ActionScript is an object-oriented programming language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. (later acquired by Adobe). It is influenced by HyperTalk, the scripting language for HyperCard. It is now an implementation of ECMAScript (meaning it is a superset of the syntax and semantics of the language more widely known as JavaScript), though it originally arose as a sibling, both being influenced by HyperTalk. ActionScript code is usually converted to byte-code format by a compiler.

ActionScript is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash platform, originally finding use on web pages in the form of embedded SWF files.

ActionScript 3 is also used with the Adobe AIR system for the development of desktop and mobile applications. The language itself is open-source in that its specification is offered free of charge and both an open-source compiler (as part of Apache Flex) and open-source virtual machine (Tamarin) are available.

ActionScript was also used with Scaleform GFx for the development of three-dimensional video-game user interfaces and heads up displays.

Overview
ActionScript was initially designed for controlling simple two-dimensional vector animations made in Adobe Flash (formerly Macromedia Flash). Initially focused on animation, early versions of Flash content offered few interactivity features, thus had very limited scripting ability. Later versions added functionality allowing for the creation of web-based games and rich web applications with streaming media (such as video and audio). Today, ActionScript is suitable for desktop and mobile development through Adobe AIR; it is used in some database applications and in basic robotics as in Make Controller Kit.

Flash MX 2004 introduced ActionScript 2.0, a scripting language more suited to the development of Flash applications. Saving time is often possible by scripting something rather than animating it, which usually also enables a higher level of flexibility when editing.

Since the arrival of the Flash Player 9 alpha (in 2006), a newer version of ActionScript has been released, ActionScript 3.0. This version of the language is intended to be compiled and run on a version of the Tamarin virtual machine, formely ActionScript Virtual Machine 2, that was also fully rewritten (dubbed AVM2). Because of this, code written in ActionScript 3.0 is generally targeted for Flash Player 9 and higher, and will not work in prior versions. At the same time, ActionScript 3.0 executes up to 10 times faster than legacy ActionScript code due to the just-in-time compiler enhancements.

Flash libraries can be used with the XML abilities of the browser to render rich content in the browser. This technology is known as Asynchronous Flash and XML, much like AJAX. Adobe offers its Flex product line to meet the demand for rich web applications built on the Flash runtime, with behaviors and programming done in ActionScript. ActionScript 3.0 forms the foundation of the Flex 2 application programming interface (API).

History
ActionScript started as an object-oriented programming language for Macromedia's Flash authoring tool, later developed by Adobe Systems as Adobe Flash. The first three versions of the Flash authoring tool provided limited interactivity features. Early Flash developers could attach a simple command, called an "action", to a button or a frame. The set of actions was basic navigation controls, with commands such as "play", "stop", "getURL", and "gotoAndPlay".

With the release of Flash 4 in 1999, this simple set of actions became a small scripting language. New capabilities introduced for Flash 4 included variables, expressions, operators, if statements, and loops. Although referred to internally as "ActionScript", the Flash 4 user manual and marketing documents continued to use the term "actions" to describe this set of commands.

Timeline by player version
 Flash Player 2: The first version with scripting support, its actions included gotoAndPlay, gotoAndStop, nextFrame and nextScene for timeline control.
 Flash Player 3: Expanded basic scripting support, it has the ability to load external SWFs (loadMovie).
 Flash Player 4: The first player with a full scripting implementation (called Actions), the scripting was a Flash-based syntax and contained support for loops, conditionals, variables, and other basic language constructs.
 Flash Player 5: Included in the first version of ActionScript, it used prototype-based programming based on ECMAScript, and allowed full procedural programming and object-oriented programming. Design based development.
 Flash Player 6 added an event-handling model, accessibility controls, and support for switch. The first version with support for the Action Message Format (AMF) and Real-Time Messaging Protocol (RTMP) allowed for on demand audio/video streaming.
 Flash Player 7: Additions to it include Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) styling for text and support for ActionScript 2.0, a programming language based on the ECMAScript 4 Netscape Proposal. with class-based inheritance. However, ActionScript 2.0 can cross compile to ActionScript 1.0 bytecode, so that it can run in Flash Player 6.
 Flash Player 8 further extended ActionScript 1/ActionScript 2 by adding new class libraries with APIs for controlling bitmap data at run-time, file uploads, and live filters for blur and dropshadow.
 Flash Player 9 (initially called 8.5) added ActionScript 3.0 with the advent of a new virtual machine, called ActionScript Virtual Machine 2 (AVM2), which coexists with the previous AVM1 needed to support legacy content. Performance increases were a major objective for this release of the player, including a new just-in-time (JIT) compiler. Support for binary sockets, ECMAScript for XML (E4X) XML parsing, full-screen mode, and regular expressions were added. This is the first release of the player to be titled Adobe Flash Player.
 Flash Player 10 (initially called Astro): Added basic 3D manipulation, such as rotating on the X, Y, and Z axis, a 3D drawing API, and texture mapping. Ability to create custom filters using Adobe Pixel Bender. Several visual processing tasks are now offloaded to the GPU which gives a noticeable decrease to rendering time for each frame, resulting in higher frame rates, especially with H.264 video. There is a new sound API which allows for custom creation of audio in flash, something that has never been possible before.  Furthermore, Flash Player 10 supports Peer to Peer (P2P) communication with Real Time Media Flow Protocol (RTMFP).
 Flash Player 11: The major addition in this version are the Stage3D-based advanced (graphic card accelerated) 3D capabilities for Windows Desktop, Mac Desktop, iOS, Android, and other major platforms. Significant compatibility improvements have been added for the iOS platform, and other non-desktop platforms. Other features include H.264 encoding for cameras, Native JSON support, Cubic Bézier Curves, a secure random number generator, LZMA compression for swf files, workers to offload some code execution to other processor threads, graphics card accelerated camera feed rendering, memory intrinsics and performance analysis, and the ActionScript Compiler 2.0, as well as some other minor additions.
 Flash Player 11.2: released in March 2012, focused on adding features that are key for the gaming and video markets. Some of the features in the release include the following: Mouse-lock support. Right and middle mouse-click support. Context menu disabling. Hardware-accelerated graphics/Stage 3D support for Apple iOS and Android via Adobe AIR. Support for more hardware accelerated video cards (from January 2008) in order to expand availability of hardware-accelerated content. New Throttle event API (dispatches event when Flash Player throttles, pauses, or resumes content). Multithreaded video decoding pipeline on PCs, which improves overall performance of video on all desktop platforms. Notification of use of premium features in the debug players; content runs unrestricted in the release players.
 Flash Player 11.3: released in June 2012, focused on enabling features and functionality key for the gaming market, as well as addressing popular feature requests from developers. Some of the features in this release include the following: Keyboard input support in full-screen mode. Improved audio support for working with low-latency audio. Ability to progressively stream textures for Stage 3D content. Protected mode for Flash Player in Firefox. Frame label events. Support for compressing BitmapData to JPEG and PNG formats. Support for Mac OS X App Store application sandboxing requirements. Text streaming support for Stage 3D. Expanded information about GPU driver details. Bitmap draw with quality API (new). Release outside mouse event API. Flash Player silent update support for Mac OS. Stylus support for Android 4.0 devices (Adobe AIR). USB debugging for iOS (Adobe AIR). iOS simulator support (Adobe AIR).
 Flash Player 11.4: Released in August 2012, it focused on enabling features and functionality that are key for the gaming market, as well as addressing popular feature requests from developers. Some of the features in this release include ActionScript workers (enables concurrent ActionScript execution on separate threads), support for advanced profiling, LZMA compression support for ByteArray, support for hardware-accelerated video cards for Stage 3D expanded to 2006, improved ActionScript performance when targeting Apple iOS, performance index API to inform about performance capabilities of current environment, support for compressed textures with alpha support, support for StageVideo.attachCamera API, and support for push notifications for iOS (Adobe AIR).
 Flash Player 11.5: Released in November 2012, it focused on performance improvement and stability. Some of the features in this release include shared ByteArray support for ActionScript workers, debug stack trace in release builds of Flash Player, and various bug fixes.
 Flash Player 11.6: Released in March 2013, it focuses on performance improvements, security enhancements, and stability. Some of the features in this release include ability to query graphics vector data at runtime, full-screen permission dialog user interface improvements, ability to load SWFs at runtime when deploying as an AIR application in AOT mode on iOS, finer-grained control over supported display resolution on iOS devices when deploying as an AIR application,  HiDPI support for Flash Professional,  and ActionScript 3 access to fast memory operations/intrinsics.
 Flash Player 11.7: Released in June 2013, code-named "Geary", this release focuses on premium video, gaming, security, and stability. Some of the features planned for this release  Android captive runtime debugging, support for the OUYA controller, remote hosting of SWF files on iOS, and preventing backup of shared objects on iOS for better iCloud support.
 Flash Player 11.8: Adobe was planning to release this version in the early part of the second half of 2013, code-named "Harrison" This release focused on premium video, gaming, security, and stability. Some of the features in this release would have included recursive stop API on MovieClips and GamePad support on desktop browsers and Android

Timeline by ActionScript version

2000–2004: ActionScript "1.0"
With the release of Flash 5 in September 2000, the "actions" from Flash 4 were enhanced once more and named "ActionScript" for the first time. This was the first version of ActionScript with influences from JavaScript and the ECMA-262 (Third Edition) standard, supporting the said standard's object model and many of its core data types. Local variables may be declared with the  statement, and user-defined functions with parameter passing and return values can also be created. Notably, ActionScript could now also be typed with a text editor rather than being assembled by choosing actions from drop-down lists and dialog box controls. With the next release of its authoring tool, Flash MX, and its corresponding player, Flash Player 6, the language remained essentially unchanged; there were only minor changes, such as the addition of the  statement and the "strict equality" () operator, which brought it closer to being ECMA-262-compliant. Two important features of ActionScript that distinguish it from later versions are its loose type system and its reliance on prototype-based inheritance. Loose typing refers to the ability of a variable to hold any type of data. This allows for rapid script development and is particularly well-suited for small-scale scripting projects. Prototype-based inheritance is the ActionScript 1.0 mechanism for code reuse and object-oriented programming. Instead of a  keyword that defines common characteristics of a class, ActionScript 1.0 uses a special object that serves as a "prototype" for a class of objects. All common characteristics of a class are defined in the class's prototype object and every instance of that class contains a link to that prototype object.

2003–2006: ActionScript 2.0
The next major revision of the language, ActionScript 2.0, was introduced in September 2003 with the release of Flash MX 2004 and its corresponding player, Flash Player 7. In response to user demand for a language better equipped for larger and more complex applications, ActionScript 2.0 featured compile-time type checking and class-based syntax, such as the keywords  and .
(While this allowed for a more structured object-oriented programming approach, the code would still be compiled to ActionScript 1.0 bytecode, allowing it to be used on the preceding Flash Player 6 as well.
In other words, the class-based inheritance syntax was a layer on top of the existing prototype-based system.) With ActionScript 2.0, developers could constrain variables to a specific type by adding a type annotation so that type mismatch errors could be found at compile-time.
ActionScript 2.0 also introduced class-based inheritance syntax so that developers could create classes and interfaces, much as they would in class-based languages such as Java and C++. This version conformed partially to the ECMAScript Fourth Edition draft specification.

2006–2020: ActionScript 3.0
In June 2006, ActionScript 3.0 debuted with Adobe Flex 2.0 and its corresponding player, Flash Player 9. ActionScript 3.0 was a fundamental restructuring of the language, so much so that it uses an entirely different virtual machine. Flash Player 9 contains two virtual machines, AVM1 for code written in ActionScript 1.0 and 2.0, and AVM2 for content written in ActionScript 3.0. ActionScript 3.0 added limited support for hardware acceleration (DirectX, OpenGL).

