The Tank, Infantry, Mk IV (A22) Churchill was a British infantry tank used in the Second World War, best known for its heavy armour, large longitudinal chassis with all-around tracks with multiple bogies, its ability to climb steep slopes, and its use as the basis of many specialist vehicles. It was one of the heaviest Allied tanks of the war.

The origins of the Churchill's design lay in the expectation that war in Europe might be fought in conditions similar to those of the First World War, and thus emphasised the ability to cross difficult ground. The Churchill was hurried into production in order to build up British defences against a possible German invasion. The first vehicles had flaws that had to be overcome before the Churchill was accepted for wide use. After several marks (versions) had been built, a better-armoured specification, the Mark VII, entered service with the British Army. The improved versions performed well in the later stages of the war.

The Churchill was used by British and other Commonwealth forces during the North African, Italian and North-West Europe campaigns. In addition, 344 Churchills were sent as military aid to the Soviet Union during the Second World War and more than 250 saw active service on the Eastern Front.

Name
The Churchill tank was named either after Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who had promoted the development of the tank in the First World War, or after John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Churchill told Field Marshal Jan Smuts "That is the tank they named after me when they found out it was no damn good!"

The name only incidentally matched what became the British Army practice of giving service names beginning with C to tanks. Cruiser tanks were given names, such as the contemporary Covenanter, Crusader, Cromwell, Cavalier and Comet but infantry tank naming had no particular pattern. Post-war, the merging of the cruiser and infantry tank lines in the 'universal' or main battle tanks continued with C names: Centurion, Conqueror, Chieftain, and Challenger.

History

A20

Initially specified just before the outbreak of the Second World War, the A20 (its General Staff specification) was to supplement the Matilda II and Valentine infantry tanks. In accordance with British infantry tank doctrine and based on the expected needs of attacking a fixed defensive line, crossing wide trenches, possibly shell-cratered ground similar to First World War trench warfare it was to be immune to the current German 3.7 cm Pak 36 anti-tank guns and carry an unditching beam.

A general outline produced by Woolwich Arsenal was expanded by Belfast shipbuilders Harland & Wolff with advice from the Department of Tank Design. The General Staff had proposed that it was armed with two QF 2 pounder guns, each located in a side sponson with a coaxial Besa machine gun. A third Besa and a smoke projector would be fitted in the front hull. To reduce weight the specification was revised to prefer a maximum armour to the front of 60 mm – sufficient to protect against ordinary shells from the German 37 mm gun.  Outline drawings were produced by Woolwich Arsenal based on the A12 Matilda turret – the Director of Mechanisation opposed a turretless design –  and the engine and Wilson epicyclic transmission being developed for the A13 Mark III Covenanter tank. Detail design and construction of the A20 was left to Harland & Wolff, who completed four prototypes by June 1940. During the construction period, the armament was reconsidered, including fitting either a 6-pounder gun or the French short 75 mm gun (as used on Char B1) in the forward hull – the former was considered too long and the latter would require redesigning the front of the hull.  In the end, a 3-inch howitzer was chosen. The A20 designs were short-lived, however, as at roughly the same time the defeated British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from Dunkirk. While intended for "positional warfare" and direct assaults against fortifications (it was referred to as "Shelled Area Tank", or by the French phrase Char de Fortresse) which had been rendered pointless by the fast pace of German armoured warfare a heavy tank that could defend the infantry from other tanks was still desired.

At an initial 32 tons, with a 300 hp flat-12 Meadows DAV engine, the A20 had limited power compared to the 16-ton Covenanter. This was a less serious limitation than it might appear, owing to the British distinction between the high-speed cruiser tanks and the slow-speed infantry tanks. Vauxhall, who were already involved as consultants on the suspension, were approached to see if they could build the A20 and one example was sent to Vauxhall at Luton to see if they could provide an alternative engine developing 350 bhp. To this end, they developed a flat-12 petrol engine. For speed of production, this engine was based on a Bedford Vehicles (Vauxhall's commercial vehicle operations) six-cylinder lorry engine, giving rise to its name of "Twin-Six". Although using sidevalves to fit within the space, the engine was developed with high squish pistons, dual ignition and sodium-cooled exhaust valves in Stellite seats to give 350 bhp.

A22
With France lost, the scenario of trench warfare in Northern Europe was no longer applicable and the design was revised by Dr H. E. Merritt, Director of Tank Design at Woolwich Arsenal, based on the combat witnessed in Poland and France. These new specifications, for the A22 or Infantry Tank Mark IV, were given to Vauxhall in June 1940.

With a German invasion of Britain looking imminent, and the loss of a substantial amount of military vehicles in the evacuation from France, the War Office specified that the A22 had to enter production within a year. By July 1940, the design was completed and by December of that year the first prototypes were completed; in June 1941, almost exactly a year as specified, the first Churchill tanks began rolling off the production line.

A leaflet from the manufacturer was added to the User Handbook, which also described known faults, with work-arounds and what was being done to correct the problem. It said:

Harold Drew of Vauxhall achieved miracles with the Churchill and its Merrit-Brown Tank Gearbox produced by David Brown Limited; "a brilliant design that went into production off the drawing board without adequate prototype testing and had the most disastrous teething troubles" according to Robotham, but British tanks were under-powered, under-gunned and unreliable. At the Tank Board level the Director of Artillery was still extolling the merits of the 2-pounder, and this gun was still fitted to every British tank until March 1942. In a 1942 exercise, one tank had to have its gearbox changed five times.

Because of its hasty development, there had been little testing and the Churchill was plagued with mechanical faults. Most apparent was that the Churchill's engine was underpowered, unreliable, and difficult to access for servicing. Another serious shortcoming was the tank's inadequate armament, the 2 pounder (40 mm) gun, which was improved by the addition of a 3-inch howitzer in the hull to deliver a HE shell, albeit not on a howitzer's usual high trajectory.

Production of a turret to carry the QF 6 pounder gun began in 1941, but lack of supplies of the plate used in an all-welded design led to an alternative cast turret also being produced. These formed the distinction between Mark III and Mark IV.

In August 1942, the Churchill was used offensively for the first time in the Dieppe Raid.

The poor speed of the Churchill nearly caused production to be ceased in favour of the forthcoming Cromwell tank; it was saved by the successful use of the Mk III at the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942.

The second major improved Churchill, the Mk VII, was first used in the Battle of Normandy in 1944. The Mk VII improved on the already heavy armour of the Churchill with a wider chassis and the British 75 mm gun, which had been introduced on the Mk VI. It was primarily this variant, the A22F, which served through the remainder of war. It was re-designated A42 in 1945.

The Churchill was a versatile project and was used in numerous specialist roles.

Design

The hull was made up of simple flat plates, which were bolted together in earlier models and were welded in later models. The hull was split into four compartments: the driver's position at the front, then the fighting compartment including the turret, the engine compartment, and the gearbox compartment. The suspension was fitted under the two large "panniers" on either side of the hull, the track running over the top. There were eleven bogies either side, each carrying two 10-inch wheels. Only nine of the bogies normally took the vehicle weight, the front coming into play when the vehicle nosed into the ground or against an obstacle, the rear acting in part as a track tensioner. Due to the number of wheels, the tank could survive losing several without much in the way of adverse effects as well as traversing steeper terrain obstacles. As the tracks ran around the panniers, escape hatches in the side could be incorporated into the design. These were retained throughout the revisions of the Churchill and were of particular use when the Churchill was adopted as the AVRE.

The Bedford Vehicles engine was effectively two engines in horizontally opposed configuration ("flat twelve") on a common crankshaft. There were four Solex carburettors each on a separate manifold that fed three cylinders formed as a single cylinder head. The elements of the engine and ancillary components were laid out so they could be reached for maintenance through the engine deck covers. Air for the engine was drawn from the fighting compartment through air cleaners. Cooling air was drawn into the engine compartment through louvres on the sides, across the radiators and through the engine compartment by a fan driven by the clutch. This fan blew the air over the gearbox and out the rear of the hull. By opening a flap between the fighting compartment and the engine compartment, this airflow could be used to remove fumes produced by firing the armament. The  capacity engine was rated at  at 2,000 rpm, delivering  torque over an engine speed range from 800 to 1,600 rpm.

The gearbox featured a regenerative steering system that was controlled by a tiller bar instead of the more commonplace brake levers or, as with the German Tiger I heavy tank, a steering wheel. The tiller was connected, with servo assistance, hydraulically to the steering brakes. The Churchill was also the first tank to utilise the Merritt-Brown triple differential gearbox, which allowed the tank to be steered by changing the relative speeds of the two tracks; this effect became more pronounced with each lower gear, ultimately allowing the tank to perform a "neutral turn" when no gear was engaged, where it could fully pivot within its own length and thus rotate in place. There were final reduction gears, of the planetary type, in the driving wheels. Although capable of  the noise at that speed was so great that the Churchill was limited to  by not using the highest gear.

The first turrets were of cast construction and were rounded in shape, providing sufficient space to accommodate the relatively small 2 pounder gun. To fulfil its role as an infantry support vehicle, the first models were equipped with a 3-inch howitzer in the hull in a layout very similar to the French Char B1. This enabled the tank to deliver a useful high-explosive capability while retaining the anti-tank capabilities of the 2 pounder. However, like other multi-gun tanks, it was limited by a poor fire arc – the track horns limiting traverse – and elevation of only 9°. Despite the length of the gun the muzzle velocity was only  . The Mark IVA (retrospectively the Churchill Mk II) dispensed with the howitzer (there had been only enough guns to equip 300 tanks) and replaced it with a bow machine gun and on the Mk III, the 2 pounder was replaced with the 6 pounder, significantly increasing the tank's anti-tank capabilities. The tank underwent field modification in North Africa with several Churchills being fitted with the 75 mm gun of destroyed M4 Shermans. These "NA75" variants were used in Italy. The use of the 75 mm increased the effectiveness of the tank, as it was a generally superior weapon to the 6 pounder, possessing similar anti-tank capabilities, while also being considerably more effective when used in infantry support roles.

Churchills made use of the Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV. In the Mark VII, the driver had two periscopes as well as a vision port in the hull front that could be opened. The hull gunner had a single periscope as well as the sighting telescope on the BESA machine gun mounting. In the turret, the gunner and loader each had single periscope and the commander had two fitted in his hatch cupola.

