George Parkin Grant  (13 November 1918 – 27 September 1988) was a Canadian philosopher and political commentator. He is best known for his Canadian nationalism, political conservatism, and his views on technology, pacifism, and Christian faith. He is often seen as one of Canada's most original thinkers.

Academically, his writings express a complex meditation on the great books, and confrontation with the great thinkers, of Western civilization. His influences include the "ancients" such as Plato,  as well as "moderns" like Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Leo Strauss, James Doull, Simone Weil, and Jacques Ellul.

Although he is considered the main theoretician of red Toryism, he expressed dislike of the term when applied to his deeper philosophical interests, which he saw as his primary work as a thinker. Recent research on Grant uncovers his debt to a neo-Hegelian idealist tradition, Canadian idealism, that had a major influence on many Canadian scholars and Canadian political culture more broadly.

Family
Grant was born in Toronto on 13 November 1918, the son of Maude Erskine (née Parkin) and William Lawson Grant. He came from a distinguished Canadian family of scholars and educators. His father was the principal of Upper Canada College, and his paternal grandfather George Monro Grant was the dynamic principal of Queen's University. His maternal grandfather was Sir George Robert Parkin, also a principal at Upper Canada College, whose daughter Alice married Vincent Massey, the Canadian diplomat and first Canadian-born Governor General of Canada. Both of his grandfathers were strong proponents of the bonds between Canada and the British Empire, and this greatly influenced their grandson. His nephew is a public intellectual and former Leader of the Opposition in the Canadian House of Commons, Michael Ignatieff. On 1 July 1947 he married Sheila Allen whom he had met at Oxford.

Education and teaching
Grant was educated at Upper Canada College and Queen's University from which he graduated with a history degree. He attended Balliol College at the University of Oxford on a Rhodes Scholarship, a trust his grandfather, George Parkin, had headed at one time. Upon winning the Rhodes Scholarship, he enrolled towards a degree in law at Oxford, but after the Second World War ended, and Grant had experienced a deeper personal engagement with Christianity, he decided to change studies. His Doctor of Philosophy research was interrupted by the war, and he was already teaching in Dalhousie University's philosophy department when he completed his thesis, The Concept of Nature and Supernature in the Theology of John Oman, during a year-long sabbatical in 1950. Grant was a faculty member at Dalhousie twice (1947–1960, 1980–1988), and at York University (1960–1961; he resigned before teaching) and McMaster University's religion department (1961–1980), which he founded and led in the 1960s and early 1970s. In 1977, he became an editorial advisor of the journal Dionysius, which published his essay "Nietzsche and the Ancients: Philosophy and Scholarship" in 1979.

In George Grant: A Biography his struggles as a self-taught philosopher are highlighted.

Grant was not readily accepted into the traditional academic community of scholars in Canada. Resistance was provoked by some of Grant's less "progressive" stances, most notably the definition of philosophy he published in 1949: "The study of philosophy is the analysis of the traditions of our society and the judgment of those traditions against our varying intuitions of the Perfections of God". Especially angered and upset was Fulton Anderson of the University of Toronto's philosophy department. Grant's definition is telling, in that it marks his take on philosophy's human perspective, which did not necessarily include assumptions regarding the objectivity of science, or the acceptance of the Enlightenment's fact–value distinction.

Throughout his career Grant was seen as a unique voice within academic institutions, and thus had strong appeal beyond the strict "community of scholars". In fact, Grant criticized the trend in universities to move away from the "unity" of the traditional academy to a "multi-versity" comprising separate hives of undergraduate students, graduate students, professional faculties, and professors (years before the American Allan Bloom would become famous for similar themes).

Grant died on 27 September 1988.

Politics and philosophy

In 1965 Grant published his most widely known work, Lament for a Nation, in which he deplored what he claimed was Canada's inevitable cultural absorption by the United States, a phenomenon he saw as an instance of "continentalism". He argued that the homogenizing effect in current affairs during the period when it was written would see the demise of Canadian cultural nationality. The importance of the text is reflected in its selection in 2005 as one of The Literary Review of Canada 100 most important Canadian books. Grant articulated a political philosophy which was becoming known as red Toryism. It promoted the collectivist and communitarian aspects of an older English conservative tradition, which stood in direct opposition to the individualist traditions of liberalism and subsequently neo-liberalism.

The subjects of his books, essays, public lectures, and radio addresses (many on CBC Radio in Canada) quite frequently combined philosophy, religion, and political thought. Grant strongly critiqued what he believed were the worst facets of modernity, namely unbridled technological advancement and a loss of moral foundations to guide humanity.  He defined philosophy as the search for the "purpose and meaning and unity [of] life". What he proposed in place of the modern spirit was a synthesis of Christian and Platonic thought which embodied contemplation of the "good". It is a synthesis that was given form by his neo-Hegelian Canadian idealism, which had been a part of his upbringing (his grandfather had been student of John Caird and a close friend of John Watson) but only really took explicit form when he was introduced to Hegel's work by James Doull.

His first book, Philosophy in the Mass Age (1959), was his most explicitly Hegelian book. It began as a series of CBC lectures, and in it he posed the question of how human beings can reconcile moral freedom with acceptance of the view that an order exists in the universe beyond space and time. He applied a neo-Hegelian concept of history to the modern dilemma of reconciling freedom and order. He saw history as the progressive development of humanity's consciousness of freedom and argued that Canada's unique combination of British traditional institutions and American individualism put it at the forefront of this final stage of history. In 1965, furious that the Liberal government had agreed to accept nuclear weapons, he published Lament for a Nation. At this point, Grant had been influenced by Leo Strauss and his neo-Hegelian conception of historical progress became more restrained, losing the hope that we had reached or were on the verge of reaching the fullest consciousness of freedom.  Lament for a Nation created a sensation with its argument that Canada was destined to disappear into a universal and homogeneous state whose centre was the United States. The idea of progress had lost its connection to our moral development and had been co-opted into a utilitarian mastery of nature to satisfy human appetites. Technology and Empire (1969), a collection of essays edited by poet and friend Dennis Lee, deepened his critique of technological modernity; and Time as History, his 1969 Massey Lecture, explained the worsening predicament of the West through an examination of the thought of Friedrich Nietzsche. Grant's works of the 1960s had a strong influence on the nationalist movement of the 1970s, though many of the New Left were uncomfortable with Grant's conservatism, his conventional Anglican Tory beliefs, Christian-Platonist perspective, and his uncompromising position against abortion.

Grant's last work was Technology and Justice (1986), which he prepared together with his wife, Sheila Grant. His three-decades-long meditation on French philosopher Simone Weil's works led to the conclusion that there were fundamental moral and spiritual flaws in Western civilization, consigning it to a fate of inevitable collapse. Nevertheless, Grant affirmed his belief that a better civilization could eventually replace it.

Honours
In 1981, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada for having "become a major force in Canadian intellectual life" and was also awarded the Royal Society of Canada's Pierre Chauveau Medal. He was also a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

In 2005 Grant's book Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism was voted one of The Literary Review of Canada 100 most important Canadian books.

Archives
The George Grant fonds is held by Library and Archives Canada. The archival reference number is R4526; the former archival reference number is MG31-D75. The fonds consists of 6 metres of textual records, 25 photographs, and a small amount of other media. The description includes a finding aid.

Works
The Empire, Yes or No? Ryerson Press, (1945).
 Philosophy in the Mass Age. CBC, (1959)
Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism.  McClelland & Stewart, (1965).
Time as History. CBC, (1969).
 Technology and Empire : Perspectives on North America. Anansi, (1969)
English-speaking Justice. Mount Allison University, (1974).
 Grant, G.P. (1976). "The Computer Does Not Impose on Us the Ways It Should Be Used". In W. Christian & S. Grant (Eds.), The George Grant Reader. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press
Technology and Justice. Anansi, (1986).
George Grant: selected letters edited, with an introduction by William Christian. University of Toronto Press, (1996).
The George Grant Reader. William Christian and Sheila Grant (editors). University of Toronto Press, (1998)
Collected Works of George Grant. Arthur Davis (editor). University of Toronto Press, (2000)

See also
 American imperialism

References

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

1918 births
1988 deaths
20th-century Anglicans
20th-century Canadian philosophers
20th-century Canadian poets
Anglican philosophers
Canadian Anglican theologians
Canadian monarchists
Canadian nationalists
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Canadian philosophers
Canadian political philosophers
Canadian religion academics
Conservatism in Canada
Academic staff of the Dalhousie University
Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada
Officers of the Order of Canada
Platonists
Philosophers of technology
Political philosophers
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Scholars of nationalism
Upper Canada College alumni
Writers from Toronto

George Grant (philosopher)


Biserica evanghelică din Tălmaciu este un lăcaș de cult aflat în orașul Tălmaciu, județul Sibiu, Transilvania, România.

Istoric
După răspândirea reformei protestante, sașii din Tălmaciu, ca majoritatea sașilor din Transilvania, au îmbrățișat religia evanghelică luterană.

Prima documentare a Bisericii săsești din Tălmaciu datează de la 1429, când a fost menționată "parochialis e celesiae Talmucz".  În registrul de socoteli al Sibiului au fost trecute o serie de cheltuieli pentru biserică, iar între anii 1503-1507 sunt consemnate o serie de materiale care au fost cumpărate, probabil, pentru noul acoperiș al bisericii, care a fost ridicat în anul 1507. În timpul lucrărilor din 1503-1507 s-a renunțat la construcția navei laterale din partea sudică. Acest fapt s-a constatat în secolul al XIX-lea, între anii 1829-1831, când în timpul unor lucrări de reconstrucție pentru lărgirea bisericii, săpându-se în partea sudică, s-a descoperit fundația abandonată, pe care s-au construit ulterior zidurile navei laterale.

În perioada 1829-1831, pe lângă lărgirea bisericii, au avut loc lucrări de consolidare și de renovare prin utilizarea materialelor de construcție locale și un concept medieval. Nava centrală a fost separată de cele două nave laterale prin ziduri prevăzute cu deschideri în arcadă. Locul corului are o închidere poligonală, iar tavanul a fost construit ca o copie a bolții gotice cu nervuri de odinioară, din blocuri de piatră fasonată și au fost montate două ferestre rotunde închise. Tavanul navei centrale a fost finisat cu stuc, iar navele laterale au fost înălțate cu empore și au bolți baril aliniate în secțiuni. Empora vestică a fost confecționată din lemn. În nava centrală au fost montate ferestre mari în formă de arc aliniate între empore, iar în navele laterale s-au montat orizontal ferestre închise de tip modern, ce conferă bisericii o caracteristică simplă.

De ambele părți ale primului pilon între nava centrală și cele laterale a fost zidită câte o placă din piatră cu o scriere comemorativă compusă din majuscule latine din aur. Pe prima placă s-a inscripționat: "Aedes Deo Triunei 0.M.sacra numificentria incl. VII. ind. Patronatus fauturum Symbolis Talmatschensium assiduitate 1831 amplificata, renovata, examata" ("Această sfântă biserică ridicată în cinstea Sfintei Treimi și a Dumnezeului Celui Atotputernic, a fost  lărgită, consolidată și renovată prin generozitatea celor șapte judecători onorabili,  a stimaților conducători ai patronatului, cu contribuții bănești  și prin zelul locuitorilor din Tălmaciu.") Iar pe cea de-a doua placă stă scris: "Sub auspiciis Amadei Vailer sen.Cib.et sedis Insp. Joannis Jos.Roth Parochi, Jac.Kesner vil. etaedit, Martin Lang jur. et aedit Martin Engber, jur. Mart. Schneider vil. edj. Georg Fakesch, jur. Mich. Klein jur.Joannis Schneider orat.extructa." ("Construcția s-a ridicat sub supravegherea lui Amadeus Vailer, senatorul Sibiului și inspector școlar; Johann Josef Roth, preotul paroh; Jakob Kesner, judecător al localității  și  părinte al bisericii;  Martin Lang, membru al juriului și părinte al bisericii; Martin Engber, membru al juriului; Martin Schneider, deputat judecător; Georg Fakesch, membru al juriului; Michael Klein, membru al juriului și Johann Schneidern, referent.)