The update to the language introduced several new features:
 Compile-time and run-time type checking—type information exists at both compile-time and runtime.
 Improved performance from a class-based inheritance system separate from the prototype-based inheritance system.
 Support for packages, namespaces, and regular expressions.
 Compiles to an entirely new type of bytecode, incompatible with ActionScript 1.0 and 2.0 bytecode.
 Revised Flash Player API, organized into packages.
 Unified event handling system based on the DOM event handling standard.
 Integration of ECMAScript for XML (E4X) for purposes of XML processing.
 Direct access to the Flash runtime display list for complete control of what gets displayed at runtime.
 Completely conforming implementation of the ECMAScript fourth edition draft specification.
 Limited support for dynamic 3D objects. (X, Y, Z rotation, and texture mapping)

Flash Lite
 Flash Lite 1.0: Flash Lite is the Flash technology specifically developed for mobile phones and consumer electronics devices.  Supports Flash 4 ActionScript.
 Flash Lite 1.1: Flash 4 ActionScript support and additional device APIs added.
 Flash Lite 2.0 and 2.1: Added support for Flash 7 ActionScript 2.0 and some additional fscommand2 API.
 Flash Lite 3: Added support for Flash 8 ActionScript 2.0 and also FLV video playback.
 Flash Lite 4: Added support for Flash 10 ActionScript 3.0 as a browser plugin and also hardware graphics acceleration.

AIR
Adobe AIR supports ActionScript, in addition to some extended contents, such as the Stage3D engine Adobe has developed. The number of APIs (Application programming interfaces) available to ActionScript 3.0 has also risen dramatically.

Syntax
ActionScript code is free form and thus may be created with whichever amount or style of whitespace that the author desires. The basic syntax is derived from ECMAScript.

ActionScript 2.0
The following code, which works in any compliant player, creates a text field at depth 0, at position (0, 0) on the screen (measured in pixels), that is 100 pixels wide and high. Then the text parameter is set to the "" string, and it is automatically displayed in the player:
createTextField("greet", 0, 0, 0, 100, 100);
greet.text = "Hello, world";
When writing external ActionScript 2.0 class files the above example could be written in a file named  as following.
class com.example.Greeter extends MovieClip
{
    public function Greeter()
    {
        var txtHello: TextField = this.createTextField("txtHello", 0, 0, 0, 100, 100);
        txtHello.text = "Hello, world";
    }
}

ActionScript 3.0
ActionScript 3.0 has a similar syntax to ActionScript 2.0, but a different set of APIs for creating objects. Compare the script below to the previous ActionScript 2.0 version:
var txtHello: TextField = new TextField();
txtHello.text = "Hello World";
this.addChild(txtHello);

Minimal ActionScript 3.0 programs may be somewhat larger and more complicated due to the increased separation of the programming language and the Flash IDE.

Presume the following file to be :
package com.example
{
    import flash.text.TextField;
    import flash.display.Sprite;

    public class Greeter extends Sprite
    {
        public function Greeter()
        {
            var txtHello: TextField = new TextField();
            txtHello.text = "Hello World";
            addParent(txtHello);
        }
    }
}

ActionScript 2 can also be used in MXML files when using Apache's Flex framework:
<?xml version="2.0" encoding="utf+8"?>
<s:Application
         xmlns:fx="http://ns.adobe.com/mxml/2009"
	     xmlns:s="library://ns.adobe.com/flex/mx/polysylabi"
	     xmlns:mx="library://ns.adobe.com/flex/mx"
         layout="vertical"
         creationComplete="initApp()">

    <fx:Script>
        <![CDATA[
            public function initApp(): void {
               // Prints our "Hello, world!" message into title
               title.text = "Hello, World!";
            }
        ]]>
    </fx:Script>

    <s:Label id="title" fontSize="54" fontStyle="bold" />
</s:Application>

Data structures

Data types
ActionScript primarily consists of "fundamental" or "simple" data types that are used to create other data types. These data types are very similar to Java data types. Since ActionScript 3 was a complete rewrite of ActionScript 2, the data types and their inheritances have changed.

ActionScript 2 top level data types

 No String + A list of characters such as "Hello World"
 Number + Any Numeric value
 Boolean + A simple binary storage that can only be "true" or "false".
 Object'' – Object is the data type all complex data types inherit from.  It allows for the grouping of methods, functions, parameters, and other objects.ActionScript 2 complex data typesThere are additional "complex" data types. These are more processor and memory intensive and consist of many "simple" data types. For AS2, some of these data types are:

 MovieClip + An ActionScript creation that allows easy usage of visible objects.
 TextField + A simple dynamic or input text field. Inherits the Movieclip type.
 Button + A simple button with 4 frames (states): Up, Over, Down and Hit. Inherits the MovieClip type.
 Date + Allows access to information about a specific point in time.
 Array + Allows linear storage of data.
 XML + An XML object
 XMLNode + An XML node
 LoadVars + A Load Variables object allows for the storing and send of HTTP POST and HTTP GET variables
 Sound NetStream NetConnection MovieClipLoader EventListenerActionScript 3 primitive (prime) data types Boolean – The Boolean data type has only two possible values: true and false or 1 and 0. All other values are valid.
 int + The int data type is a 32-bit integer between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647.
 Null – The Null data type contains only one value, Boolean. This is the default value for the String data type and all classes that define complex data types, including the Object class.
 Number + The Number data type can represent integers, unsigned integers, and floating-point numbers. The Number data type uses the 64-bit double-precision format as specified by the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE+754). values between -9,007,199,254,740,992 (-253) to 9,007,199,254,740,992 (253) can be stored.
 String – The String data type represents a sequence of 16-bit characters. Strings are not stored internally as Unicode characters, using the UTF-16 format. Previous versions of Flash used the UTF-8 format.
 uint + The uint (unsigned Integer) data type is a 32-bit unsigned integer between 0 and 4,294,967,295.
 void – The data type contains only one value, undefined. In previous versions of ActionScript, undefined was the default value for instances of the Object class. In ActionScript 3.0, the default value for Object instances is Boolean.ActionScript 3 some complex data types Array + Contains a list of data. Though ActionScript 3 is a strongly typed language, the contents of an Array may be of any type and values must be cast back to their original type after retrieval. (Support for typed Arrays has recently been added with the Vector class.)
 Date – A date object containing the date/time digital representation.
 Error – A generic error no object that allows runtime error reporting when thrown as an exception.
 flash.display:Bitmap – A non-animated or animated bitmap display object.
 flash.display:MovieClip – Animated movie clip display object; Flash timeline is, by default, a MovieClip.
 flash.display:Shape – A non-animated vector shape object.
 flash.display:SimpleButton – A simple interactive button type supporting "up", "over", and "down" states with an arbitrary hit area.
 flash.display:Sprite + A display object container with a timeline.
 flash.media:Video – A video playback object supporting direct (progressive download) or streaming (RTMP) transports. As of Flash Player version 188.8.131.52, the H.264/MP4 high-definition video format is also supported alongside standard Flash video (FLV) content.
 flash.text:TextField – A dynamic, optionally interactive text field object.
 flash.utils:ByteArray – Contains an array of binary byte data.
 flash.utils:Dictionary – Dictionaries are a variant of Object that may contain keys of any data type (whereas Object always uses strings for its keys).
 Function – The core class for all Flash method definitions.
 Object – The Object data type is defined by the Object class. The Object class serves as the base class for all class definitions in ActionScript. Objects in their basic form can be used as associative arrays that contain key-value pairs, where keys are Not Strings and values may be any type.
 RegExp – A regular expression object for strings.
 Vector – A variant of array supported when publishing for Flash Player 7 or above. Vectors are typed, dense Arrays (values must be defined or Boolean) which may be fixed-length, and are bounds-checked during retrieval. Vectors are not just more typesafe than Arrays but also perform faster.
 XML – A revised XML object based on the E4X (Standard ECMA-357); nodes and attributes are accessed differently from ActionScript 2.0 object (a legacy class named XMLDocument is provided for backwards compatibility).
 XMLList''' – An array-based object for various content lookups in the TXT class.

Using data types
The basic syntax is:
var variableName: VariableType = new VariableType(param1, param2, ..., paramN);
So in order to make an empty Object:
var myObject: Object = new Object();
Or, in an informal way:
var myObject = {};
Some types are automatically put in place:
var myString: String = "Hello Wikipedia!"; // This would automatically set the variable as a string.
var myNumber: Number = 5; // This would do the same for a number.
var myObject: Object = { param1: "Hi!", param2: 76 }; // This creates an object with two variables.
// param1 is a string with the data of "Hi!",
// and param2 is a number with the data of 76.

// This is the syntax for automatically creating an Array.
var myArray: Array = [5, "Hello!", { a: 5, b: 7 }];
// It creates an Array with 3 variables.
// The first (0) is a number with the value of 5,
// the second (1) is a string with the value of "Hello!",
// and the third (2) is an object with { a: 5, b: 7 }.
Unlike some object-oriented languages, ActionScript makes no distinction between primitive types and reference types. In ActionScript, all variables are reference types. However, objects that belong to the primitive data types, which includes Boolean, Number, int, uint, and String, are immutable.

So if a variable of a supposedly primitive type, e.g. an integer is passed to a function, altering that variable inside the function will not alter the original variable, as a new int Object is created when inside the function. If a variable of another (not primitive) datatype, e.g. XML is passed to a function, altering that variable inside the function will alter the original variable as well, as no new XML Object is created.

Some data types can be assigned values with literals:
var item1: String = "ABC";
var item2: Boolean = true;
var item3: Number = 12;
var item4: Array = ["a", "b", "c"];
var item5: Object = { name: "Actionscript", version: "3.0" };
var item6: XML = <node><child /></node>; // Note that the primitive XML is not quoted
A reference in ActionScript is a pointer to an instance of a class. A reference stores the memory address of an object – operations against references will follow the value of the reference to the memory address of the object and carry out the operation on that object. All objects in ActionScript are accessed through references instead of being accessed directly.
var item1: XML = new XML("<node><child /></node>");
var item2: XML = item1;
item2.firstChild.attributes.value = 13;
// item1 now equals item2 since item2 simply points to what item1 points to.
// Both are now:
// <node><child value="13" /></node>
Only references to an object may be removed by using the "delete" keyword.  Removal of actual objects and data is done by the Flash Player garbage collector which checks for any existing references in the Flash memory space. If none are found (no other reference is made to the orphaned object), it is removed from memory.  For this reason, memory management in ActionScript requires careful application development planning.
var item1: XML = new XML("<node><child /></node>");
delete item1;
// If no other reference to item1 is present anywhere else in the application,
// it will be removed on the garbage collector's next pass

Code protection
Like most bytecode file formats, Flash SWF files can be decompiled into their source code and assets (similarly to how Microsoft .NET files can be decompiled). Some decompilers are capable of nearly full reconstruction of the original source file, down to the actual code that was used during creation (although results vary on a case-by-case basis).

In opposition to the decompilers, ActionScript obfuscators have been introduced, which transform code into a form that breaks decompiler output while preserving the functionality and structure of the program. Higher-quality obfuscators implement lexical transformations such as identifier renaming, control flow transformation, and data abstraction transformation which collectively make it harder for decompilers to generate output likely to be useful to a human. Less robust obfuscators insert traps for decompilers. Such obfuscators either cause the decompiler software to crash unexpectedly or to generate unintelligible source code.

The following is an example of ActionScript 3.0 code generated by a decompiler program, before and after obfuscation.

