Gestalt therapy is a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes personal responsibility and focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment, the therapist–client relationship, the environmental and social contexts of a person's life, and the self-regulating adjustments people make as a result of their overall situation. It was developed by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s and 1950s, and was first described in the 1951 book Gestalt Therapy.

Overview
Edwin Nevis, co-founder of the Gestalt Institute of Cleveland, founder of the Gestalt International Study Center, and faculty member at the MIT Sloan School of Management, described Gestalt therapy as "a conceptual and methodological base from which helping professionals can craft their practice". In the same volume, Joel Latner stated that Gestalt therapy is built upon two central ideas:
 that the most helpful focus of psychotherapy is the experiential present moment, and that everyone is caught in webs of relationships;
 thus, it is only possible to know ourselves against the background of our relationships to others.
The historical development of Gestalt therapy (described below) discloses the influences that generated these two ideas. Expanded, they support the four chief theoretical constructs (explained in the theory and practice section) that comprise Gestalt theory, and that guide the practice and application of Gestalt therapy.

Gestalt therapy was forged from various influences upon the lives of its founders during the times in which they lived, including the new physics, Eastern religion, existential phenomenology, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalysis, experimental theatre, systems theory, and field theory. Gestalt therapy rose from its beginnings in the middle of the 20th century to rapid and widespread popularity during the decade of the 1960s and early 1970s. During the 1970s and 80s Gestalt therapy training centers spread globally; but they were, for the most part, not aligned with formal academic settings. As the cognitive revolution eclipsed Gestalt theory in psychology, many came to believe Gestalt was an anachronism. Because Gestalt therapists disdained the positivism underlying what they perceived to be the concern of research, they largely ignored the need to use research to further develop Gestalt theory and Gestalt therapy practice (with a few exceptions like Les Greenberg; see the interview "Validating Gestalt"). However, the new century has seen a sea change in attitudes toward research and Gestalt practice. In March 2020, Vikram Kolmannskog became the world's first Professor of Gestalt Therapy at the Norwegian Gestalt Institute, where he has been teaching and researching since 2015.

Gestalt therapy is not identical to Gestalt psychology, but Gestalt psychology influenced the development of Gestalt therapy to a large extent.

Gestalt therapy focuses on process (what is actually happening) over content (what is being talked about). The emphasis is on what is being done, thought, and felt at the present moment (the phenomenality of both client and therapist), rather than on what was, might be, could be, or should have been. Gestalt therapy is a method of awareness practice (also called "mindfulness" in other clinical domains), by which perceiving, feeling, and acting are understood to be conducive to interpreting, explaining, and conceptualizing (the hermeneutics of experience). This distinction between direct experience versus indirect or secondary interpretation is developed in the process of therapy. The client learns to become aware of what they are doing and that triggers the ability to risk a shift or change.

The objective of Gestalt therapy is to enable the client to become more fully and creatively alive and to become free from the blocks and unfinished business that may diminish satisfaction, fulfillment, and growth, and to experiment with new ways of being. For this reason Gestalt therapy falls within the category of humanistic psychotherapies. As Gestalt therapy includes perception and the meaning-making processes by which experience forms, it can also be considered a cognitive approach.  Also, because Gestalt therapy relies on the contact between therapist and client, and because a relationship can be considered to be contact over time, Gestalt therapy can be considered a relational or interpersonal approach.  As it appreciates the larger picture which is the complex situation involving multiple influences in a complex situation, it can also be considered a multi-systemic approach. In addition, the processes of Gestalt therapy are experimental, involving action, Gestalt therapy can be considered both a paradoxical and an experiential/experimental approach.

When Gestalt therapy is compared to other clinical domains, a person can find many matches, or points of similarity. "Probably the clearest case of consilience is between gestalt therapy's field perspective and the various organismic and field theories that proliferated in neuroscience, medicine, and physics in the early and mid-20th century.  Within social science there is a consilience between gestalt field theory and systems or ecological psychotherapy; between the concept of dialogical relationship and object relations, attachment theory, client-centered therapy and the transference-oriented approaches; between the existential, phenomenological, and hermeneutical aspects of gestalt therapy and the constructivist aspects of cognitive therapy; and between gestalt therapy's commitment to awareness and the natural processes of healing and mindfulness, acceptance and Buddhist techniques adopted by cognitive behavioral therapy."

Contemporary theory and practice
The theoretical foundations of Gestalt therapy essentially rests atop four "load-bearing walls": phenomenological method, dialogical relationship, field-theoretical strategies, and experimental freedom. Although all these tenets were present in the early formulation and practice of Gestalt therapy, as described in Ego, Hunger and Aggression (Perls, 1947) and in Gestalt Therapy, Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality (Perls, Hefferline, & Goodman, 1951), the early development of Gestalt therapy theory emphasized personal experience and the experiential episodes understood as "safe emergencies" or experiments. Indeed, half of the Perls, Hefferline, and Goodman book consists of such experiments. Later, through the influence of such people as Erving and Miriam Polster, a second theoretical emphasis emerged: namely, contact between self and other, and ultimately the dialogical relationship between therapist and client. Later still, field theory emerged as an emphasis. At various times over the decades, since Gestalt therapy first emerged, one or more of these tenets and the associated constructs that go with them have captured the imagination of those who have continued developing the contemporary theory of Gestalt therapy. Since 1990 the literature focused upon Gestalt therapy has flourished, including the development of several professional Gestalt journals. Along the way, Gestalt therapy theory has also been applied in Organizational Development and coaching work. And, more recently, Gestalt methods have been combined with meditation practices into a unified program of human development called Gestalt Practice, which is used by some practitioners.

Richard G. Erskine, the originator of Integrative Psychotherapy (Developmentally Based, Relationally Focused), has written about the treatment of shame and self-righteousness in "A Gestalt therapy approach to shame and self-righteousness: theory and methods" from his book Relational Patterns, Therapeutic Presence: Concepts and Practice of Integrative Psychotherapy (2015).

Phenomenological method
The goal of a phenomenological exploration is awareness. This exploration works systematically to reduce the effects of bias through repeated observations and inquiry.

The phenomenological method comprises three steps:
 Applying the rule of epoché - one sets aside one's initial biases and prejudices in order to suspend expectations and assumptions.
 Applying the rule of description - one occupies oneself with describing instead of explaining.
 Applying the rule of horizontalization - one treats each item of description as having equal value or significance.

The rule of epoché sets aside any initial theories with regard to what is presented in the meeting between therapist and client. The rule of description implies immediate and specific observations, abstaining from interpretations or explanations, especially those formed from the application of a clinical theory superimposed over the circumstances of experience. The rule of horizontalization avoids any hierarchical assignment of importance such that the data of experience become prioritized and categorized as they are received. A Gestalt therapist using the phenomenological method might say something like, "I notice a slight tension at the corners of your mouth when I say that, and I see you shifting on the couch and folding your arms across your chest ... and now I see you rolling your eyes back". Of course, the therapist may make a clinically relevant evaluation, but when applying the phenomenological method, temporarily suspends the need to express it.

Dialogical relationship
To create the conditions under which a dialogic moment might occur, the therapist attends to their own presence, creates the space for the client to enter in and become present as well (called inclusion), and commits themself to the dialogic process, surrendering to what takes place, as opposed to attempting to control it. With presence, the therapist judiciously "shows up" as a whole and authentic person, instead of assuming a role, false self or persona. The word 'judicious' used above refers to the therapist's taking into account the specific strengths, weaknesses and values of the client. The only good client is a live client, so driving a client away by injudicious exposure of intolerable [to this client] experience of the therapist is obviously counter-productive. For example, for an atheistic therapist to tell a devout client that religion is myth would not be useful, especially in the early stages of the relationship. To practice inclusion is to accept however the client chooses to be present, whether in a defensive and obnoxious stance or a superficially cooperative one. To practice inclusion is to support the presence of the client, including their resistance, not as a gimmick but in full realization that this is how the client is actually present and is the best this client can do at this time. Finally, the Gestalt therapist is committed to the process, trusts in that process, and does not attempt to save themself from it.

Field-theoretical strategies
Field theory is a concept borrowed from physics in which people and events are no longer considered discrete units but as parts of something larger, which are influenced by everything including the past, and observation itself. "The field" can be considered in two ways. There are ontological dimensions and there are phenomenological dimensions to one's field. The ontological dimensions are all those physical and environmental contexts in which we live and move. They might be the office in which one works, the house in which one lives, the city and country of which one is a citizen, and so forth. The ontological field is the objective reality that supports our physical existence. The phenomenological dimensions are all mental and physical dynamics that contribute to a person's sense of self, one's subjective experience—not merely elements of the environmental context. These might be the memory of an uncle's inappropriate affection, one's color blindness, one's sense of the social matrix in operation at the office in which one works, and so forth. The way that Gestalt therapists choose to work with field dynamics makes what they do strategic. Gestalt therapy focuses upon character structure; according to Gestalt theory, the character structure is dynamic rather than fixed in nature. To become aware of one's character structure, the focus is upon the phenomenological dimensions in the context of the ontological dimensions.

Experimental freedom
Gestalt therapy is distinct because it moves toward action, away from mere talk therapy, and for this reason is considered an experiential approach. Through experiments, the therapist supports the client's direct experience of something new, instead of merely talking about the possibility of something new. Indeed, the entire therapeutic relationship may be considered experimental, because at one level it is a corrective, relational experience for many clients, and it is a "safe emergency" that is free to turn out however it will. An experiment can also be conceived as a teaching method that creates an experience in which a client might learn something as part of their growth.
Examples might include:
 Rather than talking about the client's critical parent, a Gestalt therapist might ask the client to imagine the parent is present, or that the therapist is the parent, and talk to that parent directly
 If a client is struggling with how to be assertive, a Gestalt therapist could either:
 have the client say some assertive things to the therapist or members of a therapy group
 give a talk about how one should never be assertive
 A Gestalt therapist might notice something about the non-verbal behavior or tone of voice of the client; then the therapist might have the client exaggerate the non-verbal behavior and pay attention to that experience
 A Gestalt therapist might work with the breathing or posture of the client, and direct awareness to changes that might happen when the client talks about different content.
With all these experiments the Gestalt therapist is working with process rather than content, the how rather than the what.

Noteworthy issues

Self
In field theory, self is a phenomenological concept, existing in comparison with other. Without the other there is no self, and how one experiences the other is inseparable from how one experiences oneself. The continuity of selfhood (functioning personality) is something that is achieved in relationship, rather than something inherently "inside" the person. This can have its advantages and disadvantages. At one end of the spectrum, someone may not have enough self-continuity to be able to make meaningful relationships, or to have a workable sense of who they are. In the middle, their personality is a loose set of ways of being that work for them, including commitments to relationships, work, culture and outlook, always open to change where they need to adapt to new circumstances or just want to try something new. At the other end, their personality is a rigid defensive denial of the new and spontaneous. They act in stereotyped ways, and either induce other people to act in particular and fixed ways towards them, or they redefine their actions to fit with fixed stereotypes.

