Girton College is one of the 31 constituent colleges of the University of Cambridge. The college was established in 1869 by Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon as the first women's college in Cambridge. In 1948, it was granted full college status by the university, marking the official admittance of women to the university. In 1976, it was the first Cambridge women's college to become coeducational.

The main college site, situated on the outskirts of the village of Girton, about  northwest of the university town, comprises  of land. In a typical Victorian red-brick design, most was built by architect Alfred Waterhouse between 1872 and 1887. It provides extensive sports facilities, an indoor swimming-pool, an award-winning library and a chapel with two organs. There is an accommodation annexe, known as Swirles Court, situated in the Eddington neighborhood of the North West Cambridge development. Swirles opened in 2017 and provides up to 325 ensuite single rooms for graduates, and for second-year undergraduates and above.

The college has a reputation for admitting a high number of UK state-school students, its community feel, and for musical talent. Several art collections are held on the main site, including People's Portraits, the millennial exhibition of the Royal Society of Portrait Painters, and an Egyptian collection containing the world's most reproduced portrait mummy.

Among Girton's notable alumni are Queen Margrethe II of Denmark, former UK Supreme Court President Lady Hale, HuffPost co-founder Arianna Huffington, the comedian/author Sandi Toksvig, the comedian/broadcaster/GP Phil Hammond, the economist Joan Robinson, and the anthropologist Marilyn Strathern, also Mistress from 1998 to 2009.

Its sister college is Somerville College, one of the two Oxford colleges to first admit women.

History

1869 to 1976: Pioneering for women's education
The early feminist movement began to argue for the improvement of women's education in the 1860s: Emily Davies and Barbara Bodichon met through their activism at the Society for the Employment of Women and the Englishwoman's Review. They shared the aim of securing women's admission to university. In particular, they wanted to determine whether girls could be admitted at Oxford or Cambridge to sit the Senior and Junior Local Examinations. Davies and Bodichon set up a committee to that effect in 1862. In 1865, with the help of Henry Tomkinson, Trinity College alumnus and owner of an insurance company with good contacts within the University, 91 female students entered the Cambridge Local Examination. This first concession to women's educational rights met relatively little resistance, as admission to the examination did not imply residence of women at the university site.

At that time, students had the option of doing a Pass degree, which consisted of "a disorderly collection of fragmented learning", or an Honours degree, which at that time meant the Mathematics Tripos, classics, natural or moral sciences. An Honours degree was considered more challenging than the Pass degree. In 1869, Henry Sidgwick helped institute the Examinations for Women, which was designed to be of intermediate difficulty. This idea was heavily opposed by Emily Davies, as she demanded admittance to the Tripos examinations.

The college was established on 16 October 1869 under the name of the College for Women at Benslow House in Hitchin, Hertfordshire, which was considered to be a convenient distance from Cambridge and London. It was thought to be less "risky" and less controversial to locate the college away from Cambridge in the beginning. The college was one of England's first residential colleges for women. (Whitelands College, now part of the University of Roehampton, was established as a college of higher education for women earlier, in 1841.) They worked with Fanny Metcalfe to develop the curricula.

In July and October 1869, entrance examinations were held in London, to which 21 candidates came; 16 passed. The first term started on 16 October 1869, when five students began their studies: Emily Gibson, Anna Lloyd, Louisa Lumsden, Isabella Townshend and Sarah Woodhead. Elizabeth Adelaide Manning was also registered as a student, although with the intention of staying for a single term, and her step-mother Charlotte Manning was the first Mistress. The first three students to unofficially sit the Tripos exams in Lent term 1873, Rachel Cook and Lumsden, who both took the Classical Tripos, as well as Woodhead, who took the Mathematical Tripos, were known as "The Pioneers".

Through fundraising, £7,000 were collected, which allowed for the purchase of land either at Hitchin or near Cambridge in 1871. By 1872, sixteen acres of land at the present site were acquired near the village of Girton. The college was then renamed Girton College, and opened at the new location in October 1873. The buildings had cost £12,000, and consisted of a single block which comprised the east half of Old Wing. At the time, thirteen students were admitted.

In 1876, Old Wing was completed, and Taylor's Knob, the college laboratory and half of the Hospital Wing was built. In the following year, Caroline Croom Robertson joined the management team as secretary to reduce the load on Emily Davies. In 1884, Hospital Wing was completed, and Orchard Wing, Stanley Library and the Old Kitchens added. At that time, Girton had 80 students. By 1902, Tower Wing, Chapel Wing and Woodlands Wing as well as the Chapel and the Hall were finished, which allowed the college to accommodate 180 students.

In 1921, a committee was appointed to draft a charter for the college. By summer 1923 the committee had completed the task, and on 21 August 1924 the King granted the charter to "the Mistress and Governors of Girton College" as a Body Corporate. Girton was not officially a college yet, nor were its members part of the University. Girton and Newnham were classed as "recognised institutions for the higher education for women", not colleges of the university. On 27 April 1948, women were admitted to full membership of the University of Cambridge, and Girton College received the status of a college of the university.

1976 to present: Pioneering for sexual equality
Social and cultural changes in the post-war period led to an increasing number of British universities to become co-educational. In Cambridge, Churchill College, King's College and Clare College were the first men's colleges to admit women in 1972. Girton had already amended its statutes in 1971 in such a way as to allow the admission of men should the Governing Body vote in favour at an unspecified date in the future. The decision to become mixed came in November 1976, when the Governing Body voted to act upon the statute, which made Girton the first women's college to admit men. In January 1977, the first two male Fellows, Frank Wilkinson and John Marks, arrived, followed by male graduate students in 1978, and, finally, undergraduates in October 1979. One reason for the change was that the first mixed colleges in Cambridge immediately shot to the top of the Tripos league tables, as they seemed to attract bright students, who preferred to stay in co-educational colleges.

Girton became co-residential as well, which meant that male and female students shared the same facilities. Only one all-female corridor in which rooms were reserved exclusively for women remained. Upon the arrival of male undergraduates, JCR and MCR social facilities had to be enlarged. The college bar was opened in 1979 as well as rugby, cricket and soccer pitches provided from 1982 onwards.

In the 22-year period from 1997 to 2019, the Tompkins Table annual ranking of Cambridge colleges by undergraduate academic performance ranked Girton College an average of 20 out of the 29 colleges researched. In 2019, it came 20th, with 22 per cent of all undergraduate students gaining a first-class degree.

Mistresses

The mistress is the formal head of the college. Her main task is to exercise general superintendence over the college's affairs. She presides over the college council and several college committees. The mistress is elected by the council, and has to reside at the college precincts for at least two-thirds of each term, or 210 days of each academic year. Ever since the establishment of Girton College, the position has been held by a female, even though male candidates have had equal rights for running for the office since 1976 and would, if elected, be called by the female term "mistress".

The current mistress is Elisabeth Kendall, who in 2022 succeeded Susan J. Smith; she had held the position since 2009.

Accommodation and fees

The cost of undergraduate and graduate accommodation at £180.50 per week is the most expensive of all 31 Cambridge colleges. But Girton is unique in setting a cohort charge, which means that the price of accommodation is fixed for an incoming cohort for the three years of their degree, whilst students at other colleges are subject to unknown rent rises every year. The college consults regularly with the JCR and MCR on its policy of charging equal rents for all non-en suite rooms. The college recently introduced a Residence Bursary scheme, whereby any student in receipt of a Cambridge Bursary receives a rent discount of £20 per week for all weeks of their tenancy; for these students the median rent is amongst the lowest of the Cambridge colleges.

The Cambridge Student wrote in 2018: "An investigation carried out by TCS has revealed that, at the lower end of the scale, £70 a week is enough to stay at Peterhouse and Trinity Hall, while Girtonians must shell out £160 for even the worst rooms. Such a huge spread of minimum rents creates significant disparities in a less well off student's ability to enjoy Cambridge life, especially given that many are not aware of the price of accommodation when applying." However, the article also notes that some colleges charge extra facility or kitchen charges, some over £200, which is not the case at Girton.

Undergraduates
Girton, along with Newnham College, are the only colleges to charge the same fee for undergraduate accommodation on their premises. The main site offers 348 rooms, rented for the entire year (38 or 39 weeks, depending on the term dates). The weekly rent for the incoming undergraduate cohort of 2019/20 was £180.50. According to the Varsity student paper: "All students at Girton have to pay for 37 weeks a year, making it the most unavoidably expensive college on an annual basis – with an average termly rent of £1973.33."

Rooms in the main site are arranged along corridors, which makes it possible to walk from one location in the building to another without going outside. Some of the rooms were originally designed as sets by Alfred Waterhouse. The rooms range in several quality grades but are all charged at the same weekly rate. Every year, a ballot is organised by the JCR to determine room distribution. To first years, rooms are allocated randomly, with students allocated low grade rooms having first pick of rooms the following year. It is customary for Cambridge colleges to provide accommodation for the first three-year undergraduate students.

Most undergraduate students live in the main site, and second years have the option of living at Swirles Court, or at one of the college houses: The college owns six houses along Girton Road, another one located opposite the college on Huntingdon Road called The Gate and one house located on the college grounds, called The Grange. These houses are available for second and third year undergraduates.

Graduates and fellows
Since 2017, graduate students live in Swirles Court. It is part of the Eddington development in West Cambridge. One house on Huntingdon Road is used to accommodate research fellows. The Graduate Union specifically identified Girton as providing an insufficient amount of housing to married postgraduates, with no rooms available at Swirles Court for married students. Girton is, however, one of only two Cambridge colleges that guarantees ensuite accommodation for all graduate students.

Swirles Court
Swirles Court, part of the Eddington neighbourhood of the North West Cambridge Development, opened in 2017.

