The colonial history of the United States began in 1607 with the colonization of Jamestown, Virginia. Music of all genres and origins emerged as the United States began to form. From the Indigenous spiritual music to the African banjos, music in the United States is as diverse as its people. In New England, the music was very religious and was vitally important in the rising of American music. The migration of people southward led to the settling of the Appalachian Mountains. There many poor Europeans inhabited and brought country blues and fiddling. As music spread, the religious hymns were still just as popular. The first New England School, Shakers, and Quakers, which were all music and dance groups inspired by religion, rose to fame. In 1776, St. Cecilia Music Society opened in the Province of South Carolina and led to many more societies opening in the Northern United States.  African slaves were brought to the United States and introduced the music world to instruments like the xylophone, drums and banjo. The diverse music of the United States comes from the diverse type of people who first colonized this country.

Indigenous music

Native Americans in the United States had no indigenous traditions of classical music, nor a secular song tradition. Their music is spiritual in nature, performed usually in groups in a ritual setting important to Native American religion.

It was not until the 1890s that Native American music began to enter the American establishment.  At the time, the first pan-tribal cultural elements, such as powwows, were being established, and composers like Edward MacDowell and Henry Franklin Belknap Gilbert used Native themes in their compositions.  It was not until the much later work of Arthur Farwell, however, that an informed representation of Native music was brought into the American classical scene, part of the Indianist movement.

Appalachian folk music

The Appalachian Mountains have long been a center for cultural innovation, in spite of only sparse settlement by Native Americans and Europeans alike.  Due to complex geologic reasons, the mountains and subranges were difficult to cross and included ridges of uninhabitable quartz mixed with valleys of soil unsuitable for agriculture.  As a result, immigration of Europeans and their African slaves tended to be southern in direction, along the Piedmont area, and the Appalachian region was populated by poor Europeans. These Europeans were of English, Scots-Irish, German, and Huguenot origin.  This settlement occurred primarily from 1775 to 1850.

English, Anglo-Irish, and Border Scottish tunes and ballads continued evolving from their distant roots along the Appalachians, eventually forming the major basis for jug bands, country blues, hillbilly music and a mix of other genres which eventually became country music.  These folk tunes adopted characteristics from multiple sources, including British broadside ballads (which switched their themes from love to a distinctly American preoccupation with masculine work like mining or sensationalistic disasters and murder), African folk tunes (and their lyrical focus on semi-historical events) and minstrel shows and music halls.  Popular ballads included "Barbara Allen" and "Matty Groves".  The banjo was also introduced, having gone through numerous geographic movements since its invention by the Arabians and subsequent travel across Africa, the Atlantic and throughout the Americas.

Fiddling

Appalachian fiddle styles are mostly derived from those brought to the colonies by English settlers. It is often claimed that the "Scotch snap" popularized by Niel Gow influenced Appalachian fiddling; however, according to historian Michael Newton, this is not true. Newton has claimed that English, Scottish, Irish, and American fiddle styles developed around the same time and are more like "cultural cousins" of one another. Appalachian technique was altered during the next century, with European waltzes and polkas being most influential.  Square dances, based on the cotillion, and cakewalks, an African American imitation of white dances and the Virginia Reel arose during the 19th century.

Lined-out hymnody

Lined-out hymnody, a religious music style perpetuated by the Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, et al., is often studied and classified as folk music. See Old Regular Baptist, Lined-Out Hymnody.

New England colonial music
The religious singing traditions of New England played an important role in the early evolution of American music.  Beginning with the Pilgrim colonists, who brought the Ainsworth Psalter with them to the New World, church hymns were popular across the region.  Common New Englanders soon developed their own traditions, which were viewed by some as degenerate and wanton.

New England choral traditions

The original Puritan immigrants to New England sang a number of spiritual psalms, but generally disliked secular music, or at least those varieties which they viewed as encouraging immorality and disorder.  They also objected to the use of musical instruments in churches and a complex vocal liturgy, both being associated with Roman Catholicism.  The well-known minister Cotton Mather wrote, in Directions for a Candidate of the Ministry, on the subject:

The Ainsworth Psalter provided most of the tunes in use in New England church music until the late 17th century, when congregations abandoned the Psalter, claiming the tunes were too complex and difficult to sing.

The Bay Psalme Book (The Whole Booke of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre) was published in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1640; it was the first book of any kind printed in the English colonies of North America.  It became the standard used by New England churches for many years, though it contained no music itself, merely providing psalms and pointing readers to other prominent publications.  The Bay Psalm Book was faithful to its source, but did not produce beautiful singing.  In 1651, then, a third edition was extensively revised by Henry Dunster and Richard Lyon, and became known as the New England Psalm Book; this became the standard for many years.  In 1698, the ninth edition was printed and it was the first time that printed notation was used. By this point, the evolution from the Ainsworth Psalter to the New England Psalm Book had steadily dwindled the number of tunes in use.

The practice of lining out was often common, though its presence and utility depended on the degree of illiteracy found in congregation—generally, illiteracy was common, as was lining out.  This was the process of a leader presenting one line of a song, then maintaining the first note for the congregation to match as they responded with the same line.  This technique was also common in churches of Appalachia, such as the Regular Baptists of Kentucky.

The organ and the birth of the church band

Organs were the only instrument in use in church music during this era, and even this was not without controversy. During the colonial era, in churches in the Calvinist tradition - including in most Puritan meetinghouses - only unaccompanied singing was permitted during worship. Indeed, after the death of Thomas Brattle, treasurer of Harvard College in 1713, he bequeathed his organ to the Brattle Square Church in Boston, but the church (which he had founded) did not think it proper, and gave it to the King's Chapel, which was the Anglican.  Still, the organ was used in other New England churches.  The first organ said to be designed for church use was installed in Newport, Rhode Island in 1733.  Organs, however, were expensive and difficult to play.  Only the largest churches could afford an organ and organist, and so many used more portable instruments, such as the bass fiddle, which was called "God's fiddle" to distinguish it from the much-maligned "Devil's fiddle" (violin).  Later, other instruments like the ophicleide, trombone, cornet, German flute, bassoon, violin and clarinet were added, thus birthing the church band.

Secular folk music

Though it had long been supposed that the religious aversion to secular music inhibited instrumental folk music in New England, recent research by Barbara Lambert, focused on the Boston area, shows otherwise.  Personally owned instruments recorded included the cittern, virginals, soprano clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, fife, flute, viol and violin and fiddle and the Mrs. Healy pipe.

Despite some hostility on the part of ministers like Increase Mather, dance music was popular in the New England colonial era, especially by the early 18th century, as the local population boomed with an influx of more settlers.

Broadside ballads were also known.  As in British music, these were printed songs performed to a well-known tune, and included border ballads like The Ballad of Chevy Chase.

Though there is much in primary sources referring to folk music of the time, it is virtually all written by those who condemned the songs as uncouth.  As such, little is objectively known.  There was a distinction between the "Regular Singing" style of zealous reformers, mostly clergymen educated at Harvard, and the "Common Way" of the folk.  Reformers included prominent clergymen like Thomas Walter and Nathaniel Chauncey, many of whom regarded their style of "regular" singing as more sophisticated as well as more devout.  The evidence, however, indicates that the common people's music was more complex, using techniques like ornamentation.

The formation of schools and societies promoting regular singing helped to spread the practice, and instruction books were published.

