William Daniel Leahy ()  (May 6, 1875 – July 20, 1959)  was an American naval officer. The most senior United States military officer on active duty during World War II, he held several titles and exercised considerable influence over foreign and military policy. As a fleet admiral, he was the first flag officer ever to hold a five-star rank in the U.S. Armed Forces.

An 1897 graduate of Annapolis, Leahy saw active service in the Spanish–American War, the Philippine–American War, the Boxer Rebellion in China, the Banana Wars in Central America, and World War I. He was the first member of his cadet class to reach flag rank, as the Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance from 1927 to 1931. He subsequently served as Chief of the Bureau of Navigation from 1933 to 1936, and commanded the Battle Fleet from 1936 to 1937. As Chief of Naval Operations from 1937 to 1939, he was the senior officer in the United States Navy, overseeing the expansion of the fleet and preparations for war.

After retiring from the Navy, Leahy was appointed the governor of Puerto Rico in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In his most controversial role, he served as the Ambassador to France from 1940 to 1942. American policy was aimed at keeping the government of Vichy France free of German control, but Leahy had limited success. He came to believe that the United States should back Free France instead of Vichy France, and asked to be recalled after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war.

Leahy was recalled to active duty as the Chief of Staff to the President in 1942 and served in that position for the rest of the war. He was the highest-ranking active-duty member of the military. As the de facto first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, he oversaw all of the American armed forces. He also presided over the American delegation to the Combined Chiefs of Staff. He was a major decision-maker during the war and was second only to the President in authority and influence. Leahy was promoted to five-star rank in December 1944. He served Roosevelt's successor Harry S. Truman, helping shape postwar foreign policy until he retired in 1949. Although he did not oppose the use of the nuclear weapons during the war, in the post-war period he rejected war plans that placed too much emphasis on the first use of nuclear weapons.

Early life and education

William Daniel Leahy was born in Hampton, Iowa, on May 6, 1875, the first of seven children of Michael Anthony Leahy, a lawyer and American Civil War veteran, who was elected to the Iowa Legislature in 1872, and his wife Rose Mary  Hamilton. Both parents were born in the United States but his grandparents were immigrants from Ireland. He had five brothers and a sister. His father was re-elected in 1874, but moved to Wausau, Wisconsin in 1882. In 1889, the family moved again, this time to Ashland, Wisconsin, where Leahy attended high school. His nose was broken in an American football match and his family lacked the money to get it fixed, so it remained crooked for the rest of his life.

Leahy wanted to attend the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, but this required an Congressional appointment, and Leahy was unable to secure one. His local Congressman, Thomas Lynch, offered Leahy an appointment to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, which was much less popular among boys in the landlocked Midwestern United States. Leahy passed the entrance examinations and was admitted as a naval cadet in May 1893.

Leahy learned how to sail on the  on a summer cruise to Europe, although the vessel only made it as far as the Azores before breaking down. He graduated 35th out of 47 in the class of 1897. His class was the most successful ever: five of its members would reach four-star rank while on active duty: Leahy, Thomas C. Hart, Arthur J. Hepburn, Orin G. Murfin and Harry E. Yarnell. , no other class had had more than four.

Naval service

Spanish-American War
Until 1912 naval cadets graduating from Annapolis had to complete two years' duty at sea and pass examinations before they could be commissioned as ensigns. Leahy was assigned to the battleship , which was then at Vancouver, British Columbia for celebrations of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. He was on board when she made a dash through the Strait of Magellan, and around South America in the spring of 1898 to participate in the Spanish–American War. The Oregon took part in the blockade and bombardment of Santiago and shelled the small town of Guantánamo, which Leahy felt was "unnecessary and cruel". In the Battle of Santiago on July 3, Leahy was in command of the ship's forward turret. This was the only naval battle Leahy witnessed in person.

Seeking further action, Leahy volunteered to serve on the gunboat , which was bound for the war in the Pacific, traveling via the Mediterranean Sea and the Suez Canal, but he got only as far as Ceylon when he received orders to report to Annapolis for his final ensign's examinations. He was therefore left behind, and had to return to the United States on the . He reached Annapolis in June 1899. He passed his examinations, and was commissioned as an ensign on July 1, 1899. After few weeks' leave, spent with his parents in Wisconsin, and a few months' service on the cruiser  at the Mare Island Navy Yard, he joined the monitor  on October 12, 1899. A week later it set sail for the Philippines. It arrived in Manila on November 24, and Leahy rejoined the crew of the Castine five days later.

China and Philippine–American Wars
On December 17, 1899, Castine sailed for Nagasaki, but it developed engine trouble on February 12 and stopped in Shanghai to make repairs. While it was there the Boxer Rebellion broke out in China, and it was retained in Shanghai to help British, French and Japanese forces guard the city, although Leahy did not like their chances if the 4,500 Chinese troops in the vicinity joined the uprising, as they had in the Battle of Tientsin. On August 28, the Castine was ordered to Amoy help protect American interests there against the possibility of a Japanese coup. After the threat had passed, the Castine returned to the Philippines, arriving back in Manila on September 16, 1900.

The Philippine–American War was still ongoing, and the Castine supported American operations on Marinduque and Iloilo. Leahy was appalled by American brutality and the widespread use of torture. Still an ensign, he was given his first command, the gunboat , a refitted ex-Spanish vessel. It had a crew of 23. His period in command ended when the Mariveles lost one of its propellers and had to be laid up for repairs. He was then reassigned to the , a stores ship which was engaged in bringing supplies from Australia to the Philippines. While in the Philippines he passed the examinations required for promotion to lieutenant, junior grade, and was promoted to that rank on July 1, 1902. He made his final trip to the Philippines in September 1902,and returned to the United States later that year.

Sea duty alternated with duty ashore. Leahy was assigned to the training ship  in San Francisco, where he was promoted to lieutenant on December 31, 1903. He met and courted Louise Tennent Harrington. Leahy married Louise on February 3, 1904. Louise subsequently convinced him to convert to Episcopalianism.

Leahy helped commission the cruiser  but swapped assignments with an officer on the  so that he could remain in San Francisco with Louise, who was pregnant. Over the next two years the Boston cruised back and forth between San Francisco and Panama, where the Panama Canal was under construction. He was in Acapulco when their son and only child, William Harrington Leahy, was born on October 27, 1904, and did not see his son until five months later. He was present for the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. His family had to leave their house in the face of the resulting fires. It survived undamaged, although they had to live in a hotel for several months before they could return.

On February 22, 1907, Leahy returned to Annapolis as instructor in the department of physics and chemistry. He also coached the academy rifle team. After two years ashore, he received orders on August 14, 1909, to return to San Francisco and sea duty as navigator of the armored cruiser , commanded by Captain Henry T. Mayo, in whom Leahy found a patron and a role model. In September, the California was one of eight ships that paid an official visit to Japan, where Leahy saw Admiral Heihachirō Tōgō. Mayo switched Leahy's assignment from navigator to gunnery officer.

Leahy was promoted to lieutenant commander on September 15, 1909, and in January 1911, the commander-in-chief of the Pacific Fleet, Rear Admiral Chauncey Thomas Jr., chose him as his fleet gunnery officer. In October, the California returned to San Francisco for a fleet review in honor of President William Howard Taft, and Leahy served as Taft's temporary naval aide for four days.

Banana Wars
Rear Admiral William H. H. Southerland succeeded Thomas as commander of the Pacific Fleet on April 21, 1912. The California sailed to Manila and then to Japan before returning to San Francisco on August 15. A few weeks later, Southerland received orders to proceed to Nicaragua and be prepared to deploy a landing force for the United States occupation of Nicaragua. Along with his duties as gunnery officer, Leahy became the chief of staff of the expeditionary force and the commander of the small garrison at Corinto, Nicaragua. He came under fire while repeatedly escorting reinforcements and supplies over the railroad line to León. Privately, he thought that the United States was backing the wrong side, propping up a conservative elite who were exploiting the Nicaraguan people.

In October 1912, Leahy came ashore in Washington, D.C., as assistant director of gunnery exercises and engineering competitions. Then, in 1913, Mayo had him assigned to the Bureau of Navigation as a detail officer. Mayo and then his replacement, Rear Admiral William Fullam, were reassigned, leaving Leahy as the acting chief of the bureau. It was one of the Navy's most sensitive offices, as it controlled officer assignments. Leahy's wife Louise enjoyed the social milieu of Washington, and socialized with Addie Daniels, the wife of Josephus Daniels, the Secretary of the Navy. Leahy established a close friendship with the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Franklin D. Roosevelt.

As Leahy's three-year tour of shore duty approached its end in 1915, he hoped to command the new destroyer tender  but Daniels had the assignment changed to command of the Secretary of the Navy's dispatch gunboat, the . Leahy assumed command of the Dolphin on September 18, 1915. The ship took part in the United States occupation of Haiti, where Leahy again acted as chief of staff, this time to Rear Admiral William B. Caperton. In May 1916, Dolphin participated in the occupation of the Dominican Republic too. During the summer, Roosevelt used it as his family yacht, cruising down the Hudson River from the Roosevelt family estate in Hyde Park, New York, and along the coast to his holiday house on Campobello Island. Leahy was promoted to commander on August 29, 1916.

World War I
Following the United States entry into World War I In April 1917, Dolphin was sent to the United States Virgin Islands to assert America's control there. There was a rumor that a Danish-flagged freighter in the vicinity, the Nordskov, was a German merchant raider in disguise, and Dolphin was sent to investigate. If it had been, Leahy would have been outgunned, but an inspection determined that the rumors were false. In July 1917, Leahy became the executive officer of . It was the Navy's newest battleship, but it was not sent to Europe due to teething troubles with its new design and a shortage of fuel oil in Britain.

In April 1918 Leahy assumed command of a troop transport, the . Shortly before it was due to depart for France, Leahy was summoned to Washington, D.C., by the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Admiral William S. Benson, who offered him the position of the Navy's director of gunnery. Leahy told him that he wanted to remain on the Princess Matoika. A compromise was reached; Leahy was permitted to cross the Atlantic once before becoming director of gunnery. Traveling in convoy, the Princess Matoika reached Brest on May 23, 1918, and disembarked its troops. Leahy was awarded the Navy Cross "for distinguished service in the line of his profession as Commanding Officer of the USS Princess Matoika, engaged in the important, exacting and hazardous duty of transporting and escorting troops and supplies to European ports through waters infested with enemy submarines and mines during World War I."

Leahy returned to the United States, where he was promoted to captain on July 1, 1918, and soon after was on his way back to Europe to confer with representatives of the Royal Navy and discuss their gunnery practices. He reached London later that month, where he reported to the U.S. Navy commander in Europe, Vice Admiral William S. Sims, who had been a critic of the Navy's gunnery in the Spanish-American War. Leahy met with his British counterpart, Captain Frederic Dreyer, and the chief gunnery officer of the Anglo-American Grand Fleet, Captain Ernle Chatfield.

Leahy was attached to the staff of Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman, the commander of the American division of the Grand Fleet, and was able to view a gunnery exercise from the British battleship . On the way home he visited Paris, where he was appalled at the German use of a long-range gun to bombard the city, which he considered an indiscriminate targeting of civilians and militarily useless. He embarked for home on the  at Brest on August 12, 1918.

