John "Iron-Mad" Wilkinson (1728 – 14 July 1808) was an English industrialist who pioneered the manufacture of cast iron and the use of cast-iron goods during the Industrial Revolution. He was the inventor of a precision boring machine that could bore cast iron cylinders, such as cannon barrels  and piston cylinders used in the steam engines of James Watt. His boring machine has been called the first machine tool.  He also developed a blowing device for blast furnaces that allowed higher temperatures, increasing their efficiency, and helped sponsor the first iron bridge in Coalbrookdale. He is notable for his method of cannon boring, his techniques at casting iron and his work with the government of France to establish a cannon foundry.

Biography

Early life
John Wilkinson was born in Little Clifton, Bridgefoot, Cumberland (now part of Cumbria), the eldest son of Isaac Wilkinson and Mary Johnson. Isaac was then the potfounder at the blast furnace there, one of the first to use coke instead of charcoal, which was pioneered by Abraham Darby.

John and his half-brother William, who was 17 years younger, were raised in a non-conformist Presbyterian family and he was educated at a dissenting academy at Kendal, Westmorland (also now part of Cumbria), run by Dr Caleb Rotherham. His sister Mary married another non-conformist, Joseph Priestley in 1762.  Priestley also played a role in educating John's younger brother, William.

In 1745, when John was 17, he was apprenticed to a Liverpool merchant for five years and then entered into partnership with his father.

When his father moved to Bersham furnace near Wrexham, north Wales, in 1753 John remained at Kirkby Lonsdale in Westmorland where he married Ann Maudesley on 12 June 1755.

Iron master

After working with his father in his foundry, from 1755 John Wilkinson became a partner in the Bersham concern and in 1757 with partners, he erected a blast furnace at Willey, near Broseley in Shropshire. Later he built another furnace and works at New Willey.  He made his home in Broseley in a house called 'The Lawns' which became his headquarters for many years.  He had houses either side of 'The Lawns' which served for administration, one being named 'The Mint' used for distribution of the thousands of tokens, each valued equivalent to a halfpenny.  In east Shropshire he also developed iron works at Snedshill, Hollinswood, Hadley and Hampton Loade.   He and Edward Blakeway also leased land to build another at Bradley works in Bilston parish, near Wolverhampton. He became known as the 'Father' of the extensive South Staffordshire iron industry with Bilston as the start of the Black Country.  In 1761, he took over Bersham Ironworks as well.  Bradley became his largest and most successful enterprise, and was the site of extensive experiments in getting raw coal to substitute for coke in the production of cast iron.  At its peak, it included a number of blast furnaces, a brick works, potteries, glass works, and rolling mills.  The Birmingham Canal was subsequently built near the Bradley works.

Inventions
Wilkinson was a prolific inventor of new products and processes, and especially anything connected with novel uses of cast iron and wrought iron. His development of a machine tool for boring cast iron cannons presaged the accurate boring of cylinders for the first Watt steam engines. He also improved the air supply for the blast furnace using a new design of bellows, and was the first to use wrought iron in canal barges. He supported the construction of the first important cast iron bridge at Coalbrookdale.

Cannon boring machine

Bersham became well known for high-quality casting and a producer of guns and cannon. Historically, cannons had been cast with a core and then bored to remove imperfections, but in 1774 Wilkinson patented a technique for boring iron guns from a solid piece, rotating the gun barrel rather than the boring-bar. This technique made the guns more accurate since the bore was uniform in diameter, and less likely to explode. While bronze cannons were already being bored from the solid, the boring of large iron naval cannon was novel. The patent was quashed in 1779 (the Royal Navy saw it as a monopoly and sought to overthrow it) but Wilkinson still remained a major manufacturer.

In 1792, Wilkinson bought the Brymbo Hall estate in Denbighshire, not far from Bersham, where furnaces and other plant were installed. After his death and the decline of his industrial empire, the ironworks lay idle for some years until in 1842. It became once again an important works and eventually became Brymbo Steelworks, which continued to operate until 1990.

Boring machine for steam engines

James Watt had tried unsuccessfully for several years to obtain accurately bored cylinders for his steam engines, and was forced to use hammered iron, which was out of round and caused leakage past the piston.  In 1774 John Wilkinson invented a boring machine in which the shaft that held the cutting tool extended through the cylinder and was supported on both ends, unlike the cantilevered borers then in use. With this machine he was able to bore the cylinder for Boulton & Watt's first commercial engine, and was given an exclusive contract for the provision of cylinders owing to the lower tolerance between the piston and cylinder and the resulting improvement in efficiency by lowering steam losses through the gap. Until this era, advancements in drilling and boring practice had lain only within the application field of gun barrels for firearms and cannon; Wilkinson's achievement was a milestone in the gradual development of boring technology, as its fields of application broadened into engines, pumps, and other industrial uses.

While the main market for steam engines had been for pumping water out of mines, he saw much more use for them in the driving of machinery in ironworks such as blowing engines, forge hammers and rolling mills, the first rotary engine being installed at Bradley in 1783. Among his many inventions was a reversing rolling mill with two steam cylinders that made the process much more economical.

John Wilkinson took a key interest in obtaining orders for these more efficient steam engines and other uses for cast iron from the owners of Cornish copper mines. As part of this interest, he bought shares in eight of the mines to help provide capital.

Hydraulic blowing engine
In 1757, Wilkinson patented a hydraulic powered blowing engine to increase the air blast through the tuyeres for blast furnaces, so improving the rate of production of cast iron.  The historian Joseph Needham likened Wilkinson's design to the one described in 1313 by the Chinese Imperial Government metallurgist Wang Zhen in his Treatise on Agriculture.

Iron Bridge

In 1775 John Wilkinson was the prime mover initiating the building of the Iron Bridge connecting the then-important industrial town of Broseley with the other side of the River Severn.  His friend Thomas Farnolls Pritchard had written to him with plans for the bridge.  A committee of subscribers was formed, mostly including Broseley businessmen, to agree to the use of iron rather than wood or stone and obtain price quotations and an authorising act of Parliament.

Wilkinson's persuasion and drive held together the group's support through several problems during the parliamentary process.  Had Wilkinson not succeeded in this and also drawn support from influential parliamentarians, the bridge might not have been built or might have been made of other materials.  Consequently, the name 'Ironbridge' would not have been coined for the district in Madeley; the area would not have attained the status of a World Heritage Site. Abraham Darby III was chosen as the preferred builder after quoting to build the bridge for £3,150/-/-.  When construction started, Wilkinson sold his shares to Abraham Darby III in 1777, leaving the latter to steer the project to its successful conclusion in 1779 and be opened in 1781.

In 1787 he launched the first barge made of wrought iron, constructed in Broseley. It was a development which would become common over the years ahead and in large ships in the following century. He patented several other inventions.

Copper interests

John Wilkinson made his fortune selling high quality goods made of iron and reached his limit of investment expansion.  His expertise proved useful when he invested in many copper interests.  In 1761, the Royal Navy clad the hull of the frigate  with copper sheet to reduce the growth of marine biofouling and prevent attack by the Teredo shipworm. The drag from the hull growth cut the speed and the shipworm caused severe hull damage, especially in tropical waters. After the success of this work the Navy decreed that all ships should be clad and this created a large demand for copper that Wilkinson noted during his visits to shipyards.  He bought shares in eight Cornish copper mines and met Thomas Williams, the 'Copper King' of the Parys Mountain mines in Anglesey.  Besides supplying Williams with large quantities of plate and equipment, Wilkinson also supplied scrap for the process of recovery of copper from solution by cementation.  Wilkinson bought a 1/16th share in the Mona Mine at Parys Mountain and shares in Williams industries at Holywell, Flintshire, St Helens, near Liverpool and Swansea, South Wales.  Wilkinson and Williams worked together on several projects. They were amongst the first to issue trade tokens ('Willys' and 'Druids') to alleviate the shortage of small coins. Jointly they set up the Cornish Metal Company in 1785 as a marketing company for copper. Its aim was to ensure both a good return for the Cornish miners and a stable price for the users of copper. Warehouses were set up in Birmingham, London, Bristol and Liverpool.

To help his business interests and to service his trade tokens, Wilkinson bought into partnerships with banks in Birmingham, Bilston, Bradley, Brymbo and Shrewsbury.

Lead mines and works

Wilkinson bought lead mines at Minera in Wrexham, five miles from Bersham, Llyn Pandy at Soughton (now Sychdyn) and Mold, also in Flintshire  He installed steam pumping engines to make them viable again.  His lead was exported through the port of Chester. To use some of the lead produced, Wilkinson had a lead pipe works at Rotherhithe, London.  This factory lasted for many years eventually making the solder filler alloys used in the car factory at Dagenham.

Philanthropy

Wilkinson had a good reputation as an employer. Wherever new works were established, cottages were built to accommodate employees and their families. He gave significant financial support to his brother-in-law, the famous chemist Dr Joseph Priestley. He became a church warden in Broseley and was later elected High Sheriff of Denbighshire. In schools that had no slates he was able to provide iron troughs to hold sand for the practice of writing and arithmetic. He provided a cast-iron pulpit for the church at Bilston.

Family life, and death

John married Ann Maudsley in 1759. Her family was wealthy and her dowry helped to pay for a share in the New Willey Company. After the death of Ann, his second marriage, when he was 35, was to Mary Lee, whose money helped him to buy out his partners. When he was in his seventies, his mistress Mary Ann Lewis, a maid at his estate in Brymbo Hall, gave birth to his only children, a boy and two girls.

By 1796, when he was 68, he was producing about one-eighth of Britain's cast iron. He became "a titan" – very wealthy, and somewhat eccentric.  His "iron madness" reached a peak in the 1790s, when he had almost everything around him made of iron, even several coffins and a massive obelisk to mark his grave, which still stands in the village of Lindale-in-Cartmel, now in Cumbria. He was appointed Sheriff of Denbighshire for 1799.

He died on 14 July 1808 at his works in Bradley, probably from diabetes. He was originally buried at his Castlehead estate at Grange-over-Sands, raised above the adjoining moss lands which he drained and improved from 1778 onwards.

He left a very large estate in his will (more than £130,000 - equivalent to £ in ), to which he intended to make his three children the principal heirs, with executors to manage the estate for them. However his nephew Thomas Jones contested the will in the Court of Chancery. By 1828, the estate had largely been dissipated by lawsuits and poor management. His corpse, in its distinctive iron coffin, was moved several times over the next decades, but is now lost.

References

Bibliography
 Braid, Douglas.  Wilkinson Studies Vol II (1992) .
 Chaloner, W.H. "Builders of Industry: John Wilkinson, Ironmaster." History Today (1951) 1#5 pp 63–69.
 J. R. Harris,  Wilkinson, John (1728–1808). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Jan 2011.
 Newman, J. and Pevsner, N.  Pevsner Architectural Guides: The Buildings of Shropshire, Yale University Press (2006).  .
 Soldon, Norbert C.  John Wilkinson (1728–1808): English Ironmaster and Inventor. Studies in British History, Edwin Mellen Press, (1998) .