John Wesley's legacy and the spread south
In the 18th century, Americans composed a number of their own hymns, often based on the Old Testament; the English nonconformist Isaac Watts, especially his Hymns and Spiritual Songs, was also very popular.  John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, played a major role in revivalist hymnody after a trip to Georgia in 1735 at the invitation of James Oglethorpe.  Wesley and his brother, Charles Wesley, went with Oglethorpe and twenty-six Moravian missionaries.  The Moravian singing inspired John Wesley to study their music.  He published a collection of translations of German hymns in 1737, A Collection of Psalms and Hymns, then returned to England in 1738, attending meetings of the Moravian Brethren in London.  There, during a reading of Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, Wesley had a spiritual experience and found his faith in Christ rejuvenated.

Great Awakening

After returning to America, Wesley became an important preacher in a rise of fervent Christianity called the Great Awakening, along with George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, among others.  Wesley and his brother began writing a number of hymns, at first just words, and then with music beginning with a collection usually called the Foundery Collection.

Wesley and some other preachers fought against the embellishment of his hymns.  In 1761, Wesley's collection Select Hymns, with Tunes Annext: Designed Chiefly for Use of the People Called Methodists directed singers to follow the tunes "exactly as printed" and to "sing in tune"; both directions were impractical, since most of the worshippers likely couldn't read music or carry a tune.

Nevertheless, the Great Awakening (and other hymnal styles from New England) spread south and changed from Wesley's strict formulas.  John Cennick (known for widespread hymns like "Jesus My All to Heaven Is Gone") and John Newton are likely the two most important individuals in the creation of Great Awakening-era hymns, which were sung at camp meetings. These hymns, sung at large gatherings, especially in the south, provided a basis for gospel and blues in the late 19th and early 20th century. Some of the common features included Cennick's innovation of hymns sung as a dialogue, as well as Newton, a former slave trader who converted after reading The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis, who wrote more than two hundred hymns that drew on his own experiences wrestling with sin, and proved extremely popular.

First New England School

Compared with the older songs, Wesley and other new composers wrote with a simple structure.  Rural farmers and workers expanded on these structures, creating complex songs which some musical conservatives railed against to no avail.  It was in this context that a wave of itinerant singing masters, including William Billings, arose, creating hymns that remain standard across the country.  This field was called the First New England School.  Following Billings' pioneering footsteps were Supply Belcher, Andrew Law, Daniel Read, Jacob Kimball, Jeremiah Ingalls, John Wyeth, James Lyon, Oliver Holden, Justin Morgan and Timothy Swan.

The First New England School is usually considered the first uniquely American invention in music.  The most characteristic feature was that the voices, male and female respectively, doubled their parts in any octave in order to fill out the harmony; this generated a texture of close-position chords that was unknown in European traditions.

William Billings was of special importance and popularity.  A native of Boston, Billings was a tanner by trade, and was mainly self-taught in music.  He did not always follow the standard rules of composition in his works, and has thus been called the "first American composer to emphasize strongly a creative independence and to flaunt his personal idiosyncrasies in both his music and (especially) his published writings". He taught a famous singing school in Stoughton, Massachusetts in 1774. A few of the singers later formed the Stoughton Musical Society, a choral organization consisting of 25 men.

Supply Belcher, born in Stoughton, Massachusetts, though later based out of Farmington, Maine, is also especially well known.  His only published tunebook was 1794's The Harmony of Maine, which included anthems, fuging pieces, psalms and hymns, a number of which were secular.  His songs were distinctively folky and down-to-earth.  His contemporary Daniel Read, a Massachusetts-born musician who later moved to New Haven, Connecticut, was a popular musician who supported himself almost entirely off the sale of tunebooks.  His first publication was entitled The American Singing Book; or, a New and Easy Guide to the Art of Psalmody Devised for the Use of Singing Schools in America.  The title's use of psalmody is here referring to singing societies which were spreading across the country, and is used without religious connotations.

Billings, Belcher and Read were the beginning of a chain of tunebook compilers that grew increasingly secular, as the art of psalmody lost its religious importance.  Other Massachusetts-born compilers followed in their footsteps, beginning with Jeremiah Ingalls of Newbury, Vermont.  Their songs were generally fugues, and were disapproved of by religious authorities.  Andrew Law was an important compiler as well; he felt that American music should be more like European, and is best known for organizing singing schools and tunebooks.  In addition, he composed several songs of note, and invented a kind of musical notation called shape note.

Shakers

The Shakers, or United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, were a religion founded near Manchester, England, in the mid-1700s, and rose to prominence under the leadership of Ann Lee (Mother Ann).  Lee had been born poor, and worked as a child in a cotton factory before her parents married her to a blacksmith.  After giving birth to four children, all of whom died in infancy, Mother Ann came to view sexual intercourse as evil.  Celibacy became an integral part of her religion.  She was jailed for disturbing the Sabbath in 1772.  Two years later, Shakers started moving to North America, settling in New England and as far south as New York.  The rituals that Mother Ann designed, which she claimed to have seen in visions, included passionate dances that represented part of a battle between the holy Shakers and the devil and the flesh.  Though their strange customs and British mannerisms drew some hostility from the colonists, as the American Revolutionary War was brewing, the Shakers grew in number and eventually spread as far south as Kentucky.  Though Mother Ann died in 1784, the Shaker traditions lived on.  Their best known dance song is Simple Gifts, used by Aaron Copland in his ballet score Appalachian Spring.

European professionals

In 1766, Charlestown (Charleston), South Carolina became the home of the St. Cecilia Society, the first musical society in North America.  At the time, Charleston was a cultural center, attracting a number of musicians from Europe.  In the decades after the Revolution, more northern cities like Philadelphia, New York and Boston largely took Charleston's place.  Philadelphia, home of the esteemed Alexander Reinagle, John Christopher Moller, Rayner Taylor and Susannah Haswell Rowson, was especially renowned for musical development. Reinagle became the most influential figure in Philadelphia's musical life, organizing a number of concerts, organizations and musical events.

The English singer Benjamin Carr was especially notable.  He arrived in New York in 1793, along with his brother and father.  They soon became prominent music publishers and vendors, owning stores in New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore.  Carr himself was a composer, organist, pianist and a publisher and editor.  They published, in Philadelphia, "The President's March" in 1793; written by Philip Phile, "The President's March" is one of the most enduring of American patriotic songs.  The march was soon politicized, adopted by the Federalists as a rallying song.

The British James Hewitt was one of the most distinguished musicians of early American history.  He was already renowned in London before moving across the Atlantic, accompanied by Belgian composer and violinist Jean Gehot.  Hewitt became established in New York, organizing concerts and other musical events.  His opera Tammany; or, The Indian Chief became controversial after its first performance.  It was the first American opera to deal with Native Americans, and was sponsored by the New York Tammany Society, an anti-Federalist organization.  Hewitt was the target of much invective from Federalists as a result.

The English organist, choirmaster and composer William Selby was a major figure in Boston's musical life, along with the Dutch organist, violinist and composer Peter Albrecht van Hagen and German oboist Johann Christian Gottlieb Graupner.

Gentleman amateur composers

The great urban centers of the mid-Atlantic included cities like Philadelphia and Baltimore, and it was there that European classical traditions were best represented.  Philip Phile, Johann Friedrich Peter and Alexander Reinagle were prominent composers of the era, though Francis Hopkinson, a signer of the Declaration of Independence from Philadelphia, remains the best-known.  One of his compositions, "My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free", is well-remembered as the first art song from the United States (though this is disputed); it is, however, lacking in originality and innovation to set it apart from European compositions.

At the time, professional musicians were looked-down upon and considered coarse.  Gentlemen performers played often, mostly for other aristocratic audiences, and without pay.  As the United States developed, the south became the land of deep socioeconomic divisions.  Land ownership and the possession of chattel slavery became an integral component of a gentleman's livelihood, while in the north, the idea of a landed aristocracy never carried as much weight.

