Eastern Oregon is a region of the U.S. state of Oregon. It is not an officially recognized geographic entity; thus, the boundaries of the region vary according to context. It is sometimes understood to include only the eight easternmost counties in the state; in other contexts, it includes the entire area east of the Cascade Range. Cities in the basic eight-county definition include Baker City, Burns, Hermiston, Pendleton, Boardman, John Day, La Grande, and Ontario. Umatilla County is home to the largest population base in Eastern Oregon, accounting for 42% of the region's residents.  Hermiston, located in Umatilla County, is the largest city in the region, accounting for 10% of the population. Major industries include transportation/warehousing, timber, agriculture and tourism. The main transportation corridors are I-84, U.S. Route 395, U.S. Route 97, U.S. Route 26, U.S. Route 30, and U.S. Route 20.

Compared to that of the western part of the state, the climate of Eastern Oregon is a drier continental climate, with much greater seasonal variations in temperature. Unlike the Willamette Valley, Eastern Oregon receives a significant amount of snow in the winter. Some areas receive fewer than  of rain yearly, classifying them as deserts. This desert climate is in part due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Cascade Range. Pine and juniper forests cover 35% of Eastern Oregon, much in the mountains that include the Blue Mountains, Strawberry Mountains, Wallowa Mountains, Trout Creek Mountains, Ochoco Mountains, and Steens Mountain. Volcanic basalt flows from the Columbia River Basalt Group covered large sections of Eastern Oregon 6 to 17 million years ago. Other landforms include the Alvord Desert, Owyhee Desert, Warner Valley, Deschutes River, Owyhee River, Grande Ronde River, Joseph Canyon, The Honeycombs, and Malheur Butte.

Geography

According to the Eastern Oregon Visitors Association, Eastern Oregon includes only the following eight counties: Morrow, Umatilla, Union, Wallowa, Grant, Baker, Harney, and Malheur. Some definitions of the region are more restrictive, while others include the base eight counties listed above plus several adjacent counties. Still others include the entire area east of the Cascade Range; this meaning would also include Sherman, Crook, Deschutes, Gilliam, Jefferson, Klamath, Lake, Wasco, and Wheeler counties.

The extreme eastern section of Oregon in the Snake River Valley, including the city of Ontario, is part of the Treasure Valley, which extends east to Boise, Idaho. Unlike the rest of the state, that section lies within the Mountain Time Zone. Sacajawea Peak is the region's highest mountain.

Politics
Although Oregon as a whole is generally considered a blue state, Eastern Oregon is far more conservative than the west. Morrow County is the only Eastern Oregon county to have supported Democratic presidential nominees after Lyndon Johnson's 1964 landslide, having voted for Jimmy Carter in 1976 and for Bill Clinton in 1996. In the 2012 presidential election, the Republican candidate Mitt Romney received at least 60% of the vote in every county in Eastern Oregon.

The political divide between the eastern and western parts of the state has led some residents of Eastern Oregon to feel that the state of Oregon, with the majority of its population and political control based in the western part of the state, has neglected the eastern part of the state, preventing it from developing along with the western part. A movement to have Eastern Oregon secede and join the United States as a 51st state was underway in 2008.

"Greater Idaho"

In 2021, five counties in Eastern Oregon voted to direct their County Commissioners to hold annual hearings on the issue of joining Idaho, the state located east of Oregon. It was initiated by the group "Move Oregon's Border for a Greater Idaho", who support the Greater Idaho movement. As of May 2022, eight counties had voted to direct their County Commissioners to examine the issue further. Some counties, such as Douglas and Josephine, had voted against joining the coalition. By November, three more counties in Eastern Oregon, for a total of eleven, had voted to join Idaho, a number that grew to 12 by June of 2023.

On January 10, 2023, Senate Joint Memorial 2, also known as the Greater Idaho Bill, was sponsored in the Oregon Senate by politician Dennis Linthicum.

Cities
Top 15 most populated Eastern Oregon cities (according to the 8-county definition):

By extending the boundary outside to include neighboring counties, Eastern Oregon would include three of the largest population centers east of the Cascade Range: Bend, Redmond, and Klamath Falls. However, these lie outside the stricter boundary.

Climate and ecology
Compared to the maritime rainforest climate of Western Oregon, which is adjacent to the Pacific Ocean, the climate of Eastern Oregon is a drier continental climate, with much greater seasonal variations in temperature. Unlike the Willamette Valley, Eastern Oregon gets a significant amount of snow in the winter. Some parts of Eastern Oregon receive fewer than  of rain yearly, classifying them as deserts. The driest parts are the southeast and the area near Redmond. This desert climate is in part due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Cascade Range. Pine and juniper forests cover 35% of Eastern Oregon, especially in the mountains east of Klamath Falls and in the Blue Mountains.

Economy
The region's economy is primarily agricultural. Timber and mining, while formerly key industries, have decreased in importance in recent years. Cultural tourism, agritourism and ecotourism continue to develop. The wheat growing region of Eastern Oregon includes the Columbia Plateau portion of northeastern Oregon, which begins with very marginal wheat fields in central Wasco County and extends east through Umatilla County. Its rich loess soils "help make the Columbia Plateau one of the premier wheat-producing regions in the world." South of the wheat lands of northeast Oregon, agricultural activity is generally limited to livestock grazing except where irrigation is available. Irrigated areas are often used to produce alfalfa hay.

Recreation
From the high desert to the rugged mountainous areas of the Eagle Cap Wilderness area, Eastern Oregon has a range of outdoor recreational opportunities such as skiing, rafting, and hiking.

Anthony Lakes is the largest ski resort in Eastern Oregon. Spout Springs, located in the Umatilla National Forest in the Blue Mountains, is popular with families. Rafting is often seasonal on the rivers that are snowpack-dependent and not dammed. The Owyhee River is an example of a desert canyon river experience. The Snake River offers boating experiences that range from a quiet drift through the desert to hair-raising thrills of class II to III+ rapids.

Transportation

Historically, the region has been relatively isolated from Western Oregon, due to the difficulty of crossing the Cascades. Early settlers floated down the Columbia River from The Dalles to reach Western Oregon. In 1845, Sam Barlow built a road around the south side of Mount Hood, which served as the final leg of the Oregon Trail. The Applegate Trail and Santiam Wagon Road were constructed soon after, connecting eastern and western Oregon in the southern and central parts of the state. In the early 20th century, Samuel Hill built the Columbia River Highway, allowing automobiles to pass through the Columbia River Gorge.

Railroads began to be important as early as 1858 with the construction of the Oregon Portage Railroad which built a  bypass around the rapids at Cascade Locks. This was followed by the 1862 incorporation of the Oregon Steam Navigation Company whose operations included building a rail bypass from The Dalles to Celilo Falls. In 1880 these two short sections of rail were incorporated into the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company (OR&N). Shortly thereafter Henry Villard, who then controlled OR&N, moved aggressively to block entry of the then under construction Northern Pacific Railway into the Columbia Gorge.
In an agreement first made in March 1880 and formalized in the fall of 1880, the Northern Pacific Railway, then controlled by Frederick Billings, and the OR&N, at that time controlled by Henry Villard, agreed to divide the Columbia Plateau at the Snake River, with the Northern Pacific staying to the north and the OR&N staying to the south. Northern Pacific was not to build down the gorge into Portland, but would receive trackage rights on the tracks that OR&N was building on the south bank into Portland. The first St. Paul-Portland Northern Pacific train arrived in Portland on September 12, 1883, via OR&N trackage down the Oregon side of the Columbia River from Wallula, Washington forever ending the isolation of at least the northern portion of Eastern Oregon. A year later in November 1884, the Oregon Short Line was completed across southern Idaho and met the OR&N at Huntington, providing rail service that essentially paralleled the Oregon Trail all the way from Omaha, Nebraska. Later the OR&N became part of the Union Pacific Railway.

The only other railroad ever built east over the Cascade Mountains was trackage that was to become part of the Southern Pacific Transportation Company, which was opened in 1926 over Willamette Pass to Klamath Falls to bypass the difficult line south of Eugene to Ashland.

All-weather highways over the Cascade Mountains were not completed until the 1930s and 1940s.

Major road routes through eastern Oregon include I-84 from Ontario to the Columbia River Gorge. The only other interstate freeway in the region is an eleven-mile (18 km) stretch of Interstate 82 that ends at the Columbia River in Umatilla. Other major east–west routes include U.S. Route 26, U.S. Route 30, U.S. Route 20 and U.S. Route 730. U.S. Route 395 is a major north–south route, passing through Pendleton, Burns, John Day, and Lakeview. Further west, U.S. Route 97 runs north and south from the California border through Klamath Falls, Bend, and Redmond to Biggs Junction on the Columbia River.

See also
 Regions of Oregon

References

Regions of Oregon
Geography of Union County, Oregon
Geography of Umatilla County, Oregon
Geography of Morrow County, Oregon
Geography of Wallowa County, Oregon
Geography of Grant County, Oregon
Geography of Baker County, Oregon
Geography of Harney County, Oregon
Geography of Malheur County, Oregon

Eastern Oregon


Mecano este un film românesc din 2001 regizat de Cristian Nemescu, Florin Șerban, Daniel Șerbănică. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Gheorghe Lazăr.

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Mecano


The Mahāsāṃghika (Brahmi: 𑀫𑀳𑀸𑀲𑀸𑀁𑀖𑀺𑀓, "of the Great Sangha", ) was a major division (nikāya) of the early Buddhist schools in India. They were one of the two original communities that emerged from the first schism of the original pre-sectarian Buddhist tradition (the other being the Sthavira nikaya). This schism is traditionally held to have occurred after the Second Buddhist council, which occurred at some point during or after the reign of Ashoka. The Mahāsāṃghika nikāya developed into numerous sects which spread throughout ancient India.

Some scholars think that the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (monastic rule) represents the oldest Buddhist monastic source. While the Mahāsāṃghika tradition is no longer in existence, many scholars look to the Mahāsāṃghika tradition as an early source for some ideas that were later adopted by Mahāyāna Buddhism. Some of these ideas include the view that the Buddha was a fully transcendent being (term "lokottaravada", "transcendentalism"), the idea that there are many contemporaneous Buddhas and bodhisattvas throughout the universe, the doctrine of the inherent purity and luminosity of the mind (Skt: prakṛtiś cittasya prabhāsvarā), the doctrine of reflexive awareness (svasamvedana) and the doctrine of prajñapti-matra (absolute nominalism or pure conceptualism).

History

Most sources place the origin of the Mahāsāṃghikas to the Second Buddhist council. Traditions regarding the Second Council are confusing and ambiguous, but it is agreed that the overall result was the first schism in the Sangha between the Sthavira nikāya and the Mahāsāṃghika nikāya, although it is not agreed upon by all what the cause of this split was.

According to Jan Nattier and Charles S. Prebish, the best date for the first schism and the creation of the Mahāsāṃghika as a separate community is 116 years after the Buddha's nirvana.

Some Buddhist historical sources mention that the cause for schism was a dispute over vinaya (monastic rule), mainly the desire of certain Sthaviras (elders) to add extra rules to make the vinaya more rigorous. Other sources, especially Sthavira sources like those of the Sarvastivada school, argue that the main cause was a doctrinal issue. They blame a figure named Mahadeva with arguing for five divisive points, four of which see arhatship as a lesser kind of spiritual attainment (which still has ignorance and desire).

Andrew Skilton has suggested that the problems of contradictory accounts about the first schism are solved by the Mahāsāṃghika Śāriputraparipṛcchā, which is the earliest surviving account of the schism. In this account, the council was convened at Pāṭaliputra over matters of vinaya, and it is explained that the schism resulted from the majority (Mahāsaṃgha) refusing to accept the addition of rules to the Vinaya by a smaller group of elders (Sthaviras). The Mahāsāṃghikas therefore saw the Sthaviras as being a breakaway group which was attempting to modify the original Vinaya and to make it more strict.

Scholars have generally agreed that the matter of dispute was indeed a matter of vinaya, and have noted that the account of the Mahāsāṃghikas is bolstered by the vinaya texts themselves, as vinayas associated with the Sthaviras do contain more rules than those of the Mahāsāṃghika vinaya.

Modern scholarship therefore generally agrees that the Mahāsāṃghika vinaya is the oldest. According to Skilton, future historians may determine that a study of the Mahāsāṃghika school will contribute to a better understanding of the early Dhamma-Vinaya than the Theravāda school.

Regarding the issue with Mahadeva's doctrine, this seems to have been a later doctrinal dispute within the Mahāsāṃghika community (which happened after the schism). The followers of Mahadeva seem to have been the precursors of the southern Mahāsāṃghika sects, like the Caitikas.

