The olive baboon (Papio anubis), also called the Anubis baboon, is a member of the family Cercopithecidae Old World monkeys. The species is the most wide-ranging of all baboons, being native to 25 countries throughout Africa, extending from Mali eastward to Ethiopia and Tanzania. Isolated populations are also present in some mountainous regions of the Sahara. It inhabits savannahs, steppes, and forests. The common name is derived from its coat colour, which is a shade of green-grey at a distance. A variety of communications, vocal and non-vocal, facilitate a complex social structure.

Characteristics

The olive baboon is named for its coat, which, at a distance, is a shade of green-grey. At closer range, its coat is multicoloured, due to rings of yellow-brown and black on the hairs. The hair on the baboon's face is coarser and ranges from dark grey to black. This coloration is shared by both sexes, although males have a mane of longer hair that tapers down to ordinary length along the back.

Besides the mane, the male olive baboon differs from the female in terms of weight, body and canine tooth size; males are, on average,  tall while standing and females measure  in height. The olive baboon is one of the largest species of monkey; only the chacma baboon and the mandrill attain similar sizes. The head-and-body length can range from , with a species average of around . At the shoulder on all fours, females average  against males, which average . The typical weight range for both sexes is reportedly , with males averaging  and females averaging . Some males may weigh as much as .

Like other baboons, the olive baboon has an elongated, dog-like muzzle. Its  long tail and four-legged gait can make it seem canine. The tail almost looks as if it is broken, as it is erect for the first quarter, after which it drops down sharply. The bare patch of a baboon's rump is smaller in the olive baboon than in the Hamadryas baboon or Guinea baboon. The olive baboon, like most cercopithecines, has a cheek pouch with which to store food.

Distribution and habitat
The species inhabits a strip of 25 equatorial African countries, very nearly ranging from the east to west coasts of the continent. The exact boundaries of this strip are not clearly defined, as the species' territory overlaps with that of other baboon species. In many places, this has resulted in cross-breeding between species. For example, considerable hybridisation has occurred between the olive baboon and the hamadryas baboon in Ethiopia. Cross-breeding with the yellow baboon and the Guinea baboon has also been observed. Although this has been noted, the hybrids have not as yet been well studied.

Throughout its wide range, the olive baboon can be found in a number of different habitats. It is usually classified as savannah-dwelling, living in the wide plains of the grasslands. The grasslands, especially those near open woodland, do make up a large part of its habitat, but the baboon also inhabits rainforests and deserts. Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for instance, both support olive baboon populations in dense tropical forests.

Behaviour and ecology

Social structure
The olive baboon lives in groups of 15 to 150, made up of a few males, many females, and their young. Each baboon has a social ranking somewhere in the group, depending on its dominance. Female dominance is hereditary, with daughters having nearly the same rank as their mothers, and adult females forming the core of the social system. Female relatives form their own subgroups in the troop. Related females are largely friendly to each other. They tend to stay close together and groom one another, and team up in aggressive encounters within the troop. Female kin form these strong bonds because they do not emigrate from their natal groups.

Occasionally, groups may split up when they become so large that competition for resources is problematic, but even then, members of matrilines tend to stick together. Dominant females procure more food, matings, and supporters. Among olive baboons in Tanzania, high-ranking females give birth at shorter intervals to infants with a higher survival rate, and their daughters tend to mature faster than low-ranking females. These high-ranking females also appear to have a higher probability of miscarriages and some high-ranking matrilines have inexplicably low fertility. One theory suggests this occurs due to stress on the high-ranking females, although this theory is controversial. A recent study shows top-ranking females are at risk from male harassment. Males who have recently immigrated harass females in order to induce miscarriages in females they had not yet mated with, in order to impregnate them with an offspring that is his own faster. As females with living infants often have male allies protecting their infants, it makes more sense for a male to ignore infants and channel his aggression to the group's resident pregnant females who do not currently have infants instead.

A female often forms a long-lasting social relationship with a male in her troop, known as a "friendship". These nonsexual affiliative friendships benefit both the male and female. Males benefit from these relationships because they are usually formed soon after he immigrates into a new group, and helps the male integrate into the group more easily. He could also potentially end up mating with his female friend in the future. Females gain protection from threats to themselves and their infants (if they have any). Males occasionally "baby-sit" for their female friends, so she can feed and forage freely without the burden of having to carry or watch the infant. Sexually receptive females and newly immigrated males can form such friendships. These relationships are sometimes enduring and the pair grooms and remains close to each other. They also travel, forage, sleep, and raise infants together, as well as fight together against aggressive conspecifics.

Females with high social ranks even forge friendships with multiple males at once. Another advantage of these friendships is it enables females to gain protection from the unwanted advances of males aiming to mate with them. A female who finds a male undesirable can simply rebuff his advances by calling on her male friends to chase him away, and can therefore enjoy exerting her reproductive skew. While infanticide is a reproductive strategy in males, it is costly for females, which would also explain why infanticide is a rare occurrence in olive baboons yet can be the principal cause of infant mortality in many other baboon subspecies: high-ranking females can simply rebuff a male threatening her infant, making infant-targeted aggression a reproductive disadvantage in olive baboons. This also explains the reason male olive baboons use infants as shields in aggressive encounters.

Males establish their dominance more forcefully than females. A male disperses, or leaves his natal group and joins another group, after reaching sexual maturity. Adult males are very competitive with each other and fight for access to females. Higher dominance means better access to mating and earlier access to food, so naturally a great deal of fighting over rank occurs, with younger males constantly trying to rise in position. Because females stay with their groups their entire lives, and males emigrate to others, often a new male challenges an older one for dominance. Frequently, when older baboons drop in the social hierarchy, they move to another tribe. The younger males who pushed them down often bully and harass them. Older males tend to have more supportive and equal relationships than those of the younger males. The former may form coalitions against the latter.

Despite being hierarchical, baboons appear to be "democratic" when it comes to deciding the direction of collective movement. Individuals are more likely to follow when multiple decision-makers agree on what direction to go rather than simply following dominant individuals.

Reproduction and parenting

Females are sexually mature at seven to eight years old, and males at seven to 10 years. The beginning of a female's ovulation is a signal to the males that she is ready to mate. During ovulation, the skin of the female's anogenital area swells and turns a bright red/pink. The swelling makes it difficult to move and increases the female's chance of microbial or parasitic infection. Females with more swollen anogenital areas reproduce while younger, produce more offspring per year, and those offspring have a better chance of surviving. These females also attract more males, and are more likely to cause aggressive fights between them. Olive baboons tend to mate promiscuously. A male forms a mating consortship with an estrous female, staying close to and copulating with her. Males guard their partner against any other male trying to mate with her. Unless a female is in a multiday consortship, she often copulates with more than one male each day. Multiple copulations are not necessary for reproduction, but may function to make the actual paternity of the female's offspring ambiguous. This lack of paternal certainty could help reduce the occurrence of infanticide. Occasionally, male olive baboons monopolize a female for her entire period of probable conception. The male protects his female from being mated by other males during consortship.

Newborns have black natal coats and bright pink skin. Females are the primary caregivers of infants, but males also play a role. In its first few days, the infant may be unable to stay attached to its mother and relies on her for physical support. Its grasp grows stronger by its first week and it is able to cling to its mother's fur by itself. By two weeks, the infant begins to explore its surroundings for short periods, but stays near her. The distance the infant spends away from its mother increases the older it gets. In general, higher-ranking females are usually more relaxed parents than females of lower rank, which usually keep their offspring close to them. This difference lasts for approximately the first eight weeks of an infant's life. Olive baboons do not seem to practise co-operative parenting, but a female may groom an infant that is not hers. Subadult and juvenile females are more likely to care for another's young, as they have not yet produced offspring of their own. One theory for why immature females tend to seek out infants is that they can prepare for their future roles as mothers. Infant baboons born to first-time mothers suffer higher mortality than those born to experienced mothers, which suggests that prior experience in caring for infants is important. Adult males in the groups also care for the infants, as they are likely to be related to them. Males groom infants, reducing the amount of parasites they may have, and calm them when they are stressed. They may also protect them from predators, such as chimpanzees. Adult males exploit infants and often use them as shields to reduce the likelihood that other males will threaten them.

Communication

Olive baboons communicate with various vocalizations and facial expressions. Throughout the day, baboons of all ages emit the "basic grunt". Adults give a range of calls. The "roargrunt" is made by adult males displaying to each other. The "cough-bark", and the "cough geck" are made when low-flying birds or humans they do not know are sighted. A "wa-hoo" call is made in response to predators or neighbouring groups at night and during stressful situations. Other vocalizations include "broken grunting" (low-volume, quick series of grunts made during relatively calm aggressive encounters), "pant-grunts" (made when aggressive encounters escalate), "shrill barks" (loud calls given when potential threats appear suddenly), and "screams" (continuous high-pitch sounds responding to strong emotions). The most common facial expression of the olive baboon is "lipsmacking", which is associated with a number of behaviours. "Ear flattening", "eyes narrowed", "head shaking", "jaw-clapping", lipsmacking, and "tongue protrusion" are used when baboons are greeting each other, and are sometimes made with a "rear present". "Eyebrow raising", "molar grinding", "staring", and "yawning" are used to threaten other baboons. A submissive baboon responds with displays such as the "fear grin", the "rigid crouch", and "tail erect".

Diet

One major reason for its widespread success is that the olive baboon is omnivorous and like other baboons, will eat practically anything. As such, it is able to find nutrition in almost any environment and is able to adapt with different foraging tactics. For instance, the olive baboon in grassland goes about finding food differently from one in a forest. The baboon forages on all levels of an environment, above and beneath the ground and in the canopy of forests. Most animals only look for food at one level; an arboreal species such as a lemur does not look for food on the ground. The olive baboon searches as wide an area as it can, and it eats virtually everything it finds.

The diet typically includes a large variety of plants, and invertebrates and small mammals, as well as birds. The olive baboon eats leaves, grass, roots, bark, flowers, fruit, lichens, tubers, seeds, mushrooms, corms, and rhizomes. Corms and rhizomes are especially important in times of drought, because grass loses a great deal of its nutritional value. In dry, arid regions, such as the northeastern deserts, small invertebrates like insects, grubs, worms, spiders, and scorpions fill out its diet.

The olive baboon also actively hunts prey, such as small rodents, birds and other primates. Its limit is usually small antelope, such as Thomson's gazelle, but will also kill sheep, goats, and chickens from farms, which may amount to around one third of its food from hunting. Hunting is usually a group activity, with both males and females participating. This systematic predation was apparently developed recently. In a field study, such behaviour was observed as starting with the males of one troop and spreading through all ages and sexes.

In Eritrea, the olive baboon has formed a symbiotic relationship with that country's endangered elephant population. The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants, while the elephants use the tree-top baboons as an early warning system.

Conservation status
The olive baboon is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because it is widespread with a large global population and not theatended by a range-wide population decline. Competition and disease have possibly led to fewer baboons in closed forests. Like most other baboon species, it is routinely exterminated as a pest for crop raiding and small livestock predation.

References

External links

olive baboon
Fauna of the Sahara
Mammals of Sub-Saharan Africa
Mammals of West Africa
Mammals of the Central African Republic
Mammals of South Sudan
Mammals of Uganda
olive baboon
Taxa named by René Lesson

Olive baboon


Il existe plusieurs routes ayant comme numéro 659 dans le monde.

 Route régionale 659 en Finlande
 Route nationale 659 en France

Route 659


Värtsilä (en , Viartsilia) est une agglomération urbaine et une ville du raïon de Sortavala de la république de Carélie en Russie.

Géographie
Värtsilä est situé à  de la ville de Sortavala, à la frontière entre la Finlande et la Russie, sur la route de Joensuu.
Elle est voisine des municipalités rurales de Loimola et Kaalamo.

La superficie de la municipalité de Värtsilä est de .
92,7 % de sa superficie est forestière et 6,1 % est résidentielle.
Värtsilä est traversée par la rivière Jänisjoki et son affluent la rivière Juuvanjoki.

