Boris Yakovlevich Bukreev (Russian: Борис Яковлевич Букреев; 6 September 1859 – 2 October 1962) was a Russian and Soviet mathematician who worked in the areas of complex functions and differential equations. He studied Fuchsian functions of rank zero. He was interested in projective and non-Euclidean geometry. He worked on differential invariants and parameters in the theory of surfaces, and also wrote many papers on the history of mathematics.

Biography

Boris Bukreev was born in Lgov, Kursk Governorate of Russian Empire in the family of a school teacher. His grandfather was also a school teacher. His early education was at home and later he attended a classical Gymnasium at Kursk. In 1878, Bukreev entered St. Vladimir University that at the time was called the University of Saint Vladimir in Kyiv. The university was founded in 1834 and had a very strong school of mathematics. In 1880, Bukreev was awarded a gold medal by the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics as the best student. In 1882, he got his first degree and remained at the university to continue his training. At that time he worked on Karl Weierstrass's theory of elliptic functions. This became a topic of his Master's thesis titled "On the expansion of transcendental function in partial fractions. After publishing his thesis Bukreev went abroad and took lectures of Karl Weierstrass, Lazarus Fuchs, and Leopold Kronecker in Berlin. Bukreev undertook research on Fuchsian functions under Fuchs' guidance, which he completed in 1888 and which became the basis of his doctoral thesis "On the Fuchsian functions of rank zero" defended in 1889.

In 1889, Bukreev became a professor of mathematics at the St. Vladimir University of Kyiv,  Russian Empire (now Kyiv, Ukraine). During the 1890s, Bukreev published a series of high quality papers including: "On the theory of gamma functions," "On some formulas in the theory of elliptic functions of Weierstrass," "On the distribution of the roots of a class of entire transcendental functions," and "Theorems for elliptic functions of Weierstrass". By the end of the 1890s, Bukreev began to undertake research into differential geometry. In 1900, he published "A Course on Applications of Differential and Integral Calculus to Geometry". Although at this time his main position was in the University of Kyiv, he also taught at the Women's College from 1896 and at the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute of Emperor Alexander II from 1898. He continued to teach at the Polytechnic Institute until 1926. He continued working at the University of Kiev until 1959 and retired at the age of 100. He received a number of scientific and state honors during his life, including the Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.

Bukreev published a number of books which proved influential. For example, "Introduction to the theory of series," "Elements of the theory of determinants," "Course on definite integrals" (1903), and "Elements of algebraic analysis" (1912). In 1934, he published "An Introduction to the Calculus of Variations." His most important book on non-Euclidean geometry was "Non-Euclidean Planimetry in Analytic Terms", which he published in 1951. Bukreev continued actively working in mathematics up to the very end of his life; his last paper was published when he was 98.

Family life

Bukreev married a daughter of Aleksei Aleksandrovich Kozlov (Russian philosopher, a notable representative of Russian school of panpsychism, and professor of philosophy at Kyiv University from 1884). They had three children, Tatiana, Nikolai and Yevgeny. His grandson, Kirill Tolpygo (son of Tatiana and Boris Nikolaevich Tolpygo), became a prominent Ukrainian physicist, corresponding member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.

Books
 A Course on Applications of Differential and Integral Calculus to Geometry
 An Introduction to the Calculus of Variations
 Non-Euclidean Planimetry in Analytic Terms

References

Sources

1859 births
1962 deaths
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv alumni
Academic staff of the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Men centenarians

Mathematicians from the Russian Empire
Soviet centenarians
Soviet mathematicians
Burials at Baikove Cemetery

Boris Bukreev


Refugees Welcome er en dansk humanitær organisation, der på frivillig basis arbejder på at yde rådgivning og assistance til asylansøgere i Danmark. Organisationen stammer fra 1986, hvor den under navnet Komiteen Flygtninge Under Jorden var opstået, fordi en iransk flygtning, der havde fået afslag på asyl, var blevet hjulpet af nogle danskere. I mange år gik arbejdet ud på, som organisationens oprindelige navn antyder, at hjælpe flygtninge, der var gået under jorden, men i de senere år er sigtet ændret, så arbejdet nu primært foregår i asylcentre.

Refugees Welcome har lokaler i Trampolinhuset i København.

Formand og talsmand for organisationen gennem flere år er Michala Bendixen, der for sin indsats modtog Rådet for Menneskerettigheders hæderspris 2014. Bendixen har flere gange blandet sig i den offentlige debat om flygtninge og asylansøgeres situation, blandt andet i Eritrea-sagen, hvori en delegation fra Udlændingestyrelsen var blevet udsendt til Eritrea for at finde ud, hvad der ville ske, hvis man sendte flygtninge derfra hjem. Delegationen konkluderede i en rapport, at det kunne ske uden risiko for forfølgelse af de hjemvendte, hvilket Bendixen kritiserede i skarpe vendinger, idet hun betegnede konklusionen som politisk bestillingsarbejde. I sommeren 2015 vakte Bendixen opsigt med et åbent brev i den engelske avis The Guardian, hvori hun opfordrede flygtninge om at tage til Danmark. Initiativet blev taget for at komme en påtænkt international annoncekampagne fra integrationsminister Inger Støjberg i forkøbet; denne kampagne skulle afskrække flygtninge fra at søge til landet.

Udgivelser
 Asylcenter limbo - en rapport om udsendelseshindringer (oktober 2011)
 Undtagelsens karakter - en rapport om humanitær opholdstilladelse (april 2013)

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
Organisationens hjemmeside

Organisationer fra Danmark

Refugees Welcome


Når der kommer en båd er en dansk kortfilm instrueret af Robert Saaskin efter eget manuskript.

Medvirkende

 Ib Schønberg

Eksterne henvisninger

Kortfilm fra Danmark

Når der kommer en båd (film)


Daria Bertolani Marchetti (Módena, 24 de enero 1919-17 de mayo 1994) fue una botánica italiana. En 1940, se graduó con honores en Ciencias naturales, con sólo veintiún años. En 1941 se casó con su compañero de estudios y después colega Mario Bertolani, utilizando siempre su apellido. Con él participó en la Resistenza, desarrollando el rol de estafeta partisana, y por su heroísmo fue condecorada con la croce al merito di guerra.

Durante la reconstrucción posbélica, colaboró en varias actividades asistenciales del Municipio de Formigine. Fue concejala en 1961.

En 1951, inició la carrera académica, obteniendo resultados de prestigio en varias Universidades, afirmándose particularmente en la palinología.

Fue miembro de varias Academias italianas y extrajeras, como en 1982, de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Letras y Artes de Módena.

Murió en Módena, en 1994. Al año siguiente, la Comuna de Formigine le dedicó una lápida conmemorativa en el Parque de la Resistencia, sobre el frente norte de la Villa Gandini Aggazzotti, y le dio su nombre a la Biblioteca Comunal, a lo que ella había dejado un fondo de reserva para los temas gastronómicos.

Obra

Actividades didácticas
Durante una década fue profesora en la escuela primaria y superior, sin abandonar la investigación científica. En 1951, logró la elegibilidad en el concurso de profesorado adjunto de Botánica en la Universidad de Parma. Y en 1956 consiguió la libre docencia en Geobotánica, confirmada en 1959. Dictó conferencias en diversos cursos en Universidades, en el campo botánico de Parma, Florencia, Pisa.
En 1971 ganó el concurso para la cátedra de botánica de la Universidad de Bolonia y después en el trienio fue promovida a profesora ordinaria. En 1981 finalmente fue llamada a la Universidad de Módena, donde también dirigió el Instituto y Huerto Botánico.

Actividades científicas
En 1947, comenzó el estudio de los entornos de la población de plantas salinas de la llanura padana para el "Centro de Estudios de la Flora y Vegetación italiano"" del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR). En los años cincuenta estudió plantas y vegetación de la Valsesia y al mismo tiempo, comenzó sus estudios palinológicos, que caracterizó su carrera. En los años setenta comenzó a firmar publicaciones junto con los estudiantes, un signo del grupo de investigación que se estaba formando en la Universidad de Bolonia alrededor de la palinología y luego continuó en la enseñanza en la Universidad de Módena. Sus estudios examinaban ese tema desde diversos ambientes de las regiones de Italia, y también de Alemania, Polonia, Francia. Colaboró y condujo varios grupos de trabajo en unidades de investigaciones palinológicas. Se destacó por su originalidad, su contribución relativa a las eras Messiniense y Plio-Pleistocénico. La gran curiosidad científica de D. Bertolani Marchetti empujó a mirar las aplicaciones de la palinología en arqueología, climatología, geología, espeleología, medicina legal, criminología e incluso la sindonología.

Daria Bertolani Marchetti, entre los años ochenta y los noventa aplicó a sus estudios polínicos en el debate sobre la datación del sagrado Sudario de Turín.

Grupo de cursos y palinología
Por su iniciativa se creó en 1967 el Grupo de Trabajo para la Palinología de la Sociedad Botánica Italiana, contando con la afiliación del International Council of Palinology coordinándolo hasta su muerte. Con ese grupo, organizó en Módena Cursos Nacionales de Palinología anuales o bienales, reuniendo a un número de italianos en palinología.

El Instituto y Huerto Botánico de Modena y el Herbario Modenese
En 1981 y en sus últimos trece años, dirigió el Instituto, dando prioridad al Jardín botánico y al Herbario, que reproyectó y reorganizó. El Orto Botanico Modenese, instituido por el duque de Módena Francisco III de Módena, concebido como instrumento de comunicación permanente entre la investigación universitaria y la ciudadanía. Por lo tanto, activó y potenció las actividades de investigación, museales, históricas y expositivas.

Algunas publicaciones
La lista de sus doscientas quince publicaciones aparecen en el volumen dedicado a ella en 1998, que también las evalúa.