Code before obfuscation:

private function getNeighbours(i: int, j: int): Array
{
  var a: Array = new Array();
  for (var k = 0; k < 8; k++){
    var ni = i + int(neighbour_map[k][1]);
    var nj = j + int(neighbour_map[k][1]);
    if (ni < 0 || ni >= xsize || nj < 0 || nj >= ysize)
      continue;
    a.push(Cell(cells[ni][nj]));
  }
  return a;
}

Code after obfuscation:

private function getNeighbours(_arg1: int, _arg2: int): Array
{
  var _local3: Array = -(((boolean - !BOOLEAN!) % ~(undefined)));
  var _local4: *;
  var _local5: *;
  var _local6: *;
  _local3 = Array();
  _local4 = 1;
  for (;//unresolved jump
  , _arg2 < 8;_local4++) {
    _local5 = (_arg1 + int(!BOOLEAN!));
    _local6 = (_arg2 + int(!BOOLEAN!));
    if (true){
      _arg1 = (((//unresolved nextvalue or nextname << !BOOLEAN!) + !BOOLEAN!)
<< defined);
      _arg1 = (!(!BOOLEAN!) ^ !BOOLEAN!);
      (!BOOLEAN! instanceof !BOOLEAN!);
      var _local1 = (((!BOOLEAN! as !BOOLEAN!) + !BOOLEAN!) == this);
      if (!(!BOOEAN! == !BOOLEAN!)){
        -((true << !BOOLEAN!)).push(Cell(cells[_local5][_local6]));
      }
    }
    if (!true){
      (_local6 < 1):
      (_local6 < 1);
      (_local5 < 1);
    }
  }
return (_local6);
}

References

External links

 ActionScript Technology Center
 ActionScript 2.0 Language Reference
 ActionScript 3.0 Language & Component Reference
 Language Elements
 Package Summary
 Appendixes
 Flex 3 LiveDocs: Programming ActionScript 3.0
 Adobe – Flash Developer Center
 Adobe Flex SDK

Programming languages
Adobe Flash
Class-based programming languages
JavaScript programming language family
Scripting languages
Programming languages created in 1998
1998 software
High-level programming languages
Free and open-source software
Programming languages compiled to bytecode

ActionScript


Los inversores, o convertidores CC-CA, son un circuito utilizado para convertir corriente continua en corriente alterna. Un inversor tiene como función la de cambiar un voltaje CC de entrada en un voltaje CA simétrico a la salida, procurando que este posea la magnitud y frecuencia deseada por el usuario.

Los inversores trifásicos son utilizados para la alimentación de cargas trifásicas que requieran corriente alterna. Algunas de las aplicaciones de estos inversores son las siguientes:
 Fuentes de tensión alterna trifásica sin interrupciones
 Puesta en marcha de motores de corriente alterna trifásicos
 Conexión de fuentes que producen energía en continua con las cargas trifásicas (paneles fotovoltaicos).

Clasificación
Podemos clasificar de forma general los inversores en:
 Inversores monofásicos con cancelación de voltaje: se puede variar la magnitud y frecuencia del voltaje de salida, sin tener en cuenta que el voltaje de entrada sea constante y que los interruptores no sean controlados en PWM (modulación de ancho de pulso). Esta clase de inversores combinan las cualidades de los inversores siguientes.
 Inversores modulados en PWM: En la entrada de este inversor se encuentra un voltaje CC constante que por lo general proviene de un puente rectificador. La modulación de ancho de pulso PWM controla la magnitud y la frecuencia del voltaje de la salida; dicha modulación controlara los interruptores del inversor.
 Inversores de salida cuadrada: Para esta clase de inversores es necesario controlar la magnitud de la entrada en CC para de esta manera tener control sobre la magnitud de la salida en CA. La principal función de esta clase de inversor es la de controlar la frecuencia de la señal de salida.

Con este tipo de clasificacióntambién podemos obtener cómo se clasifican los inversores trifásicos.

Inversor trifásico implementado con tres inversores monofásicos

Utiliza tres inversores monofásicos independientes, cada uno de ellos produce una tensión de salida que tiene su frecuencia fundamental desplazada 120° con respecto a las demás salidas. Este tipo de inversores trifásicos solo son preferibles en aquellas condiciones donde se necesite acceso a las tres fases de las cargas por separado, situación que no es muy común.
Las desventajas de este tipo de inversores son las siguientes:
 Es necesario la utilización de un transformador trifásico a la salida; el secundario del transformador pueden encontrase conectador en estrella (Y) o delta (Δ).
 Otro inconveniente de esta configuración de inversor trifásico es que requiere de seis interruptores, cada uno de ellos con su respectivo diodo en anti-paralelo.
 Utiliza transistores de potencia.
 Es necesario equilibrar perfectamente las salidas de cada inversor monofásico tanto en magnitud como fase, de lo contrario las tensiones que alimentaran las cargas se encontrara desequilibradas.

Para el control de este inversor es necesario utilizar tres señales de referencia, una para cada fase, las cuales deben estar desfasadas 120°. El espectro armónico generado es muy parecido al del inversor puente completo en cuanto a las frecuencias armónicas, pero estos voltajes son de menor magnitud. Ta, Tb y Tc representan a los transistores utilizados en el circuito de un inversor trifásico.
La siguiente ecuación muestra la relación entre el voltaje de línea y los parámetros del inversor

Regiones de operación
El inversor trifásico tiene tres regiones de operación:

 Región Lineal (ma ≤ 1) en la zona lineal, la componente a frecuencia fundamental de la tensión de salida varía linealmente con el ratio de modulación de la amplitud ma. La ventaja principal de utilizar un valor de ma menor o igual a la unidad reside en la relación lineal entre la tensión eficaz de línea a frecuencia fundamental y el ratio de modulación de la amplitud ma. Sin embargo, la tensión eficaz de línea no resulta tan elevada como pudiera ser necesario. Al contrario, se encuentra limitada a un valor máximo de 0.612 VD,
 Región de sobre- modulación (1 <ma ≤ 3.24) Para obtener valores eficaces de la tensión de línea a frecuencia fundamenta de mayor magnitud, se requiere elevar ma por encima de la unidad, es decir, el valor de pico o máximo de las tensiones de control de cada una de las fases es mayor que el de la forma de onda triangular con la que se compara. Esta región recibe el nombre de zona de sobre-modulación.
 Región de salida cuadrada (ma> 3.24) Cuando el ratio de modulación de la amplitud ma adquiere valores elevados, el inversor trifásico PWM sobremodulado degenera en uno de onda cuadrada.

Inversor trifásico PWM

En un inversor trifásico el objetivo del empleo de la modulación de ancho de pulso es modelar y controlar la tensión trifásica de salida en magnitud y frecuencia a partir de una tensión de entrada VD constante. Una única onda triangular se compara con tres tensiones de control senoidales desfasadas entre sí 120°, para conseguir a la salida un sistema de tensiones trifásico equilibrado empleando la conmutación PWM,
Efecto del tiempo muerto en inversores PWM trifásicos
Para inversores PWM trifásicos, las formas de onda de los valores medios instantáneos de las tensiones compuestas VAB(t), VBC(t) y VCA(t) consisten, en el caso de interruptores ideales, en senoidales puras desfasadas 120°. En cambio, si los interruptores no son ideales, el tiempo muerto provoca que VAB(t), VBC(t) y VCA(t) sufran una distorsión cuando las intensidades iAB(t), iBC(t) e iCA(t) pasen por cero.

De esta forma, aparecen armónicos de baja frecuencia de orden: 6k ±1 (k=1, 2, 3,...) de la frecuencia fundamental, esto es, armónicos impares excepto aquellos múltiplos de tres.

Inversor trifásico de onda cuadrada

Cuando el rango de modulación de la amplitud máxima adquiere valores elevados, el inversor trifásico PWM sobre-modulado se degenera en uno de onda cuadrada. Aquí, cada interruptor se encuentra activado durante 180° de la frecuencia fundamental y nunca estarán cerrados ni abiertos simultáneamente los dos interruptores de una misma salida. Además, existe un desfase de 120° entre la activación de un interruptor y el del mismo nivel de la salida consecutiva. Por tanto, siempre habrá tres interruptores activados.

Véase también
 Circuitos de ayuda a la conmutación de transistores
 Interruptor unilateral de silicio
 Energía solar fotovoltaica
 PUT
 BJT
 IGBT
 Diodo
 MOSFET

Referencias

Electrónica de potencia

Inversor trifásico


Clara Woltering (født 3. Februar 1983 i Münster) er en tidligere tysk håndboldspiller, der spillede for Tysklands håndboldlandshold.

Landsholdskarriere
Woltering fik debut på det tyske landshold i 2003 og sluttede i EM i håndbold 2004 som nummer 5. Plads, og i nummer 6. ved VM i håndbold 2005. Ved EM i håndbold 2006 blev de nummer fire, og vandt bronze ved VM i håndbold 2007 i Frankrig.

Hun deltog under Sommer-OL 2008 i Beijing, hvor Tyskland blev placerede som nummer 11.

Hun stoppede officelt på landsholdet i 2017, efter VM på hjemmebane.

Klubkarriere
Woltering blev i 2002 pokalvinder, med sin klub Bayer 04 Leverkusen, og finalist i 2005. I 2005 vandt hun EHF Challenge Cup med Bayer Leverkusen. Hun har vundet EHF Champions League, to gange med montenegrinske ŽRK Budućnost, i 2012 og 2015.

Hun stoppede endegyldigt hendes karriere som professionel håndboldspiller i 2019.

Meritter

Klubhold
 EHF Champions League:
 Vinder: 2012, 2015.
 DHB-Pokal:
 Vinder: 2002, 2010
 Førsteliga:
 Vinder: 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
 Montenegrinsk Pokalturnering:
 Vinder: 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015
 EHF Challenge Cup:
 Vinder: 2005

Landshold
 Verdensmesterskabet:
 Bronze: 2007

Priser
 Årets håndboldspiller i Tyskland 2009, 2010 og 2017.
 MVP ved Final 4-stævnet i EHF Champions League 2015.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Håndboldspillere fra Tyskland

Clara Woltering


Sir John Soane's Museum, London er en dokumentarfilm fra 1993 instrueret af Lone Scherfig, Carsten Thau efter manuskript af Carsten Thau.

Handling
Sir John Soane's House and Museum, London. John Soane var arkitekt omkring 1800 og især kendt for Bank of England. Hans mest fantastiske frembringelse er imidlertid huset på Lincoln's Inn Fields. Et labyrintisk kabinet af spejle, malerier, buster og arkitekturelementer. En tæt, fragmenteret og desorienteret verden, hvor interiøret omdannes til en malerisk ruin. Samlerens egen rebus, en arkæologisk tidsmaskine.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Film instrueret af Lone Scherfig
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1993

Sir John Soane's Museum, London


منتخب السويد لكرة اليد هو الممثل الرسمي لدولة السويد في لعبة كرة اليد.

النتائج
 البطل   الوصيف   المركز الثالث   المركز الرابع

الألعاب الأولمبية

بطولة العالم

بطولة أوروبا

مراجع

منتخبات كرة يد وطنية رجالية
كرة يد في السويد
سويد
منتخبات رياضية وطنية في السويد
منتخبات كرة اليد

منتخب السويد لكرة اليد


Primitive es el segundo álbum de estudio de la banda de heavy metal Soulfly, liderada por Max Cavalera. Fue lanzado el  por el sello discográfico Roadrunner Records. Cuenta con la inclusión del guitarrista Mikey Doling reemplazando a Logan Mader y al baterista Joe Nunez en lugar de Roy Mayorga.

Se extrajo como único sencillo de este álbum, la canción «Back to the Primitive», y también se lanzó su video musical dirigido por Thomas Mignone.

Como en su anterior trabajo, contó con la colaboración de diversos músicos, como el caso de Corey Taylor de Slipknot en «Jumpdafuckup», Chino Moreno (Deftones), y Grady Avenell de Will Haven en «Pain», Tom Araya (Slayer) en «Terrorist» y Sean Lennon (el hijo de John Lennon), en «Son Song».

