The Seven Network (commonly known as Channel Seven or simply Seven) is a major Australian commercial free-to-air television network. It is owned by Seven West Media Limited, and is one of five main free-to-air television networks in Australia. The network's headquarters are located in Sydney.

As of 2014, it is the second-largest network in the country in terms of population reach. The Seven Network shows various nonfiction shows—such as news broadcasts (Seven News) and sports programing—as well as fiction shows. In 2011, the network won all 40 out of 40 weeks of the ratings season for total viewers, being the first to achieve this since the introduction of the OzTAM ratings system in 2001.

As of 2022, the Seven Network is the highest-rated television network in Australia, ahead of the Nine Network, ABC TV, Network 10 and SBS.

Headquarters
Seven's administration headquarters are in Eveleigh, Sydney, completed in 2003. National news and current affairs programming are based between flagship station ATN-7 in Sydney and HSV-7 in Melbourne. In 2009, Seven moved its Sydney-based production operations from Epping to a purpose-built high-definition television production facility at the Australian Technology Park in Eveleigh.

History

Origins
The present Seven Network began as a group of independent stations in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and Perth. HSV-7 Melbourne, licensed to The Herald and Weekly Times Ltd (owners of two local papers at the time, The Herald and The Sun), was launched on 4 November 1956, the first television station in the country to use the VHF7 frequency. ATN-7 Sydney, licensed to Amalgamated Television Services, a subsidiary of Fairfax, was launched on 2 December 1956, signing on as Sydney's third television station. The two stations did not immediately share resources, and instead formed content-sharing partnerships with their VHF9 counterparts by 1957: ATN-7 partnered with Melbourne's GTV-9, while HSV-7 paired up with Sydney's TCN-9. TVW-7 Perth, licensed to TVW Limited, a subsidiary of West Australian Newspapers, publisher of The West Australian, began broadcasting almost two years later, on 16 October 1959, as the city's first television station. BTQ-7 Brisbane followed on 1 November 1959, signing on as Brisbane's second television station. ADS-7 Adelaide was launched on 24 October 1959 as the final capital city VHF7 station. The station later swapped frequencies with SAS-10 on 27 December 1987 as ADS-10 and SAS-7.

HSV-7 began its relationship with the Victorian Football League (now the Australian Football League) in April 1957, when the station broadcast the first live Australian rules football match. Throughout this time, the stations operated independently of each other, with schedules made up of various simple, and relatively inexpensive, programs, such as Pick a Box and spinoffs of popular radio shows. In the early 1960s, coaxial cable links, formed initially between Sydney and Melbourne, allowed the sharing of programmes and simultaneous broadcasts of live shows.

In 1960, Frank Packer, the owner of Sydney's TCN-9, bought a controlling share of Melbourne's GTV-9, in the process creating the country's first television network (unofficially called "the National Nine Network") and dissolving the ATN-7/GTV-9 and the HSV-7/TCN-9 partnerships. Left without their original partners, ATN-7 and HSV-7 joined to form the Australian Television Network in 1963. The new grouping was soon joined by other capital-city channel 7 stations, ADS-7 Adelaide and BTQ-7 Brisbane. The new network began to produce and screen higher-budget programs to attract viewers, most notably Homicide, a series which would continue for another 12 years to become the nation's longest running drama series. However, it was not until 1970, after the network adopted the Network 7 name, that a national network logo was adopted, albeit still with independently owned and operated stations with local advertising campaigns.

Colour television was introduced across the network in 1975, when a new colour logo was adopted. Rupert Murdoch made an unsuccessful bid for the Herald and Weekly Times, owners of HSV-7, in 1979, later going on to gain control of rival ATV-10. Fairfax, however, successfully bought a 14.9% share of the company later in the same year.

1980s
The 1980s saw the introduction of stereo sound, as well as a number of successful shows, most notably A Country Practice in 1981, and Sons and Daughters, which began in 1982. Wheel of Fortune began its 25-year run in July 1981, produced from ADS-7's studios in Adelaide. The 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow were shown live on the network the year before. Neighbours began on Seven in 1985, but low ratings in Sydney led to the cancellation of the new series at the end of the year, which later moved to Network Ten and went on to achieve international success.

Perth based businessman Robert Holmes à Court, through his business the Bell Group, bought TVW-7 from its original owners, West Australian Newspapers in 1982. It was in 1984 that the network proceeded to drop the "Network 7" branding.  The Herald and Weekly Times, owner of HSV-7 and ADS-7, was sold to Rupert Murdoch in December 1986 for an estimated A$1.8 billion. Murdoch's company, News Limited, sold off HSV-7 to Fairfax soon afterwards, for $320 million. Fairfax went on to axe a number of locally produced shows in favour of networked content from its Sydney counterpart, ATN-7 (also owned by Fairfax at the time).

Cross-media ownership laws introduced in 1987 forced Fairfax to choose between its print and television operations – it chose the former, and later sold off its stations to Qintex Ltd., owned by businessman Christopher Skase. Qintex had previously bought, and subsequently sold off, stations in Brisbane and regional Queensland before taking control of the network. It was also in 1987 that the network returned to the "Australian Television Network" branding. The next year, another new logo was introduced along with evening soap Home and Away and a relaunched Seven National News, now known as Seven News. The network became truly national in 1988 when Skase bought TVW-7 for $130 million. In 1991, the network changed its name once again to the Seven Network, though it had been unofficially using that name for some time before then.

Despite the network's successes, a failed $1.5 billion bid for MGM Studios in the same year sent Qintex into receivership. Christopher Skase fled Australia in 1990 to escape extradition. The business' assets were bundled together by receivers and made into a new company, the Seven Network Limited, in 1991.

1990s
Real Life, a national current-affairs programme hosted by Stan Grant, similar in format to the Nine Network's A Current Affair, was launched in 1992 but was later replaced by the more successful Today Tonight.

The network was listed on the stock exchange in 1993, soon after the entry of subscription television provider Australis. One of Seven's most popular series, A Country Practice, ended in 1993 after 1058 episodes. 1993 saw the introduction of Blue Heelers, which after a number of timeslot changes, was moved in 1998 to Wednesdays. This was to make room for a new series, medical drama All Saints. Both dramas rated quite highly, and along with new lifestyle shows Better Homes and Gardens and The Great Outdoors, resulted in a stronger ratings position for the network.

In 1995, Sunshine Television, a Seven Network affiliate in regional Queensland, was purchased by the network's parent company, Seven Network Limited. Sunshine Television's regional stations effectively became a part of the Seven Network, identical in appearance and programming to the rest of the business' stations. Australian Gladiators Series 1 and Series 2 in 1995-1996 filmed in Brisbane, and Series 3 filmed in Sydney  proved popular. Seven Queensland won the annual audience ratings for the first time in 1998.

Between 1995 and April 2001, Alan Jackson of Nylex was the non-executive director of Seven, after being asked by Stokes to lead the company.

A successful $1.3 billion bid for United Artists was made in conjunction with Kirk Kerkorian in 1996; the network sold its stake two years later for $US389 million. Seven took control of Australia Television, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Asian satellite channel, in 1997. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation still maintained a share in the network, and continued to produce news and current affairs programming for it.

2000s

During the late 1990s and early 2000s, a state-of-the-art high definition national broadcast facility was constructed in Docklands, Melbourne, replacing the previous facility in Epping, Sydney. This new facility would also house HSV-7's Melbourne offices and studios.

The year 2000 saw former Nine executive David Leckie appointed as head of television operations, re-launching the network with an updated logo, and a new advertising campaign timed expressly for the network's coverage of the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. The opening ceremony was one of the highest-ever rating television programmes in the country, with 6.5 million viewers, contributing to the network winning the ratings year for the first time in twenty-two years.

Digital television was introduced to most of the network's coverage area on 1 January 2001. This was soon followed by the gradual introduction of wide screen and high definition programming.

In January 2006, the Seven Network, Pacific Magazines and online portal Yahoo! Australia and New Zealand combined in a joint venture to form Yahoo!7, representing all three companies' online assets.

7HD was officially announced on 15 September 2007, with the Seven Media Group announcing their intention to start a high definition multichannel, that was initially expected to launch in December 2007. However, 7HD became the first free-to-air commercial television channel introduced to metropolitan areas since 1988, when it launched prior on 15 October 2007, with 25th Hour being the first programme broadcast at 10:30 pm.

On 14 February 2008, the Seven Media Group and Foxtel officially signed an agreement allowing Seven's digital signal to be transmitted via Foxtel's cable and satellite services. Seven became available on Foxtel in early 2009.

On 25 September 2009, Seven announced its new digital channel, 7two, which officially launched on 1 November 2009.

2010s
On 18 January 2010, Seven launched the online catch-up TV website called PLUS7;.

On 25 September 2010, in conjunction with the 2010 AFL Grand Final, Seven launched its second multi-digital channel 7mate.

In January 2011, the big red 7 logos were expanded to GWN7 and Prime7's rebranding respectively. The news bulletins were renamed as GWN7 News and Prime7 News. GWN and Prime relaunched on 16 January 2011 at 6:00 pm, digital channels are branded as 7two and 7mate.

Seven announced its intention to expand into digital datacasting known as 4ME, a digital channel owned by the Prime Media Group, in December 2011 on channel 64 in Prime7 and regional areas and channel 74 in other areas.

In September 2011, Seven broadcast a report featuring journalist Tim Noonan and writer and adventurer Paul Raffaele visiting Brazil's Suruwaha tribe and describing them as child murderers, "Stone Age" relics, and "one of the worst human rights violators in the world". Survival International, the global movement for tribal people's rights, sent a complaint to Seven outlining the many errors and distortions in the report. After the channel refused to correct the inaccuracies in the program, Survival filed a complaint at the Australian Communications and Media Authority, who opened a formal investigation. In September 2012, the network was found guilty by the press regulator of serious violations of the broadcasting code. The ACMA ruled that the Channel was guilty of breaking its racism clause – having "provoked or perpetuated intense dislike, serious contempt or severe ridicule against the Suruwaha people on the grounds of ... national or ethnic origin ... race [or] religion". It also ruled that the Channel was guilty of broadcasting inaccurate material. Seven sought judicial review, but in June 2014 the Federal Court upheld the ruling.

In October 2012, Seven began cost cutting shedding a number of behind the scenes technical positions and reducing their SNG transponder link capacity on Optus D1 from three (at 12.661,12.671&12.681 GHz) to two (at 12.644&12.653 GHz) which are used by ATN Sydney for Sunrise and national news location uplinks as well as for other local station location uplinks.

In November 2012, Seven changed its on-air theme. This included a new look for programme advisory ratings, programme listings and programme advertisements and promos.

As of 10 December 2013, Seven no longer broadcasts on analogue TV and is now only available through digital TV or digital set-top box.

On 26 June 2015, Racing.com began broadcasting on channel 78 as a joint venture between Seven West Media and Racing Victoria following a blackout of Victorian horse racing by Sky Racing. Initially broadcasting an interim live feed from the Racing.com website, the channel was officially launched on 29 August 2015.

In January 2016, Seven changed its on-air theme. This included a new look for program listings, program advertisements and promos.

On 7 February 2016, during the ad-break of Molly, after months of speculation, Seven officially announced their new channel as 7flix on channel 76. 7flix was launched at 6am on 28 February 2016.

7HD returned as a high definition simulcast on channel 70 on 10 May 2016. Initially, the Melbourne and Adelaide markets received 7HD as a HD simulcast of Seven's primary channel, while the Sydney, Brisbane and Perth markets received 7HD as a HD simulcast of 7mate; this was to allow Australian Football League (AFL) matches to be broadcast in HD in those markets. Sydney, Brisbane and Perth temporarily received 7HD as a simulcast of the primary channel for the duration of the 2016 Summer Olympics before the change was made permanent during and after the 2017 Australian Open tennis. Up until 16 January 2020, breakaway programming was used to show further AFL matches and Australian cricket matches in HD.

In June 2017, following the acquisition of Yahoo! by Verizon Communications, Seven announced plans to launch a wholly owned standalone service to replace PLUS7. In September 2017, Seven announced the new service would be known as 7plus and would launch in November 2017. As of September 2017, Seven's live streaming service, now named 7Live, is no longer accessible from within the PLUS7 and the Yahoo7 portal.

Seven announced 7food network, a new digital channel, which launched on Channel 74 on 1 December 2018. The announcement with Discovery network follows SBS Food Network losing its deal with Discovery-owned Scripps Network. The channel ceased broadcast on 28 December 2019, just over a year since it launched, though Seven continues to utilise the Food Network branding elsewhere

2020s

In June 2020, Big Brother Australia made a return on the Seven Network with a rebooted program. Hosted by Sonia Kruger, the series was pre-recorded and not live as in previous series, with the new version of Big Brother described like a "Survivor in a warehouse", with producers opting to film at a warehouse in Sydney. The exact location is North Head Sanctuary, also known as The Barracks. On the night Big Brother premiered, Seven also changed their on air theme.

