Plastik cerrahi veya tam adıyla plastik, rekonstrüktif ve estetik cerrahi, vücut üzerindeki çeşitli yapıların yeniden yapılması, şekillendirilmesi, ciddi doku kayıplarının giderilmesini ve her türlü estetik girişimi kapsayan cerrahi bir disiplindir. Pediatrik plastik cerrahi türü de vardır. Kozmetik, estetik tıp, estetik cerrahi plastik cerrahinin en bilinen kısımlarıdır. Bilinenin aksine plastik cerrahi alanının büyük kısmını  estetik cerrahi dışında rekonstüktif cerrahi, kraniyofasiyal cerrahi, el cerrahisi, el nakli, mikrocerrahi ve yanık tedavisi oluşturmaktadır. Rekonstrüktif ve estetik cerrahi olmak üzere iki ana kategoriye ayrılmıştır

Rekonstrüktif cerrahi tüm vücut yüzeyinde deri, deri altı ve kemikleri etkileyen doğumsal veya edinsel her türlü doku ve organ kaybının onarılmasıdır. Bunu yaparken temel kural hangi dokular kaybolduysa ona benzer dokularla onarım yapmaktır. Örneğin doğumsal olarak oluşan yarık damak-dudak, yapışık parmak (sindaktili), vasküler kitleler (hemanjiomlar gibi); travmatik olarak oluşan yanıklar, trafik kazalarına bağlı yüz yaralanmaları, çeşitli kesiler ve uzuv kopmaları; edinsel olarak oluşan çeşitli deri ve yumuşak doku tümörleri, kronik yaralar bu cerrahi disiplin alanı içindedir. Kemik (özellikle yüz, kafa ve el kemikleri) ve kıkırdak çatıdaki (kulak ve burun kıkırdakları gibi) kayıplar, şekil bozuklukları, patolojik olaylar (tümör, kist, enfeksiyon vb) yine plastik cerrahi uğraşı alanı içindedir. Bunun için klasik cerrahi yöntemler yanında mikrocerrahi, lazer sistemleri, endoskopi ile çeşitli kimyasal ajan ve ilaçlardan yararlanabilir.

Estetik (veya kozmetik) cerrahi ise vücut imajının daha güzel ve mükemmele ulaştırılmasını sağlamak için yapılan operasyon ve girişimlerle uğraşır. Burada tıbbi bir problemden çok estetik problemler vardır.

Plastik cerrahi uzmanlık eğitimi sırasında estetik cerrahi eğitimi de verilmektedir. Estetik cerrahide her zaman estetik değil, bazen tıbbi problemler de çözülür. Örneğin aşırı şişman bir gövdenin veya dev boyutlarda büyümüş memelerin (gigantomasti) cerrahi olarak düzeltilmesi hem tıbbi hem de estetik problemleri birlikte çözmektedir. Bir organın estetik düzeltilmesi yanında fonksiyonu da son derece önemlidir. Örneğin: estetik burun cerrahisinde (Rinoplasti) şekil ve nefes alma problemleri birlikte düzeltilmelidir.

Etimoloji
Plastik terimi Yunanca plastikos kelimesinden türetilmiştir. Yeniden şekillendirme, şekil verme anlamına gelmektedir. Tıpta kullanılan plastik terimi, petrolden imal edilen (1909 yılında Leo Baekeland tarafından icat edilen) mühendislik ürünü "plastik" teriminden daha önce literatüre girmiştir.

Tarihçe

Plastik cerrahi ile ilgili en eski kayıtlı bilgi antik mısıra ait medikal bir doküman olan  Edwin Smith Papirüsüna dayanmaktadır. burada kırık olan burun kemiğinin düzeltilmesinden bahsedilmektedir. Rekonstrüktif cerrahi teknikleri ilk defa MÖ 800 yılında Hindistanda ortaya atılmıştır. Sushruta MÖ 6. yüzyılda Plastik cerrahi ve katarakt cerrahisi alanında önemli katkılarda bulunan bir doktor oldu. Sushruta ve Charak'ın Sanskrit dilinde yapmış oldukları çalışmalar MS 750 yılında Abbasi halifeliği döneminde Arapça diline tercüme edilmiştir. Bu arapça tercümalnar aracılığı ile bilgiler akdeniz aracılığıyla Avrupa'ya ulaşmıştır.İtalya Sicilya'daki Branca ailesi ile Bolonya'daki  Gaspare Tagliacozzi bu teknikleri kullanarak ün kazanmışlardır. Hindistana seyahat eden

Britanyalı doktorlar yerli metodlarla yapılan rinoplasti ameliyatlarını görmüşlerdir. Hindistandaki rinoplasti ameliyatları 1794 yılında İngilterede  "Gentleman's Magazine" adlı dergide yayınlanmıştır.  Joseph Constantine Carpue Hindistan'da 20 yıl geçirerek yerel plastik cerrahi metotları üzerine çalışmıştır. Carpue Batı dünyasındaki ilk major cerrahi operasyonunu 1815 yılında yapmıştır. Sushruta Samhita tarafından tanımlanan cerrahi aletler batı dünyasında modifiye edilmiştir.

Romamılar da plastik kozmetik cerrahiyi uygulamışlardır. Romalılar kulaktaki hasarların onarımı gibi basit teknikleri milattan önce birinci yüzyılda yapabilmekteydiler. Dini sebeplerden ötürü insan veya hayvan kadavra disseksiyonları yapmamışlardır, bu nedenle bilgilerini antik Yunan dönemine ait kitaplardan edinmişleridir. Tüm bunlara rağmen Aulus Cornelius Celsus genital organlar ve iskelet sistemi üzerine bazı anatomik tanımlamalarda bulunmuştur. şaşırtıcı olarak bu çalışmalar plastik cerrahi üzerinde yoğunlaşmıştır.

Sabuncuoğlu Şerefeddin'in 1465 yılında yazmış olduğu kitapta hipospadias sınıflandırmasını yapmış ve bu sınıflandırma günümüzde de kullanılmaktadır. Üretral açıklığın lokalizasyonunu detaylıca açıklamıştır. Sabuncuoğlu ayrıca ambigus genitalyayı tanımlamış ve sınıflandırmıştır. 15. yüzyılın ortalarında Avrupa'da  Heinrich von Pfolspeundt köpek saldırısı sonucu burnunun tamamına yakınını kaybeden bir hastada kolun arkasından deriyi kaldırarak kullanılmasını tarifleyen yeniden burun yapımı tekniğini tanımlamıştır. Ancak bu teknik cerrahide özellikle baş ve yüzü içeren bölgelerde ortaya çıkan tehlikelerden dolayı 19. yüzyıla kadar yaygınlaşmamıştır.

Anestezideki tekniklerin gelişene kadar geçen sürede sağlam dokuları içeren cerrahilerde aşırı ağrı duyulmaktaydı. Cerrahiye bağlı enfeksiyonlarda steril tekniklerin, dezenfektanların kullanıma girmesiyle azalma gözlenmiştir. Penisilin ve sulfonamid ile başlayan antibiyotiklerin icat edilmesi ve kullanılması ile elektif cerrahi yapılabilir hale gelmiştir.

1793 yılında François Chopart boyun bölgesinden kullanılan flep ile yapılan dudak ameliyatını tanımlamıştır. 1814 yılında Joseph Carpue cıva tedavisi sonrasında toksik etkiye bağlı burnunu kaybeden Britanyalı askeri bir subaya başarı ile operasyon uygulamıştır. 1818 yılında Alman cerrah Carl Ferdinand von Graefe kendi ana çalışmalarını Rhinoplastik isimli kitabında basmıştır. Von Graefe gecikmeli pediküllü serbest flep yerine  koldan serbest deri grefti kullanarak İtalyanların tekniğini tekniği modifiye etmiştir.

İlk Amerikan plastik cerrah John Peter Mettauer 1827 yılında ilk yarık damak operasyonunu kendi tasarladığı aletler ile başarıyla gerçekleştirmiştir. 1845 yılında Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach rinoplasti ile ilgili rekonstrükte edilmiş burunun kozmetik olarak geliştirilmesi için yeniden opere edilmesini anlatan Operative Chirurgie başlıklı kapsamlı bir yazı yazmıştır.

1891 yılında Amerikalı otolaringolojist John Roe genç bir kadının kozmetik amaçla burun sırtındaki eğriliğini düzelttiği çalışmasını sunmuştur. 1892 yılında Robert Weir çökük burunun rekonstrüksiyonunda deneysel olarak kullandığı xenogreft (ördek sternum kemiği) uygulaması başarısız olmuştur. 1896 yılında Almanyalı ürolog James Israel ve  1889 yılında ABD'den George Monks semer burun deformitesinin rekonstrüksiyonunda heterojen serbest kemik greftinin kullanılmasını tanımlamışlardır. 1898 yılında Alman ortopedist Jacques Joseph küçültme rinoplasti hakkında ilk yazısını yayınlamıştır. 1928 yılında ise Nasenplastik und Sonstige Gesichtsplastik isimli kitabını yayınlamıştır.

Modern Tekniklerin Gelişimi

Modern plastik cerrahinin babası olarak genellikle isminden söz edilen Sir Harold Gillies'dir. Yeni Zelandalı otolaringolojizst Londra'da çalışıyordu. Yüz yaralanmalarından muzdarip olan askerlerden dolayı Birinci Dünya Savaşı esnasında birçok modern yüz cerrahisi tekniği geliştirmiştir.

Birinci dünya savaşı esnasında Britanya Kraliyet Ordu Sağlık Kuvvetlerinde tıbbi görevli olarak çalışmıştır. Ünlü Fransız maksillofasiyal cerrah Hippolyte Morestin ile deri greftleri üzerine birlikte çalıştıktan sonra ordunun baş cerrahı unvanı ile onurlandırılmıştır. 1917 yılında Arbuthnot-Lane yüz yaralanmaları merkezi olarak kurulan Cambridge Askeri Hastanesini yüz yaralanmaların onarıldığı yeni bir hastaneye dönüştürmüştür. Bu hastanede Gilies ve öğrencileri plastik cerrahi alanında birçok teknik geliştirmişlerdir. 5.000'den fazla hasta üzerinde (çoğu ateşli silahlarla yüzlerinden yaralanan askerlerden oluşan) 11.000 üzerinde operasyon yapmışlardır. Savaştan sonra Gillies birçok ünlü ismi de kapsayan kişiler üzerinde özel ameliyatlar yapmıştır ve gelişmiş tekniklerini daha da geliştirebilmek için tüm dünyayı dolaşmıştır.

1930 yılında Gillies'in kuzeni Archibald MCIndoe bu uygulamalara iştirak ederek kendini plastik cerrahiye adamıştır. İkinci dünya savaşı patlak verdiğinde plastik cerrahi ekibi silahlı kuvvetlerin farklı birimlerinde bölündü. Gillies ordunun ana plastik cerrahi ünitesi haline dönüşen Basingstoke yakınlarındaki Rooksdown Evine gönderildi. Tommy Kilner (Birinci Dünya Savaşı esnasında Gillies için çalışan ve günümüzde Kilner çene retraktörü adında cerrahi alete adını veren cerrah.) Kraliçe Mary hastanesine gitti. McIndoe, Kraliyet Hava Kuvvetlerine konsültan olmak üzere yeni inşa edilmiş olan Kraliçe Victorya Hastanesi'ne giderek Plastik ve Çene cerrahisi merkezini kurdu. Burada derin yanıkları ve göz kapağı kaybı gibi ciddi yüz deformitelerini tedavi etmiştir.

