Rosetta is a space probe designed to rendezvous with the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perform flybys of two asteroids (2867 Šteins and 21 Lutetia), and carry lander Philae until its landing on 67P.  This page records a detailed timeline of this mission.

Launch and cruise phase (2004 - 2014)

16 February 2004 — The Rosetta spacecraft was placed on top of its Ariane 5 rocket at the Guiana Space Centre, Kourou.
26 February 2004 — Countdown was stopped at 20 minutes and 40 seconds before lift off due to strong winds in the upper atmosphere, causing the launch to be rescheduled for the next day.
27 February 2004 — Before launch, a piece of detached foam was discovered, which prompted a round of technical inspections. Launch was rescheduled to very early March.
2 March 2004 — The spacecraft launched at 07:17 GMT. The Ariane 5 placed the upper stage and the Rosetta spacecraft into an eccentric coast orbit (200 x 4000 km). About two hours later, at 09:14 GMT, the upper stage fired to leave the orbit around the Earth and enter heliocentric orbit. Rosetta was released 18 minutes later, and soon afterwards ESA's Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt established contact with the spacecraft.
3 March 2004 — The S Band communication commenced with Rosetta, using both low- and high-gain antenna configurations. Also, all reaction wheels were in operation, compensating for large disturbances due to outgassing from the space craft, which was expected to last for a few days in the vacuum of space, whilst trapped atmospheric gases escaped.
4 March 2004 — The power subsystem of Rosetta was tested and commissioned.
5 March 2004 — Rosetta X band communications were commissioned.
7-10 March 2004 — The first three instruments (Cosima, CONSERT(Orbiter part) and Osiris) were activated and completed their initial commissioning activities. The CONSERT Orbiter antenna was also deployed.
11 March 2004 — The Rosetta Science Working Team announces that the accuracy of launch made it possible to select two asteroids as targets for a rendezvous fly-by of the probe. "Comets and asteroids are the building blocks of our Earth and the other planets in the Solar System. Rosetta will conduct the most thorough analysis so far of three of these objects," said Prof. David Southwood, Director of ESA's Science Programme in a press release.
12-17 March 2004 — Starting on 12 March, the lander was commissioned. Only one step was rescheduled due to early release of the launch locks during the first mission day.
17-19 March 2004 — The Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC) instruments were commissioned.  An issue arose with the redundant power supply, but did not substantially affect the mission. The spacecraft booms, carrying the RPC MIP (Mutual Impedance Probe) and LAP (Langmuir Probe) instruments were deployed by using the primary systems.
26 March 2004 — Checking out was completed on three instruments: ROSINA, ALICE, and VIRTIS, during commissioning activities. Each activity took two days and was within or ahead of schedule. The High Gain Antenna (HGA) emission pattern was calibrated by performing spiral maneuvers. The radio station at New Norcia was used to measure antenna gain.
30 March 2004 — The RSI (Radio Science Instrument) completed five days of commissioning.
3 April 2004 — The MIRO instrument checked out well after three commissioning passes through more spiral maneuvers, during which the planet Venus was scanned.
4 April 2004 — The Rosetta spacecraft was pointed into its attitude towards Earth, which is to be kept for the remainder of the year. Slight adjustments are planned to avoid having the sunlight hit Rosetta head-on. (Also called "+X" axis). The GIADA instrument was activated and commissioned.
4-9 April 2004 — The last instrument on board Rosetta (MIDAS) was turned on during 4 April and commissioning concluded on 9 April. By this point all science and engineering subsystems had been activated at least once.
Use of the radio station at New Norcia was reduced from 11 hours to 7 hours, to allow more time for the Mars Express mission.
10-15 April 2004 — From 10 April to 15 April, checking out procedures were conducted on the Philae lander. This second lander activity focused on the lander's payload. The ALICE instrument was activated again and high voltage operations were executed. Other activities were also performed, including an adjustment of the internal heater system due to the decreasing distance to the Sun.
17 April 2004 — An attempt was made to open the ALICE detector door. However a pyrotechnic fastener designed to open it did not fire.
21 April 2004 — After some investigation, a backup pyro was fired to successfully release the ALICE detector door.
25 April 2004 — During a test sequence using an Earth pointing attitude, the thruster temperature (heated by the sun) caused an unplanned "slew" to occur. This mechanism is used to prevent the thrusters from overheating. Due to this maneuver, a planned imaging activity of the Earth-Moon system was cancelled, but the remaining commissioning activities were completed satisfactorily.
1 May 2004 — The first scientific observations were performed at this date. The instruments were pointed towards the comet C/2002 T7 (LINEAR), at that time close to the sun.
6 May 2004 — In preparation for the first deep space maneuver of Rosetta a total of 12 pyro valves were fired, and the pressure in the reaction control system started to build up as expected.
10 May 2004 — The most critical deep space maneuver was successfully executed. The four thrusters on board of Rosetta were fired for about 3.5 hours, and a velocity change (delta v) of 152.8 metre per second was imparted to the spacecraft.
16 May 2004 — A planned "touch-up" deep space maneuver was successfully executed. A burn of just under 17 minutes was performed with high accuracy. Then Rosetta pointed its instruments again towards Comet LINEAR for observation.
28 May 2004 — ESA released the first pictures taken with the OSIRIS camera during the April 30 observation tests pointed at comet LINEAR. The camera produced high-resolution images of the comet from a distance of about 95 million kilometres.
7 June 2004 — Rosetta switched into "Cruise Mode" after completing all steps for commissioning the instruments.
25 July 2004 — A week of increased activities during the "Cruise 1" phase included the commissioning of the two navigation cameras by taking pictures of the Earth and the Moon.
4 March 2005 — The first planned flyby of Earth was executed successfully. ESA asks amateur astronomers that took pictures of the spacecraft to submit them. Also, tests with the Moon as target standing in for a comet or asteroid, produced pictures and other data as expected.
March 24 — Rosetta transitioned back into "cruise mode".
15 April 2005 — A test of the Near Sun Hibernation Mode (NSHM) was successfully concluded. It started on April 11 and tested a special low activity mode of Rosetta. In this state the gyroscopes and reaction wheels are inactive, and the craft is using the star tracker and the thrusters to control its attitude, only.
18 July 2005 — ESA reported that the observation of the Deep Impact encounter with comet Tempel 1 was very successful. Science data was recorded and down-linked to Earth during the period from June 28 until July 14, and the data is currently being analysed.
8 August 2005 — Mission members performed an unplanned monitor pass to investigate anomalies in the spacecraft's dynamic behavior. On mission day 213 and 216 a total of 20 grams of fuel were spent and a delta-v of 2.5 mm per second were added unexpectedly.
15 September 2005 — Telemetry received showed that a solar flare had hit the spacecraft around September 8 or 9. The star tracker subsystem was left in an abnormal state and needed to be fixed.
12 March 2006 — The OSIRIS instrument was trained on the future flyby target asteroid Steins for science observation, and the data was downlinked to Earth over three days just before solar conjunction.
6 July 2006 — The spacecraft comes within 0.06 AU of the ion trail of comet 45P/Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova and scientific observations are planned for this event.
25 February 2007 — The spacecraft approaches Mars up to 250 km.
14 November 2007 — Second Earth swing-by for Rosetta passing within 5295 km from the surface.
5 September 2008 — Rosetta flies by asteroid 2867 Šteins at a distance of c. 800 km.
13 November 2009 — Rosetta flies by Earth. Using the Earth's' gravitational pull to build speed. Rosetta does this on nearly every flyby of a planet.
10 July 2010 — Flyby of asteroid 21 Lutetia
8 June 2011 — The spacecraft was transferred into a spin stabilised mode and all electronics except the onboard computer and the hibernation heaters were switched off.

Mission phase (2014 - 2016)

 20 January 2014 — At 10:00 CET the spacecraft woke up and started post-hibernation procedures. Rosetta restored communications with ESA's Operations Centre through NASA's Goldstone ground station at 18:17 CET. Greets the Earth with a "Hello World" message. The message was received on a very low bit level. Over the next months ESA's job will be to raise communication speed through a software update.
 7 May 2014 — First of ten Orbital Correction Manoeuvres (OCMs) (1 h 33 min 13 s) to align the trajectories of Rosetta and 67P/C-G, delta-v of  (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - )
 21 May 2014 — OCM 2 of 10, longest burn (7 h 16 min) with largest delta-v () using approximately  of fuel (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - )
 4 June 2014 — OCM 3 of 10, 6 h 39 min burn time with a delta-v of  using approximately  of fuel (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - )
 18 June 2014 — OCM 4 of 10, 2 h 20 min burn time with a delta-v of , this was an over performance of 5%, the first notable deviation from expected performance. (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 195,000 km)
 2 July 2014 — OCM 5 of 10, delta-v of 59 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 52,000 km)
 9 July 2014 — OCM 6 of 10, delta-v of 25 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 22,000 km)
 16 July 2014 — OCM 7 of 10, delta-v of 11 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 9,600 km)
 23 July 2014 — OCM 8 of 10, delta-v of 4.5 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 4,100 km)
 3 August 2014 — OCM 9 of 10, delta-v of 3.2 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 1,000 km)
 6 August 2014 — OCM 10 of 10, delta-v of 1 m/s. Rosetta enters a hyperbolic orbit around 67P/C-G, becoming the first man made object to enter orbit around a comet.
 4 September 2014 — The first science data from Rosetta ALICE instrument was reported, showing that the comet is unusually dark in ultraviolet wavelengths, hydrogen and oxygen are present in the coma, and no significant areas of water-ice have been found on the comet's surface. Water-ice was expected to be found as the comet is too far from the Sun to turn water into vapor.
 10 September 2014 — Rosetta enters the Global Mapping Phase, orbiting 67/C-G at an altitude of .
 12 November 2014 — Philae successfully landed after touching down three times, on the surface of 67P/G-C without firing its harpoons. Touchdown 16:08 GMT.
 15 November 2014 — Philae battery exhausted after insufficient collection of solar energy. It is possible that the conditions may change as the comet moves closer to the Sun, making it possible to charge the battery.
 10 December 2014 — The Rosetta's Rosina mass spectrometers report that the ratio of heavy water to normal water on comet 67P is more than three times that on Earth. The ratio is regarded as a distinctive signature and the discovery means that Earth's water is unlikely to have originated from comets like 67P.
 14 April 2015 — Scientists report that the comet's nucleus has no magnetic field of its own.
 13 June 2015 — Philae lander says "Hello" and comes back online.

 29 July 2015 — Published analysis of the comet interaction with the solar wind.
 12 July 2015 — OSIRIS photographs Pluto.
 17 July 2015 — Rosetta/Philae Outreach Team wins Sir Arthur Clarke Award.
 3 August 2015 — First release of the science data from Rosetta instruments - COSIMA, OSIRIS, ROSINA and RPC-MAG.
 13 August 2015 — 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko reaches perihelion.
 11 September 2015 — ESA releases details on Philae wakeup in June.
 14 September 2015 — Gaia photographs 67/P.
 23 September 2015 — Release of studies of the water-ice cycle on a comet.
 25 September 2015 — Detection of argon on a comet is announced.
 28 September 2015 — Scientists release an answer to how comet got its shape.
 September - October 2015 — From late September to early October Rosetta flew up to 1500 km away from the comet for further study while it's still near the perihelion.
 1 October 2015 — Scientists release the results of a first study of the comet's southern pole made in August and October 2015.
 28 October 2015 — First detection of the molecular oxygen on a comet is announced.
 12 November 2015 — Release of the SESAME-CASSE instrument recording listening to MUPUS hammering the surface.
 13 January 2016 — Confirmation that the exposed ice on a surface of the comet is indeed water ice.
 2 September 2016 - Rosetta finds its lander Philae wedged against a large overhang.
 30 September 2016 — The Rosetta spacecraft ended its mission by an attempt to soft-land close to a  wide pit, called Deir el-Medina, on comet 67P. The walls of the pit contain  wide so-called "goose bumps", considered to be building blocks of the comet.

See also
List of Solar System probes
Uncrewed spacecraft

References

Rosetta

Timeline of Rosetta (spacecraft)


DISC1 (engleski: disrupted in schizophrenia 1) protein je kodiran DISC1 genom smještenim na kromosomu 1. DISC1 eksprimiran je u mozgu gdje je uključen u brojne biokemijske procese, uključujući umnožavanje i migraciju neurona, regulaciju signalnih putova, a nužan je za pravilan razvoj mozga. DISC1 otkriven je u škotskoj obitelji s velikim brojem ozbiljnih psihijatrijskih bolesti. Brojne studije ukazuju na povezanost mutacija u DISC1 proteinu sa mentalnim poremećajima kao što su shizofrenija, bipolarni poremećaj, depresija i poremećaji iz spektra autizma.

Povijest
Godine 1970., tijekom citogenetskog istraživanja na grupi maloljetih prijestupnika iz Škotske, skupina znastvenika sa sveučilišta u Edinburugu je kod 18-godišnjeg dječaka pronašla naizgled uravnoteženu translokaciju između kromosoma 1 i kromosoma 11. Dječaj je bio normalnog fizičkog izgleda, no pokazivao je karakteristike psihološkog poremećaja. Daljnjom citogenetskom analizom dječakovih srodnika udvrđeno je da većina nosi istu translokaciju.

Daljnja istraživanja na škotskoj obitelji pokazala su da 34 od 77 članova obitelji nosi istu translokaciju t(1:11) (q43, q21). Sukladno tome uočene su i psihijatrijske bolesti u obitelji u rasponu od shizofrenije i depresije do bipolarnog poremećaja koji je imao i izvorni subjekt istraživanja. Nakon 30 godina proučavanja škotske obitelji, 2000. godine gen na kromosomu 1 je prvi put povezan s nastankom mentalnih bolesti i nazvan DISC1 gen, a ime je izvedeno od translokacije t(1:11) koja direktno utječe na DISC1 gen (engl. Disrupted in schizophrenia 1).