În partea sudică a bisericii a fost anexată o mică sacristie, care deservea preluării  problemelor ecleziastice de tot felul. La ea se putea ajunge din interiorul bisericii printr-o ușă îngustă.

În urma acestor lucrări biserica a căpătat aspectul pe care îl are și astăzi. Altarul ei datează din secolul al XVII-lea.

Casa parohială a fost construită odată cu construirea bisericii și datează din secolul al XV-lea. Casa parohială a fost mistuită de flăcările incendiului care a cuprins Tălmaciu în anul 1718 și a fost reconstruită în anul 1719. Casa figurează pe lista monumentelor istorice, .

În anul 1942 întreaga biserică și turnul au suferit lucrări de reparații capitale.

Referințe

Vezi și
 Tălmaciu

Monumente istorice din județul Sibiu
Biserici din județul Sibiu
Biserici evanghelice de confesiune augustană din România
Biserici din secolul al XV-lea din România

Biserica evanghelică din Tălmaciu


Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and compounds necessary for plant growth and reproduction, plant metabolism and their external supply. In its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle, or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent or metabolite. This is in accordance with Justus von Liebig's law of the minimum. The total essential plant nutrients include seventeen different elements: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants).

Plants must obtain the following mineral nutrients from their growing medium:
 the macronutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg)
 the micronutrients (or trace minerals): iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni)

These elements stay beneath soil as salts, so plants absorb these elements as ions. The macronutrients are taken-up in larger quantities; hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and carbon contribute to over 95% of a plant's entire biomass on a dry matter weight basis. Micronutrients are present in plant tissue in quantities measured in parts per million, ranging from 0.1 to 200 ppm, or less than 0.02% dry weight.

Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life cycle, without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer. However, if the soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or sustain yield. This is done because, even with adequate water and light, nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield.

History

Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are the basic nutrients plants receive from air and water. Justus von Liebig proved in 1840 that plants needed nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. Liebig's law of the minimum states that a plant's growth is limited by nutrient deficiency. Plant cultivation in media other than soil was used by Arnon and Stout in 1939 to show that molybdenum was essential to tomato growth.

Processes
Plants take up essential elements from the soil through their roots and from the air through their leaves. Nutrient uptake in the soil is achieved by cation exchange, wherein root hairs pump hydrogen ions (H+) into the soil through proton pumps. These hydrogen ions displace cations attached to negatively charged soil particles so that the cations are available for uptake by the root. In the leaves, stomata open to take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. The carbon dioxide molecules are used as the carbon source in photosynthesis.

The root, especially the root hair, a unique cell, is the essential organ for the uptake of nutrients. The structure and architecture of the root can alter the rate of nutrient uptake. Nutrient ions are transported to the center of the root, the stele, in order for the nutrients to reach the conducting tissues, xylem and phloem. The Casparian strip, a cell wall outside the stele but in the root, prevents passive flow of water and nutrients, helping to regulate the uptake of nutrients and water. Xylem moves water and mineral ions in the plant and phloem accounts for organic molecule transportation. Water potential plays a key role in a plant's nutrient uptake. If the water potential is more negative in the plant than the surrounding soils, the nutrients will move from the region of higher solute concentration—in the soil—to the area of lower solute concentration - in the plant.

There are three fundamental ways plants uptake nutrients through the root:
 Simple diffusion occurs when a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, CO2, and NH3 follows a concentration gradient, moving passively through the cell lipid bilayer membrane without the use of transport proteins.
 Facilitated diffusion is the rapid movement of solutes or ions following a concentration gradient, facilitated by transport proteins.
 Active transport is the uptake by cells of ions or molecules against a concentration gradient; this requires an energy source, usually ATP, to power molecular pumps that move the ions or molecules through the membrane.

Nutrients can be moved in plants to where they are most needed. For example, a plant will try to supply more nutrients to its younger leaves than to its older ones. When nutrients are mobile in the plant, symptoms of any deficiency become apparent first on the older leaves. However, not all nutrients are equally mobile. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are mobile nutrients while the others have varying degrees of mobility. When a less-mobile nutrient is deficient, the younger leaves suffer because the nutrient does not move up to them but stays in the older leaves.  This phenomenon is helpful in determining which nutrients a plant may be lacking.

Many plants engage in symbiosis with microorganisms.  Two important types of these relationship are
 with bacteria such as rhizobia, that carry out biological nitrogen fixation, in which atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonium (NH); and
 with mycorrhizal fungi, which through their association with the plant roots help to create a larger effective root surface area. Both of these mutualistic relationships enhance nutrient uptake.

The Earth's atmosphere contains over 78 percent nitrogen. Plants called legumes, including the agricultural crops alfalfa and soybeans, widely grown by farmers, harbour nitrogen-fixing bacteria that can convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen the plant can use. Plants not classified as legumes such as wheat, corn and rice rely on nitrogen compounds present in the soil to support their growth. These can be supplied by mineralization of soil organic matter or added plant residues, nitrogen fixing bacteria, animal waste, through the breaking of triple bonded N2 molecules by lightning strikes or through the application of fertilizers.

Functions of nutrients

At least 17 elements are known to be essential nutrients for plants. In relatively large amounts, the soil supplies nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur; these are often called the macronutrients. In relatively small amounts, the soil supplies iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine, and cobalt, the so-called micronutrients. Nutrients must be available not only in sufficient amounts but also in appropriate ratios.

Plant nutrition is a difficult subject to understand completely, partially because of the variation between different plants and even between different species or individuals of a given clone. Elements present at low levels may cause deficiency symptoms, and toxicity is possible at levels that are too high. Furthermore, deficiency of one element may present as symptoms of toxicity from another element, and vice versa. An abundance of one nutrient may cause a deficiency of another nutrient. For example, K+ uptake can be influenced by the amount of NH available.

Nitrogen is plentiful in the Earth's atmosphere, and a number of commercially-important agricultural plants engage in nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). However, plants mostly receive their nitrogen through the soil, where it is already converted in biological useful form. This is important because the nitrogen in the atmosphere is too large for the plant to consume, and takes a lot of energy to convert into smaller forms. These include soybeans, edible beans and peas as well as clovers and alfalfa used primarily for feeding livestock.  Plants such as the commercially-important corn, wheat, oats, barley and rice require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow.

Carbon and oxygen are absorbed from the air while other nutrients are absorbed from the soil. Green plants ordinarily obtain their carbohydrate supply from the carbon dioxide in the air by the process of photosynthesis. Each of these nutrients is used for a different essential function.

Basic nutrients

The basic nutrients are derived from air and water.

Carbon

Carbon forms the backbone of most plant biomolecules, including proteins, starches and cellulose.  Carbon is fixed through photosynthesis; this converts carbon dioxide from the air into carbohydrates which are used to store and transport energy within the plant.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen is necessary for building sugars and building the plant. It is obtained almost entirely from water. Hydrogen ions are imperative for a proton gradient to help drive the electron transport chain in photosynthesis and for respiration.

Oxygen

Oxygen is a component of many organic and inorganic molecules within the plant, and is acquired in many forms. These include: O2 and CO2 (mainly from the air via leaves) and H2O, NO, H2PO and SO (mainly from the soil water via roots). Plants produce oxygen gas (O2) along with glucose during photosynthesis but then require O2 to undergo aerobic cellular respiration and break down this glucose to produce ATP.

Macronutrients (primary)

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a major constituent of several of the most important plant substances. For example, nitrogen compounds comprise 40% to 50% of the dry matter of protoplasm, and it is a constituent of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. It is also an essential constituent of chlorophyll. In many agricultural settings, nitrogen is the limiting nutrient for rapid growth.

Phosphorus

Like nitrogen, phosphorus is involved with many vital plant processes. Within a plant, it is present mainly as a structural component of the nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), as well as a constituent of fatty phospholipids, that are important in membrane development and function. It is present in both organic and inorganic forms, both of which are readily translocated within the plant. All energy transfers in the cell are critically dependent on phosphorus.  As with all living things, phosphorus is part of the Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is of immediate use in all processes that require energy with the cells. Phosphorus can also be used to modify the activity of various enzymes by phosphorylation, and is used for cell signaling. Phosphorus is concentrated at the most actively growing points of a plant and stored within seeds in anticipation of their germination.

Potassium

Unlike other major elements, potassium does not enter into the composition of any of the important plant constituents involved in metabolism, but it does occur in all parts of plants in substantial amounts. It is essential for enzyme activity including enzymes involved in primary metabolism. It plays a role in turgor regulation, effecting the functioning of the stomata and cell volume growth.

It seems to be of particular importance in leaves and at growing points. Potassium is outstanding among the nutrient elements for its mobility and solubility within plant tissues.

Processes involving potassium include the formation of carbohydrates and proteins, the regulation of internal plant moisture, as a catalyst and condensing agent of complex substances, as an accelerator of enzyme action, and as contributor to photosynthesis, especially under low light intensity. Potassium regulates the opening and closing of the stomata by a potassium ion pump. Since stomata are important in water regulation, potassium regulates water loss from the leaves and increases drought tolerance. Potassium serves as an activator of enzymes used in photosynthesis and respiration. Potassium is used to build cellulose and aids in photosynthesis by the formation of a chlorophyll precursor. The potassium ion (K+) is highly mobile and can aid in balancing the anion (negative) charges within the plant. A relationship between potassium nutrition and cold resistance has been found in several tree species, including two species of spruce. Potassium helps in fruit coloration, shape and also increases its brix. Hence, quality fruits are produced in potassium-rich soils.

Research has linked K+ transport with auxin homeostasis, cell signaling, cell expansion, membrane trafficking and phloem transport.

Macronutrients (secondary and tertiary)

Sulfur
Sulfur is a structural component of some amino acids (including cystein and methionine) and vitamins, and is essential for chloroplast growth and function; it is found in the iron-sulfur complexes of the electron transport chains in photosynthesis. It is needed for N2 fixation by legumes, and the conversion of nitrate into amino acids and then into protein.

Calcium
Calcium in plants occurs chiefly in the leaves, with lower concentrations in seeds, fruits, and roots. A major function is as a constituent of cell walls. When coupled with certain acidic compounds of the jelly-like pectins of the middle lamella, calcium forms an insoluble salt. It is also intimately involved in meristems, and is particularly important in root development, with roles in cell division, cell elongation, and the detoxification of hydrogen ions. Other functions attributed to calcium are; the neutralization of organic acids; inhibition of some potassium-activated ions; and a role in nitrogen absorption. A notable feature of calcium-deficient plants is a defective root system. Roots are usually affected before above-ground parts. Blossom end rot is also a result of inadequate calcium.

Calcium regulates transport of other nutrients into the plant and is also involved in the activation of certain plant enzymes. Calcium deficiency results in stunting. This nutrient is involved in photosynthesis and plant structure. It is needed as a balancing cation for anions in the vacuole and as an intracellular messenger in the cytosol.

Magnesium

The outstanding role of magnesium in plant nutrition is as a constituent of the chlorophyll molecule. As a carrier, it is also involved in numerous enzyme reactions as an effective activator, in which it is closely associated with energy-supplying phosphorus compounds.

