The history of Egypt under the  Muhammad Ali dynasty (1805–1953) spanned the later period of Ottoman Egypt, the Khedivate of Egypt under British occupation, and the nominally independent Sultanate of Egypt and Kingdom of Egypt, ending with the Revolution of 1952 and the formation of the Republic of Egypt.

Muhammad Ali's rise to power

The process of Muhammad Ali's seizure of power was a long three way civil war between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks, and Albanian mercenaries along with Egyptians loyal to Muhammad Ali. It lasted from 1803 to 1807 with the Muhammad Ali Pasha taking control of Egypt in 1805, when the Ottoman Sultan acknowledged his position. Thereafter, Muhammad Ali was the undisputed ruler of Egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed primarily to the maintenance of his practical independence.

Egypt under Muhammad Ali

Campaign against the Saudis

The Ottoman-Saudi war in 1811–18 was fought between Egypt under the reign of Muhammad Ali (nominally under Ottoman rule) and the Wahabbis of Najd who had conquered Hejaz from the Ottomans.

When Wahabis captured Mecca in 1802, the Ottoman sultan ordered Muhammad Ali of Egypt to start moving against Wahabbis to re-conquer Mecca and return the honour of the Ottoman Empire.

First Arabian campaign

Acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan, and at the commands of the Ottoman Porte, in 1811 Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 20,000 men (and 2,000 horses) under the command of his son Tusun, a youth of sixteen, against the Saudis in the Ottoman–Saudi War. After a successful advance this force met with a serious repulse at the Battle of Al-Safra, and retreated to Yanbu. In the end of the year Tusun, having received reinforcements, again assumed the offensive and captured Medina after a prolonged siege. He next took Jeddah and Mecca, defeating the Saudi beyond the latter and capturing their general.

But some mishaps followed, and Muhammad Ali, who had determined to conduct the war in person, left Egypt in the summer of 1813—leaving his other son Ibrahim in charge of the country. He encountered serious obstacles in Arabia, predominantly stemming from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of warfare adopted by his adversaries, but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. He deposed and exiled the Sharif of Mecca and after the death of the Saudi leader Saud he concluded a treaty with Saud's son and successor, Abdullah I in 1815.

Following reports that the Turks, whose cause he was upholding in Arabia, were treacherously planning an invasion of Egypt, and hearing of the escape of Napoleon from Elba and fearing danger to Egypt from France or Britain, Muhammad Ali returned to Cairo by way of Kosseir and Kena, reaching the capital on the day of the Battle of Waterloo.

Second Arabian campaign
Tusun returned to Egypt on hearing of the military revolt at Cairo, but died in 1816 at the early age of twenty. Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the treaty concluded with the Saudis, and with the non-fulfillment of certain of its clauses, determined to send another army to Arabia, and to include in it the soldiers who had recently proved unruly.

This expedition, under his eldest son Ibrahim Pasha, left in the autumn of 1816. The war was long and arduous but in 1818 Ibrahim captured the Saudi capital of Diriyah. Abdullah I, their chief, was made prisoner and with his treasurer and secretary was sent to Istanbul (in some references he was sent to Cairo), where, in spite of Ibrahim's promise of safety and of Muhammad Ali's intercession in their favor, they were put to death. At the close of the year 1819 Ibrahim returned having subdued all opposition in Arabia.

Reforms
While the process had begun in 1808, Muhammad Ali's representative at Cairo had completed the confiscation of almost all the lands belonging to private individuals, while he was absent in Arabia (1813–15).  The former owners were forced to accept inadequate pensions instead. By this revolutionary method of land nationalization Muhammad Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil of Egypt.

During Ibrahim's engagement in the second Arabian campaign, the pasha turned his attention to further strengthening the Egyptian economy, and his control over it.  He created state monopolies for the chief products of the country, and created a number of factories. In 1819 he began digging the new Mahmoudiyah Canal to Alexandria, named after the reigning Sultan of Turkey. The old canal had long fallen into decay, and the necessity of providing a safe channel between Alexandria and the Nile was much felt.  The conclusion of the commercial Treaty of Balta Liman in 1838 between Turkey and Britain, negotiated by Sir Henry Bulwer (Lord Darling), struck the death knell to the system of monopolies, though its application regarding Egypt was delayed for some years, and finally included foreign intervention.

Another notable addition to the economic progress of the country was the development of cotton cultivation in the Nile Delta starting in 1822. The cotton seed for the new crop had been brought from the Sudan by Maho Bey, and with the organization of the new irrigation and industry, Muhammad Ali was able to extract considerable revenue in a few years time.

Other domestic efforts were made to promote education and the study of medicine. Muhammad Ali showed much favor, to European merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his monopoly exports, and under his influence the port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It was also under Muhammad Ali's encouragement that the overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed.

The Pasha also attempted to reorganize his troops along European lines, but this led to a formidable mutiny in Cairo. Muhammad Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night in the citadel, while the soldiers committed many acts of plunder. The effects of the revolt were reduced by gifts to the insurgent's leaders; Muhammad Ali also ordered that those who suffered from the disturbances should receive compensation from the state treasury. The conscription portion of the Nizam-ı Cedid (New System) was temporarily abandoned, as consequence of this mutiny.

Economy

Egypt under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century had the fifth most productive cotton industry in the world, in terms of the number of spindles per capita. The industry was initially driven by machinery that relied on traditional energy sources, such as animal power, water wheels, and windmills, which were also the principle energy sources in Western Europe up until around 1870. While steam power had been experimented with in Ottoman Egypt by engineer Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in 1551, when he invented a steam jack driven by a rudimentary steam turbine, it was under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century that steam engines were introduced to Egyptian industrial manufacturing. While there was a lack of coal deposits in Egypt, prospectors searched for coal deposits there, and manufactured boilers which were installed in Egyptian industries such as ironworks, textile manufacturing, paper mills and hulling mills. Coal was also imported from overseas, at similar prices to what imported coal cost in France, until the 1830s, when Egypt gained access to coal sources in Lebanon, which had a yearly coal output of 4,000 tons. Compared to Western Europe, Egypt also had superior agriculture and an efficient transport network through the Nile. Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions for rapid industrialization existed in Egypt during the 1820s–1830s, as well as for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.

Invasion of Libya and Sudan

In 1820 Muhammad Ali gave orders to commence the conquest of eastern Libya. He first sent an expedition westward (Feb. 1820) which conquered and annexed the Siwa oasis. Ali's intentions for Sudan was to extend his rule southward, to capture the valuable caravan trade bound for the Red Sea, and to secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar. He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid of his disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new army.

The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, his youngest son.  They consisted of between 4000 and 5000 men, being Turks and Arabs.  They left Cairo in July 1820. Nubia at once submitted, the Shaigiya tribe immediately beyond the province of Dongola were defeated, the remnant of the Mamluks dispersed, and Sennar was reduced without a battle.

Mahommed Bey, the defterdar, with another force of about the same strength, was then sent by Muhammad Ali against Kordofan with like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October 1822, Ismail, with his retinue, was burnt to death by Nimr, the mek (king) of Shendi; following this incident the defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces, and exacted terrible retribution from the inhabitants. Khartoum was founded at this time, and in the following years the rule of the Egyptians was greatly extended and control of the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa obtained.

Ahmad Revolt
In 1824 a native rebellion broke out in Upper Egypt headed by one Ahmad, an inhabitant of al-Salimiyyah, a village situated a few miles above Thebes. He proclaimed himself a prophet, and was soon followed by between 20,000 and 30,000 insurgents, mostly peasants, but some of them deserters from the Nizam Gedid, for that force was yet in a half-organized state.

The peasants were angered by many of Ali's reforms, especially the introduction of conscription and the increase in taxes and forced labour.

The insurrection was crushed by Muhammad Ali, and about one fourth of Ahmad's followers perished, but he himself escaped and was never heard of again. Few of these unfortunates possessed any other weapon than the long staff (nabbut) of the Egyptian peasant; still they offered an obstinate resistance, and the combat in which they were defeated resembled a massacre. This movement was the last internal attempt to destroy the pasha's authority.

The subsequent years saw an imposition of order across Egypt and Ali's new highly trained and disciplined forces spread across the nation. Public order was rendered perfect; the Nile and the highways were secure to all travelers, Christian or Muslim; the Bedouin tribes were won over to peaceful pursuits.

Greek campaign

Muhammad Ali was fully conscious that the empire which he had so laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II, whose whole policy had been directed to curbing the power of his too ambitious vassals, and who was under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably of Hüsrev Pasha, the Grand Vizier, who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803.

