Der Schlachthof Sankt Marx im 3. Wiener Gemeindebezirk Landstraße war als größter Schlachthof von Wien bedeutend für die Fleischversorgung der Stadt. Bestimmt war er vor allem für die Schlachtung von Rindern sowie Jung- und Stechvieh, für die schon früh der Schlachthauszwang galt.

Lage
Laut einem Stadtplan aus dem Jahr 1956 wurde er
 im Südosten in Höhe des denkmalgeschützten Viehmarktportals () des Zentralviehmarkts,
 im Nordosten auf Höhe der Paulusgasse,
 im Nordwesten von der Schlachthausgasse und
 im Südwesten von der Viehmarktgasse begrenzt.

Geschichte
Geschlachtet wurde in Wien zunächst vor allem auf Brücken, die über den Donaukanal führten. Dort konnten Blut und Schlachtabfälle einfach entsorgt werden. Sankt Marx im Osten der Stadt wurde hauptsächlich deshalb als Standort für den städtischen Schlachthof gewählt, da die Rinder vor allem aus Ungarn herangetrieben und auf dem hier bestehenden Viehmarkt verkauft wurden.

Monarchie
Das Schlachthaus in Sankt Marx war das erste und größte von zunächst fünf städtischen Schlachthäusern. Alle waren für die Schlachtung von Großvieh vorgesehen, für das im Gegensatz zu Schweinen und anderem Kleinvieh der Schlachthauszwang galt.

Erbaut wurde es zwischen 1846 und 1848, aber erst 1851 nach der Revolution von 1848/49 im Kaisertum Österreich in Betrieb genommen. Das rechteckige Bauwerk war 230 Meter lang und 176 Meter breit. Ab 1900 besaß es eine Kühlanlage mit insgesamt 2866 Quadratmetern auf zwei Geschoßen. Die Anlage stammte so wie die mechanische Einrichtung von der Prager Maschinenbau-Aktiengesellschaft vormals Ruston.

Ab 1867 wurden zwei zusätzliche Verwaltungsgebäude und sonstige Bauten errichtet. Nach 1870 wurde das Schlachthaus vom bisherigen "französischen Kammersystem" auf das "deutsche Hallensystem" umgebaut.

Obwohl der Schlachthof Sankt Marx offiziell nur der Schlachtung von Rindern diente, wurden ab 1896 in einem Raum in der 5. Abteilung auch Schweine geschlachtet. Mit der Eröffnung des Schweineschlachthofs 1910 wurde hier die Schweineschlachtung eingestellt.

Erste Republik
1921 verfügte der Schlachthof Sankt Marx, der als erster der städtischen Schlachthöfe nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg modernisiert wurde, in vier Schlachthallen über
 102 Stallabteilungen für 2278 Rinder
 5 Schlachthallen mit 202 Schlachtständen,
 42 Schlachtkammern mit 143 Schlachtständen mit einer Kapazität von 1380 Schlachtungen täglich.

In den späteren Jahren wurden weitere Erweiterungsbauten errichtet, darunter unter anderem 1923 eine Kälberschlachthalle mit einer Darmwäscherei. Aus dieser Zeit stammt die Beschreibung des Schlachthauses durch Joseph Roth in einem Artikel für die Wiener Sonn- und Montagszeitung. Am 16. Juni 1924 wurde eine neu erbaute Stechvieh-Schlachthalle in Betrieb genommen. Gleichzeitig wurde damit in Wien der Schlachthofzwang für Stechvieh eingeführt.

Zweite Republik
Im September 1967 wurde der zuständige Gemeinderatsausschuss für Wirtschaftsangelegenheiten von Stadtrat Pius Michael Prutscher über den Stand der Vorbereitungsarbeiten für einen neuen Schlachthof Sankt Marx informiert, für den mit den Detailplanungen begonnen wurde.

Da im Umland Wiens immer mehr neue Schlachthöfe entstanden beziehungsweise erweitert und modernisiert wurden und europäische Vergleiche zeigten, dass kommunale gegenüber privat geführten Schlachthöfen immer mehr Marktanteile verloren, sollten unter Mithilfe des dänischen Experten N. E. Wernberg sowohl eine Maximal- als auch eine erweiterungsfähige Minimalvariante erarbeitet werden.

Gründe für den geplanten Neubau waren
 die mangelhaften hygienischen Verhältnisse,
 die mangelhafte körperliche Sicherheit der Bediensteten,
 der Wunsch nach dem Erhalt der sogenannten EWG-Nummer, um Exportschlachtungen durchführen zu können,
 die Durchführung von Seuchenschlachtungen und
 die Bewältigung der Importschlachtungen.

Am 12. November 1968 stellte der ÖVP-Politiker und Stadtrat Pius Michael Prutscher im Wiener Gemeinderat den Antrag, der Errichtung eines Schlacht- und Viehhofs sowie eines Fleischgroßmarktes auf dem Areal des Zentralviehmarkts Sankt Marx grundsätzlich zuzustimmen. Der Antrag wurde einstimmig angenommen.

Im März 1970 begannen die Bauarbeiten. Mitte Dezember 1969 wurde auf Antrag von Stadtrat Hubert Pfoch die Finanzierung der schlachttechnischen Ausstattung des Viehmarkts, des Fleischmarkts und des Kühlblocks genehmigt. Die Gleichenfeier für den Rohbau des Fleischmarkts fand Ende März 1970 statt. Im November 1974 wurde durch Stadtrat Hans Mayr die Schweineschlachtanlage mit der zugehörigen Kühlhausanlage und den Wartestallungen eröffnet. Die endgültige Eröffnung des Fleischzentrums Sankt Marx erfolgte im September 1975 durch Stadtrat Hubert Pfoch in Vertretung von Bürgermeister Leopold Gratz.

Für die Führung des neuen Fleischzentrums wurde von der Stadt Wien eigens eine neue Magistratsabteilung, die MA 55, geschaffen. Zum ersten Leiter der Magistratsabteilung 55 – Markt- und Schlachtbetrieb Sankt Marx wurde Walter Jurcik ernannt.

Um gegen den nach einem Zwischenhoch wieder laufenden Geschäftsrückgang anzukämpfen und auch wegen der Kosten für die nach rund 20 Betriebsjahren notwendig gewordene Generalsanierung wurde der Plan entwickelt, den Schlachthof neu zu errichten und diesen privat zu betreiben. Den Großteil der Kosten für den Neubau sollte die Stadt übernehmen, bedeutende freiwerdende Grundflächen sollten jedoch von der Stadt verkauft werden.

Als Betreiber für den neuen Schlachthof sollte die 1992 eigens gegründete "Wiener Schlachthof St. Marx Planungs-, Errichtungs- und Betriebsgesellschaft m.b.H." in Erscheinung treten. Dritteleigentümer der neuen Gesellschaft waren die
 "Wiener Fleischwirtschaftsholding GmbH.", ein Zusammenschluss der zukünftigen Mieter der Fleischhalle, die
 "Vieh und Fleisch Nord GmbH.", eine Tochtergesellschaft des Raiffeisenverbandes und die
 "Wiener Holding AG".

Vorgesehen war eine Bauzeit von rund 27 Monaten. Da die geplante Form der Finanzierung den EU-Richtlinien – Österreich trat am 1. Jänner 1995 der Europäischen Union bei – nicht entsprach, zerschlugen sich allerdings die Neubaupläne.

Der Rückgang an Schlachtungen im Schlachthof Sankt Marx und eine negative Einschätzung der weiteren wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung in betriebswirtschaftlichen und kommunalpolitischen Untersuchungen für den Schlachthof bewirkte 1997 dessen Schließung. Im Dezember 1997 wurden die letzten 50 Rinder geschlachtet, mit Ende des Jahres wurde der Schlachthof endgültig geschlossen. Für die rund 160 Bediensteten trat ein Sozialplan in Kraft.

"Spätfolgen"
Erst vier Jahre nach der Schließung des Schlachthofs Sankt Marx wurde die aus dem Jahr 1994 stammende Verordnung über die tierärztlichen Untersuchungsgebühren mit der Veröffentlichung des Landesgesetzblattes 61/2001 aufgehoben.

Beschreibung
Das von einem unbekannten Baumeister unter Mitwirkung des Unterkammer-Adjunkts Joseph Melnitzky errichtete und von Bürgermeister Ignaz Czapka geförderte alte Schlachthaus wurde hier als erste regelmäßig angelegte technisch-wirtschaftliche Anlage errichtet.

Die Anlage wurde um einen rechteckigen Hof symmetrisch zur Mittelachse errichtet. An der Viehmarktgasse befanden sich die gleich gestalteten Gebäude der Schlachthofverwaltung und die Untersuchungsstelle, getrennt von einem Gittertor.

Literatur
 Wien am Anfang des XX. Jahrhunderts – Ein Führer in technischer und künstlerischer Richtung. Herausgegeben vom Österreichischen Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein, Erster Band, Verlag von Gerlach & Wiedling, Wien, 1905
 Das neue Wien, Städtewerk, herausgegeben unter offizieller Mitwirkung der Gemeinde Wien, Band II, Wien, 1927
 Das neue Wien, Städtewerk, herausgegeben unter offizieller Mitwirkung der Gemeinde Wien, Band III, Wien, 1927
 Das neue Schweineschlachthaus im III. Bezirke in Wien, Verlag des Magistrates der k.k. Reichshaupt- und Residenzstadt Wien, Wien, 1910

Weblinks

Fußnoten

Stillgelegte Anlage
Landstraße (Wien)
Versorgungsbauwerk in Wien
Wien
Abgegangenes Bauwerk in Wien
Essen und Trinken (Wien)

Schlachthof Sankt Marx


علامات جوجل  هي خدمة تخزين العلامات مجانية على الإنترنت متاحة لأصحاب حسابات جوجل. تتيح الخدمة تخزين مواقع الوب المفضلة وإضافة لصيقات ووسوم إليها، بالإضافة إلى الملاحظات.

يمكن البحث في اللصيقات والملاحظات، ويستطيع المستخدمون الوصول إلى علاماتهم من أي حاسوب عن طريق الولوج إلى حساب جوجل.

يتيح شريط أدوات جوجل الإنشاء السهل للعلامات والوصول السريع إليها في إصدارتي فيرفكس وإنترنت إكسبلورر.

على عكس خدمة ديليشس (المملوك بواسطة ياهو!) الذي يوفر أداة اجتماعية لمشاركة العلامات مع المجتمع؛ هذه الخدمة للاستخدام الشخصي الخاص فقط، ولا يوجد خيار لمشاركة العلامات مع المستخدمين الآخرين، ولا خيار لمشاهدة أكثر الصفحات الموجودة في علامات المستخدمين.

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 إشارات جوجل المرجعية.

خدمات جوجل
منتجات وخدمات توقفت في 2021
مواقع ويب أسست في 2005

علامات جوجل


Digswell House est un manoir classé Grade II dans le Hertfordshire, érigé vers 1805–07 par Samuel Wyatt pour l'honorable Edward Spencer Cowper, qui y vit pendant quelques années. Il est construit dans la paroisse de Digswell dont il tire son nom, mais est transféré à Welwyn Garden City en 1921 . La maison se trouve maintenant dans le quartier Knightsfield de Welwyn Garden City . La maison actuelle est érigée un peu à l'est du site sur lequel le manoir précédent se trouvait et est une maison de campagne spacieuse, dans un style architectural qui peut être décrit comme néoclassique.

Histoire
Un ancien manoir à l'ouest de l'actuelle maison est construit par Sir John Peryent au début du  . L'ancien manoir est ensuite habité par les familles de Peryent, Horsey, Sedley et Shallcross. Capability Brown créé une partie du jardin de Digswell entre 1771 et 1773.

Le manoir médiéval est acheté en 1785 par George Clavering-Cowper (3e comte Cowper) et, comme il est en mauvais état, il est démoli en 1805 pour faire place à un nouveau manoir.

La maison est ensuite occupée par Henry Pearse Esquire un marchand des Indes occidentales avec sa femme Mary et ses filles Mary Louisa, Julia Charlotte, Alice Jane et ses fils Cosmo Brice et Ernest Charles et une maison pleine de personnel est indiquée dans le recensement de 1851. Il résidait également au n ° 8, Finsbury-place South, dans la ville de Londres. Il est ensuite déclaré en faillite le 17 juin 1854.

