or concentrating on, a single figure are the dominant type of Buddhist image, large stone relief or fresco narrative cycles of the Life of the Buddha, or tales of his previous lives, are found at major sites like Sarnath, Ajanta, and Borobudor, especially in earlier periods.  Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become rather more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna and Rama.

Christian iconography

Christian art features Christian iconography, prominently developed in the medieval era and renaissance, and is a prominent aspect of Christian media. Aniconism was rejected within Christian theology from the outset, and the development of early Christian art and architecture occurred within the first two centuries after Jesus. Small images in the Catacombs of Rome show orans figures, portraits of Christ and some saints, and a limited number of "abbreviated representations" of biblical episodes emphasizing deliverance.  From the Constantinian period monumental art borrowed motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art – the motif of Christ in Majesty owes something to both Imperial portraits and depictions of Zeus. In the Late Antique period iconography began to be standardized, and to relate more closely to Biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels.  Eventually, the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ.

After the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace.  More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, and the job of the artist was to copy them with as little deviation as possible. The Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism.  Most modern Eastern Orthodox icons are very close to their predecessors of a thousand years ago, though development, and some shifts in meaning, have occurred – for example, the old man wearing a fleece in conversation with Saint Joseph usually seen in Orthodox Nativities seems to have begun as one of the shepherds, or the prophet Isaiah, but is now usually understood as the "Tempter" (Satan).

In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ.  Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and  Panagia types.  Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of the Virgin, parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints.  Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels.

From the Romanesque period sculpture on churches became increasingly important in Western art, and probably partly because of the lack of Byzantine models, became the location of much iconographic innovation, along with the illuminated manuscript, which had already taken a decisively different direction from Byzantine equivalents, under the influence of Insular art and other factors.  Developments in theology and devotional practice produced innovations like the subject of the Coronation of the Virgin and the Assumption, Both associated with the Franciscans, as were many other developments. Most painters remained content to copy and slightly modify the works of others, and it is clear that the clergy, by whom or for whose churches most art was commissioned, often specified what they wanted shown in great detail.

The theory of typology, by which the meaning of most events of the Old Testament was understood as a "type" or pre-figuring of an event in the life of, or aspect of, Christ or Mary was often reflected in art, and in the later Middle Ages came to dominate the choice of Old Testament scenes in Western Christian art.

Whereas in the Romanesque and Gothic periods the great majority of religious art was intended to convey often complex religious messages as clearly as possible, with the arrival of Early Netherlandish painting iconography became highly sophisticated, and in many cases appears to be deliberately enigmatic, even for a well-educated contemporary. The subtle layers of meaning uncovered by modern iconographical research in works of Robert Campin such as the Mérode Altarpiece, and of Jan van Eyck such as the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin and the Washington Annunciation lie in small details of what are on first viewing very conventional representations.  When Italian painting developed a taste for enigma, considerably later, it most often showed in secular compositions influenced by Renaissance Neo-Platonism.

From the 15th century religious painting gradually freed itself from the habit of following earlier compositional models, and by the 16th century ambitious artists were expected to find novel compositions for each subject, and direct borrowings from earlier artists are more often of the poses of individual figures than of whole compositions.  The Reformation soon restricted most Protestant religious painting to Biblical scenes conceived along the lines of history painting, and after some decades the Catholic Council of Trent reined in somewhat the freedom of Catholic artists.

Secular Western iconography
Secular painting became far more common in the West from the Renaissance, and developed its own traditions and conventions of iconography, in history painting, which includes mythologies, portraits, genre scenes, and even landscapes, not to mention modern media and genres like photography, cinema, political cartoons, comic books and anime.

Renaissance mythological painting was in theory reviving the iconography of its Classical Antiquity, but in practice themes like Leda and the Swan developed on largely original lines, and for different purposes.  Personal iconographies, where works appear to have significant meanings individual to, and perhaps only accessible by, the artist, go back at least as far as Hieronymous Bosch, but have become increasingly significant with artists like Goya, William Blake, Gauguin, Picasso, Frida Kahlo and Joseph Beuys.

Iconography in disciplines other than art history
Iconography, often of aspects of popular culture, is a concern of other academic disciplines including Semiotics, Anthropology, Sociology, Media Studies, Communication Studies, and Cultural Studies.  These analyses in turn have affected conventional art history, especially concepts such as signs in semiotics.  Discussing imagery as iconography in this way implies a critical "reading" of imagery that often attempts to explore social and cultural values. Iconography is also used within film studies to describe the visual language of cinema, particularly within the field of genre criticism. In the age of Internet, the new global history of the visual production of Humanity (Histiconologia) includes History of Art and history of all kind of images or medias.

Contemporary iconography research often draws on theories of visual framing to address such diverse issues as the iconography of climate change created by different stakeholders, the iconography that international organizations create about natural disasters, the iconography of epidemics disseminated in the press, and the iconography of suffering found in social media.

An iconography study in communication science analyzed stock photos used in press reporting to depict the social issue of child sexual abuse. Based on a sample of N=1,437 child sexual abuse (CSA) online press articles that included 419 stock photos, a CSA iconography (i.e. a set of typical image motifs for a topic) was revealed that relate to criminal reporting: The CSA iconography visualizes 1. crime contexts, 2. course of the crime and people involved, and 3. consequences of the crime for the people involved (e.g., image motif: perpetrator in handcuffs).

Articles with iconographical analysis of individual works
Castelseprio frescoes
The Flagellation by Piero della Francesca
The Wilton Diptych
The Mérode Altarpiece by Robert Campin
Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, Arnolfini Portrait, Annunciation, all by Jan van Eyck
Virgin and Child Enthroned by Rogier van der Weyden
The Magdalen Reading by Rogier van der Weyden
St. Jerome in His Study by Antonello da Messina
Two Venetian Ladies and St. Augustine in His Study by Vittore Carpaccio
Melencolia I by Albrecht Dürer
Marie de' Medici cycle by Rubens
Ivan Rutkovych

See also
 Hindu iconography
 Manga iconography
 Saint symbolism
 Metanarrative

References

Citations

Sources
 Alunno, Marco. Iconography and Gesamtkunstwerk in Parsifal's Two Cinematic Settings in ESM Mediamusic. No. 2 (2013).
 Białostocki, Jan, Iconography,  Dictionary of The History of Ideas, Online version, University of Virginia Library, Gale Group, 2003
 Cook, Pam and Mieke Bernink, eds. 1999. The Cinema Book. 2nd ed. London: BFI Publishing. .
 Schiller, Gertrud. Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I,1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London,
 Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae (LIMC), Artemis Verlag, 1981-2009 [iconography of ancient mythology]

External links

The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database
Iconography of Deities and Demons in the Ancient Near East (Project of the Swiss National Science Foundation at the Universities of Zurich and Fribourg)
Web site for European Sacred Mountains, Calvaries and Devotional Complexes
Sacred Icons in Modern Era about the Cult of Great Mother
LIMC-France—iconography of ancient mythology.
Christian Iconography
What iconographers do - case study
"Semiotics and Iconography" from the Handbook of Visual Analysis

Art history

Iconography


The Mississauga IceDogs were a junior ice hockey team in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. They played in the Ontario Hockey League from 1998 to 2007. A sale relocated the team to St. Catharines, Ontario for the 2007–08 season and they are now called the Niagara IceDogs.

History
From 1998 to 2002, the IceDogs enjoyed little success, finishing last in the OHL's Central Division every year. During this building phase, the team had six head coaches within the span of 4 years, including the owner, Don Cherry. Mississauga drafted first overall each year, leading to two rookies of the year, including one of the highest touted NHL prospects in Jason Spezza.

In the 2002–03 season, the IceDogs finished fourth in the Central Division and made the playoffs for the first time in franchise history, but lost in the first round in five games against the Ottawa 67's.

2003–04 was the IceDogs' best season. The team finished second in the Central Division, two points behind the division champion Toronto St. Michael's Majors, and third overall in the Eastern Conference.

In the first round of the playoffs, the IceDogs defeated the Oshawa Generals in seven games, winning their first-ever playoff series. The IceDogs were down three games to two against the Barrie Colts in the second round but managed to come back and win the series in seven games. The surprise IceDogs then upset the St. Michael's Majors in the Eastern Conference Championship series in six games to win the Bobby Orr Trophy and earn their first-ever trip to the Ontario Hockey League finals. The dream ended there as they fell to the Guelph Storm in four straight games in the OHL final, losing the fourth game at the Hershey Centre.

The 2004–05 season was another record setting season for the IceDogs. They won their first ever Central Division title and finished first in the Eastern Conference with 81 points. Despite regular season success, the IceDogs were upset in the first round of the playoffs by the eighth-seeded St. Michael's Majors in five games. In 2005–06, the IceDogs started rebuilding and missed the playoffs again.

Change in ownership
On July 12, 2006, Eugene Melnyk, owner of the Toronto St. Michael's Majors and the NHL's Ottawa Senators, bought the Mississauga IceDogs. After the 2006–07 season, Melnyk sold the IceDogs, and moved the Majors to the Hershey Centre in Mississauga. On January 8, 2007, Toronto businessman Tom Bitove proposed to buy the team with plans to move to Niagara Falls, but city council declined the proposal to build a new arena.  As an alternative, the team approached the City of St. Catharines about moving the team into Jack Gatecliff Arena in the downtown core. St. Catharines City Council voted on a leasing arrangement on April 23, 2007, which passed. Bill Burke bought the IceDogs and relocated the team to St. Catharines in time for the 2007–08 season, to be known as the Niagara IceDogs. The IceDogs played their final game in Mississauga on April 1, 2007, losing in game 5 of the Eastern Conference quarterfinals at home to the Sudbury Wolves.

Championships

Bobby Orr TrophyEastern Conference Champions
 2004 playoffs

Emms TrophyCentral Division Champions
 2004–05 regular season

Coaches
Former team owner and hockey commentator Donald S. Cherry stepped behind the bench to coach the IceDogs for the 2001–02 season, after going through five coaches in three years. The team had its best season to the date, but still failed to reach the playoffs. The IceDogs were one of the highest-selling road teams in the OHL that year, as many spectators attended games to see Don Cherry coach and seek autographs.

