Basilides (Greek: Βασιλείδης) was an early Christian Gnostic religious teacher in Alexandria, Egypt who taught from 117 to 138 AD, and claimed to have inherited his teachings from the apostle Saint Matthias. He was a pupil of either the Simonian teacher Menander, or a supposed disciple of Peter named Glaucias. The Acts of the Disputation with Manes state that for a time he taught among the Persians. According to Agapius of Hierapolis he appeared in the 15th year of Trajan reign (113 AD). He is believed to have written over two dozen books of commentary on the Christian Gospel (now all lost) entitled Exegetica, making him one of the earliest Gospel commentators.

The followers of Basilides, the Basilideans, formed a movement that persisted for at least two centuries after him – Epiphanius of Salamis, at the end of the 4th century, recognized a persistent Basilidian presence over the Nile Delta in  Egypt. It is probable, however, that the school melded into the mainstream of Gnosticism by the latter half of the 2nd century.

Doctrine

The diverse and sometimes contradictory descriptions of Basilides' system by primary sources pose challenges. St. Irenæus portrayed Basilides as a dualist and emanationist in his Adversus Haereses, while Hippolytus painted him in his Philosophumena as a pantheistic evolutionist.

From Irenaeus' perspective, Basilides proposed a hierarchy of emanations from an Unborn Father (Abraxas), resulting in multiple heavenly realms and angelic powers, with the Jewish God identified as one of these angels. He introduced Christ as a savior from the angelic rule, implying a replacement of Christ with Simon of Cyrene during the crucifixion.

Epiphanius and Pseudo-Tertullian contribute to this portrayal by associating Basilides with the mystical name Abraxas and contempt for material reality. They indicate that Basilides considered suffering and martyrdom as meaningless and attached to the physical world.

On the other hand, Hippolytus presented Basilides' teachings as proposing a state of nonexistence prior to creation, brought into existence by a desireless and passionless Not-Being God, who generated the seed of the world. Basilides negated both emanation and the eternity of matter, associating creation with a divine command rather than material processes.

In this view, Basilides described three Filiations within the world seed, representing different elements of existence, each striving towards the Not-Being God through different means. He envisaged a divine hierarchy with Archons ruling different heavenly spheres, with the highest being Abraxas.

In the context of Christian history, Basilides constructed an elaborate metaphysical system which, among other features, attributed distinct eras to varying Archons, or rulers of the cosmos. These Archons, according to Basilides, each had dominion over specific epochs. This chronology culminated in what Basilides referred to as the reign of the Gospel, a period where spiritual enlightenment through the teachings of Jesus Christ becomes paramount, marking a significant shift from the previously held dominion of the Archons.

Redemption, as conceived by Basilides, constitutes a return to the primordial state of being, a reversion to the original state of existence before the creation of the world. In this process, each constituent part of existence reverts to its original condition. Material elements, which Basilides associated with the physical world and its inherent imperfections, return to a state of primal chaos. The psychic element, linked with the soul and consciousness, returns to the Hebdomad, a term that in Basilides' system may refer to the realm governed by the second Archon.

The spiritual element, seen as the highest form of existence, is believed to return to what Basilides cryptically referred to as the Not-Being God, a divine entity that, paradoxically, exists beyond existence itself. This spiritual return signifies a transcendence beyond the physical and psychic realms, a reunification with absolute divinity.

The final state in Basilides' metaphysical system is known as the Restoration of all things. In this state, Basilides envisions a divine blissful Ignorance being poured over all existence. This doesn't denote ignorance in the common understanding as a lack of knowledge or understanding, but rather, a state of divine tranquility and peace, an absence of desire or striving. This state signifies an end to the dualistic conflicts and the cessation of all suffering, a state of perfect unity and harmony. Basilides' idea of a divine blissful Ignorance, thus, suggests a kind of heavenly serenity, marking the final stage of the cosmic journey towards ultimate redemption.

Ethically, Basilides seems to have assigned faith as a natural trait rather than a conscious choice, and viewed sin and suffering as intrinsic to existence. He conceived evil as an inherent principle, making even Christ a sinful man.

Later interpretations criticized Basilides' system for potential immorality, though it's likely that these accusations did not apply to Basilides himself. Nevertheless, it's clear that some forms of Gnosticism, including Basilidianism, led to morally questionable practices over time. Extracts from Basilides' son and successor suggest indulgence in sensual desires for spiritual peace, possibly corroborating accusations of immorality among Gnostics.

Isidore, the son of Basilides, played a crucial role in the continuation and elaboration of Basilidian Gnosticism. He maintained his father's core ideas while also introducing additional elements, some of which seem to have derived from Stoic philosophy and popular superstition. Isidore purportedly developed a more ethically balanced approach, emphasizing the need to abstain from worldly desires in order to achieve the purifying knowledge (Gnosis).

The Basilidian tradition is believed to have survived until the fourth century AD, primarily in Egypt, before eventually fading out due to a combination of external pressure and internal conflicts. The rise of orthodox Christianity and the establishment of the Nicene Creed in 325 AD heavily marginalized Gnostic sects, including Basilidianism.

However, the influence of Basilides' teachings has permeated through history and has been rekindled in the modern era due to increased interest in Gnostic texts. The recovery of the Nag Hammadi library in the mid-20th century, a collection of Gnostic texts, has offered new insights into Gnosticism, including potentially Basilidian beliefs. Despite its demise, Basilidianism has left a lasting impact on religious thought, particularly in terms of its challenge to orthodoxy and its innovative approach to issues of the divine, the cosmos, and the nature of humanity.

While interpreting these historical sources, we must bear in mind that most of these accounts were written by individuals who were opposed to Gnosticism, and therefore, their portrayals might not be completely objective. Interpretations of Basilides' philosophy are thus subject to ongoing debate among scholars.

Creation
His view of creation, according to the orthodox heresiologists, was likely similar to that of Valentinus, whom he rivaled, being based on a doctrine of emanations proceeding from an uncreated, ineffable Pleroma. Like his rival, Basilides taught that matter, and the material universe, are evil, and that the God of the Old Testament, who was responsible for creation, is a misguided archon or lesser deity.

Historians, such as Philip Shaff, have the opinion that: "Irenaeus described a form of Basilideanism which was not the original, but a later corruption of the system. On the other hand, Clement of Alexandria surely, and Hippolytus, in the fuller account of his Philosophumena, probably drew their knowledge of the system directly from Basilides' own work, the Exegetica, and hence represent the form of doctrine taught by Basilides himself".

Faith and Election
Like other gnostics, Basilides taught that salvation comes through knowledge and not faith.<ref>Louis P. Pojman, "Basilides," in The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy," 3rd ed., ed. Robert Audi.</ref> This knowledge, or gnosis, was considered esoteric, a revelation to human beings by the divine being, Jesus Christ. Faith played no part in salvation. Indeed, Basilides believed faith was merely "an assent of the soul to any of the things which do not excite sensation, because they are not present". He also believed faith was a matter of "nature," not of conscious choice, so that men would "discover doctrines without demonstration by an intellective apprehension". Basilides also appears to have accumulated forms of dignity in accordance with ones' faith.

Because Basilides believed faith was a matter of nature, doubtlessly he pushed election so far as to sever a portion of mankind from the rest, as alone entitled by Divine decree to receive a higher enlightenment. In this sense it must have been that he called "the elect a stranger to the world, as being by nature supermundane".

Biblical canon
The canon of Basilides had its own Gospel alongside the Gospel of John, rejected the Epistle of Titus and selectively included only specific writings from the Pauline epistles. This canon also contained other unique texts, which are believed to have been penned by Basilides himself or his immediate followers, including the Interpretations of the Gospels and the Exegetica. Unlike the standard Christian canon, it did not include the Synoptic Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—as these were considered inconsistent with the Gnostic perspective. Basilides further eschewed mainstream Christian works he perceived as failing to reflect his Gnostic interpretation of Christianity, viewing such texts as distorting the true nature of the divine. As such, the canon of Basilides provides a distinct example of early Christian diversity and the varied textual traditions that existed within the nascent Christian community.

Metempsychosis
Basilides likewise brought in the notion of sin in a past stage of existence suffering its penalty here, "the elect soul" suffering "honourably through martyrdom, and the soul of another kind being cleansed by an appropriate punishment." To this doctrine of metempsychosis the Basilidians are likewise said to have referred the language of the Lord about requital to the third and fourth generations; Origen states that Basilides himself interpreted  in this sense,

However, if there be any who suffers without previous sin, it will not be "by the design of an [adverse] power", but as suffers the babe who appears to have committed no sin. The infant is said to receive a benefit when it is subjected to suffering, "gaining" many hardships.

Hell
Origen complained that Basilides deprived men of a salutary fear by teaching that transmigrations are the only punishments after death.

Martyrdom
Because Basilides held to a fatalistic view of metempsychosis, he believed the Christian martyrs were being punished not for being Christians, but for sins they had committed in the past. This is why Origen says that he depreciated the martyrs.

Passions
The Basilideans were accustomed to call the passions Appendages, stating that these are certain spirits that append (προσηρτημένα) themselves to rational souls in a certain primitive turmoil and confusion. Then, they imitate the actions of those they are appended to, and not only acquire the impulses of the irrational animals, but even imitate the movements and beauties of plants. These Appendages can also have characteristics of habit [derived from stones], as the hardness of a diamond.

It is impossible to determine the precise origin of this singular theory, but it was probably connected with the doctrine of metempsychosis, which seemed to find support in Plato's Timaeus. St. Clement of Alexandria stated that the plurality of souls makes the body a Trojan horse.

Practices

Marriage
Reciting the views of different heretics on marriage, Clement gives specimens of the teaching of Basilides and his son Isidore, by way of rebuke to the immorality of the later Basilidians. He first reports the exposition of  (or a similar evangelic passage), in which there is nothing specially to note except the interpretation of the last class of eunuchs as those who remain in celibacy to avoid the distracting cares of providing a livelihood. He goes on to the paraphrase of , interposing in the midst an illustrative sentence from Isidore, and transcribes the language used about the class above mentioned.

Epiphany
Although we have no evidence that Basilides, like some others, regarded Jesus's Baptism as the time when a Divine being first was joined to Jesus of Nazareth, it seems clear that he attached some unusual significance to the event. St. Hippolytus of Rome implied that Basilides regarded the Baptism as the occasion when Jesus received "the Gospel" by a Divine illumination.

"They of Basilides," says Clement, "celebrate the day of His Baptism by a preliminary night-service of [Scripture] readings." The Venice MS. states that the Basilideans celebrated the night before the Epiphany singing and flute-playing in a heathen temple at Alexandria: so that probably the Basilidian rite was a modification of an old local custom.

Meat offered to idols and apostasy
Eusebius of Caesarea is quoting Agrippa Castor, when he states that Basilides: "taught also that the eating of meat offered to idols and the unguarded renunciation of the faith in times of persecution were matters of indifference". However, from St. Clement of Alexandria's Stromata, it appears that Agrippa Castor misunderstood the purpose of Basilides's argument, partly from the actual doctrine and practices of later Basilidians; but it may also have had some justification in incidental words which have not been preserved. It appears as if Basilides was actually saying that the eating of meat offered to idols and apostasy weren't condemned for immorality, but were punishments because of immorality.

Silence
According to Agrippa Castor, Basilides "in Pythagorean fashion" prescribed a silence of five years to his disciples.