McIndoe, sadece ağır yanıkların tedavisinde geliştirdiği yeni tekniklerle değil ayrıca bu hastaların normal sosyal hayata yeniden kazandırılmasının önemini ortaya koymasıyla bilinmektedir. İki arkadaşının yardımı ile (Neville ve Elaine Blond) yerel halkın hastaları desteklemesini ve onları evlerine davet etmelerini sağlamıştır. Hastalarından bahsederken "çocuklarım" olarak tarif etmekte ve çalışanlar ona "patron" veya "Maestro" şeklinde hitap etmekteydi.

Diğer önemli çalışmaları arasında yüz rekonstrüksiyonunda tanımlanmış deri grefti tekniği ve saline solüsyonu ile yıkamanın ağır yanık hastalarında iyileşmeyi sağladığını ve hayatta kalma oranlarını arttırdığını ortaya koyması bulunmaktadır.

Teknik ve prosedürler
Plastik cerrahide deri transferi (deri yaması) çok yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır. Deri yamaları dönör çeşidine göre sınıflandırılmaktadır
 Otogreft: Transfer edilecek olan kişinin vücudunun başka bir bölgesinden alınan deri yamasını tarifler.
 Allogreft: Aynı türden alınan deri yamasını tarifler.
 Xenogreft: Farklı türlerden alınan deri yamasını tarifler.

Genellikle plastik cerrahiden beklenenler; cerrahi kesilerin iyi planlanarak vücuttaki doğal çizgilerle uyum içinde olmasının sağlanması, yaraların uygun teknik seçimi ile kapatılabilmesi, en uygun dikiş materyallerinin kullanılması ve tam zamanında dikiş izlerinin oluşmasından önce dikişlerin alınabilmesidir.

Rekonstrüktif (yeniden yapım) cerrahi

Rekonstrüktif plastik cerrahi yanık; yüz kemiklerindeki kırıklar el ve yumuşak doku yaralanmaları gibi travmatik yaralanmalar; yarık dudak-damak ve el, yüz deformiteleri gibi doğumsal anomaliler; enfeksiyon, kanser gibi gelişimsel anomaliler, sonucunda vücut kısımlarında ortaya çıkan yapısal veya işlevsel bozuklukların düzeltilmesini içermektedir. Rekonstrüktif plastik cerrahi genellikle fonksiyonel iyileşme sağlamakla beraber normal fiziksel görünümü oluşturmayı da amaçlamaktadır.

En yaygın rekonstrüksiyon prosedürleri tümör cerrahisi, yaralanmaların onarılması, yara izi tedavileri, el cerrahisidir. Son yıllarda mastektomi sonrası yeniden meme yapımı (meme rekonstrüksiyonu) da azımsanmayacak oranda artış göstermiştir. Amerikan Plastik Cerrahi Derneği'nin verilerine göre kadınlarda meme rekonstürksiyonu 2007 yılında bir önceki yıla göre %2 artış göstermiştir. Erkeklerde ise bu rakam %7 olmuştur. 2012 yılında Amerika'da 68,416 operasyon yapılmıştır.

Diğer rekonstrüktif girişimler olarak yarık dudak-damak onarımı, yanık hastalarındaki kontraktür cerrahisi, kulak rekonstrüksiyonu sıralanabilir.

Plastik cerrahlar mikrocerrahi teknikleri kullanarak yakın dokular ile kapatılamayacak yaraların kapatılmasında serbest flepler kullanılmaktadır. Bu dokular değişik oranlarda cilt, kas-kemik dokusu içerebilen kendine ait kan damarları bulunan dokulardır. Bu kan damarları üzerinden kaldırılan serbest dokular alıcı alandaki ortalama 1-2mm çapındaki damarlara dikilerek açık yaralar kapatılabilmektedir.

Kozmetik cerrahi
Kozmetik cerrahi isteğe bağlı yapılan normal vücut yapılarının sadece kişinin görünümünü düzeltme veya yaşlanmaya bağlı oluşan belirtilerin ortadan kaldırılmasını amaçlayan girişimleridir. 2014 yılında Amerika Birleşik Devletlerinde 16 milyon kozmetik cerrahi uygulanmıştır. Yirmi birinci yüzyıl başlangıcından bugüne yapılan kozmetik cerrahi işlemler ikiye katlanmıştır. 2014 yılında yapılan kozmetik cerrahi işlemlerin %92'si kadınlara yapılmıştır. Bu oran 2001 yılında %88 de kalmıştır. En çok yapılan beş kozmetik cerrahi sırasıyla meme ameliyatı, meme büyütme, liposakşın, burun estetiği, göz kapağı estetiği ve karın germe operasyonlarıdır. Yapılan kozmetik işlemlerin %90'ı cerrahi işlemler olmakla birlikte kalan %10luk kısımda botoks, dolgu uygulamaları ve lazer epilasyon uygulamaları yer almaktadır. Amerika'dan sonra en büyük kozmetik cerrahi pazarını yıllık 2.2 milyar$ ile Avrupa oluşturmaktadır. Asya ülkelerinde de kozmetik cerrahiye ilgi her geçen gün artmaktadır. Özellikle Çin ve Hindistan Asya'nın en büyük pazarları haline gelmiştir.

En yaygın estetik/kozmetik prosedürler
 Abdominoplasti: Karın germe ameliyatıdır. Karına yeniden şekil verilmesi ve sıkılaştırılmasıdır.
 Alın germe
 Anaplastoloji: protez ameliyatıdır.
 Belt lipektomi: karın, kalça, uyluk ve popo bölgelerini yeniden şekillendirildiği cerrahi bir prosedürdür.
 Bişektomi: yanak inceltme ameliyatıdır.
 Başparmak hipoplazisi:
 Üçlü başparmak:
 Kol germe ameliyatı (Brachioplasty):
 Kapsüler kontraktür, bağışıklık sisteminin insan vücudundaki yabancı maddelere verdiği tepki.
 Çene büyütme veya Çene küçültme ameliyatı
 Blefaroplasti: Göz kapağı estetiği ameliyatıdır. Göz kapağı derisindeki fazlalıklar ve yağ fıtıklaşmalarının düzeltilmesidir.
 Dudak büyütme ve dudak germe amaliyyatları
 Falloplasti: Penis estetiğidir. Penisin şeklinin ve boyutunun düzeltilmesi prosedürlerini içerir.
 Penis büyütme:
 Augmentasyon mammoplasti: Meme büyütme ameliyatıdır. Kişinin kendi dokuları veya yapay protezler kullanılarak yapılabilir.
 Dermabrazyon cerrahi cilt planlamasıdır.
 Dermatom
 Eskaratomi
 Etnik plastik cerrahi
 Göz cerrahisi gözlerde yapılan cerrahi
 Nöroplastik cerrahi hastaların rekonstrüksiyonu veya restorasyonunda yer alan cerrahi uzmanlık alanıdır
 Redüksiyon mammoplsti: Meme küçültme ameliyatıdır.
 Mastopeksi: Meme dikleştirme amliyatıdır. Hem meme büyütme, hem de meme dikleştirme ameliyatı ise augmentasyon mastopeksi olarak adlandırılmaktadır.
 Jinekomasti düzeltilmesi: Erkeklerde fazlalık meme dokusunun liposakşın yöntemi ile veya çıkarma yolu ile alınması ameliyatıdır.
 Kalça büyütme: Kalça protezi veya kişinin kendi dokuları ile yapılan kalça büyütme ameliyatıdır.
 Kalça germe:  Kalçaya yeniden şekil verilmesi ve sıkılaştırılmasıdır.
 Kaş restorasyonu: kaş amliyatıdır.
 Kimyasal peeling: Çeşitli kimyasal ajanlar ile cildin en dış tabakasının soyulma işlemidir. böylece cilt yenilenmesi sağlanarak cilt kalitesi arttırılmaktadır.
 Klitoral kaput indirgemesi
 Klitoridektomi
 Klitoroplasti:
 Kozmetik kamuflyaj
 Kriyolipoliz: Soğuk kullanılarak yağ hücrelerinin dondurulması ve böylece parçalanması işlemidir.
 Labioplasti: Kadın dış genital organının (labium minusların) yeniden şekillendirilmesi ameliyatıdır.
 Lazer epilasyon
 Platismaplasti cildi insan boynundan sıkma ve çıkarma amaliyatı.
 Rinoplasti : Burun estetiği ameliyatıdır. Burunun yeniden şekillendirilmesi ve varsa fonksiyonel bozuklukların düzeltilmesini sağlar. Ameliyatsız rinoplasti, alarplasti, antral lavaj, Caldwell-Luc ameliyatı, frontal sinüs trefinasyonu, rinektomi, septoplasti, türbinektomi, altdalları vardır.
 Otoplasti: Kulak estetiği ameliyatıdır. Kepçe kulak gibi bozuklukların düzeltilmesini sağlar.
 Ritidektomi: Yüz germe ameliyatıdır. Yüz cildindeki fazlalıklar ve sarkmaların düzeltilmesi ameliyatıdır.
 El cerrahisi
 Genitoplasti cinsel organlarda plastik cerrahi
 Ortognatik cerrahi: Çene ucunun yeniden şekillendirilmesi ameliyatıdır.
 Glanüloplasti glans üzerinde yapılan estetik ameliyat
 Hidradermabrazyon
 Himenoplasti kalıcı bir cerrahi operasyon ile kızlık zarının yenilenmesi
 Politizasyon
 Ortognatik Cerrahi: Yüz kemiklerinin kontrollü şekilde kırılarak yeniden şekillendirilmesi ile çene ve/veya orta yüz kemiklerinin ileri/geri hareket ettirilmesi ile yüzdeki kemik deformitelerinin düzeltilmesi ameliyatıdır.
 Brakioplasti: Kol germe ameliyatıdır. Koldaki cilt fazlalığının alınarak kola gerginlik verilmesi operasyonudur.
 Lazer ile cilt yenileme: Lazer ile cildin soyulma işlemidir. böylece cilt yenilenmesi sağlanarak cilt kalitesi arttırılmaktadır.
 Deri greftleme deri naklini içeren  amaliyat .
 Liposuction ve Lipotuck (Yağ Alma) : Vakumla yağ emme işlemidir. Vakumlu aspiratör yardımı ile istenilen bölgelerdeki yağ dokusunun inceltilmesi ve şekillendirlimesi amacı ile kullanılır. Yağ aldırma prosedürleri vücutta fazla yağ olan bölgelere uygulanır. Yüzden ayak bileğine kadar her bölgeye liposuction yapılabilir.
 Botox, dolgu PRP uygulamaları
 Pediatrik plastik cerrahi çocuklar için amaliyat
 Ritidektomi veya yüz germe, daha genç bir yüz görünümü vermek için kullanılan bir tür estetik cerrahi işlem.
 Rotasyon flebi
 Saç ekimi: Saç dökülmesi veya patolojik bir olay sonrası saç kaybına bağlı oluşan alopesilerin tedavisinde kullanılmaktadır. Foliküler ünite nakli" (FUT) ve foliküler ünite ekstraksiyonu (FUE) türleri bilinir.
 Saç çizgisi düşürme:
 Serbest flep
 Sünnet derisi restorasyonu
 Skrotoplasti
 Tüy alma
 Vulvektomi
 Vajinoplasti vajinanın yapımı veya rekonstrüksiyonu ile sonuçlanan herhangi bir cerrahi işlem.
 Yağ alma prosedürleri
 Yüz feminizasyon ameliyatı
 Yüz implantı
 Z-plasti
 Zigoma azaltma

Yan dallar
Plastik cerrahi uzmanlığı daha alt yan dallara bölünmüştür. Türkiye'de el cerrahisi yan dalı olup diğer alanlarda fiilen yan dal uzmanlığı bulunmamaktadır.