La maison appartient ensuite à Phoebe Tatham, l'épouse de William Smith Brown. Phoebe Tatham a hérité de la richesse de Duncan Dunbar après sa mort alors qu'il est encore célibataire en 1862. Dunbar a été l'un des plus grands magnats du transport maritime du Commonwealth, ayant construit la ligne Dunbar de navires de commerce et de bagnards. Phoebe est sa nièce, la fille aînée de la sœur de Dunbar, Justina, et de son mari, le chirurgien Christopher Tatham. William et Phoebe ont huit enfants. Phoebe est décédée à Digswell le 23 février 1891 et William est décédé le 31 décembre 1891 à Portsea Island.

La maison passe au  aux Aclands et pendant la première guerre mondiale, Digswell House sert d'hôpital auxiliaire australien et de maison de retraite pour les soldats australiens blessés, bien que des soldats belges et britanniques y aient également séjourné.

Après la guerre, la maison est achetée par Ebenezer Howard en 1919. De 1928 à 1939, elle est un centre de conférence avec de bonnes liaisons avec Londres grâce au transport ferroviaire local. Il voit passer le Mahatma Gandhi, George Bernard Shaw, Paul Robeson, Lord Beaverbrook et Hugh Gaitskell et d'autres personnalités politiques et intellectuels de premier plan de l'époque.

Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Digswell House sert de pension et de lieu de retraite. Entre 1955 et 1957, Digswell House est le pensionnat de l'école Sherrardswood.

La maison reste une retraite pour les artistes jusqu'en 1985, date à laquelle Digswell House est vendue et transformée en un ensemble d'habitations privées. Le Digswell Arts Trust continue ses activités mais part sur un autre site.

Références

Liens externes

Monument classé de Grade II dans le Hertfordshire

Digswell House


Gülşen  Karakdıoğlu, Türk eleştirmen, dramaturg, oyun yazarı.

1969 ve 1974 yılları arasında  Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Tiyatro bölümünde tiyatro bilimi ve dramaturgi lisans eğitimi aldı. 1966 ve 1977 yılları arasında Halk Bankası'nda yöneticilik yaptı; bir yandan da 1969 yılından itibaren Ankara Deneme Sahnesi'nde dramaturg, yazar ve yönetmen olarak çalıştı. Bir dönem Ankara Deneme Sahnesi'nin başkanlığını yaptı. Devlet Tiyatroları'nın açtığı sınavı kazanarak 1977'de başdramaturg oldu. İki yıl sonra bu görevden istifa etti ve önce Yazko Somut Gazetesi'nin Ankara temsilciği, ardından Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu'nda Dramaturg ve Halkla İlişkiler Sorumlusu oldu. Berlin Kültür Senatörlüğü'nün çağrısıyla 1986'da Almanya'ya gitti ve Berlin Tiyatrom Topluluğu'nda dramaturg ve sanat yönetmeni olarak çalıştı. Yurda döndükten sonra Devlet Tiyatrosu'nda Basın Halkla İlişkiler Sorumluluğu, ardından Kültür Bakanlığı'nda müsteşar yardımcılığı yaptı.

Çeşitli kurumlarda "Sanat Kurumları Yönetimi", "Tiyatro Tarihi", "Dramaturgi- Metin İncelemesi", "Tiyatro Düşüncesi" dersleri verdi. 2002 ve 2004 yılları arasında Türkiye Tiyatro Eleştirmenleri Birliği başkanlığını yürüttü. 2002 ve 2010 yılları arasında Ankara Remzi Kitabevi'nin yöneticiliğini yaptı. Çeşitli ödül kurumlarında jüri üyeliği, çeşitli tiyatro festivallerinde ise danışmanlık yaptı.

1980 darbesini anlatan Nehir adlı oyunu Ankara Devlet Tiyatrosu'nda sahnelendi. Bu oyun ile 2013-2014 Sanat Kurumu En İyi Oyun Yazarı Ödülü ve 2014 XIV. Direklerarası Seyirci Ödülleri En İyi Oyun Yazarı Ödülü'ne layık görüldü.

Kitapları

Toplu Oyunları 1

Nehir 1

Nehir 2

Mişir

Stajyer

Toplu Oyunları 2

Antidepresan

İsimsiz

Aristoteles

Toplu Oyunları 3

Piçhane

Müzeyyen

Toplu Oyunları 4

Prenses

Amalia

Oyunlarının yanı sıra, hayvan sevgisi üzerine "Onlarsız Olmaz" adlı bir kitabı vardır.

Ödülleri
 2013-2014 Sanat Kurumu En İyi Oyun Yazarı Ödülü
 2013-2014 Direklerarası Seyirci Ödülleri En İyi Oyun Yazarı Ödülü
 18. Uluslararası Ankara Tiyatro Festivali Tiyatro Emek Ödülü

Kaynakça

Devlet Tiyatroları başdramaturgları
Türk eleştirmenler
Yaşayan insanlar
Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler

Gülşen Karakadıoğlu


Machi (jap. kunyomi: kanji 町, hiragana まち, romaji: machi ; onyomi: kanji 町, hiragana ちょう, povijesna kana ちやう, romaji chō), naziv za jednu od dviju vrsta upravnih jedinica u Japanu. Veličinom odgovara gradiću, shi odgovara gradu, mura selu. Ponekad se istu riječ (町; machi ili chō) rabi u imenima manjih regija, obično dijela ku-ova (kanji 区, hiragana く, romaji ku) u gradovima određenih vladinim ukazom (kanji 政令指定都市, hiragana せいれいしていとし, romaji seirei shitei toshi). To je zaostatak iz vremena kad su mali gradovi bili nastali na vanjskim stranama gradova u koje su se vremenom uklopili.

Prema chihō-jichi-hō-u (地方自治法, "Zakon o lokalnoj samoupravi") iz 1947. godine machiji su kao i prije prema poretku u prefekturama i općinama carstva pored mura i shija (zajedno 市町村, shi-chō-son) jedno od triju regularnih općinskih vrsta i izravna potpodjela japanske prefekture (To/Dō/Fu/Ken). Na japanskom se imena ovih općina po pravilu naziva skupa s dometkom  -machi/-chō. Do gašenja okruga (-gun) kao upravnih jedinica 1920-ih -machi/-chō su bili podređeni upravama okruga. Uz manje iznimke kod otočkih općina, koje su bile neposredno podređene upravi prefekture kroz potprefekture.

Vidi
Dodatak:Popis gradova u Japanu
Poštanske adrese u Japanu

Vanjske poveznice
 Zenkoku chōsongikai gichōkai (jap. 全国町村議会議長会, Zemaljska udruga predsjednika skupština 743 machija i 183 mure) (na japanskom)
 Zenkoku chōsonkai (jap. 全国町村会, Zemaljska udruga načelnika machija i mura) (na japanskom, kineskom, engleskom i korejskom)

Administrativna podjela Japana

Machi


الكيبيبايت  هي كلمة مركبة من كيلو بيناري بايت، وهو وحدة معلومات وتخزين حاسوبي. الكيبيبايت الواحد يساوي 2 أي 1024 بايتا.

السابقة الثنائية «كيبي» تعني 1024، ورمز الوحدة للكيبيبايت هو (KiB). وضعتها اللجنة الإلكتروتكنية الدولية عام 1999 وتمت الموافقة عليها للاستخدام من قِبَل المنظمات الأساسية للمعايير.

صُممت لتحل محل الكيلو بايت عندما تستخدم في سياق علم الحاسوب لتعني بدقة 1024 بايت منذ حدث التعارض عند استخدام سابقة النظام الدولي (كيلو) والتي تعني 1000 فقط وليس 1024.

انظر أيضا
 مبيبايت
 سابقة ثنائية

مراجع

 Ensiklokamus

وحدات قياس للمعلومات

كيبيبايت


An Stipa pycnostachya in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni George Bentham. An Stipa pycnostachya in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stipa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stipa

Stipa pycnostachya


Karl Emanuel 1. af Savoyen, (italiensk: Carlo Emanuele I di Savoia) (født 12. januar 1562 i Rivoli ved Torino, død 26. juli 1630 i Savigliano ved Cuneo) var hertug af Savoyen i 1580 – 1630.

Karl Emanuel 1. blev forfader til Sardiniens konger i 1720–1861 og til Italiens konger i 1861–1946.

Forældre
Karl Emanuel 1. var søn af hertug Emanuele Filiberto af Savoyen (1528–1580).

Hans mor var Margarete af Valois-Angoulême, hertuginde af Berry (1523–1574). Hun var datter af Frans 1. af Frankrig og Claude af Frankrig. Claude (eller Claudia) var datter af Ludvig 12. af Frankrig.

Familie
Karl Emanuel 1. var gift med Catherine Michelle af Spanien (1567 – 1697). Hun var datter af Filip 2. af Spanien og Elisabeth af Valois. Elisabeth var datter af Henrik 2. af Frankrig.

Karl Emanuel 1. og Catherine Michelle fik ti børn. Blandt dem var:
 Viktor Amadeus 1. af Savoyen ), der blev forfader til Sardiniens konger i 1720–1831.
 Thomas Frans, fyrste af Carignano (1596 – 1656), der blev forfader til Sardiniens konger i 1831–1861 og til Italiens konger i 1861–1946.

Marguerite de Rossillon var Karl Emanuel 1.'s officielle elskerinde gennem mange år. Få måneder før Karl Emanuels død indgik de et hemmeligt og morganatisk ægteskab. Derved blev deres fælles børn legaliserede efter borgerlig lov, men de fik ikke arveret til tronen.

Karl Emanuel 1. havde desuden adskillige børn fødte udenfor ægteskab.

Referencer

Huset Savoyen
Hertuger af Savoyen

Karl Emanuel 1. af Savoyen


خبب هي بلدة تقع في جنوب سوريا في سهل حوران الخصب، وتتبع إدارياً محافظة درعا. على أطرافها الجنوبية الشرقية منطقة لجاة خبب أو اللجاة الصخرية البازلتية ذات الحجارة السوداء. وتبعد عن مدينة دمشق العاصمة 57 كم جنوبا وعن مدينة درعا التي تتبع لها إداريا حوالي 55 كم شمالا وهي متصلة بهاتين المدينتين بطريقين معبدين الأولى قديمة ويرجع تعبيدها إلى زمن الفرنسيين والثانية عبدت حديثا منذ 17 سنة وهي ما يعرف بأوتوستراد الحدود السورية الأردنية وكما يمر بأرضها سكة خط حديد الحجاز فيها محطة قطار محطة خبب.
يحد أرض خبب من الغرب قرى: تبنة والقنية والصنمين ومن الشرق كريم الجنوبي وكريم الشمالي وأيب ومن الجنوب أراضي سور وعاسم والمجيدل ومن الشمال بصير وجباب وتبلغ مساحة أرض خبب الزراعية 73 ألف دونم.

أبيبا هو الاسم القديم لبلدة خبب في حوران - محافظة درعا في سورية، تبعد بحدود 55 كم عن مدينة دمشق، و 60 كم عن مدينة درعا.

أبيبا أو خبب كانت مركزا مسيحي مهما في الشرق، وتُعدُّ كرسي أبرشية بصرى وحوران وجبل العرب، وهي بلدة أثرية مهمة، حيث أن المنطقة تنتشر فيها الآثار الرومانية والبيزنطية وغيرها، وقد ذكرت في العديد من المراجع التاريخية. سكنتها قبائل غسانية عربية مسيحية من الروم الكاثوليك.

التسمية
خبب في اللغة العربية نوع من العدو أو الجري (الركض الخفيف). وقد سميت بهذا الاسم نظراً لموقعها الجغرافي على عتبات اللجاة الوعرة حيث لا تستطيع الجياد أن تتجاوزها إلا إذا سارت بطريقة «الخبب»، وما الخبب إلا مرحلة التهيؤ للركض عند الجياد، ذكرت بعدة أسماء منها «حبابا» «خبابا» «آبب» وأصل الجذر سامي مشترك بين اللغات السامية (آبابي) بمعنى ناضر وساطع،
الاسم القديم للبلدة هو أبيبا منقوش على حجر في الجدار الغربي للبناء العلوي لدار الخوري جريس سلمان في وسط القرية أما اللغة التي كتب بها فهي اليونانية وتاريخ هذا النقش يعود إلى 213 م ويوجد نقش آخر في دار سلامة الغازي وتاريخه يعود إلى سنة 303 م (والنقشان يشتركان في الإشارة إلى أن أهل خبب (أبيبا) ومن حولها يعبدون آلهة وثنية تدعى (تيكه وباللاتينية (تيكه) وأن ترجمة النقش الأول كانت «من أجل خلاص وخلود الإمبراطور ماركوس سيفيروس أنطونيوس القيصر قاهر البيزنطيين بنى سكان أريزينوا وأهالي ايشفيرينوا من مزرعة أبيبا هذا المعبد لآَلهة الحظ تيكه (تيكه في الولاية الرابعة لسيفيروس والولاية الثانية لبالبينوس» أما الثاني «في زمن ولاية ديوكليسيان السادسة وولاية ماكسيميان السابعة الإمبراطوران بنى النائب أوريليوس إيريس أفيد على نفقته الخاصة معبد الآلهة (تيكه». أما اسم أبيبا فهي كلمة تعني باليونانية مرج السنابل الخضراء، أبيبا هي من الكنعانية (abib) وتعني سنبلة الشعير الصغيرة الطرية أو الشهر الذي تنبت فيه السنابل أو تنمو فيه الخضار وتندرج كلمة أبيب تحت جذر (abb) ومنه في الآشورية (ababu) أي ناضر أو ساطع وتحت هذا الجذر تندرج كلمة (aeb) وتعني النضرة أو الخضار الناعم ويقابلها في العربية (آب) أي العشب رطبه ويابسه.

