Elder abuse (also called elder mistreatment, senior abuse, abuse in later life, abuse of older adults, abuse of older women, and abuse of older men) is "a single, or repeated act, or lack of appropriate action, occurring within any relationship where there is an expectation of trust, which causes harm or distress to an older person." This definition has been adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) from a definition put forward by Hourglass (formerly Action on Elder Abuse) in the UK. Laws protecting the elderly from abuse are similar to and related to laws protecting dependent adults from abuse.

It includes harms by people, the older person knows, or has a relationship with, such as a spouse, partner, or family member; a friend or neighbor; or people that the older person relies on for services. Many forms of elder abuse are recognized as types of domestic violence or family violence since they are committed by family members. Paid caregivers have also been known to prey on their elderly patients.

While a variety of circumstances are considered elder abuse, it does not include general criminal activities against older persons, such as home break-ins, robbery or muggings in the street, or "distraction burglary," where a stranger distracts an older person at the doorstep while another person enters the property to steal.

The abuse of elders by caregivers is a worldwide issue. In 2002, WHO brought international attention to the issue of elder abuse. Over the years, government agencies and community professional groups, worldwide, have specified elder abuse as a social problem. In 2006, the International Network for Prevention of Elder Abuse (INPEA) designated June 15 as World Elder Abuse Awareness Day (WEAAD), and an increasing number of events are held across the globe on this day to raise awareness of elder abuse and highlight ways to challenge such abuse.

Types
Although there are common themes of elder abuse across nations, there are also unique manifestations based upon history, culture, economic strength, and societal perceptions of older people within nations themselves. The fundamental common denominator is the use of power and control by one individual to affect the well-being and status of another older individual.

There are several types of abuse of older people that are generally recognized as being elder abuse, including:

 Physical: e.g. hitting, punching, slapping, burning, pushing, kicking, restraining, false imprisonment/confinement, or giving excessive or improper medication as well as withholding treatment and medication.
Psychological, emotional: e.g. humiliating a person. A common theme is a perpetrator who identifies something that matters to an older person and then uses it to coerce an older person into a particular action. It may take verbal forms such as yelling,  name-calling, ridiculing, constantly criticizing, accusations, blaming, or nonverbal forms such as ignoring, silence, shunning or withdrawing affection.
 Elder financial abuse: also known as financial exploitation or economic abuse, involving misappropriation of financial resources by family members, caregivers, or strangers, or the use of financial means to control the person or facilitate other types of abuse. Also, failure to pay financial support to impoverished elders in jurisdictions which have filial responsibility laws, such as France, Germany, and most of the United States.
 Sexual: e.g. forcing a person to take part in any sexual activity without his or her consent, including forcing them to participate in conversations of a sexual nature against their will; which may also include situations where the person is no longer able to give consent (dementia).
 Neglect: e.g. depriving a person of proper medical treatment, food, heat, clothing, comfort, essential medication, or depriving a person of needed services to force certain kinds of actions, financial and otherwise. Neglect can include leaving an at-risk (i.e. fall risk) elder person unattended. The deprivation may be intentional (active neglect) or happen out of lack of knowledge or resources (passive neglect).

In addition, some U.S. state laws also recognize the following as elder abuse:
 Abandonment: deserting a dependent person with the intent to abandon them or leave them unattended at a place for such a time period that may be likely to endanger their health or welfare.
 Rights abuse: denying the civil and constitutional rights of a person who is old, but not declared by court to be mentally incapacitated. This is an aspect of elder abuse that is increasingly being recognized and adopted by nations.
 Self-neglect: any persons Neglecting themselves by not caring about their own health, well-being or safety. Self-neglect (harm by self) is treated as conceptually different than abuse (harm by others). Elder self-neglect can lead to illness, injury, or even death. Common needs that older adults may deny themselves or ignore include the following: sustenance (food or water); cleanliness (bathing and personal hygiene); adequate clothing for climate protection; proper shelter; adequate safety; clean and healthy surroundings; medical attention for serious illness; and essential medications. Self-neglect is often created by an individual's declining mental awareness or capability. Some older adults may choose to deny themselves some health or safety benefits, which may not be self-neglect. This may simply be their personal choice. Caregivers and other responsible individuals must honor these choices if the older adult is sound of mind. In other instances, the older adult may lack the needed resources, as a result of poverty, or other social condition. This is also not considered "self-neglect."
 Institutional abuse refers to physical or psychological harm, as well as rights violations in settings where care and assistance is provided to dependent older adults or others, such as nursing homes. Recent studies of approximately 2,000 nursing home facility residents in the United States reported a growing abuse rate of 44% and neglect up to 95%, making elder abuse in nursing homes a growing danger. Exact statistics are rare due to elder abuse in general and specifically in nursing homes being a silent condition.

Warning signs
The key to prevention and intervention of elder abuse is the ability to recognize the warning signs of its occurrence. Signs of elder abuse differ depending on the type of abuse the victim is suffering. Each type of abuse has distinct signs associated with it.

 Physical abuse can be detected by visible signs on the body including bruises, scratches, scars, sprains, or broken bones. More subtle indications of physical abuse include signs of restraint such as rope marks on the  wrist or broken eyeglasses.
 Emotional abuse often accompanies the other types of abuse and can usually be detected by changes in the person's personality or behavior. The elder may also exhibit behavior mimicking dementia, such as rocking or mumbling. Emotional abuse is the most under reported abuse of elder abuse. Elder abuse occurs when a person fails to treat an elder with respect and includes verbal abuse. The elder experiences social isolation or lack of acknowledgement in this type of abuse. Some indicators of the emotional effects of elder abuse is the elder adult being unresponsive or uncommunicative. Also they can be unreasonably suspicious or fearful, more isolated, and not wanting to be as social as they may have been before. Emotional abuse is under reported but can have the most damaging effects because it leads to more physical and mental health problems.
 Financial exploitation is a more subtle form of abuse, in comparison to other types, and may be more challenging to notice. Signs of financial exploitation include significant withdrawals from accounts, belongings or money missing from the home, unpaid bills, and unnecessary goods or services.
 Sexual abuse, like physical abuse, can be detected by visible signs on the body, especially around the breasts or genital area. Other signs include inexplicable infections, bleeding, and torn underclothing.
 Neglect is a type of abuse in that it can be inflicted either by the caregiver or oneself. Signs of neglect include malnutrition and dehydration, poor hygiene, noncompliance to a prescription medication, and unsafe living conditions.

In addition to observing signs in the elderly individual, abuse can also be detected by monitoring changes in the caregiver's behavior. For example, the caregiver may not allow them to speak to or receive visitors, exhibit indifference or a lack of affection towards the elder or refer to the elder as "a burden." Caregivers who have a history of substance abuse or mental illness are more likely to commit elder abuse than other individuals.

Abuse can sometimes be subtle and therefore difficult to detect. Regardless, awareness organizations and research advise to take any suspicion seriously and to address concerns adequately and immediately.

Signs
 Lacks medical aids such as glasses, walker, hearing aids.
 Displays signs of emotional trauma.
 Broken eyeglasses/frames, or physical signs of punishment or being restrained.
 Displays signs of insufficient care or unpaid bills despite adequate financial resources.
 Broken bones (fractures)
 Poor physical appearance
 Changes in mental status
 Frequent infections
 Bruising, scratches, welts, or cuts.
 Unexplained weight loss
 Refusal to speak
 Signs of dehydration
 Lack of cleanliness

Health consequences
The health consequences of elder abuse are serious. Elder abuse can destroy an elderly person's quality of life in the forms of:
 Declining functional abilities
 Increased dependency, sense of helplessness, and stress.
 Worsening psychological decline
 Premature mortality and morbidity
 Depression and dementia
 Malnutrition
 Bedsores
 Death

The risk of death for elder abuse victims are three times higher than for non-victims.

Perpetrators
An abuser can be a caregiver, spouse, partner, relative, friend, neighbor, volunteer worker, paid worker, practitioner, solicitor, or any other individual with the intent to deprive a vulnerable person of their resources. Relatives include adult children and their spouses or partners, their offspring, and other extended family members. Children and living relatives who have a history of substance abuse or have had other life troubles are of particular concern. For example, Hybrid Financial Exploitation (HFE) abusive individuals are more likely to be a relative, chronically unemployed, and dependent on the elderly person. Additionally, past studies have estimated that between 16 percent and 38 percent of all elder abusers have a history of mental illness. Elder abuse perpetrated by individuals with mental illnesses can be decreased by lessening the level of dependency that persons with serious mental illness have on family members. This can be done by funneling more resources into housing assistance programs, intensive care management services, and better welfare benefits for individuals with serious mental illness. People with substance abuse and mental health disorders typically have very small social networks, and this confinement contributes to the overall occurrence of elder abuse.

Perpetrators of elder abuse can include anyone in a position of trust, control or authority over the individual. Family relationships, neighbors and friends, are all socially considered relationships of trust, whether or not the older adult actually thinks of the people as "trustworthy." Some perpetrators may "groom" an older person (befriend or build a relationship with them) in order to establish a relationship of trust. Older people living alone who have no adult children living nearby are particularly vulnerable to "grooming" by neighbors and friends who would hope to gain control of their estates.

The majority of abusers are relatives, typically the older adult's spouse/partner or sons and daughters, although the type of abuse differs according to the relationship. In some situations the abuse is "domestic violence grown old," a situation in which the abusive behavior of a spouse or partner continues into old age. In some situations, an older couple may be attempting to care and support each other and failing, in the absence of external support. In the case of sons and daughters, it tends to be that of financial abuse, justified by a belief that it is nothing more than the "advance inheritance" of property, valuables, and money.

Though corporate abusers, such as brokerage firms and bank trust companies have been considered too regulated to be able to abuse the elderly, cases of such abuse have been reported. Such corporate abuse might escape notice both because they have more aptitude at methods of abuse that can go undetected and because they are protected by attorneys and the government in ways that individuals are not.

Within paid care environments, abuse can occur for a variety of reasons. Some abuse is the willful act of cruelty inflicted by a single individual upon an older person. In fact, a case study in Canada suggests that the high elder abuse statistics are from repeat offenders who, like in other forms of abuse, practice elder abuse for the schadenfreude associated with the act. More commonly, institutional abuses or neglect may reflect lack of knowledge, lack of training, lack of support, or insufficient resourcing. Institutional abuse may be the consequence of common practices or processes that are part of running of a care institution or service. Sometimes this type of abuse is referred to as "poor practice," although this term reflects the motive of the perpetrator (the causation) rather than the impact upon the older person.

Elder abuse is not a direct parallel to child maltreatment, as perpetrators of elder abuse do not have the same legal protection of rights as parents of children do. For example, a court order is needed to remove a child from their home but not to remove a victim of elder abuse from theirs.

Risk factors
Various risk factors increase the likelihood that an elderly person will become a victim of elder abuse, including an elderly person who:
 Has memory problems (such as dementia).
 Has a mental illness, either long-standing or recent.
 Has physical disabilities.
 Has depression, loneliness, or lack of social support.
 Abuses alcohol or other substances.
 Takes prescribed medications that impair judgment.
 Is verbally or physically combative with the caregiver.
 Has a shared living situation.
 Has a criminal history.
Several other risk factors increase the likelihood that a caregiver will participate in elder abuse, including a caregiver who:
 Feels overwhelmed or resentful.
 Has a history of substance abuse or a history of abusing others'
 Is dependent on the older person for housing, finances, or other needs.
 Has mental health problems.
 Is unemployed
 Has a criminal history
 Has a shared living situation

In addition:
 Lower income or poverty has been found to be associated with elder abuse. Low economic resources have been conceptualized as a contextual or situational stress or contributing to elder abuse.
 Living with a large number of household members other than a spouse is associated with an increased risk of abuse, especially financial abuse.