Démographie

Recensements (*) ou estimations de la population

Histoire
Avant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, Värtsilä faisait partie de la municipalité finlandaise de Värtsilä.

Le village de Värtsilä fait partie des territoires cédés par la Finlande à l'Union soviétique après la guerre d'hiver et la guerre de continuation.

L'usine sidérurgique de Wärtsilä qui s'y trouve a été réhabilitée par des prisonniers et l'usine d'acier et de fil de fer barbelé a été mise en service en 1947.
Le camp de prisonniers de Värtsilä a été fermé en 1953.
La fonderie d'acier a ensuite été fermée pour cause de non rentabilité.

Transports
La route bleue, route touristique internationale, traverse Värtsilä.
La route bleue traverse quatre pays depuis Mo i Rana, en Norvège, passe par la Suède et la Finlande et va jusqu'à Poudoj en Russie.
Le poste-frontière de Niirala est a cinq kilomètres de Värtsilä.

Elle est aussi reliée à Aunus  par les autoroutes  et .

Personnalités
Alès Bialiatski (1962-), militant biélorusse, prix Nobel de la Paix en 2022.

Bibliographie

Références

Voir aussi

Commune urbaine en Carélie
Raïon de Sortavala
Territoires cédés par la Finlande à l'Union soviétique
Ancienne commune en Finlande
Ville frontière
Village des zones cédées par la Finlande à l'Union soviétique

Värtsilä (Russie)


Roth may refer to:

Places

Germany
 Roth (district), in Bavaria, Germany
 Roth, Bavaria, capital of that district
Roth (electoral district), a federal electoral district
 Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany:
 Roth an der Our, in the district Bitburg-Prüm
 Roth bei Prüm, in the district Bitburg-Prüm
 Roth, Altenkirchen, in the district of Altenkirchen
 Roth, Bad Kreuznach, in the district of Bad Kreuznach
 Roth, Rhein-Hunsrück, in the district Rhein-Hunsrück
 Roth, Rhein-Lahn, in the district Rhein-Lahn-Kreis

France
 Roth, Moselle, a village in the commune of Hambach, Moselle

United States
 Roth, Illinois, a community
 Roth, North Dakota, a community
 Roth, Virginia, a community

Rivers
 Roth (Danube), a river of Bavaria, Germany, tributary of the Danube
 Roth (Rednitz), a river of Bavaria, Germany, tributary of the Rednitz
 Roth (Zusam), a river of Bavaria, Germany, tributary of the Zusam
 Rot (Apfelstädt), a river also called Roth, of Thuringia, Germany, tributary of the Apfelstädt

People
 Roth (surname)
 Roth, formal botanical abbreviation for Albrecht Wilhelm Roth (1757–1834), German physician and botanist

Fictional characters
 Cooper Roth, Marvel Comics superhero
 Hyman Roth, fictional character in the film The Godfather Part II
 Margo Roth Spiegelman, a prominent character in YA novel Paper Towns
 Rachel Roth, alias for DC Comics superhero Raven

Other uses
 Challenge Roth, a long-distance triathlon race
 Daniel Roth (watchmakers), watch making company
 Roth IRA or Roth 401(k), tax-advantaged retirement savings accounts in the U.S.

Acronyms
 Realms of the Haunting, computer game

See also
 Rothe

Roth


Elam (persisk: تمدن عیلام) var et oldtidsrige øst for Sumer og Akkad i det, som nu er det sydvestlige Iran. Elamiterne kaldte deres land Haltamti (senere elamitisk Atamti) som naboerne akkaderne lånte som Elam. Haltamti var kendt som Elam i det Det Gamle Testamente, hvor de bliver kaldt efterkommerne af Elam, den ældste søn af Sem. Riget eksisterede fra ca. 2.400 til 646 f.Kr., da det blev okkuperet af Assyrien. Hovedstaden hed Susa og ruinerne af denne by ligger ca. 35 mil øst for Bagdad.

Højlandet under Elam blev mere og mere identificeret med dets lavere liggende, senere hovedstad, Susa, og geografer efter Ptolemaios kaldte det Susiana. Selv om det var primært centreret i provinsen Khuzestan i imperiets tid, udvidede elamiterne deres civilisation ind i provinsen Fars i forhistorisk tid. Navnet på den moderne provins Khuzestān kommer fra den gammelpersiske rod Hujiyā, som betyder "Elam".

Elamitisk sprog

Elamitisk er ikke i slægt med naboernes semitisk, sumerisk og indo-europæisk sprog. Nogle forskere tror, at sproget er i slægt med de dravidiske sprog i det sydlige Indien. Flere udviklingstrin i sproget er dokumenteret: det tidligste dateres til det 3. årtusinde f.Kr. og det seneste til achæmenidernes imperium. Elamitisk forsvandt ca. år 100. Elamiterne har efterladt sig 30.000 lertavler med elamitisk skrift.

Historie

Det iranske plateau oplevede ikke opvæksten af en urban, litterær civilisation i det sene 4. og tidlige 3. årtusinde efter mesopotamisk mønster, men lavlandet Khuzestan gjorde det. Det var den elamitiske civilisation.

Geografisk bestod Elam af mere end Khuzestan. Det var en kombination af lavlandene og de nærliggende områder i højlandet i nord og øst. Elamiternes styrke var baseret på evnen til at holde disse områder sammen under et koordineret styre, som tillod maksimal bytte af de naturressourcer, som var unikke i regionen. Traditionelt blev dette gjort gennem en føderal styrestruktur.

Regering

Nær forbundet med denne styreform var elamiternes arvesystem og magtfordeling. Det almindelige ledelsesmønster bestod af en overherre, som styrede over vasalprinser. I de tidligste tider boede overherren i Susa, som var føderal hovedstad. Sammen med ham styrede hans broder, som var nærmest i alder, vicekongen, som almindeligvis havde sit hovedsæde i den oprindelige by, som det for tiden styrende dynasti stammede fra. Denne vicekonge var arving til overherren. En tredje tjenestemand, regenten eller prinsen af Susa (distriktet) delte magten med overherren og vicekongen. Han var som regel overherrens søn eller, dersom ingen søn var tilgængelig, hans nevø. Når overherren døde, blev vicekongen overherre. Prinsen af Susa forblev i sit embede, og broderen til den gamle vicekonge nærmest ham i alder blev den nye vicekonge. Kun hvis alle brødrene var døde, blev prinsen af Susa forfremmet til vicekonge, som gjorde, at overherren kunne udnævne sin søn (eller nevø) som den nye prins af Susa. Et sådant kompliceret system af kontrolleret, balanceret magtarv brød ofte sammen til trods for æresægteskaber (obligatoriske ægteskaber mellem en enke og hendes afdøde mands broder). Det, som er bemærkelsesværdigt, er, hvor ofte systemet ikke virkede. Det var kun i de mellem- og senelamitiske perioder, at sønner som regel efterfulgte deres fader på tronen.

Tre hovedperioder

Elamitisk historie kan inddeles i tre hovedfaser: den ældre, mellemste og sene eller neo-elamitiske periode. I alle perioderne var Elam nært forbundet med Sumer, Babylonien og Assyrien, nogle gange gennem fredelig handel, men oftest i krig. På samme måde var Elam ofte deltager i begivenheder på det iranske plateau. Begge involveringerne må ses i forbindelse med det kombinerede behov for alle lavlands-civilisationer om at kontrollere de krigerske folk i øst og udnytte økonomiske ressourcer på plateauet.

Ældre elamitiske periode

De tidligste konger i den ældre elamitiske periode kan dateres til omkring 2.700 f.Kr. Landet var allerede i konflikt med Mesopotamien, i dette tilfælde med byen Ur, som var karakteristisk for elamitisk historie. Disse tidlige herskere blev fulgt af Awan (Shustar)-dynastiet.

Den 11. konge af denne linje indgik en traktat med den store Naram-Sin af Akkad (ca. 2.254-ca. 2.218 f.Kr.). Men snart dukkede der et nyt herskerhus op, Simash-dynastiet (Simash kan have været i det bjergene til det sydlige Luristan. Den betydeligste begivenhed i denne periode var Elams erobring af Shulgi af det 3. Ur-dynasti, en begivenhed som blev husket længe i mesopotamiske sørgesange og tekster. Omkring midten af det 19. århundrede f.Kr. gik magten i Elam videre til et nyt dynasti, Eparti. Den tredje konge i denne rækken, Shirukdukh, var aktiv i forskellige militære koalitioner mod den stigende magt i Babylon, men Hammurabi (ca. 1.792-ca. 1.750 f.Kr.) kunne ikke bekæmpes, og Elam blev knust i år 1.764 f.Kr. Det ældre babylonske kongedømme faldt hurtigt sammen i nedgangstiderne efter Hammurabis død, og det varede ikke længe, før elamiterne kunne få hævn. Kutir-Nahhunte I angreb Samsuiluna (ca. 1.749-ca. 1.712 f.Kr.), Hammurabis søn, og gav dem et så alvorligt nederlag for babylonerne, at begivenheden blev husket i en inskription af den assyriske konge Ashurbanipal mere end 1000 år senere. Det kan antages, at med dette slag fik Elam igen sin uafhængighed. Slutningen på Eparti-dynastiet, som kan være indtruffet i det sene 16. århundrede f.Kr., er uklar.

Mellem-elamitiske periode

Efter to århundreder, hvor kilderne ikke afslører nogen ting, indledtes mellem-perioden med, at Anzanitt-dynastiet kom til magten. Dette dynastis hjemland lå antagelig i bjergene nordøst for Khuzestan. Politisk ekspansion under Khumbannumena (ca. 1.285-ca. 1.266 f.Kr.), den fjerde konge i denne række, fulgte hurtigt, og hans fremgange blev husket ved, at han tog titlen "udvider af imperiet". Han blev efterfulgt af sin søn, Untash-Gal, en samtidig med Shalmaneser I af Assyrien (ca. 1.274-ca. 1.245 f.Kr.) og grundlægger af byen Dur Untash (senere Chogha Zanbi).

I årene, som umiddelbart fulgte Untash-Gal, fandt Elam sig i en voksende reel eller potentiel konflikt med den stigende magt Assyrien. Tukulti-Ninurta I af Assyrien (ca. 1.244-ca. 1.208 f.Kr.) foretog felttog i bjergene nord for Elam. Elamiterne under Kidin-Khutran, den anden konge efter Untash-Gal, svarede med et vellykket og ødelæggende angreb på Babylonien.

Til sidst ser det imidlertid ud til, at den assyriske magt blev for stor. Tukulti-Ninurta formåede at udvide, for en kort tid, assyrisk kontrol langt ind i det sydlige Mesopotamien, Kitin-Khutran forsvandt i det ukendte og Anzanitt-dynastiet forsvandt.

Efter en kort periode med dynastiske problemer, åbnede den anden halvdel af mellem-perioden med styret under Shutruk-Nahhunte (ca. 1160 f.Kr.). To lige stærke og to ikke mindre imponerende konger fulgte grundlæggeren af et nyt dynasti, hvis hjem antageligvis var Susa, og i denne periode blev Elam en af de største militære magter i Mellemøsten. Tukulti-Ninurta døde omkring 1.208 f.Kr. og Assyrien svækkedes i en periode med intern svaghed og dynastiske konflikter. Elam var hurtig til at drage fordel af denne situation med udbredte felttog i området ved Diyala-floden og ind i selve hjertet af Mesopotamien. Shutruk-Nahhunte erobrede Babylon og bragte stelaen, som de berømte love af Hammurabi var skrevet på, til Susa. Shilkhak-In-Shushinak, broder og efterfølger efter Shutruk-Nahhuntes ældste søn, Kutir-Nahhunte, var fortsat ivrig efter at drage nytte af den assyriske svaghed og sendte felttog så langt mod nord som området ved nutidens Kirkuk. Men i Babylonien ledede det andre dynastiet under Isin et indfødt oprør mod en sådan kontrol, som elamiterne havde kunnet udøve der, og elamiternes magt i det centrale Meopotamien blev til sidst brudt. Elamiternes militære imperium begyndte at skrumpe hurtigt. Nebukadnesar I af Babylon (ca. 1.124-ca. 1.103 f.Kr.) angreb Elam og blev kun akkurat slået tilbage. Et nyt babylonsk angreb lykkedes derimod, og hele Elam blev overvundet, hvilket endte mellem-perioden.

