African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is the variety of English natively spoken, particularly in urban communities, by most working- and middle-class African Americans and some Black Canadians.

Having its own unique grammatical, vocabulary, and accent features, AAVE is employed by middle-class Black Americans as the more informal and casual end of a sociolinguistic continuum. However, in formal speaking contexts, speakers tend to switch to more standard English grammar and vocabulary, usually while retaining elements of the nonstandard accent. Despite being widespread throughout the United States, AAVE is not the native dialect of all African Americans, and not all speakers are African American.

As with most African-American English, African-American Vernacular English shares a large portion of its grammar and phonology with the rural dialects of the Southern United States, and especially older Southern American English, due to the historical enslavement of African Americans primarily in that region.

Mainstream linguists maintain that the parallels between AAVE, West African languages, and English-based creole languages are existent but minor, with African-American Vernacular English genealogically still falling under the English language, demonstrably tracing back to the diverse nonstandard dialects of early English settlers in the Southern United States. However, a minority of linguists argue that the vernacular shares so many characteristics with African creole languages spoken around the world that it could have originated as its own English-based creole or semi-creole language, distinct from the English language, before undergoing a process of decreolization.

Origins
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) may be considered a dialect, ethnolect or sociolect. While it is clear that there is a strong historical relationship between AAVE and earlier Southern U.S. dialects, the origins of AAVE are still a matter of debate.

The presiding theory among linguists is that AAVE has always been a dialect of English, meaning that it originated from earlier English dialects rather than from English-based creole languages that "decreolized" back into English. In the early 2000s, Shana Poplack provided corpus-based evidence—evidence from a body of writing—from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia peopled by descendants of migrations of early AAVE-speaking groups (see Samaná English) that suggests that the grammar of early AAVE was closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban AAVE is to other current American dialects, suggesting that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of decreolization from a widespread American creole.

Linguist John McWhorter maintains that the contribution of West African languages to AAVE is minimal. In an interview on National Public Radio's Talk of the Nation, McWhorter characterized AAVE as a "hybrid of regional dialects of Great Britain that slaves in America were exposed to because they often worked alongside the indentured servants who spoke those dialects..." According to McWhorter, virtually all linguists who have carefully studied the origins of AAVE "agree that the West African connection is quite minor."

However, a creole theory, less accepted among linguists, posits that AAVE arose from one or more creole languages used by African captives of the Atlantic slave trade, due to the captives speaking many different native languages and therefore needing a new way to communicate among themselves and with their captors. According to this theory, these captives first developed what are called pidgins: simplified mixtures of languages. Since pidgins form from close contact between speakers of different languages, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Creolist John Dillard quotes, for example, slave ship captain William Smith describing the sheer diversity of mutually unintelligible languages just in The Gambia. By 1715, an African pidgin was reproduced in novels by Daniel Defoe, in particular, The Life of Colonel Jacque. In 1721, Cotton Mather conducted the first attempt at recording the speech of slaves in his interviews regarding the practice of smallpox inoculation. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible. Dillard quotes a recollection of "slave language" toward the latter part of the 18th century: "Kay, massa, you just leave me, me sit here, great fish jump up into da canoe, here he be, massa, fine fish, massa; me den very grad; den me sit very still, until another great fish jump into de canoe; but me fall asleep, massa, and no wake 'til you come...." Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated Whites. The abolitionist papers before the war form a rich corpus of examples of plantation creole. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his Black soldiers' language. Opponents of the creole theory suggest that such pidgins or creoles existed but simply died out without directly contributing to modern AAVE.

Harvard professor Sunn m'Cheaux says the immediate future tense (for example "I'ma") originated in the Gullah language (an English creole), which uses "a-" instead of "-ing" for this type of verb inflection.

Phonology

Many pronunciation features distinctly set AAVE apart from other forms of American English (particularly, General American). McWhorter argues that what truly unites all AAVE accents is a uniquely wide-ranging intonation pattern or "melody", which characterizes even the most "neutral" or light African-American accent. A handful of multisyllabic words in AAVE differ from General American in their stress placement so that, for example, police, guitar, and Detroit are pronounced with initial stress instead of ultimate stress. The following are phonological differences in AAVE vowel and consonant sounds.

Final consonant groups or clusters in AAVE have been examined as evidence of the systematic nature of this language variety, governed by specific rules. Additionally, such analyses have been utilized to bolster arguments concerning the historical origins of AAVE. Consonant cluster reduction is a phonological process where a final consonant group or cluster, consisting of two consonant sounds, is simplified or reduced to a single consonant sound. The analysis of consonant cluster reduction in AAVE assumes that, initially, final clusters are present and intact in the language. For example, the word "tes" in AAVE is seen as originating from "test," with the final "t" being deleted under specific conditions. According to this analysis, AAVE treats a word like "test" as identical to its counterpart in mainstream English. Any differences in pronunciation between the two varieties, such as "test" in mainstream English and "tes" in AAVE, are attributed to phonological processes rather than differences in underlying word representations.

Vowels

African American Vowel Shift: AAVE accents have traditionally resisted the cot-caught merger spreading nationwide, with  pronounced  and  traditionally pronounced , though now often . Early 2000s research has shown that this resistance may continue to be reinforced by the fronting of , linked through a chain shift of vowels to the raising of the , , and perhaps  vowels. This chain shift is called the "African American Shift". However, there is still evidence of AAVE speakers picking up the cot-caught merger in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in Charleston, South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, and in parts of California.
Reduction of certain diphthong forms to monophthongs, in particular, the  vowel  is monophthongized to  except before voiceless consonants (this is also found in most White Southern dialects). The vowel sound in  ( in General American) is also monophthongized, especially before , making boil indistinguishable from ball.
Pin–pen merger: Before nasal consonants (, , and ),   and   are both pronounced like , making pen and pin homophones. This is also present in other dialects, particularly of the South. The pin-pen merger is not universal in AAVE, and there is evidence for unmerged speakers in California, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.
 The distinction between the   and   vowels before liquid consonants is frequently reduced or absent, making feel and fill homophones (fill–feel merger).  and  also merge, making poor and pour homophones (cure–force merger).

Consonants
 Word-final devoicing of , , and , whereby, for example, cub sounds similar to cup, though these words may retain the longer vowel pronunciations that typically precede voiced consonants, and devoicing may be realized with debuccalization (where  is realized as , for instance)
 AAVE speakers may not use the fricatives  (the th in "thin") and  (the th of "then") that are present in other varieties of English. The phoneme's position in a word determines its exact sound.
 Word-initially,  is normally the same as in other English dialects (so thin is ); in other situations, it may move forward in the mouth to  (Th-fronting).
 Word-initially,  is  (so this may be ). In other situations,  may move forward to .
 Realization of final ng , the velar nasal, as the alveolar nasal  (assibilation, alveolarization) in function morphemes and content morphemes with two or more syllables like -ing, e.g. tripping  is pronounced as  (trippin) instead of the standard . This change does not occur in one-syllable content morphemes such as sing, which is  and not . However, singing is . Other examples include wedding → , morning → , nothing → . Realization of  as  in these contexts is commonly found in many other English dialects.
 A marked feature of AAVE is final consonant cluster reduction. This is a process by which the pronunciations of consonant clusters at the end of certain words are reduced to pronouncing only the first consonant of that cluster. There are several phenomena that are similar but are governed by different grammatical rules. This tendency has been used by creolists to compare AAVE to West African languages since such languages do not have final clusters.
 Final consonant clusters that are homorganic (have the same place of articulation) and share the same voicing are reduced. For instance, test is pronounced  since  and  are both voiceless; hand is pronounced  (alternatively  or ), since  and  are both voiced; but pant is unchanged, as it contains both a voiced and a voiceless consonant in the cluster. It is the plosive ( and ) in these examples that is lost rather than the fricative; the nasal is also either preserved completely or lost with preservation of nasality on the preceding consonant. Speakers may carry this declustered pronunciation when pluralizing so that the plural of test is  rather than . The clusters ,  are also affected.
 More often, word-final , , and  are reduced, again with the final element being deleted rather than the former.
 For younger speakers,  also occurs in words that other varieties of English have  so that, for example, street is pronounced .
 Clusters ending in  or  exhibit variation in whether the first or second element is deleted.
 Similarly, final consonants may be deleted (although there is a great deal of variation between speakers in this regard). Most often,  and  are deleted. As with other dialects of English, final  and  may reduce to a glottal stop. Nasal consonants may be lost while nasalization of the vowel is retained (e.g., find may be pronounced ). More rarely,  and  may also be deleted.
 Use of metathesized forms like aks for "ask" or graps for "grasp".
 General non-rhotic behavior, in which the rhotic consonant  is typically dropped when not followed by a vowel; it may also manifest as an unstressed  or the lengthening of the preceding vowel. Intervocalic  may also be dropped, e.g. General American story () can be pronounced , though this doesn't occur across morpheme boundaries.  may also be deleted between a consonant and a back rounded vowel, especially in words like throw, throat, and through.
The level of AAVE rhoticity is likely somewhat correlated with the rhoticity of White speakers in a given region; in 1960s research, AAVE accents tended to be mostly non-rhotic in Detroit, whose White speakers are rhotic, but completely non-rhotic in New York City, whose White speakers are also often non-rhotic.
  is often vocalized in patterns similar to that of  (though never between vowels) and, in combination with cluster simplification (see above), can make homophones of toll and toe, fault and fought, and tool and too. Homonymy may be reduced by vowel lengthening and by an off-glide .

"Deep" phonology
McWhorter discusses an accent continuum from "a 'deep' Black English through a 'light' Black English to standard English," saying the sounds on this continuum may vary from one African American speaker to the next or even in a single speaker from one situational context to the next. McWhorter regards the following as rarer features, characteristic only of a deep Black English but which speakers of light Black English may occasionally "dip into for humorous or emotive effect":
 Lowering of  before , causing pronunciations such as  for thing (sounding something like thang).
 Word-medially and word-finally, pronouncing  as  (so  for month and  for mouth), and  as  (so  for smooth and  for rather. This is called th-fronting. Word-initially,  is  (so those and doze sound nearly identical). This is called th-stopping. In other words, the tongue fully touches the top teeth.
Glide deletion (monophthongization) of all instances of , universally, resulting in  (so that, for example, even rice may sound like rahss.)
Full gliding (diphthongization) of , resulting in  (so that win may sound like wee-un).
Raising and fronting of the vowel  of words like strut, mud, tough, etc. to something like .