External links

 John Wilkinson Heritage
 John Wilkinson — Encyclopædia Britannica
 BBC — History — John Wilkinson (1728–1808)
 Cumbria Directory entry
 John Wilkinson (industrialist) Summary — BookRags
 The Brymbo Heritage Group  brymboheritage.co.uk
 John Wilkinson at Ward's Book of Days
 John Wilkinson achievements and interesting facts

1728 births
1808 deaths
Foundrymen
British ironmasters
English inventors
Machine tool builders
People from Workington
People of the Industrial Revolution
Burials in Cumbria
Deaths from diabetes
High Sheriffs of Denbighshire
18th-century British engineers
18th-century English businesspeople
18th-century ironmasters
19th-century ironmasters

John Wilkinson (industrialist)


Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again er en musikalfilm instrueret af Ol Parker, med manuskript af Parker, Catherine Johnson og Richard Curtis. Filmen er efterfølger til  Mamma Mia! fra 2008, som igen var baseret på musikalen med samme navn. I filmen ses blandet andet Meryl Streep, Amanda Seyfried, Lily James, Christine Baranski, Julie Walters, Pierce Brosnan, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård, Dominic Cooper og Cher i rollerne.

Medvirkende
 Amanda Seyfried som Sophie
 Stellan Skarsgård som Bill
 Meryl Streep som Donna
 Colin Firth som Harry
 Pierce Brosnan som Sam
 Christine Baranski som Tanya
 Dominic Cooper som Sky
 Julie Walters som Rosie
 Cher som Ruby Sheridan
 Lily James som Donna som ung
 Andy Garcia som Fernando

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 2018
Musicalfilm fra USA
ABBA

Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again


Farscape, 1999 yılında ilk sezon bölümleri ABD'de gösterilmeye başlanmış bir bilimkurgu dizisidir. Dizi 4 sezon olarak çekildi. Daha sonra beşinci sezona başlandı gibi görünmekle beraber iki bölümlük bir mini seri daha çekildi.

Astronot John Crichton (Ben Browder) dünya yörüngesinde uzay araçlarıyla yapılabilecek bir tür kayma hareketiyle hızlı uzay yolculukları yapılabileceğini düşünür. Bunu Farscape projesi olarak isimlendirir. Farscape projesi ilk kez denenirken oluşan bir manyetik alan kaynaklı ortaya çıkan bir solucan deliğinden kazara yolculuk yaparak birçok farklı uygarlığın bulunduğu yabancı galaksilere ulaşır.

Dizi astronotumuzun arkadaşlıklar edinmesi, çeşitli maceralara girmesiyle devam eder.

Karakterler

Ana karakterler

John Crichton
Dünya'da bir astronot olan Crichton, uzay uçuşlarından biri sırasında yanlışlıkla karşılaştığı solucan deliğinden "wormhole" geçerek evrenin bilmediği bir bölgesine geçer ve olaylar gelişir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Tv.com Farscape sayfası Tv.com web sitesi Farscape özel bölümü

1999'da başlayan televizyon dizileri
2003'te sona eren televizyon dizileri
1990'larda Avustralya televizyon dizileri
2000'lerde Avustralya televizyon dizileri
Avustralya bilimkurgu televizyon dizileri
Uzay operası
Kurguda solucan deliği
Syfy orijinal programları
APRA Ödülü sahipleri

Farscape


An Brachiaria ophryodes in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Mary Agnes Chase. An Brachiaria ophryodes in nahilalakip ha genus nga Brachiaria, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Brachiaria

Brachiaria ophryodes


Eskimo kayığı ya da Kayak (Yupikçe, İnyupikçe ve İnuitçe qayaq), Eskimoların geleneksel av aracıdır ve günümüzde ayrıca Kuzey Denizi ülkeleri (İskandinav) ile Kuzey Kutbuna kıyısı olan ülkelerde görülen bir ulaşım aracıdır. İlk olarak ağaçlara fok derileri gerilerek yapılan kayak, daha sonraları kanvas bezi denilen bezle yapılıyordu. Sonraki dönemlerde çıta ile kaplanarak yapılmaya başlanan kayakta özellikle o bölgelerde yetişen çam ve sedir ağacının çıtaları kullanılmaktadır. Günümüzde çeşitli kompozit maddelerle- cam elyaf, aramid elyaf, karbon fiber - ve çeşitli plastik türlerinden de yapılmaktadır. Olimpiyat oyunlarında yer bulabilecek kadar bir spor dalı olarak görülmüştür.

Kayak, özellikle Türkçede kış sporlarında yaygın olarak kullanılan bir terim olduğundan halk arasında "kano" terimi, kayak için de yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Ancak kano ve kayak (su sporlarında) aynı şey değildir ve birbirlerinden teknenin biçiminin yanı sıra, kürekçinin teknedeki oturuş biçimi ve kürek yapıları ile ayrılırlar.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
Deniz kayağı (sea kayak)
Kayakçılık

Eskimolar
Deniz araçları
İnsan gücüyle çalışan deniz taşıtları
Gemi tipleri
Kayaklar
Kano ve kayak ekipmanları

Kayak (su sporu)


Ören Gökova Körfezi sahilinde yer alan ve günümüzde Muğla'nın Milas ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.Yakın zamanlara kadar kullanılan eski ismi Gereme, antik çağdaki ismi Keramos'tur. (Nitekim, Gökova Körfezi de antik çağdaki ismini yaşatacak şekilde zaman zaman Kerme Körfezi olarak anılmaktadır.)

Tarihçe
17 Aralık 1986'da belediye statüsü alarak beldeye dönüştü. 12 Kasım 2012'de TBMM'de kabul edilen 6360 sayılı kanun ile mahalle oldu.

Konumu

Bağlı olduğu Milas ilçesine 40 km, Bodrum'a 60 km, Muğla'ya ise 58 km uzaklıktadır. Deniz yoluyla da ulaşılabilen Ören'de tekneler için limanda bulunmaktadır.

Nüfusu
Belde nüfusu yaklaşık 3.000 kişi olup, köyleriyle birlikte 9.000'dir. Yaz aylarında ise belde nüfusu gelen yerli ve yabancı turistlerin etkisiyle 30.000'i geçmektedir. Ören 30 Mart 2014 tarihinde Muğla'nın Büyükşehir olmasıyla Milas'a bağlanıp mahalle olmuştur.

Ören'in nüfus bilgileri aşağıdaki tabloda gösterilmiştir:

Ekonomisi
1990'lı yıllardan önce sadece tarım ve balıkçılığa dayalı olan belde ekonomisi turizmin gelişmesiyle otel, restaurant işletmeciliği de halkın gelir kaynaklarından biri olmuştur.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Çökertme zeybeği

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Ören Belediyesi Resmî Sitesi

Milas'ın mahalleleri

Ören, Milas


Mizushima ist der Familienname von:

 Hiro Mizushima (* 1984), japanischer Schauspieler, Autor und Model
 Musashi Mizushima (* 1964), japanischer Fußballspieler
 Noboru Mizushima (* 1966), japanischer Zellbiologe
 Mizushima San'ichirō (1899–1983), japanischer Chemiker

Mizushima steht außerdem für
 ein Industriegebiet bei Kurashiki
 (6218) Mizushima, Asteroid des Hauptgürtels

Siehe auch:
 Mitsushima

Mizushima


An Panicum agrostoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Spreng.. An Panicum agrostoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Panicum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Panicum

Panicum agrostoides


La Tonkünstler-Societät ( « Société des musiciens » ) était une société de bienfaisance pour les musiciens de Vienne, qui a duré du milieu du  au milieu du . Son but était de « soutenir les musiciens retraités et leurs familles ». À partir de 1772, la société a organisé une série de concerts de bienfaisance, souvent avec de grands groupes d'interprètes, au cours desquels étaient interprétées des œuvres des principaux compositeurs de la période classique, notamment Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart et Ludwig van Beethoven.

Histoire

La Société a été fondée par Florian Gassmann en 1771. Elle était également connue sous le nom de « Gesellschaft der Wiener Tonkünstler zum Unterhalte ihrer Witwen und Waisen » , c'est-à-dire « Société des musiciens viennois pour le soutien de leurs veuves et orphelins ». Jusqu'en 1811 (année de la fondation de la Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde), elle était la seule organisation privée à offrir des concerts à Vienne.

La Société était fortement soutenue par l'aristocratie (qui était, avec l'Église, le principal employeur de musiciens à l'époque). Dans son décret () autorisant la fondation de la Société, l'impératrice Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche a également fait une contribution initiale au fonds de la Société d'un montant de 500 ducats (environ 2000 florins). Plus tard, le diariste Karl von Zinzendorf a observé que la participation aux concerts de charité de la Société était considérée comme une sorte de devoir pour les membres de la noblesse. La Société a servi de modèle à des organisations comparables, non seulement dans l'Empire autrichien mais aussi à Berlin (1801) et à Saint-Pétersbourg (1802).

Les représentations de la Société étaient données selon un calendrier qui est resté assez constant au fil des ans : deux représentations au moment de Pâques, et deux autres juste avant Noël. Dans ses premières années, l'organisation était assez aventureuse, montant des représentations d'œuvres nouvelles ou récentes. Vers 1800, le traditionalisme s'est installé, et les programmes mettaient désormais l'accent sur la musique qui était devenue vénérable, y compris de nombreuses représentations (initialement dirigées par le compositeur) des deux grands oratorios de Haydn, La Création et Les Saisons. En effet, en 1862, l'organisation se rebaptise du nom de Haydn : (Haydn, Witwen- und Waisen-Versorgungs-Verein der Tonkünstler in Wien = « Haydn : Société des musiciens pour le soin des veuves et des orphelins à Vienne » ).

La Société a perduré jusqu'en 1939, date à laquelle le 9 mars, le gouvernement national-socialiste allemand l'a abolie ; l'Allemagne avait annexé l'Autriche l'année précédente (l'Anschluss).

Du point de vue de l'histoire de la musique, la plus grande importance de la Société se situe dans sa première période, jusqu'au début des années 1800, lorsqu'elle a joué un rôle important dans la création ou la diffusion d'œuvres musicales encore acclamées à ce jour. Par la suite, après que les concerts publics se soient multipliés ailleurs et que la programmation de la Société soit devenue conservatrice, l'importance historique de la Société a diminué et les mentions de l'organisation dans les travaux des spécialistes de la musique sont rares.

Les forces vives de la Société

La Société était inhabituelle par la taille des orchestres et des chœurs qui participaient à ses concerts. Pour les concerts des 1er et 3 avril 1781, où Mozart a fait sa première apparition avec la Société (voir ci-dessous), il y avait 40 violons, 8 altos, 9 violoncelles, 11 contrebasses, 2 flûtes, 7 hautbois, 6 bassons, 2 cors anglais, 4 cors, 2 trompettes et 1 timbalier, soit un total de 92 personnes. Le chœur comptait un total combiné de 28 sopranos et altos (tous des garçons), 13 ténors et 13 basses, soit un total de 146 interprètes. Des effectifs comparables ont été employés les autres années. Dans une lettre adressée à son père Leopold , Mozart s'émerveille de la taille de l'orchestre et se réjouit de la qualité de sa symphonie lors du concert.

Ces chiffres ont été rendus possibles par le fait que la participation aux concerts de la Société était obligatoire pour tous les membres (sinon ils devaient payer une petite somme en compensation). En outre, certains membres potentiels de la Société se sont également produits.

 suggère qu'il ne faut pas supposer que de telles forces ont été utilisées pour tous les numéros du programme ; les concertos en particulier ont peut-être simplement utilisé un sous-ensemble de musiciens pour un meilleur équilibre.

