During his residence in London, Isaac Newton had made the acquaintance of John Locke. Locke had taken a very great interest in the new theories of the Principia. He was one of a number of Newton's friends who began to be uneasy and dissatisfied at seeing the most eminent scientific man of his age left to depend upon the meagre remuneration of a college fellowship and a professorship.

1693
During the period 1692–1693 Newton is known to have suffered a breakdown of nervous functioning, or a supposed depression lasting for 18 months, as reported by Huygens. He suffered insomnia and poor digestion, in his  letters to friends showing signs of irrationality.

During exhumation the hair from  Newton's dead body was found to contain high levels of mercury, remains of desiccated hair were later found to contain four times the lead, arsenic and antimony and  fifteen times mercury than in normal range samples. Two hairs contained mercury and separately lead at levels indicating chronic poisoning.  Symptoms of mercury poisoning exhibited by Newton were apparently tremor, severe insomnia, delusions of persecution or paranoid ideas, problems with memory, mental confusion, and withdrawal or decline from personal friendships, significant in the period of time, the deterioration of his relations with his protégé Nicolas Fatio de Duillier.

Newton documented the first performed alchemy experiment during 1678, having first obtained furnaces and chemicals in 1669.  Experiments with metal included analysis of taste of which there are 108 documented, including mercury:  documented also by the scientist were similar experiments with arsenic, gold and lead.

Newton recorded in his notebook of experimenting with chemicals during June 1693. The limited evidence for symptomatic mental illness of Newton during this period stem from correspondences (c.f. The Royal Society) revealing melancholia, desire for withdrawal from relations including his good friends, insomnia, apathy, loss of appetite, delusion of persecution, possibly failures in memory (amnesia), and bipolar. In a letter written to Samuel Pepys, Newton stated he was

On the 30th of that month Newton reported he had been seized by a distemper

Running the Royal Mint
For the last half of Newton's adult life, 30 years, he was warden of the Royal Mint as well as Master of the Mint.

Appointment to the Mint
Newton got his appointment because of his renown as a scientist and because he supported the winning side in the Glorious Revolution.

At some time Locke nearly succeeded in procuring Newton an appointment as provost of King's College, Cambridge, but the college had offered a successful resistance on the grounds that the appointment would be illegal; its statutes required that the provost should be in priest's orders. Charles Montagu, afterwards Earl of Halifax, was a fellow of Trinity and an intimate friend of Newton, and it was on his influence that Newton relied for promotion to some honourable and lucrative post. However, his hopes were spoiled by long delay. In one of his letters to Locke at the beginning of 1692, when Montagu, Lord Monmouth and Locke were exerting themselves to obtain some appointment for Newton, Newton wrote that he was "fully convinced that Montagu, upon an old grudge which he thought had been worn out, was false to him."

Newton was now 55 years old, and whilst those of his own standing at the university had been appointed to high posts in church or state, he still remained without any mark of national gratitude. Montagu, after being appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1694 finally put this right; he had previously consulted Newton upon the subject of the recoinage, and took the opportunity to appoint Newton to the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696. In a letter to Newton announcing the news, Montagu writes: "I am very glad that at last I can give you a good proof of my friendship, and the esteem the king has of your merits. Mr Overton, the warden of the mint, is made one of the Commissioners of Customs, and the king has promised me to make Mr Newton warden of the mint. The office is the most proper for you. 'Tis the chief office in the mint: 'tis worth five or six hundred pounds per annum, and has not too much business to require more attendance than you can spare."

The letter  must have convinced Newton of the sincerity of Montagu's good intentions towards him; we find them living as friends on the most intimate terms until Halifax's death in 1715.

Achievements and influence
Although the post was intended to be a sinecure, Newton took it seriously. By the time of his appointment the currency had been seriously weakened by an increase in clipping and counterfeiting during the Nine Years' War to the extent that it had been decided to recall and replace all hammered silver coinage in circulation. The exercise came close to disaster due to fraud and mismanagement, but was salvaged by Newton's personal intervention. Newton's chemical and mathematical knowledge proved of great use in carrying out this Great Recoinage of 1696, a process that was completed in about two years. Newton was subsequently given the post of Master of the Mint in 1699, a post worth between £1,200 and £1,500 per annum.

Despite counterfeiting being considered high treason, punishable by hanging, drawing and quartering, convicting even the most flagrant criminals could be extremely difficult. Undaunted, Newton conducted more than 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. He himself gathered much of the evidence he needed to successfully prosecute 28 coiners.

One of Newton's cases as the King's attorney was against William Chaloner. Chaloner's schemes included setting up phony conspiracies of Catholics and then turning in the hapless conspirators whom he had entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning Parliament, Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters (a charge also made by others). He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited, while at the same time striking false coins. Newton put Chaloner on trial for counterfeiting and had him sent to Newgate Prison in September 1697. But Chaloner had friends in high places, who helped him secure an acquittal and his release. Newton put him on trial a second time with conclusive evidence. Chaloner was convicted of high treason and hanged, drawn and quartered on 23 March 1699 at Tyburn gallows. Then, he was publicly disemboweled.

Following the 1707 union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland, Newton used his experience from the English recoinage to direct the 1707-1710 Scottish recoinage, resulting in a common currency for the new Kingdom of Great Britain.

Newton also drew up a very extensive table of assays of foreign coins.

As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by
Royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings. Due to differing valuations in other European countries this inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard, rather than the bimetallic standard implied by the proclamation.

Due to his income from the Mint Newton became very wealthy, although he lost a substantial sum in the collapse of the South Sea Bubble. Newton's niece Catherine Conduitt reported that he "lost twenty thousand pounds. Of this, however, he never much liked to hear…" This was a fortune at the time (equivalent to about £ in present-day terms), but it is not clear whether it was a monetary loss or an opportunity cost loss.

Newton continued in his position at the Royal Mint until his death in 1727.

Fluxions

Up to the time of the publication of the Principia in 1687 the method of fluxions which had been invented by Newton, and had been of great assistance to him in his mathematical investigations, was still, except to Newton and his friends, a secret. One of the most important rules of the method forms the second lemma of the second book of the Principia. Though this new and powerful method was of great help to Newton in his work, he did not exhibit it in the results. He was aware that the well known geometrical methods of the ancients would make his new creations seem less strange and uncouth to those not familiar with the new method. The Principia gives no information on the subject of the notation adopted in the new calculus, and it was not until 1693 that it was communicated to the scientific world in the second volume of John Wallis's works.

Newton's admirers in the Netherlands informed Wallis that Newton's method of fluxions passed there under the name of Gottfried Leibniz's Calculus Differentials. It was therefore thought necessary that an early opportunity should be taken of asserting Newton's claim to be the inventor of the method of fluxions, and this was why this method first appeared in Wallis's works. A further account was given in the first edition of Newton's Optics (1704).

To this work were added two treatises, entitled Accedunt tractatus duo ejusdem authoris de speciebus & magnitudine figurarum curvilinearum, the one bearing the title Introductio ad Quadratura Curvarum, and the other Enumeratio linearum tertii ordinis. The first contains an explanation of the doctrine of fluxions, and of its application to the quadrature of curves; the second, a classification of 72 curves of the third order, with an account of their properties.

The reason for publishing these two tracts in his Optics, from the subsequent editions of which they were omitted, is thus stated in the advertisement: "In a letter written to Leibniz in the year 1679, and published by Dr Wallis, I mentioned a method by which I had found some general theorems about squaring curvilinear figures on comparing them with the conic sections, or other the simplest figures with which they might be compared. And some years ago I lent out a manuscript containing such theorems; and having since met with some things copied out of it, I have on this occasion made it public, prefixing to it an introduction, and joining a Scholium concerning that method. And I have joined with it another small tract concerning the curvilinear figures of the second kind, which was also written many years ago, and made known to some friends, who have solicited the, making it public."

In 1707 William Whiston published the algebra lectures which Newton had delivered at Cambridge, under the title of Arithmetica Universalis, sive de Compositione et Resolutione Arithmetica Liber. We are not accurately informed how Whiston obtained possession of this work, but it is stated by one of the editors of the English edition "that Mr Whiston, thinking it a pity that so noble and useful a work should be doomed to a college confinement, obtained leave to make it public." It was soon afterwards translated into English by Raphson; and a second edition of it, with improvements by the author, was published at London in 1712, by Dr Machin, secretary to the Royal Society. With the view of stimulating mathematicians to write annotations on this admirable work, 's Gravesande published a tract, entitled Specimen Commentarii in Arithmetican Universalem; and Maclaurin's Algebra seems to have been drawn up in consequence of this appeal.

Bernoulli's mathematical challenge
Newton's solution of the celebrated problems proposed by Johann Bernoulli and Leibniz deserves mention among his mathematical works. In June 1696 Bernoulli addressed a letter to the mathematicians of Europe challenging them to solve two problems:
 to determine the brachistochrone curve between two given points not in the same vertical line
 to determine a curve such that, if a straight line drawn through a fixed point A meet it in two points P1, P2, then mAP1 + mAP2  will be constant.
This challenge was first made in the Ada Lipsiensia for June 1696.

Six months were allowed by Bernoulli for the solution of the problem, and in the event of none being sent to him he promised to publish his own. The six months elapsed without any solution being produced; but he received a letter from Leibniz, stating that he had "cut the knot of the most beautiful of these problems", and requesting that the period for their solution should be extended to Christmas next; that the French and Italian mathematicians might have no reason to complain of the shortness of the period. Bernoulli adopted the suggestion, and publicly announced the postponement for the information of those who might not see the Ada Lipsiensia.

On 29 January 1697 Newton returned at 4pm from working at the Royal Mint and found in his post the problems that Bernoulli had sent to him directly; two copies of the printed paper containing the problems.  Newton stayed up to 4am before arriving at the solutions; on the following day he sent a solution of them to Montague, then president of the Royal Society for anonymous publication. He announced that the curve required in the first problem must be a cycloid, and he gave a method of determining it. He also solved the second problem, and in so doing showed that by the same method other curves might be found which cut off three or more segments having similar properties. Solutions were also obtained from Leibniz and the Marquis de l'Hôpital; and, although Newton's solution was anonymous, he was recognized by Bernoulli as its author; "tanquam ex ungue leonem" (we recognize the lion by his claw).

In 1699 Newton's position as a mathematician and natural philosopher was recognized by the French Academy of Sciences. In that year the Academy was remodelled, and eight foreign associates were created. Leibniz, Domenico Guglielmini (1655—1710), Hartsoeker, and  E. W. Tschirnhaus were appointed on 4 February, James Bernoulli and John Bernoulli on 14 February, and Newton and Ole Rømer on 21 February.

End of professorship and presidency of the Royal Society

While Newton held the office of warden of the mint, he retained his chair of mathematics at Cambridge and discharged the duties of the post, but shortly after he was promoted to be master of the mint he appointed Whiston his deputy with "the full profits of the place." Whiston began his astronomical lectures as Newton's deputy in January 1701. On 10 December 1701 Newton resigned his professorship, thereby at the same time resigning his fellowship at Trinity, which he had held with the Lucasian professorship since 1675 by virtue of the royal mandate. Whiston's claims to succeed Newton in the Lucasian chair were successfully supported by Newton himself.

On 11 November 1701 Newton was again elected one of the representatives of the University of parliament, but he retained his seat only until the dissolution in the following July. Newton does not seem to have been a candidate at this election, but at the next dissolution in 1705 he stood for the university. He was warmly supported by the residents, but being a Whig, he was opposed by the non-residents, and beaten by a large majority.