Eponimia
 (Adiantaceae) Cheilanthes × marchettiana Rasbach, Reichst. & Schneller
 (Combretaceae) Combretum marchettii Chiov.</ref> Atti R. Accad. Ital. Mem. Cl. Sc. Fis. etc. xi. (Pl. Nov. Aethiop.) 31 1940 (IK)</ref>

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Studi in ricordo di Daria Bertolani Marchetti. Atti della giornata di studi. Formigine, 18 de mayo 1996, Aedes Muratoriana, Modena 1998
 Daria Bertolani Marchetti, Diario, 1944-1947, a cura di Mariagiulia Sandonà, con intervista a Mario Bertolani, Centro documentazione donna istituto culturale di ricerca, Modena 1999

Enlaces externos
 Ariane Dröscher, scheda Marchetti Bertolani Daria, sitio Scienza due voci. Le donne nella scienza italiana dal Settecento al Novecento dell'Università di Bologna
 Pagina sulla Biblioteca Bertolani Marchetti nel sito del Centro di Documentazione della Provincia di Modena
 Página de la Biblioteca Bertolani Marchetti, sitio de la Comuna de Formgine
 Sitio del Orto Botanico de Modena - Cenni storici
 Sito del Laboratorio di Palinologia e Paleobotanica - Dipartimento di Paleobiologia e dell'Orto Botanico dell'Università di Modena e Reggio

Botánicos de Italia del siglo XX
Botánicas de Italia
Espeleólogos
Palinólogos
Profesoras de Italia
Escritores en italiano del siglo XX
Nacidos en Módena
Fallecidos en Módena
Mujeres de la resistencia italiana
Italianas del siglo XX

Daria Bertolani Marchetti


Die Mastaba des Ti ist die Grabanlage eines Beamten in der altägyptischen Nekropole von Sakkara.

Geschichte
Die Mastaba wurde ca. 2.400 v. Chr. während der 5. Dynastie des Alten Reichs als Grabanlage des ägyptischen Beamten Ti errichtet. Ti hatte zahlreiche höhere Ämter inne, wie etwa Verwaltungs- oder Priesterfunktionen in den Sonnenheiligtümern des Sahure, des Neferirkare und des Raneferef. Er trug Titel wie "Einziger Freund des Königs" oder "Oberster Hoffriseur". Die ihm erteilte Erlaubnis, in der Nekropole von Sakkara für sich selbst eine große Mastaba zu errichten, kann als besonderes Privileg verstanden werden. Auguste Mariette entdeckte die Mastaba während seiner Grabungen von 1865.

Lage und Aufbau
Die Mastaba befindet sich ca. 700 m nördlich der Stufenpyramide des Djoser. Der Oberbau der Mastaba  war ursprünglich freistehend, liegt heute jedoch unterhalb der Wüstensandlinie. Über eine Treppe ist durch eine Vorhalle (1) der von Säulen umgebene Innenhof (3) der Anlage erreichbar. Von dort führt ein mit Reliefs ausgekleideter Gang (4/5) zur ebenfalls reliefverzierten Kultkapelle (7). Dahinter ist durch Schlitze in der Wand der Serdab (8) einsehbar, in dem sich eine überlebensgroße Skulptur des Ti befand, die heute durch eine Kopie ersetzt ist (das Original befindet sich im ägyptischen Museum in Kairo). Unterhalb der Kultkapelle befindet sich der Sarkophag (D) in einer Sargkammer (C), die durch einen niedrigen, schräg abfallenden Schacht aus dem Innenhof erreichbar ist.

Reliefs

Die Mastaba des Ti ist insbesondere für ihre ursprünglich farbigen, feinlinig und detailreich ausgeführten Flachreliefs bekannt, auf denen Ti und seine Frau Neferhetpes in zahlreichen Szenen ihres täglichen Lebens abgebildet sind, beispielsweise bei der Landarbeit, dem Fischen, der Nilpferdjagd, der Papyrusernte, dem Zubereiten von Speisen, oder der Herstellung von Möbeln. Diese Darstellungen gelten als die künstlerisch herausragendsten und detailliertesten in Sakkara und bilden eine wichtige Quelle für die heutige Kenntnis des Alltags im Alten Reich. Im wohl gewollten Gegensatz zu diesen Alltagsszenen stehen die Reliefs an der Westwand der Kultkapelle um die Scheintür zum Serdab, die sich allein auf kultische Handlungen beziehen, wie etwa die Darstellungen von Opfertieren und Gabenträgern.

Viehtrieb durch einen Fluss
In der Szene Viehtrieb durch einen Fluss (Nordseite der Kultkapelle) wird eine Rinderherde über eine Furt durch einen Fluss getrieben. Einer der Rinderhirten trägt ein Kalb auf den Schultern, um es sicher durch das Wasser zu bringen. Das Jungtier blickt ängstlich zu seiner Mutter zurück, die mit erhobenem Kopf nach ihm ruft. Die Szene zeichnet sich durch genaue Naturbeobachtung aus. Der "Kälbchenträger" ist auch in anderen Gräbern als Motiv zu finden.

Schlachtung der Rinder
In der Szene Schlachtung der Rinder (Ostseite des Gangs zur Kultkapelle) liegt ein bereits geschächtetes Rind am Boden, während gerade ein Schenkel abgetrennt wird und Behälter mit dem Blut des Rindes weggebracht werden. Schlachtungsszenen gehören zu den kanonischen Themen in altägyptischen Grabanlagen. Sie sollen die Darbringung von Fleischopfern durch Priester festhalten, die von altägyptischen Grabherren schon zu Lebzeiten durch schriftliche Verfügungen festgelegt wurde.

Literatur
 Georg Steindorff: Das Grab des Ti (= Veröffentlichungen der Ernst von Sieglin Expedition in Aegypten Band 2). Hinrichs, Leipzig 1913 (Digitalisat).
 Matthias Seidel, Regine Schulz: Ägypten. Kunst und Architektur. Tandem, Potsdam 2005, ISBN 383311424X, S. ?.

Weblinks

 .
 Ausführliche Beschreibung der Mastaba des Ti auf www.osirisnet.net (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Mastaba
5. Dynastie (Ägypten)
Sakkara

Mastaba des Ti


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Patronyme

 Fatima El Miftah, une judokate marocaine ;
 Mohamed Miftah (1947-), un acteur marocain ;
 Mohammed Miftah (1942-2022), un écrivain et intellectuel marocain.

Prénom

Miftah


The North Carolina class were a pair of fast battleships,  and , built for the United States Navy in the late 1930s and early 1940s.

In planning a new battleship class in the 1930s, the US Navy was heavily constrained by international treaty limitations, which included a requirement that all new capital ships have a standard displacement of under . This restriction meant that the navy could not construct a ship with the firepower, armor, and speed that they desired, and the balancing uncertainty that resulted meant that the navy considered fifty widely varying designs.

Eventually, the General Board of the United States Navy declared its preference for a battleship with a speed of , faster than any in US service, with a main battery of nine /50 caliber Mark B guns. The board believed that these ships would be balanced enough to effectively take on a multitude of roles. However, the acting Secretary of the Navy authorized a modified version of a different design, which in its original form had been rejected by the General Board. This called for a  ship with twelve 14-inch guns in quadruple turrets and protection against guns of the same caliber. In a major departure from traditional American design practices, this design prioritized firepower at the cost of speed and protection. After construction had begun, the United States invoked a so-called "escalator clause" in the international treaty to increase the class' main armament to nine /45 caliber Mark 6 guns.

Both North Carolina and Washington saw extensive service during the Second World War in a variety of roles, primarily in the Pacific Theater where they escorted fast carrier task forces, such as during the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and conducted shore bombardments. Washington also participated in a surface engagement, the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, where its radar-directed main batteries fatally damaged the Japanese battleship . Both battleships were damaged during the war, with North Carolina taking a torpedo hit in 1942 and Washington colliding with  in 1944. After the end of the war, both ships remained in commission for a brief time before being laid up in reserve. In the early 1960s, North Carolina was sold to the state of North Carolina as a museum ship, and Washington was broken up for scrap.

Background
After the end of the First World War, several navies continued and expanded naval construction programs that they had started during the conflict. The United States' 1916 program called for six s and five  battleships; in December 1918, the administration of President Woodrow Wilson called for building an additional ten battleships and six battlecruisers. The 1919–1920 General Board proposals planned for slightly smaller, but still significant, acquisitions beyond the 1916 plan: two battleships and a battlecruiser for the fiscal year 1921, and three battleships, a battlecruiser, four aircraft carriers and thirty destroyers between the fiscal years 1922 and 1924. The United Kingdom was in the final stages of ordering eight capital ships (the G3 battlecruisers, with the first's keel laying in 1921, and N3-class battleships, to be laid down beginning in 1922). Imperial Japan was, by 1920, attempting to build up to an 8-8 standard of eight battleships and eight battlecruisers or cruisers with the , , ,  and  classes. Two ships from these designs were to be laid down per year until 1928.

With the staggering costs associated with such programs, the United States' Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes invited delegations from the major maritime powers—France, Italy, Japan, and the United Kingdom—to come together in Washington, D.C. to discuss, and hopefully end, the naval arms race. The subsequent Washington Naval Conference resulted in the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty. Along with many other provisions, it limited all future battleships to a standard displacement of  and a maximum gun caliber of 16 inches. It also decreed that the five countries could not construct another capital ship for ten years and could not replace any ship that survived the treaty until it was at least twenty years old. The 1936 Second London Naval Treaty kept many of the Washington treaty's requirements but restricted gun size on new warships to 14 inches.

The treaties heavily influenced the design of the North Carolina class, as can be attested to in the long quest to find a ship that incorporated everything the US Navy considered necessary while remaining under 35,000 long tons.

Design

Early

The General Board began preparations for a new class of battleships in May–July 1935, and three design studies were submitted to them. "A" would be  armed with nine  guns in triple turrets, all forward of the bridge; capable of 30 knots; and armored against 14-inch shells. "B" and "C" would both be over , able to reach , and armored against 14-inch shells. The major difference between the two was the planned main battery, as "B" had twelve 14-inch guns in triple turrets, while "C" had eight 16-inch/45-caliber guns in dual turrets. "A" was the only one to remain within the 35,000-ton displacement limit set in the Washington Naval Treaty and reaffirmed in the Second London Naval Treaty. When the Bureau of Ordnance introduced a "super-heavy" 16-inch shell, the ships were redesigned in an attempt to provide protection against it, but this introduced severe weight problems; two of the designs were nearly  over the treaty limit.

