Amortisman, genel olarak, üretim faaliyetleri sonucunda mal ve hizmetler oluşturulurken geçmiş yıllardan devralınan sermaye mallarında meydana gelen aşınma ve eskimenin parasal değeridir.

Bir firmada bir yıldan fazla kullanılacağı düşünülen ve herhangi bir biçimde değerden düşmesi söz konusu olan ekonomik değerlerde (taşınmazlar, bunların tamamlayıcı parçaları, ayrıntıları, makine, teçhizat, vb.) oluşacak değerlerin bir yıl içinde uğradıkları değer kayıplarının üretilen malların maliyet tutarlarına eklenmesi veya söz konusu kayıpların o yılın giderleri arasına yazılması amortismanının konusunu oluşturur. Arsa masrafı, amortisman hesabına dahil edilmez. Amortismandan kaynaklı masraf, bir sonraki seneden başlamak üzere giderler arasına aşağıdaki metotlardan birine uygun olarak yazılır.

İki uygulanma şekli vardır

 Sabit amortisman
 Azalan bakiyeler

 Ayrılacak tutar eşit parçalara bölünerek yıllara yayılır
 En başta büyük bir kısım ilk yıla ayrılır. Daha sonra ise bu miktar giderek azalır.

Mali açıdan gelirleri giderlerinden çok olan firmalar daha az vergi vermek için giderleri yükseltmek için azalan bakiyeler yönetimini kullanırlar.Daha az kar eden ve sektöründe ortalama olan bir firma için ise sabit amortisman yönetiminin uygulanması firma için daha uygundur.

Ekonomi terimleri

Amortisman


Goblin Market (composed in April 1859 and published in 1862) is a narrative poem by Christina Rossetti. It tells the story of Laura and Lizzie who are tempted with fruit by goblin merchants. In a letter to her publisher, Rossetti claimed that the poem, which is interpreted frequently as having features of remarkably sexual imagery, was not meant for children. However, in public Rossetti often stated that it was intended for children, and went on to write many children's poems. When it appeared in her first volume of poetry, Goblin Market and Other Poems, it was illustrated by her brother, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti.

Plot

Goblin Market tells the adventures of two close sisters, Laura and Lizzie, with the river goblins.

Although the sisters seem to be quite young, they live by themselves in a house, and draw water every evening from a stream. As the poem begins, the sisters hear the calls of the goblin merchants selling their fantastic fruits in the twilight. On this evening, Laura, intrigued by their strangeness, lingers at the stream after her sister goes home. (Rossetti hints that the "goblin men" resemble animals with faces like wombats or cats, and with tails.) Longing for the goblin fruits but having no money, the impulsive Laura offers to pay a lock of her hair and "a tear more rare than pearl."

Laura gorges on the delicious fruit in a sort of bacchic frenzy. Once finished, she returns home in an ecstatic trance, carrying one of the seeds. At home, Laura tells her sister of the delights she indulged in, but Lizzie is "full of wise upbraidings," reminding Laura of Jeanie, another girl who partook of the goblin fruits, and then died at the beginning of winter after a long and pathetic decline. Strangely, no grass grows over Jeanie's grave. Laura dismisses her sister's worries, and plans to return the next night to get more fruits for herself and Lizzie. The sisters go to sleep in their shared bed.

The next day, as Laura and Lizzie go about their housework, Laura dreamily longs for the coming meeting with the goblins. That evening, however, as she listens at the stream, Laura discovers to her horror that, although her sister still hears the goblins' chants and cries, she cannot.

Unable to buy more of the forbidden fruit, Laura sickens and pines for it. As winter approaches, she withers and ages unnaturally, too weak to do her chores. One day she remembers the saved seed and plants it, but nothing grows.

Months pass, and Lizzie realises that Laura is wasting to death. Lizzie resolves to buy some of the goblin fruit for Laura. Carrying a silver penny, Lizzie goes down to the brook and is greeted warmly by the goblins, who invite her to dine. But when the merchants realise that she has no intent to eat the fruit, and only intends to pay in silver, they attack, trying to feed her their fruits by force. Lizzie is drenched with the juice and pulp, but consumes none of it.

Lizzie escapes and runs home, but when the dying Laura eats the pulp and juice from her body, the taste repulses rather than satisfies her, and she undergoes a terrifying paroxysm.

By morning, however, Laura is fully restored to health. The last stanza attests that both Laura and Lizzie live to tell their children of the evils of the goblins' fruits, and the power of a bond between sisters.

Interpretation
The poem has inspired disparate interpretations. James Antoniou wrote in his 2020 Canberra Times article that "while the sheer lusciousness of the goblins' 'sugar-baited words' undercuts the moral [of restraint and sisterly love], the strange contradictions of the story itself repel any easy allegorical readings."

Critics in the late 1970s viewed the poem as an expression of Rossetti's feminist and homosexual politics. Some critics suggest the poem is about feminine sexuality and its relation to Victorian social mores. In addition to its clear allusions to Adam and Eve, forbidden fruit, and temptation, there is much in the poem that seems overtly sexual, such as when Lizzie, going to buy fruit from the goblins, considers her dead friend Jeanie, "Who should have been a bride; / But who for joys brides hope to have / Fell sick and died", and lines like, "She sucked their fruit globes fair or red"; and "Lizzie uttered not a word;/ Would not open lip from lip/ Lest they should cram a mouthful in;/ But laughed in heart to feel the drip/ Of juice that syruped all her face,/ And lodged in dimples of her chin,/ And streaked her neck which quaked like curd."

The poem's attitude toward this temptation seems ambiguous, since the happy ending offers the possibility of redemption for Laura, while typical Victorian portrayals of the "fallen woman" ended in the fallen woman's death. Rossetti volunteered at Highgate Penitentiary for fallen women shortly after composing Goblin Market in the spring of 1859.

Some critics believe that some feminist interpretations of the work ignore the anti-semitic aspect of the poem. The critic Cynthia Scheinberg believes the Goblins to be "Hebraic", anti-semitic and anti-Judaic characters that the tested Christian sisters Laura and Lizzie must face in order to transition into wholesome and complete young women.

Other critics focus not on gender but on the Victorian consciousness of a capitalist critique of the growing Victorian economic market, whether in relation to sisters' Lizzie and Laura's interaction with the market as gendered beings, the agricultural market, or in the rapid increase in advertising the "Market". When Goblin Market was released in April 1859, most Victorians weren't able to purchase fresh fruit, a historical note of importance when reading the poem for Victorian agriculture and tone.

According to Antony Harrison of North Carolina State University, Jerome McGann reads the poem as a criticism of Victorian marriage markets and conveys "the need for an alternative social order". For Sandra Gilbert, the fruit represents Victorian women's exclusion from the world of art. Other scholars – most notably Herbert Tucker – view the poem as a critique on the rise of advertising in pre-capitalist England, with the goblins utilising clever marketing tactics to seduce Laura.  J. Hartman, among others, has pointed out the parallels between Laura's experience and the experience of drug addiction. Another interpretation has observed an image of Jesus Christ in Lizzie when she says: "Eat me, drink me, love me." This is imagery used to identify Christ's sacrifice in communion services.

The poem uses an irregular rhyme scheme, often using couplets or ABAB rhymes, but also repeating some rhymes many times in succession, or allowing long gaps between a word and its partner. The metre is also irregular, typically (though not always) keeping three or four stresses, in varying feet, per line. The lines below show the varied stress patterns, as well as an interior rhyme (grey/decay) picked up by the end-rhyme with "away". The initial line quoted here, "bright", rhymes with "night" a full seven lines earlier.

But when the noon waxed bright
Her hair grew thin and grey;
She dwindled, as the fair full moon doth turn
To swift decay, and burn
Her fire away.

Notable Editions
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market and Other Poems. 1st Ed. London: Macmillan, 1862. (Binding, frontis and title page by D.G. Rossetti).
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market. London: Macmillan, 1893. (Illustrator: Laurence Housman)
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market, Prince's Progress and Other Poems. London: Oxford UP, 1913.
  Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co. Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. Clark, Limited, Edinburgh, 1933. (Illustrator: Arthur Rackham)
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market. London: George G. Harrap, 1933. (Illustrator: Arthur Rackham)
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1970. (Illustrator: Ellen Raskin)
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market. Playboy September 1973: 115-119. (Illustrator: Kinuko Y. Craft) -- also includes nude photography
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market. London: Victor Gollancz, 1980. (Illustrator: Martin Ware)
 Christina Rossetti. Goblin Market. Pathways to Fantasy July 1984: 9-18.

Adaptations
 The English composer Emanuel Abraham Aguilar, brother of the novelist Grace Aguilar, collaborated with Rossetti on a choral cantata, Goblin Market, in 1880. This was the only nineteenth century musical setting of the poem, as Rossetti granted Aguilar an exclusive. It was lightly adapted (with the author's approval) to remove sexual and erotic connotations, making it more suitable for school performances.
 Italian composer Vittorio Ricci (1859-1925) was the first to come up with a setting once Aguilar's exclusive rights had expired. The cantata Der Gnomen Markt was published in 1901 with an English libretto adapted by M.C. Gillington, and a German translation.
Ruth Gipps composed the cantata Goblin Market in 1954, the first female composer to produce a setting. It is sung by two soprano soloists (solo 1 Laura, solo 2 Lizzie) and female three-part chorus,  accompanied by string orchestra or piano. Her careful adaptation anticipated feminist literary interpretations of the poem that emerged in the 1970s.
A 70-minute stage musical version of the poem adapted by Peggy Harmon and Polly Pen was performed at the Vineyard Theater in New York City in 1985.
 American composer Aaron Jay Kernis set the poem in 1995 for narrator and chamber ensemble, without alterations or abridgement, and with each syllable precicely notated. It is "probably the most detailed and sustained interpretation of the poem's irregular meter to date". It has been recorded.
 A 75-minute chamber opera Goblin Market was presented by Youth Music Theatre UK at George Square Theatre, Edinburgh Fringe Festival in 2005. The adaptation and libretto was by Kath Burlinson and the score by Conor Mitchell.
 New Zealand circus company The Dust Palace adapted the story into a performance piece titled The Goblin Market, incorporating various aerial and adagio circus arts. The production toured in Canada in 2016 and will tour New Zealand in 2019.
In July 2020, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a reading of the poem interwoven with testimony from sisters whose lives had been caught up in the cycle of addiction.

