Susanna i badet er en historie i en jødisk legende bevaret i apokryferne som et tillæg til Daniels Bog i Det Gamle Testamente. Historien foregår under det jødiske fangenskab i Babylon.

Susanna var gift med Joakim. En dag forsøgte to ældre at snige til et kig på Susannas bad i haven. De forlangte at have samleje med hende, og truede med at beskylde hende for utroskab medmindre hun gik med til det. Susanna nægtede, og mændene hævdede, at de havde set Susanna begå ægteskabsbrud med en for dem, ukendt mand, som derefter forsvandt, da han indså, at han var blevet spottet. Susanna blev dømt til døden. Profeten Daniel fik en inspiration fra Gud, at Susanna var uskyldig, og besluttede, at de to vidner blev afhørt hver for sig. Deres historier viste sig at forskellige med hensyn til, hvordan hændelsen havde fundet sted. Susanna blev frifundet, og mændene blev dømt for at have vidnet falsk.

Historien er ofte brugt som et motiv i billedkunsten, hvor Susanna belures i badet og efterstræbes af to gamle mænd.

Galleri

Deuterokanoniske bøger
Daniels Bog
Apokryfer

Susanna i badet


Akören, Çorum ilinin Alaca ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köyün adı, 1925 yılı kayıtlarında Akviran olarak geçmektedir.

Coğrafya
Köy, Çorum il merkezine 62 km, Alaca ilçe merkezine 12 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Alaca belde ve köyleri

Akören, Alaca


O coincidență este o potrivire remarcabilă de evenimente sau circumstanțe care nu au aparent nici o legătură de cauzalitate unul cu altul. Percepția unor coincidențe remarcabile poate determina sugestia unor intervenții supranaturale, oculte sau paranormale sau ar putea susține credința în fatalism, doctrină potrivit căreia evenimentele se vor întâmpla în mod exact după un plan prestabilit.

Din punct de vedere statistic, coincidențele sunt inevitabile și de multe ori sunt mai puțin remarcate decât ar putea părea intuitiv. Un exemplu este paradoxul zilei de naștere, care arată că probabilitatea ca două persoane să aibă aceeași zi de naștere depășește deja 50% într-un grup de doar 23 de persoane.

Etimologie
Cuvântul "coincidență" provine în limba română din cuvântul francez coïncidence, care își are originea în cuvântul coincidere din latina medievală. Definiția termenului a evoluat în cursul timpului; coincidența a fost definită în anii 1640 ca "apariție sau existență în același timp", apoi în scrierile lui Sir Thomas Browne ca "o potrivire de evenimente fără nici o legătură aparentă" în anii 1680.

Ca sincronicitate
Psihiatrul elvețian Carl Jung a dezvoltat o teorie care afirmă că apariția unor coincidențe remarcabile se datorează unei "sincronicități", pe care el a definit-o ca un "principiu de legătură acauzală".

Una dintre pasiunile lui Kammerer a fost colectarea coincidențelor. El a publicat o carte intitulată Das Gesetz der Serie (Legea seriilor), care nu a fost tradusă în limba română. În această carte a relatat aproximativ 100 de coincidențe anecdotice care l-au determinat să formuleze teoria serializării. El a postulat că toate evenimentele sunt legate între ele prin valuri de serialitate. Kammerer era cunoscut că nota câți oameni treceau prin parcurile publice, câți dintre ei purtau umbrele etc. Carl Jung a atras atenția asupra activității lui Kammerer în cartea Sincronicitate. Fizicianul și filozoful german Albert Einstein a afirmat că ideea serialității era "interesantă și deloc absurdă".

O coincidență presupune inexistența unei legături de cauzalitate. Pentru considerarea coincidenței ca sincronicitate, producerea simultană a evenimentelor trebuie să fie puțin probabilă, dar acest lucru este pus la îndoială deoarece, de obicei, există o șansă, oricât de mică ar fi.

Unii sceptici (ca, de exemplu, Georges Charpak și Henri Broch) susțin că sincronicitatea este doar un exemplu de "apofenie" (percepție eronată de legături între evenimente nerelaționate). Ei susțin că teoria statistică și teoria probabilităților  (exemplificate, de exemplu, în legea lui Littlewood) sunt suficiente pentru a explica producerea unor coincidențe remarcabile.

Charles Fort a adunat, de asemenea, sute de cazuri de coincidențe și fenomene anormale interesante.

