A Estação ferroviária de St Pancras (), também conhecida como Estação de Londres St Pancras, London St Pancras, Estação St Pancras International ou St Pancras International e oficialmente desde 2007 como London St Pancras International, é um terminal ferroviário central de Londres na Euston Road no borough londrino de Camden. É o terminal dos serviços Eurostar da Bélgica, França e Holanda para Londres. Fornece serviços ferroviários de East Midlands para Leicester, Corby, Derby, Sheffield e Nottingham na Midland Main Line, trens de alta velocidade da Southeastern para Kent via Ebbsfleet International e Ashford International, e serviços Thameslink cruzando Londres para Bedford, Cambridge, Peterborough, Brighton, Horsham e o Aeroporto de Gatwick. Fica entre a Biblioteca Britânica, o Regent's Canal e a estação ferroviária de London King's Cross, com a qual compartilha uma estação de Metrô de Londres, King's Cross St Pancras.

A estação foi construída pela Midland Railway (MR), que tinha uma extensa rede ferroviária em Midlands e no norte da Inglaterra, mas nenhuma linha dedicada a Londres. Após problemas de tráfego ferroviário após a Exposição Internacional de 1862, o MR decidiu construir uma conexão de Bedford a Londres com seu próprio terminal. A estação foi projetada por William Henry Barlow e construída com um telhado de ferro de um único vão. Após a inauguração da estação em 1 de outubro de 1868, o MR construiu na fachada da estação o Midland Grand Hotel, que tem sido amplamente elogiado por sua arquitetura e hoje é um edifício classificado Grade I junto com o resto da estação.

No final da década de 1960, foram feitos planos para demolir totalmente St Pancras e desviar os serviços para King's Cross e Euston, levando a uma oposição feroz. O complexo sofreu um £ 800 milhões de remodelação para se tornar o terminal para o Channel Tunnel Rail Link/High-Speed 1/HS1 como parte de um plano de regeneração urbana em East London, que foi inaugurado pela rainha Elizabeth II em novembro de 2007. Uma área de terminal selada de segurança foi construída para os serviços do Eurostar para a Europa continental via High Speed 1 e o Eurotúnel, com plataformas para trens domésticos para o norte e sudeste da Inglaterra. A estação restaurada tem 15 plataformas, um centro comercial e um autocarro. A London St Pancras International é propriedade da HS1 Ltd e gerida pela Network Rail (High Speed), uma subsidiária da Network Rail.

Localização
St Pancras fica no extremo sul do borough londrino de Camden em um local orientado norte-sul, mais profundo do que largo. A sul é delimitada por Euston Road (parte da London Inner Ring Road), e sua fachada é o St Pancras Renaissance Hotel, enquanto a oeste é delimitada por Midland Road que a separa da Biblioteca Britânica e a leste por Pancras Road que separa-a da estação de King's Cross. A Biblioteca Britânica fica no antigo pátio de mercadorias.

Atrás do hotel, o galpão de trem é elevado 5 m (17 ft) acima do nível da rua e a área abaixo forma o subsolo da estação. A metade norte da estação é delimitada principalmente a leste pela Camley Street, com o Camley Street Natural Park do outro lado da estrada. A nordeste fica King's Cross Central, anteriormente conhecido como Railway Lands, um complexo de linhas ferroviárias que se cruzam por várias estradas e o Regent's Canal.

Várias rotas de ônibus de Londres servem St Pancras, incluindo 73, 205 e 390.

Estação doméstica

Fundo
O nome da estação vem da paróquia de St. Pancras, que se origina do menino mártir cristão do século IV Pancrácio de Roma. A estação foi encomendada pela Midland Railway (MR), que tinha uma rede de rotas nas Midlands, e no sul e oeste de Yorkshire e Lancashire, mas nenhuma rota própria para Londres. Antes de 1857 o MR usava as linhas do L&NWR para trens para a capital; posteriormente, a Leicester and Hitchin Railway da empresa deu acesso a Londres através da Great Northern Railway (GNR).

Em 1862, o trânsito para a segunda Exposição Internacional sofreu grandes atrasos no troço de linha para Londres sobre os trilhos da GNR; a rota para a cidade através do L&NWR também estava em sua capacidade máxima, com trens de carvão fazendo com que a rede em  e em outros lugares chegasse a um engarrafamento efetivo. Este foi o estímulo para a MR construir sua própria linha para Londres a partir de Bedford, que seria pouco menos de  de comprimento. Samuel Carter foi advogado do projeto de lei parlamentar, que foi sancionado em 1863.

A principal justificação económica para o prolongamento da RM foi o transporte de carvão e outras mercadorias para a capital, que foi dificultado por uma portagem de 1s 9d nas linhas da GNR. Uma grande estação de mercadorias foi construída entre 1862 e 1865, situada a oeste do depósito de carvão de King's Cross, entre a North London Railway e o Regent's Canal. Embora carvão e mercadorias fossem a principal motivação para a extensão de Londres, Midland percebeu o prestígio de ter um terminal de passageiros no centro de Londres e decidiu que deveria ter uma frente na Euston Road. A empresa comprou a seção leste de terra no lado norte da estrada de propriedade de Earl Somers.

Construção

A estação de passageiros foi projetada por William Henry Barlow e construída em um local que anteriormente era uma favela chamada Agar Town.

A linha que se aproximava da estação cruzava o Regent's Canal a uma altura que permitia à linha gradientes razoáveis; isso resultou no nível da linha em St Pancras sendo  acima do nível do solo. (Em contraste, as linhas para o túnel adjacente da estação King's Cross sob o Regent's Canal). Os planos iniciais eram para um telhado de dois ou três vãos com o vazio entre a estação e o nível do solo preenchido com entulho de túneis para unir a Midland Main Line ao ramal de St. Pancras. Em vez disso, devido ao valor do terreno em tal localização, a área inferior foi usada para frete, em particular cerveja de Burton. Como resultado, o subsolo foi construído com colunas e vigas, maximizando o espaço, seguindo os mesmos planos daqueles usados para armazéns de cerveja, e com uma unidade básica de comprimento que um barril de cerveja.

A empreitada de construção da infra-estrutura da estação e das linhas de ligação foi entregue aos Srs. Waring, com o assistente de Barlow, Campion, como supervisor. O piso inferior para armazenamento de cerveja continha colunas interiores  de largura e  vigas de sustentação profundas que suportam a estação principal e a via. A ligação às Linhas Alargadas (ramal de St. Pancras) corria abaixo do nível inferior da estação, no sentido leste-oeste.

Para evitar que as fundações da cobertura interfiram no espaço abaixo, e para simplificar o projeto e minimizar custos, optou-se por construir uma cobertura de vão único, com travessas para o arco ao nível da estação. O arco foi lançado diretamente do nível da estação, sem pilares. Conselhos adicionais sobre o projeto do telhado foram dados a Barlow por Rowland Mason Ordish. As costelas dos arcos tinham uma profundidade de , principalmente ferragens abertas. A largura do vão, de parede a parede, foi de , com uma costela a cada  O arco era de desenho levemente pontiagudo, com raio de curvatura reduzido nos pontos de mola. A Butterley Company foi contratada para construir os arcos. O custo total do telhado de 24 nervuras e vidros foi superior a £ 53.000, dos quais mais da metade foi para as nervuras principais. O custo da empena foi mais £ 8.500.

O telhado geral de vão único era a maior estrutura do mundo no momento de sua conclusão. Os materiais utilizados foram estrutura de ferro forjado de design treliçado, com vidro cobrindo a metade central e madeira (interior)/ardósia (exterior) cobrindo os quartos externos. As duas telas finais foram envidraçadas em um padrão de grade retangular vertical com revestimento decorativo de madeira ao redor da borda e remates de ferro forjado ao redor da borda externa. Foi  de comprimento,  de largura e  alto no ápice acima dos trilhos.

Os serviços locais começaram a funcionar para o entroncamento da Metropolitan Railway sob o terminal em 13 de julho de 1868. A própria estação abriu ao público em 1 de outubro. O primeiro serviço foi um trem de correio noturno de Leeds.

Serviços iniciais
St Pancras foi construído durante um período de expansão para o MR, pois as principais rotas para Manchester, Nottingham, Sheffield e Carlisle foram abertas durante esse período. Em 1902, havia 150 trens chegando e saindo da estação diariamente, embora esse número fosse muito menor do que Waterloo ou Liverpool Street. Além dos serviços de Midland, a Great Eastern Railway (GER) usou St Pancras como um terminal "West End" para trens para , ,  entre 1870 e 1917. Na virada do século XX, St Pancras tinha um serviço mais rápido para  do que de King's Cross, em 71 minutos. Os serviços do GER foram suspensos por causa da Primeira Guerra Mundial e nunca foram retomados.

A London, Tilbury and Southend Railway (LTSR) iniciou os serviços de trem de barco de St Pancras a partir de 9 de julho de 1894, após a abertura da Tottenham and Forest Gate Railway. Os trens iam de St Pancras a Tilbury via  e . Tilbury Docks então forneceu uma conexão com a Austrália e a Escandinávia. No ano seguinte, o LTSR iniciou um serviço de St Pancras para . Os trens de barco continuaram a circular de St Pancras até 1963, após o que foram transferidos para Liverpool Street e Fenchurch Street.

Agrupamento, nacionalização e privatização

O Railways Act de 1921 forçou a fusão da Midland com a London and North Western Railway (L&NWR) na London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), e a LMS adotou a Estação Euston da LNWR (a "Linha Premier") como sua principal terminal de Londres. O Midland Grand Hotel foi fechado em 1935, e o prédio foi posteriormente usado como escritórios da British Railways. Durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, os bombardeios infligiram danos ao galpão de trem, que foi apenas parcialmente revitrificado após a guerra. Na noite de 10 a 11 de maio de 1941, uma bomba caiu no chão da estação na plataforma 3, explodindo nos cofres de cerveja embaixo. A estação não foi significativamente danificada, mas foi fechada por oito dias, com as plataformas 2-3 permanecendo fechadas até junho. Em 1947 o entroncamento de St. Pancras foi relançado com trilhos pré-fabricados, juntamente com alterações associadas ao sistema de sinalização.

Com a criação da British Railways (BR) em 1948, St Pancras recebeu um investimento significativo após o abandono da LMS. Os destinos incluíam os serviços da área de Londres para North Woolwich, St Albans e Bedford. Os trens de longa distância chegaram a Glasgow, Leeds, Nottingham, Sheffield e Manchester, com trens famosos como The Palatine para Manchester, The Thames-Clyde Express para Glasgow, e The Master Cutler para Sheffield (transferido de King's Cross em 1966, que havia sido transferida de  oito anos antes).