Prophets
Agrippa Castor stated that Basilides "invented prophets for himself named Barcabbas and Barcoph, and others that had no existence". The alleged prophecies apparently belonged to the apocryphal Zoroastrian literature popular with various Gnostics.

Traditions of Matthias
According to Basilides and Isidore, Matthias spoke to them mystical doctrines which he heard in private teaching from the Saviour.Strom. vii. 900.  Origen also and after him Eusebius refer to a "Gospel" of or according to Matthias. The true name was apparently the Traditions of Matthias.

 Acts of the Disputation with Manes
The writer of Acts held Basilides responsible for dualism, yet his language on this point is loose, as if he were not sure of his ground; and the quotation which he gives by no means bears him out. It is quite conceivable that his understanding of Basilides came from the dualistic Basilidians of his day, who have given a wrong interpretation to genuine words of their master. Indeed the description of evil as a supervenient nature without root, reads almost as if it were directed against Persian doctrine, and may be fairly interpreted by Basilides's comparison of pain and fear to the rust of iron as natural accidents.

The identity of the Basilides of the Acts with the Alexandrian has been denied by Gieseler with some show of reason. It is at least strange that our Basilides should be described simply as a "preacher among the Persians," a character in which he is otherwise unknown; and all the more since he has been previously mentioned with Marcion and Valentinus as a heretic of familiar name. On the other hand, it has been justly urged that the two passages are addressed to different persons. The correspondence is likewise remarkable between the "treatises" in at least thirteen books, with an interpretation of a parable among their contents, and the "twenty-four books on the Gospel" mentioned by Agrippa Castor, called Exegetica by Clement. Thus the evidence for the identity of the two writers may on the whole be treated as preponderating. But the ambiguity of interpretation remains; and it would be impossible to rank Basilides confidently among dualists, even if the passage in the Acts stood alone: much more to use it as a standard by which to force a dualistic interpretation upon other clearer statements of his doctrine.

Isidorus
Hippolytus couples with Basilides "his true child and disciple" Isidore. He is there referring to the use which they made of the Traditions of Matthias; but in the next sentence he treats them as jointly responsible for the doctrines which he recites. Our only other authority respecting Isidore is Clement (copied by Theodoret), who calls him in like manner "at once son and disciple" of Basilides.

Expositions of the Prophet Parchor
Isidore's Expositions of the Prophet Parchor taught the higher thoughts of heathen philosophers and mythologers were derived from Jewish sources. So, by quoting the philosopher Pherecydes, who had probably a peculiar interest for Isidore as the earliest promulgator of the doctrine of metempsychosis known to tradition, Isidore was proving his validity as a descendant of the prophets.

Isidore's allegation that Pherecydes followed "the prophecy of Ham" was also used to claim that the apocryphal Zoroastrian books had quasi-biblical sanctity as proceeding from Zoroaster, a son of Noah; so Isidore gladly accepted the theory as evidence for his argument.

On an Adherent Soul
In his book On an Adherent Soul, Isidore appears to have argued against his father's teaching on "Appendages". He insists on the unity of the soul, and maintains that bad men will find "no common excuse" in the violence of the "appendages" for pleading that their evil acts were involuntary: "our duty is", he says, "by overcoming the inferior creation within us through the reasoning faculty, to show ourselves to have the mastery".

Ethics
A passage from Isidore's Ethics says: "Abstain, then, from a quarrelsome woman lest you are distracted from the grace of God. But when you have rejected the fire of the seed, then pray with an undisturbed conscience. And when your prayer of thanksgiving," he says, "descends to a prayer of request, and your request is not that in future you may do right, but that you may do no wrong, then marry."

Legacy
Gnosticism was throughout eclectic, and Basilides superadded an eclecticism of his own. Antecedent Gnosticism, Greek philosophy, and the Christian faith and Scriptures all exercised a powerful and immediate influence over his mind. It is evident at a glance that his system is far removed from any known form of Syrian or original Gnosticism. Like that of Valentinus, it has been remoulded in a Greek spirit, but much more completely.

Ancient writers usually name Basilides before Valentinus; but there is little doubt that they were at least approximately contemporaries, and it is not unlikely that Valentinus was best known personally from his sojourn at Rome, which was probably the last of the recorded stages of his life. There is at all events no serious chronological difficulty in supposing that the Valentinian system was the starting-point from which Basilides proceeded to construct by contrast his own theory, and this is the view which a comparison of doctrines suggests.

In no point, unless it be the retention of the widely spread term archon, is Basilides nearer than Valentinus to the older Gnosticism, while several leading Gnostic forms or ideas which he discards or even repudiates are held fast by Valentinus. Such are descent from above, putting forth or pullulation, syzygies of male and female powers, and the deposition of faith to a lower level than knowledge. Further, the unique name given by Basilides to the Holy Spirit, "the Limitary (μεθόριον) Spirit," together with the place assigned to it, can hardly be anything else than a transformation of the strange Valentinian "Limit".

The same softening of oppositions which retain much of their force even with Valentinus shows itself in other instances, as of matter and spirit, creation and redemption, the Jewish age and the Christian age, the earthly and the heavenly elements in the Person of Jesus. The strongest impulse in this direction probably came from Christian ideas.

An antecedent matter was expressly repudiated, the words of  eagerly appropriated, and a Divine counsel represented as foreordaining all future growths and processes; yet the chaotic nullity out of which the developed universe was to spring was attributed with equal boldness to its Maker: Creator and creation were not confused, but they melted away in the distance together. Nature was accepted not only as prescribing the conditions of the lower life, but as practically the supreme and permanent arbiter of destiny. Thus though faith regained its rights, it remained an energy of the understanding, confined to those who had the requisite inborn capacity; while the dealings of God with man were shut up within the lines of mechanical justice.

Popularity
Basilides had to all appearance no eminent disciple except his own son. Although Basilides is mentioned by all the Church Fathers as one of the chiefs of Gnosticism, the system of Valentinus seems to have been much more popular and wider spread, as was also Marcionism.

Influence
20th-century psychoanalyst Carl Jung wrote his Seven Sermons to the Dead and attributed them to Basilides. The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was interested in Irenaeus' account of Basilides' Gnostic doctrine and wrote an essay on the subject:  "A Vindication of the False Basilides" (1932). Basilides' Gnostic Gospel is one of the books mentioned in Borges's short story "The Library of Babel" (1941). Basilides also appears in Borges' "Three Versions of Judas" (1944), which opens with the striking passage: "In Asia Minor or in Alexandria, in the second century of our faith, when Basilides published that the Cosmos was a reckless or evil improvisation by deficient angels...".

Sources

Church Fathers
Historians know of Basilides and his teachings mainly through the writings of his detractors, and it is impossible to determine how reliable these accounts are. The oldest refutation of the teachings of Basilides, by Agrippa Castor, is lost, and we are dependent upon the later accounts of:
Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History, Book IV, Chapter vii, written around the 4th century.
St. Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, Book I, Chapter xxi; Book II, Chapters vi, viii, and xx; Book IV, Chapters xi, xii, and xxv; Book V, Chapter I, etc., written between 208 and 210, and the so-called Excerpta ex Theodoto perhaps from the same hand.
St. Hippolytus of Rome, Philosophumena, Book VII, written about 225.
Pseudo-Tertullian, Against All Heresies, a little treatise usually attached to Tertullian's De Praescriptionibus, but really by another hand, perhaps by Victorinus of Pettau, written about 240 and based upon a non-extant "Compendium" of St. Hippolytus.
St. Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion, Book I, Sect xxiv.
Theodoret of Cyrus, Compendium of Heretical Accounts, Book I, Chapter iv.

Writings of Basilides
Nearly everything Basilides wrote has been lost, but the names of three of his works and fragments are available in the present day:
Fragments of the Exegetica are available from St. Clement of Alexandria in his Stromata, Book IV, Chapter 12, and from Archelaus in his Acts of the Disputation with Manes, Chapter 55, and probably also from Origen in his Commentary on Romans V, Book I.
Origen states that  "Basilides had even the audacity to write a Gospel according to Basilides", and both St. Jerome and St. Ambrose repeat Origen. Yet no trace of a Gospel by Basilides exists elsewhere; and it is possible either that Origen misunderstood the nature of the Exegetica, or that the Gospel was known under another name.
Origen in a note on Job, xxi, 1 sqq., speaks of "Odes" of Basilides.

Other works
Some fragments are known through the work of Clement of Alexandria:
 The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A)
 The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B)
 Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C)
 The State of Virtue (Fragment D)
 The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E)
 Reincarnation (Fragment F)
 Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G)
 Forgivable Sins (Fragment H)

A book called Acts of the Disputation with Manes, which was written during the close of the 3rd century or later, speaks about the Basilidean origins of Manichaeism.

Artifacts
Artistic remains of Gnosticism such as Abrasax gems, and literary remains like the Pistis Sophia, the latter part of which probably dates back to the end of the 2nd century and, though not strictly Basilidian, yet illustrates early Alexandrian Gnosticism.

 Notes

References

Bibliography
Attribution

Primary sources

Secondary sources

 Biondi, Graziano, Basilide. La filosofia del Dio inesistente, Roma 2005, pp.384
Buonaiuti, Lo Gnosticismo (Rome, 1907)
Duchesne, Hist. ancienne de l'Eglise (3d ed., Paris, 1907), I, xi, s.v. La Gnose et le MarcionismeBareille in Dict. de theol. Cath., s. vv. Abrasax, BasilideLeclercq, Dict. d'arch. Chret., s.v. AbrasaxBardenhewer, Gesch. der altkirch. Lit. (Freiburg, 1902), I

Mansel, Gnostic HeresiesDe Groot, Basilides als erster Zeuge fur das N. T. (Leipzig, 1868)
Urlhorn, Das Basilidianische System'' (Göttingen, 1855).

External links

"Basilides" by T. Apiryon
Fragments of Basilides
Fragments of his son Isidore
St. Clement of Alexandria's Stromata, Book iv
Archelaus' Acts of the Disputation with Manes see Chapter 55.

Gnostics
2nd-century Egyptian people
2nd-century Christian theologians
Egyptian Christians

Basilides


Lamarck ist ein Einschlagkrater am westlichen Rand der Mondvorderseite, südlich des Kraters Darwin und nordwestlich von Byrgius.
Der unregelmäßig geformte Krater ist extrem stark erodiert und in dem unebenen Geländer der Umgebung kaum auszumachen.

Der Krater wurde 1964 von der IAU nach dem französischen Biologen Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck offiziell benannt.

Weblinks

 Lamarck auf The-Moon Wiki

Einzelnachweise

Einschlagkrater (Mond)

Lamarck (Mondkrater)


Larsen er en iskappe på den Antarktiske Halvø. Den har bestået af fire gletsjere, kaldet Larsen A, Larsen B, Larsen C og Larsen D. Larsen A havde muligvis eksisteret i to tusinde år, da den blev opløst i 1995, hvorefter man begyndte at holde øje med hele iskappen. Syv år senere forsvandt mere end 3000 km2 af Larsen B på en måned. På fem år er 5700 km2 har Larsen B forsvundet, svarende til 40%. Det vurderes, at Larsen B er ældre end Larsen A. Den del af iskappen, der forsvandt i 2002 vejede 500 mia. ton, svarende til 720.000 milliarder liter. Iskappen er blevet opkaldt efter den norske hvalfanger C.A. Larsen, der passerede området i 1893.