In Gestalt therapy, the process is not about the self of the client being helped or healed by the fixed self of the therapist; rather it is an exploration of the co-creation of self and other in the here-and-now of the therapy. There is no assumption that the client will act in all other circumstances as they do in the therapy situation. However, the areas that cause problems will be either the lack of self-definition leading to chaotic or psychotic behaviour, or the rigid self-definition in some area of functioning that denies spontaneity and makes dealing with particular situations impossible. Both of these conditions show up very clearly in the therapy, and can be worked with in the relationship with the therapist.

The experience of the therapist is also very much part of the therapy. Since we co-create our self-other experiences, the way a therapist experiences being with a client is significant information about how the client experiences themselves. The proviso here is that a therapist is not operating from their own fixed responses. This is why Gestalt therapists are required to undertake significant therapy of their own during training.

From the perspective of this theory of self, neurosis can be seen as fixed predictability—a fixed Gestalt—and the process of therapy can be seen as facilitating the client to become unpredictable: more responsive to what is in the client's present environment, rather than responding in a stuck way to past introjects or other learning.  If the therapist has expectations of how the client should end up, this defeats the aim of therapy.

Change
In what has now become a classic of Gestalt therapy literature, Arnold R. Beisser described Gestalt's paradoxical theory of change. The paradox is that the more one attempts to be who one is not, the more one remains the same. Conversely, when people identify with their current experience, the conditions of wholeness and growth support change. Put another way, change comes about as a result of "full acceptance of what is, rather than a striving to be different."<ref>Houston, G. (2003). Brief Gestalt Therapy. London, UK: Sage Publications.</ref>

The empty chair technique
Empty chair technique or chairwork is typically used in Gestalt therapy when a patient might have deep-rooted emotional problems from someone or something in their life, such as relationships with themselves, with aspects of their personality, their concepts, ideas, feelings, etc., or other people in their lives. The purpose of this technique is to get the patient to think about their emotions and attitudes. Common things the patient addresses in the empty chair are another person, aspects of their own personality, a certain feeling, etc., as if that thing were in that chair. They may also move between chairs and act out two or more sides of a discussion, typically involving the patient and persons significant to them. It uses a passive approach to opening up the patient's emotions and pent-up feelings so they can let go of what they have been holding back. A form of role-playing, the technique focuses on exploration of self and is used by therapists to help patients self-adjust. Gestalt techniques were originally a form of psychotherapy, but are now often used in counseling, for instance, by encouraging clients to act out their feelings helping them prepare for a new job. The purpose of the technique is so the patient will become more in touch with their feelings and have an emotional conversation that clears up any long-held feelings or reaction to the person or object in the chair.

Historical development
Fritz Perls was a German-Jewish psychoanalyst who fled Europe with his wife Laura Perls to South Africa in order to escape Nazi oppression in 1933. After World War II, the couple emigrated to New York City, which had become a center of intellectual, artistic and political experimentation by the late 1940s and early 1950s.

Early influences

Perls grew up on the bohemian scene in Berlin, participated in Expressionism and Dadaism, and experienced the turning of the artistic avant-garde toward the revolutionary left. Deployment to the front line, the trauma of war, anti-Semitism, intimidation, escape, and the Holocaust are further key sources of biographical influence.

Perls served in the German Army during World War I, and was wounded in the conflict. After the war he was educated as a medical doctor. He became an assistant to Kurt Goldstein, who worked with brain-injured soldiers. Perls went through a psychoanalysis with Wilhelm Reich and became a psychiatrist. Perls assisted Goldstein at Frankfurt University where he met his wife Lore (Laura) Posner, who had earned a doctorate in Gestalt psychology. They fled Nazi Germany in 1933 and settled in South Africa. Perls established a psychoanalytic training institute and joined the South African armed forces, serving as a military psychiatrist. During these years in South Africa, Perls was influenced by Jan Smuts and his ideas about "holism".

In 1936 Fritz Perls attended a psychoanalysts' conference in Marienbad, Czechoslovakia, where he presented a paper on oral resistances, mainly based on Laura Perls's notes on breastfeeding their children. Perls's paper was turned down. Perls did present his paper in 1936, but according to him, it met with "deep disapproval." Perls wrote his first book, Ego, Hunger and Aggression (1942, 1947), in South Africa, based in part on the rejected paper. It was later re-published in the United States. Laura Perls wrote two chapters of this book, but she was not given adequate recognition for her work.

The seminal book
Perls's seminal work was Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality, published in 1951, co-authored by Fritz Perls, Paul Goodman, and Ralph Hefferline (a university psychology professor and sometimes-patient of Fritz Perls). Most of Part II of the book was written by Paul Goodman from Perls's notes, and it contains the core of Gestalt theory. This part was supposed to appear first, but the publishers decided that Part I, written by Hefferline, fit into the nascent self-help ethos of the day, and they made it an introduction to the theory. Isadore From, a leading early theorist of Gestalt therapy, taught Goodman's Part II for an entire year to his students, going through it phrase by phrase.

First instances of Gestalt therapy
Fritz and Laura founded the first Gestalt Institute in 1952, running it out of their Manhattan apartment. Isadore From became a patient, first of Fritz, and then of Laura. Fritz soon made From a trainer, and also gave him some patients. From lived in New York until his death, at age seventy-five, in 1993. He was known worldwide for his philosophical and intellectually rigorous take on Gestalt therapy. Acknowledged as a supremely gifted clinician, he was indisposed to writing, so what remains of his work is merely transcripts of interviews.

Of great importance to understanding the development of Gestalt therapy is the early training which took place in experiential groups in the Perls's apartment, led by both Fritz and Laura before Fritz left for the West Coast, and after by Laura alone. These "trainings" were unstructured, with little didactic input from the leaders, although many of the principles were discussed in the monthly meetings of the institute, as well as at local bars after the sessions. Many notable Gestalt therapists emerged from these crucibles in addition to Isadore From, e.g., Richard Kitzler, Dan Bloom, Bud Feder, Carl Hodges, and Ruth Ronall. In these sessions, both Fritz and Laura used some variation of the "hot seat" method, in which the leader essentially works with one individual in front of an audience with little or no attention to group dynamics. In reaction to this omission emerged a more interactive approach in which Gestalt-therapy principles were blended with group dynamics; in 1980, the book Beyond the Hot Seat, edited by Feder and Ronall, was published, with contributions from members of both the New York and Cleveland Institutes, as well as others.

Fritz left Laura and New York in 1960, briefly lived in Miami, and ended up in California. Jim Simkin was a psychotherapist who became a client of Perls in New York and then a co-therapist with Perls in Los Angeles. Simkin was responsible for Perls's going to California, where Perls began a psychotherapy practice. Ultimately, the life of a peripatetic trainer and workshop leader was better suited to Fritz's personality—starting in 1963, Simkin and Perls co-led some of the early Gestalt workshops and training groups at Esalen Institute in Big Sur, California, where Perls eventually settled and built a home. Jim Simkin then purchased property next to Esalen and started his own training center, which he ran until his death in 1984. Simkin refined his precise version of Gestalt therapy, training psychologists, psychiatrists, counselors and social workers within a very rigorous, residential training model.

The schism
In the 1960s, Perls became infamous among the professional elite for his public workshops at Esalen Institute. Isadore From referred to some of Fritz's brief workshops as "hit-and-run" therapy, because of Perls's alleged emphasis on showmanship with little or no follow-through—but Perls never considered these workshops to be complete therapy; rather, he felt he was giving demonstrations of key points for a largely professional audience. Unfortunately, some films and tapes of his work were all that most graduate students were exposed to, along with the misperception that these represented the entirety of Perls's work.

When Fritz Perls left New York for California, there began to be a split with those who saw Gestalt therapy as a therapeutic approach similar to psychoanalysis. This view was represented by Isadore From, who practiced and taught mainly in New York, as well as by the members of the Cleveland Institute, which was co-founded by From. An entirely different approach was taken, primarily in California, by those who saw Gestalt therapy not just as a therapeutic modality, but as a way of life. The East Coast, New York–Cleveland axis was often appalled by the notion of Gestalt therapy leaving the consulting room and becoming a way of life on the West Coast in the 1960s (see the "Gestalt prayer").

An alternative view of this split saw Perls in his last years continuing to develop his a-theoretical and phenomenological methodology, while others, inspired by From, were inclined to theoretical rigor which verged on replacing experience with ideas.

The split continues between what has been called "East Coast Gestalt" and "West Coast Gestalt," at least from an Amerocentric point of view. While the communitarian form of Gestalt continues to flourish, Gestalt therapy was largely replaced in the United States by Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and many Gestalt therapists in the U.S. drifted toward organizational management and coaching. At the same time, contemporary Gestalt Practice (to a large extent based upon Gestalt therapy theory and practice) was developed by Dick Price, the co-founder of Esalen Institute. Price was one of Perls's students at Esalen.

Post-Perls
In 1969, Fritz Perls left the United States to start a Gestalt community at Lake Cowichan on Vancouver Island, Canada. He died almost one year later, on 14 March 1970, in Chicago. One member of the Gestalt community was Barry Stevens. Her book about that phase of her life, Don't Push the River, became very popular. She developed her own form of Gestalt therapy body work, which is essentially a concentration on the awareness of body processes.

The Polsters
Erving and Miriam Polster started a training center in La Jolla, California, and published a book, Gestalt Therapy Integrated, in the 1970s.

They were influential in advancing the idea of contact boundary phenomena, which is a key part of Gestalt theory. The standard contact boundary resistances were confluence, introjection, projection, and retroflection, but the Polsters added "deflection" as a way of avoiding contact. Boundary phenomena can have good or bad effects, depending on the situation. For example, it's normal for a baby and mother to merge, but not for a therapist and client. If the therapist and client become too merged, then there can be no progress because there is no boundary for them to connect with. The client will not be able to learn anything new because the therapist will just become a part of them.

Influences upon Gestalt therapy

Some examples
There were a variety of psychological and philosophical influences upon the development of Gestalt therapy, not the least of which were the social forces at the time and place of its inception. Gestalt therapy is an approach that is holistic (including mind, body, and culture). It is present-centered and related to existential therapy in its emphasis on personal responsibility for action, and on the value of "I–thou" relationship in therapy. In fact, Perls considered calling Gestalt therapy existential-phenomenological therapy. "The I and thou in the Here and Now" was a semi-humorous shorthand mantra for Gestalt therapy, referring to the substantial influence of the work of Martin Buber—in particular his notion of the I–Thou relationship—on Perls and Gestalt. Buber's work emphasized immediacy, and required that any method or theory answer to the therapeutic situation, seen as a meeting between two people. Any process or method that turns the patient into an object (the I–It) must be strictly secondary to the intimate, and spontaneous, I–Thou relation. This concept became important in much of Gestalt theory and practice.

Both Fritz and Laura Perls were students and admirers of the neuropsychiatrist Kurt Goldstein. Gestalt therapy was based in part on Goldstein's concept called Organismic theory. Goldstein viewed a person in terms of a holistic and unified experience; he encouraged a "big picture" perspective, taking into account the whole context of a person's experience. The word Gestalt means whole, or configuration. Laura Perls, in an interview, denotes the Organismic theory as the base of Gestalt therapy.

There were additional influences on Gestalt therapy from existentialism, particularly the emphasis upon personal choice and responsibility.

