Evan Roderick Anderson (North Vancouver, 29 de junho de 1995) é um ator canadense.

Vida e carreira
Roderick nasceu e foi criado em North Vancouver, Colúmbia Britânica. Ele tem um irmão mais velho, Stuart. Evan se interessou por artes cênicas pela primeira vez quando viu um show dos The Rolling Stones aos 10 anos de idade e decidiu persegui-lo quando adolescente.

Roderick começou a trabalhar em comerciais e curtas-metragens a partir de 2015. Ele estreou na televisão como convidado em um episódio de 2015 da série de docudrama Untold Stories of the E.R., seguido por Project Mc2 e When We Rise em 2017, Garage Sale Mystery em 2018 e BH90210 em 2019. Ele conseguiu seu primeiro papel importante como oficial Nick Anastas na série Arrow da DC Comics, um papel recorrente que desempenhou nas últimas três temporadas do programa de 2017 a 2019. Em dezembro de 2018, foi anunciado que Roderick estrelaria como Justin Davis ao lado de Kaya Scodelario na série Spinning Out de 2020 da Netflix.

Filmografia

Cinema

Televisão

Ligações externas

Atores do Canadá
Atores de televisão do Canadá
Atores de cinema do Canadá
Naturais de North Vancouver

Evan Roderick


1. d4 d5 2. c4 hamleleriyle tanımlanan satranç açılışıdır.
2.c4 hamlesi ile beyaz kanattaki piyonlarından birini siyah merkez piyonuyla değişim tehdidinde bulunur, böylece merkezde üstünlük sağlamayı amaçlar. Bu açılış için tam bir gambit denilemez, siyah kazandığı piyonu korumayı düşünmemeli yoksa şöyle bir açılış tuzağıyla baş etmek zorunda kalabilir: 1.d4 d5 2.c4 dxc4 3.e3 b5 4.a4 c6 5.axb5 cxb5 6.Vf3
Vezir Gambiti iki temel kategoriye ayrılır. Bunlar Kabul Edilen Vezir Gambiti ve Kabul Edilmeyen Vezir Gambiti'dir.

Satranç açılışları

Vezir Gambiti


Aceasta este  o listă pe țări cu nivelele de dotare cu echipament  militar, care include nave militare, avioane de luptă, arme nucleare. Lista are doar un caracter enumerativ-indicator, nefiind făcute simultan comparații directe.

Listă

States marked 'TC' are widely considered technologically capable of wielding, operating or developing nuclear weapons, however are signatories of the NPT and are not known to possess any at the current moment. Japan, South Korea, Poland, and Taiwan are generally considered de facto nuclear states due to their believed ability to wield nuclear weapons within 1 to 3 years.

Vezi și
List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel
List of countries by military expenditures
List of countries by military expenditure per capita
List of countries by Military Strength Index
List of countries by Global Militarization Index
List of countries without armed forces
List of militaries by country

Note

Referințe

Bibliografie

 South African Navy official website

Lectură suplimentară
 A. H. Cordesman, A. A. Burke, The Balance of Western Conventional Forces: A Comparative Summary of Military Expenditures; Manpower; Land, Air, Naval Forces; and National Force Trends, CSIS, January 2001, retrieved 14 November 2008.

Legături externe

 Global security website
 World Military Guide
 PRC official website
 Indian Ministry of Defence
 The World Fact Book - South Africa
 Canada's Budget 2008: Taxes and the Forward March of Neoliberalism

Liste de țări
listă
Echipment

Listă de țări cu nivelul dotării cu echipament militar


نهر ميامي أو Miami River يوجد في، ولاية فلوريد يمر من قلب مدينة ميامي ، ويبلغ طوله 8.9 كم، ويتدفق النهر من قناة ميامي عند مطار ميامي الدولي على خليج بيسكين ، وفي الأصل كان يسكن على ضفاف النهر السكان الأصليين للولايات المتحدة (الهنود) ، والنهر مهم جدا في الوقت الحالي لسكان ميامي وأيضا لبعض الأعمال في المدينة .

معرض صور

مراجع

أنهار أمريكا الشمالية
أنهار فلوريدا
جغرافيا ميامي
مسطحات مائية في مقاطعة ميامي داد (فلوريدا)

نهر ميامي


Gudlög también Gudlaugur Hemgestsson (nórdico antiguo: Guðlaugr, n. 463) fue un caudillo vikingo y rey de Hålogaland, Noruega en el siglo V. Su figura protohistórica aparece en la obra de Snorri Sturluson Heimskringla, especialmente en la saga Ynglinga y en el poema Háleygjatal del escaldo Eyvindr skáldaspillir. Gudlög era muy activo en expediciones de saqueo; durante una de ellas, mientras devastaba las costas de Dinamarca, se enfrentó a otra expedición vikinga liderados por el rey de los suecos Jorund y su hermano Eirík, pero fue apresado, desembarcando posteriormente en un lugar llamado Stromones y ejecutado en la horca por los suecos. Los supervivientes de su flota lo enterraron en un montículo:

Años más tarde, Jorund ya había recuperado el trono sueco de las manos del usurpador Haki, pero siguió con sus expediciones vikingas y un verano mientras saqueaba Jutlandia (Dinamarca), se adentró en Limfjorden y amarró en Oddesund donde fue atacado por Gyllaug que casualmente era el hijo de Gudlög, y estaba apoyado con refuerzos locales que buscaban venganza por las embestidas suecas. Jorund fue superado, perdió la batalla y Gyllaug lo ejecutó de la misma forma que Jorund hizo con su padre, ahorcado.

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Sturluson, Snorri. Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, trad. Lee M. Hollander. Reprinted University of Texas Press, Austin, 1992. ISBN 0-292-73061-6

Reyes vikingos en Noruega antes de la unificación

Gudlög


الإقبال  هي صحيفة بيروتية عُثمانيَّة ثُمَّ لُبنانيَّة صدرت باللغة العربية. أسسها الشيخ عبد الباسط الأنسي في بيروت عام 1902 ميلاديًا.

يذكر عنها كتاب «نثر الجواهر والدرر في علماء القرن الرابع عشر» بأنها ، وكان عبد الباسط قد استعان بالشيخ محيي الدين الخياط، والذي كان قد شغل رئيس تحرير صحيفة الإقبال مدةً طويلة، كما استعان بشخصياتٍ منهم: محمد الجسر (قبل أن يُصبح رئيسًا لمجلس النواب اللبناني) وميشال زكور (قبل أن يُصبح وزيرًا). توقفت الإقبال عن الصدور عام 1934 ميلاديًا لأسبابٍ مالية وسياسية.

مراجع

صحف عثمانية
صحف لبنانية
صحف باللغة العربية
تأسيسات سنة 1902 في سوريا العثمانية
صحف أسست في 1902
صحف أسبوعية توقفت عن الصدور
صحف توقفت عن الصدور في لبنان
انحلالات سنة 1934 في لبنان

الإقبال


Aurel Alexandrescu-Dorna (n. 29 iunie 1870, București – d. 29 octombrie 1912, București) a fost un ziarist, scriitor și traducător român.

Biografie
A urmat studii în orașul Limoges (Franța), apoi la București, urmând probabil mai târziu și studii de drept la Universitatea din Bologna. A devenit ziarist la Națiunea (1887), apoi a fost director la Farul tinerimei (1888), redactor și cronicar dramatic la publicațiile Constituționalul (1890-1900), Generația nouă (1890-1892), Globul (1891-1892), Foaia populară (1898), Conservatorul (1900-1901), Revista ideei (1904), Universul. A mai publicat și în alte ziare și reviste: Fântâna Blanduziei (1888), Adevărul (1889), Telegraful român (1891), Biblioteca familiei (1893-1894), Ecoul (1895), Adevărul ilustrat (1896), Universul literar etc., semnând Aurel Alecsandrescul, Alecsandrescul din Dorna, A. din Dorna, Dorna sau Aldor, Anrod, Delador, Aurel Dareș, Aurel Doral.

Aurel Alexandrescu-Dorna a publicat articole cu caracter literar și cronici teatrale (adunate ulterior în volumele Studiu critic asupra poeziei între anii 1670-1889, Idealismul în secolul al XIX-lea, Începuturile teatrului românesc și Gazetă și gazetărie), care sunt scrise într-un stil retoric și simplist, fiind lipsite de originalitate și spirit critic. De asemenea, a scris versuri, povestiri, piese de teatru comice (Prietenie, După nuntă, Lumea nouă, Dragoste, Băi de mare, Cinstiți) și însemnări de călătorie (Popasuri. Locuri de demult). Romanul Amantă (1897) descrie superficial moravuri și năravuri sociale, fără a avea vreo valoare literară. Încercările sale literare sunt caracterizate printr-un stil jurnalistic destul de vioi, aplecat spre comedie.

A realizat mai multe traduceri din literatura franceză și italiană, probabil ca urmare a unor comenzi editoriale. Astfel, a tradus în limba română piese de teatru ("Tatăl nostru" de François Coppée, "Făclia sub obroc" de Gabriele d'Annunzio, "Bolnavul închipuit", "Vicleniile lui Scapin" și "Școala bărbaților" de Molière, "Revizorul" de Nikolai Gogol etc.), poemele și nuvele ale lui Gabriele d'Annunzio, scrierile ale lui Lev Tolstoi ("Dezmeticiți-vă!", "Memoriile mele"), Edmondo De Amicis, Chateaubriand ("Ultimul Abenceraj"), Honoré de Balzac (Femeia la treizeci de ani) etc. Traducerile sale au fost criticate în epocă pe motiv că ar conține numeroase greșeli gramaticale și exprimări barbare.

Scrieri
 Studiu critic asupra poeziei între anii 1670-1889, București, 1889;
 Idealismul în secolul al XIX-lea, București, 1889;
 Prietenie, București, 1890;
 După nuntă, București, 1890;
 Lumea nouă, București, 1892;
 Două comedii, București, 1893;
 Începuturile teatrului românesc, București, 1896;
 Amantă, București, 1897;
 Femeile poeților, București, 1897;
 Presa și propagarea crimei, București, 1899;
 Gazetă și gazetărie, București, 1907;
 Popasuri. Locuri de demult, București, 1914.

Traduceri
 Catulle Mendès: "În galop", 1889;
 Victor Hugo: "Primul sărut", 1889;
 François Coppée: "Tatăl nostru", București, 1892;
 Armand Silvestre: "Sapho", București, 1893;
 J.H. Rosny: "O dragoste acum 20.000 de ani", 1898;
 Gabriele D'Annunzio, "Poeme", București, 1904; "Făclia sub obroc", București, 1906; "Martirul", București, 1910; "Cartea fecioarelor", București, 1911;
 Lev Tolstoi: "Dezmeticiți-vă!", București, 1904; "Memoriile mele", București, 1911;
 Edmondo De Amicis: "Cuvântări pentru copii", București, 1908;
 Renato Simoni, "Văduva", București, 1909;
 Nikolai Gogol, "Revizorul", București, 1909;
 Chateaubriand, "Ultimul Abenceraj", București, 1909;
 Molière, "Vicleniile lui Scapin", București; "Școala bărbaților", București;
 Honoré de Balzac, Femeia la treizeci de ani, București, 1914.

Note

Bibliografie
 Demeter (Al. Antemireanu), "Amantă. Roman de Alexandrescu-Dorna", în Convorbiri literare, anul XXXII, nr. 11, 1897.
 Gabriela Drăgoi, "Alexandrescu-Dorna, Aurel", în vol. Academia RSR (ed.), Dicționarul literaturii române de la origini pînă la 1900, Editura Academiei RSR, București, 1979, p. 29.
 Dem. Moldoveanu, "Un... critic (Liber metamorphoseon)", în Generația nouă, nr. XII, 1892.
 Dim. R. Rosetti, Dicționarul Contimporanilor, Ediția I-a, Editura Lito-tipografiei «Populara», 1897, p. 6.

