كان السير وليام أوسلر  (مواليد 12 يوليو 1849 - 29 ديسمبر 1919) طبيب كندي. ويعتبر واحداً من أعظم رموز الطب في العصر الحديث ووُصف بأنه أب الطب الحديث. وكان أوسلر - بجانب كونه طبيب - إخصائي علم أمراض ومعلم ومُشخص أمراض ومثقف ومؤرخ وكاتب ومحاور ومنظم.وقد عمل لفترات متقطعة في تدريس الطب في مختلف الجامعات منها جامعة ماك غيل وترنتو وبنسلفينيا وكأستاذ بأكسفورد باللأضافة أنه أول من أدخل استعمال المجاهر ومعامل التشريح في الجامعات الكندية التي كانت في السابق لاتعتبره مهما بل كانت بالنسبة أساسا لدراسة الطب والتكثيف منها وقد ألف كتابا كان مهما لمدة أربعين سنة من تأليفه وهو بعنوان أساسيات في الطب.

حياته

العائلة
كان الجد الأكبر لويليام أوسلر «إدوارد» بحاراً تجارياً، ووصفه بعضهم بالقرصان، أحد أعمام ويليام هو إدوارد أوسلر 1798 – 1863 كان ضابطاً طبياً في البحرية الملكيَّة البريطانية، وكتب عدداً من القصائد وسيرةً ذاتيةً لللورد إكسماوث.

أمَّا والد ويليام أوسلر، فيذرستون ليك أوسلر 1805 – 1895، فكان ابن مالك سفينة من فالماوث كورنوال، وخدم كملازم في البحرية الملكية البريطانية وتمَّت دعوته عام 1831 للعمل كمسؤول علمي في رحلة البيغل الشهيرة التي قام بها تشارلز داروين إلى جزر غالاباغوس، لكنَّه رفضها لأنَّ والده كان على فراش الموت، وبدلاً من ذلك أعلن فيذرستون أوسلر أنَّه يريد أن يعمل في خدمة الكنيسة الإنكليزيَّة.

في إحدى رحلاته البحرية تعرَّضت سفينة فيذرستون لعاصفة كادت تدمِّرها، بعدها تقاعد في عام 1837 من البحرية وهاجر إلى كندا وهناك تزوج من إيلين بيكتون ورزقوا بعدد من الأولاد، منهم ويليام، وبريتون، وإدموند.

حياته المبكرة
ولد وليام أوسلر في بوند هيد غرب كندا (أونتاريو الآن) في 12 يوليو 1849، وأرادت والدته المُتديِّنة أن يُكرِّس حياته لخدمة الرب كما كان والده، وبالفعل أعلن ويليام عام 1867 أنَّه سيتبع خطى والده ويعمل في خدمة الكنيسة الإنكليزيَّة، ولتحقيق ذلك التحق بجامعة ترينيتي في خريف 1867.

في ذلك الوقت تحديداً بدأ اهتمام أوسلر بالعلوم الطبية يتزايد بشكل كبير، وتاثَّر بجيمس بوفيل وويليام جونسون وعدد من الأساتذة الآخرين، كلُّ ذلك ترك بصمة كبيرة على حياة أوسلر وأدى لتغيير جذري في مسيرته المهنية، وفي عام 1868 التحق بمدرسة تورنتو الخاصة للطب ، وغادرها لاحقاً ليلتحق بكلية الطب بجامعة ماكغيل في مونتريال وحصل منها على شهادة الطب عام 1872.

المهنة
بعد تخرُّجه تدرَّب أوسلر لعدة سنوات في أوروبا تحت إشراف الطبيب والعالم الشهير رودولف فيرشو، وعاد بعدها ليكون أستاذاً في كلية الطب في جامعة ماكغيل عام 1874، وفي ذلك الوقت أبدى اهتماماً بعلم الأمراض المقارن وأسَّس أول نادٍ رسمي للمجلات الطبيَّة، وفي عام 1884 تمَّ تعيينه رئيساً للطب السريري في جامعة بنسلفانيا في فيلادلفيا، وفي عام 1885 كان أحد الأعضاء السبعة الذين أسَّسوا رابطة الأطباء الأمريكيين وهي منظمة كان هدفها الرئيسي النهوض بالطب في أمريكا.

في عام 1889 وافق أوسلر على تقلُّد منصب رئيس الأطباء في مستشفى جونز هوبكنز الجديدة في بالتيمور، ولعب دوراً أساسيَّاً في إنشاء كلية الطب في جامعة جونز هوبكنز وأصبح أحد الأساتذة الأوائل فيها، وفي هذه المستشفى سطع نجم أوسلر وبرز كطبيب إنساني ومُعلِّم ناجح، وعندما غادرها بعد ستة عشر عاماً إلى أكسفورد كان قد عالج 4200 مريض [15]، في عام 1905 تم تعيين أوسلر في كرسي ريجيس للطب في جامعة أكسفورد، واحتفظ بهذا الكرسي حتى وفاته.

أكبر مجموعة من خطابات أوسلر وأوراقه العلمية موجودة في مكتبة أوسلر الوطنية التابعة لجامعة ماكغيل في مونتريال.

تقديره وأهميَّته
إنَّ أكبر وأهم تأثير لأوسلر في تاريخ الطب هو سعيه الدائم وإصراره على أن يكون تعليم طلاب الطب في المشافي وليس في قاعات المحاضرات، وإنشائه لفكرة الإقامة الطبية، وتعني تلقِّي الأطباء حديثي التخرُّج من الجامعة فترة تدريب سريري في اختصاص طبِّي معيَّن تحت إشراف مجموعة من الأساتذة، انتشرت فكرة الإقامة بسرعة عبر العالم الناطق بالإنكليزية وأصبحت اليوم موجودة في كل المستشفيات التعليميَّة تقريباً، يُشكِّل الأطباء المقيمون أغلب الطاقم الطبي في المستشفيات حالياً، ويخضعون لنظام تدريب هرمي يرأسه الطبيب المقيم الأول، وكانت مدة الإقامة التي اقترحها أوسلر طويلة ومفتوحة أحياناً وربما تصل لسبع أو ثماني سنوات، وكانت الحياة التي يعيشها الأطباء في هذه الفترة مقيدة وأشبه بحياة الرهبان.

كتب أوسلر في أحد كتبه: إنَّ من يدرس الطب بدون كتب يشبه الذي يبحر في بحر مجهول، ولكنَّ الذي يدرس الطب بدون مرضى لا يذهب إلى البحر إطلاقاً، ومن أشهر أقواله: الاستماع إلى مريضك يخبرك ما هو التشخيص.

كان أسلوب أوسلر التعليمي متميِّزاً جداً، وأوصى بأن يكون عمل طلاب الطب في السنة الثالثة والرابعة في غرف المرضى، وقام بنفسه بجولات تعليميَّة مع الطلاب، وتميَّز بأسلوب أكاديمي دقيق في مقاربة المرضى كما قال أحد طلابه: إنَّ طريقته في الفحص السريري دقيقة ومذهلة بشكل لا يُضاهى، وأصرَّ أوسلر منذ وصوله إلى مستشفى جونز هوبكنز على حضور الطلاب إلى المستشفى في وقتٍ مبكر من تدريبهم، وبحلول عامهم الثالث يجب أن يكونوا قادرين على القيام بالفحص السريري وإجراء كافة الفحوص المخبرية.

قلَّل أوسلر من دور المحاضرات النظريَّة في المجال الطبي، وقال ذات مرة إنَّه يأمل أن يكتب على قبره هنا يرقد الذي أحضر طلاب الطب من قاعات المحاضرات إلى غرف المرضى، وقال أيضاً إنَّ ما علَّمته للطلاب في غرف المرضى هو أهمُّ عمل قمت به في حياتي، لقد قام ويليام أوسلر بإحداث تغيير جوهري في التعليم الطبي في أمريكا الشمالية وساعده في ذلك عدد من كبار الأطباء وانتشر هذا التأثير في كليات الطب في جميع أنحاء العالم.

بالإضافة لكلِّ ما سبق كان أوسلر مؤلِّفاً غزير الإنتاج، وترك مجموعة كبيرة من الكتب في العلوم الطبية وتاريخ الطب وعدد من المجالات الأخرى، وأهدى كتبه إلى كلية الطب بجامعة ماكغيل والتي أصبحت لاحقاً مكتبة أوسلر لتاريخ الطب وافتتحت عام 1929 ، لقد كان أوسلر داعماً قوياً للمكتبات، واشترك في لجان المكتبات في كل الجامعات التي درَّس فيها، ولعب دوراً أساسياً في تأسيس جمعية المكتبات الطبية في أمريكا الشمالية وشغل منصب رئيس الجمعية الثاني من عام 1901 - 1904، وفي بريطانيا كان أول رئيس لجمعية المكتبات الطبية في بريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا ، ورئيس جمعية البيلوغرافيا في لندن.

اشتهر أوسلر بكتاباته وكلماته الواضحة والسهلة وأسلوبه الدقيق، وسرعان ما أصبح كتابه الشهير «مبادئ وممارسات الطب» أحد الكتب الأساسية لطلاب الطب والأطباء على حدٍّ سواء، واستمرَّ نشر طبعات جديدة من هذا الكتاب حتى عام 2001 وترجم إلى العديد من لغات العالم.

على الرغم من شهرة كتابه هذا وتأثيره الكبير لسنوات طويلة فقد اعتبر أوسلر أنَّ ابن سينا «هو مؤلف الكتاب الطبي الأكثر شهرة على مرِّ العصور»، وأنَّ كتاب القانون في الطب لابن سينا «بقي المرجع الأول في الطب في العالم لفترة أطول بكثير من أي كتاب آخر»، بالإضافة للكتب فقد قدَّمت مقالات أوسلر إلهاماً كبيراً وأدلة علمية للأطباء وأشهرها مقالة Aequanimitas التي توصي الأطباء بالاتزان والرصانة المهنيَّة.

مستشفى جونز هوبكنز
تبرَّع رجل الأعمال الأمريكي جون هوبكنز عند وفاته عام 1873 بكامل ثروته التي تُقدَّر بسبعة ملايين دولار وقتها، أي ما يعادل 134 مليون دولار عام 2016 لإنشاء جامعة ومستشفى تعليمي في بالتيمور يحمل اسمه، وقال هوبكنز في وصيته الأخيرة أنَّه يتمنى أن يتحقق التكامل بين الخدمات الصحيَّة التي تقدِّمها المستشفى والخدمات التعليمية التي تقدمها الجامعة، وبذلك وضع الأساس لقيام الثورة الطبية الحديثة في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.

وسيراً على تعليمات هوبكنز حصل مجلس الأمناء على خدمات أربعة من الأطباء المتميِّزين عُرفوا باسم «الأربعة الكبار» ليكونوا بمثابة الأطباء المؤسِّسين للمستشفى عند افتتاحه في 7 مايو 1889، وهم: ويليام أوسلر، ويليام هنري ويلش، ويليام ستيوارت هالستيد، هوارد آتوود كيلي.