Micro-nutrients

Plants are able sufficiently to accumulate most trace elements. Some plants are sensitive indicators of the chemical environment in which they grow (Dunn 1991), and some plants have barrier mechanisms that exclude or limit the uptake of a particular element or ion species, e.g., alder twigs commonly accumulate molybdenum but not arsenic, whereas the reverse is true of spruce bark (Dunn 1991). Otherwise, a plant can integrate the geochemical signature of the soil mass permeated by its root system together with the contained groundwaters. Sampling is facilitated by the tendency of many elements to accumulate in tissues at the plant's extremities. Some micronutrients can be applied as seed coatings.

Iron
Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme cofactor in plants. Iron deficiency can result in interveinal chlorosis and necrosis.
Iron is not a structural part of chlorophyll but very much essential for its synthesis. Copper deficiency can be responsible for promoting an iron deficiency.
It helps in the electron transport of plant.

As with other biological processes, the main useful form of iron is that of iron(II) due to its higher solubility in neutral pH. However, plants are also capable of using iron(III) via citric acid, using the photo-reduction of ferric citrate. In the field, as with many other transitional metal elements, iron fertilizer is supplied as a chelate.

Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino acids and is involved in nitrogen metabolism. Molybdenum is part of the nitrate reductase enzyme (needed for the reduction of nitrate) and the nitrogenase enzyme (required for biological nitrogen fixation). Reduced productivity as a result of molybdenum deficiency is usually associated with the reduced activity of one or more of these enzymes.

Boron
Boron has many functions in a plant: it affects flowering and fruiting, pollen germination, cell division, and active salt absorption. The metabolism of amino acids and proteins, carbohydrates, calcium, and water are strongly affected by boron. Many of those listed functions may be embodied by its function in moving the highly polar sugars through cell membranes by reducing their polarity and hence the energy needed to pass the sugar. If sugar cannot pass to the fastest growing parts rapidly enough, those parts die.

Copper
Copper is important for photosynthesis. Symptoms for copper deficiency include chlorosis. It is involved in many enzyme processes; necessary for proper photosynthesis; involved in the manufacture of lignin (cell walls) and involved in grain production. It is difficult to find in some soil conditions.

Manganese
Manganese is necessary for photosynthesis, including the building of chloroplasts. Manganese deficiency may result in coloration abnormalities, such as discolored spots on the foliage.

Sodium
Sodium is involved in the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in CAM and C4 plants. Sodium can potentially replace potassium's regulation of stomatal opening and closing.

Essentiality of sodium:
 Essential for C4 plants rather C3
 Substitution of K by Na: Plants can be classified into four groups:
 Group A—a high proportion of K can be replaced by Na and stimulate the growth, which cannot be achieved by the application of K
 Group B—specific growth responses to Na are observed but they are much less distinct
 Group C—Only minor substitution is possible and Na has no effect
 Group D—No substitution occurs
 Stimulate the growth—increase leaf area and stomata. Improves the water balance
 Na functions in metabolism
 C4 metabolism
 Impair the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenol-pyruvate
 Reduce the photosystem II activity and ultrastructural changes in mesophyll chloroplast
 Replacing K functions
 Internal osmoticum
 Stomatal function
 Photosynthesis
 Counteraction in long distance transport
 Enzyme activation
 Improves the crop quality e.g. improves the taste of carrots by increasing sucrose

Zinc
Zinc is required in a large number of enzymes and plays an essential role in DNA transcription. A typical symptom of zinc deficiency is the stunted growth of leaves, commonly known as "little leaf" and is caused by the oxidative degradation of the growth hormone auxin.

Nickel
In higher plants, nickel is absorbed by plants in the form of Ni2+ ion. Nickel is essential for activation of urease, an enzyme involved with nitrogen metabolism that is required to process urea. Without nickel, toxic levels of urea accumulate, leading to the formation of necrotic lesions. In lower plants, nickel activates several enzymes involved in a variety of processes, and can substitute for zinc and iron as a cofactor in some enzymes.

Chlorine
Chlorine, as compounded chloride, is necessary for osmosis and ionic balance; it also plays a role in photosynthesis.

Cobalt
Cobalt has proven to be beneficial to at least some plants although it does not appear to be essential for most species. It has, however, been shown to be essential for nitrogen fixation by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with legumes and other plants.

Silicon
Silicon is not considered an essential element for plant growth and development. It is always found in abundance in the environment and hence if needed it is available. It is found in the structures of plants and improves the health of plants.

In plants, silicon has been shown in experiments to strengthen cell walls, improve plant strength, health, and productivity. There have been studies showing evidence of silicon improving drought and frost resistance, decreasing lodging potential and boosting the plant's natural pest and disease fighting systems. Silicon has also been shown to improve plant vigor and physiology by improving root mass and density, and increasing above ground plant biomass and crop yields.  Silicon is currently under consideration by the Association of American Plant Food Control Officials (AAPFCO) for elevation to the status of a "plant beneficial substance".

Vanadium
Vanadium may be required by some plants, but at very low concentrations. It may also be substituting for molybdenum.

Selenium
Selenium is probably not essential for flowering plants, but it can be beneficial; it can stimulate plant growth, improve tolerance of oxidative stress, and increase resistance to pathogens and herbivory.

Mobility

Mobile
Nitrogen is transported via the xylem from the roots to the leaf canopy as nitrate ions, or in an organic form, such as amino acids or amides. Nitrogen can also be transported in the phloem sap as amides, amino acids and ureides; it is therefore mobile within the plant, and the older leaves exhibit chlorosis and necrosis earlier than the younger leaves. Because phosphorus is a mobile nutrient, older leaves will show the first signs of deficiency. Magnesium is very mobile in plants, and, like potassium, when deficient is translocated from older to younger tissues, so that signs of deficiency appear first on the oldest tissues and then spread progressively to younger tissues.

Immobile
Because calcium is phloem immobile, calcium deficiency can be seen in new growth. When developing tissues are forced to rely on the xylem, calcium is supplied by transpiration only.

Boron is not relocatable in the plant via the phloem. It must be supplied to the growing parts via the xylem. Foliar sprays affect only those parts sprayed, which may be insufficient for the fastest growing parts, and is very temporary.

In plants, sulfur cannot be mobilized from older leaves for new growth, so deficiency symptoms are seen in the youngest tissues first. Symptoms of deficiency include yellowing of leaves and stunted growth.

Nutrient deficiency

Symptoms
The effect of a nutrient deficiency can vary from a subtle depression of growth rate to obvious stunting, deformity, discoloration, distress, and even death. Visual symptoms distinctive enough to be useful in identifying a deficiency are rare. Most deficiencies are multiple and moderate. However, while a deficiency is seldom that of a single nutrient, nitrogen is commonly the nutrient in shortest supply.

Chlorosis of foliage is not always due to mineral nutrient deficiency. Solarization can produce superficially similar effects, though mineral deficiency tends to cause premature defoliation, whereas solarization does not, nor does solarization depress nitrogen concentration.

Macronutrients
Nitrogen deficiency most often results in stunted growth, slow growth, and chlorosis. Nitrogen deficient plants will also exhibit a purple appearance on the stems, petioles and underside of leaves from an accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.

Phosphorus deficiency can produce symptoms similar to those of nitrogen deficiency, characterized by an intense green coloration or reddening in leaves due to lack of chlorophyll. If the plant is experiencing high phosphorus deficiencies the leaves may become denatured and show signs of death. Occasionally the leaves may appear purple from an accumulation of anthocyanin. As noted by Russel: "Phosphate deficiency differs from nitrogen deficiency in being extremely difficult to diagnose, and crops can be suffering from extreme starvation without there being any obvious signs that lack of phosphate is the cause". Russell's observation applies to at least some coniferous seedlings, but Benzian found that although response to phosphorus in very acid forest tree nurseries in England was consistently high, no species (including Sitka spruce) showed any visible symptom of deficiency other than a slight lack of lustre. Phosphorus levels have to be exceedingly low before visible symptoms appear in such seedlings. In sand culture at 0 ppm phosphorus, white spruce seedlings were very small and tinted deep purple; at 0.62 ppm, only the smallest seedlings were deep purple; at 6.2 ppm, the seedlings were of good size and color.

The root system is less effective without a continuous supply of calcium to newly developing cells. Even short term disruptions in calcium supply can disrupt biological functions and root function. A common symptom of calcium deficiency in leaves is the curling of the leaf towards the veins or center of the leaf. Many times this can also have a blackened appearance. The tips of the leaves may appear burned and cracking may occur in some calcium deficient crops if they experience a sudden increase in humidity. Calcium deficiency may arise in tissues that are fed by the phloem, causing blossom end rot in watermelons, peppers and tomatoes, empty peanut pods and bitter pits in apples. In enclosed tissues, calcium deficiency can cause celery black heart and "brown heart" in greens like escarole.

Researchers found that partial deficiencies of K or P did not change the fatty acid composition of phosphatidyl choline in Brassica napus L. plants. Calcium deficiency did, on the other hand, lead to a marked decline of polyunsaturated compounds that would be expected to have negative impacts for integrity of the plant membrane, that could effect some properties like its permeability, and is needed for the ion uptake activity of the root membranes.

Potassium deficiency may cause necrosis or interveinal chlorosis. Deficiency may result in higher risk of pathogens, wilting, chlorosis, brown spotting, and higher chances of damage from frost and heat. When potassium is moderately deficient, the effects first appear in the older tissues, and from there progress towards the growing points. Acute deficiency severely affects growing points, and die-back commonly occurs. Symptoms of potassium deficiency in white spruce include: browning and death of needles (chlorosis); reduced growth in height and diameter; impaired retention of needles; and reduced needle length.

Micronutrients
Mo deficiency is usually found on older growth. Fe, Mn and  Cu effect new growth, causing green or yellow veins, Zn ca effect old and new leaves, and B will be seem on terminal buds. A plant with zinc deficiency may have leaves on top of each other due to reduced internodal expansion.

Zinc is the most widely deficient micronutrient for industrial crop cultivation, followed by boron. Acidifying N fertilizers create micro-sites around the granule that keep micronutrient cations soluble for longer in alkaline soils, but high concentrations of P or C may negate these effects.

Boron deficiencies effecting seed yields and pollen fertility are common in laterite soils. Boron is essential for the proper forming and strengthening of cell walls. Lack of boron results in short thick cells producing stunted fruiting bodies and roots. Deficiency results in the death of the terminal growing points and stunted growth. Inadequate amounts of boron affect many agricultural crops, legume forage crops most strongly. Boron deficiencies can be detected by analysis of plant material to apply a correction before the obvious symptoms appear, after which it is too late to prevent crop loss. Strawberries deficient in boron will produce lumpy fruit; apricots will not blossom or, if they do, will not fruit or will drop their fruit depending on the level of boron deficit. Broadcast of boron supplements is effective and long term; a foliar spray is immediate but must be repeated.

Toxicity

Boron concentration in soil water solution higher than one ppm is toxic to most plants. Toxic concentrations within plants are 10 to 50 ppm for small grains and 200 ppm in boron-tolerant crops such as sugar beets, rutabaga, cucumbers, and conifers. Toxic soil conditions are generally limited to arid regions or can be caused by underground borax deposits in contact with water or volcanic gases dissolved in percolating water.

Availability and uptake

Nitrogen fixation
There is an abundant supply of nitrogen in the earth's atmosphere — N2 gas comprises nearly 79% of air. However, N2 is unavailable for use by most organisms because there is a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms in the molecule,  making it almost inert. In order for nitrogen to be used for growth it must be "fixed" (combined) in the form of ammonium (NH) or nitrate (NO) ions. The weathering of rocks releases these ions so slowly that it has a negligible effect on the availability of fixed nitrogen. Therefore, nitrogen is often the limiting factor for growth and biomass production in all environments where there is a suitable climate and availability of water to support life.

