A planarian is one of the many  flatworms of the traditional class Turbellaria. It usually describes free-living flatworms of the order  Tricladida (triclads), although this common name is also used for a wide number of free-living platyhelminthes. Planaria are common to many parts of the world, living in both saltwater and freshwater ponds and rivers. Some species are terrestrial and are found under logs, in or on the soil, and on plants in humid areas.

The triclads are characterized by triply branched intestine and anteriorly situated ovaries next to the brain. Today, the order Tricladida is split into three suborders, according to their phylogenetic relationships: Maricola, Cavernicola and Continenticola. Formerly, the Tricladida was split according to habitats: Maricola, which is marine; Paludicola which inhabits freshwater; and Terricola, which is land-dwelling.

Planaria exhibit an extraordinary ability to regenerate lost body parts. For example, a planarian split lengthwise or crosswise will regenerate into two separate individuals. Some planarian species have two eye-spots (also known as ocelli) that can detect the intensity of light, while others have several eye-spots. The eye-spots act as photoreceptors and are used to move away from light sources. Planaria have three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm), and are acoelomate (they have a very solid body with no body cavity). They have a single-opening digestive tract; in Tricladida planarians this consists of one anterior branch and two posterior branches.

Planarians move by beating cilia on the ventral dermis, allowing them to glide along on a film of mucus. Some also can move by undulations of the whole body by the contractions of muscles built into the body membrane.

Triclads play an important role in watercourse ecosystems and are often very important as bio-indicators.

The most frequently used planarian in high school and first-year college laboratories is the brownish Girardia tigrina. Other common species used are the blackish Planaria maculata and Girardia dorotocephala. Recently, however, the species Schmidtea mediterranea has emerged as the species of choice for modern molecular biological and genomic research due to its diploid chromosomes and the existence of both asexual and sexual strains. Recent genetic screens utilizing double-stranded RNA technology have uncovered 240 genes that affect regeneration in S. mediterranea. Many of these genes have orthologs in the human genome.

Anatomy and physiology
The planarian has very simple organ systems. The digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, and a gastrovascular cavity. The mouth is located in the middle of the underside of the body. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the mouth to begin external digestion. The pharynx connects the mouth to the gastrovascular cavity. This structure branches throughout the body allowing nutrients from food to reach all extremities. Planaria eat living or dead small animals that they suck up with their muscular mouths. Food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the intestines where it is digested by the cells lining the intestines. Then its nutrients diffuse to the rest of the planaria.

Planaria receive oxygen and release carbon dioxide by diffusion. The excretory system is made of many tubes with many flame cells and excretory pores on them. Also, flame cells remove unwanted liquids from the body by passing them through ducts which lead to excretory pores, where waste is released on the dorsal surface of the planarian.

The triclads have an anterior end or head where sense organs, such as eyes and chemoreceptors, are usually found. Some species have auricles that protrude from the margins of the head. The auricles can contain chemical and mechanical sensory receptors.

The number of eyes in the triclads is variable depending on the species. While many species have two eyes (e.g. Dugesia or Microplana), others have many more distributed along the body (e.g. most Geoplaninae). Sometimes, those species with two eyes may present smaller accessory or supernumerary eyes. The subterranean triclads are often eyeless or blind.

The body of the triclads is covered by a ciliated epidermis that contains rhabdites. Between the epidermis and the gastrodermis there is a parenchymatous tissue or mesenchyme.

Nervous system

The head of the planarian evolved through cephalisation; the planarian head has a ganglion under the eyespots. The cerebral ganglia, a bi-lobed mass of nerve tissue, is sometimes referred to as the planarian "brain" and has been shown to exhibit spontaneous electrophysiological oscillations, similar to the electroencephalographic (EEG) activity of other animals. From the ganglion there are two nerve cords which extend along the length of the tail. There are many transverse nerves connected to the nerve cords extending from the brain, which makes the nerve system look like a ladder. With a ladder-like nerve system, it is able to respond in a coordinated manner.

The planarian has a soft, flat, wedge-shaped body that may be black, brown, blue, gray, or white. The blunt, triangular head has two ocelli (eyespots), pigmented areas that are sensitive to light. There are two auricles (earlike projections) at the base of the head, which are sensitive to touch and the presence of certain chemicals. The mouth is located in the middle of the underside of the body, which is covered with hairlike projections (cilia). There are no circulatory or respiratory systems; oxygen enters and carbon dioxide leaves the planarian's body by diffusing through the body wall.

Reproduction

There are sexual and asexual planaria. Sexual planaria are hermaphrodites, possessing both testicles and ovaries. Thus, one of their gametes will combine with the gamete of another planarian. Each planarian transports its secretion to the other planarian, giving and receiving sperm. Eggs develop inside the body and are shed in capsules. Weeks later, the eggs hatch and grow into adults. In asexual reproduction, the planarian detaches its tail end and each half regrows the lost parts by regeneration, allowing endoblasts (adult stem cells) to divide and differentiate, thus resulting in two worms. Some researchers claim that the products derived from bisecting planaria are similar to the products of planarian asexual reproduction; however, debates about the nature of asexual reproduction in planaria and its effect on the population are ongoing. Some species of planarian are exclusively asexual, whereas some can reproduce both sexually and asexually. In most of the cases the sexual reproduction involve two individuals; auto fecundation has been rarely reported (e.g. in Cura foremanii).

As a model system in biological and biomedical research
The life history of planarians make them a model system for investigating a number of biological processes, many of which may have implications for human health and disease. Advances in molecular genetic technologies has made the study of gene function possible in these animals and scientists are studying them worldwide. Like other invertebrate model organisms, for example C. elegans and D. melanogaster, the relative simplicity of planarians facilitates experimental study.

Planarians have a number of cell types, tissues and simple organs that are homologous to our own cells, tissues and organs. However, regeneration has attracted the most attention. Thomas Hunt Morgan was responsible for some of the first systematic studies (that still underpin modern research) before the advent of molecular biology as a discipline.

Planarians are also an emerging model organism for aging research. These animals have an apparently limitless regenerative capacity, and the asexual animals seem to maintain their telomerase levels throughout their lifetime, making them "effectively immortal".

Regeneration
Planarian can be cut into pieces, and each piece can regenerate into a complete organism. Cells at the location of the wound site proliferate to form a blastema that will differentiate into new tissues and regenerate the missing parts of the piece of the cut planaria. It's this feature that gave them the famous designation of being "immortal under the edge of a knife."  Very small pieces of the planarian, estimated to be as little as 1/279th of the organism it is cut from, can regenerate back into a complete organism over the course of a few weeks. New tissues can grow due to pluripotent stem cells that have the ability to create all the various cell types. These adult stem cells are called endoblasts, and comprise 20% or more of the cells in the adult animal. They are the only proliferating cells in the worm, and they differentiate into progeny that replace older cells. In addition, existing tissue is remodeled to restore symmetry and proportion of the new planaria that forms from a piece of a cut up organism.

The organism itself does not have to be completely cut into separate pieces for the regeneration phenomenon to be witnessed. In fact, if the head of a planarian is cut in half down its center, and each side retained on the organism, it is possible for the planarian to regenerate two heads and continue to live. Researchers, including those from Tufts University in the U.S., sought to determine how microgravity and micro-geomagnetic fields would affect the growth and regeneration of planarian flatworms, Dugesia japonica. They discovered that one of the amputated fragments sent to space regenerated into a double-headed worm. The majority of such amputated worms (95%) did not do so, however. An amputated worm regenerated into a double-head creature after spending five weeks aboard the International Space Station (ISS) – though regeneration of amputated worms as double-headed heteromorphosis is not a rare phenomenon unique to a microgravity environment.  In contrast, two-headed planaria regenerates can be induced by exposing amputated fragments to electrical fields. Such exposure with opposite polarity can induce a planarian with 2 tails. Two-headed planaria regenerates can be induced by treating amputated fragments with pharmacological agents that alter levels of calcium, cyclic AMP, and protein kinase C activity in cells, as well as by genetic expression blocks (interference RNA) to the canonical Wnt/β-Catenin signalling pathway.

Biochemical memory experiments

In 1955, Robert Thompson and James V. McConnell conditioned planarian flatworms by pairing a bright light with an electric shock. After repeating this several times they took away the electric shock, and only exposed them to the bright light. The flatworms would react to the bright light as if they had been shocked. Thompson and McConnell found that if they cut the worm in two, and allowed both worms to regenerate each half would develop the light-shock reaction. In 1963, McConnell repeated the experiment, but instead of cutting the trained flatworms in two he ground them into small pieces and fed them to other flatworms.  He reported that the flatworms learned to associate the bright light with a shock much faster than flatworms who had not been fed trained worms.

This experiment intended to show that memory could be transferred chemically. The experiment was repeated with mice, fish, and rats, but it always failed to produce the same results. The perceived explanation was that rather than memory being transferred to the other animals, it was the hormones in the ingested ground animals that changed the behavior. McConnell believed that this was evidence of a chemical basis for memory, which he identified as memory RNA. McConnell's results are now attributed to observer bias. No blinded experiment has ever reproduced his results of planarians scrunching when exposed to light.  Subsequent explanations of this scrunching behaviour associated with cannibalism of trained planarian worms were that the untrained flatworms were only following tracks left on the dirty glassware rather than absorbing the memory of their fodder.

In 2012, Tal Shomrat and Michael Levin have shown that planarians exhibit evidence of long-term memory retrieval after regenerating a new head.

Phylogeny and taxonomy

Phylogeny
Phylogenetic supertree after Sluys et al., 2009:

Taxonomy

Linnaean ranks after Sluys et al., 2009:
 Order Tricladida
 Suborder Maricola
 Superfamily Cercyroidea
 Family Centrovarioplanidae
 Family Cercyridae
 Family Meixnerididae
 Superfamily Bdellouroidea
 Family Uteriporidae
 Family Bdellouridae
 Superfamily Procerodoidea
 Family Procerodidae
 Suborder Cavernicola
 Family Dimarcusidae
 Suborder Continenticola
 Superfamily Planarioidea
 Family Planariidae
 Family Dendrocoelidae
 Family Kenkiidae
 Superfamily Geoplanoidea
 Family Dugesiidae
 Family Geoplanidae

See also

References

External links

 More information on freshwater planarians and their biology
 More information on the genetic screen to identify regeneration genes
 YouTube videos: Planaria eating worm segment, Planarian
 Schmidtea mediterranea, facts, anatomy, image at GeoChemBio.com
Alejandro Sanchez-Alvarado's Seminar: Regeneration in Planarians
 Link to an article discussing some work on planarian immortality
 A user-friendly visualization tool and database of planarian regeneration experiments

 Tricladida on the Encyclopedia of Life (EOL)
 Land planarians on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

Turbellaria
Animal models
Negligibly senescent organisms
Articles containing video clips
Invertebrate common names

Planarian


Estadio Olímpico (Montevideo) Uruguay'ın başkenti Montevideo'da 1923 yılında çok amaçlı olarak inşa edilen bir stadyum

Çoğunlukla futbol müsabakalarının yapıldığı Stadyum, 9.500 seyirci kapasitelidir.

Uruguay'daki stadyumlar

Olimpiyat Stadyumu (Montevideo)


Franceza veche (franceis, françois, romanz; franceza modernă: ancien français) a fost limba vorbită în nordul Franței din secolul al VIII-lea până în secolul al XIV-lea. În secolul al XIV-lea, aceste dialecte au început să fie cunoscute colectiv ca langue d'oïl, în contrast față de langue d'oc sau de limba occitană din sudul Franței. Mijlocul secolului al XIV-lea este considerat ca fiind perioada de tranziție către franceza medie, limba Renașterii Franceze, bazată îndeosebi pe dialectul din regiunea Île-de-France.

Limba franceză

Franceza veche


Pascal Chang-Soi SSCC (* 18. Oktober 1966 in Moorea) ist ein römisch-katholischer Geistlicher und Bischof von Taiohae o Tefenuaenata.

Leben
Pascal Chang-Soi trat der Ordensgemeinschaft der Arnsteiner Patres am 23. August 1992 bei, legte am 9. November 1997 die Profess ab und empfing am 4. Februar 2000 die Priesterweihe.