Grammar

Tense and aspect
Although AAVE does not necessarily have the simple past-tense marker of other English varieties (that is, the -ed of "worked"), it does have an optional tense system with at least four aspects of the past tense and two aspects of the future tense. The term TMA marker is used for forms that are an integral part of the predicate phrase. The markers gon, done, be, and been were defined as markers of future tense, completive aspect, habitual aspect, and durative aspect, respectively.

Syntactically, I bought it is grammatical, but done (always unstressed, pronounced as /dən/) is used to emphasize the completed nature of the action.

As phase auxiliary verbs, been and done must occur as the first auxiliary; when they occur as the second, they carry additional aspects:
 He been done working means "he finished work a long time ago".
 He done been working means "until recently, he worked over a long period of time".

The latter example shows one of the most distinctive features of AAVE: the use of be to indicate that performance of the verb is of a habitual nature. In most other American English dialects, this can only be expressed unambiguously by using adverbs such as usually.

This aspect-marking form of been or BIN is stressed and semantically distinct from the unstressed form: She BIN running ('She has been running for a long time') and She been running ('She has been running'). This aspect has been given several names, including perfect phase, remote past, and remote phase (this article uses the third). As shown above, been places action in the distant past. However, when been is used with stative verbs or gerund forms, been shows that the action began in the distant past and that it is continuing now.  suggests that a better translation when used with stative verbs is "for a long time". For instance, in response to "I like your new dress", one might hear Oh, I been had this dress, meaning that the speaker has had the dress for a long time and that it isn't new.

To see the difference between the simple past and the gerund when used with been, consider the following expressions:
 I been bought her clothes means "I bought her clothes a long time ago".
 I been buying her clothes means "I've been buying her clothes for a long time".

Auxiliaries in African American Vernacular English are related in a typical pattern. They can be grouped into negative forms and affirmative forms for each of the words. For example, "had" is an affirmative form, while "hatn" is the corresponding negative form. These same auxiliaries can be used to mark sentences for the anterior aspect. As another example, was marks type 1 sentences. These are sentences that are interpreted by default as being in the present tense but actually refer to a time before the present. Take, for instance, "She at home": the word was can be inserted to mark this sentence, making the marked equivalent "She was at home". Auxiliaries such as these also have opposing negative and affirmative forms.

  Finna corresponds to "fixing to" in other varieties. It is also written fixina, fixna, fitna, and finta.
In addition to these, come (which may or may not be an auxiliary) may be used to indicate speaker indignation, such as in Don't come acting like you don't know what happened and you started the whole thing ("Don't try to act as if you don't know what happened, because you started the whole thing").

Negation
Negatives are formed differently from most other varieties of English:

 Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. As in other dialects, it can be used where most other dialects would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't, and hasn't. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the US, some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that). Ain't had its origins in common English but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.
 Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with standard written English conventions, which have traditionally prescribed that a double negative is considered incorrect to mean anything other than a positive (although this was not always so; see double negative).
 In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (e.g., Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothing going on.)

While AAVE shares these with Creole languages,  use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.

Other grammatical characteristics
 The copula be in the present tense is often dropped, as in Russian, Hebrew, Arabic and other languages. For example: You crazy ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). This has been sometimes considered a Southern U.S. regionalism, though it is most frequent in Black speech. On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: Yes, she is my sister. The general rules are:
 Only the forms is and are (of which the latter is anyway often replaced by is) can be omitted; am, was, and were are not deleted.
 These forms cannot be omitted when they would be pronounced with stress in General American (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
 These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in standard English cannot show contraction (and vice versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to *I don't know where he just as in standard English forms the corresponding reduction *I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (I don't know where he at is possible, paralleling I don't know where he's at in standard English.)
 Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.
 Verbs are uninflected for number and person: there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). AAVE don't for standard English doesn't comes from this, unlike in some other dialects which use don't for standard English doesn't but does when not in the negative. Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.
 The genitive -'s ending may or may not be used. Genitive case is inferrable from adjacency. This is similar to many creoles throughout the Caribbean. Many language forms throughout the world use an unmarked possessive; it may here result from a simplification of grammatical structures. Example: my momma sister ("my mother's sister")
 The words it and they denote the existence of something, equivalent to standard English's there is or there are.
 Word order in questions: Why they ain't growing? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of most other forms of English. Because of this, there is also no need for the "auxiliary do".
 Relative clauses which modify a noun in the object or predicate nominative position are not obligatorily introduced by a relative pronoun.

Vocabulary
AAVE shares most of its lexicon with other varieties of English, particularly that of informal and Southern dialects; for example, the relatively recent use of y'all. As statistically shown by Algeo (1991: 3-14), the main sources for new words are combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing, and creating. However, it has also been suggested that some of the vocabulary unique to AAVE has its origin in West African languages, but etymology is often difficult to trace, and without a trail of recorded usage, the suggestions below cannot be considered proven. Early AAVE and Gullah contributed a number of words of African origin to the American English mainstream, including gumbo, goober, yam, and banjo.

Compounding in AAVE is a very common method in creating new vocabulary. The most common type of compounding is the noun-noun combination. There is also the adjective-noun combination which is the second most occurring combination found in AAE slang. AAE also combines adjectives with other adjectives, which are not as common, but are more common than in standard American English.

AAVE has also contributed slang expressions such as cool and hip. In many cases, the postulated etymologies are not recognized by linguists or the Oxford English Dictionary, such as to dig, jazz, tote, and bad-mouth, a calque from Mandinka. African American slang is formed by words and phrases that are regarded as informal. It involves combining, shifting, shortening, blending, borrowing, and creating new words. African American slang possess all of the same lexical qualities and linguistic mechanisms as any other language. AAVE slang is more common in speech and vocabulary than it is in writing.

AAVE also has words that either are not part of most other American English dialects or have strikingly different meanings. For example, there are several words in AAVE referring to White people that are not part of mainstream American English; these include gray as an adjective for Whites (as in gray dude), possibly from the color of Confederate uniforms; and paddy, an extension of the slang use for "Irish". "Red bone" is another example of this, usually referring to light skinned African Americans.

"Ofay", which is pejorative, is another general term for a White person; it might derive from the Ibibio word afia, which means "light-colored", from the Yoruba word ofe, spoken in hopes of disappearing from danger. However, most dictionaries simply say its etymology is unknown.

Kitchen refers to the particularly curly or kinky hair at the nape of the neck, and siditty or seddity means "snobbish" or "bourgeois".<ref>, s.v. "Kitchen". Kitchen, siditty: Dictionary of American Regional English, s.vv. "Kitchen", "Siditty".</ref>

AAVE has also contributed many words and phrases to other varieties of English, including chill out, main squeeze, soul, funky, and threads.

Influence on other dialects
African-American Vernacular English has influenced the development of other dialects of English. The AAVE accent, New York accent, and Spanish-language accents have together yielded the sound of New York Latino English, some of whose speakers use an accent indistinguishable from an AAVE one. AAVE has also influenced certain Chicano accents and Liberian Settler English, directly derived from the AAVE of the original 16,000 African Americans who migrated to Liberia in the 1800s. In the United States, urban youth participating in hip-hop culture or marginalized as ethnic minorities are also well-studied in adopting African-American Vernacular English, or prominent elements of it: for example, Southeast-Asian Americans embracing hip-hop identities.

 Variation
Urban versus rural variations
The first studies on the African American English (AAE) took place in cities such as New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago, to name a few. These studies concluded that the African American Language (AAL) was homogeneous, which means that AAE was spoken the same way everywhere around the country. Later, sociolinguists would realize that these cities lacked the influence of the rural south; the early studies had not considered the representation of the south of America, which caused the AAE studies to change. To make those changes, the newer studies used the diversity of the country and took into consideration the rural south.

African-American Vernacular English began as mostly rural and Southern, yet today is mostly urban and nationally widespread, and its more recent urban features are now even diffusing into rural areas. Urban AAVE alone is intensifying with the grammatical features exemplified in these sentences: "He be the best" (intensified equative be), "She be done had her baby" (resultative be done), and "They come hollerin" (indignant come). On the other hand, rural AAVE alone shows certain features too, such as: "I was a-huntin" (a-prefixing); "It riz above us" (different irregular forms); and "I want for to eat it" (for to complement). Using the word bees even in place of be to mean is or are in standard English, as in the sentence "That's the way it bees" is also one of the rarest of all deep AAVE features today, and most middle-class AAVE speakers would recognize the verb bees as part of only a deep "Southern" or "country" speaker's vocabulary.

Local variations
There are at least 10 distinct regional accents in AAVE, and regional patterns of pronunciation and word choice appear on social media.

Regional variation in AAVE does not pattern with other regional variation in North American English, which broadly follows East-to-West migration patterns, but instead patterns with the population movements during the Great Migration, resulting in a broadly South-to-North pattern, albeit with founder effects in cities that already had existing African American populations at the beginning of the Great Migration.
There is no vowel for which the geographic variation in AAVE patterns with that of White American English.

New York City AAVE incorporates some local features of the New York accent, including its high  vowel; meanwhile, conversely, Pittsburgh AAVE may merge this same vowel with the  vowel, matching the cot-caught merger of White Pittsburgh accents, though AAVE accents traditionally do not have the cot-caught merger. Memphis, Atlanta, and Research Triangle AAVE incorporates the  vowel raising and  vowel lowering associated with White Southern accents. Memphis and St. Louis AAVE are developing, since the mid-twentieth century, an iconic merger of the vowels in  and , making there sound like thurr.
Californian AAVE often lacks a cot-caught merger, especially before nasals.