Mellem 10. og 12. juli 2017 kælvede 5.800 km2 af Larsen C-gletsjeren, hvilket svarede til 12% af Larsen C's samlede areal  Det isbjerg, der blev resultatat af kælvingen kaldes A68 og flød efterfølgende rundt ud for den Antarktiske Halvø. Isbjerget vejer over 1 billion (1012) tons og rummer næsten samme mængde vand som Lake Ontario.

Sprækken, der havde eksisteret i flere årtier, øgedes med stigende hastighed. I december 2016 blev sprækken 18 km længere.  I januar 2017 voksede revnen med 10 km. I slutningen af maj 2017 voksede revnen med 17 km på knap en uge og i begyndelsen af juni 2017 manglede der 13 km før en tiendedel af gletsjeren (5000 km2) ville forlade Antarktis. Det frygtes, at Larsen C's kælving medfører, at endnu flere gletsjere med tiden ryger i havet. Der vurderes at komme en vandstandsstigning på 10 cm, hvis isen bag Larsen C ryger i havet.

Se også

 Den antarktiske indlandsis
 Grønlands indlandsis
 Indlandsis
 Isshelf eller isbræmme
 Thwaites Gletsjer

Referencer

Antarktis' geografi
Gletsjere

Larsen (iskappe)


The Silver Line is a system of bus routes in Boston and Chelsea, Massachusetts, operated by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). It is operated as part of the MBTA bus system, but branded as bus rapid transit (BRT) as part of the MBTA subway system. Six routes are operated as part of two disconnected corridors. , weekday ridership on the Silver Line was 39,000.

The four Waterfront routes operate out of an underground terminal at  and run through the South Boston Piers Transitway – a dedicated bus tunnel through the Seaport District with stations at  and . At , they fan out on the surface: the SL1 to Logan International Airport, the SL2 to Dry Dock Avenue, and the SL3 to  via East Boston. An additional short turn route, SLW, runs only at peak hours between South Station and Silver Line Way. The Waterfront routes use mostly articulated diesel hybrid buses with extended battery range. Two routes operate on Washington Street between Nubian station (at Nubian Square in Roxbury) and Downtown Boston. The SL5 terminates at  and the SL4 on the surface at . The Washington Street routes use articulated diesel hybrid buses.

The Washington Street corridor was built to replace the Washington Street Elevated, which was used by the Orange Line rapid transit line until 1987. Initial plans called for a light rail branch of the Green Line, but trolleybuses and later CNG buses were substituted. Planning began in 1987 for mass transit to serve the growing Seaport; a new transit tunnel called the South Boston Piers Transitway was chosen in 1989. It was to run from  to World Trade Center via  and South Station, though the Boylston–South Station section was later deferred as a separate phase. In 1999, the MBTA designated the Washington Street and Transitway projects as the Silver Line, and planned for the Boylston tunnel extension to include a portal to Washington Street for through-running. Service improvements on Washington Street began in 2001. After years of delays, service through the $624 million Transitway began on December 17, 2004.

The connecting tunnel (Phase III) was cancelled in 2010 due to rising costs; a surface route (SL4) was introduced the previous year. The original SL3 route to  was discontinued on March 20, 2009. A separate SL3 route to Chelsea – originally planned as part of the cancelled Urban Ring Project – began service on April 21, 2018. Several other Silver Line extensions have been proposed, as has a conversion of the Washington Street corridor to light rail, but most have not been pursued. The Silver Line has been the target of criticism by riders and transportation planners. Much of the system is missing BRT Standard features such as enforced dedicated lanes, off-vehicle fare collection, sheltered stations, and transit signal priority.

Routes

Waterfront: SL1, SL2, SL3

Three Silver Line services operate from  in a dedicated tunnel, the South Boston Piers Transitway, serving the underground  and  stations in the Seaport District then splitting at the  surface station:
 SL1 Logan Airport–South Station
 SL2 Drydock–South Station
 SL3 Chelsea–South Station
During rush hours, additional short turns (designated SLW) are run between South Station and Silver Line Way to increase frequency in the Transitway.

Route SL2 runs on Northern Avenue, then on a one-way loop on Drydock Avenue and Black Falcon Avenue with multiple stops serving the Raymond L. Flynn Marine Park and the Flynn Cruiseport Boston. Buses run clockwise around the loop, with a layover at 23 Drydock Avenue. From Silver Line Way, route SL1 and SL3 buses loop backwards on Haul Road, then cross under Boston Harbor in the Ted Williams Tunnel to East Boston. Route SL1 loops around the Logan International Airport terminals, with stops at the arrivals level of each terminal (including two separate stops at lengthy Terminal B). Route SL3 serves  station, follows the Coughlin Bypass Road, and crosses Chelsea Creek on the Chelsea Street Bridge. It then follows a dedicated busway to , with intermediate stops at , , and . The three Transitway stops are full rapid transit stations; the Chelsea busway stations have large concrete shelters, while most other surface stops have small shelters.

The Waterfront routes have regular rapid transit fares. Passengers enter through faregates at the three Transitway stations, and pay at the on-board farebox at all other stops. Fares are free when boarding at the Logan Airport stops. Transfer is possible to the Red Line within fare control at South Station. Normal transfers to other routes are available with a CharlieCard; transfers to/from the Blue Line at Airport and the Washington Street routes are available with a CharlieTicket.

The Waterfront routes use  articulated buses with three doors, which provide greater capacity than standard  transit buses. The buses are low-floor and fully accessible, with kneeling bus technology and a wheelchair ramp at the front door. The main Waterfront fleet consists of 45 diesel hybrid buses with extended battery range – sufficient to run through the Transitway on battery power – which were delivered in 2022–2023. A similar extended-battery-range hybrid bus built in 2018 and five battery electric buses built in 2019 are also used. All Silver Line buses are maintained at Southampton Street Garage.

The Waterfront routes previously used dual-mode buses which operated as electric trolleybuses between South Station and Silver Line Way, and as conventional diesel buses on the surface branches. The 32 dual-mode buses, built by Neoplan USA, were delivered in 2004–05 and overhauled from 2014 to 2018. Eight of the buses were funded by Massport and included luggage racks for airport passengers. The dual-mode buses (and overhead lines in the Transitway) proved difficult to maintain and required a time-consuming switch between modes at Silver Line Way. In 2018–19, the MBTA obtained several buses to test alternate options for Waterfront service. A single New Flyer diesel hybrid bus with extended battery range was obtained as an option on a separate order; it entered testing in September 2018 and revenue service in December. On July 31, 2019, the MBTA began using five New Flyer battery electric buses on both Waterfront and Washington Street routes. In November 2020, the MBTA exercised a contract option for 45 additional 60-foot hybrid buses with extended battery range (similar to test bus #1294) to replace the dual-mode Silver Line fleet. The final dual-mode buses were retired in July 2023, ending trolleybus operations in the Boston area.

Station listing

Former stops

Washington Street: SL4 and SL5

Two Silver Line routes run between Nubian station (at Nubian Square in Roxbury) and Downtown Boston along Washington Street:
 SL4 Nubian station–South Station
 SL5 Nubian station–Downtown Crossing

These two routes share most of their routing on Washington Street between Nubian Square and , with dedicated lanes for most of the corridor and eight intermediate stops. North of Kneeland Street, the routes run on separate one-way loops. The SL5 runs north on Washington Street to Template Place (between  and , with an intermediate stop at . It returns south on Tremont Street, with a southbound stop at . The SL4 runs north on Washington Street to Chinatown, then east on Essex Street (with a dedicated lane) to a surface stop at . It returns south on Surface Road and Kneeland Street. Most stops have a canopy shelter with seating, maps, and a real-time arrival information display.

The two routes have the same fare as local bus services (lower than rapid transit), with normal transfers with a CharlieCard. In recognition of their role as replacement for the Orange Line, transfers are also available with a paper CharlieTicket (which normally does not allow transfers). This was inherited from the previous route 49 bus, which had free transfers (with the flat token fare) to and from the Orange Line only at .

The Washington Street routes use  diesel hybrid articulated buses with three doors. The buses are low-floor and fully accessible, with kneeling bus technology and a wheelchair ramp at the front door. The routes use 21 New Flyer buses delivered in 2016–17 (part of a 44-bus order also used on routes  and ), which replaced the original compressed natural gas (CNG) buses, plus three similar hybrid buses delivered in 2010. All Silver Line buses are maintained at Southampton Street Garage.

Station listing

History

Washington Street development

The 1947 state act that created the Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) from the Boston Elevated Railway established four immediate projects for the new agency: extension of rapid transit to , expansion of the Tremont Street Subway to four tracks, replacement of the existing elevated lines (Charlestown Elevated, Causeway Street Elevated, and Washington Street Elevated) with subways, and an extension of the Cambridge–Dorchester line northwest from . In 1948, the legislature authorized the city to issue $19 million in bonds (equivalent to $ in ) to construct an extension of the Washington Street Tunnel under Shawmut Street, connecting with the existing elevated south of Dudley Square. Although none of the proposals were built immediately, it established a precedent of replacing the elevated lines. In 1972, protests led to cancellation of the planned Southwest Expressway. Instead, the alignment was used for a combined corridor for intercity rail, commuter rail, and the Orange Line – replacing the Washington Street Elevated of the latter.

The northern part of the new corridor was about  west of Washington Street, so the MBTA (which had replaced the MTA in 1964) began planning in 1978 for a replacement service between Dudley Square and Downtown Boston. By 1985, the MBTA favored bus or light rail service on Washington Street; the latter would have been a branch of the Green Line, operated through the 1962-abandoned southern branch. The Orange Line was rerouted in 1987; that year, the Urban Mass Transportation Administration rejected the MBTA's funding request to create a light rail line on the corridor. Local opinion favored the temporary retention of the northern portion of the Elevated until a permanent replacement could be built. However, the MBTA closed the Elevated and instead upgraded the route 49 bus from a feeder route to a more frequent trunk route.

In 1989, the MBTA announced that trolleybuses would be used on Washington Street, operating on 4-minute headways at peak hours. By 1990, the MBTA expected service to begin in 1993, with an underground connection to Boylston station and the proposed South Boston Piers tunnel in a future phase. After several more years of studies, the MBTA decided in 1996–97 to build the route as a bus rapid transit line using compressed natural gas (CNG) buses to avoid the visual impact of overhead wires. Environmental documentation was filed in 1998, and construction began in 2001. The project cost $27.3 million, with major elements including $10.9 million for the 17 new buses, $10.9 million for road work, and $2.6 million for shelters. Planning and construction were combined with a necessary repaving of Washington Street, reducing costs. Intended for the route to equal the service quality of light rail, the MBTA branded it as the "Silver Line" and designated it equally to the existing MBTA subway lines on maps. The Silver Line name was introduced in 1996.