On 19 June 2020, it was announced that The Daily Edition had been cancelled by the Seven Network after 7 years with hosts Sally Obermeder and Ryan Phelan leaving the network. The final episode aired on 26 June 2020.

In July 2020, the Seven Network unveiled new logos, for its multichannels, beginning with 7mate then 7two and 7flix respectively. The change in logos also included their on demand platform 7plus now stylised as ″7+″ as part of a major branding overhaul of its multi channel stations.

In March 2021, it was announced that the Seven Network would move out of Martin Place to Eveleigh by the end of 2022 after almost two decades.

On 1 November 2021, Seven West Media announced that it would acquire all the shares and subsidiaries of Prime Media Group. This was Seven West Media's second attempt at purchasing Prime, after its previous attempt in 2019 was thwarted by Australian Community Media boss Antony Catalano and rival WIN Corporation owner Bruce Gordon, who cited Seven's debt problems at the time and its poor ratings performance as their reason for their refusal. This development would mark an end to the Prime branding after 33 years in favour of Seven Network's branding, and would see all news bulletins carry the Seven News brand. Prior to this, Prime7 (and sister GWN7 in regional and remote Western Australia) was the only network not to fully use its metro affiliate branding despite carrying Seven branded promos, since WIN Television (except for WIN News) and Southern Cross Austereo use full Nine and Ten network branding on their stations. It was also announced that Seven would look to expand its investment in local news following the merger. Majority of Prime's shareholders voted in favour of the deal on 23 December, with the sale completed on 31 December.

Commencing June 2022, Seven moved to a national brand in time for the 2022 Commonwealth Games across all of its regions. Introduced to regional audiences on 6 June 2022, viewers in those markets began to see the Prime7 and GWN7 logos transition into the national Seven branding.

Seven announced in October 2022 it would launch a new free-to-air channel, 7Bravo on 15 January 2023, on LCN 75 in metropolitan areas and LCN 65 in regional areas. As a result ishop TV moved from LCN 65 to LCN 67 in the former Prime7 areas. 7Bravo shows reality shows and true crime. The launch is a partnership between Seven Network and NBCUniversal International Networks & Direct-to-Consumer.

On 30 November 2022, various channel changes on the Seven Network happened to accommodate for the new 7Bravo channel, including a 7mate SD (Channel 73) switch-off. On the same day, 7Bravo on channel 75 appeared on the Seven multiplex, and ishop TV moving to channel 67 placeholder in Seven regional areas.

In June 2023, 7NEWS moved their operations from Martin Place to their new purpose-built studios in Eveleigh. In July 2023, Sunrise hosted its first broadcast at its new studios. The first edition went to air live at 5.30am on 24 July 2023, with hosts Natalie Barr and Matt Shirvington, newsreader Edwina Bartholomew and sports presenter Mark Beretta, followed by The Morning Show's Larry Emdur and Kylie Gillies. For the first time in more than 40 years, the whole Seven Sydney operation, including all staff, were under one roof. The new space offers space five times larger than the previous Martin Place location, with permanent sets for all programs.

In July–August 2023 when the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup was hosted by Australia and New Zealand, there was some controversy worldwide about broadcasting rights to it, when broadcasters' offers were very low, and FIFA's handling of the rights was also criticised. The Seven Network won the rights to broadcast 15 of the matches. These included four round of 16 games, two quarter-finals, the semi-finals, and the final, along with all of the Matildas games. The pay channel Optus Sport has rights for every game in the tournament. This raised public criticism, with many arguing that the entire tournament should be free-to-air, as was the 2022 (men's) World Cup in Qatar, on SBS Television.

In September 2023, a female Queensland contestant in an upcoming Seven Network reality show was charged with multiple counts of indecent treatment of children aged under 16, multiple counts of rape, sexual assault, torture and assaults over a 15-year period. Her partner was also charged with a number of assaults. Seven refused to confirm whether it will cancel or alter the program.

Additional programs

Always Greener, launched in 2001, received two million viewers in its Sunday timeslot, however, it was axed after its second season due to declining audience numbers.

In 2004, Seven launched the internationally well-known game show Deal or No Deal hosted by Andrew O'Keefe, to the 5.30 pm weekday timeslot as a lead-in to the networks' struggling flagship news bulletin replacing the network's long-running and ever-popular Wheel Of Fortune as the show moves to 5pm weekdays, and later in the year Dancing with the Stars, based on the BBC's Strictly Come Dancing, was also launched. The following year, a number of new programmes premiered, from the United States network ABC, including Desperate Housewives and Lost. At the same time, Seven's news and public affairs ratings began to increase in viewers, with Today Tonight beginning to challenge rival A Current Affair, with the new format of Sunrise leading to increased competition with its rival, the Nine Network's Today. Seven's evening news bulletins also started to take the lead with successes in most cities.

The network launched a number of new series in 2006, including Heroes, Prison Break, Dancing with the Stars spin-off It Takes Two, How I Met Your Mother, and My Name Is Earl, and saw long-running series Blue Heelers ending its 13th season run after declining ratings since late 2003. Despite the ongoing success of these programmes, Seven still finished second behind the Nine Network for the fifth time in six years, primarily due to Nine's coverage of the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, but the year after, defeated Nine by a significant margin, winning 38 weeks compared to Nine's 2, to become the number one network in Australia.

In 2008, Seven launched new local drama Packed to the Rafters which became the year's top rating show with an average of 1.938 million viewers.

In 2009, a new weekly public affairs show Sunday Night launched in the Sunday 6:30 position to a shaky start but by the end of the year was easily winning its slot and rating up to 250,000 more than rival Nine Network's long-running 60 Minutes.

In 2010, Seven launched new AFL- and NRL-based entertainment shows in an effort to take on Nine's The AFL Footy Show and The NRL Footy Show and provide a bargaining chip in negotiations for AFL and NRL broadcast rights. The AFL-based series was called The Bounce, hosted by Peter Helliar, however, was pulled from the air after just five episodes. An NRL-based series called The Matty Johns Show, hosted by former Footy Show host Matthew Johns, lasted one season.

In 2011, Seven put Packed to the Rafters on hiatus and put new Melbourne drama Winners and Losers in its place, the show won the highest ratings for the night.

In 2013, the Seven Network launched its fifth new drama A Place to Call Home, it also achieved high ratings.

In September 2015, the network began The Chase Australia which is a spinoff of the UK series, The Chase, with Chasers Anne Hegerty (from the UK series), Brydon Coverdale (winner of $307,000 on Million Dollar Minute), Matt Parkinson and Issa Schultz, In 2016, Mark Labbett made his debut as one of the Chasers, joining fellow UK Chaser, Anne Hegerty and in 2018, Shaun Wallace made his debut as its sixth chaser, joining fellow UK chasers Anne Hegerty and Mark Labbett. Seven also launched 800 Words starring Erik Thomson to high ratings, making it the highest rating drama of 2015.

In June 2020, Big Brother Australia made a return on the Seven Network with a rebooted pre-recorded program. It was also announced in 2020, that Seven had acquired the reality series The Voice Australia in 2021 as well as a reboot of Australian Idol.

Seven confirmed in December 2020 it had commissioned a return to a new "all stars" event version of Dancing With The Stars.

The Australian Idol reboot would return to the screens of Seven in 2023.

Programming

New programs introduced in 2005 led to a ratings increase, following a relatively poor 2004.

From 2010, the Seven Network began to implement the tactic of creating a five to 20-minute delay in the scheduled start time of non-live programming after 7:30 pm in an attempt to minimise viewer channel surfing between prime-time shows. This is done by increasing the duration of the commercial breaks and then decreasing them once the prime-time period is over. This tactic not only disrupts viewer recordings of the shows, but has a dramatic effect on their regional affiliates such as Prime and Southern Cross who must adapt their inserted commercials breaks as the live play-out from Seven's Melbourne facility occurs which can cause either both the regional station identification and the Seven identification being displayed with a possible black screen between them or the start of a program being missed entirely by the regional break overlapping.

Local programs
Australian programming shown on the network includes dramas RFDS, soap Home and Away, lifestyle shows; Better Homes and Gardens, gameshows; The Chase Australia, entertainment; The Front Bar, reality; Australia's Got Talent,  Big Brother Australia, Australian Idol, My Kitchen Rules, The Farmer Wants a Wife, SAS Australia, The Voice Australia, Dancing with the Stars: All Stars, factuals; The Force, Border Security, Highway Patrol, Crime Investigation Australia, Beach Cops, Surveillance Oz and Gold Coast Medical.

Foreign programs
Most American programs that air on Seven and its digital multichannels is sourced from Seven's deals with Disney Platform Distribution and Pixar Animation Studios / 20th Century Studios, Regency Enterprises and Blue Sky Studios (long running, also shared with Disney+), NBCUniversal Global Distribution, StudioCanal, Sony Pictures Television, Warner Bros. International Television Distribution / Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc and Icon Films.

In late 2016, Seven created a new acquired programming deal with Warner Bros, granting the network programming rights which they currently share with Nine.

On 15 January 2023, Seven created a new acquired programming deal with NBCUniversal, granting the network programming rights which they currently share with Nine.

Shared overseas programs
Sharing programs is currently a new rule for all the networks after a long absence which have their own programs from the 1990s to 2014. All the networks can now share the programs again with each networks of televisions and films, including splitting up the different seasons of the same television series or franchise. Also some television brands can split the different seasons of the same television series by aired on both networks.

Shared American programming that airs on Seven and the Nine Network and their digital multichannels are sourced from Seven and Nine's deals with Warner Bros. International Television Distribution / Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc, NBCUniversal Global Distribution, StudioCanal and Sony Pictures Television.

Shared American programming that airs on Seven and Network 10 and their digital multichannels are sourced from Seven and 10's deals with Warner Bros. International Television Distribution / Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc.

Shared American programming that airs on Seven and ABC and their digital multichannels are sourced from Seven and ABC's deals with NBCUniversal Global Distribution, StudioCanal and Sony Pictures Television.

Former programs
The network formerly broadcast catalogue movie and television titles from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer produced in the 1990s prior to 2011, Miramax from 2007 to 2012, DreamWorks from 2007 to 2015, Illumination from 2012 to 2016, and Paramount from the 1990s to 2022. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, DreamWorks, Illumination, Paramount and Miramax now belong to the Nine Network while Paramount and Miramax also now belong to Network 10. Nine revived Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, DreamWorks, Illumination, Paramount and Miramax broadcast rights and 10 revived Paramount and Miramax broadcast rights.

On 7two, in the early 2010s, they aired classic and silver-screen movies from the Sony Pictures (Columbia & TriStar) catalog, but all of those films moved back to ABC and Nine respectively.

In 2018 it was reported that Seven had formed an agreement with 20th Century Fox to air selected Fox programming.

Previously, the network had output deals with Sony Pictures Television and NBCUniversal, however changed its deals with both in mid-2013. Seven renegotiated its NBCUniversal deal to continue rights to air existing popular NBC co-produced programs including Downton Abbey and Mrs Brown's Boys, as well as NBC News content. Commiserate with the American network's own slump, Seven has not found huge success with an NBC primetime series since 2007. With Sony, Seven has signed a three-year minimum quota deal, where by Seven will agree to purchase a set number of Sony produced US primetime series and selected films each year.

News and current affairs

The Seven Network's news service is called Seven News (formerly Australian Television News (ATVN) and Seven National News). After trailing for many decades to Nine News (previously National Nine News) and 10 News First (previously Ten Eyewitness News, Ten News at Five, Ten Evening News and Ten News: First at Five) in most markets, Seven rebounded effective from February 2005 onwards, and claimed to be Australia's number one television news and current affairs service. Seven News produces Sunrise, The Morning Show, Weekend Sunrise, Seven Morning News, Seven Afternoon News, Seven News (the flagship locally produced 6 pm bulletins) and The Latest: Seven News. During the early hours of 4 am to 6 am, Seven rebroadcasts some of American television network NBC's news and current affairs programming, including Today and Meet the Press. Since 1988, Seven also adopted NBC News' main theme, The Mission, as the theme for Seven's news programming.

Exclusive contracts with NBC News, ITN and TV3 (New Zealand) for international news coverage.

In recent years, under the guidance of former long-time Nine News chief Peter Meakin, Seven's news and current affairs division has produced more locally focused content, which has been lifting ratings for key markets such as Sydney and Melbourne. Since February 2005, the ratings of Deal or No Deal, Seven News and Today Tonight have gradually increased. Seven News was the highest-rating news service nationally in both the 2005 and 2006 ratings seasons. A key aspect of Seven's recent ratings dominance in news and current affairs has been attributed to Deal or No Deals (and, since late 2015, The Chase Australia) top rating audience, which provides Seven News with a large lead-in audience. Between 2007 and 2010 inclusive, Seven News completed a clean sweep across the five capital cities in terms of being the most watched 6 pm news bulletin. On 5 July 2008, Channel Seven introduced a watermark on news and current affairs programmes.

