Operation Crusader (18 November – 30 December 1941) was a military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during the Second World War by the British Eighth Army (with Commonwealth, Indian and Allied contingents) against the Axis forces (German and Italian) in North Africa commanded by  Erwin Rommel. The operation was intended to bypass Axis defences on the Egyptian–Libyan frontier, defeat the Axis armoured forces and relieve the 1941 Siege of Tobruk.

On 18 November 1941, the Eighth Army launched a surprise attack. From 18 to 22 November, the dispersal of British armoured units led to them suffering 530 tank losses and inflicted Axis losses of about 100 tanks. On 23 November, the 5th South African Brigade was destroyed at Sidi Rezegh but inflicted many German tank casualties. On 24 November Rommel ordered the "dash to the wire" and caused chaos in the British rear echelons but allowed the British armoured forces to recover. On 27 November, the New Zealanders reached the Tobruk garrison and relieved the siege.

The battle continued into December when supply shortages forced Rommel to narrow his front and to shorten his lines of communication. On 7 December 1941, Rommel withdrew the Axis forces to the Gazala position and on 15 December he ordered a withdrawal to El Agheila. The 2nd South African Division captured Bardia on 2 January 1942, Sollum on 12 January and the fortified Halfaya position on 17 January, taking about 13,800 prisoners. On 21 January 1942, Rommel launched a surprise counter-attack and drove the Eighth Army back to Gazala where both sides regrouped. The Battle of Gazala began at the end of May 1942.

Background

Eighth Army

After the costly failure of Operation Battleaxe, General Archibald Wavell was removed as commander-in-chief of the Middle East Command and replaced by General Claude Auchinleck. The Western Desert Force was reorganised and renamed the Eighth Army, under the command of Lieutenant-General Alan Cunningham, who was replaced by Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie. The Eighth Army had XXX Corps, under Lieutenant-General Willoughby Norrie, and XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Reade Godwin-Austen.

XXX Corps was made up of 7th Armoured Division (commanded by Major-General William Gott), the understrength South African 1st Infantry Division with two brigades of the Sudan Defence Force, which was newly arrived from the East African Campaign and commanded by Major-General George Brink, and the independent 22nd Guards Brigade. XIII Corps comprised 4th Indian Infantry Division (commanded by Major-General Frank Messervy), the newly arrived 2nd New Zealand Division (commanded by Major-General Bernard Freyberg) and the 1st Army Tank Brigade.

The Eighth Army also included the Tobruk garrison with the 32nd Army Tank Brigade, and the Australian 9th Division, which in late 1941 was in the process of being replaced by the British 70th Infantry Division and the Polish Carpathian Brigade (commanded by Major-General Stanisław Kopański). Australian Major General Leslie Morshead had been succeeded as Allied commander at Tobruk by British Major General Ronald Scobie. However, by November, the Australian 20th Brigade remained in Tobruk, under Brigadier John Murray.

In reserve, the Eighth Army had the South African 2nd Infantry Division, for a total equivalent of about seven divisions with 770 tanks (including many of the new Crusader Cruiser tanks, after which the operation was named, as well as new American M3 Stuart light tanks). Air support was provided by up to 724 combat aeroplanes of the Commonwealth air forces in the Middle East and Malta, with direct support under the command of Air Headquarters Western Desert.

The main Axis force in the battle was  under General Erwin Rommel. This force included:

 Deutsches Afrika Korps (Lieutenant-General Ludwig Crüwell)
 15th Panzer Division
 21st Panzer Division
 Division zbV Afrika (a composite formation, renamed the 90th Light Africa Division in late November
(The DAK had a total of 260 tanks.)

 Italian 55th Infantry Division "Savona".

At the start of the battle, the Italian High Command (General Ettore Bastico) controlled the following additional forces in the area:

 XX Army Corps (Italy) (Lieutenant-General Gastone Gambara)
 132nd Armored Division "Ariete" with 146 M13/40 medium tanks
 101st Motorized Division "Trieste"
 XXI Army Corps (Italy) (Lieutenant-General Enea Navarini)
 17th Infantry Division "Pavia"
 102nd Motorized Division "Trento"
 27th Infantry Division "Brescia"
 25th Infantry Division "Bologna"

XX Corps was placed under Rommel's direct command on 23 November.

The Axis forces had built a defensive line of strong points along the escarpment running from near the sea at Bardia and Sollum and further along the border wire to Fort Capuzzo. Elements of the 21st Panzer and the Savona divisions manned these defences. Rommel kept the rest of his forces grouped near or around the Tobruk perimeter, where an attack on 14 November had been put back to 24 November due to supply difficulties. Axis air support consisted of about 120 German and 200 Italian serviceable airplanes but these could be reinforced quickly by transfer of units from Greece and Italy.

Preparations

Axis supply

A German motorised division needed  per day, and moving the supplies    lorries. With seven Axis divisions, as well as air and naval units,  of supplies per month were needed. The Vichy French agreed to the use of Bizerta, but no supplies reached the port until late 1942. From February to May 1941, a surplus of  was delivered. Attacks from Malta had some effect, but in May, the worst month for ship losses, 91% of supplies arrived. Lack of transport in Libya left German supplies in Tripoli, and the Italians had only  to transport supplies to  A record amount of supplies arrived in June, but at the front, shortages worsened.

There were fewer Axis attacks on Malta from June, and the British increased the proportion of ships sunk from 19% in July to 25% in September, when Benghazi was bombed and ships diverted to Tripoli, air supply in October making little difference.

Deliveries averaged  per month from July to October, but the consumption of 30-50% of fuel deliveries by road transport and a 35% truck unserviceability rate reduced deliveries to the front. In November, during Operation Crusader, a five-ship convoy was sunk, and air attacks on road convoys prevented daylight journeys.

Lack of deliveries and the Eighth Army offensive forced a retreat to El Agheila from 4 December, crowding the , where British ambushes destroyed about half of the remaining Axis transport.

Convoys to Tripoli resumed and ship losses increased, but by 16 December, the supply situation had eased except for the fuel shortage. In December, the Luftwaffe was restricted to one sortie per day. The Vichy French sold  of fuel, U-boats were ordered into the Mediterranean and air reinforcements sent from the Soviet Union in December. The Italian Navy used warships to carry fuel to Derna and Benghazi and made a maximum effort from 16 to 17 December. Four battleships, three light cruisers and  escorted four ships to Libya. The use of an armada for  of cargo ships depleted the navy's fuel reserve and allowed only one more battleship convoy. Bizerta, Tunisia, was canvassed as an , but it was in range of RAF aircraft from Malta and was another  west of Tripoli.

Eighth Army plan
The plan was to engage the  with the 7th Armoured Division while the South African Division covered their left flank. Meanwhile, on their right, XIII Corps, supported by 4th Armoured Brigade (detached from 7th Armoured Division), would make a clockwise flanking advance west of Sidi Omar (). They would then hold the positions threatening the rear of the line of Axis defensive strongpoints, which ran east from Sidi Omar to the coast at Halfaya.

Central to the plan was the destruction of the Axis armour by 7th Armoured Division to allow the relatively lightly armoured XIII Corps to advance north to Bardia on the coast while XXX Corps continued north-west to Tobruk and link with a breakout by the 70th Division.

There was also a deception plan to persuade the Axis that the main Allied attack would not be ready until early December and be a sweeping outflanking move through Jarabub, an oasis on the edge of the Great Sand Sea, more than  to the south of the real point of attack. That proved so successful that Rommel, refusing to believe that an attack was imminent, was not in Africa when it actually came.

Battle

First phase

18 November

Before dawn on 18 November, the Eighth Army launched a surprise attack, advanced west from its base at Mersa Matruh, crossed the Libyan border near Fort Maddalena some  south of Sidi Omar and pushed to the north-west. The Eighth Army relied on the Desert Air Force to provide it with two clear days without serious air opposition, but torrential rain and storms on the night before the offensive caused the cancellation of all air raids, which had been planned to interdict the Axis airfields and to destroy their aircraft on the ground.

At first, all went well for the Allies. The 7th Armoured Brigade of the 7th Armoured Division advanced north-west towards Tobruk with 22nd Armoured Brigade to their left. XIII Corps and the New Zealand Division made its flanking advance with 4th Armoured Brigade on its left and 7th Infantry Brigade of the 4th Indian Division on its right flank at Sidi Omar. On the first day, no resistance was encountered as the Eighth Army closed on the enemy positions.

On the morning of 19 November, in an action at Bir el Gubi, the advance of the 22nd Armoured Brigade was blunted by the Ariete Division, which knocked out many British tanks at the start of the battle.

In the centre of the division, 7th Armoured Brigade and the 7th Support Group raced forward almost to within sight of Tobruk and took Sidi Rezegh airfield.

On the right flank, 4th Armoured Brigade came into contact that evening with a force of 60 tanks supported by 88 mm gun batteries and anti-tank units from 21st Panzer Division, which had been moving south from Gambut, and became heavily engaged.

On 20 November, 22nd Armoured Brigade fought a second engagement with the Ariete Division and 7th Armoured repulsed an infantry counterattack by the 90th Light and Bologna Divisions at Sidi Rezegh. 4th Armoured fought a second engagement with 21st Panzer and pit the speed of their Stuart tanks against the heavier German guns.

The Eighth Army was fortunate that 15th Panzer Division had been ordered to Sidi Azeiz, where there was no British armour to engage. However, 4th Armoured soon started to receive intelligence that the two German Panzer divisions were linking up. In his original battle plan, Cunningham had hoped for that so that he could bring his own larger tank force to bear and defeat the Afrika Korps armour. By attaching 4th Armoured Brigade to XIII Corps, allowing 22nd Armoured Brigade to be sidetracked fighting the Ariete Division and letting 7th Armoured Brigade forge towards Tobruk, his armoured force had become hopelessly dispersed.

22nd Armoured Brigade were therefore disengaged from the Ariete and ordered to move east and support 4th Armoured Brigade. Infantry and artillery elements of 1st South African Division were to hold the Ariete, and 4th Armoured were released from their role of defending XIII Corps' flank.

In the afternoon of 20 November, 4th Armoured were engaged with 15th Panzer Division (21st Panzer having temporarily withdrawn for lack of fuel and ammunition). It was too late in the day for a decisive action, but 4th Armoured lost some 40 tanks and had been down to less than two-thirds their original strength of 164 tanks. 22nd Armoured arrived at dusk, too late to have an impact, and during the night of 20 November, Rommel pulled all his tanks north-west for an attack on Sidi Rezegh.

Tobruk

The Eighth Army plans for 21 November were for 70th Division to break out from Tobruk and to cut off the Germans to the south-east. The 7th Armoured would advance from Sidi Rezegh to link with them and roll up the Axis positions around Tobruk. The New Zealand Division (XIII Corps) would exploit the decline of the 21st and 15th Panzer and advance  north-east to the Sidi Azeiz area, overlooking Bardia. The 70th Division attack surprised the Axis since Rommel had underestimated the size and the armoured strength of the garrison. On the evening of 20 November, Scobie ordered a break-out on 21 November by the 70th Division (2nd/King's Own, 2nd BlackWatch, 2nd/Queen's and 4th RTR with Matilda tanks). The Polish Carpathian Brigade was to mount a diversion just before dawn to pin the Pavia Division. During the operation, 100 guns were to bombard the Bologna, Brescia and Pavia positions on the Tobruk perimeter with 40,000 rounds.

Fighting was intense as the three-pronged attack consisted of the 2nd King's Own on the right flank, the 2nd Battalion, Black Watch, as the central force and the 2nd Queen's Own on the left flank. They advanced to capture a series of prepared strongpoints leading to Ed Duda. Initially, the Italians were stunned by the massive fire, and a company of the Pavia was overrun in the predawn darkness, but resistance in the Bologna gradually stiffened.

By mid-afternoon, elements of 70th Division had advanced some  toward Ed Duda on the main supply road when they paused, as it became clear that 7th Armoured would not link up.