Lowell Mason

Perhaps the most influential early composer was Lowell Mason.  A native of Boston, Mason campaigned against the use of shape-note notation, and for the education in standard notation.    He worked with local institutions to release collections of hymns and maintain his stature.  Opposed to the shape-note tradition, Mason pushed American music towards a European model.

Rural Pennsylvanian music

Rural Pennsylvania in the colonial era was home to religious minorities like the Quakers, as well as important Moravian and Lutheran communities.  While the Quakers had few musical traditions, Protestant churches frequently made extensive use of music in worship  J. F. Peter emerged from the Moravian tradition, while Conrad Beissel (founder of the Ephrata Cloister) innovated his own system of harmonic theory.  The Lutheran traditions of Johann Sebastian Bach, Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel and Walther were propagated in Pennsylvania, and the city of Bethlehem remains a center of Lutheran musical traditions today.

Mennonites

The Mennonites, followers of Menno Simons, settled in Germantown after emigrating from the German Palatinate and Switzerland between 1683 and 1748.  They were led by Willem Rittinghuysen (grandfather of astronomer and mathematician David Rittenhouse).  The Mennonites used a hymnbook from Schaffhausen, reprinted in Germantown in 1742 as Der Ausbund Das ist etliche schöne christliche Lieder.

Ephrata Cloister

The Ephrata Cloister (Community of the Solitary) was founded in what is now Lancaster County on the Cocalico River in 1720.  This was a group of Seventh Day Baptists led by Peter Miller and Conrad Beissel, who believed in using music as an integral part of worship.  Beissel codified the Ephrata Cloister's unique tradition in his Beissel's Dissertation on Harmony; here, he divided notes into two types.  These were masters, or notes belonging to the common chord, and servants, or all other notes.  Accented syllables in Beissel's works always fell on master notes, leaving servant notes for unaccented syllables.  The Ephrata Cloister's hymnbook was large, consisting of more than 1,000 hymns, many of which were accompanied by instruments including the violin.  Many of these hymns were published in the 1740s and 50s.

Moravian Church

Founded in 1457, the Moravian Church originally spread across Moravia, Poland and Bohemia before persecution forced the remaining faithful to Saxony, where they lived under the protection of Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf.  Zinzendorf wrote hymns, and led the Moravians to America, where they began missionary work in Georgia but with little success.  They moved on to Pennsylvania, and founded the town of Bethlehem on the banks of the Lehigh River.  A group then left for Salem, North Carolina (now a part of Winston-Salem).

Both in Salem and Bethlehem, Moravians continued to use music in their ceremonies.  Instruments included organs and trombones, and voices were usually in choirs.  Players generally played on rooftops for most any occasion, ensuring that they could be heard for great distances.  A legend has arisen claiming that a group of Native American warriors approached a Moravian settlement during the French and Indian War, but left after hearing a trombone choir because they believed it to be the voice of their Great Spirit.  Moravians were devoted to missionary work, especially among African slaves and Native Americans; in 1763, they published a collection of hymns in the Delaware language.

Moravians also had a tradition of secular art music that included the famed composer Johann Friedrich Peter, who was a German born in the Netherlands who emigrated to Bethlehem in 1770.  He brought with him copies of compositions by Joseph Haydn, Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, Johann Stamitz and C. F. Abel.  After living in Bethlehem for a time, Peter moved to Salem, where he founded the Collegium Musicum (in 1786) and collected hundreds of symphonies, anthems and oratorios.  It was during this period that Peter also composed a number of well-respected instrumental pieces for twio violins, two violas and a cello; he also composed sacred anthems like "It Is a Precious Thing" and arias like "The Lord Is in His Holy Temple".

The Moravian Church continued to produce a number of renowned composers into the 19th century, including John Antes as well as Francis F. Hagen, Johann Christian Bechler, Edward W. Leinbach, Simon Peter, David Moritz Michael, Georg Gottfried Müller, Peter Wolle, Jeremiah Dencke and Johannes Herbst.  Herbst was also a noted collector, whose archives, left to the Salem church after his death, were made public in 1977; these included more than 11,000 pages of content.  Salem has gradually become the center for Moravian musical innovation, partially due to the presence of the Moravian Music Foundation.

Pietists

In 1694, Johannes Kelpius brought a group of German Pietists to the banks of the Wissahickon Creek in southeastern Pennsylvania.  These became known as the Hermits or Mystics of the Wissahickon; this 1871 map of Wissahickon Creek notes a Kelpius spring and Hermits Glen.  Kelpius was a musician, and he and his followers brought with them instruments that became an integral part of church life.  Kelpius was also a composer, and is sometimes called the first Pennsylvanian composer, based on his unproven authorship of several hymns in The Lamenting Voice of the Hidden Love.  It is likely that he wrote the text, though the tunes are mostly based on German songs; the English translations in the collection are attributed to Christopher Witt, an Englishman who immigrated and joined the mystics, also building them a pipe organ, said to be the first privately owned organ in North America.

In 1703, Justus Falckner was ordained as pastor of the Gloria Dei Church; Falckner evidently believed that music was a very important element of missionary work, writing to Germany to ask for an organ, which he said would attract more Native American converts.  Falckner was a Lutheran who wrote hymns such as "Rise, Ye Children of Salvation".

Harmony Society

In 1803 and 1804, a group of Christian pietists led by George Rapp arrived from Württemberg, Germany, settled in Harmony, Pennsylvania, and formed the Harmony Society in 1805.  The group lived communally, were pacifistic, advocated celibacy, and music was a big part of their lives.  The Harmonites (or Harmonists) wrote their own music and even had an orchestra.  The Society lasted until 1906, but their final settlement, Old Economy Village (now Ambridge, Pennsylvania) contains archives with sheet music that is still performed at special community events.

African Americans

Brought to the United States as early as 1619, enslaved Africans were from a variety of tribes from West Africa, including the Ashanti, Yoruba, Bini, Congo and Dahomean tribes.  They spoke hundreds of languages; some came from rival tribes, or isolated communities with little connection to anyone else until the arrival of the slave traders.  Some of the larger groups had extensive contact with the Muslims of North Africa and the distant cultures of East and Southern Africa.

Enslaved individuals brought with them work songs, religious music and dance, and a wide variety of instruments, including kalimba, xylophone, flutes and rattles.  Perhaps the most important characteristic, however, was the call-and-response vocal style, in which a singer and the audience trade lines back-and-forth.  This practice lent itself well to the burgeoning New England hymn tradition, and the two fields began commingling early in the nation's history.  Another unusual characteristic of much African music is that, rather than begin and end a tune or phrase on a pure note as in Western music, African singers would slide onto or below the note.

The most distinctive component of African music, however, is the focus on the rhythm.  In this respect, African folk styles are far more complex than anything developed anywhere else in the world.  African music is usually polyrhythmic, made by a wide variety of percussion instruments, both pitched and unpitched, using numerous kinds of natural materials.  Polythythms were imported along with slaves to the New World, where it has found its way to genres ranging from African American gospel to pop-swing and rock and roll.

Many slavers encouraged enslaved individuals to sing as they work, believing that it improved morale and made them work harder.    They generally required that all tunes remain cheerful and pleasant in tone to ensure that this occurred.  This music, when accompanied, used only a single drum or other object used for percussion.  Since they were often without instruments, clapping and foot-stomping became an integral part of the music of enslaved people.  The banjo and various kinds of drums were the most important instruments, but enslaved Africans also used varieties of panpipes, notched gourds played with a scraper (similar to a güiro) and rattles.  The thumb piano was also known, similar to the African mbira or sanza.  In addition, Black individuals soon mastered European instruments like the clarinet, oboe, French horn and, most importantly, the violin.  Often, prominent gentlemen had enslaved Black people act as musicians and entertainers.  Some became quite prominent, like Virginia's Sy Gilliat, who performed at state balls in Williamsburg.  His assistant after the capitol moved to Richmond was known as London Brigs and was a renowned player.