Sport

Seven is a major purchaser of Australian sports broadcasting rights. Seven's most popular recurring sporting events include the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Big Bash League, Women's Big Bash League, Australian Test Cricket, World Rally Championship, Australian Rally Championship, Australian Off Road Championship, AFL Premiership Season, the Australian PGA Championship golf, the Australian Open Golf, the Australian Open Tennis until Seven lost the rights in 2018, Bledisloe Cup Rugby, Mount Buller World Aerials, the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race, the Tri-Nations Rugby, and horse racing events including the Melbourne Cup Carnival until Seven lost the rights in 2018, and Queensland's annual Magic Millions race day.

The network had the exclusive coverage of the 2000 Sydney Olympics, which attracted a TV audience of over 6.5 million Australians for the opening and closing ceremonies. The broadcast also ran on the short-lived C7 Sport subscription channel.

On 25 January 2001, Network Ten, Nine Network, and pay TV provider Foxtel won the rights from Seven to televise AFL games from 2002 to 2006. This ended Seven's famous 45-year run as the exclusive AFL football broadcaster. On 5 January 2006 the Australian Football League accepted a bid from Seven and Ten to broadcast AFL games from 2007 to 2011 at a cost of A$780 million. Since 2011, Seven has been the exclusive free-to-air broadcaster of the AFL Premiership Season to at least 2031.

Seven had exclusive Australian free-to-air, pay television, online and mobile telephony broadcast rights to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. The live telecast of the XXIX Olympiad was shared by both the Seven Network and SBS Television. Seven broadcast the opening and closing ceremonies and mainstream sports including swimming, athletics, rowing, cycling and gymnastics. In stark contrast, SBS TV provided complementary coverage focused on long-form events such as soccer, road cycling, volleyball, and table tennis.

From 2016, Seven became the home of the Summer Olympic Games, Winter Olympic Games and the Summer Paralympic Games. The Network secured the Australian broadcast rights to the Olympic Games. In October 2020, it was named as the Australian broadcast service for the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.

In 2016, the Seven Network won the broadcasting rights deal to be the main broadcaster of the 2017 Rugby League World Cup in Australia, beating the other regular rugby league broadcasting channels of Fox League and the Nine Network to secure the deal.

The Seven Network also screened the 2018 Commonwealth Games on the Gold Coast in April 2018, and the 2022 Commonwealth Games from Birmingham.

In 2018, the Seven Network, in conjunction with Foxtel, acquired free-to-air broadcasting rights to cricket in Australia. This ended Nine's famous 45-year run as the exclusive cricket broadcaster and Ten's five-year run as the exclusive Big Bash League broadcaster. The network will televise all men's international tests matches, 43 Big Bash League Matches, all women's Internationals (T20Is, ODIs and Tests) and 23 Women's Big Bash League Matches. The six-year deal starts in 2018/19 and runs until 2023/24. In 2023, Seven announced that it reached an agreement with Cricket Australia to extend its media rights from the 2024-25 season to the 2030-31 season. The new, seven-year agreement between Seven and Cricket Australia includes two Ashes Tests Series as well as two Indian tours of Australia. In addition, Cricket Australia will revamp the BBL to create a shorter tournament that will run for five to six weeks to screen on the Seven network.

In 2020, Seven regained the TV rights to the Supercars Championship, sharing the rights with Foxtel in a deal worth $200 million for 5 years (2021–2025). The new deal has Seven Sport show seven rounds of the Supercars Championship live and showing highlights of the rounds it is not able to televise

Availability
Seven is a standard definition channel through digital TV.  There was a 1080i high definition version until it was replaced by the youth orientated 7mate channel, before this change on 18 March 2007, test simulcasts for 1080i commenced in the Sydney and Melbourne markets, Adelaide and Perth followed on 24 June 2007, with Brisbane following on 25 June 2007, and regional Queensland on 26 June 2007. Prior to this, the Seven Network provided a 576p enhanced-definition service.

Seven's core programming is fibre fed out of HSV Melbourne to its sister stations and regional affiliates with ATN Sydney providing national news and current affairs programming.  The receiving stations and affiliates then insert their own localised news and advertising, which is then broadcast in metropolitan areas and regional areas of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia through owned-and-operated stations: ATN Sydney, HSV Melbourne, BTQ Brisbane, SAS Adelaide and TVW Perth; as well as its owned regional stations: CBN Southern NSW, AMV regional Victoria, NSW and SA border areas, PTV Mildura, NEN northern NSW, Seven Regional WA regional Western Australia and Seven Queensland regional Queensland. Seven Network programming is also carried into other areas of regional Australia by third-party affiliates like SCA-owned Seven Regional in South Australia, Tasmania, Darwin and remote areas of central and eastern Australia; and WIN Television in South Australia and the Murrumbridgee Irrigation Area of New South Wales.

On 1 April 2008, ATN Sydney began broadcasting a digital signal to Foxtel and Austar's satellite and cable subscribers.

Current
7HD

The 7HD multichannel was launched in October 2007 until 25 September 2010 and later revived on 10 May 2016. The revival version initially broadcast split services: identical main channel programming for Melbourne and Adelaide & continuous programming from 7mate for other metropolitan cities, but in 1080i MPEG-4 HD via Freeview. The split was implemented to allow broadcast of AFL matches in HD. By 16 December 2016, it quietly shifted to the main channel programming on a long-term basis for Sydney, Brisbane and Perth.

7plus7plus is a video on demand and catch up TV service wholly owned and run by the Seven Network. It launched on 27 November 2017 as a replacement for PLUS7, a catch-up TV service jointly owned by Seven Network and Yahoo! which closed on 31 March 2018. It offers on demand episodes of television series and a live streaming service providing live access to Seven, 7two, 7mate, 7flix, 7Bravo and Racing.com.

Following the acquisition of Yahoo! by Verizon Communications in June 2017, Seven announced plans to launch a wholly owned standalone service to replace PLUS7 within the following six months. In September 2017, Seven announced the new service would be known as 7plus and would launch in November 2017.

The service is available in HD, and there are plans to add Chromecast and Apple Airplay support at a later date.

AFL Premiership Season and Cricket matches are not accessible through the 7plus live streaming service due to the digital broadcast rights being owned by Telstra Media and Kayo Sports respectively. Border Security International repeats play on the channel's live stream in the event's place until the match is over and then returns to normal programming.

On 23 July 2020, 7plus introduced a new logo styled as 7+.

Past
PLUS7PLUS7 was a catch up TV service run by the Seven Network through its Yahoo7 joint venture with Yahoo!. The service became available on 18 January 2010. Following the introduction of 7plus, PLUS7 was shut down, becoming unavailable on most platforms from 12 December 2017, and on remaining devices on 31 March 2018.

Some titles were exclusively available in Australia on PLUS7, including Other Space and Sin City Saints, as well as the British version of My Kitchen Rules, which were not broadcast on the Seven Network. In 2014, PLUS7 became the first commercial television catch-up service to provide optional closed captioning on most of its programming.

PLUS7 was available across several platforms including iOS mobile operating systems (e.g. iPhone, iPad & iPod Touch), Apple TV, Xbox 360, Xbox One, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Windows 10, Sony internet-enabled TVs & Blu-ray players, LG internet-enabled TVs, Samsung internet-enabled TVs & Blu-ray players, Panasonic internet-enabled TVs, Hisense internet-enabled TVs, Humax set top boxes, Windows Mobile 7, 8, 8.1 and 10 and Samsung devices running Android OS 4.0+ and above.

7food network7food network''' was a short-lived Australian free-to-air television channel owned by the Seven Network which launched on 1 December 2018. The channel marked the start of Seven's new deal with Discovery, Inc., immediately after the end of SBS's previous deal with Discovery which saw the creation of SBS Food (formerly SBS Food Network) in 2015. The channel featured shows about food and cooking from around the world. The channel ceased broadcasting on 28 December 2019 after garnering lower than expected ratings, and replaced by a HD simulcast of 7mate from 16 January 2020.

Logo and identity history

The network's first logo produced and used across the metropolitan stations in the early 1970s featured the numeral seven inside a ring (similar to the Circle 7 logo used mostly by ABC for its owned-and-operated stations which ATN-7 used from 1968 to 1969). However, in some states from as early back as 1967 the "Seven eye" appeared and continued right through to 1975.  Colour television was introduced across the network and the country on 1 March 1975, along with a new logo incorporating a bright ring of the colours of the visual light spectrum. This logo was used nationally until 23 January 1989, when the recently renamed Seven Network introduced a new red logo with the circle modified to incorporate the "7" (similar to the logo then used by WJLA-TV in Washington).  The new logo was rolled out along with evening soap Home and Away and a relaunched Seven Nightly News (later to become Seven News).

The current ribbon logo was launched to coincide with the new millennium celebration on 1 January 2000 and the 2000 Summer Olympics held in Sydney. The ribbon logo was used between 2000 and 2003 in five colour variants: red, orange, yellow, green and blue, to symbolise passion, involving, fun, life and energy respectively and represents the five stations of the network. The logo was simplified in 2003, effectively becoming simply two angled trapezoids, losing its gradient, shadows and colour-coded usages to become solid red but first it was used in solid white as an on-screen bug from 2000. In 2012, the Seven logo was slightly modified with the shape of it remaining the same, the upper right corner was lighter red than the remaining logo. On 1 February 2016, it reverted to red trapezoids.

 Slogans

The Seven Network's TV ad campaigns tend to follow NBC (mostly due to Seven's semi-close ties with the American network), but at times also used some imaging from fellow US networks ABC and FOX.

Each state has from time to time had their own specific slogans, but the following were the network's national identities:

1959: You're in Tune When You're Tuned to Seven1969 – February 1975: The Seven Revolution1974: Looking Better Than Ever!
1975–1976: Seven Colors Your World1976–1979: The Color Machine (a.k.a. Seven Colors Your World/Who Colors Your World?)
1979–1980: You're on Seven1981–1982: Channel 7, All The Best1983: Channel 7, Watch Us Now1984: Be There
1985–1988: Let's All Be There
1986–1987: Say Hello
1988: Let's Celebrate '88
1988: Australian Television Network
1 January 1989 – Summer 1989/90: Only the Best on 7
1990–1995: Seven
1990: In The Mood
1991: Yeah!
1992: Good Vibrations
1993–1994: It Has to Be ... Seven1995: Handmade Television
February 1995 – June 1996: Discover It All on SevenJune 1996 – April 1999: Everyone's Home on Seven1 May 1999 – 14 September 2003: The One to Watch2001: The Australian Television Network6 July – 31 August 2003: See Things Differently14 September – November 2003: Lucky Number Seven
2004: 7NOW26 December 2004 – 16 January 2011November 2012 – December 2019: Gottaloveit16 January 2011 – November 2012: One Place2020–present: Better Together''

Awards

Due to Seven's coverage of the 2008 Summer Olympics, the International Olympic Committee awarded Seven the 'Golden Rings' award for "Best Olympic Programme". The award is given for the best overall Olympic coverage.

At the 2018 Sport Australia media awards, Seven won the "Best coverage of a sporting event" award for the coverage of the 2018 Commonwealth Games in Gold Coast.

The Seven Network's ground-breaking coverage of the Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympic Games saw them win three awards (gold, silver and bronze) at the International Olympic Committee's coveted Golden Rings Awards.

See also

 List of Australian television series
 7HD
 7two
 7mate
 7flix
 7Bravo
 Red Heart, joint venture with Granada plc

Notes

References and notes

External links

Television networks in Australia
Television channels and stations established in 1956
English-language television stations in Australia
1956 establishments in Australia

Seven Network


Filme românești din 2015 — Filme românești din 2016 — Filme românești din 2017
Aceasta este o listă de filme românești din 2016:

Lista

Sursa: IMDb  Cinemagia

 6.9 pe scara Richter, comedie de Nae Caranfil, cu Maria Simona Arsu, Laurentiu Banescu, Radu Banzaru, Alina Berzunteanu
 Ilegitim, dramă de  Adrian Sitaru
 La Drum Cu Tata, comedie de Anca Miruna Lăzărescu
 Minte-mă frumos în Centrul Vechi, comedie de Iura Luncașu
 Camera obscură, documentar de Gheorghe Preda

Note

Legături externe
Filme românești din 2016 la IMDb.com

Filme din 2016Filme românești
România
Liste de filme românești

Listă de filme românești din 2016


O Estudo da Juventude Matematicamente Precoce (Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth ou SMPY em inglês) é um estudo longitudinal prospectivo de pessoas (principalmente nos Estados Unidos) identificadas por pontuações de 700 ou mais em uma seção do Teste de Raciocínio SAT antes dos 13 anos de idade. É um dos estudos longitudinais mais longos sobre jovens superdotados na história mundial. Os pesquisadores do estudo usaram dados de pesquisa dos participantes para avançar hipóteses sobre o desenvolvimento de talentos e preferências ocupacionais.