يعتبر البعض ويليام أوسلر الأبَ الروحي للطب الحديث، وكان رئيساً لقسم الطب في جامعة جون هوبكنز، وإليه يرجع الفضل في قيادة هذا المستشفى في سنواته الأولى وفي تشجيع الأطباء وطلاب الطب على التدريب السريري، وقضى أوسلر 16 عاماً كأستاذ للطب في جامعة جونز هوبكنز قبل أن يغادرها لجامعة أكسفورد، لاحقاً أصبحت هذه المستشفى بفضل المنهج المتميِّز الذي وضعه أوسلر وزملائه أفضل مستشفى في الولايات المتحدة والعالم لسنوات طويلة وقادت النهضة الطبية الحديثة في أمريكا.

جدل حول بعض أفكاره
في عام 1905 غادر أوسلر جامعة جونز هوبكنز ليصبح أستاذاً للطب في جامعة أكسفورد، وألقى هناك خطاباً شهيراً عن طب الشيخوخة دعا فيه بأسلوب فكاهي إلى تطبيق القتل الرحيم للمسنين فوق عمر الستين باستخدام الكلوروفورم، زاعماً أنَّ الإنتاج الفعَّال والحيوي والمؤثِّر للإنسان يكون بين عمر 25 - 40 وبعدها سيشهد تراجعاً في مختلف المجالات حتى وفاته، أثار هذا الخطاب جدلاً واسعاً، وغطَّت الصحافة الشعبية هذا الحدث وعنونت بعضها «أوسلر يوصي بالكلوروفورم عند الستين».

ولاحقاً أصبح مفهوم القتل الرحيم الإجباري للبشر عند عمر معيَّن «60 سنة غالباً» موضوعاً متكرِّراً في أدب الخيال العلمي في القرن العشرين، على سبيل المثال وصف الكاتب الشهير إسحق عظيموف ذات الرئة في إحدى رواياته بأنَّها صديق الرجل العجوز لأنَّها تسمح للمسنين بموت سريع غير مؤلم نسبيَّاً، ومن قبيل المصادفة توفي أوسلر نفسه بذات الرئة.

عائلته وحياته الشخصيَّة
توفي أوسلر في 29 ديسمبر عام 1919 في أوكسفورد عن عمرٍ يناهز السبعين، خلال وباء الإنفلونزا الإسبانية بسبب مضاعفات توسع القصبات الناتجة عن الإنفلونزا [29]، عاشت زوجته غريس لتسع سنوات أخرى وتوفيت في النهاية بعد سلسلة من السكتات الدماغية، كان لويليام وغريس ابنان توفي أحدهما بعد الولادة مباشرةً وتوفي الآخر نتيجة جروح قاتلة أصيب بها خلال الحرب العالمية الأولى في معركة يبرس الثالثة عام 1917 عندما كان ضابطاً في مدفعيَّة الميدان الملكيَّة البريطانيَّة [30]، الآن يرقد جثمان ويليام أوسلر في مكتبة أوسلر في جامعة ماكغيل.

ولدت السيدة أوسلر «غريس ريفير» في بوسطن عام 1854، تزوجت في عام 1976 من صمويل جورج رئيس قسم الجراحة في كلية جيفرسون الطبية في فيلادلفيا، وبعد وفاته تزوجت ويليام أوسلر الذي كان وقتها أستاذاً للطب في جامعة جونز هوبكنز.

كان أوسلر أحد المؤسِّسين للجمعية الأمريكية للأنثروبومترية، وهي مجموعة من العلماء والأكاديميين الذين تعهَّدوا بالتبرع بأدمغتهم للبحث العلمي، وتمَّ نقل دماغ أوسلر إلى معهد ويستار في فيلادلفيا للانضمام للمجموعة، وفي عام 1987 تمَّ نقله إلى متحف موتر حيث تمَّ عرضه خلال الاجتماع السنوي لجمعية أوسلر الأمريكية.

كتب هارفي كوشينغ في عام 1925 سيرة حياة ويليام أوسلر، وحصل على جائزة بوليتزر عن عمله هذا عام 1926، ونشرت سيرة ذاتية لاحقة من مايكل بليس في عام 1999.

كان أوسلر طوال حياته من المعجبين من أشد المعجبين بالفيلسوف توماس براون من القرن السابع عشر.

كتب أوسلر العديد من المقالات تحت أسماء مستعارة وتمكَّن من خداع حتى محرري صحيفة فيلادلفيا الطبية، كانت هذه المقالات تتحدث عن مواضيع طبية حساسة لها علاقة بالعادات الجنسية أو بالدين أو تقاليد المجتمع أو رد من أوسلر على مقالات بعض زملائه، استخدم أوسلر اسماً مستعاراً هو جيرتون يوريك ديفيز زاعماً أنَّه جراح متقاعد في الجيش الأمريكي يعيش في كيبيك «كاهناواكي»، وعزَّز أوسلر أسطورة ديفيز من خلال التوقيع باسمه على سجلَّات الفنادق وقوائم الحضور في المؤتمرات الطبية، وفي نهاية المطاف أبلغ عن وفاة ديفيز غرقاً في عام 1884.

انظر أيضًا
 الجمعية الملكية للطب

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أطباء القرن 19
أطباء مستشفى جونز هوبكنز
أطباء من أونتاريو
أعضاء الجمعية الفلسفية الأمريكية
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة بنسلفانيا
أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة جونز هوبكينز
أكاديميون كنديون مغتربون في الولايات المتحدة
باحثون طبيون كنديون
جامعو كتب ومقتنيات
رؤساء جمعية تاريخ الطب
زملاء الجمعية الملكية
زملاء كلية الأطباء الملكية
زملاء كنيسة المسيح (أكسفورد)
كتاب طبيون أمريكيون
كنديون مغتربون في المملكة المتحدة
كنديون مغتربون في ألمانيا
كنديون مغتربون في إنجلترا
كنديون من أصل إنجليزي
معلمون طبيون
مواليد 1849
مواليد في أونتاريو
وفيات 1919
وفيات بسبب الإنفلونزا الإسبانية
وفيات في أكسفورد

ويليام أوسلر


فرانشيسكو غيدولين  (مواليد 3 أكتوبر 1955 في كاستيلفرانكو فينيتو - إيطاليا) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في مركز الوسط المحوري وحاليا مدرب نادي الدرجة الأولى أودينيزي الإيطالي منذ 2010 .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من كاستلفرانكو فينيتو
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في المملكة المتحدة
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في موناكو
رياضيون إيطاليون مغتربون في ويلز
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو بولونيا
لاعبو سامبينيديتيزي
لاعبو فينيزيا
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
لاعبو كرة قدم من فينيتو
لاعبو منتخب إيطاليا تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم
لاعبو نادي بيستويسي
لاعبو هيلاس فيرونا
مدربو أتلانتا بيرغامو
مدربو الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز
مدربو الدوري الإيطالي
مدربو الدوري الفرنسي
مدربو بولونيا
مدربو جنوى
مدربو كرة قدم إيطاليون
مدربو كرة قدم إيطاليون مغتربون
مدربو كرة قدم مغتربون في موناكو
مدربو كرة قدم مغتربون في ويلز
مدربو نادي أودينيزي
مدربو نادي إمبولي
مدربو نادي بارما
مدربو نادي باليرمو
مدربو نادي تريفيزو
مدربو نادي رافينا
مدربو نادي فيتشينزا
مدربو نادي موناكو
مواليد 1955

فرانشيسكو غيدولين


Hair coloring, or hair dyeing, is the practice of changing the hair color. The main reasons for this are cosmetic: to cover gray or white hair, to alter hair to create a specific look, to change a color to suit preference or to restore the original hair color after it has been discolored by hairdressing processes or sun bleaching.

Hair coloring can be done professionally by a hairdresser or independently at home. Hair coloring is very popular, with 50-80% of women in the United States, Europe, and Japan having reported using hair dye. At-home coloring in the United States reached sales of $1.9 billion in 2011 and was expected to rise to $2.2 billion by 2016.

History
Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian, described in detail how Celtic people dyed their hair blonde:
"Their aspect is terrifying. They are very tall in stature, with rippling muscles under clear white skin. Their hair is blond, but not naturally so: they bleach it, to this day, artificially, washing it in lime and combing it back from their foreheads. They look like wood-demons, their hair thick and shaggy like a horse's mane. Some of them are clean-shaven, but others—especially those of high rank—shave their cheeks but leave a moustache that covers the whole mouth."

The dyeing of hair is an ancient art that involves treatment of the hair with various chemical compounds. In ancient times, the dyes were obtained from plants. Some of the most well known are henna (Lawsonia inermis), indigo dye, Cassia obovata, senna, turmeric and amla. Others include katam (buxus dioica), black walnut hulls, red ochre and leeks. In the 1661 book Eighteen Books of the Secrets of Art & Nature, various methods of coloring hair black, gold, green, red, yellow, and white are explained. The development of synthetic dyes for hair is traced to the 1860s discovery of the reactivity of para-phenylenediamine (PPD) with air. Eugène Schueller, the founder of L'Oréal, is recognized for creating the first synthetic hair dye in 1907. In 1947 the German cosmetics firm Schwarzkopf launched the first home color product, "Poly Color". Hair dyeing is now a multibillion-dollar industry that involves the use of both plant-derived and synthetic dyes.

Application techniques
All coloring techniques can be used with any type of color. For lightening, the hair sometimes has to be bleached before coloring.

Off-scalp

Hair color was traditionally applied to the hair as one overall color. The modern trend is to use several colors to produce streaks or gradations, but not all work on top of a single base color. These are referred to as:

 Highlighting, where sections of hair are treated with lighteners
 Lowlighting, where sections of hair are treated with darker hair colors
 Splashlighting, a horizontal band of bleached hair from ear to ear

There are also newer coloring techniques such as ombré, shatush, balayage, airtouch, in which hair is dark on the crown and bit by bit becomes lighter toward the ends.

These are off-the-scalp techniques, and can be applied by the following methods:

 Foiling, where pieces of foil or plastic film are used to separate the hair to be colored. Employed especially when more than one color is to be applied, this method ensures that only the desired hair strands are colored, and the rest spared.
 Cap, when a plastic cap is placed tightly on the head and strands are pulled through with a hook, a method infrequently practiced other than for applying highlights to short hair.
 Balayage, where hair color is painted directly onto sections of the hair with no foils used to keep the color contained, a method growing in popularity due to its observed effect of appearing more natural. The difference between balayage and ombré is that a balayage requires more precise hand-painting sections of hair and typically costs more.
 Baby lights, very thin highlights that are created by using a fine color technique, baby light results are very natural and subtle.
 Dipping or tip dyeing, where tips of the hair are dipped directly into dye.