Struktura DISC1 proteina
DISC 1 protein je kodiran DISC1 genom koji se nalazi na kromosomu 1 q42.1. Predviđa se da se sekvenca DISC1 proteina sastoji od 2 regije: N-terminalne domena koja je neuređena i obuhvaća aminokiselinske ostatke ~1-350 i C-terminalne domena koja se većim dijelom sastoji od alfa-heliksa i obuhvaća aminokiselinske ostatke ~350-854. N-terminalna domena sadrži nuklearni lokalizacijski signal, regiju bogatu serinom i fenilalaninom te fosforilacijska mjesta, dok C-terminalna domena sadrži mjesto prijeloma kod aminokiseline 597 te fosforilacijska mjesta. Trenutno nije poznata 3D struktura DISC1 proteina, ali novija istraživanja su u svrhu bolje karakterizacije strukture DISC1 proteina identificirala 4 nove regije savijanja proteina. Regije su nazvane D, I ,S i  C na aminokiselinama 257-383, 539-655, 635-738 i 691-836. D regija se nalazi u N-terminalnoj domeni, a ostale regije su smještene u C-treminalnoj domeni. Od 4 regije tri su bitne za ologomerizaciju proteina te je utvrđeno da se translokacijom gube 3 regije nakon 597 aminokiseline što je izravno povezano s ozbiljnim mentalnim bolestima.

Fiziološka funkcija proteina
DISC1 protein ključan je za pravilno formiranje i rad mozga. DISC1 međudjeluje sa brojnim proteinima pri čemu direktno i indirektno sudjeluje u proliferaciji i migraciji neurona, regulacije signalnih putova, održavanje sinapsi i drugim fiziološkim procesima.

Scaffold protein
Disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) jest scaffold protein. Scaffold proteini smješteni su nizvodno od staničnog receptora te vežu najmanje dvije druge molekule uključene u transdukciju signala. Scaffold proteini poboljšavaju specifičnost i učinkovitost signalne kaskade.

DISC1 veže se za više od 200 drugih molekula i sudjeluje u brojnim biokemijskim procesima u stanici. Između ostalog, DISC1 sudjeluje u dopaminskoj signalizaciji zbog čega se mutacije ovog proteina povezuju sa brojnim psihijatrijskim poremećajima uključujući shizofreniju, bipolarni poremećaj, depresiju i autizam.

Lokacija proteina
DISC1 protein je rasprostranjen po čitavoj stanici, a najzastupljeniji je u citoplazmi stanice, ali se također nalazi u živčanim stanicama, sinapsama, centrosomima i mitohondrijima gdje obavlja različite funkcije. DISC1 eksprimiran je u neuronima, astrocitima, oligodendrocitima, mikrogliji i radijalnim progenitorima.

Uloga u ranom razvoju mozga
DISC1 protein igra ključnu ulogu u pravilnom razvoju mozga. Studija na miševima pokazala je da elektroporacijom shRNA koja blokira DISC1 u 13. danu embrionalnog razvoja rezultira smanjenim brojem neurona u ventrikularnoj i subventrikularnoj zoni zbog toga što dolazi do izlaska iz staničnog ciklusa i, posljedično, preuranjenog sazrijevanja neurona. DISC1 stupa u interakcije sa proteinima koji međudjeluju sa mikrotubulima, staničnim organelima krucijalnim u diobi i migraciji stanica, a ujedno sam interagira sa mikrotubulima te na taj način posreduje proliferaciju progenitora i migraciju postmitotičkih neurona.

Uloga u dopaminskoj signalizaciji
Pokazalo se da jedinke koje imaju mutaciju na DISC1 genu imaju razne poremećaje u dopaminskoj signalizaciji. Tehnikama pozitronske emisijske tomografije  i real-time PCR-a kojim je praćena ekspresija DISC1 proteina, pokazano je da mutacija u DISC1 uzrokuje pojačanu aktivnost dopaminskih 2 receptora te pojačanu ekspresiju istih. Pacijenti oboljeli od shizofrenije ili modelni organizmi s mutacijom na DISC1 pokazuju veću osjetljivost na metamfetamin, odnosno nakon administracije metamfetamina u međustaničnu tekućinu luči se više dopamina nego u jedinki sa zdravom varijantom gena. Ovo je i dokazano tehnikom in vivo mikrodijalize. Nakon administracije metamfetamina jedinkama sa mutacijom na DISC1 zabilježna je značajno veća koncentracija dopamina u odnosu na kontrolnu skupinu. Mutacije na DISC1 utječu i na bazalnu razinu dopamina. Bazalna razina dopamina manja je u jedinki s mutiranim genom, dok je ekspresija dopaminskog receptora 1 veća nego u kontrolne skupine.

Povezanost sa rizikom od razvoja mentalnih bolesti
Točan mehanizam nastanka mentalnih bolesti poput shizofrenije nije poznat. Iako brojne studije ukazuju na poveznicu između pojačanog rizika od razvoja shizofrenije i mutacije na DISC1 genu, još uvijek ne postoje dokazi koji bi čvrsto potkrijepili tu hipotezu. Fenotipovi povezani sa depresijom i shizofrenijom primijećeni su u bihevioralnim analizama na miševima sa disfunkcijom DISC1. Studije na in vitro neuronima pokazale su da blokiranje funkcije DISC1 onemogućuje pravilan rast i razvoj neurita što upućuje na neophodnost funkcionalnog DISC1 proteina za pravilan razvoj i funkciju mozga.

DISC1 i simptomi shizofrenije
Pokazalo se da su simptomi shizofrenije direktno povezani sa dopaminskim signaliziranjem. Da postoji poveznica između shizofrenije i dopaminskog signaliziranja pretpostavilo se kada su antipsihotici administrirani zdravim osobama koje tada počinju pokazivati psihotične simptome. Simptome shizofrenije možemo podijeliti na pozitivne i negativne. U pozitivne simptome ubrajamo halucinacije, deluzije, repetitivne pokrete i paranoju, dok u negativne simptome ubrajamo anhedoniju, poremećaje pažnje i koncentracije, antisocijalno ponašanje, alogiju i pad motivacije. Pozitivni se simptomi javljaju uslijed hiperstimulacije dopaminskih 2 receptora, a negativni se simptomi javljaju zbog hipostimulacije dopaminskih 1 receptora.

Izvori

Bjelančevine

DISC1


Histopatoloji ya da patolojik histoloji, hastalıklı dokunun histolojik incelenmesinde uzmanlaşan patoloji dalıdır. Anatomik patoloji açısından önemli bir araç olan histopatoloji, aynı zamanda kanser ve diğer hastalıkların doğru ve kesin teşhisi için kullanılır ve bu açıdan çok önemlidir.

Histoloji yunancada zar ya da doku anlamına gelen histos ve bilim anlamına gelen logos kelimelerinin birleşmesi ile dilimize doku bilimi olarak çevrilir. Histoloji canlıya ait yapıların özelliklerini, yapılarla fonksiyonların ilişkilerini mikroskobik olarak inceleyen bilim dalıdır.

Histoloji genel histoloji ve özel histoloji olarak ikiye ayrılır. Genel histoloji temel dokulara ait özellikleri incelerken özel histoloji ise organlar ve sistemlere ait mikroskobik özellikleri araştırır. Özel histoloji aslında bir nevi mikroskopik anatomidir.

Histopatoloji organ, doku ve hücrelerde oluşan değişikliklerin çeşitli yöntemler kullanılarak mikroskopta incelenmesidir. İncelenecek dokular öncelikle mikrotom adı verilen mikro kesicide incelenmeye uygun kalınlıklarda kesilir. Bundan sonraki işlemler ise tespit aşamasıdır. İnceleme sonucunda hastalıkların teşhisi konulur. Bazı histopatolojik çalışmalarda elektron mikroskopisi kullanılır. Bu yönteme ise ultrastrüktürel inceleme denir.

Histopatoloji alanındaki çalışmalarla elde edilen bilgiler dokuların mikroskopik yapısına ışık tutar. Çeşitli hastalıkların dokularda oluşturduğu farklı patolojik özelliklerden yararlanılarak tanı konulmasında yararlanılır.

Histopatolojinin tarihçesi
Histopatoloji, Cerrahi Patoloji ve Onkolojik Patoloji bilim dallarının temel dayanağıdır. Histopatolojinin ilk uygulaması Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) tarafından yapılmıştır: Prens Frederick'e yapılan larinks biyopsisinin Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869) tarafından düzenlenen mikrotom ilk kez kullanılarak hazırlanan kesitlerinin mikroskopla incelenmesi cerrahi patolojinin ilk uygulamasıdır. Kesitler Virchow tarafından incelenerek rapor edilmiştir (1887). Ayrıca bakınız Patoloji.

Rudolf Virchow 'un "Omnis cellula e cellula" tüm hücrelerin anası hücrelerdir (kök hücreler ve kanser hücrelerinin kökeni konusunda çok büyük bir aşamadır) kuramı ile patolojide büyük bir adım atıldığı yıllarda morfolojik bilimlerde devrim yapacak bir buluş gerçekleşmişti: mikroskop. Mikroskopun rutin çalışmalara ve araştırmalara girmesiyle birlikte histopatolojide büyük ataklar başladı. Mikroskopun bulunmasındaki ilk adımlar insanların küçük cisimleri büyüterek inceleme merakından gelir. Prehistorik dönemlerde, içi suyla dolu bir borunun ucuna yerleştirdikleri mercekle yazıları ve cisimleri büyütmeye çalışan Çinlilerden önce Mısır'da suyun büyütme ve ışığı kırma niteliklerini bilen bilginler bunu işgalci Romalılara öğretmişlerdi. Optik fizikteki ilk adımları eski Mısır, eski Yunan ve eski Orta-Güney Amerika uygarlıklarının attıkları konusunda farklı görüşlerin varlığına karşın ilk yazılı belge Euclid'e (İ.Ö.300ler) aittir. Ataları Romalıların İskenderiye'den (Mısır) topladıkları bilgileri değerlendiren Salvino D'Armate (1258-1317) 1284 yılında merceklerden yararlanarak ilk gözlükleri üretti. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) görme fizyolojisini ve görme kusurlarının merceklerle düzeltilmesinin ilkelerini yayınladı. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) ilkel teleskopun geliştirilmesinde büyük bir çaba gösterdi. Hollandalı gözlükçü Zacharias Janssen ile ailesi (1590): ilk mikroskop taslağı (gözlükçü Janssen'ler – Çinliler gibi- bir boru içine ve uçlarına mercekler yerleştirerek mikroskopta ilk adımını attılar. 1609'da Galileo Galilei mikroskop taslağında konkav ve konveks mercekler kullandı.1674'de -yine bir Hollandalı- Leeuwenhoek tarafından gerçek mikroskop düzeneği; üniversite eğitimi olmayan Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) oluşturduğu boru-mercek düzeneği ile bakterileri bile görülebilecek kadar büyütebilen sistemi geliştirip dünyaya duyurduğunda 42 yaşındaydı.

Johannes Purkinje (1787-1869)'nin mikrotom işlevi gören araçları kullanıma sunmasıyla birlikte hücreler, dokular ve organlar ile ilgili bilgiler sel gibi akmaya başladı: göz sinirleri ve gözdeki Schlemm kanalı (Friedrich Schlemm); kemiklerdeki Volkmann kanalları ve sempatik sinir sistemi (Alfred Wilhelm Volkmann); sinir sistemi ve duyular, kadın genital sistemindeki Müller kanalı, endokrin sistem (Johannes Peter Müller); kemiklerdeki Sharpey lifleri ve epitel hücrelerinin siliaları (William Sharpey); lenfatik sistem, kıllar, mukus, irin, epitel türleri, böbrekteki Henle kulpu (Friederich G. J. Henle); hücre/doku ilişkisi, Schwann hücreleri (Theodore Schwann); derideki Vater-Pacini cisimcikleri, Vibrio cholera (Filippo Pacini); böbrekte glomerüllerin Bowman membranı, gözde korneanın Bowman membranı, burun mukozasındaki Bowman bezleri (Sir William Bowman); timustaki Hassall cisimcikleri, gözde Hassall-Henle cisimcikleri (Arthur Hill Hassall); retinadaki nöroglial Müller lifleri, corpus ciliare (Heinrich Müller) başlıca örnekler olarak verilebilir.

Hi̇stoki̇myasal tekni̇kler
Mikroskop büyük aşamalar gösterirken 1825'de François-Vincent Raspail ile başlayan histokimya Virchow'un 1856'da Berlin Üniversitesi Patoloji Enstitüsü'nde çalışmaya başladığı yıllarda büyük ataklar yapmıştı. 20. yüzyıla gelindiğinde konuyla ilgili çok sayıda yayın vardı. Mikroskop karşısına geçen morfologlar çok renkli bir dünyada gezinirken her ay yeni bir yöntemle yeni hücreler ve ürünleri tanımlanıyordu. Moleküler biyolojinin gelişmesiyle birlikte, immunohistokimya ve moleküler patoloji çalışmaları ile hastalıkların tanısı ve tedavisi için önemli buluşlara ulaşıldı.