Players
The Mississauga IceDogs had the first overall draft pick four years in a row, which produced two rookies of the year, and a total of ten alumni have played in the National Hockey League.

Award winners

CHL Rookie of the Year
 2001–02 Patrick O'Sullivan

Emms Family AwardOHL Rookie of the Year
 2001–02 Patrick O'Sullivan
 2002–03 Rob Schremp

Jack Ferguson AwardFirst Overall Draft Pick
 1999 Jason Spezza
 2000 Patrick Jarrett
 2001 Patrick O'Sullivan
 2002 Rob Schremp

OHL Goaltender of the Year
 2004–05 Michael Ouzas

NHL alumni

Season-by-season results

Regular season
Legend: OTL = Overtime loss, SL = Shootout loss

Playoffs1998–99 Out of playoffs.1999–2000 Out of playoffs.2000–01 Out of playoffs.2001–02 Out of playoffs.2002–03 Lost to Ottawa 67's 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals.2003–04 Defeated Oshawa Generals 4 games to 3 in conference quarter-finals. Defeated Barrie Colts 4 games to 3 in conference semi-finals. Defeated St. Michael's Majors 4 games to 2 in conference finals. Lost to Guelph Storm 4 games to 0 in finals.2004–05 Lost to St. Michael's Majors 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals.2005–06 Out of playoffs.2006–07 Lost to Sudbury Wolves 4 games to 1 in conference quarter-finals.

Uniforms and logos

The IceDogs' colours are red, white, black and silver. The logo is styled after Don Cherry's pet bull terrier named Blue. It shows a snarling dog overtop of the IceDogs name with a maple leaf in the background. The original logo (inset right) looked like a roboticized dog with red eyes in front of a big letter "M" with a maple leaf in the corner. The logo was redesigned after their 5th season with the change in ownership.

Arena
The Mississauga IceDogs played their home games at the Hershey Centre in northeast Mississauga, near the junction of Highways 401, 403 and 410. The Hershey Centre hosted the OHL All-Star Game in 2000.Capacity = 5,420Ice Size''' = 200' x 85'
Hershey Centre - The OHL Arena & Travel Guide

See also
List of ice hockey teams in Ontario

References

External links
Ontario Hockey League
Canadian Hockey League

Defunct Ontario Hockey League teams
Sport in Mississauga
Ice hockey clubs established in 1997
Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 2007
1997 establishments in Ontario
2007 disestablishments in Ontario

fr:IceDogs de Mississauga

Mississauga IceDogs


The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is  a mythical Chinese sovereign and cultural hero included among the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors, and an individual deity (shen) or part of the Five Regions Highest Deities () in Chinese religion. Calculated by Jesuit missionaries, who based their work on various Chinese chronicles, and later accepted by the twentieth-century promoters of a universal calendar starting with the Yellow Emperor, Huangdi's traditional reign dates are 2697–2597 or 2698–2598 BC.

Huangdi's cult is first attested in the Warring States period, and became prominent late in that same period and into the early Han dynasty, when he was portrayed as the originator of the centralized state, as a cosmic ruler, and as a patron of esoteric arts. A large number of texts – such as the Huangdi Neijing, a medical classic, and the Huangdi Sijing, a group of political treatises – were thus attributed to him. Having waned in influence during most of the imperial period, in the early twentieth century Huangdi became a rallying figure for Han Chinese attempts to overthrow the rule of the Qing dynasty, which they considered foreign because its emperors were Manchu people. To this day the Yellow Emperor remains a powerful symbol within Chinese nationalism. Traditionally credited with numerous inventions and innovations – ranging from the lunar calendar (Chinese calendar), Taoism, wooden houses, boats, carts, "the compass needle", "the earliest forms of writing", civilization and its benefits, and/or an early form of football – the Yellow Emperor is now regarded as the initiator of Han culture (later Chinese culture).

Names

"Huangdi": Yellow Emperor, Yellow Thearch

Until 221 BC when Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty coined the title huangdi () – conventionally translated as "emperor" – to refer to himself, the character di  did not refer to earthly rulers but to the highest god of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) pantheon. In the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BC), the term di on its own could also refer to the deities associated with the five Sacred Mountains of China and colors. Huangdi (), the "yellow di", was one of the latter. To emphasize the religious meaning of di in pre-imperial times, historians of early China commonly translate the god's name as "Yellow Thearch" and the first emperor's title as "August Thearch", in which "thearch" refers to a godly ruler.

In the late Warring States period, the Yellow Emperor was integrated into the cosmological scheme of the Five Phases, in which the color yellow represents the earth phase, the Yellow Dragon, and the center. The correlation of the colors in association with different dynasties was mentioned in the Lüshi Chunqiu (late 3rd century BC), where the Yellow Emperor's reign was seen to be governed by earth. The character huang  ("yellow") was often used in place of the homophonous huang , which means "august" (in the sense of 'distinguished') or "radiant", giving Huangdi attributes close to those of Shangdi, the Shang supreme god.

Xuanyuan and Youxiong
The Records of the Grand Historian, compiled by Sima Qian in the first century BC, gives the Yellow Emperor's name as "Xuan Yuan" ( < Old Chinese (B-S) *qʰa[r]-[ɢ]ʷa[n], lit. "Chariot Shaft"). Third-century scholar Huangfu Mi, who wrote a work on the sovereigns of antiquity, commented that Xuanyuan was the name of a hill where Huangdi had lived and that he later took as a name. The Classic of Mountains and Seas mentions a Xuanyuan nation whose inhabitants have human faces, snake bodies, and tails twisting above their heads; Yuan Ke, a contemporary scholar of early Chinese mythology, "noted that the appearance of these people is characteristic of gods and suggested that they may reflect the form of the Yellow Thearch himself". The Qing dynasty scholar Liang Yusheng (, 1745–1819) argued instead that the hill was named after the Yellow Emperor. Xuanyuan is also the name of the star Regulus in Chinese, the star being associated with Huangdi in traditional astronomy. He is also associated to the broader constellations Leo and Lynx, of which the latter is said to represent the body of the Yellow Dragon  ( Huánglóng), Huangdi's animal form.

Huangdi was also referred to as "Youxiong" (). This name has been interpreted as either a place name or a clan name. According to British sinologist Herbert Allen Giles (1845–1935), that name was "taken from that of [Huangdi's] hereditary principality". William Nienhauser, a modern translator of the Records of the Grand Historian, states that Huangdi was originally the head of the Youxiong clan, which lived near what is now Xinzheng in Henan. Rémi Mathieu, a French historian of Chinese myths and religion, translates "Youxiong" as "possessor of bears" and links Huangdi to the broader theme of the bear in world mythology. Ye Shuxian has also associated the Yellow Emperor with bear legends common across northeast Asia people as well as the Dangun legend.

Other names

Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian describes the Yellow Emperor's ancestral name as Gongsun ().

In Han dynasty texts, the Yellow Emperor is also called upon as the "Yellow God" ( Huángshén). Certain accounts interpret him as the incarnation of the "Yellow God of the Northern Dipper" ( Huángshén Běidǒu), another name of the universal god (Shangdi  or Tiandi ). According to a definition in apocryphal texts related to the Hétú , the Yellow Emperor "proceeds from the essence of the Yellow God".

As a cosmological deity, the Yellow Emperor is known as the "Great Emperor of the Central Peak" ( Zhōngyuè Dàdì), and in the Shizi as the "Yellow Emperor with Four Faces" ( Huángdì Sìmiàn). In old accounts the Yellow Emperor is identified as a deity of light (and his name is explained in the Shuowen jiezi to derive from guāng , "light") and thunder, and as one and the same with the "Thunder God" ( Léishén), who in turn, as a later mythological character, is distinguished as the Yellow Emperor's foremost pupil, such as in the Huangdi Neijing.

History

The Chinese historian Sima Qianand much Chinese historiography following himconsidered the Yellow Emperor to be a more historical figure than earlier legendary figures such as Fu Xi, Nüwa, and Shennong. Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian begins with the Yellow Emperor, while passing over the others.

Throughout most of Chinese history, the Yellow Emperor and the other ancient sages were considered to be historical figures. Their historicity started to be questioned in the 1920s by historians such as Gu Jiegang, one of the founders of the Doubting Antiquity School in China. In their attempts to prove that the earliest figures of Chinese history were mythological, Gu and his followers argued that these ancient sages were originally gods who were later depicted as humans by the rationalist intellectuals of the Warring States period. Yang Kuan, a member of the same current of historiography, noted that only in the Warring States period had the Yellow Emperor started to be described as the first ruler of China. Yang thus argued that Huangdi was a later transformation of Shangdi, the supreme god of the Shang dynasty's pantheon.

Also in the 1920s, French scholars Henri Maspero and Marcel Granet published critical studies of China's accounts of high antiquity. In his Danses et légendes de la Chine ancienne ["Dances and legends of ancient China"], for example, Granet argued that these tales were "historicized legends" that said more about the time when they were written than about the time they purported to describe.

In the "middle of the [20th] century, a group of" Chinese "historians proposed the theory that [the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]" were originally Chinese gods who became thought of as human during the later period of the Zhou dynasty. Most scholars now agree that the Yellow Emperor originated as a god who was later represented as a historical person. K.C. Chang sees Huangdi and other cultural heroes as "ancient religious figures" who were "euhemerized" in the late Warring States and Han periods. Historian of ancient China Mark Edward Lewis speaks of the Yellow Emperor's "earlier nature as a god", whereas Roel Sterckx, a professor at University of Cambridge, calls Huangdi a "legendary cultural hero".