Relations avec les grands compositeurs de l'époque classique

Bien que la Société soit fréquemment mentionnée dans les biographies de Haydn, Mozart et Beethoven, seul Haydn en a fait partie, et ce dans des circonstances exceptionnelles. Haydn a composé sa première œuvre pour la Société en 1773 (Il ritorno di Tobia ; voir ci-dessous). En 1778, il adhère à la Société et paie ses frais d'inscription, mais on lui demande en plus d'écrire gratuitement d'autres compositions à la demande de la Société. Haydn refuse et sa demande d'adhésion est rejetée. Les relations entre Haydn et la Société restent froides pendant un certain temps. En 1781, ils ne parviennent pas à se mettre d'accord pour la reprise de Il ritorno di Tobia, mais pour les concerts du printemps 1784, ils parviennent à un arrangement. Les œuvres de Haydn continuent par la suite à figurer dans les programmes de la Société. Haydn n'est finalement devenu membre qu'en 1797 ; à ce moment-là, ses nombreuses contributions aux concerts de charité de la Société au fil des ans ont amené la Société à le nommer membre honoraire.

Mozart a tenté de devenir membre en 1785, à peu près au moment où son Davide penitente a été joué par la Société (voir ci-dessous). La procédure de candidature est bloquée en raison de l'obligation faite à Mozart de produire son acte de naissance (il était né dans la lointaine Salzbourg, ce qui rendait la chose plus difficile). Mozart a promis à deux reprises de le fournir, mais ne l'a jamais fait. Sa lenteur n'était pas judicieuse, car à sa mort en 1791, il laissait à la fois de nombreuses dettes et une femme (Constanze Mozart) avec deux jeunes enfants. Heureusement, Constanze s'est avérée être une femme d'affaires avisée et a finalement réussi à obtenir la prospérité grâce à la publication des œuvres de son mari.

Bien que ses œuvres aient été interprétées par la Société, Beethoven n'a jamais été inscrit en tant que membre, mais la Société l'a honoré pour ses services (tout comme Haydn) en lui offrant un laissez-passer pour tous ses concerts.

Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn dans les concerts de la Société

Le plus souvent, un concert de la Société programmait une grande œuvre (généralement un oratorio), complétée par des œuvres plus petites, souvent pour solistes ou petits ensembles. Les petites œuvres étaient généralement choisies de manière à être différentes les deux soirs où le concert était donné. Haydn a été représenté plusieurs fois en tant que compositeur de la grande œuvre et parfois des petites œuvres ; au cours de leur vie, Mozart et Beethoven ont été les compositeurs de la grande œuvre une seule fois chacun, et plusieurs fois des petites œuvres.

Haydn

 2 et 4 avril 1775 : Joseph Haydn dirige les premières représentations de son oratorio Il ritorno di Tobia ; l'œuvre a été commandée par la Société. Le livret de l'œuvre est en italien, ce qui reflète la pratique de la Société dans ses premières années, suivant la tradition de la cour impériale ; plus tard, la Société s'orientera vers des œuvres en langue allemande. Haydn a fait venir de la cour d'Esterházy la plupart des solistes vocaux pour son oratorio, ainsi que ses collègues pour jouer les concertos des œuvres plus courtes : son violon solo Luigi Tomasini a joué un concerto pour violon le 2, Xavier Marteau un concerto pour violoncelle le 4. Smither écrit : « L'oratorio a eu un énorme succès et a attiré l'attention des Viennois sur l'extraordinaire capacité de Haydn ».
 17 mars 1777. Diverses œuvres sont jouées, dont un chœur de Il ritorno di Tobia.
 12 et 14 mars 1780. Diverses oeuvres, dont le 14 une "grande symphonie nouvelle" de Haydn.
 23 et 23 décembre 1783 : " symphonies " et chœurs de Haydn, que l'on pense être tirés de Il ritorno di Tobia. L'œuvre de Mozart était également représentée ; voir ci-dessous. Ce concert est supposé être l'occasion de la première rencontre entre Haydn et Mozart, qui devinrent de bons amis.
 28 et 30 mars 1784 : Haydn dirige son Il ritorno di Tobia dans une version révisée avec deux nouveaux chœurs. Cette fois, les solistes vocaux sont d'éminents chanteurs basés à Vienne, dont Caterina Cavalieri et Nancy Storace.
 13 et 17 mars 1785 : la première partie comprenait une symphonie de Haydn. Pour la programmation principale, voir la même date sous "Mozart" ci-dessous.
 15 et 16 avril 1792 : Un programme de divers compositeurs, dont une symphonie et un chœur de Haydn, alors absent de Vienne pour le premier de ses deux séjours à Londres.
 23 et 24 mars 1793 : Haydn, maintenant de retour à Vienne, dirige les exécutions de trois de ses  récemment achevées.
 12 et 13 avril 1794 : Un programme de divers compositeurs, dont la symphonie « La surprise » de Haydn. Haydn est à nouveau en déplacement à Londres pour son deuxième voyage.
 1 et 2 avril 1798 : Haydn dirige ses Sept Dernières Paroles du Christ lors de la première publique de la nouvelle version avec parties chorales. Le premier soir, Beethoven a une part dans le programme ; voir ci-dessous.
 22 et 23 décembre : Première de l'aria de concert Solo et pensoso de Haydn, interprétée par la soprano "Demoiselle Flamm". La Symphonie militaire est également jouée.
 17 et 18 mars 1799 : Les Sept Dernières Paroles sont à nouveau jouées sous la direction de Haydn.
 22 et 23 décembre 1799 : Première représentation par la Société de La Création de Haydn, sous la direction du compositeur. L'œuvre est manifestement si populaire que la Société peut augmenter sa collecte de fonds en doublant le prix normal des billets.
 1800 : Les quatre représentations de cette année sont celles de La Création. Haydn, dont la santé devient précaire, passe la tâche de diriger les représentations de décembre à Paul Wranitzky.
 Printemps 1801 : De nouveau Les Sept Dernières Paroles sous la direction de Haydn.
 22 et 23 décembre 1801 : La première représentation par la Société des Saisons de Haydn, sous la direction du compositeur.
 1802 : Les quatre représentations de cette année-là étaient toutes des Saisons.
 1808 : Il ritorno di Tobia de Haydn fait une troisième apparition, cette fois dans une version révisée par l'élève du compositeur âgé, Sigismund Neukomm. La représentation du 22 décembre a nécessité le travail de la plupart des musiciens hautement qualifiés de Vienne, avec des conséquences regrettables pour un  qui avait lieu à Vienne le même soir, au bénéfice pour Ludwig van Beethoven.

Haydn meurt en 1809. La Création et les Saisons sont restées, au fil des décennies, des œuvres fréquemment choisies par la Société pour être jouées.

Mozart

 21 et 25 mars 1773. L'œuvre principale du programme était Santa Elena al Calvario, un oratorio de Johann Adolf Hasse. Le concert comprenait également les débuts publics à Vienne des deux frères clarinettistes Anton et Johann Stadler, qui devaient jouer dans de nombreuses œuvres de Mozart après son installation à Vienne dans les années 1780 ; voir notamment les 22 et 23 décembre 1789 ci-dessous.
 1er et 3 avril 1781 : Le drame musical Die Pilgrime auf Golgatha de Johann Georg Albrechtsberger. Les solistes vocaux étaient Caterina Cavalieri, Therese Teyber, Johann Valentin Adamberger et Ludwig Fischer, tous membres de la compagnie d'opéra allemande de l'empereur Joseph II, qui allaient tenir les rôles principaux lors de la première de Die Entführung aus dem Serail de Mozart l'année suivante. Pour la représentation du 3 avril seulement, le programme a été augmenté ; c'était la première apparition publique de Mozart adulte à Vienne. Une symphonie de Mozart a été jouée, qui, selon Otto Erich Deutsch, était la n° 34. Il a également improvisé au piano. Mozart n'était arrivé que récemment à Vienne, où il allait passer le reste de sa carrière, et était encore au service de l'archevêque Colloredo. La Société a dû faire pression sur l'archevêque pour obtenir les services de Mozart.
 Les 23 et 23 décembre 1783 : Le programme comprenait " un nouveau rondo " de Mozart chanté par Adamberger ; Deutsch suggère que cette œuvre était Misero ! o sogno!/Aura che intorno, K. 431. Le 22 seulement, le programme comprenait également un concerto pour piano de Mozart avec le compositeur comme soliste. Ce concert est supposé être l'occasion de la première rencontre entre Haydn et Mozart, qui devinrent de bons amis.
 13 et 17 mars 1785 : En deuxième partie a été jouée la première du Davide penitente, K. 469 de Mozart, qui avait été commandé par la Tonkünstler-Societät. La majeure partie de la musique est dérivée de la Grande Messe en ut mineur K. 427 (1782-83), restée inachevée. La représentation a eu lieu au Burgtheater. De manière inhabituelle, ces représentations ont été peu suivies ; la première nuit n'a rapporté que 733 florins (216 payés par l'Empereur), et la deuxième nuit seulement 163 florins d'un public d'environ 200 personnes.
 22 et 23 décembre 1785. L'oratorio Esther de Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, dirigé par Antonio Salieri. Entre les deux parties, le concert du 22 décembre présente un concerto pour violon joué par Joseph Otter ; le 23, Mozart occupe ce créneau horaire en jouant un de ses concertos pour piano (non identifié). Le critique du Wiener Zeitung écrit : « Nous nous abstenons de mentionner l'accueil favorable [du concerto de Mozart], car nos éloges sont superflus au vu de la renommée méritée de ce maître ».
 22 et 23 décembre 1789 : La cantate Il natale d'Apollo de Vincenzo Righini est jouée au Burgtheater . La belle-sœur de Mozart, Josepha Hofer, qui chantera plus tard la première Reine de la nuit dans La Flûte enchantée, était l'une des solistes vocales ; les autres collègues de Mozart qui ont chanté étaient Cavalieri (voir ci-dessus) et  (le premier Ferrando dans Così fan tutte). Lors du concert du 22 décembre, on a également entendu la première exécution connue du quintette pour clarinette de Mozart. Le clarinettiste était l'ami de Mozart, Anton Stadler.
 16 et 17 avril 1791 : Lors d'un concert avec la musique de plusieurs compositeurs, la musique de Mozart est à nouveau représentée : un air est chanté par sa belle-sœur Aloysia Lange, et une " grande symphonie " est jouée. Rushton suggère que cette dernière était la 40e symphonie, dans sa version révisée avec des parties de clarinette.

Mozart est mort en 1791.

 22 et 23 décembre 1815. L'œuvre principale était l'oratorio Alexander's Feast de Haendel, dans la version révisée par Mozart avec des parties de vents supplémentaires.
 27 et 28 mars 1836. L'œuvre principale était l'oratorio Messiah de Haendel, dans la partition révisée par Mozart avec des parties de vents supplémentaires.