Risk factors can also be categorized into individual, relationship, community, and sociocultural levels. At the individual level, elders who have poor physical and mental health are at higher risk. At the relationship level, a shared living situation is a huge risk factor for the elderly, and living in the same area as the abuser is more likely to result in abuse. At the community level, caregivers may knowingly or inadvertently cause social isolation of the elderly. At the sociocultural level, a representation of an older person as weak and dependent, lack of funds to pay for care, elderly people who need assistance but live alone, and destruction of bonds between the generation of a family are possible factors in elder abuse.

Research and statistics
There has been a general lack of reliable data in this area and it is often argued that the absence of data is a reflection of the low priority given to work associated with older people. However, over the past decade there has been a growing amount of research into the nature and extent of elder abuse. The research still varies considerably in the definitions being used, who is being asked, and what is being asked. As a result, the statistics used in this area vary considerably.

One study suggests that around 25% of vulnerable older adults will report abuse in the previous month, totaling up to 6% of the general elderly population. However, some consistent themes are beginning to emerge from interactions with abused elders, and through limited and small scale research projects. Work undertaken in Canada suggests that approximately 70% of elder abuse is perpetrated against women and this is supported by evidence from the Hourglass helpline in the UK, which identifies women as victims in 67% of calls. Also domestic violence in later life may be a continuation of long term partner abuse and in some cases, abuse may begin with retirement or the onset of a health condition. Certainly, abuse increases with age, with 78 percent of victims being over 70 years of age.

The higher proportion of spousal homicides supports the suggestion that abuse of older women is often a continuation of long term spousal abuse against women. In contrast, the risk of homicide for older men was far greater outside the family than within. This is an important point because the domestic violence of older people is often not recognized and consequently strategies, which have proved effective within the domestic violence arena, have not been routinely transferred into circumstances involving the family abuse of older people.

According to the Hourglass helpline in the UK, abuse occurs primarily in the family home (64%), followed by residential care (23%), and then hospitals (5%), although a helpline does not necessarily provide a true reflection of such situations as it is based upon the physical and mental ability of people to utilize such a resource.

Research conducted in New Zealand broadly supports the above findings, with some variations. Of 1288 cases in 2002–2004, 1201 individuals, 42 couples, and 45 groups were found to have been abused. Of these, 70 percent were female. Psychological abuse (59%), followed by material/financial (42%), and physical abuse (12%) were the most frequently identified types of abuse. Sexual abuse occurred in 2% of reported cases.
Age Concern New Zealand found that most abusers are family members (70%), most commonly sons or daughters (40%). Older abusers (those over 65 years) are more likely to be husbands.

In 2007, 4766 cases of suspected abuse, neglect, or financial exploitation involving older adults were reported, an increase of 9 percent over 2006. 19 incidents were related to a death, and a total of 303 incidents were considered life-threatening. About one in 11 incidents involved a life-threatening or fatal situation.

In 2012, the study called Pure Financial Exploitation vs. Hybrid Exploitation Co-Occurring With Physical Abuse and/or Neglect of Elderly Persons by Shelly L. Jackson and Thomas L. Hafemeister brought attention to the hybrid abuse that elderly persons can experience. This study revealed that victims of hybrid financial exploitation or HFE lost an average of $185,574, a range of $20–$750,000.

Barriers to obtaining statistics
Several conditions make it hard for researchers to obtain accurate statistics on elder abuse. Researchers may have difficulty obtaining accurate elder abuse statistics for the following reasons:

 Elder abuse is largely a hidden problem and tends to be committed in the privacy of the elderly person's home, mostly by his or her family members.
Elder abuse victims are often unwilling to report their abuse for fear of others' disbelief, fear of loss of independence, fear of being institutionalized, fear of losing their only social support (especially if the perpetrator is a relative), and fear of being subject to future retaliation by the perpetrator(s).
 Elder abuse victims' cognitive decline and ill health may prevent them from reporting their abuse.
 Lack of proper training of service providers, such as social workers, law enforcement, nurses, etc., about elder abuse, therefore the number of cases reported tend to be low.
 The subjective nature of elder abuse, which largely depends on one's interpretation.
 Another reason why there is a lack of accurate statistics is the debate of whether to include self-neglect or not. Many are unsure if it should be included since it does not involve another person as an abuser. Those opposed to the inclusion of self-neglect make the claim that it is a different form of abuse and thus, should not be included in the statistics. Due to this discrepancy and the others mentioned above, it is difficult to get accurate data concerning the abuse of the elderly.

Prevention

Doctors, nurses, and other medical personnel can play a vital role in assisting elder abuse victims. Studies have shown that elderly individuals, on average, make 13.9 visits per year to a physician. Although there has been an increase in awareness of elder abuse over the years, physicians tend to only report 2% of elder abuse cases. Reasons for lack of reporting by physicians include a lack of current knowledge concerning state laws on elder abuse, concern about angering the abuser and ruining the relationship with the elderly patient, possible court appearances, lack of cooperation from elderly patients or families, and lack of time and reimbursement. Through education and training on elder abuse, health care professionals can better assist elder abuse victims.

Educating and training those in the criminal justice system, such as police, prosecutors, and the judiciary on elder abuse, as well as increased legislation to protect elders, will also help to minimize elder abuse. Increased legislation to protect elders and will also provide improved assistance to victims of elder abuse.

In addition, community involvement in responding to elder abuse can contribute to elderly persons' safety. In general, preventing the occurrence or recurrence of elder abuse helps not only the elder but it may also improve the anxiety and depression of their caregivers too. Communities can develop programs that are structured around meeting the needs of elderly persons. For example, several communities throughout the United States have created Financial Abuse Specialist Teams,  which are multidisciplinary groups that consist of public and private professionals who volunteer their time to advise Adult Protective Services (APS), law enforcement, and private attorneys on matters of vulnerable adult financial abuse.

False accusations
It is important to recognize that false accusations of elder abuse are very common. An elderly person who has dementia or a mental illness may falsely claim to be a victim of abuse. By one estimate, 70% of elderly people with mental impairments such as dementia, delusions, or paranoia falsely accuse caregivers of stealing. Mentally impaired elders may claim that a caregiver is feeding them poisoned food or holding them prisoner. Websites such as Alzlive.com and DailyCaring.com offer advice for caregivers who are falsely accused of elder abuse or other crimes.

Examples

 Stephen Akinmurele
 Juana Barraza
 Kenneth Erskine
 Dana Sue Gray
 Delroy Grant
 Reta Mays
 Thierry Paulin
 Kaspars Petrovs
 Dorothea Puente
 Irina Gaidamachuk
 John Wayne Glover
 Charles Rogers (murder suspect)
 Murder of Esther Brown
 Murder of Valerie Graves
 Murder of Patricia O'Connor
 Murder of Janie Perrin
 Murders of William and Patricia Wycherley
 Stan Lee
 Murders of Claudia Maupin and Oliver Northup

See also

 Abusive power and control
 Adult Protective Services
 Aging in place
 Assisted living
 Child abuse
 Cruelty to animals
 Elder financial abuse
 Elder rights
 Elderly care
 Institutional abuse
 Isolation to facilitate abuse
 Parental abuse by children (equivalent abuse but for the next generation)
 Psychological abuse
 Psychological manipulation
 The Weinberg Center for Elder Abuse Prevention

References

Further reading
 Nerenberg, Lisa Elder Abuse Prevention: Emerging Trends and Promising Strategies (2007)

External links
 World Health Organization website
 https://ncea.acl.gov/whatwedo/research/statistics.html
 National Center on Elder Abuse (NCEA)
 Senior Abuse Awareness & Prevention Infographic
 End of Life Care – Dying with Dignity at Home
 Elder abuse Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Abuse
Domestic violence
Gerontology
Elder law
Institutional abuse

Elder abuse


Die Copa del Rey 1908 war die sechste Austragung des spanischen Fußballpokalwettbewerbes.

Am Turnier nahmen mit Madrid FC und Vigo FC nur zwei Mannschaften teil. Der katalanische Meister X Sporting Club konnte die Einladung zum Turnier aufgrund wirtschaftlicher Probleme nicht annehmen. Das ebenfalls eingeladene Athletic Bilbao lehnte eine Teilnahme ab, um damit gegen die Organisation und das Verhalten der Madrider Bevölkerung in der vorhergehenden Auflage zu protestieren.

Das einzige Spiel des Turniers fand am 12. April im Madrider Estadio de O'Donnell statt. Madrid FC siegte mit 2:1 und gewann damit seinen vierten Titel in Folge.

Finale

Der Madrid FC verteidigte durch den 2:1-Sieg gegen Vigo FC im einzigen Spiel des Turniers seinen Titel erneut und wurde nun schon zum vierten Mal in Folge spanischer Pokalsieger.

Siegermannschaft
(in Klammern sind die Spiele und Tore angegeben)

Torschützen
Kein Spieler erzielte mehr als ein Tor, wodurch die Finaltorschützen Neyra, Revuelto und Posada die "Torschützenkönige" dieses Pokals sind.

Weblinks
 Spielplan und Ergebnisse auf rsssf.com (englisch)
 Spielplan und Ergebnisse auf linguasport.com (spanisch)
 Artikel bei iffhs.de (spanisch)

1908
Fußballsaison 1908

Copa del Rey 1908


Hittitterne efterlod ingen liste over Hittittiske herskere, så viden om deres herskere og kronologien af deres regeringsperioder kan kun stykkes sammen af referencer fra de forskellige kendte tekster. Denne liste af Hittitiske herskere følger i store træk Bryce (1998), dog med brug af den korte kronologi i stedet for den mellemste (+64 år).

Hattiske konger

Gamle Rige

Mellemste Rige

Ny Rige (Imperium)

Noter

Kilder
McMahon, G., Hittite History, Biblical Archaeologist 52 (1989), 62 - 77
Robert S. Hardy, The Old Hittite Kingdom: A Political History, The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 177–216, 1941

Eksterne links
Hittites.info

Hittitter
Anatolien
Oldtidsriger
Lister over regenter

Liste over hittittiske herskere


A prova dos 200 metros borboleta masculino da natação no Campeonato Mundial de Esportes Aquáticos de 2022 ocorreu nos dias 20 e 21 de junho, em Budapeste, na Hungria.

Recordes
Antes desta competição, os recordes mundiais e do campeonato nesta prova eram os seguintes:

Os seguintes novos recordes foram estabelecidos durante esta competição.

Medalhistas

Cronograma
Todos os horários são locais (UTC+2).

Resultados

Eliminatórias
Esses foram os resultados das eliminatórias. A prova foi realizada no dia 20 de junho com início às 09:37.

Semifinal
Esses foram os resultados das semifinais. A prova foi realizada no dia 20 de junho com início às 19:35.

Final
A final foi realizada em 21 de junho às 18:55.