Estetik cerrahi
Estetik cerrahinin temel içeriği yüz ve vücuttaki tüm estetik/kozmetik girişimleridir. Esas hedef görünümün iyileştirilmesidir. Diğer rekonstrüktif işlemleri kapsamaz. Plastik cerrahlar tüm rekonstrüktif işlemlerde en iyi görünümü kazandırmak amacı ile estetik cerrahi prensiplerini kullanmaktadırlar.

Yanık cerrahisi
Yanık cerrahisi iki ana başlıkta incelenir. Birincisi akut yanık sonrası bakım ve iyileştirme, ikincisi ise iyileşmiş yanık yaralarının daha işlevsel ve daha iyi kozmetik hale getirilmesidir.

Kraniyofasiyal cerrahi
Pediatrik ve yetişkin kraniyofasiyal cerrahi olarak ikiye ayrılmaktadır. Pediatrik kraniyofasiyal cerrahi daha çok doğumsal baş-yüz kemik ve yumuşak doku anomalilerinin (yarık dudak-damak, kafa tası bozuklukları gibi) ve pediatrik yüz yaralanmalarının düzeltilmesini içermektedir. Yetişkin kraniyofasiyal cerrahi ise daha çok yetişkinlerde ortaya çıkan travmatik yaralanmaların onarımı ve rekonstürksiyonu ile ilgilenmektedir.

El cerrahisi
Akut el yaralanmaları ile kronik sakatlıklar, doğumsal anomalilerin düzeltilmesi ile ilgilenmektedir. El cerrahisi mikrocerrahi ile beraber plastik cerrahi eğitiminin vazgeçilmez iki önemli branşından birisidir. Özellikle uzuv kopmalarının onarılmasında (replantasyon) mikrocerrahi ile birlikte kullanılmaktadır.

Mikrocerrahi
Ana madde mikrocerrahi

Vücuttaki doku kayıplarının yakın komşuluktaki dokular ile onarılamadığı durumlarda 1-2mm çaplı kan damarları üzerinden kaldırılan dokuların alıcı alandaki damarlara dikilmesi ile doku bütünlüğünün yeniden sağlanmasını amaçlar. El cerrahisinde de kan damarı ve sinirlerin onarılması, kopan uzuvların yerine dikilmesi (replantasyon) mikrocerrahi prensipler dahilinde gerçekleşmektedir.

Pediatrik plastik cerrahi
Çocuk hastaların yetişkin hastalardan farklılık göstermesi nedeni ile tamamen plastik cerrahi girişimlerin çocuk hastalar üzerindeki uygulamalarını kapsar.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Estetik
 Rekonstrüktif merdiven
 SMAS
 Tıp dalları
 Cerrahi
 Plastik cerrahide kullanılan flepler

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Plastik cerrahi nedir, TPRECD

Cerrahi branşlar
Tıp bilimleri
Kozmetik endüstrisi
Kozmetik cerrahi

Plastik cerrahi


Bovine somatotropin or bovine somatotrophin (abbreviated bST and BST), or bovine growth hormone (BGH), is a peptide hormone produced by cows' pituitary glands.

Like other hormones, it is produced in small quantities and is used in regulating metabolic processes.

Recombinant bovine somatotropin (usually "rBST"), is a synthetic version of the bovine growth hormone given to dairy cattle by injection to increase milk production.

Synthesis
After the biotech company Genentech discovered and patented the gene for BST in the 1970s, it became possible to synthesize the hormone using recombinant DNA technology to create recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST), recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH), or artificial growth hormone.

Industrial production
Four large pharmaceutical companies, Monsanto, American Cyanamid, Eli Lilly, and Upjohn, developed commercial rBST products and submitted them to the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for approval.

Monsanto was the first firm to receive approval.

Other countries (Mexico, Brazil, India, Russia, and at least ten others) also approved rBST for commercial use.

Monsanto licensed Genentech's patent, and marketed their product as "Posilac". In October 2008, Monsanto sold this business, in full, to Eli Lilly and Company for $300 million plus additional consideration.

Banning
rBST has not been allowed since at least 2000 on the market in Canada, or since 1990 in the European Union (EU). Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Israel, and Argentina have also banned the use of rBST.

The FDA, World Health Organization, and National Institutes of Health have independently stated that dairy products and meat from rBST-treated cows are safe for human consumption.

An EU report on the animal welfare effects of rBST states that its use often results in "severe and unnecessary pain, suffering and distress" for cows, and is "associated with serious mastitis, foot disorders and some reproductive problems".

History

In 1937, the administration of BST was shown to increase the milk yield in lactating cows by preventing mammary cell death in dairy cattle.

Until the 1980s, use of the compound was very limited in agriculture as the sole source of the hormone was from bovine carcasses. During this time, the knowledge of the structure and function of the hormone increased.

With the advent of biotechnology, one of the pioneering biotech companies, Genentech, in 1981 succeeded in cloning and patenting the gene for BST. Monsanto had been working along the same lines and struck a deal with Genentech in 1979 to license Genentech's patents and collaborate on development of a recombinant version of BST – a process on which Monsanto would invest $300 million. The two companies used genetic engineering to clone the BST gene into E. coli. The bacteria are grown in bioreactors, then broken up and separated from the rBST, which is purified to produce the injectable hormone. They published their first field trial results in 1981.

Lilly, American Cyanamid, Upjohn, and Monsanto all submitted applications to market rBST to the FDA, and the FDA completed its review of the human safety component of these applications in 1986 and found food from rBST-treated cows to be safe; however, strong public concern led to calls for more studies, investigations, and public discussions, which included an unprecedented conference on the safety of rBST in 1990 organized by the National Institutes of Health  at the request of Senator Patrick Leahy. FDA approved Monsanto's application in 1993. Monsanto launched rBST, brand-named "Posilac", in 1994.

Mechanism of action
An average dairy cow begins her lactation with a moderate daily level of milk production. This daily output increases until, at about 70 days into the lactation, production peaks. From that time until the cow is dry, production slowly decreases. This increase and decrease in production is partially caused by the count of milk-producing cells in the udder. Cell counts begin at a moderate number, increase during the first part of the lactation, then decrease as the lactation proceeds. Once lost, these cells generally do not regrow until the next lactation.

Administration of rBST or BST prior to peak production, in cows that are well-fed, slows the rate at which the number of mammary cells decreases, and increases the amount of nutrients directed away from fat and toward the mammary cells, leading to an extension of peak milk production. The effects are mediated by the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system, which is upregulated in response to BST or rBST administration in well-fed cows.

Use on farms
From 2000 to 2005, the US Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service  survey of dairy producers found that about 17% of producers used rBST. The 2010 USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service survey of Wisconsin farms found that about 18% of dairy farms used rBST.

Role in synchronized fertilization on dairy farms
By using cows that produce offspring within a one to two-week period, synchronized breeding allows dairy farmers to artificially inseminate cows for maximum pregnancy rates with minimal effort. BST is a placental lactogen (PL) hormone and falls under the class of growth hormone, or somatotropin. It is relevant to the practice of artificially expediting placental development in farm mammals, specifically dairy cattle.

The mechanism through which the hormones of this somatotropin exert their effects can be observed at the cellular and molecular level in placental tissue. For mammals exposed to the hormone, bovine somatotropin associates with N-glycosylated proteins that are heavily involved in placental gestation. Knowledge of this and how BST works in conjunction with growth hormones allows for agricultural researchers to experiment on the effects of synchronization in farm animals.

Synchronization involves treating cattle with a dose of BST before artificially inseminating them, according to a fixed interval schedule. Synchronization and BST treatment may be used to increase first-service pregnancy rates while following this timed artificial insemination protocol. This would therefore allow agricultural researchers to observe the effects of hormones in relation to natural estrous cycles. Dairy cattle experienced increased rates of pregnancy during synchronization when exposed to BST.

The effects of BST on this treatment are dependent on the step in the estrous cycle, seeing how BST has a stimulatory effect of progesterone on the corpus luteum.

Controversy
Though approved by the FDA in 1993, rBST has been immersed in controversy since the early 1980s. Part of the controversy concerns potential effects on animal health and human health.

Animal health
One meta-analysis published in 2003 suggested a negative impact of rBST's effects on bovine health. Findings suggested an average increase in milk output ranging from 11–16%, an approximate 24% increase in the risk of clinical mastitis, a 40% reduction in fertility, and 55% increased risk of developing clinical signs of lameness. The same study reported a decrease in body condition score for cows treated with rBST, though an increase in their dry matter intake occurred.

Another meta-analysis (2003) reported on body condition scores (BCS) but could not reach a conclusion due to lack of homogeneity in study design and reporting. They found a trend towards decreased BCS in treated cows but state "Depending on the level of body condition in these cows, this effect may have been beneficial or detrimental." This analysis did not report on clinical mastitis.

A more recent meta-analysis (2014) published by the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association showed no significant increase in risk of clinical mastitis nor other adverse effects on cow health and well-being. This review included 26 peer-reviewed studies that involved the use of the rBST-Zn formulation available to US producers in accordance with the label instructions for treatment initiation (57 to 70 days after birth), dose (500 mg, every 14 days), and route (subcutaneous).

Mastitis has cost American dairy industries an estimated $1.5 to 2 billion per year in treating dairy cows.

In 1994, an EU scientific commission was asked to report on the incidence of mastitis and other disorders in dairy cows and on other aspects of their welfare. The commission's statement, subsequently adopted by the EU, stated that the use of rBST substantially increased health problems with cows, including foot problems, mastitis, and injection site reactions, impinged on the welfare of the animals, and caused reproductive disorders. The report concluded, on the basis of the health and welfare of the animals, rBST should not be used. Health Canada prohibited the sale of rBST in 1999; the external committees found that there was health risk to humans, and  the drug present a threat to animal health, and, for this reason, cannot be sold in Canada.

Monsanto-sponsored trials reviewed by the FDA asked whether the use of rBST makes cows more susceptible to mastitis. According to the FDA, which used data from eight Monsanto-sponsored trials in its decision in 1993 to approve Monsanto's rBST product, the answer is yes. The data from these eight trials, which involved 487 cows, showed that during the period of rBST treatment, mastitis incidence increased by 76% in primiparous cows and by 50% for multiparous cows. Overall, the increase was 53%.

Conversely, however, a study from the University of Georgia on the monitoring post-approval of rBST, showed that there was no statistically significant (P > 0.05) derivation in cases of clinical mastitis in dairy cows treated with rBST.

Macronutrient composition
The overall composition of the milk including the fat, protein, and lactose content is not altered substantially by the use of rBST in dairy cows. The milk may have a slight change in fat content within the first few weeks of rBST treatment as the cow is allowed to adjust her metabolism and feed intake. The changes in the fat content have been shown to be temporary. The composition of the milk has been examined in more than 200 different experiments. Natural variation within milk is normal with or without rBST treatment in cows due to genetics, location, feed, age, and other environmental factors. Protein in milk content has also been studied and was shown to have no apparent change in rBST treated cows. The vitamins and minerals that are normally in milk were also unaltered in milk from rBST treated cows. Freezing point, pH, thermal properties, and other manufacturing characteristics of milk were shown to be the same regardless of whether it came from rBST treated cows or not.

Hormones
BST is destroyed in the digestive system and even if directly injected, has not been found to have any direct effect on humans. Researchers have found that "IGF-1 in milk is not denatured by pasteurization and the extent to which intact, active IGF-1 is absorbed through the human digestive tract remains still however uncertain" implicating that an extensive study on the nature of IGF-1 in relation to rBST milk is required.