Beethoven

 29 mars 1795 : première apparition publique de Beethoven en concert à Vienne. Il joue l'un de ses deux premiers concertos pour piano ; lequel n'est pas connu. Première de l'oratorio Gioas re di Giuda d'Antonio Casimir Cartellieri en complément de deux de ses symphonies en ut mineur et en mi bémol majeur.
 23 décembre 1797 : au programme, l'ensemble des variations de Beethoven sur l'air de  de l'opéra Don Giovanni de Mozart, pour deux hautbois et cor anglais.
 1 et 2 avril 1798 : Dans un concert dont l'œuvre principale était Les Sept Dernières Paroles du Christ de Haydn (voir ci-dessus), Beethoven a eu sa part dans le programme de la première soirée, en interprétant la partie de piano dans son quintette pour piano et vents.
 30 et 31 mars 1817 : œuvres du désormais célèbre Beethoven : sa Septième Symphonie et son oratorio Christus am Ölberge.
 24 et 26 mars 1839 : le programme comprend des œuvres de Beethoven, décédé en 1827 : le deuxième mouvement de la Septième Symphonie et sa cantate , interprétée sur un texte de Friedrich Rochlitz intitulé Preis der Tonkunst ().

Mendelssohn

 22 et 23 décembre 1857 : Elias de Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847). L'œuvre, créée ailleurs en 1846, avait rejoint les rangs des œuvres classiques susceptibles d'être interprétées par une société d'oratorio.

Notes et références

Bibliographie
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Histoire de Vienne (Autriche)
Culture à Vienne (Autriche)
Musique en Autriche
Musique autrichienne
Association ou organisme ayant son siège à Vienne (Autriche)
Organisme fondé en 1771
Organisme disparu en 1939
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Joseph Haydn
Ludwig van Beethoven

Tonkünstler-Societät


El IHLIA LGBTI Heritage, anteriormente Internationaal Homo/Lesbisch Informatiecentrum en Archief («Archivo y centro de información homo/lésbico internacional», IHLIA) es una ONG de los Países Bajos fundada en el año 2000. Es el mayor centro de información de su tipo en Europa. El IHLIA tiene una sede en Ámsterdam.

El ILHIA nació en el año 2000 de la fusión del Amsterdam Homodok, el Lesbisch Archief Amsterdam y el Lesbisch Archief Leeuwarden. Con base en esta unión, se llegó a una completa biblioteca y archivo, así como a un centro de información y documentación sobre temas que afectan a la comunidad LGBT. En Ámsterdam se encuentra el centro de documentación en la biblioteca pública (Openbar Bibliotheek Amsterdam, OBA) y en Leeuwarden antes estaba en el Anna Blaman-huis, pero desde julio de 2011 se encuentra también en la biblioteca pública. La sede en Leeuwarden se cerró en octubre de 2013.

Historia
La Universidad de Ámsterdam ya había creado un departamento de «Estudios homosexuales» (Homostudies) desde 1971, con el objetivo de estudiar la historia de la homosexualidad. En años posteriores, la Universidad fusionó sus archivos con el Archief en Documentatiecentrum van Homosexualität, el Homodok y el Lesbisch Archief Amsterdam. Esto llevaría en el 2000 a la fundación del IHLIA.

Colección
La biblioteca y el archivo contienen más de 100.000 publicaciones: libros, revistas, vídeos, documentales, folletos, carteles y ponencias. Las publicaciones no están sujetas a préstamo. Los estudiosos interesados pueden realizar copias y el IHLIA también puede realizar bibliografías.

Actividades
El IHLIA ha organizado diversas exposiciones, entre las que se pueden destacar Monument van Trots, Faces and Phases, Zanele Muholi / Proudly African & Transgender, Gabrielle LeRoux, 25 years GLBT non discrimination policy, Faces of IGLYO, Oriental Echoes, 20 jaar Homomonument, Benno Premsela, We Live Here, Lesbian ConneXions, Gay rights activist in court y otros.

En julio de 2009, el IHLIA organizó unas 30 actividades para mujeres durante el Orgullo Gay de Ámsterdam.

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Rob Tielman: Homoseksualiteit in Nederland: studie van een emancipatiebeweging. («Historia del movimiento homosexual en los Países Bajos»). Uitgeverij Boom, Meppel 1982. ISBN 90-6009-403-4
 Van der Wel, Jack: IHLIA - Making information on LGBTIQ issues in the past and the present accessible and visible, p 158 - 161 in: Ellen Greenblatt (ed.): Serving LGBTIQ library and archives users. Essays on outreach, service, collections and access, Jefferson, North Carolina : McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, [2011]. Googlebooks

Enlaces externos

 Página oficial: Homomonument. (holandés)
 Enlaces a archivos y bibliotecas LGBTI internacionales en Australia, Bélgica, Brasil, Canadá, China, Alemania, Francia, Gran Bretaña, Italia, México y algunos otros países.

Archivos y museos LGBT
LGBT en los Países Bajos
Cultura de Ámsterdam
Archivos de los Países Bajos
LGBT en 1999

IHLIA LGBTI Heritage


Aaja Nachle (Ven y Baila) es una película de la India dirigida por Anil Mehta y protagonizada por Madhuri Dixit. La actriz retornó al cine después de 6 años de ausencia. En 2007 Aaja Nachle fue un fracaso en taquilla pero más tarde se hizo un éxito de culto. The Times informó sobre semejanzas entre Aaja Nachle y la película brasileña Xuxa Requebra (2002).

Reparto
 Madhuri Dixit como Dia.
 Akshaye Khanna como MP Raja Uday Singh.
 Konkona Sen Sharma como Anokhi.
 Kunal Kapoor como Imran Pathan.
 Divya Dutta como Najma.
 Ranvir Shorey como Mohan Sharma.
 Felix D'Alviella como Steve.
 Dalai como Radha.
 Raghubir Yadav como Doctor.
 Vinay Pathak como Mr. Chojar
 Akhilendra Mishra como Chaudhary Om Singh.
 Jugal Hansraj como Sanjeev Mehta.
 Yashpal Sharma como S.H.O. Singh
 Nowaz como Dhan Kuber.
 Darshan Jariwala como Makarand.
 Sushmita Mukherjee como Mrs. Chojar
 Irrfan Khan como Farooque, esposo de Najma.
 Uttara Baokar como  Mrs. Srivastav
 Nirmal Pandey como Inspector.

Banda sonora

Referencias

Aaja Nachle


El sistema de lanzamiento espacial (en inglés: "Space Launch System" o "SLS"), es un vehículo de lanzamiento no recuperable superpesado estadounidense que está siendo desarrollado por la NASA desde 2011. El primer lanzamiento, denominado Artemis 1, tuvo lugar el 16 de noviembre de 2022 a las 06:47 UTC desde el Centro Espacial Kennedy. El SLS sustituye a los vehículos de lanzamiento Ares I y Ares V, que fueron cancelados junto con el resto del Proyecto Constelación, un programa anterior destinado a volver a la Luna. El SLS está destinado a convertirse en el sucesor del retirado transbordador espacial y en el principal vehículo de lanzamiento de los planes de exploración del espacio profundo de la NASA hasta finales de la década de 2030. En el marco del programa Artemis se prevén vuelos lunares con tripulación, que conducirán a una posible misión humana a Marte. El SLS se está desarrollando en tres grandes fases con capacidades crecientes: Block 1, Block 1B y Block 2. A partir de noviembre de 2022, los vehículos de lanzamiento SLS Block 1 van a lanzar las tres primeras misiones Artemis y está previsto que cinco vuelos posteriores del SLS utilicen el Block 1B, tras lo cual todos los vuelos utilizarán el Block 2.

El SLS lanzó la nave Orión en el marco del programa Artemis, utilizando las instalaciones de operaciones terrestres y de lanzamiento del Centro Espacial Kennedy de la NASA en Florida el 16 de noviembre de 2022. Se prevé que Artemis utilice como máximo un SLS cada año hasta al menos 2030. El SLS se lanzó por primera vez desde el LC-39B en el Centro Espacial Kennedy.

El primer lanzamiento fue ordenado originalmente por el Congreso para diciembre de 2016, pero se ha retrasado al menos dieciséis veces, añadiendo más de cinco años al calendario original de seis años.

Diseño y desarrollo

El 14 de septiembre de 2011, la NASA anunció su selección de diseño para el nuevo sistema de lanzamiento, declarando que, en combinación con la nave espacial Orión, llevaría a los astronautas de la agencia más lejos en el espacio que nunca antes y proporcionaría la piedra angular para los futuros programas de exploración espacial tripulada.

Se planean tres versiones del vehículo de lanzamiento SLS: Bloque 1, Bloque 1B y Bloque 2. Cada uno utilizará la misma etapa central con cuatro motores principales, pero el Bloque 1B contará con una segunda etapa más potente llamada Etapa Superior de Exploración (EUS). El bloque 2 combinará el EUS con boosters aumentados. El bloque 1 tiene la capacidad de colocar una carga básica de 70 toneladas en órbita terrestre baja (OTB o LEO por sus siglas en inglés), mientras que el bloque 1B llegará hasta las 105 toneladas. El Bloque 2 propuesto tendrá una capacidad de 130 toneladas (LEO), que es similar a la de Saturno V.  Algunas fuentes afirman que esto haría al SLS el más capaz vehículo pesado jamás construido, aunque el Saturno V elevó aproximadamente 140 toneladas métricas a LEO en la misión Apolo 17.

Durante el desarrollo del SLS se consideraron varias configuraciones, incluyendo un bloque 0 con tres motores principales, una variante del bloque 1A que habría mejorado los propulsores del vehículo en vez de su segunda etapa, y un bloque 2 con cinco motores principales y una segunda etapa diferente, la etapa de salida de la Tierra, con hasta tres motores J-2X.  En febrero de 2015, se informó de que las evaluaciones de la NASA habían mostrado un "rendimiento superior" en la comparativa entre las configuraciones de Bloque 1 y Bloque 1B.

El 31 de julio de 2013, la SLS aprobó la Revisión Preliminar de Diseño (PDR). La revisión abarcó todos los aspectos del diseño del SLS, no sólo el cohete principal y los auxiliares ("boosters"), sino también el sistema de apoyo en tierra y la logística. El 7 de agosto de 2014, el bloque 1 de SLS pasó un hito conocido como Punto de Decisión Clave C y entró en desarrollo a gran escala, con una fecha estimada de lanzamiento de noviembre de 2018.

Características

El diseño de este vehículo será similar al del Saturno V, siendo un poco más grande y entre un 10 y un 20% más potente que éste, siendo pues un sistema capaz de lanzar misiones más allá de la órbita terrestre.

Reducción de costes
Con objeto de reducir costes, el nuevo diseño será modular. Esto permitirá por un lado optimizar el gasto de cada lanzamiento, ajustando la configuración del cohete a las necesidades específicas de cada misión. Por otro lado, también permitirá dosificar la inversión en desarrollo, al aplazar el diseño de los módulos de potencia extra para cuando los módulos básicos estén ya finalizados. Esta filosofía de desarrollo ocasionará que las capacidades del SLS vayan aumentando progresivamente a lo largo de la década de 2020, para alcanzar su funcionalidad completa en torno a 2032.

También reutilizará componentes tanto del finalizado programa Shuttle (STS), como del cancelado proyecto Constelación. El cohete constará de dos etapas y podría usar combustible líquido en contraposición al sólido que se empleaba hasta la fecha; sin embargo esta característica no es definitiva, pues el diseño de la primera etapa del cohete está supeditado esencialmente al rendimiento de las distintas propuestas que se presenten.