التاريخ
يعود الاستيطان في البلدة إلى عصور قديمة حيث تعاقبت على المنطقة الحضارات الآرامية واليونانية والرومانية والعربية النبطية والغسانية. أما عن السكن الحديث فإنه يعود إلى أكثر من 280 عاماً، حيث إن انتشار الأبنية التي تعود لمختلف عصور التاريخ يؤكد قدم الاستيطان البشري فيها، والبعض من تلك الأبنية والمخلفات المادية تعود للعصور الكلاسيكية «اليوناني والروماني والبيزنطي»، وتمتد أصول سكانها إلى عرب «غسان وكندة» ومنذ القرن الثاني للميلاد وتدل آثارهم عليهم، أما سكانها الحاليون فقد جاؤوا من «صلخد» بلدتهم القديمة عام 1656-1721 وهم امتداد للقبائل العربية الغسانية الأصيلة التي نزحت من «صلخد» في «جبل العرب».

الطقس والمناخ
يتبع طقس المنطقة الجنوبية من سوريا وهو معتدل مع قليل من موجات باردة شتاء وحار نسبيا في فصل الصيف وأمطار المنطقة متوسطة الهطول يمتاز المناخ في خبب بوضوح تتابع الفصول ففي الصيف الجو يميل إلى الحر نهارا مع جو جميل في الليل يتخلله نسيم عليل جاف أما الخريف فيبدأ مع اصفرار أوراق الأشجار وبرودة الطقس يتلوه شتاء بارد وخصوصا في أشهر كانون الأول (ديسيمبر) وكانون الثاني (يناير) وشباط (فبراير) حيث يبدأ الربيع مع شهر آذار (مارس).

السكان
يبلغ عدد سكان قرية خبب 6400 نسمة حسب إحصائيات تعود لسنة 2009، وهم يتوزعون على مساحة 6500 هكتار. يتبع سكان خبب طائفة الروم الملكين الكاثوليك المعروفة عربياً في كلمة الروم الكاثوليك، ومن المعروف أن المنطقة سكنها الغساسنة، وهناك قرى محيطة بخبب تتبع نفس طائفة الروم الملكين مثل قرى بصير وتبنة والمسمية وغيرها. ويتكلم سكان البلدة اللغة العربية بلكنة حورانية وهناك اهتمام من السكان في اللغتين الفرنسية والإنكليزية.

الزراعة والاقتصاد
إن أهالي خبب هم من المزارعين أساسا والاعتماد على الزراعة كان هو المصدر الوحيد للرزق. وفي السنوات الأخيرة قل اعتماد الناس على الزراعة وقد تراجع اعتماد السكان عليها بشكل ملحوظ وكبير في السنوات القليلة الماضية لأسباب عدة وأهمها:
 1. اعتماد الزراعة على نسبة هطول الأمطار وهذا يؤثر على كمية الإنتاج والمحصول بحسب كمية الأمطار الموسمية وأهم المحاصيل الزراعية هي القمح والشعير والعدس وأصبح يشاهد الزراعة المروية للخضراوات في البلدة كالبندورة، البطيخ، وغيرها والتي أحيانا كثيرة تضر في التربة ويصبح إنتاج الأرض أقل في السنوات القادمة، كما أصبحت زراعة الأشجار المثمرة شائعة وبالأخص العنب والزيتون واللوز فأصبحت يشكل محصولا مهماً.
 2. أغلب سكان البلدة حاليا هم من الموظفين في القطاع العام والقطاع الخاص ولذلك أصبح لديهم مدخل آخر للمعيشة وهو الراتب الشهري.
 3. هجرة شباب البلدة إلى المدن وخاصة العاصمة دمشق حيث يقطنها العديد من سكان البلدة والهجرة الخارجية إلى خارج سوريا، والفئة الشبابية في البلدة اختلف نمط حياتها بشكل عام ولم تعد تهتم بمتابعة ما كان يعمله الأهل والأجداد في مجال الزراعة.
 4. الخلاف على أراضي واسعة من البلدة بين السكان والبدو وهي مشكلة ارض خبب مما أثر على النشاط الزراعي لكن مشكلة الأرض لم تحل إلى الآن وهذا ما جعل بعض السكان لا يثقون في مستقبل الزراعة في بلدة خبب.
 5. اتجاه عدد من السكان للعمل في مجالات تجارية وصناعية.

التعليم والثقافة

تعتبر نسبة التعليم في خبب من أعلى المستويات في سوريا وذلك لاهتمام أبناء خبب في التعليم وهناك عدد كبير من الكفاءات المتميزة من أهالي القرية. وقد كانت المدرسة التي تتبع الأبرشية والدير أهم الأسباب في تشجيع التعليم والعلم في خبب وكذلك للقرى المحيطة بها. ويجدر الإشارة إن بلدة خبب قد قضت على الأمية منذ أمد بعيد وحالياً يوجد في البلدة سبعة مدارس موزعة كالتالي: حضانة للأطفال مدرستان للتعليم الأساسي (الابتدائي) وأربع للمرحلة المتوسطة والثانوية (إعداديتان وثانويتان). ويوجد في خبب نسبة من عالية جدا من المثقفين والمدرسين الذين يتوزعون أغلبهم على قرى محافظة درعا.

-هناك جالية كبيرة من أهالي البلدة خارج الجمهورية العربية السورية والكثير منهم ما زال يتواصل مع بلده الأم سوريا.

المرافق العامة
تحظ خبب بالعديد من المرافق العامة ففيها مستوصف صحي ويجرى بناء مستشفى وهناك جمعية للفلاحين ووحدة إرشادية، ومقسم هاتف، وقسم للشرطة المدنية وآخر لشرطة الطرق العامة على الطريق الدولي المار على أطراف البلدة الشمالية وإضافة إلى مؤسسة استهلاكية عامة وفرن حديث آلي لصنع الخبز وفيها أيضا بلدية ترعى شوْونها وكذلك نادي خبب الرياضي والنادي الثقافي الاجتماعي، وأيضا محطة للقطار (محطة خبب) على خط حديد الحجاز.
إضافة إلى السوق المحلي
يوجد في خبب كاتدرائية (أبرشية خبب للروم الكاثوليك) وكنيستان ودير لراهبات المحبة (البيزنسون). تتوسط خبب أربع محافظات سورية وهي محافظة دمشق ومحافظة السويداء ومحافظة درعا ومحافظة القنيطرة ولكنها تتبع إداريا لمحافظة محافظة درعا.
في وسط البلدة الذي يحوي عدد من المحلات التجارية الخاصة ومختلف النشاطات السكانية، صيدليات، أطباء بشريين، وأطباء أسنان، وأطباء بيطريين، صيانة أجهزة كهربائية وإلكترونية، محلات لمبيع وصيانة الحاسوب مستلزماته، وحديقة عامة يجري تحضيرها حاليا... إلخ).

شخصيات من خبب
- الرسام الراحل الفرد حتمل.

- الرسام العالمي بيرو هاري فواز الحاتم.

- الطبيب والبروفسور وسيم الخوري

- الشاعر الراحل لويس الرزق.

- الشاعر الراحل الشعبي نجيب الدهيم.

-الشاعر الراحل نواف الدهيم.

- الشاعر والكاتب الراحل شاكر البشارة.

- الشاعر الشعبي الراحل إبراهيم خليل السلوم.

-السفير الراحل حنين الحاتم.

- الشاعر الراحل نقولا الحتاملة.

- القاضي الراحل رشيد الغازي.

- الكاتب د.عادل فريجات.

- الكاتب والمؤرخ والرسام منير ذيب.

- الكاتب الراحل جميل الغازي.

- الشاعر أديب الشحادة.

- الشاعر الشعبي غريب الرزق.

المراجع

خبب
أماكن مأهولة في منطقة الصنمين
تجمعات الروم الكاثوليك في سوريا
قرى محافظة درعا

خبب


Amentotaxus assamica er tegund af barrtrjám frá Assam í Indlandi. Það er hægvaxta runni eða lítið tré (allt að 9m).

Tilvísanir

Barrtré

Amentotaxus assamica


Mitchell Adam "Mitch" Lucker () a fost un muzician american și cântăreț de deathcore în trupa Suicide Silence.

Cariera muzicală
Albumul de debut al Suicide Silence, intitulat [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cleansing_(album)|The Cleansing]], a avut una dintre cele mai mari vânzări - Lea mass-Media comunicate cu 7,250 de exemplare vândute în prima săptămână. Al doilea lor album [[ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Time_to_Bleed]] a fost lansat pe 30 iunie 2009. Ultimul album al trupei cu Lucker, [[The Black Crown]] a fost lansat pe 12 iulie 2011. De data aceasta, versurile lui au început să-și piardă anterioarele versuri controversate ce aveau conținut anti-religios.[necesită citare]
Articole care necesită citări suplimentare
Când a fost întrebat de Kerrang!, Lucker a explicat:

Influențe
Într-un interviu cu UA Interviu, el a declarat că trupe pe care l-a influențat într-o formație au fost "Korn, Deftones, Slayer, Sepultura... tot ceea ce tatăl meu ar cumpăra și aduce acasă la mine și fratele meu spune 'Hei, ascultați asta.'"

Tatuaje

Lucker a fost ocazional cunoscut pentru marea sa colecție de tatuaje pe corp, acoperind brațele, trunchiul, gâtul, mâinile, degetele, chiar și fața. Singurul loc unde el a refuzat să-și facă un tatuaj a fost pe spate. El a explicat acest lucru prin a afirma "îmi place să văd opera de arta, deoarece este opera de arta! Având spatele tatuat ar fi ca și cum ai avea un tablou scump că niciodată nu poți vedea.  'Oh, am acest frumos, scump tablou, dar tu nu o vezi pentru că e în casa unchiului meu."

Barele negre, pe care le avea pe fiecare dintre degetele lui erau cover-up-uri. Tatuajele originale, afișate pe degete au fost "FORXEVER", un cuvânt comun folosit în comunitatea "Straight edge", comunitate underground din cultura Punk-ului. În 2007, aceste tatuaje au fost acoperite cu bare negre pentru că el a renunțat la acel stil de viață.

Moartea
Mitch Lucker a murit pe 1 noiembrie 2012 la ora 6:17 a. m. Orange County Coroners a anunțat că el a suferit leziuni grave în urma unui accident de motocicletă. Un raport a declarat că Lucker a avut accidentul de motocicletă la scurt timp după ora 21:00 pe 31 octombrie. El avea 28 de ani.

Ce a urmat
Colegii de trupă au organizat un memorial show intitulat "sfârșitul Este Începutul" pe 21 decembrie 2012, care a avut loc la Fox Theater în Pomona, CALIFORNIA. Acesta a servit pentru a-i beneficia fiicei sale costuri de învățământ. Trupa a început, de asemenea, la Kenadee Lucker Fondul de Educație și continuă să promoveze donații pentru ei.

Discografie
 Suicide Silence
 Suicide Silence - EP (2005)
 The Cleansing  (2007)
 No Time to Bleed (2009)
 The Black Crown (2011You Can't Stop Me (2014) - Posthumous, numai versuri

 Comisarul
 What Is?   (2011)

 Colaborări
 "Predator; Never Prey" (featuring Mitch Lucker) – The Acacia Strain(2006)
 "Classic Struggle" (featuring Mitch Lucker) – Winds of Plague (2009)
 "We Are the Many" (featuring Mitch Lucker) – Caliban (2012)
 "The Sinatra" (featuring Mitch Lucker) – My My Misfire
 "Spit Vitriol" (featuring Mitch Lucker) - The Devastated  (2012)

Note

Nașteri în 1984
Decese în 2012

Mitch Lucker


Školska športska dvorana Mladost je višenamjenska školska i športska dvorana u Karlovcu. Najveći je i najznačajni športski objekt u Karlovcu.