The central attack by the Black Watch involved a murderous charge under heavy machine gun fire and attacking and taking various strongpoints until they reached the strongpoint Tiger. The Black Watch lost an estimated 200 men and the commanding officer.

The British renewed their advance, but the attack petered out since the infantry involved could not capture the Bologna defences around the Tugun strongpoint.

On 21 November, another fierce action was fought with high casualties by elements of the German 155th Rifle Regiment, Artillery Group Bottcher, 5th Panzer Regiment and the British 4th, 7th and 22nd Armoured Brigades for possession of Sidi Rezegh and the surrounding height in the hands of Italian infantry and anti-tank gunners of the Bologna.

On 22 November, General Scobie ordered the position to be consolidated and the corridor widened in the hope that the Eighth Army would link up. The 2nd York and Lancaster Regiment with tank support took the strongpoint Tiger and left a  gap between the corridor and Ed Duda, but efforts to clear the Tugun and Dalby Square strong points were repelled. In the fighting on the 22nd, the Tugun's defenders brought down devastating fire and reduced the strength in one attacking British company to merely 33 all ranks.

Second phase

Sidi Rezegh

On 23 November, the 70th Division in Tobruk attacked the 25th Bologna Infantry Division in an attempt to reach the area of Sidi Rezegh, but elements of the Pavia soon arrived and broke up the British attack. On 26 November, Scobie ordered a successful attack on the Ed Duda ridge, and in the early morning of 27 November, the Tobruk garrison linked up with a small force of New Zealanders.

7th Armoured had planned its attack northward to Tobruk to start at 08.30 on 21 November, but at 07.45, patrols reported the arrival from the south-east of a mass of enemy armour of some 200 tanks in all. 7th Armoured Brigade, together with a battery of field artillery, turned to meet the threat and left the four companies of infantry and the artillery of the Support Group to carry out the attack to the north in anticipation of being reinforced by 5th South African Infantry Brigade. It had been detached from the 1st South African Division at Bir el Gubi, which faced the Ariete Division, and was heading north to join them.

Without armoured support, the northward attack by the Support Group failed. By the end of the day, 7th Armoured Brigade had lost the bulk (28 of its 60) tanks and been relying mainly on the artillery of the Support Group to hold the enemy at arm's length.

The South African brigade was dug in south-east of Bir el Haiad but, the German armour was between them and Sidi Rezegh. However, by the evening of 21 November, 4th Armoured was  south east of Sidi Rezegh and 22nd Armoured Brigade were in contact with the German armour at Bir el Haiad, some  south-west of Sidi Rezegh.

Overnight, Rommel once again split his forces. 21st Panzer took up a defensive position alongside the Afrika Division between Sidi Rezegh and Tobruk, and 15th Panzer moved  west to Gasr el Arid to prepare for a battle of manoeuvre, which General Ludwig Crüwell believed would favour the Afrika Korps. That presented a clear opportunity for a breakthrough to Tobruk with the whole of 7th Armoured Division concentrated and facing only the weakened 21st Panzer. However, XXX Corps Commander Norrie, aware that 7th Armoured division was down to 200 tanks, decided on caution.

In the early afternoon, Rommel instead attacked Sidi Rezegh with 21st Panzer and captured the airfield. Fighting was desperate and gallant. For his actions during both days of fighting, Brigadier Jock Campbell, who commanded 7th Support Group, was awarded the Victoria Cross. However, 21st Panzer, despite being considerably weaker in armour, proved superior in its combined arms tactics and pushed 7th Armoured Division back with a further 50 tanks lost (mainly from 22nd Brigade).

The fighting at Sidi Rezegh continued until 22 November, with the South African Division's 5th Brigade had become engaged to the south of the airfield. An attempt to recapture it failed, and the Axis counteroffensive began to gain momentum. 7th Armoured Brigade withdrew; all but four of their 150 tanks had become out of commission or destroyed. In four days, the Eighth Army had lost 530 tanks; Axis losses had been about 100.

The most memorable action during the North African Campaign of the 3rd Field Regiment (Transvaal Horse Artillery) was during the Battle of Sidi Rezegh, on 23 November 1941. The South Africans were surrounded on all sides by German armour and artillery and were subjected to a continuous barrage. They tried to take cover in shallow slit trenches. In many places, the South African soldiers could dig only to around  deep because of the solid limestone under their positions. The Transvaal Horse Artillery engaged German tanks from the 15th and the 21st Panzer Divisions, the gunners firing over open sights as they were overrun. That continued until many of the officers had died, and the gunners had run out of ammunition.

Many of the gun crews were captured. As darkness fell, those who could do so escaped back to Allied lines under the cover of darkness. The gunners of the 3rd Field Regiment managed to save five of their 24 guns from the battlefield and later recovered seven other guns. After the Battle of Sidi Rezegh, Acting Lieutenant General Sir Charles Willoughby Moke Norrie stated that the South African "sacrifice resulted in the turning point of the battle, giving the Allies the upper hand in North Africa at that time".

Frontier
On the XIII Corps front on 22 November, the 5th New Zealand Brigade advanced north-east to capture Fort Capuzzo on the main Sollum–Bardia road. The Brigade attacked Bir Ghirba, south of Fort Capuzzo and the headquarters of the Savona Division but was repulsed.

To the south, the 7th Indian Brigade captured Sidi Omar and most of the Libyan Omar strongpoints, which were the two westernmost strong points of the Axis border defences. Losses in its supporting tank units caused a delay in attacks on the other strong points until replacements had arrived. One of the New Zealand military unit's historians described the fighting days as the 7th Indian Brigade's most difficult, with the men of the 4/16th Punjab Battalion having "fought all morning to overcome resistance" and the German 12th Oasis Company having "formed the backbone of the defence of the whole position".

On 23 November, the 5th New Zealand Brigade continued its advance south-east, down the main road from Fort Capuzzo towards Sollum, and cut off of the Axis positions from Sidi Omar to Sollum and Halfaya from Bardia and its supply route. The 6th New Zealand Brigade Group on the left flank at Bir el Hariga, had been ordered north-west along the Trigh Capuzzo (Capuzzo–El Adem) to reinforce 7th Armoured Division at Sidi Rezegh.

The brigade arrived at Bir el Chleta, some  east of Sidi Rezegh, at first light on 23 November. It stumbled on the Afrika Korps headquarters and captured most of its staff (Crüwell was absent). No supplies reached either panzer division that day. Later that day, the 4th New Zealand Brigade Group was sent north of the 6th New Zealand Brigade to apply pressure on Tobruk, and the 5th New Zealand Brigade covered Bardia and the Sollum–Halfaya positions.

On 23 November, in what was known by the Germans as  ("Sunday of the Dead"), Rommel gathered his two panzer divisions in an attack with the Ariete Armoured Division to cut off and to destroy the rest of XXX Corps. In the pocket were the remains of 7th Armoured Division, 5th South African Infantry Brigade and elements of the recently arrived 6th NZ Brigade. By the end of the day, the 5th South African Brigade had been destroyed. What remained of the defending force broke out of the pocket and headed south towards Bir el Gubi.  in Rome agreed to put the XX Mobile Corps, including the Ariete Armoured Division and the Trieste Motorised Division, under Rommel's command.

By 23 November, Ariete, Trieste and Savona had knocked out about 200 British tanks, and a similar number of vehicles were disabled or destroyed. From 19 to 23 November, around British 350 tanks were destroyed and 150 severely damaged. Axis losses were considerable, with the  down to 40 operational tanks.

Dash to the wire
On 24 November, Rommel ordered the  and Ariete division to push east. He hoped to relieve the Siege of Bardia and the frontier garrisons, and to pose enough of a threat to the British rear echelon to complete the defeat of Operation Crusader. They headed for Sidi Omar, causing chaos, scattering the mainly rear echelon support units in their path and splitting XXX Corps and almost cutting off XIII Corps.

On 25 November, the 15th Panzer Division set off north-east for Sidi Azeiz, found the area empty and was constantly attacked by the Desert Air Force. South of the border, the 5th Panzer Regiment of the 21st Panzer Division attacked the 7th Indian Brigade at Sidi Omar but were repulsed by the 1st Field Regt RA, which fired over open sights at a range of . A second attack left the 5th Panzer Regiment with few operational tanks. The rest of 21st Panzer Division had headed north-east, south of the border, to Halfaya.

By the evening of 25 November, the 15th Panzer Division was west of Sidi Azeiz (where the 5th NZ Brigade headquarters was based) and down to 53 tanks practically the entire remaining tank strength of the . The Axis column had only a tenuous link to its supply dumps on the coast between Bardia and Tobruk, and supply convoys had to find a way past the 4th and 6th NZ Brigade Groups. On 26 November, the 15th Panzer Division, bypassed Sidi Azeiz, headed for Bardia for supplies and arrived around mid-day. The remains of the 21st Panzer Division attacked north-west of Halfaya towards Capuzzo and Bardia. , approaching Bir Ghirba ( north-east of Sidi Omar) from the west, was ordered towards Fort Capuzzo to clear any opposition and link with the 21st Panzer Division. They were to be supported by the depleted 115th Infantry Regiment of the 15th Panzer Division, which was to advance with some artillery south-east from Bardia toward Fort Capuzzo.

The two battalions of the 5th NZ Brigade, between Fort Capuzzo and Sollum Barracks, were engaged by the converging elements of the 15th and the 21st Panzer divisions at dusk on 26 November. During the night, the 115th Infantry Regiment got to within  of Capuzzo but was disengaged to switch its attack towards Upper Sollum, where it met 21st Panzer, coming from the south. In the early hours of 27 November, Rommel met with the commanders of the 15th and 21st Panzer Divisions at Bardia.

The  had to return to the Tobruk front, where the 70th Infantry Division and the New Zealand Division had gained the initiative. On 25 November, in the Trento Division sector, the 2nd Battalion Queens Royal Regiment attacked the  strongpoint but was repulsed. The garrison of , down to half their strength and exhausted and low on ammunition, food and water, surrendered on the evening of 25 November after it had defeated a British attack the previous night.

While  contained the British tank attacks in the Bologna sector, a battalion of  from  counterattacked the British breakout from Tobruk. Afterwards  Fritz Bayerlein wrote:

Rommel ordered the 21st Panzer Division back to Tobruk, and the 15th Panzer Division was to attack forces that were thought to besiege the border positions between Fort Capuzzo and Sidi Omar. The 15th Panzer Division first had to capture Sidi Azeiz to provide space for the ambitious manoeuvre. Neumann-Silkow felt the plan to have little chance of success and resolved to advance to Sidi Azeiz, where he believed there was a British supply dump, before he headed to Tobruk.

Defending the 5th Brigade Headquarters at Sidi Azeiz were a company of the 22nd New Zealand Infantry Battalion and the armoured cars of the New Zealand divisional cavalry, with some field artillery, anti-tank, anti-aircraft and machine gun units. The New Zealanders were overrun early on 27 November, Rommel congratulated Brigadier James Hargest on the determined New Zealand defence and 700 prisoners were taken although the armoured cars escaped.

The 21st Panzer Division ran into the 5th NZ Brigade 22nd battalion at Bir el Menastir while it was heading west to Tobruk from Bardia. After an exchange lasting most of the day, it was forced to detour south via Sidi Azeiz, which delayed its return to Tobruk by a day. By early afternoon, the Eighth Army Headquarters had known by radio intercepts that both divisions of the  were heading west to Tobruk, with the Ariete Division on their left. The audacious manoeuvre by Afrika Korps had failed but come within  of the main supply base of the Eighth Army.

The dash of the Afrika Korps to the south removed a severe threat to the left flank of the New Zealand Division, which had remained ignorant of the danger because news of the losses of the 7th Armoured Division had not reached XIII Corps and German tank losses had been wildly overestimated.