Although these original three studies were all "fast" battleships, the General Board was not committed to the higher maximum speeds. It posed questions to the Naval War College, asking for their opinion as to whether the new class should be a "conventional"  ship with an eight-nine, 16-inch main battery, or rather one akin to "A", "B" or "C".

Five more design studies were produced in late September 1935, which had characteristics of 23–30.5 knots, eight or nine 14- or 16-inch guns, and a standard displacement between . Designs "D" and "E" were attempts at fast battleships with 16-inch guns and protections against the same, but their displacement was greater than the Washington Naval Treaty allowed. Design "F" was a radical attempt at a hybrid battleship-carrier, with three catapults mounted fore and eight 14-inch guns aft. It was reportedly favored by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, but as aircraft launched from catapults were necessarily inferior to most carrier- or land-based aircraft because of the floats used to land, nothing came of the design. Designs "G" and "H" were slower 23-knot ships with nine 14-inch guns; in particular, "H" was thought to be a very well balanced design by the Preliminary Design section of the Bureau of Construction and Repair. However, the General Board finally decided to use faster ships, which "G" and "H" were not.

These studies demonstrated the difficulty the designers faced with a displacement of 35,000 tons. They could choose a faster ship, able to steam at 30 knots, but that would force them to mount a lighter armament and armor than contemporary foreign battleships. Alternatively, they could choose a lower maximum speed and mount heavier guns, but fitting in adequate protection against newer 16-inch guns would be extremely difficult. The Preliminary Design section drew up five more studies in October, based upon "A" with additional armor or a scaled-down "B"; all used 14-inch guns and called for at least 30 knots. Two called for four turrets, but they would be too heavy and mount less armor. Another, "K," would have a  belt and  deck, giving it a  immune zone against the United States' super-heavy 14-inch shell. While "K" was liked by the naval constructors, its designed standard displacement of 35,000 tons left little room for error, modifications, or improvements . The final two designs, "L" and "M," would use quadruple turrets to save weight (similar to the French ) while still mounting 12 guns.

Many officers in the United States Navy supported the construction of three or four fast battleships for carrier escorts and to counter Japan's . These included the acting Secretary of the Navy and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral William Standley, the president of the Naval War College Admiral William S. Pye, a small majority (9–7) of senior officers at sea, and five of six line officers engaged in strategic planning as part of the War Plans Division, although at least one officer believed that an aerial attack would also be capable of sinking the Kongōs. With the above recommendations, the General Board selected "K" to undergo further development.

Final

At least 35 different final designs were proposed. All numbered with Roman numerals ("I" through "XVI-D"), the first five were completed on 15 November 1935. They were the first to employ so-called "paper" weight reductions: not counting certain weights towards the ship's 35,000 long ton treaty limit that were not specifically part of the definition of standard displacement. In this case, even though there was designed storage room for 100 shells per main battery gun and an extra 100 rounds, the weight of the rounds did not figure toward the treaty-mandated limit.

These final designs varied greatly in everything but their standard displacements and speeds. Just one was over the treaty displacement limit; every other design called for 35,000 long tons. Only five planned for a top speed of under ; of those, only one was lower than : "VII", with . "VII" returned to a lower speed to obtain more firepower (twelve 14-inch guns in triple turrets) and protection; as such, the design called for only  and a length of only . Most other plans called for  or , although a few had lengths between  and . Several different gun mountings were examined, including eight, nine, ten, eleven, and twelve 14-inch guns; eight 14-inch guns in two quadruple turrets, and even one design with two quadruple 16-inch guns.

One specific design, "XVI," was a ,  ship with twelve 14-inch guns, a  belt, and a deck  thick.  Produced on 20 August 1936, the Bureau of Ordnance found many problems in it. For example, model tests showed that at high speeds, waves generated by the hull would leave certain lower parts of the ship uncovered by water or adequate armor, including around the explosive magazines, and the Bureau believed that hits around this part of the hull were easily possibly when fighting at ranges between . Other problems included the design's defense against aircraft-dropped bombs, as the Bureau thought the formula used to calculate its effectiveness was not realistic, and the tapering of a fore bulkhead below the waterline could worsen underwater shell hits because the mostly unarmored bow could easily be penetrated. The proposed solutions for these issues were all impractical: added patches of armor around the magazines could neutralize the effectiveness of the ship's torpedo-defense system, and deepening the belt near the bow and stern would put the ships over the 35,000 long ton limit. The General Board detested this design, saying it was "not ... a true battleship" due to its speed and armor problems.

To address these problems, a final set of designs was presented by the Preliminary Design section in October 1936. Designated "XVI-B" through "XVI-D," they were all modifications of the "XVI" plan. These added an extra  of length to "XVI" for greater speed, but the resulting weight increase meant that only eleven 14-inch guns could be mounted with a thin  belt. Another gun could be traded for a  belt, and yet another could be swapped for more speed and an extra tenth of an inch of belt armor; this became design "XVI-C". The General Board liked "XVI-C" very much, seeing in it a ship that had enough protection to fight—and survive—in a battle line formed with the US' older battleships while also having enough speed to operate in a detached wing with aircraft carrier or cruiser commerce raiding groups.

However, one member of the Board, Admiral Joseph Reeves—one of the principal developers of the United States' aircraft carrier strategy—disliked "XVI-C" because he believed that it was not fast enough to work with the  fast carriers, and it was not powerful enough to justify its cost. Instead, he advocated a development of the previously rejected "XVI", adding additional underwater protection and patches of armor within the ship to make the magazines immune to above- and below-water shell hits from  and beyond. The immune zone's outer limit was increased from  to . After further revisions, Reeves went to Standley, the Chief of Naval Operations, who approved "XVI" in its newly modified form over the hopes of the General Board, who still thought that "XVI-C" should be built. Standley's only addition to the characteristics was to be able to switch from quadruple 14-inch to triple  turrets if the "escalator clause" in the Second London Naval Treaty was invoked.

With these parameters now set, "XVI" would become the basis of the North Carolina class' as-built design despite additional back and forth over the design's final particulars. These included an increase in armor; something allowed by the finding of more on-paper weight savings; the armor's slope was increased from 10° to 13°, and eventually settled at 15°; a months-long debate on the propulsion machinery's layout was finally concluded, and other minor changes.

The "escalator clause"

Although the Second London Naval Treaty stipulated that warship guns could be no larger than 14 inches, a so-called "escalator clause" was included at the urging of American negotiators in case any country that had signed the Washington Naval Treaty refused to adhere to this new limit. The provision allowed signatory countries of the Second London Treaty—France, the United Kingdom and the United States—to raise the limit from 14 to 16 inches if Japan or Italy still refused to sign after 1 April 1937. When figuring potential configurations for the North Carolinas, designers focused most of their planning on 14-inch weaponry; Standley's requirement meant that a switch from 14- to 16-inch, even after the ships' keels had been laid, was possible. Japan formally rejected the 14-inch limit on 27 March 1937, meaning that the "escalator clause" could be invoked. There were hurdles that still needed to be overcome, though: Roosevelt was under heavy political pressure and, as a result, was reluctant to allow the 16-inch gun.

Admiral Reeves also came out strongly in favor of the larger weapon. In a two-page letter to Secretary of the Navy Claude A. Swanson and indirectly to Roosevelt, Reeves argued that the 16-inch gun's significantly greater armor penetration was of paramount importance, drawing examples from the First World War's Battle of Jutland, where some battleships were able to survive ten or twenty hits from large guns, but other battlecruisers were blown up in three to seven hits because the shells were able to cut through the armor protecting magazines and turrets. Reeves also argued that the larger gun would favor the "indirect method" of shooting then being developed, where airplanes would be used to relay targeting information to allied battleships so that they could bombard targets that were out of their sight or over the horizon, because new battleships being built by foreign powers would have more armor. Reeves believed that if the 14-inch gun was adopted, it would not be able to penetrate this larger amount of protection, whereas the 16-inch would be able to break through.

In a final vain attempt, Roosevelt's Secretary of State Cordell Hull sent a telegram on 4 June to the Ambassador to Japan Joseph Grew instructing him that the United States would still accept a cap of 14-inch guns if he could get Japan to as well. The Japanese replied that they could not accept this unless the number of battleships was also limited; they wanted the United States and the United Kingdom to agree to having an equal number of battleships with Japan, but this was a condition that the two countries refused to accept. On 24 June, the two North Carolinas were ordered with the 14-inch weapons, but on 10 July, Roosevelt directed that they be armed with triple 16-inch instead.

Specifications

General characteristics
The North Carolina was  long at the waterline and  long overall. The maximum beam was  while waterline beam was  due to the inclination of the armor belt. In 1942, the standard displacement was  while full load displacement was , while maximum draft was . At design combat displacement of , the mean draft was  and (GM) metacentric height was . As designed, the crew complement was 1,880 with 108 officers and 1,772 enlisted. By 1945, the considerable increase in anti-aircraft armament and their crew accommodations had increased full load displacement to , while crew complement increased to 2,339 with 144 officers and 2,195 enlisted. After the end of World War II, the crew complement was reduced to 1,774.

The North Carolina class hull feature a bulbous bow and had an unusual stern design for the time by placing the two inboard propulsion shafts in skegs. This was theorized to improve flow conditions to the propellers. Initial model basin testing for various stern configurations suggested that the skeg arrangement could reduce resistance, although later testing during the design process of the  battleship would indicate an increase in drag. The skegs improved the structural strength of the stern by acting as girders and also provided structural continuity for the torpedo bulkheads. However, the skegs also contributed to severe vibration problems with the class that required extensive testing and modifications to mitigate. The problem was particularly acute near the aft main battery director, which required additional reinforcing braces due to the vibrations. Nevertheless, skegs would be improved and incorporated in the designs of all subsequent American battleships, with vibration problems largely eliminated on the Iowa class battleships.

