The Feast of the Goat (, 2000) is a novel by the Peruvian Nobel Prize in Literature laureate Mario Vargas Llosa. The book is set in the Dominican Republic and portrays the assassination of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, and its aftermath, from two distinct standpoints a generation apart: during and immediately after the assassination itself, in May 1961; and thirty-five years later, in 1996. Throughout, there is also extensive reflection on the heyday of the dictatorship, in the 1950s, and its significance for the island and its inhabitants.

The novel follows three interwoven storylines.  The first concerns a woman, Urania Cabral, who is back in the Dominican Republic, after a long absence, to visit her ailing father. Eventually, she ends up recalling incidents from her youth before recounting a long-held secret to her aunt and cousins. The second story line focuses on the last day in Trujillo's life from the moment he wakes up onwards, and shows us the regime's inner circle, to which Urania's father once belonged. The third strand depicts Trujillo's assassins, many of whom had previously been government loyalists, as they wait for his car late that night; after the assassination, this story line shows us the assassins' persecution. Each aspect of the book's plot reveals a different viewpoint on the Dominican Republic's political and social environment, past and present.

Readers are shown the regime's downward spiral, Trujillo's assassination, and its aftermath through the eyes of insiders, conspirators, and a middle-aged woman looking back. The novel is therefore a kaleidoscopic portrait of dictatorial power, including its psychological effects and its long-term impact.  The novel's themes include the nature of power and corruption, and their relationship to machismo or sexual perversion in a rigidly hierarchical society with strongly gendered roles. Memory, and the process of remembering, is also an important theme, especially in Urania's narrative as she recalls her youth in the Dominican Republic. Her story (and the book as a whole) ends when she recounts the terrible events that led to her leaving the country at the age of 14.

Vargas Llosa interlaces fictional elements and historical events: the book is not a documentary and the Cabral family, for instance, is completely fictional.  On the other hand, the characters of Trujillo and Trujillo's assassins are drawn from the historical record; Vargas Llosa weaves real historical incidents of brutality and oppression into these people's stories, to further illuminate the nature of the regime and the responses it provoked. In Vargas Llosa's words, "It's a novel, not a history book, so I took many, many liberties. [. . .] I have respected the basic facts, but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive—and I have not exaggerated."

The Feast of the Goat received largely positive reviews, with several reviewers commenting on the book's depiction of the relationship between sexuality and power, as well as the graphic descriptions of violent events. It has been described as a powerful exploration of the atrocities associated with dictatorship, and a testament to the dangers of absolute power.

A film version of the novel was released in 2005, starring Isabella Rossellini, Paul Freeman, and Tomas Milian. Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter, Veronica Triana, wrote a theatrical adaptation in 2003.

Background
The Feast of the Goat is only the second of Vargas Llosa's novels to be set outside Peru (the first being The War of the End of the World). It is also unusual because it's the first to have a female protagonist: as critic Lynn Walford writes of the leading character in The Feast of the Goat, and also Vargas Llosa's subsequent book The Way to Paradise, "both are utterly unlike any of the other female characters in his previous novels".

The novel examines the dictatorial regime of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina in the Dominican Republic. Trujillo was, in historian Eric Roorda's words, "a towering influence in Dominican and Caribbean history" who presided over "one of the most durable regimes of the twentieth century" during the thirty-one years between his seizure of power in 1930 and his assassination in 1961. Trujillo had trained with the United States Marine Corps during the United States occupation of the island, and graduated from the Haina Military Academy in 1921. After the U.S. departed in 1924, he became head of the Dominican National Police which, under his command, was transformed into the Dominican National Army and Trujillo's personal "virtually autonomous power base".

Trujillo was officially dictator only from 1930 to 1938, and from 1942 to 1952, but remained in effective power throughout the entire period. Though his regime was broadly nationalist, Daniel Chirot comments that he had "no particular ideology" and his economic and social policies were basically progressive.

The novel's title is taken from the popular Dominican merengue Mataron al chivo ("They Killed the Goat"), which refers to Trujillo's assassination on May 30, 1961. Merengue is a style of music created by Ñico Lora in the 1920s and actively promoted by Trujillo himself. It's now considered the country's national music. Cultural critics Julie Sellers and Stephen Ropp comment about this particular merengue that, by envisaging the dictator as an animal who could be turned into a stew (as frequently happened with goats struck down on the Dominican Republic's highways), the song "gave those performing, listening to, and dancing to this merengue a sense of control over him and over themselves that they had not experienced for over three decades."  Vargas Llosa quotes the lyrics to Mataron al chivo at the beginning of his novel.

Plot summary
The novel's narrative is divided into three distinct strands. One is centred on Urania Cabral, a fictional Dominican character; another deals with the conspirators involved in Trujillo's assassination; and the third focuses on Trujillo himself. The novel alternates between these storylines, while jumping back and forth from 1961 to 1996, with frequent flashbacks to periods earlier in Trujillo's regime.

The Feast of the Goat begins with the return of Urania to her hometown of Santo Domingo, a city which had been renamed Ciudad Trujillo during Trujillo's time in power. This storyline is largely introspective, dealing with Urania's memories and her inner turmoil over the events preceding her departure from the Dominican Republic thirty-five years earlier. Urania escaped the crumbling Trujillo regime in 1961 by claiming she planned to study under a tutelage of nuns in Michigan. In the following decades, she becomes a prominent and successful New York lawyer. She finally returns to the Dominican Republic in 1996, on a whim, before finding herself compelled to confront her father and elements of her past she has long ignored. As Urania speaks to her ailing father, Agustin Cabral, she recalls more and more of the anger and disgust that led to her thirty-five years of silence. Urania retells her father's descent into political disgrace, while revealing the betrayal that forms a crux between both Urania's storyline and that of Trujillo himself.

The second and third storylines are set in 1961, in the weeks prior to and following Trujillo's assassination on May 30. Each assassin has his own background story, explaining his motivation for their involvement in the assassination plot. Each has been wronged by Trujillo and his regime, by torture and brutality, or through assaults on their pride, religious faith, morality, and loved ones. Vargas Llosa weaves the tale of the men as memories recalled on the night of Trujillo's death, as the conspirators lie in wait for "The Goat". Interconnected with these stories are the actions of other famous Trujillistas of the time: Joaquín Balaguer, the puppet president; Johnny Abbes García, the merciless head of the Military Intelligence Service (SIM); and various others—some real, some composites of historical figures, and some purely fictional.

The third storyline is concerned with the thoughts and motives of Rafael Leónidas Trujillo Molina himself. The chapters concerning The Goat recall the major events of his time, including the slaughter of thousands of Dominican Haitians in 1937. They also deal with the Dominican Republic's tense international relationships during the Cold War, especially with the United States under the presidency of John F. Kennedy and Cuba under Castro. Vargas Llosa also speculates upon Trujillo's innermost thoughts and paints a picture of a man whose physical body is slowly failing him. Trujillo is tormented by both his incontinence and impotence. Eventually, his storyline intersects with Urania's narrative when it's revealed that Urania was sexually assaulted by Trujillo. He is unable to achieve an erection with Urania and, in frustration, rapes her with his bare hands. This event is the core of Urania's shame and hatred towards her own father. In addition, it's the cause of Trujillo's repeated anger over the "anemic little bitch" who witnessed his impotence and emotion, as well as the reason he's en route to sleep with another girl on the night of his assassination.

In the novel's final chapters, the three storylines intersect with increasing frequency. The tone of these chapters is especially dark as they deal primarily with the horrific torture and death of the assassins at the hands of government agents, the failure of the coup, the rape of Urania, and the concessions made to Trujillo's most vicious supporters allowing them to enact their horrific revenge on the conspirators and escape the country. The book ends as Urania prepares to return home, determined this time to keep in touch with her family back on the island.

Characters

Modern day
Urania Cabral and her father Agustín Cabral appear in both the modern day and historical portions of the novel. In the year 1996, Urania returns to the Dominican Republic for the first time since her departure at the age of 14. She is a successful New York lawyer who has spent most of the past 35 years trying to overcome the traumas of her childhood, a goal she pursues through an academic fascination with Trujillo and Dominican history.  Urania is deeply troubled by the events of her past, and is compelled to confront her father Agustín about his role in those events. Urania visits her father, finding him weakened by age and a severe stroke, so much so that he is barely able to respond physically to her presence, let alone speak. Agustín listens helplessly as Urania recounts his past as "Egghead Cabral", a high-ranking member of Trujillo's inner circle, and his drastic fall from grace.  Urania details Agustín's role in the events that led to her rape by the Dominican leader, and subsequent lifetime of celibacy and emotional trauma. Agustín's character in the modern day portion of the novel serves primarily as a sounding board for Urania's recollections of the Trujillo era, and the events that surrounded both Agustín Cabral's disgrace and Urania's escape from the country. His responses are usually minimal or non-vocal, despite the ardency of Urania's accusations and the enormity of his own actions during Trujillo's reign.

The Trujillo regime

Rafael Trujillo, known also as The Goat, The Chief, and The Benefactor, is a fictionalized character based on the real dictator of the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 and the official President of the Republic from 1930 to 1938 and 1943 to 1952. In The Feast of the Goat, Vargas Llosa imagines the innermost thoughts of the dictator, and retells the Goat's last hours from his own perspective.
Trujillo's character struggles with aging and the physical problems of incontinence and impotence. Through fictional events and first person narrative, the reader is given insight into the man who, during his "thirty-one years of horrendous political crimes", modernized the country's infrastructure and military, but whose regime's attack against its enemies overseas (particularly the attempted assassination of Rómulo Betancourt, president of Venezuela) led to the imposition of economic sanctions on the Dominican Republic by the Organization of American States in the 1950s. The resultant economic downturn, in conjunction with other factors, leads to the CIA supported assassination plot that ended Trujillo's life on May 30, 1961.

Trujillo's regime is supported by Johnny Abbes García, the head of the Military Intelligence Service (SIM), a brutal man to whom many "disappearances, ... executions, ... sudden falls into disgrace" are attributed.  Abbes and his intelligence officers are notorious for their cruelty, particularly their habit of killing dissidents by throwing them into shark-infested waters. Colonel Abbes "may be the devil, but he's useful to the Chief; everything bad is attributed to him and only the good to Trujillo". Trujillo's son, Ramfis Trujillo, is a loyal supporter of the Chief. After unsuccessful attempts at schooling in the United States, Ramfis returns to the Dominican Republic to serve in his father's military. He's a well-known womanizer. Upon Trujillo's death, Ramfis seeks revenge, even going so far as to torture and kill his uncle by marriage, General Jose Roman, for his part in the assassination conspiracy.

Joaquín Balaguer, Trujillo's puppet president is also a supporter, and initially his seemingly innocuous character holds no real power. Following Trujillo's death, the calm and serenity of Balaguer bring about real change in his character, and General Román comments that "this insignificant man whom everyone had always considered a mere clerk, a purely decorative figure in the regime, began to acquire surprising authority". It's Balaguer who guides much of the action in the last sections of the book.

Conspirators

The storyline concerning the assassination primarily follows the four conspirators who directly participate in Trujillo's death. Antonio Imbert Barrera is one of the few conspirators who survives the violent reprisals that follow Trujillo's assassination. Imbert is a politician who becomes disillusioned with the deception and cruelty of Trujillo's regime. His first plan to kill Trujillo was foiled by the unsuccessful attempted overthrow of the regime by Cuban paramilitary forces. Now convinced of the difficulty of his task, Imbert joins the other conspirators in plotting Trujillo's death. Among the others is Antonio de la Maza, one of Trujillo's personal guards. Antonio's brother is killed as part of a government cover-up and Antonio swears revenge upon Trujillo. Salvador Estrella Sadhalá, known as "Turk", is a devout Catholic who, in indignation at the regime's many crimes against God, swears an oath against Trujillo. Turk eventually turns himself in for fear that the regime was torturing his family. Both Turk and his innocent brother are then tortured for months. His father remains loyal to Trujillo and disowns Turk in his face. Despite all of this, Turk refuses to commit suicide and doesn't lose faith in God. He is later executed by Ramfis and other high level government men. Turk's close friend, Amado García Guerrero, known as Amadito, is a Lieutenant in the army who gave up his beloved as proof of his loyalty to Trujillo, and then later was forced to kill her brother to prove himself to Trujillo. Amadito's disgust with himself and disillusionment with the regime lead to his decision to help kill Trujillo. Following the assassination, he hides out with de la Maza and dies fighting. In the aftermath of the assassination, Amadito and Antonio de la Maza choose to fight the members of SIM who come to arrest them, opting to die in battle rather than be captured and tortured.

Major themes
The Feast of the Goat'''s major themes include political corruption, machismo, memory, and writing and power. Olga Lorenzo, reviewer for The Melbourne Age, suggests that overall Vargas Llosa's aim is to reveal the irrational forces of Latin tradition that give rise to despotism.

Political corruption
The structure of Dominican society was hierarchical, with strongly gendered roles. Rafael Trujillo, the ruler, was a cruel dictator who haunts the people of Santo Domingo even 35 years after his death. He is a true caudillo, ruling with brutality and corruption. He creates a personality cult in his capitalist society and encourages decadence within his regime. Prior to their promotion for a position of responsibility, an officer is required to pass a "test of loyalty". His people must remain loyal to him all cost. Their obedience is periodically tested by public humiliation and censure, even though acts of disloyalty were rare. Trujillo violates both women and children as an expression of his political/sexual power. In some cases, he sexually assaults the wife or child of his own lieutenants, many of whom still remain blindly loyal. Even the church and military institutions are employed to give women to the tyrant for pleasure.