Cauzalitate
Măsurarea probabilității unei serii de coincidențe este cea mai comună metodă de a distinge o coincidență de alte evenimente care au legături de cauzalitate între ele.

Stabilirea cauzei și efectului (cauzalitatea) este extrem de dificilă, deoarece "corelația nu implică o cauzalitate". În Statistică, este general acceptat faptul că studiile observaționale pot oferi indicii cu privire la producerea unui eveniment, dar nu pot stabili niciodată cauza și efectul. Dar, având în vedere paradoxul probabilității, cu cât este mai mare numărul de coincidențe, cu atât există o mai mare certitudine și cu atât pare să existe o cauză în spatele lanțului de coincidențe.

{{Citat|Nu este deloc de mirare ca într-o perioadă lungă de timp, în timp ce Fortuna se îndreaptă încoace și încolo, să se producă spontan numeroase coincidențe.|Plutarh, Vieți paralele, vol. II, "Sertorius"}}

Note

Bibliografie
 David Marks: The Psychology of the Psychic. pp. 227–46
 Joseph Mazur (2016). Fluke: The Maths and Myths of Coincidences'', London: Oneworld Publications.

Vezi și
 Codul Bibliei

Legături externe
 Collection of  Historical Coincidence, nephiliman.com (web.archive.org)
 Unlikely Events and Coincidence, Austin Society to Oppose Pseudoscience
 Why coincidences happen, UnderstandingUncertainty.org
 The Cambridge Coincidences Collection , University of Cambridge Statslab
 The mathematics of coincidental meetings
 Strange coincidences

Statistică
Terminologie matematică

Coincidență


Bubussuso (Bubususo, Bubususu, ehemals Bibisuso, Bibissuço, Bibissuso, Bibissusso, Bibissousso, Bibiçuço) ist ein osttimoresischer Suco im Verwaltungsamt Fatuberlio (Gemeinde Manufahi).

Geographie

Bubussuso liegt im Nordwesten des Verwaltungsamts Fatuberlio. Westlich befindet sich der Suco Fahinehan, nördlich und östlich der Suco Caicassa. Im Süden grenzt Bubussuso an das Verwaltungsamt Alas mit seinen Sucos Dotik und Aituha. Entlang der Ostgrenze fließt der Südliche Lacló. Bubussuso hat eine Fläche von 19,47 km² und teilt sich in die fünf Aldeias Aituha, Bubulora, Bubussusso, Lihu Lau und Orlora.

Der Ort Bubussuso liegt im Norden des Sucos, auf einer Meereshöhe von . Hier befindet sich die Grundschule des Sucos, die Escola Primaria Bubussuso und ein provisorischer Hubschrauberlandeplatz.

Größere Straßen, die den Suco mit der Außenwelt verbinden, fehlen. So mussten für die Parlamentswahlen in Osttimor 2007 die Wahlurnen zum Wahllokal in der Grundschule mit einem Hubschrauber hingebracht und wieder abgeholt werden. Im Norden liegen die Dörfer Bubussuso, Bubulora (Bobolora), Aituha, Lihu Lau (Liholau) und Orlora. Die Kapelle Santu Agustinho Bubususu befindet sich in der Aldeia Orlora. Sie gehört zur Pfarrei Fatuberlio.

Einwohner
In Bubussuso leben 854 Einwohner (2022), davon sind 423 Männer und 431 Frauen. Im Suco gibt es 159 Haushalte. Über 96 % der Einwohner geben Lakalei als ihre Muttersprache an. Jeweils etwa anderthalb Prozent sprechen Tetum Prasa und Tetum Terik.

Geschichte

Bubussuso war eines der traditionellen Reiche Timors, die von einem Liurai regiert wurden. Es erscheint als Bibissuço auf einer Liste von Afonso de Castro, einem ehemaligen Gouverneur von Portugiesisch-Timor, der im Jahre 1868 47 Reiche aufführte. Eine Liste von 1769 nennt das Reich Bibisuso.

Ab 1860 gehörte Bibissuço zur gleichnamigen Militärkommandantur, zusammen mit Samoro, Claco, Foulão, Tutuluro und Turiscai. 1883 kam es zur Militärkommandantur Alas.

Während der Rebellion von Manufahi (1911/12) war Bubussuso mit Boaventura verbündet, dem aufständischen Liurai von Manufahi. Die Rebellion endete im Oktober 1912 mit der Gefangennahme von Boaventura. Die zu Portugal loyalen Liurais, ohne die ein Sieg wohl nicht möglich gewesen wäre, erhielten zum Dank militärische Ränge eines Majors oder Oberstleutnants. Umgekommene oder gefangengenommene Herrscher, wie Afonso Hornai de Soares Pereira von Bubussuso, wurden durch loyale Anhänger Portugals ersetzt, ohne Rücksicht auf die traditionelle Nachfolge zu nehmen.

