روكفيل سنتر  هي قرية في ولاية نيويورك الأمريكية.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حسب تعداد سنة 2000: 24,568 نسمة. ويبلغ عددهم حسب تقدير 2007 حوالي:23,628 نسمة.

التركيبة السكانية
حدّد مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة بيانات التركيبة السكانية لروكفيل سنتر في تعداد الولايات المتحدة. في ما يلي، التركيبة السكانية حسب تعدادي 2000 و2010.

تعداد عام 2000
بلغ عدد سكان روكفيل سنتر 24,568 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2000، وبلغ عدد الأسر 9,201 أسرة وعدد العائلات 6,470 عائلة مقيمة في القرية. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 9,419 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للقرية بنسبة 90.88% من البيض و3.72% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.08% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و1.42% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.04% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و2.83% من الأعراق الأخرى و1.03% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و7.72% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 9,201 أسرة كانت نسبة 35.6% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 59.1% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 9% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 2.3% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 29.7% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 26.9% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 13.7% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 2.64، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 3.25.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 40.2 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 25.8% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 5.7% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 26.1% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 25.8% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 15.4% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. يوجد لكل 100 أنثى 89.0 ذكر، ويوجد لكل 100 أنثى في الثامنة عشر من عمرها فما فوق 83.2 ذكر.

بلغ متوسط دخل الأسرة في القرية 79,345 دولارًا، أما متوسط دخل العائلة فبلغ 103,315 دولارًا. وكان متوسط دخل الذكور 70,149 دولارًا مقابل 43,800 دولارًا للإناث. وسجل دخل الفرد الخاص بالقرية 40,739 دولارًا. وكانت نسبة 2.8% من العائلات ونسبة 5% من السكان تحت خط الفقر، وكان من هؤلاء نسبة 7.3% تحت سن الثامنة عشر ونسبة 5.7% في الخامسة والستين من العمر وما فوق.

تعداد عام 2010
بلغ عدد سكان روكفيل سنتر 24,023 نسمة بحسب تعداد عام 2010، وبلغ عدد الأسر 9,258 أسرة وعدد العائلات 6,221 عائلة مقيمة في القرية. في حين سجلت الكثافة السكانية . وبلغ عدد الوحدات السكنية 9,679 وحدة بمتوسط كثافة قدره .
وتوزع التركيب العرقي للقرية بنسبة 88.67% من البيض و4.57% من الأمريكيين الأفارقة و0.13% من الأمريكيين الأصليين و2.10% من الأمريكيين ذوي الأصول الآسيوية و0.02% من سكان جزر المحيط الهادئ و2.83% من الأعراق الأخرى و1.69% من عرقين مختلطين أو أكثر و9.03% من الهسبانيون أو اللاتينيون من أي عرق.

بلغ عدد الأسر 9,258 أسرة كانت نسبة 32.9% منها لديها أطفال تحت سن الثامنة عشر تعيش معهم، وبلغت نسبة الأزواج القاطنين مع بعضهم البعض 55.9% من أصل المجموع الكلي للأسر، ونسبة 8.7% من الأسر كان لديها معيلات من الإناث دون وجود شريك، بينما كانت نسبة 2.6% من الأسر لديها معيلون من الذكور دون وجود شريكة وكانت نسبة 32.8% من غير العائلات. تألفت نسبة 28.9% من أصل جميع الأسر من عدة أفراد يعيشون في نفس المنزل ونسبة 15.4% كانت تتألف من شخص يعيش بمفرده يبلغ من العمر 65 عاماً أو أكثر. وبلغ متوسط حجم الأسرة المعيشية 2.57، أما متوسط حجم العائلات فبلغ 3.24.

بلغ العمر الوسطي للسكان 43.8 عاماً. وكانت نسبة 24.7% من القاطنين تحت سن الثامنة عشر، وكانت نسبة 6% بين الثامنة عشر والرابعة والعشرين عاماً، ونسبة 21.1% كانت واقعةً في الفئة العمرية ما بين الخامسة والعشرين والرابعة والأربعين عاماً، ونسبة 30.6% كانت ما بين الخامسة والأربعين والرابعة والستين، ونسبة 17.6% كانت ضمن فئة الخامسة والستين عاماً فما فوق. وتوزع التركيب الجنسي للسكان بنسبة 46.9% ذكور و53.1% إناث.

أعلام

 بام كونراد
 جون ديان رفائيل
 إميل باير
 مات ميلر
 إيمي هارجريفز
 مات ريفيس
 بيلي دونوفان

المراجع

تأسيسات سنة 1849 في ولاية نيويورك
قرى مقاطعة ناسو (نيويورك)
قرى نيويورك (ولاية)
قرى ولاية نيويورك
مدن ولاية نيويورك
هيمبستيد (نيويورك)

روكفيل سنتر (نيويورك)


Arriba las manos (en el título original polaco: Ręce do góry) es una película polaca, dirigida en 1967 por Jerzy Skolimowski. Es la cuarta película semi autobiográfica en la que el propio Skolimowski se representa a sí mismo, en el papel de Andrzej Leszczyc.

La película se rodó originalmente en 1967 en blanco y negro, pero en un añadido de 20 minutos de duración rodado en color en 1981, Skolimowski expuso cómo el original fue retenido por la censura polaca de la época y que esta fue la causa principal para abandonar su país, si bien tras la caída del régimen comunista, Skolimowski pudo estrenar su cinta.

Argumento
La película narra, en tono surrealista, lo que acontece en una reunión del protagonista Andrzej Leszczyc (el propio Jerzy Skolimowski) con algunos de sus compañeros de estudios. Entre ellos surge la conversación acerca de los modelos de coches que posee cada uno. Así, Leszczyc tiene un Zastawa, otro de los presentes tiene un Wartburg, otros tienen coches mejores, como un Opel Rekord o el Alfa Romeo que posee la pareja infelizmente casada que también está presente.

Habiendo ingerido supuestamente metanfetamina (aunque más tarde se descubre que las píldoras eran en realidad un placebo), y en un ambiente festivo que se instala en el vagón de ganado del tren de mercancías en el que viajan, el grupo ofrece diversos aspectos, narrados de forma satírica, de la sociedad polaca de los años 1960. Lo tragicómico de la situación también queda reflejado en el hecho de que el vagón donde viajan bien podría haber sido uno de aquellos en los que la anterior generación de polacos fueron conducidos a los campos de concentración nazis durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial.

Esta película se presentó fuera de concurso en el Festival de Cine de Cannes de 1981.

Reparto
Jerzy Skolimowski
Joanna Szczerbic
Tadeusz Łomnicki
Adam Hanuszkiewic
Bogumił Kobiela

Películas dirigidas por Jerzy Skolimowski
Películas de 1967

Arriba las manos


Prințul Louis de Cornwall și Cambridge (Louis Arthur Charles; n. 23 aprilie 2018) este al treilea copil al Prințului William, Duce de Cornwall și Cambridge și al soției acestuia, Catherine, Ducesă de Cornwall și Cambridge. El este al patrulea în linia de succesiune la tronul britanic.

Naștere
Palatul Kensington a anunțat pe 4 septembrie 2017, că Ducele și Ducesa de Cambridge așteaptă cel de al treilea copil. . Bebelușul s-a născut la data de 23 aprilie la ora locală 11:01 și a cântărit 3,8 kg la naștere. Ducele de Cambridge a asistat la naștere. Echipa spitalul a fost condusă de Guy Thorpe-Beeston.

Copilul a fost văzut pentru prima dată în public, după șapte ore de la nașterea sa, în fața Spitalului St. Mary. În conformitate cu tradiția regala, numele prințului  nu a fost anunțat imediat, dar 4 zile mai târziu, pe 27 aprilie 2018, numele acestuia a fost anunțat ca fiind Louis Arthur Charles.

Titlul și succesiune

 23 aprilie 2018 – 8 septembrie 2022: Alteța Sa Regală Prințul Louis de Cambridge
 8 septembrie 2022 – prezent: Alteța Sa Regală Prințul Louis de Cornwall și Cambridge
La 31 decembrie 2012, regina Elisabeta a II-a a emis un nou set de Letters patent garantând pentru toți copiii fiului cel mare al Prințului de Wales titlul de Alteță Regală. Acest act îl înlocuiește pe cel precedent, emis de regele George al V-lea la 11 decembrie 1917, care limita acordarea titului princiar numai copiilor suveranului, copiilor fiilor suveranului și fiului cel mare al fiului cel mare al Prințului de Wales.

În timp ce acest lucru nu l-ar fi afectat pe Prințul George, fiind fiul cel mare al Ducelui de Cambridge, care este fiul cel mare al Prințului de Wales, oricare dintre viitorii lui frați născuți în timpul domniei reginei Elisabeta a II-a ar fi purtat titlul de Lord sau Lady până când bunicul lor, Prințul Charles ar fi urcat pe tron.

Note

Legături externe
 Site-ul oficial al Familiei Regale
 Ducele și Ducesa de Cambridge

Nașteri în 2018
Nașteri pe 23 aprilie
Casa de Windsor
Oameni în viață
Prinți ai Regatului Unit
Copii regali

Prințul Louis de Wales


Abrus (lat. Abrus),  Rod korisnih, ljekovitih, grmastih penjačica iz porodice mahunarki kojemu pripada ukupno 17 vrsta raširenih po Africi, tropskoj i suptropskoj Aziji i jugozapadnog Pacifika.

Rod je smješten u samostalni tribus Abreae, dio potporodice Faboideae.

Sjemenske vrste rakovo oko (Abrus precatorius) poznate su po svojoj otrovnosti, (toksalbumin, abrin), te po tome što se koriste u izradi nakita.

Vrste
 Abrus aureus R.Vig.
 Abrus baladensis Thulin
 Abrus bottae Deflers
 Abrus canescens Welw. ex Baker
 Abrus diversifoliolatus Breteler
 Abrus fruticulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn.
 Abrus gawenensis Thulin
 Abrus kaokoensis Swanepoel & Kolberg
 Abrus laevigatus E.Mey.
 Abrus longibracteatus Labat
 Abrus madagascariensis R.Vig.
 Abrus melanospermus Hassk.
 Abrus parvifolius (R.Vig.) Verdc.
 Abrus precatorius L., rakovo oko
 Abrus sambiranensis R.Vig.
 Abrus somalensis Taub.
 Abrus wittei Baker f.

Izvori

Abreae

Abrus (Plantae)


Genus Sorbus, (abreviado Gen. Sorbus), es un libro con ilustraciones y descripciones botánicas que fue escrito por el profesor, naturalista, y botánico escocés; Hugh A. McAllister y que fue publicado en el año 2005 con el nombre de The Genus Sorbus : mountain ash and other rowans.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
en IPNI

Libros de botánica
Publicaciones científicas

Genus Sorbus


NGC 5595 est une galaxie spirale intermédiaire (barrée ?) située dans la constellation de la Balance. Sa vitesse par rapport au fond diffus cosmologique est de , ce qui correspond à une distance de Hubble de . NGC 5595 a été découverte par l'astronome germano-britannique William Herschel en 1784.