O Estudo da Juventude Matematicamente Precoce foi fundado por Julian Stanley em 1971 na Universidade Johns Hopkins, com financiamento da recém-criada Fundação Spencer. Em 1986, a sede do estudo mudou-se para a Iowa State University, onde Camilla Benbow liderou o estudo até 1990. Desde aquele ano, o estudo é liderado por Benbow e David Lubinski . Em 1998, a sede do estudo mudou novamente, desta vez para a  Vanderbilt University.

Descobertas
As respostas da pesquisa sugerem que os superdotados têm necessidades educacionais diferentes e realizam muito mais na escola e no trabalho do que os superdotados moderados.  Homens e mulheres talentosos também têm habilidades, interesses e preferências de estilo de vida diferentes,   embora muitas vezes expressem níveis semelhantes de satisfação intelectual e alcancem credenciais educacionais avançadas em taxas semelhantes. As diferenças sexuais que outros investigadores encontraram na dimensão coisas-pessoas em populações normativas se manifestaram na educação e no trabalho, entre os adolescentes que Benbow, Lubinski e seus associados estudaram. O SMPY descobriu que indivíduos talentosos com inclinações acentuadas tendem a seguir carreiras que se baseiam em suas forças cognitivas. Jovens altamente capazes com habilidades matemáticas notavelmente mais fortes do que habilidades verbais frequentemente estudam e trabalham em ciências e engenharia, enquanto adolescentes com pontuações melhores na seção verbal do que matemática frequentemente estudam humanidades, artes, ciências sociais ou direito. Indivíduos com habilidades matemáticas e verbais comparáveis não seguiram trajetórias tão definidas, embora muitos homens com o perfil de habilidade "alto-plano" tenham buscado atividades educacionais e vocacionais em ciências.

Referências

Universidade Vanderbilt
Estudos científicos
Matemática

Estudo da juventude matematicamente precoce


Brestovany este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Trnava din regiunea Trnava, pe malul râului . Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 2.658 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Brestovany este atestată documentar din 1113.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Brestovany


Adriana Fernanda Benítez Perugache (San Juan de Pasto, 31 de octubre de 1975-San Juan de Pasto, 14 de octubre de 2000) fue una líder estudiantil y social colombiana, conocida como La flor de la Universidad. Asesinada por paramilitares.

Biografía
Nacida en Pasto en 1975, bachiller del  bachillerato en el Liceo Integrado de la Universidad de Nariño, fue madre a los 17 años. Fundó el grupo estudiantil Radicales Libres. Era dirigente de las movilizaciones universitarias en protesta por el proyecto del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo en 1999. También organizó el Foro departamental contra el Plan Colombia y adelantaba trabajo social con madres comunitarias. Se destacó por dirigir la movilización que logró la rebaja del transporte urbano de San Juan de Pasto, por organizar las protestas contra el Plan Colombia y por haber adelantado, junto con la comunidad del corregimiento de Morasurco, la movilización social contra el mal llamado relleno sanitario Santa Clara II.

Muerte
El 14 de octubre de 2000, en su noveno semestre del curso de pregrado de Economía en la Universidad de Nariño, fue asesinada (murió también Martín Emilio Rodríguez) por la espalda y rematada en el piso por Harold Viera López alias 'Motosierra' del Bloque Libertadores del Sur de las Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia, mientras asistía a una reunión de madres comunitarias cerca de la plaza de Nariño. El asesinato fue reconocido por Guillermo Pérez Álzate, alias 'Pablo Sevillano', y ordenado por Carlos Castaño; la razón fue que Adriana Benítez hubiera trabajado «con las FARC-EP en el Caguán».

Homenajes
El Coliseo Adriana Benítez de la misma universidad lleva su nombre, al igual que una residencia estudiantil femenina de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Manizales.

Referencias

Nacidos en Pasto
Fallecidos en Pasto
Alumnado de la Universidad de Nariño
Víctimas del paramilitarismo en Colombia
Activistas de Colombia
Activistas asesinados

Adriana Benítez


Nikola Cindro (ratnik) († 1596.) - protuosmanski ratnik
 Nikola Cindro (fizičar) (1931. – 2001.) - hrvatski fizičar

Nikola Cindro


العمارة البنائية (بالإنجليزية: Constructivist Architecture ؛ بالروسية: конструктивистской архитектуры) هي حركة معمارية معاصرة، وشكل من أشكال عمارة الحداثة. ظهرت في الاتحاد السوفييتي وتحديداً في موسكو بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى، وضمت عدة اتجاهات فنية ظهرت آنذاك.

لقد ظهرت هذه الحركة الفنية أصلاً في أعمال ونظريات النحاتين نوم غابو وأنتوني لفسنر، ومن ثم امتدت إلى العمارة. وقد ظهرت أول وثيقة فنية لها دُعيت بـ«الوثيقة الواقعية» عام 1920 ضمت خمس مبادئ أساسية مقتبسة من الأعمال المعتمدة على التقنية البنائية لرواد هذا التيار مع التأكيد على أن النظام الفني الجديد سيؤدي إلى ظهور ونمو حضارة جديدة، وسيكون أيضًا أساسًا للفنون الأخرى لاعتماده قوانين حقيقية لواقع الحياة.

وتجمع البنائية بين التقنية المتقدمة والهندسة، كما كانت مخصصة لغايات اشتراكية وشيوعية. وبالرغم من أنها قُسّمت إلى عدة اتجاهات تنافسية، إلا أن الحركة قد أنتجت كثير من المشاريع الريادية والمباني المقامة، قبل انحلالها في عام 1932 تقريبًا. وقد ظهر تأثيرها على كثير من الحركات المعمارية الأخرى في وقت لاحق.

التاريخ

أثر التيار المستقبلي الإيطالي على الفنانين الروس تأثيرًا قويًا وعميقًا منذ بدايته في أوائل القرن العشرين. ففي عام 1913 عُرضت أول مسرحية مستقبلية روسية في سانت بطرسبيرغ. وفي عام 1915 اُقيم أول معرض للفن المستقبلي الروسي في سانت بطرسبيرغ، شارك فيه عدد من الفنانين الروسي من أهمهم، كاسمير مالفيتش وفلاديمير تاتلين. وفي فترة قصيرة أصبح الاثنان زعيمي الاتجاهين الفنيَّين الرئيسين «للفن اللاتشبيهي» أو "Non-objective art" في روسيا آنذاك، السوبرماتية، والبنائية. وكانت بين الإثنين نزاعات وتنافس مستمر.
عرض تاتلين في ذلك المعرض سبعة أعمال فنية سماها «شواخص نافرة» مكونة من مواد كالخشب والحديد والزجاج، ومواد أخرى، ملصقة ببعضها في تشكيلات تجريدية حرة، يتم تعليقها في زوايا الغرفة وليس في منتصف جدار العرض. وكان مسار العمارة السوفيتية بشكل عام في عقد العشرينات من القرن العشرين أكثر تأثرًا بأعمال وأفكار تاتلن منه بالفن السوبرماتي، والذي ظل أسيرًا للفلسفات والشروحات الميتافيزيقية بخصوص البعد الرابع والهندسة الإقليدية على غرار شروحات وادعاءات أبولينير، في حين كان تأثير السوبرماتية أكبر وأوسع انتشارًا في مجال الفنون الطباعية بشكل خاص، وخاصة في تصميم الملصقات والشعارات الدعائية.

لقد ظهر في روسيا في بدايات القرن العشرين العديد من المدارس المعمارية، وكان هناك صراع بين أعضائها من الفنانين. وقد تمحور هذا الصراع منذ البداية بين شخصيتين رئيسيتين، هما ألكسندر فزنين ونيكولاي لادوفيسكي. وكان هذا الاختلاف نابعًا من اهتمام لادوفيسكي وتركيزه على تطوير منهج علمي للبحث في طبيعة العمليات الإدراكية للأشكال المختلفة وتأثيرها على المشاهد والمتحسس لها. وكان يحاول تقريب منهجه هذا إلى علم الاقتصاد السياسي، لربطه بمبادئ الثورة الماركسية - اللينينية من خلال النظر إلى عملهم على أنه نوع من اقتصاديات الإدراك. وأطلقت على أنصار هذا التوجه صفة «العقلانيين». أما فزنين، ومن ناصره من المدرّسين والطلبة، فقد بدؤوا تدريجيًا بالابتعاد عن القضايا الشكلية في الفن، مؤثرين توجيه اهتمامهم نحو الإنتاج الفعلي للأشياء التي يمكن أن تعود بالنفع العام، وفي مقدمتها العمارة. وقد كانت هذه التوجهات في اتساق مع نصائح ماركس لأتباعه بضرورة «دراسة الحياة كما هي، بكل تفاصيلها وتعقيداتها، بذات الطريقة التي تُدرس بها عمل الآلات». وكذلك في اتساق تام مع دعاوي الشاعر فلاديمير ماياكوفسكي عام 1919 في قوله بأن «القلب البشري ليس سوى مضخة، والعقل ليس أكثر من آلة دقيقة». ولكن بالرغم من أن فزنين لم يتخل عن اهتمامه بالقضايا الشكلية الفنية، إلا أن اعتماده هو وأنصاره لمنهج الوظيفي بشكل علني وصريح، أصبح السمة المميزة لمجموعته «المجموعة المعمارية المستقلة» (OSA) التي أسسها عام 1924، والتي أصبحت النواة الرئيسية لما يُعرف باسم «الحركة البنائية».

الفلسفة

أولى أنصار تيار البنائية اهتماما كبيرًا للقضايا الاجتماعية في العمارة، وحاولوا عبر تقصياتهم المثابرة إيجاد نمط سكني جديد يتجاوب مع التغييرات الجذرية الحادثة في بنى المجتمع الجديد، ووظف البنائيون بكفاءة أساليب التصميم العقلاني كتكرار العناصر المعمارية، وتنميطها (Standardization) واستخدام الوحدات القياسية (Modules)، فضلاً عن التأكيد لجهة اقتصادية الحلول التصميمية ونجاعة الحلول التكنولوجية. ويعد المجمع السكني المشيد في منطقة بولفار نوفينسكي بموسكو 1928 - 1930، للمعماري م. غينزبورغ تجربة رائدة في مجال هذا المنحى.

تبلورت نقاشات الفنانين الروس بخصوص بدايات العمارة البنائية في كتاب للمنظّر المعماري الروسي ألكسي غان، اُطلق عليه «البنائية»، والذي نشره في عام 1922. يقابل غان في كتابه بين مفهوم التشكيل ومفهوم البناء، فيدين الأول لسطحيته، حسب رأي بعض الفنانين الروس، ويقتصر مجاله على البنية الخارجية للأشكال ولا يتصل بجوهرها، أو ببنيتها الاجتماعية والسياسية الأساسية. كما ظهرت في الاتحاد السوفياتي نظرية أصبحت العمارة جزءاً منها، لتكون واحدة من الطرق الرئيسية في البحث النفسي في البلاد، اُطلق عليها اسم «نظرية النشاط»، والتي اُستخدمت على نطاق واسع في المجالات النظرية وعلم النفس التطبيقي، والتعليم، والتدريب المهني، بالإضافة إلى العمارة. ويُقسّم غان البنية المفاهيمية الرئيسية للعمارة البنائية إلى ثلاثة أجزاء مترابطة:

 التكتونية: يُراد بها العلم الذي يوضح الكيفية التي يتأثر بواسطتها إنتاج المواد الصناعية ونظم الإنشاء بالمنظومة الاقتصادية والاجتماعية والسياسية السائدة في المجتمع الشيوعي.
 المصنعية: وهي أبسط المفاهيم الثلاث، وتعني كل ما يحتاج المعماري من معرفة بالمواد وأصول الإنشاء، بحيث تؤدي هذه المعرفة إلى الاستخدام الأمثل للمواد ونظم الإنشاء.
 البنائية: هي البنية التنظيمية التي يتم من خلالها دمج كل الاعتبارات في مجاليّ التكتونية والمصنعية، وهو المنظومة التي يتم من خلالها التوفيق بين كافة المتطلبات.