The late 1950s–1960s movement toward personal growth and the human potential movement in California fed into, and was itself influenced by, Gestalt therapy. In this process Gestalt therapy somehow became a coherent Gestalt, which is the Gestalt psychology term for a perceptual unit that holds together and forms a unified whole.

Psychoanalysis

Fritz Perls trained as a neurologist at major medical institutions and as a Freudian psychoanalyst in Berlin and Vienna, the most important international centers of the discipline in his day. He worked as a training analyst for several years with the official recognition of the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), and must be considered an experienced clinician.
Gestalt therapy was influenced by psychoanalysis: it was part of a continuum moving from the early work of Freud, to the later Freudian ego analysis, to Wilhelm Reich and his character analysis and notion of character armor, with attention to nonverbal behavior; this was consonant with Laura Perls's background in dance and movement therapy. To this was added the insights of academic Gestalt psychology, including perception, Gestalt formation, and the tendency of organisms to complete an incomplete Gestalt and to form "wholes" in experience.

Central to Fritz and Laura Perls's modifications of psychoanalysis was the concept of dental or oral aggression.  In Ego, Hunger and Aggression (1947), Fritz Perls's first book, to which Laura Perls contributed (ultimately without recognition), Perls suggested that when the infant develops teeth, he or she has the capacity to chew, to break food apart, and, by analogy, to experience, taste, accept, reject, or assimilate. This was opposed to Freud's notion that only introjection takes place in early experience. Thus Perls made assimilation, as opposed to introjection, a focal theme in his work, and the prime means by which growth occurs in therapy.

In contrast to the psychoanalytic stance, in which the "patient" introjects the (presumably more healthy) interpretations of the analyst, in Gestalt therapy the client must "taste" his or her own experience and either accept or reject it—but not introject or "swallow whole." Hence, the emphasis is on avoiding interpretation, and instead encouraging discovery. This is the key point in the divergence of Gestalt therapy from traditional psychoanalysis: growth occurs through gradual assimilation of experience in a natural way, rather than by accepting the interpretations of the analyst; thus, the therapist should not interpret, but lead the client to discover for him- or herself.

The Gestalt therapist contrives experiments that lead the client to greater awareness and fuller experience of his or her possibilities. Experiments can be focused on undoing projections or retroflections. The therapist can work to help the client with closure of unfinished Gestalts ("unfinished business" such as unexpressed emotions towards somebody in the client's life). There are many kinds of experiments that might be therapeutic, but the essence of the work is that it is experiential rather than interpretive, and in this way, Gestalt therapy distinguishes itself from psychoanalysis.

Principal influences: a summary list

 Otto Rank's invention of "here-and-now" therapy and Rank's post-Freudian book Art and Artist (1932), both of which strongly influenced Paul Goodman
 Wilhelm Reich's psychoanalytic developments, especially his early character analysis, and the later concept of character armor and its focus on the body
 Jacob Moreno's psychodrama, principally the development of enactment techniques for the resolution of psychological conflicts
 Kurt Goldstein's holistic theory of the organism, based on Gestalt theory
 Martin Buber's philosophy of dialogue and relationship ("I–Thou")
 Kurt Lewin's field theory as applied to the social sciences and group dynamics
 European phenomenology of Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty
 The existentialism of Kierkegaard over that of Sartre, rejecting nihilism
 The Jungian psychology of Carl Jung, particularly the polarities concept
 Some elements from Zen Buddhism
 Differentiation between thing and concept from Zen and the works of Alfred Korzybski
 The American pragmatism of William James, George Herbert Mead, and John Dewey

Therapies influenced by Gestalt therapy

Psychotherapies influenced by Gestalt therapy include:
 Acceptance and commitment therapy
 Emotion-focused therapy

Current status

Gestalt therapy reached a zenith in the United States in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Since then, it has influenced other fields like organizational development, coaching, and teaching. Many of its contributions have become assimilated into other schools of therapy. In recent years, it has seen a resurgence in popularity as an active, psychodynamic form of therapy which has also incorporated some elements of recent developments in attachment theory. There are, for example, four Gestalt training institutes in the New York City metropolitan area alone, in addition to dozens of others worldwide.

Gestalt therapy continues to thrive as a widespread form of psychotherapy, especially throughout Europe, where there are many practitioners and training institutions. Dan Rosenblatt led Gestalt therapy training groups and public workshops at the Tokyo Psychotherapy Academy for seven years. Stewart Kiritz continued in this role from 1997 to 2006.

Training of Gestalt therapists

Pedagogical approach
Many Gestalt therapy training organizations exist worldwide. Ansel Woldt asserted that Gestalt teaching and training are built upon the belief that people are, by nature, health-seeking. Thus, such commitments as authenticity, optimism, holism, health, and trust become important principles to consider when engaged in the activity of teaching and learning—especially Gestalt therapy theory and practice.

Associations

The Association for the Advancement of Gestalt Therapy holds a biennial international conference in various locations—the first was in New Orleans, in 1995. Subsequent conferences have been held in San Francisco, Cleveland, New York, Dallas, St. Pete's Beach, Vancouver (British Columbia), Manchester (England), and Philadelphia. In addition, the it holds regional conferences, and its regional network has spawned regional conferences in Amsterdam, the Southwest and the Southeast of the United States, England, and Australia. Its Research Task Force generates and nurtures active research projects and an international conference on research.

The European Association for Gestalt Therapy, founded in 1985 to gather European individual Gestalt therapists, training institutes, and national associations from more than twenty European nations.

Gestalt Australia and New Zealand was formally established at the first Gestalt Therapy Conference held in Perth in September 1998.

 See also
Role reversal
Topdog vs. underdog
Violet Oaklander

References

 Further reading
Perls, F. (1969) Ego, Hunger, and Aggression: The Beginning of Gestalt Therapy.  New York, NY: Random House. (originally published in 1942, and re-published in 1947)
Perls, F. (1969) Gestalt Therapy Verbatim. Moab, UT: Real People Press.
Perls, F., Hefferline, R., & Goodman, P. (1951) Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and growth in the human personality.  New York, NY: Julian.
Perls, F. (1973) The Gestalt Approach & Eye Witness to Therapy. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Brownell, P. (2012) Gestalt Therapy for Addictive and Self-Medicating Behaviors. New York, NY: Springer Publishing.
Levine, T.B-Y. (2011) Gestalt Therapy: Advances in Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
Bloom, D. & Brownell, P. (eds)(2011) Continuity and Change: Gestalt Therapy Now. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing
Mann, D. (2010) Gestalt Therapy: 100 Key Points & Techniques. London & New York: Routledge.

Staemmler, F-M. (2009) Aggression, Time, and Understanding: Contributions to the Evolution of Gestalt Therapy''. New York, NY, US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group; GestaltPress Book
Woldt, A. & Toman, S. (2005) "Gestalt Therapy: History, Theory and Practice." Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

External links

Gestalt therapy


A língua turiuara, turiguara ou turiwára é um idioma pertencente à família tupi-guarani. Atualmente não se tem conhecimento de nenhum falante com proeficiência, tendo o último morrido ou sido assimilado a outra comunidade nos anos 80, mas como ainda tem usos sociais entre o povo turiuara, se considera uma língua dormente, ainda que em vias de extinção. Os poucos turiuaras seriam falantes hoje do tembé, idioma de outro grupo indígena com o qual conviveram historicamente.

Classificação
O idioma faz parte da família das línguas tupi-guaranis, mas seu pertencimento ao ramo IV (línguas tenetearas) ou ramo V (línguas xingus) da mesma varia de acordo à fonte, com o Ethnologue a categorizando no quarto ramo, enquanto Rodrigues e Cabral (2012) o fazem no quinto. Darcy Ribeiro sugere que, linguisticamente, os turiuaras seriam próximos dos caapores, também conhecidos como urubus.

Gramática e Fonologia
Algumas características do idioma que o distinguem daqueles pertencentes a outros subconjuntos dentro da família tupi-guarani :

 Perda parcial das consoantes finais
 Fusão de *t e *ts, ambos mudados em h ou zero
 Mudança de *pw em kw
 Mudança de *pj em s
 Conservação de *j

Vocabulário
O primeiro registro do idioma foi feito pelo viajante alemão Hermann Meerwarth, que em 1904 compilou uma lista de nomes pessoais, mas aparentemente confundindo algumas palavras do turiuara com outras da Língua Geral. Dez anos depois Curt Nimuendajú publicou outra lista, com 103 palavras, dentre as quais se selecionou algumas para a tabela abaixo:

Bibliografia
NIMUENDAJÚ-UNKEL, Curt. 1914. Vocabularios da Lingua Geral do Brazil nos dialectos dos Manajé do Rio Ararandéua, Tembé do Rio Acará Pequeno e Turiwara do Rio Acará Grande, Est. do Pará. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 46, p. 615-618

RODRIGUES, Aryon Dall'Igna; CABRAL, Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara. Tupian. The indigenous languages of South America: A comprehensive guide, vol. 2. 2012

Ligações externas
Turiauara no Ethnologue.

Turiuara no Glottolog.

Vocabulário do Turiuara, de acordo à lista compilada por Curt Nimuendajú e publicada em 1914.

Línguas tupis-guaranis
Línguas indígenas do Brasil
Línguas em extinção

!Mais Teoria da História na Wiki (Mais Povos Originários)

Língua turiuara


Bătălia de la Harran a fost o importantă bătălie petrecută la câțiva ani după încheierea cu succes a primei Cruciade, la 7 mai 1104 lângă Harran (vechiul Carrhes), un oraș situat în apropiere de Edessa. Sa disputat între turcii selgiuczi și cruciații aflați în avansare, încheindu-se cu înfrângerea celor din urmă. Dacă cruciații ar fi câștigat această bătălie, drumul spre Mosul și eventual cel al Bagdadului ar fi fost deschis, dar această înfrângere marchează sfârșitul expansiunii creștine în Orient.

Context
La începutul anilor 1100, cruciații se instalaseră ferm în Țara Sfântă și moartea sau capturarea principalilor șefi ai cruciaților nu au reușit să pună în pericol continuarea lor. Spre deosebire de emiratele musulmane, unde dispariția prințului însemna lupte de succesiune și de putere, în interiorul statelor latine din Orient, la moartea sau capturarea prințului, era desemnat în mod automat un succesor sau un regent.

În anul 1103, un război civil a zguduit dinastia selgiucidă, care se afla în plină anarhie. Sultanul , fiul lui Malik Șah I, șahul Persiei, din dinastia, se lupta cu toți ai lui pentru putere.

Profitând de această situație anarhică și confuză din lumea musulmană, Balduin al II-lea al Edessei, a decis să cucerească cetatea Harran, extrem de importantă din punct de vedere strategic. Dacă ar fi fost cucerită, ar fi deschis cruciaților drumul direct spre Mesopotamia. Drept urmare, Balduin a decis cucerirea orașului, alături Josselin de Courtenay sosind lângă fortăreață, în primăvara anului 1104, și, considerând o simplă blocadă a orașului va fi suficientă pentru a-l face să cadă în mâinile lor și nu au făcut ceea ce trebuia pentru a distruge fortificațiile dușmanului.