On-scalp
Hair coloring can also be applied on the scalp for a more solid level of coverage.

 Root touch-up, where color is applied only to the most recent section of re-growth, usually the first inch of hair nearest the scalp. Root touch-ups are repeated every 4 to 6 weeks as the natural color grows in and becomes apparent. People who color their hair to disguise gray often have root touch-ups.
 All-over color, where the person wants all of their hair to be a different solid color
 Block coloring, where the person wants two or more colors applied to their hair, resulting in dimension and contrast

Types
The four most common classifications are permanent, demi-permanent (sometimes called deposit only), semi-permanent, and temporary.

Permanent
Permanent hair color generally contains ammonia and must be mixed with a developer or oxidizing agent in order to permanently change hair color. Ammonia is used in permanent hair color to open the cuticle layer so that the developer and colorants together can penetrate into the cortex. The developer, or oxidizing agent, comes in various volumes. The higher the developer volume, the higher the "lift" will be of a person's natural hair pigment. Someone with dark hair wishing to achieve two or three shades lighter may need a higher developer whereas someone with lighter hair wishing to achieve darker hair will not need one as high. Timing may vary with permanent hair coloring but is typically 30 minutes or 45 minutes for those wishing to achieve maximum color change.

Demi-permanent
(24±4 shampoos typically) Demi-permanent is hair coloring that contains an alkaline agent (e.g. ethanolamine, sodium carbonate) other than ammonia, and while always employed with a developer, the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in that developer may be lower than used with a permanent hair color. These products provide almost no lightening of hair's color during dyeing, since the alkaline agents employed in demi-permanent colors are less effective in removing the natural pigment of hair than ammonia. As the result, they cannot color hair to a lighter shade than it was before dyeing and are less damaging to hair than their permanent counterpart.

Demi-permanents are much more effective at covering gray hair than semi-permanents, but less so than permanents.

Demi-permanents have several advantages as compared with permanent color. Because there is essentially no lifting (i.e., removal) of natural hair color, the final color is less uniform/homogeneous than a permanent and therefore more natural looking; they are gentler on hair and therefore safer, especially for damaged hair; and they wash out over time (typically 20 to 28 shampoos), so root regrowth is less noticeable and if a change of color is desired, it is easier to achieve. Demi-permanent hair colors are not permanent but the darker shades in particular may persist longer than indicated on the packet.

Semi-permanent
(6±2 shampoos typically) Semi-permanent hair coloring cannot lighten the hair either; Because it involves no developer (hydrogen peroxide) or ammonia, it is thus less damaging to hair strands than their demi-permanent counterpart.

There will be subtle variations in shade across the entire head, because of hair's color and porosity along the length of a hair strand. The final color of each strand of hair will depend on its original color and porosity. This variation gives a more natural looking result than the solid all over color of a permanent. Because gray or white hairs have a different starting color than other hair, they will not appear as the same shade as the rest of the hair when treated with semi-permanent color. If there are only minimal grey/white hairs, the effect will usually be enough for them to blend in, but as the gray spreads, there will come a point where it will not be disguised as well. In this case, the move to demi-permanent as a base can be used sometimes adding highlights, to delay permanent coloring.

Semi-permanent hair color uses compounds of lower molecular weight than are found in temporary hair color dyes. These dyes are only able to wedge under the cuticle layer of the hair shaft only. For this reason, the color will survive limited washing, typically 4–8 shampoos.

Semi-permanents may still contain the suspected carcinogen p-phenylenediamine (PPD) or other related colorant carcinogens. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported chronic exposure to PPD in the diet of rats and mice depressed body weight of the animals, with no other clinical signs of toxicity observed in several studies.

Temporary color
Temporary hair color is available in various forms including rinses, shampoos, gels, sprays, and foams. Temporary hair color is typically brighter and more vibrant than semi-permanent and permanent hair color. It is most often used to color hair for special occasions such as Christmas and Halloween costume parties.

The pigments in temporary hair color are high molecular weight and cannot penetrate the cuticle layer. The color particles remain adsorbed (closely adherent) to the surface of the hair shaft and are easily removed with a single shampooing. Temporary hair color can persist on hair that is excessively dry or damaged in a way that allows for migration of the pigment to the interior of the hair shaft.

Alternative color

Alternative hair coloring products are designed to create hair colors not typically found in nature. These are also referred to as "vivid color" in the hairstyling industry. The available colors are diverse, such as the colors green and fuchsia.
Permanent alternatives in some colors are available. More recently, blacklight-reactive hair dyes have been brought to market that fluoresce under blacklights, such as those often used at nightclubs.

The chemical formulae of alternative color dyes typically contain only tint and have no developer. This means that they will only create the bright color of the packet if they are applied to light blond hair. Darker hair (medium brown to black) would need to be bleached in order for these pigment applications to take to the hair desirably. Some types of fair hair may also take vivid colors more fully after bleaching. Gold, yellow and orange undertones in hair that has not been lightened enough can muddy the final hair color, especially with pink, blue and green dyes. Although some alternative colors are semi-permanent, such as blue and purple, it could take several months to fully wash the color from bleached or pre-lightened hair.

Hair bleaching

Hair is given a lighter color by bleaching it. Melanin pigments, which give hair a darker color, can be broken down with oxidation. The oxidizing agent used to bleach hair is hydrogen peroxide. It is mixed with ammonia to create an alkaline solution and to speed up the reaction. When melanin is oxidized, oxygen gas is released.

Products for bleaching one's hair at home usually contain a 6% solution of hydrogen peroxide, while products for use in a hair salon can contain up to 9%.

Peroxide bleached hair can have undesirable brassy or yellow hue. A product known as a toner is used to slightly alter the hair color's undertones. Purple shampoo (shampoo with purple coloring agents) can also be used to counteract brassy undertones.

Maintaining hair color
There are many ways that people can maintain their hair color, such as:
 Using color-protecting shampoos and conditioners
 Using sulfate-free shampoo
 Using purple shampoos and conditioners to maintain or enhance the blond color in their hair
 Using leave-in treatments with UV absorbents
 Getting deep-conditioning treatments to smooth and add luster
 Avoiding chlorine
 Using heat protecting products before using styling appliances

Adverse effects
Hair coloring involves the use of chemicals capable of removing, replacing, and/or covering up pigments naturally found inside the hair shaft. Use of these chemicals can result in a range of adverse effects, including temporary skin irritation and allergy, hair breakage, skin discoloration and unexpected hair color results. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), in vitro and in vivo studies (in exposed human populations) have shown that some hair dyes and many chemicals used in the hair dyeing process can be considered mutagenic and carcinogenic.

Skin irritation and allergy
In certain individuals, the use of hair coloring can result in allergic reactions and/or skin irritation. Individuals allergic to gluten for example, will need to be cautious when purchasing hair color since certain hair dye includes gluten. Gluten does not need to be ingested for it to cause an allergy. Skin contact with gluten may cause a reaction; therefore, leading to an allergy. Symptoms of these reactions can include redness, sores, itching, burning sensation and discomfort. Symptoms will sometimes not be apparent immediately following the application and processing of the tint, but can also arise after hours or even a day later.

To help prevent or limit allergic reactions, the majority of hair color products recommend that the client conduct a patch test before using the product. This involves mixing a small quantity of tint preparation and applying it directly to the skin for a period of 48 hours. If irritation develops, manufacturers recommend that the client not use the product.

European dermatologists have, however, strongly advised against such pre-use testing, as it entails additional sensitisation (allergy) risk and the interpretation by lay people may not be sufficiently accurate.

Skin discoloration
Skin and fingernails are made of a similar type of keratinized protein as hair. That means that drips, slips and extra hair tint around the hairline can result in patches of discolored skin. This is more common with darker hair colors and persons with dry absorbent skin. That is why it is recommended that latex or nitrile gloves be worn to protect the hands.

This discoloration will disappear as the skin naturally renews itself and the top layer of skin is removed (typically takes a few days or at most a week). Ways of preventing skin discoloration are to wear latex or nitrile gloves to protect the hands and also by applying a thin layer of petroleum jelly or oil-based preparation around the hairline. Gentle abrasives such as moist baking soda or a small amount of toothpaste applied with a toothbrush may also help remove the uppermost layer of skin and dye (neither removes just the dye). Acetone and nail polish remover are not considered effective; laundry detergent may sometimes work as may moist cigarette ash rubbed into the stained area.

Unintended results

Several factors influence the final color of the hair following the coloring process.

 For semi-permanent and demi-permanent color, the final color is a blend of the natural color of the hair and the dye color.
 Bleached hair will often require pre-pigmentation before a color application. Dyeing bleached hair brown can result in grey or very ashy (grey sheen) hair.
 Previously color treated hair can react unpredictably with subsequent color treatments.
 Previous use of shampoos which deposit a layer of plastic on the hair can block the action of the dye.
 Presence of minerals, salts, chlorine or other contaminants in the water used in the coloring process
 Certain prescription drugs can alter hair chemistry
 Coloring dark hair to achieve a desirable shade of blond requires bleaching, followed by a secondary color treatment. Bleached hair can still have a yellow or coppery shade. A violet-based color can cancel out yellow tones, and a blue-based shade will cancel out coppery orange.
 Porosity of hair can affect the final shade. Porous hair often absorbs more color, which sometimes results darker than expected

Health concerns
 The salt lead acetate (formerly the active ingredient in gradual darkening products such as Grecian formula) is toxic. Lead acetate trihydrate has also been shown to cause reproductive toxicity.
 Articles link the development of some forms of cancer (including leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, bladder cancer, blood cancer, and multiple myeloma) with use of hair color. More specifically, prolonged use of permanent dark hair dyes can double a person's risk of getting some types of blood cancer.
In 2004 a known human carcinogen, 4-aminobiphenyl or 4-ABP, was found in some commercial hair dyes. However, evidence is limited and inconsistent for the link between cancer from hair dye.
Phenylenediamine is known to cause health concerns, such as skin irritation. Exposure to phenylenediamine can occur during manufacturing or during the use of hair dyes. According to the Product Safety Summary Sheet by DuPont, Para-Phenyenediamine (PPD) is labeled as toxic and can cause adverse effects on aquatic organisms and could cause long-term effects in aquatic environments.
In October 2017, the leading breast surgeon Professor Kefah Mokbel published a meta-analysis showing that use of hair dyes might increase the risk of developing breast cancer by 20% among users. Another 2019 study found similar results.

Chemistry of permanent hair coloring
Permanent hair coloring requires three components: (1) 1,4-diaminobenzene (historically) or 2,5-diaminotoluene (currently), (2) a coupling agent, and (3) an oxidant. The process is typically performed under basic conditions. The mechanism of oxidation dyes involves three steps:
1) Oxidation of 1,4-diaminobenzene derivative to the quinone state.
2) Reaction of this diimine with a coupler compound (more detail below).
3) Oxidation of the resulting compound to give the final dye.