La classe de luminosité de NGC 5595 est III et elle présente une large raie HI. Elle renferme également des régions d'hydrogène ionisé.

À ce jour, 17 mesures non basées sur le décalage vers le rouge (redshift) donnent une distance de , ce qui est nettement à l'extérieur des valeurs de la distance de Hubble. Notons que c'est avec la valeur moyenne des mesures indépendantes, lorsqu'elles existent, que la base de données NASA/IPAC calcule le diamètre d'une galaxie et qu'en conséquence le diamètre de NGC 5595 pourrait être d' si on utilisait la distance de Hubble pour le calculer.

NGC 5595 et NGC 5597 sont des voisines sur la sphère céleste et elles sont à peu près à la même distance de Hubble. Elles apparaissent toutes deux dans l'atlas des galaxies en interaction de Boris Vorontsov-Velyaminov, R.I. Noskova et de Vera Arkhipova.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des objets du New General Catalogue

Liens externes

 NGC 5595 sur le site du professeur C. Seligman

5595
Constellation de la Balance
Galaxie spirale
Galaxie spirale intermédiaire
Galaxie en interaction
Objet céleste découvert en 1784
Objet céleste découvert par William Herschel

NGC 5595


Vesce (deutsch Wesetz, früher Wesec) ist eine Gemeinde in Tschechien. Sie liegt vier Kilometer südwestlich von Soběslav in Südböhmen und gehört zum Okres Tábor.

Geographie
Vesce befindet sich linksseitig der Lainsitz im Landstrich Soběslavská blata im Wittingauer Becken. Nördlich erhebt sich die Chrastina (513 m).

Nachbarorte sind Chmelařka, Mokrá, Nedvědice, Veselka und Pod Svákovem im Norden, Soběslav im Nordosten und Osten, Čeraz, Čejnov und Dráchov im Südosten, Žíšov, Borkovice und Hajnice im Süden, Borkovický Dvůr, Zálší und Klečaty im Südwesten, Záluží im Westen sowie Vlastiboř und U Luhu im Nordwesten.

Geschichte
Die erste schriftliche Erwähnung erfolgte 1421 als Wirtschaftshof des von den Hussiten zerstörten Klosters Louňovice. Kaiser Sigismund überschrieb den Hof 1436 zusammen mit dem weiteren Besitz des Klosters in das Eigentum der Hussitenstadt Tábor, die sich dessen bereits zuvor bemächtigt hatte. Das Dorf entstand durch Emphyteutisierung des Klosterhofes. 1548 erwarben die Rosenberger Erben Wesec und schlugen das Dorf ihrer Herrschaft Wittingau zu. Im Jahre 1713 kaufte die zur Herrschaft Wittingau zugehörige Schutz- und Munizipalstadt Soběslav das Dorf der Herrschaft ab. Im Jahre 1840 bestand Wesetz/Wesce aus 13 Häusern mit 90 Einwohnern. Pfarrort war Nedwietitz (Nedvědice). Bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts blieb Wesetz immer als Ratsdorf der Stadt Soběslav untertänig.

Nach der Aufhebung der Patrimonialherrschaften bildete Vesce/Wesetz ab 1850 mit den Ortsteilen Ceraz und Mokré eine Gemeinde in der Bezirkshauptmannschaft Tábor und dem Gerichtsbezirk Soběslav. Beide Ortsteile lösten sich 1878 los und bildeten eigene Gemeinden. Im Jahre 1948 wurde Vesce aus dem Okres Tábor in den neugebildeten Okres Soběslav ausgegliedert. Dieser wurde 1961 wieder aufgelöst und Vesce erneut dem Okres Tábor zugeordnet. Zugleich erfolgte die Eingemeindung von Mokrá und Čeraz. Zum 1. Juli 1980 wurde Vesce mit seinen beiden Ortsteilen in die Stadt Soběslav eingemeindet. Nach einem Referendum lösten sich Vesce, Mokrá und Čeraz zum 24. November 1990 wieder los und bildeten die Gemeinde Vesce.

Gemeindegliederung
Die Gemeinde Vesce besteht aus den Ortsteilen Čeraz (Tscheras), Mokrá (Mokra) und Vesce (Wesetz) mit der Ortslage Chmelařka sowie den Einschichten Čejnov und U Luhu.

Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Kapellen in Vesce, Mokrá und Čeraz
 Naturschutzgebiet Dráchovské tůně, Sumpfgebiet mit abgeworfenen Mäandern der Lainsitz, südöstlich des Ortes
 Burgstall Svákov, nordöstlich des Dorfes
 Mariankapelle am Svákov
 Gehöfte im südböhmischen Bauernbarock

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Präsentation auf www.selskebaroko.unas.cz

Ersterwähnung 1421

Vesce


The flag of Eswatini was adopted on 6 October 1968 after Eswatini (formerly known as Swaziland) gained independence from the British Empire one month before. The design by King Sobhuza II features a black and white shield, with a staff and two spears, on a field of blue, yellow, and red horizontal bands.

History

The flag is based on the military flag given by King Hadji II to the Swazi Pioneer Corps in 1941 to remind them of the nation's military traditions. On 25 April 1967, the day the pledge of oath was taken by the king, the flag was hoisted for the first time. The College of Arms in London registered the flag on 30 October 1967. The first official hoisting of the flag was conducted on this day.

Specifications

The flag is rectangular with length and breadth in a ratio of 3:2 respectively. The red stands for past battles, the blue for peace and stability, and the yellow for the resources of Eswatini. The central focus of the flag is a Nguni shield and two spears, symbolizing protection from the country's enemies. Its color is meant to show that white and black people live in peaceful coexistence in Eswatini. The flag has five horizontal stripes—two blue stripes at the top and bottom while the center stripe is red. Two thin yellow stripes border the red stripe. On the red stripe is an ox hide combat shield from the traditional Swazi Emasotsha Regiment, laid horizontally. The shield is reinforced by a staff from which hangs injobo tassels—bunches of feathers of the widowbird and the lourie. These feathers are used only by the king. Above the staff are two assegais—local spears, a Swazi fighting stick and three royal Swazi ornamental tassels called injobo, which are made from widowbird and lourie feathers. In 2011, the color of the tassels were changed to black to match the widow birds' natural color.

Other flags

References

Flags of Africa
Flag
Flags introduced in 1968
Eswatini
Eswatini

Flag of Eswatini


هارولد وكومار: الهروب من خليج غوانتانامو  هو فيلم كوميدي أنتج في عام 2008 وهو الجزء الثاني من فيلم هارولد وكومار يذهبان إلى مطعم القلعة البيضاء.

القصة
في هذا الجزء يستمران هارولد وكومار في مغامرتهما الكوميدية عندما يقرر هارولد السفر إلى امستردام للقاء صديقته ولكن يحدث حدث غير متوقع في الطائرة حيث أن كومار يلقى القبض عليه وبحوزته مخدرات (البانجو) ولأن كومآر صآحب الجنسية الهندية ضنوه ارهبيآ ثم يتم ارسالهما إلى معتقل غوانتناموا ظنا منهم انهما يودان تفجير الطائرة ولكنهما يتمكنان من الهرب من المعتقل ويتم البحث عنهما في الخارج للقبض عليهما في هذا الوقت يتذكر كومار صديقته السابقة وكيف أنه يحبها لذلك يحاول إيقاف زواجها من رجل آخر، ذلك الرجل الذي يدعي أنه صديقهما ولكنه يظهر عكس ذلك.

وصلات خارجية

أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية عن القنب
أفلام أمريكية في عقد 2000
أفلام أمريكية كورية
أفلام أمريكية متعلقة بإل جي بي تي
أفلام أولى للمخرج لعام 2008
أفلام إخراجية أولى
أفلام إنتاج 2008
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 2000
أفلام تقع أحداثها في ألاباما
أفلام تقع أحداثها في تكساس
أفلام تقع أحداثها في سنة 2004
أفلام تقع أحداثها في كوبا
أفلام تقع أحداثها في ميامي (فلوريدا)
أفلام تقع أحداثها في هولندا
أفلام تقع أحداثها في واشنطن العاصمة
أفلام رفاق كوميدية أمريكية
أفلام رفاق كوميدية في عقد 2000
أفلام سجلها جورج إس. كلينتون
أفلام سياسة هجائية أمريكية
أفلام عن العرق والإثنية
أفلام عن إرهاب في الولايات المتحدة
أفلام عن عنصرية في الولايات المتحدة
أفلام كوميديا أمريكية آسيوية
أفلام كوميدية في 2008
أفلام مبنية على زمن العنصرية
أفلام متعلقة بإل جي بي تي 2008
أفلام متممة أمريكية
أفلام متممة إنتاج عقد 2000
أفلام مصورة في كوبا
أفلام مصورة في لويزيانا
أفلام نيو لاين سينما
أفلام وارنر برذرز
تصوير ثقافي عن جورج بوش الابن
عقد 2000 أفلام متعلقة بإل جي بي تي
كو كلوكس كلان في الثقافة الشعبية

هروب هارولد وكومار من خليج غوانتانامو (فيلم)


Gabriel Gottfried Bredow (født 14. december 1773 i Berlin, død 5. september 1814 i Breslau) var en tysk historiker.

Bredow blev 1804 professor i historie i Helmstedt, 1809 i Frankfurt an der Oder og 1811 i Breslau. Hans mest bekendte arbejder er skolebøgerne Umständliche Erzählungen der merkwürdigsten Begebenheiten aus der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte (1810, 15. udgave 1866) og Merkwürdige Begebenheiten aus der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte (1810; 37. udgave 1880).

Kilder

Historikere fra Tyskland
Professorer fra Tyskland
Tyskere i 1800-tallet
Personer fra Berlin
Ugglan

Gabriel Gottfried Bredow


John William Money (Morrinsville, 8 de julio de 1921-Towson, Maryland; 7 de julio de 2006) fue un psicólogo neozelandés especializado en sexología emigrado a los Estados Unidos después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial.

Muy cercano a Harry Benjamin, su influencia fue determinante en la tesis de la identidad de género y el tratamiento hormono-quirúrgico de la transexualidad. Su experimento de reasignación de sexo fracasó totalmente y acabó con el suicidio de su paciente, David Reimer.

Biografía
En 1944 se graduó en la Universidad Victoria de Wellington con una maestría en Psicología y otra en Educación. Trabajó en la Universidad de Otago en Dunedin, pero en 1947 emigró a los Estados Unidos para estudiar psiquiatría en la Universidad de Pittsburgh. En 1952 terminó su doctorado en la Universidad de Harvard. Desde 1951 hasta su muerte fue profesor de pediatría y psicología médica en la Universidad Johns Hopkins donde fue profesor de Louis Gooren.

Fue el primer miembro honorario de la Asociación Española de Sociedades de Sexología (AEES) y se ha propuesto que el premio de investigación de la Federación Española de Sociedades de Sexología (FESS) lleve su nombre.

En 1991, Eli Coleman publicó «John Money, a Tribute» en el Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, volumen 4, número 2, con la biografía de John Money.

En 2002 recibió la medalla Magnus Hirschfeld de la Sociedad Alemana para la Investigación Científico-Social en Sexualidad.