Drums

Enslaved Africans in places like Haiti, Brazil and the Dominican Republic retained the use of drums, and their percussion has formed an integral part of Afro-Caribbean and Latin music.  In the British North American colonies, however, drums were prohibited; colonial slavers had feared drums would be used as communication between enslaved people, and that the drums' use may aid uprisings and rebellions.  Drums did, however, remain a prominent part of the music of the French colony of Louisiana.

Banjo

The banjo was a feature of enslaved Black life in America, mentioned by Thomas Jefferson, for example, in his Notes on the State of Virginia, in which he referred to it as a banjar and noted that the instrument came from Africa.  Other names included bangoe, banshaw, bangelo, banza, bangil and banjer.  The instrument was described in West Africa as early as 1620 by Richard Jobson, but was present for some time before.

In North America, the banjo was typically made by hollowing out a gourd or calabash and attaching a long neck.  Enslaved people then stretched a piece of animal hide, usually raccoon, over the bowl and attached four strings.  Jefferson claimed that the banjar with which he was familiar was tuned to E-A-d-g.

Further reading

Notes

Additional sources
 American Music Preservation
 PBS' page on their series American Roots Music
 Friends of American roots music homepage
 Library of Congress collection of brass band materials
 Essential American Recordings Survey

1607
U.S. 1607
U.S. 1607
17th century in the Thirteen Colonies
18th century in the Thirteen Colonies
English music history
Colonization history of the United States

Music history of the United States during the colonial era


Mount Katahdin is a mountain in Piscataquis County, Maine. Katahdin may also refer to:

 Katahdin sheep, a breed of domestic sheep developed in Maine
 Katahdin Iron Works, a Maine state historic site
 Katahdin Woods and Waters National Monument, a National Monument adjacent to Mount Katahdin
 USS Katahdin, two United States Navy vessels

Katahdin (disambiguation)


Submarine warfare is one of the four divisions of underwater warfare, the others being anti-submarine warfare, mine warfare and mine countermeasures.

Submarine warfare consists primarily of diesel and nuclear submarines using torpedoes, missiles or nuclear weapons, as well as advanced sensing equipment, to attack other submarines, ships, or land targets. Submarines may also be used for reconnaissance and landing of special forces as well as deterrence. In some navies they may be used for task force screening. The effectiveness of submarine warfare partly depends on the anti-submarine warfare carried out in response.

American Revolution

The first attack by a submarine occurred on September 8, 1776, by the American submarine Turtle in an unsuccessful attack on the British warship Eagle.

American Civil War
The age of submarine warfare began during the American Civil War. The 1860s was a time of many turning points in terms of how naval warfare was fought. Many new types of warships were being developed for use in the United States and Confederate States Navies. Submarine watercraft were among the newly created vessels. The first sinking of an enemy ship by a submarine occurred on 17 February 1864, when the Confederate submarine , a privateer, sank the sloop  in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. Shortly afterward, however, H. L. Hunley sank, with the loss of her entire crew of eight.

World War I

Submarine warfare in World War I was primarily a fight between German and Austro-Hungarian U-boats and supply convoys bound for the United Kingdom, France, and Russia. British and Allied submarines conducted widespread operations in the Baltic, North, Mediterranean and Black Seas along with the Atlantic Ocean. Only a few actions occurred outside the wider European-Atlantic theatre. German submarine attacks on Allied merchant ships, especially the sinking of Lusitania, turned American public opinion against the Central Powers. The U.S. demanded it stop, and Germany did so. Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff (1853–1919), chief of the admiralty staff, argued successfully in January 1917 to resume the attacks and thus starve the British. The German high command realized the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare meant war with the United States but calculated that American mobilization would be too slow to stop a German victory on the Western Front and played a large role in the United States entering the war in April 1917.

All participants were supposed to abide by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, but this was found to be impracticable for submarines. The German government maintained the British naval blockade was illegal under international law. Initially, German submarines did attempt to comply with the prize rules, but later switched to unrestricted submarine warfare following the British introduction of Q-ships with concealed deck guns. American diplomatic pressure forced the Germans to stop this for a while, but in January 1917 Germany declared a war zone around the British Isles and sank up to a quarter of shipping entering it, until escorted convoys were introduced.
 The sinking of  was the first combat victory of a modern submarine, and the exploits of , which sank three British cruisers in under an hour, established the submarine as an important new component of naval warfare.

German submarines were used to lay naval mines and to attack iron ore shipping in the Baltic. The British submarine flotilla in the Baltic operated in support of the Russians until the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. During the war, the British invested efforts into developing a submarine that could operate in conjunction with a battleship fleet – the "Fleet Submarine".  To achieve the necessary  (surfaced) the K-class submarines were steam powered. In practice, the K class were a constant problem and could not operate effectively with a fleet.

Interwar period
Between the wars, navies experimented with submarine cruisers (France, ), submarines armed with battleship caliber guns (UK, ) and submarines capable of carrying small aircraft for reconnaissance ( and Surcouf).

Germany was denied submarines by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, but built some anyway. This was not legitimized until the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935, under which the UK accepted German parity in submarine numbers with the Royal Navy.

World War II
In World War II, submarine warfare was split into two main areas – the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Mediterranean Sea was also a very active area for submarine operations. This was particularly true for the British and French, as well as the Germans. The Italians were also involved, but achieved their greatest successes using midget submarines and human torpedoes.

Atlantic Ocean

In the Atlantic, where German submarines again sought out and attacked Allied convoys, this part of the war was very reminiscent of the latter part of World War I. Many British submarines were active as well, particularly in the Mediterranean and off Norway, against Axis warships, submarines and merchant shipping.

Initially, Hitler ordered his submarines to abide by the prize rules, but this restriction was withdrawn in December 1939. Although mass attacks by submarine had been carried out in World War I, the "wolf pack" was mainly a tactic of World War II U-boats. The main steps in this tactic were as follows:
 A number of U-boats were dispersed across possible paths of a convoy.
 A boat sighting a convoy would signal its course, speed and composition to German Naval Command.
 The submarine would continue to shadow the convoy, reporting any changes of course.
 The rest of the pack would then head to the first boat's position.
 When the pack was formed, a coordinated attack would be made on the surface at night.
 At dawn, the pack would withdraw, leaving a shadower, and resume the attack at dusk.

With the later increase in warship and aircraft escorts, U-boat losses became unacceptable. Many boats were lost, and the earlier experienced commanders with them.

Pacific Ocean

In the Pacific, the situation was reversed, with US submarines hunting Japanese shipping. By war's end, US submarines had destroyed over half of all Japanese merchant ships, totaling well over five million tons of shipping. British and Dutch submarines also took part in attacks on Japanese shipping, mostly in coastal waters. Japanese submarines were initially successful, destroying two US fleet aircraft carriers, a cruiser, and several other ships.  However, following a doctrine that concentrated on attacking warships, rather than more-vulnerable merchantmen, the smaller Japanese fleet proved ineffectual in the long term, while suffering heavy losses to Allied anti-submarine measures. Italian submarines and one German submarine operated in the Pacific Ocean, but never enough to be an important factor, inhibited by distance and difficult relations with their Japanese ally.