FDA rBST labeling guidelines state, "FDA is concerned that the term 'rBST free' may imply a compositional difference between milk from treated and untreated cows rather than a difference in the way the milk is produced. Without proper context, such statements could be misleading. Such unqualified statements may imply that milk from untreated cows is safer or of higher quality than milk from treated cows. Such an implication would be false and misleading". The FDA has determined that no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST treated and non-rBST treated cows.

The FDA, World Health Organization, and National Institutes of Health have independently stated that dairy products and meat from rBST-treated cows are safe for human consumption. The American Cancer Society issued a report declaring, "The evidence for potential harm to humans [from rBGH milk] is inconclusive. It is not clear that drinking milk produced using rBGH significantly increases IGF-1 levels in humans or adds to the risk of developing cancer. More research is needed to help better address these concerns."

Human health
The effect of rBGH on human health is an ongoing debate, in part due to the lack of conclusive evidence. A few of the most debated issues include:

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a hormone found in humans that is responsible for growth promotion, protein synthesis, and insulin actions over the lifecycle. The hormone has been shown to influence the growth of tumors in some studies and may be linked to the development of prostate, colorectal, breast, and other cancers.

IGF-1 is also found in milk. Previous research has proposed an increase of IGF-1 in rBST-treated cows, but this claim is currently not substantiated. In addition, no current evidence shows that orally consumed IGF-1 is absorbed in humans and the dietary amount is negligible when compared to what the body produces on its own. "IGF-1 in milk is not denatured (inactivated) by pasteurization. The extent to which intact, active IGF-1 is absorbed through the human digestive tract remains uncertain."

The American Cancer Society has reviewed the evidence concerning IGF-1 in milk from rBST-treated cows, and found that:  "While there may be a link between IGF-1 blood levels and cancer, the exact nature of this link remains unclear.  Some studies have shown that adults who drink milk have about 10% higher levels of IGF-1 in their blood than those who drink little or no milk. But this same finding has also been reported in people who drink soy milk. This suggests that the increase in IGF-1 may not be specific to cow's milk, and may be caused by protein, minerals, or some other factors in milk unrelated to rBGH. There have been no direct comparisons of IGF-1 levels in people who drink ordinary cow's milk vs. milk stimulated by rBST. At this time, it is not clear that drinking milk, produced with or without rBST treatment, increases blood IGF-1 levels into a range that might be of concern regarding cancer risk or other health effects. IGF-1 concentrations are slightly higher (to variable degrees, depending on the study) in milk from cows treated with rBST than in untreated milk. This variability is presumed to be much less than the normal range of variation of IGF-1 in cow's milk due to natural factors, but more research is needed."

Research is supportive of milk supplying vital nutrients used in childhood development. As of 2014, evidence does not link rBST-treated milk with adverse health outcomes for children. Several studies have looked at the relationship between type 1 diabetes mellitus and infant feeding. Environmental triggers that may elicit an autoimmune reaction is the mechanism in which is being studied. Some studies have shown early exposure to bovine milk may predispose an infant to type 1 diabetes, whereas other studies show no causality.

The American Society of Animal Science published an article in 2014 after reviewing health issues arising from the rBST debate. The article indicated "there are no new human health issues related to the use of rBST by the dairy industry. Use of rBST has no effect on the micro- and macrocomposition of milk. Also, no evidence exists that rBST use has increased human exposure to antibiotic residues in milk. Concerns that IGF-1 present in milk could have biological effects on humans have been allayed by studies showing that oral consumption of IGF-1 by humans has little or no biological activity. Additionally, concentrations of IGF-1 in digestive tract fluids of humans far exceed any IGF-1 consumed when drinking milk. Furthermore, chronic supplementation of cows with rBST does not increase concentrations of milk IGF-1 outside the range typically observed for effects of farm, parity, or stage of lactation. Use of rBST has not affected expression of retroviruses in cattle or posed an increased risk to human health from retroviruses in cattle. Furthermore, risk for development of type 1 or type 2 diabetes mellitus has not increased in children or adults consuming milk and dairy products from rBST-supplemented cows. Overall, milk and dairy products provide essential nutrients and related benefits in health maintenance and the prevention of chronic diseases."

Keeping in mind that bovine somatotropin is a protein growth hormone, it can increase average milk yield anywhere from 10 to 15%, which in turn would lead to cows consuming substantially more nutrients in order to keep up with the increased milk production. Most of a cow's energy consumption goes directly towards milk production. In certain areas of the world, like Ethiopia where this was studied extensively, as the cows needed to intake more nutrition to balance out their milk production, there was also an increased level of chemical fertilizers and heavy metal traces found in the milk due to increased exposure to agricultural chemicals. These chemicals can then easily be passed on to humans and lead to a contaminated milk supply. BST increases the longevity or the activity of the mammary cell leading to higher milk production and some other non-desirable side effects.

Despite public controversy of the use of growth hormones in food-producing animals, the number of violations has decreased substantially in the past two decades. For comparison, the level of antibiotic-residue detected in bulk milk tank trucks in 2012 was one fifth the level that it was in 1996. As reported by the USDA, the US pattern for milk BTSCC declined steadily from 316,000 cells per mL of milk in 2001 to 224,000 cells/mL in 2010 and 206,000 cells/mL in 2011 (USDA, 2013). Mammary health in the animals themselves has improved over this time period as well as the overall health of the dairy herd in general. This is mostly attributed to better application methods of rBST and a better understanding of how the hormone affects the animals.

Environmental impact
On an industry level, supplementing one million cows with rBST would result in the same amount of milk produced while needing 157,000 fewer cows. Farmers are, therefore, able to improve milk production with a smaller dairy population.

Some studies show that rBST-treated cows reduce the greenhouse gas footprint in comparison with conventional and organic dairy operations. Cady's study showed that excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus, two major environmental pollutants arising from animal agriculture, was reduced by 9.1 and 11.8%, respectively. Carbon dioxide is recognized to be the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas, and livestock metabolism and fossil fuel consumption are the main sources of emissions from animal agriculture.
 Livestock metabolism-use of rBST in lactating cows decreases the quantity of energy and protein needed in comparison to conventional dairy operations along with reducing the total feedstuff used.
 Fossil fuel consumption-targets atmospheric pollution and resource sustainability environmental concerns. With cows treated with rBST, producing a higher milk yield reduces the feed requirement which in turn decreases with electricity for milk production and the energy required from fossil fuels for cropping. In addition, the global warming potential is reduced equivalent to removing 400,000 family cars from the road.
When conventional, conventional with rBST, and organic dairy operations are compared, 8% fewer cows are needed in an rBST-supplemented population, whereas organic production systems require a 25% increase to meet production targets. This is due to a lower milk yield per cow due to the pasture-based system which is attributed with a greater maintenance energy expenditure associated with grazing behavior.

Lawsuit against WTVT
In 1997, the news division of WTVT (Channel 13), a Fox-owned station in Tampa, Florida, planned to air an investigative report by Steve Wilson and Jane Akre on the health risks associated with Monsanto's bovine growth hormone product, Posilac. Just before the story was to air, Fox received a letter from Monsanto saying the reporters were biased and that the story would damage the company. Akre stated that Wilson and she went through 83 rewrites over eight months. Negotiations broke down and both reporters were eventually fired. Wilson and Akre alleged the firing was for retaliation, while WTVT contended they were fired for insubordination. The reporters then sued Fox/WTVT in Florida state court under the state's whistleblower statute. In 2000, a Florida jury found that while no evidence showed Fox/WTVT had bowed to any pressure from Monsanto to alter the story, Akre, but not Wilson, was a whistleblower and was unjustly fired. She was awarded a $425,000 settlement. At the time of the decision, "the station claimed it did not bend to Monsanto's letter and wanted to air a hard-hitting story with a number of statements critical of Monsanto." Fox appealed the decision stating that under Florida law, a whistleblower can only act if "a law, rule, or regulation" has been broken and argued that the FCC's policy against distortions or misrepresentations presented as news did not fit that definition. On 14 February 2003, the appeals court overturned the verdict, finding that Akre was not a whistleblower because of the Florida "legislature's requirement that agency statements that fit the definition of a "rule" (must) be formally adopted (rules). Recognizing an uncodified agency policy developed through the adjudicative process as the equivalent of a formally adopted rule is not consistent with this policy, and it would expand the scope of conduct that could subject an employer to liability beyond what Florida's Legislature could have contemplated when it enacted the whistle-blower's statute."

Regulation
Use of the recombinant supplement has been controversial. The assessment of the FDA is that there is no significant difference between milk from treated and untreated cows. Twenty-one other countries have also approved marketing of rBST: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Honduras, Jamaica, Lebanon, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, South Africa, South Korea, Uruguay, and Venezuela.  However, regulatory bodies in several countries, such as Canada, Japan, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina, along with the EU, rejected Monsanto's application to sell rBST because rBST increases the risk of health problems in cows, including mastitis, reduced fertility, and reduced body condition. In Canada, bulk milk products from the United States that have been produced with rBST are still allowed to be sold and used in food manufacture (cheese, yogurt, etc.) due to loopholes in the ingredient labelling system.

In 1990, the EU placed a moratorium on its sale by all member nations. It was turned into a permanent ban starting from 1 January 2000; the decision was based solely on veterinary concerns, laws, and treaties. An in-depth report published in 1999 analysed in detail the various human health risks associated with rBST.

Canada's health board, Health Canada, refused to approve rBST for use on Canadian dairies, citing concerns over animal health. The study found the occurrence of an antibody reaction, possible hypersensitivity, in a subchronic (90-day) study of rbST oral toxicity in rats that resulted in one test animal's developing an antibody response at low dose (0.1 mg/kg/day) after 14 weeks. However, the board stated, with the exception of concerns raised regarding hypersensitivity, "the panel finds no biologically plausible reason for concern about human safety if rBST were to be approved for sale in Canada."

The Codex Alimentarius Commission, a United Nations body that sets international food standards, has, as of 2017, refused to approve rBST as safe. The Codex Alimentarius does not have authority to ban or approve the hormone, but its decisions are regarded as a standard and approval by the Codex would have allowed exporting countries to challenge countries with a ban on rBST before the World Trade Organization.

Abuse on dairy farms
Recombinant bovine somatotropin is an artificially synthesized form of the bovine growth hormone. It is legal for use as an artificial cattle lactation stimulant in several countries, including the US. However, its use is prohibited in most of Europe for reasons of consumer preference, animal well-being, and skepticism of new technology. Farmers who opt to use the synthetic hormone do so because they believe it increases milk production without other inputs. However, concerns of both product safety and livestock abuse have prompted discussions for new methods in assaying the levels of dairy cattle rBST. One proposed method involves quantifying the presence or absence of the rBST-binding antibody in serum. However, this method would require blood samples to be taken regularly and is thus considered by some critics to be too invasive. The development of other alternative methods continues to undergo development. One such example, tested by W.W. Thatcher at the University of Florida, involves collecting milk samples from the cows and analyzing them directly for the presence of the rBST antibody. Dairy cattle do respond to the rBST antigen and have shown positive results in immunosorbent trials on milk samples. Tests involving pasteurized milk samples have even shown consistent results, with immunoglobulin rBST still detectable and distinguishable despite other antibodies remaining present. Research on the viability of this new technique, as well as many others, as a means of monitoring the levels of rBST in dairy cattle continues to be an issue of practicality, profitability, and humaneness towards livestock in the dairy industry.

United States
In 1993, the product was approved for use in the US by the FDA, and its use began in 1994. The product is now sold in all 50 states.