Origin of the myth

The origin of Huangdi's mythology is unclear, but historians have formulated several hypotheses about it. Yang Kuan, a member of the Doubting Antiquity School (1920s–40s), argued that the Yellow Emperor was derived from Shangdi, the highest god of the Shang dynasty. Yang reconstructs the etymology as follows: Shangdi  → Huang Shangdi  → Huangdi  → Huangdi , in which he claims that huang  ("yellow") either was a variant Chinese character for huang  ("august") or was used as a  way to avoid the naming taboo for the latter. Yang's view has been criticized by Mitarai Masaru and by Michael Puett.

Historian Mark Edward Lewis agrees that huang  and huang  were often interchangeable, but disagreeing with Yang, he claims that huang meaning "yellow" appeared first. Based on what he admits is a "novel etymology" likening huang  to the phonetically close wang  (the "burned shaman" in Shang rainmaking rituals), Lewis suggests that "Huang" in "Huangdi" might originally have meant "rainmaking shaman" or "rainmaking ritual."  Citing late Warring States and early Han versions of Huangdi's myth, he further argues that the figure of the Yellow Emperor originated in ancient rain-making rituals in which Huangdi represented the power of rain and clouds, whereas his mythical rival Chiyou (or the Yan Emperor) stood for fire and drought.

Also disagreeing with Yang Kuan's hypothesis, Sarah Allan finds it unlikely that such a popular myth as the Yellow Emperor's could have come from a taboo character.  She argues instead that pre-Shang "'history'," including the story of the Yellow Emperor, "can all be understood as a later transformation and systematization of Shang mythology." In her view, Huangdi was originally an unnamed "lord of the underworld" (or the "Yellow Springs"), the mythological counterpart of the Shang sky deity Shangdi.  At the time, Shang rulers claimed that their mythical ancestors, identified with "the [ten] suns, birds, east, life, [and] the Lord on High" (i.e., Shangdi), had defeated an earlier people associated with "the underworld, dragons, west."  After the Zhou dynasty overthrew the Shang dynasty in the eleventh century BC, Zhou leaders reinterpreted Shang myths as meaning that the Shang had vanquished a real political dynasty, which was eventually named the Xia dynasty. By Han times – as seen in Sima Qian's account in the Shiji – the Yellow Emperor, who as lord of the underworld had been symbolically linked to the Xia, had become a historical ruler whose descendants were thought to have founded the Xia.

Given that the earliest extant mention of the Yellow Emperor was on a fourth-century BC Chinese bronze inscription claiming that he was the ancestor of the royal house of the state of Qi, Lothar von Falkenhausen speculates that Huangdi was invented as an ancestral figure as part of a strategy to claim that all ruling clans in the "Zhou dynasty culture sphere" shared common ancestry.

History of Huangdi

Earliest mention
Explicit accounts of the Yellow Emperor started to appear in Chinese texts during the Warring States period. The earliest extant mention of Huangdi is an inscription on the Chen Hou Yinqi dui (), cast during the first half of the fourth century BC by the royal family (surnamed Tian ) of the state of Qi, a powerful eastern state. As the Tian family had usurped the throne of Qi, establishing such a divine heritage would positively affect their claim to legitimacy.

Harvard University historian Michael Puett writes that the Qi bronze inscription was one of several references to the Yellow Emperor in the fourth and third centuries BC within accounts of the creation of the state. Noting that many of the thinkers who were later identified as precursors of the Huang–Lao – "Huangdi and Laozi" – tradition came from the state of Qi, Robin D. S. Yates hypothesizes that Huang–Lao originated in that region.

Warring States period
The cult of Huangdi became very popular during the Warring States period (5th century–221 BC), a period of intense competition between rival states which ended with the unification of the realm by the state of Qin. In addition to his role as ancestor, he became associated with "centralized statecraft" and emerged as a figure paradigmatic of emperorship.

The state of Qin

In his Shiji, Sima Qian claims that the state of Qin started worshipping the Yellow Emperor in the fifth century BC, along with Yandi, the Fiery Emperor. The altars were established at Yong  (near modern Fengxiang County in Shaanxi province), which was the capital of Qin from 677 to 383 BC. By the time of King Zheng, who became king of Qin in 247 BC and First Emperor of a unified China in 221 BC, Huangdi had become by far the most important of the four "thearchs" (di ) who were then worshiped at Yong.

The Shiji version
The figure of Huangdi had appeared sporadically in Warring States texts. Sima Qian's Shiji (or Records of the Grand Historian, completed around 94 BC) was the first work to turn these fragments of myths into a systematic and consistent narrative of the Yellow Emperor's "career". The Shijis account was extremely influential in shaping how the Chinese viewed the origin of their history.

The Shiji begins its chronological account of Chinese history with the life of Huangdi, whom it presents as a sage sovereign from antiquity. It recounts that Huangdi's father was Shaodian and his mother was Fubao(). The Yellow Emperor had four wives. His first wife Leizu of Xiling bore him two sons. His other three wives were his second wife Fenglei (), third wife Tongyu () and fourth wife Momu (). The emperor had a total of 25 sons, 14 of whom began their own surnames and clans. The oldest was Shaohao or Xuan Xiao, who lived in Qingyang by the Yangtze River. Changyi, the second son, lived by the Ruo River. When the Yellow Emperor died, he was succeeded by Changyi's son, Zhuan Xu.

The chronological tables found in chapters 13 of the Shiji represent all past rulers – legendary ones such as Yao and Shun, the first ancestors of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, as well as the founders of the main ruling houses in the Zhou sphere – as descendants of Huangdi, giving the impression that Chinese history was the history of one large family.

Imperial era

The Yellow Emperor was credited with an enormous number of cultural legacies and esoteric teachings. While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim the Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon ( Huángdì Nèijīng), which presents the doctrinal basis of traditional Chinese medicine, was named after him. He was also credited with composing the Four Books of the Yellow Emperor ( Huángdì Sìjīng), the Yellow Emperor's Book of the Hidden Symbol ( Huángdì Yīnfújīng), and the "Yellow Emperor's Four Seasons Poem" included in the Tung Shing fortune-telling almanac.

"Xuanyuan (+ number)" is also the Chinese name for Regulus and other stars of the constellations Leo and Lynx, of which the latter is said to represent the body of the Yellow Dragon. In the Hall of Supreme Harmony in Beijing's Forbidden City, there is also a mirror called the "Xuanyuan Mirror".

In Taoism
In the second century AD, Huangdi's role as a deity was diminished because of the rise of a deified Laozi. A state sacrifice offered to "Huang-Lao jun" was not offered to Huangdi and Laozi, as the term Huang-Lao would have meant a few centuries earlier, "yellow Laozi". Nonetheless, Huangdi kept being considered as an immortal: he was seen as a master of longevity techniques and as a god who could reveal new teachings – in the form of texts such as the sixth-century Huangdi Yinfujing – to his earthly followers.

Twentieth century

The Yellow Emperor became a powerful national symbol in the last decade of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) and remained dominant in Chinese nationalist discourse throughout the Republican period (1911–49). The early twentieth century is also when the Yellow Emperor was first referred to as the ancestor of all Chinese people.

Late Qing
Starting in 1903, radical publications started using the projected date of his birth as the first year of the Chinese calendar. Intellectuals such as Liu Shipei (1884–1919) found this practice necessary in order to "preserve the [Han] race" (baozhong ) from both dominance by Manchu people and foreign encroachment. Revolutionaries motivated by Anti-Manchuism such as Chen Tianhua (1875–1905), Zou Rong (1885–1905), and Zhang Binglin (1868–1936) tried to foster the racial consciousness they thought was missing from their compatriots, and thus depicted the Manchus as racially inferior barbarians who were unfit to rule over Han Chinese. Chen's widely circulated pamphlets claimed that the "Han race" formed one big family descended from the Yellow Emperor. The first issue (Nov. 1905) of the Minbao  ("People's Journal"), which was founded in Tokyo by revolutionaries of the Tongmenghui, featured the Yellow Emperor on its cover and called Huangdi "the first great nationalist of the world." It was one of several nationalist magazines that featured the Yellow Emperor on their cover in the early twentieth century. The fact that Huangdi meant "yellow" emperor also served to buttress the theory that he was the originator of the "yellow race".

Many historians interpret this sudden popularity of the Yellow Emperor as a reaction to the theories of French scholar Albert Terrien de Lacouperie (1845–94), who in a book called The Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization, from 2300 B.C. to 200 A.D. (1892) had claimed that Chinese civilization was founded around 2300 BCE by Babylonian immigrants.  Lacouperie's "Sino-Babylonianism" posited that Huangdi was a Mesopotamian tribal leader who had led a massive migration of his people into China around 2300 BC and founded what later became Chinese civilization. European sinologists quickly rejected these theories, but in 1900 two Japanese historians, Shirakawa Jirō and Kokubu Tanenori, omitted these criticisms and published a long summary that presented Lacouperie's views as the most advanced Western scholarship on China. Chinese scholars were quickly attracted by "the historicization of Chinese mythology" that the two Japanese authors advocated.

Anti-Manchu intellectuals and activists who searched for China's "national essence" (guocui ) adapted Sino-Babylonianism to their needs. Zhang Binglin explained Huangdi's battle with Chi You as a conflict opposing the newly arrived civilized Mesopotamians to backward local tribes, a battle that transformed China into one of the most civilized places in the world. Zhang's reinterpretation of Sima Qian's account "underscored the need to recover the glory of early China."  Liu Shipei also presented these early times as the golden age of Chinese civilization. In addition to tying the Chinese to an ancient center of human civilization in Mesopotamia, Lacouperie's theories suggested that China should be ruled by the descendants of Huangdi. In a controversial essay called History of the Yellow Race (Huangshi ), which was published serially from 1905 to 1908, Huang Jie (; 1873–1935) claimed that the "Han race" was the true master of China because it was descended from the Yellow Emperor. Reinforced by the values of filial piety and the Chinese patrilineal clan, the racial vision defended by Huang and others turned vengeance against the Manchus into a duty owed to one's ancestors.