The armour on the Churchill, often considered its most important feature, was originally specified to a minimum of  and a maximum of ; this was increased with the Mk VII to a range from  to . Though this armour was considerably thicker than its rivals (including the German Tiger I tank, but not the Tiger II) it was not sloped, reducing its effectiveness. Earlier models were given extra armour by the expedient of welding on extra plates.

On the Mark VII, the hull front armour was made up of a lower angled piece of , a nearly horizontal  plate and a vertical 6 inch plate. The hull sides, were, for the most part, . The rear was  and the hull top . The turret of the Mark VII was  to the front and  for the other sides. The turret roof was 0.79 (20 mm) thick. Plate was specified as IT 80, the cast sections as IT 90.

The A22F, also known as "Heavy Churchill", was a major revision of the design. The most significant part was the use of welding instead of riveted construction. Welding had been considered earlier for the Churchill but, until its future was assured, this was no more than testing techniques and hulls at the firing ranges. What welding reduced in the overall weight (estimates were around 4%), the thicker armour of the A22F made up for. Welding also required fewer man-hours in construction. The hull doors changed from square to round which reduced stresses. A new turret went with the new hull. The sides, which included a flared base to protect the turret ring, were a single casting while the roof, which did not need to be so thick, was a plate fitted to the top.

Since the engines on the Churchill were never upgraded, the tank became increasingly slow as additional armour and armament was equipped and weight increased; while the Mk I weighed  and the Mk III weighed , the Mk VII weighed . This caused a reduction in the tanks' maximum speed from its original  down to .

Another problem was the tank's relatively small turret that prevented the use of powerful weapons; definitive versions of the tank were armed with either the QF 6-pounder or the derivative QF 75 mm gun. The 6-pounder was effective against armoured vehicles, but less so against other targets; the 75 mm was a better all-round weapon, but lacked in effectiveness against armour. Although the Churchills with their 6-pounders could outgun many contemporary German medium tanks (like the Panzer IV with the short-barrel 75 mm gun, and the Panzer III armed with the 50 mm gun) and the thick armour of all Churchill models could usually withstand several hits from any German anti-tank gun, in the later years of the war the German Panther tank had a 75 mm high-velocity cannon as its main armament along with increased protection, against which the Churchills' own guns often lacked sufficient armour penetration to fight back effectively.

The Churchill had many variations, including many specialised modifications. The most significant change to the Churchill was that it was up-gunned from 2-pounder to 6-pounder and then 75 mm guns over the course of the war. By the war's end, the late model Churchill Mk VII had exceptional amounts of armour – considerably more than the German Tiger tank. However, the firepower weakness was never fully addressed. The Mark VII turret that was designed for the 75 mm gun was of composite construction – cast with top and bottom plates welded into position.

While it had weaknesses, the Churchill could cross terrain obstacles that most other tanks of its era could not. This capacity frequently proved useful, especially during the fighting in Normandy. One action in Normandy where the tank's ability to surmount obstacles was found to be of value was the capture of Hill 309 on 30/31 July 1944 (Operation Bluecoat) conducted by VIII Corps.

Production

The Churchill tank was produced with Vauxhall as the design parent. Subcontracted work on some tanks was provided by Whessoe Foundry & Engineering, Metropolitan‑Cammell Carriage & Wagon, Babcock & Wilcox, Newton, Chambers & Company and the Gloucester Railway Carriage & Wagon Company; the latter two produced some complete vehicles. Other contractors produced hulls and turrets which went to Vauxhall, Charles Roberts & Co, and Dennis Brothers for final assembly.

In March and April 1942, Vauxhall stopped producing new tanks. Together with Broom & Wade (at High Wycombe) they started rebuilding earlier tanks; about 700 of the first 1,000 built were included in this scheme. The reworked tanks got an "R" as a suffix to their WD number. Changes to the hull air intakes and the full length mudguards were the most obvious changes.

Turrets for the earliest Marks were single piece castings. One thousand were supplied from the United States: 600 complete from General Steel and 400 from American Steel Foundries that were finished by other companies before shipping to UK.

Service history

Dieppe Raid

The Churchill first saw combat on 19 August 1942, in the Dieppe Raid in France. The Dieppe raid was planned to temporarily take control of the French port of Dieppe using a strong force of about 6,000 troops – mostly drawn from inexperienced Canadian units. The operation, codenamed Jubilee, would test the feasibility of opposed landings. Nearly 60 Churchill tanks from the 14th Army Tank Regiment (The Calgary Regiment (Tank)) were allocated to support the infantry and commandos; they would be put ashore by Landing Craft Tank vessels, along with the supporting engineers. Some problems were anticipated and allowed for: waterproofing of the hulls, canvas carpets ("Bobbin") to aid the tanks crossing the short stretch of shingle beach, engineer teams to demolish road blocks and a few of the tanks were fitted with flame-throwers. The tanks, a mix of Mark I with hull howitzers, Mark II (three with flamethrowers) and Mark III (some with Bobbin),  were expected to enter the town and reach a nearby airfield before retiring back to the beach to be taken off by the LCTs. Half of the tank force would be held in reserve offshore.

In the event, the German defences were stronger than expected. The beach was chert which included larger stones than the anticipated shingle: according to history professor Hugh Henry, the German defenders had previously considered it impassable to tanks. Only the 30 Churchills in the first two waves of 10 LCTs were landed on the beach under heavy fire: the latter two waves were turned away. One Churchill was trapped in its LCT by shellfire. Of the 29 remaining (eight Mark I/IIs, three Oke flamethrower tanks, and 18 Mark IIIs), two sank en route to shore, and 11 were immobilized on the beach due to a combination of the chert shingle and indirect fire. Only 15 would get off the beach and over the sea wall onto the Dieppe promenade. Although these tanks were effective in engaging the defenders in the town's buildings, their further progress was blocked by concrete defences; the engineer demolition teams – killed or pinned on the beach – had not been able to accompany the tanks. Ten of these Churchills were able to return to the beach once the withdrawal had been signalled but they could not be evacuated. According to Henry, no Churchills were penetrated by German anti-tank fire while still manned. These surviving tank crews fought to cover the withdrawal of the infantry from the beach, and almost all were captured with their vehicles, having exhausted their main gun ammunition. The tank regiment's commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Johnny Andrews, was among those killed in action. Nearly 70% of the Canadians were killed, injured or captured and none of the raid's objectives were met other than the secret raid on the radar station on a headland.

North Africa

Two Mark II had been sent to North Africa for trials and they were joined by six Mk III Churchills (with the 6 pounder)  to form the Special Tank Squadron commanded by Major Norris King. They saw action in the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942. This detachment, called "Kingforce", supported the attack of 7th Motor Brigade first with three tanks at Kidney Ridge (where one was hit "repeatedly" by anti-tank gun fire (including "friendly fire" from a British gun) and another took "a lot of punishment"), then the remaining five at Tell-el-Aqqaqir. The Churchills were fired on many times by Italian and German anti-tank guns, but only one was knocked out and partially caught on fire. One tank was said to have been hit up to 80 times.

Kingforce, formed to test whether the Churchills could operate in Africa, was considered too slow to participate in the chase after the retreating Axis, sent back to Alexandria and disbanded after El Alamein. The 25th Army Tank Brigade of three regiments was sent to Africa, and went into action in February 1943 during the Tunisian campaign. It was followed by 21st Army Tank Brigade.

Churchill tanks took part in containing the German offensive of Operation Ochsenkopf in February – March 1943. At a place called Steamroller Farm, two Churchill Mk III tanks of 51 RTR got ahead of their squadron. They came across an entire German transport column, which they ambushed and completely shot up before they rejoined. The result was the destruction of two 88 mm, two 75 mm and two 50 mm, four lesser anti-tank guns, 25 wheeled vehicles, two 3-inch mortars, two Panzer III tanks and infliction of nearly 200 casualties.

A Churchill tank in a hull down defensive position made a particular contribution to Allied success. In one encounter, on 21 April 1943, during the start of the Battle of Longstop Hill, a Churchill tank of the 48th Royal Tank Regiment got the better of a German Tiger I heavy tank. A 6 pounder shot from the Churchill lodged between the Tiger's turret and turret ring, jamming the turret and injuring the German crew. They abandoned the Tiger, which was subsequently captured by the British. Known as Tiger 131, this was the first Tiger captured by the Western Allies and was particularly useful for intelligence. Tiger 131 has since been restored to full working condition and is now on display at The Tank Museum in Dorset, UK. As of early 2021, it is the only working Tiger tank in the world.

Italy

Churchill tanks were not initially used in the Italian mainland in 1943.  There were six regiments with Churchills in Tunisia, these may have been kept out because Montgomery preferred the Sherman or because their 6-pdr guns were not considered suitable for the fighting in Italy. Churchills did land in Italy in April/May 1944 with 75mm gun armed Churchills arriving later.
As the mainstay of the Tank Brigades, which operated in support of the infantry, Churchill units were in operation more often than other tank units.

The Churchill NA75's, Churchill Mark IVs converted to carry the US 75 mm gun, were used in Italy.   As the Churchill proved to be a better gun platform than the Sherman, the effective range of the 75 mm was increased.

North-West Europe
Churchills saw widespread action in Normandy during the Battle of Hill 112 and Operation Bluecoat, as well as subsequent operations in the Low Countries and into Germany, such as the fighting in the Reichswald during Operation Veritable.

The Churchill was able to cross the muddy ground and force through the forests of the Reichswald; a contemporary report expressed the belief that no other tank could have managed the same conditions.

Burma and India
A single Churchill, possibly a Mk V, was trialled in Burma in 1945. It was operated by the 3rd Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers) from the end of April 1945 for about a month. Although it proved impossible to bring the Churchill into action, on approach marches the tank proved at least the equal to the M3 Lee then in service.