Girton's graduate accommodation is the farthest from the city centre among all Cambridge (and Oxford) colleges, the most expensive of all Cambridge colleges, and around two thirds of a mile from the college main site and dining facilities. The bus ride to the city centre takes approximately 20 minutes.

Named after Bertha Swirles (Lady Jeffreys), a Girton alumna, it provides 325 ensuite rooms for graduate students. Unlike the main college site, which closes for two weeks during Christmas break, Swirles is open year-round to student living. It also has a college porter on staff 24/7, separate laundry facilities, and a separate mailing address from the main college. Girton College does not own Swirles Court but leases it on a five-year renewable contract from the university.

Wolfson Court
In 2017, Girton College moved the graduate accommodation from Wolfson Court (near the city centre) to Swirles Court. Wolfson Court was an annexe to Girton College built on a  site. It was funded by the 1969 Centenary Appeal, and designed in 1971 by Cambridge architects David Roberts and Geoffrey Clarke. It had its own catering and accommodation facilities (106 single student rooms). Queen Elizabeth Court, which was linked to the main building and comprised two blocks of three linked houses (36 large single student rooms), was built for the purpose of graduate accommodation in 1992. It was frequently used as a location for conferences. The site also contained a nursery, operated by Bright Horizons.

Main site

Architecture
The initial and defining parts of the college were designed by Alfred Waterhouse: The architect built the main site with the Old Wing, the Hospital Wing, the Orchard Wing, the Stanley library and Old Kitchens between 1873 and 1886, as well as the parapetted gatehouse tower in 1886 and 1887. The red-brick design (English bond) is typical of Victorian architecture, and is enhanced by black mortar courses and terracotta details to the eaves, windows and doorways. The roofs are steeply pitched with crested tiles. In 1913, the site consisted of 33 acres.

Library

Girton's first library, the Stanley library, was established in 1884 with a donation from Lady Stanley of Alderley. It was considered to be luxurious and comfortable, as it contained stained-glass windows, leather furniture and a large chimney. Books were acquired mostly through donations. By 1932 the collection had become so large that a new library was opened. Designed by Michael Waterhouse, descendant of the architects Paul Waterhouse and Alfred Waterhouse, the new library consisted of an upper reading room, crafted in oak, and a ground floor, in which the book collections are held. An annexe containing archives was added in 1967. The Duke building, a modern library extension offering IT facilities and a reading room, was opened in 2005. Named after Alison Duke, a fellow and major donor, the building was designed by Allies and Morrison. It won a national RIBA award in 2006, a SCONUL Library Design Award in 2007, and a Civic Trust Award in 2007.

Chapel

Emily Davies first mooted plans for a chapel in Girton college in 1890; however, building only started in 1899, four years after the death of Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley, who had opposed the idea and instead favoured improving staff salaries and equipment. The chapel, which was designed by Alfred and Paul Waterhouse, was completed in 1901, and inaugurated on 23 May 1902. It seats about 200 people and the interior is held very simply with the exception of oak carvings at the Chancel end and on two long desks in front of the choir seats, which were crafted by the mathematician Margaret Meyer, along with students and friends of the college. In 1910 came a fine Harrison & Harrison organ, the purchase of which was made possible through donations from students and friends of the college. The organ was rebuilt in 1974 and can still be found in the college chapel. A second organ was acquired in 2002.

In 1952, the year of the Golden Jubilee of the inauguration, a stained-glass window was erected. In the Girton Review, the college's official termly newsletter, from Michaelmas term 1955, a description of the glass window can be found:
 The centre light depicts Our Lord in Majesty, as it were the culmination of the Tree of Jesse and in the form described in the book of Revelation. The Lamb who may alone open the book sealed with seven seals is shown at the foot of the light, while the descent of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove is shown at its apex. The flowers and fruit in the centre light represent the Tree of Jesse. The two lights flanking that in the centre depict scenes from the Passion of Our Lord. On the left are the entry into Jerusalem, the Betrayal of Judas and the Ecce Homo: on the right, the Scourging, Christ bearing His Cross, the Crucifixion. The scenes are linked with a pattern of leaves. Palm is used for the Entry into Jerusalem, and among other plants represented are the Star of Bethlehem, the Passion Flower and the Thorn. The lowest medallion on the right, portraying the crucifixion, is darker than the others, suggesting the darkness that was over the land. The uppermost tracery light depicts the Pelican in her Piety, and the remaining tracery lights contain the symbols of the Passion; the betrayal money, Peter's lantern, pillar and scourges, dice, ladder and nails, hammer and pincers, crown of thorns and chalice.
In the original statement of aims and scope for the "Proposed College for Women" in 1867, it was announced that religious services and instruction would be in accordance with the principles of the Church of England, but where conscientious objections were entertained, attendance would not be necessary. A modified version of this statement appears in the modern college statutes, where it reads that "services in the Chapel shall normally be held in accordance with the practice of the Church of England, but other religious services may also be held there."
At the outset, Chapel was used for morning prayers, usually said by the Mistress, and for Sunday services, taken by clergy of various denominations. Today, at least two services are held on a weekly basis: Evensong on Sunday at 5:30pm, and Compline on Tuesday at 9:10pm. They are organised by the college's part-time chaplain, who is assisted by student chapel wardens. The Mistress holds general responsibility in regard to services in the chapel, which she partly delegates to the Chapel Committee. The current Chaplain is the Reverend Dr Tim Boniface, who is also a bye-fellow at Girton. He is also a jazz musician.

Gardens

When the land was bought, trees were planted on bare land. Today, the gardens of Girton are large compared to those of other Cambridge colleges. They became a preoccupation for the college in 1875 when Miss Davies handed over the responsibility for developing the gardens to Miss Bernard. A pond, which originated from excavations for the construction of the Stanley library and the Orchard Wing, dates from 1884. A 1983 report of the college ornithologists' society found sixty species of birds, and a moth report from 1986 recorded over 100 species. The Fellows' garden was redesigned in 1992 and hosts a green theatre. Outdoor plays are no longer performed in the Fellows' garden because of noise from the A14. A rare breed of black squirrels can sometimes be seen in Girton.

Lawrence Room

In 1934, the Lawrence Room on the college main site was dedicated to be the college museum. Named after Girton natural scientist Amy Lawrence, it houses an Anglo-Saxon, an Egyptian and a Mediterranean collection. Before the establishment of the Lawrence room in 1934, antiquities had been stored in and around the college library. Donations allowed for refurbishments in 1946, 1961, 1991 and 2008. In 2010/11, Lawrence room is opened once a week to visitors. The exhibitions are free of charge.

The Anglo-Saxon collection stems from excavations on the college main site made during construction work in 1881 and 1886, when an Anglo-Saxon cemetery, presumably from the fifth and sixth century AD, was discovered. Most findings, such as domestic utensils and personal items, were long held in the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology in Cambridge. Some were only returned to the college as late as in 2008.

The highlight of the Egyptian collection consists of a portrait mummy bearing the inscription Hermionê Grammatikê (translation: "Hermione the literary lady" or "Hermione the language teacher"). It is one of the most widely reproduced and famous portrait mummies. Dating from the first century AD, it was discovered in the Roman cemetery of Hawara by the archeologist Flinders Petrie in 1911. "Hermione" is thought to be an 18- to 25-year-old girl from a wealthy background. Petrie and his wife Hilda wanted the mummy to go to a women's college due to its inscription. Funds were gathered, and in 1911 "Hermione" moved to Girton college, where she has remained since then. The Egyptian collection also holds four mummified baby crocodiles, which were thought to bring favour of Sobek, the ancient god of fertility and water. They were presented to the college by Alfred Waterhouse senior, the father of architect Alfred Waterhouse.

The Mediterranean collection offers both Classical and pre-Classical material. A collection of Greek Tanagra figurines, which date to the fourth and third century BC, form the most remarkable pieces of this collection.

People's Portraits

Since 2002, Girton has held the millennial exhibition of the Royal Society of Portrait Painters, entitled People's Portraits.

The exhibition, aimed at showing "ordinary" British people at the verge of the 21st century, toured Britain in 2000. Girton then won the bid to house the collection, to which new works are added annually. All pictures were created by members of the Royal Society of Portrait Painters. The collection currently comprises 45 paintings, and artists include Anthony Morris, Daphne Todd, June Mendoza and Alastair Adams, the current president of the Society. The choice of Girton, one of the largest and thus most diverse colleges in Cambridge, to hold the collection is believed to reflect the college ethos of community and interest in art.

Social spaces
Girton's Social Hub, nicknamed "Schlub" by the students, acts as both a café for students during the day and a bar in the evenings. Handmade, personalised paninis and pizzas are available during the day and pints as cheap as £2.70 are available during the day. Girton's cellar bar, nicknamed "Deep Schlub" by students, contains a pool table, booths and a social space for students to socialise in the evenings to take a break from their demanding work schedule. The "Deep Schlub" also hosts college "bops" organised by the JCR committee (college student council). The "Deep Schlub" was reopened in 2023 after renovation, and is now a fully stocked bar with its own pool table.

Proposed new buildings on main site
Following an initial masterplan submission in 2016 and resubmission in 2022, an outline planning application to construct new residential accommodation, ancilliary meeting space, an auditorium and relocated sports facilities was approved by South Cambridgeshire District Council in June 2023. New buildings would provide 405 rooms for student accommodation mostly to allow for relocation from Swirles Court along with long-term planned growth of postgraduates.

Student life

Formal Hall
Among all Cambridge colleges, Girton and Kings have the fewest Formal Halls at only once per week. Girton also has Formal Halls on some Wednesdays. There are only around 160 spots available per week, and tickets sell out within minutes each week. The cost of formal hall is also higher than average compared to other colleges. Tickets for Girton students cost £14 and guests tickets cost £19, as of 2022. Reservations must be made a week in advance at 8am Thursday morning. Unlike many other colleges, reservations made the day or morning of the Formal Hall are not allowed. The increase of Formal Halls was due to the COVID-19 pandemic, where a Formal Hall was held on Wednesday and Thursday but both with a lower number of tickets than usual.