Republican period

The Yellow Emperor continued to be revered after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the Qing dynasty. In 1912, for instance, banknotes carrying Huangdi's effigy were issued by the new Republican government.  After 1911, however, the Yellow Emperor as national symbol changed from first progenitor of the Han race to ancestor of China's entire multi-ethnic population.  Under the ideology of the Five Races Under One Union, Huangdi became the common ancestor of the Han Chinese, the Manchu people, the Mongols, the Tibetans, and the Hui people, who were said to form the Zhonghua minzu, a broadly understood Chinese nation. Sixteen state ceremonies were held between 1911 and 1949 to Huangdi as the "founding ancestor of the Chinese nation" () and even "the founding ancestor of human civilization" ().

Modern significance

The cult of the Yellow Emperor was forbidden in the People's Republic of China until the end of the Cultural Revolution. The prohibition was halted during the 1980s when the government reversed itself and resurrected the "Yellow Emperor cult". Starting in the 1980s, the cult was revived and phrases relating to the "Descendants of Yan and Huang" were sometimes used by the Chinese state when referring to people of Chinese descent.  In 1984, for example, Deng Xiaoping argued for Chinese unification saying "Taiwan is rooted in the hearts of the descendants of the Yellow Emperor," whereas in 1986 the PRC acclaimed the Chinese-American astronaut Taylor Wang as the first of the Yellow Emperor's descendants to travel in space. In the first half of the 1980s, the Party had internally debated whether this usage would make ethnic minorities feel excluded. After consulting experts from Beijing University, the Chinese Academy of Social Science, and the Central Nationalities Institute, the Central Propaganda Department recommended on March 27, 1985, that the Party speak of the Zhonghua Minzu – the "Chinese nation" broadly defined – in official statements, but that the phrase "sons and grand-sons of Yandi and the Yellow Emperor" could be used in informal statements by party leaders and in "relations with Hong Kong and Taiwanese compatriots and overseas Chinese compatriots".

After retreating to Taiwan in late 1949 at the end of the Chinese Civil War, Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang (KMT) ruled that the Republic of China (ROC) would keep paying homage to the Yellow Emperor on April 4, the National Tomb Sweeping Day, but neither he nor the three presidents that succeeded him ever paid homage in person. In 1955, the KMT, which was led by Mandarin speakers and still poised on retaking the mainland from the Communists, sponsored the production of the movie Children of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi zisun ), which was filmed mostly in Taiwanese Hokkien and showed extensive passages of Taiwanese folk opera. Directed by Bai Ke (1914–1964), a former assistant of Yuan Muzhi, it was a propaganda effort to convince speakers of Taiyu that they were linked to mainland people by common blood. In 2009 Ma Ying-jeou was the first ROC president to celebrate the Tomb Sweeping Day rituals for Huangdi in person, on which occasion he proclaimed that both Chinese culture and common descent from the Yellow Emperor united people from Taiwan and the mainland. Later the same year, Lien Chan – a former Vice President of the Republic of China who is now Honorary Chairman of the Kuomintang – and his wife Lien Fang Yu paid homage at the Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor in Huangling, Yan'an, in mainland China.

Gay studies researcher Louis Crompton has cited Ji Yun's report in his popular Notes from the Yuewei Hermitage (1800), that some claimed the Yellow Emperor was the first Chinese to take male bedmates, a claim that Ji Yun dismissed.  Ji Yun argued that this was probably a false attribution.

Today, Xuanyuanjiao based on Taiwan represents an organised form of Yellow Emperor worship married to Confucian orthodoxy.

Elements of Huangdi's myth

As with any myth, there are numerous versions of Huangdi's story, emphasizing different themes and interpreting the main character's significance in different ways.

Birth
According to Huangfu Mi (215–282), the Yellow Emperor was born in Shou Qiu ("Longevity Hill"), which is today on the outskirts of the city of Qufu in Shandong. Early on, he lived with his tribe near the Ji River – Edwin Pulleyblank states that "there seems to be no record of a Ji River outside the myth" – and later migrated to Zhuolu in modern-day Hebei. He then became a farmer and tamed six different special beasts: the bear (), the brown bear (), the pí () and xiū () (which later combined to form the mythical Pixiu), the ferocious chū (), and the tiger ().

Huangdi is sometimes said to have been the fruit of extraordinary birth, as his mother Fubao conceived him as she was aroused, while walking in the country, by a lightning bolt from the Big Dipper. She delivered her son on the mount of Shou (Longevity) or mount Xuanyuan, after which he was named.

Another story states that "Huang Di came into being when the energies that instigated the beginning of the world merged with one another, and created human beings by placing earthen statues at the cardinal points of the world and leaving them exposed for 300 years. During that time, the statues became filled with the breath of creation and eventually began to move [after the 300 years]. Huang Di...received his magic powers when he was 100 years old. He [became a xian] and, riding a dragon, rose to heaven where he became one of the five [Wufang Shangdi]. Huang Di himself rules over the fifth cardinal point, the centre."

Achievements
In traditional Chinese accounts, the Yellow Emperor is credited with improving the livelihood of the nomadic hunters of his tribe. He teaches them how to build shelters, tame wild animals, and grow the Five Grains, although other accounts credit Shennong with the last. He invents carts, boats, and clothing.

Other inventions credited to the emperor include the Chinese diadem (), throne rooms (), the bow sling, early Chinese astronomy, the Chinese calendar, math calculations, code of sound laws (), coins and the concept of money, and cuju, an early Chinese version of football. He is also sometimes said to have been partially responsible for the invention of the guqin zither, although others credit the Yan Emperor with inventing instruments for Ling Lun's compositions.

There are other major traditions where Fuxi was the one who invented the calendar and the Yellow Emperor merely reformed and intercalated it.

In traditional accounts, he also goads the historian Cangjie into creating the first Chinese character writing system, the Oracle bone script, and his principal wife Leizu invents sericulture and teaches his people how to weave silk and dye clothes.

At one point in his reign the Yellow Emperor allegedly visited the mythical East sea and met a talking beast called the Bai Ze who taught him the knowledge of all supernatural creatures. This beast explained to him there were 11,522 (or 1,522) kinds of supernatural creatures.

Battles

The Yellow Emperor and the Yan Emperor were both leaders of a tribe or a combination of two tribes near the Yellow River. The Yan Emperor hailed from a different area around the Jiang River, which a geographical work called the Shuijingzhu identified as a stream near Qishan in what was the Zhou homeland before they defeated the Shang. Both emperors lived in a time of warfare. The Yan Emperor proving unable to control the disorder within his realm, the Yellow Emperor took up arms to establish his domination over various warring factions.

According to traditional accounts, the Yan Emperor meets the force of the "Nine Li" () under their bronze-headed leader, Chi You, and his 81 horned and four-eyed brothers and suffers a decisive defeat. He flees to Zhuolu and begs the Yellow Emperor for help. During the ensuing Battle of Zhuolu the Yellow Emperor employs his tamed animals and Chi You darkens the sky by breathing out a thick fog. This leads the emperor to develop the south-pointing chariot, which he uses to lead his army out of the miasma. He next calls upon the drought demon Nüba to dispel Chi You's storm. He then destroys the Nine Li and defeats Chi You. Later he engages in battle with the Yan Emperor, defeating him at Banquan and replacing him as the primary ruler.

Death

The Yellow Emperor was said to have lived for over a hundred years before meeting a phoenix and a qilin and then dying. Two tombs were built in Shaanxi within the Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor, in addition to others in Henan, Hebei and Gansu.

Modern-day Chinese people sometimes refer to themselves as the "Descendants of Yan and Yellow Emperor", although non-Han minority groups in China may have their own myths or not count as descendants of the emperor.

Meaning as a deity

Symbol of the centre of the universe

As the Yellow Deity with Four Faces ( Huángdì Sìmiàn) he represents the centre of the universe and vision of the unity which controls the four directions. It is explained in the Huangdi Sijing ("Four Scriptures of the Yellow Emperor") that regulating "heart within brings order outside". In order to reign one must "reduce himself" abandoning emotions, "drying up like a corpse", never allowing oneself to be carried away, as according to the myth the Yellow Emperor himself did during his three years of refuge on Mount Bowang in order to find himself. This practice creates an internal void where all the vital forces of creation gather, and the more indeterminate they remain and the more powerful they will be.

It is from this centre that equilibrium and harmony emanate, equilibrium of the vital organs which becomes harmony between the person and the environment. As sovereign of the centre, the Yellow Emperor is the very image of the concentration or re-centering of the self. By self-control, taking charge of his own body one becomes powerful outside. The centre is also the vital point in the microcosm by means of which the internal universe viewed as an altar is created. The body is a universe, and by going into himself and by incorporating the fundamental structures of the universe, the sage will gain access to the gates of Heaven, the unique point where communication between Heaven, Earth and Man can occur. The centre is the convergence of within and outside, the contraction of chaos on the point which is equidistant from all directions. It is the place which is no place, where all creation is born and dies.

The Great Deity of the Central Peak ( Zhōngyuèdàdì) is another epithet representing Huangdi as the hub of creation, the axis mundi (which in Chinese mythology is Kunlun) that is the manifestation of the divine order in physical reality, that opens to immortality.

As ancestor

Throughout history, several sovereigns and dynasties claimed (or were claimed) to descend from the Yellow Emperor. Sima Qian's Shiji presented Huangdi as ancestor of the two legendary rulers Yao and Shun, and traced various lines of descent from Huangdi to the founders of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. He claimed that Liu Bang, the first emperor of the Han dynasty, was a descendant of Huangdi. He believed that the ruling house of the Qin dynasty was originated also from the Yellow Emperor, but by stating that Qin Shihuang was in fact the child of Qin chancellor Lü Buwei, he perhaps meant to leave the First Emperor out of Huangdi's descent.