The New Zealand Division engaged elements of the ,,  and  Divisions, advanced westward and retook the Sidi Rezegh airfield and the overlooking positions to the north that led to Tobruk. The 70th Infantry Division resumed its attack on 26 November, and the next day, elements linked with the advancing New Zealanders of the 4th NZ Brigade at Ed Duda on the Tobruk by-pass. The 6th NZ Brigade cleared the Sidi Rezegh escarpment in a mutually-costly engagement.

Third phase

27 November

At mid-day on 27 November, the 15th Panzer Division reached Bir el Chleta and met the 22nd Armoured Brigade, which had been reorganised as a composite regiment with fewer than 50 tanks. By the afternoon, the 22nd Armoured Brigade was holding on and the 4th Armoured Brigade, with 70 tanks, had arrived on the left flank of the 15th Panzer Division, had dashed over  north-east and was harassing its rear echelons. The 15th Panzer Division was also suffering many losses from bombing. As night fell, the British tanks disengaged to replenish but inexplicably moved south to do so, which left the route west open for the 15th Panzer Division. Once again, the New Zealand Division, engaged in heavy fighting on the south-eastern end of the tenuous corridor into Tobruk, would be under threat from the Afrika Korps.

By 27 November, the situation of the Eighth Army had improved since XXX Corps had reorganised after the chaos of the breakthrough, and the New Zealand Division had linked up with the Tobruk garrison. Auchinleck had spent three days during the breakthrough with Cunningham, who had wanted to halt the offensive and withdraw.

However, Auchinleck handed Cunningham written orders on 25 November that included the sentence "...There is only one order, Attack and Pursue" On his return to Cairo on 26 November, after conferring with his superiors, Auchinleck relieved Cunningham and promoted his deputy chief of staff, Major-General Neil Ritchie, to acting lieutenant-general.

Tobruk corridor

From 26 to 27 November, in a determined attack, the 70th Infantry Division killed or captured the Italian defenders of several concrete pillboxes before they reached Ed Duda. On 27 November, the 6th New Zealand Brigade fought a fierce battle with a battalion of the 9th Bersaglieri Regiment, which had dug themselves around the Prophet's Tomb and used their machine guns to great effect. 6th NZ Brigade managed to link up with the 32nd Tank Brigade at Ed Duda. The 6th and 32nd Brigades secured a small bridgehead on the Tobruk Front, which lasted five days.

By 28 November, Bologna had regrouped largely in the Bu Amud and Belhamed areas, and the division had stretched out along  from the Via Balbia to the Bypass Road and fought in several places. The Reuters correspondent with the Tobruk garrison wrote on 28 November:

On the night of 27/28 November, Rommel had discussed plans for the next day with Crüwell and indicated that Rommel's priority was to cut the Tobruk Corridor and to destroy the enemy forces fighting there. Crüwell wanted to eliminate the threat of the 7th Armoured Division tanks to the south, which he felt needed attention first. 15th Panzer spent most of 28 November once more engaged with 4th and 22nd Armoured and dealt with supply problems. Despite being outnumbered 2–1 in tanks and at times being immobile because of lack of fuel, 15th Panzer pushed the British tank force southward and moved westward.

Fierce fighting continued on 28 November around the Tobruk Corridor, with the battle ebbing and flowing. It had not been possible to create a firm communications link between 70th and 2nd New Zealand Divisions, which made co-ordination between the two somewhat difficult. When two Italian motorised battalions of Bersaglieri, with supporting tanks, anti-tank guns and artillery, moved toward Sidi Rezegh, they overran a New Zealand field hospital. The Bersaglieri captured 1,000 patients and 700 medical staff. They also freed some 200 Germans who were held captive in the enclosure on the grounds of the hospital. The New Zealand Official History mentions the capture of 1,000 patients and implies that they were captured by Germans:

At 6 p.m., the Australian 2/13th Battalion moved to reinforce Ed Duda, where some platoons suffered severe casualties from the intense shelling.

On the night of 28 November Rommel rejected Crüwell's plan for a direct advance towards Tobruk since Rommel had had no success with head-on attacks on Tobruk during the months of the siege. He decided on a circling movement to attack Ed Duda from the south-west, to carry on through to cut off the enemy forces outside the Tobruk perimeter and to destroy them.

On the morning of 29 November, 15th Panzer set off west, travelling south of Sidi Rezegh. The remnants of 21st Panzer were supposed to be moving up on their right to form a pincer, but were in disarray when von Ravenstein failed to return from a reconnaissance that morning (he had been captured). In the afternoon, to the east of Sidi Rezegh, on the much-contested Point 175, elements of Ariete overran 21st NZ Battalion. The New Zealanders were caught wrong-footed since they had mistaken the attackers for reinforcements from the 1st South African Brigade, which had been due to arrive from the south-west to reinforce XIII Corps.

Lieutenant-Colonel Howard Kippenberger, who later rose to command the New Zealand 2nd Division noted:

 The 24th and 26th Battalions met a similar fate at Sidi Rezegh on 30 November. On 1 December, a German armoured attack on Belhamed practically destroyed the 20th Battalion. The New Zealanders suffered heavily in the attacks, with 879 dead, 1,699 wounded and 2,042 captured.

Meanwhile, the leading elements of 15th Panzer had reached Ed Duda, but they made little progress before nightfall against determined defences. However, a counterattack by 4th Royal Tank Regiment supported by Australian infantry recaptured the lost positions, and the German units fell back  to form a new position.

On 29 November, the two British Armoured Brigades were strangely passive. 1st SA Brigade was tied to the armoured brigades and unable to move in open ground without them because of the threat from the panzer divisions. On the evening of 29 November, 1st SA Brigade was placed under command of 2nd New Zealand Division and ordered to advance north to recapture Point 175. Meanwhile, radio intercepts had given the Eighth Army to believe that 21st Panzer and Ariete were in trouble, and Ritchie had ordered 7th Armoured Division to "stick to them like hell".

Eight Matilda tanks provided the preliminary bombardment for a counterattack by two companies of the 2/13th Australian Infantry Battalion on the night of 29/30 November. In a bayonet charge against German positions, the 2/13th had two killed and five wounded and took 167 prisoners.

After the resistance at Ed Duda, Rommel decided to withdraw 15th Panzer to Bir Bu Creimisa,  to the south, and to relaunch his attack northeast from there on 30 November. He aimed between Sidi Rezegh and Belhamed and to leave Ed Duda outside his encircling pocket. By mid-afternoon, 6th New Zealand Brigade had been heavily pressed on the western end of the Sidi Rezegh position. The weakened 24th Battalion was overrun as were two companies of 26th Battalion, but on the eastern flank of the position, 25th Battalion repelled an attack from Ariete moving from Point 175.

At 06:15 on 1 December, 15th Panzer renewed their attack towards Belhamed, supported by a massive artillery effort, and once again, 2nd New Zealand Division came under intense pressure. During the morning, 7th Armoured Division was ordered to advance to provide direct assistance; 4th Armoured Brigade arrived at Belhamed and may have had the opportunity for a decisive intervention since they outnumbered the 40 or so 15th Panzer Division tanks attacking the position. However, they believed their orders to be to cover the withdrawal of the remains of 6th NZ Brigade, which precluded an offensive operation.

The remains of 2nd NZ Division were now concentrated near Zaafran, 5 mi east of Belhamed and slightly further north-east of Sidi Rezegh. During the morning of 1 December, Freyberg, commanding 2nd NZ, saw a signal from the Eighth Army indicating that 1st SA Brigade would be under the command of 7th Armoured Division. He inferred that Army Headquarters had lost hope of holding the Tobruk corridor. He signalled in mid-morning that without the South Africans, his position would be untenable and so he was planning a withdrawal. Freyberg ordered 2nd NZ to be ready to move east at 1730. 15th Panzer, which had been resupplying, renewed its attack at 1630 and Trieste cut the tenuous link established with Tobruk. 2nd NZ became involved in a desperate fighting withdrawal from its western positions. Showing admirable discipline, they formed up by 1330, and having paused an hour for the tanks and artillery to join them from the west, set off at 1845. They reached the XXX Corps lines with little further interruption. In the early hours, the 3,500 men and 700 vehicles that had emerged headed back to Egypt.

Sollum

Once again, Rommel became concerned with the cut-off units in the border strongpoints. On 2 December, believing that he had won the battle at Tobruk, he sent the Geissler Advance Guard and the Knabe Advanced Guard battalion groups to open the routes to Bardia and to Capuzzo and then Sollum. On 3 December, the Geissler Advance Guard were heavily defeated by elements of 5th NZ Brigade on the Bardia road near Menastir. To the south the Knabe force at the same time fared slightly better on the main track to Capuzzo (Trigh Capuzzo), coming up against 'Goldforce' (based on the Central India Horse reconnaissance regiment) and retiring after an artillery exchange.

Rommel insisted once again on trying to relieve the frontier forts. Since Afrika Korps tanks were undergoing overhaul, he ordered the rest of 15th Panzer and the Italian Mobile Corps eastwards on 4 December, which caused considerable alarm at the Eighth Army headquarters. However, Rommel soon realised he could not deal with the situation at Tobruk if he sent a strong force east, and the Ariete went no further than Gasr el Arid.

Ed Duda
On 4 December, Rommel launched a renewed attack on Ed Duda that was repulsed by 70th Division's 14th Infantry Brigade. When it was clear that the attack would fail, Rommel resolved to withdraw from the eastern perimeter of Tobruk to allow him to concentrate his strength against the growing threat of XXX Corps to the south.

Bir el Gubi

After the withdrawal of 2nd NZ Division, Ritchie had reorganised his rear echelon units to release the 5th and 11th Indian Infantry Brigades of the 4th Indian Infantry Division and the 22nd Guards Brigade. By 3 December, the 11th Indian Infantry Brigade was in action against a strongpoint near Bir el Gubi, about  south of Ed Duda. The I and II battalions, 136th "Giovani Fascisti" Regiment in the hilltop position repulsed several attacks by British armour and Indian infantry units in the first week of December:

The Eighth Army infantry were left vulnerable because Norrie had been ordered to send the 4th Armoured Brigade east due to the threat to Bardia and Sollum. On 4 December, the Pavia and Trento Divisions counter-attacked the 70th Infantry Division to contain them within the Tobruk perimeter and reportedly recaptured the Plonk and Doc strongpoints. On 5 December, the 11th Indian Infantry Brigade continued its attritional attack against Point 174. As dusk approached, the  and the Ariete Armoured Division intervened to relieve the Young Fascist garrison at Point 174 and attacked the 11th Indian Infantry Brigade. Crüwell was unaware that 4th Armoured Brigade, with 126 tanks, was over  away and withdrew to the west. The 11th Indian Brigade had to be withdrawn to be refitted and replaced by the 22nd Guards Brigade.

Crüwell could have attacked on 6 December, as the 4th Armoured Brigade made no move to close up to the 22nd Guards Brigade but his hesitation prevented him from striking a conclusive blow before dark. By 7 December, the 4th Armoured Brigade had closed up and the opportunity had been lost. Neumann-Silkow, the commander of the 15th Panzer Division, was mortally wounded late on 6 December.

Gazala line
On 7 December, the 4th Armoured Brigade engaged the 15th Panzer Division, disabling 11 more tanks. Rommel had been told on 5 December by the Italian  that supply could not improve until the end of the month with the start of the airborne supply from Sicily. Realising that success was now unlikely at Bir el Gubi, he decided to narrow his front and to shorten his lines of communication by abandoning the Tobruk front and withdrawing to the positions at Gazala,  to his rear. They had been prepared by Italian rear echelon units and had been occupied by 8 December. He placed the Italian X Corps at the coastal end of the line and the Italian XXI Corps inland. The weakened Italian Mobile Corps anchored the southern end of the line at Alem Hamza while the Afrika Korps were placed behind the southern flank ready to counter-attack.