Nașteri în 1870
Decese în 1912
Ziariști români
Scriitori români din secolul al XIX-lea
Traducători români
Scriitori români din secolul al XX-lea

Aurel Alexandrescu-Dorna


Tozağan, Balıkesir ilinin Bigadiç ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Balıkesir il merkezine 72 km, Bigadiç ilçesine 34 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Bigadiç'in mahalleleri

Tozağan, Bigadiç


2. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska za sezonu 2022./23. predstavlja drugi stupanj županijske lige u Dubrovačko-neretvanskoj županiji, te ligu šestog stupnja hrvatskog nogometnog prvenstva.
U ligi sudjeluje 10 klubova.
prvak lige je postao klub "BŠK Zmaj" iz Blata.

Sustav natjecanja
Deset klubova igra dvokružnu ligu (18 kola).

Sudionici
 BŠK Zmaj – Blato
 Enkel – Popovići, Konavle
 Faraon – Trpanj
 Grk – Potomje, Orebić
 NA Libertas – Dubrovnik
 Omladinac –  Lastovo
 Ponikve – Boljenovići – Ponikve, Ston
 Putniković – Putniković, Ston
 Rat – Kuna Pelješka, Orebić
 SOŠK 1919 – Ston

Ljestvica

Rezultati
''Ažurirano: 30. svibnjaa 2023. (kraj sezone)

Najbolji strijelci
Izvori:

Strijelci 10 i više pogodaka:

 ''Ažurirano: 1. lipnja 2023.

Povezani članci
 2. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska
 1. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska 2022./23.

Vanjske poveznice
 zns-dn.com, Županijski nogometni savez Dubrovačko-neretvanske županije
 zns-dn.com, 2. ŽNL
 dalmatinskinogomet.hr
 ŽNS Dubrovačko-neretvanski, facebook stranica
 markopolosport.net
 sportnet.hr forum, 1. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska

Izvori
 zns-dn.com, Bilteni
 zns-dn.com, 2. ŽNL
 zns-dn.com, 2. ŽNL (2022./23.), wayback arhiva od 31. svibnja 2023.
 dalmatinskinogomet.hr, DUBROVAČKO-NERETVANSKA ŽNL
  rsssf.com, Croatia 2022/23 / Seventh Level
  sofascore.com, 2. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska – 22/23
  tipsscore.com, 2. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska 2022-2023
 zns-dn.com, PROPOZICIJE NATJECANJA DRUGE ŽUPANIJSKE NOGOMETNE LIGE ZA NATJECATELJSKU GODINU 2022/23., objavljeno 12. rujna 2022., preuzeto 19. veljače 2023.
 zns-dn.com, "Bilten" - službeni bilten Županijskog nogometnog saveza Dubrovačko-neretvanskog, br. 16/23, god. VIII., objavljeno 31. svibnja 2023. (2. ŽNL -zaostala utakmicao, konačna ljestvica, popis strijelaca), preuzeto 1. lipnja 2023.
 markopolosport.net, NEPOBJEDIVOSTI ZMAJA IPAK JE BILO KRAJA – Omladincu deseta pobjeda u nizu, prvacima u zadnjoj utakmici prvi poraz – 3:1, objavljeno 28. svibnja 2023., pristupljeno 31. svibnja 2023.

2022-23
Dubrovačko-neretvanska-2

2. ŽNL Dubrovačko-neretvanska 2022./23.


زين العشماوي (8 مايو 1934 - 23 أبريل 1991)، ممثل مصري.

من مواليد محافظة دمياط في مصر
تخرج زين العشماوي في المعهد العالي للفنون المسرحية، والتحق بفرقه إسماعيل ياسين، وفرقه يوسف وهبي، وعمل في العديد من المسرحيات، انضم إلى فرقه ساعه لقلبك، التقى بالفنانة حورية حسن وتزوجها لكنهما انفصلا في السنوات الأخيرة من حياتها، عمل في مسلسلات «خيال المأته»، «الرمال الناعمة». برج الحظ، كان جميل الملامح، طيبا في «الخطايا»، وشريرا في «اللص والكلاب» و«موعد في البرج»، وفي السبعينات تغيرت ملامحه وشكل أدائه.

من أشهر أعماله

أفلام

مسلسلات

وفاته
توفي زين العشماوي في يوم الثلاثاء 23 أبريل 1991 عن عمر ناهز ال56 على إثر أزمة قلبية حادة

مراجع

ممثلون مصريون في القرن 20
مواليد 1353 هـ
مواليد 1934
وفيات 1411 هـ
وفيات 1991
وفيات ناجمة عن الأمراض القلبية الوعائية في مصر
وفيات بعمر 56
ممثلو أفلام مصريون
ممثلو تلفزيون مصريون

زين العشماوي


Chamaecostus cuspidatus, chamada comumente por costus de fogo ou bandeira espiral, é uma espécie de planta herbácea da família Costaceae nativa do leste do Brasil (Estados da Bahia e Espírito Santo). Na Índia, é conhecida como planta de insulina por suas supostas propriedades antidiabéticas.

Chamaecostus cuspidatus tem folhas grandes e carnudas. A parte inferior dessas folhas verd-escurase têm um tom roxo claro. As folhas são dispostas em espiral ao redor do caule, formando  arqueados. A altura máxima dessas plantas é de cerca de meio metro. flores são de cor laranja e tem 4 centímetros de diâmetro. A floração ocorre durante os meses quentes.

Taxonomia
A espécie foi descrita em 2006 por Chelsea D. Specht e Dennis William Stevenson. Os seguintes sinônimos já foram catalogados:

 Globba cuspidata  Nees & Mart.
 Costus igneus  N.E.Br.
 Costus cuspidatus  (Nees & Mart.) Maas

Forma de vida
É uma espécie rupícola, terrícola e herbácea.

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil. A lista foi publicada em 13 de junho de 2005 por intermédio do decreto estadual nº 1.499-R.

Distribuição
A espécie é endêmica do Brasil e encontrada nos estados brasileiros de Bahia, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais e Rio de Janeiro. A espécie é encontrada no domínio fitogeográfico de Mata Atlântica, em regiões com vegetação de floresta estacional semidecidual e floresta ombrófila pluvial. Na medicina Siddha, ela é conhecido como kostum e está sendo cultivado na Caxemira e nas regiões do Himalaia por sua raiz. Está relacionado com os gengibres e originalmente fazia parte da família Zingiberaceae, mas agora as espécies Costus e seus parentes foram reclassificados em sua própria família, Costaceae. A espécie se reproduz vegetativamente por rizoma e as aves dispersam sementes quando se alimentam dos frutos. Os produtos de Costus às vezes são chamados de Costus comosus e são comestíveis por natureza. As pétalas das flores são bastante doces e nutritivas.. A planta cresce muito rápido. E a propagação é por corte do caule. Precisa de sol, mas também cresce em áreas ligeiramente sombreadas. É cultivada na Índia para uso na medicina tradicional e em outros lugares como ornamental.

Medicina tradicional
As folhas secas são usadas na medicina ayurvédica.

Ligações externas
 Chamaecostus cuspidatus no projeto Flora e Funga do Brasil

Costaceae
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Plantas descritas em 2006

Chamaecostus cuspidatus


Medicinsk forskning (eller biomedicinsk forskning) indeholder en bred vifte af forskning fra "grundforskning", der involverer en forklaring af mere fundamentale videnskabelige principper, til klinisk forskning, der adskiller sig ved at have patienter involveret. Inden for dette spektrum findes anvendt forskning, eller translationel forskning udført for at hjælpe og støtte udviklingen af viden inden for det medicinske felt, og præklinisk forskning, der eksempelvis involverer dyr.

Referencer

Forskning efter område
Lægevidenskab

Medicinsk forskning


Takehito Suzuki (født 11. juni 1971) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Yokohama Marinos.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Takehito Suzuki


Peter Madsen (f. 12. maí 1958) er danskur teiknari og myndasöguhöfundur. Hann er kunnastur fyrir sagnfalokk sinn Goðheima, sem hann skapaði seint á áttunda áratugnum í samvinnu við Henning Kure og Hans Rancke. Madsen var þá rétt um tvítugt.

Ferill
Madsen fæddist í Árósum en fjölskylda hans var á sífelldu flakki mestöll uppvaxtarár hans. Árið 1973, þegar Madsen var aðeins 15 ára gamall, birtust fyrstu myndasögur hans á prenti í Seriemagasinet. Næstu árin teiknaði hann sögur fyrir ýmis áhugamannamyndasögublöð. Hann hóf nám í læknisfræði en hvarf frá því eftir að teikniferillinn hófst fyrir alvöru.

Árið 1977 hafði forlagið Interpresse frumkvæði að því að leiða saman þá Madsen, Henning Kure og Hans Rancke. Markmiðið var að skapa myndasagnaflokk um víkinga og norræna goðafræði sem veitt gæti þýddum frönskum og belgískum myndasögum samkeppni. Fyrsta Goðheimabókin (danska: Valhalla) kom út árið 1979 og sló þegar í gegn. Alls urðu bækurnar fimmtán talsins. Sú síðasta kom út 2009.

Árið 1986 var gerð teiknimyndin Valhalla sem byggði á bókunum. Um tröllaukið verkefni var að ræða á danskan mælikvarða. Ýmis vandamál komu upp við gerð myndarinnar sem fékk þó prýðilega dóma.

Samhliða og eftir að gerð Goðheimasagnanna lauk, kom Madsen að fjölda annarra myndasagna. Má þar nefna sjálfsævisögulegt verk um reynslu hans sem læknanemi og um aldamótin spreytti hann sig á sögum úr Biblíunni. Þær bækur hafa þó mun alvarlegri undirtón en Goðheimasögurnar.

Myndasögur

Peter Madsen (teiknari)


José Chittooparambil CMI (* 10. Dezember 1954 in Neeleswaram) ist Bischof von Rajkot.

Leben
José Chittooparambil trat der Ordensgemeinschaft der Carmelites of Mary Immaculate bei, legte am 5. Juni 1977 die Profess ab und empfing am 8. Mai 1985 die Priesterweihe. Papst Benedikt XVI. ernannte ihn am 16. Juli 2010 zum Bischof von Rajkot.

Der Altbischof von Rajkot, Gregory Karotemprel CMI, weihte ihn am 11. September desselben Jahres zum Bischof; Mitkonsekratoren waren Stanislaus Fernandes S.J., Erzbischof von Gandhinagar, und Thomas Chakiath, Weihbischof in Ernakulam-Angamaly.

Weblinks
 Eintrag über José Chittooparambil auf catholic-hierarchy.org (englisch)

Römisch-katholischer Bischof (21. Jahrhundert)
Bischof von Rajkot
Carmelite of Mary Immaculate
Inder
Geboren 1954
Mann

José Chittooparambil


An Acidosasa notata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Zheng Ping Wang ngan Guang Han Ye, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni S.S.You. An Acidosasa notata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Acidosasa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Acidosasa

Acidosasa notata


DIN 6921 er en DIN-standard for en flangebolt.

DIN 6921 bliver erstattet af ISO 4162.

Kilde
Flangebolte DIN 6921

DIN-standarder

DIN 6921


Marta López Herrero () este o handbalistă din Spania care joacă pentru clubul românesc CS Rapid București. López, care evoluează pe postul de extremă dreapta, s-a transferat la SCM Râmnicu Vâlcea de la echipa spaniolă Super Amara Bera Bera după ce, în mai 2017, a semnat un contract valabil un an cu clubul vâlcean. Din 2017 până în 2021 ea a evoluat pentru SCM Râmnicu Vâlcea.

López a câștigat cu echipa națională a Spaniei medalia de bronz la Jocurile Olimpice din 2012, desfășurate la Londra, și a fost votată cea mai bună extremă dreapta la Campionatul European pentru Tineret din 2007 și în Liga Feminină Franceză de Handbal D1, în sezoanele 2012/13 și 2013/14.