En enero de 2004 se publicó la autobiografía de Money, titulada The Thinking Traveller, 1946-2003.

Falleció el 7 de julio de 2006, un día antes de cumplir los 85 años, en la ciudad de Towson (Maryland), debido a las complicaciones que tuvo con la enfermedad de Parkinson.

Obra
Consagró su obra a defender la idea de la independencia radical del «habitus social» respecto del sexo biológico. Consideraba preponderante el concepto de sexo de asignación y de crianza.

Trasladó el término «género» de las ciencias del lenguaje a las ciencias de la salud cuando estaba investigando problemas de hermafroditismo en el Departamento de Psiquiatría y Pediatría del Hospital de la Universidad Johns Hopkins. Sus investigaciones en este campo revolucionaron los conocimientos que se tenían hasta el momento sobre el sexo.

Sus investigaciones se basaban en la observación de individuos portadores de anomalías sexuales congénitas. Se dedicó al estudio de las consecuencias del tratamiento médico de la cirugía de reconstrucción genital y al modo de educación adoptado (masculino o femenino).

En oposición al determinismo biológico, para Money, el comportamiento estaba regido por la educación como varón o mujer y no por el sexo biológico asignado al nacer.

Money consideraba el dimorfismo de respuestas ante los caracteres sexuales secundarios o como uno de los aspectos más universales de vínculo social.

El género social es dualista y codifica durante la infancia: la mitad del código es para lo femenino y la otra mitad para lo masculino. Un niño o una niña deben asimilar ambas mitades del código, cada uno identificándose con una y complementándose con la otra.

Denominó complementación al proceso mediante el cual los adultos implantan en los niños, durante la crianza de sus hijos, las respuestas y las conductas complementarias a su propio género. Por ejemplo, cuando en la tradición familiar el padre baila con su hija mujer y la madre con su hijo varón.

Money describe un sistema de relaciones intersubjetivas con sus padres durante los tres primeros años de vida del niño que instituyen en el psiquismo de éste el sentimiento íntimo de ser nene o nena. A este sentimiento Money lo llamó identidad de género.

Consideraba el proceso de identidad de género como erradicable, al igual que la adquisición del lenguaje de la lengua materna, que puede caer en desuso pero no puede ser ni erradicada ni desaprendida.

Al considerar el género, ligado al deseo, como más determinante que el determinismo biológico, ligado a la anatomía, reactivó las controversias en la comunidad científica acerca de lo innato o adquirido. En la década de 1950 este tema era de fundamental importancia para los que bregaban por despatologizar la homosexualidad.

Además de sus estudios sexológicos sobre los niños intersexuales, las fantasías sexuales, las parafilias y la pedofilia y de sus estudios sobre el género, es conocido también por el estudio del hermafroditismo y por su trabajo en la interacción de las hormonas y el desarrollo cognitivo, por ejemplo, problemas de lectura y de crecimiento como los de enanismo psicosocial y pubertad precoz, el síndrome de hyperplasia suprarrenal congénita en casos expuestos a andrógenos o el síndrome de insensibilidad a los andrógenos.

Introdujo términos como orgasmo seco en el varón, disforia de género, cronofilia, mapa-de-amor (lovemap), mapa-del-género (gendermap), sexosofía, papel del género, travestofilia, principio de Adán, principio de Eva, identificación cruzada, cruce del género, ginemimesis y andromimesis.

Formó parte del movimiento de liberación sexual de las décadas de 1960 y 1970.

Sus posiciones personales sobre el ejercicio de la de sexualidad, en especial de las parafilias y la pedofilia, fueron muy controvertidas y criticadas.

Controversias

El caso Reimer
Durante su vida profesional fue respetado como un experto en el comportamiento sexual, sobre todo por su teoría de que el género es adquirido más que innato. Muchos años más tarde, sin embargo, se reveló que su caso más famoso que comprobaba su teoría fue en realidad un rotundo fracaso. El caso es el cambio de sexo de David Reimer.

En 1966, una circuncisión mal realizada dejó a David Reimer (de 8 meses) sin pene. Basado en la recomendación de Money, catorce meses después, se reasignó a Reimer como mujer, sus testículos son retirados y se le crea una vulva de forma artificial, finalmente se le cambia el nombre a Brenda. Money recetó además el tratamiento hormonal, que fue realizado también. Money también recomendó una cirugía para crear una vagina artificial, a lo que los padres se negaron al inicio, aunque tiempos después la realizaron. Money le indicó a la familia que nunca le dijesen sobre su cambio de sexo y que lo educaran como una niña normal, además de actividades sexuales para comprobar el desarrollo, cosa que fue realizada por la familia. Money publicó una serie de artículos con informes de la reasignación como exitosa y la exhibió como la prueba irrefutable de su teoría.

Durante las citas médicas subsecuentes con Reimer y su hermano gemelo, Brian, Money forzó a los dos a realizar actos sexuales, con David haciendo el rol de pasivo mientras su hermano "[presionaba] su entrepierna contra las nalgas de David". Money también forzaba a los dos niños a desnudarse para realizar "inspecciones genitales", ocasionalmente tomando fotografías. Money justificó estos actos alegando que los "juegos sexuales en la infancia" eran importantes para una "identidad de género saludable en la adultez"

Por varios años, Money informó del progreso de Reimer como el "caso John/Joan", describiendo desarrollo del género femenino aparentemente exitoso y usando este caso para apoyar la viabilidad de la reasignación de sexo y la reconstrucción quirúrgica incluso en casos de personas no intersexuales. Las notas de un exestudiante del laboratorio de Money expresan que, durante las visitas anuales consecuentes, los padres de Reimer mintieron al personal sobre el éxito del procedimiento. El hermano de Reimer, Brian, más tarde desarrolló esquizofrenia.

En 1997, Milton Diamond informó que la reasignación había sido todo un fracaso, Reimer nunca se había identificado como mujer o comportado de una manera típicamente femenina, después de haber sido cambiado su sexo a femenino. A los 14 años, después de años de terapia y varios intentos de suicidio, contaron a Reimer todo lo sucedido y decidió someterse a tratamientos con hormonas masculinas, cambió su nombre de nuevo a David cuando era un adolescente y se sometió a una serie de cirugías que le permitieron volver a tener un pene.

En 2002, el hermano gemelo de David, Brian, fue encontrado muerto por una sobredosis de antidepresivos incapaz de superar la culpa por haber salido bien de la circuncisión y asistir al sufrimiento de su gemelo. El 5 de mayo de 2004 David Reimer se suicidó a causa del abandono de su esposa, posteriormente su padre también se suicidó por sentimientos de culpabilidad.

Libros
 Reading disability; progress and research needs in dyslexia. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1962, OCLC 599250319
 The disabled reader; education of the dyslexic child. John Money and Gilbert B Schiffman, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1966, OCLC 182910
 Sex errors of the body; dilemmas, education, counseling. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1968, OCLC 422864
 Transsexualism and sex reassignment. John Money and Richard Green, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1969, OCLC 6866559
 Sexual signatures: on being a man or a woman. John Money and Patricia Tucker, Boston, Little, Brown, 1975, ISBN 978-031-657-826-4
 Adam en Eva in de maak: over man of vrouw zijn. John Money, Patricia Tucker and Fred de Borst, Amsterdan, Bakker, 1975, ISBN 978-906-019-359-4
 A standardized road-map test of direction sense. San Rafael, California, Academic Therapy Publications, 1976, OCLC 7087989
 Man and woman, boy and girl: the differentiation and dimorphism of gender identity from conception to maturity. John Money and Anke A Ehrhardt, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972, ISBN 978-080-181-405-1
 Handbook of sexology 1. John Money and H Musaph, Amsterdan/New York, Excerpta Médica, 1977,ISBN 978-902-192-104-4
 Sexual signatures: on being a man or a woman. John Money and Patricia Tucker, Londres, Sphere Books, 1977, ISBN 978-034-912-381-3
 Love and love sickness, the science of sex, gender difference and pair-bonding. Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980, ISBN 978-080-182-318-3
 Desarrollo de la sexualidad humana, diferenciación y dimorfismo de la identidad de género desde de la concepción hasta la madurez. John Money y Anke Ehrhardt, Madrid, Morata, 1982,ISBN 978-847-112-205-6
 The destroying angel: sex, fitness and food in the legacy of degeneracy theory; graham crackers, Kellogg's corn flakes and American health history. Buffalo, New York, Prometheus Books, 1985, ISBN 978-087-975-277-4
 Venuses penuses: sexology, sexosophy and exigency theory. Buffalo, New York, Prometheus Books, 1986, ISBN 978-087-975-327-6
 Lovemaps: clinical concepts of sexual/erotic health and pathology, paraphilia, and gender transposition in childhood, adolescence, and maturity. New York, Irvington, 1986, ISBN 978-082-901-589-8
 Handbook of sexology 6. The pharmacology and endocrinology of sexual function. John Money, J M Sitsen and Michael E Perry, Amsterdan, Elsevier, 1988, ISBN 978-044-490-460-7
 The pharmacology and endocrinology of sexual function. John Money and J M A Sitsen, Amsterdan, Elsevier, 1988, ISBN 978-044-490-460-7
 Vandalized lovemaps: paraphilic outcome of seven cases in pediatric sexology. John Money and Margaret Lamacz, Buffalo, New Jersey, Prometheus Books, 1989, ISBN 978-087-975-513-3
 Handbook of sexology 2, Genetics, hormones and behavior. John Money, H Musaph and M E Perry, Amsterdan, Elsevier, 1990, ISBN 978-044-400-280-8
 Handbook of sexology 3, Procreation and parenthood. John Money, H Musaph and M E Perry, Amsterdan, Elsevier, 1990, ISBN 978-044-400-281-5
 The breathless orgasm: a lovemap biography of asphyxiophilia. John Money, Gordon Wainwright and David Hingsburger, Buffalo, New York, Prometheus Books, 1991, ISBN 978-087-975-664-2
 The Kaspar Hauser syndrome of psychosocial dwarfism: deficient statural, intellectual, and social growth induced by child abuse. Buffalo, New York, Prometheus Books, 1992, ISBN 978-087-975-754-0
 Reinterpreting the unspeakable: human sexuality 2000, the complete interviewer and clinical biographer, exigency theory and sexology for the Third Millennium. New York, Continuum, 1994,ISBN 978-082-640-651-4
 Principles of developmental sexology. New York, Continuum, 1997, ISBN 978-082-641-026-9
 Sin, science, and the sex police: essays on sexology and sexosophy. Amherst, New York, Prometheus Books, 1998, ISBN 978-157-392-253-1
 The lovemap guidebook: a definitive statement. New York, Continuum, 1999, 978-082-641-203-4
 Errores sexuales del cuerpo y síndromes relacionados: una guía para el asesoramiento de niños, adolescentes y sus familias. Buenos Aires, Editorial Biblos, 2002, ISBN 978-950-786-322-6
 The thinking traveller, 1946-2003. Baltimore, Md. John Money, 2003, ISBN 978-141-403-493-5
 Au coeur de nos reveries erotiques: cartes affectives, fantasmes sexuels et perversions. París, Payot, 2004, OCLC 55010713
 "Errores Sexuales del Cuerpo y Síndromes Relacionados (una guía para el asesoramiento de niños, adolescentes y sus familias)" de John Money, primera edición; editorial Biblos; Buenos Aires; 2002; traducción de Isabel Boschi; ISBN: 950-786-322-2

Véase también
 Disforia de género
 Identidad sexual
 Khanith
 David Reimer
 Cronofilia
 Dimorfismo sexual
 Orientación sexual
 Sexuación
 Distinción entre sexo y género
 Magnus Hirschfeld
 Transexualidad
 Parafilia
 Perversión
 Intersexualidad
 Teoría queer
 Dimorfismo sexual cerebral
 Harry Benjamin

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Alumnado de la Universidad de Harvard
Estudios de género
Médicos de Estados Unidos
Profesores de la Universidad Johns Hopkins
Psicólogos de Estados Unidos
Sexólogos de Estados Unidos
Fallecidos por párkinson
Mala conducta científica
Estudios y teorías LGBT

John Money


An Carex pumila in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Peter Thunberg. An Carex pumila in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Carex

Carex pumila


Giannis Boutaris (, * 13. Juni 1942 in Thessaloniki) ist ein griechischer Politiker und war von 2011 bis 2019 Bürgermeister von Thessaloniki.