Em 7 de outubro de 1957, a sinalização em St Pancras foi atualizada, substituindo as três caixas originais por uma caixa de energia controlando 205 cambiadores de rota e 33 pontos em uma rede de 1 400 relés. De 1960 a 1966, o trabalho de eletrificação na West Coast Main Line entre Londres e Manchester viu um novo Midland Pullman de Manchester a St Pancras. Esses trens e aqueles para Glasgow foram retirados após a conclusão da reconstrução de Euston e a consolidação desses serviços.

Na década de 1960, St Pancras era visto como redundante, e várias tentativas foram feitas para fechá-lo e demolir o hotel (então conhecido como St Pancras Chambers). Essas tentativas provocaram forte e bem-sucedida oposição, com a campanha liderada pelo poeta laureado posterior, John Betjeman. Jane Hughes Fawcett com a Victorian Society foi fundamental em sua preservação e foi apelidada de "a furiosa Sra. Fawcett" por oficiais ferroviários britânicos. Muitos dos manifestantes haviam testemunhado a demolição do Euston Arch próximo alguns anos antes e se opunham fortemente à arquitetura distinta de St Pancras sofrendo o mesmo destino. A estação tornou-se um edifício listado como Grau I em novembro de 1967, evitando quaisquer modificações drásticas. Os planos foram descartados pela BR em dezembro de 1968, percebendo que era mais econômico modernizar o hotel, embora eles não gostassem de possuí-lo.

Na década de 1970, o telhado do galpão de trem estava em perigo de colapso, e o recém-nomeado Diretor de Meio Ambiente Bernard Kaukas convenceu a empresa a investir £ 3 milhões para salvá-lo. Em 1978, um artigo da Private Eye disse que a British Rail realmente queria demolir St Pancras, mas se opunha a "muitos sentimentalistas de cabelos compridos" e "burocratas sem rosto" e elogiou os blocos de escritórios que substituíram o Euston Arch. Os escritórios da estação no antigo edifício do Midland Grand Hotel foram posteriormente remodelados em 1993, incluindo um novo telhado com 275 toneladas de ardósia de Westmorland Green.

Após a setorização da British Rail em 1986, os serviços de linha principal para East Midlands foram fornecidos pelo setor InterCity, com serviços suburbanos para St Albans, Luton e Bedford pela Network SouthEast. Em 1988, o túnel Snow Hill foi reaberto, resultando na criação da rota Thameslink e no desvio resultante da maioria dos trens suburbanos para a nova rota. A estação continuou a ser servida por trens que circulavam na linha principal de Midland para Leicester, Nottingham e Sheffield, juntamente com alguns serviços suburbanos para Bedford e Luton. Estes constituíam apenas alguns trens por hora e deixavam a estação subutilizada.

Após a privatização da British Rail, os serviços de longa distância de St Pancras foram franqueados à Midland Mainline, uma companhia operadora de trens de propriedade da National Express, a partir de 28 de abril de 1996. Os poucos trens suburbanos restantes ainda operando em St Pancras foram operados pela empresa operadora de trens Thameslink, de propriedade de Govia, a partir de 2 de março de 1997.

Um pequeno número de trens de e para Leeds foi introduzido, principalmente porque os trens de alta velocidade foram mantidos lá e já estavam funcionando vazios ao norte de Sheffield. Durante a grande reconstrução dos anos 2000 da West Coast Main Line, St Pancras novamente recebeu temporariamente trens intermunicipais diretos e regulares para Manchester, desta vez pela rota Hope Valley (através da curva Dore South) sob o título de Project Rio.

Estação internacional

Projeto
O plano original para o Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) envolvia um túnel do sudeste de Londres para um terminal subterrâneo nas proximidades de King's Cross. No entanto, uma mudança tardia de plano, impulsionada principalmente pelo desejo do então Secretário de Estado do Meio Ambiente Michael Heseltine de regeneração urbana no leste de Londres, levou a uma mudança de rota, com a nova linha se aproximando de Londres pelo leste. Isso abriu a possibilidade de reaproveitar St Pancras como terminal, com acesso pela North London Line, que cruza a garganta da estação.

A ideia de usar a linha do norte de Londres foi rejeitada em 1994 pelo secretário de transporte, John MacGregor, como "difícil de construir e prejudicial ao meio ambiente". No entanto, a ideia de usar a estação de St Pancras como terminal foi mantida, embora agora ligada por  de novos túneis para Dagenham via Stratford.

A London and Continental Railways (LCR), criada na época da privatização da British Rail, foi selecionada pelo governo em 1996 para reconstruir St Pancras, construir o CTRL e assumir a participação britânica na operação do Eurostar. A LCR era proprietária da estação de St Pancras desde a privatização para permitir que a estação fosse reconstruída. Dificuldades financeiras em 1998 e o colapso da Railtrack em 2001 causaram alguma revisão deste plano, mas a LCR manteve a propriedade da estação.

A concepção e gestão do projecto de reconstrução foi realizada em nome da LCR pela Rail Link Engineering (RLE), um consórcio da Bechtel, Arup, Systra e Halcrow. O projeto de referência original para a estação foi de Nick Derbyshire, ex-chefe da equipe de arquitetura interna da British Rail. O plano mestre do complexo foi de Foster and Partners, e o principal arquiteto da reconstrução foi Alistair Lansley, um ex-colega de Nick Derbyshire recrutado pela RLE.

Para acomodar trens Eurostar de mais de 300 metros e para fornecer capacidade para os trens existentes para Midlands e os novos serviços Kent na ligação ferroviária de alta velocidade, o galpão de trem foi estendido a uma distância considerável para o norte por um novo galpão de telhado plano. A estação foi inicialmente planejada para ter 13 plataformas sob este galpão de trem estendido. Os serviços das Midlands Orientais usariam as plataformas ocidentais, a Eurostar atenderia as plataformas intermediárias e a Kent atenderia as plataformas orientais. As plataformas Eurostar e uma das plataformas Midland se estenderiam até o galpão de trem de Barlow. O acesso ao Eurostar para os passageiros que partem seria através de uma suíte de embarque no oeste da estação e depois para as plataformas por uma ponte acima dos trilhos dentro do galpão de trem histórico. Os passageiros do Eurostar que chegavam deixavam a estação por um novo saguão na extremidade norte.

Este projeto original foi posteriormente modificado, com acesso às plataformas do Eurostar por baixo, usando o subsolo da estação e permitindo a exclusão da ponte visualmente intrusiva. Ao deixar cair a extensão de qualquer uma das plataformas Midland no galpão do trem, o espaço foi liberado para permitir a construção de poços no piso da estação, que forneceram luz natural e acesso ao subsolo.

A reconstrução da estação foi gravada na série de documentários da BBC Television The Eight Hundred Million Pound Railway Station transmitida em seis episódios de 30 minutos entre 13 e 28 de novembro de 2007.

Reconstrução

No início de 2004, o lado leste do galpão de trem estendido estava completo, e o galpão de trem de Barlow foi fechado para trens. A partir de 12 de abril de 2004, os trens Midland Mainline terminaram em uma estação provisória que ocupa a parte leste da extensão imediatamente adjacente à entrada.

Como parte da construção do lado oeste do novo galpão de trem que agora começou, uma "caixa" subterrânea foi construída para abrigar novas plataformas para o Thameslink, que neste ponto corria parcialmente sob a estação estendida. Para que isso acontecesse, os túneis existentes do Thameslink entre Kentish Town e King's Cross Thameslink foram fechados entre 11 de setembro de 2004 e 15 de maio de 2005, enquanto as obras eram realizadas. Os serviços do Thameslink do norte terminavam nas mesmas plataformas que os trens da Midland Main Line, enquanto os serviços do sul terminavam em King's Cross Thameslink.

Quando as linhas foram reabertas, a nova caixa da estação ainda era apenas uma casca de concreto e não podia levar passageiros. Os trens do Thameslink voltaram à rota anterior, mas passaram pela estação sem parar. O orçamento para as obras da Ligação Ferroviária do Túnel da Mancha não incluiu o trabalho de adaptação da estação, uma vez que estas obras tinham originalmente feito parte do programa de obras separado Thameslink 2000. Apesar do lobby dos operadores ferroviários que desejavam ver a estação aberta ao mesmo tempo que St Pancras International, o governo não forneceu financiamento adicional para permitir que as obras de adequação fossem concluídas imediatamente após o bloqueio da linha. Eventualmente, em 8 de fevereiro de 2006, Alistair Darling, o Secretário de Estado dos Transportes, anunciou £ 50 milhões de fundos para o ajuste da estação, além de outros £ 10-15 milhões para a instalação de sinalização associada e outras obras na via.

Os trabalhos de adaptação foram desenhados por Chapman Taylor e Arup (Eurostar) e concluídos pela ISG Interior Plc Contractors em colaboração com a Bechtel como Gestores de Projeto. O cliente era a London and Continental Railways que foram assessoradas pela Hitachi Consulting.

Em 2005, foi concedido o consentimento de planejamento para a reforma do antigo edifício Midland Grand Hotel, com planos de reforma e ampliação como hotel e bloco de apartamentos. O hotel recentemente remodelado abriu aos hóspedes a 21 de Março de 2011 com uma cerimónia de inauguração a 5 de Maio.

Em meados de 2006, o lado oeste da extensão do galpão de trem foi concluído. O custo de reconstrução foi na região de £ 800 milhões, acima de uma estimativa inicial de £ 310 milhão.

Abertura
No início de novembro de 2007, o Eurostar realizou um programa de testes em que cerca de 6.000 membros do público estiveram envolvidos no check-in de passageiros, controle de imigração e testes de partida, durante o qual os "passageiros" fizeram três viagens de retorno de St Pancras até a entrada para o túnel de Londres. Em 4 de setembro de 2007, o primeiro trem de teste foi de Paris Gare du Nord para St Pancras. O ilustrador infantil Quentin Blake foi contratado para fornecer um enorme mural de um "comitê de boas-vindas imaginário" como um disfarce para um dos restantes prédios em ruínas do Stanley Building South imediatamente em frente à saída da estação.

St Pancras foi oficialmente reaberto como St Pancras International, e o serviço High Speed 1 foi lançado em 6 de novembro de 2007 pela Rainha Elizabeth II e pelo Príncipe Philip, Duque de Edimburgo. Os serviços foram estendidos a Roterdã e Amsterdã em abril de 2018.