Microorganisms have a central role in almost all aspects of nitrogen availability, and therefore for life support on earth. Some bacteria can convert N2 into ammonia by the process termed nitrogen fixation; these bacteria are either free-living or form symbiotic associations with plants or other organisms (e.g., termites, protozoa), while other bacteria bring about transformations of ammonia to nitrate, and of nitrate to N2 or other nitrogen gases. Many bacteria and fungi degrade organic matter, releasing fixed nitrogen for reuse by other organisms. All these processes contribute to the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen enters the plant largely through the roots. A "pool" of soluble nitrogen accumulates. Its composition within a species varies widely depending on several factors, including day length, time of day, night temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, and nutrient imbalance. Short day length promotes asparagine formation, whereas glutamine is produced under long day regimes. Darkness favors protein breakdown accompanied by high asparagine accumulation. Night temperature modifies the effects due to night length, and soluble nitrogen tends to accumulate owing to retarded synthesis and breakdown of proteins. Low night temperature conserves glutamine; high night temperature increases accumulation of asparagine because of breakdown. Deficiency of K accentuates differences between long- and short-day plants. The pool of soluble nitrogen is much smaller than in well-nourished plants when N and P are deficient since uptake of nitrate and further reduction and conversion of N to organic forms is restricted more than is protein synthesis. Deficiencies of Ca, K, and S affect the conversion of organic N to protein more than uptake and reduction. The size of the pool of soluble N is no guide per se to growth rate, but the size of the pool in relation to total N might be a useful ratio in this regard. Nitrogen availability in the rooting medium also affects the size and structure of tracheids formed in the long lateral roots of white spruce (Krasowski and Owens 1999).

Root environment

Mycorrhiza
Phosphorus is most commonly found in the soil in the form of polyprotic phosphoric acid (H3PO4), but is taken up most readily in the form of H2PO. Phosphorus is available to plants in limited quantities in most soils because it is released very slowly from insoluble phosphates and is rapidly fixed once again. Under most environmental conditions it is the element that limits growth because of this constriction and due to its high demand by plants and microorganisms. Plants can increase phosphorus uptake by a mutualism with mycorrhiza. On some soils, the phosphorus nutrition of some conifers, including the spruces, depends on the ability of mycorrhizae to take up, and make soil phosphorus available to the tree, hitherto unobtainable to the non-mycorrhizal root. Seedling white spruce, greenhouse-grown in sand testing negative for phosphorus, were very small and purple for many months until spontaneous mycorrhizal inoculation, the effect of which was manifested by a greening of foliage and the development of vigorous shoot growth.

Root temperature
When soil-potassium levels are high, plants take up more potassium than needed for healthy growth. The term luxury consumption has been applied to this. Potassium intake increases with root temperature and depresses calcium uptake. Calcium to boron ratio must be maintained in a narrow range for normal plant growth. Lack of boron causes failure of calcium metabolism which produces hollow heart in beets and peanuts.

Nutrient interactions
Calcium and magnesium inhibit the uptake of trace metals. Copper and zinc mutually reduce uptake of each other. Zinc also effects iron levels of plants. These interactions are dependent on species and growing conditions. For example, for clover, lettuce and red beet plants nearing toxic levels of zinc, copper and nickel, these three elements increased the toxicity of the others in a positive relationship. In barley positive interaction was observed between copper and zinc, while in French beans the positive interaction occurred between nickel and zinc. Other researchers have studied the synergistic and antagonistic effects of soil conditions on lead, zinc, cadmium and copper in radish plants to develop predictive indicators for uptake like soil pH.

Calcium absorption is increased by water-soluble phosphate fertilizers, and is used when potassium and potash fertilizers decrease the uptake of phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. For these reasons, imbalanced application of potassium fertilizers can markedly decrease crop yields.

Solubility and soil pH

Boron is available to plants over a range of pH, from 5.0 to 7.5. Boron is absorbed by plants in the form of the anion BO. It is available to plants in moderately soluble mineral forms of Ca, Mg and Na borates and the highly soluble form of organic compounds. It is mobile in the soil, hence, it is prone to leaching. Leaching removes substantial amounts of boron in sandy soil, but little in fine silt or clay soil. Boron's fixation to those minerals at high pH can render boron unavailable, while low pH frees the fixed boron, leaving it prone to leaching in wet climates. It precipitates with other minerals in the form of borax in which form it was first used over 400 years ago as a soil supplement. Decomposition of organic material causes boron to be deposited in the topmost soil layer. When soil dries it can cause a precipitous drop in the availability of boron to plants as the plants cannot draw nutrients from that desiccated layer. Hence, boron deficiency diseases appear in dry weather.

Most of the nitrogen taken up by plants is from the soil in the forms of NO, although in acid environments such as boreal forests where nitrification is less likely to occur, ammonium NH is more likely to be the dominating source of nitrogen. Amino acids and proteins can only be built from NH, so NO must be reduced.

Fe and Mn become oxidized and are highly unavailable in acidic soils.

Measurements

Nutrient status (mineral nutrient and trace element composition, also called ionome and nutrient profile) of plants are commonly portrayed by tissue elementary analysis. Interpretation of the results of such studies, however, has been controversial. During recent decades the nearly two-century-old "law of minimum" or "Liebig's law" (that states that plant growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource) has been replaced by several mathematical approaches that use different models in order to take the interactions between the individual nutrients into account.

Later developments in this field were based on the fact that the nutrient elements (and compounds) do not act independently from each other; Baxter, 2015, because there may be direct chemical interactions between them or they may influence each other's uptake, translocation, and biological action via a number of mechanisms as exemplified for the case of ammonia.

Plant nutrition in agricultural systems

Fertilizers
Boron is highly soluble in the form of borax or boric acid and is too easily leached from soil making these forms unsuitable for use as a fertilizer. Calcium borate is less soluble and can be made from sodium tetraborate. Boron is often applied to fields as a contaminant in other soil amendments but is not generally adequate to make up the rate of loss by cropping. The rates of application of borate to produce an adequate alfalfa crop range from 15 pounds per acre for a sandy-silt, acidic soil of low organic matter, to 60 pounds per acre for a soil with high organic matter, high cation exchange capacity and high pH. Application rates should be limited to a few pounds per acre in a test plot to determine if boron is needed generally. Otherwise, testing for boron levels in plant material is required to determine remedies. Excess boron can be removed by irrigation and assisted by application of elemental sulfur to lower the pH and increase boron solubility. Foliar sprays are used on fruit crop trees in soils of high alkalinity.

Selenium is, however, an essential mineral element for animal (including human) nutrition and selenium deficiencies are known to occur when food or animal feed is grown on selenium-deficient soils. The use of inorganic selenium fertilizers can increase selenium concentrations in edible crops and animal diets thereby improving animal health.

It is useful to apply a high phosphorus content fertilizer, such as bone meal, to perennials to help with successful root formation.

Hydroponics
Hydroponics is a method for growing plants in a water-nutrient solution without the use of nutrient-rich soil or substrates. It allows researchers and home gardeners to grow their plants in a controlled environment. The most common artificial nutrient solution is the Hoagland solution, developed by D. R. Hoagland and W. C. Snyder in 1933. The solution (known as A-Z solution) consists of all the essential macro- and micronutrients in the correct proportions necessary for most plant growth. An aerator is used to prevent an anoxic event or hypoxia. Hypoxia can affect nutrient uptake of a plant because, without oxygen present, respiration becomes inhibited within the root cells. The nutrient film technique is a hydroponic technique in which the roots are not fully submerged. This allows for adequate aeration of the roots, while a "film" thin layer of nutrient-rich water is pumped through the system to provide nutrients and water to the plant.

See also

 Horticulture
 International Plant Nutrition Colloquium
 Nutrient pollution
 Nutrient Recovery and Reuse
 Photosynthesis
 Plant physiology
 Phytochemistry
 Plant hormone
 Soil

References

Sources

Nutrition
Edaphology
Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements

Plant nutrition


Der Club Deportivo Unidad Malabo (kurz: Deportivo Unidad) ist ein Fußballverein aus der äquatorialguineischen Hauptstadt Malabo.

Geschichte
In den Jahren 1999 und 2000 feierte CD Unidad Malabo mit dem Gewinn des nationalen Pokals die größten Erfolge seiner Vereinsgeschichte. In der Saison 2000/01 nahm man trotz sportlicher Qualifikation nicht am African Cup Winners' Cup teil, in der Folgesaison scheiterte der Verein bereits in der Vorrunde gegen den gabunischen Vertreter AO Evizo (1:5, 0:1).

Erfolge
 Äquatorialguineascher Pokalsieger: 1999, 2000

Statistik in den CAF-Wettbewerben

Einzelnachweise

Malabo
Organisation (Malabo)
Sport (Malabo)

CD Unidad Malabo


Yasna Polyana es un pueblo en el municipio de Primorsko, en la Provincia de Burgas, en el sudeste de Bulgaria.

Geografía
Se encuentra situado al pie de la montaña Istranca, a lo largo del río Dyavolska. En el extremo norte del pueblo pasa el río Ropotamo. Está rodeado de bosques centenarios, llamados por la población лонгузи (longuzi).

En la década de 1970, alrededor del pueblo se construyó la segunda represa más grande en la región de Burgas: la represa Yásnaia Poliana, que proporciona agua potable en la costa sur del mar Negro.

Historia
El antiguo nombre de la aldea era Алан кайряк (Alan Kairiak), que significa un lugar de angustia. Su nombre actual se debe al escritor León Tolstói. A principios del , un grupo de jóvenes intelectuales de toda Bulgaria crearon una colonia tolstoiana en el pueblo, manteniendo una correspondencia con León Tolstói. La comuna se registró en gran medida en la vida del pueblo durante las primeras décadas del . Cuando en 1934 surge la cuestión de cambiar el nombre del pueblo a un nombre búlgaro, por sugerencia del maestro local Andrey Nenov, se nombró el nombre del lugar nativo del escritor, Yasna Polyana.

Referencias

Localidades de la provincia de Burgas
Municipio de Primorsko

Yasna Polyana


Mali Chekon  es un jútor del ókrug urbano de la ciudad-balneario de Anapa del krai de Krasnodar, en el sur de Rusia. Está situado en la cabecera del río Chekon, afluente del Kubán, 26 km al sudeste de la ciudad de Anapa y 121 km al oeste de Krasnodar. Tenía 54 habitantes en 2010.

Pertenece al municipio rural Gostagáyevskoye.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde  este enlace.
 Mapa topográfico en maps.vlasenko.net .

Localidades de la Ciudad de Anapa del krai de Krasnodar

Mali Chekon


Predsjednik Europske središnje banke je čelnik Europske središnje banke (ESB), glavne institucije odgovorne za upravljanje eurom i za monetarnu politiku u eurozoni.

Trenutačna predsjednica Europske središnje banke je Christine Lagarde, a prethodno je bila na poziciji direktorice Međunarodnog monetarnog fonda. Lagarde obnaša dužnost predsjednice ESB-a od 1. studenoga 2019.

Uloga i imenovanje
Predsjednik je na čelu Izvršnog odbora, Upravnog vijeća i Općeg vijeća Europske središnje banke. On ili ona zastupa banku u inozemstvu, primjerice na forumu G-20. Nositelj dužnosti imenuje se na osmogodišnji neobnovljivi mandat kvalificiranom većinom glasova Europskog vijeća, de facto svih zemalja članica EU koje su usvojile euro kao svoju valutu.