Pentru ajutor suplimentar, Balduin a căutat ajutor de la Boemund al Antiohiei și Tancred, prințul Galileii. Dând răspuns pozitiv chemării, Boemund și Tancred au pornit de la Antiohia spre Edessa, însoțiți în acțiunea lor de a cuceri Harranul de toți cavalerii cruciați cât și de milițiile Edessei, cca. trei mii de călăreți și șapte mii de infanteriști, cât și de Bernard de Valence, Patriarhul Antiohiei, Daimbert de Pisa, Patriarhul Ierusalimului și Benedict, arhiepiscopul Edessei.

Drept răspuns, selgiucizii, sub conducerea lui Jikirmiș, guvernatorul de Mosul cu trei mii de călăreți turci, arabi și kurzi, și , conducătorul artuchizilor din Mardin cu șapte mii de călăreți turcomani, s-au adunat în zona . În mai 1104, cei doi au atacat Edessa, pentru a distrage cruciații de la Harran, și a recupera orașul în timp ce creștinii erau angajați în altă parte. Cruciații, care intenționau să intre în posesia cetății, au plecat să întâlnească armata musulmană, după ce au aflat despre sosirea iminentă a acesteia.

Desfășurarea luptei
Turcii a efectuat retrageri false în luptele preliminare în timp ce cruciații și-au continuat urmărirea spre sud, epuizându-și forțele pe parcurs. Cronicarul contemporan Matei de Edessa a menționat o urmărire de două zile în timp ce Ralph de Caen raportează trei zile.

Majoritatea istoricilor acceptă scripturile lui Albert de Aachen și Foucher de Chartres, care localizau bătălia pe câmpia, vizavi de orașul Raqqa, Raqqa fiind la aproximativ două zile distanță de Harran.

Balduin și Josselin au condus aripa stângă a armatei din Edessa, în timp ce Boemund și Tancred au comandat dreapta antiohiană. Ralph de Caen menționează că cruciații din Edessa au fost luați prin suprindere (probabil ambuscadă) fără să știe că turcii s-au întors să lupte, astfel încât "Balduin și Boemund au fost nevoiți să lupte fără armură".

În timpul luptei, trupele lui Balduin au fost complet încercuite, astfel că, armata din Edesa a fost complet distrusă sau capturată, precum și conducătorii lor cu Balduin și Josselin, ambii capturați de selgiucizi, după ce caii li s-au împotmolit încercând să traverseze râul Balih. Trupele antiohiene aflate în spate împreună cu Boemund, când au văzut retragerea trupelor scăpate de la dezastru ale armatei de la Edessa și deruta acestora, precum și faptul că erau urmărite îndeaproape de turci, au înțeles repede că lupta era pierdută și au profitat de întunericul nopții pentru a se retrage la rîndul lor și au reveni la Edessa. Cu toate acestea, Jikirmiș a capturat doar o mică cantitate de pradă, așa că la răpit pe Balduin din tabăra lui Sukman. Deși a fost plătită o răscumpărare, Josselin și Balduin nu au fost eliberați decât după 1108, respectiv 1109.

Consecințe
Lupta a fost una dintre primele înfrângeri decisive ale cruciaților, cu consecințe grave asupra Principatului Antiohiei. Bizantinii au profitat de înfrângere pentru a-și impune pretențiile asupra Antiohiei și au recucerit Latakia și părți din Cilicia. Multe dintre orașele conduse de Antiohia s-au revoltat și au fost re-ocupate de forțele musulmane din Alep. Teritoriile armene s-au revoltat, de asemenea, în favoarea bizantinilor sau Armeniei Ciliciene. Mai mult, aceste evenimente l-au determinat Boemund să se întoarcă în Italia pentru a recruta mai multe trupe, lăsând-ul Tancred de Hauteville ca regent al Antiohiei.

Guillaume din Tir a menționat că nu a existat o bătălie mai dezastruoasă decât asta. Deși Antiohia sa recuperat în anul următor, împăratul bizantin Alexie I Comnenul a impus Tratatul de la Devol la Boemund, ceea ce ar fi făcut Antiohul un vasal al Imperiului dacă Tancred ar fi fost de acord cu acesta. Antiohia a fost din nou înfrântă la bătălia de la Ager Sanguinis în 1119; Edessa nu sa recuperat niciodată și a supraviețuit până în 1144, și numai din cauza diviziunilor dintre musulmani.

Cu toate acestea, învingătorii luptei nu au reușit la fel să-și exploateze victoria, pentru că au început imediat certurile pe prizonieri și s-au despărțit. Jekermiș a asediat Edessa, apărată de Tancred de Hauteville, care reușise să ajungă în oraș și să-l pună într-o stare de apărare. Aceasta i-a dat timp lui Boemund ca să ridice o armată în Antiohia și să se îndrepte spre Edessa, ca să-i ajute pe cruciați, forțându-l pe Jekermiș să ridice asediul cetății.

Note

Bibliografie
 Bernard S. Bachrach and David S. Bachrach, 2005. The Gesta Tancredi of Ralph of Caen: A History of the Normans on the First Crusade. The first English translation.
 Beaumont, André Alden. "Albert von Aachen and the County of Edessa", in Louis J. Paetow, ed. The Crusades and Other Historical Essays. Presented to Dana C. Munro by His Former Students. New York, 1928, pp. 101–138, esp. 124-127.
 Foucher de Chartres, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem, 1095-1127, trans. Frances Rita Ryan. University of Tennessee Press, 1969.
 Heidemann, Stefan. Die Renaissance der Städte in Nordsyrien und Nordmesopotamien: Städtische Entwicklung und wirtschaftliche Bedingungen in ar-Raqqa und Harran von der beduinischen Vorherrschaft bis zu den Seldschuken. Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts 40, Leiden, 2002, pp. 192-197.

Bătăliile cruciadelor
Bătăliile Principatului Antiohiei
Bătăliile Imperiului Selgiuc
1104

Bătălia de la Harran


2017 ජූනි 25 දිනදී, පකිස්තානයෙහි   බහවල්පූර් දිස්ත්‍රික්කයෙහි,  නැගෙනහිර ඇහැමඩ්පූර් අසබඩදී ටැංකි ට්‍රක් රථයක් පුපුරායෑමෙන් අවම වශයෙන් පුද්ගලයින් 170 ක් මියගොස් තවත් පුද්ගලයින් 130 කට වඩා තුවාල ලදහ.   එන්-5 ජාතික මහාමාර්ගයෙහිදී ට්‍රක් රථයෙහි රියැදුරු විසින් තියුණු වංගුවක් ඔස්සේ රථය පැදවීමෙහිදී එය පෙරලී ඇත. රිය අනතුර පිළිබඳ පුවත අසබඩ ගම්මාන තුල පැතිර යත්ම, ගම්වැසියන් සිය ගණනින් සිද්ධිය වූ ස්ථානයට රොක්වී ඇත්තේ ට්‍රක් රථය වෙතින් එහි ප්‍රවාහනය කෙරුණු ඉන්ධන සොරා ගැනීමටය. එවිට ට්‍රක් රථය පුපුරාගොස් ඇත; මුල් වාර්තා තුලින් කියැවුනේ පිපිරීමට හේතුකාරක වූයේ කිසියම් අයෙකු විසින් සිගරට්ටුවක් දැල්වීම නිසා බවයි.

2017 බහවල්පූර් පිපිරීම


Joakim Persson ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Joakim Persson (Eishockeyspieler) (* 1970), schwedischer Eishockeytorwart
 Joakim Persson (Fußballspieler) (* 1975), schwedischer Fußballspieler

Joakim Persson


Chojña ist eine Ortschaft im Departamento La Paz im südamerikanischen Andenstaat Bolivien.

Lage im Nahraum
Chojña ist zentraler Ort des Kanton Chojña im Municipio Caranavi in der Provinz Caranavi. Die Gemeinde liegt auf einer Höhe von  am Río Coroico, der flussabwärts in den Río Kaka mündet, einen Nebenfluss des Río Beni.

Geographie
Chojña liegt am Ostrand der Cordillera Real in den bolivianischen Yungas, einer Übergangsregion zwischen dem Hochland der Anden (Altiplano) und dem tropischen Tiefland mit dem Amazonas-Regenwald. Das Klima ist ein typisches Tageszeitenklima, bei dem die mittleren Temperaturschwankungen im Tagesverlauf deutlicher ausfallen als im Jahresverlauf.

Die Jahresdurchschnittstemperatur der Ortschaft liegt bei 22 °C (siehe Klimadiagramm Choro), die Monatsdurchschnittswerte schwanken zwischen 19 °C im Juni/Juli und 23 °C von Oktober bis März. Die durchschnittlichen Tageshöchsttemperaturen liegen ganzjährig zwischen 26 °C und 30 °C, die nächtlichen Tiefstwerte betragen im langjährigen Durchschnitt 11–12 °C im Juni/Juli und 18 °C im Dezember und Januar. Der durchschnittliche Jahresniederschlag beträgt 1300 mm, mit einer kurzen  Trockenzeit bei Monatswerten um 20 mm im Juni/Juli und Monatshöchstwerten von etwa 200 mm von Dezember bis Februar.

Verkehrsnetz
Chojña liegt 141 Straßenkilometer nordöstlich von La Paz, der Hauptstadt des gleichnamigen Departamentos.

Von La Paz aus führt die asphaltierte Nationalstraße Ruta 3 über Cotapata vorbei an Coroico über Santa Bárbara, Challa, Choro und San Pedro nach Chojña, und weiter über Caranavi nach Trinidad am Río Mamoré.

Bevölkerung
Die Einwohnerzahl der Ortschaft ist in den vergangenen beiden Jahrzehnten um ein Fünftel angestiegen:

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks
 Reliefkarte der Region Sorata 1:250.000 (PDF; 12,81 MB)
 Municipio Caranavi - Detailkarte und Bevölkerungsdaten (PDF; 1,17 MB) (spanisch)
 Municipio Caranavi - Übersichtskarten Nr. 22001
 Departamento La Paz - Sozialdaten der  Municipios (PDF 11,63 MB) (spanisch)

Chojña


An Arisaema yanxianum in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Zheng Yin Zhu ngan B.Q.Min. An Arisaema yanxianum in nahilalakip ha genus nga Arisaema, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Arisaema

Arisaema yanxianum


Charles Robberts Swart  (5 December 1894 – 16 July 1982), nicknamed Blackie, was a South African politician who served as the last governor-general of the Union of South Africa from 1959 to 1961 and the first state president of the Republic of South Africa from 1961 to 1967.

Early life

Swart was born on 5 December 1894 on the Morgenzon farm, in the Winburg district, part of the Boer republic of the Orange Free State (which became a British colony in 1902 and a province of the Union of South Africa in 1910).

He was the third of six children, born to Hermanus Bernardus Swart (1866–1949) and Aletta Catharina Robberts (1871–1927). The Anglo Boer War (Second Boer War) broke out when he was five years old. During the war, his mother and the children were interned at the Winburg concentration camp. Out of the three boys, one died while in the concentration camp. His father was wounded and captured by the British during the Battle of Paardeberg. He became a prisoner-of-war and stayed in Groenpunt and Simonstad until the end of the war.

Aged seven, Swart went to the government school in Winburg. He later went to a CNO (Christelike Nasionale Onderwys or "Christian National Education") school, set up by the Afrikaners in response to Lord Milner's anglicisation policy at the government-sponsored schools.