Povijest
Prosinca 1965. godine raspisan je pozivni natječaj za projekt i izgradnju športsko-rekreacijskog kompleksa na lijevoj obali Korane, lociranog u prirodnoj depresiji na uglu dviju ulica. Dvorana je planirana kao glavni dio športsko-rekreacijskog kompleksa koji je trebao imati i zatvoreno plivalište, bazen na otvorenom i igralište za hokej s tribinama. Natječajni projektni program neznatno je izmijenjen i dopunjen većim prostorom za društvene aktivnosti, te stalne i prigodne izložbe. Rok izrade natječajnog projekta bio je relativno kratak. Prispjelo je deset projekata, a ocjenjivački sud prihvatio rad je skupine arhitekata projektnog ureda "AGI-46" (Frane Dulčić, Slavko Jelinek, Stjepan Krajač), koji je najbolje odgovorio na zahtjeve natječajnog programa i glavne kriterije vrednovanja projektnih rješenja – ekonomičnost, funkcionalnost, urbanističko uklapanje u teren i arhitektonska vrijednost. Dvoranu je izvođač karlovačka Novotehna gradila od svibnja 1966. godine. Izgradnja je započela u svibnju 1966. godine. Investitor je bila Skupština općine Karlovac, investitorski poslovi djelo su Inženjering-Zagreba. Interijere su uredili Slovenijales i Elan. Objekt je otvoren 21. listopada 1967. godine, uoči održavanja međunarodnog prvenstva u stolnom tenisu. Na pozivnom natječaju 1978. godine projektni ured AGI-46 u malo izmijenjenoj postavi osvojio je prvu nagradu za dogradnju objekata športsko-rekreacijskih sadržaja, a projektom su bile predviđene dvorane olimpijskog bazena, klizališta, te prostor deseterostazne kuglane.

Zbog dimenzija u njoj se mogu održati svi dvoranski športovi: odbojka, košarka, rukomet, mali nogomet, tenis u dvorani, borilački športovi i sl. U velikoj dvorani održava se nastava tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture, treninzi i utakmice športskih klubova. Dvorana ima površine za reklamiranje uz teren i na balkonu. Podij je dimenzija 44×24 metra. Gledalište je kapaciteta 4.000 mjesta od čega 2.000 sjedećih.

Dvorana ima vlastitu pozornicu do 110 m2, što omogućava održavanje velikih priredaba, koncerata i sličnih manifestacija.

Dvorana ima prostore za dodatne sadržaje: mala dvorana za gimnastiku i aerobik/pilates, teretanu, stijenu za penjanje, dvoranu za sastanke, fizioterapeutsku ambulantu te ugostiteljski objekt. Ispred dvorane su tri teniska igrališta s podlogom od tenisita i rasvjetom te jedan polivaletni teren 35×16 metara, prekriven antistres podlogom.

Bila je domaćinom utakmica skupine C svjetskog prvenstva u košarci 1970. godine te europskog prvenstva u košarci 1975. godine.

Dvorana je stavljena na popis nepokretnog dobra pod preventivnom zaštitom i predviđena je za budući upis na listu trajno zaštićenih nepokretnih dobara, čime postaje prvo trajno zaštićeno arhitektonsko djelo moderne arhitekture u Karlovcu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Sportilus

Karlovac Mladost
Šport u Karlovcu

Školska športska dvorana Mladost u Karlovcu


The knowledge argument (also known as Mary's Room or Mary the super-scientist) is a philosophical thought experiment proposed by Frank Jackson in his article "Epiphenomenal Qualia" (1982) and extended in "What Mary Didn't Know" (1986).

The experiment describes Mary, a scientist who exists in a black-and-white world where she has extensive access to physical descriptions of color, but no actual perceptual experience of color. Mary has learned everything there is to learn about color, but she has never actually experienced it for herself. The central question of the thought experiment is whether Mary will gain new knowledge when she goes outside the colorless world and experiences seeing in color.

The experiment is intended to argue against physicalism—the view that the universe, including all that is mental, is entirely physical. Jackson says that the "irresistible conclusion" is that "there are more properties than physicalists talk about." Jackson would eventually call himself a physicalist and say, in 2023, "I no longer accept the argument" though he still feels that the argument should be "addressed really seriously if you are a physicalist."

The debate that emerged following its publication became the subject of an edited volume—There's Something About Mary (2004)—which includes replies from such philosophers as Daniel Dennett, David Lewis, and Paul Churchland.

Thought experiment
The thought experiment was originally proposed by Frank Jackson as follows:Mary is a brilliant scientist who is, for whatever reason, forced to investigate the world from a black-and-white room via a black-and-white television monitor. She specializes in the neurophysiology of vision and acquires all the physical information there is to obtain about what goes on when we see ripe tomatoes or the sky and use terms like "red", "blue", and so on. She discovers, for example, just which wavelength combinations from the sky stimulate the retina, and exactly how this produces via the central nervous system the contraction of the vocal cords and expulsion of air from the lungs that results in the uttering of the sentence "The sky is blue." What happens when Mary is released from her black-and-white room or is given a color television monitor? Does she learn anything new or not? Jackson claims that she does.There is disagreement about how to summarize the premises and conclusion of Jackson's argument in this thought experiment. Paul Churchland did as follows:

 Mary knows everything there is to know about brain states and their properties.
 It is not the case that Mary knows everything there is to know about sensations and their properties.
 Therefore, sensations and their properties are not the same (≠) as the brain states and their properties.

However, Jackson opposes it by saying that Churchland's formulation is not his intended argument. He especially objects to the first premise of Churchland's formulation: "The whole thrust of the knowledge argument is that Mary (before her release) does not know everything there is to know about brain states and their properties because she does not know about certain qualia associated with them. What is complete, according to the argument, is her knowledge of matters physical." He suggests his preferred interpretation:

 Mary (before her release) knows everything physical there is to know about other people.
 Mary (before her release) does not know everything there is to know about other people (because she learns something about them on her release).
 Therefore, there are truths about other people (and herself) which escape the physicalist story.

Later on, Amy Kind proposes another summary for the argument:

 While in the room, Mary has acquired all the physical facts there are about color sensations, including the sensation of seeing red.
 When Mary exits the Room and sees a ripe red tomato, she learns a new fact about the sensation of seeing red, namely its subjective character.
 Therefore, there are non-physical facts about color sensations. [From1, 2]
 If there are non-physical facts about color sensations, then color sensations are non-physical events.
 Therefore, color sensations are non-physical events. [From3, 4]
 If color sensations are non-physical events, then physicalism is false.
 Therefore, physicalism is false. [From5, 6]

Most authors who discuss the knowledge argument cite the case of Mary, but Frank Jackson used a further example in his seminal article: the case of a person, Fred, who sees a color unknown to normal human perceivers.

Background
Jackson says there are quite a few similar arguments that predate his formulation, even going back as far as John Locke.

C. D. Broad, Herbert Feigl, and Thomas Nagel, over a fifty-year span, presented insight to the subject. Broad makes the following remarks, describing a thought experiment where an archangel has unlimited mathematical competences:

Roughly thirty years later, Feigl expresses a similar notion. He concerns himself with a Martian, studying human behavior, but lacking human sentiments. Feigl says:

Nagel's essay, What Is It Like to Be a Bat? takes a slightly different approach. He takes the perspective of humans attempting to understand the echo location capabilities of bats. Even with the entire physical database at one's fingertips, humans would not be able to fully perceive or understand a bat's sensory system, namely what it is like to "see" the world through sound.

Implications
Whether Mary learns something new upon experiencing color has two major implications: the existence of qualia and the knowledge argument against physicalism.

Qualia
If Mary learns something new upon seeing red, it shows that qualia (the subjective, qualitative properties of experiences, conceived as wholly independent of behavior and disposition) exist. Therefore, it must be conceded that qualia are real, since there is a difference between a person who has access to a particular quale and one who does not.

Refutation of physicalism

Jackson argues further, saying that if Mary does learn something new upon experiencing color, then physicalism is false. Specifically, the knowledge argument is an attack on the physicalist claim about the completeness of physical explanations of mental states. Mary may know everything about the science of color perception, but can she know what the experience of red is like if she has never seen red? Jackson contends that, yes, she has learned something new, via experience, and hence, physicalism is false. Jackson states:

Epiphenomenalism

Jackson believed in the explanatory completeness of physiology, that all behaviour is caused by physical forces of some kind. And the thought experiment seems to prove the existence of qualia, a non-physical part of the mind. Jackson argued that if both of these theses are true, then epiphenomenalism is true—the view that mental states are caused by physical states, but have no causal effects on the physical world.

Thus, at the conception of the thought experiment, Jackson was an epiphenomenalist.

Responses
Objections have been raised that have required the argument to be refined. Doubters cite various holes in the thought experiment that have arisen through critical examination.

Nemirow and Lewis present the "ability hypothesis", and Conee argues for the "acquaintance hypothesis". Both approaches attempt to demonstrate that Mary gains no new knowledge, but instead gains something else. If she in fact gains no new propositional knowledge, they contend, then what she does gain may be accounted for within the physicalist framework. These are the two most notable objections to Jackson's thought experiment, and the claim it sets out to make.

Design of the thought experiment
Some have objected to Jackson's argument on the grounds that the scenario described in the thought experiment itself is not possible. For example, Evan Thompson questioned the premise that Mary, simply by being confined to a monochromatic environment, would not have any color experiences, since she may be able to see color when dreaming, after rubbing her eyes, or in afterimages from light perception.However, Graham and Horgan suggest that the thought experiment can be refined to account for this: rather than situating Mary in a black and white room, one might stipulate that she was unable to experience color from birth, but was given this ability via medical procedure later in life. Nida-Rümelin recognizes that one might question whether this scenario would be possible given the science of color vision (although Graham and Horgan suggest it is), but argues it is not clear that this matters to the efficacy of the thought experiment, provided we can at least conceive of the scenario taking place.

Objections have also been raised that, even if Mary's environment were constructed as described in the thought experiment, she would not, in fact, learn something new if she stepped out of her black and white room to see the color red. Daniel Dennett asserts that if she already truly knew "everything about color", that knowledge would necessarily include a deep understanding of why and how human neurology causes us to sense the "qualia" of color. Moreover, that knowledge would include the ability to functionally differentiate between red and other colors. Mary would therefore already know exactly what to expect of seeing red, before ever leaving the room. Dennett argues that functional knowledge is identical to the experience, with no ineffable 'qualia' left over. J. Christopher Maloney argues similarly: If, as the argument allows, Mary does understand all that there is to know regarding the physical nature of colour vision, she would be in a position to imagine what colour vision would be like. It would be like being in physical state Sk, and Mary knows all about such physical states. Of course, she herself has not been in Sk, but that is no bar to her knowing what it would be like to be in Sk. For she, unlike us, can describe the nomic relations between Sk and other states of chromatic vision...Give her a precise description in the notation of neurophysiology of a colour vision state, and she will very likely be able to imagine what such a state would be like. Surveying the literature on Jackson's argument, Nida-Rümelin identifies, however, that many simply doubt the claim that Mary would not gain new knowledge upon leaving the room, including physicalists who do not agree with Jackson's conclusions. Most cannot help but admit that "new information or knowledge comes her way after confinement," enough that this view "deserves to be described as the received physicalist view of the Knowledge Argument."

Some philosophers have also objected to Jackson's first premise by arguing that Mary could not know all the physical facts about color vision prior to leaving the room. Owen Flanagan argues that Jackson's thought experiment "is easy to defeat". He grants that "Mary knows everything about color vision that can be expressed in the vocabularies of a complete physics, chemistry, and neuroscience," and then distinguishes between "metaphysical physicalism" and "linguistic physicalism": Metaphysical physicalism simply asserts that what there is, and all there is, is physical stuff and its relations. Linguistic physicalism is the thesis that everything physical can be expressed or captured in the languages of the basic sciences…Linguistic physicalism is stronger than metaphysical physicalism and less plausible. Flanagan argues that, while Mary has all the facts that are expressible in "explicitly physical language", she can only be said to have all the facts if one accepts linguistic physicalism. A metaphysical physicalist can simply deny linguistic physicalism and hold that Mary's learning what seeing red is like, though it cannot be expressed in language, is nevertheless a fact about the physical world, since the physical is all that exists. Similarly to Flanagan, Torin Alter contends that Jackson conflates physical facts with "discursively learnable" facts, without justification: ...some facts about conscious experiences of various kinds cannot be learned through purely discursive means. This, however, does not yet license any further conclusions about the nature of the experiences that these discursively unlearnable facts are about. In particular, it does not entitle us to infer that these experiences are not physical events. Nida-Rümelin argues in response to such views that it is "hard to understand what it is for a property or a fact to be physical once we drop the assumption that physical properties and physical facts are just those properties and facts that can be expressed in physical terminology."