The Silver Line followed largely the same route between Dudley Square and Downtown Boston as route 49; the primary change was the consolidation of stops. Although the MBTA considered other stop locations, most of the final stops were at existing route 49 stops. The conversion to the Silver Line occurred in several steps. In December 2001, the MBTA opened a contraflow bus-only lane on Washington Street between Marginal Road and East Berkeley Street, allowing southbound buses to use Washington Street. This eliminated a longer outbound routing via Surface Road, and allowed an extension to a new downtown terminal at Temple Place (between  and  stations). Service frequency was also increased at that time. On July 20, 2002, new Silver Line-branded CNG buses began operation – the first low-floor buses to operate in Boston – and the 20 stops were reduced to 11. In November 2002, a twelfth stop at  was restored. The  were replaced by  buses in August 2003, and service frequency was again increased. On January 31, 2005, the route was the first MBTA bus route to receive new automated fare collection equipment. By 2005, ridership was double that of route 49, but early decreases in travel time were cancelled out by longer dwell times.

In February 2020, the MBTA agreed to change the name of Dudley Square station to Nubian, following the December 2019 renaming of the square itself. The station renaming took effect in June 2020. In May 2022, the MBTA released a draft plan for a systemwide network redesign. The draft called for the SL4 and SL5 to be combined into a single Nubian–South Station route to provide simpler and more consistent downtown service. The November 2022 draft network plan kept the same proposal. An additional SL4 stop (Chinatown Gate) on Surface Artery at Kneeland Street in Chinatown was added on August 19, 2022, while the Orange Line was closed for maintenance work; it was retained after the closure.

Waterfront development

For most of the 20th century, the Seaport District was an industrial area occupied by rail yards and wharves; the South Boston Army Base and South Boston Naval Annex were served by short bus routes that connected with the Red Line at . After the military bases closed in 1974 and the rail yards were no longer needed, the Seaport was designated for commercial development, with accompanying need for expanded transit. The MBTA conducted a feasibility study in 1987 and released a Draft Environmental Impact Report (DEIR) in 1989. The DEIR selected an underground "transitway" over alternatives including a surface light rail line, an elevated people mover, a commuter rail shuttle, and a relocation of the Red Line. The transitway was to use trolleybuses or dual-mode buses, rather than the light rail and people mover possibilities considered; it would connect with the Red Line at South Station, the Orange Line at , and the Green Line at . Costs could be reduced by combining its construction with the upcoming Central Artery/Tunnel Project ("Big Dig"). Service from the transitway could be extended to serve Logan International Airport, to form part of a proposed circumferential transit line, and to connect with the planned Washington Street service.

The South Boston Piers Transitway alignment was refined by the Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIR) in 1992. The Final Environmental Impact Statement/Final Environmental Impact Report (FEIS/FEIR) was approved in December 1993. The South Station–Seaport segment was to open in 2000, with the Boylston segment opening in 2006. The stations at , , South Station, Chinatown, and Boylston would each have island platforms, and the tunnel could be later converted to light rail as a Green Line branch if needed. Daily ridership was expected to be between 24,200 and 37,200 for the first phase, and between 34,800 and 69,800 for the full build, depending on the rate of commercial development. In November 1994, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) agreed to fund $331 million (80%) of the $413 million first phase, which was to be completed in December 2000. The environmental approval process was completed in April 1995.

In 1997, with construction on the transitway already under way, Massport cancelled a planned people mover at Logan Airport in favor of dual-mode buses operating from the transitway and through the newly-opened Ted Williams Tunnel. A connector road was to extend the transitway from D Street to Haul Road. These changes were approved in February 1998. In May 1999, the MBTA indicated plans to through-route the transitway with the planned Washington Street service as the "Silver Line", with the Washington Street service as Phase I, the initial Transitway build as Phase II, and the Boylston extension as Phase III.

Initial construction of the Transitway was divided into four main sections: South Station and turnaround loop plus  of tunnel ($96 million), Russia Wharf and Fort Point Channel tunnel ($128 million), Courthouse station plus  of tunnel ($110 million), and World Trade Center station plus  of tunnel ($43 million). The Russia Wharf section, using the New Austrian tunnelling method, was the most technically complex; ground freezing was required to support the historic Russia Wharf Buildings. It also included an immersed tube under the Fort Point Channel. The discovery of a massive boulder under the Channel delayed the project by a year. By late 2000, the project was three years behind schedule and almost $200 million over budget; the MBTA diverted $150 million of other federal grants and $50 million of contingency funds to cover the costs. The Transitway was ultimately completed in 2004, with a final cost to the MBTA of $624 million. Although some projects like the new federal courthouse and the new convention center had been built, commercial development had lagged early plans; the MBTA adjusted its 2006 daily ridership projections from 45,000 to 14,000 shortly before opening.

The Transitway opened on December 17, 2004, with the Waterfront shuttle route between South Station and Silver Line operated by a mix of new dual-mode buses and  trolleybuses borrowed from the Harvard-based routes. It was only the third "urban trolleybus subway" (tunnel with stations) in the world, after the Harvard bus tunnel and the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel (in which trolleybus service ended in 2005). Original plans called for a single South Boston route running to  via D Street, Broadway, Summer Street, and E 1st Street. After concerns from residents over reduction of legal parking spaces and impacts to the "local custom" of double parking, this was split into two routes: one running to  via D Street, and one to City Point via D Street and E 1st Street.

On December 31, 2004, service began on routes SL2 to the Boston Marine Industrial Park and route SL3 to City Point – the latter running via Northern Avenue, Drydock Avenue, and Summer Street rather than D Street. Two days later, a Sunday-only Silver Line Way-Logan Airport shuttle service called "Silver Line Connector" began operation to meet a legal commitment to begin airport service that month. The existing surface routes in the Seaport were discontinued or rerouted in January. Due to a lack of available dual-mode buses, CNG shuttles operated on the surface sections of the SL2 and SL3 routes from January 5 to March 14, 2005. On March 26, the two routes were combined on nights and weekends. On April 9, weekday SL3 service was extended from City Point to a loop on Farragut Road. On May 28, 2005, the two routes were combined at all times as the SL2/3. This freed up buses for SL1 service to Logan Airport, which began on June 1. As more buses entered service, the SL2 and SL3 were re-split into separate routes (except nights and weekends) on August 20, and the Farragut Road loop was cut due to noise complaints from residents. On October 15, City Point service was cut on nights and weekends. The planned SL4 route to Andrew, expected to begin service in 2005, was never implemented.

As enough dual-mode buses became available, the borrowed 40-foot trolleybuses were phased out; they were last used on February 12, 2006. By 2006, the Silver Line had doubled transit ridership to the Seaport, and increased transit ridership to Logan by 24%. The SL3 service was never successful, as the parallel route  had a more direct routing, lower fares, and better downtown connections. By 2008, the SL3 averaged less than one passenger per trip on the segment not shared with the SL2. On March 20, 2009, SL3 service was cut, with SL2 service increased in its stead. In October 2009, the SL2 terminus was renamed "Design Center" with no changes in service.

Until 2019, SL2 buses served the Design Center loop in two different patterns. Before noon, outbound buses proceeded around the whole loop, laid over at the Design Center stop, then proceeded inbound. After noon, outbound buses made a shorter western loop, laid over at Design Center, then proceeded inbound via the main loop. On December 22, 2019, the route was changed so that buses proceeded around the whole loop before the layover at all times. On March 15, 2020, afternoon service began laying over at 23 Dry Dock Avenue before making the loop.

In January 2021, Massport approved a ground lease agreement for air rights development over Silver Line Way station, which will include improvements to the stop. On March 13, 2022, all SL2 buses began laying over at 23 Dry Dock Avenue. The stop at 88 Black Falcon Avenue, closed since April 2019 due to pier repairs, was permanently cut at that time. An improved stop on the east side of 27 Drydock Avenue (at Black Falcon Avenue) is planned by 2025 as part of redevelopment of 88 Black Falcon Avenue. The May 2022 draft network plan called for routes SL1 and SL3 to use D Street to more directly access the Ted Williams Tunnel, with only route SL2 plus SLW shuttles serving Silver Line Way. The November 2022 revised proposal kept this change, with SL2 enhanced to higher frequency service all days.

Phase III plans

The Boylston extension, as planned in 1993, would have run west from South Station under Essex Street, Avenue de Lafayette, and Avery Street. The Chinatown platform would have been under Hayward Place east of Washington Street, and the Boylston platform under the existing Green Line station, with a turnaround loop under Boylston Street and the Central Burying Ground. The 1999 decision to combine the Waterfront and Washington Street projects as the Silver Line resulted in the addition of a southern segment, likely using the same abandoned streetcar tunnel as had been proposed a decade before. A new underground station would have been built under Tremont Street, connecting to the existing  (NEMC) station, with a portal to Washington Street just north of Oak Street. In April 2000, the MBTA adjusted the alignment to use Boylston Street instead of Avenue de Lafayette and Avery Street, with side platforms at the stations. The new alignment would conflict less with development, provide a straighter route, avoid the need for a pedestrian crossing and a lengthy pedestrian tunnel at Chinatown, and move the Boylston loop away from the Burying Ground.

In January 2002, the MBTA began seeking federal funding for 60% of the project cost. The FTA approved the project for further planning that July. The Boston Regional Metropolitan Planning Organization rated the project as "high priority" in its May 2003 Program for Mass Transportation, citing its high estimated ridership, low operating cost and service to environmental justice neighborhoods. In 2003, the preferred portal location was moved slightly north to avoid the need to demolish the YMCA building, and the NEMC station was removed. A proposal to consolidate the Chinatown and Boylston stations was rejected due to steep grades required and lack of cost savings, and a proposal to eliminate the loop was rejected because of the need to short turn most buses at Boylston. Further changes in 2003–04 were caused by the need to add a second platform at Boylston due to high expected ridership, and to reduce impacts to the historic Boston Common from the loop. One alternative placed the station and loop under Tremont Street south of Boylston Street; the other enlarged them under the Common.

Continued concerns about the Common, concerns from Bay Village residents about impacts to Eliot Norton Park, and desires to add Back Bay service resulted in further changes in 2004–05. The platforms at Boylston were to be aligned east–west under Boylston Street west of Tremont Street, with the loop further to the west at Charles Street. New portal alignments were considered, including one on Columbus Avenue to the southwest. Capital cost was originally estimated at $768–812 million depending on the portal location; completion was moved from 2010 to 2013. Daily ridership for the completed Silver Line system was estimated to reach 160,000 by 2025. In August 2005, the MBTA put the Phase III project "on hold" in order to build community consensus on a locally preferred routing.

In February 2006, State Transportation Secretary John Cogliano proposed a $94 million plan that would eliminate most of the tunneling and cost of the original proposal while still connecting the two phases of the service. Under Cogliano's plan, the Silver Line would run on the surface via Kneeland Street and Surface Road to a new tunnel portal on Essex Street near South Station. A fare-controlled shelter would be added at Downtown Crossing for routes still terminating there. The plan also included expansion of surface Silver Line service, with a new branch running from Copley Square into the Essex Street portal to provide a one-seat ride from the Back Bay area. The southern branch would be extended from Dudley to the Red Line stations at  via Blue Hill Avenue (replacing route ) and  via Washington Street (replacing route ) The plan was popular with Bay Village residents who had been worried about the full-length tunnel, but attracted criticism because it would not substantially speed travel times to downtown.