Giannis Boutaris wuchs als Sohn von Stelios Boutaris auf, der das familiäre Weinunternehmen Boutari leitete, und studierte dann Chemie an der Universität Thessaloniki. Nach einem Berufsleben als Geschäftsmann und Winzer übergab er sein Weingut 2002 an seine Kinder und engagierte sich seitdem ehrenamtlich in der Politik. Er ist Gründungsmitglied der Initiative für Thessaloniki und der Kleinpartei Drasi. Im November 2010 gewann er die Bürgermeisterwahlen im zweiten Wahlgang mit 50,2 %, wobei er von der damals größten Oppositionspartei PASOK, deren Mitglied er nicht ist, unterstützt wurde. Im Januar 2011 trat er sein Amt an.

Als Bürgermeister von Thessaloniki bemühte sich Boutaris, die multikulturelle Vergangenheit der Stadt aufzuzeigen. So äußerte Boutaris die Absicht, eine islamische Moschee und ein Mahnmal zu Ehren der Juden Thessalonikis und der Jungtürken zu errichten, auch um eine Attraktion für Touristen aus Israel und der Türkei zu schaffen.

Er verärgerte wiederholt Konservative und Rechtsextreme mit Stellungnahmen zum Namensstreit mit Mazedonien, zu den griechisch-türkischen Beziehungen und zum Holocaust an den Juden Thessalonikis.

Das deutsche Nachrichtenmagazin Der Spiegel berichtete im Februar 2012 von großen Erfolgen bei der Sanierung der Kommunalverwaltung und bezeichnete ihn als "den außergewöhnlichsten Politiker Griechenlands".

In einem Artikel in der Süddeutschen Zeitung wurde Boutaris als (Ex-)Alkoholiker und Kritiker der Orthodoxen Kirche vorgestellt, der erhebliche Probleme damit hat, die korrupten Strukturen und die Patronage-Wirtschaft in der Stadtverwaltung von Thessaloniki zu reformieren.

Am 19. Mai 2018 wurde Boutaris bei einer öffentlichen Kundgebung von Rechtsextremen angegriffen und verletzt.

Boutaris erhielt am 19. März 2019 das Große Verdienstkreuz des Verdienstordens der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, das ihm der deutsche Botschafter Jens Plötner überreichte. Mit der Auszeichnung würdigte Bundespräsident Frank-Walter Steinmeier Boutaris' Engagement für das Zusammenwachsen Europas und die Verstärkung der deutsch-griechischen Zusammenarbeit, welche sich in den Städtepartnerschaften Thessalonikis mit Köln und Leipzig, dem Aufbau eines deutsch-griechischen Jugendwerks sowie insbesondere des Holocaust-Museums von Griechenland ausdrückte.

Weblinks

 Giannis Boutaris auf der Website von Drasi (griechisch)
 Giannis Boutaris auf der Website der Stadt Thessaloniki (englisch), abgerufen am 19. März 2018
 Thessalonikis Bürgermeister wagt Neues: "Das Schlimmste kommt noch", Interview mit Ulrike Herrmann und Ines Pohl in der taz, 5. Mai 2012
 Und Griechenland bewegt sich doch, NZZ vom 29. April 2015

Dokumentarfilm
Dimitris Athiridis: Einen Schritt voraus – Zehn Wochen mit Yannis Boutaris. (Originaltitel: Ένα βήμα μπροστά. Ena vima brosta.), Dokumentarfilm. 125 Min.

Einzelnachweise

Bürgermeister (Thessaloniki)
Unternehmer (Griechenland)
Unternehmer (21. Jahrhundert)
Unternehmer (20. Jahrhundert)
Mitglied der Ehrenlegion (Ritter)
Träger des Großen Bundesverdienstkreuzes
Grieche
Geboren 1942
Mann

Giannis Boutaris


Adem Kastrati (Karačevo, Dardana, Kosovo, 1933.  2000.) bio je albanski slikar u Sjevernoj Makedoniji.

Rođen je u velikoj obitelji, koja je njegovala domoljubne vrijednosti i obrazovanje. Ujak je bio politički disident i domoljub Metush Krasniqi.

Adem Kastrati postao je slikar i pedagog likovne umjetnosti, književni djelatnik, kolekcionar, analitičar albansko-slavenskih i euro-svjetskih odnosa. Pripada prvoj generaciji albanskih slikara nakon Drugog svjetskog rata. Olujna vremena u kojima je odrastao, sazrijevao i formirao se kao slikar, ostavila su veliki trag u njegovom djelovanju. Njegovo ime zauzima zasluženo mjesto među figurativnim umjetnicima, koji su živjeli i stvarali djela u bivšoj Jugoslaviji. Kastrati je jedan od doajena među albanskim slikarima u Sjevernoj Makedoniji, zemlji u kojoj živi i stvara više od četrdeset godina.

Izvori

Sjevernomakedonski umjetnici
Kosovski umjetnici
Slikari

Adem Kastrati


GS1 Sistemi, ticari ve endüstriyel kuruluşların tanımlama ve numaralandırma gereksinimlerinin yanı sıra ticari ortaklar arasında bilginin elektronik ortamda nasıl paylaşılacağı ve nasıl kullanılacağı konularındaki standartları ortaya koyan bir sistemdir.

GS1 Sistemi günümüzde, 108 ülkede 1 milyondan fazla işletme tarafından, etkin tedarik zinciri yönetiminin en önemli bileşeni olarak kullanılmaktadır.

Dünyada en yaygın kullanılan tedarik zinciri standardı olan ve ürün, demirbaş, hizmet ve yerlere ilişkin bilgilerin doğru tanımlanması ve iletilmesini sağlayan GS1 Sistemi, dört temel ürün alanından oluşur:

 GS1 Barkod
 GS1 eCom
 GS1 GDSN (Küresel Veri Eşzamanlama Ağı)
 GS1 EPCglobal

GS1 Barkod

Ticari ürünlerin, yerlerin, taşıma birimlerinin ve demirbaşların standart olarak tanımlanmasını ve bilgi sistemlerine otomatik olarak aktarılmasını sağlayan, barkod teknolojileri temelli küresel veri ve uygulama standartlarıdır.

GS1 eCom

GS1 EANCOM ve GS1 XML olarak iki bileşene dayanan, ticari ortaklar arasındaki veri alışverişinin hızlı, etkin ve doğru olarak, elektronik ortamda yapılmasını sağlayan küresel elektronik mesajlaşma standartlarıdır.

GS1 GDSN

Global Veri Senkronizasyon Ağı (GDSN - Global Data Synchronisation Network), tüm ticari ortakların sistemlerinde aynı anda ve birbirine uyumlu ürün verisine sahip olmalarına izin veren, güvenli ve devamlı veri senkronizasyonuna olanak sağlayan, otomatik, standart-tabanlı bir küresel ürün bilgisi sistemidir. GDSN'in önemli bir bileşeni, etkin kategori yönetimi sağlayan Küresel Ürün Sınıflandırmasıdır (GPC – Global Product Classification).

GS1 EPCglobal

Tedarik zincirinin etkinliğini ve görünürlüğünü artıran, tedarik zincirindeki bir ürünün küresel olarak, anında ve otomatik tanımlanması ve izlenmesi için var olan iletişim ağı altyapısını, RFID teknolojisi ve Elektronik Ürün Kodu ile birleştiren yeni bir küresel standartlar sistemidir.

İlgili Bağlantılar

 GS1 Web Sitesi - GS1 Sistemi  (İngilizce)
 GS1 Türkiye Web Sitesi* GS1 Türkiye - GS1 Sistemi
 GS1 Türkiye - GDSN
 GS1 Türkiye - EDI
 GS1 EPCglobal Türkiye

Standardizasyon

GS1 Sistemi


An artificial general intelligence (AGI) is a hypothetical type of intelligent agent. If realized, an AGI could learn to accomplish any intellectual task that human beings or animals can perform. Alternatively, AGI has been defined as an autonomous system that surpasses human capabilities in the majority of economically valuable tasks. Creating AGI is a primary goal of some artificial intelligence research and of companies such as OpenAI, DeepMind, and Anthropic. AGI is a common topic in science fiction and futures studies.

The timeline for AGI development remains a subject of ongoing debate among researchers and experts. Some argue that it may be possible in years or decades; others maintain it might take a century or longer; and a minority believe it may never be achieved. Additionally, there is debate regarding whether modern large language models, such as GPT-4, are early yet incomplete forms of AGI or if new approaches are required.

Contention exists over the potential for AGI to pose a threat to humanity; for example, OpenAI treats it as an existential risk, while others find the development of AGI to be too remote to present a risk.

A 2020 survey identified 72 active AGI R&D projects spread across 37 countries.

Terminology
AGI is also known as strong AI, full AI, human-level AI or general intelligent action. However, some academic sources reserve the term "strong AI" for computer programs that experience sentience or consciousness. In contrast, weak AI (or narrow AI) is able to solve one specific problem, but lacks general cognitive abilities. Some academic sources use "weak AI" to refer more broadly to any programs that neither experience consciousness nor have a mind in the same sense as humans.

Related concepts include artificial superintelligence and transformative AI. An artificial superintelligence (ASI) is a hypothetical type of AGI that is much more generally intelligent than humans. And the notion of transformative AI relates to AI having a large impact on society, for example similar to the agricultural revolution.

Characteristics

Various criteria for intelligence have been proposed (most famously the Turing test) but no definition is broadly accepted.

Intelligence traits
However, researchers generally hold that intelligence is required to do all of the following:
 reason, use strategy, solve puzzles, and make judgments under uncertainty
 represent knowledge, including common sense knowledge
 plan
 learn
 communicate in natural language
 if necessary, integrate these skills in completion of any given goal
Many interdisciplinary approaches (e.g. cognitive science, computational intelligence, and decision making) consider additional traits such as imagination (the ability to form novel mental images and concepts) and autonomy.