On 6 December, Rommel ordered his divisions to retreat westwards and left Savona to hold out as long as possible in the Sollum, Halfaya and Bardia area; they held out for six more weeks. That night, the 70th Division captured the German-held Walter and Freddie strong points without any resistance. A Pavia battalion, dug in on Point 157, inflicted heavy casualties on the 2nd Durham Light Infantry, before it was overcome after midnight. Although the 90th Light Division pulled out of the Tobruk sector on 4 December, Bologna held out until the night of 8/9 December, when trucks were finally assigned to give them some support. In a final action on the part of the 70th Division, the Polish Carpathian Brigade attacked elements of Brescia, followed the Axis retreat and captured the White Knoll position. That finally relieved the Tobruk defenders after a 19-day battle.

Better to co-ordinate his infantry and armour, Ritchie transferred the 7th Armoured Division to XIII Corps and directed the XXX Corps HQ to take the 2nd South African Division under command to conduct a siege of the border fortresses. He also sent forward to XIII Corps the 4th Indian Infantry Division and the 5th NZ Infantry Brigade. The Eighth Army launched its attack on the Gazala line on 13 December and the 5th NZ Brigade attacked along an  front from the coast. The 5th Indian Infantry Brigade made a flanking attack at Alem Hamza. Although Trieste held Alem Hamza, the 1st Battalion, The Buffs from the 5th Indian Infantry Division took Point 204, some miles west of Alem Hamza. They were thus left in a salient and the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade to their left was ordered to send northwards the 4th battalion 11th Sikh Regiment, supported by guns from the 25th Field Regiment RA and twelve Valentine tanks from the 8th Royal Tank Regiment, to ease their position. The force found itself confronted by the Afrika Korps, fielding 39 tanks and 300 lorries of infantry and guns. Once again, the 7th Armoured Division was not in place to intervene and it was left to the force's artillery and supporting tanks to face the threat. They took heavy casualties but managed to knock out 15 German tanks and repulse the counter-attack.

Godwin-Austen ordered Gott to get the British armour to a position from where it could engage the Afrika Korps since he was unaware that Gott and his senior commanders were no longer confident they could defeat the enemy directly, despite their superiority in numbers. Due to the Germans' superior tactics and anti-tank artillery, British commanders preferred making a wide detour to attack their soft-skinned elements and lines of supply, to immobilise them. On 14 December, the Polish Independent Brigade was brought forward to join the New Zealanders and prepare a new attack for the early hours of 15 December. The attack went in at 03:00, taking the defenders by surprise. Both brigades made good progress but narrowly failed to breach the line.

On 14 December, to the south, there was little activity from the Afrika Korps and the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade was limited to patrolling through a shortage of ammunition as supply problems multiplied. At Alem Hamza, the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade attacked again but made no progress against determined resistance and at Point 204 the 5th Indian Brigade's battalion of Royal East Kent Regiment ("The Buffs"), supported by ten I tanks, an armoured car squadron of the Central India Horse, a company of Bombay Sappers and Miners, the artillery of 31st Field Regiment RA and elements of the 73rd Anti-Tank Regiment and some anti-aircraft guns, were attacked by ten or twelve tanks, the remnants of Ariete, which they beat off.

On 15 December, Brescia and Pavia, with Trento in close support, repelled a strong Polish–New Zealand attack, freeing the 15th Panzer Division, which had returned to the Gazala Line, to be used elsewhere.

Rommel considered Point 204 a key position and many of the neighbouring armoured and infantry units were committed to attack it on 15 December. In fierce and determined fighting, the attacking force, Ariete, the 15th Panzer Division, with 8th Bersaglieri Regiment and 115th Lorried Infantry Regiment, overran the Buffs and its supporting elements during the afternoon. The Buffs lost over 1,000 men killed or captured with only 71 men and a battery of field artillery escaping. It was too late in the day for the attacking force to collect itself and to advance further to intervene at Alem Hamza. The attackers also had suffered heavily in the engagement and the German commander was heard on a radio intercept to report the inability of his force to exploit his success because of the losses sustained. By 15 December, Afrika Korps were down to eight operational tanks and Ariete about thirty. Rommel, who had greater respect for  the 7th Armoured Division than either Crüwell (or apparently even Gott), became very concerned about a perceived flanking move to the south by the British armour. Despite the vehement objections of the Italian generals and Crüwell, Rommel ordered an evacuation of the Gazala line on the night of the 15/16 December.

By the afternoon of 15 December, the 4th Armoured Brigade, having looped round to the south, was at Bir Halegh el Eleba, some  north-west of Alem Hamza and was ideally placed both to strike at the rear of the Afrika Korps and to advance north to cut the main lines communication of Panzer Group Afrika along the coast, as Godwin-Austen urged. Early on 16 December, only a small detachment was sent north, which caused serious confusion among Panzer Group Afrika's rear echelon but was not decisive and the rest of the brigade headed south to meet its petrol supplies. In the afternoon, the 15th Panzer Division, moving west, passed by the rear of the 4th Armoured Brigade and blocked any return move to the north. The mere presence of the British armour had prompted Rommel to withdraw from Gazala but the opportunity for the British to gain a big victory had been missed.

Aftermath

Over the following ten days, Rommel's forces withdrew to a line between Ajedabia and El Haseia, maintained his lines of communication, and avoided being cut off and surrounded, unlike the Italians the previous year. As his lines of supply shortened and supplies to El Agheila improved, he rebuilt his tank force and so the Eighth Army lines of supply became more and more stretched. On 27 December, Rommel was able in a three-day tank battle at El Haseia to inflict heavy damage on the 22nd Armoured Brigade, which forced the leading echelons of the Eighth Army to withdraw. That allowed the Axis forces to fall back to a tactically more-desirable defensive line at El Agheila in the first two weeks of January without having to deal with pressure from the enemy.

Auchinleck's determination and Ritchie's aggression had removed the Axis threat to Egypt and the Suez Canal for now. However, the Axis strongholds on the Libya–Egypt border remained, despite Rommel's recommendation for an evacuation by sea and to block the coast road and tie down Allied troops. In early December, the Allies decided that clearing the Axis frontier positions was essential to facilitate their supply lines and maintain the momentum of their advance. On 16 December, the 2nd South African Division commenced an attack on Bardia, garrisoned by 2,200 German and 6,600 Italian troops, and on 2 January 1942, the port fell. Sollum fell to the South Africans on 12 January after a small but fiercely-fought engagement. They surrounded the fortified Halfaya Pass position (which included the escarpment, the plateau above it and the surrounding ravines) and cut it off from the sea. The Halfaya garrison of 4,200 Italians of the 55th Infantry Division "Savona" and 2,100 Germans was already desperately short of food and water. The defences allowed the garrison to hold out against heavy artillery and aerial bombardment with relatively few casualties, but hunger and thirst forced a capitulation on 17 January. Rommel reported of General Fedele de Giorgis: "Superb leadership was shown by the Italian General de Giorgis, who commanded this German-Italian force in its two months' struggle".

On 21 January, Rommel launched a surprise counterattack from El Agheila. Although the action had originally been a "reconnaissance in force", since Rommel found the Eighth Army forward elements to be dispersed and tired, he took advantage, in his typical manner, of the situation and drove the Eighth Army back to Gazala where they took up defensive positions along Rommel's old line. A stalemate set in as both sides regrouped, rebuilt and reorganised. It may have proved a limited success, but Operation Crusader showed that the Axis could be beaten and was a fine illustration of the dynamic back-and-forth fighting that characterised the North African campaign. Geoffrey Cox wrote that Sidi Rezegh was the "forgotten battle" of the Desert War. Crusader was "won by a hair's breadth" by the Eighth Army but "had we lost it, we would have had to fight the battle of Alamein six months or a year earlier, without the decisive weapon of the Sherman tank".

See also

 List of World War II Battles
 North African campaign timeline
 List of World War II North Africa Airfields
 List of British military equipment of World War II
 List of Australian military equipment of World War II
 List of German military equipment of World War II
 List of Italian military equipment in World War II

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

 The 2nd Battalion The Blackwatch At Tobruk
 BBC – WW2 People's War – Operation Crusader
 Operation Crusader and Rommel's Dash To The Wire
 The Crusader Project

 Animated Map of Operation Crusader
 Operation Crusader animated battle map by Mark Cannon

North African campaign
Western Desert campaign
Libya in World War II
Egypt in World War II
Battles and operations of World War II involving Italy
Crusader
Battles and operations of World War II involving Australia
Battles and operations of World War II involving New Zealand
Battles and operations of World War II involving India
Battles and operations of World War II involving Poland
Battles of World War II involving Italy
Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia
Conflicts in 1941
1941 in Egypt
Military operations of World War II involving Germany
Erwin Rommel

Operation Crusader


සමාජවාදී සෝවියට් ජනරජයන්ගේ එක්සත් සංගමය සහ ඇමරිකානු එක්සත් ජනපදය අතර රාජ්‍යතාන්ත්‍රික සබඳතා පිහිටුවන ලද්දේ 1933 දී පමණය. රටවල් දෙක අතර පැවති අන්‍යෝන්‍ය එදිරිවාදිබව, සබඳතා ඇති වීම ප්‍රමාද වීමට හේතුවයි. දෙවෙනි ලෝක යුද්ධය අතරතුරදී සෝවියට් සංගමය සහ එක්සත් ජනපදය තාවකාලිකව මිතුරු රාජ්‍ය බවට පත් විය. නමුත්, යුද්ධය අවසන් වීමෙන් පසු රටවල් දෙක අතර නැවතත් අවිශ්වාසය සහ එදිරිවාදිකම් මතුවීම ඇරඹුනි. මෙය ඉක්මනින්ම සීතල යුද්ධයක් දක්වා වැඩි දියුණු විය.

රටවල් සංසන්දනය

මූලාශ්‍ර

සෝවියට් සංගමය–එක්සත් ජනපදය සබඳතා
එක්සත් ජනපදයේ ද්විපාරශ්වික සබඳතා
සෝවියට් සංගමයේ ද්විපාරශ්වික සබඳතා

සෝවියට් සංගමය–එක්සත් ජනපද සබඳතා


سفنو هي جزيرة صغيرة جدا تابعة لأرخبيل قرقنة، وهي محاذية لجزيرة شرقي.

مراجع

جزر تونس

سفنو


Quatermass est un groupe de rock progressif anglais basé à Londres, actif de 1969 à 1971. Il a existé aussi, au milieu des années 90, un autre groupe appelé Quatermass II, qui lui est lié.

Biographie
Constitué sous forme d'un power trio qui, à la façon des Nice, met en avant l'orgue Hammond, le groupe rassemble le bassiste-chanteur John Gustafson, le claviériste J. Peter Robinson, qui a déjà travaillé notamment avec Chris Farlowe, ainsi que le batteur Mick Underwood. Mick Underwood a joué auparavant avec Ritchie Blackmore au sein des Outlaws tandis que John Gustafson a été membre de The Big Three et The Merseybeats, entre autres. Mick Underwood a également tenu la batterie au sein des Episode Six, où il a été rejoint par John Gustafson après le départ de Roger Glover (à la suite de Ian Gillan) pour Deep Purple.

Le nom du groupe s'inspire du professeur Bernard Quatermass, un physicien de fiction qui est le personnage principal de plusieurs séries télévisées de la BBC dans les années 1950. Les trois musiciens signent avec le label progressive d'EMI,   Harvest Records.

Leur seul et unique album, au titre éponyme, sort en mai 1970, flanqué du Single Black Sheep of the Family. L'ambitieux Laughin' Tackle inclut 16 violons, 6 altos, 6 violoncelles et 3 contrebasses dans un arrangement de Robinson et est ponctué d'un solo de batterie d'Underwood. Remarquable également par sa pochette conçue par Storm Thogerson d'Hipgnosis, l'album ne recueille finalement qu'un succès d'estime et Quatermass se sépare en avril 1971.

