Mile End is a district of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in the East End of London, England,  east-northeast of Charing Cross. It is situated on the part of the London-to-Colchester road called Mile End Road., it was one of the earliest suburbs of London.

It was also known as Mile End Old Town; the name provides a geographical distinction from the unconnected former hamlet called Mile End New Town. In 2011, Mile End had a population of 28,544.

History

Toponymy
Mile End is recorded in 1288 as La Mile ende. It is formed from the Middle English 'mile' and 'ende' and means 'the hamlet a mile away'. The mile distance was in relation to Aldgate in the City of London, reached by the London-to-Colchester road. In around 1691 Mile End became known as Mile End Old Town, because a new unconnected settlement to the west and adjacent to Spitalfields had become known as Mile End New Town.

Beginnings
Whilst there are many references to settlement in the area, excavations have suggested that this was a rural area with very few buildings before 1300.

The road from the Aldgate (on London's defensive wall) to Colchester is known as Mile End Road when it passes through the district. In the medieval period it was known as Aldgatestrete to reflect the starting point of the road, it later became known  as the Great Essex Road to reflect its destination.

The River Lea, the historic western boundary of Essex, was once much wilder and formed a formidable obstacle. The road, which has existed since at least Roman times, once forded the river at Old Ford in northern Bow. It moved to its present-day alignment after the foundation of Bow Bridge in 1110. The new bridge was around  south-east of the ford, requiring a new alignment to be established.

The area running alongside Mile End Road was known as Mile End Green, a large open common which became known as a place of assembly for Londoners, as reflected in the name of Assembly Passage, a short road  west of the Stepney Green tube station.

Peasants' Revolt

In 1381 an uprising against the tax collectors of Brentwood quickly spread; firstly in the surrounding villages and then throughout the South-East of England. However it was the rebels of Essex led by a priest named Jack Straw, and the men of Kent led by Wat Tyler, who marched on London. On 12 June the Essex rebels (comprising 100,000 men) camped at Mile End. On the following day the men of Kent arrived at Blackheath. On 14 June, the teenaged King Richard II rode to Mile End where he met the rebels and signed their charter. The king subsequently had the leaders and many rebels executed.

Expansion
Speculative developments existed by the end of the 16th century and continued throughout the 18th century. It developed as an area of working and lower-class housing, often occupied by immigrants and migrants new to the city.

In 1811 Bancroft Road Cemetery at Globe Fields was opened for its first burial by the separatist "Maiden Lane synagogue in Covent Garden". By 1884 it was in disrepair. The cemetery was full by 1895. The synagogue became bankrupt in 1907 and incorporated back into the larger Western Marble Arch Synagogue.

In 1820 the New Globe pub opened next to the new "Globe Bridge", with its licence possibly transferring from a nearby pub called the Cherry Tree which closed at around this time.

Mile End Hospital was originally an infirmary for the local workhouse, established in 1859. In 1883 the facility was rebuilt as the "Mile End Old Town Infirmary". A training school for nurses was added in 1892. During the First World War it served as a military hospital. In 1930 it was renamed "Mile End Hospital" and then joined the National Health Service when it commenced in 1948. It was renamed "the Royal London Hospital (Mile End)" in 1990 but reverted back to "Mile End Hospital" in 1994. Also in June 1990 the Bancroft Unit for the Care of the Elderly opened at Mile End Hospital having moved from Bethnal Green. In 2012 it was taken under the management of Barts Health NHS Trust.

In 1882 novelist and social commentator Sir Walter Besant proposed a Palace of Delight with concert halls, reading rooms, picture galleries, an art school, various classes, social rooms and frequent fêtes and dances. This coincided with a project by the philanthropist businessman Edmund Hay Currie to use money from the winding up of the "Beaumont Trust", (together with subscriptions) to build a "People's Palace" in the East End. Five acres of land were secured on the Mile End Road and the Queen's Hall was opened by Queen Victoria on 14 May 1887. The complex had a library, swimming pool, gymnasium and winter garden by 1892 which provided an eclectic mix of populist entertainment and education. A peak of 8,000 tickets were sold for classes in 1892. By 1900, a Bachelor of Science degree was introduced, awarded by the University of London. The building was destroyed by fire in 1931 but the Draper's Company (major donors to the original scheme) invested to rebuild the technical college and create Queen Mary College in December 1934. A new "People's Palace" was constructed in 1937 by the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney in St Helen's Terrace. This finally closed in 1954.

In 1902 Mile End tube station was opened by the Whitechapel & Bow Railway (W&BR). Electrified services started in 1905. The first services were provided by the District Railway (now the District line). Then the Metropolitan line followed in 1936 (this part was renamed in 1988 as the Hammersmith & City line.) In 1946 (as part of the Central line eastern extension) the station was expanded and rebuilt Stanley Heaps (Chief Architect of London Underground) and his assistant Thomas Bilbow. Services started on 4 December 1946. Following nationalisation of the W&BR, full ownership of the station passed to London Underground in 1950.

In 1903 The Guardian Angels Church (designed by Frederick Arthur Walters) opened. It was paid for by Henry Fitzalan-Howard, 15th Duke of Norfolk as a memorial to his youngest sister Lady Margaret Howard, who had performed charitable work in the East End.

In 1933 a ring known as Mile End Arena (covered with a canopy, crumbling walls and rickety corrugated iron) was opened behind Mile End station. It was only used in summer and closed in 1953.

Second World War

As well as suffering heavily in earlier blitzes, Mile End was hit by the first V-1 flying bomb to strike London. On 13 June 1944, that "doodlebug" impacted next to the railway bridge on Grove Road, an event now commemorated by a blue plaque. Eight civilians were killed, 30 injured, and 200 made homeless by the blast.

After the Second World War, a part of Mile End remained mostly derelict for many years, until it was cleared to extend Mile End Park.

Contemporary
The Stepney Green Conservation Area was designated in January 1973, covering the area previously known as Mile End Old Town. It is a large Conservation Area with an irregular shape that encloses buildings around Mile End Road, Assembly Passage, Louisa Street and Stepney Green itself. It is an area of exceptional architectural and historic interest, with a character and appearance worthy of protection and enhancement. It is situated just north of the medieval village of Stepney, which was clustered around St. Dunstan's Church.

In 1990 Ragged School Museum opened in the premises of the former site of the Copperfield Road Ragged School.

On 17 June 1995, the Mile End Stadium hosted a gig by Britpop band Blur where 27,000 fans saw them supported by the Boo Radleys, Sparks, John Shuttleworth, Dodgy and the Cardiacs.

A groundbreaking project funded by the Millennium Commission called the Green Bridge opened in 2000 (a pedestrian and cyclist separation structure over the A11 (Mile End Road) connecting the two halves of Mile End Park to form a linear park). It included new retail frontages.

The St Clement's Hospital site was closed in 2005, with services transferred to a new Adult Mental Health Facility at Mile End Hospital in October 2005.

The Night Tube service began at Mile End tube station (on the Central line) on 19 August 2016. Since 2016, northern Mile End has fallen under the remit of the Bow Roman Road Neighbourhood Forum. This includes the shops under The Green Bridge on the northern side of Mile End Road (A11), the Mile End Climbing Wall, and Palm Tree.

A 165 year old historically important pub which had been one of the few buildings locally to survive the blitz, "The Carlton" closed in May 2018. This was an important part of local community history. It was sold to Trustee Properties Ltd who obtained permission from Tower Hamlets Council in 2017 to develop five flats but not to demolish the ground floor of the pub. But they demolished the whole building without approval.

Governance

Mile End formed a hamlet within the large ancient parish of Stepney, in the Tower division of the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex. Although formally part of the historic (or ancient) county of Middlesex, military and most (or all) civil county functions were managed more locally, by the Tower Division (also known as the Tower Hamlets) under the leadership of the Lord-Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets.

The role of the Tower Division ended when Mile End became part of the new County of London in 1889. The County of London was replaced by Greater London in 1965.

For more local government, Mile End was grouped into the Stepney poor law union in 1836, becoming a single civil parish for poor law purposes in 1857.

It formed part of the Metropolitan Police District from 1830.

Upon the creation of the Metropolitan Board of Works in 1855 the vestry of Mile End Old Town became an electing authority. The vestry hall was located on Bancroft Road.

The parish became part of the County of London in 1889 and in 1900 it became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney.

In 1965 Stepney was incorporated into the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.

There was a Mile End Parliament constituency from 1885 to 1950, which was notable for being one of two constituencies in the UK to elect a Communist Party MP Phil Piratin to the House of Commons between 1945 and 1950. The area now is covered by the Bethnal Green and Bow and Poplar and Limehouse constituencies.

Geography
Mile End, which is in London's East End has an unusual landmark, the "Green Bridge" (known affectionately as the banana bridge, due to its yellow underside). This structure (designed by CZWG Architects and opened in 2000) carries Mile End Park over the busy Mile End Road. The top of the bridge includes garden and water features and some shops and restaurant space built in below.

Ackroyd Drive Greenlink, Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park and Mile End Park form a large green corridor. The Greenlink is a linear site bisected by roads into five rectangular plots. From the south these are Cowslip Meadow, allotments, Blackberry Meadow, Peartree Meadow and Primrose Meadow.

Sport and leisure
Mile End has a Non-League football club, Sporting Bengal United F.C., which plays at Mile End Stadium. The Mile End Skate Park provides a protected recreational space for skate sports.
There are many green spaces in Mile End, including the Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park, one of the "Magnificent Seven" cemeteries.

Media

The neighbourhood was depicted unfavourably in the pop band Pulp's 1995 song "Mile End", which was featured on the Trainspotting soundtrack. The song describes a group of squatters taking up residence in an abandoned 15th-floor apartment in a run-down apartment tower.

In 2009, the music video for "Confusion Girl" by electropop musician Frankmusik was filmed in Mile End Park and Clinton Road, Mile End.

In 2011, the music video for "Heart Skips a Beat" by Olly Murs and Rizzle Kicks was filmed in Mile End's skate park.

Transport

Rail
Mile End tube station is on the London Underground Central, District and Hammersmith & City lines, all of which connect Mile End directly to the East End, City of London and Central London. The Central line also links the area directly to Stratford and Essex in the east and London's West End. The station is in London fare zone 2.

Buses
There are bus stops on Mile End Road, Burdett Road and Grove Road.

London Bus routes 25, 205, 277, 309, 323, 339, 425, D6, D7 and night buses N25, N205 and N277 stop in the area.

Buses link Mile End directly to destinations across London, including Canary Wharf, the City of London, King's Cross, Paddington and Stratford.

Road
The A11 (Mile End Road) passes east–west through Mile End, linking the locale to Aldgate in the west and Stratford in the east. At Stratford, the road meets the A12 where eastbound traffic can continue towards Ilford, the M11 (for Stansted Airport) and destinations in Essex.

The A1205 (Grove Road/Burdett Road) carries traffic northbound towards Victoria Park and Hackney. The road terminates to the south at the A13 near Limehouse and Canary Wharf.

Air pollution
The London Borough of Tower Hamlets monitors roadside air quality in Mile End. In 2017, average Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) levels in the locale failed to meet the UK National Air Quality Objective of 40μg/m3 (micrograms per cubic metre).

An automatic monitoring site in Mile End recorded a 2017 annual average of 48μg/m3. Alternative monitoring sites on Mile End Road also failed to meet air quality objectives. A site at the junction with Globe Road in nearby Stepney recorded 52μg/m3 as a 2017 average, whilst a site at the junction with Harford Street recorded 41μg/m3.