Many of the assassins had belonged to Trujillo's regime or had at one point been his staunch supporters, only to find their support for him eroded by the state's crimes against its own citizens. Imbert, one of the assassins, sums up this realization in a comment prompted by the murder of the Mirabal sisters: "They kill our fathers, our brothers, our friends. And now they're killing our women. And here we sit, resigned, waiting our turn." In an interview, Vargas Llosa describes the corruption and brutality of Trujillo's regime: "He had more or less all the common traits of a Latin American dictator, but pushed to the extreme. In cruelty, I think he went far far away from the rest—and in corruption, too."

Machismo
According to literary scholar Peter Anthony Neissa, the two important components of machismo are aggressive behaviour and hyper-sexuality. Aggressive behaviour is exhibited by displays of power and strength, while hyper-sexuality is revealed through sexual activity with as many partners as possible. These two components shape the portrayal of Trujillo and his regime in The Feast of the Goat. As Lorenzo observes, Vargas Llosa "reveals traditions of machismo, of abusive fathers, and of child-rearing practices that repeat the shaming of children, so that each generation bequeaths a withering of the soul to the subsequent one."

In a display of both aspects of machismo, Trujillo demanded that his aides and cabinet provide him with sexual access to their wives or daughters. Mario Vargas Llosa wrote of Trujillo's machismo and treatment of women, "[h]e went to bed with his ministers' wives, not only because he liked these ladies but because it was a way to test his ministers. He wanted to know if they were ready to accept this extreme humiliation. Mainly the ministers were prepared to play this grotesque role—and they remained loyal to Trujillo even after his death." Trujillo's sexual conquests and public humiliations of his enemies also serve to affirm his political power and machismo. In Neissa's words, "The implication is that maximum virility equals political dominance."

Trujillo's attempted sexual conquest of Urania is an example of both political manipulation of Agustín Cabral and sexual power over young women. However, as Trujillo's penis remains flaccid throughout the encounter and he is humiliated in front of the young girl, the encounter fails to satisfy his requirements for machismo.

Memory
All of the novel's storylines concern memory in some sense or another. The most apparent confrontation of memory is on the part of Urania Cabral, who has returned to the Dominican Republic for the first time in 30 years. Soon, Urania is forced to confront her father and the traumas that led her to leave the country at 14. She was the victim of sexual abuse at the hands of Trujillo himself, a sacrifice her father made to try to gain favor with the dictator again (a fact to which she alludes throughout the book, but which is only revealed at the very end). The book concludes with her recounting the memory of that night to her aunt and cousins, who never knew the true reason she left the country. When her aunt is surprised that she remembers all these details, Urania responds that while she forgets many things, "I remember everything about that night." For Urania, forgetting the atrocities committed by the regime is unacceptable. Her father, on the other hand, is not capable of joining her in this process of remembering, since he has suffered a stroke and is not capable of speaking. However, Urania is angry that he chose to forget these things while he was still capable of acknowledging them.

Memory is also important in the sections of the novel that deal with the assassins. Each recalls the events that led him to take part in the assassination of Trujillo. These incidents included the 1956 Galindez kidnapping and murder, the 1960 murder of the Mirabal sisters, and the 1961 split with the Catholic Church. These historical events are used by Vargas Llosa to connect the assassins with specific moments that demonstrate the violence of Trujillo's regime. Trujillo, too, is shown reflecting on the past, not least his own formation and training at the hands of the US Marines.

But above all, Mario Vargas Llosa uses the fictional Urania to facilitate the novel's attempt at remembering the regime. The novel opens and closes with Urania's story, effectively framing the narrative in the terms of remembering the past and understanding its legacy in the present. In addition, because of her academic study of the history of the Trujillo regime, Urania is also confronting the memory of the regime for the country as a whole. This is in keeping with one purpose of the book, which is to ensure that the atrocities of the dictatorship and the dangers of absolute power will be remembered by a new generation.

Writing and power
In her treatment of the novel, María Regina Ruiz claims that "power gives its wielder the ability to make prohibitions; prohibitions that are reflected in history, the study of which reveals what is and what is not told." The government's actions in The Feast of the Goat demonstrate the discourse of prohibition: foreign newspapers and magazines were prohibited from entering Trujillo's country as they were seen as a threat to the government's ideas. Mario Vargas Llosa takes part in this discourse by recounting what was prohibited.

Ruiz notes that writing also has the power to transform reality. It brings the reader back to the past, allowing the reader to comprehend myths or distorted stories told by historians. Ruiz contends that knowing the past is crucial to one's understanding of the present that takes us to postmodernism, and argues that The Feast of the Goat can thus be seen as a postmodern discourse that gives power to history recreation.

The construction of fictions surrounding the events of Trujillo's regime allow a degree of freedom from the horrors that took places. Author Julia Alvarez contends that these events can "only finally be understood by fiction, only finally be redeemed by the imagination", while Richard Patterson claims that Vargas Llosa "reconfigures, and to a large degree demythologizes" Trujillo and his brutal reign through use of narrative structure. Vargas Llosa's writing acts as a cathartic force for this period in history.

Fact and fiction

The novel is a combination of fact and fiction. Blending together these two elements is important in any historical novel, but especially in The Feast of the Goat because Vargas Llosa chose to narrate an actual event through the minds of both real and fictional characters. Some characters are fictional, and those that are non-fictional still have fictionalized aspects in the book. The general details of the assassination are true, and the assassins are all real people. While they lie in wait for the Dictator to arrive, they recount actual crimes of the regime, such as the murder of the Mirabal sisters. However, other details are invented by Vargas Llosa, such as Amadito's murder of the brother of the woman he loved.

Those within the regime are also a mix of fictional characters and real people. President Balaguer is real, but the entire Cabral family is completely fictional. According to Wolff, Vargas Llosa "uses history as a starting point in constructing a fictionalized account of Trujillo's "spiritual colonization" of the Dominican Republic as experienced by one Dominican family. The fictional Cabral family allows Vargas Llosa to show two sides of the Trujillo regime: through Agustin, the reader sees ultimate dedication and sacrifice to the leader of the nation; through Urania, the violence of the regime and the legacy of pain it left behind. Vargas Llosa also fictionalized the internal thoughts of the characters who were non-fictional, especially those of the Goat himself. According to literary scholar Richard Patterson, "Vargas Llosa's expands all the way into the very "dark area" of Trujillo's consciousness (as the storyteller dares to conceive it)."

Vargas Llosa also built an image of the regime with the troubled historical events. With regard to the historical accuracy of the book, Vargas Llosa has said "It's a novel, not a history book, so I took many, many liberties. The only limitation I imposed on myself was that I was not going to invent anything that couldn't have happened within the framework of life in the Dominican Republic. I have respected the basic facts, but I have changed and deformed many things in order to make the story more persuasive—and I have not exaggerated."

Critical reception

The realist style of The Feast of the Goat is recognized by some reviewers as being a break from a more allegorical approach to the dictator novel.  The novel received largely positive reviews, most of which were willing to accept sacrifices of historical accuracy in favour of good storytelling.

A common comment on the novel is the graphic nature of the many acts of torture and murder, which are depicted in the novel. Vargas lets the reader see the realities of an oppressive regime with a degree of detail not often used by his compatriots in Latin American literature, as Michael Wood suggests in the London Review of Books: "Vargas Llosa ... tells us far more about the details of day-to-day intrigue, and the sordid, sadistic minutiae of torture and murder." Walter Kirn of The New York Times suggests that the "grisly scenes of dungeon interrogations and torture sessions" cast other aspects of the novel in a pale light, draining them of their significance and impact. Similarly, Kirn implies that the "narrative machinery" mentioned by Wood as being somewhat unwieldy also produces a largely superfluous storyline. The plot line centered on Urania Cabral is described by Sturrock as being an emotional centre that focuses the novel, and Wood agrees that her confrontations with past demons hold the readers attention. In contrast, Kirn's review states that Urania's segments are "talky and atmospheric ... [and] seem to be on loan from another sort of book."

Most reviews of The Feast of the Goat make either indirect of direct reference to the relationship between sexuality and power. Salon reviewer Laura Miller, writer for The Observer Jonathan Heawood, Walter Kirn, and Michael Wood each detail the connection between Trujillo's gradual loss of ultimate control, both over his body and his followers. The means by which Trujillo reinforces political power through sexual acts and begins to lose personal conviction as his body fails him, are topics of frequent discussion among reviewers.

In 2011 Bernard Diederich, author of  the 1978 non-fiction book Trujillo: The Death of the Goat, accused Vargas-Llosa of plagiarism.

Adaptations

An English-language film adaptation of the novel was made in 2005, directed by Luis Llosa, Mario Vargas Llosa's cousin. It stars Isabella Rossellini as Urania Cabral, Paul Freeman as her father Agustin, Stephanie Leonidas as Uranita and Tomas Milian as Rafael Leonidas Trujillo. It was filmed in both the Dominican Republic and in Spain.  Reviewing the film for the trade paper Variety'', critic Jonathan Holland called it "less a feast than a somewhat rushed, but thoroughly enjoyable, three-course meal", commenting that the main difference from the source novel was the sacrifice of psychological nuance.

The novel has also been adapted for the stage, by Jorge Alí Triana and his daughter Veronica Triana, directed by Jorge Triana: the play was put on (in Spanish, but with simultaneous translation to English) at Repertorio Español (www.repertorio.org/chivo) in New York in 2003; and the production moved to Lima in 2007.  A feature of the novel's stage version is that the same actor plays both Agustin Cabral and Rafael Trujillo.  For reviewer Bruce Weber, this makes the point "that Trujillo's control of the nation depended on gutless collaborators".

Notes

References

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Further reading

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The Feast of the Goat, review by Ted Gioia (The New Canon)

Rafael Trujillo
2000 novels
Dictator novels
Peruvian novels adapted into films
Peruvian novels adapted into plays
Novels by Mario Vargas Llosa
Novels set in the Dominican Republic
Fiction set in 1961
Picador (imprint) books
Alfaguara books
Historical novels

The Feast of the Goat


Georg Joseph Kamel (češ. Jiří Josef Kamel, lat. Georgius Josephus Camellus, šp. Jorge Camel), češki isusovački misionar, ljekarnik i prirodoslovac, prvi popisivač filipinske flore i faune u čiju je čast Carl von Linné nazvao biljni rod kamelije. Desetak znanstvenih radova o filipinskoj flori i fauni objavio je za života u uglednim Philosophical Transactions Kraljevskog društva, a zastupljen je i u trećem svesku glasovite Povijesti biljaka (»Historia Plantarum«) Johna Raya. Američki botaničar i stručnjak za pacifičku floru Elmer Drew Merrill nazvao je prema njemu vrstu Eugenia kamelii. Većina radova čuva mu se u Britanskoj knjižnici u Londonu.

Literatura
 Reyes, Raquel A. G., 2009.: Botany and zoology in the late seventeenth-century Philippines: the work of Georg Josef Camel SJ (1661–1706) Archives of Natural History 36 (2): 262–276.

Životopisi, Brno
Farmakolozi
Isusovci
Češki znanstvenici

Georg Joseph Kamel


حِجْر إسماعيل أو الحَطِيم أو الحِجْر هو بناء على شكل نصف دائرة من الجهة الشمالية من البيت الحرام، وهو في الأصل جزء من الكعبة، ولكن قريش حين بنت الكعبة لم تفي النفقة التي رصدتها لأجل البناء، فأخرجوا ذلك الجزء من بناء البيت، وأحاطوه بسياج، حتى يعلم أن ذلك المكان جزء من البيت. يقع الحِجْر بين الركن الشامي والعراقي، وبينه وبين كلا الركنين ممر يوصل إلى داخله. يُعد الحجر جزءًا من الكعبة ويأخذ أحكامها لرواية عائشة أن الرسول قال: «صلي في الحِجْر إذا أردت دخول البيت فإنما هو قطعة من البيت».

أصل الحِجْر أن إبراهيم الخليل حين بنى الكعبة مع ابنه إسماعيل، جعل بجنب الكعبة من جهة الشمال حِجْراً مدوَّراً حولها، وبنى عليه عريشًا من أراك لغنم إسماعيل تؤوي إليه.

لما أرادت قريش بناء الكعبة لم تجد من النفقة الحلال ما يكفي لعمارتها، فبنوها بما معهم من المال الحلال، واقتطعوا من جهة شمال الكعبة التي فيها الميزاب نحو سبعة أذرع، وضموها إلى حِجْر إسماعيل. بعد أن بُعث النبي محمد، رغب أن يُعيد بناء الكعبة كما كان على قواعد إبراهيم، وأن يضم إليها ما اقتطعته قريش منها وجعلته في الحِجْر، لكنه لم يفعل ذلك، لأن الناس كانوا حديثي عهد بجاهلية. لما احترقت الكعبة زمن إمارة عبد الله بن الزبير لمكة، هدمها وأعاد بناءها على الصورة التي كان يرغب فيها النبي، فأدخل فيها ما اقتطع من الحجر. عندما قتل ابن الزبير عام 73 هـ، كتب الحجاج بن يوسف الثقفي إلى الخليفة عبد الملك بن مروان يعلمه بما فعل ابن الزبير في بناء الكعبة، فكتب إليه عبد الملك أن يعيد الحجر كما كان في عهد النبي، فنقض الحجاج الكعبة وأعاد بناءها على سابق عهدها. في عهد الدولة العباسية أراد الخليفة المهدي أن يبني الكعبة على ما بناها ابن الزبير، فاستشار الإمام مالك بن أنس فنهاه عن ذلك، وقال: «إني أكره أن يتخذها الخلفاء لعبة، هذا يرى رأي ابن الزبير، وهذا يرى رأي عبد الملك بن مروان، وهذا يرى رأياً آخر»

للحِجْر فضل عظيم، فالصلاة فيه مستحبة لأنه من البيت، وقد صح عن النبي أنه دخل الكعبة عام الفتح وصلى فيها ركعتين، وروت عائشة أنها لما أرادت دخول الكعبة قال لها النبي: «صلي في الحجر فإنه من البيت». وكان عبد الله بن عباس يقول: «صلوا في مصلى الأخيار، واشربوا من شراب الأخيار، قيل: ما مصلى الأخيار، قال: تحت الميزاب، قيل: وما شراب الأبرار، قال: ماء زمزم». والموضع الذي ذكره ابن عباس أنه تحت ميزاب الكعبة يقع داخل الحِجْر.