Popular culture references

 Goblin Market was the title of a swing instrumental written by Spud Murphy for the Joe Haymes orchestra, recorded in 1934.
Helen McCloy wrote a mystery novel called "The Goblin Market" which quotes the poem.
 Grant Morrison in the 1990s version of Dan Dare quotes from Goblin Market—"'We must not look at goblin men, / We must not buy their fruits: / Who knows upon what soil they fed / Their hungry thirsty roots?'"—as a clue to the Mekon's intentions.
 Jeanette Winterson's 1985 novel Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit: Elsie reads Jeanette Goblin Market when she is in hospital, arguably insinuating her awareness of Jeanette's being a lesbian.
Doctor Who "Midnight" (first aired 14 June 2008, episode no. 196): Dee Dee, a graduate assistant accompanying a professor, quotes the same lines, suggesting that the alien who has possessed a passenger on their shuttle cruiser is like a goblin (a dangerous and mysterious entity). The Doctor explains the literary reference.
 Sarah Rees Brennan's 2009 novel The Demon's Lexicon features the Market as a Gypsy-like society of people who barter and trade magical artifices and oppose the power hungry Magicians and the Demons they have evoked to the earthly plane.
Rena Rossner identifies the Goblin Market as a source of inspiration for her 2018 novel The Sisters of the Winter Wood in the Afterword.
Poirot: Cat Among the Pigeons (TV Episode 2008) Eileen Rich is seen reading the poem to her students and later in the episode Poirot comments on her reading of the poem.
Heather O'Neill's 2022 novel When We Lost Our Heads draws on themes from the poem. The female protagonists both recite the poem in a poetry competition, and later see it as a representation of their relationship.

References

External links

 Goblin Market  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives audiobook accompanying text of Goblin Market

 Christina Rossetti's Goblin Market: An Overview on the Victorian Web

Poetry by Christina Rossetti
Fictional goblins
Fantasy poetry

Goblin Market


Villum Christensen (nascido a 31 de julho de 1954, em Slagelse) é um escritor e político dinamarquês que foi membro do Folketing pela Aliança Liberal de 2008 a 2019. Ele ingressou no parlamento em 2008, depois de Gitte Seeberg ter renunciado ao cargo.

Carreira política
Christensen foi membro do Partido Social-Liberal até 2007, de onde saiu para se juntar à recém-fundada Aliança Liberal. Ele foi membro dos conselhos municipais de Hashøj e do município de Slagelse, e também actuou como vice-presidente do município de Slagelse. No dia 1 de setembro de 2008 ingressou no parlamento depois de Gitte Seeberg ter renunciado ao cargo. Ele foi eleito para o parlamento por conta própria em 2011 e novamente em 2015. Na eleição de 2019 não procurou ser reeleito. Ele também é um escritor.

Escritores da Dinamarca
Nascidos em 1954
Pessoas vivas
Políticos da Dinamarca

Villum Christensen


El topónimo Avondale puede hacer referencia a varios lugares de Estados Unidos:

 Avondale, una ciudad en el estado de Arizona.
 Avondale, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado de Colorado.
 Avondale, un lugar designado por el censo en el estado de Luisiana.
 Avondale, una ciudad en el estado de Misuri.
 Avondale, un distrito municipal en el estado de Pensilvania.

Avondale


කැලිෆෝනියා යනු එක්සත් ජනපදයේ බස්නාහිර පිහිටා ඇති ප්‍රාන්තයකි. මෙය නැගෙනහිරින් නෙවාඩා ප්‍රාන්තයටත්, නිරිතෙන් ඇරිසෝනා ප්‍රාන්තයටත්, බටහිරින් ශාන්තිකර සාගරයටත්, උතුරින් ඔරෙගන් ප්‍රාන්තයටත්, දකුණින් මෙක්සිකෝවේ බාහා කැලිෆෝනියා ප්‍රාන්තයටත් මායිම්ව පිහිටා ඇත. වර්ග කි.මී. 423,970 ක භූමියක් සහ මිලියන 39.5 ක ජනගහණයකින් යුත් මෙය එක්සත් ජනපදයේ භූමි ප්‍රමාණයෙන් තෙවැනියට විශාලම සහ වැඩිම ජනගහනයක් සහිත ප්‍රාන්තය වේ.

කැලිෆෝනියා


Novîi Mir (în , , Lumea Nouă) este o revistă literară lunară în limba rusă.

Istoric
Revista Novîi Mir a fost publicată la Moscova începând din ianuarie 1925. Ea a fost modelată după populara revistă literară pre-sovietică Mir Bojîi ("Lumea lui Dumnezeu"), care a fost publicată din 1892 până în 1906, și după succesoarea acesteia, Sovremennîi Mir ("Lumea Contemporană"), care a fost publicată din 1906 până în 1917. A publicat în principal proză care s-a încadrat în linia generală a politicii Partidului Comunist.

La începutul anilor 1960, Novîi Mir și-a schimbat orientarea politică, adoptând o poziție disidentă. În noiembrie 1962 revista a devenit celebră pentru publicarea nuvelei inovatoare O zi din viața lui Ivan Denisovici de  Aleksandr Soljenițîn, o nuvelă despre un prizonier din Gulag. În același an, tirajul revistei era de aproximativ 150.000 de exemplare pe lună. Revista a continuat publicarea unor articole controversate și a unor povestiri despre diferite aspecte ale istoriei ruse și sovietice în ciuda faptului că redactorul-șef, Aleksandr Tvardovski, s-a confruntat cu presiuni politice considerabile și a demisionat în februarie 1970. Odată cu numirea lui Serghei Zalîghin în 1986, la începutul perioadei perestroika, revista a practicat din ce în ce mai îndrăzneț o critică la adresa guvernului sovietic, inclusiv al unor personalități precum Mihail Gorbaciov. A publicat, de asemenea, proză de ficțiune și poezie ale unor autori interziși anterior precum George Orwell, Iosif Brodski și Vladimir Nabokov.

Redactori-șefi
 Viacheslav Polonski (1926-1931)
 Ivan Gronski (1931-1937)
 Vladimir Stavski (1937-1941)
 Vladimir Șcerbina (1941-1946)
 Konstantin Simonov (1946-1950)
 Aleksandr Tvardovski (1950-1954)
 Konstantin Simonov (1954-1957)
 Aleksandr Tvardovski (1958-1970)
 Valeri Kosolapov (1970-1974)
 Serghei Narovceatov (1974-1981)
 Vladimir Karpov (1981-1986)
 Serghei Zalîghin (1986-1998)
 Andrei Vasilevski (1998- )

Autori contemporani
Astăzi Novîi Mir este considerată o revistă literară importantă a Rusiei și are o orientare liberală.

În anii 2000 au publicat aici următorii autori: Maxim Amelin, Arkadi Babcenko, Dmitri Bak, Vladimir Berezin, Dmitri Bîkov, Dmitri Danilov, Vladimir Gandelsman, Alisa Ganieva, Alexandru Ilicevski, Aleksandr Karasiov, Leonid Kostiukov, Iuri Kublanovski, Aleksandr Kușner, Iulia Latînina, Vladimir Makanin, Anatoli Naiman, Evgheni Popov, Zahar Prilepin, Valeri Pustovaia, Serghei Soluh, Andrei Volos, Oleg Iermakov și alții.

Note

Lectură suplimentară
 Edith Rogovin Frankel, Novy Mir: A Case Study in the Politics of Literature, 1952-1958. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
 Michael Glenny, Novy Mir. A Selection 1925-1967. London: Jonathan Cape, 1972.

Reviste literare din Rusia
Reviste literare din Uniunea Sovietică

Novîi Mir


Die Liste der Kreisstraßen im Vogelsbergkreis ist eine Auflistung der Kreisstraßen im hessischen Vogelsbergkreis.

Abkürzungen

 K: Kreisstraße
 L: Landesstraße

Liste

Die Kreisstraßen behalten die ihnen zugewiesene Nummer in der Regel nicht bei einem Wechsel in einen anderen Landkreis. Nicht vorhandene bzw. nicht nachgewiesene Kreisstraßen werden in Kursivdruck gekennzeichnet, ebenso Straßen und Straßenabschnitte, die unabhängig vom Grund (Herabstufung zu einer Gemeindestraße oder Höherstufung) keine Kreisstraßen mehr sind.

Der Straßenverlauf wird in der Regel von Nord nach Süd und von West nach Ost angegeben.

Siehe auch

 Liste der Bundesstraßen in Deutschland
 Liste der Landesstraßen in Hessen

Weblinks

 Hessen-Mobil: Netzknotenkarten 2016

Kreisstrassen
Vogelsbergkreis
Vogelsbergkreis


Henry Wharton ( - ) est un écrivain et bibliothécaire anglais.

Biographie
Wharton descend de Thomas Wharton (2e baron Wharton) (1520-1572), étant un fils du révérend Edmund Wharton, vicaire de Worstead, Norfolk. Né à Worstead, il est éduqué par son père, puis au Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge . Sa carrière universitaire est brillante. En 1686, il entre au service de l'historien ecclésiastique, le Rév. William Cave (1637-1713), qu'il aide dans son travail littéraire; mais estimant que son aide n'est pas suffisamment appréciée, il abandonne bientôt cet emploi.

En 1687, il est ordonné diacre et, en 1688, il fait la connaissance de l'archevêque de Cantorbéry, William Sancroft, sous le patronage duquel une partie de son œuvre littéraire est réalisée. L'archevêque, qui a une très haute opinion du caractère et des talents de Wharton, en fait un de ses aumôniers, et le présente à la cure Kentish de Sundridge, et ensuite à celle de Chartham dans le même comté.