1975 begann Indonesien mit der Besetzung von Osttimor. Fatuberlio war ein Rückzugsgebiet des Widerstands durch die FALINTIL. Die Einwohner der Sucos Bubussuso, Caicassa und Fahinehan ergaben sich den Invasoren 1978, nachdem die Widerstandsbasis (base de apoio) Centro Sul zerstört worden war. Zunächst wurden sie in der Küstenregion Manufahis versammelt, dann in Fahinehan unter der Kontrolle des indonesischen Airborne Infantry Battalion 100. Viele der Zivilisten durch den Mangel an Nahrungsmitteln und Medikamenten. In der Umgebung durften die Internierten nur in Begleitung von Soldaten nach Nahrung suchen. Dabei durften sie sich nicht mehr als ein Kilometer vom Lager entfernen. Zwei Männer wurden erschossen, weil sie die Grenze überschritten hatten. Auch im Ort Turiscai wurden Einwohner der drei Sucos interniert.

1981 wurden die Einwohner von Bubussuso und Fahinehan von den indonesischen Besatzern nach Oeto (Suco Dotik, Subdistrikt Alas) zwangsumgesiedelt, weil sie in Verdacht standen, die FALINTIL weiter mit Nahrungsmitteln zu versorgen. Die Felder wurden von den indonesischen Soldaten niedergebrannt, damit sie nicht der Widerstandsbewegung nutzen konnten. Für die Zwangsumgesiedelten wurde der neue Ort Weberec gegründet. Da die Menschen aus dem Norden von Fatuberlio als Bergbewohner nur ihre fruchtbaren Felder gewohnt waren, hatten sie Schwierigkeiten im heißen, sumpfigen Flachland, was zu vielen Todesfällen führte. Bis 1983 erfolgte die Rücksiedlung in die angestammten Gebiete.

Politik

Bei den Wahlen von 2004/2005 wurde Francisco Amaral zum Chefe de Suco gewählt und 2009 in seinem Amt bestätigt. Bei den Wahlen 2016 gewann Estanislau Borges.

Weblinks

 Ergebnisse des Zensus 2010 für den Suco Bubussuso (tetum; PDF; 8,4 MB)
 Ergebnisse des Zensus 2015 für den Suco Bubussuso (tetum; PDF)
 Seeds of Life: Suco information sheets Fatuberlio (tetum)

Einzelnachweise

Suco in Manufahi
Ort in Manufahi

Bubussuso


An Pleurostachys urvillei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart. An Pleurostachys urvillei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pleurostachys, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pleurostachys

Pleurostachys urvillei


Henry Rinklin (født 15. september 1957 i Geisingen) er en tysk forhenværende cykelrytter. Hans foretrukne disciplin var banecykling, hvor han har vundet medaljer ved EM og nationale mesterskaber. Han havde også en karriere på landevej.

Han stillede til start i 54 seksdagesløb, hvor det blev til to sejre. Ved Københavns seksdagesløb er det kun blevet til én tredjeplads i 1985 sammen med makker Josef Kristen.

Eksterne henvisninger

Mandlige cykelryttere fra Tyskland

Henry Rinklin


Les élections législatives nord-coréennes de 1967 le . Un seul candidat a été présenté dans chaque circonscription, tous sélectionnés par le Parti du travail de Corée, bien que certains se soient présentés sous la bannière d'autres partis ou organisations étatiques pour donner l'illusion de la démocratie. Le taux de participation était de 100 %, 100 % des votants en faveur des candidats présentés.

Pour la première fois, les représentants des résidents coréens au Japon ont été élus députés. La première session (14-16 décembre 1967) s'est terminée par la déclaration « Incarnons plus profondément l'esprit révolutionnaire d'indépendance, d'autosuffisance et d'autodéfense dans tous les domaines de l'activité de l'État ».