وقد جعل غان تعريفه للجمال من المنظر البنائي مقاسًا بمؤشرين اثنين، هما: الفاعلية الاجتماعية، ومدى تحقيق التصميم لهذه الأهداف ضمن منظومات من الأشكال تمتاز ببساطتها ووضوحها وتكون الحركة ضمنها مختزلة ومختصرة تتطلب أدنى كمية من المجهود الحركي.
ولتوضيح هذه الأفكار أكثر، يمكن التمعن فيما كتبه ألكسندر فزنين في ورقة له بعنوان «أهداف الفنان» في عام 1922.

يعتقد أنصار البنائية بأن الإنتاج الإنشائي المقاس الذي هو نتيجة منطقية لعقلنة العملية الإبداعية، ينبغي له أن يكون أساس إجراءات التصنيع بالجملة للعناصر المعمارية والإنشائية، كما ربط أولئك الأنصار مبررات مهام التشكيل الفني للمبنى بارتباط مباشر مع بنيتيه الوظيفية والإنشائية. وكما هو معلوم فإن قيم ومبادئ البنائية تشكلت وتكونت في خضم التغييرات الثورية الفعالة، مما حدا بأنصار هذا التيار إلى أن يولوا اهتماما بالغا للقضايا الاجتماعية، وأن يصروا على وجوب إيجاد حلول سريعة للمشاكل الملحة؛ الأمر الذي ساهم في انتشارهم الواسع في الممارسة المعمارية الروسية إبان تلك الفترة، كما أن هذا التيار المعماري أثر تأثيرا عميقا من جهة تطور الاتجاه الوظيفي الأوروبي وساهم مساهمة قوية في ترسيخ قيمه.

جسدت تلك المباني التي اتخذت صفة هذه الحركة، المبادئ الأساسية للبنائية على قدر كبير من الدقة كالحجوم المنتظمة، وتقسيمات المبنى بواسطة النوافذ الكبيرة أو المزججة بالكامل والتي تتوافق مع الهيكل الإنشائي. في الحلول التكوينية لتلك المباني. أدت العناصر التقنية الخالصة دورا تصميمياً مهماً مثل الساريات وهوائيات الراديو وسلالم الخدمة المعدنية وكذلك استخدام الأحرف الكتابية واللوحات الإعلانية الضخمة. وقد أعارت البنائية أهمية خاصة لأسلوب معالجة المنظومة الحجمية - الفضائية للمباني، وأسبغت عليها (على تلك المنظومة) نوعًا من الشفافية التخريمية، تلك الشفافية التي تتوق لأن تكسب الجدران إحساسا بالخفة، كما تنشد إلى توحيد الفضاء الداخلي مع الخارج. وقد تمثلت الخصائص البنائية لاسيما وجهها الوظيفي، بشكل واضح في مجمع مباني قصر الثقافة لمصانع ليخاجيوف للسيارات في موسكو (المصممون الأخوة فيزنين) 1931.

المعماريون الجدد

كان الاتحاد السوفييتي بعد الحرب الأهلية الروسية مباشرة، مفتقراً إلى حد كبير لهيئات تنفذ مشاريع لأبنية جديدة. إلا أنه ثمة اتجاه تصميمي آخر شغل مساحة مهمة في المشهد المعماري الروسي إبان تلك الفترة الزمنية، دعي بالاتجاه المنطقي العقلاني. وقد ظهر هذا في تكتل معماري اُطلق عليه «رابطة المعماريين الجدد»، أو اختصارًا "ASNOVA".

كانت طرق ومناهج التدريس في هذه الرابطة وظيفية وفنتازية، عاكسة الاهتمام بعلم النفس الغشتالتي، والتي قادت إلى تجارب جريئة في الأشكال مثل مطعم Simbirchev الزجاجي المعلق. وقد كانت المشاريع في روسيا بالفترة الممتدة بين 1923 - 1935 قد أظهرت أصالة وطموح هذه المجموعة الجديدة. وعلى الرغم من وجود اختلافات شكلية ميزت هذا الاتجاه العقلاني عن الاتجاه المعماري السائد في روسيا آنذاك - وهو المدرسة البنائية، إلاّ أن كلا الاتجاهين خدما قضية واحدة، وهي تعزيز طروحات العمارة الحديثة وتكريس قيمها في النشاط البنائي المعماري لروسيا السوفيتية، فالاختلاف بين الاتجاهين كان محصورًا في نوعية المنطلقات التكوينية، وأشكالها.

وتعتبر محاولة المعمار إيليا غولوسوف في مشروعه المنفذ (نادي زويف) في موسكو، إحدى المحاولات الجريئة في هذا السبيل، إذ جاءت تشكيلات فراغات المبنى بحجوم مكعبة وأخرى أسطوانية مع استخدام كثيف للزجاج في أسطح الجدران كما أكسب المعمار مسقط مبناه الأفقي قابلية التغيير وإمكانية التحويل. تم حل الرابطة في عام 1932 إسوةً بالعديد من الرابطات والجمعيات الفنية في روسيا.

المعماريون المعاصرون

ظهر في عام 1923 طراز تقني بنائي آخر عبر مشروع "glass office" للأخوة فزنين في برافدا، اُطلق عليه «رابطة المعماريين المعاصرين»، حيث اتخذ أنصار التيار البنائي في روسيا قرارًا بالانضمام إلى هذا التنظيم المعماري الجديد، والذي يُختصر بـ (OCA أو OSA).

لقد أصدرت الرابطة مجلة "CA" للعمارة المعاصرة. أدى هذا إلى أن ينضم إلى الرابطة معماريون مثل ميخائيل بارش، وآندريه بوروف، وإيفان ليويندوف، وغيورغي أورلوف، وإيفان نيكولايف، وغيرهم من الذين أثروا بتيار البنائية عبر تصاميم معبرة عُدت من كنوز العمارة العالمية في حينها.

ومن خلال النشاط التصميمي التطبيقي، تشكلت المبادئ الإبداعية للتيار البنائي، لا سيما عندما نظم في أوائل العشرينيات مسابقات معمارية عديدة لتصميم مباني عامة كبرى. وحازت مشاريع الأخوة فزنين المشاركين الدائمين في تلك المباريات على شهرة واسعة ومنها «قصر العمل» في موسكو 1923، وكذلك مشروع «بيت أركاس» 1929، ومبنى جريدة لنينغراد سكايا برافدا عام 1924، وغيرها.

لقد تم إدماج هذه الرابطة في عام 1925 مع إحدى المدارس الفنية الروسية آنذاك، وهي "Vkhutemas"، والتي أسسها ألكسندر فزنين. كانت لهذه المجموعة أهداف مشتركة بينها وبين النظرية الوظيفية الألمانية، مثل مشاريع الإسكان للمعماري Ernst May وغيرها. ويعتبر مبنى القبة الفلكية (Planetarium) في موسكو للمعماريين ميخائيل بارش وميخائيل سينيا فسكي 1927 - 1929 من أوائل المنشآت البنائية ذات الاتجاه التركيبي الفضائي.

البنائية الغربية

أدى عمل المعمار إل ليسيتزكي في ألمانيا وسويسرا وهولندا لعقود، إلى تبني العديد من المهندسين المعماريين في خارج اتحاد الجمهوريات الاشتراكية السوفياتية في إعادة النظر في عملهم على النحو البنائي، وتحديدًا في أواخر العشرينات من القرن العشرين.

وقد تبنى مهندسو الموضوعية الجديدة مثل إل ليسيتزكي العمارة البنائية كمقياسًا متقدمًا من الناحية التكنولوجية الجمالية، على الرغم من بعدها عن سياقها الأصلي. واعتبر في كثير من الأحيان على أن تكون هناك وحدة بنائية في المشاريع. ولعل أفضل الأمثلة المعروفة من البنائية الغربية في العشرينيات هي بعض المباني في هولندا: مثل مصنع «فان نيل» في روتردام (1927-1931)، ومصحة «زونسترال» في هيلفرسوم (1926-1928)، ومدرسة «يناير الدكدك» في أمستردام (1929-1930) والتي فيها تعبير معماري مشابهة لنادي العمال في موسكو (1927-1928). وقد كان للبنائية أيضا أثر على أحدث فروع الحركة الفنية في أوروبا وهو آرت ديكو، والذي يسمى "Streamline Moderne". يُشار بالذكر إلى أن منظمة الأمم المتحدة للتربية والتعليم والثقافة (يونسكو) قد قامت بترشيح مصنع «فان نيل» في روتردام، ومصح «زونسترال» في هيلفرسوم على قائمة التراث العالمي.

التخطيط العمراني

على الرغم من طموح الاقتراحات البنائية في تخطيط العديد من المدن التي أعيد بناؤها، كانت هناك أمثلة قليلة نسبيًا من المخططات المتماسكة للمدن ذات التخطيط البنائي، كما في مدينة زاستافا بمقاطعة لينينغراد مثلاً. بدأ في عام 1925 تصميم المساكن الجماعية للمنطقة من قبل المهندسين المعماريين مثل نيكولاي لادوفيسكي، وكذلك المباني العامة مثل قاعة تاون كيروف من قبل تروتسكي نوي (1932)، وهي مدرسة تجريبية قام بتصميمها سيمونوف، وأعضاء ASNOVA المحليين.

لقد كان الكثير من البنائيين يأملون في أن يروا طموحاتهم تتحقق من خلال «الثورة الثقافية» في روسيا. عند هذه النقطة، تم تقسيم البنائيين بين حضريين ولا حضريين، فضلوا نموذجًا خطيًّا في تصميم المدينة.

كان رئيس مجموعة «ميليوتين» المالية الروسية قد بدأ بالترويج للمدينة الخطية في كتابه عام 1930 (Sotsgorod9) والذي اتخذ مستوى أكثر تطرفًا. لقد اقترح المصممون اللاحضريون (disurbanism) فيه نظامًا لمباني مخصصة لإسكان شخص واحد أو عائلة واحدة متصلة عن طريق شبكات النقل الخطية، تنتشر على مساحة ضخمة، بحيث عبرت الحدود بين المناطق الحضرية والزراعية، بشكل يشبه تصميم المدينة الحقلية لفرانك لويد رايت. إلا أن تصاميم اللاحضريين قد رُفضت في أغلب الأحيان.

التأثير والتأثر

لقد جاء هذا التيار موازيًا للتطورات الحاصلة في الفنون والعمارة التي ظهرت في أوروبا مثل حركة دي شتيل الهولندية، وخاصة في الجانب التشكيلي منها. إذ أكد هذا التيار على أهمية استخدام الأشكال والعناصر الأساسية في تكوينات بنائية إلى جانب التأكيد على مفهوم الإنشاء في الفضاء كما ارتبط فكريًا معها في مجال إظهار جمالية الماكنة.

لقد اعتمدت هذه الأفكار الشرقية والغربية على مصادرها الأساسية كقاعدة لانطلاقها على كل من الحركة التكعيبية والمستقبلية. وقد اندمجت هذه الاتجاهات في أوروبا عام 1922 بطرق مختلفة، أهمها الإعلان عن وجود بنائية عالمية، والذي تم بيانه في اجتماع الفنانين التقدميين في دوسلدورف، ألمانيا. كما تأكد ذلك أيضًا من خلال المعارض التي اُقيمت في أوروبا خاصة ما عُرض في المعرض الفني الأول للرواد الطليعيين الروس في برلين عام 1922. كما أن هجرة بعض الفنانين والمعماريين الروس إلى ألمانيا من أمثال فاسيلي كاندينسكي، نوم غابو، وإل ليسيتزكي، كان لها تأثيرها المميز في نشر هذا التيار.

كما يمكن ملاحظة نوع من ارتباط هذه النظرية مع النظريات الأولى للمعمار الفرنسي السويسري لو كوربوزييه، خاصة ما ظهر في كتابه «نحو عمارة جديدة»، حيث سلط الأضواء على الماكنة الجديدة مثل السيارة والطائرة واعتبرها أمثلة نموذجية لهياكل كفوءة تحمل معها علاقات منطقية للأجزاء بالنسبة إلى الشكل العام المتكامل الموحد. لقد سارعت الجهات المهنية في الاتحاد السوفيتي منذ نهاية العشرينات من القرن العشرين إلى دعم لو كوربوزييه وتكليفه بعدد من المشاريع التي كان أولها تكليفه بتصميم مقر الجمعيات التعاونية (سنتروسويوز)، وهو أحد أكبر مبانيها العامة المبكرة. وقد ظهرت عدة مدارس فنية في روسيا نما فيها هذا التيار، اعتمدت نظريات فنية مختلفة ظهرت كمؤسسات تعليمية شاملة في مجالات الفنون المختلفة والعمارة والتصميم.