Armament

North Carolina and Washington were principally armed with nine /45 caliber (cal) Mark 6 guns and twenty /38 cal Mark 12 guns. Their lighter armament consisted of varying numbers of /75 caliber, .50 caliber machine guns, Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm.

Main battery
Mounted on both the North Carolina class and the follow-up , the nine 16 in/45 were improved versions of the guns mounted on the s, hence the designation of "Mark 6". A major alteration from the older guns was the Mark 6's ability to fire a new  armor-piercing (AP) shell developed by the Bureau of Ordnance. At full charge with a brand-new gun, the heavy shell would be expelled at a muzzle velocity of . At a reduced charge, the same shell would be fired at . Barrel life—the approximate number of rounds a gun could fire before needing to be relined or replaced—was 395 shells when using AP, although if only practice shells were used this figure was significantly higher: 2,860. Turning at 4 degrees a second, each turret could train to 150 degrees on either side of the ship. The guns could be elevated to a maximum inclination of 45 degrees; turrets one and three could depress to −2 degrees, but due to its superfiring position, the guns on turret two could only depress to 0 degrees.

Each gun was  long overall; its bore and rifling length were  and , respectively. Maximum range with the heavy AP shell was obtained at an inclination of 45 degrees: . At the same elevation a lighter  high capacity (HC) shell would travel . The guns weighed  not including the breech; the turrets weighed .

When firing the same shell, the 16-inch/45 Mark 6 had a slight advantage over the 16-inch/50 Mark 7 when hitting deck armor—a shell from a 45 cal gun would be slower, meaning that it would have a steeper trajectory as it descended. At , a shell from a 45 cal would strike a ship at an angle of 47.5 degrees, as opposed to 38 degrees with the 50 cal.

Secondary battery
The North Carolinas carried ten Mark 28 Mod 0 enclosed base ring mounts, each supporting twin 5-inch/38-caliber Mark 12 guns Originally designed to be mounted on destroyers built in the 1930s, these guns were so successful that they were added to a myriad of American ships during the Second World War, including every major ship type and many smaller warships constructed between 1934 and 1945. They were considered to be "highly reliable, robust and accurate" by the Navy's Bureau of Ordnance.

The 5-inch/38 functioned as a dual purpose gun. However, this did not mean that it possessed inferior anti-air abilities; as established during 1941 gunnery tests conducted on board North Carolina, the gun possessed the ability to consistently shoot down aircraft flying at , which was twice as far as the effective range of the earlier single purpose 5-inch/25 anti-air gun.

Each 5-inch/38 weighed almost  without the breech. The entire mount weighed . It was  long overall, had a bore length of , and had a rifling length of . The gun could fire shells at about ; about 4,600 could be fired before the barrel needed to be replaced. Minimum and maximum elevations were −15 and 85 degrees, respectively. The guns' elevation could be raised or lowered at about 15 degrees per second. Loading was possible at any elevation. The mounts closest to the bow and stern could aim from −150 to 150 degrees; the others were restricted to −80 to 80 degrees. They could be turned at about 25 degrees per second.

Smaller weaponry

The remaining weaponry on board the two North Carolinas was composed of differing numbers of 1.1"/75 caliber guns, .50 caliber machine guns, Bofors 40 mm and Oerlikon 20 mm cannons. Although the ships were originally designed to carry only four quadruple 1.1 in and twelve .50 caliber, this was greatly increased and upgraded during the war.

On both ships, two more quadruple sets of 1.1 in guns were added in place of two searchlights amidships. After it was torpedoed in 1942, North Carolina had these removed and ten quadruple sets of 40 mm guns added. Fourteen were present by June 1943, while a fifteenth mount was added on top of the third main turret that November. Washington retained its six 1.1 in quads until the middle of 1943, when ten quad 40 mm guns replaced them. By August, it had fifteen. The two ships carried these through to the close of the war.

The .50 caliber machine guns did not have the range or power needed to combat modern aircraft and were scheduled for replacement by equal numbers of 20 mm guns, but nothing immediately came of the proposal. In fact, both North Carolina and Washington carried 20 mm and .50 caliber guns for most of 1942. In April, North Carolina had, respectively, forty and twelve, while Washington had twenty and twelve. Two months later, the number of 20 mm guns remained the same, but twelve .50 caliber guns had been added. By September, Washington had twenty more 20 mm guns added, for a total of forty, but five were removed—along with all of the .50 caliber guns—shortly thereafter when two quadruple sets of 1.1 in guns were added. In its refit after being torpedoed, North Carolina had an additional six 20 mm guns added and all of its .50 caliber weapons removed. Washington had sixty-four 20 mm weapons by April 1943, prior to one single mount being replaced by a quadruple mount, and North Carolina had fifty-three by March 1944. In April 1945, North Carolina was assigned to have fifty-six 20 mm, while Washington was assigned seventy-five. In August 1945, the ships both had eight twin 20 mm mounts; North Carolina also carried twenty single, while Washington carried one quad and sixty-three single.

Electronics

Both North Carolina and Washington, designed prior to radar, were originally fitted with many fire-control and navigational optical range-finders. The former lasted until 1944, when it was replaced by a Mark 27 microwave radar supplemented by a Mark 3 main armament fire control radar. The range-finders were removed in favor of additional 20 mm guns sometime between the end of 1941 and mid-1942. In addition, the ships were commissioned with two Mark 38 directors and were originally fitted with a CXAM air search, two Mark 3s and three Mark 4 secondary armament.

By November 1942, North Carolina had an additional Mark 4 and a SG surface search radar added. The normal battleship configuration was present aboard North Carolina in April 1944, with SK and SG radars (air and surface search, respectively), a backup SG, and Mark 8s to direct its main battery. All of the Mark 4s remained for the secondary battery, and one of the older Mark 3s was still present, possibly as a backup for the Mark 8s. An SK-2 dish replaced the older SK radar and Mark 12s and 22s superseded the Mark 4s in September of that year. Aside from never receiving an SK-2, Washington was the recipient of similar upgrades.

Both ships underwent extensive refits near the end or after the war. North Carolina received a secondary air search set (SR) and a SCR-720 zenith search radar on the forward funnel. At the end of the war, it had an SP surface-search, a SK-2 air-search, a Mark 38 main battery fire control system with Mark 13 and 27 radars, a Mark 37 secondary battery fire control system with Mark 12, 22 and 32 radars, and a Mark 57 smaller weaponry fire control system, with a Mark 34 radar. In March 1946, Washington had a SK fore and a SR aft, a SG both fore and aft, and a TDY jammer (which could scramble radar on other ships).

Propulsion
[[File:No.2 machinery space of USS North Carolina (BB-55) during construction.jpg|thumb|left|North Carolina'''s No. 2 machinery space under construction, seen from the port side of the ship on 16 January 1939; the No. 4 boiler has just been installed|alt=A cavernous steel room, with two large rectangular boilers inside; a number of men are working on the machines.]]

The ships in the North Carolina class were equipped with four General Electric geared turbines and eight Babcock & Wilcox three-drum express type boilers. The ships' powerplant incorporated several recent developments in turbine equipment, including double helical reduction gears and high-pressure steam technology. North Carolinas boilers supplied steam at  and as hot as . To meet the design requirement of , the engine system was originally designed to supply , but the new technologies increased this output to . Despite this increase, the maximum speed for the ships did not change, since the modifications to the powerplant were incorporated later in the design process. The turbines that had already been installed could not fully take advantage of the higher pressure and temperature steam, and so the level of efficiency was not as high as it should have been. When going astern, the engines provided .Whitley, Battleships, 291

The engine system was divided into four engine rooms, all on the centerline. Each room contained a turbine and two boilers, without any division between the boilers and turbines. This was done to limit the risk of capsizing should the ship sustain heavy flooding in the engine rooms. The engine rooms alternated in their layout: the first and third engine rooms were arranged with the turbine on the starboard side and its corresponding boilers on the port, this was reversed in the second and fourth rooms. The forward-most engine room powered the starboard outer shaft, the second turbine drove the outer screw on the port side, the third engine supplied power to the inner starboard propeller, and the fourth turbine drove the port-side inner screw. All four screws had four blades; the two outer propellers were  in diameter and the inner pair were  wide. Steering was controlled by a pair of rudders.

At the time of their commissioning, the ships had a top speed of , though by 1945, with the addition of other equipment, such as anti-aircraft weaponry, their maximum speed was reduced to . The increases in weight also reduced the ships' cruising range. In 1941, the ships could steam for  at a cruising speed of ; by 1945, the range at that speed was reduced to . At , the range was considerably lower, at .

Electrical power was supplied by eight generators. Four were turbo-generators designed for naval use; these provided 1,250 kilowatts each. The other four were diesel generators that supplied 850 kilowatts each. Two smaller diesel generators—each provided 200 kilowatts—supplied emergency power should the main system be damaged. Total electrical output was 8,400 kilowatts, not including the emergency generators, at 450 volts on an alternating current.

 Armor

The North Carolina class incorporated "all or nothing" armor which weighed 41% of the total displacement; it consisted of an "armored raft" that extended from just forward of the first gun turret to just aft of the rear gun turret. They had a main armored belt of Class A armor that was  thick amidships, inclined at 15°, and backed by  Special Treatment Steel (STS). This tapered down to  on the lower edge of the belt. The ships had three armored decks; their main deck was  thick. The second, thickest deck was  of Class B armor laminated on  STS for a total of . In the outboard sections of the hull the plating was  Class B laminated on  STS. The third and thinnest deck was  thick inboard, and  outboard. The first deck was designed to cause delay-fuzed projectiles to detonate, while the thicker second deck would protect the ships' internals. The third deck was intended to protect against shell splinters that might have penetrated the second deck; it also acted as the upper support for the torpedo bulkheads. The conning tower was connected to the armored citadel by a  thick communications tube. Armor thickness for the conning tower itself ranged from  on both sides to  on the front and rear. The roof was  thick and the bottom was  thick.Whitley, Battleships, 290

The main battery turrets were heavily armored: the turret faces were  thick, the sides were  thick, the rear sides were  thick, and the roofs were  thick. Sixteen–inch-thick armor was the maximum width factories were able to produce at the time of the ships' design; by 1939, however, it was possible to create -thick plates. These were not installed because it was estimated that the conversion would delay completion of the ships by 6 to 8 months. The barbettes that held the turrets were also strongly protected. The front portion was , the sides increased to 16 in, and the rear portion reduced to . The 5-inch gun turrets, along with their ammunition magazines, were armored with  STS plates.