Ligações externas

 Site da Federação Internacional de Natação

Eventos do Campeonato Mundial de Esportes Aquáticos de 2022

Natação no Campeonato Mundial de Esportes Aquáticos de 2022 - 200 m borboleta masculino


The James River is a river in the U.S. state of Virginia.

James River may also refer to:

Rivers:
 James River (Alberta), in Canada
 James River (Dakotas), in North & South Dakota, United States
 James River (Missouri), in the United States
 James River (Texas), in the United States

Places:
 James River, Nova Scotia, a rural community in Nova Scotia, Canada

Other:
 James River, the working title of American recording artist D'Angelo's third studio album, later retitled Black Messiah
 James River (train), a former Amtrak passenger train along Virginia's James River
 "James River", a song by Merle Kilgore
 James River Corporation, a former paper company

See also
 James River Correctional Center, in Goochland County, Virginia
 James River Elementary School (Williamsburg, Virginia)
 James River High School (disambiguation), three such schools in Virginia
 , more than one United States Navy ship
 James River Bridge
 James (disambiguation)
 James Lake (disambiguation)

James River (disambiguation)


was a town located in Mitoyo District, Kagawa Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 12,851 and a population density of 248.76 persons per km². The total area was 51.66 km².

On October 11, 2005, Ōnohara, along with the town of Toyohama (also from Mitoyo District), was merged to create the city of Kan'onji and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

Structures of interest in Ōnohara include Honenike Dam, a multiple-arch dam completed in 1930.

External links

Dissolved municipalities of Kagawa Prefecture
Kan'onji, Kagawa

Ōnohara, Kagawa


Jimmie Bob Durham, né le  à Houston (Texas) et mort le  à Berlin (Allemagne), est un sculpteur, essayiste et poète américain.

Il a été actif aux États-Unis dans les mouvements de droits civiques des Afro-Américains et des Amérindiens dans les années 1960 et 1970, siégeant au conseil central de l'American Indian Movement (AIM). Quand il vit à New York, il travaille l'art et son travail est largement exposé.

Il a longtemps prétendu être Cherokee, mais cette affirmation a été démentie par les représentants tribaux : . Il n'avait « aucun lien connu avec une communauté cherokee ». Aux États-Unis, Jimmie Durham a été présenté comme un usurpateur qui se faisait passer pour un artiste cherokee.

Biographie

Jeunesse et formation
Jimmie Durham naît le 10 juillet 1940 à Houston, dans le comté de Harris, au Texas, bien qu'il prétende être né dans le comté de Nevada, en Arkansas, ou Washington, comté de Hempstead, en Arkansas. Ses parents sont Jerry Loren Durham et Ethel Pauline Simmons Durham, tous deux nés en Arkansas et enterrés au Texas.

Dans les années 1960, Durham est actif dans le théâtre, la performance et la littérature liés au mouvement des droits civiques dans les années 1960. En 1965, il s'installe à Austin, où il travaille à l'Université du Texas à Austin et commence à exposer son travail. Sa première exposition personnelle à Austin date de 1965. En 1969, Durham s'installe à Genève, en Suisse, où il étudie à l'École des Beaux-Arts.

Activisme
En 1973, Durham retourne aux États-Unis et s'implique dans l'American Indian Movement (AIM). De 1973 à 1980, il a travaillé comme organisateur politique avec l'AIM, devenant membre du Conseil central du mouvement et se présentant comme amérindien. Habituellement, il prétendait être Cherokee et écrivait au nom de l'organisation.

Carrière artistique
vignette|200x200px| Sculpture de Jimmie Durham à la Fundação de Serralves, 2007, à Porto, au Portugal.
Après avoir déménagé à New York, Durham concentre son attention sur l'art visuel. Il crée des sculptures qui remettent en question les représentations conventionnelles des Indiens d'Amérique du Nord. Il expose et publie fréquemment des essais. De 1981 à 1983, il dirige la Foundation for the Community of Artists à New York. En 1983, West End Press publie Columbus Day, un livre de ses poèmes.

En 1987, Durham déménage à Cuernavaca, au Mexique. Pendant son séjour au Mexique, Durham expose largement, notamment à la Whitney Biennial, à la documenta IX, Institute of Contemporary Arts, Londres ; Exit Art, le Musée d'Art moderne d'Anvers et au Palais des Beaux-Arts de Bruxelles. Il publie également un certain nombre d'essais dans des périodiques, notamment Art Forum, Art Journal (CAA) et Third Text.

Jimmie Durham meurt le 17 novembre 2021 à Berlin à l'âge de 81 ans.

Récompenses et distinctions

Jimmie Durham a reçu le Günther-Peill-Preis (2003), le prix de la Fondation pour les arts contemporains Robert Rauschenberg (2017) et le Lion d'or de la  Biennale de Venise pour l'ensemble de sa carrière (2019).

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie
 .
 .
 .

Liens externes

  Lucy Lippard, « Jimmie Durham: Postmodernist Savage », Art In America.
  Aruna D'Souza, « Mourning Jimmie Durham » Momus.
 Critique de l'exposition Pierres rejetées, au Musée d'art moderne de la ville de Paris, sur paris-art.com.
  « Jimmie Durham », sur culturbase.net.
  Artist's Portrait: Jimmie Durham, par Johannes Schlebrügge (Museum in Progress, 2000).

Essayiste américain du XXe siècle
Essayiste américain du XXIe siècle
Poète américain du XXe siècle
Poète américain du XXIe siècle
Sculpteur américain du XXe siècle
Sculpteur américain du XXIe siècle
Naissance en juillet 1940
Naissance à Houston
Décès en novembre 2021
Décès à Berlin
Décès à 81 ans

Jimmie Durham


An Oxystophyllum kaudernii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Johannes Jacobus Smith, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Mark Alwin Clements. An Oxystophyllum kaudernii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oxystophyllum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Sulawesi. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oxystophyllum

Oxystophyllum kaudernii


La Base aérea de Chekúrovka (; ICAO:; IATA: ), se encuentra junto al asentamiento de Chekúrovka, a 98 km al sudoeste de Tiksi, en la República de Sajá (Yakutia), Rusia.

Aparenta ser un gran campo de bombarderos que no llegó a completarse, probablemente construido alrededor de 1960. Lo que fueron la pista y las calles de rodaje pueden apreciarse todavía en las imágenes del satélite.

Fue pensado como base para el establecimiento de bombarderos estratégicos a lo largo de la costa del océano Ártico. Aparentemente fue abandonada durante su construcción o tal vez fue encargada para usos de emergencia. Es posible que el cambio de orientación hacia los misiles intercontinentales provocara su abandono.

Pista
La base aérea de Chekúrovka dispone de una pista en dirección 01/19 de 3.500x50 m. (11.483x164 pies).

Véase también
 Base aérea Dresba. Base ártica abandonada.
 Base aérea de Ostrov Bolshevik. Base ártica abandonada.
 Base aérea de Tiksi Norte. Base ártica abandonada.
 Base aérea de Tiksi Oeste. Base ártica abandonada.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Mapa de ubicación de los aeropuertos Sajá en "Our Airports" (en inglés) Consultado el 29 de marzo de 2012

Chekurovka
Chekurovka
Bases militares de la Unión Soviética

Base aérea de Chekúrovka


الضام المخاطي: خلايا متفرعة أو مغزلية الشكل مبعثرة أو تتشابك في بعض الأحيان. المادة البين خلوية غروية وتحتوى على مخاط (موسين).

يوجد هذا النوع في الحبل السري للجنين فقط.

طب التوليد

نسيج مخاطي


මොනිකා ජූලියටා රේයස් යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ ෆොක්ස් නාළිකාවේ විද්‍යා ප්‍රබන්ධ-අධිස්වාභාවික රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලාවක් වන ද එක්ස්-ෆයිල්ස් හි හමුවන ප්‍රබන්ධ චරිතයකි. මොනිකා රේයස් චරිතය නිරූපණය කරන්නේ ඇනබෙත් ගිෂ් විසිනි. එෆ්බීඅයි විශේෂ නියෝජිතවරියක වීමට පෙර ඇය ක්ෂේත්‍ර නියෝජිතවරියක ලෙස සිය මිතුරා වන ජෝන් ඩොගට් සමග එක්ස්-ෆයිල් කාර්යාලයේ කටයුතු කරයි.

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

ග්‍රන්ථාවලිය

බාහිර සබැඳි

ද එක්ස්-ෆයිල්ස් චරිත
ෆෙඩරල් විමර්ශන කාර්යාංශ ප්‍රබන්ධ චරිත
මෙක්සිකානු සම්භවයක් සහිත ප්‍රබන්ධ ඇමරිකානු ජනයා
2001දී හඳුන්වා දුන් ප්‍රබන්ධ චරිත

මොනිකා රේයස්


Selma Rıza (d. 5 Şubat 1872 - ö. 5 Ekim 1931), ilk Türk kadın gazeteci, İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti'nin tek kadın üyesi, Hilal-i Ahmer Cemiyeti genel sekreteri ve yazar.

Tanzimat döneminin ilk Türk kadın gazeteci  ve romancılardan birisi olan Selma Rıza Hanım, Paris'teki Jön Türkler'in liderliğini yapmış Ahmed Rıza Bey'in kızkardeşidir.

1897'de kaleme aldığı Uhuvvet romanı kadın hakları konusuna yer veren öncü romanlardan biri olarak değerlendirilmektedir.

Yaşamı
1872'de İstanbul'da dünyaya geldi. Babası Şura-yı Devlet ve Meclis-i Âyan üyelerinden Ali Rıza Bey, annesi ise Avusturyalı Macar asıllı asil bir ailenin İslamiyet'e geçmiş kızı Nâile Hanım'dır. Selma, çiftin yedi çocuğunun en küçüğü idi. Evde özel ders alarak yetiştirildi; iyi derecede Fransızca öğrendi. Eğitiminde, ağabeyi Ahmed Rıza'nın büyük etkisi oldu.

Ağabeyi 1889'da Fransa'ya gitmiş ve orada Jön Türk hareketine katılmıştı. Selma Rıza, ailesinden gizlice İstanbul'dan kaçarak Paris'teki ağabeyinin yanına gitti ve eğitimini Sorbonne Üniversitesi'nde sürdürdü.  Paris'te on yıl yaşadı.  İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti Paris şubesine üye oldu. Cemiyetin tek kadın üyesi idi. Ahmed Rıza Bey'in çıkardığı ve Fransızca olarak yayımlanan Meşveret Gazetesi'nde; Türkçe olarak yayımlanan Şuray-ı Ümmet Gazetesi'nde çalıştı. İlk Türk kadın gazeteci unvanını Paris yıllarındaki çalışmaları ile aldı.

1897'de "Uhuvvet" (Kardeşlik) adlı romanını yazdı ancak yayımlamadı. 1899 yılından itibaren "sosyal açıdan kadın" konusu ile ilgilendi; bu konuda bir uzman kabul edildi.

Selma Rıza, 1908'de II. Meşrutiyet'in ilanı üzerine İstanbul'a döndü. Yurda dönüşünden sonra gazetecilik yapmadı ancak sosyal hayatta rol almaya devam etti. Meşrutiyet'in ilanından sonra yeniden teşkilatlandırılan Hilal-i Ahmer Cemiyeti'inde çalıştı. Beş yıl boyunca genel sekreterlik yaptı ancak yönetimdekilerle görüş ayrılığına düşünce kurumdan ayrıldı.