The preparation (dye precursors) is in the leuco (colorless) form. Oxidizing agents are usually hydrogen peroxide, and the alkaline environment is usually provided by ammonia. The combination of hydrogen peroxide and ammonia causes the natural hair to be lightened, providing a "blank canvas" for the dye. Ammonia opens the hair shaft pores so that the dye can actually diffuse inside the fiber. These dye intermediates and coupler compounds can undergo oxidation and coupling reaction as shown in the scheme below to form high molecular weight products, which are trapped in the hair matrix and cannot be readily removed through washing.

Various combinations of primary intermediates and coupler compounds provide a spectrum of shades of hair colors. The primary intermediates are aromatic para compounds, such as 1,4-diaminobenzene or 4-aminophenol. The coupler compounds (couplers) are meta-substituted derivatives of aniline. They come in three major classes based on the color that they produce when they react with the primary intermediate.

Blue couplers include 1,3-diaminobenzene and its derivatives.
Red couplers include phenols and naphthols, such as 3-aminophenol (CAS#591-27-5), 5-amino-2-methylphenol (CAS#2835-95-2) and 1-naphthol (CAS#90-15-3). The combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with the coupler 3-aminophenol gives a magenta-brown dye, while the combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with the coupler 1-naphthol gives a purple dye.
Yellow-green couplers include resorcinol, 4-chlororesorcinol, and benzodioxoles. These compounds produce broad-band absorption when they react to form dyes, allowing for more natural-looking hair colors. The combination of 2,5-diaminotoluene with the coupler resorcinol gives a greenish brown dye.

The first step shows the oxidation of p-phenylenediamine to the quinonediimine (C6H4(NH)2):

This species exists in equilibrium with the monoprotonated form (C6H4(NH)(NH2)+) (not shown). The second step involves the attack of this quinonediimine on the coupler. In organic chemistry, this reaction is called electrophilic aromatic substitution:

In the third and final step, the product from the quinonediimine-coupler reaction oxidizes to the final hair dye.

It was once believed that the dye forms in the above reaction bonds to hair permanently. It was later shown that the main reason that this reaction imparts a permanent color on hair is that it produces larger dye molecules, which is locked inside the hair.

Plant-based dyes
Henna is an orange dye commonly used as a deposit-only hair color whose active component, lawsone, binds to keratin. It is therefore considered semi-permanent to permanent, depending on a person's hair type. Most people will achieve a permanent color from henna, especially after the second dye. With repeated use the orange color builds up into red and then auburn. While "natural" henna is generally a red color, variations exist. These variations usually contain ingredients from other plants and even synthetic dyes.

Indigo is natural dye from a plant (Indigofera tinctoria, I. suffructicosa, or I. arrecta) that can be added to henna or layered on top of it to create brown to black colors in the hair. Henna is orange, and indigo is blue, so as complementaries on a standard color wheel, the two colors' combined effect is to create brown tones. Like henna, indigo may fade after one application, but it becomes permanent on the hair with repeated use.

Using a plant-based color such as henna can cause problems later when trying to do a perm or permanent hair color. Some store-bought henna contains metallic salts which reacts to hydrogen peroxide that is used in hair lightening. This may lead to unpredictable results, such as green or blue tones in the hair. Henna is a healthy way to color hair, as long as no metallic salts are used.

In 2018, a system for making semi-permanent hair dyes from renewable waste blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) fruit skins from the fruit pressing industry was developed. Anthocyanin pigments were extracted from the blackcurrant skin waste and formulated into hair dyes. The dyes showed high buildup on hair and gave an intense blue color, which was stable to multiple washes.

Nanomaterial dyes
In the late 2010s and early 2020s, researchers at Northwestern University have explored potential alternative forms of hair dye using nanotechnology. Concepts using graphene oxide and synthetic melanin nanoparticles have been tested; however, , neither has been released commercially.

Legal restrictions
Hair dyes are cosmetic compounds that make contact with the skin during application. Because of this skin contact, there exists some health risk associated with use of hair dyes. Thus, hair dyes are regulated in the commercial marketplace and, as new toxicity data is generated for some hair dyes and health risks are discovered, some of these hair dyes are being legally restricted from the cosmetic marketplace.

The European Union is particularly stringent with regard to health regulations. To ensure that hair dyes contain only safe substances, the European Commission adopted the Directive 2012/21/EU to restrict the use of around 45 chemicals in hair dyes. The directive on dyes is part of a general and comprehensive set of regulations, the EU Cosmetics Directive 76/768/EC.

Religion
For Muslims, if a man is not of advanced age, there is no harm in his using black dye. Some of the early Muslims, including some sahabah, permitted the use of black dye. As narrated in a hadith, the best thing with which to dye gray hair is henna and katam (a plant from Yemen which colors it black tinged with red).

See also
 Human hair color
 Human physical appearance
 Hairstyle
 Hair highlighting
 Punk fashion
 Chapatsu

References

External links

Hair coloring


Fıstık çamı (Pinus pinea), çamgiller (Pinaceae) familyasından Ege, Akdeniz sahilleri, Portekiz, İspanya, İtalya, Girit ve Türkiye'de yayılış gösteren çam türü. Kozalakları ve tohumu diğer çam türlerine göre çok daha büyüktür. Kozalaklarından çıkan çam fıstığı besin olarak tüketilmektedir.

İstanbul Fethipaşa Korusunda bulunan 363 yaşında olan Fıstık Çamı anıt ağaç olarak tescillenmiş olup bilinen en yaşlı fıstık çamıdır.

Morfolojik özellikleri
Gençken yuvarlak, yaşlı halde dağınık şemsiye gibi bir yapıya sahiptir. Gençken kuvvetli büyür. 20–25 m. boy yapar. Düzgün bir gövdeye ve bu gövdeden dik olarak çıkan yatay duruşlu dallara sahiptir. İğne yaprakları parlak açık yeşil renkli, 10–20 cm uzunlukta ve uç kısmı sivridir. kozalakları kestane renginde, yumurtamsı veya yuvarlak 10–15 cm uzunluğunda, 6–10 cm genişlikte, çok kısa saplı ve genellikle reçinelidir. Tek veya iki tanesi karşılıklı dizilmiştir. Tohumları sert, soluk kırmızı, uzunca ters yumurta biçiminde, oldukça büyüktür ve 3. yılda olgunlaşır.

Ekolojik istekleri
Toprak istekleri bakımından çok seçici olmasa da geçirgen kumlu, gevşek toprakları severler. Işık ağacı olup gençken hızlı büyür ve derine giden kazık kök sistemine sahiptir. Ağırlık olarak 0–900 m aralığında Başta Ege Bölgesi olmak üzere Marmara, Akdeniz bölgelerinde geniş yayılış gösterir. Rutubet isteği fazladır. Özellikle Temmuz-Ağustos aylarında su açığı olmamalıdır. Kısa süreli donlara karşı dayanıklı olmasına rağmen etkilenir. Atmosferik kirliliğe ve yer altı sularındaki tuzlulaşmaya karşı duyarlıdır. Yangın sonrası sürgün verme kapasitesi yüksektir.

Türkiye'deki dağılımı
Türkiye, İspanya'dan sonra en fazla alana sahip ülkedir. Yaklaşık 100.000 hektar alanda saf ya da kızılçam ile karışık bulunur. Özel ağaçlandırmalarda da yaygın olarak kullanılan bir türdür. 8-10 yaşından sonra ekonomik olarak işletilmeye başlanmakta ve 80-100 yaşına kadar fıstık üretimine devam edilmektedir. En yoğun bulunduğu yöreler İzmir-Bergama (Kozak) ve Aydın-Koçarlı (Mazon) ilçeleridir.

Yetiştirme
Çam fıstığı için üretimi yapılan bu ağaçta kozalak toplama zamanları yağış durumuna göre Ocak-Haziran ayları arasında değişmektedir. Zengin tohum yılları 3-4 yılda bir olan fıstık çamı 28 günde çimlenmektedir. Üç yıllık kozalaklar aynı anda ağacın üzerinde görülebilir. Ayrıca aşılama yoluyla Kızılçam ağaçlarından da Fıstık Çamı üretilebilir.

Tohum bileşimi
100 g çam fıstığında bol protein ve mineral vardır. 100 g içinde 45 g doymamış yağ asidi, 31 g protein, 5 g karbonhidrat, mineraller ve su bulunmaktadır. 100 g fıstığın kalori değeri 580 kaloridir. Bileşiminde linoleik asit ve oleik asit vardır. Ayrıca omega 3 ve 6, B ve C vitaminleri, karoten, demir, çinko, potasyum, manganez, fosfor bulunur.

Resim galerisi

Kaynakça

Asgari endişe altındaki bitkiler
Pinus
Peyzaj ağaçları
Avrupa'daki bahçe bitkileri
Türkiye'deki odunsu taksonlar
Fransa florası
İtalya florası
Lübnan florası
Akdeniz ikliminde bitkiler
Türkiye'de doğal olarak yetişen iğne yapraklılar

Fıstık çamı


was a town located in Toki District, Gifu Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the town has an estimated population of 11,309 and a density of 840.82 persons per km². The total area is 13.45 km².

On January 23, 2006, Kasahara was merged into the expanded city of Tajimi.

History

Municipal Timeline
 July 1, 1889 - Founded as a village
 October 10, 1923 - Elevated to town status
 April 1, 1951 - All areas were merged into the city of Tajimi, the town of Kasahara was dissolved
 April 1, 1952 - The village of Kasahara was founded for the 2nd time after all areas (excluding the locality of Takiro ) broke off from the city of Tajimi.
 August 1, 1952 - Gained town status for the 2nd time.
 July 1, 2002 - The Toyo-Seibu Merger Committee was held at Ceratopia Toki in the city of Toki.
 January 25, 2004 - The merger related election was held by Three cities and a town (Toki, Tajimi, Mizunami, and Kasahara from Toki District) and the town voted yes to the merger but three cities voted no. But all three cities are related to the former Toki District but they ended up finding there loophole. At that time, the election for the city's new name was also held, and Tono was selected as their new city's name beating Tokigawa, Oribe, Toto, Yoshisara, their new city hall was also selected (within the city of Toki), but the city of Tono became a legend.
東濃西部合併協議会
 March 2005 - With the help from the governor of Gifu Prefecture, The city of Tajimi and Tajimi Industrial Committee was able to rename one of the interchange at Tokai Hokuriku Expressway-"Tokiminami-Tajimi." The city of Toki was very upset with this renaming, and the creation of the new city in the Toyo-Seibu region became serious.
 January 23, 2006 - Kasahara was officially merged into the expanded city of Tajimi for the 2nd time.