الانحلال

بدأ الرأي العام المعماري الرسمي المُقرّب من الحزب الشيوعي الحاكم في بداية الثلاثينات من القرن العشرين، بالتحول الجذري بعيدًا عن عمارة الحداثة، نحو إحياء تراث العمارة الكلاسيكية الصرحية، وتشجيع العمارة التقليدية التراثية المحلية. وقد ظهرت بوادر هذا التغيير بوضوح في مسابقة تصميم قصر السوفييت في موسكو عام 1931-1933. ففي الجولة الأخيرة من التصفيات التي استغرقت في مجملها أربع جولات، لم يكن هناك سوى مشروع واحد ذي منحنى حداثي من بين المشروعات الخمسة المتأهلة للتحكيم النهائي، أما الأربعة الباقية فكانت بطراز إحيائي تقليدي. وكان هذا المشروع من تصميم ألكسندر فزنين. ولم يفز هذا المشروع بالجائزة الأولى التي فاز بها تصميم رومانسي صرحي قدمه المعمار بوريس يوفان.

كانت نتيجة هذه المسابقة الهامة، والتصريحات التي نقلها تقرير لجنة الحكم، مؤذنة بانتهاء فترة الحداثة وبدء حقبة جديدة في تاريخ العمارة السوفيتية توسم في العادة بمصطلح «الواقعية الاجتماعية». ويتزامن هذا مع القرار الصادر عام 1932 بحل جميع التنظيمات الأدبية والفنية، ليحل محلها اتحاد واحد فقط لكل نوع من أنواع الفن والأدب، بحيث تتبع كل هذه الاتحادات إلى اللجنة المركزية للحزب الحاكم.
وبذلك، انتهت الفترة التجريبية الخلاقة من العمارة السوفيتية بعد أن كانت قد أورثت للمعماريين في أوروبا والأمريكتين تجارب غنية أثرت مسيرة العمارة العالمية المعروفة بـ«عمارة الحداثة».

أهم روادها

 النحات المعمار فلاديمير تاتلين (1885-1953): من أعمال تاتلين بالغة الأهمية في هذا السياق، تصميمه في العام 1919 للنصب التذكاري لذكرى المؤتمر الاشتراكي العالمي الثالث، الذي كان على هيئة برج معدني ضخم اُطلق عليه برج تاتلين، حيث كان بارتفاع يعادل ضعف ارتفاع مبنى إمباير ستيت في نيويورك، بارتفاع 303 متر، ويتكون من لولبين حلزونيين بداخلهما أربعة حجوم أساسية من المفترض أن تدور كل منها محور مستقل لكل منها. لم يتم تنفيذ التصميم لكن عندما عُرض المجسم الخشبي المصغر لهذا التصميم الطموح لأول مرة عام 1920، اعتلته راية من قماش كُتب عليها «المهندسون يصنعون الأشكال الجديدة». وكانت هذه إشارة صريحة إلى نزعة حداثية لتمجيد الآلة والإنجازات التكنولوجية للعصر الصناعي، كما في النزاعات المستقبلية الإيطالية آنفة الذكر.
 النحات نوم غابو (1890 -1977): لقد عكس أعمال غابو موقفًا تجاه البنائية اختلف به عن موقف فناني الإنتاجية من أمثال تاتلين والمعمار روجينكو. ويمكن ملاحظة ذلك من خلال مقارنة أعمالهم النحتية. فقد اهتم نوم غابو بإبراز البنائية الإنشائية في نماذج أعماله النحتية وهي تحمل صفة وخصائص الحركة وفكرة توسيع قاعدة العمل النحتي إلى الفضاءات المجاورة أما من خلال استخدام المواد الشفافة أو استخدام العناصر الإنشائية ذات التأثير الفضائي. فنماذج غابو استعرضت بشكل عام خصائص المواد من خلال عملية الدمج والربط بين المواد المختلفة من أجل إظهار حالات التناقض بينها.
 الرسام كاسمير مالفيتش (1878-1953): يُعتبر أول رسام روسي اتجه نحو إظهار الفن اللاتشبيهي Non-Figurative atr. حيث يظهر في أعماله محاولات اكتشاف خصائص التجريد من خلال التقنية التكعيبية إلى جانب اهتمامه بالمستقبلين خاصة في مجال التعبير عن الحركة والأحاسيس العاطفية. وقد انتقل مالفيتش مابين عاميّ 1913-1916 باتجاه ما يُسمى بالفن الفائقي. إن ولع مالفيتش المتميز باتجاه فن العمارة واضح في نماذج أعماله الفنية المعمارية للعشرينات خاصة ما ظهر في النموذج الذي أطلق عليه «فن العمارة» أو Architecton عام 1923، ومجموعة من المخططات المنظورية التي أطلق عليها «كواكب المستقبل لسكان الأرض» التي عكست تصاميم لدور سكنية للمستقبل.
 المعمار إل ليسيتزكي (1890-1941): له محاولات واضحة في البحث عن أشكال العمارة بأبعادها الثلاثة في سلسلة لوحاته الفنية التي أطلق عليها "Proun" أو «الشاخص». وبهذا يحل مكان الرسم وفنانيه والماكنة ومهندسيها ويتقدم لبناء فضاء يتم تنظيم أبعاده بوسائط عناصرها، من أجل خلق تصورات جديدة موحدة لطبيعتها. وفي مجال تأثيراته على العمارة فقد لعبت أفكاره وأعماله دورًا مؤثرًا وهائلاً على معماريي أوروبا خاصة مجموعة دي شتيل. فقد اتجهت تطبيقاته الفنية نحو أشكال العمارة بأبعادها الحقيقية، ففي عام 1923 ظهرت أول محاولة حقيقية له في تصميمه لغرفة عرض عرضت في مجموعة «نوفمبر» في برلين دعاها «غرفة براون».
 الفنان ألكسندر روجينكو (1891-1956): إن نماذج أعمال روجينكو لم تعكس استعراض للمواد لصالح نفسها، وإنما وظفت كوسائط لإظهار واكتشاف قوى الشد الفضائية والإنشائية فيها، مما عكست محاولات بنائية لتحقيق إنهاء فني قوى بتطبيق مبدأ تاتلين في هذا التوجه.

معرض صور

انظر أيضًا
 ما بعد البنائية
 عمارة ستالينية
 باوهاوس
 دي شتيل
 التفكيكية

حواش
  كلمة البنائية  تشير إلى النزعة في الفن التشكيلي والتي ظهرت في روسيا في بداية القرن العشرين لإيجاد أشكال جديدة من الفن، ويعود أصلها إلى النزعتين التكعيبية والمستقبلية في التصوير والنحت

مراجع
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مصادر

وصلات خارجية

 وثائقي عن مباني موسكو البنائية
 التراث في خطر: المحافظة على عمارة القرن العشرين والتراث العالمي
 صور أرشيفية عن العمارة البنائية
 دليل موسكو للمباني البنائية
 مقالة في الجارديان عن الحفاظ على العمارة البنائية
 حملة للحفاظ على مباني ناركومفين
 البنائية التشيكية - مبنى فيلا فيكتور كريز

طرز معمارية
عمارة الحداثة
عمارة روسية
عمارة سوفيتية

عمارة بنائية


FLYONE este o companie aeriană privata low-cost cu sediul în Chișinău, Republica Moldova. FLYONE operează zboruri regulate și charter din baza sa de la Aeroportul Internațional Chișinău.

Istorie
Compania aeriană a primit certificatul de operator aerian la sfârșitul lunii martie 2016  și a operat primele zboruri regulate de pasageri în iunie 2016.

Destinații
FLYONE zboară către următoarele destinații:

Grecia
 Heraklion - Heraklion International Airport (charter)
Irlanda
 Dublin - Aeroportul Dublin
Italia
 Aeroportul Parma - Giuseppe Verdi
 Verona - Verona Aeroportul Villafranca
Moldova
 Chișinău - Aeroportul Internațional Chișinău (base)
Portugalia
 Lisabona - Lisabona Aeroportul Humberto Delgado (sezonier)
Rusia
 Moscova - Aeroportul Internațional Vnukovo
 Sankt Petersburg - Aeroportul Pulkovo
Turcia
 Antalya - Aeroportul Antalya (charter)
Istanbul - Istanbul Airport
Regatul Unit al Marii Britanii
 Londra - London Luton Airport
Franța

 Paris - Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport
Germania

 Frankfurt - Frankfurt-Hahn Airport

Israel

 Tel Aviv - Ben Gurion Airport

Muntenegru

 Tivat - Tivat Airport (charter)

Egipt

 Sharm el Sheikh - Sharm el Sheikh Airport (charter)

 Hurghada - Hurghada Airport (charter)

 Marsa Alam - Marsa Alam Airport (charter)

Flota

Începând cu luna iulie 2021, flota FLYONE include următoarele aeronave:

Referințe

Pagini cu citări cu argumente redundante
Companii aeriene din Republica Moldova

FlyOne


Iustin Petruțiu (n. 1878, Șepreuș - d. 1966, Arad a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
Iustin Petruțiu a studiat dreptul la Facultatea de Drept din Cluj, fiind avocat la Chișineu-Criș, după 1918 prim jurist consult la Prefectura județului Arad, avocat până la pensionare la Baroul din Arad, și din 1939, notar public la Chișineu-Criș.

Activitatea politică

Din 1906 a fost membru al Partidului Național Român. După 1918 a fost prim jurist consult la Prefectura județului Arad. Ca deputat în Marea Adunare Națională din 1 decembrie 1918, Iustin Petruțiu a reprezentat ca titular al Cercului electoral Bătania, județul Cenad.

Note

Bibliografie

Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7

Lectură suplimentară

Gelu Neamțu, Mircea Vaida-Voevod, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. II)
Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015
Ioan Munteanu, Dumitru Tomoni, Vasile M. Zaberca, Banatul și Marea Unire. Bănătenții la Alba Iulia, Editura Partoș, Timișoara, 2018

Legături externe
Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918
1 decembrie 1918, Marea Unire de la Alba Iulia. Mărturii, documente și semnificații

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1878
Decese în 1966
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Avocați români

Iustin Petruțiu


Graeme Dott (n. 12 mai 1977) este un jucător scoțian de snooker.

Dott este campion mondial (2006) și dublu vicecampion mondial (2004, 2010). A realizat breakul maxim o singură dată, la Openul Britanic în 1999. Cea mai bună clasare din carieră este locul 2 mondial.

Referințe

Jucători de snooker
Nașteri în 1977
Nașteri pe 12 mai
Oameni în viață

Graeme Dott


A eficiência alocativa é um estado da economia no qual a produção está alinhada com as preferências do consumidor; em particular, todo bem ou serviço é produzido até o ponto em que a última unidade forneça um benefício marginal aos consumidores igual ao custo marginal de produção.

Descrição
Na teoria do contrato, a eficiência alocativa é alcançada em um contrato no qual a habilidade exigida pela parte ofertante e a habilidade da parte concordante são as mesmas.

A eficiência na alocação de recursos inclui dois aspectos:

 No aspecto macro, é a eficiência na alocação de recursos sociais, que é alcançada por meio dos arranjos do sistema econômico de toda a sociedade.
 O aspecto micro é a eficiência no uso dos recursos, que pode ser entendido como a eficiência produtiva da organização, que pode ser melhorada através da inovação e do progresso dentro das organizações.

Embora existam diferentes padrões de avaliação para o conceito de eficiência alocativa, o princípio básico afirma que em qualquer sistema econômico, as escolhas na alocação de recursos produzem tanto "vencedores" quanto "perdedores" em relação à escolha que está sendo avaliada. Os princípios de escolha racional, maximização individual, utilitarismo e teoria do mercado supõem ainda que os resultados para vencedores e perdedores podem ser identificados, comparados e medidos. Sob estas premissas básicas, o objetivo de atingir a eficiência alocativa pode ser definido de acordo com alguns princípios onde algumas alocações são subjetivamente melhores do que outras. Por exemplo, um economista poderia dizer que uma mudança de política é uma melhoria alocativa desde que aqueles que se beneficiam da mudança (vencedores) ganhem mais do que os perdedores perdem (veja eficiência de Kaldor-Hicks ).

Uma economia alocativamente eficiente produz uma "mistura ótima" de commodities.  Uma empresa é eficiente de forma alocativa quando seu preço é igual aos seus custos marginais (ou seja, P = CM) em um mercado perfeito. A curva da demanda coincide com a curva da utilidade marginal, que mede o benefício (privado) da unidade adicional, enquanto a curva da oferta coincide com a curva do custo marginal, que mede o custo (privado) da unidade adicional. Em um mercado perfeito, não há externalidades, o que implica que a curva da demanda também é igual ao benefício social da unidade adicional, enquanto a curva da oferta mede o custo social da unidade adicional. Portanto, o equilíbrio do mercado, onde a demanda atende à oferta, é também onde o benefício social marginal se iguala aos custos sociais marginais. Neste ponto, o benefício social líquido é maximizado, significando que este é o resultado eficiente de alocação. Quando um mercado não aloca recursos de forma eficiente, diz-se que há uma falha de mercado. A falha de mercado pode ocorrer devido a erros, bens diferenciados, poder de mercado concentrado (por exemplo, monopólio ou oligopólio) ou externalidades .