Det er bemærkelsesværdigt, at i løbet af mellem-perioden virker det som, at om det gamle arvesystem for magten brød sammen. Det blev mere og mere almindeligt, at en søn efterfulgte faderen, og det blev mindre almindeligt med en delt autoritet inden for et føderalt system. Dette reflekterer antageligvis forsøget på at øge den centrale autoritet i Susa for at kunne udføre effektive felttog i udlandet og at holde elamiternes udenlandske erobringer. Det gamle system, der balancerede regionalisme med føderalisme, må have tabt på dette, og den bevægelse mod fraktioner og sektioner, som svækkede Elam i den sene periode, kan have haft sine rødder i den centrifugale udvikling i det 13. og 12. århundrede f.Kr.

Sene elamitiske periode

En lang periode med mørke delte mellem-perioden og den sene elamitiske periode. I 742 f.Kr. nævnes en vis Huban-nugash som konge i Elam. Landet virker som om, det er blevet delt i separate provinser, med en ret svag centralmagt.

De næste 100 år så konstante forsøg fra elamiterne på at blande sig i mesopotamiske affærer, almindeligvis i alliance med Babylon mod det konstante pres fra neo-assyrisk ekspansion. Til tider lykkedes de med denne politik, både militært og diplomatisk, men i det hele blev de presset til at give efter for den voksende assyriske magt. Lokale elamitiske dynastiproblemer sammenfaldt fra tid til anden med både assyrisk og babylonsk indblanding. Imens eliminerede den assyriske hær den elamitiske magt og indflydelsen i Luristan. I tider, hvor dette indtraf, resulterede dette interne og eksterne pres i nær kollaps af al central autoritet i Elam. I en serie kampagner mellem 692 og 639 f.Kr., i et forsøg på at rense op i et politisk og diplomatisk kaos, som var blevet kronisk hovedpine for assyrerne, knuste Ashurbanipals arméer Susa, nedrev bygninger, plyndrede og ødelagde landet.

Litteratur
 Khačikjan, Margaret (1998): The Elamite Language, Documenta Asiana IV, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Istituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici,
 Potts, Daniel T. (1999): The archaeology of Elam: formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state, Cambridge U.,  and
 Quintana Cifuentes, E. (1997): Historia de Elam, el vecino mesopotámico, Murcia. Estudios Orientales. IPOA-Murcia. Spania.
 Quintana Cifuentes, E. (2000): Textos y Fuentes para el estudio del Elam, Murcia. Estudios Orientales. IPOA-Murcia. Spania.
 Quintana Cifuentes, E. (2010): La Lengua Elamita (Irán pre-persa), Madrid. Gram Ediciones.

Eksterne henvisninger
 Elam i det antikke sydvestlige Iran
 Alle imperierne – Elamitternes imperium
 Iran før iranerne
 Encyclopedia of the Orient: Elam

Irans historie
Højkulturer
Civilisationer

Elam


The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a spacecraft designed to search for the existence of water on Mars and provide support for missions to Mars, as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program. It was launched from Cape Canaveral on August 12, 2005, at 11:43 UTC and reached Mars on March 10, 2006, at 21:24 UTC. In November 2006, after six months of aerobraking, it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase.

Mission objectives include observing the climate of Mars, investigating geologic forces, providing reconnaissance of future landing sites, and relaying data from surface missions back to Earth. To support these objectives, the MRO carries different scientific instruments, including three cameras, two spectrometers and a subsurface radar. As of July 29, 2023, the MRO has returned over 450 terabits of data, helped choose safe landing sites for NASA's Mars landers, discovered pure water ice in new craters and further evidence that water once flowed on the surface on Mars.

The spacecraft continues to operate at Mars, far beyond its intended design life. Due to its critical role as a high-speed data-relay for ground missions, NASA intends to continue the mission as long as possible, at least through the late 2020s. As of  , , the MRO has been active at Mars for  sols, or , and is the third longest-lived spacecraft to orbit Mars, after 2001 Mars Odyssey and Mars Express.

Pre-launch
After the failures of the Mars Climate Orbiter and the Mars Polar Lander missions in 1999, NASA reorganized and replanned its Mars Exploration Program. In October 2000, NASA announced its reformulated Mars plans, which reduced the number of planned missions and introduced a new theme, "follow the water". The plans included the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), to be launched in 2005.

On October 3, 2001, NASA chose Lockheed Martin as the primary contractor for the spacecraft's fabrication. By the end of 2001 all of the mission's instruments were selected. There were no major setbacks during the MRO's construction, and the spacecraft was shipped to John F. Kennedy Space Center on May 1, 2005, to prepare it for launch.

Mission objectives

MRO has both scientific and "mission support" objectives. The prime science mission was initially designed to last from November 2006 to November 2008, and the mission support phase from November 2006 to November 2010. Both missions have been extended.

The formal science objectives of MRO are to observe the present climate, particularly its atmospheric circulation and seasonal variations; search for signs of water, both past and present, and understand how it altered the planet's surface; map and characterize the geological forces that shaped the surface.

To support other missions to Mars, the MRO also has mission support objectives. They are to provide data relay services from ground missions back to Earth, and characterize the safety and feasibility of potential future landing sites and Mars rover traverses.

MRO played a key role in choosing safe landing sites for the Phoenix lander in 2008, Mars Science Laboratory / Curiosity rover in 2012, InSight lander in 2018, and the Mars 2020 / Perseverance rover in 2021.

Launch and orbital insertion

On August 12, 2005, MRO was launched aboard an Atlas V-401 rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The Centaur upper stage of the rocket completed its burns over a 56-minute period and placed MRO into an interplanetary transfer orbit towards Mars.

MRO cruised through interplanetary space for seven and a half months before reaching Mars. While en route, most of the scientific instruments and experiments were tested and calibrated. To ensure proper orbital insertion upon reaching Mars, four trajectory correction maneuvers were planned and a fifth emergency maneuver was discussed. However, only three trajectory correction maneuvers were necessary, which saved  of fuel that would be usable during MRO's extended mission.

MRO began orbital insertion by approaching Mars on March 10, 2006, and passing above its southern hemisphere at an altitude of . All six of MRO's main engines burned for 27 minutes to slow the probe by . The burn was remarkably accurate, as the insertion route had been designed more than three months prior, with the achieved change in speed only 0.01% short from the design, necessitating an additional 35 second burn time.

Completion of the orbital insertion placed the orbiter in a highly elliptical polar orbit with a period of approximately 35.5 hours. Shortly after insertion, the periapsis – the point in the orbit closest to Mars – was  from the surface ( from the planet's center). The apoapsis – the point in the orbit farthest from Mars – was  from the surface ( from the planet's center).

When MRO entered orbit, it joined five other active spacecraft that were either in orbit or on the planet's surface: Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Express, 2001 Mars Odyssey, and the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity). This set a new record for the most operational spacecraft in the immediate vicinity of Mars.

On March 30, 2006, MRO began the process of aerobraking, a three-step procedure that halved the fuel needed to achieve a lower, more circular orbit with a shorter period. First, during its first five orbits of the planet (one Earth week), MRO used its thrusters to drop the periapsis of its orbit into aerobraking altitude. Second, while using its thrusters to make minor corrections to its periapsis altitude, MRO maintained aerobraking altitude for 445 planetary orbits (about five Earth months) to reduce the apoapsis of the orbit to . This was done in such a way so as to not heat the spacecraft too much, but also dip enough into the atmosphere to slow the spacecraft down. Third, after the process was complete, MRO used its thrusters to move its periapsis out of the edge of the atmosphere on August 30, 2006.

In September 2006, MRO fired its thrusters twice more to adjust its final, nearly circular orbit to approximately  above the surface, with a period of about 112 minutes. The SHARAD radar antennas were deployed on September 16. All of the scientific instruments were tested and most were turned off prior to the solar conjunction that occurred from October 7 to November 6, 2006. This was done to prevent charged particles from the Sun from interfering with signals and potentially endangering the spacecraft. After the conjunction ended the "primary science phase" began.

Timeline

On September 29, 2006 (sol ), MRO took its first high resolution image from its science orbit. This image is said to resolve items as small as 90 cm (3 feet) in diameter. On October 6, NASA released detailed pictures from the MRO of Victoria crater along with the Opportunity rover on the rim above it. In November, problems began to surface in the operation of two MRO spacecraft instruments. A stepping mechanism in the Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) skipped on multiple occasions resulting in a field of view that was slightly out of position. By December, normal operations of the instrument had been suspended, although a mitigation strategy allows the instrument to continue making most of its intended observations. Also, an increase in noise and resulting bad pixels has been observed in several CCDs of the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE). Operation of this camera with a longer warm-up time has alleviated the issue. However, the cause is still unknown and may return.

On November 17, 2006, NASA announced the successful test of the MRO as an orbital communications relay. Using the NASA rover Spirit as the point of origin for the transmission, the MRO acted as a relay for transmitting data back to Earth. HiRISE was able to photograph the Phoenix lander during its parachuted descent to Vastitas Borealis on May 25, 2008 (sol ).

The orbiter continued to experience recurring problems in 2009, including four spontaneous resets, culminating in a four-month shut-down of the spacecraft from August to December. While engineers have not determined the cause of the recurrent resets, they have created new software to help troubleshoot the problem should it recur. Another spontaneous reset occurred in September 2010.

On March 3, 2010, the MRO passed another significant milestone, having transmitted over 100 terabits of data back to Earth, which was more than all other interplanetary probes sent from Earth combined.

In December 2010, the first Extended Mission began. Goals included exploring seasonal processes, searching for surface changes, and providing support for other Martian spacecraft. This lasted until October 2012, after which NASA started the MRO's second Extended Mission, which lasted until October 2014. As of 2023, the MRO has completed five missions, and is currently on its sixth.

On August 6, 2012 (sol ), the orbiter passed over Gale crater, the landing site of the Mars Science Laboratory mission, during its EDL phase. It captured an image via the HiRISE camera of the Curiosity rover descending with its backshell and supersonic parachute. In December 2014 and April 2015, Curiosity was photographed again by HiRISE inside Gale Crater.

Another computer anomaly occurred on March 9, 2014, when the MRO put itself into safe mode after an unscheduled swap from one computer to another. The MRO resumed normal science operations four days later. This occurred again in April 11, 2015, after which the MRO returned to full operational capabilities a week later.

NASA reported that the MRO, as well as the Mars Odyssey Orbiter and MAVEN orbiter had a chance to study the Comet Siding Spring flyby on October 19, 2014. To minimize risk of damage from the material shed by the comet, the MRO made orbital adjustments on July 2, 2014 and August 27, 2014. During the flyby, the MRO took the best ever pictures of a comet from the Oort cloud and was not damaged.

In January 2015, the MRO discovered and identified the wreckage of Britain's Beagle 2, which was lost during its landing phase in 2003 and was thought to have crashed. The images revealed that Beagle 2 had actually landed safely, but one or two of its solar panels had failed to fully deploy, which blocked the radio antenna. In October 2016, the crash site of another lost spacecraft, Schiaparelli EDM, was photographed by the MRO, using both the CTX and HiRISE cameras.

On July 29, 2015, the MRO was placed into a new orbit to provide communications support during the anticipated arrival of the InSight Mars lander mission in September 2016. The maneuver's engine burn lasted for 75 seconds. InSight was delayed and missed the 2016 launch window, but was successfully launched during the next window on May 5, 2018, and landed on November 26, 2018.