He established himself as a barrister in 1914. He spent a brief period in Hollywood acting in silent films, before embarking on his public career. He practised law in Bloemfontein from 1919–1948, with the exception of the time spent earning a degree in journalism from Columbia University in New York in 1921–22. He reported briefly from Washington for the Die Burger newspaper.

He was married to Cornelia Wilhelmina (Nellie) de Klerk and had three children. He was a tall man at .

Public life

In 1923, he was elected to the House of Assembly as the Member of Parliament for Ladybrand. until he was defeated in 1938. Swart was a member of the Ossewabrandwag. He became leader of the National Party in the Orange Free State and MP for Winburg in 1941. After the end of the Second World War, he was appointed Minister of Justice when the National Party came to power in 1948, and was responsible for legislation to strengthen the powers of the South African Police to suppress anti-apartheid activity. Between 1949 and 1950 he held the portfolio for Education, Arts and Science and served as Deputy Prime Minister between 1954 and 1959.

In 1959, Swart was appointed Governor-General, but like his predecessor E.G Jansen, he was a staunch republican. Despite this, he had earlier kneeled before Queen Elizabeth II and kissed her hand. In a referendum the following year, a small majority of White voters endorsed a government proposal to become a republic. In 1961, after signing the new republican constitution passed by Parliament into law, he asked the Queen to release him from office, and Parliament then elected him as State President, the new post which replaced the monarch and the Governor-General as ceremonial head of state. Nelson Mandela and other underground Black resistance leaders tried to protest against the change to the new system by planning a three-day general strike of non-White workers, but the government preemptively averted most of these plans through an extensive use of police force to persecute the dissenters.

Although elected for a seven-year term in office, Swart served as state president for only six years, and retired in 1967. After his retirement, Swart was awarded the Decoration for Meritorious Services by State President Jim Fouché. He died on 16 July 1982, aged 87. Swart was popularly known as "Blackie" (Swart is Afrikaans for "black") or as "Oom Blackie", oom being Afrikaans for "uncle".

Legacy

The tallest building in Bloemfontein, which housed various governmental departments and the Law Faculty of the University of the Orange Free State, was named the President CR Swart Building in his honour. In 2015, the ANC government renamed the popular CR Swart Building the Fidel Castro Building.

A statue of CR Swart at the University of the Free State was destroyed by protesting students in late-February 2016.

The highest peak in the remote Prince Edward Islands was called State President Swart Peak, before it was renamed Mascarin Peak in 2003.

Swart's portrait is depicted on the obverses of the coins of the South African rand – from 1 to 50 Cents dated 1968, which was struck to commemorate him as the first State President of South Africa.

References

Generally:

1894 births
1982 deaths
Apartheid government
University of the Free State alumni
Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism alumni
Education ministers of South Africa
Governors-General of South Africa
Herenigde Nasionale Party politicians
Justice ministers of South Africa
Members of the House of Assembly (South Africa)
National Party (South Africa) politicians
People from Masilonyana Local Municipality
Purified National Party politicians
South African people of Dutch descent
State Presidents of South Africa
South African prisoners and detainees
20th-century South African politicians
20th-century presidents in Africa
Ossewabrandwag members
Prisoners and detainees of the British military

C. R. Swart


Prins Alexander Cambridge af Teck, fra 1917: 1. jarl af Athlone (døbt 14. april 1874 på Kensington Palace, London, død 16. januar 1957 sammensted) var en britisk prins af tysk–ungarsk oprindelse. Han tilhørte en ikke–arveberettiget (morganatisk) sidelinje af det württembergske kongehus.

Alexander Cambridge var generalguvernør i Sydafrika i 1924–1930 og i Canada i 1940–1946.

Forfædre
Alexander Cambridge var sønnesøn af Alexander af Württemberg (1804–1885).

Alexander var oldesøn af Ludvig, prins af Württemberg, Henriette af Nassau-Weilburg (1780–1857), Georg 3. af Storbritannien, Charlotte af Mecklenburg-Strelitz, den danske general Frederik af Hessen-Kassel (1747–1837) og Karoline Polyxene af Nassau-Usingen.

Alexander Cambridge var tipoldesøn af regerende hertug Frederik 2. Eugen af Württemberg, fyrste Karl Christian af Nassau-Weilburg og den hollandske regentinde Caroline af Oranien-Nassau-Diez, Frederik Ludvig af Wales og Augusta af Sachsen-Gotha (forældre til dronning Caroline Mathilde af Danmark–Norge) samt Frederik 2. af Hessen-Kassel og Marie af Storbritannien.

Familie
Alexander Cambridge var bror til dronning Mary af Storbritannien og svoger til kong Georg 5. af Storbritannien.

Han var gift med Prinsesse Alice, grevinde af Athlone. Hun var sønnedatter af dronning Victoria af Storbritannien.

Alexander Cambridge og prinsesse Alice blev forældre til
 Lady May Abel Smith (født prinsesse May af Teck) (1906–1994).
 Rupert Cambridge, vicegreve Trematon (født prins Rupert Alexander George af Teck) (1907–1928).
 Prins Maurice af Teck (29. marts 1910–14. september 1910).

Huset Württemberg (linjen Teck/Cambridge)
Kongelige fra Storbritannien
Sydafrikas generalguvernører

Alexander Cambridge af Teck, 1. jarl af Athlone


Just Me es séptimo álbum estudio de Tiffany, fue lanzado el año 2007. Recién salida del programa de televisión inglés Celebrity Fit Club, la sensación pop de los 80's lanzó su primer álbum con música completamente original desde Dust Off and Dance del 2005. El primer sencillo y video musical fue "Feels Like Love". El video de "Feels Like Love" fue lanzado oficialmente en por la compañía de discográfica de Tiffany, 10 Spot Records. El día del lanzamiento del álbum Tiffany reealizó un show gratuito en el Virgin Megastore Sunset en Los Ángeles, California.

Lista de canciones
 "Feels Like Love" (Tiffany, Charlie Colin, Gregory Butler, Jennifer Crowe)
 "Just Me" (Tiffany, Robert Tarango, Gene Reeves)
 "Be Alright" (Tiffany, Robert Tarango, Gene Reeves, Michelle Ann Owens)
 "Hiding Behind the Face" (Tiffany, Tim Feehan, Gene Black)
 "Calling Out Your Name" (Tiffany, Gregory Butler, Ryan Kirk)
 "Mind Candy" (Gregory Butler, Jaime Wyatt)
 "Anyone But Me" (Charlie Colin, Gregory Butler, Jennifer Crowe)
 "Streets of Gold" (Tommy Wright)
 "This Love" (Tiffany, Gregory Butler, Ryan Kirk)
 "Winter's Over" (Tiffany, Loren Gold, Colette Rounsvall)
 "I Will Not Breakdown" (Tim Feehan, Gene Black, Steven Joe Brooks)
 "Come on Baby" (Bonus Track)

Enlaces externos
 Portada del Álbum en la Wikipedia en inglés
 Sitio oficial
 Tiffany en Myspace

Álbumes de 2007
Álbumes de Tiffany

Just Me (álbum de Tiffany)


Cem Radyo, İstanbul'dan ulusal çapta yayın yapan bir radyo istasyonudur.

Müzik olarak genellikle Türk halk müziği, Alevi Bektaşi Nefesleri ve Özgün Müzik türünde eserler çalan radyo, ayrıca Alevi kökenli dinleyicilere yönelik programlar yayınlamaktadır.Karasal yayınların yanı sıra Türksat 4A Uydusu ile de dinlenebilmektedir. RTÜK Cem Radyo uydu yayın lisansını 2031 tarihine kadar uzatmıştır.

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Marea Sarmatică - Marea Neagră este un film românesc din 1966 regizat de Ion Bostan.

Prezentare

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1966 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1966

Marea Sarmatică - Marea Neagră


Julius Zeyer (26 aprilie 1841 – 29 ianuarie 1901) a fost un prozator, poet și dramaturg ceh.

Viața
Zeyer s-a născut la Praga, ca fiu al Eleonorei (născută Weissel) și a lui Jan Zeyer, un negustor de cherestea. Tatăl său provenea din nobilimea franceză (alsaciană), iar mama lui era originară dintr-o familie de evrei și s-a convertit la Catolicism. Zeyer a învățat limba cehă de la bonă. Era de așteptat să preia fabrica familiei, dar în schimb a decis să învețe tâmplăria. Încercările de a urma liceul și facultatea nu au avut succes. În timpul vieții sale a călătorit frecvent în Europa și Orient. După 1877 s-a mutat la Vodňany, unde a petrecut peste un deceniu, ocupându-se cu activitatea literară. Ulterior, el a revenit la Praga. A murit la Praga.

Opera
Poemele și proza lui Zeyer sunt neliniștite, nostalgice, mistice, deprimante și au, de obicei, un sfârșit tragic. El a amestecat de multe ori legende străine cu teme naționale specifice istoriei și societății cehe. Ca și decadenții, opera sa combină adesea imagini religioase și erotice. El a fost asociat cu școala "Lumír", un grup de scriitori care s-a grupat în jurul revistei cu același nume și au fost influențați de scriitorii din Europa de Vest, în special din Franța.

Poemele epice ale lui Zeyer, inclusiv Vysehrad (1880) și Karolinská epopeja (1896), sunt inspirate din legendele cehești și franțuzești și elogiază trecutul glorios al strămoșilor, comparativ cu prezentul sumbru. El s-a inspirat din istoria franceză, cehă, rusă și irlandeză. Romanele sale descriu persoane care încearcă să trăiască o viață mai bună sub însuflețirea idealurilor romantice și oameni care-și găsesc pacea doar în momentul morții. Romanul său semi-autobiografic Jan Maria Plojhar (1891) se referă la condiția tragică a unui artist. Lucrările dramatice ale lui Zeyer au fost scrise într-un stil similar. Cartea sa Tri legendy o krucifixu (1895) foloseste povestea răstignirii lui Hristos pentru a explora tema naționalismului ceh și valoarea artei. Prima povestire, "Inultus" urmărește povestea unei sculptorițe italiene care încearcă să creeze un tablou real al răstignirii. Ideea unei artiste înnebunite de munca sa este explorată în povestire și duce la moartea modelului ei, un vagabond ceh pe nume Inultus, pe care ea îl ucide într-o criză de nebunie a creației.

Josef Suk a compus Pohádka (Basm) după o piesă de teatru a lui Zeyer.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Short biography (in English)
 Biography (in Czech)

Nașteri în 1841
Decese în 1901
Dramaturgi din secolul al XIX-lea
Romancieri din secolul al XIX-lea
Poeți din secolul al XIX-lea
Dramaturgi cehi
Romancieri cehi
Poeți cehi

Julius Zeyer


Franz Xaver Andreas Jungwirth, auch Jungwierth (* 1. Dezember 1720 in München; † 5. Januar 1790 in München) war ein deutscher Kupferstecher und Radierer.

Leben

Jungwirth war der Sohn eines Feldschers (Militärarzt) und erlernte das Kupferstechen noch bei Joseph Mörl. Er stach zahlreiche religiöse Darstellungen nach Werken zeitgenössischer bayerischer Künstler und nach Bildern in Münchner Kirchen, Wallfahrtsbilder, allegorische und symbolische Darstellungen.