1910-1912 yılları arasında iki roman daha yazdı ancak yayımlamadı. Hanımlara Mahsus Gazete ve Kadınlar Dünyası gibi yayın organlarında yazılar yayımladı. İstanbul'da Müslüman Osmanlı kadınları için okullar açılması uğrunda mücadele etti. Meclis-i Mebûsan reisi olan ağabeyi Ahmed Rıza'nın da ön ayak olmasıyla Kandilli'deki Adile Sultan Sarayı'nın Türkiye'nin ilk yatılı kız lisesi  olarak açılmasına yardımcı oldu.

1931 yılında hayatını kaybetti.

Kaynakça

19. yüzyıl Türk gazetecileri
20. yüzyıl Türk gazetecileri
1872 doğumlular
1931 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyılda Osmanlılar
Jön Türkler
Türk kadın gazeteciler

Selma Rıza


The prime minister of Dominica is the head of government in the Commonwealth of Dominica. Nominally, the position was created on November 3, 1978, when Dominica gained independence from the United Kingdom. Hitherto, the position existed de facto as Premier.
Roosevelt Skerrit is the incumbent prime minister. He took office on 8 January 2004

Authority and duties
According to Chapter 59 of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Dominica;
 There shall be a Prime Minister of Dominica, who shall be appointed by the President.
 Whenever the President has occasion to appoint a Prime Minister he shall appoint an elected member of the House who appears to him likely to command the support of the majority of the elected members of the House.

The President, acting in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, appoints the Cabinet of Minister. The Prime Minister supervises Cabinet meetings and in the spirit of the Westminster system is nominally 'Primus Inter Pares' or first among equals. However Prime Ministers of Dominica, like most Prime Ministers in Small-Island States, have generally governed in a presidential manner.

List of prime ministers of Dominica

References

See also

 List of presidents of Dominica
 Deputy Prime Minister of Dominica
 Politics of Dominica
 List of heads of government of Dominica
 List of Commonwealth heads of government
 List of Privy Counsellors (1952–2022)

Government of Dominica
1978 establishments in Dominica

Prime Minister of Dominica


Hitay, (Uygurca: خىتاي, Xitay; 契丹, Qìdān) Orta Çağ Avrupa'sında kuzey Çin'e verilen addır. 10. yüzyılda Moğolistan'ın güneydoğu kesiminden göç eden ve Mançurya'nın bir bölümüyle Çin'in kuzeyini ele geçirerek bu toprakları 200 yıl elinde tutan yarı göçebe Hitaylardan gelir.

Cathai ismi ortalama 1000 yılında yazılan Uygur Mani dini belgelerde kanıtlanmıştır.

Divânu Lügati't-Türk'te Tawgaç: Maçin'in adıdır. Burası Çin'den dört ay uzaktadır. Çin, aslında üç bölüktür: Birincisi, Yukarı Çin'dir ki, doğudadır; buna "Tawgaç" derler. İkincisi, Orta Çin'dir; burası, "Xıtay" adını alır. Üçüncüsü, Aşağı Çin'dir, "Barxan" adı verilir; bu, Kaşgar'dadır. Lâkin şimdi "Maçin", "Tawgaç" diye tanınmıştır. "Xıtay" ülkesine de "Çin" denilmiştir.

Kökenbilimsel sıralama

 Moğolca: Khyatad (Хятад) / Kitad
 Uygurca (Batı Çin): خىتاي, Xitay
 Kazakca: قىتاي, Қытай, Qıtay
 Tatarca: Qıtay
 Rusca: Kitay (Китай)
 Bulgarca: Kitay (Китай)
 Latince: Cataya, Kitai
 İspanyolca: Catay
 İtalyanca: Catai
 Portekizce: Cataio
 İngilizce ve Almanca: Cathay

Notlar

Çin tarihi

Hitay


L' Usine de teinturerie Laval et   était une ancienne usine de teinture située à Reims, en France.

Localisation
L'Usine de Teintures, Blanchiment et Apprêt de Tissus Laine et Laine et Soie Reims, dite Usine Laval et  était située dans le département français de la Marne, sur la commune de Reims, rue du Mont-d'Arène.

Historique
L'usine de teinturerie Laval et  est créée vers 1874 dans le Faubourg Clairmarais.
L'usine est une première fois détruite pendant la Première Guerre mondiale et reconstruite entièrement vers 1920. Elle fonctionne alors uniquement grâce à l'énergie électrique.
En 1948, l'usine emploie six cents ouvriers.
Fortement touché par la crise de 1950-1955, la firme Laval et  fusionne une première fois avec la Lainière de Roubaix qui détiendra alors 30 % des parts. En 1960 la Lainière de Roubaix augmente sa participation à hauteur de 55 %. La famille Laval dirige encore l'entreprise
En 1968, nouvelle évolution, la Lainière de Roubaix se retire de l'affaire et est remplacée par Les établissements Curtauld de Vienne (38) avec le retrait de l'affaire de la famille Laval.
La cessation d'activité intervient en 1976 et la démolition interviennent vers 1980.

Les techniques utilisées

La teinture

L'apprêt

Évolution du site de la teinturerie
Elle a été remplacée par des immeubles à logements.

La cheminée, construite par l'entreprise Staquet en 1883, est le dernier vestige de l'établissement. Elle porte une plaque gravée scellée sur une de ses faces (en partie inférieure) avec l'inscription : STAQUET/ Constructeur/ REIMS - 1883/ N° 44.
Elle est reprise à l'Inventaire général du patrimoine culturel de la région Grand-Est.

Bibliographie
 Le Monde illustré du 25 septembre 1920,  la Champagne 1918-1920, .
 De Michel Hubert, Jacques Pernet, Regard sur un siècle de vie économique à Reims, 1855-1955.

Articles connexes
 Teinture
 Apprêt (textile)
 Industrie textile Rémois

Références

Entreprise ayant son siège à Reims
Teinturerie
Entreprise du secteur textile disparue

Usine de teinturerie Laval et Cie


Sovyetler Birliği
 Rusya SFSC (Rusya Sovyet Federatif Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti), eski Sovyet cumhuriyeti.
 Sovyet Rusya (gazete)

Sovyet Rusya


Das Mixed der Australian Open 1993 war ein Tenniswettbewerb in Melbourne.

Titelverteidiger waren Mark Woodforde und Nicole Provis. Das Finale gewann die Paarung Todd Woodbridge und Arantxa Sánchez-Vicario in zwei Sätzen gegen Rick Leach und Zina Garrison.

Setzliste

Hauptrunde

Halbfinale, Finale

Obere Hälfte

Obere Hälfte 1

Obere Hälfte 2

Untere Hälfte

Untere Hälfte 1

Untere Hälfte 2

Weblinks

Mixed
1993

Australian Open 1993/Mixed


An Aechmea laevigata in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Elton Martinez Carvalho Leme. An Aechmea laevigata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aechmea, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aechmea

Aechmea laevigata


Toxicology Letters, abgekürzt Toxicol. Lett., ist eine ein- bis zweimal im Monat erscheinende englische Peer-Review-Fachzeitschrift. Die Erstausgabe erschien im Juli 1977.  Die Zeitschrift veröffentlicht Artikel und Übersichtsarbeiten aus den verschiedenen Bereichen der Toxikologie. Toxicology Letters ist die offizielle Zeitschrift der europäischen Toxikologenvereinigung EUROTOX.

Der Impact Factor des Journals lag im Jahr 2014 bei 3,262. Nach der Statistik des ISI Web of Knowledge wird das Journal mit diesem Impact Factor in der Kategorie Toxikologie an 21. Stelle von 87 Zeitschriften geführt.

Herausgeber sind Wolfgang Dekant (Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg, Deutschland), S. Garret und Yunbo Li (Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Virginia, Vereinigte Staaten).

Weblinks
 Artikelindex der aktuellen Ausgabe
 Website von EUROTOX

Einzelnachweise

Toxikologiezeitschrift
Englischsprachige Zeitschrift
Ersterscheinung 1977
Medizinische Fachzeitschrift (Vereinigtes Königreich)
Elsevier

Toxicology Letters


L'Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forêts de Mbalmayo au Cameroun est une grande école de formation et de perfectionnement des agents chargés de la gestion des espaces aquatiques et des forets.

Histoire

Enseignements

Formation initiale sur concours

Concours

Cursus

Débouchés

Notes et références

Bibliographie

Enseignement au Cameroun

École nationale des eaux et forêts de Mbalmayo


Broth, also known as bouillon (), is a savory liquid made of water in which meat, fish, or vegetables have been simmered for a short period of time. It can be eaten alone, but it is most commonly used to prepare other dishes, such as soups, gravies, and sauces.

Commercially prepared liquid broths are available, typically chicken, beef, fish, and vegetable varieties. Dehydrated broth in the form of bouillon cubes were commercialized beginning in the early 20th century.

Stock versus broth

Many cooks and food writers use the terms broth and stock interchangeably. In 1974, James Beard (an American cook) wrote that stock, broth, and bouillon "are all the same thing".

While many draw a distinction between stock and broth, the details of the distinction often differ. One possibility is that stocks are made primarily from animal bones, as opposed to meat, and therefore contain more gelatin, giving them a thicker texture. Another distinction that is sometimes made is that stock is cooked longer than broth and therefore has a more intense flavor. A third possible distinction is that stock is left unseasoned for use in other recipes, while broth is salted and otherwise seasoned and can be eaten alone.

Scotch broth is a soup which includes solid pieces of meat and vegetables. Its name reflects an older usage of the term "broth" that did not distinguish between the complete soup and its liquid component.

See also

 Canja de galinha
 Rosół
 Bouillon, a Haitian soup
 Court-bouillon, from the French court or "short broth"

References

External links

Food ingredients
Soups
Stock (food)

Broth


Cluj veya Kaloş, Romanya'nın kuzey batısında yer alan bir ildir.

6.500 km² üzerine kurulmuştur ve 3'te 1'i dağlarla kaplıdır. Cluj bölgesinin başkenti Kaloşvar'dır.

Bölgenin futbol takımı Cluj, 2008/2009 sezonunda Şampiyonlar Ligi'nde mücadele etmiştir.

Nüfus
Nüfus'u 700.000 kişi kadardır. Cluj'da yaşayan halkın %79'u Romanyalı, %16'si Macar ve %3'ü Roman'dır.

Kaynakça

Kaloş


Die Aioi-Brücke (jap. , Aioi-bashi) ist eine Brücke mit T-förmigem Grundriss in Hiroshima, Japan.

Ursprünglich 1932 erbaut, war sie der Zielpunkt des US-amerikanischen Atombombenangriffs auf die Stadt im Jahr 1945, da sie wegen ihrer Form aus der Luft ein leicht zu erkennendes Ziel darstellte. Sie überstand die Explosion, wurde repariert und erst 1983 durch einen Neubau ersetzt.

Der längste Teil der Brücke überspannt den Fluss Ōta (heute allgemein: Hongawa, ) im Norden der Insel, die den Stadtteil Nakajima-chō umfasst. Ungefähr in der Mitte der Brücke zweigt eine Verbindung von der Brücke nach Süden zu dieser Insel ab. Beim Wiederaufbau der Stadt wurde dort, auf einem Teil der ehemaligen Innenstadt, der Friedenspark Hiroshima errichtet.