The 254th Indian Tank Brigade returned to India from Burma, arriving at Ahmednagar during July 1945. The brigade immediately began conversion from the Lee to the Churchill, the intention being for the newly equipped brigade to return to operations in October 1945. At the time, it was assumed that the war against Japan would continue and that the new battleground would be Malaya. Although a small number of tanks were delivered, and some training undertaken, the end of the war against Japan meant that the conversion was not completed. At the end of September, the 254th Indian Tank Brigade was reassigned and posted away from Ahmednagar. All the Churchills delivered up to that point were returned to the Ordnance Depot at Kirkee (Khadki) by the end of November–early December 1945. Of the three regiments (battalions) involved, the 3rd Dragoon Guards accompanied the 254th Brigade when posted away while the 149th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps and the 150th Regiment Royal Armoured Corps were eventually disbanded at Ahmednagar on 28 February 1946, the majority of personnel already having been repatriated to the United Kingdom or posted to other units.

Other theatres
In mid-1944, at the request of Britain's War Office, the Churchill was tested by the Australian Army, along with the M4 Sherman. The results were to be used to determine any modifications required for use in the tropics; Matildas were used as a reference point in the tests at Madang, New Guinea. The Churchill was found to be, overall, superior to the other tanks for jungle warfare.

It was not used in the Pacific War; only 46 of the 510 Churchills ordered by Australia were delivered by the end of the war, and the remainder of the order was cancelled.

Korean War and after
During the Korean War, the United Kingdom deployed 20 Churchill tanks from the C Company, 7th Royal Tank Regiment, and arrived on the Korean Peninsula along with its first sent troops in November 1950. Most of these tanks were Mk. VII (A42) 'Crocodile' flame-throwing tanks; despite being a flame-thrower, they were used like a regular tank. In addition, the Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE), Armoured Recovery Vehicle (ARV), and Bridgelayers variants were brought together.

In action against the Chinese, they mostly fought as gun tanks, for example in the Third Battle of Seoul. To restore the 1st Battalion, Royal Northumberland Fusiliers' position during the defence of Seoul, Brigadier Thomas Brodie of the 29th Infantry Brigade sent four Churchill tanks as reinforcement; their contributions to the battle were widely praised by British and American historians.

The Churchill tank was briefly operated in 1950 to 1951, and withdrew in October 1951 from Korea. All Churchills retired from the British Army in 1952.

USSR

The Soviet Union was sent 301 Churchill tanks (45 Mk II, 151 Mk III and 105 Mk IV) as part of the Lend-Lease programme. 43 of them (19 Mk II and 24 Mk III) were lost en route on the Arctic Convoys. Delivery of the first 25 units took place in May 1942, but adoption by the Red Army was delayed because of the 30 that were sent by June 1942, 20 had been lost in shipping.

The Churchill was not very popular in Soviet service. Soviet operators disliked the 2 pdr gun of the Mk II version (also used by Matildas and Valentines shipped to the USSR), and the tank was considered "sufficient" by inspectors, who warned that it was "unrefined" in terms of both design and production and would require constant maintenance in the field. Like Soviet heavy tanks, they were assigned to separate breakthrough tank regiments tasked with infantry support.

In 1942–1943, Churchills were used in the Battle of Stalingrad (47th and 48th regiments of heavy tanks – 42 Churchills). In 1943, the Soviet 5th Guards Tank Army used Churchills in the Battle of Prokhorovka (15th and 36th regiments of heavy tanks – 42 Churchills) during the Battle of Kursk, and in the Fourth Battle of Kharkov. It was also used in other battles until 1944 (82nd regiment of heavy tanks).

The Churchills were also employed at the Finnish front, and they took part on the capture of Viipuri 1944. The Finnish forces reported to have destroyed "three heavy tanks of previously unknown type", which after the war were recognized as Churchill III tanks.

Ireland
The Irish Army took delivery of three Churchill Mk VI tanks in 1948 and a fourth in 1949. These were rented from the British War Office as trials vehicles until 1954, when they were purchased outright. This purchase was despite the fact that the supply and transport corps workshops, which maintained them, had reported that spares had all but run out. Experiments were carried out involving replacing the existing Bedford engine with a Rolls-Royce Merlin engine salvaged from an Irish Air Corps Supermarine Seafire aircraft on one tank. The experiment was a success, but not followed up on the other tanks although the reasons are not recorded. By 1967, only one Churchill remained serviceable, and by 1969 all were retired. One remains preserved in the Curragh Camp.

Variants

During the course of the war, as well as new production, older vehicles were reworked to bring them up to later standard. For example, 2-pdr turrets were replaced with the 6-pdr turret, and the improved commander's cupola (with eight periscopes) introduced after the first Mark VII was applied to some earlier marks as well. Nearly 3,100 Churchills of all marks were rebuilt. Early tanks were produced before the Churchill name was attached and were retroactively known as Churchill Mark I etc.

The following Churchill variants saw primary use as battle tanks:

 Churchill I 303 produced. Equipped with a 40 mm Ordnance QF 2-pounder gun in the turret with 150 rounds and a coaxial Besa machine gun. There was an Ordnance QF 3 inch howitzer in the hull, with 58 rounds, for use against infantry. It was a tank that was noted for poor mechanical reliability. It was used alongside Mark IIs and IIIs with Canadian forces on the Dieppe Raid and in Tunisia; some were still in use late in the war in Italy on the Gothic Line.
 Churchill Mk II 1,127 produced. Replaced the hull howitzer with another machine gun to reduce cost and complexity. Sometimes referred to as "Churchill Ia".
 Churchill Mk IICS Close support. Placed the 2-pounder gun in the hull and the howitzer in the turret, available in very limited numbers. Sometimes called the "Churchill II". Not used in combat.
 Churchill Mk III 675 produced. The III was the first major armament overhaul of the series, eliminating the hull howitzer and equipping the tank with a more powerful Ordnance QF 6-pounder gun with 84 rounds. It had a new welded, "cleaner", squarish turret (from Babcock & Wilcox Ltd) unlike earlier versions. The availability of rolled armour plate limited the number that could be built – leading to the Mark IV. The first Mark to have "catwalks" over the upper track runs to protect the tracks; examples later upgunned with the QF 75 mm gun are known as the Churchill III*.
 Churchill Mk IV 1,622 produced. The IV, the most numerous Churchill produced, was virtually identical to the III, the largest change being a return to the cheaper cast turret, keeping the welded turret's "clean" squarish shape. A tank telephone was fitted to the rear of the tank for communication with infantry. In earlier models, turrets using the 6-pounder Mark V were fitted with a counterweight. Two hundred and ten were refitted in North Africa with US 75 mm guns taken from battle-damaged M4 Sherman tanks (the Churchill NA75's), while others were up-gunned with British Ordnance QF 75 mm guns, creating the Mark IV (75).  The QF 75 mm had a muzzle brake unlike the 6-pounder.
 Churchill Mk V 241 produced. A Churchill equipped with a close support Ordnance QF 95 mm howitzer with 47 rounds in place of the main gun in a cast turret. The gun could fire smoke, HE, or HEAT round with a maximum range of .  Produced from the Mark IV production run at about 1 in 10. The turret was similar to the Marks IV/VI turrets, with a slightly different opening for the gun in the turret front face.
 Churchill Mk VI 200 produced. Along with several minor improvements, such as an additional collar at the turret base protecting the turret ring, it was produced as standard with the 75 mm Mark V gun. Few were built due to the impending release of the VII and concurrent up-gunning of the Marks III/IV.
 Churchill Mk VII (A22F) 1,600 produced, together with Mark VIII. The second big redesign, the VII used the 75mm gun, was wider and carried much more armour, 50 per cent thicker at the front than a Tiger I, giving it the ability to withstand massive amounts of punishment. It is sometimes called the "Heavy Churchill" and was given the specification number "A42" in 1945. This version of the Churchill first saw service in the Battle of Normandy and equipped three Royal Armoured Corps regiments in western Europe, one in Italy and with 7th Royal Tank Regiment in Korea. The Mark VII was designed to be able to be converted into the "Crocodile" flame-throwing variant without major modification.
 Churchill Mk VIII 1,600 produced, together with Mark VII. A Churchill VII with a 95 mm howitzer and 47 rounds in a slightly different turret.
 Churchill Mk IX Churchill III/IV upgraded with extra armour added to hull and turret, along with gearbox and suspension modifications. If the original turret was retained without added armour it was called LT ("Light Turret").
 Churchill Mk X The same improvements as for the IX applied to a Mk VI.
 Churchill Mk XI The same improvements as for the IX applied to a MkV CS. Does not appear to have been built.
 Churchill NA75 210 produced.  Churchill IVs with 6-pounder guns replaced (under Operation Whitehot) by US 75 mm guns and mantlets from destroyed or scrapped Sherman tanks, fitted to Churchill IV cast turrets. Their performance was virtually identical to the VI. They were known as NA75 (North Africa 75) where the first conversions took place, after 48 Shermans with new guns had been disabled by mines. Some Mark IIIs were also modified, using Mark IV turrets. To fit the Sherman mantlet required cutting away the front of the Churchill turret before it was welded in place, then the mantlet slot had to be cut away to give sufficient elevation. The Sherman 75 mm gun was designed for a left hand loader and the Churchill, in common with British practice, had a right hand loader. The gun was turned upside down and the firing controls adapted. The conversion of about 200 tanks was carried out between March and June 1944 and the conversion project earned the officer in charge, Capt. Percy Morrell, an MBE and a promotion.

Specialist vehicles

In addition to the tanks, several specialist Churchill variants were developed, chiefly for combat engineering roles.

The Churchill Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers was a Churchill III or IV armed with a spigot mortar demolition weapon which replaced the 6 pounder gun. The effective range of the 230mm high-explosive "flying dustbin" round was only around 80 yards of 230 yard maximum range. Crew was increased to six to accommodate a demolition NCO in addition to driver, commander, gunner, wireless operator, and co-driver/machine gunner. As well as the mortar ammunition it carried "General Wade" 26 lb explosive charge, and "Beehive" charges of up to 75 lbs of explosive. Both types of charge had to be set manually, but could be detonated from the relative safety of the AVRE interior. The AVRE could be fitted to carry different combat engineering equipment.

The Churchill Crocodile was a flamethrower tank which replaced the hull machine gun with a flamethrower and towed an armoured fuel trailer.