التسمية

 حِجْر: وسمي الحجر حجرًا، لأنه حُجر من البيت، وكل بناء بنيته فحجرت عليه من الأرض يسمى حَجرًا، وهو مثل حِجر الإنسان أي حضنه، فهو حجر الكعبة. فالحِجْر إذا أطلق عامةً فالمراد به حِجْر الكعبة المشرفة، وهو مكان معروف بجانب الكعبة مما يلي الميزاب شمال الكعبة، وهو محوط مدوَّر على صورة نصف دائرة، وله فتحتان من طرفيه، للدخول إليه والخروج منه. يقول القاضي عياض: «حجر الكعبة وهو ما تركت قريش من بنائها على أسس إبراهيم صلى الله عليه وسلم، وحجرت على المواضع ليعلم أنه من الكعبة، فسمي حجرًا لكن فيه زيادة على ما فيه من البيت، حده في الحديث بنحو من سبعة أذرع». قال الجوهري : «حجر الكعبة، وهو ما حواه الحطيم المدار بالبيت جانب الشمال. وكل ما حجرته من حائط فهو حجر». قال ياقوت الحموي: «ولقد سمي حِجْرًا ؛ لأن قريشًا في بنائها تركت من أساس إبراهيم، وحجرت على المواضع، ليعلم أنه من الكعبة». قال الأزهري: «الحِجْر حطيم مكة، كأنه حجرة مما يلي المثعب من البيت».
 جَدْر: ورد في صحيحي البخاري ومسلم أن عائشة بنت أبي بكر سألت رسول الله عن الجدر أمن البيت هو، قال: نعم. ورُوي عن ابن عباس أن رجل قال له أرأيت الحطيم قال: «لا حطيم، إن أهل الجاهلية كانوا يسمونه الحطيم، وإنما هو الجَدْر، كان أحدهم إذا حلف جاء بمحجنة أو بسوطه فوضعه عليه، وإنما هو الجَدْر، فمن طاف بالبيت فليطف من روائه».
 حِجْر إسماعيل: سمي بذلك لأن إبراهيم جعله حِجْرًا لإسماعيل يأوي إليه هو وغنمه، وجعل فوقه عريشًا من أراك.
 حُفرَة إسماعيل يقول ابن الضياء القرشي الحنفي: «ويسمى أيضًا حفرة إسماعيل عليه الصلاة والسلام، لأن الحجر قبل بناء الكعبة كان زربًا لغنم إسماعيل عليه السلام».
 حَطِيْم: قل ابن الضياء: «والمشهور عند الأصحاب - أي الأحناف - أن الحطيم اسم للموضع الذي فيه الميزاب، وبينه وبين البيت فرجة، فسمي هذا الموضع حطيمًا، لأنه محطوم من البيت - أي مكسور منه - فعيل بمعنى مفعول، كقتيل بمعنى مقتول، وقيل: فعيل بمعنى فاعل أي حاطم، كعليم بمعنى عالم، لأنه جاء في الحديث: من دعا على من ظلمه فيه حطمه الله». وقال الأزرقي: « فسمي هذا الموضع الحطيم لأن الناس كانوا يحطمون هنالك بالأيمان، ويستجاب فيه الدعاء على الظالم للمظلوم، فقَلَّ من دعا هنالك على ظالم إلا هلك، وقَلَّ من حلف هنالك إثما إلا عجلت له العقوبة، فكان ذلك يحجز بين الناس عن الظلم، ويتهيب الناس الأيمان هنالك، فلم يزل ذلك كذلك حتى جاء الله بالإسلام، فأخر الله تعالى ذلك لما أراد إلى يوم القيامة».

قال ابن عثيمين: «هذا الحجر يسميه كثير من العوام حجر إسماعيل، ولكن هذه التسمية خطأ ليس لها أصل، فإن إسماعيل لم يعلم عن هذا الحِجر، لأن سبب هذا الحِجر أن قريشًا لما بنت الكعبة، وكانت في الأول على قواعد إبراهيم ممتدة نحو الشمال، فلما جمعت نفقة الكعبة وأرادت البناء، قصرت النفقة فصارت لا تكفي لبناء الكعبة على قواعد إبراهيم، فقالوا نبني ما تحتمله النفقة، والباقي نجعله خارجا ونحجر عليه حتى لا يطوف أحد من دونه، ومن هنا سمى حِجْرًا، لأن قريشا حجرته حين قصرت بها النفقة، ولهذا قال النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم لعائشة رضي الله عنها: لولا أن قومك حديثو عهد بكفر لبنيت الكعبة على قواعد إبراهيم، ولجعلت لها بابين، بابا يدخل منه الناس، وبابًا يخرج منه.».

الوصف

ورد في موقع الحطيم من الكعبة عدة أقول، فالإمام مالك بن أنس في المدونة الكبرى يقول في تفسير الحطيم: «هو ما بين الباب إلى المقام». وقال ابن حبيب: «هو ما بين الركن الأسود إلى الباب إلى المقام». وقال ابن جريج: «الحطيم ما بين الركن والمقام وزمزم والحِجِرْ». من أوائل من وصف حجر إسماعيل من المؤرخين الأزرقي (ت: 250 هـ): «الحجر مدور وهو ما بين الركن الشامي والركن الغربي، وأرضه مفروشة برخام، وهو مستو بالشاذروان الذي تحت إزار الكعبة، وعرضه من جدر الكعبة من تحت الميزاب إلى جدر الحجر سبعة عشر ذراعاً وثماني أصابع وذرع ما بين بابي الحجر عشرون ذراعاً وعرضه اثنان وعشرون ذراعاً، وذرع من داخله في السماء ذراع وأربعة عشر أصبعاً، وذرعه مما يلي الباب الذي يلي المقام ذراع وعشر أصابع وذرع جدر الحجر الغربي في السماء ذراع وعشرون أصبعاً، وذرع طول جدر الحجر من خارج مما يلي الركن الشامي ذراع وستة عشر أصبعاً، وطوله من وسطه في السماء ذراعان وثلاث أصابع الرخام من ذلك ذراع وأربع عشرة أصبعاً، وعرض الجدار ذراعان إلاّ أصبعين، والجدر ملبس رخاماً، وفي أعلاه في وسط الجدار رخامة خضراء طولها ذراعان إلاّ أصبعين وعرضها ذراع وثلاث أصابع قال أبو محمد الخزاعي: وقد حولت هذه الرخامة فجعلت تحت الميزاب مما يلي الكعبة».

ثم جاء بدر الدين بن جماعة (ت: 733 هـ) ووصف الحجر بقوله: «وحررته سنة ثلاث وخمسين وسبعمئة لما كنت مجاورًا بمكة: ذرع دائرة الحجر من داخله من الفتحة إلى الفتحة: إحدى وثلاثين ذراعًا وثلث، ومن خارجه من الفتحة إلى الفتحة: سبعة وثلاثين ذراعًا ونصف ذراع ونصف وربع وثمن، ومن الفتحة إلى الفتحة على الاستواء: سبعة عشر ذراعًا، ومن صدر دائرة الحجر من داخله إلى جدار البيت تحت الميزاب: خمسة عشر ذراعًا، وعرض جدار الحجر: ذراعان وثلث وثمن، وارتفاعه عن أرض المطلق مما يلي الفتحة التي من جهة المقام: ذراعًا وثلثا ذراع وثمن، وارتفاعه مما يلي الفتحة الأخرى: ذراع ونصف وثلث وربع، وارتفاعه من وسطه: ذراع وثلث ذراع، وسعته ما بين جدار الحجر والشاذروان عند الفتحة التي من جهة المقام: أربعة أذرع وثلث، كل ذلك حررته بذراع القماش المستعمل في زماننا».

وقال تقي الدين الفاسي (ت: 832 هـ) في كتاب شفاء الغرام بأخبار البلد الحرام: «وقد حررنا أمورًا تتعلق بالحجر، فكان ما بين وسط جدار الكعبة الذي فيه الميزاب إلى مقابله من جدار الحجر: خمسة عشر ذراعًا، وكان عرض جدار الحجر من وسطه: ذراعين وربع. وسعة فتحة الحجر الشرقية: خمسة أذرع. وكذلك سعة الغربية بزيادة قيراط. وسعة ما بين الفتحتين من داخل الحجر، سبعة عشر ذراعا وقيراطان، وارتفاع جدار الحجر من داخله عند الفتحة الشرقية: ذراعان إلا قيراطا. ومن خارجه عندها: ذراعان وقيراطان. وارتفاع جدار الحجر داخله ومن وسطه: ذراعان إلا ثلث. ومن خارجه: ذراعان وقيراطان، وارتفاع جدار الحجر من داخله عند الفتحة الغربية: ذرعان إلا قيراطا. ومن خارجه عندها: ذراعان وثمن ذراع، كل ذلك بذراع الحديد».

قال الديار بكري (ت: 966 هـ) يصف الحِجْر في كتابه تاريخ الخميس في أحوال أنفس النفيس: «وجدت عرض الحجر من تحت إزار الكعبة إلى جدار الحجر سبعة عشر ذراعًا وسبعة عشر أصبعًا، وما بين بابي الحجر عشرين ذراعًا وتسعة عشر أصبعًا وعرض كل من بابي الحجر خمسة أذرع وأربعة عشر أصبعًا، ووجدت ارتفاع جدار الحجر من الأرض ذراعين وثمانية أصابع وعرض جدار الحجر ذراعين وأحدًا وعشرين أصبعًا، ووجدت ذرع تدوير جدار الحجر من داخله أربعة وثلاثين ذراعًا وسبعة عشر أصبعًا، ومن خارجه أربعة وأربعين ذراعًا وأربعة أصابع، فذرع طوفة واحدة حول الكعبة والحجر على ما ذرعه مئة وسبعة وأربعون ذراعا وثلاثة أصابع».

أما فيمن وصف مقاساته في العصر الحديث: إبراهيم رفعت باشا في كتابه مرآة الحرمين لرحلة الحج في عام 1318 هـ الموافق 1901م قال: «فهو بناء مستدير على شكل نصف دائرة وارتفاعه من الداخل 123 سم، وعرض جداره من الأعلى 152 سم، ومن الأسفل 144 سم، وهو بناء مغلف بالرخام، وأحد طرفيه محاذ للركن الشامي، والآخر محاذ للركن الغربي من الكعبة، وله من الجهتين فتحتان، سعة الفتحة من طرفها الشرقي وآخر الشذروان 2.30م، وسعة الفتحة الأخرى التي بين طرفه الغربي ونهاية الشذروان 2.23م، والمسافة بين الطرفين 8م، أما مسافة الأرض بين جدار الكعبة الشمالي وبين الحجر 12م، والمسافة من منتصف جدار الكعبة الشمالي ووسط تجويف الحطيم من الداخل 8.44م». أما ذرع الحِجْر بالمتر في عصرنا الحالي، فطوله من وسط التدويرة من جدار الحجر الداخلي إلى جدار الكعبة الخارجي الشمالي: ثمانية أمتار وستة وأربعون ونصف سنتيمتر.

التاريخ

أصل حِجْر إسماعيل، أن إبراهيم الخليل حين بنى الكعبة مع ابنه إسماعيل، جعل بجنب الكعبة من جهة الشمال حِجْراً مدوَّراً حولها، وبنى عليه عريشاً من أراك لغنم إسماعيل تؤوي إليه. لما أرادت قريش بناء الكعبة قبل بعثة النبي وكانت قد تهدّمت، اجتمعت وعزمت على رفعها وتسقيفها، فلما أجمعوا أمرهم في هدمها وبنيانها قام أبو وهب بن عمرو بن عائذ خال والد النبي، فتناول من الكعبة حجرًا فوثب من يده حتى رجع إلى موضعه، فقال: يا معشر قريش لا تدخلوا في بنيانها من كسبكم إلا طيبًا، لا يدخل فيها مهر بغي، ولا بيع ربا، ولا مظلمة أحد من الناس. لم تجد قريش من النفقة الحلال ما يكفي لعمارتها، فبنوها بما معهم من المال الحلال، واقتطعوا من جهة شمال الكعبة التي فيها الميزاب نحو سبعة أذرع، وضموها إلى حِجْر إسماعيل.

بعد أن بُعث النبي وبالتحديد في فتح مكة، رغب أن يُعيد بناء الكعبة كما كان على قواعد إبراهيم، وأن يضم إليها ما اقتطعته قريش منها وجعلته في الحِجْر، لكنه لم يفعل ذلك، لأن الناس كانوا حديثي عهد بجاهلية، فخشي أن تنكر قلوبهم ذلك، روت عائشة بنت أبي بكر قالت: «سألت النبي صلى الله عليه وآله وسلم عن الحجر أمن البيت هو، قال نعم، قلت فما لهم لم يدخلوه في البيت، قال إن قومك قصرت بهم النفقة، قلت فما شأن بابه مرتفعا، قال فعل ذلك قومك ليدخلوا من شاؤوا ويمنعوا من شاؤوا، ولولا أن قومك حديث عهدهم بالجاهلية فأخاف أن تنكر قلوبهم أن أدخل الحجر في البيت وأن ألصق بابه الأرض». وفي رواية أخرى قالت عائشة: «أن رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: ألم تري أن قومك حين بنوا الكعبة اقتصروا عن قواعد إبراهيم، قالت فقلت يا رسول الله أفلا تردها على قواعد إبراهيم، فقال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: لولا حدثان قومك بالكفر لفعلت».