Palmares
Club
Liga Națională:
 Câștigătoare: 2019, 2022
 Medalie de bronz: 2021

Cupa României:
 Câștigătoare: 2020
 Finalistă: 2018, 2019

Supercupa României:
 Câștigătoare: 2018, 2020
 Finalistă: 2019

Liga Franceză de Handbal:
 Câștigătoare: 2015
 Medalie de argint: 2013, 2016

Cupa Ligii Franceze de Handbal:
 Câștigătoare: 2015, 2016
 Finalistă: 2014
Semifinalistă: 2013

Cupa Franței:
 Câștigătoare: 2014
Semifinalistă: 2015
Sfert-finalistă: 2013
Optimi: 2016

Liga Campionilor:
Sfert-finalistă: 2020
Optimi de finală: 2021
Grupe principale: 2016

Cupa Cupelor EHF:
 Finalistă: 2015
 Sfert-finalistă: 2014

Cupa EHF:
Turul 3: 2019

Echipa națională
Jocurile Olimpice:
 Medalie de bronz: 2012

Campionatul Mondial
 Medalie de argint: 2019

Campionatul European:
 Medalie de argint: 2014

Premii personale
Cea mai bună extremă dreapta la Campionatul European de Handbal Feminin pentru Tineret: 2007;
Cea mai bună extremă dreapta din Liga Feminină Franceză de Handbal D1: 2012/13, 2013/14;
Jucătoarea competiției (MVP) în Final4-ul Cupei României: 2020;

Note

Legături externe
EHF: Pagina Martei López
Comitetul Olimpic Spaniol: Pagina Martei López

Jucătoare de handbal din Spania
Nașteri în 1990
Sportivi spanioli în viață
Handbaliști olimpici spanioli
Medaliați olimpici cu bronz spanioli
Handbaliste ale SCM Râmnicu Vâlcea
Handbaliste ale Rapid București
Handbaliști expatriați
Spanioli expatriați în România
Spanioli expatriați în Franța
Handbaliști la Jocurile Olimpice de Vară 2012
Handbaliști la Jocurile Olimpice de Vară 2016
Handbaliști la Jocurile Olimpice de Vară 2020

Marta López


ألكسندر بوشكين (1799 — 1837) أديب روسي
 بوشكين: مدينة في محافظة سانت بطرسبرغ في روسيا

ألقاب النسب
ألقاب باللغة الروسية
صفحات توضيح أسماء أماكن

بوشكين (توضيح)


مشاركة الملفات  هي عملية نشر معلومات مخزنة رقمياً كبرامج الحاسوب أو الوسائط المتعددة (مقاطع الصوت والفيديو، والصور) أو المستندات أوالكتب الإلكترونية، أو إتاحة الوصول إليها. حيث يمكن تنفيذ هذه العملية بطرق مختلفة. كمشاركة الوسائط المتعددة القابلة للإزالة واستخدامها بالطريقة اليدوية، أواستخدام الخوادم المركزية لشبكات الحاسوب، أوالمستندات المتشعبة على الشبكة العنكبوتية، أوشبكات الند للند الموزعة، فكلها طرقٌ شائعة في تخزين ونقل ونشر الملفات.
طرق مشاركة الملفات:

مشاركة الملفات بطريقة الند للند

يستطيع المستخدمون بواسطة برنامج مرتبط بشبكة ند لند البحث عن أيّة ملفات تمت مشاركتها في حواسيب المستخدمين الآخرين (الأنداد) المرتبطة بالشبكة. حيث يمكن للمستخدم تحميل ما أثار اهتمامه من ملفات، مباشرة من المستخدمين الآخرين في الشبكة. وعادة ما يتم تجزئة الملفات كبيرة الحجم إلى أجزاء صغيرة، فيقوم المستخدم بتنزيلها من عدة أنداد ومن ثم إعادة تجميعها. وهذه العملية تتم بينما يقوم الند برفع الأجزاء التي لديه للأنداد الآخرين.

تاريخ مشاركة الملفات

في بادئ الأمر، كان تبادل الملفات يتم عن طريق الوسائط المتعددة القابلة للإزالة. وكانت الحواسيب قادرة على الوصول إلى الملفات البعيدة عن طريق تركيب نظام الملفات، أو استخدام نظام لوحة البيانات (1978), أو يوز نت (شبكة المستخدمين، 1979), أوخوادم بروتوكول نقل الملفات (1985). بالإضافة إلى ذلك، مكنت آي آر سي أو المحادثة المنقولة بالإنترنت (1988) وبرنامج هوتلاين (1997) المستخدمين من تبادل الملفات، والتواصل عن بعد بالدردشة. كما انتشر ترميز إم بي ثري على نطاق واسع في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية في أواخر التسعينات، والذي ساهم في تصغير حجم الملفات الصوتية بشكل كبير وتم تسجيله كامتداد قياسي عام 1991م. وفي عام 1998م، كان قد تم تأسيس موقعيّ إم بي ثري وأوديوجالكسي، وصدر بالإجماع قانون الألفية للملكية الرقمية، كما أطلقت أول أجهزة مشغلة لإم بي ثري.

وفي يونيو عام 1999، تم إصدار نظام ند لند مركزي غير منظم يدعى نابستر، والذي يتطلب تشغيله خادم مركزي للفهرسة واكتشاف الأقران. ولطالما اعتبر نابستر أول نظام ند لند لمشاركة الملفات.

كما تم في عام 2000 إصدار كل من شبكة جنوتيلا وإي دونكي 2000 وفرينت، في حين كان موقع إم بي ثري ونظام نابستر يواجهان دعاوي قضائية. وقد كانت جنوتيلا التي أصدرت في شهر مارس الشبكة اللامركزية الأولى لمشاركة الملفات.
وقد كان كل برنامج متصل بهذه الشبكة متماثل، ولذا لم تكن هنالك أيّ منطقة رئيسية مشتركة بين الأجهزة معرض للعطل. وفي شهر يوليو تم إصدار فرينت التي أصبحت أول شبكة لا تكشف عن هوية المستخدم. بينما تم إصدار عميل إي دونكي 2000 وخادم البرنامج في شهر سبتمبر.

وفي عام 2001, تم إصدار برنامجيّ كازا وبويزند لمشاركة الملفات لأجهزة ماكنتوش. حيث تم توزيع خطوط شبكة فاست تراك (المسار السريع), ورغم اختلافها عن شبكة جنوتيلا إلا أن عقد النظام فيها كان لها الدور الأكبر في عملية مرور البيانات وذلك لرفع كفاءة التوجيه. وقد كانت الشبكة خاصة ومشفرة، كما قام فريق برنامج كازا بجهود كبيرة من أجل إبعاد الوكلاء الآخرين كوكلاء مورفيس عن شبكة فاست تراك.

وفي شهر يوليو من عام 2001, قامت عدة شركات تسجيلات برفع دعاوي قضائية ضد نابسترإ وقد خسر الموقع في القضية التي رفعتها شركة تسجيلات أي أند إم. حيث تم الحكم بمنع أي مزود خدمات إنترنت من استخدام ملاذ شبكة النقل العابر الآمن، الوارد في قانون الألفية للملكية الرقمية إن كان يتحكم بشبكة ذات خادم، وبعد خسارة القضية بوقت قصير، تم إغلاق موقع نابستر امتثالاً لأمر المحكمة. مما حدا بالمستخدمين إلى التوجه لتطبيقات الند للند الآخرى، حيث واصلت عملية مشاركة الملفات نموها. فشعبية عميل القمر الصناعي أوديوجالكسي زادت، كما تم إصدار برنامج لايم واير وبروتوكول بت تورنت. ورغم حزمة البرمجيات الخبيثة والمعارك القانونية في هولندا وأستراليا والولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، كان برنامج كازا لمشاركة الملفات الأكثر شعبية حتى تدهوره عام 2004. وتم في عام 2002 إغلاق فايل روج بأمر من محكمة طوكيو الجزائية، في حين قامت جمعية صناعة التسجيلات في أمريكا برفع قضية أدت بشكل حاسم إلى إغلاق أوديوجالكسي.

وخلال عامي 2002 و2003, تم تأسيس عدد من المواقع التي تعمل ببروتوكول بت تورنت مثل سوبر نوفا وايزوهنت وتورنت سباي وكذلك ذا بايرت باي. كما رفعت جمعية صناعة التسجيلات في أمريكا عام 2002 دعاوي قضائية ضد مستخدمي برنامج كازا، مما دفع العديد من الجامعات إلى إضافة قوانين مشاركة الملفات إلى لوائحها التنفيذية، ورغم ذلك تمكن بعض الطلاب من الالتفاف حولها بعد ساعات الدراسة). وبإغلاق موقع إي دونكي عام 2005, أصبح إي ميول العميل المهيمن لشبكة إي دونكي. وفي عام 2006 تم إغلاق خادم إي دونكي رازوباكتو بعد عدة هجمات من الشرطة الإتحادية البلجيكية، كما أغلقوا موقع ذا بايرت باي مؤقتاً.

في عام 2009، انتهت محاكمة موقع باريت باي بإدانة المؤسسين الأساسيين للسيرفر. ورغم استئناف الحكم، إلا إنه تم إدانتهم مرة آخرى في نوفمبر عام 2010. وفي شهر أكتوبر من عام 2010, تم بأمر قضائي إجبار لايم واير على الإغلاق بعد خسارتها القضية التي رفعتها شركة أريستا للتسجيلات، ولكن شبكة جنوتيلا بقيت قائمة عن طريق عملاء مفتوحي المصدر كفروست واير وجنوتيلا. ومن ناحية آخرى، قامت برامج مشاركة الملفات متعددة البروتوكولات مثل إم إل دونكي وشريزا بتعديلات من أجل دعم البروتوكولات الأساسية لمشاركة الملفات. لذا، لم يعد المستخدمون يحتاجون إلى تنزيل وتهيئة عدة برامج لمشاركة الملفات، وقامت وزارة العدل في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية بإغلاق مجال موقع ميغا أبلود الشهير الذي أنشئ عام 2005، وذلك في التاسع عشر من يناير عام 2012. وقد احتج الموقع بعدد زواره الذي يفوق الخمسين مليون شخصا يومياً. وتم اعتقال كيم دوتكوم المعروف سابقاً ب كيم إشمتز في نيوزيلندا، وهو بانتظار تسليمه لحكومته. ولم يتم تلقي قضية سقوط موقع مشاركة الملفات الأكثر شهرة في العالم بشكل جيد، حيث قامت مجموعة قراصنة الإنترنت أنونيموس باختراق مواقع عديدة تابعة لمن تسببوا في الإغلاق. وفي الأيام التالية، بدأت عدة مواقع لمشاركة الملفات إيقاف خدماتها كموقع فايل سونيك الذي حظر التنزيلات العامة في الثاني والعشرين من يناير كما هو الحال مع موقع فايل سيرفر جراء دعوى قضائية تم رفعها في الثالث والعشرين من يناير.

شرعية مشاركة الملفات

لقد تسببت المناقشات القانونية بشأن مشاركة الملفات بالعديد من الدعاوي القضائية. ففي الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، وصلت بعض هذه الدعاوي القضائية إلى المحكمة العليا كما حدث في قضية قروكستر (Grokster) وشركة مترو غولدوين ماير. حيث قررت المحكمة العليا في هذه القضية محاسبة منشئ شبكات الند للند إن كان القصد من برامجهم هو انتهاك قوانين حقوق الطبع والنشر.
ومن جهة أخرى، فإن مشاركة الملفات ليست بالضرورة عملية غير شرعية حتى وإن كان العمل الذي تمت مشاركته محفوظ الحقوق. فبعض الفنانين على سبيل المثال، قد يدعمون البرامج المجانية أو برامج مشاركة الملفات أو المصادر المفتوحة أو مناهضة حفظ الحقوق، ويؤيدونها كأداة ترويج مجانية. كما يمكن مشاركة معظم البرامج المجانية أو المفتوحة المصدر وفقاً لقوانين محددة في الترخيص الخاص بها. ويمكن أيضاً نشر المحتوى الموجود في المجال العام مجاناً.