Sea duty between the wars

In February 1921, Leahy sailed for Europe, where he assumed command of the cruiser  on April 2. In May he was ordered to take command of the cruiser , the flagship of the naval detachment in Turkish waters during the Greco-Turkish War. He was able to spend a couple of weeks in the French countryside with Louise, who spoke fluent French, before taking the Orient Express to Constantinople, where he reported to the American commander there, Rear Admiral Mark L. Bristol, on May 30. Leahy had the role of safeguarding American interests in Turkey. He had to play the diplomat, attending parties and receptions, and organizing American events. He reveled in this assignment.

The next step in a successful naval career would normally have been to attend the Naval War College. Leahy submitted repeated requests but was never sent. At the end of 1921, he was given command of the minelayer  and concurrent command of Mine Squadron One. He then returned to Washington, D.C., where he served as director of Officer Personnel in the Bureau of Navigation from 1923 to 1926. After three years of shore duty, he was given command of the battleship . In biennial competitions in gunnery, engineering and battle efficiency, the New Mexico won all three in 1927–1928.

Flag officer
On October 14, 1927, he reached flag rank, the first member of his cadet class to do so, and returned to Washington as the Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance. The following year he bought a town house on Florida Avenue near Dupont Circle for $20,000 (). He also had assets that he had acquired through his marriage to Louise: stocks in the Colusa County Bank and agricultural land in the Sacramento Valley in California. In the wake of the Wall Street Crash of 1929, President Herbert Hoover determined to effect cuts in the Navy's budget, and his representative, Rear Admiral William V. Pratt, negotiated the London Naval Treaty that limited naval construction. The list of canceled ships included two aircraft carriers, three cruisers, a destroyer and six submarines. Leahy was in charge of implementing these cuts, and he was appalled at the human toll; some 5,000 workers lost their jobs, many of them highly skilled shipyard workers who faced long-term unemployment during the Great Depression.

Admiral Charles F. Hughes elected to retire rather than enforce the cuts, and he was replaced by Pratt. Pratt and Leahy soon clashed over cuts to shipbuilding, and Pratt attempted to have Leahy reassigned as chief of staff of the Pacific Fleet. Leahy had the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation block this, but decided that it would be in his best interest to get away from Pratt, and he secured command of the destroyers of the Scouting Force on the West Coast in 1931. Leahy's dislike of Hoover was intensified by his dire personal circumstances. He could not find a tenant for the Florida Avenue property at a rent that would pay for its upkeep; the price of food had fallen so much that his land in the Sacramento Valley could not generate a profit, and was seized by the government to recover unpaid taxes; and a run on the bank in January 1933 caused the Colusa County Bank to close its doors, taking with it Leahy's life savings, and leaving him with a large debt that he would not pay off until 1941.

Roosevelt was inaugurated as president on March 2, 1933, and he nominated Leahy as the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation. On May 6, 1933, Leahy and Louise boarded a train back to Washington, D.C.. As bureau chief, Leahy handled personnel matters with care and consideration. When his successor as the Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance, Rear Admiral Edgar B. Larimer, suffered a mental breakdown and was hospitalized, Leahy ensured that he was kept on the active list until he reached retirement age, thereby safeguarding his pension. When two midshipmen at Annapolis, John Hyland and Victor Krulak, faced expulsion for failing to reach the required minimum height of , Leahy waived the regulations to permit them to graduate with the class of 1934, and both went on to have distinguished careers.

Leahy formed a good working relationship with the new Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Henry L. Roosevelt, an Annapolis graduate and distant cousin of the President whom Leahy considered a close personal friend, but he clashed with the new CNO, Admiral William H. Standley, who sought to assert the power of the CNO over the bureau chiefs. In this he was opposed by Leahy and the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Rear Admiral Ernest J. King, who enlisted the aid of Henry Roosevelt and the Secretary of the Navy, Claude A. Swanson, to block it. In 1936, the commander-in-chief United States Fleet (CINCUS), Admiral Joseph M. Reeves recommended Leahy for the position of Commander Battleships Battle Force, with the rank of vice admiral. Standley was opposed to this, but was unable to persuade Swanson or the President, who invited Leahy to a private chat at the White House before proceeding to take up his new posting.

Leahy assumed his new command on July 13, 1935. In October Roosevelt came out to California for the California Pacific International Exposition. Leahy treated him to the largest fleet maneuver the U.S. Navy had ever carried out, with 129 warships, including 12 battleships, participating, which the President observed from the deck of the cruiser . On March 30, 1936, Leahy was promoted to the temporary rank of admiral and hoisted his four-star flag on the battleship  as Commander Battle Force. One of his last acts in this post was a symbolic one: he transferred his flag to the aircraft carrier  as a sign of his conviction that aircraft were now an integral part of sea power.

Chief of Naval Operations
In December 1935, Swanson told Leahy in confidence that he would be appointed the next CNO if Roosevelt won the 1936 presidential election. Roosevelt won the election with a landslide victory, and on November 10, 1936, it was announced that Leahy would succeed Standley as CNO on January 1, 1937. As CNO, Leahy was content to let the bureau chiefs function as they always had, acting as a primus inter pares. Swanson was chronically ill, and Henry Roosevelt died on February 22, 1936. Charles Edison became the new assistant secretary, but he lacked experience in naval affairs.

Leahy began representing the Navy in cabinet meetings. He met with the President frequently; during his tenure as CNO, Roosevelt had 52 meetings with Leahy, compared with twelve with his Army counterpart, General Malin Craig, and none the meetings with Craig were private lunches. Meetings between Leahy and Roosevelt were sometimes on matters unrelated to the Navy, and they frequently went on for hours. At one private lunch on April 15, 1937, Leahy and Roosevelt debated whether new battleships should have 16-inch ()  or (cheaper) 14-inch () guns. Leahy ultimately persuaded the President that the new s should have 16-inch guns. On May 22, Leahy accompanied the President and dignitaries including John Nance Garner, Harry Hopkins, James F. Byrnes, Morris Sheppard, Edwin C. Johnson, Claude Pepper and Sam Rayburn on a cruise on the presidential yacht  to watch a baseball game between congressmen and the press.

The most important issue confronting the administration was how to respond to the Japanese invasion of China. The commander-in-chief of the Asiatic Fleet, Admiral Harry Yarnell, asked for four more cruisers to help evacuate American citizens from the Shanghai International Settlement, but the Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, thought this would be too provocative. Leahy went to Hyde Park to take the matter up with Roosevelt. The request was turned down: American isolationist sentiment was too strong to countenance the risk of being drawn into the conflict; Yarnell could use merchant ships, if he could find them. Leahy accepted this presidential decision, as he always did, even when he strongly disagreed. Leahy wrote in his diary that a Japanese threat to bomb the civilian population in China was "evidence, and a conclusive one, that the old accepted rules of warfare are no longer in effect."

On December 12, Leahy was informed of the USS Panay incident, in which an American gunboat on the Yangtze River had been sunk by Japanese aircraft. He met with Hull to craft a response, and discussed the matter with Roosevelt on December 14. Leahy saw the Panay incident as a test of American resolve. He wanted to answer it with a show of force, economic sanctions and a naval blockade of Japan. But among Roosevelt's advisors, he was the only one willing to countenance such a drastic step. Roosevelt agreed with him, but in an election year he felt he could not afford to antagonize the pacifists and isolationists. The Japanese apology therefore was accepted.

The Panay incident did prompt Roosevelt and Leahy to press ahead with plans for an ambitious shipbuilding program. On January 5, Roosevelt, Leahy and Edison met with Congressman Carl Vinson to draw up a strategy for obtaining Congressional approval for a 20 percent increase in all classes of warships. The resulting Second Vinson Act was approved in May 1938, and provided for four more s. Leahy had not thought it worthwhile to build more aircraft carriers, but five were added to what became the Two-Ocean Navy Act, together with five s. Leahy pushed for the construction of 24  oilers, which would be needed to project American sea power across the Pacific. Leahy joined Louise when she sponsored the first of these, the , which was commissioned on March 20, 1939.

Roosevelt threw a surprise party for Leahy on July 28, 1939, during which he presented him with the Navy Distinguished Service Medal. According to Leahy, Roosevelt said: "Bill, if we have a war, you're going to be right back here helping me run it." To make this easier, legislation was expedited to keep Leahy on the active list for another two years. On August 1, 1939, Admiral Harold Stark replaced Leahy as CNO.

Government service

Governor of Puerto Rico

From September 1939 to November 1940, Leahy served as Governor of Puerto Rico after Roosevelt removed Blanton Winship for his role in the Ponce massacre. Winship had aligned himself with the Coalición, a pro-American electoral alliance that represented the interests of the island's wealthy elite and American sugar corporations. Roosevelt gave Leahy the objectives of developing and upgrading base installations, and of alleviating the extreme poverty and inequality. Leahy was given an $10 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in addition to funds already earmarked for the island and extraordinary latitude in spending it. He was also named as the head of the Puerto Rican office of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which gave him control over New Deal funding. In October 1939, he also became the head of the Puerto Rico Cement Corporation to help it secure a $700,000 loan () from the Federal government's Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC), and in December he became the head of the Puerto Rican branch of the RFC. His power was enhanced by his direct access to the President and the Secretary of the interior, Harold L. Ickes.

Although given the unflattering sobriquet Almirante Lija ("Admiral Sandpaper") by locals, based on his surname,  Luis Muñoz Marín came to regard Leahy as "by far the best governor that has been sent to Puerto Rico since the beginning of the American Regime." Leahy took an open stance of not intervening directly in the politics of Puerto Rico, although he remained involved in Federal politics, doing what he could to support Roosevelt's 1940 reelection. He attempted to understand and respect local customs, and initiated major public works projects. Although his priority was developing Puerto Rico as a military base, over half the WPA funds were spent on public works such as roads and improving sanitation. He regulated prices and production in the coffee industry, and had ships traveling between the United States and the Panama Canal, where major upgrade works were being undertaken, stop over in Puerto Rico when they needed repairs or supplies. In December 1939 he met with Roosevelt and secured another $100 million in WPA funding (equivalent to $ million in ) for public works, which allowed him to hire another 20,000 workers. By awarding lucrative government contracts and appointing officials based on Roosevelt's preferences rather than those of the local elite, he soon earned the enmity of the Coalición.

Leahy oversaw the development of military bases and stations across the island. At the time of his appointment as governor, the only naval installations were a radio station and a hydrographic office. On October 30, 1939, a fixed-price contract was awarded for construction of the Naval Air Station Isla Grande. The scope was widened to include the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station; construction work there commenced in 1941 under another fixed-price contract and the base was commissioned on July 15, 1943.

Between January 1 and November 1, 1940, Leahy met with Roosevelt six times. One of the most important was a lunch on October 6, 1940. Admiral James O. Richardson, the CINCUS, had been ordered to keep the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor to act as a deterrent to the Japanese. Richardson protested that Pearl Harbor was unsuitable as a base and was too vulnerable to a surprise attack. Leahy agreed, but knew better than to press the matter with Roosevelt when his mind was made up. On February 1, 1941, Richardson was recalled.

Ambassador to France
Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy described the Fall of France in June 1940 as "the most shocking single event of the war". American security had been underwritten by Britain and France, allowing the United States to have comparatively low defense spending. Planning was based on the assumption that France would be a bulwark against Germany, as it had been in World War I, and the United States would have ample time to mobilize industry and create armies. Now, with France gone, Germany could directly threaten the United States. On November 18, 1940, Leahy was appointed United States Ambassador to France. In his message asking Leahy to accept the position, Roosevelt explained:

"My major task", Leahy later recalled "was to keep the French on our side in so far as possible". He hoped to convince Pétain and the Commander-in-Chief of the French Navy, Admiral François Darlan, that it was in France's best interest that Germany be defeated. He departed Norfolk, Virginia, on the cruiser  on December 17, 1940, and presented his letter of credence to Pétain in Vichy on January 9, 1941.