The three strategies
Kind brings up three strategies that have been brought up in reaction to this argument: the ability analysis, the acquaintance analysis, and the old fact/new guise analysis.

Ability hypothesis
Several objections to the argument have been raised on the grounds that Mary does not gain new factual knowledge when she leaves the room, but rather a new ability. Nemirow claims that "knowing what an experience is like is the same as knowing how to imagine having the experience". He argues that Mary only obtained the ability to do something, not the knowledge of something new. Lewis put forth a similar argument, claiming that Mary gained an ability to "remember, imagine and recognize." In the response to Jackson's knowledge argument, they both agree that Mary makes a genuine discovery when she sees red for the first time, but deny her discovery involves coming to know some facts of which she was not already cognizant before her release. Therefore, what she obtained is a discovery of new abilities rather than new facts; her discovery of what it is like to experience color consists merely in her gaining new ability of how to do certain things, but not gaining new factual knowledge. In light of such considerations, Churchland distinguishes between two senses of knowing, "knowing how" and "knowing that", where knowing how refers to abilities and knowing that refers to knowledge of facts. He aims to reinforce this line of objection by appealing to the different locations in which each type of knowledge is represented in the brain, arguing that there is a true, demonstratively physical distinction between them. By distinguishing that Mary does not learn new facts, simply abilities, it helps to negate the problem posed by the thought experiment to the physicalist standpoint.

In response, Levin argues that a novel color experience does in fact yield new factual knowledge, such as "information about the color's similarities and compatibilities with other colors, and its effect on other of our mental states." Tye counters that Mary could have (and would have, given the stipulations of the thought experiment) learned all such facts prior to leaving the room, without needing to experience the color firsthand. For example, Mary could know the fact "red is more like orange than green" without ever experiencing the colors in question.

Earl Conee objects that having an ability to imagine seeing a color is neither necessary nor sufficient for knowing what it is like to see that color, meaning the ability hypothesis does not capture the nature of the new knowledge Mary acquires upon leaving the room. To show that ability is not necessary, Conee cites the example of someone who is able to see colors when she is looking at them, but who lacks the capacity to imagine colors when she is not. He argues that while staring at something that looks red to her, she would have knowledge of what it is like to see red, even though she lacks the ability to imagine what it is like. In order to show precisely that imaginative abilities are not sufficient for knowing what it is like, Conee introduces the following example: Martha, "who is highly skilled at visualizing an intermediate shade that she has not experienced between pairs of shades that she has experienced...happens not to have any familiarity with the shade known as cherry red". Martha has been told that cherry red is exactly midway between burgundy red and fire red (she has experienced these two shades of red, but not cherry). With this, Martha has the ability to imagine cherry red if she so chooses, but as long as she does not exercise this ability, to imagine cherry red, she does not know what it is like to see cherry red.

One might accept Conee's arguments that imaginative ability is neither necessary nor sufficient for knowing what it is like to see a color, but preserve a version of the ability hypothesis that employs an ability other than imagination. For example, Gertler discusses the option that what Mary gains is not an ability to imagine colors, but an ability to recognize colors by their phenomenal quality.

Kind offers a concrete and more realistic example: a driving test, where a person would have to complete a written test where their knowledge of road laws and facts will be tested, as well as an in-car exam, where they must display their ability to drive correctly while following the laws they know as well as putting their facts into practice. One can have all the knowledge-that (knowing all the safety rules related to driving) while having no knowledge-how (driving safely). Kind characterizes Mary's understanding of color sensation as what it's like knowledge, a sub-category of knowledge-that. She states that while Mary does learn something upon seeing the red tomato for the first time and gains knowledge-how; David Lewis claims Mary is now able to recognize, remember and imagine seeing the color red. Advocates of the ability analysis hold the belief that while Mary may have a surprised reaction to seeing red for the first time, she doesn't gain any new facts about the sensation of red.

Acquaintance hypothesis
The acquaintance analysis argues that Mary is able to learn something new without obtaining accurate knowledge. Due to his dissatisfaction with the ability hypothesis, Earl Conee presents another variant. Conee's acquaintance hypothesis identifies a third category of knowledge, "knowledge by acquaintance of an experience," that is not reducible to factual knowledge nor to knowing-how. He argues that the knowledge Mary actually obtains post-release is acquaintance knowledge. Knowing an experience by acquaintance "requires the person to be familiar with the known entity in the most direct way that it is possible for a person to be aware of that thing". Since "experiencing a quality is the most direct way to apprehend a quality," Mary gains acquaintance with color qualia after release. Conee thus defends himself against the knowledge argument like this:

 Qualia are physical properties of experiences (and experiences are physical processes). Let Q be such a property.
 Mary can know all about Q and she can know that a given experience has Q before release, although—before release—she is not acquainted with Q.
 After release Mary gets acquainted with Q, but she does not acquire any new item of propositional knowledge by getting acquainted with Q (in particular she already knew under what conditions normal perceivers have experiences with the property Q).

Tye also defends a version of the acquaintance hypothesis that he compares to Conee's, though he clarifies that acquaintance with a color should not be equated to applying a concept to one's color experience.

In Conee's account, one can come to know (be acquainted with) a phenomenal quality only by experiencing it, but not by knowing facts about it as Mary did. This is different from other physical objects of knowledge: one comes to know a city, for example, simply by knowing facts about it. For example: A person may know facts about Sydney, Australia, but they won't actually be acquainted with it until they have been there in person. Gertler uses this disparity to oppose Conee's account: a dualist who posits the existence of qualia has a way of explaining it, with reference to qualia as different entities than physical objects; while Conee describes the disparity, Gertler argues that his physicalist account does nothing to explain it.

The old fact/new guise analysis
The response to the Knowledge Argument depends on whether we can accurately capture the new type of knowledge Mary gains when she leaves the room. Those who propose the ability analysis and the acquaintance analysis both agree that Mary learns something new, but they differ on whether this new knowledge can be reduced to factual knowledge or whether it requires direct experience. Another analysis, called the old fact/new guise analysis, denies that Mary learns something new at all. Instead, it suggests that Mary gains a new understanding of an old fact in a different way. This analysis depends on the idea that there are many ways to express the same fact. For example, the fact that Bruce Wayne is 6'2" tall can also be expressed as "Batman is 6'2" tall" or "Bruce Wayne est de 1.8796 mètres" in French. Proponents of the old fact/new guise analysis argue that Mary gains a new understanding of an old fact through the acquisition of a phenomenal concept of red. They believe that Mary is now able to express an old fact about the sensation of red in a new way. However, whether this analysis is successful in responding to the Knowledge Argument depends on how phenomenal concepts are defined in a way that is compatible with physicalism.

The neural basis of qualia
V.S. Ramachandran and Edward Hubbard of the Center for Brain and Cognition at UCSD argue that Mary might do one of three things upon seeing a red apple for the first time:
 Mary says she sees nothing but gray.
 She has the "Wow!" response from subjectively experiencing the color for the first time.
 She experiences a form of blindsight for color, in which she reports seeing no difference between a red apple and an apple painted gray, but when asked to point to the red apple, she correctly does.

They explain further: "Which of these three possible outcomes will actually occur? We believe we've learned the answer from a colorblind synesthete subject. Much like the theoretical Mary, our colorblind synesthete volunteer cannot see certain hues, because of deficient color receptors. However, when he looks at numbers, his synesthesia enables him to experience colors in his mind that he has never seen in the real world. He calls these "Martian colors." The fact that color cells (and corresponding colors) can activate in his brain helps us answer the philosophical question: we suggest that the same thing will happen to Mary."

Ramachandran and Hubbard's contribution is in terms of exploring "the neural basis of qualia" by "using pre-existing, stable differences in the conscious experiences of people who experience synaesthesia compared with those who do not" but, they note that "this still doesn't explain why these particular events are qualia laden and others are not (Chalmers' 'hard problem') but at least it narrows the scope of the problem" (p. 25).

Dualist responses
Jackson's argument is meant to support dualism, the view that at least some aspects of the mind are non-physical. Nida-Rümelin contends that, because dualism is relatively unpopular among contemporary philosophers, there are not many examples of dualist responses to the knowledge argument; nevertheless, she points out that there are some prominent examples of dualists responding to the Knowledge Argument worth noting.

Jackson himself went on to reject epiphenomenalism, and dualism altogether. He argues that, because when Mary first sees red, she says "wow", it must be Mary's qualia that causes her to say "wow". This contradicts epiphenomenalism because it involves a conscious state causing an overt speech behavior. Since the Mary's room thought experiment seems to create this contradiction, there must be something wrong with it. Jackson now believes that the physicalist approach (from a perspective of indirect realism) provides the better explanation. In contrast to epiphenomenalism, Jackson says that the experience of red is entirely contained in the brain, and the experience immediately causes further changes in the brain (e.g. creating memories). This is more consilient with neuroscience's understanding of color vision. Jackson suggests that Mary is simply discovering a new way for her brain to represent qualities that exist in the world. In a similar argument, philosopher Philip Pettit likens the case of Mary to patients with akinetopsia, the inability to perceive the motion of objects. If someone were raised in a stroboscopic room and subsequently 'cured' of the akinetopsia, they would not be surprised to discover any new facts about the world (they do, in fact, know that objects move). Instead, their surprise would come from their brain now allowing them to see this motion.

Despite a lack of dualist responses overall and Jackson's own change of view, there are more recent instances of prominent dualists defending the Knowledge Argument. David Chalmers, one of the most prominent contemporary dualists, considers Jackson's thought experiment to successfully show that materialism is false. Chalmers considers responses along the lines of the "ability hypothesis" objection (described above) to be the most promising objections, but unsuccessful: even if Mary does gain a new ability to imagine or recognize colors, she would also necessarily gain factual knowledge about the colors she now sees, such as the fact of how the experience of seeing red relates to the physical brain states underlying it. He also considers arguments that knowledge of what it is like to see red and of the underlying physical mechanisms are actually knowledge of the same fact, just under a different "mode of presentation", meaning Mary did not truly gain new factual knowledge. Chalmers rejects these, arguing that Mary still necessarily gains new factual knowledge about how the experience and the physical processes relate to one another, i.e. a fact about exactly what kind of experience is caused by those processes. Nida-Rümelin defends a complex, though similar, view, involving properties of experience she calls "phenomenal properties".

See also
 Phenomenal concept strategy
 Dualism (philosophy of mind)
 Functionalism (philosophy of mind)
 Inverted spectrum
 Map–territory relation
 Philosophical zombies
 Philosophy of mind
 Philosophy of perception
 Subjective character of experience
 The Giver
 The Missing Shade of Blue
 What Is it Like to Be a Bat?
 Blindsight - neurological condition where the qualia of vision are eliminated but vision itself remains

Notes

References

Further reading
  Introduction (shared by publisher, archived by Wayback Machine),
Open Access reviews of Ludlow (2004): Alter, T., (2005) Psyche. Monash Uni.; Byrne, A., (2006) - Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews

External links

 Mary's Room: A philosophical thought experiment, by Eleanor Nelsen on Ted-Ed
 "Frank Jackson, Latter Day Physicalist" a 2011 interview of Frank Jackson by James Garvey for The Philosophers' Magazine focused on "Mary's room" (Archived by Wayback Machine.)
 "Frank Jackson on What Mary Knew" Philosophy Bites interview (2011)

Color
Thought experiments in philosophy of mind
Color scientists
Metaphysics of mind
Qualia

Knowledge argument


Nindokai tanım olarak insanın kendisini savunabilmesiyle ilgili bir sistemin adı olup, Japon ve diğer dövüş sanatlarını esas almak suretiyle yapılabilen bir savunma tekniği üzerine kurulmuş tur. İlk etapta tasarım halinde bulunan sistemin fiiliyata konulması Almanya'da 1990 yılında Dr. Gerhard Schönberger tarafından yapılmış olup, 21. yüzyılın bir buluşu olarak günden güne gelişme göstermesiyle bu sistem Emniyet ve Güvenlik birimlerince kabul görmüş ve gün geçtikçe bu husustaki taleplerde büyük artışlar olmuştur.