Sport teams

Girton college has a variety of student-run sports teams and it provides its own sports pitches for cricket, football, hockey, netball and volleyball. The Girton College "Cloud Leopards" (founded in 2011) are the college lacrosse division one team, hosting meetings against Girton's sister college in Oxford. An extensive refurbishment of the pitches was completed in 2009. There are men's and women's teams for badminton, football, hockey, rowing (Girton College Boat Club) and rugby. Hockey has a mixed team as well. Cricket, cross country, lacrosse, netball, squash, swimming, table tennis, tennis, volleyball and waterpolo teams are open to both male and female participants. The college has outdoor tennis and indoor squash courts, and a gym. The indoor-heated swimming pool has been in use since 1900. A one-mile running path leads around the college grounds. College alumni are currently raising money in order to build a new sports pavilion.

In 1995 the men's football team won Cuppers for the first time and in 1997–98 they followed this up by winning their first League Championship. in 2003–04, Girton won the League Championship for a second time.

Music
The college has a strong history of music, which is supported by the university's Chairman of the Faculty Board of Music, also Director of Studies in Music at Girton. In the last decade, the college has consistently been within the top three colleges for music in the university. In 2005, the highest ever first-class honours in the music Tripos was attained by a Girtonian. The student-run and fellow-led Girton College Music Society hosts weekly concerts in term time, as well as termly orchestral concerts. The college provides four practice grand pianos (including a Steinway Model B), a double-manual harpsichord and two organs. Moreover, all undergraduate music students are provided with a practice piano in their room for the duration of their course. The chapel's organ is a four-manual, crafted by the Swiss firm St. Martin and acquired in 2002.

The chapel choir has 28 members and sings Choral Evensong (Sunday) and Compline (Tuesday) in the college chapel every week. The choir has released eight CDs. Girton grants two undergraduate organ scholarships for £300 per annum, choral scholarships for £100 per annum each, and choral exhibitions.

Societies
Admitting undergraduate students studying all subjects except for the History of Art and Education Triposes, the college hosts a variety of student-run societies which cater for a wide range of interests. Seven subjects have their own societies: Biology, History, Economics (Joan Robinson society), Geography, Music, Medicine and Law. There is furthermore the Art society, the Film society and the Girton Amateur Dramatic Society (GADS) which produces around two plays per term. Finally, Girton Amnesty and the Orchestra on the Hill serve students with specific interest in human rights and music, respectively.

Spring Ball

Girton Spring Ball is understood to have evolved from a traditional dance, the earliest record of which dates to 1883; it was only in the mid-1900s that the Ball began to resemble its contemporary form, notably in 1969 when the College celebrated its centenary anniversary. Currently, the Ball is usually held biennially on the Friday after the end of Lent term, contrasting with most other Cambridge Colleges who host May Balls. It is organised by a committee of around 20 current Girton students. Recent Girton Balls have become much larger and more decadent than their earlier counterparts and the majority of the College site is now included in the Ball area.

The 2016 Spring Ball, to feature headliners Tinchy Stryder and Bipolar Sunshine, was anticipated to be the largest and greatest Girton Ball to date. It ultimately received widespread media attention when it was cancelled by Girton College Council following the death of a student at the college. Cancellation was then implemented and overseen almost exclusively by senior officials of the college, with all ticket holders receiving full refunds.

Student satisfaction surveys

In a survey dating back to 2018, by the Cambridge University Students' Union, 45 per cent of Girton students agree with the statement: "I am fully satisfied with my teaching and learning experience in Cambridge so far." 44 per cen of Girton students reported being satisfied with the impact of living in college.

Varsity reported that only 15 per cent of Girton students feel their rent costs have "value for money". Only Newnham ranked lower at 10 per cent. The Girton bursar reported to Varsity in 2018 that college's fees are "simple, fair and transparent" and that "the overall package provided to Girton students represents excellent value for money." Disagreeing with Girton's statement, the Student Union reported that Girton students are getting lower quality accommodation for unusually high rents. "Students at these colleges appear not to be getting good value for money. Women's colleges are significantly overrepresented in this group."

Notable alumni and fellows
The mistress is the head of house and the position was previously held by a human geographer, Susan Smith. The position is currently held by Elisabeth Kendall. The college is home to an interdisciplinary group of critical social scientists. It also has a tradition in heterodox economics, spearheaded by Joan Robinson. The Robinson fellowship in economics is currently held by Carolina Cristina Alves.

Symbolism

Arms

The college applied for a coat-of-arms derived from the arms of its founders and benefactors: H. R. Tomkinson, Madame Bodichon (née Leigh Smith), Henrietta Stanley, Baroness Stanley of Alderley (daughter of the 13th Viscount Dillon), and Emily Davies who did not have arms and was instead represented by the Welsh colours, vert and argent. Edward Earle Dorling submitted a variety of designs to the council, however the task was not easy. "A patch-work of elaborate charges and many colours was to be avoided. Mr Tomkinson's fascinating martlets and Lady Stanley's lion had to be abandoned with regret, as was also a design of green and silver chequers which would have given more prominence to Miss Davies."

Finally, in 1928 the design was accepted by all and the college was granted the following:

We … grant and assign unto The Mistress and Governors of Girton College the Arms following that is to say: Quarterly Vert and Argent a cross flory countercharged a Roundel Ermine and in the second and third quarters a Crescent Gules, … to be borne and used for ever, hereafter by the Mistress and Governors of Girton College and by their Successors upon Seals Shields or otherwise according to the Laws of Arms.

Gown

The college gown has the standard pattern of an undergraduate gown at the University of Cambridge, with the sleeves sewn up for a length of eight inches from the shoulder. The proper dress of the gown and cap was observed at the first honorary degree to a woman, given to the Queen, an LL.D. on 21 October 1948. As academic dress, gowns were adopted with little changes (the sleeves had to be closed so that even in the summer, when women wear short-sleeved dresses their bare shoulders do not show), and square caps were chosen as head-dress. However, to remember the time when women were not allowed to obtain degrees of the University of Cambridge, no gowns are worn during the college feast, when students in their final year are celebrated.

Graces
Girton College has a traditional two-word grace and a more recent full grace, both in Latin.  On regular formal occasions, such as Formal Halls, the two-word graces are spoken, Benedictus benedicat (May the blessed one give blessing) at the start of the meal, and Benedictus benedicatur (May praise be given to the blessed one) at the end of the meal. There is evidence that the two-word grace was used in 1926, and it is thought the two-word grace  was used from the foundation of the college onwards.

The words and the music of the full grace were composed in 1950 by Alison Duke and Jill Vlasto respectively. The grace came after the admission of women to full membership of the university so as to bring Girton in line with the other colleges. It is used on the most formal occasions, such as the Foundation Dinner, and it is sung once a year at the College Feast, which all final year students attend.

Full grace (in Latin):

Benedic Domine, nobis et omnibus huius collegii alumnis,
donisque tuis quae de munificentia tua sumus iam sumpturi;
et illis salubriter nutriti debitas tibi gratias pie reddamus.
Custodi, quaesumus, Domine, filios et filias
et consule necessitatibus animarum et corporum,
hoc ipso momento et in aeternum.

Full grace (English translation):
Bless us, O Lord, and all members of this college,
and also thy gifts, which of thy bounty we are about to receive;
and having been wholesomely nourished by the same let us dutifully render to thee the thanks that are owed.
Protect, we beseech thee, O Lord, thy sons and daughters and provide for the needs both of our souls and bodies,
at this present time and for evermore.

Songs

The oldest college song, "The Girton Pioneers", was composed by several students in Hitchin in 1873. Its purpose was to celebrate the first three students who sat the Tripos examinations in 1871. It is sung with the tune of "The British Grenadiers". This is the first stanza:

Some talk of Senior Wranglers,
And some of Double Firsts,
And truly of their species
These are not the worst;
But of all the Cambridge heroes
There's none that can compare
With Woodhead, Cook and Lumsden,
The Girton Pioneers.

More recently, Girtonians have become known for their chant of "We are Girton – super Girton! No one likes us, but we don't care!", in imitation of Millwall Football Club fans' famous chant: "No one likes us, we don't care". The reference to "no one likes us" is supposedly due to the relative distance of Girton in comparison to many of the other colleges. In 2016 the Casual Choir performed "Long Way to Girton College", an adaptation of "It's a Long Way to Tipperary", written and arranged by two choir members.

The college song "I love to go a-bicycling", sung with the tune of "I love to go a-wandering" also alludes to Girton's 2.5 miles distance from the town centre. It has been sung since the 1960s. For example, the second stanza reads:
But when I climb up Castle Hill
In the wind and squall
A strong desire does then me fill
To be-e at New Hall.

Chorus:
Fol-de-re, Fol-de-ra,
Fol-de-re, Fol-de-ra-a-a-a-
.... To be-e at New Hall.

Another song, composed in 1972 by JCR president Anna Cocconi, is called "Song to Wolfson Court". The annexe of the college was opened in that year. Students often found fault with the modern architecture of the building, which was less spacious and elegant than the main site. The first two stanzas go as follows:
 In a wheat field, west of Cambridge,
Off a lane called Clarkson Road,
Wolfson Court is standing proudly;
Let its story now be told

Hundred rooms with running water,
Could you ever ask for more?
Not unless you choose a boy-friend,
Meas'ring over five foot four!