Mahmud also was already planning reforms borrowed from the West, and Muhammad Ali, who had plenty of opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare, was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and an army on European lines, partly as a measure of precaution, partly as an instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing a fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and Albanian elements being replaced by Sudanese and fellahin. The effectiveness of the new force was demonstrated in the suppression of an 1823 revolt of the Albanians in Cairo by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more troubled with military mutinies.

His foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria. Mehemet Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed by him governor of Crete, which he had occupied with a small Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824 a fleet of 60 Egyptian warships carrying a large force of 17,000 disciplined troops concentrated in Suda Bay, and, in the following March, with Ibrahin as commander-in-chief landed in the Morea.

His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of a great deal of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land the Greek irregular bands, having largely soundly beaten the Porte's troops, had finally met a worthy foe in Ibrahim's disciplined troops. The history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino and the liberation of Greece is told elsewhere; the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, who early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced the pasha, by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army.

War with the Sultan

Ali went to war against the sultan on in order to obtain raw materials lacking in Egypt (especially timber for his navy) and a captive market for Egypt's new industrial output. From fall 1831 to December 1832 Ibrahim led the Egyptian army through Lebanon and Syria and across the Taurus Mountains into Anatolia where he defeated the Ottoman forces and pushed on to Kutahya, only 150 miles from Istanbul.

For the next ten years relations between the Sultan and the Pasha remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the diplomatic world. It was not only the very existence of the Ottoman empire that seemed to be at stake, but Egypt itself had become more than ever the object of international attention, to British statesmen especially, and in the issue of the struggle were involved the interests of Britain in the two routes to India by the Isthmus of Suez and the valley of the Euphrates.  Ibrahim, who once more commanded in his father's name, launched another brilliant campaign beginning with the storming of Acre on May 27, 1832, and culminating in the rout and capture of Reshid Pasha at Konya on December 21.

Soon after he was blocked by the intervention of Russia, however. As the result of endless discussions between the representatives of the powers, the Porte and the pasha, the Convention of Kütahya was signed on May 14, 1833, by which the sultan agreed to bestow on Muhammad Ali the pashaliks of Syria, Damascus, Aleppo and Itcheli, together with the district of Adana. The announcement of the pasha's appointment had already been made in the usual way in the annual firman issued on May 3. Adana was bestowed on Ibrahim under the style of muhassil, or collector of the crown revenues, a few days later.

Muhammad Ali now ruled over a virtually independent empire, stretching from the Sudan to the Taurus Mountains, subject only to a moderate annual tribute. However the unsound foundations of his authority were not long in revealing themselves. Scarcely a year from the signing of the Convention of Kutaya the application by Ibrahim of Egyptian methods of government, notably of the monopolies and conscription, had driven Syrians, Druze and Arabs, into revolt, after first welcoming him as a deliverer. The unrest was suppressed by Muhammad Ali in person, and the Syrians were terrorized, but their discontent encouraged the Sultan Mahmud to hope for revenge, and a renewal of the conflict was only staved off by the anxious efforts of the European powers.

In the spring of 1839 the sultan ordered his army, concentrated under Reshid in the border district of Bir on the Euphrates, to advance over the Syrian frontier. Ibrahim, seeing his flank menaced, attacked it at Nezib on the 24th of June. Once more the Ottomans were utterly routed. Six days later, before the news reached Constantinople, Mahmud died.

Now, with the defeat of the Ottomans and the conquest of Syria, Muhammad Ali had reached the height of his power. For one brief moment in time, he had become the envy of the Egyptian kings of antiquity, controlling Egypt, the Sudan, and Syria (which alone would have made him their better in power) he saw the Ottoman armies collapse or fall into disorganization after their defeat in Syria, and it looked like the Middle East and Anatolia were his for the taking. It looked like he could march all the way to Istanbul, in the minds of some, and place himself on the Sultan's throne.

With the Ottoman Empire at the feet of Muhammad Ali, the European powers were greatly alarmed and issued the Convention of London of 1840, designed to end the war and deal with the likely contingency of Muhammad Ali's refusal. Their intervention during the Oriental Crisis of 1840 was prompt, launching an invasion by a primarily British force (with some French and Greek elements), they made short work of Muhammad Ali's pride and joy: Egypt's modern Armed forces. However, while his army was being defeated, Muhammad saw the possibility of victory in France's unwillingness to participate (it having some warm feelings to the Khedive, and mainly participating with what was considered a token force to try to block a British expansion in North Africa.) However, in spite of France's dislike of an Egypt dominated by the British, it was equally unwilling to allow the ambitious Governor to upset the balance of power, and thus, by waiting for the hope of a better chance at victory, Muhammad Ali had to suffer a harder defeat.

However, though he had lost Syria and his position of great power, the war with the West had not been a complete disaster by any means. For though humiliated and defeated by the Western Powers, the West had no intention of removing him and the block he placed on Ottoman Power. Thus, though the peace treaty was harsh, it achieved one of Muhammad Ali's greatest dreams: to place his family firmly in the reigns of Egyptian power. It was far from all that the crafty Pasha had wanted, but it was what he had to live with, for even in the ending days of the Syrian War, Muhammad was starting to show his age, and would find that he did not have much time left in the world.

End of Muhammad Ali's rule
The end was reached early in 1841. New 'firmans' were issued which confined the pasha's authority to Egypt, including the Sinai peninsula and certain places on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, and to the Sudan. The most important of these documents is dated February 13, 1841.

The government of the pashalik of Egypt was made hereditary within the family of Muhammad Ali. A map showing the boundaries of Egypt accompanied the firman granting Muhammad Ali the pashalik, a duplicate copy being retained by the Porte. The Egyptian copy is supposed to have been lost in a fire which destroyed a great part of the Egyptian archives. The Turkish copy has never been produced and its existence now appears doubtful. The point was of importance, as in 1892 and again in 1906 boundary disputes arose between Ottoman Empire and the Egyptian Khiedevate.

Various restrictions were laid upon Muhammad Ali, emphasizing his position as vassal. He was forbidden to maintain a fleet and his army was not to exceed 18,000 men. The pasha no longer a disrupting figure in European politics, but he continued to occupy himself with his improvements in Egypt. But times were not all good; the long wars combined with murrain of cattle in 1842 and a destructive Nile flood made matters worse.  In 1843 there was a plague of locusts where whole villages were depopulated. Even the sequestered army was a strain enough for a population unaccustomed to the rigidities of the conscription service. Florence Nightingale, the famous British nurse, recounts in her letters from Egypt written in 1849–50, that many an Egyptian family thought it be enough to "protect" their children from the inhumanities of the military service by blinding them in one eye or rendering them unfit by cutting off their limb. But Muhammad Ali was not to be confounded by such tricks of bodily non-compliance, and with that view he set up a special corps of disabled musketeers declaring that one can shoot well enough even with one eye.

Meantime the uttermost farthing was wrung from the wretched fellahin, while they were forced to the building of magnificent public works by unpaid labor. In 1844–45 there was some improvement in the condition of the country as a result of financial reforms the pasha executed. Muhammad Ali, who had been granted the honorary rank of grand vizier in 1842, paid a visit to Istanbul in 1846, where he became reconciled to his old enemy Khosrev Pasha, whom he had not seen since he spared his life at Cairo in 1803.

In 1847 Muhammad Ali laid the foundation stone of the great bridge across the Nile at the beginning of the Delta.  Towards the end of 1847, the aged pasha's previously sharp mind began to give way, and by the following June he was no longer capable of administering the government. In September 1848 Ibrahim was acknowledged by the Porte as ruler of the pashalik, but he died in the following November.

Muhammad Ali survived another eight months, dying on August 2, 1849. He had done a great work in Egypt, the most permanent being the weakening of the tie binding the country to Turkey, the starting of the great cotton industry, the recognition of the advantages of European science, and the conquest of the Sudan.

Muhammad Ali's successors
On Ibrahim's death in November 1848 the government of Egypt fell to his nephew Abbas I, the son of Tusun Abbasad. Abbas put an end to the system of commercial monopolies, and during his reign the railway from Alexandria to Cairo was begun at the instigation of the British government. Opposed to European ways, Abbas lived in great seclusion. After a reign of less than six years he was murdered in July 1854 by two of his slaves.

He was succeeded by his uncle Said Pasha, the favorite son of Muhammad Ali, who lacked the strength of mind or physical health needed to execute the beneficent projects which he conceived. His endeavour, for instance, to put a stop to the slave raiding which devastated the Sudan was wholly ineffectual. He had a genuine regard for the welfare of the fellahin, and a land law of 1858 secured for them an acknowledgment of freehold as against state ownership.