Er schuf allein über 80 Porträt-Radierungen nach Vorlagen von Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, aber auch noch weitere nach anderen Vorlagen. Außerdem schuf er Radierungen von München und Freising nach Vorlagen von Bernardo Bellotto, genannt Canaletto. Bekannt sind auch sein Porträt-Kupferstich des Hofmalers Franz Ignaz Oefele und der Stich des Altars der Kreuzkapelle in der Michaeliskirche in München nach Hans von Aachen.

Sein umfangreichstes Werk sind aber wohl hundert Radierungen nur über den Psalm Miserere. Jungwirth war sich auch nicht zu schade, Dekorationen für Leichenfeierlichkeiten zu gestalten. Auch für Münchner Buchverleger war er tätig.

Zu seinen Schülern gehörte Johann Karl Schleich. Auch Jungwirths eigener Sohn Maximus erlernte beim Vater die Kupferstecher-Kunst, verstarb aber schon 1768 frühzeitig.

Werke (Auswahl)
 Handwerksbrief für verschiedene Landshuter Zünfte, Kupferstich, 1762

 Senectus, Darstellung des Alters, Kupferstich, um 1775
 Wappen des Franz Töpsl, Propst von Kloster Polling, Kupferstich, 1744 (virtuelles-kupferstichkabinett.de)
 Blasius Weis, Hausmeister bei der Chur-Baierischen Academie
 Akademiestücke in der Churpfalzbaierischen Zeichnungs-Schule zu München unter Leitung des Herrn Professors Oefele nach dem Leben entworfen und radiert

Literatur
 Jungwirth, Franz Xaver. In: Lorenz von Westenrieder: Beschreibung der Haupt- und Residenzstadt München im gegenwärtigen Zustande. Verlag Johann Baptist Strobl, München 1782, S. 403 (books.google.de)

 Felix Joseph von Lipowsky: Baierisches Künstler-Lexicon. Band 1, S. 136 f. (digitale-sammlungen.de)

Weblinks

 Digitaler Porträtindex
 Werksbeispiele bei artnet.de
 Werksbeispiele im Los Angeles County Museum of Art

Einzelnachweise

Kupferstecher (Deutschland)
Radierer (Deutschland)
Deutscher
Geboren 1720
Gestorben 1790
Mann

Franz Xaver Jungwirth


Bilim felsefesi, epistemoloji, ontoloji, etik ve estetik gibi felsefenin temel alt bölümlerinden birisidir.

Tanım
Bilim felsefesi, bilimin ne olduğunu, bilimsel kuramın özgül yapısını, bilimsel bilginin epistemolojik statüsünü, bilimsel yöntemin (ya da yöntemlerin) anlamını, bilim alanı ve bilimsel bilginin nesnesini, bilimin gelişiminin anlamını, özet olarak bir bütün bilimin konumu, gelişimi ve iç-yapısını değerlendiren, bunu kuramsal düzlemde ortaya koymaya çalışan felsefe bölümüdür. Bilim tarihinden farklı olarak bilim felsefesi bu söz konusu tarihin kuramsal düzlemde açıklanmasını ve değerlendirilmesini üstlenir.

Bilim ve felsefe

Bilim felsefecileri bir bakıma hem felsefe hem de bilim alanında yer alırlar, her iki alana birden hakim olmaya çalışırlar. Özellikle başlangıçta bilim insanları belirli bir felsefi etkinlik içinde de olmuşlardır. Başlangıçta bilimler felsefenin içinde yer almaktadır; filozoflar aynı zamanda çoğu noktada bilim insanlarıydılar, birçok bilimsel alanda bilgi sahibiydiler ve onların sentezleriyle felsefe yapmaktaydılar. Fizik'i ve Metafizik'i yazan Aristoteles bunun tipik bir örneğidir. Bilginin gelişimi, özerk dallara ayrılması ve her bölümün kendi içinde çok daha fazla uzmanlık gerektirmesiyle zaman içinde bilimler felsefeden ayrışmaya başladı. Önce doğa bilimleri denilen bilimler, sonra giderek sosyal bilimler ayrışmaya çalışmıştır. Ancak felsefenin bilimle ilişkisi ve bilime yönelik ilgisi süreklidir. Bu süreklilik felsefe ve bilim tarihinde gösterilebilir. Başlangıçta filozofların bilimle ilgilenen kişiler olması ve daha sonra giderek felsefenin bilim üzerine düşünmesi şeklinde bu ilişki süregelmiştir. Yalnızca filozofların bilimle ilişkili insanlar olması dolayısıyla değil, bilimin ne olduğu üzerine üretilen düşüncelerin felsefi niteliği dolayısıyla da böyledir.

Bilim felsefesine ait metinlerin çok uzun tarihsel bir geçmişi vardır. Aristoteles'ten itibaren bu iz sürülebilir. Ama bilim felsefesi, felsefenin bir alt bölümü olarak özellikle bilimlerin felsefeden ayrışmasının bir sonucu olarak belirginleştiği için modern zamanların ürünüdür. Francis Bacon'ın Novum Organum'u, René Descartes'ın Metot Üzerine Konuşma'sı, Isaac Newton'un "Felsefi Akıl Yürütmenin Kuralları", Henri Poincaré'nin Bilim ve Hipotez'i, bir anlamda bilim felsefesinin öncü klasik metinleri sayılabilir. 20. yüzyıldan itibaren ise bilim felsefesi tamamen özerk ve kapsamlı bir bölüm haline gelir.

Pozitivizm, 19. yüzyılın son çeyreğinden itibaren önermeleriyle hem bilimsel bir pratiği temellendiriyor, hem de felsefenin sorularını yanıtlıyordu. Soyut bir sistem olarak felsefenin sonu gelmiş varsayılıyordu. Ancak öyle olmadığı düşüncesi giderek yaygınlık kazandı. Bizzat pozitivizm denilen bilim düşüncesinin aşırı derecede felsefe içerdiği ortaya konuldu. Bilimin ya da bilimsel yöntemin ilkeleri sayılan bir düzine kural durmadan değişime uğradı ve yerine yenileri önerildi. Nedensellik ilkesi, belirsizlik ilkesiyle savaşır durumda buldu kendisini. Kuantum fiziği gibi bilimsel gelişmelerin yol açtığı kuramsal sorunlarla bilim felsefesi özellikle 1960'lı yıllardan itibaren belirleyici bir güncellik kazanmıştır. Bilime duyulan güvenin sarsıldığı bir dönemde, bilim felsefesi öne çıkmaya başlar. Bunda Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, Imre Lakatos, Paul Feyerabend gibi ünlü ve çok etkili bilim felsefecilerinin özgün çalışmaları da belirleyici bir rol oynamıştır.

Felsefenin konusu olarak bilim
Bilimin felsefenin konusu olması ve hatta bu konunun belirli bir zaman içinde felsefenin bir alt disiplini olması söz konusudur. Tarihsel bir açıklama olarak bilimin felsefenin içinden doğup geliştiği genel bir şekilde belirtilir. Daha sonra bilimin bir bilinç formu olarak ayrılmasından sonra da bilim felsefe ilişkisi süregelmiştir. Bilim felsefesi özellikle bu ayrımın sonrasında felsefenin bilim üzerine düşünmesinin bir sonucu olarak disipliner bir duruma gelmiştir. Bu iki alan her zaman kuramsal olarak birbirine karışma ve karşılıklı etkileşim içinde birbirini etkileme halindedir. Genel bir ayrım varsayılmakta birlikte kuramsal ayrım çizgilerini belirlemek kolay görünmemektedir. Bilim felsefesi, bilimin kendi niteliği ve anlamı üzerine, felsefenin kuramsal çalışmasını dile getirir.

Bilim kendi başına kendi anlamını bilemez, böyle bir bilme çabasına yöneldiği anda felsefe alanına girmiş olur. Bu anlamda bilim felsefesi, bilimin yerini anlamını ve kuramsal konumunu belirlemek üzere yürütülen felsefe-içi çalışmaların bütünlüğüdür. Bilimin felsefeden ayrışmasından sonra felsefenin bilim üzerine düşünmesi bilim felsefesinin içeriğini oluşturmaktadır. Özetle, bilim felsefesi, bilimsel düşünce ve yöntemlerin mantıksal ya da kuramsal bir çözümlemesini vermeye çalışır.

Bilim nedir?

Klasik görüş
Klasik görüş, ürün olarak bilim ya da mantıksal pozitivizm, bilimin evreni anlamak için tek geçerli yol olduğunu, birikimsel olarak ilerlediğini ve kesin doğru kabul edilmesi gereken sonuçlara ulaştığını savunmaktadır.

Auguste Comte'un pozitivizminden etkilenen klasik görüşçüler, bütün bilim dalları için ortak bir yöntem olması gerektiğini öne sürmüşlerdir. Bunun sonucu olarak, bilimleşme sürecini daha erken tamamladığını düşündükleri doğa bilimlerindeki yöntemleri, sosyal bilimlerde uygulamak için çalışmalar gerçekleştirmişlerdir.

Bütün bilim dallarına örnek olması gereken ideal bilimin, matematik olduğunu dile getirmişlerdir. Gelecekte, evrendeki bütün sorulara cevap verebilecek seviyeye ulaşan ve mükemmel hale gelen bilim dallarının, aralarındaki ayrımların belirsizleşmesi yoluyla birbirlerine yaklaşacağını ve sonuç olarak sosyal fizik adı altında birleşeceğini savunmuşlardır.

Klasik görüşe yakın olan bilim filozoflarının çoğu, bilimin yöntemi olarak tümevarımı kabul etmiş ve nedensellik üzerine kurulu olduğunu düşünmüşlerdir. Bilimin, olgular ve mantık arasında kurulan ilişkiye dayalı, statik bir süreç olduğunu dile getirmişlerdir.

Rudolf Carnap ve Hans Reichenbach, bilimin olguların genellemesine dayalı olan tümevarım yöntemi üzerinden ilerlediğini ve doğrulanabilirlik ölçütüne bağlı olduğunu öne sürmüşlerdir. Bilimin yalnızca deney ve gözlem yoluyla yapılabileceğini savunmuşlardır.

Karl Popper, klasik görüşün çoğu esasına yakınlık göstermekle birlikte doğrulanabilirliği temel alan yönteme karşı çıkmıştır. Doğa bilimlerinin, tümevarım ve doğrulanabilirlik için uygun şartları sağlamadığını düşünmüştür. Bilimin yöntemi olarak tümdengelim ve yanlışlanabilirliği ön plana çıkarmıştır. Karl Popper'ın yanlışlanabilirliği, doğada bilimsel kuramı yanlışlayan herhangi bir örnek bulunması durumunda, bu kuramın terk edilmesi ve yeni bir bilimsel kuram arayışına girilmesini öngörmektedir.

Auguste Comte'un pozitivizmi içerisinde doğa bilimleriyle uyumlu olan bazı düşünceler ve Karl Popper'ın yanlışlanabilirliği, bilim çevreleri içerisinde genel kabul görmektedir.