لما احترقت الكعبة، وتهدم بعض أطرافها في زمن إمارة عبد الله بن الزبير لمكة حين غزاها جيش يزيد بن معاوية، أكمل هدمها عبد الله بن الزبير حتى ألحقت بالأرض وكانت قد مالت حيطانها من حجارة المنجنيق وجعل الحجر الأسود عنده وكان الناس يطوفون من وراء الأساس، وأعاد بناءها على الصورة التي كان يرغب فيها النبي، فأدخل فيها ما اقتطع من الحجر، وجعل الكعبة بابين، وزاد في ارتفاعها. روى مسلم في صحيحه عن عطاء قال: «لما احترق البيت زمن يزيد بن معاوية حين غزاها أهل الشام فكان من أمره ما كان تركه ابن الزبير حتى قدم الناس الموسم يريد أن يجرئهم -أو يحربهم- على أهل الشام، فلما صدر الناس قال يا أيها الناس أشيروا علي في الكعبة أنقضها ثم أبني بناءها، أو أصلح ما وهي منها، قال ابن عباس: فإني قد فرق لي رأي فيها أرى أن تصلح ما وهي منها وتدع بيتا أسلم الناس عليه وأحجارا أسلم الناس عليها وبعث عليها النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم، فقال ابن الزبير لو كان أحدكم احترق بيته ما رضي حتى يُجدَّه فكيف بيت ربكم، إني مستخير ربي ثلاثا ثم عازم على أمري فلما مضى الثلاث أجمع رأيه على أن ينقضها فتحاماه الناس أن ينزل بأول الناس يصعد فيه أمر من السماء حتى صعده رجل فألقى منه حجارة فلما لم يره الناس أصابه شيء تتابعوا فنقضوه حتى بلغوا به الأرض فجعل ابن الزبير أعمدة فستر عليها الستور حتى ارتفع بناؤه، وقال ابن الزبير: إني سمعت عائشة تقول إن النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم قال: لولا أن الناس حديث عهدهم بكفر وليس عندي من النفقة ما يقوى على بنائه لكنت أدخلت فيه من الحجر خمس أذرع ولجعلت لها بابا يدخل الناس منه وبابا يخرجون منه، قال فأنا اليوم أجد ما أنفق ولست أخاف الناس، فزاد فيه خمس أذرع من الحجر حتى أبدى أسانظر الناس إليه فبنى عليه البناء وكان طول الكعبة ثماني عشرة ذراعا فلما زاد فيه استقصره فزاد في طوله عشر أذرع وجعل له بابين أحدهما يدخل منه والآخر يخرج منه».

عندما قتل ابن الزبير عام 73 هـ، كتب الحجاج بن يوسف الثقفي إلى الخليفة عبد الملك بن مروان يخبره بذلك، ويعلمه بما فعل ابن الزبير في بناء الكعبة، فكتب إليه عبد الملك أن يقر طول الكعبة على ما فعله ابن الزبير، وأن يعيد الحجر كما كان في عهد النبي، فنقض الحجاج الكعبة وأعاد بناءها كما طلب منه عبد الملك بن مروان. روى مسلم عن حديث عطاء قال: «فلما قتل ابن الزبير كتب الحجاج إلى عبد الملك بن مروان يخبره بذلك ويخبره أن ابن الزبير قد وضع البناء على أس نظر إليه العدول من أهل مكة فكتب إليه عبد الملك إنا لسنا من تلطيخ ابن الزبير في شيء، أما ما زاد في طوله فأقره، وأما ما زاد فيه من الحجر فرده إلى بنائه وسد الباب الذي فتحه، فنقضه وأعاده إلى بنائه». ثم إن عبد الملك صح له حديث عائشة فندم على ما فعل، فقد ورد في صحيح مسلم عن أبي قزعة: «أن عبد الملك بن مروان بينما هو يطوف بالبيت إذ قال: قاتل الله ابن الزبير حيث يكذب على أم المؤمنين يقول سمعتها تقول قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم: يا عائشة لولا حدثان قومك بالكفر لنقضت البيت حتى أزيد فيه من الحجر فإن قومك قصروا في البناء، فقال الحارث بن عبد الله بن أبي ربيعة: لا تقل هذا يا أمير المؤمنين فأنا سمعت أم المؤمنين تحدث هذا، قال لو كنت سمعته قبل أن أهدمه لتركته على ما بنى ابن الزبير».

في عهد الدولة العباسية أراد الخليفة المهدي أن يبني الكعبة على ما بناها ابن الزبير، فاستشار الإمام مالك بن أنس فنهاه عن ذلك، قال ابن كثير في البداية والنهاية: «وقد همّ ابن المنصور المهدي أن يعيدها على ما بناها ابن الزبير واستشار الإمام مالك بن أنس في ذلك فقال: إني أكره أن يتخذها الخلفاء لعبة، هذا يرى رأي ابن الزبير، وهذا يرى رأي عبد الملك بن مروان، وهذا يرى رأياً آخر».

العمارة

رخام الحِجْر

ذكر المؤرخ عبد القادر بن محمد الجزيري أن أول من رَخَّم الحِجْر هو الحجاج بن يوسف الثقفي، لما أخرجه من البيت ورده على ما كان في زمن قريش، ثم كان أول من رخمه بعد ذلك أبي جعفر المنصور سنة 141 هـ، وفيه أنه لما حج دعا زياد بن عبد الله الحارثي أمير مكة وقال له: إني رأيت الحِجْر مبنيًا بحجارة البادية فلا أصبح حتى يصير جدار الحجر بالرخام، فدعا زياد بالعمال فعملوا بالسرج قبل أن يصبح. في سنة 161 هـ قام جعفر بن سليمان بن علي في خلافة المهدي بفرش باطن الحجر بالرخام الأبيض والأخضر، قال محمد بن إسحاق الفاكهي: «وأما البلاطة الخضراء التي في الحجر فبعث بها أحمد بن طريف من مصر سنة 241 هـ وذرعها ذراع وثلاث أصابع». قال الأزرقي: وكان عبد الله بن عبيد الله بن عباس بن محمد الهاشمي أمر أن يُقلع له لوح من رخام الحجر يسجد عليه فقلع له في الموسم فأرسل أحمد بن طريف مولى العباس بن محمد الهاشمي برخامتين خضراوين من مصر هدية للحجر مكان ذلك اللوح وهي الرخامة الخضراء على سطح جدار الحجر مقابل الميزاب على هيئة الزورق، والرخامة الأخرى هي الرخامة الخضراء التي تحت الميزاب تلي جدر الكعبة فجعلتا في هذين الموضعين وهما من أحسن رخام في المسجد خضرة قال أبو محمد الخزاعي: ثم حولت التي كانت على ظهر الحجر فجعلت تحت الميزاب مقابل الميزاب أمام الرخامتين اللتين على هيئة المحراب في سنة ثلاث وثمانين ومائتين».

وممن عَمَّر الحِجْر المعتضد العباسي سنة 248 هـ وسبب ذلك أن الحَجَبَة كتبوا إليه بذلك فأمر بعمارته. وفي سنة 826 هـ أمر بتعمير أرض الحجر الأشرف بارسباي. وفي سنة 852 هـ وصلت كسوة إلى الحِجْر مع كسوة البيت الحرام، ولأنه لن تجر بذلك العادة، وضعت الكسوة في جوف الكعبة، ثم كسي بها الحجر من الداخل في العشرين من ذي الحجة سنة 853 هـ من قبل جقمق الجراسكي. في عام 881 هـ غُير رخام الحجر من داخله وخارجه، ورصصت الشقوق التي بين أحجار المطاف، ورخم داخل الكعبة من قبل السلطان قايتباي. في عام 916 هـ أمر قانصوه الغوري بترخيم حجر الكعبة، ونُقش اسمه على الرخام، وفيه أنه أمر بهدم الحِجْر كله، وتعميره من جديد من الداخل بالرخام ومن الخارج بالحجارة. وبعدها بثلاث سنوات أمر قانصوه بنقض الحجر وإعادته بالرخام الأبيض والأسود وشده بالجص والرصاص، فبنى خمس مداميك رخام أبيض وأربع مداميك رخام أسود، وسمك كل مدماك مقدار سبعة أصابع، ثم تفكك بعض أحجار الحجر، فأعادها الأمير خوشكلدي ورمم في سنة 951 هـ. في عام 1260 هـ قام السلطان عبد المجيد الأول بعمارة الحِجْر، وروي أنه شُوهد في أرض الحجر أحجارًا كبار كالإبل بعضها مشتبك ببغض، وبينها وبين جدار البيت نحو ستة أذرع. كما وجد في هذه العمارة جدر قصير رُدم من حجارة البادية داخل البناء الذي هو الرخام دائر ما يدور الحجر، ويدل هذا الجدر على أن هذا التحويط من زمن قريش، ثم جاءت الملوك وحوطت عليه بالرخام وجعلته جزءً من الحجر. في عام 1283 هـ حصل تجديد لنصف أرض الحِجْر من جهة مقام الحنفي.

في العهد السعودي عُمِّر الحِجْر سنة 1397 هـ تعميرًا جديدًا، وفرشت أرضه بالحجر البارد الذي جلب من اليونان، كما هو في أرض المطاف، وجعل على جداره ثلاثة فوانيس معدنية في غاية تضاء بالكهرباء. وفي سنة 1417 هـ بعد الترميم الشامل للكعبة الذي تم في عهد الملك فهد بن عبد العزيز، تم إزالة الرخام القديم لجدران وأرضية الحجر، واستبداله برخام جديد، كما تم تنظيف الفوانيس الموجودة على الجدران وإعادتها إلى موقعها السابق، وتم عمل حاجز من الحبال لمدخل الحِجْر متين القوام، منمق الشكل يتناسب مع مكانة الحجر، ويفتح الحاجز بصورة دائمة، ويغلق عند الحاجة فقط. في عهد الملك عبد الله بن عبد العزيز تم وضع أبواب للحجر كما تم تغيير الفوانيس السابقة بفوانيس جديدة. في شهر محرم من عام 1437 هـ أكملت الرئاسة العامة لشؤون المسجد الحرام والمسجد النبوي الشريف تغيير رخام حجر إسماعيل، بعد عمل متواصل لأكثر من أسبوعين تم إجراء صيانة شاملة من الجدران الداخلي والخارجي لحجر إسماعيل. وقال الرئيس العام لشؤون المسجد الحرام والمسجد النبوي عبد الرحمن السديس: «إنه تم استبدال 46 قطعة من بلاط الحطيم، منها 22 علوي، و24 للجدار، ويقدر سمك الرخام 5 سم».

الفضل والأحكام
للصلاة في الحِجْر فضل عظيم، فعن ابن عباس قال: «صلوا في مصلى الأخيار، واشربوا من شراب الأبرار». قيل لابن عباس: ما مصلى الأخيار، قال: تحت الميزاب، قيل: وما شراب الأبرار، قال: ماء زمزم. والموضع الذي ذكره ابن عباس أنه تحت ميزاب الكعبة يقع داخل الحِجْر. وروي عن عبد الله بن عمر قوله: «أن قبلة النبي صلى الله عليه وسلم تحت الميزاب». وفي رواية أخرى أنه قال في آية فلنولينك قبلة ترضاها: «قبلة إبراهيم تحت الميزاب». يعني في الحجر. وروي عن عثمان بن عفان أنه أقبل ذات يوم فقال لأصحابه: «ألا تسألوني من أين جئت، قالوا: من أين جئت يا أمير المؤمنين، قال: كنت قائمًا على باب الجنة، وكان قائمًا تحت الميزاب يدعو الله عنده». ويروى عن أبي هريرة وسعيد بن جبير وزين العابدين بن الحسين أنهم كانوا يلتزمون ما تحت الميزاب من الكعبة. وقال ابن إسحاق في السيرة النبوية: «إن إسماعيل عليه السلام دفن مع أمه عليها السلام في الحجر». ويقال أن موضع قبر إسماعيل بين الميزاب إلى باب الحجر الغربي.

الصلاة في حجر إسماعيل مستحبة عند عموم علماء المسلمين لأنه من البيت، وقد صح عن النبي: أنه

دخل الكعبة عام الفتح وصلى فيها ركعتين، وقد روت عائشة بنت أبي بكر لما أرادت دخول الكعبة: «كنت أحب أن أدخل البيت فأصلي فيه فأخذ رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم بيدي فأدخلني في الحجر فقال صلي في الحجر إذا أردت دخول البيت فإنما هو قطعة من البيت، فإن قومك اقتصروا حين بنوا الكعبة فأخرجوه من البيت». أما الفريضة فالأحوط عدم أدائها في الكعبة أو في الحجر، لأن النبي لم يفعل ذلك ولأن بعض أهل العلم قالوا: إنها لا تصح في الكعبة ولا في الحجر لأنه من البيت، قال ابن قدامة: «لا تصح الفريضة في الكعبة ولا على ظهرها، وجوزه الشافعي وأبو حنيفة لأنه مسجد، ولأنه محل لصلاة النفل فكان محلا للفرض كخارجها، ولنا: قول الله تعالى وحيث ما كنتم فولوا وجوهكم شطره والمصلي فيها أو على ظهرها غير مستقبل لجهتها، والنافلة مبناها على التخفيف والمسامحة، بدليل صلاتها قاعدا وإلى غير القبلة في السفر على الراحلة». أما ركعتا الطواف فإنه يستحب الإتيان بهما خلف مقام إبراهيم إن أمكن ذلك، ويصح الإتيان بهما في أي مكان من الحرم حتى في الحجر عند الجمهور، قال ابن المنذر النيسابوري: «أجمع العلماء على أن ركعتي الطواف تصحان حيث صلاهما، إلا مالكًا فإنه كره فعلهما في الحجر».