Über die Brücke verläuft die Aioi-Straße (, Aioi-dōri) mit der Hauptstrecke (honsen) der Straßenbahn Hiroshima.

Weblinks

 Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered: Aioi Bridge

Straßenbrücke in Japan
Atombombenabwurf auf Hiroshima
Erbaut in den 1930er Jahren
Zerstört in den 1940er Jahren
Zerstört im Zweiten Weltkrieg
Erbaut in den 1980er Jahren
Brücke in Asien
Bauwerk in Hiroshima
Verkehrsbauwerk in der Präfektur Hiroshima

Aioi-Brücke


الإمبراطور كينزو  هو الإمبراطور الثالث والعشرون في اليابان حسب قائمة أباطرة اليابان. لا يوجد أي تواريخ محددة عن فترة حياته أو حكمه. ولكن يعتقد أن فترة حكمه كانت في أواخر القرن الخامس الميلادي.

انظر أيضًا

 إمبراطور اليابان
 قائمة أباطرة اليابان

مصادر

أباطرة اليابان
مواليد القرن 5
وفيات القرن 5
ملكيون في آسيا في القرن 5
ملكيون يابانيون في القرن 5

الإمبراطور كينزو


1948  වසර (MCMXLVIII) යනු  ග්‍රෙගෝරියානු දින දසුන ප්‍රකාර,  බ්‍රහස්පතින්දා දිනයකින් ඇරඹුනු අධික අවුරුද්දක් (බැඳිය විසින් සම්පූර්ණ දින දසුන දක්වනු ඇත)  විය.

1948

1948


La acidificación del suelo es el proceso por el cual el suelo absorbe cationes de hidrógeno, reduciendo su pH. Como el hidrógeno solo tiene un electrón, cuando lo pierde solo queda el protón, de ahí que a veces se diga que el suelo ha ganado protones. El proceso de acidificación ocurre cuando un donante aporta protones al suelo. El donante puede ser un ácido, como el ácido nítrico y el ácido sulfúrico (ambos ácidos son componentes de la lluvia ácida), los cuales reaccionan con el suelo liberando protones. También hay compuestos que pueden terminar acidificando el suelo, como el sulfato de aluminio. Los fertilizantes industriales con compuestos nitrogenados también acidifican el suelo a largo plazo ya que producen ion amonio, que es un donante de protones.

La acidificación también ocurre cuando un elemento base como calcio, magnesio, potasio y sodio son filtrados al suelo. Estos elementos suelen venir asociados a lugares con lluvias intensas y sostenidas. La lluvia ácida acelera el proceso de infiltración de las bases. Las plantas capturan esas bases antes de que ataquen al suelo. Cuando se tala un bosque o se quema se pierden todas esas bases absorbidas por las plantas, resultando en una pérdida de riqueza del suelo.

El proceso puede ser natural, porque las propias plantas acidifiquen el suelo, o artificial, por causas humanas.

Hojas de plantas caídas en el suelo
Muchas plantas producen ácidos orgánicos. El suelo incorpora todo los ácidos que venían en las hojas (incluyendo el ácido acético, ácido húmico, ácido oxálico y ácido tánico son liberados). Este proceso es especialmente agudo en bosques de coníferas con especies como pinos, piceas y abetos que tienen más capacidad de devolver esos cationes al suelo que los árboles caducifolios.

Rocas en el suelo
Ciertos materiales también contribuyen a la acidificación del suelo:
 Granito y toda su familia de rocas ígneas son llamadas "acidifantes" debido a la gran cantidad de cuarzo libre que contienen, que en contacto con el agua produce ácido silícico. También tienen una cantidad importante de calcio y magnesio.
 Sedimentarias como el carbón o el esquisto son ricas en sulfitos, que una vez hidratados y oxidados se convierten en ácido sulfúrico que es mucho más fuerte que el ácido silícico. Las arcillas marinas son también ricas en sulfitos en algunos casos, y pueden volverse muy ácidas después de un proceso de oxidación.

Polución y lluvia ácida
La acidificación puede también ocurrir por emisiones de nitrógeno al aire, tanto que el nitrógeno finalmente se deposite en el suelo. No hay que olvidar la contribución de la lluvia ácida.

Componentes acidificantes
 Sulfato de aluminio
 Urea

Véase también
 Acid sulfate soil
 Soil pH
 Soil salination

Referencias
 Soil acidification
 Fenn, M. E.; Huntington, T. G.; McLaughlin, S. B.; Eagar, C.; Gomez, A.; Cook, R. B. 2006. Status of soil acidification in North America Journal of Forest Science 52:3-13.

Notas al pie

Edafología
Química de suelos

Acidificación del suelo


An Dinebra retroflexa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Vahl, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Georg Wolfgang Franz Panzer. An Dinebra retroflexa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dinebra, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Nag-uusahan nga subspecies: D. r. condensata.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Dinebra

Dinebra retroflexa


Djöflaeyja (franska: Île du Diable) er eyja við Frönsku Gvæjönu. Hún er ein svonefndra Hjálpræðiseyja.

Franska Gvæjana

Djöflaeyja


Walter Gerosa (* 17. Juni 1914 in St. Gallen; † 18. April 1981 in Heerbrugg, heimatberechtigt in Schaffhausen) war ein Schweizer Politiker (LdU).

Gerosa war von 1960 bis 1972 St. Galler Grossrat und von 1963 bis 1971 Nationalrat.

Weblinks

Nationalrat (St. Gallen)
Kantonsrat (St. Gallen, Person)
LdU-Mitglied
Schweizer
Geboren 1914
Gestorben 1981
Mann

Walter Gerosa


شاطئ هنتنغتون  هي إحدى مدن مقاطعة أورانج، كاليفورنيا. تم إعطاءها لقب مدينة في 17 فبراير، 1909.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لشاطئ هنتنغتون:

أعلام
 فرانك كومستوك
 إيفا أنجلينا
 سينيستر غيتس
 م. شادوز
 جيمس سوليفان

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1909
تأسيسات سنة 1909 في كاليفورنيا
مدن ساحلية في كاليفورنيا
مدن كاليفورنيا

مدن في مقاطعة أورانج (كاليفورنيا)

شاطئ هنتنغتون (كاليفورنيا)

شاطئ هنتنغتون (كاليفورنيا)


Smárinn er 3ja elsta hverfi Kópavogs og það fyrsta sem var skipulagt í heild sinni. Hverfið afmarkast af Kópavogslæk í norðri, Hafnarfjarðarvegi í vestri, Arnarnesvegi í suðri og Reykjanesbraut í austri.

Hverfið samanstendur af 4 svæðum, íbúabyggðin efri-Smárar sem er á Nónhæð, íbúabyggðin neðri-Smárar eða L-smárar sem eru í Kópavogsdal, atvinnusvæðinu H-smárar á Nónhæð og svo Dalvegi sem er í Kópavogsdal. Uppbygging hófst 2019 í H-smárum þar sem íbúabyggð bætist við neðarlega.

Það er fámennast af 5 hverfum Kópavogsbæjar og í því eru 2 leikskólar (Arnarsmári og Lækur), 1 grunnskóli (Smáraskóli), heilsugæslustöð (Hvammur) og atvinnustarfsemi. Í hverfinu er stærsta verslunarmiðstöð Íslands Smáralind, Norðurturninn, hæsta bygging landsins Smáratorg 3 og margvísleg atvinnustarfsemi í H-smárum og á Dalvegi. Aðalstöðvar Breiðabliks eru í hverfinu sem og Kópavogsvöllur, knattspyrnuhúsið Fífan og íþróttahúsið Smárinn.

Tilvísanir

Kópavogur

Smárinn (hverfi)


Cardanha Portekiz'de Torre de Moncorvo belediyesine bağlı olan, 16,10 km² yüzölçümüne sahip, 276 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

2013 yılındaki yerel yönetim reformunda Adeganha ile birleştirilerek tüzel kişiliği sona erdirildi. Günümüzde Adeganha ve Cardanha birleşik bucağının parçasıdır.

Kaynakça

Portekiz'in freguesiaları
Torre de Moncorvo

Cardanha


Muhammad Yunus (born 28 June 1940) is a Bangladeshi social entrepreneur, banker, economist and civil society leader who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 for founding the Grameen Bank and pioneering the concepts of microcredit and microfinance. These loans are given to entrepreneurs too poor to qualify for traditional bank loans. Yunus and the Grameen Bank were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their efforts through microcredit to create economic and social development from below". The Norwegian Nobel Committee said that "lasting peace cannot be achieved unless large population groups find ways in which to break out of poverty" and that "across cultures and civilizations, Yunus and Grameen Bank have shown that even the poorest of the poor can work to bring about their own development". Yunus has received several other national and international honours. He received the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009 and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2010.

In February 2011, Yunus together with Saskia Bruysten, Sophie Eisenmann and Hans Reitz co-founded Yunus Social Business – Global Initiatives (YSB). YSB creates and empowers social businesses to address and solve social problems around the world. As the international implementation arm for Yunus' vision of a new, humane capitalism, YSB manages incubator funds for social businesses in developing countries and provides advisory services to companies, governments, foundations and NGOs.

In 2012, he became Chancellor of Glasgow Caledonian University in Scotland, a position he held until 2018. Previously, he was a professor of economics at Chittagong University in Bangladesh. He published several books related to his finance work. He is a founding board member of Grameen America and Grameen Foundation, which support microcredit.

Yunus also served on the board of directors of the United Nations Foundation, a public charity to support UN causes, from 1998 to 2021.

Early life and education

Early years

The third of nine children, Muhammad Yunus was born on 28 June 1940 to a Bengali Muslim family in the village of Bathua, by the Kaptai road in Hathazari, Chittagong in the Bengal Presidency of the British Raj, present Bangladesh. His father was Hazi Dula Mia Shoudagar, a jeweler, and his mother was Sufia Khatun. His early childhood was spent in the village. In 1944, his family moved to the city of Chittagong, and he moved from his village school to Lamabazar Primary School. By 1949, his mother was afflicted with psychological illness. Later, he passed the matriculation examination from Chittagong Collegiate School ranking 16th of 39,000 students in East Pakistan. During his school years, he was an active Boy Scout, and travelled to West Pakistan and India in 1952, and to Canada in 1955 to attend Jamborees. Later, while Yunus was studying at Chittagong College, he became active in cultural activities and won awards for drama. In 1957, he enrolled in the Department of Economics at Dhaka University and completed his BA in 1960 and MA in 1961.

After graduation
After his graduation, Yunus joined the Bureau of Economics as a research assistant to the economics researches of Nurul Islam and Rehman Sobhan. Later, he was appointed lecturer in economics in Chittagong College in 1961. During that time, he also set up a profitable packaging factory on the side.  In 1965, he received a Fulbright scholarship to study in the United States. He obtained his PhD in economics from the Vanderbilt University Graduate Program in Economic Development (GPED) in 1971. From 1969 to 1972, Yunus was assistant professor of economics at Middle Tennessee State University in Murfreesboro.

