Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. (; August 29, 1809 – October 7, 1894) was an American physician, poet, and polymath based in Boston. Grouped among the fireside poets, he was acclaimed by his peers as one of the best writers of the day. His most famous prose works are the "Breakfast-Table" series, which began with The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table (1858). He was also an important medical reformer. In addition to his work as an author and poet, Holmes also served as a physician, professor, lecturer, inventor, and, although he never practiced it, he received formal training in law.

Born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Holmes was educated at Phillips Academy and Harvard College. After graduating from Harvard in 1829, he briefly studied law before turning to the medical profession. He began writing poetry at an early age; one of his most famous works, "Old Ironsides", was published in 1830 and was influential in the eventual preservation of the USS Constitution. Following training at the prestigious medical schools of Paris, Holmes was granted his Doctor of Medicine degree from Harvard Medical School in 1836. He taught at Dartmouth Medical School before returning to teach at Harvard and, for a time, served as dean there. During his long professorship, he became an advocate for various medical reforms and notably posited the controversial idea that doctors were capable of carrying puerperal fever from patient to patient. Holmes retired from Harvard in 1882 and continued writing poetry, novels and essays until his death in 1894.

Surrounded by Boston's literary elite—which included friends such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and James Russell Lowell—Holmes made an indelible imprint on the literary world of the 19th century. Many of his works were published in The Atlantic Monthly, a magazine that he named. For his literary achievements and other accomplishments, he was awarded numerous honorary degrees from universities around the world. Holmes's writing often commemorated his native Boston area, and much of it was meant to be humorous or conversational. Some of his medical writings, notably his 1843 essay regarding the contagiousness of puerperal fever, were considered innovative for their time. He was often called upon to issue occasional poetry, or poems written specifically for an event, including many occasions at Harvard. Holmes also popularized several terms, including Boston Brahmin and anesthesia. He was the father of Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., who would become a justice on the Supreme Court of the United States.

Life and education

Early life and family

Holmes was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 29, 1809. His birthplace, a house just north of Harvard Yard, was said to have been the place where the Battle of Bunker Hill was planned. He was the first son of Abiel Holmes (1763–1837), minister of the First Congregational Church and avid historian, and Sarah Wendell, Abiel's second wife. Sarah was the daughter of a wealthy family, and Holmes was named for his maternal grandfather, a judge. The first Wendell, Evert Jansen, left the Netherlands in 1640 and settled in Albany, New York. Also through his mother, Holmes was descended from Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet and his wife, Anne Bradstreet (daughter of Thomas Dudley), the first published American poet.

From a young age, Holmes was small and had asthma, but he was known for his precociousness. When he was eight, he took his five-year-old brother, John, to witness the last hanging in Cambridge's Gallows Lot and was subsequently scolded by his parents. He also enjoyed exploring his father's library, writing later in life that "it was very largely theological, so that I was walled in by solemn folios making the shelves bend under the load of sacred learning." After being exposed to poets such as John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Oliver Goldsmith, the young Holmes began to compose and recite his own verse. His first recorded poem, which was copied down by his father, was written when he was 13.

Although a talented student, the young Holmes was often admonished by his teachers for his talkative nature and habit of reading stories during school hours. He studied under Dame Prentiss and William Bigelow before enrolling in what was called the "Port School", a select private academy in the Cambridgeport settlement. One of his schoolmates was future critic and author Margaret Fuller, whose intellect Holmes admired.

Education
Holmes's father sent him to Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, at the age of 15. Abiel chose Phillips, which was known for its orthodox Calvinist teachings, because he hoped his eldest son would follow him into the ministry. Holmes had no interest in becoming a theologian, however, and as a result he did not enjoy his single year at Andover. Although he achieved distinction as an elected member of the Social Fraternity, a literary club, he disliked the "bigoted, narrow-minded, uncivilized" attitudes of most of the school's teachers. One teacher in particular, however, noted his young student's talent for poetry, and suggested that he pursue it. Shortly after his sixteenth birthday, Holmes was accepted by Harvard College.

As a member of Harvard's class of 1829, Holmes lived at home for the first few years of his college career rather than in the dormitories. Since he measured only "five feet three inches when standing in a pair of substantial boots", the young student had no interest in joining a sports team or the Harvard Washington Corps. Instead, he allied himself with the "Aristocrats" or "Puffmaniacs", a group of students who gathered in order to smoke and talk. As a town student and the son of a minister, however, he was able to move between social groups. He also became a friend of Charles Chauncy Emerson (brother of Ralph Waldo Emerson), who was a year older. During second year, Holmes was one of 20 students awarded the scholastic honor Deturs, which came with a copy of The Poems of James Graham, John Logan, and William Falconer. Despite his scholastic achievements, the young scholar admitted to a schoolmate from Andover that he did not "study as hard as I ought to'. He did, however, excel in languages and took classes in French, Italian and Spanish.

Holmes's academic interests and hobbies were divided among law, medicine, and writing. He was elected to the Hasty Pudding, where he served as Poet and Secretary, and to the Phi Beta Kappa honor society. With two friends, he collaborated on a small book entitled Poetical Illustrations of the Athenaeum Gallery of Painting, which was a collection of satirical poems about the new art gallery in Boston. He was asked to provide an original work for his graduating class's commencement and wrote a "light and sarcastic" poem that met with great acclaim. Following graduation, Holmes intended to go into the legal profession, so he lived at home and studied at the Harvard Law School (named Dane School at the time). By January 1830, however, he was disenchanted with legal studies. "I am sick at heart of this place and almost everything connected to it", he wrote. "I know not what the temple of law may be to those who have entered it, but to me it seems very cold and cheerless about the threshold."

Poetic beginnings
1830 proved to be an important year for Holmes as a poet; while disappointed by his law studies, he began writing poetry for his own amusement. Before the end of the year, he had produced over fifty poems, contributing twenty-five of them (all unsigned) to The Collegian, a short-lived publication started by friends from Harvard. Four of these poems would ultimately become among his best-known: "The Dorchester Giant", "Reflections of a Proud Pedestrian", "Evening / By a Tailor" and "The Height of the Ridiculous". Nine more of his poems were published anonymously in the 1830 pamphlet Illustrations of the Athenaeum Gallery of Paintings.

In September of that same year, Holmes read a short article in the Boston Daily Advertiser about the renowned 18th-century frigate USS Constitution, which was to be dismantled by the Navy. Holmes was moved to write "Old Ironsides" in opposition to the ship's scrapping. The patriotic poem was published in the Advertiser the very next day and was soon printed by papers in New York, Philadelphia and Washington. It not only brought the author immediate national attention, but the three-stanza poem also generated so much public sentiment that the historic ship was preserved, though plans to do so may have already been in motion.

During the rest of the year, Holmes published only five more poems. His last major poem that year was "The Last Leaf", which was inspired in part by a local man named Thomas Melvill, "the last of the cocked hats" and one of the "Indians" from the 1774 Boston Tea Party. Holmes would later write that Melvill had reminded him of "a withered leaf which has held to its stem through the storms of autumn and winter, and finds itself still clinging to its bough while the new growths of spring are bursting their buds and spreading their foliage all around it." Literary critic Edgar Allan Poe called the poem one of the finest works in the English language. Years later, Abraham Lincoln would also become a fan of the poem; William Herndon, Lincoln's law partner and biographer, wrote in 1867: "I have heard Lincoln recite it, praise it, laud it, and swear by it".

Although he experienced early literary success, Holmes did not consider turning to a literary profession. Later he would write that he had "tasted the intoxicating pleasure of authorship" but compared such contentment to a sickness, saying: "there is no form of lead-poisoning which more rapidly and thoroughly pervades the blood and bones and marrow than that which reaches the young author through mental contact with type metal".

Medical career

Medical training
Having given up on the study of law, Holmes switched to medicine. After leaving his childhood home in Cambridge during the autumn of 1830, he moved into a boardinghouse in Boston to attend the city's medical college. At that time, students studied only five subjects: medicine, anatomy and surgery, obstetrics, chemistry and materia medica. Holmes became a student of James Jackson, a physician and the father of a friend, and worked part-time as a chemist in the hospital dispensary. Dismayed by the "painful and repulsive aspects" of primitive medical treatment of the time—which included practices such as bloodletting and blistering—Holmes responded favorably to his mentor's teachings, which emphasized close observation of the patient and humane approaches. Despite his lack of free time, he was able to continue writing. He wrote two essays during this time which detailed life as seen from his boardinghouse's breakfast table. These essays, which would evolve into one of Holmes's most popular works, were published in November 1831 and February 1832 in The New-England Magazine under the title "The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table".

In 1833, Holmes traveled to Paris to further his medical studies. Recent and radical reorganization of the city's hospital system had made medical training there highly advanced for the time. At twenty-three years old, Holmes was one of the first Americans trained in the new "clinical" method being advanced at the famed École de Médecine. Since the lectures were taught entirely in French, he engaged a private language tutor. Although far from home, he stayed connected to his family and friends through letters and visitors (such as Ralph Waldo Emerson). He quickly acclimated to his new surroundings. While writing to his father, he stated, "I love to talk French, to eat French, to drink French every now and then."

At the hospital of La Pitié, he studied under internal pathologist Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis, who demonstrated the ineffectiveness of bloodletting, which had been a mainstay of medical practice since antiquity. Louis was one of the fathers of the méthode expectante, a therapeutic doctrine that states the physician's role is to do everything possible to aid nature in the process of disease recovery, and to do nothing to hinder this natural process. Upon his return to Boston, Holmes became one of the country's leading proponents of the méthode expectante. Holmes was awarded his Doctor of Medicine degree from Harvard in 1836; he wrote his dissertation on acute pericarditis. His first collection of poetry was published later that year, but Holmes, ready to begin his medical career, wrote it off as a one-time event. In the book's introduction, he mused: "Already engaged in other duties, it has been with some effort that I have found time to adjust my own mantle; and I now willingly retire to more quiet labors, which, if less exciting, are more certain to be acknowledged as useful and received with gratitude".

Medical reformer
After graduation, Holmes quickly became a fixture in the local medical scene by joining the Massachusetts Medical Society, the Boston Medical Society, and the Boston Society for Medical Improvement—an organization composed of young, Paris-trained doctors. He also gained a greater reputation after winning Harvard Medical School's prestigious Boylston Prize, for which he submitted a paper on the benefits of using the stethoscope, a device with which many American doctors were not familiar.

In 1837, Holmes was appointed to the Boston Dispensary, where he was shocked by the poor hygienic conditions. That year he competed for and won both of the Boylston essay prizes. Wishing to concentrate on research and teaching, he, along with three of his peers, established the Tremont Medical School—which would later merge with Harvard Medical School—above an apothecary shop at 35 Tremont Row in Boston. There, he lectured on pathology, taught the use of microscopes, and supervised dissections of cadavers. He often criticized traditional medical practices and once quipped that if all contemporary medicine was tossed into the sea "it would be all the better for mankind—and all the worse for the fishes". For the next ten years, he maintained a small and irregular private medical practice, but spent much of his time teaching. He served on the faculty of Dartmouth Medical School from 1838 to 1840, where he was appointed professor of anatomy and physiology. For fourteen weeks each fall, during these years, he traveled to Hanover, New Hampshire, to lecture. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1838.

After Holmes resigned his professorship at Dartmouth, he composed a series of three lectures dedicated to exposing medical fallacies, or "quackeries". Adopting a more serious tone than his previous lectures, he took great pains to reveal the false reasoning and misrepresentation of evidence that marked subjects such as "Astrology and Alchemy", his first lecture, and "Medical Delusions of the Past", his second. He deemed homeopathy, the subject of his third lecture, "the pretended science" that was a "mingled mass of perverse ingenuity, of tinsel erudition, of imbecile credulity, and of artful misrepresentation, too often mingled in practice". In 1842, he published the essay "Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions" in which he again denounced the practice.