See also
 Girton College Boat Club
 :Category:Alumni of Girton College, Cambridge
 :Category:Fellows of Girton College, Cambridge

Eponymous institutions
Girton Grammar School, Bendigo, Victoria, Australia
Girton Hall, University of California, Berkeley

Official College website
Girton College

References

Sources
 Books

 Web primary sources

 Other

1869 establishments in England
Alfred Waterhouse buildings
Colleges of the University of Cambridge
Educational institutions established in 1869
Former women's universities and colleges in the United Kingdom
Grade II* listed buildings in Cambridgeshire
University swimming in the United Kingdom

Girton College, Cambridge


Bonosus (died AD 280) was a late 3rd-century Roman usurper. He was born in Hispania (Roman Spain) to a British father and Gallic mother. His father—a rhetorician and "teacher of letters"—died when Bonosus was still young but the boy's mother gave him a decent education. He had a distinguished military career with an excellent service record. He rose successively through the ranks and tribuneships but, while he was stationed in charge of the Rhenish fleet , the Germans managed to set it on fire. Fearful of the consequences, he proclaimed himself Roman emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) jointly with Proculus. After a protracted struggle, he was defeated by Marcus Aurelius Probus and hanged himself rather than face capture.

Bonosus left behind a wife and two sons who were treated with honor by Probus.

References

280 deaths
3rd-century Roman usurpers
Ancient Roman admirals
Crisis of the Third Century
Ancient Roman military personnel who died by suicide
Suicides by hanging in Germany
Ancient Roman generals
Suicides in Ancient Rome
Romans from Hispania
Year of birth unknown
Ancient Romans from unknown gentes
Generals of Probus

Bonosus (usurper)


Die Liste der denkmalgeschützten Objekte in Kolta enthält die drei nach slowakischen Denkmalschutzvorschriften geschützten Objekte in der Gemeinde Kolta im Okres Nové Zámky.

Denkmäler

Legende

Einzelnachweise

!
Kolta


Damendoppel der Olympischen Sommerspiele 2008.

Titelverteidigerinnen waren Li Ting und Sun Tiantian. Das Finale bestritten Serena und Venus Williams gegen Anabel Medina Garrigues und Virginia Ruano Pascual, das die Williams in zwei Sätzen gewannen. Im Spiel um die Bronzemedaille gewannen Yan Zi und Zheng Jie in zwei Sätzen gegen Aljona und Kateryna Bondarenko.

Setzliste

Zeichenerklärung

Ergebnisse

Halbfinale, Finale

Obere Hälfte

Obere Hälfte 1

Obere Hälfte 2

Untere Hälfte

Untere Hälfte 1

Untere Hälfte 2

Weblinks
 Draw auf ITFtennis.com (englisch)

Tennis-Damendoppel
2008
Tennisturnier in Peking
Tennisturnier 2008

Olympische Sommerspiele 2008/Tennis/Damendoppel


مارون الراس هي إحدى القرى اللبنانية من قرى قضاء بنت جبيل في محافظة النبطية. وتقع قرية مارون الراس على بعد كيلومترين من الحدود اللبنانية الفلسطينية. وتأتي أهميتها العسكرية من كونها تقع على تلال مرتفعة تطل على العديد من المناطق المهمة في الجنوب اللبناني وشمال فلسطين. وتبعد 120 كم عن العاصمة اللبنانية بيروت

التسمية
مارون الراس اسم مركّب من جزأين. الجزء الأول «مارون» يعني باللغة الآرمية «السيد والشريف». أما الجزء الثاني «الراس» فيشير إلى ارتفاع البلدة الواقعة في أعلى نقطة في منطقة فيصبح معنى الاسم السيد العالي جبل عامل.

الموقع
تقع بلدة مارون الراس في قضاء بنت جبيل في محافظة النبطية وتبتعد عن العاصمة بيروت مسافة 125 كم.يمكن الوصول إليها عبر سلوك طريق صور - بنت جبيل أو طريق مرجعيون - كفركلا. ترتفع عن سطح البحر نحو 945 م وتمتدّ على مساحة تزيد عن 920 هكتاراً.
ونظراً لارتفاعها، تطلّ مارون الراس على مساحات شاسعة من عمق الأراضي الفلسطينية.
القرى المحيطة بها: مدينة بنت جبيل، بلدة عيترون، بلدة يارون وقرية صلحا الفلسطينية.

السكان
يقدّر عدد السكّان المسجّلين بنحو 4,551 نسمة، 700 منهم من السكّان الدائمين في البلدة. ينتمي 99% من سكّان البلدة إلى الطائفة الشيعية ويتوزّعون على نحو 400 منزل.

العائلات  في مارون الراس: علوية، فارس، ديب، مكي، الشيخ علي، حمادى، مهنا، كرنيب، شحادي، عيسى، أيوب، أحمد «الملقب بالصفدي»، الحج حسن.

علماء القرية
 الشيخ عز الدين حسن بن أحمد بن محمد بن أحمد سليمان بن فضل الماروني من تلاميذ أحمد بن فهد الحلي. كان حياً سنة 831 هجرية.
 الشيخ شرارة وهو من أعلام عصره وله كرامة إطفاء حريق بعد أن شب بالحقول ولجوء الأهالي إليه للتضرع والصلاة إلى الله عز وجل.

التعليم
في البلدة مؤسّسة تربوية واحدة فقط هي مدرسة مارون الراس التكميلية الرسمية.

الاقتصاد
ترتكز الحياة الاقتصادية في البلدة على الزراعة بشكل شبه كامل.ومن أهم المزروعات: التبغ وبعض الحبوب. كما تضّم البلدة بضعة حوانيت تؤمّن المواد الغذائية والحاجيات الأساسية.

المعالم
تحتوي مارون الراس على مغارة قديمة يوجد على جدرانها نقوش لا يُعرف تاريخها، وقناطر ونواويس حجرية منقوشة في الصخر، وكذلك أعمدة أثرية متوسّطة الحجم. كما اكتشفت في أرضها آنية خزفية قديمة., كما ويوجد بها مقام على الحدود المتاخمة لفلسطين المحتلة لجهة الجنوب الغربي يعرف باسم محمد الشهيد ويقال أنه من جيش يوشع بن نون وأيضا مقام الشهدا «في خراج البلدة» في مكان ينسب إليهم ويقال أيضا أنهم من جيش يوشع بن نون.

المعالم السياحية
من تحديثات القرن الحديث المعلم السياحي الذي تم إنشاءه بهبة من الجمهورية الإسلامية الإيرانية تعرف بحديقة «إيران» وهي حديقة سياحية أنشأت على مساحة ما يقرب من مساحة 40,000م2 قدمت هبة من البلدية وتحتوي على ملاعب للأطفال والخيم للعائلات، وتعتبر استراحة ومنفس للمنطقة والزوار من كافة المناطق اللبنانية وبعض الدول العربية وأكثر ما يجذب السياح للحديقة الهواء العليل بعيداً عن تلوث المدن والإطلالة المميزة على فلسطين المحتلة.

 == المراجع ==

وصلات خارجية

اتحاد بلديات بنت جبيل

أماكن مأهولة في قضاء بنت جبيل
أماكن مأهولة في لبنان
أماكن مأهولة في محافظة النبطية
قرى جبل عامل
قرى قضاء بنت جبيل
قضاء بنت جبيل
مدن لبنان

مارون الراس


La route régionale 274 () est une route régionale allant de Kauhajärvi à Kauhajoki jusqu'à Parkano en Finlande.

Présentation
La seututie 274 est une route régionale de Pirkanmaa et d'Ostrobotnie du Sud.
La route 274 longe le parc national de Kauhaneva-Pohjankangas.

Références

Annexes

Liens externes

Cartes

Articles connexes
 Seututie

274

Transport à Kauhajoki
Transport à Karvia
Transport à Parkano

Seututie 274


Mykhailo Petrovych Mudryk (em ucraniano, Михайло Петрович Мудрик; Krasnohrad, 5 de janeiro de 2001) é um futebolista ucraniano que atua como ponta-esquerda. Atualmente joga no .

Biografia
Mudryk nasceu e foi criado em Krasnohrad, Ucrânia, filho de pais ucranianos.

Mudryk é um cristão ortodoxo e frequentemente carrega ícones religiosos para as partidas. "Em muitas entrevistas, ele falou abertamente sobre como a fé é vital para ele. Ele gostaria de falar com todos sobre Deus, mas muitas vezes se detém para respeitar as convicções de fé dos outros. Ele disse: "Todas as minhas tatuagens têm um significado, mas 'Só Jesus' é a maior e mais importante".

Com a Invasão da Ucrânia pela Rússia em 2022, Mudryk publicava mensagens sobre o orgulho de ser ucraniano e em apoio aos militares do seu país.

Mudryk estreou-se pela seleção ucraniana em 2022, tendo anteriormente representado o país em vários escalões juvenis.

Carreira

Início
Mudryk começou a carreira no futebol na equipe da base do . Em 2014, mudou para o  e permaneceu na equipe até 2016, quando alcançou a base do . No mesmo ano, foi convocado pela primeira vez para integrar a seleção da Ucrânia sub-16.

Shakhtar Donetsk
Estreou na equipe principal comandado por Paulo Fonseca quando tinha 17 anos, em uma partida da Copa da Ucrânia contra o Olimpik Donetsk em 31 de outubro de 2018.

Porém demorou para se tornar titular por não ouvir o que o treinador dizia. "O comportamento dele para mim não foi muito bom para um jovem", disse Taras Stepanenko, capitão do Shakhtar. Para que mudasse de atitude e retornasse ao time ucraniano mais determinado e focado, o jogador foi emprestado ao Arsenal Kiev em 2019.

Empréstimos ao Arsenal Kiev e Desna Chernihiv
Em fevereiro de 2019, ele foi emprestado ao Arsenal Kiev, da Premier League ucraniana, pelo restante da temporada 2018–19, jogando 10 partidas sem marcar nenhum gol.