The pasha was much under French influence, and in 1854 was induced to grant to the French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession "to form a financial company to pierce the isthmus" and operate a canal for 99 years. Lord Palmerston was opposed to this project, and the British opposition delayed the ratification of the concession by the Porte for two years. This prompted a second concession in 1856 that obligated the Egyptian government to provide 80% of the labour for the canal's construction. Said also made concessions to the British, for the Eastern Telegraph Company, and another in 1854 allowing the establishment of the Bank of Egypt. He also began the national debt by borrowing £3,293,000 from Messrs ″Frühling & Göschen″, the actual amount received by the pasha being £2,640,000. In January 1863 Said Pasha died and was succeeded by his nephew Ismail, a son of Ibrahim Pasha.

Ismail the Magnificent

The reign of Ismail, from 1863 to 1879, was initially hailed as a new era of bringing Egypt into modernity. He completed vast development schemes and attempted positive administrative reforms, but this progress, coupled with his personal extravagance led to bankruptcy. The later part of his reign is historically and nationally important simply for its result, which brought European intervention deeply into Egyptian finances and development, and led to the British occupation of Egypt shortly thereafter.

In his earlier years of reign, much was changed regarding Egypt's sovereignty, which seemed likely to give Ismail a more important place in history. In 1866 the Ottoman Sultan granted him a firman, obtained on condition that he increase his annual tribute from £376,000 to £720,000.  This made the succession to the throne of Egypt descend to the eldest of the male children and in the same manner to the eldest sons of these successors, instead of to the eldest male of the family, following the practice of Turkish law. In the next year another firman bestowed upon him the title of khedive in lieu of that of vali, borne by Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors. In 1873 a further firman placed the khedive in many respects in the position of an independent sovereign.

Ismail re-established and improved Muhammad Ali's administrative system, which had fallen into decay under Abbas's uneventful rule. This included a thorough revamping of the customs system which was anarchic, and remodeled on British lines and by English officials. In 1865, he established the Egyptian post office; he reorganized the military schools of his grandfather, and gave some support to the cause of education. Railways, telegraphs, irrigation projects, lighthouses, the harbour works at Suez, and the breakwater at Alexandria, were carried out during his reign, by some of the best contractors of Europe. Most important of all, was Egypt's support for the Suez Canal, which finally opened in 1869.  Not only did the government buy many shares in the venture, initially intended for British investors, it provided the corvee labour to dig the canal, as well as digging a canal to bring Nile water to the new city of Ismailia at the Suez's midpoint.  When Khedive Ismail sought to terminate Egypt's corvee labour obligation, because he needed it for cotton production to take advantage of vastly inflated cotton prices, caused by the loss of American exports during its Civil War, Egypt was compelled to pay more than £3 million in compensation to the Canal Company. The funds helped pay for the elaborate dredging equipment brought in to replace the labour and needed to complete the canal.

Once that conflict ended Ismail had to find new sources of funding to keep his development and reform efforts alive.  Thus the funds required for these public works, as well as the actual labor, were remorselessly extorted from a poverty-stricken population.  A striking picture of the condition of the people at this period is given by Lady Duff Gordon in Last Letters from Egypt. Writing in 1867 she said: "I cannot describe the misery here now every day some new tax. Every beast, camel, cow, sheep, donkey and horse is made to pay. The fellaheen can no longer eat bread; they are living on barley-meal mixed with water, and raw green stuff, vetches, &c. The taxation makes life almost impossible: a tax on every crop, on every animal first, and again when it is sold in the market; on every man, on charcoal, on butter, on salt. . . . The people in Upper Egypt are running away by wholesale, utterly unable to pay the new taxes and do the work exacted. Even here (Cairo) the beating for the years taxes is awful."

In the late 1860s Egypt attempted to build a modern navy and ordered several armored ironclads, two each of the "Nijmi Shevket" class and the "Lutfi Djelil" class.  Although intended for the Egyptian Navy, these ironclads had to be delivered to the Ottoman Navy in 1869.  Egypt was able to keep a navy with a few unarmored warships including the iron steam frigate Ibrahim and a large yacht, the "Mahroussa" which survives in rebuilt form to the present day.

In the years that followed the condition of things grew worse. A public health crisis arose in Egypt. The Constantinople Board of Health reported that the plague could still be found in Egypt, within the districts of Marj and Assyr. A 21-day quarantine was imposed on the ports of El Wedj. Thousands of people died and large sums expended in extending Ismail's dominions in the Sudan and in futile conflicts with Ethiopia. Eventually, Egypt successfully annexed the region of Darfur, further expanding the state. In 1875, the impoverishment of the fellah had reached such a high point that the ordinary resources of the country no longer sufficed for the most urgent necessities of administration; and the khedive Ismail, having repeatedly broken faith with his creditors, could not raise any more loans on the European market. The taxes were habitually collected many months in advance, and the colossal floating debt was increasing rapidly. In these circumstances Ismail had to realize his remaining assets, and among them sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British government for £976,582, which surrendered Egyptian control of the waterway.

These crises induced the British government to inquire more carefully into the financial condition of the country, where Europeans had invested much capital. In December 1875, Stephen Cave, MP, and Colonel (later Sir) John Stokes, RE, were sent to Egypt to inquire into Egypt's financial situation. Mr Cave's report, made public only in April 1876, showed that under the existing administration national bankruptcy was inevitable. With no alternatives, European powers used Egypt's indebtedness to extract concessions regarding how the debts would be repaid. Other commissions of inquiry followed, and each one brought Ismail increasingly under European control. The establishment of the Mixed Tribunals in 1876, in place of the system of consular jurisdiction in civil actions, made some of the courts of justice international.

The Caisse de la Dette, instituted in May 1876 as a result of the Cave mission, led to international control over a large portion of the government's revenue. In November 1876, the mission of Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M. Joubert on behalf of the British and French bondholders, one result being the establishment of Dual Control, in which an English official would superintend the revenues and a French official would superintend the expenditures of the country. Another result was the international control of the railways and the port of Alexandria, to balance these items. Then, in May 1878, a commission of inquiry of which the principal members were Sir Charles Rivers Wilson, Major Evelyn Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer) and MM. Kremer-Baravelli and Monsieur de Blignières. One result of that inquiry was the extension of international control to the enormous property of the khedive himself.

Driven to desperation in September 1878, Ismail made a virtue of necessity and, in lieu of the Dual Control, accepted a constitutional ministry, under the presidency of Nubar Pasha; Rivers Wilson became minister of finance and de Blignières became minister of public works. Professing to be quite satisfied with this arrangement, he announced that Egypt was no longer in Africa but a part of Europe. Within seven months however, he found his constitutional position intolerable, got rid of his irksome cabinet by means of a secretly organized military riot in Cairo, and reverted to his old autocratic methods of government.

Britain and France, anxious about losing influence under this affront, decided to administer chastisement by the hand of the suzerain power, which was delighted to have an opportunity of asserting its authority. The Europeans and the Sublime Porte decided to force Ismail out of office. On the June 26, 1879 Ismail suddenly received from the sultan a curt telegram, addressed to him as ex-khedive of Egypt, informing him that his son Tewfik was appointed his successor. Surprised, he made no attempt at resistance, and Tewfik was at once proclaimed khedive.

Dual control
After a short period of inaction, when it seemed as if the change might be for the worse, Britain and France in November 1879, re-established the Dual Control in the persons of Major Baring and Monsieur de Blignières. For two years the Dual Control governed Egypt. Discontent within various sectors of the elite and among elements of the population at large led to a reaction against European interference.  Without any efficient means of self-protection and coercion at its disposal, it had to interfere with the power, privileges and perquisites of the local elite. This elite, so far as its civilian members were concerned, was not very formidable, because these were not likely to go beyond the bounds of intrigue and passive resistance; but it contained a military element who had more courage, and who had learned their power when Ismail employed them for overturning his constitutional ministry.

Among the mutinous soldiers on that occasion was an officer calling himself Ahmed Urabi. He was a charismatic leader who was followed by a group of fellow army officers and many among the lower classes.  He became the centre of a protest aimed at protecting the Egyptians from their Turkish and European oppressors. The movement began among the Arab officers, who complained of the preference shown to the officers of Turkish origin; it then expanded into an attack on the privileged position and predominant influence of foreigners; finally, it was directed against all Christians, foreign and native. The government, being too weak to suppress the agitation and disorder, had to make concessions, and each concession produced fresh demands. Urabi was first promoted, then made under-secretary for war, and ultimately a member of the cabinet.