References

External links
 Tajimi official website

Dissolved municipalities of Gifu Prefecture
Tajimi, Gifu

Kasahara, Gifu


was a village located in Futami District, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan.

As of 2003, the village had an estimated population of 1,965 and a density of 23.66 persons per km². The total area was 83.04 km².

On April 1, 2004, Funo, along with the towns of Kisa, Mirasaka and Miwa, the villages of Kimita and Sakugi (all from Futami District), and the town of Kōnu (from Kōnu District), was merged with the expanded city of Miyoshi and no longer exists as an independent municipality.

External links
 Official website of Miyoshi

Dissolved municipalities of Hiroshima Prefecture
Miyoshi, Hiroshima

Funo, Hiroshima


Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (New York City, 13. listopada 1989.; često zvana kraticom AOC) američka je političarka i aktivistica, te članica Zastupničkog doma SAD-a za 14. kongresni okrug New Yorka. Članica je Demokratske stranke.

Raniji život i obrazovanje
Rođena je 13. listopada 1989. godine u Bronx četvrti New Yorka. Njeni roditelji su katolici, porijeklom iz Portorika.

2007. godine upisala se na Sveučilište u Bostonu, a 2008. godine joj je otac preminuo od raka pluća. Diplomirala je cum laude 2011. godine s diplomom međunarodnih odnosa i ekonomije. Nakon diplomiranja vratila se u Bronx i radila kao konobarica kako bi pomogla majci u teškoj financijskoj situaciji.

Tokom 2016. godine radila je kao organizator predsjedničke kampanje Berniea Sandersa.

Izbori za Zastupnički dom SAD-a 2018. godine
U travnju 2017. godine započela je kampanju povodom Izbora za Zastupnički dom SAD-a, koji su se održali 2018. godine. Prva je osoba od 2004. godine koja se na izborima za demokratskog kandidata 14. okruga New Yorka suočila s Joeom Crowleyem.

26. lipnja osvojila je 57.1% glasova, a njena pobjeda šokirala je mnoge političke analitičare. Njen budžet iznosio je $83,000, a Crowleyev $1.5 milijuna.

Na općem izboru republikanski protivnik joj je bio Anthony Pappas, koga je očekivano pobjedila osvojivši 78.2%, odnosno 110 318 glasova.

Izbori za Zastupnički dom SAD-a 2020. godine
Na izboru za demokratskog kandidata imala je tri protivnika, ali je uvjerljivo pobijedila osvojivši 74.6%, odnosno 46 577 glasova.

Na općem izboru republikanski protukandidat joj je bio John Cummings, a pobjedila ga je osvojivši 71.6%, odnosno 152 661 glas.

Vanjske poveznice
 Mrežna stranica

Izvori

Američki političari nakon Drugog svjetskog rata

Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez


John Bagnell Bury  (; 16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927) was an Anglo-Irish historian, classical scholar, Medieval Roman historian and philologist. He objected to the label "Byzantinist" explicitly in the preface to the 1889 edition of his Later Roman Empire. He was Erasmus Smith's Professor of Modern History at Trinity College Dublin (1893–1902), before being Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Cambridge and a Professorial Fellow of King's College, Cambridge from 1902 until his death.

Early life and education
Bury was born the son of Edward John Bury and Anna Rogers in 1861 in Clontibret, County Monaghan, where his father was Rector of the Anglican Church of Ireland. He was educated first by his parents and then at Foyle College in Derry. He studied classics at Trinity College Dublin, where he was elected a scholar in 1879, and graduated in 1882.

He was elected a fellow of Trinity College Dublin in 1885 at the age of 24. Also in that year he married his second cousin Jane Bury, who assisted him in his work, notably with her chapter on Byzantine art in the History of the later Roman empire (1889); they had one son. In 1893, he was appointed to the Erasmus Smith's Chair of Modern History at Trinity College, which he held for nine years. In 1898 he was appointed Regius Professor of Greek, also at Trinity, a post he held simultaneously with his history professorship. In late 1902 he became Regius Professor of Modern History at the University of Cambridge.

At Cambridge, Bury became mentor to Steven Runciman (the medievalist), who later commented that he had been Bury's "first, and only, student." At first the reclusive Bury tried to brush him off; then, when Runciman mentioned that he could read Russian, Bury gave him a stack of Bulgarian articles to edit, and so their relationship began. Bury was the author of the first truly authoritative biography of Saint Patrick (1905).

Bury remained at Cambridge until his death at the age of 65 in Rome, where he took his annual retreat since 1918. He is buried in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome.

He received the honorary degree Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901, the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Aberdeen in 1905, and the honorary degree Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) from the University of Oxford in October 1902, in connection with the tercentenary of the Bodleian Library.

His brother, Robert Gregg Bury, was an Irish clergyman, classicist, philologist, and a translator of the works of Plato and Sextus Empiricus into English.

Writings

Bury's writings, on subjects ranging from ancient Greece to the 19th-century papacy, are at once scholarly and accessible to the layman. His two works on the philosophy of history elucidated the Victorian ideals of progress and rationality which undergirded his more specific histories. He also led a revival of Byzantine history (which he considered and explicitly called Roman history), which English-speaking historians, following Edward Gibbon, had largely neglected. In 1886–88 he published a series of articles on the Frankish domination in Greece. In 1892 he was among the first contributors to Karl Krumbacher's journal Byzantinische Zeitschrift. He contributed to, and was himself the subject of, an article in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. With Frank Adcock and S. A. Cook he edited The Cambridge Ancient History, launched in 1919.

History as a science
Bury's career shows his evolving thought process and his consideration of the discipline of history as a "science". From his inaugural lecture as Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge delivered on 26 January 1903 comes his public proclamation of history as a "science" and not as a branch of "literature". He stated:

I may remind you that history is not a branch of literature. The facts of history, like the facts of geology or astronomy, can supply material for literary art; for manifest reasons they lend themselves to artistic representation far more readily than those of the natural sciences; but to clothe the story of human society in a literary dress is no more the part of a historian as a historian, than it is the part of an astronomer as an astronomer to present in an artistic shape the story of the stars.

Bury's lecture continues by defending the claim that history is not literature, which in turns questions the need for a historian's narrative in the discussion of historical facts and essentially evokes the question: is a narrative necessary? But Bury describes his "science" by comparing it to Leopold von Ranke's idea of science and the German phrase that brought Ranke's ideas fame when he exclaimed "tell history as it happened" or "Ich will nur sagen wie es eigentlich gewesen ist." [I only want to say how it actually happened.] Bury's final thoughts during his lecture reiterate his previous statement with a cementing sentence that argues "...she [history] is herself simply a science, no less and no more".

On the argument from ignorance and the burden of proof in his book History of Freedom of Thought he said the following.

Some people speak as if we were not justified in rejecting a theological doctrine unless we can prove it false. But the burden of proof does not lie upon the rejecter. I remember a conversation in which, when some disrespectful remark was made about hell, a loyal friend of that establishment said triumphantly, "But, absurd as it may seem, you cannot disprove it." If you were told that in a certain planet revolving around Sirius there is a race of donkeys who speak the English language and spend their time in discussing eugenics, you could not disprove the statement, but would it, on that account, have any claim to be believed? Some minds would be prepared to accept it, if it were reiterated often enough, through the potent force of suggestion.

Bibliography

The Odes of Pindar
The Nemean Odes of Pindar (1890)
The Isthmian Odes of Pindar (1892)

Rome
A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene (2 vols.) (1889)
A History of the Roman Empire From its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius (1893)
 The Imperial Administrative System in the Ninth Century, with a revised text of the Kletorologion of Philotheos (1911)
A History of the Eastern Roman Empire from the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A. D. 802–867) (1912)
A History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian (1923)
The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians (1928)
The Life of St. Patrick and His Place in History (1905)
History of the Papacy in the 19th Century (1864–1878) (1930)

Greece
A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (1900)
The Ancient Greek Historians (Harvard Lectures) (1909)
The Hellenistic Age: Aspects of Hellenistic Civilization (1923), with E. A. Barber, Edwyn Bevan, and W. W. Tarn

Philosophical
A History of Freedom of Thought (1913)
The Idea of Progress: An Inquiry into Its Origin and Growth (1920)

As editor
Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (7 Editions: November 1898–1925) – 2ND American edition at Online Library of Liberty in 12 volumes
 J.B. Bury, ed., 2 volumes, 4TH Edition (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1914) Volume 1 Volume 2
Edward Augustus Freeman, Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe (third edition, 1903)
Edward Augustus Freeman, The Atlas To Freeman's Historical Geography (third edition, 1903)

See also
 Historiography of the United Kingdom

Notes

References

External links

1861 births
1927 deaths
19th-century Anglo-Irish people
20th-century Anglo-Irish people
19th-century Irish historians
20th-century Irish historians
Academics of Trinity College Dublin
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Anglo-Irish writers
Classical scholars of Trinity College Dublin
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Irish Byzantinists
Irish classical scholars
Irish philologists
Members of the University of Cambridge faculty of history
People educated at Foyle College
People from Clontibret
Scholars of Trinity College Dublin
Scholars of Byzantine history
Regius Professors of History (Cambridge)
Scholars and academics from County Monaghan

J. B. Bury


Costruzioni Automobili Ing. A. Gallanzi war ein italienischer Hersteller von Automobilen.

Unternehmensgeschichte
Alfredo Gallanzi gründete 1918 das Unternehmen. Die Adresse lautete Via Gustavo Modena 4 in Mailand. Er übernahm von Chiribiri die Produktionsanlagen sowie die Fahrzeugentwürfe und begann mit der Produktion von Automobilen. Der Markenname lautete Ardita. Im gleichen Jahr endete die Produktion nach nur wenigen hergestellten Fahrzeugen.

Fahrzeuge
Im kleineren Modell 8 HP kam ein Vierzylindermotor mit 1108 cm³ Hubraum zum Einsatz. Das größere Modell 10 HP hatte ebenfalls einen Vierzylindermotor, aber mit 1325 cm³ Hubraum. Beide Motoren verfügten über SV-Ventilsteuerung.

Literatur

 George Nick Georgano: The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile, Volume 1 A–F. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago 2001, ISBN 1-57958-293-1 (englisch)
 Autorenkollektiv: Enzyklopädie des Automobils. Marken · Modelle · Technik. Weltbild Verlag, Augsburg, 1989

Ehemaliger Pkw-Hersteller (Italien)
Ehemaliges Unternehmen (Mailand)
Produzierendes Unternehmen (Mailand)

Costruzioni Automobili Ing. A. Gallanzi


Maggie O'Farrell, RSL (nascida em 27 de maio de 1972), é uma romancista da Irlanda do Norte. Seu aclamado primeiro romance, After You'd Gone, ganhou o Betty Trask Award, e um posterior, The Hand That First Held Mine, o Costa Novel Award de 2010. Desde então, ela foi indicada duas vezes para o Costa Novel Award: para Instructions for a Heatwave em 2014 e This Must Be The Place em 2017. Ela apareceu nos Waterstones 25 Authors for the Future. Seu livro de memórias I am, I am, I am: Seventeen Brushes with Death alcançou o topo da lista de best-sellers do Sunday Times. Seu romance Hamnet ganhou o Women's Prize for Fiction em 2020, e o prêmio de ficção no National Book Critics Circle Awards de 2020.