Tandis qu'Undewood rejoint Paul Rodgers au sein de l'éphémère groupe Peace,  Gustafson forme le groupe Hard Stuff (Bullet) avec d'anciens membres d'Atomic Rooster. Il devient membre, de 1973 à 1975, de Roxy Music avant d'être recruté par Ian Gillan pour son Ian Gillan Band. Underwood, qui est resté en contact avec Ritchie Blackmore et Ian Gillan (il visite notamment Deep Purple durant l'enregistrement d'), rejoint à son tour, en 1979, le chanteur au sein du groupe Gillan.

C'est avec un autre ex-membre de Deep Purple, Nick Simper, qu'Underwood fonde Quatermass II. Gustafson participe à deux chansons sur l'album Long Road en 1997 mais Robinson, qui mêne depuis 1985 une riche carrière de compositeur de musiques de films, est absent. C'est Don Airey qui tient dès lors les claviers.

Black Sheep Of the Family

Il est à noter que, bien qu'extérieur au groupe, le guitariste Steve Hammond, que Robinson a déjà plusieurs fois côtoyé lors de diverses sessions d'enregistrement, est le compositeur de trois plages de l'album Quatermass, dont Gemini et .

Cette dernière chanson paraît également, à la même époque, sur un album de Chris Farlowe et du groupe The Hill  ainsi qu'en face B d'un 45 tours issu du second album de Fat Mattress, Steve Hammond jouant de la guitare sur ces deux versions.

Black Sheep of the Family suscite plus tard l'intérêt de Ritchie Blackmore au point qu'il en propose une reprise pour l'album de Deep Purple Stormbringer(1974). Devant le refus des autres membres du groupe, il en fait le premier enregistrement de son groupe Rainbow. En retour, cette reprise favorise une nouvelle publication de Quatermass et renforce son statut d'album culte des années 1970.

Membres
 John Gustafson - chant, basse
 J. Peter Robinson - claviers
 Mick Underwood - batterie

Discographie
 1970 : Quatermass, republié en 1975 et puis, sous forme de double CD de luxe, en 2013

Notes
Cet article a été partiellement traduit de l'article que la version anglaise de Wikipédia consacre au groupe. Il s'appuie également sur les notes d'accompagnement que J. Peter Robinson a rédigées à l'occasion de la nouvelle sortie de leur unique album sous forme de double CD de luxe en 2013

Références

Artiste d'Harvest Records
Groupe musical formé en 1969
Groupe anglais de rock progressif

Quatermass


(; anterior scris , în traducere literală "teren șes") este a patra cea mai mare insulă a Danemarcei, cu o suprafață de . Situată în Marea Baltică, ea face parte din regiunea Sjælland. La 1 ianuarie 2013, avea 62.578 de locuitori.

Generalități
Lolland este cunoscută și sub numele de "insula clătită" din cauza planeității ei: cel mai înalt punct de pe insulă are  deasupra nivelului mării, chiar lângă satul Horslunde. Insula a avut mare importanță în comunicații, printre altele, pentru Germania Nazistă în timpul celui de al Doilea Război Mondial. În trecut, în Lolland se cultiva sfecla de zahăr. Zahărul este încă o industrie importantă, vizibilă din numărul mare de plantații de sfeclă de zahăr.

Cel mai mare oraș din Lolland este Nakskov, cu 12.600 de locuitori. Alte orașe principale sunt Maribo (6000 de locuitori), care găzduiește sediul Episcopiei de Lolland și Falster, Sakskøbing (3.500 de locuitori) și Rødby (2.500 de locuitori).

Începând cu 1 ianuarie 2007, Lolland este administrată în două comune, Lolland acoperind cele două treimi din vest, și Guldborgsund treimea estică, cu insula învecinată Falster.

Lolland are legături rutiere și feroviare atât cu insula Falster de la est, cât și cu Germania (insula germană Fehmarn, legată de continent) prin feribot. Drumul European E47 leagă Copenhaga de Hamburg (Germania), prin Lolland.

Transporturi
Drumul european E47 de la Copenhaga traversează strâmtoarea  între insula Lolland și Falster printr-un tunel modern, dar șoseaua se termină la Rodbyhavn, unde vehiculele sunt transportate cu feribotul spre Fehmarn. Acest feribot, în serviciu continuu din 1963, deservește și 6 trenuri de călători pe zi.  și trenurile de noapte nu folosesc feribotul; ele ocolesc pe continent prin , apoi prin Funen și Iutlanda.

Guvernele Danemarcei și Germaniei intenționează să conecteze Lolland cu Fehmarn printr-un viitor tunel scufundat, numit .

Strâmtoarea dintre insulele Lolland și Falster este traversată și de alte două poduri mai vechi, Podul Frederick al IX-lea și Podul Guldborgsun la capătul de nord al strâmtorii. Podul Frederick al IX-lea este singurul cu cale ferată către Falster.

Demografie

Orașe și sate

Atracții turistice

Printre atracțiile turistice ale insulei se numără  construit în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIX-lea, și , care deschis în 2008.  de la nord de Maribo este cel mai mare  din Europa de Nord, iar   este un parc acvatic interior uriaș. În plus,  este un muzeu în aer liber în partea cea mai estică a insulei, lângă Nykobing Falster. Centrul este un muzeu experimental de  și conține o reconstrucție a unei părți dintr-un oraș medieval din jurul anului 1400. Este printre cele mai autentice reconstituiri ale perioadei medievale în Europa, și deține cea mai mare și cele mai vechi trebuchete din lume.

Lolland are multe plaje de nisip și zone cu , vizitate mai ales de turiști germani.

Referințe

 Tageo.com, "VESTSJAELLAND DANEMARCA Geografia Populației" (coordonate), 2007, pagina web: Tageo-index.
 Codurile poștale din Danemarca, pagina web: Postnumre-DK.
 Tele.dk: hartă rutieră detaliată a Danemarcei, pagina web: Tele-DK-Danemarca.
Insulele Danemarcei

Lolland


Breza este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Námestovo din regiunea Žilina. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.626 de locuitori. Se învecinează cu  și .

Istoric
Localitatea Breza este atestată documentar din 1580.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Breza, Slovacia


تشارلز موريس (23 مايو 1903 ، ودنفر (كولورادو) - 15 يناير 1979 ، غاينيسفيل (فلوريدا) (Charles W. Morris) عالم إشارات (semiotician) وفيلسوف أمريكي.

أعماله وأفكاره
قريب من البيئات الفكرية في فيينا ، ومن الفلسفة الوضعية المنطقية ، وضع شكل أصلي من الواقعية.

نهج موريس السيميائي يقسم الموضوع إلى سنتسّي، الذي يتناول خلط مجموعة من العلامات ، ودلاليّة التي تتناول معنى العلامات وبالمنطقية التي تتعلق بالأصل وبالاستخدام ، وبآثار العلامات.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أساتذة جامعة رايس
حائزون على زمالة غوغنهايم
خريجو جامعة شيكاغو
خريجو جامعة نورث وسترن
فلاسفة أمريكيون
فلاسفة اللغات
مواليد 1901
مواليد 1903
مواليد في دنفر (كولورادو)
وفيات 1979
وفيات في غينزفيل
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة فلوريدا

تشارلز موريس


Karaçam (Pinus nigra), çamgiller (Pinaceae) familyasından bir çam türü. Güney Avrupa İber yarım adasından Doğu Akdeniz'e kadar geniş bir alanda görülür.

Genel özellikleri
Avrupa karaçamı veya karaçam olarak bilinen Pinus nigra ağırlıklı olarak dağlık alanlarda olmak üzere Avrupa ve Anadolu'da geniş fakat parçalı bir dağılıma sahip, hızlı büyüyen bir kozalaklı ağaçtır. Ayrıca Kuzey Amerika'daki bazı bölgelerde vatandaşlığa geçmiştir. Birkaç farklı alt türe bölünmüştür ve taksonomik durumu hala uzmanlar arasında bir tartışma konusudur. Karaçam, bir yangın olayından sonra, özellikle fide gelişiminin zorlaşabileceği aşırı kuraklık dönemlerinde zorluklarla yenilenir. Bunun, güney Avrupa'daki habitatının azalmasını tetiklediği düşünülüyor; tam tersine, Orta Avrupa'da iklim iyileştirmesi bir genişleme yaratabilir.

Çarpıcı kabuğu olan çok büyük, etkileyici bir ağaç üretir. Alçak, dallı bir ağaç olarak kullanılabilir veya bir taç olması için budanabilir. Kendi başına serbestçe büyürken dallar tabana kadar doludur. Gençliğinde ağaç hala piramidal olarak büyür, ancak olgunlaştığında genişler, yuvarlaklaşır. Siyahımsı gri kabuğun derin olukları vardır ve özellikle olgun ağaçlarda özellikle dekoratiftir. Dallar çıplak ve sarımsı kahverengidir. İğneler birlikte 2'li demetler halinde büyür ve çarpıcı koyu yeşil, sert ve biraz sivridir. Neredeyse simetrik olan kozalaklar açık kahverengidir ve genellikle çiftler halinde veya tek tek asılır. Boş kozalaklar ilkbaharda düşer. Birçok toprak türü için uygundur. Kuru, kireçli topraklarda bile yetişir. Şekillendirmeyi iyi tolere eder, bu nedenle bu ağaç daha küçük alanlarda da kullanılabilir. Deniz rüzgarına dayanıklı ve hava kirliliğine karşı oldukça dayanıklıdır.

Uşak Banaz ilçesinde bulunan  1000 yaşında olduğu tahmin edilen Karaçam dünyanın en eski karaçamıdır. Boyu 11 metre çapı 3 metre ve 9.60 metre çevre genişliği vardır.

Morfolojik özelikleri
Karaçam genellikle 30 m'ye ulaşan büyük, yaprak dökmeyen bir kozalaklı ağaçtır, ancak istisnai olarak 40 m'ye kadar yüksekliklere ulaşabilir. Kabuğu genellikle koyu grimsi kahverengiden siyaha kadardır (Latince adı "nigra"ya yol açar) ve yaşlı ağaçlarda uzunlamasına derin çatlaklar oluşur. Genç bireylerde taç koniktir, yaşlı ağaçlarda şemsiye şeklini alır. İğneler çiftler halinde 8-15(19) cm uzunluğunda, 1-2 mm çapında, düz veya kavisli ve ince dişlidir. Normalde ağaçta 3-4 yıl (istisnai olarak 8'e kadar) 5 kalırlar. Karaçam bir evciklidir. Erkek kedicikler sarı, dişi çiçek salkımları kırmızımsıdır. Kozalaklar sapsız, 4-8(9) cm uzunluğunda, 2-4 cm genişliğinde ve sarı-kahverengi renktedir. İkinci yılın sonbaharında olgunlaşırlar ve üçüncü yılda açılırlar. Kozalaklar 30-40 tohum içerir. Tohumlar gri renkli, 5-7 mm uzunluğunda, 19-26 mm uzunluğunda kanatlıdır. 400 yılı aşkın bir ömre sahip, uzun ömürlü bir türdür. Almanya'daki bir örneğin 1 000 yaşın üzerinde ve çevresinin 7 m'nin üzerinde olduğu bildirilmektedir. . Kızılçam , sarıçam gibi diğer çam türlerine göre uzun ömürlüdür. Karaçam yaprakları Kızılçam'a göre daha yoğun yeşil renkte ve daha kalındır. Kozalağı kızılçama göre daha küçüktür. Sarıçama göre ise yaprakları daha uzundur.

IUCN Kırmızı listesi
Bu türün çok geniş dağılımı ve bolluğu, onu bir tehdit kategorisinin çok ötesine yerleştirir. Tehdit altındaki tek alt tür, tüm tür yelpazesinin küçük bir bölümünü kaplayan Pinus nigra subsp. dalmatica'''dır. Pinus nigra istisnai olarak ayrık bir doğal dağılıma sahiptir ve genotipler şüphesiz bazı izole edilmiş alt popülasyonlarda belirgin şekilde farklılık gösterecektir. Bu nedenle, bölgesel veya yerel ölçekte, türün veya bilinen beş alt türünün değerlendirilmesinde yansıtılmayan koruma sorunları olabilir.