En 1689, il prête serment d'allégeance à Guillaume III et à Marie II, mais il écrit une critique sévère de l'Histoire de la Réforme de l'évêque Burnet, et c'est en partie à cause de l'hostilité de l'évêque qu'il n'obtient pas d'avancement supplémentaire dans l'Église d'Angleterre. Il meurt le 5 mars 1695 et est enterré à l'Abbaye de Westminster.

Œuvres
L'œuvre majeure de Wharton est son Anglia Sacra, un recueil de la vie d'archevêques et d'évêques anglais, qui est publié en deux volumes en 1691. Certains d'entre eux sont écrits par Wharton lui-même; d'autres sont empruntés aux premiers écrivains, dont Vitae Archiepiscoporum Cantuariensium de Stephen Birchington .

Outre sa critique de l'Histoire de la Réforme, Un Traité du célibat du clergé (1688) ; il écrit aussi L'enthousiasme de l'Église de Rome démontré dans quelques observations sur la vie d'Ignace de Loyola (1688) ; et Une défense des pluralités (1692, nouvelle éd. 1703).

Dans la Lambeth Palace Library, il y a seize volumes des manuscrits de Wharton. Le décrivant comme "cet homme merveilleux", William Stubbs dit que Wharton a fait pour l'élucidation de l'histoire de l'Église anglaise "plus que quiconque avant ou depuis". Une vie de Wharton est incluse dans la vie de George D'Oyly de William Sancroft (1821).

Références

Liens externes

Étudiant de Gonville and Caius College
Historien anglais
Décès en mars 1695
Naissance en novembre 1664
Décès à 30 ans

Henry Wharton


Frank Anthony Wilczek ili samo Frank Wilczek (Mineola, New York, 15. svibnja 1951.), američki fizičar. Diplomirao (1972.) i doktorirao (1974.) na Princetonskom sveučilištu, gdje je i bio profesor (od 1974. do 1981. i od 1989. do 2000.). Radio je u Institutu za napredna istraživanja u Princetonu (od 1976. do 1977.), u Institutu za napredna istraživanja u Santa Barbari (od 1980. do 1988.), na Massachusettskom tehnološkom institutu u Cambridgeu (od 2000.). Njegovo istraživanje obuhvaća široko područje tema, od fizike kondenzirane tvari, astrofizike i kozmologije, do fizike elementarnih čestica. Otkrio je kako se kvarkovi na maloj međusobnoj udaljenosti gibaju kao slobodne čestice i kako se s povećanjem razmaka privlačna sila među njima naglo povećava pa se ne mogu razdvojiti. Ta je pojava kasnije nazvana asimptotska sloboda. Član je Nacionalne akademije znanosti SAD-a (od 1990.) i Američke akademije umjetnosti i znanosti (od 1993.). Za otkriće asimptotske slobode u teoriji jakoga međudjelovanja (jaka nuklearna sila) s D. J. Grossom i H. D. Politzerom, dobio je Nobelovu nagradu za fiziku 2004.

Kvark

Kvark (eng. quark, naziv što ga je uveo američki fizičar Murray Gell-Mann po riječi iz Joyceova romana Bdjenje nad Finneganom) je elementarna čestica, sastavnica hadrona, električnoga naboja ±e/3 ili ±2e/3, podložna jakom međudjelovanju. Sve do otkrića Ω– čestice kvarkovima se pridjeljivalo čisto matematičko značenje. Prve naznake njihove fizikalne stvarnosti (realnosti) pojavile su se u pokusima duboko neelastičnoga raspršenja elektrona na protonima, na Stanfordskome linearnom ubrzivaču čestica 1962. Opažanje raspršenja pod velikim kutovima (kakva su prije opažena u Rutherfordovim pokusima raspršenja alfa-čestica na listićima zlata) upućivalo je na postojanje tvrdih točkastih "jezgri" unutar protona. Slični pokusi provedeni potom neutrinskim snopovima na CERN-u nedvojbeno su potvrdili da je riječ o česticama trećinskog električnog naboja i polucijeloga spina. Za istraživanja putem duboko neelastičnih raspršenja kojima su ustanovljeni kvarkovi dodijeljena je Nobelova nagrada za fiziku 1990. J. I. Friedmanu, H. W. Kendallu i R. E. Tayloru.

Godine 1974. otkriven je c-kvark (Nobelova nagrada 1976. B. Richteru i S. C. C. Tingu za otkriće J/ψ mezona). Slijedilo je i otkriće b-kvarka (1977.) i t-kvarka (1994.). Time je bio zaokružen skup kvarkova koji s leptonima čine temeljne građevne blokove opažene tvari (fizika elementarnih čestica). Riječ je o česticama spina 1/2, koje se pojavljuju u različitim vrstama, okusima, svrstanima u obitelji ili naraštaje. Tvari koje nas okružuju građene su od gornjega i donjega kvarka (u i d, od engl. up i down) prvog naraštaja. Takav uzorak s donjim kvarkom električnoga naboja (–1/3)e i gornjim kvarkom naboja (+2/3)e ponavlja se u drugome naraštaju s kvarkovima stranog i čarobnog okusa (s i c, od engl. strange i charm) te kvarkom ljepote i istine (b i t, od engl. beauty i truth) trećega naraštaja. Svaki se od navedenih kvarkova pojavljuje u tri boje. Te se boje shvaćaju kao naboji na koje se vežu gluoni, prijenosnici jakoga međudjelovanja opisanoga kvantnom kromodinamikom.

Na maloj međusobnoj udaljenosti (manjoj od 10–15 metara) kvarkovi se gibaju kao slobodne čestice, a na većim udaljenostima djeluju iznimno velikim privlačnim silama te se zbog toga ne mogu izdvojiti iz hadrona kao zasebne čestice (asimptotska sloboda).

Asimptotska sloboda

Asimptotska sloboda je svojstvo kvarkova da se gibaju kao slobodne elementarne čestice na maloj međusobnoj udaljenosti (manjoj od 10–15 metara), a da djeluju iznimno velikim privlačnim silama na većim udaljenostima te da se zbog toga ne mogu izdvojiti iz hadrona kao zasebne čestice. Danas je ona jedna od temeljnih pretpostavki kvantne kromodinamike, a otkrili su je 1973. F. A. Wilczek, D. J. Gross i neovisno H. D. Politzer te za njezino otkriće dobili Nobelovu nagradu za fiziku 2004.

Kvantna statistika

Kvantna statistika je grana statističke fizike kojoj je temelj kvantna mehanika. Bitna je razlika u odnosu na klasičnu statističku fiziku kvantnomehaničko nerazlikovanje čestica. Ono rezultira statističkom neodređenošću, koja je posljedica nepotpunoga poznavanja stanja sustava na mikroskopskoj razini. Statistička neodređenost pridodana je već postojećoj neodređenosti iskazanoj Heisenbergovim relacijama neodređenosti. Sama formalna struktura (primjena statističkoga mnoštva te osnovne značajke ravnotežne statistike, poput izvođenja termodinamičkoga potencijala iz particijskih suma) preuzeta je iz klasične statističke fizike.

Izvori

Dobitnici Nobelove nagrade za fiziku
Američki fizičari
Poljaci u SAD-u

Frank Anthony Wilczek


Divlji kesten (lat. Aesculus), biljni rod korisnog i ljekovitog grmlja i drveća iz porodice sapindovki kojemu pripada oko 20 priznatih vrsta, među kojima je najpoznatiji obični divlji kesten (Aesculus hippocastanum). Trinaest vrsta rasprostranjeno je po Euroaziji, od čega u Hrvatskoj rastu tri vrste, to su obični, žuti (Aesculus flava) i crveni divlji kesten (Aesculus pavia). Na području Sjeverne Amerike postoji najmanje šest vrsta.

Divlji kesteni su dugovječna stabla koja mogu biti stara i preko 500 godina, a obični divlji kesten često se javlja po gradskim drvoredima i parkovima, dok je u divljini često u društu uz hrastove i grabove.

Nije u srodstvu sa (pitomim) kestenom, koji je predstavnik porodice bukovki i čiji se plodovi koriste u ljudskoj prehrani. Plod divljeg kestena koristio se kao hrana za stoku, posebno konje, pa za njega postoji i naziv konjski kesten.

U Japanu raste japanski divlji kesten (Aesculus turbinata), a u Americi kao grm, grmoliki divlji kesten (Aesculus parviflora)

Vrste
 Aesculus assamica Griff.
 Aesculus × bushii C.K.Schneid., prirodni hibrid između A. glabra i A. pavia
 Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt.
 Aesculus × carnea Hayne, umjetni hibrid između A. hippocastanum i A. pavia;  crveni divlji kesten, crvenocvjetni kesten, ružičasti kestenovac
 Aesculus chinensis Bunge
 Aesculus flava Sol., žuti divlji kesten
 Aesculus glabra Willd.
 Aesculus hippocastanum L., obični divlji kesten
 Aesculus × hybrida DC.; prirodni hibrid između A. flava i A. pavia
 Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook., indijski divlji kesten
 Aesculus × marylandica Booth ex Dippel; hibrid između A. glabra i A. flava.
 Aesculus × mutabilis (Spach) Scheele; hibrid između vrsta A. pavia i A. sylvatica
 Aesculus × neglecta Lindl., prirodni hibrid između A. flava i A. sylvatica.
 Aesculus parryi A.Gray
 Aesculus parviflora Walter, sitnocvjetni divlji kesten, grmoliki divlji kesten
 Aesculus pavia L., američki crveni kesten
 Aesculus sylvatica W.Bartram
 Aesculus turbinata Blume, japanski divlji kesten
 Aesculus × woerlitzensis Koehne

Vanjske poveznice

Literatura
 Alberto Fortis: O uzgoju kestena i o njegovu uvođenju u primorsku i unutrašnju Dalmaciju (Zadar - Znanstvena knjižnica Zadar); preveli Mirela Kalcina i Marin Buovac, 2017.