Povijest

Duisenberg
Wim Duisenberg bio je predsjednik Europskog monetarnog instituta (EMI) kada je kasnije u sklopu šireg Ugovora iz Maastrichta i neposredno prije lansiranja eura 1. lipnja 1998. postao Europska središnja banka (ESB). Duisenberg je tada postao prvi predsjednik ESB-a.

Tijekom procesa izbora Wima Duisenberga na dužnost predsjednika ESB-a došlo je do francuskog opiranja njegovom imenovanju, pa je dogovoreno da će Duisenberg podnijeti ostavku nakon samo četiri godine osmogodišnjeg mandata, a zamijenit će ga Francuz Jean-Claude Trichet u drugoj polovici istog mandata. Duisenberg je uvijek oštro poricao da je sklopljen takav sporazum i u veljači 2002. izjavio je da će ostati na funkciji do svog 68. rođendana 9. srpnja 2003.

U međuvremenu Jean-Claude Trichet našao se pod sudskom istragom i još nije bio oslobođen pravnih optužbi prije 1. lipnja 2002., stoga nije mogao započeti svoj mandat nakon Duisenbergove prve četiri godine predsjedavanja. Ni 9. srpnja 2003. Trichet nije oslobođen optužbi, pa je stoga Duisenberg ostao na funkciji do 1. studenoga 2003. Duisenberg je umro 31. srpnja 2005.

Trichet

Jean-Claude Trichet imenovan je predsjednikom ESB-a 2003. godine i obnašao je dužnost tijekom europske krize državnog duga. Trichetova snaga ležala je u održavanju konsenzusa i vidljive smirenosti unutar ESB-a i s partnerima u drugim europskim institucijama. Za trajanja svog mandata Trichet se morao obraniti od kritika predsjednika Nicolasa Sarkozyja koji je od ESB-a zahtijevao odlučniju politiku usmjerenu na rast povećanjem novčane mase. Njemačka kancelarka Angela Merkel je stala u Trichetovu obranu i podržala ga je u zahtjevu da se poštuje neovisnost banke.

Tijekom krize, kritike su stizale i protiv politike odstupanja od mandata središnje banke kupnjom državnih obveznica država članica eurozone. Članovi odbora ESB-a Axel A. Weber i Jürgen Stark podnijeli su ostavke u znak prosvjeda protiv takve politike, čak i ako je to presudno utjecalo da najviše zadužene države u eurozoni ne završe u stečaju. Ekonomist MMF- a Pau Rabanal tvrdio je da je Trichet "održavao relativno ekspanzivnu monetarnu politiku" i čak je "žrtvovao cilj inflacije ESB-a radi većeg gospodarskog rasta i otvaranja novih radnih mjesta, a ne obrnuto". Iako je zanemario postavke mandata ESB-a, on je i dalje držao kamatne stope pod kontrolom i održavao veću stabilnost cijena nego što je to primjerice činila Deutsche Bundesbank prije eura.

Osim što je branio neovisnost ESB-a i protivio se smanjivanju kamatnih stopa na štetu ekonomske stabilnosti, Trichet se također žestoko protivio prijedlogu francuskog predsjednika Sarkozyja za uvođenje automatskih sankcija zemljama članicama u sklopu fiskalnih reformi EU-a i suprotstavio se Angeli Merkel u pokušaju sudjelovanja privatnih investitora u jamstvima državama u krizi kako bi se izbjegao strah na financijskim tržištima. Međutim, tijekom krize počinio je neke pogreške, primjerice podigavši kamatne stope neposredno nakon što je inflacija dosegla vrh i neposredno prije recesije koju je pokrenuo kolaps Lehman Brothersa, kao i odbijanjem i nepovjerenjem naspram politike kupnje državnih obveznica eurozone.

U svom posljednjem nastupu (35.) pred Europskim parlamentom, Trichet je pozvao na više političkog jedinstva, te je predložio davanje značajnih novih ovlasti ESB-u, uspostavu izvršne vlasti s europskim ministarstvom financija i veće nadzorne ovlasti za Europski parlament. Ustvrdio je da se ne smije zanemariti uloga ESB-a u održavanju stabilnosti cijena tijekom financijske krize i porasta cijena nafte.
Kao odgovor na pitanje jednih njemačkih novina koje su napadale kredibilitet ESB-a povodom kupovine državnih obveznica, Trichet je izjavio:

Draghi
Iako se smatrao jednim od mogućih nasljednika, Axel Weber je podnio ostavku na funkciju u ESB-u u znak prosvjeda protiv politike spašavanja zaduženih članica eurozone kršenjem pravila mandata ESB-a. Mario Draghi izabran je za novog predsjednika ESB-a 24. lipnja 2011. Draghi je bio na dužnosti predsjednika od 1. studenoga 2011. do 31. listopada 2019. (naslijedila ga je Christine Lagarde).

Pascal Canfin, francuski član Europskog parlamenta, tvrdio je da je Draghi u svojstvu direktora Goldman Sachsa sudjelovao u swap operacijama za vlade nekih europskih zemalja, pogotovo Grčke, u pokušaju da tako prikrije stvarno ekonomsko stanje pretjerano zaduženih članica. Draghi je na saslušanjima za nominaciju u Europskom parlamentu 2011. godine izjavio da su swap ugovori "sklopljeni prije mog pridruživanja Goldman Sachsu [i] nisam imao nikakve veze s njima".

U prosincu 2011. Draghi je nadzirao trogodišnji program zajma ESB-a europskim bankama u iznosu 489 milijardi eura. Program je bio približno iste veličine kao Fed-ov "program za pomoć u nevolji" (2008.), ali ipak mnogo manji od ukupnog američkog monetarnog odgovora na svjetsku krizu u to doba.

U veljači 2012. pokrenut je drugi, nešto veći krug zajmova ESB-a europskim bankama, nazvan operacija dugoročnog refinanciranja (LTRO). Komentator Matthew Lyn tvrdi da je ubrizgavanje sredstava ESB-a, zajedno s kvantitativnim popuštanjem Sustava federalnih rezervi SAD-a i Instrumenta za kupnju imovine Engleske banke imalo za posljedicu povećanje cijene nafte u 2011. i 2012. godini.

Za vrijeme krize državnog duga u eurozoni u srpnju 2012., zbog obnovljenog straha financijskih tržišta od bankrota pojedinih zemalja članica, Draghi je na konferenciji za tisak izjavio da je ESB "... spreman učiniti sve što je potrebno za očuvanje eura. I vjerujte mi, bit će dovoljno." Ova je izjava dovela do brzog pada prinosa na obveznice (troškovi posudbe) za zemlje eurozone, posebno Španjolsku, Italiju i Francusku. S obzirom na spori politički napredak u rješavanju krize eurozone, Draghijeva se izjava smatra ključnom prekretnicom u smirivanju krize.

Predsjednici

Potpredsjednici

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Organizacija Europske središnje banke
 Curriculum vitae predsjednika ESB-a
 Europski ugovori; Sekcija 6, članak 282 o Europskoj središnjoj banci

Europska središnja banka

Predsjednik Europske središnje banke


Gyula Németh (* 2. Dezember 1959; † 12. März 2023) war ein ungarischer Hochspringer.

Bei den Leichtathletik-Halleneuropameisterschaften 1988 in Budapest wurde er Achter.

1986 und 1989 wurde er ungarischer Meister.

Persönliche Bestleistungen
 Hochsprung: 2,25 m, 16. August 1986, Budapest
 Halle: 2,24 m, 23. Februar 1985, Budapest

Fußnoten

Ungarischer Meister (Leichtathletik)
Hochspringer (Ungarn)
Ungar
Geboren 1959
Gestorben 2023
Mann

Gyula Németh (Leichtathlet)


Bergmoser + Höller ist ein unabhängiger christlicher Lehrmittelverlag und Zeitschriftenfachverlag mit Sitz in Aachen. Er wurde im Jahr 1970 durch den Verlagskaufmann Josef Bergmoser und den Publizisten Karl Höller als Gesellschaft bürgerlichen Rechts (GbR) gegründet und verlegt mit ca. 70 Mitarbeitern derzeit mehr als 35 Abo-Publikationen, ohne die Produkte der beiden 2012 übernommenen Verlage Hutt Verlag und Ökotopia Verlag.

Verlagsgeschichte
Josef Bergmoser und Karl Höller legten am 25. Oktober 1970 mit dem Pfarrbriefmaterialdienst Image – das Bild unserer Pfarrei den Grundstein des Verlages. Ein Jahr später übernahm der junge Verlag als Gesellschaft bürgerlichen Rechts (GbR) die Betreuung der Sonntagsdienste, einer Gottesdiensthilfe für katholische Pfarrer, und eröffnete damit eine Palette liturgischer und pastoraler Publikationen nach dem Konzept der praktischen Hilfen – in der Folgezeit auch für evangelische Pfarrerinnen und Pfarrer. Später wurde die Herausgabe praktischer Materialdienste auch auf die Bereiche Schule, Vorschule/Kindergarten sowie der Altenarbeit erweitert.

Josef Bergmoser widmete sich seit 1973 ausschließlich dem eigenen Verlag, Karl Höller kam 1982 als Geschäftsführer für den Programmbereich vollberuflich hinzu. Die GmbH, 1979 durch die Eheleute Josef und Martha Bergmoser sowie Karl und Inge Höller beurkundet, bezog ein Gebäude an der Karl-Friedrich-Straße auf dem Gelände der ehemaligen Grube Carl-Friedrich in Aachen-Richterich. Im Jahr 2001 wandelten die Gesellschafter ihre GmbH in eine Aktiengesellschaft um.

Darüber hinaus diente die Gründung von drei Zweigbetrieben der weiteren Fundierung verlegerischer Aufgaben: Die Image Druck GmbH (1973), die Bergmoser + Höller Agentur für Kommunikationsberatung und Sozialmarketing GmbH (1981) und die graphodata AG (1987), eine Agentur für alle Leistungen der Druckvorbereitung und inzwischen auch New Media.

Der Generationswechsel in der Unternehmensführung begann 1995 mit dem Eintritt von Andreas Bergmoser als kaufmännischem Leiter in der Nachfolge seines Vaters. 2003 übernahm Peter Enno Tiarks die Programmleitung von Karl Höller. Die Verlagsgründer Josef Bergmoser und Karl Höller wechselten daraufhin in den Aufsichtsrat. In seinem Amt als Aufsichtsratsvorsitzender wurde Höller am 22. April 2016 abgelöst durch den ehemaligen Geschäftsführer der Verlagsgruppe Handelsblatt im Bereich Fachmedien Uwe Hoch, der dem Aufsichtsrat bereits seit 2005 angehört. Thomas Wirth, Professor für Onlinemedien an der Dualen Hochschule Baden-Württemberg Mosbach (DHBW Mosbach), ist seit April 2015 Mitglied im Aufsichtsrat. Sein Arbeitsschwerpunkt liegt bei den Themen Onlinemedien und Innovation. Seit April 2016 gehört als Beisitzende ebenfalls Simone Höller, Produzentin der TV- und Filmproduktionsgesellschaft FFP New Media GmbH, dem Aufsichtsrat an.

Ende 2010 riefen Verlag und Gründer die gemeinnützige und unabhängige Bergmoser + Höller-Stiftung ins Leben.

Zum 1. Januar 2012 übernahm die Bergmoser + Höller Verlag AG die Geschäftsaktivitäten des Stuttgarter Hutt Verlags von dessen Gründer und Inhaber Stephan Hutt. Der Hutt Verlag blieb am Standort Stuttgart beheimatet und wird als Imprint im Programm von Bergmoser + Höller fortgeführt.

