The Association of Junior Leagues International, Inc. (Junior League or JL) is a private, nonprofit educational women's volunteer organization aimed at improving communities and the social, cultural, and political fabric of civil society.  With 295 Junior League chapters in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom, it is one of the oldest and largest of   Members engage in developing civic leadership skills, fundraising, and volunteering on JL committees to support partner community organizations related to foster children, domestic violence, human trafficking, illiteracy, city beautification, and other issues. Its mission is to advance women's leadership through meaningful community impact through volunteer action, collaboration, and training.

It was founded in 1901 in New York City by Barnard College debutante Mary Harriman Rumsey.

History

The first Junior League was founded in 1901 in New York City as the Junior League for the Promotion of the Settlement Movement. It is now known as the New York Junior League (NYJL). Its founder was then 19-year-old Barnard College student and debutante Mary Harriman Rumsey, sister of future Governor of New York W. Averell Harriman and daughter of railroad executive Edward H. Harriman.

Inspired by a lecture on settlement movements that chronicled the works of social reformers such as Lillian Wald and Jane Addams, Harriman Rumsey organized others to become involved in settlement work. The organization's first project was working at the College Settlement on Rivington Street on Manhattan's Lower East Side. These were the early days of privileged young girls and women leaving their sheltered lives in wealthy neighborhoods to volunteer their time with those who lived in crowded, poverty-stricken areas of cities. This started a legacy of volunteering and social activism that would continue for many decades.

The League quickly branched out and in 1907 became the Junior League for the Promotion of Neighborhood Work. Under President Dorothy Whitney, the League introduced formal training on "social problems" and expanded the scope of their work to include civic issues such as the civic role for women, police, and immigration (100 Years, 25-26). During this time, a number of sister leagues formed in cities including Brooklyn, New York and Portland, Oregon although there was no formal affiliation with the first New York league. A number of other debutante circles, like the Sewing Circle League of Boston began to emulate the League in New York and focus on local social issues (100 Years, 26). Eleanor Roosevelt was an early member of the NYJL, joining in 1903 when she was 19 years old.

In 1921, thirty Leagues joined to form a national association. Until this point, Leagues were only connected by a Bulletin, containing updates about various leagues, and an annual conference. The national association was named the Association of Junior Leagues of America, Inc. and acted as an umbrella organization (Volunteer, 61). A new Constitution was written, and the Board was tasked with acting as an information bureau for the leagues, as well as continuing to publish the Bulletin and coordinating the annual meeting (100 Years, 47.) After serving as New York City's Junior League president from 1907 to 1910—Dorothy Payne Whitney was nominated as the first president of AJLA. Despite the name, there was membership of Leagues located both in America and Canada at the time of the incorporation (100 Years, 61).

AJLA continued to expand in the number of Leagues and in programming. By the middle of the 20th century there were over 150 Junior Leagues located in the United States, Canada, and Mexico (100 Years, 10). There was also a noticeable demographic shift in League members. More and more league members were young, working women or were older, suburban housewives as opposed to debutantes (100 Years, 94). In 1985, a Junior League was established in London which was the first League established outside of North America (100 Years, 154-155). This prompted a name change with the organization official becoming the Association of Junior Leagues International, Inc. (History Timeline).

Legacy of Voluntarism
The idea that women can meaningfully contribute to solving social issues and bettering communities through voluntarism has been a core tenet of the Junior League since its conception. In the Junior League's 1906 Annual Report, Harriman Rumsey emphasized the organization's imperative to alleviate civic ills: "It seems almost inhuman that we should live so close to suffering and poverty ... within a few blocks of our own home and bear no part in this great life" (100 Years, Introduction).  This altruistic spirit inspired Harriman Rumsey to organize a group of 80 young women to volunteer for the College Settlement on Rivington Street on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Every week, League members would teach classes, hand out library books and engage in other enriching activities for children at the settlement house. Eleanor Roosevelt, who joined the Junior League in 1903 and served as League secretary in 1904, also taught dance and calisthenic classes at the Rivington Street Settlement House (100 Years, 21).

The Junior League House for Working Girls (Junior League Hotel) grew out of the organization's early volunteer work with settlement movements. Dorothy Payne Whitney, president of the New York League from 1907 to 1909, and League members began to engage in conversations around how they might best support working women in the city. There was an interest in creating affordable, sanitary and comfortable accommodations solely for women – an alternative to tenement housing that would also protect against discrimination on the basis of nationality or religion. In 1909, the Junior League erected a six-story building on the corner of 78th street and East End Avenue, which would serve as the Junior League Hotel until its closure in 1931. At a rate of $4 to $7 a week, residents were provided a range of amenities including a library, roof garden, laundry, and tennis and basketball courts. The Junior League Hotel served as a model for Junior Leagues in other cities, many of which sponsored their own residential hotels and services for working women (100 Years, 21).

As Junior Leagues began to crop up in cities across the United States during the 1910's, the organization restated its mission with a focus on bolstering "an interest in all kinds of charitable and social effort" among its members, as well as supporting "already organized philanthropies" (100 Years, 27). This wide-ranging agenda would go on to encompass volunteering efforts around the country related to education, voting rights, child welfare and historic preservation, among other areas.

Education Reform
Over the early years of the League's development, education emerged as a central aspect of the organization's efforts to advance social causes. Through the School and Home Visitors program, the League sponsored teachers to assist with bolstering communication between schools and immigrant parents, and by 1909, the League was supplying schools with visiting teachers and volunteer tutors (100 Years, 23). School and Home Visitors, which began as a pilot project, was ultimately so successful that in 1910, New York state absorbed responsibility for the program and expanded its funding and reach. Nathalie Henderson, a League co-founder and chair of the organization's Committee on Visiting Teachers of the Public Education Society, went on to chair New York's joint Committee for Education and serve as a trustee at Teachers College, Columbia University (100 Years, 24).

When a League was organized in Brooklyn in 1910, the members petitioned the Board of Education to provide free lunches in public schools and transform vacant lots into playgrounds (100 Years, 26).

This advocacy worked continued after World War II, when the Baby Boom created an additional need for resources to support schools, playgrounds, and teachers. With a shortage of teachers, League members volunteered in diagnostic programs and those for gifted and challenged children. By the mid-1950s, over 100 Leagues established public play areas for children (100 Years, 104).

In the 1980's, the Junior League participated in and led several campaigns for literacy. Along with other national organizations, the League joined in PLUS (Project Literacy US), a coordinated effort to expand literacy as a way of preventing against the spread of homelessness (100 Years, 140). Later that decade, First Ladies of the United States and Junior League members Barbara Bush and Laura Bush founded The Barbara Bush Foundation for Family Literacy. The Foundation granted over $6 million to more than 200 Family Literacy Programs across the country in its first decade of operations. Laura Bush spearheaded an initiative in early childhood development to help infants and children get a leg up on reading before entering school (100 Years, 144).

Suffrage movement

In 1914, the St. Louis Junior League mobilized to support women's suffrage. They staged a demonstration – what the St. Louis women referred to as a "walkless, talkless parade" - at the 1916 Democratic National Convention, which ultimately resulted in the Democrats voting to include a plank for women's suffrage. The St. Louis League expressed their support in various ways, including reforming the organization as The League of Women Voters, a new group (100 Years, 36).

One year after Congress passed the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the Junior League held its annual conference in St. Louis. With discussions swirling around women's suffrage at the conference, the League decided to form Legislative committees that would focus on "city or state laws, especially those affecting the social welfare of women and children" (100 Years, 37).

Child welfare

Junior Leagues have historically advanced causes related to the well-being of women and children in various ways. Leagues across the country pioneered these efforts. Tucson, Arizona established the city's first day nursery, and Cincinnati established the Junior League Welfare Station, a clinic created to care for the children of indigent families (100 Years, 50). In 1917, members of the New York League organized the first network of volunteers in an outpatient department in New York City through the Children's Clinic at Bellevue Hospital (100 Years, 38).

During the Great Depression, Junior Leagues vamped up efforts to care for infants, children and families in need. Junior Leagues established and operated milk stations and nurseries for the children of working women, and also ran soup kitchens (100 Years, 65). The Tampa Junior League supported and built out a tuberculosis clinic and treatment center known as the Pine Health Preventorium, through which it provided assistance to 150 children between 1933-34 (100 Years, 65).

Childhood immunization

In the wake of the 1952 polio epidemic, the Junior League played a critical role in promoting the use of the polio vaccine, discovered by Dr. Jonas Salk, and for advocating for the rehabilitation of polio patients. In recognition for its efforts, the League received the March of Dimes Service Award in 1957 (100 Years, 101).

In the 1990's, the Junior League played a pivotal role in advocating for children to have greater access to health care. In 1991, the League launched Don't Wait to Vaccinate, a public awareness campaign focused on encouraging early childhood immunization (100 Years, 11). All 276 Leagues joined in to distribute information about the importance of vaccination, utilizing multilingual radio announcements, billboards, and handouts to spread the message. Along with these efforts, the Leagues tackled problem areas such as the lack of health clinics, insurance and language barriers that they recognized as factors in preventing wider-spread immunization (100 Years, 101). To eliminate these barriers, Leagues identified the issues that were most relevant to their own local populations and then deployed educational materials and collaborated with health agencies and other Leagues to create effective children's health programs (100 Years, 161).  The success of the Don't Wait campaign garnered wide-spread attention – President George Bush called the program "a point of light" (100 Years, 166).

Public Policy & Advocacy

Despite the Women's Suffrage movement fueling the establishment of a number of Junior Leagues, the official stance on engaging in public policy efforts for the Association in the early 20th century was to avoid any partisan issues and stay away from public arena (Volunteering, 97-98). The official position of the Association was to focus League energies towards their purpose of fostering interest among their members in the social, economic, educational, cultural and civic conditions of their own communities and to make efficient their volunteer service (this is quoted in Volunteering, 97 but is cited from AJLA Yearbooks https://archives.lib.umn.edu/repositories/11/archival_objects/490625). The 1930s were rife with disagreements on this issue and eventually a shaky agreement evolved where Leagues could act on public issues locally (Volunteer, 100), however, this would continue to cause debate at League Annual Conferences. Early on Leagues began to form State Public Affairs Committees (SPAC) where Leagues within a state would cooperate on

PACs (Public Affairs Committees), SPACs (State Public Affairs Committees) and LICs (Legislative Issues Committees) are individual, apolitical Junior Leagues or coalitions of Junior Leagues within a state that form to educate and take action on public policy issues relevant to The Junior League Mission. Having begun to take shape in the 1930s, they are collectively governed by their member Leagues and the methods by which they operate vary by state, as do the issues chosen for study and action. (https://www.ajli.org/?nd=p-do-comm-ip-spac)

Children's Theaters, Puppetry

Junior Leagues played an important role in spreading children's theater across the United States, both as a form of community service for League members and as way of introducing live-performance to children who might not have experienced it otherwise. The Junior League of Chicago was the first to stage children's theater in 1921, and by 1929, it hosted "America's first conference on children's theater" (100 Years, 57). Following the conference, the Junior League of Chicago produced a national tour of The Blue Bird by Maurice Maeterlinck, which was staged in 15 cities and seen by 35,000 children.

While children's theater started in Chicago, it quickly spread to Leagues across the country. By 1931, children's plays were staged by 80 Leagues, and almost all of the 148 Leagues put on some form of children's theater, marionette or puppet shows by 1938. The Junior League of Chicago even had a presence at the Chicago's World Fair where they presented weekly shows over a four-month run (100 Years, 57).

As children's theater grew into a national movement, it eventually evolved into other mediums like radio and television as well. The popular children's television show Kukla, Fran and Ollie originated from puppet shows staged in Chicago by Burr Tillstrom and the Junior League in the 1940's (100 Years, 59). Fred Rogers' daily television program The Children's Corner was developed with help from the League, and Margaret Hamilton, who would go on to play the Wicked Witch of the West in The Wizard of Oz, got her start in children's theater as a member of the Junior League (100 Years, 60).

In addition to providing enriching entertainment, Leagues were also cognizant of the comfort that theater could bring to children during times of uncertainty. From 1944-45, Leagues put on 783 theater performances for nearly 370,000 children. And in the last year of the second World War, Leagues staged 36 live radio programs for children (100 Years, 87).

Children's Museums and Science Museums

Script and Lists to get started

As was the case of children's theatre, Junior Leagues were also instrumental in opening children's museums to help expose children to science and technology, art and nature. By the end of the 1950's, Leagues across the country – from San Francisco to Jacksonville, Florida – established or entered into partnerships to open up museums for children in their own communities (100 Years, 102). The Denver Junior League was the first to open a children's museum in 1945. Co-sponsored by the Denver Art Museum, the Denver Children's Museum was such a success that its opening weekend brought in 10,000 visitors. Ultimately the museum served as a pilot project, both for the nation and for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (100 Years, 103).