Other areas

Mediterranean Sea

Indian Ocean

Japanese submarines operated in the Indian Ocean, forcing the British surface fleet to withdraw to the east coast of Africa.  Some German and Italian submarines operated in the Indian Ocean, but never enough to play a significant role.

Post-World War II

Since the Second World War, several wars, such as the Korean War, Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and the Falklands War, have involved limited use of submarines. Later submarine-launched land-attack missiles were employed against Iraq and Afghanistan. With these exceptions, submarine warfare ceased after 1945. Hence strategic thinking about the role of submarines has developed independently of actual experience.

The advent of the nuclear-powered submarine in the 1950s brought about a major change in strategic thinking about submarine warfare. These boats could operate faster, deeper and had much longer endurance. Their larger sizes also allowed them to become missile launching platforms. Nuclear power would allow submarines to have  greater accuracy and the ability to use torpedoes against ships, other submarines, and land targets. In response to this the attack submarine became more important, particularly in regard to its postulated role as a hunter-killer. The US also used nuclear submarines as radar pickets for a while. There have also been major advances in sensors and weapons.

During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union played what was described as a 'cat-and-mouse' game of detecting and even trailing enemy submarines.

As the likelihood of unrestricted submarine warfare has diminished, thinking about conventional submarines has focused on their use against surface warships. The mere existence of a submarine may curtail surface warships' freedom to operate. To counter the threat of these submarines, hunter submarines were developed in turn. The role of the submarine has extended with the use of submarine-launched autonomous unmanned vehicles. The development of new air independent propulsion methods has meant that the diesel-electric submarine's need to surface, making it vulnerable, has been reduced. Nuclear submarines, although far larger, could generate their own air and water for an extended duration, meaning their need to surface was limited in any case.

In today's more fractured geopolitical system, many nations are building and/or upgrading their submarines. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force has launched new models of submarines every few years; South Korea has upgraded the already capable Type 209() design from Germany and sold copies to Indonesia. Russia has improved the old Soviet Kilo model into what strategic analysts are calling equivalent to the 1980s-era , and so on.

At the end of his naval warfare book The Price of Admiralty, military historian John Keegan postulates that eventually, almost all roles of surface warships will be taken over by submarines, as they will be the only naval units capable of evading the increasing intelligence capabilities (space satellites, airplanes etc.) that a fight between evenly matched modern states could bring to bear on them.

However, thinking about importance of the submarine has shifted to an even more strategic role, with the advent of the nuclear ballistic missile submarine carrying Submarine-launched ballistic missiles with nuclear weapons to provide second strike capability.

Modern submarine missions
A modern submarine is a multi-role platform. It can conduct both overt and covert operations. In peacetime it can act as a deterrent as well as for surveillance operations and information gathering.

In wartime a submarine can carry out a number of missions including:
 Surveillance and information gathering
 Communication of data
 Landing of special operations forces
 Attack of land targets (first cruise missile fired from sub, Gulf War, , Jan 1991)
 Protection of task forces and merchant shipping
 Denial of sea areas to an enemy

See also
 Intensified submarine warfare

Notes

References
 Blair, Clay. Silent Victory: The U. S. Submarine War Against Japan 2 vol (1975)

Further reading

 John Abbatiello. Anti-Submarine Warfare in World War I: British Naval Aviation and the Defeat of the U-Boats (2005)
 Gray, Edwyn A. The U-Boat War, 1914–1918 (1994)
 Hackmann, Willem. Seek & Strike: Sonar, anti-submarine warfare and the Royal Navy 1914–54. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1984.
 Preston, Antony. The World's Greatest Submarines (2005).
 Roscoe, Theodore. United States Submarine Operations in World War II (US Naval Institute, 1949).
 van der Vat, Dan. The Atlantic Campaign Harper & Row, 1988. Connects submarine and antisubmarine operations between World War I and World War II, and suggests a continuous war.

External links
 Historic films showing submarine warfare during World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu

Warfare by type

Submarine warfare


North Avenue est une station du métro d'Atlanta, dans l'État de Géorgie, aux États-Unis. Ouverte le , elle est située à Atlanta le long de la ligne dorée et de la ligne rouge, entre Civic Center et Midtown.

Situation sur le réseau

Histoire

Services aux voyageurs

Accès et accueil

Desserte

Intermodalité

À proximité

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes

Liens externes

Station du métro d'Atlanta
Station de métro mise en service en 1981
Ligne dorée du métro d'Atlanta
Ligne rouge du métro d'Atlanta

North Avenue (métro d'Atlanta)


චලන ද සිල්වා (උපත 1993 ඔක්තෝබර් 8) ශ්‍රී ලංකා ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩකයෙකි. ඔහු 2014-15 ප්‍රිමියර් කුසලානයේදී 2015 ජනවාරි 30 දින හලාවත මේරියන්ස් ක්‍රිකට් සමාජය වෙනුවෙන් සිය පළමු පෙළ මංගල තරගයට පිවිසියේය.

යොමු කිරීම්

ජීවමාන ජනයා
1993 උපත්

චලන ද සිල්වා


Güroymak, Bitlis ilinin bir ilçesidir.

Etimoloji
Yerleşimin eski adı "Norşin" olup 1987'de ilçenin adı Güroymak olarak değiştirilmiştir. Norşin, köken itibarıyla Ermenice bir sözcüktür. Nor-Şen/Şin-Yeni-Köy anlamına gelmektedir.

Coğrafya
Güroymak, Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Yukarı Murat havzasının doğusuyla Van Gölü'nün batısında Muş Ovası'nın doğu ucunda, doğu-batı istikametinde uzanan iki dağ sırasının arasında ovada bulunan bir alan içinde yer almaktadır. İlçenin doğusunda yer alan Nemrut Dağı-Krater Gölü ve etekleri özellikle batıya doğru uzanarak ilçenin kuzeyini çevirir. Güneyde Yer alan Kilhar Dağı ise Doğu Torosların uzantısı olup, ilçenin batısına doğru hafif bir eğimle ovaya uzanır.

Güroymak iklim yapısı genelde Bitlis ilinin Akdeniz kara iklimi geçiş özelliğine benzemekle beraber önemli değişiklikler gösterir. Kışları ve baharları özellikle yoğun sis nedeniyle güneşli gün sayısı azdır. İlçenin doğusundaki Rahva düzlüğü doğal bir rüzgâr koridoru olduğu için büyük tipi ve fırtınalara sahne olur. Kışlar soğuk ve yoğun kar yağışlı baharlar ise yağmurlu geçer. Yazlar kısa ve ılık bir özellik gösterir. İlçenin yüksek yerlerinde yetişen meşe ve kavak ağaçları tahrip edilip kesildiğinden dağlık arazisi çıplak, seyrek çalılarla kaplı otlaklıklar niteliğindedir. Ovadaki eski ormanlar tahrip olmuş yerinde sellerle kaplı bozkır mahiyetinde bir arazi yapısı ortaya çıkmıştır.  İlçenin deniz seviyesinden yüksekliği 1320 metre, köyler ile birlikte yüzölçümü 650 km² dir.

Tarihçe
İlçenin bulunduğu topraklar tarih boyunca Muş Ovası ile aynı siyasi kaderi paylaşmış, 4. ila 9. yüzyıllarda Mamigonyan Ermeni Beyliğine, 825-967 yılları arasında Bagratuni Ermeni krallığına tabi olmuş, 967 yılında Bizans egemenliğine girdikten kısa bir süre sonra Diyarbakır merkezli Mervani emirlerinin hakimiyetine girmiştir. Türk akınlarından sonra bir müddet Ahlat'ta hüküm süren Dilmaçoğlu ve Sökmenli beyliklerinin hakimiyetine giren Norşin, daha sonra Bitlis'teki Şerefhanoğlu beylerinin egemenliği altında kalmıştır. Bu süreçte ilçe ve çevresinin Ermeni olan eski nüfusunun peyderpey Kürtleştiği anlaşılmaktadır.