No verão de 2020, ele assinou um contrato de empréstimo com o Desna Chernihiv, clube da Premier League ucraniana, e se classificou para a terceira pré-eliminatória da Liga Europa da UEFA. Ele ficou 4 meses em Chernigov e jogou 10 partidas na Premier League ucraniana e uma vez na Copa da Ucrânia.

Retorno ao Shakhtar Donetsk
Antes do empréstimo ao Desna, Mudryk jogou na Premier League ucraniana contra Desna Chernihiv, Kolos Kovalivka e Oleksandriya, dando a contribuição para ganhar o título na temporada 2019–20.

Em 8 de janeiro de 2021, Mudryk voltou ao Shakhtar, jogando 3 partidas pela Premier League ucraniana.

O técnico do Shakhtar, Roberto De Zerbi, disse que considera Mudryk um dos melhores atletas jovens, acrescentando que "Se eu não levá-lo a um alto nível, considerarei uma derrota pessoal".

Em 18 de setembro de 2021, ele marcou seu primeiro gol em uma partida da liga contra o Mariupol no Estádio Volodymyr Boyko.

Em 28 de setembro de 2021, ele jogou sua primeira partida da Liga dos Campeões da UEFA contra a , substituindo Manor Solomon aos 78 minutos no Estádio Olímpico de Kiev, em Kiev.

Em 27 de outubro de 2021, ele jogou contra o Chornomorets Odesa e seu time avançou para as quartas de final da Copa da Ucrânia.

Após inúmeras boas atuações pelo Shakhtar, Mudryk atraiu a atenção de vários clubes europeus, incluindo  e .

Em 6 de setembro de 2022, ele marcou seu primeiro gol na Liga dos Campeões na vitória por 4 a 1 fora de casa sobre o .

Em 2022, no jogo contra o , o jovem atacante ucraniano foi ovacionado no próprio Estádio Santiago Bernabéu pela torcida merengue, uma honra que divide com lendas como Ronaldinho Gaúcho, Alessandro Del Piero e Francesco Totti, Mudryk recebeu aplausos por seus dribles e jogadas criativas.

Chelsea
Em 15 de janeiro de 2023, Mudryk foi anunciado pelo , clube da Premier League, após assinar um contrato de oito anos e meio. O clube do oeste de Londres deu um chapéu em seu rival local , que tentava contratar o futebolista há meses, e superou os Gunners em uma operação rápida que durou poucos dias.

Em sua apresentação, Mudryk disse: " Estou muito feliz por assinar com o Chelsea. Este é um grande clube, num campeonato fantástico e é um projeto muito atrativo para mim nesta fase da minha carreira. Estou animado para conhecer meus novos companheiros de equipe e estou ansioso para trabalhar e aprender com Graham Potter e sua equipe".

O valor divulgado foi de £ 62 milhões (€ 70 milhões), com bônus de £ 27 milhões (€ 30 milhões), totalizando £ 89 milhões (€ 100 milhões).

Estreou pela equipe londrina contra o , em 21 de janeiro de 2023, entrando aos 10 minutos da etapa final, mudando a forma de jogar dos Blues, que vinham tendo bastante dificuldade de criação. Registrou neste jogo, de acordo com dados da Opta Sports, a velocidade máxima mais elevada até ao momento nesta época, com 36,63 km/h, superando Anthony Gordon, Darwin Núñez e Erling Haaland.

Sua primeira partida como titular foi contra o , no empate em 0-0 em 4 de fevereiro. Foi substituído no intervalo por Noni Madueke devido ao cansaço causado por uma constipação.

Jogou sua primeira partida pelos Blues na Liga dos Campeões na derrota para o , em Dortmund, pelo primeiro jogo das oitavas de final.

Seleção Nacional

Base
De 2017 a 2018, ele jogou pela Seleção Ucraniana de Futebol Sub-17. De 2018 a 2019, jogou pela Seleção Ucraniana de Futebol Sub-19, atuando em 11 partidas e marcando 5 gols. Em 2019, integrou a seleção nacional sub-21 da Ucrânia, onde disputou 9 jogos e marcou 1 gol. Em 7 de setembro de 2021, ele marcou o gol da vitória na cobrança de falta contra a Armênia sub-21.

Principal
Em abril de 2022, ele foi convocado para a Seleção Ucraniana de Futebol no campo de treinamento em abril-maio de 2022 na Eslovênia pela primeira vez.

Em 11 de maio de 2022, ele fez sua estreia no amistoso contra o  marcando seu primeiro gol no Borussia-Park em Mönchengladbach, durante o Global Tour for Peace.

Estatísticas

Clubes
Atualizado até 7 de outubro de 2023.

Seleção Ucraniana
''Atualizado até 14 de outubro de 2023.

Títulos

Equipes
Shakhtar Donetsk
Primeira Liga Ucraniana: 2019–20
Supercopa da Ucrânia: 2021

Prêmios individuais
Jogador do ano do : 2021, 2022
Futebolista Ucraniano do Ano: 2022

Futebolistas da Ucrânia
Futebolistas do FC Shakhtar Donetsk
Futebolistas do Arsenal Kiev
Futebolistas do Chelsea F.C.
Ucranianos expatriados no Reino Unido
Jogadores da Seleção Ucraniana de Futebol

Mykhailo Mudryk


Visele este piesa de debut a cântăreței de origine moldovenească Irina Rimes, lansată pe 28 aprilie 2016. A fost compusă de Irina Rimes și Andi Bănică.

Visele a fost primul single lansat sub numele Irina Rimes, ea având anterior pseudonimul Irra. Piesa a devenit unul dintre hiturile verii anului 2016. A fost înregistrată și o versiune în limba franceză, cunoscută sub numele Les Visons.

Live
Piesa a fost interpetată live pentru prima dată la postul radio Radio Zu în iunie 2016. Prestația acesteia a fost postată pe canalul de YouTube al postului și a adunat până în prezent peste 1.000.000 de vizualizări. Piesa este interpetată foarte des la concertele artistei.

Videoclip
Filmările au avut loc la Chișinău în regia lui Roman Burlaca, regizor cunoscut pentru colaborările cu Carla's Dreams. Clipul a fost încărcat pe canalul de YouTube al casei de discuri Quantum Music și a adunat până în prezent peste 16.000.000 de vizualizări.

Performanța în topuri
În categoria pieselor românești, "Visele" a debutat pe poziția a 10-a cu 90 de difuzări. Cea mai înaltă poziție în clasamentul Media Forest a fost locul 2. În unele topuri muzicale, a ocupat prima poziție.

Lansări

Note

Cântece de Irina Rimes
Cântece românești
Cântece din 2016
Discuri single din 2016
Melodii despre iubire
 Discografia Irinei Rimes
 Discuri single lansate de Irina Rimes

Visele


Špilje i umjetnost ledenog doba Švapske Jure su skup šest prapovijesnih špilja koje se nalaze u dvije doline, Achtal i Lonetal, na gorju Švapska Juraa, u njemačkoj pokrajini Baden-Württemberg.

Ovi arheološki lokaliteti, otrkiveni 1860-ih, su upisani na UNESCOv popis mjesta svjetske baštine u Europi 2017. god., jer su među najvažnijima za proučavanje špiljske umjetnosti starijeg paleolitika u vrijeme kada se na ovom području javljaju prvi moderni ljudi - kromanjonci (43000. pr. Kr.-33000. pr. Kr.), tijekom posljednjeg ledenog doba.
Naime, ovdje su pronađene neke od najstarijih figurativnih umjetnina na svijetu koje su pomogle protumačiti podrijetlo ljudskog umjetničkog razvoja u kontekstu antropologije i estetike. Među njima su izrezbarene figurice životinja (špiljskih lavova, mamuta, konja i stoke), glazbeni instrumenti i razni predmeti za ukrašavanje. Od njih su najzanimljiviji Lavlji čovjek (njem. Löwenmensch) i Venera iz Hohle Felsa (Venus vom Hohlefels), procijenjene starosti između 35000 i 40000 godina, iz razdoblja gornjeg paleolitika (Aurignacien), što ih čini do sada nedvojbeno najstarijim pronađenim primjerkom prikaza čovjeka i figurativne umjetnosti, uopće.

Popis lokaliteta

Izvori

Poveznice

 Altamira
 Prapovijesni lokaliteti u dolini Vézère
 Prapovijest

Vanjske poveznice

 Službene stranice Državnog ureda Baden-Württemberga za očuvanje lokaliteta

Pretpovijesna umjetnost
Svjetska baština u Njemačkoj
Špilje u Europi
Paleolitski arheološki lokaliteti u Europi
Arheološki lokaliteti u Njemačkoj


The Society of the Friends of the People was an organisation in Great Britain that was focused on advocating for parliamentary reform. It was founded by the Whig Party in 1792.

The Society in England was aristocratic and exclusive, in contrast to the Friends of the People in Scotland, who increasingly drew on a wider membership. Members wanted parliamentary representatives to reflect the population of Great Britain, which could be achieved by making voting more accessible, by granting more men the right to vote, and by making it possible for a broader variety of men to take part in the government.

The Society disbanded in the mid 1790s as a result of conservative reaction against radical political movements.

Background

Country-party Ideology
During the 18th century, civic humanism became an important political consideration in England. Civic humanism stresses the importance of abandoning personal gain for the common good. It called for a political balance in order to prevent corruption. In England, civic humanism gave rise to the Country Party, which advocated for a less corrupt government that would work for the good of the people and not for the attainment of wealth. The idea of country-party ideology and civic humanism led to the formation of many reformist movements called for parliamentary reform in order to more accurately reflect the will of the people.