No modelo de preço único, no ponto de eficiência alocativa, o preço é igual ao custo marginal. Neste ponto, o excedente social é maximizado sem perda de peso morto (sendo o último o valor que a sociedade atribui a esse nível de produção menos o valor dos recursos utilizados para atingir esse nível). A eficiência alocativa é a principal ferramenta de análise do bem-estar social para medir o impacto dos mercados e das políticas públicas sobre a sociedade e os subgrupos que estão sendo melhorados ou piorados.

É possível ter Eficiência de Pareto sem eficiência alocativa: em tal situação, é impossível realocar recursos de tal forma que alguém ganhe e ninguém perca (daí temos eficiência de Pareto), mas seria possível realocar de tal forma em que os ganhadores ganham mais do que os perdedores perdem (daí que, com essa realocação, não temos eficiência alocativa).

Além disso, para uma ampla discussão sobre vários tipos de eficiência alocativa em um contexto de produção e suas estimativas, veja Sickles and Zelenyuk (2019, Capítulo 3, etc). Tendo em vista o método de medição da eficiência de Pareto, é difícil de usar na operação real, incluindo o uso de recursos humanos e materiais, o que é difícil de alcançar uma gama completa de alocação de eficiência, e é principalmente para fazer julgamentos a partir da alocação de fundos; portanto, analisando os fundos no mercado de ações. A eficiência da alocação é usada para determinar a eficiência da alocação de recursos no mercado de capitais.

Em um mercado perfeitamente competitivo, os recursos do mercado de capitais devem ser alocados entre os mercados de capitais sob o princípio do maior benefício marginal. Portanto, o padrão de medição mais importante no mercado de capitais é observar se o capital flui para a empresa com a melhor eficiência operacional. As empresas mais eficientes também devem receber uma grande quantidade de investimento de capital, e as empresas menos eficientes devem receber menos investimento de capital. Existem três condições que vêm com a eficiência de Pareto

 Melhor resultado comercial
 Mesmo que você negocie novamente, os indivíduos não podem obter maiores benefícios com isso. Neste momento, para quaisquer dois consumidores, a taxa de substituição marginal de quaisquer duas mercadorias é a mesma, e a utilidade dos dois consumidores é maximizada ao mesmo tempo.

 Produção Otimizada
 Esta economia deve estar no limite de suas próprias possibilidades de produção. Neste momento, para quaisquer dois produtores que produzem produtos diferentes, a taxa marginal de substituição tecnológica dos dois fatores de produção que precisam ser insumos é a mesma, e a produção dos dois consumidores é maximizada ao mesmo tempo.

 Combinação ideal de produtos
 A combinação de produtos produzidos pela economia deve refletir as preferências dos consumidores. Neste momento, a taxa marginal de substituição entre quaisquer duas mercadorias deve ser a mesma que a taxa marginal de conversão do produto de qualquer produtor entre essas duas mercadorias.

Exemplos

Um exemplo numérico de eficiência alocativa
A eficiência da alocação ocorre quando há uma distribuição otimizada de bens e serviços considerando a preferência do consumidor. Quando o preço é igual ao custo marginal de produção, a eficiência da alocação está no nível de produção. Isto ocorre porque a distribuição ótima é alcançada quando a utilidade marginal do bem é igual ao custo marginal. O preço que o consumidor está disposto a pagar é igual à utilidade marginal do consumidor.

Pelo gráfico podemos ver que na saída produção de 40, o custo marginal do bem é $6, enquanto o preço que o consumidor está disposto a pagar é $15. Isso significa que a utilidade marginal do consumidor é maior que do que o custo marginal. O nível ótimo da produção é 70, onde o custo marginal é igual à utilidade marginal. Na saída de 40, esse produto ou serviço é subconsumido pela sociedade. Ao aumentar a produção para 70, o preço cairá para $11. Enquanto isso, a sociedade se beneficiaria consumindo mais do bem ou serviço.

Um exemplo de ineficiência de alocação
Com o poder do mercado, o monopólio pode aumentar o preço para obter o lucro anormal (Abnormal Profit). Os monopólios podem fixar o preço acima do custo marginal de produção. Neste caso, a alocação não é eficiente. Isso resulta na perda de bem-estar do peso morto para a sociedade como um todo. Na vida real, a política de intervenção do governo no mercado acarretando em empresas monopolistas afetará a eficiência da alocação. As empresas de downstream (aquelas que fornecem a conexão mais próxima no dia-a-dia) de grande escala com produtos mais eficientes ou melhores são geralmente mais competitivas do que outras empresas. Os preços de atacado que eles recebem são muito mais baixos do que os de seus concorrentes. É propício para melhorar a eficiência da alocação. Inderst e Shaffer (2009). descobriram que a proibição de preços reduziria a eficiência de alocação e levaria a preços maiores no atacado para todas as empresas. Mais importante ainda, o bem-estar social, os lucros da indústria e o excedente do consumidor serão todos reduzidos.

Ver também

 Eficiência do mercado financeiro
 Eficiência de Pareto
 Fronteira da possibilidade de produção
 Eficiência produtiva
 X-ineficiência

Referências

Economia
Finanças
Socioeconomia
Economia do bem-estar
Estruturas de mercado e preço

Eficiência alocativa


සොං රාජවංශය (960–1279) යනු පංච රාජවංශ සහ දස රාජධානි යුගය (907–960) ලෙස හඳුන්වන යුගයෙහි අනුප්‍රාප්තික සහ යුවාන් රාජවංශයේ (1271–1368) පූර්වප්‍රාප්තික චීන අධිරාජකීය රාජවංශයයි. 1279දී  යුවාන් රාජවංශය විසින් සොං රාජවංශය යටත් කරගන්නා ලදී. උතුරු සොං රාජවංශය (960–1127) සහ දකුණු සොං රාජවංශ (1127–1279) ලෙස සම්මුතික බෙදීම නිර්මාණය වූයේ 1127දී ජින් රාජවංශය (1115–1234) විසින් උතුරු චීන දේශසීමාව යටත් කරගැනීම නිසායි. අනතුරුව උතුරේ බියෑන්ජිංහි (වර්තමාන කායිෆෙං) වූ අගනුවර දකුණේ ලින්'අන් (වර්තමාන හැංචෞ) වෙත ගෙනයන ලදී.

පහතින් දැක්වෙන්නේ විහාර නාම, මරණාපර නාම, දෙන ලද නාම සහ යුග නාමයන් ඇතුළත් සම්පූර්ණ සොං රාජවංශයේ අධිරාජවරුන් ලැයිස්තුවකි. මෙම රාජවංශය පිහිටුවන ලද්දේ චාඕ කුවාංයින් විසින් වන අතර ඔහු ටයිෂු අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 960–976) බවට පත් විය. රාජවංශය සමාප්ත වූයේ චාඕ බිංගේ (රාජ්‍ය. 1278–1279) මරණයෙන් පසුවයි. උතුරු සොංහි අවසාන අධිරාජයා වූයේ ක්වින්ෂොං අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 1126–1127) ය. පළමු දකුණු සොං අධිරාජයා වූයේ ගඔෂොං අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 1127–1162) ය.

අධිරාජයා හෙවත් හුවාංඩි යනු සොං රාජවංශය ද ඇතුළත්ව චීනයේ අධිරාජ්‍ය අවධියේ (ක්‍රි.පූ. 221 - ක්‍රි.ව. 1912) උත්තරීතර රාජ්‍යයේ ප්‍රධානියායි. ප්‍රවේණික පාලකයකු වූ ඔහු විධායක බලය සමග නිලධාරී විභාගවල දී පෙන්වන කුසලතාව අනුව විවිධ නිලතල දැරූ සිවිල් නිලධාරීන් මණ්ඩලයකට හිමිකම් කීයේ ය. සොං රාජවංශ සමයේ සිවිල් නිලධාරීවාදයේ සහ වංශවතුන්ගේ වැදගත්කම වර්ධනය වීම නිසා මහජන ප්‍රතිපත්ති හැඩගැස්වීමට අධිරාජයාට හිමිවූයේ සීමිත අවකාශයකි. එසේවුව ද ඔහු තවදුරටත් ඔහුගේ වංශවතුන්ගේ අධිකාරය පවත්වා ගැනීමට සමත් වූයේ ය. නව නීති ස්ථාපිත කිරීමට පරම අයිතිය ඔහුට හිමි විය. එසේවුව ද, ඔහු සිය රාජවංශයේ පෙර අධිරාජවරුන්ගේ නීතිමය පූර්වාදර්ශයන්ට ගරුකරනු ඇතැයි අපේක්ෂා කෙරිණි.

පසුබිම

සොං රාජවංශය පිහිටුවන ලද්දේ චාඕ කුවාංයින් (ටයිෂු අධිරාජයා) (රාජ්‍ය. 960–976) විසින් 960දී ය. මෙය සොං රාජවංශය විසින් නියම චීනය සම්පූර්ණයෙන් එක්සත් කිරීමට එනම් ප්‍රාන්ත දහසයක් පමණක් හැර සෙසු ප්‍රදේශ එක්සත් කිරීමට පෙර සිදු විය. සොං රාජවංශය, උතුරු චීනයේ ප්‍රාන්ත දහසයක පාලනය අතැතිව සිටි ඛිටන්වරුන් විසින් පාලනය කළ ලියාඕ රාජවංශය (1125–1279) සමග යුද්ධ මාලාවකට අවතීර්ණ විය. සොං හමුදා සහ වුකිමයි (ටයිෂොං අධිරාජයා) (රාජ්‍ය. 1123–1134) යටතේ ජුර්චෙන්වරුන් ඒකාබද්ධව සිදුකළ ප්‍රහාර හේතුවෙන් 1125දී ලියාඕ රජය බිඳවැටිණි. කෙසේනමුත්, ක්ෂණිකව ජින්, සොං රාජවංශයට පිටුපා සොංහි උතුරු භූමිය ආක්‍රමණය කළේ ය. ජිංකං සිද්ධිය ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන සිදුවීමේ දී, ජින් හමුදා 1127දී සොං අගනුවර වූ බියෑන්ජිං (වර්තමාන කායිෆෙං) යටත් කරගත් අතර, ඒ වනවිට විශ්‍රාමලත් අධිරජු වූ හුයිෂොං අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 1100–1126) සහ පාලනය ගෙනගිය ඔහුගේ පුත් ක්වින්ෂොං අධිරාජයාව (රාජ්‍ය. 1126–1127) ද අල්ලා ගත්හ.

හුයිෂොං අධිරාජයාගේ පුත්‍රයකු වූ ගඔෂොං අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 1127–1162) දකුණ වෙත පලාගොස් සොං රාජවංශය නැවත ස්ථාපිත කළේ වර්තමාන නැන්ජිං ප්‍රදේශයේ ය. 1129දී ඔහු ලින්'අන් (වර්තමාන හැංචෞ) ප්‍රදේශයේ තාවකාලික අගනුවරක් පිහිටුවූ අතර, 1132දී ඔහු එය සොං අධිරාජ්‍යයේ නිල අගනුවර ලෙස නම්කළේ ය. දකුණු සොං ආක්‍රමණයට ජින් කිහිප වරක්ම උත්සාහ දැරූ මුත් එය අසාර්ථක විය. නමුත් 1165දී සොංහි ෂියාඕසොං අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 1162–1189) සහ ජින්හි ෂිසොං අධිරාජයා (රාජ්‍ය. 1161–1189) සාම ගිවිසුමක් සඳහා එකඟත්වය පලකළහ. මෙය අධිරාජ්‍ය ද්විත්වය අතර රාජ්‍යතාන්ත්‍රික ගිවිසුමක් ලෙසින් ක්‍රියාත්මක විය. 1279දී මොංගෝලයන්ගේ ඛාගන්වරයා වූ කුබ්ලයි ඛාන් යටතේ යුවාන් රාජවංශය විසින් සොං යටත් කරගන්නා තෙක්ම සොං රාජවංශය දකුණු චීනයේ පාලනය ගෙනගියේ ය. මෙහි අවසන් පාලකයා වූ චාඕ බිං (රාජ්‍ය. 1278–1279) 1279 මාර්තු 19වන දින මරාදැමුණේ යමෙන්හි නාවික සටනේ දී ය. මෙම ස්ථානය වර්තමානයේ ගුවාංදොං පළාතේ ජියෑංමෙන් පුරවරයේ ෂින්හුයි දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ යමෙන් නගරයේ පිහිටා ඇත.