Para las misiones tripuladas de esta lanzadera está previsto continuar con el diseño en curso de la nave Orión.

Descripción del vehículo

Etapa central
La Etapa Central del Sistema de Lanzamiento Espacial tendrá un diámetro de 8,4 metros y utilizará cuatro motores RS-25. Los vuelos iniciales utilizarán motores RS-25D modificados que queden del programa del transbordador espacial , se espera que los vuelos posteriores cambien a una versión más barata del motor no destinada a ser reutilizada. La estructura de la etapa consistirá en un tanque externo modificado del transbordador espacial con la sección de popa adaptada para aceptar el sistema de propulsión principal (MPS) del cohete y la tapa convertida para recibir una estructura entre etapas. Será fabricado en la planta de montaje de Michoud.

La etapa central será común en todas las evoluciones actualmente planificadas del SLS. La planificación inicial incluyó estudios de una configuración más pequeña del bloque 0 con tres motores RS-25, que fue eliminado para evitar la necesidad de rediseñar sustancialmente la etapa del núcleo para las variantes de mayor alcance. Del mismo modo, mientras que los primeros planes del bloque 2 incluían cinco motores RS-25 en el núcleo, se cambió posteriormente a una configuración con cuatro motores.

Propulsores

Propulsores derivados de la lanzadera espacial
Los bloques 1 y 1B del SLS usarán dos cohetes de combustible sólido (SRBs) de cinco segmentos, los cuales están basados en los  del Transbordador Espacial de cuatro segmentos. Las modificaciones para el SLS incluyeron la adición de un segmento de refuerzo central, una nueva aviónica, y un nuevo aislamiento que elimina el asbesto del SRB de la lanzadera y es 860 kilogramos más ligero. Los SRB de cinco segmentos proporcionan aproximadamente un 25% más de impulso total que los SRBs del Shuttle y no se recuperarán después del uso.

Orbital ATK (antes Alliant Techsystems) ha completado pruebas de ignición estática de duración completa de los SRBs de cinco segmentos. Estos incluyen la activación exitosa de tres motores de desarrollo (DM-1 a DM-3) entre 2009 y 2011. El motor DM-2 fue enfriado hasta una temperatura de 4 °C en el núcleo, y el DM-3 se calentó por encima de los 32 °C para validar el rendimiento a temperaturas extremas. El Motor de Calificación 1 ( en siglas en inglés QM-1) fue probado el 10 de marzo de 2015. El Motor de Calificación 2 fue probado con éxito el 28 de junio de 2016. Era la prueba final en tierra antes de la Misión de Exploración 1 (en siglas en inglés EM-1).

Aceleradores avanzados
Para el bloque 2, la NASA planea cambiar los SRB de cinco segmentos derivados del Shuttle por aceleradores avanzados.  Esto ocurrirá después del desarrollo de la etapa superior de exploración para el bloque 1B. Los planes iniciales habrían desarrollado impulsores avanzados antes de una segunda etapa actualizada; esta configuración se llamó inicialmente Bloque 1A. En 2012 la NASA planeaba seleccionar estos nuevos cohetes auxiliares por medio de la llamada Advanced Booster Competition (Competencia para aceleradores avanzados), que debía ser celebrada en 2015.  Varias empresas propusieron aceleradores para esta competencia:
 Aerojet, en asociación con Teledyne Brown, ofreció un propulsor alimentado por tres motores AJ1E6, que sería un nuevo motor de combustión en etapas de oxidación rica en LOX / RP-1. Cada motor AJ1E6 produciría un empuje de 4900 kN utilizando una sola turbobomba para suministrar los propergoles a una cámaras de combustión dual. El 14 de febrero de 2013, la NASA adjudicó a Aerojet un contrato de 23,3 millones de dólares, de 30 meses, para construir un inyector principal y una cámara de empuje de 2400 kN.

 ATK propuso un SRB avanzado apodado "Dark Knight". Este booster cambiaría de un cuerpo de acero a otro hecha de material compuesto más ligero, usaría un propulsor más energético y reduciría el número de segmentos de cinco a cuatro. Entregaría un empuje máximo de más de 20.000 kN y pesaría 790.000 kg en el momento del encendido. Según ATK, el refuerzo avanzado sería un 40% más barato que el SRB de cinco segmentos derivado del Shuttle. No está claro si el booster permitirá al SLS poner en órbita en la LEO las 130 t requeridas sin la adición de un quinto motor a la etapa del núcleo,  pues un análisis 2013 indicó una capacidad máxima de 113 t con el núcleo básico de cuatro motores.

 Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne y Dynetics propusieron un cohete de combustible líquido llamado "Pyrios". El booster usaría dos motores F-1B que juntos entregarían un empuje máximo de 16000 kN en total, y serían capaces de acelerar continuamente hasta un mínimo de 12000 kN. El F-1B se derivaría del motor F-1, que impulsó la primera etapa del Saturn V. Habría sido más fácil de montar, con menos piezas y un diseño simplificado, al tiempo que proporcionaría una mayor eficiencia y un incremento de empuje de 110 kN.  Las estimaciones de 2012 indicaron que el booster de Pyrios podría aumentar la carga útil en órbita baja terrestre del bloque 2 a 150 t, 20 t más que la configuración básica.
Christopher Crumbly, gerente de la oficina de desarrollo avanzado de SLS de la NASA en enero de 2013, comentó sobre la competición del booster que "el F-1 tiene grandes ventajas porque es un generador de gas y tiene un ciclo muy simple. El ciclo de combustión en etapas ricas en oxígeno (el motor de Aerojet) tiene grandes ventajas porque tiene un impulso específico superior. Los rusos han estado volando con exceso de oxígeno durante mucho tiempo, cualquiera de los dos puede funcar, los sólidos (de ATK) podrían funcionar".

Un análisis posterior mostró que la configuración del bloque 1A daría como resultado una alta aceleración que sería inadecuada para Orión y podría requerir un rediseño costoso del núcleo del bloque 1. En 2014, la NASA confirmó el desarrollo del Bloque 1B en lugar del Bloque 1A y canceló la competición para los aceleradores en 2015. En febrero de 2015, se informó que se esperaba que SLS volara con el SRB de cinco segmentos hasta por lo menos finales de 2020 y se evaluaron las modificaciones en la plataforma de lanzamiento 39B, la fosa de llama y la plataforma de lanzamiento móvil del SLS basado en aceleradores de combustible sólido.

Etapa superior

Etapa de propulsión criogénica provisional
El bloque 1, programado para volar la Misión de Exploración 1 (EM-1) para noviembre de 2018, usará la Etapa de Propulsión Criogénica Interina (ICPS). Esta etapa será una modificada Delta IV de 5 metros Delta Cryogenic Segunda Etapa (DCSS),  y será alimentado por un solo RL10B-2. El bloque 1 será capaz de elevar 70 t en esta configuración, sin embargo el ICPS será considerado parte de la carga útil y se colocará en una trayectoria suborbital inicial de 1800 km por 93 km para garantizar la eliminación segura de la etapa central. ICPS realizará una quemadura de inserción orbital en el apogeo, y luego una inyección translunar quemar para enviar el Orion desenroscado en una excursión circunlunar.

Exploración Etapa Superior
La Etapa Superior de Exploración (EUS) está programada para debutar en la Misión de Exploración 2 (EM-2). Se espera que sea utilizado por el Bloque 1B y Bloque 2 y, al igual que la etapa central, tiene un diámetro de 8,4 metros. El EUS debe ser alimentado por cuatro motores RL10, completar la fase de ascenso SLS y luego volver a encenderse para enviar su carga útil a destinos más allá de la órbita terrestre baja, similar al papel desempeñado por la 3ª etapa de Saturn V, la J -2 alimentado S-IVB.

Otras etapas superiores
 La etapa de la salida de la tierra, accionada por los motores J-2X, sería la etapa superior del bloque 2 SLS tenía NASA decidido desarrollar el bloque 1A en vez del bloque 1B y del EUS.

 En 2013, la NASA y Boeing analizaron el desempeño de varias opciones de segunda etapa. El análisis se basó en una carga de propulsor utilizable de segunda etapa de 105 toneladas métricas, excepto para el Bloque 1 y el ICPS, que transportará 27,1 toneladas métricas. Se estudió la etapa superior del ICPS y las etapas superiores usando cuatro motores RL10 y dos motores MB60 y un motor J-2X. En 2014, la NASA también consideró el uso de la Vinci Europea en lugar de la RL10. El Vinci ofrece el mismo impulso específico, pero con un empuje del 64% mayor, lo que permitiría una reducción de uno o dos de los cuatro motores de segunda etapa para el mismo rendimiento a un costo menor. Las misiones de exploración robótica a Europa, luna de Júpiter helada, se consideran cada vez más bien adaptadas a las capacidades de elevación del SLB del bloque 1B.

 Un motor más allá-LEO para el viaje interplanetario de la órbita de tierra a la órbita de Marte, y la parte posterior, se está estudiando a partir de 2013 en el centro del vuelo espacial de Marshall con un foco en los motores nucleares del cohete termal (NTR). En las pruebas históricas de tierra, las NTR demostraron ser al menos dos veces más eficientes que los motores químicos más avanzados, lo que permite un tiempo de transferencia más rápido y una mayor capacidad de carga. La duración más corta de los vuelos, estimada en 3-4 meses con motores NTR, en comparación con 8-9 meses utilizando motores químicos , reduciría la exposición de la tripulación a los rayos cósmicos potencialmente dañinos y difíciles de proteger.  Los motores NTR, como el Pewee de Project Rover, fueron seleccionados en la Arquitectura de Referencia de Diseño de Marte (DRA).

Calendario de misiones del SLS
La siguiente lista incluye sólo misiones confirmadas.

Véase también
 Ares V, la lanzadera cancelada en favor de la SLS

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Space Launch System & Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle page on NASA.gov
 "Preliminary Report on Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Space Launch System" (PDF), NASA.
 SLS Future Frontiers video
 Video animations of mission to asteroid, moon and mars

Programa Orión
Programa Artemis

Sistema de lanzamiento espacial


La Supercoupe d'Espagne 2001 (en espagnol : Supercopa de España 2001) est la seizième édition de la Supercoupe d'Espagne, épreuve qui oppose le champion d'Espagne au vainqueur de la Coupe du Roi. Disputée en match aller-retour les  et , l'épreuve est remportée par le Real Madrid aux dépens du Real Saragosse sur le score cumulé de 4 à 1.

Il s'agit du sixième titre du Real Madrid dans cette compétition.

Compétition

Références

Lien externe
 Supercoupe d'Espagne sur www.rsssf.com

2001
Football en Espagne en 2001
Sport en août 2001
Face-à-face du Real Madrid
Face-à-face du Real Saragosse

Supercoupe d'Espagne de football 2001


Antisocial behaviours (sometimes called dissocial behaviours) are actions which are considered to violate the rights of or otherwise harm others by committing crime or nuisance, such as stealing and physical attack or noncriminal behaviours such as lying and manipulation. It is considered to be disruptive to others in society. This can be carried out in various ways, which includes, but is not limited to, intentional aggression, as well as covert and overt hostility. Anti-social behaviour also develops through social interaction within the family and community. It continuously affects a child's temperament, cognitive ability and their involvement with negative peers, dramatically affecting children's cooperative problem-solving skills. Many people also label behaviour which is deemed contrary to prevailing norms for social conduct as anti-social behaviour. However, researchers have stated that it is a difficult term to define, particularly in the United Kingdom where many acts fall into its category. The term is especially used in British English.