In 1846, Holmes coined the word anaesthesia. In a letter to dentist William T. G. Morton, the first practitioner to publicly demonstrate the use of ether during surgery, he wrote:

Holmes predicted his new term "will be repeated by the tongues of every civilized race of mankind."

Study of childbed fever

In 1842 Holmes attended a lecture by Walter Channing to the Boston Society for Medical Improvement about puerperal fever, or "childbed fever", a disease which at the time was a significant cause of mortality of women after delivering children. Becoming interested in the subject, Holmes spent a year going through case reports and other medical literature on the subject to ascertain the cause and possible prevention of the condition. In 1843, he presented his research to the society, which he then published as a paper "The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever" in the short-lived publication New England Quarterly Journal of Medicine and Surgery. The essay argued—contrary to popular belief at the time, which predated germ theory of disease—that the cause of puerperal fever, a deadly infection contracted by women during or shortly after childbirth, stems from patient-to-patient contact via their physicians. He believed that bed sheets, washcloths and articles of clothing were of particular concern in this regard. Holmes gathered a large collection of evidence for this theory, including stories of doctors who had become ill and died after performing autopsies on patients who had likewise been infected. In concluding his case, he insisted that a physician in whose practice even one case of puerperal fever had occurred, had a moral obligation to purify his instruments, burn the clothing he had worn while assisting in the fatal delivery, and cease obstetric practice for a period of at least six months.

Though it largely escaped notice when first published, Holmes eventually came under attack by two distinguished professors of obstetrics—Hugh L. Hodge and Charles D. Meigs—who adamantly denied his theory of contagion. In 1855, Holmes published a revised version of the essay in the form of a pamphlet under the new title Puerperal Fever as a Private Pestilence, and discussing additional cases. In a new introduction, in which Holmes directly addressed his opponents, he wrote: "I had rather rescue one mother from being poisoned by her attendant, than claim to have saved forty out of fifty patients to whom I had carried the disease." He added, "I beg to be heard in behalf of the women whose lives are at stake, until some stronger voice shall plead for them."

A few years later, Ignaz Semmelweis would reach similar conclusions in Vienna, where his introduction of prophylaxis (handwashing in chlorine solution before assisting at delivery) would considerably lower the puerperal mortality rate, and the then-controversial work is now considered a landmark in germ theory of disease.

Teaching and lecturing
In 1847, Holmes was hired as Parkman Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Harvard Medical School, where he served as dean until 1853 and taught until 1882. Soon after his appointment, Holmes was criticized by the all-male student body for considering granting admission to a woman named Harriot Kezia Hunt. Facing opposition from not only students but also university overseers and other faculty members, she was asked to withdraw her application. Harvard Medical School would not admit a woman until 1945. Holmes's training in Paris led him to teach his students the importance of anatomico-pathological basis of disease, and that "no doctrine of prayer or special providence is to be his excuse for not looking straight at secondary causes." Students were fond of Holmes, to whom they referred as "Uncle Oliver". One teaching assistant recalled:

Marriage, family, and later life

On June 15, 1840, Holmes married Amelia Lee Jackson at King's Chapel in Boston. She was the daughter of the Hon. Charles Jackson, formerly Associate Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, and the niece of James Jackson, the physician with whom Holmes had studied. Judge Jackson gave the couple a house at 8 Montgomery Place, which would be their home for eighteen years. They had three children: Civil War officer and American jurist Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. (1841–1935), Amelia Jackson Holmes (1843–1889), and Edward Jackson Holmes (1846–1884).

Amelia Holmes inherited $2,000 in 1848, and she and her husband used the money to build a summer house in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. Beginning in July 1849, the family spent "seven blessed summers" there. Having recently given up his private medical practice, Holmes was able to socialize with other literary figures who spent time in The Berkshires; in August 1850, for example, Holmes spent time with Evert Augustus Duyckinck, Cornelius Mathews, Herman Melville, James T. Fields and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Holmes enjoyed measuring the circumference of trees on his property and kept track of the data, writing that he had "a most intense, passionate fondness for trees in general, and have had several romantic attachments to certain trees in particular". The high cost of maintaining their home in Pittsfield caused the Holmes family to sell it in May 1856.

While serving as dean in 1850, Holmes became a witness for both the defense and prosecution during the notorious Parkman–Webster murder case. Both George Parkman (the victim), a local physician and wealthy benefactor, and John Webster (the assailant) were graduates of Harvard, and Webster was professor of chemistry at the Medical School during the time of the highly publicized murder. Webster was convicted and hanged. Holmes dedicated his November 1850 introductory lecture at the Medical School to Parkman's memory.

The same year, Holmes was approached by Martin Delany, an African-American man who had worked with Frederick Douglass. The 38-year-old requested admission to Harvard after having been previously rejected by four schools despite impressive credentials. In a controversial move, Holmes admitted Delany and two other black men to the Medical School. Their admission sparked a student statement, which read: "Resolved That we have no objection to the education and evaluation of blacks but do decidedly remonstrate against their presence in College with us." Sixty students signed the resolution, although 48 students signed another resolution which noted it would be "a far greater evil, if, in the present state of public feeling, a medical college in Boston could refuse to this unfortunate class any privileges of education, which it is in the power of the profession to bestow". In response, Holmes told the black students they would not be able to continue after that semester.  A faculty meeting directed Holmes to write that "the intermixing of races is distasteful to a large portion of the class, & injurious to the interests of the school". Despite his support of education for blacks, he was not an abolitionist; against what he considered the abolitionists' habit of using "every form of language calculated to inflame", he felt that the movement was going too far. This lack of support dismayed friends like James Russell Lowell, who once told Holmes he should be more outspoken against slavery. Holmes calmly responded, "Let me try to improve and please my fellowmen after my own fashion at present." Nonetheless, Holmes believed that slavery could be ended peacefully and legally.

Holmes lectured extensively from 1851 to 1856 on subjects such as "Medical Science as It Is or Has Been", "Lectures and Lecturing", and "English Poets of the Nineteenth Century". Traveling throughout New England, he received anywhere from $40 to $100 per lecture, but he also published a great deal during this time, and the British edition of his Poems sold well abroad. As social attitudes began to change, however, Holmes often found himself publicly at odds with those he called the "moral bullies"; because of mounting criticisms from the press regarding Holmes's vocal anti-abolitionism, as well as his dislike of the growing temperance movement, he chose to discontinue his lecturing and return home.

Later literary success and the Civil War
In 1856, the Atlantic or Saturday Club was created to launch and support The Atlantic Monthly. This new magazine was edited by Holmes's friend James Russell Lowell, and articles were contributed by the New England literary elite such as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Lothrop Motley and J. Elliot Cabot. Holmes not only provided its name, but also wrote various pieces for the journal throughout the years. For the magazine's first issue, Holmes produced a new version of two of his earlier essays, "The Autocrat at the Breakfast-Table". Based upon fictionalized breakfast table talk and including poetry, stories, jokes and songs, the work was favored by readers and critics alike and it secured the initial success of The Atlantic Monthly. The essays were collected as a book of the same name in 1858 and became his most enduring work, selling ten thousand copies in three days. Its sequel, The Professor at the Breakfast-Table, was released shortly after beginning in serialized installments in January 1859.

Holmes's first novel, Elsie Venner, was published serially in the Atlantic beginning in December 1859. Originally entitled "The Professor's Story", the novel is about a neurotic young woman whose mother was bitten by a rattlesnake while pregnant, making her daughter's personality half-woman, half-snake. The novel drew a wide range of comments, including praise from John Greenleaf Whittier and condemnation from church papers, which claimed the work a product of heresy.

Also in December 1859, Holmes sent medication to the ailing writer Washington Irving after visiting him at his Sunnyside home in New York; Irving died only a few months later. The Massachusetts Historical Society posthumously awarded Irving an honorary membership at a tribute held on December 15, 1859. At the ceremony, Holmes presented an account of his meeting with Irving and a list of medical symptoms he had observed, despite the taboo of discussing health publicly.

About 1860, Holmes invented the "American stereoscope", a 19th-century entertainment in which pictures were viewed in 3-D. He later wrote an explanation for its popularity, stating: "There was not any wholly new principle involved in its construction, but, it proved so much more convenient than any hand-instrument in use, that it gradually drove them all out of the field, in great measure, at least so far as the Boston market was concerned." Rather than patenting the hand stereopticon and profiting from its success, Holmes gave the idea away.

Soon after South Carolina's secession from the Union in 1861 and the start of the Civil War, Holmes began publishing pieces—the first of which was the patriotic song "A Voice of the Loyal North"—in support of the Union cause. Although he had previously criticized the abolitionists, deeming them traitorous, his main concern was for the preservation of the Union. In September of that year, he published an article titled "Bread and Newspapers" in the Atlantic, in which he proudly identified himself as an ardent Unionist. He wrote, "War has taught us, as nothing else could, what we can be and are" and inspiring even the upper class to have "courage ... big enough for the uniform which hangs so loosely about their slender figures." However, on July 4, 1863, Holmes wrote, "how idle it is to look for any other cause than slavery as having any material agency in dividing the country" and declared it as one of "its sins against a just God". Holmes also had a personal stake in the war: his oldest son, Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., enlisted in the Army against his father's wishes in April 1861 and was injured three times in battle, including a gunshot wound in his chest at the Battle of Ball's Bluff in October 1861. Holmes published in The Atlantic Monthly an account of his search for his son after hearing news of his injury at the Battle of Antietam.

Amid the Civil War, Holmes's friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow began translating Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. Beginning in 1864, Longfellow invited several friends to help at weekly meetings held on Wednesdays. Holmes was part of that group, which became known as the "Dante Club"; among its members were Longfellow, Lowell, William Dean Howells, and Charles Eliot Norton. The final translation was published in three volumes in the spring of 1867. American novelist Matthew Pearl has fictionalized their efforts in The Dante Club (2003). The same year the Dante translation was published, Holmes's second novel, The Guardian Angel, began appearing serially in the Atlantic. It was published in book form in November, though its sales were half that of Elsie Venner.

Later years and death
Holmes's fame continued through his later years. The Poet at the Breakfast-Table was published in 1872. Written fifteen years after The Autocrat, this work's tone was mellower and more nostalgic than its predecessor; "As people grow older," Holmes wrote, "they come at length to live so much in memory that they often think with a kind of pleasure of losing their dearest possessions.  Nothing can be so perfect while we possess it as it will seem when remembered". In 1876, at the age of seventy, Holmes published a biography of John Lothrop Motley, which was an extension of an earlier sketch he had written for the Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings. The following year he published a collection of his medical essays and Pages from an Old Volume of Life, a collection of various essays he had previously written for The Atlantic Monthly. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1880. He retired from Harvard Medical School in 1882 after thirty-five years as a professor. After he gave his final lecture on November 28, the university made him professor emeritus.

In 1884, Holmes published a book dedicated to the life and works of his friend Ralph Waldo Emerson. Later biographers would use Holmes's book as an outline for their own studies, but particularly useful was the section dedicated to Emerson's poetry, into which Holmes had particular insight. Beginning in January 1885, Holmes's third and last novel, A Mortal Antipathy, was published serially in The Atlantic Monthly. Later that year, Holmes contributed $10 to Walt Whitman, though he did not approve of his poetry, and convinced friend John Greenleaf Whittier to do the same. A friend of Whitman, a lawyer named Thomas Donaldson, had requested monetary donations from several authors to purchase a horse and buggy for Whitman who, in his old age, was becoming a shut-in.