Başlıca temsilcileri: Auguste Comte, Rudolf Carnap, Hans Reichenbach ve Karl Popper

Klasik görüşün eleştirisi
Klasik görüşün eleştirisi ya da etkinlik olarak bilim, bilimin evreni anlamak için geçerli yollardan biri olduğunu, devrimsel olarak ilerlediğini ve belirli şartlarda uzlaşmaya dayalı olarak doğru kabul edilmesi gereken sonuçlara ulaştığını savunmaktadır.

Klasik görüşün eleştirisine yakın olan bilim filozofları, bilimin anlaşılması için, ortaya konulan bilimsel kuramlar kadar içerisinden geçtikleri sürecin de incelenmesi gerektiğini düşünmüşlerdir. Bu görüşleri sayesinde sosyoloji, psikoloji ve bilim tarihi gibi alanlar üzerinden bilimsel kuramları inceleyerek bilime yeni bakış açıları kazandırmışlardır. Bilimin, paradigma değişimleriyle ilerleyen, belirli dönemlerde sıçramalar yaşayan devrimsel bir süreç olduğunu dile getirmişlerdir.

Gelecekte, bilimin ilerlemekle birlikte evrendeki soruların ancak bir kısmına cevap verebileceğini ve bilimsel çalışmaların ilerlemesiyle yeni bilim dallarının ortaya çıkacağını savunmuşlardır.

Thomas Kuhn, bilim tarihini dört dönem üzerinden değerlendiren paradigma değişimleri ve bilimsel kuramların birbirleriyle kıyaslanmasına karşı çıkan eş ölçülmezlik düşüncelerini geliştirerek klasik görüşün eleştirisi için zemin hazırlamıştır. Bilimin, belirli durumlarda göreceli olarak değerlendirilmesi gerektiğini düşünmüştür.

Stephen Toulmin, Thomas Kuhn'un bilim tarihi üzerinden ele aldığı bilim felsefesini, psikoloji üzerinden incelemiştir. Imre Lakatos ise, bilimsel yöntem üzerine ortaya koyduğu düşünceler klasik görüşe yakın olmakla birlikte, Karl Popper ve Thomas Kuhn'un görüşlerini sentezlemeye çalışmıştır.

Paul Feyerabend, epistemolojik anarşizmi savunmuş ve bilimi, bilgi edinme yöntemlerinden biri olarak görmüştür. Thomas Kuhn'un eş ölçülmezliğini daha da ileri götüren Paul Feyerabend, bilimin diğer bilgi edinme yöntemleriyle de kıyaslanamayacağını düşünmüştür. Bilim, din, felsefe ve sanat gibi alanları bilgi edinme yöntemi olarak değerlendirmiş, herhangi birinin diğerinden önemli olmadığını dile getirmiştir. Paul Feyerabend da, bilimsel kuramların geçerliliklerinin göreceli olduğunu öne sürmüştür.

Thomas Kuhn'un paradigma değişimleri, bilim çevreleri içerisinde genel kabul görmektedir.

Başlıca temsilcileri: Thomas Kuhn, Stephen Toulmin, Imre Lakatos ve Paul Feyerabend

Paradigma değişimleri
Bilim öncesi dönem: Bilim insanlarının, belirli bir yönteme sahip olmadığı ve geçerli olduğunu düşündükleri birçok bilimsel kuramı bir arada kullandıkları dönemdir.

Olağan bilim dönemi: Bilim insanlarının, bir bilimsel kuramı doğru kabul ederek, geliştirdikleri paradigma içerisinde araştırmalar yaptıkları ve çalışmalar ortaya koydukları dönemdir.

Bunalımlar dönemi: Bilim insanlarının, doğru kabul ettikleri paradigma üzerine anlaşmazlıklar yaşamaya başladıkları ve çalışmalarının bazı durumları açıklamakta yetersiz kaldığını gördükleri dönemdir.

Bilimsel devrim dönemi: Bilim insanlarının, paradigmaya bağlı kalanlar ve yeni bir bilimsel kuram geliştirenler olarak ikiye ayrıldığı, ortaya konulan yeni kuramın destekçilerinin artmasıyla paradigma değişiminin gerçekleştiği dönemdir. Bilimsel devrim dönemi sonucunda, yeni bilimsel kuramla olağan bilim dönemine geri dönülmektedir.

Ayrıca bakınız

 Bilimsel yöntem
 Bilim tarihi
 Nesnellik
 Pozitivizm
 Empirizm
 Bilimsel bilgi
 Realizm

Kaynakça
 Bilim Felsefesi, Cemal Yıldırım, Remzi Kitabevi.
 Felsefe Tarihi, Macit Gökberk, Remzi Kitabevi.
 Bilimsel Devrimlerin Yapısı, Thomas Kuhn.

Bilim felsefesi


Bowenia serrulata es una especie de planta fanerógama de la  familia Stangeriaceae. Es endémica de Australia. No se encuentra amenazada.

Esta especie se encuentra en la parte centro-oriental del estado de Queensland, Australia. Se encuentra en las inmediaciones de Byfield, al noreste de Rockhampton. Se produce de 30 a 150 m de altitud.

Taxonomía
Bowenia serrulata fue descrita por (W.Bull) Chamb. y publicado en Botanical Gazette (London) 54: 419. 1912.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Stangeriaceae
Flora de Queensland
Plantas descritas en 1912
Plantas descritas por W.Bull
Plantas descritas por Chamberlain

Bowenia serrulata


DNA අණුවක් පොලිනියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ් දාම දෙකකින් සමන්විත වේ. පොලිනියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ දාම දෙක එකිනෙක සම්බන්ධ වී ඇත්තේ එක් එක් පොලිනියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ් දාම වල නියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ වල අනුපූරක භෂ්ම යුගල් අතර හයිඩ්‍රජන් බන්ධන ඇතිවීම මගිනි. DNA ප්‍රතිවලිත වීමේදී මෙම හයිඩ්‍රජන් බන්ධන DNA අණුවේ එක් කෙලවරෙක සිට බිඳ වැටීම සිදුවේ. මෙසේ හයිඩ්‍රජන් බන්ධන බිඳ වැටීම නිසා මාතෘ පොලිනියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ් දාම දෙක එකිනෙකින් ඈත් වේ. මේ නිසා මාතෘ පොලිනියුක්ලියොටයිඩ් දාමයේ භෂ්ම පිටතට විවර වේ. වෙන් වූ මාතෘ පොලිනියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ් දාම ඉදිරියේ අනුපූරක නයිට්‍රජනීය භෂ්ම සහිත නියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ් එකතු වී ඒවා පොස්පොඩයිඑස්ටර බන්ධන වලින් බැඳීමෙන් දුහිතෘ පොලිනියුක්ලියෝටයිඩ් දාම කොටස් සෑදේ. මේ සඳහා DNA පොලිමරේස් එන්සයිමය වැදගත් වේ.

විද්‍යාව
ජීව විද්‍යාව

DNA ප්‍රතිවලිත වීම


Biserica Cuvioasa Paraschiva din Poiana Ampoiului este un monument istoric aflat pe teritoriul satului Poiana Ampoiului, comuna Meteș. În Repertoriul Arheologic Național, monumentul apare cu codul 5648.01.

Note

Monumente istorice din județul Alba
Biserici din secolul al XVIII-lea din România
Biserici cu hramul Sfânta Parascheva


Osman Zeki Yüksel (25 Temmuz 1917, Akseki, Antalya - 10 Kasım 1983, Ankara), Türk siyasetçi, gazeteci ve şairdir.

Yaşamı
Asıl adı Osman Zeki Yüksel'dir. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi öğrenciliği sırasında 1944 Mayıs ayında meydana gelen olaylara karıştığı için Hüseyin Nihal Atsız'la birlikte bir süre hapis yattı, hapisten çıktıktan sonra öğrenim için aynı fakülteye başvurduysa da bu isteği reddedilince dönemin Milli Eğitim Bakanı Hasan Âli Yücel'e hitaben yazdığı ve "Yüksek vekaletin alçak vekiline" diye başlayan yazı yüzünden yeniden hapsedildi.

Hapisten çıktıktan sonra birçok sayısı siyasi irade tarafından toplattırılacak olan toplam 33 sayı Serdengeçti dergisini yayımladı. Dergideki yazılarından dolayı okuyucuları onu "Serdengeçti" olarak andılar ve bu nedenle kendisi de sonradan Serdengeçti soyadını aldı.

1965-1969 yılları arasında Adalet Partisi listesinden Antalya milletvekilliği yaptı. Partisine yönelttiği eleştiriler yüzünden bir süre sonra Adalet Partisi'nden ihraç edildi. Milletvekilliği sırasında kravat takmadığı için uyarı aldı, uyarıları dikkate almayınca genel kurula girişi yasaklandı. Bu kez beline bağladığı kravatla içeri girdi, yakasına takması gerektiğini söyleyenlere ise "Kanunda nereye takılacağı belli değil. İstediğim gibi takarım" dedi.

Yeni İstanbul gazetesinde "Selam" başlığı altında yazılar da yazdı. Necip Fazıl'ın yakın arkadaşlarından olan Serdengeçti, hazırcevaplığıyla tanınırdı. Türkçülerin "Tanrı Türk'ü korusun" demesi üzerine Serdengeçti "Tanrı Türk'ü, Allah da Müslüman'ı korusun" demiştir.

Yakalandığı parkinson hastalığının ardından 10 Kasım 1983' te  Ankara'da öldü ve Cebeci Asri Mezarlığı'na gömüldü.

Eserleri
 Mabedsiz Şehir
 Bu Millet Neden Ağlar?
 Bir Nesli Nasıl Mahvettiler?
 Ayasofya Davası
 Mevlana ve Mehmet Akif
 Türklüğün Perişan Hali
 Gülünç Hakikatlar
 Kara Kitap
 Müslüman Çocuğunun Şiir Kitabı
 Radyo Konuşmaları
 Akdeniz Hilalindir

Kaynakça

1917 doğumlular
1983 yılında ölenler
Akseki doğumlular
Ankara'da ölenler
Cebeci Asri Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
20. yüzyıl Türk gazetecileri
Türk İslamcılar
Türk antikomünistler
Ülkücüler
Adalet Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
20. yüzyıl Türk siyasetçileri
TBMM 13. dönem Antalya milletvekilleri
Antalya Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
TBMM Dilekçe Komisyonu
20. yüzyıl Türk şairleri
Gazi Lisesinde öğrenim görenler
Millî Gazete kişileri

Osman Yüksel Serdengeçti


نادي فادوز لكرة القدم  نادي كرة قدم ليختنشتايني يلعب في دوري التحدي السويسري . تم تأسيس النادي في سنة 1932 .

مراجع

أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1932
أندية كرة قدم في ليختنشتاين
أندية كرة قدم لعبت في دوريات أجنبية
تأسيسات سنة 1932 في ليختنشتاين
فادوتس

نادي فادوتس


A Gruta do Ioiô, ou de Manoel Ioiô, é uma caverna localizada na cidade brasileira de Iraquara, na região central da Chapada Diamantina, no estado da Bahia. Possui uma extensão de  metros, conforme medição realizada pelo Grupo Bambuí. É uma das atrações turísticas da cidade.