Leahy had some levers with which to influence the French to moderate collaboration with the Axis Powers. He advised Roosevelt that shipments of food and medical aid to France would improve America's standing and stiffen Pétain's resolve. In his opinion, the "British blockade action which prevents the delivery of necessary foodstuffs to the inhabitants of unoccupied France is of the same order of stupidity as many other British policies in the present war." He suggested that aid to French North Africa would also strengthen the hand of General Maxime Weygand, the French Delegate-General in North Africa, in resisting Axis demands. Roosevelt compelled the British to accept the shipment of food and medicine for children, along with thousands of tons of fuel intended for their distribution.

American aid proved insufficient to buy French support. In May 1941, Darlan agreed to the Paris Protocols, which granted Germany access to French military bases in Syria, Tunisia, and French West Africa, and in July the French granted Japan access to bases in French Indochina, which directly threatened the American position in the Philippines. Although no German bombers had the range to bomb the United States from bases in Senegal, if they could deploy to Vichy-held Martinique, they could do so from there.

Weygand, the main American hope for a change in French policy, was recalled on November 18, 1941, despite Leahy's warnings that this could prompt a cession of American aid. On December 7, Leahy received news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. This was followed, on December 11, by the German declaration of war against the United States. Leahy thought the United States's entry into the war would strengthen his hand with the Vichy government, but Charles de Gaulle's capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon later that month discredited American assurances that French colonies would not be seized.

By this time Leahy was convinced that the United States should back Free France instead of Vichy France, and he unsuccessfully urged Roosevelt to use the capture of Saint Pierre and Miquelon as a pretext for recalling him to the United States. After the formation of a new government in Vichy under the pro-Axis Pierre Laval on April 18, Leahy again requested he be recalled in order to distance the United States from Laval, and Washington officials agreed. Meanwhile, on April 9, Leahy's wife Louise underwent a hysterectomy. While recovering from the operation, she suffered an embolism and died on April 21. Leahy called on Pétain to say farewell on April 27. He arrived back in New York on the Swedish-registered ocean liner  on June 1. He arranged for a funeral service for Louise at the St. Thomas Episcopal Church, where they had been members for many years, and watched her burial in Arlington National Cemetery on June 3, 1942. Reflecting on her loss, Leahy would write that Louise's death had "left me not only crushed with sorrow, but permanently less than half efficient for any work the future may have in store for me and completely uninterested in the remaining future."

Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief

Organization and role
Waging a two-ocean war as part of a coalition revealed serious deficiencies in the organization of the American high command when it came to formulating grand strategy: meetings of the senior officers of the Army and Navy with each other and with the President were irregular and infrequent, and there was no joint planning staff or secretariat to record decisions taken. Under the Constitution of the United States, the President was the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. At a meeting with Roosevelt on February 24, 1942, the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General George C. Marshall, urged Roosevelt to appoint a chief of staff of the armed forces to provide unity of command, and he suggested Leahy for the role. Leahy had lunch with Roosevelt on July 7, during which this was discussed. On July 21, Leahy was recalled to active duty. He resigned as Ambassador to France and was appointed Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. In announcing the appointment, Roosevelt described Leahy's role as an advisory one rather than that of a supreme commander.

Leahy attended his first meeting of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) on July 28. The other members were Marshall; King, who was now both CNO and Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet (now abbreviated as COMINCH); and Lieutenant General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of U.S. Army Air Forces. Henceforth, the JCS held regular meetings at noon on Wednesdays, which usually commenced with a light lunch. Leahy served as the de facto chairman. He drew up the agenda for the JCS meetings, presided over them, and signed off on all the major papers and decisions. He considered that this was due to his seniority and not by virtue of his position. He had a small personal staff of two military aides-de-camp and two or three secretaries. JCS meetings were held in the Public Health Service Building, where Leahy had an office. After some renovations were made, he was also given an office in the East Wing of the White House on September 7, 1942; the other two main offices there were occupied by Hopkins and Byrnes. Roosevelt had the Map Room constructed in the White House where large maps showed the progress of the war. Only Leahy and Hopkins had unrestricted access to the Map Room; everyone else had to be accompanied by Leahy or Hopkins or given special permission to enter.

Two days after his first JCS meeting, there was a meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCS), which Leahy also chaired. In these meetings the JCS met with the leaders of the British Joint Staff Mission: Field Marshal Sir John Dill, Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, Air Marshal Douglas Evill and Lieutenant General Gordon Macready. CCS meetings were held every Friday. The main agendum item at his first JCS and CCS meetings was Operation Gymnast, a proposed invasion of French North Africa. Marshall and King were opposed to it on the grounds that it would divert resources necessary for Operation Roundup, a landing in northern France, but after listening to their arguments, Leahy informed them Roosevelt was adamant that it was vital American forces take the field against Germany in 1942, and that Gymnast was to proceed. Roosevelt gave his formal assent on July 25. Marshall and King considered this to be tentative, but Leahy informed them that the decision was final.

Leahy usually arrived at his White House office sometime between 08:30 and 08:45 and went over copies of dispatches and reports. For convenience, the documents were color coded: pink for incoming dispatches from the theater; yellow for outgoing ones; green for JCS papers; white for CCS ones; and blue for papers from the Joint Staff Planners. Leahy would select the papers to be brought to the President's attention, and would meet with him each morning in the Oval Office or the Map Room. This included high-grade Ultra intelligence. Control of the flow of information gave Leahy a further source of power and influence beyond his personal relationship with the President.

Grand strategy
When Roosevelt went away, Leahy went with him. Leahy missed the Casablanca Conference in January 1943; after setting out with Roosevelt, Hopkins and Rear Admiral Ross McIntire, Leahy developed bronchitis and had to remain in Trinidad. But he was present at all the other inter-Allied conferences that the President attended. Leahy's support of Roosevelt's decision to invade French North Africa did not mean that he bought into the British Mediterranean strategy. He joined Marshall and King in their advocacy of a cross-Channel operation in 1944. At the first conference he attended, the Third Washington Conference, in May 1943 he clashed with the British chiefs of staff over their reluctance to undertake operations to reopen the overland route to China, which Leahy considered vital to both the war against Japan and the postwar era. Leahy eventually extracted a promise from the British to undertake Operation Anakim, an offensive to recapture Burma, in 1943. Leahy sided with Hopkins and Major General Claire Chennault in supporting a bombing offensive against Japan from bases in China despite Marshall's prescient warnings that this could not be sustained without adequate ground troops to protect the air bases. Marshall was proven correct when a Japanese offensive overran Chennault's bases.

On November 12, 1943, Roosevelt, Hopkins, Leahy, King and Marshall set off together from Hampton Roads on the battleship . Roosevelt occupied the captain's cabin, and Leahy the one for an embarked admiral. They reached Mers-el-Kebir on November 20, from whence they flew to Tunis and then Cairo. Roosevelt stayed at the American Ambassador's compound in Cairo. Space was limited, so he took only Leahy and Hopkins with him. Discussions with the British were mainly concerned with Burma and China, about which they had much less interest than the Americans.

They then flew on to Tehran, Iran, for talks with Stalin. Roosevelt was slated to stay at the American legation there, but Stalin offered to put him up at the Soviet compound. He was allowed to bring two people with him, so he chose Leahy and Hopkins. The conference reached agreement with the Soviets on the cross-Channel operation (Operation Overlord) and an invasion of Southern France (Operation Anvil). When General Sir Alan Brooke began to back away from the commitment, Leahy lost his patience and demanded to know under what circumstances Brooke would be willing to undertake Overlord. The British, as Leahy put it, "fell into line".

Although the conservative Leahy regarded Hopkins as a "pinko", the two men worked well together, and Leahy became quite fond of Hopkins. Both were completely devoted to the President, and Leahy saw something of himself in the idealistic Hopkins. Over time, Leahy gradually replaced Hopkins as Roosevelt's most trusted advisor, becoming, in the words of historian Phillips O'Brien, "the second most powerful man in the world". The main reason for this was the Hopkins's precarious health, as he had stomach cancer. He married Louise Gill Macy in the Yellow Oval Room on July 30, 1942, they moved out of the White House in December 1943. He was therefore no longer at Roosevelt's beck and call.

Leahy spent D-Day, June 6, 1944, in his home town of Hampton, Iowa. This well-publicized "sentimental journey" was part of the deception efforts surrounding the Allied invasion of Europe. The idea was to lull any German agents in the United States into believing that the operation would not take place while such an important officer was out of the capital. The following month, he accompanied Roosevelt to the Pacific Strategy Conference in Hawaii at which they met with Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, the commander in chief of the Pacific Ocean Areas, and General Douglas MacArthur, the commander in chief of the Southwest Pacific Area.

Roosevelt, Leahy and presidential speech writer Samuel Rosenman (instead of Hopkins) set out from Washington in Roosevelt's personal railcar, the Ferdinand Magellan, on July 13. They went to Hyde Park, where Roosevelt showed Leahy around his Presidential Library, then to Chicago, where Roosevelt conferred with leaders of the Democratic Party over the choice of Harry S. Truman as his vice presidential running mate in the 1944 election. In San Diego they boarded the cruiser , which took them to Hawaii, where Nimitz briefed them on a proposed invasion of the island of Formosa, King's preferred target, but also spoke favorably of MacArthur's alternative of liberating the Philippines. Leahy hoped that this would facilitate a naval and air blockade that would make an invasion of Japan unnecessary. No decision was taken at this time, and the JCS continued debating the issue for months before authorizing the liberation of Luzon on October 3.

Hopkins was not present at the Second Quebec Conference in September 1944 either, continuing Leahy's transformation into a White House advisor. Leahy did not attend the political sessions at Quebec, but at this level political and military issues were indistinguishable. For example, the JCS examined a proposal for a British fleet to participate in the Pacific War, a military proposal with a political objective. King was unenthusiastic about the idea; the U.S. Navy was performing well against the Japanese, and the addition of British forces would complicate command and logistics arrangements. Leahy and Marshall pressed for the British offer to be accepted, and in the end it was, with the proviso that the British Pacific Fleet would be self-supporting.

Another debate concerned the American occupation zone in Germany. The United States was allocated the southern part of Germany, which meant that its lines of communications would run through France, where Leahy was concerned about the prospect of a postwar Communist takeover. Roosevelt and Churchill reached a compromise, whereby the ports of Bremen and Bremerhaven would be given to the Americans, along with the right of transit through the British Zone.

Leahy was advanced to the newly created rank of Fleet Admiral on December 15, 1944, making him the most senior of the seven men who received five-star rank that month. He accompanied President Roosevelt to the Yalta Conference in February 1945. The cruiser  took them to Malta, where Leahy chaired a CCS meeting to discuss the war against Germany, and then the President's personal aircraft, the Sacred Cow, flew them to Yalta. At Yalta, Roosevelt met Churchill and Stalin to decide how Europe was to be reorganized after the impending surrender of Germany.

On April 12, 1945, Roosevelt died. Leahy attended the ceremonies and the memorial service for his friend, which was held in the East Room of the White House.