Deneysel araştırmalar, hücreleri ve dokuların ürettiği kimyasal maddeler ile bunların birbirleri üzerindeki etkileri moleküler biyolojinin ve moleküler patolojinin doğmasına yol açtı. Temel Bilimler'in önemli bir dalı olan Moleküler Biyoloji geliştikçe Moleküler Patoloji'nin de adımları hızlanıyordu. İlk hedef antikorların işaretlenmesi oldu. Bir Patolog ve İmmunolog olan Albert Hewett Coons (1912-1978)  immunohistokimyanın üç temel bilgiyi içerdiğini gördü: immunoloji, histoloji, kimya. Kimyadaki en basit ilke immunohistokimyanın da temel ilkesiydi: antijen + antikor = antijen-antikor kompleksi (immun kompleks). Bu süreci iyi kavrayan Dr. Coons benzer bir mantıkla Pnömokoklara karşı oluşmuş antikorları floresan veren bir madde olan anthracene isocyanate ile işaretleyerek bakterilerin özel mikroskopla görülebilmesini sağladı. Bu ilke günümüzde de immunofloresan mikroskopinin temel ilkesiydi. İmmunofloresans tekniğinin dondurulmuş taze dokulardan elde edilen kesitlere uygulanabilmesi immunohistokimya çalışmalarının en önemli engeliydi. Bu engeli aşmaya yönelik çabalar 1966 yılında dünyanın iki farklı yöresinden geldi; Avrameas ve Uriel ile Nakane ve Pierce antijen-antikor komplekslerinin başka yöntemlerle de görülebileceğini kanıtladılar. Çok geçmeden peroksidaze-antiperoksidaze (PAP) tekniklerinin ilk filizleri belirdi; önce Nakane, bir yıl sonra da Mason ve ark., Sternberger ve ark., Mason ve Sammons. Birkaç yıl sonra da "alkalin fosfataze ve monoklonal anti-alkalin fosfataze (APAAP)" gibi gelişmiş teknikler sunuldu. Enzimlerden yararlanarak östrojen reseptörlerini belirleyebilen Aasmundstad ve ark immunohistokimyada yeni kapılar açtılar. İmmunohistokimya yöntemleri geliştikçe istenilen yapıları uygun antikorlarla görebilmenin niteliği de artmaktaydı.  Bu dönemde Avidin-Biotin uygulamalarının sağanağı başladı.

Nitelik geliştirme çabaları arasında frozen kesitlerine dönme çabaları ve fiksasyonlarla ilgili kuşkular öne çıktı, yeni teknikler önerildi.  Ancak nitelik uzun süre yetersiz kaldı. Çok nitelikli renk dağılımı saptanan kesitlerde pozitif ya da negatif boyanmaların niceliklerini de bilmek gerekiyordu.  Araştırmacıların bir bölümü niceliksel ölçütlerin belirlenmesi ve standardizasyonu, belirlenen ilkelere uygun bilgisayar desteğinin geliştirilmesi ve görüntü analizi programlarının oluşturulması çabalarına giriştiler.

Standardizasyonu etkileyen bir başka etken "teknik personel" ile ilgiliydi. Tekniker kusurlarını ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik uğraşlar (robotik laboratuvar önerileri ve çalışmaları) immunohistokimya laboratuvar tekniklerinin büyük bir gelişme gösterdiği 1980-1990 arasında yoğunlaştı.  Günümüzde immunohistokimya laboratuvarlarının yaygın olarak kullanıldığı robotik sistemleri üreten firmalar arasındaki kıyasıya savaş ve rekabet giderek artmaktadır. İmmunohistokimyada ilk girişimler infeksiyon hastalıklarının etkenlerini belirlemek amacına yönelikti. Günümüzdeki immunohistokimya yöntemleriyle çok sayıda araştırma ve inceleme yapılabilmektedir.

Konvansiyonal histokimya
Dokuların mikroskopi incelemelerinde rutin olarak kullanılan uygulamalardır; Hematoksilin-Eozin yöntemi (H&E) olmazsa olmaz boyama yöntemidir. Hematoksilin, çekirdekleri ve bazı maddeleri mavi tonlarına, eozin ise sitoplazmaları ve çoğu protein içeren bazı maddeleri pembe tonlarına boyar. H&E yönteminin yeterli olmadığı incelemelerde çeşitli hücreleri ve dokuları özgün renklere boyayan boyama teknikleri vardır. Örnekler:

 Golgi boyası: Nöronal liflerin gösterilmesi
 Toluidine Blue: Canlı etkenler
 Kluver-Barrera boyası: Lipofuscin
 Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS): Glikojen, müsin, bazal membranlar
 Mucicarmine: Müsin boyası
 Gümüş boyaları (gümüş nitrat içeren boyalar; Gomori retikulin ve Grocott-Gomori yötemleri): Akciğerin ve bağırsakların argentaffin hücreleri, bağ dokusu retikulin lifleri, melanin, kalsiyum
 Romanowsky yöntemi–Giemsa boyası: Parazit ve bakteri
 Gram boyası: Bakteriler
 Trikrom boyaları (Masson trikrom boyası, Ehrlich yöntemi): Bağ dokusu komponentlerinin ayırıcı tanısı, endokrin bezler
 Prusya mavisi: Hemosiderin belirteci
 Cresyl violet, Crystal violet, riboflavin T: Amiloid maddesi
 Mayer musikarmin boyası: Müsin salgılayan bezler ve müsin
 Verhoeff elastika boyası: Elastik lifler
 Fosfotungustikasit-hematoksilin: Nöroglia hücreleri, miyelin, glomerül bazal membranı
 Papanicolaou boyası (PAP): sitoloji (jinekolojik smear, serebrospinal sıvı, balgam, oral smear, seröz boşlukların sıvıları, idrar)

İmmunohistokimya
İmmun sistemin tepkileri sonucunda ortaya çıkan ürünleri inceler. İmmun sistem tepkilerinin en önemlisi antijenlere karşı antikor üretmektir. Organizmada yabancı olarak algılanan antijenlerin dokulardaki yerleşimi, bu antijenlere bağlanan antikorların yardımıyla saptanır. Önceden -çoğunlukla- floresan veren boyama teknikleriyle işaretlenmiş olan antikorlar antijenlere bağlandıklarında immun kompleksler oluştururlar. İmmun kompleksler özel mikroskoplarla (immunofloresan mikroskopu) incelenir.

Sonraki gelişmeler "peroksidaze" ilkeleri üzerine kuruldu; örnekler,

 Peroksidaze-antiperoksidaze (PAP)
 Alkalin fosfataze ve monoklonal anti-alkalin fosfataze (APAAP)
 Avidin-Biotin uygulamalarının sağanağı başladı

Moleküler patoloji teknikleri
Etkenlerin, etkilenen hücrelerin ve dokuların ürettiği kimyasal maddeler ile bunların birbirleri üzerindeki etkileri, DNA'daki değişimler, çoğu genetik kökenli markerler (belirteçler) moleküler patolojinin önemli çalışma alanlarıdır. Bı çalışmaların başlıca örnekleri şunlardır:

 Canlı etkenlerin belirlenmesi: H.pylori, T.pallidum, H.capsulatum, virüsler (HHV1, HHV2, CVM, HHV8),  parazitler (T.gondii, P. jiroveci) ile bazı mikobakteriler
 Nöropatoloji: dejeneratif beyin hastalıkları ile distrofik kas hastalıklarının tanısı ve izlenmesi
 Sitolojik materyallerin incelenmesi
 Deneysel araştırmalar
 Yangı (inflamasyon): yangı hücreleri, medyatörler, vb
 Reseptörler: östrojen, androjen, vd
 Hücre siklusu: apoptozis, vb
 Tümör markerleri (tümörlerin tanısı ve izlenmesi):
 Genomik markerlar: DNA'daki, kromozomlardaki, onkogenlerdeki ve tümör süpressör genlerindeki değişikliklerin saptanmasında kullanılırlar (p53, p63)
 Diferansiyasyon markerleri (ABO): yüzey antijenleri, sitokeratinler
 Proliferasyon markerleri: Kİ67
 Progresyon markerleri: Tumor growth factor (TGF), CD44v9, MUC1, chemokine ligand-13(CXCL13 )

Kaynakça

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar

 Tahsinoğlu M, Çöloğlu AS, Erseven G. Dişhekimleri için Genel Patoloji, Altın Matbaacılık, İstanbul, 1981
 Cattoretti G, Becker MH, Key G, et al. Monoclonal antibodies against recombinant parts of the Ki-67 antigen (MIB 1 and MIB 3) detect proliferating cells in microwave-processed formalin-fixed paraffin sections. J Pathol, 168: 357-363, 1992
 Taylor CR. An exaltation of experts: concerted efforts in the standardization of immunohistochemistry. Hum Pathol, 25: 2-11, 1994
 Swanson PE. HIERanarchy: the state of the art in immunohistochemistry. Am J Clin Pathol, 107: 139-140, 1997
 Taylor CR. The total test approach to standardization of immunohistochemistry. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 124: 945-951, 2000
 Demir R, Yılmazer S, Öztürk M ve ark. Histolojik Boyama Teknikleri, Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2001
 Teruya-Feldstein J. The immunohistochemistry laboratory: looking at molecules and preparing for tomorrow. Arch Pathol Lab Med, 134: 1659-1665, 2010
 Kubbutat MH, Key G, Duchrow M, et al. Epitope analysis of antibodies recognising the cell proliferation associated nuclear antigen previously defined by the antibody Ki-67 (Ki-67 protein). J Clin Pathol, 47: 524-528, 1994
 Brey EM, Lalani Z, Johnston C, Wong M, McIntire LV, Duke PJ, Patrick CW Jr. Automated selection of DAB-labeled tissue for immunohistochemical quantification. J Histochem Cytochem, 51: 575-584, 2003
 Taylor CR, Levenson RM. Quantification of immunohistochemistry—issues concerning methods, utility and semiquantitative assessment II. Histopathology, 49: 411-424, 2006
 Yaziji H, Barry T. Diagnostic immunohistochemistry: what can go wrong? Adv Anat Pathol, 13: 238-246, 2006
 Dabbs DJ. Diagnostic Immunohistochemistry: Theranostic and Genomic Applications. 3rd ed. New York, Saunders, 2010
 Kumar GL, Rudbeck L. Education Guide-Immunohistochemical (IHC) Staininig Methods, 5th ed. DAKO North America, Carpinteria CA, 2009
 Richard J Cole, Clive R. Taylor. Immunohistochemistry and related marking techniques, Chapter 8. In "Ivan Damjanov James Linder(ed). Anderson's Pathology Volume I, 10th edition" pp 136–175St. Louis Mosby-Elsevier,2009.
 Suvarna K, Layton C, Bancroft J. Bancroft's Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, 7th Edition, Elsevier, 2013
 Jackson P, Blythe D. Immunohistochemical techniques Chapter no 21. In "John D Bancroft, Marilyn Gamble (ed). Theory and practice of Histological techniques, 6th edition" pp 433–472, Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier, 2008
 Coleman WB, Tsongalis GJ. Molecular Pathology: The Molecular Basis of Human Disease. Academic Press, San Diego-Oxford, 2009
 Lindblom A, Liljegren A. Tumor markers in malignancies. Br Med J, 320: 424-427, 2000
 Guerry M, Vabre L, Talbot M, et al. Prognostic value of histological and biological markers in pharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma: a case-control study. Br J Cancer, 77(11): 1932–1936, 1998
 Bodey B. The significance of immunohistochemistry in the diagnosis and therapy of neoplasms. Expert Opin Biol Ther, 2: 371-393, 2002
 Coindre JM. Immunohistochemistry in the diagnosis of soft tissue tumours. Histopathology, 43: 1-16, 2003
 Travis WD, Brambilla E, Müller-Hermelink HK, Harris CC. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Lung, Pleura, Thymus, and Heart, IARC Press, Lyon, 2004
 Sharma S. Tumor markers in clinical practice: General principles and guidelines. Indian J Med Paediatr Oncol, 30: 1-8, 2009
 Kimura S, Naganuma S, Susuki D, Hirono Y, Yamaguchi A, Fujieda S, Sano K, Itoh H. Expression of microRNAs in squamous cell carcinoma of human head and neck and the esophagus: miR-205 and miR-21 are specific markers for HNSCC and ESCC. Oncol Rep, 23: 1625-1633, 2010
 Watanabe S, Kato M, Kotani I, Ryoke K, Hayashi K. Lymphatic vessel density and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor expression in squamous cell carcinomas of lip and oral cavity: A clinicopathological analysis with immunohistochemistry using antibodies to D2-40, VEGF-C and VEGF-D.Yonago Acta Med, 56: 29-37, 2013
 Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC. Robbins and Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease. 9th edt., Elsevier Saunders, Philadelphia, 2015
 Goljan EF. Rapid Review Pathology. 5th edt., Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2019

Dış bağlantılar
Virtual Histology Course - University of Zurich (German, English version in preparation)
Histopathology of the uterine cervix - digital atlas (IARC Screening Group)
PathologyPics.com
 Researcher's Portfolio Histology, Pathomorfology, Pathologic Anatomy.
Histopathology Virtual Slidebox - University of Iowa

Histopatoloji


Rodamin B je organski spoj i bojilo. Često se koristi kao pokazno bojilo u vodi za određivanje brzine i smjera protoka i prijenosa tekućina. Rodaminska bojila fluoresciraju i na taj se način mogu lako i jeftino otkriti fluorometrima. Rodamin B koristi se u biologiji kao fluorescentno bojilo za bojenje, ponekad u kombinaciji s auraminom O, kao auramin-rodamin bojilo za pokazivanje kiselootpornih organizama, posebno Mycobacterium. Rodaminska bojila također se dosta koriste u biotehnološkim primjenama poput fluorescentne mikroskopije, protočne citometrije, fluorescentne korelacijske spektroskopije i enzimskog imunološkog testa. Također se koristi u ružinom mlijeku, popularnom indijskom napitku. Rodamin B često se miješa s herbicidima kako bi se pokazalo gdje su korišteni.