Nindokai savunma sanatını anlayıp uygulayabilecek duruma gelen kimselerin, kendilerini karşısındaki hasımlarına karşı daha kolay şekilde korumak, daha çabuk ve atik davranmak suretiyle doğabilecek tehlikeyi bertaraf etmek, böylece de saldırıyı önlemek suretiyle insanın hayatta kalmasını sağlamak ve en az riskle tehlikeyi geçiştirmek gibi temel işlevleri bulunmaktadır.

Sözcük olarak Nindokai: Nin = devamlı, Do = yol, ka = Okul hecelerinin birleşmesinden oluşmakta; ve devamlılık ilkesini öğretip benimseten okul anlamına gelmektedir. Yorum olarak: devamlı hayatta kalabilmek için bilinmesi gerekli bir sanat şeklinde mütalaa edilebilir; bununla beraber Nindokai'ı geleneksel manada böyle algılayıp, onun, ne bir dövüş sporu ne de dövüş sanatı şeklinde anlam şekillendirmesine yer verilme melidir. Ziyadece bunun bir insanın kendisini savunması metodudur diye mütalaası yerinde olur.

Dövüş spor çeşitlerinden örneğin Judo genelde insanın kendisini yarışma için yönlendirmesini sağlar. Çok kuralcıdır, Judo yapanın daha teknik olarak en az yara almasına ya da riski en aza indirme gibi yararlar sağlar.

Birçok dövüş sanatları vardır ki bunlar eski geleneksel tekniklerle kendini korumaya adamış Samuray zamanından kalma dövüş tarzlarını öğretirler. Ancak bunlar uygulaması kolay olmayan öğretiler olup, zamanımıza adapte etmekte zorlanılmaktadır.
Bu sanat esas itibarıyla eski tarz savunma sistemlerini temel almak suretiyle güncelleştirilmiş hale konulmuştur, eleştiriler almış olmakla beraber Bruce Lee eleştirilerinin asıl yöneltiği hususu Jeet Kune Do teşkil etmektedir.

Bütün bunlara karşın Nindokai savunma sisteminin temelinde, açık olarak bellidir ki, Japon dövüş sanatları yatmaktadır. Bunun yanı sır çoğu temel teknikler: duruş, yuvarlanma, düşme geri çekilme, ve antrenmanda uygulanacak adabı muaşeretler ve gösterilecek nezaket kuralları keza töre adabı bu sanatı uygulama unsurlarını teşkil etmektedir..

Emniyet ve güvenlik birimlerinin uygulamaya koyduğu bu savunma sanatı, sadece bu birimlerle kaymayıp aynı zamanda askeri birlik ve ünitelerinde artık itibar ettiği ve yararlandığı bir savunma sanatı haline gelmiş bulunmaktadır. Ne var ki askeri sahada silahlı tekniklerin yanında bunun tatbik edildiği uygun bulunmaktadır.

Kaideten özellikle askeri sahada savunmalarda silahlı teknikler uygulanır, ancak öyle haller vuku bulabilir ki bu sanatın kullanılması zarureti ile karşılaşılabilir, işte böyle haller için bu sanatın bilinip kullanılmasında ve bu amaçla bir kadro oluşturulmasında yararlar olduğu savunulmaktadır.

İlaveten bu sanatın, belli birtakım metot, prensip çerçevesinde yapılması, ayrıca içgüdüsel ve mantıklı bir şekilde yapılmasının da hem bünyeye yararı hem de kendini asgari riskle korumayı öğretir.

Bağlantılar
 Nindokai-International

Savaş sanatları

Nindokai


Hendrik Brugmans () a fost un om politic și intelectual neerlandez.

Biografie
Părinții lui Hendrik Brugmans au fost istoricul Hajo Brugmans și Maria Keize.

Brugmans și-a făcut studiile de limbă și literatură franceză și și-a trecut doctoratul în 1934, cu o teză consacrată poetului și dramaturgului francez Georges de Porto-Riche (1849-1930).

Pentru scurt timp s-a ocupat de politică devenind membru din partea Partidului Social-Democrat al Muncitorilor (Țările de Jos) al celei de-a Doua Camere a Statelor Generale (în ). În timpul celui de-al Doilea Război Mondial a fost arestat de Gestapo, fiind închis între 1942 și 1944. Participând la Rezistența din țara sa, a devenit, după al Doilea Război Mondial, purtător de cuvânt al guvernului Schemerhorn.

Din 1948 până în 1950 Brugmans a predat literatura franceză la Universitatea din Utrecht. În 1950 a fost numit primul rector al Collège d'Europe, fiind unul dintre principalii fondatori ai acestuia, sarcină pe care a dus-o până în 1972, când a fost succedat de Jerzy Łukaszewski. Din 1972 până în 1980 a fost profesor extraordinar la Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL), secția din Kortrijk / Courtrai, unde a predat Istoria Culturii Europene.
Brugmans  a fost cofondator al Fundației Europene a Culturii, de care a fost legat 43 de ani. A fost și președinte al Uniunii Federaliștilor Europeni (UEF).

După pensonarea de la Collège d'Europe, a continuat să locuiască la Bruges.

Din prima sa căsătorie cu Engelina Carolina Mary Kana avut o fiică. S-a recăsătorit cu Joanna Bral (pseudonim: Hanna Kirsten).

În cursul șederii sale la Bruges, calvinistul și agnosticul Hendrik Brugmans s-a convertit la catolicism, fiind primit în această confesiune de episcopul de Bruges, Émile-Joseph De Smedt.

Publicații
Brugmans a fost un publicist neobosit pentru promovarea unei Europe federaliste.

Cité européenne. Programme fédéraliste, Paris, 1950.
Schets van een Europese samenleving, Rotterdam, 1952.
Europa voorbij het nulpunt 1969-1975, Antwerpen - Amsterdam, N.V. Scriptoria, 1975 (247 p.)
Levend in Europa. Ontmoetingen en herinneringen, Alphen aan den Rijn, 1980.
Wij, Europa. Een halve eeuw strijd voor emancipatie en Europees federalisme. Opgetekend door H. Kirsten, Leuven/Amsterdam, 1988.

Articole
 Arthur Lehning : homme libre et libertaire, Septentrion, 1980, Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse letteren, Citiți online.

Onoruri
 1951: Premiul Carol cel Mare la Aachen
 1972: rector onorific al Collège d'Europe
 1972: cetățean de onoare al orașului Bruges
 1990: Medalia Uniunii Limbii Neerlandeze
 1997: Anul academic 1997-1998 al Collège d'Europe l-a luat pe Hendrik Brugmans drept patron al său.

Note

Literatură
 Annemarie Van Heerikhuizen, Pioniers van een verenigd Europa, Digitale Bibliotheek Nederland, 2007

Legături externe

 Site al Collège d'Europe

Nașteri în 1906
Nașteri pe 13 decembrie
Oameni din Amsterdam
Decese pe 12 martie
Decese în 1997
Profesori universitari
Profesori universitari neerlandezi
Lingviști
Politicieni neerlandezi
Socialiști
Rectori ai Collège d'Europe
Profesori ai Universității din Utrecht
Profesori ai Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
Istoria Europei
Premii Carol cel Mare
Absolvenți ai Universității din Amsterdam
Absolvenți ai Universității din Paris
Neerlandezi din secolul al XX-lea

Hendrik Brugmans


was a town located in Takashima District, Shiga Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 6,230 and a density of 79.53 per km². The total area was 78.34 km².

On January 1, 2005, Makino, along with the towns of Takashima, Adogawa, Imazu and Shin'asahi, and the village of Kutsuki (all from Takashima District), was merged to create the city of Takashima.

Dissolved municipalities of Shiga Prefecture
Takashima, Shiga

Makino, Shiga


Stephan Meder (* 4. Februar 1956 in Nürnberg) ist Inhaber des Lehrstuhls für Zivilrecht und Rechtsgeschichte an der Leibniz Universität Hannover.

Leben
Nach einem Studium der Rechtswissenschaft, Philosophie und Geschichte in Erlangen, Frankfurt am Main und Berlin folgten Studienaufenthalte in Italien (1978/79) und in den Vereinigten Staaten (1983/84). Im Jahr 1988 wurde Meder an der Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main promoviert, ebenda erfolgte 1992 seine Habilitation. In den Jahren 1992–1994 übte er Lehrtätigkeiten an den Universitäten Würzburg, Erlangen, Münster, Frankfurt am Main und Greifswald aus, 1995–1998 hatte er eine Professur für Bürgerliches Recht und Neuere Privatrechtsgeschichte an der Europa-Universität Viadrina in Frankfurt (Oder) und seit 1. April 1998 eine Professur für Zivilrecht und Rechtsgeschichte an der Universität Hannover inne.

Kritik
2021 hat Peter Oestmann Plagiatsvorwürfe gegenüber mehreren Werken von Meder erhoben. Unter anderem soll Meder Teile seines Lehrbuchs "Rechtsgeschichte" von anderen Autoren übernommen und nicht kenntlich gemacht haben. Gegen Oestmann ist aktuell vor dem Landgericht Berlin eine Klage auf Unterlassung und Schadensersatz anhängig. Ihm wird zur Last gelegt, unberechtigte Plagiatsvorwürfe erhoben zu haben. Nach Angaben der Hannoverschen Allgemeinen Zeitung leitete die Leibniz Universität Hannover eine Untersuchung ein, deren Ergebnisse für die zweite Hälfte 2022 erwartet werden. Der von "schwerwiegenden Fehlern" und "Korrekturbedarf" sprechende Böhlau-Verlag des Werkes "Rechtsgeschichte" hat das Buch vorerst aus dem Handel genommen und ebenfalls eine Prüfung eingeleitet. Auch hinsichtlich eines anderen, dort erschienenen Buchs prüft der Verlag die Plagiatsvorwürfe.

Schriften (Auswahl)

Aktuelle Schriften
 Savignys Weg in die juristische Moderne. Romantik, Gender, Religion, Wissenschaft, Schwabe Verlag, Berlin 2023, 478 S, ISBN 978-3-7574-0108-5
 Legal Machines, Of Subsumption Automata, Artificial Intelligence, And the Search for the "Correct" Judgment, Talbot Publishing, Clark (New Jersey) 2023, 167 S, ISBN 978-1-61619-681-3
 Gesellschaftsvertrag und Souveränität bei Moses Mendelssohn und im 19. Jahrhundert, in: Ursula Goldenbaum, Stephan Meder, Matthias Armgardt (Hg.), Moses Mendelssohns Rechtsphilosophie im Kontext, Hannover 2021, S. 145–170, ISBN 978-3-86525-836-6.
 Aequitas und ius strictum in der Historischen Rechtsschule und Pandektistk, in: Matthias Armgardt, Hubertus Busche (Hg.), Recht und Billigkeit. Zur Geschichte der Beurteilung ihres Verhältnisses, Tübingen 2021, S. 509–532, ISBN 978-3-16-158230-1.
 Rechtsmaschinen. Von Subsumtionsautomaten, Künstlicher Intelligenz und der Suche nach dem "richtigen" Urteil, Köln-Weimar-Wien 2020, 152 S, ISBN 978-3-412-52017-5.
 Rechtsgeschichte. Eine Einführung, 7. Auflage, Köln-Weimar-Wien 2020 (UTB-Taschenbuch 2299), 512 S, ISBN                                                                                978-3-8252-5633-3.
 Leibniz und das autonome Fahren. Zur Vorgeschichte der Ideen von selbststeuernden Maschinen, technischer Kinetik und Robotik, in: Bernd H. Oppermann, Jutta Stender-Vorwachs, Autonomes Fahren. Rechtsprobleme, Rechtsfolgen, technische Grundlagen, 2. Auflage, München 2020, S. 41–47, ISBN 978-3-406-73285-0.
 Die Todesstrafe des Hängens mit Wölfen und Hunden. Von den Anfängen in der Antike bis zur Historischen Rechtsschule, in: Markus Hirte, Andreas Deutsch (Hg.), "Hund und Katz – Wolf und Spatz. Tiere in der Rechtsgeschichte, Sankt Ottilien 2020, S. 205–223 (Kataloge des Mittelalterlichen Kriminalmuseums in Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Bd. 3), ISBN 978-3-8306-7989-9.
 Franz Wieackers "Wandlungen im Bilde der historischen Rechtsschule" neu gelesen: Ein schiefes Bild der Rechtsgeschichte? In: Bernd H. Oppermann, Udo Winkelmann (Hg.), Die Geschichtlichkeit des Rechts und ihre Folgen für das deutsche Staats- und Verwaltungsrecht. Symposion anlässlich des 80. Geburtstags von Albert Janssen, Halle an der Saale 2020, S. 13–47, ISBN 978-3-86977-217-2.
 Philipp Lotmar und die Methode der Pandektisten. Zugleich ein Beitrag zum Verhältnis von Rechtsgeschichte und Privatrechtsdogmatik, in: Iole Fargnoli, Urs Fasel, Das römische Recht vom Error – Philipp Lotmars opus magnum (Forschungsband zum Kolloquium 2019 an der Universität Bern), Bern 2020, S. 65–86, ISBN 978-3-7272-4599-2.
 Richard Strauss versus Luigi Denza: Der Kampf um das Urheberrecht an dem Lied "funiculì, funiculà", in: ders., Geschichte und Zukunft des Urheberrechts II (= Beiträge zu Grundfragen des Rechts, Bd. 34), Göttingen 2020, S. 123–134, ISBN 978-3-8471-1176-4.
 Das Konzept des Vaters im Rechtsdenken von Pierre Legendre, in: Assunta Verrone, Peter Nickl (Hg.), Dreiviertel-Ich: Identitäten. Texte zum 6. Festival der Philosophie, Berlin 2020, S. 85–102, ISBN 978-3-643-14272-6.
 Rudolf von Jhering und der Aufstand gegen den rechtswissenschaftlichen Formalismus, in: JZ 74 (2019), S. 689–696, doi:10.1628/jz-2019-0269.
 Was bedeutet Dogmatik? Eine Skizze aus rechtshistorischer Perspektive, in: Andreas Raffeiner (Hg.), Auf der Klaviatur der Rechtsgeschichte (FS Kurt Ebert), Teilband II, Hamburg 2019, S. 519–540, ISBN 978-3-339-11096-1.
 Zwischen strengem Formalismus und totaler Materialisierung: Das Paradigma von den "Wandlungen" der Rechtsordnung, in: Kritische Justiz 52, 2019 (FS Rudolf Wiethölter), S. 528–542, doi:10.5771/0023-4834-2019-3.
 "Auf dem rechten Auge blind": Der Film "Affaire Blum" – ein Spiegel politischer Justiz in der Weimarer Republik, in: Erinnern! Aufgabe, Chance, Herausforderung. Zeitschrift Stiftung der Gedenkstätten Sachsen-Anhalt, Nr. 2/2019, S. 77–85, .