Due to the longevity of the mission, a number of MRO components have started deteriorating. From the start of the mission in 2005 to 2017, the MRO had used a Miniature inertial measurement unit (MIMU) for altitude and orientation control. After 58,000 hours of use, and limited signs of life, the orbiter switched over to a backup, which, as of 2018, has reached 52,000 hours of use. To conserve the life of the backup, NASA switched from MIMUs to an "all-stellar" mode for routine operations in 2018. The "all-stellar" mode uses cameras and pattern recognition software to determine the location of stars, which can then be used to identify the MRO's orientation. Problems with blurring in pictures from HiRISE and battery degradation also arose in 2017 but have since been resolved. In August 2023, electronic units within the HiRISE's CCD RED4 sensor began to fail as well, and are causing visual artifacts in pictures taken.

In 2017, the cryocoolers used by CRISM completed their lifecycle, limiting the instrument's capabilities to visible wavelengths, instead of its full wavelength range. In 2022, NASA announced the shutdown of CRISM in its entirety, and the instrument was formally retired on April 3, 2023, after creating two final, near global, maps using prior data and a more limited second spectrometer that did not require cryocoolers.

Instruments

Three cameras, two spectrometers and a radar are included on the orbiter along with three engineering instruments and two "science-facility experiments", which use data from engineering subsystems to collect science data. Two of the engineering instruments are being used to test and demonstrate new equipment for future missions. The MRO takes around 29,000 images per year.

HiRISE

The High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) camera is a  reflecting telescope, the largest ever carried on a deep space mission, and has a resolution of 1 microradian, or  from an altitude of . In comparison, satellite images of Earth are generally available with a resolution of . HiRISE collects images in three color bands, 400 to 600 nm (blue–green or B–G), 550 to 850 nm (red) and 800 to 1,000 nm (near infrared).

Red color images are 20,264 pixels across ( wide), and B–G and NIR are 4,048 pixels across ( wide). HiRISE's onboard computer reads these lines in time with the orbiter's ground speed, and images are potentially unlimited in length. Practically however, their length is limited by the computer's 28 Gb memory capacity, and the nominal maximum size is 20,000 × 40,000 pixels (800 megapixels) and 4,000 × 40,000 pixels (160 megapixels) for B–G and NIR images. Each 16.4 Gb image is compressed to 5 Gb before transmission and release to the general public on the HiRISE website in JPEG 2000 format. To facilitate the mapping of potential landing sites, HiRISE can produce stereo pairs of images from which topography can be calculated to an accuracy of . HiRISE was built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp.

CTX
The Context Camera (CTX) provides grayscale images (500 to 800 nm) with a pixel resolution up to about . CTX is designed to provide context maps for the targeted observations of HiRISE and CRISM, and is also used to mosaic large areas of Mars, monitor a number of locations for changes over time, and to acquire stereo (3D) coverage of key regions and potential future landing sites. The optics of CTX consist of a  focal length Maksutov Cassegrain telescope with a 5,064 pixel wide line array CCD. The instrument takes pictures  wide and has enough internal memory to store an image  long before loading it into the main computer. The camera was built, and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems. CTX had mapped more than 99% of Mars by March 2017 and helped create an interactive map of Mars in 2023.

MARCI

The Mars Color Imager (MARCI) is a wide-angle, relatively low-resolution camera that views the surface of Mars in five visible and two ultraviolet bands. Each day, MARCI collects about 84 images and produces a global map with pixel resolutions of . This map provides a weekly weather report for Mars, helps to characterize its seasonal and annual variations, and maps the presence of water vapor and ozone in its atmosphere. The camera was built and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems. It has a 180-degree fisheye lens with the seven color filters bonded directly on a single CCD sensor. The same MARCI camera was onboard of Mars Climate Orbiter launched in 1998.

CRISM

The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument is a visible and near infrared spectrometer that is used to produce detailed maps of the surface mineralogy of Mars. It operates from 362 to 3920 nm, measures the spectrum in 544 channels (each 6.55 nm wide), and has a resolution of  at an altitude of . CRISM is being used to identify minerals and chemicals indicative of the past or present existence of water on the surface of Mars. These materials include iron oxides, phyllosilicates, and carbonates, which have characteristic patterns in their visible-infrared energy. The CRISM instrument was shut down on April 3, 2023.

MCS

The Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) looks both down and horizontally through the atmosphere in order to quantify the atmosphere's vertical variations. It is a spectrometer with one visible/near infrared channel (0.3 to 3.0 μm) and eight far infrared (12 to 50 μm) channels selected for the purpose. MCS observes the atmosphere on the horizon of Mars (as viewed from MRO) by breaking it up into vertical slices and taking measurements within each slice in  increments. These measurements are assembled into daily global weather maps to show the basic variables of Martian weather: temperature, pressure, humidity, and dust density.

This instrument, supplied by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), is an updated version of a heavier, larger instrument originally developed at JPL for the 1992 Mars Observer and 1998 Mars Climate Orbiter missions.

SHARAD

The Shallow Radar (SHARAD) sounder experiment onboard MRO is designed to probe the internal structure of the Martian polar ice caps. It also gathers planet-wide information about underground layers of regolith, rock, and ice that might be accessible from the surface. SHARAD emits HF radio waves between 15 and 25 MHz, a range that allows it to resolve layers as thin as  to a maximum depth of . It has a horizontal resolution of . SHARAD is designed to complement the Mars Express MARSIS instrument, which has coarser resolution but penetrates to a much greater depth. Both SHARAD and MARSIS were made by the Italian Space Agency.

Engineering instruments and experiments
In addition to its imaging equipment, MRO carries three engineering instruments.  The Electra communications package is a UHF software-defined radio that provides a flexible platform for evolving relay capabilities. It is designed to communicate with other spacecraft as they approach, land, and operate on Mars. In addition to protocol controlled inter-spacecraft data links of 1 kbit/s to 2 Mbit/s, Electra also provides Doppler data collection, open loop recording and a highly accurate timing service based on an ultra-stable oscillator. Doppler information for approaching vehicles can be used for final descent targeting or descent and landing trajectory recreation. Doppler information on landed vehicles allows scientists to accurately determine the surface location of Mars landers and rovers. The two Mars Exploration Rover (MER) spacecraft utilized an earlier generation UHF relay radio providing similar functions through the Mars Odyssey orbiter. The Electra radio has relayed information to and from the MER spacecraft, Phoenix lander and Curiosity rover.

During the cruise phase, the MRO also used the  Telecommunications Experiment Package to demonstrate a less power-intensive way to communicate with Earth.

The Optical Navigation Camera images the Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, against background stars to precisely determine MRO's orbit. Although this is not critical, it was included as a technology test for future orbiting and landing of spacecraft. The Optical Navigation Camera was tested successfully in February and March 2006.

Two additional science investigations are also on the spacecraft. The Gravity Field Investigation Package measures variations in the Martian gravitational field through variations in the spacecraft's speed. Speed changes are detected by measuring doppler shifts in MRO's radio signals received on Earth. Data from this investigation can be used to understand the subsurface geology of Mars, determine the density of the atmosphere and track seasonal changes in the location of carbon dioxide deposited on the surface.

The Atmospheric Structure Investigation used sensitive onboard accelerometers to deduce the in situ atmospheric density of Mars during aerobraking. The measurements helped provide greater understanding of seasonal wind variations, the effects of dust storms, and the structure of the atmosphere.

Engineering data

Structure
Workers at Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Denver assembled the spacecraft structure and attached the instruments. Instruments were constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland, the Italian Space Agency in Rome, and Malin Space Science Systems in San Diego.

The structure is made mostly of carbon composites and aluminum-honeycombed plates. The titanium fuel tank takes up most of the volume and mass of the spacecraft and provides most of its structural integrity. The spacecraft's total mass is less than  with an unfueled dry mass less than .

Power systems

MRO gets all of its electrical power from two solar panels, each of which can move independently around two axes (up-down, or left-right rotation). Each solar panel measures  and has  covered with 3,744 individual photovoltaic cells. Its high-efficiency solar cells are able to convert more than 26% of the energy it receives from the Sun directly into electricity and are connected together to produce a total output of 32 volts. Whilst orbiting Mars, the panels together produce 600–2000 watts of power; in contrast, the panels would generate 6,000 watts in a comparable Earth orbit by being closer to the Sun.

MRO has two rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries used to power the spacecraft when it is not facing the Sun. Each battery has an energy storage capacity of 50 ampere hours (180 kC). The full range of the batteries cannot be used due to voltage constraints on the spacecraft, but allows the operators to extend the battery life—a valuable capability, given that battery drain is one of the most common causes of long-term satellite failure. Planners anticipate that only 40% of the batteries' capacities will be required during the lifetime of the spacecraft.

Electronic systems
MRO's main computer is a 133 MHz, 10.4 million transistor, 32-bit, RAD750 processor, a radiation-hardened version of a PowerPC 750 or G3 processor with a purpose-built motherboard. The operating system software is VxWorks and has extensive fault protection protocols and monitoring.

Data is stored in a 160 Gbit (20 GB) flash memory module consisting of over 700 memory chips, each with a 256 Mbit capacity. This memory capacity is not actually that large considering the amount of data to be acquired; for example, a single image from the HiRISE camera can be as large as 28 Gb.

Telecommunications system

When it was launched, the Telecom Subsystem on MRO was the best digital communication system sent into deep space, and for the first time used capacity-approaching turbo-codes. It was more powerful than any previous deep space mission, and is able to transmit data more than ten times faster than previous Mars missions. Along with the Electra communications package, the system consists of a very large () antenna, which is used to transmit data through the Deep Space Network via X-band frequencies at 8.41 GHz. It also demonstrates the use of the Ka band at 32 GHz for higher data rates. Maximum transmission speed from Mars can be as high as 6 Mbit/s, but averages between 0.5 and 4 Mbit/s. The spacecraft carries two 100-watt X-band Travelling Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTA) (one of which is a backup), one 35-watt Ka-band amplifier, and two Small Deep Space Transponders (SDSTs).

Two smaller low-gain antennas are also present for lower-rate communication during emergencies and special events. These antennas do not have focusing dishes and can transmit and receive from any direction. They are an important backup system to ensure that MRO can always be reached, even if its main antenna is pointed away from the Earth.

The Ka band subsystem was used to show how such a system could be used by spacecraft in the future. Due to lack of spectrum at 8.41 GHz X-band, future high-rate deep space missions will use 32 GHz Ka-band. NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) implemented Ka-band receiving capabilities at all three of its complexes (Goldstone, Canberra and Madrid) over its 34-m beam-waveguide (BWG) antenna subnet. Ka-band tests were also planned during the science phase, but during aerobraking a switch failed, limiting the X-band high gain antenna to a single amplifier. If this amplifier fails all high-speed X-band communications will be lost. The Ka downlink is the only remaining backup for this functionality, and since the Ka-band capability of one of the SDST transponders has already failed, (and the other might have the same problem) JPL decided to halt all Ka-band demonstrations and hold the remaining capability in reserve.

By November 2013, the MRO had passed 200 terabits in the amount of science data returned. The data returned by the mission is more than three times the total data returned via NASA's Deep Space Network for all the other missions managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory over the past 10 years.

Propulsion and attitude control
The spacecraft uses a  fuel tank filled with  of hydrazine monopropellant. Fuel pressure is regulated by adding pressurized helium gas from an external tank. Seventy percent of the propellant was used for orbital insertion, and it has enough propellant to keep functioning into the 2030s.

MRO has 20 rocket engine thrusters on board. Six large thrusters each produce  of thrust for a total of  meant mainly for orbital insertion. These thrusters were originally designed for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander. Six medium thrusters each produce  of thrust for trajectory correction maneuvers and attitude control during orbit insertion. Finally, eight small thrusters each produce  of thrust for attitude control during normal operations.