Computer-based systems that exhibit many of these capabilities exist (e.g. see computational creativity, automated reasoning, decision support system, robot, evolutionary computation, intelligent agent). However, no consensus holds that modern AI systems possess them to an adequate degree.

Physical traits
Other capabilities are considered desirable in intelligent systems, as they may affect intelligence or aid in its expression. These include:
 the ability to sense (e.g. see, hear, etc.), and
 the ability to act (e.g. move and manipulate objects, change location to explore, etc.)
This includes the ability to detect and respond to hazard.

Tests for human-level AGI
Several tests meant to confirm human-level AGI have been considered, including:
The Turing Test (Turing)
 A machine and a human both converse unseen with a second human, who must evaluate which of the two is the machine, which passes the test if it can fool the evaluator a significant fraction of the time. Note: Turing does not prescribe what should qualify as intelligence, only that knowing that it is a machine should disqualify it. The AI Eugene Goostman achieved Turing's estimate of convincing 30% of judges that it was human in 2014.
The Robot College Student Test (Goertzel)
 A machine enrolls in a university, taking and passing the same classes that humans would, and obtaining a degree. LLMs can now pass university degree-level exams without even attending the classes.
The Employment Test (Nilsson)
 A machine performs an economically important job at least as well as humans in the same job. AIs are now replacing humans in many roles as varied as fast food and marketing.
The Ikea test (Marcus)
 Also known as the Flat Pack Furniture Test. An AI views the parts and instructions of an Ikea flat-pack product, then controls a robot to assemble the furniture correctly.
The Coffee Test (Wozniak)
 A machine is required to enter an average American home and figure out how to make coffee: find the coffee machine, find the coffee, add water, find a mug, and brew the coffee by pushing the proper buttons. This has not yet been completed.

AI-complete problems

There are many problems that may require general intelligence to solve the problems as well as humans do. For example, even specific straightforward tasks, like machine translation, require that a machine read and write in both languages (NLP), follow the author's argument (reason), know what is being talked about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the author's original intent (social intelligence). All of these problems need to be solved simultaneously in order to reach human-level machine performance.

A problem is informally called "AI-complete" or "AI-hard" if it is believed that to solve it one would need to implement strong AI, because the solution is beyond the capabilities of a purpose-specific algorithm.

AI-complete problems are hypothesised to include general computer vision, natural language understanding, and dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real-world problem.

AI-complete problems cannot be solved with current computer technology alone, and require human computation. This limitation could be useful to test for the presence of humans, as CAPTCHAs aim to do; and for computer security to repel brute-force attacks.

History

Classical AI

Modern AI research began in the mid-1950s. The first generation of AI researchers were convinced that artificial general intelligence was possible and that it would exist in just a few decades. AI pioneer Herbert A. Simon wrote in 1965: "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do."

Their predictions were the inspiration for Stanley Kubrick and Arthur C. Clarke's character HAL 9000, who embodied what AI researchers believed they could create by the year 2001. AI pioneer Marvin Minsky was a consultant on the project of making HAL 9000 as realistic as possible according to the consensus predictions of the time. He said in 1967, "Within a generation... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved".

Several classical AI projects, such as Doug Lenat's Cyc project (that began in 1984), and Allen Newell's Soar project, were directed at AGI.

However, in the early 1970s, it became obvious that researchers had grossly underestimated the difficulty of the project. Funding agencies became skeptical of AGI and put researchers under increasing pressure to produce useful "applied AI". In the early 1980s, Japan's Fifth Generation Computer Project revived interest in AGI, setting out a ten-year timeline that included AGI goals like "carry on a casual conversation". In response to this and the success of expert systems, both industry and government pumped money into the field. However, confidence in AI spectacularly collapsed in the late 1980s, and the goals of the Fifth Generation Computer Project were never fulfilled. For the second time in 20 years, AI researchers who predicted the imminent achievement of AGI had been mistaken. By the 1990s, AI researchers had a reputation for making vain promises. They became reluctant to make predictions at all and avoided mention of "human level" artificial intelligence for fear of being labeled "wild-eyed dreamer[s]".

Narrow AI research

In the 1990s and early 21st century, mainstream AI achieved commercial success and academic respectability by focusing on specific sub-problems where AI can produce verifiable results and commercial applications, such as speech recognition and recommendation algorithms. These "applied AI" systems are now used extensively throughout the technology industry, and research in this vein is heavily funded in both academia and industry. , development in this field was considered an emerging trend, and a mature stage was expected to be reached in more than 10 years.

At the turn of the century, many mainstream AI researchers hoped that strong AI could be developed by combining programs that solve various sub-problems. Hans Moravec wrote in 1988: I am confident that this bottom-up route to artificial intelligence will one day meet the traditional top-down route more than half way, ready to provide the real-world competence and the commonsense knowledge that has been so frustratingly elusive in reasoning programs. Fully intelligent machines will result when the metaphorical golden spike is driven uniting the two efforts.

However, even at the time, this was disputed. For example, Stevan Harnad of Princeton University concluded his 1990 paper on the Symbol Grounding Hypothesis by stating: The expectation has often been voiced that "top-down" (symbolic) approaches to modeling cognition will somehow meet "bottom-up" (sensory) approaches somewhere in between. If the grounding considerations in this paper are valid, then this expectation is hopelessly modular and there is really only one viable route from sense to symbols: from the ground up. A free-floating symbolic level like the software level of a computer will never be reached by this route (or vice versa) – nor is it clear why we should even try to reach such a level, since it looks as if getting there would just amount to uprooting our symbols from their intrinsic meanings (thereby merely reducing ourselves to the functional equivalent of a programmable computer).

Modern artificial general intelligence research
The term "artificial general intelligence" was used as early as 1997, by Mark Gubrud in a discussion of the implications of fully automated military production and operations. A mathematical formalism of AGI was proposed by Marcus Hutter in 2000. Named AIXI, the proposed AGI agent maximises "the ability to satisfy goals in a wide range of environments". This type of AGI, characterized by the ability to maximise a mathematical definition of intelligence rather than exhibit human-like behaviour, was also called universal artificial intelligence.

The term AGI was re-introduced and popularized by Shane Legg and Ben Goertzel around 2002. AGI research activity in 2006 was described by Pei Wang and Ben Goertzel as "producing publications and preliminary results". The first summer school in AGI was organized in Xiamen, China in 2009 by the Xiamen university's Artificial Brain Laboratory and OpenCog. The first university course was given in 2010 and 2011 at Plovdiv University, Bulgaria by Todor Arnaudov. MIT presented a course on AGI in 2018, organized by Lex Fridman and featuring a number of guest lecturers.

, a small number of computer scientists are active in AGI research, and many contribute to a series of AGI conferences. However, increasingly more researchers are interested in open-ended learning, which is the idea of allowing AI to continuously learn and innovate like humans do. Although most open-ended learning works are still done on Minecraft, its application can be extended to robotics and the sciences.

Feasibility
, complete forms of AGI remain speculative. No system that meets the generally agreed upon criteria for AGI has yet been demonstrated. Opinions vary both on whether and when artificial general intelligence will arrive. AI pioneer Herbert A. Simon speculated in 1965 that "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do". This prediction failed to come true. Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen believed that such intelligence is unlikely in the 21st century because it would require "unforeseeable and fundamentally unpredictable breakthroughs" and a "scientifically deep understanding of cognition". Writing in The Guardian, roboticist Alan Winfield claimed the gulf between modern computing and human-level artificial intelligence is as wide as the gulf between current space flight and practical faster-than-light spaceflight.

Most AI researchers believe strong AI can be achieved in the future, but some thinkers, like Hubert Dreyfus and Roger Penrose, deny the possibility of achieving strong AI.  John McCarthy is among those who believe human-level AI will be accomplished, but that the present level of progress is such that a date cannot accurately be predicted. AI experts' views on the feasibility of AGI wax and wane. Four polls conducted in 2012 and 2013 suggested that the median estimate among experts for when they would be 50% confident AGI would arrive was 2040 to 2050, depending on the poll, with the mean being 2081. Of the experts, 16.5% answered with "never" when asked the same question but with a 90% confidence instead. Further current AGI progress considerations can be found above Tests for confirming human-level AGI.

A report by Stuart Armstrong and Kaj Sotala of the Machine Intelligence Research Institute found that "over [a] 60-year time frame there is a strong bias towards predicting the arrival of human-level AI as between 15 and 25 years from the time the prediction was made". They analyzed 95 predictions made between 1950 and 2012 on when human-level AI will come about.

In 2023, Microsoft researchers published a detailed evaluation of GPT-4. They concluded: "Given the breadth and depth of GPT-4's capabilities, we believe that it could reasonably be viewed as an early (yet still incomplete) version of an artificial general intelligence (AGI) system." Another study in 2023 reported that GPT-4 outperforms 99% of humans on the Torrance tests of creative thinking.

Timescales
In the introduction to his 2006 book, Goertzel says that estimates of the time needed before a truly flexible AGI is built vary from 10 years to over a century. , the consensus in the AGI research community seemed to be that the timeline discussed by Ray Kurzweil in 2005 in The Singularity is Near (i.e. between 2015 and 2045) was plausible. Mainstream AI researchers have given a wide range of opinions on whether progress will be this rapid. A 2012 meta-analysis of 95 such opinions found a bias towards predicting that the onset of AGI would occur within 16–26 years for modern and historical predictions alike. That paper has been criticized for how it categorized opinions as expert or non-expert.

In 2012, Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey Hinton developed a neural network called AlexNet, which won the ImageNet competition with a top-5 test error rate of 15.3%, significantly better than the second-best entry's rate of 26.3% (the traditional approach used a weighted sum of scores from different pre-defined classifiers). AlexNet was regarded as the initial ground-breaker of the current deep learning wave.

In 2017, researchers Feng Liu, Yong Shi, and Ying Liu conducted intelligence tests on publicly available and freely accessible weak AI such as Google AI, Apple's Siri, and others. At the maximum, these AIs reached an IQ value of about 47, which corresponds approximately to a six-year-old child in first grade. An adult comes to about 100 on average. Similar tests were carried out in 2014, with the IQ score reaching a maximum value of 27.

In 2020, OpenAI developed GPT-3, a language model capable of performing many diverse tasks without specific training. According to Gary Grossman in a VentureBeat article, while there is consensus that GPT-3 is not an example of AGI, it is considered by some to be too advanced to be classified as a narrow AI system.

In the same year, Jason Rohrer used his GPT-3 account to develop a chatbot, and provided a chatbot-developing platform called "Project December". OpenAI asked for changes to the chatbot to comply with their safety guidelines; Rohrer disconnected Project December from the GPT-3 API.

In 2022, DeepMind developed Gato, a "general-purpose" system capable of performing more than 600 different tasks.

In 2023, Microsoft Research published a study on an early version of OpenAI's GPT-4, contending that it exhibited more general intelligence than previous AI models and demonstrated human-level performance in tasks spanning multiple domains, such as mathematics, coding, and law. This research sparked a debate on whether GPT-4 could be considered an early, incomplete version of artificial general intelligence, emphasizing the need for further exploration and evaluation of such systems.