Résultats

Notes et références

Ouvrages

Liens externes
 Élection parlementaire nord-coréenne, 1967 sur l'Union interparlementaire

Corée du Nord
1967
Novembre 1967

Élections législatives nord-coréennes de 1967


Moderata Fonte, pseudônimo de Modesta di Pozzo di Forzi (ou Zorzi), também conhecido como Modesto Pozzo (ou Modesta, feminização de Modesto), (1555–1592) foi uma escritora e poetisa veneziana. Além dos diálogos publicados postumamente, Giustizia delle donne e Il merito delle donne (reunidos em O valor das mulheres, 1600), pelos quais é mais conhecida, escreveu um romance e poesia religiosa. Detalhes de sua vida são conhecidos da biografia de Giovanni Niccolò Doglioni (1548-1629), seu tio, incluída como prefácio ao diálogo.

Vida e História

Os pais de Pozzo, Girolamo da Pozzo e Marietta da Pozzo (nascida "dal Moro"), morreram de peste em 1556, quando ela tinha apenas um ano de idade, e ela e seu irmão mais velho Leonardo foram colocados aos cuidados de sua avó materna e seu segundo marido. Passou vários anos no convento de Santa Marta onde, graças à sua extraordinária memória, foi muitas vezes apresentada como uma criança prodígio. Ela era capaz de repetir longos sermões que ouvira ou lera apenas uma vez. Aos nove anos, foi devolvida à família de sua avó, onde aprendeu latim e composição com seu avô, Prospero Saraceni e com seu irmão, Leonardo. Seu irmão também a ensinou a ler e escrever em latim, desenhar, cantar e tocar alaúde e cravo.

Em 15 de fevereiro de 1582, aos vinte e sete anos, Moderata casou-se com Filippo de' Zorzi. O casamento deles parecia refletir igualdade e respeito mútuo evidenciado por de' Zorzi devolver seu dote um ano e meio após o casamento. Um documento oficial datado de outubro de 1583 afirma que de' Zorzi devolve o dote "graças à sua pura bondade e ao grande amor e boa vontade que ele sentiu e sente por" ela. Da mesma forma, Moderata Fonte descreve seu marido em um de seus escritos como um homem de "virtude, bondade e integridade".

Trabalhos
Uma das primeiras obras conhecidas de Fonte é uma peça musical apresentada perante o Doge da Ponte em 1581 na festa do Dia de Santo Estêvão. Le Feste [ As Festas ] inclui cerca de 350 versos com várias partes cantadas. Também em 1581, ela publicou seu poema épico I tredici canti del Floridoro [ Os Treze Cantos de Floridoro ] dedicado a Bianca Cappello e seu novo marido, Francesco I de' Medici, o Grão-Duque da Toscana. Este poema é talvez a segunda obra de cavalaria publicada por uma mulher italiana, depois de Il Meschino de Tullia d'Aragona, que apareceu em 1560.

Moderata Fonte escreveu dois longos poemas religiosos, La Passione di Cristo [Paixão de Cristo] e La Resurrezione di Gesù Cristo nostro Signore che segue alla Santissima Passione in otava rima da Moderata Fonte [ A Ressurreição de Jesus Cristo, nosso Senhor, que segue a Santa Paixão em oitavas por Moderata Fonte ]. Nessas obras, ela descreve em detalhes as reações emocionais da Virgem Maria e Maria Madalena à morte e ressurreição de Cristo, ilustrando sua profunda crença na participação ativa das mulheres nos eventos da Paixão e Ressurreição de Cristo.

Ela é talvez mais conhecida por Il Merito delle donne [Sobre o mérito das mulheres], publicado postumamente em 1600, no qual ela critica o tratamento das mulheres pelos homens enquanto celebra as virtudes e a inteligência das mulheres e argumenta que as mulheres são superiores aos homens, mas não chega ao ponto de apelar à igualdade sexual. Talvez um precursor da conscientização que tentou conscientizar o papel dos homens na questão das mulheres ou quelles des femmes  .

Ao morrer, em 1592, aos trinta e sete anos, Pozzo tinha quatro filhos, segundo seu biógrafo e mentor, Giovanni Nicolo Doglioni: o mais velho com dez anos, o segundo com oito, o terceiro com seis e o recém-nascido, cujo nascimento causou a morte dela. Seu marido colocou um epitáfio de mármore em seu túmulo que descreve Pozzo como 'femina doctissima' [uma mulher muito culta].

Giustizia delle donne (O valor das mulheres: em que é claramente revelada sua nobreza e sua superioridade em relação aos homens)
Giustizia delle donne foi publicado após a morte de Fonte junto com Il merito delle donne. Ambas as obras literárias são influenciadas pelo  Decameron de Boccaccio : são histórias emolduradas onde os personagens desenvolvem seus diálogos e exempla .