Início da vida e carreira
O'Farrell nasceu em Coleraine no Condado de Londonderry, Irlanda do Norte, e cresceu no País de Gales e na Escócia. Aos oito anos ela foi hospitalizada com encefalite e perdeu mais de um ano de escola. Esses eventos são contados em The Distance Between Us e descritos em seu livro de memórias de 2017 , I Am, I Am, I Am. Ela sofria de uma gagueira pronunciada durante sua infância e adolescência. Ela foi educada na North Berwick High School e na Brynteg Comprehensive School, e depois em New Hall, University of Cambridge (agora Murray Edwards College), onde leu Literatura Inglesa.

O'Farrell afirmou que bem na década de 1990, ser irlandês na Grã-Bretanha poderia ser difícil: "Costumávamos ouvir piadas irlandesas sem parar, até mesmo de professores. Se eu tivesse que soletrar meu nome na escola, os professores diriam coisas como: 'Ah, sua família é do IRA?' Os professores diriam isso para uma criança de 12 anos na frente de toda a classe.... Eles acharam hilário dizer: 'Ha ha, seu pai é um terrorista'. Não foi nada engraçado.... Eu gostaria de poder dizer que é [menos comum hoje] porque as pessoas são menos racistas, mas acho que há novos imigrantes que estão entendendo agora." No entanto, não até Instruções para uma onda de calor de 2013, os assuntos irlandeses se tornaram parte de seu trabalho.

O'Farrell trabalhou como jornalista, tanto em Hong Kong quanto como vice-editor literário do The Independent on Sunday em Londres. Ela também ensinou redação criativa na Universidade de Warwick em Coventry e no Goldsmiths College em Londres. Ela morou na Irlanda, País de Gales, Escócia, Hong Kong e Itália. Ela agora mora em Edimburgo.

Livros
Os numerosos romances de sucesso de O'Farrell, incluindo The Hand that First Held Mine, vencedor do prêmio Costa, receberam ampla aclamação da crítica. Seus livros foram traduzidos para mais de 30 idiomas. Seu romance Hamnet, baseado na vida da família de Shakespeare, foi publicado em 2020. O romance faz uma ligação entre a morte de Hamnet, filho de onze anos do escritor, e a escrita da peça Hamlet.

Seu livro de memórias de 2017, I Am, I Am, I Am: Seventeen Brushes with Death, trata de uma série de experiências de quase morte que ocorreram com ela e seus filhos. É um livro de memórias contado não cronologicamente, com cada capítulo encabeçado pelo nome da parte do corpo afetada na experiência.

Em 2022, publicou O Retrato de Um Casamento, romance baseado na curta vida de Lucrezia de' Medici, que pode ou não ter sido envenenada pelo marido, Afonso II, Duque de Ferrara. O'Farrell disse que teve a ideia do romance depois de ver o retrato de Lucrezia, atribuído a Agnolo Bronzino, e da leitura do poema de Robert Browning, My Last Duchess, no qual Lucrezia faz uma aparição breve, silenciosa e sem nome.

Ela também escreveu dois livros ilustrados para crianças, Where Snow Angels Go e The Boy Who Lost His Spark, ambos ilustrados por Daniela Jaglenka Terrazzini.

Bibliografia

Romances
 After You'd Gone (2000)
 My Lover's Lover (2002)
 The Distance Between Us (2004)
 The Vanishing Act of Esme Lennox (2007)
 O desaparecimento de Esme Lennox
 The Hand that First Held Mine (2010)
 Instructions for a Heatwave (2013)
 Instruções para uma onda de calor
 This Must be the Place (2016)
 Hamnet (2020), Tinder Press
 The Marriage Portrait (2022), Tinder Press

Autobiografia/Memórias
 I Am, I Am, I Am: Seventeen Brushes with Death (2017)

Escritoras
Naturais da Irlanda do Norte

Maggie O'Farrell


سيرج كييزا  (25 ديسمبر 1950 في الدار البيضاء) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي ذو أصول إيطالية معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في مركز الوسط . يلعب يلعب سوى في نادي واحد وهو نادي ليون من 1969 إلى 1983 . كما شارك مع منتخب فرنسا في 12 مباراة دولية مسجلا 3 أهداف في مسيرة استمرت 5 سنوات .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
مهاجمو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
فرنسيون من أصل إيطالي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كليرمونت
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو منتخب فرنسا لكرة القدم
مهاجرون مغاربة إلى فرنسا
مواليد 1370 هـ
مواليد 1950
مواليد في الدار البيضاء
لاعبو نادي أورليانز

سيرج كييزا


Stensli Station (Stensli stasjon) er en tidligere jernbanestation på Rørosbanen, der ligger i Holtålen kommune i Norge.

Stationen åbnede 16. januar 1877, da banen mellem Singsås og Røros blev taget i brug. Oprindeligt hed den Eidet, men den skiftede navn til Stensli 1. januar 1921. Den blev nedgraderet til trinbræt 1. september 1975. Betjeningen med persontog ophørte 14. december 2003, men stationen er ikke nedlagt officielt.

Stationsbygningen blev opført til åbningen i 1877 efter tegninger af Georg Andreas Bull. Den blev solgt fra i 2004.

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

Stationer på Rørosbanen
Jernbanestationer i Norge uden persontrafik
Etableret i 1877
Jernbanestationer i Trøndelag

Stensli Station


As bactérias geneticamente modificadas foram os primeiros organismos a serem modificados em laboratório, devido à sua genética simples. Esses organismos são agora usados para diversos fins, e são particularmente importantes na produção de grandes quantidades de proteínas humanas puras para uso na medicina.

História
O primeiro exemplo disso ocorreu em 1978, quando Herbert Boyer, trabalhando em um laboratório da Universidade da Califórnia, pegou uma versão do gene da insulina humana e a inseriu na bactéria Escherichia coli para produzir insulina "humana" sintética. Quatro anos depois, foi aprovado pela Food and Drug Administration dos EUA.

Pesquisa

As bactérias foram os primeiros organismos a serem geneticamente modificados em laboratório, devido à relativa facilidade de modificação de seus cromossomos. Essa facilidade os tornou ferramentas importantes para a criação de outros OGMs. Genes e outras informações genéticas de uma ampla gama de organismos podem ser adicionados a um plasmídeo e inseridos em bactérias para armazenamento e modificação. As bactérias são baratas, fáceis de cultivar, clonais, multiplicam-se rapidamente, são relativamente fáceis de transformar e podem ser armazenadas a -80 °C quase indefinidamente. Uma vez que um gene é isolado, ele pode ser armazenado dentro da bactéria, fornecendo um suprimento ilimitado para pesquisa. O grande número de plasmídeos personalizados torna a manipulação do DNA extirpado de bactérias relativamente fácil.

Sua facilidade de uso os tornou ótimas ferramentas para cientistas que buscam estudar a função e a evolução dos genes. A maioria das manipulações de DNA ocorre dentro de plasmídeos bacterianos antes de serem transferidos para outro hospedeiro. As bactérias são o organismo modelo mais simples e a maior parte de nossa compreensão inicial da biologia molecular vem do estudo da Escherichia coli. Os cientistas podem facilmente manipular e combinar genes dentro das bactérias para criar proteínas novas ou interrompidas e observar o efeito que isso tem em vários sistemas moleculares. Os pesquisadores combinaram os genes de bactérias e archaea, levando a insights sobre como esses dois divergiram no passado. No campo da biologia sintética, eles têm sido usados para testar várias abordagens sintéticas, desde a síntese de genomas até a criação de novos nucleotídeos.

Comida
As bactérias são utilizadas na produção de alimentos há muito tempo, e cepas específicas foram desenvolvidas e selecionadas para esse trabalho em escala industrial. Eles podem ser usados para produzir enzimas, aminoácidos, aromatizantes e outros compostos usados na produção de alimentos. Com o advento da engenharia genética, novas alterações genéticas podem ser facilmente introduzidas nestas bactérias. A maioria das bactérias produtoras de alimentos são bactérias do ácido lático, e é aí que a maioria das pesquisas sobre bactérias produtoras de alimentos geneticamente modificadas foi. As bactérias podem ser modificadas para operar com mais eficiência, reduzir a produção de subprodutos tóxicos, aumentar a produção, criar compostos aprimorados e remover caminhos desnecessários. Os produtos alimentares de bactérias geneticamente modificadas incluem alfa-amilase, que converte amido em açúcares simples, quimosina, que coagula a proteína do leite para fazer queijo, e pectinesterase, que melhora a clareza do suco de frutas.

No queijo
A quimosina é uma enzima produzida no estômago de mamíferos ruminantes jovens para digerir o leite. A digestão das proteínas do leite por meio de enzimas é essencial para a fabricação de queijos. As espécies Escherichia coli e Bacillus subtilis podem ser geneticamente modificadas para sintetizar e excretar quimosina, proporcionando um meio de produção mais eficiente. O uso de bactérias para sintetizar a quimosina também fornece um método vegetariano de fabricação de queijos, pois anteriormente, ruminantes jovens (normalmente bezerros) tinham que ser abatidos para extrair a enzima do revestimento do estômago.

Industrial
Bactérias geneticamente modificadas são usadas para produzir grandes quantidades de proteínas para uso industrial. Geralmente as bactérias são cultivadas em um grande volume antes que o gene que codifica a proteína seja ativado. As bactérias são então colhidas e a proteína desejada é purificada a partir delas. O alto custo de extração e purificação fez com que apenas produtos de alto valor fossem produzidos em escala industrial.

Produção farmacêutica
A maioria dos produtos industriais de bactérias são proteínas humanas para uso em medicina. Muitas dessas proteínas são impossíveis ou difíceis de obter por métodos naturais e são menos propensas a serem contaminadas com patógenos, tornando-as mais seguras. Antes dos produtos de proteína recombinante, vários tratamentos eram derivados de cadáveres ou outros fluidos corporais doados e podiam transmitir doenças. De fato, a transfusão de hemoderivados já havia levado à infecção não intencional de hemofílicos com HIV ou hepatite C ; da mesma forma, o tratamento com hormônio de crescimento humano derivado de glândulas pituitárias de cadáveres pode ter levado a surtos de doença de Creutzfeldt-Jakob.