Exposure to higher concentrations of NO2 has been linked to lung disease and respiratory problems.

Cycling
Mile End is on London-wide, national and international cycle networks. Public cycling infrastructure in the locale is provided by both Transport for London (TfL) and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Routes include:

 National Cycle Route 1 (NCR 1) – a long-distance leisure cycle route between Dover, Kent and the Shetland Islands, Scotland and forms part of the National Cycle Network. The route passes through Mile End Park on traffic-free shared use paths. In North London, the route runs from Canary Wharf to Enfield Lock.
 Cycle Superhighway 2 (CS2) – a commuter cycling route from Aldgate in the City to Stratford in the east. The route runs signposted, unbroken and traffic-free on cycle track for the majority of the route. The route follows the A11 (Mile End Road) through Mile End, and the track is coloured blue. It was upgraded between Bow and Aldgate and was completed in April 2016, with separated cycle tracks replacing cycle lanes along the majority of the route.
 Cycleway between Hackney and the Isle of Dogs – a proposed commuter cycle route made in 2019. According to current proposals, the southern portion of the route will run unbroken, signposted and traffic-free on cycle track between Mile End and Canary Wharf.
 EuroVelo 2 ("The Capitals Route") – EuroVelo 2 is an international leisure cycle route between Moscow, Russia and Galway, Ireland. Through Mile End, it follows the route of NCR 1.
 Regent's Canal towpath – a shared use path from Limehouse to Angel. The route is unbroken and traffic-free for its entire length, and can be accessed at Mile End through Mile End Park. The route links Mile End directly to Hackney and Dalston en route.

Notable people
 Mabel Lucie Attwell (1879–1964), the British illustrator for children's books (married to painter and illustrator Harold Cecil Earnshaw), was born in Mile End.
 Rokhsana Fiaz, the Labour Mayor of Newham since 2018, was born in Mile End hospital.
 Craig Fairbrass, actor in EastEnders and London Heist.
Muzzy Izzet, professional footballer who was a part of the Turkey side that reach the semi-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup.
 Charles Pope, (1883–1917) Recipient of the Victoria cross in June of 1917 was born in Mile End.
 Pop singer Samantha Fox was born here.
 Jason Tindall, the former professional footballer and current assistant manager at Newcastle United, is from Mile End.

See also
Mile End Hospital
Stepney Historical Trust
List of schools in Tower Hamlets

References

Bibliography
 William J. Fishman, East End 1888: Life in a London Borough Among the Laboring Poor (1989)
 William J. Fishman, Streets of East London (1992) (with photographs by Nicholas Breach)
 William J. Fishman, East End Jewish Radicals 1875–1914 (2004)
Nigel Glendinning, Joan Griffiths, Jim Hardiman, Christopher Lloyd and Victoria Poland Changing Places: a short history of the Mile End Old Town RA area (Mile End Old Town Residents' Association, 2001)
Derek Morris Mile End Old Town 1740–1780: A social history of an early modern London Suburb (East London History Society, 2007)
 Alan Palmer The East End (John Murray, London 1989)

Areas of London
Districts of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets

Mile End


Jacqueline Joyner-Kersee (born March 3, 1962) is a retired American track and field athlete, ranked among the all-time greatest athletes in the heptathlon as well as long jump. She won three gold, one silver, and two bronze Olympic medals in those two events at four different Olympic Games. Sports Illustrated for Women magazine voted Joyner-Kersee the Greatest Female Athlete of All-Time. She served on the board of directors for USA Track & Field (U.S.A.T.F.), the national governing body of the sport.

Joyner-Kersee is an active philanthropist in children's education, racial equality and women's rights. She is a founder of the Jackie Joyner-Kersee Foundation, which encourages young people in East St. Louis to pursue athletics and academics. She collaborated with Comcast to create the Internet Essentials program in 2011, which provides high-speed internet access to low-income Americans.

Joyner-Kersee is one of the most famous athletes to have overcome severe asthma. In March 2023, she was inducted into the International Sports Hall of Fame.

Early life
Jacqueline Joyner was born March 3, 1962, in East St. Louis, Illinois, and was named after Jacqueline Kennedy, the First Lady of the United States. As a high school athlete at East St. Louis Lincoln Senior High School, she qualified for the finals in the long jump at the 1980 Olympic Trials, finishing 8th behind another high schooler, Carol Lewis.  She was inspired to compete in multi-disciplinary track & field events after seeing a movie about Babe Didrikson Zaharias. Didrikson, the track star, basketball player, and pro golfer, was chosen the "Greatest Female Athlete of the First Half of the 20th Century. Fifteen years later, Sports Illustrated for Women magazine voted Joyner-Kersee the greatest female athlete of all time, just ahead of Zaharias.

UCLA
Jackie Joyner attended college at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) where she starred in both track & field and in women's basketball from 1980 to 1985 and graduated with a bachelor's in history in 1986. She was a starter in her forward position for each of her first three seasons (1980–81, 81–82, and 82–83) as well as in her senior (fifth) year, 1984–1985. She had red-shirted during the 1983–1984 academic year to concentrate on the heptathlon for the 1984 Summer Olympics.

She won the Broderick Award, (now the Honda Sports Award) as the nation's best female collegiate track and field competitor in 1983 and in 1985, and was awarded the Honda-Broderick Cup, given to the nation's best female collegiate athlete in 1985.

She scored 1,167 points during her collegiate career, which places her 19th all time for the Bruins games. The Bruins advanced to the West Regional semi-finals of the 1985 NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament before losing to eventual runner-up Georgia.

She was honored on February 21, 1998 as one of the 15 greatest players in UCLA women's basketball. In April 2001, Joyner-Kersee was voted the "Top Woman Collegiate Athlete of the Past 25 Years." The vote was conducted among the 976 NCAA member schools.

UCLA statistics
Source

Competition

1984 Summer Olympics
Joyner competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and won the silver medal in the heptathlon. She was the favorite heading into the event, but finished five points behind Australian Glynis Nunn. She also placed fifth in the long jump.

1986 Goodwill Games
Joyner was the first woman to score over 7,000 points in a heptathlon event (during the 1986 Goodwill Games). In 1986, she received the James E. Sullivan Award as the top amateur athlete in the United States.

1988 Summer Olympics
Now known as Jackie Joyner-Kersee after marrying her coach Bob Kersee, she entered the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, Korea and earned gold medals in both the heptathlon and the long jump. At the Games, she set the still-standing heptathlon world record of 7,291 points. The silver and bronze medalists were Sabine John and Anke Vater-Behmer, both of whom were representing East Germany. Five days later, Joyner-Kersee won her second gold medal, leaping to an Olympic record of  in the long jump. She was the first American woman to earn a gold medal in long jump as well as the first American woman to earn a gold medal in heptathlon.

At the Games she faced unfounded allegations of drug use by the men's 800m 1984 Olympic gold medalist and 1988 Olympic silver medalist Joaquim Cruz. This continued the following season in 1989 when Darrell Robinson accused her coach, Bobby Kersee, of distributing performance-enhancing drugs.

1991 World Championships

Joyner-Kersee was everyone's favorite to retain both her World titles earned four years earlier in Rome. However, her challenge was dramatically halted when, having won the long jump easily with a  jump no one would beat, she slipped on the take-off board and careened headfirst into the pit, avoiding serious injury. She did, however, strain a hamstring, which led to her having to pull out of the heptathlon during the 200 m at the end of the first day.

1992 Summer Olympics

In the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain, Joyner-Kersee earned her second Olympic gold medal in the heptathlon.  She also won the bronze medal in the long jump which was won by her friend Heike Drechsler of Germany.

1996 Summer Olympics

At the Olympic Trials, Joyner-Kersee sustained an injury to her right hamstring. When the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta began, Joyner-Kersee was not fully recovered by the time the heptathlon started. After running the first event, the 100 m hurdles, the pain was unbearable and she withdrew. She was able to recover well enough to compete in the long jump and qualify for the final, but was in sixth place in the final with one jump remaining. Her final jump of  was long enough for her to win the bronze medal. The Atlanta Olympics was the last Olympics of Joyner-Kersee's long competitive career.

Professional basketball career

In 1996 Joyner-Kersee signed on to play pro basketball for the Richmond Rage of the fledgling American Basketball League. Although she was very popular with the fans, she was less successful on the court. She appeared in only 17 games, and scored no more than 15 points in any game.

1998 Goodwill Games
Returning to track, Joyner-Kersee won the heptathlon at the 1998 Goodwill Games, scoring 6,502 points.

2000 Olympic trials

Two years after retiring, Joyner-Kersee tried to qualify for the long jump event at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney, Australia. She placed sixth at 21–10 ¾.

Awards and honors

1983 Broderick Award (now Honda Sports Award)
1985 Broderick Award (now Honda Sports Award)
1986 James E. Sullivan Award
 1986 Jesse Owens Award
 1987 Jesse Owens Award
 1992 George Thomas "Mickey" Leland Award from the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation
 1997 Jack Kelly Fair Play Award
 2000 St. Louis Walk of Fame inductee
 2005 was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the State's highest honor) by the Governor of Illinois in the area of Sports
2010 NCAA Silver Anniversary Awards honoree
 2011 Dick Enberg Award, College Sports Information Director of America (CoSIDA)
 2021 Webster University Doctor of Humane Letters

Since 1981, the Jesse Owens Award is given by USATF (and before its renaming, TAC) the United States' track and field "athlete of the year".  In 1996, the award was split to be given to the top athlete of each gender.  In 2013, the Female award was renamed the Jackie Joyner-Kersee Award.

Current world records
, Joyner-Kersee holds the world record in heptathlon along with the top six all-time best results whilst her long jump record of 7.49 m is second on the long jump all-time list. In addition to heptathlon and long jump, she was a world class athlete in 100 m hurdles and 200 meters being  in top 60 all time in those events.

Sports Illustrated voted her the greatest female athlete of the 20th century.

Joyner-Kersee has consistently maintained that she has competed throughout her career without performance-enhancing drugs.

Personal bests

Personal bests
 100 metres hurdles : 12.61 s
 Long jump : 7.49 m (still currently #2 all time, 3 cm behind the world record and she did it twice)
 High jump : 1.93 m
 200 m : 22.30 s
 Shot put : 16.84 m
 Javelin throw : 50.12 m
 800 m : 2 min 8.51 s

TV appearances
In 2000, Kersee played herself in an episode of The Jersey called "Legacy" where Nick Lighter (played by Michael Galeota) uses a magical jersey by jumping into her body as he is coached by her husband (played by Bob Kersee) on how to put the shot for a track and field competition.

Personal life
Jackie's brother is the Olympic champion triple jumper Al Joyner, who was married to Olympic track champion Florence Griffith Joyner. Jackie married her track coach, Bob Kersee, in 1986.

In 1988, Joyner-Kersee established the Jackie Joyner-Kersee Foundation, which provides youth, adults, and families with athletic, academic lessons and the resources to improve their quality of life with special attention directed to East St. Louis, Illinois. In 2007, Jackie Joyner-Kersee along with Andre Agassi, Muhammad Ali, Lance Armstrong, Warrick Dunn, Mia Hamm, Jeff Gordon, Tony Hawk, Andrea Jaeger, Mario Lemieux, Alonzo Mourning, and Cal Ripken Jr. founded Athletes for Hope, a charitable organization that helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and inspires millions of non-athletes to volunteer and support the community.