Although the term is fairly new to the common lexicon, the word anti-social behaviour has been used for many years in the psychosocial world where it was defined as "unwanted behaviour as the result of personality disorder." For example, David Farrington, a British criminologist and forensic psychologist, stated that teenagers can exhibit anti-social behaviour by engaging in various amounts of wrongdoings such as stealing, vandalism, sexual promiscuity, excessive smoking, heavy drinking, confrontations with parents, and gambling. In children, conduct disorders could result from ineffective parenting. Anti-social behaviour is typically associated with other behavioural and developmental issues such as hyperactivity, depression, learning disabilities, and impulsivity. Alongside these issues one can be predisposed or more inclined to develop such behaviour due to one's genetics, neurobiological and environmental stressors in the prenatal stage of one's life, through the early childhood years.

The American Psychiatric Association, in its Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, diagnoses persistent anti-social behaviour as antisocial personality disorder. Genetic factors include abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex of the brain while neurobiological risk include maternal drug use during pregnancy, birth complications, low birth weight, prenatal brain damage, traumatic head injury, and chronic illness. The World Health Organization includes it in the International Classification of Diseases as dissocial personality disorder. A pattern of persistent anti-social behaviours can also be present in children and adolescents diagnosed with conduct problems, including conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder under the DSM-5. It has been suggested that individuals with intellectual disabilities have higher tendencies to display anti-social behaviours, but this may be related to social deprivation and mental health problems. More research is required on this topic.

Development
Intent and discrimination may determine both pro- and anti-social behaviour. Infants may act in seemingly anti-social ways and yet be generally accepted as too young to know the difference before the age of four or five. Berger states that parents should teach their children that "emotions need to be regulated, not depressed". One problem with the assumption that a behaviour that is "simply ignorant" in infants would have antisocial causes in persons older than 4 or 5 years at the same time as the latter are supposed to have more complex brains (and with it a more advanced consciousness) is that it presumes that what appears to be the same behaviour would have fewer possible causes in a more complex brain than in a less complex brain, which is criticized because a more complex brain increases the number of possible causes of what looks like the same behaviour as opposed to decreasing it.

Studies have shown that in children between ages 13–14 who bully or show aggressive behaviour towards others exhibit anti-social behaviours in their early adulthood. There are strong statistical relationships that show this significant association between childhood aggressiveness and anti-social behaviours. Analyses saw that 20% of these children who exhibit anti-social behaviours at later ages had court appearances and police contact as a result of their behaviour.

Many of the studies regarding the media's influence on anti-social behaviour have been deemed inconclusive. Some reviews have found strong correlations between aggression and the viewing of violent media, while others find little evidence to support their case. The only unanimously accepted truth regarding anti-social behaviour is that parental guidance carries an undoubtedly strong influence; providing children with brief negative evaluations of violent characters helps to reduce violent effects in the individual.

Cause and effects

Family

Families greatly impact the causation of anti-social behaviour. Some other familial causes are parent history of anti-social behaviours, parental alcohol and drug abuse, unstable home life, absence of good parenting, physical abuse, parental instability (mental health issues/PTSD) and economic distress within the family.

Neurobiology
Studies have found that there is a link between antisocial behaviour and increased amygdala activity specifically centered around facial expressions that are based in anger. This research focuses on the fact that the symptom of over reactivity to perceived threats that comes with antisocial behaviour may be from this increase in amygdala activity. This focus on perceived threat does not include emotions centered around distress.

Consumption patterns
There is a small link between antisocial personality characteristics in adulthood and more TV watching as a child. The risk of early adulthood criminal conviction increased by nearly 30 percent with each hour children spent watching TV on an average weekend. Peers can also impact one's predisposition to anti-social behaviours, in particular, children in peer groups are more likely to associate with anti-social behaviours if present within their peer group. Especially within youth, patterns of lying, cheating and disruptive behaviours found in young children are early signs of anti-social behaviour. Adults must intervene if they notice their children providing these behaviours. Early detection is best in the preschool years and middle school years in best hopes of interrupting the trajectory of these negative patterns. These patterns in children can lead to conduct disorder, a disorder that allows children to rebel against atypical age-appropriate norms. Moreover, these offences can lead to oppositional defiant disorder, which allows children to be defiant against adults and create vindictive behaviours and patterns. Furthermore, children who exhibit anti-social behaviour also are more prone to alcoholism in adulthood.

Genetics
A recent genome-wide analysis of anti-social behaviour in a large combined sample has shown that a large number of genetic variants of low individual effect play a role in anti-social behaviour. Moreover, this study showed that several variants show gender-specific effects on anti-social behaviour in males and females. The study identified a specific gene which is one serotonin transporter gene variant is particularly associated with psychopathic trends in young people.

Intervention and treatment
As a high prevalence mental health problem in children, many interventions and treatments are developed to prevent anti-social behaviours and to help reinforce pro-social behaviours.

Several factors are considered as direct or indirect causes of developing anti-social behaviour in children. Addressing these factors are necessary to develop a reliable and effective intervention or treatment. Children's perinatal risk, temperament, intelligence, nutrition level, and interaction with parents or caregivers can influence their behaviours. As for parents or caregivers, their personality traits, behaviours, socioeconomic status, social network, and living environment can also affect children's development of anti-social behaviour.

An individual's age at intervention is a strong predictor of the effectiveness of a given treatment. The specific kinds of anti-social behaviours exhibited, as well as the magnitude of those behaviours also impact how effective a treatment is for an individual. Behavioural parent training (BPT) is more effective to preschool or elementary school-aged children, and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) has higher effectiveness for adolescents. Moreover, early intervention of anti-social behaviour is relatively more promising. For preschool children, family is the main consideration for the context of intervention and treatment. The interaction between children and parents or caregivers, parenting skills, social support, and socioeconomic status would be the factors. For school-aged children, the school context also needs to be considered. The collaboration amongst parents, teachers, and school psychologists are usually recommended to help children develop the ability of resolving conflicts, managing their anger, developing positive interactions with other students, and learning pro-social behaviours within both home and school settings.

Moreover, the training for parents or caregivers are also important. Their children would be more likely to learn positive social behaviours and reduce inappropriate behaviours if they become good role models and have effective parenting skills.

Cognitive behavioural therapy
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), is a highly effective, evidence-based therapy, in relation to anti-social behaviour. This type of treatment focuses on enabling the patients to create an accurate image of the self, allowing the individuals to find the trigger of their harmful actions and changing how individuals think and act in social situations. Due to their impulsivity, their inability to form trusting relationships and their nature of blaming others when a situation arises, individuals with particularly aggressive anti-social behaviours tend to have maladaptive social cognitions, including hostile attribution bias, which lead to negative behavioural outcomes. CBT has been found to be more effective for older children and less effective for younger children. Problem-solving skills training (PSST) is a type of CBT that aims to recognize and correct how an individual thinks and consequently behaves in social environments. This training provides steps to assist people in obtaining the skill to be able to evaluate potential solutions to problems occurring outside of therapy and learn how to create positive solutions to avoid physical aggression and resolve conflict.

Therapists, when providing CBT intervention to individuals with anti-social behaviour, should first assess the level of the risk of the behaviour in order to establish a plan on the duration and intensity of the intervention. Moreover, therapists should support and motivate individuals to practice the new skills and behaviours in environments and contexts where the conflicts would naturally occur to observe the effects of CBT.

Behavioural parent training
Behavioural parent training (BPT) or parent management training (PMT), focuses on changing how parents interact with their children and equips them with ways to recognize and change their child's maladaptive behaviour in a variety of situations. BPT assumes that individuals are exposed to reinforcements and punishments daily and that anti-social behaviour, which can be learned, is a result of these reinforcements and punishments. Since certain types of interactions between parents and children may reinforce a child's anti-social behaviour, the aim of BPT is to teach the parent effective skills to better manage and communicate with their child. This could be done by reinforcing pro-social behaviours while punishing or ignoring anti-social behaviours. It is important to note that the effects of this therapy can be seen only if the newly acquired communication methods are maintained. BPT has been found to be most effective for younger children under the age of 12. Researchers credit the effectiveness of this treatment at younger ages due to the fact that younger children are more reliant on their parents. BPT is used to treat children with conduct problems, but also for children with ADHD.

According to a meta-analysis, the effectiveness of BPT is supported by short-term changes on the children's anti-social behaviour. However, whether these changes are maintained over a longer period of time is still unclear.

School-based Intervention
First Step to Success  is an early intervention for Kindergarten to 3rd grade children who are demonstrating antisocial behaviours. First Step is a collaborative intervention between home and school. There are three important components: (1) Screening; (2) School intervention (CLASS): teaches the child appropriate behaviour through positive reinforcement; (3) Home intervention (HomeBase): teaches the parent key skills for supporting their child and the use of positive reinforcement. The classroom intervention phase (CLASS) takes about 30 days to complete and has 3 phases: (1) Coach-led; (2) Teacher-led; (3) Maintaining. The Red Card/Green Card game (red = inappropriate behaviour; green = appropriate behaviour) is played at school each day. The coach/teacher shows a red/green card as a visual cue to the target student based on their current behaviour. Points are earned if the card is on green at the end of a timed interval. If enough points are earned at the end of the game, the target child gets to choose a reward that the entire class can enjoy together (i.e., extra time at recess, playing a special game, etc.). Coaches/teachers communicate daily with parent(s) throughout the intervention. The home intervention (HomeBase) begins a few days after the classroom intervention. HomeBase builds parent's confidence in 6 specific skill areas and in parent-child activities. Coaches meet with parent(s) once weekly for 6 weeks. Parent(s) engage with the target child for 10–15 minutes daily in one-on-one time during the intervention. Overall, First Steps takes about 3 months to implement, requires minimal time from parent(s) and teachers and has shown empirically positive results in increasing prosocial behaviour in at-risk children.

Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy or talk therapy, although not always effective, can also be used to treat individuals with anti-social behaviour. Individuals can learn skills such as anger and violence management. This type of therapy can help individuals with anti-social behaviour bridge the gap between their feelings and behaviours, which they lack the connection previously. It is most effective when specific issues are being discussed with individuals with anti-social behaviours, rather than a broad general concept. This type of therapy works well with individuals who are at a mild to moderate stage of anti-social behaviour since they still have some sense of responsibility regarding their own problems. Mentalization-based treatment is another form of group psychotherapy shifting its focus on the relational and mental factors related to anti-social personality disorder rather than anger management and violent acts. This particular group therapy targets the mentalizing vulnerabilities and attachment patterns of patients by using a semi-structured group process focused on personal formulation and by establishing group values to promote learning from other members and generating "we-ness."

When working with individuals with anti-social behaviour, therapist must be mindful of building a trusting therapeutic relationship since these individuals might have never experienced rewarding relationships. Therapists also need to be reminded that changes might take place slowly, thus an ability for noticing small changes and constant encouragement for individuals with anti-social behaviour to continue the intervention are required.

