La batalla de Ambon (30 de enero de 1942 – 3 de febrero de 1942) tuvo lugar en la isla de Ambon en las Indias Orientales Neerlandesas durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Una fuerza de invasión japonesa fue contenida por fuerzas australianas y neerlandesas, que finalmente se rindieron al ser acorralados y superados en número. La posterior masacre de soldados aliados capturados por los japoneses es considerada un crimen de guerra.

Antecedentes
En 1941, a medida que los aliados percibían la posibilidad de una guerra contra Japón, Ambon fue considerado como un punto estratégico debido a su potencial para ser una importante base aérea. El gobierno australiano y sus comandantes militares vieron que podía ser utilizada para bombardeos en el norte de Australia y decidieron reforzar a las fuerzas neerlandesas en la isla.

Geografía
Ambon se encuentra ubicada en las Islas Molucas, justo al sur de la isla de Seram. Ambon tiene forma de lo que puede ser descrito como un "número ocho" o un "reloj de arena", y consiste de dos penínsulas separadas por un estrecho istmo, con estrechas bahías en cada lado del istmo. El aeropuerto clave de Laha está ubicado al oeste de la península de Hitu, en la parte norte de la isla, frente a la bahía de Ambon. El pueblo de Ambon se encuentra al lado opuesto de la bahía, en la parte sur de la isla, en la península Laitimor.

Fuerzas

Aliados
Al comienzo de la guerra, el 8 de diciembre, la Molukken Brigade del Real Ejército Neerlandés de las Indias Orientales (KNIL) tenía una guarnición en Ambon con unos 2.800 hombres, comandados por el Teniente Coronel Joseph Kapitz y consistía en tropas coloniales de Indonesia, bajo el mando de oficiales europeos. La guarnición estaba pobremente entrenada y equipada, en parte debido a la derrota de los Países Bajos en Europa y su ocupación por parte de la Alemania nazi. Las unidades del KNIL no estaban equipadas con radios y dependían de las líneas de comunicación terrestres y mensajes escritos para sus comunicaciones. El grupo también incluía 300 reservistas que no habían completado su entrenamiento.

La Fuerza Gaviota, un refuerzo enviado por el ejército australiano de 1.100 hombres y comandada por el Teniente Coronel Leonard Roach, llegó a la isla el 17 de diciembre. La fuerza consistía del 2/21º Batallón de Infantería de la 8.ª División, al igual que algunas piezas de artillería y unidades de apoyo de la División. Kapitz fue nombrado como el comandante aliado en Ambon. Roach había visitado la isla antes de que se desplegara la Fuerza Gull, y pidió que se enviasen más ametralladoras y piezas de artillería desde Australia.

El 6 de enero, luego de que los territorios neerlandeses y británicos del norte hubiesen sido capturados por Japón, Ambon fue atacado por aviones japoneses. Roach se quejó por la falta de respuestas a sus sugerencias, y a consecuencia de esto fue reemplazado por el Teniente Coronel John Scott el 14 de enero.

El cuartel de Kapitz se encontraba en Halong, entre Paso y el pueblo de Ambon. Incluía cuatro automóviles blindados, un destacamento de ametralladoras antiaéreas y cuatro baterías de cañones antiaéreos Bofors 40 mm. Con la creencia de que el terreno de la costa sur de Laitimor era muy inhóspito para desembarcos y de que cualquier ataque era más probable que viniese desde este, por la Bahía de Baguala, las fuerzas del KNIL se concentraron en Paso, cerca del istmo, bajo el mando del Mayor H.H.L. Tieland. Había pequeños destacamentos del KNIL en posibles lugares de desembarco al norte de Hitu.

Dos compañías del 2/21º Batallón y 300 soldados holandeses se encontraban en la pista de Laha, bajo el comando del Mayor Mark Newbury. Estaban acompañados de artillería neerlandesa; cuatro cañones de 75 mm, cuatro cañones antitanque de 37 mm, cuatro cañones antiaéreos de 75 mm, cuatro cañones antiaéreos de 40 mm, una pelotón de ametralladoras antiaéreas y una batería antiaérea.

Sin embargo, el Teniente Coronel Scott, el cuartel de la Fuerza Gaviota, y el resto de las fuerzas australianas se encontraban en la parte occidental de la península Laitimor, en caso de que los japoneses atacaran por la Bahía de Ambon. La compañía "A" de la 2/21º y una compañía del KNIL estaban estacionadas en Eri, en el lado suroeste de la bahía. El pelotón pionero del 2/21º Batallón estaba en la meseta alrededor del Mt. Nona (el punto más alto en Laitimor), donde se encontraba un destacamento de ametralladora antiaérea holandés. Otros destacamentos australianos pequeños estaban ubicados en: Latuhalat, cerca de la punta suroeste de Laitimor y en Cabo Batuanjut, justo al norte de Eri. El Cuartel de la Fuerza Gaviota y una reserva estratégica, la compañía D, se encontraban en una línea desde la meseta Nona y la playa Amahusu, entre Eri y el pueblo de Ambon.

Los aliados tenían pocos aviones. El Servicio Aéreo del KNIL envió a la Sección N.º 2, Grupo IV, desde Java a Laha. De un grupo inicial de cuatro Brewster Buffalo, dos se estrellaron antes de llegar a Ambon. La Real Fuerza Aérea Australiana envió dos Secciones, que comprendían 12 bombarderos ligeros Lockheed Hudson, de los escuadrones N.º 13 y N.º 2, bajo el mando del Comandante Ernest Scott (no tenía ninguna relación con el Tnte. Cor. John Scott). Uno de los grupos estaba basado en Laha, mientras que el otro fue enviado a Namlea en la isla cercana de Buru.

El ala de patrullaje de la Armada de los Estados Unidos, Wing TEN, equipada con hidroaviones Consolidated PBY Catalina, estaba estacionada en la estación de hidroaviones de Halong desde el 23 de diciembre. El centro de comando fue trasladado a Java el 9 de enero, pero los Catalina estadounidenses patrullaron desde Halong hasta el bombardeo aéreo del 15 de enero, y luego abandonaron la base por encontrarse muy expuesta. En total, cinco Catalina de la Armada estadounidense fueron destruidos allí por los ataques aéreos.

El Real Servicio Aéreo de la Armada de los Países Bajos realizó patrullas entre Ambon y Halong; GVT 17 con hidroaviones Catalina que continuaron desde el inicio de la guerra hasta el 14 de enero, cuando se les ordenó retornar a Java.

Aviones de la Armada de los Estados Unidos y la RAAF hicieron varios vuelos de evacuación muy peligrosos en Ambon/Laha en los últimos días de enero.

El Gouden Leeuw, un buque minador de la Real Armada Neerlandesa, dejó Ambon a principios de enero, luego de minar los alrededores de la isla. Para mediados de enero, Heron era el único buque de combate aliado en Ambon.

Japón
La fuerza de asalto de la Armada Imperial Japonesa para la invasión de Ambon, comandada por el Contraalmirante Ibō Takahashi, incluía los portaaviones Hiryū y Sōryū, dos portahidroaviones, los cruceros pesados Nachi y Haguro, el crucero ligero Jintsu, 15 destructores, 5 dragaminas, cuatro cazasubmarinos y dos botes de patrulla.

Las fuerzas terrestres japonesas consistían de aproximadamente 5.300 solados: el destacamento Itō del Ejército Imperial Japonés bajo el mando el Mayor general  Takeo Itō, que comprendía el cuartel de la 38.ª División y el 228.º Regimiento de Infantería, junto con Infantes de Marina de la 1.ª Fuerza Anfibia Especial Kure (parte de la Flota de la Región de China), bajo el mando del Contraalmirante Koichiro Hatakeyama.

La batalla

30 de enero

A partir del 6 de enero en adelante, Ambon fue atacada por aviones japoneses. Los aviones aliados trataron de bombardear la flota japonesa que se avecinaba, pero con poco éxito. El 13 de enero, los dos Buffalos, pilotados por el Teniente Broers y el Sargento Blans, atacaron a un grupo de 10 A6M Zeros. El avión de Broers fue alcanzado por fuego enemigo y comenzó a arder, pero él continuó atacando hasta que se volvió incontrolable, momento en el cual abandonó el avión usando su paracaídas y cayó en el mar. Blans también fue alcanzado pero logró usar su paracaídas, cayendo sobre los árboles en Ambon. Ambos fueron rescatados. Broers sufrió serias quemaduras, mientras que Blans terminó con 17 heridas diferentes.

La base de aviación naval en Halong terminó quedando inutilizable rápidamente debido a las incursiones aéreas japonesas, y fue abandonada por las armadas de los Estados Unidos y los Países Bajos a mediados de enero.

El 30 de enero, aproximadamente 1000 infantes de marina japoneses y soldados del Ejército Imperial desembarcaron en Hitu-lana en la costa norte. Otros elementos del 228.º Regimiento desembarcaron en la costa sur de la Península de Laitimor. Aunque las fuerzas japonesas terrestres no eran mucho más numerosas que los aliados, los japoneses tenían una superioridad abrumadora en cuanto a apoyo aéreo, naval, artillería y blindados. El resto de los aviones aliados se retiraron ese día, aunque el personal de tierra de la RAAF se quedó en la isla. Después del primer día de desembarcos japoneses, los destacamentos neerlandeses que había en sus cercanías fueron arrasados y/o fueron obligados a retirarse hacia Paso. La destrucción de los puentes en Hitu no se realizó según lo ordenado, acelerando el avance japonés.

Hubo una segunda ola de desembarcos, en Hutumori en la parte oriental de Laitimor, y en Batugong, cerca a Paso. Un pelotón de infantería fue enviado a reforzar a los pioneros en la meseta de Nona. Las defensas en Paso habían estado diseñadas para repeler ataques del norte y el oeste, y ahora se enfrentaban a un asalto desde el sur. Un pelotón del KNIL fue enviado desde Paso para resistir el ataque en Batugong, provocando un quiebro en las líneas neerlandesas. Los japoneses se aprovecharon de esto, y fueron ayudados por un fallo en una línea telefónica del KNIL.

31 de enero
Batugong cayó en las primeras horas del 31 de enero, permitiendo a los japoneses rodear el flanco este de las posiciones en Paso. Mientras tanto, Kapitz ordenó a las unidades indonesias del KNIL en Eri que se atrincheren en Kudamati.