أخلاقيات مشاركة الملفات

في عام 2004, كان عدد الذين يقومون بمشاركة الملفات على الإنترنت 70 مليون شخصاً. ووفقاً لاستفتاء أجرته قناة الأخبار سي بي إس، فإن 58% من الأمريكيين المتابعين لقضية مشاركة الملفات يعتقدون أنه لا ضير من مشاركة الشخص لاسطوانة موسيقى يملكها مع عدد معين من الأصدقاء والمعارف، كما يؤمن بنفس الفكرة 70% ممن تتراوح أعمارهم بين سن الثامنة عشر والتاسعة والعشرين.

آثار مشاركة الملفات

بحسب ما ذكر ديفد قلين في صحيفة ذا كرونكل أوف هاير إيديوكيشن، فإن معظم الدراسات الاقتصادية خلصت إلى أن مشاركة الملفات تضر بالمبيعات. وفي متن بحث أعده البروفسور بيتر إشمك، وجد أنه تم القيام باثنتين وعشرين دراسة مستقلة حول آثار مشاركة ملفات الموسيقى. حيث خلصت أربع عشرة دراسة منها إلى أن التحميلات غير المصرح بها لها تأثير سلبي بل سلبي للغاية على مبيعات اسطوانات الموسيقى. بينما لم تصل ثلاث دراسات آخرى إلى أي تأثير ذو أهمية، في حين وجدت الدراسات الخمس المتبقية أن لمشاركة ملفات الموسيقى تأثيرا إيجابياً.

وفي دراسة قام بها خبيرا الاقتصاد فيلكس أوبرهولزر جي وكولمن سترمبف عام 2002, توصلا إلى أن تأثير مشاركة ملفات الموسيقى على المبيعات معدومة. وقد تمت معارضة هذه الدراسة من قبل خبراء اقتصاديين آخرين، من أبرزهم ستان ليبوويتز الذي قال أن أوبرهولزر جي وسترمبف قد قاما بعدة افتراضات خاطئة تماماً عن صناعة الموسيقى. ولكن في شهر يونيو من عام 2010, ذكرت مجلة بيلبورد الإلكترونية أن أوبرهولزرجي وسترمبف قد تراجعا عن رأيهما عندما وجدا أن 20% من الانخفاض الآخير في المبيعات قد تسببت به مشاركة ملفات الموسيقى. ورغم ذلك، فقد أكد مؤلفوا المقالة وفقاً لنظام نيلسون ساوند سكان لمتابعة مبيعات الأغاني أن التنزيل غير المشروع لم يحد من إبداع الناس بل في العديد من الصناعات الإبداعية، تقلل الحوافز النقدية من الدافع الذي يحمل الكُتاب على الإبداع. حيث تتفق بينتات الأعمال الجديدة المعروضة وفكرة أن مشاركة الملفات لم تثبط من عزيمة الكتاب والناشرون. كما زاد إنتاج الموسيقى والكتب والأفلام بشكل كبير منذ بدء مشاركة الملفات. بينما عارض المحلل في مجلة بيلبورد قلين بيبلز البيانات التي وردت قائلاً: «إن بيناتات ساوند تراك للإصدارات الجديدة من الأغاني في أي عام تستعرض لنا ألقاباً تجارية جديدة لا بالضرورة أعمالاً إبداعية جديدة». وبالمثل ذكرت جمعية صناعة التسجيلات في أمريكا أن الإصدارات والأعمال الإبداعية الجديدة أمران مستقلان تماماً. حيث تشمل البيانات الإصدارات الحديثة والمصنفات الجديدة لأغان موجودة بالأصل والنسخ الرقمية الجديدة من قائمة ألبومات. وزاد نظام نيلسون ساوند سكان باطراد من عدد باعة التجزئة خاصة غير التقليديين منهم في نموذجه على مر السنين، كما أحصى بشكل أفضل عدد الإصدارات الجديدة في السوق. أيَ أن ما توصل إليه كلاً من أوبرهولزر وسترمبف هو القدرة الأفضل على متابعة إصدارات الألبومات الجديدة لا الحافز الأقوى لخلقها.

وفي عام 2006 لم يستطع كلا من بريجيت أندرسون وماريون فرنز في دراسة قاما بها ونشرت من قبل وزارة التجارة في كندا من إيجاد أي علاقة مباشرة بين شبكات الند للند لمشاركة الملفات ومشتريات الاسطوانات في كندا. وقد تم نقد نتائج هذه الإحصائية من قبل عدة أكاديميين، في حين قام الدكتور جورج باركر من جامعة أستراليا الوطنية بإعادة تقييم بيانات الدراسة نفسها لاحقاً وخلص إلى استنتاج معاكس. حيث ذكر 75% من الذين يقومون بالتنزيل من شبكات الند للند أنه في حال كانت هذه الشبكات غير موجودة لقام 9% منهم بالتنزيل من المواقع المجانية فقط، و 17% منهم بشراء الأسطوانات فقط، وبقيتهم (49%) سيقومون بالتنزيل من خلال المواقع المجانية والاسطوانات. فيما قال 25% من الناس أنهم لم يكونوا ليشتروا الاسطوانات حتو لو لم تكن متاحة مجاناً في شبكات الند للند. وهذا يدل بشكل قاطع على أن وجود شبكات الند للند تقلل من طلب الموسيقى ل75% من الذين يقومون بالتنزيل من الشبكات، مما يتعارض تماماً مع ادعاء أندرسون وفرينز المنشور.

هيمنة السوق

أفادت مقالة نشرت في مجلة مانجمنت ساينس بأن مشاركة الملفات قللت من فرص بقاء الألبومات ذات الترتيب المتدني في قوائم الأغاني، في حين زادت من انتشار الألبومات ذات الترتيب الأعلى، مما يعني بقاء الفنانين المشهورين في قوائم الأغاني لمدة أطول. وذلك من شأنه أن يأثر سلباً على الفنانين الجدد غير المعروفين، بينما يعزز عمل الفنانين المشهورين أساسًا.
كما تم خلال دراسة حديثة استعراض مسألة تسريب الألبومات الغنائية قبل إصدارها ومشاركتها عن طريق برنامج بت تورنت، وبالفعل كان لهذه المسألة تأثيراً إيجابياً على الفنانين المشهورين لا غير المعروفين منهم. ويرى روبرت هاموند من جامعة ولاية كارولاينا الشمالية أن تسريب الألبوم قبل شهر من إصداره سيزيد من مبيعاته بشكل بسيط، وإن هذه الزيادة لصغيرة نسبياً مقارنة بالعوامل الآخرى التي وجد أنها تؤثر على مبيعات الألبوم.

«عادة ما يحتج أنصار مشاركة الملفات بكون هذه المشاركة تغير من نوعية استهلاك الموسيقى، وذلك عن طريق إتاحة الفرصة لجميع الفنانين سواء المشهورين منهم أو المغمورين بإيصال أعمالهم لشريحة أكبر من الجمهور، مما يقلل من تأثير الميّزات التي يمتع بها الفنانون المشهورون كالترويج وغيره من أشكال الدعم. لكن ما توصلت إليه من خلال دراستي هو العكس تماماً، وهو متسق وبدليل على سلوك مشاركة الملفات»

فيما نبهت مجلة بيلبورد إلى أن هذه الدراسة تطرقت إلى فترة تسريب الأغاني قبل إصدارها فحسب، لا نشرها المتواصل بعد تاريخ الإصدار. "إن مشكلة الاعتقاد بأن الخصوصية تساهم في المبيعات تحدد الخط الفاصل بين الشرعي وغير الشرعي.... كما تضمنت الدراسة على حقيقة أن كلاً من الباعة والمشترين مهمين من أجل أن يكون لتسريب الألبومات قبل إصدارها تأثيراً إيجابياً على مبيعاتها. فبدون برنامج أيتونز وموقعيّ أمازون وبست باي لكان مشاركو الملفات مجرد مشاركي ملفات لا مشترين. كما أن النتيجة المنطقية لحجة وجوب شرعنة مشاركة الملفات هي تحول باعة التجزئة في الوقت الحالي إلى مقدمي خدمات مشاركة الملفات، والتي تتكامل مع خدمات التخزين السحابي الخاصة.

الإتاحية

يرى العديد أن مشاركة الملفات قد أجبرت أصحاب المحتوى الترفيهي على إتاحتها بشكل أكبر وقانوني من خلال الرسوم أوالإعلانات بناءً على الطلب في الإنترنت، عوضاً عن الإبقاء عليها ثابتة في التلفاز والراديو والأقراص الرقمية متعددة الاستخدامات والأقراص المضغوطة وكذلك المسارح، مما ساهم في ارتفاع نسبة شراء المحتوى على نسبة التنزيل غير الشرعي في المجموع الكلي للتجارة الإلكترونية في شمال أمريكا منذ عام 2009 على الأقل. وفيما يصبح المحتوى متاحاً بشكل أكبر للسداد الانسيابي، وتستمر الدعاوي القضائية الشرعية تقام ضد عملية مشاركة الملفات غير الشرعية، ستتراجع هذه العمليات أكثر.

طالع أيضا

 واز
 مقارنة تطبيقات مشاركة الملفات

مراجع

بروتوكول الدردشة عبر الإنترنت
قانون الملكية الفكرية
مراسلة فورية
مصطلحات الإنترنت

مشاركة الملفات


Kikuchi, often written 菊池 or 菊地, may refer to:

Places
 Kikuchi, Kumamoto
 Kikuchi River, Kumamoto
 Kikuchi District, Kumamoto

People
 Kikuchi (surname)
 Kikuchi clan
 Yoshihiko Kikuchi
 Yusei Kikuchi

Other
 Kikuchi disease, a rare, non-cancerous enlargement of the lymph nodes
 Kikuchi line (solid state physics), a line in an electron diffraction pattern for a crystal
 Kikuchi Line (Kumaden), a railway line in Kumamoto Prefecture connecting Kami-Kumamoto Station to Miyoshi Station

Kikuchi


بابلو دانييل أوزفالدو  (مواليد 12 يناير 1986 في بوينس آيرس - الأرجنتين) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي الجنسية أرجنتيني المولد يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى نادي بورتو البرتغالي منذ2014 في مركز المهاجم كما يجيد اللعب في مركز الجناح الأيمن والأيسر .

مسيرته الكروية
لعب بابلو دانييل أوزفالدو خلال مسيرته الاحترافية مع 13 ناديًا في ثمانية عشر موسمًا وسجل خلالها 89 هدفًا ضمن 271 مباراة. حيث فاز في موسم واحد بالكأس وفي موسمين بالدوري.