يُعد الحٍجْر جزءًا من الكعبة، فلا يجوز لطائف بالبيت في حج أو عمرة أو نفل أن يدخل من حجر إسماعيل ولا يجزئه ذلك لو فعله، لأن الطواف بالبيت والحجر من البيت، لقول الله: وليطوفوا بالبيت العتيق، ولما روته عائشة قالت: «سألت رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم عن الحجر قال: هو من البيت» وفي لفظ قالت: «إني نذرت أن أصلي في البيت قال: صلي في الحجر فإن الحجر من البيت». أما حكم اتجاه القبلة لمن صلى داخل الحجر، فقال العلماء أن ليس كل الحجر الموجود اليوم من الكعبة، بل الذي منها مقدار ستة أذرع، وقد نص عدد من الفقهاء على أن من صلى في الحجر فإنه يستقبل الكعبة ولو صلى إلى غير الكعبة بطلت صلاته، قال الحطاب المالكي: «أما الحجر فلا تصح الصلاة فيه إلا إلى الكعبة فلو شرق أو غرب أو استدبر الكعبة فصلاته باطلة»، وممن قال بالبطلان الحنفية والمالكية في المعتمد الراجح عندهم، والشافعية، وفريق من الحنابلة كابن حامد الحسن بن حامد البغدادي، وأبو الوفاء بن عقيل. وقد ذكر بعض الفقهاء أقوالًا حاصلها أن لا وجه لإبطال الصلاة ما دام الحجر من الكعبة، وممن قال بهذا القول الحنابلة في المعتمد عندهم، وهو قول عند المالكية اعتمده فريق منهم كأبي الحسن اللخمي، وهو قول مشهور عند الشافعية.

انظر أيضًا

 الكعبة
 المسجد الحرام
 إسماعيل

مصادر

وصلات خارجية

 الحطيم لصالح المغامسي
 مقال متكامل عن الحِجْر
 تاريخ الكعبة وأطوار بنائها

الكعبة
المسجد الحرام
مصطلحات الحج في الإسلام

حجر إسماعيل


فيدي (بالآيسلندية:Viðey أو Videy) هي أكبر جزيرة تقع في الخليج المقابل لمرفأ مدينة ريكيافيك عاصمة آيسلندا.

معالم الجزيرة
تعد الجزيرة مقرا لمنارة تخيل السلام، والمنارة هي برج يسطع ضوؤه لمسافات بعيدة، أنشأته يوكو أونو تخليدا لذكرى زوجها مغني البيتلز الراحل جون لينون لدعوته بالسلام العالمي. وهذا النصب أو المنارة الذي نحتت على جدرانه عبارة تخيل السلام أو احلم سلام بأربع وعشرين لغة، وهو عبارة عن شعاع من الضوء الموجه تجاه السماء والذي دفن أسفله آلاف الأمنيات المكتوبة والتي جمعتها أونو عبر السنوات الماضية.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 منطقة العاصمة ريكيافيك.
 Yoko Ono to unveil peace tower in Iceland in memory of John Lennon

براكين البليستوسين
براكين خامدة
فيدي

جزيرة فيدي


× Carruanthophyllum, monotipski hibridni rod u porodici čupavica. Jedina vrsta je × C. hybridum iz JAR-a. Nastala je križanjem vrsta Carruanthus ringens  (sin. Carruanthus caninus) i Machairophyllum albidum.

Sinonimi
 Mesembryanthemum hybridum Haw.; bazionim.

Izvori

Čupavice

× Carruanthophyllum


The Mureș () or Maros (; German: Mieresch, ) is a  river in Eastern Europe. Its drainage basin covers an area of . It originates in the Hășmașu Mare Range in the Eastern Carpathian Mountains, Romania, rising close to the headwaters of the river Olt, and joins the Tisza at Szeged in southeastern Hungary. In Romania, its length is  and its basin size is .

The Mureș River flows through the Romanian counties Harghita, Mureș, Alba, Hunedoara, Arad and Timiș, and the Hungarian county Csongrád. The largest cities on the Mureș/Maros are Târgu Mureș, Alba Iulia, Deva and Arad in Romania, and Makó in Hungary.

The Hungarian reaches of the Mureș/Maros are  long as the state border. Some  on the northern side of the river are protected as part of the Körös-Maros National Park. The Maros Floodplain Protected Area consists of gallery forests, floodplain meadows and  of forest reserve near Szeged.

Salt used to be traded in medieval times on the river on large rafts.

Name
The river is known to be first mentioned by Herodotus in 484 BC bearing the name Maris (Μάρις). Strabo calls it Marisos (Μάρισος). It was known in Latin as the ;   It is also mentioned in 948 AD, in a document of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, under the name Moreses (Μορήσης).

It was also known in German variously as the ,  or , owing to Transylvanian Saxon settlements and prior Habsburg rule. It was known in Turkish as the  or  under the Ottomans.

Towns and villages
The following towns are situated along the river Mureș, from source to mouth: Toplița, Reghin, Târgu Mureș, Luduș, Ocna Mureș, Aiud, Teiuș, Alba Iulia, Geoagiu, Orăștie, Simeria, Deva, Lipova, Arad, Nădlac (all in Romania), Makó, Szeged (both in Hungary).

The Mureș flows through the following communes (grouped by counties, from source to mouth):
Harghita County: Voșlăbeni, Suseni, Joseni, Remetea, Subcetate, Sărmaș, Gălăuțaș, Toplița
Mureș County: Stânceni, Lunca Bradului, Răstolița, Deda, Rușii-Munți, Aluniș, Brâncovenești, Ideciu de Jos, Suseni, Reghin, Petelea, Gornești, Glodeni, Ernei, Sântana de Mureș, Sângeorgiu de Mureș, Târgu Mureș, Sâncraiu de Mureș, Cristești, Pănet, Ungheni, Sânpaul, Iernut, Cuci, Bogata, Luduș, Chețani
Alba County: Noșlac, Lunca Mureșului, Ocna Mureș, Unirea, Mirăslău, Aiud, Rădești, Teiuș, Sântimbru, Ciugud, Alba Iulia, Vințu de Jos, Blandiana, Săliștea, Șibot
Hunedoara County: Geoagiu, Orăștie, Turdaș, Rapoltu Mare, Simeria, Hărău, Deva, Șoimuș, Vețel, Brănișca, Ilia, Gurasada, Dobra, Burjuc, Zam
Arad County: Petriș, Săvârșin, Birchiș, Vărădia de Mureș, Bata, Bârzava, Conop, Ususău, Lipova, Păuliș, Frumușeni, Fântânele, Vladimirescu, Arad, Zădăreni, Felnac, Pecica, Secusigiu, Semlac, Șeitin, Nădlac
Timiș County: Periam, Sânpetru Mare, Sânnicolau Mare, Cenad
Csongrád County: Nagylak, Magyarcsanád, Apátfalva, Makó, Kiszombor, Ferencszállás, Maroslele, Klárafalva, Deszk, Szeged

Tributaries
The following rivers are tributaries to the river Mureș (from source to mouth):

Left: Cărbunele Negru, Senetea, Fierăstrăul, Șumuleul Mare, Borzontul Mare, Borzontul Mic, Pietrosul, Bacta, Limbuș, Piatra, Eseniu, Martonca, Calnaci, Muscă, Gălăuțaș, Zăpodea, Măgheruș, Mărșinețul de Sus, Gudea Mare, Sălard, Iod, Borzia, Sebeș, Fițcău, Idicel, Deleni, Gurghiu, Mocear, Beica, Habic, Petrilaca, Valea cu Nuci, Terebici, Pocloș, Budiu, Niraj, Pârâul Mare, Lăscud, Sărata, Șeulia, Valea Luncilor, Ațintiș, Găbud, Fărău, Ciunga, Pusta Băgăului, Rât, Târnava, Hăpria, Sebeș, Pianul, Cioara, Cugir, Vaidei, Romos, Orăștie, Turdaș, Strei, Tâmpa, Cerna, Herepeia, Căoi, Vulcez, Leșnic, Săcămaș, Plai, Dobra, Abucea, Valea Mare, Sălciva, Peștiș, Căpriorișca, Somonița, Birchiș, Izvor, Corbul, Fiac, Suliniș, Lalașinț, Chelmac, Pârâul Mare, Șiștarovăț, Țârnobara, Sinicoț, Valea Fânețelor de Jos, Zădărlac, Zădăreni

Right: Chindeni, Arinul Scurt, Chirtoegher, Strâmba, Pârâul Noroios, Belcina, Lăzarea, Ghiduț, Ditrău, Faier, Jolotca, Filipea, Sărmaș, Ciucic, Toplița, Călimănel, Mermezeu, Zebrac, Neagra, Ilva, Obcina Ferigerilor, Răstolița, Gălăoaia, Bistra, Pietriș, Dumbrava, Râpa, Agriș, Lueriu, Luț, Șar, Voiniceni, Cuieșd, Valea Fânațelor, Șăușa, Valea din Jos, Lechința, Ranta, Pârâul de Câmpie, Grindeni, Arieș, Unirea, Ciugud, Ormeniș, Mirăslău, Lopadea, Aiud, Gârbova, Geoagiu (Alba), Galda, Ampoi, Pâclișa, Valea Vințului, Blandiana, Stânișoara, Băcăinți, Homorod, Geoagiu (Hunedoara), Boiul, Bobâlna, Valea lui Sânpetru, Lazu, Vărmaga, Certej, Boholt, Căian, Bejan, Boz, Sârbi, Băcișoara, Gurasada, Zam, Almaș, Petriș, Crăciuneasca, Troaș, Vinești, Stejar, Julița, Valea Mare, Grosul, Monoroștia, Bârzava, Nadăș, Conop, Cornic, Milova, Jernova, Șoimoș, Radna, Cladova, Crac, Száraz-ér

Images

See also

 List of rivers of Romania
 Tributaries of Mureș River (Romanian and Hungarian names)
 List of rivers of Europe

References

Rivers of Hungary
Rivers of Romania
Rivers of Harghita County
Rivers of Mureș County
Rivers of Alba County
Rivers of Hunedoara County
Rivers of Arad County
International rivers of Europe
Braided rivers in Europe

Mureș (river)


A photocathode is a surface engineered to convert light (photons) into electrons using the photoelectric effect.  Photocathodes are important in accelerator physics where they are utilised in a photoinjector to generate high brightness electron beams.  Electron beams generated with photocathodes are commonly used for free electron lasers and for ultrafast electron diffraction. Photocathodes are also commonly used as the negatively charged electrode in a light detection device such as a photomultiplier, phototube and image intensifier.

Important Properties

Quantum Efficiency (QE)
Quantum efficiency is a unitless number that measures the sensitivity of the photocathode to light.  It is the ratio of the number of electrons emitted to the number of incident photons.  This property depends on the wavelength of light being used to illuminate the photocathode.  For many applications, QE is the most important property as the photocathodes are used solely for converting photons into an electrical signal.

Quantum efficiency may be calculated from photocurrent (), laser power (), and either the photon energy () or laser wavelength () using the following equation.

Mean Transverse Energy (MTE) and Thermal Emittance
For some applications, the initial momentum distribution of emitted electrons is important and the mean transverse energy (MTE) and thermal emittance are popular metrics for this.  The MTE is the mean of the squared momentum in a direction along the photocathode's surface and is most commonly reported in units of milli-electron volts.

In high brightness photoinjectors, the MTE helps to determine the initial emittance of the beam which is the area in phase space occupied by the electrons.  The emittance () can be calculated from MTE and the laser spot size on the photocathode () using the following equation.

where  is the rest mass of an electron.  In commonly used units, this is as follows.

Because of the scaling of transverse emittance with MTE, it is sometimes useful to write the equation in terms of a new quantity called the thermal emittance.  The thermal emittance is derived from MTE using the following equation.

It is most often expressed in the ratio um/mm to express the growth of emittance in units of um as the laser spot grows (measured in units of mm).

An equivalent definition of MTE is the temperature of electrons emitted in vacuum. The MTE of electrons emitted from commonly used photocathodes, such as polycrystalline metals, is limited by the excess energy (the difference between the energy of the incident photons and the photocathode's work function) provided to the electrons. To limit MTE, photocathodes are often operated near the photoemission threshold, where the excess energy tends to zero. In this limit, the majority of photoemission comes from the tail of the Fermi distribution. Therefore, MTE is thermally limited to , where  is the Boltzmann constant and  is the temperature of electrons in the solid.

Due to conservation of transverse momentum and energy in the photoemission process, the MTE of a clean, atomically-ordered, single crystalline photocathode is determined by the material's band structure. An ideal band structure for low MTEs is one that does not allow photoemission from large transverse momentum states.

Outside of accelerator physics, MTE and thermal emittance play a role in the resolution of proximity-focused imaging devices that use photocathodes.  This is important for applications such as image intensifiers, wavelength converters, and the now obsolete image tubes.

Lifetime
Many photocathodes require excellent vacuum conditions to function and will become "poisoned" when exposed to contaminates.  Additionally, using the photocathodes in high current applications will slowly damage the compounds as they are exposed to ion back-bombardment.  These effects are quantified by the lifetime of the photocathode.  Cathode death is modeled as a decaying exponential as a function of either time or emitted charge.  Lifetime is then the time constant of the exponential.