Exhausted and mourning the sudden death of his youngest son, Holmes began postponing his writing and social engagements. In late 1884, he embarked on a visit to Europe with his daughter Amelia. In Great Britain he met with writers such as Henry James, George du Maurier and Alfred Tennyson, and was awarded a Doctor of Letters degree from the University of Cambridge, a Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Edinburgh, and a third honorary degree from the University of Oxford. Holmes and Amelia then visited Paris, a place that had significantly influenced him in his earlier years. He met with chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur, whose previous studies in germ theory had helped reduce the mortality rate of women who had puerperal fever. Holmes called Pasteur "one of the truest benefactors of his race". After returning to the United States, Holmes published a travelogue, Our One Hundred Days in Europe.

In June 1886, Holmes received an honorary degree from Yale University Law School. His wife of more than forty years, who had struggled with an illness that had kept her an invalid for months, died on February 6, 1888. The younger Amelia died the following year after a brief malady. Despite his weakening eyesight and a fear that he was becoming antiquated, Holmes continued to find solace in writing. He published Over the Teacups, the last of his table-talk books, in 1891.

Towards the end of his life, Holmes noted that he had outlived most of his friends, including Emerson, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. As he said, "I feel like my own survivor ... We were on deck together as we began the voyage of life ... Then the craft which held us began going to pieces." His last public appearance was at a reception for the National Education Association in Boston on February 23, 1893, where he presented the poem "To the Teachers of America". A month later, Holmes wrote to Harvard president Charles William Eliot that the university should consider adopting the honorary doctor of letters degree and offer one to Samuel Francis Smith, though one was never issued.

Holmes died quietly after falling asleep in the afternoon of Sunday, October 7, 1894. As his son Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. wrote, "His death was as peaceful as one could wish for those one loves. He simply ceased to breathe." Holmes's memorial service was held at King's Chapel and overseen by Edward Everett Hale. Holmes was buried alongside his wife in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Writing

Poetry
Holmes is one of the fireside poets, together with William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and John Greenleaf Whittier. These poets—whose writing was characterized as family-friendly and conventional—were among the first Americans to build substantial popularity in Europe. Holmes in particular believed poetry had "the power of transfiguring the experiences and shows of life into an aspect which comes from the imagination and kindles that of others".

Due to his immense popularity during his lifetime, Holmes was often called upon to produce commemorative poetry for specific occasions, including memorials, anniversaries and birthdays. Referring to this demand for his attention, he once wrote that he was "a florist in verse, and what would people say / If I came to a banquet without my bouquet?" As critic Hyatt Waggoner noted, however, "very little ... survives the occasions that produced it". Holmes became known as a poet who expressed the benefits of loyalty and trust at serious gatherings, as well as one who showed wit at festivities and celebrations. Edwin Percy Whipple for one considered Holmes to be "a poet of sentiment and passion. Those who know him only as a comic lyricist, as the libellous laureate of chirping follow and presumptuous egotism, would be surprised at the clear sweetness and skylark thrill of his serious and sentimental compositions".

In addition to the commemorative nature of much of Holmes's poetry, some pieces were written based on his observations of the world around him. This is the case with two of Holmes's best known and critically successful poems—"Old Ironsides" and "The Last Leaf"—which were published when he was a young adult. As is seen with poems such as "The Chambered Nautilus" and " or The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay", Holmes successfully concentrated his verse upon concrete objects with which he was long familiar, or had studied at length, such as the one-horse shay or a seashell. Some of his works also deal with his personal or family history; for example, the poem "Dorothy Q" is a portrait of his maternal great-grandmother. The poem combines pride, humor and tenderness in short rhyming couplets:

Holmes, an outspoken critic of over-sentimental Transcendentalist and Romantic poetry, often slipped into sentimentality when writing his occasional poetry, but would often balance such emotional excess with humor. Critic George Warren Arms believed Holmes's poetry to be provincial in nature, noting his "New England homeliness" and "Puritan familiarity with household detail" as proof. In his poetry, Holmes often connected the theme of nature to human relations and social teachings; poems such as "The Ploughman" and "The New Eden", which were delivered in commemoration of Pittsfield's scenic countryside, were even quoted in the 1863 edition of the Old Farmer's Almanac.

He composed several hymn texts, including Thou Gracious God, Whose Mercy Lends and Lord of All Being, Throned Afar.

Prose
Although mainly known as a poet, Holmes wrote numerous medical treatises, essays, novels, memoirs and table-talk books. His prose works include topics that range from medicine to theology, psychology, society, democracy, sex and gender, and the natural world. Author and critic William Dean Howells argued that Holmes created a genre called dramatized (or discursive) essay, in which major themes are informed by the story's plot, but his works often use a combination of genres; excerpts of poetry, essays and conversations are often included throughout his prose. Critic William Lawrence Schroeder described Holmes's prose style as "attractive" in that it "made no great demand on the attention of the reader." He further stated that although the author's earlier works (The Autocrat and The Professor of the Breakfast-Table) are "virile and fascinating", later ones such as Our Hundred Days in Europe and Over the Teacups "have little distinction of style to recommend them."

Holmes first gained international fame with his "Breakfast-Tables" series. These three table-talk books attracted a diverse audience due to their conversational style, which made readers feel an intimate connection to the author, and resulted in a flood of letters from admirers. The series' conversational tone is not only meant to mimic the philosophical debates and pleasantries that occur around the breakfast table, but it is also used in order to facilitate an openness of thought and expression. As the Autocrat, Holmes states in the first volume:

The various speakers represent different facets of Holmes's life and experiences. The speaker of the first installment, for example, is understood to be a doctor who spent several years studying in Paris, while the second volume—The Professor at the Breakfast-Table—is told from the point of view of a professor of a distinguished medical school. Although the speakers discuss myriad topics, the flow of conversation always leads to supporting Holmes's Paris-taught conception of science and medicine and how they relate to morality and the mind. Autocrat in particular addresses philosophical issues such as the nature of one's self, language, life and truth.

Holmes wrote in the second preface to Elsie Venner, his first novel, that his aim in writing the work was "to test the doctrine of 'original sin' and human responsibility for the distorted violation coming under that technical denomination". He also stated his belief that "a grave scientific doctrine may be detected lying beneath some of the delineations of character" throughout all fiction. Deeming the work a "psychological romance", he employed a romantic narrative in order to describe moral theology from a scientific perspective. This means of expression is also present in his two other novels, in which Holmes uses medical or psychological dilemmas to further the story's dramatic plot.

Holmes referred to his novels as "medicated novels". Some critics believe that these works were innovative in exploring theories of Sigmund Freud and other emerging psychiatrists and psychologists. The Guardian Angel, for example, explores mental health and repressed memory, and Holmes uses the concept of the unconscious mind throughout his works. A Mortal Antipathy depicts a character whose phobias are rooted in psychic trauma, later cured by shock therapy. Holmes's novels were not critically successful during his lifetime. As psychiatrist Clarence P. Oberndorf, author of The Psychiatric Novels of Oliver Wendell Holmes, states, the three works are "poor fiction when judged by modern criteria. ... Their plots are simple, almost juvenile and, in two of them, the reader is not disappointed in the customary thwarting of the villain and the coming of true love to its own".

Legacy and criticism

Holmes was well respected by his peers, and garnered a large, international following throughout his long life. Particularly noted for his intelligence, he was named by American theologian Henry James Sr. "intellectually the most alive man I ever knew". Critic John G. Palfrey also praised Holmes, referring to him as "a man of genius ... His manner is entirely his own, manly and unaffected; generally easy and playful, and sinking at times into 'a most humorous sadness'". On the other hand, critics S. I. Hayakawa and Howard Mumford Jones argued that Holmes was "distinctly an amateur in letters. His literary writings, on the whole, are partly the leisure-born meditations of a physician, partly a means of spreading certain items of professional propaganda, partly a distillation of his social life."

Like Samuel Johnson in 18th-century England, Holmes was noted for his conversational powers in both his life and literary output. Though he was popular at the national level, Holmes promoted Boston culture and often wrote from a Boston-centric point of view, believing the city was "the thinking centre of the continent, and therefore of the planet". He is often referred to as a Boston Brahmin, a term that he created while referring to the oldest families in the Boston area. The term, as he used it, referred not only to members of a good family but also implied intellectualism. He also famously nicknamed Emerson's The American Scholar the American "intellectual Declaration of Independence".

Although his essay on puerperal fever has been deemed "the most important contribution made in America to the advancement of medicine" up to that time, Holmes is most famous as a humorist and poet. Editor and critic George Ripley, an admirer of Holmes, referred to him as "one of the wittiest and most original of modern poets". Emerson noted that, though Holmes did not renew his focus on poetry until later in his life, he quickly perfected his role "like old pear trees which have done nothing for ten years, and at last begin to grow great."

Poems by Holmes, along with those by the other fireside or schoolroom poets, were often required to be memorized by schoolchildren. Although learning by rote recitation began fading out by the 1890s, these poets nevertheless remained fixed as ideal New England poets. Literary scholar Lawrence Buell wrote of these poets: "we value [them] less than the nineteenth century did but still regard as the mainstream of nineteenth-century New England verse." Many of these poets soon became recognized only as children's poets, as noted by a 20th-century scholar who asked about Holmes's contemporary Longfellow: "Who, except wretched schoolchildren, now reads Longfellow?" Another modern scholar notes that "Holmes is a casualty of the ongoing movement to revise the literary canon. His work is the least likely of the Fireside Poets to find its way into American literature anthologies."

The school library of Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where Holmes studied as a child, is named the Oliver Wendell Holmes Library, or the OWHL, in his memory. Items from Holmes's personal library—including medical papers, essays, songs and poems—are held in the library's Special Collections department. In 1915, Bostonians placed a memorial seat and sundial behind Holmes's final home at 296 Beacon Street in a spot where he would have seen it from his library. King's Chapel in Boston, where Holmes worshiped, erected an inscribed memorial tablet in his honor. The tablet notes Holmes's achievements in the order he recognized them: "Teacher of Anatomy, Essayist and Poet". It ends with a quote from Horace's Ars Poetica: Miscuit Utile Dulci: "He mingled the useful with the pleasant."

Selected list of works
Poetry
 Poems (1836)
 Songs in Many Keys (1862)

Medical and psychological studies
 Puerperal Fever as a Private Pestilence (1855)
 Mechanism in Thought and Morals (1871)

Table-talk books
 The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table (1858)
 The Professor at the Breakfast-Table (1860)
 The Poet at the Breakfast-Table (1872)
 Over the Teacups (1891)

Novels
 Elsie Venner (1861)
 The Guardian Angel (1867)
 A Mortal Antipathy (1885)

Articles
 "The Stereoscope and the Stereograph", The Atlantic Monthly, volume 6 (1859)
 "Sun-painting and sun-sculpture", The Atlantic Monthly, volume 8 (July 1861)
 "Doings of the sun-beam", The Atlantic Monthly, volume 12 (July 1863)

Biographies and travelogue
 John Lothrop Motley, A Memoir (1876)
 Ralph Waldo Emerson (1884)
 Our Hundred Days in Europe (1887)

See also

 Epeolatry, a term coined by Holmes
 George Livermore, a childhood classmate
 Wendell, North Carolina, a town named after Holmes

Notes

References

 Arms, George Warren. The Fields Were Green: A New View of Bryant, Whittier, Holmes, Lowell, and Longfellow. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1953. .
 Broaddus, Dorothy C. Genteel Rhetoric: Writing High Culture in Nineteenth-Century Boston. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina, 1999. .
 Dowling, William C.  Oliver Wendell Holmes in Paris: Medicine, Theology, and The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table. Hanover: University Press of New England, 2006. .
 Gibian, Peter. Oliver Wendell Holmes and the Culture of Conversation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. .
 Holmes, Oliver Wendell. The Complete Poetical Works of Oliver Wendell Holmes. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1908. .
 Hoyt, Edwin Palmer. The Improper Bostonian: Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes. New York: Morrow, 1979. .
 Kennedy, William Sloane. Oliver Wendell Holmes: Poet, Littérateur, Scientist. Boston: S.E. Cassino, 1883. .
 Knight, Denise D. "Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809–1894)", Writers of the American Renaissance: An A-to-Z Guide. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. .
 Menand, Louis. The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001. .