Al mediodía del 31 de enero, Kapitz movió su cuartel de Halong a Lateri, más cerca de Paso. Las comunicaciones telefónicas entre Kapitz y sus subordinados, incluyendo al Tte. Cor. Scott, terminaron cuando los japoneses cortaron las líneas. La fuerza japonesa que había desembarcado en Hitu-Lama luego atacó las defensas de Paso desde el noreste. Entonces, en las palabras del historiador oficial australiano:

No está claro quién autorizó la rendición. No hubo una respuesta inmediata de los japoneses, y - en una reunión con los comandantes de compañía - Kapitz y Tieland ordenaron a las tropas neerlandesas reiniciar el combate. Sin embarbgo, cuando Tieland y los comandantes de compañía retornaron a sus posiciones, encontraron que sus tropas habían sido tomadas prisioneras y habían sido obligadas a rendirse.

El primer ataque terrestre sobre Laha ocurrió en la tarde del 31 de enero. Un pelotón australiano al noreste de la pista fue atacada por una fuerza japonesa más fuerte, la cual fue repelida por los defensores.

Las fuerzas japonesas también se estaban acercando al pueblo de Ambon desde el suroeste. Aproximadamente a las 4 p.m. del 31 de enero, los japoneses capturaron el pueblo, incluyendo una unidad australiana que se encontraba recogiendo a las bajas.

1 de febrero
Los japoneses realizaron varios ataques simultáneos el 1 de febrero:

 Kapitz y el personal de su base fueron tomados prisioneros a tempranas horas en el área de Paso. Kapitz se rindió y envió una nota al Teniente Coronel Scott exhortándolo a que hiciera lo mismo. (El mensaje no llegó a Scott hasta después de dos días)
 una unidad de transporte australiana y las posiciones del KNL en Kudamati fueron atacadas por infantería.
 artillería de montaña en terreno elevado comenzó a atacar una batería de artillería holandesa en la costa en Benteng, obligándolos a retirarse y poniendo más presión sobre Kudamati.
 el flanco oriental de las posiciones australianas en Amahusu fue atacado por infantería.
 establecieron una posición en la meseta de Nona pese a la dura oposición australiana.
 realizaron ataques aéreos y de artillería sobre las posiciones aliadas en Eri.

Las posiciones australianas también estaban recibiendo soldados holandeses que huían de Paso en grandes números. A las 10.30 p.m., Scott ordenó la retirada de las fuerzas aliadas en Amahusu y el suroeste hacia Eri. La posición en Kudamati había sido rodeada.

2–3 de febrero
El 2 de febrero (algunas fuentes indican el 1 de febrero), el dragaminas japonés W-9 chocó con una mina puesta por el minador holandés Gouden Leeuw en la bahía de Ambon y se hundió. Otros dos dragaminas japoneses también fueron dañados por las minas.

Tras el amanecer del 2 de febrero, la fuerza principal australiana en la meseta de Nona, comandada por el Teniente Bill Jinkins, se encontraba en peligro de ser rodeada. Jinkins ordenó la retirada hacia Amahusu, donde luego se dio cuenta de que los holandeses se habían rendido. Incapaz de ubicar a la fuerza del Teniente Cor. Scott, Jinkins decidió ordenar un cese el fuego y reunirse con los oficiales japoneses en el pueblo de Ambon. Le permitieron hablar con Kapitz, quien escribió otra nota exhortando al comandante australiano a que se rindiera. Jinkins se marchó para buscar al Teniente Cor. Scott.

Mientras tanto, las fuerzas japoneses que atacaban Laha fueron reforzadas y se inició un asalto concentrado contra las fuerzas aliadas, incluyendo ataques de artillería naval, bombardeos en picado, cazas y ataques de infantería. Un ataque nocturno japonés cerca de la playa contra dos posiciones aliadas fue repelido por un pelotón australiano. Sin embargo, una masiva ofensiva japonesa comenzó al amanecer del 2 de febrero. Para las 10 a.m., solo 150 australianos y varios soldados del KNIL se encontraban aptos para luchar en Laha, y Newbury ordenó que se rindiesen.

Para la mañana del 3 de febrero, los australianos alrededor de Eri estaban teniendo problemas para soportar los crecientes ataques navales y aéreos, los heridos, el flujo de soldados holandeses, la falta de suministros y la fatiga. Una bandera japonesa se vio flameando al otro lado de la bahía, en Laha. Para ese entonces, Jinkins había llegado donde Scott, pero este ya se había reunido con los japoneses y se había rendido. La posición aliada en Kudamati se rindió en forma separada al mediodía.

Masacre de Laha
Las bajas aliadas durante la batalla fueron relativamente leves. Sin embargo, en el intervalo de una noche después de la rendición, el personal del Ejército Imperial Japonés eligió a más de 300 prisioneros de guerra holandeses y australianos al azar y los ejecutaron en forma sumaria, tanto en la pista de Laha como en sus alrededores. Esto fue en parte por el hundimiento del dragaminas japonés, ya que algunos miembros de la tripulación que sobrevivieron tomaron parte en las ejecuciones. Aquellos que murieron incluían a Scott y Newbury. Según el historiador principal del Memorial de Guerra Australiano, el Dr. Peter Stanley, en un periodo de tres años y medio, los prisioneros de guerra que sobrevivieron:

En 1946, los incidentes posteriores a la caída de Ambon fueron sujetos a uno de los juicios por crímenes de guerra más grandes: 93 soldados japoneses fueron enjuiciados por un tribunal militar australiano en Ambon. R. Adm Hatakeyama fue encontrado culpable de haber ordenado las masacres de Laha, sin embargo, murió antes de que pudiese ser enjuiciado. El comandante Kunito Hatakeyama, quien estuvo al cargo directo de las masacres, fue sentenciado a la horca. El Teniente Kenichi Nakagawa fue sentenciado a 20 años en prisión. Otros tres oficiales japoneses fueron ejecutados por el maltrato de prisioneros de guerra y/o civiles en otras ocasiones entre 1942 y 1945. (los juicios fueron la base para la película Blood Oath de 1990.)

El General Itō fue sentenciado a muerte ese mismo año por otros crímenes de guerra cometidos en otras partes del Pacífico.

Otros eventos posteriores
Aproximadamente 30 soldados australianos, incluyendo a Jinkins, escaparon de Ambon en el espacio de varias semanas después de su rendición, en muchos casos remando en canoas polinesias hasta Seram.

Otro resultado de la captura de Ambon fue la realización de los temores australianos de ataques aéreos, cuando aviones japoneses basados en Ambon tomaron parte en los bombardeos de Darwin el 19 de febrero de 1942.

Notas

Referencias
  (PDF), Australia in the War of 1939–1945, Volume IV — The Japanese Thrust (1st ed.; Canberra, Australian War Memorial)

Enlaces externos

 Kent G. Budge, 2007, The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia "Ambon"
 Michael Evans, 2000, Developing Australia's Maritime Concept of Strategy: Lessons From the Ambon Disaster of 1942  (Department of Defence, Australia)

Ambon
Ambon
Ambon
Batallas de los Países Bajos en la Segunda Guerra Mundial
Ambon
Ambon
Indias Orientales Neerlandesas
Países Bajos en 1942
1942
Historia de Indonesia

Batalla de Ambon


En gribetang er til at samle ting op uden at skulle bukke sig.

Gribetangen har et langt skaft. Øverst sidder et håndtag, man kan klemme sammen, så tangen i den anden ende af skaftet lukker sig om den genstand, der skal samles op, og tangen åbner sig igen, når man slipper grebet. Med gribetangen kan man samle lette ting op fra gulvet eller beholdere. Man undgår dermed at bukke sig. Man er også fri for at skulle stille sig på en stige eller stol, når man griber efter ting, der er højere oppe. Den er nyttig for handicappede og ældre. En gribetang bruges også til at samle skrald op med, så man undgår at skulle berøre det. Den er således også en videreførsel af klunsernes syvtal, som de brugte til at rode i skraldebøtter med.

Gribetangens første anvendelse var til affald. På tysk Müllkralle (affaldsklo) og på engelsk garbage claw.

Referencer

Enkle maskiner
Menneske-maskine interaktion
Tænger
Fastgøringsemner med holdefunktion

Gribetang


Una erupción surtseyana es un tipo de erupción volcánica que tiene lugar en aguas poco profundas, mares o lagos. Lleva el nombre en honor a la isla de Surtsey que se encuentra en la costa sur de Islandia. que se formó  tras la erupción de 1963.

Estas erupciones son del grupo de las erupciones hidrovolcánicas, en representación de violentas explosiones causadas por el aumento de volumen del agua, al pasar del estado líquido al gaseoso, cuando un magma basáltico o andesitico entra en contacto con esta. Anillos de toba, conos piroclásticos de ceniza principalmente, están construidas por la ruptura explosiva de magma se enfría rápidamente. Otros ejemplos de estos volcanes: Capelinhos y isla de Faial en Azores; y Taal y Batangas en Filipinas.

Características

Aunque de naturaleza similar a las del resto de erupciones freatomagmáticas, hay varias características específicas:

 La naturaleza química del magma:  poco viscosa y basáltica.
 Carácter de la actividad explosiva: expulsión violenta de fragmentos sólidos, calientes de nuevo magma, explosiones continuas o rítmica, base de subidas de tensión.
 Naturaleza de la actividad efusiva: a corto, a nivel local de almohada, flujos de lava son poco frecuentes.
 Naturaleza de la dominante eyecciones: líticos, bloques y cenizas, a menudo lapilli de acreción, salpicaduras, bombas y lapilli fusiforme ausente.
 Estructuras construidas alrededor de ventilación: los anillos de toba o anillo de fuego que rodea la línea de volcanes.

Referencias

Surtseyana

Erupción surtseyana


România a participat la Jocurile Olimpice de Tineret 2016 din Lillehammer, Norvegia în perioada 13 - 20 februarie 2016. Echipa a fost formată din 22 de sportivi care au concurat în cadrul a nouă sporturi. Șeful de Misiune al României la Lillehammer a fost Alexandru Epuran, în timp ce Liliana Dorneanu a fost adjuncta sa.

Medalia de bronz câștigată de Mihaela Hogaș în proba de sprint pe echipe mixte la patinaj viteză reprezintă a doua clasare al unui sportiv român pe un podium al unei competiții olimpice multisport de iarnă sub egida CIO, după o pauză de 48 de ani, când Ion Panțuru și Nicolae Neagoe au câștigat medalia de bronz la JO de la Grenoble din 1968. De asemenea, sportivul Eduard Cășăneanu a adus României prima medalie de aur, în proba de îndemânare masculin la hochei pe gheață.