In the autumn of 1703 Lord Somers retired from the presidency of the Royal Society, and on 30 November 1703 Newton was elected to succeed him. Newton was annually re-elected to this honourable post for the remainder of his life. He held the office for 25 years, the longest term of office for any Royal Society president since except Sir Joseph Banks. As president Newton was brought into close association with Prince George of Denmark, the queen's husband, who had been elected a fellow of the Royal Society. The prince had offered, on Newton's recommendation, to cover the expense of printing Flamsteed's Observations—especially his catalogue of the stars. It was natural that the queen should form a high opinion of one whose merits had made such a deep impression on her husband. In April 1705, when the queen, the prince and the court were staying at the royal residence at Newmarket, they paid a visit to Cambridge, where they were guests of Richard Bentley, Master of Trinity College. Her Majesty went in state to the Regent House, where a congregation of the Senate was held, and a number of honorary degrees conferred. Afterwards, the queen held a court at Trinity Lodge, where (16 April 1705) she conferred the order of knighthood upon Sir Isaac Newton.

Second edition of the Principia

As soon as the first edition of the Principia was published Newton began to prepare for a second. He was anxious to improve the work by additions to the theory of the motion of the moon and the planets. Dr Edleston, in his preface to Newton's correspondence with Cotes, justly remarks: "If Flamsteed the Astronomer-Royal had cordially co-operated with him in the humble capacity of an observer in the way that Newton pointed out and requested Of him... the lunar theory would, if its creator did not overrate his own powers, have been completely investigated, so far as he could do it, in the first few months of 1695, and a second edition of the Principia would probably have followed the execution of the task at no long interval."

Newton, however, could not get the information he wanted from Flamsteed, and after the spring of 1696 his time was occupied by his duties at the mint. Rumours, however, of his work, and of a new edition, were heard from time to time. In February 1700 Leibniz writes of Newton, "J'ai appris aussi (je ne sais où) qu'il donnera encore quelque chose sur le mouvement de la Lune: et on m'a dit aussi qu'il y aura une nouvelle édition de ses principes de la nature." (I have learnt - I forget from where - that he will give further details on the movements of the Moon: and I've also been told that there will be a new edition of his Principia).

Dr Bentley, the master of Trinity College, had for a long time urged Newton to give his consent to the republication of the Principia. In 1708 Newton's consent was obtained, but it was not till the spring of 1709 that he was prevailed upon to entrust the superintendence of it to a young mathematician of great promise, Roger Cotes, fellow of Trinity College, who had been recently appointed the first Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy. On 21 May 1709, after speaking to Newton, Bentley announced this arrangement to Cotes: "Sir Isaac Newton," he said, "will be glad to see you in June, and then put into your hands one part of his book corrected for the press." About the middle of July Cotes went to London, no doubt expecting to bring down with him to Cambridge the corrected portion of the Principia. Although Cotes was impatient to begin his work, it was nearly the end of September before the corrected copy was given to him.

During the printing of this edition a correspondence went on continuously between Newton and Cotes. On 31 March 1713, when the edition was nearly ready for publication, Newton wrote to Cotes: "I hear that Mr Bernoulli has sent a paper of 40 pages to be published in the Ada Leipsica relating to what I have written upon the curve lines described by projectiles in resisting media. And therein he partly makes observations upon what I have written & partly improves it. To prevent being blamed by him or others for any disingenuity in not acknowledging my oversights or slips in the first edition, I believe it will not be amiss to print next after the old Praefatio ad Lectorem, the following account of this new Edition.
"In hac secunda Principiorum Editione, multa sparsim emendantur & nonnulla adjiciuntur. In Libri primi Sect. ii Inventio viriuni quibus corpora in Orbibus datis revolvi possint, facilior redditur et amplior. In Libri secundi Sect. vii. Theoria resistentiac fluidorum accuratius investigatur & novis experimentis confirmatur. In Libro tertio Theoria Lunae & Praecessio Aequinoctiorum ex Principiis suis plenius deducuntur, et Theoria Cometarum pluribus et accuratius computatis Orbium exemplis confirmatur.
"28 Mar 1713. I. N.
"If you write any further preface, I must not see it, for I find that I shall be examined about it. The cuts for ye Comet of 1680 & 1681 are printed off and will be sent to Dr Bently this week by the Carrier."

Newton's desire to avoid writing the preface seems to have come from a knowledge that Cotes was considering alluding to the dispute about the invention of fluxions. At last, about midsummer 1713, was published the long and impatiently expected second edition of the Principia, and; on 27 July, Newton waited on Queen Anne, to present her with a copy of the new edition.

The longitude problem

In 1714 the question of finding the longitude at sea, which had been looked upon as an important one for several years, was brought into prominence by a petition presented to the House of Commons by a number of captains of Her Majesty's ships and merchant ships and of London merchants. The petition was referred to a committee of the House, who called witnesses. Newton appeared before them and gave evidence. He stated that for determining the longitude at sea there had been several projects, true in theory but difficult to execute. He mentioned four:

 by a watch to keep time exactly
 by the eclipses of Jupiter's moons
 by the place of the moon
 by a new method proposed by Mr Ditton.

Newton criticized all the methods, pointing out their weak points, and it is due mainly to his evidence that the Committee brought in the report which was accepted by the House, and shortly afterwards was converted into a Bill, passed both Houses, and received the royal assent. The report ran "that it is the opinion of this committee that a reward be settled by Parliament upon such person or persons as shall discover a more certain and practicable method of ascertaining the longitude than any yet in practice; and the said reward be proportioned to the degree of exactness to which the said method shall reach." Newton was in charge of the Board of Longitude, and it never gave a prize, but it did give some advance funds to the mathematician Leonhard Euler and some others for work on accurate lunar tables, and these did more or less solve the longitude problem. Some argue that John Harrison, a developer of clocks, should have received the main prize, but in defense of Newton's decision not to award it, Harrison's work had no effect on maritime navigation. He made a total of four clocks, and at most one of these ever went to sea.

Newton was a very popular visitor at the Court of George I. The Princess of Wales, Caroline of Ansbach, wife of George II, took every opportunity of conversing with him. Having one day been told by Sir Isaac that he had composed a new system of chronology while he was still resident at Cambridge, she requested him to give her a copy. He accordingly drew up an abstract of the system from his papers, and sent it to the Princess for her own private use; but he afterwards allowed a copy to be made for the Abbé Conti on the express understanding that it should not be communicated to any other person. The abbé, however, lent his copy to M Fréret, an antiquary at Paris, who translated it, and endeavoured to refute it. The translation was printed under the title Abrege de chronologie de M le Chevallier Newton, fait par lui-même et traduit sur le manuscrit anglais.

Upon receiving a copy of this work, Newton printed, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1725, a paper entitled "Remarks on the observations made on a Chronological Index of Sir Isaac Newton, translated into French by the observator, and published at Paris." Newton charged the Abbé with a breach of promise, and answered the objections which Fréret had urged against his system. Father Étienne Souciet entered the field in defence of Fréret; and in consequence of this controversy Newton was induced to prepare his larger work, which was published in 1728, after his death, and entitled The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended.

Theological studies

From an early period in life Newton paid great attention to theological studies, beginning his studies before 1690. That Newton was even then a powerful thinker was proved by his ability to attack the most difficult mathematical problems with success. For example, in 1716 Leibniz, in a letter to the Abbe Conti, proposed a problem for solution "for the purpose of feeling the pulse of the English analysts". The problem was to find the orthogonal trajectories of a series of curves represented by a single equation. Newton received the problem at about 17:00 as he was returning from the mint, and though he was fatigued from work, he solved it later the same evening.

One of the most remarkable of Newton's theological works is his Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of the Scriptures, included in a letter to John Locke in November 1690. Sir Isaac was anxious for its publication but because his argument deprived the Trinitarians of two passages in favour of the Trinity, he became alarmed at the possible consequences. He therefore asked Locke, who was on the way to the continent, to have it translated into French and have it published there. Locke copied the manuscript and sent it to Jean Leclerc on 11 April 1691. On 20 January 1692 Leclerc announced his intention of publishing it in Latin. Upon hearing this Newton responded "to stop the translation and publication as soon as he could.. to suppress it". This was done, but Leclerc sent the manuscript to the library of the Remonstrants, and it was later published in London in 1754 under the title Two Letters from Isaac Newton to M le Clerc. This edition had many errors. Dr Horsley therefore published a genuine one, which is in the form of a single letter to a friend, and was taken from a manuscript in Sir Isaac's own hand.

Sir Isaac Newton also wrote Observation on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John which was published in London in 1733. Another work Lexicon Propheticum published in 1737 was a dissertation on the sacred cubit of the Jews. He wrote four letters to Bentley containing arguments for existence of a deity which were published by Cumberland, a nephew of Bentley, in 1756. Newton also wrote a Church History and a History of Creation, Paradoxical Questions regarding Athanasius.

Alchemy

Newton devoted much of his time to the study of chemistry.  A great number of his experiments still remain in manuscript. His Tabula Quantilatum et Graduum Caloris contains a comparative scale of temperature from that of melting ice to that of a small kitchen fire. He wrote another chemical paper De Natura Acidorum. Sir Isaac spent much time in the study of the alchemists including Jacob Boehme. In an earlier part of his life, Newton and a relation Dr Newton of Grantham had put up furnaces and had wrought for several months in quest of the philosophers tincture. Sir Isaac also studied the manuscripts of Flamsteed's Explication of Hieroglyphic Figures and William Yworth's Processus Mysterii Magnii Magni Philosophicus. Scientists have discovered that before Isaac died he burned important papers in his fireplace and they think it might have been an important discovery he made while doing alchemy.

Final years

In the last few years of Newton's life he was troubled by urinary incontinence and urinary tract calculi. In January 1725 he was seized with violent cough and inflammation of the lungs which induced him to move to Kensington. In the next month he had a case of gout and then had an improvement of health. His duties from the mint were terminated and thus he seldom left home. On 28 February 1727 he went to London to preside at a meeting of the Royal Society but his health condition forced him to return to Kensington on 4 March when it was determined he had a gallstone. He endured great suffering. On 18 March he became delirious around 6 pm and stayed in that state until Monday 20 March 1727 when he died between one and two in the morning. His body was taken to London and on Tuesday, 28 March it lay in state in the Jerusalem Chamber in Westminster Abbey, and then was moved to his burial location in the Abbey. (Note: the date of Newton's death is 20 March 1726/27 in the "Old Style" Julian calendar and 31 March 1727 in the "New Style" Gregorian calendar). Voltaire was present at his funeral and praised the British for honoring a scientist of heretical religious beliefs with burial there.

His considerable liquid estate was divided equally between his eight half-nieces and half-nephews — three Pilkingtons, three Smiths and two Bartons (including Catherine Barton Conduitt). Woolsthorpe Manor passed to his heir-in-law, a John Newton ("God knows a poor representative of so great a man"), who, after six years of "cock[fight]ing, horse racing, drinking and folly" was forced to mortgage and then sell the manor before dying in a drunken accident.

Towards the end of his life, Newton took up residence at Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his niece and her husband until his death in 1727. He died in his sleep.

References

Sources

External links
 Newton's Lunar Theory. Review by Michael Nauenberg of Isaac Newton, Theory of the Moon's Motion (1702), with a and historical introduction by I. Bernard Cohen (Dawson, 1975); and criticism of Nicholas Kollerstrom, Newton's Forgotten Lunar Theory : His Contribution to the Quest for Longitude (Green Lion Press, Santa Fe, 2000)
 Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) - Trinity College Dublin: The Life and Works of Isaac Newton

Later life
Newton, Isaac

Later life of Isaac Newton


رجاء محمد (4 أكتوبر 1962 -)، مغنية وممثلة كويتية من أصل سوري. وهي من مؤسسي مسرح الطفل في الوطن العربي و تلألأ اسمها في المجال الفني خلال فترة ثمانينات من القرن العشرين، إلى أن ابتعدت عن العمل الفني بعام 1983 بعد أن شاركت الفنان محمد المنصور في «أوبريت سندريلا».