Influence of the French Revolution

The end of the 18th century brought political change throughout Europe. Although the French revolution brought about extreme unrest in France, similar ideas were being discussed in Great Britain. The British radicals believed in the idea of the universal rights of man (life, liberty, and property) and democracy. Conservatives wanted to maintain the monarchy and Parliament the way it was. In 1791, Thomas Paine published Rights of Man, which stated that the French Revolution was bringing good change to the political system of France. He also declared that the people of Great Britain should rebel to establish democracy and universal rights for all men in Britain. This paper fueled the radical ideology in Great Britain at the time. It also increased the tension between radicals and conservatives, leading to political uncertainty in Britain.

Corruption in Parliament
In 1780, about 3% of the population of England had the right to elect members of Parliament's House of Commons. Some of the largest cities were completely unrepresented and more than half of the rotten boroughs were so small as to attract widespread vote buying.

Friends of the People in England
On 11 April 1792, a group of reformist Whigs started the Society of the Friends of the People, a group dedicated to parliamentary reform. To gain membership, a prospective member must be proposed by two current members and approved by 90% of the members. Members paid dues of two and a half guineas per year, unless they joined with the intent to start a similar organisation elsewhere, in which case they paid only one. The group met on the first Friday of each month. Notable members and supporters include Reverend Christopher Wyvill, Sir Philip Francis, and George Tierney.

Beliefs and Publications
The Society wanted to extend the right of freedom of election to a larger group of men. They also wanted more equal representation in the House of Commons, and they wanted to shorten the maximum interval allowed by law between any two successive elections of members of the House of Commons In 1794, Sir Philip Francis stated in a meeting that the society should support extending the right to vote in elections of the House of Commons to any male adult who was not a convicted criminal or "lunatic".

Address to the People of Great Britain
The Address to the People of Great Britain was written in 1792 by Reverend Christopher Wyvill. The Society feared being potentially linked to radical political movements like those in France or to radical English groups like the London Corresponding Society and the Society for Constitutional Information. As a result, this address denied any association with the political reforms happening in France. They felt that the French reformists were trying to create a new type of government, while the Society was trying to make the current English government the way it was supposed to be. They also stated that their methods were reasonable and moderate in comparison. While the French had found hope in the government and resorted to violence as a means of bringing change, the Society was focused more on moderate reform through intellectual communication.

The Report on the State of Representation

The State of the Representation of England and Wales was delivered to the Society on 9 February 1793. This pointed out the unfair manner in which Parliament representatives were chosen and conducted business, and it called for change of these issues. They found that members of parliament were chosen by a minuscule portion of the population, meaning they were not truly representatives for the entire people of England. The number of members were also not assigned to counties in a way that represented the population of England. They found that the right to vote was also limited to a small population, property owning men of a certain income who met religious and other requirements. The Society felt some restrictions should be lifted, allowing the voting population to be more reflective of the actual population. Similarly, they thought that the elections were held in a manner that inconvenienced many people, making it hard for some to vote. Voters often had to travel a great distance to be able to vote, which further dwindles the number of people voting. Also, although candidates theoretically only needed 300 pounds a year to qualify, the operation was set up in such a way to prevent anyone who did not own thousands of pounds from being a candidate. They also found that although Parliament was supposed to last no longer than three years, Parliament itself decided that in 1715, they could hold their seats for seven. The society felt that this duration should return to three, as laid down by law. The Society wanted all of these grievances to spark reform in the way Parliament was elected and operated.  The report was given by George Tierney, and would later be used by groups looking for evidence proving the corruption of Parliament.

Whig Party Influence
The membership included 3 Whig Peers and 28 Whig Members of Parliaments, one being Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Charles James Fox was not a member, and it is argued that the society excluded him to separate themselves from the Whig party, with their only goal being the elimination of corrupt election practices. Fox stated that he did not wish to discourage the enthusiasts pressing for "more equal representation of the people in Parliament" and voted for Grey's motion in Parliament which was defeated by 284 votes to 41 in May 1793.

The Friends of the People caused divisions inside the Whigs. On 4 June 1792 John Cartwright (a Friends of the People member) made a speech praising Thomas Paine's book, The Rights of Man. Four Whig MPs resigned from the Whig group in parliament.

Disbandment of the Society

William Pitt's Reign of Terror
The Revolution in France sparked fear in the leaders of other European countries. They saw reformists and radicals as having the potential to completely overturn the government and destroy the nation. As a result, William Pitt, the British Prime Minister at the time, wanted to destroy reform in England to avoid an uprising like the French revolution. Instead of using violence to combat reform, he used legislation. He suspended the Habeas Corpus Act in 1794. In 1795, he passed the Seditious Meetings Act and the Treason Act; combined, these prevented any meetings that were "seditious and unlawful" and required that a magistrate be notified if a meeting were to occur that included 50 or more people. The Newspaper Publication Act 1798 required that all printing presses be registered in order to prevent the publication of material that criticised the government.

Spy Infiltration
The Report on Radical and Reform Societies from 1794 was a document stating that the London Corresponding Society and the Society for Constitutional Information were guilty of threatening the constitution of Great Britain through activities and publications that were consistent with radical reformist ideologies. This was discovered because of the infiltration of conservative spies in the societies, which led to the arrests of the leaders.

During this time, the British Government feared the threat of spies in the country. And so, the government created the Aliens Act of 1793, which regulated the number of immigrants who could move into Britain.

Disbandment
Although the Society was still advocating for parliamentary reform in 1794 after the arrests of leaders of similar societies, they disbanded sometime after that as a result of the 1795 Acts.

Criticism
Compared to radical groups of the time, the Society was quite moderate. In fact, they were so scared to be associated with the radical movements of the time that they rarely said anything specific at all. Instead of calling for drastic reform, they focused on listing grievances. As a result, their intentions seemed ambiguous. Francis himself stated that the Society delayed in making it clear what its intentions and feelings were about reform.

Reform Act 1832
Forty years after the Society of the Friends of the People was formed, the Reform Act 1832 helped establish the parliamentary reform that the Society had called for. It removed representation from 56 rotten boroughs and lowered representation in areas with lower population from two to one. It also created 67 new boroughs so areas with larger populations had representation in Parliament. It also allowed a wider range of men to vote by loosening the property and tax qualifications to the right to vote.

Friends of the People in Scotland
In Scotland The Friends of the People Society in Edinburgh was founded in July 1792 with lower subscription rates than the English Society, attracting a wider membership which made it more like the London Corresponding Society. It soon had imitators in towns and villages throughout Scotland.

The rank and file were usually described as "shopkeepers and artisans", and included most prominently weavers as well as tailors, cobblers, brewers, bakers, tanners, butchers and hairdressers. The membership generally did not include general labourers, agricultural workers, colliers, spinners, foundrymen, masons and the like. The government feared such wider support and outbreaks of rioting in many places in the summer and autumn of 1792 were officially attributed to "an almost universal spirit of reform and opposition to the established government and legal administrators which has wonderfully diffused through the manufacturing towns", but most of the riots were due to other grievances such as an unpopular turnpike, the Corn laws and the Enclosures. Radical demonstrations were evident, not just in the larger towns such as Perth and Dundee but also in smaller towns such as Auchtermuchty, at each of which a "Tree of Liberty" was erected and there were cries of "Liberty and Equality", but the Friends of the People unhesitatingly condemned these disturbances and threatened to expel from their membership anyone joining the rioters.

Between December 1792 and October 1793 held three "general conventions" of the Societies, the last being open to English delegates. Each convention and its aftermath increasingly frightened the upper middle classes away from the reform movement.

The first convention in December 1792 was well patronised by some of the Edinburgh Advocates, by Lord Daer and by Lieutenant Colonel Dalrymple of Fordell, and given literary backing by the Member of Parliament for Inverness, Colonel Macleod. The effective leader at the radical faction at this convention was the eloquent Glasgow lawyer Thomas Muir who was subsequently sentenced by Lord Braxfield to fourteen years' transportation to the convict settlement at Botany Bay, Australia. In the second convention a similar rôle was played by the Unitarian minister Thomas Fyshe Palmer from Dundee who suffered a similar fate. The third convention was totally deserted by the lawyers, attended by Lord Daer for a few days only, and publicly renounced by Colonel Macleod.

The third "general convention" in October 1793 was held in Edinburgh and called a British Convention, with delegates from some of the English corresponding societies attending. The leaders of the convention were Joseph Gerrald and Maurice Margarot, representatives from the London Corresponding Society. The convention issued a manifesto demanding universal male suffrage with annual elections and expressing their support for the principles of the French Revolution. The convention was then broken up by the authorities and a number of men were arrested and tried for sedition, with Gerrald and Margarot being sentenced to fourteen years' transportation along with Muir.

Notes

References
 Briggs, Asa, The Age of Improvement, Longman 2000,
 Smout, T. C., A History of the Scottish People, Fontana Press 1985 ,  (1998 reprint)

See also
 Radicalism (historical)

External links
 Scottish Republican and Reformer Thomas Muir (source of first section: Steel's "Scotland's Story").

Politics of England
Politics of Scotland
1792 establishments in Great Britain
Whigs (British political party)

Society of the Friends of the People


Kelly Druyts (* 21. November 1989 in Antwerpen) ist eine belgische Radrennfahrerin, die auf Straße und Bahn aktiv ist. Sie ist eine ältere Schwester der Radrennfahrerin Jessy Druyts.

Sportliche Laufbahn
2006 wurde Kelly Druyts dreifache Junioren-Meisterin auf der Bahn, im Jahr darauf errang sie ersten vier nationale Titel bei den Frauen: in der Einerverfolgung, im Keirin, im Punktefahren sowie im Teamsprint. 2009 wurde sie belgische Meisterin im Omnium sowie Dritte der Straßenmeisterschaft. Bis 2018 gewann sie mindestens 29 belgische Meistertitel.