Family therapy
Family therapy, which is a type of psychotherapy, helps promote communication between family members, thus resolving conflicts related to anti-social behaviour. Since family exerts enormous influence over children's development, it is important to identify the behaviours that could potentially lead to anti-social behaviours in children. It is a relatively short-term therapy which involves the family members who are willing to participate. Family therapy can be used to address specific topics such as aggression. The therapy may end when the family can resolve conflicts without needing the therapists to intervene.

Diagnosis
There is no official diagnosis for anti-social behaviour. However, we can have a look at the official diagnosis for Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) and use it as guideline while keeping in mind that anti-social behaviour and ASPD are not to be confused.

Distinguishing from antisocial personality disorder
When looking at non-ASPD patients (who show anti-social behaviour) and ASPD patients, it all comes down to the same types of behaviours. However, ASPD is a Personality Disorder which is defined by the consistency and stability of the observed behaviour, in this case, anti-social behaviour. Antisocial Personality Disorder can only be diagnosed when a pattern of anti-social behaviour began being noticeable during childhood and/or early teens and remained stable and consistent across time and context. In the official DSM IV-TR for ASPD, it is specified that the anti-social behaviour has to occur outside of time frames surrounding traumatic life events or manic episodes (if the individual is diagnosed with another mental disorder). The diagnosis for ASPD cannot be done before the age of 18. For example, someone who exhibits anti-social behaviour with their family but pro-social behaviour with friends and coworkers would not qualify for ASPD because the behaviour is not consistent across context. Someone who was consistently behaving in a pro-social way and then begins exhibiting anti-social behaviour in response to a specific life event would not qualify for ASPD either because the behaviour is not stable across time.

Law breaking behaviour in which the individuals are putting themselves or others at risk is considered anti-social even if it is not consistent or stable (Examples : speeding, use of drugs, getting in physical conflict). In relation to the previous statement, juvenile delinquency is a core element to the diagnosis of ASPD. Individuals who begin getting in trouble with the law (in more than one area) at an abnormally early age (around 15) and keep recurrently doing so in adulthood may be suspected of having ASPD.

Evidence: frustration and aggression
With some limitations, research has established a correlation between frustration and aggression when it comes to anti-social behaviour. The presence of anti-social behaviour may be detected when an individual is experiencing an abnormally high amount of frustrations in their daily life routine and when those frustrations always result into aggression. The term impulsivity is commonly used to describe this behavioural pattern. Anti-social behaviour can also be detected if the aggressiveness and impulsiveness of the individual's behaviour in response to frustrations is so that it causes obstruction to social interactions and achievement of personal goals. In both of these cases, we can consider the different types of treatment and therapy previously mentioned in this article.
 Examples in childhood: unable to make friends, unable to follow rules, getting kicked out of school, unable to fulfill minimal levels of education (elementary school, middle school).
 Examples in early adulthood: unable to keep a job or an apartment, difficulty with maintaining relationships.

Prognosis
The prognosis of having anti-social behaviour is not very favourable due to its high stability throughout children development. Studies have shown that children who are aggressive and have conduct problems are more likely to have anti-social behaviour in adolescence. Early intervention of anti-social behaviour is relatively more effective since the anti-social pattern lasts for a shorter period of time. Moreover, since younger children would have smaller social networks and less social activities, fewer contexts need to be considered for the intervention and treatment. For adolescents, studies have shown that the influence of treatments becomes less effective.

The prognosis seems to not be influenced by the duration of intervention, however; a long-term follow-up is necessary to confirm that the intervention or treatment is effective.

Individuals who exhibit anti-social behaviour are more likely to use drugs and abuse alcohol. This could make the prognosis worse since he or she would less likely be involved in social activities and would become more isolated.

By location

United Kingdom

An anti-social behaviour order (ASBO) is a civil order made against a person who has been shown, on the balance of evidence, to have engaged in anti-social behaviour. The orders, introduced in the United Kingdom by Prime Minister Tony Blair in 1998, were designed to criminalize minor incidents that would not have warranted prosecution before.

The Crime and Disorder Act 1998 defines anti-social behaviour as acting in a manner that has "caused or was likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same household" as the perpetrator. There has been debate concerning the vagueness of this definition.

However, among legal professionals in the UK there are behaviours commonly considered to fall under the definitions of anti-social behaviour. These include, but are not limited to, threatening or intimidating actions, racial or religious harassment, verbal abuse, and physical abuse.

In a survey conducted by University College London during May 2006, the UK was thought by respondents to be Europe's worst country for anti-social behaviour, with 76% believing Britain had a "big or moderate problem".

Current legislation governing anti-social behaviour in the UK is the Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 which received Royal Assent in March 2014 and came into enforcement in October 2014. This replaces tools such as the ASBO with 6 streamlined tools designed to make it easier to act on anti-social behaviour.

Australia
Anti-social behaviour can have a negative effect and impact on Australian communities and their perception of safety. The Western Australia Police force define anti-social behaviour as any behaviour that annoys, irritates, disturbs or interferes with a person's ability to go about their lawful business. In Australia, many different acts are classed as anti-social behaviour, such as: misuse of public space' disregard for community safety; disregard for personal well-being; acts directed at people; graffiti; protests; liquor offences; and drunk driving. It has been found that it is very common for Australian adolescents to engage in different levels of anti-social behaviour. A survey was conducted in 1996 in New South Wales, Australia, of 441, 234 secondary school students in years 7 to 12 about their involvement in anti-social activities. 38.6% reported intentionally damaging or destroying someone else's property, 22.8% admitted to having received or selling stolen goods and close to 40% confessed to attacking someone with the idea of hurting them. The Australian community are encouraged to report any behaviour of concern and play a vital role assisting police in reducing anti-social behaviour. One study conducted in 2016 established how perpetrators of anti-social behaviour may not actually intend to cause offense. The study examined anti-social behaviours (or microaggressions) within the LGBTIQ community on a university campus. The study established how many members felt that other people would often commit anti-social behaviours, however there was no explicit suggestion of any maliciousness behind these acts. Rather, it was just that the offenders were naive to the impact of their behaviour.

The Western Australia Police force uses a three-step strategy to deal with anti-social behaviour.

 Prevention – This action uses community engagement, intelligence, training and development and the targeting of hotspots, attempting to prevent unacceptable behaviour from occurring.
 Response – A timely and effective response to anti-social behaviour is vital. Police provide ownership, leadership and coordination to apprehend offenders.
 Resolution – Identifying the underlying issues that cause anti-social behaviour and resolve these issues with the help of the community. Offenders are successfully prosecuted.

Japan
The 1970's, brought attention to a social and historical phenomenon called hikikomori. Often called the lost generation, with pervasive and severe social withdrawal and anti-social tendencies. Individuals with hikikomori, are commonly in their 20's or 30's, avoiding as much social interaction as possible. Japanese psychologist and leading expert on the topic, Tamaki Saito, was one of the first to present that approximately 1% of the country's population was considered hikikomori at the time. Today, it is still existent in Japan taking on new forms of seclusion by using digital tools, such as video games and internet chatting, to replace social interaction. The term Hikikomori has since been used throughout the world, in Asia, Europe, North and South America, Africa and Australia.

See also

References

Further reading

External links
 Anti-Social Behaviour.org.uk
 MIT Technology Review - How a Troll-Spotting Algorithm Learned Its Anti-antisocial Trade

Behavioral addiction
Criminal subcultures

Anti-social behaviour


François de La Rocque (; ) a fost liderul ligii franceze de aripa dreaptă Croix de Feu din 1930 până în 1936, apoi fondatorul și liderul organizației naționaliste mai moderate Parti Sociale Français (1936-1940), care poate fi văzut ca un precursor al gaullismului.

Primii ani
S-a născut pe 6 octombrie 1885 în Lorient, Bretania, ca al treilea fiu al unei familii din Haute-Auvergne. Părinții lui au fost generalul Raymond de La Rocque, comandantul artileriei Bazei Navale Lorient, și Anne Sollier.

A fost admis în Academia Militară de la Saint-Cyr în 1905, clasa "Promotion la Dernière du Vieux Bahut", și a absolvit în anul 1907. El a fost trimis în Algeria și la marginea Saharei, iar în 1912, la Luneville. În anul următor a fost chemat în Maroc de generalul Hubert Lyautey. În ciuda izbucnirii Primului Război Mondial, el a rămas acolo ca ofițer însărcinat cu afacerile indigene până în 1916, când a fost grav rănit și repatriat în Franța. Între timp, fratele său mai mare, Raymond, maior în armată, fusese ucis într-o luptă din 1915. În ciuda acestui fapt, el s-a oferit voluntar pentru a lupta pe Frontul de Vest și a fost trimis în tranșeele de pe Somme la comanda unui batalion.

După război, el a fost repartizat în statul major interaliat al mareșalului Ferdinand Foch, iar în 1921 a mers în Polonia cu Misiunea Militară Franceză condusă de generalul Maxime Weygand. În 1925 a devenit șef al Biroului 2 al statului major al Forțelor Franceze din Maroc în timpul campaniei mareșalului Philippe Pétain împotriva lui Abd el-Krim. El a demisionat din armată în 1927 cu gradul de locotenent-colonel.

Croix-de-Feu și criza din 6 februarie 1934
François de La Rocque a intrat în mișcarea patriotică și socială catolică creată de Lamennais la sfârșitul secolului al XIX-lea. El a aderat apoi la liga naționalistă Croix-de-Feu în 1929, la doi ani după constituirea acesteia, și a preluat conducerea organizației în 1930. El a transformat rapid liga veteranilor, creând o organizație paramilitară (les dispos, prescurtare de la disponibles – disponibili) și a format o organizație de tineret, Fiii și Fiicele Crucii de Foc (les fils et filles de Croix-de-Feu). De asemenea, el a acceptat pe oricine ce era de acord cu ideologia ligii în grupul Volontaires nationaux (Voluntari Naționali). Din cauza crizei, La Rocque a adăugat ideologiei naționaliste un program social care prevedea apărarea economiei naționale împotriva concurenței străine, protecția forței de muncă franceze, impozite mai mici, lupta cu speculanții și diminuarea influenței statului în economie. Acesta era însă un program vag, iar La Rocque nu i-a acordat un aspect fascist și antirepublican clar așa cum i-au cerut unii voluntari naționali.

La Rocque s-a concentrat pe organizarea de parade militare și a fost foarte mândru că a provocat Ministerul de Interne prin două coloane ale Croix-de-Feu în ajunul revoltelor din 6 februarie 1934. Croix-de-Feu a luat parte la aceste demonstrații ale mișcărilor de extrema dreaptă, cu două grupuri, unul de pe strada Bourgogne și celălalt lângă Petit Palais, care urmau să se unească în fața Palatului Bourbon, sediul Adunării Naționale. Dar colonelul de La Rocque a ordonat împrăștierea demonstranților în jurul orei 8:45 p.m., când alte ligi de extrema dreaptă au început manifestații în Place de la Concorde, în fața palatului Bourbon. Numai locotenent-colonelul de Puymaigre, un membru al Croix-de-Feu și, de asemenea, consilier municipal al Parisului, a încercat, fără succes, să forțeze barajul poliției. După aceste revolte, organizațiile franceze de extremă dreapta și o parte a celor de dreapta l-au criticat pentru că nu a încercat să răstoarne Republica.