عن حياتها
ولدت في الكويت لأب سوري وأم كويتية، هي شقيقة الممثلة «عواطف محمد» وإحدى قريباتها المطربة المعتزلة «العنود»، بدأت عملها الفني وهي في سن السادسة عشر من عمرها من خلال مسرحية «السندباد البحري» الذي قدمت عام 1978 مع الفنان عبد الرحمن العقل واستقلال أحمد، وبعدها استمرت في التمثيل في أدوار صغيرة في بعض الأعمال الفنية توالت أعمالها الغنائية والتمثيلية بعد ذلك. كما قدمت أغاني منفردة من خلال المسلسل التربوي افتح يا سمسم، وكانت تعتبر في تلك الفترة من أبرز الفنانات الشابات بالخليج، وفي عام 1983 قدمت آخر عملين لها كممثلة وهما «خالتي قماشة»، «أوبريت سندريلا» إختفت بعد ذلك عن الساحة الفنية نهائياً باستثناء لقاء سريع مع جريدة الأنباء الكويتية عام 1989.

زواجها وأعتزالها
تزوجت من «زهير العنجري»، بعد فترة من زواجها أعلنت أعتزال المجال الفني والتفرغ لحياتها الأسرية، فور انتهائها من عمل «أوبريت سندريلا» بعام 1983. وكما أنها تفرغت لتربية أبناءها وارتدت الحجاب.

أعمالها التمثيلية

من المسلسلات

في المسرح

البرامج
 البرنامج التوعوي سلامتك.

الغناء
صقلت موهبتها الغنائية أثناء دراستها في «المعهد العالي للفنون الموسيقية»، واشتهرت بأغانيها الموجهة للطفل وغنت في الجزء الأول من برنامج التوعوي سلامتك ما يزيد عن 50 أغنية ولها أغاني عديدة أغلبها للأطفال

الأغاني الذي قامت بغنائها

الأوبريتات
 1979: قناديل الأمل.
 1983: سندريلا.

الجوائز
 2012:  - تكريم من «عواطف البدر» في مسرح الكويت الشبابي.

المراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
كويتيون من أصل سوري
مغنيات سوريات في القرن 20
مغنيات كويتيات
ممثلات تلفزيون كويتيات
ممثلات سوريات في القرن 20
ممثلات سوريات معتزلات
ممثلات كويتيات في القرن 20
ممثلات كويتيات معتزلات
مواليد 1382 هـ
مواليد 1962
كويتيون متجنسون

رجاء محمد


Ivar Bremer Hauge er en norsk violinist, født i Larvik. Ivar Bremer Hauge er uddannet fra Hochschule für Musik Detmold i Tyskland under violinist Tibor Varga og fra Indiana University School of Music, USA, hvor han studerede i seks år ved violinist Josef Gingold. Ivar Bremer Hauge har som solist spillet over store dele af verden og har desuden siddet som 1. koncertmester i Helsingborg Symfoniorkester og siden 1982 som 3. koncertmester i Radiounderholdningsorkestret i Danmarks Radio, nu Danmarks Underholdningsorkester under chefdirigent Ádám Fischer.

Ivar Bremer Hauge var i mange år en del af Bellmania-kvartetten og fra 2019 den ene halvdel af Duo Cremona sammen med guitarist Jan Sommer. Ivar Bremer Hauge har siden 1980'erne undervist på Vesterlund Musikkursus, og dirigerer desuden en række orkestre i København og Nordsjælland.

Violinister fra Norge

Ivar Bremer Hauge


La ley cuadrático-cúbica es un principio matemático-geométrico, aplicado en varios campos científicos y técnicos, que describe la relación entre volumen y área de un cuerpo a medida que aumenta o disminuye su forma o figura. Fue descrita por primera vez en 1638 por Galileo Galilei en su libro Dos nuevas ciencias: Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze.

En términos generales este principio establece que, cuando una forma crece en tamaño, su volumen crece más rápido que su superficie. Cuando se aplica al mundo real, este principio tiene muchas implicaciones que son importantes en campos que van desde la ingeniería mecánica a la biomecánica. Esto ayuda a explicar gran variedad de fenómenos, por ejemplo por qué a grandes mamíferos como los elefantes les cuesta más enfriarse, que a los más pequeños, como los ratones, y por qué hay límites fundamentales para el tamaño de los castillos de arena .

Descripción
La ley del cuadrado-cubo puede enunciarse como sigue:

Representa matemáticamente:

donde  es el volumen original,  es el nuevo volumen,  es la longitud original y  es la nueva longitud.

donde  es el área original y  es la nueva área.

Por ejemplo, un bloque simétrico y homogéneo con una arista (longitud lateral) de 1 metro, tiene una superficie de 6 m 2 y un volumen de 1 m 3 . Si las dimensiones del objeto se duplican (multiplicador = 2) su nuevo volumen será 8 m³, mientras que su nueva superficie será 24 m². Como se puede observar la relación entre volumen y área cambia de forma significativa al modificar la escala.
Este principio se aplica a todos los sólidos.

Ingeniería
Cuando a un objeto físico, manteniendo la misma densidad, se le agranda, su masa se incrementa por el cubo del multiplicador, mientras que su superficie sólo aumenta por el cuadrado de dicho multiplicador. Esto significa que cuando el objeto final se acelera al mismo ritmo que el original, más presión se ejerce sobre la superficie del mismo. Veamos un ejemplo simple de un cuerpo de masa M, con una aceleración a, y una superficie A, sobre la que actúa la fuerza de aceleración. La fuerza debida a la aceleración, ; y la presión de empuje:

Ahora, vamos a considerar el objeto aumentado por un factor multiplicador = x por tanto la nueva masa sería, , y la nueva superficie sobre la que la fuerza está actuando, . La nueva fuerza debida a la aceleración  y la presión de empuje resultante,

Por lo tanto, el aumento del tamaño de un objeto, manteniendo el mismo material de construcción (densidad), y la misma aceleración, podría aumentar el empuje por el mismo factor de escala. Esto indicaría por qué el objeto tendría menos capacidad para resistir el estrés y sería más propenso al colapso mientras se acelera.

Por esta razón vehículos de gran tamaño dan bajo rendimiento en las pruebas de choque y por qué hay límites en cuanto a la altura de los edificios. Del mismo modo, cuanto mayor es un objeto, otros objetos pequeños resisten menos su movimiento, evitando que desacelere.

Ejemplos en ingeniería
En el Airbus A380 las alas y superficies de control (timones y elevadores) son relativamente grandes en comparación con el fuselaje del avión. En un Boeing 737 estas relaciones parecen ser mucho más "proporcionadas", pero si el diseño del A380 hubiera sido un mero aumento de las dimensiones del diseño del 737, resultarían alas demasiado pequeñas para el peso de la aeronave.

Un clipper necesita relativamente más superficie de vela que un sloop para alcanzar la misma velocidad, es decir, hay mayor relación entre la superficie de las velas que entre la relación de pesos.

Biomecánica
Si un animal se ampliara en una cantidad considerable, su fuerza muscular relativa sería muy reducida, ya que la sección transversal de sus músculos se incrementaría solo por el cuadrado del factor de escala, mientras que su masa se incrementaría por el cubo del factor de escala. Como resultado, las funciones cardiovasculares y respiratorias, se verían gravemente comprometidas.

En el caso de animales voladores, la carga alar sería mayor si estos se ampliaran, y por lo tanto tendrían que volar más rápido para obtener la misma cantidad de sustentación . La resistencia del aire por unidad de masa es también más alta para los animales más pequeños, por lo que un animal pequeño como una hormiga no puede ser aplastado por la caída desde una altura considerable.

Como aclaró el biólogo JBS Haldane, los animales grandes no se asemejan a los animales pequeños: un elefante no puede ser confundido con un ratón de tamaño ampliado. Los huesos de un elefante son necesariamente proporcionalmente mucho más grandes que los huesos de un ratón, ya que deben llevar el peso proporcionalmente mayor. Para citar el ensayo seminal de Haldane Ser del tamaño correcto , "... considerar un hombre de 60 pies de altura ... los gigantes Pope y Pagan que aparecen en El Progreso del Peregrino .... Estos monstruos ... pesan 1.000 veces más que Cristian. Cada pulgada cuadrada de un hueso de gigante debe soportar 10 veces el peso que soporta por una pulgada cuadrada un hueso humano. Como el fémur humano se rompe con cerca de 10 veces el peso humano, Pope y Pagan romperían sus fémures cada vez que dieran un paso."

Los animales gigantes que se ve en las películas de terror (por ejemplo, Godzilla o King Kong) también son poco realistas, ya que su tamaño les obligaría a colapsar, necesitarían unas bases muy desproporcionales e ilógicamente fuertes para poder soportar el aumento de peso. Por eso, no es ninguna coincidencia que los animales más grandes que existen hoy en día sean gigantes animales acuáticos, ya que la flotabilidad del agua contrarresta, en cierta medida los efectos de la gravedad. Por lo tanto, las criaturas del mar pueden crecer a tamaños muy grandes sin las mismas estructuras músculo-esqueléticas que se requeriría en las criaturas terrestres de tamaño similar. Estos son ejemplos de la Relación Superficie-Volumen.

Temas relacionados
 Biomecánica
 Alometría

Referencias

Geometría
Biomecánica

Ley cuadrático-cúbica


El género Acanthobrama pertenece a la familia Cyprinidae de peces de agua dulce incluida en el orden Cypriniformes.

Especies
 Acanthobrama centisquama Heckel, 1843
 Acanthobrama hadiyahensis Coad, Alkahem & Behnke, 1983
 †Acanthobrama hulensis (Goren, Fishelson & Trewavas, 1973)
 Acanthobrama lissneri Tortonese, 1952
 Acanthobrama marmid Heckel, 1843
 Acanthobrama microlepis (De Filippi, 1863)
 Acanthobrama mirabilis Ladiges, 1960
 Acanthobrama orontis (Berg, 1949)
 Acanthobrama persidis (Coad, 1981)
 Acanthobrama telavivensis Goren, Fishelson & Trewavas, 1973
 Acanthobrama terraesanctae Steinitz, 1952
 Acanthobrama thisbeae Freyhof & Özulug, 2014
 Acanthobrama tricolor (Lortet, 1883)
 Acanthobrama urmianus <small>(Günther, 1899)

Distribución Geográfica

Las diferentes especies se distribuyen en Eurasia

Reproducción

Son ovíparos

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Acanthobrama


Morrell station or Morrell Avenue station is a DART Light Rail station located in Dallas, Texas. It is located at Morrell and Woodbine Avenues in the Oak Cliff neighborhood. It opened on June 14, 1996, and serves the , serving nearby residences, businesses, and the nearby Dallas Zoo. This is the first station outbound after the Blue Line diverges from the Red Line.

References

External links
 DART - Morrell Station

Dallas Area Rapid Transit light rail stations in Dallas
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1996
1996 establishments in Texas
Railway stations in Dallas County, Texas

Morrell station


Ceriops, biljni rod iz porodice korenjaševki (Rhizophoraceae). Postoji nekoliko vrsta, manjeg do srednje velikog drveća ili grmova koja rastu na blatnjavim morskim obalama, estuarijima i ušćima istoćne Afrike i zapadnog Pacifika.

Listovi su vazdazeleni i nasuprotni.

Vrste
 Ceriops australis (C.T.White) Ballment, T.J.Sm. & J.A.Stoddart
 Ceriops decandra (Griff.) W.Theob.
 Ceriops pseudodecandra Sheue, H.G.Liu, C.C.Tsai & Yuen P.Yang
 Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob.
 Ceriops zippeliana Blume

Izvori

Korenjaševke

Ceriops


Jochen Bittner (* 1973 in Frankenberg (Eder)) ist ein deutscher Journalist, Publizist und Jurist. Er leitet seit 2019 das Ressort Streit der Wochenzeitung Die Zeit. Zuvor waren seine Schwerpunktthemen Europa- und Sicherheitspolitik, Terrorismus, Nachrichtendienste und Rechtspolitik.

Leben und Wirken
Bittner studierte Jura und Philosophie an der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel. 1998 legte er das erste juristische Staatsexamen ab. 1999/2000 war er wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter am Kieler Lehrstuhl für Öffentliches Recht und Rechtsphilosophie (Professur Robert Alexy). Nach einem Forschungsaufenthalt in der nordirischen Hauptstadt Belfast wurde er mit einer Dissertation über das Rechtssystem der Irish Republican Army (IRA) zum Dr. iur. promoviert.