Churchills were converted to "Kangaroo" armoured personnel carriers by removing the turret from Churchills.

Further development

The Black Prince, General Staff specification A43), was a development of the Churchill design. In 1943, an attempt was made to produce a Churchill with the same 17 pounder that the Sherman Firefly, a British modification of the American M4 Sherman, on a Churchill chassis and turret. It was known that insufficient numbers of the 17 pounder armed Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger were going to be produced in time for the invasion of Europe, and work was only starting on the Centurion cruiser design. Due to the wider turret ring required, Vauxhall had to redesign the hull though it used as much of the Churchill Mark VII as possible including retaining the Bedford Flat-12  engine which led to the heavier Black Prince being consequently much slower, going from 15 MPH (24 km/h) to 10.5 MPH onroad, and 7.5 mph offroad. This resulted in the "Tank, Infantry, Black Prince (A43)". Six prototypes were built and delivered in May 1945 just as the war in Europe was ending. The test programme was completed but the project was cancelled due to the success of the new and less complicated Centurion Mark I, which offered the same armament and frontal armour, was faster and more manoeuvrable, and had just entered production. There are 2 surviving Black Princes as of today. The one that is fully intact is No. 4 of the prototypes, and is displayed at The Tank Museum in Bovington. The second surviving Black Prince is only a hull, recovered from Salisbury plain in the 80s as part of the Tony Budge collection. It is now held as of today by the Rex and Rod Cadman collection. After the Black Prince, no more Churchills were developed, as the army had shifted in favour of the above mentioned Centurion, which was mainly claimed as the first Main battle tank, and also, the British army was going through a change of doctrine, meaning large infantry tanks to support men were no longer needed on the front.

Operators
  Australia – retired, replaced with the Centurion main battle tank
  Canada – retired, replaced with the Centurion
  India – retired
  Ireland – retired in 1969, replaced with the Comet cruiser tank
  Poland (Polish Armed Forces in the West) – retired in 1947 without replacement
  United Kingdom – retired from British Army service in 1952, replaced by the Centurion
  Soviet Union (Lend-Lease) – retired, replaced with IS-3 and T-10 heavy tanks
  Kingdom of Iraq – retired, replaced with the Centurion

Surviving vehicles

A number of Churchills still exist as gate guardians or war memorials, while many examples reside in museums. Jacques Littlefield's Military Vehicle Technology Foundation in California, United States, acquired a Flail FV3902 "Toad" in its collection in 2008 after it was restored to full working order by RR Services in Kent, England; it was subsequently sold at auction and acquired by the Australian Armour and Artillery Museum. There are two Churchill Mark IVs at Normandy in France; one is residing at Lion-sur-Mer, while the other is located at Graye-sur-Mer.

The Churchill Trust is a project that aims to restore existing Churchills to their original condition and working order. So far, a Mark III AVRE with appliqué armour, salvaged from a firing range, and a post-war Mark IV Twin-ARK have been restored to running condition. The specialist equipment was removed and turrets were added, converting both tanks into their original variants.  the project was in the process of restoring a Mark VII AVRE recovered from a range in northern England.

The Tank Museum in Bovington Camp, Dorset, England, currently has four Churchills in its collection: a Mark VII in The Tank Story Hall as a static exhibit, a working Mark III AVRE as a static display (currently located in the Museum's Conservation Hall), a Mark VI returned to the Museum after the closure of the Isle of Wight Military History Museum (also currently located in the Museum's Conservation Hall) and a Mark II (with cosmetic alterations to make it appear as a Mark I) as an outdoor static display. The museum's Mark VII was the last Mark VII produced; it went directly to the museum from the factory, and in terms of mileage, is virtually brand new. The Mark III AVRE was salvaged from a firing range marker as a complete wreck. It was restored to running order by Bob Grundy of Wigan and his Tracked Armour Group in August 1988. The Museum also has the only surviving Black Prince prototype.

The Churchill Trust and the Tank Museum are not affiliated or associated with one another in any way; their tanks are different and owned separately, and the only common ground between both parties is that the Churchill Trust sometimes sends its tanks to participate in the Tank Museum's annual Tankfest event. Additionally, the Churchill Trust's tanks were all specialist vehicles, but were converted back into the standard turreted heavy tank variants during restoration. In 2018 the two parties concluded a long-term agreement that saw the Churchill Trust loan all three of its Churchills to the Tank Museum, with the III* becoming a permanent part of the Museum's fleet of running vehicles and the IV and VII being included in the Museum's Second World War exhibitions. The Churchill III* was restored in time for Tankfest 2019, and ran at the event.

The Cavalry Tank Museum, Ahmednagar. Maharashtra, India has one Churchill Mark VII, a Mark X (uparmoured Mk VI chassis; Mk VII turret; 75mm gun; Mk VII driver's visor and MG mount), a Churchill bridgelayer and a Churchill ARV.

A Mk. VII Churchill Tank stands at the side of the Marine Highway, Carrickfergus, Co. Antrim. The restored vehicle was a gift to the Borough from the Trustees of the North Irish Horse Regimental Association.

See also
 Tanks in the British Army
 Matilda II
 Excelsior tank
 T14 Heavy Tank
 M6 heavy tank
 Kliment Voroshilov tank
 Tiger I
 Tiger II

Notes

Citations

References

External links

 The Churchill Tank Project – aiming to restore a Mk III, Mk, IV, and Mk VII.

 Armour in Focus A22
 Henk of Holland
 OnWar specifications: Churchill I Churchill IV Churchill VII
 WWII Vehicles
 Churchills in Soviet Union
 "Churchill" Heavy Infantry Tank in the Russian Battlefield
 Detailed vehicle description at 9th Battalion, Royal Tank Regiment website
 Detailed history of the 9th Battalion, using Churchills from introduction to war's end
 Memories of Frank Meredith , 9th Battalion Driver/Mechanic 1942–45
 "Churchills in Burma and India", at The Burma Campaign web site

Heavy tanks of the United Kingdom
Infantry tanks
Vauxhall vehicles
World War II tanks of the United Kingdom
Military vehicles introduced from 1940 to 1944

Churchill tank


Quehenberger Logistics ist ein Full-Service-Logistics Provider und Spezialist für ganzheitliche Branchenlösungen für Industrie und Handel mit Schwerpunkt Zentral- und Osteuropa. Das eigentümergeführte, mittelständische Unternehmen mit Sitz in Straßwalchen bei Salzburg beschäftigt mehr als 4.000 Mitarbeiter an über 90 Standorten in 17 Ländern.

Geschichte
1948 wurde das Speditionsunternehmen Lausenhammer in Seekirchen am Wallersee gegründet. Der spätere Eigentümer und Namensgeber Rudolf Quehenberger stieg 1965 bei Lausenhammer ein und brachte sich nachfolgend Stück für Stück mehr in den Betrieb ein. Nach dem Ausscheiden von Mario Lausenhammer, dem letzten Mitglied der Gründungsfamilie, wurde das Unternehmen 1983 in "R. Quehenberger Spedition" umbenannt.

Mit dem Fall des Eisernen Vorhangs 1989 wagte Quehenberger erste Schritte in Richtung Osten. Daraus resultierte 1992 eine Niederlassung in Ungarn. Belarus, Ukraine, Slowakei und Rumänien folgten.

Der Umwandlung in eine Aktiengesellschaft folgte 2001 eine Übernahme durch die luxemburgische Unternehmensgruppe Thiel Logistik, die zuerst mit 51 Prozent einstieg und sich später die restlichen Anteile sicherte. 2008 wurde das Unternehmen schließlich völlig in den Mutterkonzern integriert und in Logwin umbenannt.

2010 kaufte AUGUSTIN Network GmbH unter dem ehemaligen Quehenberger Mitarbeiter Christian Fürstaller die Marktrechte für Osteuropa von Logwin AG zurück. Am 1. April 2010 wurde der Name Quehenberger Logistics wieder als Markenname eingeführt. Rudolf Quehenberger ist an diesem Unternehmen mit rund 10 % beteiligt.

Ende 2012 erwarb die Unternehmensgruppe den Express- und Kurierdienstleister X1 EXPRESS. Anfang 2014 übernahm Quehenberger fünf Landesgesellschaften in Osteuropa von Logwin (Kroatien, Bulgarien, Rumänien, Serbien und Mazedonien). 2014 wurde die deutsche Transalkim Internationale Spedition GmbH und das Unternehmen Günter Bauer Transportgesellschaft übernommen. Im Jahr 2015 fand die Umfirmierung von X1 EXPRESS GmbH in QX, Quehenberger Express GmbH statt. Ebenfalls 2015 stieg Quehenberger wieder in das Geschäftsfeld Air + Ocean ein und gründete das Unternehmen Quehenberger Air + Ocean GmbH. 2017 wurden acht neue Logistikstandorte eröffnet und die Warehouseflächen-Marke von 300.000 m² überschritten. 2018 wurde die Alpin Spedition GmbH übernommen, die Präsenz in Osteuropa um die Märkte Polen und Kasachstan erweitert und auch ein Standort in Schweden gegründet. 2019 überschritt Quehenberger Logistics die Warehouseflächen-Marke von 500.000 m². 2020 feierte das Unternehmen das 10-jährige Bestehen der Marke Quehenberger Logistics.

Im Mai 2023 wurde Quehenberger durch den Logistikdienstleister Geis Global Logistics übernommen.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Rudolf Quehenberger
 Quehenberger Logistics
 Quehenberger Logistics bei Salzburg wiki

Logistikunternehmen (Österreich)
Unternehmen (Bezirk Salzburg-Umgebung)
Straßwalchen
Gegründet 1983

Quehenberger Logistics


Leikfangasaga (enska: Toy Story) er bandarísk kvikmyndasería, fyrsta kvikmyndin kom út árið 1995 og sú síðasta árið 2022.