خاض بابلو دانييل أوزفالدو مسيرته مع نادي أتالانتا في موسم 2005–06 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في 3 مباريات سجل خلالها هدفًا واحدًا. ثم انتقل إلى نادي ليتشي في موسم 2006–07 لمدة موسم واحد، حيث شارك في 31 مباراة سجل خلالها 8 أهداف. لينتقل بعدها إلى نادي فيورنتينا في موسم 2007–08 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا في 21 مباراة سجل خلالها 6 أهداف. ثم انتقل إلى نادي بولونيا في موسم 2008–09 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا في 25 مباراة سجل خلالها 3 أهداف. هذا وانتقل لاحقًا إلى نادي إسبانيول في موسم 2009–10 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا في 44 مباراة سجل خلالها 20 هدف. ثم انتقل بعدها إلى نادي روما في موسم 2011–12 ولمدة موسمين، مشاركًا في 55 مباراة سجل خلالها 27 هدفًا. ليعود وينتقل من جديد، لكن هذه المرة إلى نادي يوفنتوس في موسم 2013–14 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في 11 مباراة سجل خلالها هدفًا واحدًا. لينتقل بعدها إلى نادي إنتر ميلان في موسم 2014–15 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في 12 مباراة سجل خلالها 5 أهداف. ثم لعب في نادي بوكا جونيورز ما بين عامي 2015 و2016 في المرة الأولى لمدة موسم واحد ثم ما بين عامي 2016 و2017 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا طوالها في 14 مباراة سجل خلالها 3 أهداف. ليعود ويرتحل عنه إلى نادي بورتو في موسم 2015–16 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في 7 مباريات سجل خلالها هدفًا واحدًا. ثم انتقل إلى نادي بانفيلد في موسم 2019–20 لمدة موسم واحد، مشاركًا في مباراتين ولم يسجل أي هدف.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أرجنتينيون من أصل إيطالي
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
إيطاليون متجنسون
إيطاليون من أصل أرجنتيني
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في البرتغال
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في إسبانيا
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في إنجلترا
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في إيطاليا
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في الأرجنتين
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في البرتغال
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في إسبانيا
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في إنجلترا
رياضيون من بوينس آيرس
لاعبو الدوري الأرجنتيني برايم بي
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني
لاعبو الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري البرازيلي الدرجة الأولى
لاعبو الدوري البرتغالي الممتاز
لاعبو أتالانتا
لاعبو إسبانيول
لاعبو إنتر ميلان
لاعبو بانفيلد
لاعبو بورتو
لاعبو بوكا جونيورز
لاعبو بولونيا
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الأرجنتيني
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الإنجليزي
لاعبو فيورنتينا
لاعبو كرة قدم أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في الأرجنتين
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في البرتغال
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إسبانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إنجلترا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في الأرجنتين
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في البرتغال
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إسبانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إنجلترا
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة قدم من بوينس آيرس
لاعبو ليتشي
لاعبو مانشستر سيتي
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي ساوثهامبتون
لاعبو هوراكان
لاعبو يوفنتوس
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1986
مواليد في بوينس آيرس

بابلو دانييل أوزفالدو


An Liparis terrestris in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni James Boughtwood Comber. An Liparis terrestris in nahilalakip ha genus nga Liparis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Liparis (Orchidaceae)

Liparis terrestris


مجدليا  هي إحدى القرى اللبنانية من قرى قضاء زغرتا في محافظة الشمال.

وتعتبر من حيث المساحة من أكبر قرى لبنان، حيث تمتد أراضيها الى حدود أقضية عديدة منها طرابلس والضنية والكورة والمنية. يسكنها الآن أكثر من ثلاثين ألف نسمة. وتشتهر ببساتين الزيتون، وبأماكن أثرية عديدة.

يدير شؤونها مركز بلدي ومختار.

من أعلامها الشاعر شربل بعيني الذي بني له تمثال في وسط البلدة، والاديبة سوزان بعيني والاعلامية كارمن جوخدار وغيرهم.

المراجع

أماكن مأهولة في محافظة لبنان الشمالي
تجمعات أرثوذكسية شرقية في لبنان
تجمعات مارونية في لبنان
قضاء زغرتا
مدن لبنان

مجدليا (زغرتا)


Maxim Maximovich Litvinov (; born Meir Henoch Wallach; 17 July 1876 – 31 December 1951) was a Russian revolutionary and prominent Soviet statesman and diplomat who served as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs from 1930 to 1939.

Litvinov was an advocate for diplomatic agreements leading to disarmament, and was influential in making the Soviet Union a party to the 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact. He was also responsible for the 1929 Litvinov Protocol, a multilateral agreement to implement the Kellogg-Briand Pact between the Soviet Union and several neighboring states.

In 1930, Litvinov was appointed People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs, the highest diplomatic position in the USSR. During the 1930s, Litvinov advocated the official Soviet policy of collective security with Western powers against Nazi Germany.

Early life and first exile

Meir Henoch Wallach was born into a wealthy, Yiddish-speaking, Lithuanian Jewish banking family in Białystok, Grodno Governorate, Russian Empire. Meir was the second son of Moses and Anna Wallach. In 1881, Moses Wallach was arrested, held in prison for six weeks, then released without charge. Meir was educated at a local realschule; in 1893 he joined the army but was discharged in 1898 after he allegedly disobeyed an order to fire into a crowd of striking workers in Baku. That year, in Kiev, Wallach joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), which was considered an illegal organization; it was customary for its members to use pseudonyms. Meir changed his name to Maxim Litvinov—a common Litvak surname—but was also known as "Papasha" and "Maximovich". Litvinov also wrote articles under the names "M.G. Harrison" and "David Mordecai Finkelstein".

Litvinov's early responsibilities included propaganda work in the Chernigov Governorate. In 1900, Litvinov became a member of the Kiev party committee, all of whom were arrested in 1901. After 18 months in custody, Litvinov and Nikolay Bauman organised a mass escape of 11 inmates from Lukyanivska Prison, overpowering a warden and using ropes and grappling irons to scale the walls. Litvinov moved to Geneva, where the founder of Russian Marxism, Georgi Plekhanov, enlisted him as an agent of the revolutionary newspaper Iskra. Litvinov organised a route to smuggle the newspaper from Germany into Russia.

In July 1903, Litvinov was in London for the party's second congress when the RSDLP split. He became a founding member of the Bolshevik faction under Vladimir Lenin, whom Litvinov first met in the British Museum Reading Room. The two went to Hyde Park to hear some of the speeches, and remained in contact with each other during this period. Litvinov returned to Russia during the 1905 Revolution, when he became editor of the RSDLP's first legal newspaper Novaya Zhizn in Saint Petersburg.

Second emigration

When the Russian government began arresting the Bolsheviks in 1906, Maxim Litvinov left the country and spent the next ten years as an émigré and arms dealer for the party. He based himself in Paris and travelled throughout Europe. Posing as an officer in the Ecuadorian Army, he bought machine guns from the State Munitions Factory in Denmark, and posing as a Belgian businessman, he bought more weapons from Schroeder and Company of Germany. He then arranged for the whole consignment to be transported to Bulgaria, where he told the authorities the arms were destined for Macedonian and Armenian rebels fighting for independence in the Ottoman Empire. Litvinov then bought a yacht, and handed it and the weapons to the Armenian revolutionary Kamo to be smuggled across the Black Sea. The yacht, however, ran aground and the weapons were stolen by Romanian fishermen. Despite this setback, Litvinov successfully smuggled these arms into Russia via Finland and the Black Sea.

In 1907, Litivnov attended the fifth RSDLP congress in London. Initially, he relied on Rowton Houses for accommodation in London but the party eventually arranged a rented house for Litvinov, which he shared with Joseph Stalin, who also wanted to find more-comfortable housing than the Rowton hostels.

In January 1908, French police arrested Litvinov under the name Meer Wallach while carrying twelve 500-ruble banknotes that had been stolen in a bank robbery in Tiflis the year before. The Russian government demanded his extradition and the French Minister for Justice Aristide Briand ruled Litvinov's crime was political and ordered him to be deported. He went to Belfast, Ireland, where he joined his sister Rifka and her family. There, he taught foreign languages in the Jewish Jaffe Public Elementary School until 1910.

Litvinov moved to England in 1910 and lived there for eight years. In 1912, he replaced Lenin as the Bolshevik representative on the International Socialist Bureau. When the First World War broke out in 1914, the Russian government requested all Russian émigrés who were in allied England and eligible for military service return to serve in the Imperial Russian Army. Litvinov was able to convince the English officer who interviewed him that he would be tried rather than conscripted if he returned to Russia.

In February 1915, Litvinov, uninvited, attended a conference of socialists from the Triple Entente that included Keir Hardie, Ramsay MacDonald and Emile Vandervelde; and the Mensheviks Yuri Martov and Ivan Maisky. Lenin prepared a statement demanding every socialist who held a government post should resign and opposing the continuation of the war. The conference chairman refused to allow Lenin to finish speaking. Litvinov regularly spoke in public opposing the war but failed to accept the fact the UK had declared war to avoid breaking a treaty to defend Belgium. At the peak of his power in the 1930s, Litvinov would emphasise the importance of abiding by the terms of treaties.

In England, Litvinov met and in 1916 married Ivy Low, the daughter of a Jewish university professor.

Diplomatic career

First Soviet representative to Britain
On 8 November 1917, a day after the October Revolution, the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom) appointed Maxim Litvinov as the Soviet government's plenipotentiary representative in the United Kingdom. His accreditation was never officially formalised and his position as an unofficial diplomatic contact was analogous to that of Bruce Lockhart, Britain's unofficial agent in Soviet Russia. Litvinov was allowed to speak freely, even after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which took Russia out of the war.

In January 1918, Litvinov addressed the Labour Party Conference, praising the achievements of the Revolution. Alexander Kerensky, the leader of the democratic Russian Provisional Government that had replaced the Tsar and was overthrown by Lenin, was welcomed by the British government on a visit to London and also addressed the Labour Party Conference, criticising the dictatorship and repression of Lenin's government. Litvinov replied to Kerensky in the left-wing English press, criticising him as being supported by foreign powers and baselessly accused him of trying to restore Tsarism.

A mutiny took place in February 1918 on a Russian ship in the River Mersey. The police, having been warned of possible trouble, had the ship under surveillance. When shouts that the crew were threatening to kill their officers were heard, the ship was boarded and the crew were arrested. Shortly before the mutiny, a police report confirmed Litvinov had received the sailors very well. Litvinov had not tried to dissuade the sailors from carrying out the mutiny or to condemn it, and may have encouraged it. Litvinov also sought interviews with British, American, Australian and Canadian soldiers, and inculcated them with Bolshevik ideas, as well as inducing British and American soldiers of Jewish descent to carry on propaganda in their regiments. On one occasion, thirty Royal Engineers, along with some American and Canadian soldiers, were received in Litvinov's office.

At the end of 1917, Litvinov had secured the release of Georgy Chicherin from Brixton prison, but in September 1918, the British government arrested Litvinov, ostensibly for having addressed public gatherings held in opposition to British intervention in the ongoing Russian Civil War. Litvinov was held until he was exchanged for Lockhart, who had been similarly imprisoned in Russia.

Following his release, Litvinov returned to Moscow, arriving there at the end of 1918. He was appointed to the governing collegium of the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs (Narkomindel) and immediately dispatched on an official mission to Stockholm, Sweden, where he presented a Soviet peace appeal. Litvinov was subsequently deported from Sweden but spent the next months as a roving diplomat for the Soviet government, helping to broker a multilateral agreement allowing the exchange of prisoners of war from a range of combatants, including Russia, the UK and France. This successful negotiation amounted to de facto recognition of the new revolutionary Russian government by the other signatories to the agreement and established Litvinov's importance in Soviet diplomacy.

Litvinov tried to intervene in Britain's internal politics, agreeing to the request of the Daily Herald, a newspaper supporting the Labour Party, to ask the Soviet government for financial assistance. In view of the publicity caused by a leak in The Times, the Daily Herald did not accept the money.

Irish contacts and the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement
In February 1921, the Soviet government was approached by the government of the unilaterally declared Irish Republic in Dublin with proposals for a treaty of mutual recognition and assistance. Despairing of early American recognition for the Irish Republic, President of the Dáil Éireann Éamon de Valera had redirected his envoy Patrick McCartan from Washington to Moscow. McCartan may have assumed Litvinov, with his Irish experience, would be a ready ally. Litvinov, however, told McCarten the Soviet priority was a trade agreement with the UK.

In March 1921, the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement, authorising trade between the two countries so gold sent to Britain to pay for goods could not be confiscated, was signed but the British government and the British press began to complain about Moscow-directed subversion. In June, the British government published a proposed treaty between the Dáil government and the Soviets, and related correspondence; the question of Communist intrigue in the Irish War of Independence made headlines.