Temas e resultados

Impacto e Contemporâneos
A escrita pega em armas nas disputas do valor das mulheres, porém, a liberdade de expressão das mulheres personagens do renascimento ocorre muitas vezes na ausência dos homens. O diálogo literário muitas vezes excluira as mulheres e Moderata Fonte quebra essa tradição ao criar o Valor da Mulher pela completa ausência do homem. Neste diálogo, o valor das mulheres não é questionado, mas o valor dos homens é posto à prova em seu debate no jardim. A segunda parte do trabalho de Fonte demonstra o que significa tornar-se uma mulher renascentista através da compreensão intelectual e da amizade feminizada. A importância das comunidades femininas é uma exortação para que as mulheres percebam sua dignidade e se tornem indivíduos politicamente autônomos. Isso reflete a ideia de Laura Cereta da 'República das Mulheres'. As mulheres nunca chegam a uma conclusão, o espaço para falar livremente é temporário e emprestado. As mulheres no final têm que deixar o jardim para voltar para casa. O cenário do jardim mostra o potencial de uma sociedade feminizada, pois todos os personagens de Fonte expressam a capacidade moral das mulheres e seu merecimento de meios materiais para serem autônomos, embora a partir de argumentos diferentes.

Moderata foi uma autora transgressora e moderna, que influenciou o pensamento moderno e a compreensão do feminismo no contexto histórico. Seu manuscrito foi publicado após sua morte, pois ela terminou de completar seus escritos no dia anterior à sua morte, dando à luz seu quarto filho. Os temas das obras da Moderata Fonte são espaços literários de reavaliação. Um dos temas maiores são o amor, a liberdade de expressão e o valor das mulheres. Alguns autores sugeriram que o último trabalho de Moderata Fonte, juntamente com outros contemporâneos como Lucrezia Marinella, pretendia ser uma crítica contra I donneschi difetti [Os defeitos das mulheres] de Giuseppe Passi .

Legado e influência
Moderata Fonte e Lucrezia Marinella deixaram um legado para outros como Isabella e Francesco Andreini, que usaram composições vernáculas informadas para moldar a autorrepresentação revitalizando as quelles des femmes. A sutil perspectiva feminista que está em jogo nessas obras literárias é o papel das propriedades na desvalorização das mulheres. Mais recentemente, as mulheres têm conquistado a liberdade política como resultado da mudança para as mulheres que administram suas posses.

No século 20, um grupo de mulheres intelectuais resgatou seus textos e transmitiu seu legado: Eleonora Carinci, Adriana Chemello e  Virginia Cox. Virginia Cox e Valeria Finucci argumentam que as diferenças de gênero são nutridas em sua análise de Fonte, e não inerentes à biologia feminina. Patricia Labalme e Virginia Cox desenvolvem a crítica feminista inicial da misoginia nos escritos de mulheres venezianas. Diana Robin expõe o papel das mulheres na vida intelectual e a importância histórica das escritoras. Ela expõe o papel integrado de homens, mulheres e suas relações nesse movimento de reconhecimento da mulher como intelectual. Fonte tornou-se muito citada em outros trabalhos de comentários sobre mulheres, incluindo Pietro Paolo di Ribera e Cristofano Bronzini. Mais recentemente, teóricos ingleses e norte-americanos se inspiraram em suas ideias e formularam alguns conceitos (como mansplaining) que são vitais no feminismo atual .

Ligações externas
 Querelle | Moderata Fonte (ingles) Querelle.ca é um site dedicado às obras de autores que contribuem para o lado pró-mulher da querelle des femmes .
 :it:s:Autore:Modesta Pozzo
 Projeto Continua: Biografia de Modesto Pozzo -pseudônimo Moderata Fonte (ingles) O Projeto Continua é um recurso multimídia baseado na web dedicado à criação e preservação da história intelectual das mulheres desde as primeiras evidências sobreviventes até o século XXI.

Feministas da Itália
Poetas da República de Veneza
Mortos em 1592
Nascidos em 1555
!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Wikiconcurso de edição)

Moderata Fonte


Southeast Airlines was established in 1993 as Sun Jet International and was founded by Tom Kolfenbach.
It was a low fare public charter airline in the United States, headquartered in Largo, Florida, operating regular service to various vacation/leisure destinations using eight McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 and two McDonnell Douglas MD-80 aircraft. It abruptly ceased operations on November 30, 2004. The airline was featured on The Simple Life reality TV series, which Southeast executives hoped would give the carrier some exposure.  The airline's jets featured the "Sun King" logo previously used by the original National Airlines which appeared on the tails of its aircraft.