Claiming descent from illustrious ancestors remained a common tool of political legitimacy in the following ages. Wang Mang (c. 45 BC – 23 AD), of the short-lived Xin dynasty, claimed to descend from the Yellow Emperor in order to justify his overthrow of the Han. As he announced in January of 9 AD: "I possess no virtue, [but] I rely upon the fact that] I am a descendant of my august original ancestor, the Yellow Emperor..." About two hundred years later a ritual specialist named Dong Ba , who worked for at the court of the Cao Wei, which had recently succeeded the Han, promoted the idea that the Cao family was descended from Huangdi via Emperor Zhuanxu.

During the Tang dynasty, non-Han rulers also claimed descent from the Yellow Emperor, for individual and national prestige, as well as to connect themselves to the Tang. Most Chinese noble families also claimed descent from Huangdi. This practice was well established in Tang and Song times, when hundreds of clans claimed such descent. The main support for this theory – as recorded in the Tongdian (801 AD) and the Tongzhi (mid 12th century) – was the Shijis statement that Huangdi's 25 sons were given 12 different surnames, and that these surnames had diversified into all Chinese surnames. After Emperor Zhenzong (r. 997–1022) of the Song dynasty dreamed of a figure he was told was the Yellow Emperor, the Song imperial family started to claim Huangdi as its first ancestor.

A number of overseas Chinese clans that keep a genealogy also trace their family ultimately to Huangdi, explaining their different surnames as name changes claimed to have derived from the fourteen surnames of Huangdi's descendants. Many Chinese clans, both overseas and in China, claim Huangdi as their ancestor to reinforce their sense of being Chinese.

Gun, Yu, Zhuanxu, Zhong, Li, Shujun, and Yuqiang are various emperors, gods, and heroes whose ancestor was also supposed to be Huangdi. The Huantou, Miaomin, and Quanrong peoples were said to be descended from Huangdi.

Traditional dates

Although the traditional Chinese calendar did not mark years continuously, some Han-dynasty astronomers tried to determine the years of the life and reign of the Yellow Emperor. In 78 BC, under the reign of Emperor Zhao of Han, an official called Zhang Shouwang () calculated that 6,000 years had passed since the time of Huangdi; the court refused his proposal for reform, countering that only 3,629 years had elapsed. In the proleptic Julian calendar, the court's calculations would have placed the Yellow Emperor in the late 38th century BC rather than in the 27th century BC that is conventional nowadays.

During their Jesuit missions in China in the seventeenth century, the Jesuits tried to determine what year should be considered the epoch of the Chinese calendar. In his Sinicae historiae decas prima (first published in Munich in 1658), Martino Martini (1614–1661) dated the royal ascension of Huangdi to 2697 BC, but started the Chinese calendar with the reign of Fuxi, which he claimed started in 2952 BCE. Philippe Couplet's (1623–1693) "Chronological table of Chinese monarchs" (Tabula chronologica monarchiae sinicae; 1686) also gave the same date for the Yellow Emperor. The Jesuits' dates provoked great interest in Europe, where they were used for comparisons with Biblical chronology. Modern Chinese chronology has generally accepted Martini's dates, except that it usually places the reign of Huangdi in 2698 BC (see next paragraph) and omits Huangdi's predecessors Fuxi and Shennong, who are considered "too legendary to include."

Helmer Aslaksen, a mathematician who teaches at the National University of Singapore and specializes in the Chinese calendar, explains that those who use 2698 BC as a first year probably do so because they want to have "a year 0 as the starting point", or because "they assume that the Yellow Emperor started his year with the Winter solstice of 2698 BC", hence the difference with the year 2697 BC calculated by the Jesuits.

Starting in 1903, radical publications started using the projected date of birth of the Yellow Emperor as the first year of the Chinese calendar. Different newspapers and magazines proposed different dates. Jiangsu, for example counted 1905 as year 4396 (making 2491 BC the first year of the Chinese calendar), whereas the Minbao (the organ of the Tongmenghui) reckoned 1905 as 4603 (first year: 2698 BC). Liu Shipei (1884–1919) created the Yellow Emperor Calendar to show the unbroken continuity of the Han race and Han culture from earliest times. There is no evidence that this calendar was used before the 20th century. Liu's calendar started with the birth of the Yellow Emperor, which was reckoned to be 2711 BC. When Sun Yat-sen declared the foundation of the Republic of China on January 2, 1912, he decreed that this was the 12th day of the 11th month of year 4609 (epoch: 2698 BCE), but that the state would now be using the solar calendar and count 1912 as the first year of the Republic. Chronological tables published in the 1938 edition of the Cihai () dictionary followed Sun Yat-sen in using 2698 as the year of Huangdi's accession; this chronology is now "widely reproduced, with little variation."

Cultural references
 The emperor appears as an ancestor hero in the strategy game Emperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom made by Sierra Entertainment. In the game, he is a patron of acupuncturist and silk weaver, and has the skills needed for leading men into battle, especially the Chariot-Fort soldiers.
 The emperor serves as the hero in Jorge Luis Borges's story, "The Fauna of the Mirror". British fantasy writer China Miéville used this story as the basis for his novella The Tain, which describes a post-apocalyptic London. "The Tain" was included in Miéville's short-story collection "Looking For Jake" (2005).
The popular Chinese role-playing video game series for the PC, Xuanyuan Jian, revolves around the legendary sword used by the emperor.
 The emperor is an important NPC in the action RPG Titan Quest, The player must reach the emperor to learn the truth about Typhon's imprisonment. He also reveals a bit of information about the war between the gods and the titans, while also revealing that he has been following the players actions since the beginning of the Silk Road.
 A 2016 Chinese drama film about the story of the Yellow Emperor is titled "Xuan Yuan: The Great Emperor" ().
 In the Shin Megami Tensei games, Huang Di is a summonable ally. He's created in various means depending on which game he is in.

See also

 Chinese folk religion
 Chinese theology
 Emperors Yan and Huang (monument)
 Jiutian Xuannü, goddess of war, sex, and longevity as well as teacher of the Yellow Emperor
 Simianshen
 Tianxia
 Xuanyuanism
 Jade Emperor

Notes

References

Citations

Sources
 Works cited

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Further reading

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Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors
Guqin players
People from Qufu
Health gods
Saturnian deities
Legendary progenitors
Founding monarchs
Wufang Shangdi

Yellow Emperor


Andrew Simpkins, né à Richmond (Indiana) le  et mort à Culver City le , est un contrebassiste de jazz américain.

Biographie

Né à Richmond dans l'Indiana, il se fait connaître comme membre du groupe The Three Sounds, avec lequel il se produit de 1956 à 1968. Ensuite, jusqu'en 1974, il est membre de l'orchestre de George Shearing, et de 1979 à 1989, tourne avec la chanteuse Sarah Vaughan. Pendant et après cette période, au cours de laquelle il s'installe à Los Angeles, il devient célèbre en tant que contrebassiste et réputé comme un musicien de studio de confiance.

Il enregistre, entre autres, avec les chanteuses Carmen McRae et Anita O'Day, les instrumentistes Gerald Wiggins, Monty Alexander, Buddy DeFranco,  ou encore Stéphane Grappelli.

On lui doit aussi trois albums solo et il a également joué de la basse acoustique sur l'album de reprises de 1997 In a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy de Pat Boone.

Il meurt d'un cancer de l'estomac à Culver City en 1999.

Discographie
Avec The Three Sounds
 1958 : Introducing the 3 Sounds
 1958 : Branching Out avec Nat Adderley
 1959 : Bottoms Up!
 1959 : LD + 3 avec Lou Donaldson
 1959 : Good Deal
 1960 : Moods
 1960 : Feelin's Good
 1960 : Here We Come
 1960 : It Just Got to Be
 1960 : Blue Hour avec Stanley Turrentine
 1961 : Hey There
 1961 : Babe's Blues
 1962 : Out of This World
 1962 : Black Orchid
 1959/62 : Standards released 1998
 1962 : Blue Genes
 1962 : Anita O'Day & the Three Sounds avec Anita O'Day
 1963 : The Three Sounds Play Jazz on Broadway
 1963 : Some Like It Modern
 1964 : Live at the Living Room
 1964 : Three Moods
 1965 : Beautiful Friendship
 1966 : Today's Sounds
 1966 : Vibrations
 1967 : Live at the Lighthouse
 1968 : Coldwater Flat
 1968 : Elegant Soul
Avec Pat Boone
 1997 : In a Metal Mood: No More Mr. Nice Guy
Avec Kenny Burrell
 1974 : Up the Street, 'Round the Corner, Down the Block (Fantasy)
 1980 : Heritage (AudioSource)
Avec Benny Carter
 1989 : My Kind of Trouble (Pablo)
Avec Natalie Cole
 1991 : Unforgettable... with Love (Elektra)
Avec Teddy Edwards
 1992 : Blue Saxophone (Verve/Gitanes)
Avec Victor Feldman
 1961 : Merry Olde Soul (Riverside)
Avec Lalo Schifrin
 1982 : Ins and Outs (Palo Alto)
Avec George Shearing et Stéphane Grappelli
 1976 : The Reunion (MPS)
Avec Robert Palmer
 1992 : Ridin' High (EMI)
Avec Joe Williams et George Shearing' 1971 : The Heart and Soul of Joe Williams and George Shearing (Sheba)
Avec Sarah Vaughan
 1979 : The Duke Ellington Songbook, Vol. 1 (Pablo)
 1979 : Copacabana (Pablo)
 1981 : Send in the Clowns (Pablo)
 1982 : Crazy and Mixed Up (Pablo)
 1982 : Gershwin Live!'' (Columbia)

Notes et références

Liens externes

Contrebassiste américain de jazz
Naissance en avril 1932
Naissance à Richmond (Indiana)
Décès en juin 1999
Décès à Culver City
Mort d'un cancer de l'estomac
Décès à 67 ans

Andrew Simpkins


Jerihonska ruža može označavati dvije vrste biljaka:
 Prava jerihonska ruža
 Jerihonska ruža (Magnoliopsida),  biljka iz jugozapadne Azije i sjeverne Afrike, porodica Brassicaceae.
 Jerihonska ruža (Lycopodiopsida), biljka iz jugozapadnog SAD-a i Srednje Amerike, porodica Selaginellaceae.