Er schrieb für die Kieler Nachrichten, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung und Die Welt. 2001 wurde er Redakteur im Politikressort der Wochenzeitung Die Zeit. Von 2007 bis 2011 war er ihr Europa- und NATO-Korrespondent in Brüssel und prägte in dieser Zeit den Begriff Verbrüsselung. Seit Herbst 2013 schreibt er auch als Gastautor für The International New York Times.

Bittner war 2008 und 2009 Teilnehmer und Berichterstatter des Brussels Forum, eines Partners des German Marshall Fund of the US und der Bertelsmann-Stiftung. Er war Gast und Moderator bei Veranstaltungen der Körber-Stiftung und Referent der Europa-Union.

Publikationen
In seinem 2010 erschienenen Buch So nicht, Europa! stellt Bittner aus seiner Sicht die drei großen Fehler der EU dar. Wirklich wichtige Anliegen würden zugunsten von Detailfragen vernachlässigt, die notwendige Konsequenz bei der Umsetzung prinzipieller Aufgaben fehle und die Exekutive habe ein zu starkes Gewicht gegenüber der demokratischen Basis:

Kontroversen um Die Anstalt
Bittners Vernetzung mit Denkfabriken und Politikern wurde am 29. April 2014 von der Kabarettsendung Die Anstalt satirisch dargestellt. Dabei wurde auf ein Kooperationsprojekt der Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik und des German Marshall Fund Bezug genommen, das von November 2012 bis September 2013 unter Förderung durch den Planungsstab des Auswärtigen Amts "Elemente einer außenpolitischen Strategie für Deutschland" erarbeitete. Bittner war an den Inhalten des Projektpapiers Neue Macht. Neue Verantwortung beteiligt. Eine diesbezügliche Offenlegung unter seinem Zeit-Artikel sei zunächst unterblieben. Dies gelte auch für Beiträge von Zeit-Mitherausgeber Josef Joffe. Der Hinweis auf die Mitwirkung Bittners am Projekt erfolgte nach einer Woche unter dem Artikel Bittners in der Zeit. Nach eigener Aussage hat Bittner im Jahr 2013 tatsächlich an einer 50-köpfigen "Diskussionsgruppe" teilgenommen, die ein Thesenpapier zur künftigen deutschen Sicherheitsstrategie erarbeiten sollte. "Die Teilnahme an Konferenzen von Organisationen aller Art und Richtung gehört meiner Ansicht nach zum Alltag von Journalisten", erklärte Bittner.

Gegen die Aussage, er sei Mitglied des German Marshall Fund (GMF) der Vereinigten Staaten und habe außerdem an einer Rede des Bundespräsidenten Gauck zur Münchner Sicherheitskonferenz mitgeschrieben, wehrte sich Bittner in einer Beschwerde. Bittner und Josef Joffe erwirkten eine einstweilige Verfügung gegen das ZDF durch die Pressekammer des Landgerichts Hamburg. Max Uthoff sagte dazu in einem Interview: "Gemeinsam werfen sie (Bittner und Josef Joffe) uns vor, wir hätten Tatsachen falsch dargestellt über ihre Verbindungen in transatlantischen Lobbyverbänden." Die Vorwürfe seien nicht falsch, so Uthoff weiter, sondern bestenfalls ungenau. So wehre sich Bittner gegen die Bezeichnung, "Mitglied" der transatlantischen Denkfabrik zu sein. Tatsächlich gebe es beim GMF keine Mitglieder, sondern ausschließlich "participants" – Teilnehmer –, zu denen er nachweislich gehöre. Dieser Darstellung widersprach Bittner. Er relativierte die Bedeutung der Teilnahme: Er sei lediglich Teilnehmer von Konferenzen gewesen, die durch den GMF organisiert wurden.

Am 7. Oktober 2014 berichtete Meedia, dass das Landgericht Hamburg die einstweilige Verfügung teilweise wieder aufgehoben habe. Die Äußerung, Bittner habe im Zusammenhang mit der Rede des Bundespräsidenten Gauck vor der Münchner Sicherheitskonferenz für den Bundespräsidenten geschrieben, wurde wieder erlaubt. Die Aussage, Bittner sei Mitglied, Beirat oder Vorstand der drei Organisationen, mit denen er in Die Anstalt in Verbindung gebracht wurde, blieb verboten. Mit seinem Urteil vom 9. September 2015 untersagte das Oberlandesgericht in Hamburg, Jochen Bittner und Josef Joffe als Mitglied, Beirat oder Vorstand der in der Sendung erwähnten transatlantischen Organisationen zu bezeichnen, und beurteilte die Darstellung der beiden Journalisten als Verletzung ihrer Persönlichkeitsrechte. Zeitweilig durfte die Sendung daraufhin nicht weiter verbreitet werden und die Satiriker ihre Behauptungen nicht wiederholen. Am 10. Januar 2017 verwarf der Bundesgerichtshof dieses Urteil und folgte der Auffassung der ersten Instanz, dass die satirische Darstellung eines Sachverhalts auch Ungenauigkeiten enthalten dürfe. Die Neue Juristische Wochenschrift verwies in dem Zusammenhang auf das Urteil in der Böhmermann-Affäre, wo der Satire zumindest strafrechtlich selbst aus der Luft gegriffene Vorwürfe bis hin zur Unterstellung von Zoophilie erlaubt wurden.

Preise und Auszeichnungen
 1993: "Jugend schreibt"-Preis der FAZ
 2005: Journalistenpreis der Pons-Redaktion für kreative Wortschöpfungen

Veröffentlichungen
 mit Christian Ludwig Knoll: Ein unperfekter Frieden. Die IRA auf dem Weg vom Mythos zur Mafia. R. G. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2000, ISBN 3-89501-996-8. (2. überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage 2001)
 Rough Justice. Die Justiz der IRA. Eine Untersuchung und Dokumentation zum Begriff des Rechtssystems (= Europäische Hochschulschriften. Reihe 2. Rechtswissenschaft. Bd. 3530). Lang, Frankfurt am Main u. a. 2002, ISBN 3-631-39968-5.
 Beruf Terrorist. Ein Tagebuch der neuen Weltunordnung. Nordthor-Verlag, Sieverstedt 2006, ISBN 3-00-019490-8.
 So nicht, Europa!. Die drei großen Fehler der EU (= dtv. 24833. Premium). Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, München 2010, ISBN 978-3-423-24833-4. (aktualisierte und erweiterte Neuausgabe 2011)
 Zur Sache, Deutschland! : was die zerstrittene Republik wieder eint. Hamburg : Edition Körber, 2019

Weblinks

 Artikel von Jochen Bittner für DZ
 Rethinking German Pacifism – Meinungsbeitrag in der NYT, 4. November 2013

Einzelnachweise

Journalist (Deutschland)
Zeitungsjournalist
Publizist
Auslandskorrespondent
Veranstaltungsmoderator
Jurist
Sachbuchautor (Rechtswissenschaften)
Literatur (Deutsch)
Literatur (21. Jahrhundert)
Politische Literatur
Person (Die Zeit)
Person (Die Welt)
Person (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung)
Deutscher
Geboren 1973
Mann

Jochen Bittner


Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar (en punyabí: ਮੋਹਾਲੀ ਜ਼ਿਲਾ) es un distrito de la India en el estado de Punyab. Código ISO: IN.PB.SA.

Comprende una superficie de 1093 km².

El centro administrativo es la ciudad de Mohali.

Demografía
Según censo 2011 contaba con una población total de 986 147 habitantes, de los cuales 461 158 eran mujeres y 524 989 varones.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial.

Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar

Distrito de Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar


La Grande déception ou le Grand désappointement du mouvement millérite a été la réaction qui a suivi les proclamations du prédicateur baptiste William Miller selon lesquelles Jésus-Christ reviendrait sur Terre en 1844, ce qu'il a appelé « l'Advent » (l'avènement). Son étude de la prophétie de  pendant le Second Grand Réveil l'a conduit à la conclusion que la « purification du sanctuaire » de Daniel serait la purification du monde du péché lorsque le Christ viendrait, et lui et beaucoup d'autres s'étaient préparés. Mais le  étant arrivé ils furent déçus.

Ces événements ont ouvert la voie aux adventistes qui ont formé l'Église adventiste du septième jour. Ils ont soutenu que ce qui s'était passé le  n'était pas le retour de Jésus, comme Miller l'avait pensé, mais le début de l'œuvre finale d'expiation de Jésus, la purification dans le sanctuaire céleste, menant à la Seconde Venue.

Les affirmations apocalyptiques de Miller
Entre 1831 et 1844, sur la base de son étude de la Bible, et en particulier de la prophétie de « Daniel 8:14 » - « Jusqu'à deux mille trois cents jours, alors le sanctuaire sera purifié » - William Miller, un fermier rural de New York et prédicateur laïc baptiste, a prédit et prêché le retour de Jésus-Christ sur la terre. Les enseignements de Miller forment le fondement théologique de l'adventisme du septième jour. Quatre thèmes étaient particulièrement importants : 1. l'utilisation de la Bible par Miller ; 2. son eschatologie ; 3. sa perspective sur les messages du premier et du deuxième ange d'Apocalypse 14 ; et 4. le mouvement du septième mois qui s'est terminé par la « grande déception ».

Utilisation de la Bible par Miller
L'approche de Miller était approfondie et méthodique, intensive et extensive. Au centre de ses principes généraux, l'interprétation biblique était que « toute Écriture est nécessaire » et qu'aucune partie ne doit être contournée. Pour comprendre une doctrine, Miller a dit qu'il fallait « rassembler toutes les Écritures sur le sujet que vous souhaitez connaître; puis laissez chaque mot avoir sa propre influence, et si vous pouvez former votre théorie sans contradiction, vous ne pouvez pas vous tromper ». Il soutenait que la Bible devait être son propre interprète. En comparant les Écritures avec les Écritures, une personne pourrait découvrir le sens de la Bible. De cette façon, la Bible a acquis l'autorité d'une personne, alors que si une croyance d'autres individus ou leurs écrits servaient de base à l'autorité, alors cette autorité externe serait devenue centrale plutôt que l'enseignement de la Bible elle-même. Les directives de Miller concernant l'interprétation des prophéties bibliques étaient fondées sur les mêmes concepts énoncés dans ses règles générales. La Bible, en ce qui concerne Miller et ses disciples, était l'autorité suprême dans toutes les questions de foi et de doctrine.

Second avènement de Christ
Le mouvement millérite était principalement concerné par le retour de Jésus, littéralement, visuellement, dans les nuées du ciel. La Révolution française avait été l'un des nombreux facteurs qui poussèrent de nombreux étudiants de la Bible du monde entier qui partageaient les préoccupations de Miller à se plonger dans les prophéties temporelles de Daniel en utilisant la méthodologie d'interprétation historiciste. Ils en ont conclu, à leur satisfaction, que la fin de la prophétie des  de Daniel 7:25 était en 1798 et qu'a commencé l'ère du « temps de la fin ». Ils ont ensuite considéré les  de Daniel 8:14.

Il y eut trois choses que Miller détermina à propos de ce texte :

 Que les  symboliques représentaient  réelles en prenant comme preuve  et .
 Que le sanctuaire représente la terre ou l'église. Et,
 en se référant à , que les  se sont terminés avec l'embrasement de la terre lors du Second Avènement.

Miller a lié la vision des  à la prophétie des soixante-dix semaines dans  où une date de début est donnée. Il a conclu que les  (ou 70-7 ou -années) étaient les  années des . Les  devaient commencer avec l'ordre de reconstruire et de restaurer Jérusalem. La Bible rapporte quatre décrets concernant Jérusalem après la captivité babylonienne :

 536 avant J.-C. : Décret de Cyrus de reconstruire le temple.
 519 avant J.-C. : Décret de  pour terminer le temple.
 457 avant J.-C. : Décret d' de Perse.
 444 av. J.-C. : Décret d'Artaxerxès à Néhémie pour terminer la muraille à Jérusalem.