Bei den UCI-Bahn-Weltmeisterschaften 2010 in Ballerup belegte Druyts Platz vier im Scratch, wurde Vize-Europameisterin (Nachwuchs) in dieser Disziplin und belgische Vize-Meisterin im Straßenrennen. 2011 entschied sie einen Lauf des Bahnrad-Weltcups im Scratch für sich und gewann auch die Weltcup-Gesamtwertung. Bei den UCI-Bahn-Weltmeisterschaften 2012 in Melbourne errang sie die Bronzemedaille im Scratch. 2014 wurde sie Weltmeisterin in dieser Disziplin, und im selben Jahr errang sie Silber im Punktefahren bei den Bahneuropameisterschaften.

Ebenfalls 2014 hatte Kelly Druyts zwei Erfolge auf der Straße, als sie eine Etappe der Trophée d'Or Féminin sowie der Holland Ladies Tour für sich entschied. 2018 gewann sie jeweils eine Etappe der Tour of Zhoushan Island sowie des Panorama Guizhou International Women's Road Cycling Race. Im Juli 2018 bestritt sie noch trotz einer Schwangerschaft die BeNe Ladies Tour, im August fuhr sie ihr vorerst letztes Rennen. Im Januar 2019 wurde sie von einer Tochter entbunden.

Ab April 2019 bestritt Druyts wieder Radrennen.

Erfolge

Bahn
2006
  Belgische Junioren-Meisterin – Omnium, Punktefahren, Einerverfolgung
2007
  Belgische Meisterin – Keirin, Punktefahren, Einerverfolgung, Teamsprint (mit Jenifer De Merlier)
2008
  Belgische Meisterin – Keirin, Teamsprint (mit Jolien D'hoore), Omnium, Scratch, Mannschaftsverfolgung (mit Evelyn Arys und Jolien D'hoore)
2009
  Belgische Meisterin – Teamsprint (mit Jolien D'hoore), Punktefahren, Einerverfolgung, Omnium, Mannschaftsverfolgung (mit Jessie Daams und Jolien D'hoore)
2010
  U23-Europameisterschaft – Mannschaftsverfolgung (mit Jessie Daams und Jolien D'hoore)
  U23-Europameisterschaft – Scratch
  Belgische Meisterin – Teamsprint (mit Jolien D'hoore), Mannschaftsverfolgung (mit Jessie Daams und Jolien D'hoore)
2011
  Gesamtsiegerin Weltcup – Scratch
  Weltcup in Cali – Scratch
  Belgische Meisterin – Einerverfolgung, Punktefahren, Scratch, Omnium, Mannschaftsverfolgung (mit Else Belmans und Maaike Polspoel)
2012
  Weltmeisterschaft – Scratch
2014
  Weltmeisterin – Scratch
  Europameisterschaft – Punktefahren
  Belgische Meisterin – 500-Meter-Zeitfahren, Punktefahren
2015
  Belgische Meisterin – 500-Meter-Zeitfahren, Scratch, Punktefahren

Straße
2014
 eine Etappe Trophée d'Or Féminin
 eine Etappe Holland Ladies Tour
2018
 eine Etappe Tour of Zhoushan Island
 eine Etappe Panorama Guizhou International Women's Road Cycling Race

Weblinks

 Website von Kelly Druyts

Einzelnachweise

Radsportler (Belgien)
Weltmeister (Radsport)
Teilnehmer an den Europaspielen (Belgien)
Teilnehmer der Europaspiele 2015
Belgischer Meister (Radsport)
Bahnradfahrer
Belgier
Sportler (Antwerpen)
Geboren 1989
Frau

Kelly Druyts


El topónimo Kingstone puede hacer referencia a:

 Kingstone, un pueblo en el condado de Herefordshire;
 Kingstone, una parroquia civil y un pueblo en el condado de Somerset;
 Kingstone, una parroquia civil y un pueblo en el condado de Staffordshire.
Kingstone Media Group, una editorial que publica cómics y novelas gráficas basados en temas bíblicos y cristianos,en Leesburg, Florida, EE. UU.

Kingstone


Le classement Digital Songs ou Digital Song Sales (anciennement appelé Hot Digital Songs) classe les chansons numériques les plus vendues aux États-Unis, tel que compilé par Nielsen Soundscan et publié par le magazine Billboard. Bien qu'il ait commencé à suivre les ventes de chansons la semaine du 30 octobre 2004, il a fait ses débuts officiels dans le numéro du 22 janvier 2005, et a fusionné toutes les versions d'une chanson vendues par les distributeurs de musique numérique. Ses données ont été intégrées au Hot 100 trois semaines plus tard. Depuis octobre 2004, les ventes numériques ont été intégrées dans de nombreux classements de singles musicaux du Billboard. La décision a été prise en raison de l'augmentation spectaculaire du marché numérique alors que les ventes de singles en format physique devenaient négligeables.

Disques de chansons

Chansons avec le plus grand nombre de semaines à la première place des ventes

17 semaines
 Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber- Despacito (2017)

Top 10 des chansons vendues et  téléchargés sur une seule semaine

1. Adele - "Hello" (1 112 000) 14 novembre 2015

2. Flo Rida - "Right Round" (636 000) 28 février 2009

3. Adele - "Hello" (635 000) 21 novembre 2015

4. Taylor Swift - " We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together " (623 000) 1er septembre 2012

5. Kesha - "Tik Tok" (610 000) 9 janvier 2010

6. Taylor Swift - "I Knew You Were Trouble" (582 000) 12 janvier 2013

7. Bruno Mars - "Grenade" (559 000) 8 janvier 2011

8. Katy Perry - "Roar" (557 000) 31 août 2013

9. Taylor Swift - " Shake It Off " (544 000) 6 septembre 2014

10. Gotye featuring Kimbra - "Somebody That I Used to Know" (542 000) 28 avril 2012

Meilleures ventes en première semaine
1. Adele - "Hello" (1 112 000) 14 novembre 2015

2. Flo Rida - "Right Round" (636 000) 28 février 2009

3. Taylor Swift - "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" (623 000) 1er septembre 2012

4. Katy Perry - " Roar " (557 000) 31 août 2013

5. Taylor Swift - "Shake It Off" (544 000) 6 septembre 2014

6. Justin Bieber - " Boyfriend " (521 000) 14 avril 2012

7. Maroon 5 featuring Wiz Khalifa - "Payphone" (493 000) 5 mai 2012

8. The Black Eyed Peas - "Boom Boom Pow" (465 000) 18 avril 2009

9. Lady Gaga - "Born This Way" (448 000) 26 février 2011

10. Ariana Grande featuring Iggy Azalea - "Problem" (438 000) 17 mai 2014

Plus grand saut vers le numéro un
66-1 : will.i.am et Britney Spears - "Scream & Shout" (15 décembre 2012)

57-1 : Zac Efron, Vanessa Hudgens et Drew Seeley - "Breaking Free" (11 février 2006)

50-1 : Taio Cruz featuring Ludacris - "Break Your Heart" (20 mars 2010)

50-1 : Lee Greenwood - "God Bless the U.S.A." (18 juillet 2020) (18 juillet 2020)

42-1 : Wiz Khalifa featuring Charlie Puth - "See You Again" (18 avril 2015)

38-1 : Shakira featuring Wyclef Jean - "Hips Don't Lie" (17 juin 2006)

35-1 : Kelly Clarkson - "Piece by Piece" (19 mars 2016)

34-1 : J Balvin and Willy William featuring Beyoncé - "Mi Gente" (21 octobre 2017)

33-1 : Billie Eilish - "No Time to Die" (29 février 2020)

28-1 : Katy Perry - "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" (2 juillet 2011)

Artistes ayant obtenu le plus grand nombre de numéros un
1. Taylor Swift (23)

2. Rihanna (14)

3. Justin Bieber (13) (ex aequo)

3. Drake (13) (ex aequo)

5. Katy Perry (11) (ex aequo)

5. Eminem (11) (ex aequo)

7. Bruno Mars (9) (ex aequo)

7. Beyoncé (9) (ex aequo)

10. Nicki Minaj (8) (ex aequo)

10. Lady Gaga (8) (ex aequo)

10. Ariana Grande (8) (ex aequo)

Succès de l'artiste
Katy Perry est la première artiste dans l'histoire du numérique à dépasser les 300 000 téléchargements en ventes hebdomadaires avec huit chansons différentes. Elle l'a fait avec "Hot n Cold", "California Gurls", "Firework", "E.T.", "The One That Got Away", "Part of Me", "Roar" et "Dark Horse".

Rihanna a été nommée artiste de la décennie 2000 pour les chansons numériques.

David Cook détient le record du plus grand nombre de débuts et du plus grand nombre de chansons enregistrées en une semaine, avec 14.

Miley Cyrus est la plus jeune artiste féminine à avoir débuté à la première place avec 226 000 téléchargements pour sa chanson "Party in the U.S.A.". "Party" est également à égalité avec "Gangnam Style" de Psy pour le record du plus grand nombre de semaines à la première place sans atteindre le sommet du Billboard Hot 100, avec six semaines chacun.

Taylor Swift est la seule artiste à avoir dépassé les 500 000 téléchargements en ventes hebdomadaires avec quatre chansons différentes. Elle l'a fait avec "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together", "I Knew You Were Trouble", "Shake It Off" et "Blank Space". Elle détient également le record du plus grand nombre de numéros un au démarrage avec 19 chansons.

Adele est la première et la seule artiste à avoir dépassé le million de téléchargements en ventes hebdomadaires avec une chanson. Elle l'a fait avec "Hello".

Ed Sheeran est le premier artiste à avoir lancé deux chansons aux deux premières places la même semaine. Il l'a fait avec "Shape of You" et "Castle on the Hill".