Izvori

Hippocastanoideae

Divlji kesten


Yasuhiro Hato (født 4. maj 1976) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

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Eksterne henvisninger

Japan National Football Team Database

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Yasuhiro Hato


Dinamička brtva je strojni dio kojim se osigurava brtvljenje spojeva uzajamno pokretnih dijelova strojeva (vratila i ležaja). Kod dinamičkih brtvi potrebno je optimalno uskladiti dva oprečna zahtjeva:
 što je moguće veći pritisak uzajamno pokretnih površina kako bi se postiglo što je moguće bolje brtvljenje,
 što je moguće manji pritisak uzajamno pokretnih površina kako bi se postiglo što je moguće manje trenje (ušteda energije) i trošenje (dug vijek trajanja).

Brtvljenje protiv izlaza masti

Dodirno brtvljenje među dijelovima koji se gibaju
Dodirno brtvljenje među dijelovima koji se gibaju dolazi u obzir za primjenu kako kod pravocrtno pokretljivih dijelova (na primjer vretena ventila i zasuna, stapova i stapajica) tako i kod rotirajućih (na primjer vratila turbokompresora, centrifugalnih i zupčanih crpki i slično). To je povezano s klizanjem brtvenih površina jednih po drugima, a time i s pojavom trenja, gubicima pretvaranjem određenog dijela mehaničke energije u toplinu te trošenjem materijala dijelova spoja. Zbog toga pri ovom načinu brtvljenja podmazivanje je važan činilac.

Kao i pri dodirnom brtvljenju općenito, tako i u ovom slučaju potreban je određeni brtveni pritisak. S druge strane, da bi se dijelovi zabrtvenog spoja mogli relativno gibati, potrebna je određena zračnost među brtvenim površinama. Ona nije ni poznata ni stalna, već se mijenja s vremenom rada spoja. Međutim, da bi spoj bio nepropustan, ona mora biti dovoljno mala da ne dopusti protjecanje fluida (medija - plinova ili tekućina).

Najstariji način takvog brtvljenja jest s pomoću brtvila koja se nabijaju u brtvenice. Osim toga, za dodirno brtvljenje spojeva dijelova koji se međusobno gibaju upotrebljavaju se još i brtveni prstenovi s opružnim djelovanjem te automatske brtve. Također je primjenjivo i brtvljenje fluidima.

Brtve s brusnim djelovanjem
Dodirno zaštitno brtvljenje najjednostavnije se može izvesti s pomoću pustenih prstenova trapeznog presjeka. Pošto je takav način brtvljenja povezan s trenjem, prstenovi se prije ugradnje natapaju vrućim uljem. Unatoč tome treba računati s trošenjem materijala i češćom izmjenom prstenova. Tamo gdje se očekuje jače onečišćenje, ugrađuje se više prstenova odvojeno jedan od drugoga ili u brtvenice jedan do drugoga. Zaštita pustenim prstenovima najviše se upotrebljava pri podmazivanju mašću (na primjer kod valjnih ležaja skoro svih oblika). Pri podmazivanju uljem pusteni se prstenovi upotrebljavaju razmjerno rijetko, jer se brzo natapaju mazivom i počinju ga propuštati.

Pusteni prstenovi
Brtvila sprečavaju izlaz maziva, te prodiranje stranih tijela, nečistoće, prašine i tome slično. Za brtvljenje dvodjelnih i višedjelnih, te jednodjelnih ležaja do srednjih brzina vrtnje dovoljni su prsteni od pusta. Prije ugradnje natapaju se vrelim uljem. Trapezasti žljebovi u kućištu deformiraju pravokutni presjek prstena i tlače ga prema vratilu. Kako tlak vremenom popušta, prsteni se kao brtvila za ulje mogu upotrebljavati samo u spoju s drugim dijelovima brtvljenja. Djelovanje im se može pojačati postavljanjem više prstenova jedan iza drugog. Još je bolje brtvljenje s brtvenicama, kod kojih prirubnica drži pod tlakom prstene od pusta. Trenje je kod ovih svakako veće, pa se preporučuje samo za male brzine vrtnje.

Kombinirano zaštitno brtvljenje s pomoću pustenih prstenova i labirinata primjenjivo je u pogonima u kojima dolazi do jakog prašenja. Pri tome se labirinti moraju napuniti mašću.

Nilos prsteni
Za valjne ležaje pokazali su se dobrim takozvani Nilos prsteni. Izrađuju se i za vanjsko brtvljenje i za unutarnje brtvljenje. Jedan brid tlači na vanjski, odnosno na unutarnji prsten ležaja i u njemu izbrusi brtveni žlijeb. Nilos prsteni su osjetljivi na udare. Već zbog malih izbočina postaju neupotrebljivi. Ugradnja mora da bude veoma brižljiva. Prednost im je, osim jeftinoće, laka i jednostavna ugradnja. Radijalni brtveni prsteni su za brtvljenje masti upotrebljivi samo uz određene uvjete.

Kombinirana meka brtvila

Osim toga upotrebljavaju se danas i manžete. Taj je način zaštitnog brtvljenja najkvalitetniji, pogotovu pri podmazivanju uljem. Oblici manžeta koji se upotrebljavaju za zaštitno brtvljenje vrlo su brojni. Većinom su to manžete s oprugom. Najčešće se izrađuju s metalnim kućištem ili s dijelovima za ukrućenje. Prednosti manžeta s oprugom su u tome što se jednostavno ugrađuju, zauzimaju malo mjesta i uzrokuju malo trenje.

Kombinirana meka brtvila za nabijanje izrađena od nemetalnih i metalnih materijala imaju oblik sličan pletenicama od vlaknastih materijala. Pri tome jezgra od vlaknastog materijala može biti omotana metalnom folijom ili, obrnuto, metalna jezgra vlaknastim materijalom.

Grafitna brtvila za nabijanje sastoje se od čistog pahuljičastog grafita, u nekim slučajevima s primjesama od mekih metala (na primjer granulatom ili strugotinama od olova, legura kositra), ili od vlaknastih materijala. Takozvane grafitne cijevčice za armature vodovoda izrađuju se od vlaknaste ljepenke, a grafitiraju se samo površinski.

Bezdodirno brtvljenje
Do bezdodirnog brtvljenja dolazi zbog nastalog vrtloženja koje sprečava izlaz ili zbog zaustavljanja nakupljenja maziva u nekom rasporu. Jednostavno brtvljenje zračnošću (rasporom) može se upotrebljavati samo pri maloj brzini vrtnje i neznatnom zagrijavanju, jer mast u rasporu mora da zadrži konzistentnost. Djelotvornije je brtvljenje sa žljebovima u kojima se stvara brtveni masni jastučić. Zavojni žljebovi moraju biti prilagođeni smjeru vrtnje. Mast treba da se pri okretanju vratila tlači u smjeru ležaja. Uobičajene su širine brtvenih raspora od 0,1 do 0,15 mm.

Brtvila s prstenom od pusta mogu se poboljšati prstenima s centrifugalnim djelovanjem. Maziva mast koja izlazi biva djelovanjem centrifugalne sile odbačena tangencijalno, te ne dolazi do prstena od pusta, koji brtvi protiv pristupa nečistoće (pogodno i za podmazivanje uljem). Dodatni labirinti kod dvodjelnih kućišta ležaja sprečavaju izlaz masti i ulaz stranim tjelešcima. Jednostavne ploče zaustavljaju mast u ležaju te sprečavaju njen izlaz.

Najbolje bezdodirno brtvljenje protiv izlaza masti za jednodjelna kućišta su aksijalni ili uzdužni labirinti, a za dvodjelna kućišta radijalni ili poprečni labirinti. U labirintnim komorama masti se vrtlože. Protiv pristupa nečistoća prikladno je brtvljenje pomoću žljebova za mast i jednostavnim labirintom. Uobičajena širina raspora je od 0,5 do 0,75 mm. Sve raspore i labirinte treba prilikom ugradnje napuniti mašću. Brtvljenje bez dodira radi pouzdano samo onda, ako unutarnji pretlak ne može da istisne mast i ako se raspori ili labirinti okreću centrično. Inače labirinti djeluju kao centrifugalne sisaljke, koje mazivo istiskuju prema van.

Brtvljenje protiv istjecanja ulja

Brtvljenje brusnim djelovanjem
Najbolji su se pokazali radijalni brtveni prsteni, koji se mogu ugraditi kao kompletan brtveni dio. To su manšete na koje radijalno (poprečno ili okomito na osovinu) djeluje opruga ili vlastito naprezanje. Zbog zaštite od vanjskih oštećenja mogu dobiti metalno kućište. Materijal manšeta je umjetna guma otporna protiv ulja, rjeđe od kromove kože.

Brtveni rub mora biti okrenut prema mediju (ulju) koje brtvi. Ako se mora brtviti i protiv ulaza prašine, tada brtveni rub mora biti okrenut prema van. Za takve slučajeve bolji su radijalni brtveni prsteni s dodatkom protiv prašine. Manšete od kože mogu se upotrijebiti do brzina klizanja od 6 m/s, i temperature do + 80 °C, a manšete od gume do 28 m/s, i temperature do + 180 °C. Da bi spriječilo brzo trošenje brtve potrebna je najfinija obrada vratila.

Da ne bi došlo do zagrijavanja i oštećenja radijalnih brtvenih prstenova na vratilu, mora do njih stalno dopirati ulje. Svrsishodno je da se prije ugradnje urone u toplo ulje. Prsteni za centrifugalno odbacivanje ulja, labirinti i slično ne smiju se nasađivati ispred brtvenog prstena, da se ne spriječi pristup ulju! I zračni jastuci mogu spriječiti pristup ulju te prouzročiti rad nasuho. U tom slučaju pomažu odzračni utori i provrti.

Protiv prskanja vode i pristupa pare najbolje brtve su dvostruke kožne manšete.