Papst Benedikt XVI. ernannte ihn am 4. August 2010 zum Koadjutorbischof von Taiohae o Tefenuaenata. Die Bischofsweihe spendete ihm der Apostolische Nuntius in Neuseeland, Fidschi, Marshallinseln, Föderierten Staaten von Mikronesien, Vanuatu, Tonga, Kiribati, Palau, Cookinseln, Samoa und Nauru, Erzbischof Charles Daniel Balvo, am 4. Dezember desselben Jahres; Mitkonsekratoren waren Hubert Coppenrath, Erzbischof von Papeete, und Guy Chevalier SSCC, Bischof von Taiohae o Tefenuaenata. Als Wahlspruch wählte er Que ta volonté soit faite.

Papst Franziskus ernannte ihn am 22. März 2013 zum Apostolischen Administrator des Erzbistums Papeete. Von diesem Amt wurde er am 28. August durch die Ernennung eines Nachfolgers entbunden.

Mit dem altersbedingten Rücktritt Guy Chevaliers am 5. September 2015 folgte er ihm als Bischof von Taiohae o Tefenuaenata nach.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Römisch-katholischer Bischof (21. Jahrhundert)
Römisch-katholischer Geistlicher (20. Jahrhundert)
Koadjutorbischof
Arnsteiner Pater
Franzose
Geboren 1966
Mann

Pascal Chang-Soi


En Cæsarsalat er en grøn salat af romainesalat og croutoner vendt i en dressing med citronsaft, olivenolie, æg, Worcestershire Sauce, ansjoser, hvidløg og dijonsennep. Salaten indeholder også parmesanost og sort peber.

I sin oprindelige form blev denne salat tilberedt og serveret ved bordet.

Historie
Salatens skabelse er generelt tilskrevet restauratør Caesar Cardini, en italiensk immigrant, der drev restauranter i Mexico og USA. Cardini boede i San Diego, men han arbejdede også i Tijuana, hvor han undgik forbudsbegrænsningerne. Hans datter Rosa fortalte, at hendes far opfandt salaten på sin restaurant Caesar's (på Hotel Cesar), da en stor menneskemængde på Independence Day i 1924 tømte køkkenet for forsyninger. Cardini brugte hvad han havde i køkkenet, og tilføjede den dramatiske stil hvor salaten tilberedes og slynges ved bordet af kokken. En række af Cardinis personale har sagt, at de opfandt retten.

Julia Child sagde, at hun havde spist en Cæsarsalat på Cardini's restaurant, da hun var barn i 1920'erne.  I 1946 skrev aviskolonist Dorothy Kilgallen om en Cæsarsalat indeholdende ansjoser, der adskiller sig fra Cardini's version:  Den madskrig i Hollywood — Cæsarsalat — vil blive introduceret til New Yorker's af Gilmore's Steak House. Det er en indviklet løgnehistorie, der tager lang tid at forberede og indeholder (zowie!) Masser af hvidløg, rå eller let kogte æg, croutoner, romaine, ansjoser, parmeasanost, olivenolie, eddike og masser af sort peber.  Ifølge Rosa Cardini indeholdt den oprindelige Cæsarsalat (i modsætning til hans bror Alex's Aviators salat, som senere blev omdøbt til Caesarsalat) ikke stykker ansjos; den sagte ansjossmag kommer fra Worcestershire sauce. Cardini var imod at bruge ansjoser i sin salat.

I 1970'erne sagde Cardinis datter, at den oprindelige opskrift omfattede hele salatblade, som skulle løftes af stammen og spist med fingrene; let kogte æg; og italiensk olivenolie.

Selv om den oprindelige opskrift ikke indeholder ansjoser, indeholder moderne opskrifter typisk ansjoser som en nøglebestanddel, som ofte er emulgeret i flaskeversioner. Cæsardressinger på flaske produceres og markedsføres nu af mange virksomheder.

Opskrift

Ingredienser

Almindelige ingredienser i mange opskrifter:

 romainesalat
 olivenolie
 knuste hvidløg
 salt
 Dijon sennep
 sort peber
 citronsaft
 Worcestershire sauce
 ansjoser
 rå eller let kogte æg
 revet parmesanost
 croutoner

Der er nærmet ubegrænsede andre almindelige variationer, herunder variation af salatblade, tilsætning af kød som grillet kylling eller bacon eller udeladelse af ingredienser som ansjos og æg.

Referencer

Mad fra Mexico
Grøntsagsretter

Cæsarsalat


Henry Bretislav (latinized as Bretislaus, ; died 15 or 19 June 1197), a member of the Přemyslid dynasty, was Bishop of Prague from 1182, then Duke of Bohemia as "Bretislav III" from 1193 to his death.

Ecclesiastical career
Henry was a son of Jindřich (d. after 1169) and his wife Margaret. After his studies at the University of Paris, he returned to Bohemia and was named provost at the Basilica of St. Peter and St. Paul in Vyšehrad. In 1182, he accepted the diaconate from the hands of his Přemyslid cousin Archbishop Adalbert III of Salzburg. Henry Bretislav was elected on 25 March 1182 as successor of the late bishop of Prague Valentin, and went to Mainz to receive affirmation by Metropolitan Christian I. He was ordained a priest on 22 May and crowned bishop the following day.

Bretislav soon came into conflict with Duke Frederick of Bohemia, who had regained the Bohemian throne in 1178 and usurped discretionary power over ecclesiastical properties. In 1187, the bishop officially addressed Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to complain about the duke's infringements. In turn, the emperor elevated Henry Bretislav to a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, providing that the Prague bishop was only subject to the Holy Roman Emperor. However, the imperial immediacy did not outlast Bretislav's tenure.

In the ongoing quarrels over the Prague throne between Duke Frederick and his successors Conrad II and Wenceslaus II, he supported Ottokar, a younger son of the late King Vladislaus II with his second wife Judith of Thuringia. In 1192, Ottokar usurped the Bohemian throne from Wenceslaus II, allied with his younger brother Vladislaus Henry, Prince of Brno and Znojmo, whom he appointed Margrave of Moravia. Wenceslaus tried to petition Emperor Henry VI for assistance, but was captured. Henry Bretislav supported Ottokar, but was unable to pay the necessary tribute of 6,000 écus to the emperor for the Bohemian crown and the Moravian margraviate. While on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, he was captured by Henry VI, who held him captive at his court.

Duke of Bohemia
Emperor Henry VI, however, was not ignorant of Bohemian affairs. When Ottokar joined a revolt of several German princes against the ruling House of Hohenstaufen, he and his brother and Vladislaus Henry were declared deposed in June 1193 by a decision of the Imperial Diet at Worms. Ottokar was abandoned by the nobility and fled; the emperor exempted his cousin Bishop Henry Bretislav from the payment and enfeoffed him with the Bohemian duchy. Margrave Vladislaus Henry was summoned to Prague Castle, where he had to spend the following years suspiciously eyed by Duke Bretislav.

Bretislav had to secure his duchy by force of arms. By Christmas 1193, he was keeping court at Prague. In 1195, he drove Vladislaus out of Moravia and installed one of his supporters in the march. Bretislav also took part in an Imperial campaign in Meissen, where his army plundered the churches. To make amends, he planned to take part in the German Crusade of 1197, decided on at the diet of Worms of December 1195, but due to his prolonged illness it was never actualised. When Ottokar marched against Prague, Henry Bretislav proceeded to the Imperial Palace in Eger (Cheb), where he died on 15 or 19 June 1197. He is buried in the Doksany monastery church.

On 23 June the Bohemian nobles elected Margrave Vladislaus Henry his successor. Shortly afterwards, he came to terms with his brother Ottokar, who finally ascended the Prague throne and the next year obtained the royal title from Philip of Swabia, confirmed by the German king Frederick II in the 1212 Golden Bull of Sicily.

References

Sources

Roman Catholic bishops of Prague
Roman Catholic monarchs
12th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Bohemia
Dukes of Bohemia
1197 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Bohemian monarchs

Bretislav III


David Melkumovici Malian (în , în , ) a fost un actor de teatru și de film sovietic și armean.

Biografie
David Malian s-a născut la 4/17 aprilie 1904, în Zaqatala (acum în Azerbaidjan) într-o familie în care erau cinci copii - patru fii și o fiică.

Educație și carieră

A studiat la școala parohială locală din Zaqatala. În 1918 s-a mutat cu familia sa în Georgia, mai întâi în Telavi, apoi în Tbilisi. În Telavi, a participat la spectacole  de teatru amator în limbile armeană și georgiană.

David Malian a studiat la studioul armean dramatic "Hayartun" din Tbilisi în perioada 1922-23 și a lucrat în teatrele din Erevan, Tbilisi, Leninakan. A fost unul dintre principalii actori ai Teatrului Dramatic  G. M. Sundukyan din Erevan din 1932.

După 1932 a fost actor la studioul de film Armenfilm (în , sau în  - Hayfilm).

În 1937 s-a întors la Teatrul Dramatic Armean G. M. Sundukyan, unde a lucrat până la sfârșitul vieții, ca regizor.

A fost membru al Partidului Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice din 1942. A fost deputat al Sovietului Suprem al RSS Armene (în ) în perioada celei de-a doua convocări a sale (1947–1950).

David Malyan este autorul cărții Oameni și întâlniri (în , în , din 1974).

David Malian a murit la 17 iulie 1976 la Erevan și a fost îngropat la cimitirul Tohmah.

Henrik Sureni Malian (1925-1988) este nepotul său, acesta a fost regizor de film și Artist al Poporului din URSS în 1982.

Premii
În 1936 a fost numit Artist Emerit al RSS Armene și în 1943 Artist al poporului al RSS Armene. În 1974, David Malian a fost numit Artist al poporului din URSS.

Roluri în teatru
În 1929 a jucat rolul lui Zhadov în piesa Locul profitabil (Доходное место) de Alexandr Nicolaevici Ostrovski. În 1938  a jucat rolul lui Mikaelian în Căpitan (Կապիտան)  de Derenik Demirgian. Alte roluri: în 1946 ca Serghei Paratov în Fata fără zestre de Aleksandr Ostrovski; Chepurnaya în 1953 în Copiii soarelui (Дети солнца) de Maxim Gorki; Iago în Othello de William Shakespeare sau Claudius  în Hamlet de William Shakespeare.

Filmografie
 1926 - Շոր և Շորշոր - Шор и Шоршор - Șor și Șorșor (ca diavol)
 1935 - Պեպո - Пепо - Pepo (ca Kakuli)
 1937 - Վեց համազարկ - Шесть залпов - Șase focuri (ca ofițer)
 1938 - Սևանի ձկնորսները - Севанские рыбаки - Pescarii lui Sevan (ca Aram)
 1938 - Զանգեզուր  - Зангезур - Zangezur (ca Makich)
 1939 - Լեռնային արշավ - Горный марш - Marș montan (ca Vardan)
 1941 - Արյան դեմ արյուն - Кровь за кровь - Sânge pentru sânge (comandant al unui tanc), scurtmetraj
 1941 - Հայրենասերների ընտանիքը - Семья патриотов - Familia patrioților (ca Levon), scurtmetraj
 1943 - Դավիթ Բեկ - Давид-Бек - David-Bek (ca Shahumian)
 1947 - Անահիտ - Анаит - Dragoste și ură (ca Hrant)
 1955 - Призраки покидают вершины - Fantomele părăsesc vârfurile (ca Satunts)
 1955 - В поисках адресата - Privirea destinatarului (ca Suren)
 1956 - Сердце поёт - Inima cântă (ca Markarian)
 1957 - О чём шумит река - Cunoscut personal (ca Kon)
 1957 - Кому улыбается жизнь - Cui îi zâmbește viața (ca Metsaturian)
 1958 - О чём шумит река - Ce este cu zgomotul fluviului? (ca Darbinian)
 1960 - Рождённые жить - Vor trăi (ca Petrosian)
 1961 - Двенадцать спутников - Doisprezece Companioni (ca Minasian)
 1964 - Трудный перевод - Pasul dificil (ca Davtian)
 1966 - Охотник из Лалвара - Vânătorul din Lalvar (ca Avag, vânător bătrân)

Referințe

Legături externe

Nașteri în 1904
Decese în 1976
Actori armeni
Artiști ai poporului din URSS

David Malian


Verkhnie Synovydne () est une commune urbaine de l'oblast de Lviv, en Ukraine. Elle compte  en 2021.