Finally, the British Foreign Secretary sent a note of protest to the Soviet Government, charging it with responsibility for a range of intrigues against the British Government and its imperial interests. Litvinov replied that "The British Foreign Office has been misled by a gang of professional forgers and swindlers, and had it known the dubious sources of its information, its note of 7 September [1921] would never have been produced", stating that the complaints of anti-British activities were in part based on such fictitious reports. The Russian Government wished to state that, after the conclusion of the Anglo-Russian agreement, it had instructed its representatives in the East to abstain from any anti-British propaganda, although on its part it felt compelled to place on record that the attitude of the British Government had lately been far from friendly towards Russia. He cited the imprisonment and expulsion of Russian trade agents in Constantinople, the co-operation with the French Government in the so-called 'Russian question', the continued support to French schemes frustrating international efforts to help relieve famine in Russia, and lastly the presentation of the British note of 7 September. At a time when France was inciting Poland and Rumania to make war on Russia, this did not induce the Russian Government to believe that it was the sincere desire of the British Government to foster friendly relations between the governments and peoples of the two countries.

First Deputy People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs
In 1921, Litvinov was appointed First Deputy People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs, second in command to People's Commissar Georgy Chicherin (1872–1936). Although both men were loyal to the Soviet regime, Litvinov and Chicherin were temperamental opposites and became rivals. Chicherin had a cultivated, polished personal style but held strongly anti-Western opinions. He sought to hold Soviet Russia aloof from diplomatic deal-making with capitalist powers. According to diplomatic historian Jonathan Haslam, Litvinov was less erudite and coarser than Chicherin but was willing to deal in good faith with the West for peace and a pause for Soviet Russia to pursue internal development.

In 1924, full diplomatic relations were restored under the Macdonald Labour government. The Conservative Party and the business community continued to be hostile to the Soviet Union, partly because the Soviet Union had not honoured Tsarist debts and partly because of the fear of Bolshevism spreading to Britain, and considered the Bolshevist government should be militarily overthrown. This was exacerbated by the Soviet government's support of the 1926 General Strike and criticism of the British Trades Union Congress (TUC) for calling off the strike. The Soviet government offered a gift of £25,000 to the TUC, which was refused, and £200,000 to the co-operative movement, which was accepted.

Litvinov wanted to prevent a deterioration of relations and suggested he should have talks with Hodgson, the UK's chargé d'affaires in Moscow.  Hodgson, who was privately sympathetic to some of Litvinov's complaints, communicated with the Foreign Office, giving various reasons for criticising Britain's position. Britain had signed a trade agreement in 1921 and given the Soviet Government de jure recognition in 1923, and HM Government had recently indicated that it intended to maintain its relationship with the Soviet Government. Anti-red outbursts could prejudice its position in dealing with problems that needed discussion with the Soviet Government. Importantly, the Soviet Union, whatever her political complexion, was a badly needed market. Although anti-red sentiment might be useful in the political warfare at home, it was seen in Russia as an admission of weakness. However, most pressing, was the incalculable commercial harm. The insecurity would make the Soviet Government hesitant about placing orders in Britain, cause British firms to fight shy of Russian orders and frighten British banks from financing them.

The Conservative government, under pressure from Conservative MPs on the uncorroborated evidence of a dismissed employee that the Soviet Trade Mission had stolen a missing War Office document, successfully asked Parliament to sever diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. Although Chicherin advocated caution, Litvinov, presumably with Joseph Stalin's support, said:

The decision was no surprise to the Soviet Government. It had already for long been aware that a rupture of diplomatic relations with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was being prepared by the whole policy of the present British Conservative Government, which has declined all proposals of the Soviet Government for the settlement of mutual relations by means of negotiations. The lack of results of the search of the Trade Delegation premises, which was carried out with utmost thoroughness over several days, is the most convincing proof of the loyalty and correctitude of the official agents of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. The Soviet Government passes over with contempt the insinuations of a British Minister regarding espionage by the Trade Delegation and considers it beneath its dignity to reply to them. The Soviet Government places on record that the British Government had no legitimate ground for a police raid on the extraterritorial premises of the official Soviet agent.

Hodgson agreed with Litvinov that the police raid on the Arcos building in London was deplorable and said so in a letter to The Times in 1941, showing his pleasure at Litvinov's appointment as Soviet ambassador to the United States.

After the Labour Party won the most seats in the 1929 election, the new Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, set about restoring relations with the Soviet Union on condition that the Soviet Union refrained from initiating propaganda in Britain. Litvinov was in favour of being conciliatory, but letters between Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov show Stalin overruled Litvinov's conciliatory attitude, resulting in British Foreign Secretary Arthur Henderson ignoring problems rather than working towards an effective agreement on propaganda, effectively giving unconditional recognition to the Soviet Union.

Proponent of disarmament
Litvinov supported disarmament, actively attending the Disarmament Preparatory Commission from 30 November 1927 until it was replaced by the World Disarmament Conference in Geneva in 1932. Initially he advocated total disarmament. French politician Joseph Paul-Boncour criticised such proposals:

Supposing you had total disarmament; if there was no international organisation taking charge of security, if you had no international force to ensure the maintenance of this security, if you had no international law such as we are endeavouring to lay down here, a powerful and populous nation would always have the power when it wished to do so on a small nation equally disarmed, less populous and less well equipped to resist an attack which might be made upon it.

Litvinov's answer was:

Would small nations be less insecure after their powerful neighbours who have disarmed than they are now when, in addition to economic, financial, territorial and other superiorities possessed by the great powers, the latter also enjoy the immense advantage of greater armaments.

Litvinov's proposals won him favourable publicity in radical circles in Western countries that were eager for disarmament and impatient at the Commission's slow progress. The national joint Council of the Labour Party, the Parliamentary Labour Party and the TUC passed a resolution expressing their sense of the great importance of proposals for general-and-simultaneous disarmament submitted by the Soviet delegation at the Commission in Geneva on 30 November 1927.

Litvinov favoured Soviet participation in the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, which pledged signatories to the elimination of the use of war as a tool of foreign policy, a position opposite to that of his nominal superior Chicherin. Litvinov, who was frustrated by the failure of the Kellogg-Briand Pact signatories to ratify the treaty, proposed the Litvinov Protocol, in which signatories formally proclaimed themselves in mutual compliance with the pact's goals. The protocol was signed in Moscow in February 1929 by the Soviet Union, Poland, Romania, Latvia, and Estonia, and later by several other countries.

People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs

In 1930, Joseph Stalin appointed Litvinov People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs. Litvinov, who was a firm believer in collective security, worked to form a closer relationship with France and the United Kingdom, a policy seemingly at odds with the "class against class" line of the Third Period being advocated by Communist International. Litvinov remained the only leading official of Narkomindel in the mid-1930s who had direct personal access to Stalin and who could deal with Stalin's inner circle on terms approaching equality; this was in contrast to other top foreign-affairs officials such as Boris Stomonyakov and Nikolay Krestinsky, for whom access was limited to occasional supplication.

Stalin was largely detached from and uninterested in foreign policy throughout the early 1930s, largely leaving the general operations of Narkomindel and the Comintern to their leaders. Litvinov had wide latitude to pursue policy objectives and was subject only to broad review and approval from the leadership. Stalin frequently delegated oversight to members of his personal secretariat, including Karl Radek, until mid-1936. As a result, Litvinov's Narkomindel could pursue a moderate foreign-policy line, emphasising stable relations between governments leading towards general disarmament, which was, as one historian called it, a "curious mismatch" with the revolutionary militancy then being voiced by the Comintern.

On 6 February 1933, Litvinov made the most-significant speech of his career, in which he tried to define aggression. He stated that the internal situation of a country, alleged maladministration, possible danger to foreign residents, and civil unrest in a neighbouring country were not justifications for war. In 1946, the British Government would accuse the Soviet Union of not complying with Litvinov's definition. Finland made similar criticisms against the Soviet Union in 1939.

Many delegates, such as British delegate Lord Cushendun, who said the failure of the Disarmament Conference would be gratifying to the Soviet delegation, derided Litvinov but due to the soundness of Litvinov's argument and eloquence, his standing grew. In 1933, the Greek Chairman of the Political Commission of the League of Nations stated:It was with special pleasure he paid this tribute to the Soviet delegation since it demonstrated beyond doubt that when men rose above the contingencies of day-to-day politics and allowed themselves to be guided by the more general ideas which should lead the civilised world, it was found that there was a community of ideals which was capable with a little goodwill of bringing to fruition the noblest and most difficult enterprises.

In 1933, Litvinov was instrumental in winning a long-sought formal diplomatic recognition of the Soviet government by the United States. US President Franklin Roosevelt sent comedian Harpo Marx to the Soviet Union as a goodwill ambassador. Litvinov and Marx became friends and performed a routine on stage together. Litvinov also facilitated the acceptance of the Soviet Union into the League of Nations, where he represented his country from 1934 to 1938.

In 1935, Litvinov negotiated the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance and another treaty with Czechoslovakia with the aim of containing Nazi Germany's aggression. Writing in A History of the League of Nations (1952), F. P. Walters expressed "astonished admiration", praising Litvinov's farsighted analysis:

Litvinov has been considered to have concentrated on taking strong measures against Italy, Japan and Germany, and being little interested in other matters. He praised the achievements of the Soviet Union but he may not have agreed with collective farming. At the time of the Moscow Trials, Litvinov was appointed to a committee that decided the fate of Bukharin and Rykov, voting for them to be expelled and tried but not executed, they were eventually handed to the NKVD. During the Great Purge, the Foreign Commissariat lacked ambassadors in nine capitals; Litvinov reported this to Stalin, noting the damage without criticising the cause. Indeed, Litvinov publicly endorsed the purges and the campaign against the Trotskyites, although this may have been out of self-preservation.

Negotiations regarding Germany and dismissal
After the 1938 Munich Agreement, German state media derided Litvinov for his Jewish ancestry, referring to him as "Finkelstein-Litvinov". On 15 April 1939, Litvinov sent a comprehensive proposal to Stalin for a tripartite agreement with Britain and France. The following day, Litvinov saw Stalin to discuss his draft, which Stalin approved. According to Soviet records, Litvinov submitted detailed arguments in favour of the proposed pact, which Stalin accepted. Litvinov stated they ought not to wait for the other side to propose what the Soviets wanted. Litvinov summarised his proposals, which were for mutual assistance in case of aggression against the Soviet Union, Britain or France; and support for all states bordering the Soviet Union, including Finland and the Baltic States. It also provided for rapid agreement on the form such assistance would take. There would be an agreement not to conclude a separate peace.

By 16 April, Stalin still had faith in Litvinov and had no immediate plans to remove him. No concrete proposals for a Nazi-Soviet pact had been made by either country. Litvinov said: "We can expect urgent and complex negotiations with the French and especially the British. We need to monitor public opinion and try to influence it." The new proposals had Stalin's support; Litvinov summoned the British Ambassador, William Seeds, while he was at the theatre with his wife. Litvinov could have had the proposals conveyed to the Embassy with a request for Seeds to visit Litvinov urgently in the morning.

Litvinov had a poor opinion of Neville Chamberlain, and was not surprised Russia's proposal for an alliance was not welcomed, but he may have been surprised by the attitude of the British Foreign Office. Cadogan, in his diary, described Litvinov's proposals as "mischievous". A Foreign Office report to the Foreign Affairs Cabinet Committee termed them 'inconvenient'. On 7 June 1939, Winston Churchill stated he "much preferred the Russian proposals. They are simple. They are logical and conform to the main groupings of common interest." Churchill also stated the Soviet claim the Baltic States should be included in the triple guarantee was well founded. Three years later, Britain would agree a similar pact of assistance with the Soviet Union. Litvinov's proposals were also conveyed to the French Ambassador Émile Naggiar.

As soon as the proposals reached the French Government, the first reaction of Georges Bonnet, the Foreign Minister, was different from that of the British Government and Foreign Office. Bonnet saw the Soviet Ambassador Jakob Suritz, who cabled that "the first impression of the French is very favourable". Britain persuaded the French Government to take no action until a common policy had been formulated. In talks between the French and the British governments, both failed to either accept or reject the proposals until after Litvinov's dismissal on 4 May. Molotov proceeded with negotiations for a pact and a military mission left for Moscow.