Kvikmynd
 Leikfangasaga (1995)
 Leikfangasaga 2 (1999)
 Leikfangasaga 3 (2010)
 Leikfangasaga 4 (2019)
 Ljósár (2022)

Kvikmyndagerð í Bandaríkjunum
Kvikmyndir

Disney-kvikmyndir

Leikfangasaga (kvikmyndasería)


7264 Hirohatanaka este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
7264 Hirohatanaka este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Nachi-Katsuura de Yoshisada Shimizu și Takeshi Urata. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,32 ua, o excentricitate de 0,17 și o înclinație de 1,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 7001-8000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1995
Centura de asteroizi

7264 Hirohatanaka


Ülser, deri ve mukozaların nekrozlu yangısıdır. Dr. Barry Marshall ve Dr. Robin Warren peptik ülserlerin oluşmasında Helicobacter pylori adı verilen bir bakterinin etkili olduğunu saptamışlar ve bu buluşları nedeniyle 2005 yılı Nobel Fizyoloji veya Tıp Ödülü'nü almaya hak kazanmışlardır. Peptik ülser hastalığı ve Helicobacter pylori'nin zaman çizelgesi oldukça ilginç bir süreci göstermektedir.

Onikiparmak bağırsağı ülseri

İnce bağırsağın 25 santimetre kadar olan ilk bölümüne onikiparmak bağırsağı denir. C harfi görünümündedir. Onikiparmak bağırsağında meydana gelen ülsere tıp dilinde duodenum ülseri denir. Tedavi edilmeyen gastrit, fazla asit, sinir bozukluğu, düzensiz hayat, gürültü, fazla miktarda sigara, çay, kahve ve alkol kullanmak, safra kesesi veya karaciğer yetersizliği, kalp hastalıkları, hormon dengesizliği, dengeli bir şekilde beslenememe, çok sıcak veya çok soğuk yiyecekler, haddinden fazla et, hamur işleri veya baharatlı yiyecekler ve bazı ilaçlar; onikiparmak bağırsağında ülserin meydana gelmesine sebep olur. Hasta, mide ekşimesi ve ağzına ekşi su gelmesinden şikayet eder.

Ayrıca dili paslı, rengi solgundur, baş dönmesi ve fazla terleme de görülür. Midesinin üstüne basılınca, ağrı hisseder. Yemeklerden sonra da göğse doğru yayılan bir ağrı belirir. Bu belirtiler, ilkbahar ve sonbahar aylarında daha da artar. Tedavi için yapılacak ilk iş, hastalığı doğuran nedenleri ortadan kaldırmak, yemekleri az, fakat sık sık yemek, istirahat etmek ve üzüntüden uzak yaşamaya gayret etmektir.

Mide ülseri

Midenin iç yüzündeki belirli bir kısmın aşınması sonucu meydana gelen yaraya mide ülseri denir. Sinir bozukluğu, midede asit fazlalığı, zamanında ve iyi tedavi edilmeyen gastrit, mide zafiyeti, karaciğer yetersizliği veya safra azlığı, kalp hastalıkları, sindirilmesi güç yiyeceklerin aşırı derecede kullanılması, haddinden fazla sigara, çay, kahve veya asit yapıcı meşrubat içmek, alkol kullanmak veya bazı ilaçların uzun süre kullanılması mide ülserini doğuran nedenler arasındadır. Hastalığın başlangıcında mide ekşimesi ve ağırlık hissi vardır. Hastanın ağzına, sık sık ekşi su gelir. Tat alma duygusu hafiflemiştir, dil paslıdır, hastanın rengi solmuştur. Karnın üst kısmına bastırılınca, acıma hissedilir. Bu belirtiler ortaya çıktıktan sonra; en kısa zamanda tedaviye geçilmezse; yemeklerden 2-3 saat sonra sırta doğru yayılan şiddetli mide ağrıları başgösterir. Baş dönmesi ve terleme de görülür. Bu devrede, kusma ile bir miktar kan da görülebilir. Bazı kimselerin dışkıları katran gibi olur. Bu işaretler, ülserin ilerlemiş olduğunu gösterir.
Mide ülseri, bilhassa ilk bahar ve son bahar aylarında, çok rahatsız edici bir hal alır. Ağrı ve kanamalar artar. Mide ülseri, başlangıcında teşhis edilip de tedaviye başlanılacak olursa, telaşlanmaya ve korkmaya gerek yoktur. Bu durumda yapılacak ilk iş, üzüntüye kapılmamak, aksine bütün üzüntülerden sıyrılmaya gayret sarfetmektir. Sonra tedaviye yardımcı olmak amacıyla aşağıdaki hususlara kesinlikle uymak gerekir. - Tedavi süresince istirahat edin - Yemeklerinizi, her gün belirli saatlerde yiyin - Bağırsaklarınızın düzenli bir şekilde çalışmasını sağlayın - Sigara, çay, kahve ve alkolü bırakın - Diş sağlığına önem verin - Süt ve sütlü yiyecekler, yumurta, kızarmış ekmek, tereyağı, pelte ve haşlanmış balık, sebze püreleri ve patates yemeğini sofranızdan eksik etmeyin.

Kaynakça

Helicobacter pylori

Peptik ülser


Flaten Station (Flaten stasjon eller Flaten stoppested) er en jernbanestation på Arendalsbanen, der ligger i Åmli kommune i Norge. Stationen består af et spor og en kort perron med en lille stationsbygning af træ. En cykelrute mellem Nelaug og Arendal går forbi stationen.

Stationen åbnede som holdeplads 18. december 1910, da Arendalsbanen blev forlænget fra Froland til Åmli. Stationsbygningen blev opført efter tegninger af Harald Kaas, men den brændte i 1962. I stedet blev den tilsvarende bygning fra den gamle Nelaug Station, der var blevet erstattet af den nuværende i 1935, flyttet til Flaten. Stationen blev gjort ubemandet 1. juni 1958, og i december 1974 blev den nedgraderet til trinbræt.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Stationer på Arendalsbanen
Etableret i 1910

Flaten Station


Un vers sotadéen ou vers sotadique (en latin : , en grec ancien ) a pour rythme fondamental l'ionique majeur | — — ∪ ∪ |. Le sotadéen est un tétramètre dicatalectique. C'est un vers utilisé en poésie morale et satyrique.

Étymologie
Sa création est attribuée au poète grec Sotadès, d'où son nom.

Schéma
Sotadès a lui-même écrit selon le schéma pur du vers :  Ἥρην ποτέ | φασιν Δία | τὸν τερπικέ|ραυνον […]

En utilisant — pour une syllabe longue, ∪ pour une courte, et X pour une syllabe anceps ou libre (dernière syllabe du vers, soit — soit ∪), il se schématise de la façon suivante :
| — — ∪ ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — X |

Beaucoup de remplacements sont possibles :
 au niveau du mètre, l'ionique majeur peut être remplacé par l'ionique mineur : | ∪ ∪ — — |, par le molosse : | — — — | et même par des trochées : | — ∪ — ∪ |.
 au niveau des syllabes la  longue du majeur (moins souvent la ) peut être remplacée par deux brèves.

Parentés

Les syllabes sont le plus souvent 13, 14 ou 15. Le sotadéen peut donc être très proche de l'hexamètre dactylique, ce dernier représentant un registre héroïque contraire au sotadéen, ressenti comme vulgaire et parfois affecté.
Un spondée final fait du sotadéen un vers dont le schéma métrique pur est palindromique, raison pour laquelle Sotadès est aussi connu pour être l'inventeur du palindrome.

Exemples antiques

En grec ancien

Voici sept vers sotadéens grecs :

| — ∪ — ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ |
Τῆς τύχης σκοπεῖν δεῖ τὸ μέγιστον ὡς ἔλαττον͵
| — ∪ — ∪ | — — ∪ — | — ∪ — ∪ | — — | (deuxième mètre atypique)
καὶ τὸ μὴ παρὸν μὴ θέλειν  οὐδὲ γὰρ σόν ἐστιν.
| — ∪ ∪ ∪ ∪ | — — — ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ |
Ἀμφότερα μένειν οὐκ οἶδεν ἕστηκε γὰρ οὐδέν.
| — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ |
Ἂν πλούσιος ὢν καθ'ἡμέραν σκοπῇς τὸ πλεῖον,
| — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | ∪ ∪ ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ |
ἐς τοσοῦτον εἶ πενιχρός , ἐς περισσός.
| — ∪ — ∪ | — — — | — ∪ — ∪ | — — |
Ὡς πένης θέλει σχεῖν͵ καὶ πλούσιος πλέον σχεῖν͵
| — ∪ ∪ — — | — — | — — ∪ ∪ | — — | (erreur de West)
ἴσον ἔχουσιν αὐτῶν αἱ ψυχαὶ τὸ μεριμνᾶν.

En latin

Voici quatre vers sotadéens latins :

| — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — ∪ ∪ ∪ ∪ | — — |
Huc huc cito convenite nunc, spatalocinædi,
| ∪ ∪ — ∪ ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — — |
Pede tendite, curs(um) addite, convolate planta
| — — ∪ ∪ ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — — | (premier mètre atypique, que certains du coup rectifient)
Femore facili, clun(e) agil(i) et manu procaces,
| — — ∪ ∪ | — — ∪ ∪ | — ∪ — ∪ | — — |
Molles, veteres, Deliaci manu recisi.

Références

Bibliographie
 Paul Maas, Greek Metre, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1962, , .
 Alphonse Dain, Traité de métrique grecque, Klincksieck, 1967, , .
 Martin Litchfield West, Introduction to Greek Metre, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1987, .

Articles connexes
 Métrique (poésie)
 Métrique antique
 Pied (poésie)
 Scansion
 Vers

Forme poétique

Vers sotadéen


Emil Dietzsch (* 7. April 1829 in Trippstadt; † 12. September 1890 in Chicago) war ein deutschamerikanischer Dichter und Apotheker in Chicago.

Leben
Dietzsch beteiligte sich 1849 als 20-Jähriger am Pfälzer Aufstand in Kaiserslautern. Während seines Studiums wurde er 1850 Mitglied der Alten Münchener Burschenschaft Rhenania. Er emigrierte nach seinem Pharmaziestudium in die USA und ließ sich in Chicago als Apotheker nieder. Als politisch engagierter Mensch beteiligte er sich zusammen mit Friedrich Hecker an der Gründung der Republikanischen Partei in den USA. Er verfasste eine Reihe politischer Schriften und war einer der führenden Köpfe, die die deutsche Gemeinde in Chicago organisierten und zusammenhielten. Später war er ein glühender Anhänger des deutschen Kaisers Wilhelm I., obwohl er es war, der als junger Prinz von Preußen den Pfälzer Aufstand niedergeschlagen hatte. Er verfasste viele Gedichte, in denen er in deutscher Sprache die Verbundenheit mit dem deutschen Reich und seiner Pfälzer Heimat ausdrückte.