Références

Commune urbaine dans l'oblast de Lviv

Verkhnie Synovydne


Pierre Georges Jeanniot (født 2. juli 1848 i Genève, død 9. januar 1934 i Paris) var en fransk maler og raderer.

Pierre Georges Jeanniot var søn og elev af den franskfødte landskabs- og portrætmaler Pierre Alexandre Jeanniot. Han begyndte med at udstille landskaber som Skovinteriør (1872). Kendte værker af hans hånd er: Reservisternes ankomst (1882), La Signe de feu (1886, museet i Pau), Vieux ménage (1890, Alèsmuseet),  Les femmes (1896, Luxembourgmuseet), La présentation (Petit Palais, Paris 1902), La Grand-Mine (museet i Toulouse); mange portrætter. Hans mange raderinger (koldnål m. v.) omhandler blandt andet soldaterlivet; han har illustreret Victor Hugos De elendige (ved raderinger i hundredvis), Octave Mirbeau etc. På den franske udstilling 1918 i København sås Vinterlandskab.

Kilder

Landskabsmalere
Portrætmalere
Malere fra Frankrig
Raderere fra Frankrig
Grafikere fra Frankrig
Franskmænd i 1800-tallet
Franskmænd i 1900-tallet
Personer fra Genève

Pierre Georges Jeanniot


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الدكتور أحمد ماهر باشا (1888 - 24 فبراير 1945) رئيس وزراء مصر لفترتين الأولى من 8 أكتوبر 1944 حتى 15 يناير 1945، والثانية من 15 يناير 1945 حتى 24 فبراير 1945. كان عضواً في حزب الدستوريين السعديين، وقد عينه الملك فاروق رئيساً للوزراء إثر إقالته مصطفى النحاس باشا.

والده محمد ماهر باشا وكيل وزارة الحربية ومحافظ القاهرة من أعيان شراكسة مصر. وهو الأخ الشقيق للسياسي علي ماهر باشا.

بعد توليه الوزارة، دعا إلى انتخابات جديدة عارض أن يترشح فيها أعضاء الإخوان المسلمين، بعدما استصدر فتوى ضدهم. ثم أعلن ماهر الحرب على دول المحور في الحرب العالمية الثانية التي كانت تضع أوزارها، وذلك للمشاركة في الغنائم الدبلوماسية في نهاية تلك الحرب. فوراً بعد توقيعه قرار الحرب تم اغتياله في البرلمان من قبل مصطفى عيسوي (28 سنة). وبالرغم من ظن الكثيرين أن عيسوي كان من الإخوان المسلمين، إلا أنه كان عضواً في حزب الوفد.

حياته

ولد أحمد محمد ماهر باشا في حي العباسية بمدينة القاهرة، يوجد تاريخان لمولد أحمد ماهر باشا، الأول أورده محمد السوادي في كتابه أقطاب مصر بين الثورتين، وهو عام 1885، والثاني 1885 الذي أورده الدكتور يونان لبيب رزق، في كتابه تاريخ الوزارات في مصر.

وهو من أصل شركسي، كان والده محمد ماهر باشا، وكيلاً لوزارة الحربية عام 1894، في عهد الخديوي عباس حلمي الثاني، عندما أهان الخديوي اللورد كتشنر سردار الجيش المصري والحاكم العام للسودان.

تخرج ماهر باشا من كلية الحقوق عام 1908. مارس المحاماة لمدة عامين، ثم سافر عام 1910 إلى مونپلييه ليدرس القانون والاقتصاد في جامعتها ثلاث سنوات ونال منها درجة الدكتوراه.

بعد تخرجه، قام عام 1913 بالتدريس لمدة ثمان سنوات في مدرسة التجارة العليا حيث ارتبط مع النقراشي باشا بصداقة وثيقة، فتزاملا وسارا معاً تحت راية سعد زغلول، كما التحقا بأجهزة عبد الرحمن فهمي السرية.

حياته السياسية

وزارة المعارف
أُثيرت شكوك حول صلته بالجماعات التي كانت تقتل الاحتلال الإنجليزي لمصر عام 1922، واعتقل مع النقراشي بعد مصرع حسن باشا عبد الرازق وإسماعيل زهدي في نفس السنة ولكن لم يثبت أي اتهام ضده.

مجلس النواب
انتخب عضواً بمجلس النواب عام 1924، ولم تمضي شهورا قليلة على عضويته لمجلس النواب حتى اختاره سعد زغلول وزيراً للمعارف في أكتوبر عام 1924 ولم يكن يحمل في ذلك الوقت من الألقاب سوى لقبه العلمي. وكان شفيق منصور أحد المتهمين الساسيين في اغتيال السردار في مكتب أحمد ماهر بعد وقوع الجريمة. قبض على ماهر باشا في مايو 1925 وحوكم في قضية الاغتيالات السياسية مع النقراشي، وشكل سعد زغلول هيئة للدفاع عنهما، كان على رأسها المحامي المغوار آنذاك مصطفى النحاس باشا، الذي حصل لهما على البراءة بعد أقل من عام.

اختير مرة ثانية عضواً في مجلس النواب وأصبح رئيساً للجنة الميزانية والمحاسبة في البرلمان. وفي أغسطس 1927 قام بتمثيل مصر في المؤتمر البرلماني الدولي في ريو دي جانيرو ولكنه عاد فوراً عندما علم بوفاة سعد.

أصبح مديراً لجريدة البلاغ الوفدية وأعيد انتخابه نائباً عام 1930. ورافق الوفد المصري في مفاوضات المعاهدة في ذلك العام كخبير مالي.

تولى رئاسة تحرير جريدة كوكب الشرق الوفدية عام 1934. وانتخب نائباً ثم رئيساً لمجلس النواب في مايو 1936 وعضواً في وفد مفاوضات المعاهدة وفي مؤتمر مونتريه.

القصر والإنجليز
بعد رحيل الزعيم سعد زغلول، كما رأى أحمد ماهر والنقراشي أحقيتهما في شغل موقع سكرتيري الحزب أكثر من مكرم عبيد لأسبقيتهما في الارتباط بسعد زغلول ودورهما في الكفاح السري الذي كاد يعرضهما للموت أكثر من مرة. كانت المنافسة بين ماهر والنقراشي من جانب والنحاس ومكرم من جانب آخر أشبه بمقدمة للانشقاق، الذي حدث بين عامي 1937 و 1938، بعد أن خرج ماهر وغالب والنقراشي مع مجموعة من شباب «الوفد» وشكلوا الهيئة السعدية.

وكان أحمد ماهر يسعى للصلح بين القصر والوفد واجتمع مع شقيقه علي ماهر لهذا الغرض بحضور أمين عثمان. وما جرى في اجتماع الهيئة البرلمانية الوفدية جعله يتوقف عن محاولاته.

ولكن الملك بلسان علي ماهر يحدد شروطه للسفير وهي:
 - حل حركة القمصان الزرقاء.
 - قبول مرشح الملك لمقعد في مجلس الشيوخ، وهو عبد العزيز فهمي بدلاً من مرشح الوفد فخري عبد النور.
 - تعهد النحاس بالتشاور مع الملك في أي قرار خاص بالتعيين في المنماصب المهمة قبل اتخاذ أي قرار وزاري.
ويوافق النحاس على حل القمصان الزرقاء ولكنه يرفض التناول في مسألة تعيين عضو مجلس الشيوخ، لأن فيها ضياعاً وإهداراً لماء الوجه.

وتبقى عدة مسائل معلقة لم يتم التوصل فيها إلى حل وهي الحكومة في تقديم مشروعات القوانين إلى البرلمان دون استشارة القصر على موافقته مقدماً، وحقها في تعيين الموظفين وفصلهم حتى درجة سكرتير عام أية وزارة.

وفي اليوم التالي، 24 ديسمبر، يلتقي أمين عثمان وهو وسيط السفير البريطاني أكثر مما هو وسيط للنحاس – بعلي ماهر.

قال رئيس الديوان:

وتثير هذه المسألة غضب النحاس، لأن رئيس الديوان ليس له حق التدخل في مثل هذه الأمور!

ويجتمع السفير بأحمد ماهر رئيس مجلس النواب يوم 26 ديسمبر الذي يبدو متشائماً من إمكان حل الأزمة بين القصر والوفد.

قال أحمد ماهر للسفير:

وأضاف السفير:
 :: من السخف أن تتوقف المفاوضات وتختفي الحلول للخلاف حول تعيين عبد العزيز فهمي. أبلغ أخاك علي ماهر.

ولكن أحمد ماهر لا يبدو ميالاً إلى ذلك.

وفي الوقت نفسه تراجع علي ماهر عن وعده بإقناع فاروق تسهيل عمل الحكومة والتعاون معها إذا حل النحاس القمصان الزرقاء.

ويفطن السفير إلى مؤمرات علي ماهر وهي أنه وافق النحاس على أحد مطالب القصر فإن علي ماهر يثير مشكلة جديدة لتعقيد الموقف.

وتتركر لقاءات السفير بالمسئولين المصريين لمنع إقالة النحاس من رئاسة الوزارة كما تكررت بنفس الصورة المكثفة بعد خمس سنوات لتعيين النحاس رئيساً للوزراة في 4 فبراير 1942!

التقى السفير لآخر مرة بعلي يوم 28 ديسمبر. لام السفير رئيس الديوان، لأنه لم يلتزم بوعوده لحل الأزمة.
اعتذر علي ماهر، وأطال الحديث عن ظروف التي تغيرت.
قال:
 سأذهب الآن للقاء النحاس وأوجه إليه إنذاراً نهائياً وأعرض عليه مقترحات جديدة تماماً فإذا لم يوافق عليها النحاس
 سأقول له إن صاحب الجلالة لا يستطيع العمل مع الحكومة الحالية وأطلب منه تشكيل حكومة ائتلافية.

أجاب السفير:
 لا أعرف لماذا يوافق النحاس على تشكيل مثل هذه الحكومة وعنده أغلبية برلمانية مؤيدة.

وعندما ينصرف رئيس الديوان، يتصل السفير تليفونياُ بالنحاس ويبلغه المقترحات التي سيقدمها علي ماهر ويقول له:
 :: أحذرك. لا ترفض هذه المقترحات فوراً.

قال النحاس:
 سأقول له لا بد من استشارة زملائي.

قدّم علي ماهر إنذاراً إلى النحاس بأن يشكل حكومة ائتلافية، أو يقبل التحكيم في المسألة الدستورية من لجنة تضم رؤساء الوزارات السابقين ورؤساء مجلس النواب والشيوخ السابقين ووزراء العدل السابقين ووزير العدل الحالي ورئيس الوزراء النحاس.

ويتصل أمين عثمان بالسفير قائلاً:
 مكرم عبيد أبلغني بأنه يرى أن تشكيل لجنة الحكماء تعتبر حلاً غير عملي فكلهم معادون للوفد.
 والحل الأمثل تشكيل لجنة من أعضاء مجلس النواب والشيوخ للتحكيم في الخلاف هو الحل الأمثل.
رفض النحاس اقتراحات علي ماهر مفضلاً لجنة برلمانية والأغلبية للوفد في البرلمان فيقبل فاروق – يوم 30 ديسمبر – النحاس وهو – فاروق – في الثامنة عشرة من العمر ويقول في كتاب الإقالة «شعبنا لم يعد يؤيد طريقة الوزارة في الحكم»!

وكان النحاس يهدد بحشد البرلمان ضد فاروق، فسبقه الملك وأقاله قبل أن يجمع النحاس البرلمان لمساندة الدستور.

لم يدافع الإنجليز عن مصطفى النحاس، ولم يصروا على بقائه في الحكم فقد أدى مهمته لحسابهم ووقع معاهدة 1936 ورأوا الوقوف على الحياد مما يعني تأييدهم للملك. وهو ما حدث عام 1944 عندما أقال فاروق النحاس للمرة الثانية.

وعندما أراد وزير الدولة البريطاني المقيم في الشرق الأوسط كيسي الدفاع عن النحاس عام 1944 جاءت برقية من وزراة الخارجية البريطانية تقول له: :: لا تتدخل!