The danger of a serious rising brought the British and French fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria.  Because of concerns over the safety of the Suez Canal and massive British investments in Egypt the Europeans looked to intervene.  The French hesitated, however, and the British alone tried to suppress the revolt.  On July 11, 1882, after widespread revolts in Alexandria, the British fleet bombarded the city.  The leaders of the national movement prepared to resist further aggression by force. A conference of ambassadors was held in Constantinople, and the sultan was invited to quell the revolt; but he hesitated to employ his troops against what was far more a threat to European interests.

Egypt occupied by the British

The British government decided to employ armed force, and invited France to cooperate. The French government declined, and a similar invitation to Italy met with a similar refusal. Britain therefore, acting alone, landed troops at Ismailia under Sir Garnet Wolseley, and suppressed the revolt by the battle of Tel-el-Kebir on September 13, 1882. While it had been claimed this was meant to be only a temporary intervention, British troops would remain in Egypt until 1956.
The landing in Ismailia happened due to the British failure to perform the original plan to destroy defences in Alexandria, then march to Cairo.

With no fleet to protect the city, British battleships easily bombarded the city, forcing many civilians to migrate. Uraby, the Egyptian army commander, was not allowed to have troopers exceeding 800 men strong. Defeated in Alexandria, he decided to fight the British on ground he gathered the 2,200 men at Kafr-el-sheikh and constructed strong base which he held against a force of 2,600 British who were trying to advance on Cairo from the north. The battle took place between an Egyptian army, headed by Ahmed 'Urabi, and British forces headed by Sir Archibald Alison. As a result, the British abandoned any hope they may have had of reaching Cairo from the north, and shifted their base of operations to Ismailia instead. The British forces retreating to their main base at Alexandria. The British then transported a large force of Ismailia where 13,000 of them engaged 16,000 Egyptians. They met Uraby at El-Tal El-Kebier which was weakly prepared comparing with the defence lines at Kafr- El- Shiekh to withstand heavy artillery, so the fort was taken and Uraby was exiled to India.

The khedive, who had taken refuge in Alexandria, returned to Cairo, and a ministry was formed under Sherif Pasha, with Riaz Pasha as one of its leading members. On assuming office, the first thing it had to do was to bring to trial the chiefs of the rebellion. Urabi pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death, the sentence being commuted by the khedive to banishment; and Riaz resigned in disgust. This solution of the difficulty was brought about by Lord Dufferin, then British ambassador at Istanbul, who had been sent to Egypt as high commissioner to adjust affairs and report on the situation.

One of his first acts, after preventing the application of capital punishment to the ringleaders of the revolt, was to veto the project of protecting the khedive and his government by means of a Praetorian guard recruited from Asia Minor, Epirus, Austria and Switzerland, and to insist on the principle that Egypt must be governed in a truly liberal spirit. Passing in review all the departments of the administration, he laid down the general lines on which the country was to be restored to order and prosperity, and endowed, if possible, with the elements of self-government for future use.

Demographic changes during the reign of Muhammad Ali and his successors
During this period the stagnation of the Egyptian population that had been fluctuating at about 4 million level for many centuries prior to 1805 was changed by the start of a rapid population growth. This growth was quite slow till the 1840s, but since then the Egyptian population grew up to about 7 million by the 1880s, and the first modern census registered 9,734,405 people in Egypt in 1897. This was achieved by a radical decrease in mortality rates and concomitant growth of life expectancy by 10–15 years, which, of course, indicates that Muhammad Ali and his successors in fact achieved impressive success in the effective modernization of Egypt and that the actual quality of life of the majority of the Egyptian population significantly increased in the 19th century.  In Egypt in the 19th century the overall pattern of the population growth was explicitly non-Malthusian and can be characterized as hyperbolic, whereby the increase in population was accompanied not by decreases of the relative population growth rates, but by their increases.

Rulers of the Dynasty

Eleven rulers spanned the 148 years of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty from 1805 to 1953.
Muhammad Ali Dynasty family tree

See also
:Category:Muhammad Ali dynasty
History of Modern Egypt
Al-Nahda

References

External links
 Egyptian Royalty — by Ahmed S. Kamel, Hassan Kamel Kelisli-Morali, Georges Soliman and Magda Malek
 L'Egypte D'Antan... Egypt in Bygone Days  — by Max Karkegi
 Early Photos: Egypt in the 1800s — slideshow by Life magazine
Collection: Egypt in the 19th Century Photography from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

Further reading
 Daly, M.W. The Cambridge History Of Egypt Volume 2 Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century  (1998) online

Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty
+
+
Egyptian families
Egyptian pashas
Egyptian nobility
19th century in Egypt
20th century in Egypt

History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty


Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (f. 5. júní 1942) er miðbaugsgíneskur stjórnmálamaður og einræðisherra sem hefur verið forseti Miðbaugs-Gíneu frá árinu 1979. Hann steypti móðurbróður sínum, forsetanum Francisco Macías Nguema, af stóli í herforingjabyltingu í ágúst 1979 og hefur frá tíunda áratuginum stýrt uppbyggingu landsins sem mikilvægs olíuframleiðsluríkis. Obiang hefur setið næstlengst í embætti af öllum núverandi þjóðarleiðtogum heims sem ekki eru konungbornir. Stjórn Obiangs hefur verið sökuð um stórtæk mannréttindabrot, spillingu og valdníðslu. Undir stjórn Obiangs ríkir flokksræði í landinu þar sem stjórnmálaflokkur hans, Lýðræðisflokkur Miðbaugs-Gíneu (PDGE), hefur tögl og hagldir á nánast öllu ríkisvaldi. Stjórnarskráin veitir Obiang nánast ótakmarkað vald og heimilar honum meðal annars að stýra landinu með stjórnartilskipunum.

Æviágrip

Æska og uppvöxtur
Obiang er fæddur í bænum Acoacán í héraðinu Wele-Nzas og er sá þriðji úr hópi sex systkina. Hann hóf skólagöngu sína átta ára gamall í ríkisreknum grunnskóla í bænum Mongomo og síðan í skólanum Cardinal de Cisneros í Ebebiyin. Árið 1963 gekk hann í Hernaðarháskólann í Saragossa á Spáni. Hann sérhæfði sig þar í stjórn herfarartækja.

Hernaðarferill og upphaf stjórnmálaferilsins
Obiang hóf hernaðarferil sinn árið 1965 í heimavarnarliði Miðbaugs-Gíneu í Mikomeseng.

Árið 1968 var Francisco Macías Nguema, frændi Obiangs, kjörinn fyrsti forseti sjálfstæða lýðveldisins Miðbaugs-Gíneu. Hann lýsti sjálfan sig forseta til lífstíðar árið 1972. Macías gerði Obiang að herforingja og fól honum stjórn hernaðarumdæma á höfuðborgarsvæði landsins. Næsta ár var Obiang hækkaður í tign þegar Macías útnefndi hann varnarmálaráðherra og birgða- og áætlanaráðherra.

Stjórnmálaferill

Forseti Miðbaugs-Gíneu
Árið 1975 var Obiang fólgin yfirstjórn miðbaugsgíneska hersins og árið 1979 var hann útnefndur varahernaðarmálaráðherra. Næsta ár leiddi Obiang valdarán gegn Francisco Macías Nguema, sem hann sakaði um kerfisbundin mannréttindabrot. Obiang tók fyrst við völdum sem forseti hernaðarráðs en var síðan formlega útnefndur forseti lýðveldisins árið 1982.

Þann 22. ágúst 1982 fór fram þjóðaratkvæðagreiðsla um nýja stjórnarskrá þar sem 95,8 % kjósenda lýstu sig fylgjandi stjórnarskrárbreytingum samkvæmt opinberum niðurstöðum. Obiang var kjörinn forseti í kosningum árið 1989 (með 99 % atkvæða) og endurkjörinn árin 1996 (97,8 %), 2002 (97,1 %), 2009 (95,4 %) og 2016 (93,5 %). Hann var síðast endurkjörinn árið 2022 með meintum 99 prósentum atkvæða.

Obiang var forseti Afríkusambandsins frá febrúar 2011 til janúar 2012.