Durante uma elaborada cerimônia de abertura, o ator Timothy West, como Henry Barlow, dirigiu-se ao público, que também foi entretido pela Orquestra Filarmônica Real e pelos cantores Lemar e Katherine Jenkins. Em um cenário cuidadosamente encenado, o primeiro trem da Classe 395 e dois trens da Classe 373 chegaram através de uma nuvem de gelo seco em plataformas adjacentes em segundos um do outro. Durante a cerimônia, a grande estátua de bronze de Paul Day, The Meeting Place, também foi revelada. Em uma cerimônia muito menor em 12 de novembro de 2007, a estátua de bronze de John Betjeman pelo escultor Martin Jennings foi revelada pela filha de Betjeman, a autora Candida Lycett Green. O serviço público pelo trem Eurostar via High Speed 1 começou em 14 de novembro de 2007. Em uma pequena cerimônia, os funcionários da estação cortaram uma fita que levava às plataformas do Eurostar. No mesmo mês, os serviços para East Midlands foram transferidos para um novo franqueado, East Midlands Trains. As plataformas de baixo nível do Thameslink abriram em 9 de dezembro de 2007, substituindo o King's Cross Thameslink.

St Pancras manteve a reputação de ter uma das fachadas mais reconhecidas de todos os terminais de Londres, e conhecida como a "catedral das ferrovias". Na Britain's 100 Best Railway Stations de Simon Jenkins, a estação foi uma das dez únicas a receber cinco estrelas. A estação possui placas bilíngues em francês e inglês, uma das poucas na Inglaterra a fazê-lo. Foi considerada a estação ferroviária mais amiga dos passageiros da Europa em um índice criado em 2020 pelo Consumer Choice Center.

Geminação
Em outubro de 2019, St Pancras foi geminada com a Estação de Bordeaux Saint-Jean, Bordéus, França. A associação foi feita na esperança de que um serviço de alta velocidade pudesse conectar as duas estações e foi anunciada em uma cerimônia presidida por Claude Solard, Diretor Geral da SNCF.

Serviços

St Pancras contém quatro grupos de plataformas em dois níveis, acessados através do saguão principal no nível do solo. O grupo abaixo da superfície contém as plataformas A e B, e o nível superior possui três grupos de plataformas terminais: plataformas domésticas 1–4 e 11–13 em cada lado das plataformas internacionais 5–10. As plataformas A e B atendem ao Thameslink, 1–4 conectam-se à Midland Main Line, enquanto as plataformas 11–13 levam à High Speed 1; não há conexão entre as duas linhas, exceto por um desvio de manutenção fora da estação. Há também uma variedade de lojas e restaurantes dentro do saguão da estação.

A estação é o terminal de Londres para os trens de alta velocidade do Eurostar para Paris, Bruxelas, Amsterdã e Lille através do Túnel da Mancha. É também o terminal para os serviços da East Midlands Railway de Londres para Derby, Leicester, Nottingham, Sheffield e cidades menores no caminho. Os trens Thameslink na rota que cruza Londres Thameslink param em plataformas abaixo da estação principal, ao sul para o Aeroporto de Gatwick e Brighton e ao norte para Luton Airport Parkway para o Aeroporto de Luton e Bedford. Os serviços domésticos de alta velocidade para Kent, administrados pela Southeastern, partem no mesmo nível da Eurostar & East Midlands Railway.

O terminal é uma das poucas estações ferroviárias da Inglaterra com sinalização multilíngue em inglês e francês. Em março de 2014, a equipe de relações públicas da estação encomendou um estudo de palavras mal pronunciadas, supostamente como resultado de passageiros se referindo à estação como "St Pancreas".

Disposição das plataformas

As plataformas internacionais mais longas, usadas pelo Eurostar, se estendem até o galpão de trem de Barlow, enquanto as outras plataformas terminam no extremo sul da extensão de 2005. As plataformas internacionais não ocupam toda a largura do galpão de trem de Barlow, e seções da área do piso foram abertas para fornecer luz natural ao novo saguão térreo abaixo. As salas de embarque e desembarque do Eurostar ficam abaixo dessas plataformas, adjacentes ao The Arcade, um saguão formado a partir do subsolo da estação original que corre ao longo da extensão oeste do galpão de trem de Barlow. O extremo sul do The Arcade liga-se à bilheteira ocidental da estação de metrô King's Cross St Pancras.

O acesso às plataformas da East Midlands Railway é feito pelo extremo norte da The Arcade, enquanto as plataformas Thameslink e domésticas de alta velocidade são alcançadas através de um saguão no nível da rua onde as partes antigas e novas da estação se encontram. A principal entrada de pedestres fica no extremo leste deste saguão, onde um metrô permite que os pedestres cheguem à estação King's Cross e à bilheteria norte da estação de metrô.

Serviços internacionais

Estação do Metrô de Londres

A estação de metrô King's Cross St Pancras serve as estações da linha principal de King's Cross e St Pancras. Está na zona tarifária 1. A estação tem duas bilheterias, ambas acessíveis diretamente do saguão St Pancras. A estação de metrô é servida por mais linhas do que qualquer outra estação do Metrô de Londres. Em 2020, King's Cross St Pancras foi a 4a mais movimentada do sistema, com 18,84 milhões de passageiros entrando e saindo da estação.

A estação de metrô é anterior à linha principal como parte da seção inicial do projeto Metropolitan Railway em 10 de janeiro de 1863, que foi a primeira seção do Metrô de Londres a ser aberta. Uma estação separada para a Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway (agora a linha Piccadilly) abriu em 15 de dezembro de 1906, com a City and South London Railway (agora parte da linha Northern) abrindo em 12 de maio de 1907. As plataformas da Metropolitan Railway foram transferidas para sua localização atual em 1941.

As plataformas da linha Victoria foram inauguradas em 1 de dezembro de 1968. Uma grande expansão para acomodar o High Speed 1 em St. Pancras foi inaugurada em novembro de 2009.

Uma passagem subterrânea de pedestres foi construído durante as reformas do CTRL. Ele corre sob Pancras Road da entrada leste do saguão doméstico em St Pancras até a bilheteria norte da estação de metrô King's Cross St Pancras (inaugurada em novembro de 2009) e o saguão de King's Cross (inaugurado em março de 2012).

Citações

Bibliografia

Ligações externas

St Pancras
Arquitetura neogótica em Londres

Estação St Pancras


An askari or ascari (from Somali, Swahili and Arabic , , meaning "soldier" or "military", also "police" in Somali) was a local soldier serving in the armies of the European colonial powers in Africa, particularly in the African Great Lakes, Northeast Africa and Central Africa. The word is used in this sense in English, as well as in German, Italian, Urdu and Portuguese. In French, the word is used only in reference to native troops outside the French colonial empire. The designation is still in occasional use today to informally describe police, gendarmerie and security guards.

During the period of the European colonial empires in Africa, locally recruited soldiers designated as askaris were employed by the Italian, British, Portuguese, German and Belgian colonial armies. They played a crucial role in the conquest of the various colonial possessions, and subsequently served as garrison and internal security forces. During both World Wars, askari units also served outside their colonies of origin, in various parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia. In South Africa the term refers to former members of the liberation movements who defected to the Apartheid government security forces.

Etymology
Askari is a loan word from the Persian  (), meaning "soldier". The Persian word is a derivation from the Middle Persian word , meaning "army". The word "lashkar" also is the root of the word Lascar for a South Asian soldier or a person of South Asian origin. Words for "(a regular) soldier" derived from these words are found in Azeri, Arabic, Indonesian, Malay, Somali, Swahili, Turkish and Urdu.

Belgian colonies
In the Belgian Congo, the askaris were organised into the Force Publique. This combined military and police force was commanded by white Belgian officers and both native and white non commissioned officers.

British colonies

The Imperial British East Africa Company raised units of askaris from among the Swahili people, the Sudanese and Somalis. There was no official uniform, nor standardised weaponry. Many of the askaris campaigned in their native dress. Officers usually wore civilian clothes.

From 1895 the British askaris were organised into a regular, disciplined and uniformed force called the East African Rifles, later forming part of the multi-battalion King's African Rifles. The designation of "askari" was retained for locally recruited troops in the King's African Rifles, smaller military units and police forces in the colonies until the end of colonial rule in Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda during the period 1961–63. After independence, the term Askari continued to be used to refer to soldiers in former British colonies.

German colonies
The German Colonial Army (Schutztruppe) of the German Empire employed native troops with European officers and NCOs in its colonies. The main concentration of such locally recruited troops was in German East Africa (now Tanzania), formed in 1881 after the transfer of the Wissmanntruppe (raised in 1889 to suppress the Abushiri Revolt) to German imperial control.

The first askaris formed in German East Africa were raised by DOAG (Deutsche Ost-Afrika Gesellschaft—the German East Africa Company) in about 1888. Originally drawn from Sudanese mercenaries, the German askaris were subsequently recruited from the Wahehe and Angoni tribal groups. They were harshly disciplined but well paid and highly trained by German cadres who were themselves subject to a rigorous selection process. Prior to 1914 the basic Schutztruppe unit in Southeast Africa was the Feldkompanie comprising seven or eight German officers and NCOs with between 150 and 200 askaris (usually 160)—including two machine gun teams.

Such small independent commands were often supplemented by tribal irregulars or Ruga-Ruga.

They were successfully used in German East Africa where 11,000 askaris, porters and their European officers, commanded by Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, managed to fight a successful guerilla campaign against numerically superior British, Portuguese and Belgian colonial forces until the end of World War I in 1918.

The Weimar Republic and pre-war Nazi Germany provided pension payments to the German askaris. Due to interruptions during the worldwide depression and World War II, the parliament of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) voted in 1964 to fund the back pay of the askaris still alive. The West German embassy at Dar es Salaam identified approximately 350 ex-askaris and set up a temporary cashiers office at Mwanza on Lake Victoria.

Only a few claimants could produce the certificates given to them in 1918; others provided pieces of their old uniforms as proof of service. The banker who had brought the money came up with an idea: each claimant was handed a broom and ordered in German to perform the manual of arms. Not one of them failed the test.

Italian colonies

The Italian army in Italian East Africa recruited Eritrean and subsequently Somali troops to serve with Italian officers and some NCOs. These forces comprised infantry, cavalry, camel-mounted and light artillery units. Somali personnel were later recruited to serve with Royal Italian Navy ships operating in the Indian Ocean. The Italian askaris (ascari) fought in the Mahdist War, Battle of Coatit, First Italo–Ethiopian War, Italian-Turkish War, Second Italo-Abyssinian War and in the World War II East African Campaign.