Geography
The original center of the Mahāsāṃghika sects was Magadha, but they also maintained important centers such as in Mathura and Karli. The Kukkuṭikas were situated in eastern India around Vārāṇasī and Pāṭaliputra and the Bahuśrutīya in Kośala, Andhra, and Gandhara.

The Lokottaravāda subschool itself claimed to be of the 'Middle Country', i.e. Ganges Basin region in the north of India. The Mahāsāṃghikas and the Lokottaravāda subschool also had centres in the Gandhara region. The Ekavyāvahārika are not known from later times.

The Caitika branch was based in the Coastal Andhra region and especially at Amarāvati and Nāgārjunakoṇḍā. This Caitika branch included the Pūrvaśailas, Aparaśailas, Rājagirikas, and the Siddhārthikas.

Finally, Madhyadesa was home to the Prajñaptivādins. The ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Krishna Valley, including Amarāvati, Nāgārjunakoṇḍā and Jaggayyapeṭa, "can be traced to at least the third century BCE, if not earlier."

The cave temples at the Ajaṇṭā Caves, the Ellora Caves, and the Karla Caves are associated with the Mahāsāṃghikas.

Appearance and language

Appearance

Between 148 and 170 CE, the Parthian monk An Shigao came to China and translated a work which describes the color of monastic robes (Skt. kāṣāya) utilized in five major Indian Buddhist sects, called Da Biqiu Sanqian Weiyi (Ch. 大比丘三千威儀). Another text translated at a later date, the Śāriputraparipṛcchā, contains a very similar passage corroborating this information. In both sources, the Mahāsāṃghikas are described as wearing yellow robes. The relevant portion of the Śāriputraparipṛcchā reads:

The lower part of the yellow robe was pulled tightly to the left.

According to Dudjom Rinpoche from the tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, the robes of fully ordained Mahāsāṃghika monastics were to be sewn out of more than seven sections, but no more than twenty-three sections. The symbols sewn on the robes were the endless knot (Skt. śrīvatsa) and the conch shell (Skt. śaṅkha), two of the Eight Auspicious Signs in Buddhism.

Language
The Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub (1290-1364) wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prākrit, the Sarvāstivādins Sanskrit, the Sthaviravādins used Paiśācī and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa.

Doctrines and teachings
[[File:MET DT5217 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Depiction of the Buddha's descent from Trāyastriṃśa heaven, second half 3rd century.<ref>MET museum page</ref>]

List of doctrinal tenets
Andre Bareau, in his Buddhist sects of the small vehicle (1955), lists numerous doctrinal tenets as upheld by the later mature Mahāsāṃghika tradition. Some of these include:

 The Buddhas are supramundane (lokottara), devoid of asravas and the mundane natures.
 In all their words (vaca), Tathagatas turn the wheel of Dharma. They can also express all the Dharmadhatu in a single sound.
 The material body (rupakaya), power (prabhava) and longevity of the Buddha is unlimited (ananta).
 The Buddha does not sleep or dream.
 The Tathagata answers questions without thinking.
 Buddhas never say a word because they are always in samadhi, but beings, thinking that they utter words, jump for joy.
 In a single moment of thought (ekaksanikacitta), Buddhas comprehend all dharmas.
 The Buddhas remain in all directions. There are Buddhas everywhere in the four directions.
 When the Bodhisattvas enter into a womb (garbha), they possess nothing impure and are entirely provided with organs and members, rather than developing gradually. When they enter a womb, Bodhisattvas also take on the appearance of a white elephant.
 Bodhisattvas, because they want to help beings become perfect, make vows to be reborn in bad destinations.
 The different aspects of the four noble truths are known in a single moment (ekaksanika).
 The five sensory (indriya) faculties consist of balls of flesh, therefore only consciousness (vijñana) sees forms, hears sounds, etc.
 There are no indeterminate (avyakrta) things (dharma), that is, there are no dharmas that are neither good nor bad.
 When one enters certainty [to become a Buddha] (samyaktvaniyama) one has abandoned all the fetters (samyojana).
 "Stream enterers" (srotapanna) can commit all misdeeds, except for the irremediable crimes (anantarya).
 All sutras uttered by Buddha are nītārtha ("of plain or clear meaning").
 Since they do not know everything (sabba), there are Arhats who are subject to ignorance (avijja), who have doubts (kariksa), who are saved by others.
 The self-presence of mind is bright. It is soiled (i.e. darkened) by adventitious secondary defilement.
 The tendencies (anusaya) are neither consciousnesses (citta) nor mental factors (caitta), and are devoid of object (analambana).
 The past and the future do not really exist.
 There is no intermediate state (antarabhava).
 Virtue (sila) is not mental (acetasika) and it is not consecutive to thought (cittanuparivatti).
 Tendencies (anusaya) are indeterminate (abyakata), not-caused (ahetuka) and disjointed from thought (cittavippayutta).
 There is a root-consciousness (mūlavijñāna) which serves as the support (dsraya) for eye-perception and the other sensory perceptions, like the root of the tree is the principle of the leaves, etc.
 The current consciousnesses (pavattiviññāna) can be simultaneous (sahabhu) and do not carry karmic seeds (bija).
 The path (marga) and the defilements (kleśa) appear together.
 The act (karman) and its maturation (vipaka) evolve at the same time.
 Material things last a long time and so go through transformation (as milk turns into curds), but mental factors and consciousnesses do not because they have a swift production and cessation.
 Thought (citta) penetrates the whole body (kaya) and, depending on the object (visaya) and the support (asraya), it can contract or expand.

Buddhas and bodhisattvas

The Mahāsāṃghikas advocated the transcendental and supramundane nature of the buddhas and bodhisattvas, and the fallibility of arhats. Xing also notes that the Acchariyābbhūtasutta of the Majjhimanikāya along with its Chinese Madhyamāgama parallel version is the most prominent evidence for the ancient source of the Mahāsāṃghika view of the Buddha. The sutra mentions various miracles performed by the Buddha before his birth and after. While the Pāli sutta uses the term bodhisattva for the Buddha before his birth, the Chinese version calls him Bhagavan. This points to the idea that the Buddha was already awakened before descending down to earth.

Similarly, the idea that the lifespan of a Buddha is limitless is also based on very ancient ideas. The Mahāparinirvānasūtra states that the Buddha's lifespan is as long as an eon (kalpa) and that he voluntarily chose to give up his life. Another early source for the Mahāsāṃghika view that a Buddha was a transcendent being is the idea of the thirty-two major marks of a Buddha's body. Furthermore, the Simpsapa sutta states that the Buddha had way more knowledge than what he taught to his disciples. The Mahāsāṃghikas took this further and argued that the Buddha knew the dharmas of innumerable other Buddhas of the ten directions.

Their unique views are described in the Samayabhedoparacanacakra (The Cycle of the Formation of the Schismatic Doctrines) of Vasumitra, translated by Xuanzang. Of the 48 special theses attributed by the Samayabhedoparacanacakra to the Mahāsāṃghika, Ekavyāvahārika, Lokottaravāda, and the Kukkuṭika, 20 concern the supramundane nature of buddhas and bodhisattvas. According to the Samayabhedoparacanacakra, these four groups held that the Buddha is able to know all dharmas in a single moment of the mind. Yao Zhihua writes:

A doctrine ascribed to the Mahāsāṃghikas is, "The power of the tathāgatas is unlimited, and the life of the buddhas is unlimited." According to Guang Xing, two main aspects of the Buddha can be seen in Mahāsāṃghika teachings: the true Buddha who is omniscient and omnipotent, and the manifested forms through which he liberates sentient beings through his skillful means (Skt. upāya). For the Mahāsāṃghikas, the historical Gautama Buddha was merely one of these transformation bodies (Skt. nirmāṇakāya), while the essential real Buddha was equated with the Dharmakāya.

The Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartanā sūtra makes numerous supramundane claims about the Buddha, including that:

 He was not produced through union of father and mother, but magically produced.
 His feet never touch the ground or get dirty, his footprints are only a show.
 His body and mouth does not get dirty, he only makes a show of cleaning himself.
 He did not really suffer and struggle to attain enlightenment for six years, this was just a show.
 He never gets hungry, he only manifests this in order to allow others to gain merit by giving.
 He does not really produce human waste, this is only a show.
 His body does not grow tired, ill or old, and is not affected by cold or heat, it only appears to have these qualities.

Like the Mahāyāna traditions, the Mahāsāṃghikas held the doctrine of the existence of many contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions. In the Mahāsāṃghika Lokānuvartana Sūtra, it is stated, "The Buddha knows all the dharmas of the countless buddhas of the ten directions." It is also stated, "All buddhas have one body, the body of the Dharma."

In the view of Mahāsāṃghikas, advanced bodhisattvas have severed the bonds of karma, and are born out of their own free will into lower states of existence (Skt. durgati) in order to help liberate other sentient beings. As described by Akira Hirakawa:

The concept of many bodhisattvas simultaneously working toward buddhahood is also found among the Mahāsāṃghika tradition, and further evidence of this is given in the Samayabhedoparacanacakra, which describes the doctrines of the Mahāsāṃghikas. These two concepts of contemporaneous bodhisattvas and contemporaneous buddhas were linked in some traditions, and texts such as the Mahāprajñāpāramitāupadeśa use the principle of contemporaneous bodhisattvas to demonstrate the necessity of contemporaneous buddhas throughout the ten directions. It is thought that the doctrine of contemporaneous buddhas was already old and well established by the time of early Mahāyāna texts such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, due to the clear presumptions of this doctrine.

Mundane and supramundane
The Mahāsāṃghikas held that the teachings of the Buddha were to be understood as having two principal levels of truth: a relative or conventional (Skt. saṃvṛti) truth, and the absolute or ultimate (Skt. paramārtha) truth. For the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism, the final and ultimate meaning of the Buddha's teachings was "beyond words," and words were merely the conventional exposition of the Dharma. K. Venkata Ramanan writes:

Self-Awareness and the Mind
Some Mahāsāṃghikas held a theory of self-awareness or self-cognition (svasaṃvedana) which held that a moment of consciousness (citta) can be aware of itself as well as its intentional object. This doctrine arose out of their understanding of the Buddha's enlightenment which held that in a single moment of mind the Buddha knew all things. The Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra explains the doctrine of self-reflexive awareness as follows: Some allege that the mind (citta) and mental activities (caitta) can apprehend themselves (svabhāva). Schools like Mahāsāṃghika hold the following view: It is the nature of awareness (jñāna) and so forth to apprehend, thus awareness can apprehend itself as well as others. This is like a lamp that can illuminate itself and others owing to its nature (svabhāva) of luminosity.Some Mahāsāṃghikas also held that the mind's nature (cittasvabhāva) is fundamentally pure (mulavisuddha), but it can be contaminated by adventitious defilements. Vasumitra's Nikayabheda-dharmamati-chakra-sastra also discusses this theory, and cites the sutra passage which the Mahāsāṃghikas drew on to defend it. This passage is quoted by Vasumitra as: The self-nature of the mind (cittasvabhāva) is luminous (prabhāsvara). It is the adventitious impurities (āgantukopakleśa) that defile it. The self substance of the mind is eternally pure.The commentary to Vasumitra by Kuiji adds the following: "It is because afflictions (kleśa) are produced which soil it that it is said to be defiled. But these defilements, not being of the original nature of the mind, are called adventitious." The Kathāvatthu (III, 3) also cites this idea as a thesis of the Andhakas.

Texts

According to Bart Dessein, the Mohe sengzhi lu (Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya) provides some insight into the format of this school's textual canon. They appear to have had a Vinaya in five parts, an Abhidharmapiṭaka, and a Sutrapiṭaka:Of these texts, their Vinaya was translated into Chinese by Buddhabhadra and Faxian between 416 and 418 CE in the Daochang Monastery in Nanjing, capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. In this text, their Abhidharma is defined as "the sūtrānta in nine parts" (navāṅga). This suggests that the early Mahāsāṃghikas rejected the abhidharmic developments that occurred within Sarvāstivāda circles. As is the case with their Vinayapiṭaka, also their Sutrapiṭaka seems to have consisted of five parts (āgama): *Dīrghāgama,*Madhyamāgama,*Saṃyuktāgama, *Ekottarāgama and *Kṣudrakāgama. Dessein also mentions that the school probably also had a Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which included material that "in all likelihood consisted of texts that formed part of the early development of the bodhisattva path as an alternative career to that of the arhant, perhaps serving as a foundation for the later developments of the bodhisattva doctrine".

Vinaya texts
According to Zhihua Yao, the following Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya texts are extant in Chinese: Mahāsāṃghika bhiksuni-vinaya, Pratimoksa-sutra, Sphutartha Srighanacarasamgrahatika, Abhisamacarika-Dharma and the Mahavastu.