Također se ispituje za upotrebu kao biomarker u oralnim cjepivima protiv bjesnoće za divlje životinje, poput rakuna, kako bi se otkrile životinje koje su pojele mamac s cjepivom. Rodamin se ugrađuje u brkove i zube životinja.
Rodamin B (BV10) pomiješan je s kvinakridon magenta (PR122) da bi se dobio svijetloružičasti akvarel poznat kao "Opera Rose". U Kaliforniji se sumnja da je rodamin B kancerogen i stoga proizvodi koji ga sadrže moraju na svojoj etiketi sadržavati upozorenje. Slučajevi ekonomski motiviranog falsifikovanja, gdje se ilegalno koristi za nanošenje crvene boje čiliju u prahu, došli su u središte pažnje regulatora sigurnosti hrane.

Triarilmetanska bojila

Triarilmetanska bojila su bojila koja se izvode strukturno od bezbojnog trifenilmetana (C6H5)3CH. Najčešća među njima su trifenilmetanska, a manji dio pripada derivatima difenil-naftilmetana C10H7·CH·(C6H5)2. U para-položaju prema centralnom ugljikovu atomu moraju se u molekuli nalaziti na arilnim grupacijama najmanje dvije auksokromne skupine. Kromofor je ove skupine p-kinonoidna grupacija O=C6H4=O, odnosno 0=C6H4=NH. Prema broju i karakteru auksokromnih grupa dijele se ta bojila na trifenilmetanske derivate s dvije amino-grupe, na iste derivate s tri amino-grupe, na hidroksi-trifenilmetanske derivate, aminohidroksi-derivate i derivate difenilnaftilmetana. U svakoj od ovih grupa nalaze se bojila različitih svojstava bojenja: bazna, kisela, močilna i bojeni lakovi. Ako molekula bojila sadrži grupu —COOH u o-položaju prema grupi —OH, bojilo je močilno. Uvođenjem sulfonskih grupa u molekulu dobivaju se od baznih bojila kisela. Sulfonske grupe koje se nalaze u o-položaju prema centralnom ugljikovom atomu povećavaju postojanost prema alkalijama. Bojeni lakovi nastaju od baznih bojila taloženjem s fosformolibdenskom ili fosforvolframskom kiselinom. Trifenilmetanskim bojilima postižu se neobično živahna, briljantna i čista obojenja crvene, ljubičaste, modre i zelene boje, ali su im postojanosti općenito niske, osobito na svjetlu i prema alkalnoj obradi. Zbog toga im upotreba sve više opada u korist postojanih bojila. Bazni predstavnici se najviše upotrebljavaju za bojenje svile i močenog pamuka, a kiseli i močilni za bojenje vune. Najveće količine ovih bojila troše se izvan tekstilne upotrebe, i to za bojenje papira, drveta, šibica, u proizvodnji grafičkih boja, za tinte, kao boje u kozmetici i prehrambenoj industriji.

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Rodamin B


Izquierda Abierta (IzAb) es un partido político español que estaba integrado dentro de Izquierda Unida (IU), hasta diciembre de 2018, formado a partir de la corriente interna IU Abierta, y al que están adheridos Ezker Batua-Berdeak, X Tenerife, Red Verde y Convergencia por Extremadura.

Se inscribió el 6 de febrero de 2012 en el registro de partidos políticos del Ministerio del Interior. Su líder más destacado es el exdiputado de IU Gaspar Llamazares, que comparte portavocía con Montserrat Muñoz.

Actualmente está integrado dentro del partido político Actúa.

Historia

Antecedentes
Los días 15 y 16 de noviembre de 2008 se celebró la IX Asamblea Federal de Izquierda Unida (IU), que elegiría a los nuevos miembros del Consejo Político Federal, y en la hubo cinco candidaturas a Coordinador General. La asamblea se cerró sin elegir nuevo coordinador general, ya que la lista mayoritaria, la del Partido Comunista de España (PCE) y encabezada por Cayo Lara, obtuvo una mayoría relativa con un 43% de los votos. La segunda lista en número de votos fue la de la corriente interna IU Abierta, encabezada por Inés Sabanés, con un 27% de los votos.

Una comisión se encargó de preparar la convocatoria del Consejo Político Federal para el 14 de diciembre. En esta ocasión, el candidato del sector de la corriente IU Abierta iba a ser Eberhard Grosske, pero finalmente retiraron a su candidato y votaron en blanco la elección del coordinador. Así, Cayo Lara fue el vencedor con el 55,09% de los votos; Joan Josep Nuet obtuvo el 17,36% y otros el 27,5% fueron votos en blanco.

Por otra parte, los 23 miembros de la Comisión Ejecutiva Federal quedaron distribuidos así: 10 miembros del PCE, 6 de IU Abierta, 5 de Nacional II, 1 del CUT y 1 no alineado.

Durante este proceso algunos de los representantes de IU Abierta abandonaron Izquierda Unida: Inés Sabanés y Reyes Montiel, para incorporarse a Equo, y Rosa Aguilar, pasando a ser consejera del Gobierno de la Junta de Andalucía (PSOE) y posteriormente ministra de Medio Ambiente con José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.

Tras las elecciones autonómicas y municipales de 2011 IU Abierta valoró positivamente los resultados al alza de Izquierda Unida pero igualmente los consideró "insuficientes y preocupantes" haciendo un llamamiento a la dirección del partido a buscar alianzas para crear un "polo social y político con organizaciones y personas de la izquierda social", como las formaciones de izquierdas, verdes y federalistas Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds (ICV), Compromís e Iniciativa Verds (ambas escisiones de IU en el pasado), Equo o las formaciones de la plataforma Espacio Plural con el fin de lograr grupo parlamentario propio en el Congreso de los Diputados en las próximas elecciones generales. Gaspar Llamazares realizó una propuesta que ampliaba la oferta de concurrir juntos a Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) y al Bloque Nacionalista Galego (BNG), que fue rechazada tanto por éstos como por la dirección de la propia Izquierda Unida.

Poco después se anunció la intención de IU Abierta de constituirse en partido político dentro de Izquierda Unida para estar en igualdad de condiciones frente al PCE. Finalmente en julio de 2011 se anunció la constitución de IU Abierta en partido con el nombre de Izquierda Abierta (IAb), dejando claro que abrirá las puertas del partido a los no militantes.

Por otro lado, en pleno conflicto en el seno de Ezker Batua (EB), que llevó a la creación de Ezker Anitza como referente vasco de IU en detrimento de EB, Gaspar Llamazares acudió a la asamblea del sector "madracista" como invitado, si bien la dirección federal de IU desautorizó dicha asamblea y pidió a Llamazares que no asistiese, salvo que lo hiciera "a título personal". El 21 de enero de 2012 Izquierda Abierta se presentó en Bilbao. Al acto, al que asistieron personalidades relevantes de EB-B, como Javier Madrazo, Kontxi Bilbao o José Navas, acudió Montse Muñoz, la secretaria de Política Institucional de IU, la cual declaró que según los estatutos federales de Izquierda Unida el "referente" de la coalición en el País Vasco aún era Ezker Batua Berdeak. Ante dichas declaraciones, la presidencia federal de Izquierda Unida aprobó una resolución en la que reconocía a Izquierda Unida Los Verdes-Ezker Anitza como "único referente" de la coalición en el País Vasco, anunciando acciones para impedir el uso de la denominación Ezker Batua-Berdeak a cualquier organización que no fuese su referente.

Creación de Izquierda Abierta y asamblea constituyente

El 7 de marzo de 2012 se hizo su presentación oficial, con la presencia del poeta Luis García Montero, la periodista Teresa Aranguren, la exalcaldesa de San Fernando de Henares Montserrat Muñoz y el diputado Gaspar Llamazares, manifestando que la formación se creaba con el fin de "sumar, no para oponerse a nadie". Los militantes del PCE que optaron por integrarse en el partido Izquierda Abierta fueron dados de baja en la organización comunista, que no permite la militancia en dos partidos al mismo tiempo (algo que sí permite IU por estar constituida como "movimiento político y social" y ser una federación de partidos).

Celebró su asamblea constituyente el 22 de septiembre de 2012 en el Ateneo de Madrid en la que reafirmó su carácter federalista, laicista, republicanista, que acepta a todos los espectros de la izquierda en un marco de diálogo y con el objetivo de tender lazos con otros sectores y fuerzas políticas dentro y fuera de Izquierda Unida para construir un "frente amplio de izquierdas" y convertirse en la "representación política de la indignación". Se adhirieron las formaciones Red Verde, Convergencia por Extremadura, X Tenerife y Ezker Batua-Berdeak; Asimismo, manifestaron su satisfacción por la creación de Izquierda Abierta Xosé Manuel Beiras, la escritora Rosa Regás, la abogada y exdiputada Cristina Almeida, y los actores Pilar Bardem, Juan Diego Botto y Alberto San Juan.

En dicha asamblea constituyente se eligió al Consejo Político y al Consejo Federal (dentro del cual destacan Gaspar Llamazares, Montserrat Muñoz, Luis García Montero, Teresa Aranguren, Carlos Berzosa, Almudena Grandes, Azucena Rodríguez, Ángel Requena o Andrés Ocaña Rabadán), los cuales eligieron de coportavoces a Gaspar Llamazares y Montserrat Muñoz.

El 19 de abril de 2017, Baltasar Garzón presentó junto con Llamazares la nueva plataforma política Actúa con el objetivo principal de «dar voz a la izquierda que no se siente representada» ni por el PSOE ni por Podemos, si bien declararon que no se presentarían a las elecciones generales. En el acto participaron personalidades como la abogada Cristina Almeida; Federico Mayor Zaragoza, (exdirector de la Unesco); el poeta Luis García Montero, (excandidato a la Presidencia de la Comunidad de Madrid en 2015 por IU); y la periodista Teresa Aranguren.

Cuatro meses más tarde anunciaron el registro de dicha organización en el registro de Partidos Políticos del Ministerio del Interior, declarando que no descartaban presentarse a las próximas elecciones, si bien el principal motivo para registrarla como partido era adquirir la exclusividad de la marca.

El 24 de diciembre de 2018 anunció su dimisión de todos los cargos federales en IU que desempeñaba.

Funcionamiento interno
Izquierda Abierta se organiza mediante asambleas abiertas de base en las que tienen voz y voto tanto militantes como simpatizantes.

Asamblea General
Sus afiliados cada tres años a la Asamblea General, órgano soberano del partido, está formado por las personas elegidas en las distintas federaciones y representantes de las entidades asociadas, así como los miembros de la Coordinadora Federal.

Consejo Político
Consta de 30 miembros elegidos por la Asamblea General y otros 30 elegidos por las federaciones.

Coordinadora Federal
La Coordinadora Federal es el órgano máximo de Izquierda Abierta entre asambleas generales. Se encarga de elegir al portavoz o portavoces. Se reúne al menos una vez cada trimestre.

Está compuesta por:

 Las personas que hayan sido elegidas por la Asamblea General.
 Representantes de las organizaciones asociadas en el número establecido por la Asamblea General.
 Las personas que ostenten la máxima representación de las distintas organizaciones que forman parte de Izquierda Abierta.

Comisión Ejecutiva
La Comisión Ejecutiva es elegida por los miembros de la Coordinadora Federal y ostenta la representación política del partido, la administración económica del mismo y la convocatoria de reuniones de la Asamblea Federal.

Portavocía
Los coportavoces ostentan la máxima representación de la organización y ejercen la moderación de las sesiones de los distintos órganos de dirección.

En la actualidad ejercen de coportavoces Gaspar Llamazares y Montserrat Muñoz.

Federaciones
Está estructurada en 17 federaciones territoriales, con representación en la Coordinadora Federal, con el número de representantes de cada federación entre paréntesis:

 Andalucía (5)
 Madrid (4)
 Asturias (2)
 Illes Balears (2)
 Castilla-La Mancha (2)
 Castilla y León (2)
 Galicia (2)
 Murcia (2)
 Aragón (1)
 Canarias (1)
 Cantabria (1)
 Cataluña (1)
 Ceuta (1)
 Extremadura (1)
 Navarra (1)
 Rioja (1)
 Comunidad Valenciana (1)

Además está asociada a IAb Ezker Batua, referente político en el País Vasco.

La Federación de Andalucía el 27 de septiembre de 2014 optó por crear un partido nuevo federado con Izquierda Abierta con el nombre de Iniciativa por Andalucía-Izquierda Abierta

Áreas de trabajo
Las áreas de trabajo son las distintas esferas de actuación del partido. Están abiertas a la participación de militantes y simpatizantes. Son aprobadas por el Consejo Político. En la actualidad son las siguientes:

 Frente Amplio-Relaciones Políticas, Luis García Montero y Raúl García.
 Regeneración Política, Pedro Chaves, Orencio Osuna y Andrés Ocaña.
 Igualdad de Oportunidades, Eva Jiménez y Victoria Delicado.
 Modelo Económico y Social: Carlos Berzosa y Blanca Casado.
 Participación y extensión organizativa: Antonio Cortés y Esperanza Martínez
 Cultura Crítica: Azucena Rodríguez y Almudena Grandes.
 Comunicación y Redes Sociales: Teresa Aranguren, María Peñuela y José Francisco Mendi.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Web oficial

Izquierda Unida (España)
Partidos políticos de España de ámbito estatal
Partidos políticos de España posteriores a la Transición
Partidos políticos fundados en 2012

Izquierda Abierta


(797) Montana es un asteroide perteneciente al cinturón de asteroides descubierto por Holger Thiele desde el observatorio de Hamburgo-Bergedorf, Alemania, el 17 de noviembre de 1914.