Grundlegende Schriften (Monographien)
 Der unbekannte Leibniz. Die Entdeckung von Recht und Politik durch Philosophie, Böhlau, Köln-Weimar-Wien 2018, 386 S, ISBN 978-3-412-50063-4.
 Doppelte Körper im Recht. Traditionen des Pluralismus zwischen staatlicher Einheit und transnationaler Vielheit, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2015, 400 S, ISBN 978-3-16-154028-8.
 Gottlieb Planck und die Kunst der Gesetzgebung (Schriftenreihe des Instituts für Rechtsgeschichte, Rechtsphilosophie und Rechtsvergleichung der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Bd. 2), Baden-Baden 2010, 136 S.
 Ius non scriptum. Traditionen privater Rechtsetzung, Mohr Siebeck, 2. Auflage, Tübingen 2009, 301 S, ISBN 978-3-8452-2371-1.
 Mißverstehen und Verstehen. Savignys Grundlegung der juristischen Hermeneutik, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2004, 284 S, ISBN 978-3-16-148418-6.
 Urteilen. Elemente von Kants reflektierender Urteilskraft in Savignys Lehre von der juristischen Entscheidungs- und Regelfindung (Ius Commune – Veröffentlichungen des Max-Planck-Instituts für europäische Rechtsgeschichte Frankfurt am Main. Sonderhefte – Studien zur europäischen Rechtsgeschichte Nr. 118. Reihe Savignyana Texte und Studien Nr. 4), Vittorio Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1999, 304 S, ISBN 978-3465030102.
 Die bargeldlose Zahlung. Ein rechtshistorischer Beitrag zur dogmatischen Einordnung des Kreditkartenverfahrens (Juristische Abhandlungen Bd. 30), Vittorio Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1996, S. 294, ISBN 978-3-465-02881-9.
 Schuld, Zufall, Risiko. Untersuchung struktureller Probleme privatrechtlicher Zurechnung, Habil. Ffm 1992 (Juristische Abhandlungen Bd. 23), Vittorio Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 1993, 390 S, ISBN 978-3-465-02601-3.
 Schadensersatz als Enttäuschungsverarbeitung. Zur erkenntnistheoretischen Grundlegung eines modernen Schadensbegriffs, Diss. Ffm 1988 (Schriften zur Rechtstheorie Heft 135), Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1989, 178 S, ISBN 978-3-428-06638-4.

Weblinks

 Internetpräsenz des Lehrstuhls auf der Seite der Universität Hannover
 ausführliches Schriftenverzeichnis auf der Seite der Universität Hannover

Einzelnachweise

Privatrechtler (20. Jahrhundert)
Privatrechtler (21. Jahrhundert)
Rechtshistoriker (20. Jahrhundert)
Rechtshistoriker (21. Jahrhundert)
Hochschullehrer (Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover)
Geboren 1956
Deutscher
Mann
Absolvent der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main

Stephan Meder


Model Bianka (titlul original: în ) este un film turnat în RDG în 1951, având titlul alternativ Contra.
Regizorul Groschkopp a realizat acest film în studioul DEFA, cu Gerda Falk și Margit Schaumäker precum Fritz Wagner și Werner Peters, film la care a participat și ca scenarist. Este o comedie fără importanță, care avea un scop politic în RDG-ul acelor ani de a aduce în rândul publicului spiritul de "concurs socialist".

Conținut

Jochen și Gerd creează modele noi pentru Casa de Mode "Saxonia". Tocmai au liber și se gândesc că ar fi frumos să petreacă plăcut acest timp în casa de odihnă unde se aflau împreuna cu Ursel și Hilde. Doar că acestea sunt angajatele Casei de Mode concurente "Berolina" și urmau să prezinte la parada modei, tocmai modelul "Bianka" creat de cei doi, fapt ce duce la o mulțime de turbulențe...

Distribuție
 Siegfried Dornbusch – Jochen Rauhut
 Fritz Wagner – Gerd Neumann
 Gerda Falk – Ursel Altmann
 Margit Schaumäker - Hilde Meißner
 Werner Peters – Hans Obermann
 Karl Hellmer – Emil Klein
 Herbert Kiper – Vater Krause
 Trude Lehmann – Mutter Krause
 Edith Hancke – Jungarbeiterin Inge Lang
 Hans Neie – Fritz Große
 Friedel Nowack – Eva Schulze
 Peter Dornseif – Johannes Müller
 Elfie Dugall – Kellnerin
 Thea Achenwall
 Gertrude Acker
 Carola Braunbock
 Ursula Ihlau
 Franz Kutschera
 Manfred Lehmann
 Gerhard Müller-Förtsch
 Albert Venohr

Note

Vezi și
 Listă de filme străine până în 1989

Legături externe

Filme din 1951
Filme de comedie
Filme în limba germană
Filme regizate de Richard Groschopp
Filme alb-negru
Filme DEFA
Filme din Republica Democrată Germană

Model Bianka


هور الحمّار   يقع هذا الهور جنوب نهر الفرات في العراق، ويمتد من سوق الشيوخ في الغرب إلى ضواحي البصرة عند شط العرب غرباً. يبلغ طوله 90 كم وعرضه بين 25-30 كم، وكانت مساحته السطحية القصوى حوالي 3000 كم2 في موسم الفيضان وتنخفض إلى حوالي 600 كم2 خلال موسم الجفاف وتشكل بحيرة دائمة وهذا الهور ذو المساحة الشاسعة تم تجفيفه بنسبة 94 % خلال الخمسة عشر سنة الأخيرة وتم خلال هذه الفترة إنشاء قناة البصرة لتوفير المياه والتي تجري عند الحافة الجنوبية للهور ويأخذ هور الحمّار مياهه بصورة رئيسية من نهر الفرات من مؤخرة مدينة الناصرية وعبر أنهار غليوين والسقحة وفرعيها عكيكة وبني حسن وأنهار مؤخر سوق الشيوخ وهي الحفار وأم نخلة وكرمة بني سعيد وعبر نواظم أُنشأت عليها تصـرفـها بيـن 50-500 م3/ثا ويستوعب الحمّار فيضانات نهر دجلة التي ترد إلى الأهوار المركزية عن طريق تصريفها بواسطة فتحات الأنابيب والجسور المُقامة على طريق المدينة جبايش.وتسكنه اسلاف عده منهم بني خيكان وبني حطيط وال غريج

المراجع

أهوار في العراق
حوض شط العرب
دجلة
قضايا بيئية في العراق
مواقع رامسار في العراق
مياه عذبة
نهر الفرات

هور الحمار


Chillagoe ist eine Kleinstadt im Nordosten des australischen Bundesstaates Queensland. Einst war sie eine prosperierende Bergbausiedlung, in deren Nachbarschaft verschiedene Mineralien abgebaut wurden. Heute gibt es nur noch eine kleine Zinkmine und einige Marmorsteinbrüche. Bei der Volkszählung 2021 wurden 150 Einwohner gezählt.

Südlich und nördlich der Stadt an der Burke Developmental Road liegt der Chillagoe-Mungana-Caves-Nationalpark. Im Gebiet um Chillagoe und Mungana gibt es 600–1000 Höhlen. Diese Höhlen, die spektakuläre Karstlandschaft und die Geschichte der Bergbauindustrie sind die wichtigsten Touristenattraktionen in diesem Gebiet.

Der führende Geologie-Professor Ian Plimer hat festgestellt, dass die Gegend um Chillagoe die größte geologische Diversität von allen Gebieten der Welt aufweist.

Geschichte
Chillagoe erhielt seinen Namen 1888 von William Atherton. Er stammte aus einem Shanty-Refrain: "Hikey, Tikey, Psyche, Crikey, Chillagoe, Walabadorie". James Mulligan erforschte die Gegend 1873 und Atherton bestätigte seinen Bericht über reiche Kupfervorkommen in diesem Gebiet. Bergbaupionier John Moffat sandte 1888 Prospektoren in das Kupferfeld und erhielt bald das Monopol für dessen Abbau. Eine Registrierungsbehörde eröffnete 1891 (W. Atherton war der Registrierungsbeamte), schloss aber bereits 1893 wieder. 1900 wurde ein Postamt eröffnet und F. Donner war der zuständige Postbeamte. Die Eisenbahnstrecke der Chillagoe Railway and Mining Company führte ab 1901 nach Mareeba und am 27. Oktober 1910 wurde ein Siedlungsgebiet für die Stadt ausgewiesen.

An Chillagoe erinnert man sich auch wegen seiner Verwicklung in die Mungana-Affäre, einem Bergbauskandal, der zum Sturz der Regierung führte. 1919 wurde der Bundesstaat Queensland nach wechselhaftem Erfolg der bisherigen Eigentümer und etlichen Schließungen Eigentümer der Schmelzöfen. Dieser von der Labor-Regierung durchgeführte Zukauf brachte Korruptionsgerüchte auf, die sich jahrelang hielten. Ende der 1920er-Jahre waren die Schmelzofenwerke erneut von Schließungen betroffen. Als die Australian Labor Party 1929 die Regierungsgewalt abgeben musste, errichtete die neue Regierung eine Royal Commission, die die Vorgänge untersuchte. Die politischen Karrieren von zwei früheren Premierministern von Queensland, Ted Theodore und McCormack, wurden durch den Bericht der Kommission ruiniert.

Woothakata ist ein Anwesen am Chillagoe Creek, das nach dem früheren Shire des nördlichen Tafellandes benannt wurde, zu dem Chillagoe einst gehörte. Woothakata ist ein Aborigineswort, das den Weg beschreibt, auf dem die Aborigines einst nach Ngarrabullgan/Mount Mulligan, einem wichtigen Versammlungsplatz, reisten.

Weblinks
 Chillagoe and Chillagoe Shire. University of Queensland: Queensland Places

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Queensland
Bergbau (Australien)
Mareeba Shire

Chillagoe


Ultimul domiciliu cunoscut (titlul original: în ) este un film polițist franco-italian,
realizat în 1970 de regizorul José Giovanni, protagoniști fiind actorii Lino Ventura, Marlène Jobert și Michel Constantin.

Conținut

Marceau Leonetti, este un polițist competent și energic la poliția din Paris, decorat cu Legiunea de Onoare pentru serviciile sale. Oprind din întâmplare fiul unui avocat influent care a condus în stare de ebrietate în Bois de Boulogne și ducându-l la secția de poliție pentru probe de sânge, ajunge să intre în probleme cu intrigi și uneltiri. Câteva luni mai târziu, avocatul denaturează complet faptele, descriindu-l pe Leonetti drept violent și incompetent, iar pentru că au aflat că și-a pierdut soția și fiica într-un accident de automobil, ar avea ceva împotriva vitezomanilor, astfel îi recomandă un examen psihiatric. Pentru a potoli lucrurile, este transferat într-o secție mică de poliție, unde primește ca ajutor pe tânăra polițistă Jeanne Dumas. Aceștia urmează să descopere și să aresteze perverși sexuali în cinematografe, iar Jeanne trebuie să joace rolul de momeală.