Zhan Ru also notes that the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (Chinse: Mohe Sengqi Lü) translated by Faxian (337–422 CE) contains proto-Mahayana elements and "reflects the nascent formation of the Mahāyāna Dharma teachings."

The Mahāvastu (Sanskrit for "Great Event" or "Great Story") is the most well known of the Lokottaravāda branch of the Mahāsāṃghika school. It is a preface to their Vinaya Pitaka and contains numerous Jātaka and Avadāna tales, stories of past lives of the Buddha and other bodhisattvas. It is considered a primary source for the notion of a transcendent (''lokottara'') Buddha, who across his countless past lives developed various abilities such as omniscience (sarvajñana), the lack of any need for sleep or food and being born painlessly without the need for intercourse. The text shows strong parallels with the Pali Mahakhandhaka.

The Śariputraparipṛcchā (Shelifu Wen Jing, 舍利弗問經, Taisho 1465, p. 900b), translated into Chinese between 317 and 420, is a Mahasamghika Vinaya work which also provides a history of early Buddhism and its schisms.

Sutras
Some scholars such as Yao and Tse Fu Kuan consider the Ekottara Āgama (Taishō Tripiṭaka 125) to belong to the Mahāsāṃghika school, though this is still up for debate.

The Lokānuvartanā sūtra (Chinese: 佛説内藏百寶經, pinyin: fóshuō nèi zàng bǎi bǎo jīng, Taishō Tripiṭaka , Volume 17, text No. 807) is a text preserved in some Sanskrit fragments as well as in Tibetan and Chinese translation.

Abhidharma treatises and commentaries
According to some sources, abhidharma was not accepted as canonical by the Mahāsāṃghika school. The Theravādin Dīpavaṃsa, for example, records that the Mahāsāṃghikas had no abhidharma.

However, other sources indicate that there were such collections of abhidharma. During the early 5th century, the Chinese pilgrim Faxian is said to have found a Mahāsāṃghika abhidharma at a monastery in Pāṭaliputra. Furthermore, when Xuanzang visited Dhānyakaṭaka, he met two Mahāsāṃghika bhikṣus and studied Mahāsāṃghika abhidharma with them for several months. On the basis of textual evidence as well as inscriptions at Nāgārjunakoṇḍā, Joseph Walser concludes that at least some Mahāsāṃghika sects probably had an abhidharma collection, and that it likely contained five or six books.

The Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra ("the treatise that accomplishes reality"; C: 成實論, Chengshilun), is an Abhidharma work by a figure known as Harivarman (250-350). Some scholars including A.K. Warder, attribute the work to the Mahāsāṃghika-Bahusrutiyas, however others disagree and see it as a Sautrantika work. Chinese sources mention that he was initially a Sautrantika teacher who later lived with the Mahāsāṃghikas.

The Chinese canon also includes a sutra commentary called the Fen-bie-gong-de-lun. (分別功徳論) in the 25th volume of the Taisho Tripitaka Series (No. 1507, pp. 30–52).

Manuscript Collections
The Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited a Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda monastery in the 7th century at Bamyan, Afghanistan, and this monastery site has since been rediscovered by archaeologists. Birch bark manuscripts and palm-leaf manuscripts of texts in this monastery's collection, including Mahayana sutras, have been discovered at the site, and these are now located in the Schøyen Collection. Some manuscripts are in the Gāndhārī language and Kharoṣṭhī script, while others are in Sanskrit and written in forms of the Gupta script.

Manuscripts and fragments that have survived from this monastery's collection include the following source texts:

 Prātimokṣa Vibhaṅga of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda (MS 2382/269)
 Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, a sutra from the Āgamas (MS 2179/44)
 Caṃgī Sūtra, a sūtra from the Āgamas (MS 2376)
 Diamond Sutra, a Mahayana sutra (MS 2385)
 Bhaiṣajyaguru Sūtra, a Mahayana sutra (MS 2385)
 Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra, a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378)
 Pravāraṇa Sūtra, a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378)
 Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśa Sūtra, a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378)
 Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra, a Mahayana sutra (MS 2378)
 Śāriputrābhidharma (MS 2375/08)

Bodhisattva collection
Within the Mahāsāṃghika branch, the Bahuśrutīyas are said to have included a Bodhisattva Piṭaka in their canon, and Paramārtha wrote that the Bahuśrutīyas accepted both the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings. In the 6th century CE, Bhāvaviveka speaks of the Siddhārthikas using a Vidyādhāra Piṭaka, and the Pūrvaśailas and Aparaśailas both using a Bodhisattva Piṭaka, all implying collections of Mahāyāna texts within the Mahāsāṃghika schools. During the same period, Avalokitavrata speaks of the Mahāsāṃghikas using a "Great Āgama Piṭaka," which is then associated with Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Prajñāparamitā and the Daśabhūmika Sūtra.

Relationship to Mahāyāna

Acceptance of Mahāyāna
In the 6th century CE, Paramārtha, a Buddhist monk from Ujjain in central India, wrote about a special affiliation of the Mahāsāṃghika school with the Mahāyāna tradition. He associates the initial composition and acceptance of Mahāyāna sūtras with the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism. He states that 200 years after the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, much of the Mahāsāṃghika school moved north of Rājagṛha, and were divided over whether the Mahāyāna teachings should be incorporated formally into their Tripiṭaka. According to this account, they split into three groups based upon the relative manner and degree to which they accepted the authority of these Mahāyāna texts.

Paramārtha states that the Kukkuṭika sect did not accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana ("word of the Buddha"), while the Lokottaravāda sect and the Ekavyāvahārika sect did accept the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana. Paramartha's report states:In this school, there were some who believed these sutras and some who did not. Those who did not believe them . . . said that such sutras are made by man and are not proclaimed by the Buddha, . . . that the disciples of the Lesser Vehicle only believe in the Tripitaka, because they did not personally hear the Buddha proclaim the Greater Vehicle. Among those who believed these sutras, there were some who did so because they had personally heard the Buddha proclaim the Greater Vehicle and therefore believed these sutras; others believed them, because it can be known through logical analysis that there is this principle [of the Greater Vehicle]; and some believed them because they believed their masters. Those who did not believe [them] did so because these sutras were self-made and because they were not included in the five Agamas.Paramārtha also wrote about the origins of the Bahuśrutīya sect in connection with acceptance of Mahāyāna teachings. According to his account, the founder of the Bahuśrutīya sect was named Yājñavalkya. In Paramārtha's account, Yājñavalkya is said to have lived during the time of the Buddha, and to have heard his discourses, but was in a profound state of samādhi during the time of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa. After Yājñavalkya emerged from this samādhi 200 years later, he discovered that the Mahāsāṃghikas were teaching only the superficial meaning of the sūtras, and therefore founded the Bahuśrutīya sect in order to expound the full meaning.

According to Paramārtha, the Bahuśrutīya school was formed in order to fully embrace both "conventional truth" and "ultimate truth." Bart Dessein links the Bahuśrutīya understanding of this full exposition to the Mahāyāna teachings. In his writings, Paramārtha also indicated as much:

Royal patronage
Some early Mahāyāna sūtras reference wealthy female donors and provide evidence that they were developed in the Āndhra region, where the Mahāsāṃghika Caitika groups were predominant. The Mahāyāna Mahāmegha Sūtra, for example, gives a prophecy about a royal princess of the Śatavāhana dynasty who will live in Āndhra, along the Kṛṣṇa River, in Dhānyakaṭaka, seven hundred years after the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha.

Several scholars such as Étienne Lamotte, and Alex and Hideko Wayman, associate the Āndra Ikṣvāku dynasty with patronage of Mahāyāna sūtras. Epigraphic evidence at Nāgārjunikoṇḍa also provides abundant evidence of royal and wealthy female donors.

Prajñāpāramitā
A number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were first developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsāṃghika schools of the Āndhra region, along the Kṛṣṇa River. Guang Xing states, "several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahāsāṃghikas in southern India, in the Āndhra country, on the Kṛṣṇa River." These Mahāsāṃghikas had two famous monasteries near Amarāvati and the Dhānyakaṭaka, which gave their names to the schools of the Pūrvaśailas and the Aparaśailas. Each of these schools had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in Prakrit. Guang Xing also assesses the view of the Buddha given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of the Mahāsāṃghikas. Edward Conze estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.

Buddha-nature doctrine

Brian Edward Brown, a specialist in Tathāgatagarbha doctrines, writes that it has been determined that the composition of the Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra occurred during the Īkṣvāku Dynasty in the 3rd century as a product of the Mahāsāṃghikas of the Āndhra region (i.e. the Caitika schools). Wayman has outlined eleven points of complete agreement between the Mahāsāṃghikas and the Śrīmālā, along with four major arguments for this association. Anthony Barber also associates the earlier development of the Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra with the Mahāsāṃghikas, and concludes that the Mahāsāṃghikas of the Āndhra region were responsible for the inception of the Tathāgatagarbha doctrine.

According to Stephen Hodge, internal textual evidence in the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra, Mahābherihāraka Parivarta Sūtra, and the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, indicates that these texts were first circulated in South India and then gradually propagated up to the northwest, with Kashmir being the other major center. The Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra gives a more detailed account by mentioning the points of distribution as including South India, the Vindhya Range, Bharuch, and Kashmir.

The language used in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra and related texts, seems to indicate a region in southern India during the time of the Śātavāhana Dynasty. The Śātavāhana rulers gave rich patronage to Buddhism, and were involved with the development of the cave temples at Karla and Ajaṇṭā, and also with the Great Stūpa at Amarāvati. During this time, the Śātavāhana Dynasty also maintained extensive links with the Kuṣāṇa Empire.

Using textual evidence in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra and related texts, Stephen Hodge estimates a compilation period between 100 CE and 220 CE for the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. Hodge summarizes his findings as follows:

In the 6th century CE, Paramārtha wrote that the Mahāsāṃghikas revere the sūtras which teach the Tathāgatagarbha.

Views of scholars
Since at least the Meiji period in Japan, some scholars of Buddhism have looked to the Mahāsāṃghika as the originators of Mahāyāna Buddhism. According to Akira Hirakawa, modern scholars often look to the Mahāsāṃghikas as the originators of Mahāyāna Buddhism.

According to A.K. Warder, it is "clearly" the case that the Mahāyāna teachings originally came from the Mahāsāṃghika branch of Buddhism. Warder holds that "the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country." Anthony Barber and Sree Padma note that "historians of Buddhist thought have been aware for quite some time that such pivotally important Mahayana Buddhist thinkers as Nāgārjuna, Dignaga, Candrakīrti, Āryadeva, and Bhavaviveka, among many others, formulated their theories while living in Buddhist communities in Āndhra."

André Bareau has stated that there can be found Mahāyāna ontology prefigured in the Mahāsāṃghika schools, and has offered an array of evidence to support this conclusion. Bareau traces the origin of the Mahāyāna tradition to the older Mahāsāṃghika schools in regions such as Odisha, Kosala, Koñkana, and so on. He then cites the Bahuśrutīyas and Prajñaptivādins as sub-sects of the Mahāsāṃghika that may have played an important role in bridging the flow of Mahāyāna teachings between the northern and southern Mahāsāṃghika traditions.

André Bareau also mentions that according to Xuanzang and Yijing in the 7th century CE, the Mahāsāṃghika schools had essentially disappeared, and instead these travelers found what they described as "Mahāyāna." The region occupied by the Mahāsāṃghika was then an important center for Mahāyāna Buddhism. Bareau has proposed that Mahāyāna grew out of the Mahāsāṃghika schools, and the members of the Mahāsāṃghika schools also accepted the teachings of the Mahāyāna. Additionally, the extant Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was originally procured by Faxian in the early 5th century CE at what he describes as a "Mahāyāna" monastery in Pāṭaliputra.

Vinaya Recension

Early features

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya recension is essentially very similar to the other recensions, as they all are to each other. The Mahāsāṃghika recension differs most from the other recensions in structure, but the rules are generally identical in meaning, if the Vibhangas (explanations) are compared. The features of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya recension which suggest that it might be an older redaction are, in brief, these:

The Bhiksu-prakirnaka and Bhiksuni-prakirnaka and the Bhiksu-abhisamacarika-dharma sections of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya are generally equivalent to the Khandhakas/ Skandhakas of the Sthavira derived schools. However, their structure is simpler, and according to recent research by Clarke, the structure follows a matika (Matrix) which is also found embedded in the Vinayas of several of the Sthavira schools, suggesting that it is presectarian. The sub-sections of the Prakirnaka sections are also titled pratisamyukta rather than Skandhaka / Khandhaka. Pratisamyukta / Patisamyutta means a section or chapter in a collection organised by subject; the 'samyukta-principle', like the Samyutta-Nikaya / Samyukta-agama. Scholars such as Master Yin Shun, Choong Moon Keat, and Bhikkhu Sujato have argued that the Samyutta / Samyukta represents the earliest collection among the Nikayas / Agamas, and this may well imply that it is also the oldest organising principle too. (N.B. this does not necessarily say anything about the age of the contents).

