Muscle memory is a form of procedural memory that involves consolidating a specific motor task into memory through repetition, which has been used synonymously with motor learning. When a movement is repeated over time, the brain creates a long-term muscle memory for that task, eventually allowing it to be performed with little to no conscious effort. This process decreases the need for attention and creates maximum efficiency within the motor and memory systems. Muscle memory is found in many everyday activities that become automatic and improve with practice, such as riding bikes, driving motor vehicles, playing ball sports, typing on keyboards, entering PINs, playing musical instruments, poker, martial arts, swimming, and dancing.

History

The origins of research for the acquisition of motor skills stem from philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle and Galen.  After the break from tradition of the pre-1900s view of introspection, psychologists emphasized research and more scientific methods in observing behaviours. Thereafter, numerous studies exploring the role of motor learning were conducted. Such studies included the research of handwriting, and various practice methods to maximize motor learning.

Retention
The retention of motor skills, now referred to as muscle memory, also began to be of great interest in the early 1900s. Most motor skills are thought to be acquired through practice; however, more observation of the skill has led to learning as well. Research suggests we do not start off with a blank slate with regard to motor memory although we do learn most of our motor memory repertoire during our lifetime. Movements such as facial expressions, which are thought to be learned, can actually be observed in children who are blind; thus there is some evidence for motor memory being genetically pre-wired.

In the early stages of empirical research of motor memory Edward Thorndike, a leading pioneer in the study of motor memory, was among the first to acknowledge learning can occur without conscious awareness. One of the earliest and most notable studies regarding the retention of motor skills was by Hill, Rejall, and Thorndike, who showed savings in relearning typing skills after a 25-year period with no practice. Findings related to the retention of learned motor skills have been continuously replicated in studies, suggesting that through subsequent practice, motor learning is stored in the brain as memory. This is why performing skills such as riding a bike or driving a car are effortlessly and 'subconsciously' executed, even if someone had not performed these skills in a long period of time.

Physiology

Motor behavior
When first learning a motor task, movement is often slow, stiff and easily disrupted without attention. With practice, execution of motor task becomes smoother, there is a decrease in limb stiffness, and muscle activity, necessary to the task, is performed without conscious effort.

Muscle memory encoding

The neuroanatomy of memory is widespread throughout the brain; however, the pathways important to motor memory are separate from the medial temporal lobe pathways associated with declarative memory.  As with declarative memory, motor memory is theorized to have two stages: a short-term memory encoding stage, which is fragile and susceptible to damage, and a long-term memory consolidation stage, which is more stable.

The memory encoding stage is often referred to as motor learning, and requires an increase in brain activity in motor areas as well as an increase in attention. Brain areas active during motor learning include the motor and somatosensory cortices; however, these areas of activation decrease once the motor skill is learned. The prefrontal and frontal cortices are also active during this stage due to the need for increased attention on the task being learned.

The main area involved in motor learning is the cerebellum. Some models of cerebellar-dependent motor learning, in particular the Marr-Albus model, propose a single plasticity mechanism involving the cerebellar long-term depression (LTD) of the parallel fiber synapses onto Purkinje cells.  These modifications in synapse activity would mediate motor input with motor outputs critical to inducing motor learning. However, conflicting evidence suggests that a single plasticity mechanism is not sufficient and a multiple plasticity mechanism are needed to account for the storage of motor memories over time. Regardless of the mechanism, studies of cerebellar-dependent  motor tasks show that cerebral cortical plasticity is crucial for motor learning, even if not necessarily for storage.

The basal ganglia also play an important role in memory and learning, in particular in reference to stimulus-response associations and the formation of habits. The basal ganglia-cerebellar connections are thought to increase with time when learning a motor task.

Muscle memory consolidation
Muscle memory consolidation involves the continuous evolution of neural processes after practicing a task has stopped. The exact mechanism of motor memory consolidation within the brain is controversial. However, most theories assume that there is a general redistribution of information across the brain from encoding to consolidation.  Hebb's rule states that "synaptic connectivity changes as a function of repetitive firing." In this case, that would mean that the high amount of stimulation coming from practicing a movement would cause the repetition of firing in certain motor networks, presumably leading to an increase in the efficiency of exciting these motor networks over time.

While the exact location of muscle memory storage is not known, studies have suggested that it is the inter-regional connections that play the most important role in advancing motor memory encoding to consolidation, rather than decreases in overall regional activity.  These studies have shown a weakened connection from the cerebellum to the primary motor area with practice, it is presumed, because of a decreased need for error correction from the cerebellum. However, the connection between the basal ganglia and the primary motor area is strengthened, suggesting the basal ganglia play an important role in the motor memory consolidation process.

Strength training and adaptations

When participating in any sport, new motor skills and movement combinations are frequently being used and repeated. All sports require some degree of strength, endurance training, and skilled reaching in order to be successful in the required tasks. Muscle memory related to strength training  involves elements of both motor learning, described below, and long-lasting changes in the muscle tissue.

Evidence has shown that increases in strength occur well before muscle hypertrophy, and decreases in strength due to detraining or ceasing to repeat the exercise over an extended period of time precede muscle atrophy. To be specific, strength training enhances motor neuron excitability and induces synaptogenesis, both of which would help in enhancing communication between the nervous system and the muscles themselves. However, neuromuscular efficacy is not altered within a two-week time period following cessation of the muscle usage; instead, it is merely the neuron's ability to excite the muscle that declines in correlation with the muscle's decrease in strength. This confirms that muscle strength is first influenced by the inner neural circuitry, rather than by external physiological changes in the muscle size.

Previously untrained muscles will acquire newly formed nuclei through the fusion of satellite cells preceding hypertrophy. Subsequent detraining will result in atrophy and the loss of myo-nuclei. While it was long believed that a muscle memory effect related to myo-nuclei permanence existed, current studies establish that during detraining, myo-nuclei will be lost.

Reorganization of motor maps within the cortex are not altered in either strength or endurance training. However, within the motor cortex, endurance induces angiogenesis within as little as three weeks to increase blood flow to the involved regions. In addition, neurotropic factors within the motor cortex are upregulated in response to endurance training to promote neural survival.

Skilled motor tasks have been divided into two distinct phases: a fast-learning phase, in which an optimal plan for performance is established, and a slow-learning phase, in which longer-term structural modifications are made on specific motor modules. Even a small amount of training may be enough to induce neural processes that continue to evolve even after the training has stopped, which provides a potential basis for consolidation of the task. In addition, studying mice while they are learning a new complex reaching task, has found that "motor learning leads to rapid formation of dendritic spines (spinogenesis) in the motor cortex contralateral to the reaching forelimb".  However, motor cortex reorganization itself does not occur at a uniform rate across training periods. It has been suggested that the synaptogenesis and motor map reorganization merely represent the consolidation, and not the acquisition itself, of a specific motor task.  Furthermore, the degree of plasticity in various locations (namely motor cortex versus spinal cord) is dependent on the behavioural demands and nature of the task (i.e., skilled reaching versus strength training).

Whether strength or endurance related, it is plausible that the majority of motor movements would require a skilled moving task of some form, whether it be maintaining proper form when paddling a canoe, sitting with a neutral posture, or bench pressing a heavier weight. Endurance training assists the formation of these new neural representations within the motor cortex by up regulating neurotropic factors that could enhance the survival of the newer neural maps formed due to the skilled movement training. Strength training results are seen in the spinal cord well before any physiological muscular adaptation is established through muscle hypertrophy or atrophy. The results of endurance and strength training, and skilled reaching, therefore, combine to help each other maximize performance output.

More recently, research has suggested that epigenetics may play a distinct role in orchestrating a muscle memory phenomenon  Indeed, previously untrained human participants experienced a chronic period of resistance exercise training (7 weeks) that evoked significant increases in skeletal muscle mass of the vastus lateralis muscle, in the quadriceps muscle group. Following a similar period of physical in-activity (7 weeks), where strength and muscle mass returned to baseline, participants performed a secondary period of resistance exercise. Importantly, these participants adapted in an enhanced manner, whereby the amount of skeletal muscle mass gained was greater in the second period of muscle growth than the first, suggesting a muscle memory concept. The researchers went on to examine the human epigenome in order to understand how DNA methylation may aid in creating this effect. During the first period of resistance exercise, the authors identify significant adaptations in the human methylome, whereby over 9,000 CpG sites were reported as being significantly hypomethylated, with these adaptations being sustained during the subsequent period of physical in-activity. However, upon secondary exposure to resistance exercise, a greater frequency of hypomethylated CpG sites was observed, where over 18,000 sites reported as being significantly hypomethylated. The authors went on to identify how these changes altered the expression of relevant transcripts, and subsequently correlated these changes with adaptations in skeletal muscle mass. Collectively, the authors conclude that skeletal muscle mass and muscle memory phenomenon is, at least in part, modulated due to changes in DNA methylation. Further work is now needed to confirm and explore these findings.

Fine motor memory

Fine motor skills are often discussed in terms of transitive movements, which are those done when using tools (which could be as simple as a tooth brush or pencil). Transitive movements have representations that become programmed to the premotor cortex, creating motor programs that result in the activation of the motor cortex and therefore the motor movements. In a study testing the motor memory of patterned finger movements (a fine motor skill) it was found that retention of certain skills is susceptible to disruption if another task interferes with one's motor memory. However, such susceptibility can be reduced with time. For example, if a finger pattern is learned and another finger pattern is learned six hours later, the first pattern will still be remembered. But attempting to learn two such patterns one immediately after the other could cause the first one to be forgotten. Furthermore, the heavy use of computers by recent generations has had both positive and negative effects. One of the main positive effects is an enhancement of children's fine motor skills. Repetitive behaviors, such as typing on a computer from a young age, can enhance such abilities. Therefore, children who learn to use computer keyboards at an early age could benefit from the early muscle memories.

Music memory

Fine motor skills are very important in playing musical instruments. It was found that muscle memory is relied on when playing the clarinet, specifically to help create special effects through certain tongue movements when blowing air into the instrument.

Certain human behaviours, especially actions like the finger movements in musical performances, are very complex and require many interconnected neural networks where information can be transmitted across multiple brain regions.  It has been found that there are often functional differences in the brains of professional musicians, when compared to other individuals. This is thought to reflect the musician's innate ability, which may be fostered by an early exposure to musical training. An example of this is bimanual synchronized finger movements, which play an essential role in piano playing. It is suggested that bimanual coordination can come only from years of bimanual training, where such actions become adaptations of the motor areas. When comparing professional musicians to a control group in complex bimanual movements, professionals are found to use an extensive motor network much less than those non-professionals. This is because professionals rely on a motor system that has increased efficiency, and, therefore, those less trained have a network that is more strongly activated.  It is implied that the untrained pianists have to invest more neuronal activity to have the same level of performance that is achieved by professionals. This, yet again, is said to be a consequence of many years of motor training and experience that helps form a fine motor memory skill of musical performance.

It is often reported that, when a pianist hears a well-trained piece of music, synonymous fingering can be involuntarily triggered. This implies that there is a coupling between the perception of music and the motor activity of those musically trained individuals. Therefore, one's muscle memory in the context of music can easily be triggered when one hears certain familiar pieces. Overall, long-term musical fine motor training allows for complex actions to be performed at a lower level of movement control, monitoring, selection, attention, and timing. This leaves room for musicians to focus attention synchronously elsewhere, such as on the artistic aspect of the performance, without having to consciously control one's fine motor actions.

Puzzle cube memory

Speed cubers use muscle memory when attempting to solve puzzle cubes, such as the Rubik's Cube, in the fastest possible time. Solving these puzzles in an optimally efficient manner requires the cube to be manipulated according to a set of complex algorithms. By building their muscle memory of each algorithm's movements, speed cubers can implement them at very fast speeds without conscious effort. This plays a role in major speedcubing methods such as Fridrich for the 3×3×3 Rubik's Cube and EG for the 2×2×2 Pocket Cube.