Le décret d'Artaxerxès a habilité Esdras à ordonner des lois, à mettre en place des magistrats et des juges ; c'est-à-dire à la restauration de l'État juif. Et il lui donna des fonds illimités pour reconstruire tout ce qu'il voulait à Jérusalem.

Miller a conclu que 457 avant JC était le début de la prophétie des -ans, ce qui signifiait qu'elle se terminerait vers 1843–1844 (-457 avant JC +  = 1843 après JC). Et ainsi, aussi, le Second Avènement se produirait à peu près à cette époque.

Bien que le mot « nettoyé » (KJV) soit une mauvaise traduction du mot hébreu nitsdaq (justifier ou défendre), il a supposé que la « purification du sanctuaire » représentait la purification de la terre par le feu lors de la seconde venue du Christ. En utilisant un principe d'interprétation connu sous le nom de principe jour-année, Miller, avec d'autres, a interprété un « jour » prophétique pour le lire non pas comme une période de , mais plutôt comme une année. Miller est devenu convaincu que la période de  avait commencé en 457 avant JC. avec le décret de reconstruire Jérusalem par  de Perse. Son interprétation a conduit Miller à croire  et à prédire, malgré les pressions de ses partisans  que le Christ reviendrait « vers 1843 ». Miller a délimité la période de temps à un moment de l'année juive 5604, déclarant : « Mes principes en bref, sont que Jésus-Christ reviendra sur cette terre, la purifiera, la purifiera et en prendra possession, avec tous les saints, à un moment donné entre le  et le  ». Le  s'est déroulé sans incident particulier, mais la majorité des millérites maintinrent leur foi.

Après de plus amples discussions et études, Miller adopta rapidement une nouvelle date - le  - basée sur le calendrier juif karaïte (par opposition au calendrier rabbinique). Comme la date antérieure, le  se déroula sans le retour du Christ, et dans lAdvent Herald du , Joshua Vaughan Himes écrivit que tout le « moment attendu et annoncé » était passé et il admit qu'ils s'étaient « trompés sur l'heure précise de la fin de la période prophétique ». Josiah Litch conjecta que les adventistes n'étaient probablement « que dans l'erreur par rapport à l'événement qui a marqué sa fin ». Miller publia une lettre "Au croyants de la Seconde Venue" ("To Second Advent Believers"), écrivant : « Je confesse mon erreur et reconnais ma déception; pourtant je crois toujours que le jour du Seigneur est proche, même à la porte. »

En août 1844, lors d'un rassemblement en campement (« camp meeting ») à Exeter, New Hampshire, Samuel S. Snow présenta une nouvelle interprétation, connue sous le nom de « message du septième mois » ou « vrai cri de minuit ». Dans une discussion complexe basée sur la typologie scripturaire, Snow a présenté sa conclusion (toujours basée sur la prophétie des  de ) selon laquelle le Christ reviendrait « le dixième jour du septième mois de l'année en cours, 1844 ». En utilisant le calendrier des Juifs karaïtes, il a déterminé que cette date était le . Ce « message du septième mois » « s'est répandu avec une rapidité sans précédent dans l'expérience des millérites » parmi la population générale.

22 octobre 1844
Le  se passa sans incident, entraînant des sentiments de déception parmi de nombreux millérites. Henry Emmons, un millérite, écrivit plus tard,

Répercussions

Les millérites ont dû faire face à leurs propres attentes brisées, ainsi qu'à des critiques considérables et même à la violence du public. De nombreux disciples avaient renoncé à leurs biens dans l'attente du retour du Christ. Le , Miller écrivit à Himes à propos de ses expériences :Certains demandent d'un air moqueur : « N'êtes-vous pas monté ? Même les petits enfants dans les rues crient continuellement aux passants : « Avez-vous un ticket pour monter ? Les impressions publiques, du genre le plus à la mode et populaire (...) caricaturent de la manière la plus honteuse les " robes blanches des saints ", Apocalypse 6:11, la " montée " et le grand jour de " l'embrasement ". Même les chaires sont profanées par la répétition de rapports scandaleux et faux concernant les « robes d'ascension », et les prêtres utilisent leurs pouvoirs et leurs plumes pour remplir le catalogue des moqueries dans les périodiques les plus scandaleux de l'époque.Il y a eu aussi des cas de violence : une église millérite a été incendiée à Ithaca, New York, et deux ont été vandalisées à Dansville et Scottsville. À Loraine, dans l'Illinois, une foule a attaqué la congrégation millérite avec des gourdins et des couteaux, tandis qu'un groupe à Toronto a été goudronné et emplumé. Des coups de feu ont été tirés lors d'une autre réunion d'un groupe canadien dans une maison privée.

Les dirigeants et les partisans millérites ont été laissés généralement perplexes et désabusés. Les réponses variaient : certains continuaient à attendre quotidiennement le retour du Christ, tandis que d'autres prédisaient des dates différentes, dont avril, juillet et octobre 1845. Certains ont émis l'hypothèse que le monde était entré dans le septième millénaire - le "Grand Sabbat", et que par conséquent, les sauvés ne devraient pas travailler. D'autres se comportèrent comme des enfants, fondant leur croyance sur les paroles de Jésus dans Marc 10:15 : « En vérité, je vous le dis, quiconque ne reçoit pas le royaume de Dieu comme un enfant n'y entrera pas » Le millérite O. J. D. Pickands a utilisé Apocalypse 14:14-16 pour enseigner que le Christ était maintenant assis sur un nuage blanc et qu'il devait prier. Il a été spéculé que la majorité a simplement renoncé à ses croyances et tenté de reconstruire sa vie. Certains membres ont rejoint leurs dénominations précédentes. Un nombre substantiel a rejoint les Shakers.

Au milieu de l'année 1845, les lignes doctrinales parmi les divers groupes millérites ont commencé à se solidifier, et les groupes ont souligné leurs différences, dans un processus que George R. Knight appelle le "sect building" (« construction de secte »). À cette époque, il y avait trois principaux groupes millérites, en plus de ceux qui avaient simplement renoncé à leurs croyances.

La première grande division des groupes millérites qui ont conservé une croyance dans le second avènement du Christ était ceux qui se concentraient sur la croyance de la « porte fermée ». Popularisée par Joseph Turner, cette croyance était basée sur un passage millérite clé : Matthieu 25:1-13 – la parabole des dix vierges. La porte fermée mentionnée dans Matthieu 25:11-12 a été interprétée comme la fin du temps d'épreuve. Comme l'explique Knight, « Après la fermeture de la porte, il n'y aurait pas de salut supplémentaire. Les vierges sages (vrais croyants) seraient dans le royaume, tandis que les vierges folles et toutes les autres seraient à l'extérieur. »

L'acceptation généralisée de la croyance de la porte fermée a perdu du terrain alors que des doutes ont été soulevés quant à la signification de la date du  - si rien ne se passait à cette date, alors il ne pouvait y avoir de porte fermée. L'opposition à ces croyances de la porte fermée a été menée par Himes et constitue le deuxième groupe après 1844. Cette faction a rapidement pris le dessus, convertissant même Miller à leur point de vue. Leur influence a été renforcée par la mise en scène de la Conférence d'Albany. L'Église Chrétienne Adventiste a ses racines dans ce groupe post-Grande Déception.

Le troisième grand groupe millérite après la déception a également affirmé, comme le groupe dirigé par Hale et Turner, que la date du  était correcte. Plutôt que le Christ était revenu invisiblement, cependant, ils ont conclu que l'événement qui a eu lieu le  était tout à fait différent. La théologie de ce troisième groupe semble avoir commencé dès le , le lendemain de la Grande Déception. Ce jour-là, lors d'une séance de prière avec un groupe de croyants adventistes, Hiram Edson est devenu convaincu que « la lumière serait donnée » et leur « déception expliquée ».

L'expérience d'Edson l'a conduit à une étude approfondie sur le sujet avec O. R. L. Crosier et F. B. Hahn. Ils sont arrivés à la conclusion que l'hypothèse de Miller selon laquelle le sanctuaire représentait la terre était erronée. « Le sanctuaire à purifier dans Daniel 8:14 n'était pas la terre ou l'église, mais le sanctuaire dans les cieux. » Par conséquent, la date du  n'a pas marqué la seconde venue du Christ, mais plutôt un événement céleste. De ce troisième groupe est née l'Église adventiste du septième jour, et cette interprétation de la grande déception forme la base de la doctrine adventiste du septième jour du jugement d'investigation divin pré-avènement. Leurs interprétations furent publiées au début de 1845 dans le Day Dawn.

Connexion à la foi bahá'íe
Les membres de la foi bahá'íe croient que l'interprétation de Miller des signes et des dates de la venue de Jésus était, pour la plupart, correcte. Ils croient que l'accomplissement des prophéties bibliques de la venue du Christ est venu par un précurseur de leur propre religion, le Báb, qui a déclaré qu'il était le "Promis" le , et a commencé à enseigner ouvertement en Perse en octobre 1844. Plusieurs livres et brochures bahá'ís mentionnent les millérites, les prophéties utilisées par Miller et la grande déception, notamment Le voleur dans la nuit du disciple bahá'í William Sears.

Il a été noté que l'année 1844 av. J. C. était également l'année de l'Hégire 1260. Sears a lié les prophéties de Daniel avec le livre de l'Apocalypse dans le Nouveau Testament à l'appui de l'enseignement bahá'í, interprétant l'année 1260 comme les « temps, le temps et la moitié d'un temps » de  ( =  = ). En utilisant le même principe jour-année que William Miller, Sears a décodé ces textes dans l'année de l'Hégire 1260, ou 1844.

Les bahá'ís pensent que si William Miller avait su que l'année 1844 était aussi l'année  (année de l'Hégire), alors il aurait peut-être considéré qu'il y avait d'autres signes à rechercher. L'interprétation bahá'íe des  et 12 du livre de l'Apocalypse, ainsi que les prédictions de Daniel, ont été expliquées par 'Abdu'l-Bahá, le fils du fondateur de la foi bahá'íe, à Laura Clifford Barney et publiées en 1908 dans les , 11 et 13 de " Quelques réponses aux questions " . L'explication fournie au  s'appuie sur les mêmes versets bibliques que William Miller a utilisés et arrive à la même conclusion concernant l'année au cours de laquelle s'attendre à la « purification du sanctuaire » qui a été interprétée par 'Abdu'l-Baha comme étant 'l'aube' d'une nouvelle 'Révélation' - AD 1844.

Autres points de vue
La grande déception est considérée par certains chercheurs comme un exemple du phénomène psychologique de la dissonance cognitive. La théorie a été proposée par Leon Festinger pour décrire la formation de nouvelles croyances et l'augmentation du prosélytisme afin de réduire la tension, ou la dissonance, qui résulte de l'échec des prophéties. Selon la théorie, les croyants ont connu des tensions à la suite de l'échec de la réapparition de Jésus en 1844, ce qui a conduit à une variété de nouvelles explications. Les différentes solutions font partie des enseignements des différents groupes qui ont survécu à la déception.

Dans la culture populaire
Le groupe de punk hardcore AFI a écrit une chanson sur l'événement, également intitulée . Il apparaît sur l'album Sing the Sorrow.

Articles connexes
 Camping Harold
 Christianisme
 L'Échec d'une prophétie
 Edgar C. Whisenant
 Escalade de l'engagement
 Liberté de religion
 Liste des prophéties de Joseph Smith
 Millénarisme
 Millérisme
 Persécution des chrétiens
 Prédiction des temps de la fin 2011
 Prédictions et revendications pour la seconde venue du Christ
 Prédictions religieuses chrétiennes non réalisées
 Protestantisme
 Rationalisation
 Réveil chrétien
 Syndrome du vrai croyant

Références

Bibliographie

Liens externes
  The Great Controversy. Chapter 22—Prophecies Fulfilled. L'explication de ce grand événement prophétique (tel qu'il est compris après le passage du temps).