There are also fewer stories in general in the Vinaya of the subsidiary school, the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda, and many of them give the appearance of badly connected obvious interpolations, whereas in the structure of the Sthavira recensions the stories are integrated into the whole scheme. In the formulations of some of the pratimoksha rules also, the phrasing (though generally identical in meaning to the other recensions) often appears to represent a clearer but less streamlined version, which suggests it might be older. This is particularly noticeable in the Bhiksuni-Vinaya, which has not been as well preserved as the Bhiksu-Vinaya in general in all the recensions. Yet the formulation of certain rules which seem very confused in the other recensions (e.g. Bhikkhuni Sanghadisesa three = six in the Ma-L) seems to better represent what would be expected of a root formulation which could lead to the variety of confused formulations we see (presumably later) in the other recensions. The formulation of this rule (as an example) also reflects a semi-parallel formulation to a closely related rule for Bhiksus which is found in a more similar form in all the Vinayas (Pc64 in Pali).

Depiction of Devadatta
According to Reginald Ray, the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya mentions the figure of Devadatta, but in a way that is different from the vinayas of the Sthavira branch. According to this study, the earliest vinaya material common to all sects simply depicts Devadatta as a Buddhist saint who wishes for the monks to live a rigorous lifestyle. This has led Ray to regard the story of Devadatta as a legend produced by the Sthavira group. However, upon examining the same vinaya materials, Bhikkhu Sujato has written that the portrayals of Devadatta are largely consistent between the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya and the other vinayas, and that the supposed discrepancy is simply due to the minimalist literary style of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya. He also points to other parts of the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya that clearly portray Devadatta as a villain, as well as similar portrayals that exist in the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu.

Chinese translation
The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya is extant in the Chinese Buddhist Canon as Mohesengzhi Lü (摩訶僧祗律; Taishō Tripiṭaka 1425). The vinaya was originally procured by Faxian in the early 5th century CE at a Mahāyāna monastery in Pāṭaliputra. This vinaya was then translated into Chinese as a joint effort between Faxian and Buddhabhadra in 416 CE, and the completed translation is 40 fascicles in length. According to Faxian, in Northern India, the vinaya teachings were typically only passed down by tradition through word of mouth and memorization. For this reason, it was difficult for him to procure manuscripts of the vinayas that were used in India. The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was reputed to be the original vinaya from the lifetime of the Buddha, and "the most correct and complete."

Legacy
Although Faxian procured the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya in India and had this translated into Chinese, the tradition of Chinese Buddhism eventually settled on the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya instead. At the time of Faxian, the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was the most common vinaya tradition in China.

In the 7th century, Yijing wrote that in eastern China, most people followed the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, while the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya was used in earlier times in Guanzhong (the region around Chang'an), and that the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya was prominent in the Yangzi region and further south. In the 7th century, the existence of multiple Vinaya lineages throughout China was criticized by prominent Vinaya masters such as Yijing and Dao'an (654–717). In the early 8th century, Dao'an gained the support of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang, and an imperial edict was issued that the saṃgha in China should use only the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya for ordination.

Atiśa was ordained in the Mahāsāṃghika lineage. However, because the Tibetan Emperor Ralpacan had decreed that only the Mūlasarvāstivāda order would be permitted in Tibet, he did not ordain anyone.

See also

 Schools of Buddhism
 Early Buddhist schools
 Nikaya Buddhism

References

Bibliography
"Arya-Mahasamghika-Lokuttaravadin Bhiksuni-Vinaya"; edited by Gustav Roth, 1970.
Mahasamghika and Mahasamghika-Lokuttaravadin Vinayas in Chinese translation; CBETA Taisho digital edition.
"The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature"; Frauwallner, Serie Orientale Roma, 8. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
"Vinaya-Matrka — Mother of the Monastic Codes, or Just Another Set of Lists? A Response to Frauwallner's Handling of the Mahasamghika Vinaya"; Shayne Clarke. Indo-Iranian Journal 47: 77-120, 2004.
"A Survey of Vinaya Literature"; Charles Prebish.  Originally, Volume I of The Dharma Lamp Series. Taipei, Taiwan: Jin Luen Publishing House, 1994, 157 pages. Now published by Curzon Press.
"The Fundamental Teachings of Early Buddhism: a comparative study based on the Sūtrāṅga portion of the Pali Saṃyutta-Nikāya and the Chinese Saṃyuktāgama",  Choong Mun-Keat, Wiesbaden : Harrassowitz, 2000. (Contains an account of Master Yin-Shun's theory that the Samyukt'Agama is the oldest collection, by a student of Prof. Rod Bucknell.)
"History of Mindfulness"; Bhikkhu Sujato, Taipei, Taiwan: the Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2006. (Gives further evidence for the Anga-theory of Master Yin-Shun and the theory that the Samyukta-/ Samyutta- is the oldest organising principle.)
"Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvastivadins"; Charles Prebish. Volume I of the Institute for Advanced Studies of World Religions Series. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975, 156 pages. First Indian Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1996.  (This is only a translation of a small part of the Vinayas, on its own it is nearly useless.)
Charles Prebish and Janice J. Nattier, "Mahasamghika Origins: The Beginnings of Buddhist  Sectarianism"; History of Religions, 16, 3 (February, 1977), 237–272.
"The Pratimoksa Puzzle: Fact Versus Fantasy"; Charles Prebish. Journal of  the American Oriental Society, 94, 2 (April–June, 1974), 168–176.
"A Review of Scholarship on the Buddhist Councils"; Charles Prebish. Journal of Asian Studies, XXXIII, 2 (February, 1974), 239–254.
"Theories Concerning the Skandhaka: An Appraisal"; Charles Prebish Journal  of Asian Studies, XXXII, 4 (August, 1973), 669–678.
"Saiksa-dharmas Revisited: Further Considerations of Mahasamghika Origins"; Charles Prebish. History of Religions, 35, 3 (February, 1996), 258–270.

External links
 J. J. Jones (1949). The Mahavastu (English translation), including footnotes and glossary
 Abhisamacarikadharma of the Mahasamghika-Lokottaravadins (input by Abhisamacarika-Dharma Study Group, Taisho University); GRETIL Archive

Nikaya schools
Early Buddhist schools

Mahāsāṃghika


Augustin Kujundžić - Ago (Imotski, 4. srpnja 1955.), hrvatski pjesnik, romanopisac, kantautor, glazbenik, slikar i kipar iz Grubina

Životopis
Rodio se je godine u Imotskom. Živi u Grubinama. Svira rock glazbu na svoje stihove koje je sam uglazbio. Objavio je nekoliko albuma. Bavi se i slikarstvom i kiparstvom. Djela je izlagao na više izložaba. Otac hrvatskog kipara Stipana Kujundžića. Surađuje za imotske portale kao novinar i fotograf.

Suautor je teksta i glazbe pjesme posvećene splitskom Hajduku Sinovi bile boje, koje je napisao zajedno s Zoranom Bašićem. Pjesmu izvodi Marko Dodig Paško.

Član je udruge "Likovnjaci Imotske krajine LIK".

Piše pjesme i romane. Objavio je knjige:
 U sjaju ukazanja (Imotski, 1996.), zbirka pjesama
 Okovi navika (Split, 2000.), zbirka pjesama, motiv sinove skulpture Okovi
 Naivnost nevinosti (Split 2008.), roman

Zajedno sa sinom Stipanom stvarao glazbenu kulisu za izložbu drugog dijela Preslojavanja.

Sudionik Pjesničkih večeri u Ujevićima.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Stranice Augustina Kujundžića
AgoArt

Hrvatski pjesnici
Hrvatski romanopisci
Hrvatski slikari
Hrvatski kipari
Hrvatski kantautori
Životopisi, Imotski

Augustin Kujundžić


Cami, İslam dininin ibadet mekanıdır. Genellikle minaresiz küçük camilere veya bazı kurum ve kuruluşlarda ibadet için ayrılmış ufak mekanlara ise mescit denir.

Kur'an'da ibadethane adı olarak cami terimi geçmez, ancak "secde yapılan yer" anlamındaki mescit kavramı kullanılır. Ayet   Cemaatle namazı ve hayratı öven hadislerini temel alan İslâm dini mimarisi, ilk mabet Kâbe ve ilk mescit Kuba Mescidi ile başlamış, Mescid-i Nebevî ve benzerleriyle devam ederek yayılmış ve günümüze kadar gelmiştir.

Alevîlik'te ise ibadethane (mescit) olarak cemevi kullanılmaktadır.

Etimoloji
"Cami" Türkçeye Arapçadan geçen bir sözcüktür. Cem, "Toplanma, bir araya gelme" kökünden gelen cami, "Toplayan, bir araya getiren" demektir. Sözcük önceleri "cuma namazı mescidi" anlamında kullanılıyordu. Sözcüğün eş anlamlısı Toplak sözcüğüdür. Cami sözcüğü, tamlamalarda cami kelimesi "i" halindeyken cami veya camisi şeklinde kullanılır. Eğer başındaki kelime sıfatsa cami (Kurşunlu Cami, Eski Cami), başındaki kelime isimse camii veya camisi (Süleymaniye Camii, Hisar Camii, Kocatepe Camii) şeklinde kullanılır. Talat Tekin'in belirttiği üzere, cami kullanımı Arapçadaki ayn harfinin sessiz olması sebebiyle Türkçe ekle kullanım şeklidir; camisi kullanımı ise yanlış kullanım olmakla birlikte galat-ı meşhur haline gelmiştir. Tartışmanın sebebi Dil Devrimi sonrası ayn harfini ayrıca belirtecek harfin bulunmaması ve yazı dilinde farkının gösterilememesidir.

Osmanlıda sultanlar adına yaptırılan büyük camilere selatin camileri denir. Ayrıca herhangi bir alanda ibadet etmeye yarayan, boş ve imarsız mekanlara namazgah denir. Şehirlerde yapılan ve özellikle cuma namazları için büyük cemaatlerin toplanmasını sağlayan şehrin en büyük ve abidevi camilerine ise Ulucami denilmektedir.

Mescit Arapçada secde edilen yer demektir. Orta Çağ İspanya'sında yaşayan Endülüslülerden miras kalan ve İspanyolcada cami demek olan 'mezquita' sözcüğü Arapça 'mescid'den gelişmiştir. Türkçe dini mimari terminolojisinde bu ibadethanenin küçüklerine mescit, daha büyüklerine ise cami denilmektedir.

Cami sözcüğü, aynı zamanda İslam'da Allah'ın 99 isminden biri olup, Cami "istediğini istediği şekilde, istediği zaman, istediği yerde toplayan" anlamına gelmektedir.

Tarih
İslam'ın ilk döneminde Allah'a ibadet için Muhammed'in Medine'deki evini hatırlatan basit binalar dikilirdi. O dönemlerde camiler olmadığından Allah'a ibadet ve namaz kılınması açık arazide kenarları hatla çekilmiş yerlerde yapılırdı. Muhammed peygamber Medine'ye hicreti sırasında Medine yakınlarında Kuba denilen yerde birkaç gün kalmıştır. Peygamber Kuba'da olduğu zaman için bir cami yaptırmıştır ki, bu günümüze kadar Kuba Cami olarak bilinir. Hicretin ilk zamanlarında Müslümanların kıblesi Kudüs idi. Sonraları ayet olarak kıblenin Kâbe olduğu beyan oldu. Bu nedenle Kur'ân'ın ikinci suresinde bildirilir. Kıblenin değiştirilmesi hakkında ayetin Peygamber'e nazil olduğu cami hazırda Medine yakınında bulunan İki kıbleli camidir.

Cami hakkında Kuran'da şöyle buyurulur: "Şüphesiz, insanlar için kurulan ilk ibadet evi elbette Mekke'de, âlemlere rahmet ve hidayet kaynağı olarak kurulan Kâbe'dir.". Muhammed peygamber ikinci kıblenin ise Mescid-i Aksa olduğunu söyledi .