Many other Leagues followed the example set by the Denver Children's Museum. In 1950, the Junior League of Miami opened the Junior Museum of Miami, a small house that brought in more 2,000 children in its first three months and eventually evolved into the Miami Museum of Science. League members also mobilized to secure funds and necessary resources for children's museums. In 1946, the Junior League of Charlotte stepped in to save a small but popular Children's Nature Museum thought up by a local school teacher from financial ruin. The League staged a fashion show, barbershop quartet, and follies to raise funds, eventually securing enough resources to take over an abandoned day nursery for a nature center. By 1951, the League pitched in to help the museum move into a larger, $68,000 building (100 Years, 103).

In addition to opening new museums, Leagues also worked with existing museums to support children-friendly sections. This was the case for the "Please Touch" Gallery at the Museum of the City of New York, which was staffed by volunteers and financed by the League (100 Years, 103).

Beyond the 1950's, the Leagues continued to meet the needs of communities around the country by opening children's museums. In 1976, the Junior League of Pittsburgh contributed to the founding of the Pittsburgh Children's Museum, and in 1982, the Junior League of Chicago organized around fighting cutbacks in funding for the city's public schools by helping to establish the Chicago Children's Museum (https://www.ajli.org/?nd=p-news-ajli-05082017).

In 2017, the Association of Children's Museums granted the 2017 ACM Great Friend to Kids Award to the Junior League in recognition of the organization's contributions to advocating for children and their education and for their work developing children's museums.

World War Efforts

When World War I broke out in Europe in 1914, the Junior League of Montreal was the first to spring into action, initially by raising money for refugees. Almost all Leagues in the U.S. became involved by 1916, despite the nation's stated neutrality which lasted until April 1917 (timeline). In addition to fundraising efforts, Leagues organized classes, including those focused on home nursing, as well as "preparedness" initiatives that were often organized in coordination with the Red Cross (100 Years, 39).

Perhaps even more so than the first world war, World War II galvanized Junior Leagues into action. In July 1940, as awareness spread that the United States would join the war, the AJLA called a special meeting to mobilize all Leagues in the United States to form central volunteer bureaus. This movement built off of capabilities already developed during the Depression that matched volunteers with agencies in need of help. In August 1941, all Leagues were sent a plan for organizing community volunteer initiatives entitled "A Central Volunteer Bureau in Defense," a plan for coordinating community volunteer efforts (100 Years, 80).

In the United States and Canada, volunteer efforts for the war took on many different forms. Junior League members organized blood drives, worked for the Red Cross, volunteered in daycare centers, sold US Treasury War Bonds and Stamps, and performed for servicemen at the USO and other venues (100 Years, 86). Overseas, League Members volunteered with various organizations, including an 125-person unit of Junior League Members who served with the YMCA in France (100 Years, 80).

As volunteerism flourished, Junior League members also took on more official responsibilities in war efforts. It was through the work of Oveta Culp Hobby, member of the Houston Junior League and Director of the Women's Interest Section of the War Department, that the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) was formed in 1941. After President Roosevelt signed the bill establishing the WAAC, Hobby was promoted to Major Hobby. As director, Major Hobby was charged with mobilizing and training women to be soldiers, and, "making available to the national defense the knowledge, skill, and special training of the women of the nation" (100 Years, 84).

The WAACs under Major Hobby's charge initially took on roles ranging from clerks and secretaries to aircraft warning observers. However, as the war progressed, WAACs assumed a broader range of primarily communication and clerical responsibilities overseas. By 1943, the initiative had garnered such success that the WAAC was elevated to Regular Army and afforded pay and privileges equal to what was granted to male soldiers (100 Years, 85).

Women's organization
The League is an all-women organization. In 1996, the Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post, Chicago Tribune, and San Francisco Gate publicized that a male hairdresser named Clark Clementsen tried to join the League after his "high society clients" recommended him, but was denied membership and retained an attorney to argue his case at a meeting of AJLI representatives in NYC. For him, members had "been trained to be organized, articulate community leaders, and it showed...no men's organization even came close."

Development

Mission
"The Association of Junior Leagues International, Inc. (AJLI) is an organization of women whose mission is to advance women's leadership for meaningful community impact through volunteer action, collaboration, and training. Its purpose is exclusively educational and charitable."

Chartered Leagues
As of 2023 there are 296 Leagues of 140,000 women in the United States, Canada, Mexico, the UK, and Kenya. including but not limited to:

Arizona
 Junior League of Phoenix
 Junior League of Tucson

California
 Junior League of San Francisco

Canada
 Junior League of Montreal—the first League outside of the U.S.
 Junior League of Toronto
 Junior League of Hamilton-Burlington

Florida
 Junior League of Jacksonville
 Junior League of Indian River
 Junior League of Orlando
 Junior League of Manatee County
 Junior League of Miami
 Junior League of Sarasota
 Junior League of Tampa
 Junior League of Clearwater Dunedin
 Junior League of St. Petersburg

Massachusetts
 Junior League of Boston Inc.
 Junior League of Greater Springfield

Mississippi
 Junior League of Jackson—featured in The Help book and film

New York
 Junior League of Buffalo
 New York Junior League—the first league
 Junior League of Kingston
 Junior League of Long Island
 Junior League of Schenectady and Saratoga Counties
 Junior League of Pelham

North Carolina
 Junior League of Raleigh
 Junior League of Greensboro
 Junior League of Winston-Salem
 Junior League of Charlotte
 Junior League of Durham and Orange Counties

Ohio
 Junior League of Akron
 Junior League of Cleveland
 Junior League of Cincinnati
 Junior League of Columbus
 Junior League of Dayton
 Junior League of Toledo

Utah
 Junior League of Salt Lake City
 Junior League of Ogden

Washington
 Junior League of Lower Columbia
 Junior League of Olympia
 Junior League of Seattle
 Junior League of Spokane
 Junior League of Tacoma

Wisconsin
 Junior League of Eau Claire
 Junior League of Madison
 Junior League of Milwaukee
 Junior League of Racine

UK
 Junior League of London

Membership
Members of The Junior League obtain invaluable skills and experiences that empower them to punch above their weight as leaders in their local communities and beyond. Here are a few of the areas in which they acquire skills or knowledge: Leadership, Organizational development, Community needs assessment, Mentoring, Advocacy, Communications, Fund development, Strategic planning, Negotiation, Consensus-building, and Networking

Fundraisers and advocacy
The Junior League has a full calendar year of members-only, family-friendly, and public events at their clubhouses and local venues such as hotels. Notable JL events raising money for partner community organizations related to foster children, domestic violence, human trafficking, illiteracy, city beautification, and other issues include, but are not limited to:

Annual Winter Ball—the Junior League's largest fundraiser since 1952, where League awards are given to honor outstanding members and a public figure, such as Mary J. Blige (2011). Non-member dinner tickets start at $500+.
Annual Thanksgiving Eve Ball—introducing debutantes to society at The Plaza and Waldorf-Astoria since 1948
Savor the Spring Restaurant Week
Spring House Tour
Team JL at the New York City Marathon

The New York Junior League used to have a thrift shop where proceeds went to the community organizations.

Other JL initiatives include its contributions to the passage of the Clean Water Act, free school lunch campaign, "Don't Wait to Vaccinate" campaign, and The Junior Leagues' Kids in the Kitchen initiative, which combats childhood obesity and educates families on health and nutrition.

Notable League members and alums

As of 2020, five first ladies of the U.S. have been Junior League members.

Politics and government
 Ann Bedsole—first female Alabama State Senator (1983–1995)
 Margot Birmingham—wife of 1992 / 1996 Presidential Candidate and businessman, Ross Perot
 Florence Bird—Canadian Senator appointed by Pierre Trudeau, broadcaster, and journalist
 Pam Bondi—Attorney General of Florida
 Jeanne Milliken Bonds— Mayor of Knightdale, North Carolina and Regional Manager at the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond
 Barbara Bush—41st First Lady during George H. W. Bush administration
 Laura Bush—43rd First Lady during George W. Bush administration
 Oveta Culp Hobby—first secretary of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, first commanding officer of the Women's Army Corps
 Pat Evans—three-term Mayor of Plano, Texas (2002-2009)
 Betty Ford—38th First Lady during Gerald Ford administration
 DeDreana Freeman— Member of the Durham City Council
 Judith Giuliani (née Nathan)—wife of 107th Mayor of New York City, Rudolph Giuliani
 Margaret Hance—first female Mayor of Phoenix, Arizona
 Glenda Hood—first female Mayor of Orlando, Florida (1992–2003)
 Margaret McTavish Konantz—Canadian Parliament, first woman elected to Canadian House of Commons from Manitoba
 Mary Pillsbury Lord—UN Delegate
 Stephanie Malone—Arkansas House of Representatives member (2009–present)
 Carolyn Maloney—U.S. Congresswoman from New York (2013–present)
 Doris Matsui—U.S. Congresswoman from California (2005–present)
 Bonnie McElveen-Hunter— diplomat, 29th United States Ambassador to Finland
 Geanie Morrison—Texas House of Representatives member (1999–present)
 Willie Landry Mount—Louisiana State Senator (2000-2012), first female Mayor of Lake Charles, Louisiana
 Sandra Day O'Connor—Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1981-2006) appointed by Ronald Reagan
 Diane Patrick—Texas House of Representatives member
 Nancy Reagan—40th First Lady during Ronald Reagan administration
 Eleanor Roosevelt—32nd First Lady during Franklin D. Roosevelt administration, United Nations Delegate
 Margaret Chase Smith—first female U.S. Senator and first to serve in both houses
 Bobbie Sparrow—Canadian politician, House of Commons
 Carole Keeton Strayhorn—first female Mayor of Austin, Texas (1977–1983)
 Deborah Taylor Tate—FCC Commissioner

Business
 Martha Rivers Ingram—chairman of Ingram Industries after the death of her husband, E. Bronson Ingram II, and philanthropist

Entertainment, media, literature, and fashion
 Julia Child—TV chef and author of Mastering the Art of French Cooking
 Ruth Draper—actress
 Margaret Hamilton—actress, best known for her portrayal of the Wicked Witch of the West in The Wizard of Oz
 Katharine Hepburn—actress
 Ethma Odum—pioneer woman television personality in Alexandria, Louisiana
 Suzanne Perron—fashion designer
 Mena Webb—writer and editor
 Eudora Welty—Pulitzer Prize winning author
 Shirley Temple—actress, UN Delegate, US Ambassador

Military
 Jeannie Deakyne—Army Officer and Bronze Star Medal recipient
 Cornelia Fort—first female pilot in American history to die on active duty

Nonprofit and philanthropy
 Mary Harriman—founder of the Junior League, sister of 48th Governor of New York, W. Averell Harriman
 Dorothy Payne Whitney—Whitney family member, philanthropist, NYJL President, and first AJLI President
 Helenka Adamowska Pantaleoni—U.S. Fund for UNICEF Co-founder and President (1953-1978)
 Sally Dalton Robinson— philanthropist and civic leader in Charlotte, North Carolina

Sports
 Sarah Palfrey Cooke—two-time Wimbledon champion
 Kerri Strug—Olympic Gold medalist in gymnastics, White House correspondent

In popular culture
 Five and Ten (1931 film) Marion Davies is shown volunteering at a Junior League Charity Bazaar.
 The Official Preppy Handbook—1980 tongue-in-cheek reference guide book featuring the Junior League
 She's the Man (2006 film) Viola and Olivia are seen taking part in a Junior League carnival.
 The Help (2009) book and The Help (2011 film)—the film stars Emma Stone and Bryce Dallas Howard in the Junior League of Jackson, Mississippi
 The Devil in the Junior League—2006 novel written by a former Junior Leaguer originally set to star Jennifer Garner in the film version.
 The character Betty Draper in the TV series Mad Men is a member of the Junior League.
 The character Lorelai Gilmore in the TV series Gilmore Girls stated she wore an inappropriate T-Shirt to the Junior League Spring Tea.

References

External links

 Association of Junior Leagues International
 New York Junior League
 Canadian Federation of Junior Leagues
 Junior League of London
 Junior League of the City of New York Survey of Significant Interiors, 1984-1985. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.

1901 establishments in New York City
1901 establishments in the United States
Charities based in New York City
Children's charities based in the United States
High society (social class)
International women's organizations
Mutual organizations
Non-profit organizations based in New York City
Organizations established in 1901
Youth organizations established in the 1900s

Junior League


18169 Amaldi este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
18169 Amaldi este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Colleverde de Vincenzo Silvano Casulli. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,15 ua, o excentricitate de 0,16 și o înclinație de 10,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 18001-19000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Asteroizi cu nume de oameni
Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2000
Centura de asteroizi

18169 Amaldi


Milja Simonsen (født 11. januar 1997) er en færøsk fodboldspiller, der spiller for den færøske klub Havnar Bóltfelag og for Færøernes kvindefodboldlandshold.

Hæder
Havnar Bóltfelag
Nr. to
 Færøernes Cup for kvinder: 2014

Internationale mål
Scoringer og resultater lister Færøernes mål først.