References

External links

 The Jackie Joyner Kersee Foundation, which helps children and adults in the East St. Louis, Illinois/St. Louis, Missouri area

1962 births
Living people
Sportspeople from East St. Louis, Illinois
Track and field athletes from Illinois
American women's basketball players
American heptathletes
American female long jumpers
African-American female track and field athletes
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in track and field
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in track and field
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in track and field
Athletes (track and field) at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in athletics (track and field)
Athletes (track and field) at the 1987 Pan American Games
World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States
World Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics record holders
World record setters in athletics (track and field)
Richmond Rage players
UCLA Bruins women's track and field athletes
UCLA Bruins women's basketball players
James E. Sullivan Award recipients
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
Track & Field News Athlete of the Year winners
World Athletics Championships winners
Competitors at the 1998 Goodwill Games
Competitors at the 1986 Goodwill Games
Competitors at the 1990 Goodwill Games
Competitors at the 1994 Goodwill Games
Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games
21st-century African-American people
21st-century African-American women
20th-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American people

Jackie Joyner-Kersee


මුතුරාජ‍වෙල යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ගම්පහ දිස්ත්‍රික්කයට අයත් පුරන්වූ කුඹුරු යායකි. බටහිර වෙරළ තීරය දිගේ පැතිරුණු උතුරින් මීගමු කළපුවත්, දකුණින් කැලණි ගඟත්, බටහිරින් වෙරළ තීරයෙන් හා නැගෙනහිරින් කොළඹ-මීගමු ප්‍රධාන මාර්ගයෙන් ද සීමා මායිම්ව පිහිටා ඇති මුතුරාජවෙල ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ජෛව විවිධත්වය අතින් අනූන බිමකි. මීගමු කලපුවත් එක්ව ගත් කල මුතුරාජවෙල වගුරු බිම හෙක්ටයාර දස දහස් ගණනක් පුරා ව්‍යාප්තව පවතී.

මුතුරාජ‍වෙල පුරන්වීමට හේතුව
ලන්දේසීන් විසින් නිර්මාණය කරන ලද මෝඩ ඇළ ඔස්‌සේ කරදිය ගලා ඒම නිසා මෙම කුඹුරු යාය පුරන් විය.

මුතුරාජවෙල තෙත් බිම යනු කුමක්ද?

මුතුරාජවෙල තෙත් බිම ඉතා ඉහළ ජෛව විවිධත්වයකින් යුක්ත පරිසර පද්ධතියකි.එබැවින් මෙහි වෙසෙන සියොතුන් අතර දේශීය මෙන් ම විදේශීය පක්ෂීන් ද වේ.මෙය කිවුල්දියට ම ආවේණික වූ කඩොලාන පරිසරයකින් ද, විවිධාකාර සියොතුන් හා උභය ජීවීන්ගෙන් ද, විවිධ කෘමිවිශේෂ හා ජලජ පැළෑටිවලින් ද ස්වයංපෝෂිත වූ තෙත් බිමකි.

මෙම තෙත් බිම බොහෝ සත්ත්ව හා ශාක වර්ග ගණනාවකට නිජබිමක්ව පවතී.කලපුව හා ඍජුව සම්බන්ධ වී නිර්මිතව ඇති බැවින් ධීවර පවුල් 3200කට පමණ ජීවනෝපාය සැලසී ඇත.ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නැංගුරම්ලන ධීවර යාත්‍රාවලින් 15% ක් පමණ මුතුරාජවෙල කලපු තීරය නැංගුරම්පළක් ලෙස භාවිතා කරයි.

මෙම ප්‍රදේශය මත්ස්‍යයන් හා ඉස්සන්ගේ අභිජණන මධ්‍යස්ථානයක් වන අතර එළවළු, පළතුරු , ඖෂධ හා දැව සපයන ප්‍රභවයක් ද වේ. ඉතා ම ජනාකීර්ණ ප්‍රදේශයක් වන මහ කොළඹ ප්‍රදේශයේ හරිත පෙනහළු ලෙස කටයුතු කරන මුතුරාජවෙල තෙත් බිම ස්වභාවික ගං වතුර පාලනයට ද ඍජු දායකත්වයක් ලබා දෙයි.

ප්‍රදේශයේ ජනතාවගේ ප්‍රධාන ජීවනෝපාය වන ධීවර කර්මාන්තයට රුකුලක්ව පවතින මුතුරාජවෙල තෙත් බිම සංචාරක ව්‍යාපාරයට ද දායකත්වයක් ලබා දෙයි. ඊට ප්‍රධාන හේතුව ප්‍රදේශය පුරා පැතිරී ඇති සොබාසෞන්දර්යයි. මුතුරාජවෙල ඔස්සේ සිය ගමන් මග සකසාගෙන ඇති ප්‍රධාන ඇල මාර්ග දෙක වන හැමිල්ටන් ඇල සහ ඕලන්ද ඇල එම සොබාසෞන්දර්යයේ  මුලිකාංගයකි.

මෙම ඇල මාර්ග දෙක දෙපසින් පිහිටා ඇති හරිත වර්ණයෙන් බබලන කඩොලාන තීරය ද දුටුවන් මන බදනා පාරිසරික චමත්කාරය විදහා පායි.තව ද මෙම කඩොලාන තීරය ඔබ්බෙහි පවතින "කුරුලු උයන" ප්‍රදේශයට අපූර්වත්වයක් එක් කරයි. මෙරට පක්ෂීන් මෙන්ම විදේශ රටවලින් පැමි‍ණෙන සංචාරක පක්ෂීන්ගෙන් ද  මෙම උයන අසිරිමත් ව පවතී.

පිංතූර එකතුව

තව ද ඉතාමත් අලංකාර සමනලුන් මෙන් ම මත්ස්‍ය විශේෂ ගණනාවක් ද මෙම පරිසරයට අපරිමිත වූ සුන්දරත්වයක් එක් කරයි. මෙරට පක්ෂීන් මෙන් ම විදේශ රටවලින් පැමිණෙන සංචාරක පක්ෂීන්ගෙන් ද මෙම උයන අසිරිමත්ව පවතී. තව ද ඉතාමත් අලංකාර සමනලුන් මෙන් ම මත්ස්‍ය විශේෂ ගණනාවක් ද මෙම පරිසරය ට අපරිමිත වූ සුන්දරත්වයක් එක් කරයි.

මුතුරාජවෙල දක්නට ලැබෙන්නේ කඩොලාන පරිසර පද්ධතියකි.කඩොලාන පරිසර පද්ධතියක් යනු අන්තර් උදම් කලාපය මුල්කොටගෙන කලපු, ගං මෝය හා කලපුවල කුඩා දූපත් ආශ්‍රිත ව දක්නට ලැ‍බෙන පරිසර පද්ධතියකි. මුතුරාජවෙල වගුරු බිම් සීමාව තුළ කඩොලාන ශාක විශේෂ 29 ක් සොයා ගෙන ඇත. ඊට අමතර ව ඒ ආශ්‍රිත ශාක විශේෂ 15 ක් ද දැනටසොයාගෙන ඇත. මෙම තෙත් බිම තුළ දැකිය හැකි කඩොලාන අතර මහ කෙඩොල්, මණ්ඩ, ගිං පොල්, කැරැන්කොකු, තෙලකීරිය, බැරිය, කටු ඉකිළිය ආදිය දැකිය හැකිය.

මුතුරාජවෙල දැකිය හැකි සත්ත්ව වර්ග

මුතුරාජවෙල ක‍ඩොලාන ආශ්‍රිතව දැකිය හැකි සතුන් ලෙස මඩ කකුළුවා, කලපු කකුළුවා, මඩ පොකිරිස්සා, කලිස්සා සහ මට්ටි යන සතුන් වේ.කඩොලාන ආශ්‍රිත මසුන් අතරට අයත් වන්නේ දිමිත්තා ,කපු හැන්දා, ඉලත්ති,හැලිවළං කොස්සා කහ කොරළියා ආදී සතුන්ය.

එම ප්‍රදේශය ආශ්‍රිත පක්ෂීන් අතර කඩොල් කොකා, ඇලි කොකා,මුහුදු ලිහිණියා, සිලිබිල්ලන් ආදීන් දැකිය හැකිය. මුතුරාජවෙල අභය භූමියේ කුරුලු විශේෂ 221ක් දක්නට ලැබෙන අතර වාර්තා නොවූ කුරුලු විශේෂ 136 ක් වේ. වාර්තා වන කුරුලු විශේෂ ගණන 85 කි. ඒ අතරින් තර්ජනයට ලක් වූ කුරුලු විශේෂ 4කි.මුතුරාජවෙල දැකිය හැකි සංක්‍රමණික කුරුල්ලන් අතර නිල් පෙඳ බිඟුහරයා,වගුරු සිලිබිල්ලා,සේරුවා,කැස්පියන් මුහුදු ලිහිණියා,අවිච්චියා ආදී පක්‍ෂීන් දැකිය හැකිය.

මුතුරාජවෙල අභය භූමිය තුළ වෙසෙන උරගයින් විශේෂ 37 කි. ඒ අතරට අයත් වන ඉබ්බන් විශේෂ දෙකකි.ඒ කිරි ඉබ්බා හා ගල් ඉබ්බා ය.ගැට කිඹුලා ද තවත් එක් විශේෂයකි.

මෙම වගුරුබිම තුළ වෙසෙන  සර්ප වි‍ශේෂ 22 කි. ඉන් විශේෂ තුනක් අපට ආවේණික ය.එනම් දෙපත් නයා, දිය බරියා ආදීන් වේ.තවත් සර්ප විශේෂ 6 ක් තර්ජනයට ලක් වී ඇත. එනම් පිඹුරා ,දෙපත් නයා,කුණ කටුවා , දිය වර්ණයා,කුණු දිය කළුවා ,රෙදි නයා ආදීන් වේ.
ඉතා අලංකාර සමනලුන් විශේෂ 67 ක් ද මුතුරාජවෙලින් වාර්තා වෙයි. කූරන් විශේෂ 34 ක් ද මෙම අභය භූමියෙන් වාර්තා වෙයි. මෙහිදී වාර්තා වන සමනල විශේෂ අතර The Taway coster,The Common Grass Yellow,The Common Rose,The Red Pierrot,The Blue Admiral ආදීන් දැකිය හැකිය.

මෙලෙසින් විවිධාකාර වු සත්ත්ව ගහනයක් දිවි ගෙවන මුතුරාජවෙල අභය භූමියෙහි දැකිය හැකි  සතුන් කිහිපදෙනකු පහත දැක්වේ.

මුතුරාජවෙල තෙත් බිමෙහි වැදගත්කම

මුතුරාජවෙල අභය භූමියට අයත් මුළු ඉඩම් ප්‍රමාණය හෙක්ටයාර 1285 කි. මෙම ඉඩම් ප්‍රමාණයෙන් කෘෂිකාර්මික කටයුතු සඳහා යෙදෙන ඉඩම්වලින් හෙක්ටයාර 543 ක් ගෙවතු වේ. පොල් ඉඩම් ප්‍රමාණය හෙක්ටයාර 430 කි. හෙක්ටයාර 6 ක ප්‍රමාණයක් තණ බිම් සඳහා වෙන්ව ඇත.

මෙම වගුරුබිම් සීමාවට අයත් වන මීගමු කලපුව ද  ප්‍රදේශයේ ඉතා වැදගත් ස්ථානයකි.අවට ජනතාවගේ ප්‍රධාන ජීවන වෘත්තියට උර දී ඇති මුතුරාජවෙල කලපුව ආශ්‍රිතව දිවි ගෙවන ජීවන පවුල් සංඛ්‍යාව දල වශයෙන් 3200 ක් පමණ වේ.