İslam ülkelerinde camiler sadece ibadet için, dini törenler geçirmek için inşa edilmiyordu. Cami çok fonksiyonlu bir yardımseverlik binası olarak kabul edilir ve onun içerisinde yapılan güzel işler hem de Müslümanlar arasında iletişimi, birliği güçlendirir. Nasîrüddin Tûsî insanların ibadete ve iletişime olan ihtiyacını şöyle anlatıyordu:
{{SAlıntı|orta|"Gerçek iletişim insan husûsiyetlerindendir ... Gerçek hikmet sahipleri bu özelliğin şerefli olduğunu dikkate alarak, onu geliştirmek için bir takım yararlı önlemler düşünmüşler, örneğin, çeşitli disiplin, edep-gelenek icat etmişler, cemaate ibadetle meşgul olmayı, ziyafet organize etmeyi tavsiye görmüşlerdir. Bunların hepsi iletişimi yürürlükten harekete geçirmek, ameli içindir.|Nasîrüddin Tûsî|}}

Sonradan alim cemaat namazının tek başına kılınan namazdan üstünlüğünü insanlararası iletişimi güçlendirmekle bağlıyor. Mahalle ve köy camileri cemaati günde beş kez, cam cami ise köy ve mahalledekileri birlikte haftada bir kez ibadete toplar, onlar arasında anlaşmayı, iletişimi artırır. Alime göre: Ayrıca tüm cemaatin görüşmesi için yılda iki kez ibadet saptamışlardır. Bunun için cemaati tutabilecek büyük meydan seçmeyi ve Ham'ın oraya davet etmeyi buyurmuşlardır. Dünya Müslümanlarının ömürlerinde bir defa kendi hemdinleri ile toplantı ve görüşme yeri için ortam sahibinin evinden (Kabe) iyi yer olamaz. Tüm kavimlerin ve meslek sahiplerinin böylece bir yere toplanması, alimin göre hem karşılıklı yarar almak, hem de havasını değişim sağlık için yararlı tedbirdir.

 İlk camiler
İslâm'da caminin tarihi İslâm Peygamberi'nin İslâm dinini insanlara ulaştırmaya başladığı zaman başlar. O dönemde Mekke yönetimi İslâm Peygamberi'ne Kâbe'de ibadet etmeye engel oluyor, o ise "Allah'ın evi"'nde namaz kılmak için ibadetlerini câmide kılmaya çalışıyordu. Diğer Müslümanlar baskılardan kurtulmak için çeşitli evlerde, arazilerde ibadetlerini yerine getiriyorlardı. İslâm Peygamberi 622 yılında Medine'ye hicret ettiğinde orada inşa edilecek olan mescit arazisinin belirledi. Bununla da Peygamber Mescidi adlandırılan ibadet mekânının temelleri atıldı ve kısa süre içinde inşa edildi. Caminin arka bölümünde İslâm'ın ilk üniversitesi diyebileceğimiz Suffe (Medine'de bulunan Mescid-i Nebî etrafındaki odalar) için yer ayrıldı. Medine'deki Müslümanların sayısı arttıkça günlük namazların kılınacağı câmilerin sayısı arttı.

Cuma namazı Mescid-i Nebevî'de kılınıyordu. Mescid-i Nebevî'den sonra birçok câmi inşa edildi ve cuma namazları kılınmaya başlandı. Bütün bunlar gösteriyor ki, İslâm Peygamberi'nin sağlığında da çeşitli bölgelerde yaşayan Müslümanların ibadet etmeleri için mescitleri vardı. Müslüman olan bazı aşiretler de (Taif'te) önceki mabetlerin yerine cami inşa etmişlerdir[8]. İslâm Peygamberi'nin vefatından sonra daha geniş bir coğrafyada İslâm dininin kabul edilmesi, cami yapımını zorunlu kılıyordu.

Kur'an'da bu konu şöyle geçmektedir: Allah'ın mescidlerini, ancak Allah'a ve Ahiret Günü'ne inanan, namazı kılan, zekâtı veren ve Allah'tan başkasından korkmayan kimseler imar eder. İşte hidayet üzere oldukları umulanlar bunlardır.. İslâm Peygamberi ise Mescidleri bina edin, onların toz toprağını temizleyin. Her kim Allah için mescid bina ederse Allah da ona cennette bir mescid hazırlar demiştir.

 Cami terimleri
Kıble — caminin Kâbe'ye yönelen yönü;
Mihrap —  Cami imamın namaz kılarken cemaatin önünde durduğu, kıble tarafındaki duvarın ortasında bulunan, oyuk, girintili yer anlamında bir terim.
Minber — Üzerinde hutbe okunan, merdivenli yapı.
Vaaz Kürsüsü — Mihrabın minberin bulunmadığı sol tarafında bulunan, minberin kullanımı dışında namaz öncesi vaazların verildiği yerdir.
Müezzin Mahfili —  Müezzinlere ayrılmış, etrafı tahta veya taş parmaklıkla çevrili kısım.
Rahle — Kuran'ın konularak rahat okunması için özel tahta sıra.
Kubbe — Camilerin üstünü örtmek için kullanılan yarım küre şeklindeki mimari unsur.
Minare — Camilerde namaza çağrıyı bildirmek ve sala okumak için inşa edilmiş ana yapıdan yüksek tasarlanan yapılardır.

 Cami özelikleri

Camilerin esas cami ve avlu gibi iki bölümü vardır. Esas cami; mihrap, minber, vaiz kürsüsü ve dikdörtgen oylumun üzerini örten kubbe ve yan kubbelerden meydana gelir. Minareler esas caminin dış duvarlarına ya da iç avlu duvarlarına bağlanmıştır. Son cemaat yeri esas caminin giriş kapısı olan yüzünde bulunur.

Emeviler döneminde Şam Emevi Camii, Sidi Ukba Ulu Camii; Abbasiler döneminde Samarra Camii; Tolunoğulları döneminde Tolunoğulları Camii; Fatımiler döneminde El-Ezher Camii; Endülüs'te Kurtuba Camii; Selçuklu Hanedanı zamanında Ulu camiler; Osmanlılarda selatin camileri dikkat çeken yapılardır. Büyük camiler, etrafında medrese, mektep, aşhane, hastane gibi yapılarla birer imaret (külliye)dir.

"Çok sayıda küçük kubbe içeren Osmanlı camilerinin merkezcil yerleşim düzeni ve piramit biçimli kütlesi, en azından form olarak, bir Uygur resminde tasvir edilen gök tapınağından yola çıkılarak oluşturulmuş ve 8.-10. yüzyıllarda Kökşibagan'da cami mimarisine uygulanmış gibi görünmektedir. Aya Sofya örneğinin önemli teknik özellikler ortaya koyduğuna hiç şüphe yoktur. Ancak çok kubbeli Osmanlı camilerinde estetik özellik olarak, her biri yüksek bir ayak üzerinde duran dört kubbeli Bizans kilisesinin çoğul görüntüsüne değil, Kökşibagan'da erişilen ahenge öykünme vardır. Gerçekten de merkezcil haçvari eksenli plan, Osmanlı dervişlerinin felekleri, belki de vahdet-i vücud anlayışla evrensel ahengin grafik simgesi haline gelmiş ve derviş taçlarının üst kısmında resmedilmiştir." (Esin, sy.114)

"8. yüzyılda, İslam'ın zaferinin ardından bu Türk meliki kentini (Buharayı) terk etti, kent sakinleri İslam dinine geçti ve bir mescit inşa ettiler. 8. ya da 11. yüzyıla tarihlendirilen bu mescit, hem Uygur kozmogrofik resim sanatına hem de piramit biçiminde düzenlenmiş dokuz kubbeli Oğuz hükümdar ikametgâhına benzemesi nedeniyle, inşasında daha eski gök tapınaklarından esinlenilmiş olabilir. Ne var ki, Müslümanlıkta cemaatle birlikte yapılan ibadette geniş bir alana ihtiyaç duyulması yüzünden hücreler arasındaki duvarlar kaldırıldı ve sütunlar kubbelerin ağırlığını taşıyacak biçimde yapıldı. Böylece piramit düzenindeki çok kubbeli Türk kapalı mescitlerinin ilk örneği geliştirilmiş gibi görünüyor." (Esin, 122) Selçuklu Hanedanında sahın kâgir ayaklar ve sütunlarla, çok kubbeli örtülüydü. Osmanlılarda ise dört kalın fil ayağına oturan ana kubbeli camiye geçilmiştir. Türkler bir yeri fethettikten sonra önce toplumun bütün ihtiyaçlarını karşılayacak bütüncül binalar yaparlardı. İmaret kültürü denilen bu olgu, İslam kültürünün temelidir.

 Cami mühendisliği
Camilerde kullanılan ana malzeme taş, tuğla, demir, ağaç, toprak, mozaik, kiremit, somaki, kum, kireç, alçı, horasan, kereste, çivi, pirinç, bakır, kurşun, çinko, mermer, cam, çini, altın, gümüştür. Topraktan yapılana kerpiç, taş-tuğla olana kâgir, ağaçtan olana ahşap, yarı ahşap yarı kâgir olana nimkâgir denir. kâgir yapılarda yontma, kesme küfeki taşı kullanılmıştır. Yapı ustalarının her biri ayrı bölümlerde çalışır: Rençber, lağımcı, hamamcı, doğramacı, sıvacı, camcı, tüfenkçi, çilingir, hamal, kâtip, haseki, harbeci, mutemed, kapıcı, yeniçeri katibi, duvarcı, kemerci, kubbeci, minareci, neccar, dülger, çinici, nakkaş, oymacı, sütuncu, senktraş. Osmanlı'da ilk dönem camilerde tuğla kullanılmış, fetihten sonra kesmetaş yaygınlaşmış, tuğlalar kubbe, kemer ve hatıllarda yer almıştır.

Bir cami inşaatı büyük bir camide şu seyri izlerdi: Mimarlar, caminin planını çizer, ölçüleri çıkarır ve çamur veya tahta bir maketini çıkarıp padişaha sunardı. (Arseven, 1955: 747vd.)

Bu plana göre cami, şu kısımlardan meydana geliyordu: Dış avlu (harim), duvarlar,  iç avlu (harem), döşemeler, sahın (cami iç meydanı), kürsü, mihrap, minber, mahfiller, mükebbire, son cemaat yeri, kubbeler, kemerler, kasnak, minare, şadırvan, muvakkithane, imam ve müezzin odaları, musalla taşı, hela, kapılar ve pencereler, sütunlar, sofalar, ışıklandırma, şamdanlar, avizeler, kandiller, dolap ve çekmeceler, ayakkabılıklar, halılar, hat levhaları, saatler, bahçe ve ağaçlandırma, türbe, hazire.

 Yapı
Binanın nerede yapılacağı, zemin ve çevreyle uyumuna dikkat edilirdi. Anıt eserlerin şehre yerleştirilmesi bir plana göreydi. Cephe, yer, simetriklik, vezin ve ritim hesaplanırdı. Cami avlularına yine en uyumlu şekilde ve mükemmel bir ahenkle ağaç dikilmesi ve çevrenin yeşillendirilmesi önemliydi. Yapı külliye ise, bütün cami, medrese, aşevi, mektep, çarşı planları çıkarılırdı. Mimarlar, ısı, ses ve ışık düzenini, havadarlık ve iç süslemeleri ayrıntılarıyla çıkarırdı. Temel atmaya çok önem verilir, uğurlu bir günde, eşref saatinde hafriyata başlanır ve temel atılırdı. Devlet yöneticileri hazır bulunur, temele altın atılırdı. Dualarla temel atılırken, mimara, bina eminine, bina kalfasına hilat giydirilir, kurbanlar kesilirdi. Temel çukuru açılıp, kazıklar çakılır, aralara kemer örülür, aralarda su biriktirilir ve köprülük od taşı döşenir. İşçiler paydosla evlerine gider, nöbetçiler kalır. İnşaatta hiç kimse zulümle çalıştırılmaz, herkese hakkı verilir. Yalnız, malzemeden çalanlar şiddetle cezalandırılır. Çiniler İznik ve Kütahya'dan, keresteler Karadeniz'den, mermer Marmara adasından, kesmetaşlar Bakırköy'den, çivi İzmit'ten gelir. Bütün malzemeler yerlidir.

 Mimari

Taş taşımada, sütun kaldırma ve indirmede sırık hamalları kullanılır. Zemin sathının 4 arşın altından satha kadar köprülük od taşı döşendikten sonra, duvarların inşasına geçilir. Genellikle zeminle kubbe arası büyük camide en az 50 zira'dır. Kubbe, kemer, duvar bağlamalarında demir cıvatalar kullanılır. Sütunlar mermer olup dışarıdan getirilir. Duvar taşları, demir kenetlerle birbirine bağlıdır. Kenetler beş kileden birbuçuk okkaya kadar ağırlıktadır. Taşların arasına kalın demir çiviler, yani zıvana denilen çubuklar sokulur, kurşun dökülür. Sütun başlıklarının altında kurşun levha zıvanalarla raptedilir.