Referencer

Ekterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Færøerne
Fodboldlandsholdsspillere fra Færøerne
Fodboldspillere fra Havnar Bóltfelag
Kvindelige fodboldspillere fra Færøerne

Milja Simonsen


Gulbarga (en maratí: गुलबर्गा ) es una ciudad de la India, centro administrativo del distrito de Gulbarga, en el estado de Karnataka. Su nombre oficial es Kalaburagi.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 456  a 574 km de la capital estatal, Bangalore, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2011 contaba con una población de 546 554 habitantes.

Transporte
El Aeropuerto de Gulbarga entró en funcionamiento en 2019 con vuelos hasta Bangalore y Tirupati en el estado vecino de Andhra Pradesh.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth.

Localidades de Karnataka

ru:Гулбарга (округ)

Gulbarga


Stuckenia er ættkvísl rótfastra vatnaplantna sem vaxa í grunnu vatni. Tegundir eru taldar á milli 7 - 30, þó heldur lægri talan. Útbreiðslan er um nær allan heim.

Tegundir
 Stuckenia aldanensis
 Stuckenia amblyophylla
 Stuckenia arctovaginata
 Stuckenia austrosibirica
 Stuckenia borealis
 Stuckenia bottnica
 Stuckenia carbonata
 Stuckenia chakassiensis
 Stuckenia clavata
 Stuckenia fennica
 Stuckenia filiformis - Þráðnykra
 Stuckenia gibbosa
 Stuckenia helvetica
 Stuckenia interior
 Stuckenia macrocarpa
 Stuckenia marina
 Stuckenia matyrensis
 Stuckenia meinshausenii
 Stuckenia mirabilis
 Stuckenia mongolica
 Stuckenia omoloica
 Stuckenia palaeofiliformis
 Stuckenia pamirica
 Stuckenia pectinata
 Stuckenia praepectinata
 Stuckenia praevaginata
 Stuckenia pseudorostrata
 Stuckenia punensis
 Stuckenia sakmarensis
 Stuckenia striata
 Stuckenia subretusa
 Stuckenia suecica
 Stuckenia tenuicarpa
 Stuckenia vaginata
 Stuckenia vaginatoides
 Stuckenia zosteracea

Tilvísanir

Nykruætt
Vatnaplöntur

Stuckenia


Theodore William Schultz (fæddur 30.apríl 1902 - látinn 26.febrúar 1998) var bandarískur landbúnaðarhagfræðingur (e. agricultural economist). Hann vann Nóbelsverðlaun árið 1979 fyrir vinnu sína í landbúnaðarhagfræði.

Æviágrip
Schultz ólst upp í litlum sveitabæ í Suður-Dakóta í Bandaríkjunum. Grunnskólaganga Schultz var rofin vegna gríðarlegs skorts á vinnuafli á tímum fyrri heimsstyrjaldarinnar. Hann lærði á ungum aldri að erfitt var fyrir landbúnaðarfjölskyldur að binda saman enda sína og leiddi það hann inn í landbúnaðarhagfræðina og rannsóknir á hagfræði fátæktar. Schultz gekk í landbúnaðarháskólann í Suður-Dakóta árið 1921, lauk námi í B.S. í hagfræði og landbúnaði árið 1927 og lauk doktorsprófi í landbúnaðarhagfræði í Wisconsin háskólanum í Madison árið 1930.

Schultz var prófessor í háskólanum í Iowa á árunum 1930 til 1943. Árið 1943 blossuðu upp deilur vegna þrýstings háskólans á rannsakendur að fela niðurstöður sínar eftir þá uppgötvun að smjörlíki væri ekki jafn óhollt fyrir almenning og almennt var talið á þeim tíma. Schultz og átján aðrir fræðimenn sögðu stöðu sinni upp eftir að háskólinn stöðvaði rannsóknir sem voru óhagstæðar fyrir mjólkuriðnaðinn og var skólinn að bregðast við þrýstingi frá talsmönnum úr mjólkuriðnaðinum sjálfum. Schultz barðist fyrir akademísku frelsi þar sem kennarar hafa rétt á að fræða með sínum hætti án þrýstings eða afskipta utanaðkomandi aðila. Schultz hóf kennslu í Chicago-háskóla þar sem hann var til enda starfsferilsins síns.

Árið 1946 gerðist Schultz formaður hagfræðideildar Chicaco háskóla og var þar til 1961. Árið 1960 varð hann forseti bandarísku hagfræðistofnuninnar, AEA. Schultz giftist Esther Florence Werth árið 1930. Esther hafði einnig bakgrunn í landbúnaði og deildi með honum hugmyndum. Schultz ávarpaði hana í Nóbelsræðu sinni þar sem hann þakkaði henni fyrir samvinnuna. Þau eignuðust tvær dætur og einn son.

Theodore Schultz lést árið 1998, 95 ára að aldri.

Starfsferill
Schultz lagði fram fjölmargar kenningar sem leiddu til framdráttar hagvísinda. Þar má nefna vinnu hans í landbúnaðarhagfræði fátækra, þróunarríkja og hlutdeild hans í mannauðskenningunni. Í rannsóknum sínum ferðaðist Schultz víða til að hitta bændur, þorpsleiðtoga og verkamenn.

Landbúnaðarhagfræði
Schultz byrjaði feril sinn í landbúnaðarhagfræði og lagði hann sérstaka áherslu á þróun landbúnaðarsvæða í þróunarlöndum. Schultz skrifaði fjölmargar bækur tengdar fræðinni. Í ritinu Transforming Traditional Agriculture (1964) rökræddi Schultz fyrir því að landbúnaðarmenn í þróunarlöndum væru í raun ekki óskynsamir og óviljugir til þess að sinna nýsköpun sem var almenna viðhorfið á þeim tíma. Sýndi hann fram á í stað að landbúnaðarmenn voru að bregðast eins skynsamlega og mögulegt var við háum sköttum ríkisins, fyrirfram ákveðnu hámarksverði fyrir uppskeru og litlum stuðning við rannsóknar- og þróunarvinnu. Hann hélt því fram að stöðnunin sem átti sér stað í landbúnaði þróunarlanda væri að mestu leyti vegna stefnu stjórnvalda á þeim tíma. Benti Schultz á það að þær stefnur sem ríkisstjórnir hefðu sett fram hefðu dregið úr hvata og getu bænda til að taka þátt í að fjárfesta í nýsköpun fyrir landbúnað.

Mannauðskenningin
Á ferðum sínum um heiminn fyrir rannsóknir hans á landbúnaði kynntist Schultz fjölda fátækra einstaklinga og hafði við það samræður. Þær samræður leiddu Schultz áfram að tengja saman landbúnað, hagvöxt og mannauð. Í framhaldi rannsakaði Schultz mismuninn í styrkleika hagkerfa sem var til staðar á milli þjóða eftir lok seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar. Þá hafði hann tekið eftir því að hagkerfi Japans og vestur-Þýskalands hefðu með ótrúlegum hraða náð að draga sig upp úr algjörri eyðileggingu seinni heimsstyrjaldarinnar - sérstaklega ef samanborið við þróun Bretlands. Bretland þjáðist af alvarlegri efnahagskreppu í nokkur ár eftir stríðið. Schultz mat það sem svo að Marshalláætlunin væri í raun að skaða efnahag landanna í Evrópu. Þar sem aðstoðin var ókeypis leiddi það til þess að hagkerfin í löndunum sem framleiddu samanburðarhæfar vörur neyddust til þess að lækka verð sem gerði landbúnaðinn ófæran til þess að stunda virka verðsamkeppni. Schultz komst að þeirri niðurstöðu að grunnurinn af velgengni Þýskalands og Japans væri fjöldi heilbrigðra einstaklinga í samfélaginu og menntun þeirra sem varð að lokum grundvöllur mannauðskenningarinnar hans. Þetta varð til þess að hann lagði mikla áherslu á gæði íbúa sem grunnþáttur að hagvexti og þróun fram yfir gæði eða magns lands eða annarra náttúruauðlinda. Hugmyndafræðin leiddi til mikilla breytinga á fjármögnun mennta- og heilsueflingaráætlana alþjóðlegra stofnana eins og Alþjóðagjaldeyrissjóðsins (e. Inernational Monetary Fund) og Alþjóðabankans (e. World Bank).

Nóbelsverðlaunin
Theodore Schultz hlaut Nóbelsverðlaun í hagfræði með Sir William Arthur Lewis árið 1979 fyrir vinnu þeirra í þróunarhagfræði með áherslu á landbúnaðarhagfræði. Fyrri verk Schultz, frá greiningu hans á bandarískum landbúnaði, voru birt á árunum 1932 til 1951. Sú vinna var undirstaðan af seinni vinnu hans sem hann hlaut Nóbelsverðlaunin fyrir. Schultz er eini landbúnaðarhagfræðingurinn sem hefur fengið Nóbelsverðlaunin í hagfræði.

Tilvísanir

Bandarískir hagfræðingar
Nóbelsverðlaunahafar í hagfræði

Theodore Schultz


An Holcolemma inaequale in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Clayton. An Holcolemma inaequale in nahilalakip ha genus nga Holcolemma, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Holcolemma

Holcolemma inaequale


Oedipus, Yunan Mitolojisi'nde Thebes Kralı.
 Kral Oedipus, Sofokles'in bir tragedyası.
 Oedipus kompleksi, Sigmund Freud'un bir teorisi.

Oedipus (anlam ayrımı)


Taşkesik aşağıdaki anlamlara gelebilir:

Yerleşim yerleri
 Taşkesik, Torbalı - İzmir ili Torbalı ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Taşkesik, Yatağan - Muğla ili Yatağan ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Ayrıca bakınız
 Taşkesiği, adlı yerleşim yerleri

Taşkesik


Very Short Introductions (Introduções Bem Curtas, em português) é uma série de livros publicada pela Oxford University Press (OUP). Os livros são introduções concisas a assuntos específicos, destinados ao público em geral, mas escritos por especialistas. A maioria tem menos de 200 páginas. Embora os autores possam apresentar pontos de vista pessoais, os livros devem ser "equilibrados e completos", bem como instigantes.

A série começou em 1995 e, em abril de 2018, havia 607 títulos publicados ou anunciados. Os livros tiveram sucesso comercial e foram publicados em mais de 25 idiomas. As instituições podem assinar um serviço online para permitir que seus usuários leiam os livros.

A maioria dos livros foi escrita especificamente para a série, mas cerca de 60 foram reciclados de publicações anteriores da OUP: vários estavam na série Past Masters, da OUP, e os números 17-24 usaram capítulos da The Oxford Illustrated History of Britain (1984).

Publicações fundadas em 2000
Listas de livros

Very Short Introductions


10 Eylül, Türkiye Komünist Partisi'nin likidasyonuna muhalif  TKP kadrolarının oluşturduğu çevre. O dönemde SSCB'de Gorbaçov'un izlediği politik hattı revizyonizm olarak tanımladı ve Türkiye'de yaşananların "yeni politik düşünce" adıyla TKP'yi likidasyona teslim ettiğini savundu. TKP ve TİP'in birleşmesiyle oluşan TBKP'nin birlik adı altında likidasyona sürüklendiğini belirterek bu gidişata muhalefet etti.

Aynı adla 1989'da yayınlanmaya başlayan dergi 10 sayı çıkabildi ve bütün sayılarında devlet tarafından toplatılma kararı alındı. 10 Eylül dergisi TKP'nin likidasyonuna engel olamadı ve 1990'da çalışmalarına son verdi. Dergiyi çıkaran kadrolar 1996'da farklı çevrelerden gelen TKP'lilerle birlikte Ürün Sosyalist Dergi çıkarma kararını aldı. İlerleyen yıllarda aynı çevre 1920 TKP içerisinde yer aldı.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 10 Eylül dergisi arşivi
 Türkiye Sosyal Tarih Araştırma Vakfı

Türkiye'deki komünist kuruluşlar
1989'da kurulan dergiler
Sosyalist dergiler
Marksist dergiler
Yayımı sona eren Türkiye dergileri
Türkçe dergiler
Türkiye siyasi dergileri
Yayımı sona eren siyasi dergiler

10 Eylül (dergi)


Grand Produkcija ili Grand Production (srpski: Гранд продукција) privatna je tvrtka osnovana 1998. godine sa sjedištem u Beogradu koja se bavi glazbenom i televizijskom produkcijom. Čelni čovjek tvrtke je Saša Popović.

Povijest
Grand produkciju osnovali su 1998. godine Saša Popović i Lepa Brena, članovi jugoslavenskog glazbenog sastava Slatki greh. 3. prosinca 1998. godine prikazana je prva zabavno-glazbena emisija, nazvana Grand Show te se taj nadnevak uzima kao osnutak Granda. Prvih godina kao voditeljica radila je Suzana Mančić. Osim Grand Showa, s prikazivanjem je ubrzo krenula i Grand Parada.