وكانت الحرب العالمية الثانية في مراحلها الأخيرة والإنجليزية ليسوا في حاجة إلى النحاس الذي حرص على وقوف مصر كلها معهم وعندما انتهت معمته خذلوه مرة أخرى كما فعلوا عام 1937.

وجد الملك صحيفة البلاغ تؤيده في هذا العمل غير الدستوري.
كتب عباس محمود العقاد الذي كان قد انقلب على الوفد:
 «الحق مع الملك. ومن نصر الملك فقد نصر الحق ونصر الأمة. ومن تولّى فعليه لعنة الحق من الأمة».
وقال تحت عنوان «زالت دولة المهرجين»:
 "نادى المهرجون النحاس أو الثورة فنادى الناس لا الثورة ولا النحاس.
ويغري ذلك الملك بتكرار إقالة الوزارات وحل البرلمان.
وإذا كان الإنجليز قد فضلوا البقاء على الحياد في الصراع بين الملك ورئيس وزرائه، فإن الإنجليز بعد خمس سنوات في 4 فبراير 1942 لفرض النحاس رئيساً للورزاة.
وإذا كان فاروق قد أقال النحاس في الأيام الأخيرة من السنة فإنه كرر ذلك عام 49 عندما طلب إلى إبراهيم عبد الهادي رئيس الوزراء الاستقالة ليلة العيد وقال إنها هدية العيد للشعب!

اغتياله

كان أحمد ماهر باشا من أنصار دخول مصر الحرب العالمية الثانية إلى جانب الإنجليزي، لأن ذلك من وجهة نظره، سيعطي الجيش المصري خبرة ميدانية يفتقدها، فهو جيش لم يدخل حرباً منذ عهد محمد علي، لذلك فهو غير قادر علي حماية مصر حماية قناة السويس، وهي الذريعة التي تتذرع بها بريطانيا لإبقاء قواتها في مصر.

في 24 فبراير 1945 عقد البرلمان المصري جلسته الشهيرة لتقرير إعلان الحرب على المحور والوقوف بجانب الحلفاء وانضمام مصر للأمم المتحدة، ومع ارتفاع حدة المعارضة بين مؤيد للمحور ومساند للحلفاء اضطر أحمد ماهر إلى عقد جلسة سرية مع مجلس النواب شرح لهم فيها المكاسب التي ستحصل عليها مصر في حال الإعلان الرسمي للحرب ضد المحور ودعم الحلفاء. وأخيرا اقتنع مجلس النواب بما أوضحه أحمد ماهر لهم من بيانات وحجج وأسانيد، واستطاع أن يحصل على تأييد شبه جماعي لإعلان الحرب على المحور. وبعد الحصول على الموافقة الرسمية للبرلمان قرر ماهر التوجه مباشرة إلى مجلس الشيوخ لطرح حجته عليهم (يذكر أن المسافة بين البرلمان ومجلس الشيوخ قريبة جداً)، وأثناء مروره بالبهو الفرعوني قام شاب يدعى محمود العيسوي بإطلاق النار عليه وقتله في الحال.

بعد الحادث أُلقي القبض على حسن البنا وأحمد السكري وعبد الحكيم عابدين وآخرين من جماعة الإخوان المسلمين والتي كان يعتقد أن العيسوي عضواً فيها، ولكن بعدها بأيام تم الإفراج عنهم بسبب اعتراف العيسوي بانتمائه للحزب الوطني.

وبعد الإفراج عن قيادات الجماعة لم يذكر أي أحد منهم علاقته بالعيسوي ولكن في سنوات لاحقة ثبتت علاقة الجماعة بالعيسوي، ومنها شهادة الشيخ أحمد حسن الباقوري في مذكراته الشخصية والتي حملت اسم «بقايا ذكريات» حيث يقول: "وأما النظام الخاص فلم يكن المنتسبون إليه معروفين إلا في دائرة ضيقة ولآحاد معروفين، وقد كان لهؤلاء اجتماعاتهم الخاصة بهم، وربما كانوا يعملون في جهات مختلفة يجهل بعضها بعضا جهلاً شديداً. ومن سوء حظ الدعوة أن هذا النظام الخاص رأى أن ينتقم لإسقاط المرشد في الانتخابات بدائرة الإسماعيلية. وكان من أشد المتحمسين لفكرة الانتقام هذه محام شاب يتمرن على المحاماة في مكتب الأستاذ عبد المقصود متولي، الذي كان علما من أعلام الحزب الوطني وهو المحامي الشاب محمود العيسوي. فما أعلنت حكومة الدكتور أحمد ماهر باشا الحرب على دول المحور لكى تتمكن مصر – بهذا الإعلان – من أن تمثل في مؤتمر الصلح إذا انتصرت الديمقراطية على النازية والفاشية. رأى النظام الخاص أن هذه فرصة سنحت للانتقام من رئيس الحكومة، ووجه محمود العيسوى إلى الاعتداء على المرحوم أحمد ماهر باشا، فاعتدى عليه في البرلمان بطلقات سلبته حياته التي وهبها لمصر منذ عرف الوطنية رحمه الله رحمة واسع".

في الوقت نفسه كان العيسوي قد أقر عند القبض عليه أنه ينتمي للحزب الوطني المعارض وأنه أقدم على فعلته ليمنع قرار دخول مصر الحرب مع إنگلترا، وتؤكد مصادر أخرى أن العيسوي كان محامي متدرب في مكتب عبد الرحمن الرافعي.

مراجع
 صفحة أحمد ماهر على موقع المعرفة
 "Egyptian Premier Slain in Chamber". نيويورك تايمز, Feb. 25, 1945.

سياسيون مغتالون في عقد 1940
أشخاص قتلوا في مصر
أشخاص من القاهرة
اغتيالات مرتبطة بجماعة الإخوان المسلمين
باشاوات مصر
جرائم 1945 في مصر
جرائم قتل في إفريقيا 1945
جرائم قتل في مصر عقد 1940
رؤساء حكومات مغتالون
رؤساء وزراء مصر القرن 20
رؤساء وزراء مصريون
سياسيو حزب الوفد
سياسيون مصريون مغتالون
قادة دول مغتالون
ليبراليون مصريون
مواليد 1305 هـ
مواليد 1888
وزراء داخلية مصريون
وزراء مالية مصريون
وفيات 1364 هـ
وفيات 1945
جرائم قتل في مصر 1945

أحمد ماهر باشا


Metzgeriales, red jetrenjarki u razredu Jungermanniopsida. Postoji oko 450 živih vrsta u dvije porodice i nekoliko fosilnih rodova s najmanje 14 vrsta.
 Aneuraceae H. Klinggr.
 Metzgeriaceae H. Klinggr.
 †Metzgeriites Steere
 †Metzgeriothallus • 1 †spp
 †Pallaviciniites • 4 †spp
 †Pantiathallites • 1 †spp
 †Riccardiopsis • 1 †spp

Izvori

Metzgeriidae
Biljni redovi

Metzgeriales


مجلة الفيصل العلمية هي مجلة علمية عربية تصدر عن مركز الملك فيصل للبحوث والدراسات الإسلامية ومدينة الملك عبد العزيز للعلوم والتقنية. صدر أول عدد من المجلة في منتصف العام 1424 هـ ولا تزال منتظمة في الصدور. وهي من المجلات العلمية العربية القليلة التي تواكب العلوم وتبسطها. مجلة الفيصل العلمية هي مجلة دورية تصدر كل ثلاثة أشهر، وتعنى بنشر الثقافة العلمية في الوطن العربي وكذلك مختلف العلوم البحتة والتطبيقية المعاصرة.

وتهدف المجلة إلى تقديم معلومات تُناسب القارئ العربي غير المتخصص ليقف على حركة المعرفة العلمية. تعد مجلة الفيصل العلمية، من المجلات القليلة في الوطن العربي التي تهتم بنشر الثقافة العلمية الجادة ومواكبة كل جديد في مجال العلوم والتكنولوجيا، وقد جاء إصدار هذه المجلة لسد الفجوة في الإعلام العلمي في العالم العربي، ولتقديم مواضيع علمية محكمة كتبت من قبل متخصصين في كافة المجالات العلمية والتقنية والصحية.

وقد تميزت مجلة الفيصل العلمية، ومنذ عددها الأول، بجودة إخراجها وتميز المواضيع التي يتم طرحها، وحرص فريق التحرير على تقديم مجلة علمية راقية لتواكب المستجدات العلمية، وفي الوقت نفسه، نشر الموضوعات التي تستقطب شريحة كبيرة من القراء بلغة علمية محكمة ومبسطة. ويشرف على تحرير المجلة الدكتور يحي بن محمود بن جنيد الأمين العام لمركز الملك فيصل للبحوث والدراسات، ويدير تحريرها الأستاذ نايف بن مارق الضيط.

انظر أيضاً
 مجلة العلوم والتقنية
 مجلة العربي

وصلات خارجية

 أرشيف مجلة الفيصل من العام 1978م إلى العام 2020م

1424 هـ
إصدارات مدينة الملك عبد العزيز للعلوم والتقنية
مجلات سعودية
مجلات علمية
مجلات فصلية

مجلة الفيصل العلمية


HMS Indefatigable was one of two s built for the Royal Navy (RN) during World War II. Completed in 1944, her aircraft made several attacks that year against the , inflicting only light damage; they also raided targets in Norway. The ship was transferred to the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) at the end of the year and attacked Japanese-controlled oil refineries in Sumatra in January 1945 before joining the American forces in March as they prepared to invade the island of Okinawa in Operation Iceberg. Indefatigable and the BPF joined the Americans in attacking the Japanese Home Islands in July and August. Following the end of hostilities she visited ports in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

After returning to the UK in early 1946, Indefatigable was modified for transport duties, and ferried troops and civilians for the rest of the year before she was reduced to reserve. She was recommissioned in 1950 as a training ship for service with the Home Fleet Training Squadron, participating in exercises and making several port visits overseas. The Board of Admiralty decided that she was redundant in early 1954 and decommissioned her later that year. Indefatigable was sold for scrap the following year.

Design and description
The Implacable class were ordered under the 1938 Naval Programme by the Chamberlain government as part of the general rearmament begun in response to the rise of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The design originated as an improved version of the s and was intended to be  faster and carry an additional dozen aircraft over the  speed and 36 aircraft of the earlier ships. To remain within the  limit allowed by the Second London Naval Treaty, these improvements could only be made by reducing armour protection. Indefatigable was  long overall and  at the waterline. Her beam was  at the waterline, and she had a draught of  at deep load. The Implacable-class ships were significantly overweight and displaced  at deep load. The ships had metacentric heights of  at light load and  at deep load as completed. Indefatigables complement was approximately 2,300 officers and ratings in 1945.

The ships had four Parsons geared steam turbines, each driving one shaft, using steam supplied by eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers. The turbines were designed to produce a total of , enough to give the Indefatigable-class ships a maximum speed of . On sea trials, Indefatigable reached a speed of  with . She carried enough fuel oil to give her a range of  at .

The  armoured flight deck had a maximum width of . A single hydraulic aircraft catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck. The Implacable-class carriers were equipped with two lifts on the centreline, the forward of which measured  and served only the upper hangar, and the aft lift (), which served both hangars. The upper hangar was  long and the lower hangar was  long; both had a maximum width of . Each hangar had a height of only 14 feet which precluded storage of Lend-Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters as well as many post-war aircraft and helicopters. Designed to stow 48 aircraft in their hangars, the use of a permanent deck park allowed the Implacable class to accommodate up to 81 aircraft. The additional crewmen, maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support these aircraft were housed in the lower hangar. The ships were provided with  of aviation gasoline.

Armament, electronics and protection

The ship's main armament consisted of sixteen quick-firing (QF)  dual-purpose guns in eight twin-gun turrets, four in sponsons on each side of the hull. Unlike the Illustrious-class ships, the roofs of the gun turrets were flat and flush with the flight deck. The gun had a maximum range of . Indefatigables light anti-aircraft defences included five octuple mounts for QF 2-pounder ("pom-pom") anti-aircraft (AA) guns, two on the flight deck forward of the island, one on the aft part of the island, and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull. A single quadruple 2-pounder mount was also fitted on the port side of the hull. The 2-pounder gun had a maximum range of .