 Novick, Sheldon M. Honorable Justice: The Life of Oliver Wendell Holmes. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1989. .
 Schroeder, William Lawrence. Oliver Wendell Holmes, an appreciation. London: Philip Green, 1909. .
 Small, Miriam Rossiter. Oliver Wendell Holmes. Twayne's United States authors series, 29. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1962. .
 Sullivan, Wilson. New England Men of Letters. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972. .
 Tilton, Eleanor M. Amiable Autocrat: A Biography of Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes. New York: H. Schuman, 1947. .
 Weinstein, Michael A. The Imaginative Prose of Oliver Wendell Holmes. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2006. .

External links

Sources

 Oliver Wendell Holmes Library, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress
 Oliver Wendell Holmes letters. Available online through Lehigh University's I Remain: A Digital Archive of Letters, Manuscripts, and Ephemera.

Other
 The name of Sherlock Holmes – Dr. Holmes
 Quotes by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.
 "The Annotated Autocrat" a mostly complete set of annotations to Holmes's Autocrat of the Breakfast Table
 "The Contagiousness of Puerperal Fever" by Holmes
 The Deacon's Masterpiece The Wonderful One-Hoss Shay: A Logical Story – audio reading
 Works with text by Holmes, Oliver Wendell

1809 births
1894 deaths
19th-century American novelists
19th-century American poets
American essayists
American expatriates in France
American people of Dutch descent
American people of English descent
19th-century American physicians
American medical writers
Arthur Conan Doyle
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Geisel School of Medicine faculty
Harvard Medical School alumni
Writers from Cambridge, Massachusetts
Phillips Academy alumni
Novelists from Massachusetts
Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
American male novelists
American male essayists
American male poets
Hasty Pudding alumni
Harvard College alumni
People from Beacon Hill, Boston
Occasional poets
Sherlock Holmes

Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.


Vlahlar veya Ulahlar, Kuzey Makedonya'da ve Romanya'da yaşayan bir etnik grup.

Göçebelikleri
Geleneksel uğraşları çobanlık olan ve daha iyi otlak arayışları sonucunda Balkanlar ve Doğu Avrupa'ya ulaşan Ulahlara, bugün kıtanın kuzeyindeki Polonya'da bile rastlamak mümkün. Kır hayatına olan bağlılıkları sayesinde Balkanlarda yüzyıllar boyunca süren etnik çatışmalardan çoğu zaman uzak kalan Ulahlar, bulundukları her yerde çoğunluk nüfusu ile barış içinde bir arada yaşıyor.

Kökenleri
Ulahların kökeninin, kullandıkları dil açısından benzerlik gösterdiği Rumenlerle aynı olduğu söylenmektedir. Yunanlar ise Yunanca konuştuklarını ve Yunan olduklarını iddia etmektedirler. Topluluğun kökeni Balkanlardaki Romalıların ve Romalılaştırılmış kolonilerin soyundan gelmektedir. Rumen kültürü Slavların etkisi altında kalırken, Tuna'nın güneyinde ortaya çıkan Ulah kültüründe Bizans ve Yunan izleri görüldüğü iddia edilmektedir. Tarihçiler bu toplulukları Makedon Rumenleri olarak adlandırırken, onlar Arumenleri kullanmayı tercih ediyorlar.

Dilleri
Dili Arumence de denen Ulahçadır. Bu dil hakkında dilbilimcilerin ortak görüşü, Ulah ve Rumen dillerinin aynı Latince temelli dilden türediği yönünde. Bu dilden türeyen bir diğer dil olan Dalmaçya dili 1898'den beri kullanılmazken İstro-Rumence Hırvatistan'da hâlâ birkaç bin kişi tarafından konuşuluyor. Karadağ'da bulunan Durmitor Dağı gibi, toponimistler de Tuna çevresinde ve dağlık bölgelerde Latince konuşan toplulukların yaşadığını doğruluyor.

Etimoloji
Got dilinden gelen ve orijinal anlamı "yabancı" olan "Ulah" kelimesi daha sonraları "Latin lehçelerini konuşan" anlamında kullanılmaya başlandı. Alman kabileleri, günümüzün Galler halkını oluşturan Romalıları o dönemlerde "Galli" diye adlandırırken, Güney Belçika'daki Romalılara Valonlar denmekteydi. İtalya'nın Macarcadaki karşılığı bugün bile "Ulahlar'ın Ülkesi" anlamına gelen "Olaszország".

Hayat tarzları
Ulahlar yani Karakaçanîler "Kara" ve "kaçan", Türkçe terkipten oluşur. Kara hem "siyah" hem de "kara gözlü"deki anlamıyla "güzel" demektir. "kaçan" Rumeli Türkçesinde çok koşan anlamındadır. Karakaçanlar bazen birbirlerine "Ulah" demektedirler. Bu tarz çağrılmaları Yunanistan'da geneldir. "Valhs" yani Ulahların "Wallachs" Valehlerle arasında alaka yoktur. Karakaçanlar, Yörükler gibi koyun güzerlerdir. Karakaçanlar için göçebe koyunculuk tipik temsil araçlarıdır. Doğa ve doğallık ve mera onlara özgüdür. Mera-gerekçesiyle farklı yerlere - yaz aylarında dağların yüksek yerlerine yani yaylalara ve kışın olduğunda da alçak ve sıcak yerlere göçerler. Koyun ve atların, hayatlarında büyük önemi vardır Karakaçanların. Göçebe ailesidirler.

Koyun gibi bir hayvanın yaşam koşulları, gıda ve güçlü sürü içgüdüsü geliştirdikleri için halk iddiasız, varlık süt, et, yün, gıda, giyim, ev eşyası ihtiyaçlarını temin olduğunu gizlenemez ve için yeri doldurulamaz bir kaynak olmuştu. Atlar onlar için çok önemli bir ulaşım vasıtası olmuştur. Karakaçan koyunu, atı ve köpeği göçebeliğe uygun yaşayan bir yol olmuştur.

Hangi Karakaçanlardan olunursa olunsun hayatlarında en önemli katkı onların göçlerinde kendilerine korunaklı bir çadır olmasıdır. Buna Türkler gibi "chatura" derler. Chatura basit bir ahşap kabuk ve üzerinde keçi yününden özel dokunmuş eğimli, gergin bir çadır olmuştur. Buna "tenda" denir.

Bulgar - Ulah Devleti
Bizans İmparatorluğu bünyesinde birkaç Vlah eyaleti bulunmakla birlikte bunlardan çok azı güçlü devletler kurabildi. Assan hanedanı döneminde (1185-1258) ikinci Bulgar İmparatorluğu ya da Bulgar-Ulah devletinin kurulması Ulahların en büyük başarısı olmuştur. Eflak'ın diğer adı olan Vlahya ismi de "Ulahların Ülkesi" anlamına gelmektedir. Türkiye'de de çok az sayıda Karacaovalı mübadil Vlah topluluğu yaşamaktadır.

Yaşadıkları Yerler

Nüfus
Ulahlar: Yunanistan'da 209.000, Bulgaristan'da 10.556, Kuzey Makedonya'da 9.695, Türkiye'de 500, Toplam Nüfus yaklaşık 229.751 kişidir.

Kaynakça

 Council of Makedon Arman's (aromanians/vlachs)
 Wikipedia on MakedonArman language
 Youth of Europe
 National Minorities of Europe
 Lesser Speak Languages in Europe
 Minorities of Europe
 Listen to radio in Aromanian at the Romanian government supported Radio Romania International - the Aromanian section
 Aromanians in Greece: Minority or Vlach-speaking Greeks?
  Consiliul A Tinirlor Armanj, webpage about Youth Aromanians and their projects
  Aromanian association in Serbia

 http://translate.google.com/translate?prev=hp&hl=tr&js=y&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.karakachani.com%2Fen%2Fistoriqezikkultura.php&sl=en&tl=tr&history_state0=
 http://translate.google.com.tr/translate?hl=tr&sl=en&u=http://www.faqs.org/minorities/Eastern-Europe/Vlachs.html&ei=A4SrSvfsF8uLsAaRzfTdBw&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=8&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dkarakachani%2Blanguage%26hl%3Dtr%26safe%3Doff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:tr:official%26hs%3Dm5Q
 http://www.milisoft.ro/MainPage.php?iditem=296d308fb77e70a73aec14d2d1d28ecc5ea4c25b  (etimoloji)

Yunanistan'daki etnik gruplar
Makedonya'daki etnik gruplar
Eflak

Ulahlar


Sisamnes claviger  je vrsta kukaca polulrilaca u porodici Rhyparochromidae. Živi u Sjevernoj Americi.

Izvori

 Stjenice

Sisamnes claviger


Chibi  es un posiólok del raión de Séverskaya, en el krai de Krasnodar de Rusia. Está situado entre los valles de los ríos Chibi, afluente del Afips, e Ilin, afluente del río Sups, ambos de la cuenca del Kubán, 30 km al sureste de Séverskaya y 40 km al sur de Krasnodar, la capital del krai. Tenía 30 habitantes en 2010.

Pertenece al municipio Kalúzhskoye.

Economía y transporte

Situado en la cordillera Pshaf, es un centro turístico del krai, por la garganta del río Chibi.

Está situado a 7 km de la estación de Kalúzhskaya y a 14 km de la carretera federal M4 Don Moscú-Novorosisk.

Enlaces externos y referencias

 Este artículo contiene datos geográficos extraídos de Google Earth y el mapa de Rusia de Yandex.ru, accesible desde este enlace.
 Este artículo es en parte una traducción de su correspondiente en la edición en ruso de Wikipedia,.
 Sobre la localidad y los alrededores
 La garganta del río Chibi .
 Sitio web sobre la garganta .
 Mapa topográfico en maps.vlasenko.net
  en Panoramio

Localidades del raión de Séverskaya del krai de Krasnodar

Chibi (Krasnodar)


Ana Paula Couto (Jaguarão, 11 de outubro de 1973) é uma jornalista,  telejornalista, mediadora, apresentadora, âncora de telejornais e mestre de cerimônias brasileira.

Biografia
Ana Paula Couto nasceu em Jaguarão, cidade de fronteira no extremo sul do Brasil.

É formada em Jornalismo pela Universidade Católica de Pelotas.

Como jornalista, começou na RBS TV Pelotas em meados dos anos 1990.

Em 1999, se mudou para a capital federal. Em Brasília, de 1999 a 2002, foi repórter e apresentadora do DFTV da TV Globo.

Em 2002, foi transferida para a Globonews, no Rio de Janeiro. Durante sete anos apresentou o Em Cima da Hora, período em que conduziu várias transmissões nacionais e internacionais como o Conclave em 2005, a CPI dos Correios no Brasil que acabou revelando o escândalo do mensalão, a renúncia de Fidel Castro à presidência de Cuba em 2008, a morte de Michael Jackson em 2009, entre tantas outras.

A jornalista também roteirizou e apresentou diversos programas especiais na emissora como Mário Quintana, o Poeta e a Cidade, a Rota dos Vinhos na Serra Gaúcha e Cafés Especiais do Sul de Minas.

Em 2008, foi transferida para a equipe da GloboNews em São Paulo e por oito anos esteve à frente do Edição das 10, jornal compartilhado entre Rio e São Paulo.

Ainda em 2016, depois de sua saída do Grupo Globo, teve uma passagem rápida pela RedeTV!, onde comandou o Sem Rodeios, programa que saiu do ar após apenas 2 meses.

Em 2017, foi contratada pela TV Cultura. No canal paulista, atuou no Repórter Eco, Jornal da Cultura Primeira Edição e Opinião Nacional. De 2019 a 2022, foi âncora do Jornal da Cultura, principal telejornal da emissora.