Uses
For many years the photocathode was the only practical method for converting light to an electron current. As such it tends to function as a form of 'electric film' and shared many characteristics of photography. It was therefore the key element in opto-electronic devices, such as TV camera tubes like the orthicon and vidicon, and in image tubes such as intensifiers, converters, and dissectors. Simple phototubes were used for motion detectors and counters.

Phototubes have been used for years in movie projectors to read the sound tracks on the edge of movie film.

The more recent development of solid state optical devices such as photodiodes has reduced the use of photocathodes to cases where they still remain superior to semiconductor devices.

Construction
Photocathodes operate in a vacuum, so their design parallels vacuum tube technology. Since
most cathodes are sensitive to air the construction of photocathodes typically occurs after the enclosure has been evacuated. In operation the photocathode requires an electric field with a nearby positive anode to assure electron emission. Molecular beam epitaxy is broadly applied in today's manufacturing of photocathode. By using a substrate with matched lattice parameters, crystalline photocathodes can be made and electron beams can come out from the same position in lattice's Brillouin zone to get high brightness electron beams.

Photocathodes divide into two broad groups; transmission and reflective. A transmission type is typically a coating upon a glass window in which the light strikes one surface and electrons exit from the opposite surface. A reflective type is typically formed on an opaque metal electrode base, where the light enters and the electrons exit from the same side. A variation is the double reflection type, where the metal base is mirror-like, causing light that passed through the photocathode without causing emission to be bounced back for a second try. This mimics the retina on many mammals.

The effectiveness of a photocathode is commonly expressed as quantum efficiency, that being the ratio of emitted electrons vs. impinging quanta (of light). The efficiency varies with construction as well, as it can be improved with a stronger electric field.

Characterization
The surface of photocathodes can be characterized by various surface sensitive techniques like scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Coatings
Although a plain metallic cathode will exhibit photoelectric properties, the specialized coating greatly increases the effect.  A photocathode usually consists of alkali metals with very low work functions.

The coating releases electrons much more readily than the underlying metal, allowing it to detect the low-energy photons in infrared radiation.  The lens transmits the radiation from the object being viewed to a layer of coated glass. The photons strike the metal surface and transfer electrons to its rear side. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.

Photocathode materials
Ag-O-Cs, also called S-1. This was the first compound photocathode material, developed in 1929. Sensitivity from 300 nm to 1200 nm. Since Ag-O-Cs has a higher dark current than more modern materials, photomultiplier tubes with this photocathode material are nowadays used only in the infrared region with cooling.
Sb-Cs (antimony-caesium) has a spectral response from UV to visible and is mainly used in reflection-mode photocathodes.
Bialkali (antimony-rubidium-caesium Sb-Rb-Cs, antimony-potassium-caesium Sb-K-Cs). Spectral response range similar to the Sb-Cs photocathode, but with higher sensitivity and lower dark current than Sb-Cs. They have sensitivity well matched to the most common scintillator materials and so are frequently used for ionizing radiation  measurement in scintillation counters.
High temperature bialkali or low noise bialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony, Na-K-Sb). This material is often used in oil well logging since it can withstand temperatures up to 175 °C. At room temperatures, this photocathode operates with very low dark current, making it ideal for use in photon counting applications.
Multialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony-caesium, Na-K-Sb-Cs), also called S-20.  The multialkali photocathode has a wide spectral response from the ultraviolet to near infrared region. It is widely used for broad-band spectrophotometers and photon counting applications. The long wavelength response can be extended to 930 nm by a special photocathode activation processing. With the broadened response, this is sometimes referred to as S-25.
GaAs (gallium(II) arsenide). This photocathode material covers a wider spectral response range than multialkali, from ultraviolet to 930 nm. GaAs photocathodes are also used in accelerator facilities where polarized electrons are required. One of the important property of GaAs photocathode is, it can achieve Negative Electron Affinity due to Cs deposition on the surface. However GaAs is very delicate and loses Quantum Efficiency(QE) due to couple of damage mechanism. Ion Back Bombardment is one of the main cause of GaAs cathode QE decay.
InGaAs (indium gallium arsenide). Extended sensitivity in the infrared range compared to GaAs. Moreover, in the range between 900 nm and 1000 nm, InGaAs has a much better signal-to-noise ratio than Ag-O-Cs. With special manufacturing techniques this photocathode can operate up to 1700 nm.
Cs-Te, Cs-I (caesium-telluride, caesium iodide). These materials are sensitive to vacuum UV and UV rays but not to visible light and are therefore referred to as solar blind. Cs-Te is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 320 nm, and Cs-I to those longer than 200 nm.

References

External links
Photomultiplier Tubes Basics and Applications from Hamamatsu Photonics

Electrochemistry

Photocathode


Elizabeth Witmer (née Gosar; born October 16, 1946) is a former Deputy Premier of Ontario, Canada. She was a member of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from 1990 until 2012, representing Waterloo North and later Kitchener—Waterloo as a member of the Progressive Conservative Party.

In 2012, she was appointed as chair of the Workplace Safety & Insurance Board.

Background
Witmer was born in Schiedam, Netherlands. She moved with her family to Ontario at a young age. She received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Western Ontario, and later attended the Althouse College of Education. She did postgraduate work at the University of Waterloo. Witmer worked as a secondary school teacher from 1968 to 1980, in West Lorne, London and Guelph. She was named the "Kitchener-Waterloo Woman of the Year" in 1968.

Politics
Witmer began her political career as a school trustee, serving on the Waterloo County Board of Education from 1980 to 1990; she became its chair in 1984. She ran for the Ontario legislature in the 1987 election, but was defeated by Ontario Liberal Party Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) Herb Epp in Waterloo North.

Epp retired before the 1990 provincial election, and Witmer again won the Progressive Conservative nomination in the riding. She was successful this time, defeating New Democrat Hugh Miller and Liberal Andrew Telegdi (later a federal Member of Parliament)  to become the first female MPP to be elected in the region of Waterloo. The NDP scored an upset victory in this election while the Progressive Conservatives won only 20 of 130 seats for third-party status.

Cabinet appointment
There was a significant swing to the Progressive Conservatives in the 1995 provincial election, and Witmer was re-elected by more than 17,000 votes over her nearest opponent.  On June 26, 1995, she was appointed Minister of Labour in the government of Mike Harris. In October 1997, she was promoted to the key portfolio of Minister of Health, replacing the more confrontational Jim Wilson.

Harris's government was initially regarded by many as uniformly right-wing, although moderate Red Tory figures such as Witmer and Isabel Bassett eventually emerged in key portfolios. Witmer's appointment as Minister of Health was generally interpreted as signalling that the government desired a more moderate approach to negotiations with the health sector. Despite this, she presided over a controversial restructuring process which included a number of government cutbacks.

Witmer was re-elected in the 1999 election, defeating Liberal Sean Strickland by just under 10,000 votes. On June 17, 1999 her portfolio was renamed the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care.  Following a cabinet shuffle on February 8, 2001, she became Minister of the Environment.

Ministerial Accomplishments

Workplace Safety and Insurance Act, 1996
During her term as Minister of Labour Ms. Witmer overhauled the Worker's Compensation Act, renaming it the Workplace Safety and Insurance Act and introduced entitlement benefits for mental stress for the first time.

Cabinet positions

2002 PC leadership campaign and afterward

She ran in the 2002 PC leadership election to succeed Harris as Tory leader and Premier, but placed fourth on the first ballot and threw her support to the eventual winner, Ernie Eves. In April 2002, she was appointed Deputy Premier and Minister of Education.

The 2003 election saw a significant backlash against the Conservative government. Witmer was re-elected in Kitchener—Waterloo defeating Strickland by a reduced margin of 1,501 votes. Moreover, she is considered to be one of the few moderates in a caucus dominated by the right-wing of the party. She was named as deputy leader of the opposition, and serves as her party's critic on long-term care and women's issues.

Witmer considered running to succeed Eves in the 2004 PC leadership election, but ultimately supported John Tory's successful candidacy instead. Tory re-appointed Witmer as deputy leader. Her appointment was considered a notable victory for the centrist wing of the party. In the 2007 provincial election, Witmer won re-election by 4,917 votes.

Witmer again considered running in the 2009 PC leadership election, following the resignation of John Tory, but ultimately she decided to endorse Christine Elliott.

In 2007, Equal Voice, a non-partisan organization dedicated to improving the status of women in politics, conducted an "Ontario's Greatest Female Premier" contest to name the woman in politics whom respondents felt would make the best Premier of Ontario. Witmer won the contest, ahead of political activist Georgina Bencsik and federal Member of Parliament Olivia Chow.

Resignation and appointment to WSIB
On April 27, 2012 Witmer announced that she was resigning as an MPP, just seven months after the last election, and had accepted an appointment to head the Workplace Safety & Insurance Board. She succeeded Steve Mahoney as chair. She revealed in September 2012 that she chose to accept the WSIB position because her husband Cam had recently been diagnosed with cancer.

Chair of Workplace Safety and Insurance Board (WSIB)

As Chair of one of North America's largest insurance companies, Mrs. Witmer is responsible for overseeing
the WSIB's transformation to a modern and sustainable workplace insurance system. One of Mrs. Witmer's
most notable accomplishments as Chair is the elimination of the unfunded liability (UFL) in 2018, almost
a decade ahead of the legislated timeline of 2027. For the first time in recent history the WSIB is over 100%
funded

See also
 List of University of Waterloo people

References

Notes

Citations

External links

1946 births
Women government ministers of Canada
Deputy premiers of Ontario
Dutch emigrants to Canada
Health ministers of Ontario
Living people
Members of the Executive Council of Ontario
Ontario school board trustees
Politicians from Waterloo, Ontario
People from Schiedam
Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario MPPs
University of Waterloo alumni
University of Western Ontario alumni
Women MPPs in Ontario
21st-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian women politicians

Elizabeth Witmer


Maitane Etxeberria (født 15. januar 1997 i Lezo) er en spansk håndboldspiller, som spiller for Super Amara Bera Bera og Spaniens håndboldlandshold.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Håndboldspillere fra Spanien
Håndboldspillere fra BM Bera Bera

Maitane Etxeberria


Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (28 Mayıs 1807 - 14 Aralık 1873) İsviçre doğumlu Amerikalı zoolog, glasiyolog, ihtiyolog ve jeologdur. Eğitimci Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz'in eşidir.

Gençliği ve eğitimi
Louis Agassiz İsviçre'nin Fribourg kantonu Motier'de (Vully) doğdu. İlk eğitimini evde aldıktan sonra Bienne'de dört yıl orta öğretime devam etti ve temel eğitimini Lozan'da tamamladı. Tıp mesleğini seçen Agassiz sırasıyla Zürih, Heidelberg ve Münih üniversitelerinde doğa tarihi üzerine bilgisini arttırdı ve özellikle botanik üzerine çalıştı. 1829 yılında Erlangen'de felsefe doktoru, 1830 yılında Münih'te tıp doktoru derecelerini kazandı. Paris'e taşındıktan sonra Alexander von Humboldt ve Georges Cuvier'nin yardımlarıyla jeoloji ve zooloji kariyerine başladı. Daha önce pek ilgilenmediği balıkbilim (ihtiyoloji), sonraları hayatının en büyük meşgalesi oldu. Günümüzde en çok bu konudaki çalışmaları ile tanınır.

İlk çalışmaları
Johann Baptist von Spix ve Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, 1819 - 1820 yıllarında Brezilya'ya yaptıkları bilimsel yolculuğun ardından Avrupa'ya dönüşlerinde birçok doğal nesnenin yanı sıra, özellikle Amazon Nehri'nden toplanmış Brezilya'nın tatlı su balıklarının önemli bir koleksiyonunu da getirmişlerdi. 1826 yılında ölen Spix, bu balıkların geçmişi hakkında fazla çalışma fırsatı bulamamıştı ve Martius, bunu gerçekleştirmek için okuldan yeni mezun olmasına rağmen Agassiz'i seçmişti. Agassiz yoğun çalışma hayatı boyunca karakteri hâline gelecek büyük bir çalışma şevkiyle işe girişti ve 1829 yılında Brezilya balıklarını tanımlamayı bitirerek çalışmasını yayımladı. Bunu Neuchâtel Gölü'ndeki balıkların geçmişi üzerine yaptığı araştırma izledi. Araştırma planlarını büyüten Agassiz 1830 yılında Orta Avrupa Tatlısu Balıklarının Tarihçesi 'nin tanıtımını yayımladı. Eserin birinci bölümü ancak 1839 yılında yayımlandı ve eser 1842'de tamamlandı.

1832 yılında Neuchâtel Üniversitesi'ne doğa tarihi üzerine öğretim görevlisi olarak atandı. Kısa sürede, burada bulunan fosil balıklar ilgisini çekti. Glarus'un arduvaz ve Monte Bolca'nın kireçtaşı yataklarındaki zengin fosil kaynakları biliniyordu ancak bunlar üzerine çok az bilimsel çalışma yapılmıştı. Agassiz, daha 1829 yılında kendisine dünya çapında ün kazandıracak olan eserinin temelini atacak ilk çalışmalarını planlamıştı. Beş ciltlik Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ("Fosil Balıklar Üzerine İnceleme"), 1833'ten 1843'e kadar aralıklarla yayımlandı. Kitap, çoğu Joseph Dinkel tarafından yapılan harikulade resimlerle bezenmiştir. Agassiz bu çalışma için malzeme toplamak üzere  Avrupa'nın başlıca müzelerini dolaşırken Paris'te Cuvier ile karşılaşmış ve çalışması için hem teşvik hem de yardım almıştır.