Gross motor memory
Gross motor skills are concerned with the movement of large muscles, or major body movements, such as those involved in walking or kicking, and are associated with normal development. The extent to which one exhibits gross motor skills depends largely on their muscle tone and the strength. In a study looking at people with Down Syndrome, it was found that the pre-existing deficits, with regard to verbal-motor performance, limits the individual's transfer of gross motor skills following visual and verbal instruction to verbal instruction only. The fact that the individuals could still exhibit two of the three original motor skills may have been a result of positive transfer in which previous exposure allows the individual to remember the motion, under the visual and verbal trial, and then later perform it under the verbal trial.

Learning in childhood
The way in which a child learns a gross motor skill can affect how long it takes to consolidate it and be able to reproduce the movement.  In a study with preschoolers, looking at the role of self-instruction on acquiring complex gross motor chains using ballet positions, it was found that the motor skills were better learned and remembered with the self-instruction procedure over the no-self-instruction procedure. This suggests that the use of self-instruction will increase the speed with which a preschooler will learn and remember a gross motor skill. It was also found that once the preschoolers learned and mastered the motor chain movements, they ceased the use of self-instruction. This suggests that the memory for the movements became strong enough that there was no longer a need for self-instruction and the movements could be reproduced without it.

Effect of Alzheimer's disease
It has been suggested that consistent practice of a gross motor skill can help a patient with Alzheimer's disease learn and remember that skill.  It was thought that the damage to the hippocampus may result in the need for a specific type of learning requirement. A study was created to test this assumption in which the patients were trained to throw a bean bag at a target. It was found that the Alzheimer's patients performed better on the task when learning occurred under constant training as opposed to variable.  Also, it was found that gross motor memory in Alzheimer's patients was the same as that of healthy adults when learning occurs under constant practice. This suggests that damage to the hippocampal system does not impair an Alzheimer's patient from retaining new gross motor skills, implying that motor memory for gross motor skills is stored elsewhere in the brain. However there isn't much evidence provided on this.

Impairment
It is difficult to display cases of "pure" motor memory impairment because the memory system is so widespread throughout the brain that damage is not often isolated to one specific type of memory.  Likewise,  diseases commonly associated with motor deficits, such as Huntington's and Parkinson's disease, have a wide variety of symptoms and associated brain damage that make it impossible to pinpoint whether or not motor memory is in fact impaired.  Case studies have provided some examples of how motor memory has been implemented in patients with brain damage.

As Edward S. Casey notes in Remembering, Second Edition: A Phenomenological Study,  declarative memory, a process that involves an initial fragile learning period. "The activity of the past, in short, resides in its habitual enactment in the present."

Consolidation deficit
A recent issue in motor memory is whether or not it consolidates in a manner similar to declarative memory, a process that involves an initial fragile learning period that eventually becomes stable and less susceptible to damage over time. An example of stable motor memory consolidation in a patient with brain damage is the case of Clive Wearing. Clive has severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia owing to damage in his temporal lobes, frontal lobes, and hippocampi, which prevents him from storing any new memories and making him aware of only the present moment. However, Clive still retains access to his procedural memories, to be specific, the motor memories involved in playing the piano. This could be because motor memory is demonstrated through savings over several trials of learning, whereas declarative memory is demonstrated through recall of a single item.  This suggests that lesions in certain brain areas normally associated with declarative memory would not affect motor memory for a well-learned skill.

Dysgraphia for the alphabet
Case study: 54-year-old man with known history of epilepsy

This patient was diagnosed with a pure form of dysgraphia of letters, meaning he had no other speech or reading impairments. His impairment was specific to letters in the alphabet. He was able to copy letters from the alphabet, but he was not able to write these letters. He had previously been rated average on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale's vocabulary subtest for writing ability comparative to his age before his diagnosis. His writing impairment consisted of difficulty remembering motor movements associated with the letters he was supposed to write. He was able to copy the letters, and also form images that were similar to the letters. This suggests that dysgraphia for letters is a deficit related to motor memory. Somehow there is a distinct process within the brain related to writing letters, which is dissociated from copying and drawing letter-like items.

See also

References

Memory
Articles containing video clips

Muscle memory


عمر بطيشة (19 مارس، 1943 )، شاعر وإذاعي مصري. الرئيس الأسبق للإذاعة المصرية. من مواليد دمنهور بمحافظة البحيرة في مصر.

دراسته
حصل على ليسانس آداب قسم اللغة الإنجليزية - من جامعة الإسكندرية 1964، ثم حصل على دبلوم الدراسات العليا من كلية الإعلام جامعة القاهرة – قسم الإذاعة والتليفزيون 1971.

مشواره المهني
التحق بالبرنامج العام بالإذاعة المصرية عام 1965 و تدرج فيه إلى أن أصبح رئيساً لها

في أثناء ذلك حصل على دبلوم الدراسات العليا من كلية الإعلام جامعة القاهرة عام 1971 بتفوق فكلفته الكلية بتدريس مادة الإذاعة بالكلية عامي 1974 و 1975 في أثناء ذلك أيضا نشرت له هيئة الكتاب ديوان الهجرة من الجهات الأربع عام 1970 ثم بدأ في كتابة الأغنيات بالعامية المصرية لكبار المطربين والمطربات مثل فايزة أحمد ومحرم فؤاد ووردة وسميرة سعيد ومحمد ثروت وفرقة المصريين وفرقة الأصدقاء وميادة الحناوي وغيرهم.
في يناير 1983 بدأ تقديم أهم برامجه الإذاعية شاهد على العصر الذي أحدث صدى واسعاً وتم نشر حوارات حلقاته في سلسلة كتب في أكثر من دار نشر كما قام عمر بطيشة بتقديمه على شاشة قناة النيل الثقافية من 1993 حتى 2001
حصل على عضوية اتحاد الكتاب عام 1984 وهو نفس العام الذي شهد نشر ثاني ديوان شعر بالفصحى بعنوان أغنية إليها من دار مدبولي
انتخب أكثر من مرة رئيساً لجمعية المؤلفين والملحنين من 1998 حتى 2008 ونجح في مضاعفة موراد الجمعية وضم إذاعات وقنوات جديدة إلى سجل مموليها كما أدخل لأول مرة نظام معاشات لأعضاء الجمعية والذي ما زال سارياً حتى اليوم
تولى رئاسة إذاعة الشباب والرياضة عام 1993 فصمم لها خريطة برامجية ما زالت سارية إلى اليوم وجددها بالعديد من العناوين لبرامج وفترات مفتوحة مثل دنيا المنوعات  وع الهوا سوا و شبابي في عيون أصحابي وغيرها.
عاد عام 1994 إلى البرنامج العام رئيسا له.. فطوّر خريطة البرامج وأضاف عشرات العناوين الجديدة التي أحدثت ثورة إذاعية في حينها مثل غواص في بحر النغم الذي أسند تقديمه للموسيقار عمار الشريعي وعصر من الغناء الذي أسند تقديمه للإذاعي الكبير جلال معوض  والنص الأصلي والفترة الثقافية المفتوحة وصباح الخير وراديو سينما وتسجيلات من زمن فات الذي أسنده لمشيرة كامل و روائع التمثيلياتوغيرها من الأفكار البرامجية الناجحة كما أهدى برنامجه الرمضاني عازم وإلا معزوم لأسرة تنفيذ البرنامج العام ليتناوبوا تقديمه في رمضان من كل عام وأعاد كبار الإذاعيين إلى ميكروفون الإذاعة في يوم له تاريخ في عيد ميلاد الإذاعة

كشاعر
كتب عمر بطيشة الكثير من الشعر وتغنى بأشعاره فايزة أحمد و وردة الجزائرية و سميرة سعيد و ميادة الحناوي وغيرهن. واختير رئيسا لجمعية المؤلفين والملحنين.

المؤلفات الشعرية
 ديوان الهجرة من الجهات الأربع عام 1970
 ديوان أغنية إليها عام 1984.
 ديوان قصائد حب عام 2001.

االجوائز
 الجائزة الأولى من الإذاعة المصرية لبرنامج شاهد على العصر كأحسن سهرة حوارية في الإذاعة.
 جائزة أحسن برنامج رمضان (شهر)رمضاني..عشر سنوات متتالية.
 الجائزة الذهبية من مهرجان القاهرة للإذاعة والتلفزيون كأحسن مقدم لفترة مفتوحة من ستوكهولم عن الفترة المفتوحة هرم العلوم مع العالم المصري د.أحمد زويل.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
الإذاعة المصرية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من دمنهور
إعلاميون مصريون
خريجو جامعة الإسكندرية
رؤساء الإذاعة المصرية
شعراء وشاعرات مصريون
مواليد 1943
مواليد في دمنهور

عمر بطيشة


Max Bernhard Anton von Behr (* 7. September 1849 in Dönhofstädt, Kreis Rastenburg, Ostpreußen; † 8. März 1931 in Naumburg) war ein deutscher Architekt, preußischer Baubeamter, Denkmalpfleger und Architekturschriftsteller.

Leben

Herkunft
Anton von Behr war ein Sohn des aus Peterwitz in Westpreußen stammenden Heinrich Dietrich Otto Ferdinand von Behr († 1880 in Schnellwalde). Nach dem Besuch des Altstädtischen Gymnasiums in Königsberg (Reifeprüfung 1834) und einem anschließenden Studium der Theologie war der Vater von 1845 bis 1856 Pfarrer der evangelisch-reformierten Gemeinde Dönhoffstädt und zuletzt Superintendent der Diözese Mohrungen.

Werdegang
Nach dem Besuch einer höheren Schule und der Absolvierung des zu dieser Zeit noch verbindlichen Bau-Eleven-Jahres studierte Anton von Behr an der Berliner Bauakademie. Nach Ablegung der Ersten Staatsprüfung trat er unter Ernennung zum Königlichen Regierungsbauführer im Jahr 1874 in den Dienst des preußischen Ministeriums der öffentlichen Arbeiten.

Nach mehrjähriger Tätigkeit als Regierungsbauführer (Referendar) legte Anton von Behr im Februar 1881 die zweite Staatsprüfung (Baumeister-Prüfung) mit anschließender Ernennung zum Königlich Preußischen Regierungsbaumeister (Assessor) ab. Auf Vorschlag der Königlichen Technischen Ober-Prüfungs-Kommission bewilligte der Minister der öffentlichen Arbeiten Anton von Behr im Juli 1881 in Anerkennung seiner während der Prüfung dargelegten Talente ein Stipendium über 1800 Mark zur Vervollkommnung seiner Kenntnisse auf Studienreisen. Diese führte ihn 1882 nach Italien, wo er insbesondere das Werk des Renaissance-Baumeisters Baldassare Peruzzi studierte, des "Rafael unter den Architekten". Nach seiner Rückkehr erhielt von Behr dann die erste große Bauaufgabe zugewiesen, in der Übertragung der besonderen Bauleitung über das Regierungsgebäude in Breslau und in der Folge in gleicher Position bei den Um- und Erweiterungsbauten der Regierung in Hildesheim.