Atomic bomb
On April 13, Leahy gave the regular morning briefing on the progress of the war to Truman, who had become President on Roosevelt's death. This was followed by a short meeting with the Joint Chiefs, the Secretary of War, Henry Stimson, and the Secretary of the Navy, James Forrestal. Afterwards, Leahy offered to resign, but Truman decided to retain him as chief of staff. On June 18, the Joint Chiefs, along with Stimson and Forrestal, met with Truman at the White House to discuss Operation Olympic, the planned invasion of Kyushu. Truman chaired the meeting. Marshall and King strongly favored the operation, and all the others voiced their support except Leahy, who feared that it would result in high casualties. He questioned Marshall's casualty estimates, which were based on the Luzon campaign, which took place on a large land mass where there was ample room for maneuver, rather than the Okinawa campaign, which took place on an island where lack of maneuver room resulted in frontal assaults and high casualties.

According to Truman's Memoirs: Year of Decisions, Leahy was skeptical about the atomic bomb, saying: "That is the biggest fool thing we have ever done. The bomb will never go off, and I speak as an expert in explosives." After the bomb was tested and did explode, Truman consulted with Byrnes, Stimson, Leahy, Marshall, Arnold and Dwight D. Eisenhower, the commander of United States Forces, European Theater. The consensus was that the atomic bomb should be used. Although Leahy later wrote in his memoirs that his "own feeling was that in being the first to use it, we had adopted an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages", historian Barton J. Bernstein noted that Leahy did not oppose its use at the time:

Truman administration
In July 1945, Leahy accompanied Truman to the Potsdam Conference where Truman met with Stalin and the new British Prime Minister Clement Attlee to make decisions about the governance of occupied Germany. Hopkins was too ill to make the journey. Leahy was disappointed in the outcome of these conferences. He considered that both Truman and Stalin had suffered defeats, with proposals that would have ensured a lasting peace in Europe being watered down or turned down. He recognized that the Soviet Union was a dominant power in Europe, and that the British Empire was in terminal decline, underscored by the mid-conference replacement of Churchill by Attlee.

On January 24, 1946, Leahy was appointed to the interim National Intelligence Authority (NIA), which oversaw activities of the nascent Central Intelligence Group. The following year the National Security Act of 1947 replaced these organizations with the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency respectively, ending Leahy's involvement. He continued to chair meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and he rejected war plans that he felt placed too much emphasis on the first use of nuclear weapons.

Like many naval officers, he was opposed to the unification of the War and Navy departments into the Department of Defense, fearing that the Navy would lose its naval aviation and the Marine Corps. Nor did he agree with formalizing the role of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which he felt would place too much power in the hands of one individual. The position was created by amendments to the National Security Act that Truman signed into law on August 10, 1949, but the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs was not the single chief of staff the Army and Air Force wanted.

Leahy was involved in the preparation of two speeches that marked the onset of the Cold War: Truman's Navy Day address on October 27, 1945, and Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech on March 5, 1946. The former was written by Leahy and Rosenman, and reflected Leahy's ideas about the fundamental goals of U.S. foreign policy; the latter was written by Churchill, but in consultation with Leahy, who was the only one of the "American military men" referred to in the speech with whom Churchill discussed the speech. But Leahy's non-interventionist stance on U.S. involvement in the Greek Civil War and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict were increasingly out of step with the policies of the Truman administration. On September 20, 1948, columnist Constantine Brown published allegations that White House advisors Clark Clifford and David K. Niles were urging Truman to get rid of Leahy, whom they regarded, Brown said, as an "old-fashioned reactionary".

On the day after Truman won the presidential election on November 2, 1948, Leahy asked to be retired in January. In December, doctors diagnosed Leahy with a partial blockage of the kidneys. On December 28, he met with Truman as chief of staff for the last time. Truman officially accepted his resignation as his chief of staff on March 2, 1949, although as an officer with five-star rank, Leahy technically remained on active service as an advisor to the Secretary of the Navy.

The following year, Leahy published his war memoirs, I Was There. His unemotional, unexciting and unenlightening style did his publisher no favors. Orville Prescott the book reviewer for The New York Times wrote: "As the personal confidant of President Roosevelt and President Truman, Admiral Leahy ought to have a good story to tell. Unfortunately, he hasn't... its stiff official manner, its elaborate discretion, its desperate need of editing and its lack of any exciting new information make it dull and dusty fare... writes in a prose style as rigid as a naval cadet standing at attention in his review." The book sold poorly, and when Leahy subsequently proposed a book about his time in Puerto Rico, the publisher turned it down.

Death and legacy

Leahy died at the U.S. Naval Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland, on July 20, 1959, at the age of 84. At the time of his death, he was the oldest officer on active duty in the history of the U.S. Navy. He was given an Armed Forces military funeral. His body was viewed at the Bethlehem Chapel at the Washington National Cathedral from noon on July 22 until noon on July 23. A funeral service was then held in the cathedral at 14:00, followed by the burial in Arlington National Cemetery. Honorary pallbearers were Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Admiral Thomas C. Hart, Admiral Charles P. Snyder, Admiral Louis E. Denfeld, Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Vice Admiral Edward L. Cochrane, and Rear Admiral Henry Williams, all retired from service. Active military servicemen who were honorary pallbearers were Admiral Jerauld Wright, Admiral Robert L. Dennison, Rear Admiral Joseph H. Wellings, and close friend, William D. Hassett.

Leahy's papers are in the Naval History and Heritage Command and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.; some personal correspondence is held by the Wisconsin Historical Society. The , the lead ship of the s, was named in his honor. In 2014 Quarters BB at the Old Naval Observatory  was renamed Leahy House. On the mantelpiece was the order from Leahy to King and Marshall ending hostilities in World War II.

Dates of rank
 United States Naval Academy naval cadet – Class of 1897, 35th of class of 47

Decorations and awards

Leahy was invested as an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Military Division of the Most Honorable Order of the Bath on November 21, 1945.

Bibliography

Notes

References

Further reading

1875 births
1959 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to France
American five-star officers
American military personnel of the Banana Wars
American military personnel of the Boxer Rebellion
American military personnel of the Philippine–American War
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
American people of Irish descent
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Chiefs of Naval Operations
Governors of Puerto Rico
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Military aides to the President of the United States
Military personnel from Iowa
People from Hampton, Iowa
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy admirals
United States Navy personnel of World War I
United States Navy World War II admirals
Writers from Iowa

William D. Leahy


Tipton County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 Tipton County, Indiana
 Tipton County, Tennessee

Tipton County


78816 Caripito este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
78816 Caripito este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Needville de Joseph A. Dellinger. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,14 ua, o excentricitate de 0,23 și o înclinație de 5,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 78001-79000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 2003
Centura de asteroizi

78816 Caripito


NGC 33 es una estrella doble en la constelación de Piscis.

Descubrimiento
NGC 33 fue descubierta por el astrónomo alemán Albert Marth, el 9 de septiembre de 1864.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Más info sobre NGC 33, en cseligman.com.

Estrellas dobles
Objetos NGC
Constelación de Piscis

NGC 33


Andrzej Kuśniewicz (* 30. November 1904 in Kowenice bei Sambor (Galizien); † 15. Mai 1993 in Warschau) war ein polnischer Schriftsteller, Dichter und Diplomat.

Kuśniewicz studierte an der Krakauer Akademie der Bildenden Künste und an der Jagiellonischen Universität. 1925 bis 1928 bereiste er Europa als Vertreter einer Automobilfirma. Danach war er im konsularischen Dienst Polens in der Tschechoslowakei und Frankreich tätig. Während des Krieges schloss er sich der französischen Résistance an, wurde verhaftet, zum Tode verurteilt, überlebte in den Konzentrationslagern Fresnes, Neue Bremm und Mauthausen. Nach dem Krieg war er wieder im konsularischen Dienst aktiv. 1950 kehrte er nach Polen heim und widmete sich der Literatur.

Er war zweimal verheiratet: mit der Tänzerin und Schriftstellerin Maria Ukniewska (1907–1962) und mit der Satirikerin Anna Lechicka (1918–2002).

Die Handlung einiger seiner Romane spielt in ostgalizischen Kleinstädten vor 1918. Kuśniewicz gelang es, die Atmosphäre des damaligen Galiziens nostalgisch und suggestiv zu beschreiben.
Sein Roman "Lekcja martwego języka" (Lektion in einer toten Sprache) wurde von Janusz Majewski 1979 verfilmt.

Bibliografie
 Hans-Peter Hoelscher-Obermaier
 Hans-Peter Hoelscher-Obermaier: Andrzej Kuśniewicz' synkretistische Romanpoetik.  Universität München, Dissertation 1987/88.  ISBN 3-87690-396-3
 Andrzej Kuśniewicz: Tierkreiszeichen. Aus den Polnischen übersetzt von Renate Schmidgal. Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1991. ISBN 3-518-40400-8
 Andrzej Kuśniewicz: König beider Sizilien. Aus den Polnischen übersetzt von Klaus Staemmler.  Frankfurt am Main, Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, 1983. ISBN 3-596-25758-1
 Andrzej Kuśniewicz. Lektion in einer toten Sprache. Aus dem Polnischen übersetzt von Klaus Staemmler. Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1987, ISBN 3-518-01963-5

Weblinks

Polnischer Diplomat
Literatur (Polnisch)
Träger des Ordens Polonia Restituta (Komtur)
Pole
Geboren 1904
Gestorben 1993
Mann
Häftling im KZ Mauthausen
Résistancekämpfer

Andrzej Kuśniewicz


En apprentissage automatique, un auto-encodeur variationnel (ou VAE de l'anglais variational auto encoder), est une architecture de réseau de neurones artificiels introduite en 2013 par D. Kingma et M. Welling, appartenant aux familles des modèles graphiques probabilistes et des méthodes bayésiennes variationnelles.

Les VAE sont souvent rapprochés des autoencodeurs en raison de leur architectures similaires. Leur utilisation et leur formulation mathématiques sont cependant différentes.

Les auto-encodeurs variationnels permettent de formuler un problème d'inférence statistique (par exemple, déduire la valeur d'une variable aléatoire à partir d'une autre variable aléatoire) en un problème d'optimisation statistique (c'est-à-dire trouver les valeurs de paramètres qui minimisent une fonction objectif). Ils représentent une fonction associant à une valeur d'entrée une distribution latente multivariée, qui n'est pas directement observée mais déduite depuis un modèle mathématique à partir de la distribution d'autres variables. Bien que ce type de modèle ait été initialement conçu pour l'apprentissage non supervisé, son efficacité a été prouvée pour l'apprentissage semi-supervisé et l'apprentissage supervisé.

Architecture
Dans un VAE, les données d'entrée sont échantillonnées à partir d'une distribution paramétrée (la distribution a priori, en termes d'inférence bayésienne), et l'encodeur et le décodeur sont entraînés conjointement de sorte que la sortie minimise une erreur de reconstruction dans le sens de la divergence de Kullback-Leibler entre la distribution paramétrique postérieure et la vraie distribution a posteriori.

Formulation

On note  le vecteur contenant l'ensemble des variables observées que l'on souhaite modéliser. Ce vecteur est une variable aléatoire, caractérisé par une distribution de probabilité inconnue , que l'on souhaite approximer par une distribution paramétrée  ayant pour paramètres .

On introduit alors un vecteur aléatoire  distribué conjointement avec  (c'est-à-dire dont la loi de probabilité n'est pas indépendante de celle de ). Ce vecteur  représente un encodage latent de , que l'on ne peut observer directement.