În cazul procesului Soramon, procurorul Frank Lambert îi cere ajutor lui Leonetti. Poliția caută în zadar un martor, Roger Martin, fără a cărui mărturie, criminalul Soramon nu poate fi condamnat. Martin s-a dat la fund și au rămas doar șapte zile până la procesul decisiv. Cei doi pleacă în căutare dar și complicii lui Soramon îl caută pe Martin ca să-l elimine. Acesta și-a schimbat mereu reședința de frica criminalilor. Leonetti află că Martin are o fiică care se află sub tratament medical, astfel cei doi caută indicii în farmacii. Într-o noapte află adresa ei, dar sunt așteptați de oamenii lui Soramon. Observând că sunt urmăriți, inspectorul o lasă în fața casei sale pe Jeanne, dându-i cheile să intre in apartament. După aceasta, cum era de așteptat, Greg împreună cu oamenii săi îcearcă să obțină adresa fiicei și au o confruntare dură, dar Leonetti ținând în mână un alt bilețel, reușește să îi păcălească.

Inpectorul și partenera sa, după ce vizitează medicul de la adresa găsită la farmacie, îi găsesc pe Martin și fiica sa. Îl conving pe acesta să depună mărturie în procesul lui Soramon, astfel încât Soramon să fie condamnat. După proces, Martin totuși este ucis de omul lui Soramon, Greg, în timp ce mergea cu fetița spre casă.

Jeanne care înainte l-a admirat foarte mult pe Leonetti pentru asiduitatea în munca sa, pleacă făcându-l pe Leonetti și poliția responsabili de cele întâmplate și fiind convinsă că toți știau că Martin nu va avea fără protecție nici o șansă de scăpare. Se îndepărtează deziluzionată de Leonetti și-l acuză că a fost preocupat doar de îndeplinirea unei misiuni, iar munca lor a însemnat pedeapsa cu moartea pentru Martin.

Distribuție

 Lino Ventura – inspectorul șef Marceau Leonetti
 Marlène Jobert – Jeanne Dumas,  noua asistentă a inspectorului
 Philippe March – Roger Martin, martorul dispărut
 Michel Constantin – Greg
 Alain Mottet – Frank Lambert, colegul și prietenul lui Leonetti
 Béatrice Arnac – Silvia
 Gilette Barbier – băcanul
 Luc Bartholomé – Jo Roisin
 Philippe Brizard – șoferul de taxi
 Mathilde Ceccarelli – vecinul pervers
 Michel Charrel – Roisin
 Paul Crauchet – Jacques Loring, vecinul lui Martin
 Monique Mélinand – Mme Loring, soția lui Jacques
 Bernard Musson – farmacistul
 Albert Dagnant – Arnold
 Germaine Delbat – dna. Lenoir
 Roger Desmare – cizmarul
 Martine Ferrière – soția cizmarului
 Max Desrau – Thoin
 Pierre Duncan – un agent la secția de poliție
 Robert Favart – directorul școlii
 Sébastien Floche – paznicul
 Pierre Frag – omul sandwich
 Jacques Galland – directorul P.J.
 Guy Héron – Soramon
 Guy Kerner – doctorul
 Stan Krol – Kropniak
 Sylvain Lévignac – omul lui Gregg
 Roger Lumont – omul din spatele depozitului de mobilă
 Jacques Marchand – maniacul
 Serge Marquand – guralivul
 Colette Mars – primul farmacist
 Raymond Meunier – Allister, colegul de anchetă
 Frédéric Santaya – Favre, coechipierul lui Allister
 Emile Riandreys – un pasager din autobuz
 Hervé Sand – Gravel
 Bianca Saury – Marie Martin, fiica lui Roger
 Jean Sobieski – Aden
 Dominique Zardi – un maniac

Interesant de știut
Filmul se încheie cu versurile care țin loc de epilog:
"…Car la vie est un bien perdu
quand on ne l'a pas vécu
comme on aurait voulu"
EMINESCU

Este o regretabilă eroare, deoarece ele sunt de fapt primele două versuri din poezia "Decebal către popor" a lui Coșbuc:
 "Viața asta-i bun pierdut
 când n'o trăiești cum ai fi vrut!"
 George Coșbuc: Decebal către popor

Referințe

Bibliografie

Vezi și
 Listă de filme străine până în 1989

Legături externe

Filme din 1970
Filme polițiste
Filme în limba franceză
Filme regizate de José Giovanni

Ultimul domiciliu cunoscut


Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi, Sheffield şehrinde İngiltere'nin kuzey bölgesinde Güney Yorkshire'da yer alan bir modern üniversitedir.

Kökeni 1843'te kurulan Sheffield School of Design adı ile kurulan uygulamalı güzel sanatlar enstitüsü olup 20. yüzyılın ilk yarısına kadar Sheffield yöresel idaresi uygulamalı bilimler ve pratik vokasyonel alanlarda yüksek eğitim sağlayan birkaç kolej kurmuş ve bunlar yeni bir statü ile birleştirilerek 1969'dan sonra Sheffield Politeknik ve Sheffield City Politeknik adıyla yükseköğretim kurumu olmuştur. 1992'de çıkarılan yeni bir kanunla İngiltere'de bulunan politekniklere üniversite unvanı verilmiş ve Sheffield'de bulunan diğer üniversiteden (Sheffield Üniversitesi) ayrılmak üzere Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi adı ile Kraliyet Beratı almıştır.

2008 tarihli verilere göre Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi'nde öğretim üyesi sayısı 4.027; toplam öğrenci sayısı 30.009 ve lisans-üstü öğrenci sayısı 7.495'tir. Bu öğrenci sayısı ile üniversite Birleşik Krallık üniversiteleri arasında 6. sırayı almaktadır.

Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi halen dört büyük fakülteye ayrılmıştır: "ACES: Güzel Sanatlar, Bilgisayar, Mühendislik ve Fen Bilimleri Fakültesi", "D&S: Gelişme ve Toplum Fakültesi", "HWB: Sağlık ve Esenlik Fakültesi" ve "O&M: Organizasyon ve İşletmecilik Fakültesi". Bu fakülteler 650 değişik lisans, lisans üstü ve uygulamalı profesyonel kurslar sağlamaktadırlar. Üniversite içinde 30 sayıda araştırma merkezi bulunmaktadır.

Üniversite yerleşkeleri Sheffield şehri içinde yaygın bulunmakta iken, alınan stratejik kararlarla şu anda sadece iki kampüs içinde bulunmaktadır. Çok yakınlarda, kurumun köken kuruluşlarını (Öğrenci Cemiyeti, Güzel Sanatlar Okulu vb.) kapsayan bir kampüs olan Psalter Lane kampüsü kapatılmıştır. Üniversite böylece şehir merkezinde demiryolu istasyonunun yakınında bulunan "Şehir Kampüsü" ile Sheffield'ın güney-batı varoşlarında bulunan "Collegiate Crescent Kampüsü"'nde yerleşkelenmiştir.

İngiltere'de kaliteli günlük ve hafta sonu gazeteleri tarafından Mayıs 2008'de hazırlanıp yayınlanan üniversite sıralamaları listelerine göre Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi 120 Birleşik Krallık üniversitesi arasında Guardiana göre 78., The Times'a  göre 76. ve The Sunday Times''a göre 68. sırayı almıştır. Ancak bu sıralama listelerini kriterleri değişiktir ve genellikle seçilip kullanılan kriterler tartışmaya açık bulunmaktadır.

Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi içerisinde 740 dan fazla lisans ve yüksek lisans program seçeneği bulunur. Bu programlar genellikle iş dünyasının uzmanları ile yapılan ortak çalışmalar doğrultusunda hazırlanır. Bu sebeple mezunların ilk 6 ay içerisinde işe girme oranı %88'lere ulaşmıştır.  Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi'nin psikoloji, mühendislik, bilgisayar , dizayn ve işletme bölümleri en popüler bölümler arasında yer alır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi resmi internet sitesi.
 Sheffield Hallam Students Union Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi öğrenci cemiyeti sitesi.
 Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi Türkçe bilgi sitesi.

Hallam Universitesi
İngiltere'deki üniversiteler
1843'te kurulan üniversiteler

Sheffield Hallam Üniversitesi


Eğimli, Tunceli ilinin Ovacık ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün eski ismi "Maraş"tır. 1955 yılı nüfus sayımında Maraş adıyla kaydedilen yerleşim ismi sonrasında değiştirilmiş ve 1960 yılı nüfus sayımından itibaren günümüzdeki adıyla kayıtlarda yer almaya başlamıştır. Ekim 1994'te güvenlik güçleri tarafından PKK'ya yönelik başlatılan operasyonlar kapsamında tamamen boşaltılan köye, 2013 yılından itibaren yeniden yerleşim başlamıştır.

Coğrafya
Tunceli iline 58 km, Ovacık ilçesine 18 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Ovacık belde ve köyleri

Eğimli, Ovacık


طلال أحمد العامر، من مواليد 22 فبراير 1987، لاعب كرة قدم كويتي.

بدأ مسيرته الكروية مع نادي القادسية الكويتي في عام 2002، وقد لعب أولى مبارياته مع الفريق الأول في موسم 2007/2008، وفي يوم 10 نوفمبر 2008 تعرض إلى الطرد في مباراة فريقه أمام نادي النصر الكويتي في الدوري الكويتي 2008/2009.

في يوم 2 ديسمبر 2008 أختاره المدرب محمد إبراهيم مدرب منتخب الكويت لكرة القدم ضمن التشكيلة الأولية للمنتخب المشارك في كأس الخليج 2009.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية كويتيون
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من مدينة الكويت
لاعبو كأس آسيا 2011
لاعبو كأس آسيا 2015
لاعبو كرة قدم في دورة الألعاب الآسيوية 2006
لاعبو كرة قدم كويتيون
لاعبو منتخب الكويت لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي القادسية (الكويت)
منافسون في الألعاب الآسيوية من الكويت
مواليد 1407 هـ
مواليد 1987
مواليد في مدينة الكويت
لاعبو كرة قدم من مدينة الكويت

طلال العامر


An alembic (from , originating from , 'cup, beaker') is an alchemical still consisting of two vessels connected by a tube, used for distillation of liquids.

Description
The complete distilling apparatus consists of three parts: the "cucurbit" (Arabic: ; Greek: , ), the still pot containing the liquid to be distilled, which is heated by a flame; the "head" or "cap" (, ; Greek , ) which fits over the mouth of the cucurbit to receive the vapors, with an attached downward-sloping "tube" (, ); and the "receiver" (, ; ,  or , ) container.  In the case of another distilling vessel, the retort, the "cap" and the "cucurbit" have been combined to form a single vessel. The anbik is also called the raʾs (head) of the cucurbit. The liquid in the cucurbit is heated or boiled; the vapour rises into the anbik, where it cools by contact with the walls and condenses, running down the spout into the receiver. A modern descendant of the alembic is the pot still, used to produce distilled beverages.

History

Dioscorides's ambix, described in his  (c. 50 C.E.), is a helmet-shaped lid for gathering condensed mercury. For Athenaeus (c. 225 C.E.) it is a bottle or flask. For later chemists it denoted various parts of crude distillation devices.

Alembic drawings appear in works of Cleopatra the Alchemist (3rd century C.E.), Zosimos of Panopolis (c. 300 C.E.), and Synesius (c. 373 – c. 414 C.E.). There were alembics with two (dibikos) and three (tribikos) receivers. According to Zosimos of Panopolis, the alembic was invented by Mary the Jewess.

The anbik is described by Ibn al-Awwam in his  (Book of Agriculture), where he explains how rose-water is distilled. Amongst others, it is mentioned in the  (Key of Sciences) of Khwarizmi and the  (Book of Secrets) of al-Razi. Some illustrations occur in the Latin translations of works which are attributed to Geber.

Unicode
The Unicode character set specifies three symbols for alembics: the pictogram ⚗ (), its emoji variation ⚗ (), and the ancient alchemical symbol 🝪 (). The latter is part of the newer UCS-4 addition that includes other ideographs like emojis and thus may not appear correctly on older browsers.

See also
 Aludel

References

External links

Alchemical tools
Arab inventions

Alembic