Four reaction wheels are also used for precise attitude control during activities requiring a highly stable platform, such as high-resolution imaging, in which even small motions can cause blurring of the image. Each wheel is used for one axis of motion. The fourth wheel is a backup in case one of the other three wheels fails. Each wheel weighs  and can be spun as fast as 100 Hz or 6,000 rpm.

In order to determine the spacecraft's orbit and facilitate maneuvers, 16 Sun sensors – eight primaries and eight backups – are placed around the spacecraft to calibrate solar direction relative to the orbiter's frame. Two star trackers, digital cameras used to map the position of catalogued stars, provide NASA with full, three-axis knowledge of the spacecraft orientation and attitude. A primary and backup Miniature Inertial Measurement Unit (MIMU), provided by Honeywell, measures changes to the spacecraft attitude as well as any non-gravitationally induced changes to its linear velocity. Each MIMU is a combination of three accelerometers and three ring-laser gyroscopes. These systems are all critically important to MRO, as it must be able to point its camera to a very high precision in order to take the high-quality pictures that the mission requires. It has also been specifically designed to minimize any vibrations on the spacecraft, so as to allow its instruments to take images without any distortions caused by vibrations.

Cost

The total cost of the MRO through the end of its prime mission was . Of this amount,  was spent on spacecraft development, approximately  for its launch, and  for 5 years of mission operations. Since 2011, MRO's annual operations costs are, on average,  per year, when adjusted for inflation.

Discoveries

Ice

An article in the journal Science in September 2009, reported that some new craters on Mars have excavated relatively pure water ice. After being exposed, the ice gradually fades as it sublimates away. These new craters were found and dated by the CTX camera, and the identification of the ice was confirmed using CRISM. The ice was found in a five locations, three of which were in the Cebrenia quadrangle. These locations are ; ; and . Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle:  and .

Radar results from SHARAD suggested that features termed lobate debris aprons (LDAs) contain large amounts of water ice. Of interest from the days of the Viking Orbiters, these LDA are aprons of material surrounding cliffs. They have a convex topography and a gentle slope; this suggests flow away from the steep source cliff. In addition, lobate debris aprons can show surface lineations just as rock glaciers on the Earth. SHARAD has provided strong evidence that the LDAs in Hellas Planitia are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of debris (i.e. rocks and dust); a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs was observed, suggesting that pure water ice makes up the bulk of the formation (between the two reflections). Based on the experiments of the Phoenix lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit, water ice is known to exist just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes).

Chloride deposits and aqueous minerals

Using data from Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Odyssey, and the MRO, scientists have found widespread deposits of chloride minerals. Evidence suggests that the deposits were formed from the evaporation of mineral enriched waters. The research suggests that lakes may have been scattered over large areas of the Martian surface. Usually, chlorides are the last minerals to come out of solution. Carbonates, sulfates, and silica should precipitate out ahead of them. Sulfates and silica have been found by the Mars rovers on the surface. Places with chloride minerals may have once held various life forms. Furthermore, such areas could preserve traces of ancient life.

In 2009, a group of scientists from the CRISM team reported on nine to ten different classes of minerals formed in the presence of water. Different types of clays (also called phyllosilicates) were found in many locations. The phyllosilicates identified included aluminum smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, kaolinite, prehnite, and chlorite. Rocks containing carbonate were found around the Isidis basin. Carbonates belong to one class in which life could have developed. Areas around Valles Marineris were found to contain hydrated silica and hydrated sulfates. The researchers identified hydrated sulfates and ferric minerals in Terra Meridiani and in Valles Marineris. Other minerals found on Mars were jarosite, alunite, hematite, opal, and gypsum. Two to five of the mineral classes were formed with the right pH and sufficient water to permit life to grow.

Recurring slope lineae

On August 4, 2011 (sol ), NASA announced that MRO had detected dark streaks on slopes, known as recurring slope lineae caused by what appeared to be flowing salty water on the surface or subsurface of Mars. On September 28, 2015, this finding was confirmed at a special NASA news conference. In 2017, however, further research suggested that the dark streaks were created by grains of sand and dust slipping down slopes, and not water darkening the ground.

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Official instrument websites
 HiRISE website from The University of Arizona
 CTX website from Malin Space Science Systems
 MARCI website from Malin Space Science Systems
 SHARAD website from NASA
 CRISM website from Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory

Images
 MRO images at the JPL Photojournal
 MRO images at the NASA Image Gallery

Mars Exploration Program
Reconnaissance
Mars Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance
Mars Reconnaissance
Mars Reconnaissance
Spacecraft launched by Atlas rockets
2005 in Florida

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter


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Game of War: Fire Age


The Munda languages are a group of closely related languages spoken by about nine million people in India and Bangladesh. Historically, they have been called the Kolarian languages. They constitute a branch of the Austroasiatic language family, which means they are more distantly related to languages such as the Mon and Khmer languages, to Vietnamese, as well as to minority languages in Thailand and Laos and the minority Mangic languages of South China. Bhumij, Ho, Mundari, and Santali are notable Munda languages.

The family is generally divided into two branches: North Munda, spoken in the Chota Nagpur Plateau of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal, as well as in parts of Bangladesh, and South Munda, spoken in central Odisha and along the border between Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.

North Munda, of which Santali is the most widely spoken and recognised as an official language in India, has twice as many speakers as South Munda. After Santali, the Mundari and Ho languages rank next in number of speakers, followed by Korku and Sora. The remaining Munda languages are spoken by small, isolated groups,  and are poorly described.

Characteristics of the Munda languages include three grammatical numbers (singular, dual and plural), two genders (animate and inanimate), a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first person plural pronouns, the use of suffixes or auxiliaries to indicate tense, and partial, total, and complex reduplication, as well as switch-reference. The Munda languages are also polysynthetic and agglutinating. In Munda sound systems, consonant sequences are infrequent except in the middle of a word.

Origin

Most linguists, including Paul Sidwell (2018), suggest that the Proto-Munda language probably split from proto-Austroasiatic somewhere in Indochina and arrived on the coast of modern-day Odisha about 4000–3500 years ago and spread after the Indo-Aryan migration to the region.

Rau and Sidwell (2019), along with Blench (2019), suggest that pre-Proto-Munda had arrived in the Mahanadi River Delta around 1,500 BCE from Southeast Asia via a maritime route, rather than overland. The Munda languages then subsequently spread up the Mahanadi watershed. 2021 studies suggest that Munda languages spread as far as Eastern Uttar Pradesh and impacted Eastern Indo-Aryan languages.

Classification
Munda consists of five uncontroversial branches (Korku as an isolate, Remo, Savara, Kherwar, and Kharia-Juang). However, their interrelationship is debated.

Diffloth (1974)
The bipartite Diffloth (1974) classification is widely cited:

North Munda
 Korku
Kherwarian
Kherwari branch: Birjia, Koraku
Mundari branch: Mundari, Bhumij, Asuri, Koda, Ho, Birhor, Kol, Turi
Santal branch: Santali, Mahali
South Munda
Kharia–Juang: Kharia, Juang
Koraput Munda
 Remo branch: Gata (Gta), Bondo (Remo), Bodo Gadaba (Gutob)
Savara branch [Sora–Juray–Gorum] : Parengi (Gorum), Sora (Savara), Juray, Lodhi

Diffloth (2005)
Diffloth (2005) retains Koraput (rejected by Anderson, below) but abandons South Munda and places Kharia–Juang with the northern languages:

Anderson (1999)
Gregory Anderson's 1999 proposal is as follows.

North Munda
Korku
Kherwarian: Santali, Mundari
South Munda (3 branches)
Kharia–Juang: Juang, Kharia
Sora–Gorum: Sora, Gorum
Gutob–Remo–Gtaʔ
Gutob–Remo: Gutob, Remo
Gta': Plains Gtaʔ, Hill Gtaʔ

However, in 2001, Anderson split Juang and Kharia apart from the Juang-Kharia branch and also excluded Gtaʔ from his former Gutob–Remo–Gtaʔ branch. Thus, his 2001 proposal includes 5 branches for South Munda.

Anderson (2001)
Anderson (2001) follows Diffloth (1974) apart from rejecting the validity of Koraput. He proposes instead, on the basis of morphological comparisons, that Proto-South Munda split directly into Diffloth's three daughter groups, Kharia–Juang, Sora–Gorum (Savara), and Gutob–Remo–Gta' (Remo).

His South Munda branch contains the following five branches, while the North Munda branch is the same as those of Diffloth (1974) and Anderson (1999).

Note: "↔" = shares certain innovative isoglosses (structural, lexical). In Austronesian and Papuan linguistics, this has been called a "linkage" by Malcolm Ross.

Sidwell (2015)
Paul Sidwell (2015:197) considers Munda to consist of 6 coordinate branches, and does not accept South Munda as a unified subgroup.
North Munda
Korku
Santali, Munda
Sora–Gorum
Juang
Kharia
Gutob–Remo
Gta'

Distribution

Reconstruction

The proto-forms have been reconstructed by Sidwell & Rau (2015: 319, 340–363). Proto-Munda reconstruction has since been revised and improved by Rau (2019).

See also
 Nihali language
 Munda peoples

References

Notes

General references
 Diffloth, Gérard. 1974. "Austro-Asiatic Languages". Encyclopædia Britannica. pp 480–484.
 Diffloth, Gérard. 2005. "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology to the homeland of Austro-Asiatic". In: Sagart, Laurent, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas (eds.). The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. RoutledgeCurzon. pp 79–82.

Further reading

 2006-a. Munda Languages. In E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press.
 Zide, Norman H. and G. D. S. Anderson. 1999. The Proto-Munda Verb and Some Connections with Mon-Khmer. In P. Bhaskararao (ed.) Working Papers International Symposium on South Asian Languages Contact and Convergence, and Typology. Tokyo. pp. 401–21.
 Zide, Norman H. and Gregory D. S. Anderson. 2001. The Proto-Munda Verb: Some Connections with Mon-Khmer. In K. V. Subbarao and P. Bhaskararao (eds.) Yearbook of South-Asian Languages and Linguistics-2001. Delhi: Sage Publications. pp. 517–40.
 Gregory D. S. Anderson and John P. Boyle. 2002. Switch-Reference in South Munda. In Marlys A. Macken (ed.) Papers from the 10th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, South East Asian Studies Program, Monograph Series Press. pp. 39–54.
 Gregory D. S. Anderson and Norman H. Zide. 2001. Recent Advances in the Reconstruction of the Proto-Munda Verb. In L. Brinton (ed.) Historical Linguistics 1999. Amsterdam: Benjamins. pp. 13–30.

Historical migrations
Blench, Roger. 2019. The Munda maritime dispersal: when, where and what is the evidence?
Rau, Felix and Paul Sidwell 2019. "The Maritime Munda Hypothesis." ICAAL 8, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 29–31 August 2019.
Rau, Felix and Paul Sidwell 2019. "The Maritime Munda Hypothesis." Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 12.2 (2019): 31-53

External links

SEAlang Munda Languages Project
SEAlang Munda Etymological Dictionary
Donegan & Stampe Munda site
Munda languages at Living Tongues
bibliography
The Ho language webpage by K. David Harrison, Swarthmore College
RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EE-3@view Munda languages in RWAAI Digital Archive

Munda languages


Pherosphaera fitzgeraldii er tegund af barrtrjám í gagnviðarætt sem vex á Bláfjöllum í Ástralíu. Hún er eina tegund sinnar ættkvíslar,eða önnur tveggja. Þetta er lágur runni, um 1m hár.

Tilvísanir

Barrtré

Pherosphaera fitzgeraldii


John Marshall Watson (Belfast, Sjeverna Irska, 4. svibnja 1946.) bio je britanski vozač automobilskih utrka.

Utrke u kategoriji Formula 1 je započeo voziti 1972. za momčad Goldie Hexagon Racing koja se natjecala u Victory Race prvenstvu koje se nije bodovalo za Formulu 1 a voženo je na stazi Brands Hatch.