 Coğrafi dağılım bilgileri
Güneybatı, Güney ve Güneydoğu Avrupa genelinde yaygındır. Kuzey Cezayir, Kuzey Fas, Kıbrıs ve Türkiye; Ukrayna'da Kırım'dan Karadeniz kıyısı boyunca doğuya doğru Kafkasya'daki Krasnodar'a kadar dağılım yapar.

Anadolu'da her bölgede görülür. Gençlikte büyümesi hızlıdır. Toprak isteği bakımından kanaatkardır. Derin topraklarda kazık kök sığ topraklarda kalp kök sistemi oluşturur. Dona ve kuraklığa karşı dayanıklıdır.

 Habitat ve Ekoloji bilgileri P. nigra'nın Güney Avrupa ve Türkiye'deki geniş fakat parçalı (ayrık) dağılımı, farklı bir ekolojiyi garanti eder. Karaçam meşcereleri İtalya'da 350 m'den Toroslarda 2200 m'ye kadar değişen rakımlarda bulunur, optimal irtifa aralığı 800 ile 1500 m arasındadır. Genellikle daha düşük bir dağ türüdür, ancak Karadeniz çevresinde tepelerde bulunur. Karaçam, hem aşırı kuru hem de nemli habitatlarda, sıcaklık dalgalanmalarına karşı önemli bir toleransla büyüyebilir. Işık isteyen bir türdür ancak Pinus sylvestrise göre daha yüksek gölge toleransı gösterir. Kuraklığa ve rüzgara karşı dayanıklıdır. Genellikle bölgeye ve iklime bağlı olarak podzolik kumlardan kireçtaşına kadar çeşitli topraklarda yetişir. Saf meşcereler oluşturabilir (buna ormancılar da yardımcı olmuş olabilir) ancak daha yaygın olarak dağılımı boyunca Pinus sylvestris ile ilişkilendirilirken, bölgesel olarak Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia, Pinus mugo, Pinus pinea, Pinus peuce veya Pinus heldreichii ile bulunabilir. Tuz yüklü rüzgarlar gibi deniz etkilerine P. sylvestris'ten daha toleranslıdır, bu nedenle genellikle denize daha yakın oluşur.

Coğrafi varyasyon kısmen ekolojik olarak belirlenir, subsp. laricio, daha iç kesimlerde görülen subsp. nigra'dan daha fazla tuza toleranslıdır. Bu türün hakim olduğu sık çam ormanlarındaki çalılar genellikle seyrektir; daha sık olarak, seçici kesim veya doğal bozulmadan sonra daha açık kanopiler altında da bulunabilen fundalıklarla (Erica, Calluna, Vaccinium) bir mozaik oluşturur. Avrupa'da birkaç yüzyıl boyunca bu türün kapsamlı plantasyonları ve orman yönetimi, doğal ormanlarla olan ayrımları daha az net hale getirdi.

 Kullanım ve Ticaret bilgileri
P. nigra önemli bir kereste ağacının yanı sıra, Avrupa'da yaygın olarak ve daha az ölçüde ABD'de dikilmiştir. Gövdesi geçmişte deniz inşaatlarında yaygın olarak kullanılmıştır. Ahşabı dayanıklıdır, reçine bakımından zengindir ve işlenmesi kolaydır. Avusturya ve Balkanlar'da ahşabı geleneksel olarak ev inşa etmek için kullanılır; modern kullanımlar arasında iç döşeme (Viyana Devlet Opera Binası'nın sahnesi bu ahşaptan yapılmıştır!) ve lambriler, kapılar, merdivenler, mobilyalar vb. sayılabilir. Geçmişte reçine kılavuzluğuna dayalı önemli bir endüstri vardı ancak bu neredeyse ortadan kalktı. Akdeniz'de genel inşaat, yakacak odun, kağıt hamuru ve sandık ve palet yapımında ana çamdır. Kuzey Denizi kıyısı boyunca kıyı kumullarını, özellikle de subsp. laricio (Korsika Çamı) türün en tuzlu rüzgara dayanıklı formudur. pallasiana alt türü, Türkiye'de ve Karadeniz çevresinde, genellikle Kuzeybatı Avrupa'da yetiştirilirken bir taban gövdesinin üzerinde birden fazla gövde ile büyür ve büyük, açık gri plakaları olan çekici bir kabuğa sahiptir, bu nedenle örnek olarak yaygın bir şekilde dikilmiştir.

Ekolojik esnekliğinin bir sonucu olarak, dünya çapında yeniden ağaçlandırma için en yaygın kullanılan ağaç türlerinden biridir ve gelecekteki iklim senaryolarında Orta Avrupa'daki yerli iğne yapraklı türler için potansiyel bir ikame olarak kabul edilir. Nispeten dar doğal aralığına rağmen, karaçamın geniş Avrupa dağılım aralığı, Avrupa dağ sistemleri gibi yüksek erozyon oranlarına sahip birkaç alanı kapsar. Bozulmuş toprak kolonizasyonu için çok etkilidir ve maceracı kökleri, derin güçlendirme ve toprak mukavemetinin arttırılması için kullanılmaya uygundur. Daha geç ardıl türlerle birlikte (örneğin Güneybatı Alpler'in bazı bozulmuş bölgelerinde, Quercus pubescens, Acer opalus, Sorbus aria), bu öncü ağacın toprak erozyonunu ve toprak kaymalarını kontrol etme ve arazi rehabilitasyonu için etkili olduğu kanıtlanmıştır. P. nigra, kirliliğe toleransı ve çarpıcı görsel formu sayesinde parklarda veya kentsel ve endüstriyel alanlarda da yaygın olarak ekilmektedir.

 Tehditler ve Hastalıklar
Mantarlar Dothistroma pini, Lophodermella spp. ve Sphaeropsis sapinea (Diplodia pinea) iğnelerde ciddi hasara neden olabilir. Pinus nigra, Thaumetopoea pityocampa'e karşı oldukça hassastır. Ayrıca Mycosphaerella pini (syn. Dothistroma septosporum) tarafından ciddi şekilde saldırıya uğrayabilir. Bu yanıklığın, Birleşik Krallık'taki Korsika çamı tarlalarında, orada daha uzun süre dikilmesi önerilmeyeceği ölçüde önemli hasara neden olduğu bildirilmiştir. Diğer birçok çam gibi, karaçam da Dendrolimus pini'ye karşı oldukça hassastır ve Gibberella circinata karşı savunmasızdır. Brunchorstia pinea mantarı, kanserlere neden olabilir. Çam ağaçları, yaygın olarak çam ağacı nematodu olarak bilinen ve çam solgunluğu hastalığına neden olan Bursaphelenchus xylophilus tarafından da enfekte olabilir. Karaçam, kabuk böceği Ips pini'nin konukçuları arasındadır. Yangınlar karaçam meşcerelerine zarar verebilir, bitki topluluğu kompozisyonunu çok yıllık çim türlerinin yanı sıra Pinus pinaster, Pinus halepensis, Quercus gibi diğer ağaç türleri ile tipik yangın sonrası topluluklar lehine değiştirebilir. Bunun nedeni, bir yangın olayından sonra nispeten az sayıda karaçam fidesinin gelişmesidir.

 Kültivarlar Pinus nigra 'Pyramidalis' : Güzel bir taç şekli ve çarpıcı kabuğu ile güzel etkileyici, büyük bir ağaç. Ana tür gibi (P. nigra) düşük dallı veya taçlı bir ağaç olarak kullanılabilir. Kendi başına serbestçe büyürken dallar tabana kadar dolu kalır. Genç bir ağaçta taç dar piramidaldir ve bu şekli uzun süre korur. Sadece büyüdükçe ağaç yayılır. Siyah-gri kabuk derin olukludur ve yaşlı ağaçlarda çok dekoratiftir. Sarımsı kahverengi dallarda iğneler ikişer ikişerdir. Çok koyu yeşil, sert ve hafif dikenlidirler. Açık kahverengi, sarkık koniler çiftler halinde veya tek tek asılır. Ana tür gibi 'Pyramidalis' de birçok toprak türü için uygundur ve ayrıca kuru, kireçli topraklarda da yetişir. Deniz rüzgarını tolere eder ve hava kirliliğine duyarlı değildir.Ehrami Karaçamı :''' Kütahyada olan endemik bir türdür.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Pinus
Türkiye'deki odunsu taksonlar
Kıbrıs florası
İtalya florası
Orman Ağaçları
Türkiye'de doğal olarak yetişen iğne yapraklılar

Karaçam


El cotinga elegante (en Ecuador) (Laniisoma elegans), también denominado cotinga amarilla (en Colombia), plañidero elegante (en Perú), cotinga pirari (en Venezuela) o lanisoma elegante,  es una especie de ave paseriforme perteneciente a la  familia Tityridae. Como sugiere su nombre común, antes era considerado una cotinga. Era el único miembro del género Laniisoma, pero diversos autores sostienen que la presente se divide en más de una especie. Es nativa de América del Sur

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye de forma disjunta, el grupo buckleyi en los contrafuertes de los Andes desde el oeste de Venezuela, por Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, hasta el norte de Bolivia y  la subespecie elegans en el este y sureste de Brasil.

Esta especie es considerada rara y local en sus hábitats naturales; los bosques húmedos tropicales y subtropicales, de baja altitud y montanos, en la mata Atlántica y en los contrafuertes de los Andes; entre 400 y 1350 m de altitud. aunque ha sido registrado a 200 m en Venezuela y hasta el nivel del mar en Brasil.

Descripción
Mide entre 16  y 17,5 cm de longitud y pesa entre 41 y 51 g. El macho tiene la corona negra con anillo ocular amarillo, partes superiores verde oliva. Por abajo es amarillo brillante con escamado negro a través del pecho, en la parte inferior de los flancos y en el criso. La hembra es similar pero con la corona morena y toda las partes inferiores marcadamente escamadas de negro. Los inmaduros son como la hembra pero con grandes puntos rufos en las puntas de las cobertoras. En las poblaciones andinas (grupo buckleyi) el macho tiene menos escamado negro y la hembra el mismo escamado notable pero tiene la corona oliva uniforme.

Comportamiento
Especie rara e incomún, usualmente es visto solitario en todos los niveles de la selva, pero más a menudo no muy alto. En el Brasil oriental es localmente migratorio durante el invierno y la primavera, aparece en el interior, proveniente del litoral.

Alimentación
Se alimenta de frutos e insectos que a veces busca junto a bandadas mixtas. Fue observado en matas mesófilas residuales en la meseta paulista alimentándose de los frutos del bugre (Cordia ecalyculata) y de yagrumo macho (Didymopanax morototoni) junto a la paloma colorada  (Columba cayennensis) en los meses de julio y comienzo de octubre.

Reproducción
En el Brasil oriental se reproduce en los meses de verano en las bajadas litoraleñas.

Vocalización
El canto del macho es una serie de 8-10 notas enfáticas, penetrantes, de alta escala «psii-yií» (a menudo comenzando con varias notas simples «psii»), dado desde una rama baja y desobstruida, abriendo ampliamente el pico, abultando la garganta y bajando la cola a cada llamado.

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie L. elegans fue descrita por primera vez por el naturalista sueco Carl Peter Thunberg en 1823 bajo el nombre científico Ampelis elegans; la localidad tipo es «montañas de Río de Janeiro, Brasil».

Etimología
El nombre genérico neutro «Laniisoma» se compone del género Lanius y de la palabra del griego «sōma, sōmatos»: cuerpo, significando «con el cuerpo como un Lanius»; y el nombre de la especie «elegans», proviene del latín «elegans, elegantis»: elegante, fino.