On exprime alors la distribution  via la loi de probablitié marginale sur , ce qui donne alors:

où  représente la distribution conjointe sous  des données observables  et de leur représentation latente . Selon la formule des probabilités composées, l'équation peut être réécrite comme

Dans l'auto-encodeur variationnel classique, on fait l'hypothèse que  est un vecteur à valeur réelles de dimension finie, et  suit une loi normale. Par conséquent,  est un mélange de distributions gaussiennes.

On peut voir les relations entre les données d'entrée et leur représentation latente comme un problème d'inférence bayésienne avec

  représente la distribution probabilité a priori dans l'espace latent
  représente la vraisemblance
  représente la distribution de probabilité a posteriori

Malheureusement, le calcul de  est au mieux coûteux, et dans la plupart des cas, impossible. Pour résoudre ce problème, il est nécessaire d'introduire une autre fonction  pour approximer la distribution a posteriori :

où  est l'ensemble des paramètres de  .

Ainsi le problème est formulé pour pouvoir être appliqué dans une architecture de réseau de neurones auto-encodeur, dans lequel la distribution de vraisemblance conditionnelle  est représentée par un décodeur probabiliste, tandis que la distribution a posteriori approchée  est représentée par un codeur probabiliste. La mise en œuvre d'un VAE consistera donc à calculer les valeurs optimales des paramètres  et  par un apprentissage automatique.

Fonction de perte ELBO
Comme dans tout problème d'apprentissage profond, il est nécessaire de définir une fonction de perte différentiable afin de mettre à jour les poids du réseau par rétropropagation lors de l'apprentissage.

Pour les auto-encodeurs variationnels, l'idée est de minimiser conjointement les paramètres du modèle génératif  pour réduire l'erreur de reconstruction entre l'entrée et la sortie, et  pour avoir , la distribution postérieure approchée, le plus près possible de , la vraie distribution de probabilité a posteriori.

Comme fonction de coût pour la reconstruction, l'erreur quadratique moyenne et l'entropie croisée sont souvent utilisées.

Pour la fonction de coût de distance entre les deux distributions, la divergence inverse de Kullback – Leibler  est un bon choix pour pousser  en dessous de .

Reparamétrisation

Pour rendre la formulation ELBO adaptée à des fins d'apprentissage, il est nécessaire de modifier légèrement la formulation du problème et la structure du VAE.

L'échantillonnage stochastique est l'opération non différentiable par laquelle il est possible d'échantillonner à partir de l'espace latent et d'alimenter le décodeur probabiliste.

L'hypothèse principale sur l'espace latent est qu'il peut être considéré comme un ensemble de distributions gaussiennes multivariées, et peut donc être décrit comme

  .

Etant donné  et  défini comme le produit élément par élément, l'astuce de reparamétrisation modifie l'équation ci-dessus comme

Grâce à cette transformation (qui peut être étendue à des distributions non gaussiennes), le VAE devient entraînable et le codeur probabiliste doit apprendre à mapper une représentation compressée de l'entrée dans les deux vecteurs latents  et , tandis que la stochasticité reste exclue du processus de mise à jour et est injectée dans l'espace latent en tant qu'entrée externe via le vecteur aléatoire  .

Références

Statistique bayésienne
Réseau de neurones artificiels
Pages avec des traductions non relues

Auto-encodeur variationnel


Biljana "Bilja" Krstić (; * 9. November 1955 in Niš) ist eine serbische Volksmusik-Sängerin.

Leben
Nach dem Besuch der musischen "Dr. Vojislav Vučković"-Schule in Niš zog Krstić nach Belgrad, um dort an der Universität der Künste Belgrad zu studieren. Danach produzierte sie sieben Alben, brachte Dutzende Singles heraus und komponierte die Filmmusik für den serbischen Film Zona Zamfirova und den Film Savior des serbischen Regisseurs Predrag Antonijevic mit.

Krstić lebt mit ihren beiden Töchtern in Belgrad.

Diskografie
Mit der serbischen Band Rani Mraz:
 Mojoj mami umesto maturske slike u izlogu (1979)
 Odlazi cirkus (1980)

Solo-Alben:
 Prevari večeras svoje društvo sa mnom (1983)
 Iz unutrasnjeg džepa (1985)
 Loptom do zvezda (1990)
 Bilja (1994)

Mit dem Bistrik Orchester:
 Bistrik (2001)
 Zapisi (2003)
 Tarpoš (2007)

Quelle
 Offizielle Website von Biljana Krstić

Weblinks

Musiker (Serbien)
Geboren 1955
Jugoslawe
Serbe
Frau

Biljana Krstić


Renault Espace III (type JE) er den tredje modelgeneration af bilfabrikanten Renaults MPV, Espace.

Modelhistorie

Den i november 1996 introducerede Espace III var ligesom sin forgænger udviklet og produceret af Matra, og var ligesom forgængeren udstyret med et kunststofkarrosseri monteret på et forzinket stålchassis.

JE var udstyret med nyudviklede firecylindrede motorer, som for første gang var monteret på tværs. Det drejede sig om en 2,0-litersmotor, som med 8 ventiler ydede 84 kW (114 hk) og med 16 ventiler (fra 1998) 103 kW (140 hk). Forgængerens V6-motor blev i en modificeret version med 123 kW (167 hk) benyttet i type JE frem til 1998, og herefter afløst af en nyudviklet V6-motor med 24 ventiler og 140 kW (190 hk). Samtidig blev CAN-Bus systemet indført i Espace. Også dieselmotorerne blev i løbet af modellens levetid moderniseret.

På Frankfurt Motor Show 1997 blev der præsenteret en 27 cm længere version med navnet Grand Espace, der som den første MPV overhovedet fik fire stjerner i Euro NCAP's kollisionstest. Modellen blev frem til september 2002 fremstillet i totalt 357.120 eksemplarer. Grand Espace type JE havde af alle Espace'er den største kabine, men også de største ydermål.

Facelift

Til industriferien i sommeren 2000 blev der gennemført et facelift, som udvendigt kunne kendes på forlygterne med klare glas.

Fra september 2000 blev modelbetegnelserne ændret fra RT, RXE, Elyssee og Initiale til Authentique, Expression, Privilege og Initiale. Forkammerdieselmotoren med 83 kW (113 hk) blev afløst af to nye commonrailmotorer med 85 kW (115 hk) og 95 kW (129 hk).

2,0-liters benzinmotoren med otte ventiler og 84 kW (114 hk) blev kort efter faceliftet taget af modelprogrammet, hvorefter 16V-motoren (type F4R) var basismotor resten af modellens levetid.

Søstermodeller
I efteråret 2001 blev der præsenteret en på Espace III baseret, firepersoners coupé med kunststofkarrosseri under navnet Renault Avantime. Produktionen af Avantime blev indstillet igen efter 18 måneder i foråret 2003 på grund af Matras insolvens.

Tekniske data

Referencer

Litteratur
 Automobil Revue. Katalog 1997 og 2002 (på tysk og fransk).

Eksterne henvisninger

3
Store MPV'er
Forhjulstrukne biler
Biler introduceret i 1996
Biler fra 1990'erne
Biler fra 2000'erne

Renault Espace III


An Cryptocentrum gracillimum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Oakes Ames ngan Charles Schweinfurth. An Cryptocentrum gracillimum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cryptocentrum, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cryptocentrum

Cryptocentrum gracillimum


An Vanda liouvillei in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Achille Eugène Finet. An Vanda liouvillei in nahilalakip ha genus nga Vanda, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Vanda

Vanda liouvillei


Marlon Jordan (21 de agosto de 1970, Nueva Orleans, Luisiana) es un trompetista y compositor estadounidense de jazz, adscrito a la corriente denominada neo bop.

Biografía
Es hijo del saxofonista Edward "Kidd" Jordan, y de la pianista clásica Edvidge Jordan, y hermano del flautista Kent Jordan. Marlon se graduó en el "New Orleans Center for the Creative Arts" donde también estudiaron músicos como Terence Blanchard, Branford, Wynton, Delfeayo y Jason Marsalis, y Harry Connick, Jr..  Sus primeras grabaciones como colaborador, fueron junto a su hermano Kent (1987) y a Dennis González (1988).

A los 18 años grabó su álbum de debut, For You Only (1988), en el que Branford Marsalis colabora tocando el saxo tenor en varios cortes. Marlon realizó varias giras con su quinteto, con el que colaboraron Wynton Marsalis, Miles Davis y George Benson, en una serie de conciertos para el "JVC Jazz Festival". Tocó igualmente en un gran número de clubs de todo el país, incluyendo el Blue Note y el Ritz.

Marlon y su hermana, la cantante Stephanie Marlon, en otoño de 2005, realizaron una gira por Europa, como parte del "Higher Ground Relief", esponsorizado por el Departamento de Estado, y el Jazz at Lincoln Center, para agradecer al público europeo su apoyo a las víctimas del Huracán Katrina.

Discografía

Referencias

Trompetistas de jazz de Estados Unidos
Músicos de bop
Nacidos en Nueva Orleans

Marlon Jordan


جيم ستوديو Gamestudio, معروف أحياناً بـ 3D GameStudio أو 3DGS هو برنامج صانع لألعاب الفيديو ثلاثية الأبعاد والذي يسمح للمستخدمين بصنع ألعاب ثلاثية أبعاد وبرامج أخرى، وتصديرهم مجاناً (بدون مقابل). يتضمن أداة صانعة/مستوردة للمجسمات والهضبات، وأداة صانعة للمراحل، وأداة لكتابة الأكواد ويأتي مع مجموعة جاهزة من الخامات، والمجسمات والأعمال الفنية، كذلك نظام لصنع ألعاب بكم ضغطة (محدودة) التي تسمح بصنع ألعاب تصويب بسيطة أو أر بي جي بدون برمجة. لألعاب متكاملة أو برامج تستطيع أن تبرمج بلغة برمجة سهلة وفعالة سميت لايت-سي أو لغات برمجة عالمية أخرى كـلغة سي++ أو دلفي.

التاريخ
 1993 ACK 3D (معدات البناء المتحرك) صمّمه Lary Myers (محرك مفتوح الأكواد، يحمّل عن طريق هذا الرابط: http://ftp.lanet.lv/ftp/mirror/x2ftp/msdos/programming/ack/00index.html)
 1994 ACK NEXT GENERATION صمّمه Johann Christian Lotter / مجموعة أو بي الألمانية (نسخة مطورة من ACK 3D, مفتوح الأكواد)
 1995 ACKNEX-2 صنع للمسلسل التلفزيوني الألماني X-BASE (بشبه المحرك "دووم")
 1995 ACKNEX-2 أصبح لشركة كونيتيك ونزل تحت اسم 'ثري دي جيمستوديو'
 1997 ACKNEX-3 نزل للعامّة (يحمّل عن طريق هذا الرابط: http://server.conitec.net/down/a3.zip)
 1999 A4 نزل للعامّة (لنظام التشغيل ويندوز)
 2000 A5 نزل للعامّة (محرّك الهضبات)
 2003 A6 نزل للعامّة (الفيزياء والتأثيرات)
 2007 A7 نزل للعامّة (مُنظّر أيه بي تي الجديد ولايت-سي)
 2009 أعلن jcl بأن A8 سينزل في نوفمبر 2010.
النسخة المستقرة الحالية هي 7.82. التحديثات المجانية عادةً تتوفر مرة كل 4 إلى 8 أسابيع.
جيم ستوديو

مراجع

بيئات تطوير ألعاب فيديو متكاملة
أدوات برمجة
برمجيات تطوير ألعاب الفيديو
محركات ألعاب فيديو مجانية

جيم ستوديو


Kaori Nagamine (født 3. juni 1968) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller. Hun har tidligere spillet for Japans kvindefodboldlandshold.