During the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, Yunus founded a citizen's committee and ran the Bangladesh Information Center, with other Bangladeshis in the United States, to raise support for liberation. He also published the Bangladesh Newsletter from his home in Nashville. After the War, he returned to Bangladesh and was appointed to the government's Planning Commission headed by Nurul Islam. However, he found the job boring and resigned to join Chittagong University as head of the Economics department.  After observing the famine of 1974, he became involved in poverty reduction and established a rural economic programme as a research project. In 1975, he developed a Nabajug (New Era) Tebhaga Khamar (three share farm) which the government adopted as the Packaged Input Programme. In order to make the project more effective, Yunus and his associates proposed the Gram Sarkar (the village government) programme.
Introduced by president Ziaur Rahman in the late 1970s, the Government formed 40,392 village governments as a fourth layer of government in 2003. On 2 August 2005, in response to a petition by Bangladesh Legal Aids and Services Trust (BLAST), the High Court declared village governments illegal and unconstitutional.

His concept of microcredit for supporting innovators in multiple developing countries also inspired programmes such as the Info lady Social Entrepreneurship Programme.

Early career

In 1976, during visits to the poorest households in the village of Jobra near Chittagong University, Yunus discovered that very small loans could make a disproportionate difference to a poor person. Village women who made bamboo furniture had to take usurious loans to buy bamboo, and repay their profits to the lenders. Traditional banks did not want to make tiny loans at reasonable interest to the poor due to high risk of default. But Yunus believed that, given the chance, the poor will not need to repay the money and hence microcredit was a viable business model.  Yunus lent US$27 of his money to 42 women in the village, who made a profit of BDT 0.50 (US$0.02) each on the loan.  Thus, Yunus is credited with the idea of microcredit.

In December 1976, Yunus finally secured a loan from the government Janata Bank to lend to the poor in Jobra. The institution continued to operate, securing loans from other banks for its projects. By 1982, it had 28,000 members. On 1 October 1983, the pilot project began operation as a full-fledged bank for poor Bangladeshis and was renamed Grameen Bank ("Village Bank").By July 2007, Grameen had issued US$6.38 billion to 7.4 million borrowers. To ensure repayment, the bank uses a system of "solidarity groups". These small informal groups apply together for loans and its members act as co-guarantors of repayment and support one another's efforts at economic self-advancement.

In the late 1980s, Grameen started to diversify by attending to underutilized fishing ponds and irrigation pumps like deep tube wells. In 1989, these diversified interests started growing into separate organisations. The fisheries project became Grameen Motsho ("Grameen Fisheries Foundation") and the irrigation project became Grameen Krishi ("Grameen Agriculture Foundation"). In time, the Grameen initiative grew into a multi-faceted group of profitable and non-profit ventures, including major projects like Grameen Trust and Grameen Fund, which runs equity projects like Grameen Software Limited, Grameen CyberNet Limited, and Grameen Knitwear Limited, as well as Grameen Telecom, which has a stake in Grameenphone (GP), the biggest private phone company in Bangladesh. From its start in March 1997 to 2007, GP's Village Phone (Polli Phone) project had brought cell-phone ownership to 260,000 rural poor in over 50,000 villages.

The success of the Grameen microfinance model inspired similar efforts in about 100 developing countries and even in developed countries including the United States. Many microcredit projects retain Grameen's emphasis of lending to women. More than 94% of Grameen loans have gone to women, who suffer disproportionately from poverty and who are more likely than men to devote their earnings to their families.

For his work with Grameen, Yunus was named an Ashoka: Innovators for the Public Global Academy Member in 2001. In the book Grameen Social Business Model, its author Rashidul Bari said that Grameen's social business model (GSBM) has gone from being theory to an inspiring practice adopted by leading universities (e.g., Glasgow), entrepreneurs (e.g., Franck Riboud) and corporations (e.g., Danone) across the globe. Through Grameen Bank, Rashidul Bari claims that Yunus demonstrated how Grameen Social Business Model can harness the entrepreneurial spirit to empower poor women and alleviate their poverty. One conclusion Bari suggested to draw from Yunus' concepts is that the poor are like a "bonsai tree", and they can do big things if they get access to the social business that holds potential to empower them to become self-sufficient.

Recognition

Yunus was awarded the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize, along with Grameen Bank, for their efforts to create economic and social development. In the prize announcement The Norwegian Nobel Committee mentioned:

Yunus was the first Bangladeshi to ever get a Nobel Prize. After receiving the news of the important award, Yunus announced that he would use part of his share of the $1.4 million (equivalent to $ million in ) award money to create a company to make low-cost, high-nutrition food for the poor; while the rest would go towards establishing the Yunus Science and Technology University in his home district as well as setting up an eye hospital for the poor in Bangladesh.

Former US president Bill Clinton was a vocal advocate for the awarding of the Nobel Prize to Yunus. He expressed this in Rolling Stone magazine as well as in his autobiography My Life. In a speech given at University of California, Berkeley in 2002, President Clinton described Yunus as "a man who long ago should have won the Nobel Prize [in Economics and] I'll keep saying that until they finally give it to him." Conversely, The Economist stated explicitly that while Yunus was doing excellent work to fight poverty, it was not appropriate to award him the Peace Prize, stating: "... the Nobel committee could have made a braver, more difficult, choice by declaring that there would be no recipient at all."

He is one of only seven persons to have won the Nobel Peace Prize, Presidential Medal of Freedom, and the Congressional Gold Medal. Other notable awards include the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1984, the World Food Prize, the International Simon Bolivar Prize (1996), the Prince of Asturias Award for Concord and the Sydney Peace Prize in 1998,  and the Seoul Peace Prize in 2006. Additionally, Yunus has been awarded 50 honorary doctorate degrees from universities across 20 countries, and 113 international awards from 26 countries including state honours from 10 countries. Bangladesh government brought out a commemorative stamp to honour his Nobel Award.

Yunus was named by Fortune Magazine in March 2012 as one of 12 greatest entrepreneurs of the current era. In its citation, Fortune Magazine said "Yunus' idea inspired countless numbers of young people to devote themselves to social causes all over the world."

In January 2008, Houston, Texas declared 14 January as "Muhammad Yunus Day".

Yunus was named among the most desired thinkers the world should listen to by the FP 100 (world's most influential elite) in the December 2009 issue of Foreign Policy magazine.

In 2010, The British Magazine New Statesman listed Yunus at 40th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".

Yunus received 50 honorary doctorate degrees from universities from Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Canada, Costa Rica, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lebanon, Malaysia, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, Turkey, the UK, and the US.
United Nations Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon, invited Yunus to serve as an MDG Advocate. Yunus sits on the Board of United Nations Foundation, Schwab Foundation, Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation, Grameen Credit Agricole Microcredit Foundation. He has been a member of Fondation Chirac's honour committee, ever since the foundation was launched in 2008 by former French president Jacques Chirac in order to promote world peace.

Yunus has become a well-known international figure. He has delivered numerous lectures around the world, and has appeared on popular television shows, including The Daily Show with Jon Stewart and The Oprah Winfrey Show in 2006, The Colbert Report in 2008, Real Time with Bill Maher in 2009 and The Simpsons in 2010. On Google+, Yunus is one of the most followed people worldwide, with over two million followers.

Political activity

In early 2006 Yunus, along with other members of the civil society including Rehman Sobhan, Muhammad Habibur Rahman, Kamal Hossain, Matiur Rahman, Mahfuz Anam and Debapriya Bhattacharya, participated in a campaign for honest and clean candidates in national elections. He considered entering politics in the later part of that year. On 11 February 2007, Yunus wrote an open letter, published in the Bangladeshi newspaper Daily Star, where he asked citizens for views on his plan to float a political party to establish political goodwill, proper leadership and good governance. In the letter, he called on everyone to briefly outline how he should go about the task and how they can contribute to it. Yunus finally announced that he is willing to launch a political party tentatively called Citizens' Power (Nagorik Shakti) on 18 February 2007. There was speculation that the army supported a move by Yunus into politics. On 3 May, however, Yunus declared that he had decided to abandon his political plans following a meeting with the head of the interim government, Fakhruddin Ahmed.

In July 2007 in Johannesburg, South Africa, Nelson Mandela, Graça Machel and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders "to contribute their wisdom, independent leadership and integrity to tackle some of the world's toughest problems." Nelson Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th birthday. Yunus attended the launch of the group and was one of its founding members. He stepped down as an Elder in September 2009, stating that he was unable to do justice to his membership due to the demands of his work.

Yunus is a member of the Africa Progress Panel (APP), a group of ten distinguished individuals who advocate at the highest levels for equitable and sustainable development in Africa. Every year, the Panel releases a report, the Africa Progress Report, that outlines an issue of immediate importance to the continent and suggests a set of associated policies.
In July 2009, Yunus became a member of the SNV Netherlands Development Organisation International Advisory Board to support the organisation's poverty reduction work.
Since 2010, Yunus has served as a Commissioner for the Broadband Commission for Digital Development, a UN initiative which seeks to use broadband internet services to accelerate social and economic development.
In March 2016, he was appointed by United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to the High-Level Commission on Health Employment and Economic Growth, which was co-chaired by presidents François Hollande of France and Jacob Zuma of South Africa. Following the Rohingya genocide in 2016–2017, Yunus urged Myanmar to end violence against Rohingya Muslims.

Controversies
The Bangladeshi Government announced a review of Grameen Bank activities on 11 January 2011, which is ongoing. In February, several international leaders, such as Mary Robinson, stepped up their defence of Yunus through a number of efforts, including the founding of a formal network of supporters known as "Friends of Grameen".

On 15 February 2011, the Finance Minister of Bangladesh, Abul Maal Abdul Muhith, declared that Yunus should "stay away" from Grameen Bank while it is being investigated. On 2 March 2011, Muzammel Huq – a former Bank employee, whom the government had appointed chairman in January – announced that Yunus had been fired as managing director of the Bank. However, Bank General Manager Jannat-E Quanine issued a statement that Yunus was "continuing in his office" pending review of the legal issues surrounding the controversy .

In March 2011, Yunus petitioned the Bangladesh High Court challenging the legality of the decision by the Bangladeshi Central Bank to remove him as managing director of Grameen Bank. The same day, nine elected directors of Grameen Bank filed a second petition. U.S. Senator John Kerry expressed his support to Yunus in a statement on 5 March 2011 and declared that he was "deeply concerned" by this affair. The same day in Bangladesh, thousands of people protested and formed human chains to support Yunus.
The High Court hearing on the petitions, was planned for 6 March 2011 but postponed. On 8 March 2011, the Court confirmed Yunus's dismissal.

Accusation of 'loan sharking' and effectiveness of microfinance

The allegations against Muhammad Yunus and Grameen Bank were made in a context where some people began to question the effectiveness of microfinance, prompted by the actions of some for-profit microfinance institutions (MFIs) in India and Mexico. Coercion, peer pressure and physical harassment were reportedly used as loan repayment practices in some specific MFIs. Commercialisation of microcredit prompted Yunus to state that he "never imagined that one day microcredit would give rise to its own breed of loan sharks."

The lure of profits attracted some for-profit MFIs to hold initial public offerings (IPOs), including the largest Indian MFI, SKS Microfinance, which held an IPO in July 2010. In September 2010, Yunus criticised the IPO; in a debate with SKS founder Vikram Akula during the Clinton Global Initiative meeting, he said, "Microcredit is not about exciting people to make money off the poor. That's what you're doing. That's the wrong message completely."
Calculations of actual interest rate vary, but one estimate puts average Grameen rates at about a 23% interest rate (comparable to the inflation rate).