ද්‍රෝනී මෝය ,කරදිය ජලය අවට ගංගා වලින් එන ජලය සමග මිශ්‍ර වී කලපුවේ ජීවීන් සඳහා මනා ජල රක්ෂණයක් ලබා දෙන ස්ථානයකි. තව ද පෝෂණ ප්‍රදේශයෙන් ගලා එන ජලය තරමක් හෝ පිරිසිදු කර මුහුදට යැවීමෙන් අධික රොන් මඩ ප්‍රමාණයක් මුහුදට ගලා යාම වලකයි.

ඉස්සන් ,කකුළුවන් හා මසුන් වැනි ආර්ථික වශයෙන් ඉහළ අගයක් ඇති ජීවීන් සඳහා පරිසර පද්ධති නිර්මිතව පවතින මෙම කලපුවේ ජීවීන්ට අවශ්‍ය පෝෂක ද්‍රව්‍ය අඛන්ඩව ලැබේ. ගං වතුර අවම කිරීම සඳහා ද මෙම වගුරු බිම මැදිහත් වේ. මෙය මිනිසුන් දෙලක්ෂයකට වැඩි සංඛ්‍යාවකගේ නාගරික අපද්‍රව්‍ය බැහැර කරන ස්ථානයක් ද වේ.

මේ ආකාරයට මුතුරාජවෙල තෙත් බිම මිනිසාට විවිධාකාරයෙන් තම සේවය ලබා දෙන වැදගත් ස්ථානයක් බව පැහැදිලි වේ.

අඩවියෙන් බැහැර පිටු
  Muthurajawela : a single, unitary coastal system

මුලාශ්‍ර
මිහි මඬල සඟරාව,17 වන කලාපය.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ වගුරු බිම්
පෘතුගීසී පාලනය - ශ්‍රී ලංකා

මුතුරාජ‍වෙල


Chrome plating (less commonly chromium plating) is a technique of electroplating a thin layer of chromium onto a metal object. A chrome plated part is called chrome, or is said to have been chromed. The chromium layer can be decorative, provide corrosion resistance, facilitate cleaning, or increase surface hardness. Sometimes, a less expensive substitute for chrome such as nickel may be used for aesthetic purposes.

Chromium compounds used in electroplating are toxic. In most countries, their disposal is tightly regulated. Some fume suppressants used to control the emission of airborne chromium from plating baths are also toxic, making disposal even more difficult.

Process
The preparation and chrome plating of a part typically includes some or all of these steps:
 Surface preparation
 Manual cleaning to remove dirt and surface impurities
 Removal of remaining organic contaminants using emulsion cleaning, alkaline cleaning, anodic electrocleaning, or solvent cleaning by immersion, spray, manual application, or vapor condensation
 Rinsing
 Activation or electroetching
 Rinsing (not necessary if the activation and plating steps are done in the same bath)
 Immersion in the chrome plating bath, where the part is allowed to warm to solution temperature
 Application of plating current for the required time to attain the desired thickness
 Rinsing

There are many variations to this process, depending on the type of substrate being plated. Different substrates need different etching solutions, such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and sulfuric acids. Ferric chloride is also popular for the etching of nimonic alloys. Sometimes the component enters the chrome plating vat while electrically live. Sometimes the component has a conforming anode made from lead/tin or platinized titanium. A typical hard chrome vat plates at about  per hour.

Some common industry specifications governing the chrome plating process are AMS 2460, AMS 2406, and MIL-STD-1501.

Hexavalent chromium
Hexavalent chromium plating, also known as hex-chrome, Cr6+, and chrome (VI) plating, uses chromium trioxide (CrO3, also known as chromic anhydride) as the main ingredient. Hexavalent chromium plating solution is used for both decorative and hard plating, as well as bright dipping of copper alloys, chromic acid anodizing, and chromate conversion coating.

A typical hexavalent chromium plating process is:

 Activation bath
 Chromium bath
 Rinse
 Second rinse

The activation bath is typically a tank of chromic acid with a reverse current run through it. This etches the work-piece surface and removes any scale. In some cases, the activation step is done in the chromium bath. The chromium bath is a mixture of chromium trioxide and sulfuric acid, the ratio of which varies greatly between 75:1 to 250:1 by weight. This results in an extremely acidic bath (pH 0). The temperature and current density in the bath affect the brightness and final coverage. For decorative coating the temperature ranges from , but for hard coating it ranges from . Temperature is also dependent on the current density, because a higher current density requires a higher temperature. Finally, the whole bath is agitated to keep the temperature steady and achieve a uniform deposition.

Disadvantages
One functional disadvantage of hexavalent chromium plating is low cathode efficiency, which results in bad throwing power. This means it leaves a non-uniform coating, with more on edges and less in inside corners and holes. To overcome this problem the part may be over-plated and ground to size, or auxiliary anodes may be used around the hard-to-plate areas. Hexavalent chromium is also considerably more toxic than trivalent chromium, rendering it a major health risk both in manufacturing and disposal if not handled with care.

Trivalent chromium
Trivalent chromium plating, also known as tri-chrome, Cr3+, and chrome (III) plating, uses chromium sulfate or chromium chloride as the main ingredient. Trivalent chromium plating is an alternative to hexavalent chromium in certain applications and thicknesses (e.g. decorative plating).

A trivalent chromium plating process is similar to the hexavalent chromium plating process, except for the bath chemistry and anode composition. There are three main types of trivalent chromium bath configurations:

A chloride- or sulfate-based electrolyte bath using graphite or composite anodes, plus additives to prevent the oxidation of trivalent chromium to the anodes.
A sulfate-based bath that uses lead anodes surrounded by boxes filled with sulfuric acid (known as shielded anodes), which keeps the trivalent chromium from oxidizing at the anodes.
A sulfate-based bath that uses insoluble catalytic anodes, which maintains an electrode potential that prevents oxidation.

The trivalent chromium-plating process can plate the workpieces at a similar temperature, rate and hardness, as compared to hexavalent chromium. Plating thickness ranges from .

Advantages and disadvantages
The functional advantages of trivalent chromium are higher cathode efficiency and better throwing power. Better throwing power means better production rates. Less energy is required because of the lower current densities required. The process is more robust than hexavalent chromium because it can withstand current interruptions.

One of the disadvantages when the process was first introduced was that decorative customers disapproved of the color differences. Companies now use additives to adjust the color. In hard coating applications, the corrosion resistance of thicker coatings is not quite as good as it is with hexavalent chromium. The cost of the chemicals is greater, but this is usually offset by greater production rates and lower overhead costs. In general, the process must be controlled more closely than in hexavalent chromium plating, especially with respect to metallic impurities. This means processes that are hard to control, such as barrel plating, are much more difficult using a trivalent chromium bath.

Divalent chromium
Divalent chromium plating is done from liquids comprising Cr2+ species. Such solutions were avoided prior to ca. 2020, because of air-sensitivity and hydrogen evolution from aqueous Cr2+ solutions. In the 2020s, it was discovered that CrCl2 has ca. 4.0 M solubility in water at room temperature (i.e. with H2O:Cr molar ratio around 14:1), and such liquids behave like supersaturated electrolytes with a reduced propensity toward hydrogen evolution. The best quality bright deposits are produced at relatively high current density of 20 mA/cm2.

Types

Decorative

 is designed to be aesthetically pleasing and durable. Thicknesses range from , however, they are usually between . The chromium plating is usually applied over bright nickel plating. Typical base materials include steel, aluminium, plastic, copper alloys, and zinc alloys. Decorative chrome plating is also very corrosion resistant and is often used on car parts, tools and kitchen utensils.

Hard

, also known as  or , is used to reduce friction, improve durability through abrasion tolerance and wear resistance in general, minimize galling or seizing of parts, expand chemical inertness to include a broader set of conditions (such as oxidation resistance), and bulking material for worn parts to restore their original dimensions. It is very hard, measuring between 65 and 69 HRC (also based on the base metal's hardness). Hard chrome tends to be thicker than  decorative chrome, with standard thicknesses in non-salvage applications ranging from 20 to 40 μm, but it can be an order of magnitude thicker for extreme wear resistance requirements, in such cases 100 μm or thicker provides optimal results. Unfortunately, such thicknesses emphasize the limitations of the process, which are overcome by plating extra thickness then grinding down and lapping to meet requirements, or to improve the overall aesthetics of the chromed piece. Increasing plating thickness amplifies surface defects and roughness in proportional severity, because hard chrome does not have a leveling effect. Pieces that are not ideally shaped in reference to electric field geometries (nearly every piece sent in for plating, except spheres and egg shaped objects) require even thicker plating to compensate for non-uniform deposition, and much of it is wasted when grinding the piece back to desired dimensions.

Modern engineered coatings do not suffer such drawbacks, which often price hard chrome out due to labor costs alone. Hard chrome replacement technologies outperform hard chrome in wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and cost. Hardness up to 80 HRC is not extraordinary for such materials. Modern engineered coatings applied using spray deposition can form layers of uniform thickness that often require no further polishing or machining. These coatings are often composites of polymers, metals, and ceramic powders or fibers as proprietary formulas protected by patents or as trade secrets, and thus are usually known by brand names.

Hard chromium plating is subject to different types of quality requirements depending on the application; for instance, the plating on hydraulic piston rods are tested for corrosion resistance with a salt spray test.

Automotive use

Most bright decorative items affixed to cars are referred to as "chrome", meaning steel that has undergone several plating processes to endure the temperature changes and weather that a car is subject to outdoors. However, the term passed on to cover any similar-looking shiny decorative auto parts, including silver plastic trim pieces in casual terminology. Triple plating is the most expensive and durable process, which involves plating the steel first with copper and then nickel before the chromium plating is applied.

Prior to the application of chrome in the 1920s, nickel electroplating was used. In the short production run prior to the US entry into the Second World War, the government banned plating to save chromium and automobile manufacturers painted the decorative pieces in a complementary color. In the last years of the Korean War, the US contemplated banning chrome in favor of several cheaper processes (such as plating with zinc and then coating with shiny plastic).

In 2007, a Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS) was issued banning several toxic substances for use in the automotive industry in Europe, including hexavalent chromium, which is used in chrome plating. However, chrome plating is metal and contains no hexavalent chromium after it is rinsed, so chrome plating is not banned.

Arms use
Chrome-lining protects the barrel or chamber of arms from corrosion and makes these parts also easier to clean, but this is not the main purpose for lining a barrel or chamber. Chrome-lining was introduced in machine guns to increase the wear resistance and service life of highly stressed arms parts like barrels and chambers, allowing more rounds to be fired before a barrel is worn and needs to be replaced. The end of the chamber, freebore and leade (the unrifled portion of the barrel just forward of the chamber), as well as the first few centimeters or few inches of rifling, in rifles are subject to very high temperatures — as the energy content of rifle propellants can exceed 3500 kJ/kg — and pressures that can exceed . The propellant gases act similarly as the flame from a cutting torch, the gases heating up the metal to red-hot state and the velocity tearing away metal. Under slow fire conditions, the affected areas are able to cool sufficiently in between shots. Under sustained rapid fire or automatic/cyclic fire there is no time for the heat to dissipate. The heat and pressure effects exerted by the hot propellant gasses and friction by the projectile can quickly cause damage by washing away metal at the end of the chamber, freebore, leade and rifling. Hard chrome-lining protects the chamber, freebore, leade and rifling with a thin coat of wear resistant chrome. This significantly extends barrel life in arms that are fired for prolonged periods in full-auto or sustained rapid fire modes. Some arms manufacturers use Stellite-lining alloy as an alternative to hard chrome-lining to further increase the wear resistance and service life of highly stressed arms parts.