Medaliați

Medaliați în cadrul probelor cu echipe mixte

Competitori

Biatlon

România a calificat doi sportivi (o fată și un băiat). Antrenorul echipei este Szilard Marton. Aceștia vor concura individual cât și împreună în proba de ștafetă mixt.

Individual

Mixt

Bob

România a calificat doi sportivi (o fată și un băiat). Antrenorul echipei este Iulian Daniel Păcioianu.

Hochei pe gheață

România a calificat doi sportivi (o fată și un băiat). Antrenorul echipei este Levente Elekes. Aceștia vor participa la probele de îndemânare.

Patinaj viteză

România a calificat o singură sportivă. Antrenorul este Bogdan Adrian Stănescu.

Sprint echipă mixtă

Sanie

România a calificat patru sportivi (o fată și trei băieți), coordonați de antrenorul Alexandru Grigore Comșa.

Ștafetă echipe mixte

Sărituri cu schiurile

România a calificat doi sportivi (o fată și un băiat). Antrenorul celor doi este Csaba Magdo Nemeth.

Scheleton

România a calificat cinci sportivi (trei fete și doi băieți). Antrenorii delegației sunt Marius Tomiță și Adrian Ene.

Schi alpin

România a calificat doi sportivi (o fată și un băiat). Antrenorul delegației este Florin Cristea.

Schi fond

România a calificat doi sportivi (o fată și un băiat). Antrenorul delegației este Ioan Poponeci.

Note

2016
Jocurile Olimpice de Tineret
Jocurile Olimpice de Tineret 2016

România la Jocurile Olimpice de Tineret 2016


A Diocese Gulbarga (Latim:Dioecesis Gulbargiensis) é uma diocese localizada no município de Gulbarga, no estado de Carnataca, pertencente a Arquidiocese de Bangalore na Índia. Foi fundada em 24 de junho de 2005 pelo Papa Bento XVI. Com uma população católica de 7.833 habitantes, sendo 0,1% da população total, possui 31 paróquias com dados de 2018.

História

Em 24 de junho de 2005 o Papa Bento XVI cria a Diocese de Gulbarga através dos territórios da Diocese de Belgaum, Diocese de Bellary e da Arquidiocese de Hyderabad.

Lista de bispos
A seguir uma lista de bispos desde a criação da diocese em 2005.

Ligações externas

Gulbarga
Gulbarga

Diocese de Gulbarga


Dobra Kolata ili Dobri Kolac (albanski: Kolata e Mirë) drugi je najviši vrh Prokletija koji se nalazi u Crnoj Gori, odmah iza vrha Zla Kolata (Zli Kolac). Dobra Kolata nalazi se na granici Crne Gore i Albanije. Pripada nacionalnom parku Prokletije.

Povezani članci
 Zla Kolata
 Prokletije

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Planine u Albaniji
Planine u Crnoj Gori
Albansko-crnogorska granica

Dobra Kolata


Silkeborg Skøjteløberforening af 1896 er en dansk ishockey- og skøjteklub, der hører hjemme i Silkeborg Skøjtehal. Klubben blev stiftet i 1896 og er dermed Danmarks næstældste skøjteklub, kun overgået af Kjøbenhavns Skøjteløberforening fra 1869. Klubben har afdelinger for ishockey, kunstskøjteløb og short track.

Ishockey

Ishockey på organiseret plan blev startet i januar 1947 under den daværende formand, Helge Lund Christiansen. Frem til 1960 vandt SSF samtlige seks jyske mesterskaber, der blev afholdt: 1948, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1960. I de mellemliggende år blev mesterskabet ikke afgjort, eftersom der udelukkende blev spillet på naturis, og vejrliget ikke tillod dette. Den største konkurrent på den tid var IK Horsens. Som jysk mester kvalificerede klubben sig til de tre første danmarksmesterskaber i ishockey, der blev afgjort i playoff-kampe mellem den jyske mester og de to sjællandske hold, Rungsted IK og KSF. I 1955 tabte Silkeborg stort i kampene mod Rungsted IK og KSF og måtte derfor nøjes med bronzemedaljerne. I 1956 kunne SSF ikke komme frem til DM-turneringen i København, da klubben ikke kunne krydse Storebælt pga. den hårde vinter, og i 1960 tabte klubben stort til Rungsted i en kamp, der både gjaldt "provinsmesterskabet" og kvalifikationen til finalen mod KSF.

I sæsonen 1960-61 startede den første landsdækkende danske liga med fire hold: KSF, Rungsted IK, Esbjerg SK og Silkeborg SF. Sidstnævnte tabte alle sine seks kampe med en samlet målscore på 6−112. Det blev indtil videre SSF's sidste sæson i den bedste række. De dårlige resultater skyldtes til dels, at de første kunstisbaner blev bygget omkring 1960 i Esbjerg, København, Gladsaxe og Rødovre, hvilket gav de andre klubber en stor fordel mht. træning, idet man i Silkeborg fortsat kun kunne træne på naturis, når vejret tillod det. I løbet af 1960'erne kom der flere kunstfrosne isbaner rundt omkring i landet, bl.a. i Vojens, Aarhus og Herning. I Silkeborg var man fra starten godt klar over behovet for en kunstisbane i byen, hvis man skulle holde trit med konkurrenterne. Og der blev fra klubbens side arbejdet hårdt – men forgæves – på, at få overbevist bystyret om fordelene ved en kunstisbane. Dette betød, at klubben, der i over et årti havde været klart førende i Jylland, måtte nøjes med at spille i 2. division frem til 1975 og derefter i rækkerne under den andenbedste række. Men i modsætning til andre tidlige ishockeyklubber fra bl.a. Horsens og Viborg, der lukkede ned efter mange års forgæves kamp for en kunstisbane, lykkedes det for SSF at fortsætte med ishockeyen, indtil Silkeborg Skøjtehal blev åbnet den 1. september 2007. Ved åbningen blev snoren klippet af den dengang knapt 98-årige, forhenværende formand for klubben, Helge Lund Christiansen.

I 2016 begyndte Silkeborg Skøjteløberforening at samarbejde om udveksling af ishockeyspillere med IK Aarhus, og i januar 2016 offentliggjorde de to klubber deres intention om at danne en fælles østjysk eliteoverbygning. Overbygningen blev etableret i juni 2016 under navnet Jutland Vikings, der overtog IK Aarhus' plads i 1. division i ishockey fra sæsonen 2016-17.

I 2017-18 vandt klubbens kvindehold for første gang DM-medaljer, da holdet sluttede på tredjepladsen og dermed sikrede sig bronzemedaljer.

Nationale resultater

DM i ishockey for mænd
  Guld (0).
  Sølv (0).
  Bronze (2): 1954-55, 1959-60.

DM i ishockey for kvinder
  Guld (0).
  Sølv (0).
  Bronze (1): 2017-18.

Regionale resultater

Jysk mesterskab
  Guld (6): 1947-48, 1953-54, 1954-55, 1955-56, 1958-59, 1959-60.

Kilder / eksterne henvisninger
 Silkeborg Skøjteløberforening af 1896
 WikiSilkeborg - SSF - Ishockey i Silkeborg
 Midtjyllands Avis - Silkeborg – en gammel vintersportsby (14. februar 2014) ,  Silkeborg Arkiv

Noter

Ishockeyklubber i Danmark
Skøjteklubber i Danmark
Etableret i 1896
Skøjteløberforening af 1896

Silkeborg Skøjteløberforening af 1896


An Anadelphia funerea in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Jacq.-fél., ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Clayton. An Anadelphia funerea in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anadelphia, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Guinea. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Anadelphia

Anadelphia funerea


Video camera tubes were devices based on the cathode ray tube that were used in television cameras to capture television images, prior to the introduction of charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensors in the 1980s. Several different types of tubes were in use from the early 1930s, and as late as the 1990s.

In these tubes, an electron beam was scanned across an image of the scene to be broadcast focused on a target. This generated a current that was dependent on the brightness of the image on the target at the scan point. The size of the striking ray was tiny compared to the size of the target, allowing 480–486 horizontal scan lines per image in the NTSC format, 576 lines in PAL, and as many as 1035 lines in Hi-Vision.

Cathode ray tube

Any vacuum tube which operates using a focused beam of electrons, originally called cathode rays, is known as a cathode ray tube (CRT). These are usually seen as display devices as used in older (i.e., non-flat panel) television receivers and computer displays. The camera pickup tubes described in this article are also CRTs, but they display no image.

Early research
In June 1908, the scientific journal Nature published a letter in which Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, fellow of the Royal Society (UK), discussed how a fully electronic television system could be realized by using cathode ray tubes (or "Braun" tubes, after their inventor, Karl Braun) as both imaging and display devices. He noted that the "real difficulties lie in devising an efficient transmitter", and that it was possible that "no photoelectric phenomenon at present known will provide what is required". A cathode ray tube was successfully demonstrated as a displaying device by the German Professor Max Dieckmann in 1906; his experimental results were published by the journal Scientific American in 1909. Campbell-Swinton later expanded on his vision in a presidential address given to the Röntgen Society in November 1911. The photoelectric screen in the proposed transmitting device was a mosaic of isolated rubidium cubes. His concept for a fully electronic television system was later popularized as the "Campbell-Swinton Electronic Scanning System" by Hugo Gernsback and H. Winfield Secor in the August 1915 issue of the popular magazine Electrical Experimenter and by Marcus J. Martin in the 1921 book The Electrical Transmission of Photographs.

In a letter to Nature published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a cathode ray beam. These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died, but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange from EMI, and by H. Iams and A. Rose from RCA. Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate, but much better images were obtained when the metal plate was covered with zinc sulphide or selenide, or with aluminum or zirconium oxide treated with caesium. These experiments would form the base of the future vidicon. A description of a CRT imaging device also appeared in a patent application filed by Edvard-Gustav Schoultz in France in August 1921, and published in 1922, although a working device was not demonstrated until some years later.

Image dissector

An image dissector is a camera tube that creates an "electron image" of a scene from photocathode emissions (electrons) which pass through a scanning aperture to an anode, which serves as an electron detector. Among the first to design such a device were German inventors Max Dieckmann and Rudolf Hell, who had titled their 1925 patent application Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television). The term may apply specifically to a dissector tube employing magnetic fields to keep the electron image in focus, an element lacking in Dieckmann and Hell's design, and in the early dissector tubes built by American inventor Philo Farnsworth.