Em 2021, recebeu o Prêmio Especialistas, da Plataforma Negócios da Comunicação, pela contribuição ao jornalismo de saúde pela sua atuação durante a pandemia de Covid-19.

Paralelamente ao trabalho na televisão, a jornalista atua como Mestre de Cerimônias e Mediadora. Já conduziu eventos e vídeos institucionais para Coca-Cola, Banco Original, Gás Natural, Fundação Teotônio Vilela, NeoGrid, MBC, Prêmio Innovare do poder judiciário, Fundação Getúlio Vargas/ RJ, Sistema S, entre outros.

Em dezembro de 2022 foi anunciada a saída de Ana Paula Couto da TV Cultura.

Trabalhos na televisão
1998 - Jornal do Almoço - RBS TV Pelotas/RS - editora e  apresentadora
1999/2002 - DFTV - TV Globo Brasília/DF repórter e apresentadora
2002/2008 - Em Cima da Hora - GloboNews Rio de Janeiro - apresentadora
2008/2016 - Edição das Dez - GloboNews São Paulo - apresentadora
2016 - Sem Rodeios - Rede TV - apresentadora
2017/2019 - Jornal da Cultura Primeira Edição - TV Cultura São Paulo - apresentadora
2019 - Opinião Nacional - roteirista e entrevistadora
2019/2022 - Jornal da Cultura - TV Cultura - Âncora de telejornal

Ver também
Karyn Bravo

Jornalistas do Brasil
Naturais do Rio Grande do Sul

Ana Paula Couto


Michaela Hohkamp (* 30. Juli 1958 in Waltrop) ist eine deutsche Historikerin.

Michaela Hohkamp studierte Geschichte, Politikwissenschaft, Soziologie und Kunstgeschichte an der Universität Göttingen. Anschließend war sie Mitarbeiterin am Max-Planck-Institut für Geschichte in Göttingen. Sie wurde im Sommersemester 1994 mit einer von Rudolf Vierhaus und Hans Medick betreuten Arbeit über Herrschaft und ländliche Lebenswelten im 18. Jahrhundert promoviert. Seit 1995 war sie Mitarbeiterin und Assistentin am Fachbereich Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften der Freien Universität Berlin. 2006/07 erfolgte die Habilitation und die Verleihung der venia legendi für Neuere Geschichte mit einer Arbeit über die frühneuzeitliche Fürstengesellschaft (15. bis 18. Jahrhundert). Seit Sommersemester 2008 lehrte Hohkamp an der FU Berlin als W2-Professorin für die Geschichte der Frühen Neuzeit/ Historische Anthropologie und Geschlechtergeschichte. Seit dem 1. November 2011 ist sie an der Universität Hannover Inhaberin der Christian-Gottlob-Heyne-Professur (W3) für die Geschichte der Frühen Neuzeit/ Raum und Region.

Hohkamp forscht schwerpunktmäßig über frühneuzeitliche Herrschaft aus kulturwissenschaftlicher Perspektive. Raum, Geschlecht und Verwandtschaft bilden dabei wichtige Referenzpunkte.

Schriften (Auswahl)
Monografien
 Herrschaft in der Herrschaft. Die vorderösterreichische Obervogtei Triberg von 1737 bis 1780 (= Veröffentlichungen des Max-Planck-Instituts für Geschichte. Bd. 142). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-525-35457-6.

Herausgeberschaften
 zusammen mit Claudia Ulbrich: Der Staatsbürger als Spitzel. Denunziation während des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts aus europäischer Perspektive (= Deutsch-Französische Kulturbibliothek. Bd. 19). Leipziger Universitätsverlag, Leipzig 2001, ISBN 3-935693-13-3.
 zusammen mit Gabriele Jancke: Nonne, Königin und Kurtisane. Wissen, Bildung und Gelehrsamkeit von Frauen in der Frühen Neuzeit (Tagung "Wissen – Bildung – Gelehrsamkeit. Gelehrte Frauen in der Frühen Neuzeit?"). Helmer, Königstein/ Taunus 2004, ISBN 3-89741-145-8.

Weblinks

 Seite von Hohkamp an der Universität Hannover

Anmerkungen

Neuzeithistoriker
Hochschullehrer (Freie Universität Berlin)
Hochschullehrer (Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover)
Person (Max-Planck-Institut für Geschichte)
Deutscher
Geboren 1958
Frau

Michaela Hohkamp


Te Atua Mou E este imnul Insulelor Cook. A fost compus de , pe versurile soției acestuia , originară din Insulele Cook.

Imnuri naționale

Te Atua Mou E


Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, også kendt som Star Wars: Episode IX – The Rise of Skywalker, er en amerikansk science fiction-film fra 2019, der er instrueret af J.J. Abrams efter manuskript af ham selv og Chris Terrio. Filmen er den niende spillefilm i Star Wars-sagaen og den tredje film i den tredje trilogi efter Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015) og Star Wars: The Last Jedi (2017).

Filmen handler om Rey, Finn og Poe Dameron, der leder Modstandsbevægelsen i en sidste kamp mod Kylo Ren og Den første orden, der støttes af den tilbagevendte kejser Palpatine. Mange af de medvirkende er de samme som i de to foregående film, herunder Daisy Ridley, Adam Driver, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Kelly Marie Tran, Joonas Suotamo, Billie Lourd, Mark Hamill og Anthony Daniels. Blandt de nye medvirkende er Naomi Ackie, Richard E. Grant og Keri Russell, mens Billy Dee Williams og Ian McDiarmid har medvirket i tidligere film i sagaen. Desuden medvirker den afdøde Carrie Fisher i form af ældre optagelser. Musikken er komponeret af John Williams, der også har komponeret for alle de foregående film i sagaen. Filmen er produceret af Lucasfilm Ltd. og Abrams' produktionsfirma Bad Robot Productions og bliver distribueret af Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.

Filmen blev annonceret efter Disneys overtagelse af Lucasfilm i oktober 2012. De primære optagelse begyndte hos Pinewood Studios nær London 1. august 2018 og blev afsluttet 15. februar 2019. George Lucas havde dog allerede så tidligt som i 1976 afsløret overfor nogle af skuespillerne i Star Wars sine intentioner for en række efterfølgerfilm i Star Wars-sagaen, og i 1980 blev antallet af ni film som grundlaget for den samlede fortælling første gang introduceret i mere konkrete vendinger.

Filmen havde premiere i Los Angeles 16. december 2019. I Danmark havde den premiere 18. december 2019. Filmen fik blandede anmeldelser med ros af skuespil og visuelle effekter men kritik af historien og tendensen til genbrug. Filmen indbragte mere end 1 mia. USD mod et produktionsbudget på 275 mio. USD. Det gjorde den til den hidtil dyreste Star Wars-film og den syvende mest indbringende film fra 2019.

Handling

Hele galaksen hører en meddelelse fra den onde kejser Palpatine, der var ment at være død. Den Første Ordens øverste leder Kylo Ren får fat på en sith-stifinder og bruger den til at finde vej til planeten Exegol. Her møder han den fysisk svækkede Palpatine, der afslører at han skabte Kylo Rens lærermester Snoke som en dukke til at kontrollere Den første orden og lokke Kylo Ren over til den mørke side med. Palpatine afslører en kæmpe flåde af stjernedestroyere og fortæller, at Kylo Ren skal finde og dræbe Rey, men advarer ham om, at hun ikke er den, han tror hun er. Imens får Finn, Poe Dameron og Chewbacca fat på information fra en spion i Den første orden, men de må foretage nogle farefulde hop gennem rummet for at slippe af med de forfølgende TIE-fighters.

Ved Modstandsbevægelsens junglebase er Rey ved at fortsætte sin jedi-træning under general Leia Organa, men det går ikke så godt, som Rey vil. Finn, Poe og Chewbacca kommer tilbage til basen med informationen, der bekræfter at Palpatine er vendt tilbage, og at der vil finde et angreb sted på alle frie verdener om 16 timer. Rey ser efter i Luke Skywalkers jedi-tekster, hvor der er notater om en sith-artefakt, der kan føre dem til Exegol. Rey, Poe, Finn, Chewbacca og de to droider BB-8 og C-3PO tager til planeten Pasaana for at finde en kontakt, som Luke kendte, mens R2-D2 og Maz Kanata bliver tilbage hos Leia i Modstandsbevægelsens junglebase. Hos Den første orden mødes Kylo Ren med generalerne Hux og Pryde og andre ledende officerer. Der er delte meninger om flåden fra Exegol, men Kylo Ren skærer igennem og beordrer dem til at knuse enhver modstand.

På Pasaana støder Reys gruppe på den lokale forfædrefest, men Reys glæde over deres uventede deltagelse i den forsvinder, da Ren kontakter hende gennem kraften. En stormtrooper opdager Rey, men hun og de andre bliver reddet af den gamle oprører Lando Calrissian. Han fortæller dem hvor i ørkenen, artefaktet sidst er set, men på vej derhen må de undslipper et par flyvende stormtroopers. Ude i ørkenen trækker kviksand dem ned i en hule, hvor de opdager skelettet af Lukes kontakt. De støder også på en kæmpe slange, men Rey beroliger den ved at hele dens sår. De finder en daggert med sith-tekst, som C-3PO's programmering forbyder ham at oversætte. De vil så bruge kontaktens skib til at komme væk med, da de ikke komme til deres eget skib, Tusindårsfalken, for Den første orden. Men imens er Kylo Ren kommet til med Knights of Ren, og da Rey sanser ham, går hun ud for at konfrontere ham. Den første orden får fat på både Tusindårsfalken, Chewbacca og daggerten. Rey forsøger at redde Chewbacca men kommer til at ødelægge en af Den første ordens transportskibe ved at skyde lyn med kraften. Gruppen tager væk på kontaktens skib, idet de antager, at Chewbacca blev dræbt i eksplosionen. Ombord på skibet får BB-8 genoplivet den lille droide D-O.

Poe foreslår at de tager til Kijimi, hvor en droide-smed kan få sith-teksten ud af C-3PO's hukommelse. På Kijimi støder de på Zorri Bliss, som Poe har et lidt anstrengt forhold til. Smeden får C-3PO til at afsløre teksten, der viser sig at være koordinater, men det er på bekostning af C-3PO's hukommelse. Rey sanser at Chewbacca er i live, og gruppen sætter ud på en redningsmission. Med hjælp fra Zorri Bliss infiltrerer de Kylo Rens stjernedestroyer, mens han selv leder efter Rey på Kijimi. Poe og Finn skyder sig vej frem og får befriet Chewbacca, men de bliver fanget af general Hux og en gruppe stormtroopers. Imens har Rey og Kylo Ren kontakt gennem kraften. Kylo Ren afslører, at Rey er Palpatines barnebarn, men at han beordrede hende dræbt som barn af frygt for hendes kraft. Rey opdager daggerten og har visioner af en lejemorder, der brugte den til at dræbe hendes forældre med. De tre andre skal henrettes, men Hux skyder henrettelsespelotonen, afslører sig selv som spionen og tillader dem at flygte med Tusindårsfalken. Hux bliver så henrettet for forræderi af general Pryde, der overtager kommandoen over Den første ordens styrker. Palpatine sender en af sine stjernedestroyere ud for at ødelægge Kijimi med sin superkanon.