Political motivations behind the allegations
Though Grameen Bank was quickly cleared by the Norwegian government of all allegations surrounding misused or misappropriated funds in December 2010, in March 2011 the Bangladeshi government launched a three-month investigation of all Grameen Bank's activities. This inquiry prevented Muhammad Yunus from participating in the World Economic Forum.

In January 2011, Yunus appeared in court in a defamation case filed by a local politician from a minor left-leaning party in 2007, complaining about a statement that Yunus made to the AFP news agency, "Politicians in Bangladesh only work for power. There is no ideology here". At the hearing, Yunus was granted bail and exempted from personal appearance at subsequent hearings.

These investigations fueled suspicion that many attacks might be politically motivated, due to difficult relations between Sheikh Hasina and Yunus since early 2007, when Yunus created his own political party, an effort he dropped in May 2007.

Allegations involving partners: the food case and the phone case
On 27 January 2011, Yunus appeared in court in a food-adulteration case filed by the Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) Food Safety Court, accusing him of producing an "adulterated" yogurt whose fat content was below the legal minimum. This yogurt is produced by Grameen Danone, a social business joint venture between Grameen Bank and Danone that aims to provide opportunities for street vendors who sell the yogurt and to improve child nutrition with the nutrient-fortified yogurt. According to Yunus's lawyer, the allegations are "false and baseless". At the request of Yunus's lawyers, pointing procedural irregularities and errors, this case is now considered by the High Court.

Investigation by a 2012 independent public commission examining the Grameen Bank assert that Yunus misrepresented his authority and abused his powers during his tenure in management.  The report establishes that legal challenges exist for authority of the Grameen Bank to have acted as guarantor and to have forwarded credit to independent private enterprises during Yunus's tenure. The report raised specific questions relating to (a) establishment and financing of Grameenphone, a for-profit telecommunications entity initially established as a trust for the Grameen Bank borrowers together with Norwegian majority state-owned multinational Telenor by Yunus, and (b) simultaneous management and operational financing of private enterprises established by Yunus applying resources of the Grameen Bank.  The commission also examined the legal status of the Grameen Bank and concluded that it was de jure public i.e. government entity, of which incompetent oversight by the state and (potentially unwitting) misrepresentation by Yunus in past resulted in the popular perception of the private ownership.  The commission report refers to obstruction of commission investigations by current Grameen Bank management, representatives of Telenor, the Government of Bangladesh, and by partisans of Yunus. Full implications of the report are thus far not closely examined in either state-controlled elements of Bangladeshi media, or by pro-Yunus press releases, where these implicate Yunus as at least accessory to corruption at the nexus of the Bangladeshi public-commercial establishment, in collusion with other parties.

Criticism of ideas

Microfinance has been criticised in the foreign media. The Guardian (UK) asked whether microfinance was a 'neoliberal fairytale'. The article pointed out criticisms including that most loans are not used to create small businesses, but instead 'consumption smoothing'.

Trials
Dr. Muhammad Yunus faces 174 cases in Bangladesh.  Allegations include labour law violations, corruption, money laundering.

The trial of Muhammad Yunus is the series of trials launched by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina of Bangladesh against Muhammad Yunus. The former put the latter on trial in 2010 and ultimately removed him from Grameen Bank, citing that he was too old to run the Bank which he founded in 1983. In 2013, he was put on trial for a second time because he had supposedly received earnings without the necessary permission from the government, including his Nobel Peace Prize earnings and the royalties from his book sales. The article claims that this series of trials against Yunus has puzzled billions of people around the world, from the 8.3 million underprivileged women of Grameen Bank to US President Barack Obama. Likening Hasina's political vendetta against Yunus to a modern-day replay of the conflict between Archimedes and General Marcellus, the article predicts that the "banker to the poor" may face a fate similar to the father of mathematics for asking Hasina not to disturb the Grameen Bank. Vikas Bajaj wrote in the Taking Note editorial blog of The New York Times on 7 November 2013:

The government of Bangladesh has played its trump card in its long-running campaign against Grameen Bank and its founder Muhammad Yunus. Last week, legislators passed a law that effectively nationalizes the bank, which pioneered the idea of making small loans to poor women, by wresting control of it from the 8.4 million rural women that own a majority of its shares.

Background
For many years, Yunus remained a follower of Hasina's father, Sheikh Mujib, the founding father of Bangladesh. While teaching at Middle Tennessee State University, Yunus founded the Bangladesh Citizen's Committee (BCC), as a response to West Pakistan's aggression against Bangladesh and its leader Sheikh Mujib. After the outbreak of the war of liberation, the BCC selected Yunus to become editor of its newly published Bangladesh News Letter. Inspired by the birth of Bangladesh in 1971, Yunus returned home in 1972, to help Mujib rebuild the nation shattered by a long and bloody war. The relationship did not end after Mujib's death. Yunus maintained a professional relationship with Mujib's daughter, Hasina. Yunus appointed Hasina—along with US first lady Hillary Clinton—as co-chair of a microcredit summit held 2–4 February 1997. At this event, 50 heads of state and high-level officials from 137 nation-states gathered in Washington, DC, to discuss solutions to poverty. At this macroevent for microcredit, Hasina had nothing but praise for her fatherly figure. In her statement she praised, "the outstanding work done by Professor Yunus and the Grameen Bank he founded. ... The success of the Grameen Bank has created optimism about the viability of banks engaged in extending micro-credit to the poor. The inaugural ceremony of Grameen Phone, the largest telephone service in Bangladesh, took place at Hasina's office on 26 March 1997. Using Grameen Phone, Hasina made the first call to Thorbjorn Jagland, the then-Norwegian prime minister. When her conversation ended with Jagland, she received another call, this one from Laily Begum, a Grameen telephone employee. However, this long relationship was doomed in 2007 after Yunus disclosed his intention to form a political party, Nagorik Shakti

From friends to foe
The government of Awami League Sheikh campaigned against Grameen and its founder, Muhammad Yunus. The New York Times reports, " Her actions appear to be retaliation for Mr. Yunus's announcement in 2007 that he would seek public office, even though he never went through with his plans". According to Times of India, one other factor contributed to her brash decision against Yunus: the Nobel Peace Prize.

Hasina thought that the Norwegian Nobel Peace Prize Committee would give her the prize for signing a peace treaty, the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in 1997. On 9 March, Attorney General Mahbubey Alam revealed the government's attitude when he said, "Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina should have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize..." He went on to challenge the wisdom of the Nobel committee for not awarding the prize to his master, Hasina, for the CHT accord.

Historical description
On 11 January 2007, Army General Moeen U Ahmed staged a military coup. Meanwhile, Yunus turned down his request to become the nation's fourth Chief Advisor after Khaleda Zia's term ended. Yunus, however, suggested the general pick Fakhruddin Ahmed for the job. Fakhruddin took office on 11 January 2007 and made it clear on his very first day that he intended not only to arrange a free and fair election but also to clean up corruption. While Khalada and Hasina criticised Fakruddin and claimed that it was not his job to clean up corruption, Yunus expressed his satisfaction. In an interview with the AFP news agency, Yunus remarked that politicians in Bangladesh only work for money, saying, "There is no ideology here." Hasina had a harsh reaction to Yunus' comments, calling him a "usurer who has not only failed to eradicate poverty but has also nurtured poverty." This was Hasina's first public statement against Yunus. One could make an analogy between Yunus' involvement as a nonpolitician and the role that Czech writer Václav Havel played in his country after the overthrow of the Communist regime. Later Yunus announced the name of this prospective political party, Nagorik Shakti (Citizen's Power), saying he had a mission to enter the political arena in his nation in hope of changing its identity from "bottomless basket" to "rising tiger". However, on 3 May, Yunus published a third open letter and put his political ambitions to rest.

Proceedings
Bangladesh government launched the first trial against Yunus in December 2010, one month after the release of Caught in Micro Debt, a documentary by Tom Heinemann. Screened on Norwegian television on 30 November 2010, the film broadcast the allegation that Yunus stashed approximately $100 million in 1996 into Grameen Kalyan, a sister company of Grameen Bank. Yunus denied the allegations. After completing a full investigation, the Norwegian government found Yunus innocent.

Yunus has also become subject to legal harassment over three criminal cases. A criminal defamation case was filed against Yunus for criticising politicians in 2007. A food inspector filed another case against Yunus, alleging that yogurt manufactured by the Grameen-Danone was adulterated. The final blow came on 3 March 2011. Bangladesh Bank informed Grameen in a letter that Yunus had been removed from Grameen, citing that he was older than the mandatory retirement age of 60, even though nine of the bank's directors-who were elected by 8.3 million Grameen Bank borrowers-allowed him to stay on the job after he had crossed that threshold. Backed by nine boards of directors, 22 thousand employees, and 8.3 million Grameen borrowers, Yunus defied the government order, returned to Grameen's headquarters in Dhaka, and lodged an appeal at Dhaka High Court against the decision. However, Justice Mohammad Momtazuddin Ahmed and Justice Gobinda Chandra Tagore delivered the verdict against Yunus, claiming that Yunus' posting as the MD of Grameen since 1999 was illegal as he had reached the age of 60 by then. Backed by international leaders (e.g., Hillary and Bill Clinton), national leaders (e.g., Sir Fazle Hasan Abed) and 8.3 million Grameen borrowers, Yunus filed an appeal in Bangladesh Supreme Court against the High Court's verdict. The full bench of the Appellate Division headed by Chief Justice ABM Khairul Haque heard the appeal on 15 March 2011 and delivered the verdict which upheld Yunus' removal by the government.

From 2012
On 2 August 2012, Sheikh Hasina's approved a draft of "Grameen Bank Ordinance 2012" to increase government control over the bank. Currently, that power resides with the bank's directors—consisting of nine poor women—who were elected by 8.3 million Grameen borrowers. Hasina also ordered a fresh investigation into the activities and financial transactions of Yunus in his later years as managing director of Grameen, but people see the move as nothing more than an attempt to destroy his image. The prime minister also alleged that Yunus had received his earnings without the necessary permission from the government, including his Nobel Peace Prize earnings and the royalties from his books.

On 4 October 2013, Bangladesh's cabinet has approved the draft of a new law that will give the country's central bank closer control over Grameen Bank, raising the stakes in a long-running dispute with the pioneering microlender. The Grameen Bank Act 2013 was approved at a cabinet meeting chaired by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and was passed by parliament on 7 November 2013. It replaced the Grameen Bank Ordinance, the law that underpinned the creation of Grameen Bank as a specialised microcredit institution in 1983. The New York Times reported in August 2013:

Since then, the government has started an investigation into the bank and is now planning to take over Grameen—a majority of whose shares are owned by its borrowers—and break it up into 19 regional lenders.

Personal life
In 1967, while Yunus attended Vanderbilt University, he met Vera Forostenko, a student of Russian literature at Vanderbilt University and daughter of Russian immigrants to Trenton, New Jersey, United States. They were married in 1970. Yunus's marriage with Vera ended within months of the birth of their baby girl, Monica Yunus, in 1979 in Chittagong, as Vera returned to New Jersey claiming that Bangladesh was not a good place to raise a baby. Monica became an operatic soprano based in New York City. Yunus later married Afrozi Yunus, who was then a researcher in physics at Manchester University. She was later appointed as a professor of physics at Jahangirnagar University. Their daughter Deena Afroz Yunus was born in 1986.