Treba primijetiti da radijalni brtveni prsteni brtve protiv izlaska masti samo onda besprijekorno, ako na manšete neprekidno dolazi niskoviskozna ili jače zagrijana mast. Za to su potrebne posebne konstruktivne mjere, na primjer jedna komora za mast između dva radijalna brtvena prstena. Brtvljenje postaje zbog toga skuplje.

Brtveni prstenovi s opružnim djelovanjem
Brtveni prstenovi s opružnim djelovanjem za brtvljenje među pokretljivim dijelovima upotrebljavaju se za teže pogonske uvjete pri razmjerno velikim brzinama klizanja i višim temperaturama. Za razliku od brtvila za nabijanje, oni brtve prikladnim dosjedom.

Među ove brtve ubrajaju se prstenovi sa spiralnim steznim oprugama za brtvljenje stapajica parnih strojeva, plinskih motora, Dieselovog motora i motora na stlačeni zrak, kompresora. Osim ovog primjera brtvljenja upotrebljavaju se i jednodijelni, ili prorezani višedijelni prstenovi. Spiralne obuhvatne opruge višedijelnih prstenova ovdje stvaraju prednapon potreban za brtvljenje.

Ovi prstenovi izrađuju se od bijele kovine, specijalne bronce, lijevanog željeza, sinterovanih materijala i elektrodnog ugljena. Posljednji se obično ne podmazuju.

Posebna vrsta kliznih brtvenih prstenova s opružnim djelovanjem jesu takozvane stapne opruge ili stapni prstenovi (klipni prstenovi).

Brtvenice

Brtvljenje nabijanjem u brtvenice dolazi u obzir najviše za spojeve dijelova koji se gibaju razmjerno sporo. Izvodi se kako s pomoću brtvila od kojih se brtve prave na samome mjestu tako i s pomoću već gotovih brtava. Zajedničko svim tim materijalima jest da oni brtve deformacijama koje nastaju pod utjecajem brtvenog pritiska, zbog čega moraju biti dovoljno meki, pa se u praksi i nazivaju mekim brtvilima. Za tu svrhu uzimaju se nemetalni i metalni materijali. Prvi su ponekad vlakna (prvenstveno kudjeljna, pamučna i nekad azbestna), ali i koža, guma, plastične mase. Meki metali koji se upotrebljavaju za ovaj način brtvljenja jesu olovo, bakar, aluminij, kositar i neke njegove legure. Neki materijali za brtvljenje nabijanjem dobivaju se kombiniranjem mekih nemetalnih i metalnih materijala. Posebnu skupinu materijala za ovaj način brtvljenja čine grafitne i grafitirane brtve koje služe za izravno nabijanje u brtvenice.

Od vlaknastih brtvila za ovu svrhu najviše se upotrebljavaju pletenice s kvadratnim presjekom, ali često se susreću i one s kružnim i pravokutnim presjekom. Već prema namjeni, ova brtvila mogu biti neimpregnirana (suha) ili impregnirana. Najčešće je impregnant mazivo (masne pletenice), koje ne samo osigurava podmazivanje već i služi kao zaštita od kemijskog djelovanja fluida. Osim toga, već prema potrebama impregnanti mogu biti voskovi, elastomeri i druge plastične mase, kao i grafit.

Od kože, gume i plastičnih masa izrađuju se prstenaste brtve za nabijanje. Opruga brtvenice služi za kompenzaciju nepovoljnog utjecaja toplinskog istezanja (dilatacije) dijelova za brtvljenje.

Automatske brtve za dodirno brtvljenje
Automatske brtve za dodirno brtvljenje među pokretnim dijelovima djeluju slično kao automatske brtve među mirujućim dijelovima. Izrađuju se od elastičnih materijala s nadmjerom s obzirom na prostore u koje se ugrađuju. Zbog toga poslije njihove ugradnje na brtvenim površinama spoja već vlada stanoviti brtveni tlak po, a kad spoj dospije pod pogonski tlak pu, brtveni se tlak povećava na veličinu po + pu. Među ovim brtvama najvažnije su profilirane i manžetne brtve.

Profilirane brtve

Profilirane brtve (O brtve) za dodirno brtvljenje spojeva pokretljivih dijelova upotrebljavaju se za slične svrhe kao i brtveni prstenovi s opružnim djelovanjem. Najčešće su to prstenovi kružnog presjeka od specijalne gume, ali izrađuju se i od različitih kombinacija materijala (na primjer teflona i metala). Gornje granice područja primjene takvih prstenova dosežu i do 400 °C i 1 000 bara. Za uspješno brtvljenje ovim brtvama i za njihovu trajnost bitno je da klizne površine budu bez oštećenja i da je osigurano izdašno podmazivanje.

Brtvljenje manžetama
Pod manžetnim brtvama razumijevaju se prstenovi od kože, gume, plastičnih masa - s naročitim oblicima presjeka, prema kojima se često i dijele, pa se govori, na primjer, o jednostrukim, dvostrukim (U manžete), u obliku lanca, fazonskim manžetama i tako dalje. Općenito se upotrebljavaju za brtvljenje pri visokim tlakovima, uglavnom tekućih medija, ali i plinova, uz prikladno podmazivanje, kako među dijelovima koji se gibaju pravocrtno tako i među onima koji se vrte. Pri tome je područje primjene manžeta od normalnog materijala ograničeno na umjerene temperature i brzine klizanja. Zbog automatskog djelovanja sve se više upotrebljavaju i za brtvljenje među mirujućim dijelovima. U novije vrijeme upotrebljavaju se i kao zaštitne brtve.

Način djelovanja manžeta prikazan je na slici. Potporno brtveno djelovanje pogonskog tlaka kod brtvljenja jednostrukom manžetom usmjereno je samo jednostrano (poprečno), a kod dvostruke obostrano (uzdužno i poprečno). Takvo djelovanje tlaka medija može se i negativno odraziti ako su manžete neprikladno stegnute, a njihovi jezici nisu dovoljno priljubljeni na brtvenu površinu. Tada tlak fluida, umjesto da ih još bolje priljubi, može ih odići. To se može spriječiti posebnim mjerama (na primjer naročitim oblikom jezika, osiguranja jezika oprugom, pojačanjem U profila elastičnim materijalom.

Brtvljenje spojeva pokretljivih dijelova fluidima
Brtvljenje spojeva pokretljivih dijelova fluidima ima dosta sličnosti s bezdodirnim brtvljenjem, od kojeg se razlikuje samo time što brtveni fluid nije sam medij koji se brtvi, već neki drugi. Njegova je glavna prednost što praktički postiže potpunu nepropusnost spoja. Za brtvljenje fluidima najviše služe tekućine, a rjeđe plinovi. Prema nastajanju brtvenog tlaka u brtvenim tekućinama razlikuje se samostalno brtvljenje i brtvljenje dovođenjem tekućine pod tlakom.

Pri samostalnom brtvljenju tekućina potrebni brtveni tlak nastaje pod utjecajem centrifugalne sile dijelova koji se gibaju (na primjer rotora). Zbog toga ovo brtvljenje dolazi u obzir za primjenu tamo gdje samo jedan dio spoja se vrti. Prema pretpostavkama rotacijskog gibanja i hidraulike, za izračunavanje razlike tlakova Δp koja pri tome može biti zabrtvena stupcem tekućine s visinom h, treba primijeniti izraz:

gdje je: g - ubrzanje zemljine sile teže, γ - specifična težina brtvene tekućine, ω - kutna brzina vrtnje, p1 - tlak fluida čije istjecanje treba spriječiti, p2 - tlak brtvene tekućine, du - unutarnji promjer fluida čije istjecanje treba spriječiti, dv - vanjski promjer fluida čije istjecanje treba spriječiti. Kad su površine rotora glatke, a sloj brtvene tekućine tanak, umjesto ω u gornji izraz treba staviti ω' = ω/2. Prednost ovog načina brtvljenja je u tome što nema gubitaka brtvene tekućine.

Pri brtvljenju fluidima koji se dovode izvana, njihov tlak mora biti veći i od tlaka fluida čije se protjecanje među brtvenim površinama želi spriječiti, i od atmosferskog tlaka. Pri tome među brtvenim površinama umjesto fluida protječe brtvena tekućina, što je povezano s gubitcima. Taj se nedostatak može ublažiti smanjivanjem zračnosti među brtvenim površinama i upotrebom gušćih brtvenih tekućina. Međutim, ovaj način brtvljenja ne primjenjuje se sam, nego kao dodatna mjera u nekim slučajevima brtvljenja brtvenicama, a brtvilo ujedno smanjuje gubitke brtvene tekućine.

Bezdodirno brtvljenje
Ležaji podmazani uljem rade obično s više okretaja nego oni podmazani mašću. Pomoću žlijebova ili prstenova za odbacivanje ulja može se rotiranjem zbog relativno velike centrifugalne sile vratiti ulje preko odvodnih kanala u spremnik za ulje.

Bezdodirno se ne može brtviti ako u ležaju vlada pretlak, ili protiv ulaza stranih tijela. Labirinti brtve sigurno protiv izlaza ulja samo ako se ispred njih nalazi prsten za odbacivanje ulja. Bez takvog prstena došlo bi postepeno do izbacivanja rijetkog maziva.

Labirintne brtve

Labirintna brtva je vrsta brtve u kojoj se učinak brtvljenja za plinove i pare postiže razlikom tlaka u nizu raspora između rotora i statora. Ona spada u bezdodirne brtve koje sprječavaju trenje pri velikim brzinama vrtnje.

Izvori

Strojarstvo
Hidraulika
Strojevi

Dinamička brtva


العلاقة العكسية هي علاقة رياضية يكون فيها واحد من المتغيرين يزداد بنقصان المتغير الآخر. على سبيل المثال، هناك علاقة عكسية بين الكتلة والعجلة في قانون نيوتن الثاني (f=(m.a لكن لاحظ جيدا في المعادلة السابقه ان الكتلة تتناسب طرديا مع القوه لوجود علامة = بينهم.