Godine 2003. pokreće glazbeno natjecanje Zvezde Granda na televiziji Pink, u kojemu se sustavom eliminacije natjecatelja biralo šest najboljih nepoznatih pjevača i pjevačica. Zvezde Granda uskoro su poprimile regionalni karakter, s natjecateljima iz Jugoistočne Europe. Show se prikazuje na Prvoj srpskoj televiziji u Srbiji, Novoj BH u Bosni i Hercegovini, Novoj M u Crnoj Gori te Kanal 5 u Makedoniji.

Popis izvođača
Izvođači trenutno pod ugovorom:

Aca Lukas (2000., 2006.–2010., 2013.–sada)
Aco Pejović (2006.–sada)
Aleksa Perović (2017.–sada)
Aleksandar Aca Ilić (1998.–2005., 2007.–sada)
Aleksandra Bursać (2009.–sada)
Aleksandra Mladenović (2016.–sada)
Aleksandra Prijović (2013.–sada)
Ana Bekuta (1999.–sada)
Ana Kokić (2006.–sada)
Ana Sević (2012.–sada)
Anabela Atijas (2016.–sada)
Andreana Čekić (2012.–sada)
Armin Dedić (2017.–sada)
Bane Mojićević (2004.–sada)
Beki Bekić (2004.–sada)
Biljana Jevtić (2004.–sada)
Biljana Sečivanović (2009.–sada)
Bora Drljača (1999.–sada)
Branka Sovrlić (2002., 2016.–sada)
Cakana (2010.–sada)
Čeda Marković (2010.–sada)
Dado Polumenta (2005., 2010.–2013.,2017.–sada)
Ćira (2001.–sada)
Darko Filipović (2004.–sada)
Darko Lazić (2009.–sada)
Dejan Matić (2002.–sada)
Dušan Svilar (2007.–sada)
Dragan Kojić Keba (2004.–2011., 2013.–sada)
Dragi Domić (2011.–sada)
Džej (2005.–sada)
Džejla Ramović (2019.–sada)
Đani (2000.–2008., 2012.–sada)
Enes Begović (2002.–sada)
Era Ojdanić (2000.–sada)
Gile (2013.–sada)
Goca Božinovska (1998.–sada)
Halid Muslimović (2001.–sada)
Haris Berković (2015.–sada)
Ilda Šaulić (2007.–2012., 2014.–sada)
Indira Radić (2000.–2015.,2017.–sada)
Indy (200.6–sada)
Ivana Pavković (2011.–sada)
Ivana Selakov (2010.–sada)
Jana (1999.–2003., 2011.–sada)
Jašar Ahmedovski (2000.–2005., 2014.–sada)
Jelena Broćić (1999.–2003., 2013.–sada)
Jelena Gerbec (2011.–sada)
Jelena Karleuša (1999., 2015.–sada)
Jelena Kostov (2009.–sada)
Jovan Perišić (2011.–sada)
Jovan Stefanović (2009.–sada)
Katarina Grujić (2013.–sada)
Katarina Živković (2007.–sada)
Lepa Brena (1998.–sada)
Lepa Lukić (2006.–sada)
Ljuba Aličić (2013.–sada)
Ljubomir Perućica (2014.–sada)
Mahir Mulalić (2021.–sada)
Maja Marijana (1999., 2003.–2009., 2015.–sada)
Marija Šerifović (2015.–sada)
Marina Tadić (2015.–sada)
Marinko Rokvić (2000.–sada)
Marko Gačić (2014.–sada)
Marko Rokvić (2010.–sada)
Milan Dinčić Dinča (2007.–sada)
Milan Mitrović (2011.–sada)
Mia Borisavljević (2008.–2010., 2014.–sada)
Mile Kitić (1998.–sada)
Milica Pavlović (2012.–sada)
Milica Todorović (2005.–sada)
Miloš Bojanić (2000.–2006., 2012.–sada)
Miloš Brkić (2012.–sada)
Miloš Vujanović (2014.–sada)
Mina Kostić (2005.–sada)
Mira Škorić (2001.–sada)
Mirjana Mirković (2011.–sada)
Mirza Selimović (2014.–sada)
Mitar Mirić (2000.–2009., 2013.–sada)
Merima Njegomir (2001.–2002., 2015.–sada)
Nada Topčagić (2004.–sada)
Nadica Ademov (2012.–sada)
Nataša Đorđević (1998.–2005., 2008.–sada)
Neda Ukraden (2001.–2008., 2013.–sada)
Nena Đurović (2004., 2013.–sada)
Nemanja Nikolić (2004.–sada)
Nemanja Stevanović (2007-–2010., 2013.–sada)
Nikola Rokvić (2006.–2013., 2018.–sada)
Nikolina Kovač (2012.–sada)
Novica Zdravković  (2000.–2021.)
Olja Karleuša (2003.–2015., 2016.–sada)
Osman Hadžić (2014.–sada)
Petar Mitić (2011.–sada)
Predrag Živković Tozovac (2002.–sada)
Rada Manojlović (2007.–sada)
Rade Lacković (2001.–2006, 2015.–sada)
Radiša Urošević (2006.–sada)
Reni (2000.–2004., 2015.–sada)
Romana Panić (2015.–sada)
Snežana Đurišić (2003.–sada)
Snežana Savić (2000.–sada)
Sanja Đorđević (1999.–sada)
Saša Matić (2001.–2003., 2005.–sada)
Saša Kapor (2012.–sada)
Selma Bajrami (2001., 2007.–2013., 2015.–sada)
Sejo Kalač (2003.–2007., 2015.–sada)
Slobodan Vasić (2009.–sada)
Snežana Babić Sneki (2004.–sada)
Stefan Petrušić (2011.–sada)
Stoja (1999.–2010., 2017.–sada)
Suzana Jovanović (1999.–sada)
Svetlana Tanasić (2009.–sada)
Šako Polumenta (1999., 2015.–sada)
Šeki Turković (1999.–2004., 2013.–sada)
Tina Ivanović (2004.–sada)
Trik FX (2015.–sada)
Topalko (2009.–sada)
Verica Šerifović (1998.–2005., 2008.–sada)
Vesna Zmijanac (2003.–2011., 2013.–sada)
Viki Miljković (2001.–2011., 2016.–sada)
Zlata Petrović (2001.–2007., 2010.–sada)
Zorica Marković (2000.–sada)

Izvođači koji su nekoć izdavali za Grand:
Al Dino (2007.–2009.)
Anica Milenković (1998.–2006.)
Bane Bojanić (1999.–2001.)
Blizanci (2005.–2009.)
Bojan Bjelić (2006.–2009.)
Bojan Tomović (2005.–2007.)
Boki Milošević (1999.–2010.)
Boža Nikolić (1998.–2004.)
Ćana (2000.–2006.)
Ceca (2001.)
Cvijetin Nikić (2000.–2004.)
Dara Bubamara (2003.–2009., 2014.–2016.)
Danijela Vranić (2006.–2010.)
Dragana Mirković (1999.–2000.)
Donna Ares+ (2006.–2009.)
Goga Sekulić (2006.–2010.)
Goran Vukošić (1999.)
Haris Džinović (2000.)
Ivana Šašić  (2005.–2008.)
Jadranka Barjaktarović  (2005.–2016.)
Jelena Jeca Krsmanović (2002., 2013.–2016.)
Jovana Tipšin (2003.–2008.)
Kemal Monteno (2007.–2014.)
Lepa Đorđević (2006.)
Marina Živković (2002.)
Marta Savić (1999.–2007.)
Maya Berović (2007.)
Mikica Bojanić  (2001.–2002.)
Milan Stanković (2007.–2010.)
Milena Plavšić (2000.–2005.)
Medo Sakić (2000.)
Nataša Kojić (2004.–2009.)
Nela Bijanić (1999.–2003.)
Predrag Gojković Cune (2000.–2002.)
Sanja Maletić (2001.)
Saška Karan (2001.)
Seka Aleksić (2002.–2015.)
Slavica Ćukteraš (2003.–2013.)
Suzana Mančić (2004.)
Šaban Šaulić (1999.–2016.)
Šemsa Suljaković (2000.)
Tanja Savić (2004.–2016.)
Vesna Rivas (1999.–2000.)
Zoran Vanev (2003.–2005.)
Zorica Brunclik (2010.–2015.)
Žaklina Ilić (2000.)
Željko Samardžić (1999.)
Željko Šašić (1999., 2003.–2013.)

Izvori

Diskografske kuće

Grand Production


Das Pumafell, der auch Berglöwe, Silberlöwe, südamerikanischer Löwe und Kuguar genannten amerikanischen Katzenart, war fast immer nur in sehr geringer Menge im Handel. Pumafelle wurden vor allem zu Pelzdecken und Vorlegern verarbeitet. In einer Zeit größeren Anfalls wurden sie auch in geringem Umfang für Kleidungszwecke verwendet, als Verbrämung und auch versuchsweise geschoren und mit einem Leopardenmuster versehen.

Inzwischen wurden mehrere Unterarten des Puma in Anhang I der Washingtoner Artenschutzübereinkommens aufgenommen, die übrigen Unterarten in Anhang II.
Der Puma wird von der Weltnaturschutzunion (IUCN) als "nicht gefährdet" geführt ("Least Concern").
 Schutzstatus:
 Felidae spp., geschützt gemäß dem Washingtoner Artenschutzübereinkommen Anhang I; nach der EG-Verordnung 750/2013 Anhang B und besonders geschützt nach dem Bundesnaturschutzgesetz.
 Detaillierte Schutzdaten: Erstlistung seit dem 24. April 1977. Besonders geschützt nach dem Bundesnaturschutzgesetz seit 31. August 1980.
 Die Unterarten Puma concolor coryi, Puma concolor costaricensis und Puma concolor couguar werden bereits seit dem 20. Juni 1976 in Anhang I WA geschützt, die Unterarten Puma concolor azteca, Puma concolor mayensis und Puma concolor missoulensis seit dem 20. Juni 1976 in Anhang II WA. Für den Gattungsnamen Puma wurde damals das Synonym Felis genutzt.

Vorkommen
Der Puma kam auf dem ganzen amerikanischen Kontinent vor, von Mittel- und Westkanada bis zur Südspitze Argentiniens (Feuerland). Auf Grund der starken Verfolgung, insbesondere in Nordamerika, lebt er jetzt im Norden nur noch an der Westküste Kanadas und in den Rocky Mountains, durch Schutzmaßnahmen ist er dort inzwischen wieder häufiger geworden. Auch in Mittel- und Südamerika dürfte er selten geworden sein.

Fell
Die Kopfrumpflänge des Puma beträgt 120 bis 150 Zentimeter, hinzu kommt der Schwanz mit etwa 65 Zentimeter, er ist kleiner als der ebenfalls in Amerika beheimatete Jaguar. Felle männlicher Tiere sind größer als die von weiblichen. Die um den Äquator herum beheimateten Pumas sind die kleinsten Formen, während jene im äußersten Norden und Süden des Verbreitungsgebietes am größten sind.

Die Grundfärbung reicht von grau, silbergrau, rötlich, leuchtend rot bis rostbraun und dunkelzimtbraun, die Rückenmitte (Grotzen) ist dunkler, der Bauch ist heller. Die Schwanzspitze ist dunkel. Die Andenformen sind besonders düster gefärbt. In den südlichsten und nördlichsten Randgebieten des Vorkommens herrschen bräunliche Töne vor, wohingegen die kurzhaarigen Tropenformen leuchtend rote Töne aufweisen. Die Musterung ist bei den langhaarigen Arten bis zur Unkenntlichkeit verblasst. Schwarze Pumas sind selten. Jungtiere weisen ein Muster aus dunklen Flecken und Streifen auf gelbbraunem Grund auf, das sich zwischen dem Alter von 8 Monaten und 16 bis 17 Monaten fast ganz verliert.

Das Haar ist kurz, glatt, dicht und etwas grob, die Unterseite ist langhaariger.

Handel, Geschichte

Da die Felle meist in den Ursprungsgebieten verarbeitet wurden, kamen jährlich jeweils nur wenige hundert Felle in den internationalen Handel. Ursprünglich wurde für das Erlegen des als Viehdieb gefürchteten Pumas in vielen Gegenden ein Kopfgeld bezahlt, heute ist er weitgehend geschützt. Große, intakte Felle mit Zähnen und Krallen erzielten einen guten Preis, wenn auch der Kopf noch unbeschädigt war, so dass daraus Wanddekorationen gearbeitet werden konnten. Der wesentliche Erlös für den gewerblichen Trapper lag jedoch meist in der Fangprämie, die Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts 15 bis 20 Dollar pro Fell betrug. Die Hauptmenge waren deshalb auch Felle aus diesem Aufkommen. Für diese, meist beschädigten Felle wurden vom Händler im Jahr 1915 zwei bis sechs Dollar das Fell gezahlt, vielleicht auch ein wenig darüber.