History
Many of the Askaris in Eritrea were drawn from local Nilotic populations, including Hamid Idris Awate, who reputedly had some Nara ancestry. Of these troops, the first Eritrean battalions were raised in 1888 from Muslim and Christian volunteers, replacing an earlier Bashi-bazouk corps of irregulars. The four Indigeni battalions in existence by 1891 were incorporated into the Royal Corps of Colonial Troops that year. Expanded to eight battalions, the Eritrean ascaris fought with distinction at Serobeti, Agordat, Kassala, Coatit and Adwa and subsequently served in Libya and Ethiopia.

Out of a total of 256,000 Italian troops serving in Italian East Africa in 1940, about 182,000 were recruited from Eritrea, Somalia and the recently occupied (1935–36) Ethiopia. When in January 1941, Allied forces invaded Ethiopia in January 1941, most of the locally recruited ascaris deserted. The majority of the Eritrean Ascaris remained loyal until the Italian surrender four months later.

Organisation
Initially the Eritrean Ascaris comprised only infantry battalions, although Eritrean cavalry squadrons (Penne di Falco) and mountain artillery batteries were subsequently raised. By 1922 units of camel cavalry called "meharisti" had been added. Those Eritrean camel units were also deployed in Libya after 1932. During the 1930s Benito Mussolini added some armored cars units to the Ascari.

Uniforms
Eritrean regiments in Italian service wore high red fezzes with coloured tufts and waist sashes that varied according to each unit. As examples, the 17th Eritrean Battalion had black and white tufts and vertically striped sashes; while the 64th Eritrean Battalion wore both of these items in scarlet and purple.

White uniforms were worn for parade (see illustration) with khaki for other duties. The Somali ascari were similarly dressed, though with knee length shorts.

Ranks
The Eritrean and Somali Ascari had the following ranks, from simple soldier to senior non commissioned officer: Ascari - Muntaz (corporal) - Bulukbasci (lance-sergeant) -Sciumbasci (sergeant). The Sciumbasci-capos (staff-sergeants) were the senior Eritrean non-commissioned officers, chosen in part according to their performance in battle.

All commissioned officers of the Eritrean Ascari were Italian.

Spanish colonies

As noted above "askari" was normally a designation used in Sub-Saharan Africa. Exceptionally though, the term "askari" was also used by the Spanish colonial government in North-West Africa, in respect not of their regular Moroccan troops (see regulares), but of a locally recruited gendarmerie force raised in Spanish Morocco in 1913. They were known as the "Mehal-la Jalifianas". This was the equivalent of the better known Goumiers employed in French Morocco.

Indigenous members of the Tropas Nómadas or desert police serving in the Spanish Sahara were also designated as "askaris", as were the other ranks of the Native Police (Policia Indígena) raised in Melilla in 1909.

Portuguese colonies
In Portuguese West Africa, and most other African colonies of the Portuguese Empire, local askaris were recruited. These were used to keep the peace in the nation-sized colonies. During the 20th century, all the indigenous troops were merged into a Portuguese colonial army. This military was segregated along lines of race, and until 1960 there were three classes of soldiers: commissioned soldiers (European whites), overseas soldiers (black African "civilizados") and native soldiers (Africans who lived in the Portuguese colonies). These categories were renamed to 1st, 2nd and 3rd class in 1960—which effectively corresponded to the same classification.

Apartheid South Africa

During Apartheid, especially during the 1980s, Askari was the term used to describe former members of the liberation movements who came to work for the Security Branch, providing information, identifying and tracing former comrades. A number were also operationally deployed. Former members of the liberation movements became askaris if they defected from the liberation movements of their own accord or if they were arrested or captured. In some cases, attempts were made to 'turn' captured uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK) or Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) operatives using both orthodox and unorthodox methods during interrogation, often involving torture. Other askaris were MK operatives who had been abducted by the Security Branch from neighbouring states. Several abductees remain disappeared and are believed to have been killed. The threats of death used to 'turn' askaris were not idle. During the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings, amnesty applications revealed that several operatives were killed for steadfastly refusing to co-operate.

Askaris were primarily used to infiltrate groups and to identify former comrades with whom they had trained in other countries. At the Pretoria hearing in July 1999, Mr Chris Mosiane testified: "In the initial stages askaris were used as police dogs to sniff out insurgents with white SB [Security Branch members] as their handlers. Black SB were used to monitor the askaris."
Askaris were initially treated as informers and were paid from a secret fund. Later, they were integrated into the South African Police at the level of constable and were paid an SAP salary. While deployed in the regions, they were paid an additional amount, which was usually generated by making false claims to a secret fund. After successful operations they usually received bonuses.
The askaris used Vlakplaas as an operational base and resided in the townships where they attempted to maintain their cover as underground MK operatives. Although a few askaris escaped, most were far too frightened to attempt it. At his amnesty hearing, Colonel Eugene de Kock testified that he had set up a spy network amongst the askaris and used electronic surveillance. He told the Amnesty Committee that he had also established a disciplinary structure to deal with internal issues and other infractions by askaris and white officers. However, askaris who exceeded their authority in operational situations or criminal matters were seldom punished.
Generally askaris were extremely effective. Because of their internal experience of MK structures, they were invaluable in identifying potential suspects, in infiltrating networks, in interrogations and in giving evidence for the state in trials.

Post 2003 Iraq War

Widely deployed Ugandan private security guards are also designated as askari. Guards were to receive $1,000 monthly salary and an $80,000 bonus if shot, but many have complained that the money was not paid or unfair fees assessed. The guards work for recruiting agencies such as Askar Security Services, which are hired by Beowulf International, a receiving company in Iraq, which subcontracts their services to EOD Technologies, an American company hired by the U.S. Department of Defense to provide security guards for Camp Victory in Baghdad. A Beowulf representative said that 400 of the workers "had impressed the US Army with their skill and experience", but complained that some of the workers lacked police or security experience and "didn't even know how to hold a gun". At least eleven other Ugandan recruiters include Dresak International and Connect Financial Services.

See also

 Lascar
 Sepoy
 Colonial troops
 Belanda Hitam (Zwarte Hollanders), African recruits in the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army
 Force Publique (Belgian Congo)
 Tirailleurs (French Africa)
 Tiradores de Ifni and Regulares (Spanish North Africa)
 Ascari, an Italian Soldati-class destroyer during World War II

References

External links

 Comando Supremo
 African World War II Veterans
 Histoire de la Force Publique (History of the Force Publique) by Lieutenant-General Emile Janssens, Wasmael-Chalier of Namur in 1979
Ascari: I Leoni di Eritrea/Ascari: The Lions of Eritrea. Eritrea colonial history, Eritrean ascari pictures/photos galleries and videos, historical atlas...
Ascari of Eritrea Collection of about 200 pictures listed by categories.
 Moyd, Michelle: Askari, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
 Truth and Reconciliation Commission "Final Report"

German Army (German Empire)
Military history of Africa
Military history of German East Africa
Swahili words and phrases
People of former Italian colonies
Combat occupations
Military units and formations of Spain
Colonial troops
Apartheid in South Africa
Arabic words and phrases
Persian words and phrases

Askari


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Dasa () is a Sanskrit word found in ancient Indian texts such as the Rigveda, Pali canon, and Arthasastra. The term may mean "enemy" or "servant," but Dasa or Das can also have the following connotations: "servant of God", "devotee," "votary" or "one who has surrendered to God." Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.

Dasa, in some contexts, is also related to dasyu and asura, which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces," "slave," "servant," or "barbarian," depending on the context in which the word is used.

Etymology
Dāsa first appears in Vedic texts from the second millennium BCE. There is no consensus on its origins.

Karl Heinrich Tzschucke in 1806, in his translations of the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela, noted etymological and phonological parallels between dasa and the ethnonyms of the Dahae – Persian داها; Sanskrit Dasa; Latin Dahae; Greek Δάοι Daoi, Δάαι, Δᾶαι Daai and Δάσαι Dasai –  a people who lived on the south-eastern shores of the Caspian Sea in ancient times (and from whom modern Dehestan/Dehistan takes its name).

Monier Monier-Williams in 1899, stated that the meaning of dasa varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god". In later Indian literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of dasa is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit". In the latter sense, dāsa is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is dāsi. Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar(1912), translate dasa as "slave".

Kangle in 1960, and others suggest that, depending on the context, dasa may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words dasa or dasyu suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word dasa mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light." In some contexts, the word dasa may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.

In Pali texts, the term dasa is mentioned to denote a slave. Dasa in Buddhist texts can mean  "servant". In Pali language, it is used as suffix in Buddhist texts, where Amaya-dasa was translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth", Kila-dasa translated as a "bought slave", and Amata-dasa as "one who sees Amata (Sanskrit: Amrita, nectar of immortality) or Nibbana".

According to Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar,  Regarding the Dasas, the question is whether there is any connection between the Azhi-Dahaka of the Zend Avesta. The name Azhi-Dahaka is a compound name which consists of two parts. Azhi means serpent, dragon and Dahaka comes from the root "Dah" meaning "to sting, to do harm"

Michael Witzel compares the etymological root of dasa to words from other Indo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestan dahåka and dŋha, Latin dahi and Greek daai.

Asko Parpola in 2015, has proposed that dasa is related to the ancient Iranian and proto-Saka word daha, which means "man". This is contrasted with arya, the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-Iranian people from Central Asia.

Identification of Dasa

As people
Based on the Arya-Dasa conflict described in Rigvedic text, scholars have tried to identify the Dasa as a population in South and Central Asia.

Max Müller proposed that dasa referred to indigenous peoples living in South Asia before the arrival of the Aryans.

Michael Witzel in his review of Indo-Iranian texts in 1995, states that dasa in the Vedic literature represented a North Iranian tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, and das-yu meant "enemy, foreigner." He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured.

Asko Parpola states that dasa referred only to Central Asian peoples.  Vedic texts that include prayers for the defeat of the dasa as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-called Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices. Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory. Among the evidences cited were recent BMAC excavation results where forts in circular shapes were found, the shape described in the early parts of the Rigveda as the enemy forts of Indra. He also found that Rigvedic words starting with triple consonant clusters such as Bṛhaspati, must be loanwords from the unknown BMAC language.