Dieckmann and Hell submitted their application to the German patent office in April 1925, and a patent was issued in October 1927. Their experiments on the image dissector were announced in September 1927 issue of the popular magazine Discovery and in the May 1928 issue of the magazine Popular Radio. However, they never transmitted a clear and well focused image with such a tube.

In January 1927, American inventor and television pioneer Philo T. Farnsworth applied for a patent for his Television System that included a device for "the conversion and dissecting of light".
Its first moving image was successfully transmitted on September 7 of 1927,
and a patent was issued in 1930. Farnsworth quickly made improvements to the device, among them introducing an electron multiplier made of nickel and using a "longitudinal magnetic field" in order to sharply focus the electron image.
The improved device was demonstrated to the press in early September 1928.
The introduction of a multipactor in October 1933 and a multi-dynode "electron multiplier" in 1937 made Farnsworth's image dissector the first practical version of a fully electronic imaging device for television. It had very poor light sensitivity, and was therefore primarily useful only where illumination was exceptionally high (typically over 685 cd/m2). However, it was ideal for industrial applications, such as monitoring the bright interior of an industrial furnace. Due to their poor light sensitivity, image dissectors were rarely used in television broadcasting, except to scan film and other transparencies.

In April 1933, Farnsworth submitted a patent application also entitled Image Dissector, but which actually detailed a CRT-type camera tube. This is among the first patents to propose the use of a "low-velocity" scanning beam and RCA had to buy it in order to sell image orthicon tubes to the general public. However, Farnsworth never transmitted a clear and well focused image with such a tube.

Dissectors were used only briefly for research in television systems before being replaced by different much more sensitive tubes based on the charge-storage phenomenon like the iconoscope during the 1930s. Although camera tubes based on the idea of image dissector technology quickly and completely fell out of use in the field of television broadcasting, they continued to be used for imaging in early weather satellites and the Lunar lander, and for star attitude tracking in the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station.

Operation
The optical system of the image dissector focuses an image onto a photocathode mounted inside a high vacuum. As light strikes the photocathode, electrons are emitted in proportion to the intensity of the light (see photoelectric effect). The entire electron image is deflected and a scanning aperture permits only those electrons emanating from a very small area of the photocathode to be captured by the detector at any given time. The output from the detector is an electric current whose magnitude is a measure of the brightness of the corresponding area of the image. The electron image is periodically deflected horizontally and vertically ("raster scanning") such that the entire image is read by the detector many times per second, producing an electrical signal that can be conveyed to a display device, such as a CRT monitor, to reproduce the image.

The image dissector has no "charge storage" characteristic; the vast majority of electrons emitted by the photocathode are excluded by the scanning aperture, and thus wasted rather than being stored on a photo-sensitive target.

Charge-storage tubes

Iconoscope

The early electronic camera tubes (like the image dissector) suffered from a very disappointing and fatal flaw: They scanned the subject and what was seen at each point was only the tiny piece of light viewed at the instant that the scanning system passed over it. A practical functional camera tube needed a different technological approach, which later became known as Charge - Storage camera tube. It based on a new physical phenomenon which was discovered and patented in Hungary in 1926, but became widely understood and recognised only from around 1930.

An iconoscope is a camera tube that projects an image on a special charge storage plate containing a mosaic of electrically isolated photosensitive granules separated from a common plate by a thin layer of isolating material, somewhat analogous to the human eye's retina and its arrangement of photoreceptors. Each photosensitive granule constitutes a tiny capacitor that accumulates and stores electrical charge in response to the light striking it. An electron beam periodically sweeps across the plate, effectively scanning the stored image and discharging each capacitor in turn such that the electrical output from each capacitor is proportional to the average intensity of the light striking it between each discharge event.

After Hungarian engineer Kálmán Tihanyi studied Maxwell's equations, he discovered a new hitherto unknown physical phenomenon, which led to a break-through in the development of electronic imaging devices. He named the new phenomenon as charge-storage principle. (further information: Charge-storage principle)
The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or camera tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Tihanyi in the beginning of 1925. His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges (photoelectrons) within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in Hungary in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed Radioskop. After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application, Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930, and so he applied for patents in the United States. Tihanyi's charge storage idea remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.

In 1924, while employed by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Russian-born American engineer Vladimir Zworykin presented a project for a totally electronic television system to the company's general manager. In July 1925, Zworykin submitted a patent application titled Television System that included a charge storage plate constructed of a thin layer of isolating material (aluminum oxide) sandwiched between a screen (300 mesh) and a colloidal deposit of photoelectric material (potassium hydride) consisting of isolated globules. The following description can be read between lines 1 and 9 in page 2: "The photoelectric material, such as potassium hydride, is evaporated on the aluminum oxide, or other insulating medium, and treated so as to form a colloidal deposit of potassium hydride consisting of minute globules. Each globule is very active photoelectrically and constitutes, to all intents and purposes, a minute individual photoelectric cell". Its first image was transmitted in late summer of 1925, and a patent was issued in 1928. However the quality of the transmitted image failed to impress H.P. Davis, the general manager of Westinghouse, and Zworykin was asked "to work on something useful". A patent for a television system was also filed by Zworykin in 1923, but this filing is not a definitive reference because extensive revisions were done before a patent was issued fifteen years later and the file itself was divided into two patents in 1931.

The first practical iconoscope was constructed in 1931 by Sanford Essig, when he accidentally left a silvered mica sheet in the oven too long. Upon examination with a microscope, he noticed that the silver layer had broken up into a myriad of tiny isolated silver globules. He also noticed that, "the tiny dimension of the silver droplets would enhance the image resolution of the iconoscope by a quantum leap". As head of television development at Radio Corporation of America (RCA), Zworykin submitted a patent application in November 1931, and it was issued in 1935. Nevertheless, Zworykin's team was not the only engineering group working on devices that used a charge storage plate. In 1932, the EMI engineers Tedham and McGee under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg applied for a patent for a new device they dubbed the "Emitron". A 405-line broadcasting service employing the Emitron began at studios in Alexandra Palace in 1936, and patents were issued in the United Kingdom in 1934 and in the US in 1937.

The iconoscope was presented to the general public at a press conference in June 1933, and two detailed technical papers were published in September and October of the same year. Unlike the Farnsworth image dissector, the Zworykin iconoscope was much more sensitive, useful with an illumination on the target between 40and215lux (4–20 ft-c). It was also easier to manufacture and produced a very clear image. The iconoscope was the primary camera tube used by RCA broadcasting from 1936 until 1946, when it was replaced by the image orthicon tube.

Super-Emitron and image iconoscope
The original iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available. The EMI team under the supervision of Isaac Shoenberg analyzed how the Emitron (or iconoscope) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum. This is because secondary electrons released from the mosaic of the charge storage plate when the scanning beam sweeps across it may be attracted back to the positively charged mosaic, thus neutralizing many of the stored charges. Lubszynski, Rodda, and McGee realized that the best solution was to separate the photo-emission function from the charge storage one, and so communicated their results to Zworykin.

The new video camera tube developed by Lubszynski, Rodda and McGee in 1934 was dubbed "the super-Emitron". This tube is a combination of the image dissector and the Emitron. It has an efficient photocathode that transforms the scene light into an electron image; the latter is then accelerated towards a target specially prepared for the emission of secondary electrons. Each individual electron from the electron image produces several secondary electrons after reaching the target, so that an amplification effect is produced. The target is constructed of a mosaic of electrically isolated metallic granules separated from a common plate by a thin layer of isolating material, so that the positive charge resulting from the secondary emission is stored in the granules. Finally, an electron beam periodically sweeps across the target, effectively scanning the stored image, discharging each granule, and producing an electronic signal like in the iconoscope.

The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater. It was used for an outside broadcast by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch in a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph. This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings.

On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken. The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron, but the target is constructed of a thin layer of isolating material placed on top of a conductive base, the mosaic of metallic granules is missing. The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the patent war between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher (Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925, two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.

The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon. The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games, later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955, finally the Dutch company Philips produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 until 1963, when it was replaced by the much better Plumbicon.

Operation
The super-Emitron is a combination of the image dissector and the Emitron. The scene image is projected onto an efficient continuous-film semitransparent photocathode that transforms the scene light into a light-emitted electron image, the latter is then accelerated (and focused) via electromagnetic fields towards a target specially prepared for the emission of secondary electrons. Each individual electron from the electron image produces several secondary electrons after reaching the target, so that an amplification effect is produced, and the resulting positive charge is proportional to the integrated intensity of the scene light. The target is constructed of a mosaic of electrically isolated metallic granules separated from a common plate by a thin layer of isolating material, so that the positive charge resulting from the secondary emission is stored in the capacitor formed by the metallic granule and the common plate. Finally, an electron beam periodically sweeps across the target, effectively scanning the stored image and discharging each capacitor in turn such that the electrical output from each capacitor is proportional to the average intensity of the scene light between each discharge event (as in the iconoscope).

The image iconoscope is essentially identical to the super-Emitron, but the target is constructed of a thin layer of isolating material placed on top of a conductive base, the mosaic of metallic granules is missing. Therefore, secondary electrons are emitted from the surface of the isolating material when the electron image reaches the target, and the resulting positive charges are stored directly onto the surface of the isolated material.

Orthicon and CPS Emitron
The original iconoscope was very noisy due to the secondary electrons released from the photoelectric mosaic of the charge storage plate when the scanning beam swept it across. An obvious solution was to scan the mosaic with a low-velocity electron beam which produced less energy in the neighborhood of the plate such that no secondary electrons were emitted at all. That is, an image is projected onto the photoelectric mosaic of a charge storage plate, so that positive charges are produced and stored there due to photo-emission and capacitance, respectively. These stored charges are then gently discharged by a low-velocity electron scanning beam, preventing the emission of secondary electrons. Not all the electrons in the scanning beam may be absorbed in the mosaic, because the stored positive charges are proportional to the integrated intensity of the scene light. The remaining electrons are then deflected back into the anode, captured by a special grid, or deflected back into an electron multiplier.

Low-velocity scanning beam tubes have several advantages; there are low levels of spurious signals and high efficiency of conversion of light into signal, so that the signal output is maximum. However, there are serious problems as well, because the electron beam spreads and accelerates in a direction parallel to the target when it scans the image's borders and corners, so that it produces secondary electrons and one gets an image that is well focused in the center but blurry in the borders. Henroteau was among the first inventors to propose in 1929 the use of low-velocity electrons for stabilizing the potential of a charge storage plate, but Lubszynski and the EMI team were the first engineers in transmitting a clear and well focused image with such a tube. Another improvement is the use of a semitransparent charge storage plate. The scene image is then projected onto the back side of the plate, while the low-velocity electron beam scans the photoelectric mosaic at the front side. This configurations allows the use of a straight camera tube, because the scene to be transmitted, the charge storage plate, and the electron gun can be aligned one after the other.