The Southeast Airlines name was also used by another U.S. air carrier which was based in Miami and was operating scheduled passenger service in 1979 with jet aircraft nonstop between Miami and Aguadilla, Puerto Rico and also with turboprop aircraft nonstop between Miami and Tampa.

Destinations
Southeast Airlines served the following destinations throughout operations:
United States
Florida
Fort Lauderdale - Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport
Orlando - Orlando International Airport - Orlando Sanford International Airport
St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg-Clearwater International Airport
Fort Walton Beach, Florida - Fort Walton Regional Airport
West Palm Beach - West Palm Beach International Airport
Fort Myers - Southwest Florida International Airport
Ohio
Columbus - Rickenbacker International Airport
Youngstown-Warren - Youngstown-Warren Regional Airport
Nevada
Las Vegas - McCarran International Airport
South Carolina
Myrtle Beach - Myrtle Beach International Airport
North Carolina
Wilmington - Wilmington International Airport - Charlotte, North Carolina - Raleigh-Durham International Airport - Morrisville, North Carolina
New York
Newburgh, near New York City - Stewart International Airport - LaGuardia Airport
Pennsylvania
Allentown - Lehigh Valley International Airport
Mississippi
Gulfport - Gulfport/Biloxi International Airport
Mexico
Cancun - Cancun International Airport

Fleet

Southeast Airlines operated the following aircraft throughout operations:

See also
 List of defunct airlines of the United States

References

Airlines established in 1999
Airlines disestablished in 2004
Defunct airlines of the United States
1999 establishments in Florida

Southeast Airlines


Nikolorića dvori  u mjestu Bolu su stambeno-gospodarski sklop koji predstavlja zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Sklop Marinković-Nikolorić zvan "Nikolorića dvori" smješten na predjelu Obala u Bolu je zatvoreni blok s unutrašnjim dvorištem sa sjevera ograđen visokim zidom. Na južnom pročelju ističu se vanjska stubišta i balkonade ograđene tranzenama od opeke. U unutrašnjosti se ističu kuhinja s kominom i tragovi kućne kapele. Vrijedan primjer stambeno-gospodarskog sklopa 18. i 19. st. sagradila je ugledna kapetanska obitelj Nikolorić.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom RST-1103-1984. zaveden je pod vrstom "nepokretna kulturna baština - pojedinačna", pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "stambeno-poslovne građevine".

Izvori

Zaštićene stambeno-poslovne građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Građevine u Bolu

Nikolorića dvori u Bolu


Maurice Gustave Gamelin (; 20 September 1872 – 18 April 1958) was an army general in the French Army. Gamelin is remembered for his disastrous command (until 17 May 1940) of the French military during the Battle of France in World War II and his steadfast defence of republican values.

The Commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces at the start of World War II, Gamelin was viewed as a man with significant intellectual ability. He was respected, even in Germany, for his intelligence and "subtle mind", though he was viewed by some German generals as stiff and predictable. Despite this, and his competent service in World War I, his command of the French armies during the critical days of May 1940 proved to be disastrous. Historian and journalist William L. Shirer presented the view that Gamelin used World War I methods to fight World War II, but with less vigor and slower response.

Gamelin served with distinction under Joseph Joffre in World War I. He is often credited with being responsible for devising the outline of the French counter-attack in 1914 which led to victory during the First Battle of the Marne. In 1933 Gamelin rose to command the French Army and oversaw a modernisation and mechanisation programme, including the completion of the Maginot Line defences.

Édouard Daladier supported Gamelin throughout his career, owing to Gamelin's refusal to allow politics to play a part in military planning and promotion, and his commitment to the republican model of government; this was not a trivial matter at a time when Communists on the left and Royalists and Fascists on the right were openly advocating regime change in France.

Early years
Maurice Gamelin was born in Paris on 20 September 1872. Gamelin's father, Zéphyrin, fought in the Battle of Solferino in 1859. From an early age Gamelin showed potential as a soldier, growing up in a generation seeking revenge on Germany for the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine at the end of the Franco-Prussian War.

Military career
Gamelin volunteered for service on 19 October 1891 before entering the military academy at Saint-Cyr on 31 October. In 1893, he graduated first in his class.