 Social context
Although the distinction between AAVE and General American dialects is clear to most English speakers, some characteristics, notably double negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries (see below) such as the has in has been are also characteristic of many colloquial dialects of American English. There is near-uniformity of AAVE grammar, despite its vast geographic spread across the whole country. This may be due in part to relatively recent migrations of African Americans out of the American South (see Great Migration and Second Great Migration) as well as to long-term racial segregation that kept Black people living together in largely homogeneous communities.

Misconceptions about AAVE are, and have long been, common, and have stigmatized its use. One myth is that AAVE is grammatically "simple" or "sloppy". However, like all dialects, AAVE shows consistent internal logic and grammatical complexity, and is used naturally by a group of people to express thoughts and ideas. Prescriptively, attitudes about AAVE are often less positive; since AAVE deviates from the standard, its use is commonly misinterpreted as a sign of ignorance, laziness, or both. Perhaps because of this attitude (as well as similar attitudes among other Americans), most speakers of AAVE are bidialectal, being able to speak with more standard English features, and perhaps even a General American accent, as well as AAVE. Such linguistic adaptation in different environments is called code-switching—though  argues that the situation is actually one of diglossia: each dialect, or code, is applied in different settings. Generally speaking, the degree of exclusive use of AAVE decreases with increasing socioeconomic status (although AAVE is still used by even well-educated African Americans).

Another misconception is that AAVE is the native dialect (or even more inaccurately, a linguistic fad) employed by all African Americans. Wheeler (1999) warns that "AAVE should not be thought of as the language of Black people in America. Many African Americans neither speak it nor know much about it". Conversely, not all native AAVE speakers are African American, and nonnative speakers also incorporate elements into their speech.

 argues that the use of AAVE carries racially affirmative political undertones as its use allows African Americans to assert their cultural upbringing. Nevertheless, use of AAVE also carries strong social connotations;  presents a White female speaker of AAVE who is accepted as a member into African American social groups despite her race.

Before the substantial research of the 1960s and 1970s—including William Labov's groundbreakingly thorough grammatical study, Language in the Inner City—there was doubt that the speech of African Americans had any exclusive features not found in varieties spoken by other groups;  noted that distinctive features of African American speech were present in the speech of Southerners and  argued that there were really no substantial vocabulary or grammatical differences between the speech of Black people and other English dialects.

It is also seen and heard in advertising.

 In the legal system

The United States courts are divided over how to admit statements of ambiguous tense made in AAVE under evidence. In United States v. Arnold, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit held that "he finna shoot me" was a statement made in the present tense, so it was admissible hearsay under the excited utterance exception; however, the dissent held that past or present tense could not be determined by the statement, so the statement should not have been admitted into evidence. Similarly, in Louisiana v. Demesme, the Louisiana Supreme Court ruled that the defendant's statement "why don't you give me a lawyer, dog" was too ambiguous to be considered a Miranda request for a lawyer.

In US courts, an interpreter is only routinely available for speakers of "a language other than English".  argue that a lack of familiarity with AAVE (and other minority dialects of English) on the part of jurors, stenographers, and others can lead to misunderstandings in court. They especially focus on the Trayvon Martin case and how the testimony of Rachel Jeantel was perceived as incomprehensible and not credible by the jury due to her dialect.

A 2019 experimental study by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, NYU, and Philadelphia Lawyers for Social Equity, found that court stenographers in Philadelphia regularly fail to transcribe AAVE accurately, with about 40 percent of sentences being inaccurate, and only 83% accuracy at the word level, despite court stenographers being certified at or above 95% accuracy. Their study suggests that there is evidence that court reporters may potentially introduce incorrect transcriptions into the official court record, with ramifications in cross-examination, jury deliberations, and appeals. A 2016 qualitative study by researchers at Stanford University also suggests that testimony in AAE—and other nonstandard varieties—is not necessarily always understood in a judicial setting.

 In music
Spirituals, blues, jazz, R&B, and most recently, hip-hop are all genres associated with African American music; as such, AAVE usually appears, through singing, speaking, or rapping, in these musical forms. Examples of morphosyntactic features of AAVE in genres other than hip-hop are given below:

More recently, AAVE has been used heavily in hip-hop to show "street cred". Examples of morphosyntactic AAVE features used by Black hip-hop artists are given below:

In addition to grammatical features, lexical items specific to AAVE are often used in hip-hop:

Lexical items taken from

Because hip-hop is so intimately related to the African American oral tradition, non-Black hip-hop artists also use certain features of AAVE; for example, in an MC battle, Eyedea said, "What that mean, yo?" displaying a lack of subject-verb inversion and also the "auxiliary do". However, they tend to avoid the term nigga, even as a marker of solidarity. White hip-hop artists such as Eyedea can choose to accentuate their whiteness by hyper-articulating postvocalic r sounds (i.e. the retroflex approximant).

AAVE is also used by non-Black artists in genres other than hip-hop, if less frequently. For instance, in "Tonight, Tonight", Hot Chelle Rae uses the term dime to mean "an attractive woman". Jewel's "Sometimes It Be That Way" employs habitual be in the title to indicate habitual aspect. If they do not employ similar features of AAVE in their speech, then it can be argued that they are modeling their musical performance to evoke aspects of particular musical genres such as R&B or the blues (as British pop musicians of the 1960s and beyond did to evoke rock, pop, and the blues). Some research suggests that non-African American young adults learn AAVE vocabulary by listening to hip-hop music.

 In social media

On Twitter, AAVE is used as a framework from which sentences and words are constructed, in order to accurately express oneself. Grammatical features and word pronunciations stemming from AAVE are preserved. Spellings based on AAVE have become increasingly common, to the point where it has become a normalized practice. Some examples include, "you" (you're), "they" (their/they're), "gon/gone" (going to), and "yo" (your).

 In education

Educators traditionally have attempted to eliminate AAVE usage through the public education system, perceiving the dialect as grammatically defective. In 1974, the teacher-led Conference on College Composition and Communication issued a position statement affirming students' rights to their own dialects and the validity of all dialects. Mainstream linguistics has long agreed with this view about dialects. In 1979, a judge ordered the Ann Arbor School District to find a way to identify AAVE speakers in the schools and to "use that knowledge in teaching such students how to read standard English." In 1996, Oakland Unified School District made a controversial resolution for AAVE, which was later called "Ebonics". The Oakland School board approved that Ebonics be recognized as a language independent from English (though this particular view is not endorsed by linguists), that teachers would participate in recognizing this language, and that it would be used in theory to support the transition from Ebonics to Standard American English in schools. This program lasted three years and then died off.

 In academia
Generally in academia, most academicians are very strict in regard to the use of AAVE in academic writing due to the common use of academic English, with most often describing the need "to be intelligible to a broad group of academicians across the world." There has been open discussions by some academicians as to whether AAVE in academia should be permittable due to its history of disadvantage and discrimination in education. In 2022, data from students in Indiana that were collected between 2015-2016 and 2018-2019 statewide showed that overall Black students, who most likely utilized AAVE, had lower scores on the writing assignments, which is likely contributes for Black students rejection rates to higher education programs.

 See also

 Africanisms
 Glossary of jive talk
 Gullah language
 Languages of the United States
 Is-leveling
 New Jersey English
 New Orleans English
 North American English regional phonology

 Notes

 References

 Bibliography

 Dictionary of American Regional English.'' 5 vols. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985–.

Further reading

Dialects of English

African-American Vernacular English


The Toronto subway is a rapid transit system serving Toronto and the neighbouring city of Vaughan in Ontario, Canada, operated by the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). As of September 2023, the subway system is a rail network consisting of three heavy-capacity rail lines operating predominantly underground.  three new lines are under construction: two light rail lines and one light metro line.

In 1954, the TTC opened Canada's first underground rail line, then known as the "Yonge subway", under Yonge Street between Union Station and Eglinton Avenue with 12 stations. As of 2023, the network encompasses 70 stations and  of route. In , the system had a ridership of , or about  per weekday as of , making it the second busiest rapid transit system in Canada in terms of ridership. There are 60 stations under construction as part of three new lines, two light rail lines and one light metro line, and two extensions to existing lines.

Overview

There are three operating rapid transit lines in Toronto:

 Line 1 Yonge–University is the longest and busiest rapid transit line in the system. It opened as the Yonge subway in 1954 with a length of , and since then has grown to a length of . The modern line is U-shaped, having two northern terminalsat Vaughan Metropolitan Centre and Finchand its southern end at Union station in downtown Toronto.
 Line 2 Bloor–Danforth, opened in 1966, runs parallel to Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue between Kipling station in Etobicoke and Kennedy station in Scarborough. Construction has started on a three-stop extension of Line 2 northeastward from Kennedy station to Sheppard Avenue and McCowan via Scarborough City Centre.
 Line 4 Sheppard opened in 2002 running under Sheppard Avenue East eastwards from Sheppard–Yonge station on Line 1 to Don Mills station; it is the shortest rapid transit line in Toronto at a length of .

 three new lines are under construction, two light rail lines and one light metro line, with two extensions being added over the next decade.
 Line 5 Eglinton (also known as the Eglinton Crosstown LRT) is an under-construction  light rail line along Eglinton Avenue, planned to run from Kennedy station in the east to Mount Dennis station in the west. The line is expected to be completed in 2024 at a cost of approximately $12billion. The line will have 25 stations, 15 of which will be underground, while the remaining ten will be at-grade stops located in at the road's median. Construction began in 2011.
 An extension of Line 5 westwards for  to Renforth is also under construction. The extension will have seven stations, four of which will be underground and two of which will be elevated. Construction began in 2022, and is scheduled for completion in the 2030s.
 Line 6 Finch West (also known as the Finch West LRT) is an under-construction , 18-stop light rail line travelling from Finch West station on Line 1 Yonge–University to the North Campus of Humber College, located mainly in the median of Finch Avenue. It is scheduled for completion within the first half of 2024, with an estimated cost of $1.2billion. Construction on Line 6 began in 2019.
 Ontario Line is an under-construction  light metro line from Exhibition station to Science Centre station, providing a second rapid transit line through the Financial District and downtown core. The project evolved from the long-planned Downtown Relief Line, first proposed in the mid-1980s. The line is scheduled for completion in 2031 at a cost of $17 to $19 billion. Upon opening, the plan is to reassign the "Line 3" moniker formerly used by Line 3 Scarborough to the Ontario Line.