As spiritual entity

Authors like Sri Aurobindo believe that words like Dasa are used in the Rig Veda symbolically and should be interpreted spiritually, and that Dasa does not refer to human beings, but rather to demons who hinder the spiritual attainment of the mystic. Many Dasas are purely mythical and can only refer to demons. There is for example a Dasa called Urana with 99 arms (RV II.14.4), and a Dasa with six eyes and three heads in the Rig Veda.

Aurobindo commented that in the RV III.34 hymn, where the word Arya varna occurs, Indra is described as the increaser of the thoughts of his followers: "the shining hue of these thoughts, sukram varnam asam, is evidently the same as that sukra or sveta Aryan hue which is mentioned in verse 9. Indra carries forward or increases the "colour" of these thoughts beyond the opposition of the Panis, pra varnam atiracchukram; in doing so he slays the Dasyus and protects or fosters and increases the Aryan "colour", hatvi dasyun pra aryam varnam avat."

According to Aurobindo (The Secret of the Veda), RV 5.14.4 is a key for understanding the character of the Dasyus:

Agni born shone out slaying the Dasyus, the darkness by the light, he found the Cows, the Waters, Swar. (transl. Aurobindo)

Aurobindo explains that in this verse the struggle between light and darkness, truth and falsehood, divine and undivine is described. It is through the shining light created by Agni, god of fire, that the Dasyus, who are identified with the darkness, are slain. The Dasyus are also described in the Rig Veda as intercepting and withholding the Cows, the Waters and Swar ("heavenly world"; RV 5.34.9; 8.68.9). It is not difficult, of course, to find very similar metaphors, equating political or military opponents with evil and darkness, even in contemporary propaganda.

K.D. Sethna (1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the spiritual interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."

Hindu Texts

Rig Veda
Dasa and related words such as Dasyu are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word dasa mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light." In other contexts, the word dasa refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.

A. A. Macdonell and A. B. Keith in 1912 remarked that, "The great difference between the Dasyus and the Aryans was their religion... It is significant that constant reference is made to difference in religion between Aryans and Dasa and Dasyu."

Dasa with the meaning of Barbarians
Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.

Dasa with the meaning of Demons
Within the Vedic texts, Dasa is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word Dasa in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,

Dasa with the meaning of Servant
Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. R. S. Sharma, in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in Rigveda is dāsa, and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3. The translation of word dasa to servant or slave varies by scholars. HH Wilson, for example, translates Dasa in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave, as in verse 10.62.10:

R. S. Sharma translates dasi in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".

Aryan-Dasa conflict

Hermann Oldenberg states that no distinction between historical events and mythology existed for the Vedic poets. For them, the conflict between the Aryans and Dasas extended into the realms of gods and demons with the hostile demon being on the same level as the hated and despised savages.

Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin suggest Indo-Aryans were not the only inhabitants of the region when they arrived to Sapta-Sindhava or land of seven Indus rivers and their encounter with Dasyu was not entirely peaceful.

Ram Sharan Sharma states that the Rig-Vedic society was primarily organized on basis of tribe, kin and lineage. The "Aryan" tribes mentioned by the Rig Veda therefore may not have been of the same ethnicity, but may have been united by a common language and way of life. He states that while it has been argued that Dasyu and Dasa were not non-Aryans, it is more true in the case of the latter. Further the Dasas are said to be organized into tribes called viś, a term used for Vedic people or tribes. The god Indra is said to be the conqueror of Dasas, who appear mostly human. There are more references to the destruction of Dasyus by Indra instead of Dasas. He is said to have protected the Aryan varna by killing them. The Aryans also fought between themselves. The god Manyu (deity) is invoked to overcome both Aryans and Dasyus. Indra is asked to fight against the godless Dasyus and Aryans, who are the enemies of his followers. (X, 88, 3 & XX, 36, 10).

The fight between Aryans and their enemies consisted mostly of fortresses and walled settlements of the latter. Both Dasas and Dasyus were in the possession of them. Sharma states that this reminds us of the later discovery of fortifications of Harappan settlements, though there is no clear archaeological evidence of mass-scale confrontation between Aryans and Harappans. He adds that the Aryans seemed to be attracted to their wealth over which a regular warfare took place. The worshiper in the Rig Veda expects that those who offered no oblation should be killed and their wealth be divided (I, 176, 4). However, it was the cattle which held the most importance to Aryans who were cattle-herders. For example, it is argued that Kikatas didn't need cows because they made no use of milk products in sacrifice.

Sacrifice played an important part in Aryan way of life, however the Dasyus or Dasas did not offer sacrifices. An entire passage in the seventh book of Rig Veda uses adjectives such as akratün, aśraddhān and ayajñān applied to Dasyus emphasizes their non-sacrificing character. Indra is asked to discriminate between them and the sacrificing Aryas. Sharma states that the word anindra (without Indra) may refer to Dasyus, Dasa and Aryan dissenters. Per the Aryan view, the Dasyus practiced black magic and Atharva Veda refers to them as evil spirits to be scared away from the sacrifice. The Atharva Veda states that the god-blaspheming Dasyus are to be offered as victims. The Dasyus are believed to be treacherous, not practicing Aryan observances, and are hardly human.

Tony Ballantyne states that Rig Veda depicts the cultural differences between the Aryan invaders and non-Aryans of Indus valley. He states that although the inter-Aryan conflict is prominent in its hymns, a cultural opposition is drawn between Aryans and the indigenous people of North India. According to him, it depicts the indigenous tribes such as the Pani and Dasas as godless, savage and untrustworthy. Panis are cattle thieves who seek to deprive Aryans of them. He states Dasas were savages, whose godless society, darker complexion and different language were culturally different from Aryans. They are called barbarians (rakshas), those without fire (anagnitra) and flesh-eaters (kravyad). The Aryas were on the other hand presented as noble people protected by their gods Agni and Indra. He adds that their names were extended beyond them to denote savage and barbarian people in general. He concurs that this continued into later Sanskritic tradition where dasa came to mean a slave while Arya meant noble.

Later Vedic texts
The three words Dasa, Dasyu and Asura (danav) are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig Veda, the Saunaka recension of Atharva veda, the Paippalada Samhita of the Atharva Veda and the Brahmanas text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret Dasa and Dasyu may have been a synonym of Asura (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.

Sharma states that the word dasa occurs in Aitareya and Gopatha Brahmanas, but not in the sense of a slave.

Arthashastra
Kautilya's Arthashastra dedicates the thirteenth chapter on dasas, in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the Maurya Empire period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915, Kangle's translation in the 1960s and Rangarajan's translation in 1987 all map dasa as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to dasa by Kautilya, such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece. Edmund Leach points out that the Dasa was the antithesis of the concept of Arya. As the latter term evolved through successive meanings, so did Dasa: from "indigenous inhabitant" to "serf," "tied servant," and finally "chattel slave." He suggests the term "unfreedom" to cover all these meanings.

According to Arthashastra, anyone who had been found guilty of nishpatitah (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime) may mortgage oneself to become dasa for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the dasa for money and privileges.

According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a dasa (servant) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female dasa.

Buddhist texts
Words related to dasa are found in early Buddhist texts, such as dāso na pabbājetabbo, which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become a Bhikkhu". This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monk is found in Vinaya Pitakam i.93, Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikāya, Tibetan Bhiksukarmavakya and Upasampadajnapti.

In Buddhist scriptures, slavery is a backdrop to the narratives, and dasas (slaves) were among the donations to the monastic community. Various terms were used, like "bondsmen," "proper slave," and "proper bondman", and individuals were treated as property and could be donated as such to monks and monasteries. In various Vinayas, Buddha permits the offering and utilization of household servants and slaves, along with land, mats, livestock, tools, and medicinal items. At times, slaves were tasked with carrying out actions that were explicitly prohibited for monks

Other uses

Use of religious "devotees"
In Tamil dasa is commonly used to refer to devotees of Vishnu or Krishna.

In Gaudiya Vaishnavism, devotees often use dasa (meaning servant of Krishna) as part of their names, as in Hari Dasa.

As a surname or byname

Dasa or Das is also a surname or middle name found among Hindus and Sikhs, typically in northern half of India, where it literally means "votary, devotee, servant of God." For example, Mohandas Gandhi's first name, Mohandas, means servant of Mohan or Krishna. Also, the name Surdas means servant of Sur or Deva. In the past, many saints of the Bhakti movement added it to their names, signifying their total devotion or surrender to God.

Comparative linguistics
Dasa and related terms have been examined by several scholars. While the terms Dasa and Dasyu have a negative meaning in Sanskrit, their Iranian counterparts Daha and Dahyu have preserved their positive (or neutral) meaning. This is similar to the Sanskrit terms Deva (a "positive" term) and Asura (a "negative" term). The Iranian counterparts of these terms (Daeva and Ahura) have opposite meanings.

Asko Parpola states the original Dasa is related to the Old Persian word Daha which also means "man", but refers specifically to a regional ethnic minority of Persia. Parpola contrasts Daha with Arya, stating that the latter also referred to "man" but specifically to the incoming Indo-Iranians from Central Asia. The Vedic text that include prayers to help defeat the "Dasa as enemy people", states Parpola, may refer to the wars of the Indo-Iranians against the bearers of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) culture. The latter spoke a different language and opposed Indo-Iranian religious practices. Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but his theory is controversial.

See also
Dahae
Déisi
Mleccha
Adivasi

References

 Sources

Further reading
Bryant, Edwin: The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture. 2001. Oxford University Press.
J. Bronkhorst and M.M. Deshpande. 1999. Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Hock, Hans. 1999b, Through a Glass Darkly: Modern "Racial" Interpretations vs. Textual and General Prehistoric Evidence on Arya and Dasa/Dasyu in Vedic Indo-Aryan Society." in Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.
Iyengar, Srinivas. 1914. "Did the Dravidians of India Obtain Their Culture from Aran Immigrant [sic]." Anthropos 1–15.
Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. 1912. The Vedic Index of Names and Subjects.
 Parpola, Asko: 1988, The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dasas; The problem of the Aryans and the Soma.
Rg Veda 1854–57. Rig-Veda Samhita. tr. H.H. Wilson. London: H.Allen and Co.
Schetelich, Maria. 1990, "The problem of the "Dark Skin" (Krsna Tvac) in the Rgveda." Visva Bharati Annals 3:244–249.
 Sethna, K.D. 1992. The Problem of Aryan Origins. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
Trautmann, Thomas R. 1997, Aryans and British India. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Witzel, Michael. 1995b, 325, fn, "Rgvedic History" in The Indo-Aryans of South Asia.