The Foreign Office confirmed to the US chargé d'affaires on 8 August 1939 "the military mission, which had now left for Moscow, had been told to make every effort to prolong discussions until 1 October 1939". Halifax disclosed to the Foreign Affairs Committee on 10 July 1939: "Although the French were in favour of the military conversations commencing, the French Government thought that the military conversations would be spun out over a long time and as long as they were taking place we should be preventing Soviet Russia from entering the German camp".

Dismissal
On 3 May 1939, Stalin replaced Litvinov, who was closely identified with the anti-German position, with Vyacheslav Molotov. At a prearranged meeting, Stalin said: "The Soviet Government intended to improve its relations with Hitler and if possible sign a pact with Nazi Germany. As a Jew and an avowed opponent of such a policy, Litvinov stood in the way." Litvinov argued and banged on the table. Stalin then demanded Litvinov to sign a letter of resignation. On the night of Litvinov's dismissal, NKVD troops surrounded the offices of the Commissariat of Foreign Affairs. The telephone at Litvinov's dacha was disconnected and the following morning, Molotov, Georgy Malenkov, and Lavrenty Beria arrived at the commissariat to inform Litvinov of his dismissal. Many of Litvinov's aides were arrested and beaten, possibly to extract compromising information.

Hitler took Litvinov's removal more seriously than Chamberlain. The German ambassador to the Soviet Union, Schulenburg, was in Iran. Hilger, the First Secretary, was summoned to see Hitler, who asked why Stalin might have dismissed Litvinov. Hilger said: "According to my firm belief he [Stalin] had done so because Litvinov had pressed for an understanding with France and Britain while Stalin thought the Western powers were aiming to have the Soviet Union pull the chestnuts out of the fire in the event of war".

Litvinov was not in disgrace; he continued to attend official functions and carry out his duties as a member of the Supreme Soviet and the Central Committee.

Litvinov also attended the Supreme Soviet when the budget was presented and on the occasion of Molotov's speech in support of the Nazi–Soviet Pact. There was no praise or recognition of Litvinov's work after he had held the position of Foreign Minister for nine years. Two months later, when Litvinov applied for a passport to go to Vichy, France, to take the waters, it was refused, presumably on the grounds he might defect or abscond.

According to Louis Fischer, "Litvinov never by hint or word approved of Stalin's pact with Hitler". Ivy Litvinov stated: "the Nazi-Soviet Pact had not inspired her husband with much confidence". Litvinov would not have been surprised if Germany had broken any agreement and would have ensured the USSR would have been well prepared for a German invasion of its territory.

Aftermath of dismissal

According to Holroyd-Doveton, Litvinov, if he had been Foreign Commissar, would have approved the Pact. Sheinis states when foreign correspondents first asked Litvinov about the Pact, he evaded the question, but then said: "I think this calls for a closer look, because among other things enemies of the Soviet Union ascribe to me what I never said". Litvinov is reported to have told Ehrenburg: "The Pact was absolutely necessary". He told foreign journalists:The imperialists in these two countries had done everything they could to goad Hitler's Germany against the Soviet Union by secret deals and provocative moves. In the circumstances the Soviet Union could either accept German proposals for a non-aggression treaty and thus secure a period of peace in which to redouble preparations to repulse the aggressor; or turn down Germany's proposals and let the warmongers in the Western camp push the Soviet Union into an armed conflict with Germany in unfavourable circumstances and in a setting of complete isolation. In this situation the Soviet Government was compelled to make the difficult choice and conclude a non-aggression treaty with Germany. I, too, would probably have concluded a pact with Germany although a bit differently.

Litvinov's replacement by Molotov significantly increased Stalin's freedom to manoeuver in foreign policy. The dismissal of Litvinov, whose Jewish background was viewed disfavorably by Nazi Germany, removed an obstacle to negotiations with Germany. Stalin immediately directed Molotov to "purge the ministry of Jews". Recalling Stalin's order, Molotov commented: "Thank God for these words! Jews formed an absolute majority in the leadership and among the ambassadors. It wasn't good."

Given Litvinov's prior attempts to create an anti-fascist coalition, association with the doctrine of collective security with France and Britain, and pro-Western orientation by Kremlin standards, his dismissal indicated the existence of a Soviet option of rapprochement with Germany. Molotov's appointment was a signal to Germany the USSR would negotiate. The dismissal also signaled to France and Britain the existence of a potential negotiation option with Germany. One British official wrote Litvinov's disappearance meant the loss of an admirable technician or shock-absorber, while Molotov's modus operandi was "more truly Bolshevik than diplomatic or cosmopolitan".

With regard to the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with secret protocols partitioning Eastern Europe between Germany and the USSR three months later, Hitler told military commanders; "Litvinov's replacement was decisive". A German official told the Soviet Ambassador Hitler was pleased Litvinov's replacement Molotov was not Jewish. Hitler also wrote to Benito Mussolini that Litvinov's dismissal demonstrated the Kremlin's readiness to alter relations with Berlin, which led to "the most extensive nonaggression pact in existence". When Litvinov was asked about the reasons for his dismissal, he replied; "Do you really think that I was the right person to sign a treaty with Hitler?"

American historian Jeffrey Herf views Litvinov's dismissal and the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact as conclusive proof the Nazi belief in a Jewish conspiracy that supposedly controlled the governments of the Soviet Union and other allied powers was completely false.

Wartime career

Following the Nazi–Soviet Pact, although given little official Soviet recognition, Stalin continued to respect Litvinov. The British Embassy records confirm Litvinov was conspicuous at the 1939 anniversary of the Revolution by Lenin's Mausoleum. He was standing on the edge of a group that included Stalin, Molotov, Kaganovich, Mikoyan, Andreev, Beria, and Dimitrov. Litvinov was in full view of the diplomatic stand of foreign journalists, some of whom had no hesitation in exchanging salutations with Litvinov. The New York Times said about thirty members of the German Trade delegation, the German Military Attaché, and members of a Finnish delegation watched the parade. The emergence of Litvinov wearing his usual flat cap was apparently a source of interest to the German delegation near the tomb; it was Litvinov's first public appearance for several months in the company as Stalin's entourage. Litvinov was also in a conspicuous place at the 1940 celebration of the Russian Revolution. According to Holroyd-Doveton, no meaningful position was allotted by Stalin to Litvinov.

In the 21-month period between the declaration of war by France and Britain, and the invasion of the Soviet Union by Germany, Ivy Litvinov describes this period of her life. She said the family spent their time with their daughter-in-law in their dacha  from Moscow  and outside school holidays in the family apartment in Moscow, when they spent long weekends in the country. For two years, the family played bridge, read music, and went on long walks in the countryside with their two dogs.

On 21 February 1941, Litvinov was dismissed from the Central Committee of the Communist Party on the pretext of his inability to discharge his obligations as a member of the Committee. According to Pope, he was dismissed because Stalin wanted to give no offence to the Germans. Litvinov said: "My more than 40 years in the Party oblige me to say what I think about what has happened. I do not understand why I am being dealt with in such a peremptory style."

Stalin rejected everything Litvinov had said. When Stalin stopped speaking, Litvinov asked: "Does that mean you consider me an enemy of the people?" Stalin answered: "We do not consider you an enemy of the people, but an honest revolutionary".

Litvinov had followed with anxiety the steady advance of Hitler's armies across Europe and wondered how long Britain could hold out unsupported. Even to Litvinov, the German invasion of the Soviet Union was a surprise; he did not believe Hitler would risk embarking on a second front at this stage of the war.

German invasion of the USSR
The Soviet leaders, as well as Litvinov, were concerned Britain might come to an agreement with Germany. Litvinov was worried Rudolf Hess's flight meant Britain was about to make peace with Germany. Litvinov stated all believed the British fleet was steaming up the North Sea for a joint attack with Germany on Leningrad and Kronstadt. The same day the German invasion of the USSR began, Churchill announced Britain's intention to give full aid to the Soviet Union. When Litvinov heard of Churchill's broadcast, he was much relieved. Nevertheless, Litvinov was suspicious of the British aristocracy.

Ambassador to the United States and later
Following his dismissal as head of Narkomindel, Litvinov was dispatched to Washington, D.C., to serve as the Russian ambassador to the United States. Like Churchill, Litvinov had doubts about the Munich Agreement. Following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, Litvinov said in a radio broadcast to Britain and the United States: "We always realized the danger which a Hitler victory in the West could constitute for us". After the United States entered the war, he encouraged President Franklin D. Roosevelt to focus on the Mediterranean and Middle East theatre to prevent Axis forces in North Africa from advancing towards the Caucasus.

Early in November 1941, Litvinov was summoned to see Stalin and told his services were required as ambassador to the United States. In the US, the appointment was met with enthusiasm. The New York Times stated: "Stalin has decided to place his ablest and most forceful diplomat and one who enjoys greater prestige in this country. He is known as a man of exceptional ability, adroit as well as forceful. It is believed that Stalin, in designating him for the ambassadorship, felt Litvinov could exercise real influence in Washington."

President Roosevelt stated Litvinov's appointment was "most fortunate that the Soviet Government have deemed it advisable to send as ambassador a statesman who has already held high office in his own country". When Litvinov arrived in the US, growing Soviet resistance to the German army, which was racing to take Moscow before the onset of the Russian winter, was winning the Soviet Union supporters. According to The Washington Post:Both Mrs Cordell Hull, the Secretary of State's wife, and the Vice-President's wife, Mrs Wallace, had travelled to the Soviet Embassy for celebrations to mark the 24th anniversary of the Soviet Revolution in 1941, where they were greeted by Mr and Mrs Gromyko and Mrs Umansky. The Under Secretary of State, Sumner Welles, Jessie Jones, the Commercial Secretary, and Francis Biddle, the Attorney General, were also present. Most foreign countries except Spain and Finland were represented.

Litvinov immediately gained popularity and was instrumental in lobbying for billions of dollars worth of Lend-Lease military and humanitarian assistance from the United States to the Soviet Union. In early December 1941, the Soviet Union's war-relief organisation called a large meeting in Madison Square, New York City, where the auditorium was filled to capacity. Litvinov, speaking in English, told of the suffering in the Soviet Union. A woman in the front row ran up to the stage and donated her diamond necklace; whilst another gave a cheque for $15,000. At the end, Litvinov said; "What we need is a second front".

The highlight of Litvinov's eighteen months as ambassador was the 25th celebration of the Russian Revolution on 7 November 1942. 1,200 guests, representing all of the United Nations, entered the reception hall to shake hands with Litvinov. Only the US President and his staff, at work on the African campaign, were missing. The Russians were happy they had more serious affairs with which to attend. Vice-President Wallace, Secretary of the Treasury Morgenthau, Under Secretary of State Sumner Welles and Mrs Woodrow Wilson, Edward Stettinius—the Lend-Lease administrator—and Tom Connolly, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, were among the guests. Russian vodka and a sturgeon from the Volga were supplied to the guests.

The following day, Litvinov and his wife travelled to New York to attend celebrations. The New York Times on 8 November said Madison Square was overflowing with a wildly cheering crowd of 20,000 for the annual tribute to the Soviet Union in Litvinov's presence. The event was attended by the Soviet Union's old friends and the US Vice-President, General McNair, commanding general of Army Ground Forces, capitalist Thomas Lamont, and Catholic professor Francis McMahon, who said: "not speaking up for Russia would be disloyal to his religion and country".

Roosevelt became annoyed with Litvinov's second-front zeal; he told Averell Harriman: "The US might ask for Litvinov's recall". Harriman told Litvinov Roosevelt was upset but did not repeat what the President had said. Harriman said: "If Litvinov continued that way, he would get into serious difficulties with the President. Litvinov, who had been ebullient, collapsed so completely." Litvinov's ambassadorship was now experiencing difficulties. Litvinov said the Soviet Government had forbidden him from appearing in public or making any public speeches.

After returning to Soviet Union, Litvinov became deputy minister for foreign affairs. He was dismissed from his post after an interview given to Richard C. Hottelet on 18 June 1946 in which he said a war between the West and the Soviet Union was inevitable.