تستخدم العلاقة العكسية، ونظيرتها العلاقة الطردية بشكل كبير في الفيزياء، لوصف العلاقة بين متحولين في معادلة ما.

ترميز رياضي
هي علاقة بين كميتين إذا ازدادت الأولى نقصت الثانية وإذا ازادت الثانية نقصت الأولى وتكون العلاقة العكسية تناسب عكسي إذا كان س×ص=ك مقدار ثابت

انظر أيضاً
 علاقة طردية

استقلال (نظرية الاحتمال)
رياضيات ابتدائية

علاقة عكسية


Vasile Th. Cancicov (1873 Bacău – 1931 București) a fost un scriitor și om politic din perioada interbelică; este fratele mai mare al cunoscutului om politic liberal Mircea Cancicov (în mai multe rânduri ministru la sfârșitul anilor 1930; persecutat și încarcerat de comuniști, avea să moară în închisoarea Râmnicu Sărat).

Primii ani
S-a născut într-o familie de condiție modestă din Bacău. Este al doilea născut din cei șase copii ai cuplului Theodor Al. Cancicov (funcționar) și Raluca, născută Stanciu (casnică, fiică de funcționar).
După studii primare la Bacău și Iași, Vasile Cancicov se înscrie în 1892 la Facultatea de Drept a Universității București. Se implică activ în mișcă rile studențești de protest din vara anului 1894, declanșate de procesul intentat, la Cluj, liderilor mișcării memorandiste a românilor transilvăneni. În 1896 obține diploma de licențiat în drept și se înscrie în Baroul București.

Activitatea politică
Activează în cadrul influentei Ligi pentru Unitatea Culturală a tuturor Românilor.                                                             În primăvara lui 1898 intră în politică și se înscrie în Partidul Conservator. La nici 26 de ani împliniți este ales, în mai 1899, deputat de Bacău. În alegerile din februarie 1905 obține un nou mandat de deputat. În 1908 părăsește rândurile Partidului Conservator și decide să-l urmeze pe Take Ionescu în nou creatul Partid Conservator-Democrat. În această perioadă devine director al cotidianului Ordinea, "organ conservator-democrat". În noiembrie 1912 obține un al treilea (și ultim) mandat de deputat. În 1914 se retrage de pe scena politică și, până la sfârșitul vieții, se va ocupa, cu destul succes, doar cu avocatura. Unele dintre pledoariile sale sunt publicate sub forma câtorva broșuri, apărute între 1915 și 1928.

Închis în timpul ocupației germane
După ce România intră în Primul Război Mondial de parte Aliaților, decide să rămână în București, aflat sub ocupația Puterilor Centrale. Din cauza trecutului său politic, este reținut și privat de libertate timp de 20 de luni.
Jurnalul ținut în toată această perioadă va fi publicat în 1921, sub titlul "Impresiuni și păreri personale din timpul războiului României". Deși în jurnal îi infierează cu patos pe cei care au acceptat funcții în timpul ocupației germane (de exemplu pe Al. Tzigara-Samurcaș), îi adresează lui Alexandru Marghiloman, român pus prim ministru de nemți, o scrisoare prin care îl imploră să-l elibereze din închisoare, ceea ce se va și întâmpla.

Distincții
A fost decorat atât de regele Carol I, cu Ordinul Coroana României, în grad de comandor (1913), cât și de regele Ferdinand, cu Ordinul Steaua României, în grad de ofițer (1921). Se stinge din viață la 27 mai 1931, la București.
Reeditări
Jurnal din vremea ocupației (vol. I) – Editura Humanitas, București, 2015, 364 pag
Jurnal din vremea ocupației (vol. II) - Editura Humanitas, București, 2016

A se vedea, de asemenea
 Mircea Cancicov
 Take Ionescu
 România în Primul Război Mondial

Referințe
Frați celebri

Vasile Cancicov


Ajfanes (lat. Aiphanes), rod palmi smjšten u tribus Cocoseae. Postoji 32 vrste koje rastu po tropskoj Americi, uključujući Privjetrinske otoke i neke otoke u Velikim Antilima

Vrste

 Aiphanes acanthophylla (Mart.) Burret
 Aiphanes acaulis Galeano & R.Bernal
 Aiphanes argos R.Bernal, Borchs. & Hoyos-Gómez
 Aiphanes bicornis Cerón & R.Bernal
 Aiphanes buenaventurae R.Bernal & Borchs.
 Aiphanes chiribogensis Borchs. & Balslev
 Aiphanes concinna H.E.Moore
 Aiphanes deltoidea Burret
 Aiphanes duquei Burret
 Aiphanes eggersii Burret
 Aiphanes erinacea (H.Karst.) H.Wendl.
 Aiphanes gelatinosa H.E.Moore
 Aiphanes graminifolia Galeano & R.Bernal
 Aiphanes grandis Borchs. & Balslev
 Aiphanes hirsuta Burret
 Aiphanes horrida (Jacq.) Burret
 Aiphanes killipii (Burret) Burret
 Aiphanes leiostachys Burret
 Aiphanes lindeniana (H.Wendl.) H.Wendl.
 Aiphanes linearis Burret
 Aiphanes macroloba Burret
 Aiphanes minima (Gaertn.) Burret
 Aiphanes multiplex R.Bernal & Borchs.
 Aiphanes parvifolia Burret
 Aiphanes pilaris R.Bernal
 Aiphanes simplex Burret
 Aiphanes spicata Borchs. & R.Bernal
 Aiphanes tricuspidata Borchs., M.Ruíz & Bernal
 Aiphanes truncata (Brongn. ex Mart.) H.Wendl.
 Aiphanes ulei (Dammer) Burret
 Aiphanes verrucosa Borchs. & Balslev
 Aiphanes weberbaueri Burret

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Bactridinae

Ajfanes


Crossover is a term applied to musical works or performers who appeal to different types of audience. This can be seen, for example, (especially in the United States) when a song appears on two or more of the record charts which track differing musical styles or genres. If the second chart combines genres, such as a "Hot 100" list, the work is not a crossover.

In some contexts the term "crossover" can have negative connotations associated with cultural appropriation, implying the dilution of a music's distinctive qualities to appeal to mass tastes. For example, in the early years of rock and roll, many songs originally recorded by African-American musicians were re-recorded by white artists such as Pat Boone in a more toned-down style, often with changed lyrics, that lacked the hard edge of the original versions. These covers were popular with a much broader audience.

Crossover frequently results from the appearance of the music in a film soundtrack. For instance, Sacred Harp music experienced a spurt of crossover popularity as a result of its appearance in the 2003 film Cold Mountain, and bluegrass music experienced a revival due to the reception of 2000's O Brother, Where Art Thou?.

Classical crossover

Classical crossover broadly encompasses both classical music that has become popularized and a wide variety of popular music forms performed in a classical manner or by classical artists. It can also refer to collaborations between classical and popular performers, as well as music that blends elements of classical music (including operatic and symphonic) with popular music (including pop, rock, middle of the road, and Latin, among other types). Pop vocalists and musicians, opera singers, classical instrumentalists, and occasionally rock groups primarily perform classical crossover. Although the phenomenon was long common in the music world, the name "classical crossover" was coined by record companies in the 1980s. It has gained in popularity since the 1990s and has acquired its own Billboard chart.

Popular classics

Particular works of classical music have become popular among individuals who mostly listen to popular music, sometimes appearing on non-classical charts. Some classical works that achieved crossover status in the twentieth century include the Canon in D by Johann Pachelbel, the Symphony No. 3 by Henryk Górecki, and the second movement of Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 21, K. 467 (from its appearance in the 1967 film Elvira Madigan).

Such popularity has been assisted by the use of classical music in advertising campaigns. For example, the long-running British Airways advertisements familiarised a large viewing public with the song Aria by New Age artist Yanni, a piece itself based on a duet from the opera Lakmé by Léo Delibes.

Another means of generating vast popularity for the classics has been through their use as inspirational anthems in sports settings. The aria "Nessun Dorma" from Puccini's Turandot, especially Luciano Pavarotti's version, has become indissolubly linked with soccer.

Classical performers
Within the classical recording industry, the term "crossover" is applied particularly to classical artists' recordings of popular repertoire such as Broadway show tunes. Two examples of this are Lesley Garrett's excursions into musical comedy and also José Carreras's recording West Side Story, as well as Teresa Stratas' recording Showboat. Soprano Eileen Farrell is generally considered to be one of the first classical singers to have a successful crossover recording with her 1960 album I've Got a Right to Sing the Blues.

A popular pioneering figure in classical crossover was classically trained tenor and film star Mario Lanza, although the term "crossover" did not yet exist at the time of his greatest popularity in the 1950s. Signed to RCA Victor as an artist on its premium Red Seal label, Lanza's albums appealed to more than just classical music audiences. His recording of "Be My Love" from his second film, The Toast of New Orleans, hit Number One on the Billboard pop singles chart in February 1951 and sold more than two million copies, a feat no classical artist before or since has achieved. Lanza recorded two other million-selling singles that made Billboard's top ten, "The Loveliest Night of the Year" and "Because You're Mine". Five of Lanza's albums hit Number One on Billboard's pop album chart between 1951 and 1955. The Great Caruso was the first and to date is the only recording composed exclusively of operatic arias to reach Number One on the U.S. pop album charts. The Student Prince, released in 1954, was Number One for 42 weeks.

Arguably another early pioneer of crossover was the twentieth century composer Kurt Weill. A writer of avant garde serious music, his collaborations with playwright Bertolt Brecht on projects such as The Threepenny Opera nevertheless gave an early indication of his interest in writing in an easily accessible, popular musical style. This trend in his work came to full fruition in later life in the United States, where he switched primarily to writing the scores for Broadway musicals such as Knickerbocker Holiday and One Touch of Venus. Some of the hits from those shows, such as September Song and Speak Low, are better remembered than the musicals from which they came.