Þann 28. desember 2019 tilkynnti Obiang ásamt Alassane Ouattara, forseta Fílabeinsstrandarinnar, að þeir hefðu rætt saman um umbætur á CFA-frankanum í Efnahagsbandalagi Vestur-Afríkuríkja. Obiang lýsti því yfir að hann vildi koma á sams konar efnahagsumbótum og höfðu verið framkvæmdar í Efnahagsbandalagi Mið-Afríkuríkja og lét þau orð falla að CFA-frankinn væri úreltur.

Þann 5. júní 2020 fagnaði Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo 78 ára afmæli sínu. Hann hefur setið við völd í rúm 40 ár og er í dag einn elsti sitjandi þjóðhöfðingi heims og þaulsetnasti sitjandi forseti í heimi.

Stjórnarhættir og persónudýrkun
Í júlí árið 2003 kallaði ríkisútvarp Miðbaugs-Gíneu Obiang "Guð landsins" og lýsti yfir að hann hefði "almætti yfir öllum mönnum og hlutum". Jafnframt var staðhæft að forsetinn væri í "varanlegu sambandi við Drottin" og gæti "ákveðið að drepa án þess að vera dreginn til ábyrgðar og án þess að fara til helvítis". Obiang hafði sjálfur gefið frá sér svipaðar staðhæfingar árið 1993. Macías, forveri Obiangs, hafði einnig lýst yfir eigin guðdómleika.

Obiang hefur hvatt til persónudýrkunar á sjálfum sér með því að fyrirskipa að öllum opinberum ræðum ljúki með heillaóskum til forsetans frekar en til þjóðarinnar í heild sinni. Sérstaka forsetabústaði er að finna í mörgum opinberum byggingum og í mörgum bæjum og borgum eru götur nefndar til heiðurs valdaráni Obiangs gegn Macías. Margir landsmenn klæðast jafnframt fötum með andlitsmyndum af Obiang.

Líkt og forveri sinn og aðrir afrískir einræðisherrar á borð við Idi Amin og Mobutu Sese Seko hefur Obiang sæmt sjálfan sig ýmsum háfleygum heiðurstitlum. Þar á meðal hefur hann kallað sig "herramann hinna miklu eyja Bioko, Annobón og Río Muni". Obiang gengur jafnframt undir viðurnefninu El Jefe (stjórinn eða leiðtoginn).

Árið 2008 kallaði bandaríski blaðamaðurinn Peter Maass Obiang "versta einræðisherra Afríku" og taldi hann verri en Robert Mugabe í Simbabve. Við rannsóknir sínar fyrir bók um olíuuppsveiflu Miðbaugs-Gíneu árið 2004 rifjaði Maas upp að enginn landsmaður hefði nokkurn tímann yrt á hann á götum úti. Hann sagðist hvergi hafa séð undirgefnari íbúa nema í Norður-Kóreu.

Í viðtali á sjónvarpsstöðinni CNN í október 2012 spurði Christiane Amanpour Obiang hvort hann hygðist láta af völdum við lok þáverandi kjörtímabils hans (2009–2016) þar sem hann hafði þá verið endurkjörinn að minnsta kosti fjórum sinnum. Obiang hafnaði því afdráttarlaust að hann hygðist láta af völdum þrátt fyrir að stjórnarskráin sem tekin var upp í landinu árið 2011 takmarki fjölda kjörtímabila sem forsetinn má gegna.

Tilvísanir

Forsetar Miðbaugs-Gíneu

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo


Karl Adolphs (né le  à Solingen, mort le  à Leipzig) est un homme politique et résistant allemand.

Biographie
Adolphs grandit à Solingen dans une famille ouvrière. Il suit une formation de polisseur de nickel. En 1918, il rejoint la  et un an plus tard la KJVD. En 1922, il devient membre du KPD et est cadre du parti en Rhénanie. De 1926 à 1928, Adolphs est élève de l'École internationale Lénine de Moscou. À son retour, il travaille en 1928-1929 à la section de l'organisation du Comité central du KPD. En , il devient instructeur à Breslau. En 1930-1931, il est secrétaire de la direction du district de Poméranie à Stettin. Il est ensuite responsable à Essen de la distribution de la littérature dans la région de la Ruhr, de  à , Adolphs est secrétaire de sous-district à Bochum.

Après la prise du pouvoir des nazis, il prend part à la résistance. En , Adolphs devient chef du KPD illégal dans le district du Rhin moyen et, en , il devient secrétaire de l'administration illégale du district de Hanovre-Brunswick. Le , il est emprisonné à Hanovre et en , il est condamné à 15 ans de prison par le Volksgerichtshof. De  à , il est détenu au camp de concentration de Buchenwald.

En 1945, il devient bourgmestre de Ballenstedt, puis bourgmestre de Bernbourg (1945-1946) et plus tard de Dessau (1946-1949). Membre du SED depuis 1946, il va à l'Académie allemande de sciences politiques et juridiques Walter Ulbricht. En 1949, il devient directeur de la Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk. D' à , il est président du conseil du district de Leipzig et membre du bureau de la direction du district du SED. De 1959 à 1961, il est chef du département des sites culturels au conseil municipal de Leipzig et directeur du parc Clara-Zetkin. De 1961 à 1965, Adolphs est adjoint au maire de Leipzig. De 1965 à 1971, il est président de la commission de contrôle des partis de la ville de Leipzig.

De 1952 à 1968, il est président du conseil d'administration du district de Leipzig de la Société pour l'amitié germano-soviétique.

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Liste de résistants allemands au nazisme

Liens externes

Personnalité du Parti communiste d'Allemagne
Personnalité du Parti socialiste unifié d'Allemagne
Résistant allemand au nazisme
Survivant de Buchenwald
Récipiendaire de l'ordre du mérite patriotique en or
Récipiendaire de l'ordre de Karl-Marx
Naissance en novembre 1904
Naissance à Solingen
Naissance dans la province de Rhénanie
Décès en décembre 1989
Décès à 85 ans
Décès à Leipzig

Karl Adolphs


HMS Orion was a  light cruiser which served with distinction in the Royal Navy during World War II. She received 13 battle honours, a record only exceeded by  and matched by two others.

History
Orion was built by Devonport Dockyard (Plymouth, U.K), Vickers-Armstrong (Newcastle-on-Tyne, UK).

Orion was commissioned on 18 January 1934, for service with the Home Fleet but she was transferred to the America and West Indies Station, based at the Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island, in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda, in 1937 where she was with the 8th Cruiser Squadron. She arrived at Bermuda on the 3rd of September, 1937. Around 19:15 on the 21st of September, while exercising off Bermuda, Orion was ordered, in response to a request from the United States Consul for assistance, to make its way towards the position of the sail training ship USS Annapolis, four hundred miles from Bermuda at  35 degrees North and 54 degrees West. Cadet Robert Hugh Quinn, aboard Annapolis, required an immediate operation for appendicitis and the 7 knot speed of Annapolis would not enable it to reach Bermuda in time. The two ships were in sight of each other by 0858 on the 22nd of September. After Captain Hines of the Annapolis came aboard to meet with the captain of Orion, HRG Kinahan, Orion set off for Bermuda by 1038 with the American cadet, entering through the Narrows channel at night and arriving at the dockyard at 0246 on the 23rd of September, from where Quinn was delivered to the Royal Naval Hospital. On the 27th of October, 1937, the Flag of the America and West Indies Station was transferred to Orion when HMS York was sent to Trinidad due to civil unrest there, leaving the Commander-in-Chief at Admiralty House, Bermuda. Orion remained temporary flagship until HMS York returned on the 21st of November, 1937. On the 15th of November, the ocean liner MV Reina del Pacifico, which operated between Liverpool and Valparaíso, Chile, via Bermuda, the West Indies and the Panama Canal, stopped at Bermuda on its way to Chile with the body of former Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald who had died aboard on the 9 November. MacDonald's body was transferred to the navy for return to Plymouth. All of the cruisers of the station were away from Bermuda at that moment except for Orion and HMS Apollo. As Apollo was undergoing a refit at the dockyard, it would have fallen to Orion to deliver MacDonald's body, but as flagship she could not leave the station. Apollo was consequently hurried through her refit instead. Orion was tasked with the memorial service for MacDonald, whose body was taken aboard the Royal Navy tug Sandboy once the Reina del Pacifico was in Bermudian waters and landed on Front Street in the City of Hamilton along with the dockyard Chaplain, the Orion's Chaplain, an Honour Guard, sentries and coffin bearers. MacDonald's coffin was borne on a gun carriage to the Church of England's Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity, in a procession that included the ship's company of Orion and a detachment of the Sherwood Foresters (Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Regiment), serving in the Bermuda Garrison and based at Prospect Camp. At the cathedral, Arthur Browne, the Bishop of Bermuda, conducted the memorial service, which was followed by a lying in state. The following day, the procession was repeated back to the Sandboy which bore MacDonald's body to Apollo at the dockyard, which departed Bermuda for Plymouth at 1100, also carrying MacDonald's daughter, Miss Sheila MacDonald. Orion conveyed the ashes of Lord Tweedsmuir, Governor-General of Canada, back to England in February 1940.