The FDA stated that food products made from rBST-treated cows are safe for human consumption, and no statistically significant difference exists between milk derived from rBST-treated and untreated cows. The FDA found BST to be biologically inactive when consumed by humans and found no biological distinction between rBST and BST. In 1990, an independent panel convened by the National Institute of Health supported the FDA opinion that milk and meat from cows supplemented with rBST is safe for human consumption.

Labeling
The FDA does not require special labels for products produced from cows given rBST, but has charged several dairies with "misbranding" their milk as having no hormones, because all milk contains hormones and cannot be produced in such a way that it would not contain any hormones. Monsanto sued Oakhurst Dairy of Maine over its use of a label which pledged not to use artificial growth hormones. The dairy stated that its disagreement was not over the scientific evidence for the safety of rBST (Monsanto's complaint about the label), but, "We're in the business of marketing milk, not Monsanto's drugs." The suit was settled when the dairy agreed to add a qualifying statement to its label: "FDA states: No significant difference in milk from cows treated with artificial growth hormones." The FDA recommends this additional labeling, but does not require it. The settlement itself caused much controversy, with anti-rBST advocates claiming that Oakhurst had capitulated in response to intimidation by a larger corporation and others claiming that Oakhurst's milk labels were in and of themselves using misleading scare tactics that deserved legal and legislative response.

Ohio
In 2008, Ohio's Department of Agriculture (ODA) banned the use of labeling in dairy products as rBST-free because it was deemed misleading to consumers. However, the International Dairy Foods Association and the Organic Trade Association claimed ODA's ban was a violation of the first amendment by not allowing consumers to decide whether they deem the milk was safe and filed suit against the bill. "The district court granted summary judgment in favor of Ohio, concluding that using 'rBST' as a label was inherently misleading because it implies a compositional difference between those products that are produced with rBST and those that are not."

Kansas
In 2009, the Kansas Legislature passed a bill that would have required dairies that did not use rBST to print disclaimers on their labels that stated, "The Food and Drug Administration has determined there are no significant differences between milk from cows that receive injections of the artificial hormone and milk from those that do not." The bill was vetoed in the last days of the 2009 legislative session by then-Governor Kathleen Sebelius. The legislature removed the labeling language and passed the bill without the provision.

Pennsylvania
In 2007, Pennsylvania adopted a regulation that would have banned the practice of labeling milk as derived from cows not treated with rBST. Pennsylvania's Agriculture Secretary Dennis Wolff made a statement in support of the measure. This prohibition was to go into effect 1 January 2008, but after the comment period, the guidelines were adjusted to only ban "rBST-free" claims and instead allow claims that farmers had pledged not to use rBST and accompany such claims with a disclaimer such as, "No significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-treated and non-rBST-treated cows."

Response from milk producers and retailers
In response to concerns from consumers and advocacy groups about milk from cows treated with rBST, some dairies, retailers, and restaurants have published policies on use of rBST in production of milk products they sell, while others offer some products or product lines that are labelled "rBST-free" or the like. Other dairies and industry groups have worked to assure the public that milk from rBST-treated cows is safe.

In reaction to these trends, in early 2008, a pro-rBST advocacy group called American Farmers for the Advancement and Conservation of Technology (AFACT), made up of dairies and originally affiliated with Monsanto, formed and began lobbying to ban such labels. AFACT stated that "absence" labels can be misleading and imply that milk from cows treated with rBST is inferior. The organization was dissolved in 2011.

The International Dairy Foods Association has compiled a list, last updated in 2009, of state regulations in the U.S. for referencing use of growth hormones on milk labels.

Response from health organizations
 The American Cancer Society "has no formal position regarding rBGH".
 The American Nurses Association supports the development of national and state laws, regulations, and policies that specifically reduce the use of rBGH or rBST in milk and dairy production in the United States.

Response from political organizations
 Health Care Without Harm opposes the use of recombinant bovine growth hormone due to its adverse impacts on animals and potential harm to humans.
 Oregon Physicians for Social Responsibility recommends buying products from cows not injected with recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH or rBST).

Production and profitability
One study found a profit of $15.88 US per cow on average by using rBST.

See also

 Genetic engineering
 Genetically modified food
 Growth hormone treatment
 Industrial agriculture
 List of recombinant proteins
 Recombinant DNA
 Somatotropin family

References

1981 in biotechnology
Agriculture in the United States
Agricultural research
Animal welfare
Biotechnology products
Dairy farming technology
Eli Lilly and Company brands
Genetic engineering and agriculture
Growth hormones
Peptide hormones
Veterinary drugs

Bovine somatotropin


Pastoral es el álbum debut del dúo argentino homónimo Pastoral, editado en el año 1973 por el sello CABAL. El álbum no tuvo una campaña publicitaria adecuada y fue un fracaso comercial en ventas. Sin embargo, hoy en día el álbum es considerado como un valioso objeto de colección, por su naturaleza de disco debut de un dúo que, más tarde en su carrera, logró consolidarse como un referente del rock progresivo argentino.

Historia

Antecedentes
Alejandro de Michele y Miguel Ángel Erausquin se conocieron en el Colegio Mariano Moreno de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. En ese entonces comenzaron a componer y cantar canciones juntos: Erausquin contaba con cierta experiencia al haber integrado en el pasado el grupo Enjambre, y de Michele quien no había estudiado música pero acompañaba con su canta y voz. Fue en esta época cuando se presentaron en un concurso de bandas organizado por la Casa América. A pesar de haber ganado con sus dos canciones «Libertad pastoral» y «Hay que comprender», el premio, la grabación de un álbum, nunca se concretó.

No fue hasta 1973, cuando una amiga del dúo los contactó con el productor musical y fundador del sello discográfico CABAL, Daniel Piscicelli, quien lanza la carrera de los músicos a un nivel profesional. Con este sello también, Pastoral grabaría los primeros cuatro álbumes de su carrera.

Producción y comienzos
La banda comenzaba su trayectoria con la grabación del álbum homónimo en octubre de 1973, bajo el sello de la discográfica CABAL y en los Estudios ION. Con un bajo presupuesto y poco más de 30 horas de grabación. Pastoral hace su primera aparición pública oficial como dúo de rock el 18 de noviembre de 1973, tocando en vivo en el Teatro Diagonal, de Mar del Plata, a las 20:30 h.

Portada
El arte de tapa del álbum debut estuvo a cargo del departamento de diseño del sello CABAL. El centro consiste simplemente en una fotografía de ambos músicos tomada desde abajo, y en color naranja. La misma esta recortada, dando como resultado un marco circular. Los bordes alrededor de la foto son líneas horizontales, cuyas tonalidades fueron cambiando según la impresión y la época, teniendo diferentes tonalidades de azul, o variando entre gris, azul y verde. Sobre esto, se lee el nombre Pastoral en mayúscula y fabricado con velas, esto debido a un error de interpretación del dibujante, ya que la versión pensada por los músicos tenía su nombre dibujado como si fuera cera derretida. En la contratapa se aprecia una poesía firmada por Pastoral, que fija las intenciones del dúo para con ellos mismos y su carrera.

Recepción y crítica
El álbum no contó con gran popularidad debido mayormente a sus letras oscuras, surrealistas y poéticas, y a un sonido que se manifestaba todavía crudo e inmaduro, que no supo llegar significativamente a las masas populares jóvenes de esa época

En una entrevista, Alejandro de Michele expresó con respecto a la elección del nombre del dúo:

En el número 48 de la revista argentina Pelo, De Michele y Erausquin definen en una entrevista cual era su concepto de la banda

La única canción que logró cierta trascendencia fue «En el hospicio». Fue esta misma canción la que le dio el nombre al segundo álbum de Pastoral, En el hospicio lanzado en 1975, donde también estuvo incluida. Es también uno de los temas más populares del dúo y se ha mantenido vigente, a pesar del paso de los años y de la disolución de Pastoral en 1983 a raíz del fallecimiento de Alejandro.

Lista de canciones

Créditos y personal

Músicos
 Alejandro de Michele (guitarra y voz)
 Miguel Ángel Erausquin (guitarra y voz)

Técnicos
 Daniel Piscicelli (productor)
 Conde Manzini (técnico de grabación)
 Carlos Piriz (ecualización)
 Osvaldo Acedo (ecualización)
 Alejandro de Michele (arte portada de álbum)
 Departamento de Arte de CABAL (diseño)
 Rezza (fotografía)

Agradecimientos
 Chango Farías Gómez, Mamut y Carlos Testai.

Véase también
 Pastoral
 Alejandro De Michele
 Miguel Ángel Erausquin
 Rock de Argentina

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115451/http://www.todopastoral.com.ar/ Página oficial de Pastoral.

Álbumes debut de 1973
Álbumes de rock de Argentina
Álbumes de rock progresivo

Pastoral (álbum)


Robert Schneider (16 de junho de 1961) é um escritor austríaco, que publicou romances como Schlafes Bruder (Irmão do sono), textos para teatro e poesia. Suas obras foram traduzidas para muitos idiomas. Schlafes Bruder tornou-se a base de um filme, um balé, uma ópera e várias peças, e recebeu prêmios internacionais. Schneider desistiu de escrever em 2007 por problemas pessoais.

Carreira
Nascido em Bregenz, Vorarlberg, Áustria, Schneider foi adotado aos dois anos de idade por um casal de camponeses e cresceu no vilarejo de Meschach perto de Götzis, onde ainda vive como escritor freelancer.  Ele estudou composição, ciências teatrais e história da arte em Viena de 1981 a 1986. Interrompeu os estudos para se tornar escritor, ganhando a vida trabalhando como guia turístico e organista.  Ele recebeu várias bolsas de estudos para literatura.

Seu primeiro romance, Schlafes Bruder (Irmão do sono), foi rejeitado por 24 editoras e finalmente apareceu em 1992 pela Reclam em Leipzig. O livro, que conta a história fictícia do músico Johannes Elias Alder, tornou-se um sucesso internacional, foi traduzido para várias línguas e passou a fazer parte dos cânones escolares. Uma versão cinematográfica foi feita em 1995, dirigida por Joseph Vilsmaier, que serviu de base para um balé no Pfalztheater em Kaiserslautern, uma ópera de Herbert Willi e várias peças.

O segundo romance de Schneider, , apareceu em 1998, lidando com a ascensão e queda da cidade fictícia de Jakobsroth no vale do Reno. A obra recebeu críticas contundentes. Schneider concebeu os romances como parte de uma trilogia, Rheintalische Trilogie (Trilogia do Vale do Reno). Ele completou a trilogia com Die Unberührten, publicado em 2000. Baseado em acontecimentos históricos, conta a história de duas crianças camponesas que são enviadas para os Estados Unidos durante a Grande Depressão .  Schneider morou nos Estados Unidos por um tempo para pesquisar lá.  Seu romance  conta a história de Jan Beukels (João de Leiden), um anabatista que liderou a rebelião de Münster . Schneider romance de 2007  ( A Revelação ) trata da descoberta de uma partitura de Bach, que arruína a vida do sortudo musicólogo de Naumburg .

Schneider nomeou a narrativa tradicional austríaca até 1945 como base para seu trabalho. Ele se recusa a comentar seus livros, dizendo: "Alles, was ein Schriftsteller über seine Bücher sagt, kann nur verstören. Sie müssen ihren Weg ohne ihn gehen" (Tudo o que um autor pode dizer sobre seus livros só pode perturbar. Eles têm que seguir seu caminho sem ele). Em entrevista em 2014, ele disse que os livros são mídias do século XIX que não funcionam mais.