Jerihonska ruža


El Libro de Mecanismos Ingeniosos (Árabe: كتاب الحيل Kitab al-Hiyal) es una obra de mecánica, generosamente ilustrada, publicada en 850 por tres hermanos persas, llamados los Banū Mūsā (Ahmad, Muhammad y Hasan bin Musa ibn Shakir) que trabajaban en la Casa de la Sabiduría (Bayt al-Hikmah) de Bagdad, en el reinado del califa abasí Al-Mutawakkil. Describe un centenar de mecanismos y autómatas, y como emplearlos.

El libro fue un encargo del califa Al-Mamún, que dio instrucciones a los Banu Musa para recopilar todo el saber al respecto de las diversas obras grecolatinas que se habían conservado. Algunos de los artefactos se inspiraban en las obras de Herón de Alejandría y Filón de Bizancio, así como en la antigua Persia, China e India. Otros muchos fueron invenciones de los propios hermanos Banu Musa.

Véase también

 Al-Jazari, que escribió un libro similar
 Edad de Oro del islam

Referencias

Bibliografía
 BUNCH, Bryan (2004). The History of Science and Technology. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-22123-9
 DIMAROGONAS, Andrew D. (2000). Machine Design: A CAD Approach. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0-471-31528-1
 HILL, Donald Routledge (trad; 1978). Book of Ingenious Devices. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-277-0833-9
 ROSHEIM, Mark E. (1994). Robot Evolution: The Development of Anthrobotics. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0-471-02622-0

Enlaces externos
 A Review of Early Muslim Control Engineering (en inglés).

Manuscritos del siglo IX
Ciencia medieval
Libros del siglo IX
Historia de la ciencia islámica
Historia de la física
Ciencia del siglo IX

Libro de mecanismos ingeniosos


In mathematics, the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem is a formula that counts the fixed points of a continuous mapping from a compact topological space  to itself  by means of traces of the induced mappings on the homology groups of . It is named after Solomon Lefschetz, who first stated it in 1926.

The counting is subject to an imputed multiplicity at a fixed point called the fixed-point index. A weak version of the theorem is enough to show that a mapping without any fixed point must have rather special topological properties (like a rotation of a circle).

Formal statement
For a formal statement of the theorem, let

be a continuous map from a compact triangulable space  to itself. Define the Lefschetz number  of  by

the alternating (finite) sum of the matrix traces of the linear maps induced by  on , the singular homology groups of  with rational coefficients.

A simple version of the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem states: if

then  has at least one fixed point, i.e., there exists at least one  in  such that .  In fact, since the Lefschetz number has been defined at the homology level, the conclusion can be extended to say that any map homotopic to  has a fixed point as well.

Note however that the converse is not true in general:  may be zero even if  has fixed points, as is the case for the identity map on odd-dimensional spheres.

Sketch of a proof
First, by applying the simplicial approximation theorem, one shows that if  has no fixed points, then (possibly after subdividing )  is homotopic to a fixed-point-free simplicial map (i.e., it sends each simplex to a different simplex).  This means that the diagonal values of the matrices of the linear maps induced on the simplicial chain complex of  must be all be zero.  Then one notes that, in general, the Lefschetz number can also be computed using the alternating sum of the matrix traces of the aforementioned linear maps (this is true for almost exactly the same reason that the Euler characteristic has a definition in terms of homology groups; see below for the relation to the Euler characteristic).  In the particular case of a fixed-point-free simplicial map, all of the diagonal values are zero, and thus the traces are all zero.

Lefschetz–Hopf theorem
A stronger form of the theorem, also known as the Lefschetz–Hopf theorem, states that, if  has only finitely many fixed points, then

where  is the set of fixed points of , and  denotes the index of the fixed point . From this theorem one deduces the Poincaré–Hopf theorem for vector fields.

Relation to the Euler characteristic
The Lefschetz number of the identity map on a finite CW complex can be easily computed by realizing that each  can be thought of as an identity matrix, and so each trace term is simply the dimension of the appropriate homology group. Thus the Lefschetz number of the identity map is equal to the alternating sum of the Betti numbers of the space, which in turn is equal to the Euler characteristic . Thus we have

Relation to the Brouwer fixed-point theorem
The Lefschetz fixed-point theorem generalizes the Brouwer fixed-point theorem, which states that every continuous map from the -dimensional closed unit disk  to  must have at least one fixed point.

This can be seen as follows:  is compact and triangulable, all its homology groups except  are zero, and every continuous map  induces the identity map , whose trace is one; all this together implies that  is non-zero for any continuous map .

Historical context
Lefschetz presented his fixed-point theorem in . Lefschetz's focus was not on fixed points of maps, but rather on what are now called coincidence points of maps.

Given two maps  and  from an orientable manifold  to an orientable manifold  of the same dimension, the Lefschetz coincidence number of  and  is defined as

where  is as above,  is the homomorphism induced by  on the cohomology groups with rational coefficients, and  and  are the Poincaré duality isomorphisms for  and , respectively.

Lefschetz proved that if the coincidence number is nonzero, then  and  have a coincidence point. He noted in his paper that letting  and letting  be the identity map gives a simpler result, which we now know as the fixed-point theorem.

Frobenius
Let  be a variety defined over the finite field  with  elements and let  be the base change of  to the algebraic closure of . The Frobenius endomorphism of  (often the geometric Frobenius, or just the Frobenius), denoted by  , maps a point with coordinates  to the point with coordinates . Thus the fixed points of  are exactly the points of  with coordinates in ; the set of such points is denoted by .  The Lefschetz trace formula holds in this context, and reads:

This formula involves the trace of the Frobenius on the étale cohomology, with compact supports, of  with values in the field of -adic numbers, where  is a prime coprime to .

If  is smooth and equidimensional, this formula can be rewritten in terms of the arithmetic Frobenius , which acts as the inverse of  on cohomology:

This formula involves usual cohomology, rather than cohomology with compact supports.

The Lefschetz trace formula can also be generalized to algebraic stacks over finite fields.

See also
Fixed-point theorems
Lefschetz zeta function
Holomorphic Lefschetz fixed-point formula

Notes

References

External links

Fixed-point theorems
Theory of continuous functions
Theorems in algebraic topology

Lefschetz fixed-point theorem


In military terms, 25th Division may refer to:

Infantry divisions
 25th Division (German Empire)
 25th Panzergrenadier Division (Wehrmacht)
 25th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Hunyadi (1st Hungarian)
 25th Infantry Division (India)
 25th Infantry Division Bologna, Kingdom of Italy
 25th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
 25th Infantry Division (Ottoman Empire)
 25th Infantry Division (Poland)
 25th Rifle Division (Soviet Union)
 25th Guards Rifle Division, Soviet Union
 25th Infantry Division (South Korea)
 25th Division (South Vietnam)
 25th Division (Spain)
 25th Division (United Kingdom)
 25th Infantry Division (United States)

Airborne divisions
 25th Parachute Division (France)

Armoured divisions
 25th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)
 25th Tank Division (Soviet Union), see order of battle for Operation Barbarossa

See also
 List of military divisions by number
 25th Brigade (disambiguation)

25th Division


بيار بوشارل  ولد بتونس العاصمة عام 1895 وتوفي عام 1988، فنان تشكيلي تونسي.

ترجمته

تلقى بيار بوشارل تكوينا في الحقوق والفنون، وقضى فترة شبابه في العاصمة الفرنسية باريس حيث مارس رسم الكاريكاتور. وتطوع في الحرب العالمية الأولى إلى جانب الجيش الفرنسي وقد أصيب خلالها بجروح بليغة. ثم عاد إلى تونس عام 1922، وحصل على منحة مكنته من التوجه إلى إسبانيا لدراسة الفن.

كان بيار بوشارل يشارك بانتظام في الصالون التونسي وفي التردّد على المعارض الفنّية «لإفريقيا الفرنسية» والمعارض الاستعمارية التي كانت تقام بفرنسا وبأوربا. في سنة 1936 كوّن «مجموعة الأربعة» رفقة أنطونيو كوربورا (Antonio Corpora)، وجول للوش (Jules Lellouche)، وموزس ليفي. ثم كان صاحب فكرة تكوين مدرسة تونس على غرار مدرسة باريس وقد ظهرت في أواخر الأربعينات، وتولى رئاستها إلى عام 1956 ولم يغادر تونس إلا عام 1977 باتجاه فرنسا حيث توفي عام 1988.

وصلة خارجية
تخليدا لأعماله صدرت بعض لوحاته ضمن طوابع بريدية:
 لوحة طبيعة صامتة صدرت عام 2001
 لوحة «سيدي بوسعيد» صدرت عام 2001
 لوحة طبيعة صامتة عام 2002

مراجع

رسامو مناظر طبيعية فرنسيون
رسامون تونسيون
رسامون فرنسيون في القرن 20
مواليد 1895
مواليد في مدينة تونس
وفيات 1988
وفيات في فار (إقليم فرنسي)

بيار بوشارل


Comunicarea cu inteligența extraterestră (CETI) este o ramură a căutării inteligenței extraterestre, care se concentrează pe compunerea și descifrarea mesajelor care ar putea fi, teoretic, înțelese de o altă civilizație tehnologică. Cel mai cunoscut experiment CETI a fost mesajul Arecibo compus de Frank Drake și Carl Sagan în 1974. Există mai multe organizații independente și persoane implicate în cercetarea CETI; abrevierile CETI și SETI nu ar trebui să fie considerate ca referindu-se la oricare organizație particulară (cum ar fi Institutul SETI).

Cercetarea CETI s-a concentrat pe patru mari domenii: limbaje matematice, sisteme pictografice, cum ar fi mesajul Arecibo, sisteme algoritmice de comunicare (ACETI) și abordări de calcul pentru detectarea și descifrarea comunicării în limbaj "natural". Rămân încă multe sisteme de scriere nedescifrabile în comunicarea umană, cum ar fi Linear A, descoperite de arheologi. O mare parte a efortului de cercetare este îndreptat către modul de a depăși probleme similare de descifrare care apar în mai multe scenarii de comunicare interplanetară.