In June 1940 she was transferred to the Mediterranean, where she was with the 7th Cruiser Squadron as John Tovey's flagship. She took part in the bombardment of Bardia, and the Battle of Calabria in July 1940. Late in that month, she sank the small Greek freighter Ermioni which was ferrying supplies to the Italian-held Dodecanese islands. During the rest of 1940 she escorted Malta convoys and transported troops to Greece. In the early part of 1941 she was in the Crete and Aegean areas and was also at the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941.

In the course of an attack on a German convoy headed for Crete on 22 May, she was damaged in a duel with its escort, the Italian torpedo boat . On 29 May 1941, during the evacuation of Crete, she was bombed and badly damaged while transporting 1900 evacuated troops. Around 360 people died, of whom 100 were soldiers. After extensive damage control had been undertaken she limped to Alexandria at , providing a spectacular sight in the harbour with the mast wedged into the ship's funnel and significant battle damage. On 29 June Orion sailed for passage to Simonstown, South Africa via Aden for temporary repairs and then sent to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, California for major repairs.

Orion'''s repairs were completed in March 1942 and she returned initially to Plymouth where new radar was installed. During mid 1942, she was widely employed, in home waters and on convoy escort duties to Africa and the Indian Ocean.Orion returned to the Mediterranean in October 1942. This time she was with the 15th Cruiser Squadron. She was involved in convoy escort duties and supported the army in the invasion of Sicily. She spent most of the rest of the war around the Mediterranean. James Gornall the former English first-class cricketer, promoted to Captain in 1941 was placed in command of her in 1943. She also took part in the Normandy Landings in June 1944, where she fired the first shell.

Corfu Channel IncidentOrion was involved in the Corfu Channel Incident in 1946, a conflict between Britain and Albania involving the navigation of British ships in the channel between the Greek island of Corfu and the Albanian coast.

FateOrion ended service in 1947, was sold for scrap to Arnott Young (Dalmuir, Scotland) on 19 July 1949 and was scrapped in August 1949.

Battle honours

 Atlantic 1939;
 Calabria 1940, Mediterranean 1940-43-44;
 Malta Convoys 1941, Matapan 1941, Greece 1941, Crete 1941;
 Sicily 1943, Salerno 1943;
 Aegean 1944, Anzio 1944, Normandy 1944, South France 1944.

Only  and , which served in the Mediterranean with Orion, matched this record; it was exceeded by Warspite'', the Mediterranean Fleet flagship, which saw service in both World Wars.

Notes

References

Leander-class cruisers (1931) of the Royal Navy
Ships built in Plymouth, Devon
1932 ships
World War II cruisers of the United Kingdom
Maritime incidents in 1946
Corfu Channel incident

HMS Orion (85)


Vicksburg es un área no incorporada ubicada en el condado de Bay en el estado estadounidense de Florida.

Geografía
Vicksburg se encuentra ubicada en las coordenadas .

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Áreas no incorporadas de Florida
Localidades del condado de Bay (Florida)

Vicksburg (Florida)


Velika nagrada San Rema je bila automobilistička utrka, koja se 1937. i od 1947. do 1951. vozila u Sanremu u Italiji. Od 1948. do 1951., Velika nagrada San Rema je bila neprvenstvena utrka Formule 1, ali nikad nije bila dio kalendara Svjetskog prvenstva Formule 1.

Pobjednici

Vanjske poveznice
San Remo GP - Chicane F1

San Remo
Formula 1 u Italiji
Međunarodna automobilistička natjecanja u Italiji

Velika nagrada San Rema


Die West Midlands (Regional) League ist eine regionale englische Fußball-Spielklasse für das Gebiet der Counties West Midlands, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire und South Staffordshire. Die Spielklasse wurde 1889 unter dem Namen Birmingham & District League gegründet, 1962 wurde der bis heute gültige Name angenommen.

Spielklassenstruktur
Die West Midlands (Regional) League organisiert derzeit den Spielbetrieb von drei Spielklassen. Dabei handelt es sich um die auf der zehnten Ebene des Fußball-Ligasystem in England angesiedelte Premier Division sowie die hierarchisch darunter angesiedelte Division One und Division Two. Der Meister der Premier Division besitzt das Recht zum Aufstieg in die Midland Football League, während die schlecht platziertesten Mannschaften der Division Two in den Spielbetrieb lokaler Fußballligen absteigen müssen.

Weitere Wettbewerbe
Neben dem Ligaspielbetrieb werden drei Pokalwettbewerbe ausgetragen, der Premier Division League Cup sowie der Division One League Cup und der Division Two League Cup.

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Ergebnisse und Tabellen

Einzelnachweise

Fußballwettbewerb in England

West Midlands (Regional) League


Die Allgemeine Sonderschule Krems (ASO Krems) ist eine Sonderschule in Krems an der Donau in der Wachau in Niederösterreich.
Bis 31. Dezember 2018 war dort auch das Sonderpädagogische Zentrum Krems (SPZ Krems) angesiedelt.

Allgemeine Sonderschule Krems
Die ASO Krems unterrichtet etwa 90 Schüler mit Sonderpädagogischem Förderbedarf, und weitere 30 Schüler der Volksschule Stein (Integrationsklassen). Leitbild ist "Schule zum Wachsen und Reifen".

Sie umfasst folgende Schulformen:
 3 Klassen mit lernbehinderten Kindern (ASO-Klassen)
 2 Klassen mit schwererziehbaren Schülern (SES-Klassen)
 4 Klassen für schwerst- und mehrfachbehinderte Kinder (S-Klassen)
 4 Kooperationsklassen im Volksschule-Bereich (in Zusammenarbeit mit der VS Stein)
 Kooperationsklasse im Sekundar-Bereich (5. Schulstufe)
 Vorbereitungslehrgang für den Erwerb des Hauptschul-Abschlusses (HS-Abschluss), Berufsvorbereitungsjahr
 Heilstättenklasse

Daneben bietet die Schule verschiedene Betreuungs- und Therapieangebote:
 Ganztägige Schulform
 Sprachheilpädagogische Betreuung
 Stützunterricht für hör-, sehbehinderte und blinde Kinder
 Lernberatung Mathematik
 Verhaltenspädagogische Förderung
 Beratungsstunden für verhaltensauffällige Schüler
 Musiktherapie, Ergotherapie, Physiotherapie, Mototherapie, Movetraining, Tiergestützte Pädagogik und  heilpädagogisches Voltigieren und Ähnliches
 Mediation und Peer Counseling für Betroffene

Die Sonderschule Krems arbeitet mit unkonventionellen Unterrichtsmodellen in Form von Schulversuchen, dazu gehört etwa das Pilotprojekt Brückenklasse mit Gastunterrichtsteilnahme an Schulen wie dem BRG Krems, der BHAK Krems oder dem ORG der Mary Ward Privatschule.

Außerdem ist sie Ausbildungsschule der Pädagogischen Hochschule Krems.

Auszeichnungen
 PiPo für herausragende Projektabwicklung 2006–2008
 Projektpreis des Kreativwettbewerbs Projekt Europa 2007/08 der KulturKontakt Austria (Im Dialog mit Farbe-Form-Figur)
 IV-Teacher's Award 2008 der Industriellenvereinigung, Kategorie Grundstufe, 2. Platz (Regina Holzer für das Projekt Im Dialog mit Farben – Form – Figur)
 IV-Teacher's Award 2010 der Industriellenvereinigung, Kategorie Grundstufe (Regina Holzer für das Mazedonien-Projekt Kinder schlagen Brücken)
 Urkunde über die Nominierung zum Österreichischen Schulpreis 2011.

Sonderpädagogisches Zentrum Krems
Das Sonderpädagogische Zentrum hatte etwa 35 Sonderschullehrer, Betreuungslehrer, Fach- und Stützkräfte. Geleitet wurden Schule und Zentrum von 2012 bis 2018 von Dorrit Stiglbrunner.

Es war über Unterricht hinaus auch für Aufgaben wie außerschulischen Kontakt und Fortbildung im Bereich Sonderpädagogik in Bereich der Stadt Krems zuständig.