Die Region um Hildesheim und Goslar bestimmte in der Folge bis 1901 sein weiteres Schaffen. Nachdem er dieses Amt bereits im laufenden Jahr kommissarisch wahrgenommen hatte, wurde von Behr mit Ausgang des Jahres 1890 als Kreis-Bauinspektor in Goslar angestellt. Dort zeichnete er für den Entwurf und die Ausführung zahlreicher kleinerer Bauten verantwortlich, darunter Arbeiterwohnhäuser, Stallungen und Scheunen auf Domänen, Förstereien und Schulhäuser. Hervorzuheben ist aus dieser Zeit seine Tätigkeit im Rahmen der Wiederherstellungsarbeiten an der Kaiserpfalz in Goslar. Anton von Behr hatte sich dennoch für größere Aufgaben bewährt, woraus nach seiner Beförderung zum Regierungs- und Baurat zum 1. Oktober 1901 seine Versetzung als Hochbaudezernent an die Königliche Regierung in Coblenz folgte.

Als Hochbaudezernent in Koblenz zeichnete von Behr für alle technischen Angelegenheiten, mit Ausschluss der Bauangelegenheiten der Volksschulverwaltung, der Forst- und der Domänenverwaltung, der Justiz und der Gefängnisverwaltung verantwortlich. Zu seinem Geschäftsbereich gehörte insbesondere die Unterhaltung und der Schutz der Altertümer und die Denkmalpflege (so auch die staatlichen Schlösser in Koblenz und Stolzenfels). Doch bereits im März 1904 wurde eine mögliche erneute Versetzung von Behrs erörtert; zum 1. Juli 1904 erfolgte seine Umsetzung in gleicher Stellung zur Königlichen Regierung in Trier.

Seine letzte Stellung trat von Behr im Juni 1912 an. Bis zu seiner Pensionierung zum 1. Oktober 1919 wirkte er noch als Hochbaudezernent bei der Königlichen Regierung in Köslin. Kriegsbedingt war die Bautätigkeit während dieser Jahre aber nur gering.

Nach seiner Pensionierung zog sich Anton von Behr als Geheimer Baurat in Ruhe nach Naumburg an der Saale zurück. Er war verheiratet und hatte vier Kinder, darunter den Kunsthistoriker und Regierungsbauführer Heinrich (Heinz) von Behr, der 1909 an der Technischen Hochschule in Berlin mit der Arbeit Die Porta Nigra in Trier zum Dr. Ing. promovierte. Heinz von Behr war im Jahr 1910 als wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter bei der Kommission für die Denkmälerstatistik unter Paul Clemen eingestellt worden und mit den Vorarbeiten für das Kunstdenkmälerinventar zu dem Eifelkreis Schleiden befasst. Nach seiner Erkrankung 1914 revidierte und ergänzte sein Vater die von ihm bis dahin erstellten Texte. Zeichnungen und Aufmaße Anton von Behrs fanden darüber hinaus Aufnahme in die Inventare.

Ehrungen
 1898: Charakter als Baurat mit dem persönlichen Rang der Räte vierter Klasse
 1908: Roter Adler Orden IV. Klasse
 1911: Charakter als Geheimer Baurat

Werk

Bauten und Entwürfe (Auswahl)
 1882–1886: Königlich Preußische Regierung in Breslau (Entwurf: Geheimer Baurat Friedrich Endell im Ministerium der öffentlichen Arbeiten (1882); besondere Bauleitung durch Anton von Behr unter der Oberaufsicht des Baurats Knorr)
 1887–1889: Um- und Erweiterungsbau der Königlich Preußischen Regierung in Hildesheim (Entwurf: Geheimer Baurat Friedrich Endell im Ministerium der öffentlichen Arbeiten; besondere Bauleitung bis Ende 1889 durch von Behr, danach durch Landbauinspektor Rösener)
 1890–1900: Wiederherstellungsarbeiten an der Kaiserpfalz in Goslar (Leitung der Ausführung)
 1904–1911: Wiederherstellungsarbeiten am Dom zu Trier (Behr war als Vertreter der Staatsbauverwaltung beratend und begutachtend tätig)

Schriften
 Schutz eiserner Deckenträger gegen Feuer. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 8. Jahrgang 1888, Nr. 5 (vom 4. Februar 1888), S. 63.
 Klosterhof von Sanct Martin in Siena, ein Werk Baldassare Peruzzis. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 8. Jahrgang 1888, Nr. 9 (vom 3. März 1888), S. 103–104.
 Gebälk aus den Bädern des Agrippa in Rom. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 8. Jahrgang 1888, Nr. 13 (vom 31. März 1888), S. 147–148.
 Wandmalereien im Hildesheimer Domkreuzgang. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 8. Jahrgang 1888, Nr. 32a (vom 15. August 1888), S. 356 (betreffend der Wiederherstellungsarbeiten am Dom).
 Aufbringung einer Turmspitze ohne Gerüst. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 9. Jahrgang 1889, Nr. 12 (vom 28. März 1889), S. 110 (im Zuge der Um- und Erweiterungsarbeiten des Regierungsgebäudes in Hildesheim).
 Reise-Zeichenbrett zum Rollen. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 9. Jahrgang 1889, Nr. 48a (vom 4. Dezember 1889), S. 466.
 Führer durch Hildesheim und Umgebung. Mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der alten Fachwerkhäuser. Lax Verlag, Hildesheim 1889 (14. Aufl. 1935).
 Die Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler der Provinz Ostpreußen von Adolf Boetticher. (Bücherschau), In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 12. Jahrgang 1892, Nr. 17 (vom 23. April 1892), S. 178–179, Nr. 23 (vom 4. Juni 1892), S. 247 und Nr. 52 (vom 24. Dezember 1892), S. 568.
 Probeaufstellung von Reiterstandbildern vor dem Kaiserhause in Goslar. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 18. Jahrgang 1898, Nr. 15 (vom 9. April 1898), S. 171.
 Die Kunstdenkmäler Ostpreußens von Adolf Bötticher. (Bücherschau) In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 18. Jahrgang 1898, Nr. 26a (vom 29. Juni 1898), S. 309–310.
 Johannes Heise †. In: Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 19. Jahrgang 1899, Nr. 33 (vom 29. April 1899), S. 200.
 mit Uvo Hölscher: Die Kunstdenkmäler der Stadt Goslar. (=Kunstdenkmäler der Provinz Hannover, II. Regierungsbezirk Hildesheim, Teil 1 und 2), Hannover 1901 (Neudruck 1979, ISBN 3-87898-157-0). (Digitalisat)
 mit Karl Ludwig Leimbach und Hermann Cuno: Das Kaiserhaus zu Goslar: Kurze Angaben über seine Geschichte, Wiederherstellung und Ausschmückung. Lax Verlag, Hildesheim 1901 (7. Aufl. 1935).
 Romanischer Bogen im Königlichen Schlosspark in Fischbach in Schlesien. In: Zeitschrift für Bauwesen. 52. Jahrgang 1902, Heft IV bis VI, Sp. 205–208 sowie Atlas zur Zeitschrift für Bauwesen. 52. Jahrgang 1902, Blatt 28.
  Das Kaiserhaus und der Dom zu Goslar. In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 42. Jahrgang 1903, Nr. 103 (vom 26. Dezember 1903), S. 646–648.
 Rheinische Fachwerkbauten: Aus den Regierungsbezirken Koblenz und Trier, von Rhein und Mosel, Eifel, Westerwald. 1905.
 Beiläufiges und Nachklänge vom sechsten Denkmaltage. (Bamberg), In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 25. Jahrgang 1905, Nr. 87 (vom 28. Oktober 1905), S. 541–544 und Nr. 89 (vom 4. November 1905), S. 52–554.
 Die romanischen Baudenkmäler von Hildesheim. Von Adolf Zeller. (Bücherschau) In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 28. Jahrgang 1908, Nr. 45 (vom 6. Juni 1908), S. 312–313.
 Bissula redivira. Heitere Bilder aus den römisch-deutschen Grenzlanden. Von Paul Rowald (Bücherschau). In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 28. Jahrgang 1908, Nr. 27 (vom 4. April 1908), S. 200.
 Baugeschichtlicher Führer durch Trier: Nebst einer Zeittafel aus Anlass des X. Tages für Denkmalpflege zu Trier. 1909.
 Die römische Villa in Nennig in: Zeitschrift für Bauwesen 59. Jahrgang 1909, Heft VII bis IX, Sp. 313–336 (= Aufarbeitung einer Niederschrift des vormaligen Regierungs- und Baurats in Trier, Friedrich Seyffarth).
 Die römischen Baudenkmäler in und um Trier – architektonische Betrachtungen über ihre Bedeutung und Instandhaltung.(= Sonderabdruck aus Trierer Jahresbericht I, 1908), Kommissionsverlag der Fr. Lintz'schen Buchhandlung, Trier 1909.
 Die Wiederherstellung des Domes in Trier. In: Zeitschrift für Bauwesen. 64. Jahrgang 1914, Heft I bis III, Sp. 67–92 sowie Atlas zur Zeitschrift für Bauwesen. 64. Jahrgang 1914, Blatt 6–11.
 Der sogenannte römische Kaiserpalast in Trier. Von Prof. Dr. E. Krüger, Direktor des Provinzialmuseums in Trier. (Bücherbesprechung) In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 35. Jahrgang 1915, Nr. 88 (vom 3. November 1915), S. 577–581.
 Deutsche Forschungen in Abessinien (Bücherschau). In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 36. Jahrgang 1916, Nr. 17 (vom 26. Februar 1916), S. 125–128 und Nr. 19 (vom 4. März 1916), S. 137–142 (Zur deutschen Aksumforschung, die Kaiser Wilhelm II. im Jahre 1906 nach Aufforderung durch Kaiser Memelik von Abessinien anordnete).
 Kriegerehrungen und germanische Vorzeit. In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 40. Jahrgang 1920, Nr. 75 (vom 18. September 1920), S. 470–172.
 Zur 900 Jahr-Feier der Michaeliskirche in Hildesheim. In: Zentralblatt der Bauverwaltung. 42. Jahrgang 1922, Nr. 79 (vom 30. September 1922), S. 473–476.

Einzelnachweise

Architekt (Deutschland)
Regierungsbaumeister
Träger des Roten Adlerordens 4. Klasse
Denkmalpfleger (Deutschland)
Geheimer Baurat
Anton
Deutscher
Preuße
Geboren 1849
Gestorben 1931
Mann

Anton von Behr


Fanano ist eine italienische Gemeinde (comune) mit  Einwohnern (Stand ) in der Provinz Modena. Die Gemeinde liegt etwa 49,5 Kilometer südsüdwestlich von Modena im Valle di Ospitale. Fanano grenzt unmittelbar an die Provinz Pistoia und die Metropolitanstadt Bologna und ist Teil des Parco dell'Alto Appennino Modenese und gehört der Comunità Montana del Frignano an.

Geschichte
Fanano wird seit dem 8. Jahrhundert erwähnt. Bereits seit dem 7. Jahrhundert besteht das Kloster des heiligen Columbanus in Fanano.

Gemeindepartnerschaften
Fanano unterhält eine Partnerschaft mit der US-amerikanischen Stadt Fairbanks.

In Fanano geborene Persönlichkeiten
 Felice Pedronini (1858–1910), Auswanderer und nach Goldfunden in Alaska Auslöser des Fairbanks Gold Rushs
 Martina Lenzini (* 1998), Fußballspielerin

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Ort in der Provinz Modena
Ersterwähnung im 8. Jahrhundert

Fanano


The Nuristanis, formerly known as Kafiristanis, are an ethnic group native to the Nuristan Province of northeastern Afghanistan and Chitral District of northwestern Pakistan. Their languages comprise the Nuristani branch of Indo-Iranian languages.

In the mid-1890s, after the establishment of the Durand Line when Afghanistan reached an agreement on various frontier areas to the British Empire for period of time, Emir Abdur Rahman Khan conducted a military campaign in Kafiristan and followed up his conquest with forced conversion of the Kafirs to Islam; the region thenceforth being known as Nuristan, the "Land of Light". Before their conversion, the Nuristanis practiced a form of ancient Hinduism. Non-Muslim religious practices endure in Nuristan today to some degree as folk customs. In their native rural areas, they are often farmers, herders, and dairymen.