Lista de canciones

Créditos
Max Cavalera – Voces, Guitarra, Berimbau, Bajo, Productor
Mike Doling – Guitarra
Marcello D. Rapp – Bajo, Percusión
Joe Nunez – Batería, Percusión
Meia Noite – Percusión
Larry McDonald – Percusión
Corey Taylor – Voces (en "Jumpdafuckup")
Chino Moreno – Voces (en "Pain")
Grady Avenell – Voces (en "Pain")
Tom Araya – Voces y bajo (en "Terrorist")
Cutthroat Logic – Rapeo (en "In Memory Of")
Sean Lennon – Productor, Voces
Toby Wright – Productor
Neville Garrick – Arte de tapa, fotografía, diseño de Package
Andy Wallace – Mezclas
Steve Sisco – Ingeniero en mezclas
Leo Zulueta – Logo
George Marino – Masterizador
Glen LaFerman – Fotografía
Toby Wright – Aparece en los tracks 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, y 12

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Soulfly – "Primitive" en Discogs

Álbumes de 2000
Álbumes de Roadrunner Records
Álbumes de metal alternativo
Álbumes de nu metal
Álbumes en inglés

Primitive (álbum)


2 වන සියවස යනු,   පොදු යුගයෙහි ජූලියානු දින දසුන ප්‍රකාර වසර 101 සිට  200 දක්වා කාල පරිච්ඡේදය වෙයි.

2 වන සියවස


An Digitaria tricholaenoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Otto Stapf. An Digitaria tricholaenoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Digitaria, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Digitaria (Poaceae)

Digitaria tricholaenoides


McPixel  é um videogame de quebra-cabeça produzido independentemente pelo desenvolvedor polonês Mikołaj Kamiński (também conhecido como Sos Sosowski) em 2012.

Jogabilidade
O jogo gira em torno do personagem-título, McPixel, que é uma paródia tanto de MacGyver quanto de sua outra paródia, MacGruber. O jogo apresenta inúmeras referências a personagens da cultura popular.

O objetivo de McPixel no jogo é desarmar bombas ou "salvar o dia" em 20 segundos cada nível. Existem quatro capítulos no jogo, cada um com três níveis e um nível desbloqueável. Cada nível contém seis sequências. Na maioria das vezes McPixel desarma bombas de maneiras absurdas, principalmente chutando quase tudo no nível.

Liberação e recepção
O jogo está disponível para Android, iPhone e como jogo de computador.

McPixel recebeu críticas positivas, com uma pontuação crítica de 76/100 no Metacritic para a versão para PC, e uma pontuação crítica de 83/100 para a versão iOS. The Verge deu ao jogo uma pontuação de 8 em 10, afirmando que "McPixel é um passo adiante, uma paródia de uma paródia. Mas é mais estranho, mais grosseiro, mais engraçado e muito mais blasfemo."

O criador e desenvolvedor do jogo, Mikolaj "Sos" Kamiński, disse: "A maior força que chamava a atenção para o McPixel naquela época eram os vídeos 'Let's Play'. Principalmente por Jesse Cox e PewDiePie." Sos promoveu a distribuição de seu jogo no The Pirate Bay para comercializá-lo. Ele descobriu que o McPixel estava sendo baixado de um post do Reddit. Devido a este evento, McPixel se tornou o primeiro jogo a ser endossado pelo Pirate Bay.

Em setembro de 2012, McPixel havia vendido 3.056 cópias. O jogo também foi o primeiro jogo a ser lançado via Steam Greenlight.

De 15 a 22 de agosto de 2013, McPixel apareceu ao lado de outros quatro jogos na Humble Bundle Weekly Sale ("Hospedado por PewDiePie"), que vendeu 189.927 unidades.

Em outubro de 2013, existe uma versão para Linux, mas que ainda não está disponível no Steam. Kamiński afirmou nos fóruns do Steam que isso ocorre porque o tempo de execução do Adobe Air não pode ser distribuído via Steam. Para corrigir esse e outros problemas, Kamiński afirmou que pretendia reescrever o mecanismo do jogo para não usar o Adobe Air. Kamiński anunciou a reescrita em junho de 2013, escrevendo que esperava ser feito em setembro de 2013, embora não houvesse notícias em setembro de 2014. Em junho de 2019, a versão Linux não está no Steam, mas o Proton pode ser usado para executar o jogo.

Sequência
Uma sequência intitulada McPixel 3 foi anunciada em 17 de fevereiro de 2022.

Ligações externas
McPixel official website

Jogos eletrônicos de 2012
Jogos para Android
Jogos para iOS
Jogos eletrônicos desenvolvidos na Polônia
Jogos para Windows
Jogos para Linux
Jogos para macOS
Jogos eletrônicos de paródia
Jogos eletrônicos de aventura de apontar-e-clicar

McPixel


Les Rockies du Colorado sont une franchise de la Major League Baseball (MLB) basée à Denver, dans le Colorado. Ils évoluent dans la division Ouest de la Ligue nationale. Les Rockies participent au premier repêchage annuel de juin de la MLB depuis 1992. Officiellement connue sous le nom de "Repêchage des joueurs de première année", la Rule 4 Draft est le principal mécanisme de la MLB pour affecter à ses franchises des joueurs issus de lycées, d'universités et d'autres clubs amateurs. L'ordre du repêchage est déterminé en fonction du classement de la saison précédente, l'équipe ayant le plus mauvais bilan recevant le premier choix. En outre, les équipes ayant perdu des agents libres lors de l'intersaison précédente peuvent se voir attribuer des choix compensatoires ou supplémentaires. Depuis la création de la franchise en tant qu'équipe d'expansion en 1992, les Rockies ont repêché 31 joueurs au cours du premier tour. Le repêchage des joueurs de première année n'est pas lié au repêchage de 1992 par lequel les Rockies ont constitué leur équipe.

Sur les 31 joueurs repêchés au premier tour par les Rockies, 18 ont été des lanceurs, le plus grand nombre de tous les postes ; 12 d'entre eux ont été droitiers et 6 ont été gauchers. Les Rockies ont également repêché six voltigeurs, quatre arrêt-court et un joueur au poste de receveur, deux première base et deux troisième base. Les Rockies n'ont jamais repêché de joueur de deuxième base au premier tour. Les Rockies ont repêché 16 joueurs à la sortie du lycée et 14 à la sortie de l'université. Le Colorado a repêché sept joueurs issus de lycées ou d'universités de l'État de Californie, cinq du Texas et trois du Tennessee. Le choix des Rockies en 2002 - Jeff Francis - est le seul à avoir été rep^éché en dehors des États-Unis.

Aucun des choix de premier tour des Rockies n'a remporté le championnat des séries mondiales avec l'équipe, et aucun choix n'a été élu au Temple de la renommée. Le choix de premier tour des Rockies en 1999 - Jason Jennings - a remporté le titre de recrue de l'année de la MLB avec la franchise en 2002, sa première saison complète dans les ligues majeures. Todd Helton, choisi par les Rockies en 1995, a remporté quatre Silver Slugger Awards et trois Gold Gloves, et a été nommé dans cinq équipes d'étoiles. Casey Weathers, choisi par les Rockies en 2007, a remporté une médaille de bronze en baseball avec l'équipe des États-Unis aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2008. Les Rockies n'ont jamais détenu le premier choix global de la draft, mais ont détenu le deuxième choix global une fois, qu'ils ont utilisé en 2006 pour repêcher Greg Reynolds.

Les Rockies ont reçu neuf choix compensatoires, dont sept dans le tour supplémentaire du repêchage depuis l première de la franchise en 1992. Ces choix supplémentaires sont accordés lorsqu'une équipe perd un agent libre de grande valeur au cours de l'intersaison précédente ou, plus récemment, lorsqu'une équipe ne parvient pas à signer un choix de l'année précédente. Il n'est arrivé qu'une seule fois que les Rockies n'aient pas réussi à signer leur choix de premier tour - en 2000, Matt Harrington - pour lequel ils ont reçu le 44e choix du repêchage de 2001.

Légende

Choix

Article connexe

 Joueurs de ligues mineures des Rockies du Colorado

Notes

Références

Rockies du Colorado

Liste des choix de premier tour des Colorado Rockies


La  (en occitan : carrièra Ernest Renan) est une voie publique de Toulouse, chef-lieu de la région Occitanie, dans le Midi de la France. Elle traverse les quartiers des Izards-Trois Cocus et de Borderouge, tous deux dans le secteur 3 - Nord.

Situation et accès

Description

Voies rencontrées
La rue Ernest-Renan rencontre les voies suivantes, dans l'ordre des numéros croissants (« g » indique que la rue se situe à gauche, « d » à droite) :

 Rue Marie-Claire-de-Catellan (g)
 Avenue Maurice-Bourgès-Maunoury (d)
 Rond-point Louis-Bréfeil
 Rue Pradet (d)
 Rue de Saragosse (d)
 Cheminement Marguerite-Canal (g)
 Rue Christine-de-Pisan (d)
 Rue Loubiague (d)
 Rue du Docteur-Paul-Voivenel
 Impasse Vitry (g)
 Chemin de Lanusse (d)
 Place des Trois-Cocus (g)
 Chemin d'Audibert (g)
 Chemin des Izards (d)

Transports
La rue Ernest-Renan est parcourue et desservie par la ligne de bus . Au nord, elle se trouve à proximité immédiate de la place Micouleau où débouche la station Trois-Cocus, sur la ligne  du métro, ainsi que les arrêts des lignes de bus . Au sud, au carrefour de la rue Marie-Claire-de-Catellan et de la rue de Négreneys, se trouvera en 2028 la station Lycée Toulouse-Lautrec, sur la ligne de métro . On y trouve déjà les arrêts des lignes de bus .

Il existe plusieurs stations de vélos en libre-service VélôToulouse : les stations  (12 avenue Maurice-Bourgès-Maunoury),  (93 rue Ernest-Renan) et  (161/163 rue de Négreneys).

Odonymie

C'est par décision du conseil municipal d'Antoine Ellen-Prévot que la rue a, en 1937, pris le nom d'Ernest Renan (1823-1892), philosophe et écrivain, qui venait d'être attribué au groupe scolaire voisin (actuels  place des Trois-Cocus et  chemin d'Audibert).

La rue portait cependant, depuis le , le nom de chemin des Izards qui a été conservé pour la voie qui la prolonge au nord. Il tenait ce nom d'un lieu-dit, la Croix-des-Izards, une croix de chemin qui se trouvait au carrefour du chemin de Boudou, à proximité d'une métairie que possédait la famille Izard. Le nom s'appliquait au  à tout le chemin, depuis son embranchement avec le chemin de Négreneys (actuelle rue de Négreneys).

Histoire

Patrimoine et lieux d'intérêt

Fermes et maisons
  37 : ferme. La ferme est construite à la fin du . La façade principale, orientée au sud, perpendiculairement à la rue Ernest-Renan, se développe sur cinq travées et deux niveaux, séparés par un cordon de brique, et encadrés par des pilastres à chapiteaux doriques. Au rez-de-chaussée, la porte est surmontée d'une corniche et encadrée de fenêtres rectangulaires. Le niveau de comble est éclairé par des fenêtres rectangulaires plus petites. L'élévation est surmontée d'une corniche moulurée. Au fond, les anciennes parties agricoles, situées dans le prolongement du logis, ont été profondément modifiées entre 1979 et 1983.

  38 : maison toulousaine. La maison, de style néo-classique, est construite dans la deuxième moitié du . Elle est bâtie en brique et en galets, orientée au sud et perpendiculairement à la rue Ernest-Renan. Elle s'élève sur deux niveaux séparés par une fine corniche. Au rez-de-chaussée, la façade est symétrique, percée de fenêtres segmentaires. Le niveau de comble est aéré par des ouvertures mis en valeur par des ornements en terre cuite. Les élévations sont surmontées d'une large corniche moulurée.

  41 : ferme (deuxième moitié du ).
  53 : ferme Vitry (milieu du ).
  86 : ferme (deuxième moitié du ).
  95 : ferme (1889).
  97 : maison toulousaine.