Weblinks
 Webpräsenz der Allgemeinen Sonderschule Krems

Einzelnachweise

Schule in Krems an der Donau
Krems an der Donau

Allgemeine Sonderschule Krems


is a town located in Ikoma District, Nara Prefecture, Japan.

As of April 1, 2015, the town has an estimated population of 18,774, and 7,847 households. and a density of 790 persons per km². The total area is 23.90 km².

Education

Elementary schools
 Heguri Elementary School
 Hegurikita Elementary School
 Heguriminami Elementary School

Junior high schools
 Heguri Junior High School

Transportation

Rail
Kintetsu Railway
Ikoma Line: Motosanjōguchi Station - Heguri Station - Tatsutagawa Station

Road
Japan National Route 168

Images

See also
Shigisan Gyokuzōin

References

External links

 Heguri official website

Towns in Nara Prefecture

Heguri, Nara


Aarhus Oliefabrik A/S er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1933.

Handling
Aarhus Oliefabrik (A.O.) har egne danskledede opkøbsstationer i Ceylon og hollandsk Indien, hvor råstoffer som kopra (tørret kokosnødkerne), sesam- og solsikkefrø, soyabønner og jordnødder hentes. De industrielt forarbejdede produkter, olier og fedtstoffer samt oliekager og skrå (fedtfattigt mel), laves i Aarhus. Optagelser fra Ceylon, hvor der høstes kokosnødder. På opkøbsstationen Ceylon Trading Co. i Colombo hakkes kokosnødderne til mindre stykker og kommes i sække, hvorefter de afskibes til Aarhus. Damperen ankommer til Aarhus Havn med over 100.000 sække kopra. Når råstofferne er kørt ind på fabrikkerne kan arbejdet begynde. Hele forarbejdningsprocessen skildres. Derudover er der andre vigtige arbejdsopgaver som fx reparation af sække, som varetages af systuen, og laboratoriets stab af kemikere, der bl.a. foretager tests og kvalitetskontrol. Ved arbejdsdagens afslutning stempler arbejderne ud og forlader fabrikken. Sidst i filmen ses optagelser fra A.O.'s udstilling i Forum på Dansk Arbejdes jubilæumsudstilling i marts 1933.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1933

Aarhus Oliefabrik A/S


ستانلي منطقة سياحية في حي شرق على شاطئ البحر المتوسط بمدينة الإسكندرية في مصر.

و تتميز بشاطئها الشهير وكبائنها المدرجة إضافة إلى كوبري ستانلي المار بين طرفي خليج في الشاطئ. منطقة ستانلي تقع بجوار منطقة سابا باشا في المدينة.كما يوجد مكان أسفل الكوبري للسبوت بلعربيات

انظر أيضاً
 قائمة شواطئ الأسكندرية
 كورنيش الأسكندرية
 كوبري ستانلي

مراجع

أحياء الإسكندرية

ستانلي (الإسكندرية)


Acrocarpus, monotipski biljni rod iz porodice mahunarki. Jedina vrsta je drvo Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, rasprostranjeno po tropskoj i suptropskoj Aziji, u Indiji, Kini, Vijetnamu, Tajlandu, Laosu i Bangladešu, a uvezeno je i na Javu, Keniju, jugozapadni Meksiko, Nepal, Šri Lanku, Sumatru, Tanzaniju, Ugandu.

Sinonimi
 Acrocarpus combretiflorus Teijsm. & Binn.
 Acrocarpus fraxinifolius var. guangxiensis S.L.Mo & Y.Wei
 Acrocarpus grandis (Miq.)Miq.
 Mezoneurum grande Miq.

Izvori

Caesalpinieae
Flora Assama
Flora Bangladeša
Flora južne-središnje Kine
Flora jugoistočne Kine
Flora istočnih Himalaja
Flora Indije
Flora Laosa
Flora Mjanmara
Flora Tajlanda
Flora Vijetnama

Acrocarpus


Thal is a village and municipality in the Wahlkreis (constituency) of Rorschach in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland. Besides the village of Thal itself, the municipality also includes the villages of Altenrhein, Buechen, Buriet and Staad.

History

Thal is first mentioned in 1163 as curtis tale.

The Weinburg was of regional importance as the seat of noble dynasties (1419-1686), of federal importance as a county recorder's office (1686-1772) and of European importance as the seat of the Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1817-1929). After the First World War, the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was impoverished and Prince Friedrich von Hohenzollern (1891-1965) was forced to sell the Weinburg estate. The Steyler Mission Society (Societas Verbi Divini, SVD) was found as the buyer. On 2 December 1929, the contract of sale was concluded. One year later, the Weinburg could be opened under the new name Gymnasium Marienburg, first as a mission school. The secondary school was followed by a theological seminary and finally a heigh school. In the summer of 2012, High School closed its doors.

The 1983 UCI Road World Championships (cycling) took place in Altenrhein, a village in the municipality.

Geography
Thal has an area, , of .  Of this area, 44% is used for agricultural purposes, while 13.1% is forested.  Of the rest of the land, 35.8% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (7.2%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes).

The municipality was part of the Unterrheintal District, but in 2004 became part of the Rorschach Wahlkreis.  It is located between the Appenzell foothills, the Buchberg and Lake Constance.  It consists of the haufendorf village (an irregular, unplanned and quite closely packed village, built around a central square) of Thal and (since 1803) the villages of Altenrhein, Buechen, Buriet, Staad and a number of scattered hamlets.

In the North and East, the municipality borders the old bed of the Rhine river (Alter Rhein) and Austria.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent a Grape Azure slipped embowed and leaved Vert.

Demographics
Thal has a population (as of ) of .  , about 18.9% of the population was made up of foreign nationals.  Of the foreign population, (), 112 are from Germany, 188 are from Italy, 417 are from ex-Yugoslavia, 93 are from Austria, 42 are from Turkey,  and 181 are from another country.  Over the last 10 years the population has grown at a rate of 5.5%.  Most of the population () speaks German (91.3%), with Albanian being second most common ( 2.0%) and Italian being third ( 1.8%).  Of the Swiss national languages (), 5,475 speak German, 23 people speak French, 110 people speak Italian, and 9 people speak Romansh.

The age distribution, , in Thal is; 803 children or 13.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 798 teenagers or 13.3% are between 10 and 19.  Of the adult population, 682 people or 11.4% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old.  986 people or 16.4% are between 30 and 39, 906 people or 15.1% are between 40 and 49, and 734 people or 12.2% are between 50 and 59.  The senior population distribution is 524 people or 8.7% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 315 people or 5.3% are between 70 and 79, there are 210 people or 3.5% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 37 people or 0.6% who are between 90 and 99, and 1 person who is 100 or more.

 there were 707 persons (or 11.8% of the population) who were living alone in a private dwelling.  There were 1,350 (or 22.5%) persons who were part of a couple (married or otherwise committed) without children, and 3,345 (or 55.8%) who were part of a couple with children.  There were 319 (or 5.3%) people who lived in single parent home, while there are 30 persons who were adult children living with one or both parents, 12 persons who lived in a household made up of relatives, 29 who lived household made up of unrelated persons, and 204 who are either institutionalized or live in another type of collective housing.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 41.4% of the vote.  The next three most popular parties were the CVP (16.1%), the SP (14.2%) and the FDP (12.1%).

In Thal about 72.9% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).  Out of the total population in Thal, , the highest education level completed by 1,150 people (19.2% of the population) was Primary, while 2,324 (38.8%) have completed their secondary education, 663 (11.1%) have attended a Tertiary school, and 220 (3.7%) are not in school.  The remainder did not answer this question.

The historical population is given in the following table:

Transportation
Staad railway station and Altenrhein airport are located in the municipality.

Stadler Rail has a factory at Altenrhein, which constructs railway rolling stock for Switzerland and other countries. Orders have including new trains in 2019-2021 for the Glasgow Subway in Scotland and the Class 777 in England.

Economy
, Thal had an unemployment rate of 2.27%.  , there were 95 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 31 businesses involved in this sector.  1,717 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 101 businesses in this sector.  1,327 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 226 businesses in this sector.

 the average unemployment rate was 4.9%.  There were 371 businesses in the municipality of which 98 were involved in the secondary sector of the economy while 246 were involved in the third.

 there were 1,139 residents who worked in the municipality, while 2,004 residents worked outside Thal and 2,074 people commuted into the municipality for work.