The first fully functional low-velocity scanning beam tube, the CPS Emitron, was invented and demonstrated by the EMI team under the supervision of Sir Isaac Shoenberg.  In 1934, the EMI engineers Blumlein and McGee filed for patents for television transmitting systems where a charge storage plate was shielded by a pair of special grids, a negative (or slightly positive) grid lay very close to the plate, and a positive one was placed further away. The velocity and energy of the electrons in the scanning beam were reduced to zero by the decelerating electric field generated by this pair of grids, and so a low-velocity scanning beam tube was obtained. The EMI team kept working on these devices, and Lubszynski discovered in 1936 that a clear image could be produced if the trajectory of the low-velocity scanning beam was nearly perpendicular (orthogonal) to the charge storage plate in a neighborhood of it. The resulting device was dubbed the cathode potential stabilized Emitron, or CPS Emitron. The industrial production and commercialization of the CPS Emitron had to wait until the end of the second world war; it was widely used in the UK until 1963, when it was replaced by the much better Plumbicon.

On the other side of the Atlantic, the RCA team led by Albert Rose began working in 1935 on a low-velocity scanning beam device they came to dub the orthicon. Iams and Rose solved the problem of guiding the beam and keeping it in focus by installing specially designed deflection plates and deflection coils near the charge storage plate to provide a uniform axial magnetic field. The orthicon's performance was similar to that of the image iconoscope, but it was also unstable under sudden flashes of bright light, producing "the appearance of a large drop of water evaporating slowly over part of the scene".

Image orthicon

The image orthicon (sometimes abbreviated IO), was common in American broadcasting from 1946 until 1968. A combination of the image dissector and the orthicon technologies, it replaced the iconoscope in the United States, which required a great deal of light to work adequately.

The image orthicon tube was developed at RCA by Albert Rose, Paul K. Weimer, and Harold B. Law. It represented a considerable advance in the television field, and after further development work, RCA created original models between 1939 and 1940. The National Defense Research Committee entered into a contract with RCA where the NDRC paid for its further development. Upon RCA's development of the more sensitive image orthicon tube in 1943, RCA entered into a production contract with the U.S. Navy, the first tubes being delivered in January 1944. RCA began production of image orthicons for civilian use in the second quarter of 1946.

While the iconoscope and the intermediate orthicon used capacitance between a multitude of small but discrete light sensitive collectors and an isolated signal plate for reading video information, the image orthicon employed direct charge readings from a continuous electronically charged collector. The resultant signal was immune to most extraneous signal crosstalk from other parts of the target, and could yield extremely detailed images. For instance, image orthicon cameras were still being used by NASA for capturing Apollo/Saturn rockets nearing orbit, although the television networks had phased the cameras out. Only they could provide sufficient detail.

An image orthicon camera can take television pictures by candlelight because of the more ordered light-sensitive area and the presence of an electron multiplier at the base of the tube, which operated as a high-efficiency amplifier. It also has a logarithmic light sensitivity curve similar to the human eye. However, it tends to flare in bright light, causing a dark halo to be seen around the object; this anomaly was referred to as blooming in the broadcast industry when image orthicon tubes were in operation. Image orthicons were used extensively in the early color television cameras, where the increased sensitivity of the tube was essential to overcome the very inefficient, beam-splitting optical system of the camera.

The image orthicon tube was at one point colloquially referred to as an Immy. Harry Lubcke, the then-President of the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, decided to have their award named after this nickname. Since the statuette was female, it was feminized into Emmy.

Operation
An image orthicon consists of three parts: a photocathode with an image store (target), a scanner that reads this image (an electron gun), and a multistage electron multiplier.

In the image store, light falls upon the photocathode which is a photosensitive plate at a very negative potential (approx. -600 V), and is converted into an electron image (a principle borrowed from the image dissector). This electron rain is then accelerated towards the target (a very thin glass plate acting as a semi-isolator) at ground potential (0 V), and passes through a very fine wire mesh (nearly 200 wires per cm), very near (a few hundredths of a cm) and parallel to the target, acting as a screen grid at a slightly positive voltage (approx +2 V). Once the image electrons reach the target, they cause a splash of electrons by the effect of secondary emission. On average, each image electron ejects several splash electrons (thus adding amplification by secondary emission), and these excess electrons are soaked up by the positive mesh effectively removing electrons from the target and causing a positive charge on it in relation to the incident light in the photocathode. The result is an image painted in positive charge, with the brightest portions having the largest positive charge.

A sharply focused beam of electrons (a cathode ray) is generated by the electron gun at ground potential and accelerated by the anode (the first dynode of the electron multiplier) around the gun at a high positive voltage (approx. +1500 V). Once it exits the electron gun, its inertia makes the beam move away from the dynode towards the back side of the target. At this point the electrons lose speed and get deflected by the horizontal and vertical deflection coils, effectively scanning the target. Thanks to the axial magnetic field of the focusing coil, this deflection is not in a straight line, thus when the electrons reach the target they do so perpendicularly avoiding a sideways component. The target is nearly at ground potential with a small positive charge, thus when the electrons reach the target at low speed they are absorbed without ejecting more electrons. This adds negative charge to the positive charge until the region being scanned reaches some threshold negative charge, at which point the scanning electrons are reflected by the negative potential rather than absorbed (in this process the target recovers the electrons needed for the next scan). These reflected electrons return down the cathode ray tube toward the first dynode of the electron multiplier surrounding the electron gun which is at high potential. The number of reflected electrons is a linear measure of the target's original positive charge, which, in turn, is a measure of brightness.

Dark halo

The mysterious dark "orthicon halo" around bright objects in an orthicon-captured image (also known as "blooming") is based on the fact that the IO relies on the emission of photoelectrons, but very bright illumination can produce more of them locally than the device can successfully deal with. At a very bright point on a captured image, a great preponderance of electrons is ejected from the photosensitive plate. So many may be ejected that the corresponding point on the collection mesh can no longer soak them up, and thus they fall back to nearby spots on the target instead, much as water splashes in a ring when a rock is thrown into it. Since the resultant splashed electrons do not contain sufficient energy to eject further electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge that has been built-up in that region. Since darker images produce less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons deposited by the splash will be read as a dark region by the scanning electron beam.

This effect was actually cultivated by tube manufacturers to a certain extent, as a small, carefully controlled amount of the dark halo has the effect of crispening the visual image due to the contrast effect. (That is, giving the illusion of being more sharply focused than it actually is). The later vidicon tube and its descendants (see below) do not exhibit this effect, and so could not be used for broadcast purposes until special detail correction circuitry could be developed.

Vidicon
A vidicon tube is a video camera tube design in which the target material is a photoconductor. The vidicon was developed in the 1950s at RCA by P. K. Weimer, S. V. Forgue and R. R. Goodrich as a simple alternative to the structurally and electrically complex image orthicon. While the initial photoconductor used was selenium, other targets—including silicon diode arrays—have been used.

The vidicon is a storage-type camera tube in which a charge-density pattern is formed by the imaged scene radiation on a photoconductive surface which is then scanned by a beam of low-velocity electrons. The fluctuating voltage coupled out to a video amplifier can be used to reproduce the scene being imaged. The electrical charge produced by an image will remain in the face plate until it is scanned or until the charge dissipates.  By using a pyroelectric material such as triglycine sulfate (TGS) as the target, a vidicon sensitive over a broad portion of the infrared spectrum is possible. This technology was a precursor to modern microbolometer technology, and mainly used in firefighting thermal cameras.

Prior to the design and construction of the Galileo probe to Jupiter, in the late 1970s to early 1980s NASA used vidicon cameras on nearly all the unmanned deep space probes equipped with the remote sensing ability. Vidicon tubes were also used aboard the first three Landsat earth imaging satellites launched in 1972, as part of each spacecraft's Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) imaging system. The Uvicon, a UV-variant Vidicon was also used by NASA for UV duties.

Vidicon tubes were popular in 1970s and 1980s, after which they were rendered obsolete by solid-state image sensors, with the charge-coupled device (CCD) and then the CMOS sensor.

All vidicon and similar tubes are prone to image lag, better known as ghosting, smearing, burn-in, comet tails, luma trails and luminance blooming. Image lag is visible as noticeable (usually white or colored) trails that appear after a bright object (such as a light or reflection) has moved, leaving a trail that eventually fades into the image. The trail itself does not move, rather it progressively fades as time passes, so areas that were exposed first fade before areas that were later exposed fade. It cannot be avoided or eliminated, as it is inherent to the technology. To what degree the image generated by the vidicon is affected will depend on the properties of the target material used on the vidicon, and the capacitance of the target material (known as the storage effect) as well as the resistance of the electron beam used to scan the target. The higher the capacitance of the target, the higher the charge it can hold and the longer it will take for the trail to disappear. The remmanant charges on the target eventually dissipate making the trail disappear.

Plumbicon (1963)

Plumbicon is a registered trademark of Philips from 1963, for its lead(II) oxide (PbO) target vidicons. Used frequently in broadcast camera applications, these tubes have low output, but a high signal-to-noise ratio. They have excellent resolution compared to image orthicons, but lack the artificially sharp edges of IO tubes, which cause some of the viewing audience to perceive them as softer. CBS Labs invented the first outboard edge enhancement circuits to sharpen the edges of Plumbicon generated images.
Philips received the 1966 Technology & Engineering Emmy Award for the Plumbicon.

Compared to Saticons, Plumbicons have much higher resistance to burn-in, and comet and trailing artifacts from bright lights in the shot. Saticons though, usually have slightly higher resolution. After 1980, and the introduction of the diode-gun Plumbicon tube, the resolution of both types was so high, compared to the maximum limits of the broadcasting standard, that the Saticon's resolution advantage became moot. While broadcast cameras migrated to solid-state charge-coupled devices, Plumbicon tubes remained a staple imaging device in the medical field. High resolution Plumbicons were made for the HD-MAC standard.

Until 2016, Narragansett Imaging was the last company making Plumbicons, using factories Philips built in Rhode Island, USA. While still a part of Philips, the company purchased EEV's (English Electric Valve) lead oxide camera tube business, and gained a monopoly in lead-oxide tube production.