Until July 2023, the TTC operated an elevated light metro service:

 Line 3 Scarborough, originally known as the Scarborough RT, was an elevated medium-capacity (light metro) rail line serving the city's eponymous suburban district. It opened in 1985, running from Kennedy station to McCowan station via . It was the only rapid transit line in Toronto to use Intermediate Capacity Transit System (ICTS) technology. Because of maintenance difficulties (along with the Line 2 subway extension into Scarborough), Line 3 was to be decommissioned on November 19, 2023. However, it was decommissioned approximately four months early due to a derailment on July 24, 2023. Bus service replaced Line 3 and is scheduled to continue until the extension of Line 2 to Scarborough City Centre opens in 2030.

History

Timeline of openings and closings

Line 1 Yonge–University

Canada's first subway, the Yonge subway, opened in 1954 with a length of . The line ran under or parallel to Yonge Street between Eglinton Avenue and Union station. It replaced the Yonge streetcar line, Canada's first streetcar line. In 1963, the line was extended northwards from Union station under University Avenue to Bloor Street, where it would later connect with the Bloor–Danforth subway (opened in 1966) at the double-deck St. George station. In 1974, the Yonge Street portion of the line was extended from Eglinton station north to Finch station. The Spadina segment of the line was constructed north from St. George station initially to Wilson station in 1978, and in 1996 to Downsview station, renamed Sheppard West in 2017. Part of the Spadina segment runs in the median of Allen Road – an expressway formerly known as the Spadina Expressway – and crosses over Highway 401 on overpasses. Six decades of extensions gave the line a U-shaped route running from its two northern terminals (Finch and Vaughan Metropolitan Centre stations) and looping on its southern end at Union station. The latest extension from Sheppard West to  opened on December 17, 2017, making the line  long, over five times its original length.

Line 2 Bloor–Danforth

Opened in 1966, the Bloor–Danforth subway runs east–west under or near Bloor Street and Danforth Avenue. It replaced the Bloor streetcar line (which also served Danforth Avenue). Initially, the subway line ran between Keele station and Woodbine station. In 1968, the line was extended west to Islington station and east to Warden station, and in 1980, it was further extended west to Kipling station and east to Kennedy station.

Line 3 Scarborough

Opened in 1985, Line 3 (originally the Scarborough RT) was a light metro line running from Kennedy station to McCowan station. The TTC started to construct the line to use Canadian Light Rail Vehicles. However, the TTC was forced to convert to the Intermediate Capacity Transit System technology because the provincial government threatened to cut funding to the organization if it did not. This line was never extended, and in July 2023, the line was shut down pending its dismantling due to a derailment. It is set to be replaced with an extension of Line 2 to Sheppard and McCowan via Scarborough Town Centre.

Line 4 Sheppard

Opened in 2002, the Sheppard subway runs under Sheppard Avenue from Sheppard–Yonge station to Don Mills station. The line was under construction when a change in provincial government threatened to terminate the project, but Mel Lastman, the last mayor of the former City of North York (today part of Toronto), used his influence to save the project. Despite the construction of many high-rise residential buildings along the line since its opening, ridership remains low resulting in a subsidy of $10 per ride. The line was intended to be extended to Scarborough Centre station, but because of the low ridership and the cost of tunnelling, there was a plan to extend rapid transit eastwards from Don Mills station via a surface light rail line, the Sheppard East LRT. However, in April 2019, Premier Doug Ford announced that the provincial government would extend Line 4 Sheppard to McCowan Road at some unspecified time in the future, thus replacing the proposed Sheppard East LRT.

Line 5 Eglinton

Metrolinx is funding the  Line 5 Eglinton, a light rail line along Eglinton Avenue. From Mount Dennis in the west to Brentcliffe Road (east of Laird Drive), the line will run almost entirely underground where Eglinton Avenue is generally four to five lanes wide. From east of Brentcliffe Road to Kennedy station, the line will operate on the surface in a reserved median in the middle of Eglinton Avenue, where the street is at least six lanes wide. Building on the surface instead of tunnelling reduces the cost of construction on the eastern end of the line. The average speed of the line is expected to be ; as a comparison, the average speed of the heavy-rail Line 2 Bloor–Danforth is . The Eglinton line originated from Transit City, a plan sponsored by then–Toronto mayor David Miller, to expedite transit improvement by building several light rail lines through the lower density parts of the city. Of the light rail lines proposed, only the Eglinton and Finch West lines are under construction . Line 5 is expected to be completed in 2024.

Line 6 Finch West

Line 6 Finch West, also known as the "Finch West LRT", is an under-construction line being built by Mosaic Transit Group along Finch Avenue. It is to be operated by the Toronto Transit Commission and was also part of the Transit City proposal announced on March 16, 2007. The , 18-stop line is to extend from Finch West station on Line 1 Yonge–University to the north campus of Humber College. The line is forecast to carry about 14.6million rides a year or 40,000 a day by 2031. It is scheduled for completion in 2024, with an estimated cost of $1.2billion. Construction on this line began in 2019.

Ontario Line

Ontario Line is an under-construction  light metro line from Exhibition station to Science Centre station, providing a second rapid transit line through the Financial District and downtown core. Although a subway line along Queen Street was first proposed in the early 1900s, the Downtown Relief Line was first proposed in the mid-1980s. The Ontario Line project extends further west and north than previous proposals to serve more of the city. The line is scheduled for completion in 2031 at a cost of $17 to $19 billion. Upon opening, the plan is for the line is take the "Line 3" moniker formerly used by Line 3 Scarborough.

Major incidents

On March 27, 1963, there was an electrical short in a subway car's motor. The driver decided to continue operating the train, despite visible smoke in the affected car, until the train reached Union station. This decision resulted in the destruction of six subway cars and extensive damage to the tunnel and signal lines west of Union station. Following this incident, safety procedures involving electrical malfunctions and/or fire in subway trains, were revised to improve safety and reduce the likelihood of a similar incident occurring.

On October 14, 1976, arson caused the destruction of four subway cars and damage to Christie station, resulting in the closure of part of the Bloor–Danforth line for three days, and the bypassing of Christie station for some time afterwards for repairs.

On August 11, 1995, the TTC suffered the deadliest subway accident in Canadian history, known as the Russell Hill accident, on the Yonge–University line south of St. Clair West station. Halfway between St. Clair West and Dupont stations, a southbound Line 1 subway train hit the rear of a stationary train ahead of it. Three people died and 100 other people were injured, some of them seriously. This led to a major reorganization at the TTC, with more focus on maintaining a "state of good repair" (i.e., an increased emphasis on safety and maintenance of existing TTC capital/services) and less on expansion.

On July 24, 2023, the last car of a train on Line 3 Scarborough derailed south of Ellesmere station. There were 45 people on board, with five injuries reported. The TTC closed the line while the cause of the accident, which was not immediately apparent, was investigated. It announced on August 24 that the line would not reopen.

Operations and procedures

Terminal station reversals and short turns
 The heavy-rail subway lines were built in multiple segments with multiple crossovers. These are typically used for reversals at terminal stations, and allow arriving and departing trains to cross to and from the station's farside platform. They are also used for short turning trains at some through stations in order to accommodate emergency and planned service suspensions. Planned service suspensions generally occur on weekends for planned maintenance activities that are impractical to perform overnight. There is only one regular short turn service that occurs during the morning rush hour on Line 1 Yonge–University when some northbound trains short turn at Glencairn station.

On Line 3 Scarborough, light metro trains were not able to switch direction except at the ends of the line as there were no intermediate crossovers between the two termini. Thus, no short turns on Line 3 were possible.

Door operation
The heavy-rail subway lines use either a one- or two-person crew. With two-person train operation, an on-board train guard at the rear of the train is responsible for opening and closing the subway car doors and making sure no one is trapped in a door as the train leaves a station. From the subway's inception in 1954 to 1991, the train guard notified patrons that the subway car doors were closing with two short blasts from a whistle. With one-person train operation (OPTO), one person operates the train as well as the doors. The TTC notes that modern technology now allows one person to safely operate the train and close the doors, and that OPTO is in use in many major cities with large subway systems such as the London Underground, the Paris Metro, the Chicago "L" and the Montreal Metro.

Initially, all the heavy-rail subway lines (1, 2 and 4) used two-person train operation. On October 9, 2016, Line 4 Sheppard was converted to OPTO. On August 1, 2021, the TTC tested OPTO on a portion of Line 1 on Sundays only. Effective November 21, 2021, the TTC introduced OPTO seven days per week on Line 1 between Vaughan Metropolitan Centre and St. George stations. Between St. George and Finch stations, the TTC continued using two-person train operation until the full conversion of the line to OPTO on November 20, 2022. From its opening in 1985 to its close in 2023, trains on Line 3 Scarborough were operated by one person.

According to a 2020 survey conducted by the Amalgamated Transit Union Local 113, two-thirds of Torontonians surveyed opposed the TTC's plan to eliminate the train guard on Line 1, and three-quarters of Torontonians disapproved of the fact that the public was not consulted when train guards were removed from Line 4's daily operations in 2016, citing safety concerns, among other issues, as key reasons motivating their response.

In 1991, as a result of lawsuits, electronic chimes, in the form of a descending arpeggiated major triad and a flashing pair of orange lights above the doorway, added for the hearing impaired, were tested and gradually introduced system-wide during the 1990s. The Toronto Rocket trains use the same door chimes and flashing orange lights as the older trains do, and also plays the additional voice announcement, "Please stand clear of the doors". Those chimes have become synonymous with the TTC and Toronto in general to the point that the CBC Radio One local afternoon show, Here and Now, includes them in its theme music.