Prêmios
Schneider recebeu várias bolsas e prêmios, incluindo:

 1990: , para Traum und Trauer des jungen H.
 1993: Prêmio do Potsdamer Theatretage, por Dreck – Über die Angst vor dem Fremden
 1993: Alemannischer Literaturpreis
 1993: Bolsa Robert Musil de Viena
 1994: Prêmio de Literatura do Festival de Páscoa de Salzburgo
 1994: Prix Médicis Étranger
 1994: Prêmio Grinzane Cavour
 1994: Civis Media Prize, prêmio de reprodução de áudio do WDR
 1995: Marieluise-Fleißer-Preis
 1995: Premio Itas del Libro di Montagna (Trento)
 2008: Phantastik-Preis der Stadt Wetzlar, para Die Offenbarung

Trabalhar

romances

 Schlafes Bruder . Reclam, Leipzig 1992, .
  . , Munique 1998, .
  . Albrecht Knaus Verlag, Munique 2000, .
  . Novela. Reclam, Leipzig 2001, .
 Schatten . Reclam, Leipzig 2002, .
  . Aufbau-Verlag, Berlim 2004, .
  . Aufbau-Verlag, Berlim 2007, .

Drama

 Der falsche Prinz, comédia após o conto de fadas de Wilhelm Hauff, 1983
 Hitler mein. Eine Liebesrede , estreia: 1989, Götzis, Alte Krone
 Dreck. Monolog über die Angst vor dem Fremden , estreia: 1993, Teatro Thalia (Hamburgo)
 Traum und Trauer des jungen H., estréia: 1993, Schauspiel Hannover
 Alte Tage, comédia, estréia: 1994, Götzis, Am Bach
 Komödie vom deutschen Heimweh, estreia: 1999, Schauspielhaus Zürich

Poesia

 Gegengebet . 1992, , Weitra 1995.
 acht preisungen . 2005, , Halle (Saale) 2006.

Referências

Escritores da Áustria

Robert Schneider (escritor)


is a village located in Hata District, Kōchi Prefecture, Japan. , the village had an estimated population of 1449 in 751 households and a population density of 17 persons per km². The total area of the village is .

Geography
Mihara is located in a mountainous region in western Kōchi Prefecture on the island of Shikoku. It is approximately 153 km from the Kōchi prefectural capital, Kōchi city. Surrounded by mountains of 450 to 850 meters, it is located independently of the neighboring three cities of Nakamura, Sukumo, and Tosashimizu. Most of the village is forest, and villages and cultivated land are scattered along the Shimonokae River and its tributaries.

Neighboring municipalities
Kōchi Prefecture
Shimanto city
Sukumo
Tosashimizu

Climate
Mihara has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Mihara is 16.7 °C. The average annual rainfall is 2074 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in January at around 21.6 °C, and lowest in January, at around 7.0 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Mihara has decreased steadily since the 1960s.

History
As with all of Kōchi Prefecture, the area of Mihara was part of ancient Tosa Province. During the Edo period, the area was part of the holdings of Tosa Domain ruled by the Yamauchi clan from their seat at Kōchi Castle. The village of Mihara was established with the creation of the modern municipalities system on October 1, 1889.

Government
Mihara has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral village council of eight members. Mihara, together with Sukumo and Ōtsuki, contributes two members to the Kōchi Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the village is part of Kōchi 2nd district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The local economy is centered on forestry and agriculture. Mihara Village is surrounded by dense mountain forests and clear, pristine rivers providing ideal conditions for farming and agriculture. As a result, Mihara Village has become well known for its superior rice and vegetable produce.

Education
Mihara has one public elementary school and one public middle school operated by the village government. The village does not have a high school.

Transportation

Railway
Mihara has no passenger railway service. The nearest station is Hirata Station on the Tosa Kuroshio Railway Sukumo Line in the neighboring city of Sukumo.

Highway
Mihara is not on any national highway or expressway.

Local attractions
Doburoku - Doburoku is a type of undistllled rice wine which is creamy in texture with a unique flavor and very potent. Although Doburoku is not exclusive to the village, Mihara is one of the few places that still produce doburoku. In addition, there is a Doburoku Festival held annually in Mihara on 3 November.

Tosa Suzuri Factory - Mihara is also home to the Tosa Suzuri Factory. Suzuri (硯) is the Japanese word for the inkstone used for Japanese calligraphy or shodō (書道). Tosa Ink stones have a strong reputation nationwide for producing a high quality Ink and are sought after by calligraphers all over Japan.

Noted people from Mihara
Norio Takeuchi, politician

References

External links

Mihara official website
Mihara English-language website

Villages in Kōchi Prefecture

Mihara, Kōchi


Renofa Yamaguchi FC (レノファ山口FC), er en japansk professionel fodboldklub, baseret i Yamaguchi-præfekturet, og de spiller i J2 League.

Titler
 J3 League mesterskab (1): 2015

Historiske slutplaceringer

Nuværende trup
Pr. 9. september 2019.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger
J.League

Fodboldklubber i Japan

Renofa Yamaguchi FC


Mihaela Erceg (Split, 28. listopada 1997.) hrvatska ilustratorica, autorica stripova, animatorica i spisateljica specifična po svom humorističnom stilu izražavanja.

Životopis
U Splitu je završila osnovnu školu i gimnaziju. Pohađala je radionice stripa u Info Zoni kod Ivana Svaguše gdje je, već u ranoj dobi, iskazala žanrovski potencijal, pa se kasnije nastavila i baviti stripom. Bila je jedna od suradnika u mjesečniku Stripodrom, splitskom magazinu stripa.

Godine 2015. je jedna od pet mladih hrvatskih umjetnika koji su angažirani u kampanji "Proventiliraj se" za Reebok

Godine 2016. počinje studij animiranog filma na Akademiji likovnih umjetnosti u Zagrebu, 2019. dobiva titulu prvostupnika. Njen završni film Taksimetar i osrednje psihoze dobio je priznanje na Međunarodnom danu animacije u Zagrebu za inovativnost u dizajnu, stil i humor.

Njen drugi film Od jutra do sutra bio je prikazan na Canlandıranlar Film Festivalu.

Godine 2020. počinje objavljivati dnevnu strip rubriku Na Dobro Van Doša koja je objavljena i na portalu Dalmacija Danas. Rubrika obilježava svjetski poznate i manje poznate dane kroz dalmatinski humor i stil.

U stilu rubrike, izdaje i kalendar "Di si bija '21?" koji je zapažen kod vodećih nacionalnih medija.

Time nastaje i istoimena izložba koja je bila ugošćena u Splitu, Solinu, Omišu, Crikvenici i Popovači.

U listopadu 2021. projekt dnevnog crtanja iz 2019. okrunjuje izložbom #366aroundthesun.

Na kraju 2021. objavila je knjigu strip-karikatura "Knjiga godine: Di si bija ovih dana"

U ožujku 2022. godine započinje suradnju s dnevnim listom 24sata, crtajući karikature pod nazivom "iŠtorija" u kojima obrađuje događaje iz povijesti

U lipnju 2022. godine je diplomirala na Akademiji likovnih umjetnosti Zagreb te stekla titulu magistre animiranog filma i novih medija. Istovremeno je primljena u članstvo Hrvatske udruge likovnih umjetnika (HULU).

U listopadu 2022. godine je objavila i prvi roman "Ako prođe, prođe"  u izdanju izdavačke kuće "Beletra".

Koncept za njenu animiranu seriju "Salty Banana" je primljen među 24 izabrana projekta na "Cartoon springboard", europski skup mladih talenata u animaciji, te ga je predstavila u Madridu. Po kritici je proglašeno daleko najboljim predstavljanjem.

Nagrade
 Splitski pupoljak, 2016.
 Druga nagrada za najbolji scenariji, Balkanska smotra mladih strip autora, Srbija, Leskovac, 2018. / diploma za scenarij 2019.
 ASIFA, Međunarodni dani animacije u Zagrebu - posebno priznanje, 2019.
 Nagrada za najbolju Hrvatsku karikaturisticu, Jutarnji list, 2019.

Publikacije
 Stripodrom, 2013.
 Endem, 2018.
 Salty Banana, 2018.
 Ništa zato, 2018.
 Endem, 2019.
 Psychosis in dirty places, 2019.
 Pod prozorom, 2019.
 Idemo opet ispočetka, 2019.
 OHOHO fanzin, 2019. / 2020.
 Škola hodanja, fanzin ALU, 2019.
 MFKIG 2020.
 Di si bija ovih dana, 2021.
 Ako prođe, prođe, roman, 2022.

Samostalne izložbe
 "Ne znam vam ja ništa" // Split, 2016.
 "Di si, šta ima?" // Zagreb, 2018.
 "Dođite, bit će dobro" // Zagreb, 2018.
 "Inktober" // Zagreb, 2019.
 "#366aroundthesun" // Zagreb, 2020.
 "Di si bija '21?" // Split, Omiš, Crikvenica, Pitomača, Šolta, Vukovar // 2021.
"#366aroundthesun" // Split, 2021.

Grupne izložbe
 Stripodrom, 2013.
 Smojina marenda, 2016.
 Metamodelacije vol.2, 2018.
 Back to BEK, 2018.
 Split Art Convention, 2018.
 Ona se budi/Ed Egalite, 2018.
 Fumetto, 2018.
 Gandhi, 2018.
 Balkanska smotra mladih strip autora, 2019.
 Izložba autorskog stripa i ilustracije 2010-2020 // Exportdrvo Rijeka // 2020.
 Nova Festival // Pančevo (Srbija) // 2020.
 The International Festival of Comics and Games // Poljska // 2020.
 Art Zagreb, 2020.
 "Nastavit će se... Strip i vizualna kultura u Hrvatskoj" // MSU Zagreb // 2020./21.
 4. StreetArt Festival Metković // Metković // 2021.

Ilustrirane knjige
 Nitko NE mora ODRASTI, rani dani // Artur // 2015.
 Mali iznajmljivač – Veliki posao // Anamarija Cicarelli // 2015.
 Nitko NE mora ODRASTI, Za Tebe // Artur // 2017.
 Litopisi // Herci Ganza // 2017.

Ostalo
 Animatorica projekcija - predstava Pinocchio u izvedbi Zagrebačkog kazališta lutaka
 Autorica logotipa hrvatskog dijela akcije "24 satno crtanje stripa" 2018.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Profil na Goodreadsu

Hrvatski crtači stripa
Hrvatski ilustratori
Hrvatski karikaturisti

Mihaela Erceg


NGC 7418A je spiralna galaktika u zviježđu Ždralu.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

  Hartmut Frommert: Revidirani Novi opći katalog
  Izvangalaktička baza podataka NASA-e i IPAC-a
  Astronomska baza podataka SIMBAD
   VizieR
 DSS-ova slika NGC 7418
  Auke Slotegraaf: NGC 7418 Deep Sky Observer's Companion
  NGC 7418 DSO-tražilica
  Courtney Seligman: Objekti Novog općeg kataloga: NGC 7400 - 7449

7418A

NGC 7418A


Die Lithographische Kunst- und Verlags-Anstalt Hannover A. Molling & Comp. war eine international tätige Druck- und Verlagsgesellschaft in Hannover und Berlin.

Geschichte

Der jüdische Bankier Adolf Molling (20. November 1830 bis 9. Oktober 1894) gründete 1887 sein Unternehmen A. Molling & Comp. Mit einem eigenen Druckereigebäude am Schneiderberg in der Nordstadt war es bald eine der größten Druckereien in Hannover: Produziert wurden anfangs unter anderem "Plakate, Postkarten, Grußkarten, Zeitschriften, Verpackungen sowie Bilder- und Malbücher", doch schon ab circa 1900 verlegte die Gesellschaft auch eigene Kinderbücher.