Saticon (1973)
Saticon is a registered trademark of Hitachi from 1973, also produced by Thomson and Sony. It was developed in a joint effort by Hitachi and NHK Science & Technology Research Laboratories (NHK is The Japan Broadcasting Corporation). Its surface consists of selenium with trace amounts of arsenic and tellurium added (SeAsTe) to make the signal more stable. SAT in the name is derived from (SeAsTe). Saticon tubes have an average light sensitivity equivalent to that of 64 ASA film. A high-gain avalanche rushing amorphous photoconductor (HARP) can be used to increase light sensitivity to up to 10 times that of conventional saticons. Saticons were made for the Sony HDVS system, used to produce early analog high-definition television using multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding.

Pasecon (1972)
Originally developed by Toshiba in 1972 as chalnicon, Pasecon is a registered trademark of Heimann GmbH from 1977. Its surface consists of cadmium selenide trioxide (CdSeO3). Due to its wide spectral response, it is labelled as panchromatic selenium vidicon, hence the acronym 'pasecon'.

Newvicon (1973)
Newvicon is a registered trademark of Matsushita from 1973. The Newvicon tubes were characterized by high light sensitivity. Its surface consists of a combination of zinc selenide (ZnSe) and zinc cadmium Telluride (ZnCdTe).

Trinicon (1971)
Trinicon is a registered trademark of Sony from 1971. It uses a vertically striped RGB color filter over the faceplate of an otherwise standard vidicon imaging tube to segment the scan into corresponding red, green and blue segments. Only one tube was used in the camera, instead of a tube for each color, as was standard for color cameras used in television broadcasting. It is used mostly in low-end consumer cameras, such as the HVC-2200 and HVC-2400 models, though Sony also used it in some moderate cost professional cameras in the 1980s, such as the DXC-1800 and BVP-1 models.

Although the idea of using color stripe filters over the target was not new, the Trinicon was the only tube to use the primary RGB colors. This necessitated an additional electrode buried in the target to detect where the scanning electron beam was relative to the stripe filter. Previous color stripe systems had used colors where the color circuitry was able to separate the colors purely from the relative amplitudes of the signals. As a result, the Trinicon featured a larger dynamic range of operation.

Sony later combined the Saticon tube with the Trinicon's RGB color filter, providing low-light sensitivity and superior color. This type of tube was known as the SMF Trinicon tube, or Saticon Mixed Field. SMF Trinicon tubes were used in the HVC-2800 and HVC-2500 consumer cameras, as well as the first Betamovie camcorders.

Light biasing
All the vidicon type tubes except the vidicon itself were able to use a light biasing technique to improve the sensitivity and contrast. The photosensitive target in these tubes suffered from the limitation that the light level had to rise to a particular level before any video output resulted. Light biasing was a method whereby the photosensitive target was illuminated from a light source just enough that no appreciable output was obtained, but such that a slight increase in light level from the scene was enough to provide discernible output. The light came from either an illuminator mounted around the target, or in more professional cameras from a light source on the base of the tube and guided to the target by light piping. The technique would not work with the baseline vidicon tube because it suffered from the limitation that as the target was fundamentally an insulator, the constant low light level built up a charge which would manifest itself as a form of fogging. The other types had semiconducting targets which did not have this problem.

Color cameras
Early color cameras used the obvious technique of using separate red, green and blue image tubes in conjunction with a color separator, a technique still in use with 3CCD solid state cameras today. It was also possible to construct a color camera that used a single image tube. One technique has already been described (Trinicon above). A more common technique and a simpler one from the tube construction standpoint was to overlay the photosensitive target with a color striped filter having a fine pattern of vertical stripes of green, cyan and clear filters (i.e. green; green and blue; and green, blue and red) repeating across the target. The advantage of this arrangement was that for virtually every color, the video level of the green component was always less than the cyan, and similarly the cyan was always less than the white. Thus the contributing images could be separated without any reference electrodes in the tube. If the three levels were the same, then that part of the scene was green. This method suffered from the disadvantage that the light levels under the three filters were almost certain to be different, with the green filter passing not more than one third of the available light.

Variations on this scheme exist, the principal one being to use two filters with color stripes overlaid such that the colors form vertically oriented lozenge shapes overlaying the target. The method of extracting the color is similar however.

Field-sequential color system
During the 1930s and 1940s, field-sequential color systems were developed which used synchronized motor-driven color-filter disks at the camera's image tube and at the television receiver. Each disk consisted of red, blue, and green transparent color filters. In the camera, the disk was in the optical path, and in the receiver, it was in front of the CRT. Disk rotation was synchronized with vertical scanning so that each vertical scan in sequence was for a different primary color. This method allowed regular black-and-white image tubes and CRTs to generate and display color images. A field-sequential system developed by Peter Goldmark for CBS was demonstrated to the press on September 4, 1940, and was first shown to the general public on January 12, 1950. Guillermo González Camarena independently developed a field-sequential color disk system in Mexico in the early 1940s, for which he requested a patent in Mexico on August 19 of 1940 and in the US in 1941. Gonzalez Camarena produced his color television system in his laboratory Gon-Cam for the Mexican market and exported it to the Columbia College of Chicago, who regarded it as the best system in the world.

Magnetic focusing in typical camera tubes
The phenomenon known as magnetic focusing was discovered by A. A. Campbell-Swinton in 1896. He found that a longitudinal magnetic field generated by an axial coil can focus an electron beam. This phenomenon was immediately corroborated by J. A. Fleming, and Hans Busch gave a complete mathematical interpretation in 1926.

Diagrams in this article show that the focus coil surrounds the camera tube; it is much longer than the focus coils for earlier TV CRTs. Camera-tube focus coils, by themselves, have essentially parallel lines of force, very different from the localized semi-toroidal magnetic field geometry inside a TV receiver CRT focus coil. The latter is essentially a magnetic lens; it focuses the "crossover" (between the CRT's cathode and G1 electrode, where the electrons pinch together and diverge again) onto the screen.

The electron optics of camera tubes differ considerably. Electrons inside these long focus coils take helical paths as they travel along the length of the tube. The center (think local axis) of one of those helices is like a line of force of the magnetic field. While the electrons are traveling, the helices essentially don't matter. Assuming that they start from a point, the electrons will focus to a point again at a distance determined by the strength of the field. Focusing a tube with this kind of coil is simply a matter of trimming the coil's current. In effect, the electrons travel along the lines of force, although helically, in detail.

These focus coils are essentially as long as the tubes themselves, and surround the deflection yoke (coils). Deflection fields bend the lines of force (with negligible defocusing), and the electrons follow the lines of force.

In a conventional magnetically deflected CRT, such as in a TV receiver or computer monitor, basically the vertical deflection coils are equivalent to coils wound around an horizontal axis. That axis is perpendicular to the neck of the tube; lines of force are basically horizontal. (In detail, coils in a deflection yoke extend some distance beyond the neck of the tube, and lie close to the flare of the bulb; they have a truly distinctive appearance.)

In a magnetically focused camera tube (there are electrostatically focused vidicons), the vertical deflection coils are above and below the tube, instead of being on both sides of it. One might say that this sort of deflection starts to create S-bends in the lines of force, but doesn't become anywhere near to that extreme.

Size
The size of video camera tubes is simply the overall outside diameter of the glass envelope. This differs from the size of the sensitive area of the target which is typically two thirds of the size of the overall diameter. Tube sizes are always expressed in inches for historical reasons. A one-inch camera tube has a sensitive area of approximately two thirds of an inch on the diagonal or about 16 mm.

Although the video camera tube is now technologically obsolete, the size of solid-state image sensors is still expressed as the equivalent size of a camera tube. For this purpose a new term was coined and it is known as the optical format. The optical format is approximately the true diagonal of the sensor multiplied by .  The result is expressed in inches and is usually, though not always, rounded to a convenient fraction (hence the approximation). For instance, a  sensor has a diagonal of  and therefore an optical format of 8.0 ×  = , which is rounded to the convenient imperial fraction of . The parameter is also the source of the "Four Thirds" in the Four Thirds system and its Micro Four Thirds extension—the imaging area of the sensor in these cameras is approximately that of a  video-camera tube at approximately .

Although the optical format size bears no relationship to any physical parameter of the sensor, its use means that a lens that would have been used with (say) a -inch camera tube will give roughly the same angle of view when used with a solid-state sensor with an optical format of  of an inch.

Late use and decline
The lifespan of videotube technology reached as far as the 90s, when high definition, 1035-line videotubes were used in the early MUSE HD broadcasting system. While CCDs were tested for this application, as of 1993 broadcasters still found them inadequate due to issues achieving the necessary high resolution without compromising image quality with undesirable side-effects.

Modern charge-coupled device (CCD) and CMOS-based sensors offer many advantages over their tube counterparts. These include a lack of image lag, high overall picture quality, high light sensitivity and dynamic range, a better signal-to-noise ratio and significantly higher reliability and ruggedness. Other advantages include the elimination of the respective high and low-voltage power supplies required for the electron beam and heater filament, elimination of the drive circuitry for the focusing coils, no warm-up time and a significantly lower overall power consumption. Despite these advantages, acceptance and incorporation of solid-state sensors into television and video cameras was not immediate. Early sensors were of lower resolution and performance than picture tubes, and were initially relegated to consumer-grade video recording equipment.

Also, video tubes had progressed to a high standard of quality and were standard issue equipment to networks and production entities. Those entities had a substantial investment in not only tube cameras, but also in the ancillary equipment needed to correctly process tube-derived video. A switch-over to solid-state image sensors rendered much of that equipment (and the investments behind it) obsolete and required new equipment optimized to work well with solid-state sensors, just as the old equipment was optimized for tube-sourced video.

See also
Monoscope
Professional video camera

References

External links
Orthicon: Brief history, description and diagram.
The Cathode Ray Tube site
CCD Technology - A Brief History
The German TV museum with a lot of knowledge (in German)
Most of the TV tubes were shown and carefully explained (in German)

Television technology
Vacuum tubes

Video camera tube


Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Estelí, conservada en la catedral de Estelí, Nicaragua, es una representación de la Virgen del Rosario consiste en una imagen de vestir, de escultor desconocido, tallada en madera de cuerpo completo; su ejecución es de mediados del siglo XVII. Según algunas crónicas fue trasladada de España y cambiada por equivocación en el Puerto de León; para otros cronistas la trasladaron los fundadores de la ciudad de Nueva Segovia. Lleva en su brazo izquierdo un Niño Jesús de escultura entera. Es la santa patrona de la diócesis de Estelí y titular de la catedral.