A revised tunnel plan was put forward in March 2006, with support from most transportation leaders including Cogliano. The plan involved a variation of the Charles Street tunnel alignment, with the portal moved southwest onto Tremont Street near Marginal Road. This "Charles Street Modified" alignment remained the preferred alternative for the remainder of the project. Contra-flow dedicated bus lanes, already in place on Washington Street, were to be extended onto Marginal Road and Herald Street to allow buses to reach the portal from the surface section. On December 12, 2006, the FTA approved the project to re-enter its funding process. By mid-2008, environmental review and preliminary engineering were expected to be completed by the end of the year, with federal funding sought in 2010 and construction lasting from 2011 to a 2016 opening.

However, the estimated price of the tunnel plan, dubbed the "Little Dig", had risen to $2.1 billion by May 2009. The FTA assigned it a Medium Low overall rating, making it ineligible to move into the final design phase for federal New Starts funding. The Boston Region Metropolitan Planning Organization removed Phase III from the list of recommended projects in its long range plan because of funding limitations. Concluding that it could not successfully compete for more than one New Starts grant, the Massachusetts Department of Transportation (MassDOT) informed the FTA that it was no longer seeking New Starts money for Phase III. All New Starts funds available would instead be directed to the legally mandated Green Line Extension project. In a July 2010 report, the MBTA declared that Phase III was on indefinite hold and no further funds would be spent on the project.

A partial solution that did not require a new tunnel opened on October 13, 2009, after expedited construction using federal stimulus money. The new route, SL4, covered much of the same alignment as the proposed Phase III, with a dedicated bus lane on Essex Street and a South Station stop west of Atlantic Avenue. The existing Downtown Crossing-Dudley route was renamed SL5 at that time.

Extension to Chelsea

The Urban Ring Project was a planned circumferential surface BRT line. It would have shared the Silver Line berths at Dudley Square, and have had a surface stop outside World Trade Center station, but otherwise would have been separate from the Silver Line. The project was cancelled in 2010 due to high cost, but planning for several smaller sections continued. The Chelsea–South Boston section was given high priority because Chelsea was densely populated yet underserved by transit. MassDOT had also purchased the Grand Junction Branch – including abandoned sections in Chelsea and East Boston – from CSX Transportation in 2010, meaning that a potential right-of-way (which the Urban Ring had proposed to use) was available. A state study in 2011 analyzed potential Chelsea services, including a Silver Line branch to Bellingham Square or the Chelsea commuter rail station, or improvements to the route  bus.

In 2013, MassDOT began public planning of the Silver Line Gateway project. In addition to serving Chelsea, the proposed line would provide Blue Line riders a direct connection to the Seaport and South Station. Three possible alignments were studied. All used the Transitway and the Ted Williams Tunnel to reach  station, then the 2012-opened Coughlin Bypass Road to the Chelsea Street Bridge. The first alignment was to run entirely on a new busway on the Grand Junction right-of-way in Chelsea, with stops at , ,  at the Chelsea commuter rail station, and Mystic Mall. The second alignment option would have followed the Grand Junction to just short of the commuter rail station, then diverge onto surface roads to Bellingham Square, while the third alignment would have run entirely on surface streets, serving two stops on Central Avenue and four stops along a loop serving Chelsea station and the MGH Chelsea healthcare center.

In September 2013, the MBTA indicated that it would pursue the first alternative, with an estimated daily ridership of 8,700, despite potential issues with bridge clearances and rebuilding the commuter rail station. On October 30, 2013, MassDOT announced $82.5 million in state funding for the new Silver Line route to Chelsea, with completion expected in 2015. The announcement also included the relocation of the commuter rail station to  (Mystic Mall) and a $3 million,  multi-use path from Eastern Avenue to Washington Street. The Environmental Impact Report was issued in March 2014. MassDOT awarded a $33.8 million construction contract for the first phase of the project on September 17, 2014. That phase included the -long busway, the four Silver Line stations, replacement of the Washington Street bridge, and the Chelsea Greenway.

Silver Line service to Chelsea (route SL3) began on April 21, 2018. By October, daily ridership reached 6,200. The second phase of the project includes the relocated Chelsea commuter rail station plus transit signal priority upgrades for the SL3. Construction began in August 2019; the new station opened on November 15, 2021.

Proposed future corridors

Several other bus rapid transit and express bus projects have been proposed in Boston, many under the Silver Line banner. The first two phases of the 2010-cancelled Urban Ring Project were to be BRT, with light or heavy rail for the final phase. The Urban Ring was considered a separate project, although it would have shared the SL1 route between Silver Line Way and Logan Airport.

A number of Silver Line expansion corridors were considered in the 2003 Program for Mass Transportation (PMT); most were given brief consideration but not acted upon. One, a BRT express overlay for the route 28 bus (which runs from Ruggles station to Mattapan via Nubian), was revived in 2006 as part of the Phase III plans. In 2009, the state proposed to replace the 28 bus entirely with a BRT route called 28X, including the installation of dedicated bus lanes, bus signal priority, and on-platform fare collection. However, the proposal was withdrawn in 2010 due to local opposition, both to the design of the route and because the plan had been made without consulting local officials. In 2012, the Roxbury–Dorchester–Mattapan Transit Needs Study recommended the 28X bus to be implemented with no new infrastructure as an express bus adding additional trips to the corridor.

Several other corridors were considered in the 2003 PMT. These included a Dudley–Ashmont route replacing the route 23 bus (also revived in 2006 in Phase III planning, but not during the 28X proposal), as well as a new BRT tunnel to Kenmore with surface branches to the Longwood Medical Area via Brookline Avenue and Allston via Commonwealth Avenue, the Mass Pike, and Cambridge Street. The City of Boston proposed an alternate western Silver Line branch using buses along the Mass Pike without a new tunnel, similar to existing express buses.

The 2003 PMT included the possibility of converting the Washington Street section of the Silver Line to light rail (as had originally been promised) using the abandoned southern section of the Tremont Street Subway. The project was estimated to cost $374 million; ridership was estimated to be 34,000 daily riders almost entirely diverted from the Silver Line service. The project was given low priority, with the Phase III tunnel recommended instead. In 2012, the Roxbury–Dorchester–Mattapan Transit Needs Study recommended the conversion to light rail as a long-term project, with the additional possibility of extending the line down Blue Hill Avenue to Mattapan along the route 28 bus corridor.

In March 2019, state and local officials indicated plans to extend service from  on two routes to Kendall Square and to North Station, both via Sullivan Square. The routes would primarily use dedicated busways and bus lanes, although it was not decided whether they would be under the Silver Line brand. In January 2021, the MBTA and MassDOT began work on the Silver Line Extension (SLX), which would look into route alternatives from Chelsea into Everett, Somerville, Cambridge, and Boston. Six potential corridors were identified by September 2021: to , to Sullivan, to , to downtown Boston via Sullivan, to Kendall Square via Sullivan, and to Kendall Square via Wellington. Some corridors could be operated as new routes independent from the SL3, with Chelsea or Airport as potential termini rather than South Station.

Alternatives were presented in September 2022. Three potential SL3 extensions would run to Malden Center, Wellington, or Sullivan – all via Everett Square, with varying amounts of dedicated bus lanes on the western portion. Four potential SL6 routes were identified: Everett (Glendale Square)–Kendall via McGrath Highway, Everett–Kendall via the Gilmore Bridge, Everett–Haymarket via Rutherford Avenue, and Eastern Avenue–Kendall via Everett Square. All of the potential SL6 routes would operate primarily in dedicated lanes.

Service

Frequency and ridership

The Silver Line routes are among the most frequent MBTA bus routes. All routes (except for the SLW shuttle) run at least every 15 minutes during all service hours, save for late evening and weekend service on the SL4. At peak hours, combined frequency on the trunk sections is about 30 buses per hour (2 minute headways) in each direction in the Transitway, and 12 buses per hour (5 minute headways) on Washington Street. The routes have high ridership (though lower than many key bus routes) and low costs per rider compared to other bus routes in the MBTA system. In 2012, three routes (SL1, SL5, SLW) were the only MBTA bus routes to show a profit; the median net cost (after fares) on all MBTA bus routes was $2.13 per passenger. In 2019, combined weekday ridership on Silver Line routes was 39,000.

In addition to the public route name, the Silver Line and crosstown routes have internal route numbers in the 700 series. The SL5 is designated 749 after the 49 bus it replaced, while the other routes have similar numbers.

Criticism

Mode choice

When the Washington Street Elevated was replaced with the Southwest Corridor, MBTA promised "equal or better" surface transit on Washington Street to replace the Elevated. Riders supported light rail; the decision to instead run buses was viewed as a broken promise and intentional disinvestment. The Silver Line is substantially slower than the Elevated, with travel time from Nubian Square to Downtown Boston increased from 8 minutes to 20 minutes. The Washington Street corridor population is poorer and less educated than the Southwest Corridor, and has a larger Black population; advocates including state representative Gloria Fox have called the poor service on the Silver Line "discrimination against people of color". Because of the poor service and the perception that the bus service was an inferior substitute for the originally-planned light rail line, advocates nicknamed the Washington Street service as the "Silver Lie".

Two theoretical advantages of BRT compared to light rail are low cost and speedy implementation. However, Silver Line service did not begin Washington Street until 15 years after the Elevated came down; the first phase of the Transitway opened 15 years after the DEIR, and the second phase was never completed. The Transitway was built at "enormous cost"; it was the most expensive single BRT project in the world by a 2007 report. Like the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel (which was later converted to light rail), the Transitway had comparable construction cost to light rail, but a lower level of service. At the time of its cancellation, Phase III was expected to cost $2.1 billion - more than three times that of the Transitway. Although transit ridership in the Seaport doubled after the introduction of the Silver Line, that growth is due partially to commercial development rather than the service quality.

BRT quality

Key features of bus rapid transit include dedicated lanes, frequent service, off-vehicle fare collection, sheltered stations, and intelligent transportation systems features such as transit signal priority. A 2011 study by the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) determined that the Silver Line was best classified as "Not BRT" because it lacked many of these BRT Standard features.

Off-board fare collection is only present at the three underground stops. A significant portion of delays on the surface sections are caused by long dwell times, as passengers only board through the front door to pay at the single farebox. On June 6, 2012, Massport began funding a three-month pilot of free fares from the five Logan Airport stops as an effort to decrease traffic congestion at the airport terminals. Within the first month, average dwell time dropped by 20 seconds per stop. Massport later extended the pilot until January 2013, then made free fares from Logan permanent. Stops on the Washington Street routes with more than fifteen passengers have an average dwell time of over one minute, which affects both running time and reliability. A two-week pilot program in 2017 tested all-door boarding on these routes, with free fares funded by a nonprofit. The pilot halved dwell times at busy stops, reduced overall average dwell time from 24 to 19 seconds, and increased reliability. All-door boarding will be permanently implemented on all routes in the early 2020s as part of the AFC 2.0 fare system.

The Washington Street routes have dedicated bus lanes between  and , as well as on Essex Street. However, these lanes are not physically separated from general traffic lanes and are designated as right-turn lanes at many intersections. A lack of loading zones causes many vehicles to double-park in the bus lanes, and violations of the exclusive lanes are rarely prosecuted. In the most congested parts of the corridor – Nubian Square and Downtown Crossing – no dedicated lanes are present. Transit signal priority (TSP) was only planned for four locations on Washington Street. Due to conflicts between the MBTA, the contractors, and the city, the TSP equipment was not activated until 2006. Due to the lack of BRT elements, running times on the corridor show significant variability. Peak-hour times were as much as 1.7 times that of uncontested periods in 2006, indicating that the limited BRT elements on Washington Street were ineffective at actually speeding travel during congested periods. Headway reliability is poor, largely due to operators failing to depart Nubian on time. Additional enforced downtown bus lanes, plus traffic restrictions on Temple Place and new loading zones in Chinatown, were added by the city in 2020.