The ship was also fitted with 55 Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in 17 single and 19 twin-gun mounts. These guns had a maximum range of , but some were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns when the ships were transferred to the Pacific Theatre as the  shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship. The Bofors gun had a maximum range of . By August 1945, Indefatigable had 10 single Bofors guns, plus 14 twin and 12 single Oerlikon mounts. By April 1946 these had been reduced to 11 Bofors guns, 6 twin and 7 single Oerlikon guns.

Details of the Implacable-class ships' radar suite are not readily available. They were fitted with the Type 277 surface-search/height-finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target indicator radar on the foremast. , one of the Illustrious-class ships upon which Indefatigables design was based, also carried Type 279 and Type 281B early-warning radars. Type 282 and Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on the fire-control directors.

The Implacable-class ships had a flight deck protected by  of armour. The sides of the hangars were either  or . The ends of the hangars were protected by 2-inch bulkheads and the armour of the hangar deck ranged from  in thickness. The waterline armour belt was  thick, but only covered the central portion of the ship. The belt was closed by 1.5 to 2-inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft. The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air-filled compartments as used in the Illustrious class. The magazines for the 4.5-inch guns lay outside the armoured citadel and were protected by 2 to 3-inch roofs, 4.5-inch sides and 1.5 to 2-inch ends.

Construction and career

Indefatigable was laid down by John Brown & Co. at their shipyard in Clydebank on 3 November 1939 as Yard Number 565. She was launched on 8 December 1942 by Victoria of Hesse, Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven. Captain Quintin Graham was appointed to command the ship in August 1943. While fitting out, in order to confound the enemy, a ruse known as Operation Bijou, initiated by London Controlling Section, was launched whereby it was made known that Indefatigable had already entered service.

Ultra decrypts revealed that the Japanese believed the deception, with operatives including Malcolm Muggeridge and Peter Fleming supplying disinformation for more than a year, sufficient to make the enemy believe the vessel had gone to the Far East and returned to the Clyde for a refit, by which time she was actually finished.

The ship was commissioned on 8 December 1943 and began sea trials, which revealed many problems that required rectification and delayed her formal completion until 3 May 1944. While Indefatigable was still conducting builder's trials, a de Havilland Mosquito landed aboard on 25 March, piloted by Lieutenant Eric Brown (this is often cited as the first landing by a twin-engined aeroplane on an aircraft carrier, but in fact a Potez 565 had landed on and taken off from the French carrier Béarn in 1936). The ship was assigned to the Home Fleet and was working up over the next several months while the Fairey Fireflies of 1770 Squadron flew aboard on 18 May. The squadron was followed by the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 826 Squadron in June.

Norwegian operations
Indefatigables first mission was a brief sortie on 1 July 1944 to provide air cover for the ocean liner  that was ferrying American troops to Britain. Upon her return, Indefatigable embarked the Supermarine Seafire fighters of 887 Squadron and the Barracudas of 820 Squadron, completing No. 9 Naval Torpedo-Bomber Reconnaissance Wing, over the next week. Her first combat mission was an attack on the battleship Tirpitz in Kaafjord on 17 July with two other Home Fleet carriers (Operation Mascot). She contributed 23 Barracudas and 12 Fireflies to the mission; the former attacked the battleship while the Fireflies strafed the flak positions defending her. A smoke screen prevented most of the Barracudas from seeing their target and they failed to hit Tirpitz. One Barracuda was forced to ditch near the carrier and its crew was rescued by the destroyer .

894 Squadron, equipped with Seafires, landed aboard after the attack on 24 July to complete No. 24 Naval Fighter Wing. Indefatigable and several escort carriers attacked targets in Norway on 10 August,  destroying 6 Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters and sinking a minesweeper. For Operation Goodwood, a series of attacks on Tirpitz, the Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters of 1840 Squadron replaced the Barracudas of 826 Squadron. The first mission took place on the morning of 22 August when Indefatigable launched 12 Barracudas, 11 Fireflies, 8 Hellcats, and 8 Seafires against the German battleship and nearby targets. A smoke screen again protected Tirpitz and no damage was inflicted; two Seafires failed to return.

Another attack was made later in the day without effect. A further attack could not be mounted until 24 August because of bad weather; for this mission the carrier contributed 12 Barracudas, 11 Fireflies and 4 Seafires, all of which returned. Tirpitz was lightly damaged by two hits during this attack, one a  bomb and the other a  armour-piercing bomb. The latter penetrated the armoured deck but failed to explode and would probably have inflicted serious damage, possibly even sinking the ship, had it done so. A final attack was made five days later, again without effect. 887 Squadron sank seven seaplanes at their moorings at Banak during the operation.

Indian Ocean and Pacific operations

On 19 September 1944, Indefatigable sortied from Scapa Flow to attack targets near Tromsø, but the operation was cancelled because of bad weather. The ship underwent a brief refit at her builder's yard between 28 September and 8 November. She became the flagship of the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron (1st ACS) when Rear Admiral Sir Philip Vian hoisted his flag on 15 November. The following day, King George VI inspected the ship; the ground crews later embarked for 820, 887, 894 and 1770 Squadrons. Their aircraft, 40 Seafires, 12 Fireflies, and 21 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers, followed on 19 November, and she sailed for the Far East to join the British Pacific Fleet. Indefatigable arrived at Colombo, Ceylon, on 10 December and Vian transferred his flag to .

Together with Victorious and Indomitable, Indefatigable attacked an oil refinery at Pangkalan Brandan, Sumatra on 4 January 1945 (Operation Lentil). She embarked six photoreconnaissance Hellcats of 888 Squadron for the attack; her only contribution to the attack itself was the Fireflies of 1770 Squadron, which used RP-3 rocket projectiles on their targets. The squadron claimed to have shot down a Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar", for the loss of a Firefly that ran out of fuel and had to ditch next to the ship. After Indefatigables return, Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command, addressed the crew on 11 January. En route to Sydney to prepare for operations in the Pacific, the BPF's carriers attacked oil refineries near Palembang, Sumatra, on 24 and 29 January (Operation Meridian).

The ship's Seafires lacked the range to reach the targets so they were retained on combat air patrols (CAP) over the fleet for both attacks. She contributed 10 of her Avengers and all of her Fireflies to the first attack, which destroyed most of the oil storage tanks and cut the refinery's output by half for three months. Five days later, the BPF attacked a different refinery and 820 Squadron again contributed 10 Avengers to the attack while 1770 Squadron added nine Fireflies. The latter squadron also flew two Fireflies on an armed reconnaissance mission over an airfield that lay between the carriers and their target. The attack was very successful at heavy cost, but the losses of Indefatigables squadrons are not available. Her Seafires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki-46 "Dinah" reconnaissance aircraft searching for the fleet and 5 Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily" bombers that attacked at low level.

The BPF arrived in Sydney on 10 February; the crews received leave and the ships got some maintenance before they sailed for the BPF's advance base at Manus Island, in the Admiralty Islands, on 27 February. They arrived on 7 March and exercised together before sailing for Ulithi on 18 March. The BPF joined the American Fifth Fleet there two days later to participate in the preliminary operations for the invasion of Okinawa. The British role during the operation was to neutralise airfields on the Sakishima Islands, between Okinawa and Formosa, beginning on 26 March. Her Seafires were again retained to defend the fleet and only her Avengers and Fireflies attacked the airfields. Her Seafire squadrons lacked 13 of their authorised strength of 50 pilots and could not sustain the pace of the first day of operations, when they flew 72 sorties. After a break at the end of the month to refuel, Indefatigable became the first British carrier to be hit by a kamikaze the day after flying operations resumed, when one of the Japanese planes evaded the CAP and struck the base of the carrier's island on 1 April. The bomb it carried did not detonate and this limited casualties to 21 men killed and 27 wounded. Damage to the ship was minimal and the flight deck was back in operation thirty minutes later.

On 12 and 13 April, the BPF switched targets to airfields in northern Formosa. On the first day, a pair of Fireflies encountered five Mitsubishi Ki-51 "Sonia" dive bombers and shot down four of them. A flight of four Seafires on CAP spotted four Japanese fighters, three Mitsubishi A6M Zeroes and a Kawasaki Ki-61 "Tony" later that morning, and shot down one Zero. The BPF returned to the Sakishima Islands on 17 April before retiring to Leyte Gulf to rest and resupply. Wastage of Seafires to all causes was very heavy during the operation with 25 out of 40 lost or damaged beyond repair and only 5 replacements received. Their short range and lack of endurance was considered by Vian to be a severe handicap for the BPF, which returned to action on 4 May and again attacked targets in the Sakishima Islands. Its aircraft continued to do so until they flew their last missions of Operation Iceberg on 25 May. Statistics compiled by the BPF staff showed that 61 Seafires were lost or damaged beyond repair during both phases of the operation due to deck-landing accidents.

The BPF arrived back at Sydney on 5 June and sailed for Manus three weeks later. Indefatigable was forced to remain behind as she required repairs to her machinery. Her air group flew aboard on 7 July (1772 Squadron and its Fireflies replacing 1770 Squadron) when she sailed for Manus. She reached the coast of Japan on 20 July and her aircraft began attacking targets near Osaka and in the Inland Sea four days later. Her Seafire squadrons had adapted larger external fuel tanks for their aircraft and they were no longer limited to CAP duty. The BPF's aircraft crippled the escort carrier  and sank numerous smaller ships on 24 July. After replenishing, airstrikes resumed on 28 and 30 July, the British sinking the escort  near Maizuru. A combination of bad weather, refuelling requirements and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima delayed the resumption of air operations until 9 August. During the day, Indefatigables aircraft attacked targets in northern Honshu and southern Hokkaido. The attacks were repeated the next day, sinking two warships and numerous small merchantmen and destroying numerous railroad locomotives and parked aircraft.

The BPF had been scheduled to withdraw after 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November, and the bulk of the force departed for Manus on 12 August. Indefatigable, however, had been chosen to remain as part of the Allied occupation force. The next day her aircraft attacked targets in the vicinity of Tokyo. Flight operations resumed on the morning of the 15th after an operational pause to refuel. The first airstrike was tasked to attack Kisarazu Air Field with four Fireflies and six Avengers, escorted by eight Seafires, but was forced to divert to its secondary target because of bad weather.

En route they were attacked by a dozen Zeros in the last British air combat of the war. The Japanese fighters shot down one Seafire on their first pass and crippled an Avenger. The Seafires claimed four Zeros shot down, four others probably shot down, and another four damaged. An Avenger also claimed one Zero as damaged. A Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bomber attacked the carrier after the ceasefire went into effect, but its two bombs missed. After the ceasefire, Indefatigables aircraft continued to fly CAP and flew reconnaissance missions looking for Allied prisoners of war, dropping supplies to them as they were located.

Post-war service

On 17 August 1945, Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser, commander of the BPF, came aboard and addressed the crew. Indefatigable continued flying operations until she entered Sagami Bay on 5 September. She departed three days later for Manus en route to Sydney. The ship arrived at Sydney on 18 September and began a leisurely refit that lasted until 15 November. On 1 November, Captain Ian MacIntyre relieved Graham as captain of the ship. She became Vian's flagship on 22 November and sailed to New Zealand to show the flag. She arrived in Wellington on 27 November and was opened for public tours, during which time the Prime Minister, Peter Fraser, also visited. Indefatigable then sailed to Auckland, arriving on 12 December, and was again opened for tours. She returned to Sydney for the holidays and visited Melbourne on 22 January 1946 before departing for home nine days later. Vian transferred his flag to her sister ship Implacable that day and the ship stopped off at Fremantle and Cape Town en route. While Indefatigable was visiting the latter city, she was opened to the public, and the Governor-General of South Africa toured the ship.