Designación y nombre
Montana fue designado inicialmente como .
Posteriormente, se nombró así por la ciudad alemana de Bergedorf.

Características orbitales
Montana está situado a una distancia media del Sol de 2,535 ua, pudiendo alejarse hasta 2,69 ua. Su inclinación orbital es 4,509° y la excentricidad 0,06091. Emplea 1475 días en completar una órbita alrededor del Sol.

Véase también
 Lista de asteroides del (701) al (800)
 Cuerpos menores del Sistema Solar

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Asteroides del cinturón principal
Objetos astronómicos descubiertos desde el Observatorio de Hamburgo-Bergedorf
Objetos astronómicos descubiertos en 1914
Wikiproyecto:Asteroides/Artículos de asteroides

(797) Montana


são um tipo de múmia budista. O termo se refere às práticas ascéticas de monges budistas, que entram em um processo de mumificação ainda vivos até a morte. Eles são registrados em vários países de maioria budista.

Acredita-se que muitas centenas de monges tentaram completar esse processo, mas apenas 24 casos dessas mumificações foram descobertos até hoje. Há uma sugestão comum de que o fundador da escola budista shingon, Kukai, trouxe essa prática da China Tang como parte das práticas tântricas secretas que ele aprendeu lá.

Origem

Existe pelo menos um cadáver "automumificado" de 550 anos: o de um monge budista chamado Sangha Tenzin em uma região do norte do Himalaia, na Índia, visível em um templo na vila de Gue, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. Esta múmia foi redescoberta em 1975, quando a antiga estupa que a preservava desabou. Estima-se que ela seja do século XIV, bem depois que o domínio islâmico chegou à Índia e o budismo praticamente desapareceu. O monge provavelmente era um praticante tibetano de dzogchen e múmias semelhantes foram encontradas no Tibete e no leste da Ásia. A preservação da múmia por pelo menos 5 séculos foi possível devido à aridez da área e ao clima frio.

De acordo com Paul Williams, as práticas ascéticas Sokushinbutsu de Shugendō provavelmente foram inspiradas por Kūkai - o fundador do budismo shingon, que terminou sua vida reduzindo e interrompendo a ingestão de comida e água, enquanto continuava a meditar e cantar mantras budistas. Práticas ascéticas de automumificação também são registradas na China, mas lá estão associadas à tradição Ch'an (zen budismo). Práticas ascéticas alternativas e semelhantes ao Sokushinbutsu também são conhecidas, como a prática pública de autoimolação na China, como a do Templo Fayu em 396 e muitas outras nos séculos que se seguiram. Isso foi considerado como evidência de um bodisatva renunciante.

Japão
Uma versão montanhosa do budismo chamada shugendō surgiu no Japão através de um sincretismo entre vajrayana, xintoísmo e taoísmo no século VII, que enfatizava as práticas ascéticas. Esta tradição continuou durante o período Edo. Uma de suas práticas ascéticas era o Sokushinbutsu (ou Sokushin jobutsu), conotando as austeridades das montanhas para atingir a natureza de Buda em seu corpo. Esta prática foi aperfeiçoada ao longo do tempo, particularmente na região das Três Montanhas de Dewa, no Japão, que são as montanhas Haguro, Gassan e Yudono. Essas montanhas permanecem sagradas na tradição shugendō até hoje e as austeridades ascéticas continuam a ser realizadas nos vales e cordilheiras desta área.

No Japão medieval, essa tradição desenvolveu um processo para a realização do Sokushinbutsu, em que um monge o completava em cerca de 3.000 dias. Envolvia uma dieta rigorosa chamada mokujiki (literalmente, "comer uma árvore"). A dieta abstinha-se de quaisquer cereais e baseava-se em agulhas de pinheiro, resinas e sementes encontradas nas montanhas, que eliminavam toda a gordura do corpo. O aumento das taxas de jejum e meditação levaria à fome. Os monges também reduziam lentamente e depois paravam a ingestão de líquidos, desidratando o corpo e encolhendo todos os órgãos. No final do processo, os monges morreriam em estado de jhana (meditação) enquanto cantavam o nenbutsu (um mantra sobre Buda) e seu corpo seria preservado naturalmente como uma múmia com pele e dentes intactos, sem deterioração e sem a necessidade de conservantes artificiais. Muitas múmias budistas de Sokushinbutsu foram encontradas no norte do Japão e estima-se que tenham séculos de idade, enquanto textos sugerem que centenas desses casos estão enterrados nas estupas e montanhas japonesas. Essas múmias eram reverenciadas e veneradas pelos leigos do budismo.

Um dos altares no templo Honmyo-ji da província de Yamagata continua a preservar uma das mais antigas múmias—a do asceta sokushinbutsu chamado Honmyōkai. Este processo de automumificação foi praticado principalmente em Yamagata, no norte do Japão, entre os séculos XI e XIX, por membros da escola japonesa de budismo vajrayana chamada shingon ("Palavra Verdadeira"). Os praticantes de sokushinbutsu não viam esta prática como um ato de suicídio, mas sim como uma forma adicional de iluminação espiritual.

O imperador Meiji proibiu essa prática em 1879, e o suicídio assistido — incluindo o suicídio religioso — agora é ilegal.

Na cultura popular
A prática foi satirizada na história "O destino que durou duas vidas" de Ueda Akinari, na qual um monge foi encontrado séculos depois e ressuscitado. A história aparece na coleção Harusame Monogatari.

A prática também é amplamente referenciada no romance de 2017 do autor japonês Haruki Murakami, Killing Commendatore.

Na série InuYasha de Rumiko Takahashi, um sacerdote chamado Hakushin era uma "múmia viva" que se sacrificou via sokushinbutsu para salvar as pessoas que servia.

No videogame The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, os monges nos Santuários Antigos parecem ter sido inspirados no sokushinbutsu.

No videogame Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice, os monges inimigos também são baseados no conceito de sokushinbutsu. Na série de videogames Shin Megami Tensei, o inimigo recorrente Daisoujou é baseado em sokushinbutsu.

Ver também
 Incorruptibilidade
 Embalsamamento
 Plastinação

Morte no Japão
Suicidas do Japão
Vajrayana
Múmias

Sokushinbutsu


Salak (Salacca zalacca) is a species of palm tree (family Arecaceae) native to Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. It is cultivated in other regions of Indonesia as a food crop, and reportedly naturalized in Bali, Lombok, Timor, Maluku, and Sulawesi.

The salak Salacca glabrecens was featured on a Malaysian stamp, issued 27 February 1999 under the rare fruits series of stamps.

It is a very short-stemmed palm, with leaves up to  long; each leaf has a 2-metre long petiole with spines up to  long, and numerous leaflets. The fruits grow in clusters at the base of the palm, and are also known as snakeskin fruit due to the reddish-brown scaly skin. They are about the size and shape of a ripe fig, with a distinct tip. The pulp is edible. The fruit can be peeled by pinching the tip, which should cause the skin to slough off so it can be pulled away. The fruit inside consists of three lobes with the two larger ones, or even all three, containing a large inedible seed. The lobes resemble, and have the consistency of, large peeled garlic cloves. The taste is usually sweet and acidic, with a strong astringent edge, but its apple-like texture can vary from very dry and crumbly (salak pondoh from Yogyakarta) to moist and crunchy (salak Bali).

Cultivation
The salak tree has been cultivated throughout Indonesia, and there are at least 30 cultivars, most of which have an astringent taste and are sweet. Two popular cultivars are salak pondoh from Yogyakarta province (found in 1980s) and salak Bali from Bali.

Salak pondoh
Salak pondoh is an important fruit in the Yogyakarta province on the island of Java. In the five years to 1999, the annual production in Yogyakarta doubled to 28,666 tons. Its popularity (compared with other cultivars) among local Indonesian consumers is mainly due to the intensity of its aroma and its sweet flavor even before reaching full maturity.

Salak pondoh has three more superior variations, namely pondoh super, pondoh hitam (black pondoh), and pondoh gading (ivory / yellowish-skinned pondoh).

Salak Bali
Believed to originate from Sibetan village, in the highlands of Bali. Salak Bali is commonly sold all over the island of Bali, and is a popular fruit with both locals and tourists.

It is the only monoecious salacca and one of the few monoecious palms in the Calameae clade.

There are more than 15 varieties of Salak Bali, with tastes ranging from sweet as sugar (Salak Gula Pasir), sweet-sour like a grapefruit (Salak Getih) and sour like a pineapple (Salak Nanas).
The fruit is roughly the size of a large fig, and has a crunchy and moist consistency.
In some varieties the fruit has a slight astringent, starchy mouthfeel such as with Salak Gading; with other fruits such as Salak Gondok and Salak Gula Pasir, there is little to no astringency.

Salak gula pasir
The most expensive cultivar of the Bali salak is the gula pasir (literally "sand sugar" or "grain sugar", referring to its fine-grainedness), which is smaller than the normal salak and is the sweetest of all salak. The price in Bali is Rp 15,000-30,000 (US$1.00-2.00) per kilogram depending on time of year.

As this variety of salak is known for its sweetness, it is sometimes fermented into Salak wine which has an alcohol content of 13.5 percent, similar to traditional wine made from grapes.

Gallery

References

Further reading

Salacca
Fruits originating in Asia
Tropical fruit
Trees of Sumatra
Trees of Java
Plants described in 1791
Edible plants
Taxa named by Joseph Gaertner
Taxa named by Andreas Voss

Salak


Microsoft has designed and sold a variety of ergonomic keyboards for computers. The oldest is the Microsoft Natural Keyboard, released in 1994, the company's first computer keyboard. The newest models are the Sculpt Ergonomic Keyboard (2013), the Surface Ergonomic Keyboard (2016), and the  Microsoft Ergonomic Keyboard (2019).

Models

In general, ergonomic keyboards are designed to keep the user's arms and wrists in a near-neutral position, which means the slant angle (the lateral rotation angle for the keys in each half relative to the axis of the home row in a conventional keyboard) is approximately 10 to 12.5°, the slope (the angle of the keytop surfaces starting from the front edge closer to the user towards the top of the keyboard, relative to a horizontal plane) is -7.5°, and the tent or gable angle of each half (the angle of the keytops from the center of the keyboard towards its left and right edges, relative to the horizontal desk surface) is 20 to 30°.

Notes

Natural Keyboard

The first generation of the Microsoft ergonomic keyboards, named the Natural Keyboard, was released in September 1994, designed for Microsoft Windows 95 and Novell Netware. It was designed for Microsoft by Ziba Design with assistance and manufacturing by Key Tronic. The Microswitch division of Honeywell, which was responsible for that company's keyboards and was acquired by Key Tronic in early 1994, is also credited with design input.

The keyboard uses a fixed-split design, with each half of the alphanumeric section separated, laterally rotated, and tilted upwards and down from the center of the keyboard. This key arrangement was ergonomically designed to prevent carpal tunnel syndrome and other repetitive strain injuries associated with typing for long periods of time. Another innovation was the integrated wrist pad helping to ensure correct posture while sitting at the computer and further reducing strain on the neck, arms and wrists.

This keyboard also introduced three new keys purposed for Microsoft's upcoming operating system: two Windows logo keys () between the  and  keys on each side, and a  key between the right Windows and Ctrl keys. The three Num Lock/Caps Lock/Scroll Lock status lights are arranged vertically between the two halves of the alphanumeric section.

Although it was not the first ergonomic keyboard, it was the first widely available sub-$100 offering. The keyboard gained popularity quickly, exceeding Microsoft's forecast of 100,000 units sold by the end of 1994. Microsoft soon asked Key Tronic to ramp up production to 100,000 per month in 1995, and the Natural Keyboard sold over 600,000 per month at its peak. Over 3 million units had been sold by February 1998, when its successor, the Natural Keyboard Elite, was introduced.

As with most Microsoft keyboards, software (Microsoft IntelliType) is bundled with the keyboard for both Mac OS X and Windows, allowing users to customize the function keys and modify keys fairly extensively.

Natural Keyboard Elite

The Microsoft Natural Keyboard has had several upgrades and refreshes since its introduction. The first of these was the Natural Keyboard Elite, introduced in February 1998 at a retail price of . Like the original Natural Keyboard, the Elite was manufactured by Key Tronic, who also assisted in its development.

The Elite features a nonstandard layout of the six-key navigation/edit key cluster normally found above the cursor keys (/, /, and /). Another common criticism of the Elite is that the arrow keys' inverted-T layout has been changed into a cross-like layout, with left/right arrows keys side by side and up/down keys bracketing them from above and below, increasing the distance between the vertical keys. Another significant change was the keyboard's adjustable feet. While the original Microsoft Natural Keyboard had feet in the front to generate reverse tilt, the Elite and its successors have their feet in the back. The Natural Keyboard Elite was manufactured in at least two different color schemes; white with black lettering and black with white lettering.

Natural Keyboard Pro

The third iteration was the Natural Keyboard Pro, introduced in June 1999 at a retail price of . The Natural Keyboard Pro restored the standard inverted-T layout of the cursor keys and six-key nav/edit cluster 2×3 layout, and added a row of program shortcut keys along the top edge of the keyboard (above  —  and the numeric keypad), including multimedia keys and power management keys. Vista and Windows 7 have the ability to customize shortcut key behavior without additional software when using the "internet keyboard" keyboard layout.  Some other modern operating systems, such as FreeBSD and most Linux distributions, have comparable configuration options. The Natural Keyboard Pro also included an internal two-port USB hub, which was commonly used to connect other input devices such as a mouse or trackball, but this was dropped in subsequent iterations.