O primeiro uso medicinal de bactérias GM foi para produzir a proteína insulina para tratar diabetes. Outros medicamentos produzidos incluem fatores de coagulação para tratar a hemofilia, hormônio de crescimento humano para tratar várias formas de nanismo, interferon para tratar alguns cânceres, eritropoietina para pacientes anêmicos e ativador do plasminogênio tecidual que dissolve coágulos sanguíneos. Fora da medicina, eles têm sido usados para produzir biocombustíveis. Há interesse em desenvolver um sistema de expressão extracelular dentro da bactéria para reduzir custos e tornar mais econômica a produção de produtos.

Saúde
Com uma maior compreensão do papel que o microbioma desempenha na saúde humana, existe o potencial de tratar doenças alterando geneticamente as bactérias para serem, elas próprias, agentes terapêuticos. As ideias incluem alterar as bactérias intestinais para que destruam bactérias nocivas ou usar bactérias para substituir ou aumentar enzimas ou proteínas deficientes. Um foco de pesquisa é modificar Lactobacillus, bactérias que naturalmente fornecem alguma proteção contra o HIV, com genes que aumentarão ainda mais essa proteção. As bactérias que geralmente causam cáries dentárias foram projetadas para não produzir mais ácido lático que corrói os dentes. Essas bactérias transgênicas, se permitirem colonizar a boca de uma pessoa, talvez possam reduzir a formação de cáries. Micróbios transgênicos também foram usados em pesquisas recentes para matar ou impedir tumores e para combater a doença de Crohn.

Se as bactérias não formam colônias dentro do paciente, a pessoa deve ingerir repetidamente as bactérias modificadas para obter as doses necessárias. Permitir que as bactérias formem uma colônia pode fornecer uma solução de longo prazo, mas também pode aumentar as preocupações de segurança, pois as interações entre as bactérias e o corpo humano são menos compreendidas do que com os medicamentos tradicionais.

Um exemplo de tal intermediário, que forma apenas colônias de curto prazo no trato gastrointestinal, pode ser Lactobacillus Acidophilus MPH734. Este é utilizado como específico no tratamento da Intolerância à Lactose. Esta versão geneticamente modificada da bactéria Lactobacillus acidophilus produz uma enzima ausente chamada lactase, que é usada para a digestão da lactose encontrada em produtos lácteos ou, mais comumente, em alimentos preparados com produtos lácteos. A colônia de curto prazo é induzida ao longo de um regime de tratamento de 21 comprimidos de uma semana, após o qual, a colônia temporária pode produzir lactase por três meses ou mais antes de ser removida do corpo por processos naturais. O regime de indução pode ser repetido quantas vezes forem necessárias para manter a proteção contra os sintomas de intolerância à lactose, ou descontinuado sem consequências, exceto o retorno dos sintomas originais.

Há preocupações de que a transferência horizontal de genes para outras bactérias possa ter efeitos desconhecidos. A partir de 2018 existem ensaios clínicos em andamento testando a eficácia e segurança desses tratamentos.

Agricultura
Por mais de um século as bactérias têm sido usadas na agricultura. As culturas foram inoculadas com Rhizobia (e mais recentemente Azospirillum) para aumentar a sua produção ou permitir que sejam cultivadas fora do seu habitat original. A aplicação de Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) e outras bactérias pode ajudar a proteger as plantações contra a infestação de insetos e doenças de plantas. Com os avanços na engenharia genética, essas bactérias foram manipuladas para aumentar a eficiência e ampliar a gama de hospedeiros. Marcadores também foram adicionados para auxiliar no rastreamento da propagação da bactéria. As bactérias que colonizam naturalmente certas culturas também foram modificadas, em alguns casos para expressar os genes Bt responsáveis pela resistência a pragas. As cepas de bactérias Pseudomonas causam danos causados pela geada nucleando água em cristais de gelo em torno de si. Isso levou ao desenvolvimento de bactérias sem gelo, que removem os genes formadores de gelo. Quando aplicados às culturas, podem competir com as bactérias ice-plus e conferir alguma resistência ao gelo.

Outros usos
Outros usos para bactérias geneticamente modificadas incluem biorremediação, onde as bactérias são usadas para converter poluentes em uma forma menos tóxica. A engenharia genética pode aumentar os níveis das enzimas usadas para degradar uma toxina ou tornar as bactérias mais estáveis em condições ambientais. Bactérias GM também foram desenvolvidas para lixiviar cobre do minério, limpar a poluição por mercúrio e detectar arsênico na água potável. Bioart também foi criado usando bactérias geneticamente modificadas. Na década de 1980, o artista Joe Davis e a geneticista Dana Boyd converteram o símbolo germânico da feminilidade (ᛉ) em código binário e depois em uma sequência de DNA, que foi então expressa em Escherichia coli. Isso foi um passo adiante em 2012, quando um livro inteiro foi codificado no DNA. Pinturas também foram produzidas usando bactérias transformadas com proteínas fluorescentes.

Produtos transgênicos sintetizados por bactérias
 Insulina
 Vacina contra hepatite B
 Ativador de tecido plasminogênio
 Hormônio de crescimento humano
 Bactérias sem gelo
 Interferon
 Milho Bt

Notas

Leitura adicional

Bactérias
Organismos geneticamente modificados

Bactérias geneticamente modificadas


William Bendix (født 14. januar 1906, død 14. december 1964) var en amerikansk film-, radio- og tv-skuespiller, der typisk spillede rå, arbejderklassekarakterer.

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra New York
Personer fra New York City
Amerikanere i 1900-tallet
Oscar-nominerede skuespillere

William Bendix


El Teatro CAPSA fue una sala teatral de Barcelona abierta en 1969; reconvertida en Cinema CAPSA en 1977, cerró en 1998.

Estaba ubicado en la calle de Pau Claris, 134, en la esquina con la calle de Aragón, en el edificio CAPSA (acrónimo de Compañía Auxiliar Panificadora, SA), propiedad del Gremio de Panaderos de Barcelona.

Historia
La historia de la sala CAPSA comenzó en 1950 como sede del teatro de aficionados que representaban los socios de la compañía. A partir de 1969 pasó a tener una programación estable, de la que se hizo cargo el actor Pau Garsaball, quien convirtió la sala en un referente del teatro independiente y de vanguardia catalán, estrenando obras como 'Cruel Ubris' de Els Joglars. Su inauguración como sala comercial tuvo lugar el 20 de noviembre de 1969 con el estreno de El adefesio, de Rafael Alberti, dirigida por Mario Gas. Obtuvo uno de sus mayores éxitos comerciales con el estreno de El retaule del flautista de Jordi Teixidor, que mantuvo un año en cartelera.

Tras no obtener la suficiente rentabilidad económica, en julio de 1976 el teatro cesó su actividad para dedicarse a la proyección cinematográfica, que se inició en septiembre 1977 con el reestreno de El acorazado Potemkin. Contaba con una sala, con capacidad para 379 espectadores y su programación se centró en películas de arte y ensayo, proyectadas en versión original. El 25 de mayo de 1991 la sala quedó devastada por un incendio, aunque reabrió sus puertas dos meses más tarde. Cerró definitivamente el 29 de diciembre de 1998, tras la proyección de Alice et Martin de André Téchiné, al finalizar el contrato de explotación que mantenía la exhibidora Lauren Films con el Gremio de Panaderos. Desde entonces la antigua sala ha albergado otros usos comerciales, como un cibercafé.

Espectáculos
 1969. El Adefesio.
 1970, enero. La noche de los asesinos, con Emma Cohen, Juan Diego y Julia Peña. Escenografía: Fabià Puigcerver.
 1970, marzo. Caviar o llenties de G. Scaracci i R. Tarabusi, con traducción de Màrius Picot. Per la companyia de Pau Garsaball.
 1971, febrero. Noies perdudes en el paradís de Antoni Ribas. Con Rosa Maria Sardà y Enric Arredondo.
 1971, mayo. El retaule del flautista de Jordi Teixidor. Por la compañía de Pau Garsaball.
 1972, enero. Cruel Ubris a càrrec d'Els Joglars.
 1972, mayo. Una guerra en cada esquina de Luis Matilla.
 1974, febrero. La boda de los pequeños burgueses de Bertolt Brecht.

Referencias

Teatros desaparecidos de Barcelona
Salas de cine de Barcelona desaparecidas
Arquitectura de España del siglo XX
Calle de Aragón (Barcelona)

Teatro CAPSA


20141 Markidger este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
20141 Markidger este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Costitx de Manuel Blasco. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,26 ua, o excentricitate de 0,18 și o înclinație de 7,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 20001-21000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1996
Centura de asteroizi

20141 Markidger


Min Hyun-sik (* 21. Oktober 1946) ist ein südkoreanischer Architekt, der hauptsächlich in Südkorea tätig ist. Er entwarf mehrere Firmen- und Wohngebäude, Schul- und Hochschulgebäude, Krankenhäuser, zwei Kirchen und andere Gebäude.

Leben und Werk
Min studierte Architektur an der Seoul National University und an der Architectural Association School of Architecture in London. Von 1972 bis 1974 war er im Architekturbüro Space beschäftigt und danach bis 1975 zur Architekturgruppe 'JANG'. Von 1980 an war er 12 Jahre bis 1992 im Städtebau- und Architekturbüro One tätig. Danach saß er vier Jahre seinem 'Architektur-Forschungslabors Min Hyun-sik' vor und war anschließend bis 1997 Vorsitzender und Berater von 'KIOHUN', dem Nachfolger des Labors. 2002 wurde er zum Dekan der Fakultät für Bildende Kunst an der Korea National University of Arts ernannt und bekleidete den Posten bis 2004. 2006 wurde er Ehrenmitglied der FAIA (Honorary Fellowship of the AIA) Zurzeit lehrt er als Professor an der Korean National University of Arts und ist als Berater (primary advisor) für das Architekturbüro KIOHUN Architects and Associates tätig. 2002 gestaltete er mit seiner Kollegin Lee Min-ah auf der Biennale di Venezia den Koreanischen Pavillon.