The Nuristan region has been a prominent location for war scenes that have led to the death of many indigenous Nuristanis. Nuristan has also received abundance of settlers from the surrounding Afghan regions due to the borderline vacant location.

Pre-Islamic religion

Noted linguist Richard Strand, an authority on Hindu Kush languages, observed the following about pre-Islamic Nuristani religion:

"Before their conversion to Islâm the Nuristânis practiced a form of ancient Hinduism, infused with accretions developed locally".

They acknowledged a number of human-like deities who lived in the unseen Deity World (Kâmviri d'e lu; cf. Sanskrit deva lok'a-).

Mitch Weiss and Kevin Maurer describe the Nuristanis of having traditionally practicing a primitive form of Hinduism, up until the late nineteenth century, before their conversions to Islam.

Certain deities were revered only in one community or tribe, but one was universally revered as the creator: the Hindu god Yama Râja called imr'o in Kâmviri. There is a creator god, appearing under various names, as lord of the nether world and of heaven: Yama Rājan, or Māra ('death', Nuristani), or Dezau (ḍezáw) whose name is derived from Indo-European *dheig'h i.e. "to form" (Kati Nuristani dez "to create", CDIAL 14621); Dezauhe is also called by the Persian term Khodaii. There are a number of other deities, semi-gods and spirits. The Kalash pantheon is thus one of the few living representatives of Indo-European religion.

They believed in many deities, whose names resembled those of Iranian and old Vedic sources. There was a supreme deity named Mara or Imra, plus a multitude of lesser gods and goddesses known locally as Mandi or Moni, Wushum or Shomde, Gish or Giwish, Bagisht, Indr, Züzum, Disani, Kshumai or Kime etc. According to Michael Witzel, some of these gods, especially Disani, Moni, and Gish, have direct parallels in Shinto, the native religion of Japan, indicating a shared history dating back to 2000 BCE.

Each village and clan had its guardian deity, with shamans advising those seeking help and priests officiating at religious services. The cult centered on the sacrifice of animals, mostly goats.

The area extending from modern Nuristan to Kashmir was known as "Peristan", a vast area containing a host of Nuristani cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist states and societies which temporarily extended literacy and state rule to the region. The journey to the region was perilous according to reports of Chinese pilgrims Fa-hsien and Sung Yun. The decline of Buddhism resulted in the region becoming heavily isolated. The Islamization of the nearby Badakhshan began in the 8th century and Peristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century. The Kalash people of lower Chitral are the last surviving heirs of the area.

The region was called "Kafiristan" because while the surrounding populations were converted to Islam, the people in this region retained their traditional religion, and were thus known as "Kafirs" to the Muslims. The Arabic word "Kufr" means disbelief and the related word "Kafir" means one who does not believe in Islam. Thus "Kafir" here is used to refer to their being non-Muslims; the province was therefore known as Kafiristan. The majority were converted to Islam during Abdur Rahman Khan's rule around 1895. The province is now known as Nuristan and the people as Nuristanis. However, among the rural population many old customs and beliefs like occasional production of wine have continued.

History
In the 4th century BC, Alexander the Great encountered them and finally defeated them after they put up a stubborn and prolonged resistance, describing them as being distinct culturally and religiously from other peoples of the region.

Nuristanis were formerly classified into "Siah-Posh (black-robed) and "Safed-Posh (white-robed)/Lall-Posh (Red-Robed). Timur fought with and was humbled by the Siah-Posh. Babur advised not to tangle with them. Genghis Khan passed by them.

In 1014, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked them:

Timur's encounter with Katirs/Kators
The first reference to Siah-Posh Kafirs occurs in Timur's invasion of Afghanistan in 1398 CE. Timur's autobiography (Tuzak-i-Timuri) amply attests that he had battled both with the Katirs as well as the Kam sections of the Siah-Posh (black-robed) Kafirs of the Hindukush mountains. Timur invaded Afghanistan in March 1398. On the basis of local complaints of ill-treatment and extortions filed by the Muslims against the Kafirs, Timur personally attacked the Kators of the Siah-Posh group located north-east of Kabul in eastern Afghanistan. The Kators left their fort Najil and took refuge at the top of the hill. Timur razed the fort to ground, burnt their houses and surrounded the hill where the Kator had collected for shelter. The relic of the historic fort is said to still exist a little north to Najil in the form of a structure known as Timur Hissar (Timur's Fort). After a tough fight, some of the Kators were defeated and were instantly put to death while the others held out against heavy odds for three days. Timur offered them death or Islam. They chose the latter, but soon recanted and attacked the regiment of Muslim soldiers during night. The latter being on guard, fought back, killed numerous Kators and took 150 as prisoners and put them to death afterwards.
Next day, Timur ordered his troops to advance on all four sides to kill all men, enslave the women and children and plunder or lay waste all their property. In his autobiography called Tuzak-i-Timuri, Timur proudly boasts of the towers of the skulls of the Kators which he built on the mountain in the auspicious month of Ramazan A.H. 800 (1300 CE)

Timur's encounter with Kam Kafirs
Again, according to Timur's autobiography (Tuzak-i-Timuri), a military division of ten thousand Muslim soldiers was sent against the Siah-Posh (Kam) Kafirs under the command of General Aglan Khan to either slay these infidels or else to convert them into Islam. Tuzak-i-Timuri frankly admits that the regiment was badly routed by a small number of Siah-Posh Kafirs. The Muslim forces had to flee from the battle-field leaving their horses and armor. Another detachment had to be sent under Muhammad Azad which fought gallantly and recovered the horses and the armor lost by General Aglan and came back home, leaving the Siah-Posh alone.

It is notable that Timur does not boast of any killings or imprisonment of the Siah-Poshes as he does for the Katirs and numerous other communities of India proper. Also, he gives no further details of his conflict with the Siah-Poshes in his Tuzak-i-Timuri after this encounter, which clearly shows that the outcome of the fight against the Siah-Poshes was very costly and shameful for Timur.

Other references to these Kafirs are made in the fifteenth and later in sixteenth century during the Mughal period.

In 1839, the Kafirs sent a deputation to Sir William Macnaghten in Jalalabad claiming relationship with the fair skinned British troops who had invaded the country

Settlement in Chitral

At the time of the Afghan conquest of Kafiristan, a small number of Kom and Kati Kafirs fled east to Chitral (modern Pakistan) where they were allowed to settle by the Mehtar. There they practised their faith for a few more decades, before finally converting to Islam as well. The final known non-converted Kafir was settled in a Chitrali village known as Urtsun. This Kafir's name was Chanlu, and he converted in 1938, several months after being interviewed about the cosmology of the Kati.

In Chitral, the Nuristanis are known either as Bashgalis (as most migrated from a valley of Nuristan called Bashgal in the Chitrali Khowar language), or alternatively as Sheikhan (a generic term for recent converts to Islam). The exact population size of Nuristanis in Chitral is unknown, but members of the community estimate that they number at least 12 000. All of them are speakers of the Kamkata-vari language, also known locally as Sheikhani.

Pre-1895 Kafir society
Prior to 1895, the Kafirs of the Hindu Kush were classified into two groups: the Siah-posh (black clad) and the Safed-posh (white clad) Kafirs, also known as the Lal-posh (red-clad), so-called because of the colour of the robes they wore. But the British investigator George Scott Robertson who visited Kafiristan and studied the Kafirs for about two years (1889–1891) improved upon the old classification by recognising that the Safed-posh Kafirs were actually members of several separate clans, viz, the Waigulis, Presungulis or Viron, and the Ashkuns. The later three groups of the Kafirs used to be collectively known as Sped-Posh Kafirs.

The term Siah-posh Kafirs used to designate the dominant group of Hindu Kush Kafirs inhabiting the Bashgal Valley. The Siah-posh Kafirs have sometimes been confused with Kalasha people of the neighboring Chitral region in Pakistan.

The Siah-Posh tribe was divided into Siah-posh Katirs or Kamtoz, Siah-posh Mumans or Madugals, Siah-posh Kashtoz or Kashtan, Siah-posh Gourdesh or Istrat, and Siah-posh Kams or Kamoze. The Siah-posh Katirs were further divided into the Katirs, who occupied twelve villages of the lower Bashgul (Kam) country, the Kti or Katawar, who lived in two villages in the Kti Valley, the Kulam, and the Ramguli, the most numerous group, living in twenty four villages in the Ramgul Valley, in the westernmost part of Kafiristan on the Afghan frontier.

All Siah-posh groups of Kafirs were regarded as of common origin. They all had a common dress and customs and spoke closely related dialects of Kati. Nicholas Barrington et al. reported that the Waigulis and Presungulis referred to all Siah-posh Kafirs as Katirs.

While the Kamtoz of the lower Bashgul valley were the most numerous, the Kam of the upper Bashgul valley were the most intractable and fierce and dreaded for their military prowess.

Origin hypotheses
 Some earlier writers had speculated and propagated the myth that the Kafirs of the Hindu Kush may have descended from the army of Alexander the Great. The Pakistani Tourist Bureau still continues to propagate that the peoples in the mountains are descendants of soldiers from the army of Alexander but Greek descent of Kafirs has been discounted by H. W. Bellew, George Scott Robertson and many later scholars. However some other people do believe in their authenticity of this tale that some of the Kalash themselves claim as being descendants of Alexander's army. This list of people who propagate the Kalash's ancestry claim is true includes Sir George Scott Robertson, and Eric S. Margolis.
 The Siah-Posh Kafirs themselves claim to have descended from certain Koresh (Gurashi/Gorish or Goraish) a name linked to Koresh tribe of Arabs but this is merely a fashionable fiction. H. W. Bellew relates name Gurish/Gorish or Koresh of the Kafirs accounts to Kurush and writes that Koresh or Kurush is the national designation of the Kafir tribes of Kafiristan, north of Laghman. Bellew further speculates that Koresh (or Kurush) may have been the family name of the Cyrus, king of Persia who was born in the Cabul country. Keruch, according to Bellew is the name of a Rajput clan which may have been adopted into the Rajput nation though of different race and descent. Thus, Bellew seem to relate Siah-Posh Kafirs to the Iranians.
 George Scott Robertson also rejects Greek origin of the Kafirs. According to him, the present dominant clans of Kafirstan viz. the Katirs (Kamtoz), the Kams (Kamoz) and the Wais are mainly descended from the ancient Indian population of eastern Afghanistan who refused to embrace Islam in tenth century, and fled for refuge from victorious Muslims to the hilly fastnesses of Kafirstan. There they probably found other races already settled, whom they vanquished, drove away, or enslaved, or with whom they amalgamated.
 According to Donald Wilber and other recent writers, anthropological data suggests that the Kafirs are not the tenth century migrants to Kafirstan but are a remnant of original population of the area which according to some was Dravidian but according to the others Indo-Aryan. They appear to be a mixture of an extremely ancient element related to oldest known population of central Himalayas (the Presuns), the element with resemblance to the Kurds and a type with Nordic and Dinaric traits (the Siah-Posh/Wai groups) which goes back to the ancient prototype of these races preserved in the midst of Indo-Aryan ascendancy.

Soviet–Afghan War (1979-1989)

General Issa Nuristani was second in command following the King during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Before his assassination, General Issa called the Nuristani people in a "Jihad" against the Soviet Army. Led by the Koms tribe, the Nuristani were the first citizens of Afghanistan to revolt against the communist takeover in 1978. They played an important role in the conquering of some provinces, including Kunar, Nangarhar, Badakhshan, and Panshir. Thereafter, Nuristan remained a scene of some of the bloodiest guerrilla fighting with the Soviet forces from 1979 through 1989. Following the withdrawal of the Soviet troops in 1989, the Mawlavy Ghulam Rabani was declared as governor of the Kunar Province. The Nuristanis inspired others to fight and contributed to the demise of the Afghan Communist regime in 1992.