Binanın her yanı içten ve dıştan kereste iskelelerle kuşatılır. Cümle kapıları önündeki döşemeye aşınmayı önlemek için porfir taşı konulur. Direk, kemer, kazık, çerçeve işlerinde çıralı çam; kapı ve kanatlarda ceviz, şimşir, meşe, elma kerestesi kullanılır. Tuğlalar Fatih devrinde 4,5x28x28 ölçülerindeydi. Hatıl tuğlaları ise 3 cm'dir. Kiremitlerin boyu 18 parmak, ağırlığı 460 dirhemdir. Kum, kireç ve horasandan yapılan harç zenbille taşınır. Çinilerde alçı harcı, sıvalarda kıtıklı (keten elyafı) harç kullanılır. Neme müsait duvarlarda koyun yünü, yumurta akı katılır. Örümceklerin ağ kurmaması için devekuşu yumurtası harca katılır.

İnşaatta kullanılan ölçüler: Başparmak ucundan boğuma kadar olan ölçüye boğum; başparmağın yanlamasına kalınlığına parmak denirdi. 1 arşın 60 parmaktı. I. Ahmet zamanında 1 zira 24 parmak oldu, boğuma parmak denildi. 1 parmak 10 iplikti. Amme ziraı 100 eski parmak ve bu da 32 kerah idi.

Türkiye'de camiler
Türkiye'de 83.574 ibadete açık cami bulunmaktadır. 2011 nüfus verilerine göre Türkiye'de 37.532.454'ü erkek olmak üzere toplam 74.724.269 kişi yaşamaktadır. 9 yaşından büyük erkeklerin sayısı ise 31.225.097'dir. Ülkedeki vatandaşların %96,6'sı Müslümandır. Bu verilere göre Türkiye'de dokuz yaşından büyük 30.163.444 Müslüman erkek yaşamaktadır. Her 361 Müslüman erkeğe bir cami düşmektedir. İbadethane olarak Cemevi'ni kullanan yaklaşık 3,2 milyon Alevi çıkarıldığında her 323 Alevi olmayan Müslüman erkeğe bir cami düşmektedir.

 Resimler

 Kaynakça

 Emel Esin, Türklerde Maddi Kültürün Oluşumu.
 Celal Esad Arseven, Türk Sanatı tarihi, Maarif Vekaleti, t.y.
 Uluslararası Mimar Sinan Sempozyumu Bildirileri, AKMB, Ankara 1996.
 Zeki Sönmez, Mimar sinan ile ilgili tarihi yazmalar-belgeler, MSÜY, İst. 1988.
 Oktay Aslanapa, Anadolu'da İlk Türk mimarisi, başlangıcı ve gelişmesi'', AKMB, ankara 1991.
 Marek Stachowski: Slawische Bezeichnungen für Moschee unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Polnischen, Schlesischen, Tschechischen und Slowakischen. ‒ Janyšková I. / Karlíková H. / Boček V. (ed.): Etymological research into Czech (=Studia Etymologica Brunensia 22), Brno 2017: 361-369

Mimarlık terimleri
Arapçadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Cami


Un degetar poate însemna:
, instrument folosit la cusătorie
degetar (Ramaria stricta), specie de ciupercă
degetar, sinonim cu degețel roșu (Digitalis purpurea), specie de plantă

Degetar (dezambiguizare)


A competição da carabina três posições feminino do tiro nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 foi disputada em 31 de julho de 2021 no Campo de Tiro de Asaka, em Tóquio. Um total de 37 atiradoras de 29 Comitês Olímpicos Nacionais (CON) participaram do evento.

Qualificação

O período de qualificação começou com o Campeonato Mundial de 2018 em Changwon, Coreia do Sul, que foi concluído em 15 de setembro. Por todo o processo, as vagas foram geralmente concedidas para as atiradoras que vencessem uma etapa da Copa do Mundo da ISSF ou ficassem em uma posição de destaque na mesma competição ou em eventos continentais (África, Europa, Ásia, Oceania e Américas).

Após a conclusão do período de qualificação e o recebimento da lista oficial de vagas pelos Comitês Olímpicos Nacionais (CON), a ISSF considerou as posições no ranking mundial para cada evento individual. As atiradores melhores colocados ainda não qualificadas e cujo CON também não tivesse uma quota no evento obtiveram uma vaga direta. O Japão também teve uma vaga garantida como país sede.

Calendário
Horário local (UTC+9)

Medalhistas

Recordes
Antes desta competição, os seguintes recordes eram estabelecidos:

Após a competição, os seguintes recordes foram estabelecidos:

Resultados

Qualificação

Final

Carabina tres posicoes feminino

Tiro nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 - Carabina três posições feminino


غوستيفار هي مدينة في بلدية غوستيفار في جمهورية مقدونيا. تربط مدينة غوستيفار بواسطة طرق وسكك حديدية جيدة مع مدن أخرى مثل تيتوفو وسكوبيه وكيتشيفو وأوخريد وديبار. وتم بناء طريق سريع في عام 1995 والذي يربط ما بين غوستيفار وتيتوفو بطول 24 كم.

السكان

وفقًا لإحصائيات عام 2002، بلغ عدد سكان مدينة غوستيفار 35,847 نسمة حسب الأعراق التالية:

 الألبانيون، 16,890 (47.1%)
 مقدونيون، 11,885 (33.2%)
 أتراك، 4,559 (12.7%)
 غجر، 1,899 (5.3%)
 أخرى، 614 (1.7%)

نسبة انتشار اللغة الأم بين السكان:

 الألبانية، 16,877 (47.1%)
 المقدونية، 13,843 (38.6%)
 التركية، 4,423 (12.3%)
 الغجرية، 301 (0.8%)
 الصربية، 124 (0.3%)
 أخرى، 279 (0.7%)

حسب الديانة:

 مسلمون، 23,686 (66.1%)
 مسيحيون أرذثوكس، 11,865 (33.1%)
 أخرى، 296 (0.8%)

أعلام

 ستويان ججوروسكي
 سفر سفري
 أدمير محمدي
 نوري سفري

معرض صور

المراجع

غوستيفار
مدن مقدونيا

غوستيفار


Grambin er en by og kommune i det nordøstlige Tyskland, beliggende i Amt Am Stettiner Haff under Landkreis Vorpommern-Greifswald. Landkreis Vorpommern-Greifswald ligger i delstaten Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

Geografi
Grambin er en ferieby beliggende på sydbredden af Stettiner Haff ved udkanten af Ueckermünder Heide. Kommunen ligger i Naturpark Am Stettiner Haff, og i nærheden af Grambin udmunder Zarow, der afvander en del af Friedländer Große Wiese. Den tidligere Kreisstadt Ueckermünde ligger 3 km mod sydøst.

Turisme spiller en stor rolle i kommunen, og der er både kommunal campingplads og badesteder. Grambin byder på omfattende vildtrige skove, enge og fiskevande, med et omfattende net af vandre- og cykelstier.

Eksterne kilder og henvisninger

 Byens side på amtets websted
 Statistik
 Websted for Naturpark Am Stettiner Haff

Byer i Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Kommuner i Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
Amt Am Stettiner Haff
Byer i Kreis Vorpommern-Greifswald

Grambin


Espanha
Catedral de Mondoñedo
Catedral de Santa Maria de Pamplona
Catedral de Santander
Catedral de Segóvia
Catedral de Toledo
Catedral de Valência
Catedral de Valladolid
Catedral de Xaém

França
Catedral de Ajaccio — na Córsega
Catedral de Clermont-Ferrand

Itália

México
Catedral Metropolitana da Cidade do México
Catedral de Guadalajara

Portugal
Sé Catedral de Évora
Sé do Funchal
Sé do Porto
Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Assunção (Elvas) — antiga catedral

Rússia
Catedral da Santa Assunção (Makhachkala) — no Daguestão
Catedral da Dormição (Moscovo)
Catedral e Mosteiro da Assunção (Sviyazhsk) — no Tartaristão
Mosteiro da Trindade-São Sérgio — cujo conjunto inclui a Catedral da Assunção; em Sergiev Posad
Catedral da Dormição (Vladimir)

Outros países
Catedral de Speyer — na Alemanha
Catedral Basílica Nossa Senhora da Assunção (Mariana) — em Minas Gerais, Brasil
Catedral de Bagrati — ou Catedral da Dormição; em Cutaisi, Geórgia
Catedral de Porto Príncipe — no Haiti
Catedral da Assunção (Thurles) — Irlanda
Catedral de Tânger — em Marrocos
Catedral de León (Nicarágua)
Catedral Metropolitana de Assunção — no Paraguai
Basílica-catedral da Assunção da Virgem Maria (Włocławek) — na Polónia

Desambiguações de templos

Catedral da Assunção


Pavlová este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Nové Zámky din regiunea Nitra. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 225 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Pavlová este atestată documentar din 1135.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Pavlová


John Dickinson (1732–1808) était un père fondateur des États-Unis actif dans le Delaware et en Pennsylvanie.

John Dickinson peut également faire référence à :

John Dean Dickinson (1767–1841), avocat et représentant américain de New York ;
John Dickinson (1782–1869), fondateur des papeteries d'Apsley et de Nash Mills dans le Hertfordshire, en Angleterre ;
John Dickinson (1806–1882), juge et homme politique de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud coloniale :
 John Dickinson (1832-1863), missionnaire britannique ;
John Dickinson (1901–1993), évêque anglais adjoint de Mélanésie ;
John Dickinson (1927-2015), médecin britannique et chercheur clinique ;
John Dickinson (1934-2021), footballeur de la ligue de rugby des années 1950 pour l'Angleterre, et St Helens RLFC ;
John Dickinson (né en 1962), auteur anglais de romans pour jeunes adultes ;
John Dickinson (1815–1876), écrivain anglais sur l'Inde ;
John Dickinson (1848/9-1933), magistrat en chef des tribunaux de police métropolitaine jusqu'en 1920.

John Dickinson (homonymie)


Prescott Island ist eine unbewohnte Insel im kanadisch-arktischen Archipel.
Sie liegt im Peel Sound zwischen Prince of Wales Island und Somerset Island.

Politisch gehört die Insel zur Qikiqtaaluk-Region im kanadischen Territorium Nunavut.

Prescott Island hat eine ovale Form und besitzt eine Landfläche von 412 km².

Gemeinsam mit vier weiteren kleineren Inseln, Binstead Island, Lock Island, Pandora Island und Vivian Island, bildet Prescott Island eine Barriere am Eingang zur Browne Bay, einer Bucht im Osten von Prince of Wales Island.

Einzelnachweise

Insel (Nunavut)
Insel (Nordamerika)
Insel (Arktischer Ozean)

Prescott Island


The Virunga Mountains (also known as Mufumbiro) are a chain of volcanoes in East Africa, in the area where Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Uganda meet. The mountain range is a branch of the Albertine Rift Mountains, which border the western branch of the East African Rift. They are located between Lake Edward and Lake Kivu.  The name "Virunga" is an English version of the Kinyarwanda word ibirunga, which means "volcanoes".

The mountain range consists of eight major volcanoes. Most of them are dormant, except Mount Nyiragongo  and Mount Nyamuragira , both in the DRC. Recent eruptions occurred in 2006,  2010 and May 2021. Mount Karisimbi is the highest volcano at . The oldest mountain is Mount Sabyinyo, which rises  above sea level.

The Virunga Mountains are home of the endangered mountain gorilla, listed on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species due to habitat loss, poaching, disease, and war (Butynski et al. 2003). The Karisoke Research Center, founded by Dian Fossey to observe gorillas in their native habitat, is located between Mount Karisimbi and Mount Bisoke.

List of mountains peaks in the Virunga Mountain Range

National parks

Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda
Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Uganda

In culture
Michael Crichton's novel Congo is set mostly in the Virunga region.
Gorillas in the Mist, and the novel of the same name, document the work and death of primatologist Dian Fossey. The camp from which she operated, Karisoke Research Center, still exists in the Virunga Mountains.