Sanskrit words and phrases
Slavery and religion

Dasa


Melicope is a genus of about 240 species of shrubs and trees in the family Rutaceae, occurring from the Hawaiian Islands across the Pacific Ocean to tropical Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Plants in the genus Melicope have simple or trifoliate leaves arranged in opposite pairs, flowers arranged in panicles, with four sepals, four petals and four or eight stamens and fruit composed of up to four follicles.

Description
Plants in the genus Melicope have simple or trifoliate leaves arranged in opposite pairs, or sometimes whorled. The flowers are arranged in panicles and are bisexual or sometimes with functionally male- or female-only flowers. The flowers have four sepals, four petals and four or eight stamens. There are four, sometimes five, carpels fused at the base with fused styles, the stigma similar to the tip of the style. The fruit is composed of up to four follicles fused at the base, each with one or two seeds.

Taxonomy
The genus Melicope was first formally described in 1775 by Johann Reinhold Forster and his son Georg Forster in their book Characteres Generum Plantarum and the first species they described (the type species) was Melicope ternata.

The generic name Melicope is derived from Greek words μελι (meli), meaning "honey," and κοπη (kope), meaning "a division," referring to the glands at the base of the ovary. The 2009 Takhtajan system placed the genus in the subfamily Rutoideae, tribe Zanthoxyleae. A 2021 subfamily classification of the Rutaceae, based both on a new and previous molecular phylogenetic studies, places Melicope (with an expanded circumscription) in the subfamily Zanthoxyloideae, stating that the evidence does not yet support classification to tribal level.

Evidence from 2007 onwards showed that with its traditional circumscription, Melicope was not monophyletic. The previously separated genus Platydesma of four species is nested within the genus Melicope and is sister to all Hawaiian Melicope species. And while Melicope species are usually dioecious (individual plants only bear either male or female flowers), the flowers of the former Platydesma are hermaphroditic, suggesting a rare evolutionary reversion away from dioecy in Platydesma. Molecular phylogenetic analyses also suggest that the genera Comptonella, Dutaillyea, Picrella, and possibly Dutailliopsis, all from New Caledonia, might also be nested in Melicope, although they are accepted in the 2021 classification, as is the temperate Asian genus Tetradium, which has sometimes been merged into Melicope (possibly including the tropical Euodia).

Ecology
Melicopes are foodplants for various animals, mainly invertebrates. Caterpillars of the Ulysses butterfly (Papilio ulysses) are fond of M. elleryana. Caterpillars of Thyrocopa moths have been found on M. clusiifolia. The larvae of some belid weevils from the genus Proterhinus also feed on Melicope although they prefer unhealthy, dying or dead specimens. The plants of some species may not be safe for humans. The nectar of wharangi (M. ternata) is known to yield toxic honey that may kill whoever eats it.

Conservation
Several of the Hawaiian species are listed as "endangered" by the Government of the United States of America, due to habitat loss and competition from invasive non-native plants. A few species are already extinct.

Species list
The following is a list of species accepted by Plants of the World Online as of July 2020:

 Melicope aberrans T.G.Hartley – New Guinea (N.G.)
 Melicope accedens (Blume) T.G.Hartley – tropical Asia
 Melicope acuminata (Merr.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope adscendens (H.St.John & Hume) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone - Hawaii
 Melicope aequata T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope affinis T.G.Hartley – Queensland (Qld.)
 Melicope alba Lauterb. – N.G.
 Melicope albiflora (Rech.) T.G.Hartley – Samoa
 Melicope alpestris T.G.Hartley – Philippines
 Melicope aneura (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope anisata (H.Mann) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone mokihana – Hawaii (?)
 Melicope anomala (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope bakeri T.G.Hartley – Madagascar
 Melicope balankazo (H.Perrier) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope balansae Guillaumin – New Caledonia (N.C.)
 Melicope balgooyi Appelhans, W.L.Wagner & K.R.Wood – Tubuai
 Melicope balloui (Rock) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone rock pelea – Hawaii
 Melicope barbigera A.Gray – Hawaii
 Melicope belahe (Baill.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope benguetensis (Elmer) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope blancoi T.G.Hartley – Philippines
 Melicope bonwickii (F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley – Java, Borneo, the Philippines, N.G., Qld.
 Melicope borbonica (Bory) T.G.Hartley bois de catafaille blanc – Réunion
 Melicope boweriana (Christoph.) T.G.Hartley – Samoa
 Melicope bracteata (Nadeaud) S.L.Welsh – Cook Islands, Tubuai, Society Islands
 Melicope brassii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope broadbentiana F.M.Bailey – Qld.
 Melicope buennemeijeri T.G.Hartley – Sumatra
 Melicope burmahia (Raizada & K.Naray.) T.G.Hartley – Myanmar
 Melicope burttiana B.C.Stone – Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz Island
 Melicope buwaldae T.G.Hartley – Sumatra
 Melicope calycina T.G.Hartley – Lesser Sunda Islands
 Melicope capillacea (Gillespie) A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope carrii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope celebica T.G.Hartley – Sulawesi
 Melicope chapelieri (Baill.) T.G.Hartley – Mauritius
 Melicope christophersenii (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope chunii (Merr.) T.G.Hartley – Hainan
 Melicope cinerea A.Gray  – Hawaii
 Melicope clemensiae T.G.Hartley – Borneo
 Melicope clusiifolia (A.Gray) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope confusa (Merr.) Tang S.Liu – tropical Asia
 Melicope conjuga T.G.Hartley – N.G. to Bismarck Archipelago
 Melicope contermina C.Moore & F.Muell. – Lord Howe Island
 Melicope coodeana  T.G.Hartley – Réunion
 Melicope corneri T.G.Hartley – Peninsula Malaysia
 Melicope cornuta (Hillebr.) Appelhans, K.R.Wood & W.L.Wagner – Hawaii
 Melicope crassifolia (Merr.) T.G.Hartley – Vietnam
 Melicope crassiramis (K.Schum.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope cravenii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope crispula (Merr. & L.M.Perry) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope cruciata (A.Heller) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone cross-bearing pelea (extinct) – Hawaii
 Melicope cucullata (Gillespie) A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope degeneri (B.C.Stone) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope denhamii (Seem.) T.G.Hartley – N.G., Vanuatu, Santa Cruz Island
 Melicope dicksoniana T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope discolor (Baker) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope doormani-montis (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope dubia (Merr.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope durifolia (K.Schum.) T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope elleryana (F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley – N.G., Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz Island, Qld.
 Melicope elliptica A.Gray – Hawaii
 Melicope eriophylla (Merr. & L.M.Perry) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope erromangensis T.G.Hartley – Vanuatu
 Melicope euneura (Miq.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope evanensis (A.C.Sm.) A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope exuta T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope fatraina (H.Perrier) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope fatuhivensis (F.Br.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Marquesas Islands
 Melicope feddei (H.Lév.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope fellii T.G.Hartley – Qld.
 Melicope flaviflora A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope floribunda (Baker) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope forbesii (Baker f.) T.G.Hartley – Santa Cruz Island
 Melicope frutescens (Blanco) Appelhans & J.Wen
 Melicope fulva (Guillaumin) B.C.Stone – N.C.
 Melicope glabella T.G.Hartley – Philippines
 Melicope glaberrima Guillaumin  – N.C.
 Melicope glabra (Blume) T.G.Hartley – Malaysia, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 Melicope glomerata (Craib) T.G.Hartley – Mainland Southeast Asia
 Melicope goilalensis T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope grisea (Planch.) T.G.Hartley – Bonin Islands to Volcano Islands
 Melicope haleakalae (B.C.Stone) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone Maui ruta tree (extinct) – Hawaii
 Melicope haupuensis (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope hawaiensis (Wawra) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope hayesii T.G.Hartley – Qld., New South Wales (N.S.W.)
 Melicope hiepkoi T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope hiiakae (B.C.Stone) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope hivaoaensis J.Florence – Marquesas
 Melicope homeophylla A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope hookeri T.G.Hartley
 Melicope hosakae (H.St.John) W.L.Wagner & R.K.Shannon – Hawaii
 Melicope idiocarpa T.G.Hartley – Sulawesi
 Melicope improvisa T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope incana T.G.Hartley – Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi
 Melicope indica Wight
 Melicope inopinata J.Florence – Marquesas
 Melicope irifica (Coode) T.G.Hartley – Réunion
 Melicope jonesii T.G.Hartley – Qld.
 Melicope jugosa T.G.Hartley – Borneo
 Melicope kaalaensis (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope kainantuensis T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope kavaiensis (H.Mann) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope kjellbergii T.G.Hartley – Sulawesi
 Melicope knudsenii (Hillebr.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone Knudsen's melicope  – Hawaii
 Melicope kostermansii T.G.Hartley – Maluku Islands to N.G.
 Melicope laevis T.G.Hartley – Vanuatu
 Melicope lamii Lauterb. – N.G.
 Melicope lasioneura (Baill.) Baill. ex Guillaumin
 Melicope latifolia (DC.) T.G.Hartley – Malaysia, Lesser Sunda Island, Myanmar, Samoa, Santa Cruz Island
 Melicope lauterbachii T.G.Hartley
 Melicope laxa (Elmer)T.G.Hartley
 Melicope leptococca Guillaumin – N.C.
 Melicope littoralis (Endl.) T.G.Hartley ex P.S.Green – Norfolk Island
 Melicope lobocarpa (F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope longior T.G.Hartley – Bismarck Archipelago
 Melicope lucida (A.Gray) A.C.Sm. – Pacific Islands
 Melicope lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) T.G.Hartley – Tibet, tropical Asia
 Melicope lydgatei (Hillebr.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone - Hawaii
 Melicope macgregorii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope macrocarpa (King) T.G.Hartley – Malaysia
 Melicope macrophylla Merr. & L.M.Perry – N.G.
 Melicope macropus (Hillebr.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope madagascariensis (Baker) T.G.Hartley – Madagascar
 Melicope magnifolia (Baill.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope makahae (B.C.Stone) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope maliliensis T.G.Hartley – Sulawesi
 Melicope margaretae (F.Br.) T.G.Hartley – Tuamotus
 Melicope maxii T.G.Hartley – Sulawesi
 Melicope megastigma T.G.Hartley – Maluku Islands
 Melicope micrococca (F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley white euodia – Qld., N.S.W.
 Melicope mindorensis T.G.Hartley – Philippines
 Melicope molokaiensis (Hillebr.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope moluccana T.G.Hartley – Maluku Islands
 Melicope montana Baker f. – N.C.
 Melicope monticola T.G.Hartley
 Melicope mucronata Merr. & L.M.Perry – N.G.
 Melicope mucronulata (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope munroi (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope nealae (B.C.Stone) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope neglecta T.G.Hartley – Java to Lesser Sunda Islands
 Melicope nishimurae (Koidz.) T.Yamaz. – Bonin Islands
 Melicope novoguineensis Valeton – N.G.
 Melicope nubicola T.G.Hartley – Solomon Islands
 Melicope nukuhivensis (F.Br.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Marquesas
 Melicope oahuensis (H.Lév.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope oblanceolata T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope obovata (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone obovate melicope (extinct) – Hawaii
 Melicope obscura (Cordem.) T.G.Hartley – Réunion
 Melicope obtusifolia (DC.) T.G.Hartley gros catafaille – Mauritius
 Melicope oppenheimeri K.R.Wood, Appelhans & W.L.Wagner
 Melicope orbicularis (Hillebr.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone orbicular pelea – Hawaii
 Melicope ovalis (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone wild pelea – Hawaii
 Melicope ovata (H.St.John & E.P.Hume) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope pachyphylla (King) T.G.Hartley – Malaysia
 Melicope pachypoda (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope pahangensis T.G.Hartley – Laos
 Melicope palawensis (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley – Philippines
 Melicope pallida (Hillebr.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope paniculata (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone Lihue ruta tree  – Hawaii
 Melicope papuana (Lauterb.) Lauterb. – N.G.
 Melicope patulinervia (Merr. & Chun) C.C.Huang – Hainan
 Melicope pauciflora T.G.Hartley – Sulawesi
 Melicope pedicellata T.G.Hartley – N.C.
 Melicope peduncularis (H.Lév.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope pendula T.G.Hartley – Solomon Islands
 Melicope peninsularis T.G.Hartley – Qld.
 Melicope pergamentacea (Elmer) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope perlmanii J.Florence – Marquesas
 Melicope perryae T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope petiolaris T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope phanerophlebia (Merr. & L.M.Perry) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope polydenia Merr. & L.M.Perry – N.G.
 Melicope polybotrya (C.Moore & F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley ex P.S.Green Lord Howe Island
 Melicope ponapensis Lauterb. – Caroline Islands
 Melicope pseudoanisata (Rock) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope pteleifolia (Champ. ex Benth.) T.G.Hartley – southern China to Indochina, Taiwan
 Melicope puberula (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope pubifolia Merr. & L.M.Perry – N.G.
 Melicope pulgarensis (Elmer) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope quadrangularis (H.St.John & E.P.Hume) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone four-angled pelea – Hawaii
 Melicope quadrilocularis (Hook. & Arn.) T.G.Hartley – Bonin Islands
 Melicope radiata (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope ramuliflora T.G.Hartley – Sumatra
 Melicope reflexa (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope remyi (Sherff) Appelhans, K.R.Wood & W.L.Wagner – Hawaii
 Melicope reticulata Lauterb. – N.G.
 Melicope retusa (A.Gray) T.G.Hartley – southwest Pacific
 Melicope revoluta J.Florence – Marquesas
 Melicope rhytidocarpa (Merr. & L.M.Perry) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope richii {A.Gray) T.G.Hartley – Samoa
 Melicope ridsdalei T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope rigoensis T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope robbinsii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope robusta A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope rostrata (Hillebr.) Appelhans, K.R.Wood & W.L.Wagner  – Hawaii
 Melicope rotundifolia (A.Gray) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope rubra (K.Schum. & Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley – N.G., Qld.
 Melicope saint-johnii (E.P.Hume) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone St John's pelea  – Hawaii
 Melicope sambiranensis (H.Perrier) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope sandwicensis (Hook. & Arn.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope savaiensis T.G.Hartley – Samoa
 Melicope schraderi (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope seemannii (Gillespie) A.C.Sm. – Fiji, Tonga
 Melicope segregis (Cordem.) T.G.Hartley – Réunion
 Melicope semecarpifolia (Merr.) T.G.Hartley – Taiwan to Philippines
 Melicope sessilifolia (Merr.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope sessilis (H.Lév.) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone – Hawaii
 Melicope simplex A.Cunn. poataniwha – New Zealand
 Melicope sororia T.G.Hartley – Borneo
 Melicope spathulata A.Gray – Hawaii
 Melicope steenisii T.G.Hartley – Sumatra
 Melicope stellulata T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope sterrophylla Merr. & L.M.Perry – N.G.
 Melicope stonei K.R.Wood, Appelhans & W.L.Wagner – Hawaii
 Melicope suberosa B.C.Stone – Peninsula Malaysia
 Melicope subunifoliolata (Stapf) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope sudestica T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope sulcata T.G.Hartley – Samoa
 Melicope tahitensis Nadeaud – Society Island, N.C.
 Melicope taveuniensis A.C.Sm. – Fiji
 Melicope tekaoensis T.G.Hartley – Marquesas
 Melicope ternata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. wharangi – New Zealand
 Melicope timorensis T.G.Hartley – Lesser Sunda Islands
 Melicope trachycarpa Lauterb. – N.G.
 Melicope trichantha (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope trichopetala (Lauterb.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope triphylla (Lam.) Merr. – Indo-China to Ryukyu Islands and SW. Pacific
 Melicope tsaratananensis (Capuron) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope vatiana (Setch.) T.G.Hartley – Samoa
 Melicope versteeghii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope vieillardii (Baill.) Guillaumin – N.C.
 Melicope villosa (Merr.) T.G.Hartley
 Melicope vinkii T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope viticina (Wall. ex Kurz) T.G.Hartley – Yunan to Indo-China
 Melicope vitiflora (F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley – N.G., Qld., N.S.W.
 Melicope volcanica (A.Gray) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone  – Hawaii
 Melicope waialealae (Wawra) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone  – Hawaii
 Melicope wailauensis (H.St.John) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone  – Hawaii
 Melicope wawraeana (Rock) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone  – Hawaii
 Melicope woitapensis T.G.Hartley – N.G.
 Melicope xanthoxyloides (F.Muell.) T.G.Hartley – Qld., N.G.
 Melicope zahlbruckneri (Rock) T.G.Hartley & B.C.Stone Zahlbruckner's melicope
 Melicope zambalensis (Elmer) T.G.Hartley