Gruppen følger koordinaterne til månen Kef Bir i Endor-systemet, hvor de støder på en gruppe deserterede stormtroopers med kvinden Jannah som ordfører. Hun fører dem til et oprørt hav med resterne af den anden dødsstjerne. Med hjælp fra daggerten lykkes det for Rey at finde en anden stifinder ved Palpatines gamle tronsal. Men da hun rører ved stifinderen, får hun en vision af sig selv som en sith. Kylo Ren har imidlertid sporet dem, ødelægger stifinderen og kæmper mod Rey. En døende Leia kalder på Kylo Ren gennem kraften, så han tøver. Rey gennemborer ham, men da hun sanser Leias død, heler hun Kylo Ren. Hun tager så hans skib for at gå i eksil på Ach-To, rystet over sin sith-baggrund. På Ahch-To viser Luke Skywalkers ånd sig og opmuntrer Rey til at konfrontere Palpatine, ligesom han konfronterede sin far Darth Vader. Han giver hende Leias lyssværd og sin gamle X-wing-fighter. Rey tager afsted til Exegol, idet hun bruger stifinderen fra Kylo Rens skib. På Kef Bir har Kylo Ren en samtale med ånden af sin far Han Solo. Kylo Ren smider sit lyssværd væk og vender tilbage til sin oprindelige identitet som Ben Solo.

Gruppen vender tilbage til Modstandsbevægelsens base, hvor de hører om Leias død. Finn og Poe bliver generaler i fællesskab, mens R2-D2 genskaber det meste af C-3PO's hukommelse. Imens har Rey sendt signaler, så Modstandsbevægelsens rumskibe og jagere kan følge efter hende sammen med Jannas folk til Exegol. Her må de ødelægge den sender, der gør det muligt for flåden af stjernedestroyere at tage afsted.

Rey konfronterer Palpatine, der kræver at hun skal dræbe ham og blive den nye kejserinde. Ben kommer til og nedlægger Knights of Ren, mens Rey nedlægger Palpatines vagter. Palpatine styrker sig selv med livskraften fra Rey og Ben og skyder så lyn efter Modstandsbevægelsens skibe med kraften. Ben bliver smidt i en kløft, men en svækket Rey hører stemmerne fra fortidens jedier, der giver hende styrke og opmuntrer hende til at fortsætte. Den rasende Palpatine forsøger at ødelægge Rey med flere lyn, men Rey bruger Luke og Leias to lyssværd til at sende dem tilbage til ham, så han bliver dræbt og disintegrerer. Rey dør af kraften fra angrebet, men den sårede Ben kravler op af kløften og kommer hen til hende, hvor han bruger kraften til at genoplive hende. De deler et kys, før han dør og bliver et med kraften. Imens har Modstandsbevægelsen fået forstærkning af Lando Calrissian, Zorri Bliss og mange andre. Det gør det muligt for dem at ødelægge resten af flåden af stjernedestroyere.

Modstandsbevægelsen og galaksen som sådan fejrer sejren. Maz Kanata giver Chewbacca en medalje, mens Poe og Zorri Bliss veksler nogle blikke. Rey vender tilbage til Modstandsbevægelsen, hvor hun deler et knus med Finn og Poe. Efterfølgende tager hun til Luke Skywalkers barndomshjem på Tatooine. Her begraver hun Luke og Leias lyssværd i sandet, idet hun nu har lavet sit eget. En lokal spørger om hendes navn, og mens Luke og Leias ånder ser til, præsenterer hun sig som Rey Skywalker. Til sidst ser hun og BB-8 på Tatooines tvillingsole.

Medvirkende

 Daisy Ridley som Rey, en tidligere klunser fra ørkenplaneten Jakku og den sidste jedi trænet af Luke Skywalker. Hun viser sig at være barnebarn af Palpatine, som hendes forældre forsøgte at beskytte hende imod. Det giver anledning til indre konflikter hos hende, men hun modstår den mørke sides fristelser og ender i stedet med at tage efternavnet Skywalker.
 Adam Driver som Kylo Ren, den øverste leder af Den første orden efter at have dræbt sin lærermester Snoke. Han er søn af Han Solo og Leia Organa og hed oprindeligt Ben Solo. Han er desuden mester i Knights of Ren.
 John Boyega som Finn, en deserteret stormtrooper fra Den første orden, der nu er med i Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Oscar Isaac som Poe Dameron, en dygtig og højtrangerende X-wing-pilot i Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Lupita Nyong'o som Maz Kanata, en pirat og allieret af Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Domhnall Gleeson som General Armitage Hux, næstkommanderende i Den første orden og rival til Kylo Ren.
 Kelly Marie Tran som Rose Tico, en mekaniker i Modstandsbevægelsen og ven af Finn.
 Joonas Suotamo som Chewbacca, en wookiee og andenpilot på Tusindårsfalken. Den oprindelige Chewbacca-skuespiller Peter Mayhew døde, mens efterproduktionen af filmen fandt sted. Filmen er dedikeret til minde om ham.
 Billie Lourd som Løjtnant Connix, en officer i Modstandsbevægelsen og allieret af Poe Dameron. Lourd spillede desuden hendes mor Carrie Fishers rolle Leia Organa i et flashback.
 Mark Hamill som Luke Skywalker, en nu afdød jedimester og bror til Leia Organa, der nu er blevet et med Kraften.
Mark Hamill lægger desuden stemme til rumvæseet Boolio.
 Carrie Fisher som Leia Organa, tidligere prinsesse af Alderaan, nu leder af Modstandsbevægelsen og mor til Kylo Ren.
Fisher døde i 2016 men optræder her i form af ubenyttede optagelser fra Star Wars: The Force Awakens. I et flashback blev der desuden inddraget en ubenyttet optagelse fra Star Wars Episode VI: Jediridderen vender tilbage fra 1983.
 Billy Dee Williams som Lando Calrissian, en gammel ven af Han Solo og Leia Organa og veteran fra oprørsbevægelsen.
Williams spillede tidligere rollen i Star Wars Episode V: Imperiet slår igen (1980) og Star Wars Episode VI: Jediridderen vender tilbage (1983).
 Anthony Daniels som C-3PO, en protokoldroide i Leia Organas tjeneste.
Daniels er den eneste skuespiller, der har medvirket i alle ni film i sagaen.
 Hassan Taj og Lee Towersey som R2-D2, en droide. De afløste Jimmy Vee, der havde spillet rollen i Star War: The Last Jedi.
 Dave Chapman og Brian Herring som dukkeførere for BB-8, en droide.
 Greg Grunberg som Snap Vexley, en pilot i Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Naomi Ackie som Jannah, den deserterede stormtrooper TZ-1719 som Rey, Finn og Poe Dameron møder på Kef Bir, og som hjælper dem.
 Richard E. Grant som General Enric Pryde, en højtrangerende officer i Den første orden, der tidligere tjente Palpatine i det galaktiske imperium.
 Keri Russell som Zorri Bliss, en kriminel og gammel ven af Poe.
 Ian McDiarmid som Sheev Palpatine / Darth Sidious, den tidligere kejser af Det Galaktiske Imperium, som var antaget for død i Star Wars Episode VI: Jediridderen vender tilbage. Han viser sig at være Reys farfar.
 Dominic Monaghan som Beaumont Kin, en soldat i Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Denis Lawson som Wedge Antilles, en veteran fra oprørsbevægelsen.
 Jeff Garlin som et medlem af Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Kevin Smith som en indbygger på Kimiji.
 Jodie Comer som Reys mor i et flashback.
 Billy Howle som Reys far i et flashback.
 Cailey Fleming og Josefine Irrera Jackson som Rey som barn.
 Harrison Ford som Han Solos ånd. Figuren døde i Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
 Lin-Manuel Miranda som et medlem af Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Shirley Henderson som droide-smeden Babu Friks stemme.
 Warwick Davis som Wicket W. Warrick, en ewok.
 Harrison Davis som Pommet Warrick, Wicket W. Warricks søn.
 Amanda Lawrence som Larma D'Acy, en leder i Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Vinette Robinson som Wrobie Tyce, en pilot i Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Tom Wilton som Aftab Ackbar, en oberst i Modstandsbevægelsen og søn af den afdøde Admiral Ackbar.
 Martin Wilde, Anton Simpson-Tidy, Lukaz Leong, Tom Rodgers, Joe Kennard og Ashley Beck som Knights of Ren.
 Nick Kellington som Klaud, et sneglelignende rumvæsen der er allieret med Modstandsbevægelsen.
 Mike Quinn som Nien Nunb.
 Kipsang Rotich som Nien Nunbs stemme.

Derudover er der stemmer fra fortidens jedier med Ewan McGregor som Obi-Wan Kenobi, Hayden Christensen som Anakin Skywalker, Samuel L. Jackson som Mace Windu, Liam Neeson som Qui-Gon Jin, Frank Oz som Yoda, Ashley Eckstein som Ahsoka Tano Jennifer Hale som Aayla Secura, Angelique Perrin som Adi Gallia, Olivia D'Abo som Luminara Unduli og Freddie Prinze Jr. som Kanan Jarrus. På samme måde lægger Andy Serkis stemme til Snoke og James Earl Jones til Darth Vader. Manuskriptforfatteren Chris Terrio lægger stemme til Aftab Ackbar. Filmens instruktør J.J. Abrams lægger stemme til droiden D-O, der bliver ven med droiden BB-8 Komponisten John Williams har en cameo som Oma Tres, en bartender på Kijimi. Ed Sheeran, Karl Urban, Dhani Harrison, Nigel Godrich, J.D. Dillard og Dave Hearn har cameos som stormtroopers.

Produktion

I oktober 2012 solgte skaberen af Star Wars, George Lucas, sit produktionsfirma Lucasfilm og med det Star Wars-franchiset til The Walt Disney Company. Efterfølgende annoncerede Disney en ny trilogi af Star Wars-film. Den første film i den nye trilogi, Star Wars: The Force Awakens, der blev instrueret af J.J. Abrams, havde premiere 14. december 2015. Den anden film, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, der blev instrueret af Rian Johnson, havde premiere 15. december 2017.

I juni 2014 blev det annonceret, at Rian Johnson skulle skrive et oplæg til den tredje og sidste film i trilogien, Episode IX, men senere oplyste han, at han alligevel ikke var involveret i arbejdet med at skrive filmen. I august 2015 blev det annonceret, at Colin Trevorrow skulle instruere filmen. Trevorrow skulle desuden skrive manuskriptet sammen med Derek Connolly. Trevorrow og Connollys manuskript med arbejdstitlen Star Wars: Duel of the Fates omfattede flere elementer, der kom med i den færdige film. For eksempel at Kylo Ren finder en sith-stifinder i Darth Vaders fort på Mustafar, overførelsen af kraft-energi, en stjernedestroyer med en superlaser, Lando der leder en flåde af rumskibe til at redde dagen med og Chewbacca, der får en medalje.

10. februar 2016 bekræftede Disneys administrerende direktør Bob Iger, at førproduktionen på Episode IX var gået i gang. Fotografen John Schwartzman planlagde at benytte 65 mm-film. I august 2017 blev det annonceret, at Jack Thorne ville omskrive manuskriptet. 5. september 2017 annoncerede Lucasfilm så, at Trevorrow fratrådte som instruktør af filmen som følge af kreative uoverensstemmelser. Det blev rapporteret, at det professionelle samarbejde mellem Trevorrow og Kennedy var blevet uholdbart, efter at Trevorrow ikke havde kunnet levere et tilfredsstillende manuskript trods flere udkast. En uge efter blev det så annonceret, at J.J. Abrams ville vende tilbage som instruktør. Historieholdet mødtes med George Lucas, før de gik i gang med det nye manuskript, der blev skrevet af Abrams og Chris Terrio. Trevorrow og Connolly blev dog også krediteret for historien. Historien endte imidlertid med at blive omskrevet i et vist omfang før afslutningen på optagelserne. Filmen blev produceret af Abrams' firma Bad Robot Productions, Kathleen Kennedy og Michelle Rejwan.

Før optagelserne gik i gang, havde filmen arbejdstitlen Black Diamond, men det blev ændret til Trixie i 2018, så romertallet IX for 9 kom til at indgå i arbejdstitlen. Den endelige titel, Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, blev annonceret ved Star Wars Celebration Chicago 12. april 2019.