Eschatologie chrétienne
Adventisme
1844 aux États-Unis
Prophétie
Christianisme aux États-Unis
Protestantisme
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Grande déception


مدارس الأحد بشكل عام هو اسم لأنواع مختلفة من التعليم الديني تتم أيام الآحاد بواسطة مؤسسات متعددة. ويوجد عدة أنواع مختلفة من مدارس الأحد، تتراوح بين الطرق التعليمية التقليدية، المجموعات الصغيرة، التعليم المبني على الكتاب المقدس.كما أنها أهم وسائل تعليم الأطفال المسيحية وتعاليم الكنيسة.

مراجع

الطفل في المسيحية
إنجيلية (طائفة مسيحية)
تعليم مسيحي
مدارس مسيحية
أحداث الأحد

مدارس الأحد


Das EBSA International Play-Off war ein Snookerturnier, das von der European Billiards and Snooker Association (EBSA) ausgetragen wurde.

Geschichte

Das Turnier existierte zwischen 2006 und 2010 und wurde jeweils zusammen mit der EBSA-Snookereuropameisterschaft ausgetragen. Der Sieger wurde mit einem Platz auf der Profitour (Snooker Main Tour) belohnt.

Teilnahmeberechtigt waren nur Spieler, die nicht bereits auf der Snooker Main Tour spielten. Darüber hinaus war das Turnier nur für europäische Spieler, die nicht aus Großbritannien oder Irland stammen, zugänglich.

Nach 2010 wurde es gestrichen und durch andere Möglichkeiten zur Qualifikation für die Main Tour ersetzt.

Sieger

Weblinks

Snookerturnier

EBSA International Play-Off


A voiced bilabial implosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is b_<.

Features
Features of the voiced bilabial implosive:

Occurrence

See also
 Index of phonetics articles
 Voiceless bilabial implosive
 B̤ē

Notes

References

External links

Bilabial consonants
Implosives
Voiced oral consonants

Voiced bilabial implosive


Le refuge de l'Olan est un refuge de la Fédération française des clubs alpins et de montagne (FFCAM) situé dans le département des Hautes-Alpes, plus précisément dans la commune de La Chapelle-en-Valgaudémar. Il se trouve à  d'altitude dans le parc national des Écrins, au milieu du cirque sud de l'Olan, entre la face sud-est de l'Olan, la face sud-ouest de la cime du Vallon () et la face ouest de la Rouye ().

Le refuge est marqué « esprit parc national des Écrins ». Il possède également l'agrément de jeunesse et d'éducation populaire.

Histoire
Le refuge actuel résulte de deux essais infructueux. En effet, en 1934 un premier refuge voit le jour au niveau du pas le l'Olan () mais un éboulement le détruit. En 1957, un deuxième est construit, cette fois « en dur » et moins haut que celui actuel mais, deux ans plus tard, il est détruit par une avalanche. En 1966, un troisième et dernier refuge est construit à l'emplacement actuel. Il est agrandi de manière définitive en 1978. Il reste encore en contrebas du refuge une trace du deuxième refuge : deux dalles de béton. Avec le temps, des tiges de fer à béton sont apparues par l'érosion du béton. Considérées comme dangereuses, elles sont retirées en juin 2016 par des agents du parc national. En 2019, le système énergétique du refuge est rénové.

Caractéristiques et informations
Le refuge est ouvert en période estivale (mi-juin à mi-septembre) avec une capacité d'accueil de 54 couchages disposés dans quatre dortoirs. Chaque année, l'ouverture du refuge se fait par un héliportage qui porte tout le matériel nécessaire pour la saison à venir. L'hiver, en période hors gardiennage, seul le « refuge d'hiver » reste ouvert avec 10 couchages dans un dortoir. En plus de dortoirs, le refuge est aussi composé d'une cuisine et d'une bibliothèque.

Activités
L'emplacement géographique du refuge permet diverses activités sportives : des sports terrestres tels que la randonnée (variante du GR54, Haute route du Valgaudemar, pic Turbat, etc.), l'escalade (l'Olan, le Petit Olan, le pilier Nounours, la Rouye), l'alpinisme (l'Olan, la Rouye, la cime du Vallon) ou encore le trail (boucle de Chalance) ; l'hiver permet également la pratique des raquettes à neige et du ski de randonnée (la cime du Vallon, pas de l'Olan, couloir des Sorciers). De plus, des sports aériens sont praticables tels que le parapente (départ : cime du Vallon) ou bien le paralpinisme.

La spécificité du refuge de l'Olan est l'événement Yoga'ltitude dans le cadre de week-ends bien-être.

Accès
Il existe quatre itinéraires pour accéder au refuge de l'Olan, chacun à pieds.

Le premier est praticable à partir de La Chapelle-en-Valgaudémar. Pour ce faire, il faut se rendre dans la commune en voiture par la N85 jusqu'à Gap puis en prenant la direction de Saint-Firmin. Une fois au parking du village de la Chapelle, un pont est à passer pour trouver le sentier principal qui mène au refuge. Il faut compter environ  de montée.

Le refuge de l'Olan est aussi accessible en partant du refuge des Souffles. Un sentier passant près du lac Lautier () permet d'arriver au refuge après  à  de marche.

Le refuge de Chalance permet également l'accès au refuge de l'Olan en passant le col du Bâton () grâce à un câble. Cette randonnée alpine nécessite ainsi un baudrier et une longe pour assurer sa sécurité. L'arrivée au refuge situé en contrebas se fait au bout d'environ  de randonnée.

Le dernier itinéraire pour rejoindre le refuge de l'Olan se fait depuis le refuge de Font Turbat situé dans la vallée du Valjouffrey du côté de la face nord de l'Olan. Il faut ainsi passer le col Turbat () puis remonter le pas de l'Olan en passant près du lac Lautier pour accéder au refuge. La randonnée alpine se fait environ en .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes
 site du refuge de l'Olan

Olan
Olan
Olan
Olan
La Chapelle-en-Valgaudémar

Refuge de l'Olan


A Igreja Cristã Reformada nas Filipinas (ICRF) - em inglês Christian Reformed Church in the Philippines (CRCF)  - é uma denominação reformada continental nas Filipinas, formada em 1962, por missionários da Igreja Cristã Reformada na América do Norte.

História

Em 1962, os missionários Vince e Lucy Apostol, enviados pela Igreja Cristã Reformada na América do Norte iniciaram a plantação de igrejas na Ilha Negros.

Em 1969, os missionários organizaram o seminário para a formação de seus pastores.

A partir do crescimento dos trabalhos, em 1976, a Igreja Cristã Reformada nas Filipinas foi oficialmente organizada com três congregações.

Em 1990, a denominação já havia crescido para 25 igrejas nas ilhas Luzon, Negros e Panay e foram organizadas as suas as classes (presbitérios).

Em 2004, a denominação tinha 37 igrejas e 4.575 membros.

Doutrina

A ICRF subscreve as Três Formas da Unidade (Cânones de Dort, Catecismo de Heidelberg e Confissão Belga).

Relações intereclesiásticas

A denominação faz parte da Comunhão Mundial das Igrejas Reformadas.

Além disso, possui relacionamento de igreja-irmã com as Igrejas Reformadas Liberadas.

Denominações reformadas continentais nas Filipinas

Igreja Cristã Reformada nas Filipinas


La Sociedad Estadounidense de Oncología Clínica — conocida en inglés como «American Society of Clinical Oncology» o por sus siglas ASCO— es una organización profesional que representa a médicos pertenecientes a todas las especialidades de oncología con pacientes con cáncer. Fue fundada en 1964 por los doctores Fred Ansfield, Harry Bisel, Herman Freckman, Arnoldus Goudsmit, Robert Talley, William Wilson, and Jane Wright. Sus más de treinta mil miembros en los Estados Unidos y otros países establecen los baremos para el tratatamiento del cáncer a escala global y encabezan los esfuerzos para desarrollar tratamientos más efectivos, conseguir más financiación para la investigación clínica y translacional y hallar curas para todos los diferentes tipos de cáncer, que afectan a unos diez millones de personas en todo el mundo cada año.

Referencias

Colegios profesionales de Estados Unidos
Asociaciones de Medicina
Organizaciones fundadas en 1964


Incidentul Fashoda a fost punctul culminant al disputelor teritoriale imperialiste dintre Regatul Unit și Franța în Africa Răsăriteană, care a apărut în 1898. O expediție franceză spre Fashoda de pe fluviul Nilul Alb urmărea să obțină controlul asupra bazinul Nilului superior și prin aceasta să excludă accesul britanicilor la regiunea Sudanului. Întâlnirea dintre expediția franceză și forțele britanico-egiptene, (care depășeau numeric pe cele franceze cu 10:1) a avut loc  în condiții amicale dar, în Europa, a căpătat amploarea unei amenințări cu războiul. Britanicii s-au menținut ferm pe poziții, ambele imperii fiind în pragul războiului, cu discursuri agresive din partea ambelor tabere. Supusă unei presiuni politice intense, francezii s-au retras, ceea ce în final a asigurat controlul anglo-egiptean al regiunii. Status quo-ul a fost recunoscut printr-o înțelegere dintre cele două state, prin care era recunoscut controlul britanic asupra Egiptului, în vreme ce Franța devenea puterea dominantă în Maroc. Acest acord a consfințit eșecul atingerii de către francezi a principalelor obiective în această parte a Africii.

A fost o victorie diplomatică a britanicilor, francezii fiind cei care au realizat că pe termen lung au nevoie de prietenia Londrei în caz de război dintre Franța și Germania. Aceasta a fost ultima criză dintre cele două puteri, care ar fi implicat o amenințare cu războiul, și a deschis în schimb calea pentru o cooperare mai strânsă în ceea ce avea să devină Antanta cordială din 1904. Incidentul a dus la apariția "sindromului Fashoda" în politica externă franceză – încercarea de afirmare a influenței franceze în zonele care ar fi putut să devină predispuse la influența britanică.

Contextul istoric general
La sfârșitul secolului al XIX-lea, regiuni vaste din Africa au fost revendicate și exploatate de puterile coloniale europene. După Conferința de la Berlin din 1885 cu privire la Africa de Vest, marile puteri europene au început căutarea oricărui teritoriu din Africa care nu se afla deja sub influența altei națiuni europene. Această perioadă din Istoria Africii este cunoscută de obicei cu numele Împărțirea Africii. Principalele două puteri care au fost implicate în această luptă au fost Regatul Unit și Franța, cărora li s-au alăturat Germania, Belgia, Italia, Portugalia și Spania.

Principala direcție de înaintare a francezilor în interiorul continentului african a avut ca punct de plecare principal coasta Oceanului Atlantic (din Senegalul contemporan) spre est, prin Sahel, de-a lungul graniței sudice a deșertului Sahara – o zonă care acoperă teritoriile statelor contemporane Senegal, Mali, Niger și Ciad. Țelul suprem al francezilor era cucerirea unei regiuni neîntrerupte dinte Niger și Nil, ceea ce ar fi asigurat controlul întregului comerț spre și dinspre regiunea Sahelului, prin controlul asupra rutelor caravanelor prin Sahara. Francezii dețineau de asemenea un avanpost la gurile Mării Roșii în Djibouti (Somalia franceză), un care putea servi ca punct de plecare pentru o centură est-vest de teritorii franceze de-a latul continentului.

Britanicii, pe de altă parte, doreau să facă legătura între posesiunile lor din Africa Sudică (Africa de Sud, Bechuanaland și Rhodesia), cu cele din  Africa Răsăriteană (Kenya zilelor noastre) și aceste două zone cu regiunea bazinului fluviului Niul.  Sudanul, care în acele vremuri includea ceea ce sunt astăzi Sudanul de Sud și Uganda, era cheia îndeplinirii acestor obiective, în special de când Egiptul trecuse sub controlul Londrei. Această "linie roșie" (care includea de exemplu un proiect de  cale ferată Cape Town-Cairo) prin întreaga Africa a fost făcută celebră de omul politic britanc și sud african Cecil Rhodes, care visa ca Africa să fie "colorată în roșu [britanic]".