Norşin kasabası 1926 yılında "Çukur" adı verilen nahiyenin merkezi olmuştur. 1960 tarihinde Güroymak adını kazanan ve Çukur bucağının merkezi olan yerleşim, 29 Haziran 1971'de kasaba, 4 Temmuz 1987 tarih ve 19507 sayılı Resmi Gazete'de yayımlanan 3392 sayılı kanunla ilçe statüsü kazanmıştır. 11. Cumhurbaşkanı Abdullah Gül'ün, 2009 Ağustos ayındaki ziyareti sırasında ilçeden Norşîn olarak bahsetmesiyle ilçenin eski ismini alması gündeme gelmiş ve aynı yıl içerisinde Belediye Meclisinde yerleşimin isminin Norşin olması kararı İçişleri Bakanlığına sunulmuştur. Ancak aradan geçen süre zarfında yerleşimin isminde değişiklik olmamıştır.

Eğitim
İlçede toplamda 5 tane lise bulunmaktadır. Güroymak İMKB(Borsa İstanbul) Anadolu Lisesi, Güroymak Mesleki Ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi, İpekyolu Mesleki ve Teknik Anadolu Lisesi, Selahattin-Rahime Dur Kız Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi Güroymak Anadolu Lisesi ve Selahaddin Eyyubi Anadolu İmam Hatip Lisesi.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

İlçe taslakları

Güroymak


Jacek Protasiewicz (* 5. Juni 1967 in Brzeg) ist ein polnischer Politiker der Bürgerplattform.

Protasiewicz besuchte die Universität Breslau. Er arbeitete zunächst als Pressesprecher des Woiwoden der Woiwodschaft Breslau, als Assistent des Vorsitzenden des Rates der Stadt Breslau, als Direktor des Büros für Öffentlichkeitsarbeit und Zusammenarbeit mit dem Ausland der Stadtverwaltung Breslau und als Pressesprecher der Stadt Breslau.

Protasiewicz war Mitglied des Landesvorstands und Vorsitzender des Regionalverbands Breslau des Liberal-Demokratischen Kongresses, danach Vorstandsmitglied der Unia Wolności und deren Vorsitzender in der Region Breslau und von 2001 an Vorstandsmitglied der Bürgerplattform und ihr Vorsitzender in Breslau. Für die Unia Wolności gehörte er einige Jahre dem Sejmik der Woiwodschaft Niederschlesien an, wo er von 1998 bis 2001 Vorsitzender des Ausschusses für Fremdenverkehr, Sport und Erholung  und der Fraktion war. Von 2001 bis 2004 war er Mitglied der Sejm. 2004 wurde er Beobachter, später Mitglied im Europäischen Parlament. Von 2012 bis 2014 war er dort Vizepräsident des Parlaments, davor war er Vorsitzender der Delegation für die Beziehungen zu Belarus.

Am 25. Februar 2014 soll Protasiewicz auf dem Flughafen Frankfurt Main im alkoholisierten Zustand zwei Zollbeamte beleidigt haben. Am 1. März 2014 trat er dann von seinen Posten als Leiter des Europawahlkampfs der Bürgerplattform und Vorsitzender von deren Abgeordneten im Europäischen Parlament zurück. Am 8. März 2014 verzichtete er auf Teilnahme in den Wahlen zum Europäischen Parlament am 25. Mai 2014.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Mitglied des Europäischen Parlaments für Polen
Sejm-Abgeordneter (Dritte Republik)
KLD-Mitglied
UW-Mitglied
PO-Mitglied
Pole
Geboren 1967
Mann

Jacek Protasiewicz


රිවේසයිඩැ පිටිය (ඉංගිරිසියෙන්: Riverside Ground; //"රිව'සයිඩ් ග්රඋන්ඩ්"//) යනු අනුගැනුම් හේතූන් මත සීට් යුනීක් රිව'සයිඩ් ලෙසැ හැඳින්වෙන, 2021 වසර අවසන තෙක් එමිරේට්ස් රිව'සයිඩ් ලෙසැ හැඳින්වුණු, එංගලන්තයේ ඩරම් ප්‍රාන්තයෙහි චෙස්ට-ල-වීදියෙහි පිහිටි ක්‍රිකට් පිටියෙකි. ජාත්‍යන්තර තරඟ කිහිපයෙකට ද සත්කාරකත්වය ලබා දී ඇති එය ඩැරම් ප්‍රාන්ත ක්‍රිකට් සමාජයේ නිවහන වේ.

ඉතිහස

1991 දී ඩරැහැමය පළමු පෙළ ක්‍රිකට් ක්‍රීඩාවට පිළිගැන්ම නව ටෙස්ට් මට්ටමේ ක්‍රිකට් පිටියෙක් ගොඩැනැගීමේ එකඟත්වයට යටත් වැ වියැ. ගඟ අසැ, ලුම්ලි මාළිගාව විසින් නොසලකා හරින ලද තැනෙකැ 1990 දී නව පිටියේ වැඩ ඇරැඹුණු අතර, එහි වැඩ අදියර විසින් නොකඩවා සිදු වියැ. පිටියෙහි හා තණතිලි කොටසෙහි වැඩ 1993 දී ඇරැඹිණ. ප්‍රාන්ත ශූරතාවලියේ පළමු වාර තුනේ දී, සමාජය ප්‍රාන්තය තුළැ නොයෙක් තන්හි ක්‍රීඩා කළ නමුදු, බොහෝ ගොඩැනැඟිලි එ වන විටැ තාවකාලික හෝ නිම නො කැරුණු තතුවෙක වූව ද, රිවේසයිඩැ පිටිය 1995 වාරය සඳහා නියමිත වේලාවට ක්‍රිකට් සඳහා සූදානම් බව් පැවැසිණ. පිටියෙහි පළමු තරඟය, ඩරම් එදිරි වැ වොවික්ෂය, 1995 මැයි 18 වන දා පැවැත්විණ.

පිටියේ අනෙකුත් පහසුකම් එ ට පසු අවුරුදු පුරා ඉදිවෙමින් පැවැති අතර, සමාජයේ දොන් රොබ්සන් මණ්ඩපය 1996 දී ඉංගිරිසින්ගේ දෙ වන එලිසැබෙත්  රැජන විසින් විවෘත කරන ලදී. තිර සහ තාවකාලික අසුන් ඇතුළු වැ පිටියේ මුළු ධාරිතාව 17,000 කි.

2008 සැප්තැම්බරයේ දී පිටියේ ඉදිරි සංවර්ධන කටයුතු පිළිබැඳි සැලසුම් නිවේදනය කරන ලදී.  මේවාට තිර විදිලි පහන් ටැම් සවි කිරීම සහ ඩැරම් ප්‍රාන්ත ප්‍රේක්ෂකාගාරය දිගු කිරීම ඇතුළත් වූ අතර එ මඟින් පිටියේ ධාරිතාව 20,000 දක්වා ඉහළ නංවමින් තිර අසුන් මුළු පිටිය වටා මැ සවි කෙරිණ. බොක්ස් ඔෆිස් සහ ක්‍රීඩා සමාජ සාප්පුව මෙන් මැ ක්‍රීඩා සමාජ නිලදරුවන් සඳහා කාර්යාල, නව පරිමිතිය මඟක් සහ හෝටලයක් , නව පිවිසුම් ගොඩැනැඟිල්ලෙක් දු සැලැසුම් කොටැ තිබිණ. 2019 ක්‍රිකට් ලෝක කුසලානය සඳහා පිටියේ තතුව තහවුරු කර ගැනීම සඳහා එංගලන්ත හා වේලැස් කඩුලු පන්දු මඬුල්ල (ඊසීබී) ඒවා සිදු විය යුතු බව් සඳහන් කොටැ තුබූ බැවින් මේ ඉදිකිරීම් ඇවැසි සේ සැලැකිණ.