The first Three Tenors concert in 1990 was a landmark in which Luciano Pavarotti, José Carreras and Plácido Domingo brought a combination of opera, Neapolitan folksong, musical theatre and pop to a vast television audience. This laid the foundations for the modern flourishing of classical crossover.

The aspiration of classical singers to appeal to a wide pop audience is exemplified by the career of Rhydian. Classically trained, Rhydian appeared in the UK version of the pop talent show X Factor (4th series, 2007, placed second). His four albums and subsequent appearances have straddled pop, classical, musical theatre and religious television fields. This also applies to classically trained instrumentalists, such as Vanessa Mae, Bond, Escala, David Garrett, Taylor Davis, Stjepan Hauser, Luka Šulić, 2CELLOS, Eric Stanley and Catya Maré.

Collaborations between classical and popular performers have included Sting and Edin Karamazov's album Songs from the Labyrinth. A collaboration between Freddie Mercury and soprano Montserrat Caballé resulted in the worldwide hit "Barcelona". R&B singer Mariah Carey performed a live duet with her mother Patricia, who is an opera singer, of the Christmas song - O Come, All Ye Faithful. Welsh mezzo-soprano Katherine Jenkins performed a duet with rock singer Michael Bolton of O Holy Night. Singers and instrumentalists from the classical tradition, Andreas Dorschel has argued, run the risk of losing the sophistication of the genre(s) they were trained in, when they try to perform rock music, without coming up to the often rough and wild qualities of the latter.

Pop performers in classical and mixed genres
Pop singers have consistently sought to attain a symphonic or operatic dimension in their writing and performance. Early examples include The Moody Blues's Days of Future Passed (1967), "Genuine Imitation Life" from Genuine Imitation Life Gazette (1969) by The Four Seasons, Deep Purple's Concerto for Group and Orchestra (1969) and Gemini Suite Live (1970) as well as Rick Wakeman's Journey to the Centre of the Earth (1974), The Myths and Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table (1975), and Une Nuit A Paris, a miniature rock opera from The Original Soundtrack (1975) by 10cc. A more recent example is Metallica's S&M (1999). Neil Diamond won a Grammy for his soundtrack for the movie Jonathan Livingston Seagull (1973), in which he, aided by composer/conductor Lee Holdridge, wrote and recorded songs containing classical, pop, and religious elements.

Italian pop tenor Andrea Bocelli, who is the biggest-selling singer in the history of classical music, has been described as the king of classical crossover. British soprano Sarah Brightman is also considered a crossover classical artist, having released albums of classical, folk, pop and musical-theatre music. Brightman dislikes the classical crossover label, though she has said she understands the need to categorize music. In the 2008 Polish release of her Symphony album she sings "I Will Be with You (Where the Lost Ones Go)" with Polish tenor Andrzej Lampert, another artist who has performed in both classical and non-classical styles, as well as having actually obtained full musical training and academic degrees in both (though operatic singing is his main professional focus). In addition, Welsh mezzo-soprano Katherine Jenkins has achieved international fame via her crossover albums.

Popular music genres that prominently incorporate classical elements include progressive rock, baroque pop, chamber pop, and orchestral pop.

Crossover country

Country-western music, up through the early 1950s, had a distinct, Appalachian sound that was generally popular only in rural areas in the south and west; for others, it was an acquired taste. Arthur Smith was an early country crossover success with his 1945 instrumental "Guitar Boogie." Rockabilly artists such as Carl Perkins, Elvis Presley and the early works of Johnny Cash managed crossover hits in country and rock music during a brief period in the mid-1950s. The first sustained and deliberate attempt to aim country music at a mainstream pop audience was the Nashville sound; Patsy Cline was a particularly successful example of this style, charting several pop and country hits from the late 1950s until her death in 1963.

During the late 1960s, Glen Campbell began aiming his music at the mainstream pop charts, adding strings, horns and other pop music flourishes to such songs as "Wichita Lineman", "By the Time I Get to Phoenix", and "Galveston", which allowed his music to chart both in country and pop. While such artists as Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich followed Campbell's example into the early 1970s, it was Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers who, during the mid to late 1970s came to personify the concept of country pop crossover, with both artists maintaining a consistent presence on both the pop and country charts well into the mid-1980s, culminating in their duet, "Islands in the Stream", which topped the country and pop charts in 1983.

Others, like John Denver, Olivia Newton-John, The Eagles, Faron Young, Willie Nelson, Dottie West, Alabama, Eddie Rabbitt, Ronnie Milsap, Anne Murray, and Crystal Gayle began successful in country but made the crossover to pop music. Conversely, Conway Twitty, England Dan Seals, former Righteous Brother Bill Medley, Exile, and Merrill Osmond and the Osmond Brothers crossed over from pop to country. By the late 1980s, as country moved to a much more traditional sound, pop and country crossovers had become exceedingly rare (only Roy Orbison's posthumous "You Got It" would top both charts in this time frame).

1990s and 2000s crossover country

In the 1990s many country artists experienced huge crossover success. These artists include Garth Brooks, Shania Twain, Billy Ray Cyrus, Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Dixie Chicks, Jo Dee Messina, Martina McBride, Reba McEntire, Lonestar, Sara Evans and LeAnn Rimes.

The early 2000s also saw continued success of these artists. Lee Ann Womack scored a big hit with "I Hope You Dance". The Dixie Chicks had continued success with a less mainstream country-pop sound when they released their album Home in 2002. However, by the mid-2000s there were fewer country acts having crossover success.

Carrie Underwood, who emerged as both a pop star and a country musician as a result of the TV series American Idol (a show that was at its peak in popularity at the time Underwood won the contest), became a crossover success with hits on both the country and pop charts. Underwood would become the first of several country musicians, including another American Idol winner Scotty McCreery, who would find success on the pop charts beginning in the late 2000s.

Late 2000s and 2010s crossover country

Concurrent with Underwood's crossover success was the debut of teen singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. Swift initially specialized in country-flavored coffee house songs such as "Tim McGraw" and "Teardrops on My Guitar," but as her success grew, she increasingly began moving her musical career toward pop. Beginning with "The Story of Us" in 2010, Swift started releasing some of her songs either primarily, or solely, as pop tunes. Many of the songs Swift recorded for the country and pop markets also achieved wide success (especially "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together," which topped both charts), turning her into a leading example of a country crossover phenomenon, with various critics lauding her as the "next Shania Twain". A change to the Billboard methodology for compiling charts such as country charts directly benefited crossover artists such as Swift by taking into account airplay on non-country stations.

Other artists who have found success on both pop and country in the early 2010s, in addition to the continued success of Swift and Underwood, have been Lady Antebellum and The Band Perry.

Florida Georgia Line also crossed over to the pop charts with a remixed version of their song "Cruise". Several sub-genres exist. The popularity of bro-country by artists such as Luke Bryan has increased the crossover success of country artists, a tradition which has further continued through the infusion of R&B music by artists including Brett Eldredge, Thomas Rhett and Sam Hunt.

Latin crossover artists

1980s crossover acts

Gloria Estefan is the most successful crossover performer in Latin music to date. She began crossing over to English music in 1984. Estefan at the time was with the Miami Sound Machine. Their more successful follow-up album, Primitive Love, was released in 1985, launching three Top 10 hits on the Billboard Hot 100: "Conga" (U.S. #10), "Words Get in the Way" (U.S. #5), and "Bad Boy" (U.S. #8) became follow–up hits in the U.S. and around the world. "Words Get in the Way" reached No. 1 on the US Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart, establishing that the group could perform pop ballads as successfully as dance tunes. The song "Hot Summer Nights" was also released that year and was part of the blockbuster movie Top Gun. Since then Estefan has bridged between both the English and Latin world for the mid to late 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.

1990s crossover acts

In the mid '90s, Selena was gaining prominence within the Hispanic music world. Primarily marketed as a Tejano music artist, Selena's success was met with rhythmic Cumbia recordings. After bypassing several barriers within the Tejano industry, she quickly superseded other Latin artist acts and earned the title "Queen of Tejano Music". After being presented with a Grammy for Selena Live!, Selena became the first Latin artist to release four number–one singles, in 1994. With a meteoric rise in popularity, Selena was presented with the opportunity to record an English-crossover album.

Unfortunately, months before the release of her English album, Selena was murdered by her fan club president, on 31 March 1995, in Corpus Christi, Texas. Selena's incomplete album, titled Dreaming of You, was released in July 1995, topping the Billboard 200. Selena's songs "Dreaming of You" and "I Could Fall In Love" quickly became mainstream hits, and the album became among the "Top ten best-selling debuts of all time" along with being among the "best-selling debuts for a female artist". Selena became the first Latin artist, male or female, to have ever debuted with a No. 1 album, partially in Spanish.

Despite, and perhaps fueled by, Selena's death and crossover success, the "Latin explosion" continued in the late '90s. At that time, a handful of rising stars who shared a Latin heritage were touted as proof that sounds from Latin countries were infiltrating the pop mainstream. These included Ricky Martin, Thalía, Marc Anthony, Enrique Iglesias and Jennifer Lopez, who rendered a Golden Globe performance as Selena on film.
Like Estefan and Selena, many of these artists, including some who recorded in English after gaining fame singing in Spanish, had been influenced at least as much by American music and culture.

Ricky Martin gained success with "La Copa de la Vida", which Martin made a major hit in an English version when he was chosen to sing the anthem of the 1998 FIFA World Cup. "The Cup of Life"/"La Copa de la Vida" reached number one on the charts in 60 countries and in the United States the English version went to No. 45 on the Hot 100 charts. The song went Platinum in France, Sweden and in Australia, where it ultimately became the number one single of the year. The song was awarded "Pop Song of the Year" at the 1999 Lo Nuestro Awards.