Historia
La imagen fue trasladada desde un Continente europeo tras la fundación de Nueva Segovia. Data aproximadamente del Siglo XVII. Con el tiempo, como veneración se han originado historias que han marcado la devoción a la imagen. Tras el ataque de los piratas en la ciudad, los pobladores dejan el lugar y se asientan en la Villa de San Antonio de Pavia de Estelí, en la actualidad Villa Vieja (primer asentamiento de Estelí). Según las crónicas, a la llegada de los pobladores llevaban entre sus reliquias las sagradas imágenes de Nuestra Señora del Rosario, San Antonio de Padua y el Cristo Crucificado del Desprendimiento de las Misericordias.

Otras crónicas narran que el destino de la imagen era la ciudad de León, pero por equivocación de los bultos en el envío ésta llegó a Estelí.

Durante la Revolución Liberal del General José Santos Zelaya, el gobierno puso en vigencia una Constitución que separaba a la Iglesia del Estado. En esta reforma la Virgen perdió todas las pertenencias que hasta ese momento tenía, desde el hato de 2000 cabezas de ganado como todas las joyas que sus devotos le habían obsequiado como agradecimiento. La ley estipulaba que ninguna propiedad podía estar en manos de ningún santo de la Iglesia.

Leyendas
Durante el cambio de sitio de la ciudad, llevaban consigo las imágenes hasta quedar en el actual templo (a excepción de san Antonio de Padua, que fue trasladado con el tiempo a la Parroquia San Antonio). En 1928 la ciudad sufrió el ataque de los indios Matagalpa y la imagen de la virgen fue codiciada por ellos. Según las anécdotas narradas en crónicas de ese tiempo, los indígenas intentaron sacar la imagen de la ermita, cuando la quisieron pasar por la puerta principal, la imagen creció demasiado que no pudo ser sacada y por mucho tiempo la denominaron  como la Virgen bruja, por el hecho de no poderla robar.

Durante la guerra de la insurrección, la catedral se llenaba de personas que elevaban súplicas a la Santísima Virgen para que protegiera a los combatientes. En un momento quisieron abrir el camarín de la virgen para ponerle exvotos, pero no pudieron. Cuando los comabatientes volvieron de la guerra, testimoniaban haber visto a la Virgen que les regalaba agua a los caídos en combate. Al abrir el camarín, descubrieron que el vestido de la imagen estaba sucio y ahumado. Desde entonces cada 7 de octubre salía en Procesión en agradecimiento por su ayuda durante la guerra.

Vestimentas
La imagen de la Virgen es cambiada de vestimenta tres veces al año. La primera se da la noche del Sábado Santo, en la que se viste de blanco, se le quita al Niño Jesús y sale en procesión el día Domingo de Resurrección al encuentro del resucitado.

El Domingo de Resurrección pasa expuesta a veneración de los fieles fuera de su camerín. Por la noche se le cambia vestimenta, vistiéndola con cualquiera de los años anteriores. Se vuelve a cambiar hasta las fiestas en octubre.

El tercer cambio se da para las fiestas en octubre. Se cambia para su Solemnidad del día 6 y 7 de octubre.

Celebración
Las celebraciones en honor de la Patrona de la Diócesis y Titular de la Catedral, empiezan con la bajada de la imagen el 28 de septiembre y puesta en una tarima en el lado derecho del altar mayor. Durante nueve días se hacen los rezos de la novena y del santo rosario. Durante la novena una replica pequeña de la imagen sale en procesión por las parroquias. El día 6 de octubre, la Virgen se cambia vestimenta (Varia todos los años). Por la mañana, los devotos asisten a la Eucaristía con la emoción de ver a la Virgen con su nuevo vestido, por la noche se realiza una alborada. El 7 de octubre, se celebra la serenata de la Virgen a las 5 a.m. Se realiza una solemne Eucaristía a las 10 a.m. y a mediodía sale en procesión por la ciudad, cargada en hombros por sus devotos en compañía de las diferentes pastorales que integran la catedral, clero de la diócesis, bandas filarmónica, colegios católicos y todo el pueblo católico esteliano.

Véase también

 Rosario (catolicismo)
 Historia del Rosario

 Catedral Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Estelí
 Estelí
 Nueva Segovia
 San Antonio de Padua

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Advocaciones marianas de Nicaragua
Estelí
Virgen del Rosario

Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Estelí


Tromsø, (Tromsø Idrettslag) Norveç Ligi takımlarından biridir. Tarihinde şampiyonluğu bulunmayan Kırmızı-Beyazlılar'ın herhangi bir Avrupa başarısı da yoktur. Sahasında Chelsea, Galatasaray, Partizan, Beşiktaş gibi önemli takımları yenme başarısı göstermiştir. 16 takımlı Norveç Ligi'nde Tromsø bu sezonu 3. sırada bitirmiştir. Kutuba 500 kilometre mesafede bulunan Tromsø, Dünya'nın en kuzey ucundaki futbol takımlarından biri konumundadır. Ayrıca Tromsø'nun Norveç ligindeki en büyük başarısı 2.'liktir.

Tromsø, 1986 yılında ilk kez Norgesmesterskapeti kazanmıştır. 1997-98 UEFA Kupa Galipleri Kupası'nda Chelsea takımını ilk maçta evinde 3-2 yenmesine rağmen rövanş maçında Stamford Bridge'de 7-1 kaybetmiştir. 2005 yılında Tromsö IL UEFA Kupası ilk turunda Galatasaray ile karşılaştı. Eski UEFA şampiyonu Galatasaray, Tromsø'nün soğuk Arktik ikliminin kurbanı olan ikinci büyük Avrupa kulübü oldu. Tromsö'deki çamur, yağmur ve kar kaplı olan maçın, 77. dakikada Macar futbolcu Tamas Szekeres'in golü sonrası evinde 1-0 kazandı. Tromsö IL, rövanşta korkulan Ali Sami Yen Stadyumu'nda Galatasaray ile 1-1 berabere kalarak tur atlamıştır.

Tromsø IL, 2009-10 UEFA Avrupa Ligi mücadelesinde ünlü İspanyol kulübü Athletic Bilbao ile sahasında 1-1 berabere kalmış, deplasmanda ise 3-2 mağlup olmuştur.

2012-2013 UEFA Avrupa Ligi Play-off maçında, 2011-2012 sezonu Superliga Şampiyonu Partizan takımını sahasında 3-2 mağlup etmiş, rövanşta ise 1-0 yenilerek elenmiştir.

Avrupa maçları
 Tromsø'nun maçları listelenmiştir.

Güncel kadro

Başarılar
 Norgesmesterskapet:
 Şampiyon (2): 1986, 1996
 Eliteserien:
 İkincilik (1): 1990

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Norveç'teki futbol kulüpleri
1920'de kurulan futbol kulüpleri

Tromsø IL


is a town located in Kanzaki District, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 11,275 in 4917 households and a population density of 53 persons per km². The total area of the town is .

Geography
Ichikawa is located in the center of Hyōgo Prefecture, with the Ichikawa River flowing through the center of town. Mt. Kasagata (elevation 939m), which rises in the northeastern part of the town, is also called "Harima Fuji" for its silhouette.

Neighbouring municipalities
Hyōgo Prefecture
 Himeji
 Kasai
 Fukusaki
 Kamikawa
 Taka

Climate
Ichikawa has a Humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) characterized by warm summers and cool winters with light snowfall.  The average annual temperature in Ichikawa is 13.9 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1606 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 25.6 °C, and lowest in January, at around 2.6 °C.

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Ichikawa has declined steadily over the last 30 years.

History
The area of the modern town of Ichikawa was within ancient Harima Province. In the Edo Period, it was divided between Himeji Domain and tenryō territory under direct administration of the Tokugawa shogunate. Following the Meiji restoration, the villages of Amaji, Kawanabe, Seka and Tsurui were created within Kanzaki District, Hyōgo. The four villages merged on March 31, 1955 forming the town of Ichikawa.

Government
Ichikawa has a mayor-council form of government with a directly elected mayor and a unicameral town council of 12 members. Ichikawa, together with the other municipalities of Kanzaki District, contributes one member to the Hyogo Prefectural Assembly. In terms of national politics, the town is part of Hyōgo 12th district of the lower house of the Diet of Japan.

Economy
The manufacturing of golf clubs in Japan began in Ichikawa in 1945. Currently there are about 20 different companies in Ichikawa contributing to the Japanese golf equipment industry. Products from the town are exported overseas. There is also a large golf course in the center of the town, called Forest Ichikawa Golf Club.

In addition to golf equipment manufacturing, Ichikawa is home to Tazumi no Tamago, or Tazumi's Eggs, a chicken farm that produces organic eggs. The eggs are sold in various restaurants and markets in Ichikawa.

Education
Ichikawa  has four public elementary schools and one public middle school operated by the Ichikawa Board of Education. There is one public high school operated by the Hyōgo Prefectural Department of Education.

 Ichikawa High School
 Ichikawa Junior High School
 Amaji Elementary School
 Kawanabe Elementary School
 Tsurui Elementary School
 Seka Elementary School

Transportation

Railway
 JR West – Bantan Line
   -

Highway
  Bantan Renraku Road

Sister city relations
 - Port Townsend, Washington in the United States, from October 24, 2002

References

External links

Ichikawa official website

Towns in Hyōgo Prefecture
Ichikawa, Hyōgo

Ichikawa, Hyōgo


Heino Kruus (Tallin, Estonia, 30 de septiembre de 1926 - 24 de junio de 2012) fue un jugador soviético de baloncesto.
Consiguió tres medallas en competiciones internacionales con la selección de la Unión Soviética.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en sportsreference

Nacidos en Tallin
Baloncestistas de la Unión Soviética
Baloncestistas en los Juegos Olímpicos de Helsinki 1952
Medallistas olímpicos de baloncesto
Medallistas olímpicos de plata de la Unión Soviética
Medallistas olímpicos de plata de Helsinki 1952
Baloncestistas de la selección de la Unión Soviética
Baloncestistas del Tartu Üllikool Rock
Entrenadores de baloncesto de Estonia

Heino Kruus


An Eleocharis deightonii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Sheila Spenser Hooper. An Eleocharis deightonii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Eleocharis, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo diri gud kababarak-an. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Eleocharis

Eleocharis deightonii


L'ambassade de Sierra Leone en Guinée est la principale représentation diplomatique de la république de Sierra Leone en Guinée.