U Formuli 1 debitirao je 1973. U 12 sezona, pobijedio je 5 puta, te ostvario 20 podija, 5 najbržih krugova i 2 najbolje startne pozicije. 1982. s McLarenom je konkurirao za naslov do posljednje utrke. Na kraju je zaostao 5 bodova za prvakom Kekeom Rosbergom. Watson i danas drži rekord kao vozač koji je pobijedio s najniže startne pozicije. Dogodilo se to na Long Beachu na VN SAD-a 1983., kada je došao do pobjede s 22. mjesta na startu.

Nakon umirovljenja radio je kao televizijski komentator, a od 1990. do 1996. kao komentator utrka Formule 1. Watson je prvi vozač koji je 1990. testirao za momčad Jordan. 7 puta je nastupao na utrci 24 sata Le Mansa.

Karijera u Formuli 1
1973. Brabham, 2 utrke, 0 bodova

1974. Brabham1, 6 bodova, 15. mjesto

1975. Surtees, Lotus, Penske, 0 bodova

1976. Penske, 20 bodova, 7. mjesto (pobjeda na VN Austrije)

1977. Brabham, 9 bodova, 13. mjesto

1978. Brabham, 25 bodova, 6. mjesto

1979. McLaren, 15 bodova, 9. mjesto

1980. McLaren, 6 bodova, 11. mjesto

1981. McLaren, 27 bodova, 6. mjesto (pobjeda na VN Velike Britanije)

1982. McLaren, 39 bodova, 3. mjesto (pobjede na VN Belgije i VN SAD-a )

1983. McLaren, 22 boda, 6. mjesto (pobjeda na VN SAD-a)

1985. McLaren, 1 utrka, mijenjao Nikija Laudu

  Watson je 1974. nastupao za momčad Goldie Hexagon Racing, koja je koristila Brabhamovu šasiju kroz cijelu sezonu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
John Watson na racing-reference.com
John Watson F1 statistika na statsf1.com

Britanski vozači Formule 1

John Watson


වාස්තු විද්‍යාඥ රුක්ෂාන් විද්‍යාලංකාර  යනු පොදු රාජ්‍ය මණ්ඩලීය වාස්තු විද්‍යා සංගමයේ සභාපතිය. තවද ඔහු වරලත් වාස්තු විද්‍යාඥයෙක්වන අතර හිටපු සභාපති ශ්‍රී ලංකා වාස්තු විද්‍යාඥ සංගමයද වෙයි.

රුක්ෂාන්  කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසුවෙකි.

ආශ්‍රිත

 රුක්ෂාන් විද්‍යාලංකාරගේ ඉංග්‍රීසි විකිපීඩියා පිටුව

 කොළඹ නාලන්දා විද්‍යාලයයේ ආදි සිසු වාස්තු විද්‍යාඥයන්

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකිකයෝ
ආදි නාලන්දියයෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ

රුක්ෂාන් විද්‍යාලංකාර


Basınç, bir yüzey üzerine etkide bulunan dik kuvvetin, birim alana düşen miktarı. Katı, sıvı ve gazlar ağırlıkları nedeniyle bulundukları yüzeye bir kuvvet uygularlar. Kuvvetin kaynağı ne olursa olsun birim yüzeye dik olarak etki eden kuvvete basınç (P), bütün yüzeye dik olarak etki eden kuvvete de basınç kuvveti (F) denir.

 P : Basınç
 F : Kuvvet
 S : Alan

Katılarda basınç
Katı maddeler ağırlıklarından dolayı bulundukları zemine kuvvet uygularlar. Bu nedenle katıların bulundukları zemine uyguladıkları basınç oluşturan dik kuvvet, ağırlıklarıdır. Uygulanan kuvvet ve yüzey alanı değiştirilerek basıncın büyüklüğü değiştirilebilmektedir.
Katılar kendilerine uygulanan kuvveti yönü ve şiddetini değiştirmeden aynen iletir. Bazı durumlarda yüzey alanı artırılarak basınç etkisi azaltılmaya çalışılır. Birim zamanda birim noktaya uygulanan kuvvet olarak tanımlanabilir.

Kapalı kaplardaki gazların basıncı
Gazlarda basınç ise birçok unsurla bağlantılıdır. Gazların basıncının hesaplanmasında sıcaklık, bulunduğu kabın hacmi, gazın miktarı ve R sayısı önemlidir. Bunları formülle ifade edecek olursak: P.V=n.R.T. Gazlarda basınç, gazın molekül sayısı ve sıcaklığı artarsa artar; gazın bulunduğu kabın hacmi artarsa azalır. R sayısı ise sabit bir sayıdır. Kapalı kaplardaki gazlarda basınç manometreler yardımı ile ölçülür.

Sıvılarda basınç
Sıvı basıncı, sıvının ağırlığından dolayı bulunduğu kabın her noktasına uyguladığı basınçtır. Sıvı basıncı o noktanın sıvı sütununun ağırlığı kadardır.

Yani, p = h x d x g

( Sıvı basıncı= yükseklik x yoğunluk x yer çekimi ivmesi ).

Sıvı basıncı kabın biçimine ve genişliğine bağlı değildir.

 sıvı basıncı.

Basınç birimleri

Örneğin: 1 Pa = 1 N/m² = 10-5 bar = 9.8692×10-6 atm = 7.5006×10-3 tor

Fizik problemlerinde genellikle basınç birimi olarak, "Pascal" kullanılır.

Dış bağlantılar
 Basınç hesaplama aracı

Basınç


Dosya uzantısı, bilgisayar sistemindeki dosya ve uygulamaların hangi program veya işletim sistemiyle çalıştığını gösteren takılar.

Dosyaların uzantıları, dosya isminden nokta (.) ile ayrılır.

Örneğin; Microsoft Office üzerinden kaydedilen bir Excel dosyasının adının sonunda ".xls" takısı olur. Bu sayede işletim sistemi, bu dosyanın bir sonraki çalıştırılmasında Microsoft Excel programını kullanacağını tespit eder.

Bazı dosya uzantıları

Kurulum dosyaları: .exe (Microsoft Windows), dmg (Mac OS)
 Microsoft Office Word: .doc, docx
 Microsoft Office Excel: .xls, xlsx
 Microsoft Office PowerPoint: .ppt, pptx
 Microsoft Office Access: .mdb, mdbx
 Video: avi, mp4, mkv, wmv, flv, 3gp, dat, mov
 Ses: ogg, mp3, wav, mid
 Resim: .jpeg, png, bmp, psd
 hareketli resim:.gif
 E-kitap: .pdf
 uygulama yazılımları: exe
 sıkıştırılmış dosyalar: .rar, zip, tar, 7z
 diğer metin uzantıları: txt, odt, ott, rtf, uot, dic
 Website Kodlama Dilleri uzantıları: html, php, aspx, asp

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Dosya uzantıları arşivi

Dosya uzantısı


Élodie Chabrol est une communicatrice scientifique et fondatrice de la branche française du festival Pint of Science dont elle est devenue, depuis 2017, la directrice internationale.

Biographie

Études et carrière
Élodie Chabrol effectue une thèse en neurosciences à l'Université Paris-Descartes, en 2009. Puis elle poursuit une carrière de chercheuse dans le domaine de la thérapie génique contre l'épilepsie, aboutissant à un brevet, à l'University College London.

En 2017, elle choisit de se consacrer à plein temps à la communication scientifique en tant que travailleuse indépendante.

Comme elle le dit elle-même, Élodie Chabrol a quitté le laboratoire en 2017 pour aider les scientifiques à partager leurs histoires fascinantes de la meilleure façon possible. Sa mission est de .

Communication Scientifique
Le festival Pint of Science se déroule pendant trois soirs tous les mois de mai en simultané dans plusieurs villes, d'abord d'Angleterre et ensuite au Royaume-Uni, en 2013 puis du monde à partir de 2014. Élodie Chabrol a pris part à la création du festival à Londres en 2013, puis a ensuite créé, en 2014, la branche française du festival qu'elle dirige toujours aujourd'hui.

Depuis 2017, elle est également directrice internationale et elle a œuvré pour inclure plus de 20 nouveaux pays à la carte du festival Pint of Science. Entre 2017 et 2022, elle est plusieurs fois l'invitée de l'émission La Méthode scientifique sur France Culture pour présenter des actualités scientifiques. En 2020, elle cofonde Beyond Research pour travailler sur des projets européens. Lors de la Fête de la science 2021, elle coanime les émissions Science en direct avec Fred Courant sur le site L'Esprit sorcier. En 2021, elle lance son propre et unique podcast francophone Sous la blouse, podcast « qui déshabille les scientifiques », ainsi que son équivalent anglophone Under the lab coat en 2022.

Fin 2022, elle lance un  nommé Scimple et permettant de découvrir les différents profils professionnels que le métier de la communication scientifique regroupe.

Comités et conseil scientifiques
Élodie Chabrol a fait du conseil en communication scientifique et a travaillé à l'émergence de nouveaux événements comme On the Moon Again avec le CNRS, à la promotion de la Fête de la science et a également coédité un guide de communication scientifique publié par la revue scientifique .

Elle fait partie de divers comités scientifiques, à savoir :
 le comité scientifique de Science et Vie (depuis 2022) ;
 le comité scientifique du studio de production Good to know ;
 le comité d'expert en communication scientifique du Conseil international des sciences.

Et elle a également été membre de jury pour diverses compétitions de communication scientifique lors la demi-finale nationale 2018 de Ma thèse en 180 secondes, pour l'attribution du prix Kerner de la Fondation ARC en 2018 et 2019, et durant la compétition SILBERSALZ de 2020, 2021 et 2022.

Publications
Ses articles de recherche.

Interviews

 Quoi de mieux qu'une pinte pour parler science ?, We Demain, septembre 2014.
 Quand le pub devient le lieu de la vulgarisation scientifique, Pint of Science, Grazia, octobre 2014.
 Table ronde sur la science en 2017 par Solvay Group, Let it Spin.
 Année du retour pour le festival scientifique qui fait se rencontrer les bars et les labos, Pint of science, Science et Avenir, mai 2022.

Audiovisuel et visuel

 Pint of Science, Radio France, septembre 2014.
 Émissions Science en direct, site L'Esprit sorcier, 2021.
 Émission La Méthode scientifique, France culture, de 2017 à 2022.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Scientifique française
Neuroscientifique français
Femme neuroscientifique
Vulgarisateur scientifique
Communication scientifique
Étudiant de l'université Paris-Descartes
Naissance en janvier 1982
Naissance à Paris

Élodie Chabrol


Kortárs (în traducere "Contemporanul") este o revistă literară maghiară, publicată lunar la Budapesta începând din 1957.

Istoric
Revista a oferit un spațiu editorial pentru scriitorii cărora li s-a interzis să publice până atunci (János Kodolányi, László Németh). Au publicat aici, de asemenea, scriitori bine-cunoscuți (de exemplu, József Darvas, Zoltán Jékely, György Rónay, Pál Szabó, Áron Tamási, Péter Veres), dar și scriitori din generația tânără (Sándor Csoóri, Miklós Mészöly, László Nagy, Ágnes Nemes Nagy, János Pilinszky, Imre Sarkadi). Revista a publicat opere literare, studii, eseuri, critică literară, precum și recenzii de teatru, filme, muzică și arte vizuale.

Gyula Illyés a prezentat locul și rolul revistei Kortárs într-un articol programatic: "Mi-aș dori ca revista Kortárs să fie un succesor al marilor periodice maghiare de importanță istorică, dar îi văd un viitor mai clar".