Casting

Før castingen begyndte for alvor, opstod der et særligt problem, da Carrie Fisher, der spillede Leia Organa i de foregående film, døde 27. december 2016. Ifølge pressen skulle hun ellers have haft en central rolle i Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker. Noget der senere blev bekræftet af hendes bror Todd Fisher: "Hun skulle være den store belønning i den sidste film. Hun skulle være den sidste jedi, så at sige."

Umiddelbart oplyste Lucasfilm, Disney og andre der var involverede i filmen ikke noget om, hvordan de ville håndtere Carrie Fishers død, og hvad der ville blive af hendes figur i filmen. I januar 2017 fastslog Lucasfilm imidlertid, at man ikke ville genskabe hende digitalt, sådan som man lige havde gjort det i Rogue One: A Star Wars Story i 2016. I april 2017 oplyste Todd Fisher, at han og Carrie Fishers datter Billie Lourd havde givet Disney og Lucasfilm ret til at bruge nyere optagelser af den afdøde skuespiller i Star Wars: Episode IX. En uge efter oplyste producenten Kathleen Kennedy dog, at Fisher ikke ville komme til at medvirke i filmen. Men i juli 2018 annoncerede Abrams, at der alligevel ville blive benyttet ubenyttede optagelser af Carrie Fisher fra Star Wars: The Force Awakens til at hjælpe med at gøre historien komplet. En uge senere kom det frem, at der også ville blive benyttet ubenyttede optagelser af hende fra Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Todd Fisher udtalte senere: "Der er mange minutters optagelser. Jeg mener ikke bare fraklip. Det er nyt ubenyttet indhold, der kunne væves ind i historien. (…) Det kommer til at se ud, som det skal være. Som om det var blevet optaget i går."

Da det kom til stykket, blev der dog kun benyttet optagelser fra Star Wars: The Force Awakens. J.J. Abrams udtalte: "Vi brugte kun optagelser fra Force Awakens, for der var ikke rigtig noget fra Last Jedi, der ikke var blevet benyttet i den film. Vi havde, tror jeg, fem eller seks dele, scener som Carrie havde spillet, som vi ikke havde benyttet i filmen. Så det var nemt at finde de dele og identificere dem og vælge optagelser og se på dem og se hvad vi havde. Så handlede det om at flytte rundt på de scener og skrive alt omkring dem. Så skød vi de dele, tilpassede alt omkring Carrie, så vi brugte aldrig en form for digital Carrie, vi brugte altid hende i hendes optræden."

I december 2017 var det blevet bekræftet, at Adam Driver ville vende tilbage i rollen som Kylo Ren, Daisy Ridley som Rey, John Boyega som Finn og Oscar Isaac som Poe Dameron. I juli 2018 var der samtaler i gang med Keri Russell om deltagelse i nogle kampscener i filmen. Desuden blev det bekræftet, at Billy Dee Williams ville vende tilbage som i sin gamle rolle som Lando Calrissian. I slutningen af måneden blev rollelisten så offentliggjort med Russell på listen sammen med en række gamle og enkelte nye medvirkende. I slutningen af august blev Dominic Monaghan og Matt Smith angiveligt valgt til ikke nærmere angivne roller, men i 2019 benægtede Smith, at han skulle være med i filmen. Efterfølgende forklarede han, at han havde været involveret i samtaler om en del, der ikke blev til noget. Greg Grunberg gentog sin rolle som Temmin "Snap" Wexley.

Ved Star Wars Celebration Chicago i april 2019 blev det afsløret, at Ian McDiarmid ville gentage sin rolle som Palpatine. Da Star Wars Celebration fandt sted, efter at de primære optagelser var afsluttet, kunne Abrams glæde sig over, at nyheden om McDiarmids medvirken aldrig var blevet lækket. Kathleen Kennedy forklarede senere, at årsagen til at de besluttede at afsløre Palpatines tilbagevenden før filmens premiere var at "mange af de figurer, der spiller en væsentlig rolle i historien, kender fansene. De ved ikke, hvordan den her historie vil udfolde sig, men de ved, hvem de er. Det er ikke som Baby Yoda, den overraskende populære figur fra The Mandalorian".

Optagelser
De primære optagelser begyndte hos Pinewood Studios nær London 1. august 2018. Der fandt også optagelser sted i Wadi Rum i Jordan. Ifølge Oscar Isaac havde Abrams fået lov til at improvisere mere med skuespillet end i de to foregående film. På grund af et stramt program fandt noget af redigeringen sted i forbindelse med optagelserne. Anthony Daniels afsluttede optagelserne til sin rolle som C-3PO 28. januar 2019. De primære optagelser blev afsluttet 15. februar 2019. I juli 2019 deltog Hamill, Ridley og Isaac i genoptagelser i London. Yderligere genoptagelser fandt sted hos Bad Robot Productions fra slutningen af september til midten af oktober 2019.

Efterproduktion
De visuelle effekter bliver leveret af Industrial Light & Magic med Roger Guyett som supervisor. 25. november 2019 oplyste Abrams i et interview med Good Morning America, at efterproduktionen var blevet afsluttet dagen før. Han indrømmede også, at en skuespiller havde efterladt et eksemplar af filmmanuskriptet på sit hotelværelse, hvorefter manuskriptet var blevet sat til salg på eBay. En ansat hos Disney havde identificeret det som autentisk og købt det af sælgeren for et ikke angivet beløb. To dage efter sagde Boyega på samme program, at det var hans manuskript, som han havde glemt under sin seng, da han flyttede. En rengøringsassistent havde så fundet manuskriptet og sat det til salg for omkring 65 britiske pund.

Musik
Ved Star Wars Celebration Europe i juli 2013 annoncerede Kennedy, at John Williams, der havde komponeret musikken til de øvrige film i sagaen, også ville gøre det for den nye trilogi. 10. januar 2018 blev det bekræftet, at Williams både ville komponere og dirigere musikken til Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker. Måneden efter oplyste Williams, at det ville blive den sidste Star Wars-film, han kom til at komponere for. I august 2019 kom det frem, at Williams havde skrevet ca. 35 ud af forventet 135 minutter for filmen. Ifølge Williams' bror Don ville den indeholde alle de vigtige temaer fra Star Wars-sagaen. Optagelserne begyndte i juli 2019 med Williams og William Ross som dirigenter og fandt sted i løbet af seks måneder. Walt Disney Records udgav det officielle soundtrack 20. december 2019.

Markedsføring

Abrams kom ikke med detaljer om filmen til at begynde med, men han håbede, at publikum ville blive tilfredse. Ved Star Wars Celebration Chicago ledte han imidlertid en paneldiskussion 12. april 2019, hvor han afslørede den første trailer for filmen, titlen og nye billeder. Traileren blev vist 111 mio. gange det første døgn efter offentliggørelsen, hvilket var 20 mio. mere end den første trailer for Star Wars: The Last Jedi og mere end dobbelt så meget end for Star Wars: The Force Awakens

4. maj 2019 (Star Wars Day) blev der annonceret en række udgivelser som del af kampagnen "Journey to Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker". Den omfattede romanen Resistance Reborn, der foregår mellem Star Wars: The Last Jedi og Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, og forskellige andre titler. Desuden blev det nye temaområde Star Wars: Galaxy's Edge i Disneyland placeret tidsmæssigt mellem Star Wars: The Last Jedi og Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker. Den første plakat for filmen og en hurtig video blev offentliggjort ved D23 Expo i Anaheim i Californien 24. august 2019. Videoen omfattede en montage med Star Wars-sagaen hidtil og flere nye optagelser fra filmen. Den endelige trailer blev offentliggjort på afdøde Carrie Fishers fødselsdag 21. oktober under Monday Night Football.

I december 2019 blev der udgivet forskellige ekstra ting til videospillet Fortnite Battle Royale i form af figurskin for Rey, Finn, Kylo Ren, Zorii Bliss og en Sith Trooper, et TIE Fighter glider skin, en Tusindårsfalken glider, fire emotes og to bannere. 14. december 2019 blev en smagsprøve på filmen vist i en biograf i spillet Fortnite som en live-begivenhed. Til sidst hørtes en meddelelse fra Palpatine , som den der nævnes i filmens indledende rulletekster.

I forbindelse med at filmen havde premiere i USA som sådan, 20. december 2019, blev der offentliggjort en trailer for det kommende videospil Lego Star Wars: The Skywalker Saga.

Premiere
Det var oprindeligt meningen, at filmen skulle have haft premiere i USA 24. maj 2019, men den blev udskudt til december 2019. Her fik filmen så verdenspremiere i TCL Chinese Theatre i Los Angeles 16. december 2019, og fik det efterfølgende i blandt andet Danmark 18. december 2019, i Storbritannien 19. december 2019 og i USA som sådan 20. december 2019. I modsætning til de fleste andre film afholdt Disney ikke prøvevisninger for Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker men viste den kun for Abram' venner og familie samt en dødeligt syg fan.

En scene til sidst i filmen, hvor to kvindelige medlemmer af Modstandsbevægelsen kysser, blev klippet ud i Dubai og Singapore.

Udgivelser
Filmen skulle have været udgivet på Digital HD 17. marts 2020, men den blev fremskyndet med fire dage som følge af den aktuelle coronaviruspandemi Filmen blev desuden udgivet som dvd, Blu-ray og 4K Ultra HD af Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment 31. marts 2020. Samme dag blev der udgivet en 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray-boks med alle ni film i Star Wars-sagaen. Derudover blev filmen tilgængelig på Disney+ 4. maj 2020.

En roman baseret på filmen skrevet af Rae Carson blev udgivet fysisk og som lydbog 19. marts 2020. Den forklarer Palpatines tilbagevenden med, at han overførte sin bevidsthed til en klon efter sin død i Star Wars Episode VI: Jediridderen vender tilbage. Desuden fortælles at Reys far var en fejlslagen klon af Palpatine, som imidlertid havde ladet ham leve. En junior-roman og en tilsvarende lydbog af Michael Kogge blev udgivet 21. april 2020. Marvel Comics udgav desuden tegneserien The Rise of Kylo Ren fra 18. december 2019 til 11. marts 2020. Serien, der blev skrevet af Charles Soule og illustreret af Will Sliney, handler om hvordan Ben Solo blev til Kylo Ren og udbygger hans baggrundshistorie. Marvel Comics annoncerde også en tegneserie i fem dele baseret på filmen, der skulle have været udgivet fra juni 2020. Den endte imidlertid med at blive droppet. Til gengæld udgav IDW Publishing en anden tegneserie baseret på filmen i 2021.

Modtagelse

Billetsalg
Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker indbragte 515,2 mio. USD i USA og Canada og 558,9 mio. USD i resten af verdenen, i alt 1.074 mio. USD. Det gjorde den til den syvende mest indbringende film fra 2019. Deadline Hollywood anslog nettoprofitten til at være på 300 mio. USD, når der var taget højde for alle udgifter.

Billetsalget begyndte 21. oktober 2019, og i løbet af den første time solgte filmen flere billetter på Atom Tickets end den hidtidige rekordholder, Avengers: Endgame. Førstedagens salg endte med at blive det næstbedste hidtil på Atom Tickets, kun overgået af Avengers: Endgame og samtidig mere end dobbelt så meget som Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Fandango oplyste, at den havde overgået alle Star Wars-film hidtil. De første bud på indtægter lød, at filmen ville indbringe enten ca. 175 mio. USD eller ca. 205 mio. USD i åbningsweekenden i USA og Canada. Den første dag indbragte filmen 89,6 mio. USD, heraf 40 mio. USD fra visninger natten mellem 19. og 20. december 2019, det sjette højeste hidtil. I alt blev det til 177,4 mio. USD i åbningsweekenden, det tredje bedste for december og det 12. bedste hidtil. Deadline Hollywood bemærkede dog, at de mindre positive reaktioner på filmen kunne påvirke billetsalget senere hen. Cathleen Taff, leder af Disneys globale distribution, omtalte åbningen som en flot start, og at de var spændte på at se det passionerede publikum dukke op til de elskede film. Juledag indbragte filmen 32 mio. USD, det næstbedste for denne dag siden Star Wars: The Force Awakens med 49,3 mio. USD i 2015. De fem dage i julen gav i alt 138,8 mio. USD, heraf 76 mio. USD fra den anden weekend. I den tredje weekend indbragte filmen 34,5 mio. USD, hvilket sikrede den en fortsat førsteplads. I den fjerde weekend blev den dog overgået af den nye film 1917.