Lauren Daigle détient le record du meilleur démarrage d'un artiste chrétien contemporain. Elle y est parvenue lorsque "You Say" a débuté à la cinquième place du classement daté du 28 juillet 2018.

Lady Gaga est la première artiste à lancer trois chansons dans le top 10 et la première artiste à occuper les quatre premières places pour la même semaine. Elle l'a fait avec "Shallow", "I'll Never Love Again", "Always Remember Us This Way" et "Is That Alright ?" la semaine du 20 octobre 2018.

Lady Gaga est la première et la seule artiste à occuper simultanément les trois premières places pendant deux semaines consécutives. Elle y est parvenue la semaine du 20 octobre 2018 (voir ci-dessus) et dans le classement du 27 octobre 2018 avec "Shallow", "Always Remember Us This Way" et "I'll Never Love Again".

Notes et références

Classement du Billboard
Classement musical

Digital Songs


Dr. Susan Calvin is a fictional character appearing in Isaac Asimov's Robot series of science fiction short stories. According to I, Robot, Susan Calvin was born in the year 1982 and died at the age of 82, either in 2064 or 2065.

She was the chief robopsychologist at US Robots and Mechanical Men, Inc., posited as the major manufacturer of robots in the 21st century. She was the main character in many of Asimov's short stories concerning robots, which were later collected in the books I, Robot and The Complete Robot.

Fictional character biography
According to Asimov's fictional history of robotics, Susan Calvin was born in 1982, the same year that US Robots and Mechanical Men was incorporated. At 16, she wrote the first of many papers on robotics, a Physics-1 paper entitled "Practical Aspects of Robotics". This was after attending a Psycho-Math seminar at which Dr Alfred Lanning of US Robots demonstrated the first mobile robot to be equipped with a voice. As quoted in I, Robot; "Susan said nothing at that seminar; took no part in the hectic discussion period that followed. She was a frosty girl, plain and colorless, who protected herself against a world she disliked by a mask-like expression and a hypertrophy of intellect. But as she watched and listened, she felt the stirrings of a cold enthusiasm".

Graduating with a bachelor's degree from Columbia University in 2003, she began post-graduate work in cybernetics, learning to construct positronic brains such that responses to given stimuli could be accurately predicted. She joined US Robots in 2008 as their first Robopsychologist, having earned her PhD. By 2029, when she left Earth for the first time to visit Hyper Base, her formal title was Head Psychologist.

In Asimov's stories, her emotionless brilliance is portrayed positively, when she solves issues with robots manufactured by her company.  Usually, she is tripped up when she is swayed by emotion (as in "Liar!" and "Lenny").

In the Mickey Zucker Reichert book I, Robot: To Protect, while working as a Psychiatrist in 2035, she was handed four cases; a traumatized girl that has not talked for 6 years, an obese boy that can't stop eating, a teenaged girl with "dementia, status post A-V fistula repair", and a 4-year-old girl accused of attempted murder.

Susan Calvin retired from US Robots in 2057 but continued to act as an occasional consultant for the company. She died in 2064, aged 82.

In "Evidence", when asked, "Are robots so different from men?", she replies, "Worlds different. Robots are essentially decent".  Asimov's own stories leave her misanthropy largely unexplained, but Harlan Ellison's screenplay adaptation of I, Robot investigates its origins, and in the end concludes that her attitudes are rather well-founded.

An excerpt from Harlan Ellison's screenplay adaptation of I, Robot has this to say about Dr. Calvin; "She is a small woman, but there is a towering strength in her face. Tensile strength, that speaks to endurance, to maintaining in the imperfect world. Her mouth is thin, and her face pale. Grace lives in her features, and intelligence; but she is not an attractive woman. She is not one of those women who in later years it can be said of them, "She must have been a beauty when she was younger". Susan Calvin was always plain. And clearly, always a powerful personality".

It was not until a mention of her in The Robots of Dawn, Asimov's third Elijah Baley Robot novel, that the events of her era (the 21st century) were concretely tied into those of Baley's era, three millennia further into the future, and thus into the greater Foundation universe as a whole.

Portrayals in other media
She was played by three separate actresses in British television, beginning in 1962 with Maxine Audley in an adaption of "Little Lost Robot" for the TV series Out of This World, then later played by Beatrix Lehmann in the 1967 "The Prophet", and followed by Wendy Gifford in 1969's "Liar!" both being episodes in the series Out of the Unknown.

Ann Firbank portrayed the character serving the same function, renamed Inge Jensen, in the Out of the Unknown adaptation of "Satisfaction Guaranteed". Margaret Robertson played her in the BBC Radio 4 adaptation of the same story.

A character named Dr. Susan Calvin (played by Marilyn Erskine) appears in the episode "Sun Gold" of the American anthology TV series Science Fiction Theater.  Although the episode was not based on an Asimov story and does not feature robots, it is likely that the character name was a tribute to Asimov and his works.

Harlan Ellison's  script for a feature adaptation, begun in 1977 and finished in 1978, would have featured Susan Calvin prominently. The story presents Calvin as a legendary figure, now aged 82. Taking a cue both from the framing sequence of I, Robot and from Citizen Kane, the film would have presented incidents from Calvin's earlier life, in which she would figure prominently, even if absent in the original story. Ellison envisioned the role as a vehicle for Joanne Woodward.

The 2004 film I, Robot was not originally based on Asimov's but originally based on an unrelated script, then retrofitted into an adaptation. Here, Calvin is played by Bridget Moynahan. She serves as an operative who "makes the robots seem more human" and dependent on the Three Laws of Robotics. She disbelieves Del Spooner's claim that robots can be violent, then comes round to Spooner's line of thinking and discovers that the robot Sonny had killed Dr. Alfred Lanning.

In the 2012 short film "HENRi", a character named Dr. Calvin is played by Margot Kidder, and while the film itself has no other connection to any Asimov stories, the name is most likely another tribute.

References by other writers
Arthur C. Clarke mentions Susan Calvin several times alongside Ada Lovelace and Grace Hopper: In his novel 3001: The Final Odyssey she appears as a female "role-model" in "the battle of wits between man and machine" (Chapter 36: Chamber of Horrors); in The Ghost from the Grand Banks Clarke refers to "the small pantheon of famous women programmers" while he puts one of the novel's characters in a league with the three aforementioned ladies (Chapter 4: The Century Syndrome).
It is unclear whether Clarke is referring to Calvin in the sense of Asimov's fictional character or as a character who existed in his fictional universe.

Susan Calvin also appears in David Wingrove's illustrated book The Immortals of Science Fiction"(1980). Here she is interviewed, along with nine other famous science fiction characters.

In November 2009, the Isaac Asimov estate announced the upcoming publication of Robots and Chaos, the first volume in a trilogy featuring Susan Calvin and authored by fantasy author Mickey Zucker Reichert. The book was published in November, 2011 under the title I, Robot: To Protect.

List of stories by order by publication

By Asimov
"Liar!" (1941) (first collected in I, Robot)
"Escape!" (1945) (first collected in I, Robot)
"Evidence" (1946) (first collected in I, Robot)
"Little Lost Robot" (1947) (first collected in I, Robot)
"The Evitable Conflict" (1950) (first collected in I, Robot)
"Robbie" (1940) (first collected in I, Robot. The revised version appearing in I, Robot adds a cameo by Calvin, whereas the original story did not.)
"Satisfaction Guaranteed" (1951) (first collected in Earth Is Room Enough)
"Risk" (1955) (first collected in The Rest of the Robots)
"Galley Slave" (1957) (first collected in The Rest of the Robots)
"Lenny" (1958) (first collected in The Rest of the Robots)
"Feminine Intuition" (1969) (first collected in The Bicentennial Man and Other Stories)
"Robot Dreams" (1986) (included in Robot Dreams)

By other authors

Short fiction
"Balance" by Mike Resnick (1989) (included in Foundation's Friends)
"PAPPI" by Sheila Finch (1989) (included in Foundation's Friends)
"Plato's Cave" by Poul Anderson (1989) (included in Foundation's Friends)
"The Fourth Law of Robotics" by Harry Harrison (1989) (included in Foundation's Friends)

Novels
 I, Robot: To Protect (2011) by Mickey Zucker Reichert
 I, Robot: To Obey (2013) by Mickey Zucker Reichert
 I, Robot: To Preserve (2016) by Mickey Zucker Reichert

References

Further reading

In Memory Yet Green/In Joy Still Felt, by Isaac Asimov. Asimov's two volume Autobiography.
 The Complete Robot by Isaac Asimov. A collection of Robot stories with introductions.

External links
 Virtual Human (chatbot) version of Susan Calvin

Female characters in literature
Fictional female doctors
Fictional female scientists
Fictional characters from the 21st century
Fictional psychologists
Fictional roboticists
Foundation universe characters
Literary characters introduced in 1941

Susan Calvin


Hrvatsku je na Paraolimpijskim igrama u Barceloni i Madridu 1996. godine predstavljalo 6 športaša.

Medalje

Vidi još

 Paraolimpijske igre
 Ljetne paraolimpijske igre
 IX. Paraolimpijske igre - Barcelona/Madrid 1992.

Vanjske poveznice

 Hrvatski paraolimpijski odbor

Hrvatska na Paraolimpijskim igrama

Hrvatska na Paraolimpijskim igrama 1992.


Todd Phillips (New York, 20. prosinca 1970.) američki je filmski redatelj, producent i scenarist.

Odabrana filmografija
 Trilogija Mamurluk (2009., 2011. i 2013.)
 Starsky & Hutch (2004.)
 Joker (2019.)

Nagrade

Nagrada Oscar

Zlatni globus

BAFTA

Vanjske poveznice

Američki filmski producenti
Američki filmski redatelji
Američki filmski scenaristi

Todd Phillips