In 2023, the AI researcher Geoffrey Hinton stated that:

Brain simulation

Whole brain emulation

One possible approach to achieving AGI is whole brain emulation: A brain model is built by scanning and mapping a biological brain in detail and copying its state into a computer system or another computational device. The computer runs a simulation model sufficiently faithful to the original that it behaves in practically the same way as the original brain. Whole brain emulation is discussed in computational neuroscience and neuroinformatics, in the context of brain simulation for medical research purposes. It is discussed in artificial intelligence research as an approach to strong AI. Neuroimaging technologies that could deliver the necessary detailed understanding are improving rapidly, and futurist Ray Kurzweil in the book The Singularity Is Near predicts that a map of sufficient quality will become available on a similar timescale to the computing power required to emulate it.

Early estimates
 For low-level brain simulation, an extremely powerful computer would be required. The human brain has a huge number of synapses. Each of the 1011 (one hundred billion) neurons has on average 7,000 synaptic connections (synapses) to other neurons. The brain of a three-year-old child has about 1015 synapses (1 quadrillion). This number declines with age, stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 1014 to 5×1014 synapses (100 to 500 trillion). An estimate of the brain's processing power, based on a simple switch model for neuron activity, is around 1014 (100 trillion) synaptic updates per second (SUPS).

In 1997, Kurzweil looked at various estimates for the hardware required to equal the human brain and adopted a figure of 1016 computations per second (cps). (For comparison, if a "computation" was equivalent to one "floating-point operation" – a measure used to rate current supercomputers – then 1016 "computations" would be equivalent to 10 petaFLOPS, achieved in 2011, while 1018 was achieved in 2022.) He used this figure to predict the necessary hardware would be available sometime between 2015 and 2025, if the exponential growth in computer power at the time of writing continued.

Modelling the neurons in more detail
The artificial neuron model assumed by Kurzweil and used in many current artificial neural network implementations is simple compared with biological neurons. A brain simulation would likely have to capture the detailed cellular behaviour of biological neurons, presently understood only in broad outline. The overhead introduced by full modeling of the biological, chemical, and physical details of neural behaviour (especially on a molecular scale) would require computational powers several orders of magnitude larger than Kurzweil's estimate. In addition, the estimates do not account for glial cells, which are known to play a role in cognitive processes.

Current research
Some research projects are investigating brain simulation using more sophisticated neural models, implemented on conventional computing architectures. The Artificial Intelligence System project implemented non-real time simulations of a "brain" (with 1011 neurons) in 2005. It took 50 days on a cluster of 27 processors to simulate 1 second of a model. The Blue Brain project used one of the fastest supercomputer architectures, IBM's Blue Gene platform, to create a real time simulation of a single rat neocortical column consisting of approximately 10,000 neurons and 108 synapses in 2006. A longer-term goal is to build a detailed, functional simulation of the physiological processes in the human brain: "It is not impossible to build a human brain and we can do it in 10 years," Henry Markram, director of the Blue Brain Project, said in 2009 at the TED conference in Oxford. Neuro-silicon interfaces have been proposed as an alternative implementation strategy that may scale better.

Hans Moravec addressed the above arguments ("brains are more complicated", "neurons have to be modeled in more detail") in his 1997 paper "When will computer hardware match the human brain?". He measured the ability of existing software to simulate the functionality of neural tissue, specifically the retina. His results do not depend on the number of glial cells, nor on what kinds of processing neurons perform where.

The actual complexity of modeling biological neurons has been explored in OpenWorm project that aimed at complete simulation of a worm that has only 302 neurons in its neural network (among about 1000 cells in total). The animal's neural network was well documented before the start of the project. However, although the task seemed simple at the beginning, the models based on a generic neural network did not work. Currently, efforts focus on precise emulation of biological neurons (partly on the molecular level), but the result cannot yet be called a total success.

Criticisms of simulation-based approaches
A fundamental criticism of the simulated brain approach derives from embodied cognition theory which asserts that human embodiment is an essential aspect of human intelligence and is necessary to ground meaning. If this theory is correct, any fully functional brain model will need to encompass more than just the neurons (e.g., a robotic body). Goertzel proposes virtual embodiment (like in Second Life) as an option, but it is unknown whether this would be sufficient.

Desktop computers using microprocessors capable of more than 109 cps (Kurzweil's non-standard unit "computations per second", see above) have been available since 2005. According to the brain power estimates used by Kurzweil (and Moravec), such a computer should be capable of supporting a simulation of a bee brain, but despite some interest no such simulation exists. There are several reasons for this:
 The neuron model seems to be oversimplified (see next section).
 There is insufficient understanding of higher cognitive processes to establish accurately what the brain's neural activity (observed using techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging) correlates with.
 Even if our understanding of cognition advances sufficiently, early simulation programs are likely to be inefficient and will, therefore, need considerably more hardware.
 The brain of an organism, while critical, may not be an appropriate boundary for a cognitive model. To simulate a bee brain, it may be necessary to simulate the body, and the environment. The Extended Mind thesis formalises this philosophical concept, and research into cephalopods demonstrated clear examples of a decentralized system.

In addition, the scale of the human brain is not currently well-constrained. One estimate puts the human brain at about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses. Another estimate is 86 billion neurons of which 16.3 billion are in the cerebral cortex and 69 billion in the cerebellum. Glial cell synapses are currently unquantified but are known to be extremely numerous.

Philosophical perspective

"Strong AI" as defined in philosophy
In 1980, philosopher John Searle coined the term "strong AI" as part of his Chinese room argument. He wanted to distinguish between two different hypotheses about artificial intelligence:
 Strong AI hypothesis: An artificial intelligence system can have "a mind" and "consciousness".
 Weak AI hypothesis: An artificial intelligence system can (only) act like it thinks and has a mind and consciousness.
The first one he called "strong" because it makes a stronger statement: it assumes something special has happened to the machine that goes beyond those abilities that we can test. The behaviour of a "weak AI" machine would be precisely identical to a "strong AI" machine, but the latter would also have subjective conscious experience. This usage is also common in academic AI research and textbooks.

In contrast to Searle and mainstream AI, some futurists such as Ray Kurzweil use the term "strong AI" to mean "human level artificial general intelligence". This is not the same as Searle's strong AI, unless it is assumed that consciousness is necessary for human-level AGI. Academic philosophers such as Searle do not believe that is the case, and to most artificial intelligence researchers the question is out-of-scope.

Mainstream AI is most interested in how a program behaves. According to Russell and Norvig, "as long as the program works, they don't care if you call it real or a simulation." If the program can behave as if it has a mind, then there is no need to know if it actually has mind – indeed, there would be no way to tell. For AI research, Searle's "weak AI hypothesis" is equivalent to the statement "artificial general intelligence is possible". Thus, according to Russell and Norvig, "most AI researchers take the weak AI hypothesis for granted, and don't care about the strong AI hypothesis." Thus, for academic AI research, "Strong AI" and "AGI" are two different things.

Consciousness, self-awareness, sentience
Other aspects of the human mind besides intelligence are relevant to the concept of AGI or "strong AI", and these play a major role in science fiction and the ethics of artificial intelligence:
 consciousness: To have subjective experience. Thomas Nagel explains that it "feels like" something to be conscious. If we are not conscious, then it doesn't feel like anything. Nagel uses the example of a bat: we can sensibly ask "what does it feel like to be a bat?" However, we are unlikely to ask "what does it feel like to be a toaster?" Nagel concludes that a bat appears to be conscious (i.e. has consciousness) but a toaster does not.
 self-awareness: To have conscious awareness of oneself as a separate individual, especially to be consciously aware of one's own thoughts. This is opposed to simply being the "subject of one's thought" – an operating system or debugger is able to be "aware of itself" (that is, to represent itself in the same way it represents everything else) but this is not what people typically mean when they use the term "self-awareness".
 sentience: The ability to "feel" perceptions or emotions subjectively, as opposed to the ability to reason about perceptions or, in regard to emotions, to be aware that the situation requires urgency, kindness or aggression. For example, we can build a machine that knows which objects in its field of view are red, but this machine will not necessarily know what red looks like.

These traits have a moral dimension, because a machine with this form of "strong AI" may have rights, analogous to the rights of non-human animals. Preliminary work has been conducted on integrating strong AI with existing legal and social frameworks, focusing on the legal position and rights of 'strong' AI.

It remains to be shown whether "artificial consciousness" is necessary for AGI. However, many AGI researchers regard research that investigates possibilities for implementing consciousness as vital.

Bill Joy, among others, argues a machine with these traits may be a threat to human life or dignity.

Research challenges
Progress in artificial intelligence has gone through periods of rapid progress separated by periods when progress appeared to stop. Ending each hiatus were fundamental advances in hardware, software or both to create space for further progress. For example, the computer hardware available in the twentieth century was not sufficient to implement deep learning, which requires large numbers of GPU-enabled CPUs.

The field has also oscillated between approaches to the problem. At times, effort has focused on explicit accumulation of facts and logic, as in expert systems. At other times, systems were expected to build their own g via machine learning, as in artificial neural networks.

A further challenge is the lack of clarity in defining what intelligence entails. Does it require consciousness? Must it display the ability to set goals as well as pursue them? Is it purely a matter of scale such that if model sizes increase sufficiently, intelligence will emerge? Are facilities such as planning, reasoning, and causal understanding required? Does intelligence require explicitly replicating the brain and its specific faculties? Does it require emotions? Gelernter writes, "No computer will be creative unless it can simulate all the nuances of human emotion."

Benefits
AGI could have a wide variety of applications. If oriented towards such goals, AGI could help mitigate various problems in the world such as hunger, poverty and health problems.

AGI could improve the productivity and efficiency in most jobs. For example, in public health, AGI could accelerate medical research, notably against cancer. It could take care of the elderly, and democratize access to rapid, high-quality medical diagnostics. It could offer fun, cheap and personalized education. For virtually any job that benefits society if done well, it would probably sooner or later be preferable to leave it to an AGI. The need to work to subsist could become obsolete if the wealth produced is properly redistributed. This also raises the question of the place of humans in a radically automated society.

AGI could also help to make rational decisions, and to anticipate and prevent disasters. It could also help to reap the benefits of potentially catastrophic technologies such as nanotechnology or climate engineering, while avoiding the associated risks. If an AGI's primary goal is to prevent existential catastrophes such as human extinction (which could be difficult if the Vulnerable World Hypothesis turns out to be true), it could take measures to drastically reduce the risks while minimizing the impact of these measures on our quality of life.

Risks

Potential threat to human existence

The thesis that AI poses an existential risk for humans, and that this risk needs increased attention, is controversial but has been endorsed by many public figures including Elon Musk, Bill Gates, and Stephen Hawking. AI researchers like Stuart J. Russell, Roman Yampolskiy, and Alexey Turchin, also support the basic thesis of a potential threat to humanity. Gates states he does not "understand why some people are not concerned", and Hawking criticized widespread indifference in his 2014 editorial:

The fate of humanity has sometimes been compared to the fate of gorillas threatened by human activities. The comparison states that greater intelligence allowed humanity to dominate gorillas, which are now vulnerable in ways that they could not have anticipated. As a result, the gorilla has become an endangered species, not out of malice, but simply as a collateral damage from human activities.

