Pavel Kozak (n. 14 februarie 1932, Baraolt, Covasna - d. 31 iulie 2003) a fost un autodidact secui, care s-a ocupat cu furnizarea unor tratamente dermatologice.

Biografie
Mama sa fusese bucătăreasă la Casa Regală, ceea ce a făcut să aibă dificultăți în prima parte a vieții, în perioada în care trebuia să studieze. De mic a contactat o boală de piele pe care a tratat-o mult timp în spitale, fiind un pacient frecvent al Spitalului Colentina. Cu un spirit de observație deosebit, a început să-și facă tratamente proprii, reușind să se vindece, în timp, de boala de piele. Ulterior a căpătat renumele unui "vraci" care reușea să vindece boli grave de piele, ceea ce i-a adus  arestarea pentru practicarea unor activități medicale ilegale. A fost eliberat după ce a reușit să găsească leacul unei boli dermatologice de care suferea un ofițer de rang înalt din Securitate. Din acel moment i s-a permis să practice liniștit această activitate.

În 1960 începe să dezvolte tratamente personalizate. 18 ani mai târziu se creează o secție de dermatologie în cadrul Spitalului Fundeni, unde Pavel Kozak a aplicat metodele proprii de vindecare, fiind încadrat cercetător științific gradul I. Participă în 1979 la Congresul Atlantic de Dermatologie desfășurat la Montreal, ocazie cu care rămâne în Canada. În anul următor revine în Europa, și cere azil politic în Germania. Timp de 6 ani lucrează într-o clinică din Saarbrücken, iar mai apoi în Alzenau, și ca șef de secție pe probleme dermatologice în Vital Klinik. După această perioadă, pleacă în Spania (1986), la institutul de la Cabanelles unde tratează maladii precum: epidermoliza buloasă simplex, sclerodermie și dermatita atopică. Corespondează cu diverși cercetători și publică rezultate ale activității de cercetare, metodele sale fiind apreciate.

În 1989 revine în România, unde aplică tratamentele proprii din domeniul dermatologic. În 1998 a deschis, în București, cabinetul de medicină alternativă și naturistă Dermatonou Pavel Kozak, împreună cu fiul său - Dr. Petre Kozak, unde a practicat, în continuare, după metoda proprie.

Începând din anul 2003, după decesul lui Pavel Kozak, fiul acestuia preia inițiativa și, folosind observațiile și cunoștințele tatălui său, lansează o serie de produse, sub denumirea "Remediile Dr. Kozak", produse care au ca scop prevenirea și ameliorarea afecțiunilor ușoare.

În anul 1998 a fost sfințită capela romano-catolică din Vârghiș, județul Covasna, construită pe cheltuiala sa.

Note

Nașteri în 1932
Decese în 2003
Autodidacți români
Dermatologi români
Români expatriați în Canada
Români expatriați în Germania
Români expatriați în Spania
Oameni din județul Covasna

Pavel Kozak


Hordes of Zombies ist das dritte Studioalbum der amerikanischen Grindcore-Band Terrorizer. Es wurde am 24. Februar 2012 vom französischen Independent-Label Season of Mist veröffentlicht.

Entstehung
Im September 2008 wurde Pete Sandoval (Schlagzeuger von Morbid Angel) von Anthony Rezhawk gefragt, ob er Interesse an einem neuen Album mit Terrorizer habe. Sandoval sagte zu und Rezhawk holte als Gitarristin Katina Culture von seiner Band Resistant Culture hinzu. Nach Abschluss der laufenden Tournee-Aktivitäten mit Morbid Angel nahmen die drei Musiker ein Demo auf, mit dem sich ihr Bandmanager bei verschiedenen Plattenlabels bewarb. Im Frühjahr 2011 wurde offiziell bekanntgegeben, dass Terrorizer einen Plattenvertrag mit Season of Mist abgeschlossen hat und dass das neue Album Anfang 2012 erscheinen wird. Sämtliche Stücke des Albums wurden von Anthony Rezhawk und Katina Culture geschrieben.

Die Operation von Pete Sandoval an den Bandscheiben behinderte die Aufnahmen nicht, da er seine Schlagzeugspuren bereits im Januar 2009 eingespielt hatte. David Vincent (Bassist von Morbid Angel) kam erst in letzter Minute als Bassist zu den Aufnahmen, obwohl bereits ein Session-Bassist engagiert war. Seine Beteiligung war eine Idee des Labels Season of Mist, das sich wegen des im Juni 2011 veröffentlichten Morbid-Angel-Albums Illud divinum insanus einen Promotion-Effekt für das Album von Terrorizer erhoffte. Produziert wurde das Album von Dan Swanö.

Die Band sieht Hordes of Zombies als Konzeptalbum, da die Lieder inhaltlich von einem Grundthema handeln. Dabei will Rezhawk den Begriff Zombie als Metapher für die Ausbeutung der Natur durch den Menschen sehen. Zombies stünden dafür, dass die Menschheit zu ihrem eigenen Wohl und aus Bequemlichkeit wider die Natur handelt und so ihren eigenen Untergang heraufbeschwört. Das Plattencover stammt von dem Berliner Künstler Nesha.

Kritiken
Michael Edele von laut.de schreibt, dass das Album "soundtechnisch druckvoll und differenziert" sei, es aber nur selten gelinge, in das hohe Tempo der Stücke Aha-Momente einzubauen. Gitarristin Katina Culture gelinge zwar die ein oder andere gute Idee, aber Sänger Rezhawk könne stimmlich keine Akzente setzen. Mathias Freiesleben von powermetal.de hingegen meint, dass Hordes of Zombies Maßstäbe für 2012 setze und resümiert, dass das Album "Grind der Extraklasse" biete. Auch für den Rezensenten von whiskey-soda.de ist Hordes of Zombies ein "Meisterwerk" und ein "Pflichtkauf für jeden Deathgrinder". Er bezeichnet das Album als "qualitativ unglaublich hochwertig", lobt die Rhythmussektion mit Bassist David Vincent und Schlagzeuger Pete Sandoval sowie die Gitarrenarbeit von Katina Culture, doch auch er moniert den zuweilen eintönig klingenden Gesang von Anthony Rezhawk. Patrick Schmidt vom Rock Hard zeigte sich enttäuscht. Zwar sei Hordes of Zombies ein solides Deathgrind-Album, sei aber zu vorhersehbar und habe mit den früheren Terrorizer nicht mehr viel zu tun.

Titelliste
 Intro – 1:52
 Hordes of Zombies – 3:28
 Ignorance and Apathy – 2:10
 Subterfuge – 1:59
 Evolving Era – 3:25
 Radiation Syndrome – 2:07
 Flesh to Dust – 2:20
 Generation Chaos – 2:10
 Broken Mirrors – 3:08
 Prospect of Oblivion – 3:25
 Malevolent Ghosts – 3:01
 Forward to Annihilation – 2:01
 State of Mind – 3:18
 A Dying Breed – 3:48
 Wretched (Bonus-Track) – 2:41

Anmerkungen

Album 2012
Album (Grindcore)

Hordes of Zombies


An Agroelymus dorei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Wray Merrill Bowden. An Agroelymus dorei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Agroelymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Agroelymus

Agroelymus dorei


Vitamin S may refer to:

 Salicylic acid, although not a vitamin, is sometimes called "vitamin S"
 a song by Jamaican dancehall musician Cham from his album Ghetto Story
 slang for anabolic steroids, particularly when illicitly provided and/or taken

Vitamin S


The Apocalypse of Peter (or Revelation of Peter) is an early Christian text of the 2nd century and an example of apocalyptic literature with Hellenistic overtones. It is not included in the standard canon of the New Testament, but is mentioned in the Muratorian fragment, the oldest surviving list of New Testament books, which also states that some authorities would not have it read in church. The text is extant in two incomplete versions of a lost Greek original, a later Greek version and an Ethiopic version, which diverge considerably.  The work is classed as part of New Testament apocrypha.

The work's author is unknown, although it is purportedly written by the disciple Peter (pseudopigrapha).  The Apocalypse of Peter describes a divine vision by Christ.  After inquiring for signs of the Second Coming of Jesus (parousia), the work delves into a katabasis (vision of the afterlife), and details both heavenly bliss for the saved and infernal punishments for the damned.  In particular, the punishments are graphically described in a physical sense, and loosely correspond to lex talonis ("an eye for an eye"): blasphemers are hung by their tongues, liars who bear false witness have their lips cut off; callous rich people are made to wear rags and be pierced by sharp fiery stones as would beggars; and so on.  It is an early example of the same genre of the more famous Divine Comedy of Dante, wherein the protagonist takes a tour of the realms of the afterlife.

Manuscript history
Before 1886, the Apocalypse of Peter had been known only through quotations and references in early Christian writings. In addition, some common lost source had been necessary to account for closely parallel passages in such apocalyptic Christian literature as the Apocalypse of Esdras, the Apocalypse of Paul, and the Passion of Saint Perpetua, although identification of this lost source with the Apocalypse of Peter was not known.

A fragmented Koine Greek manuscript was discovered during excavations initiated by Gaston Maspéro during the 1886–87 season in a desert necropolis at Akhmim in Upper Egypt. The fragment consisted of parchment leaves of the Greek version that was claimed to be deposited in the grave of a Christian monk of the 8th or 9th century. The manuscript is in the Coptic Museum in Old Cairo. From 1907–1910, a large set of documents of Clementine literature in Ethiopic were published along with translations into French.<ref>The Ethiopic text, with a French translation, was published by S. Grébaut, Littérature éthiopienne pseudo-Clémentine", Revue de l'Orient Chrétien, new series, 15 (1910), 198–214, 307–23.</ref>  M. R. James realized in 1910 that there was a strong correspondence with the Akhmim Apocalypse of Peter, and that these were Ethiopic versions of the same work.  Further Ethiopic copies have been discovered since.  These Ethiopic versions appear to have been translated from Arabic, which itself was translated from the lost Greek original.  Two other short Greek fragments of the work have been discovered: a 5th-century fragment at the Bodleian that had been discovered in Egypt in 1895, and the Rainer fragment at the Rainer collection in Vienna which perhaps comes from the 3rd or 4th century.The Greek Akhmim text was printed by A. Lods, "L'evangile et l'apocalypse de Pierre", Mémoires publiés par les membres de la mission archéologique au Caire, 9, M.U. Bouriant, ed. (1892:2142-46); the Greek fragments were published by M.R. James, "A new text of the Apocalypse of Peter II", JTS 12 (1910/11:367-68).  These fragments offer significant variations from the other versions.

As compiled by William MacComber and others, the number of Ethiopic manuscripts of this same work continue to grow. The Ethiopic work is of colossal size and post-conciliar provenance, and many variations exist.  In many Ethiopic manuscripts, the Apocalypse of Peter forms the first part of new combined works; two notable ones are "The Second Coming of Christ and the Resurrection of the Dead" and "The Mystery of the Judgment of Sinners."

In general, most scholars believe that the Ethiopic versions we have today are closer to the original manuscript, while the Greek manuscript discovered at Akhmim is a later and edited version.  This is for a number of reasons: the Akhmim version is shorter, while the Ethiopic matches the claimed line count from the Stichometry of Nicephorus; patristic references and quotes seem to match the Ethiopic version better; the Ethiopic matches better with the Rainer and Bodleian Greek fragments; and the Akhmim version seems to be attempting to integrate the Apocalypse with the Gospel of Peter (also in the Akhmim manuscript), which would naturally result in revisions.

Dating

The Apocalypse of Peter seems to have been written between 100 AD and 150 AD.  The terminus post quem—the point after which we know the Apocalypse of Peter must have been written—is shown by its use (in Chapter 3) of 4 Esdras, which was written about 100 AD.  If the Apocalypse was used by Clement or the author of the Sibylline Oracles, then it must have been in existence by 150 AD.

The Muratorian fragment is the earliest existing list of canonical sacred writings of what would eventually be called the New Testament.  The fragment is generally dated to the last quarter of the 2nd century (c. 175–200).  It gives a list of works read in the Christian churches that is similar to the modern accepted canon; however, it also includes the Apocalypse of Peter. The Muratorian fragment states: "the Apocalypses also of John and Peter only do we receive, which some among us would not have read in church." (The existence of other, non "received" Apocalypses is implied, for several early apocryphal ones are known: see Apocalyptic literature.) The scholars Oscar Skarsaune and Richard Bauckham makes a case for dating the composition to the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136).

Content
The Apocalypse of Peter is framed as a discourse of the Risen Christ to his faithful.  In the Ethiopic version, a vision of hell granted to Peter is discussed followed by a vision of heaven; in the Akhmim fragment, the order is reversed.  In the form of a Greek katabasis or nekyia, it goes into elaborate detail about the punishment in hell for each type of crime and the pleasures given in heaven for each virtue.

In the opening, the disciples ask for signs of the Second Coming (parousia) while on the Mount of Olives.  The Gospel parables of the budding fig tree and the barren fig tree, partly selected from the "Little Apocalypse" of Matthew 24, appear only in the Ethiopic version (ch. 2). The two parables are joined, and the setting "in the summer" has been transferred to "the end of the world", in a detailed allegory in which the tree becomes Israel and the flourishing shoots become Jews who have adopted Jesus as Messiah and achieve martyrdom.  It is possible this was edited out of the Greek version due to incipient anti-Jewish tensions in the church; a depiction of Jews converting and Israel being especially blessed may not have fit the mood in the 4th and 5th centuries of the Church as some Christians strongly repudiated Judaism.

The punishments in the vision closely correspond to the past sinful actions, often with a correspondence between the body part that sinned and the body part that is tortured.  It is a loose version of the Jewish notion of an eye for an eye, that the punishment may fit the crime..  Note that Ehrman contests the scholarly opinion of the use of lex talionis, focusing more on bodily correspondence, as the punishments described are far more severe than the original crime - which goes against the idea of punishments being commensurate to the damage or pain done within "an eye for an eye."  The phrase "each according to his deed" appears five times in the Ethiopic version to explain the punishments.  Many of the punishments are overseen by Ezrael the Angel of Wrath (most likely the angel Azrael, although it is possibly a corrupt reference to the angel Sariel); the angel Uriel is also involved as well, largely in the process of resurrecting the dead into their new bodies.   Punishments in hell according to the vision include:

The vision of heaven is shorter than the depiction of hell.  In heaven, people have pure milky white skin, curly hair, and are generally beautiful. The earth blooms with everlasting flowers and spices. People wear shiny clothes made of light, like the angels. Everyone sings in choral prayer.

In the Ethiopic version, the account closes with an account of the Ascension of Jesus on the mountain from chapters 15–17.  As the Akhmim version moved the Apocalypse earlier, to when Jesus was still alive, it is not in the Akhmim version.

Prayers for those in hell
One theological issue of note appears only in the version of the text in the 3rd century Rainer Fragment, the earliest fragment of the text.  Its chapter 14 describes the salvation of condemned sinners for whom the righteous pray:

While not found in later manuscripts, this reading was likely original to the text, as it agrees with a quotation in the Sibylline Oracles:

Other 2nd century parallel passages possibly influenced by this are found in the Epistle of the Apostles, the Coptic Apocalypse of Elijah, and possibly the Acts of Paul.

The passage also makes literary sense, as it is a follow-up to a passage in Chapter 3 where Jesus initially rebukes Peter who expresses horror at the suffering in hell; Richard Bauckham suggests that this is because it must be the victims who were harmed that request mercy, not Peter.  While not directly endorsing universal salvation, it does suggest that salvation will eventually reach as far as the compassion of the elect.  Some of the Ethiopic manuscripts written in the 9th century and beyond include new extensions that also describe a great act of divine mercy to come that will rescue (some? all?) sinners from hell.

Influences, genre, and related works
Predecessors
Much of the original scholarship on the Apocalypse was on determining its predecessor influences.  The first studies generally emphasized its Hellenistic philosophy roots in Greek traditions, such as those by Albrecht Dieterich in 1893, who on the basis of the Akhmim manuscript alone postulated a general Orphic cultural context in the attention focused on the house of the dead.  Later scholarship by Martha Himmelfarb and others has emphasized the strong Jewish roots of the Apocalypse of Peter as well; it seems that apocalypses were a popular genre among Jews after the destruction of the Temple in 70 AD.  Much of the Apocalypse of Peter may be based on or influenced by these lost Jewish apocalypses.  The book directly cites 4 Esdras.  The author also appears to be familiar with the Gospel of Matthew and no other; a line in Chapter 16 has Peter realizing the meaning of the Beatitude quote that "Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness's sake, for theirs is the kingdom of Heaven."

Contemporary work
The opening setting of the resurrected Jesus giving further insights to the Apostles, usually on a mountain, followed by an account of Jesus's ascension, appears to have been a popular setting in 2nd century Christian works.  The genre is sometimes called a "dialogue Gospel", and is seen in works such as the Epistle of the Apostles, the Questions of Bartholomew, and various Gnostic works such as the Pistis Sophia.

The Apocalypse of Peter also fits into the same genre as Clementine literature that was popular in Alexandria, despite Clement not appearing directly.  The Ethiopic manuscripts that Grébaut found the Ethiopic manuscripts of were mixed in with other Clementine literature, which usually featured Peter prominently.

Among work that was eventually canonized in the New Testament, the Apocalypse of Peter shows a close resemblance in ideas with the Second Epistle of Peter, to the extent that many scholars believe one had copied passages from the other due to the number of close parallels.  Conversely, the Apocalypse of Peter differs from the Apocalypse of John in putting far more stress on the afterlife and divine rewards and punishments than Revelation's focus on a cosmic battle between good and evil.

Later influence
The Sibylline Oracles, popular among Roman Christians, seems to directly quote the Apocalypse of Peter. The Acts of Perpetua and the visions narrated in the Acts of Thomas also appear to quote or reference the Apocalypse of Peter.

The Apocalypse of Peter is one of the earliest examples of a Christian-Jewish katabasis, a genre of explicit depictions of heaven and hell.  Later works inspired by it include the Apocalypse of Thomas in the 2nd–4th century, and more importantly, the Apocalypse of Paul in the 4th century.  Despite a lack of "official" approval, the Apocalypse of Paul would go on to be popular for centuries, possibly due to its popularity among the medieval monks that copied and preserved manuscripts in the turbulent centuries following the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  Most famously, Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy would become extremely popular and celebrated in the 14th century and beyond.  Directly or indirectly, the Apocalypse of Peter was the parent and grandparent of these influential visions of the afterlife.

Literary merits
19th and 20th century scholars consider the work rather intellectually simple and naive; dramatic and gripping, but not necessarily a coherent story.  Still, the Apocalypse of Peter was popular and seemed to have a wide audience in its time.  M. R. James remarked that his impression was that educated Christians of the later Roman period "realized it was a gross and vulgar book" which might have partially explained a lack of elite enthusiasm for canonizing it later.

Debate over canonicity
The Apocalypse of Peter was ultimately not included in the New Testament, but appears to have been one of the borderline works that came closest to being included, along with the Shepherd of Hermas.  As discussed in dating the Apocalypse of Peter, the Muratorian fragment mentions the Apocalypse, but also states that "some among us would not have read in church."  Both the Apocalypse of Peter and Apocalypse of John appear to have been controversial, with some churches of the 2nd and 3rd centuries using them and others not.  Clement of Alexandria appears to have considered the Apocalypse of Peter to be holy scripture. Eusebius personally found the work dubious, but his book Church History describes a lost work of Clement's, the Hypotyposes (Outlines), that gave "abbreviated discussions of the whole of the registered divine writings, without passing over the disputed [writings] — I mean Jude and the rest of the general letters, and the Letter of Barnabas, and the so-called Apocalypse of Peter."Clement 41.1–2 48.1 correspond with the Ethiopian text M. R. James in introduction to Translation and Introduction to Apocalypse of Peter. The Apocryphal New Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924)  The Stichometry of Nicephorus also lists it as a used if disputed book.  Although the numerous references to it attest that it was in wide circulation in the 2nd century, the Apocalypse of Peter was ultimately not accepted into the Christian canon.  The reason why is not entirely clear, although considering the reservations various church authors had on the Apocalypse of John (that is, the Book of Revelation), likely similar considerations were in play.  As late as the 5th century, Sozomen indicates that some churches in Palestine used it in his time, but by then, it seems to have been considered inauthentic by most Christians.

One hypothesis for why the Apocalypse of Peter failed to gain enough support to be canonized is that its view on the afterlife was too close to endorsing Christian universalism.  The passage in the Rainer Fragment that dead saints, seeing the torment of sinners and heretics from heaven, could ask God for mercy, and these damned souls could be retroactively baptized and saved, had significant theological implications.  Presumably, all of hell could eventually be emptied in such a manner; M. R. James suggested that the original Apocalypse of Peter may well have suggested universal salvation after a period of cleansing suffering in hell.  This ran against the stance of many Church theologians of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries who strongly felt that salvation and damnation were eternal and strictly based on actions and beliefs while alive.  Augustine of Hippo, in his work City of God, specifically advocates against arguments based on similar logic to what is seen in the Rainer passage.   Such a system, where saints could at least pray their friends and family out of hell, and possibly any damned soul, would have been considered incorrect at best, and heretical at worst to these views.  Bart Ehrman agrees with James and proposes that the Rainer fragment reading was the original one; and that this passage was not copied by later scribes who felt it was in error, hence not appearing in later manuscripts.  He believes that the damage to the book's reputation was already done, however.  The Origenist Controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries retroactively condemned much of the thought of Origen, particularly his belief in universal salvation, and this anti-Origen movement was at least part of why the book was not included in later canon lists.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading
 Eileen Gardiner, Visions of Heaven and Hell Before Dante (New York: Italica Press, 1989), pp. 1–12, provides an English translation of the Ethiopic text.

External links
 , translation by M. R. James in the 1924 book The Apocryphal New Testament, with quotation from Sibylline Oracles as well
 The Apocalypse of Peter (Greek Akhmim Fragment Text) transcribed by Mark Goodacre from E. Klostermann's edition (HTML, Word, PDF)
 Pardee, Cambry. "Apocalypse of Peter." e-Clavis: Christian Apocrypha''
 Bibliography of works on the Apocalypse of Peter

2nd-century Christian texts
1886 archaeological discoveries
Peter, Apocalypse of
Christian apocalyptic writings
Petrine-related books
Texts in Koine Greek
Egyptian Museum
Antilegomena
Katabasis

Apocalypse of Peter


Gökkuzgun (Coracias garrulus), gökuzgungiller familyasına ait bir kuş türü.

Özellikleri
İnce yapılı, küçük karga boyutunda bir kuştur. Sıklıkla teller ya da alçak ağaçlar üzerinde bulunur. Gagası kalın ve koyu, kuyruğu kısa ve kare, kanatları ise oldukça uzun ve küt uçludur. Açık turkuaz mavisidir. Alt tarafı daha yeşil ve yaz başında parlaktır. Sırtı açık kızıldır. Uçuşta köşeli kanadının parlak mavi, mor ve siyah renklerini gözler önüne serer. Gencinin kış giysisi daha mattır. Taklalar atarak uçtuğu kur sırasında sesi haşin, tekrarlı ve törpü sesini andıran bir "hak hak" şeklindedir.

Kaynakça

Gökkuzgunugiller
Türkiye'deki kuşlar
Afrika kuşları
Carl Linnaeus tarafından adlandırılmış taksonlar

Gökkuzgun


Joséphine vendue par ses sœurs est un film muet français réalisé par Georges Denola, sorti en 1913.

Il s'agit d'une adaptation de l'opéra Joséphine vendue par ses sœurs, opéra-bouffe en trois actes, avec un livret de Paul Ferrier et Fabrice Carré et une musique de Victor Roger, créé à Paris, au théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens le , parodie sur l'histoire biblique de Joseph vendu par ses frères.

Synopsis

Fiche technique
 Titre : Joséphine vendue par ses sœurs
 Réalisation : Georges Denola
 Scénario : d'après l'opéra-bouffe de Paul Ferrier et Fabrice Carré (1886)
 Photographie :
 Montage :
 Producteur :
 Société de production : Société cinématographique des auteurs et gens de lettres (S.C.A.G.L)
 Société de distribution :  Pathé Frères
 Pays d'origine :
 Langue : film muet avec les intertitres en français
 Format : Noir et blanc — 35 mm — 1,33:1 — Muet
 Genre : Comédie
 Métrage :  mètres
 Durée : 24 minutes 20
 Dates de sortie :
  :

Distribution
 Suzanne Dehelly : Joséphine
 Rosine Maurel : Mme Jacob
 Mado Floréal : Benjamine
 Cécile Barré :
 Louis Baron fils : Pharaon Pacha
 Louis Blanche : Putiphar Bey
 Émile Mylo : Montosol

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
 Ciné-Journal n° 242 du
 Bulletin Pathé n° 11

Articles connexes
 Liste de films français sortis en 1913

Liens externes

 Joséphine vendue par ses sœurs sur le site de la Fondation Jérôme Seydoux-Pathé

Film français sorti en 1913
Court métrage français
Comédie française
Film réalisé par Georges Denola
Adaptation d'un opéra au cinéma
Film en français
Film muet français
Film français en noir et blanc
Film distribué par Pathé
Février 1912

Joséphine vendue par ses sœurs


Abdullah Aykon Doğan (1936, Isparta, Türkiye), Türk siyasetçidir.

Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi İktisat ve Maliye bölümünü bitirdi. Maliye Bakanlığı Hesap Uzmanı, Maliye ve Gümrük Bakanlığı Gelirler Genel Müdürlüğü, AET Brüksel Daimi Temsilciliği, Müsteşar Yardımcılığı, Bakanlık Müşavirliği, XVIII.,XIX. ve XX. Dönem Isparta Milletvekiliği ile Devlet Bakanlığı yaptı. Evli ve üç çocuk babasıdır.

Kaynakça

1936 doğumlular
Türkiye Maliye Bakanlığı müsteşar yardımcıları
TBMM 18. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 19. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
TBMM 20. dönem Isparta milletvekilleri
Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Bakanları
Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Avrupa Konseyi Parlamenter Meclisi Türk Grubu
TBMM Plan ve Bütçe Komisyonu
Yaşayan insanlar
Doğru Yol Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
Isparta doğumlu siyasetçiler
Resim aranan siyasetçiler

Aykon Doğan


سوكا غاكّاي  تعني حرفياً «مجتمع خلق القيم» هو حركة دينية يابانية جديدة انحدرت من مذهب نيتشيرين البوذي. تأسست الحركة عام 1930 ولها علاقة قوية مع حزب كوميتو الجديد. كما أسست سوكا غاكاي العالمية كفرع لسوكا غاكاي عام 1975.

تتعرض سوكا غاكّاي للكثير من النقد داخل اليابان وخارجه بسبب سياساتها وأعمالها.

تصرح سوكا غاكاي عن وجود 13 مليون منتسب لها، 10 ملايين منهم داخل اليابان.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 موقع منظمة سوكا غاكاي العالمية
 Soka Gakkai International
 SOKAnet - Sōka Gakkai's official website (in Japanese)
 Soka Spirit, published by SGI-USA
 Soka Gakkai, published by The World Religions & Spirituality Project (WRSP)

تأسيسات سنة 1930 في اليابان
حركات دينية انحدرت من البوذية
حركات دينية أسست سنة 1930
شينشوكيو
منظمات مقرها في اليابان
حاصلون على بانر في الذهب

سوكا غاكاي


Liste de groupes notables consacrés à la promotion de la recherche et de l'éducation en astronomie.

Afrique
 Société Africaine d'Astronomie

Afrique du Sud
 Société astronomique d'Afrique australe

Amérique du Nord

Canada
 Société canadienne d'astronomie
 Fédération des astronomes amateurs du Québec
 Société royale d'astronomie du Canada

États-Unis
 Association des astronomes amateurs de Pittsburgh
 Association américaine des observateurs d'étoiles variables
 Société astronomique américaine
 Société américaine des météores
 Association des observateurs lunaires et planétaires
 Ligue astronomique
 Société d'astronomie du Pacifique
 Société d'astronomie de Birmingham
 Association des astronomes amateurs d'Escambia
 Société d'astronomie de l'Indiana
 Association éducative de Kaua'i pour la science et l'astronomie
 Société d'astronomie de Kopernik
 Société d'astronomie de Louisville
 Société d'astronomie de Milwaukee
 Société d'astronomie de la vallée de la Mohawk
 Réseau du ciel nocturne de la NASA
 Club d'astronomie de Virginie du Nord
 Institut SETI
 Société d'astronomie de Shreveport-Bossier
 Société astronomique de la Croix du Sud

Mexique
 Nibiru Sociedad Astronomica

Amérique du Sud

Brésil
 Sociedade Astronomica Brasileira

Asie

Inde
 Akash Mitra Mandal
 Société astronomique de l'Inde
 Société d'astronomie de Bangalore (BAS)
 Confédération des astronomes amateurs indiens
 IUCAA
 Club d'astronomie de l'IAC en Inde
 Jyotirvidya Parisanstha
 Mandal de Khagol
 Khagol Vishwa
 Club d'astronomie d'Hyderabad (HAC)
 Photons futuristes

Iran
 Société iranienne d'astronomie amateur
 Société astronomique iranienne

Europe
 Société européenne d'astronomie
 Association européenne pour l'enseignement de l'astronomie

Allemagne
 Société astronomique

France
 Société astronomique de France
 Société française d'astronomie et d'astrophysique (SF2A)

Grèce
 Société hellénique d'astronomie

Irlande
 Société irlandaise d'astronomie
 Fédération irlandaise des sociétés astronomiques

Italie
 Unione Astrofili Italiani

Pologne
 Société polonaise d'astronomie

Royaume-Uni
 Association astronomique d'Airdrie
 Société d'astronomie de Glasgow
 Centre d'astronomie
 Association astronomique britannique
 Société d'astronomie de Crayford Manor House
 Fédération des sociétés d'astronomie
 Société d'astronomie de Liverpool
 Société d'astronomie de Manchester
 Société d'astronomie de Mexborough et Swinton
 Société d'astronomie de Northumberland
 Société d'astronomie de Nottingham
 Société royale d'astronomie
 Société d'astronomie populaire
 Société d'histoire de l'astronomie

Serbie
 Société d'astronomie Ruđer Bošković

Suède

 Société suédoise d'astronomie

Turquie
 Spaceturk

Océanie

Australie
 Société astronomique d'Australie
 Société astronomique de la Nouvelle-Galles du Sud
 Société astronomique d'Australie du Sud
 Société d'astronomie de Victoria
 Société d'astronomie de Macarthur
 Société d'astronomie de Sutherland

Nouvelle-Zélande
 Société d'astronomie de Dunedin
 Société royale d'astronomie de Nouvelle-Zélande
 Société d'astronomie de Whakatane

International
 International Meteor Organization
 Réseau pour l'éducation scolaire en astronomie
 The Planetary Society

Voir aussi
 :Catégorie:Société savante liée à l'astronomie

Liste en rapport avec l'astronomie
Liste d'associations

Liste de sociétés astronomiques


Las guerras de Lombardía fueron una serie de conflictos militares que se produjeron en el centro y norte de Italia que implicaron a la República de Venecia y al ducado de Milán, y a sus diferentes aliados. Se prolongó desde 1425 hasta la firma del Tratado de Lodi en 1454.
La guerras de Lombardía se convirtieron en la lucha por la hegemonía en el norte de Italia, que devastó la economía de Lombardía y debilitó el poder de Venecia.

Antecedentes
Con la muerte del duque Gian Galeazzo Visconti de Milán, el Estado que había construido colapsó con su hijo el incompetente Giovanni Maria Visconti (1402-1412), y se produjo la disgregación del poder de los Visconti en Lombardía, donde se independizaron Cremona, Crema, Plasencia, Bérgamo, Como, Lodi, Pavía, Alejandría, Parma y Brescia, de manos de los condottieri. En Romaña, el papa Bonifacio IX obtuvo las ciudades de Bolonia y Perugia e hizo las paces con Milán. En Toscana, Siena se independizó, y los feudatarios gibelinos de los Apeninos fueron sometidos por Florencia, pero Pisa fue asegurada por Gabriel María Visconti, hijo natural de Gian Galeazzo.

Aprovechando la debilidad de Milán, el señor de Padua, Francesco Novello de Carrara, invadió territorio milanés, tomando Verona. Milán buscó el apoyo de Venecia, ofreciendo todo el territorio que había poseído al este del río Adigio, lo que fue aceptado, y se iniciaron las hostilidades contra Carrara, con gran éxito para los venecianos que en 1406, ya poseían Treviso, Feltro, Belluno, Verona, Vicenza y Padua, y habían logrado la desaparición de Carrara, ante la indiferencia de Florencia. Venecia, que no pertenecía al Regnum Italiae, y circunscrita a su laguna y a una fina franja costera lindando a la laguna (Dogado), había permanecido a espaldas de los acontecimientos en Italia, pero el poder alcanzado por los Visconti convenció a la Serenísima República para establecer un poder territorial en la península, para asegurar el libre pasaje de mercancías hacia Lombardía o los Alpes. Aprovechando la muerte de Gian Galeazzo, además de ampliar su territorio entre 1404 y 1405 con Verona, Vicenza, y Padua, entre 1411 y 1420 incorporó los amplios territorios del príncipe eclesiástico, el patriarca de Aquilea en Friuli, controlando el acceso desde Alemania a Italia oriental.

Tras la elección del papa romano Gregorio XII, este inició contactos diplomáticos con su rival aviñonés Benedicto XIII para lograr una solución al cisma, acordando ambos pontífices encontrarse en Savona. Gregorio XII abandonó pues, Roma en agosto de 1407, pero ante la negativa de iniciar un encuentro real por ninguno de ambos, fue el motivo para que la mayoría de los cardenales de ambos bandos los abandonasen y convocaran el Concilio de Pisa. Esta coyuntura fue aprovechada por el rey Ladislao de Nápoles para ocupar Roma y la Romaña en nombre de Gregorio XII, pero Florencia amenazada por el creciente poder de Nápoles resolvió que Alejandro V, el nuevo pontífice elegido en el Concilio de Pisa, tomara posesión del patrimonio de San Pedro. Entró en alianza con Siena, Bolonia y el pretendiente napolitano y conde de Provenza Luis II de Anjou. A pesar de la ayuda prestada por Génova, que había expulsado a los franceses en 1409, Ladislao tuvo que retirase de los territorios pontificios en 1410, de modo que el papa Alejandro V entró en Roma, siendo sucedido enseguida por Juan XXIII, pero como la campaña de Luis II y su ejército de mercenarios, contra Ladislao fue infructuosa, Ladislao reemprendió la conquista del Estado Pontificio, pero su éxito se truncó con su muerte en 1414. Mientras, el nuevo rey de Romanos, Segismundo de Luxemburgo entró en Lombardía en 1413, no para ejercer autoridad sino para acordar con Juan XXIII la convocatoria del Concilio de Constanza para acabar con el cisma.

 Y en Milán, mientras se producía la guerra contra Nápoles, la incapacidad de Gabriel María Visconti para permanecer en Pisa le llevó a venderla a los florentinos, lo cual condujo a una rebelión que expulsó a Visconti, y se opuso a los intentos de Florencia por conquistarla, pero en vano, en 1406, Pisa se rindió a Florencia. Mientras Milán cayó en la anarquía y no fue hasta la ascensión de su hermano Felipe María en 1412, cuando se llevó a cabo la recuperación territorial y la afirmación de la autoridad del duque frente a los señores locales.

Hacia 1422, el duque Felipe María de Milán y su condottiero Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola habían recuperado y restaurado el poderío de época de Gian Galeazzo sometiendo a los señores locales de Lombardía, y también a la República de Génova (1421), ante la neutralidad pactada de Florencia, pero su expansión fue detenida en Mantua a instancias de Venecia para proteger sus territorios, de forma que logró crear una extensión territorial que iba desde la costa ligur, hasta el monte San Gotardo en los Alpes, bordeando las fronteras de Piamonte y de los territorios pontificios. Venecia, por su parte se debatía si expandirse sobre la tierra firme más allá de Padua, Vicenza y Verona, para contrarrestar la expansión milanesa, o simplemente aprovechar ganancias económicas en Lombardía. No fue hasta la elección del dogo Francesco Foscari en 1423, cuando terminó el aislacionismo de Venecia en Italia. Desde entonces, hasta la mitad de siglo, se produjeron una serie de conflictos prácticamente continuos contra una alianza de Florencia y Venecia, ante una nueva época de expansión milanesa.

Primera guerra

La solicitud del Papa de ayuda al duque de Milán para expulsar a los Bentivoglio de Romaña, la aprovechó el milanés para extenderse a Forlì (1424) con ayuda gibelina. Esta expansión motivó a Florencia el iniciar hostilidades contra Milán, pero con tan desastrosos resultados para ella, que tuvo que buscar alianzas y las encontró en Venecia, a la que se unieron en enero de 1426, el duque Amadeo VIII de Saboya, el marqués Nicolás III de Este, el señor de Mantua, y la ciudad de Siena. Una breve paz fue firmada en diciembre de 1426 en Venecia.

Visconti recuperó las tierras ocupadas por Florencia en Liguria, pero tuvo que renunciar a la zona de Vercelli, conquistada por Amadeo VIII de Saboya, y a Brescia, que quedó para Venecia, y prometió dejar de inmiscuirse en Romaña y Toscana.

Segunda guerra
La paz de 1426 fue pronto quebrantada por Milán a instancias del Rey de Romanos. Los milaneses tuvieron éxito inicialmente tomando Casalmaggiore. Piccinino, el condottiero al servicio de Visconti derrotó a Carmagnola, el condottiero al servicio de Venecia el 29 de mayo de 1427 en Gottolengo. Pero Carmagnola pudo reconquistar Casalmaggiore el 12 de julio, y esto fue aprovechado por Orlando Pallavicino, señor de varios castillos cerca de Parma, para rebelarse contra los Visconti,  mientras que Amadeo VIII de Saboya y el marqués Juan Jaime de Montferrato invadían Lombardía por el Este.

La derrota milanesa en Maclodio en octubre de 1427 y el estancamiento de la situación para Felipe María Visconti, este se avino a firmar la paz en Ferrara, en abril de 1428. Un gobernador veneciano se estableció en Bérgamo y Crema (1429) y se reconoció la posesión de Brescia y su contado para Venecia. Los florentinos recuperaron los fortificaciones que habían perdido

Tercera guerra
Florencia inició al año siguiente una guerra contra Lucca, ciudad que bloqueaba su acceso a Pisa, pero Paolo Guinigi, señor de Lucca se había aliado con Visconti, y Florencia tuvo que enfrentarse a la alianza con Siena y Milán, por lo que tuvo que buscar la ayuda de Venecia.

Milán obtuvo victorias en Soncino (17 de mayo de 1431) y Cremona, estableció posiciones sólidas en Toscana. Además Visconti logró atraerse a Amadeo VIII de Saboya a cambio de su ayuda contra de Juan Jaime de Monferrato.

El rey de Romanos, Segismundo de Luxemburgo, que se había abstenido de intervenir directamente en Italia ante las peticiones de Florencia (1424) y de Milán (1427), aprovechó la coyuntura de su derrota en la Batalla de Domažlice y que el Concilio de Basilea invitó a los husitas, para bajar a Italia en 1431.

Felipe María Visconti, que se hallaba solo frente a Florencia, Venecia, y al nuevo papa de origen veneciano, Eugenio IV, favoreció la venida del rey de Romanos, quien como rey de Hungría había estado varias veces en guerra con Venecia. Segismundo de Luxemburgo obtuvo la corona de hierro en noviembre en 1431, y de camino a Roma, en Piacenza, tuvo conocimiento de la bula de disolución del concilio de Basilea. Segismundo se mantuvo partidario del Concilio, ya que a través de él, se podía lograr la paz con los husitas y ser reconocido como rey de Bohemia. De Piacenza, pasó por Parma, Lucca y finalmente Siena, donde tuvo que permanecer bloqueado y aislado nueve meses ante la hostilidad de Florencia y Venecia y la indiferencia de Milán. Mientras el Rey de Romanos y el Papa proseguían su diplomacia, el estado de guerra continuaba en Lombardía y Toscana. Pese a las victorias milanesas en Pavía y Delebio, y el envío del condottiero Francisco Sforza para evitar la caída de Lucca había un estado de agotamiento general y gracias a la intervención del Papa se alcanzó otra nueva pacificación en Ferrara el 26 de abril de 1433, que volvió a  statu quo, y que fue el momento para acordar la coronación imperial, la cual tuvo lugar al mes siguiente. El emperador emprendió regreso a Alemania y se presentó en el Concilio en octubre, y por su parte el papa, aislado, revocó la disolución del concilio en diciembre.

Cuarta guerra
Con la paz de Ferrara, Venecia se había asegurado nuevas adquisiciones como Brescia y Bérgamo, de forma que comprendía el Dogado, la marca de Treviso, Friuli y parte de Istria que controlaba el acceso desde Alemania a Italia oriental, Padua, Rovigo, Vicenza, Verona, Bérgamo y Brescia, de forma que bordeaba Lombardía por el río Adda. El territorio, denominado Veneto, era rico, populoso, y fértil, y un buen mercado para el comercio de la ciudad. Estas adquisiciones le resultaron inmensamente beneficiosas, y así en 1440 los tributos eran de 306.000 ducados, frente a los 180.000 de las posesiones coloniales (al mismo tiempo mucho más costosas de defender).

La paz de Ferrara dejó desempleados a los condotieri milaneses, y apenas había partido el rey de Romanos de Roma en agosto de 1433, invadieron los Estados Pontificios, el Papa, incapaz de pararlos, concedió a uno de ellos, Francesco Sforza el título de Gonfaloniero y marqués de Ancona en marzo de 1434, y una rebelión expulsó al pontífice de Roma, estableciéndose en una Florencia que emprendería el cambio institucional tres meses después. El papa buscó protección y reactivó una liga contra Milán con Florencia y Venecia, que quedó capitaneada por Sforza.

Cambio de alianzas

 Tras la ruinosa situación de Florencia tras la guerra con Lucca (1429-1433), en septiembre de 1434, en Florencia se consumó la derrota de la oligarquía güelfa de Rinaldo degli Albizzi y el establecimiento de la facción democrática de Cosme de Medici. Hasta esa época, la oligarquía liderada por los Albizzi, había transformado Florencia de una comuna a un estado territorial como habían hecho Venecia o Milán, realizando la expansión por Toscana absorbiendo a Volterra (1361), Arezzo (1384), Pisa (1406), Livorno (1421) pero sin embargo, había fracasado ante Lucca en 1433. Cosme de Medici dominó el reggimento pero no mantuvo posición oficial alguna, hasta su muerte en 1464, y sin ejercer cargo oficial, Cosme de Médici ganó adherentes a través de dádivas y préstamos, y colocó a sus partidarios en los puestos de gobierno de la república, de acuerdo a sus intereses; tras él, le sucedieron en el liderazgo de la república, su hijo Pedro y después su nieto Lorenzo.

La guerra por la sucesión de la reina Juana II de Nápoles, abrió un nuevo frente en disputa. El papa Eugenio IV se mostró partidario de los angevinos. En 1435, el rey Alfonso V de Aragón, aspirante al trono napolitano, fue derrotado en Ponza (1435) por la flota genovesa, y conducido prisionero a Milán, negoció una alianza con el duque Felipe María por el mutuo peligro que suponía Francia para sus territorios; esta alianza irritó a los genoveses, quienes expulsaron a los milaneses de su territorio y recobraron de nuevo su propio gobierno, entrando en protección de la alianza de Florencia y Venecia, lo que contravenía la paz con Milán. De este modo el duque de Milán inició las hostilidades de una ruinosa guerra en 1437, que finalizaría en la paz de Cavriana (1441), en la que Francesco Sforza, además de mantener su poder en Ancona. recibió Cremona como dote por casar con el único descendiente del duque de Milán, su hija Blanca.

De nuevo los asuntos de Nápoles provocaron otra guerra en el norte de Italia. Francesco Sforza, libre de la guerra en el norte, y partidario de Renato de Anjou en el trono de Nápoles, partió para este reino, para apoyar a los angevinos y defender sus propios feudos en el regno. Alfonso pidió ayuda a su aliado el duque de Milán, que envió tropas para conquistar los territorios de su yerno en la Marca de Ancona, con pretexto de ofrecer su restitución al papa Eugenio IV. Visconti temía del poder de Sforza, aunque no lo quería aniquilado, y el Papa en su deseo de recuperar el control de los Estados Pontificios, renunció a sus simpatías angevinas por la alianza con Visconti y el rey Alfonso de Nápoles, con lo que desposeyó a Sforza de sus posesiones en el marca de Ancona y como rey de Nápoles a Alfonso de Aragón en primavera de 1443, de modo que pudo regresar a Roma. Sforza aún pudo mantenerse en la Marca tras la victoria de Monteloro (1443), pero poco después se formó una liga que terminó por expulsarle de la Marca. Florencia y Venecia temían de la alianza de Milán con Nápoles, y cuando el duque de Milán emprendió la conquista de Cremona, Venecia emprendió las hostilidades contra Milán sin contar con un asediado Sforza, y Florencia, con vacilaciones, se puso finalmente al lado de Venecia. La campaña fue desastrosa para Milán, y con la mediación de Florencia, interesada en un equilibrio de poder, el duque de Milán arregló una alianza con su yerno Sforza,</ref> quien viendo amenazada su posible herencia milanesa, pactó su renuncia a la Marca con el nuevo pontífice Nicolás V, pero cuando iba de camino a Milán, el duque Felipe María falleció en 1447.

En Lombardía cundió la anarquía, Milán y casi cada ciudad proclamó su propia república, mientras acechaban sus vecinos, Venecia, el duque Luis de Saboya, el marqués Juan IV de Montferrato, Génova, el marqués Leonel de Este y las pretensiones del duque Carlos de Orléans. Francesco Sforza fue contratado por la república de Milán y derrotó al duque de Orléans, incorporó ciudades lombardas como Pavía y Piacenza, y sometió los territorios que habían conquistado los venecianos, a los que derrotó en Caravaggio (1448), con lo que pudo pactar con ellos una alianza para ayudarle a conseguir el trono ducal. Venecia renunció a esta alianza con Sforza a finales de 1449, pero a pesar de todo, se sometieron a Sforza los territorios del antiguo ducado como Tortona, Alessandria, Parma, Lodi o Crema, y finalmente Milán se rindió a Francesco Sforza y así asumió el puesto como nuevo duque de Milán en 1450.

La expansión veneciana había estado vinculada a su alianza con Florencia contra Milán, pero como Cosme de Médici, que dirigía la política florentina, era amigo y aliado de Sforza, se van a producir unos cambios en las relaciones entre los principales poderes de la península, la alianza entre Milán de Sforza con Florencia, contra la alianza de Venecia y Nápoles de los aragoneses. Alfonso V de Aragón, como rey de Nápoles veía a Sforza como un enemigo al haber sido aliado de los Anjou y propició una liga junto con Venecia contra Milán y Florencia, a la que se unieron las apetencias territoriales del marqués de Montferrato y del duque de Saboya, pero la entente de Milán y Florencia contaba con el apoyo del marqués Luis III de Mantua, y las ciudades de Siena y Bolonia.

La guerra se retrasó con la entrada en Italia del rey de romanos Federico de Habsburgo en Italia. Habiendo intervenido en la solución al cisma de Basilea, el rey de Romanos procedió a bajar a Roma para ser coronado emperador, a causa de su común animadversión a Sforza, Federico III obtuvo el consentimiento de Venecia para pasar por sus territorios, así como del apoyo del rey de Nápoles, Alfonso V de Aragón. Tras pasar por Verona y Padua, en Ferrara rechazó la propuesta de investir a Sforza del ducado de Milán como feudo imperial, renunciando a la coronación como rey de Italia en Monza, se dirigió a Roma donde recibió el 16 de marzo de 1452 la corona de los lombardos y tres días después, la corona imperial. Tras ser coronado visitó Nápoles y de camino de vuelta a Alemania, después de visitar al rey de Nápoles, en Ferrara vendió y concedió a Borso de Este la investidura como duque de Módena y Reggio, como feudos imperiales, y visitó Venecia para arribar a Alemania, pero sin pasar por Milán. En el peregrinaje del emperador a Roma en 1468, también rechazó la investidura ducal a Galeazo María Sforza. Esta determinación de no reconocer a Sforza como duque por parte del emperador puede ser considerado un destello del interés imperial en Italia, lo que restó legitimidad como baluarte frente a una intervención francesa o veneciana.

Una vez que el emperador Federico III hubo regresado a Alemania comenzaron las hostilidades, que se desarrollaron de forma indecisa; y esto unido a la Caída de Constantinopla en 1453, hizo despertar el temor de una amenaza otomana sobre Italia, lo que propició un acuerdo entre Milán y Venecia el 9 de abril de 1454 en Lodi, al que se suscribieron los aliados de Milán (Florencia, Mantua y Génova) y los aliados de Venecia (Nápoles, Saboya y Montferrato), y que estaba basado en el principio de balance de poder entre Venecia, Milán, Nápoles, Florencia y los Estados pontificios. El mismo papa Nicolás V proclamó el 2 de marzo de 1455 una liga itálica entre los distintos Estados italianos contra cualquier poder italiano o extranjero que desestabilizara el balance de poder, hasta que el sistema colapsó definitivamente con la invasión francesa en 1494.

Referencias

Guerras de la República de Venecia
Guerras de los Estados Pontificios
Italia en el siglo XV
Guerras del siglo XV
Estados Pontificios en el siglo XV
República de Venecia en el siglo XV
Conflictos en los años 1420
Conflictos en los años 1430
Conflictos en los años 1440
Conflictos en los años 1450
Historia de Lombardía

Guerras de Lombardía


الطيران التشبيهي أو محاكاة الطيران هو عبارة عن محاكاة للطيران الحقيقي الواقعي، وقد قامت شركة مايكروسوفت في إصدار برنامج لمحبي الطيران التشبيهي هو فلايت سيموليتر بإصدارات كثيرة آخرها فلايت سيميولتر إكس.

كثير حول العالم من محبي الطيران يستخدمون هذا البرنامج، وتوجد منظمات غير ربحية تنظم رحلات عبر الانترنت ودروس وفق قوانين محددة ويشترك بها آلاف من محبي الطيران.

محاكاة الطيران هو النظام الذي يحاول أن ينسخ، أو يحاكي، تجربة الطيران بالطائرة. انها واقعية قدر الإمكان. الأنواع المختلفة من محاكاة الطيران مجموعة من يصل ألعاب الفيديو لى قمرة القيادة كاملة الحجم المقلدة التي شنت على الهيدروليكية (أو الكهربائية)، والمشغلات، والتي تسيطر عليها الدولة من أحدث تكنولوجيا الحاسوب

يتميز (برنامج) مايكروسوفت لمحاكاة الطيران وهو قد يصنف على أنه برنامج أكثر من كونه مجرد لعبة أساسها توفير الترفيه للمستخدم، بإمكانات هائلة وقدرة غير محدودة على إمكانية تغيير، تعديل، حذف أو إضافة تفاصيل جديدة للمستخدمين محدودي الخبرة وكذلك المتخصصين حول العالم.
عدة خطوات بسيطة أحيانا تكفل تغيير انماط وطريقة أداء الطائرات، المروحيات، والمهام التي تشتمل عليها محاكي مايكروسوفت للطيران.

ربما كانت من سياسات وفلسفة تصميم واعداد السيميوليتر من مايكروسوفت هو ترك مجال واسع للمستخدمين حول العالم للإضافة والتعديل على بنية الطائرات والاشكال ومختلف التفاصيل التي تشتمل عليها النسخة الاصلية التي يثبتها المستخدم على الحاسوب لديه.
تكاد الفلايت سيميولتر الخاص بمايكروسوفت ان تكون السبب في انبثاق صناعة إلكترونية نشطة وفعالة حول العالم من قبل الشركات التي تخصصت في خلق، وابتكار موديلات، طرازات، انماط، واشكال جديدة من مختلف الطائرات، بل وحتى الاشكال والمهام الأرضية التي تظهر في البرنامج والتي لم تكن متواجدة اصلا فيه.
النسخة الأكثر انتشارا من الإصدارات العديدة للبرنامج هو Flight Simulator 2004 (قرن من الطيران) والتي طرحتها مايكروسوفت عام 2004, والمدهش ان بعد 5 سنوات من ذلك التأريخ (عام 2009 عند إضافة التعديل على هذا المقال) فإن هناك طائرات، مطارات وابتكارات جديدة تظهر كل يوم من شركة، مجموعة، مستخدم أو مطور حول العالم، سواء كان ذلك العمل من إنتاج فردي حيث يمثل إعادة تلوين صيغة أو هيئة خارجية لطائرة ما من قبل مستخدم هاو، أو كعمل عملاق اشتغل عليه 400 محترف نتج عنه إحدى اروع اضافات اللعبة وهي طائرة الجمبو B-747 400 والتي وضفت فيها شركة PMDG خبرة طيارين طاروا فعلا على الطائرة، وتوخت فيها سلسلة معقدة من التفاصيل التي تدهش المستخدم وتوفر له تجربة طيران تلامس إلى حد بعيد الطيران الحقيقي على متن الجمبو.
أكثر من شركة حول العالم تخصصت مع مرور الوقت في تصميم، واعداد وإنتاج طرازات طائرات جديدة توفرها للمستخدمين حول العالم ليضيفوها إلى مجاميع الطائرات التي بإمكانهم التمتع بقيادتها على شاشة حواسيبهم.
يكاد المطورين للسيميوليتر والمتخصصين ان يكون عددهم كبيرا لدرجة تعذر ادراجهم في مقال واحد، لكن قد يكون من الطيب الإشارة إلى العمالقة في هذا المجال والذين يصدرون إنتاجهم إلى خمس قارات حول العالم ومنهم:
AlphaSim المتخصصة في العديد من الطائرات العسكرية، سواء المتقاعدة منها بسبب التقادم، أو تلك التي قيد الاستخدام.
Captain Sim التي اشتهرت بإنتاج طرازات مميزة لعل أشهرها C-130 هيركوليز، والبوينغ 707 والنفاثة ايروسبيسيال كونكورد.
Nemeth Designs والتي أنتجت المروحيات السوفياتية التكتيكية، والقتالية من طراز Mi-17 وMi-24 Hind والعديد من الموديلات الأخرى.
Lago التي أنتجت سلسلة من الطائرات الحربية منها المفاتلة Tornado
Digital Aviation التي اشتهرت بإنتاج موديل الـ Fokker -100 وموديلات أخرى.
Commercial Level Simulations والشهيرة بموديل - Boeing 747-300.
وعدد آخر كثير من الشركات الرئيسية التي قد تكون متخصصة في تصميم المطارات حول العالم داخل اللعبة الافتراضية وبتفاصيل مدهشة أحيانا، أو باتتاج اضافات أخرى على اللعبة.
الأمر الأكثر دهشة هو العدد اللانهائي من المصممين (غير الربحيين) والذين يوفرون نتاجاتهم والطرازات المصصمة من قبلهم للتداول الحر والمجاني على شبكة الإنترنت حول العالم لكي تصل من خلال مئات المواقع والتجمعات والمنتديات المتخصصة في السيميوليترات التي انتجتها مايكروسوفت، فبدءا من ابسط الاضافات والتي قد تكون تعديلا على إحدى المؤشرات المعينة في قمرة القيادة كأن تكون تعديل قراءات مؤشر الارتفاع والتي ظهر فيها خلل في القراءة في موديل ما، إلى أعمال تستحق الإعجاب ومجانية بالكامل من قبيل طائرات غاية التشبة بالواقع في تفاصيلها والتي يمكن تحميلها واضافتها إلى مجاميع الطائرات الموجودة في البرنامج بشكل قانوني تماما.

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 إكس بلين

مراجع

استحداثات 1929
تدريب الطيران
سلامة جوية
محاكاة في الزمن الحقيقي
مصطلحات ألعاب فيديو
هندسة الطيران والفضاء الجوي
واقع افتراضي

محاكاة الطيران


Protofrullania, monotipski rod jetrenjarki iz porodice Frullaniaceae. Jedina vrsta je P. cornigera, fosil iz srednje krede iz Mjanmara. I rod i vrsta opisane su 2017.

Izvori

Frullaniaceae

Protofrullania


Kožuchov este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Trebišov din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 205 locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Kožuchov este atestată documentar din 1330.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Kožuchov


Elgin est banlieue de la cité de Gisborne, dans le district de Gisborne, située dans l'Île du Nord de la Nouvelle-Zélande.

Situation
Elle est localisée à l'est et au nord de la localité d'Awapuni, au sud de Te Hapara et à l'ouest du centre de la cité de Gisborne. L'aéroport le plus proche est l'aérodrome de Gisborne.

Municipalités limitrophes

Démographie

Elgin avait une population  lors du recensement de 2018, en augmentation de  (soit 2,5 %) depuis le recensement de 2013, et une augmentation de (soit 12,3 %) depuis le recensement de 2006.

Il y avait .

On notait la présence de  et  donnant un sexe-ratio de 0,99 homme pour une femme.

L'âge médian était de  (comparé avec celui de  au niveau national, avec (soit 25,6 %) âgées de moins de 15 ans,  (soit 23,1 %) âgées de 15 à 29 ans,  (soit 39,0 %) âgées de 30 à 64 ans , et  (soit 12,3 %) âgées de 65 ou plus.

L'ethnicité était de 40,0 % européens/Pākehā, 69,0 % Māoris, 8,9 % personnes originaires du Pacifique, 2,2 % Asiatiques et 1,3 % d'autres ethnicités (le total fait plus de 100 % dans la mesure où les personnes peuvent s'identifier de multiples ethnicités).

La proportion de personnes nées outre-mer était de 6,2 %, comparée aux 27,1 % au niveau national.

Bien que certaines personnes objectent à donner leur religion, 48,5 % n'avaient pas de religion, 34,6 % étaient chrétiens, 0,2 % étaient Hindouistes, 0,1 % étaient bouddhiste et 7,9 % avaient une autre religion.

Parmi ceux de ,  (7,0 %) étaient bachelier ou avaient un degré supérieur et  (27,5 %) n'avaient aucune qualification formelle.

Le revenu médian était de , comparé avec les  au niveau national.

Le statut d'emploi de ceux de plus de , étaient pour  (44,8 %) employées à plein temps,  (13,9 %) étaient à temps partiel et  (soit 8,1 %) étaient sans emploi.

Parcs
Le Reynolds Creek Reserve et le Sandown Park sont des parcs locaux, qui acceptent les chiens en laisse.

Éducation

L'école d'Elgin School est une école primaire publique allant des années 1 à 6 avec un effectif de .

 L'école de Cobham School est aussi une école primaire publique allant des années 1 à 6 avec un effectif de .

Les deux écoles sont mixtes et leur effectif est celui de .

Voir aussi

 Liste des villes de Nouvelle-Zélande

Notes et références

Ville en Nouvelle-Zélande
Banlieue
Région de Gisborne
Hawke's Bay

Elgin (Nouvelle-Zélande)


David Robertson, né le  à Livingston, est un ancien footballeur écossais, accusé de viol, qui a joué comme un milieu offensif pour Dundee United, St Johnstone, Greennock Morton, Livingston, Ayr United, Selkirk et Cowdenbeath. Il a remporté la Coupe d'Écosse avec Dundee United en 2010 et a représenté l'Équipe d'Écosse espoirs de football. Robertson a pris sa retraite de sa carrière de footballeur en .

Carrière

Dundee United
Robertson, né à Livingston, rejoint Dundee United en tant que jeune joueur et a été le meilleur buteur de la Scottish Premier League Youth League de 2004-2005, malgré le fait qu'il jouait comme milieu de terrain. Robertson fait ses débuts pour Dundee United en , lors du match nul (1–1) contre Aberdeen, lorsqu'il quitte le banc dans les dernières minutes pour remplacer le joueur / entraîneur Craig Brewster qui s'était blessé. Robertson marque son premier but trois mois plus tard, lors d'une défaite en championnat contre Livingston (3-1), et son but tardif en prolongation envoie United au troisième tour de la Coupe de la Ligue écossaise au début de la saison suivante. D'autres buts en championnat sont réalisés contre Inverness Caledonian Thistle (deux fois) et Celtic, avec une frappe contre St Mirren garantissant la victoire de Robertson en 2006-2007. En effet, la forme de Robertson le voit signer un nouveau contrat de deux ans en février de cette saison.

En , Robertson honore sa première sélection écossaise des moins de 21 ans et plus tard cette saison-là, il est remplaçant en prolongation lors de la finale 2008 de la coupe de la Ligue écossaise contre les Rangers, manquant l'un des penaltys de Dundee United lors de leur défaite. En , Robertson signe une nouvelle prolongation de son contrat, s'engageant dans le club jusqu'en . Le , Robertson a marqué un but vital de dernière minute contre les Rangers en quart de finale de la Coupe d'Écosse, menant Dundee United a remporter la victoire pour la deuxième fois seulement en 100 ans d'histoire. Lors de la finale de la coupe d'Écosse 2010, Robertson joue comme remplaçant.

St Johnstone
Bien qu'il se soit vu proposer un nouveau contrat par United en 2011, Robertson choisit plutôt de signer pour St Johnstone. Robertson fait ses débuts pour St Johnstone lors d'un match de championnat contre Aberdeen le .

Le , Robertson est blessé lors du match de St Johnstone contre Hibernian et le lendemain, le manager du club, Steve Lomas, confirme que Robertson s'est cassé la jambe.

Le , St Johnstone annonce que Robertson ne recevrait pas de nouveau contrat à l'expiration de son contrat en cours. En , Robertson est mis à l'essai chez Greenock Morton.

Greenock Morton
Le , Robertson signe pour Greenock Morton.

Le père de Robertson, Dougie, a joué près de  pour Morton entre 1983 et 1990.

Livingston et Ayr United
Pendant l'été 2014, Robertson quitte Morton pour signer pour Livingston. Il marque lors de ses débuts en compétition pour le club, entrant dans le match à la  contre Queen of the South et marquant quelques minutes plus tard, assurant la victoire en prolongation.

Après sept mois avec Livingston, Robertson est transféré à l'équipe écossaise de la Ligue 1 Ayr United pour un contrat à court terme. À la fin de la saison 2014-2015, Robertson est libéré par .

Selkirk et Cowdenbeath
Le , Robertson signe pour le club Selkirk de la Lowland League. Après six mois avec Selkirk, Robertson retourne en SPFL, signant en  pour l'équipe de Scottish League Two, Cowdenbeath Football Club. Robertson prend sa retraite en , après qu'un juge statue qu'il avait violé une femme.

Jugement pour viol
Robertson et David Goodwillie, qui était alors un coéquipier de Robertson à Dundee United, ont été accusés d'avoir violé une femme en . Goodwillie a été accusé de viol, mais les autorités judiciaires écossaises ont décidé de ne pas engager de poursuites pénales. La femme a alors intenté une action civile contre Robertson et Goodwillie. Le , Robertson et Goodwillie ont été déclarés coupable de viol et condamnés à payer  () d'indemnisation. L'affaire civile a été jugée selon la prépondérance des probabilités et n'a pas nécessité la corroboration des preuves, contrairement aux affaires pénales écossaises. Le club de Robertson, Cowdenbeath, a publié une déclaration indiquant qu'il ne serait pas considéré pour la sélection jusqu'à ce que de plus amples informations aient été reçues et prises en compte. Robertson a ensuite annoncé sa retraite de footballeur. En , trois juges d'appel de la Court of Session ont confirmé la décision.

Statistiques

Palmarès
 Dundee United
 Coupe d'Ecosse (1) :
 Vainqueur : 2009-10.

 Coupe de la Ligue écossaise :
 Finaliste : 2007-08.

Références

Liens externes

Joueur du Cowdenbeath FC
Joueur de l'Ayr United FC
Joueur du Livingston FC
Joueur du Greenock Morton FC
Joueur du St Johnstone FC
Joueur du Dundee United FC
Footballeur écossais
Naissance en septembre 1986
Naissance à Livingston (Écosse)

David Robertson (football, 1986)


Denis Mihailovici Ableazin (în , ) este un gimnast rus laureat cu trei medalii olimpice din două participari, la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2012 și la cele din 2016. A fost și campion mondial la sol la Campionatul Mondial de Gimnastică Artistică din 2014 și a câștigat cinci medalii de aur la Campionatul European, inclusiv patru la Campionatele europene de gimnastică artistică masculină din 2014. La Jocurile Olimpice de la Tokyo a câștigat medalia de aur cu echipa Rusiei.

Note

Legături externe

  Prezentare la Federația internațională de gimnastică

Gimnaști ruși
Medaliați olimpici cu argint ruși
Medaliați olimpici cu bronz ruși
Gimnaști la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2012
Gimnaști la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016
Gimnaști la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2020

Denis Ableazin


Pirlepe veya Perlepe ( trl: Prilep), Kuzey Makedonya'nın güneyinde yer alan bir şehir ve belediye merkezidir.

Güney Makedonya'da, Kuzey Pelogonya Ovası'na yayılmış Pirlepe,  orta büyüklükte tipik bir Balkan şehridir. Ülkenin büyük şehirlerinden Manastır'ın yakınlarındadır.

Coğrafya
Kuzey Makedonya'nın güneyinde yer alan Pirlepe, ülkenin idari sınıflanmasında Pelagonya Bölgesi sınırları içindedir. Büyük Pelagonya vadisinin bölümü olan Pirlepe ovasının doğusunda bulunan şehir, kuzeyde Markovi Kuli ve güneyde Seleçka Dağı arasındadır.

Tarih

Pirlepe, antik "Styberra" şehrinin kalıntıları üzerine kurulmuştur. Şehir, Roma İmparatorluğu döneminde gelişmiştir. 268 yılında Gotlar tarafından neredeyse yok edilmiş, saldırı sonrasında şehrin sadece küçük bir kısmı kalmıştır.

"Pirlepe" ismine ilk kez Bizans imparatoru II. Basileios'un  1014 tarihli fermanında tesadüf edilmektedir.  Orta Çağ Pirlepesi bir dağın zirvesinde yer alan kalenin etrafında kurulmuştu. Bu kasaba 1240'larda Pirlepe ismiyle ifade ediliyordu. Pirlepe ismi "bir dağın tepesine saplanmış" anlamına gelmektedir.

11. yüzyılın başlarından 1201 yılına değin Bizans yönetimi altında varlığını sürdüren şehir, bu tarihte İkinci Bulgar İmparatorluğu'nun hâkimiyetini kabul etti; 1246'da tekrar Bizans hâkimiyetine girerek 1334 yılına değin Bizans hâkimiyetinde kaldı.

Sırp Kralı Duşan'ın orduları Pirlepe'yi ele geçirince şehir kısa süreliğine de olsa Sırp İmparatorluğu'na bağlandı. Duşan'ın ölümünden sonra Pirlepe Vukasin Prensliği'ne bağladı ve Vukasin 1366'da Pirlepe'de kendini kral ilan etti. Vukasin, 14. yüzyıl boyunca devam eden savaşlarda yer yer Osmanlı ordusunun hizmetinde yer almış olsa da 1371 yılındaki Çirmen Savaşı'nda Osmanlı ordusuna karşı mücadele verirken öldü ve Osmanlı vasalı olarak Pirlepe'nin yönetimini devralan oğlu Marko 1395 yılındaki Rovine Muharebesi'nde öldürüleceği ana değin Osmanlı sultanlarının düzenlediği büyük seferlerin tamamına katıldı. Bu olaydan sonra Pirlepe ve havalisinin büyük bir karışıklık ve mücadele yaşanmadan Osmanlı yönetimine girdiği, ordunun bir kısmının Osmanlı hizmetinde Hristiyan sipahiler olarak varlığını devam ettirdiği düşünülür.

Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Dönemi
Şehir, 14. yüzyılda (1385-1395) civardaki yerleşimlerle beraber Osmanlı İmparatorluğu sınırlarına girmiştir. Bu dönemden 20. yüzyıl başlarına (1912-1913) kadar Osmanlı idaresinde kalmıştır.

Osmanlı yönetiminde Pirlepe hakkında bilgi veren en eski kayıtlar 1445 yılına aittir. Bu tarihte şehrin önemli bir bölümünü (%97.4) Hristiyan nüfus teşkil etmekteydi. Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in saltanatı döneminde Pirlepe  önemli ölçüde Türk Müslüman  yerleşimciyi kabul etti. 1478'e gelindiğnde Hristiyan nüfus oraın %73.9'a düşmüştü. 1528 yılında şehrin vergi nüfusu %31'i Müslüman olan 825 nefere yükseldi. Şehrin nüfusu ve Müslümanların oranı sonraki yıllarda geriledi.

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti kurulduğundan itibaren bölgedeki Türk nüfusunun ciddi bir kısmı Anadolu'ya özellikle Ege bölgesine göç etmiştir.

Yugoslavya Krallığı Dönemi
Osmanlı İmparatorluğu dönemi sonrasında, küçüklü büyüklü birçok muharebe sonrasında Pirlepe'nin de yer aldığı bölge, Sırp, Hırvat ve Sloven Krallığı egemenliğine geçmiştir. Krallık, sonrasında Yugoslavya Krallığı olarak 1943 yılına dek egemen olmuştur.

Yugoslavya Dönemi
1943 yılı ile beraber Yugoslavya Krallığı ortadan kalkmış, yerine Yugoslavya Sosyalist Federal Cumhuriyeti kurulmuştur. Bu dönemde de Pirlepe, bu idari yapı içinde yer almıştır.

Makedonya Cumhuriyeti Dönemi
1991 yılında Makedonya'nın Yugoslavya Sosyalist Federal Cumhuriyeti'nden bağımsızlığını ilan etmesiyle Pirlepe, bağımsız Makedonya Cumhuriyeti içinde yer almıştır.

Nüfus
2002 sayımlarına göre Pirlepe Belediyesi'nin toplam nüfusu 76.768 kişidir. Bu nüfusun etnik dağılımı şu şekildedir: Makedonlar 70.878; Romanlar 4.433; Türkler 917…

Ekonomi
Pirlepe, ülkenin en gelişmiş tütün üretim merkezidir.

Kaynakça

Pirlepe


An Carex urelytra in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Jisaburo Ohwi. An Carex urelytra in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Taiwan. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex urelytra


Christian Rosenkrantz er navnet på flere personer:

 Christian Rosenkrantz (1672-1736) – dansk godsejer, gehejmeråd og amtmand
 Christian Rosenkrantz (1766-1817) (1766-1817) – dansk godsejer, lensbaron og vicelandsdommer
 Christian Rosenkrantz-Charisius (1828-1920) – dansk proprietær, lensbaron, kammerherre og hofjægermester

Christian Rosenkrantz (flertydig)


Die Route nationale 747, kurz N 747 oder RN 747, war eine französische Nationalstraße, die von 1933 bis 1973 zwischen La Roche-sur-Yon und La Tranche-sur-Mer verlief. In La Tranche-sur-Mer hatte sie keinen Anschluss an eine andere Nationalstraße. Ihre Länge betrug 39 Kilometer.

Weblinks
 Route nationale française 747 auf WikiSara (französisch)

747
Historische Straßenkennzeichnung
Straße in Pays de la Loire

Route nationale 747


Fiatov novac (iz lat. riječi fiat ("neka se izvrši! neka bude!)  novac je koji nema pokrića svoje vrijednosti ni u kakvom konkretnom dobru poput zlata ili srebra.

Služi kao valuta koju vlast određuje kao jedino pravno sredstvo plaćanja a vrijednost jamče institucije koje ga izdaju. Većina papirnog novca je fiat novac, uključujući euro i američki dolar. Njegovu vrijednost jamči državna vlast i nije vezana za zlato i općenito nije osigurana.

Ako dovoljno velika organizacija (tj. Zajednica) izda, koristi i prihvati nešto kao plaćanje, to nešto automatski dobiva vrijednost s obzirom na to da mu se vjeruje kao sredstvo za razmjenu dobara.

Povijest
Nakon Prvog svjetskog rata brojne države su se zbog ogromnih troškova rata bile primorane zadužiti i, da bi otplatile dugove, neke države su počele tiskati dodatni novac koji nije imao pokriće u zlatu. Tijekom Drugog svjetskog rata, 1944. godine, potpisan je Sustav iz Bretton Woodsa kojim su uređeni monetarni sustavi zapadnih saveznika na način da je svaka zapadna valuta imala pokriće u američkom dolaru, a taj je pak pokriće imao u zlatu.

1971. godine tadašnji američki predsjednik Richard Nixon ukinuo je konvertibilnost dolara za zlato. Time je u potpunosti zamijenjen dotadašnji globalni monetarni sustav koji se je temeljio na zlatu.

Povezani članak
Helikopterski novac

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Fiat novac

Plaćanje
Monetarna ekonomija

Fiducijarni novac


Flow cytometry (FC) is a technique used to detect and measure physical and chemical characteristics of a population of cells or particles.

In this process, a sample containing cells or particles is suspended in a fluid and injected into the flow cytometer instrument. The sample is focused to ideally flow one cell at a time through a laser beam, where the light scattered is characteristic to the cells and their components. Cells are often labeled with fluorescent markers so light is absorbed and then emitted in a band of wavelengths. Tens of thousands of cells can be quickly examined and the data gathered are processed by a computer.

Flow cytometry is routinely used in basic research, clinical practice, and clinical trials. Uses for flow cytometry include:
 Cell counting
 Cell sorting
 Determining cell characteristics and function
 Detecting microorganisms
 Biomarker detection
 Protein engineering detection
 Diagnosis of health disorders such as blood cancers
 Measuring genome size

A flow cytometry analyzer is an instrument that provides quantifiable data from a sample.  Other instruments using flow cytometry include cell sorters which physically separate and thereby purify cells of interest based on their optical properties.

History

The first impedance-based flow cytometry device, using the Coulter principle, was disclosed in U.S. Patent 2,656,508, issued in 1953, to Wallace H. Coulter. Mack Fulwyler was the inventor of the forerunner to today's flow cytometers - particularly the cell sorter. Fulwyler developed this in 1965 with his publication in Science. The first fluorescence-based flow cytometry device (ICP 11) was developed in 1968 by Wolfgang Göhde from the University of Münster, filed for patent on 18 December 1968 and first commercialized in 1968/69 by German developer and manufacturer Partec through Phywe AG in Göttingen. At that time, absorption methods were still widely favored by other scientists over fluorescence methods. Soon after, flow cytometry instruments were developed, including the Cytofluorograph (1971) from Bio/Physics Systems Inc. (later: Ortho Diagnostics), the PAS 8000 (1973) from Partec, the first FACS (fluorescence-activated cell sorting) instrument from Becton Dickinson (1974), the ICP 22 (1975) from Partec/Phywe and the Epics from Coulter (1977/78). The first label-free high-frequency impedance flow cytometer based on a patented microfluidic "lab-on-chip", Ampha Z30, was introduced by Amphasys (2012).

Name of the technology
The original name of the fluorescence-based flow cytometry technology was "pulse cytophotometry" (German: Impulszytophotometrie), based on the first patent application on fluorescence-based flow cytometry. At the 5th American Engineering Foundation Conference on Automated Cytology in Pensacola (Florida) in 1976 - eight years after the introduction of the first fluorescence-based flow cytometer (1968)  - it was agreed to commonly use the name "flow cytometry", a term that quickly became popular.

Flow cytometers

Modern flow cytometers are able to analyze many thousands of particles per second, in "real time" and, if configured as cell sorters, can actively separate and isolate particles with specified optical properties at similar rates. A flow cytometer is similar to a microscope, except that, instead of producing an image of the cell, flow cytometry offers high-throughput, automated quantification of specified optical parameters on a cell-by-cell basis. To analyze solid tissues, a single-cell suspension must first be prepared.

A flow cytometer has five main components: a flow cell, a measuring system, a detector, an amplification system, and  a computer for analysis of the signals. The flow cell has a liquid stream (sheath fluid), which carries and aligns the cells so that they pass single file through the light beam for sensing. The measuring system commonly uses measurement of impedance (or conductivity) and optical systems - lamps (mercury, xenon); high-power water-cooled lasers (argon, krypton, dye laser); low-power air-cooled lasers (argon (488 nm), red-HeNe (633 nm), green-HeNe, HeCd (UV)); diode lasers (blue, green, red, violet) resulting in light signals. The detector and analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) system converts analog measurements of forward-scattered light (FSC) and side-scattered light (SSC) as well as dye-specific fluorescence signals into digital signals that can be processed by a computer. The amplification system can be linear or logarithmic.

The process of collecting data from samples using the flow cytometer is termed "acquisition". Acquisition is mediated by a computer physically connected to the flow cytometer, and the software which handles the digital interface with the cytometer. The software is capable of adjusting parameters (e.g., voltage, compensation) for the sample being tested, and also assists in displaying initial sample information while acquiring sample data to ensure that parameters are set correctly. Early flow cytometers were, in general, experimental devices, but technological advances have enabled widespread applications for use in a variety of both clinical and research purposes. Due to these developments, a considerable market for instrumentation, analysis software, as well as the reagents used in acquisition such as fluorescently labeled antibodies have been developed.

Modern instruments usually have multiple lasers and fluorescence detectors. The current record for a commercial instrument is ten lasers  and 30 fluorescence detectors. Increasing the number of lasers and detectors allows for multiple antibody labeling, and can more precisely identify a target population by their phenotypic markers. Certain instruments can even take digital images of individual cells, allowing for the analysis of fluorescent signal location within or on the surface of cells.

Hardware

Fluidics system of a flow cytometer
Cells must pass uniformly through the center of focused laser beams to accurately measure optical properties of cells in any flow cytometer. The purpose of the fluidic system is to move the cells one by one through the lasers beam and throughout the instrument. Fluidics in a flow cytometer with cell sorting capabilities also use the stream to carry sorted cells into collection tubes or wells.

Hydrodynamic focusing

For precise positioning of cells in a liquid jet, hydrodynamic focusing is used in most cytometers. The cells in suspension enter into the instrument enclosed by an outer sheath fluid. The sample core is maintained in the center of the sheath fluid. The sample input rate or how fast the cells flow through to the laser interrogation can be controlled by the pressure of the sheath fluid on the sample core. Under optimal conditions, the central fluid stream and sheath fluid do not mix.

Acoustic-assisted hydrodynamic focusing
Acoustic focusing technology is used in some flow cytometers to support hydrodynamic focusing. Acoustic waves (>2 MHz) pre-focus the sample before introduction to sheath fluid. The pre-focused sample is then injected into the hydrodynamic core and flowed through the instrument. This may help with increasing data accuracy under high sample input rates.

Optics and electronics

Optical filters
Light emitted from fluorophores are in a spectrum of wavelengths, so combining multiple fluorophores may cause overlap. To add specificity, optical filters and dichroic mirrors are used to filter and move light to the detectors such as photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) or avalanche photodiodes (APD). Optical filters are designed as band pass (BP), long pass (LP), or short pass (SP) filters.  Most flow cytometers uses dichroic mirrors and band pass filters to select specific bands of the optical spectrum.

Prisms, gratings, and spectral flow cytometry
Spectral flow cytometry uses prisms or diffraction gratings to disperse the emitted light of a marker across a detector array. This allows for  the full spectra from each particle to be measured. The measured spectra from single cells are subsequently unmixed by using reference spectra of all used dyes and the autofluorescence spectrum. This may allow for a wider panel design and the application of new biological markers.

Imaging flow cytometry
Imaging flow cytometry (IFC) captures multichannel images of cells.  Detectors used in imaging platforms can be equipped with charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) to capture images of individual cells.

Data analysis

Compensation

Each fluorochrome has a broad fluorescence spectrum. When more than one fluorochrome is used, the overlap between fluorochromes can occur. This situation is called spectrum overlap. This situation needs to be overcome. For example, the emission spectrum for FITC and PE is that the light emitted by the fluorescein overlaps the same wavelength as it passes through the filter used for PE. This spectral overlap is corrected by removing a portion of the FITC signal from the PE signals or vice versa. This process is called color compensation, which calculates a fluorochrome as a percentage to measure itself.

Compensation is the mathematical process by which spectral overlap of multiparameter flow cytometric data is corrected. Since fluorochromes can have wide-ranging spectrum, they can overlap, causing the undesirable result of confusion during the analysis of data. This overlap, known as spillover and quantified in the spillover coefficient, is usually caused by detectors for a certain fluorochrome measuring a significant peak in wavelength from a different fluorochrome. Linear algebra is most often used to make this correction.

In general, when graphs of one or more parameters are displayed, it is to show that the other parameters do not contribute to the distribution shown. Especially when using the parameters which are more than double, this problem is more severe. Currently, no tools have been discovered to efficiently display multidimensional parameters. Compensation is very important to see the distinction between cells.

Gating

The data generated by flow cytometers can be plotted in a single dimension, to produce a histogram, or in two-dimensional dot plots, or even in three dimensions. The regions on these plots can be sequentially separated, based on fluorescence intensity, by creating a series of subset extractions, termed "gates." Specific gating protocols exist for diagnostic and clinical purposes, especially in relation to hematology. Individual single cells are often distinguished from cell doublets or higher aggregates by their "time-of-flight" (denoted also as a "pulse-width") through the narrowly focused laser beam

The plots are often made on logarithmic scales. Because different fluorescent dyes' emission spectra overlap, signals at the detectors have to be compensated electronically as well as computationally. Data accumulated using the flow cytometer can be analyzed using software. Once the data is collected, there is no need to stay connected to the flow cytometer and analysis is most often performed on a separate computer. This is especially necessary in core facilities where usage of these machines is in high demand.

Computational analysis

Recent progress on automated population identification using computational methods has offered an alternative to traditional gating strategies. Automated identification systems could potentially help findings of rare and hidden populations.  Representative automated methods include FLOCK  in Immunology Database and Analysis Portal (ImmPort), SamSPECTRAL and flowClust in Bioconductor,  and FLAME  in GenePattern. T-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (tSNE) is an algorithm designed to perform dimensionality reduction, to allow visualization of complex multi-dimensional data in a two-dimensional "map".  Collaborative efforts have resulted in an open project called FlowCAP (Flow Cytometry: Critical Assessment of Population Identification Methods,) to provide an objective way to compare and evaluate the flow cytometry data clustering methods, and also to establish guidance about appropriate use and application of these methods.

FMO controls
Fluorescence minus one (FMO) controls are important for data interpretation when building multi-color panels - in which a cell is stained with multiple fluorochromes simultaneously. FMO controls provide a measure of fluorescence spillover in a given channel and allow for compensation. To generate a FMO control, a sample is stained with all the fluorochromes except the one that is being tested - meaning if you are using 4 different fluorochromes your FMO control must contain only 3 of them (example: fluorochromes - A, B, C, D; FMOs - ABC_, AB_D, A_CD, _BCD).

Cell sorting by flow cytometry
Cell sorting is a method to purify cell populations based on the presence or absence of specific physical characteristics. In flow cytometers with sorting capabilities, the instrument detects cells using parameters including cell size, morphology, and protein expression, and then droplet technology to sort cells and recover the subsets for post-experimental use.

The first prototype sorter was built at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in 1965 by physicist Mack J. Fulwyler by joining a Coulter volume sensor with the newly invented ink jet printer. Live cell cell sorter or fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) was generated by Len Herzenberg, who subsequently won the Kyoto Prize in 2006 for his seminal work.

Flow cytometry cell sorters have a collection system unlike flow cytometry analyzers.  The collection process starts when a sample is injected into a stream of sheath fluid that passes through the flow cell and laser intercepts. The stream then carries the cell through a vibrating nozzle which generates droplets with most containing either one cell or no cells. An electrical charging ring is placed just at the point where the stream breaks into droplets and a charge is placed on the ring based immediately prior to fluorescence intensity being measured; the opposite charge is trapped on the droplet as it breaks from the stream and the droplets are therefore charged. The charged droplets then fall through an electrostatic deflection system that diverts droplets into containers based on their charge. In some systems, the charge is applied directly to the stream, and the droplet breaking off retains charge of the same sign as the stream. The stream is then returned to neutral after the droplet breaks off. After collecting, these cells can be further cultured, manipulated, and studied.

Labels
Flow cytometry uses the light properties scattered from cells or particles for identification or quantitative measurement of physical properties.  Labels, dyes, and stains can be used for multi-parametric analysis (understand more properties about a cell).  Immunophenotyping is the analysis of heterogeneous populations of cells using labeled antibodies and other fluorophore containing reagents such as dyes and stains.

Fluorescent labels

A wide range of fluorophores can be used as labels in flow cytometry. Fluorophores, or simply "fluors", are typically attached to an antibody that recognizes a target feature on or in the cell; they may also be attached to a chemical entity with affinity for the cell membrane or another cellular structure. Each fluorophore has a characteristic peak excitation and emission wavelength, and the emission spectra often overlap. Consequently, the combination of labels which can be used depends on the wavelength of the lamp(s) or laser(s) used to excite the fluorochromes and on the detectors available. The maximum number of distinguishable fluorescent labels is thought to be 17 or 18, and this level of complexity necessitates laborious optimization to limit artifacts, as well as complex deconvolution algorithms to separate overlapping spectra. Flow cytometry uses fluorescence as a quantitative tool; the utmost sensitivity of flow cytometry is unmatched by other fluorescent detection platforms such as confocal microscopy. Absolute fluorescence sensitivity is generally lower in confocal microscopy because out-of-focus signals are rejected by the confocal optical system and because the image is built up serially from individual measurements at every location across the cell, reducing the amount of time available to collect signal.

Quantum dots
Quantum dots are sometimes used in place of traditional fluorophores because of their narrower emission peaks.

Isotope labeling

Mass cytometry overcomes the fluorescent labeling limit by utilizing lanthanide isotopes attached to antibodies. This method could theoretically allow the use of 40 to 60 distinguishable labels and has been demonstrated for 30 labels. Mass cytometry is fundamentally different from flow cytometry: cells are introduced into a plasma, ionized, and associated isotopes are quantified via time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Although this method permits the use of a large number of labels, it currently has lower throughput capacity than flow cytometry. It also destroys the analysed cells, precluding their recovery by sorting.

Cytometric bead array
In addition to the ability to label and identify individual cells via fluorescent antibodies, cellular products such as cytokines, proteins, and other factors may be measured as well.  Similar to ELISA sandwich assays, cytometric bead array (CBA) assays use multiple bead populations typically differentiated by size and different levels of fluorescence intensity to distinguish multiple analytes in a single assay.  The amount of the analyte captured is detected via a biotinylated antibody against a secondary epitope of the protein, followed by a streptavidin-R-phycoerythrin treatment. The fluorescent intensity of R-phycoerythrin on the beads is quantified on a flow cytometer equipped with a 488 nm excitation source.  Concentrations of a protein of interest in the samples can be obtained by comparing the fluorescent signals to those of a standard curve generated from a serial dilution of a known concentration of the analyte. Commonly also referred to as cytokine bead array (CBA).

Impedance flow cytometry
Impedance-based single cell analysis systems are commonly known as Coulter counters. They represent a well-established method for counting and sizing virtually any kind of cells and particles. The label-free technology has recently been enhanced by a "lab-on-a-chip" based approach and by applying high frequency alternating current (AC) in the radio frequency range (from 100 kHz to 30 MHz) instead of a static direct current (DC) or low frequency AC field. This patented technology allows a highly accurate cell analysis and provides additional information like membrane capacitance and viability. The relatively small size and robustness allow battery powered on-site use in the field.

Measurable parameters

Measurable factors in cellular analysis and flow cytometry include a diverse set of traits and indicators that provide important insights into cell biology and function. Flow cytometry techniques can quantify and evaluate these factors, allowing researchers to investigate and analyze various aspects of cells. Here are some important quantifiable parameters that are frequently investigated:

 Apoptosis: Apoptosis can be quantified by flow cytometry by measuring DNA destruction, mitochondrial membrane potential, permeability alterations, and caspase activity. These measurements reveal important details about planned cell death.
 Cell adherence: Flow cytometry can be used to investigate cell adherence, such as pathogen-host cell adherence. Researchers can quantify and analyze cell adhesion events by utilizing particular markers or fluorescent tags.
 Cell pigments: Chlorophyll and phycoerythrin are pigments found in certain cells. The presence and amounts of these pigments can be measured by flow cytometry, providing information about cellular metabolism and physiological states.
 Cell surface antigens: Flow cytometry is often used to identify and quantify cell surface antigens, also known as Cluster of Differentiation (CD) markers. Researchers can classify cell populations based on surface antigen expression by labeling cells with specific antibodies.

 Cell viability: Flow cytometry can be used as a cell viability assay by utilizing fluorescent dyes or markers that distinguish between live and dead cells. This parameter is critical in determining cell health and response to experimental or therapeutic settings. Viability of the cells in flow cytometry should be around 95% but not less than 90%.
 Circulating tumor cells: Flow cytometry is essential for isolating and purifying circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from blood samples. CTCs can be discovered and examined by targeting certain markers or features, assisting in cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment monitoring.
 Characterizing multidrug resistance (MDR): Flow cytometry can be used to characterize multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells by assessing the efflux of fluorescent dyes or particular markers associated with drug resistance mechanisms. This knowledge aids in the understanding and battling of medication resistance in cancer treatment.
 Chromosome analysis and sorting: Flow cytometry can help with chromosome analysis and sorting, allowing for the creation of libraries and the identification of specific chromosomes or chromosomal abnormalities.
 DNA copy number variation: DNA copy number variation can be measured using flow cytometry techniques such as Flow-FISH or BACs-on-Beads technology. These technologies shed light on genetic changes linked to diseases such as cancer.
 Protein expression and modifications: Using fluorescently labeled antibodies or probes, flow cytometry makes it possible to assess protein expression levels and alterations such as phosphorylation. This parameter contributes to a better understanding of protein function and signaling networks.
 Membrane fluidity: Flow cytometry can detect membrane fluidity by utilizing fluorescent probes that are sensitive to membrane characteristics. This parameter gives information on the dynamics and function of cell membranes.
 Total DNA and RNA content: Flow cytometry can measure total DNA and RNA content in cells. This data is useful for cell cycle analyses, proliferation investigations, and determining gene expression changes.
 Monitoring intracellular parameters: Intracellular factors can be measured by flow cytometry, including pH, intracellular ionized calcium and magnesium levels, membrane potential, glutathione levels, and oxidative burst. These data provide information about cellular metabolism, signaling, and oxidative stress.
 Light scattering: Forward scatter (FSC) and side scatter (SSC) measures are used in flow cytometry to assess cell volume and morphological complexity, respectively. These metrics describe the size, granularity, and shape of cells.
 Transgenic products: Flow cytometry is useful for assessing transgenic products in vivo, particularly fluorescent proteins like as green fluorescent protein (GFP) or similar variations. This enables scientists to investigate gene expression, protein localisation, and cellular dynamics.
 Various combinations: Flow cytometry allows you to integrate many measurable data, such as DNA/surface antigens, to acquire a comprehensive understanding of biological features and functions.

Applications
The technology has applications in a number of fields, including molecular biology, pathology, immunology, virology, plant biology and marine biology. It has broad application in medicine especially in transplantation, hematology, tumor immunology and chemotherapy, prenatal diagnosis, genetics and sperm sorting for sex preselection. Flow cytometry is widely applied to detect sperm cells abnormality associated with DNA fragmentation in male fertility assays. Also, it is extensively used in research for the detection of DNA damage, caspase cleavage and apoptosis. Photoacoustic flow cytometry is used in the study of multi-drug-resistant bacteria (most commonly MRSA) to detect, differentiate, and quantify bacteria in the blood marked with dyed bacteriophages.  In neuroscience, co-expression of cell surface and intracellular antigens can also be analyzed. In microbiology, it can be used to screen and sort transposon mutant libraries constructed with a GFP-encoding transposon (TnMHA), or to assess viability. In protein engineering, flow cytometry is used in conjunction with yeast display and bacterial display to identify cell surface-displayed protein variants with desired properties.
The main advantages of flow cytometry over histology and IHC is the possibility to precisely measure the quantities of antigens and the possibility to stain each cell with multiple antibodies-fluorophores, in current laboratories around 10 antibodies can be bound to each cell. This is much less than mass cytometer where up to 40 can be currently measured, but at a higher price and a slower pace.

Aquatic research
In aquatic systems, flow cytometry is used for the analysis of autofluorescing cells or cells that are fluorescently-labeled with added stains. This research started in 1981 when Clarice Yentsch used flow cytometry to measure the fluorescence in a red tide producing dinoflagellate. The next year researchers published flow cytometric measurements of multiple algal species which could be distinguished based on their fluorescence characteristics. By 1983, marine researchers were assembling their own flow cytometers or using commercially available flow cytometers on seawater samples collected off Bermuda to demonstrate that phytoplankton cells could be distinguished from non-living material and that cyanobacteria could be sorted from a mixed community and subsequently cultured in the lab. Flow cytometry also allowed marine researchers to distinguish between dimly-fluorescing Prochlorococcus and heterotrophic microorganisms, a distinction that is difficult with microscopy-based assessments. Advances in technology now allow aquatic scientists to use flow cytometers continuously during research cruises and flow cytometers are used to provide images of individual phytoplankton cells. Marine scientists use the sorting ability of flow cytometers to make discrete measurements of cellular activity and diversity, to conduct investigations into the mutualistic relationships between microorganisms that live in close proximity, and to measure biogeochemical rates of multiple processes in the ocean.

Cell proliferation assay
Cell proliferation is the major function in the immune system. Often it is required to analyse the proliferative nature of the cells in order to make some conclusions. One such assay to determine the cell proliferation is the tracking dye carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE). It helps to monitor proliferative cells. This assay gives quantitative as well as qualitative data during time-series experiments. This dye binds covalently with the long-lived molecules present inside the cell. When the cells divide, the molecules divide too and, the daughter cells possess half the dye than the parent population. This decrease in the intensity can be visualized by flow cytometry.  In literature, this powerful technique of flow cytometry and CFSE has been used to find the efficiency of T-cells in killing the target cells in cancer such as leukemia. In order to visualize the target cell death, both rapid and slow, scientists have used CFSE labelling with antibody staining of certain kinds of cells and fluorescently labelled microbeads. This also gave information regarding the proliferation of the target cells upon the treatment of certain cytokines.

Measuring genome size
Flow cytometry has been used to measure genome sizes, or more precisely: the amount of DNA in a cell or nucleus. Although genomes can be analyzed with more precision by genome sequencing, this is often difficult due to a high fraction of micro-chromosomes or repetitive sequences which may be missed by sequencing (or which get filtered out during the analysis step when they cannot be assigned to chromosomes). However, flow cytometry is not perfect either. The resulting genome sizes may differ based on the dye used. An analysis of fish genomes resulted in significantly different genome sizes when propidium iodide (PI) and DAPI were used, respectively. For instance, the genome of Anguilla japonica was found to contain 1.09 pg of DNA with PI vs. 1.25 pg with DAPI. Similarly, the genome of Myxocyprinus asiaticus was found to contain 2.75 pg of DNA (PI) vs. 3.08 pg (DAPI). That is, the differences were on the order of 12-14%.

See also
 Tissue Cytometry, a technique that brings the concept of flow cytometry to tissue section, in situ, and helps to perform quantification of markers by maintaining the spatial context.
 Annexin A5 affinity assay, a test for cells undergoing apoptosis, often uses flow cytometry
 Cell cycle analysis
 Coulter counter
 Cytometry
 Dielectrophoresis
 EuroFlow
 Flow Cytometry Standard
 Mass cytometry
 Microfluorimetry
 Viability assay

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

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Flow cytometry