Natural Multimedia Keyboard

In September 2002, Microsoft introduced the redesigned Natural Multimedia Keyboard (sometimes styled as MultiMedia) at a retail price of . The Natural Multimedia Keyboard reworked the row of multimedia buttons and included the controversial F Lock feature, originally debuted in the Microsoft Office Keyboard. Another common criticism is that although the bunched arrow keys of previous generation has been fixed by returning to the standard inverted T layout, the six-key nav/edit cluster has been changed to a 2x3 vertical layout, with  moved to the F-Lock function of , and  key expanded to double height. On the Natural Multimedia Keyboard, the status indicator lights for Num lock, Scroll lock, and Caps lock were moved from between the banks of alphanumeric keys to a more traditional location above and to the right of the backspace key. The Natural Multimedia Keyboard was manufactured in at least three different color schemes, including white with blue accents, black with silver accents, and white with black accents.

Wireless Optical Desktop Pro
The Wireless Optical Desktop Pro was introduced alongside the Natural MultiMedia Keyboard in September 2002 at a retail price of , That Desktop bundle included a wireless version of that keyboard, a wireless optical mouse (sold separately as the Wireless Optical Mouse blue), a USB receiver, and an adapter to convert the USB plug to PS/2 for older systems. The finish of the mouse and keyboard were changed to black with silver accents, and the indicator lights (Num Lock/Caps Lock/Scroll Lock) were moved to the receiver rather than the keyboard to conserve power.  Some products boxed and marketed with this name feature keyboards labeled Microsoft Wireless Natural MultiMedia Keyboard and included a wireless receiver that has both PS/2 and USB connectors.

Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000

In September 2005, Microsoft introduced the Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000 at a retail price of . This keyboard provides a significantly changed ergonomic design, including an integrated leatherette wrist rest, noticeably concave key banks, and a removable front stand to generate negative slope, which helps to straighten the wrist and allows the fingers to drop naturally onto the keys.  The multimedia keys have again been redesigned, and the six-key nav/edit cluster has been fixed by returning to the standard 3×2 horizontal rectangular layout.  The F Lock key now defaults to "on", providing the original function key features rather than the new "enhanced" functions, and retains its setting across reboots.  The 4000 has the indicator lights for Caps lock, etc. moved back to between the banks of keys, although they are now below the space bar, rather than above. The 4000 is also significantly quieter to type on, with less of the distinctive "click clack" noise that is common with older keyboards; as it is likely uses cheaper membrane key switches (as opposed to mechanical), which tend to be quieter but have twice as much travel before depression. The space bar, however, has been reported by several reviewers to be unusually noisy and difficult to depress. The 4000 is available in two variants, Business and Retail. The exact differences are not known, although product descriptions imply that the packaging is different, and prices are often slightly higher for the Business edition.

Natural Ergonomic 7000 keyboard

In June 2007, Microsoft introduced the Natural Wireless Ergonomic Keyboard 7000 as part of the Natural Ergonomic Desktop 7000 bundle, which includes the Natural Wireless Laser Mouse 7000 at a retail price of . The biggest difference between the 7000 and 4000 keyboards, aside from wireless functionality, is the position of the status lights (Num Lock, Caps Lock, Scroll Lock, and F Lock). On the Natural Ergonomic 4000, these lights are on the wrist rest, centered vertically under the spacebar. In their place, on the Natural Ergonomic 7000 keyboard, resides a single battery indicator light.

The Microsoft Natural Ergonomic Desktop 7000 comes with a USB wireless dongle that connects both the mouse and the keyboard. The attachment to elevate the front of the keyboard is separate in the box. The Natural Ergonomic Desktop 7000 bundle also comes with batteries, a very brief user guide, a disk containing the Microsoft Intellitype and Intellipoint software, and the Natural Wireless Laser Mouse 7000, which uses the same physical design as the Natural Wireless Laser Mouse 6000 with a different radio frequency.

Sculpt ergonomic keyboard

Microsoft introduced the Sculpt Ergonomic keyboard in August 2013 as part of the Sculpt Ergonomic Desktop bundle with the Sculpt Ergonomic mouse at a retail price of . The keyboard was made available separately in "Business" packaging for .

The wireless keyboard uses a scissor-switch mechanism and features a detached number pad. The arrangement of the six-key nav/edit cluster is nonstandard, although the arrow keys are still laid out as an inverted-T. The Sculpt Ergonomic keyboard and mouse connect to the computer wirelessly using a 2.4 GHz radio through a proprietary USB dongle. The receiver and keyboard communicate using 128-bit AES encryption and are permanently paired at the factory. Because of this, the dongle cannot be replaced and must occupy a USB port; this feature has attracted criticism as a Bluetooth connection would free up a USB port and ensure the keyboard could still be used even if the dongle was misplaced. Microsoft state the proprietary wireless connection eliminates any delay in waking the computer. Rather than using feet to elevate the back of the keyboard, the Sculpt Ergonomic keyboard comes with a reverse-tilt riser that snaps on to the bottom front edge of the keyboard using magnets.

During development, the Sculpt keyboard was codenamed "Manta Ray" for its resemblance to the animal.

Surface Ergonomic Keyboard
The Microsoft Surface Ergonomic keyboard was announced in October 2016 at a retail price of , alongside other accessories for the Surface Studio.

The shape of the Surface Ergonomic keyboard is similar to the Sculpt, but the six-key navigation block returns to the standard two-row, three-column arrangement, and the number pad is integrated into right side of the Surface Ergonomic. The Surface is gray and the wrist pad is covered with Alcantara instead of the gloss black finish and vinyl wrist pad of the Sculpt. The Surface has also dropped the option to add the magnetic front riser for negative slope. In addition, the Surface Ergonomic is connected wirelessly over Bluetooth instead of using a proprietary dongle.

One reviewer noted the typing action of the Surface scissor switches was "more satisfying with improved quality" than the Sculpt. Paul Thurrott criticized the Surface Ergonomic keyboard for dropping the front riser option and the increased width, which extends the reach needed to use the mouse for right-handed users.

Microsoft Ergonomic Keyboard
The Microsoft Ergonomic keyboard was introduced in 2019 and is the successor to the 4000 keyboard.  Like the 4000, it is black, wired, contains three sections (from left to right, alphanumeric, navigation, and numeric keypad), and is not backlit. It loses the zoom toggle, the back/forward button under the spacebar, and the space under the function keys are gone. There is a retail version (LXM-00013) and a business version (LXN-0004) and their differences (aside from the $10 markup on the business version) are currently unknown, though there might only be a UK layout for the business version.

See also
 Ergonomic keyboard
 List of repetitive strain injury software
 Maltron
 Repetitive strain injury

References

External links

 Official website
 Technical datasheet for Natural Ergonomic Keyboard (pdf)
 PC World review written by Michael S. Lasky (posted October 25, 2005)
 CNet Asia review written by Felisa Yang (posted September 21, 2005)
 Review written by Xah Lee, 2006
 Coding horror review written by Jeff Atwood

Computer keyboard models
Microsoft peripherals
Physical ergonomics

Microsoft ergonomic keyboards


Ivar Næss (født 25. marts 1878, død 10. august 1936) var en norsk arkitekt, der er kendt for at have tegnet en række skoler og andre offentlige bygninger.

Biografi
Næss var i murerlære i 1892-1895. I 1893-1895 studerede han på Den kongelige tegneskole i Oslo og i 1900–1901 hos Victoria and Albert Museum i London. Han havde også en række stipendier og udlandsophold.

I 1896-1899 var Næss ansat hos Henrik Nissen i Oslo, og i 1902 arbejdede han en overgang som assistent i Charles Harrison Townsends arkitektfirma i London. Derefter åbnede han sin egen virksomhed i Oslo og vandt allerede samme år konkurrencen om tegning af Frogner kirke.

Næss arbejdede indenfor flere stilarter i historicismen. Frogner kirke er inspireret af middelalderen, mens nyklassicisme og norske arkitekturtraditioner fra 1700-tallet forekommer i andre bygninger. Derimod kendes der kun til et tilfælde af jugendstil: kommunehuset Elvarheim (1905) i Elverum, som brændte i 1940.

Næss tegnede også byejendomme og flere villaer, herunder sin egen. Som jernbanearkitekt stod han for stationsbygningerne på den øvre del af Treungenbanen (åbnet 1913) samt bygningen for lokaltrafik ved Oslos vestbanestasjon (1918–20). Derudover er han ikke mindst kendt for at have tegnet en række skoler, deriblandt folkeskoler og landbrugsskoler. Han tegnede også møbler, og han skrev om arkitektur.

Næss havde en række tillidshverv og blev tildelt flere udmærkelser.

Udvalgte værker
 Elvarheim kommunehus, Elverum (1905, brændt 1940)
 Mødelokalet Venskaben, Askerveien 41, Asker (1904–05)
 Frogner kirke, Oslo (1905–07 etter konkurrence i 1902)
 Egen villa på Gamle Drammensvei 75, Bærum (1907–08)
 Trævilla på Kristinelundveien 2, Oslo (1911)
 Kontor- og internatbygning på Buskerud gård, Modum (1910–12)
 Storsteigen landbruksskole, Alvdal (ca. 1912)
 Stationsbygninger på øvre del av Treungenbanen (1913, nedlagt 1967; de fleste står fortsat)
 Kongsvinger-Solør Telefonforening, Storgaten 13, Kongsvinger (1914)
 Jansløkken folkeskole, Asker (1915)
 Melkeforsyningens gård, Vangsvegen 23, Hamar (1918)
 Lokalstationsbygningen ved Oslo V (1918–20)
 Stabekk videregående skole med rektorbolig, Gamle Drammensvei 15, Bærum (1922–23, etter konkurrence i 1917)
 Hovedbygningen til husmorskolen i Ringstabekk, Bærum (1921–24)
 Gressvik kirke (1925)
 Bondelia husmorskole, Gjøvik (ca. 1925)
 Ullevål kino, Vestgrensa 2, Oslo (1926; nu Ragnar Frisch' auditorium for Universitetet i Oslo)
 Jar folkeskole, Bærum (1926)
 Oppland landbruksskole, Storhove i Fåberg (1927; efter at den gamle brændte i 1925)
 Slemmestad kirke (1935)

Noter

Kilder

 Ivar Næss hos Arc!
 Store norske leksikon
 Norsk kunstnerleksikon

Arkitekter fra Norge

Ivar Næss


Die Tianxingzhou-Brücke () ist eine kombinierte Straßen- und Eisenbahnbrücke über den Jangtsekiang in Wuhan in der chinesischen Provinz Hubei. Sie ist Teil des chinesischen Hochgeschwindigkeitsprogramms und trägt die Gleise der Schnellfahrstrecke Peking–Guangzhou sowie eine sechsspurige Schnellstraße.

Geschichte

Im Jahr 1957 wurde mit der Wuhan-Jangtse-Brücke die erste Brücke über den Jangtsekiang eröffnet. Diese Brücke ist ebenfalls eine kombinierte Straßen- und Eisenbahnbrücke und verfügt über zwei Gleise. Im Laufe der Zeit wuchs das Transportaufkommen zwischen Peking und Guangzhou deutlich, und insbesondere für den Hochgeschwindigkeitsverkehr war die bestehende Brücke nicht mehr geeignet. Während mit der Zweiten Wuhan-Jangtse-Brücke bereits 1995 Abhilfe für den zunehmenden Straßenverkehr geschaffen worden war, erfolgte der Baubeginn einer zweiten Eisenbahnbrücke in Wuhan erst im September 2004 mit der Tianxingzhou-Brücke.

Bauherr der Brücke war das chinesische Eisenbahnministerium, ausgeführt wurde der in zwei Lose aufgeteilte Bau der Brücke von den Unternehmen China Railway Construction (CRCC) und Zhongtie Major Bridge Engineering (MBEC). Überwacht wurde der Bau durch das französische Ingenieurbüro Systra. Das chinesische Eisenbahnministerium trug 80 Prozent der Baukosten von 2,7 Milliarden Yuan (umgerechnet 270 Millionen Euro), die verbliebenen 20 Prozent wurden durch die Stadt Wuhan aufgebracht.

Im Februar 2008 wurde die Stahlkonstruktion fertiggestellt, sodass im Juni 2008 mit der Verlegung von Bahnstrecke und Fahrbahn begonnen werden konnte. Im März 2009 wurde die Brücke fertiggestellt und im Dezember gleichen Jahres dem Verkehr übergeben.

Beschreibung
Die Brücke überquert den Jangtsekiang im Osten der Stadt Wuhan und nutzt dabei die Insel Tianxingzhou in der Mitte des Flusses, die für den Namen der Brücke verantwortlich ist. Durch die Insel wird die Brücke in eine nördliche und eine südliche Flussquerung aufgeteilt. Die Spannweite der Brücke im Norden beträgt 80 Meter, während im Süden die markante Schrägseilbrücke mit einer Spannweite von 506 Metern angeordnet ist. Die Gesamtlänge der Brücke beläuft sich auf 4.657 Meter, davon liegen auf 2.638 Metern Straße und Schiene übereinander, auf der restlichen Länge im Abstand von 40 Metern nebeneinander. Die sechsspurige Schnellstraße liegt dabei auf dem oberen, die viergleisige Bahnstrecke auf dem unteren Niveau. Von Hochgeschwindigkeitszügen können auf der Brücke Geschwindigkeiten von bis zu 250 km/h erreicht werden. Der Jangtsekiang kann unterhalb der Tianxingzhou-Brücke auf einer Breite von 455 Metern von Binnenschiffen befahren werden; bei hohem Wasserstand liegt die Brückenkonstruktion noch rund 24 Meter über der Wasseroberfläche.