În data de 13 februarie 2015, la o reuniune anuală a Asociației Americane pentru Progresul Științei, oamenii de știință (incluzând pe David Grinspoon, Seth Shostak, și David Brin), au discutat despre SETI activ și dacă transmiterea unui mesaj către posibili extratereștri inteligenți din Cosmos a fost o idee bună  . În aceeași săptămână, a fost dată o declarație, semnată de mulți din comunitatea SETI, că "trebuie să aibă loc o discuție științifică, politică, umanitară mondială înainte ca orice mesaj să fie trimis" . La 28 martie 2015, un eseu înrudit a fost scris de Seth Shostak și publicat în The New York Times [4].

Istoric
În secolul al 19-lea existau multe cărți și articole despre posibilii locuitori ai altor planete. Mulți oameni credeau că ființe inteligente ar putea trăi pe Lună, Marte și Venus; dar, din moment ce călătoria la alte planete nu era încă posibilă, unii oameni sugerau modalități de a trimite semnale către extratereștri chiar înainte ca radioul să fie descoperit.

Carl Friedrich Gauss a sugerat ca un triunghi uriaș și trei pătrate(teorema lui Pitagora), ar putea fi trasate pe tundra siberiană. Contururile formelor ar putea fi dintr-o fâșie largă de zece mile de pădure din pin, iar interioarele din secară sau grâu.

Joseph Johann Littrow a propus folosirea Saharei ca o tablă. Tranșee gigante de mai multe sute de yarzi lărgime ar putea delimita forme de douăzeci de mile lățime. Apoi tranșeele ar fi putut fi umplute cu apă, iar ulterior suficient de mult kerosen ar fi putut fi turnat deasupra apei pentru a arde timp de șase ore. Folosind această metodă, un semnal diferit ar fi putut fi trimis în fiecare noapte.

Între timp, alți astronomi erau în căutare de semne de viață pe alte planete. În 1822, Franz von Gruithuisen a crezut că a văzut un oraș uriaș și dovezi de agricultură pe Lună, dar astronomi care foloseau instrumente mai puternice, au respins afirmațiile sale. Gruithuisen credea, de asemenea, că a văzut dovezi ale vieții pe Venus. Lumină provenind din ardere, a fost observată pe Venus, iar el a postulat că aceasta s-ar datora unui mare festival al focului produs de locuitori pentru a sărbători pe noul lor împărat. Mai târziu, și-a revizuit poziția, afirmând că venusienii ar putea să-și ardă pădurile tropicale pentru a face mai mult teren agricol.

La sfârșitul anilor 1800, posibilitatea de viață pe Lună a fost dată la o parte. Astronomii din acel moment credeau în ipoteza Kant-Laplace, care afirma că cele mai îndepărtate planete de Soare sunt cele mai vechi, prin urmare, Marte era mult mai probabil să aibă civilizații avansate decât Venus. Era evident că Venus a fost învăluită mereu în nori, deci venusienii, probabil, nu ar fi astronomi foarte buni. Investigații ulterioare s-au axat pe contactarea marțienilor. În 1877, Giovanni Schiaparelli a anunțat că a descoperit "Canali" ( "canale" în limba italiană, care apar în mod natural, și tradus greșit cu "canals", care sunt artificiale) pe Marte - acest lucru a fost urmat de treizeci de ani de entuziasm marțian.

Inventatorul Charles Cros era convins că licăririle de lumină observate pe Marte și Venus sunt luminile orașelor mari. Și-a petrecut ani din viață încercând să obțină fonduri pentru o oglindă gigantică cu care să trimită semnale marțienilor. Lumina intens reflectată de oglindă s-ar fi concentrat pe deșertul marțian, unde ar fi putut fi folosită pentru a arde imagini în nisipul marțian.

Inventatorul Nikola Tesla a menționat de mai multe ori pe parcursul carierei sale că s-a gândit că invențiile sale, cum ar fi bobina lui Tesla, folosită în scopul unui "receptor de rezonanță", ar putea fi folosită la comunicarea cu alte planete [6] [7] și chiar a observat semnale repetitive a ceea ce el a crezut în 1899 a fi comunicațiile radio extraterestre care vin de pe Venus sau Marte. Totuși, aceste "semnale" s-au dovedit a fi radiație terestră.

În jurul anilor 1900, a fost creat Premiul Guzman; primei persoane care ar stabili o comunicare interplanetară i s-ar acorda 100.000 de franci cu o singură prevedere: Marte să fie exclusă, deoarece doamna Guzman a crezut comunicarea cu Marte a fi prea ușoară pentru a merita un premiu [8]

Când canalele marțiene s-au dovedit iluzorii, părea că oamenii sunt singuri în sistemul solar.

Note

Vezi și
 Viață extraterestră
 SETI

Referințe

Braastad, Richard, The Extraterrestrial Sermons, http://www.richardb.us/project.html
Cattermole, P., & Moore, P. (1997). Atlas of Venus. Cambridge University Press.
Dumas, Stepane. The 1999 and 2003 messages explained, http://www3.sympatico.ca/stephane_dumas/CETI/messages.pdf
Dutil, Dumas, ACTIVE SETI PAGE, http://www3.sympatico.ca/stephane_dumas/CETI/default.htm
EllaZ Systems, http://www.ellaz.com/AI/Default.aspx
Martin, Martin C. 1991 SETI Puzzle, posted to sci.crypt, sci.astro, sci.space, rec.arts.sf-lovers and rec.puzzles. http://www.metahuman.org/martin/SETIPuzzle.html
Communication with Alien Intelligence, 1985, Marvin Minsky, http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/papers/AlienIntelligence.html
Ley, Willy. Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel (revised). New York: The Viking Press (1958)
McConnell, Brian S. 2001 Beyond Contact: A Guide to SETI and Communicating with Alien Civilizations. O'Reilly, Cambridge, MA
McConnell, Brian S. 2002 Algorithmic Communication with ETI & Mixed Media Message Composition
McConnell, Brian S at al, 2006?, Between Worlds, SETI Institute/MIT Press
Minsky, Marvin, talk given at Communication With Extraterrestrial Intelligence (CETI), Proceedings of a conference held at the Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory, Yerevan, USSR, 5–11 September 1971. Edited by Carl Sagan. Cambridge, MA: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1973., p.ix
Morrison, P. "Interstellar Communication." Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 16, 78 (1962). Reprinted in A. G. W. Cameron, ed., Interstellar Communication.
Team Encounter, Cosmic Call 2003, https://web.archive.org/web/20040406151735/http://www.teamencounter.com/missions/message.asp
Vakoch, D. A. (Ed.). (2011). Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence. New York: SUNY Press.

Controverse
Mesaje interstelare
SETI


Un réservoir de compensation est un réservoir de carburant dont le rôle est de permettre de maintenir la position du centre de gravité d'un avion au centre de portance, selon les paramètres de vol et les masses transportées, par remplissage depuis les réservoirs principaux ou par vidange dans ceux-ci.

Utilité

Idéalement, pour maintenir un vol horizontal parfaitement stable, un avion devrait avoir un centre de gravité (point où s'exerce son poids) parfaitement confondu avec son centre de portance (point où s'exerce la portance des ailes) et déterminé par la géométrie de celles-ci. En pratique, selon la position des passagers et des bagages, et l'état de remplissage des réservoirs, le centre de gravité peut se retrouver légèrement en avant ou en arrière du centre de portance. Pour maintenir un vol horizontal, l'avion doit alors utiliser ses compensateurs aérodynamiques, c'est-à-dire créer une force vers le haut ou vers le bas au niveau de l'empennage horizontal. Cela se traduit par une modification de l'angle d'attaque et donc un supplément de traînée.

Fonctionnement
Le premier gros-porteur équipé de réservoirs de compensation est l'Airbus A310. Ces réservoirs, d'une capacité d'environ  pour cet avion précis, sont placés dans le plan horizontal de l'empennage, avec une structure similaire à celle des réservoirs principaux contenus dans la voilure. Ils sont reliés aux réservoirs principaux via des pompes bidirectionnelles. Quand le centre de gravité de l'avion est trop en avant, du carburant est transféré depuis les réservoirs principaux vers les réservoirs de compensation, et inversement. Ainsi, avec un pilotage logiciel, ce système ajuste dynamiquement l'équilibre de l'avion, et réduit très fortement le recours aux compensateurs aérodynamiques. Il en résulte une réduction de consommation de carburant, de l'ordre de .

Références

Construction aéronautique

Réservoir de compensation


El Pseudo-Bonaventura, es el nombre dado a los autores de unas cuantas obras devocionales que en su época se creyó que eran obra de San Buenaventura: "Parecería como si 'Buenaventura' se considerara una etiqueta apta para una cierta clase de texto, más que la afirmación de la autoría". Como está ya claro que estamos hablando de diversos autores, el término "Pseudo-Buenaventuriano" se usa habitualmente. Muchas obras hoy día tienen otras atribuciones de autoría que están aceptadas generalmente, pero la más famosa, las Meditationes de Vita Christi, continúa siendo considerada sólo como una obra del Pseudo-Buenaventura.

Meditationes de Vita Christi
No confundir con la Vita Christi de Ludolfo de Sajonia
La más popular e importante de estas obras, fueron las Meditationes de Vita Christi ("Meditaciones sobre la vida de Cristo", o Espejo de la vida sagrada de Jesucristo), que podemos datar alrededor de 1300; como Buenaventura, el autor fue probablemente un franciscano, y la obra está dirigida a una clarisa. Nos han llegado unos 200 manuscritos, incluyendo 17 copias iluminadas, y la popularidad de la obra aumentó posteriormente con las primeras ediciones impresas. Una edición veneciana 1497 es la única obra de impresión xilográfica italiana conocida.