The carrier arrived at Portsmouth Dockyard on 16 March 1946. Her hangars were modified to accommodate over 1,900 passengers, including women, and she departed for Australia on 25 April carrying 782 RN personnel and 130 Australian war brides. Most of the RN personnel disembarked at Colombo and most of the war brides did the same at Fremantle. Indefatigable continued on to Sydney, where she embarked a complete naval hospital, with patients, and over 1,000 RN officers and ratings. She departed on 9 June and arrived at Plymouth on 7 July. Her next voyage involved transporting a much smaller number of men to Malta and Colombo; only 47 officers and 67 ratings, most of whom left the ship at Malta. When she arrived at Colombo on 15 August, she loaded a full complement of passengers from all three services to return to the UK. The ship arrived at Portsmouth on 9 September and her next voyage involved over 1,200 RN personnel and civilians ferried to Malta, Colombo, and Singapore where almost 1,300 personnel embarked. She returned to Portsmouth on 29 November and began a brief refit in preparation for her final trooping voyage. Indefatigable sailed empty for Norfolk, Virginia, where she loaded RN personnel before returning to Portsmouth on 21 November. The next month, she was placed in reserve and Captain MacIntyre retired on 7 January 1947.

The Admiralty decided to recommission Indefatigable for use as a training ship in mid-1949. Captain Henry Fancourt assumed command on 22 August to prepare for sea. The ship arrived at Devonport to begin the necessary modifications on 30 August and the following day Fancourt turned over command to the dockyard. Captain John Grindle was appointed to command on 24 March 1950 and the ship was recommissioned on 28 May. Two days later Captain Robert Sherbrooke, VC, relieved Grindle and Indefatigable began her sea trials on 28 June. She was inspected by Rear Admiral St John Micklethwaithe, Flag Officer Training Squadron, on 3 July and received her first trainees shortly afterwards. She participated in exercises with the Home Fleet and joined it in Gibraltar in September and October. On 12 March 1951 she sortied from Portland, flying Micklethwaite's flag, to exercise with the Home Fleet before beginning a brief refit at Devonport in May. Captain John Grant relieved Sherbrooke on 6 June and the ship was opened to visitors as part of the Festival of Britain on 17 July. Five days later the visitors were stranded aboard ship overnight when a storm came up and forced Indefatigable to put to sea. The seas moderated the next day and the visitors departed in safety. Rear Admiral Royer Dick hoisted his flag aboard the carrier in September until she began a short refit at Devonport in January 1952.

Indefatigable joined Implacable for her annual winter visit to Gibraltar after completing her refit in February 1952. Over the summer she exercised with the Home Fleet and visited the Danish port of Aarhus, where she was visited by Queen Alexandrine of Denmark in July. Captain Ralph Fisher assumed command on 30 January 1953 and took her to sea three weeks later for exercises with the Home Fleet and her annual visit to Gibraltar. She returned to Portland in late March and visited Bournemouth at the end of May. She joined her sister and several other carriers on 9 June to sail for Spithead for the Coronation Fleet Review of Queen Elizabeth II on 15 June as one of a fleet of nine carriers. Indefatigable joined her sister for fleet exercises off the Scilly Isles and in the Bristol Channel in September and October before beginning her annual refit on 6 October. The Admiralty announced on 26 January 1954 that both ships would be replaced as training ships and reduced to reserve. This had no short-term impact on their activities as they sailed for the Western Mediterranean on their annual winter cruise. The ship exercised with the Home Fleet and made a port visit to Casablanca, Morocco, before visiting Gibraltar.

Captain Hugh Browne assumed command on 10 May after Fisher had been promoted. The ship welcomed home Queen Elizabeth II and her husband four days later as they returned from their tour of the Commonwealth. The following month, Indefatigable exercised with the Home Fleet in Scottish waters and visited Aarhus again. In August she began transferring her training duties to the carrier  and arrived at Rosyth on 2 September to be paid off, a process that took until the following month to complete. She was towed to Gareloch in June 1955 where she was listed for disposal. Indefatigable was sold for scrap in September 1956 and subsequently broken up at Faslane.

Squadrons embarked

Notes

Footnotes

Bibliography

My Grandparents War "Carey Mulligan" -wild Pictures Limited production for Channel 4 Television in association with WNET. 2019 December 18

External links

 Armoured aircraft carrier action and damage reports, 1940-1945
 Maritimequest HMS Indefatigable photo gallery
 Darrell V. Bumby RN Collection on MaritimeQuest

Implacable-class aircraft carriers
Ships built on the River Clyde
1942 ships
World War II aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United Kingdom

HMS Indefatigable (R10)


El Škoda Fabia S2000 es un automóvil de competición basado en el Škoda Fabia con homologación Super 2000. Fue construido por Škoda Motorsport, homologado por la FIA en 2008 e hizo su debut en el Rally de Montecarlo de 2009. Ha sido utilizado por la propia Škoda, por Volkswagen y sobre todo por equipos privados tanto en competiciones internacionales como regionales.

Ha logrado varias victorias en diferentes competiciones de rally como el Campeonato de Europa de Rally, el IRC o en los campeonatos complementarios del mundial, el Campeonato Super 2000 y el Campeonato de Producción. Ha conquistado los títulos del IRC en 2010 y 2011 con Andreas Mikkelsen y el Campeonato de Europa en 2012 con Juho Hänninen, 2013 con Jan Kopecký y 2014 con Esapekka Lappi el Campeonato Asia-Pacífico de Rally en 2012 con Chris Atkinson, 2013 con Gaurav Gill y 2014 Jan Kopecký, y el Campeonato Sudamericano de Rally en 2013 con Gustavo Saba.

El Škoda Fabia S2000 posee tracción a las cuatro ruedas, tres diferenciales activos, un motor atmosférico de 2.0 litros de cuatro cilindros que alcanza una potencia de 280 cv a 8000 vueltas y un par máximo de 245 Nm. Pesa 1200 kg y tiene una carrocería con una estética agresiva y con un ancho de vías ensanchado.

Una de las primeras apariciones públicas de este modelo fue en agosto de 2008 en el Rally de Zlín (prueba disputada en la República Checa) pero como vehículo cero y pilotado por Jan Kopecky, puesto que no disponía todavía de ficha de homologación y no podía tomar la salida.

Victorias

La primera victoria en un certamen internacional lograda por el Fabia S2000 fue en el Rally de Rusia de 2009, prueba incluida en el Intercontinental Rally Challenge pilotado por el finés Juho Hänninen. Esa misma temporada logró tres victorias más: dos con Jan Kopecký, Zlín y Príncipe de Asturias y una con Guy Wilks en Escocia. Al año siguiente el Fabia conseguiría siete victorias más en el IRC con diferentes pilotos y dos triunfos en el Campeonato de Europa. En 2011 venció en ocho ocasiones dentro del IRC y logró solo una victoria en el europeo. En 2012 protagonizó el IRC y el europeo consiguiendo ocho triunfos en cada certamen.

En los campeonatos de PWRC y SWRC también ha logrado varias victorias.

IRC

ERC

PWRC

SWRC

Referencias

Notas

Fuentes

Enlaces externos

 Resultados Skoda Fabia S2000

Modelos de competición de Škoda
Vehículos Super 2000

Škoda Fabia S2000


The Mausoleum of Tangun is an ancient burial site in Kangdong near Pyongyang, North Korea. It is claimed by North Korea to be the tomb of Tangun, legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom.

A pyramid was built on top of the grave in 1994, consisting of 1994 blocks of stone. The complex occupies about 1.8 km² (.70 mi²) on the slope of Mount Taebak (대박산). The complex is divided into three major sections: restoration work area, stone statue area, and the burial site. Dangun's grave is shaped like a step pyramid, about 22 m (72 ft) high and 50 m (164 ft) on each side.

According to the Samguk Yusa, Gojoseon was thought to have been founded in 2333 BCE.  North Koreans claim that their current excavations have dramatically changed the estimates of North Korean historians back to at least 3000 BCE, making the site c.5011 years old (±267 years in 1993).

Background
North Korea's leader Kim Il Sung insisted that Dangun was not merely a legend but a real historical person. As consequence, North Korean archaeologists were compelled to locate the purported remains and grave of Dangun. In the october of 1993, through the thesis called the "Excavation reports of the mausoleum of Dangun(단군릉발굴보고)", North Korean academia announced that 86 human bone remains were found  that can be traced to two individuals, one man and the other woman, and by dating the bone of the man using the method of electron spin resonance dating, it was found to be from more than 5011 years ago.

Controversy

A nail found in the mausoleum, dating to the Goguryeo period (37 BCE-668 CE), has been the subject of much controversy. This discovery has thus led some North Korean historians to conclude that the mausoleum was discovered and renovated during that period. Many observers and historians outside of North Korea, including South Korea, consider the data and the interpretation compromised by politics and nationalism. North Korea has permitted no independent testing to resolve the questions over authenticity and dating. South Korean historians think its more likely to be a tomb of a regional power during the Goguryeo kingdom based on the artifacts found at the site.

See also
 List of tombs and mausoleums
 List of archeological sites in Korea
 History of Korea
 Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor

References

Further reading

External links
 King Tangun's Mausoleum at Naenara

Websites dealing with the controversy
 http://san-shin.org/dan-gun-1.html
 https://archive.today/20010404054658/http://web.edunet4u.net/~lost/
 https://web.archive.org/web/20050204054431/http://www.kimsoft.com/2002/danggun.htm
 http://pyongyang.news-site.net/rekisiminzoku/choson/dangun/index.htm

Korean mythology
Gojoseon
Archaeological sites in North Korea
Dangun
National Treasures of North Korea
Buildings and structures in Pyongyang

Mausoleum of Tangun


La Holly SS Ranch Barn est une grange à Holly, dans le comté de Prowers, dans le Colorado, aux États-Unis. Construite en 1879, elle est inscrite au Registre national des lieux historiques depuis le .

Liens externes

Grange inscrite au Registre national des lieux historiques au Colorado
Registre national des lieux historiques en 2004
Comté de Prowers

Holly SS Ranch Barn


Aleksej Nikolajevič Romanov (rus. Алексе́й Никола́евич Романов) (Sankt Petersburg, 12. kolovoza 1904. - Jekaterinburg 17. srpnja 1918.), ruski carević i prijestolonasljednik iz dinastije Romanov. Bio je jedini sin cara Nikole II. i Aleksandre Fjodorovne. Imao je četiri sestre. Od rođenja bolovao je od hemofilije, nasljedne bolesti koja sprječava zgrušavanje krvi u tijelu. Njegova majka povjerila je njegovo liječenje mistiku i šarlatanu Rasputinu, koji je ostvario kontrolu nad obitelji, što je posljedično uzrokovalo njen pad.

Poslije izbijanja Veljačke revolucije početkom 1917. godine, carska je obitelj internirana u grad Toboljsk na Sibiru, da bi potom bili prebačeni u okolicu Jekaterinburga, gdje su ga ubili boljševici, zajedno s ostatkom obitelji. Do 2017. godine postojala su nagađanja i glasine da je možda preživio pokolj obitelji, no tada su pronađeni njegovi smrtni ostaci uz ostatke njegove sestre Marije Nikolajevne.

Životopisi, Rusija
Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov

Aleksej Nikolajevič Romanov


Toshihide Maskawa, Toshihide Masukawa ili Tošihide Maskava (Nagoja, 7. veljače 1940.), japanski teorijski fizičar. Diplomirao (1962.) i doktorirao (1967.) na Sveučilištu u Nagoji. Na Sveučilištu u Kyotu surađivao s M. Kobayashijem na razvoju standardnoga modela čestica. Bio je ravnatelj Yukawina instituta za teorijsku fiziku u Kyotu (od 1997. do 2003.). Za otkriće podrijetla narušavanja simetrije u subatomskoj fizici koje predviđa postojanje barem triju skupina kvarkova u prirodi s Kobayashijem dobio Nobelovu nagradu za fiziku 2008. (te je godine nagrađen i Y. Nambu).

CP-simetrija

CP-simetrija je simetrija zakona fizike s obzirom na zajedničku promjenu naboja i parnosti odnosno zahtjev da se jednako odvijaju procesi u našem svijetu i svijetu koji bi se dobio od njega uzastopnom primjenom prostornog zrcaljenja (P-transformacijom) i zamjenom čestica antičesticama (C-transformacijom). Odstupanje od te simetrije (CP-narušenost) jedan je od preduvjeta za stvaranje viška materije prema antimateriji u svemiru, a time i preduvjet našega postojanja. CP-narušenost otkrivena je u slabim raspadima K-mezona (James Cronin i Val Logsdon Fitch, 1964.), a u novije doba mjeri se i u raspadima B-mezona.