Health and environmental concerns
Hexavalent chromium is the most toxic form of chromium. In the U.S., the Environmental Protection Agency regulates it heavily. The EPA lists hexavalent chromium as a hazardous air pollutant because it is a human carcinogen, a "priority pollutant" under the Clean Water Act, and a "hazardous constituent" under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Due to its low cathodic efficiency and high solution viscosity, a toxic mist of water and hexavalent chromium is released from the bath.  Wet scrubbers are used to control these emissions. The liquid from the wet scrubbers is treated to precipitate the chromium and remove it from the wastewater before it is discharged.

Additional toxic waste created from hexavalent chromium baths include lead chromates, which form in the bath because lead anodes are used. Barium is also used to control the sulfate concentration, which leads to the formation of barium sulfate (BaSO4).

Trivalent chromium is intrinsically less toxic than hexavalent chromium. Because of the lower toxicity it is not regulated as strictly, which reduces overhead costs. Other health advantages include higher cathode efficiencies, which lead to less chromium air emissions; lower concentration levels, resulting in less chromium waste and anodes that do not decompose.

Maintaining a bath surface tension less than 35 dyn/cm is necessary to prevent plating solution from becoming airborne when bubbles rise to the surface and pop. This requires a frequent cycle of treating the bath with a wetting agent fume suppressant and confirming the effect on surface tension. Usually, surface tension is measured with a stalagmometer or tensiometer. This method is, however, tedious and suffers from inaccuracy (errors up to 22 dyn/cm have been reported), and is dependent on the user's experience and capabilities.

While they are effective for the control of toxic airborne chromium, many widely used wetting agent fume suppressants are toxic themselves because they contain perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are hazardous chemicals that can cause long-term health effects. This makes electroplating one of the jobs with the highest risk of occupational exposure to PFAS, but not as high as firefighters using fluorinated aqueous film forming foams. In addition to their detrimental effects on human health, PFAS are persistent pollutants that cause significant bioaccumulation and biomagnification, putting animals at the highest trophic level at the highest risk for toxic effects.

Mechanism of chromium electroplating
It has been known for over a century, that chromium electroplating is relatively easy from (di)chromate solutions, but difficult from Cr3+ solutions. Several theories have been proposed to explain this finding.

An earlier view suggested, that  an active Cr3+ species (perhaps, with a ligand rather than water) forms initially from electroreduced Cr6+.  This active Cr3+ species can be reduced into metallic chromium relatively easy. However, the "active Cr3+" also undergoes within less than 1 second a transition into "inactive Cr3+", which is believed to be a polymeric hexa-aqua complex. Some complexes of Cr3+ with ligand other than water can undergo relatively fast electroreduction to metallic chromium, and they are used in chromate-free chromium plating methods.

A different school of thought suggests, that the main problem with chromium plating from Cr3+ solution is hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), and the role of chromate is to scavenge H+ ions in a reaction that competes with H2 evolution:

The shine of plated chrome depends on whether microscopic cracks in the plating are visible on the surface. The dull appearance of some chrome layers is due to continuous cracks that propagate through the whole plated metal layer, while bright deposits appear in the case of small microcracks that are confined to inner depth of the deposit. This HER side-reaction mechanism seems more acceptable by the electrochemistry community at present. Methods of plating  chromium from Cr3+ solutions that rely on reversed current pulses have been commercialized (allegedly, to reoxidize the H2).

See also
Stainless steel
Metal toxicity

References

Further reading
SAE AMS 2406
 SAE AMS 2438
 SAE AMS 2460 - Plating, Chromium

Automotive styling features
Chromium
Corrosion prevention
Metal plating

th:โครม

Chrome plating


نيكولاس فيديريكو سبولي  الشهير باسم نيكولاس سبولي (مواليد 20 فبراير 1983 في روساريو - الأرجنتين) لاعب كرة قدم أرجنتيني يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الأولى كاتانيا الإيطالي منذ 2009 في مركز قلب الدفاع .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إيطاليا
أرجنتينيون من أصل إيطالي
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
إيطاليون من أصل أرجنتيني
رياضيون أرجنتينيون مغتربون في إيطاليا
رياضيون من روساريو
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو جنوى
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الأرجنتيني
لاعبو روما
لاعبو كروتوني
لاعبو كرة قدم أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية أرجنتينيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون أرجنتينيون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إيطاليا
لاعبو كرة قدم من روساريو
لاعبو كييفو فيرونا
لاعبو نادي كاتانيا
لاعبو نادي كاربي
لاعبو نيولز أولد بويز
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
مواليد 1983
مواليد في روساريو

نيكولاس سبولي


An Pleurothallis gouveiae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Gonçalo Antonio da Silva Ferreira Sampaio. An Pleurothallis gouveiae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Pleurothallis, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Pleurothallis

Pleurothallis gouveiae


Rönnfeldt ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Claus Rönnfeldt (* 1884), deutscher Landwirt und Politiker (NSDAP)
 Grete Rönnfeldt (1901–1981), deutsche Gerechte unter den Völkern
 Hilke Rönnfeldt, deutsche Filmemacherin

Rönnfeldt


In mathematics, iterated function systems (IFSs) are a method of constructing fractals; the resulting fractals are often self-similar. IFS fractals are more related to set theory than fractal geometry. They were introduced in 1981.

IFS fractals, as they are normally called, can be of any number of dimensions, but are commonly computed and drawn in 2D. The fractal is made up of the union of several copies of itself, each copy being transformed by a function (hence "function system"). The canonical example is the Sierpiński triangle. The functions are normally contractive, which means they bring points closer together and make shapes smaller. Hence, the shape of an IFS fractal is made up of several possibly-overlapping smaller copies of itself, each of which is also made up of copies of itself, ad infinitum. This is the source of its self-similar fractal nature.

Definition
Formally, an iterated function system is a finite set of contraction mappings on a complete metric space. Symbolically,

is an iterated function system if each  is a contraction on the complete metric space .

Properties

Hutchinson showed that, for the metric space , or more generally, for a complete metric space , such a system of functions has a unique nonempty compact (closed and bounded) fixed set S. One way of constructing a fixed set is to start with an initial nonempty closed and bounded set S0 and iterate the actions of the fi, taking Sn+1 to be the union of the images of Sn under the fi; then taking S to be the closure of the limit . Symbolically, the unique fixed (nonempty compact) set  has the property

The set S is thus the fixed set of the Hutchinson operator  defined for  via

The existence and uniqueness of S is a consequence of the contraction mapping principle, as is the fact that

for any nonempty compact set  in . (For contractive IFS this convergence takes place even for any nonempty closed bounded set ). Random elements arbitrarily close to S may be obtained by the "chaos game," described below.

Recently it was shown that the IFSs of non-contractive type (i.e. composed of maps that are not contractions with respect to any topologically equivalent metric in X) can yield attractors.
These arise naturally in projective spaces, though classical irrational rotation on the circle can be adapted too.

The collection of functions  generates a monoid under composition. If there are only two such functions, the monoid can be visualized as a binary tree, where, at each node of the tree, one may compose with the one or the other function (i.e. take the left or the right branch). In general, if there are k functions, then one may visualize the monoid as a full k-ary tree, also known as a Cayley tree.

Constructions

Sometimes each function  is required to be a linear, or more generally an affine, transformation, and hence represented by a matrix. However, IFSs may also be built from non-linear functions, including projective transformations and Möbius transformations. The Fractal flame is an example of an IFS with nonlinear functions.

The most common algorithm to compute IFS fractals is called the "chaos game". It consists of picking a random point in the plane, then iteratively applying one of the functions chosen at random from the function system to transform the point to get a next point. An alternative algorithm is to generate each possible sequence of functions up to a given maximum length, and then to plot the results of applying each of these sequences of functions to an initial point or shape.

Each of these algorithms provides a global construction which generates points distributed across the whole fractal. If a small area of the fractal is being drawn, many of these points will fall outside of the screen boundaries. This makes zooming into an IFS construction drawn in this manner impractical.

Although the theory of IFS requires each function to be contractive, in practice software that implements IFS only require that the whole system be contractive on average.

Partitioned iterated function systems

PIFS (partitioned iterated function systems), also called local iterated function systems, give surprisingly good image compression, even for photographs that don't seem to have the kinds of self-similar structure shown by simple IFS fractals.

The inverse problem

Very fast algorithms exist to generate an image from a set of IFS or PIFS parameters. It is faster and requires much less storage space to store a description of how it was created, transmit that description to a destination device, and regenerate that image anew on the destination device, than to store and transmit the color of each pixel in the image.

The inverse problem is more difficult: given some original arbitrary digital image such as a digital photograph, try to find a set of IFS parameters which, when evaluated by iteration, produces another image visually similar to the original.
In 1989, Arnaud Jacquin presented a solution to a restricted form of the inverse problem using only PIFS; the general form of the inverse problem remains unsolved.

As of 1995, all fractal compression software is based on Jacquin's approach.

Examples
The diagram shows the construction on an IFS from two affine functions. The functions are represented by their effect on the bi-unit square (the function transforms the outlined square into the shaded square). The combination of the two functions forms the Hutchinson operator. Three iterations of the operator are shown, and then the final image is of the fixed point, the final fractal.

Early examples of fractals which may be generated by an IFS include the Cantor set, first described in 1884; and de Rham curves, a type of self-similar curve described by Georges de Rham in 1957.

History
IFSs were conceived in their present form by John E. Hutchinson in 1981 and popularized by Michael Barnsley's book Fractals Everywhere.

See also

Complex-base system
Collage theorem
Infinite compositions of analytic functions
L-system
Fractal compression

Notes

References

For an historical overview, and the generalization :

External links
A Primer on the Elementary Theory of Infinite Compositions of Complex Functions

1981 introductions

Iterated function system


Belmonte es un municipio brasileño del estado de Bahía. Se localiza a una latitud 15º51'47" sur y a una longitud 38º52'58" oeste, estando a una altitud de 8 metros. Su población estimada en 2004 era de 18.986 habitantes.

Posee un área de 2016,85 km².

El municipio fue creado en 1764.

Referencias

Localidades de Bahía

Belmonte (Bahía)


Agrilus eichelbaumi é uma espécie de inseto do género Agrilus, família Buprestidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Kerremans, 1913.

Referências

eichelbaumi

Agrilus eichelbaumi


Virtuality es un piloto de televisión dirigido por Peter Berg y coescrito entre Ronald D. Moore y Michael Taylor.
Se transmitió por la cadena Fox.
Dado que el programa nunca se tomó como una serie de televisión, el episodio piloto de dos horas se exhibió como película el 26 de junio de 2009.

Argumento

La historia se desarrolla a bordo del Faetón, la primera nave interestelar de la Tierra, en un viaje de diez años ―durante el siglo XXII― para explorar el cercano sistema estelar Épsilon Erídani. Con el fin de ayudar a la tripulación de 12 personas soportar la larga misión, la computadora de la nave posee un sistema de módulos de realidad virtual. Los tripulantes acceden a sus módulos individuales inmovilizando sus cuerpos (como para dormir) y utilizando gafas («diademas») especiales. En la realidad virtual, cada persona puede asumir identidades diferentes y disfrutar de una variedad de aventuras. Las experiencias de la tripulación a bordo de la nave se transmiten a la Tierra como un canal de televisión de telerrealidad llamado Edge of never: life on the Phaeton ('al borde de la nada: la vida en el Faetón') en la cadena Fox.