Der Handel klassifizierte Pumafelle in drei Größen, die gelegentlich etwas abweichen konnten: groß (5 Fuß = 152 cm, gemessen von der Nase bis zur Schwanzspitze), mittel (4 Fuß = 122 cm) und klein (6 Inch = 15 cm bis 1 Fuß = 30 cm unter mittel). Größen von 10 bis 11 Fuß, von denen immer wieder berichtet wurde, wurden als unrealistisch, bei Überprüfung vielleicht auf 9 Fuß (274 cm) oder weniger zu korrigieren, angesehen. Die Farbe spielte bei der Bewertung kaum eine Rolle. Die schönsten Felle lieferte Patagonien, sie sind silbergrau (Silberlöwe) und haben, wie die Felle aus den nördlichen Regionen, ein besonders dichtes und volleres (rauches) Fell.

Die Felle kamen offen, nicht rund abgezogen in den Handel.

Das Pumafell wurde zumindest damals vom Rauchwarenhandel eigentlich nicht als richtiger Pelz angesehen. Ein Großteil der Felle wurde von den Jägern als Jagdtrophäe behalten oder diente anderweitig als Wand- oder Bodenschmuck. Im Jahr 1937, Wohnräume und Fahrzeuge waren noch nicht im heutigen Maß beheizt, waren Decken, vor allem Autodecken, noch ein wesentlicher Kürschnerartikel. In diesem Jahr steht in einem Fachbuch: "Pumafelle eignen sich kaum für Galanterie und Fertigkleidung und werden fast ausschließlich zu Vorlegern und Decken verarbeitet", oder an anderer Stelle, 23 Jahre zuvor: "da sie höchstens als naturalisierte oder wattierte Vorleger Verwendung finden". Die Saison 1967/68 wird als der Zeitpunkt genannt, zu dem das Pumafell für Pelzzwecke in geringem Umfang in Gebrauch kam.

Im Jahr 1965 wurde der Fellverbrauch für eine für einen Pumamantel ausreichende Felltafel mit 4 bis 8 Fellen angegeben (sogenanntes Mantel-"Body"). Zugrundegelegt wurde eine Tafel mit einer Länge von 112 Zentimetern und einer durchschnittlichen Breite von 150 Zentimetern und einem zusätzlichen Ärmelteil. Das entspricht etwa einem Fellmaterial für einen leicht ausgestellten Mantel der Konfektionsgröße 46 des Jahres 2014. Die Höchst- und Mindest-Fellzahlen können sich durch die unterschiedlichen Größen der Geschlechter der Tiere, die Altersstufen sowie deren Herkunft ergeben. Je nach Pelzart wirken sich die drei Faktoren unterschiedlich stark aus.

Der Versuch, die Felle zu scheren und mit einem Leopardenmuster bedruckt zu vermarkten, hat sich nicht durchgesetzt.

Zahlen, Fakten

 1907 kamen laut Emil Brass aus Nordamerika jährlich 1000 Pumafelle auf den Weltmarkt.
 1911 schreibt Brass: "Im allgemeinen ist das Fell für den Rauchwarenhandel nicht viel wert, höchsten 10 Mk. per Stück."
 1922 kostete ein Pumafell im argentinischen Großhandel 10 bis 14 argentinische Papierpesos, ein Leopardfell ("Tigerfell") 75 bis 85 Pesos.
 1923-1924 kamen laut Brass an Jaguar und Pumafellen zusammengefasst im Jahresdurchschnitt aus Nordamerika 1000 Felle, aus Südamerika ebenfalls 1000 Felle in den Handel.
 1934/1935, Leipziger Experten berichteten in den 1970er Jahren, dass 1934/1935 Pumafelle ballenweise angeboten wurden, zum Preis von 3,- Schilling das Stück.
 1988 wurde der Anfall von Pumafellen mit jährlich 200 bis 300 angegeben.

Anmerkung

Belege

Siehe auch

 Pelzarten
 Pelz
 Kürschner

Pelzart

Pumafell


În astronomie, obiecte de cer profund (din engleză deep-sky object) sunt obiecte ale cerului nocturn altele decât cele ale Sistemului Solar (planetele, cometele și asteroizii), stelele simple și stelele multiple.

În general aceste obiecte nu sunt vizibile cu ochiul liber, însă cele mai strălucitoare dintre ele pot fi văzute cu un mic telescop sau chiar cu un binoclu bun.

Aceste obiecte sunt următoarele:
Roiuri de stele
Roiuri deschise
Roiuri globulare
Nebuloase
Nebuloase difuze
Nebuloase de emisie
Nebuloase de reflexie
Nebuloase planetare
Nebuloase obscure
Galaxii
 Roiuri de galaxii
Quasari

Catalogul Messier grupează 110 din aceste obiecte, iar New General Catalogue conține aproape  de obiecte.

Aceste cataloage cât și altele mai specializate, așa cum este Uppsala General Catalogue, sunt acum folosite mai ales de astronomii amatori ca simpe colecții de obiecte de observat sau pentru testarea echipamentelor și abilitatea lor de observare.

Maratonul Messier constă în observarea într-o singură noapte a celor 110 obiecte din catalog, lucru posibil doar în lunile martie și aprilie. În aceeași idee, dar mult mai dificil și destinat unor telescoape mai mari, există testul Herschel's 400; este vorba despre observarea unei selecții de 400 de obiecte  care provin din catalogul compilat de William Herschel.

Lectură suplimentară
 Burnham's Celestial Handbook by Robert Burnham, Jr. (Volume One, Volume Two, Volume Three at Google Books)
 Deep Sky Observer's Guide by Neil Bone, Wil Tirion. Firefly Books, 2005. .
 The practical astronomer's deep-sky companion by Jess K. Gilmour. Springer, 2003. .
 Concise Catalog of Deep-sky Objects: Astrophysical Information for 500 Galaxies, Clusters and Nebulae by W. H. Finlay. London: Springer, 2003. . Includes the Messier objects, Herschel 400 & more
 Visual astronomy of the deep sky by Roger Nelson Clark. CUP Archive, 1990. .

Vezi și
 Catalog stelar

Astronomie observațională

Obiect de cer profund


An Eragrostis trichocolea in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni José Arechavaleta. An Eragrostis trichocolea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eragrostis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eragrostis

Eragrostis trichocolea


L'acrylate de méthyle est un composé chimique de formule . Il se présente sous la forme d'un liquide volatil incolore à l'odeur piquante, très inflammable, avec un point d'ébullition à  à pression atmosphérique. Sa pression de vapeur vaut, selon l'équation d'Antoine, , où  et  sont respectivement la pression en bars et la température en kelvins, avec ,  et  dans un intervalle de températures de . Les vapeurs sont trois fois plus denses que l'air. L'acrylate de méthyle polymérise spontanément, notamment sous l'effet de la lumière ou de températures élevées. L'enthalpie de polymérisation vaut  ou , de sorte que  de   sont ajoutés comme stabilisant. L'acrylate de méthyle peut se conserver au moins un an en présence d'oxygène en-dessous de .

Production

On peut obtenir l'acrylate de méthyle par débromation de 2,3-dibromopropanoate de méthyle en présence de zinc et d'acide sulfurique.

La pyrolyse du lactate de méthyle  en présence de cétène  permet d'obtenir de l'acrylate de méthyle avec un bon rendement. Un brevet plus récent décrit la pyrolyse du lactate de méthyle sur des zéolithes, aboutissant à un rendement de 93 % en acrylate de méthyle.

L'hydrocarboxylation catalysée par le tétracarbonyle de nickel  de l'acétylène  avec du monoxyde de carbone CO en présence de méthanol , découverte par Walter Reppe, permet également d'obtenir de l'acrylate de méthyle. Il existe un brevet décrivant une voie de synthèse de l'acrylate de méthyle en une seule étape par oxydation du propène  ou de l'acroléine  avec de l'oxygène  en phase vapeur en présence de méthanol. La réaction du formiate de méthyle  avec l'acétylène en présence de catalyseurs de métaux de transition conduit également à l'acrylate de méthyle. L'alcoolyse de la β-propiolactone avec le méthanol, comme la méthanolyse de l'acrylonitrile  via le sulfate d'acrylamide est l'un des procédés obsolètes de production de l'acrylate de méthyle.

La disponibilité d'acide acrylique  bon marché obtenu par oxydation du propylène  fait de l'estérification directe avec du méthanol sous catalyse acide la réaction standard utilisée par l'industrie, par exemple avec l'acide sulfurique , l'acide p-toluènesulfonique  ou des résines échangeuses d'ions acides.

Utilisations

Après l'acrylate de butyle  et l'acrylate d'éthyle , l'acrylate de méthyle est le troisième ester acrylique industriel le plus important. À l'instar de l'acrylate d'éthyle, l'ester méthylique réagit efficacement avec les amines sous catalyse par des bases de Lewis à travers une addition de Michael pour former de la β-alanine qui donne des tensioactifs amphotères avec les amines à longue chaîne après hydrolyse de la fonction ester :

Il est abondamment utilisé pour la production d'acrylate de diméthylaminoéthyle  par transestérification du diméthylaminoéthanol.

Son utilisation comme comonomère dans la polymérisation avec divers monomères acryliques et vinyliques est largement équivalente à celle de l'acrylate d'éthyle. L'acrylate de méthyle utilisé comme comonomère donne des peintures acryliques plus dures et plus cassantes qu'avec les acrylates homologues. La copolymérisation de l'acrylate de méthyle avec l'acrylonitrile améliore le traitement en fibres à l'état fondu, ce qui peut être intéressant pour produire des matériaux en fibres de carbone.

L'acrylate de méthyle est utilisé pour préparer des dendrimères de , généralement par une addition de Michael avec une amine primaire.

Notes et références

Ester acrylique
Ester de méthyle
Monomère

Acrylate de méthyle


Sancak,

 Sancak (yönetim bölümü) - Osmanlı yönetim teşkilatında illerle ilçeler arasında yer alan yönetim bölümü
 Sancak (bölge) - Balkanlar'da Sırbistan ve Karadağ arasındaki koridorda, merkezi Yenipazar (Novi Pazar) kenti olan ve Boşnak ve diğer Müslümanların nüfusun çoğunluğunu teşkil ettiği bir bölge
 Sancak (bayrak) - Bayrak anlamına gelen sancak
 Sancak (gemi) - Yelkenli teknelerin sağ tarafıdır. Büyük yelkenli teknelerde, gemilerde, liman veya marina girişlerinde kolay tanımlanabilmesi maksadıyla yeşil iskele borda feneri kullanılır.
 Sancak (müzisyen) - Gerçek ismi Yılmaz Erdoğan olan 1989 İstanbul doğumlu Türk rap şarkıcısı ve söz yazarı.

Yerleşim yerleri
 Sancak, Bingöl, Bingöl ili merkez ilçesine bağlı belde
 Sancak, Karaköprü, Şanlıurfa ili Karaköprü ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Sancak, Yomra, Trabzon ili Yomra ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Sancak


Trei exerciții de interpretare este un film românesc din 2012 regizat de Cristi Puiu. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Ludivine Anberree, Marion Bottollier, Ugo Broussot.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2012 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2012
Filme regizate de Cristi Puiu

Trei exerciții de interpretare


Yeşilbarak, Antalya ilinin Kaş ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Coğrafya
Antalya iline 188 km, Kaş ilçesine 85 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Kaş'ın mahalleleri

Yeşilbarak, Kaş


Rida Ahmed al-Tubuly ( Riḍā aṭ-Ṭubūlī, née en 1967, aussi Reda, Al-Tubuly, Al Tubuly, al-Tabuly) est une pharmacologue et activiste libyenne.

Elle enseigne la pharmacologie à l'université de Tripoli. Elle est une militante pour l'égalité et a fait campagne pour mettre en œuvre la résolution 1325 du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies.

Elle fait partie de la liste BBC des 100 femmes 2019.

Biographie

Famille et formation
Al-Tubuly est confrontée à la discrimination fondée sur le sexe pour la première fois à l'âge de cinq ans, lorsqu'elle n'est pas autorisée à accompagner ses frères à jouer en extérieur.

Elle étudie à l'Université de Varsovie et obtient une maîtrise en 1987. Elle s'installe au Royaume-Uni pour ses études supérieures et obtient un doctorat en pharmacologie à l'Imperial College London en 1997 et une maîtrise en droit international des droits de l'homme à l'université de l'Essex.

Travaux de recherche
En plus d'être professeur de pharmacologie à l'Université de Tripoli, Al-Tubuly est responsable de l'enregistrement des médicaments au ministère libyen de la Santé . À ce titre, elle agit en tant que médiatrice entre l'Organisation mondiale de la santé et la Libye.

Activisme social
Al-Tubuly crée en 2011 le mouvement Maan Nabneeha Movement - Together We Build It (TWBI), organisation à but non lucratif qui cherche à impliquer les jeunes et les femmes dans la politique. Elle crée le réseau 1325, un collectif d'organisations de la société civile qui cherche à mettre en œuvre la résolution 1325 du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies, une résolution axée sur les femmes, la paix et la sécurité. Elle co-écrit le premier rapport civil sur la résolution 1325 du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies lancée à New York en 2014. TWBI a également créé la base de données sur les femmes libyennes, un réseau de femmes professionnelles à travers la Libye.