Although the Transitway is a dedicated bus tunnel without interference from automobile traffic, Waterfront service is no faster than the on-street buses it replaced. The tunnel was built for a maximum speed of ; the narrow lanes without guided buses limit actual speeds to . Water leakage and poor drainage has damaged the concrete floor of the tunnel, leading to "poor ride quality". The switch between electric and diesel power at Silver Line Way also represents a "significant delay". Because the original Transitway design ended at D Street, buses must cross the street at a traffic light. A 2003 study indicated extending the Transitway tunnel under D Street ("T under D") for grade separation was feasible, with a cost around $75 million. The light has attracted criticism from riders due to the delays it causes. A 2013 study found a median delay of 1.5 minutes per round trip at the light. In early 2016, the Boston Transportation Department modified the traffic light to use a fixed cycle, rather than relying on the detection of buses (only done during part of the cycle) to give a green light for the Transitway. However, the BTD's modifications did not modify the unusually-long 100-second cycle length nor actively prioritize buses, leading to criticism from transportation planners that the solution was inadequate. Proposed air rights development over the station is required not to preclude later grade separation of D Street. A gate and movable bollard near the light, which are used to prevent private vehicles from entering the Transitway, also cause delays to buses.

Although stop spacing varies widely between BRT systems, distances from  to  are typically recommended. Even after dropping half the stops, the Washington Street corridor averages only  between stops, with several stop spacings as low as . The Washington Street stops were built with open canopies; protected shelters were not added until 2010. A small traditional glass shelter is available at Temple Place; Boylston, Chinatown, and Tufts Medical Center have no shelters at all. Silver Line Way and the SL2 surface stops have glass shelters or none at all; the SL3 surface stops have canopies without shelters.

Indirect routing

Because the Transitway was not originally designed for service to Logan Airport or Chelsea, it does not have a direct connection to the Ted Williams Tunnel. Outbound SL1 and SL3 buses must travel  west on Haul Road from Silver Line Way to access an eastbound ramp west of B Street, then travel east on a frequently-congested section of I-90. Inbound buses must exit I-90 at B Street and travel  east on Congress Street to reach Silver Line Way. An eastbound entrance ramp near Silver Line Way, normally restricted for use by Massachusetts State Police vehicles and MassDOT maintenance vehicles from an adjacent operations center, can shorten the outbound routing by about . MassDOT claims the ramp was not designed for buses, though Big Dig planner Fred Salvucci has claimed it was. Outbound buses were temporarily allowed to use the ramp in 2006 after the Big Dig ceiling collapse, when there was no regular eastbound traffic through the tunnel. The Urban Ring was also proposed to use the ramp. A 2010 study indicated that the ramp was safe for use by the Silver Line.

Transit advocates have since pushed to allow use of the ramp by Silver Line buses ("Free the ramp"), though MassDOT claims the ramp is not safe to use when highway traffic is freely flowing. The MBTA hired a consultant in 2018 to study potential use of the ramp. In May 2019, MassDOT agreed to a limited test of ramp use, though advocates criticized MassDOT for limiting the test to only the evening peak hour, and only when highway speeds did not exceed . The three-day test in August 2019 resulting in average time savings of 3–8 minutes per bus, with significantly larger time savings at the most congested times. After these results, MassDOT agreed to make modifications to the ramp entrance to eventually allow use of the ramp whenever traffic speeds are below 30 mph.

Silver Line buses were again allowed to use the ramp during a 2023 closure of the Sumner Tunnel.

Other issues
The SL3 route is subject to frequent delays due to the opening of the Chelsea Street Bridge – as many as ten times per day – for ships serving the upstream oil terminals. Each bridge opening causes a delay of up to 20 minutes, and the only alternate route involves a lengthy detour on Route 1A. Federal regulations give priority to marine traffic. In December 2018, MassDOT officials sought to create a six-month pilot program to reduce peak-hour openings of the bridge, as well as the nearby Meridian Street Bridge used by the busy  and  bus routes.

The CNG buses bought for the Washington Street service caused disruptive 35 Hz vibrations in nearby residential buildings. It took a year to retrofit the fleet with new mufflers; during that time, older buses which did not have that problem were used at night.

See also
Trolleybuses in Greater Boston

References

Notes

External links

MBTA: SL1, SL2, SL3, SL4, SL5
Silver Line Extension (SLX) Alternatives Analysis

Bus rapid transit in Massachusetts
Trolleybus transport in the United States
2002 establishments in Massachusetts
MBTA bus

Silver Line (MBTA)


Aspekt (lat. aspectus: pogled) može značiti:
 aspekt je pojavni oblik čega (na primjer različiti aspekti zaštite okoliša).
 aspekt je gledište s kojega se promatra, istražuje ili raščlanjuje neki predmet, proces ili pojava (motrište, stajalište). Primjenom različitih aspekata na isto područje stvarnosti ono postaje predmetom različitih znanstvenih grana; tako, na primjer, neki jezik postaje predmetom fonetike, morfologije ili sintakse, prema tome je li naš aspekt usmjeren na glasove, oblike ili strukturu jezika.
 aspekt (jezikoslovlje), u jezikoslovlju ili lingvistici, u užem smislu je način izražavanja svršenosti i nesvršenosti glagolske radnje a u širemu smislu je radnja izražena glagolom promatrana u njezinu vršenju (nesvršeni aspekt) ili u njezinu izvršenju (svršeni aspekt).
 aspekt (astronomija), u astronomiji, je prividan položaj nebeskog tijela u Sunčevu sustavu, u odnosu na Sunce i Zemlju: konjunkcija (tijelo je u smjeru Sunca, donja konjunkcija bliže, a gornja dalje od Sunca), opozicija (tijelo nasuprot Suncu), kvadratura (od Sunca odmaknuto za pravi kut, može biti istočna i zapadna kvadratura).
 aspekt (astrologija) ili kut planeta, u astrologiji, je kut između dvaju planeta (uključujući nebeska tijela, Sunce i Mjesec) promatran sa Zemlje, te između planeta i određenih zvijezda stajačica, odnosno uzlaznih ili silaznih Mjesečevih čvorova.

Izvori

Aspekt


Emmanuel Imanishimwe est un footballeur rwandais né le  à Kigali au Rwanda. Il évolue au poste de défense central.

Biographie

En club
Le 4 août 2021, Emmanuel Imanishimwe s'engage librement aux FAR de Rabat. Le 14 mai 2022, il remporte la Coupe du Maroc après une victoire de 3-0 au Stade Adrar d'Agadir face au Moghreb de Tetouan.

En sélection
Le 11 juin 2017, il reçoit sa première sélection en équipe du Rwanda face à la République centrafricaine comptant pour les qualifications à la CAN 2019 (défaite, 2-1).

Palmarès

En club
 FAR de Rabat
 Coupe du Maroc (1) :
 Vainqueur : 2022.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Footballeur international rwandais
Joueur de l'AS FAR
Naissance en février 1995
Naissance à Kigali

Emmanuel Imanishimwe


William Wallace (1272 - 23 Ağustos 1305), Kral I. Edward'ın döneminde İngiltere'ye karşı yapılan direnişte vatandaşlarına önderlik eden İskoç şövalyedir. İskoçya'nın en büyük ulusal kahramanlarından Sir William Wallace ülkenin İngiliz egemenliğinden kurtulması için yürütülen uzun mücadelenin ilk yıllarında İskoç direniş kuvvetlerine önderlik etti. Tarihçiler, Wallace'ın asil bir beylikten gelen Robert the Bruce gibi asillerle çelişen insanlardan biri olarak tanımlar.

Bazı tarihçiler Wallace'ın 1270'te doğduğunu iddia ederken, 16. yüzyıl kitabı "William Wallace'ın Tarihi ve İskoç Hadiseleri" (History of William Wallace and Scottish Affairs) William'ın 1276'da doğduğunu söylüyordu. Kesin kanıtların olmamasından dolayı Wallace'ın doğum tarihi ve doğum yeri tartışılır. Tarihe göre Wallace'ın doğum yeri Renfrewshire'deki Paisley yakınlarında Elderslie'dır. Fakat, bazı biyograflar onun doğum yerinin Ayrshire, Kilmarnock yakınlarında olduğunu belirtmiştir.

Ek olarak Wallace'ın ilk hadiselerinden bazıları Ayrshire'da gerçekleşir. Bunun aksine Wallace'ın ilk hadiseleri Elderslie'ye de, Ellerslie'ye de yakın olmayan Lanark'ta gerçekleşir ve daha sonra Wallace, Irvin'deki İngilizlere karşı savaşan İskoç asillere katılmak üzere Ayrshire'a gider. Wallace Fransa'daki papazlara katılan iki amcası tarafından eğitilmiştir.

Wallace'ın zamanında İskoçya
Doğduğunda Kral III. Alexander 20 yıldan beri hakimiyetini sürdürüyordu. Onun dönemi ekonomik düzen, barış süresi içinde geçti ve İngiltere'nin baskılarına karşı koymayı başardı. Alexander, 1286 yılında atından düşerek öldü. Tahta geçmek için hiçbir çocuğu sağ değildi. İskoç liderler, Alexander'ın 4 yaşındaki kız torunu Margaret'ı (en)(Norveçli Bakire-The Maid of Norway olarak tanınır) kraliçe ilan ettiler. Yaşından dolayı İskoç liderler, Margaret yetişene kadar İskoçya'yı yönetmesi için geçici bir hükûmet kurar. Kral Edward, iktidarsızlıktan İskoç liderlerle yapılan Margaret'ı oğlu ile evlendirme antlaşması olan Birham antlaşmasıyla durumdan yararlanmak ister. Fakat Margaret, 1290 yılının Eylül'ünde Norveç'ten İskoçya'ya dönerken yolda hastalanır ve ölür.

Yaygın inancın aksine John Balliol'un tahta hakkı vardır. Ancak İskoçlar önyargılardan kaçınmak için sorun hakkında karar verecek bağımsız bir hakimin konu ile ilgilenmesini ister. Kurnazca davranarak, İskoçlar İngiliz kralı I. Edward'ı kraliyetin yerine geçmesi için çağırırlar. Fakat Edward, bağımsız hakem olarak gelmek yerine, büyük bir ordu ile İskoç-İngiliz sınırına gelmiştir. Tartışmalara çözüm bulmak için özerk statüsüne bir lord olarak geldiğini söyler. İstekleri duyulduktan sonra 1292'de, Edward, Balliol'u Özerk İskoç olarak tanımladığı İskoçya'nın hükümdarı seçer. Mart 1296'da Balliol Edward'a vergi vermekten vazgeçer ve bu ayın sonunda Edward İskoç sınırı Berwick-upon-Tweed'e saldırır, çok kan döker. İskoçya'da yaşayan herkesi kiliselere saklansalar dahi katleder. Papa Edward'ın hakimiyeti olan Gascony'de heyet toplar ve yaptıklarından dolayı Edward'a madalya verir. Mayıs ayında İskoçları Lothian'daki Dunbar savaşında mağlup eder.