La película comienza unos seis meses después del lanzamiento del Faetón (inmensa nave armada en órbita terrestre), cerca del planeta Neptuno, cuya gravedad será utilizada como un disparador. En ese punto, tal como está programado, la tripulación tiene su última oportunidad para cambiar el rumbo de regreso hacia la Tierra. Sin embargo, la producción del programa los convence de que la Tierra se está volviendo inhabitable, con tierra seca en una mercancía. Los científicos estiman que el planeta será completamente inhóspito en los próximos cien años. La prioridad de la misión del Faetón ha pasado a ser la de descubrir un nuevo planeta para que los seres humanos habiten.

Por desgracia, cuando la nave llega al punto de no retorno más allá del planeta Neptuno, surgen varios problemas. El Dr. Adin Meyer, único médico de la tripulación, se da cuenta de que está en las primeras etapas de la enfermedad de Parkinson. A través del uso del software de realidad virtual, el comandante Frank Pike ha comenzado una relación sexual con la botánica Rika Goddard (cuyo marido, el psicólogo Roger Fallon, es el psiquiatra de la misión y el productor televisivo del programa Al borde de la nada.

Mientras tanto, la tripulación ha estado experimentando varios fallos extraños en sus simuladores virtuales, todos los cuales implican a un hombre misterioso, que actúa en contra de la tripulación en el interior de sus sueños, como cuando asesina al comandante Pike durante la recreación de la Guerra Civil Estadounidense o cuando empuja al médico Meyer en un precipicio. A pesar de las dificultades, la tripulación decide por unanimidad continuar con el viaje de diez años.

En una simulación virtual de un concierto de rock japonés, la joven presentadora del programa se convierte en una salvaje vocalista de un grupo de rock en Japón, y canta el tema del programa de televisión La familia Munster en japonés.

Hay varios homenajes a la película 2001: Una odisea del espacio. Por ejemplo,
la computadora posee un inquietante control completo sobre la vida de los tripulantes
la elección del nombre del comandante Frank Pike (como Frank Pool, uno de los protagonistas de 2001)
la nave tiene forma circular
la efervescencia de Pike sobre la maravilla espiritual del espacio, y,
finalmente, la computadora tiene la culpa del misterio de la esclusa para matar a Frank (Pike), algo muy similar al asesinato del protagonista Frank (Pool) en 2001.

Elenco

Lista de actores en orden alfabético:

 Kerry Bishé (Nueva Jersey, 1984) como Billie Kashmiri, científica informática, y presentadora de la telerrealidad.
 Joy Bryant (Nueva York, 1976) como Alice Thibadeau, astrobióloga, pareja de Kenji Yamamoto.
 José Pablo Joey Cantillo (Wisconsin, 1979) como Manuel Manny Rodríguez, astrofísico, pareja del geólogo Val Orlovsky.
 Nikolái Coster-Waldau (Dinamarca, 1970) como el comandante Frank Pike.
 Ritchie Coster (Londres, 1967) como el Dr. Jimmy Johnson, ingeniero de impulso por pulso, segundo a bordo, en silla de ruedas.
 James D'Arcy (Londres, 1975) como el Dr. Roger Fallon, oficial psiquiatra, productor de la telerrealidad.
 Clea DuVall (Los Ángeles, 1977) como Sue Parsons, pilota, ingeniera de sistemas de vuelo.
 Gene Farber como Val Orlovsky, geólogo, pareja del astrofísico Manny Rodríguez.
 Sienna Guillory (Inglaterra, 1975) como Rika Goddard, botánica, exobióloga microbiana, pareja del psiquiatra Roger Fallon.
 Erik Jensen como el Dr. Jules Braun, navegante, diseñador de la nave interestelar Faetón.
 Nelson Lee como Kenji Yamamoto, astrobiólogo.
 Omar Metwally (Nueva York, 1974) como el Dr. Adin Meyer, oficial médico.
 Jimmi Simpson como el hombre virtual.
 Kari Wahlgren (Kansas, 1977) como la voz de la computadora Jean.

Notas

Películas de 2009
Películas en inglés
Películas de Estados Unidos

Virtuality


Marques (født 12. februar 1973) er en tidligere brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Brasiliens fodboldlandshold

|-
|1994||1||0
|-
|1995||0||0
|-
|1996||0||0
|-
|1997||0||0
|-
|1998||0||0
|-
|1999||0||0
|-
|2000||6||0
|-
|2001||0||0
|-
|2002||3||0
|-
!Total||10||0
|}

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Marques


John Dau, également connu sous le nom de Dhieu-Deng Leek, est un militant des droits humains du Soudan du Sud. Il est l'un des garçons perdus du Soudan qui a figuré dans le documentaire primé en 2006, God Grew Tired of Us . En 2007, il a fondé la Fondation John Dau visant à transformer le système de santé au Soudan du Sud.

Biographie

Enfance et débuts
John Dau est né dans la tribu Dinka au Soudan en 1974. En 1987, son village, Duk Payuel dans le comté de Duk, Jonglei, est attaqué par les troupes gouvernementales pendant la deuxième guerre civile soudanaise. La violence disperse sa famille et John Dau voyage à pied pendant trois mois jusqu'à rejoindre des proches en Éthiopie.

John Dau a déclaré au club The 700 : « Il y avait tellement de problèmes dans notre environnement, comme la famine, la soif, la peur d'être tué par d'autres habitants ou les animaux sauvages ». La situation la plus difficile était le manque d'eau potable.

Exil
John Dau est resté dans un camp de réfugiés en Éthiopie pendant quatre ans, mais lorsque la guerre civile a éclaté dans la région, il a de nouveau été contraint de fuir. En tant que l'un des milliers de « Garçons perdus du Soudan », John Dau a erré sur des centaines de kilomètres et a été confronté à la maladie, à la famine, aux attaques d'animaux et à la violence, jusqu'à son arrivée au Kenya. Alors qu'il vivait dans le camp de réfugiés de Kakuma, il a fréquenté l'école pour la première fois et a passé l'examen du certificat d'études secondaires du Kenya en 2000. En 2001, il était l'un des 3 800 jeunes réfugiés soudanais réinstallés aux États-Unis et l'un des 140 jeunes amenés à Syracuse, New York.

Malgré le choc culturel initial — femmes conduisant des voitures, immenses magasins remplis de nourriture — John Dau a réussi aux États-Unis et peut dire avec fierté qu'il vit le rêve américain. Il a pu amener sa mère et sa sœur du Soudan et, tout en travaillant 60 heures par semaine à trois emplois, il a obtenu un diplôme d'associé du Collège communautaire d'Onondaga. Il a obtenu un diplôme en études politiques à la Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs de l'Université de Syracuse en 2011.

Le déménagement de John Dau aux États-Unis et ses premières expériences dans le pays sont le sujet du film God Grew Tired of Us, qui a remporté le Grand Prix du Jury et le Prix du Public au Festival du film de Sundance 2006. Le titre du documentaire est une citation de John Dau discutant du désespoir que lui et d'autres Soudanais ont ressenti pendant la guerre civile. Ses mémoires, également intitulés God Grew Tired of Us, ont été co-écrits avec Michael Sweeney et publiés en janvier 2007 par National Geographic Press.

Distinctions
En plus d'une décennie aux États-Unis, John Dau a reçu plusieurs prix pour ses réalisations publiques et son travail caritatif. Il a reçu un National Geographic Emerging Explorers Award et a été nommé finaliste du Volvo for Life Award dans la catégorie Qualité de vie en 2008, qui a apporté une contribution de 25 000 $ à la Fondation John Dau Soudan.

Notes et références

Liens externes

 La Fondation John Dau
 National Geographic Emerging Explorers, John Bul Dau - Humanitaire/Survivant
 Prix Volvo For Life, Héros du Prix Volvo For Life : John Dau
 Entre deux mondes : un voyage personnel, photographies d'Eli Reed des garçons perdus du Soudan

Mémorialiste américain
Naissance en 1974
Militant sud-soudanais

John Dau


Prea mic pentru un război atît de mare este un film românesc din 1970 regizat de Radu Gabrea. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Mihai Filip, Mircea Albulescu, Jean Constantin și Gheorghe Cozorici.

Rezumat

Distribuție

 Mihai Filip — Mihai, copilul de trupă
 Mircea Albulescu — soldatul bărbos
 Gheorghe Cozorici — locotenentul
 Jean Constantin — soldatul negricios
 Gheorghe Dinică — plutonierul
 Ernest Maftei — soldatul cărunt
 Dan Nuțu — Dan, soldatul brunet, refugiat din Transilvania de Nord
 Ileana Popovici — învățătoarea
 Ștefan Radof — soldatul bucătar
 Liviu Rozorea — soldatul german care vrea să se întoarcă acasă
 Ovidiu Schumacher — soldatul vesel
 Nicolae Wolcz — clovnul de la bâlci
 Petre Gheorghiu-Goe — soldatul slăbănog
 Costel Iordache
 Gelu Manolache
 Florin Măcelaru
 Simion Negrilă
 Rudy Rosenfeld — soldatul cu ochelari (menționat Rudi Rosenfeld)
 Aristide Teică — caporalul chel
 Radu Cazan
 Mihail Markovschi
 Andonis Lazos
 Constantin Lazăr
 Octavian Rusu
 Petre Nicolau
 Emil Bogdan
 Dietrich Strasser
 Iosif Diacu

Producție
Scenariul a fost inspirat de o idee a colonelului Aurel Petri. Filmările au avut loc în vara anului 1969, cu exterioare la Ocna Sibiului, Sinaia, Câmpulung Muscel și Târgu Mureș. Cheltuielile de producție s-au ridicat la 5.687.000 lei.

Muzica a fost compusă de Corneliu Cezar.

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 975.874 de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Legături externe

 http://www.istoriafilmuluiromanesc.ro/film-romanesc~prea-mic-pentru-un-razboi-at-t~66
 http://www.cinemarx.ro/filme/Prea-mic-pentru-un-razboi-atit-de-mare-Prea-mic-pentru-un-razboi-atit-de-mare-78868.html

Vezi și
 Listă de filme românești despre cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial
 1970 în film

Filme din 1970
Filme regizate de Radu Gabrea
Filme în limba română
Filme alb-negru
Filme dramatice românești
Filme istorice românești
Filme despre România și Al Doilea Război Mondial

Prea mic pentru un război atît de mare


ليث فائز الأيوبي شاعر عراقي، عضو اتحاد الأدباء والكتاب العراقيين وعضو في هيئة تحرير مجلة الأقلام. يعد من أبرز شعراء جيل التسعينيات الذي ظهر في العراق في اعقاب حرب الثماني سنوات رغم ابتعاده عن الأضواء.