Histoire

Liste des ambassadeurs

Références

Guinée
Sierra Leone

Ambassade de Sierra Leone en Guinée


نصر بن عاصم الليثى (…- 89 هـ = …- 708 م)، هو نصر بن عاصم بن عمرو بن خالد بن حرام بن أسعد بن وديعة بن مالك بن قيس بن عامر بن ليث بن بكر بن عبد مناة بن كنانة من قبيلة كنانة كان فقيها فصيحاً عالماً بالعربية، من تلامذة أبي الأسود الدؤلي الكناني. يعدّ من علماء النحو المبرزين في زمانه، يقال أنه أول من وضع النقاط على الحروف في اللغة العربية بأمر من الحجاج بن يوسف. وتوفي في البصرة.

أقوال في نصر بن عاصم
 قال عمر بن دينار: «اجتمعت أنا والزهري ونصر بن عاصم، فتكلم نصر، فقال الزهري: إنه ليفلّق بالعربية تفليقاً».
 قال بعض الرواة: إن نصر ابن عاصم «أول من وضع النحو وسببه».
 قال السيرافي: إنه «أوّل من وضع العربية».
 قال ابن النديم: «وقال آخرون: رسم النحو نصر بن عاصم».
 قال أبو البركات الأنباري: «وزعم قوم أن أول من وضع النحو نصر بن عاصم».
والحق أنه ليس أول من وضـع النحو، كما زعم بعض الرواة، فقد برز قبله جماعة منهم عليّ بن أبي طالب وأبو الأسود، والصواب أنه من أول من أخـذ النحو عن أبي الأسود، وفتق فيه القياس، وكان أنبل الجماعة الذين أخذوه عن أبي الأسود فنسب إليه - كـما يقول القفطي.

ولعـل من نسب إليه أوليّة النحو قصد نقط المصاحف الإِعجاميّ، وهو إكمال لصنيع شيخه أبي الأسود، أو أنه وضع شيئاً من النحو في كتاب، فقد روى ياقوت أنّ له كتاباً في النحو.

ولنصر بن عاصم تلامذة مشهورون في النحو كعبد الله بن أبي إسحاق الحضرميّ وأبي عمرو بن العلاء.

وقد يكون لتلمذة هؤلاء الأعلام عليه وأخذهم النحو عنه دور مباشر أو غير مباشر في نسبة وضع النحو إليه، فالمعتاد أن يعلي التلميذ من قدر شيخه.

اختلف علماء العربيَّة قديماً وحديثاً في أمر واضع النَّحو العربي، وتضاربت آراؤهم، وتباينت توجيهاتهم، وردّ بعضهم على بعض، فبعضهم يقول: إنّه عليّ بن أبي طالب - - ويقول بعضهم: إنَّه أبو الأسود الدؤلي، ويراه بعضهم الآخر نصر بن عاصم، في حين يرى فريق منهم أنّه عبد الرحمن بن هرمز المدني.

تذهب الروايات إلى أن اللحن في قراءة القرآن الكريم انتشر بانتشار الإسلام ودخول الأعاجم في الدين الجديد، فقام زياد بن أبيه بطلب حل هذه المشكلة من أبي الأسود الدؤلي، فقام الأخير بنقط المصحف "إضافة الضمة والكسرة والفتحة والتنوين " إلى أواخر الكلمات، ثم قام نصر بن عاصم ويحيى بن يعمر بإعجام الكلمات" وأول من وضع النقط على الحروف هو نصر بن عاصم ليس أبو الأسود الدؤلي، ثم تابع الخليل بن أحمد الفراهيدي بوضع الشكل النهائي لتشكيل المصحف.

المراجع

المصدر
 موقع الشهاب للإعلام

أشخاص من قبيلة كنانة
شعراء بالعربية في القرن 7
عرب في القرن 7
لغويون عرب في القرون الوسطى
نحاة البصرة
نحاة العراق
نحاة المدرسة البصرية
نحاة عرب
نحاة في القرن 1 هـ
وفيات 708
وفيات 89 هـ

نصر بن عاصم الليثي


Akyünlü, Tunceli ilinin Mazgirt ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Yerleşimin eski ismi "Çantur" olup 1960 yolu nüfus sayımından itibaren Akyünlü adıyla kayıtlarda yer almaktadır.

Coğrafya
Tunceli il merkezine 10 km, Mazgirt ilçesine 10 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Yerelnet

Mazgirt belde ve köyleri

Akyünlü, Mazgirt


Esta é uma lista de prêmios e indicações recebidos por Halo 4 e sua web série homônima complementar, um jogo eletrônico de tiro em primeira pessoa desenvolvido pela 343 Industries e publicado pela Microsoft Studios. A história de Halo 4 segue um supersoldado humano aprimorado ciberneticamente, Master Chief, e sua inteligência artificial constrói Cortana, enquanto encontram ameaças desconhecidas enquanto exploram o planeta de uma antiga civilização. O título foi anunciado oficialmente em foram anunciados oficialmente em 6 de junho de 2011 durante a Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) daquele ano, rapidamente se tornando um dos títulos mais antecipados para o ano seguinte. Halo 4 foi a primeira entrada da "Saga Reclaimer" dos jogos Halo e o primeiro jogo principal a não ser desenvolvido pela criadora original da franquia, Bungie.

Lançado em 6 de novembro de 2012 exclusivamente para o Xbox 360, Halo 4 recebeu análises "geralmente favoráveis" dos críticos, de acordo com o agregador de resenhas Metacritic; foi o jogo de Xbox 360 com a décima sétima maior pontuação no Metacritic em 2012, e o quadragésimo segundo com a maior pontuação no geral naquele ano. O jogo foi um grande sucesso comercial, arrecadando mais 220  milhões de dólares em 24 horas após seu lançamento e 300 milhões de dólares em sua semana de estreia—um recorde para a franquia. Mais de um milhão de pessoas jogaram Halo 4 no Xbox Live nas primeiras 24 horas de seu lançamento. Com 9,75 milhões de cópias mundialmente, Halo 4 foi o quinto jogo mais vendido de 2012 e o quarto mais vendido em toda franquia, atrás de Halo 3, Halo: Reach e Halo 5: Guardians respectivamente.

Halo 4 e sua web série de ficção-científica Forward Unto Dawn lançada em conjunto com o jogo para promovê-lo, foram amplamente premiadas, com honrarias especiais principalmente para seus visuais, direção artística, trilha sonora, design de áudio, performances e enredo. Foi o jogo com maior número de indicações durante o Spike Video Game Awards 2012, vencendo as categorias de "Melhor Jogo de Xbox 360" e "Melhores Gráficos". O jogo recebeu oito indicações durante o Inside Gaming Awards 2012, vencendo nas categorias de "Jogo do Ano", "Melhor Multiplayer Competitivo" e "Melhor Design de Som". Durante o 16º D.I.C.E. Awards, o jogo venceu as categorias de "Excêlência em Conectividade" e "Excelência em Engenharia Visual". Ele também recebeu várias outras nomeações em categorias de Jogo do Ano, vencendo na edição de 2012 do Titanium Awards, recebendo tal indicação também no Golden Joystick Awards e X-Play Awards. Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn também recebeu prêmios complementares á Halo 4. A web série recebeu nove indicações durante o 3º Streamy Awards, atrás de MyMusic. Recebeu quatro prêmios, "Melhor Série Dramática", "Melhor Edição", "Melhor Design de Produção" e "Melhor Fotografia", também sendo indicada a "Série do Ano". A web série também venceu a categoria "Melhor Edição de Som: Entretenimento Episódico de Computação" no Motion Picture Sound Editors e foi indicada na categoria "Excelência em Design Principal" no Prémios Emmy do Primetime de 2013, marcando a primeira vez que uma produção de mídia baseada em videogames é indicada ao Emmy.

Além das premiações, Halo 4 também recebeu honrarias de publicações de jogos eletrônicos. A IGN nomeou o título como "Melhor Jogo de Xbox 360", "Melhor Jogo de Tiro no Xbox 360", "Melhores Gráficos no Xbox 360", "Melhor Áudio no Xbox 360", "Melhor Jogo Multiplayer no Xbox 360", "Melhor Jogo Multiplayer Geral", "Melhores Gráficos em Geral" e "Melhor Áudio em Geral". O jogo recebeu o prêmio de "Jogo de Tiro do Ano" pela GamesRadar, além de ter sido indicado a "Jogo do Ano". Na GameSpots Best Games of 2012, o jogo recebeu o prêmio de "Melhor Jogo de Tiro", junto das indicações de "Jogo do Ano no Xbox 360" e "Jogo do Ano Geral". Halo 4 recebeu o prêmio de "Melhor Jogo de Tiro" e a 343 Industries recebeu o prêmio de "Desenvolvedora do Ano" pela ''OXM.

Prêmios e indicações de premiações

Honrarias de publicações

Ligações externas
Página oficial
Halo 4 no Xbox.com
Prêmios de Halo 4 no Internet Movie Database
Prêmios de Halo 4: Forward Unto Dawn no Internet Movie Database

Halo 4
Jogos da série Halo

Lista de prêmios e indicações recebidos por Halo 4


Descartesov list je ravninska algebarska krivulja trećeg reda u Kartezijevu koordinatnom sustavu koja je određena jednadžbom . Ova krivulja u ishodištu koordinatnoga sustava ima čvornu točku koja za tangente ima koordinatne osi i asimptotu . Tjeme krivulje, tj. sjecište njena dva luka koja se vide na slici, ima koordinate , a površina je petlje kao i površina dijela ravnine između krivulje i asimptote .

Nazvana je prema slavnom francuskom matematičaru i filozofu Renéu Descartesu koji ju je proučavao 1638. i pronašao njezin oblik u I. kvadrantu, no pogrešno je mislio da se on ponavlja u ostala tri. Njezin točan oblik odredio je Huygens 1692. godine, odredivši pri tome i jednadžbu njene asimptote. Krivulja je postala poznata po svojoj povijesnoj ulozi u razvoju infinitezimalnog računa, a isto tako je Descartesov list povijesno važan i zbog činjenice da se u njegovim razmatranjima te krivulje prvi puta može vidjeti transformacija koordinata. Treba ju distinkcirati od tzv. Descartesovog ovala.

Zanimljivo je da je Descartes izazvao Pierra de Fermata da nađe tangentu krivulje u svakoj točki zbog toga što je baš u to vrijeme Fermat otkrio metodu za pronalaženje tangenti. Fermat je riješio problem bez teškoća, što se ne može reći za Descartesa. Inače, nagib tangente u svakoj točki danas se lako može izračunati implicitnom diferencijacijom.

Lako se dobije da je formula za nagib tangente u svakoj točki .

Izvori

Matematika

Descartesov list