Religion
From the , 2,539 or 42.3% are Roman Catholic, while 2,221 or 37.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.  Of the rest of the population, there is 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic faith, there are 106 individuals (or about 1.77% of the population) who belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are 190 individuals (or about 3.17% of the population) who belong to another Christian church.  There are 4 individuals (or about 0.07% of the population) who are Jewish, and 296 (or about 4.94% of the population) who are Islamic.  There are 21 individuals (or about 0.35% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 455 (or about 7.59% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 163 individuals (or about 2.72% of the population) did not answer the question.

Sights
The Schlosslandschaft Rorschach / Alter Rhein, a number of castles in a region along the Rhine river, is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.  The Schlosslandschaft is shared between Berg, Goldach, Mörschwil, Rheineck, Rorschacherberg, St. Margrethen, Steinach, Thal and Tübach.

References

External links

http://www.thal.ch

Populated places on the Rhine

Thal, St. Gallen


دوشان فيميتش  هو لاعب كرة مضرب صربي.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من بلغراد
رياضيون من زادار
صرب كرواتيا
لاعبو كرة مضرب أولمبيون من يوغوسلافيا
لاعبو كرة مضرب صربيون
لاعبو كرة مضرب في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2000
لاعبو كرة مضرب يوغوسلافيون
مدربو كرة مضرب صرب
مواليد 1976
مواليد في زادار
مدربو نوفاك دجوكوفيتش
لاعبو كرة مضرب من بلغراد

دوشان فيميتش


Sarangui Bulsichak (hangul: 사랑의 불시착) je južnokorejska televizijska serija. Glavne uloge su igrali Hyun Bin, Son Ye-jin, Kim Jung-hyun i Seo Ji-hye.

Uloge
 Hyun Bin – Ri Jeong-hyeok
 Son Ye-jin – Yoon Se-ri
 Kim Jung-hyun – Gu Seung-joon / Alberto Gu
 Seo Ji-hye – Seo Dan

Vanjske poveznice
Službena stranica

Južnokorejske serije

Sarangui Bulsichak


Undercover Blues, titulada en castellano Cuidado con la familia Blue en España y Pistolas y pañales en Argentina, es una película cómica estrenada el 10 de septiembre de 1993 en Estados Unidos, el 18 de noviembre del mismo año en Argentina y el 29 de abril de 1994 en España. Protagonizada por Kathleen Turner y Dennis Quaid. Dirigida por Herbert Ross.

Argumento
Jefferson y Jane Blue (Dennis Quaid y Kathleen Turner) acaban de ser padres de una preciosa niña, pero a la vez también son dos agentes secretos, que se conocieron en una peligrosa misión. Mientras disfrutan de su estancia durante las vacaciones en Nueva Orleans una banda terrorista checa amenaza la seguridad nacional de Estados Unidos.

Ellos pretendían dedicarse más a su familia y sus hijos, pero justo en ese momento se les asigna una nueva e importante misión, de la cual dependerá la paz mundial y el futuro de su país. No les resultará tarea fácil ya que tendrán que llevar a cabo el trabajo teniendo a su hija presente durante toda la operación, puesto que no están dispuestos a separarse de ella mucho tiempo.

Reparto
Kathleen Turner como Jane Blue.
Dennis Quaid como Jefferson Blue.
Fiona Shaw como Paulina Novaceck.
Stanley Tucci como Morty/Muerte
Tom Arnold como Vern Newman.
Richard Jenkins como Frank.

Producción
Se rodó entre el 22 de junio y el 15 de septiembre de 1992. Se filmó íntegramente en Nueva Orleans, Luisiana, Estados Unidos. Inicialmente el título de la película iba a ser Cloak and Diaper.

Recepción
Respuesta crítica
Según la página de Internet Rotten Tomatoes obtuvo un 35% de comentarios positivos. Robert Roten dijo de la película que era "una de las mejores comedias que he visto en mucho tiempo". Chris Hicks señaló que "algo en la película es divertido, pero en general tiende a ser plana".

Taquilla
Estrenada en 1.596 cines estadounidenses debutó en segunda posición con 4 millones de dólares, por delante de True Romance y por detrás de The Fugitive''. Recaudó en Estados Unidos 12 millones. Se desconoce cual fue el presupuesto o las recaudaciones internacionales.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Tráiler (en inglés)

Películas cómicas
Películas rodadas en Estados Unidos
Películas rodadas en Nueva Orleans
Películas de Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer

Undercover Blues


Hyacinth ( or Jacek Odrowąż;  – 15 August 1257) was a Polish Dominican priest and missionary who worked to reform women's monasteries in his native Poland. He was a Doctor of Sacred Studies, educated in Paris and Bologna.

Life
Called the "Apostle of the North", Hyacinth was the son of Eustachius Koński of the noble family of Odrowąż. He was born in 1185 at the castle of Lanka, at Kamień, in Silesia, Poland. A near relative of Ceslaus, he made his studies in notable cities: Kraków, Prague, and Bologna, and at the latter place merited the title of Doctor of Law and Divinity. On his return to Poland he was given a prebend at Sandomierz, a medieval centre of administration in the south-eastern part of the country. He subsequently accompanied his uncle Ivo Konski, the Bishop of Kraków, to Rome.

While in Rome, he witnessed a miracle performed by Dominic of Osma, and became a Dominican friar, along with Ceslaus and two attendants of the Bishop of Kraków, Herman and Henry. In 1219 Pope Honorius III invited Dominic and his followers to take up residence at the ancient Roman basilica of Santa Sabina, which they did by early 1220. Before that time, the friars had only a temporary residence in Rome at the convent of San Sisto Vecchio which Honorius III had given to Dominic in about 1218, intending it to be used for a reformation of Roman nuns under Dominic's guidance.  Hyacinth and his companions were among the first to enter the convent. They were also the first alumni of the studium of the Dominican Order at Santa Sabina out of which would grow the 16th century College of Saint Thomas at Santa Maria sopra Minerva, which became the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas in the 20th century.  After an abbreviated novitiate, Hyacinth and his companions received the religious habit of the Order from Dominic himself in 1220.

The young friars were then sent back to their homeland to establish the Dominican Order in Poland and Kyiv. As Hyacinth and his three companions traveled back to Kraków, he set up new monasteries with his companions as superiors, until finally he was the only one left to continue on to Kraków. Hyacinth went throughout Northern Europe spreading the faith. He died in the year 1257. Tradition holds that he also evangelized throughout Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Prussia, Scotland, Russia, Turkey, and Greece. However, these travels are heavily disputed and are not supported by the earliest hagiographies of Hyacinth.

Legend

One of the major miracles attributed to Hyacinth came about during a Mongol attack on Kyiv. As the friars prepared to flee the invading forces, Hyacinth went to save the ciborium containing the Blessed Sacrament from the tabernacle in the monastery chapel, when he heard the voice of Mary, the mother of Jesus, asking him to take her, too.

Hyacinth lifted the large, stone statue of Mary, as well as the ciborium. He was easily able to carry both, despite the fact that the statue weighed far more than he could normally lift. Thus, he saved them both. For this reason, he is usually shown holding a monstrance (though they did not come into use until several centuries later) and a statue of Mary.

The Polish exclamation Święty Jacku z pierogami! ("St. Hyacinth and his pierogi!") is an old-time saying, a call for help in some hopeless circumstance. It has derived from two legends. One of them is about his visit on July 13, 1238, to Kościelec. During his visit, a hailstorm broke out, destroying crops and leaving people with the terrible prospect of poverty and famine. Hyacinth told them to pray. The next day, the crops were miraculously restored. The people then treated Hyacinth to pierogi made from those crops as a token of gratitude. The second legend mentions Hyacinth feeding people with pierogi during a famine caused by the Mongol invasion of 1241.

Veneration
The tomb of Hyacinth is in the Basilica of Holy Trinity in Kraków, Poland, in a chapel that bears his name.

Hyacinth was canonized on 17 April 1594 by Pope Clement VIII, and his memorial day is celebrated on 17 August. In 1686 Pope Innocent XI named him a patron of Lithuania. He is the patron saint of those in danger of drowning and weight lifting.

Among notable churches in North America dedicated to Hyacinth of Poland is St. Hyacinth's Basilica in Chicago, Illinois.

See also

Convent of Saint-Hyacinth, Fribourg
St. Hyacinth Basilica
Saint Hyacinth of Poland, patron saint archive

References

External links

1180s births
1257 deaths
People from Krapkowice County
Dominican saints
Polish Dominicans
Odrowąż family
Polish Roman Catholic priests
Polish Roman Catholic saints
People from Silesia
13th-century Christian saints
Roman Catholic friars
13th-century Polish clergy

Hyacinth of Poland