Death and legacy

Litvinov died on 31 December 1951. After his death, rumours he was murdered on Stalin's instructions to the Ministry of Internal Affairs circulated. According to Anastas Mikoyan, a lorry deliberately collided with Litvinov's car as it rounded a bend near the Litvinov dacha on 31 December 1951, and he later died of his injuries. British television journalist Tim Tzouliadis stated; "The assassination of Litvinov marked an intensification of Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign". According to Litvinov's wife and daughter, however, Stalin was still on good terms with Litvinov at the time of his death. They said he had serious heart problems and was given the best treatment available during the final weeks of his life, and that he died from a heart attack on 31 December 1951.

After Litvinov's death, his widow Ivy remained in the Soviet Union until she returned to live in Britain in 1972.

In his reminiscences dictated to a supporter later in life, Vyacheslav Molotov—Litvinov's replacement as chief of foreign affairs and right-hand man of Joseph Stalin—said Litvinov was "intelligent" and "first rate" but said Stalin and he "didn't trust him" and consequently "left him out of negotiations" with the United States during the war. Molotov called Litvinov "not a bad diplomat—a good one" but also called him "quite an opportunist" who "greatly sympathized with [Leon] Trotsky, [Grigory] Zinoviev, and [Lev] Kamenev". According to Molotov; "Litvinov remained among the living [in the Great Purge] only by chance".

Litvinov's grandson Pavel Litvinov, a physicist, writer and Soviet-era dissident, resides in the United States.

See also
 Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
 Soviet–German relations before 1941

Footnotes

Sources

Further reading
 Gorodetsky, Gabriel. Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1991: a Retrospective. London: Routledge, 1994.
 Levin, Nora. The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. In Two Volumes. New York: New York University Press, 1988.
 Lockhart, R.H. Bruce. Memoirs of a British Agent: Being an Account of the Author's Early Life in Many Lands and of his Official Mission to Moscow in 1918. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1933.
 Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich. Pariahs, partners, predators: German-Soviet relations, 1922-1941 (Columbia University Press, 1997).
 Osborne, Patrick R. Operation Pike: Britain Versus the Soviet Union, 1939–1941. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000.
 Phillips, Hugh D. Between the revolution and the West: a political biography of Maxim M. Litvinov (Westview Press, 1992).
 Roberts, Geoffrey. "Litvinov's Lost Peace, 1941–1946." Journal of Cold War Studies 4.2 (2002): 23-54.
 Roberts, Geoffrey. "The Fall of Litvinov: A Revisionist View," Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 27, no. 4 (1992), pp. 639–657.
 Saul, Norman E. Friends Or Foes?: The United States and Soviet Russia, 1921-1941 (University Press of Kansas, 2006).
 Ulam, Ulam. Stalin: The Man and His Era. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.

Works
 The Bolshevik Revolution: Its Rise and Meaning. London: British Socialist Party, n.d. (1919).

External links

  Biography six versions from various resources
  Maxim Litvinov, Soviet biography.

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1951 deaths
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Maxim Litvinov


Gylve Fenris Nagell (rođen kao Leif Nagell; 28. studenoga 1971.), profesionalno poznat kao Fenriz, norveški je glazbenik, honorarni glazbeni novinar i voditelj online radija. Vodi emisiju "Radio Fenriz" koji je najpoznatiji kao jedna polovica extreme metal dua Darkthrone, uz Nocturna Culta. Iako prvenstveno bubnjar i tekstopisac, također je svirao bas, gitaru i bio vokal za Darkthrone i nekoliko drugih metal sastava. Fenriz je poznat po svom enciklopedijskom poznavanju metal glazbe, svom revnom promoviranju pozdzemnih sastava i Uradi sam etike, te odbijanju "showbiz strane glazbene industrije".  Fenriz je također bio studijski bubnjar za doom metal sastav Valhall, a imao je i nekoliko samostalnih projekata, uključujući folk/black metal projekt Isengard i dark ambient projekt Neptune Towers.

Životopis

Fenriz se prvi put susreo s heavy metalom kad je bio dijete i dobio album Sweet Freedom Uriah Heepa od svog ujaka za rođendan. Sa 16 godina napustio je školu i počeo raditi puno radno vrijeme kako bi financirao svoje bavljenje glazbom. Godine 1986. s Ivarom Engerom i Andersom Risbergetom osnovao je death metal sastav Black Death. Godine 1988. sastavu se pridružio Ted Skjellum (Nocturno Culto) i preimenovali su se u Darkthrone. Nakon što su 1991. objavili svoj prvi death metal album Soulside Journey, sastav je promijenio stil i postao jedan od vodećih na ranoj sceni norveškog black metala. Fenriz je rekao da ga pasivno zanimaju Bathory i Celtic Frost, ali tvrdi da nije razumio "tamu" black metala dok nije čuo pjesmu mađarskog sastava Tormentor.

Drugi album Darkthronea, A Blaze in the Northern Sky, snimljen u kolovozu 1991. u Creative Studiosu i objavljen u veljači 1992., smatra se jednim od najvažnijih albuma koji je definirao black metal žanr. Darkthrone nije bio umiješan u paljenje crkava i ubojstva koja su izvršili neki drugi članovi scene, a Fenriz je osudio "hype" oko toga.

Od 1993. Darkthrone je duo Fenriza i Nocturnoa Culta. Fenriz je snimio sve instrumente na njihovim albumima Transilvanian Hunger iz 1994. i Panzerfaust iz 1995. Od kasnih 1980-ih do sredine 1990-ih, Fenriz je također započeo nekoliko samostalnih projekata, uključujući folk black metal projekt Isengard i dark ambient projekt Neptune Towers. Također je bio bubnjar sastava Valhall na njihova tri studijska albuma. Tijekom 1990-ih s Sigurdom Wongravenom osnovao je folk metal sastav Storm koji je objavio jedan album, Nordavind.

On i Nocturno odbijaju svirati uživo od 1990-ih. Godine 2004. odbili su nominaciju za norvešku nagradu "Alarm" za svoj album Sardonic Wrath. Fenriz je rekao: "Nemamo interesa biti dio svjetlucave i showbiz strane glazbene industrije". Fenriz je (uz Varga Vikernesa) u fokusu black metal dokumentarnog filma iz 2008. Until The Light Takes Us.

Godine 2016. naširoko se govorilo da je Fenriz izabran u svoje lokalno općinsko vijeće, Oppegård. Izabran je na četverogodišnji mandat kao zamjena za vijećnika Liberalne stranke, uz objašnjenje da će "morati uskočiti kada su uobičajeni ljudi koji idu na velike sastanke budu bolesni ili tako nešto". Fenriz je rekao: "Nazvali su i pitali želim li biti na popisu [rezervnih predstavnika]. Rekao sam da, misleći da ću biti otprilike 18. na listi i da neću morati ništa raditi". Njegova "kampanja" bila je fotografija na kojoj drži svoju mačku uz natpis "Molim vas, ne glasajte za mene".

Fenriz živi u svom rodnom gradu Kolbotnu. Prema The Guardianu, Fenriz je "već dugo heroj na underground sceni" i "opsjednut je otkrivanjem nove glazbe i njezinim promoviranjem uz bijesni entuzijazam". Heavy metal časopis Iron Fist ustvrdio je da ima reputaciju "hodajuće metal enciklopedije". Povremeno radi kao glazbeni novinar i vodi mjesečnu online radio emisiju na NTS-u pod nazivom "Radio Fenriz". Napravio je blog "Band of the Week" ("Sastav tjedna") na kojem su zastupljeni izvođači koji sudjeluju na underground metal festivalu Live Evil. Poznato je da je Fenriz honorarno radio u poštanskim službama od kasnih 1980-ih, što mu, kako kaže, omogućava da provede mnogo sati svaki tjedan slušajući novu glazbu. Također se pojavio u norveškoj televizijskoj emisiji o šumskom planinarenju.

Diskografija

Izvori

Norveški glazbenici heavy metala
Norveški bubnjari heavy metala
Norveški gitaristi heavy metala
Norveški basisti heavy metala
Norveški pjevači heavy metala

Fenriz


An Schoenus andinus in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Rodolfo Amando Philippi, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Hans Heinrich Pfeiffer. An Schoenus andinus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schoenus, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Schoenus

Schoenus andinus


An Alopecurus ponticus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Karl Heinrich Koch. An Alopecurus ponticus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Alopecurus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Alopecurus

Alopecurus ponticus


Filip Viktor Helander (født 22. april 1993) er en svensk professionel fodboldspiller, som spiller for Superliga-klubben Odense Boldklub og Sveriges landshold.

Klubkarriere

Malmö FF
Helander begyndte sin karriere hos Malmö FF, hvor han fik sin førsteholdsdebut i 2011. Hans gennembrud var dog i 2013 sæsonen, hvor han blev etableret som fast mand på holdet.

Hellas Verona
Helander skiftede i juli 2015 til italienske Hellas Verona.

Bologna
Efter en enkelt sæson i Verona, skiftede Helander i august 2016 til Bologna på en lejeaftale med en købsobligation. Som del af aftalen, blev Nicolò Cherubin solgt til Verona.

Rangers
Helander skiftede i juli 2019 til skotske Rangers. Han forlod klubben ved kontraktudløb i juli 2023.

Odense Boldklub
Helander skiftede i august 2023 til Odense Boldklub.

Landsholdskarriere

Ungdomslandshold
Helander har repræsenteret Sverige på flere ungdomsniveauer. Han var del af Sveriges U/21-landshold som vandt guld ved U/21-EM 2015.

Seniorlandshold
Helander debuterede for Sveriges landshold den 28. marts 2017.

Titler
Malmö FF
 Allsvenskan: 2 (2013, 2014)
 Svenska Supercupen: 1 (2014)

Rangers

 Scottish Premiership: 1 (2020-21)
 Scottish Cup: 1 (2021-22)

Sverige U/21

 U/21 Europamesterskabet: 1 (2015)

Individuelle

 U/21 Europamesterskabet Tuneringens hold: 1 (2015)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Personer fra Malmø
Fodboldspillere fra Sverige
Fodboldlandsholdsspillere fra Sverige
Fodboldspillere fra Malmö FF
Fodboldspillere fra Hellas Verona FC
Fodboldspillere fra Bologna FC
Fodboldspillere fra Rangers F.C.
Fodboldspillere fra Odense Boldklub
Deltagere ved verdensmesterskabet i fodbold 2018
Deltagere ved det europæiske mesterskab i fodbold 2020

Filip Helander


බුද්ධ ප්‍රතිමා නෙලිමේදිි ශිල්පියා බුුුදුු රුව දක්වන ස්ථානවල ඒ ඒ අවස්ථාවට උචිත අයුරින් මුද්‍රා, ආසන සහ ඉරියව් යනුවෙන් වර්ගවලට බෙදා වෙන් කර ඇත. මේවායින් මුද්‍රා යනු ප්‍රතිමාවේ අත් හා ඇගිලි නිර්මාණය කර ඇති ආකාරයයි. එවැනි මුද්‍රා කිහිපයකි. ඒවා නම්-

 ධර්මචක්‍ර මුද්‍රාව
 අභය මුද්‍රාව
 භුමිස්පර්ශ මුද්‍රාව
 විතර්ක මුද්‍රාව
 වරද මුද්‍රාව
 පරදුක්ඛ දුක්ඛිත මුද්‍රාව
 ධ්‍යාන මුද්‍රාව යනුවෙනි.

ඉන් ධ්‍යාන මුද්‍රාව යනු බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ භාවනායෝගීව වැඩ හිදින ආකාරය නිරූපණය වන්නකි. සමාධි පිළිමය, තොලුවිල බුද්ධ ප්‍රතිමාව, දඹෙිගොඩ පිළිමය, ගල් විහාරයේ විජ්ජාධාර ගුහාවේ පිළිමය මීට නිදසුන් ලෙස පෙන්වා දිය හැකිය.

ධ්‍යාන මුද්‍රාව