The skeptic Yann LeCun considers that AGIs will have no desire to dominate humanity and that we should be careful not to anthropomorphize them and interpret their intents as we would for humans. He said that people won't be "smart enough to design super-intelligent machines, yet ridiculously stupid to the point of giving it moronic objectives with no safeguards". Former Google fraud czar Shuman Ghosemajumder has observed that for many people outside of the technology industry, existing chatbots and LLMs are already perceived as though they were AGI, leading to further misunderstanding and fear. LeCun has argued that current LLMs are not even as smart as dogs. On the other side, the concept of instrumental convergence suggests that almost whatever their goals, intelligent agents will have reasons to try to survive and acquire more power as intermediary steps to achieving these goals. And that this does not require having emotions. Nick Bostrom gives the thought experiment of the paper clips optimizer:

A 2021 systematic review of the risks associated with AGI, while noting the paucity of data, found the following potential threats: "AGI removing itself from the control of human owners/managers, being given or developing unsafe goals, development of unsafe AGI, AGIs with poor ethics, morals and values; inadequate management of AGI, and existential risks".

Many scholars who are concerned about existential risk advocate (possibly massive) research into solving the difficult "control problem" to answer the question: what types of safeguards, algorithms, or architectures can programmers implement to maximise the probability that their recursively-improving AI would continue to behave in a friendly, rather than destructive, manner after it reaches superintelligence? Solving the control problem is complicated by the AI arms race, which will almost certainly see the militarization and weaponization of AGI by more than one nation-state, resulting in AGI-enabled warfare, and in the case of AI misalignment, AGI-directed warfare, potentially against all humanity.

The thesis that AI can pose existential risk also has detractors. Skeptics sometimes charge that the thesis is crypto-religious, with an irrational belief in the possibility of superintelligence replacing an irrational belief in an omnipotent God. Jaron Lanier argued in 2014 that the idea that then-current machines were in any way intelligent is "an illusion" and a "stupendous con" by the wealthy.

Much criticism argues that AGI is unlikely in the short term. Computer scientist Gordon Bell argues that the human race will destroy itself before it reaches the technological singularity. Gordon Moore, the original proponent of Moore's Law, declares: "I am a skeptic. I don't believe [a technological singularity] is likely to happen, at least for a long time. And I don't know why I feel that way." Former Baidu Vice President and Chief Scientist Andrew Ng said in 2015 that worrying about AI existential risk is "like worrying about overpopulation on Mars when we have not even set foot on the planet yet."

In 2023, the CEOs of Google DeepMind, OpenAI and Anthropic, along with other industry leaders and researchers, issued a joint statement asserting that "Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war."

Mass unemployment

Researchers from OpenAI estimated that "80% of the U.S. workforce could have at least 10% of their work tasks affected by the introduction of LLMs, while around 19% of workers may see at least 50% of their tasks impacted". They consider office workers to be the most exposed, for example mathematicians, accountants or web designers. AGI could have a better autonomy, ability to make decisions, to interface with other computer tools, but also to control robotized bodies.

According to Stephen Hawking, the outcome of automation on the quality of life will depend on how the wealth will be redistributed:
Elon Musk considers that the automation of society will require governments to adopt a universal basic income.

See also

  (IA)

Notes

References

Sources

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Further reading
 Eka Roivainen, "AI's IQ: ChatGPT aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by IQ alone", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p. 7. "Despite its high IQ, ChatGPT fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts."

External links
 The AGI portal maintained by Pei Wang
 The Genesis Group at MIT's CSAIL – Modern research on the computations that underlay human intelligence
 OpenCog – open source project to develop a human-level AI
 Simulating logical human thought
 What Do We Know about AI Timelines? – Literature review

Hypothetical technology
Artificial intelligence
Computational neuroscience

Artificial general intelligence


Amorite is an extinct early Semitic language, formerly spoken during the Bronze Age by the Amorite tribes prominent in ancient Near Eastern history. It is known from Ugaritic, which is classed by some as its westernmost dialect, and from non-Akkadian proper names recorded by Akkadian scribes during periods of Amorite rule in Babylonia (the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC), notably from Mari and to a lesser extent Alalakh, Tell Harmal and Khafajah. Occasionally, such names are also found in early Egyptian texts; and one place name, "Sənīr" (שְׂנִיר) for Mount Hermon, is known from the Bible (Book of Deuteronomy, ).

Amorite is considered an archaic Northwest Semitic language.

Notable characteristics include the following:

 The usual Northwest Semitic imperfective-perfective distinction is found: Yantin-Dagan, 'Dagon gives' (ntn); Raṣa-Dagan, 'Dagon was pleased' (rṣy). It included a 3rd-person suffix -a (unlike Akkadian or Hebrew) and an imperfect vowel, a-, as in Arabic rather than the Hebrew and Aramaic -i-.
 There was a verb form with a geminate second consonant — Yabanni-Il, 'God creates' (root bny).
 In several cases that Akkadian has š, Amorite, like Hebrew and Arabic, has h, thus hu 'his', -haa 'her', causative h- or '- (I. Gelb 1958).
 The 1st-person perfect is in -ti (singular), -nu (plural), as in the Canaanite languages.

In 2022, two large, 3,800-year-old, Amorite-Akkadian bilingual tablets were published, yielding a large corpus of Northwest Semitic.  The text is notably very similar to Classical Hebrew, and shows that by the early second millennium BC, there was already a spoken language very close to Hebrew, which before now has only been attested from the 10th century BC.

Notes

Further reading

 I. Gelb. La lingua degli amoriti, Academia Nazionale dei Lincei. Rendiconti 8, no. 13 (1958): 143–163.
 Ignace J. Gelb, "Computer-aided Analysis of Amorite", Assyriological Studies 21, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980

 Golinets, V. "Amorite Names Written with the Sign Ú and the Issue of the Suffixed Third Person Masculine Singular Pronoun in Amorite". In: Proceedings of the 53th Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale. Vol. 1: Language in the Ancient Near East (2 parts). Edited by Leonid E. Kogan, Natalia Koslova, Sergey Loesov and Serguei Tishchenko. University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2010. pp. 591–616. .
 Golinets, Viktor. "Amorite Animal Names: Cognates for the Semitic Etymological Dictionary". In: Babel und Bibel 9: Proceedings of the 6th Biennial Meeting of the International Association for Comparative Semitics and Other Studies. University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2016. pp. 55–86.
 Howard, J. Caleb. "Amorite Names through Time and Space". In: Journal of Semitic Studies, 2023. fgac027. .
 H. B. Huffmon. Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts: A Structural and Lexical Study. Baltimore, 1965.
  Accessed 22 Jan. 2023.
Remo Mugnaioni. "Notes pour servir d'approche à l'amorrite" Travaux 16 – La sémitologie aujourd'hui. Aix-en-Provence: Cercle de Linguistique d'Aix-en-Provence, Centre des sciences du language, 2000, p. 57–65.
M. P. Streck. Das amurritische Onomastikon der altbabylonischen Zeit, vol. 1: Die Amurriter, Die onomastische Forschung, Orthographie und Phonologie, Nominalmorphologie. Alter Orient und Altes Testament Band 271/1. Münster, 2000.
 Streck, Michel P. "Amorite". In: The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Edited by Stefan Weninger. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2012. pp. 452–459.

External links
Cryptic lost Canaanite language decoded on 'Rosetta Stone'-like tablets – LiveScience – Tom Metcalfe- 30 January 2023

Amorites
Northwest Semitic languages
Extinct languages of Asia
Languages attested from the 3rd millennium BC
Languages extinct in the 2nd millennium BC
Book of Deuteronomy

Amorite language


Campanula witasekiana er tegund af klukkuætt (Campanulaceae), ættuð frá Ölpunum og Balkanskaga.

Tilvísanir

Bláklukkur

Campanula witasekiana


Bárbara Muñoz (Madrid, 7 de octubre de 1983) es una actriz española.

Biografía
Cursó sus estudios en el Colegio Santa María del Valle. Alcanzó popularidad a raíz de su papel de la enfermera Alicia Monasterio en Hospital Central, serie a la que se incorpora en el año 2006. Antes, en 2004, había participado en un episodio interpretando un personaje distinto. También había colaborado en varios episodios de Los Serrano y había formado parte del elenco de la serie juvenil Corta-t de Cuatro.

En cine, debutó en 2003 con la película Cosas de brujas, de José Miguel Juárez. A esta le siguieron Besos de gato, de Rafael Alcázar en el mismo año; Banal (2006), cortometraje de David Planell y La máquina de bailar (2006), de Óscar Aibar.

El 2013 llega a Chile para hacer una participación especial en la serie de televisión Graduados.

Actrices de televisión de España
Actrices de cine de España
Hospital Central
Nacidos en Madrid

Bárbara Muñoz (actriz)


Amboroa, biljni rod iz porodice glavočika smješten u tribus Eupatorieae, dio potporodice Asteroideae. Postoje dvije priznate južnoameričkre vrste, jedna iz Bolivije i jedna iz Perua.

Vrste
 Amboroa geminata Cabrera Bolivija.
 Amboroa wurdackii R.M.King & H.Rob., Peru.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Eupatorieae

Amboroa


Sergio Battistini (Massa, Italia, 7 de mayo de 1963), es un ex-futbolista italiano, se desempeñaba como defensa y jugó para clubes de tamaño prestigio como el AC Milan, el Inter de Milán o la Fiorentina.

Debutando en enero de 1980 en el AC Milan en un partido contra el Udinese, Battistini jugó en el club rossonero hasta 1985, siendo sustituido en el equipo por el legendario Paolo Maldini. Con la selección de fútbol de Italia llegó a disputar 4 partidos y marcar un gol, participando en Los Ángeles 1984.

Clubes

Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol sub-21 de Italia
Futbolistas de Italia en los Juegos Olímpicos de Los Ángeles 1984
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Nacidos en Massa

Sergio Battistini


Kako izdresirati zmaja 2 (eng. How To Train Your Dragon 2) je računalno-animirani film fantasy tematike iz 2014. godine. Film dolazi iz DreamWorks Animationa te je nastavak filma iz 2010., i kao i predhodnik bazira na serijalu knjiga Cresside Cowell. U filmu glasove u originalnoj verziji posuđuju Jay Baruchel, America Ferrera, Jonah Hill, Gerard Butler, Christopher Mintz-Plasse, T. J. Miller i Kristen Wiig, te Cate Blanchett, Djimon Hounsou i Kit Harington.

Radnja započinje pet godina nakon događaja prvog filma, te Štucko i njegovi prijatelji u potpunosti uživaju u novoj slobodi koju nudi suživot sa zmajevima. No kada se pojavi novi neprijatelj u obliku Drago Krvaveca prijeti opasnost svemu za što su se izboritili.