Werke (Auswahl)
 Kraft und Stoff – Aus der Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, Chicago 1884, Verlag Gustav Hinstorff
 Chicagos deutsche Männer – Erinnerungsblätter an Chicagos fünfzigjähriges Jubiläum. Geschichte der Stadt Chicago, 1885, hrsg. von Max Stern und Fred Kressmann

Literatur
 Roland Paul, "Ein Achtundvierziger als einer der führenden Deutschen in Chicago" in "Im Herzen des Pfälzerwaldes, Trippstadt in Geschichte und Gegenwart", Hrsg. Karlheinz Schauder, 2003, Verlag Franz Arbogast, Otterbach ISBN 3-87022-305-7
 Helge Dvorak: Biografisches Lexikon der Deutschen Burschenschaft. Band I: Politiker, Teilband 1: A–E. Heidelberg 1996, S. 203–204.

Autor
Person (Trippstadt)
Revolutionär 1848/49
Burschenschafter (19. Jahrhundert)
Heimatdichtung
Literatur (Deutsch)
Deutscher Emigrant in den Vereinigten Staaten
Deutscher
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1829
Gestorben 1890
Mann

Emil Dietzsch


Robin Bengtsson (født 27. april 1990) er en svensk sanger som repræsenterede Sverige ved Eurovision Song Contest 2017 med sangen "I Can't Go On", hvor han opnåede en 5. plads. Han deltog også i sæson 5 af det svenske udgave af Idols hvor han fik en 3. plads.

Eksterne henvisninger

Sangere fra Sverige
Deltagere ved Eurovision Song Contest 2017
Sveriges Eurovision Song Contest-deltagere

Robin Bengtsson


Itália
Basílica de São Francisco de Assis — em Assis, igreja-mãe dos Franciscanos
Basílica de São Francisco de Assis (Arezzo)
Basílica de São Francisco de Paula — em Nápoles

Outros países
Igreja e Convento de São Francisco (La Paz) — na Bolívia
Real Basílica de São Francisco, o Grande — em Madrid, Espanha
Basílica e Convento de São Francisco de Lima — no Peru

Desambiguações de templos

Basílica de São Francisco


Die Liste der denkmalgeschützten Objekte in Búč enthält das eine nach slowakischen Denkmalschutzvorschriften geschützte Objekt in der Gemeinde Búč im Okres Komárno.

Denkmäler

Legende

Einzelnachweise

!
Buc


Avcıpınarı, Adana ilinin Saimbeyli ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Daha önceleri Mağara ilçesine bağlıyken, 18 Nisan 1959'da Saimbeyli ilçesine bağlandı.

Coğrafya
Adana il merkezine 171 km, Saimbeyli ilçe merkezine 17 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Saimbeyli'nin mahalleleri

Avcıpınarı, Saimbeyli


Die 86. French Open 1987 waren ein Tennis-Sandplatzturnier der Klasse Grand Slam, das von der ITF veranstaltet wurde. Es fand vom 25. Mai bis 7. Juni 1987 in Roland Garros, Paris, Frankreich statt.

Titelverteidiger im Einzel waren Ivan Lendl bei den Herren sowie Chris Evert bei den Damen. Im Herrendoppel waren John Fitzgerald und Tomáš Šmíd, im Damendoppel Martina Navratilova und Andrea Temesvári und im Mixed Kathy Jordan und Ken Flach die Titelverteidiger.

Herreneinzel

Setzliste

Dameneinzel

Setzliste

Herrendoppel

Setzliste

Damendoppel

Setzliste

Mixed

Setzliste

Weblinks
 Offizielle Webpräsenz

French Open 1987


Radosław Sobolewski (; n. 13 decembrie 1976 în Białystok) este un fotbalist polonez care joacă pe postul de mijlocaș defensiv pentru Górnik Zabrze.

Cariera la club
Și-a început cariera jucând pentru Jagiellonia Białystok. În 1998 a fost transferat la Wisła Płock, unde a jucat pentru următorii patru ani. El a debutat în prima divizie la 7 martie 1998 împotriva echipei Raków Częstochowa. În ianuarie 2003 a ajuns la Dyskobolia Grodzisk Wielkopolski, unde a rămas până în decembrie 2004. De atunci, el a jucat pentru Wisła Cracovia, ajutând echipa să câștige Ekstraklasa în sezoanele 2004-05, 2007-08, 2008-09 și 2010-11.

În timpul perioadei de transferuri din iarnă a sezonului 2005/06, el a fost abordat de către Southampton FC. Cu toate acestea, oferta făcută de clubul englez a fost refuzată de conducerea Wisłei Cracovia.

Carieră internațională
A fost inclus în lotul de 23 de jucători care a participat la Campionatul Mondial de Fotbal 2006 din Germania. La acest turneu, el a primit un cartonaș roșu pentru două faulturi făcut în al doilea meci din grupe, cu Germania. El a fost cel de-al patrulea jucător care a încasat cartonașul roșu și primul jucător polonez eliminat într-un Campionat Mondial.

Radosław Sobolewski s-a retras de la națională la 20 noiembrie 2007, la doar trei zile după ce Polonia câștigase cu 2:0 în fața Belgiei, victorie care a asigurat calificarea la Euro 2008.

Statistici

Titluri

Wisła Płock
 Mi-Liga: 1998-99

Dyskobolia
 Cupa Poloniei: 2004-05

Wisła Cracovia
 Ekstraklasa: 2004-05, 2007-08, 2008-09, 2010-11

Individuale
 Ekstraklasa: Mijlocașul anului în 2005
 Ekstraklasa: Jucătorul lunii martie în 2009

Note

Legături externe

 Statistici la pzpn.pl  (poloneză)
 Profilul de jucător pe FIFA.com

Nașteri în 1976
Fotbaliști ai Campionatului Mondial de Fotbal 2006
Fotbaliști ai Górnik Zabrze
Fotbaliști ai Jagiellonia Białystok
Fotbaliști ai Wisła Cracovia
Fotbaliști internaționali polonezi
Oameni din Białystok
Sportivi polonezi în viață

Radosław Sobolewski


Der Harter Fell ist ein Berg in Cumbria, England im Süd-Westen des Lake District zwischen dem Eskdale-Tal und dem Duddon Valley.

Der Berg hat eine Schartenhöhe von 276 m bei einer Gesamthöhe von 649 m und ist damit ein Marilyn. Auf dem Berg findet sich ein trigonometrischer Punkt.

Der Harter Fell begrenzt den Hardknott Pass nach Süden.

Alfred Wainwright hat den Berg als einen der ganz wenigen schönen Berge des Lake District vor allem von Eskdale aus gesehen beschrieben. Es führen Wanderwege aus allen Richtungen auf den Harter Fell.

Geologie
Der Berg gewährt einen Einblick in die Geologie der Region. Der Berg besteht zum größten Teil aus vulkanischem Andesit. Doch ist der Schichtaufbau gut zu erkennen, so liegt unterhalb der obersten Schicht aus Andesit eine Dazitschicht, die wiederum auf einer Andesitschicht liegt. Am Nordhang sind eine Einlagerung von pyroklastischen Sedimenten zwischen den Schichten sichtbar. Am Ende des 19. Jhs. wurde Kupfer am Harter Fell abgebaut. Die Spuren dieses Abbaus sind heute noch sichtbar.

Quellen
 Alfred Wainwright: A Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells, Book 4, The Southern Fells, ISBN 0-7112-2457-9.

Berg unter 1000 Meter
Lake District
Marilyn (Berg)
Berg in Cumberland (Unitary Authority)

Harter Fell (Eskdale)


Keshav Baliram Hedgewar (1 April 1889 – 21 June 1940), also known by his moniker Doctorji, was an Indian physician and the founder of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS). Hedgewar founded the RSS in Nagpur in 1925, based on the ideology of Hindutva with the intention of creating a Hindu Rashtra.

Early life
Hedgewar was born on 1 April 1889 in a Telugu Deshastha Rigvedi Brahmin (DRB) family in Nagpur.  His parents were Baliram Pant Hedgewar and Revatibai, a couple of modest means. When Hedgewar was thirteen both of his parents died in the epidemic of plague of 1902. Hedgewar's uncle ensured that he continued to receive a good education, and B. S. Moonje became a patron and a father-figure for the young Hedgewar.

He studied at Neel City High School in Nagpur, from where he was expelled singing "Vande Mataram" in violation of the circular issued by the then British colonial government. As a result, he had to pursue his high school studies at the Rashtriya Vidyalaya in Yavatmal and later in Pune. After matriculating, he was sent to Kolkata by B. S. Moonje (a member of the Indian National Congress, who later became the President of the Hindu Mahasabha) in 1910 to pursue his medical studies. After passing the L.M.S. Examination from the Calcutta Medical College  in June 1916, he completed a yearlong apprenticeship and returned to Nagpur in 1917 as a physician.

Ideological roots
After completing his education, Hedgewar joined the Anushilan Samiti  in Bengal, which was influenced deeply by the writings of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. Hedgewar's initiation into this group, rooted in Hindu symbolism, was an important step in his path towards creating the RSS. Hedgewar was also deeply influenced by   Vinayak Damodar Savarkar treatise Hindutva. Dr. Hedgewar was also highly influenced by Samarth Ramdas's Dasbodh and Lokamanya Tilak's Geeta Rahasya. His letters often bore quotes from Tukaram.

Formation of RSS

Hedgewar participated in the Indian National Congress in the 1920s, but he became disillusioned with their policies and politics. He had been an active member of the party's volunteer division - Hindustani Seva Dal, the predecessor of the Congress Seva Dal. He was deeply influenced by the writings of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Babarao Savarkar, Sri Aurobindo and B. S. Moonje. He also read Mazzini and other enlightenment philosophers. He considered that the cultural and religious heritage of Hindus should be the basis of Indian nationhood.