På verdensplan forventedes filmen at indbringe ca. 450 mio. USD, herunder 250 mio. USD fra 52 lande udover USA og Canada. På den første dag den blev vist internationalt i 46 lande indbragte den 59,1 mio. USD. De største indtægter kom fra Storbritannien (8,3 mio. USD), Tyskland (7,2 mio. USD), Frankrig (5,3 mio. USD) og Australien (4,3 mio. USD). I Kina måtte den derimod nøjes med 1,6 mio. USD på den første dag. Åbningsweekenden resulterede sammenlagt i 198 mio. USD fra lande udover USA og Canada og med dem 373,5 mio. USD. Det var mindre end forventet og 47 % under Star Wars: The Last Jedi. De største indtægter i åbningsweekenden kom fra Storbritannien (26,8 mio. USD), Tyskland (21,8 mio. USD), Frankrig (15,2 mio. USD), Australien (12,6 mio. USD) og Kina (12,1 mio. USD).

Kritik
Hjemmesiden Rotten Tomatoes samlede 511 anmeldelser og bedømte 52 % af dem til at være positive med en gennemsnitlig bedømmelse på 6,1/10. Hjemmesidens konsensus lød: "Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker plages af en frustrerende mangel på fantasi men fuldender den elskede saga med fan-fokuseret hengivenhed." Vurderingen var den hidtil laveste for en Star Wars-spillefilm. Hos Metacritic fik filmen et vægtet bedømmelse på 53 ud af 100 point baseret på 60 anmeldelser, hvilket indikerede jævn eller blandet kritik.

Richard Roeper fra Chicago Sun-Times gav filmen tre ud af fire stjerner med ordene "The Rise of Skywalker kommer sjældent tæt på storhed, men den er en solid, visuelt blændende varmhjertet sejr for Kraften i kvalitetsfilm." Owen Gleiberman fra Variety roste filmen for at være "den mest elegante, følelsesmæssigt rundede og tilfredsstillende Star Wars-eventyr siden storhedstiden med Et nyt håb og Imperiet slår igen" men tilføjede at med de senere film, var baren ikke sat så høj. Michael Phillips fra Chicago Tribune skrev at "The Rise of Skywalker gør sit job. Den samler op på den trio af trilogier, der begyndte i 1977, på en sikker, beroligende forudsigelig måde, gørende alt hvad der er filmisk muligt for at undgå at tirre bjørnen, også kendt som den traditionsbundne del af Star Wars-fansene."

Todd McCarthy fra The Hollywood Reporter roste de visuelle effekter men kritiserede historiefortællingen og skrev at "Et plot som det med så mange figurer, steder og historiedynamikker kan være forvirrende af natur; så nådesløs er ophobningen af hændelser, at på et tidspunkt kan man tillade sig at undersøge, hvad der egentlig foregår på et givent tidspunkt og hvorfor, i stedet for bare at følge med på turen." A.A. Dowd fra The A.V. Club gav filmen en karakter på C+ og skrev at filmen "er så fyldt med forpligtelser, at den næsten segner under vægten, svagt smilende mens den forsøger at gengive en mere elegant tidsalder." Nicholas Barber fra BBC skrev at "filmen er vel spillet, den ser så godt ud, at der må være en fantastisk tilhørende bog med konceptkunst, og den har en positiv besked om aldrig at opgive håbet. Men den primære følelse den giver tilskueren er en fornyet respekt for Lucas' fantasi. The Rise of Skywalker er blevet skabt med kærlighed af gruppe talentfulde folk, men alligevel er det bedste de kan gøre at betale tribut til alt det, han gjorde for flere årtier siden."

Scott Mendelson fra Forbes beskrev filmen som "om muligt værre end nogen Star Wars-episode hidtil." Den afslutter et legendarisk franchise med et bump, mens den nægter den nye trilogi dens kunstneriske grund til at eksistere. Justin Chang fra Los Angeles Times følte at filmen "åndeligt tilbyder sig som en Last Jedi-rettelse, en tilbagevenden til grundlæggende historiefortælling, en næsten 2½ time udtog af alt det, der fik dig til at elske Star Wars til at begynde med." Mick LaSalle fra San Francisco Chronicle skrev: "I omkring 75 % af dens spilletid er The Rise of Skywalker en skuffelse. Men til trods for alle filmens fejl, er det sandsynligt, at de fleste folk vil overveje The Rise of Skywalker og acceptere handlen: bliv gennem jævne 110 minutter for at komme til et stærk halv time."

Nogle kritikere bemærkede, at Kelly Marie Tran havde en meget mindre rolle i filmen end hendes debut i Star Wars: The Last Jedi, og tolkede det som en indrømmelse til de fans, der ikke brød sig om hendes rolle. Tran havde været et offer for digital mobning efter premieren på Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Manuskriptforfatteren Chris Terrio forklarede dog Trans begrænsede medvirken med problemer med at inkludere den afdøde Carrie Fisher i scener i filmen.

Præmieringer
Filmen blev nomineret til en række priser, blandt andet 12 Saturn Awards. Ved uddelingen 26. oktober 2021 fik den fem priser for bedste science fiction-film, bedste instruktør, bedste musik, bedste make-up og bedste special effects. Casting Society of America tildelte filmen The Zeitgeist Award 30. januar 2020. Visual Effects Society gav filmen en pris for bemærkelsesværdige effekter 29. januar 2020.

Noter

Eksterne henvisninger

 Star Wars: Episode IX The Rise of Skywalker på Wookieepedia

The Rise of Skywalker
Amerikanske film fra 2019
Engelsksprogede film

Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker


Bayers ist eine Ortschaft und eine Commune déléguée in der Gemeinde Aunac-sur-Charente mit 117 Einwohnern (Stand 1. Januar 2017) im Département Charente in der Region Nouvelle-Aquitaine.

Die Gemeinde Bayers wurde am 1. Januar 2017 mit Aunac und Chenommet zur Commune nouvelle Aunac-sur-Charente zusammengeschlossen. Die Gemeinde Bayers gehörte zum Arrondissement Confolens und zum Kanton Boixe-et-Manslois.

Nachbargemeinden von Bayers waren Chenon im Norden, Chenommet im Nordosten, Aunac im Osten, Moutonneau im Süden, Fontenille im Südwesten und Lonnes im Westen.

Bevölkerungsentwicklung

Sehenswürdigkeiten
 Schloss Bayers (1434, seit 2004 Monument historique)
 Kirche Notre-Dame (um 1600, die ehemalige Schlosskapelle)
 Mühle

Weblinks

Ort in Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Commune déléguée im Département Charente
Gemeindeauflösung 2017
Aunac-sur-Charente
Ort an der Charente

Bayers


Catherine Elisabeth de Brunswick-Lunebourg, née en 1385 et morte en 1423, est une duchesse de Schleswig et comtesse d'Holstein-Rendsburg. Elle a été la régente de quelque fiefs durant le règne de son fils Henri de 1404 à 1415.

Biographie
Elle est la fille de Magnus II, Duc de Brunswick-Lüneburg et de Catherine d'Anhalt-Bernbourg, fille de Bernhard III Prince d'Anhalt-Bernburg. Par la lignée de sa mère, elle est aussi l'arrière-arrière petite fille du roi Abel de Danemark. Plus tard elle deviendra la grand-mère de Christian Ier de Danemark.

En réalité, Catherine Elisabeth était juste appeler Catherine bien qu'elle soit mentionnée en tant qu'Elisabeth dans les anciens ouvrages, mais cela est dû à une confusion avec sa petite sœur, qui s'appelait Elisabeth. Au , il était assez rare d'avoir un nom composé comme « Catherine Elisabeth » pour éviter cette confusion, cependant, elle était parfois mentionnée avec les deux noms.

Catherine Elisabeth est fiancée en 1390 puis se marie en 1395 avec Gérard VI de Holstein.

Régence
En 1404, Catherine Elisabeth devient veuve pendant que son fils, successeur légitime de son père est encore mineure. Elle devient donc régente, mais fut forcée de céder à son ancien beau-frère, l'évêque Henri d'Osnabrück (qui deviendra Henri III de Holstein-Rendsbourg à la suite de cette acquisition), la régence tutélaire du duché de Schleswig ainsi que la garde de son fils, le duc Henri à Marguerite Ire (reine de Danemark) et au roi Erik ; son fils le duc Henri, est emmené au Danemark, et sa fille Ingeborg est envoyée par la reine Marguerite à l'abbaye de Vadstena en Suède. Au cours des années suivantes, la reine Marguerite acquiert de grandes parties du Schleswig à titre de garantie (le fief de Tønder, Frisland, manoirs épiscopaux de Schwabstedt et Stubbe) et par achat (Trøjborg, Skinkelborg et Grödersby) ; le roi Erik reprend le fief de Haderslev à titre de garantie à la propriétaire du fief Helene Ahlefeldt, et la reine, Flensborg.

Cependant, en 1408, alors que Gottorp est sur le point d'être repris par la couronne danoise, Catherine Elisabeth rappelle son fils Henri du Danemark et fait envoyer une déclaration d'hostilité au roi Erik le . Il en résulte un certain nombre de querelles, une instabilité et la mise en gage de plusieurs fiefs. Ses propres terres en douaire, Als, Ærø et Sundeved, sont prises par le roi Erik. Plusieurs princes étrangers, dont son frère Henri Ier de Brunswick, tentèrent d'intervenir et de servir de médiateur, mais sans paix durable.

Vie ultérieure
En 1415, son fils Henri est déclaré majeur, le règne de Catherine Elisabeth prend fin et elle n'est plus guère mentionnée dans les documents. En 1417, elle est présente à Rendsburg aux côtés de son fils lorsque le roi Erik prend le Schleswig et qu'Henri est contraint de demander de l'aide à Hambourg. En 1423, ses fils déposent une plainte selon laquelle leur mère a été agressée par les soldats royaux malgré la promesse qu'elle devait rester en dehors du conflit : son carrosse a été attaqué et son personnel masculin a été agressé et capturé. C'est la dernière fois qu'elle est mentionnée.

Descendants
Catherine Elisabeth a eu trois fils et deux filles :
 Ingeborg de Holstein (1396–1465), Abbesse de l'abbaye de Vadstena 1447-1452 et 1457–1465
 Henri IV de Holstein-Rendsbourg (1397–1427)
 Helvig de Schauenbourg (1398–1436)
 Adolphe VIII de Holstein (1401–1459)
 Gérard VII de Holstein-Rendsbourg (1404–1433)

Notes et références

Liens externes

 Dansk biografisk Lexikon / IV. Bind. Clemens - Eynden (en Danois )
 Stammtafeln zur geschichte der Europäischen Staaten (Europäische Stammtafeln) band I (die deutschen Staaten) av W. K. Prinz von Isenburg (Marburg, 1960), tafel 87 (die Grafen von Holstein und Herzogs von Schleswig aus Schauenburger Geschlecht) och tafel 69 (die Herzoge von Braunschweig-Göttingen)

Naissance en 1385
Décès en 1423
Personnalité allemande du XIVe siècle
Personnalité allemande du XVe siècle
Pages avec des traductions non relues