Bauten (Auswahl)
Gebäude der Firma Sindoricoh
2001–2009: Daejeon Universitätsgelände Masterplan, Munmugwan, Multi-Aktivitäts-Zentrum etc.
2006: Gimcheon Silver Hospital
2005: Dongsoong Presbyterianische Kirche
1999: Pohang Christianity Hospital
1997: Sungyak  Presbyterianische Kirche
1988: Nationales Konservatorium für Koreanische Traditionelle Musik

Weblinks
 Homepage von Min Hyun-sik (koreanisch)
 SEOUL SCAPE, BERLAGE INSTITUTE, ROTTERDAM – May 2008. Arqchile.cl
 's(e)oul scape: towards a new urbanity in korea' at the berlage institute – designboom.com
 S(E)OUL SCAPE – image-web.org
 Structuring Emptiness: Book Review – October 2011. KOREANARCHITECTURE.COM
 Korea's Modern Architecture of the 20th century – winter 2008. Koreana Webzine
 Space #478. ARCHITECT Min Hyun-sik. SPACE.
 Urban Facilities. Pyeong Hoa Nuri. C3. ISBN 978-89-86780-70-3
 Campus. Domitory for DaeJeon University, The Korean National University of Cultural Heritage, MACC Multi Activity Center for DaeJeon University. C3. ISBN 978-89-86780-76-5
 Churches. DongSoong Church Extension, SungYak Prebyterian Church. C3. ISBN 978-89-86780-77-2
 Identity Workspace. HAYYIM Building,Sindoricoh Headquarters, Sindoricoh Headquarters and SeoUL Factory. C3. ISBN 978-89-86780-75-8

Einzelnachweise

Architekt der Moderne
Architekt (Südkorea)
Person (Seoul National University)
Südkoreaner
Geboren 1946
Mann

Min Hyun-sik


Tao (gruz. ტაო) je povijesni gruzijski okrug i dio povijesne regije Tao-Klardžetije, danas dio istočne Anadolije u Turskoj. Ime mu potječe od drevnih proto-gruzijskih stanovnika ovog područja, poznatih kao Taoči (Taočebi).

Prva državna formacija na teritoriju Taoa bila je unija plemena Diaoha (12. stoljeće pr. Kr.). Pokrajina je opisana u Ksenofontovoj Anabazi u 4. stoljeću pr. Kr., koji prolazi ovom zemljom s deset tisuća Grka.

Nakon podjele Armenije 387. godine između Sasanida i Rima, regija je došla pod kontrolu Perzije, a nakon 591. prešla je caru Mauriciju. Do kraja 8. stoljeća, regija je bila dio nasljedstva armenske obitelji Mamikonian.

Prema Krzysztofu Stopki, u 8. stoljeću Gruzija je zauzela Tajk, čije je stanovništvo većinom bilo armensko. Od 9. stoljeća regija je postala dio Tao-Klardžetije, kojom su vladali gruzijski Bagratidi. Kao rezultat toga, demografija provincije promijenila se u korist Gruzijaca, koji su bili većina potkraj 10. stoljeća, ali bilo je primjetno i armensko stanovništvo.

Od 1878. godine teritorij nekadašnjeg Taoa bio je dio Ruskog Carstva. Do 1919. godine bio je dio neovisne Gruzijske Demokratske Republike. Nakon sovjetizacije Gruzije, ovu regiju, prema Karškom ugovoru, boljševici su predali Turskoj. Gruzijsko stanovništvo ovih mjesta podvrglo se preseljenju u unutarnja područja Turske.

Izvori

Povijest Turske
Povijest Gruzije
Povijesne regije

Tao (povijesna regija)


ماركو جيامباولو  (مواليد 2 أغسطس 1967 في بيلنزونا - سويسرا) لاعب كرة قدم إيطالي الجنسية سويسري المولد معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في مركز الوسط المحوري وحاليا مدرب نادي الدرجة الأولى كاتانيا الإيطالي منذ 2010. وهو المدرب الحالي لنادي سامبدوريا الإيطالي.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من بيلينزونا
أشخاص من تيرامو
لاعبو اتحاد جوبيو الرياضي 1910
لاعبو الاتحاد الرياضي غوبيو 1910
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثالثة
لاعبو الدوري الإيطالي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو كرة قدم إيطاليون
مدربو الدوري الإيطالي
مدربو إيه سي ميلان
مدربو تورينو
مدربو سامبدوريا
مدربو كاتانيا
مدربو كرة قدم إيطاليون
مدربو نادي أسكولي
مدربو نادي إمبولي
مدربو نادي بريشيا
مدربو نادي تريفيزو
مدربو نادي تشيزينا
مدربو نادي سيينا
مدربو نادي كالياري
مدربو نادي كريمونيسي
مواليد 1967
مواليد في بيلينزونا

ماركو جيامباولو


este o companie japoneză orientată către editarea de cărți și educația prin corespondență, cu sediul în orașul Okayama. Ea este compania părinte a Berlitz Language Schools, care este la rândul ei compania mamă a ELS Language Centres. Benesse este listată la Bursa de Valori din Tokyo (codul listat 9783).

Originea numelui companiei
Denumirea companiei este derivată din cuvintele latine "bene" (bine) și "esse" (ființă).

Istoria companiei
Compania a fost fondată în 1955 sub numele de  de Tetsuhiko Fukutake, ca editură de materiale educaționale. În 1986 Soichiro Fukutake a succedat tatălui său în funcția de președinte la moartea acestuia din urmă. În 1994 compania a finalizat construcția clădirii Fukutake Shoten Tokyo (acum Benesse Corporation Tokyo Building) în orașul Tama din zona metropolitană Tokyo. În aprilie 1995 compania a fost redenumită Benesse Corporation.

O evoluție majoră în istoria corporației japoneze Fukutake (ulterior Benesse) a fost achiziționarea începând din 1993 a pachetului majoritar de acțiuni al companiei Berlitz International, care devenise companie publică în 1989. În anul 2001 corporația Benesse a finalizat preluarea, achiziționând toate acțiunile Berlitz și transformând-o din nou într-o companie privată.

Fundația Benesse
Benesse House este  de pe insula Naoshima din Marea interioară Seto. Construit în 1992, el este singurul hotel de pe insulă și a fost proiectat în parteneriat cu arhitectul Tadao Ando. A fost construit de Fundația Benesse, care este finanțată de Benesse Corporation.

Note

Legături externe
 Benesse Corporation
 Site-ul oficial ELS

Companii listate la Tokyo Stock Exchange
Edituri din Japonia
Fondări în 1955

Benesse


Balık ve kurbağalarda :
Dış döllenme ve dış gelişme olur. Bunların yumurta sayıları çok olduğundan geçirirler. Bunların yumurtadan çıkan yavruları (larva) suda yaşadığından, dış etkilere kara ortamındakilerden daha az açıktırlar. Bu yüzden bunlarda yumurta kabuğu, amniyon ve allantoyis bulunmaz. Embriyo etrafındaki su ortamı amniyon görevi görür. Yumurta etrafında kireçli kabuk bulunmadığından artık maddeler de doğrudan dışarı verilir

Amfibyumlar
Gelişim biyolojisi
Larvalar

İribaş


Auburn er en by i Worcester County, Massachusetts, USA. Byen havde 16.188 indbyggere ved folketællingen i 2010.

Historie

Auburn blev først bebygget i 1714 og fik officiel bystatus 10. april 1778 med navnet Ward efter general Artemas Ward fra den amerikanske uafhængighedskrig. Byen ændrede sit navn til Auburn i 1837 efter klager fra det amerikanske postvæsen om at navnet lå for tæt på navnet for den nærliggende by Ware.

Robert Goddard opsendte den første raket med flydende ilt som brændstof fra en bakke i Auburn 16. marts 1926. Parken Goddard Memorial Park i centrum af Auburn er opkaldt efter Goddard. I parken er opstillet en model af Goddards raket og et Polaris ballistisk missil.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Town Webside for Auburn

Byer i Massachusetts

Auburn (Massachusetts)


Palpimanoidea es una superfamilia de arañas araneomorfas, con tres familias de arañas de ocho ojos:
 Huttoniidae: con 1 género y 1 especie
 Palpimanidae: con 15 géneros y 131 especies
 Stenochilidae: con 2 géneros y 13 especies

Véase también
 Anexo:Especies de Palpimanidae
 Anexo:Especies de Stenochilidae
 Taxonomía de las arañas

Referencias
 Griswold, C.E., Coddington, J.A., Platnick, N.I. and Forster, R.R. (1999): "Towards a Phylogeny of Entelegyne Spiders (Araneae, Araneomorphae, Entelegynae)". Journal of Arachnology 27:53-63. PDF
 Platnick, Norman I. (2012): The world spider catalog, version 12.5. American Museum of Natural History.
 Texas A&M University, Department of Entomology - Synopsis of the described Araneae of the World.

Enlaces externos

Palpimanoidea

Palpimanoidea


Fernando González Laxe (6 Eylül 1952, La Coruña) Galiçyalı siyasetçi ve devlet adamı. 1987 ve 1990 yılları arasında başbakanlık görevi yapmıştır.1977 yılında da kongrede görev almıştır.

Galiçya (İspanya)
Yaşayan insanlar

Fernando González Laxe


الشيخان : منطقة بالعراق.
 الشيخان : مفردها شيخ يشار بها إلى:
 أبو بكر الصديق وعمر بن الخطاب.
 البخاري ومسلم علماء الحديث.
 الشيخان : كتاب لطه حسين.

الشيخان (توضيح)


Alin Sumarwata es una actriz australiana, conocida por su interpretación de Sophia Angleton en East West 101 y de Vanessa Villante en la serie Neighbours.

Biografía
Es de ascendencia indonesia, arábica-pérsica y australiana.

A principios del 2010 se comprometió con el actor Don Hany, quien aparecía en la serie East West 101. La pareja se casó en el 2011. En octubre del 2011 la pareja le bio la bienvenida a su primera hija juntos, Tilda Hany.

Carrera
En el 2009 apareció en varios episodios de la exitosa serie australiana Home and Away donde interpretó a May Stone, ese mismo año se unió como personaje recurrente a la primera temporada de la serie East West 101 donde interpretó a la agente de policía Sophia Angleton. También apareció como invitada en un episodio de la serie Rescue Special Ops.

Apareció en la película False Witness donde dio vida a Yasmin Van Koors, la esposa de Charles Van Koors (Richard Roxburgh). En la película Alin tuvo que hacer un semidesnudo.

En el 2010 apareció como invitada en sesiones como Tangle y Sea Patrol donde interpretó a Sylvanna Gorski

El 14 de marzo de 2012 se unió al elenco principal de la popular serie australiana Neighbours donde interpretó a la chef Vanessa Villante, hasta el 24 de septiembre de 2013 después de que su personaje decidiera mudarse a Daylesford junto a su esposo Lucas Fitzgerald y su hijo Patrick. A finales de noviembre del 2014 se anunció que Vanessa sería uno de los antiguos personajes que regresarían brevemente a la serie para celebrar el aniversario número 30 de "Neighbours" en marzo del 2015. En octubre del 2015 se anunció que Alin regresaría a la serie el 10 de noviembre del mismo año.

En el 2015 se unió al elenco de la película para la televisión Mary: The Making of a Princess donde dio vida a la Princesa Alexandra, Condesa de Frederiksborg, la exesposa del príncipe Joachim de Dinamarca (Gareth Reeves).

El 8 de diciembre de 2016 se anunció que Alin se había unido al elenco de la nueva versión de la serie Strike Back, en la serie dará vida a Gracie Novin, una mujer honesta que pronto se convierte en el corazón y alma del equipo.

Filmografía

Series de televisión

Películas

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Website > Alin Sumarwata
 Alin Sumarwata on TV.com

Actrices de Australia
Actores de televisión de Australia

Alin Sumarwata