He began in the French tirailleurs with the 3rd Regiment based in Tunisia. He then joined the topographic brigade. When Gamelin came back to Paris in 1897, he entered the prestigious École Supérieure de Guerre and finished second of his class of about eighty of the best future officers in the French Army. Charles Lanrezac, then second-in-command of the École Supérieure de Guerre, and later a general in the early days of World War I, noted Gamelin as an intelligent, cultivated, and industrious young officer, bound to earn higher functions in the future. Gamelin joined the staff of the 15th Army Corps before commanding a company of the 15th battalion of the Chasseurs Alpins in 1904. He received the applause of his superiors for his diligence at manœuvre.

He published Philosophical Study on the Art of War in 1906, which critics praised, predicting he would become an important military thinker in the near future. He then became an attaché to General Joseph Joffre (a future Marshal of France, as he led the French forces during World War I). This position had been obtained with the help of Ferdinand Foch (also a future Marshal of France, as he led the Allied Forces to victory on the Western Front in 1918). These positions provided Gamelin with a solid knowledge of strategic and tactical warfare.

In 1911, Gamelin was given command of the 11th battalion of the Chasseurs Alpins in Annecy. However, in March 1914 he joined Joffre's general staff (1914–18 called Grand Quartier Général). Early in the war, Gamelin helped draft the plans that led to the victory at the Battle of the Marne. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and fought in Alsace on the Linge and later on the Somme. He became colonel in April 1916, and with good results on the battlefield was further promoted within eight months to the rank of brigadier general. He commanded the French 11th Infantry Division from April 1917 until the end of the war. In the region of Noyon, he showed sophisticated tactical skills by gaining ground without losing lives needlessly (which had been atypical earlier in the war, see Attaque à outrance).

From 1919 to 1924, Gamelin was the head of the French military mission in Brazil. He then commanded the French Army in the Levant, now Syria and Lebanon. He was the commander of the 30th Military Region in Nancy from 1919 to 1931, when he was named head of the general staff of the French Army. In 1932 he knew the Reichswehr mobilization plan was to at least treble their force, but lacked intelligence on the armament plan, the militia plan, or the Manstein Plan. He prepared France's military until the beginning of World War II, although challenged by restricted funding (→ Great Depression in France) and by the political inertia regarding German re-armament and later the Third Reich, which was intensified after the end of the Allied occupation of the Rhineland and its remilitarisation. At the outbreak of the war in September 1939, Gamelin was considered one of the best commanding generals in Europe, and was respected even among the Wehrmacht.

Role in the Second World War
When war was declared in 1939, Gamelin was France's commander in chief, with his headquarters at the Château de Vincennes, a facility completely devoid of telephonic or any other electronic links to his commanders in the field: a massive oversight in the face of the Wehrmacht's subsequent swift and flexible 'Blitzkrieg' tactics. France saw little action during the Phoney War, apart from a few French divisions crossing the German border in the Saar Offensive, who advanced a mere . They stopped even before reaching Germany's unfinished Siegfried Line. According to General Siegfried Westphal, a German staff officer on the Western Front, if France had attacked in September 1939 German forces could not have held out for more than one or two weeks. Gamelin ordered his troops back behind the Maginot Line, but only after telling France's ally, Poland, that France had broken the Siegfried Line and that help was on its way . Before the war, he had expected the Polish Army to hold out against Germany for six months. Gamelin's long-term strategy was to wait until France had fully rearmed and for the British and French armies to build up their forces, even though this would mean waiting until 1941 . He prohibited any bombing of the industrial areas of the Ruhr, in case the Germans retaliated. The French mobilisation had called up many essential workers, which disrupted vital French industries in the first weeks of the campaign.

Gamelin's vision for France's defence was based upon a static defence along the Franco-German border, which was reinforced by the Maginot Line. However, the Line did not extend along the Belgian frontier. During the winter of 1939–40, which was one of the coldest of the 20th century, work on the extension of the Line along the Belgian frontier was slow and not of the same quality as the original defences. Gamelin, along with many other members of the French High Command, saw the Ardennes as impenetrable and chose to defend it with only ten reserve divisions and few fortifications. Much of the French army was posted further northwest along the Belgian frontier. According to General Hasso von Manteuffel, a German Panzer commander, France had more and better tanks than Germany, but chose to disperse them.