Redactorii-șefi ai revistei Kortárs
 József Darvas, Gábor Tolnai (1957-1962)
 István Király (1962-1963)
 István Simon (1964-1970)
 Iván Sándor Kovács (1971-1982)
 György Száraz (1983-1988)
 Árpád Thiery (1989-1990)
 Imre Pintér Kis (1991—)

Note

Bibliografie
 Program és hivatás : magyar folyóiratok programcikkeinek válogatott gyűjteménye. Budapesta, Gondolat, 1978.Kortárs lásd 752-754.
 Új magyar irodalmi lexikon II. (H–Ö). Főszerk. Péter László. Budapesta: Akadémiai. 1994. 1102. o. ISBN 9630568063

Legături externe

Reviste literare din Ungaria

Kortárs (revistă)


Qatar-krisen var en diplomatisk krise mellem Qatar på den ene side og Saudi Arabien, Egypten, Forenede Arabiske Emirater, Bahrain, Yemen, Libyen og Maldiverne på den anden side. Krisen startede 5. juni 2017.

Baggrund
Det startede med, at Saudi Arabien afbrød de diplomatiske forbindelser til Qatar, for at beskytte sig mod "terrorisme og ekstremisme". De lukkede derudover grænsen til Qatar med samme begrundelse. Efterfølgende fulgte Egypten trop, fordi de var utilfredse med Qatars påståede støtte til Det Muslimske Broderskab (som Egypten betragter som en terrororganisation), Hamas og Hizbollah, der alle er Irans allierede. Forenede Arabiske Emirater og Bahrain kom med samme melding. Til sidst kom Yemen  med i gruppen af utilfredse lande. Ifølge Lars Erslev Andersen handlede krisen også om, at Saudi Arabien ønsker, at få Qatar med i alliancen mod Iran.

Ifølge CNN skyldtes krisen to aftaler, der blev underskrevet henholdsvis 23. november 2013 og 16. november 2014. Den første aftale (Riyad-aftalen) havde deltagelse af Saudi Arabien, Kuwait og Qatar. Aftalen siger blandt andet, at man ikke må støtte Det Muslimske Broderskab (hvilket Qatar påstås at støtte). Det fremgår også, at man ikke må støtte såkaldt "fjendtlige medier" - her sigtes mod Al Jazeera, der finansieres af Qatar. Den anden aftale (kaldet tophemmelig) havde udover de førnævnte også deltagelse af Bahrain, Abu Dhabi og Forenede Arabiske Emirater. I denne aftale nævnes Al Jazeera direkte.

Qatar blev 23. juni 2017 via Kuwait (som agerer mægler i krisen) mødt af tretten krav, som Qatar havde ti dage til at opfylde Det krævedes blandt andet, at de lukkede Al Jazeera, begrænsede forbindelserne med Iran (der er Saudi Arabiens ærkefjende) og lukkede en tyrkisk militærbase. De skulle også betale erstatninger og indstille støtten til udenlandske oppositionsgrupper. Qatar afviste at bøje sig for kravene. I begyndelsen af juli blev fristen forlænget med to døgn. Senere på måneden blev kravet omformuleret til seks principper om at bekæmpe terrorisme og ekstremisme og stoppe provokationer. Qatar afviste at acceptere krav, der truer deres suverænitet eller folkeretten.

De tretten oprindelige krav
De tretten oprindelige krav var som følger:

 De diplomatiske forbindelser til Iran skal begrænses og militært samarbejde skal ophøre. Visse dele af handlen skal indstilles.
 Al støtte til blandt andet Det Muslimske Broderskab, Islamisk Stat, al-Qaeda og Hizbollah skal indstilles.
 Al støtte til terrororganisationer skal indstilles.
 Al-Jazeera og deres søsterorganisationer skal lukkes
 Ethvert militært samarbejde med Tyrkiet, som foregår i Qatar, skal indstilles
 Eftersøgte for terror skal udleveres deres deres hjemlande.
 Indblanding i andre staters anliggende skal stoppes. Deriblandt uddeling af statsborgerskab til eftersøgte fra andre lande.
 Udbetaling af erstatning til personer, der er berørt af Qatars udenrigspolitik.
 Den arabiske samarbejdsorganisation GCC's regler skal følges i sager, der vedrører militær, politik, sociale anliggender, økonomi og sikkerhed, hvis det vedrører de andre lande i GCC-samarbejdet.
 Samarbejde med oppositionsgrupper i de fire lande skal indstilles.
 Et antal medier skal lukkes.
 Alle kravene skal imødekommes.
 Der skal aflægges rapport om kravenes opfyldelse.

Konsekvenser
Denne krise har fået en række konsekvenser:
 Indbyggerne i Qatar begyndte at hamstre fødevarer af frygt for stigende priser og blokade.
 Egypten, Saudi Arabien. Forenede Arabisk Emirater og Bahrain har lukket deres luftrum for fly fra Qatar, således at fly fra Qatar må flyve via lande som Iran, Tyrkiet og Oman. Flyvninger mellem  Qatar på den ene side og de fire lande på den anden side udgør 18% af Qatar Airways' trafik. På grund af dette har luftfartsselskabet måttet lukke 18 ruter.  Krisen har også berørt skibstrafikken idet skibe fra Qatar ikke må lægge til i nogle af de fire lande.
 Nogle dage efter, at krisen var begyndt, sendte Iran fødevarer til Qatar. På grund af lukningen af grænsen fra Saudi Arabien mangler Qatar op til 40% af fødevarimporten. Den iranske fødevareleverance består af 450 tons, der blev leveret med fem fly. Dertil kom 350 tons, der blev sejlet til Qatar.
 20. juli ophævede Egypten med enkelte undtagelser qatareres visumfri adgang til Qatar.
 Qatars import i juni 2017 er faldet med 40% i forhold til samme måned året før og med 38% i forhold til måneden før. I juni 2017 var eksporten til gengæld 5% højere end i juni 2016.

Derudover hævdede Saudi Arabien, at Qatar havde krævet den muslimske pilgrimsfærd til Mekka blev internationaliseret, hvilket de betrager som en krigserklæring. Qatar hævdede på sin side, at de aldrig havde fremkommet med et sådan krav, og udtalte, at de var trætte af at skulle forholde sig til fake news. Det hævdes også, at Qatar dels frygter at deres borgere ikke må deltage og dels at de frygter for borgernes sikkerhed,  hvis de får lov til at deltage.

Krisen betød også, at produktionen af helium i landet var stoppet, da det bliver sendt ud i verden via en havn i Forenede Arabiske Emirater, hvortil det er transporteret fra Qatar i en lastbil via Saudi Arabien. Qatar står for 24% af verdens heliumproduktion, omend et tredje anlæg fra 2018 kan øge andelen til 33%.

Denne krise kan blive et problem for Qatar i forbindelse med VM i fodbold 2022, eftersom nogle af tilskuerne skal bo i nabolandet Bahrain, der som nævnt er blandt de lande, der deltager i denne krise. Hvis problemet ikke bliver løst i tide, kan de miste værtsskabet.

Internationale reaktioner
Krisen fik USA's udenrigsminister Rex Tillerson til at appellere til de deltagende lande om at ophæve blokaden, da det går ud over indsatsen mod Islamisk Stat, eftersom USA's største militærbase i Mellemøsten er placeret i Qatar. Ruslands præsident Vladimir Putin opfordrer de stridende parter til forsøge med diplomati.

Den franske præsident, Emmanuel Macron, opfordrede alle parter til at bevare roen, men den tyske udenrigsminister Sigmar Gabriel anklagede USA's præsident Donald Trump (der ensidigt støtter Saudu Arabien) for at øge konflikten i Mellemøsten og advarede desuden mod at isolere Qatar. Den tyrkiske præsident Recep Tayyip Erdogan støttede derimod ensidigt Qatar.

Referencer

Konflikter
Krisen
Saudi-Arabien
Forenede Arabiske Emirater
Yemens politik
Libyens politik
Maldiverne
Egyptens politik
Bahrain
Begivenheder i 2017
Mellemøsten

Qatar-krisen


Valimai est un thriller indien en langue tamoule écrit et réalisé par H. Vinoth,  et produit par Boney Kapoor sous Bayview Projects LLP en collaboration avec Zee Studios, en tant que coproducteur et distributeur. Le film met en vedette Ajith Kumar, Karthikeya, Huma Qureshi et Gurbani Judge. La musique du film est composée par Ghibran et les chansons sont composées par Yuvan Shankar Raja. La cinématographie est réalisée par Nirav Shah et le montage par Vijay Velukutty. Il tourne autour d'Arjun, un policier, qui est chargé de traquer un groupe de motards hors-la-loi à la suite de leur implication dans des crimes odieux.

Ce film marquait la deuxième collaboration entre Ajith, Vinoth et Kapoor après Nerkonda Paarvai (2019). Vinoth a écrit le script à la mi-2018, mais Ajith l'a d'abord refusé et lui a demandé de travailler dessus plus tard. L'idée a ensuite été lancée en janvier 2019 avec Kapoor acceptant de financer le projet et a été lancée officiellement à la mi-octobre 2019, annonçant également son titre. La photographie principale a commencé en décembre 2019 à Hyderabad et s'est achevée en février 2021, indépendamment de la perturbation de la production en raison de la pandémie de COVID-19. Une grande partie du film a été tournée à travers Chennai et Hyderabad, en plus de quelques séquences en Russie, qui ont été tournées fin août et début septembre 2021.

Le film a été dans les nouvelles pendant longtemps, en raison de la persuasion des fans à lancer une mise à jour concernant le projet, conduisant à une campagne nommée #ValimaiUpdate, qui a influencé le sport, la politique et d'autres événements. Il a finalement conduit à être répertorié comme l'un des films tamouls les plus attendus selon les circuits commerciaux.  Après avoir été retardé à plusieurs reprises, en raison des restrictions en cours sur la pandémie de COVID-19 en Inde, le film est sorti dans le monde entier le 24 février 2022 et a reçu des critiques mitigées de la part des critiques et du public.

Synopsis
À Chennai, un gang de motards hors-la-loi connu sous le nom Satan's Slave est impliqué dans de nombreux rackets, trafics de drogue, vols à l'arraché et meurtres. Il est dirigé par Naren alias Wolfranga. L'augmentation descrimes devenant incontrôlable, le commissaire attribue cette affaire à l'agent Arjun Kumar.

Fiche technique
 Titre original : Valimai
 Réalisation : H. Vinoth
 Scénario : H. Vinoth
 Photographie :  Nirav Shah
 Décors :
 Costumes : Anu Vardhan
 Montage : Vijay Velukutty
 Musique : Yuvan Shankar Raja
 Production : Boney Kapoor
 Société de production :Bayview  Projects LLP, Zee Studios
 Société de distribution : Friday Entertainment, Zee Studio, Romeo Pictures, Gopuram Cinémas
 Pays de production :
 Budget : 150 Crores
 Langue originale : tamoul
 Format : couleur — 2,35:1
 Genre : Action, policier et thriller
 Durée :
 Dates de sortie :
 France :
 Inde :

Distribution
 Ajith Kumar : Arjun IPS
 Huma Qureshi : Sophia
 Kartikeya Gummakonda : Naren a.k.a Wolfranga
 Gurbani
 Sumithra
 Yogi Babu

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Film indien sorti en 2022
Film d'action indien
Film policier indien
Thriller (film) indien
Motocyclette au cinéma

Valimai


Die SC Faetano (vollständig: Società Calcio Faetano) ist ein san-marinesischer Fußballverein aus der Gemeinde Faetano. Der Verein nimmt am Ligabetrieb der nationalen Meisterschaft, dem Campionato Sammarinese di Calcio, teil.

Geschichte
Der Verein wurde 1962 gegründet. 1986 gewann der Verein erstmals die san-marinesische Meisterschaft. Zwei weitere Meistertitel errang er 1991 und 1999. Zudem holte er dreimal den nationalen Pokal, die Coppa Titano, sowie einmal die Trofeo Federale.