Entering a station
There are several basic procedures that need to be completed once a train has entered a station. On TTC's Line 2, several symbols of different colours are installed on the station wall for the crew to use as a reference in positioning the train in the platform. A red circle, located at the train exit end of the platform, should be directly in front of the train operator's cab window when the train is aligned properly. A green triangle, located at the opposite end of the platform, is provided as a reference to the train guard that shows that the train is correctly aligned. Before opening the train doors, the guard lowers the cab window and points their finger out the window toward the green triangle when the cab is lined up with the triangle. If the train is not lined up properly, the guard is not permitted to open the doors.

To operate the doors, the guard is first required to insert and turn a key. This action provides system control to the door control panel. The doors are then opened by pushing buttons. After the doors are opened, the guard is required to stick their head out the cab window to observe passengers boarding and exiting. The train doors remain open for at least 15 seconds.

When the guard determines that boarding is complete, the doors are closed. Electronic chimes and flashing lights are turned on, then the automated announcement "please stand clear of the doors" is played over the train's public address system, and finally the doors are closed. The chimes provide a clear notification and warning to passengers that the doors are closing and are played before the automated announcement is played, because such announcements may not be heard when the station is crowded.

After the doors are closed, the guard provides a signal to the train operator that the train can proceed. The signal is in the form of a green light that turns on inside the operating cab. When the doors are closed, a light turns on in the operating cab. The guard is instructed to visually observe the platform while the train departs the station. The distance for this visual inspection is typically three car lengths. An orange triangle installed on the station wall indicates the location where the guard may stop observing the platform and pull their head back into the cab. This is done to ensure that no passengers are being dragged along by the train.

Platform markers
All staffed subway operations must verify that the train is properly berthed before the doors are opened. At each subway platform, a set of three  platform markers are affixed onto the platform wall. The train operator and guard use them to position the train.

The current platform markers used for Lines 1, 2, and 4 are as follows:
 Circular red disk (Lines 1, 2, and 4)—This marker is typically mounted on the station platform wall to assist the train operator in positioning the train in the station. When the operator's window is aligned with the red disk, the train is properly berthed in the station.
 Green triangle (Lines 1 and 2)—This marker is typically mounted on the station platform wall to indicate to the guard, who is positioned in the trailing car, that it is safe to open the doors. When the guard's window is aligned with this marker, the guard must confirm the stop position by physically pointing to the green triangle. If the guard cannot see the green triangle, they are not permitted to open the train doors.
 Orange triangle (Lines 1 and 2)—This marker is typically mounted on the station platform wall to assist the guard, who is positioned in the trailing car, to observe the platform for the required distance as the train is moving to exit the station. When the guard sees this triangle, they can cease observations. The distance between the green and orange triangles is typically the length of three rail cars.

Prior to 2017, when subway guards operated the doors from the fifth car instead of the trailing car in the T1 trains on Line 2, different platform markers were used. The following markers have now fallen into disuse as a result of a March 2017 policy change that required all guards to work from the trailing car on Line 2:

 Circular green disk (Line 2)—This marker was mounted on the station platform wall in front of the guard's window in the fifth car from the lead unit. It indicated to the guard that the train was properly berthed. The guard was required to point to the circle before opening the doors to confirm the stop position.
 Circular orange disk (Line 2)—This marker was mounted on the station platform wall to indicate to the guard when they could cease train departure platform observations. At this point, the guard closed the cab window.

Service frequency

During rush hour, up to 65 trains are on Line 1 simultaneously, 45 trains on Line 2, and 4 trains on Line 4. During non-rush hour periods, there are 30–46 trains on Line 1 at any one time.

On weekdays and Saturdays, subway service runs from approximately 6:00am to 1:30am; Sunday service begins at 8:00am. Start times on holidays may vary.

Station announcements

On January 8, 1995, train operators began to announce each stop over the train's speaker system as a result of pressure from advocacy groups for the visually impaired, but announcements were sporadic until the TTC began to enforce the policy circa 2005. Later, automated announcements were implemented under further pressure from the advocacy groups. All Toronto subway trains use an automated system to announce each station, which is played twice over the speaker system: when the train departs a station (e.g. "The next station is: Dufferin, Dufferin station") and when it arrives at the following station (e.g. "Arriving at: Dufferin, Dufferin station"). In addition, the TTC's Toronto Rocket subway trains provide visible and audible automatic stop announcements. Unlike the other trains, the Toronto Rocket trains also announce connections to other TTC subway lines, such as "Change for Line 2", and terminus stations, "This is a terminal station" where applicable. , they also announce, except at terminus stations, which side the train doors will open on at each stop based on the direction of train travel.

Winter operations
Switches and power rails are vulnerable to malfunction under extreme winter conditions such as heavy snow or freezing rain. During such events, the TTC runs "storm trains" overnight along subway lines to keep power rails clear of ice. The TTC also has trains to apply an anti-freeze to the power rail once freezing rain starts.

These precautions were also used on Line 3 Scarborough, which used two power rails. After reviewing operations during the winter of 2018–2019, the TTC decided to change its procedures for Line 3. Thus, about two hours before an expected storm, the TTC would decide whether to shut down Line 3 and replace it with bus service. Just before the storm of February 2, 2022, the TTC replaced all Line 3 trains with 25 buses.

To keep switches in the yards from freezing, crews use switch heaters and manually monitor them to ensure they stay in working order during winter storms. Workcars are run as storm trains within the yards to prevent ice from building up on the power rails. The TTC stores subway trains in tunnels along main lines rather than in exterior yards.

Stations

The Toronto subway has 70 stations divided into three lines. Most stations are named for the nearest major arterial road crossed by the line in question. A few are named for major landmarks, such as shopping centres or transportation hubs, served by the station. The stations along the University Avenue section of the Yonge–University line, in particular, are named entirely for landmarks and public institutions (, , and ) and major churches ( and ). All trains, except for short turns, stop at every station along their route and run the entire length of their line from terminus to terminus. Nearly all stations outside the central business district have terminals for local TTC bus routes and streetcar routes situated within their fare-paid areas. (All regular TTC bus and streetcar routes permit free transfers both to and from connecting subway lines.)

By December 23, 2016, Presto card readers had been installed in at least one priority subway station entrance across the TTC network. Throughout 2017 and into mid-2018, the remaining subway station entrances that still use legacy turnstiles (which were retrofitted with Presto readers between 2010 and 2015) and the "floor-to-ceiling" revolving turnstiles (found in automatic/secondary entrances, which do not have Presto readers on them) were replaced by the new Presto-equipped "glass-paddle" fare gates.

Accessibility

Most of the Toronto subway system was built before wheelchair access was a requirement under the Ontarians with Disabilities Act (ODA). However, all subway stations built since 1996 are equipped with elevators, and seventy percent (56 of 75) of Toronto's subway stations are now accessible following upgrade works to add elevators, wide fare gates, and access doors to station.

All subway stations will be made accessible by 2025. By comparison, the Montreal Metro plans for all stations to be accessible by 2038, the Chicago "L" plans for all stations to be accessible in the 2030s, and the New York City Subway plans for 95 percent of stations to be accessible by 2055.

All TTC trains offer level boarding for customers with wheelchairs and other accessibility needs, with priority seating and dedicated wheelchair areas onboard each train.

Cleanliness

The May 2010 TTC cleanliness audit of subway stations found that none of them meets the transit agency's highest standard for cleanliness and general state of repair. Only 21 stations scored in the 70- to 80-percent range in the TTC's cleanliness scale, a range described as "Ordinary Tidiness", while 45 fell in the 60- to 70-percent range achieving what the commission describes as "Casual Inattentiveness". The May audit was the third in a series of comprehensive assessments that began in 2009. The commission announced a "Cleaning Blitz" that would add 30 new temporary cleaners for the latter part of 2010 to address major issues and has other action plans that include more full-time cleaners, and new and more effective ways at addressing station cleanliness.

Design and public art

According to a 1991 CBC report, "aesthetics weren't really a priority" on Toronto's subway system, describing stations as "a series of bathrooms without plumbing". Since that time, Toronto's subway system has had over 40 pieces installed in various subway stations. More art appeared as new stations were built and older ones were renovated.

In 2004, USA Today said of the Sheppard subway line: "Despite the remarkable engineering feats of this metro, known as Sheppard Subway, [it is] the art covering walls, ceilings, and platforms of all five stations that stands out. Each station is 'a total art experience where artists have created imaginative environments, uniquely expressing themes of community, location, and heritage' through panoramic landscapes and ceramic wall murals."

Internet and mobile phone access

Initial wireless service implementation (2013–2023)
In 2012, the TTC awarded a contract to BAI Communications Canada to design, build and maintain a celular and Wi-Fi system along Toronto subway lines. BAI agreed to pay $25million to the TTC over a 20-year period for the exclusive rights to provide the service. BAI in turn would sell access to the cellular system to other carriers.

On December 13, 2013, Wi-Fi Internet access was launched at  and St. George stations. The ad-supported service (branded as "TConnect") was provided by BAI Canada. The TTC and BAI Canada planned to offer TConnect at all underground stations. Commuters had to view a video advertisement to gain access to the Internet. It was expected that all of the 70 subway stations would have service by 2017, as well as the six stations along the Line 1 extension to Vaughan. From early December 2015 to late January 2016, users of TConnect were required to authenticate using a Twitter account, with Twitter's Canadian operations sponsoring the TConnect Wi-Fi network. Users of the network could sign in to enable an automatic Wi-Fi connection for 30 days. This arrangement was resumed on an optional basis from July 2016 to early December 2016. By August 2017, Wi-Fi was available at all existing stations and would be available in all future stations.

On June 17, 2015, the TTC announced that Wind Mobile (later rebranded Freedom Mobile) customers would be able to access cellular connectivity at some TTC subway stations. Service was initially between Bloor–Yonge and St. George stations on Line 1, and between Bloor–Yonge and Spadina stations on Line 2. Other carriers declined to use the BAI cellular system because of the price BAI was asking for access.