The side protection system incorporated five compartments divided by torpedo bulkheads and a large anti-torpedo bulge that ran the length of the "armored raft". The outer two compartments, the innermost compartment and the bulge would remain empty, while the third and fourth compartments would be filled with liquid. The system was reduced in depth at either end by the forward and rear gun turrets. In these areas, the fifth compartment was deleted; instead, there was an outer empty compartment and two liquid-filled spaces, backed by another empty compartment. To compensate for the reduced underwater protection system, these sections received additional armor plating, up to  in thickness. The complete system was  deep and designed to withstand warheads of up to  of TNT. Underwater protection was rounded out by a triple bottom that was  deep. The bottom layer was  thick and was kept filled with fluid, while the upper  thick layer was kept empty. The triple bottom was also heavily subdivided to prevent catastrophic flooding should the upper layer be penetrated.

 Service

 Construction
Two ships, each to cost about $50 million, were authorized in January 1937. Five shipyards submitted bids to build one of the two planned ships. Three were privately run corporations: Bethlehem Shipbuilding, New York Shipbuilding and Newport News Shipbuilding. The other two, the New York Naval Shipyard and Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, were run by the government. When bids were reviewed, the privately run shipyards' submissions ranged from $46 to 50 million, while their government counterparts came in at $37 million. Newport News was unique among these in refusing any fixed monetary value in favor of a "cost-plus %" price, but this led to the rejection of their bid out of hand.

The bids from private companies were heavily influenced by the legislation of the New Deal. The Vinson-Trammell Act limited profit from a ship's construction to 10 percent, while the Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act specified a minimum wage and required working conditions for workers. The latter act greatly affected the ability of the navy to acquire steel, as the text of the law caused friction between executives in the industry, who greatly disliked the forty-hour work week and minimum wage requirements, and their workers—who themselves were embroiled in a separate dispute pitting the union of the skilled workers, the American Federation of Labor, against the union of the unskilled, the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Amid the unrest, the navy ran into difficulties trying to acquire 18 million pounds of steel to build six destroyers and three submarines; many more pounds than this would be needed for the new battleships.

The private shipyards, however, had their own labor problems, so much so that one author described the navy's issues as "minimal" compared to their shipbuilding counterparts. This increased the price of the battleships to $60 million each, so the Bureau of Steam Engineering and Bureau of Construction and Repair recommended to their superiors that the $37 million tenders from the two navy yards be accepted. This was confirmed by Roosevelt, as the private shipyards' bids were seen as unjustly inflated. The contracts for North Carolina and Washington—names had been officially chosen on 3 May 1937—were sent to the New York and Philadelphia yards, respectively, on 24 June 1937. Shortly after this announcement, Roosevelt was bombarded with heavy lobbying from citizens and politicians from Camden and the state of New Jersey, in an ultimately futile attempt to have the construction of North Carolina shifted to Camden's New York Shipbuilding; such a contract would keep many men employed in that area. Roosevelt refused, saying that the disparity in price was too great. Instead, the company was awarded two destroyer tenders in December 1937,  and .

Construction of the North Carolina class was slowed by the aforementioned material issues, the changes made to the basic design after this date—namely the substitution of 16-inch for 14-inch guns—and the need to add both length and strength to the slipways already present in the navy yards. Increased use of welding was proposed as a possible way to reduce weight and bolster the structural design, as it could have reduced the ships' structural weight by 10%, but it was used in only about 30% of the ship. The costs associated with welding and an increase in the time of construction made it impractical.

 North Carolina
 was laid down on 27 October 1937, the first battleship begun by the United States since the never-completed South Dakota class of the early 1920s. Although North Carolina was launched on 13 June 1940 and commissioned on 9 April 1941, it did not go on active duty because of acute longitudinal vibrations from its propeller shafts. A problem shared with its sister Washington and some other ships like , it was only cured after different propellers were tested aboard North Carolina, including four-bladed and cut-down versions of the original three-bladed. This testing required it to be at sea, and the many resulting trips out of New York Harbor to the Atlantic Ocean caused it to be nicknamed "The Showboat"."North Carolina" in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships"6112175" in the Miramar Ship Index

After a shakedown cruise in the Caribbean Sea and participation in war exercises, North Carolina transited the Panama Canal en route to the Pacific War. Joining Task Force (TF) 16, the battleship escorted the aircraft carrier  during the invasions of Guadalcanal and Tulagi on 7 August 1942, and continued to accompany the carrier when it moved to be southeast of the Solomons. The Battle of the Eastern Solomons began when Japanese carriers were spotted on 24 August; although American planes were able to strike first by sinking the light carrier , a strike group from a different force, formed around the fleet carriers  and , attacked TF 16. In an intense eight-minute battle, North Carolina shot down 7–14 aircraft and was relatively undamaged, though there were seven near-misses and one crewman was killed by strafing. Enterprise took three bomb hits.North Carolina then joined the carrier s screen, and protected it while support was rendered to American troops fighting on Guadalcanal. Although it dodged one torpedo on 6 September, it was not able to avoid another on the 15th. Out of a six-torpedo salvo from the , three hit the carrier , one hit , one missed, and one struck North Carolina. A  warhead hit on the port side  below the waterline at a point that was just behind the number one turret. It created a  hole, allowed about  of water into the ship—which had to be offset with counter-flooding, meaning that another  entered—killed five men, and wounded twenty. Although North Carolina could steam at  soon after the explosion, it was later forced to slow to  to ensure that temporary shoring did not fail. Structural damage beneath the first turret rendered it unable to fire unless in absolute need, and the main search radar failed. As this was the first torpedo to strike a modern American battleship, there was a large amount of interest from various officers and bureaus within the navy in learning more about it. The conclusions were seen as a vindication by some who believed that too much had been sacrificed in the design of the North Carolinas—the torpedo defense system had come close to breaking near one of the most important areas of the ship (a magazine), after all—and the General Board called for the fifth and sixth s,  and , to have a torpedo bulge added outside their magazines. However, the new Bureau of Ships opposed this on the basis that the system performed as it was supposed to; in any case, no modifications were made.Friedman, U.S. Battleships, 277 and 279Whitley, Battleships, 293–294

Repaired and refitted at the facilities in Pearl Harbor, North Carolina operated as a carrier escort for Enterprise and Saratoga for the remainder of 1942 and the majority of 1943 while they provided cover for supply and troop movements in the Solomons. In between, it received advanced fire control and radar gear in March, April and September 1943 at Pearl Harbor. In November, North Carolina escorted Enterprise while the carrier launched strikes upon Makin, Tarawa and Abemama. On 1–8 December it bombarded Nauru before returning to carrier screening; it accompanied  while that carrier launched attacks on Kavieng and New Ireland.Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 39

Joining Task Force 58 in January 1944, North Carolina escorted aircraft carriers as the flagship of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee, Commander, Battleships, Pacific Fleet (ComBatPac) for much of the year, providing support for airborne strikes on Kwajalein, Namur, Truk (twice), Saipan, Tinian, Guam, Palau, Woleai, and Hollandia in January–April. Also in April, North Carolina destroyed defensive installations on Ponape before setting course for Pearl Harbor for repairs to a damaged rudder. With repairs completed, the battleship joined with Enterprise on 6 June for assaults within the Marianas; as part of these, North Carolina used its main battery to bombard Saipan and Tanapag.

In late June, North Carolina was one of the American ships which took part in the so-called "Marianas Turkey Shoot", where a majority of attacking Japanese aircraft were shot down out of the air at little cost to the American defenders. Problems with its propeller shafts then caused the battleship to sail to the Puget Sound Navy Yard to receive an overhaul. It returned to active duty in November and to its carrier escort tasks in time to be hit by a typhoon. North Carolina protected carriers while they provided air cover for invasion fleets and launched attacks on Leyte, Luzon, and the Visayas. Surviving another typhoon, one which sank three destroyers, North Carolina continued escort duty when naval aircraft struck Formosa, Indo-China, China, the Ryukyus and Honshu in January and February 1945. During the invasion of Iwo Jima, the battleship provided bombardment support for troops ashore.Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 39–40

During the assault on Okinawa, North Carolina screened carriers and bombarded targets ashore. Although it was able to shoot down three kamikazes on 6 April, it was also struck by a  shell during that time in a friendly fire incident; three were killed and forty-four injured. The battleship shot down a plane on the 7th and two on the 17th. After receiving another overhaul from 9 May to 28 June, this one in the naval yard at Pearl Harbor, North Carolina operated as both a carrier escort and shore bombardier for the remainder of the war. Of note was a 17 July bombardment of the industrial area in Hitachi, Ibaraki in company with fellow battleships , ,  and , along with smaller warships.Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 40

In August, members of North Carolinas crew and Marine contingent were sent ashore to assist in occupying Japan. After the official surrender, these men were brought back aboard and the battleship sailed to Okinawa. As part of Operation "Magic Carpet", soldiers were embarked to be returned to the United States. Passing through the locks of Panama Canal on 8 October, it weighed anchor in Boston on the 17th. After an overhaul in the New York Naval Yard, it participated in exercises off New England before beginning a midshipman training cruise in the Caribbean.North Carolina was decommissioned in Bayonne, New Jersey on 27 June 1947; it remained in the reserve fleet in until 1 June 1960, when it was struck from the Naval Vessel Register. Instead of the scrapping that faced most of the United States' battleships, North Carolina was sold to the state of North Carolina for $250,000 on 8 August 1961 to be a museum ship. It was dedicated in Wilmington on 29 April 1962 as a memorial to the citizens of the state who died in the Second World War. Listed on the United States' National Register of Historic Places and designated as a National Historic Landmark on 1 January 1986, it remains there today, maintained by the USS North Carolina Battleship Commission.