Japans fodboldlandshold

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kvindelige fodboldspillere fra Japan

Kaori Nagamine


Bljeskalica (eng. flash) je uređaj za odašiljanje svjetlosnih impulsa ili bljeska, pri čemu trajanje impulsa i stanke može biti različito. Bljeskalica se primjenjuje u signalizaciji, stroboskopiji te najviše u fotografiji. Kao bljeskalica koristi se svjetiljka, kojoj se svjetlosni snop prekida mehanički, ili plinska cijev, koja zasvijetli pri električnom pražnjenju.

Bljeskalica, koja služi za osvjetljivanje u nepovoljnim svjetlosnim prilikama, u nekim je fotografskim aparatima ugrađena, a kod drugih se postavlja na nosač i spaja s aparatom. U trenutku snimanja, bljesak bljeskalice mora biti sinkroniziran sa zatvaračem, koji tada treba biti potpuno otvoren.

Povijest
U početcima fotografije svjetlosni se impuls (bljesak) ostvarivao brzim izgaranjem magnezija, nekoć i žaruljicom za jednokratnu upotrebu, a danas u tu svrhu ponajprije služi elektronička bljeskalica. Njezin je glavni dio staklena cijev, punjena plemenitim plinom, koji se ionizira visokonaponskim pražnjenjem i postaje električki vodljiv, pa kroza nj može proteći jaka električna struja, što je popraćeno snažnim (intenzivnim) bljeskom.

Način rada
Trajanje bljeska vrlo je kratko (obično manje od 1 ms), pa trenutak bljeska treba biti usklađen (sinkroniziran) s ekspozicijom. Osvijetljenost predmeta ovisi o svjetlosnoj energiji bljeska i o otvoru zaslona u fotoaparatu. U jednostavnijim je bljeskalicama energija bljeska stalna, pa se potrebna osvijetljenost postiže namještanjem otvora zaslona, već prema udaljenosti predmeta. U suvremenim, mikroprocesorski upravljanim bljeskalicama, ugrađenim svjetlosnim senzorom (fotodiodom) mjeri se svjetlost odbijena (reflektirana) s predmeta i bljesak se automatski prekida kada se postigne potrebna osvijetljenost za postavljeni otvor zaslona. Takav je način rada bljeskalice posebno uspješan kada se odbijena svjetlost mjeri izravno kroz objektiv fotoaparata.

Bljeskalica može biti ugrađena u fotografski aparat, ili zaseban dio fotografske opreme. Kod jednostavnijih fotografskih aparata, mobitela i slično, ugrađena bljeskalica kadšto se izvodi od svjetlećih dioda.

Izvori

Optički uređaji

Bljeskalica


ස්වරාලය() යනු ගෙලෙහි ඉහළ කොටසේ ඇති අවයව කොටසකි, හුස්ම ගැනීම, ශබ්දය නිපදවීම සහ ආහාර අභිලාෂයට එරෙහිව "ශ්වාසනාලය" ආරක්ෂා කිරීම සම්බන්ධ වේ. ස්වරාලය ෆරින්ක්ස් තුළට විවර වීම ස්වරාල ප්‍රවේශය ලෙස හැඳින්වේ. එහි විෂ්කම්භය සෙන්ටිමීටර 4-5 පමණ වේ. ස්වරාලයෙහි ස්වර තන්ත්‍රය පිහිටා ඇති අතර, උච්චාරණය සඳහා අත්‍යවශ්‍ය වන තාරතාව සහ ශබ්දය හසුරුවයි. එය පිහිටා ඇත්තේ ෆරින්ක්ස් පත්‍රිකාව ස්වසනාලයට සහ esophagus වලට බෙදී යන ස්ථානයට යටින් ය. ʻlarynx' (බහු වචන ʻlarynges') යන වචනය පැමිණෙන්නේ පුරාණ ග්‍රීක වචනයක් වන lárunx ʻlarynx, gullet, උගුර'.

මූලාශ්‍ර

ස්වරාලය


المستشفى الأمريكي - دبي هو أكبر مستشفى خاص موجود في دبي وتحديدا في منطقة بر دبي بدولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة. طاقة المستشفى السريرية تبلغ 143 سرير مع وجود برنامج طموح للتوسع وزيادة الطاقة السريرية. نال المستشفى العديد من الجوائز المحلية والدولية (JCIA) وتوسع في التخصصات المختلفة. وللمستشفى سمعة طيبة في جراحات تغيير مفاصل الركبة، ومركز القلب، وكذلك مركز مرض السكر، ومركز الأورام السرطانية.

أطلق على المستشفى الأمريكي هذا الاسم لأن إدارته اشترطت على كل الأطباء العاملين به الحصول على البورد الأمريكي قبل التعيين، وذلك لضمان مستوى عال من الخدمة الطبية يضاهي ما يقدم في أمريكا الشمالية وأوروبا الغربية.

يقدم المستشفى خدماته الطبية للمواطنين والمقيمين في دبي والإمارات العربية المتحدة بشكل عام وكذلك يقصدا كثير من المرضي من الدول المجاورة وخاصة الكويت وعمان والسعودية وإيران.

النقد
كثيرا ما يشكو المرضى من ارتفاع قيمة الخدمات الطبية المقدمة من المستشفى والتي تجعلها خارج متناول الأشخاص العاديين وغير الحاصلين على اشتراك في إحدى شركات التأمين الصحي المناسبة. مما أضفى على المستشفى إلى حد ما صفة موسسة طبية طبقية لأغنياء دبي فقط.

مراجع
 الموقع الرسمي للمستشفى الأمريكي

مبان ومنشآت في دبي
مستشفيات الإمارات العربية المتحدة

المستشفى الأمريكي (دبي)


Blue movie or Blue film may refer to:

Film
 A term for erotic films
 Blue Movie, a 1969 film by Andy Warhol
 Blue Movie (1971 film), a 1971 film by Wim Verstappen
 Blue Movie, a 1989 pornographic mockumentary film directed by Jack Remy
 Blue (1968 film), a 1968 Western film by Silvio Narizzano
 Blue (1993 film), a 1993 film by Derek Jarman
 Blue (2002 film), a 2001 Japanese film by Hiroshi Ando
 Blue (2009 film), a 2009 Bollywood film by Anthony D'Souza

Books
 Blue Movie (1970 book), a 1970 book of the 1969 Andy Warhol film
 Blue Movie (novel), a 1970 novel by Terry Southern
 "The Blue Film", a 1954 short story by the English novelist Graham Greene

Music
 Blue Film (album), an album by Lo-Fang
 "Blue Movie", a 2014 song by Lowtide from their eponymous debut album
 "Blue-film Movie", a 2002 song by Sneaker Pimps from Bloodsport

See also

Blue movie


Jesper Christensen (Copenhague, 16 de mayo de 1948) es un actor danés.

Biografía
Habla perfectamente danés, alemán e inglés, y puede hablar francés e italiano. Está casado con la actriz y directora de cine Tove Bornhoeft desde el año 2000 y tiene dos hijas.

Carrera
Veterano del cine europeo, recientemente ha hecho la transición a proyectos de idioma inglés, como La intérprete.

También ha aparecido como el misterioso villano Mr. White en las películas de James Bond: Casino Royale, Quantum of Solace y Spectre.

En su país de origen, Christensen ha ganado cuatro premios Bodil, tres al mejor actor (Hor, var der ikke en som lo?, Baenken y Drabet) y el de mejor actor de reparto (Bárbara).

En 2006, Jesper Christensen declinó la oferta para recibir la Cruz de Caballero de la Orden de Dannebrog. Dijo que pensaba que toda la idea de la monarquía es un delito perpetrado por los miembros de la familia real, y no encaja con el mundo actual.

Filmografía

 1976: Strømer
 1977: Pas på ryggen, professor
 1977: Hærværk
 1978: Vinterbørn
 1978: Hør, var der ikke en som lo?
 1978: Vil du se min smukke navle?
 1978: Hvem myrder hvem?
 1979: Charly & Steffen
 1979: Trællenes oprør
 1980: Trællenes børn
 1980: Verden er fuld af børn
 1980: Undskyld vi er her
 1981: Har du set Alice?
 1983: Forræderne
 1987: Nana
 1987: Hip Hip Hurra
 1988: Skyggen af Emma
 1989: Retfærdighedens rytter
 1990: Dagens Donna
 1992: Sofie
 1993: Den russiske sangerinde
 1994: Min fynske barndom
 1996: Hamsun
 1996: Tøsepiger
 1996: Balladen om Holger Danske
 1997: Sekten
 1997: Bárbara
 1998: Albert
 1999: I Kina spiser de hunde ('en China comen perros')
 2000: Bænken
 2000: Anna
 2000: Italiensk for begyndere o Italiano para principiantes
 2001: At klappe med een hånd
 2001: Grev Axel
 2002: Okay
 2002: Små ulykker
 2003: Arven
 2003: Møgunger
 2003: Nissernes Ø
 2005: La intérprete
 2005: Manslaughter
 2006: Casino Royale
 2008: Flame & Citron
 2008: Everlasting Moments
 2008: Quantum of Solace
 2009: The Young Victoria
 2010: A Family
 2011: The Debt
 2011: Melancholia
 2012: Truth and Consequence
 2013: Nymphomaniac
 2015: Spectre
 2014-: Arvingerne

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Premios recibidos.

Actores de Dinamarca
Nacidos en Copenhague

Jesper Christensen


An Lepidosperma carphoides in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ferdinand von Mueller ngan George Bentham. An Lepidosperma carphoides in nahilalakip ha genus nga Lepidosperma, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Lepidosperma

Lepidosperma carphoides


Campo Alegre de Goiás es un municipio brasileño del estado de Goiás. Su población estimada en 2004 era de 4.528 habitantes y el área ocupada de cerca de 2.463 kilómetros cuadrados.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Goiás

Campo Alegre de Goiás


Washington Fernando Araújo Recarey (Montevideo, Uruguay, 23 de febrero de 1972) es un exfutbolista y entrenador uruguayo. Actualmente dirige al Platense de la Liga de Ascenso de Honduras.

Trayectoria

Como jugador
Como jugador, Araújo se desempeñaba como defensa. Comenzó su carrera profesional en 1990 vistiendo los colores de Rampla Juniors, club con el que tuvo dos pasos (1990-1998 y 1999-2000). También pasó por Almirante Brown de Argentina (1998-1999), El Tanque Sisley (2000-2002), Hapoel Be'er Sheva de Israel (2002-2003), Deportivo Colonia (2003) y finalmente La Luz (2004-2008).

Como entrenador
El 8 de noviembre de 2011, la directiva de Rampla Juniors lo nombró como director técnico para el resto del Torneo Apertura 2011, en sustitución de Eduardo del Capellán. Cuatro días más tarde, el 12 de noviembre, le tocó debutar contra Nacional, en un encuentro que concluyó con derrota de 0-2. El 20 de noviembre, durante la siguiente fecha, en un encuentro contra Rentistas, Araújo consiguió su primera victoria al mando de los ramplenses, con un imponente 4-0. Finalizado el torneo, la directiva confió en Araújo y le extendió el contrato por seis meses. Finalmente, el 3 de mayo de 2012, luego de trece juegos dirigidos, Araújo fue despedido de su cargo y sustituido por Eduardo Favaro.