In April 2023, Rogers Communications took over BAI Communications. In August 2023, Rogers implemented 5G wireless service at all the TTC's downtown stations and within the tunnels between them. In September 2023, the federal government imposed new licence conditions requiring that cellphone and data services be available on the entire subway network by the end of 2026 and that all carriers, including Telus and Bell, were to have access to it. On October 2, 2023, Bell and Telus offered its cellular customers access to the subway's 5G system.

Wireless services since September 2023
, all downtown subway stations and some west end stations, as well as the tunnels connecting them, have Rogers 5G wireless service. The service is available to customers of Rogers, Freedom Mobile, Bell and Telus (including flanker brands of these companies such as Koodo and Virgin Plus). 5G wireless service is available between Bloor–Yonge and Dupont stations on Line 1, and between Castle Frank and Keele stations on Line 2. The stations and tunnels between Vaughan Metropolitan Centre station and Sheppard West station on Line 1 have a non-5G service.

The TTC offers Wi-Fi to connect to the Internet at all stations but not in tunnels; this service is ad-supported.

Naming

The TTC considers multiple different factors when they name stations and stops for subway and LRT stations. They consider local landmarks, the cross streets of the station, distinct communities of the past and present in the vicinity of the station, names of other stations in the system, and the grade of the station.

Metrolinx uses five criteria for naming stations and stops. These are:
 Simplicity
 Names must be logical and relevant to the area the station is built in
 Names should be relevant for the life of the station
 Names should help passengers locate themselves within the region
 Uniqueness

Metrolinx will use the word "stop" in place of "station" at 10 of the 25 stations along the first phase of Line 5, particularly those that are not grade-separated.

Rolling stock

The following table shows the vehicle type by line:

Heavy rail stock

Line 1 Yonge–University and Line 4 Sheppard operate using the newest version of Toronto's subway cars, the Toronto Rocket, while Line 2 Bloor–Danforth uses the older T1 subway trains.

The TTC's original G-series cars were manufactured by the Gloucester Railway Carriage and Wagon Company. All subsequent heavy-rail subway cars were manufactured by Bombardier Transportation or one of its predecessors (Montreal Locomotive Works, Hawker Siddeley, and UTDC). All cars starting with the Hawker Siddeley H series in 1965 have been built in Bombardier's Thunder Bay, Ontario, plant. The final H4 subway cars were retired on January 27, 2012. This was followed by the retirement of the H5 subway cars, which had their final in-service trip on June 14, 2013, and the H6 retirement, which followed one year later with a final run on June 20, 2014.

Following the introduction of the Toronto Rocket trains on Lines 1 and 4, all the T1 trains were moved to Line 2. The T1s were expected to last until 2026. By the end of 2019, the TTC had proposed an overhaul to extend the T1 fleet's life by 10 years at an estimated cost of $100 million. By mid-2020, the TTC had started the design phase for a new generation of subway trains to replace the T1 fleet on Line 2 Bloor–Danforth. In late 2021, the TTC expected that the new trains would be introduced between 2026 and 2030, at an estimated cost of $1.6 billion. On October 13, 2022, the TTC issued a request for proposals to construct 480 new subway cars (80 six-car train sets) of a design different from the T1 and Toronto Rocket fleet for delivery between 2027 and 2033. , the TTC plans to overhaul the T1 fleet if newer trains cannot be delivered in time.

Light metro stock

Line 3 Scarborough used 28 S-series trains built by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation (UTDC) in Millhaven, Ontario. These Intermediate Capacity Transit System (ICTS) trains were Mark I models, similar in design to the original trains found on the Vancouver SkyTrain and the Detroit People Mover. These were the original vehicles on the line and were in service from the line's opening in 1985 to its closure in 2023. Because of the trains' age, they were refurbished for operation and initially intended to last until the extension of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth was built. In February 2021, the TTC announced plans to accelerate the retirement of Line 3, intending to close it in 2023. This was due to delays in planning and construction of the Line 2 extension (which was then projected to open in 2030 at the earliest) along with the increasing difficulty of performing critical maintenance work on the trains. Following an initial temporary closure owing to a derailment in July 2023, the TTC decided in August 2023 not to reopen the line.

The Ontario Line will use smaller train sets and a smaller gauge than those used on the Toronto subway system. By using driverless trains with automatic train control (ATC), Metrolinx expects the line to be as frequent as the existing heavy rail lines despite using smaller, lighter trains. In conjunction with ATC, stations will have platform-edge doors for safety, also allowing riders to exit and enter trains more quickly. The trains will be manufactured by Hitachi Rail, similar to trains in Copenhagen or Rome.

Light rail stock

Metrolinx plans to use 76 Bombardier Flexity Freedom low-floor, light-rail vehicles for Line 5 Eglinton; however, 44 Alstom Citadis Spirit vehicles may be used if Bombardier is unable to deliver the Flexity Freedom on time. Such a substitution would require modifications to Line 5, especially the maintenance facility, as the Citadis Spirit is longer than the Flexity Freedom. Metrolinx intends to use 17 Citadis Spirit vehicles on Line 6 Finch West instead of the Flexity Freedom.

Technology

The heavy rail and light metro lines have some characteristics in common: Such lines are fully isolated from road traffic and pedestrians; the station platforms are covered, and the trains are boarded through many doors from high platforms within a fare-paid zone separated by faregates.

In contrast, the surface portions of the light rail lines (Lines 5 and 6) will fit into the street environment. Light-rail tracks will be laid on the surface within reserved lanes in the middle of the street, and cross street intersections at grade. Surface stations will have simple, low-level platforms. However, like heavy rail and light metro, passengers will be able to board and alight the light rail trains by multiple doors.

Line 3 Scarborough, a light metro, used a more complex technology than heavy rail, which a TTC document describes as follows:
Track is the 5 rail system on direct fixation and car is powered by an induction or "reaction rail" situated between the running rails at the same top of rail elevation. There are two side contacting power rails +300V and −300V respectively situated a distance of about 14 in. from the closest gauge line of one running rail.

Signals

Heavy rail

Fixed-block signalling was originally used on the Toronto subway since the opening of Toronto's first subway in 1954 and was the first signalling system used on Lines 2 and 4. As of 2022, Lines 2 and 4 use fixed-block signalling but Line 1 no longer does. Fixed-block signalling uses automatic signalling to prevent rear-end train collisions, while interlocking signals are used to prevent collisions from conflicting movements on track crossovers.

, automatic train control (ATC) has been implemented along the entire length of Line 1. In 2009, the TTC awarded a contract to Alstom to upgrade the signalling system of the existing section of Line 1, as well as equip its extension into Vaughan, with moving block–based communications-based train control (CBTC) by 2012. The estimated cost to implement ATC on Line 1 was $562million, $424million of which was funded by Metrolinx. The first section of the "Urbalis 400" ATC system on Line 1 entered revenue service on December 17, 2017, between Sheppard West and Vaughan stations, in conjunction with the opening of the Toronto–York Spadina subway extension (TYSSE) project.

The benefits of ATC on Line 1 are:
 a reduced headway between trains from 2.5 minutes to 2 minutes during rush hours, allowing a 25 percent increase in the number of trains that can operate
 fewer signal-related delays relative to the old fixed-block system
 more efficient use of electricity, thus reducing operational costs
 allowing single-track, bidirectional operation for trains in passenger service, albeit with reduced frequency, to allow for off-hour maintenance of the opposite track

The TTC has plans to convert Line 2 to ATC by 2030, subject to the availability of funding.

Light metro
Line 3 Scarborough was equipped with automatic train control from the outset, using the same SelTrac IS system as Vancouver's SkyTrain, meaning it could be operated autonomously. However, the TTC opted to equip each S-series train with an operator on board for door monitoring.

The future Ontario Line will use automatic train control with driverless trains. Its stations will be equipped with platform screen doors.

Light rail
When completed, Line 5 Eglinton will use Bombardier Transportation's Cityflo 650 CBTC automatic train control on the underground section of the line between Laird station and Mount Dennis station, along with the Eglinton Maintenance and Storage Facility adjacent to Mount Dennis station.

Track

Lines 1, 2 and 4the heavy-rail linesrun on tracks built to the Toronto gauge of , the same gauge used on the Toronto streetcar system. According to rail historians John F. Bromley and Jack May, the reason that the Yonge subway was built to the streetcar gauge was that between 1954 and 1965, subway bogies were maintained at the Hillcrest Complex, where the streetcar gauge was used for shop tracks. The Davisville Carhouse was not equipped to perform such heavy maintenance, and the bogies would be loaded onto a specially built track trailer for shipment between Davisville and Hillcrest. This practice ceased with the opening of the shops at the Greenwood Yard in 1965.

Line 3 Scarborough used standard-gauge tracks, as the ICTS design for the line did not allow for the interchange of rail equipment between the traditional subway system and Line 3. When its ICTS vehicles needed anything more than basic service (which could be carried out at the McCowan Yard), they were carried by truck to the Greenwood Subway Yard.

The Line 5 Eglinton and Line 6 Finch West LRT lines will be constructed with standard-gauge tracks. The projects are receiving a large part of their funding from the Ontario provincial transit authority Metrolinx and, to ensure a better price for purchasing vehicles, it wanted to have a degree of commonality with other similar projects within Ontario.

Facilities
The subway system has the following yards to provide storage, maintenance and cleaning for rolling stock. All yards are located above ground.

In the second quarter of 2018, the City of Toronto moved to expropriate Canadian Pacific Railway's disused Obico Yard at 30 Newbridge Road / 36 North Queen Street in Etobicoke for use as a potential future yard at the western end of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth. The yard is situated immediately to the southwest of Kipling station, the western terminus of Line 2.