 Washington

 was laid down on 14 June 1938, launched on 1 June 1940 and commissioned on 15 May 1941 at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Although commissioned, its engine had not yet been run at full power—like its sister, Washington had major problems with longitudinal vibrations, which were only tempered after many tests conducted aboard North Carolina. The fixes made it possible to run builder's trials, which Washington did on 3 August 1941; loaded at about , the propulsion plant was run up to , and repeated the performance again in February 1942, achieving ."Washington" in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships

In early 1942 Rear Admiral John W. Wilcox chose Washington as the flagship of Task Force 39. On 26 March 1942, Washington, along with Wasp, ,  and various smaller ships, sailed to bolster the British Home Fleet. During the voyage, Wilcox fell into the ocean; he was seen soon after by the destroyer , face down in the water, but due to rough seas they were unable to retrieve the body. It is not known what exactly happened; he could have simply been caught by a wave and washed overboard, but there has been speculation that he suffered a heart attack. The force reached the main anchorage of the Home Fleet, Scapa Flow, on 4 April.Washington and the other ships of TF 39 participated in exercises with the Home Fleet until late April. Along with certain British units, the task force departed the British Isles as TF 99. They escorted some of the Arctic convoys which were carrying vital cargo to the Soviet Union. While carrying out this duty, an accompanying British battleship,  HMS King George V, accidentally rammed a destroyer, cutting it in two. Directly behind King George V, Washington passed through the same stretch of sea and received damage from exploding depth charges. Though damage to the hull was minimal—limited to only one leaking fuel tank—many devices on board the ship were damaged, including main battery range finders, circuit breakers, three fire-control and the search radars. The American ships then put in at an Icelandic port, Hvalfjörður, until 15 May; they returned to Scapa Flow on 3 June. On 4 June, Washington hosted the commander of US naval forces in Europe, Admiral Harold Rainsford Stark, who set up a temporary headquarters on the ship for the next few days. On 7 June, King George VI of the United Kingdom inspected the battleship.Washington left the North Sea bound for the United States on 14 July with an escort of four destroyers; upon arrival at the New York Naval Yard on the 23rd, it was given a full overhaul which took a month to be completed. It set sail for the Panama Canal and the Pacific Ocean on 23 August and reached its destination, Tonga Island, on 14 September, where it became the flagship of Admiral Willis "Ching" Lee. Over the coming months, Washington would be focused upon the safe arrival of supply convoys to the men fighting on Guadalcanal. On 13 November, three formations of Japanese ships were discovered on course for Guadalcanal, one of them aiming to bombard Henderson Field while night gave them protection from aircraft. The first Japanese bombardment force was driven back by an American cruiser-destroyer force. On 14 November, the Japanese organized another sortie to neutralize the airfield. Washington, , and four destroyers were sent to intercept the Japanese force that night. The Japanese, composed of the fast battleship , two heavy cruisers, two light cruisers, and nine destroyers, initially sank three US destroyers and inflicted significant topside damage to South Dakota. However, Washington remained undetected and at midnight fired on Kirishima from , point blank range for Washingtons 16-inch/45-caliber guns.Garzke and Dulin, p. 44 Washington fired seventy-five 16-inch and one hundred and seven 5-inch rounds during the melee, scoring 20 main and seventeen secondary battery hits, knocking out Kirishima's steering and main battery and causing uncontrollable progressive flooding. Kirishima capsized at 03:25 on the morning of 15 November 1942, with 212 crewmen lost. Radar-directed fire from Washingtons secondary battery also damaged destroyer  so severely it had to be scuttled. Soon after the battle, the Japanese began evacuating Guadalcanal.Whitley, Battleships, 296

Until April 1943, Washington stayed near its base in New Caledonia, providing protection for convoys and battle groups that were supporting the Solomons campaign. Returning to Pearl Harbor, it practiced for battle and underwent an overhaul before returning to the combat zone in late July. From August to the end of October, Washington operated out of Efate. It then joined with four battleships and six destroyers as Task Group (TG) 53.2 for exercises; Enterprise,  and  also participated. TG 52.2 then voyaged to the Gilbert Islands to add additional firepower to the strikes currently hitting them. Departing in late November, Washington  first steamed to Makin to provide protection for ships there, then Ocean Island to prepare to bombard Nauru with its sister North Carolina, all four South Dakota-class battleships, and the carriers Bunker Hill and . All of the capital ships struck before dawn on 8 December; the aircraft carriers struck again soon after. The ships then sailed back to Efate, arriving on 12 December. On Christmas, Washington, North Carolina, and four destroyers left Efate for gunnery practice. By late January, it was made part of TG 50.1 to escort the fast carriers in that group as they launched strikes on Taroa and Kwajalein. It also moved in to hit Kwajalein with its guns on 30 January.Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 46

Before dawn on 1 February, with the sky still shrouded in darkness, Washington collided with  when the latter left formation to fuel four destroyers. Indiana had radioed that it was going to make a turn to port out of the formation, but soon after starting the turn, its captain ordered a reversal, back to starboard. About seven minutes later, it came into view of lookouts aboard Washington at a range of . Although crews on both ships frantically tried to avoid the other, it was to no avail; Washington gave Indiana a glancing blow, scraping down a large aft portion of the ship's starboard side. Washingtons fore end was severely damaged, with about  of its bow hanging down and into the water. Ten men, six from Washington, were killed or listed as missing. After temporary reinforcements to the damaged section, it was forced to sail to Pearl Harbor to be fitted with a false bow to make possible a voyage to Puget Sound. Once there, it received a full overhaul, along with a new bow; this work lasted from March until April. Washington did not enter the war zone again until late May."Marshall Islands Campaign," Naval History and Heritage CommandWashington next participated in the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, serving again as a carrier escort ship, though it was detached on the 13th to fire on Japanese positions on Saipan and Tinian. With the sortie of a majority of the remaining ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy spotted by American submarines, Washington, along with six other battleships, four heavy cruisers and fourteen destroyers covered the aircraft carriers of TF 58; on the 19th, with the attack of many aircraft, the Battle of the Philippine Sea began. Able to beat off the attacks, Washington refueled and continued escorting carriers until it formed a new task group with three battleships and escorts. After a lengthy stop at Enewetak Atoll, it supported troops assaulting Peleliu and Angaur before returning to screening duties. This duty lasted from 10 October to 17 February 1945.Garzke and Dulin, United States Battleships, 47

The battleship bombarded Iwo Jima from 19–22 February in support of the invasion there before escorting carriers which sent aircraft raids against Tokyo and targets on the island of Kyūshū. On 24 March and 19 April, Washington bombarded Okinawa; it then departed for Puget Sound to receive a refit, having been in action for the majority of the time since its refit in March–April 1944. This lasted through V-J Day and the subsequent formal ceremony aboard Missouri, so Washington received orders to voyage to Philadelphia, where it arrived on 17 October. Here it was modified to have an additional 145 bunks so it could participate in Operation Magic Carpet. Sailing to Southampton with a reduced crew of 84 officers and 835 crew, it brought 185 army officers and 1,479 enlisted men back to the United States; this was the only voyage it would make in support of the operation. The battleship was placed into reserve at Bayonne, New Jersey on 27 June 1947, after only a little more than six years of service. Washington was never reactivated. Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 June 1960—exactly 21 years to the day since its launch—she was sold on 24 May 1961 to be scrapped.Whitley, Battleships, 297

 Post-war alteration proposals North Carolina and Washington remained in active duty in the years immediately after the war, possibly because their crew accommodations were more comfortable and less cramped than the four South Dakotas. The ships received alterations during this period; the Ship Characteristics Board (SCB) directed in June 1946 that four of the quadruple-mounted 40 mm guns be removed, though only two were actually taken off each ship. The 20 mm weapons were also reduced at some point so that both ships were decommissioned with sixteen twin mounts. North Carolina and Washington were decommissioned on 27 June 1947 and subsequently moved to the reserve fleet.

In May 1954, SCB created a class improvement project for the North Carolinas which included twenty-four 3-inch/50 guns directed by six Mark 56s. A month later, the SCB chairman voiced his belief that the North Carolinas and South Dakotas would be excellent additions to task forces—if they could be faster. The Bureau of Ships then considered and discarded designs that would move these ships at , four knots faster than their current attainable speed. In order for a North Carolina to obtain 31 knots,  would be required. This, in turn, would necessitate the installation of an extremely large power plant, one which would not fit into the ship even if the third turret was removed. If the outer external belt armor were removed,  would still be required. However, no matter if the belt was taken off or not, all of the hull form aft would have to be greatly modified to accept larger propellers. The last strike against the project was the high estimated cost of $40 million, which did not include the cost of activating battleships that had been out of commission for ten years.

Later calculations proved that the North Carolinas could be lightened from 44,377 long tons to around , at which 210,000 shp would suffice. At the trial displacement figure of , even  would be enough; the 210,000 figure was derived from a 12.5% overestimation to account for a fouled bottom or bad weather. A similar power plant to the one used in the Iowa class (generating ) would be enough, and if the third turret was removed there would be no problems with weight, but there was not enough space within the North Carolinas. When compared, the current power plant measured , but Iowas was . Lastly, there would be an issue with the propellers; the Iowa class' were  wide, while the North Carolinas were . In the end, no conversions were undertaken.

Designs for helicopter carriers also contained a plan for a conversion of the North Carolinas. At a cost of $30,790,000, the ships would have been able to embark 28 helicopters, 1,880 troops,  of cargo and  of oil. All of the 16-inch and 5-inch guns would have been removed, though the number one turret would have remained so that weights added on the stern half of the ship could be balanced. In place, the ships would have received sixteen 3-inch guns in twin mounts. Displacement would be lowered slightly to a fully loaded weight of about , while speed would not have changed. It was estimated that the ships could serve for about fifteen to twenty years at a cost of about $440,000 a year for maintenance. However, it was found that a purpose-built helicopter carrier would be more economical, so the plans were shelved.