Agassiz paleontolojik çalışmalarının sonucunda yeni bir ihtiyolojik sınıflandırma gerektiğini ortaya koydu. Fosillerde balıkların yumuşak dokularına nadiren rastlanıyordu. Genel olarak dişler, balık pulları ve yüzgeçler bulunuyordu ve çok az örnekte iyi korunmuş kemiklerle karşılaşılıyordu. Dolayısıyla balıkları pullarına ve diğer derimsi uzantılarına göre dört gruba ayıran bir sınıflandırmayı kabul etti: Ganoidler, Plakoidler, Sikloidler ve Stenoidler. Agassiz konuyu bilimsel temele oturtmak için ne kadar çalıştıysa da bu sınıflandırma daha sonra yapılan araştırmalarla değiştirildi.

Agassiz'in tanımlama çalışmaları, maddi yardım almadığı takdirde kaynaklarının yetmeyeceği bir noktada tıkandı. Bu sırada ''Bilimin İlerlemesi için Britanya Derneği'' ve Ellesmere Earl'ü Francis Egerton yardımına yetişti ve destek oldu. Çalışma için yapılan 1.290 orijinal resim Francis Egerton tarafından satın alınarak Londra Jeoloji Topluluğu'na sunuldu. Fosil ihtiyolojisi üzerine çalışmaları nedeniyle 1836 yılında bu dernek tarafından Agassiz'e Wollaston madalyası verilmiştir. 1838 yılında da Kraliyet Derneği'ne yabancı üye olarak seçildi. Bu sıralarda omurgasız hayvanlar ile ilgilenmeye başlamıştı. 1837 yılında, hem yaşayan hem de fosil derisi dikenliler hakkındaki eserinin girişini yayımladı. Bu eserin ilk kısmı 1838 yılında çıktı. 1839-1840 yıllarında İsviçre'nin fosil derisidikenlileri üzerine iki dörtlük cilt yayımladı. 1840-1845 yıllarında da Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles ("Fosil Yumuşakçalar üzerine Eleştirel Çalışmalar") adlı eserini yayımladı.

İngiltere'ye 1834 yılındaki ilk yolculuğundan önce Hugh Miller ve diğer jeologların uğraşları sonucu İskoçya'nın kuzeydoğusunda bulunan Old Red Sandstone'da dikkate değer balık fosilleri gün ışığına çıkarıldı. Burada, Pterichthys, Coccosteus ve diğer türlerin garip biçimleri jeologlar tarafından ilk defa ortaya çıkarılmıştı. Bu fosillerle yoğun olarak ilgilenen Agassiz, 1844-1845 yıllarında Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie ("Old Red Sandstone'un ya da Britanya Adaları ile Rusya'nın Devon Sistemi'ndeki Fossil Balıklar üzerine Çalışma ") adlı eserini yayımladı.

Neuchâtel'deki kariyerinin ilk yıllarında Agassiz bilimsel bir bölümü yönetebilme konusunda da ün yapmıştır. Çabaları sonucunda Neuchâtel Üniversitesi bilimsel araştırmada önde gelen kurumlardan biri hâline gelmiştir.

Buzul Çağı önerisi

Dünya'nın geçmişte bir Buzul Çağı yaşadığını öne süren ilk bilim insanı Agassiz olmuştur. (1837) .

Daha önce de Saussure, Venetz, Jean de Charpentier ve diğerleri, Alp buzulları üzerine özel çalışmalar yayımlamış ve hatta Charpentier, Jura dağlarının zirvesinde ve eteklerinde dağılmış bulunan alp kayaçlarından oluşan eratik blokların buzullarla taşındığı sonucuna bile varmıştı. Bu durum Agassiz'in dikkatini çekmiş, Charpentier ile birlikte Alplere birçok araştırma gezisi yapmakla kalmayarak, Aar buzullarından birinde bir dağ kulübesine yerleşerek buzun yapısını ve hareketlerini incelemişti. Bu araştırmalar sonucunda 1840 yılında iki ciltlik Etudes sur les glaciers ("Buzullar üzerine Çalışma") adlı eserini yayımladı. Bu çalışmasında buzulların ve buzultaşların hareketlerini, geçtikleri yerdeki kayaları oyma ve yuvarlama etkilerini ve Alp dağlarında karşılaşılan yarıkları ve hörgüçkayaları tartışmaya açmıştır. Charpentier'nin, bazı Alp buzullarının Aar ve Rhône nehirlerinin geçtiği geniş düzlüklere ve vadilere geçmişte yayılmış olduğu yönündeki düşüncesini kabul etmekle kalmamış, daha da öteye giderek görece yakın geçmişte İsviçre'nin başka bir Grönland olduğu sonucuna varmıştır. Bahsedilen alanlarda birkaç buzulun uzantısının varlığı yerine Alplerin yüksek rakımlarından başlayan ve kuzeybatı İsviçre'nin tamamını kaplayarak Jura'ların güney eteklerine kadar varan tek bir buz tabakasının varlığını ortaya koymuştur. Sözü edilen buz tabakası, Jura'ların eteklerinden bazı zirvelere kadar çıkmaktadır. Bu eserin yayımlanması tüm dünyada buzul fenomeninin araştırılmasına yeni bir hız kazandırmıştır.

Buzul hareketleriyle ilgili fenomenlere böylelikle iyice aşina olan Agassiz, William Buckland ile birlikte 1840 yılında bir keşif gezisine çıktı. İskoçya'nın dağlarını gezdiler ve değişik yörelerde eski buzul hareketinin kanıtlarını buldular. Bu keşif Londra Jeoloji Topluluğu ile yapılan çeşitli yazışmalarla bildirilmiştir. İngiltere, Galler ve İrlanda'nın dağlık bölgelerinde de buzul hareketinin kalıntılarından oluşan yerler olduğu hesaba katıldıktan sonra Agassiz, "şu anda Grönland'da olanlara benzeyen büyük buz tabakalarının bir zamanlar, katmanlardan oluşmayan çakıl taşı bulunan tüm ülkeleri kapladığını ve bu çakıl taşlarının ilerleyen buzul tabakasının üzerinden geçtiği katmanları ezerek öğütmesiyle oluştuğunu" belirtmiştir.

Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ne yerleşmesi
1842-1846 yılları arasında büyük ve zahmetli bir araştırma sonucu zoolojide tür ve gruplar için kullanılan tüm isimleri, kaynaklarıyla birlikte sınıflandırılmış bir liste hâlinde topladığı Nomenclator Zoologicus adlı eserini yayımladı. Prusya kralının tahsis ettiği para ile hem Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin doğa tarihini ve jeolojisini araştırmak hem de Massachusetts eyaletinin Boston şehrinde bulunan Lowell Enstitüsü'nde J.A. Lowell'dan aldığı davetle zooloji dersleri vermek için 1846 sonbaharında Atlantik'in öte yakasına geçti. Gördüğü finansal ve bilimsel avantajlar neticesinde yaşamının sonuna kadar kalacağı Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ne yerleşmeye karar verdi. 1847 yılında Harvard Üniversitesi'nde zooloji ve jeoloji profesörlüğüne getirildi. 1859 yılında burada kurduğu Karşılaştırmalı Zooloji Müzesi'nin müdürlüğünü öldüğü güne kadar sürdürdü. Harvard'da bulunduğu süre içinde son Buz Çağı'nın Kuzey Amerika üzerindeki etkisini araştıran ilk isimlerden olmuştur.
Agassiz Harvard'da ders verirken aynı zamanda konuk öğretim üyesi olarak Cornell Üniversitesi'nde de ders vermiştir. 1852 yılında Charlestown, Massachusetts'te karşılaştırmalı anatomi üzerine tıp profesörlüğünü kabul etti ancak iki yıl sonra bu görevi bıraktı. Bu dönemden sonra bilimsel çalışmaları azalmış olsa da onlarca yıl boyunca uzmanı olduğu iki branşta, aralarında David Starr Jordan, Joel Asaph Allen, Joseph Le Conte, Nathaniel Shaler, Alpheus Packard ve oğlu Alexander Agassiz'in de bulunduğu birçok değerli bilim insanı yetiştirmiştir. Paleontolojist Charles Doolittle Walcott üzerinde de büyük etkisi olmuştur. Kuzey Amerika bilim çevresindeki bu etki sonucu birçok türe ve Amerika topraklarındaki değişik coğrafi oluşumlara adı verilmiştir. Winnipeg Gölü ve Kızıl Nehir'in Pleistocene dönemdeki öncülü Agassiz Gölü bunlardan birisidir.

Agassiz o dönemde, bilim çevreleri dışında da dünyanın en çok tanınan bilim adamlarından olmuştur. Longfellow 1857'de çok sevdiği Agassiz'in onuruna "The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz" ("Agassiz'in ellinci doğum yıldönümü") 'nü yazmıştır. On cilt olarak planladığı Natural History of the United States ("Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin Doğa Tarihi") adlı eserinin dört cildini 1857-1862 yılları arasında yayımladı. Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae adı altında makale kataloğu da 1848 ile 1854 yılları arasında dört cilt olarak yayımlanmıştır.

1860'larda sağlığının bozulması nedeniyle hem rahatlamak hem de Brezilya balıkları üzerinde yaptığı çalışmalarına kaldığı yerden devam etmek için saha çalışmalarına dönmeye karar verdi. 1865 Nisan'ında Brezilya'ya gitti. 1866 Ağustos'unda döndükten sonra bu gezisini 1868 yılında yayımladığı A Journey in Brazil ("Brezilya'da bir Yolculuk") adlı eserinde anlattı. 1871 yılında çıktığı ikinci bir yolculukta Kuzey Amerika'nın güneyinde, hem Atlantik hem de Pasifik kıyılarını dolaştı.

Mirası
1863 yılında Agassiz'in kızı Ida, Boston Senfoni Orkestrası'nın kurucusu Henry Lee Higginson ile evlendi.

Yaşamanın son yıllarında zooloji biliminin canlı hayvanların arasında öğrenilebileceği bir okul kurmakla uğraştı. 1873'te John Anderson isimli hayırsever Massachusetts'teki Buzzards Koyu'nda bulunan Penikese Adası'nı Agassiz'e verdi ve özellikle deniz zoolojisi olmak üzere doğa bilimleriyle ilgili uygulamalı bir okul projesinde kullanılmak üzere 50.000 ABD Doları bağışladı. Agassiz'in ölümünden hemen sonra kapanan John Anderson okulu hemen yanında bulunan Deniz Biyoloji Laboratuvarı'nın öncüsü sayılmaktadır.

Agassiz günümüzde buzul çağları üzerine olan çalışması ve Charles Darwin'in evrim teorisine karşı çıkan önde gelen son zoologlardan biri olarak tanınmaktadır. 1873 yılında Massachusetts eyaletinin Cambridge şehrinde öldü ve Mount Auburn Mezarlığı'na gömüldü. Mezartaşı, eski Hotel des Neuchâtelois'nın yakınlarında Aar buzulu üzerindeki kulübesinin yakınlarındaki buzultaştan getirilen bir kaya parçasıdır, mezarını gölgeleyen çam ağaçları da İsviçre'deki eski evinden gönderilmiştir.

Harvard Üniversitesi'nin kuzeyindeki Cambridge ilkokuluna Agassiz adı verilmiş ve etrafındaki mahalle de zamanla "Agassiz" olarak bilinir olmuştur. Ancak okulun adı 21 Mayıs 2002'de değiştirilerek, 1889 ile 1922 yılları arasında okul müdürlüğü yapmış olan Afrika kökenli Amerikalı Maria L. Baldwin'in adı verilmiştir. Mahallenin adı Agassiz olarak kalmıştır.

Kuzey Amerika'nın Göller Bölgesi'nde bulunan eski bir buzul gölüne Agassiz Gölü adı verilmiştir.

Apistogramma agassizi (Agassiz cüce sihlidi), Isocapnia agassizi (Agassiz kar sineği) ve Gopherus agassizii (Çöl kaplumbağası) gibi çeşitli hayvan türlerine adı verilmiştir.

Mars gezegenindeki bir kratere ve Ay üzerindeki bir burna da adı verilmiştir.

Irksal sınıflandırma tasarısı
1851 yılında yazdığı  Essay on Classification (Sınıflandırma üzerine Deneme) adlı eserinde Agassiz, tüm hayvan, bitki ve insan ırklarının sınıflandırılabileceğine inandığını söyleyerek iklimsel bölgelere ayrılmış bir dizi insan ırkı tanımlaması yaptı.

Bu ırklar şöyleydi: Batı Amerikan ılıman (Kayalık Dağlar'ın batısındaki yerli halklar); Doğu Amerikan Ilıman (Kayalık Dağlar'ın doğusu); Tropik Asyalı (Himalayalar'ın güneyi); Ilıman Asyalı (Urallar'ın doğusu ve Himalayalar'ın kuzeyi); Güney Amerikan Ilıman (Güney Amerika); Yeni Hollanda (Avustralya); Arktik (Alaska ve Arktik Kanada); Ümit Burnu (Güney Afrika); ve Tropik Amerikan (Orta Amerika ve Batı Hint Adaları).