Am 26. Juni 2012 vermeldete der Börsenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels die Übernahme des Ökotopia-Verlags durch die Bergmoser + Höller Verlag AG zum 1. Juli 2012. Seit 1. Januar 2019 wird auch der Ökotopia Verlag als Imprint der Bergmoser + Höller Verlag AG geführt.

Zum 1. Januar 2019 hat die Bergmoser + Höller AG die Bergmoser + Höller Lernen GmbH gegründet. Ihr Gegenstand sind Entwicklung, Organisation, Vertrieb und Durchführung von Leistungen der pädagogischen Beratung und Fortbildung.

Verlagsgründer

Josef Bergmoser
Der am 15. April 1927 im Sauerland geborene Josef Bergmoser kam über ein kaufmännisches Volontariat bei der Tageszeitung Westfalenpost in Hagen in die Verlagsbranche. 1957 trat er in Köln in den Dienst der Kölnischen Rundschau. In dieser Zeit engagierte sich Bergmoser – angeregt durch das Zweite Vatikanische Konzil – im Pater-Leppich-Kreis und der Action 365 und wurde Mitglied in der Stephanusgemeinschaft mit ihrer ausgeprägten Laien-Spiritualität. Als Anzeigenleiter von Leben & Erziehen im Volkspädagogischen Verlag, dem heutigen Einhardverlag, übersiedelte Bergmoser nach Aachen, um schließlich 1970 zum Päpstlichen Werk Missio zu wechseln. Dort baute er den missio-aktuell-Verlag auf und traf hierbei auf Karl Höller, den Gründungssekretär des Catholic Media Council – Medienplanung für Entwicklungsländer e. V. (Cameco). Josef Bergmoser starb am 1. Dezember 2017.

Karl R. Höller
Karl R. Höller wurde am 24. April 1937 in Engelskirchen geboren. Er studierte an der Philosophisch-Theologischen Hochschule SVD St. Augustin Philosophie, Theologie, Ethnologie und Missionswissenschaften. Erste journalistische Erfahrungen sammelte er 1961 als Reporter bei der Kölnischen Rundschau/Siegkreis-Rundschau, bevor er zur Universität Münster wechselte. Begleitend zum Studium, unter anderem der Publizistik, absolvierte Höller 1962 ein Volontariat bei der Münsteraner Bistumszeitung Kirche+Leben, wo er als Redakteur bis 1969 arbeitete. Noch als Doktorand der Publizistik wurde er 1968 Mitbegründer der Fachzeitschrift Communicatio Socialis – für Publizistik in Kirche und Welt, die er viele Jahre redigierte. Nach seiner Tätigkeit als Gründungssekretär des Catholic Media Council (Cameco) mit Sitz in Aachen wechselte Höller 1971 zum Internationalen katholischen Missionswerk missio, wo er als Generalsekretär bis 1982 blieb. Er starb im Februar 2020.

Bergmoser + Höller Stiftung
Ende 2010 beurkundeten Verlagsleitung und Verlagsgründer die private, gemeinnützige und unabhängige Bergmoser + Höller Stiftung. Ziel der Stiftung ist es, innovative christliche – katholische und evangelische – Projekte und Initiativen aufspüren, die der Wirksamkeit der biblischen Botschaft in der Gesellschaft dienen, sie zu prämieren und finanziell zu unterstützen. Die prämierten Initiativen werden in der Folgezeit journalistisch begleitet, um Gruppen im gesamten deutschsprachigen Raum anzuregen und ihnen Mut zu machen. Das Anfangskapital der Stiftung betrug 500.000 EUR, das Stiftungsvermögen wurde innerhalb der nächsten fünf Jahre auf 1 Million EUR angelegt. Darüber hinaus erhält die Stiftung Zuwendungen und Spenden von Einzelpersonen und Institutionen.

Die Stiftung baut gegenwärtig ihre Strukturen weiter aus und sucht Partnerinstitutionen, die in ihrer Arbeit die Initiativen an der Gemeindebasis beobachten und frühzeitig neue Entwicklungen entdecken. Der aktuelle Vorstand der Stiftung besteht aus den Herren Andreas Bergmoser und Peter E. Tiarks.

Verkündigungspreis
Der ökumenisch ausgerichtete Verkündigungspreis der Stiftung ist mit 5000 EUR für den ersten, 3000 EUR für den zweiten und 2000 EUR für den dritten Preis dotiert und wurde 2012 erstmals vergeben.

Weblinks
 Verlagshomepage
 Bergmoser + Höller Stiftung

Einzelnachweise

Lehrmittelverlag (Deutschland)
Verlag (Aachen)
Gegründet 1970

Bergmoser + Höller Verlag


Barragem de Faveta

A barragem de Faveta fica localizada em Cabo Verde, na ilha de Santiago no município de São  Salvador do Mundo. Foi a terceira barragem construída no país, inaugurada a 20 de julho de 2013 pelo antigo Primeiro-Ministro de Cabo Verde, Dr. José Maria Neves, atual Presidente da República, que foi eleito nas eleições de 17 de outubro de 2021 em Cabo Verde.

É uma infraestrutura hidráulica orçada em cerca de 500 mil contos  com uma altura de 30 metros, 103 metros de cumprimento e uma capacidade de descarregamento de 25 metros.

Foi uma obra com impacto extremamente positivo na vida dos agricultores e toda a população de São Salvador do Mundo uma vez que o concelho é um dos mais rurais do país, com 8529 habitantes, distribuída em 19 zonas, segundo INE (Instituto Nacional de Estatística de Cabo Verde).

Características da barragem
Barragem do tipo gravítico, em alvenaria de pedra, destinada ao armazenamento de água para rega, irrigando um total de 30 ha. Coroamento aberto ao tráfego automóvel.

 Altura máxima acima das fundações de 36,5 m e 98 m de desenvolvimento total de     coroamento;
 Descarregador de Cheias dimensionado para um caudal máximo de 186,6 m3/s, constituído por soleira descarregadora livre (tipo Creager), por canal de descarga sobre o paramento de jusante da barragem, terminando num trampolim em salto de esqui;
 Descarga de fundo (Ø800 mm) inserida no corpo da barragem e dimensionada para um caudal máximo de 2,1 m3/s;
 Tomada de água para rega (Ø400 mm) localizada no paramento de montante da barragem.

Aproveitamento Hidroagrícola da barragem

Em 01 de fevereiro de 2021, foi inaugurado o Sistema de Aproveitamento Hidroagrícola da Barragem, pelo atual Primeiro Ministro de Cabo Verde, Dr. Ulisses Correia e Silva, que custou por volta de 105 milhões de escudos. Um investimento que aumentam a capacidade de produção, reduz custos, promovem acesso à água e acessibilidade para colocar os produtos no mercado com objetivo de melhorarem a vida de toda a comunidade.

O Aproveitamento Hidroagrícola, com uma área equipada que ronda os 80 hectares, é beneficiado por um sistema hidráulico com origem na barragem de Faveta.

O projeto de execução da rede de rega elaborado pela TPF Consultores incidiu sobre 62 ha, pertencentes aos Blocos de Faveta - Mato Forte e Cacheu.

Os dois blocos projetados compreendem 62 prédios, repartidos do seguinte modo:

 Faveta - Mato Forte: 19 hectares e 42 prédios;
 Cacheu: 33 hectares e 20 prédios.

A água armazenada na albufeira é aduzida de modo a regar os blocos.

O Bloco de Faveta – Mato Forte é alimentado pela conduta adutora de PEAD DN 225, na qual serão executadas duas derivações para as redes de rega. As redes de rega do Bloco de Cacheu têm a sua origem no reservatório de 1 000 m3, construído na zona de Cacheu.

O aproveitamento é servido por uma rede coletiva com 5 235 metros de condutas em PEAD com diâmetros variáveis, entre DN 75 mm e DN 400 mm.

A água é fornecida aos agricultores em pressão e previamente filtrada através de filtros de areia, os quais garantem um grau de limpeza adequado à rega localizada.

Barragens de Cabo Verde

Barragem de Faveta


Tânăr îmbrăcat ca un majo este o pictură în ulei pe pânză din 1863 a pictorului francez Édouard Manet, expus pentru prima dată la Salonul Refuzaților în acel an alături de Micul dejun la iarbă verde și Domnișoara V îmbrăcată ca un toreador. Este tipic din perioada spaniolă a artistului, când a fost puternic influențat de Diego Velázquez și alți artiști spanioli. Modelul a fost fratele cel mai mic al lui Manet, Gustave, prezentat într-un costum de majo. Acum se află în Metropolitan Museum of Art din New York.

Note

Picturi din 1863
Picturi realizate de Édouard Manet
Metropolitan Museum of Art

Tânăr îmbrăcat ca un majo


Dichromochlamys, monotipski rod glavočika smješten u podtribus Brachyscominae,  dio tribusa Astereae.

Jedina vrsta je australski endem, D. dentatifolia, raširena po većini kontinenta , obično na na kamenitim tlima

Biljka je visoka 8–25 cm; stabljike ležeće do uzdižuće. Cvate u proljeće.

Sinonimi
 Pterigeron dentatifolius F.Muell.

Izvori

Brachyscominae
Endemska flora Australije
Flora Zapadne Australije
Flora Sjevernog teritorija
Flora Južne Australije
Flora Queenslanda
Flora Novog Južnog Walesa

Dichromochlamys


An Stelis scaphoglossa in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carlyle August Luer ngan Alexander Charles Hirtz. An Stelis scaphoglossa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Stelis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Stelis (Orchidaceae)

Stelis scaphoglossa


En biologie cellulaire, une cellule minimale est une cellule viable (capable de se maintenir en vie et de se reproduire) ayant le moins grand nombre possible de gènes.

Pour créer une cellule minimale, la stratégie employée jusqu'à présent consiste à synthétiser le génome d'un organisme unicellulaire possédant déjà un petit nombre de gènes, puis d'en synthétiser différentes variantes simplifiées (par suppression de gènes) et d'introduire ces génomes synthétiques dans des cellules privées de leur matériel génétique. On supprime ainsi, par essais et erreurs, le plus grand nombre possible de gènes non indispensables à la viabilité des cellules hôtes.

Histoire
La recherche d'une cellule minimale commence en 1995 avec le séquençage du génome de la bactérie Mycoplasma genitalium, l'organisme capable de vivre et se reproduire au laboratoire ayant le plus petit nombre de gènes (485). Des études ultérieures montrent, en les enlevant un à un, que plus de cent de ces gènes ne sont pas indispensables à la survie et à la reproduction de cette bactérie. En 2008, les chercheurs réussissent à synthétiser le génome de M. genitalium et à l'introduire dans une cellule de la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae, obtenant ainsi un organisme viable.

M. genitalium ayant un taux de croissance extrêmement lent, l'équipe de l'Institute for Genomic Research se tourne ensuite vers deux espèces de mycoplasmes à la croissance plus rapide,  subsp. capri (GM12) comme donneur et  subsp. capricolum (CK) comme receveur. En 2010, ils synthétisent le génome de M. mycoides (, ) et l'introduisent dans une cellule de M. capricolum privée de son matériel génétique, créant ainsi une nouvelle souche de M. mycoides dénommée JCVI-syn1.0. En 2016, ils réussissent à réduire le génome de M. mycoides à  et , créant ainsi une souche minimale dénommée JCVI-syn3.0, en fait une nouvelle espèce dénommée M. laboratorium. Ce génome est le plus petit de toutes les cellules connues capables de se reproduire. Sur les  conservés, 149 ont une fonction inconnue.