زاول العمل الصحافي في الصفحات الثقافية لمجموعة من الصحف اليومية والأسبوعية امتنع عن استلام مجموعته الشعرية الموسومة (تماثيل جاحدة) الصادرة مؤخرا عن دار الشؤون الثقافية العامة عام 2007م احتجاجا على تدخل الرقيب في تشويه اجواء بعض قصائده وحذف كل ما يدين الاحتلال ومرتزقته. احيل للتحقيق كونه موظف في وزارة الثقافة -دار الشؤون الثقافية في اعقاب نشر مقالته الموسومة (الخبراء وما إدراك ما الخبراء) في جريدة الصباح العراقية والتي انتقد فيها أداء بعض الخبراء (الرقباء) وجهلهم وتجنيهم على الابداع العراقي واضطر على اثرها إلى ترك الوظيفة بسبب التهديدات التي تلقاها من قبل جهات ظلامية غارقة بالجهل. حاز على عدد من الجوائز الأدبية في مجال الشعر منها جائزة الابداع الكبرى للشعر عن وزارة الثقافة عام 2006م عن قصيدته (باعة الاكفان) وجائزة نعمان العالمية للشعر، كما واختيرت قصائده ضمن مختارات شعرية متعددة وترجم شعره إلى أكثر من لغة عالمية.

أعماله الشعرية المنشورة

 كوابيس بيضاء 1998
 مكابدات البلبل الاحدب 2000
 وجوه مصفحة 2005
 تماثيل جاحدة 2007

شعراء عراقيون في القرن 21
صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة (أشخاص أحياء)
شعراء بالعربية في القرن 20
شعراء بالعربية في القرن 21

ليث فائز الأيوبي


Mariama Bâ (Dakar, 17 de abril de 1929- 17 de agosto de 1981) fue una novelista, profesora y feminista senegalesa. En su obra criticó especialmente las desigualdades entre hombres y mujeres a causa de las tradiciones africanas.

Biografía
Nació en Dakar, Senegal, en 1929, en una familia rica. Su padre era un funcionario público.

Después de la muerte prematura de su madre, fue criada por sus abuelos en un ambiente tradicional musulmán. Esto hizo que desde muy temprana edad se mostrara crítica con un sistema que la discriminaba por el simple hecho de haber nacido mujer y le negaba una educación por la que tuvo que luchar, ya que sus propios abuelos no creían que una mujer debiese recibir educación. Su padre, Amadou Bâ, fue Ministro de Salud en el primer gobierno senegalés en 1957.

Estudió en una escuela francesa donde fue notable por sus resultados. Después de completar la escuela primaria a los 14 años, estudió en l'École Normale de Rufisque en 1943 donde obtuvo el título de enseñanza primaria en 1947. Ella enseñó durante doce años y luego pidió el cambio a la Inspección Regional de Educación para la Salud.

De su primer matrimonio con Bassirou Ndiaye tuvo tres hijas, y del segundo matrimonio con Ablaye Ndiaye, una hija. Obtiene el divorcio de su tercer marido, el diputado y ministro Obèye Diop, con quien tuvo cinco hijos. Como resultado de su experiencia matrimonial, Mariama Bâ se comprometió con muchas asociaciones de mujeres en defensa de la educación y los derechos de las mujeres. Con este fin, pronunció discursos y publicó artículos en la prensa local.

En 1979 publicó su primera novela en Nuevas Ediciones Africanas "Une si longue lettre", que trata de las confidencias de una viuda senegalesa, Ramatoulaye, a su mejor amiga, Aïssatou, divorciada, que ha dejado su país. Este libro muestra la ambición feminista africana emergiendo frente a las tradiciones sociales y religiosas. Tan pronto como se publicó, la novela fue un gran éxito de crítica y público; ganó el Premio Norma en la Feria del Libro de Frankfurt en 1980. Además promovió los derechos de las mujeres, especialmente de las mujeres casadas. Hizo discursos y escribió artículos sobre la vida de las mujeres, especialmente aquellas cuyas vidas estaban en situación de desigualdad.

Ella murió poco después de un cáncer, antes del lanzamiento de su segunda novela "Una Canción Escarlata", que narra el fracaso de un matrimonio mixto entre un senegalés y una francesa, debido al egoísmo del marido y diferencias culturales.

Crítica a la cultura africana tradicional
Sus obras reflejan principalmente las condiciones sociales de su entorno inmediato y de África en general, así como los problemas resultantes: la poligamia, las castas, la explotación de las mujeres para la primera novela; oposición de la familia, falta de capacidad de adaptación al nuevo entorno cultural frente a los matrimonios interraciales para el segundo.

Obra
 Mi carta más larga (Ed. Zanzibar, 2005)- (fr: 1979 - Une si longue lettre)
 La Fonction politique des littératures africaines écrites - 1981
 Le Chant écarlate - 1981

Reconocimientos póstumos
 Una escuela secundaria de Goree (la casa de la educación de Mariama Bâ) lleva su nombre.

Bibliografía
 Faustine Boateng, At the Crossroads: Adolescence in the Novels of Mariama Bâ, Aminata Sow Fall, Ken Bugul and Khadi Fall, Howard University, septembre 1995
 Susan Stringer, « Cultural Conflict in the Novels of Two African Writers, Mariama Ba and Aminata Sow Fall », A Scholarly Journal on Black Women, 1988, supplément p. 36-41
 Dorothy Davis Wills, « Economic Violence in Postcolonial Senegal: Noisy Silence in Novels by Mariama Ba and Aminata Sow Fall », dans Violence, Silence and Anger: Women's Writing as Transgression, Charlottesville, University Press of Virginia, 1995, p. 158-71

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Biographie (en francés)
 Mariama Bâ (1929-1981)  (en inglés)

Escritoras de Senegal
Escritores en francés del siglo XX
Feministas de Senegal
Dakarenses
Activistas por los derechos de las mujeres de Senegal
Fallecidos en Dakar
Nacidos en Dakar

Mariama Bâ


Mythimna comma (Leucania coma) es una polilla de la familia Noctuidae. Algunos autores lo colocan en el género Leucania. Se encuentra en toda Europa.

Las alas anteriores de esta especie comparten el color del suelo pálido y venación prominente de otros "zócalos", pero tiene mucho más fuertes marcas oscuras que la mayoría que sus parientes, entre ellos una gruesa vena basal negra. Las alas posteriores son de color gris o marrón oscuro con ligeros flecos. La envergadura es de 35 a 42 mm. Esta especie vuela en la noche en junio y julio y se siente atraído por la luz y el azúcar.

La larva se alimenta de varias gramíneas como la Deschampsia y Festuca. La especie inverna como larva madura en una celda debajo de la superficie del suelo.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

comma
Animales descritos en 1761
Taxones descritos por Carlos Linneo

Mythimna comma


Stephany Griffith-Jones (née Stepanka Novy Kafka à Prague le ) est une économiste spécialisée dans la finance internationale et le développement économique et social, plus particulièrement la réforme du système financier international, en liaison avec la régulation financière et la gouvernance mondiale.

Biographie
Elle est la petite-nièce de l'écrivain Franz Kafka. Elle a épousé un mathématicien britannique, Robert Griffith-Jones, et ils ont eu deux enfants.

Carrière
Elle a commencé sa carrière en 1970 dans la Banque centrale du Chili. Puis elle a travaillé chez Barclays avant d'enseigner à l'Institut d'études pour le développement à l'Université du Sussex. Elle publie plusieurs ouvrages sur la crise de la dette des pays en voie de développement.

Elle a ensuite rejoint le Département des affaires économiques et sociales aux Nations-Unies. Elle a également travaillé pour la Banque interaméricaine de développement et à la Conférence des Nations unies sur le commerce et le développement.

Elle est directrice des marchés financiers pour Initiative for Policy Dialogue à l'Université Columbia à New York, et membre associée de l'Overseas Development Institute à Londres.

Le politicien chilien Gabriel Boric la choisit en 2021 pour être sa conseillère économique pendant sa campagne présidentielle.

Bibliographie sélective
 avec Osvaldo Sunkel, Debt and Development Crises in Latin America: The End of An Illusion, Oxford University Press, 1986.
 Global Capital Flows, should they be regulated?, préface de James Tobin, Macmillan and St. Martin's Press, 1998.
 avec José Antonio Ocampo et Jan Kregel, International Finance and Development, Orient Longman, 2007
 (éditrice, avec José Antonio Ocampo et Joseph Stiglitz) , Time for a Visible Hand: Lessons from the 2008 World Financial Crisis, Oxford University Press, 2010.

Références

Économiste du XXIe siècle
Professeur à l'université du Sussex
Professeur à l'université Columbia
Étudiant de l'université du Chili
Étudiant de l'université de Cambridge
Naissance à Prague
Naissance en juin 1947
Naissance en Tchécoslovaquie

Stephany Griffith-Jones


A adaga de ferro meteórico de Tutancâmon, também conhecida como adaga de ferro de Tutancâmon e adaga do Rei Tut, é uma adaga com lâmina de ferro descoberta em 1925 no túmulo do antigo faraó egípcio Tutancâmon do século XIV AC, pelo arqueólogo Howard Carter. Como a composição e a homogeneidade do metal da lâmina correspondem ao de proveniente de meteoritos do tipo siderito, determina-se que o material para a lâmina tenha tal origem. A adaga está atualmente exposta no Museu Egípcio do Cairo.

Análise
Desde a década de 1960, o alto teor de níquel na lâmina foi aceito como indicativo de origem meteórica. Um estudo mais recente publicado em junho de 2016 derivado da análise do espectrômetro de fluorescência de raios X mostra que a composição da lâmina é principalmente ferro (Fe) e 11% de níquel (Ni) e 0,6% de cobalto (Co). Isso significa que sua composição está situada na mediana de um grupo de 76 meteoritos de ferro previamente descobertos.O teor de níquel no metal da maioria dos meteoritos de ferro varia de 5% a 35%, enquanto nunca excede 4% em artefatos históricos de ferro de minérios terrestres produzidos antes do século XIX.Além disso, a proporção de níquel para cobalto desta lâmina é comparável aos materiais de meteoritos de ferro.

Na época da mumificação do rei Tutancâmon em aproximadamente 1323 a.C. (na Idade do Bronze), a fundição e fabricação de ferro eram raras. Objetos de ferro eram usados apenas para fins artísticos, ornamentais, rituais, presentes e cerimoniais, bem como para pigmentação. Portanto, o ferro durante essa época era mais valioso ou precioso do que o ouro. Artefatos de ferro foram dados como presentes reais durante o período imediatamente anterior ao governo de Tutancâmon (ou seja, durante o reinado de Amenhotep III).

Tutancámon
Meteoritos
Museu Egípcio (Cairo)
Punhais
Armas antigas

Adaga de ferro meteórico de Tutancâmon


Konungsríkið Pólland (pólska: Królestwo Polskie) var ríki í Mið-Evrópu. Það var stofnað árið 1025 þegar Bolesław Chrobry, hertogi að nafnbót, var krýndur konungur. Það var lagt niður eftir skiptingu Póllands.

Konungsríki
Saga Póllands

Konungsríkið Pólland


ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ උතුරු පළාතේ වව්නියාව දිස්ත්‍රික්කයට අයත් තෝනිගල සෙල් ලිපිය වවුනියාව-හොරොව්පොතාන මාර්ගයේ තිලක්කුලම ප්‍රදේශයේ පිහිටා තිබේ.

ක්‍රි.ව. හතරවන සියවසට අයත් මෙම තෝනිගල සෙල් ලිපිය මගින් එකල ලක්‌දිව පැවති දේශපාලනික, සාමාජයීය, ආගමික හා ආර්ථික තොරතුරු පිළිබද කරුණු රැසක් අනාවරණය කරනු ලබන අතර එය බැංකු ක්‍රමය හා බදු අය කරගැනීම සම්බන්ධයෙන් වූ ලොව පැරැණිම ලියැවිල්ල ලෙසද සැලකේ.