Gamelin's own views had changed from a purely defensive strategy relying on the Maginot Line. French strategists predicted a German drive across northern Belgium, as in 1914. Gamelin favoured an aggressive advance northward to meet the attacking German forces in Belgium and the Netherlands, as far removed from French territory as possible. This strategy, known as the Dyle Plan, fitted with Belgian defensive plans and also with British objectives. Gamelin committed much of the motorised forces of the French Army and the entire British Expeditionary Force (BEF) to this strategy. Such a strategy also meant that the most of the French Army would leave its one-year-old prepared defensive positions in northern France to be committed to joining battle on an unknown Belgian defensive line.

Despite reports of the build-up of German forces, and even knowing the date of the planned German attack, Gamelin did nothing until May 1940, stating that he would "await events". Then, when the Germans attacked, Gamelin insisted on moving 40 of his best divisions, including the BEF, northwards to conform to the Dyle Plan.

In the first few days of the Battle of Belgium, many Allied aircraft were attacked while still on the ground. The rest of the air support was concentrated on the French advance, rather than attacking the exposed  column supplying the German advance. Quickly, the French and the British became fearful of being outflanked and they withdrew from the defensive lines drawn up across Belgium. They did not pull back fast enough to prevent them being outflanked by the German Panzer divisions.

The German wing that attacked further south was able to cross the River Meuse faster than anticipated, aided by heavy Luftwaffe aerial bombardment. Although almost all the crossings over the Meuse were destroyed by the French, one weir  north of Sedan had been left intact and was only lightly defended. It was thus quickly captured and exploited by the Germans. Meanwhile, French guns were ordered to limit their firing in case they ran out of ammunition. German Colonel-General Heinz Guderian disregarded his orders, and attacked aggressively on this front. In response, Gamelin withdrew forces in this area so that they could defend Paris, thinking this was the Germans' objective, rather than the coast.

Believing that he had been betrayed rather than blaming his own strategy, Gamelin then sacked 20 of his front line commanders.

Further north, the German forces led by Major-General Erwin Rommel kept advancing quickly as well, also against orders. General Guderian's 19th Panzer Corps south of Rommel reached the English Channel to the west of the Allied forces and attacked up the coast, enveloping the French and British forces that had been sent into Belgium. The French and English forces had retreated south but were cut off from escape by the German encirclement. In moving from France to Belgium and then back to France, a substantial amount of the Allied armour was lost due to German air attacks and mechanical failure. The French and British could no longer launch a counterattack spearheaded by tanks and thus break out of the encirclement. The speed of this advance, German air supremacy, and the inability of the British and French to counter-attack undermined the overall Allied position to such a degree that Britain abandoned the conflict on the continent. 338,226 men (including 120,000 French soldiers) withdrew across the English Channel during the Dunkirk evacuation. A second British Expeditionary Force, due to land in Normandy in mid-June, was cancelled.

The Dutch surrendered within five days of being attacked, the Belgians in 18 days ("campagne des 18 jours"), and the French were left with only a rump of their former army to defend their nation. Gamelin was removed from his post on 18 May 1940 by Paul Reynaud, who had replaced Édouard Daladier as Prime Minister in March. The 68-year-old Gamelin was replaced by the 73-year-old Maxime Weygand, who crucially delayed planned counter-attacks before eventually launching them.

After the Fall of France
Gamelin was both preceded and succeeded as Général d'armée by Maxime Weygand. The Vichy regime tried Gamelin for treason along with other important political and military figures of the Third Republic (Édouard Daladier, Guy La Chambre, Léon Blum, and Robert Jacomet) in the Riom Trial. Gamelin refused to answer the charges against him, instead maintaining silence, and the entire proceeding collapsed. Imprisoned by the Vichy regime in Fort du Portalet in the Pyrenees, he was later deported by the Germans to the Itter Castle in North Tyrol with a few other French high officials. He was freed from the castle after the Battle for Castle Itter. After the war, he published his memoirs, titled Servir (meaning "to serve").

Gamelin died in Paris in April 1958 at the age of 85.

References

Further reading

 (Paperback ed. 2002 and 2003)

L'Ouest-Eclair 1935-01-19 "Le général Gamelin succède au général Weygand comme généralissime tout en restant chef d'état-maior général". Includes a short bio.

External links
Service records of General Gamelin

Generals of World War II

1872 births
1958 deaths
Chiefs of the Staff of the French Army
Military personnel from Paris
École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr alumni
French military personnel of World War I
French Army generals of World War II
French generals
French people imprisoned abroad
Generalissimos
Burials at Passy Cemetery
People of the Great Syrian Revolt
19th-century French military personnel
Prisoners and detainees of Vichy France
Prisoners and detainees of Germany

Maurice Gamelin