Capacités évolutives
En 2023, la souche de synthèse JCVI-syn3.B (une variante de la cellule minimale JCVI-syn3.0, comportant en plus une vingtaine de gènes non indispensables mais facilitant la manipulation) et la souche sauvage Mycoplasma mycoides ont été cultivées dans les mêmes conditions pendant , soit près de . Le taux de mutation par nucléotide et par génération est le même pour les deux, et la vitesse de croissance de JCVI-syn3.B, initialement inférieure, a rejoint celle de la souche sauvage : contrairement à ce qui était attendu, la réduction du génome n'est pas nécessairement un frein à l'évolution.

Notes et références

Cellule
Biotechnologie
Vie artificielle

Cellule minimale


This is a list of prime ministers of Lebanon (officially titled President of the Council of Ministers) since the creation of the office in 1926.

National Pact
Though it is not specifically stated in the constitution, an unwritten understanding known as the National Pact, agreed in 1943, has resulted in the holder of the post being a Sunni Muslim in every electoral cycle since that time. Nevertheless, several prime ministers in the past have been Christian.

List of officeholders

State of Greater Lebanon, part of the French Mandate (1926–1943)

Lebanese Republic (1943–present)

See also

 Deputy Prime minister of Lebanon
 List of deputy prime ministers of Lebanon
 President of Lebanon
 List of presidents of Lebanon
 Prime Minister of Lebanon
 List of speakers of the Parliament of Lebanon
 Deputy Speaker of the Parliament of Lebanon
 Lists of office-holders

References

Lebanon
Prime Ministers
Lebanon politics-related lists

List of prime ministers of Lebanon


Crkva sv. Marka je rimokatolička crkva u Perastu.

Smještaj
Nalazi se u zapadnom dijelu grada, u Penčićima. Nalazi se tik do palače Smekja s istočne strane. U redu zgrada iznad su zarasle zidine i ostatci građevina koje su pod zaštitom.Ulicom se uzbrdo stiže do crkve sv. Nikole i palače Krilović.

Povijest
Sagrađena je 1760. godine. Graditelji su iz bratovštine, ne iz redova plemstva. Bratovština koja je sagradila je bratovština sv. Ivana. Novoj crkvi je pripojena stara kapela obitelji Štukanovića. Od nje je i sakristija, zvonik i unutarnji grobovi.

Osobine
Pročelje je od korčulanskog kamena. Tlocrta je bizantskog križa, što je u svezi s mletačkim barokom. Barokno su isprekidane crte. Trokuti su u antičko-renesansnom stilu. Iznad ulaznih vrata je mletački motiv: mletački lav s otvorenom knjigom. Na zabatu su tri kamena kipa.

Zgrada crkve i danas služi u vjerske svrhe.

Galerija

Izvori

Marko
Barokne crkve u Crnoj Gori

Crkva sv. Marka u Perastu


Gutenberg Kenti Mainz, Almanya Federal Cumhuriyeti'nin iç kesimlerinde, Ren Nehri kıyısında yer alır. Renanya-Palatina eyaletinin başkenti ve eyaletteki en büyük kenttir. Alman Federal Cumhuriyeti'nin önde gelen eğlence ve kültür merkezlerinden olan Mainz, Karnavalın sayılı kalelerinden bir tanesidir.

Verimli Ren vadisinin ticaret merkezi olan Mainz aynı zamanda Avrupa'nın belli başlı deniz, demir, hava ve karayollarının kesiştiği bir noktadır. Ren-Main Bölgesi'nin gösterişli ve alımlı incisi bu kentten trenle 15 dakika gibi kısa bir sürede ulaşılabilen Frankfurt Ren-Main Havaalanı, Avrupa'nın en büyük ve en işlek havaalanlarından biridir.

Çok önemli bir medya merkezi olan Mainz, İkinci Alman Televizyon Kanalı ZDF ile; SAT1, SAT3 ve SW3 isimli diğer Alman televizyon kanalları ve SWR, RPR1 gibi Radyo İstasyonları'na ev sahipliği yaptığından 'Medien Stadt' (Medya Kenti) olarak da anılır.

Matbaayı icat eden ünlü mucit Johannes Gutenberg'in doğduğu kent olma özelliğine de sahip olan Mainz, bir festivaller ve eğlenceler merkezidir de ayrıca. Kentin merkezinde ve kenar mahallerinde büyüklü küçüklü ellinin üzerinde festival, şenlik ve kutlamalar düzenlenir. Seçkin bir hastane ve üniversiteye de sahip olan Mainz, 2 adet Max-Planck Enstitüsü ile ünlü bir Bilim ve Araştırma Metropolü'dür. Kentteki Mainz Johannes Gutenberg Üniversitesi'nde yaklaşık 35.000 öğrenci öğrenim görmektedir. Alman şarap ticaretinin en önemli merkezlerinden biri olan Mainz'in Alman 1. Ligi'nde top koşturan bir de futbol takımı var. (Mainz 05)

II. Dünya Savaşı sırasında yapılan bombardımanlar sonucu çok büyük yıkıma uğramış, kent merkezinin neredeyse tümü yerle bir edilmiş olsa da, savaştan hemen sonra başlatılan restore çalışmaları sonucu, kent adeta yeniden yapılandırılmıştır.

Geniş yeşil alanlar ve parklar zengini Mainz, bağrında yaşayan insanlara çok cömert davranıp, dinlendirici ve doğal bir ortam sunar. Kentin tam göbeğinde ve çevresinde, yabanıl yaşamı ve doğayı koruma alanları olabildiğince geniştir. Gerek sportif ve yarışma aktiviteleri, gerekse piknik yapmak için büyük olanaklar sağlayan parkların içinde yüzme havuzları, bisiklet yolları, gezinti kordonları, barlar, kafeteryalar, botanik ve hayvanat bahçeleri mevcuttur.

Gerek bağrında barındırdığı eşsiz tarihi yapılar, gerekse içinde yaşattığı güler yüzlü, hoşgörülü yerli ve yabancılarıyla Mainz, yaşamak için ülküsel ve modern bir kenttir. İnşası savaş ve kıyımların yaşandığı 1627 yılında Kurfürst Georg Friedrich von Greiffenklau tarafından başlatılan ve o günden bu güne yüzyıllar geçmiş olmasına rağmen, ihtişam ve muhteşemliğinden hiçbir şey kaybetmemiş olan Kurfürstliches Schloss adlı tarihi yapı, Mainz'in olmazsa olmazıdır adeta. Kentin adeta göz bebeği durumundaki bir diğer muhteşem yapı Dom Kilisesi (Kathedrale und Bischofskirche) inananlara 1000 yıldır ev sahipliği yapmaktadır. İnşasına Bischof Willigis tarafından M.S. 975 yılında başlanan ve romantik bir yapı stiline sahip olan Dom Kilisesi, Ren Nehri yakınlarında ve kentin tam merkezinde yer almaktadır.

Gutenberg'i, Ren'i, Main'i, Karnavalı, Dom'u, Schloss'u, Theodor Heuss Köprüsü, Volksparkı, festivalleri, tiyatroları, sinemaları, müzeleri, eski evleri, üniversitesi, kütüphaneleri, basını, şarap lokalleri, birahaneleri, lokantaları, dönercileri, pizzacıları, ünlüleri, ünsüzleri, yerlileri, yabancıları, parkları, bahçeleri, bağları, üzümleri, şarapları, türkü ve şarkılarıyla Mainz, yaşamak için ülküsel bir mekân arayanların beklentilerine yanıt verebilecek düzey ve zenginlikte bir kenttir.

Mainz'ın Kardeş Şehirler

Mainz' in Mahalleleri

Kaynakça
 Köşektaş Köyü Bilgisunum Sayfası
 Mainz Kenti Bilgisunum Sayfası
 Mainz Wikipedia
 Johannes Gutenberg Universität Bilgisunum Sayfası
 Universitätsbibliothek Mainz

Notlar

Dış bağlantılar

 The official web site of the city of Mainz
 Mainz City Panoramas
 Mogons
 Mainz: Çılgın Karnaval kutlamaları!
 The Mainz Sand Dunes
 The Citadel
  Başkonsolosluk

Mainz


Zebra (Hippotigris), Afrika'da bulunan ve atgiller (Equidae) familyasında sınıflandırılan gövdelerinin tamamını kaplayan ayırt edici siyah ve beyaz çizgilere sahip birkaç canlı türünün ortak adıdır. Tüm zebraların çizgilerinin yapısı ve sayısı birbirinden farklıdır. Genellikle sosyal hayvanlar olan zebralar küçük haremler ya da büyük sürüler hâlinde yaşarlar. En yakın akrabaları atlar ve eşeklerin aksine zebralar hiçbir zaman tam olarak evcilleştirilememişlerdir.

Üç zebra türü tanınmaktadır: Bayağı zebra, dağ zebrası ve Grevy zebrası. Bayağı zebra ve dağ zebrası Hippotigris alt cinsinde sınıflandırılırken Grevy zebrası Dolichohippus alt cinsinin tek türünü oluşturur. İlk ikisi daha çok ata benzerken üçüncü tür eşeğe benzer. Her üç tür de Equus cinsinde yer alır.

Yalnızca zebralarda görülen siyah-beyaz çizgiler bu hayvanların insanlar tarafından en çok tanınan hayvanlardan biri olmasına neden olmuştur. Siyah-beyaz çizgileri zebraların, büyük kediler gibi etçil hayvanlardan kaçmalarına ve koşarken çizgilerin hareketlerinin yırtıcıları şaşırtmasına yardımcı olur. Afrika'da otlaklar, savanlar, ormanlar, dikenli çalılık alanlar, dağlar ve kıyılardaki tepeler gibi farklı yaşam alanlarında yaşarlar. Ancak özellikler derileri için avlanma ve yaşam alanı yok olması gibi insanların neden olduğu faktörler zebra popülasyonları üzerinde olumsuz etkide bulunmuştur. Grevy zebrası ile dağ zebrasının türleri tehlike altındadır. Bayağı zebra popülasyonu neredeyse tehdit altında iken quagga adlı alt türünün soyu 19. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru tükenmiştir.

Etimoloji
Zebra kelimesi, İngilizcede aynı anlama gelen zebra sözcüğünden alıntıdır. Kelimenin Türkçede tespit edilmiş en eski kullanımı, 1930 tarihli Hakimiyet-i Milliye gazetesinde yer alan "Adî bir eşekle Habeşistan zebrasının yavrusu" söz öbeğinde yer almaktadır. İngilizce kelimenin dilde ilk kullanımı 1597'de kaydedilmiş olup, bu dile İtalyanca, İspanyolca veya Portekizceden girmiştir.

Zebra kelimesinin kökeninin Latince equus (at) ve ferus (yabanıl) kelimelerinin birleştirilmesi ile oluşturulmuş ve  "yaban atı" anlamına gelen equiferus sözcüğüne dayanması mümkündür. Equiferus kelimesinin İber dillerine ezebro veya enzebro olarak geçtiği ve sonrasında zebro kelimesine evrildiği, aslen Orta Çağ'da İberya'da yaşamış, türü bilinmeyen (ve muhtemelen yabanıl) başka bir atgili tanımlamak için kullanıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Zebro ve türevi kelimelerin İberya'da ilk kullanımının 9. yüzyıla, hayvanın Avrupalılar tarafından keşfedilmesinden 7 yüzyıl öncesine dayandığı düşünülmektedir. Kelime hem eril zebro, hem de dişil zebra olarak bulunmuş olmakla birlikte, 14. yüzyıla kadar zebro, sonraki dönemlerde ise zebra adı baskın kullanılmıştır.

Eski çağlarda Antik Yunan ve Roma kaynakları, hayvanı hippo (at) ve tigris (kaplan) kelimelerinin birleşimi ile oluşturulmuş hippotigris ("at kaplanı") sözcüğüyle adlandırmış olup, bu kullanım cinsi tanımlamak için günümüzde de kullanılmaktadır.