අන්තර්ගතය
දේව නැමැත්තකු විසින් ධාන්‍ය බැංකුවක් හා එහි පොලියෙන් පන්සලක් නඩත්තු කිරීම සම්බන්ධව ක්‍රියාත්මක වූ ආකාරය පිළිබද කියැවෙන ලිඛිත තොරතුරු මෙහි සඳහන් වේ.

මේවාද බලන්න
තෝනිගල සෙල් ලිපිය, ආණමඩුව

ආශ්‍රිත

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ශිලා ලිපි
වවුනියාව දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ පුරාවිද්‍යා ආරක්‍ෂිත ස්මාරක

වවුනියාව තෝනිගල සෙල් ලිපිය


Archibald Lionel "Archie" Mitchell  es un personaje ficticio de la serie de televisión británica EastEnders, interpretado por el actor Larry Lamb del 8 de julio de 2008, hasta el 28 de diciembre de 2009.

Biografía

Archie nació y se crio en el este de Londres junto a sus padres Philip y Sandra Mitchell en 1939. Durante su niñez sufrió golpes por parte de su padre, Archie era un hombre cálido y carismático con todos en especial con su cuñada Peggy a quien ayudó cuando esta sufrió maltratos de su esposo Eric Mitchell.

Archie vivió en Romford junto a Glenda con quien se casó en 1968, más tarde la pareja le dio la bienvenida a sus dos hijas Ronnie Mitchell y Roxy Mitchell, sin embargo desde las puertas hacia adentro Archie demostraba su verdadera personalidad, la de un hombre desagradable, quien tuvo numerosas aventuras y convirtió a Glenda en una mujer amargada. Cuando Ronnie tenía 13 años Archie la violó y un año después cuando se enteró de que Ronnie estaba embarazada de su novio, Joel se enfureció y le prohibió verlo de nuevo, en 1989 Ronnie dio a luz a su hija, Amy sin embargo poco después del nacimiento Archie le mintió y le dijo que había muerto y la puso en adopción lo cual la dejó destrozada y comenzó a guardarle rencor a su padre, la pareja que adoptó a Amy la nombró Danielle.

Más tarde Glenda tuvo una aventura y quedó embarazada de Danny Mitchell, decidida a que su hijo no fuera manipulado por Archie decidió divorciarse y Ronnie decidió alejarse de su padre.

Notas
 Entre sus historias más importantes se encuentran: haber sobrevivido al cáncer, haber ocasionado que su hija Ronnie Mitchell sufriera un aborto después de tirarla de las escaleras, haberle mentido a Ronnie diciéndole que su hija Danielle Jones había muerto y haberla dado en adopción, por manipular a Ronnie, Roxy, Danielle, Peggy y Sean, haber violado a Ronnie y a Stacey Slater, por planear matar a su nieta Danielle, haber sido secuestrado por Phil y por comenzar una relación con Janine Butcher.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Eastenders Official Website > Character > Archie Mitchell

Personajes de EastEnders
Empresarios ficticios
Camareros ficticios
Violadores ficticios

Archie Mitchell


Mielke este un nume de familie german. Persoane notabile cu acest nume:
 Benjamin Mielke (n.1981), bober german
 Erich Mielke (1907-2000), Șeful Stasi (Securitatea Germaniei comuniste) 1957-1989
 Gary Mielke (n. 1963), jucător de baseball american
 Günter Mielke (1942-2010), vest-german alergător pe distanțe lungi
 Janet Soergel Mielke (n. 1937), politician american
 Marcus Mielke (n. 1975), vâslaș germană
 Rüdiger Mielke (1944-2021), fotbalist german

Nume de familie germane
Nume de familie

Mielke


Emisum fue el segundo rey de Larsa (2004 a. C. - 1977 a. C.). De origen amorreo, era hijo de Naplanum, primer rey de la ciudad-Estado. Apenas existen inscripciones sobre su reinado, por lo que sabemos poco más que su nombre. Incluso es posible que no reinara verdaderamente en Larsa, sino que la ciudad hubiera tenido que rendir vasallaje a Isin, la potencia hegemónica de su época.

Referencias

Reyes de Larsa
Reyes del siglo XXI a. C.
Reyes del siglo XX a. C.
Asia en el siglo XXI a. C.
Asia en el siglo XX a. C.
Reyes amorritas

Emisum


Henry Wentworth Dyke Acland (-) est un médecin et éducateur britannique.

Biographie

Henry Acland est né à Killerton, Exeter, le quatrième fils de Thomas Acland et Lydia Elizabeth Hoare, et fait ses études à Harrow et Christ Church, Oxford. Il est élu membre du All Souls College d'Oxford en 1840, puis étudie la médecine à Londres et à Édimbourg. De retour à Oxford, il est nommé lecteur de Lee en anatomie à Christ Church en 1845, puis membre de la Royal Society en 1847 et en 1851 est nommé bibliothécaire et médecin de Radcliffe et médecin à l'infirmerie de Radcliffe.

Sept ans plus tard, il devient professeur Regius de médecine, poste qu'il conserve jusqu'en 1894. Il est également conservateur des galeries universitaires et de la Bibliothèque Bodléienne. De 1858 à 1887, il représente son université au Conseil médical général, dont il est président de 1874 à 1887.

En 1860, il accompagne le prince de Galles de l'époque en tant que médecin lors de sa tournée au Canada et aux États-Unis.

Il est nommé compagnon de l'Ordre du Bain (CB) en 1883, puis Commandeur (KCB) en 1884. Il est créé Baronnet en 1890.

Acland joue un rôle de premier plan dans la renaissance de la faculté de médecine d'Oxford et introduit l'étude des sciences naturelles à l'université. En tant que lecteur de Lee, il commence à former une collection de préparations anatomiques et physiologiques sur le plan de John Hunter, et la création du musée de l'Université d'Oxford, ouvert en 1861, en tant que centre pour l'encouragement de l'étude de la science, en particulier concernant la médecine, est dû principalement à ses efforts. « À Henry Acland », déclare son ami de toujours, John Ruskin, « la physiologie était un évangile confié dont il était le prédicateur solitaire aux païens », mais d'un autre côté, sa formation classique approfondie préserve la science à Oxford d'un trop brusque séparation des sciences humaines. En collaboration avec Henry Liddell, il révolutionne l'étude de l'art et de l'archéologie, pour cultiver ces sujets, pour lesquels, comme le déclare Ruskin, personne à Oxford ne se soucie avant cette époque, commencent à fleurir à l'université.

Acland s'intéresse également aux questions de santé publique. Il siège à la Commission royale sur les lois sanitaires en Angleterre et au Pays de Galles en 1869. Il publie une étude sur l'épidémie de choléra à Oxford en 1854, ainsi que diverses brochures sur les questions sanitaires. Son mémoire sur la topographie de la Troade, avec un plan panoramique (1839), est parmi les fruits d'une croisière qu'il fait en Méditerranée pour sa santé.

Acland est élu membre de la Société américaine de philosophie en 1873.

Son fils, le colonel Alfred Dyke Acland, épouse Beatrice Danvers Smith, fille de William Henry Smith (1825-1891) de la dynastie des Newsagents le 30 juillet 1885 et obtient le grade de lieutenant-colonel en 1910 au service du Royal 1st Devon Yeomanry (Armée territoriale). Un autre fils, Theodore Dyke Acland épouse la fille de William Gull, un éminent médecin londonien et l'un des médecins ordinaires de la reine Victoria.

Mariage et enfants

Il épouse Sarah Cotton, fille de  et Sarah Lane, le 14 juillet 1846. Ils ont sept fils et une fille :

 L'amiral William Acland (2e baronnet) (1847-1924)
  (1849-1930)
 Henry Dyke Acland (1850-1936)
  (1851-1931), le père de  (1890-1960)
 Herbert Dyke Acland (1855-1877)
 Sir Reginald Brodie Dyke Acland (1856-1924)
 Francis Edward Dyke Acland (1857-1943)
 Alfred Dyke Acland (1858-1937)

L'ancien hôpital Acland, initialement à Wellington Square, Oxford et plus tard sur Banbury Road à Oxford (maintenant partie de Keble College), est fondé à la mémoire de l'épouse d'Acland, Sarah.

Leur fille, Sarah Acland, vit ensuite à Park Town et est l'une des premières pionnières de la photographie couleur. Certaines de ses photographies font partie de la collection du Musée d'histoire des sciences de Broad Street, en face de la maison familiale.

Références

Liens externes

Membre de la Royal Society
Chevalier commandeur de l'ordre du Bain
Médecin britannique du XIXe siècle
Étudiant de Christ Church (Oxford)
Baronnet
Élève de Harrow School
Décès en octobre 1900
Naissance en août 1815
Décès à 85 ans

Henry Acland


Desmodieae,  tribus mahunarki iz potporodice Faboideae kojemu pripada nekoliko podtribusa od kojih su tri imenovana.

Podtribusi i rodovi

 Tribus Desmodieae Hutch.
 Subtribus Lespedezinae (Hutch.) B. G. Schub.
 Lespedeza Michx. (48 spp.)
 Kummerowia Schindl. (2 spp.)
 Campylotropis Bunge (41 spp.)
 Subtribus Desmodiinae
 Hylodesmum H. Ohashi & R. R. Mill (12 spp.)
 Trifidacanthus Merr. (1 sp.)
 Pseudarthria Wight & Arn. (7 spp.)
 Pleurolobus J. St.-Hil. (6 spp.)
 Polhillides H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Maekawaea H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi (3 spp.)
 Desmodium Desv. (186 spp.)
 Pedleya H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Pullenia H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Bouffordia H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Desmodiopsis (Schindl.) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Huangtcia H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (2 spp.)
 Oxytes (Schindl.) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (4 spp.)
 Tateishia H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (3 spp.)
 Sohmaea H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (8 spp.)
 Grona Lour. (48 spp.)
 Holtzea Schindl. (1 sp.)
 Ototropis Nees (14 spp.)
 Codariocalyx Hassk. (2 spp.)
 Leptodesmia (Benth.) Benth. (4 spp.)
 Pycnospora R. Br. ex Wight & Arn. (1 sp.)
 Mecopus Benn. (1 sp.)
 Alysicarpus Neck. (38 spp.)
 Desmodiastrum (Prain) A. Pramanik & Thoth. (3 spp.)
 Melliniella Harms (1 sp.)
 Eleiotis DC. (2 spp.)
 Hegnera Schindl. (1 sp.)
 Uraria Desv. (22 spp.)
 Urariopsis Schindl. (2 spp.)
 Christia Moench (11 spp.)
 Ougeinia Benth. (1 sp.)
 Aphyllodium (DC.) Gagnep. (9 spp.)
 Tadehagi H. Ohashi (8 spp.)
 Akschindlium H. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Droogmansia De Wild. (22 spp.)
 Dendrolobium (Wight & Arn.) Benth. (18 spp.)
 Phyllodium Desv. (7 spp.)
 Ohwia H. Ohashi (2 spp.)
 Hanslia Schindl. (1 sp.)
 Verdesmum H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (2 spp.)
 Nephrodesmus Schindl. (5 spp.)
 Arthroclianthus Baill. (19 spp.)
 Monarthrocarpus Merr. (2 spp.)
 Subtribus Kennediinae
 Shuteria Wight & Arn. (5 spp.)
 Afroamphica H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi (1 sp.)
 Kennedia Vent. (15 spp.)
 Hardenbergia Benth. (3 spp.)
 Vandasina Rauschert (1 sp.)
 Subtribus nov.
 Haymondia A. N. Egan & B. Pan (1 sp.)

Izvori

Faboideae

Desmodieae