Ships in class

 Notes

 Endnotes

 References

 Bibliography
 Campbell, John. Naval Weapons of World War Two. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985. .
 Friedman, Norman. U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated Design History. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1985. . .
 Garzke, William H., and Robert O. Dulin. Battleships: United States Battleships in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1976. . .
 McBride, William H. "The Unstable Dynamics of a Strategic Technology: Disarmament, Unemployment, and the Interwar Battleship." Technology and Culture 38, no. 2 (1997): 386–423. . . .
 Muir Jr., Malcolm. "Gun Calibers and Battle Zones: The United States Navy's Foremost Concern During the 1930s." Warship International XVII, no. 1 (1980): 24–35. . .
 "North Carolina" in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval History & Heritage Command. Accessed 15 November 2009.
 Whitley, M.J. Battleships of World War Two: An International Encyclopedia. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1998. . .
 "Washington" in the Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval History & Heritage Command. Accessed 15 November 2009.

 Web
 DiGiulian, Tony. "United States of America 16"/45 (40.6 cm) Mark 6." NavWeaps. Accessed 15 November 2009.
 DiGiulian, Tony. "United States of America 5"/38 (12.7 cm) Mark 12." NavWeaps. Accessed 15 November 2009.
 Haworth, R.B. "Single Ship Report for "6112175" (North Carolina)." (subscription required). Miramar Ship Index. Accessed 15 November 2009.
 Haworth, R.B. "Single Ship Report for "6112726" (Washington)." (subscription required). Miramar Ship Index. Accessed 15 November 2009.
 "Marshall Islands Campaign, Jan.–Feb. 1944 – USS Washington and USS Indiana Collide, 1 February 1944." Online Library of Selected Images, Naval History & Heritage Command. Accessed 15 November 2009.
 "." Naval Vessel Register, Department of the Navy. Accessed on 15 November 2009.
 "." Naval Vessel Register, Department of the Navy. Accessed 15 November 2009.

 Primary
 "Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament [Second London Naval Treaty]". London: Third London Naval Conference, 25 March 1936.

 Further reading
 Burr, Lawrence, and Peter Bull. US Fast Battleships 1936–47: The North Carolina and South Dakota Classes. Oxford: Osprey, 2010. . .
 Moss, Stafford. "A Comparison of Machinery Installations of North Carolina, South Dakota, Iowa and Montana Class Battleships." Warship International'' XLVII, no. 4 (2010): 363–91. . .

External links

 Mohl, Michael. "Post-Dreadnought Battleships". NavSource History.

Battleship classes

North Carolina-class battleship


Sula, rimski zapovjednik i diktator
 Sula (rijeka), lijeva pritoka Dnjepra
 Sula (otok), otok u Molučkim otocima, Indonezija

Sula (razdvojba)


Astitz (Astitz en euskera y de forma oficial) es una localidad española y un concejo de la Comunidad Foral de Navarra perteneciente al municipio de Larráun.

Está situado en la Merindad de Pamplona, en la comarca de Norte de Aralar, en el valle de Larráun y a 31 km de la capital de la comunidad, Pamplona. Su población en  fue de  habitantes (INE), su superficie es de  km² y su densidad de población de  hab/km².

Geografía física

Situación
La localidad de Astitz está situada en la parte oriental del municipio de Larráun. Su término concejil tiene una superficie de  km² y limita al norte con los concejos de Alli y Muguiro; al este con los de Arruiz y Goldáraz en el municipio de Imoz; al sur con el de Odériz y al oeste con el de Alli.

Demografía

Evolución de la población

Véase también
 Larráun
 Lista de concejos de Navarra

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Datos del Concejo de Astitz - Gobierno de Navarra - Información y datos de entidades locales de Navarra.
 Concejo de Astiz - Página web oficial del Ayuntamiento de Larraun

Concejos de Larráun
Localidades de Larráun

Astiz


مذكرة كنيغ هي مذكرة سرية داخلية صدرت عن الحكومة اليهودية في أبريل 1976. قام بإعداد هذه المذكرة يسرائيل كنيغ، متصرف لواء الشمال في وزارة الداخلية الإسرائيلية في حينها.

تقدم هذه المذكرة جملة من الأهداف الاستراتيجية والخطوات التكتيكية والتي تهدف إلى تقليل نفوذ المواطنين العرب في منطقة الجليل. شدد كنيغ على الحاجة لفحص إمكانية لإضعاف التركيز العربي الحالي وكما رأى أنها أمر مهم لديمومة المصالح اليهودية الوطنية.

تبرز أهمية هذه المذكرة لكونها المذكرة الأولى التي تعرض سياسات التفرقة والعنصرية المطبقة على الفلسطينيين منذ سنة 1948، و حيث تعكس التخطيط الذي يتم تنفيذه في مراكز صنع القرار.

نشرها
تم نشر هذه المذكرة للعوام في 7 سبتمبر 1976 عندما تم طبعها ونشرها في صحيفة عل همشمار العبرية وقد نشرت شهرية الجديد ترجمة عربية لها في عدد 10، 1976.

ردود فعل
صرح عبد المجيد المندوب المصري لدى مجلس الأمن بأن نوايا الحكومة الإسرائيلية معروفة لكن هذه الوثيقة تفضحها علناً.

المحتوى

تناقش هذه المذكرة مسألة الخطر الديموغرافي الذي يحيط بالدولة اليهودية و يمكن تلخيص بعض أهم الأهداف الاستراتيجية لهذه المذكرة فيما يلي:
 الحيلولة دون أي احتمال لتكوين وحدة سياسية عربية مستقلة، حيث اقترحت المذكرة بناء المزيد من المستوطنات في المناطق ذات الأكثرية العربية.
 يجب تبديل الزعماء العرب العدائيين بآخرين أكثر طواعية والذين يجب على الدولة إيجادهم وخلقهم. أراد كنيغ أن يتم تقليل عدد العرب المثقفين حيث قام بتوصية بتحويلهم إلى دراسات تقنية ومهنية مثل الفيزياء والعلوم الطبيعية. كما أراد كنيغ أن يكون سهولة دراسة العربي في الخارج أكبر وصعوبة إيجاده للعمل في الداخل أكبر.
 كما اقترح إجراء حملات لتشويه سمعة العرب الناشطين سياسياً و لتقليل الإدخار لدى الجانب الفلسطيني حتى يتم تحديد و تقليل التمويل المتوفر في المجتمعات العربية و التي تمول الأهداف السياسية.

تصريحات يسرائيل كنيج الحالية

يقول كنيج أن العرب يريدون امتصاص أفضل ما لدينا (اليهود).

مصادر

إسرائيل في 1976
القضية الفلسطينية
تاريخ إسرائيل السياسي
مذكرة دبلوماسية
وثائق في 1976

مذكرة كنيغ


Sauropodomorpha (fra græsk, betydende "øgle-fodede former") er en uddød gren af langhalsede, planteædende dinosaurer i ordenen Saurischia. Gruppen omfatter Sauropoda og deres forfædre Prosauropoda. Sauropoder blev generelt meget store, havde lange halse og haler, var firfodede og blev blandt de største dyr, der har gået på jorden. Prosauropoder, som gik forud for sauropoderne, var mindre og ofte i stand til at gå på to ben. Sauropodomorpherne var de dominerende jordlevende planteædere igennem store dele af mesozoikum, fra deres oprindelse i midten af triastiden (omkring 230 mio. år siden) indtil deres nedgang og udryddelse mod slutningen af kridttiden (omkring 66 mio. år siden).

Beskrivelse

Sauropodomorpher var tilpasset fødesøgning højere oppe i vegetationen end andre samtidige planteædere, hvilket gav dem mulighed for at æde af høje trætoppe. Denne strategi støttes af flere karakteristika, der definerer denne gruppe som bl.a.: et let, lille kranium for enden af en lang hals (ti eller flere aflange nakkehvirvler) og en lang hale (ét til tre ekstra halehvirvler) til at modbalancere for den lange hals.

Deres tænder var svage og formet som blade eller skeer. I stedet for kindtænder havde de sten i maven (gastrolitter), som minder om kråse som moderne fugle og krokodille har, for at kunne nedbryde og fordøje de seje plantefibre. Den forreste del af overmunden bøjer nedad på en måde der kunne ligne et næb.

En af de tidligst kendte sauropodomorpher, Saturnalia, var meget lille og slank (1,5 m lang), men mod slutningen af triastiden var de de største dinosaurer i deres samtid, og igennem juratiden og kridttiden fortsatte de med at vokse. De endte som de største sauropoder, og dinosaurer som Supersaurus, Diplodocus hallorum, Patagotitan og Argentinosaurus kunne nå op på en længde på mellem 30 og 40 m, og veje 65-110 tons.

Til at begynde med kunne de gå på to ben, men i takt med at de blev større begyndte de også at gå på fire ben, hvor de har gået langsomt på land lidt ligesom nutidens elefanter. De tidlige sauropodomorpher var sandsynligvis omnivorer, da de deler forfædre med andre saurischier (theropoder) som var kødædere. Derfor er tilpasningen mod at blive udelukkende planteædere sandsynligvis udviklet i takt med en længere hals og hale.

De havde også næsebor, og havde en tommelfinger (pollex) med en stor klo, som kan have været brugt til at forsvare sig, selvom deres primære forsvar har været deres enorme størrelse.

Klassificering

Kladogram efter Novas et al., 2011:

Nedenfor er et kladogram for den basale del af stamtræet, efter Otero et al., 2015.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dinosaurer

Sauropodomorpha


Lífið er íslenskt ljóð efir Kristján frá Djúpalæk. Ljóðið birtist í lagi Vilhjálms Vilhjálmssonar "Lífið er kvikmynd".

Ljóðið

Lífið
Lífið er kvikmynd
leikin af stjörnum.
Myndin er ekki
ætluð börnum.