Spätestens 1901 wurde die Firma in eine Kommanditgesellschaft umgewandelt, wie der Druckvermerk einer Dissertation belegt. Von 1906 bis 1917 war Adolf Mollings Enkel Franz Rosenberg (1879–1934) Teilhaber des Unternehmens; er reiste in diesen Jahren mehrfach mit dem Schiff nach New York.

Kurz nach der Jahrhundertwende meldete Molling & Comp. ein Patent an: "Mit Reklamedruck versehener immerwährender Kalender in Verbindung mit einer farbigen Kalender-Rückwand" lautete die Eintragung beim Kaiserlichen Patentamt 1903.

"Verlagsartikel in der ganzen Welt vertreten", warb Molling 1904 in einem eigenen Katalog. Nachdem Molling & Comp. für das international tätige Londoner Unternehmen Raphael Tuck & Sons Bücher gedruckt hatte, wurden dessen Motive bald auch für eigene Buchproduktionen genutzt.

In der Zeitschrift Die Woche bewarb das Unternehmen 1912 seine

Nicht zu Unrecht stammten die Illustrationen für die Bilderbücher des Verlages doch von Grafikern wie etwa Walther Caspari, Hanns Anker, Hellmut Eichrodt, Eugen Osswald oder Heinrich Eduard Linde-Walther. In der Druckerei Molling arbeitete Kurt Schwitters gemeinsam mit der Künstlerin Käthe Steinitz an der Gestaltung seiner Märchen vom Paradies, sammelte "im Keller des imposanten Druckereigebäudes […] Fehldrucke für seine Kunstwerke".

Doch auch traditionsbewußte, ja konservative Künstler wie etwa Ernst Jordan ließen bei Molling produzieren.

Spätestens 1914 betrieb das Unternehmen eine Zweigstelle in Berlin, wie der Zudruck auf einem Plakat für die Ausstellung des Deutschen Werkbundes in Köln belegt. Die Firma hielt bedeutende Aktien-Anteile an der Lithographisch-Artistischen Anstalt München, vorm. Gebrüder Obpacher AG und war mit zwei Sitzen in deren Aufsichtsrat vertreten.

1920 druckte die A. Molling Comp. das im Januar des Jahres erschienene "Hannoverheft" der Zeitschrift Das Plakat. Zeitschrift des Vereins der Plakatfreunde e.V. mit dem Titelbild von Ferdy Horrmeyer.

Auch nach dem Tod des Firmengründers blieb das Unternehmen international ausgerichtet: So gehörte zum Verlagsprogramm eine Serie von zehn Märchenbüchern, die teilweise in mehreren Sprachen erschienen und so ihre internationale Verbreitung fanden (bis Anfang 2012 wurden Verlagsprodukte in neun verschiedenen Sprachen nachgewiesen). "Auch in der für jüdische Betriebe äußerst schwierigen Zeit des Nationalsozialismus versuchte A. Molling & Comp. diese internationale Produktion aufrechtzuerhalten". Doch nach der "Arisierung" der Druckerei 1939 und der erzwungenen Emigration der Inhaber geriet das Unternehmen beinahe in völlige Vergessenheit: "Selbst die Nachkommen der Familie wussten bislang wenig über die Firma".

Ausstellungen
 In einer Ausstellung vom 18. Januar bis zum 15. April 2012 (siehe das Ausstellungs-Faltblatt bei den Weblinks) präsentierte das Historische Museum Hannover "eine von der Forschung bisher wenig beachtete Serie von zehn Märchenbüchern [… als] Bilderbuchkunst in großem Format und bester Qualität […] zum ersten Mal zusammen". Zum Programm gehörten auch Führungen.

Werke (unvollständig)

Kinderbücher
Den Auftakt zu der Kinderbuch-Serie von A. Molling & Co. bildete
 Aschenbrödel, mit Illustrationen von Hanns Anker
 Cinderella, die US-amerikanische Ausgabe, um 1914
 Lust und Scherz für's Kinderherz, Text von Marie Ille-Beeg, gemalt von W. Zirges
 Vom dicken fetten Pfannekuchen, (6 Blatt, überwiegend illustriert von Heinrich-Eduard Linde-Walther, 34 cm, mit Frakturschrift), ohne Jahr (1920)
 Ein Streifzug durch Ostasien
 Kling-Klang. Das tönende Bilderbuch
 Das Reich der Kinder
 Dideldumdei, 16 farb. Bildern von Linde-Walther. Mit Versen von L. Linde (1921)
 Karl Rohr: Beim Osterhasen, [Eingedrückte farbige] Bilder und Reime [auf Pappe, ausgestanzt]
 Gullivers Reisen von Jonathan Swift

Verschiedene
 Hans Kaiser (Hrsg.): Das Hohe Ufer, spätexpressionistische Monatszeitschrift, Verlag Ludwig Ey, Jhrg. 1919–1920
 Hans Borth: Deutsche Schiffahrt in Wort und Bild, Hannover 1902, Verlag A. Molling & Co.

Literatur
 Edel Sheridan-Quantz: A. Molling & Comp. und "Kling-Klang. Das tönende Bilderbuch" – Ausklang einer Firmengeschichte. In: Aus dem Antiquariat, Heft 6/2011
 Edel Sheridan-Quantz: "Das Reich der Kinder" – Bilderbücher des Molling-Verlags, Hannover. In: Hans-Peter Schramm (Hrsg.): Hannoverscher Bibliophilen Abend – 51. bis 75. Abend, 2011, S. 50–61
 Edel Sheridan-Quantz: Aschenbrödel reist um die Welt – Mollings Märchenbücher. In: Imprimatur. Jahrbuch für Bücherfreunde, Bd. 22, 2011, S. 63–102
 Edel Sheridan-Quantz: "Our publications are available worldwide": A forgotten German printer and his global connections 1887–1939 (in englischer Sprache), in: Chimera No. 26, Geographical Journal of the University College Cork, pp. 38–51; online, last visited 22. January 2014
 Thomas Krakauer: Family portrait: history and genealogy of the Gottschalk, Molling, and Benjamin families from Hannover, Germany (englisch), 1995; Vorschau über Google-Bücher

Weblinks

 , PDF-Dokument des Faltblattes zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung im Historischen Museum Hannover vom 18. Januar bis 15. April 2012
 Lust und Scherz für's Kinderherz: A. Molling & Comp. 1887–1939
 Molling & Co. auf Europeana.eu; Anfang 2012 dort insbesondere durch das Imperial War Museum dokumentierte Arbeiten Ferdy Horrmeyers mit Aufrufen zu Kriegsanleihen und Wahlaufrufe für die SPD zu den Reichstagswahlen
 Kling-Klang: A. Molling & Comp. Hannover

Einzelnachweise und Anmerkungen

Druckerei (Deutschland)
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Hannover)
Nordstadt (Hannover)
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Berlin)
Ansichtskartenverlag
Berlin im Deutschen Kaiserreich
Arisiertes Unternehmen
Molling
Verlag (Berlin)
Kunstverlag (Deutschland)
Buchverlag (Deutschland)
Kinderbuchverlag
Lehrmittelverlag (Deutschland)
Gegründet 1887
Aufgelöst 1939
Berlin in der Weimarer Republik
Produzierendes Unternehmen (Hannover)
Ehemaliger Verlag (Deutschland)
Unternehmen (Deutsches Kaiserreich)
Unternehmen (Weimarer Republik)

A. Molling & Comp.


The Province of New Hampshire was a colony of England and later a British province in New England. The name was first given in 1629 to the territory between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers on the eastern coast of North America, and was named after the county of Hampshire in southern England by Captain John Mason, its first named proprietor. In 1776 the province established an independent state and government, the State of New Hampshire, and joined with twelve other colonies to form the United States.

Europeans first settled New Hampshire in the 1620s, and the province consisted for many years of a small number of communities along the seacoast, Piscataqua River, and Great Bay.  In 1641 the communities were organized under the government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, until Charles II issued a colonial charter for the province and appointed John Cutt as President of New Hampshire in 1679.  After a brief period as a separate province, the territory was absorbed into the Dominion of New England in 1686. Following the collapse of the unpopular Dominion, on October 7, 1691 New Hampshire was again separated from Massachusetts and organized as an English crown colony. Its charter was enacted on May 14, 1692, during the coregency of William and Mary, the joint monarchs of England, Scotland, and Ireland.  Between 1699 and 1741, the province's governor was often concurrently the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay.  This practice ended completely in 1741, when Benning Wentworth was appointed governor. Wentworth laid claim on behalf of the province to lands west of the Connecticut River, east of the Hudson River, and north of Massachusetts, issuing controversial land grants that were disputed by the Province of New York, which also claimed the territory.  These disputes resulted in the eventual formation of the Vermont Republic and the U.S. state of Vermont.

The province's economy was dominated by timber and fishing.  The timber trade, although lucrative, was a subject of conflict with the crown, which sought to reserve the best trees for use as ship masts. Although the Puritan leaders of Massachusetts ruled the province for many years, the New Hampshire population was more religiously diverse, originating in part in its early years with refugees from opposition to religious differences in Massachusetts.

From the 1680s until 1760, New Hampshire was often on the front lines of military conflicts with New France and the Abenaki people, seeing major attacks on its communities in King William's War, Dummer's War, and King George's War.  The province was at first not strongly in favor of independence, but with the outbreak of armed conflict at Lexington and Concord many of its inhabitants joined the revolutionary cause.  After Governor John Wentworth fled New Hampshire in August 1775, the inhabitants adopted a constitution in early 1776.  Independence as part of the United States was confirmed with the 1783 Treaty of Paris.

Before colonization
Prior to English colonization, the area that is now northeastern New England was populated by bands of the Abenaki, who lived in sometimes-large villages of longhouses.  Depending on the season, they would either remain near their villages to fish, gather plants, engage in sugaring, and trade or fight with their neighbors, or head to nearby fowling and hunting grounds; later they also farmed tobacco and the "three sisters": corn, beans, and squash.  The seacoast was explored in the early years of the 17th century by English and French explorers, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith.

Early English settlement
Permanent English settlement began after land grants were issued in 1622 to John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges for the territory between the Merrimack and Sagadahoc (Kennebec) rivers, roughly encompassing present-day New Hampshire and western Maine.  Settlers, whose early leaders included David Thomson, Edward Hilton and his brother William Hilton, began settling the New Hampshire coast as early as 1623, and eventually expanded along the shores of the Piscataqua River and the Great Bay.  These settlers were mostly intending to profit from the local fisheries.  Mason and Gorges, neither of whom ever came to New England, divided their claims along the Piscataqua River in 1629.  Mason took the territory between the Piscataqua and Merrimack, and called it "New Hampshire", after the English county of Hampshire.

Conflicts between holders of grants issued by Mason and Gorges concerning their boundaries eventually led to a need for more active management.  In 1630, Captain Walter Neale was sent as chief agent and governor of the lower settlements on the Piscataqua (including Strawbery Banke, present-day Portsmouth), and in 1631 Captain Thomas Wiggin was sent to govern the upper settlements, comprising modern-day Dover, Durham and Stratham.    After Mason died in 1635, the colonists and employees of Mason appropriated many of his holdings to themselves. Exeter was founded in 1638 by John Wheelwright, after he had been banished from the neighboring Massachusetts Bay Colony for defending the teachings of Anne Hutchinson, his sister-in-law.  In the absence of granting authority from anyone associated with the Masons, Wheelwright's party purchased the land from local Indians.  His party included William Wentworth, whose descendants came to play a major role in colonial history.  Around the same time, others unhappy with the strict Puritan rule in Massachusetts settled in Dover, while Puritans from Massachusetts settled what eventually became Hampton.