Genetics
In a 2012 research on Y-chromosomes of five Nuristani samples, three were found to belong to the Haplogroup R1a, and one each in R2a and J2a.

Tribes

Most Nuristanis are from the Kata Family and Janaderi Branch. However, there are other Nuristani tribes as well, some of the Kata of Janaderi people live in Ozhor (now Karimabad), Gobor, Buburat, Ayun, Broze and Mastuj. There is a very popular rock associated with this tribe located in Karimabad (Juwara) called kata bont (Kata is the name of the tribe; bont meaning "stone" in the Chitrali language).

The Nuristani do not have a formal tribal structure as the Pashtuns do, however they do designate themselves by the names of the local regions they are from.

In total, there are 35 such designations: five from the north–south valleys and 30 from the east–west valley.

Some of these tribes include:
 Askunu
 Dungulio
 Gramsana
 Jench
 Kata
 Kom
 Kshto
 Mumo
 Sanu

See also
 Kho people
Dardic people
 Burusho people
 Gurjar
 Dogan (deity)
 Kata-vari dialect

References

Bibliography

 The Kafirs of the Hindukush, 1896, by George Scott Robertson, Arthur David McCormick, (Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints) - Online :online, 8 copies at Internet Archive.
 Nuristan, 1979, by Lenart Edelberg and Schuyler Jones, Graz, Austria - Online :.
 Afghanistan: its people, its society, its culture (Survey of world cultures), 1962, by Donald Newton Wilber.
 Tribes of the Hindu Kush (Calcutta, 1880) by John Biddulph.
 Kafiristan (Lahore, 1881), Gottlieb William Leitner.
 Aus dem westlichen Himalaya (Leipzig, 1884), K.E. von Ujfalvy.
 The gates of India: Being an historical narrative by Thomas Hungerford Holdich (Unknown Binding - 1977).
 The Indian Borderland, 1880-1900 by Thomas Hungerford Holdich (Paperback - 12 April 2001).
 An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India, (comprising a view of the Afghaun nation, and a history of the ... Entdeckungsgeschichte und Geographie Asiens), 1969 Edition, by Mountstuart Elphinstone.
 Proceedings (1869, 1879, 1881, 1884...)... by Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain), Norton Shaw, Francis Galton, William Spottiswoode.
 The Religions of the Hindukush: The Religion of the Kafirs : The Pre-Islamic Heritage of Afghan Nuristan (The Religions of the Hindukush) by Karl Jettmar (Paperback - Mar 1986).
 A History of Kafferistan: Socio-economic and Political Conditions of the Kaffers, 1989, Amar Singh Chohan.
 Journal of the United Service Institution of India (Simla, 1881), Gottlieb William Leitner.
 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, O.S., vol. xix. (London, 1862), Trumpp.
 Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischcn Gesellschaft, vol. xx. (Leipzig. 1800).
 The New International Encyclopaedia edited by Daniel Coit Gilman, Harry Thurston Peck, Frank Moore Colby 1911.
 The Encyclopædia Britannica, 1888, Thomas Spencer Baynes.
 Afghanistan, 1956, Donald Newton Wilber - Afghanistan.
 Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia, 1967, William Kerr Fraser-Tytler, Michael Cavenagh Gillett - Afghanistan.
 Afghanistan: its people, its society, its culture, 1962, Donald Newton Wilber, Elizabeth E. Bacon - Juvenile Nonfiction.
 Country Survey Series, 1956, Human Relations Area Files, inc - Human geography.
 Geographical and economic studies in the Mahābhārata: Upāyana parva, 1945, Moti Chandra - History.
 The London quarterly review, 1973.
 Memoir on Cuneiform Inscription, 1949, Henry Creswicke Rawlinson.
 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1849, RAS Great Britain and Ireland.
 Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien: Studien und Reisen, 1869, Adolf Bastian, Heinrich Kiepert.
 Ancient geography of India, 1971, Anundoram Borooah.
 Political History of Ancient India, 1996, H. C. Raychaudhury, B. N. Banerjee.
 The Indian historical quarterly, 1949, S Chattopadhyaya, India.
 The Achaemenids and India: By Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya. 2d Rev. Ed, 1974, Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya.
 India as described in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, 1980, B. C. Law - Tripitaka.
 The geographical dictionary of ancient and mediaeval India, 1979, Nundo Lal Dey - Social Science.
 The Indian historical quarterly, 1936, India.
 Ancient Indian tradition & mythology: Purāṇas in translation, 1969, Jagdish Lal Shastri.
 Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology: Purāṇas in Translation, 1970, Jagdish Lal Shastri, Arnold Kunst, G. P. Bhatt, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare.
 Vishnu Purana, H. H. Wilson.
 The Sun and the Serpent: A Contribution to the History of Serpent-worship, 1905, Charles Frederick Oldham.
 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1856, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
 Indian Caste, 1877, p 286, John Wilson; India of To-day, 1906, Walter Del Mar.
 On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629-645 A.D., 1904.
 Publications, 1904, Published by Oriental Translation Fund (Editors T. W. Rhys Davis, S. W. Bushel, London Royal Asiatic Society).
 Ancient Buddhist Monasteries: India and Nepal, 1998, S. Gajrani.
 Journal of Indian History, 1963, University of Kerala Dept. of History, University of Allahabad Dept. of Modern Indian History, University of Travancore, University of Kerala - India.
 Census of India, 1961, India Office of the Registrar General, Office of the Registrar General, India.
 Transaction, Indian Institute of World Culture, Indian Institute of World Culture, Published by Indian Institute of World Culture.
 Journal of Uttara Pradesh Historical Society, Vol XVI, Part II.
 Kāṭhakasaṅkalanam: Saṃskr̥tagranthebhyaḥ saṅgr̥hītāni Kāṭhakabrāhmaṇa, Kāṭhakaśrautasūtra, 1981, Surya Kanta.
 The Contemporary Review, Vol LXXII, July-Dec 1897, A. Strahan (etc.), London.
 Bhārata-kaumudī; Studies in Indology in Honour of Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji, 1945, Radhakumud Mookerji - India).

External links

 Nuristani Tribal Tree – US Naval Postgraduate School Note: this source has been evaluated as "totally unreliable" by the leading scholarly authorities on Nuristan.

 Richard Strand's Nuristân Site:

Indo-European peoples

Hindu Kush
Chitral District
Ethnic groups in Afghanistan

Nuristanis


Rhys Lesley Ashworth es un personaje ficticio de la serie de televisión británica Hollyoaks, interpretado por el actor Andrew Moss desde el 4 de octubre de 2005 hasta el 15 de noviembre de 2012. Andrew regresó a la serie brevemente el 27 de junio de 2014 como una alucinación.

Biografía
En noviembre del 2012 Rhys murió luego de quedar atrapado debajo de una pared luego de que el minibus que manejaba Maddie Morrison chocara el lugar donde se celebraba la boda de Ste & Doug y la de Tony & Cindy. Antes de morir Rhys le dice a su esposa Jacqui que lo siente y que la ama mucho.

Un día después de su muerte se revela que Rhys fue el hombre con quien Sinead O'Connor se había acostado y que estaba esperando un hijo de él. En mayo del 2013 Sinead dio a luz a su hija, Katy O'Connor.

En 27 de junio de 2014 luego de que Cindy comenzara a tener alucinaciones debido a su trastorno bipolar alucina brevemente a Rhys, y cree que todavía está vivo y que todavía tiene una aventura con él.

Notas
 Entre sus historias más importantes se encuentran: haber descubierto que su "tío" Noel en realidad era su padre, haber comenzado una relación incestuosa con su media hermana Beth Clements, por haber ocasionado accidentalmente el accidente automovilístico en donde estuvieron envueltos Josh, India y Sasha, por haber sido secuestrado por Jenny y por haber tenido una aventuras con Sinead O'Connor y Cindy.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Hollyoaks Official Website :: Character :: Rhys Ashworth
 Hollyoaks || Rhys Ashworth
 BBC America :: Hollyoaks :: Rhys Ashworth (Andrew Moss)

Ashworth, Rhys
Camareros ficticios

Rhys Ashworth


Die Nationalstraße 209 (), chin. Abk. G209, ist eine 3.435 km lange, in Nord-Süd-Richtung verlaufende Fernstraße im Osten und Süden Chinas auf dem Gebiet der Autonomen Gebiete Innere Mongolei und Guangxi sowie in den Provinzen Shanxi, Henan, Hubei und Hunan. Sie führt von Hohhot über Qingshuihe, Wuzhai, Lishi, Jiaokou, Daning, Xiangning, Yuncheng, Sanmenxia, Lingbao, Lushi, Shiyan, Badong, Laifeng, Baojing, Mayang, Huaihua, Sanjiang, Liuzhou,  und Lingshan in die Küstenstadt Beihai an der Südküste. Die G209 ist die zweitlängste, in Nord-Süd-Richtung verlaufende Nationalstraße in China.

Weblinks

Offizielle Webseite des chinesischen Verkehrsministeriums

Nationalstraße in der Volksrepublik China
Nationalstrasse China209
Straße in der Inneren Mongolei
Straße in Shanxi
Straße in Henan
Straße in Hubei
Straße in Hunan
Straße in Guangxi

Nationalstraße 209 (China)


Her Sacrifice (film, 1914)
 Her Sacrifice (film, 1917)
 Her Sacrifice (film, 1926)

Her Sacrifice


Lubeník este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Revúca din regiunea Banská Bystrica, pe malul râului . Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.313 locuitori. Se învecinează cu Chyžné, Revúcka Lehota, Jelšava, Turčok și Mokrá Lúka.

Istoric
Localitatea Lubeník este atestată documentar din 1427.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Lubeník


Skeiane Station (Skeiane stasjon) er en jernbanestation på Jærbanen, en del af Sørlandsbanen, der ligger i kvarteret Skeiene i Sandnes i Norge. Stationen består af flere spor med to perroner og en mindre parkeringsplads.

Den nuværende station er den anden af slagsen. Den første åbnede sammen med Jærbanen 1. marts 1878. Oprindeligt hed den Sandnæs, men stavemåden blev ændret til Sandnes omkring 1894. 10. juni 1955 blev den erstattet af den nuværende station. Den nye station blev fjernstyret 7. juli 1964. I 1992 blev den suppleret af den nye Sandnes sentrum Station, der overtog statussen som byens primære station i 1996. Siden da har den gamle station været ubemandet og kun betjent af lokaltog. Stationen skiftede navn fra Sandnes til Skeiane 12. august 2017 for at undgå forveksling med Sandnes sentrum.

Eksterne henvisninger

Noter

Stationer på Jærbanen
Etableret i 1878

Skeiane Station


King's (ancienne circonscription fédérale), ancienne  circonscription électorale fédérale de l'Île-du-Prince-Édouard.
 King's (circonscription fédérale),  circonscription électorale fédérale du Nouveau-Brunswick,

King's


An Paphiopedilum venustoinsigne in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Udai Chandra Pradhan. An Paphiopedilum venustoinsigne in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paphiopedilum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Assam. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Paphiopedilum

Paphiopedilum venustoinsigne


The Catherine Tate Show é uma série de televisão britânica de comédia escrita por Catherine Tate e Derren Litten. É protagonizado por Tate em uma variedade de personagens diferentes. O programa foi ao ar na BBC Two e é exibido internacionalmente em todo o mundo através da BBC. A série recebeu seis indicações ao prêmio Bafta, dois British Comedy Awards e um Emmy Internacional, e ganhou dois Royal Television Society Awards, dois British Comedy Awards e um National Television Award desde sua estreia em 2004.