Slaba nuklearna sila

Slaba nuklearna sila, slaba sila ili slabo međudjelovanje je temeljno međudjelovanje (fundamentalna interakcija) između kvarkova i leptona, jedna od četiriju temeljnih sila, uvedena pri pokušajima objašnjenja β-komponente prirodne radioaktivnosti. Ključni korak za objašnjenje temeljne slabe sile bilo je uvođenje neutrina (1932.), s pomoću kojega je E. Fermi postavio svoju teoriju β-raspada (1934.). Na osnovi slabe sile, koja "pretvara" neutrone u protone i omogućuje nuklearnu fuziju četiriju vodikovih atomskih jezgri u jezgru helija, došlo se do spoznaje procesa koji se odvija u Suncu i kojim se objašnjava podrijetlo energije Sunca: nuklearnim fuzijom kilogram vodika u nešto manje od kilogram helija oslobađa se energija od 6 × 1014 J.

Ključno je za slabo međudjelovanje bilo otkriće narušenja prostorne parnosti (1956.) i vremenske mikroobrativosti (CP-simetrija), čega nije bilo kod prije istraženog elektromagnetskog i jakoga međudjelovanja (jake nuklearne sile). Prijenosnik slabog međudjelovanja masivni je W bozon (80 GeV), koji se u raspadima elementarnih čestica ponaša kao nabijena slaba električna struja, i masivni Z bozon (91 GeV), pridružen neutralnim slabim strujama. Struktura neutralnih slabih struja bila je ključna za potvrdu elektroslabe teorije, ujedinjenja elektromagnetizma i slabog međudjelovanja kao poopćenja dotadašnjega ujedinjenja elektriciteta i magnetizma. Pritom su uvedeni naboji slabog međudjelovanja, slabi izospin i slabi hipernaboj, pridijeljeni kvarkovima i leptonima koji sudjeluju u slabim međudjelovanjima. Slabo međudjelovanje odlikuje se promjenama kvantnih brojeva okusa, unutar obitelji ili između obitelji kvarkova.

Izvori

Dobitnici Nobelove nagrade za fiziku
Japanski fizičari
Teoretski fizičari

Toshihide Maskawa


An Luzula ulophylla in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Franz Georg Philipp Buchenau, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Leonard C. Cockayne och Robert Malcolm Laing. An Luzula ulophylla in nahilalakip ha genus nga Luzula, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Luzula

Luzula ulophylla


Alex Wayman () a fost un tibetolog și indianist american și a lucrat ca profesor de sanscrită la Universitatea Columbia. El a avut origini evreiești.

După absolvirea studiilor de licență (1948), de masterat (1949) și de doctorat (1959) la University of California, Los Angeles, a devenit profesor la Universitatea Columbia în 1966. A predat cursuri de limba sanscrită din 1967 și până la pensionarea sa în anul 1991.

Wayman a scris multe cărți despre budism, în special pe teme de budism tantric, și despre logica budistă.

Note

Legături externe
 Columbia News: Alex Wayman, Pioneer of Tibetology, Dies at 83, 3. November 2004.

Nașteri în 1921
Decese în 2004
Evrei americani
Tibetologi
Indianiști

Alex Wayman


A Série A3 do Campeonato Brasileiro Feminino de 2023 é a segunda edição deste evento esportivo, um torneio nacional de futebol feminino organizado pela Confederação Brasileira de Futebol (CBF).

Antecedentes
Em 18 de maio de 2021, a CBF confirmou para o calendário de 2022 a criação da Série A3, equivalente à terceira divisão do campeonato nacional. Para viabilizar a nova competição, o número de participantes da Série A2 foi reduzido de de 36 para 16. Este foi mais um movimento para fortalecer o calendário da modalidade e, consequentemente, propiciar o ingresso de novas equipes no certame nacional e o aumento do mercado de trabalho para as jogadoras. Além disso, a análise da entidade é que a primeira fase da Série A2 estava desnivelada, com equipes em "zona de conforto".

Formato
Todo o campeonato é disputado em sistema eliminatório ("mata-mata") classificando-se o vencedor de cada grupo, sendo disputado em cinco fases.

 Primeira fase (16avos de final): trinta e dois clubes distribuídos em dezesseis grupos de dois clubes cada
 Segunda fase (oitavas de final): dezesseis clubes distribuídos em oito grupos de dois clubes cada
 Terceira fase (quartas de final): oito clubes distribuídos em quatro grupos de dois clubes cada
 Quarta fase (semifinal): quatro clubes distribuídos em dois grupos de dois clubes cada
 Quinta fase (final): em um grupo de dois clubes, de onde sairá o campeão

Os quatro times que chegarem à semifinal, conseguirão o acesso para a Série A2 de 2024.

Critérios de desempate
Em caso de empate de pontos entre dois clubes, os critérios de desempate são aplicados na seguinte ordem:

 Número de vitórias
 Saldo de gols
 Gols marcados
 Número de cartões vermelhos
 Número de cartões amarelos
 Sorteio

Participantes

Estádios

Outros estádios
Além dos estádios de mando usual, outros estádios foram utilizados devido a punições de perda de mando de campo impostas pelo Superior Tribunal de Justiça Desportiva ou por conta de problemas de interdição dos estádios usuais ou simplesmente por opção dos clubes em mandar seus jogos em outros locais, geralmente buscando uma melhor renda.

Resultados
Assim como em 2022, o torneio será composto por cinco fases, todas em sistema de mata-mata, onde a equipe que ganha os dois jogos avança até a fase seguinte. As quatro equipes que ganharem os seus jogos nas quartas de finais estarão promovidas à Série A2 do ano seguinte.

Premiação

Estatísticas

Artilharia

Hat-trick
Estes foram os hat-tricks do Campeonato:

Classificação final

Ver também
 Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino
 Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino de 2023 - Série A1
 Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino de 2023 - Série A2

Ligações externas

Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino - Série A3
Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino de 2023

Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino de 2023 - Série A3


الفوج الثالث عشر من قنبليي يريفان القيصر ميخائيل فيودوروفيتش (Царя Михаила Феодоровича 13 - й Лейб - Гренадерский Его Величества полк باللغة الروسية) كان أقدم فوج في الجيش الإمبراطوري الروسي وأول فوج دائم نظم على النموذج الغربي. تم إنشاؤه عام 1642 من قبل القيصر الروسي ميخائيل روسيا والذي تولى قيادته. الاسم يريفان يعود إلى بلدة في القوقاز هي اليوم عاصمة أرمينيا.

الفوج تميز خلال الحرب الروسية الفارسية 1804-1813 والحرب الروسية الفارسية (1826-1828) والحرب الروسية العثمانية 1828-1829 وحرب القرم والحرب الروسية العثمانية 1877-1878 وشارك بنشاط في الاستيلاء على منطقة القوقاز في حرب القوقاز من 1830 حتي 1852.

منذ 1824 كان مقر الفوج في منغليسي بجورجيا.

عندما بدأت الحرب العالمية الأولى كان الفوج في تبليسي بجورجيا ودخل مرارا وتكرارا في القتال. وتم حله في أثناء الصراع.

تاريخ اسم الفوج

 1642 :تأسيس الفوج.
 1798 : أعيدت تسميته : فوج اغيركيس الجنرال ماجور لازاريف (генерал - майора Лазарева егерский полк).
 1801 : أعيدت تسميته : الفوج 17 اغيركيس (17 - й егерский полк).
 1816 :أعيدت تسميته : الفوج السابع للبندقيين (7 - й Карабинерный полк).
 1827 :أعيدت تسميته : فوج بندقيي يريفان (Эриванский Карабинерный полк).
 1850 :أعيدت تسميته : فوج بندقيي يريفان من صاحب السمو الامبراطوري ولي العهد (Эриванский Карабинерный Его Императорского Высочества наследника цесаревича полк).
 1855 :أعيدت تسميته : فوج بندقيي صاحبة السمو يريفان (Лейб - Карабинерный Эриванский Его Величества полк). 1856 :أعيدت تسميته : الفوج الثالث عشر من قنبليي يريفان(13 - й Лейб - Гренадерский Эриванский Его Величества полк).
 1913 : أعيدت تسميته : الفوج الثالث عشر من قنبليي يريفان القيصر ميخائيل فيودوروفيتش (Царя Михаила Феодоровича 13 - й Лейб - Гренадерский Его Величества полк).

وصلات خارجية
 الزي الرسمي للفوج
  تاريخ الفوج

المصادر

 ذكريات قنبلي في القوقاز لبوبوف الصفحة 8.

تاريخ يريفان
جيش الإمبراطورية الروسية
وحدات وتشكيلات روسيا العسكرية في الحرب العالمية الأولى


Hermann Dücker (* um 1590/1595; † 4. März 1670) war kurkölnisch-westfälischer Oberkellner, Landpfennigmeister und Drost des Amtes Menden.

Leben
Er stammte aus einer Nebenlinie der Familie von Dücker, die in der Vergangenheit durch unstandesgemäße Heiraten ihre Adelseigenschaft verloren hatte. Der gleichnamige Vater, Hermann Dücker zu Breeck und Hegen, hatte seine Besitzungen von Kloster Werden zu Lehen. Die Mutter war Catharina Dücker von Aldengünne. Die Mutter starb bei oder kurz nach seiner Geburt. Der Vater war ein angesehener Bürger von Werden und Rentmeister der Abtei. Nach dem Tod der ersten Frau heiratete er erneut. Unter den weiteren Kindern waren der spätere Abt von Werden Heinrich Dücker und Johann Dücker Landpfennigmeister des Herzogtums Westfalen. Der Vater starb 1606. Wohl auf Grund von Kriegswirren verlor die Familie ihren Besitz. Sie kam daraufhin nach Arnsberg. Das Geburtsdatum ist Sohnes ist nicht genau bekannt. Nach neueren Forschungen lag es wahrscheinlich zwischen 1590 und 1595.

Hermann Dücker trat in die Dienste der Kölner Kurfürsten in ihrer Eigenschaft als Herzöge von Westfalen. Er war zunächst Sekretär des Landdrosten, also des weltlichen Stellvertreter des Kurfürsten im Herzogtum. In der Folge bekleidete er bedeutende Ämter im Dienst des Kurfürsten oder der Landstände. Zwischen 1623 und 1625 wurde er zum kurfürstlichen Oberkellner für das Herzogtum Westfalen ernannt. Er war auch kurfürstlicher Rat, Drost des Amts Menden sowie Landpfennigmeister. Weil das Amt des Landbergmeisters zeitweise nicht besetzt war, hat Dücker seit 1670 auf für bergrechtliche Fragen zuständig.

Ihm gelang es ein bedeutendes Vermögen zu erwerben. Bei seinem Tod umfasste die Güteraufstellung 20 eng beschriebene Seiten im Folioformat. Damit baute er das Rittergut Obereimer in der Nähe von Arnsberg aus. Seit 1627 hat er nach und nach verschiedene Höfe und Kotten in Obereimer gekauft. Er erwarb auch die damit verbundenen gutsherrlichen Rechte, die sich zuvor im Besitz der Familie Wrede, dem Kloster Wedinghausen und dem Kurfürsten befunden hatten. Hinzu kam der Erwerb von Besitzungen im Tal der Walpke. Im Jahr 1631 erlangte er von den Landständen die Anerkennung des Gutes Obereimer als landtagsfähiges Rittergut. Damit verbunden war die Befreiung von Kriegskontributionen und Schatzungen. Allerdings gefiel dem Kurfürsten Maximilian Heinrich von Bayern das Gut so gut, dass Dücker es 1652 unter sanftem Druck an den Kurfürsten verkaufen musste. Der Kaufpreis betrug 12.000 Reichstaler. In Arnsberg erbaute er wahrscheinlich 1627 den repräsentativen Dückerschen Hof. Des Weiteren erwarb er großen Besitz im Raum Menden, der noch immer in Familienbesitz ist. Daher nannte er sich Herr von Ober- und Nieder-Rödinghausen.