Über die Gesamtlänge wurden 1535 Pfeiler verbaut, von denen die meisten einen von vier standardisierten Durchmessern von 1,50 m, 2 m, 2,50 m oder 3,40 m besitzen. Die beiden großen Pylonen der Schrägseilbrücke in A-Geometrie haben eine Höhe von 188,5 Metern. Die Brücke ist ein seltenes Beispiel einer Schrägseilbrücke mit drei Seilebenen. Auf jeder Seilebene sind 16 Tragseile angeordnet. Auf diese Weise wird eine Tragfähigkeit von 20.000 Tonnen erreicht.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Eisenbahnbrücke in der Volksrepublik China
Straßenbrücke in der Volksrepublik China
Jangtsebrücke
Schrägseilbrücke
Erbaut in den 2000er Jahren
Bauwerk in Wuhan
Brücke in Asien

Tianxingzhou-Brücke


Serghei Antonov (rusă: Сергей Петрович Анто́нов)  (n. 16/29 mai 1915, Petrograd, Imperiul Rus – d. 29 aprilie 1995, Moscova, Rusia) a fost un scriitor rus/sovietic și scenarist. A câștigat Premiul Stalin gradul al treilea în 1951 pentru volumul de povestiri Pe drumuri sunt mașini (По дорогам идут машины).

Antonov a zugrăvit adesea în nuvelele și schițele sale viața de la țară - Primăvara, "Mătușica" Lușa, S-a întâmplat la Penkovo, Într-o staniță liniștită, Fata din Polesie.

În 1947 îi apare prima culegere de nuvele și schițe - Primăvara (Весна).

Traduceri în limba română: "Mătușica" Lușa, Ploile, S-a întâmplat la Penkovo, Alionka (Аленка).

A scris scenariul unor filme ca Oamenii de pe pod (Люди на мосту, 1959), Alionka (1961), Zbor fără încărcătură (Порожний рейс, 1963)

Referințe și note

Legături externe
 Serghei Antonov la IMDb
 Biografie

Nașteri în 1915
Decese în 1995
Scriitori ruși
Scriitori sovietici

Serghei Antonov


Per Zanussi (* 31. Januar 1977 in Oslo) ist ein norwegischer Jazz-Bassist, Bandleader und Komponist.

Leben und Wirken
Zanussi wuchs in Stavanger als Sohn eines italienischen Vaters und einer norwegischen Mutter auf. Mit 13 Jahren war er Bassgitarrist in Rockbands, bevor er zum Kontrabass wechselte. Er studierte Kammermusik und Improvisation am Musikkonservatorium Trondheim und der norwegischen Musikakademie in Oslo, wo er den Master erwarb. Er arbeitet seit 1990 in der norwegischen Jazzszene, zunächst als Mitglied des elektronischen Experimentaltrios Wibutee mit Håkon Kornstad und Wetle Holte. Er arbeitete dann mit der Formation MZN3, dem Trespass Trio (mit Martin Küchen und Raymond Strid), dem Crimetime Orchestra und in Frode Gjerstads Circulasione Totale Orchestra.

Mit seinem eigenen Quintett Zanussi 5, das er 2001 gründete, legte er 2010 das Album Ghost Dance (Moserobie) vor. Er arbeitete außerdem mit seiner Big Band Zanussi 13. Ferner gehört er dem Zanussi/Markhus Project, dem Eberson/Zanussi/Lofthus Trio, dem Crimetime Orchestra und Sternklang an.

Als Komponist verfasste er die Musik für Theater-Produktionen von Det Norske Teatret und des Haugesund Teater; ferner schrieb er Musik für Tanzperformances und Kurzfilme. Im Laufe seiner Karriere arbeitete er u. a. mit Bugge Wesseltoft, Hamid Drake, Louis Moholo, Sten Sandell, Kjell Nordeson, Paal Nilssen-Love, Håvard Wiik, Thomas Strønen und Nils Olav Johansen.

Diskographische Hinweise
 Frode Gjerstad, Anders Hana, Morten Olsen, Per Zanussi – Born to Collapse (Circulasione Totale, 2004)
 Collaborations (Leo Records, 2009), mit Marilyn Crispell, Fredrik Ljungkvist, Palle Danielsson, Paal Nilssen-Love, Magnus Broo
 Trondheim Jazz Orchestra & Per Zanussi – Morning Songs (MNJ Records, 2011)
 Zanussi 13: Live (Soul Note, 2012)
 Trespass Trio & Joe McPhee: Human Encore (Clean Feed Records, 2013), mit Martin Küchen, Raymond Strid
 Per Zanussi & Vestnorsk Jazzensemble: Li (and the Infinite Game) (Clean Feed, 2022), mit Jørgen Træen, Gro Austgulen, Kjetil Møster, Kristoffer Alberts

Weblinks
Webpräsenz
Porträt Allaboutjazz

Einzelnachweise

Jazz-Bassist
Komponist (Jazz)
Bigband-Leader
Musiker (Norwegen)
Norweger
Geboren 1977
Mann

Per Zanussi


Agrilus aeneocephalus é uma espécie de escaravelho perfurador de madeira metálico da família Buprestidae. É conhecida a sua existência na América do Norte.

Referências

aeneocephalus
Coleópteros descritos em 1928

Agrilus aeneocephalus


West Peckham es una parroquia civil y un pueblo del distrito de Tonbridge and Malling, en el condado de Kent (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, West Peckham tiene una superficie de 6,35 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, West Peckham tenía 327 habitantes (50,15% varones, 49,85% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 51,5 hab/km². El 23,24% eran menores de 16 años, el 70,95% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 5,81% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 38,69 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 18,73% estaban solteros, el 74,1% casados y el 7,17% divorciados o viudos.

El 95,47% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 0,91% de la población, mientras que el 3,63% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 97,23% eran blancos, el 1,85% mestizos y el 0,92% chinos. El cristianismo era profesado por el 80,73%, el islam por el 0,92% y cualquier otra religión, salvo el budismo, el hinduismo, el judaísmo y el sijismo, por el 0,92%. El 12,54% no eran religiosos y el 4,89% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

158 habitantes eran económicamente activos, todos ellos empleados. Había 122 hogares con residentes, 6 vacíos y 0 eran alojamientos vacacionales o segundas residencias.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Kent
Parroquias civiles de Kent

West Peckham


Marshall Scott Allman, (d. 5 Nisan 1984, Austin, Teksas), Amerikalı oyuncudur. Amerikan Fox televizyonunda yayınlanan Prison Break dizisindeki L. J. Burrows karakteriyle tanınmaktadır.

Allman ayrıca Boston Public, Without A Trace, Phil of the Future, Malcolm in the Middle, The Practice, Close To Home, Little Black Book, Dishdogz, Shallow Ground, Hostage ve Cold Case gibi yapımlarda da rol almıştır.

Marshall 2006 haziranında Jamie Brown ile Teksas da evlenmiştir.

Amerikalı erkek dizi oyuncuları
Amerikalı erkek sinema oyuncuları
1984 doğumlular
Yaşayan insanlar
21. yüzyılda Amerikalı erkek oyuncular

Marshall Allman


Yūki Itō (jap. , Itō Yūki) ist ein klassischer Cellist aus Japan.

Biografie
Itō feierte sein internationales Debüt als Solocellist in einer Aufführung von Antonín Dvořáks Cellokonzert durch das Philharmonia Orchestra London im Windsor Castle. Seitdem ist er unter anderem mit dem Seiji Ozawa Festival Ensemble (Saito Kinen Orchestra Mitglieder), dem Tokyo Symphony Orchestra und dem Osaka Philharmonic Orchestra sowie Künstlern wie Seiji Ozawa, Vladimir Ashkenazy, David Geringas und Julian Lloyd Webber aufgetreten.

Sein Debüt-Album "Sergei Rachmaninov Complete Cello Works" mit dem Pianisten Sofya Gulyak wurde im Oktober 2012 veröffentlicht.

Im Jahr 2016 gab er ein Konzert zum 120. Jahrestag der Geburt des japanischen Autors Kenji Miyazawa, zum Gedenken für die weltweite Ausstrahlung von NHK Japan.

Diskografie
 Sergei Rachmaninov – Complete Cello Works (2012)
 The Romantic – Great Cello Works (2017/ Sony Music Entertainment)

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Offizielle Fanclub
 Japan Arts Corporation - Künstlerseite

Cellist
Japaner
Geboren im 20. Jahrhundert
Mann

Yūki Itō (Cellist)


NK Rakovec, hrvatski nogometni klub

Povijest

U Rakovcu 1975. godine skupina entuzijasta predvođeni tadašnjim predsjednikom Stjepanom Blažinčićem osniva NK Rakovec. NK Rakovec se tada dugi niz godina natječe u 1. i 2. županijskoj nogometnoj ligi do 2015. godine kada ulazi u Jedinstvenu županijsku nogometnu ligu Zagrebačke županije, kroz to vrijeme se ujedno radi na razvijanju infrastrukture i nadogradnji prostorija.
Nk Rakovec zadnje tri godine nastupa u Jedinstvenoj nogometnoj ligi Zagrebačke županije što je najveći rang (na prostoru bivše općine Vrbovec) iza nogometnog kluba Vrbovca koji godinama nastupa u 3. HNL – Zapad.
Klub trenutno ima 111 članova u pet kategorija, limači, pioniri, juniori, seniori i veterani.

Rakovec

NK Rakovec


La Feria de Fráncfort  constituye uno de los predios feriales comerciales más grandes del mundo. Se localiza en Fráncfort del Meno, Alemania. Es una de las más tradicionales de Europa, data del siglo XII.

Eventos conocidos son la Feria del Libro es la mayor feria comercial de libros del mundo y el Salón del Automóvil que es uno de los salones más importantes en Europa.

Enlaces externos

 Sitio web  (en alemán) (en inglés)

Fráncfort del Meno
Exposiciones y ferias de Alemania
Eventos en Fráncfort del Meno
Hesse
Centros de convenciones de Alemania

Feria de Fráncfort


Čvorika (tustika, lat. Sagina), rod jednogodišnjeg raslinja i vazdazelenih trajnica iz porodice klinčićevki. Postoji tridesetak vrsta čvorika, a rasprostranjene su po Euroaziji, Africi i obje Amerike, a u Hrvatskoj raste nekoliko vrsta čvorika, to su bezlatična čvorika, primorska čvorika, polegla čvorika, planinska čvorika, ušiljena čvorika.

Čvoriki je slična i poljska koljenika (Spergula arvensis), po kojoj je rod Sagina dobio ime, a značenje mu je hrana koja deblja, jer se koljenika davala kao hrana svinjama.

Vrste

 Sagina abyssinica
 Sagina afroalpina
 Sagina alexandrae
 Sagina apetala, bezlatična čvorika
 Sagina belonophylla
 Sagina brachysepala
 Sagina caespitosa
 Sagina chilensis
 Sagina decumbens
 Sagina diemensis
 Sagina donatioides
 Sagina glabra
 Sagina hochstetteri
 Sagina humifusa
 Sagina japonica
 Sagina lemoviscensis
 Sagina libanotica
 Sagina maritima, primorska čvorika, tustika bezlatka
 Sagina maxima
 Sagina micrantha
 Sagina micropetala
 Sagina monticola
 Sagina namadgi
 Sagina nivalis
 Sagina nodosa
 Sagina normaniana
 Sagina oxysepala
 Sagina papuana
 Sagina pilifera
 Sagina procumbens, polegla čvorika
 Sagina purii
 Sagina revelierei
 Sagina rupestris
 Sagina sabuletorum
 Sagina saginoides, planinska čvorika
 Sagina schiraevskii
 Sagina stridii
 Sagina subulata ušiljena čvorika

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Sagineae

Čvorika


Zemmin steht für:
 Zemmin (Bentzin), Ortsteil der Gemeinde Bentzin, Landkreis Vorpommern-Greifswald, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
 Zemmin, ehemals im Kreis Neustettin, Dorf in der Woiwodschaft Westpommern in Polen; siehe: Cieminko
 Zemmin, ehemals im Kreis Stolp, Dorf in der Woiwodschaft Pommern in Polen; siehe: Ciemino (Główczyce)

Zemmin


බන්ධුල ජයවර්ධන

1926 ජුනි 15 වන දින රත්නපුර මොරගහටය ග්‍රාමයේ දී කහන්දවල ආරච්චිගේ දොන් පීටර් ජයවරධන සහ මර්සියානා විජේසිංහ දම්පතීන්ට දාව කහන්දවල   ආරච්චිගේ දොන් බන්ධුල ප්‍රේම ජයවෙර්ධන නමින් උපත ලැබීය.