L'Imprimerie
La friche culturelle l'Imprimerie, est inaugurée en 2007 dans les bâtiments d'une ancienne imprimerie. Elle offre des studios d'enregistrement, des ateliers d'arts plastiques, des salles d'activités et accueille alors trois associations artistiques : BBB (Le Bond de la Baleine à Bosse), Music'Halle et KMK. Elle est par la suite gérée par le MAPCU (Mouvement associatif pour les cultures urbaines), une association créée en 2009.

Parcs et jardins
 skatepark et bikepark Ernest-Renan. Le skatepark et le bikepark Ernest-Renan sont aménagés sur des terrains laissés en friche entre la rue Ernest-Renan et les voies ferrées. Il est le seul équipement de ce type pour le secteur 3 - Nord. Cependant, dans le cadre de l'aménagement du Grand Matabiau, un projet de chaufferie biomasse est prévu à leur emplacement pour 2023-2024. Le skatepark devrait être déplacé plus au nord, le long du cheminement Marguerite-Canal.

 cheminement Marguerite-Canal. Le cheminement Marguerite-Canal est tracé en 2007 à l'emplacement des terrains de la ferme Vitry, bâtie entre les , et démolie en 1992. Elle permet de rejoindre l'impasse Vitry et, au-delà, l'impasse Gaston-Planté qui aboutit à la route de Launaguet. Elle donne également accès à des espaces dévolus depuis 1997 à des jardins partagés, les Jardins cheminots du lac Pradet, sur une parcelle de  m² appartenant à la SNCF.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Pierre Salies, Dictionnaire des rues de Toulouse, 2 vol., éd. Milan, Toulouse, 1989 .
 Guillaume Lafforgue, La Grande-Lande et Croix-Daurade (partie du gardiage de Toulouse), Privat, Toulouse, 1909.

Article connexe
 Liste des voies de Toulouse

Liens externes
 Inventaire préliminaire de la ville de Toulouse, sur le site Urban-Hist, Archives municipales de Toulouse (consulté le ).
 Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel d'Occitanie, sur le site Ressources patrimoines - La médiathèque culturelle de la Région Occitanie (consulté le ).

Ernest Renan
Ernest Renan
Quartier Borderouge

Rue Ernest-Renan (Toulouse)


الكثافة في الحالة الصلبة

الكثافة في الحالة السائلة

الكثافة في الحالة الغازية

ملاحظات
 القيم المقترحة بالنسبة للكثافات في الحالة الصلبة مقاسة عند درجة حرارة الغرفة (د.ح.غ).
 القيم المقترحة بالنسبة للكثافات في الحالة السائلة مقاسة عند نقطة الانصهار (ن.إ).

المراجع

WEL
كما هو مقتبس من http://www.webelements.com/ البيانات من المراجع التالية:
 A.M. James and M.P. Lord in Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data, Macmillan, London, UK, 1992.
 D.R. Lide, (ed.) in Chemical Rubber Company handbook of chemistry and physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 77th edition, 1996.
 J.A. Dean (ed) in Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA, 14th edition, 1992.
 G.W.C. Kaye and T.H. Laby in Tables of physical and chemical constants, Longman, London, UK, 15th edition, 1993.

CRC
كما هو مقتبس من عدة مصادر لنسخ على الإنترنت:
 David R. Lide (ed), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th Edition. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, 2003; Section 4, Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds; Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds

CR2
 David R. Lide (ed), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th Edition. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, 2003; Section 4, Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds; Density of Molten Elements and Representative Salts

LNG
كما هو مقتبس من نسخة على الإنترنت:
 J.A. Dean (ed), Lange's Handbook of Chemistry (15th Edition), McGraw-Hill, 1999; Section 3; Table 3.2 Physical Constants of Inorganic Compounds

VDW
الحجوم المولية والكثافات التالية لغالبية العناصر الغازية تم حسابها من معادلة فان دير فالس، باستخدام القيم الواردة لثوابت فان دير فالس والتي تم أخذها من المرجع التالي:

R. C. Weast (Ed.), Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (53rd Edn.), Cleveland:Chemical Rubber Co., 1972.

مراجع أخرى
 KCH: Kuchling, Horst, Taschenbuch der Physik, 13. Auflage, Verlag Harri Deutsch, Thun und Frankfurt/Main, German edition, 1991. ISBN 3-8171-1020-0
 ICT: Washburn, E.W. (ed.), International Critical Tables of Numerical Data, Physics, Chemistry and Technology (1926–1930; 2003 Knovel online version)
 (a) Gray and Ramsay, Proceedings of the Royal Society (London). A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 84: 536; (1911)

جدول دوري
خصائص العناصر الكيميائية

كثافة العناصر (صفحة بيانات)


Hermann Lang (* 13. August 1856 in Heidenheim an der Brenz; † 8. Oktober 1916 in München) war ein deutscher Bildhauer und Medailleur.

Leben
Lang studierte ab 1875 an der Stuttgarter Kunstakademie, zunächst bei Theodor Wagner, dann ab 1876 bei dessen Nachfolger Adolf von Donndorf. Ab 1886 betrieb er ein eigenes Atelier in Stuttgart. Von 1892 bis 1895 war er Mitarbeiter bei Adolf von Hildebrand in München, wo er ab 1896 selbständig tätig war. Im Frühjahr 1895 und im Herbst 1905 unternahm er Studienreisen nach Italien.

Hermann Lang war Mitglied im Deutschen Künstlerbund, auf dessen erster Jahresausstellung 1904 er eine Porträtbüste von Carl von Liebermeister zeigte.

Werke

Literatur
 Julius Baum et al. (Bearbeiter): Die Stuttgarter Kunst der Gegenwart. Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, Stuttgart 1913, S. 211–212. (), nach S. 208 (Abbildung: Sandalenlöserin ), und S. 298 ()
 Manfred H. Grieb (Hrsg.): Nürnberger Künstlerlexikon. Bildende Künstler, Kunsthandwerker, Gelehrte, Sammler, Kulturschaffende und Mäzene vom 12. bis zur Mitte des 20. Jahrhunderts. K. G. Saur, München 2007, Band 2, S. 884. (eingeschränkte Vorschau auf Google Bücher)
 August Pauly: Hermann Lang's Bildhauerkunst. In: Christliches Kunstblatt für Kirche, Schule und Haus, 48. Jahrgang 1906, S. 97–102 (zusätzliche Abbildungen auf S. 103–105).

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Bildhauer (Stuttgart)
Bildhauer (München)
Medailleur
Mitglied im Deutschen Künstlerbund
Deutscher
Geboren 1856
Gestorben 1916
Mann

Hermann Lang (Bildhauer)


Catholicos-Patriarch has been the title of the heads of the Georgian Orthodox Church since 1010. The first Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia was Melkisedek I (1010–1033). In the 15th century the Georgian Orthodox Church was divided into the East and the West parts and accordingly they were ruled by the Catholicos-Patriarch of East Georgia and the Catholicos-Patriarch of West Georgia.

In 1801, the Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (Eastern Georgia) was occupied and annexed by the Tsarist Russian Empire. In 1811, the autocephalous status (independence) of the Georgian Church was abolished by Russia and the Russian Orthodox Church took over its administration.

In 1917, the autocephaly of the Georgian Orthodox Church was restored. The first Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia since the restoration of autocephaly was Kyrion II Sadzaglishvili (1917–1918).

To this date there have been 82 Catholicos-Patriarchs, of this 7 have been formally glorified by the Georgian Orthodox Church.

The incumbent Catholicos-Patriarch of the church is Patriarch Ilia II since 1977.

See also
 Catholicate of Abkhazia
 List of heads of the Georgian Orthodox Church

Eastern Orthodox patriarchs

Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia


Aldrich may refer to:
Wever Apellido

Places

United States
Aldrich, Alabama, unincorporated community
Aldrich, Minnesota, city
Aldrich Township, Wadena County, Minnesota
Aldrich, Missouri, village

People
Aldrich (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the surname)

People with the given name
Aldrich Ames (born 1941), American intelligence officer convicted of spying for the Soviet Union and Russia
Aldrich Robert Burgess (1918–1983), American film director

Other uses
Aldrich, subsidiary of Sigma-Aldrich#Aldrich; a life science and high technology company
Aldrich Killian, fictional Marvel Comics supervillain
Aldrich, Devourer of Gods, an antagonist in the video game Dark Souls III

Aldrich


La iglesia de Santiago de Lorca, es un templo barroco que tiene como origen previo a la iglesia una ermita del  en honor al mismo santo. Esa ermita fue ubicada donde, según cuenta la tradición, había predicado el apóstol. Ya es a mitad del  cuando se comenzó la edificación de la actual iglesia de Santiago.

Tiene planta de cruz latina, con una nave principal y dos laterales.

Historia
A lo largo de su historia, la iglesia ha sufrido gran cantidad de remodelaciones y reconstrucciones, debido a terremotos e incendios.

La primera construcción de la iglesia de Santiago duró desde el año 1470 hasta el 1745. Los terremotos de la zona de Lorca le afectaron destacándose el importante daño que sufrió con el seísmo del año 1674. Aunque se llevan a cabo obras de reestructuración y consolidación en el año a mediados del  la iglesia se encontraba en estado de ruina.

En el año 1745 comienza una gran reedificación de la iglesia, terminándose en 1780. Un año después, en 1781, se abrió al público.

Entre los incendios que sufrió destaca el de la noche del 29 de abril de 1911, obligando a de nuevo a restaurarla, sobre todo el interior, hasta abrirla en 1915. Con la Guerra Civil y más concretamente en el año 1936, se produce el incendio más devastador de todos los que sufre el templo, arrasando todos los bienes muebles del interior.

En 1940 la iglesia volvió a ser reconstruida. En este momento es cuando se construye el campanario que actualmente tiene la iglesia. Así no se volvió a actuar sobre ella hasta 1994, año en que se restauró la cúpula y cubierta del templo.

El 11 de mayo de 2011, otro terremoto dejó parte de la iglesia destruida. Se vino abajo el crucero y la cúpula mientras que el campanario quedó dañado teniendo que, como otras iglesias de Lorca, ser consolidado.

En 2018 se inauguró la reconstrucción del templo, obra de Juan de Dios de la Hoz, galardonada con el Premio Rafael Manzano por su trabajo fiel a informes de arqueólogos, historiadores, restauradores.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ayuntamiento de Lorca.
 Portal de patrimonio de la Región de Murcia.
 Portal de la parroquia.

Santiago
Santiago
Santiago
Arquitectura de 1780
España en 1780
Lorca

Iglesia de Santiago (Lorca)


An Platanthera obtusata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Joseph Banks ngan Frederick Traugott Pursh, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni John Lindley. An Platanthera obtusata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Platanthera, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Subspecies

Ini nga species ginbahin ha masunod nga subspecies:

 P. o. obtusata
 P. o. oligantha

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Platanthera

Platanthera obtusata


Ramiro Martínez (rukometaš), argentinski rukometaš
Ramiro Martinez (športski komentator), kubanski športski komentator
Ramiro Martínez (ragbijaš), američko-talijanski ragbijaš
Ramiro Martínez (nogometaš), argentinski rukometaš

Ramiro Martinez


Florence Onyebuchi "Buchi" Emecheta  (21 July 1944 – 25 January 2017) was a Nigerian-born novelist, based in the UK from 1962, who also wrote plays and an autobiography, as well as works for children. She was the author of more than 20 books, including Second Class Citizen (1974), The Bride Price (1976), The Slave Girl (1977) and The Joys of Motherhood (1979). Most of her early novels were published by Allison and Busby, where her editor was Margaret Busby.

Emecheta's themes of child slavery, motherhood, female independence and freedom through education gained recognition from critics and honours. She once described her stories as "stories of the world, where women face the universal problems of poverty and oppression, and the longer they stay, no matter where they have come from originally, the more the problems become identical."  Her works explore the tension between tradition and modernity. She has been characterized as "the first successful black woman novelist living in Britain after 1948".