Dacă se desenează o linie de la Cape Town la Cairo (visul lui Rhodes) și o alta de la Dakar la Somalia Franceză (Djibouti) spre Marea Roșie în Cornul Africii (ambiția francezilor), cele două se intersectează în estul Sudanul de Sud, în apropiere de orașul Fashoda (azi Kodok), ceea ce explică importanța strategică a localității. Axa franceză est-vest și cea britanică nord-sud nu puteau coexista – puterea europeană care era capabilă să ocupe punctul de intersecție a celor două rute avea să fie singura care putea continua cu îndeplinirea propriilor planuri.

Fashoda era legată de asemenea de așa numită "Problemă egipteană", o dispută îndelungată dintre Regatul Unit și Franța asupra legalității ocupării de către britanici a Egiptului. Începând din 1882, numeroși politicieni francezi, în special cei din parti colonial, ajunseseră să regrete decizia franceză de a nu se alătura britanicilor în acțiunea de ocupare a Egiptului. Ei au sperat să îi forțeze pe britanici să părăsească țara, și considerau că un avanpost colonial pe Nilul Superior ar fi putut servi ca bază pentru canonierele franceze. Acest avanpost ar fi fost de așteptat să îi facă pe britanici să abandoneze Egiptul. A  mai existat o propunere pentru construirea unui baraj uriaș, care ar fi zăgăzuit aprovizionarea cu apă de pe Nil, și care i-ar fi obligat pe britanici să părăsească regiunea. Aceste idei erau aproape imposibil de realizat, dar ele au reușit să îi pună în gardă pe numeroși oficiali britanici.

Impasul

O forță de doar 120 de  tirailleurs senegalezi și 12 ofițeri, subofițeri și personal  de intendență francezi  — căpitanii Marcel Joseph Germain, Albert Baratier, Charles Mangin, Victor Emmanuel Largeau, locotenentul Félix Fouqué, profesorul Dyé, doctorul Jules Emily Major, subofițerul brevetat De Prat, sergenții George Dat, Bernard, Venail și traducătorul  militar Landerouin — au plecat din Brazzaville la bordul unui vas cu aburi închiriat de la belgieni, sub comanda maiorului Jean-Baptiste Marchand, cu ordinul să asigure controlul asupra regiunii din jurul orașului Fashoda, pe care să o transforme într-un protectorat francez. Ei au navigat în aval pe Oubangui atât cât a permis pescajul vaselor, după care au continuat să se deplaseze pe jos prin junglă și prin regiunea deșertică a Sudanului. Forța franceză a traversat Sudanul până la vale Nilului. Ei trebuiau să se întâlnească aici cu membrii altor două expediții care venea dinspre est prin Etiopia, una dintre ele, care plecase din Djibouti, era condusă de  Christian de Bonchamps, veteran al Expediției lui William Stairs.

După o călătorie dificilă de 14 luni prin inima Africii, expediția Marchand a ajuns la punctul planificat pe 10 iulie 1898, dar expediția Bonchamps nu a mai ajuns, după ce etiopienii îi opriseră din deplasare și după ce au suferit un accident în defileul râului Baro.  Din acest motiv, mica forță a lui Marchand a trebuit să acționeze fără ajutoare. Pe 18 septembrie, o flotilă de cinci canoniere a ajuns la  fortul izolat din Fashoda. La bordul vaselor britanice se aflau 1.500 de soldați britanici și egipteano-sudanezi, sub comanda lui  sir Herbert Kitchener și  a locotenent-colonelului Horace Smith-Dorrien. Marchand primise rapoarte eronate conform cărora forța care înainta spre pozițiile sale era una formată din derviși, dar în momentul în care s-a produs întâlnirea cu britanicii a fost pus în fața unei probleme mai degrabă diplomatice decât militare.

Dată fiind funcția de comandant al armatei anglo-egiptene care tocmai învinsese forțele Statul Mahdist în Bătălia de la Omdurman, Kitchener era în plin proces de recucerire a Sudanului în numele hidivului egiptean. După încheierea bătăliei, Kitchener a deschis un plic sigilat în care se afla un ordin pentru verificarea situației expediției franceze. Kitchener, care vorbea fluent franceza, a debarcat la Fashoda îmbrăcat în uniforma armatei egiptene, fiind întâmpinat cu curtoazie militară de comandanții francezi. Ambele tabere au insista asupra "drepturilor" pe care la aveau asupra Fashoda, dar au căzut de acord că trebuie să aștepte instrucțiuni din partea guvernelor lor.

Vestea întâlnirii de la Fashoda a fost transmisă la Paris și Londra și a inflamat mândria imperială a ambelor națiuni. Opinia publică s-a inflamat în ambele state, fiecare acuzând cealaltă parte de expansionism și agresiune neprovocate. Criza a continuat să se manifeste de-a lungul lunilor septembrie și octombrie. Royal Navy a trecut vasele în stare de luptă și și-a mobilizat rezervele.

Soluționarea crizei

Din punct de vedere naval, situația a fost în mare măsură în favoarea Marii Britanii, fapt recunoscut de deputații francezi după încheierea crizei. Meritul cel mai important pentru păstrarea calmului i-a revenit lui Marchand.

Realitățile militare au fost, fără îndoială, importante pentru Théophile Delcassé, noul ministru francez de externe. "Ei au soldați. Noi avem doar argumente", avea el să spună cu resemnare. În plus, el nu vedea niciun avantaj într-un război colonial cu britanicii, mai ales că dorea să le câștige prietenia în eventualitatea unui viitor conflict cu Germania. Prin urmare, el a militat hotărât pentru o rezolvare pașnică a crizei, deși o asemenea soluție a provocat un val de naționalism și de sentimente antibritanice. Într-un editorial caustic publicat în 13 octombrie în L'Intransigeant, Victor Henri Rochefort a scris "Germania ne plesnește încontinuu peste față. Hai să nu le oferim obrazul Angliei".

Conform opiniei naționaliștilor , capitularea Franței a fost o dovadă clară că armata franceză a fost puternic slăbită de trădătorii care l-au sprijinit pe  Dreyfus. Cu toate acestea, redeschiderea afacerii Dreyfus în ianuarie a distras opinia publică franceză de la evenimentele petrecute în Sudan și, datorită responsabililor politici care puneau la îndoială folosul unui război purtat într-o zonă atât de îndepărtată  a Africii, guvernul a ordonat pe 3 noiembrie soldaților săi să se retragă și criza sa încheiat pașnic. Marchand a ales să își retragă mica forță prin Abisinia spre Djibouti, evitând să traverseze rapid teritoriul anglo-egiptean cu vasele cu abur care navigau pe Nil.

În martie, a fost semnată Convenția anglo-franceză din 1898 ajungându-se la un acord conform căruia izvoarele fluviilor Nil și Congo marcau frontiera dintre sferele de influență ale celor două puteri. Incidentul Fashoda a fost ultima dispută colonială serioasă dintre britanici și francezi, iar soluția clasică diplomatică este considerată de cei mai mulți istorici ca fiind precursoarea Antanta cordială.

Cei doi protagoniști principali ai incidentului sunt comemorați prin Pont Kitchener-Marchand, un pod rutier  peste râul Saône, dat în folosință în 1959 în orașul francez  Lyon. Orașul Fashoda a fost oficial redenumit Kodok în 1904. În zilele noastre, orașul se află în Sudanul de Sud.

Vezi și
 Relațiile internaționale dintre Marile Puteri (1814–1919)

Note

Bibliogrfie

Legături externe

1898
Fashoda
Fashoda
Fashoda

Incidentul Fashoda


Wbaldino Acosta (20 de febrero de 1938 – 1 de agosto de 2007) fue un político argentino que ocupó el cargo de  gobernador de la Provincia de San Juan.

Acosta, quien se desempeñaba como abogado, hasta comenzar con su vida pública, al frente de la federación provincial de boxeo en 1978. En 1971 se afilió a un importante partido sanjuanino, el Partido Bloquista, liderado por Leopoldo Bravo, por el cual sería senador y más tarde, gobernador. Participó activamente en la políticas en esos años, y en 1981 fue designado ministro provincial, y más tarde en 1983, Jefe de Policía. En 1987, Acosta fue elegido vicegobernador de San Juan para acompañar a Carlos Gómez Centurión; en las elecciones a gobernador de San Juan en 1991, venció como miembro del Partido Justicialista.

El 16 de mayo de 1999, Acosta fue elegido nuevamente vicegobernador de San Juan para acompañar a Alfredo Avelín, fórmula electa con 55%, en la Alianza para el Trabajo, la Justicia y la Educación. La gestión de Avelín estuvo marcada por turbulencias económicas en San Juan, situación que luego alcanzaría el país. En 2001 se inició un conflicto con empleados públicos.

En 2002, Avelín fue destituido por la Cámara de Diputados provincial. Acosta, que tenía buenas relaciones con partidos opositores a Avelín, se convirtió en gobernador. Fue candidato para renovar el cargo en las elecciones de 2003, sin embargo, fue vencido por José Luis Gioja del Partido Justicialista. Posteriormente se convirtió en opositor a Gioja, a su partido y al gobierno nacional de Néstor Kirchner.

Acosta murió a los 69 años en 2007 tras una hemorragia cerebral. Se casó con Teresita Beatriz Zapata en 1970 con quien tuvo tres hijos.

Referencias

Abogados de la provincia de San Juan (Argentina)
Gobernadores de San Juan

Wbaldino Acosta


Le Certificat de Conformité Environnementale (CCE) ou Certificat de Conformité Environnementale et Sociale (CCES) est une attestation délivrée pour confirmer la faisabilité environnementale d'un projet, à la suite de l'étude d'impact environnemental de ce projet. Il est régi par le décret N°2017-332 du 06 juillet 2017 portant organisation des procédures de l'évaluation environnementale en République du Bénin.

Historique
Le Certificat de Conformité Environnementale au Bénin est né à la suite du décret N°2017-332 du 06 juillet 2017 portant organisation des procédures de l'évaluation environnementale en République du Bénin.

Description
L'évaluation environnementale peut-être définie comme toute procédure à la fois administrative et technique permettant d'assurer la prise en compte des enjeux et des risques environnementaux dans les processus de conception, d'approbation, de planification, d'exécution et de suivi-évaluation d'une politique, d'un plan, d'un programme, d'un projet ou de toute activité visant le développement socio-économique.

L'évaluation environnementale est faite par l'Agence Béninoise pour l'Environnement (ABE) qui est l'institution compétente, sous la tutelle du ministère du cadre de vie et du développement durable, et qui est habilitée à étudier la faisabilité environnementale des projets à réaliser au Bénin. À la suite de cette étude de faisabilité environnementale, il peut être délivré un certificat de conformité environnementale conformément à la procédure de délivrance en vigueur.

Procédure de délivrance
Le Certificat de Conformité Environnementale est délivré par le Ministre chargé de l'Environnement, après avis technique de l'Agence Béninoise pour l'Environnement.

La procédure se fait en ligne par une demande effectuée par le promoteur du projet qui doit fournir différents documents au soutien de sa demande et le montant de la prestation varie en fonction du coût prévisionnel d'exécution du projet. Cette procédure se déroule en plusieurs phases et démarre par la demande pour se terminer par la décision de délivrance du certificat de conformité environnementale.