"Gruta do Ioiô é uma caverna autógena formada pela dissolução de águas subterrâneas de calcilutitos, calcissiltitos, calcarenitos, calcários dolomíticos e dolomitos da unidade Nova América da Formação Salitre (Grupo Una) que foi depositado em um ambiente marinho raso Neoproterozoico", na definição de Eltink e outros, identificada pela Sociedade Brasileira de Espeleologia com o código BA_100, fazendo parte do sistema de cavernas Iraquara, considerado o mais importante do Brasil.

Características
Integra, junto à Gruta do Impossível, um sistema cárstico, comum na cidade de onde vem o "Sistema Iraquara" de cavernas no conjunto geológico da Formação Salitre do Grupo Una. O sistema Ioiô-Impossível possui uma extensão de 6,3 quilômetros, com dutos estreitos e poucas ramificações.

É uma lapa parcialmente inundada que fornece uma acumulação de fósseis que datam do final do período Pleistoceno ao começo e meio do Holoceno, que indicam a existência de florestas no passado da área. Sua entrada possui uma dolina de colapso, comum nas cavernas de Iraquara, que "são caracterizadas por passagens secas ou drenadas por cursos d'água intermitentes" mas com registros, como é o caso do sistema Ioiô-Impossível, de lagos e rios em seu interior que, num declive ali de 500 metros, flui para o sistema formado pelo rio Santo Antônio.

No seu interior foram nomeadas as formações, como a "Passagem do Baiano", os dutos "Águas Claras" e "Cordilheira", e o "Salão Ferrugem" com inúmeros registros fósseis.

Sítio fóssil
Na gruta do Ioiô foram encontrados bastantes restos fossilizados e uma variada fauna que viveu no passado remoto da Chapada. "A passagem subterrânea para os sítios com fósseis encontra-se permanentemente preenchida por água, distanciando-se cerca de 250 m (em distância linear) da entrada da gruta".

No meio aquático ali existente foram encontrados restos de vários espécimes animais a paleofauna, como os mamíferos Palaeolama major (Camelidae) , Pecari tajacu (Tayassuidae), Puma concolor e Leopardus pardalis (Felidae), Chrysocyon brachyurus (Canidae) e outros como exemplares de Mustelidae, Rodentia e Chiroptera, um não-identificado exemplar de Didelphidae, além de um jacaré crocodiliano e Siluriformes - registrando a equipe de Eltink que "o intervalo de tempo dos fósseis da Gruta do Ioiô" vão "desde o Pleistoceno Superior até o Holoceno Inferior-Médio, abrangendo o Último Máximo Glacial" e que "o registro de táxons, como Myocastor coypus (um roedor semiaquático atualmente distribuído na América do Sul subtropical e temperada) e Chrysocyon brachyurus (um típico habitante de campos abertos) mostra que a paisagem do passado, composta por florestas e/ou vegetações savânicas, contrasta com os matagais xéricos arbóreos que atualmente cobrem a área".

Turismo
O passeio à gruta de Manoel Ioiô tem uma duração média de uma hora e meia, sendo necessário o acompanhamento de guia. No seu interior os atrativos são os espeleotemas, alguns deles com formas que lembram figuras de animais.

Ligações externas
USP, Ribeirão Preto - registro de imagens da pesquisa 2012-2013

Geografia de Iraquara
Cavernas da Chapada Diamantina

Gruta do Ioiô


Poljanere (; , ; , ) var en slavisk stamme mellem 500 og 800-tallet, der blev omtalt i Nestorkrøniken. Poljanerne beboede begge sider af Dnepr fra Ljubetsj og langs de nedre løb af floderne Ros, Sula, Stuhna, Teteriv, Irpin, Desna og Pripjat. I den tidlige middelalder var der to slaviske stammer, der bar navnet på Polanere, den anden er de vestlige Polanere (forfædre til de moderne polakker). Navnet stammer fra det gamle østslaviske ord поле eller поляна (), der betyder "eng", fordi poljanerne var bosat på de åbne enge langs floderne. Omkring 862 blev poljanerne knyttet til det gamle Rus. Efter den gamle Rus-hovedstad var blevet flyttet til deres hjemby Kijev, blev det poljanske sprog til hovedsprog i Kijevriget. Poljanerne var den første ikke-Rus stamme der ændrede deres navn til Rus og spillede en central rolle i dannelsen af ukrainske genetik. Ukrainsk, hviderussisk og sandsynligvis rusinsk har rødder i poljansk sprog.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Poljanere i Encyclopedia of Ukraine

Østslavere
Hvideruslands historie
Ukraines historie
Ruslands historie

Poljanere (østlige)


Magnus Rasmussen (født 1962) er en færøsk lærer og politiker (SB). Før han blev borgmester, arbejdede han som folkeskolelærer på Runavík kommuneskole. Han bor i Lamba.

Politisk karriere
Rasmussen har været borgmester og medlem af kommunalbestyrelsen i Runavíkar kommuna fra 1. januar 2009 valgt på fælleslisten Almenni Listin, men har fået orlov fra 1. januar 2016, fordi han blev valgt i Lagtinget ved valget 1. september 2015 og har valgt at tage orlov som borgmester, selv han den 14. september 2015 fik tilladelse fra Runavíkar byråd til at tage sæde i Lagtinget samtidig med, at han fortsatte som borgmester i Runavíkar kommune. Tórbjørn Jacobsen bliver borgmester fra 1. januar 2016.

Referencer

Politikere fra Sambandsflokkurin
Borgmestre fra Færøerne
Personer fra Østerø
Lagtingsmedlemmer fra Færøerne

Magnus Rasmussen


Kibar Feyzo, yönetmenliğini Atıf Yılmaz'ın yaptığı, Kemal Sunal, Müjde Ar, Adile Naşit, Şener Şen, İhsan Yüce, İlyas Salman ve Erdal Özyağcılar'ın rol aldığı 1978 yapımı bir Türk komedi filmidir. Türkiye'de ağalık düzenine kara mizah çerçevesinde yaklaşarak toplumcu gerçekçi bir nitelik taşıyan film, sınıfsal çatışmayı merkeze alması ve komünizm karşıtı önlemleri yermesiyle de politik bir yön taşıyan kült filmlerdendir.

Konusu
Film, köyde sevdiği kadınla evlenmek isteyen Feyzo'nun başlık parası toplamak isterken yaşadıklarını anlatır. Askerlik hizmetini tamamlayıp köyüne dönen Kibar Feyzo, Hacı Hüsam'ın kızı Gülo ile evlenmek için çabalar. Bilo da Gülo'ya talip olunca işler daha da karmaşık bir hâle gelir. Başlık parasını toplama işi bir yarış haline gelince Feyzo köyden ayrılır ve çalışıp para biriktirmek için İstanbul'a gider. Burada köye göre çok daha farklı bir yaşamın olduğunun farkına varır. Feyzo gözü açık biri olarak köyüne döndüğünde köyün ağası Maho ile sınıfsal bir çatışmaya girecektir ve şehirlerde ağalık düzeninin olmadığını, başlık parasının kalktığını anlatarak ağaya karşı cephe oluşturacaktır.

Arka plan ve politik bağlam
Film Osman Şahin'in Kırmızı Yel kitabındaki Fareler adlı öyküsüne dayanmaktadır. Senaryo uygulaması İhsan Yüce tarafından yapılan film, ana hikâye etrafınca ciddi bir dönem uygulamaları eleştirisidir. Filmde Kibar Feyzo ekseninde dönemsel olarak ivme kazanan sınıfsal ve ideolojik mücadele işlenir. Onun Maho Ağa'ya karşı girdiği mücadele bir çeşit kültür çatışmasıdır da. Film 12 Eylül Darbesi öncesinde Türkiye'de sınıfsal çatışmayı, işçi hareketleri ve sendikalaşmadaki güçlükler ile mevcut ağalık düzenine hicivsel eleştiriler içerir. Bu nedenle film Türkiye'de 10 yıl boyunca yasaklı kalmıştır.

Film, anlambilimsel olarak incelendiği takdirde; komünizme karşı alınan önlemlere sert eleştiriler görülür. Örneğin filmde ağa rolündeki Şener Şen'in "Ula şurada 141 142 başsınız!" ifadesi kişi sayısıyla değil, dönemin Türk Ceza Kanunu'nun 141 ve 142. maddeleriyle ilgilidir. 1991 yılında bu maddeler yürürlükten kaldırılmıştır.

Karakter analizi
Maho Ağo ve Kibar Feyzo karakterleri Türkiye'de iktidar-halk, otorite-sınıf kavramlarına yeni anlamlar katmıştır. Tanıl Bora'ya göre Kemal Sunal'ın canlandırdığı Kibar Feyzo karakteri toplumsal düzendeki "çarpıklıkları" hicvederken aynı zamanda "halkın sağduyusunu" temsil etmektedir. Duvara yazdığı "Faşo Ağa" ibaresiyle de ağasını faşist olarak tanımlar. Maho Ağa'nın "Faşo nedir?" sorusuna verdiği yanıt ise Türkiye'de "faşistliğe" bakışı şekillendirmiş, "ağır hakaret" anlamı katmıştır.

Oyuncular

 Kemal Sunal - Kibar Feyzo
 Müjde Ar - Gülo
 Adile Naşit - Sakine Kadın
 Şener Şen - Maho Ağa
 İhsan Yüce - Hacı Hüso
 İlyas Salman - Bilo
 Erdal Özyağcılar - Zülfo
 Reşit Çıldam - Köylü (ses. Dinçer Çekmez)
 Bahri Ateş - Topal Hoca (ses. Rıza Tüzün)
 Abdullah Ferah - Memo (ses. Rıza Pekkutsal)
 Selim Acar - Ustabaşı
 Celal Yonat - Tuvaletçi (ses. Hayri Arlı)
 Sevtap Erdemli - Gelin
 Sabahat İzgü - Duvarı Sildiren Kadın
 Hüseyin Kaşif - Gelinin Babası (ses. Zafer Önen)
 Yılmaz Kurt
 Tuncer Sevi - Köylü (ses. Devrim Parscan)
 Güzin Özyağcılar
 Cevdet Arıkan - Damat

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 "Müjde Ar Olsa; Müjde Ar Oysa...", Literal Affairs Dergisi, 2 Şubat 2014

1978 çıkışlı Türk filmleri
Atıf Yılmaz'ın yönettiği filmler
Cahit Berkay'ın müziğini yaptığı filmler
Türk komedi filmleri
Hatay'da çekilmiş filmler
İhsan Yüce'nin senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Arzu Film filmleri
Konusu Hatay'da geçen filmler
Konusu İstanbul'da geçen filmler
İstanbul'da çekilmiş filmler
Türk mahkeme salonu dramaları
1970'lerde Türkçe filmler
Nahit Ataman'ın yapımcısı olduğu filmler
Ertem Eğilmez'in yapımcısı olduğu filmler
1978 çıkışlı komedi filmleri
Türkiye'de sansürlenmiş filmler

Kibar Feyzo


Die Canada Open 1987 im Badminton fanden in der Woche bis zum 1. November 1987 in Calgary, Kanada, statt. Das Turnier wurde in Kategorie 3 der Grand-Prix-Wertung eingestuft.

Finalresultate

Referenzen
 World Badminton 16 (1988) (1), S. 34

World Badminton Grand Prix 1987
1987
Badmintonwettbewerb in Calgary

Canadian Open 1987