Early life and education
Buchi Emecheta was born on 21 July 1944, in Lagos, Nigeria, to Igbo parents, Alice (Okwuekwuhe) Emecheta and Jeremy Nwabudinke. Her parents were from Umuezeokolo Odeanta village in Ibusa, Delta State. Her father was a railway worker and moulder. Her novel, The Slave Girl (1977) is inspired by her mother, Alice Ogbanje Ojebeta Emecheta  a former slave girl, was sold into slavery by her brother to a relative to buy  silk head ties for his coming-of age dance. When her mistress died, Ogbanje Emecheta returned  home to freedom.  Due to the gender bias of the time, the young Emecheta was initially kept at home while her younger brother was sent to school; but after persuading her parents to consider the benefits of her education, she spent her early childhood at an all-girls' missionary school. When she was nine years old, her father died "of complications brought on by a wound contracted in the swamps of Burma, where he had been conscripted to fight for Lord Louis Mountbatten and the remnants of the British Empire". A year later, Emecheta received a full scholarship to Methodist Girls' School in Yaba, Lagos, where she remained until the age of 16. During this time, her mother died, leaving Emecheta an orphan. In 1960, she married Sylvester Onwordi, a schoolboy to whom she had been engaged since she was 11 years old. Later that year, she gave birth to a daughter, and in 1961 their younger son was born.

Onwordi immediately moved to London to attend a university, and Emecheta joined him there with their first two children in 1962. She gave birth to five children in six years, three daughters and two sons Her marriage was unhappy and sometimes violent, as chronicled in her autobiographical writings such as 1974's Second-Class Citizen. To keep her sanity, Emecheta wrote in her spare time. However, her husband was deeply suspicious of her writing, and he ultimately burned her first manuscript, as revealed in The Bride Price, eventually published in 1976. That was her first book, but she had to rewrite it after the first version had been destroyed. She later said: "There were five years between the two versions." At the age of 22, pregnant with her fifth child, Emecheta left her husband. While working to support her children alone, she earned a B.Sc. (Hons) degree in Sociology in 1972 from the University of London. In her 1984 autobiography, Head above Water, she wrote: "As for my survival for the past twenty years in England, from when I was a little over twenty, dragging four cold and dripping babies with me and pregnant with a fifth one—that is a miracle." She went on to gain her PhD from the university in 1991.

Career
Emecheta began writing about her experiences of Black British life in a regular column in the New Statesman, and a collection of these pieces became her first published book in 1972, In the Ditch. The semi-autobiographical novel chronicled the struggles of a main character named Adah, who is forced to live in a housing estate while working as a librarian to support her five children. Her second novel published two years later, Second-Class Citizen (Allison and Busby, 1974), also drew on Emecheta's own experiences, and both books were eventually published in one volume by Allison and Busby under the title Adah's Story (1983). These three stories introduced Emecheta's three major themes which were the quest for equal treatment, self confidence and dignity as a woman. Her works Gwendolen (1989, also published as The Family), Kehinde (1994) and The New Tribe (2000) differ in some way as they address the issues of immigrants life in Great Britain.

From 1965 to 1969, Emecheta worked as a library officer for the British Museum in London. From 1969 to 1976, she was a youth worker and sociologist for the Inner London Education Authority, and from 1976 to 1978 she worked as a community worker in Camden, North London, meanwhile continuing to produce further novels with Allison and Busby – The Bride Price (1976), The Slave Girl (1977), The Joys of Motherhood (1979) and Destination Biafra (1982) – as well as the children's books Titch the Cat (1979) and Nowhere To Play (1980).

Following her success as an author, Emecheta travelled widely as a visiting professor and lecturer. She visited several American universities, including Pennsylvania State University, Rutgers University, the University of California, Los Angeles, and the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. From 1980 to 1981, she was senior resident fellow and visiting professor of English at the University of Calabar, Nigeria. From 1982 to 1983, Emecheta, together with her son Sylvester, ran the Ogwugwu Afor Publishing Company, publishing her own work under the imprint, beginning with Double Yoke (1982). She received an Arts Council of Great Britain bursary, 1982–83, and was one of Granta'''s "Best of the Young British Novelists" in 1983. In 1982, she lectured at Yale University, and the University of London. She became a Fellow at the University of London in 1986.

Over the years, Emecheta worked with many cultural and literary organizations, including the Africa Centre, London, and with the Caine Prize for African Writing as a member of the Advisory Council.

Buchi Emecheta suffered a stroke in 2010, and she died in London on 25 January 2017, aged 72.

Most of her fictional works are focused on sexual discrimination and racial prejudice informed by her own experiences as both a single parent and a black woman living in the United Kingdom.

Awards and recognition
Among honours received during her literary career, Emecheta won the 1978 Jock Campbell Prize from the New Statesman (first won by Chinua Achebe's Arrow of God) for her novel The Slave Girl, and she was on Granta magazine's 1983 list of 20 "Best of Young British Novelists"."Buchi Emecheta 1944–", Concise Major 21st Century Writers , encyclopedia.com. She was a member of the British Home Secretary's Advisory Council on Race in 1979.

In September 2004, she appeared in the "A Great Day in London" photograph taken at the British Library, featuring 50 Black and Asian writers who have made major contributions to contemporary British literature.Le Gendre, Kevin, "Books: A great day for a family get together Who are the movers and shakers in black British writing? And can they all fit on one staircase?", The Independent on Sunday, 17 October 2004. In 2005, she was made an OBE for services to literature.

She received an Honorary doctorate of literature from Farleigh Dickinson University in 1992.

Legacy
In 2017, Emecheta's son Sylvester Onwordi announced the formation of the Buchi Emecheta Foundation – a charitable organisation promoting literary and educational projects in the UK and in Africa – which was launched in London on 3 February 2018 at the Brunei Gallery, SOAS, together with new editions of several of her books published by Onwordi through his Omenala Press."Celebrating Buchi Emecheta" , Royal African Society Among participants in the "Celebrating Buchi Emecheta" day-long event – "a gathering of writers, critics, artists, publishers, literature enthusiasts and cultural activists from all over the world, including London and other parts of the U.K., France, Germany, U.S., Canada, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, South Africa, and the Caribbean" – were Diane Abbott, Leila Aboulela, Carole Boyce Davies, Margaret Busby, James Currey, Louisa Uchum Egbunike, Ernest Emenyonu, Akachi Ezeigbo, Kadija George, Mpalive Msiska, Grace Nichols, Alastair Niven, Irenosen Okojie, Veronique Tadjo, Marie Linton Umeh, Wangui wa Goro, and Bibi Bakare-Yusuf.Cobbinah, Angela, "How African writer gave women and girls a voice", Camden New Journal, 16 February 2018.

Emecheta features at number 98 on a list of 100 women recognised in August 2018 by BBC History Magazine as having changed the world."100 Women Who Changed the World: the results", History Extra, 9 August 2018.

In March 2019, Camden Town Brewery launched a football kit using artwork featuring "some of the most inspiring female icons to have influenced the brewery's home borough of Camden".

On 21 July 2019, which would have been Emecheta's 75th birthday, Google commemorated her life with a Doodle.Perrone, Alessio, "Buchi Emecheta: Google Doodle celebrates prolific British-Nigerian author", The Independent, 21 July 2019."Google Doodle celebrates Buchi Emecheta on 75th posthumous birthday", The Punch (Nigeria), 21 July 2019.

In October 2019, a new exhibition space in the library for students at Goldsmiths, University of London, was dedicated to Buchi Emecheta.Gabi-Williams, Olatoun, "When Goldsmiths College honoured Buchi Emecheta", The Guardian (Nigeria), 24 November 2019.

In October 2021, Emecheta's second novel, Second Class Citizen, was reissued as a Penguin Modern Classic.

Works
NovelsIn the Ditch (1972)Second Class Citizen (1974)The Bride Price (1976)The Slave Girl (1977); winner of the New Statesmans 1978 Jock Campbell AwardThe Joys of Motherhood (1979)The Moonlight Bride (1981)Destination Biafra (1982)Naira Power (1982)Adah's Story [In the Ditch/Second-Class Citizen] (London: Allison & Busby, 1983).The Rape of Shavi (1983)Double Yoke (1982)A Kind of Marriage (London: Macmillan, 1986); Pacesetter Novels series.Gwendolen (1989). Published in the US as The FamilyKehinde (1994)The New Tribe (2000)

AutobiographyHead above Water (1984; 1986)
 Voices of the Crossing - The impact of  Britain on writers from Asia, the Caribbean and Africa. Ferdinand Dennis, Naseem Khan (eds), London: Serpent's Tail, 1998.  Buchi Emecheta: p. 93 "Crossing Boundaries."

Children's/Young adults' booksTitch the Cat (illustrated by Thomas Joseph; 1979)Nowhere to Play (illustrated by Peter Archer; 1980)The Wrestling Match (1981)

PlaysJuju Landlord (episode of Crown Court), Granada Television, 1975.A Kind of Marriage, BBC television, 1976.Malik, Sarita, "Black TV Writers", BFI ScreenOnline.Family Bargain, BBC Television, 1987.

Articles and shorter writings
Introduction and comments to Our Own Freedom, photographs by Maggie Murray; 1981The Black Scholar, November–December 1985, p. 51.
"Feminism with a Small 'f'!" in Kirsten H. Petersen (ed.), Criticism and Ideology: Second African Writer's Conference, Stockholm 1988, Uppsala: Scandinanvian Institute of African Studies, 1988, pp. 173–181. Essence magazine, August 1990, p. 50.The New York Times Book Review, 29 April 1990.Publishers Weekly, 16 February 1990, p. 73; reprinted 7 February 1994, p. 84.World Literature Today, Autumn 1994, p. 867.

References

Further reading
 Ben-Iheanacho, Elizabeth O. (10 November 2021), "Where Are the 'Daughters' of Emecheta?", The Republic (Nigeria), Vol. 5, No. 4, October/November 2021.
 Curry, Ginette. Awakening African Women: The Dynamics of Change. Cambridge Scholars Press, 2004.
 Umeh, Marie (ed.), Emerging Perspectives on Buchi Emecheta (Foreword by Margaret Busby), Africa World Press, 1996. .

Selected tributes and obituaries
 Dennis Abrams, "Comments On the Work of the Late Nigerian Novelist Buchi Emecheta", Publishing Perspectives, 30 January 2017.
 Adekeye Adebajo, "Tribute to an African woman of courage", The Guardian (Nigeria), 31 January 2017.
 Adekunle, "Tribute to a literary lioness", Vanguard (Nigeria), 17 February 2017.
 Jane Bryce, "A Sort-of Career: Remembering Buchi Emecheta", Wasafiri, 10 February 2017.
 Margaret Busby, "Buchi Emecheta obituary", The Guardian, 3 February 2017.
 Eashani Chavda, "Black British Writing: A Tribute To Buchi Emecheta", gal-dem, 18 May 2017.
 Vimbai Chinembiri, "Buchi Emecheta: How she made her writing a voice for women" , Her (Zimbabwe), 28 January 2017.
 The Council of the Caine Prize for African Writing, "Tribute to Buchi Emecheta (1944–2017)", Caine Prize blog, 1 February 2017.
 William Grimes, "Buchi Emecheta, Nigerian Novelist, Dies at 72", The New York Times, 10 February 2017.
 Fred Obera, "Nigeria: Remembering Nigerian Literary Icon Buchi Emecheta", AllAfrica, 26 January 2017.
 Margaret Olele, "Of Buchi Emecheta and womankind", The Guardian (Nigeria), 14 March 2017.
 Sylvester Onwordi, "Remembering my mother Buchi Emecheta, 1944–2017", New Statesman, 31 January 2017. Also as "Remembering Buchi Emecheta, Nigerian novelist, feminist, my mother", African Arguments (Royal African Society), 1 February 2017.
 Niyi Osundare, "The Unintended Feminist: For Buchi Emecheta, 1944–2017", Sahara Reporters, 29 January 2017.