·        පාසල් අධ්‍යාපනය රත්නපුර ජේසු බිළින්දුගේ කන්‍යාරාමය,පර්ගසන් උසස් විද්‍යාලය,සීවලී විද්‍යාලය සහ කොල්ලුපිටියේ ශාන්ත පීතර විද්‍යාලය

·        පේරාදෙනිය විශ්ව විද්‍යාලය - දර්ශනය පිළිබද විශේෂ උපාධිය - ඉංග්‍රිසි මාධ්‍ය (1954)

·        ගුරු වෘතිය - රත්මලාන ධර්මාලෝක විද්‍යාලය සහ රත්නපුර ශාන්ත ඇලොෂියස් විද්‍යාලය

·        බෙ!ද්ධ විශ්ව කෝෂයේ කතෘ මණ්ඩල සාමාජික,සහකාර කතෘ,ප්‍රධාන කතෘ

·        විශ්ව විද්‍යාල බාහිර කතිකාචාර්ය

·        සංස්කෘතික අමාත්‍යාංශයේ හිටපු සහකාර ලේකම්

·        සංස්කෘතික දෙපාර්තමේනතුවේ හිටපු සහකාර අධ්‍යක්ෂ

·        ඔහු 1968 සිට සිංහල නාට්‍ය අනු මණ්ඩලයේ සාමාජිකයෙක් ලෙස කටයුතු කළ ඔහු 1976 දී සිංහල නාට්‍ය අනු මණ්ඩලයේ සභාපති ධුරයට පත්විය.

ඉන් පසු 1984,1985,1986 වසරවලදී නාට්‍ය අනු මණ්ඩලයේ සභාපති ධුරය දැරීය.

·        රාජ්‍ය නාට්‍ය උළෙල ඇතුළු ජාතික මට්ටමේ නාට්‍ය තරග විනිශ්චය මන්ඩල හිටපු සාමාජික

·        මුල් යුගයේ නාට්‍ය නිර්මාණ කටයුතු පේරාදෙනිය ව්ශ්ව විද්‍යාලයේ සිසුන්,කාර්ය මන්ඩල සාමාජිකයන් යොදාගෙන මහාචාර්ය සරච්චන්ද්‍රයන්ගේ මග පෙන්වීම හා

උනන්දු කරවීම් සමග නිර්මාණය වූ ඒවාය.( පේරාදෙනියේ දී මහාචාර්ය සරච්චන්ද්‍රයන් සමග එකම කුටියේ වෙසෙමින්  ගත කළ කාලය මෙහුගේ නිර්මාණ ජීවිතය

පෝෂණය       වීමට මහත් පිටු බලයක් සැප යීය)

·        බෙ!ද්ධ විශ්ව කෝෂයේ සහ සිංහල විශ්ව කෝෂයේ කටයුතු කරන අවදියේ දී මහාචාර්ය ගුණපාල මළලසේකරයන්ගේ වියත් ඇසුර ලැබීය

·        ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පාසල් තුළ නාට්‍ය අධ්‍යාපනය ගුණාත්මකව ප්‍රචලිත කිරීමට ශාස්ත්‍රීය දැනුම නොමදව ලබා දී ඇත.

·        විශ්ව විද්‍යාලවල මෙන්ම ටවර් හෝල් රගහල පදනම වැනි  නාට්‍ය සදහාම කැපවුණු ආයතනයන් හී විධිමත් නාට්‍ය පාඨමාලා ආරම්භ කිරීමට විෂය මාලා සැකසීමට හා

උපාධි වැඩසටහන් ඇති කිරීමට මූලිකත්වය ගෙන කටයුතු කළේය.

නිර්මාණ

·        ඝෝෂක වස්තුව (1958)

·        බෙරහඩ (1961)

·        ස්වරණ හංස (1965)

·        දියසේන නොපැමිණීම (1965)

·        බිහිවනු බෝසතාණනි (1966)

·        ස්වරණමාලි (1999)

.         සකලජන (1986)

.         මොනර පිල් (1992)

මුද්‍රිත පොතපත සහ ශාස්ත්‍රීය සංග්‍රහ

·        රූපණ 1 සඟරාව

·        හැම්ලට් නාට්‍ය කලාව  හා ප්‍රේක්‍ෂක ඔබ(චන්ද්‍ර සෝම විතාන සමග)

·        සකලජන  – Everyman නාට්‍යෙය් අනුවර්තන රචනයකි. ධම්ම ජාගොඩ විසින් නිෂ්පාදිතයි.

·        සම්භාව්‍ය ග්‍රීක නාට්‍ය කලාව (1994)(විජේරත්න පතිරාජ සමග)

·        නාට්‍ය ප්‍රභේද (ජාතික අධ්‍යාපන ආයතනය වෙනුවෙන්)

·        Barefoot to Immortality (අමරණීයත්වයට පියමං කිරීම)

·        මොනරපිල් (1992)

·        කඹය (රෝම ප්‍රහසන නාට්‍යකරවකු වන ප්ලෝටස් ගේ රැඩෙන්ස් නාට්‍යෙය් සිංහල පරිවර්තනය)

·        ස්වර්ණමාලී නාට්‍ය පෙළ අධ්‍යයනය

·        A Brush Stroke Sketch of the Contemporary Sinahala Theatre 1950 – 1980 (1996)

·        විවාහය 1970

·        බිරිද - පෙමාලි ජයවර්ධන

·        දියණිය - රනිති ජයවර්ධන

·        අභාවය - 2003 නොවැම්බර් 21

Bandula Jayawardane


Dao Droste (Saigon, 1952) é uma artista vietnamita que vive na Alemanha.

Biografia
Ela nasceu em Saigon e mudou-se para a Alemanha em 1971. Droste estudou química em Estugarda e Heidelberg, obtendo um PhD. Ela passou a trabalhar em escultura, pintura e instalação e estabeleceu o seu próprio estúdio em 1987. Ela agora vive em Eppelheim.

A sua grande peça de instalação "Open-mindedness", que incluiu 500 rostos de terracota, atraiu a atenção internacional.

Droste projectou a estátua para o One World Award, que é patrocinado por Rapunzel Naturkost e pela Federação Internacional de Movimentos de Agricultura Orgânica.

O seu trabalho encontra-se apresentado em colecções públicas e privadas, incluindo no Museu Carl Bosch em Heidelberg, no Ministério Federal de Educação e Pesquisa em Berlim e na cidade de Eppelheim.

Pintoras da Alemanha
Pessoas vivas

Dao Droste


بوغورودسكويي  هي مدينة في مقاطعة إيفانوفو أوبلاست في روسيا.

المراجع

مدن مقاطعة إيفانوفو

بوغورودسكويي (مقاطعة إيفانوفو)


Nenga, rod palmi smješten u podtribus Arecinae, dio tribusa Areceae, potporodica Arecoideae. Postoji pet priznatih vrsta iz Indokine, Sumatre, Bornea i Jave .

Vrste
 Nenga banaensis (Magalon) Burret
 Nenga gajah J.Dransf.
 Nenga grandiflora Fernando
 Nenga macrocarpa Scort. ex Becc.
 Nenga pumila (Blume) H.Wendl.

Izvori

Arecinae

Nenga


Lorenzo Litta (Milão, 23 de fevereiro de 1756 - Monteflavio, 1º de maio de 1820) foi um cardeal italiano.

Nascimento
Nasceu em Milão em 23 de fevereiro de 1756. De família nobre. patrício milanês. Filho de Pompeo Giulio Litta (1727-1797), sexto marquês de Gambolò, e Maria Elisabetta Visconti (1730-1794), dos condes della Pieve di Brebbia, que era tia de Pompeo. Sobrinho-bisneto do cardeal Alfonso Litta (1664).

Educação
Estudou no Collegio Clementino , Roma (letras e direito); e na Universidade La Sapienza, em Roma, onde obteve o doutorado in utroque iure , direito canônico e civil, em 28 de janeiro de 1780.

Infância
Entrou na prelatura romana em 13 de abril de 1780 como referendário. Protonotário apostólico de numero participantes em 1782. Relator da Sagrada Consulta em 14 de fevereiro de 1785. Encarregado pelo Papa Pio VI de uma missão perante Napoleão Bonaparte em 1791. Censor adjunto da Academia de Teologia. Comissário na fronteira com a Toscana. Vigário prelado do arcipreste da basílica patriarcal de Latrão.

Sacerdócio
Ordenado em 6 de junho de 1789.

Episcopado
Eleito arcebispo titular de Tebe, (1) 23 de setembro de 1793. Assistente do Trono Pontifício, 23 de setembro de 1793. Consagrado, 6 de outubro de 1793, igreja de S. Carlo al Corso, Roma, pelo cardeal Luigi Valenti Gonzaga, prefeito de o Economata da SC de Propaganda Fide, coadjuvado por Carlo Crivelli, arcebispo titular de Patras, prefeito dos arquivos vaticanos, e por Giovanni Francesco Guidi di Bagno-Talenti, arcebispo titular de Mira, cônego da patriarcal basílica vaticana. Núncio na Polônia, 15 de novembro, 1793; ele chegou a Varsóvia em 24 de março de 1794; apresentou suas credenciais no dia 9 de abril seguinte; lá permaneceu até 13 de março de 1797. Nas negociações para a terceira partição da Polônia, defendeu os direitos da igreja; absteve-se de condenar os insurgentes e tentou conciliar os nacionalistas e os russófilos; mas todos os seus esforços não foram suficientes para evitar a divisão do país em janeiro de 1795; tentou proteger os católicos de rito latino e os uniatas nos três territórios sob cuja jurisdição passaram; a nunciatura ficou vaga por cento e vinte e três anos depois que ele partiu. Em 11 de fevereiro de 1797, foi nomeado embaixador extraordinário na Rússia para representar a Santa Sé na coroação do czar Paulo I em Moscou, de 8 a 16 de abril daquele ano; mais tarde, ele foi para St. Petersburgo para tentar persuadir o czar a conceder liberdade religiosa a seus súditos poloneses, permitir a organização canônica da Igreja Católica nos territórios russos e revogar as medidas anticatólicas e antiuniatas da imperatriz Catarina II; sua missão foi parcialmente bem-sucedida: não conseguiu restabelecer a livre comunicação entre o episcopado local e Roma; conseguiu restaurar nove dioceses de ambos os ritos; recuperar parte dos bens eclesiásticos confiscados; e restabelecer os conventos dos basilianos. Ele foi expulso da Rússia em maio de 1799 após o fracasso das negociações relativas à Ordem de Malta; Roma não aceitava que o czar tivesse se autoproclamado grão-mestre da ordem após a ocupação da ilha pelas tropas francesas. Ele foi para Veneza, onde ficava a corte papal, e assistido no conclave de 1799-1800. Foi nomeado tesoureiro geral e coletor da Câmara Apostólica pelo novo Papa Pio VII em 23 de novembro de 1800; ocupou o cargo até sua promoção ao cardinalato.

Cardinalado
Criado cardeal e reservado in pectore no consistório de 23 de fevereiro de 1801; publicado no consistório de 28 de setembro de 1801; recebeu chapéu vermelho, 1º de outubro de 1801; e o título de S. Pudenziana, 23 de dezembro de 1801. Prefeito da SC do Índice, 27 de agosto de 1803 até 30 de junho de 1816. Prefeito de estudos do Collegio e Seminario Romanode 1805 a 1814. Camerlengo do Sacro Colégio dos Cardeais, 1806-1807. Em 1807, sabendo de seus sentimentos antifranceses, o imperador Napoleão I Bonaparte recusou-se a aceitá-lo como plenipotenciário para examinar as divergências entre a Santa Sé e a França. Exilado em Milão em março de 1808 e depois deportado para a França como a maioria dos outros cardeais em 1809, recusou-se a comparecer ao casamento civil e religioso do imperador com Marie-Louise em abril de 1810; ele estava então entre os "cardeais negros" (não era permitido usar as vestes vermelhas de sua posição). Ele foi rebaixado para Saint-Quentin e depois, em fevereiro de 1813, para Fontainebleau; e para Nîmes em janeiro de 1814; ele voltou a Roma após a queda de Napoleão no mês de abril seguinte. Nomeado prefeito do SC de Propaganda Fide e prefeito de imprensa do SC de Propaganda Fide em 20 de maio de 1814; ocupou o cargo até 24 de setembro de 1818. Optou pela ordem dos cardeais bispos e pela sé suburbicária de Sabina, em 26 de setembro de 1814. Refugiou-se em Gênova com o Papa Pio VII na época da invasão de Joaquim Murat, rei de Nápoles , em 1815. Prefeito da SC da Correção dos Livros da Igreja Oriental de 30 de junho de 1816 até sua morte. Foi também protetor da Pontifícia Academia dos Nobres Eclesiásticos de 1817 a 1820. Vigário geral de Sua Santidade para a cidade de Roma, 28 de setembro de 1818. Prefeito da SC da Residência dos Bispos de 28 de setembro de 1818 até sua morte. Refugiou-se em Gênova com o Papa Pio VII na época da invasão de Joachim Murat, rei de Nápoles, em 1815. Prefeito da SC da Correção dos Livros da Igreja Oriental de 30 de junho de 1816 até sua morte. Foi também protetor da Pontifícia Academia dos Nobres Eclesiásticos de 1817 a 1820. Vigário geral de Sua Santidade para a cidade de Roma, 28 de setembro de 1818. Prefeito da SC da Residência dos Bispos de 28 de setembro de 1818 até sua morte. Refugiou-se em Gênova com o Papa Pio VII na época da invasão de Joachim Murat, rei de Nápoles, em 1815. Prefeito da SC da Correção dos Livros da Igreja Oriental de 30 de junho de 1816 até sua morte. Foi também protetor da Pontifícia Academia dos Nobres Eclesiásticos de 1817 a 1820. Vigário geral de Sua Santidade para a cidade de Roma, 28 de setembro de 1818. Prefeito da SC da Residência dos Bispos de 28 de setembro de 1818 até sua morte.

Morte
Morreu em Monteflavio em 1º de maio de 1820, de problemas gástricos, repentinamente. Exposto na basílica de Ss. XII Apostoli, Roma, onde se realizou o funeral; e enterrado na igreja de Ss. Giovanni e Paolo, Roma, segundo seu testamento

Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Pio VII

Lorenzo Litta