À partir de 2012, al-Tubuly s'efforce de donner une autonomie aux femmes dans le processus démocratique Elle encourage les femmes à s'impliquer davantage dans la prise de décision et à les soutenir dans leur candidature. Elle demande pourquoi les Nations Unies n'ont pas impliqué les femmes libyennes dans les pourparlers de paix, alors que les femmes ont considérablement souffert pendant la guerre Elle discute de l'impact de la guerre sur la liberté de mouvement des femmes et des filles et sur l'accès à l'éducation. Elle pense qu'il devrait y avoir une interdiction totale du commerce des armes avec la Libye. Al-Tubuly fournit des preuves au Conseil des droits de l'homme des Nations unies sur les droits des femmes en Libye.

Elle est experte pour le Conseil de l'Europe

Elle fait partie de la liste BBC des 100 femmes 2019.

Publications sélectionnées
Al-Tubuly est l'auteur de nombreuses publications, dont :

Notes et références

Féministe libyenne
Pharmacologue
Scientifique libyen
Étudiant de l'Imperial College London
Étudiant de l'université de l'Essex
Étudiant de l'université de Varsovie
100 femmes de la BBC
Professeur à l'université de Tripoli
Naissance en 1967

Rida al-Tubuly


අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාව යනු ටෙලිපති, ප්‍රාග් ප්‍රජානනය (යමක් පිළිබඳ කලින් දැන සිටීම), අනාගත සංජානනය/දිවැස, චිත්ත බලයෙන් වස්තූන් චලනය කිරීම, මරණාසන්න අත්දැකීම්, පුනරුත්පත්තිය, අවතාර පිළිබඳ අත්දැකීම්, පංචේන්ද්‍රියන් පරිබාහිර සංවේදන, මනෝචලනය, මරණයෙන් පසු සිහිකල්පනාවේ පැවැත්ම වැනි සම්මත විද්‍යා ගවේෂණවලට පරිබාහිර  අද්භූත හා අධ්‍යාත්මික සංසිද්ධීන් පිළිබඳ ව පර්යේෂණ සිදු කෙරෙන ව්‍යාජ විද්‍යාව (විද්‍යාත්මකව තහවුරු කල නොහැකි දෑ පිළිබඳ විද්‍යාව)කි.

ආරම්භක අධි මනෝවිද්‍යා පර්යේෂණ සෙනර් පත් භාවිතයෙන් පරචිත්ත විජානනය සොයා බැලීමට ප්‍රයත්න දරා ඇත.

පෞද්ගලිකව ආධාර දෙන විද්‍ය‍ාගාර සහ ඇතැම් විශ්ව විද්‍යාල ආශ්‍රීතව අධිමනෝවිද්‍යා පර්යේෂණ විවිධ ක්‍රම මගින් පර්යේෂණ සහ ක්ෂේත්‍ර කාර්යයන් ආශ්‍රීතව පදනම් වී ඇත. වර්තමානයේ පෙරට වඩා විශ්ව විද්‍යාල මගින් ලබා දෙන දායකත්වය අඩු වී ඇත. මෙම ගවේෂණයන් විශේෂ අධිමනෝවිද්‍යා ප්‍රකාශනවල පලවන ලිපි අතර ස්වල්පයක් පමණක් විද්‍යාවේ ප්‍රධාන ධාරාවේ එන සඟරාවල පල වේ. අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාඥයින් කරනු ලබන ප්‍රධාන පර්යේෂණයන් ලෙස අහඹු අංක උපදවනය මගින් මනෝ චලනයන් ද , උත්තේජනය නැති කිරීමේ ගෑනිස්ෆීල්ඩ් ගවේෂණය මගින් ඉන්ද්‍රීය පරිබාහිර සංවේදනය ද දුරස්ථ දර්ශන සඳහා ඇමරිකානු එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ආධාර සහිතව කරනු ලබන ගවේෂණයන් ද හැඳින්විය හැක.

රේ හයිමන් , ස්ටැන්ලි ක්රිප්නර් සහ ජේම්ස් ඇල්කොක් ඇතුළු ඇතැම් අනෙකුත් විද්‍යාඥයෝ අධිමනෝවිද්‍යා ගවේෂණයට යොදාගත් ක්‍රමද එහි ප්‍රතිඵල ද විවේචනයට බඳුන්කොට ඇත. සංශයවාදය පර්යේෂකයන්ට අනුව පර්යේෂණයන්හි සාර්ථකත්වයට හේතු වනුයේ ක්‍රමාණුකූල ක්‍රමෝපායන් සංචරණයන් මගින් මනාව පහදා දීම බව ද අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාඥයින් විසින් පල කොට ඇති අසාමාන්‍යය පහදාදීම් නොවන බවත්ය. අදට අනුව නූතන විද්‍ය‍ාත්මක පරිසරය අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රියාවලීන් හි පැවැත්ම විශ්වාස නොකරති. එම නිසා ක්‍රියාකාරී මනෝවිද්‍යාඥයින් ට  ඔවුන්ගේ පර්යේෂණයන් විද්‍යාඥයින් හට ඒත්තු ගැන්වීමට ද අසීරු වී ඇත. තවද විද්‍යා රචකයින් විසින් ඔවුන්ගේ සම්මත අධ්‍යාපනික සාහිත්‍යයන් තුළ මෙම විෂය ව්‍යාජ විද්‍යාවක් ලෙසද හඳුන්වා දී ඇත.

පාරිභාෂිතය
පැරා යනු ග්‍රීක වචනය කි. එහි තේරුම් වන්නේ "පසෙකින්, ආසන්නව සබැඳෙන, එපිටින්..." යනාදිය යි. parapsychology යන වචනය හඳුන්වා දෙන ලද්දේ 1889 දී හෝ ඒ ආසන්න කාලයේ දී දර්ශනවාදී මැක්ස් ඩෙසොයිර් විසිනි.

අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාඥයින් සයි (Psi) නමැති පදය මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය හැඳින්වීමට යොදා ගෙන ඇත. විද්‍යාව මගින් පිළිගත් සම්මත සෛද්ධාන්තිකවලට පටහැණි පර්යේෂණ අන්තර්ගත නිසා අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාව විද්‍යාවේ අතුරු ක්ෂේත්‍රයක් ලෙස හැඳින්විය හැක.

Terminology
අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාවේදී Psi යනු, අතින්ද්‍රීය සන්ජානනයේ දී සහ මනෝචලනයේ දී අත්දකින්නට ලැබෙන කිසිදු භෞතික හෝ ජීව විද්‍යාත්මක ක්‍රියාකාරිත්වයක් මගින් පැහැදිලි කල නොහැකි හඳුනානොගත් සාධකය යි. මෙම යෙදුම ග්‍රීක හෝඩියේ 23 වන අක්ෂරය වන ψ (psy/ප්සයි) මගින් ව්‍යුත්පන්න වූවකි. එම අක්ෂරය ග්‍රීක භාෂාවෙන් ආත්මය හඳුන්වනු ලබන ψυχή (psyche) යන වචනයේ මුල් අකුරයි. ජීව විද්‍යාඥ බර්තෝල්ඩ් පී. විස්නර් විසින් මෙම යෙදුම හඳුන්වා දෙනු ලැබූ අතර එය මනෝවිද්‍යාඥ රොබට් තෝල්ස් විසින් 1942 දී ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කල බ්‍රිතාන්‍ය මනෝවිද්‍යා ජර්නලයේ ලිපියක් සඳහා භාවිත කරනු ලැබිණි.

මනෝවිද්‍යා සංගමය විසින් Psi, ප්‍රධාන කාණ්ඩ දෙකකට බෙදනු ලබයි: ඒ Psi-ගැමා, ඉන්ද්‍රිය පරිබාහිර සංජානනය වෙනුවෙන් ද Psi-කප්පා (kappa), මනෝචලනය වෙනුවෙන්ද වශයෙනි. ජනප්‍රිය සංස්කෘතියේ දී "Psi" යන පදය මානසික, ආත්මීය සහ අද්භූත හැකියා සහ බලයයන් යනාදියට සමාන තේරුම් ගෙන දෙමින් වඩ වඩාත් භාවිත වෙයි.

මනෝ විද්‍යාව

අධිමනෝවිද්‍යාව


Havetiopsis, monotipski biljni rod iz porodice kluzijevki. Jedina je vrsta H. hippocrateoides, iz sjeverozapadne Venezuele i Perua

Rod je opisan 1860.

Sinonimi
 Havetia hippocrateoides (Planch. & Triana) Vesque

Izvori

Kluzijevke

Havetiopsis


We Wai kum (Campbell River First Nation, Campbell River Indian Band), ime za skupinu Lekwiltok Indijanaca, šira skupina Kwakiutl. Danas njih blizu 800 živi na istočnoj obali otoka Vancover, od čega oko 360 na rezervatu Campbell River Indian Reserve #11. Ostala tri njihova rez;ervata su Homayno # 2, Loughborough # 3 i Matlaten # 4.

Govore jezikom lik'wala.

Izvori

Lekwiltok
Indijanci, Britanska Kolumbija
Indijanska plemena

We Wai kum


El glaciar del Dôme () es un glaciar del macizo del Mont Blanc, en los Alpes. Desciende de la ladera meridional del Dôme du Goûter, en la vertiente italiana del macizo, desde una altitud de unos 4.300 m hasta confluir a los 2.400 m con el glaciar italiano de Miage que baja hacia el Val Veny. El glaciar del Dôme fluye entre el glaciar de Bionnassay y el glaciar del Mont Blanc, los otros dos tributarios del Miage.

La zona de acumulación del glaciar es delimitada hacia el norte por la línea de crestas que marca la frontera con Francia y que se extiende del Pitón de los Italianos hasta la Grande Bosse, pasando por el Dôme du Goûter. El casquete de hielo de este último le proporciona una de sus mayores fuentes de alimentación. A la izquierda del glaciar, las crestas rocosas de las Aiguilles Grises le separan del glaciar de Bionnassay. El glaciar baja siguiendo una fuerte pendiente, lo que le da un aspecto bastante accidentado debido a las numerosas grietas y algunas profundas rimayas.

La vía normal italiana, una de las tradicionales vías de ascensión al Mont Blanc desde la vertiente italiana, recorre en gran medida este glaciar para acceder al collado de Bionnassay o al collado de las Aiguilles Grises, y de allí seguir la línea de crestas hacia el Dôme du Goûter. Esta ruta preve un alto en el refugio Francesco Gonella, construido sobre un espolón rocoso de las Aiguilles Grises.

Notas y referencias

Dôme
Dôme
Macizo del Mont Blanc
Geografía del Valle de Aosta

Glaciar del Dôme


නරේන්ද්‍ර සිංහ රජුගේ පළමු බිරිඳගේ සහෝදරයා නොහොත් රජුගේ මස්සිනා වූ ශ්‍රී විජය රාජසිංහ එම නමින්ම මහනුවර රාජධානියේ රජු ලෙස සිහසුනට පත් විය. ඔහු දකුණු ඉන්දියාවේ විජයනගර් පරම්පරාවෙන් පැවත එන්නෙකි. ඔහුගේ සම්භවය ද මදුරෙයි නගරයයි.

නව රජු සැලකිය යුතු තරමේ ප්‍රබුද්ධයෙකු විය. හින්දු භක්තිකයෙකු වුවත් ජාතික ආගම වූ බුද්ධාගමේ උන්නතිය සඳහා සම්පූර්ණ අවධානය යොමු කළේය. ඔහු රටේ නොයෙක් ස්ථානවල ගල් ලෙන්වල බුදුන්ගේ සැතපෙන පිළිම, හිටි පිළිම,  හා හිඳි පිළිම ජීවමාන ප්‍රමාණයට ගලින් නිම කිරීමට කටයුතු කළේය. එවකට මුහුදු බඩ ප්‍රදේශ පාලනය කරමින් සිටි ලන්දේසීන් සමග වෙළඳ කටයුතු මුල් කරගෙන සටන් කීපයක නියැලීමට රජුට සිදු විය. ශ්‍රී විජය රාජසිංහ පල්ලි විනාශ කළේය. ලන්දේසීන්ට හා පෘතුග්‍රීසීන්ට නොයෙක් වද හිංසා පැමිණ වූ අතර එම තත්වය කීර්ති ශ්‍රී යුගය දක්වා පැවතියේය. රටේ ව්‍යසනකාරී සිද්ධීන් කීපයක් ඇති වූ අතර එවැනි දෑ සිදු වන්නේ රජුගේ ක්‍රියා කලාපයන් නිසා යැයි රජු සිතුවේය. එයින් පසු පමණක් රජුගේ එම ක්‍රියා නැවතුණේය.