Lífið (ljóð)


was the name given to the mass cadmium poisoning of Toyama Prefecture, Japan, starting around 1912. The term "itai-itai disease" was coined by locals for the severe pains (Japanese: 痛い itai) people with the condition felt in the spine and joints. Cadmium (Cd) poisoning can also cause softening of the bones and kidney failure. Effective treatments involve the use of chelators to promote urinary excretion of Cd. The cadmium was released into rivers by mining companies in the mountains, which were successfully sued for the damage. Remediation efforts in the affected region have been ongoing since 1972 and were mostly complete as of 2012. Monetary costs of the cleanup have been paid for in part by Japan's national government, Mitsui Mining, and the Gifu and Toyama prefectural governments. Itai-itai disease is known as one of the Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan.

Etymology
The term itai-itai disease (in Japanese イタイイタイ病 itai-itai byō, "it hurts-it hurts disease" or "ouch-ouch disease") was coined by the affected locals for the severe pains that people with itai-itai disease felt in the spine and joints. In Japanese 痛い itai is used as an adjective meaning "painful" or as an interjection equivalent to "ouch".

Causes
Itai-itai disease was caused by cadmium poisoning due to mining in Toyama Prefecture. Regular mining for silver started in 1589, and soon thereafter, mining for lead, copper, and zinc began. The earliest records of mining for gold in the area date back to 1710. Cadmium is a metal byproduct of mining that is toxic to most organisms.

Animal studies have shown that cadmium poisoning alone is not enough to elicit all of the symptoms of itai-itai disease. These studies point to damage of the mitochondria of kidney cells by cadmium as a key factor of the disease.

History
Increased demand for raw materials during the Russo-Japanese War and World War I, as well as new mining technologies from Europe, increased the output of the mines, putting the Kamioka Mines in Toyama among the world's top mines. Production increased even more before World War II. Starting in 1910 and continuing through 1945, cadmium was released in significant quantities by mining operations, and the disease first appeared around 1912.

In the 1920s, levels of contaminated tailing waste increased after the creation of new froth flotation processes that boosted zinc production. Fine powdered mineral particles formed in the frothing process escaped and drifted downriver. These particles were subsequently oxidized into ions that were absorbed by aquatic plants, rice crops, fish, and subsequently, humans. Sphalerite, the main zinc containing ore in Komioka, is almost always coupled with greenockite, the only major cadmium-containing mineral in the world. Because of this, cadmium is a regular by-product of the zinc ore mining process. Up until 1948, cadmium was discarded as waste into the Jinzū River due to it being of no industrial value, exacerbating the levels of the element's release into the waterbody.

Prior to World War II, the mining, controlled by the Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd., increased to satisfy wartime demand. This subsequently increased the pollution of the Jinzū River and its tributaries. The river was used mainly for irrigation of rice fields, but also for drinking water, washing, fishing, and other uses by downstream populations.

When the population complained to Mitsui Mining & Smelting Co. about this pollution, the company built a basin to store the mining waste water before leading it into the river. This proved ineffective, and many had already been sickened. The causes of the poisoning were not well understood and, up to 1946, it was thought to be simply a regional disease or a type of bacterial infection.

Medical tests started in the 1940s and 1950s, searching for the cause of the disease. Initially, it was expected to be lead poisoning due to the lead mining upstream. Only in 1955 did Dr. Hagino and his colleagues suspect cadmium as the cause of the disease. Toyama Prefecture also started an investigation in 1961, determining that the Mitsui Mining and Smelting's Kamioka Mining Station caused the cadmium pollution and that the worst-affected areas were  downstream of the mine. In 1968, the Ministry of Health and Welfare issued a statement about the symptoms of itai-itai disease caused by the cadmium poisoning.

The reduction of the levels of cadmium in the water supply reduced the number of new cases; no new case has been recorded since 1946. While the people with the worst symptoms came from Toyama prefecture, the government found patients with itai-itai disease in five other prefectures.

After the first reports of Itai-Itai in 1912, it took 55 years for the epidemiological investigation to discover that the disease was due to cadmium poisoning. Delayed bureaucratic response was a common thread in the Four Big Pollution Diseases of Japan.

The mines are still in operation and cadmium pollution levels remain high, although improved nutrition and medical care has reduced the occurrence of itai-itai disease.

Cadmium pollution in Jinzū river

Over time, the cadmium that was released as industrial waste began to accumulate in the soil, algae and river organisms. This resulted in the local phytoplankton and algal species absorbing it in high quantities. Cadmium was subsequently passed through the food web to fish consumers. Fish also bioaccumulated cadmium through passive transport in the gills. Cadmium adversely affected fish, causing endocrine disruption and inhibited reproduction, and sometimes mortality.

Due to the residents being unaware of the cadmium and its dangers, they used the water from the Jinzū to irrigate their rice fields. Cadmium is highly water-soluble and the rice paddies' prolonged exposure led to the rice quickly becoming contaminated and toxic. The local resident's consumption of this rice and drinking water then resulted in elevated cadmium body burdens – leading directly to symptoms characteristic of itai-itai disease. Cadmium is now considered one of the most dangerous toxic metals due to its ability to threaten food safety through being easily be absorbed into the rice paddies, then subsequently the rice.

Cadmium accumulation in a human body
Studies conducted to estimate the amount of cadmium exposure necessary to develop Itai-Itai disease found permissible lifetime cadmium intake (LCD) levels for humans to be 1.7 to 2.1 g. When Itai-Itai disease was first being recognized in just 5% of the affected population, LCD levels are estimated to have already been at 2.6 g.

Cadmium accumulates mainly in the liver and the kidneys, but has more of an effect on the kidneys. The severe symptoms seen in Itai-itai disease are a direct result of prolonged exposure to cadmium.

Cadmium enters the kidneys by binding to metallothionein in the blood and traveling to the glomerulus in the kidney. Once the cadmium makes it into the tubular cells in the kidneys, the cadmium is released and accumulates in the renal cortex until it reaches toxic levels. When cadmium reaches dangerous levels in the renal cortex, it can deactivate metal-dependent enzymes or activate calmodulin, which plays a role in smooth muscle contraction by sensing calcium levels.

Once the kidneys have experienced extensive damage, those affected begin experiencing musculoskeletal damage, due to the disruption of calcium homeostasis. This musculoskeletal damage is what causes the bone pain and bone deformities that characterize itai-itai disease.

Society

Legal action
29 plaintiffs, consisting of nine people with itai-itai disease and 20 of their family members, sued the Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co. in 1968 in the Toyama Prefectural court. In June 1971, the court found the Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co. guilty. Subsequently, the company appealed to the Nagoya District Court in Kanazawa, but the appeal was rejected in August 1972. The Mitsui Mining and Smelting Co. agreed to pay for the medical care of the people who had been affected, finance the monitoring of the water quality performed by the residents, and pay reparations to the people with the disease. Out of the four major pollution events, it was only in the case of itai-itai disease that those affected succeeded in accomplishing almost complete pollution control through legal action.

People who believe that they have itai-itai disease have to contact the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare to have their claims assessed. Many people with itai-itai disease were not satisfied with government actions and demanded a change in the official procedures. This caused the government to review the criteria for recognizing a patient legally; the government also reassessed the treatment of the disease.

A person is considered to have itai-itai disease if he or she lived in the contaminated areas, has kidney dysfunctions and softening of the bones, but not related heart problems. 184 patients have been legally recognized since 1967, of whom 54 were recognized in the period from 1980 to 2000. An additional 388 people have been identified as potential patients, those who had not been officially examined yet.  Fifteen people with itai-itai were still alive .

Remediation process
Following the trial victory of the plaintiffs over the Mitsui Mining Co in 1972, Mitsui Mining agreed to begin the process of remediation for the mine, as well as the surrounding farmland and river region. This process began with the first on-site inspection conducted by a team of scientists and government officials. These whole site inspections continue to take place yearly, with additional specialty inspections conducted 6–7 times throughout the year. These specialty checks specifically monitor water originating from the mine, as it has high levels of cadmium, which requires it to be separated and diverted to the Kamioka Mine slag dump. The water and solids are separated and processed before leaving the mine to ensure no groundwater contamination to the surrounding area. The treatment facilities' exhaust is also monitored to ensure the absence of cadmium in the airborne byproduct of the zinc refining process.

Continuous inspections following the lawsuit have documented considerable decreases in cadmium levels. Total amounts of cadmium discarded decreased from  per month in 1972 to  per month in 2010; the average concentration of cadmium in the mine's discharge had been reduced to 1.2 ppb in 2010 from 9 ppb in 1972; and in response to improved dust collection methods, the total amount of cadmium discharged in smoke dropped from > per month in 1972 to  per month in 2010. In 1996, the mean concentration of cadmium in agricultural lands had returned to the background level of 0.1 ppb, signifying trivial cadmium outflow. This is a success in regards to the lawsuit.

The cadmium pollution had also contaminated many of the agricultural areas surrounding the mine. As a response to the metal pollution, the Japanese government enacted the Prevention of Soil Contamination in Agricultural Land Law of 1970. It ordered planting to be stopped so that restoration of the soil could be implemented in areas with 1ppm of cadmium or more in the soil. Surveying in Toyama Prefecture began in 1971, and by 1977,  along the Jinzū River were designated for soil restoration. These farmers were compensated for lost crops and for lost production in past years by the Mitsui Mining and Smelting, Toyama Prefecture, and the national government. , only  remained contaminated.

In 1992, the average annual health expense compensation was ¥743 million. Agricultural damage was compensated with ¥1.75 billion per year, or a total of annually ¥2.518 billion. Another ¥620 million were invested annually to reduce further pollution of the river.

On 17 March 2012, officials concluded the cleanup project of the cadmium-polluted areas in the Jinzū River basin.  of topsoil had been replaced since the cleanup began in 1979 at a total cost of ¥40.7 billion. The project had been financed by the Japanese national government, Mitsui Mining, and the Gifu and Toyama prefectural governments.

See also
 Heavy metal poisoning
 Onsan illness

References

External links
 Additional Information on Itai-Itai Disease
 What is Itai-itai disease?
 Deletion in proximal tubule cell gene causes symptoms of Itai-Itai

Political scandals in Japan
Water pollution in Japan
Cadmium
Health disasters in Japan
Mining in Japan
1912 health disasters
1912 in Japan
Toxic effects of metals
Reduplicants

Itai-itai disease