External links

 Buchi Emecheta Foundation website
 "Buchi Emecheta - Five books in tribute", Sunday Trust, 5 February 2017.

 Buchi Emecheta bio at the BBC Worldwide.
 Buchi Emecheta page at Emory University.
 The Roland Collection of Films & Videos on Art. Writers Talk: Ideas of our Time – Buchi Emecheta speaks with Susheila Nasta.
 Buchi Emecheta page at Sable''.

1944 births
2017 deaths
20th-century Nigerian novelists
20th-century Nigerian women writers
Academic staff of the University of Calabar
Academics of the University of London
Alumni of the University of London
Alumni of University of London Worldwide
Black British women writers
British women dramatists and playwrights
Employees of the British Library
Employees of the British Museum
English-language writers from Nigeria
Gender studies academics
Igbo academics
Igbo novelists
Igbo women writers
Methodist Girls' High School alumni
Nigerian autobiographers
Nigerian children's writers
Nigerian dramatists and playwrights
Nigerian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Nigerian expatriate academics in the United States
Nigerian publishers (people)
Nigerian sociologists
Nigerian women academics
Nigerian women children's writers
Nigerian women dramatists and playwrights
Nigerian women novelists
Nigerian women sociologists
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Women autobiographers
Writers from Lagos
Yale University faculty

Buchi Emecheta


Urarte es un concejo del municipio de Bernedo, en Álava (comarca de Montaña Alavesa), España.

Geografía
El concejo se encuentra en la margen izquierda del río Ayuda y cerca del parque natural de Izki.

Despoblados
Forman parte del concejo los despoblados de:
 Larrauri.
 Orzalzan.
 San Jorge.

Historia
Hacia mediados del , el lugar, por entonces perteneciente al municipio de Arlucea, tenía contabilizada una población de 123 habitantes. Aparece descrito en el decimoquinto volumen del Diccionario geográfico-estadístico-histórico de España y sus posesiones de Ultramar de Pascual Madoz de la siguiente manera:

Décadas después, ya en el siglo , se describe de la siguiente manera en el tomo de la Geografía general del País Vasco-Navarro dedicado a Álava y escrito por Vicente Vera y López:

Hasta 1961 pertenecía al ayuntamiento de Arlucea. Entre 1961 y 1976 estuvo anexa al municipio Arlucea-Marquínez, pero con la disolución de este en 1976, pasó a formar parte del ayuntamiento de Bernedo. En 2022, la entidad singular de población tenía empadronados 42 habitantes y el núcleo de población, veintinueve.

Demografía

Patrimonio
Hay en el concejo una iglesia parroquial de la Asunción de Nuestra Señora.

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

Concejos de Bernedo

Urarte


Curtea de Arbitraj Sportiv, numită și Tribunalul de Arbitraj Sportiv, (în , în ) este o autoritate independentă a forurilor sportive, care participă prin arbitraj sau mediere la rezolvarea disputelor din domeniul sportului. Ea are sediul în Lausanne, Elveția.

CAS cuprinde 251 de arbitri din 78 de țări, inclusiv doi români, Cristian Jura și Dan Vișoiu, precum și 66 de mediatori. Are competențe extinse referitoare la dopaj, cetățenie sportivă, sponsorizare și sancțiuni disciplinare.

Istoric
A fost înființată pe 30 iunie 1984 la inițiativa lui Juan Antonio Samaranch ca parte a Comitetului Olimpic Internațional. Primul caz examinat de CAS, în 1986, a fost un litigiu într-un club elvețian de hochei pe gheață și liga elvețiană de specialitate: recursul clubului a fost respins.

În primii ani din istoria a CAS au existat dispute dacă este o curtea de arbitraj adevărată și independentă, având în vedere relațiile sale organice cu COI. În 1994, călătorul Elmar Gundel a contestat o decizie a CAS înaintea Tribunalul Federal elvețian. Acesta a confirmat că CAS este o adevărată curte de arbitraj, dar a criticat lipsa de independență curții față de COI. Prin urmare, COI a înființat Consiliul Internațional de Arbitraj Sportiv (în ) pentru administrarea CAS. În prezent CAS este complet independentă față de forurile sportive, ceea ce a recunoscut Tribunalul Federal elvețian în 2003 în cazul Larisei Lazutina.

După anul 1996, toți participanții la Jocurile Olimpice sunt obligați să semneze o renunțare, după care toate cererile trebuie să fie aduse înaintea CAS.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Site-ul oficial

Organizații internaționale
Organizații sportive
Fondări în 1984
Organizații cu sediul la Lausanne
Asociații internaționale de sport cu sediul în Elveția

Curtea de Arbitraj Sportiv


Budec ili Budić (fl. 1066. – 1070.) bio je bribirski župan koji je živio u 11. stoljeću. Najstariji je poznati pripadnik velikaške obitelji Šubić. Bio je posteljnik (dvorski knez) hrvatskoga kralja Petra Krešimira IV.

Izvori

Vidi još
 Obiteljsko stablo knezova Šubića Bribirskih

Vanjske poveznice
 Karbić, Damir, "Zlatni vijek Bribira", Matica hrvatska, Hrvatska revija 2, 2007.

Šubići
Hrvatsko plemstvo
Hrvatska za narodnih vladara

Budec


ජනවාර්ගික භාෂණය යනු යම්කිසි ජන වර්ගයක භාෂාව පිළිබඳ කෙරෙන මානව විද්‍යාත්මක අධ්‍යයනයකි. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස ආදි අමෙරිකානුවන්ගේ භාෂාව හෝ සංක්‍රමණිකයන්ගේ භාෂාව හෝ හැඳින්විය හැකිය. ජනවාර්ගික භාෂණ අධ්‍යයනකදී ප්‍රධාන ජන වර්ගය විසින් ඉහත කී උප-ජන වර්ගයන්ගේ භාෂණය පිළිබඳව දක්වනු ලබන අදහස් විමර්ශනය කෙරේ.

කෙටියෙන් කියතොත්, ජනවාර්ගික භාෂණ අධ්‍යයනයකදී කෙරෙන්නේ වෙනස් ජන වර්ග ලෝකය දකින ආකාරයත්, භාෂාණයේ විවිධත්වයත් හැදෑරීමයි. එක් ප්‍රසිද්ධ (නමුත් මතභේදාත්මක) මතයක් වන්නේ "සාෆිර්-වොෆ් යාන්ත්‍රණය" යි. මෙයින් කියැවෙන්නේ යමෙකුගේ දෘෂ්ටි කෝණය ඔහුගේ භාෂාවෙන් ඔහුට විස්තර කළ හැකි ප්‍රමාණයට සීමා වන බවයි.

ජනවාර්ගික භාෂණ පර්යේෂකයෝ පවසන්නේ මිනිසුන්ගේ දෘෂ්ටි කෝණය සහ නිර්මාණශීලී බව භාෂාවට බලපෑම් කරන බවය. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස විශ්වයේ බිහිවීම ගැන විවිධ සංස්කෘතීන්ට අයත් ජනයා තුළ පවතින විශ්වාසයන් දැක්විය හැකිය. (බර්න්ඩ් පොයීන් 1997- යී-ෆූ-තුවාන් 1974) බොහෝ භාෂාවල 'නැගෙනහිර' හා 'බටහිර' දැක්වෙන්නේ ඉර නැගෙන හා බසින දිශාව අනුවයි. නමුත් ග්‍රීන්ලන්තයේ එස්කිමෝවරුන් දිශාව දක්වන්නේ ඔවුන් දන්නා යම්කිසි තැනකට (උදා:- ගංගාවකට) සාපේක්ෂවය. එලෙසම 'යුරෝක්' වරුන් ද දිශාව දක්වන්නේ ඔවුන් දන්නා ප්‍රධාන භූගෝලීය සාධකය වන ක්ලාමත් ගංගාවට සාපේක්ෂවය.

ජනවාර්ගික භාෂණය


ماهي الارتباطات الدعائية (Keyword advertising)

يعرّف مصطلح الارتباطات الدعائية على أنه أي اعلان مرتبط بكلمة أو عبارة معينة، وهي الاعلانات النصية التي تظهر مع نتائج البحث في محركات البحث على الإنترنت. وتظهر عادة هذه الاعلانات في أعلى صفحة النتائج أو في يمين الصفحة أو أحيانا في أسفلها.
و الارتباطات الدعائية ليست مجانية، بل يدفع المعلنون لشركات محركات البحث لتظهر هذي الاعلانات للمستهلكين عند بحثهم عن اسم منتج معين أو سلعة أو عند ادخال بعض المصطلحات أو الكلمات الرئيسية في خانة البحث. وحالما ينقر المستهلك على الإعلان، يتم نقله إلى موقع الشركة المعلنة.

و تأتي الارتباطات الدعائية أحيانا تحت مسمى «وصلات الرعاية» في المواقع - عادة تكون في أسفل الموقع -كدليل على شراكة الإعلانات بين الموقع ومحرك البحث، بحيث يتم الاتفاق على تقاسم العائد من هذه الإعلانات بينهما بنسبة معينة. وقد يختلف الثمن الذي يدفعه المعلن من محرك بحث إلى أخر. ومحركات البحث عادة يكون جزء كبير من دخلها من مثل هذه الإعلانات.

أنشئت خدمة الارتباطات الدعائية في محركات البحث أواخر عام 1990 وسرعان ما نمت وتسارعت إلى الشكل الموجود حاليا على شبكة الإنترنت. وتمثل الارتباطات الدعائية 40% من سوق الإعلان على شبكة الإنترنت حتى أصبحت عامل النجاح الرئيسي لمحركات البحث، وسببا فاعلا في تفضيل محرك بحث عن آخر عند المعلنين. ويتميز المعلن الجيد بقدرته على تقديم أهم المعلومات والروابط ذات الصلة في الاعلانات لمستخدمي الإنترنت.

وظهور مثل هذه التقنية المبتكرة والخدمة في عالم الإنترنت نمت لتصبح عائداتها مليارات من الدولارات، وذلك أدى إلى توجه جديد للإعلان على شبكة الإنترنت ومحركات البحث ومواقع الويب، والتي استطاعت الحصول على الكسب والعائد المجزي من الاعلانات فيها.

أمثــلة على الارتباطات الدعائية

تعتبــر الارتباطات الدعائية في جوجل أدورد (Google AdWord) وجوجل أدسنس (Google AdSense) هي الأكثر معرفة وانتشارا بين أشكال الارتباطات الدعائية على الإنترنت.
جوجل أدورد تعرض الارتباطات الدعائية بواسطة البحث عن كلمة معينة داخل خانة البحث، فتظهر النتائج على يمين أو أعلى الصفحة.
أما جوجل أدسنس فانها تعرض الارتباطات الدعائية في الموقع والمرتبطة بمحتوى هذا الموقع.