References

External links

  (1983): Flora Apcola Tropical [in Spanish]. Editorial Tecnologico de Costa Rica, Cartago, Costa Rica.
  (1989): Reduction of Pelea with new combinations in Melicope (Rutaceae). Taxon 38(1): 119–123. First page image

Taxa named by Georg Forster
Taxa named by Johann Reinhold Forster
Dioecious plants
Zanthoxyloideae genera

Melicope


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Rosalind Miles es una escritora y crítica literaria inglesa.

Hizo sus estudios universitarios en el St Hilda's College, en la Universidad de Oxford, obteniendo cinco grados en todo. Su doctorado fue en el Shakespeare Institute, en la Universidad de Birmingham. Inicialmente se interesó por literatura shakespeariana, y posteriormente direcioó sus esfuerzos para estudios de género.

Como interés adicional, desarrolló estudios en el área jurídica, actuando como jueza lega en juzgados de lo criminal y de familia, y en algunas ocasiones en la corte superior de Coventry.

Escribió diversos trabajos de ficción y no-ficción. De entre ellos, merece importancia la novela de no-ficción feminista The Women's History of the World.

Trabajos

No-ficción
The Fiction of Sex: Themes and Functions of Sex Difference in the Modern Novel
The Problem of Measure for Measure
Ben Jonson: His Life and Work
Ben Jonson: His Craft and Art
The Female Form: Women Writers and the Conquest of the Novel
Danger! Men At Work
Modest Proposals
Women and Power
The Women's History of the World (USA: 'Who Cooked the Last Supper')
The Rites of Man: Love, Sex and Death in the Making of the Male (US: Love, Sex and Death and the Making of the Male)
The Children We Deserve: Love and Hate in the Making of the Family
With Robin Cross:
Hell Hath No Fury True stories of women at war from antiquity to Iraq.
Warrior Women 3000 years of courage and heroism

Ficción
Return to Eden
Bitter Legacy
Prodigal Sins
Act of Passion
I, Elizabeth: the Word of a Queen Reader's Guide

The Guenevere trilogy: Reader's Guide
Guenevere, Queen of the Summer Country
The Knight of the Sacred Lake
The Child of the Holy Grail

The Isolde trilogy:
The Queen of the Western Isle
The Maid of the White Hands
The Lady of the Sea

Enlaces externos
Web de Rosalind Miles
Entrevista con Rosalind Miles en Veronika Asks

Autores modernos de ficción de la materia de Bretaña
Escritores en inglés
Escritoras de Inglaterra
Críticos literarios de Reino Unido
Inglesas del siglo XX

Rosalind Miles


Fátima Almeida é uma empresária, conhecida por ser fundadora e CEO da BayQi, uma empresa que começou como comércio electrónico e atualmente é uma fintech. A visão de Fátima Almeida é conectar África com o mundo através da BayQi, inspirando jovens pelo mundo.

A história da BayQi começa em 2016, dentro de um apartamento no Kinaxixi - Luanda.

Inicialmente a empresa começou a comercializar sapatos masculino e depois expandiu para uma variedade de produtos e serviços e, em 2022, adquiriu a licença de Prestadora de Serviço de Pagamentos (PSP), transformando assim a BayQi, numa fintech.

Em 2017, Fátima Almeida defende a sua visão para o seu negócio nesta entrevista.

Fátima, foi responsável pela criação da primeira carteira digital em Angola, em parceria com empresas locais.

Em 2022 Fátima Almeida, foi eleita no Dubai, como uma das 12 mulheres empreendedoras mais inspiradoras do continente africano numa distinção do UAE África Networking Group

Infância e educação

Pelos seus pais terem emigrado para Portugal quando ainda criança, onde estudou desde o ensino primário até ao secundário. Em 2006 deixou Lisboa rumo ao Reino Unido, onde viveu e licenciou-se em Economia na Universidade de Salford Great Manchester.