Dean DeBlois, koji je bio redatelj prvog filma zajedno s Chris Sandersom, pristao je režirati nastavak pod uvjetom da smije napraviti trilogiju. Kao inspiracije je naveo Imperiji Uzvraća Udarac i Moj susjed Tototo, s ponajviše utjecajem veličine Imperiji Uzvraća Udarac. Glumačka postava iz prvog filma se ponovno vratila, te su se još priključili Cate Blanchett i Djimon Hounsou, dok se skladatelj John Powell vratio da sklada ponovno glazbu. Zajedno s kreativnim timom se DeBlois uputio u Norvešku kako bi prikupili ideje za mjesta radnje, te je film na veliko profitirao od nove tehnologije u animaciji i bio prvi kod kojeg je korišten novi program za animaciju i rasvijetu.

Ubrzo nakon dolazka u kina 13. lipnja 2015. je film primio pohvale kritičara za animaciju, glasovnu glumu, glazbu, akcijske scene, emotivnost, i za mračniju i ozbiljniju atmosferu u odnosu na predjodnika. Film je osvojio nagradu Golden Globe za Najbolji animirani film i bio je nominiran za nagradu Oscar u kategoriji Najbolji animirani film. Ukupno je osvojio šest nagrada Annie i zaradio ukupno 621 milijuna dolara, time postajući 12. film najviše zarade 2014. godine.

Zadnji dio Kako izdresirati zmaja 3 je sljedio 31.01.2019.

Radnja
Pet godina je prošlo odkad su stanovnici otoka Berk se odlučili za suživot sa zmajevima i život se čini savršeni. Sada 20 godišnji Štucko najviše uživa u letovima s Bezubicom posljednjim poznatim Noćnim Bijesom te zajedno rado proučavaju obližnje otoke, dok se Štuckov otac Stoik sve više trudi da sina pridobi da ga uskoro nasljedi kao poglavica.

Kada Astrid i Štucko ugledaju šumski požar odjednom naiđu na lovce na zmajeve čiji vođa Eret ih odmah optužuje za uništenje njihovog skloništa. Zajedno sa svojim zmajevima Štucko i Astrid uspjevaju pobjeći te istočasno odlaze Stoiku priopćiti što su saznali od Ereta o vođi lovaca, Drago Krvavecu. Na spominjanje tog imena Stoik odjednom nalaže stanovnicima da se spreme za moguću borbu, ali Štucko uvjeren da se s razgovorom može izbjeći rat bilježi pronaći Draga. Stoik ga ubrzo sustiže i objašnjava kako je prije mnogo godina Drago nudio da ih sve čuva od napada zmajeva ako ga oni za uzvrat odluče sljediti, a kada nisu pristali napao sa zmajevima pod svojom kontrolom, te je Stoik kao jedini preživjeli pobjegao, no Štucko je i dalje uvjeren u svoj plan i odlazi dalje.

Na putu odjednom susreće maskirnog jahača na zmaju koji otima njega i Bezubicu. Nakon početnih nesporazuma se jahač predstavlja kao Valka, Štuckova nestala majka. Ona objašnjava kako ju je oteo zmaj nakon što nije bila u stanju da ga ubije za vrijeme napada na Berk. Uvjerena da predstavlja opasnost za svoju obitelj je odlučila ostati sa zmajevima i njihovom alfom na tajnom otoku i spašavati ih iz Draginih klopka. Ubrzo otok pronalazi Stoik koji se zajedno sa Žderom uputio u potragu za sinom i sada neočekivano susreće izgubljenu suprugu.

Isto vremeno su se Astrid i ostali odlučili oteti Ereta i natjerati ga da ih odvede do Draga, no plan krene po zlu i Drago ih zarobi te krene sa svojom vojskom prema Valkinom otoku. Zajedno sa svojom vojskom zmajeva Drago napada otok i sa svojim alfa zmajem izaziva Valkinu alfu, koja u borbi pogiba. Drago, kao pobjednik, stavlja sve druge zmajeve pod kontrolu svoje alfe i pod hipnozom naređuje Bezubici da ubije Štucka kada se odjednom Stoik baca pred sina i ranjen pogiba. Drago odlazi sa svim zmajevima prema nezaštićenom Berku dok Štucko s prijateljima održava vikinjški sprovod za oca. Obeshrabljenje priznaje da se uvijek plašio odgovornosti uvjeren da nikada neće moći dostići oca ali ga Valka ohrabljuje govoreći kako je on jedini koji može ujediniti ljude i zmajeve.

S novim samopouzdanjem Štucko i ostali kreću prema Berku jašeći na bebama zmajevima. Zajedno uspjevaju zbuniti veliku alfu i time omogućiti Štucku da ponovno dospije do Bezubice. Bezubica se oslobodi alfine kontrole i suprotstavljajući se Dragu i velikom zmaju dobiva potporu drugih zmajeva te postaje nova alfa dok Drago sa svojim zmajem pada u more.

Štucko postaje novi poglavica i svi vikinzi sretno slave pobjedu.

Hrvatska sinkronizacija

Ostali glasovi:
 Mima Karaula
 Martina Kapitan Bregović
 Želimir Panić
 Dragan Peka
 Boris Barberić
 Ivan Šatalić
 Vjekoslav Hudeček
 Siniša Galović

 Prijevod i adaptacija dijaloga: Davor Slamnig
 Redateljica dijaloga: Ivana Vlkov Wagner
 Vokalna redateljica: Mima Karaula
 Mix studio: Deluxe Media
 Sinkronizacija: Duplicato Media d.o.o.

Razvoj
Nakon uspijeha prvog filma je CEO DreamWorks Animation, Jeffrey Katzenberg objavio da će sljediti nastavak u 2013., datum koji je kasnije promijenjen u 2014. Film je napisao, režirao i producirao Dean DeBlois, koji je već bio suredatel/pisac prvog filma. Dok se producentica prvog dijela, Bonnie Arnold, vratila za nastavak, je Chris Sanders djelovao samo kao producent pošto je u to doba radio na Croods i nije imao vremena se vratiti kao suredatelj/pisac. Isto vremeno je DeBlois samo pristao režirati film ako će smijet napraviti trilogiju. Kao glavne izvore za inspiraciju je DeBlois uzeo sebi drage filmove iz mladosti Moj susjed Totoro i Imperiji Uzvraća udarac. «Ono što sam posebno volio kod Imperija je to da je proširio Ratove zvijzda u sve strane: emotivnost, veličinu, likove, zabavu. To je bilo poboljšenje i to je cilj."

Cijeloukupna glumačka postava prvog filma se vratila, te je na San Diego Comic-Con International 2013 objavljeno da će se pridružiti zvijezda iz Igre prestolja Kit Harington, i glumci Cate Blanchett i Djimon Hounsou.

Dok je prvi film bio smješten prostorno opčenito u područje sjevernog mora se kreativni tim ovaj put odlučio fokusirati na Norvešku. Rano u tjeku produkcije filma se mala grupa odlučila za istraživanje posjetiti Oslo, Bergen i zaljeve fjordova, dok se DeBlois kasnije zajedno s Gregg Taylorom i Roger Deakinsom uputio na Svalbard da vide polarne medviede u prirodnoj okolini. DeBlois je objasnio kako jedna od stvari koju je naučio kod rada na Lilo i Stich (2003.) je da "ako se radi na filmu koji je smješten na stvarnoj lokaciji postoji velika mogućnost da se to mijesto stvarno posjeti".

Animacija
Tokom pet godina prije početka rada na filmu je DreamWorks Animation postepeno radio na poboljšanju svoje radne tehnologije, tako da je Kako izdresirati zmaja 2 njihov prvi film koji je u potpunosti koristio sve nove mogućnosti, međuostalim omogućujući animatorima da rade na kompleksnim slikama bez čekanja da uređaji po osam sati slažu informacije. Za film su se isto prvi put koristili programi Premo i Torch koji su omogućili prirodniju animaciju kože i mišićne mase, te rasvijetu. Sve ukupno je više od 500 ljudi radilo na filmu, od DreamWorks centrale u Glendale, uredu u Redwood City do DreamWorks Indija u Bangalore.

Kritike
Na stranici Rotten Tomatoes je film dobio 92% dok na Metacritic drži 7.72/10. Za vrijeme Cannes Film Festival 2014 je filmski kritičar za Variety Peter Debruge hvalio film i njegovu ambiciju, navodeći kako je film "DreamWorksov najjači nastavak do sada- film koji daje novu vatru franšizi, umjesto da jednostavno ponovi original. Hrabriji od Meride Hrabre, zabavniji nego Snježno kraljestvo i emotivno zadovoljavajućiji od mnogih sličnih igranih filmova."

Unutarnje poveznice

 DreamWorks Animation

Vanjske poveznice

Kako izdresirati zmaja 2 na IMDb-u

Američki animirani filmovi 2010-ih

Kako izdresirati zmaja 2


Fire is the debut studio album by American rock band Electric Six. It was released through XL Recordings on May 20 in the US and June 30 in the UK, 2003. It was preceded by the hit single "Danger! High Voltage", which peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart. The album peaked at number 7 in the UK and received positive reviews from critics.

Reception

Critical
The album received generally positive reviews from critics. At review aggregator site Metacritic, the album has an average critic score of 70/100, based on 20 reviews. Rolling Stone called the album "the summer's most brilliantly demented party record" and Blender hailed the music as "convincingly ferocious".

Commercial
Fire peaked at number 7 on the UK Albums Chart. The three singles released from the album all also charted. "Danger! High Voltage", which reached #10 in the U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales chart and #2 in the UK Singles Chart; "Gay Bar", which reached #5 in the UK Singles Chart; and "Dance Commander", which reached #40 in the UK Singles Chart. Fire went gold in the United Kingdom on September 5, 2003.

Track listing
All lyrics written by Tyler Spencer; all music composed by Tyler Spencer except where noted.
"Dance Commander" – 2:37
"Electric Demons in Love" – 3:06
"Naked Pictures (Of Your Mother)" – 2:11
"Danger! High Voltage" (Joe Frezza/Steve Nawara/Anthony Selph/Tyler Spencer) – 3:34
"She's White" – 3:16
"I Invented the Night" – 3:17
"Improper Dancing" – 3:14
"Gay Bar" – 2:20
"Nuclear War (On the Dance Floor)" – 1:16
"Getting Into the Jam" – 2:14
"Vengeance and Fashion" – 2:46
"I'm the Bomb" – 4:18
"Synthesizer" – 4:00

Japanese bonus tracks
"Don't Be Afraid of the Robot" – 1:40
"Remote Control (Me)" – 2:21
"I Lost Control of My Rock & Roll" – 1:47

Bonus DVD
 "Danger! High Voltage" music video
 "Gay Bar" music video
 "Dance Commander" music video

Personnel
 Dick Valentine – vocals
 The Rock-N-Roll Indian – lead guitar
 Surge Joebot – rhythm guitar
 Disco – bass
 M. – drums
 Jack White – background vocals (track 4), credited as "John S. O'Leary"

Charts

References

Electric Six albums
2003 debut albums
XL Recordings albums

Fire (Electric Six album)