Episódios

Spin-offs

Nan's Christmas Carol (2009)
Um especial de Natal transmitido em dezembro de 2009, apresentando Tate como a personagem Ebenezer Scrooge.

Catherine Tate's Nan (2014–2015)
Um especial de Ano Novo produzido e transmitido em 4 de janeiro de 2014. Em 2015, dois novos episódios foram produzidos e exibidos entre 27 e 30 de dezembro de 2015.

Nan: The Movie
No início de 2019, foi anunciado que seria desenvolvida uma adaptação de Catherine Tate's Nan para o cinema. Em setembro de 2019, foi confirmado que o filme seria lançado em 2020. Ao lado de Tate, também foi confirmado que Mathew Horne voltaria como Jamie, e que Niky Wardley também apareceria. O filme será dirigido por Josie Rourke.

Ligações externas

Programas de televisão do Reino Unido que estrearam em 2004
Programas de televisão do Reino Unido encerrados em 2007
Séries de televisão com temática LGBT
Programas da BBC
Programas de televisão em língua inglesa
Endemol

The Catherine Tate Show


En Amerikaner i Paris er en amerikansk filmmusical fra 1951 instrueret af Vincente Minnelli. Filmen er baseret på George Gershwins musikkatalog. Filmens titel er også titlen på et af hans mest berømte kompositioner fra 1928 (An American in Paris). Georges bror Ira skrev lyrikken til filmen.

Plot

Amerikanske Jerry Mulligan arbejder som maler i Paris, men har ikke mange penge på lommen. Heldigvis bliver han opdaget - og sponsoreret - af en rig kvindelig arving, men det viser sig, at hendes hjerte banker for mere end blot hans kunst. Samtidig forelsker Jerry sig i den franske pige Lise, men hende har også den populære cabaret-stjerne Henri set sig for øje.

Indpilningen
Arbejdet med filmen kan siges at være begyndt på det tidspunkt, hvor producenten Arthur Freed spillede billard med sin gode ven George Gershwin. Allerede i 1928 skrev Gershwin et tonedigt af samme navn. Freed spurgte om Gershwin ville overveje at sælge titelen En amerikaner i Paris til ham. Gershwin svarede: Ja, hvis du kun bruger Gershwinmusik i filmen. Freed havde ikke nogen manus at starte fra, men det var let for ham at sælge ideen til filmselskabet MGM. Prøverne begyndte i juni 1950 og filmen havde premiere i USA den 9. november 1951. Kun de indledende scener, og en anden scene, hvor Jerry står og maler ved Seinen, blev filmet i Paris, blev resten filmet på MGM Studios i Hollywood.

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 1951
Musicalfilm fra USA
Oscar for bedste film
Film instrueret af Vincente Minnelli

En amerikaner i Paris (film)


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Asociația Universală de Esperanto (în esperanto: Universala Esperanto-Asocio), cunoscută și sub acronimul UEA'', este cea mai mare organizație internațională a vorbitorilor de limbă esperanto. Asociația are ca obiectiv principal promovarea și dezvoltarea utilizării limbii esperanto, pentru a facilita comunicarea între persoane cu limbi native diferite.

În România
Secțiunea română a asociației a fost înființată în perioada interbelică de Tiberiu Morariu.

Fondări în 1908
Asociații Internaționale
Esperanto

Asociația Universală de Esperanto


Dīrgatamas (em sânscrito: दीर्घतमस्) foi um antigo sábio indiano conhecido por seus versos filosóficos no Rigueveda. Ele foi autor dos suktas (hinos) 140 a 164 na primeira mandala (seção) do Rigueveda. Havia outro Dirgatamas chamado Dirgatama Manteia.

Bibliografia

 Gupta, Nolini Kanta. "Seer Poets". Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, 1970.

 Mahābhārata, Book1, Adi Parva, CIV.
 R̥g-Veda, Sūktas 140 to 164.
 Raja, Dr. C. Kunhan. Asya Vāmasya Hymn, (printed 1956).
 Singh, Prof. Satya Prakash. Life and Vision of the Vedic Seers 2: Dirghatamas. Standard Publishers, New Delhi, 2006.
 Fórizs, László. Dīrghatamas In Keréknyomok/Wheeltracks 2019/13: 148-181.
 Apāṁ Napāt, Dīrghatamas and Construction of the Brick Altar. Analysis of RV 1.143 In Vedic Investigations, edited by Asko Parpola, Masato Fujii and Stanley Insler, Volume 1, Papers of the 12th World Sanskrit Conference, Motilal Banarsidass, 2016, pp. 97–126, in the homepage of Laszlo Forizs.

Filósofos da Índia

Dirgatamas


The Rock of Gibraltar (from the Arabic name Jabel-al-Tariq) is a monolithic limestone promontory located in the British territory of Gibraltar, near the southwestern tip of Europe on the Iberian Peninsula, and near the entrance to the Mediterranean. It is  high. Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve, which is home to around 300 Barbary macaques. These macaques, as well as a labyrinthine network of tunnels, attract many tourists each year.

The Rock of Gibraltar, one of the two traditional Pillars of Hercules, was known to the Romans as Mons Calpe, the other pillar being Mons Abila, either Monte Hacho or Jebel Musa on the African side of the Strait. According to ancient myths fostered by the Greeks and the Phoenicians, and later perpetuated by the Romans, the two points marked the limit to the known world, although the Phoenicians had actually sailed beyond this point into the Atlantic, both northward and southward.

The Mediterranean Sea surrounds Gibraltar.

Geology

The Rock of Gibraltar is a monolithic promontory. The Main Ridge has a sharp crest with peaks over 400 m above sea level, formed by Early Jurassic limestones and dolomites.  It is a deeply eroded and highly faulted limb of an overturned fold. The sedimentary strata composing the Rock of Gibraltar are overturned, with the oldest strata overlying the youngest strata. These strata are the Catalan Bay Shale Formation (youngest), Gibraltar Limestone, Little Bay Shale Formation (oldest), and Dockyard Shale Formation (age unknown). These strata are noticeably faulted and deformed.

Predominantly of shale, the Catalan Bay Shale Formation also contains thick units composed of either brown calcareous sandstone, soft shaly sandstone interbedded with bluish-black limestone, and interlayered greenish-gray marls and dark gray cherts. The Catalan Bay Shale Formation contains unidentifiable echinoid spines and belemnite fragments and infrequent Early Jurassic (Middle Lias) ammonites.

The Gibraltar limestone consists of greyish-white or pale-gray compact, and sometime finely crystalline, medium to thick bedded limestones and dolomites that locally contain chert seams. This formation comprises about three quarters of the Rock of Gibraltar. Geologists have found various poorly preserved and badly eroded and rolled marine fossils within it. The fossils found in the Gibraltar limestone include various brachiopods, corals, echinoid fragments, gastropods, pelecypods, and stromatolites. These fossils indicate an Early Jurassic age (Lower Lias) for the deposition of the Gibraltar limestone.

The Little Bay and Dockyard shale formations form a very minor part of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Little Bay Shale Formation consists of dark bluish-gray, unfossiliferous shale, which is interbedded with thin layers of grit, mudstone, and limestone. It predates the Gibraltar limestone. The Dockyard Shale Formation is an undescribed variegated shale of unknown age that lies buried beneath the Gibraltar's dockyard and coastal protection structures.

Although these geological formations were deposited during the early part of the Jurassic Period some 175-200million years ago, their current appearance is due to far more recent events of about 5 million years ago.  When the African tectonic plate collided tightly with the Eurasian plate, the Mediterranean became a lake that, over the course of time, dried up during the Messinian salinity crisis. The Atlantic Ocean then broke through the Strait of Gibraltar, and the resultant flooding created the Mediterranean Sea. The Rock forms part of the Betic Cordillera, a mountain range that dominates southeastern Iberia.

Today, the Rock of Gibraltar forms a peninsula jutting out into the Strait of Gibraltar from the southern coast of Spain. The promontory is linked to the continent by means of a sandy tombolo with a maximum elevation of . To the north, the Rock rises vertically from sea level up to  at Rock Gun Battery. The Rock's highest point stands  near the south end above the strait at O'Hara's Battery. The Rock's central peak, Signal Hill and the top station of the Gibraltar Cable Car, stands at an elevation of . The near-cliffs along the eastern side of the Rock drop down to a series of wind-blown sand slopes that date to the glaciations when sea levels were lower than today, and a sandy plain extended east from the base of the Rock. The western face, where the City of Gibraltar is located, is comparatively less steep.

Calcite, the mineral that makes up limestone, dissolves slowly in rainwater. Over time, this process can form caves. For this reason the Rock of Gibraltar contains over 100 caves. St. Michael's Cave, located halfway up the western slope of the Rock, is the most prominent and is a popular tourist attraction.

Fossils of Neanderthals have been found at several sites in Gibraltar. In 1848, a Neanderthal woman's skull was found at Forbes' Quarry, located on the north face of the Rock. However, its significance was not recognized until after the 1856 discovery of the type specimen in the Neander Valley. Excavations in Gorham's Cave, located near sea level on the eastern side of the Rock, found evidence it was used by Neanderthals, and plant and animal remains in the cave gave evidence of Neanderthals' highly varied diet.

Fortification

Moorish Castle

The Moorish Castle is a relic of Moorish rule over Gibraltar, which lasted for 710 years. It was built in the year A.D. 711, when the Berber chieftain Tariq ibn-Ziyad first landed on the rock that still bears his name. The 17th-century Muslim historian Al-Maqqari wrote that upon landing, Tariq burned his ships.

The principal building that remains is the Tower of Homage, a massive building of brick and very hard concrete called tapia. The upper part of the tower housed the former occupants' living apartments and Moorish bath.

Galleries
A unique feature of the Rock is its system of underground passages, known as the Galleries or the Great Siege Tunnels.

The first of these was dug towards the end of the Great Siege of Gibraltar, which lasted from 1779 to 1783. General Elliot, afterwards Lord Heathfield, who commanded the garrison throughout the siege, was anxious to bring flanking fire on the Spanish batteries in the plain below the North face of the Rock. On the suggestion of Sergeant-Major Henry Ince of the Royal Engineers, he had a tunnel bored from a point above Willis's Battery to communicate with the Notch, a natural projection from the North face. The plan was to mount a battery there. There was no intention at first of making embrasures in this tunnel, but an opening was found necessary for ventilation; as soon as it had been made a gun was mounted in it. By the end of the siege, the British had constructed six such embrasures, and mounted four guns.

The Galleries, which tourists may visit, were a later development of the same idea and were finished in 1797. They consist of a whole system of halls, embrasures, and passages, of a total length of nearly . From them, one may see a series of unique views of the Bay of Gibraltar, the isthmus, and Spain.

Second World War onwards

When World War II broke out in 1939, the authorities evacuated the civilian population to Morocco, the United Kingdom, Jamaica, and Madeira so that the military could fortify Gibraltar against a possible German attack. By 1942 there were over 30,000 British soldiers, sailors, and airmen on the Rock. They expanded the tunnel system and made the Rock a keystone in the defence of shipping routes to the Mediterranean.

In February 1997, it was revealed the British had a secret plan called Operation Tracer to conceal servicemen in tunnels beneath the Rock in case the Germans captured it. The team in the rock would have radio equipment with which to report enemy movements. A six-man team waited undercover at Gibraltar for two and a half years. The Germans never got close to capturing the rock and so the men were never sealed inside. The team was disbanded to resume civilian life when the war ended.