මදුරෙයි රාජකීය පවුල සමග විවාහ සබඳතා
රජු සිහසුනට පත් වීමෙන් පසු දකුණු ඉන්දියාවෙන් බිරිඳක් ගෙන්වා ගැනීමට අපේක්ෂා කළේය. මේ සඳහා ඔහු 1739 දී මදුරෙයි නගරයට දූතයින් දෙදෙනෙකු යැව්වේය. බංගරුතිරුමලගේ පවුලේ අය රජුගේ යෝජනාව පිළිගත්හ. එම පවුල ඒ වන විට වාසය කළේ ශිවනංග සමීන් හි තිරුපචේතිරම් අසල වෙල්ලෙයි කුරුච්චි කොටුවේය. බංගරු තිරුමලගේ ඤාති වූ රාම ක්‍රිෂ්ණප්පා නායක සහ නරෙනප්පා නායක නම් සහෝදරයින් දෙදෙනා රාම්නාද් නම් ස්ථානයේදී රජුගේ නියෝජිතයන් දෙදෙනා මුණ ගැසුනාහ. නරෙනප්පා නායක හට විවාහ කර දෙන වයසේ දියණියක් සිටි අතර ඔව්හු මහනුවර රජුගේ ඉල්ලීමට කැමැත්ත පළ කළහ. සහෝදරවරු ඔවුන්ගේ පවුලේ අයද ඤාතීන් ද රජුගේ නියෝජිතයා සමග දියණියගේ විවාහ මංගල්‍යය උදෙසා ලංකාවට පැමිණියහ. පසුව ඔව්හු නෑදෑ හිතමිත්‍රාදීන් සමග මහනුවර පදිංචි වූහ.

1747 දී ශ්‍රී විජය රාජසිංහ තවත් මදුරෙයි කුමරියක් සරණ පාවා ගත්තේය. මේ සෑම මනමාලියකම ඇයගේ නෑදෑයින් කණ්ඩායමක් ගෙන ආහ.

මරණය
රජු ඔහුගේ අනුප්‍රාප්තිකයා නම් කළ විගසින් මිය ගියේය. ඔහුට දරුවන් නොමැති විය. ඔහු රජ බවට පත් වීමට නම් කරනු ලැබුවේ ඔහුගේ බිරිඳගේ සොහොයුරා වූ තමන්ගේ වැඩිමල් මස්සිනාය. හෙතම ඔහුගේ සොහොයුරිය රජු සමග විවාහ වූ දිනයේ සිටම රජ මාළිගයේ සිටි තැනැත්තෙකි. අනුප්‍රාප්තිකයෙකු පත් කිරීම සම්බන්ධයෙන් වූ මෙම විශේෂිත ක්‍රමය නිසා නරෙනප්පා නායකගේ පුතා කීර්ති ශ්‍රී රාජසිංහ නමින් මහනුවර සිහසුන උරුම කර ගත්තේය.

රජවරු
ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ රජවරු

ශ්‍රී විජය රාජසිංහ රජ


Anton Zimolo, bh. fotograf i fotografski poduzetnik iz Mostara. U Mostaru je imao fotografski atelje i fotografsku radnju pored kazališta. Uvaženi umjetnik i fotoamater. Priređivao je izložbe svojih fotografija.

Sin fotografa Josipa Zimola koji je stigao u Mostar 1860. godine i predano dokumentirao život i razvitak grada i Hercegovine. Anton je nastavio očevim putem. Zabilježio važne povijesne događaje u Mostaru. Pored fotografskog rada po čemu je najpoznatiji, bio je među prvima bio osnivač Prvog velocipedskog (biciklističkog) društva Mostar. Vozio je na biciklističkim natjecanjima i utrkama po cijeloj Hercegovini, sve do Sarajeva, Crne Gore, Sandžaka i Dubrovnika i osvojio brojne medalje i priznanja. Među prvim biciklističkim natjecateljima (1890.) u Hercegovini.

Uvršten u monografiju Hercegovina – Muzej sjećanja, uz ugledna fotografska imena kao Tošo Dabac, Blago Čale, Ivica Grubišić, Boris Engelgardt, Stjepan Tomlinović, Ferdo Miličević, Šemsudin Zlatko Serdarević, Ćiril Ćiro Raič, Karlo Drago Miletić, Dragan Pezelj, Milan Majerski, Taib Balić, Franz Laforest, Casar Vlajo, František Franjo Topić, Grgo Kozina i Keith Chester.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
(boš.) Iz istorije Mostara i Hercegovine Posljednja lasta

Životopisi, Mostar
Fotografi
Biciklisti
Bosanskohercegovački športaši

Anton Zimolo (fotograf)


Bellville is a town and former independent city that is now incorporated into the City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality in the Western Cape province of South Africa. The town is an industrial and commercial node, a university town, and a major transportation hub within the Greater Cape Town metropolis.

The residential suburb of Bellville lies approximately 23 kilometres (14.3 mi) north-east of Cape Town and 38 kilometres (23.6 mi) south-west of Paarl set amongst the Tygerberg Hills with views over the Cape Fold Mountains. Vehicle registrations in Bellville start with CY which also covers the Tygerberg areas of Durbanville, Parow and Goodwood.

Established

It was founded as "12 Mile Post" (Afrikaans: "12-Myl-Pos") because it is located 12 miles (20 km) from Cape Town city centre. It was first known as "Hardekraaltjie". Founded as a railway station on the line from Cape Town to Stellenbosch and Strand, it was renamed Bellville in 1861 after the surveyor-general Charles Bell.

Hospitals and educational institutes
The Karl Bremer Hospital functioned as the Academic Hospital for the University of Stellenbosch Medical School, but now the adjacent Tygerberg Hospital houses the medical school. Other hospitals in Bellville are: Mediclinic International Louis Leipoldt and Melomed. The Cape Peninsula University of Technology, University of the Western Cape, University of Stellenbosch Business School and Northlink College are also situated in Bellville. D.F. Malan High School, Bellville High School, Westcliff School of Skills, The Settlers High School and Stellenberg High School are located in the area. Primary Schools are: Bellpark, Bellville, Bellville-North, Boston, Eversdal, Excelsior, Kenridge, Mimosa, Totius, Belville Islamic Primary School, Vredelust and Welgemoed.

Other places of interest

The Bellville Velodrome is located in the Tyger Valley area of Bellville. The Bellville Velodrome has an indoor cycling track and is next to the Bellville athletics track that used to host the annual MTBS athletics competition. Bellville Mall, Tygervalley Shopping centre and Willow Bridge are shopping centres in Bellville. The last two shopping centres were built on the grounds that used to be a quarry and a jail.

Other sports an entertainment includes: Bellville library, Bellville swimming pool
, Cool Runnings, and PP Smit Sport fields

Economy

Corporate headquarters
Bellville is one of the largest commercial nodes in the Greater Cape Town metropolis, home to several office and business parks with the most of the office space occupied in Bellville found in the Tyger Valley commercial node, north of the town.

The headquarters of several financial and insurance businesses, including South Africa's largest insurance company Sanlam and its subsidiary Santam, as well as Momentum Metropolitan Holdings, are based in Bellville. Other large corporations based in the area include Pioneer Foods which is one of South Africa's packaged goods company, Cipla South Africa (multinational pharmaceutical company), Medi-Rite (pharmaceutical retailer), Footgear (footwear company), Afrimat (mid-tier mining company) and the Bible Society of South Africa.

Bellville is also home to South African government department regional head offices and municipal head offices especially for electricity and water services, including South African power utility, ESKOM's Western Cape headquarters, City of Cape Town's Electricity Services, City of Cape Town's Water and Sanitation department and the Department of Water and Sanitation's Western Cape headquarters.

Geography

Location
Bellville lies in the centre of the northern suburbs of Cape Town with the boundaries of the town contiguous with Durbanville to the north, Parow to the west, Brackenfell to the east, Kuilsrivier to the southeast and Belhar to the south.

Topography
Bellville is both flat and hilly with the highest point in the town at the suburb of Welgemoed at approximately 310 m above sea level, perched high on the slopes of the Tygerberg Hills, north of the N1 highway. Other hilly parts of Bellville include the area from the eastern suburbs of Blommendal and Blomtuin stretching northwards across the N1 highway and the northern suburbs surrounding Bo-Oakdale, Tyger Valley, Ridgeworth, Stellenberg to Eversdal and Amanda Glen bordering with Durbanville.

The rivers that flow through Bellville include the Elsieskraal River which flows southwards from the Tygerberg Hills in the northern outskirts of Bellville where it skirts the Tyger Valley commercial node, and Tyger Waterfront precinct, flows under the N1 highway to enter into the town centre and continuing westwards towards Parow and the Kuils River which skirts Bellville to the east and continues flows southwards and south-eastwards to Kuilsrivier.

Suburbs
Source:

The Central Business District (CBD) or town centre of Bellville lies south of the N1 highway and is centred on two main roads, Voortrekker Road and Durban Road. The town centre contains several high-rise buildings and structures, with the Telkom communications tower being the notable structure in the skyline of the town.

The east of Bellville contains some of the town's oldest and middle-class residential areas and one of the main industrial areas of the town, Stikland. The eastern suburbs of Bellville, including Oakdale, directly north of the town centre include Avondstil, Belgravia, Bellair, Blommendal. Blomtuin, Chrismar, Groenvallei, Harry de Villiers, Heemstede, Hillrise, Joubertsingel, Kempenville, Kingston, Labiance, La Rochelle, Laurindale, Loumar, Manieoord, Meyerhof, Oakglen, Runkel, Shirley Park, Stikland, Sunkist, Sunray, Thalmen, Vosfontein and Vredenburg

The north of Bellville, lying north of the N1 highway on rolling hills contains the most office space in the town concentrated in the Tyger Valley commercial node and the most affluent and least densely populated neighbourhoods in the town spreading up the hills to the Tygerberg Nature Reserve and bordering with the wine farms of Durbanville. The northern suburbs encompass Amanda Glen, Bellville Park, Bethanie, Bloemhof, Blomvlei, Bo-Oakdale, Danena, De Bron, Door de Kraal, East Rock, Eversdal, Glen Ive, Hoheizen, Kanonberg, Kenridge, Loevenstein, Oude Westhof, O'Kennedyville, Pascall, Protea Valley, Ridgeworth, Rosendal, Rosenpark, Selborne, Silverstream, Stellenberg, Stellenridge, Stellenryk, Van Riebeeckshof, Welgedacht, Welgemoed and Welgemoed Greens

The south of Bellville contains the highest densely populated neighbourhoods in the town and the highest concentration of industrialism within the town. In addition, it is home to two universities, University of the Western Cape and Cape Peninsula University of Technology, the second largest hospital in South Africa and the Tygerberg Hospital (it falls under Parow but is included in Bellville's administrative boundaries). The southern suburbs of Bellville include Bellville South, Bellville South Industrial, Belrail, Blanc Kelly, Glenhaven, Mimosa, Sacks Circle Industrial and Triangle Farm.

The west of Bellville contains the main public hospital in the town, Karl Bremer Hospital and some of the town's oldest residential areas and typically classed as middle-class neighbourhoods, these include: Bellville West, Bosbell, Boston, Grahamdale, Joostenville and Vredelust.

Infrastructure

Rail Transport
Bellville is a major railway hub lying on the main commuter line between Cape Town and Wellington known as the Northern Line. The trains on this line serve areas such as Cape Town, Goodwood and Parow to the south-west and Brackenfell, Kraaifontein, Paarl and Wellington to the north-east. From the main Northern Line, the Strand Line branches off in Bellville south-east towards Kuilsrivier, Eersterivier, Stellenbosch (via Stellenbosch branch line), Somerset West and Strand.

As a major industrial hub within the Cape metropolitan region, it is also a major hub for Transnet Freight Rail, specifically in the Western Cape with a large depot south of the CBD along Robert Sobukwe Road.

Road Transport
The N1 is the major freeway that runs through Bellville, roughly running SW to NE from Cape Town to Paarl, separating Bellville Central from Bellville's northern suburbs. The R300 (Kuils River Freeway) is a freeway in the east of Bellville starting at an interchange with the N1, and continues south along the eastern boundary towards Cape Town International Airport and Mitchells Plain.

The R101 starts at the intersection with the M30 and runs roughly east–west from Bellville to Brackenfell as Old Paarl Road. The R102 roughly runs east–west from Parow to Kuilsrivier and runs through Bellville as Voortrekker Road (in Bellville Central) and Strand Road. The R302 roughly runs north–south from Durbanville to Bellville Central as Durbanville Avenue and Durban Road.

Bellville is also served by a number of metropolitan routes linking it to surrounding towns in the Greater Cape Town region. The M10 links Bellville with Cape Town International Airport to the south. The M16 links Bellville with Durbanville to the north and Tygerberg Hospital to the south. The M23 links Bellville with Stellenbosch to the south-east. The M25 links Bellville with Brackenfell to the east. The M31 links Bellville with Durbanville to the north. The M73 links Bellville with Brackenfell to the east. The M124 links Bellville with Durbanville to the north. The M171 links Bellville with Delft to the south.