Wallace'ın kahramanlıkları

Yerel Ayrshire destanlarına göre; 2 İngiliz askeri, Lonark'taki balık pazarında Wallace'a meydan okudu. Tartışma iki İngiliz askerinin öldüğü bir arbedeye dönüştü. Bunun üzerine yetkililer o andan itibaren Wallace'ı kısa sürede yakalama emrini yayınladı. Hikâyenin doğruluğu ne olursa olsun, Wallace İngilizlerden 1291'de babasının ve ağabeyinin ölümünden dolayı nefret ediyordu.

Wallace, 1297'de İngiliz Lonark şerifi Sir William Heselrig'i öldürdü, sevdiği ve evlendiği genç kadın Marion Bardifute'un öcünü almak için onun cesedini parçaladı. Bu detayı doğrulayan kanıtlar yok. Kısa sürede Wallace, Loundoun Hill (Darvel-Ayrshire) yakınlarında, Ayr'daki savaşı kazandı. Gelişen isyan, Haziran ayında İrvin'de İskoç soyluların İngiliz koşullarını kabulü ile önemli bir zarar gördü. Ağustos'ta, Wallace Selkirk grubundan, Stirling'deki Andrew de Moray'ın ordusuna katılmak için ayrıldı. Moray bir diğer isyanı başlattı ve onların gücü, İngilizlerle karşılaşmak için hazırlandıkları Stirling'de birleşti..

Stirling Köprüsü Muharebesi

11 Eylül 1297'de Wallace, Stirling Köprüsü Muharebesi'ni kazandı. İngilizlerin sayıca üstünlüğüne rağmen, Andrew de Moray ve Wallace liderliğindeki İskoçlar, İngiliz ordusunu bozguna uğrattı. Earl of Surrey William de Warenne'in profesyonel 300 süvari ve 10.000 piyadelik ordusu köprüyü geçerken bir felaketle karşılaştı. Köprünün hasarlı olması birçok askerin birlikte geçmesine engel oluyordu (3 asker yan yana). Bu yüzden İngilizler köprüyü geçerken, İskoçlar onların yarısının geçmesini bekledi ve daha sonra onları kısa sürede yok etti. İngilizler geri çekilmeye başladı. Fakat köprü ağırlığı kaldıramayınca çöktü. Birçok İngiliz köprünün altında kaldı ve boğuldu. İskoçlar ezici bir zafer kazandılar ve bu orduları için büyük bir moral oldu. Hugh Cressingham, Edward'ın İskoçya'daki hazine görevlisi savaşta öldü. Moray, Stirling Köprüsü Savaşı'ndan üç ay sonra savaşta aldığı yaradan dolayı öldü. İngilizlere karşı kazandığı br dizi zaferden sonra Robert Bruce, Wallace'i şövalye ve "İskoçya'nın koruyucusu ve ordularının lideri" olarak ilan etti ve Wallace tahttan indirilmiş bulunan John de Balliol adına ülkeyi yönetmeye başladı.

Falkirk Savaşı

Bir yıl sonra ordular Falkirk Savaşı'na geldiler (1 Mayıs 1298). İngilizler Roxburg'da bir çiftlik istila ettiler ve insanları korkuttular. Lothian'ı yağmaladılar ve bazı kaleleri tekrar ele geçirdiler. Fakat Wallace'i savaşa çekemediler. İskoçlar düşmana karşı her şeylerini kullanmaya karar verdiler.  İngilizlerin yiyeceğini tedarik eden adamın hatası yemekleri ve moralleri azalttı ve Edward Wallace'ı aramaya Falkirk'te son verdi.

Wallace, mızrakçılarını dairesel bir şekilde mızrakları başlarından yukarı şekilde oturur vaziyette ayarladı ve kazıklardan savunma alanı kurdu. İngilizler İskoç okçularını yararak üst kısmı ele geçirdi. İskoç şövalyeler kaçtılar ve Edward'ın adamları saldırdılar. Atlı İskoçlar Edward'la anlaşıp Wallace'a ihanet ettiler. Ve atlı İskoçlar savaşmadan kaçtılar.

Eylül 1298'de, Wallace Robert the Bruce, Earl of Carrick ve John Comyn of Badenoch'un desteklediği İskoçya'nın Koruyuculuğundan istifa etti. 1302'de Wallace barış hareketini reddederken, Bruce Kral Edward'la barış yaptı.

Wallace'ın yakalanması ve idamı

İskoç soylularının çoğunun 1304'te Edward'ın egemenliğini kabul etmesinden sonra İngilizler Wallace'ın peşini bırakmadılar. Sir William, 5 Ağustos 1305'te Edward'a sadık olan İskoç şövalye Sir John de Menteith'in onu Edinburgh yakınlarındaki Robroystoun'da İngiliz askerlerine teslim edene kadar yakalanmadı.

Wallace Londra'ya gönderildi ve daha önceden haydutlar kralı olarak taçlandırıldığı Westminster salonunda vatan hainliğinden suçlandı ve krala ihanet suçundan yargılandı. Bu talebe şöyle karşılık verdi : " ona bağlı kalacağıma dair hiçbir zaman yemin etmedim . " Kayıp olan  John Balliol onun resmi kralı olmasına rağmen Wallace suçlu ilan edildi.

23 Ağustos 1305 günü duruşmadan sonra Wallace mahkeme salonundan çıkarıldı. Üstsüz bir şekilde Smithfield pazarında at tarafından çekildi, elleri iplerle bağlı, ayaklar atın arkasında bağlı bir şekilde darağacında asıldı, fakat ölmek üzereyken bırakıldı. Hareketsiz, bitkindi. Asıldıktan sonra henüz ölmeden bağırsakları çıkarıldı, bütün bu işkencelere rağmen yine de kraldan af dilemedi ve kafası gövdesinden ayrıldı ve vücudu dört parçaya bölündü. Kafası daha sonralardan kardeşi John ve Sir Simon Fraser'ın da kafasının asıldığı Londra köprüsüne asıldı. Kol ve bacakları, Newcastle, Berwick, Stirling ve Perth'de ayrı ayrı sergilendi.

Etkileri
Wallace'ın anısına dikilen levha, Smithfield'de Wallace'ın idam edildiği yerin yanında olan Aziz Bartholomew Hastanesi (İng. St. Bartholomew's Hospital)'nin duvarında asılıdır. İskoç vatanseverler ve diğer ilgililer sık sık burayı ziyaret etmekte ve çiçek koymaktadır.

Wallace'a ait olduğu sanılan kılıç yıllardır Dumbarton kalesinde saklandı ve şimdi Stirling yakınlarında Wallace Ulusal Anıtı (İng. the Wallace National Monument)'da saklanıyor. Buna rağmen uzmanlar tarafından yapılan incelemeler bu kılıcın dizaynının Wallace'dan birkaç yıl sonrasına ait olduğu sonucunu çıkardı.

Wallace'ın yaşamının Robin Hood efsanesine kaynaklık ettiği sanılmaktadır. Söylendiğine göre Wallace çok uzun boylu bir adammış. Çetede William'ın küçük kardeşi John da yer alırmış ve ona Küçük John denirmiş. William'ın sevgilisi Marion, Robin Hood'un sevgilisinin adı oluvermiş, Küçük John da efsaneye William gibi iri yarı bir adam olarak dahil edilmiş.

Wallace'ın hayatı, 1995'te çevrilen Cesur Yürek (Braveheart) filmine konu olmuştur.

William Wallace'un son sözü ise 'ÖZGÜR İSKOÇYA' oldu. İskoçya kendi parlamentosuna sahip bağımsız bir ülke olmayı başarmış, ancak yine parlamento kararıyla 1707 yılında Birleşik Krallık'ın kuruluşunda yer almıştır.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Alba gu bràth

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Scottish History

1272 doğumlular
İskoçya doğumlular
1305 yılında ölenler

İskoç generaller
İskoçya tarihi
Halk kahramanları
Londra Kalesi
Asılarak idam edilmiş kişiler
İşkence kurbanları
Orta Çağ'da idam edilmiş kişiler

William Wallace


Pablo Carmine Maffeo Becerra (født 12. juli 1997) er en spansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den tyske klub VfB Stuttgart.

Han var sidste sæson lånt ud til den spanske oprykkerklub Girona FC som endte tier i deres første sæson i den bedste spanske række. Han spillede hele 47 kampe og scorede et enkelt mål. Han var i hans ungdoms år Manchester City spiller. I den engelske storklub blev det ikke til nogen kampe.

Fodboldspillere fra Spanien
Fodboldspillere fra VfB Stuttgart

Pablo Maffeo


Prăbușirea Casei Usher (în ) este un film de groază britanic din 1950 regizat de Ivan Barnett. Rolurile principale sunt interpretate de actorii Gwen Watford, Kaye Tendeter, Irving Steen, Vernon Charles și Connie Goodwin.

Rezumat

Distribuție
 Gwen Tendeter - Lady Usher
 Kaye Tendeter - Lord Roderick Usher
 Irving Steen - Jonathan
 Vernon Charles - Dr. Cordwall
 Connie Goodwin - Louise
 Gavin Lee - The Butler
 Keith Lorraine - George
 Lucy Pavey - The Hang
 Tony-Powell-Bristow - Richard
 Robert Woolard - Greville

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
Listă de povestiri după care s-au făcut filme
Prăbușirea Casei Usher de Edgar Allan Poe

Filme din 1950
Filme de groază din anii 1950
Filme de groază
Filme britanice
Filme în limba engleză
Filme bazate pe lucrările lui Edgar Allan Poe

Prăbușirea Casei Usher (film din 1950)


Skotfæri eru skot eða skeyti skotin úr skotvopnum.

Tilvísanir

Vopn

Skotfæri


George Auriol, nascido Jean-Georges Huyot em 26 de Abril de 1863, em Beauvais (Oise), e morto em Fevereiro de 1938, em Paris), foi um poeta, compositor, designer gráfico, de tipos e artista Art Nouveau francês. Trabalhou em diversas mídias e criou ilustrações para capas de revistas, livros e partituras, além de monogramas e outras marcas.

A afinidade de Auriol com a estética japonesa e a influência desta em grande parte de seu trabalho levaram o crítico de arte contemporânea e escritor Arsène Alexandre a se referir ao artista como "Un Japonais de Paris". Ele encerrou sua carreira como professor de desenho na École Estienne, onde trabalhou a partir de 1924, e morreu aos setenta e cinco anos.

Ligações eternas
 George Auriol - Type Design Information Page

Pintores da França
Pintores da França do século XIX
Pintores da França do século XX

George Auriol


José Daniel Ortiz (Maracaibo, Zulia, Venezuela 11 de enero de 1996), es un jugador profesional de paintball de Venezuela que ganó en el 2010 el Circuito Sudamericano de Paintball en Colombia con Wild Dogs y en el 2011 lo ganó en Venezuela con Wolf-Blood.

Trayectoria
Actualmente es el jugador venezolano más joven que ha integrado un equipo ganador de un circuito profesional de paintball (14 años y 336 días) y es uno de los más jóvenes en integrar un equipo ganador de un Circuito Sudamericano de Paintball en la categoría Open, el más joven es Ricardo Roch (13 años y 256 días). En el 2010 su equipo fue galardonado como el Mejor Equipo Latinoamericano de paintball.