Safety

There are several safety systems for use by passengers in emergencies:

 Emergency alarms (formerly "Passenger assistance alarms"): Located throughout all subway trainsWhen the yellow strip is pressed, an audible alarm is activated within the car, a notification is sent to the train crew and the Transit Control Centre, which in turn dispatches a tiered response. An orange light is activated on the outside of the car with the alarm for emergency personnel to see where the problem is.
 Emergency power cut devices: Marked by a blue light, located at both ends of each subway platformFor use to cut DC traction power in the event a person falls or is observed at track level or any emergency where train movement into the station would be dangerous. These devices cut power in both directions for approximately one station each way.
 Emergency stopping mechanisms (PGEV: passenger/guard emergency valve): Located at each end of each subway car (with exception of the Toronto Rocket trains)Will activate the emergency brakes of the vehicle stopping it in its current location (for use in extreme emergencies, such as persons trapped in doors as train departs station, doors opening in the tunnel, derailments etc.)
 Passenger intercoms: Located on subway platforms and near/in elevators in stationsFor use to inform station collector of security/life safety issues
 Automated external defibrillators (AEDs): Located in several subway stations near collector boothsFor use in the event someone suffers cardiac arrest
 Public telephones: Located in various locations in all stations, and at the Designated Waiting Area's on each subway platform. Emergency calls can be made to 911 toll free. Phones located at the DWAs also include a "Crisis Link" button that connect callers, free of charge, to a 24-hour crisis line in the event that they are contemplating self-harm.

Stations with high platforms have a crawl space under the platform edge which the TTC recommends that a person who has fallen onto the track use to avoid an oncoming train. Lying flat between the two rails is not recommended due to shallow clearances. The platform edge has a yellow strip behind which passengers should wait to avoid a fall.

Stations do not have platform screen doors, a feature which for Lines 1, 2 and 4 would require station modification, automatic train control (ATC) and a $1.35-billion investment which is not funded . ATC is needed to stop trains at a precise position along the platform to line up train doors with platform doors. , ATC has been activated along the entire length of Line 1; thus, it would be possible to install platform screen doors along Line 1. The future Ontario Line will be built to operate with ATC and will feature platform doors from its opening. The benefits of platform doors would be:
 Blocking those attempting suicide or trespassers from the tracks: it takes 70 to 90 minutes to resume operations each time there is a personal injury at track level
 Eliminating fires from debris falling on the tracks and the third rail
 Allowing trains to enter crowded stations at speed, thus speeding up service along the line

The light-rail Line 5 Eglinton will use a guideway intrusion detection system (GIDS) to detect trespassers on the tracks on the underground sections of the line. When GIDS detects a trespasser on the tracks, it will issue an audio warning to the trespasser, provide live CCTV video to central control, and automatically stop the train without driver intervention. Each station will be equipped with multiple GIDS scanners along the station platform. There will also be GIDS scanners at each tunnel portal. In addition, there will be scanners within the yellow tactile strips along the platform edge to issue an audio warning if a person steps on it before the train has arrived.

A trial program began in 2008 with Toronto EMS and has been expanded and made permanent, with paramedics on hand at several stations during peak hours: Spadina and Bloor–Yonge (morning peak: 7am–10am) and Union and Eglinton (evening peak: 2pm–6pm).

By September 2023, the TTC was making naloxone available at each subway station so that designated trained TTC staff could attempt to rescue anyone having a drug overdose. Kits containing naloxone nasal spray would be stored at station collector booths. TTC special constables would carry naloxone.

Training
Subway operators begin their training at Hillcrest with a virtual reality mockup of a Toronto Rocket car. The simulator consists of the operator cab with full functions, a door and partial interior of a subway car. The simulator is housed in a simulated subway tunnel. Construction of a new subway training centre is underway at the Wilson Complex, as part of the Toronto Rocket subway car program.

Expansion plans

Provincially supported projects

On April 10, 2019, Ontario premier Doug Ford announced rapid transit–related projects that the Province of Ontario would support with either committed or future financing. One such project is the Ontario Line, a proposed  rapid transit line that has succeeded the Relief Line proposal. Initially, the project was projected to be completed in 2027, but this was later pushed back to 2030. A groundbreaking ceremony for the Ontario Line was held on March 27, 2022.

The Line 5 West Extension to Pearson Airport is a proposal to extend Line 5 Eglinton from its terminus at Mount Dennis station west along Eglinton Avenue West to the proposed Pearson Transit Hub in Mississauga. In April 2019, Ford said that he would commit funds for this proposal.

The Yonge North Subway Extension (YNSE) is a proposal to extend Line 1 Yonge–University north along Yonge Street from Finch station, the existing terminus of Line 1, to near Highway 7 in Richmond Hill. There would be new stations at Steeles Avenue, Clark Avenue, between Highway 7 and Highway 407 near Langstaff GO Station and Richmond Hill Centre Terminal (dubbed "Bridge station"), and High Tech Road. The extension was proposed in the province's 2007 MoveOntario 2020 plan. A major problem with this proposal was that Line 1 was at capacity, and the TTC said in 2016 that the proposed Relief Line and SmartTrack would both need to be in service before opening the YNSE. In 2020, a preliminary agreement was signed between the Ontario provincial government and York Region that anticipated the completion of the extension by approximately 2030.

The Scarborough Subway Extension (SSE) is a proposal to replace Line 3 Scarborough with an eastward extension of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth. On October 8, 2013, Toronto City Council conducted a debate on whether to replace Line 3 with a light rail line or a subway extension. In 2014, the city council voted to extend Line 2 to Scarborough City Centre, which would result in the closure of Line 3. The SSE would be  long and add one new station to Line 2 at Scarborough Town Centre. TTC and city staff finalized the precise route of the SSE in early 2017. In 2019, the Government of Ontario proposed a modified version of the proposal now known as the Line 2 East Extension (L2EE). The L2EE is  long and adds three new stations, rather than one. The proposed completion deadline for the project is between 2029 and 2030.

The Line 4 East Extension to McCowan is a proposal to extend Line 4 Sheppard east along Sheppard Avenue East to McCowan Road, where it will connect with the Scarborough Subway Extension. Doug Ford said in April 2019 that he would commit funds related to this proposal.

Other active proposals

The Eglinton East LRT is a City of Toronto proposal to construct an LRT line (separate from Line 5 Eglinton) from Kennedy station east to Malvern. This proposal was originally part of the cancelled Scarborough–Malvern LRT in Transit City. It would have stations at Eglinton GO and Guildwood GO, as well as the University of Toronto Scarborough campus.

Inactive proposals

The Jane LRT is a proposed LRT line that would begin at Jane station on Line 2 and proceed north to Pioneer Village station on Line 1. While initially part of the cancelled Transit City plan, the Jane LRT is part of the 2018–2022 TTC Corporate Plan and tentatively referred to as Line 8.

The Line 4 West Extension to Sheppard West station is a proposal that would extend Line 4 Sheppard west along Sheppard Avenue West to Sheppard West station, where it would link to Line 1 Yonge–University. It is currently listed as an "unfunded future rapid transportation project" in the City of Toronto's 2013 Feeling Congested? report.

The Line 6 East Extension to Finch station is a proposal that would extend Line 6 Finch West east along Finch Avenue West to Finch station, where it would link up with Line 1 Yonge–University. In March 2010, the Ontario government eliminated the proposed section of line between Finch West station and Finch station because of budget constraints. This section of the line was part of the original Transit City proposal. In 2013, this plan was revived as an "unfunded future rapid transit project" in the City of Toronto's Feeling Congested? report, meaning this extension may be constructed sometime in the future. The extension was later shown in the 2018–2022 TTC Corporate Plan with no timeline for completion.

Along with a proposal to extend Line 6 to Finch station, there was another proposal that would have extended the line farther to Don Mills station, where it would have provided a connection to Line 4 Sheppard. In May 2009, Metrolinx proposed that the line be extended from Finch station along Finch Avenue East and Don Mills Road into Don Mills station to connect with the Sheppard East LRT and create a seamless crosstown LRT line in northern Toronto to parallel the Eglinton Crosstown LRT (later designated Line 5 Eglinton) in central Toronto. The TTC said that a planning study would have commenced in 2010.

The Line 6 West Extension to Pearson Airport is a proposal that would extend Line 6 Finch West west to Pearson Airport, where it would provide a link to Line 5 Eglinton. In 2009, the TTC studied the feasibility of potential routings for a future westward extension of the Etobicoke–Finch West LRT to the vicinity of the Woodbine Live development, Woodbine Centre, and Pearson International Airport. This extension was later reclassified as a future transit project as described in the 2013 Feeling Congested? report by the City of Toronto. Metrolinx revealed in January 2020 that they would study a possible connection to the Pearson Transit Hub at Pearson Airport.

Abandoned plans
The Queen subway line was a subway line first proposed in 1911. When Line 1 was first built, a roughed-in station was included under Queen station, with the intention that the Queen subway would be the city's second subway line. The route of the Queen subway line is included in the routes for both the Relief Line and the Ontario Line proposals.

The Eglinton West line was a proposed subway line in the late 1980s on which construction began in the early 1990s. It was cancelled after the election of Mike Harris as premier of Ontario. Much of its planned route is included in Line 5 Eglinton.

One proposed expansion of Line 2 Bloor–Danforth into Mississauga included eight potential stations stretching west from Kipling station to Mississauga City Centre, retrofitting some existing GO Transit stations. The plan was for the subway stations to open in 2011. Mississauga mayor Hazel McCallion and the Regional Municipality of Peel did not support the project.

The Relief Line was a proposed heavy-rail subway line running from Pape station south to Queen Street East and then west to the vicinity of Toronto City Hall. The proposal included intermediate stations at Sherbourne Street, Sumach Street, Broadview Avenue, and another near Gerrard Square. In January 2016, alignment options and possible stations were still being studied, and the project was unfunded. Construction was expected to take about ten years to complete. As early as 2008, Metrolinx chair Rob MacIsaac expressed the intent to construct the Relief Line to prevent overcrowding along Line 1. Toronto City Council also expressed support for this plan. In April 2019, the Government of Ontario under Doug Ford announced that the Ontario Line would be built instead of the Relief Line. As a result, TTC and City of Toronto staff suspended further planning work on the Relief Line in June 2019.

Transit City
The Sheppard East LRT was a proposed light rail line running east from Don Mills station to Morningside Avenue in Scarborough. The line was to be  long with 25 surface stations and one underground connection at Don Mills station on Line 4 Sheppard. Construction of the Sheppard East LRT was to start upon completion of Line 6 Finch West. However, in July 2016, the Toronto Star reported the Sheppard LRT had been deferred indefinitely. In April 2019, Premier Doug Ford announced that the provincial government would extend Line 4 Sheppard to McCowan Road at some unspecified time in the future, replacing the proposed Sheppard East LRT.