Bellville is also served internally by metropolitan routes including the M11 (provides a bypass to the south of Bellville Central), M30, M121 and M189.

Parks and Recreation
Bellville contains several public parks and recreational dams within its neighbourhoods most notably the Jack Muller Danie Uys Park in Boston, north of the town centre where the Parkrun Bellville takes place every Saturday, Majik Forest on the northern outskirts of Bellville, Door de Kraal Dam in the north of Bellville and Rosendal Dam in the north of Bellville. In addition, the Tygerberg Nature Reserve is set above Bellville on the Tygerberg Hills to the north-west and offers scenic views across the Greater Cape Town metropolitan area.

Golf is also one of the main recreational activities performed in Bellville with the Bellville Golf Club being the main golf course in the town, lying on the slopes of the northern suburb of Welgemoed and the Golf Village Tygervalley, a driving range in Tyger Valley.

Constituency
The town was a constituency in the Cape Peninsula, Cape Town, Cape Province in the South African House of Assembly starting in 1933.  The first elected member was FHP Creswell (b. 13 November 1866, d. 28 August 1948). In 1939 it was not a constituency any more. In 1953 it regained constituency status and JFW Haak won. Haak retained this until 1970, when Louis Pienaar took over from him. In 1975 AT van der Merwe took over from him.

Municipality
Bellville was a municipality from 1940 to 1996, and was given the status of a city on 7 September 1979.

Mayors of Bellville
 1940–1943 van Niekerk, Andries Joseph (born 14 May 1882, died 30 April 1953) married Athalia Solms (born 4 August 1876)
 1943–1944 Blanckenberg, Josias Jacobus (born 10 March 1907, died 21 October 1992)
 1944–1949 van Niekerk, Andries Joseph. Second term see no 1
 1949–1950 Haak, Jan Friedrich Wilhelm (born 20 April 1917, died 16 February 1993) married Maria Smuts Theron (born 1 August 1917). Jan Haak was also the Minister of Economy in the South African Government from 1967 to 1970. He was also as member of the National Party, representing Bellville in Parliament.
 1950–1952 Duminy, Hendrik Cornelis van Niekerk (born 6 September 1899, died 29 March 1974) married Frieda Moolman.
 1952–1953 Sacks, Alec (born 14 April 1913.,died 29 May 1974) married Anita Joseph(born 15 March 1922)
 1953–1954 West, Adam Johannes (born 7 August 1905, died 30 November 1983) married Maria Margaretha Visser. AJ West Street in Boston Bellville is named after him.
 1954–1956 Barnard, Johannes Hendrik (born 3 September 1891, died 17 October 1956) married Lucia Ruth Mosel. Barnard Street in Oakdale Bellville is named after him.
 1956–1958 Meyer, Petrus Hendrik (born 7 September 1926) married Stephanie Swart (born 20 November 1926)
 1958–1961 van Riet, Willem Frederik (born 11 July 1910, died 9 December 1988) married Augusta Dorothy de Villiers (born 31 August 1909)
 1961–1963 Pienaar, Michiel Hendrik de Wet (born 12 October 1900) married Anna Susanna Siebrits(born 22 May 1904) Mike Pienaar Boulevard in Bellville West is named after him.
 1963–1966 Bezuidenhout, Willem Johannes (born 12 October 1900) married Mona Havenga (born 12 January 1903). Bill Bezuidenhout Avenue in Blomtuin Bellville is named after him.
 1966–1969 Pienaar, Michiel Hendrik de Wet.Second term see no 11
 1969–1971 Smit, Pieter Philip (born 8 March 1917, died 10 October 1997). The PP Smit sport fields in Durban Road Bellville is named after him.
 1971–1973 Meyer, Martinus Daniel (born 21 June 1918) married Mary Elizabeth Weidemann (born 18 July 1925) . Tienie Meyer Bypass is named after him.
 1973–1975 de Jager, Josephus Jacobus (born 9 December 1912, died 7 July 2000) married Helena Claudina Nel(born 8 August 1912). Jip de Jager Drive in Welgemoed Bellville is named after him.
 1975–1977 Uys, Daniel(born 3 June 1932) married Beatrix Hendina Moorrees (born 5 September 1934). Danie Uys Park in Boston Bellville is named after him.
 1977–1978 van Schoor, Daniel Willem Jacobus (born 31 March 1935, died 14 August 2001) married Johanna Elizabeth Coetzee (born 2 September 1937). Willie van Schoor Drive in Bellville is named after him.
 1978–1979 de Jager, Josephus Jacobus. Second term see no 16
 1979–1981 Meyer, Martinus Daniel Second term see no 15
 1981–1983 Pienaar, Kristo Johannes (born 4 July 1922, died 6 April 1996) married Christina Wilhelmina van Rooyen (born 24 May 1921)
 1983–1985 Uys, Daniel. Second term see no 17
 1985–1986 Kleynhans, PH
 1986–1987 Meyer, Martinus Daniel. Third term see no 15
 1987–1989 Pienaar, Kristo Johannes. Second term see no 21
 1989–1991 van Schoor, Daniel Willem Jacobus. Second term see no 18
 1991–1994 Kempen, Abraham Petrus de Villiers (born 23 March 1920, died 29 June 2010) married Bramie Joubert (born 18 December 1919). The Awie Kempen Vehicle Testing Grounds is named after him.
 1994–1996 Cronje, Carl Peter Roche (born 10 July 1932, died 2 November 2018) married Miriam Lauretta Sadie.(born 7 April 1933). Carl Cronje Drive is named after him.
In April 1982 P. W. Botha received honorary citizenship of the city.

Coat of arms

The municipal council assumed a coat of arms on 18 June 1947. It later altered the arms, three times, before settling on the final version in 1979.
The shield was divided into twelve horizontal bars of red and gold, representing the original village name of "Twaalfmyl".  A black vertical band ("pale") down the centre displayed two silver hawk's bells, between which was a small blue shield displaying a golden sheaf of wheat.  The crest was a black eagle, and the motto Prendre sa belle.  Some time later, the blue shield was removed, and the wheatsheaf was placed directly on the black pale.  In 1957, the wheatsheaf was replaced with a third hawk's bell.  This version of the arms, re-drawn by Ivan Mitford-Barberton, was registered with the Cape Provincial Administration in February 1959.

The final version of the arms, as amended by Cornelis Pama in 1979, replaced the hawk's bells with church bells. In this form, the arms were registered at the Bureau of Heraldry in February 1980. The registered blazon was : Barry of twelve Gules and Or, on a pale Sable three church bells Argent.

Media
In May 2007, Meg Ryan and William H. Macy completed the last day of photography for their movie, The Deal, at the Bellville Civic Centre.
The novel 2 Dae in Mei (English: 2 Days in May) by Jaco Fouché takes place in Bellville.

Notable people
Neil de Kock - South Africa national rugby union team player
Vernon Philander - South Africa national cricket team player
Yolandi Potgieter - South Africa national women's cricket team player
 Con de Lange – South Africa national cricket team player

References

External links
 Bellville Directory
 University of the Western Cape
 Bellville Business Directory

Suburbs of Cape Town
1861 establishments in the Cape Colony

Bellville, South Africa


A wafer is a crisp, often sweet, very thin, flat, light biscuit, often used to decorate ice cream, and also used as a garnish on some sweet dishes. Wafers can also be made into cookies with cream flavoring sandwiched between them (e.g., Oreo). They frequently have a waffle surface pattern but may also be patterned with insignia of the food's manufacturer or may be patternless. Some chocolate bars, such as Kit Kat and Coffee Crisp, are wafers with chocolate in and around them.

Communion wafers

A communion wafer is a type of unleavened bread consumed after transubstantiation as part of the Christian ritual of communion.

Spa wafer

Special "spa wafers" (Czech: lázeňské oplatky, Slovak: kúpeľné oblátky) are produced in the spa towns of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic (e.g. Piešťany). The production of the wafers in Karlsbad and Marienbad was traditional to the towns' German-speaking population, who, after the ethnic cleansing of the area, brought the craft to Germany.

Christmas wafer
Christmas wafers are made of only wheat flour and water. Their patterns often depict religious scenes, are a Central European Roman Catholic Christmas tradition celebrated in Polish, Slovak, Lithuanian and Italian families on Christmas Eve. These do not have sacramental value like the communion wafer. Christmas wafers are symbolic bread to share among guests to emphasize the close relationship by eating bread together. This gesture has a positive meaning, but additional wishes are often made as well. They are called opłatek (Latin: oblatum) in Polish, as opposed to wafel, which denotes a common wafer.

Oblea

A variation of a wafer, considered a part of the traditional cuisine in Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, El Salvador, Venezuela, and México, is known as an oblea. It is usually eaten as a dessert with two pieces filled with arequipe, dulce de leche, or cajeta (milk caramel), and/or condensed milk in the middle. In some places, they might contain cheese, fruits, or chantilly cream, among others.

Pink wafer
The pink wafer is a wafer-based confectionery originally made by Edinburgh's Crawford's Biscuits in the United Kingdom. It is now made by United Biscuits, the company that took over the firm in 1960, still using the Crawford's name. The snack consists of crème sandwiched between wafers (dyed pink).

There is a similar product branded Pink Panther wafers.

Freska

Freska ( ) is an Egyptian wafer sold only on beaches in the summertime. It is made from two thin circular wafers filled with a thin layer of honey syrup.

Variations

Flavours
Some wafers are produced with a chocolate covering. Another popular flavor is lemon.

Shapes
Piroulines and Barquillos are wafers rolled into a tube, and sometimes filled with cream.

See also

Waffle, the pressed cake
Loacker, an Italian wafer manufacturer
Elledi, an Italian wafer confectionery and manufacturer
Manner, Austrian confectioner known for wafers
Neapolitan wafer, the chocolate and hazelnut cream sandwiched wafers
Nilla wafers, a thicker, small, round American cookie with a vanilla flavor
Mille-feuille, the French layered pastry
Pirouline, a rolled wafer, filled with a flavored creme
Stroopwafel, the Dutch thin, caramel filled waffle
Tompouce, the Benelux pastry
Trakinas, a Brazilian wafer brand
Horalky, the Slovak wafer bar
ANZAC wafer, the ironic term for army-issue hardtack biscuit in World Wars I and II

References

External links

Cakes
Cookies
Sandwich cookies
Chocolate-covered foods

Wafer


Mirko Parčina (Kladnjice, 10. listopada 1949.  8. kolovoza 2017.), hrvatski džudaš i džudaški trener, jedan od pionira džuda u Hrvatskoj, važni športski djelatnik kaštelanskog športa i visoki lokalni športski dužnosnik, hrvatski slikar, kipar i primijenjeni umjetnik

Životopis
Rodio se je u Kladnjicama. Džudom se bavi od 1966. godine. Počeo se baviti u Splitu. U džudu od svoje 17. godine. Bio je športskim vizionarem.
U športskim okvirima je kao športaš i djelatnik u športu nadišao mjesne kaštelanske okvire. Glavno područje njegova djelovanja prije svega je Kaštel Sućurac. Bio je vrsni džudaš i džudaški trener. Pionir džuda u Kaštelima. Stekao naslov višeg športskog, džudaškog trenera. U Kaštel-Sućurcu je 1973. godine osnovao džudo klub Željezaru, današnji Dalmacijacement. Klub je osvojio brojne trofeje do danas. Trenirao brojne naraštaje mladih kaštelanskih džudaša. U klubu je bio i tajnik i predsjednik kluba. Pomagao i surađivao s drugim klubovima u županiji u osnivanju i radu te je pridonio razvitku džuda na području Splitsko-dalmatinske županije. Uz rad s mladeži, cijeli je život učio i usavršavao džudaške tehnike. 2006. godine ponio je crni pojas 6. dan. Promaknuo ga je Hrvatski judo savez veljače 2006. godine.
Važan u športu i izvan džudaških okvira. Godine 1988. bio je suosnivač kaštelanske Zajednice športskih udruga kojoj je bio čelnikom 18 godina. Podigao je kaštelanski šport na višu razinu u organizaciji, novčarenju i djelovanju.

Parčina je bio i velikog umjetničkog dara. Bavio se i slikarstvom i kiparstvom, za koje je zanimanje pokazao još u osnovnoj školi. Pohađao je školu primijenjenih umjetnosti u Splitu. Izlagao je na brojnim izložbama, a 2008. godine održao je i svoju samostalnu izložbu. U Kaštel-Sućurcu imao je svoj umjetnički atelje.

Umro je 2017., a pokopan je na groblju u Kladnjicama.

Djela
Napisao je knjige:
 Judo – Primjena tehnike, 1989.
 Judo – Kako postati vrhunski športaš, 2002.

Izvori

Hrvatski džudaši
Hrvatski kipari
Hrvatski slikari

Životopisi, Kaštela
Šport u Kaštelima

Mirko Parčina