Because of a general lack of government, the New Hampshire settlements sought the protection of their larger neighbor to the south, the Massachusetts Bay Colony.  In 1641, they collectively agreed to be governed from Massachusetts, provided the towns retained self-rule, and that Congregational Church membership was not required for their voters (as it was in Massachusetts).  The settlements formed part of that colony until 1679, sending representatives to the Massachusetts legislature in Boston.  Mason's heirs were in the meantime active in England, seeking to regain control of their territory, and Massachusetts was coming under increasing scrutiny by King Charles II.  In 1679, Charles issued a charter establishing the Province of New Hampshire, with John Cutt as its first president.

First royal charters
In January 1680, Cutt took office, ending Massachusetts governance.  However, Cutt and his successor, Richard Waldron, were strongly opposed to the Mason heirs and their claims.  Consequently, Charles issued a second charter in 1682 with Edward Cranfield as governor.  Cranfield strongly supported the Mason heirs, making so many local enemies in the process that he was recalled in 1685.  In 1686, the territory was brought into the Dominion of New England, an attempt to unify all of the New England colonies into a single government.  The New Hampshire towns did not suffer as much under the rule of Sir Edmund Andros as did Massachusetts.  After word of the Glorious Revolution reached Boston, Massachusetts authorities conspired to have Andros arrested and sent back to England.  This left the New Hampshire towns without any colonial administration, just as King William's War erupted around them.  Subjected to significant French and Indian raids, they appealed to Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet, who oversaw them until William III and Mary II issued new, separate charters in 1691 for both Massachusetts and New Hampshire.

1691 charter
Samuel Allen, a businessman who had acquired the Mason claims, was appointed the first governor under the 1691 charter.  He was equally unsuccessful in pursuing the Mason land claims, and was replaced in 1699 by the Earl of Bellomont.  Bellomont was the first in a series of governors who ruled both New Hampshire and the Province of Massachusetts Bay.  Until 1741 the governorships were shared, with the governor spending most of his time in Massachusetts.  As a result, the lieutenant governors held significant power.  The dual governorship became problematic in part because of territorial claims between Massachusetts and New Hampshire.  Since the southern border of the original Mason grant was the Merrimack River, and the Massachusetts charter specified a boundary three miles north of the same river, the claims conflicted, and were eventually brought to the king's attention.  In 1741, King George II decreed what is now the border between Massachusetts and New Hampshire, and separated the governorships, issuing a commission to Benning Wentworth as New Hampshire governor.

Wentworth broadly interpreted New Hampshire's territorial claims, believing that territories west of the Connecticut River belonged to New Hampshire.  In a scheme that was effective at lining his own pockets, he sold land grants in this territory for relatively low prices, but required parts of the grants to be allocated to himself.  These grants brought New Hampshire into conflict with the Province of New York, the other claimant to the territory. King George III in 1764 ruled in New York's favor, setting off a struggle between the holders of the New Hampshire Grants and New York authorities that eventually resulted in the formation of the state of Vermont.  The controversy also resulted in the replacement of Wentworth by his nephew John, who would be the last royal governor of the province.

Since the province was on the northern frontier bordering New France, its communities were frequently attacked during King William's War and Queen Anne's War, and then again in the 1720s during Dummer's War.  Because of these wars the Indian population in the northern parts of the province declined, but settlements only slowly expanded into the province's interior. The province was partitioned into counties in 1769, later than the other twelve colonies that revolted against the British Empire.

American Revolution
Twelve other colonies joined with New Hampshire in resisting attempts by the British Parliament to impose taxes. After the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775, the province recruited regiments that served in the Siege of Boston, and was the first former European colony to formally establish an independent government, as the State of New Hampshire, in January 1776.

Demographics

From 1630 to 1780, the population of New Hampshire grew from 500 to 87,802. In 1623, the first permanent English settlements, Dover and Rye, were established, while Portsmouth was the largest city by 1773 with a population of 4,372. The black population in the colony grew from 30 in 1640 to 674 in 1773 (ranging between 1 and 4 percent of the population), but declined to 541 (or 0.6 percent of the population) by 1780.

In New Hampshire, unlike some of the other New England Colonies, the Puritan Congregational church was not the established church in the colony. Following the First Great Awakening (1730–1755), the number of regular places of worship in New Hampshire had grown to 46 in 1750 (40 Congregational, five Presbyterian, and one Anglican), and to 125 regular places of worship by 1776 (78 Congregational, 27 Presbyterian, 13 Baptist, four Friends, two Episcopal, and one New Light Congregational).

See also
 List of colonial governors of New Hampshire

Notes

References

 Belknap, Jeremy. The History of New Hampshire (1791–1792) 3 vol. classic history

 Daniell, Jere. Colonial New Hampshire: A History (1982)
 Morison, Elizabeth Forbes and Elting E. Morison. New Hampshire: A Bicentennial History (1976)
 Squires, J. Duane. The Granite State of the United States: A History of New Hampshire from 1623 to the Present (1956)

1629 establishments in the British Empire
1679 establishments in the British Empire
1689 establishments in the British Empire
1641 disestablishments in the British Empire
1686 disestablishments in the British Empire
1776 disestablishments in the British Empire
Colonial United States (British)
Dominion of New England
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Pre-statehood history of New Hampshire
States and territories established in 1629
States and territories disestablished in 1641
States and territories established in 1679
States and territories disestablished in 1686
States and territories established in 1689
States and territories disestablished in 1776
Thirteen Colonies

Province of New Hampshire


Euphorion este o revistă științifică de istoria literaturii germane. Ea este publicată de Universitätsverlag Winter, avându-l în prezent ca editor pe Wolfgang Adam. Titlul publicației provine din piesa de teatru Faust. Der Tragödie zweiter Teil a lui Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, în care Euphorion era fiul Elenei din Troia și al lui Faust, și reprezintă o combinație între mitologia antică și tradiția germanică.Euphorion este un jurnal științific pentru istoria literară pentru întregul domeniu al filologiei germane.

Istoric
Revista are o istorie editorială complexă.

Euphorion a fost fondată în anul 1894 de August Sauer, un istoric literar austriac. From 1914 he took over the work together with Josef Nadler. Începând din 1914 editarea revistei a fost realizată de Sauer împreună cu Josef Nadler. Cu puțin timp înainte de moartea lui Sauer în 1926, a fost înlocuit de George Stefansky.

În perioada 1934-1944 revista a purtat numele Dichtung und Volkstum și a fost editată de Hermann Pongs și Julius Petersen. Conținutul a fost dominat, în consecință, de puternice accente naționaliste și național-socialiste.

În anul 1950, revista a revenit la vechiul titlu. Editorii ei au fost Hans Pyritz și Hans Neumann.

Bibliografie

Legături externe
 Wikisource: Verzeichnis der Digitalisate

Reviste din Germania

Euphorion (revistă)


Unter Postgebäude versteht man die Dienststellen des Postwesens. Dazu zählen:
 Postzentrale, den Stammsitz eines Postunternehmens
 Postamt, eine örtliche Dienststelle der Post
 Postverteilungszentrum, ein Infrastrukturgebäude des Postwesens

Siehe auch:
 Liste denkmalgeschützter Gebäude des Post- und Fernmeldewesens
 Hauptpost

Postamt
Organisation (Postwesen)

Postgebäude


Crosshaven () is a village in County Cork, Ireland. It is located in lower Cork Harbour at the mouth of the River Owenabue, across from Currabinny Wood. Originally a fishing village, from the 19th century, the economy of the area became more reliant on a growing tourism industry.

Name
The modern Irish name for Crosshaven village is Bun an Tábhairne. While some sources link the word tábhairne to the English word "tavern", other sources suggest that it is a corruption of "tSabhairne" a grammatical form of the word "Sabhrann" the name of a local river.  Bun refers to "river mouth" when in reference to placenames. Therefore, the name is potentially translated as "mouth of the River Sabhrann". The old Irish name for the east side of the village was Cros tSeáin or "John's Cross", from which the English name derives.

History
Crosshaven was originally a Viking settlement, part of what was known as the 'Ostman's Tancred', after Cork city became a fortified English stronghold.

According to local legend, Sir Francis Drake hid a small squadron from a larger Spanish fleet upstream from Crosshaven on the River Owenabue at Tubberavoid, now called Drake's Pool. There is no evidence for this story, which is first recorded in 1750 by Charles Smith, who places it in 1589 after the Spanish Armada; Julian Corbett in 1890 said it could only have happened in during the 1573–75 campaign of the 1st Earl of Essex.

The local secondary school, Coláiste Mhuire, was founded by an aunt of James Joyce, and the town is mentioned twice in Joyce's novel Ulysses.

Nearby coastal artillery and military forts, Fort Templebreedy and Camden Fort Meagher, were British outposts until the Treaty Ports installations were relinquished in 1938. Camden is located on the headland of Rams Head and is occasionally open to the public.

Economy and tourism

Originally a fishing village, in the late 19th and into the 20th century, tourism became important to the town, which has 5 beaches within a 2-mile radius. The area saw an increase in 'holiday homes' in the mid-20th century, accommodating families from Cork city who stayed locally in the summer months - some of these temporary cabins were initially built using very large packing crates from the Ford factory in Cork.

Tourism attractions in the town included Piper's funfair (known as "the merries"), a nightclub called The Majorca (now closed), a cinema (also since closed), and the Cockleshell (now an arcade called La Scala). Today Crosshaven is becoming a commuter town for Ringaskiddy and Cork city.

In the 1970s and 1980s, environmental concerns came to the fore as a large industrial estate was built across the river in Ringaskiddy. It has been host Pfizer and GlaxoSmithKline and other pharmaceutical companies.

Sport

The village is home to Royal Cork Yacht Club (RCYC) which has had its headquarters in the village since 1966. The club was established at the Cove of Cork (now Cobh) in 1720 and holds the title of the oldest in the world, according to the Guinness Book of World Records. In 1966 the RCYC merged with the Royal Munster Yacht Club and made the Royal Munster's club house its headquarters. The biennial Regatta of Cork Week (formerly Ford Cork Week due to the sponsorship of the Ford Motor Company) draws many competitors and upwards of 15 thousand spectators to each competition.

Crosshaven AFC is one of the oldest soccer clubs in Cork, and was founded in 1898. The club has two pitches, an all-weather training area and four-dressing-room clubhouse.

Crosshaven RFC (Rugby Union Football Club) was founded in 1972, and has two pitches, an all-weather pitch and a gym located at Myrtleville Cross in Crosshaven.

The local Gaelic Athletic Association club is Crosshaven GAA, which has teams playing both hurling and Gaelic football.

Crosshaven Triathlon Club meets for training on the walkway, with swimming at Myrtleville.

Transport
The town is situated on the R612 regional road, and served by a single bus from Cork city centre via Carrigaline. Cork Airport is the nearest airport, and there are also ferries to France from nearby Ringaskiddy.

Crosshaven railway station was the southern terminus of the Cork, Blackrock and Passage Railway (which originally opened in 1850, but only extended south of Passage West at the start of the 20th century). The station opened on 1 June 1904, and finally closed on 1 June 1932.

People

Notable residents have included the father of Bob Geldof, who was manager of the local Grand Hotel for a time, and Chelsea FC's all-time 2nd greatest scorer, Bobby Tambling.

Sister town
Crosshaven has been twinned with Pleumeur-Bodou, France, since 1992.

See also
 List of RNLI stations
 List of towns and villages in Ireland

References

External links

 Crosshaven.ie - Website of Crosshaven Community Association

Towns and villages in County Cork

Crosshaven