Martin at the Grammy Awards was booked to sing on the show's live TV broadcast. The now-legendary performance of "The Cup of Life" stopped the show, earning Martin an unexpected standing ovation and introducing the star to the mainstream American audience. Martin capped off the evening by winning the award for Best Latin Pop Performance. Vuelve became Martin's first Top 40 album on Billboard Top 200 Albums chart in the U.S., where it was certified Platinum by the RIAA. The album notably went to No. 1 in Norway for three weeks, going on to sell eight million copies worldwide.

Martin prepared his first English album in 1999, as the first and most prominent single was "Livin' la Vida Loca", which reached number one in many countries around the world, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, France, Greece, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Guatemala, Mexico, Russia, Turkey and South Africa. He followed up with the hit "She's All I Ever Had", which peaked at No. 2 on The Billboard Hot 100. This album became one of the top-selling albums of 1999, and was certified seven times platinum, selling over 22 million copies worldwide to date.

Also in 1999, attempting to emulate the crossover success of Gloria Estefan, Selena and Ricky Martin in the anglophone market, Marc Anthony released an English-language Latin Pop self-titled album with the US Top 5 hit single "I Need to Know", and the Spanish version "Dímelo". Other hits include "When I Dream At Night" and "My Baby You". His song "You Sang To Me" was featured in Runaway Bride. The successful dance version was re-mixed by Dutch producer Rene Van Verseveld. The foray was considered a mixed success, partly because it alienated his traditional salsa fans, though "Da La Vuelta" (not a Spanish version of any of the songs) was a salsa song and was a hit. Another note is that the song "That's Okay" has more of a salsa tune than pop.

Enrique Iglesias had begun a successful crossover career into the English language music market. Thanks to other successful crossover acts, Latino artists and music had a great surge in popularity in mainstream music. Iglesias' contribution to the soundtrack of Will Smith's movie Wild Wild West, "Bailamos", became a number–one hit in the US. After the success of "Bailamos", several mainstream record labels were eager to sign Enrique. Signing a multi-album deal after weeks of negotiations with Interscope, Iglesias recorded and released his first full CD in English, Enrique. The pop album, with some Latin influences, took two months to complete and contained a duet with Whitney Houston called "Could I Have This Kiss Forever" and a cover of the Bruce Springsteen song "Sad Eyes". The album's third single, "Be With You", became his second number one.

Jennifer Lopez's debut album On the 6, a reference to the 6 subway line she used to take growing up in Castle Hill, was released on 1 June 1999, and reached the top ten of the Billboard 200. The album featured the Billboard Hot 100 number-one lead single, "If You Had My Love", as well as the top ten hit "Waiting for Tonight", and even the Spanish version of the song "Una Noche Mas" became a hit as well. The album also featured a Spanish language, Latin-flavored duet "No Me Ames" with Marc Anthony, who later would become her husband before their divorce in 2014. Though "No Me Ames" never had a commercial release, it reached number one on the U.S. Hot Latin Tracks.

Also LInda Ronstadt, who performed alongside Dolly Parton and Emmylou Harris in Trio I and Trio II.

2000s crossover acts

After the '90s, there were very few crossover acts that became successful in the 2000s. The only ones who proved successful were Shakira, Thalía, Paulina Rubio, Jennifer Lopez and Christina Aguilera, although the latter started at first in English and then turned to Spanish. Both Ricky Martin and Enrique Iglesias retained their roles as one of the most successful crossover artists that decade.

Colombian singer Shakira's third studio album and first English language album, Laundry Service (Servicio De Lavanderia, in Latin America and Spain) was released on 13 November 2001. The album debuted at number three on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, selling over 200,000 records in its first week. Laundry Service was later certified triple platinum by the RIAA in June 2004 as well and thus helped to establish Shakira's musical presence in the mainstream North American market.

Jennifer Lopez officially released her first full Spanish-language album, Como Ama una Mujer, in March 2007. Her now-ex-husband, singer Marc Anthony, produced the album with Estefano, except for "Qué Hiciste", which Anthony co-produced with Julio Reyes. The album peaked at number ten on the Billboard 200, number one on the U.S. Top Latin Albums for four straight weeks, and on the U.S. Latin Pop Albums for seven straight weeks. The album did well in Europe, peaking at number three on the albums chart, mainly due to the big success in countries such as Switzerland, Italy, Spain, France, Belgium, Greece, Germany, Austria, and Portugal.

On 24 July 2007 Billboard magazine reported that Lopez and now ex-husband Marc Anthony would "co-headline" a worldwide tour called "Juntos en Concierto" starting in New Jersey on 29 September. Tickets went on sale 10 August. The tour was a mix of her current music, older tunes and Spanish music. In a later press release, Lopez announced a detailed itinerary. The tour launched 28 September 2007 at the Mark G. Etess Arena and ended on 7 November 2007 at the American Airlines Arena in Miami, Florida. The lead single, "Qué Hiciste," was officially released to radio stations in January 2007. Since then, it has peaked at 86 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot Latin Songs and the Hot Dance Club Play. It also went top ten on the European chart. The video for the song was the first Spanish-language video to peak at number one on MTV's Total Request Live daily countdown.

Lopez won an American Music Award as the Favorite Latin Artist in 2007. With Como Ama Una Mujer, Jennifer Lopez is one of the few performers to debut in the top 10 of the Billboard 200 with a Spanish album.

Jay-Z took part in a crossover record in 2004. He teamed up with rock band Linkin Park and produced the hit mash-up song "Numb/Encore". The song, while boasting a majority of Jay-Z's lyrics and hip-hop style, the genre of the song would be considered rock because of the tropes of rock music included in the piece. George Nelson, producer of television series "The Get Down" wrote an article titled Death and Rhythm of Blues. In the article, Nelson discusses the appealing to audiences of other races. With the production of "Numb/Encore", Jay-Z and Linkin Park were able to not only crossover genres, but consumer groups as well.

2010s crossover acts
American opera and classical crossover singer Fernando Varela has performed in fully staged operas, as a member of the classical crossover trio Forte Tenors, and has toured both with David Foster, and independently as a crossover artist.

In 2017, "Despacito", a song by Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee, reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 after the release of a bilingual remix featuring Justin Bieber. The song would tie a record for the most weeks spent at the number-one spot in the Hot 100's history, and reached the top of singles charts in 47 countries.

Following Despacito's success, other Latin songs also found a market, including J Balvin and Willy William's "Mi Gente" , which became a top 40 hit in the U.S. and United Kingdom, and "Súbeme la Radio" by Enrique Iglesias, which reached the top 10 in the U.K.

Christian crossover artists

The term "crossover artist" may refer to musical performers and groups that are Christian music artists, who many times originally are marketed through Christian record labels, radio stations, churches and other Christian media but who start selling in mainstream secular markets as well. Other times, crossover artists may start out in the mainstream market but have Christian undertones or themes if not overtly Christian. The term "crossing over" is used to describe when an artist who had started predominantly in Christian markets starts receiving mainstream success. Some people may feel that the artist is betraying the church for fame or glory, while others may see this as a great opportunity for the artist spread the message of their Christian beliefs.

The first major artist crossover was by Amy Grant, with her 1985 album Unguarded and 1991 hit song "Baby Baby" from the highest-selling Christian album Heart in Motion. The albums and single were distributed by a Christian label but received heavy play on pop radio stations and were chart-toppers on the Billboard charts. Since then, many artists have been labeled as "crossover artist" regardless of whether they originally intended to market to the Christian market, secular market, or both. The most notable recent Christian crossover artists are Lauren Daigle, Kirk Franklin, Switchfoot, The Afters, Relient K, and many of the artists on Tooth & Nail Records such as MxPx, Underoath, Emery, Lifehouse, Zao, and Dead Poetic.

Christian and country artists have experienced significant crossover. Much of Carrie Underwood's work has been overtly Christian, including "Jesus, Take the Wheel" and "Temporary Home" , "Something in the Water." Other notable Christian-country crossovers have included "Changed" by Rascal Flatts, "A Living Prayer" by Alison Krauss and "Believe" by Brooks & Dunn. For a time in the late 2000s, the God's Country Radio Network specialized in Christian-country crossovers, such was the extent of the body of music that fit into both genera.

A more unusual example of a crossover artist is Katy Perry. She released a little known, commercially unsuccessful Christian album in 2001 under her birth name, Katy Hudson. She then went on to release commercially successful secular albums in 2008, 2010, and 2013. There are still some noticeable Christian elements in some of her secular music, particularly her later work, such as "Who Am I Living For" (2010) and "By The Grace of God" (2013).

Jazz crossover and rock crossover

Besides describing music of a distinct genre that becomes broadly popular, the musical term "crossover" suggested mixed genres. "Fusion" is a more common term for this phenomenon. Examples include jazz fusion and world music. Example albums of crossover jazz plus classical music were albums of Deodato, Jean Luc Ponty and Bob James. Bob James One (CTI, 1974), contained the song "Feel Like Making Love", which Roberta Flack already had as a hit. Radio stations played this song and contributed to the success of album One. The album was notable for adapting classical music to a modern-day scene, e.g. "In the Garden" was based on Pachelbel's Canon in D and "Night on Bald Mountain" was a cover of Modest Mussorgsky's composition of the same name.

Other examples of crossover in music are bands that play a mix of genres such as funk, rap, rock, metal and punk, for instance bands such as Urban Dance Squad, Faith No More, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Suicidal Tendencies, D.R.I., Primus, Linkin Park, Rage Against the Machine, System of a Down and 311.

See also
 Jazz fusion
 World music
 Folk music
 Eclecticism in art
 Polystylism

References

Bibliography

Lonergan, David F. Hit Records, 1950–1975. Scarecrow Press, 2004.

Further reading
Szwed, John F. (2005). Crossovers: Essays on Race, Music, And American Culture. .
Brackett, David (Winter 1994). "The Politics and Practice of 'Crossover' in American Popular Music, 1963–65" The Musical Quarterly 78:4.
George, Nelson. (1988). The Death of Rhythm & Blues. New York: Pantheon Books.

External links
 Article on the definition of Classical Crossover

Crossover music