Articles connexes
 Agence béninoise pour l'environnement

Notes et Références

Établissement public à caractère administratif au Bénin

Certificat de conformité environnementale au Bénin


كلايمور ، سلسلة مانغا يابانية تصنف كفنتازيا مظلمة وهي من تأليف ورسوم نوهيرو ياغي السلسلة عرضت لأول مرة في مجلة ناو دنفكنت شونن جمب الشهرية. وحين تم توقف إصدار هذة المجلة في يناير 2007، انتقلت المانغا بشكل اضطراري لمجلة شونن جمب الأسبوعية. لاحقا أصدرت مجلة جمب سكوير في نوفمبر 2007 وانتقلت إليها مانغا كلايمور وأنتهت المانجا بشكل رسمي في أكتوبر 2014. الفصول الفردية نشرت في 15 مجلد تانكوبون بواسطة شوئيشا في ديسمبر 2008.

قامت استديوهات مادهاوس بتحويل الأحد عشر مجلد الأولى إلى سلسلة حلقات أنمي ذات 26 حلقة من إخراج هيرويوكي تاناكا، وعرضت لأول مرة في اليابان على قناة NTV في 3 أبريل 2007 واستمر عرضه حتى 25 سبتمبر 2007. وقد أُصدر قرص يحتوي على الموسيقى التصويرية للأنمي، وآخر يحتوي على أغاني شخصيات الأنمي، وذلك في 25 يوليو 2007 و27 سبتمبر 2007 على التوالي.

قصة الأنمي عن وحوش تسمى «يوما» تهاجم البشر وتلتهمهم، وفي المقابل قامت إحدى المنظمات - يرمز إليها في المسلسل باسم «المنظمة» - بتطوير كائنات تضاهي قوة اليوما ويمكنها قتلها أطلق عليها الناس اسم كلايمور، ولكن المنظمة لا تعتمد هذا الاسم. الكلايمور عبارة عن بشر دمجوا بلحم ودم يوما.

المانغا مصرح بعرضها باللغة الإنجليزية في أمريكا الشمالية بواسطة فيز ميديا، بينما الأنمي مصرح لعرضه هناك بواسطة فنميشن للترفيه التي أصدرت أول دي في دي للحلقات في عام 2008. وفي أستراليا ونيوزيلاند مرخص بعرض الأنمي بواسطة مادمان للترفيه.

القصة
في العصور الوسطى ظهرت وحوش تأكل البشـر تدعى (يوما)، لم يستطع أحد من البشر التصدي لهذه الوحوش، لقوتها وسرعتها وكبر حجمها وتمكنها من أخذ شكل البشر، بعد فترة ظهرت منظمة يطلق عليها البشر لقب (كليمور) وهي مجموعة تستقبل طلبات لقتل اليوما، الشيء الغريب في هذه المنظمة أن جميع مقاتليها من الفتيات. ولكن ليس أي فتيات فهؤلاء الفتيات نصف بشر ونصف يوما وهن الوحيدات القادرات على القضاء على اليوما، ومعرفة اليوما في شكله البشري، قوتهن تفوق قوة الرجال وتعادل قوة اليوما، يطلق عليهن البشر اسم (الساحرات ذوات العينين الفضيتين) لأن لون عيونهن فضيه ولكن عند قتالهن لليوما تتحول إلى ذهبية.

مصادر

وصلات خارجية

ألعاب فيديو تضم بطلات
أنمي ومانغا تراجيدية
أنمي ومانغا فانتازيا مظلمة
أنمي ومانغا مغامرات
برامج تلفزيون نيبون
سلاسل شويشا
سلسلات مانغا
شركة فنميشن للترفيه
شركة مادهاوس
شونن مانغا
مانغا 2001
مانغا شوئيشا
مانغا فيز ميديا
مسلسلات أنمي متلفزة بدأ عرضها في 2007
مسلسلات أنمي مستندة إلى مانغا

كليمور


Blackallia es un género de arbustos de la familia Rhamnaceae. Su única especie, Blackallia nudiflora (F.Muell.) Rye & Kellermann, es originaria de Australia Occidental.

Descripción
Es un arbusto que alcanza un tamaño de 0,3-1 m de altura, a menudo con las ramillas espinescentes. Se encuentra en suelos de arcilla o arcilla arenosa con granito. En las colinas, o escapadas en las llanuras.

Taxonomía
Blackallia nudiflora fue descrita por (F.Muell.) Rye & Kellermann y publicado en Nuytsia 16: 302, en el año 2007.
Sinonimia
Blackallia biloba C.A.Gardner
Cryptandra nudiflora F.Muell. basónimo

Referencias

Pomaderreae
Plantas descritas por Rye
Plantas descritas por Kellermann

Blackallia


Allen Harold "Al" Neuharth (March 22, 1924 – April 19, 2013) was an American businessman, author, and columnist born in Eureka, South Dakota. He was the founder of USA Today, The Freedom Forum, and its Newseum.

Early life
Al Neuharth was born in Eureka, South Dakota, to a German-speaking family. Neuharth's parents were Daniel J. and Christina, who married on January 11, 1922. Daniel died when Al was two. Al needed to help his family survive the Great Depression. He worked on his grandfather's farm. As a youngster, he also delivered the Minneapolis Tribune but he gave that up for a better paying job in the meat industry, sweeping up in the meat plants and slaughtering animals. Neuharth graduated from Alpena High School in Alpena, South Dakota, where he worked for Allen Brigham, owner of the local newspaper, the Alpena Journal. At the age of 19, Neuharth served in the Army during World War II. As a member of the 86th Infantry Division, Neuharth was deployed to France, Germany, and the Philippines.

Education
After the war, Neuharth attended the University of South Dakota in Vermillion, where he edited the school newspaper, The Volante. He maintained an affiliation with the university and had an office in the Media & Journalism building, the Al Neuharth Media Center, until his death in 2013. Neuharth founded the Al Neuharth Free Spirit Scholarship, which is awarded to graduating high school students who exemplify the qualities of a "free spirit" and aim to pursue a career in journalism.

News career
Neuharth and fellow USD alum Bill Porter founded SoDak Sports, a weekly newspaper devoted to covering the sports scene in South Dakota. Despite its initial popularity, the weekly SoDak Sports went bankrupt in a year's time, losing Neuharth the $50,000 he had borrowed.

After his failure, Neuharth went to the Miami Herald, where he made his way up to assistant managing editor. In 1960, the Knight newspaper chain (later a part of Knight Ridder), which owned the Herald, sent him to its Detroit Free Press, which was fighting an uphill battle with the Detroit News, which Neuharth would later buy while at Gannett.

After Neuharth decided that he could go no further in the Knight organization due to the Knight family's control, in 1963 he accepted Gannett head Paul Miller's offer to move to Gannett's headquarters in Rochester, New York to run its paper there, the Democrat and Chronicle.  In 1966 he took charge of Gannett Florida. He started Today in Cocoa, Florida, which eventually became Florida Today. The color schemes used in Florida Today became an inspiration for the initial format for USA Today.  He then ran the boardroom under Miller, whom he eventually succeeded in 1973. He helped to build Gannett into the largest newspaper company in the United States.  During his tenure, Gannett revenues expanded 1,450%.  In 1979 Gannett owned 78 daily and 21 weekly newspapers, seven television and over a dozen radio stations, outdoor advertising plants, and the Louis Harris & Associates research firm.  The reason Gannett purchased Harris was because the firm was doing extremely expensive research for Neuharth to determine the advisability of starting a new national newspaper.

USA Today
Neuharth founded USA Today in 1982, which as of March 2013 was the third most widely read newspaper in the country. He won the Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism in 1988, in recognition of his founding of the newspaper. Neuharth retired from Gannett on March 31, 1989, at the age of 65.

After his retirement, Neuharth authored a weekly column entitled Plain Talk through August 2010.

Freedom Forum
Neuharth served as chairman of the board of the Gannett Foundation upon his retirement. The foundation was founded by Frank Gannett, founder of the newspaper chain. Neuharth took control of the foundation and removed the CEO and installed his own top executive. He then renamed the foundation the Freedom Forum. Neuharth served as the chairman of the Freedom Forum from 1991 until his death in 2013.

Each year, the Freedom Forum gives out the Al Neuharth Award for Excellence in the Media. Past winners include Walter Cronkite (1989), Carl T. Rowan (1990), Helen Thomas (1991), Tom Brokaw (1992), Larry King (1993), Charles Kuralt of CBS (1994), Albert R. Hunt and Judy Woodruff (1995), Robert MacNeil (1996), Cokie Roberts (1997), Tim Russert and Louis Boccardi (1998), John Seigenthaler (1999),  Jim Lehrer (2001), Tom Curley (2002), Don Hewitt of CBS (2004), Garrison Keillor (2005), Bob Schieffer of CBS (2006), John Quinn and Ken Paulson (2007), Charles Overby (2008), Katie Couric (2009), Brian Lamb of C-SPAN (2011) and Marilyn Hagerty of the Grand Forks Herald (2012).

Quotes
"We in the media could help [the insurance situation] if we put in proper perspective long range hurricane forecasts that often are exaggerated and play into insurers' hands."

"The First Amendment guarantees a free press. We in the media must make sure it is a fair press."

Personal
Neuharth had two children from his first marriage on June 16, 1946, to Loretta F. Helgeland. He was divorced in 1973. He married his second wife, Florida State Senator Lori Wilson, in 1973. Their marriage lasted seven years. He married Rachel Fornes, a Cocoa Beach, Florida, chiropractor and they adopted six children.

In 1975, Neuharth built a beachfront mansion in Cocoa Beach. It contained  of living space, 11 bedrooms and 12 bathrooms. It was valued at several million dollars and was the largest in the city. It was sold after his death and was destroyed by fire in 2016.

Neuharth died on Friday, April 19, 2013, at his home in Cocoa Beach, at the age of 89. Jack Marsh, president of the Al Neuharth Media Center and a close friend, confirmed that he died at his home. Marsh said that Neuharth fell earlier in the week and never quite recovered.

Awards and honors
Bronze Star Medal
Horatio Alger Award (1975)
First male from the newspaper industry to win Association for Women in Communications' highest award, the Headliner Award
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1982)
Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism (1988)

Books
 BusCapade: Plain Talk Across the USA. Washington, D.C.: USA Today Books, 1987,
 Profiles of Power: How the Governors Run Our 50 States, with Kenneth A. Paulson and Phil Pruitt. Washington, D.C.: USA Today Books, 1988,
 Truly One Nation, with Ken Paulson and Dan Greaney. New York: USA Today Books: Doubleday, 1988,
 Window on the World: Faces, Places, and Plain Talk from 32 Countries. Washington, D.C.: USA Today Books, 1988,
 Nearly One World, with Jack Kelley and Juan J. Walte. New York: USA Today Books/Doubleday, 1989,
 Confessions of an S.O.B.. New York: Doubleday, 1989,
 Free Spirit: How You Can Get the Most out of Life at Any Age...and How It Might Make You a Millionaire. Arlington, Va.: Newseum Books, 2000,

References

 Neuharth, Al. Confessions of an S.O.B. Doubleday, 1989
 Vaughn, Stephen L.  "Encyclopedia of American Journalism".  Routledge, 2007, pp. 329–330.

External links

NAA Honors Allen H. Neuharth for Lifetime of Achievement

Al Neuharth Oral History Interview by the Samuel Proctor Oral History Program at the University of Florida

1924 births
2013 deaths
American male journalists
American columnists
United States Army personnel of World War II
USA Today people
American media executives
United States Army soldiers
People from Cocoa Beach, Florida
People from Eureka, South Dakota
American people of German descent
People from Jerauld County, South Dakota
Journalists from South Dakota
American newspaper publishers (people)

Al Neuharth


est le quatrième album de The Jam, sorti en 1979.

L'album

Il atteint la  place de l'UK Albums Chart à sa sortie. Le single The Eton Rifles, est le premier top 10 britannique du groupe, atteignant à la  place.

Titres

Musiciens
 Paul Weller : voix, guitare
 Bruce Foxton : basse, voix
 Rick Buckler : batterie, percussions
 Mick Talbot : piano
 Rudi : saxophone
 The Jam Philharmonic Orchestra : violoncelle, timbales
 Peter Solley : arrangement des cordes

Notes et références

Liens externes

Album musical sorti en 1979
Album de Jam

Setting Sons