Sayings

The saying "solid as the Rock of Gibraltar" is used to describe an entity that is very safe or firm.

The motto of the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and Gibraltar itself is  (Latin for "No Enemy Shall Expel Us").

Nature reserve

Approximately 40% of Gibraltar's land area was declared a nature reserve in 1993.

Flora and fauna

The flora and fauna of the Gibraltar Nature Reserve are of conservation interest and are protected by law. Within it is a range of animals and plants, but the highlights are the Barbary macaques (the famous Rock apes), the Barbary partridges, and flowers such as Gibraltar's own chickweed, thyme and the Gibraltar candytuft. The Barbary macaques may have originated from an escape of North African animals transported to Spain; it is also possible that the original Gibraltar macaques are a remnant of populations that are known to have spread throughout Southern Europe during the Pliocene, up to 5.5 million years ago. Some animals of the Rock have been reintroduced by the Alameda Wildlife Conservation Park who have three Barbary macaques.

Birds

The Rock of Gibraltar, at the head of the Strait, is a prominent headland, which accumulates migrating birds during the passage periods. The vegetation on the Rock, unique in southern Iberia, provides a temporary home for many species of migratory birds that stop to rest and feed before continuing migration for their crossing over the sea and desert. In spring, they return to replenish before continuing their journeys to Western Europe, journeys which may take them as far as Greenland or Russia.

The Rock has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International, because it is a migratory bottleneck, or choke point, for an estimated 250,000 raptors that cross the Strait annually, and because it supports breeding populations of Barbary partridges and lesser kestrels.

See also

 Disputed status of the isthmus between Gibraltar and Spain
 Gibraltar Cable Car
 List of famous rocks

References

Landforms of Gibraltar
National symbols of Gibraltar
Environment of Gibraltar
Natural monoliths
Penibaetic System
Important Bird Areas of Gibraltar
Tombolos
Geologic formations with imbedded sand dunes
Geologic formations of Europe
Individual rocks
Pillars of Hercules

Rock of Gibraltar


An Xanthosoma herrerae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Thomas Bernard Croat ngan P.Huang. An Xanthosoma herrerae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Xanthosoma, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Xanthosoma

Xanthosoma herrerae


Luso-neerlandês ou português neerlandês é um neerlandês que possui ascendência portuguesa ou um português que reside nos Países Baixos.

De acordo com o Instituto de Estatística Neerlandês (CBS), em 2021 havia  luso-neerlandeses a resider nos Países Baixos, dos quais  eram de primeira geração e  eram de segunda geração.

História
Os primeiros imigrantes portugueses que se estabeleceram nos Países Baixos chegaram no século XVI e eram judeus sefarditas, em decorrência da Inquisição vigente em Portugal.

No século XVIII, os imigrantes portugueses vieram sobretudo de Lisboa e da Madeira.

Na década de 1960, vários portugueses vieram trabalhar para os Países Baixos como gastarbeiter.

Estatísticas
O número de luso-neerlandeses mais do que duplicou entre 1996 e 2020, de aproximadamente  para .

Em 2020, cerca de 17% dos luso-neerlandeses a residir nos Países Baixos tinha entre 0 e 15 anos, ou seja,  pessoas, sendo  de primeira geração e  de segunda geração. Em contrapartida, cerca de 7% dos luso-neerlandeses tinha 65 ou mais anos, ou seja,  pessoas no total. Isto se traduz numa população mais jovem de origem portuguesa nos Países Baixos do que em Portugal em si.

Ver também
Relações entre Países Baixos e Portugal
Sinagoga Portuguesa de Amesterdão

Paises Baixos
Grupos étnicos dos Países Baixos
Relações entre Países Baixos e Portugal
Imigrações nos Países Baixos

Imigração portuguesa nos Países Baixos


Hans Blix, (d. 28 Haziran 1928, Uppsala, İsveç) Uluslararası Atom Enerjisi Kurumu'nun İsveçli eski başkanı.

Kariyerine, 1980 yılında Irak'ın Osirak Nükleer Santrali'ni denetleyerek başlayan, 1981-1997 yılları arasında merkezi Viyana'da bulunan Uluslararası Atom Enerjisi Kurumu'nun başkanlığını yürüten Blix, Körfez Savaşı ve Irak Savaşı öncesinde gündeme gelen bir isimdi.

Blix 2004 yılı şubat ayında, İngiliz yayın kuruluşu BBC'ye verdiği bir mülakatla gündeme geldi.

BBC'ye yaptığı açıklamalarda kitle imha silahlarıyla ilgili olarak Saddam Hüseyin rejimine yöneltilen suçlamaların Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve İngiltere tarafından fazlasıyla dramatize edildiğini 8 Kasım 2002 tarihli 1441 sayılı BM Güvenlik Konseyi kararının meşru bir zemin oluşturmadığını dile getirmiştir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Bush-Aznar gizli görüşmesi

1928 doğumlular
Uppsala doğumlular
İsveçli diplomatlar
İsveçli siyasetçiler
Columbia Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Irak Savaşı'nda kişiler
Uluslararası Atom Enerjisi Kurumu kişileri
Yaşayan insanlar
İsveç dışişleri bakanları
Olof Palme Ödülü sahipleri

Hans Blix


Haydée Tamara Bunke Bider, bedre kendt som Tania, (født 19. november 1937 i Buenos Aires, Argentina; død 31. august 1967 i Vado de Puerto Mauricio, Bolivia) var spion og hemmelig agent for DDR, kommunistisk revolutionær og den eneste kvinde som kæmpede sammen med guerillahæren i Bolivia som blev ledet af Che Guevara.

Litteratur
 Estrada, Ulises (2005) «Tania: Undercover with Che Guevara in Bolivia», Ocean Press,
 Guevara, Che «The Bolivian Diary: The authorized edition», Ocean Press,

Personer fra DDR
Personer fra Buenos Aires
Revolutionære
Kommunister

Haydée Tamara Bunke Bider


Fravit(um. 490.), također poznat kao Fravitas, Flavitas ili Flavianus II, bio je konstantinopolski patrijarh (489. – 490.). Smatra se svetim i ima blagdan 18. veljače.

Životopis
Nakon smrti patrijarha Akacija, Fravit je istodobno pisao pisma: prvo patrijarhu Petru Mongusu iz Aleksandrije od koga je tražio communio, zajedništvo (u različitosti), te drugo upućeno Sinodu pape Feliksa iz Rima kojim je tražio službeno priznanje i suradnju. Pismo Sinodu su u Rim odnijeli redovnici Konstantinopola koji su se uvijek držali odvojeno od Akacija i njegovog prijatelja Petra Mongusa. Priloženo pismo cara Zenona je pokazalo njegovu veliku naklonost prema Fravitu. Zenon je radio na njegovom imenovanju jer ga je smatrao dostojnim da vrati mir i jedinstvo među crkve. Papa Feliks, oduševljen pismima, naglas je pročitao Zenonovo pismo svim zastupnicima i svećenicima iz Rima koji su izrazili oduševljenje uz glasno odobravanje.

Međutim, kada je papa izrazio želju da konstantinopolski redovnici poduzmu sve kako bi se imena Akacija i Petra Mongusa izbacila iz diptiha (matična knjiga), odgovorili su mu da, što se toga tiče, nisu dobili nikakve upute. Radost pape uništena je dolaskom u Rim kopije pisma koju je Fravit poslao Mongusu, u kojem je negirao sve zajedništvo s Rimom. Papa nije više htio čuti ni riječi od redovnika.

Bez obzira na to je li priča povjesničara Xanthopoulosa (u nastavku pod Legenda) istinita ili nije, Fravit će ostati osramoćen zbog svoje dvoličnosti.

Legenda
Prema pisanju posljednjeg od grčkih crkvenih povjesničara Nikeforos Kalist Xanthopoulosa (rođ.1256.†1335.). godine, nakon smrti patrijarha Akacija iz Konstantinopola, car Zenon je na oltar velike crkve Konstantinopola stavio dva papira. Na jednom je bila napisana molitva da Bog pošalje anđela koji bi na drugi, prazan papir, upisao ime onoga kojega On želi za patrijarha. Naređen je post s molitvom u trajanju od 40 dana. Crkva je stavljena pod starateljstvo eunuhu od povjerenja - carskom komorniku, a kovčeg u kojega su stavljeni papiri je bio zapečačen carskim pečatom.

Fravit je bio prezbiter zadužen za prigradsku crkvu sv. Tekle. Potaknut ambicijom, eunuhu je platio ogromne sume novca, i obećao mu još više ako napiše njegovo ime na praznom papiru. Po isteku 40 dana kovčeg je otvoren i pronađeno je ime Fravita, nakon čega je njegovo ustoličenje bilo u zenitu sveopćeg odobravanja. U roku od 4 mjeseca je umro, a moćni eunuh je pritiskao njegove izvršitelje da mu dadu obećano zlato. Oni su otišli caru i otkrili mu tu odvratnu priču. Krivotvoritelj je izgubio sve svoje službe i bio izbačen iz grada, a car Zenon, posramljen zbog neuspjeha, povjerio je svećenstvu izbor novog patrijarha.

Međutim, prepiska između Zenona, Fravita i pape Felixa III. o imenovanjima, ne pokazuje nikakve tragove ove priče.

Izvori

Životopisi, Sirija
Patrijarsi
Kršćanstvo u Siriji

Fravit Konstantinopolski


Die ehemalige Kirche St. Georg war ursprünglich eine katholische Pfarrkirche und nach der Reformation eine evangelische Kirche in Soest im Kreis Soest (Nordrhein-Westfalen).

Geschichte
Der Kölner Erzbischof Philipp von Heinsberg teilte 1180 die Stadt Soest, die zu Köln gehörte, in sechs Pfarreien ein. Die Pfarreibezirke entsprachen in etwa den Hofen der Stadt. Die Nordhofe wurde in zwei Pfarrbezirke, nämlich St. Georg und St. Maria zur Wiese, eingeteilt. In der nachreformatorischen Zeit wurde St. Georg, ebenso wie die Kirche Maria zur Wiese, evangelisch. Soest war zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhunderts von einer einstmals blühenden mittelalterlichen Hansestadt zu einer kleinen verarmten Landstadt geworden. Etliche der vielen Kirchen verfielen, so auch die Georgskirche, und konnten nicht mehr unterhalten werden. Im Jahr 1822 wurde beschlossen, die St.-Georgs-Kirche abzubrechen und die Gemeinde mit der Wiesengemeinde zu vereinigen. Der Zusammenschluss der Gemeinden sollte allerdings, wie in der Vereinigungsakte festgelegt wurde, nicht sofort, sondern erst nach dem Tod eines der beiden Prediger vollzogen werden. Die Kirche wurde 1823 abgerissen. An ihrer Stelle, an der Ostseite des Marktplatzes, wurde aus den Abbruchsteinen das Gesellschaftshaus Ressource gebaut.

Architektur
Der Kirchenbau von St. Georg stellte eine zweijochige Hallenkirche in der unmittelbaren Nachfolge der Soester Hohnekirche dar, versehen mit einem eingezogenen Westturm. Im Osten schloss der Bau mit einer strebepfeilerlosen polygonalen Apsis, die Vorbilder des rheinischen Übergangsstils verarbeitete. Der breitgelagerte Hallenraum war durch schwere Kreuzgratgewölbe über einem Bündelpfeilerpaar bestimmt. Zusammen mit der Hohnekirche steht die Kirche am Anfang der Entwicklungslinie der westfälischen Hallenkirche. Die Kirche wurde in einer späteren Bauphase mit gotischen Maßwerkfenstern versehen. Sehr originell war der Durchgang durch das Erdgeschoss des Turmes von Süd nach Nord.