Hedgewar founded RSS in 1925 on the day of Vijayadashami with an aim to organise Hindu community for its cultural and spiritual regeneration and make it a tool for achieving complete independence for a united India. Hedgewar suggested the term 'Rashtriya' (national) for his Hindu organization, for he wanted to re-assert the Hindu identity with 'Rashtriya'. Hedgewar supported the setting up of a women's wing of the organization in 1936 called Rashtra Sevika Samiti.

Those that participated in the movement were called Swayamsevaks (meaning self servants). Early Swayamsevaks included Bhaiyaji Dani, Babasaheb Apte, M. S. Golwalkar, Balasaheb Deoras, and Madhukar Rao Bhagwat, among others. The Sangh (Community) was growing in Nagpur and the surrounding districts, and it soon began to spread to other provinces. Hedgewar went to a number of places and inspired the youths for taking up Sangh work. Gradually all his associates had begun to endearingly call him 'Doctor ji.'

Political activities post formation of RSS

After founding the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in 1925, Hedgewar maintained a healthy distance from Indian Independence movement as led by Gandhi. Instead he encouraged local Swayamsevaks to participate on their own accord with the struggle. This lack of enthusiasm in the Independence Movement is heavily criticised. Hedgewar was actively discouraging RSS cadres to not join the movement which was led by Gandhi. The RSS biographer C. P. Bhishikar states, "after establishing Sangh, Doctor Saheb in his speeches used to talk only of Hindu organization. Direct comment on (British) Government used to be almost nil."

When the Congress passed the Purna Swaraj resolution in its Lahore session in December 1929, and called upon all Indians to celebrate 26 January 1930 as Independence Day, Hedgewar issued a circular asking all the RSS shakhas to observe the occasion through hoisting and worship of the Bhagwa Dhwaj (saffron flag), rather than the Tricolor (which was, by consensus, considered the flag of the Indian national movement at that time).

1930 was the only year when the RSS celebrated 26 January and it stopped the practice from the next year onwards. However, such celebration became a standard feature of the freedom movement and often came to mean violent confrontation with the official police. C. P. Bhishikar states,[In April 1930], Mahatma Gandhi gave a call for 'Satyagraha' against the British Government. Gandhi himself launched the Salt Satyagraha undertaking his Dandi Yatra. Dr. Hedgewar decided to participate only individually and not let the RSS join the freedom movement officially. He sent information everywhere that the Sangh will not participate in the Satyagraha. However those wishing to participate individually in it were not prohibited.

Hedgewar emphasized that he participated in the Civil Disobedience movement of 1930 in an individual capacity, and not as a RSS member. His concern was to keep the RSS out of the political arena. According to Hedgewar's biography, when Gandhi launched the Salt Satyagraha in 1930, he sent information everywhere that the RSS will not participate in the Satyagraha. However those wishing to participate individually in it were not prohibited.

For Hedgewar, India was an ancient civilisation, and the freedom struggle was an attempt to re-establish a land for the Hindus after almost 800 years of foreign rule, primarily by the Mugals and then by the British. The tri-colour according to Hedgewar did not encaptulate the ancient past of India. Hedgewar insisted that the RSS must only be involved with "man-making". He was critical of Hindu society and its degeneration over the centuries with its out-dated and often backward practices. The RSS, he wrote, must be completely devoted to establishing men of character and worthy of respect the world over.

Establishment of Rashtra Sevika Samiti
Laxmibai Kelkar was the founder of the Rashtra Sevika Samiti. Before establishing the organization, Kelkar visited Dr. K.B. Hedgewar, the founder of the RSS, in 1936 and had a long discussion to persuade him regarding the need for starting a women's wing in the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh itself. Hedgewar, though, continued to restrict membership of the RSS to men. However, Hedgewar advised Laxmibai Kelkar to establish an entirely separate organization that would be autonomous and independent of the RSS, as both groups were ideologically identical. Hedgewar promised Kelkar unconditional solidarity, support and guidance for the Samithi. Following this, Kelkar established the Rashtra Sevika Samiti at Wardha on 25 October 1936.

Death and legacy

His health deteriorated in later years of his life. Often he suffered from chronic back pain. He started delegating his responsibilities to M. S. Golwalkar, who later succeeded him as Sarsanghachalak of RSS. In January 1940, he was taken to Rajgir in Bihar for the hot-spring treatment.

He attended the annual Sangh Shiksha Varg (officer training camp) in 1940, where he gave his last message to Swayamsevaks, saying: 'I see before my eyes today a miniature Hindu Rashtra." He died on the morning of 21 June 1940 in Nagpur. His last rites were performed in the locality of Resham Bagh in Nagpur, which was later developed as Hedgewar Smruti Mandir.

Former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee described Hegdewar as a great patriot, freedom fighter and nationalist during his commemoration on a postal stamp in 1999. Hedgewar was described as "a great son of Mother India" by former President of India Pranab Mukherjee during his visit to Hedgewar's birthplace in Nagpur.

Establishments named after Hedgewar
Shree Keshav Co operative Credit Society Ltd. Junagadh, Gujarat.
Dr. Hedgewar Institute Of Medical Sciences & Research (Dhimsr) Amravati
Dr. Hedgewar Shikshan Pratishthan Ahmednagar
Dr. K. B. Hedgewar High School Goa
Dr. Hedgewar Aarogya Sansthan, Karkardooma, New Delhi.
Hedgewar Hospital, Aurangabad.
Hedgewar Ayurvedic BAMS college, Chikhli Maharashtra.
Dr Keshav Baliram Hedgewar chair, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh.
Keshav Srushti, Bhayander (W), Thane, Maharashtra

References

Further reading

 Rakesh Sinha's Dr. Keshav Baliram Hedgewar (in Telugu) by Vaddi Vijayasaradhi. .

External links

 Remembering Doctorji - samvada.org

Indian fascists
Fascist politicians

Sarsanghchalaks
Activists from Maharashtra
1889 births
1940 deaths
People from Nagpur
Anushilan Samiti
Marathi people
People from the Central Provinces

K. B. Hedgewar


إم بي سي ماكس  هي قناة عربية سعودية تابعة لمركز تلفزيون الشرق الأوسط. افتتحت في 26 أكتوبر 2008، تقدم أحدث الأفلام وأكثرها شهرة، وقد عرضت فيلم Cheaper by the Dozen 2 كفيلم افتتاح للقناة، وفيلم Robots لأول مرة على الشاشة العربية. وتعتبر هذه القناة تكميلا لقناة MBC 2 المشهورة بعرضها للأفلام الأجنبية والأمريكية خصيصاً، كثيراً ما تعرض الأفلام الرومانسية، وأفلام الدراما والكوميديا.

تعد قناة MBC MAX ثاني قناة مجانية متخصّصة في عرض الأفلام السينمائية في العالم العربي التي أطلقتها مجموعة MBC. وتعرض القناة نخبة من أشهر وأحدث الأفلام العالمية المترجمة إلى العربية على مدار الساعة وبلا توقف، لترضي من خلالها جمهورها الأصغر سنًا مع توفير تجربة مشاهدة مرحة للعائلة.

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مراجع

وصلات خارجية

الإعلام في الوطن العربي
قنوات أفلام
قنوات تلفزيونية في الإمارات العربية المتحدة
قنوات تلفزيونية في دبي
قنوات سعودية
قنوات ومحطات تلفازية أسست في 2008
محطات تلفزيونية باللغة العربية
مركز تلفزيون الشرق الأوسط

إم بي سي ماكس


An Heteropsis longispathacea in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Adolf Engler. An Heteropsis longispathacea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Heteropsis, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Heteropsis (Araceae)

Heteropsis longispathacea


بازينة أو هذيل هي إحدى بلدات ولاية بنزرت بالشمال التونسي، وهي مقر عمادة تابعة إلى معتمدية جومينتقع بين سجنان وماطر وتبعد حوالي ،60كلم عن بنزرت. بها مؤسسات مختلفة : مدرسة ومدرسة ثانوية ومستوصف ومركز بريد.وبلدية ويعتمد أهلها على الفلاحة وخاصة إنتاج الخضر والحبوب. ترقيمها البريدي هو 7012.

قرى ولاية بنزرت

بازينة


المرجح أو مركز الأبعاد المتناسبة ، في الهندسة مركز الثقل لجسمين أو أكثر يدوران أو تدور حول بعضها البعض. أو النقطة التي يدوران حولها. ويمكن حساب المسافة بين مركز الثقل لكل جسم وتلك النقطة باستخدام مسألة جسمين.

وهي نقطة يكون المجموع الشعاعي (المتجهي) بين نقط موزونة غير منعدم ويكون متناسبا مع وزنها بشرط ألا يكون المجموع الجبري للأوزان كلها معدوماً.

مرجح نقطتين

نقطة الإتزان

العلاقة الشعاعية (المتجهية)
لتكن لدينا النقطتان A و B في جملة إحداثيات، وليكن x و y وزن كل منهما، على الترتيب، بحيث لا يساوي المجموع x+y الصفر.
نقول عن G إنه مرجح للنقطتين الموزونتين (A,x) و (B,y) إذا تحقق:

معرض صور
صور توضيحية:

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 نقطة مركزية

كتلة
مراكز هندسية
ميكانيكا سماوية
نظام إحداثي سماوي
هندسة رياضية

مرجح


Robert Michels (; 9 January 1876 – 3 May 1936) was a German-born Italian sociologist who contributed to elite theory by describing the political behavior of intellectual elites.

He belonged to the Italian school of elitism. He is best known for his book Political Parties, published in 1911, which contains a description of the "iron law of oligarchy." He was a friend and disciple of Max Weber, Werner Sombart and Achille Loria.

Politically, he moved from the Social Democratic Party of Germany to the Italian Socialist Party, adhering to the Italian revolutionary syndicalist wing and later to Italian Fascism, which he saw as a more democratic form of socialism. His ideas provided the basis of moderation theory which delineates the processes through which radical political groups are incorporated into the existing political system.