Taxonomía
El Congreso Ornitológico Internacional (IOC), Aves del Mundo (HBW) y Birdlife International (BLI) consideran al grupo de subespecies andinas venezuelense, buckleyi y cadwaladeri como una especie separada: la lanisoma andina (Laniisoma buckleyi), siguiendo a Ridgely & Greenfield (2001) e Hilty (2003), con base en diferencias morfológicas, principalmente de plumaje, y vocalización.

Subespecies
Según la clasificación Clements Checklist v.2018, se reconocen cuatro subespecies, con su correspondiente distribución geográfica:

 Grupo politípico buckleyi:
 Laniisoma elegans venezuelense  - contrafuertes de los Andes orientales en el oeste de Venezuela (Táchira, Barinas) y Colombia (Boyacá).
 Laniisoma elegans buckleyi (, 1880) - contrafuertes de los Andes en Ecuador y Perú.
 Laniisoma elegans cadwaladeri , 1935 - contrafuertes de los Andes en el norte de Bolivia (La Paz).

 Grupo monotípico elegans:
 Laniisoma elegans elegans (, 1823) - sureste de Brasil (del sur de Bahía (al menos anteriormente) al sur hasta São Paulo y este de Paraná). Recientemente registrada en Alagoas y Goiás.

Según revisiones recientes, las subespecies propuestas venezuelense y cadwaladeri serían indistinguibles de buckleyi y, por lo tanto, ambos taxones, este y elegans, cuando separados, serían monotípicos.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Videos, fotos y sonidos de Laniisoma elegans en eBird.
 Fotos y sonidos de Laniisoma elegans en Wikiaves.
 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Laniisoma elegans en xeno-canto.
 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Laniisoma buckleyi en xeno-canto.

elegans
Aves endémicas de Brasil
Animales descritos en 1823
Taxones descritos por Carl Peter Thunberg

Laniisoma elegans


Svavsted  Sogn (også Svabsted Sogn, på tysk Kirchspiel Schwabstedt) er et sogn i det sydvestlige Sydslesvig i Svavsted Fogderi, Sønder Gøs Herred (Husum Amt), nu i kommunerne Hude, Ramsted, Svavsted, Sønderhøft og Visk i Nordfrislands Kreds i delstaten Slesvig-Holsten.  Sognets nordgrænse dannes af vandløbet Bæk.  (ty. Bech, Oldersbek).

I Svavsted Sogn findes flg. stednavne:
 Fresendelf
 Holbølhus (også Holbølhuse, Hollbüllhuus)
 Hude
 Lemsig (Lehmsiek)
 Middelborg (delt i Store og Lille Middelborg)
 Papenhørn (delt i Vester og Øster Papenhørn)
 Ramsted (Ramstedt)
 Svavsted (også Svavested, tysk Schwabstedt)
 Sønderhøft (Süderhöft)
 Visk (Wisch)

Litteratur
 Jens Peter Trap: Statistisk-topographisk beskrivelse af hertugdømmet Slesvig, Kjøbenhavn 1864, side 243

Eksterne henvisninger
 Svavsted Menighed / Kirchengemeinde Schwabstedt

Noter

Sogne i Sydslesvig

Svavsted Sogn


Conventionstaler (sau Konventionstaler, uneori Conventionsthaler) este o unitate monetară internațională care a luat forma unei piese de argint și care a circulat începând din 1754 în numeroase state ale Sfântului Imperiu Roman în secolul al XVIII-lea și până la mijlocul secolului al XIX-lea.

Pentru a încerca unificarea diferiților taleri aflați în circulație, un tratat monetar (denumit Konventionsfuß) a fost semnat între statele suverane, îndeosebi între Bavaria și Austria, la 20 septembrie 1753. O nouă monedă a fost introdusă în 1754, care era echivalentă 1/10 dintr-o marcă de Köln adică 23,385 g de argint. Este urmașa Kronentaler-ului și mai ales a Reichstaler-ului instituit la Leipzig în 1566 și care valora 1/9 dintr-o marcă, ceea ce echivala cu o devalorizare.

Din această cauză, Conventionstaler-ul poartă pe una din fețe mențiunea X EINE FEINE MARK sau abrevierea XEF MARK. Instituită la sfârșitul secolului al XV-lea, marca de Köln cântărea 233,856 g adică, după vechiul sistem de greutăți în uz în întreaga Europă de Nord în Evul Mediu, o jumătate de livră (Pfund).

Austria a avut încă din 1748 idea să adopte un echivalent viitorului Conventionstaler și aceasta, din rațiuni comerciale și financiare: a succedat oficial monedei Reichsthaler (sau rijksdaalder, moneda  Sfântului Imperiu) la 7 noiembrie 1750 când echivala cu 32 Groschen în timp ce un rijksdaalder valora 24.

La început a echivalat cu doi florini, însă în micile state din sud, valora doi florini și doisprezece creițari: în 1760, rata a scăzut la 2 florini. Încetul cu încetul, s-a răspândit în sudul Germaniei actuale și în Saxonia.

În 1838, Germania l-a înlocuit cu talerul prusac (echivalent cu 1/14 dintr-o marcă de Köln) în urma unui nou tratat de uniune monetară din 1837, pe de altă parte Imperiul Austriac l-a emis până în 1857, puțin înainte de adoptarea Vereinsthaler-ului, apoi a florinului austro-ungar.

Note

Legături externe
  firstname.lastname@example.com

Vezi și
 Florin austro-ungar
 Talerul Maria Terezia, care cântărea 23.3890 g de argint fin.
 Zollverein

Numismatică
Fondări în 1753
Desființări în 1857
Monede de argint
Monede austriece
Monede germane
Foste unități monetare

Conventionstaler


The press gallery is the part of a parliament, or other legislative body, where political journalists are allowed to sit or gather to observe and then report speeches and events. This is generally one of the galleries overlooking the floor of the house and can also include separate offices in the legislative or parliamentary buildings accorded to the various media outlets, such as occurs with the Strangers Gallery in the British House of Commons or the Canberra Press Gallery in the Australian Parliament.

Overview
The United States Senate established its first press gallery in 1841, and both the House of Representatives and Senate set aside galleries for reporters when they moved into their current chambers in 1857 and 1859. (The White House did not designate a press room until 1902.) The press galleries in Congress are operated by superintendents, appointed by the House and Senate sergeants at arms, and by Standing Committees of Correspondents, elected by the journalists.

The first Standing Committee of Correspondents was created in 1879 to eliminate lobbyists from the press galleries. With the approval of House and Senate leaders, reporters drafted a set of requirements for accreditation. Press passes were issued only to those whose primary source of income was journalism, and who reported by telegraph to a daily newspaper. The rules eliminated lobbyists, but also women and minorities. Nineteenth-century women reporters were confined to social news coverage, which did not justify the cost of telegraphing. African American reporters were limited to the black press, which were then all weekly papers. Not until the 1940s did women and minorities overcome these obstacles.

In the twentieth century, the same rules denied press passes to radio reporters, unless they simultaneously reported for daily newspapers. In response to complaints from broadcasters, Congress in 1939 created a Radio Gallery in each house, later the Radio-TV galleries. Congress also established a Periodical Press Gallery for magazine and newsletter writers, and a Press Photographers' Gallery. By the 1990s, Internet reporters and bloggers began applying for press passes. After initial resistance, the press galleries adjusted their rules to admit those who earn their living from their journalism, and who are not underwritten by advocacy groups.

Reporters who occupy the press galleries are known as the press corps. Now numbering in the thousands, they rely on similar press operations in all three branches of the government. Despite the government's efforts to accommodate the press corps, however, the relationship between the press and the politicians remains essentially adversarial, punctuated by politicians' complaints of bias and misrepresentation, and by reporters' protests against government attempts to manipulate the news.

See also
 Parliamentary Press Gallery – Canada
 Canberra Press Gallery – Australia
 Fourth Estate
 United States Senate Daily Press Gallery
 "The Lobby", an informal subset of the Press Gallery journalists in the UK

Sources
 Timothy Cook, Governing with the News: The News Media as a Political Institution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
 Elaine S. Povich, Partners & Adversaries: The Contentious Connection between Congress and the Media (Arlington Va: The Freedom Forum, 1996).
 Donald A. Ritchie, Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991).
 Donald A. Ritchie, Reporting from Washington: The History of the Washington Press Corps (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

External links
 Maple Leaf Web: Parliamentary Press Gallery & Canadian Politics
 U. S. Senate Press Gallery Rules
 The Press Gallery of the UK Parliament
 UK Parliamentary Archives, House of Commons Parliamentary Press Gallery Papers

Journalism
Westminster system
Press galleries

Press gallery


Crkva sv. Pavla je crkva u naselju Pavlovčani koje je u sastavu grada Jastrebarsko, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Jedna od najstarijih sačuvanih zidanih crkava na području Jastrebarskog ima srednjovjekovno porijeklo, a obnavljana je u nekoliko navrata. Crkva je jednobrodna građevina s ravnim drvenim stropom, pridruženom niskom polukružnom apsidom svođenom polukupolom i zvonikom nad zapadnim pročeljem. Važno mjesto zauzima oltar postavljen 1643. godine s obzirom na to da je najstariji sačuvan na području Jastrebarskog.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-1882 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - pojedinačno, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "sakralna graditeljska baština".

Izvori

Zaštićene sakralne građevine u Zagrebačkoj županiji
Katoličke crkve u Hrvatskoj
Građevine u Jastrebarskom

Crkva sv. Pavla u Pavlovčanima


An Schiedeella dendroneura in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Charles John Sheviak ngan Bye, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Burns-bal.. An Schiedeella dendroneura in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schiedeella, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Schiedeella

Schiedeella dendroneura


Garvin est une ville américaine située dans le Comté de Lyon, dans le Minnesota. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de .

Liens externes

Ville au Minnesota
Comté de Lyon (Minnesota)

Garvin (Minnesota)


ماتياس أليخاندرو تشياكيو  (13 مايو 1988 في نيكوتشيا) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي الجنسية أرجنتيني المولد يلعب حاليا في نادي الدرجة الأولى ليون الفرنسي في مركز المهاجم .

المسيرة الرياضية

البدايات
بدأ تشياكيو مسيرته الرياضية ناشئا في نادي أتلتيكو مدريد الإسباني ثم انتقل إلى نادي رايو ماياداهوندا الإسباني ثم انضم إلى نادي ليتشو حيث شارك في أول مباراة رسمية مع الفريق الأول في بطولة دوري الدرجة الثالثة .

ليون
أرسل نادي ليون كاشف المواهب جان مارك تشانيليت لاستكشاف أداء ومستوى تشياكيو خلال خلال الخضوع لفترة تجربة واختبار في الفريق الرديف وبعد نجاحه تم التعاقد معه في سنة 2007 .

مراجع

مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من محافظة بوينس آيرس
رياضيون من مقاطعة بوينس آيرس
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو كرة قدم أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو ليتشو
مواليد 1988
مواليد في نيكوتشيا
لاعبو كرة قدم من مقاطعة بوينس آيرس

ماتياس تشياكيو


is a town located in Aki District, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 12,853 in 5879 households and a population density of . The total area of the town is .

Geography
Saka is located on the coast of Hiroshima Bay in south-central Hiroshima. A sits name implies, the area is very hilly and despite dense urbanization, forests cover over 50% of the town area.

Adjoining municipalities
Hiroshima Prefecture
Aki-ku, Hiroshima
Minami-ku, Hiroshima
Kure
Kaita

Climate
Saka has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with very warm summers and cool winters.  The average annual temperature in Saka is 15.3 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1543 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 26.3 °C, and lowest in January, at around 5.0 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Saka has been steady for the past 60 years.

History
The area of Saka was the part of ancient Aki Province. In the Edo Period, it was part of the holdings of Hiroshima Domain. Following the Meiji restoration, the village of Saka was established within Aki District, Hiroshima with the creation of the modern municipalities system on April 1, 1889.  Saka was raised to town status on August 1, 1950.