Parti Social Français și Al Doilea Război Mondial
Croix-de-Feu a fost dizolvată, la fel ca toate celelalte ligi, în iunie 1936 de către guvernul Frontului Popular, iar de La Rocque a format Parti Sociale Français sau PSF (1936), care a funcționat până la invazia germană din 1940. Până în 1940, PSF a avut o poziție mai moderată, fiind primul partid francez de masă cu orientare de dreapta (a avut între 600.000 și 800.000 de membri între 1936 și 1940). Programul său a fost naționalist, dar nu în mod deschis fascist. Dimpotrivă, istoricii francezi (Pierre Milza, René Rémond etc.) consideră că succesul moderatului, democratului și social-creștinului PSF a împiedicat orientarea clasei de mijloc franceze către fascism. Pierre Milza a scris: "Populist și naționalist, PSF este mai mult antiparlamentar decât antirepublican" și a rezervat termenul de "fascism" pentru Parti populaire français (PPF) al lui Jacques Doriot, insistând pe anticomunismul acestui partid ca o trăsătură importantă a acestei noi mișcări de dreapta (fascism).

După Bătălia Franței din 1940, La Rocque acceptat "fără rezerve" termenii Armistițiului din iunie 1940 și a reorganizat PSF care a devenit Progrès Social Français (Progresul Social Francez). La Rocque a acceptat "principiul colaborării", susținut de mareșalul Philippe Pétain, în decembrie 1940. Cu toate acestea, în același timp, el a fost atacat de organizațiile politice de extremă dreaptă care au pretins că el a fondat ziarul partidului său cu fonduri de la un "consorțiu evreiesc". Atitudinea lui a rămas ambiguă, așa cum s-a scris într-un articol publicat la 5 octombrie 1940 în Le Petit Journal, cu privire la "chestiunea evreiască din Franța Metropolitană și Africa de Nord" (La question juive en métropole et en Afrique du Nord). Un jurnalist american a scris în 1941, că Petit Journal cu La Rocque ca editor "și-a asumat o atitudine antigermană mai curajoasă după armistițiu decât au avut majoritatea ziarelor publicate sub controlul guvernului de la Vichy." La Rocque a aprobat abrogarea decretelor Crémieux care a dat cetățenia franceză evreilor din Algeria, dar nu a urmat regimul de la Vichy în radicalizarea sa rasistă. El a condamnat, de asemenea, organizația ultracolaboraționistă Legiunea Voluntarilor Francezi împotriva Bolșevismului.

La Rocque și-a schimbat orientarea în septembrie 1942, declarând că "Colaborarea era incompatibilă cu Ocupația" și a intrat în contact cu Réseau Alibi ce avea relații cu serviciile de informații britanice. Apoi, el a format rețeaua de Rezistență Réseau Klan împreună cu unii membri ai PSF. La Rocque a respins legile cu privire la STO care i-a forțat pe tinerii francezi să lucreze în Germania și a amenințat, de asemenea, să-l excludă pe orice membru al PSF care se va alătura Miliției lui Jacques Darnand sau LVF.

El a fost arestat în Clermont-Ferrand pe 9 martie 1943, de către poliția germană SIPO-SD, împreună cu 152 de membri de rang înalt ai PSF din Paris, pentru că ar fi încercat să-l convingă pe Pétain să meargă în Africa de Nord. A fost deportat mai întâi în Castelul Eisenberg, în prezent în Republica Cehă; apoi în Castelul Itter din Austria, unde l-a întâlnit pe fostul prim-ministru Édouard Daladier și pe generalii Maurice Gamelin și Maxime Weygand. Bolnav, a fost internat în martie 1945 într-un spital din Innsbruck și a fost eliberat de către soldații americani pe 8 mai 1945. El s-a întors în Franța pe data de 9 mai 1945 și a fost plasat sub arest administrativ cu scopul de a-l ține departe de negocierile politice din cadrul Conseil national de la Résistance (CNR, organizația unificată a Rezistenței). După ce a fost eliberat, el a fost pus sub arest la domiciliu și a murit pe 28 aprilie 1946.

Moștenirea politică
Parti Social Français (PSF) al lui François de La Rocque a fost primul mare partid de dreapta din Franța (1936-1940). El a susținut:
 un regim prezidențial pentru a pune capăt instabilității regimului parlamentar.
 un sistem economic fondat pe "profesii organizate" (corporatism).
 o legislație socială inspirată de creștinismul social.
Istoricii consideră acum că el a deschis drumul pentru două partide "republicane de dreapta" din perioada postbelică: creștin-democrata Mișcarea Republicană Populară (MRP) și gaullista Uniunea Democraților pentru Republică.

Mențiuni literare
Colonelul François de La Rocque este menționat de câteva ori în romanul Orgolii (1977) al lui Augustin Buzura ca fiind un "fascist fioros". Aflați la studii la Paris în perioada interbelică, medicinistul Ion Cristian și juristul Constantin Redman (două personaje ale romanului) au observat un miting fascist organizat de Croix de Feu pe bulevardul Champs-Élysées, la care colonelul de La Rocque "vorbea ca un descreierat"; înfuriat, Cristian a scos o piatră din pavaj hotărât să-i crape capul oratorului, fiind oprit de prietenul său care i-a explicat iresponsabilitatea unui gest violent în fața unei mulțimi ostile.

Referințe

Bibliografie
 François de la Rocque, Pour la conférence du désarmement. La Sécurité française, Impr. De Chaix, 1932.
 François de la Rocque, Service public, Grasset, 1934.
 François de la Rocque, Le Mouvement Croix de feu au secours de l'agriculture française, Mouvement Croix de feu, 1935.
 François de la Rocque, Pourquoi j'ai adhéré au Parti social français, Société d'éditions et d'abonnements, Paris, décembre 1936.
 Mouvement social français de Croix-de-Feu, Pourquoi nous sommes devenus Croix de Feu (manifeste), Siège des groupes, Clermont, 1937.
 François de la Rocque, Union, esprit, famille, discours prononcé par La Rocque au Vél'd'hiv, Paris, 28 janvier 1938, Impr. Commerciale, 1938.
 François de la Rocque, Paix ou guerre (discours prononcé au Conseil national du P.S.F., suivi de l'ordre du jour voté au Conseil ; Paris, 22 avril 1939), S.E.D.A., Paris, 1939.
 François de la Rocque, Discours, Parti social français. Ier Congrès national agricole. 17-18 février 1939., SEDA, 1939.
 François de la Rocque, Disciplines d'action, Editions du Petit Journal, Clermont-Ferrand, 1941.
 François de la Rocque, Au service de l'avenir, réflexions en montagne, Société d'édition et d'abonnement, 1949.
 Amis de la Rocque (ALR), Pour mémoire : La Rocque, les Croix de feu et le Parti social français, Association des amis de La Rocque, Paris, 1985.
 Amis de La Rocque (ALR), Bulletin de l'association.

Studii
 Kevin Passmore, From liberalism to fascism : the right in a French province, 1928-1939, Cambridge university press, 1997.
 Jacques Nobécourt, Le Colonel de la Rocque, ou les pièges du nationalisme chrétien', Fayard, Paris, 1996.
 Michel Winock, Le siècle des intellectuels, Seuil, 1999.

Legături externe
  Biografia lui François de La ROCQUE

Nașteri în 1885
Decese în 1946
Ofițeri ai armatei franceze
Membri ai Rezistenței franceze

François de La Rocque


Jordan Belson est un plasticien et cinéaste américain né le 6 juin 1926 et mort le 6 septembre 2011. Pendant six décennies, il s'est surtout rendu célèbre pour ses films abstraits non figuratifs et souvent inclus dans une démarche spirituelle.

Biographie
Belson est né à Chicago, dans l'Illinois.

En 1957, il entame une collaboration avec l'artiste sonore Henry Jacobs au Morrison Planetarium de San Francisco, en Californie, qui dure jusqu'en 1959. Ensemble, ils produisent une série de concerts de musique électronique accompagnés de projections visuelles au Planétarium, les Concerts Vortex. Belson en tant que directeur visuel programme des visuels cinétiques en direct, et Jacobs compose et réalise des pièces de musique électronique et autres expériences sonores. Ce nouveau format qui implique des images projetées, des extraits de films spécialement préparés et d'autres projections optiques rencontre un grand succès.

Leur innovation inspiera de nombreux spectacles de son et lumière à partir des années 1960, notamment les spectacles de style "Laserium" qui deviendront populaires dans les planétariums plus tard dans le siècle. En plus de participer au développement de nouvelles technologies et techniques visuelles, le système sonore du planétarium a permis à Belson et Jacobs de créer un environnement immersif où l'imagerie pouvait se déplacer dans tout l'espace de l'écran et où le son pouvait se déplacer autour du périmètre de la pièce.

Belson a également créé des effets spéciaux pour le film L'Étoffe des héros (1983).

Son dernier film Epilogue a été commandé pour l'exposition Visual Music au Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden et achevé en 2005.

Belson meurt d'une insuffisance cardiaque à son domicile de San Francisco le 6 septembre 2011 à l'âge de 85 ans.

Filmographie

 Transmutation (1947) – perdu
 Improvisation #1 (1948) – perdu
 Mambo (1951)
 Caravan (1952)
 Bop-Scotch (1952)
 Mandala (1953)
 Raga (1958)
 Séance (1959)
 Allures (1961) court-métrage de 8 minutes
 Re-entry (1964)
 Phenomena (1965)
 Samadhi (1967)
 Momentum (1968)
 Cosmos (1969)
 World (1970)
 Meditation (1971)
 Chakra (1972)
 Light (1973)
 Cycles (1975) avec Stephen Beck
 Music of the Spheres (1977), version originale
 Infinity (1980)
 Fountain of Dreams (1984)
 Northern Lights (1985)
 Mysterious Journey (1997)
 Bardo (2001)
 Epilogue (2005)

Références

Bibliographie
 Jordan Belson, Cosmic Cinema and The San Francisco Museum of Art by Cindy Keefer, at SFMOMA Open Space blog. October, 2010.
 MacDonald, Scott. "Interview with Jordan Belson", A Critical Cinema 3: Interviews with Independent Filmmakers. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998)
 Fox, Margalit. Jordan Belson, Experimental Filmmaker, Dies at 85. New York Times, 11 septembre 2011.
 Sitney, P. Adams. Visionary Film: The American Avant-Garde 1943–1978 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979) (Reprinted, second and third editions)
 Youngblood, Gene. Expanded Cinema (New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1970)
 Keefer, Cindy. "Cosmic Cinema and The Vortex Concerts." Cosmos: The Search for the Origins. Arnauld Pierre, Ed. (Madrid: El Umbral/Santa Cruz de Tenerife, 2008).
 Keefer, Cindy. Jordan Belson (Biography). The Third Mind: American Artists Contemplate Asia. 1860–1989. Alexandra Monroe, Ed. (New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 2009). Catalogue de l'exposition.
 Brougher, Strick et al. Visual Music: Synaesthesia in Art and Music Since 1900 (New York: Thames & Hudson, 2005)

Liens externes

Réalisateur américain
Plasticien américain contemporain
Naissance en juin 1926
Naissance à Chicago
Décès en septembre 2011
Décès à San Francisco
Décès à 85 ans
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Jordan Belson


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Mga kasarigan

Triglochin

Triglochin trichophora