2015 අප්රියෙල් මාසයේ දී, පිටිය වටා මීටර 55ක තිර විදුලි පහන් ටැම් හයෙක් ඉදිකිරීමට සැලැසුම් කිරීමේ අවසරය ලබා දෙන ලදී. සති කිහිපයෙක් ඇතුළත, විදිලි එළිය මැදැ යෝක්ෂයර වයිකින්ස් පිල ට "වි20 බ්ලාස්ට්" තරඟයෙක සත්කාරකත්වය දීමට "ඩැරම් ජෙට්ස්" පිල ට හැකි වියැ.

2017 සැප්තැම්බර 16 වන දා, බටහිරි ඉන්දු කොදිව්වනට එරෙහි වැ එංගලන්තයේ විස්සයි20 ජාත්‍යන්තර තරඟය ට රිවෙරසයිඩැ පිටිය සත්කාරකත්වය දරන අතරතුරැ, ඊසානදිගැ ටෙරසයෙහි නැරඹුම්හලක් අඩ වැ කඩා වැටිණ. නරඹන්නන් තිදෙනකු තුවාල ලැබූ අතර, නැරඹුම්හලේ නරඹන්නන්ගෙන් කොටසක් ඉවත් කරන ලදී.

අයරලන්ත පොප් සගයු කණ්ඩායමක් වන "වෙස්ට්ලයිෆ්" ඔවුනගේ "ගිම්හාන ක්‍රීඩාංගන සැරියාව" සඳහා 2020 ජූලි 18 වන දා මේ පිටියෙහි දී ප්‍රසංගයක් පැවැත්වීමට නියමිත වැ තුබූ නමුදු COVID-19 වසංගතය හේතුවෙන් ප්‍රසංගය අවලංගු කරන ලදී.

දෑ අතර තරඟ
රිවසයිඩය සැලැකියැ යුතු ක්‍රිකට් පිටියෙක් බවට වැඩුමට 1999 දී පකිස්ථානය, ස්කොට්ලන්තය, ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව සහ බංග්ලාදේශය සබැඳුණු ලෝක කුසලාන තරඟ දෙකකට සත්කාරකත්වය දීම සහ පසු වැ 2000 දී එංගලන්තය, සිම්බාබ්වේ සහ බටහිරි ඉන්දු කොදිව් අතර තුන්කොන් තරඟාවලියෙක දෑ අතර එක්දින තරඟ දෙකක් පැවැත්වීම ඉවහල් වියැ. කිතු වසින් 2001 දී ඔස්ට්‍රේලියාව හා පාකිස්තානය අතර පැවැති එක්දින තරඟය වැසි හේතුවෙන් එක පන්දුවෙකුදු හෝ නොයවා මැ අත්හැර දමන ලදී.

2003 දී රිවේසයිඩැ පිටිය ටෙස්ට් තතුවට උසස් කැරුණි. එය එංගලන්ත ටෙස්ට් තරඟ හයක ට සත්කාරකත්වය ලබා දී ඇත: 2003 දී සිම්බාබ්වේ, 2005 දී බංග්ලාදේශය, 2007 සහ 2009 දී බටහිරි ඉන්දු කොදිව්, 2013 දී ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව සහ 2016 දී ශ්‍රී ලංකාව. 2007 ජුනි 18 වන දා, මේ පිටියෙහි පැවැත්වුණු බටහිරි ඉන්දු කොදිව් ටෙස්ට් තරඟයේ සිව් වන දා, පෝල් කොලිංවුඩ් කොදිව්වනට එදිරි වැ එංගලන්තය වෙනුවෙන් ඔහුට හුරුපුරුදු තණතිල්ලේ දී සියයක් ලබා ගත් අතර, ඒ අනුවැ රිවේසයිඩැ පිටියේ දී ටෙස්ට් සියයක් රැස් කළ පළමු දේසීය ඩැරම් ක්‍රීඩකයා බවට පත් වියැ.

2013 අළු බඳුන තරගාවලියේ සිවුවැනි අළු බඳුන ටෙස්ට් තරගයට සත්කාරකත්වය සපයන බව් 2009 ජූලියේ දී නිවේදනය කරන ලදී. 2009 අළු බඳුන ටෙස්ට් තරඟයෙක් පැවැත්වීම ට තැබූ ලංසුවේදී කාඩිෆය හමුවේ එය අහිමි වීමෙන් පසු වැ 1992 සිටැ පළමු පෙළ ප්‍රාන්තයෙක් ලෙසැ ඩරහැමයේ නැග්මෙහි මුදුන් පැමිණුම යි ඒ.  අළු බඳුන ටෙස්ට් තරගයෙක් පැවැත්වීමෙන් පෙදෙසි ආර්ථිකයට පවුම් මිලියන 20ක් උපයා ගත හැකි වනු ඇතැ යි අනාවැකි පළ වියැ.

2008 වසරේ දී දකුණු අප්‍රිකාවට එදිරි වැ මේ පිටියෙ දී පැවැත්වීමට නියමිත වැ තුබූ පළමු විස්සයි20 දෑ අතර තරඟය තද වැසි හේතුවෙන් අත්හැර දමන ලදී.  2012 දී රිවේසයිඩැ පිටියේ දෙවන වි20 තරඟය සඳහා දකුණු අප්රිකාව යළි පැමිණියේ, බටහිරි ඉන්දු කොදිව්වන්ට එදිරි වැ කාන්තා වි20දෑ අතරෙක් හා සමඟ පැවැති තරඟයෙක දී එංගලන්තය පරදවමිනි.  දෙ වැනි වරටත් වි20දෑ පිට පිට තරඟ දෙකෙක් සඳහා 2013 අගෝස්තු මාසයේ දී සත්කාරකත්වය දරන ලද අතර එහි දී එංගලන්තය පිරිමි සහ කාන්තා තරඟ දෙකෙහි දී මැ ඕස්ට්‍රේලියාව පැරැදවී යැ. කාන්තා තරඟය 2013 කාන්තා අළුබඳුන තරඟාවලියේ අවසන් හමුව වියැ.

රිවේසයිඩැ පිටියෙ දී තවදුරටත් පැවැත්වුණු දෑ-අතර තරඟ අතර ට, 2014 දී ශ්‍රී ලංකාවට එදිරි වැ හා 2015 දී නවසීලන්තයට එදිරි වැ පැවැත්වුණු එක්දින දෑ-අතර තරඟ දෙකෙක් ඇතුළත් වියැ. 2016 ශ්‍රී ලංකාව ට එදිරි වැ ටෙස්ට් තරඟයෙකුදු පැවැත්විණ.