Después de que su equipo ganara el torneo empezó a jugar con Wolf-Blood en Venezuela, con este equipo ganó el Circuito Sudamericano de Paintball Venezuela 2011 al derrotar a Piratas de la Adrenalina.

En el 2011 Wild Dogs fue invitado con Los Angeles Ironmen al PSP Galveston para pruebas de reclutamiento pero no asitieron, además este equipo fue descalificado después de perder contra Dynasty en rondas finales. También fueron invitados al PSP World Cup Chicago al que ninguno de los postulantes asistió ya que coincidía con un encuentro de un Open colombiano. Después de tantas faltas Ironmen decidió eliminar el reclutamiento junto con otros jugadores que no poseían el nivel suficiente para pertenecer al equipo.

En el 2011 después de ganar el tercer puesto en el CCP Colombia con Wild Dogs DYE Precision ofreció patrocinar a Wild Dogs indefinidamente.

Rankings
A lo largo de su carrera ha sido integrado los siguientes rankings:

 Se posicionó en el puesto #4 de la Liga Venezolana de Paintball con Wolf-Blood (2010)
 Se posicionó en el puesto #9 del Circuito Sudamericano de Paintball con Wild Dogs de Colombia (2010)
 Se posicionó en el puesto #16 de la Liga Venezolana de Paintball con Wolf-Blood (2011)
 Se posicionó en el puesto #4 del Circuito Sudamericano de Paintball con Wild Dogs de Colombia (2011)

Títulos

Nacionales

Internacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Liga venezolana de Paintball
 Tienda Oficial de Paintball en Venezuela
 Sitio Web Los Angeles Ironmen
 Sitio Web PSP Events

Tachirenses
Deportistas de Venezuela

José Daniel Ortiz


O sistema das três classes prussiana (alemão: Preußisches Dreiklassenwahlrecht) foi um sistema eleitoral indireto usado de 1848 a 1918 no Reino da Prússia e por períodos mais curtos em outros estados alemães. Os eleitores foram agrupados por distrito em três classes, com o total de pagamentos de impostos em cada classe igual. Os que mais pagavam em impostos formavam a primeira classe, seguidos pela segunda mais alta na segunda, com os que menos pagavam na terceira. Os eleitores de cada classe elegeram separadamente um terço dos eleitores que, por sua vez, votaram nos representantes. A votação não era secreta. A franquia era uma forma de rateio por classe econômica e não por área geográfica ou população.
Os membros da Câmara dos Representantes da Prússia foram eleitos de acordo com a lei eleitoral de três classes, assim como os conselhos municipais das cidades e vilas prussianas de acordo com o Código Municipal da Prússia. Após décadas de controvérsia e tentativas fracassadas de reforma, que para muitos fizeram com que a franquia de três classes prussiana se tornasse um símbolo odiado das deficiências democráticas da Prússia, ela foi finalmente abolida no início da Revolução Alemã de 1918-1919, que eclodiu após a derrota da Alemanha na Primeira Guerra Mundial.

Embora houvesse diferenças consideráveis entre os distritos nos níveis de impostos em que os cortes entre as classes eram feitos, o sistema tendia a favorecer os conservadores e as áreas rurais sobre os liberais de esquerda e as cidades. A participação dos eleitores também foi significativamente menor na votação de três classes do que nas eleições para o Reichstag alemão, que não usou o sistema. Apesar do peso reduzido de muitos votos, a franquia de três classes tinha a vantagem de permitir que todos os homens votassem, o que muitos sistemas eleitorais contemporâneos em outros estados alemães e países europeus não faziam.

Sistemas de votação
Política da Prússia
Reino da Prússia

Sistema das três classes (Prússia)


Yarasuchus es un género extinto de afanosaurio, un grupo de primitivo arcosaurios  del Triásico. Vivió durante la época del Anisiense del Triásico Medio de la India. Con sólo 2 metros de largo, fue uno de los menores rauisuquios conocidos. El género fue nombrado y descrito en 2005 a partir de material fósil incompleto hallado en la Formación Yerrapalli, provenientes de dos individuos, uno de los cuales estaba más completo y mejor articulado que el otro. La especie tipo y única especie conocida es Y. deccanensis.

Descripción
Las vértebras cervicales que formaban el cuello de Yarasuchus son distintivamente alargadas, mientras que el cráneo es proporcionalmente pequeño. El género se distingue de los prestosúquidos por la delicada constitución de la cintura escapular y un proceso del acromion continuo en la escápula. Las espinas neurales de las vértebras eran altas y los osteodermos paramediales estaban muy esculpidos con un borde que corría anteroposteriormente uno al lado del otro.

Paleobiología
Yarasuchus puede haber sido ocasionalmente bípedo.

Muchos otros restos de vertebrados se han hallado en la Formación Yerrapalli junto a los de Yarasuchus, y pudieron haber coexistido con ese género durante el Triásico Medio. Fósiles del prolacertiforme Pamelaria dolichotrachela han sido hallados muy cerca de los de Yarasuchus. Otros vertebrados del área son el pez dípneo Ceratodus, el pez actinopterigio Saurichthys, el anfibio temnospóndilo Parotosuchus, y los dicinodontes Rechnisaurus y Wadiasaurus.

Clasificación
Fue originalmente descrito como un prestosúquido, pero Brusatte et al. (2010) lo consideró como un poposauroide en un detallado análisis cladístico.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
Yarasuchus en Paleobiology Database.

Archosauria
Fósiles de Asia
Fósiles del Triásico

Yarasuchus


Londra Antlaşması veya Londra Konferansı aşağıdaki anlamlara gelebilir:

 Londra Antlaşması (1359), (Yüz Yıl Savaşı ile ilgili)
 Londra Antlaşması (1518), bir saldırmazlık paktı.
 Londra Antlaşması (1604), İngiliz-İspanyol Savaşı'nı bitiren antlaşma.
 Londra Antlaşması (1700), "ikinci dağılmala antlaşması".
 Londra Antlaşması (1786),
 Londra Antlaşması (1794), (Amerikan Bağımsızlık Savaşı için; Büyük Britanya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri arasında).
 Londra Antlaşması (1814), Birleşik Krallık-Hollanda arasında.
 Londra Antlaşması (1818), Birleşik Krallık ile Amerika Birleşik Devletleri arasında (sınırlar için).
 Londra Antlaşması (1824), Birleşik Krallık-Hollanda arasında.
 Londra Antlaşması (1827), Birleşik Krallık, Rusya ve Fransa arasında imzalanan, Yunanistan'ın kurulmasını ve bağımsızlığını esas alan antlaşma.
 Londra Antlaşması (1830)
 Londra Antlaşması (1832), Birleşik Krallık, Rusya ve Fransa arasında imzalanan, Yunanistan için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1839), Belçika'nın bağımsızlığı için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1840), Osmanlı Devleti ve Mısır Hidivliği (Mehmet Ali Paşa) için.
 1841
 Londra Boğazlar Sözleşmesi (13 Temmuz 1841), İstanbul ve Çanakkale Boğazları için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1841, köle ticareti), Afrika-ABD köle ticareti için.
 Londra Protokolu (1852), Danimarka Kralları için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1861), Birleşik Krallık-Fransa-İspanya arasında (Meksika borcu için).
 Londra Antlaşması (1864), Yunanistan ve İyon Adaları için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1867), Lüksemburg için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1890), Birleşik Krallık-Almanya-Portekiz arasında (Güney Afrika için).
 Londra Antlaşması (1909), deniz hukuku için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1913), Birinci Balkan Savaşı için.
 Londra Antlaşması (1915), İtalya ve I. Dünya Savaşı için.
 Londra Konferansı (1921)
 Londra Antlaşması (1924)

 Londra Antlaşması (1930)

 Londra Konferansı (1933)
 Londra Antlaşması (1936)

 Londra Antlaşması (1946)

 Londra Antlaşması (1949)

 Londra Antlaşması (1959)

Birleşik Krallık'taki diplomatik konferanslar

Londra Antlaşması


La hidroxilación de Upjohn es una reacción orgánica en la que se convierte a un alqueno en un diol vecinal cis con el uso de tetróxido de osmio; fue desarrollada por V. VanRheenen, R. C. Kelly y D. Y. Cha, de la compañía Upjohn (Upjohn Company), USA en 1976. Esta reacción tiene un sistema catalítico que utiliza  N-óxido-N-metilmorfolina (NMO) como reoxidante estequiométrico del OsO4.

Antes de este método, el uso de cantidades estequiométricas de tetróxido de osmio (tóxico y costoso) era necesario en la mayoría de las ocasiones. La dihidroxilación de Upjohn sigue siendo de uso frecuente para la formación de'dioles vecinales cis; sin embargo, la reacción puede ser lenta y es propensa a un exceso de oxidación del sustrato para dar una dicetona vecinal. Una de las peculiaridades de la dihidroxilación de olefinas es que la método "racémico" estándar es más lenta y que a menudo produce menor rendimiento que el método asimétrico (dihidroxilación asimétrica de Sharpless)

Mejoras
En respuesta a estas problemáticas, Stuart Warren y colaboradores emplearon condiciones de reacción idénticas a la dihidroxilación asimétrica de Sharpless, reemplazándose los ligandos quirales con un reactivo aquiral (quinuclidina)) para dar una mezcla racémica.  Esta aproximación tiene la ventaja que cuando se utilizan ligandos alcaloides de Sharpless, la dihidroxilación es más rápida y con mejores rendimientos que si no los tuviera. Este fenómeno se llegó a conocer como catálisis acelerada del ligando; éste es un término acuñado por Barry Sharpless durante el desarrollo de su reacción asimétrica.

Véase también
Hidroxilación de Milas
Dihidroxilación asimétrica de Sharpless

Referencias

Reacciones de adición
Reacciones redox orgánicas
Reacciones orgánicas epónimas
Ciencia y tecnología de Estados Unidos del siglo XX
Ciencia de 1976
Estados Unidos en 1976

Hidroxilación de Upjohn


Santos-Dumont ist ein Einschlagkrater auf der Mondvorderseite im nördlichen Teil der Montes Apenninus. Er liegt südlich des Promontorium Fresnel und südöstlich des großen Kraters Autolycus.
Südlich davon liegt das Bergmassiv Mons Hadley und südwestlich davon der Landeplatz von Apollo 15.

Der Krater wurde 1976 von der IAU nach dem brasilianischen Luftpionier und Erfinder Alberto Santos Dumont offiziell benannt.

Weblinks

 Santos-Dumont auf The-Moon Wiki

Einzelnachweise

Einschlagkrater (Mond)
Alberto Santos Dumont

Santos-Dumont (Mondkrater)


Fredrico "Fredo - Freddie" Corleone - Baba dizi romanlarda Vito Corleone nin ortanca oğludur. Ama biraz saftır ve bu saflığı başına büyük belalar açmıştır. Fredo'nun saflığından faydalanan Hyman Roth onu kandırmış ve kardeşi Michael Corleone yi öldürmek üzere tuzak hazırlamıştır. Don Michael Corleone, ağabeyi Fredo'nun kendisini ve aileyi sattığı için çok sinirlenmiştir. Abisinin ihanetini unutamayan Michael Fredo'yu koruması Al Neri'ye öldürtmüştür.

Kurgusal İtalyan asıllı Amerikalılar
Baba karakterleri
Kurgusal LGBT karakterler
Erkek film karakterleri

Fredo Corleone