Möglicherweise aus der abgebrochenen Georgskirche stammt die Statue eines Ritterheiligen aus dem mittleren 13. Jahrhundert.

Literatur
 Albert Ludorff: Die Bau- und Kunstdenkmäler von Westfalen. Herausgegeben vom Provinzialverbande der Provinz Westfalen, Kommissionsverlag Ferdinand Schöningh, 1903.
 Hubertus Schwartz: Soest in seinen Denkmälern. Zweiter Band: Romanische Kirchen (= Soester wissenschaftliche Beiträge, Band 15). 2. unveränderte Auflage. Westfälische Verlagsbuchhandlung Mocker & Jahn, Soest 1978, ISBN 3-87902-029-9, S. 185–203.

Weblinks
 Geschichte, abgerufen am 25. Februar 2012
 Stadtgeschichte, abgerufen am 25. Februar 2012

Einzelnachweise

Georgskirche
Georg
Abgegangenes Bauwerk im Kreis Soest
Zerstört in den 1820er Jahren

St. Georg (Soest)


RDW, or rdw, may refer to:

RDW (Dienst Wegverkeer), the organization that administers vehicle registration and driving licences in the Netherlands
Red blood cell distribution width, a parameter reported in blood tests
Reading West railway station (National Rail code), Berkshire, UK
Red Wing station (Amtrak code), Minnesota, US
Redrow plc (London Stock Exchange code), British housebuilder

See also
Wier RDW-2 Draggin' Fly, American light aircraft

RDW


CodeWarrior is an integrated development environment (IDE) published by NXP Semiconductors for editing, compiling, and debugging software for several microcontrollers and microprocessors (Freescale ColdFire, ColdFire+, Kinetis, Qorivva, PX, Freescale RS08, Freescale S08, and S12Z) and digital signal controllers (DSC MC56F80X and MC5680XX) used in embedded systems.

The system was developed by Metrowerks on the Macintosh, and was among the first development systems on that platform to cleanly support both the existing Motorola 68k and the PowerPC (PPC) instruction set architectures. During Apple's transition to PowerPC, CodeWarrior quickly became the de facto standard development system for the Mac, rapidly displacing Symantec's THINK C and Apple's own Macintosh Programmer's Workshop. Apple's purchase of NeXT in 1996 led to a decline in CodeWarrior's relevance as Mac programming moved to the NeXT platform's own developer tools: Interface Builder and Project Builder.

Metrowerks responded by porting CodeWarrior to Microsoft Windows and introducing compilers for a wider variety of platforms. It became a major part of the software stack for Motorola's varied lines of microcontrollers, and eventually led to them purchasing Metrowerks in 1999. It was widely used on most platforms based on PPC or other Motorola processors, as well as many games consoles. The product moved to Freescale Semiconductor when that company formed in 2004, and then to NXP when they purchased Freescale in 2015.

Originally a single integrated product, now known as the "Classic IDE", the IDE was later replaced with Eclipse IDE. The current versions are 6.3 of the Classic IDE, and 11.0 for the Eclipse IDE. Languages supported are C, C++, and assembly language.

Old versions

Prior to the acquisition of the product by Freescale, versions existed targeting Macintosh, Microsoft Windows, Linux, Solaris, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Nintendo DS, Wii, Dreamcast, SuperH, M·CORE, Palm OS, Symbian OS, and BeOS.

Metrowerks versions of CodeWarrior also included Pascal, Object Pascal, Objective-C, and Java compilers.

Older versions of CodeWarrior can be used to develop on classic Mac OS. Classilla is built with Metrowerks CodeWarrior 7.1.

History
CodeWarrior was originally developed by Metrowerks based on a C compiler and environment for the Motorola 68K, developed by Andreas Hommel and acquired by Metrowerks. The first versions of CodeWarrior targeted the PowerPC Macintosh, with much of the development done by a group from the original THINK C team. Much like THINK C, which was known for its fast compile times, CodeWarrior was faster than Macintosh Programmer's Workshop (MPW), the development tools written by Apple.

CodeWarrior was a key factor in the success of Apple's transition of its machine architecture from 68K processors to PowerPC because it provided a complete, solid PowerPC compiler when the competition (Apple's MPW tools and Symantec C++) was mostly incomplete or late to the market. Metrowerks also made it easy to generate fat binaries, which included both 68K and PowerPC code.

Java support in CodeWarrior for Macintosh was announced for May 1996, slated for CodeWarrior 9. Metrowerks took the approach to add Java tools support in CodeWarrior, including debugging, rather than write a new IDE.

In August 1996, Metrowerks announced CodeWarrior for BeBox, a BeOS version of the IDE named BeIDE supplementing the PowerPC compiler that was already available to BeOS software developers.

After Metrowerks was acquired by Motorola in 1999, the company concentrated on embedded applications, devoting a smaller fraction of their efforts to compilers for desktop computers. On 29 July 2005, they announced that CodeWarrior for Mac would be discontinued after the next release, CodeWarrior Pro 10.  Metrowerks indicated that revenue share of the product fell from 22% to 5% in the last four years and the effort by the company to concentrate on the embedded development market. The demand for CodeWarrior had presumably fallen during the time Apple began distributing Xcode (its own software development kit for OS X) for free. In addition, Apple's switch to Intel chips left Metrowerks without an obvious product as they had sold their Intel compiler technology to Nokia earlier in 2005.

During its heyday, the product was known for its rapid release cycle, with multiple revisions every year, and for its quirky advertising campaign. Their "geekware" shirts were featured in the fashion pages of The New York Times.

Origin of the name
During the 1990s, Apple Computer released a monthly series of developer CD-ROMs containing resources for programming the Macintosh. These CDs were, in the early days, whimsically titled using punning references to various movies but with a coding twist; for example, "The Hexorcist" (The Exorcist), "Lord of the Files" (Lord of the Flies), "Gorillas in the Disc" (Gorillas in the Mist), etc.

One of these, volume 9, was titled "Code Warrior", referring to the movie The Road Warrior. Later Apple dropped the whimsical titling in favor of a more sober "Developer CD series". Coincidentally the Metrowerks founder, Greg Galanos, an Australian, was also inspired by the movie and proposed the CodeWarrior name. Metrowerks subsequently used the name for their new developer product.

CodeWarrior CD packaging was very much in the tradition of the Apple developer CDs, featuring slogans such as "Blood, Sweat, and Code" and "Veni, Vidi, Codi" in prominent lettering. Competing products such as Symantec's THINK C were more conventionally marketed.

CodeWarrior Latitude

Metrowerks foresaw as it had with the transition to PowerPC, a need to provide a must have developer tool to help developers transition from MacOS software to Apple's future operating system, codenamed Rhapsody.

In 1997, Metrowerks acquired the principal assets of The Latitude Group Inc. from David Hempling and his partners. Latitude was a software compatibility layer used to port Macintosh applications to the NeXT Computer and other UNIX systems.

Latitude presented itself as a library that implemented the Macintosh System 7 API in the same way that Lee Lorenzen's Altura Mac2Win software as well as Apple's own Quicktime for Windows SDK allowed Macintosh applications to be recompiled for Windows with minimal modifications. Latitude had previously been used successfully by Adobe to port Photoshop and Premiere to Silicon Graphics and Solaris workstations.

Metrowerks rebranded Latitude as CodeWarrior Latitude, updated it for Rhapsody starting with Developer Preview 1 and then marketed it to Macintosh developers as a separate product for $399, alongside CodeWarrior Professional.

Latitude Developer Release 1 (DR1) was previewed at WWDC 1997 in the CodeWarrior Lounge. Latitude DR2 was released on Oct 27, 1997 and won an Eddy Award at the 1998 Macworld for Best Tool for New Technologies beating out Joy from AAA+ Software F&E and Visual Cafe for Macintosh 1.0.2 by Symantec.

At the time, Steve Jobs was heavily promoting the OPENSTEP API (renamed Yellow Box) in order to access the new features of the operating system. For C/C++/Pascal Macintosh developers, this presented a substantial hurdle because it was markedly different from the classic MacOS API that ran inside Blue Box and was Objective-C based. Latitude was for a short time coined as the "Green Box" for obvious reasons and appeared to be another hit for Metrowerks and further solidify its dominance in the Macintosh developer tools market but Apple secretly had plans of its own.

CodeWarrior's IDE for Rhapsody and CodeWarrior Latitude were both demonstrated at Worldwide Developers Conference in 1998 in the third party developer pavilion but were quietly discontinued at the show following Steve Jobs keynote address. Apple's announcement of its forthcoming Carbon API (codenamed "Ivory Tower") to appeal to developers who required a practical way to transition to the new operating system eliminated the need for any third-party solutions.

Metrowerks used Latitude internally to port CodeWarrior to run on Red Hat and SuSE Linux for commercial sale and additionally to Solaris under contract from Sun Microsystems. Both products utilized gcc command line compilers rather than Metrowerks own compiler technologies to promote adoption within the UNIX developer community.

The final version of Latitude supported Solaris 2.3, SGI Irix 5.2 and Rhapsody DP2, dropping HP-UX support.

References

External links

C (programming language) compilers
C++ compilers
Integrated development environments
Classic Mac OS software
Classic Mac OS text editors
Classic Mac OS programming tools

CodeWarrior


L'Antinoüs Townley est une tête en marbre d'Antinoüs, favori de l'empereur Hadrien, portant une couronne de lierre, conservée au British Museum de Londres et fait qui partie des Marbres Townley. Seule la tête est ancienne, appartenant autrefois à une statue datant de vers 130-140 et la fin du règne de l'empereur romain Hadrien (règne de 117 à 138) ; le buste est un ajout moderne. Le portrait montre probablement Antinoüs en Dionysos-Bacchus. Le buste a été acquis avec le reste des antiquités rassemblées par Charles Townley, adepte du Grand Tour et membre de la Royal Society du XVIIIe siècle. Le buste d'Antinoüs est exposé à côté du buste d'Hadrien au British Museum. Un dessin du buste attribué à Vincenzo Pacetti fait également partie de la collection du musée.

Histoire
La tête, sculptée dans du marbre de Paros, aurait été trouvée sur la colline du Janicule près de la Villa Doria Pamphili à Rome en 1770, dans une zone alors connue sous le nom  (Domaine de l'Allemande). Elle et les restes de la statue à laquelle elle appartenait ont été retrouvés utilisés comme spolia dans un mur en bordure de route près de la Porta San Pancrazio, une porte des murs d'Aurélien. Townley acheta la tête en juillet 1773 à Thomas Jenkins, l'antiquaire et marchand d'art, pour 150 £. La tête était déjà en Grande-Bretagne en juin 1774, ayant probablement appartenu auparavant à John Sackville, 3e duc de Dorset, de qui Jenkins écrivit en juillet 1773 qu'elle devait « être reçue ».

Articles connexes
 Antinoüs Farnèse
 Antinoüs Mondragone
 Antinoüs du Capitole
 Statue d'Antinoüs (Delphes)
 Hadrien Townley
 Cariatide Townley

Références

Liens externes

Sculpture de la Rome antique
Sculpture en marbre
Sculpture du IIe siècle
Histoire de la sculpture
Objet conservé au British Museum

Antinoüs Townley


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 Kuyubaşı, Bucak - Burdur ili Bucak ilçesine bağlı köy
 Kuyubaşı, Altınözü - Hatay ili Altınözü ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kuyubaşı, Kadıköy - İstanbul ili Kadıköy ilçesine bağlı semt
 Kuyubaşı, Yunak - Konya ili Yunak ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Kuyubaşı, Dargeçit - Mardin ili Dargeçit ilçesine bağlı mezra
 Kuyubaşı, Eskişehir - Eskişehir ili Tepebaşı ilçesine bağlı mahalle

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