Eserleri

 Recherches sur les poissons fossiles - Fosil Balıklar Üzerine İnceleme (1833-1843)
 History of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe - Orta Avrupa Tatlısu Balıklarının Tarihçesi (1839-1842)
 Études sur les glaciers - Buzullar üzerine Çalışma (1840)
 Études critiques sur les mollusques fossiles - Fosil yumuşakçalar üzerine eleştirel çalışmalar (1840-1845)
 Nomenclator Zoologicus (1842-1846)
 Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Grès Rouge, ou Système Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Îles Britanniques et de Russie - Yaşlı Kızıl Kumtaşı veya Britanya Adaları ile Rusya'nın Devon Sistemi fosil balıkları üzerine çalışma (1844-1845)
 Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae (1848)
 (AA Gould ile birlikte) Principles of Zoology for the use of Schools and Colleges - Okullarda ve Kolejlerde kullanımak üzere Zoolojinin İlkeleri  (Boston, 1848)
 Lake Superior: Its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared with those of other and similar regions - Superior Gölü: Kıyaslamalı Fiziksel Yapı, Bitki Örtüsü ve Hayvanlar (Boston: Gould, Kendall ve Lincoln, 1850)
 Natural History of the United States - Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nin Doğa Tarihi (Boston: Little, Brown, 1847-1862)
 Geological Sketches - Jeolojik Taslaklar (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1866)
 A Journey in Brazil - Brezilya'da bir Yolculuk (1868)
 De l'espèce et de la classification en zoologie [Essay on classification] - Zoolojide tür ve sınıflandırma hakkında [Sınıflandırma üzerine deneme] (Çev. Felix Vogeli.  Paris: Bailière, 1869)
 Geological Sketches (Second Series) - Jeolojik Taslaklar (İkinci Seri) (Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1876)

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Gutenberg.com
 Bibliography of Agassiz
 ScienceWorldBiography

Agassiz ailesi
1807 doğumlular
1873 yılında ölenler
Mount Auburn Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
19. yüzyıl Amerikalı bilim insanları
İsviçreli glasiyologlar
İsviçreli Protestanlar
Amerikalı ihtiyologlar
Amerikalı glasiyologlar
Amerikalı taksonomistler
Amerikalı yaratılışçılar
Hristiyan yaratılışçılar
Prusya Bilim Akademisi üyeleri
St Petersburg Bilimler Akademisi'nin muhabir üyeleri
Takson yazarları
Katastrofizm
Heidelberg Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Münih Ludwig Maximilian Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Erlangen-Nuremberg Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Zürih Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Neuchâtel Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Cornell Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Harvard Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Amerikan Bilim ve Sanat Akademisi üyeleri
Royal Society of Edinburgh üyeleri
Royal Society'nin yabancı üyeleri
Hall of Fame for Great Americans üyeleri
Belçika Kraliyet Bilim ve Sanat Akademisi üyeleri
İsveç Kraliyet Bilimler Akademisi üyeleri
Ulusal Bilimler Akademisi üyeleri
Müze kurucuları
Bilimsel ırkçılık
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ndeki İsviçreli göçmenler
Wollaston Madalyası sahipleri

Louis Agassiz


Tweeddale (Scottish Gaelic: Srath Thuaidh/Tuaidhdail) is a committee area and lieutenancy area in the Scottish Borders council area in south-eastern Scotland. It had also been a province in the Middle Ages. From 1975 to 1996 it was a local government district. Its boundaries correspond to the historic county of Peeblesshire.

Geography
The area had an estimated population of 20,848 in 2015. It is one of the five committee areas in the Scottish Borders. Major settlements in the area include Peebles, Innerleithen and West Linton.

It is the traditional name for the dale (the area drained) by the upper reaches of the River Tweed. This area was considered to end before the Yarrow Water flowed into the Tweed, so the area was bounded to the south and east by the Yarrow/Tweed watershed, and to the north and east by the Gala Water/Tweed watershed.

12,770 ha of upper Tweeddale between Broughton and Peebles is designated as the Upper Tweeddale National Scenic Area, one of 40 such areas in Scotland which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development.

History

Tweeddale was a historic district or province in the Middle Ages, bordering Teviotdale and the Marches to the east, Liddesdale and Annandale to the south, Clydesdale to the west and Lothian to the north. From the twelfth century the area was divided into sheriffdoms. The southern part of Tweeddale became the sheriffdom of Selkirkshire, also known as Ettrick Forest, whilst the northern part of Tweeddale was initially divided into two sheriffdoms, based at Peebles and Traquair, before those two were united as the single shire of Peebles, or Peeblesshire, around 1304. From then on the shires gradually became the more important areas for administration; the old provinces were not abolished as such, but their importance diminished.

Tweeddale District
Local government reorganisation in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 introduced a two-tier structure of local government across Scotland comprising upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. Peeblesshire County Council was abolished and the area became part of the Borders region. The region was divided into four districts, one of which was called Tweeddale, covering the same area as pre-1975 Peeblesshire. The new Tweeddale district took over the functions of the six former districts of Peeblesshire, which were all abolished at the same time:
Broughton District
Innerleithen Burgh
Innerleithen District
Linton District
Peebles Royal Burgh
Peebles District

For lieutenancy purposes, the last lord-lieutenant of the county of Peeblesshire was made the first Lord Lieutenant of Tweeddale when the reforms came into effect in 1975.

The Borders region and its four districts, including Tweeddale, were abolished in 1996, merging to form the present Scottish Borders council area. The area of the pre-1996 Tweeddale district continues to be used as a lieutenancy area.

Political control
The first election to Tweeddale District Council was held in 1974, initially operating as a shadow authority alongside the outgoing authorities until it came into its powers on 16 May 1975. Throughout the council's existence a majority of the seats were held by independents:

Premises
The council was based at the Council Offices on Rosetta Road in Peebles. The building had originally been built in 1856 as a workhouse, but had been extensively rebuilt and extended in 1935 to become the headquarters of Peeblesshire County Council. After the 1996 reforms the building became an area office for Scottish Borders Council and a police station.

See also
History of local government in the United Kingdom
Marquess of Tweeddale

References

External links

Historic map showing "Tweddale, alias, The Shire of Peebles"
Historic map showing Tweeddale in Scotland
Historic map showing Tweeddale in Scotland
Historic map showing Tweeddale in Scotland
Tweeddale whisky

Lieutenancy areas of Scotland

River Tweed
Clan Fraser
Politics of the Scottish Borders

Tweeddale


Israels kvindefodboldlandshold () repræsenterer Israel i international fodbold for kvinder. Israels kvindefodboldlandshold blev etableret i 1997.

Resultater

VM i fodbold for kvinder

EM i fodbold for kvinder

Aktuel trup

Referencer

Kvindefodboldlandshold
Kvindefodboldlandshold

Israels kvindefodboldlandshold


Tepecik, Samsun ilinin Kavak ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe

Coğrafya
Samsun iline 53 km, Kavak ilçesine 3 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kavak'ın mahalleleri

Tepecik, Kavak


Yazgı, 2001 yılı yapımı bir Türk filmidir. Filmin yönetmeni Zeki Demirkubuz'dur.

Konusu
Yabancı'nın birebir sayılamayacak uyarlamasıdır ve Musa karakteri Meursault karakterine benzemektedir.

Gümrük memuru Musa, birbirinin zıddı iki olay arasında fark göz etmeyen birisidir. Annesinin ölümüne tepki vermeyen Musa, iki çocuk ve bir anneyi öldürmekten sorumlu tutulmasına da sesini çıkarmaz

Oyuncular
 Serdar Orçin - Musa
 Zeynep Tokuş - Sinem
 Engin Günaydın - Necati
 Demir Karahan - Naim
 Necmi Aykar
 Türkan İnce
 Feridun Koç - Yavuz
 Canan Akgül
 Nazan Kesal
 Emrah Elçiboğa - Polis
 Erol Babaoğlu
 Şehsuvar Aktaş - Savcı
 Abdullah Demirkubuz
 Serdar Akar
 Sinan Ekşi
 Gökhan Atılmış

Teknik ekip

Yapımcı
 Zeki Demirkubuz

Görüntü Yönetmeni
 Ali Utku

Sanat Yönetmeni
 Bahar Evgin

Yapım
 Mavi Filmcilik

Vizyon tarihi
9 Haziran 2001/Türkiye

Aldığı ödüller
 38. Antalya Altın Portakal Film Festivali
 'En İyi 3. Film'
 'En İyi Yönetmen' (Zeki Demirkubuz)
 'En İyi Sanat Yönetmeni' (Bahar Evgin)
 'Jüri Özel Ödülü' (Serdar Orçin)

Dış bağlantılar

 Demirkubuz.com - Filmin resmi sayfası.
 TurkishFilmChannel  - Filmin internet dağıtım sayfası (İngilizce).
 4x10

2001 çıkışlı Türk filmleri
Zeki Demirkubuz'un yönettiği filmler
Fransız romanlarından uyarlanan filmler
2000'lerde Türkçe filmler
Ali Utku'nun görüntülediği filmler
2001 çıkışlı dramatik filmler

Yazgı (film, 2001)


Doris Bačić (* 23. Februar 1995 in Korčula, Kroatien) ist eine kroatische Fußballtorhüterin.

Karriere

Verein
Bačić startete ihre Karriere in der Nogometna Akademija Libertas Dubrovnik und wechselte von dort aus zum ŽNK Ombla Dubrovnik. Im Sommer 2011 verließ sie Dubrovnik und wechselte zum bosnischen Verein SFK 2000 Sarajewo, für den sie in der Qualifikation der UEFA Women's Champions League spielte.

Im Sommer 2012 kehrte sie nach einem Jahr nach Kroatien zurück und spielt seitdem in der höchsten kroatischen Frauenliga 1. HNL für den ŽNK Osijek. Nach nur fünf Spielen in der 1. HNL für ŽNK Osijek, unterschrieb sie am 21. Juli 2013 für den Arsenal LFC. Nachdem sie beim Arsenal LFC ohne Einsatz blieb, wurde sie an den schwedischen Meister der Damallsvenskan, den FC Rosengård abgegeben. Im Sommer 2015 kehrte sie zum SFK 2000 Sarajewo zurück, bevor sie vom SC Sand verpflichtet wurde und am 20. Juli 2016 unterschrieb. Nach nur einen Monat löste sie ihren Vertrag bei Sand auf und kehrte zu SFK 2000 Sarajevo im August 2016 zurück. In Bosnien wiederum spielte sie bis Januar 2017 und verließ den Verein in Richtung Island, zum Zweitligisten Ungmennafélagið Einherji. Sie lief in 14 Spielen, in der 2. deild kvenna für Einherji auf, bevor sie am 1. September desselben Jahres, in Belgien's höchsten Spielklasse beim RSC Anderlecht unterschrieb. Am 1. August 2018 verkündete dann Juventus Turin die Verpflichtung, der 23-jährigen Torhüterin.

Nationalmannschaft
Ihr A-Länderspieldebüt gab sie am 24. November 2011 in Den Haag bei der 0:2-Niederlage gegen die Auswahl der Niederlande. Zuvor bestritt sie sechs Länderspiele für die U-17- und drei für die U-19-Nachwuchsmannschaft.

Erfolge
 Italienische Meisterschaft: 2018/19

Weblinks

 Bačićs Länderspiele auf hns-cff.hr

Einzelnachweise

Fußballnationaltorhüter (Kroatien)
Fußballspieler (SFK 2000 Sarajevo)
Fußballtorhüter (FC Arsenal)
Fußballtorhüter (FC Rosengård)
Fußballtorhüter (Juventus Turin)
Fußballtorhüter (RSC Anderlecht)
Fußballtorhüter (SC Sand)
Kroate
Geboren 1995
Frau

Doris Bačić


Amt Flintbek var før 1. juni 2023 et amt i det nordlige Tyskland, beliggende i den østlige del af Kreis Rendsburg-Eckernförde. Kreis Rendsburg-Eckernförde ligger i den centrale del af delstaten Slesvig-Holsten, Amtets administration var beliggende i byen Flintbek. Det nedlagte Amt blev sammenlagt med Amt Molfsee til Amt Eidertal.

Kommuner i amtet
 Böhnhusen
 Flintbek
 Schönhorst
 Techelsdorf

Historie
Amt Flintbek blev oprettet ved Kreis- og amtsreformen i 1970. Nedlagt 1. juni 2023.

Eksterne kilder/henvisninger

 Om Amt Flintbek  på landkreisens websted

Flintbek
Nedlagte amter i Slesvig-Holsten

Amt Flintbek


Richard Bell, né en  à Charleville, dans le Queensland (Australie), est un artiste peintre et militant politique aborigène australien.

Biographie

Richard Bell est l'un des fondateurs de proppaNOW, un collectif d'artistes aborigènes basé à Brisbane.

Né en 1953 à Charleville (Queensland), Bell est une personnalité du peuple kamilaroi. Il vit à Brisbane, dans le Queensland.

Bell attire l'attention de la communauté au sens large après sa peinture Scientia E Metaphysica (Bell's Theorem)  qui remporte le prix national d'art aborigène et insulaire du détroit de Torres 2003 attribué par Telstra. L'œuvre met en évidence le texte « Aboriginal Art – It's A White Thing ».

En 2006, le critique d'art du Queensland, Rex Butler, présente son travail pour le magazine Australian Art Collector.

Bell suscite la controverse en avril 2011 après avoir révélé qu'il avait sélectionné le lauréat du prestigieux prix Sir John Sulman au hasard, par le lancer d'une pièce de monnaie.

En mars 2012, Bell remporte un procès contre une personne qui avait émis un avis de retrait en 2011, pour « menaces injustifiables de violation du droit d'auteur », et obtient  en dommages-intérêts, créant « un précédent important ».

En 2013, il présente la série télévisée en huit épisodes Color Theory à la National Indigenous Television.

Son autoportrait est finaliste du prix Archibald 2015.

Notes et références

Liens externes

 .

Artiste australien
Peintre australien du XXe siècle
Peintre australien du XXIe siècle
Naissance en 1953
Date de naissance non renseignée (XXe siècle)
Lieu de naissance inconnu
Artiste aborigène d'Australie
Naissance à Charleville

Richard Bell (artiste)