Erfolge
 Campionato Sammarinese di Calcio: 3
 1986, 1991, 1999
 Coppa Titano: 3
 1993, 1994, 1998
 Trofeo Federale: 1
 1994

Europapokalbilanz

Weblinks
 Profil des Vereins beim san-marinesischen Fußballverband (italienisch)

Faetano, Sc
Gegründet 1962

SC Faetano


إلياس كرم  مغني وملحن سوري من محافظة الحسكة تميز بصوت قوي جميل قدم الكثير من الأغاني الرائعة، ولحن لعدد من المطربين والمطربات في سوريا ولبنان، اشترك في الكثير المهرجانات في سوريا له عدد من الأعمال والأغاني الوطنية. بالإضافة إلى الغناء باللغة السريانية.

الفنان الياس كرم من أروع الأصوات العربية وأجملها، التزم في كافة أغانية بالكلمة والمعنى واللحن.

بعض أغانيه
 أمر الكون
 بعدوا عني
 بدي اعرف
 قلبي سكرته
 نور قلبي بسحرك
 لما يبعدوا الحلوين
 بس الك
 بتضلك قمري
 يا ناس قلبي
 يا شوق
 البحر العالي
 بحبك لاتقولي كيف
 شبه ماطير
 يا أروع ماخلق الله
 يا ساكن قلبي والروح
 مر يمنا
 يابحر العالي براجك
 يا حبيبي
 حب مش مألوف
 سيرة الحب
 شيلي من قلبك
 رجعت من الغربة
 من ايا كوكب
 كلن عنك سألوني
 تيهي صباً
 السحر بعنيكِ

بعض من أغانيه السريانية
 ܥܐܠ ܝܕ ܕܩܠܐܬ (عال يد دقلاث).
 ܐܙܘܟ ܠܘ ܡܪܠܟ ܠܝܟܐ (أزوخ لو مرلوخ ليكو).
 ܡܝ ܚܐܝܪܬܝܕܟ (مي حايرتيدخ).
 ܛܐܝܥܐ (طاويعو).
 ܕܥܪܢܐ ܠܩܪܝܬܐ (دوعرنوا لي قريثو).
 ܢܛܪܠܢ ܣܓܝ (نطرلن ساكي).
 ܠܝܒܝ ܟܘܝܘ (ليبي كويو).

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
.

آراميون
آشوريون وسريان وكلدان سوريون
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من الحسكة
أشخاص من الحسكة (مدينة)
سوريون من أصل آشوري
مسيحيون سوريون
مغنون باللغة السريانية
مغنون ذكور سوريون في القرن 20
مغنون سوريون
ملحنون سوريون
مواليد 1379 هـ
مواليد 1960
مواليد في الحسكة (مدينة)
مغنون ذكور سوريون في القرن 21

إلياس كرم


Blea Tarn ist der Name folgender Gebirgsseen im Lake District, Cumbria, England:

 Blea Tarn (Eskdale) im Eskdale Tal
 Blea Tarn (Langdale) zwischen dem Great Langdale Tal und dem Little Langdale Tal
 Blea Tarn (Watendlath) oberhalb des Weilers Watendlath

Siehe auch:
 Bleaberry Tarn, ein See im Lake District

Blea Tarn


An Cortaderia selloana in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Schult., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Paul Friedrich August Ascherson och Karl Otto Robert Peter Paul Graebner. An Cortaderia selloana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cortaderia, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Cortaderia

Cortaderia selloana


أوربرو أو أوريبرو ، هي إحدى المدن السويدية تقع في وسط السويد، وفيها مقر بلدية أوريبرو، وتمثل مركز إقليم أوريبرو في السويد، وهي سادس أكبر مدينة في السويد. تبعد مدينة اوربرو عن مدينة ستوكهولم حوالي 200 كلم، وتبعد عن مدينة جوتنبرج حوالي 300 كلم تشتهر مدينة اوربرو بقلعتها التي تم تشيدها في القرن الثاني عشر الميلاي وينحدر 16% من سكان اوربرو من اصول اجنبية غير سويدية وهؤلاء ينحدرون من 150 جنسية مختلفة ويبلغ عدد سكان مدينة أوربرو حوالي 98237 شخص حسب إحصائيات سنة 2005. ومن أهم معالم المدينة قصر أوريبرو وجامعة أوريبرو. ومناخ المدينة بارد خاصة بالشتاء حيث الحرارة لا تتعدى 5° مئوية بينما بالصيف تكون درجات الحرارة بحدود 30° مئوية.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لأوربرو:

توأمة
لأوربرو اتفاقيات توأمة مع:
 وودج (25 أغسطس 2001 - )

أعلام
 إسحاق كيزه ثيلين
 سفين أولسون
 غوستا ماجنوسون
 هنري ألارد
 أورفار بيرغمارك
 جيرهارد بيدرسن
 كارل مان سيغبان
 روني بيترسون
 الأمير دانيال دوق فسترغوتلاند
 نينا بيرسون

مراجع

مصادر
 الموقع الرسمي لبلدية اوربرو بعدة لغات

أوربرو
مدن السويد
مقرات المقاطعات في السويد
مقرات بلديات السويد

أوربرو


كأس العالم تحت 20 سنة لكرة القدم 2009 هو المسابقة السابعة عشر تحت 20 سنة، التي استضافتها مصر في الفترة من 24 سبتمبر إلى 16 أكتوبر، في مدن القاهرة، والإسكندرية، وبورسعيد، والسويس، والإسماعيلية. وقد انطلقت هذه الدورة في البداية في الفترة من 10 إلى 31 يوليو، غير أن كأس القارات 2009 كان قد لعب منتصف السنة مما أسفر عن لعب كأس العالم تحت 20 سنة وكأس العالم تحت 17 سنة في نهاية السنة. وقد فازت غانا بالكأس بعد أن هزمت البرازيل في ركلات الجزاء الترجيحية في النهائي، فأصبحت أول فريق أفريقي للفوز بهذه المسابقة.

أهلية اللاعبين
لا يحق إلا لللاعبين الذين ولدوا في 1 يناير 1989 أو بعد ذلك التاريخ أن يتنافسوا في كأس العالم تحت 20 سنة لكرة القدم 2009.

الأماكن

التصفيات
ثلاثة وعشرون فريقا تأهل لكأس العالم تحت 20 سنة لكرة القدم 2009. وقد حصلت مصر، بوصفها الفريق المضيف، على مدخل آلي للكأس، وبذلك وصل العدد الإجمالي للفرق إلى أربعة وعشرين فريقا للمسابقة.

1.الفرق التي ظهرت لأول مرة.

مسؤولو المباريات

التشكيلات

تخصيص الفرق للمجموعات
وقد خصصت الفرق للمجموعات على أساس التوزع الجغرافي. ووضعت الفرق في أربعة أوعية، وسحب فريق واحد من كل وعاء لكل مجموعة. ويضم الوعاء 1 الفرق الأفريقية الخمسة بالإضافة إلى واحد من الكونميبول؛ ويضم الوعاء 2 الفرق المتبقية من الأمريكتين باستثناء فريق واحد من الكونكاكاف؛ ويتألف الوعاء 3 من فرق من آسيا وأوقيانوسيا بالإضافة إلى الفريق المتبقي من الكونكاكاف؛ ويتألف الوعاء 4 من فرق من الكونفدرالية الأوروبية.

مرحلة المجموعات
في 5 أبريل 2009، أجريت عملية السحب على مراحل المجموعات في معبد الأقصر. وقد تأهل كل فريق من متصدري وثواني المجموعات، وكذلك أفضل أربعة فرق حاصلين على المرتبة الثالثة، للدور الأول من مرحلة خروج المغلوب (دور الـ16).

المجموعة ألف

المجموعة باء

المجموعة جيم

المجموعة دال

المجموعة هاء

المجموعة وأو

ترتيب فرق المركز الثالث

مرحلة خروج المغلوب

دور الـ16

ربع النهائي

نصف النهائي

مباراة المركز الثالث

النهائي

الفائز

الجوائز

الهدافون
8 أهداف
  دومينيك أديياه

5 أهداف
  فلاديمير كومان

4 أهداف

  ألان كارديك
  رانسفورد أوسي

  آرون نيغيز
  يوناتان ديل فالي

  سالومون روندون

3 أهداف

  أليكس تيكسيرا
  ماركو أورينيا

  كريستيان نيميت
  كيرميت إيراسموس

  كيم مين وو
  فران ميريدا

هدفين

  مايكون
  جوسوي مارتينيز
  يان خراموستا
  ميخائيل رابوشيتش
  يان فوشاهليك
  عفروتو
  حسام عرفات
  بوجي

  أحمد شكري
  سميح أيديلك
  لويس هولتبي
  بيورن كوبلين
  ريتشارد سوكوتا-باسو
  أندريه آيو
  ماريو مارتينيز
  ميكلانجيلو ألبرتاتزي

  ماتيا موستاشيو
  كيم بو-كيونغ
  أندير هيريرا
  كيكي
  إيميليو إنسوي
  أحمد خليل
  نيكولاس لوديرو
  جوناتان أوريتافيسكايا

هدف واحد

  جيمس هولاند
  آرون موي
  بوكويتا
  كيرو
  دوغلاس كوستا
  جوليانو
  غانسو
  أندريه أكونو إيفا
  جيرمان تيكو
  بانانا يايا
  دييغو إسترادا
  دافيد غوزمان
  دييغو مادريغال
  خوسيه مينا
  توماش بيكهارت
  محمد طلعت
  أليكس نيميلي-تشويميني
  فلوريان يونغفيرت
  مانويل شفلر
  ماريو فرانشيتش
  أبيكو كوانساه
  محمد رابيو
  أرنولد بيرالتا

  آدم بالايتي
  أنداس دبرتسني
  ماركو فوتاتش
  ماتي كيس
  جولت كورتشمار
  آدم بريسينغر
  جياكومو بونافينتورا
  أومبرتو أوسيبي
  أندريا ماتزاراني
  أنتونيو مازوتا
  سيلفانو راجو غاريبالدي
  دانييل أديجو
  إيبوك إيديت
  كيهيندي فاتاي
  رابيو إبراهيم
  نوانكوو أوبيورا
  نور الدين أوريليسي
  داني أوتشيتشي
  ألدو بانياغوا
  فيديريكو سانتاندير
  أنديلي جالي
  سيبوسيسو كومالو)

  كيم دونغ-سوب
  كيم يونغ-غوون
  كو جا-تشيول
  بارك هي-سيونغ
  دانييل باريخو
  جوما كلارينس
  جان لوك روتشفورد
  محمد أحمد
  أحمد علي
  حمدان الكمالي
  ذياب عوانة
  براين أرغويز
  ديلي دوكا
  براين أونبي
  توني تايلور
  سانتياغو غارسيا
  أبل هرنانديز
  تاباري فيوديز
  شيرزاد كريموف
  إيفان ناغايف
  أوسكار روخاس
  خوسيه مانويل فيلازكيز

هدف ذاتي واحد
  لوك ديفيريه (لعب ضد كوستاريكا)

الترتيب النهائي

المراجع

وصلات خارجية
 FIFA U-20 World Cup Egypt 2009, FIFA.com
 RSSSF > FIFA World Youth Championship > 2009
 FIFA Technical Report

أحداث أكتوبر 2009 الرياضية في إفريقيا
أحداث سبتمبر 2009 الرياضية في إفريقيا
الرياضة في الإسكندرية
الرياضة في بورسعيد
بطولات كأس العالم تحت 20 سنة لكرة القدم
كأس العالم تحت 20 سنة 2009
كرة القدم المصرية في موسم 2009–10
كرة القدم في 2009
كرة القدم في القاهرة
كرة قدم للشباب في 2009
منافسات رياضية في القاهرة
2009

كأس العالم تحت 20 سنة لكرة القدم 2009


Gabonska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu er fulltrúi Gabon í knattspyrnu og er stjórnað af knattspyrnusambandi landsins. Liðið hefur aldrei komist í úrslitakeppni HM og lengst komist í fjórðungsúrslit í Afríkukeppninni.

Afrísk knattspyrnulandslið
Karlalandslið í knattspyrnu

Gabonska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu