ظهرت قضية فريتزل لأول مرة في عام 2008 عندما تلقت الشرطة في بلدة أمستيتين، النمسا السفلى بلاغا من امرأة تدعى إليزابيث فريتزل (من مواليد 6 أبريل 1966) قالت فيه أن والدها جوزيف فريتزل (من مواليد 9 أبريل 1935) احتجزها لمدة 24 عامًا في مكان سري في قبو منزل العائلة، ذكرت إليزابيث أن والدها ضربها وتحرش بها واغتصبها بشكل متكرر وحملت منه وأنجبت سبعة أطفال، ظل ثلاثة منهم في القبو مع أمهم؛ مات أحدهم بعد ولادته بفترة وجيزة وأحرقه فريتزل. أخذ فريتزل وزوجته روزماري الأطفال الثلاثة ألأخرين لتربيتهم بعد الإبلاغ عنهم أنهم لقطاء.

ألقي القبض على جوزيف فريتزل للاشتباه في الاغتصاب والسجن الباطل والقتل الخطأ عن طريق الإهمال وسفاح القربى. في مارس 2009 أقر بالذنب في جميع التهم وحكم عليه بالسجن مدى الحياة.

تاريخ
ولد جوزيف فريتزل في 9 أبريل 1935، في أمستيتن، النمسا. في عام 1956، عندما كان عمره 21 عامًا، تزوج روزماري البالغة من العمر 17 عامًا (من مواليد 23 سبتمبر 1939)، وأنجب منها ثلاثة أبناء وأربع بنات، بما في ذلك إليزابيث، التي ولدت في 6 أبريل 1966، وبحسب ما ورد بدأ فريتزل في إساءة معاملة إليزابيث في عام 1977. عندما كانت في الحادية عشرة من عمرها.

بعد الانتهاء من التعليم الإلزامي في سن 15، بدأت إليزابيث دورة لتصبح نادلة. في يناير 1983، هربت من المنزل واختبأت في فيينا مع صديق لها من العمل. تم العثور عليها من قبل الشرطة في غضون ثلاثة أسابيع وعادت إلى والديها. عادت للانضمام إلى دورة النادلة، وأكملتها في منتصف عام 1984، وعرضت عليها وظيفة في لينز المجاورة.

أسر
في 28 أغسطس 1984، بعد أن بلغت إليزابيث 18 عامًا، استدرجها فريتزل إلى قبو منزل العائلة، قائلاً إنه بحاجة إلى المساعدة في حمل الباب. كانت هذه آخر قطعة مطلوبة لإغلاق ما سيصبح الغرفة التي احتُجزت فيها إليزابيث. [6] وبعد عقد إليزابيث الباب في المكان في حين تركيبها فريتزل هو داخل الإطار، وأنه عقد الأثير منشفة -soaked على وجه ابنته حتى أنها كانت غير واعية، ثم رمى بها في الغرفة.

بعد اختفاء إليزابيث، قدمت روزماري بلاغًا عن المفقودين. بعد شهر تقريبًا، سلم فريتزل رسالة إلى الشرطة، كانت الأولى من عدة رسائل أجبر إليزابيث على كتابتها أثناء وجودها في الأسر. ذكرت الرسالة، التي تحمل ختم بريد براونو، أن إليزابيث سئمت العيش مع عائلتها وكانت تقيم مع صديق؛ حذرت والديها من البحث عنها وإلا ستغادر البلاد. أخبرت فريتزل الشرطة أنها على الأرجح انضمت إلى طائفة دينية.

على مدار الـ 24 عامًا التالية، زار فريتزل إليزابيث في الغرفة المخفية كل يوم تقريبًا، أو ثلاث مرات على الأقل في الأسبوع، مع جلب الطعام والإمدادات الأخرى. بعد إلقاء القبض عليه، اعترف بأنه اغتصبها مرارًا وتكرارًا. أنجبت إليزابيث سبعة أطفال أثناء أسرها. توفي طفل بعد ولادته بفترة وجيزة، وتم نقل ثلاثة أطفال - ليزا ومونيكا وألكساندر - من القبو عندما كانوا رضعًا ليعيشوا مع فريتزل وزوجته، الذين تمت الموافقة عليهم من قبل سلطات الخدمات الاجتماعية المحلية كآباء حاضنين لهم. قال المسؤولون إن فريتزل شرح «بشكل معقول للغاية» كيف ظهر ثلاثة من أحفاده الصغار على عتبة منزله. تلقت الأسرة زيارات منتظمة من الأخصائيين الاجتماعيين، الذين رأوا ولم يسمعوا أي شيء يثير شكوكهم.

بعد ولادة الطفل الرابع في عام 1994، سمح فريتزل بتوسيع السجن، من 35 إلى 55 م 2 (380 إلى 590 قدمًا مربعة)، مما جعل إليزابيث وأطفالها يعملون لسنوات في حفر التربة بأيديهم العارية. كان لدى الأسرى جهاز تلفزيون وراديو وفيديو. يمكن تخزين الطعام في الثلاجة وطهيه أو تسخينه على أطباق ساخنة. قامت إليزابيث بتعليم الأطفال القراءة والكتابة. في بعض الأحيان، كان فريتزل يطفئ الأضواء أو يرفض توصيل الطعام لأيام في كل مرة لمعاقبته.

أخبر فريتزل إليزابيث والأطفال الثلاثة الذين بقوا (كيرستين وستيفان وفيليكس) أنهم سيتعرضون للغاز إذا حاولوا الفرار. وخلص المحققون إلى أن هذا كان مجرد تهديد أجوف لتخويف الضحايا. لم يكن هناك إمداد بالغاز إلى الطابق السفلي.  قال بعد اعتقاله إنه أخبرهم أنهم سيصعقون بالكهرباء ويموتون إذا تدخلوا في باب القبو.

وفقًا لكريستين أخت زوجة فريتزل، كان يذهب إلى الطابق السفلي كل صباح في الساعة 09:00، ظاهريًا لرسم خطط للآلات التي باعها للشركات. غالبًا ما كان يقضي الليل هناك ولا يسمح لزوجته بإحضار القهوة له. ادعى مستأجر استأجر غرفة في الطابق الأرضي في المنزل لمدة اثني عشر عامًا أنه سمع ضوضاء من الطابق السفلي، والتي أوضح فريتزل أنها من «الأنابيب المعيبة» أو نظام التدفئة بالغاز.

الأبناء
أنجبت أبنتهُ من عملية أعتداءهِ المتكررة سبعة أطفال مات أحدهم عندما كان رضيعاً وقد قام جوزيف بحرقهِ. وبالنسبة للأبناء الأخرون فثلاثة منهم كانوا محتجزين مع والدتهم وهم كريستين وستيفان وفليكس البالغة أعمارهم 19 و18 و5 سنوات بالترتيب. أما الثلاثة الآخرين والذين يعيشون مع زوجته روزماري فهم: الكساندر وليزا ومونيكا وقد قام بتبنيهم رسمياً.

السجل الجنائي
جوزيف أدين بقضية اغتصاب امرأة عام 1967م في مدينة لنز النمساوية وسجن على أثرها لمدة 18 شهراً، وقد أعتقل عقبها أيضاً على إثر «هتك الحياء العام» أمام امرأة في الشارع في النمسا.

مصادر

 الجلسة الأولى لمحاكمة جوزيف يقر بذنبه

انظر أيضا
 زنا المحارم
 اختطاف ارييل كاسترو

النمسا في 2008
النمسا في 2009
أشخاص أدينوا بزنى المحارم
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
اغتصاب في النمسا
الاعتداء الجنسي على الأطفال في النمسا
النمسا السفلى
جرائم 2008 في النمسا
حالات أشخاص مفقودين في العقد 2000
حالات أشخاص مفقودين في النمسا
حوادث عنف ضد النساء
مجرمون نمساويون
مغتصبون
مواليد 1935
تعذيب في النمسا

جوزيف فريتزل


هي نجمة قزم أحمر، توجد في مجموعة الحواء، وتبعد حوالي 42 سنة ضوئية عن كوكبنا الأرض.

ما تم التوصل إليه
لقد تمكن فريق متون من Xavier Delfosse و Thierry Forveille و بمساعدة Michel Mayor,من اكتشاف كوكب سمي ب GJ 1214 b , وتقدر مساحته ب 2.7 مرة من مساحة الأرض، و يعتبر شابها للأرض خصوصا مع وجود إمكانية توفر سطح هذا الكوكب ومناخه على كميات مهمة من الماء، ويغطة معظم مساحة هذا الكوكب الجليد مع وجود غطاء صخري وإن كان يغتبر صغيرا.

مراجع

أجرام جليزا وجليزا-يارايس
أنظمة كوكبية لديها كوكب واحد مؤكد
كوكبة الحواء
نجوم النسق الأساسي نوع-M

جليزا 1214


Rudolf Leonhard Heubner (* 12. Dezember 1867 in Plauen, Vogtland; † 1. April 1967 in Hofheim, Unterfranken) war ein deutscher Jurist und Schriftsteller.

Leben

Rudolf Heubner absolvierte das Gymnasium in Plauen und begann anschließend ein Studium der Germanistik an der Universität Leipzig. Er wechselte zur Rechtswissenschaft und setzte sein Studium an den Universitäten in Freiburg im Breisgau und Straßburg fort. 1892 legte er das erste juristische Staatsexamen ab. In den folgenden Jahren war er Referendar in Zwickau und Mittweida, ab 1898 Assessor in Treuen und Chemnitz. 1903 wurde er Amtsrichter in Leipzig, 1909 wechselte er nach Plauen. 1913 heiratete er die Konzertsängerin Senta Heubner, mit der er drei Kinder hatte. 1917 wurde er als Richter ans Oberlandesgericht Dresden versetzt.

Nachdem er 1918 in der Zivilverwaltung des besetzten Belgiens tätig gewesen war, stieg Rudolf Heubner nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg bis zum Oberlandesgerichtsrat auf. Nach seiner Pensionierung ließ er sich als freier Schriftsteller in Dresden-Wachwitz, Pillnitzer Landstraße 113, nieder. Er unternahm ausgedehnte Reisen, die ihn u. a. in die Niederlande, nach Dänemark, Schweden, Italien, in den Donauraum und den Vorderen Orient führten. Ende der 1950er Jahre übersiedelte Heubner von Dresden in die Bundesrepublik. Er lebte zuerst in Ochsenfurt am Main und zuletzt in einem Altenheim auf Schloss Birnfeld.

Rudolf Heubner veröffentlichte neben seiner Richtertätigkeit literarische Werke. Er war Verfasser von Romanen, Erzählungen und Gedichten.

Werke

 Dichtungen, Plauen i.W. 1893
 Stürme und Sterne, Leipzig
 Der Narr. Die Familie des Herrn Krainer, 1895
 Johann Gottfrieds Heimkehr, 1895
 Das Haar der Berenike, Breslau 1905
 Napoleon, Leipzig 1906
 Der König und der Tod, Leipzig 1908
 Karoline Kremer, Leipzig 1910
 Venezianische Novellen, Leipzig 1911
 Juliane Rockox, Leipzig 1913
 Das Wunder des Alten Fritz, Leipzig 1915
 Pascha und Odaliske, Leipzig 1916
 Sankt Michels Heervolk, Leipzig 1916
 Der Heilige Geist, Leipzig
 Jakob Siemering und Kompagnie, 1917
 Jakob Siemerings Erben, 1918
 Rudolf Heubner, Dresden 1917
 Ein Volk am Abgrund, Leipzig 1919
 Peter Paul, Leipzig 1920
 Das Lied von Rosemunde, Leipzig 1921
 Der verhexte Genius, Leipzig 1921
 Bambino, Berlin [u. a.] 1922
 Die Flambergs, Leipzig 1922
 Erdgeschlecht, Leipzig 1923
 Katastrophen, Leipzig 1924
 Herodias, Leipzig 1925
 Belladonna, Leipzig 1926
 Die Pansflöte, Leipzig 1927
 Tage in Thule, Leipzig 1927
 Narrenkirchweih, Leipzig 1928
 Feuer unter der Asche, Leipzig 1930
 Fränkische Erde, Berlin 1933
 Wolfram von Eschenbach, Berlin 1934
 Orpheus, Berlin 1935
 Die Flötenbläserin von Hall, Gütersloh 1936
 Grimbart im Kessel, Hannover 1936
 Größer als die Liebe, Berlin [u. a.] 1936
 Sein und Geschehen, Breslau 1937
 Das alte heil'ge Lied, Weimar 1940
 Der Früchtekranz, Berlin 1941
 Prometheus, Berlin 1942
 Wanderung des Genius, Stollhamm 1958
 Vom Schatz des Lebens, Stollhamm 1961

Literatur
 Rudolf Glaser: Rudolf Heubner und seine Dichtungen. Leipzig 1927

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Dichterjurist
Roman, Epik
Literatur (Deutsch)
Literatur (19. Jahrhundert)
Literatur (20. Jahrhundert)
Richter (Oberlandesgericht Dresden)
Deutscher
Geboren 1867
Gestorben 1967
Mann
Person (Plauen)

Rudolf Heubner


Ettore Mambretti (Binasco, 5. siječnja 1859. – Rim, 12. studenog 1948.) je bio talijanski general i vojni zapovjednik. Tijekom Prvog svjetskog rata zapovijedao je 6. armijom na Talijanskom bojištu.

Vojna karijera
Ettore Mambretti je rođen 5. siječnja 1859. u Binascu. Sin je Luigija i Lucie Mambretti rođ. Cambieri. U vojsku je stupio 1877. služeći u bersaglierima. Vojnu naobrazbu stječe pohađajući vojne škole u Modeni i Milanu. Sudjeluje u Prvom talijansko-etiopskom ratu, te se ističe u Bitci kod Adue za što je i odlikovan. Od 1905. zapovijeda 6. pukovnijom bersagliera, dok od 1911. zapovijeda Brigadom Pistoia s kojom sudjeluje u Talijansko-turskom ratu. Te iste godine promaknut je u čin general bojnika. Godine 1915. postaje zapovjednikom 11. divizije smještene u Bologni kojom zapovijeda i nakon ulaska Italije u rat na strani Antante.

Prvi svjetski rat
Tijekom 1915. nakon 11. divizije zapovijeda 3. divizijom, da bi u svibnju 1916. preuzeo zapovjedništvo nad novoformiranim XX. korpusom. Zapovijedajući XX. korpusom sudjeluje u zaustavljanju austrougarske Tirolske ofenzive. Dvadesetim korpusom zapovijeda do lipnja kada postaje zapovjednikom Zapovjedništva gorskih jedinica. U prosincu 1916. zapovjedništvo je reorganizirano u 6. armiju čijim je zapovjednikom imenovan Mambretti. Zapovijedajući 6. armijom sudjeluje u lipnju 1917. u Bitci na Ortigari. Navedena bitka završila je talijanskim neuspjehom, te je nakon iste Mambretti smijenjen s mjesta zapovjednika 6. armije. Nakon smjene imenovan je zapovjednikom novoustrojenog Zapovjedništva sjeverne granice koje je imalo zadatak sa spriječi mogući neprijateljski napad preko švicarske granice. Istim je zapovijedao sve do kraja rata.

Poslije rata
Nakon završetka rata Mambretti je u prosincu 1923. promaknut u čin generala armije. U veljači 1929. imenovan je senatorom, dok je 1931. premješten u pričuvu. Preminuo je 12. studenog 1948. u 90. godini života u Rimu. Bio je oženjen s Esperijom Rimbotti.

Izvori
     Ettore Mambretti na stranici Treccani.it
   Ettore Mambretti na stranici Senato.it
     Ettore Mambretti na stranici Notiziedalfronte.it
   Ettore Mambretti na stranici Hrono.ru

Talijanski vojni zapovjednici u Prvom svjetskom ratu

Ettore Mambretti


An Trisetokoeleria gorodkovii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Roman Julievich Roshevitz, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Nikolai Nikolaievich Tzvelev. An Trisetokoeleria gorodkovii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trisetokoeleria, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Trisetokoeleria

Trisetokoeleria gorodkovii


Cyria Cristina Rocha Coentro (Salvador, 14 de abril de 1966), ou apenas Cyria Coentro, é uma atriz e apresentadora brasileira. A atriz se destaca por ter uma carreira ampla no teatro, televisão e cinema, tendo ganhado notoriedade ao atuar nas novelas Viver a Vida, de 2009, e Flor do Caribe, de 2013, e na série Impuros.

Biografia
Cyria Coentro nasceu na cidade de Salvador, na Bahia. Se formou em interpretação pela Universidade Federal da Bahia. Começou sua carreira como artista performática, integrando na obra Anestesia, dirigida por Paulo Dourado, e em seguida atua na peça Recital da Novíssima Poesia Baiana, também de Dourado. Estreou como atriz de televisão na telenovela Renascer, em 1993, interpretando a versão mais nova da personagem de Regina Dourado. Em 2001 fez sua primeira participação no cinema, no filme baiano 3 Histórias da Bahia. Em 2013 ganhou destaque na novela global Flor do Caribe, interpretando Bibiana, e em seguida emendou personagens de destaque nas novelas Sete Vidas, na primeira fase de Velho Chico e em O Tempo Não Para.

Em 2019, Cyria reestreou o monólogo Love nos palcos. Em 21 de junho de 2022 entrou para o elenco de Mar do Sertão, no papel que seria de Cláudia Abreu. Na trama, ela interpretará a mãe da protagonista, mas morrerá na primeira fase da novela.

Filmografia

Televisão

Cinema

Teatro

Prêmios e indicações

Atrizes de teatro do Brasil
Atrizes de televisão do Brasil
Atrizes de cinema do Brasil
Naturais de Salvador

Cyria Coentro


Mandrač, luka u gradiću Hvaru, zaštićeno kulturno dobro.

Opis dobra
Ograđeni dio luke između Arsenala i Fabrike, sagrađen u 15. stoljeću. Današnji izgled s gugliama na uglovima je iz 18. stoljeća. Na istočnom potezu Mandrača podignuta je ploča koja komemorira njegovo uređenje krajem 18. stoljeća.

Zaštita
Pod oznakom Z-5167 zavedena je kao nepokretno kulturno dobro - kulturno-povijesna cjelina, pravna statusa zaštićena kulturnog dobra, klasificirano kao "prometne i pomorske građevine".

Izvori

Zaštićene komunalne i tehničke građevine u Splitsko-dalmatinskoj županiji
Građevine u Hvaru

Mandrač u Hvaru


فيلغورت  هي مدينة في جمهورية كومي في روسيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 9704  نسمة.

مراجع

مدن جمهورية كومي

فيلغورت (كومي)


The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was a large long-range airliner developed from the C-97 Stratofreighter military transport, itself a derivative of the B-29 Superfortress. The Stratocruiser's first flight was on July 8, 1947. Its design was advanced for its day; its relatively innovative features (though neither completely new) included two passenger decks and a pressurized cabin. It could carry up to 100 passengers on the main deck plus 14 in the lower deck lounge; typical seating was for 63 or 84 passengers or 28 berthed and five seated passengers.

The Stratocruiser was larger than the Douglas DC-6 and Lockheed Constellation and cost more to buy and operate. Its reliability was poor, chiefly due to problems with the four 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major radial engines and  structural and control problems with their propellers. Only 55 Model 377s were built for airlines, along with the single prototype. A 377 was also converted into the Aero Spacelines Pregnant Guppy by John M. Conroy for NASA's Gemini space program.

Design and development

The Boeing 377 Stratocruiser was a civil derivative of the Boeing Model 367, the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter, which first flew in late 1944. William Allen, who had become president of the Boeing Company in September 1945, sought to introduce a new civilian aircraft to replace reduced military production after World War II. Boeing saw in their large-bodied, fast, and long-ranged military transport potential for a passenger aircraft suited for premium service on long transoceanic routes, expanding on the precedent set by their Boeing 314 Clipper with Pan American World Airways. Despite a recession in late 1945, Allen ordered 50 Stratocruisers, spending capital on the project without an order from an airline customer. His gamble that customers would be interested in Boeing's unique and expensive new airplane turned out to be correct for a brief period.

On November 29, 1945 Pan American World Airways (Pan Am) became the launch customer with the largest commercial aircraft order in history, a $24,500,000 order for 20 Stratocruisers. Earlier in 1945 a Boeing C-97 had flown from Seattle to Washington, D.C. nonstop in six hours and four minutes; with this knowledge, and with Pan Am President Juan Trippe's  high regard for Boeing after their success with the Boeing 314 Clipper, Pan Am was confident in ordering the expensive plane.

The 377 shared the distinctive design of the C-97, with a "double-bubble" fuselage cross-section, resembling a figure-8, with the smaller loop on the bottom, with  of interior space shared between two passenger decks. Outside diameter of the upper lobe was 132 inches, compared to 125 inches for the DC-6 and other Douglas types (and 148 inches for today's 737). The lower deck served as a lounge, seating 14. The 377 had innovations such as higher cabin pressure and air conditioning; the superchargers on the four Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines increased power at altitude and allowed constant cabin pressure.

The wing was the Boeing 117 airfoil. In all, 4,000,000 man-hours went into the engineering of the 377.  It was one of a few double deck airliners, another being its French contemporary, the Breguet Deux-Ponts, as well as Boeing's own 747 and the Airbus A380. A total of 56 were built, one prototype (later reconditioned) and 55 production aircraft.

The first flight of the 377 was on July 8, 1947, two years after the first commercial order. The flight test fleet of three 377s underwent  of flying to test its limits before certification.

Adoption of the Stratocruiser got a boost from the US government, with a controversial incentive package offered to Northwest Orient Airlines for its purchase.  Its components were unusually generous mail contracts offered to Northwest for opening new routes to Hawaii and points in the western Pacific region that they were invited to apply for, and a Reconstruction Finance Corporation loan earmarked for the purchase of a fleet of Stratocruisers.  Pan-Am saw Northwest's mail contract deal and appealed for new terms in their own international mail contracts, which were granted much to the consternation of Trans World Airlines, who were able to provide the same Atlantic mail services as Pan-Am with lower operating costs.  The Northwest deal led to allegations of graft and political favoritism towards Boeing.

The other carriers who adopted the Stratocruiser were British Overseas Airways Corporation, American Overseas Airlines (merged with Pan Am in 1950) and United Airlines.  The last 377 was delivered to BOAC in May 1950. On this delivery flight, Boeing engineer Wellwood Beall accompanied the final 377 to England, and returned with news of the de Havilland Comet, the first jet airliner, and its appeal.  The tenure of the Stratocruiser with United ended in 1954, when United had the opportunity to sell them to BOAC after finding them unprofitable without the extra mail subsidies enjoyed by Pan Am and Northwest.

Only 56 were built, one prototype (later reconditioned) and 55 production aircraft. As a result of low production volume, Boeing lost $7 million on the aircraft.

Operational history

As the launch customer, Pan Am was the first to begin scheduled flights, from San Francisco to Honolulu in April 1949. At the end of 1949 Pan Am, BOAC and American Overseas Airlines (AOA) were flying 377s transatlantic, while Northwest Orient Airlines was flying in the United States; in January 1950 United began flights from San Francisco to Honolulu. Stratocruisers were pressed into emergency military service after the onset of the Korean War. In late 1950 Northwest Stratocruisers were serving New York City, Chicago, Detroit, Minneapolis/St. Paul, Milwaukee, Spokane, Seattle, and Honolulu.

By late 1952 Northwest Stratocruisers replaced DC-4s to Tokyo via Anchorage, Alaska; Northwest replaced the Stratocruiser on the Honolulu run in 1953 and to Tokyo in 1955. For a short time Pan Am 377s flew to Beirut, Lebanon, but after 1954 no 377 was scheduled east of Europe or west of Singapore. In 1954, United Stratocruisers flew Los Angeles to Honolulu and between Seattle and San Francisco; United's B377 flights to Honolulu were all first class. In 1955 BOAC 377s had 50 First Class seats (fare $400 one way New York to London) or 81 Tourist seats (fare $290).  In 1956 Pan Am 377s flew from Los Angeles and San Francisco to Sydney with stops at Honolulu, Canton Island and Suva (via Nadi Airport in Fiji).

By 1958 Pan Am was operating the Stratocruiser between Seattle, Washington and Fairbanks, Juneau and Ketchikan, Alaska and between Seattle and Whitehorse, Yukon. Within six years of first delivery, the Stratocruiser had carried 3,199,219 passengers; it had completed 3,597 transcontinental flights, and 27,678 transatlantic crossings, and went between the United States and South America 822 times. In these first six years, the Stratocruiser fleet had flown 169,859,579 miles (273,362,494 km).

The 377 was one of the most advanced and capable of the propeller-driven transports, and among the most luxurious, but it was troubled by reliability issues and maintenance costs.  Problems included catastrophic failures of propellers, failures of propeller pitch control leading to overspeed incidents, problems related to the poor thermal design of the engine, and aerodynamic problems arising from design constraints imposed by the engine's thermal problems. Its service record was marred by a high incidence of in-flight emergencies and hull-loss accidents related to those issues. The propellers were the subject of Airworthiness Directives in 1955, 1957, and 1958.

In 1953 "United's [Chief Executive] Ray Ireland ...described the Stratocruiser as unbeatable in luxury attraction but is uneconomical. Ireland said PAA's Stratocruiser competition to Hawaii induced United to buy the plane originally." In 1950 United's seven 377s averaged $2.46 "direct operating cost" per plane-mile, and "Indirect costs are generally considered to be equal or greater than the direct costs." Most operators were using Stratocruisers on long-range routes where higher prices could be charged, off-setting the higher operating costs.

The exception was Northwest Airlines, who managed to keep the aircraft competitive on shorter U.S. domestic routes where the aircraft's higher payload capacity benefited from lower fuel weights. United however could not integrate their six-plane fleet of 377s. By 1954 the lack of spares and the inability to cross-train their Douglas crews with the type relegated their Stratocruisers primarily to their Hawaii route, where they faced stiff competition from Pan American and Northwest. By the end of that year the six United 377s were all sold to BOAC in a deal orchestrated by Douglas Aircraft. BOAC, which was short of aircraft after the grounding of the Comet 1, paid between US$895,000 and US$995,000 per unit and spares for what were essentially five-year-old aircraft. An equivalent brand new Douglas DC-7 cost US$775,000 (~$ in ) in 1954.

Boeing set never-exceed speed at  IAS but in testing, the 377 reached  IAS (about  TAS) in a 15–20 degree dive at ; another report said it reached  true air speed while diving from  altitude to  in 50 seconds using "full rated power". Typical airline cruise was less than ; in August 1953, Pan Am and United 377s (and United DC-6s) were scheduled between Honolulu and San Francisco () in 9 h 45 min each way.

The longest (by distance) 377 nonstop flights were made by Pan Am from Tokyo to Honolulu during four winter seasons beginning in 1952–1953. In January 1953, two nonstops a week were scheduled with a flight time of 11 hr 1 min due to tailwinds; the following August all flights took 19 hours, with a stop at Wake Island Airfield. In winter 1953-54 one Tokyo-Honolulu flight took 9 hr 35 min for .

By 1960 Stratocruisers were being superseded by jets: the de Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, and Douglas DC-8.  The last flight of the 377 with United was in 1954, the last with BOAC was in 1959, and the last with Northwest was in September 1960. In November 1960 only a weekly Pan Am Honolulu to Singapore flight remained, and the 377 was retired by Pan Am in 1961.  High operating costs (notably the fuel consumption and maintenance of the Wasp Major engines) led to rapid abandonment of the 377 with the onset of the jet era. Its contemporaries such as the Douglas DC-6 and the Lockheed Constellation continued longer, on secondary routes or rebuilt as freighters. A few 377s were sold to smaller airlines, used as freighters, or converted by Aero Spacelines into heavily modified enlarged freighters called Guppies.

During 1959 and 1960, Transocean Airlines assembled a fleet of fourteen at bargain prices.  In 1960 TOA went bankrupt and only four were in operable condition.  The hulks were stored at Oakland International Airport through the 1960s and cannibalized for parts, contributing some to the Aero Spacelines Guppies. Five remaining 377s were modified by Bedek Aviation to resemble former U.S. Air Force Model 367 Stratofreighters and pressed into service with the Israeli Defense Force. Two were shot down during the course of their service and the three remaining 377Ms were retired in 1978 and later scrapped. None of the 56 377s built were preserved for display; the IAF Museum in Israel has a C-97 (4X-FPM) on display painted to resemble their most famous 377M, Masada.

Variants

377-10-19
Prototype Stratocruiser; one built. Later brought up to 377-10-26 standard and sold to Pan American World Airways in 1950.
377-10-26
20 delivered to Pan American World Airways with round windows and a rear galley.
377-10-26S
10 refitted with more powerful engines and a larger fuel capacity for Pan American transatlantic flights. Called the "Super Stratocruiser".
377-10-28
Four ordered by the Scandinavian Airlines System, but taken up by BOAC after SAS cancelled the order. Aircraft had similar features to the 377-10-26.
377-10-29
Eight delivered to American Overseas Airlines with round windows for the main cabin and rectangular windows for the lower cabin as well as an aft galley. AOA was merged with Pan Am the year after their delivery.
377-10-30
Ten for Northwest Orient Airlines with all rectangular windows and an aft galley.
377-10-32
Six for the British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Had a midships galley and all cabin windows were circular.
377-10-34
Seven for United Air Lines. Rectangular windows on the main cabin and circular windows on the lower cabin. Sold to BOAC circa 1954.
377F
Freighter conversion.
377M

In the early 1960s the Israeli Air Force wanted to upgrade to the C-130 Hercules, which could lift larger payloads, but it was expensive and sales were embargoed by the United States. Israel Aircraft Industries at Ben Gurion International Airport offered to modify Boeing 377 Stratocruisers. It had a stronger cabin floor which could handle cargo, plus a C-97 military Stratocruiser tail section, which included a clamshell cargo door. These were dubbed Anak (or Giant in Hebrew) and entered service in 1964. Three of these were modified by the use of a swing tail section, similar to the Canadair CL44D-4 airliner. Two others served as aerial tankers with underwing hose reel refueling pods. Two others were ELINT-platforms for electronic reconnaissance, surveillance and electronic countermeasure (ECM) missions. These were later joined by four KC-97Gs with the flying boom system.

Aero Spacelines Guppy

In addition to the Israeli Anaks a company called Aero Spacelines was converting old 377s to aircraft called Guppies in the 1960s. There were three types: the Pregnant Guppy, Super Guppy, and Mini Guppy. They had an extension to the top of the fuselage to enable them to carry large aircraft parts between manufacturing sites.

The first was the Pregnant Guppy, followed by the Super Guppy, and finally the Mini Guppy. The Super Guppy and the Mini Guppy had turboprop engines.

Aero Spacelines 377PG Pregnant Guppy
Conversion of one 377-10-26, incorporating an enlarged upper deck and a fuselage lengthened by 16 feet to carry sections of the Saturn V rocket. One converted.
Aero Spacelines 377SG Super Guppy
A single heavy-lift transport similar to the Pregnant Guppy built by Aero Spacelines. The aircraft contained parts of a YC-97J Stratofreighter and a 377-10-26 mated with a larger main fuselage, larger tail and Pratt & Whitney T34 turboprops.
Aero Spacelines SGT-201 Super Guppy Turbine
Originally designated the 377SGT, it was similar to the 377SG, but with a more aerodynamic fuselage, a Boeing 707 nosewheel, wingspan stretched by , and four Allison 501-D22C turboprops. Four were built and were used by Airbus to carry aircraft parts between its factories. In the 1990s Airbus retired them due to rising operational costs and they have been replaced with Airbus Belugas. Two of the former Airbus Industrie Super Guppies remain in Germany and France, with a third being scrapped in December 2020 after eleven years of restoration at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome in the UK. The fourth aircraft was acquired by NASA as part of a barter agreement with ESA for its role as a partner with the International Space Station.

Aero Spacelines 377MG Mini Guppy
Conversion of a 377-10-26, it featured a larger main cabin for oversize cargo, stretched wing and a hinged tail.
Aero Spacelines MGT-101 Mini Guppy Turbine
Originally designated the 377MGT. Similar to the 377MG, but powered by Allison 501-D22C turboprop engines. One built.

Operators

 Línea Internacional Aérea

 British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC)

 Israeli Air Force

 Nigeria Airways

 Svensk Interkontinental Lufttrafik, part of Scandinavian Airlines System (aircraft not delivered - passed to BOAC)

 American Overseas Airlines
 DAI Airways
 Northwest Orient Airlines
 Pan American World Airways
 Transocean Air Lines
 United Airlines

 Rutas Aéreas Nacionales SA

Accidents and incidents
This aircraft type suffered 13 hull-loss accidents between 1951 and 1970 with a total of 139 fatalities. The worst single accident occurred on April 29, 1952.  The aircraft type also experienced a significantly high rate of in-flight emergencies related to engine and propeller failure, resulting in Airworthiness Directives.

Faults included structural failures of neoprene-cored propellers, failures of propeller pitch control resulting in overspeed, and failures related to engine cooling.  Six propeller failures between 1950 and 1955 resulted in separation or near-separation of engines from mounts, with two resulting in hull-loss accidents.  Directives were issued in 1950, 1955, and 1958 regarding enhanced maintenance and fault detection, in-flight vibration monitoring, and propeller replacement.

A Directive concerning the pitch control system was issued after the October 16, 1956 hull-loss accident.  A June 1957 overspeed incident occurred on Romance of the Skies, after the compliance date of the Directive and less than six months before its fatal accident of November 8, 1957.  No hull-loss accidents after the loss of the Romance have been attributed to an overspeed incident.

 September 12, 1951
 United Air Lines Flight 7030, a Stratocruiser 10-34 (N31230, named Mainliner Oahu), was being used for a semi-annual instrument check of a captain. At 11:39 PDT, the flight was cleared for an ILS approach to the San Francisco Airport. The aircraft, with No. 4 propeller feathered, stalled and abruptly dived from an altitude of approximately 300 feet and was destroyed upon impact in San Francisco Bay. All three crew aboard were killed. The probable cause was an inadvertent stall at low altitude.
 April 29, 1952
 Pan Am Flight 202, a Stratocruiser 10-26 (N1039V, named Clipper Boa Esperança aka Clipper Good Hope) en route from Buenos Aires-Ezeiza and Rio de Janeiro–Galeão to New York via Port of Spain crashed in the jungle in the south of the State of Pará. Probable causes are the separation of the second engine and propeller from the aircraft due to highly unbalanced forces followed by uncontrollability and disintegration of the aircraft. All 50 passengers and crew died in the worst-ever accident involving the Boeing 377.
 July 27, 1952
 Pan Am Flight 201, a Stratocruiser 10-26 (N1030V) en route from New York and Rio de Janeiro-Galeão to Buenos Aires-Ezeiza suffered explosive decompression at about 12,000 feet about 20 miles south of Rio de Janeiro. A passenger was blown out and the cabin considerably damaged, but the aircraft was able to return to Rio de Janeiro and make a safe landing. The main cabin door had not been properly locked.
 December 25, 1954
 A BOAC Stratocruiser 10-28 (G-ALSA, named RMA Cathay) crashed on landing at Prestwick at 0330 hours, killing 28 of the 36 passengers and crew on board. The aircraft had been en route from London to New York City, when, on approach to Prestwick, it entered a steep descent before leveling-out too late and too severely, hitting the ground short of the runway.
 March 26, 1955
 Pan Am Flight 845/26, a Stratocruiser 10-26 (N1032V, named Clipper United States), ditched 35 miles (56 km) off the Oregon coast after the no. 3 engine and propeller tore loose from the wing, causing severe control difficulties. The aircraft sank after 20 minutes in water of about 1,600 m (5,200 ft) depth. There were four fatalities out of the 23 occupants, including two of the crew.
 April 2, 1956
 Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 2, a Stratocruiser 10-30 (N74608, named Stratocruiser Tokyo), ditched into Puget Sound after the flight engineer mistakenly failed to close the cowl flaps on the plane's engines, an error attributed to confusing instrument layout. Although all aboard escaped the aircraft after a textbook ditching, four passengers and one flight attendant succumbed either to drowning or to hypothermia before being rescued.
 October 16, 1956
  Pan Am Flight 6, a Stratocruiser 10-29 (N90943, named Clipper Sovereign of the Skies), ditched northeast of Hawaii during the last leg of an around-the-world flight from Philadelphia to San Francisco after two of its four engines failed following an overspeed incident. The aircraft was able to circle around USCG Pontchartrain until daybreak, when it ditched; all 31 on board survived.
 November 8, 1957
 Pan Am Flight 7, a Stratocruiser 10-29 (registered N90944, named Clipper Romance of the Skies), left San Francisco for Hawaii with 38 passengers and six crew. The 377 crashed around 5:25 p.m. in the Pacific Ocean. There were no survivors and the entire wreckage has never been found. Only 19 bodies and bits of debris were recovered. There is speculation that two passengers had a motive to bring the plane down. Eugene Crosthwaite, a 46-year-old purser, had shown blasting powder to a relative days prior to the flight, and had cut a stepdaughter from his will only one hour before the flight.  Pan Am concluded that there was sufficient evidence that Crosthwaite was the culprit.  William Payne, an ex-Navy demolitions expert, had taken out large insurance policies on himself just before the flight, and had a $10,000 debt he was desperate to pay off. The insurance investigator later suspected him of never being on the plane. His wife received at least $125,000 in payouts.  It was the opinion of the flight engineer during the Sovereign incident, and a pilot who had experienced an overspeed on the Romance less than six months before its loss, that an overspeed was a likely cause of the crash. The overspeed theory calls into question whether Pan Am was in compliance with an Airworthiness Directive concerning a weakness in the pitch control system, issued in response to the Sovereign incident the previous year.
 June 2, 1958
 A Pan Am Stratocruiser 10-26 (registration N1023V, named Clipper Golden Gate) was on a flight from San Francisco to Singapore via several intermediate stops. As the aircraft touched down at Manila (runway 06) in a heavy landing in rainy and gusty conditions, the undercarriage collapsed as a result of the hard landing. The plane skidded and swerved to the right, coming to rest 2,850 feet past the runway threshold and 27 feet from the edge of the runway. One of the passengers was killed when one of the blades of the number 3 propeller broke off, penetrating the passenger cabin.
 April 10, 1959
 At the conclusion of a flight from Seattle to Juneau, Alaska, a Pan Am Stratocruiser 10-26 (N1033V, named Clipper Midnight Sun) undershot on final approach and collided with an embankment. The aircraft caught fire and was destroyed, but all 10 passengers and crew survived.
 July 9, 1959
 A Pan Am Boeing Stratocruiser 10-29 (N90941, named Clipper Australia) belly landed at Haneda Airport following landing gear problems; all 59 passengers and crew on board survived, but the aircraft was written off.
 August 1967
 An Aero Spacelines Stratocruiser 10-29 (N90942) suffered a ground collision with Stratocruiser 10-32 N402Q at Mojave, California; the aircraft was damaged beyond repair.
 May 12, 1970
 An Aero Spacelines 377MGT (N111AS) was being test flown following conversion from a Boeing 377. During the sixth takeoff with one engine shut down, the aircraft turned and rolled to the left. The left wingtip then struck the ground and the aircraft yawed severely after which the forward fuselage struck the ground, destroying the cockpit. All four crew died.

Specifications (377)

See also

Notes

Further reading
 Air Disaster, Vol. 4: The Propeller Era, by Macarthur Job, Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. (Australia), 2001

External links

 Boeing 377 – Stratocruiser A very comprehensive enthusiast page on the type
 The Aviation History On-Line Museum – Boeing 377 Stratocruiser
 California Classic – The Boeing Model 377 Stratocruiser
 Stratocruiser article excerpts
 Anak (Israeli Boeing 377)
 "Speedbird Stratocruiser: A New Aircraft for B.O.A.C.'s Western Route", Flight magazine, January 27, 1949

377
377
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
1940s United States airliners
Aircraft first flown in 1947
Four-engined piston aircraft
Double-deck aircraft

Boeing 377 Stratocruiser


Das California State Prison, Corcoran (COR) ist ein US-amerikanisches Gefängnis in Corcoran im Kings County im Bundesstaat Kalifornien. Es wird auch als Corcoran State Prison,  CSP-C, CSP-COR, CSP-Corcoran und Corcoran I bezeichnet. Corcoran I wird nur von männlichen Insassen bewohnt.
In Corcoran befindet sich außerdem das California Substance Abuse Treatment Facility and State Prison, Corcoran (Corcoran II), mit dem es gelegentlich verwechselt wird.

Daten
2002/2003 hatte COR I 1703 Mitarbeiter und ein Budget von 115 Millionen. Im September 2007 hatte es eine Kapazität für 3116 Häftlinge, aber tatsächlich 5685 Insassen, mithin eine Überbelegungsquote von 82,4 Prozent.

Geschichte
Das Gefängnis wurde auf dem Gelände Tulare Lake gebaut, einem alten Siedlungsgebiet der Yokut-Indianer. 1988 wurde die Einrichtung in Betrieb genommen. Im Oktober 1993 wurde das Gefängniskrankenhaus in Betrieb genommen.

Im August 1996 behauptete der Journalist Mark Arax in der Los Angeles Times, Corcoran sei das "problematischste" von allen 32 Staatsgefängnissen. Zu dieser Zeit wurden in keinem anderen Staatsgefängnis soviele Insassen von Sicherheitskräften erschossen. Arax bewies anhand von Dokumenten, dass viele Tötungen nicht gerechtfertigt waren und oft auch unschuldige Gefangene getroffen wurden. Außerdem wurden durch die Sicherheitskräfte illegale Kämpfe zwischen Insassen arrangiert (sogenannte Gladiatordays). Im November 1996 wurde eine Sendung der CBS Evening News ausgestrahlt, in der die Erschießung eines Gefangenen durch Sicherheitskräfte thematisiert wurde.

Im März 1997 berichtete CBS News 60 Minutes über die "alarmierende Anzahl von Schusswaffeneinsätzen in dem Gefängnis". Ein Untersuchungsbericht stellte fest, dass es sich bei den Tötungen um "Einzelfälle" gehandelt habe. Ein Film namens Maximum Security University zeigte Überwachungskamerabilder, wo Insassen von Wachleuten an- bzw. erschossen wurden. Dieser Film wurde im Februar 1998 veröffentlicht. Im selben Monat wurden acht Vollzugsbeamte angeklagt, weil sie 1994 Kämpfe zwischen Insassen arrangiert haben sollen. Im Juni 2000 mussten die acht ihren Dienst quittieren, nachdem sie für schuldig befunden wurden.

Im Jahr 2003 wurde eine Dokumentation von MSNBC namens Lockup ausgestrahlt.

Bekannte Insassen

Aktuelle Insassen
 Dana Ewell, er ließ 1992 seine dreiköpfige Familie ermorden;
 John Albert Gardner III, Doppelmörder;
 Phillip Garrido, Serienvergewaltiger, der eine Elfjährige entführte und 18 Jahre lang bei sich gefangen hielt;
 Mikhail Markhasev, Mörder von Ennis Cosby, dem Sohn Bill Cosbys.  1998 wurde er zu lebenslanger Haft ohne Möglichkeit der Begnadigung verurteilt.

Frühere Insassen
 Juan Vallejo Corona, hat 1971 25 Menschen ermordet;
 Yenok Ordoyan, Betrüger, wurde 2000 entlassen;
 Joe Pegleg Morgan, Anführer und Gründungsmitglied der Mexican Mafia, starb 1993;
 Sirhan Sirhan, Mörder Robert F. Kennedys, wurde im Oktober 2009 ins Pleasant Valley State Prison verlegt.
 Charles Manson, mehrfacher Mörder, starb im November 2017. Kam ursprünglich vom San Quentin State Prison im März 1989;
 Phil Spector, Musikproduzent, saß ein wegen Totschlags an Lana Clarkson, starb Januar 2021.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Corcoran State Prison im Center for Land Use Interpretation
 offizielle Webseite,

Gefängnis in Kalifornien
Erbaut in den 1980er Jahren
Bauwerk im Kings County (Kalifornien)
Organisation (Kings County, Kalifornien)
Corcoran (Kalifornien)

California State Prison Corcoran


The  Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) submarines were the largest submarines of World War II and remained the largest ever built until the construction of nuclear ballistic missile submarines in the 1960s. The IJN called this type of submarine . The type name was shortened to . They were submarine aircraft carriers able to carry three Aichi M6A Seiran aircraft underwater to their destinations. They were designed to surface, launch their planes, then quickly dive again before they were discovered. They also carried torpedoes for close-range combat.

The I-400 class was designed with the range to travel anywhere in the world and return. A fleet of 18 boats was planned in 1942, and work started on the first in January 1943 at the Kure, Hiroshima arsenal. Within a year the plan was scaled back to five, of which only three (I-400 at Kure, and  and I-402 at Sasebo) were completed.

Origins
The I-400 class was the brainchild of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Combined Fleet. Shortly after the attack on Pearl Harbor, he conceived the idea of taking the war to the United States mainland by making aerial attacks against cities along the U.S. western and eastern seaboards using submarine-launched naval aircraft. He commissioned Captain Kameto Kuroshima to make a feasibility study.

Yamamoto submitted the resulting proposal to Fleet Headquarters on 13 January 1942. It called for 18 large submarines capable of making three round-trips to the west coast of the United States without refueling or one round-trip to any point on the globe. They also had to be able to store and launch at least two attack aircraft armed with one torpedo or  bomb. By 17 March, general design plans for the submarines were finalized. Construction of I-400 commenced at Kure Dock Yards on 18 January 1943, and four more boats followed: I-401 (April 1943) and I-402 (Oct 1943) at Sasebo; I-403 (Sept 1943) at Kobe and I-404 (February 1944) at Kure. Only three were completed.

Following Yamamoto's death in April 1943, the number of aircraft-carrying submarines to be built was reduced from eighteen to nine, then five and finally three. Only I-400 and I-401 actually entered service; I-402 was completed on 24 July 1945, five weeks before the end of the war, but never made it to sea.

Design features and equipment

Each submarine had four  engines and carried enough fuel to go around the world one-and-a-half times—more than enough to reach the United States travelling east or west. Measuring more than  long overall, they displaced , more than double their typical American contemporaries. The cross-section of its pressure hull had a unique figure-of-eight shape which afforded the necessary strength and stability to handle the weight of a large on-deck aircraft hangar. To allow stowage of three aircraft along the vessel's centreline, the conning tower was offset to port.

Located approximately amidships on the top deck was a cylindrical watertight aircraft hangar,  long and  in diameter. The outer access door could be opened hydraulically from within or manually from the outside by turning a large hand-wheel connected to a rack and spur gear. The door was made waterproof with a  rubber gasket.

Situated atop the hangar were three waterproofed Type 96 triple-mount  autocannon for AA defence, two aft and one forward of the conning tower. A single  autocannon on a pedestal mount was also located just aft the bridge. One Type 11,  deck gun was positioned aft of the hangar. It had a range of .

Eight torpedo tubes were mounted in the bow, four above and four below. There were no aft tubes.

Stowed in an open recessed compartment on the forward port side, just below top deck, was a collapsible crane used to retrieve the submarine's Seiran floatplanes. The crane had an electrically operated hoist and was capable of lifting approximately . It was raised mechanically to a height of  via a motor inside the boat. The boom extended out to a length of .

A special trim system was fitted to the boats, allowing them to loiter submerged and stationary while awaiting the return of their aircraft. However, operation of this system was noisy and its usefulness was in doubt.

Strung along the submarine's gunwales were two parallel sets of demagnetization cables, running from the stern to the bow planes. They were meant to protect against magnetic mines, by nullifying the magnetic field which normally triggers the mines fusing system. A similar demagnetizing system was carried on many Japanese surface ships during the first part of the war, until they were later removed during refitting.

Electronics on board the I-400s included a Mark 3 Model 1 air search radar equipped with two separate antennas. This unit was capable of detecting aircraft out to a range of . The boats were also equipped with Mark 2 Model 2 air/surface radar sets with distinctive horn-shaped antennas. Each boat carried an E27 radar warning receiver, connected to both a trainable dipole antenna and a fixed non-directional antenna made up of a wire mesh basket and two metal rods.

The submarines were equipped with two periscopes of German manufacture, about  long, one for use during daylight and the other at night.

A special anechoic coating made from a mixture of gum, asbestos, and adhesives was applied to the hulls from the waterline to the bilge keel. This coating was apparently based on German research, though completely different in composition from German anechoic tiles such as Alberich or Tarnmatte. This was intended to absorb or diffuse enemy sonar pulses and dampen reverberations from the boat's internal machinery, theoretically making detection while submerged more difficult, though its effectiveness was never conclusively established.

In May 1945, I-401 was fitted with a German-supplied snorkel, a hydraulically raised air intake device allowing the boat to run its diesel engines and recharge its batteries while remaining at periscope depth. This retrofit occurred while the boat was laid up at Kure for repairs after being damaged by an American mine in April.

I-402 was completed shortly before the war ended, but had been converted during building to a tanker and was never equipped with aircraft.

Characteristics
The I-400-class subs were unwieldy and relatively difficult to maneuver while surfaced owing to their small rudders. The large superstructure also caused the sub to veer off course during any strong wind. The maximum safe diving depth of the I-400-class submarine was only 82% of its overall length, which presented problems if the submarine dived at too steep an angle in an emergency. Because of their large aircraft hangars and conning tower, all I-400-class boats had significant visual and radar signatures on the surface, and could be detected by aircraft relatively easily. Dive time was 56 seconds, nearly double that of U.S. fleet subs, which made the boats easier to destroy from the air when caught on the surface.

When submerged and traveling at a slow speed of two knots, the offset superstructure forced the helmsman to steer seven degrees starboard in order to steer a straight course. When conducting a torpedo attack the captain had to take into account his larger turning circle to starboard than to port, again because of the offset design. Like other Japanese submarines, crew members in I-400 subs had no air conditioning to control temperatures in tropic waters and no flush toilets. Lack of cold storage greatly limited the crew's diet, while inadequate sleeping quarters forced some of the crew to sleep on the decks or in passageways.

Aircraft

The hangar of the I-400s was originally designed to hold two aircraft. In 1943, however, Commander Yasuo Fujimori, Submarine Staff Officer of the Naval General Staff, requested it be enlarged. This was deemed feasible and, as remodelled, I-400s could stow up to three Aichi M6A Seiran floatplanes.

The Seiran was specifically designed for use aboard the submarines and could carry an  bomb  at . To fit inside the narrow confines of the hangar, the floats were removed and stowed, the wings rotated 90 degrees and folded backward hydraulically against the fuselage, the horizontal stabilizers folded down and the top of the vertical stabilizer folded over so the overall forward profile of the aircraft was within the diameter of its propeller. When deployed for flight, the aircraft had a wingspan of  and a length of . A crew of four could prepare and launch all three in 30 minutes (or 15 minutes if the planes' pontoons were not first attached, which would make recovery impossible). As the Seiran would normally be launched at night, parts and areas of the plane were coated with luminescent paint to ease assembly in the dark.

The Seirans were launched from a  Type 4 No. 2 Model 10 compressed-air catapult on the forward deck of the submarine. Underneath the catapult track were four high-pressure air flasks connected in parallel to a piston. The aircraft, mounted atop collapsible carriages via catapult attachment points along their fuselages, would be slung 70–75 feet along the track, though the piston itself only moved between eight and ten feet during operation.

Two sets of pontoons for the Seirans were stored in special watertight compartments located just below the main deck on either side of the catapult track. From there they could be quickly slid forward on ramps and attached to the plane's wings. A third set of pontoons and additional spares were kept inside the hangar.

The aircraft were to be launched by catapult, and fly their missions. The launching submarine was to submerge and stay in place to allow the aircraft to navigate back to the area by dead reckoning, where it would land on the water with its floats, and be hoisted back aboard by crane. Overall the system was the same as used by Japanese Navy cruisers and light cruisers when launching their reconnaissance floatplanes (like the Aichi E13A), only with aircraft specially designed for use with the I-400 class submarine, and with the added complexity of having to locate a submerged and hidden vessel on return from the mission.

Although this was the typical mode of operation, in cases where fast launching and recovery was essential for escape (see below), the floatplanes could be launched without their floats, and ditched upon landing, saving the time spent recovering and re-hangaring the aircraft, which was a complex and lengthy procedure. This had the added benefit of eliminating the weight and considerable drag of the large and bulky floats, which in turn increased the speed and range of the aircraft, but made any recovery of the aircraft after completing the mission impossible. (For a similar defensive measure involving catapult-launched, disposable aircraft used by Allied convoy groups in the Battle of the Atlantic, see CAM ship.) In extreme circumstances, theoretically the aircraft could be launched and abandoned altogether while the submarine beat a hasty retreat, leaving the crews to fly their missions with no hope of return, perhaps as a kamikaze mission.

The existence of the Seiran was not known to Allied intelligence during the war.

Operational history
As the war turned against the Japanese and their fleet no longer had free rein in the Pacific, the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, devised a daring plan to attack New York, Washington D.C., and other large American cities.

Panama Canal strike
Following an inspection of Rabaul in August 1943, Captain Chikao Yamamoto and Commander Yasuo Fujimori conceived the idea of using the sen toku (secret submarine attack) to destroy the locks of the Panama Canal in an attempt to cut American supply lines to the Pacific Ocean and hamper the transfer of U.S. ships. Intelligence gathering on the proposed target began later that year.

The Japanese were well aware that American fortifications existed on both sides of the Canal. On the Atlantic, the large coastal artillery batteries of Fort Sherman had a range of 30,000 yards (), preventing enemy ships from getting near enough to shell the locks. In the months following the attack on Pearl Harbor, air and sea patrols had been strengthened around both entrances, and barrage balloons and anti-submarine nets erected. In August 1942, the 88th Coast (Anti-Aircraft) Artillery unit was added to help defend against aerial attacks.

As the war continued and Japan's fortunes declined, however, security around the Canal grew increasingly lax. In January 1944 Commander Fujimori personally interviewed an American prisoner-of-war who had done guard duty there. He told Fujimori that defensive air patrols had virtually ceased, since it was considered increasingly unlikely the Axis powers would ever attack the locks. This further convinced Fujimori of his plan's feasibility.

A Japanese engineer who had worked on the Canal during its construction handed over hundreds of documents to the Naval General Staff, including blueprints of the Canal structures and construction methods. A team of three shipping engineers studied the documents and concluded that the locks at Miraflores on the Pacific side were the most vulnerable to aerial bombing, but the Gatun locks on the Atlantic side offered a chance of causing greater damage, since it would be harder to halt any outflow of water. They estimated the Canal would be unusable for at least six months following a successful attack on the locks.

To increase the size of the airborne attack force, Commander Fujimori requested that two additional fleet submarines still under construction at Kobe, I-13 and I-14, be modified to house two Seirans each, bringing the total number of planes available to ten. It was originally planned that two of the Seirans would carry torpedoes and the other eight would carry  bombs. They were to make a combined torpedo and glide-bombing attack against the Gatun Locks. Eventually though, torpedo-bombing was dispensed with, because only one Seiran pilot had mastered the technique.

The Panama Canal strike plan called for four aircraft-carrying submarines (I-400, I-401, I-13 and I-14) to sail eastward across the Pacific to the Gulf of Panama, a journey expected to take two months. At a point  off the coast of Ecuador, the submarines would launch their Seiran aircraft at 0300hrs on a moonlit night. The Seirans, without floats, would fly at an altitude of  across the northern coast of Colombia to the vicinity of Colón. Now on the Caribbean side of the isthmus, they would turn westward on a heading of 270 degrees, then angle south-west and make their final approach to the Canal locks at dawn. After completing their bombing runs, the Seirans were to return to a designated rendezvous point and ditch alongside the waiting submarines where the aircrews would be picked up.

Around April 1945, Captain Ariizumi, the man appointed to carry out the attack, decided the Seiran pilots would make kamikaze ramming attacks against the gates, rather than conventional bombing runs, a tactic becoming increasingly common as the war went against the Japanese.  The Seiran squadron leader had already suggested as much to Ariizumi earlier that month, though for a time this was kept secret from the other pilots. At the end of May, however, one pilot happened to observe a Seiran having its bomb-release mechanism removed and replaced with a fixed mount. Realizing the implications of this change, he angrily confronted the executive officer of the squadron, who explained that the decision to withhold this intention from the other men was made to "avoid mental pressures on the aircrews."

By 5 June 1945, all four aircraft-carrying submarines had arrived at Nanao Wan where a full-scale wooden model of the Gatun Locks gate had been built by the Maizuru Naval Arsenal, placed on a raft and towed into the bay. The following night, formal training commenced with the Seiran flight crews practising rapid assembly, catapult launch and recovery of their aircraft. There was also rudimentary formation flying. From 15 June the Seiran pilots made practice daylight bombing runs against the wooden gate mock-up. By 20 June, all training ended and the operation was set to proceed.

Ulithi atoll
Before the attack could commence, Okinawa fell, and word reached Japan that the Allies were preparing an assault on the Japanese home islands. The Japanese Naval General Staff concluded the Panama Canal attack would have little impact on the war's outcome, and more direct and immediate action was necessary to stem the American advance.

Fifteen American aircraft carriers had assembled at the Ulithi atoll, preparatory to making a series of raids against the home islands. The Japanese mission was changed to an attack on the Ulithi base.

The attack on Ulithi Atoll was to take place in two phases. The first, codenamed Hikari (light), involved transporting four C6N Saiun (Myrt) single-engined high-speed reconnaissance planes to Truk Island. They were to be disassembled, crated and loaded into the water-tight hangars of submarines I-13 and I-14. Upon reaching Truk, the Saiuns would be unloaded, reassembled and then flown over Ulithi to confirm the presence of American carriers anchored there. Following the delivery, I-13 and I-14 were to sail for Hong Kong, where they would embark four Seiran attack planes. They would then head to Singapore and join I-400 and I-401 for further operations.

The second phase of the Ulithi attack was codenamed Arashi (storm). I-400 and I-401 were to rendezvous at a predetermined point on the night of 14/15 August. On 17 August they would launch their six Seirans before daybreak on a kamikaze mission against the American carriers. The Seirans, each with an  bomb bolted to its fuselage, were to fly less than  above the water to avoid radar detection and the American fighters expected to be patrolling  above.

Just before departing Maizuru Naval Station, the Seirans were completely over-painted in silver with American stars and bars insignias covering the red Hinomarus, a direct violation of the rules of war. This was an attempt to further confuse recognition if the aircraft were prematurely spotted, but it was not well received by the pilots. Some felt it was both unnecessary and a personal insult to fly under American markings, as well as dishonorable to the Imperial Navy.

Following the attack on Ulithi, I-400 and I-401 would sail for Hong Kong. There they would take on six more Seirans and sail for Singapore, where fuel oil was more readily available. They would then join I-13 and I-14 and stage further attacks with a combined force of ten Seiran aircraft.

On 22 June, I-13 and I-14 arrived at Maizuru Harbor to take on fuel. They reached Ominato on 4 July to pick up their Saiun reconnaissance aircraft. I-13 departed for Truk on 11 July but never reached her destination. She was detected running on the surface, attacked, and damaged by radar-equipped TBM Avengers on 16 July. An American destroyer escort later arrived and sank her with depth charges.

Japan surrendered before the Ulithi attack was launched, and on 22 August 1945, the crews of the submarines were ordered to destroy all their weapons. The torpedoes were fired without arming and the aircraft were launched without unfolding the wings and stabilizers. When I-400 surrendered to the American destroyer, , the U.S. crew was astounded at her size, nearly  longer than the USS Blue and just as wide – considerably longer and wider than the largest American fleet submarine of the day.

Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night

The Japanese conceived of an attack on the United States through the use of biological weapons specifically directed at the civilian population in San Diego, California. Dubbed "Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night", the plan was to launch aircraft from five I-400 submarines near Southern California at night, who would then drop "infected flea" bombs on the intended target, in the hope that the resulting infection would spread to the entire Western seaboard and kill tens of thousands of people. The plan was scheduled for September 22, 1945, but Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945, before the operation was carried out.

American inspections

The U.S. Navy boarded and recovered 24 submarines, including the three I-400 submarines, taking them to Sasebo Bay to study them. While there, they received a message that the Soviets were sending an inspection team to examine the submarines. To prevent this, Operation Road's End was instituted. Most of the submarines were taken to a position designated as Point Deep Six, about  southeast of Fukue Island, packed with charges of C-3 explosive and destroyed; they sank to a depth of .

Four remaining submarines, I-400, I-401,  and , were sailed to Hawaii by U.S. Navy technicians for further inspection. Upon completion of the inspections, the submarines were scuttled in the waters off Kalaeloa near Oahu in Hawaii by torpedoes from US submarine  on June 4, 1946, to prevent the technology from being made available to the Soviets who were demanding access to them. Dr. James P. (Jim) Delgado of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's maritime heritage program reported that the official government position that the exact location of the sinking was unknown has been confirmed by declassified US Navy documents.

Artifacts
The wreckage of I-401 was discovered by the Pisces deep-sea submarines of the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory in March 2005 at a depth of . It was reported that I-400 was later found by the same team off the southwest coast of the Hawaiian island of Oahu in August 2013 at a depth of . NOAA researcher Jim Delgado, working aboard Pisces V, told the Chicago Tribune "It was torpedoed, partially collapsed and had sunk at a steep angle." The submarines scuttled off the Japanese coast were located in July 2015.

A restored Seiran airplane is displayed at the National Air and Space Museum's Udvar-Hazy Center in suburban Washington, D.C. It is the only surviving example of this aircraft, and was found at the Aichi Aircraft Factory following the end of the war in August 1945. Shipped to Naval Air Station Alameda, it was left on outdoor display until 1962, when it was transferred to the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Silver Hill, Maryland. There it remained in storage until 1989, when a comprehensive restoration effort was mounted. Though the plane had been ravaged by weather and souvenir collectors, and original factory drawings were lacking, the restoration team was able to reconstruct it accurately, and by February 2000 it was ready for display.

Boats in class

See also
 AM type submarine IJN two-aircraft submarine seaplane tender
 Submarine aircraft carrier

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Francillon, R.J. Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War. London:Putnam, 1970. .
 Geoghegan, John J. Operation Storm: Japan's Top Secret Submarines and Its Plan to Change the Course of World War II. Crown Publishers, NY, 2013. .
 Hashimoto, Mochitsura. Sunk!. Henry Holt and Company, 1954.
 Layman, R.D. and Stephen McLaughlin. The Hybrid Warship. London:Conway Maritime Press, 1991. .
 Orita, Zenji and Joseph D. Harrington. I-Boat Captain. Major Books, 1976.
 Sakaida, Henry and Gary Nila, Koji Takaki. I-400: Japan's Secret Aircraft-Carrying Strike Submarine. Hikoki Publications, 2006.
 , History of Pacific War Vol. 17 I-Gō Submarines, Gakken (Japanese publishing company), January 1998,
 The Maru Special, Japanese Naval Vessels No.13, Japanese submarine I-13 class and I-400 class, Ushio Shobō (Japanese publishing company), July 1977
 The Maru Special, Japanese Naval Vessels No.132, Japanese submarines I, Ushio Shobō (Japanese publishing company), February 1988
 Senshi Sōsho, Vol. 88 Naval armaments and war preparation (2), "And after the outbreak of war", Asagumo Simbun (Japan), October 1975

External links

 About I-400
 WW2DB: I-400-class Submarines
 I-400
 I-401
 I-402
 Discovery of I-401 wreckage off Hawai
 Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory report
 An I-400 article from a site named "Damn Interesting"
 Story of the transpacific voyage of I-400
 Japan's WWII Monster Sub: How the deadly Sen-Toku mission almost succeeded
 I-400
 Secrets of the Dead: Japanese SuperSub - PBS documentary on the development and use of the I400-class submarine
  - CNN - Researchers in Hawaii find lost Japanese World War II mega-sub
 Historic footage of I-400 (boat 5231) during Japanese surrender operations to US Navy, September, 1945
 Historic footage: Scuttling of Japanese submarine I-400 (boat 5231) off coast of Hawaii by torpedo from USS Trumpetfish, June 4, 1946.

Submarine aircraft carriers
Submarine classes

World War II submarines of Japan
Maritime incidents in 1946
Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean
Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy

I-400-class submarine


Jet is a type of lignite, the lowest rank of coal, and is a gemstone. Unlike many gemstones, jet is not a mineral, but is rather a mineraloid. It is derived from wood that has changed under extreme pressure.

The English noun jet derives from the French word for the same material,  (modern French ), ultimately referring to the ancient town of Gagae. Jet is either black or dark brown, but may contain pyrite inclusions which are of brassy colour and metallic lustre. The adjective "jet-black", meaning as dark a black as possible, derives from this material.

Origin
Jet is a product of decomposition of wood from millions of years ago, commonly the wood of trees of the family Araucariaceae. Jet is found in two forms, hard and soft. Hard jet is the result of carbon compression and salt water; soft jet may be the result of carbon compression and fresh water. Despite the name they both occupy the same area of the Mohs scale with the difference being that soft jet is more likely to crack when exposed to changes in temperature.

Properties
Jet is around 75% carbon and 12% oxygen with sulfur and hydrogen making up most of the balance. Other elements are found at trace level and the exact ratios varying with the source; for example, Spanish jet contains more sulfur than Whitby jet. Jet has a Mohs hardness ranging between 2.5 and 4 and a specific gravity of 1.30 to 1.34. The refractive index of jet is approximately 1.66. The touch of a red-hot needle should cause jet to emit an odour similar to coal.

Jet may induce an electric charge like that of amber when rubbed.

Jet is very easily cut using carving tools, but small pieces tend to break off, making it difficult to create fine details. It therefore takes an experienced lapidarist to execute more elaborate carvings.

Location

England

The jet found at Whitby, in England, is the "Jet Rock" unit of the Mulgrave Shale Member, which is part of the Whitby Mudstone Formation. This jet deposit was formed approximately 181 million years ago, during the Toarcian age of the Early Jurassic epoch. Whitby Jet is the fossilized wood from species similar to the extant Chilean pine (Araucaria araucana). The deposit extends throughout North York Moors National Park.

Jet has also been found in Kimmeridge shale seams in Dorset.

France
Jet was mined from a number of areas of France including Montjardin and Roquevaire. Raw jet was also imported from Spain. In the 18th century there was a jet working industry based around Sainte-Colombe-sur-l'Hers and La Bastide-sur-l'Hers but this declined with the start of the 19th. An 1871 plan to import raw French jet into Whitby was unsuccessful due to its poor quality.

Spain
The jet found in Asturias, the biggest deposit in northern Spain, is of Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) age, about 155 million years old. Asturian jet is a perhydrous coal that suffered an anomalous coalification process and presents great material stability over long periods of time.

Jet is also found near Santiago de Compostela in northwest Spain

United States
Native American Navajo and Pueblo tribes of New Mexico were using regionally mined jet for jewellery and the ornamentation of weapons when early Spanish explorers reached the area in the 1500s.  Today these jet deposits are known as Acoma jet, for the Acoma Pueblo. Enormous coal deposits characterize the San Juan Basin of New Mexico and this geology is closely related to jet deposits mined in the Henry Mountains of Utah and the Front Range of El Paso County, Colorado.

Other locations
Jet is also commercialized in Poland and near Erzurum in Turkey, where it is known as oltu stone and is used to make prayer beads.

History

The earliest known worked jet object is a 10,000 BC model of a botfly larva, from Baden-Württemberg, Germany, found among the Venuses of Petersfels.

Jet has been used in Britain since the Neolithic period It continued in use in Britain through the Bronze Age where it was used for necklace beads. Jet necklaces following the plate and spacer design may have been based on Gold lunula. During the Iron Age jet went out of fashion until the early 3rd century AD in Roman Britain. The end of Roman Britain marked the end of jet's ancient popularity.

Early archaeologists (particularly Victorian) often failed to distinguish between jet and other jet-like materials  In particular in southern Britain the material described as jet was often Kimmeridge Shale. and some artifacts use more than one jet-like material. For example the Pen y Bonc necklace combines two or three jet pieces with  other dark material.

Roman use
Whitby jet was a popular material for jewellery in Roman Britain from the 3rd century onward.There is no evidence for Roman jet working in Whitby itself, rather it was transferred to Eboracum (modern York) where considerable evidence for jet production has been found.  The collection of jet at this time was based on beachcombing rather than quarrying.  It was used in rings, hair pins, beads, bracelets, bangles, necklaces, and pendants, many of which can be seen in the Yorkshire Museum. Jet rings tended to follow the styles of existing metal rings although there were exceptions. Jet pendants were carved cameo style with Medusa head being a popular theme.

Stylistic similarities with jet items found in the Rhineland, and lack of any evidence for local manufacture, suggest that Eboracum-produced items were exported to that area. One item that has been found around the Rhine but not in Britain are jet bracelets that feature grooves with gold inserts.

The Roman period saw its use as a magical material, frequently used in amulets and pendants because of its supposed protective qualities and ability to deflect the gaze of the evil eye. Pliny the Elder suggests that "the kindling of jet drives off snakes and relieves suffocation of the uterus. Its fumes detect attempts to simulate a disabling illness or a state of virginity." It has been referenced by other ancient writers including Solinus and Galen.

Viking use
Vikings made some use of jet including rings and miniature sculptures of animals with snakes being a prominent theme. The source of the jet has not been confirmed although Whitby is the most likely possibility.

Medieval

Medieval jet use appears to have been largely limited to religious items such as crosses and Rosary beads. During the period there was a belief that water drunk from jet bowls could help with labour. A jet bowl held in the Museum of London may have been designed to allow for this.

Victorian use

Jet as a gemstone became fashionable during the reign of Queen Victoria. It originally became fashionable in the 1850s after the queen wore a necklace of it as part of mourning dress for Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Later the Queen wore Whitby jet as part of her mourning dress while mourning the death of Prince Albert.

In some jewellery designs of the period jet was combined with cut steel.

Jet use was at its highest in the early 1870s and from there it declined. From above 1000 workers in the trade Whitby was down to 300 by 1884. While jet substitutes may have had an impact this appears to have been in a large part due to changes in fashion with Art Nouveau making little use of black jewellery. As the numbers fell the remaining manufactures tended to stick with existing styles rather than attempting to adapt to new fashions resulting in demand falling further. Making tourist trinkets kept a few jewellers in work but by the end of World War II only 3 remained and the industry died out completely with their deaths.

20th century

In Whitby the Victorian tradition continued up until the aftermath of World War II. Jet jewellery (both vintage and new) was then to remain out of fashion until the late '70s. In the' 80s there was a fashion for jet beads and antique jet jewellery started to rise in value. New jewellers took up the production of jet jewellery.

Jet substitutes
Glass was used as a jet substitute during the peak of jet's popularity. When it was used in this way it was known as French jet or Vauxhall glass. Ebonite was also used as a jet substitute and initially looks very similar to jet, but it fades over time. In some cases jet offcuts were mixed with glue and molded into jewelry.

Anthracite (hard coal) is superficially similar to fine jet, and has been used to imitate it. This imitation is not always easy to distinguish from real jet.

Some museums have produced reproductions of jet artefacts in epoxy resin.

Authenticating jet
Unlike black glass, which is cool to the touch, jet is not cool, due to its lower thermal conductivity.  When rubbed against unglazed porcelain, true jet will leave a brown streak, although bog oak, vulcanite and lignite will do the same.

When non destructive testing is required X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy combined with visual inspection (including under high magnification) and X-ray imaging is generally effective although it can be difficult to differentiate jet from lignite

Real jet, when placed in a flame, burns like coal and gives off a coal-like smell and produces soot. No other black "gemstone" behaves like this.

See also
Petrified wood
Oltu stone

References

External links

 Gemstone Guide: Jet
 Roman Objects in the Yorkshire Museum

Coal
Organic gemstones
Sedimentology
jet

Jet (gemstone)


An Aechmea koesteri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni José Manuel Manzanares. An Aechmea koesteri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aechmea, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Ecuador. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aechmea

Aechmea koesteri


سعيد فريحة (1912 - 1978) صحافي لبناني من مواليد بيروت ومؤسس دار الصياد في لبنان.

كان صديقا شخصيا وتلميذا نجيباً للأستاذ مصطفى أمين، أولاده عصام وبسام فريحه والهام فريحه اكملوا نهجه ويتابعون إدارة دار الصياد.

مراجع

كتاب وكاتبات لبنانيون
وفيات 1978
رؤساء تحرير لبنانيون

سعيد فريحة


CANDU (Canadian deuterium-uranium) er en type af kernereaktor til atomkraftværker. Den anvender tungt vand som moderator og naturligt uran som brændsel, da dette er billigere end beriget uran. Denne gevinst bliver dog udlignet af at tungt vand er meget dyrt sammenlignet med almindeligt vand.

Kernekraft

CANDU-reaktor


بولشايا أورلوفكا  هي مدينة في مقاطعة روستوف أوبلاست في روسيا.

مراجع

مدن مقاطعة روستوف

بولشايا أورلوفكا


خطوط بان أمريكان العالمية  عرفت اختصارا (ب:Pan Am). كانت شركة طيران دولية أمريكية عملاقة منذ تأسيسها في ثلاثينيات القرن العشرين وحتى انهيارها التام وإشهار إفلاسها في 4 ديسمبر 1991.

تأسست بان آم كشركة طيران مائي تقدم خدماتها في منطقة جزر كي ويست في فلوريدا. لتصبح لاحقا شركة طيران عالمية تقدم خدماتها من وإلى الولايات المتحدة. وكانت الشركة تعتبر «كأيقونة طيران» في الولايات المتحدة لحد اعتبارها الناقلة شبه الرسمية في البلاد, بعد قضية لوكربي بثلاث سنوات في 8 شباط من عام 1991 أعلنت شركة بان أمريكان افلاسها واشترتها شركة خطوط دلتا الجوية.

مصادر

وصلات خارجية
 تاريخ بان أمريكان.

أعضاء إياتا سابقون
تاريخ كي ويست (فلوريدا)
حوادث وأحداث خطوط بان أمريكان العالمية
خطوط جوية سابقة
شركات أمريكية انحلت في 1991
شركات أمريكية أسست في 1927
شركات طيران أسست سنة 1927
شركات طيران توقفت عن النشاط سنة 1991
شركات طيران سابقة في الولايات المتحدة
معالم كي ويست فلوريدا

خطوط بان أمريكان العالمية


Kvindernes single i bordtennis var en del af bordtennis-programmet ved Sommer-OL 2016 i Rio de Janeiro. Arrangementet fandt sted fra 6 august-10 august 2016 i Riocentro.

Medaljerne blev overrakt af Ng Ser Miang, IOC medlem, Singapore og Petra Sörling, Executive Vice President for ITTF.

Single damer

Bordtennis under sommer-OL 2016 – Single damer


An Oryzopsis grandispicula in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Pung Pen Chao Kuo ngan Zhen Lan Wu. An Oryzopsis grandispicula in nahilalakip ha genus nga Oryzopsis, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Oryzopsis

Oryzopsis grandispicula


أكتر واحد هو الألبوم التاسع عشر للفنان المصري عمرو دياب، تم إصداره عام 2001.

مبيعات وإنجازات
يعد هذا الألبوم من أكثر ألبومات عمرو نجاحا حيث تم بيع 11 مليون نسخة منذ صدوره سنة 2001. و احتوى الالبوم على ألوان موسيقية مختلفة مثل الصالصا والريغي والدمج بين الشرقي والغربي في أغنية ولا على باله التي نجحت نجاحا ساحقا، ما أدى إلى فوزه بورلد ميوزك أوردز لعام 2002 للمرة الثانية في مسيرته. ولا يزال هذا الألبوم الأكثر مبيعا في الشرق الأوسط وشمال إفريقيا

قائمة الأغاني

مراجع

ألبومات 2001
ألبومات عمرو دياب

أكتر واحد (ألبوم)


Dichotomosiphon, monotipski rod zelenih algi iz porodice Dichotomosiphonaceae. Jedina je vrsta D. tuberosus, slatkovodna alga koja obitava prvenstveno po jezerima u Aziji i Sjevernoj Americi (Velika jezera).

Prvi puta oisana je 1849 kao Vaucheria tuberosa.

Sinonimi
 Vaucheria tuberosa A.Braun ex Kützing, 1849

Izvori

Dichotomosiphonaceae

Dichotomosiphon


Eternal September or the September that never ended is Usenet slang for a period beginning around 1993 when Internet service providers began offering Usenet access to many new users. The flood of new users overwhelmed the existing culture for online forums and the ability to enforce existing norms. AOL followed with their Usenet gateway service in March 1994, leading to a constant stream of new users. Hence, from the early Usenet point of view, the influx of new users in September 1993 never ended.

History

During the 1980s and early 1990s, Usenet and the Internet were generally the domain of dedicated computer professionals and hobbyists; new users joined slowly, in small numbers, and observed and learned the social conventions of online interaction without having much of an impact on the experienced users. The only exception to this was September of every year, when large numbers of first-year college students gained access to the Internet and Usenet through their universities. These large groups of new users who had not yet learned online etiquette created a nuisance for the experienced users, who came to dread September every year. Once ISPs like AOL made Internet access widely available for home users, a continuous influx of new users began, making it feel like it was always "September" to the more experienced users.

The full phrase appears to have evolved over a series of months on two separate alt.folklore newsgroups where a number of threads exist lamenting what they saw as an increase in low-quality posts across various newsgroups. Several members of the newsgroups referenced aspects of the "September" issue, typically in a joking manner.

In a thread on January 8, 1994, Joel Furr cross-posted asking "Is it just me, or has Delphi unleashed a staggering amount of weirdos on the net?", which garnered a reply from Karl Reinsch "Of course it's perpetually September for Delphi users, isn't it?" The day before, Furr had also posted the same message to alt.folklore.urban, where David Fischer responded with a joke call-to-action where he referred to the increasing numbers of Delphi users as the "Never-Ending-September". Fischer also replied to a different thread on January 25, 1994, in alt.folklore.computers saying, "It's moot now. September 1993 will go down in net history as the September that never ended." This quote has been suggested to have been the first reference.

Possibly the first use of the "Eternal September" phrase was a newsgroup post by John William Chambless in February 1994. He posted a rant including some excerpts of low-quality articles he found in one of his newsgroups that day, but titled the post "The Eternal September".

Legacy

A tongue-in-cheek program called sdate outputs the current date, formatted using the Eternal September calendar (September X, 1993, where X is an unbounded counter for days since that epoch). This is not the identically named sdate, one of the sixty commands that comes with the First Edition of Unix, that is used to set the system clock.  Named with similar humour is one of the free public Usenet servers, Eternal-September.org.

See also
 July effect

References

External links

 sdate, a Unix program that outputs the date of Never Ending September

1993 in Internet culture
History of the Internet
Internet slang
September
September 1993 events
Usenet
1990s neologisms
1990s in Internet culture
AOL

Eternal September


58. breddegrad kan henvise til:

 58. nordlige breddekreds
 58. sydlige breddekreds

58. breddegrad


was a town located in Aira District, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town had an estimated population of 8,615 and a density of 135.67 persons per km². The total area was 63.50 km². The area to the west and east are mountainous while farmlands are within the valley areas.

On November 7, 2005, Mizobe, along with the city of Kokubu, the towns of Kirishima (former), Fukuyama, Hayato, Makizono and Yokogawa (all from Aira District), was merged to create the city of Kirishima and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

Kagoshima's airport is to the south with a runway of nearly 2 km.

It is accessed with the Kyūshū Expressway in the south at the 24th interchange and is known as Mizobe-Kagoshima Airport interchange which was opened on November 29, 1976 and expanded northward on March 22, 1980.

Mizobe has a school, a middle school, a train station and a square.

It is bounded by Kajiki to the south.

Economy
When Mizobe existed, Japan Air Commuter had its headquarters in the Kagoshima Airport Building Annex in Mizobe.

References

External links
 Official website of Kirishima

Dissolved municipalities of Kagoshima Prefecture

Mizobe, Kagoshima


Parykatelieret er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2011, der er instrueret af Sofie Tønsberg.

Handling
I parykatelieret sidder tre kvinder foran et spejl. Deres hår er ved at falde af, og de skal vælge en paryk. Grå, sorte og gule parykker bliver sat på hovedet og skaber nye ansigter. Kvinderne ser sig i spejlet, mens kameraet ser på dem.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2011

Parykatelieret


Tusindfødt - digteren Pia Tafdrup er en portrætfilm fra 2003 skrevet og instrueret af Cæcilia Holbek Trier.

Handling
»Tusindfødt« er en intens og undersøgende beretning om en digters væsen og det univers, hvori digtningen bliver til. Pia Tafdrup (f. 1952) fortæller om den kunstneriske skabelsesproces, som hun selv har oplevet og erfaret den. Hun læser op af sine digte og indvier os i sin erkendelse om digtning og det digteriske håndværk; en til tider altopædende kunstnerisk proces. I filmen indgår en række smalfilmsoptagelser fra opvæksten i hjemmet i Nordsjælland. Et hjem, der ikke lagde op til Pia Tafdrups nuværende litterære position. Og måske alligevel. Siden debuten i 1981 har hun udgivet en lang række digtsamlinger og prosastykker, i 1999 modtog hun Nordisk Råds Store Litteraturpris. Indgår på dvd i antologien »Litteraturens film 2«.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Portrætfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2003

Tusindfødt - digteren Pia Tafdrup


Leo Brandenburg (* 21. Juni 1895 in Sterkrade; † 2. März 1946 im Speziallager Nr. 1 Mühlberg) war ein deutscher Reichsgerichtsrat.

Leben
Er erlangte die Reife am Realgymnasium Sterkrade 1913. Dann studierte er Rechtswissenschaften in Bonn, Münster und München. In Bonn wurde er Mitglied der KDStV Bavaria Bonn, in München der KDStV Burgundia im CV. Er wurde 1919 promoviert. Am Ersten Weltkrieg nahm er nicht teil. In der Weimarer Republik wurde er 1921 Gerichtsassessor. 1923 wurde er zum Landgerichtsrat in Duisburg-Hamborn ernannt und im Justizministerium tätig. 1928 wurde er stellvertretender Bevollmächtigter zum Reichsrat. Nach der Machtübertragung an die NSDAP trat er zum 1. Mai 1933 der NSDAP bei (Mitgliedsnummer 1.943.554). Oberlandesgerichtsrat wurde er 1935 zunächst in Zweibrücken, dann in Düsseldorf. 1937 kam er an das Reichsgericht. Er war bis 1945 im I. Zivilsenat tätig. Nach der Besetzung Leipzigs durch die Rote Armee wurde er – wie andere Reichsgerichtsräte – durch den NKWD verhaftet. Er starb 1946 im Speziallager in Mühlberg.

Der Katholik Brandenburg war ein Vetter Theodor Klausers und der Vater des Archäologen Hugo Brandenburg sowie des Bildhauers Paul Brandenburg.

Schriften
 Die Verträge auf fremde Leistung, Dissertation Bonn 1919, Sterkrade 1919

Literatur
 Klaus-Detlev Godau-Schüttke: "Der Bundesgerichtshof – Justiz in Deutschland –", Berlin 2005, S. 67ff.
 Acta Borussica – Neue Folge. 1. Reihe: Jürgen Kocka, Wolfgang Neugebauer (Hrsg.): Die Protokolle des Preußischen Staatsministeriums 1817–1934/38.: Reinhold Zilch, Bärbel Holtz: Band 12, II: 4. April 1925 bis 10. Mai 1938. Hildesheim u. a. 2004, S. 532 (PDF).

Einzelnachweise

Richter (Reichsgericht)
Richter (Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf)
Richter (Oberlandesgericht Zweibrücken)
Stellvertretender Bevollmächtigter zum Reichsrat
Speziallagerhäftling
Korporierter im CV
NSDAP-Mitglied
Deutscher
Geboren 1895
Gestorben 1946
Mann

Leo Brandenburg


Buivaroro je bio fidžijski plemić i poglavica otoka Nayaua. Rođen na Nayauu, Buivaroro je bio sin poglavice Naosare i gospe Gelegeleavanue. Buivaroro je bio brat poglavice Kalouyalewe.

Buivaroro je naslijedio svoga oca kao Tui Nayau.

Gospa Tarau bila je Buivarorova žena te je Buivaroru rodila Maseikulu, koji je naslijedio oca.

Izvori

Fidžijsko plemstvo

Buivaroro


Lue or LUE may refer to:

People
 Andrew Lue (born 1992), Canadian retired football player
 Lue Gim Gong (1860–1925), Chinese-American horticulturalist
 Lee Lue (1935–1969), Laotian Hmong fighter-bomber pilot
 Linlyn Lue, Canadian actress
 Robert Lue (1964–2020), Jamaican-born American researcher and academic
 Rufin Lué (born 1968), Ivorian footballer
 Tyronn Lue (born 1977), American professional basketball player
 Wang Lüe (born 1985), Chinese footballer
 Tai Lue people, one of the 56 recognized ethnic groups of China

Places
 Lue, New South Wales, a small town in Australia
 Lue railway station
 Lüe, a commune in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France
 Lue (Colunga), a parish in northern Spain

Other uses
 Han Lue, a fictional character in the Fast & Furious franchise
 Life, the Universe and Everything, a book by Douglas Adams
 LUE, IATA airport code for Lučenec Airport

See also
 Donald De Lue (1897–1988), American sculptor

Lue


كينموتشي سايونجي  (23 أكتوبر 1849 - 24 نوفمبر 1940) سياسي ياباني سابق، تولى منصب رئيس الوزراء الياباني مرتين.

مراجع

أشخاص في فترة مييجي
أشخاص من محافظة كيوتو
إصلاح ميجي
جامعة ريتسوميكان
حائزون على وسام القديس ميخائيل والقديس جرجس
حاصلون على وسام رايزينغ صن
خريجو جامعة السوربون
رؤساء وزراء اليابان
رؤساء وزراء اليابان القرن 20
سفراء اليابان لدى الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية
سفراء اليابان لدى بلجيكا
سفراء اليابان لدى ألمانيا
سياسيون من محافظة كيوتو
سياسيون يابانيون في القرن 20
كازوكو
مواليد 1849
مواليد في كيوتو
وزراء خارجية اليابان
وزراء مالية يابانيون
وسام دانيبروغ
وفيات 1940
وفيات في طوكيو
يابانيون مغتربون في فرنسا

كينموتشي سايونجي


Antanas Merkys () a fost ultimul prim-ministru al Lituaniei independente, care a servit în acest post din noiembrie 1939 până în iunie 1940. Când Uniunea Sovietică a prezentat un ultimatum Lituaniei cerând să accepte o garnizoană sovietică, președintele Antanas Smetona a părăsit țara, lăsând pe Merkys în funcția de președinte interimar. Merkys părea să coopereze cu sovieticii și a preluat ilegal președinția în nume propriu. După trei zile, Merkys a predat puterea lui Justas Paleckis, care a format guvernul popular al Lituaniei. Când Merkys a încercat să fugă din țară, a fost capturat și deportat în interiorul Rusiei, unde a murit în 1955.

Biografie

Merkys s-a născut la Bajorai, lângă Skapiškis. Educat în drept, a servit în armata rusă în timpul primului război mondial (1914-18). În 1919, a fost ministru al apărării al recentei Lituanii independente, înainte de a intra în armata lituaniană până la retragerea sa din 1922. Apoi a practicat dreptul ca avocat.

După revolta din Klaipėda din 1923, Merkys a devenit secretar al comisarului regiunii Klaipėda, Antanas Smetona. După lovitura de stat din 1926, a devenit ministru al apărării până în 1927, când a devenit guvernator al regiunii Klaipėda. În 1932, la cererea germanilor a fost îndepărtat ca guvernator și Merkys s-a întors la a practica avocatura. A devenit primar al orașului Kaunas în 1933 și s-a aflat în această funcție până în 1939. În 1936 a fost ales în al patrulea Seimas a Lituaniei. La 17 noiembrie 1939 a devenit prim-ministru.

Ultimatumul sovietic și ocupația
Când, la 14 iunie 1940, Uniunea Sovietică a prezentat Lituaniei un ultimatum, Smetona a propus rezistența armată. Merkys a sugerat acceptarea ultimatului și s-a oferit să demisioneze din funcția de prim-ministru, dar a rămas temporar în funcție. Merkys a fost de acord cu cererile sovietice de a-l aresta pe Smetona, dar nu a reușit să facă acest lucru. Decât să accepte cererile, Smetona a fugit în Germania și apoi în Elveția. Înainte de a părăsi țara, el a transferat simbolic îndatoririle sale prezidențiale lui Merkys. Conform Constituției din 1938, premierul era președinte în exercițiu ori de câte ori președintele nu putea să-și îndeplinească atribuțiile.

La o zi după plecarea lui Smetona, Merkys a anunțat la postul național de radio că l-a îndepărtat pe Smetona și că era acum președinte de facto. Astfel s-a încălcat constituția lituaniană, deoarece Smetona nu a demisionat în mod oficial. Ca atare, Merkys nu este recunoscut ca un președinte legitim în registrele guvernului lituanian.

La 17 iunie 1940, Merkys a acceptat mai multe cereri ale sovieticilor: a) să trimită poliția pentru a-i aresta pe Skučas și Povilaitis lângă granița lituaniană și b) să-l numească pe Justas Paleckis ca noul prim-ministru. Merkys a demisionat mai târziu în acea zi, Paleckis devenind, astfel, președinte în exercițiu. Sovieticii l-au folosit ulterior Paleckis ca marionetă pentru a favoriza anexarea Lituaniei o lună mai târziu. Când Lituania și-a declarat independența față de Uniunea Sovietică în 1990, s-a spus că, din moment ce preluarea președinției de către Merkys era ilegală, toate acțiunile care au condus la anexarea Lituaniei de către Uniunea Sovietică mai târziu în acel an au fost anulate ipso facto. Prin urmare, Lituania a susținut că nu a trebuit să urmeze procesul de separare descris în Constituția sovietică, deoarece a reafirmat o independență care totuși exista în temeiul dreptului internațional.

O lună mai târziu, Merkys a încercat să fugă în Suedia, dar a fost arestat la Riga. El și familia lui au fost deportați în Saratov, în Rusia. În 1941 Merkys a fost închis. În 1954, în timpul perioadei de destalinizare, Merkys a fost eliberat din închisoare, dar nu i s-a permis să se întoarcă în Lituania. El a trăit în Vladimir până la moartea sa în anul următor, la 5 martie 1955. Ulterior, mormântul lui nu putea fi localizat, dar un cenotaf simbolic dedicat memoriei lui Merkys se regăsește în cimitirul Petrašiūnai din Kaunas.

Referințe

Nașteri în 1887
Decese în 1955

Antanas Merkys


Salvador Cañellas Gual (Santa Oliva, Bajo Panadés, 1 de diciembre de 1944) es un piloto español de motociclismo y de automovilismo, modalidades en las que destacó durante los años 1960 y 70. Se convirtió, en 1968, en el primer español en ganar un Gran Premio de Motociclismo, También fue campeón de la I Copa Nacional Renault en 1969, de España de Rally y de la Fórmula 1430 en 1972; y campeón de España de Turismos en 1979. Participó también en el Rally Dakar y en carreras de camiones.

Actualmente se encuentra retirado de la competición oficial, aunque aún pilota en eventos de clásicos como la Fórmula Vintage formando parte de la escudería SEAT Históricos y del RACC. Su hijo Salvador Cañellas, Jr. también fue piloto de rally, subcampeón mundial junior en 2003.

Trayectoria

Motociclismo

Rallyes
En 1972 ganó el Campeonato de España de Rally con un Seat 124 1600. Participó en pruebas del mundial con SEAT, su mejor resultado fue un tercer puesto en el Rally de Polonia de 1978, además logró un cuarto puesto en el Rally de Montecarlo de 1977. Se subió al podio en dos ocasiones en pruebas del Campeonato de Europa finalizando quinto en el campeonato en los años 1976 y 1977.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Salvador Cañellas, perfil en rallybase.nl

Pilotos de motociclismo de España
Pilotos de rally de España
Deportistas de Cataluña

Salvador Cañellas


Paragua () je rijeka u Venezueli, najveća pritoka rijeke Caroni. Pripada porječju rijeke Orinoco.

Rijeka izvire u planinama Sierra Marutani, uz brazilsku granicu, teče kroz središte savezne države Bolívar, a njeno porječje pokriva ekoregiju Vlažne šume Gvajanskog visočja.

Izvori

Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993.

Rijeke u Venezueli
Pritoke Caronija

Paragua (rijeka u Venezueli)


Anthocharis cethura es una especie de mariposas de la familia Pieridae (subfamilia Pierinae, tribu Anthocharini). Incluye 10 subespecies. Se distribuyen por el suroeste de Estados Unidos y norte de México. Las orugas se alimentan de plantas, especialmente de la familia Brassicaceae, los adultos del néctar de las flores.

Subespecies
Anthocharis cethura angelina
Anthocharis cethura bajacalifornica
Anthocharis cethura caliente
Anthocharis cethura catalina
Anthocharis cethura cooperi
Anthocharis cethura deserti
Anthocharis cethura hadromarmorata
Anthocharis cethura mojavensis
Anthocharis cethura morrisoni
Anthocharis cethura pima

Referencias

cethura

Anthocharis cethura


Drøvtygning er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1962.

Handling
Drøvtyggermavens anatomi, vomfunktion og drøvtygningens 'teknik' vises i tegnefilm og realoptagelser.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1962

Drøvtygning


Parque Nacional de Kakum (en inglés: Kakum National Park), es un parque nacional ubicado en el país africano de Ghana. Establecido en 1931 como una reserva, fue declarado parque nacional en 1992, después de que se llevara a cabo una investigación inicial de la avifauna.Se encuentra a 30 kilómetros al norte de Cape Coast y Elmina cerca de la pequeña ciudad de Abrafo. Toda la zona está cubierta de selva tropical.

En el parque los guardabosques están especialmente capacitados en la importancia médica y cultural de la vegetación local. El parque nacional de Kakum contiene animales raros en peligro de extinción  búfalos de bosque, civetas, una gran variedad de aves y más de 500 especies de mariposas.

Véase también
Geografía de Ghana
Geografía de África

Referencias

Kakum
Áreas protegidas establecidas en 1992
Ghana en 1992

Parque nacional de Kakum


Tungsten Dayı: Kimyasal Bir Çocukluğun Anıları (İngilizce özgün adıyla Uncle Tungsten: Memories of a Chemical Boyhood), Oliver Sacks'ın 2002 yılında yayınlanan, çocukluğuna dair bir anı kitabıdır. Kitap ismini Sacks'ın tungsten telinden ampul üreten dayısı Dave'in takma adı Tungsten Dayı'dan almaktadır. Tungsten Dayı bu elemente büyülenmiş, onun geleceğin metali olduğunu düşünen bir kişidir.

Bilim ile ilgili kitaplar
Anı kitapları
2002 kitapları
İngilizce kitaplar
İngiliz kitapları