Early life and education
Michels born to a wealthy German family, studied in England, Paris (at the Sorbonne), and at universities in Munich, Leipzig (1897), Halle (1898), and Turin. He became a socialist while teaching at the Protestant University of Marburg and became active in the Social Democratic Party of Germany for whom he was an unsuccessful candidate in the 1903 German federal election. In Italy, he associated with Italian revolutionary syndicalism, a leftist branch of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI). He left both parties in 1907.

Career

He achieved international recognition for his historical and sociological study, Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens, which was published in 1911; its title in English is Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy. In it, he presented his theory of the "iron law of oligarchy" that political parties, including those considered socialist, cannot be democratic because they quickly transform themselves into bureaucratic oligarchies.

Michels attended the First International Eugenics Congress in 1912 where he delivered a paper entitled "Eugenics in Party Organization".
Michels was considered a brilliant pupil of Max Weber, who began publishing his writings in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik in 1906 and appointed him as co-editor in 1913, but they disagreed over Michels' opposition to World War I.

Michels criticized what he perceived to be Karl Marx's materialistic determinism. Michels borrowed from Werner Sombart's historical methods. Because Michels admired Italian culture and was prominent in the social sciences, he was brought to the attention of Luigi Einaudi and Achille Loria. They succeeded in procuring for Michels a professorship at the University of Turin, where he taught economics, political science and socioeconomics until 1914. He then became professor of economics at the University of Basel, Switzerland, a post he held until 1928.

In 1924, he joined the Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini, former director of the Italian Socialist Party's newspaper "Avanti!". Michels was convinced that the direct link between Benito Mussolini's charisma and the working class was in some way the best means to realize a real lower social class government without political bureaucratic mediation. In 1928, he became professor of economics and the history of doctrines at the University of Perugia and occasionally lectured in Rome where he died on May 3, 1936.

Writings

 Syndicalisme & socialisme en Allemagne (Unionism & Socialism in Germany) (1908)
 Proletariato e la borghesia nel movimento socialista italiano (The Proletariat and the Bourgeoisie in the Italian Socialist Movement) (1908; 1975)
 Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens (On the Sociology of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy) (1911, 1925; 1970). Translated, as Sociologia del partito politico nella democrazia moderna : studi sulle tendenze oligarchiche degli aggregati politici, from the German original by Dr. Alfredo Polledro, revised and expanded (1912). Translated, from the Italian, by Eden and Cedar Paul as Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (Hearst's International Library Co., 1915; Free Press, 1949; Dover Publications, 1959); republished with an introduction by Seymour Martin Lipset (Crowell-Collier, 1962; Transaction Publishers, 1999, ); online at archive.org; translated into French by S. Jankélévitch, Les partis politiques. Essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties, Brussels, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2009 ().
 Grenzen der Geschlechtsmoral (Boundaries of Sexual Ethics). Italian translation, Morale sessuale revised and expanded by Alfredo Polledro (Fratelli Bocca, 19-?). Translated as Sexual Ethics: A Study of Borderland Questions (Walter Scott, George Allen & Unwin, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1914); republished with a new introduction by Terry R. Kandal (Transaction Publishers, 2001-2, )
 Probleme der Sozialphilosophie (Problems of Social Philosophy) (1914)
 Imperialismo italiano, studi politico-demografici (Italian Imperialism: Political and Demographic Studies) (1914)
 Amour et chasteté; essais sociologiques (Love and Chastity: Sociological Essays) (1914)
 Organizzazione del commercio estero (The Organization of Foreign Trade) (1925)
 Sozialismus und Faschismus in Italien (Socialism and Fascism in Italy) (1925)
 Storia critica del movimento socialista italiano : dagli inizi fino al 1911 (Critical history of the Italian socialist movement) (La Voce, 1926)
 Corso di sociologia politica (First lectures in political sociology) (1927). Translated, and introduced by Alfred de Grazia, as First lectures in political sociology (University of Minnesota Press, 1949; Arno Press, 1974, )
 Sittlichkeit in Ziffern? Kritik der Moralstatistik (Morality in Numerics? Criticism of Morale Statistics) (1928)
 Patriotismus, Prolegomena zu seiner soziologischen Analyse (Patriotism, Prolegomena to his sociological analysis) (1929)
 Einfluss der faschistischen Arbeitsverfassung auf die Weltwirtschaft (Influence of the Fascist Arbeitsverfassung on the World Economy) (1929)
 Italien von heute. Politische und wirtschaftliche Kulturgeschichte von 1860 bis 1930 (Italy Today - Political and Economical Cultural History from 1860 to 1930) (1930)
 Introduzione alla storia delle dottrine economiche e politiche (Introduction to the history of economic and political doctrines) (1932)
 Boicottaggio, saggio su un aspetto delle crisi (Boycotts, an essay on an aspect of crises) (1934)
 Boycottage international (International boycotts) (1936)
 Verelendungstheorie. Studien und Untersuchungen zur internationalen Dogmengeschichte der Volkswirtschaft, with a foreword by Heinz Maus (Pauperization Theory - Studies and Research into International Dogmas History of National Economy) (1970)
 Elite e/o democrazia (Elites and/or democracy) (G. Volpe, 1972)
 Antologia di scritti sociologici (Anthology of publications on sociology); edited by Giordano Sivini (1980)
 Works on paper, 1918-1930 (Barbara Mathes Gallery, 1984)
 Critique du socialisme : contribution aux débats du début du XXè siècle (Critique of Socialism: contributions to the debates at the start of the 20th century); articles selected and presented by Pierre Cours-Salies and Jean-Marie Vincent (Editions Kimé, 1992, )

References

 Volpe, Giorgio: Italian Elitism and the Reshaping of Democracy in the United States, Routledge, 2021
 For a critique of Michels see Colin Barker 'Robert Michels and the "Cruel Game"' in Colin Barker et al eds. Leadership and Social Movements (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001)
 "Robert Michels And the "Iron Law of Oligarchy"," chapter 12 of Revolution and Counterrevolution: Change and Persistence in Social Structures by Seymour Martin Lipset
 Entwicklung zum faschistischen Führerstaat in der politischen Philosophie von Robert Michels by Frank Pfetsch (1965)
 Robert Michels; vom sozialistisch-syndikalistischen zum faschistischen Credo by Wilfried Röhrich (Duncker & Humblot, 1971, ).
 Organizzazione, partito, classe, politica e legge ferrea dell'oligarchia in Roberto Michels by Giorgio Sola (1972)
 Sociology and estrangement: three sociologists of Imperial Germany by Arthur Mitzman (Knopf, 1973, ). Republished with a new introduction by the author (Transaction Books, 1987, ).
 The anti-democratic sources of elite theory: Pareto, Mosca, Michels by Robert A. Nye (SAGE, 1977, ).
 Dilemmi della democrazia moderna: Max Weber e Robert Michels by Francesco Tuccari (Laterza, 1993, )
 Intelectuales, masas y élites: una introducción a Mosca, Pareto y Michels by María de los Angeles Yannuzzi (UNR Editora, 1993, ).
 Robert Michels : die Herausbildung der modernen politischen Soziologie im Kontext von Herausforderung und Defizit der Arbeiterbewegung by Joachim Hetscher (1993)
 Robert Michels und das eiserne Gesetz der Oligarchie by Gustav Wagner in "Wer wählt, hat seine Stimme abgegeben" Graswurzel Revolution pp. 28
 Federico Trocini, Tra internazionalismo e nazionalismo. Robert Michels e i dilemmi del socialismo di fronte alla guerra e all'imperialismo (1900-1915), Aracne, Roma 2007.
 Federico Trocini, Irredentismo e patriottismo nella scelta italiana di Robert Michels (1895–1915): un'«arcana affinità elettiva», in «Annali dell'Istituto italo-germanico in Trento», XXXIII, 2007, pp. 449–490.
 Federico Trocini, Robert Michels: un marxista eterodosso al tempo della Seconda Internazionale (1900-1910), in POGGIO P. P. (a cura di), L'Altronovecento. Comunismo eretico e pensiero critico, 5 voll., Jaca Book, Milano 2010, vol. I (L'età del comunismo sovietico. Europa 1900–1945), pp. 305–319.
 Genett, Timm: Der Fremde im Kriege – Zur politischen Theorie und Biographie von Robert Michels 1876–1936. 2008.[1]
 Genett, Timm (Hrsg.): Robert Michels: Soziale Bewegungen zwischen Dynamik und Erstarrung. Essays zur Arbeiter-, Frauen- und nationalen Bewegung. 2008.
 Genett, Timm: "Antiquierter Klassiker? Zum ideengeschichtlichen Status von Robert Michels' "Soziologie des Parteiwesens"", in: Bluhm, Fischer, Lllanque (Hg.): Ideenpolitik, Berlin 2011, S.383–296.
 Genett, Timm: "Demokratische Sozialpädagogik in der Krise der Aufklärung – zur Ambivalenz eines Klassikers der Elitetheorie",  in: Bluhm, Krause (Hg.): Robert Michels' Soziologie des Parteiwesens, Wiesbaden 2012, S. 69–85.
 Genett, Timm: "Lettere di Ladislaus Gumplowicz a Roberto Michels (1902-1907)", in: Annali della Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, Vol. XXXI, Torino 1997, S. 417–473.
 Genett, Timm: "Lettere di Roberto Michels e di Julius Springer  (1913-1915)", in: Annali della Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, Vol. XXX, Torino 1996, S. 533–555.
 Robert Michels' Soziologie des Parteiwesens, hrsg v. Harald Bluhm und Skadi Krause, Wiesbaden 2012

External links

 Biography of Robert Michels at BookRags.com
 Political Parties, a PDF of Political Parties.
 Robert Michels – Oligarchy taken from Oscar Grusky and George A. Miller, The Sociology of Organizations: Basic Studies (Free Press, 1970, pp. 25–43). Reprints from Political Parties.
 Roberto Michels - Oligarchy comparison with Weber.
 Books and Articles on: Robert Michels

1876 births
1936 deaths
Elite theory
German syndicalists
German socialists
German sociologists
Italian socialists
Writers from Cologne
People from the Rhine Province
Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg alumni
Leipzig University alumni
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni
Academic staff of the University of Marburg
Academic staff of the University of Perugia
Italian fascists
German male writers
Union democracy
German emigrants to Italy
University of Paris alumni

Robert Michels