Yunus's brother Muhammad Ibrahim is a former professor of physics at the University of Dhaka and the founder of The Center for Mass Education in Science (CMES), which brings science education to adolescent girls in villages. His other brother Muhammad Jahangir (d. 2019) was a television presenter and a social activist in Bangladesh.

Yunus Centre
The Yunus Centre in Dhaka, Bangladesh, is a think tank for issues related to social business, working in the field of poverty alleviation and sustainability. It is 'aimed primarily at promoting and disseminating Professor Yunus' philosophy, with a special focus on social business' and currently chaired by Prof. Muhammad Yunus.

Publications

 Yunus, Muhammad, Moingeon, Bertrand and Laurence Lehmann-Ortega (2010), "Building Social Business Models: Lessons from the Grameen Experience", April–June, vol 43, number 2–3, Long Range Planning, pp. 308–325

Documentaries
 2000 - "16 Decisions"
 2010 - To Catch a Dollar
 2011 - Bonsai People – The Vision of Muhammad Yunus

Legacy and honours

 In 1998, Yunus was awarded Indira Gandhi Peace Prize as the founder of Grameen Bank
 In 2006, awarded Nobel Peace Prize for his finance work.
 Chosen by Wharton School of Business in Philadelphia as one of The 25 Most Influential Business Persons of the Past 25 Years, covered in a PBS documentary.
 In 2006, Time magazine ranked him as one of the top 12 business leaders, including him among "60 years of Asian Heroes".
 In 2008, Yunus was voted second on the list of Top 100 Public Intellectuals in an open online poll conducted by Prospect Magazine (UK) and Foreign Policy (United States).
 In 2009, Yunus was awarded the Golden Biatec Award, the highest award bestowed by Slovakia's Informal Economic Forum Economic Club, for individuals who exhibit economic, social, scientific, educational and cultural accomplishments in the Slovak Republic.
In 2021, Yunus was awarded the Olympic Laurel, for his extensive work in sports for development.
 In 2021, Yunus was awarded United Nations Foundation's Champion of Global Change Award. He was given the award in recognition of his enlightened leadership and innovation to enhance human dignity, equity, and justice.

See also

 Fazle Hasan Abed
 Islamic banking
 Yunus Social Business

References

Further reading

External links

 Muhammad Yunus biography at Grameen Bank
  with the Nobel lecture 10 December 2006
 Exclusive Interview with Educational Technology Magazine

1940 births
Living people
Bangladeshi economists
Bangladeshi businesspeople
Bengali Muslims
Development specialists
People in international development
Microfinance people
Nobel Peace Prize laureates
Bangladeshi Nobel laureates
University of Dhaka alumni
Vanderbilt University alumni
Middle Tennessee State University faculty
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Ashoka Bangladesh Fellows
Ramon Magsaysay Award winners
People from Hathazari Upazila
HuffPost writers and columnists
Recipients of the Independence Day Award
People associated with Glasgow Caledonian University
Bangladeshi bankers
Social entrepreneurs
Pfeffer Peace Prize laureates
Academic staff of the University of Chittagong
Advisers of caretaker governments of Bangladesh
Chittagong College alumni
Recipients of the Four Freedoms Award
United Nations Foundation
Winners of the Nikkei Asia Prize
Agriculture and food award winners
International Simón Bolívar Prize recipients
Chittagong Collegiate School and College alumni
Fulbright alumni

Muhammad Yunus


باستير  عاصمة دولة سانت كيتس ونيفيس الواقعة في البحر الكاريبي, تقع على الساحل الغربي لجزيرة سانت كيتس، أحد أهم المراكز الاقتصادية لمنطقة جزر ليوارد، عدد سكانها 15.500 نسمة (عام 2000)، يعود تاريخ تأسيس المدينة لفترة الحكم الفرنسي عام 1627 كعاصمة لمستعمرة سان كريستوفر الفرنسية، عانت العديد من الكوارث من حروب أهلية، حرائق, زلازل، أعاصير, وفيضانات مما أدى لدمارها عدة مرات.

التاريخ
تأسست باستير عام 1625 من قبل الفرنسيين، تحت قيادة سيور بيير بيلان ديسنامبوك. وكانت بمثابة عاصمة مستعمرة سان كريستوف الفرنسية، والتي تتكون من الأطراف الشمالية والجنوبية لجزيرة سانت كيتس. وفي عام 1639  عندما تم تعيين فيليب دي لونجفيلييه دي بوانسي حاكمًا فرنسيًا لسانت كيتس، تحولت المدينة إلى ميناء كبير، ومركز التجارة والاستعمار في شرق الكاريبي.

وسرعان ما جعلها عاصمة لجزر الهند الغربية بأكملها، والتي تضمنت جزر جوادلوب ومارتينيك، وبقيت العاصمة حتى عام 1660، لدى باستير واحد من أكثر التواريخ مأساوية في الكاريبي، حيث دمرت المدينة عدة مرات بسبب الحروب الاستعمارية والحرائق والزلازل والفيضانات وأعمال الشغب والأعاصير .  وتم بناء معظم مباني المدينة بعد حريق عام 1867.

الجغرافيا والمناخ

الجغرافيا
تقع المدينة على خليج باستير بطول 3.2 كم  على الشاطئ الجنوبي لسانت كيتسن، تقع المدينة داخل وادي باستير، وهي محاطة بالكامل تقريبًا بالتلال والجبال الخضراء. وهو أحد التفسيرات للاسم الذي أطلقه الفرنسيون عليه، حيث يترجم باستير إلى «الأرض المنخفضة».

المناخ
تتميز باستير بمناخ الغابات الاستوائية المطيرة (حسب تصنيف كوبن للمناخ). يبلغ متوسط درجات الحرارة  على مدار العام. وفي المتوسط ، يسقط 1700 ملم من الأمطار على المدينة سنويًا.

المعالم ونقاط الاهتمام

 ساحة الاستقلال ( ساحة بال مول سابقًا)
 كنيسة سانت جورج الأنجليكانية
 كاتدرائية الحبل بلا دنس
 المتحف الوطني لسانت كيتس
 متحف مصنع السكر
 مجمع وانر بارك الرياضي

أعلام

 جيمي براون
 إراسموس جيمس
 إيان ليك
 أنطوان آدامز
 ديساي ويليامز (1959-) صاحب الميدالية البرونزية الأولمبية.

مراجع

باستير
أماكن مأهولة أسست في 1627
أماكن مأهولة في سانت كيتس ونيفيس
تأسيسات سنة 1627 في أمريكا الشمالية
تأسيسات سنة 1627 في الإمبراطورية الاستعمارية الفرنسية
سانت كيتس ونيفيس
عواصم أمريكا الشمالية
عواصم دول الكاريبي
أماكن ساحلية مأهولة في سانت كيتس ونيفيس

باستير


Palača u Wilanówu (poljski: Pałac w Wilanowie) je kraljevska palača u distriktu Wilanów, Varšava. Gradio ju je arhitekt Augustyn Wincenty Locci od 1677. do 1679. godine za kralja Jana III. Sobieskog na južnom kraju Varšavske kraljevske rute koji se danas naziva "Poljski Versailles". Ime mu potječe od polaniziranog talijanskog naziva Villa Nuova, tj. "nova vila".

Povijest

Nakon smrti Jana III. ovdje je boravio njegov nasljednik, kralj August II. Jaki, do 1700. god. Bio je poznat po velikim i ekstravagantnim festivalima koje je održavao u palači. Palača je tada prešla u posjed velikaških obitelji Sieniawski, Lubomirski, Czartoryski, Potocki i Branicki, koji su palaču i okolicu dogradili u današnji oblik. Naselje Wilanów uključivalo je različita sela i rezidencije u okolici, kao što su: Gucin Gaj, Morysin, Natolin, Powsiń i palača Krasińskich.

Palaču je njemačka vojska 1944. godine opljačkala i zapalila nakon Varšavskog ustanka; međutim, njihov izvorni cilj potpunog uništavanja ovog simbola poljske kulture više nije mogao biti ostvaren zbog napretka Crvene armije. Palača je obnovljena u izvornom baroknom obliku nakon Drugog svjetskog rata.

Muzej palače kralja Jana III.

Unutrašnjost palače uključuje stilove baroka, rokokoa i neoklasicizma. Obilazak uključuje knjižnicu, veliku blagovaonicu, kraljeve privatne sobe s originalnim namještajem, Potocki muzej u etruščanskoj dvorani s brojnim drevnim skulpturama iz zbirke Potocki i dnevne sobe s brojnim slikama, uključujući dobro poznati portret Jana III. Sobieskog kao turskog borca na konju, te konjički portret Stanislasa Potockog (Jacques-Louis David). Izvorno je kraljevska kolekcija uključivala 6 slika Rembrandta i "Ljubavno pismo" Johannesa Vermeera, koje su razdijeljene po kraljevoj smrti. Kasniji vlasnici zbirku su ponovno obogatili slikama umjetnika kao što su: Lucas Cranach stariji, Peter Paul Rubens, Jan Lievens, Charles Le Brun, Pompeo Batoni, Angelika Kauffmann i Anton Graff.

Zbirka baroknih portreta na lijesovima najveća je na svijetu. Bijela soba princeze Izabele Lubomirske u stilu ampira također zaslužuje posebnu pažnju. Pročelje prema parku ima sunčani sat gdanjskog astronoma Johannesa Heveliusa, koji pored vremena pokazuje i znakove zodijaka.

Popis odabranih djela u kolekciji muzeja:

Wilanówski park

Wilanówski park nastao je u 17. stoljeću u baroknom stilu prema talijansko-francuskom modelu (francuski park) na površini od 43 hektara. Kasniji dijelovi vrta redizajnirani su u romantičarskom stilu (engleski park). Mnogobrojne zgrade i skulpture u parku krase park. Na terasama ispred dvorca Gerard Ciołek rekonstruiran je najstariji dio vrta s geometrijskim oblicima, fontanama i figurama. U engleskom parku sjeverno od dvorca nalazi se nekoliko sarkofaga vlasnika dvorca, obelisk, stupovi, kineski paviljon i oranžerij s izložbom skulptura i ukrasa. Vrt ruža zapadno od palače u stilu je neorenesanse.

U blizini dvorca nalaze se i barokna kovačnica, barokna gostionica i muzej plakata. Iza monumentalnog pročelja stare škole jahanja nalazi se moderna zgrada s najstarijom, najprestižnijom i najvećom kolekcijom umjetničkih plakata na svijetu.

Mauzolej Potocki je negotička grobnica izgrađena od 1799. do 1832. godine prema projektu Henryka Marconija sa skulpturama Jakuba Tatarkiewicza i Konstantya Hegela.

Crkva svete Ane u dvorcu parka sagrađena je od 1772. do 1775. godine za Adama Kazimierza Czartoryskog u neklasicističkom stilu, a obnovili su je od 1857. do 1870. godine Henryk Marconi i Jan Kacper Heurich u neorenesansnom stilu.

Izvori

 W. Fijałkowski, Królewski Wilanów, Varšava 1997. ISBN 83-906629-4-9
 Wilanowski informator konserwatorski, Muzeum Pałac w Wilanowie, Varšava 2005. ISBN 83-915126-5-7

Vanjske poveznice

Popis palača u Varšavi

Barokne palače
Građevine u Varšavi
Muzeji

Palača u Wilanówu