Las evocaciones detalladas de la obra sobre diversos momentos de los Evangelios influyeron en el arte, y se considera que fueron la fuente de inspiración de la iconografía de los fresco de la Vida de Cristo en la capilla de los Scrovegni pintados por Giotto. También se considera que inspiró el gran aumento en representaciones del Velo de Verónica a partir del final del s. XIV.

Otras obras
 Stimulus Amoris, del cual la Instructio sacerdotis ad se preparandum ad celebrandum missam (Instrucción para que los sacerdotes se preparen para celebrar la Misa) es una parte.
 Biblia pauperum (Biblia de los pobres - un título que sólo se dio en el ) es una versión tipológica corta de la Biblia, también extremadamente popular y a menudo ilustrada. Hubo diferentes versiones de ésta. El original quizás sea del dominico Nicolás de Hanapis.
 Speculum Beatæ Mariæ Virginis (Espejo de la beata Virgen María), de Conrado de Sajonia.
 Speculum Disciplinæ (Espejo de disciplina), Epistola ad Quendam Novitium (Epístola a algún novicio) y Centiloquium, todos ellos probablemente obra del secretario de Buenanventura, Bernardo de Besse
 Leyenda de Santa Clara.
 Theologia Mystica (Teología mística), probablemente de Enrique Balme.
 Philomena, un poema ahora atribuido a John Peckham, arzobispo de Canterbury de 1279 a 1292.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
(en inglés) Catholic Encyclopedia sobre San Buenaventura (penúltimo párrafo).

Más información
 Lawrence F. Hundersmarck: The Use of Imagination, Emotion, and the Will in a Medieval Classic: The Meditaciones Vite Christi. In: Logos 6,2 (2003), pp. 46-62
 Sarah McNamer: Further evidence for the date of the Pseudo-Bonaventuran Meditationes vitæ Christi. In: Franciscan Studies, Bd. 10, Jg. 28 (1990), pp. 235-261

Escritores en latín
Escritores de Italia del siglo XIV

Pseudo-Buenaventura


Zoran Živković (Zagreb, 12. rujna 1967.) bivši je hrvatski nogometni reprezentativac.

Igračku karijeru započeo je u mlađim uzrastima Dinama, a potom je igrao u Sopotu i Trnju. Od 1987. do 1993. godine bio je standardni nogometaš Inkera iz Zaprešića s kojim je osvojio i Hrvatski nogometni kup u prvoj sezoni tog natjecanja 1992. godine. Dobrim igrama u Inkeru privukao je pozornost Dinama, gdje prelazi i igra od srpnja do prosinca 1993. godine. Nakon samo 8 odigranih utakmica se ozlijedio i na polusezoni prelazi u redove tadašnjeg prvoligaša Segeste iz Siska gjde je od od siječnja 1994. do prosinca 1995. godine. Nakon toga prelazi u još jedan tadašnji prvoligaš Marsoniju iz Slavonskog Broda od siječnja do lipnja 1996. Karijeru završava u Šibeniku gdje igra od 1996. do 1998. godine.

Za hrvatsku reprezentaciju je 25. lipnja 1993. godine kao nogometaš Inkera odigrao 1 utakmicu u Zagrebu. U toj prijateljskoj utakmici Hrvatska je pobijedila Ukrajinu 3:1.

Izvori

Nogometaši NK Inter Zaprešić
Nogometaši Dinama
Nogometaši HNK Segeste
Nogometaši HNK Šibenika
Hrvatski nogometni reprezentativci
Životopisi, Zagreb

Zoran Živković (nogometaš)


Keisuke Funatani (født 7. januar 1986) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Keisuke Funatani


Les gorges de l'Infernet sont des gorges de France situées en Isère, en amont du Bourg-d'Oisans, sur le cours de la Romanche.

Géographie
Les gorges sont situées dans le Sud-Est de la France et de l'Isère, dans les Alpes, entre le massif des Grandes Rousses au nord et celui des Écrins au sud. Elles sont parcourues par la Romanche, affluent de l'Isère via le Drac, entre le Freney-d'Oisans en amont au nord-est et la plaine du Bourg-d'Oisans en aval au sud-ouest. Sur environ cinq kilomètres, elles se frayent un passage sinueux entre les montagnes, passant de  d'altitude. Les gorges sont dominées par de nombreux villages et hameaux établis à mi-pente, notamment les Châtains, les Certs, les Cours et la station de sports d'hiver d'Auris en rive droite et Mont-de-Lans, Bons ou encore les Travers sur la commune des Deux Alpes en rive gauche.

Les gorges sont empruntées par les routes départementales 213, 220 et 1091 en rive gauche et la route départementale 211 en rive droite. Très sauvages, les seuls aménagements présents dans les gorges sont représentés par la centrale hydroélectrique de Saint-Guillerme et le barrage du Clapier situé à la sortie des gorges.

La rive droite et une partie de la rive gauche des gorges constituent une ZNIEFF de type I.

Histoire
Les gorges constituent un obstacle naturel aux communications dans l'Oisans le long de la Romanche, notamment entre le secteur de la Grave et le reste de la vallée en aval, mais également entre le Dauphiné et le Briançonnais via le col du Lautaret à l'est.

Ainsi, la création d'une route dans les gorges remonte aux Romains . Elle sera élargie et aménagée à maintes reprises au cours des siècles, notamment au début du  avec un nouveau tracé plus proche de la rivière, délaissant l'ancienne route passant par Mont-de-Lans. L'essor de la houille blanche dans les vallées alpines au cours du  voient la construction dans les années 1930 du barrage du Clapier et de la première centrale hydroélectrique de Saint-Guillerme à l'extrémité aval des gorges ainsi que le barrage du Chambon en amont des gorges. La capacité de ces installations est augmentée dans les années 1980 avec la création d'une seconde centrale à Saint-Guillerme, cette fois-ci souterraine en remplacement de celle en surface qui est désaffectée.

Notes et références

Infernet
Massif des Écrins
Grandes Rousses
ZNIEFF de type I dans l'Isère
Infernet

Gorges de l'Infernet


فيلكس مانجان مؤرخ فرنسي في عهد نابليون ألف عدة كتب عن مصر أيام محمد علي باشا وعن الجزيرة العربية.

وقد كتب مانجان 1823 إثر سقوط الدرعية في كتابه (تاريخ مصر في عهد محمد علي) معرباً عن توقعه عودة قيام الدولة السعودية قائلا: «ولكن ذلك البلد.. يضم في جنباته بذور الحرية والاستقلال، فما زالت المبادئ الدينية نفسها موجودة، وقد ظهرت منها بعض البوادر، ومع أن أسرة آل سعود قد تفرقت، ومع أن الفوضى تعم بين الزعماء، فما زال هناك أساس خصب يمكن للزمن والأحداث أن تجعله يتفتح من جديد».

فرنسيون في القرن 19
كتاب غير روائيين ذكور فرنسيون
مؤرخون فرنسيون
مؤرخون فرنسيون في القرن 19

فيلكس مانجان


فاطمة بوبكدي هي مخرجة مغربية من أبرز المخرجات في مجال السينما الأمازيغية.

مسيرتها
ولدت فاطمة بوبكدي في 7 ماي 1970 بمدينة الدار البيضاء. درست بالرباط وحصلت على دبلوم من المعهد العالي للتمثيل والتنشيط المسرحي وكانت بدايتها في الإخراج من المسرح.

أعمالها
تتطرق في كل أعمالها للأفلام المغربية التي تدور أحداثها في حقب تاريخية للمغرب مثل شريط سوق النساء والدويبة إضافة لعدة سلسلات بنفس السياق كأمودو ، حديدان، رمانة وبرطال وزهر ومرشة وشمس القنديل. كما أن لها أعمال بارزة بالأمازيغية كثيرة متل ران كولو الدونيت،حمو اونمير.

مراجع

روابط خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من الأمازيغ
أشخاص من الدار البيضاء
مخرجات أفلام مغربيات
مخرجون مغاربة
مواليد 1390 هـ
مواليد 1970
نساء مغربيات

فاطمة بوبكدي


Vanessa Pose - Romero () este o actrita din Venezuela, cel mai bine cunoscută pentru rolurile ei ca Elisa Altamira în telenovela Căutând-o pe Elisa și Vicky Hutton Miller în telenovela Aurora.

Biografie
Tatăl ei este Uruguayan și mama ei este din Cuba. Are un frate geamăn pe nume Andres și un frate mai mare pe nume Alejandro. În 2009, l-a întâlnit pe actorul Eugenio Siller, pe platourile telenovelei Aurora dupa care s-au căsătorit în 2010 și s-au despărțit în 2011. In 2011 l-a întâlnit pe actorul Pedro Levy și s-au căsătorit în 2012, a avut un copil cu el în 2012.

Cariera
Pose a jucat primul ei rol în Con toda el Alma în 2005, ca Maria Victoria Serrano, în anul 2007 a apărut în Voltea pa' que te enamores, ca Algeria Guzman. În 2010, Pose se mută în Miami și dă viata personajului Elisa in telenovela Donde esta elisa.  În perioada 2010-2011, a jucat-o pe Victoria "Vicky" Hutton Miller în Aurora. În 2012 - 2013 a jucat-o pe Emma Arroyo ca co-protagonistă în Corazon Valiente, mai târziu în acel an, ea a plecat din serial dar s-a întors în 2013 pentru episodul final, în același an ea a jucat-o pe Kierra Davenport în El Rostro de la venganza. În 2013 ea trebuia să joace rolul Patriciei Ibarra în Marido en Alquiler, dar sarcina ei a fost neașteptată și Kimberly Dos Ramos i-a luat locul, dar a avut o apariție speciala in timpul serialului. În 2016, a apărut în Quien es Quien? ca Veronica Alcazar.

Filmografia

Filme

Telenovele

Webnovelas

Referințe

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1990
Oameni în viață
Actrițe venezuelene

Vanessa Pose