නම් සහ පදවි නාම
ක්වින් රාජවංශයේ (ක්‍රි.පූ. 221–206) සිට ක්විං රාජවංශය (1644–1912) දක්වා රාජ්‍යයේ පාලන ප්‍රධානියා හැඳින්වුණේ හුවාංඩි හෙවත් අධිරාජයා යන නාමයෙනි. චීන ඓතිහාසික ග්‍රන්ථවල, සොං රාජවංශයේ මෙන්ම ටෑං සහ යුවාන් රාජවංශවල අධිරාජවරුන් ද සඳහන් කොට ඇත්තේ ඔවුන්ගේ විහාර නාමයන්ගෙනි. ටෑං රාජවංශයට (618–907) පෙර අධිරාජවරුන් සාමාන්‍යයෙන් ඓතිහාසික ග්‍රන්ථවල සඳහන් කරන ලද්දේ ඔවුන්ගේ මරණාපර නාමයන්ගෙනි. මිං (1368–1644) සහ ක්විං රාජවංශවල දී, අධිරාජවරුන් ඉතිහාස ග්‍රන්ථවල සඳහන් කරන ලද්දේ ඔවුන්ගේ තනි යුග නාමයෙනි. නමුත් සොං ඇතුළු පෙර රාජවංශවල අධිරාජවරුන්ට බහුවිධ යුග නාම පැවතී ඇත. මරණාපර නාමයෙහි භාවිතා වූ ලිඛිත අක්ෂර සංඛ්‍යාව හන් රාජවංශ (ක්‍රි.පූ. 202 – ක්‍රි.ව. 220) සමයේ සිට ශීඝ්‍රයෙන් වර්ධනය විය. මේ නිසා රාජ්‍යේශයන් සඳහන් කිරීමේ දී එම නම් භාවිතා කිරීම අපහසු වූයේ දීර්ඝ වැඩි නිසායි. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස, ක්විං රාජවංශය පිහිටුවීමට මූලික වූ මැංචු රාජ්‍යයේ ආදිකර්තෘ නුර්හාකිගේ (රාජ්‍ය. 1616–1626) මරණාපර නාමය සැලකීමේ දී , එය ලිඛිත අක්ෂර 29කින් සමන්විත විය. ටෑං රාජවංශය වන විට, අධිරාජයා සඳහන් කිරීමේ දී වඩා කෙටි විහාර නාමයන් භාවිතය ජනප්‍රිය වූ අතර, මෙම සම්ප්‍රදායම සොං රාජවංශයේ ද භාවිතා කෙරිණි. සෑම අධිරාජයකුටම සොහොන්ගැබ් නාමයක් (陵號; ලිංහාඕ) සහ වෙනත් ගෞරව නාම ගණනාවක් පැවතී ඇත.

රාජ්‍යයේ ප්‍රධානියා

න්‍යායාත්මකව, අධිරාජයාගේ බලය සීමා රහිත විය. නමුත් හන් රාජවංශ යුගයේ පවා, ඔහු විධායක බලය සිවිල් නිලධාරීන් සමග බෙදාගෙන ඇති අතර, සාමාන්‍යයෙන් සිය තීරණ සඳහා පාදක කරගත්තේ සිය අමාත්‍යවරුන්ගේ උපදෙස් සහ නිල එකඟත්වයන් ය. සොං රාජවංශ සමයේ, ජාතික විභාග ක්‍රමය (සිවිල් සේවා විභාගය) මගින් නිර්ණය කළ විද්වත්-නිලධාරීන් සිය නිලධාරී මණ්ඩලයට පත් කරගැනිණි. මාලිග විභාගයෙන් (අධිරාජ්‍යයේ ඉහළම මට්ටමේ විභාගය) සමත්වූවන් ඍජුවම අධිරාජයා විසින් ඉහළම මධ්‍යම රජයේ පදවිවලට පත්කරන ලදී. සාමාන්‍ය වැසියන් සේම, මෙම ජ්‍යෙෂ්ඨ නිලධාරීනට ද අධිරජුගේ නියෝගයන්ට අවනත වීමට සිදුවූ අතර, නැතහොත් දඬුවම් පැමිනවිණි. කෙසේනමුත්, ජ්‍යෙෂ්ඨ නිලධාරීන් අධිරාජයාගේ ප්‍රතිපත්තිවලට අභියෝග කොට ඔහුට බාධා පැමිණවූයේ සිය විද්වත් වංශාධිපති පන්තියේ කොන්ෆියුසියානු අගයයන් පිළිබඳ සිහි ගන්වමිනි.

පූර්වප්‍රාප්තික ටෑං රාජවංශයේ දී, සිවිල් සේවා විභාගවලින් සොං රාජවංශයේ මෙන් විශාල නිලධාරීන් සංඛ්‍යාවක් බිහි වූයේ නැත; එකල මාලිගයේ පැවති ප්‍රවේණික වංශාධිපති ක්‍රමය මගින් පදවි දැරීම සහ නිලතල හෙබවීම සිදු විය. සොං පාලකයින්, විශේෂයෙන්ම හුයිෂොං අධිරාජයා අතීත ඥානවන්ත රජවරුන්ගේ පරමාදර්ශ අනුගමනය කිරීමට තැත් කළ ද, එයට සුවිසල් දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිවිරෝධයක් ඇති විය. රජු හට දේශපාලන අධිකාරියේ ඒකාධිකාරීත්වය දැරීමට නොහැකි වීම, නිලධාරි මණ්ඩලයේ වංශවත් සහ විද්වත් පාන්තිකය‍න්ගේ නැගීමට හේතු විය.

සොං රාජවංශය පිහිටුවූ විට, පංච රාජවංශ සමයේ සේවය කළ නිලධාරීන් (හා ඔවුන්ගේ පුත්‍රයින්) සහ ප්‍රමුඛ පවුල්වලින් පැමිණි පුද්ගලයෝ පරම්පරා ගණනක් තිස්සේ නිලධාරීන් බිහිකළ සිය පෙළපත් පිළිපඳ පුරසාරම් කියන්නට වූහ. පළමු සොං අධිරාජවරුන්ට පෙර යුගයේ ජියෙදුෂි වැනි යුධ ආධිපත්‍යයන් ඇතිවීම වැළැක්වීමට අවශ්‍ය වූ හෙයින් ඔවුහු යුධ නිලධාරීන්ගේ බලය අඩුකොට බලවත් සිවිල් පදනමක් ස්ථාපනය කිරීමට උත්සාහ දැරූහ. 11වන සියවසේ දී, විද්‍යාල සහ දේශීය ශාස්ත්‍රාල ව්‍යාප්ත වීමත් සමග, බහුතරයක් නිලධාරීන් සපයන දීපව්‍යාප්ත රදළ පෙළැන්තියක් බිහි විය. 11වන සියවසේ පසු කාලය වන විට, ප්‍රමුඛ පවුල් අතර වංශවත් විවාහ ප්‍රතිපත්තීන් ව්‍යාකූල වූයේ වං අන්ෂි චාන්සලර්වරයාගේ (1021–1086) නව ප්‍රතිපත්ති (新法; ෂින් ෆා) හේතුවෙන් දේශපාලන පක්ෂ අරගල තීව්‍ර වීම නිසායි. මෙම මහා පවුල් ප්‍රතිස්ථාපනය කරමින් රට පුරා විවිධ ප්‍රාදේශීය රදළ පෙළපත්වලින් පැමිණි නිලධාරීන් බිහි විය.

පීටර් කේ. බොල් ප්‍රකාශ කරන්නේ වං අන්ෂිගේ ව්‍යාප්තිවාදී ආධාරකරුවන්, ඔහුගේ නව ප්‍රතිපත්තිවල සක්‍රීය මධ්‍යම රජය හේතුවෙන් පෙනෙන්නට වූයේ ඔහු විසින් පුරාතන බටහිර චෞ (ක්‍රි.පූ. 1050 ප. – ක්‍රි.පූ. 771) වෙත රාමරාජ්‍යය උදාකළ දාඕ අවබෝධ කොටගෙන සිටි බවයි. සීමාකරන ලද අධිරාජයා අතීතයේ මාලිග චාරිත්‍ර සහ නීති ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ මගින් සමාජය සාමකාමී තත්ත්වයකට ගෙන ආ පැරණි ප්‍රඥාවන්ත රජකු යන ප්‍රබන්ධය වැළඳ ගත්තේ ය. හුයිෂොං අධිරාජයාගේ රාජ්‍ය සමයයට පසුව පවා, සොං පාලකයින් සහ නිලධාරීහු නව ප්‍රතිපත්ති නොසලකා සමාජය ප්‍රාදේශිකව පහළ-සිට-ඉහළට දිවෙන ක්‍රමවේදයක් ඔස්සේ ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණය කෙරෙහි උනන්දු වූහ. නිදසුනක් ලෙස, හුයිෂොං අධිරාජයා 1107–1120 කාලයේ රජයේ විද්‍යාලයකට ඇතුළත් නොවී මහජන කාර්යාලයක සේවයේ යෙදුණු තැනැත්තන් ඉවත් කිරීමට උත්සාහ දැරී ය. එලෙසින් ඔහු සිය සම්‍යක්දෘෂ්ටිය වූ කොන්ෆියුසියානු චින්තනය පිළිනොගත් ඕනෑම අයකුම ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කළේ ය. කෙසේනමුත්, දකුණු සොං රාජවංශ සමයේ දී පෞද්ගලික ශාස්ත්‍රාල හේතුවෙන් රජයේ විද්‍යාල පද්ධතියට තිබූ ප්‍රමුඛත්වය අහිමි විය. මුල්කාලීන උතුරු සොං යුගයේ පැවති රජයේ පාඨශාලා සංඛ්‍යාව ඉක්මවා යාමට පෞද්ගලික විද්‍යාල මෙකල සමත් විය. හුයිෂොං අධිරාජයාගේ සමයයට පෙර පවා, වං අන්ෂිගේ දේශපාලන ප්‍රතිවාදියකු මෙන්ම ප්‍රමුඛ චාන්සලර්වරයකු වූ සිමා ගුවාං (1019–1086) මහා ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ සහ මහජන නීති හැඩගැස්වීමේ දී අධිරාජයාගේ කාර්යභාරය පිළිබඳ සඳහන් කර ඇත්තේ අල්ප වශයෙනි. ඔහු සඳහන් කොට ඇත්තේ අධිරාජයා අවශ්‍ය විට ප්‍රධාන පත්කිරීම් සිදුකළ බව පමණකි.

අධිරාජවරුන්හට තමන් පාලනය කළ යුත්තේ ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම නිලධාරීවාදය ද නැතහොත් ශිෂ්‍යත්ව, විනෝදාංශ හෝ කාන්තාවන් කෙරෙහි උනන්දු වීම යන දෙකෙන් එකක් දැයි තීරණය කළ යුතු විය. කෙසේනමුත්, ෆ්‍රෙඩ්රික් ඩබ්. මෝට් පවසන්නේ සිය ළමා විය සැප සම්පත්වලින් පිරි මාලිගාවල තනිව කොටුවී ගතකළ බොහෝ සොං අධිරාජවරුන් ලෝකයේ සාමාන්‍ය කටයුතුවලින් පැහැර වූ නොසැලකිලිමත් ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණවාදීන් බවයි. මේ නිසා ඔවුන් රජය පාලනයේ දී නිලධාරීන් මත රඳා පැවතී ඇත. නමුත් බොහෝදෙනුකගේ මතය වන්නේ සොං රාජ මාලිගය සිවිල් නිලධාරීන් කෙරෙහි ඉහළ ආචාරශීලීත්වයක් සහ සංයමයක් දැක්වූ හෙයින් සාකච්ඡා හා සමුළුවල දී අධිරාජයා සහ අමාත්‍යවරුන් අතර සමීප සබඳතාවයක් පැවති බවයි.

අධිරාජවරු

උතුරු සොං, 960–1127

දකුණු සොං, 1127–1279

අධිරාජවරුන්ගේ පවුල් ගස
චීන අධිරාජවරුන්ගේ පවුල් ගස (මධ්‍ය)#සොං රාජවංශය

සටහන්

පාදකසටහන්

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

බාහිර සබැඳි

චීන ඉතිහාසය – සොං රාජවංශය 宋 (960–1279), අධිරාජවරු සහ පාලකයෝ (www.chinaknowledge.de)

සොං

සොං රාජවංශයේ අධිරාජවරුන් ලැයිස්තුව


في الهندسة الرياضية، المضلع السِّتَّ عَشْرِيّ، هو مضلع له 16 ضلع و 16 زاوية.

من الممكن إنشاء السداسي عشري المنتظم باستخدام إنشاءات الفرجار والمسطرة.

قياس كل زاوية في السداسي عشري المنتظم يساوي 157.5 درجة، ومجموع قياس جميع زواياه يساوي 2520 درجة.

مراجع

مضلعات

ست عشري الأضلاع