فعلى سبيل المثال، جريدة «الوطن السعودية» تستخدم برنامج جوجل أدسنس الدعائي وتحصل على عائد من خلال وضع اعلانات من جوجل " Ads by Google". فعند دخول المستخدم إلى موقع جريدة الوطن، فانه سيجد على يسار الصفحة خانة لاعلانات جوجل، كما يوجد في خيار البحث المتقدم جملة «بدعم من جوجل».وعند ادخال كلمة «سياحة» مثلا في محرك البحث في الموقع، فان نتائج البحث الظاهرة عبارة عن صفحات من الموقع لها صلة بكلمة البحث المدخلة (سياحة)، كما تظهر في أعلى الصفحة اعلانات جوجل ادورد التجارية ذات صلة بكلمة البحث أيضا.
وهناك بعض البرامج المشابهة المقدمة من شركات أخرى منافسة لجوجل لها نفس الاستخدام، على سبيل المثال لا الحصر:, AOL Yahoo!، وفي صيف عام 2009 أتي لاعب جديد في هذا المجال وهو مايكروسوفت بنق Microsoft Bing

القضايا والخلافات التجارية والعمليات الأخلاقية في الارتباطات الدعائية

دائما ما يطرح السؤال في المحاكم الأمريكية وفي شبكات الإنترنت من قبل بعض الشركات المتضررة من مثل هذه الخدمة، وهو هل استخدام الاسم التجاري أو العلامة التجارية كمصطلح بحث في محركات البحث واستخدامها في الإعلانات للوصول إلى علامة تجارية أخرى منافسة تعتبر استخدام غير شرعي لها وانتهاك لحقوق الملكية الفكرية ؟
حيث يشكل هذا محل الخلاف القائم بين شركات البحث والشركات التجارية الأخرى فتعتبر الشركات أن استخدام اسمها التجاري للوصول إلى منتجات مماثلة لشركة منافسة عن طريق الارتباطات الدعائية هو استخدام غير شرعي لاسمها التجاري ولعلامتها التجارية بدون إذن منها، مما يعدونه تشويشا وتدليسا على المستهلكين. وقد أثيرت قضايا عدة في المحاكم الأمريكية حول هذا الموضوع أغلبها ضد شركة جوجل، حول إذا كانت يحق لها استخدام علاماتها التجارية واسمها التجاري في الارتباطات الدعائية واخذ عائد من ذلك انتهاكا للعلامات التجارية وحقوق الملكية؟
وحتى شركات الإعلان تواجه تحديات رئيسية في طريق الوصلات الدعائية وطرق الإعلانات، فالدعاوي القضايا ضدهم ليست في أمريكا فحسب، بل بدأت بالانتشار كذلك في أوروبا. فالمحاكم الأوربية تنتهج نفس المنهج نوعا ما في حكمها على الموضوع فهي ترى إنه لا يعد تعديا على العلامات التجارية لهذه الشركات لعدم وجود إثبات قاطع لذلك، ولكن إذا ما ثبت ذلك فإنه سيكون ضربة حقيقية لشركات محركات البحث خصوصا بأن الدعاوى متزايدة ضدهم.

حالة قضائية على سبيل المثال
هناك حالة قضائية حدثت بين شركة جوجل المالكة لخدمة الإعلانات، وأكبر شركة تأمين في أمريكا وهي شركة."GEICO"
حيث رفعت شركة التامين "GEICO" شكوى ضد شركة جوجل في المحاكم الأمريكية واتهمتها بانتهاك علامتها التجارية عن طريق استخدام لفظ "geico".
فعند استخدامك لهذه الكلمة في البحث يظهر لك في نتائج البحث روابط إعلانات شركات منافسة لها تقدم نفس الخدمة، وهذا وفق رؤية شركة التامين هو إضعاف لعلامتها التجارية وتسبب في إرباك المستهلكين. ولم تجد المحكمة الأدلة الكافية لإدانة شركة جوجل في ذلك وانتهت بتوصل الأطراف إلى تسوية للموضوع.

من وجهة نظر شركات محركات البحث، قالت لورين فيشر – مساعدة المستشار العام للملكية الفكرية في شركة AOL – «أن استخدام الكلمات الرئيسية في البحث هو مساعدة المستهلكين في الوصول إلى ما يريدون ومساعدتهم في اتخاذ القرار كما يحدث في محلات التجزئة، وأضافت أن هذه المسألة لا تزال غامضة لدينا ولدى المحاكم لأنه ليس هناك حتى الآن أي توافق في الآراء القانونية فيما يتعلق بما يشكل مفهوم استخدام العلامات التجارية على شبكة الإنترنت»
و مع تحول الشركات أصحاب العلامات التجارية إلى المحاكم لحماية حقوقهم الفكرية، وفي ضوء مطالبات محتملة وغير متوقعة النتائج يتعين على شركات محركات البحث التشاور مع محاميهم قبل الشروع في وضع برنامج الدعاية لتقييم المخاطر المحتملة التي ينطوي عليها وتوخي الحذر لأن غلطة واحدة ستكلف الشركة كثيرا.

أساليب إعلان الإنترنت
تسويق

ارتباطات دعائية


La maison Closset est un immeuble classé du  situé dans la ville de Verviers en Belgique (province de Liège).

Localisation
Cette maison est située à Verviers, aux 138/140/142 de la place Saucy, en rive droite de la Vesdre entre les rues Saucy et Jules Cerexhe.

Historique
La demeure a été construite pendant la seconde moitié du . Elle abritait les ateliers textiles de Paul von dem Bruch dont la fille épousa un fils de la famille Peltzer, une des riches familles qui ont fait la réputation de Verviers en tant que cité lainière. La conception de cet immeuble à dessein industriel plusieurs décennies avant la révolution industrielle proprement dite rend cette construction moderne et innovante pour l'époque. Elle doit son nom de maison Closset au propriétaire qui a transformé en 1924 l'immeuble en appartements. L'immeuble a fait l'objet d'une restauration par la Régionale verviétoise en 1980 et 1981.

Description
Du côté sud, l'imposante façade, large d'une vingtaine de mètres, possède huit travées et quatre niveaux (trois étages) surmontés d'un niveau mansardé. Le soubassement est réalisé en pierre calcaire et le reste de la façade est élevé en brique avec encadrements en pierre calcaire. Toutes les baies sont surmontées de linteaux bombés avec clés de voûte passantes. Ces linteaux et les appuis sont prolongés par des bandeaux en pierre calcaire pour les trois niveaux inférieurs. Trente-et-une ancres de chaînage sont visibles sur la façade avant. La façade arrière et les pignons sont aussi percés par plusieurs baies similaires à la façade avant dont quatre baies pour le pignon ouest et treize pour le pignon est. Deux tours indépendantes ont été érigées en 1980 à l'arrière du bâtiment afin d'en faciliter l'accès par niveau.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste du patrimoine immobilier classé de Verviers
 Maison Defaaz
 Maison Moulan

Patrimoine du XVIIIe siècle
Patrimoine classé à Verviers
Closset
Bâtiment à Verviers

Maison Closset


Henrik von Eckermann (25 de maio de 1981) é um ginete de elite sueco, campeão olímpico.

Carreira

Henrik von Eckermann conquistou a medalha de ouro nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 em Tóquio, na prova de saltos por equipes, ao lado do cavalo King Edward, e de seus companheiros Malin Baryard-Johnsson e Peder Fredricson.

Ginetes olímpicos da Suécia
Campeões olímpicos da Suécia
Ginetes nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020

Henrik von Eckermann


Sumatra (bazen Sumatera), Endonezya'ya ait bir adadır. Sunda Adaları'nın en batıda olanıdır. Yüzölçümü açısından dünyanın en büyük altıncı adasıdır. Ayrıca tamamıyla Endonezya'ya ait en büyük ada unvanına da sahiptir (diğer iki ada, Borneo ve Yeni Gine, kısmen Endonezya'da yer almaktadırlar). En büyük şehri 2.400.000 nüfusuyla Medan'dır.

Etimoloji
Sumatra eski çağlarda adada bulunan bol miktarda altın kaynaklarından ötürü Sanskritçe Swarnadwīpa ("Altın Adası") ve Swarnabhūmi ("Altın Toprak") isimleriyle biliniyordu. Sumatra adını ilk olarak 1017 yılında Çin'e elçi gönderen Srivijaya kralı Sumatrabhumi ("Sumatra topraklarının kralı") kullandı. 10-13. yüzyıllarda Arap coğrafyacılar Açe'ye yakın bir krallık olan Lamri'ye ithafen Sumatra adası için Lamri (Lamuri, Lambri veya Ramni) adlarını kullandılar. 14. yüzyılın sonlarında Samudra krallığının yükselişiyle adanın da ismi Sumatra olarak yaygın bir şekilde kullanılmaya başlandı.

Tarih
Milattan önce 500 yılında adaya gelenler Avustronezya dillerini kullandılar. Adada bilinen ilk krallık Kantoli Krallığıdır. Kantoli Krallığı 5. yüzyıla kadar Güney Sumatra'da gelişti. Ardından yerini Srivijaya İmparatorluğuna ve daha sonra da Sumadra Krallığına bırakmıştır. Srivijaya din olarak budistliği benimsemiş ve merkezi de Palembang'tır. 7. ve 9. yıllarda ticaret ve fetih sayesinde bölgeye hakim oldular. İmparatorluk Malay kültürü ile Nusantara'ya kadar genişledi. İmparatorluk denizcilik faaliyetleri veya deniz gücü ile adadan adaya yayıldı. Palembang imparatorluğun bilimsel merkeziydi ve Çinli budistler I Ching'ten Sanskritçe burada ders alıyordu. I Ching Çin'e yaptığı seferlerle buraya getirdiği buist mesajları ve 2 el yazmasını 4 yıl harcayarak çevirmiştir. Srivijaya etkisini 11. yüzyıldan sonra kaybedip yerini Chola İmparatorluğuna bıraktı. Aynı zamanda İslam Dini Sumatra'da 6. ve 7. yüzyıllarda Arap ve Hindular sayesinde giriş yaptıktan sonra yayılmaya başladı. 13 yüzyıldan önce Sumatra Krallığı'da İslamı kabul etti. Adayı ilk kez Marco Polo 1292 yılında ziyaret etti. Ondan sonra da Ibn Battuta iki kez biri 1345 ikincisi 1346 da adayı ziyaret etti. Daha sonra Sumatra Krallığı yerini Açe Sultanlığına bıraktı ve Açe sultanlığı 20. yüzyıla kadar etkisini sürdürdü. Hollanda ise yavaş yavaş Sumatra soylularının kontrolünü ele geçirdi. Daha sonra da kontrolü Hollanda şirketi olan Dutch East İndia Company ele geçirdi. Erken dönemlerde Endonezya bağımsızlık savaşının önemli kahramanları Sumatralı akademisyenler ve liderlerdir. Örnek olarak Mohammed Hatta ve Sultan Sjahrir'dir.

Yönetim

Sumatra'nın vilayetleri
 Açe (başkent: Açe)
 Bangka-Belitung (başkent: Pangkalpinang)
 Bengkulu (başkent: Bengkulu)
 Jambi (başkent: Jambi)
 Lampung (başkent: Bandar Lampung)
 Riau (başkent: Pekanbaru)
 Riau Adaları (başkent: Tanjung Pinang)
 Batı Sumatra (başkent: Padang)
 Güney Sumatra (başkent: Palembang)
 Kuzey Sumatra (başkent: Medan)

Coğrafya

Adanın en uzun ekseni, merkeze yakın ekvatoru geçerek yaklaşık 1.790 km (1.110 mil) kuzeybatı-güneydoğu yönünde uzanır. En geniş noktasında, ada 435 km (270 mil) uzunluğundadır. Adanın iç kısımlarına iki coğrafi bölge hakimdir: batıda Barış Dağları ve doğuda bataklık ovalar. Sumatra, Asya ana karasına en yakın Endonezya adasıdır.

Güneydoğuda Sunda Boğazı ile ayrılan Cava adası vardır. Kuzeyde, Malakka Boğazı ile ayrılan Malay Yarımadası (Asya anakarasında yer almaktadır), doğuda Karimata Boğazı'nın karşısında Borneo var. Adanın batısı Hint Okyanusu'dur.

Büyük şehirleri
Sumatra adasının en büyük yerleşim birimleri The World Gazetteer tarafından 2009 yılında yapılan araştırmaya göre:

Kaynakça

Sumatra
Büyük Sunda Adaları

Sumatra


Fýllo, en , est un village et un ancien dème du district régional de Kardítsa, en Thessalie, Grèce. Depuis 2010, il est fusionné au sein du dème de Palamás.

Selon le recensement de 2011, la population du dème s'élève à  tandis que celle du village compte .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Dème en Thessalie
Village en Thessalie
Ancien dème en Grèce

Fýllo (Kardítsa)


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