See also
George Schaller
Earl Denman

References

External links

Official Virunga National Park website
 Kwita Izina - Conservation is life
Map of Virunga Mountains

Albertine Rift montane forests
Mountain ranges of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Mountain ranges of Rwanda
Mountain ranges of Uganda
World Heritage Sites in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Virunga Mountains


ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය

යන පදය භාවිතා වන්නේ මානව සමාජයක කිසියම් ආකාරයක සංවර්ධනයක් විස්තර කිරීමටය. ශිෂ්ටසම්පන්න සමාජයක් බොහෝවිට ලක්ෂණනය කෙරෙන්නේ දියුණු කෘෂිකර්මය, දිගු-දුර වෙළෙඳාම, වෘත්තිය විශේෂීකරණය, සහ නාගරිකත්වය වෙතිනි. මෙම ප්‍රධාන වස්තුමාත්‍රයන්ට අමතරව, ශිෂ්ඨාචාරය පිළිබඳ අගැයිම් සිදුකිරීමෙහිලා,  ප්‍රවර්ධිත ප්‍රවාහන පද්ධතිය, ලේඛනය, මිනුම් හි ප්‍රමිතීන් (මුදල් ආදිය), කොන්ත්‍රාත් සහ තෝරතය-පදනම් කරගත් අධිකරණ පද්ධතියක්, උසස් කලා ශෛලීයක්, ස්මරණීය ගෘහ නිර්මාණ ශිල්පය, ගණිතය, විදග්ධ ලෝහ විද්‍යාව, සහ තාරකා විද්‍යාව ඇතුළු, ද්විතියික වස්තුමාත්‍රයන් කිහිපයක සම්මිශ්‍රනයන්ද උපයෝගී කර ගැනේ.

සටහන්

ශිෂ්ටාචාර

ශිෂ්ටාචාරය


Den sidste tid er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2016 instrueret af Christoffer Dreyer. Den havde premiere d. 16 november 2016 i udvalgte biografer landet over og blev herefter vist på DR1.

Handling
Ester og Hans elsker livet og hinanden. De har tilbragt næsten hver en vågen time sammen i 50 år og glæder sig til deres Guldbryllup - også selv om de er bange for at de aldrig kommer til at opleve det. Ester og Hans forbereder sig nemlig på dommedag, som de er overbevist om er nært forestående.
Selv har de har rygsækken pakket, så de kan overleve i de svenske skove, når ragnarok kommer, men nu har de ventet i 50 år og helbredet er begyndt at svigte. Isen smelter på Grønland, krige raser i mellemøsten og storme og oversvømmelser slår ind over det lille hus i Rønnebærparken. Esther og Hans er godt klar over, hvad der er ved at ske. Selvom deres helbred hastigt forværres - Esther lider af polio og Hans kæmper med eftervirkningerne af en hjerneblødning - finder de energien til at gøre en sidste indsats for at redde deres medmennesker, før det er for sent.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Den sidste tid  DFI

 Den sidste tid trailer på Youtube
 Den Sidste tid anmeldelse Soundvenue
 Den sidste tid anmeldelse Kristeligt dagblad
 Den sidste tid anmeldelse Politiken
 Den sidste tid anmeldelse  Filmkommentaren

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2016

Den sidste tid


Lucas Cranach cel Tânăr (în germană:Lucas Cranach der Jüngere; ) a fost un renascentist german, pictor și portretist, fiul lui Lucas Cranach cel Bătrân.

Biografie
Lucas Cranach cel Tânăr s-a născut în Wittenberg pe 4 octombrie 1515, ca fiul cel mai mic al lui lui Lucas Cranach cel Bătrân și al Barbarei Brengebier. Și-a început cariera ca ucenic în atelierul tatălui său, alături de fratele lui Hans. De acum înainte, reputația și faima lui au crescut. După moartea tatălui său, el și-a asumat controlul asupra atelierului.

Pe data de 20 februarie 1541, el s-a căsătorit cu Barbara Brück, care i-a dat trei fii și o fiică. Ea murit în 10 februarie 1550 și, ulterior, Cranach s-a recăsătorit, nunta cu Magdalena Schurff a fost pe data de 24 mai 1551.

El este cunoscut pentru portretele și versiuni simple ale unor alegorii și scene mitice. Stilul picturilor sale sunt atât de asemănătoare cu cele ale tatălui său că au existat unele dificultăți în atribuirea lucrărilor lor.

Lucrări

Note

Legături externe
 Cranach Arhivă Digitală (cda) cercetarea resurselor pe Lucas Cranach
 Xv - xviii-lea, picturi Europene: Franța, Europa Centrală, țările de Jos, Spania și Marea Britanie, o colecție de catalog complet disponibilă online în format PDF, care conține materiale privind pictorul Cranach cel Tânăr (cat. nr. 10)

Nașteri în 1515
Decese în 1586
Pictori germani din secolul al XVI-lea
Luterani germani

Lucas Cranach cel Tânăr


Le Glossary of Meteorology de l'American Meteorological Society est un glossaire de termes anglophones utilisés en météorologie évalués par des pairs. Il est publié depuis 1959, et contient maintenant plus de . Plus de  de la première édition ont été vendus, nécessitant cinq réimpressions. En 2013, le Glossaire est passé à une version électronique basée sur la deuxième édition.

Il est depuis évolutif et périodiquement mis à jour au fur et à mesure de l'évolution de la science. Les lecteurs peuvent soumettre des modifications à des termes existants ou proposer des définitions pour de nouveaux termes.

Description
Le glossaire vise à définir chaque terme météorologique important susceptible d'être trouvé dans la littérature anglophone aujourd'hui. Il tente de présenter des définitions compréhensibles pour le public mais acceptables pour les spécialistes du domaine, visant à être un ouvrage de référence. Le glossaire collecte et  définit aussi des termes qui sont soit obscurs, soit de nature très locale.

Dans la plupart des cas, la première phrase de la définition résume le sens du terme alors que le reste du texte élabore le concept. La définition textuelle et physique peut être accompagnée accessoirement d'une ou plusieurs équations ou termes mathématiques. Des références sont fournies et sont facilement accessibles. Les termes d'argot et folkloriques populaires sont aussi inclus dans le glossaire. Les acronymes, les abréviations, les termes mathématiques et statistiques sont également inclus s'ils font partie du « vocabulaire scientifique » en météorologie. Certains termes obsolètes des éditions antérieures ont été omis.

Le glossaire utilise le Système international d'unités (SI) sauf dans des circonstances particulières où la prépondérance des utilisations d'un terme exige un autre système comme les unités de mesure anglo-saxonnes. Les abréviations utilisées sont conformes aux normes publiées dans Authors' Guide.

Les termes sont classés par ordre alphabétique et ceux commençant par des chiffres ou des lettres grecques sont insérés comme s'ils étaient épelés en lettres romaines. Les termes affichés en gras (dans l'édition imprimée) et les hyperliens (dans l'édition électronique) renvoient aux autres termes eux-mêmes définis dans le Glossaire.

Les opérations du glossaire sont supervisées par le rédacteur en chef du glossaire, nommé pour 3 ans, et le rédacteur en chef adjoint avec le soutien éditorial des membres du personnel des publications de l'AMS. Les modifications et ajouts proposés au glossaire sont soumis en ligne. Le rédacteur en chef les évalue et sélectionne une équipe de révision pouvant comprendre ces experts selon les besoins. Une fois que les nouveaux termes et/ou changements sont vérifiés, le rédacteur en chef donne son approbation finale pour leur publication en ligne.

Histoire

La première édition du Glossaire de la météorologie est parue en 1959 grâce au travail de nombreux bénévoles de l'AMS. La seconde édition fut initié quatre décennies plus tard, en 1993, pour tenir compte des développements de la météorologie, en particulier l'apparition de nouvelles spécialités. C'est en 1994 que l'AMS a investi de ses propres fonds et a demandé à la National Science Foundation (NSF) une subvention pour cette édition et qu'elle l'a obtenue grâce à un financement de cinq agences gouvernementales américaines.

À l'automne 1994, le Conseil consultatif du glossaire de météorologie, sous la présidence de Ronald Taylor, a pris le relais du comité ad hoc pour élaborer la deuxième édition et déterminer quels termes propres à la météorologie et aux sciences connexes devaient y être inclus. Il a finalement été convenu que le glossaire inclurait non seulement la physique, la chimie et la dynamique de l'atmosphère, mais s'étendraient à de nombreux effets directs de l'atmosphère sur la surface de la terre, les océans et la vie en général. Les termes d'hydrologie, d'océanographie, sont inclus si leur inclusion est importante pour la compréhension de la météorologie telle que définie au sens large.

Le Conseil de l'AMS, sur recommandation du Conseil consultatif du glossaire et avec l'accord du rédacteur en chef, a voté à l'unanimité de dédier cette deuxième édition à deux personnes : Charles F. Talman, bibliothécaire du US Weather Bureau, qui a compilé les termes utilisés dans le glossaire du Bureau publié 1946 devenu l'ancêtre de celui de l'AMS et à Werner A. Baum, directeur du projet de seconde édition.

Références

Voir aussi

Article connexe
 Listes de revues scientifiques

Liens externes

 .

Revue de l'American Meteorological Society

AMS Glossary of Meteorology


Regimentul 47 Infanterie a fost o unitate de nivel tactic din rezerva armatei permanente care s-a constituit la 14/27 august 1916, prin mobilizarea unităților și subunităților de infanterie din cercul de recrutare Ploiești, din cadrul Comandamentului III Teritorial. Regimentul a făcut parte din organica Brigăzii 25 Infanterie. La intrarea în război, Regimentul 47 Infanterie a fost comandat de colonelul Marin Nedeianu. Regimentul 47 Infanterie a participat la acțiunile militare pe frontul românesc, pe toată perioada războiului, între 14/27 august 1916 - 28 ocotmbrie/11 noiembrie 1918.

Drapelul de luptă al regimentului a fost decorat cu cea mai înaltă distincție de război, Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul", clasa III:
Pentru vitejia și avântul cu care au luptat atât ofițerii cât și trupa, în aprigele lupte de la Mărășești din anul 1917. În ziua de 6 august, pe când regimentul se afla pe poziție la Răzoare, regimentul a fost atacat de forțe germane covârșitoare. Ofițerii, subofițerii și soldații au luptat însă cu furie și o energie atât de mare, încât cu toate atacurile îndârjite date de dușman, acest glorios regiment a rămas neclintit pe poziție; apoi contraatacând a sfărâmat avântul germanilor, pe care i-a urmărit până la Satul Nou, capturându-le mitraliere, prizonieri și un însemnat material de război.
Înalt Decret no. 1356 din 15 noiembrie 1917

Participarea la operații

Campania anului 1916

Campania anului 1917

Comandanți

Decorații
  Ordinul "Mihai Viteazul", clasa III

Note

Bibliografie

 Falkenhayn, Erich von, Campania Armatei a 9-a împotriva românilor și a rușilor, Atelierele Grafice Socec & Co S.A., București, 1937
 Kirițescu, Constantin, Istoria războiului pentru întregirea României, Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, București, 1989
 Ioanițiu Alexandru (Lt.-Colonel), Războiul României: 1916-1918,vol 1, Tipografia Geniului, București, 1929
  ***, România în războiul mondial 1916-1919, vol I-IV, Monitorul Oficial și Imprimeriile Statului, București, 1934-1941
 ***, Marele Cartier General al Armatei României. Documente 1916 – 1920, Editura Machiavelli, București, 1996
 ***, Istoria militară a poporului român, vol. V, Editura Militară, București, 1989
 ***, România în anii primului Război Mondial, Editura Militară, București, 1987
 ***, România în primul război mondial, Editura Militară, 1979
 Rosetti, Radu R., Partea luată de regimentul 47/72 infanterie în războiul pentru întregirea neamului 1/14 august 1914 - 1/14 iulie 1918'', Institutul de Arte Grafice Răsăritul, București, 1923 BCU Cluj

Vezi și
Participarea României la Primul Război Mondial
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1916)
Ordinea de bătaie a Armatei României (1917)

Unități militare române din Primul Război Mondial

Regimentul 47 Infanterie (1916-1918)


O Futuro foi uma revista literária quinzenal, dirigida por Faustino Xavier de Novaes, publicada no Rio de Janeiro, então capital do Brasil, entre 15 de setembro de 1862 e 1 de julho de 1863, totalizando 20 exemplares. Circulou no Brasil e em Portugal e contou entre seus colaboradores com nomes ilustres como Camilo Castelo Branco e Machado de Assis.

A revista publicou, no primeiro número, o seu programa, "Ao público brasileiro e português", redigido por Reinaldo Carlos Montoro: "Este periódico vai tentar a realização de um pensamento há muito concebido por todos os que prezam as literaturas dos dous países em que se fala a língua portuguesa. Estabelecer um campo comum, em que livremente, sem preocupações mesquinhas de opinião ou nacionalidade, viessem discursar os escritores de ambas as nações [...]"

Machado de Assis em O Futuro
Machado de Assis publicou 16 crônicas quinzenais em O Futuro, no primeiro número e, depois, do sexto ao último número. As crônicas ocupavam as últimas páginas da revista e tratavam das atualidades (por exemplo, a invasão de águas brasileiras por vapores peruanos no Amazonas e a Questão Christie) e dos fatos literários e culturais (teatro, música).

Ligações externas
Machado de Assis: Cronista d'O Futuro (1862-1863), dissertação de mestrado de Aline Cristina de Oliveira Cataneli
O Futuro na Hemeroteca Digital.