El 18 de octubre de 2016, fue nuevamente nombrado como director técnico de Rampla Juniors. El 24 de octubre, debutó con una victoria de 1-0 contra Peñarol. En su segunda etapa al frente de los picapiedras, Araújo dirigió dieciocho encuentros, de los cuales obtuvo cinco victorias, cinco empates y ocho derrotas. El 17 de abril de 2017, dejó de ser técnico ramplense.

El 21 de julio de 2018, fue anunciado como director técnico de Real Estelí de la Primera División de Nicaragua. Su paso por el club centroamericano arrojó las siguientes estadísticas: 18 juegos dirigidos, 10 ganados, 6 empatados y 2 perdidos. Sin embargo, tras no conseguir el objetivo de ganar el título, perdiéndolo en la final ante Managua, no continuó al frente del club.

El 20 de junio de 2019, el Club Deportivo y Social Vida de la Liga Nacional de Honduras anunció su contratación por un año, en relevo de Héctor Castellón.

Clubes

Como jugador

Como entrenador

Estadísticas como entrenador
<small>P = Partidos; G = Ganados;  E = Empatados; D = Derrotas; GF = Goles Anotados; GC = Goles Recibidos; DG = Diferencia de goles

Estadísticas actualizadas a la fecha:

Palmarés

Como jugador

Campeonatos nacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha de jugador en BDFA
 Ficha de entrenador en Transfermarkt

Futbolistas de La Luz Fútbol Club
Entrenadores del Rampla Juniors Fútbol Club
Futbolistas de Uruguay
Futbolistas del Club Almirante Brown
Futbolistas del Hapoel Be'er Sheva
Futbolistas del Club Deportivo Colonia
Futbolistas del Rampla Juniors Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Centro Cultural y Deportivo El Tanque Sisley

Washington Fernando Araújo


The Trans-Israel pipeline (), also  Tipline, Eilat–Ashkelon Pipeline, or Europe–Asia Pipeline is an oil pipeline in Israel extending from the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. It was originally built to transport crude oil originating from Iran inside Israel and to Europe.

The 254 km, 42" pipeline's capacity from a special pier in Ashkelon to Eilat's port on the Red Sea is  per day, and  in the opposite direction. The pipeline is owned and operated by the Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Company (EAPC) which also operates several other oil pipelines in Israel.

History

Following the Suez crisis, the Israeli government started the country's first crude oil pipeline between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea with a 24,000 bbl/day 8-inch pipe line from Eilat to Beersheba. Initially augmented by truck and rail transport to the Mediterranean coast and to Israel's only and underutilized refinery at Haifa, the link to the coast was completed in 1957 with a 16-inch line from Beersheba to Ashdod. Tankers were then carrying crude oil to Haifa. The final leg, a 90-mile 16-inch pipe line from Ashdod to Haifa along the coast was completed in July 1958. An expansion of capacity of the 125 mile section from the Red Sea to Beersheba was initiated in February 1960, raising the overall capacity of the system from 30,000 bbl/day to 100,000 bbl/day. The expansion coincided with the beginning of production for export at Haifa, which had been lacking a sufficient supply of crude oil since 1948 and was producing only for the local market.

The large diameter pipeline was built in 1968 as a 50/50% joint-venture between Israel and Iran. However, Iran ceased using the pipeline after the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in the Iranian Islamic Revolution of 1979 and the subsequent severing of relations between the two countries.

In 2003, Israel and Russia made an agreement to supply Asian markets with Russian oil delivered by tankers from Novorossiysk to Ashkelon and then reloaded onto tankers in Eilat for shipment to Asia. The oil would therefore flow in the opposite direction to that intended originally. This route from Europe to Asia is shorter than the traditional one around Africa and cheaper than the one via the Suez Canal.

In December 2014, a breach near the southern end of the pipeline led to a massive oil spill into the Evrona Nature Reserve.

In September 2020, a preliminary agreement was reached to transport Emirati oil from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean through the pipeline.

In May 2021, a storage tank in the Ashkelon depot of the pipeline was damaged by a rocket fired from Gaza in the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis.

Legal claim by Iran
Following the seizure of the pipeline in 1979, Iran pursued a claim for compensation against Israel. On 27 June 2016, the Swiss Federal Tribunal decided the case in Iran's favor with an award of $1.1 billion plus interest.

See also
 Sumed pipeline

References

External links
Eilat Ashkelon Pipeline Company

1968 establishments in Israel
Oil pipelines in Israel
Iran–Israel relations

Trans-Israel pipeline


Plummer modeli, dinamik sistemlerde parçacıkların hız ve konumlarının dağılımını tanımlamakta kullanılan bir modeldir. İlk defa H. C. Plummer (1911) tarafından küresel kümelerin gözlemlerini açıklamak için kullanılmıştır. Bu nedenle onun ismiyle anılmaktadır.

Tanım
Plummer modeli, yoğunluk

ve potansiyeli

ile tanımlanabilir. Burada M toplam kütleyi, b Plummer yarıçapını, G ise Newton'un yerçekimi sabitini göstermektedir. Modeli ayrıca parçacıkların bağlanma enerjisinin
 dağılım fonksiyonunu kullanarak da tanımlayabiliriz

Plummer modeli izotropik bir dağılıma karşılık geldiğinden her iki tanım da açısal momentumu içermemektedir.

Astrofizik

Plummer modeli


De temps immémorial, Rembercourt-aux-Pots eut ses moulins. Deux sont particulièrement connus. Le premier est un moulin à eau, dont on peut encore deviner les fondations au lieu-dit "Caïpha". D'après M. Nicolas de la Morre (seigneur de Savonnières-devant-Bar, président de la Chambre des comptes de Bar-le-Duc en 1764) ce moulin chômait les deux tiers de l'année en raison de l'intermittence du ruisseau de Rembercourt qui ne débite suffisamment qu'à la saison des pluies.

C'est pour cette raison que Rembercourt eut un second moulin, à vent cette fois-ci, pour assurer la mouture en saison sèche. Mais Victor Servais (fonctionnaire de préfecture joua un rôle de premier plan dans la sauvegarde des archives du comté puis duché de Bar au XIXe siècle) assure qu'on en fit fort peu usage, parce qu'il n'était pas assez élevé.

Ces deux moulins ont assez d'histoire pour qu'on leur consacre un article.

Localisation
La carte de Cassini, dressée et éditée en 1760, fait mention du moulin de "Keipha", situé sur le rupt de Rembercourt à environ 2 km au sud-ouest du village. Ce vieux moulin tire son histoire de sa situation, des services qu'il rendit aux habitants et aussi des événements dont il fut témoin au cours des siècles.

Origines
Selon la tradition, Caïpha peut avoir été le lieu de quelques villa gallo-romaine. Le 15 juillet 1881, près du rucher du moulin, un des ouvriers, occupés à abattre une vieille terrasse pour la convertir en pré, mit à découvert en le brisant involontairement d'un coup de pioche, un vase renfermant plusieurs milliers de petits bronzes romains :

Voilà ce que rapporte Léon Maxe-Werly (1831-1901, historien, archéologue et numismate. Membre de la Société des lettres, sciences et arts de Bar-le-Duc) qui fut chargé de l'inventaire de la découverte : "sur un lot de cinq cents environ, j'ai pu m'assurer de la composition générale de ce petit trésor, composé de monnaies mal frappées et ayant longtemps circulées".

Ce qui est plus certain, c'est qu'au Moyen Âge, Caïpha fut le lieu d'une léproserie, probablement tenue par quelque ordre religieux hospitalier qui, s'inspirant de l'Evangile, aurait donné ce nom de senteur palestinienne à ce lieu destiné à l'exercice de la charité du Christ envers les pauvres hommes et femmes atteints de la lèpre ou de la peste. On ne sait pas combien durera l'activité de cette léproserie.

XIVe et XVe siècle
On ne trouve pas de trace du moulin, ou plutôt des moulins de Caïpha, avant le XIVe siècle.

Le moulin à eau s'établit à Caïpha vers les XIVe et XVe siècles à l'emplacement de l'ancienne maladrerie, sur le ruisseau de Rembercourt. La main de l'Homme a visiblement élargi ce ruisseau en forme de petit étang pour lui permettre d'assurer la masse d'eau nécessaire au fonctionnement de la roue de transmission.

Plus tard, un moulin à vent est construit au sud sur la hauteur qui domine Caïpha, dans la direction de Condé. ces deux moulins furent toujours régis par le même meunier. Leur travail a toujours suffi à l'entretien de la communauté de Rembercourt. En effet, De La Morre affirme que très rarement, "les habitants de la ville de Rembercourt eurent occasion de se fournir en farine chez les meuniers du voisinage". Il ajoute également "Avant les travaux, les laboureurs du lieu se munissaient de plusieurs sacs de farine, pour ne pas être pris au dépourvu, étant donné le nombre plus considérable de travailleurs".

XVIe siècle
En l'an 1500, le duc de Lorraine René II, acquit de l'abbaye de Lisle, 5 fr. de rente, à prendre sur les moulins de Rembercourt, en outre 8 muids et 12 fr. 1/2 d'argent sur la seigneurie du lieu (archives de la Meuse, Reg. 67, feuille 58).

En 1593, un compte de Jacques Martin, receveur royal à Rembercourt, signale une crue extraordinaire qui ruina les moulins de Rembercourt (archives de la Meuse B. 2841).

Depuis l'époque féodale, les seigneurs gardèrent comme un droit inaliénable, celui de moudre  et d'assurer au peuple, moyennant redevance, la fourniture et la cuisson de la farine nécessaire à la consommation. Les meuniers et les fourniers, d'abord salariés du seigneur du lieu, devinrent dans la suite des locataires adjudicataires du moulin et du four banal, moyennant un prix forfaitaire à payer au Domaine des ducs de Bar et de Lorraine.

XVIIe siècle
En 1610, le moulin à vent fut renversé par une tempête et d'après le comte de Widranges, ses débris furent portés en réserve à la maison seigneuriale de la Tour (à Rembercourt-aux-Pots), alors propriété des ducs de Bar et de Lorraine.

Ce moulin fut reconstruit en 1656 (archives départementales de la Meuse, Reg. 274, feuille 15).

Le 26 août 1698, les moulins furent adjugés pour six ans au prix de 1.400 fr. l'an (archives de la Meuse, section E, n°1).

XIXe siècle
Le cadastre de 1833, permet d'attester que le moulin est toujours présent et il est appelé "Moulin de l'étang". Comme pour le moulin des Marats, il existe trois bâtiments dont le principal abrite le mécanisme.

Toujours sur ce même cadastre, on s'aperçoit qu'un moulin à vent est toujours existant mais non plus du côté de Condé mais cette fois-ci à 500 mètres de distance au nord-est en direction de Rembercourt au lieu-dit "la Croix du Petit Louis". La carte d'état-major le fait toujours apparaître en 1866.

Le site aujourd'hui

Voir aussi
Rembercourt-Sommaisne
Moulin des Marats

Notes et références

[1] Rembercourt-aux-Pots – Aux confins du Barrois et du Verdunois - Abbé Camille Paul Joignon – 1938 - P.298
[2] Carte de Cassini – feuille n°111 Toul – 1740 https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b53095241k/f1.item.zoom#
[3] Carte état-major -  1866  https://remonterletemps.ign.fr/telecharger?x=6.096991&y=49.158033&z=9&layer=GEOGRAPHICALGRIDSYSTEMS.MAPS.SCAN-EXPRESS.STANDARD&demat=ETATMAJOR$GEOPORTAIL:DEMAT

Rembercourt

Moulin de Rembercourt


Ministarstvo za demografiju, obitelj, mlade i socijalnu politiku je središnje tijelo državne uprave u Republici Hrvatskoj koje se bavi demografijom, obitelji, mladima i društvenom politikom.