Carreira

Lilac Magazine

Enquanto fazia a faculdade no Reino Unido, surgiu-lhe a ideia de criar uma revista de moda intitulada Lilac Magazine. A revista foi inaugurada em 2010 em Manchester, tendo tido as suas 3 primeiras edições impressas, e na sua quarta edição passou para a versão digital, onde ganhou uma maior abrangência na comunidade PALOP. Lilac Magazine foi descontinuada em 2014 quando Fátima, mudou-se para Angola.

BayQi

Fátima Almeida fundou a BayQi no início de 2016, dentro do seu apartamento no Kinaxixi - Luanda. A ideia surgiu em meados de 2015, quando a Fátima tentou comprar um blazer numa loja local em Luanda e percebeu que o valor era exorbitante. Juntando este facto e com a experiência que adquiriu no mercado de trabalho em Angola, resolveu criar uma plataforma de comércio eletrónico, trazendo várias marcas de moda com preços acessíveis, dando acesso e poder de compra ao consumidor angolano.

Em 2016, BayQi foi inaugurada como uma plataforma de comércio electrónico que comercializava roupas e sapatos masculino. Destacando-se como sendo a única com o sistema de pré-pagamento com a implementação da carteira digital.

Em 2017 a BayQi inaugurou a sua marketplace permitindo com que outros vendedores pudessem comercializar os seus produtos na plataforma, diversificando o seu catálogo de produtos.

Em 2022, a BayQi adquiriu a licença de prestadora de serviço de pagamentos (PSP), transformando assim numa fintech. O usuário pode fazer recargas móveis, efetuar pagamentos com QR Code em vários estabelecimentos.

Fátima Almeida


مليكة العليا قصر من قصور واد ميزاب السبعة تابع إداريا لبلدية غرداية، تقع مليكة العليا فوق مرتفع جبلي ويقطنه حوالي 15.000 ساكن حسب إحصاء 2008، وتسمية مليكة العليا تدل أنه توجد مليكة السفلى وهي تقع بمحاذاة واد مزاب، ويسمى قصر مليكة العليا بالمزابية «آتمليشت», ويعتبر القصر الثاني من حيث النشأة إذا أخذنا بعين الاعتبار «أغرم ا نواداي» الذي تأسس في نهاية القرن الرابع الهجري (395هـ) ولكن يعدالقصر الثاني من حيث النشأة حيث صعد أهل «أغرم أنواداي» إلى أعلى الجبل فكون «قصر أتمليشت», وهناك قصر جديد في طور البناء من الناحية الشمالية للقصر القديم ويسمى «اعوماد» وتتكون من نظم وهيئات، يسيرها المجلس الأعلى الذي يسمى بحلقة العزابة المسير لشؤون البلدة ثم تليها حلقة إروان وبعدها إمصوردان

قصور الجزائر
ولاية غرداية

مليكة العليا


Mary Teresa Goudie, Baroness Goudie (née Brick; born 2 September 1946) is a British politician and life peer, currently sitting for the Labour Party. In 1998, she was made a life peer as Baroness Goudie, of Roundwood in the London Borough of Brent. She is on the board of Vital Voices and is involved in promoting gender equity with both the G8 and G20.

Early life
Mary Teresa Brick was born to Martin and Hannah Brick, Irish emigrants to London. She grew up in London and was educated at Our Lady of the Visitation, Greenford, and Our Lady of St Anselm School, Hayes.

Career
In 1971, Goudie became the youngest woman elected to the Brent London Borough Council. During her time on the borough council she worked to advance the Campaign for a Housing Aid Centre and a Law Centre and she helped found a housing association for the borough. She later became a freelance public affairs consultant.

Goudie was campaign manager to Lord Hattersley who became Deputy Leader of the Labour Party. In 1998, Goudie was appointed a life peer in the House of Lords. She was the European director of public affairs for the World Wide Fund for Nature from 1990 to 1995.

House of Lords

Goudie is a senior member of the House of Lords. She has been a member of the British Irish Inter-Parliamentary Committee and was Vice Chair of the Tax Law Rewrite Committee. She also serves on the All-Party Identity Fraud Committee and since 2010 she has been a member of the Committee of Selection. She is also co-chair of number of All Party Groups. Previously, she was a member of the Communications Committee, the Procedures Committee and the European Committee on Law and the Constitution. She works in the House of Lords to promote the issues of women and children. In the last Parliament she was active in pushing through one of the government's major reform: The Equality Bill. She is vice-chair of the All-Party Parliamentary Equality Group.

Global activism
Goudie is Chair of the Women Leaders' Council to Fight Human Trafficking at UN Gift. She has championed the ratification of the United Nations' Treaty on Human Trafficking, as well as the Treaty of the Council of Europe on Human Trafficking. Additionally, she is involved with the G8 and G20 to promote the role of women and children in the global economy.

Goudie is a member of the Board of Directors of Vital Voices Global Partnership. In this role she has been involved in training community and business leaders and parliamentarians on social and political issues around the world. She is also a member of La Pietra Coalition, an organisation dedicated to creating "equality in law; equality in business; equality in learning; equality in jobs" by 2020. In 2011, the Coalition promoted its goal of "empowering women is smart economics" to the G20 and have the member states put it on their agenda.

In recognition of her work, Goudie was awarded the 2010 Global Power Award by the Center for Women Policy Studies and in 2011, she received The Womensphere Global Leadership Award.

Goudie is Chair of the Women Leaders' Council to Fight Human Trafficking at the United Nations. In December 2010, attended and presented at the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking — UN GIFT Conference organized by the End Human Trafficking Now initiative, dedicated to enforcing the UN protocol.

In October 2011, Goudie was a speaker for the Fortune Most Powerful Women's Conference where she addressed "Shaking up the Boardroom: Will Quotas Work". In 2011, Goudie gave presentations at the WomenSphere Pan European Summit in Oxford, UK; and the WomenSphere Global Summit in New York City. She is also involved in The Protection Project at Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies. She contributed to the conference on 'Incorporating Human Trafficking in Academic Institutions: The European Experience' that took place at the University of Amsterdam on 25–26 November 2011. In March 2012, she was appointed by Vital Voices Global Partnership and Bank of America as an ambassador for The Global Ambassadors Program. The initiative focuses on investing in emerging women leaders, with an aim of strengthening communities and improving economic growth.

In March 2012, she was appointed to the Global Advisory Board of WEConnect International, a corporate led non-profit, which facilitates inclusive and sustainable economic growth by empowering and connecting women business owners globally. In April 2012 she was appointed a trustee of the El-Hibri Charitable Foundation, whose aims are to foster interfaith dialogue and to find common ground and solutions to global challenges affecting mankind.

In October 2012, Goudie was awarded the TIAW – The International Alliance for Women – World of Difference 100 Award in recognition of her outstanding contribution in making a difference to the economic empowerment of women. TIA W 2012 Awards, tiaw.org; accessed 2 September 2015. In September 2012, Goudie was a speaker at the SAIS.

In Spring 2013, she was elected onto the Board of Directors of  EuropEFE, the European Mission of the Education for Employment Foundation based in Spain. In January 2013, she participated in The Emerging Markets Symposium on Gender Inequality. In July 2013, she spoke at The Women in Public Service Project, Institute 2013: Peacebuilding and Development, at Bryn Mawr College.

Goudie is an advisor to the Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, which examines and highlights the roles and experiences of women in peace and security worldwide through cutting-edge research, timely global convenings, and strategic partnerships.

She is a founding member of the 30% Club and serves on the steering committee, an organisation promoting the inclusion of more women on UK corporate boards.

Goudie is a blogger for The Huffington Post. In July 2013, she wrote "Slavery is a $32bn industry so why aren't we following the money trail?" for The Guardian.

In 2011, Goudie contributed to the book What Next for Labour? Ideas for a New Generation. Her chapter, titled "Can We End Poverty Globally? Asking the Hard Questions", outlines how women are central to aid reform, considering where to invest aid, selecting the right partners and defining programmatic goals.

Parliamentary rules controversies

Expenses 2009
On 25 October 2009 Scotland on Sunday suggested that while the Goudies lived in London, she listed her main residence as a flat in Glasgow when claiming House of Lords expenses.  This had resulted in her claiming £230,000 of subsistence allowances intended as payments for those outside the capital, who need help to meet the cost of accommodation in London.

After an investigation ending in December 2010, the Clerk of the Parliaments said that he had doubts about the designation of the Glasgow flat as a main residence, when Goudie had a residence in Belgravia.  However, no further action was to be taken; she had apologised in writing and repaid £5,130.50 relating to a period when she was sick and unable to travel. In total, Goudie had claimed about £168,000 in overnight expenses and £82,000 for travel to and from the Glasgow property over a nine-year period. Goudie sold the Glasgow flat in 2010.

Code of conduct 2022
On 16 December 2022 the House of Lords Conduct Committee recommended that she be suspended from the House of Lords for six months after it was found that she breached the Code of Conduct by agreeing to provide parliamentary advice in return for payment and also for breaching the rules on the use of the House's facilities. Gouldie was removed from the Labour Party whip becoming non-affiliated. Her suspension from the Lords began on 11 January 2023. Goudie returned to both Parliament and the Labour whip in July 2023.

Personal life
Goudie is married to James, a barrister with whom she has two sons. They live in a home in London and a holiday home in Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Goudie is a Roman Catholic.

References

External links
BaronessGoudie.com BaronessGoudie.com
Announcement of her introduction at the House of Lords House of Lords minutes of proceedings (27 July 1998).

1946 births
Living people
Councillors in the London Borough of Brent
Life peeresses created by Elizabeth II
Goudie, Mary Goudie, Baron
English people of Irish descent
English Roman Catholics
English activists
English women activists
English humanitarians
Women councillors in England

Mary Goudie, Baroness Goudie


American Movie est un film américain réalisé par Chris Smith, sorti en 1999.

Synopsis
Le film a été tourné entre septembre 1995 et août 1997. Il s'intéresse à la réalisation du film d'horreur à petit budget Coven de Mark Borchard.

Fiche technique
 Titre : American Movie
 Réalisation : Chris Smith
 Musique : Mike Schank
 Photographie : Chris Smith
 Montage : Jun Diaz et Barry Poltermann
 Production : Sarah Price et Chris Smith
 Société de production : Bluemark Productions, C-Hundred Film Corporation et Civilian Pictures
 Pays :
 Genre : Documentaire
 Durée : 107 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
 :

Distinctions
Le film a reçu le grand prix du jury du Festival de Sundance dans la catégorie documentaire en 1999.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film américain sorti en 1999
Film documentaire américain
Film documentaire sur les films
Film documentaire sur l'horreur
Grand prix du jury au Festival de Sundance - Documentaire américain

American Movie