Government
Saka has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 12 members. Saka, collectively with the other municipalities of Aki District contributes three members to the Hiroshima Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of the Hiroshima 4th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
Saka is a regional commercial center and a commuter town for neighboring Hiroshima.

Education
Saka has three public elementary schools and one public junior high school operated by the town government, and one public high school operated by the Hiroshima Prefectural Board of Education. The Hiroshima Prefectural Police Academy is located in Saka.

Transportation

Railway
 JR West (JR West) - Kure Line
  -  -

Highways
  Hiroshima-Kure Road

References

External links

Saka official website

Towns in Hiroshima Prefecture
Saka, Hiroshima
Populated coastal places in Japan

Saka, Hiroshima


Nikolay Alexeivich Tuchkov (16 de abril de 1765 - 30 de outubro de 1812, Yaroslavl) foi um general russo da Guerra Russo-Sueca (1788–1790), da supressão da Revolta Kościuszko e da oposição à invasão francesa da Rússia. Ele subiu ao posto de tenente-general e comandante de um corpo de infantaria.

Comandando na Valáquia, ele foi enviado ao sul para operações contra a Turquia no final de agosto de 1811. Em 1812 ele comandou o 3º Corpo do 1º Exército do Oeste de Barclay de Tolly. Ele lutou em Smolensk 17 de agosto, então com Württemberg derrotou Michel Ney em Valutina Gora (Lubino) no dia 19. Estacionado no flanco esquerdo em Borodino em 7 de setembro, ele foi gravemente ferido no peito liderando os Granadeiros Pavlov contra Utitsa e morreu três semanas depois.

Referências
Generais da Rússia

Nikolay Tuchkov


Milan Galić (en serbio: Милан Галић; Maleševci, Bosansko Grahovo, 8 de marzo de 1938 − Belgrado, 13 de septiembre de 2014) fue un futbolista serbio que jugaba en la demarcación de delantero. Jugó 51 partidos con la selección de fútbol de Yugoslavia y marcó 37 goles.

Participó en los Juegos Olímpicos de Roma 1960 donde ganó la medalla de oro. En la Eurocopa 1960 celebrada en Francia quedó subcampeón tras perder en la final contra la Unión Soviética por 2-1. En la Copa Mundial de Fútbol de 1962 celebrada en Chile terminó en cuarta posición, tras perder el partido por el tercer y cuatro lugar contra el anfitrión por 1-0.

En 1962 fue elegido el deportista del año de Yugoslavia por el diario deportivo serbio DSL Sport.

Clubes

Referencias

Nacidos en Zrenjanin
Fallecidos en Belgrado
Delanteros de fútbol
Futbolistas de Yugoslavia
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Yugoslavia en los años 1950
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Yugoslavia en los años 1960
Futbolistas de Yugoslavia en la Eurocopa 1960
Futbolistas de Yugoslavia en la Copa Mundial de 1962
Futbolistas de Yugoslavia en los Juegos Olímpicos de Roma 1960
Medallistas olímpicos de fútbol
Medallistas olímpicos de oro de Yugoslavia
Medallistas olímpicos de oro de Roma 1960
Futbolistas del Partizán de Belgrado
Futbolistas del Standard Lieja
Futbolistas del Stade de Reims

Milan Galić


An Pinalia ventricosa in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Leav., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Wally Suarez och James Edward Cootes. An Pinalia ventricosa in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pinalia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Philippines. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Pinalia

Pinalia ventricosa


Pernille L. Stenby (født 7. april 1991) er en dansk fantasyforfatter. Hun har en bachelor som naturhistorisk konservator på Det kongelige danske kunstakademis skoler for arkitektur, design og konservering, konservatorskolen. Ved siden af forfatterskabet arbejder hun som selvstændig fugletaxidermist.

Inspiration
Ifølge forlaget Ulven og Uglen har Stenby haft passion for fantasygenren hele sit liv, "hvor Tamora Pierce og Dragonlance-serien lagde de første byggesten."

Bibliografi

 Inkarnation, bind I i Mestenes-serien, Ulven og Uglen, 2018
 Under huden del 1, bind II i Mestenes-serien, Ulven og Uglen, 2019
Et manipuleret liv, Ulven og Uglen, 2021

Referencer

Fantasyforfattere fra Danmark
Dansksprogede forfattere fra Danmark

Pernille L. Stenby


Ferit Bülent Eczacıbaşı (1949, İstanbul), iş insanı. Eczacıbaşı Holding Yönetim Kurulu Başkanı.

Hayatı
İstanbul Alman Lisesi'ni 1968 yılında bitirdikten sonra Imperial College London kimya bölümünden lisans, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Kimya Mühendisliği bölümünden yüksek lisans derecelerini alan Bülent Eczacıbaşı çalışma yaşamına 1974 yılında başladı.

1991-93 yıllarında Türk Sanayici ve İş İnsanları Derneği (TÜSİAD) Yönetim Kurulu Başkanlığı, 1997-2001 yıllarında TÜSİAD Yüksek İstişare Konseyi Başkanlığı, 1993-97 yıllarında ise Türkiye Ekonomik ve Sosyal Etüdler Vakfı (TESE)) Kurucu Yönetim Kurulu Başkanlığı, 2000-2008 yıllarında İlaç Endüstrisi İşverenler Sendikası (İEİS) Yönetim Kurulu Başkanlığı yaptı. Bülent Eczacıbaşı, Eczacıbaşı Topluluğu şirketlerinde Yönetim Kurulu Başkanlığı görevlerini yürütmektedir.

Eczacıbaşı ayrıca halen, TÜSİAD ve İEİS'in Onursal Başkanı, Dış Ekonomik İlişkiler Kurulu (DEİK) Onursal Üyesi, Türk Girişim ve İş Dünyası Konfederasyonu (TÜRKONFED) Onur Üyesi, Ege Sanayicileri ve İş İnsanları Derneği (ESİAD) Yüksek İstişare Konseyi Üyesi'dir. Aynı zamanda, İstanbul Modern Sanat Müzesi'ni bünyesinde bulunduran İstanbul Modern Sanat Vakfı'nın Mütevelli Heyeti Başkanlığı, İstanbul Kültür Sanat Vakfı (İKSV) Yönetim Kurulu Başkanlığı ve TESEV Yüksek Danışma Kurulu Üyeliği görevlerini sürdürmektedir.

Fransız Devlet Nişanı (Chevalier dans l'Ordre National de la Légion d'Honneur) ve İtalya Cumhurbaşkanlığı Dayanışma Nişanı (Commendatore dell'Ordine della Stella d'Italia) sahibi olan Bülent Eczacıbaşı'nın, 2018 yılında yayınlanmış "İşim Gücüm Budur Benim" isimli bir kitabı bulunmaktadır. 2020'de "A Rip in the Sea" adıyla İngilizce olarak da yayınlanan kitabının ardından fotoğraf tutkusu ile yaptığı seyahatlerde, farklı kültürlerden insanların hikâyelerine tanıklığını paylaştığı "Yoldan" adlı kitabı yayınlanmıştır.

Capital dergisinin GfK ile gerçekleştirdiği "Kurumsal Sosyal Sorumluluk Araştırması 2020"de iş dünyasının gözünde "En Sorumlu Lider" seçilmiştir.

25 Aralık 1980 tarihinde Oya Eczacıbaşı ile evlenmiştir. Nejat Emre Eczacıbaşı  ve Esra Eczacıbaşı  adında iki çocuğu olmuştur.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Eczacıbaşı Holding

1949 doğumlular
20. yüzyıl Türk iş insanları
21. yüzyıl Türk iş insanları
Özel Alman Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
TÜSİAD Yönetim Kurulu Başkanları
Türk dolar milyarderleri
Yaşayan insanlar
Eczacıbaşı ailesi
Resim aranan kişiler
Londra Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
MIT School of Engineering'de öğrenim görenler

Bülent Eczacıbaşı


NGC 6914 je odrazna maglica u zviježđu Labudu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 6914
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 6914 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
   DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 6900 - 6949

6914

NGC 6914


مذكرات دراجة نارية (بالأسبانية: Diarios de motocicleta) فيلم برازيلي أمريكي بيروفي أرجنتيني إنتاج عام 2003 أخرجه والتر ساليس. يتحدث الفيلم عن الرحلة التي قام بها تشي جيفارا حول أمريكا اللاتينية برفقة صديقه ألبيرتو غرانادو قبل أنخراطه في العمل الثوري. الفيلم مبني على كتابات ومذكرات الرجلين. نال الفيلم جوائز عدة في مهراجانات مختلفة.

وصلات خارجية

مراجع

أفلام تشيلية عقد 2000
أفلام الطريق
أفلام أرجنتينية
أفلام أرجنتينية في عقد 2000
أفلام ألمانية
أفلام ألمانية في عقد 2000
أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية في عقد 2000
أفلام أمريكية مستقلة
أفلام أيكون برودكشن
أفلام إنتاج 2004
أفلام باللغة الإسبانية
أفلام باللغة الإسبانية في عقد 2000
أفلام بريطانية
أفلام بريطانية في عقد 2000
أفلام بلوغ سن الرشد الأمريكية
أفلام بيروفية
أفلام تشيلية
أفلام تقع أحداثها في 1952
أفلام تقع أحداثها في الأرجنتين
أفلام تقع أحداثها في بيرو
أفلام تقع أحداثها في تشيلي
أفلام تقع أحداثها في فنزويلا
أفلام حائزة على جائزة الأوسكار لأفضل أغنية
أفلام دراما أرجنتينية
أفلام دراما ألمانية
أفلام دراما بريطانية
أفلام دراما بيروفية
أفلام دراما شيلية
أفلام دراما فرنسية
أفلام درامية 2004
أفلام سجلها غوستافو سانتوللا
أفلام سيرة ذاتية إنتاج عقد 2000
أفلام سيرة ذاتية درامية 2004
أفلام سيرة ذاتية درامية أمريكية
أفلام سيرة ذاتية درامية في عقد 2000
أفلام طريق إنتاج عقد 2000
أفلام عن تشي جيفارا
أفلام فرنسية
أفلام فرنسية في عقد 2000
أفلام مبنية على سير
أفلام مستقلة 2004
أفلام مصورة في الأرجنتين
أفلام مصورة في بيرو
أفلام مصورة في بيونس آيرس
أفلام مصورة في شيلي
أفلام مصورة في فنزويلا
أفلام مصورة في كوبا
أفلام مصورة في كولومبيا
أفلام من إخراج والتر سالس
تشي جيفارا
أفلام بيروفية في عقد 2000
أفلام طريق بيروفية

يوميات دراجة نارية (فيلم)


Gazélec Football Club Ajaccio este un club de fotbal din Ajaccio, Franța, care evoluează în Ligue 1.

Jucători

Lotul actual
As of 20 September 2016.

Note

Legături externe
 Website oficial

Cluburi franceze de fotbal
Fondări în 1910

Gazélec Ajaccio


An Vanda coerulescens in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni William Griffiths. An Vanda coerulescens in nahilalakip ha genus nga Vanda, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Vanda

Vanda coerulescens


«Cómo dueles en los labios» es el nombre del tercer sencillo y tercera canción del cuarto álbum de estudio oficial de la banda de rock en español mexicana Maná, Sueños líquidos (1997). En la semana del 14 de febrero de 1998 la canción debutó en el número 35 de los U.S. Billboard Hot Latin Tracks y seis semanas después el 28 de marzo de 1998 alcanzó el número 2 por solo 1 semana, detrás de No sé olvidar de Alejandro Fernández.

Posiciones en la listas

Sucesión en las listas

Enlaces externos
 Letra
 Vídeo oficial

Sencillos de 1998
Canciones de 1998
Sencillos de Maná
Canciones de Maná
Canciones en español
Sencillos en español
Sencillos número uno en Latin Pop Songs de Billboard

Cómo dueles en los labios