Djelokrug
Ministarstvo za demografiju, obitelj, mlade i socijalnu politiku:

obavlja upravne i druge poslove koji se odnose na praćenja i analizu demografskih trendova i kretanja u Republici Hrvatskoj, posebice promjene u broju stanovnika, prirodnom kretanju stanovništva migracijama i strukturi stanovništva
predlaže mjere usmjerene na porast nataliteta, uravnoteženje dobne strukture, održanje prostorne ravnoteže stanovništva
motiviranja mladih za ostanak u Hrvatskoj, mjere podrške roditeljstvu te mjere usmjerene na usklađivanje obiteljskog i profesionalnog života
usklađuje rad državnih i ostalih tijela pri ostvarivanju aktivnosti demografskog razvitaka i populacijske politike
predlaže Vladi Republike Hrvatske promjene zakona i drugih propisa iz područja demografske politike
obavlja poslove usmjerene na podizanje svijesti i edukaciju građana o važnosti demografskih pitanja i revitalizacije stanovništva;
pruža potporu lokalnoj i regionalnoj (područnoj) samoupravi te organizacijama civilnog društva u razradbi vlastitih programa usmjerenih na demografski razvitak.

Ministarstvo obavlja upravne i stručne poslove savjetovanja koji se odnose na:
brak i bračne odnose te posebnu zaštitu obitelji u kojima su narušeni međusobni odnosi
međusobne odnose roditelja i djece
zaštitu djece čiji roditelji žive odvojeno, zaštitu djece bez odgovarajuće roditeljske skrbi, poticanje odgovornog roditeljstva, uzdržavanja i skrbi o članovima obitelji
poticanje razvoja programa rada u zajednici, razvoja i afirmacije volonterstva i rada udruga građana koje su potpora roditeljima, obitelji, djeci, mladima, osobama s invaliditetom i starijim osobama te svim socijalno osjetljivim skupinama stanovništva
poticanje i osnivanje savjetovališta za djecu, mlade, roditelje, osobe s invaliditetom, starije osobe i žrtve obiteljskog nasilja te obavljanje stručnog i inspekcijskog nadzora nad njihovim radom
proučavanje i istraživanje suvremenih problema obitelji, djece, mladih, osoba s invaliditetom i starijih osoba te pružanje preventivno-terapijske pomoći.

Ministarstvo obavlja upravne i stručne poslove koji se odnose na poboljšanje i unapređenje kvalitete života mladih i izgradnji cjelovite, sveobuhvatne i međuresorske politike za mlade koja obuhvaća predlaganje i provođenje strateških dokumenata, zakona, drugih akata, programa i projekata u području politike za mlade te njihovo praćenje i vrednovanje, a posebno u području partnerskog uključivanja mladih u procese sudjelovanja u donošenju odluka, neformalnog obrazovanja, slobodnog vremena i kulture mladih, volontiranja i sudjelovanja u razvoju civilnoga društva, promicanja političke participacije i zaštite ljudskih prava, informiranja, mobilnosti te osiguranja kvalitetne i redovite potpore organiziranom sektoru mladih i njegovu djelovanju. Ministarstvo razvija mjere i programe koji rade na sprečavanju socijalnog isključenja mladih ljudi te im daju osnovu za cjelovit, kreativan i dostojanstven život u razdoblju njihove mladosti.

Ministarstvo obavlja upravne i stručne poslove koji se odnose na:
skrb o osobama i obiteljima koje nemaju dovoljno sredstava za podmirenje osnovnih životnih potreba ili im je pomoć potrebna radi otklanjanja uzroka socijalne ugroženosti
utvrđivanje mreže domova i ustanova socijalne skrbi, obiteljskih centara i mreže djelatnosti te usklađivanje njihova rada i pružanje stručne pomoći
provođenje upravnog, inspekcijskog i stručnog nadzora nad radom ustanova socijalne skrbi i obiteljskih centara
odlučivanje o osnivanju, prestanku i statusnim promjenama ustanova socijalne skrbi i obiteljskim centrima
diseminiranje i analiziranje podataka o korisnicima u sustavu socijalne skrbi te izradu statističkih pregleda i izvješća; promicanje prava osoba s invaliditetom, podizanje kvalitete njihova života i razvoja izvaninstitucionalnih oblika skrbi za osobe s invaliditetom
poticanje zakonskih projekata radi poboljšanja kvalitete življenja osoba starije životne dobi te razvoj uslužnih djelatnosti za njihove potrebe, razvoj izvaninstitucionalnih oblika skrbi za starije osobe, obavljanje drugih poslova skrbi o starijim osobama koji nisu stavljeni u nadležnost drugim tijelima
zaštitu žrtava trgovanja ljudima
zaštitu izbjeglica te osiguranje integracije azilanata i osoba pod supsidijarnom zaštitom, zaštitu djece i mlađih punoljetnika s poremećajima u ponašanju te uključivanje u svakodnevni život nakon duljeg boravka u odgojnoj ustanovi
rehabilitaciju i resocijalizaciju ovisnika te prevenciju svih oblika ovisnosti
upravne i stručne poslove u vezi s udomiteljstvom i posvajanjem
nadzor i praćenje primjene propisa o doplatku za djecu, rodiljnim i roditeljskim dopustima i naknadama, pomoći za opremu novorođenog djeteta.

Ministarstvo u svojstvu resornog ministarstva sudjeluje u poslovima upravljanja i raspolaganja dionicama i poslovnim udjelima trgovačkih društava koji čine državnu imovinu u vlasništvu Republike Hrvatske, u pogledu trgovačkih društava koja se pretežno bave djelatnostima iz područja nadležnosti resornog ministarstva.

Ustroj
Kabinet ministra
Glavno tajništvo
Uprava za demografski razvoj, obitelj, djecu i mlade
Uprava za socijalnu politiku
Uprava za međunarodne poslove i programe
Uprava za proračun i financije
Samostalni sektor za nadzor i predstavke
Samostalna služba za drugostupanjski postupak
Samostalna služba za unutrašnju reviziju

Dosadašnji ministri

Ministarstva u Hrvatskoj

Ministarstvo za demografiju, obitelj, mlade i socijalnu politiku Republike Hrvatske


Die Eagle Point Township ist eine von 24 Townships im Ogle County im Norden des US-amerikanischen Bundesstaates Illinois.

Geografie
Die Eagle Point Township liegt im Norden von Illinois rund 60 km südlich der Grenze zu Wisconsin. Der Mississippi, der die Grenze zu Iowa bildet, befindet sich rund 40 km westlich.

Die Eagle Point Township liegt auf 41°58′38″ nördlicher Breite und 89°39′27″ westlicher Länge und erstreckt sich über 50,68 km².

Die Eagle Point Township liegt im äußersten Südwesten des Ogle County und grenzt im Süden an das Whiteside sowie im Westen an das Carroll County. Innerhalb des Ogle County grenzt die Eagle Point Township im Norden an die Brookville Township, im Nordosten an die Lincoln Township, im Osten an die Buffalo Township und im Südosten an die Woosung Township.

Verkehr
Durch die Township verlaufen keine überregionalen Fernstraßen. Alle Straßen sind County Highways sowie weiter untergeordnete und zum Teil unbefestigte Fahrwege.

In Ost-West-Richtung verläuft durch die Eagle Point Township eine Eisenbahnlinie der BNSF Railway, die von Chicago nach Westen führt.

Der nächstgelegene Flugplatz ist der rund 25 km nordwestlich der Township gelegene Ogle County Airport.

Bevölkerung
Bei der Volkszählung im Jahr 2010 hatte die Township 227 Einwohner. Neben Streubesiedlung existiert in der Eagle Point Township zwei (gemeindefreie) Siedlungen:

 Eagle Point
 Hazelhurst1

1 – teilweise im Carroll County

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 www.city-data.com - Eagle Point Township
 Histopolis - Eagle Point Township

Eagle Point Township (Illinois)


Since 1983, the crown of the Netherlands passes according to absolute primogeniture. From 1814 until 1887, a monarch could only be succeeded by their closest female relative if there were no eligible male relatives. Male-preference cognatic primogeniture was adopted in 1887, though abolished when absolute primogeniture was introduced in 1983. Proximity of blood has been taken into consideration since 1922, when the constitution was changed to limit the line of succession to three degrees of kinship from the current monarch. In a situation where the monarch is succeeded by an eligible aunt or uncle, persons previously excluded could be reintroduced into the line of succession.

In October 2021, in a letter to parliament Prime Minister Mark Rutte stated that the monarch and the heir to throne could marry a person of the same sex without being forced to abdicate or give up their place in the line of succession.

Line of succession
The list below contains all people currently eligible to directly succeed to the throne (numbered 1 to 8) and the descendants of Princess Margriet who would be eligible if she were to succeed.

 Queen Juliana (1909–2004)
 Queen Beatrix (born 1938)
 King Willem-Alexander (born 1967)
 (1) Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange (born 2003)
 (2) Princess Alexia (b. 2005)
 (3) Princess Ariane (b. 2007)
 (4) Prince Constantijn (b. 1969)
 (5) Countess Eloise (b. 2002)
 (6) Count Claus-Casimir (b. 2004)
 (7) Countess Leonore (b. 2006)
(8) Princess Margriet (b. 1943)
 Prince Maurits (b. 1968)
 Anastasia van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (b. 2001)
 Lucas van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (b. 2002)
  Felicia van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven (b. 2005)
  Prince Bernhard (b. 1969)
 Isabella van Vollenhoven (b. 2002)
 Samuel van Vollenhoven (b. 2004)
  Benjamin van Vollenhoven (b. 2008)

See also
List of heirs to the Dutch throne
Monarchy of the Netherlands

Notes
 Beatrix's second son, Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau, was removed from the line of succession in 2004 when he married without seeking Parliamentary approval. His two daughters, Countess Luana of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg and Countess Zaria of Orange-Nassau van Amsberg, are not in the line of succession.
 Princess Irene (Beatrix's younger sister) was removed from the list when she married Carlos Hugo, Duke of Parma, without Parliamentary approval. Approval was withheld because Carlos Hugo's Carlist pretense to the Spanish throne threatened to cause a Constitutional crisis.
 Prince Pieter-Christiaan and Prince Floris of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (the younger sons of Princess Margriet), were removed from the list because they had both decided not to seek Parliamentary approval for their 2005 marriages due to their remote chance of succeeding to the throne.
 Prince Maurits and Prince Bernhard of Orange-Nassau, van Vollenhoven (the elder sons of Princess Margriet), and their descendants are not in the line because they are too distantly related to the reigning monarch. When Willem-Alexander became king on 30 April 2013, his aunt's sons lost their succession rights and will only regain them if she succeeds to the throne – in which case her children would assume appropriate places in the line of succession.

References

Dutch throne
Dutch monarchy
Netherlands history-related lists

Succession to the Dutch throne


Lepidothamnus laxifolius er lítill runni frá Nýja-Sjálandi. Þar vex hann oft með Halocarpus bidwillii og Podocarpus nivalis. L. laxifolius er eitt af smávöxnustu barrtrjám heims.

Tilvísanir

Gagnviðarætt

Lepidothamnus laxifolius