Er wurde nach seinem Tod in der Familiengruft der Familie in der Klosterkirche von Wedinghausen bestattet. Er hatte zwei Söhne. Der eine war Wilhelm Lothar Bernd Dücker, der kurkölner Geheimer Rat und Gesandter des französischen Königs war. Ihm gelang die Wiederherstellung des Adelsstandes. Durch Adoption ging der Adelsstand auch auf den Bruder und zweiten Sohn Hermann Dunckers Dietrich Gaudenz von Dücker über. Letzterer folgte dem Vater als Oberkellner nach.

Einzelnachweise

Literatur
Michael Gosmann: Zur Frühgeschichte des Dückerschen Hofes (bis 1670). In: Heimatblätter des Arnsberger Heimatbundes 7/1986  s.44
Jürgen Schulte-Hobein: Der Kurfürstliche Tiergarten in Obereimer. In: Heimatblätter des Arnsberger Heimatbundes 11/1990  S. 63
Rico Quaschny: "... man schmidet am besten, wans Eisen noch wahrm ist..." Hermann Dücker (um 1590/95 -1670), Oberkellner und Landpfennigmeister des Herzogtums Westfalen, kurkölnischer Hofkammerrat, Deputierter der Westfälischen Landstände und Droste des Amtes Menden. Eine westfälische Beamtenkarriere im 17. Jahrhundert. In: Südwestfalenarchiv 2020/21 S. 16–165.

Person (Arnsberg)
Person (Herzogtum Westfalen)
Hermann
Geboren 1591
Gestorben 1670
Mann

Hermann Dücker


ماريو باور تنس  هي لعبة فيديو رياضية على النينتندو جيم كيوب. تجتمع في هذه اللعبة 14 شخصية معروفة من امتياز ماريو وهي تتمتع بميزات خاصة. لدى كل شخصية قدرتان خارقتان، يمكنها استخدام القدرة الأولى في حالة الهجوم والأخرى في حالة الدفاع أي عند مواجهتها لمواقف صعبة وكلما تقدم اللاعب في مراحل اللعبة كلما ازدادت صعوبة هذه المواقف. يضفي اللعب بقبضات المحاورة التفاعلية على اللعبة كثيراً من الإثارة والمرح والمتعة. تتيح اللعبة إمكانات كثيرة ومتعددة للاعب في استقبال الكرات وإرسالها وهي تحتوى على عدة مستويات للعب لتتناسب مع إمكانية كل لاعب ومهارته، كما تتيح له فرصة اختيار طبيعة أرض الملعب ومكانه بين الأماكن المختلفة التي تقترحها ألعاب الـ نينتندو. توجد بالإضافة إلى المباريات الرسمية ألعاب ثانوية لممتعة ومثيرة. يمكن اللعب بهذه اللعبة مع الأصدقاء مما يضمن تمضية وقت مليء بالمرح والتسلية والإثارة.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

 Mario Power Tennis at Super Mario Wiki

ألعاب نيو بلاي كونترول!
ألعاب فيديو 2004
ألعاب فيديو سجلها موتوي ساكورابا
ألعاب فيديو عن التنس
ألعاب فيديو فردية وجماعية
ألعاب فيديو مطورة في اليابان
ألعاب كامالوت سوفتوير بلاننغ
ألعاب نينتندو غيم كيوب
ألعاب وي
الإرهاب في الأعمال الخيالية
تتمة ألعاب فيديو
ماريو تنس
كرة المضرب في الخيال

ماريو باور تنس


Binissalem, Batı Akdeniz'de, İspanya'nın doğu sahiline yakın, İspanya'nın özerk bölgesi olan Balear Takımadaları'na ait bir belediye. Mayorka Adası'nda olup nüfusu; 5,618'dir. (2002)

Dış bağlantılar

 Binissalem Belediyesi

Mayorka'nın belediyeleri

Binissalem


«Heavy Cross» —en español: «Cruz pesada»— es una canción de la banda de indie rock estadounidense Gossip. Fue lanzada como primer sencillo de su cuarto álbum de estudio Music for Men, el 28 de abril de 2009.

Beth Ditto explicó a la revista NME que la canción trata sobre "el proceso de la creación, y de las dificultades del mismo"

En 2013 ganó fama en un anuncio de J'Adore de Dior.

Video musical
El video musical fue dirigido por Price James y fue estrenado por Perez Hilton, el 12 de junio de 2009. El vídeo gira principalmente en torno a la banda, interpretan la canción en un ambiente completamente oscuro, casi místico-tribal, donde la cantante Beth Ditto viste diferentes atuendos a medida que transcurre el clip, uno de ellos parece representar una túnica maya, y aparece con un anillo de oro en su dedo meñique.

Lista de canciones

Posicionamiento en listas y certificaciones

Listas semanales

Listas anuales

Listas de fin de década

Certificaciones

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 "Heavy Cross" en Discogs

Sencillos de 2009
Sencillos de Gossip
Sencillos de rock alternativo
Canciones producidas por Rick Rubin
Sencillos certificados de triple oro por la Bundesverband Musikindustrie
Sencillos certificados de platino por la Australian Recording Industry Association
Sencillos certificados de platino por la Belgian Entertainment Association
Sencillos certificados de platino por la IFPI de Suiza
Sencillos certificados de platino por la Federación de la Industria Musical Italiana
Sencillos certificados de oro por la Recording Industry Association of New Zealand
Canciones en inglés
Canciones de rock
Sencillos de dance pop

Heavy Cross


People's holiday er en dokumentarfilm fra 1947 instrueret af Søren Melson efter manuskript af Poul Henningsen.

Handling
14 dages ferie med løn er en ret, som tilkommer danskere på arbejdsmarkedet. I filmen besøger vi Folke-Ferie - en slags rejsebureau, som drives af bl.a. fagbevægelsen og tilbyder gode og billige ferier: særlige ferielandsbyer, vandrehjem og landbohjem, hvor arbejdere fra byen kan tilbringe ferien.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1947

People's holiday


Luis Ricardo Mejía Cajar (Cidade do Panamá, 16 de março de 1991) é um futebolista profissional panamenho que atua como Goleiro, atualmente defende o Unión Española.

Carreira
Luis Mejía fez parte do elenco da Seleção Panamenha de Futebol da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2011.

Naturais da Cidade do Panamá
Futebolistas do Panamá
Futebolistas do Centro Atlético Fénix
Futebolistas do Toulouse Football Club
Futebolistas do Club Nacional de Football
Futebolistas da Unión Española
Jogadores da Seleção Panamenha de Futebol
Jogadores da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2011
Jogadores da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2013
Jogadores da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2015
Jogadores da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2019
Jogadores da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2021
Jogadores da Copa Ouro da CONCACAF de 2023

Luis Mejía


Lichess (IPA: 'liː-tʃɛs/) je internetski šahovski poslužitelj. Svatko na njemu može igrati anonimno, premda igrači mogu registrirati svoju račun na tim stranicama da bi mogli igrati igre koje će biti rangirane. Sve osobine na poslužitelju su besplatne, zato što se stranice izdržavaju donacijama.

Vidi
Popis internetskih šahovskih poslužitelja

Izvori

Internetski šahovski poslužitelji

Lichess


النغل أو البَرْذَون هو حيوان هجين من سلالة الخيول يستخدم للركوب وحمل المتاع وينتج عن تزاوج ذكر الحصان وأنثى الحمار (الأتان) ويسمى في بعض اللهجات بالجحش إلا إن هذه التسمية خاطئة لأن الجحش هو صغير الحمار.
والفرق بين البغل والنغل أن البغل ينتج عن تزاوج أنثى الحصان وذكر الحمار.

الوصف
النغل وهو ليس نفسه البغل أو الحمار كما يظن الكثيرون. وصوت النغل يختلف قليلا عن الحمار، كما يتصف النغل بالشجاعة ولا تكون هذه الشجاعة بنفس الدرجة التي يتصف بها البغل. من حيث الجوهر يشابه النغل أخواله (الحمير) ويحمل النغل الصفات الوراثية السائدة من الحمير، كالأذنين الطويلتين.

التنشئة
يولّد هذا النوع من الحيوانات بشكل خاص في بلدان البحر المتوسط ودول آسيا، وتعتبر عملية تهجينه أصعب من تهجين البغل، لان لفت نظر حصان لأنثى الحمار هو أصعب بكثير من لفت نظر الحمار إلى الفرس، ولهذا السبب ولأسباب أخرى تتعلق بعدم اختلاف النغل بالكثير عن الحمار فان عملية تهجينه تكون قليلة جدا.

الصفات الوراثية
عند تهجين الجملة الوراثية للأتان (62 كروموسوم) مع الجملة الوراثية للحصان (64 كروموسوم) فان الناتج هو صيغة وراثية هجينة مؤلفة من (63 كروموسوم) وهذه الصيغة الوراثية لا تحتوي على خلايا جنسية قادرة على إنتاج الأعراس الضرورية لعميلة التكاثر. من حيث المبدأ تكون الذكور قادرة على ممارسة الجنس ولكنها تكون عقيمة. في مقابل ذلك تكون بعض الإناث وفي حالات قليلة جدا قادرة على الانجاب. ويتعلق الشبه الكبير للنغل بوالدته الأتان بعملية تسمى عدم التأثر الوراثي، أي أن الصفات الوراثية من الأب تورّث ولكنها لا تؤثر بالضرورة على تركيب الحمض النووي الذي يتشكل مشابها إلى درجة كبيرة لصيغة الحمض الوراثي المورّث من الأم. لهذا يشابه النغل لدرجة كبيرة اخواله الحمير.

الاستخدامات
تستخدم هذه الحيوانات على الأغلب في الجر والنقل، وفي بعض الأحيان تستعمل هذه الحيوانات في عمل المناجم في بعض دول اميركا. كما أنها تستخدم للركوب لبعض هواة ركوب هذا النوع من الدواب.

الادب
ورد ذكر هذا الحيوان في الأدب في تمثلية "نغل على الطريق السريع" للكاتب الفرنسي باول بيرنا.

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 الحصان
 حمار
 البغل
 سيسي

أحصنة هجينة
حمير (حيوانات)
حيوانات أليفة
مواشي

نغل


Régine Wèrè Gazaro, née Palouki le  à Kara, est une femme politique togolaise.

Biographie

Enfance et formations
Régine Wèrè Gazaro commence ses études supérieures à l'université de Kara.

Carrière
Régine Wèrè Gazaro est jusqu'en 2018, année de sa retraite, fonctionnaire de Organisation africaine de la propriété intellectuelle. Avant cela, elle est ministre du bien-être social et de la solidarité nationale chargée des  droits de l'homme du  au  dans le gouvernement du général Gnassingbé Eyadema.

Notes et références

Ministre togolaise
Naissance au Togo
Naissance en octobre 1958
Naissance au Togo français

Régine Wèrè Gazaro


4 (dört), 3'ten sonraki ve 5'ten önceki çift tam sayıdır. Berilyumun atom numarası ve en küçük bileşik sayıdır.

Tam sayılar
Batıl inançlar

4 (sayı)


Delaware Nehri (İng. Delaware River) 595 km uzunluğuyla Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin doğusunda, büyük  nehirlerden biri. Catskill Dağları'nda (Catskill Mountains) doğarak New York'ta, Oquago (veya Coquago) ve Popacton'dan geçer. Daha sonra New Jersey ve Pensilvanya arasında sınır oluşturarak Philadelphia kentinin kenarından ilerler. Nihayetinde Delaware ve  New Jersey'in arasında bulunan Delaware Bay'de Atlas Okyanusu'na dökülür.

Nehrin akış bölgesi, 30.000 km² bir alanı kapsar. Deniz akıntıları, Delaware Nehri'nin çok ilerilerine kadar girer ve böylece büyük gemilerin Philadelphia'ya giriş imkânı oluşur. Lehigh Nehri ve Schuylkill Nehri, bu nehre açılan başlıca yan nehirlerdir. Delaware-Hudson ve Morris-Essex-Kanalları, Delaware Nehri'ni, Hudson Nehri ile birleştirir. Union- ve Schuylkill Kanalları vasıtasıyla ise, Susquehanna Nehri'ne bağlanır.

Nehir adını, Thomas West, Lord De La Warr'dan alır.

Delaware Nehri