Fiziksel özellikler

Boyutlar
Bayağı zebranın omuz yüksekliği 1,2 ila 1,3 m. arasında değişirken gövde uzunluğu 2 ila 2,6 m. arasında değişir. Kuyruğu 0,5 m. uzunluğundadir. Ağırlığı 350 kg.'a kadar ulaşır, erkekler dişilerden kısmen daha ağırdır. Grevy zebrası daha büyük iken dağ zebrası biraz daha küçüktür.

Çizgiler
Önceleri zebraların bazılarının karınlarının da beyaz olması nedeniyle beyaz renkli hayvanlar olduğuna ve çizgilerin siyah renkli olduğuna inanılırdı. Ancak embriyolojik kanıtlar aslında hayvanların siyah renkli olduğunu ve karınlarının beyaz rengi ile beyaz renkli çizgilerin sonradan geliştiğini göstermektedir. Çizgilerin çeşitli faktörlerin bir araya gelmesi ile oluşmaları muhtemel gözükmektedir.

Çizgiler genel olarak kafa, boyun, gövde ve ön tarafta dikey, arka ile bacaklarda yataydır.

Zebraların dikkat çekici çizgilerinin nasıl evrildiğine dair çok farklı varsayımlar ortaya atılmıştır. Bu varsayımların en geleneksel olanları (aşağıda 1nci ve 2nci varsayımlar) kamuflaj ile ilgilidir:

 Dikey çizgiler zebranın dış hatlarının belli belirsiz gözükmesine yardımcı olması sayesinde otlar arasında saklanmasına yardımcı olabilir. Ayrıca orta mesafede siyah ve beyaz çizgiler karışarak gri bir şekilde görünür. Yine de aslanlar ve sırtlanlar gibi zebra avcılarının uzak görüşlerinin çok iyi olmaması ve özellikle geceleri zebraları görmeden önce kokularını almaları ya da duymalarının daha mümkün olduğu gibi savlar öne sürüldüğü için kamuflaj nedeniyle çizgilerin oluştuğu varsayımları tartışmalıdır.
 Bir grup zebranın bir arada durması ya da bir arada hareket etmesi sırasında çizgiler sayesinde avcıların sürüyü bir bütün olarak görmesi ve tek bir hedef belirleyemesinin de savunmalarına yardım ettiği öne sürülmüştür. Zebranın hareketi esnasında çizgilerin algılanan hareketin asıl hareketin tersine olduğu ya da farklı yöne doğru olduğu iki farklı göz yanılsamasına neden olduğu ve görenleri şaşırttığı iddia edilmiştir.
 Çizgiler görsel işaret olarak tanımlama amaçlı olabilir. Her bir zebranın çizgileri kendilerine özgü olsa da zebraların birbirlerini çizgileri sayesinde tanıyabildikleri bilinmemektedir.
 Farklı araştırmacıların yaptığı deneyler, kan emici çeçe sineği ile sığır sineği de dahil olmak üzere çizgilerin daha az sinek çektiğini göstermektedir. Macaristan'da 2012 yılında yapılan bir deneyde zebra çizgili modellerin en az sayıda sığır sineği çektiği gösterilmiştir. Bu sinekler doğrusal polarize olmuş ışığa gelmektedir ve siyah-beyaz çizgilerin bu deseni bozduğu gösterilmiştir. Ayrıca çekicilik çizgilerin genişliğinin artmasıyla artmaktadır, dolayısıyla yaşayan üç zebra türünün dar çizgileri sığır sineklerin çekici gelmemektedir.
 Çizgiler zebranın serinlemesine yardımcı olabilir. Işığı emen siyah çizgilerin üzerinde hava daha hızlı hareket ederken beyaz çizgilerin üzerinde daha yavaş hareket edebilir. Bu farklılık zebranın çevresinde konveksiyon akımları yaratarak zebranın serinlemesini sağlayabilir. Bir araştırma daha sıcak bölgelerde yaşayan zebraların daha çok çizgiye sahip olduğunu göstermiştir.

Yürüyüş biçimleri
Zebraların dört temel yürüyüş biçimleri vardır: adeta, tırıs, eşkin ve dörtnal. Genellikle atlardan daha yavaştırlar ancak dayanıklılıkları sayesinde avcılardan kaçarak kurtulabilirler. Kovalandıkları zaman zebra sağa ve sola zig zag yaparak kaçar ve avcının saldırmasını zorlaştırır. Köşeye sıkıştırıldığında ise şahlanır, çifte atar ya da ısırır.

Duyular
Zebralar çok gelişmiş görme duyusuna sahiptirler. Toynaklıların çoğunda olduğu gibi gözleri başlarının iki yanındadır ve geniş bir görme alanı vardır. Duyma duyuları da çok gelişmiştir ve atlardan daha büyük ve daha yuvarlak kulakları vardır. Diğer toynaklılar gibi zebralarda kulaklarını hemen hemen her yöne döndürebilirler. Ayrıca koku ve tat alma duyuları da hassastır.

Ekoloji ve davranış

Harem
Atgillerin çoğu üyesi gibi zebralar da oldukça sosyal hayvanlardır. Ancak sosyal yapıları türlere göre değişiklik gösterir. Dağ zebrası ile bayağı zebra "harem" olarak bilinen ve bir aygır ile altı kısrağa ve onların taylarına kadar küçük gruplar hâlinde yaşarlar. Eşleşmemiş erkekler, çiftleşen aygırlara meydan okuyacak yaşa gelene kadar tek olarak ya da diğer eşleşmemiş erkeklerle birlikte yaşar. Sırtlanlar ya da yaban köpekleri tarafından saldırıya uğradıklarında zebralar taylar ortada olacak şekilde yan yana toplanırlar ve aygır saldıran hayvanları uzaklaştırmaya çalışır.

Diğer zebra türlerinin aksine Grevy zebrasının kalıcı sosyal bağları yoktur. Grevy zebraları nadiren birkaç aydan fazla grup olarak bir arada dururlar. Taylar anneleri ile birlikte kalırken erişkin erkekler tek başına yaşarlar. Ancak eşleşmemiş erkekler diğer türler gibi grup hâlinde yaşar.

Atlar gibi zebralar da ayakta uyurlar. Uykuya yalnızca etraflarında avcılara karşı uyaracak başka hayvanlar varsa geçerler.

Beslenme
Zebralar, yaşamlarını sürdürebilmek için su ve ot ile beslenirler. Bazen yiyecek bulmak için 50 km yürürler, sonrasında yaşadıkları ortama geri dönüp, alıştıkları yaşam ortamlarında yaşarlar. Zebralarda ortalama boy 1-2 metre arasındadır.

Zebralar atlar gibi otçullardır. Zebra ile at çiftleştiğinde doğan yavruya zebrat adı verilir

Notlar

Kaynakça

Otobur memeliler

Zebra


O Academy Museum of Motion Pictures (também conhecido como Museu do Oscar) é um museu na cidade de Los Angeles, Califórnia, construído pela Academia de Artes e Ciências Cinematográficas (AMPAS), que se dedica à história, ciência e impacto cultural da indústria cinematográfica. É o primeiro museu em grande escala desse tipo nos Estados Unidos. O prédio está localizado no histórico edifício May Company Building, na interseção da Wilshire Boulevard e Fairfax Avenue, parte da Museum Row na Miracle Mile.

Inicialmente previsto para ser inaugurado em 2020, sua conclusão e inauguração foram adiadas devido à pandemia de COVID-19. Foi oficialmente inaugurado em 25 de setembro de 2021, e aberto para o público em geral em 30 de setembro.

Design
O projeto do museu foi supervisionado pelo arquiteto italiano Renzo Piano. O exterior do edifício da May Company, dedicado como o Edifício Saban após uma doação de US$ 50 milhões de Cheryl e Haim Saban, foi reformado com novo calcário, bem como novos ladrilhos de folhas douradas para seu "cilindro" de canto.

O saguão do Edifício Saban inclui duas áreas de exposição, a Galeria da Família Spielberg e a Galeria Marilyn e Jeffrey Katzenberg. O Shirley Temple Education Studio será dedicado a workshops sobre produção de filmes e incluirá uma coleção de itens e memorabilia da carreira de Shirley Temple.

Uma estrutura esférica foi construída como uma extensão do edifício principal, conectada por via aérea, que apresenta o Dolby Family Terrace com cúpula de vidro. O museu possui duas salas de teatro que serão utilizadas para exibição de filmes, programação e outros eventos especiais; o David Geffen Theatre com 1.000 lugares no Sphere, e o Ted Mann Theatre menor, com 288 lugares, no nível inferior do Saban Building.

Coleções
A Academia possui mais de 13 milhões de objetos, incluindo fantasias, esboços, rolos de filmes, pôsteres, adereços e roteiros que datam de 1927. Em maio de 2020, o museu comprou o vestido da Rainha de Maio usado por Florence Pugh em Midsommar (2019) por US$ 65 mil, como parte de um leilão de caridade realizado pela A24  para arrecadar dinheiro para profissionais de saúde em Nova York em meio à pandemia de COVID-19.

Outros objetos na coleção do Museu incluem:
Os sapatos de rubi da personagem Dorothy de O Mágico de Oz (1939)
As sapatilhas usadas por Shirley Temple em The Little Colonel (1935)
A máquina de escrever usada por Alfred Hitchcock para Psicose (1960)
Uma réplica do tubarão usado no filme Jaws (1975) de Steven Spielberg
As tábuas de pedra do filme Os Dez Mandamentos de 1956
O modelo da nave espacial Aries 1B e um traje espacial usado por Keir Dullea em 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968)
Uma capa usada por Béla Lugosi em Drácula (1931)
O vestido amarelo que Mia (Emma Stone) usa no filme La La Land.

Ligações externas

Oscar
Museus de Los Angeles
Obras de Renzo Piano
Mid-Wilshire

Museu da Academia de Artes e Ciências Cinematográficas


وهو سياسي أمريكي ينتمي إلى الحزب الديمقراطي ولد سيمون بوليفار باكنر في الأول من شهر نيسان من سنة 1823 في ولاية كنتاكي حارب باكنر في الجيش الأمريكي في الحرب المكسيكية الأمريكية أصبح سيمون بوليفار باكنر حاكما على ولاية كنتاكي الأمريكية في سنة 1887 وقد استمر باطنر في منصبه كحاكم على الولاية إلى سنة 1891 توفي باكنر 8 كانون الثاني من سنة 1914 في ولاية كنتاكي.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أمريكيون أسقفيون في القرن 19
أسرى الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية
أسقفيون أمريكيون
أشخاص من كنتاكي في الحرب الأهلية الأمريكية
أشخاص من مقاطعة هارت (كنتاكي)
أفراد الجيش الأمريكي في الحرب الأمريكية المكسيكية
أفراد عسكريون أمريكيون في الحرب الأمريكية المكسيكية
أفراد عسكريون أمريكيون في الحرب المكسيكية الأمريكية
أفراد عسكريون من كنتاكي
حكام ولايات أمريكية من الحزب الديمقراطي
حكام ولاية كنتاكي
خريجو الأكاديمية العسكرية الأمريكية
ديمقراطيون من ولاية كنتاكي
سياسيون أمريكيون في القرن 19
سياسيون من لويفيل (كنتاكي)
ضباط الجيش الأمريكي
ضباط جيش الاتحاد
مدفونون في مقبرة فرانكفورت
مرشحو نائب رئيس الولايات المتحدة 1896
مواليد 1823
مواليد في مقاطعة هارت (كنتاكي)
وفيات 1914
وفيات بسبب الفشل الكلوي
وفيات في مقاطعة هارت (كنتاكي)

سيمون بوليفار باكنر