The Don Mills LRT was a proposed LRT line that would have headed north from Pape station along Don Mills to Don Mills station. Its route was later incorporated into the Relief Line and Ontario Line proposals.

See also

 List of metro systems
 Mind the gap
 Toronto Subway (typeface)
 Transportation in Toronto

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Welcome Aboard – Tomorrow's Transit Today – UTDC 1985

External links

 Official TTC site
 Webpage by subway line:
 Line 1 Yonge–University
 Line 2 Bloor–Danforth
 Line 4 Sheppard
 Line 5 Eglinton
 Line 6 Finch West
 Official TTC Subway Map
 News, history and discussion
 CBC Digital Archives: Going Underground: Toronto's Subway and Montreal's Metro
 The TTC's Official Subway Travel Time Chart (archived version using the way back machine)
 Vivanext Subways – Yonge extension projects
The Subway Comes to the Archives, online exhibit on Archives of Ontario website

Toronto-gauge railways
600 V DC railway electrification
Electric railways in Canada
Passenger rail transport in Toronto
Passenger railways in Ontario
Rail transport in the Greater Toronto Area
Railway lines opened in 1954
Underground rapid transit in Canada

Toronto subway


Hamraborg getur átt við:
 Hamraborg (gata)
 Hamraborg (veitingastaður)
 Hamraborg (byggingavörur)

Hamraborg


Celotes es un género de mariposas ditrysias de la familia Hesperiidae.

Especies
Celotes limpia Burns, 1974
Celotes nessus (Edwards, 1877)
Celotes spurcus A.D.Warren, Steinhauser, Hernández-Mejía & Grishin, 2008

Enlaces externos
Natural History Museum Lepidoptera genus database

Pyrgini

Celotes


أيب فيغودا  (ولد 24 فبراير 1921 - 26 يناير 2016) هو ممثل كوميدي أمريكي.

الأعمال
 العراب: الجزء الثاني

وصلات خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص من بروكلين
أفراد الجيش الأمريكي
أفراد الجيش الأمريكي في الحرب العالمية الثانية
أفراد عسكريون من مدينة نيويورك
أفراد عسكريون من ولاية نيويورك
أمريكيون من أصل يهودي
أمريكيون من أصل يهودي روسي
جنود أمريكيون
عسكريون أمريكيون يهود
ممثلو أفلام أمريكيون
ممثلو تلفزيون أمريكيون
ممثلون أمريكيون
ممثلون أمريكيون في القرن 20
ممثلون أمريكيون في القرن 21
ممثلون ذكور يهود أمريكيون
ممثلون من مدينة نيويورك
ممثلون وممثلات من ولاية نيويورك
مواليد 1921
مواليد في بروكلين
وفيات 2016
وفيات مرتبطة بالمرض في نيوجيرسي
يهود أمريكيون في القرن 21
ممثلون ذكور من بروكلين

أيب فيغودا


Júpiter y Tetis es un cuadro de Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. Pintado en Roma en 1811, se conserva en el Museo Granet de Aix en Provence. La obra fue criticada por su audaz composición. Adquirido el cuadro por el estado francés en 1834, François Marius Granet lo transfiere en depósito al museo de Aix-en-Provence, donde se encuentra desde entonces.

Tema
Ingres se inspiró en el relato mítico según lo narra Homero en el primer canto de la Ilíada:

La nereida Tetis, atendiendo la demanda de su hijo Aquiles, suplica a Zeus (dios griego del que es equivalente el romano Júpiter), el mayor de todos los dioses olímpicos, que haga vencer a los troyanos frente a los aqueos. Para obtener su favor, le recuerda la ocasión en que había sido encadenado por Hera, Poseidón y Atenea en un intento de derrocarlo, y que fue ella, Tetis, quien invocó entonces a Briareo y a los demás Hecatónquiros para que acudieran en su auxilio.

Es un tema también abordado por pintores como el ruso Anton Losenko o el suizo Julien de Parme.

La obra
Zeus, representado en posición de majestad, con el águila que recuerda uno de sus atributos iconográficos a su izquierda, la nereida Tetis en posición sumisa y suplicando al dios, mientras su mano izquierda coge su barbilla. En la distancia, la esposa celosa de Zeus, Hera, observa la escena.

Véase también
 Tetis la titánide
 Tetis la nereida
 Aquiles
 Pintura romántica

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Guerra de Troya en la pintura
La Ilíada en la pintura
Desnudo (género artístico)
Cuadros de 1811
Cuadros de Francia de los años 1810
Francia en 1811
Aves en el arte

Júpiter y Tetis


Grande, Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaleti Stormarn iline bağlı bölge. 7,87 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu 31 Aralık 2018 itibarıyla 702 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Nüfus yoğunluğu ise 89 seviyesindedir. Belediye başkanlığı Heinz Hoch tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Resmi site

Stormarn iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Grande


LEuro de futsal 2007 est la sixième édition du Championnat d'Europe de futsal, compétition organisée par l'Union des associations européennes de football (UEFA) et rassemblant les meilleures équipes nationales masculines européennes de la discipline. Il se déroule à Porto, au Portugal, du  au .

Début 2007, les sélections nationales de 33 pays participent à une phase de qualification, dans le but de désigner les sept équipes pouvant prendre part au tournoi final en compagnie du Portugal, qualifiée d'office en tant que pays organisateur.

Les trois anciens vainqueurs terminent sur le podium. Pour sa cinquième finale en six éditions, l'Espagne remporte son quatrième Euro et devient la première nation à conserver son titre. Elle bat l'Italie, championne en 2003, en finale. La Russie termine troisième contre le pays hôte, qui réalise sa meilleure performance en sortant pour la première fois de la phase de groupes.

Le futur meilleur joueur du monde Ricardinho est élu golden player tandis que cinq joueurs se partagent le titre de meilleur buteur de la compétition avec cinq réalisations.

Organisation

Lieu de la phase finale
Trois pays candidatent à la réception de l'Euro de futsal 2007 : le Portugal, les Pays-Bas et la Bosnie-Herzégovine.

En avril 2005, le comité exécutif de l'UEFA choisit que la phase finale aura lieu au Portugal.

Prévu à Porto même, les deux lieux sont déplacés dans le District de Porto. Tous les matchs ont lieu au Multiusos Coração de Ouro de Gondomar, à l'exception d'un match de la troisième journée de chaque groupe, afin que les deux matchs se déroulent au même moment. Celui-ci est joué au Pavilhao Municipal de Santo Tirso.

Format de la compétition
Les huit équipes qualifiées sont séparées en deux groupes de quatre, joués en tournoi toutes rondes. Par souci d'équité, les deux matchs de la troisième journée de la phase de groupe sont joués au même moment dans les deux salles.

Les deux premiers de chacun des deux groupes sont qualifiés pour les demi-finales à élimination directe. Les premiers y affrontent les seconds de l'autre groupe.

Équipes qualifiées

Début 2007, 33 sélections nationales de futsal prennent par aux qualifications. Un tour préliminaire à trois groupes de quatre équipes qualifie cinq sélections pour le tour principal composé de sept groupes de quatre équipes.

Seuls leurs sept premiers se joignent au pays hôte qualifié d'office, le Portugal, pour la phase finale

Toutes les grandes nations de futsal européen se qualifient pour la phase finale : l'Espagne, l'Italie (alors sur 15 succès consécutifs et invaincu depuis deux ans et demi), la Russie et l'Ukraine.

Créée seulement en 2003, la Roumanie participe à sa première phase finale formée d'un groupe du club Cip Deva (11 joueurs sur 14).

Personnalités

Effectif par sélection

Arbitres

Phase de groupes

Groupe A
Le premier match voit s'affronter le pays hôte portugais et le vice-champion du monde italien. La Roumanie débute par une victoire 8-4 sur la République tchèque. Les Roumains sont ensuite lourdement battus par les Italiens (7-1).

Groupe B
La Serbie emmenée par Marko Perić (23 ans) est la surprise du groupe pour sa première phase finale. Après avoir causé des frayeurs à la Russie, elle fait match nul 1-1 avec l'Espagne puis bat l'Ukraine 3-2.

Phase à élimination directe
Les quatre favoris se qualifient pour les demi-finales.

Tableau

Demi-finales
L'Italie prouve sa valeur grâce à sa victoire 2-0 sur la Russie, finaliste en 2005 et référence en termes de défense.

L'Espagne doit s'en remettre à deux buts inscrits en fin de match et une séance de tirs au but pour éliminer le Portugal en demi-finale.

Troisième place

Classements et récompenses

Classement final

Meilleurs buteurs
Predrag Rajić termine le tournoi en tête du classement des buteurs, à égalité avec l'Espagnol Daniel et le Russe d'origine brésilienne Cirilo.

Meilleur joueur

Le portugais Ricardinho est élu golden player (joueur d'or) de la compétition. Un des plus jeunes joueurs du tournoi (22 ans), il est un artisan de la première demi-finale de l'équipe du Portugal dans la compétition.

Lors du second match de poule, le Portugal s'impose 5-3 sur la République tchèque avec un but de Ricardinho. Il était omniprésent dans le dernier match du Groupe A avec deux réalisations pour battre la Roumanie 3-0. En demi-finale contre l'Espagne, il donne l'avantage au Portugal d'un retourné acrobatique et transforme son tir au but mais le Portugal s'incline (2-2 tab 4-3).

Effectif vainqueur

Prix du fairplay

Médiatisation
Le match pour la troisième place et la finale sont couverts en direct sur Eurosport. Le tournoi fait exploser les audiences TV dans le pays hôte.

Notes et références

Liens externes

2007
Futsal
Europe
Futsal 2007
Compétition de football au Portugal
Europe 2007
Championnat Europe Futsal
Championnat Europe Futsal
Événement sportif à Porto

Championnat d'Europe de futsal 2007