Revistas extintas
Machado de Assis

O Futuro (revista)


فيليب فويانوفيتش (بالمونتينيغرية: Filip Vujanović)، ولد في 1 سبتمبر 1954 في بلغراد في يوغوسلافيا، رئيس الجبل الأسود منذ عام 2003 وهو أول رئيس للجبل الأسود منذ الانفصال عن صربيا، وحقق انتصاراً ساحقاً في الانتخابات يوم 6 أبريل سنة 2008، وبدأ رئاسته في 21 مايو 2008 وهو يقضي رئاسته الثانية.

مراجع

روابط خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من بلغراد
خريجو كلية الحقوق بجامعة بلغراد
رؤساء الجبل الأسود
رؤساء وزراء الجبل الأسود
سياسيون من بلغراد
مسيحيون أرثوذكس صرب
مواليد 1954
مونتينيغريون من أصل صربي
مونتينيغريون

وزراء داخلية الجبل الأسود
وزراء عدل الجبل الأسود

فيليب فويانوفيتش


Banco Palmas es un banco comunitario de desarrollo, fundado en 1998 en el Conjunto Palmeiras, un barrio de 32.000 habitantes localizado en los suburbios de Fortaleza – Ceará, Brasil, operando bajo los principios de 'Economía Solidaria'. Es el primer banco comunitario de desarrollo en ser creado. Actualmente existe 67 estructuras de bancos comunitarios similares (también conocidos como bancos comunitarios de desarrollo) en todo Brasil, conformando una red, de la cual es perteneciente.

Su administración es única en su tipo, pues es gestionado por el Instituto Palmas y no por la comunidad como tal. Su objetivo es asegurar micro créditos para el consumo y producción local con bajas tasas de interés y no requerimientos para el registro, prueba de ingresos o codeudor (los vecinos aseguran la confianza del prestante). Adicionalmente, proveen acceso a servicios bancarios a residentes de comunidades más pobres que generalmente no tienen otra manera para tener acceso a bancos tradicionales, basados en la falta de historia crediticia o garantía financiera y/o la distancia física del banco como tal.

Historia

La creación del Banco Palmas se remonta hacia el año 1989. Dado a las iniciativas de re-estructuración social alrededor de Fortaleza, propiciado por el gobierno municipal, comunidades de pescadores y otros habitantes fueron desarraigados y forzados a desplazarse hacia el interior de la ciudad. El espacio otorgado, que debía ocuparse lo más pronto posible, conocido actualmente como Conjunto Palmeiras, estaba desprovisto de una estructura básica como agua, vías de transporte, electricidad, dejando entonces al vecindario vulnerable a inundaciones y otros problemas de estabilidad económica y natural. Adicionalmente, el hecho de la mudanza dejó a la comunidad de pescadores sin una fuente ingreso estable. Dado a eso, en 1981, los residentes se reunieron para mejorar la comunidad y de este modo, se crea la Asociación de Moradores del Conjunto Palmeiras (ASMOCONP).

ASMOCONP se encargó entonces de la urbanización del barrio, creando toda la infraestructura (canales de drenaje, pavimentación de las calles, plazas, viveros y otro tipo de servicios). No obstante, en 1997, aunque el barrio ya se encontraba urbanizado, no contaba aun con formas para poder costear los nuevos servicios creados, obteniendo nuevas deudas y propiciando un exilio de algunos moradores del barrio a otras favelas.

Para lidiar con ese problema, ASMOCONP decidió enfocarse en el desarrollo económico de la comunidad, inaugurando el Banco Palmas el 20 de enero de 1998, como una estrategia para enfrentar el desempleo, creando trabajo local y oportunidades de ingreso para los residentes, siendo entonces el primer banco comunitario de desarrollo en Brasil. De esta forma, el Banco Palmas surge como una necesidad de organizar los consumidores del barrio y direccionar el consumo y la producción local. Su inicio tuvo un fondo inicial de R$ 2.000 conseguidos por una ONG de la ciudad. La distribución de este primer fondo fue destinado una parte para la creación de un tipo de tarjeta de crédito llamada 'Palmacard' para estimular el consumo local y préstamos para productores y comerciantes locales.

Con el tiempo, el banco generó otras formas y ejercicios para propiciar el desarrollo de la economía del barrio, tales como la tienda solidaria, ferias de comercio y un grupo de intercambio y troque, con moneda propia. El resultado de este último fue la creación para el año 2000 la moneda social palmas, del Banco Palmas, la cual circula en el mercado local aún.

En 2003, fue realizado un proyecto de importancia en el banco, el Plan Local de Inversión Estratégica (PLIES). Con ese documento, se definió una serie de acciones prioritarias que son utilizadas como herramienta de decisión en la construcción de acciones del Banco. Para ese mismo año, la metodología de finanzas solidarias de los Bancos Comunitarios de Desarrollo estaba siendo discutido en diversas municipalidades como un instrumento efectivo para la generación de ingresos para los pobres. En marzo de 2003, ASMOCONP estableció el Instituto Palmas de Desenvolvimento e Socioeconomia Solidária (conocido como Instituto Palmas) una organización de sociedad civil, sin ánimo de lucro creado de la experiencia con ASMOCONP. Un año después, en septiembre de 2004, el segundo Banco Comunitario de Desarrollo abrió bajo el nombre de Banco Par, en la municipalidad de Paracuru, Ceará, a 70 kilómetros de Fortaleza. La experiencia fue homologándose logrando que en 2006 hubiera aproximadamente 7 bancos comunitarios además del Banco Palmas.

Para el año 2006, el Banco do Brasil se convirtió en aliado del Instituto Palmas como avalista de las líneas de crédito del Banco Palmas, mediante un acuerdo con la secretaria nacional de economía solidaria (Secretaria Nacional de Economia Solidária do MTE). El acuerdo permitió no solamente el Banco Palmas, sino a los otros bancos comunitarios a tener acceso a crédito y actual como correspondientes bancarios de Banco do Brasil. A finales de 2006, se crea formalmente la Red Brasilera de Bancos Comunitarios de Desarrollo.

Para 2011, se obtuvo una alianza con Caixa Econômica Federal (para ser correspondiente bancario y avalista de líneas de crédito) y BNDES (soporte de desarrollo institucional) siendo de gran ayuda también para el banco y la red a la cual pertenece actualmente

El Conjunto Palmeiras obtuvo su título de barrio en el año 2007

Carácter diferenciador del Banco Palmas y su modelo
El Banco Palmas, sus acciones, sus logros y su historia proviene de una discusión básica en la que se cuestionaba el origen de su pobreza, llegando a la conclusión que no existe un territorio de naturaleza pobre económicamente (sea un vecindario, región o municipalidad). Los territorios se convierten pobres después de repetidamente perder sus propios ahorros. A pesar del nivel de pobreza, siempre es capaz de alcanzar desarrollo económico. Ese desarrollo debe ser autónomo, por el contrario, no será sostenible.

La idea principal con la creación del Banco Palmas es entonces, la reorganización de la economía del barrio, creando una red local de productores y consumidores, estimulando a las personas a producir y consumir en su propia comunidad, creando un "circuito financiero" generador de desarrollo local. De esta forma sus productos y actividades están basados en la sinergia del consumidor y el productor, con un fuerte control social.

Moneda Social Palmas
Formalmente conocida como "moneda social local circulante' o informalmente como "moneda local" o "moneda social", es una moneda complementaria al Real (Moneda de Brasil – R$), la cual es respaldada por un fondo administrado por el Banco Palmas. Su valor (1 Palmas) equivale a una cantidad (1 Real) en el Real.

Fue creada como consecuencia a los programas complementarios de la otorgación de créditos en la comunidad, tales como la tarjeta de crédito 'Palmacard' y los clubes de troque, creados con moneda propia. Tiene como fin de hacer que el "dinero" circule, de esa manera se expande el poder del comercio local, incrementando el capital circulante en la comunidad y generando empleo e ingreso.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Microcredit, the Case of Brazil (en inglés)
 Seminário Bancos Comunitários (en portugués)

Banca
Banca ética
Deuda
Economía alternativa

Banco Palmas


Dude Ranch ist das zweite Studioalbum der US-amerikanischen Rock-Band blink-182. Es erschien im deutschsprachigen Raum am 17. Juni 1997 bei MCA Records und war das erste Album der Band, das sich in den US-amerikanischen Albumcharts platzieren konnte.

Entstehung
Die Arbeiten am Album begannen im Jahre 1996, nachdem die Band einen neuen Vertrag mit dem Label MCA Records abgeschlossen hatte. Die meisten Stücke entstanden während der vorherigen Tournee. Die Aufnahmen begannen Ende 1996 in den Big Fish Studios in Encinitas, Kalifornien.

Artwork
Für die Gestaltung des Covers war Victor Gastelum zuständig, um die Zeichnungen kümmerte sich Lou Beach. Das Cover zeigt einen Stier, der mit dem Hinterteil zum Betrachter steht und seinen Kopf dabei in Richtung des Betrachters dreht. Das Tier trägt eine Brandmarke mit dem Bandlogo. Der Hintergrund besteht aus einer Prärielandschaft, außerdem ist ein Holzschild mit dem Albumtitel zu sehen. Als Produzenten wählte man Mark Trombino, der vorher mit Jimmy Eat World zusammenarbeitete. Anfang 1997 waren die Aufnahmen abgeschlossen. Das Mastering fand im Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood statt. Das Album wurde am 5. August 1997 veröffentlicht, als erste Single wurde Dammit ausgekoppelt.

Titelliste
 Pathetic  – 2:27
 Voyeur – 2:43
 Dammit  – 2:45
 Boring – 1:41
 Dick Lips – 2:57
 Waggy – 3:16
 Enthused  – 2:48
 Untitled – 2:46
 Apple Shampoo – 2:52
 Emo – 2:50
 Josie – 3:20
 A New Hope – 3:45
 Degenerate – 2:28
 Lemmings  – 2:38
 I'm Sorry – 5:37

Besetzung
 Mark Hoppus: Gesang, Bass
 Tom DeLonge: Gitarre, Gesang
 Scott Raynor: Schlagzeug
 Mark Trombino: Keyboard

Rezeption

Rezensionen
Von Musikkritikern wurde das Album überwiegend positiv besprochen, andererseits wurde das Album nur von wenigen Kritikern bewertet.

Stephen Thomas Erlewine bewertet das Album bei Allmusic sehr positiv und vergibt 4,5 von 5 möglichen Sternen. Er schreibt, dass die Songwritingfähigkeiten der Band noch nicht ganz ausgereift seien, es im Vergleich zu Cheshire Cat aber schon deutlich besser seien. Trotzdem beschreibt Erlewine die Musik des Albums als sehr gut.

Auch sputnikmusic.com bewertet das Album mit 4 von 5 möglichen Sternen als exzellent. Kritiker Channing Freeman meint, dass der Sound etwas Einzigartiges sei und man ihn nicht mit dem aktuellen Stil der Band vergleichen könne.

Charts und Chartplatzierungen
Das Album war das erste der Band, das sich in den Billboard 200 platzieren konnte.

Auszeichnungen für Musikverkäufe

Weblinks

 Informationen auf discogs.com (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Album 1997
Album (Rock)
Album (Pop-Punk)
Blink-182-Album

Dude Ranch (Album)


Finlandiya Körfezi, Baltık Denizi'nin kollarından biridir. Körfezin kuzeyinde Finlandiya, güneyinde Estonya ve doğusunda Rusya yer alır. Tallinn, Helsinki ve Neva Nehri'nın denize döküldüğü yerde bulunan Sankt-Peterburg körfeze kıyısı olan belli başlı kentlerdir.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye'deki körfezler listesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Finlandiya Körfezi


L'honneur de servir Riga ! (, GKR) est un parti politique letton fondé en mars 2012. Son leader est Andris Ameriks. Le noyau du parti se composait initialement de 20 personnes, dont 12 étaient membres du conseil municipal dissous du LPP/LC de Riga. , membre de la formation, a été le maire de Riga en 2019 et 2020, tandis qu'Andris Ameriks a été le vice-président du conseil municipal de Riga pendant longtemps avant cela.

Présentation
En décembre 2018, le parti comptait 605 membres.

La seule représentante du parti au sein de la Saeima (parlement de la république de Lettonie) était Jūlija Stepaņenko, qui a été élue lors des  et  de la Saeima sous l'étiquette de Saskaņa et qui siège en tant que députée indépendante dans la Saeima actuelle. Le , Jūlija Stepaņenko, et cinq membres du conseil municipal de Riga, ont démissionné du parti.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Parti politique fondé en 2012

L'Honneur de servir Riga !