2016 ඔක්තෝම්බර මස දැනුම්දෙන ලද මුදල් ආධාර පැකේජයෙක කොන්දේසිවලැ කොටසක් ලෙසැ, ඊසීබිය විසින් ඩරහැම් ප්‍රාන්ත ක්‍රිකට් සමාජයට රිවේසයිඩැ පිටියෙහි  ටෙස්ට් ක්‍රිකට් තරඟ පැවැත්වීම සඳහා ලංසු තැබීමට ඇති සුදුසුකම ඉවත් කිරීම ඇතුලු වැ සම්බාධක ගණනාවෙක් පැනැවී යැ. සමාජය තවමත් එක් දින සහ විස්සයි 20 දෑ-අතර තරඟ සත්කාරකත්වය සඳහා ලංසු තැබීම ට සුදුසුකම් ලබන අතර බටහිරි ඉන්දු කොදිව් පිල ට එරෙහි වැ වි20 දෑ-අතරෙක් 2017 දී පැවැත්වීම ට නියමිත යි. එය 2019 ක්‍රිකට් ලෝක කුසලානයේ තරඟ තුනකට සත්කාරකත්වය ලබා දුනි.

අනුග්‍රහකත්වය
අනුගැනුම් හේතූන් මත පිටිය 'එමිරේට්ස් ඩරම් ජාත්‍යන්තර ක්‍රිකට් පිටිය' ලෙස නම් කරන බව 2010 ජුනි 4 වන දින නිවේදනය වියැ. 2016 පෙබරවාරි මාසයේ දී ඒ යළි එමිරේට්ස් රිව'සයිඩ් ලෙස නම් වියැ. ඒ ප්‍රාන්තය සමඟ එමිරේට්ස් ගිවිසුම 2022 දක්වා දිගු කිරීමෙන් පසුව යි. කොවිඩ්19 නිසා ගුවන් සේවයට වූ බලපෑම හේතුවෙන් 2021 තරඟ සමය අවසන පිටිය යළි ද රිව'සයිඩ් ක්‍රිකට් පිටිය ලෙසැ නම් විණ.

මේකත් බලන්න

 එංගලන්තයේ සහ වේල්සයේ ක්‍රිකට් පිටි නම්වැල
 ටෙස්ට් ක්‍රිකට් පිටි නම්වැල
 රිව~සයිඩ් පිටියේ ජාත්‍යන්තර ක්‍රිකට් කඩුලු පහක් දවාගත් පන්දු යවන්නන්ගේ නම්වැල

බාහිර සබැඳි

 ඩරම් ප්‍රාක්‍රිස
 ක්‍රිකින්ෆෝ හි රිව~සයිඩ් පිටිය
 එක්‍රිම හි රිව~සයිඩ් පිටිය
Coordinates on Wikidata

රිවසයිඩ් පිටිය


Wildemania, je rod crvenih algi iz porodice Bangiaceae.

Tipična vrsta je W. amplissima, opisana još 1883. kao Diploderma amplissimum Kjellman 1883, a otkrivena na sjeveru Norveške (Maasö)

Popis vrsta
 Wildemania abyssicola (Kjellman) Mols-Mortensen & J.Brodie
 Wildemania amplissima (Kjellman) Foslie
 Wildemania miniata (C.Agardh) Foslie
 Wildemania norrisii (V.Krishnamurthy) S.C.Lindstrom
 Wildemania occidentalis (Setchell & Hus)S.C.Lindstrom
 Wildemania schizophylla (Hollenberg) S.C.Lindstrom
 Wildemania tenuissima (Strömfelt) De Toni
 Wildemania variegata De Toni

Izvori

Bangiaceae

Wildemania


El cantón de Sens-Noreste era una división administrativa francesa, que estaba situada en el departamento de Yonne y la región de Borgoña.

Composición
El cantón estaba formado por cuatro comunas, más una fracción de la comuna que le daba su nombre:
 Fontaine-la-Gaillarde
 Saint-Clément
 Saligny
 Sens (fracción)
 Soucy

Supresión del cantón de Sens-Noreste

En aplicación del Decreto nº 2014-156 de 13 de febrero de 2014, el cantón de Sens-Noreste fue suprimido el 22 de marzo de 2015 y sus 5 comunas pasaron a formar parte; dos del nuevo cantón de Brienon-sur-Armaçon, una del nuevo cantón de Saint-Clément, una del nuevo cantón de Thorigny-sur-Oreuse y la fracción de la comuna que le daba su nombre se unió con las demás fracciones para que, por medio de una reestructuración cantonal, fueran creados los nuevos cantones de Sens-1 y Sens-2.

Referencias

Sens-Noreste

Cantón de Sens-Noreste


Inédito World Tour es la sexta gira de la cantante italiana Laura Pausini, que comenzó en Rimini el 18 de diciembre de 2011 y finalizó en agosto de 2012. Durante esta gira se promociona el disco Inédito, el cual ha superado ya más del millón de copias vendidas. El CD Inédito+DVD Live que fue grabado durante esta gira mundial fue lanzado el 27 de noviembre de 2012, y las fechas de los conciertos de diciembre fueron anuladas debido al anunciado embarazo de la cantante.

Escenario y puesta en escena

La gira contó con la dirección de Marco Balich (creador de las ceremonias de inauguración y clausura de los Juegos Olímpicos de Turín 2006, las celebraciones por el Bicentenario de México, la inauguración del estadio del equipo de fútbol italiano 'Juventus' y él organizará también los eventos más importantes de los Juegos Olímpicos en Río de Janeiro 2016). La escenografía de Mark Fisher (arquitecto inglés y diseñador de escenarios para Pink Floyd y U2, creador del montaje para el Cirque du Soleil). Las luces de Patrick Woodroffe (diseñador de iluminación de Bob Dylan, AC / DC, Depeche Mode, Rolling Stone, hasta 'This is it', el espectáculo inconcluso de Michael Jackson). Las coreografías de Nikos Lagousakos (coreógrafo de la inauguración de la Campeonato Mundial de Esgrima en 2006 y del campeonato Mundial de Natación en 2009 y también fundador de la Compañía Plithos). El vestuario de Catherine Buyse (jefa departamento de trajes para películas como Star Wars, The italian Job y El Turista, diseñadora de vestuario para eventos como el
Sensation Show Carnaval de Venecia y 'Indian Wedding'), así como el de Roberto Cavalli y la casa de moda inglesa CuteCircuit, especializada en moda interactiva, que diseñó exclusivamente para la artista una falda de chiffon italiano iluminada con LEDs. La famosa casa de joyería de moda de Swarovski ha colaborado en el marco de la gira, proporcionando unas pocas piezas de bellas mujeres y colección masculina otoño invierno 2011-2012, el cual será usado por el cantante y los otros actores en el escenario, con la línea de Swarovski, la marca ha Laura decoradas exclusivamente para una chaqueta de cuero y los micrófonos, con más de 10.000 cristales.

Tragedia de Reggio Calabria
La madrugada del 5 de marzo de 2012, una de las estructuras del escenario en el que ese día por la noche iba a actuar la cantante se desplomó causando la muerte a una de las personas del equipo que acompaña a Laura en su gira.

Alrededor de las dos de la madrugada, Matteo Armellini, uno de los técnicos de Laura Pausini, murió en el acto al venirse abajo la estructura en la que se encontraba trabajando en esos momentos, causando heridas de gravedad a otros dos operarios que tuvieron que ser trasladados inmediatamente al hospital de la región italiana.

La cantante, decidió cancelar el concierto que tenía que haberse celebrado el pasado en el Palacio de los Deportes de Calabria, al sur de Italia. Esta no es la primera vez que un operario muere montando el escenario de un artista italiano. En diciembre de 2011, moría en Trieste uno de los técnicos del cantante Jovanotti.

«Escribir estas palabras me resulta realmente muy difícil y doloroso. Me encuentro inmersa en un estado de confusión y de fragilidad extremos. Esta noche, mi amigo y compañero de viaje Matteo Armellini ha fallecido en Reggio Calabria», podía leerse en la web oficial de Pausini tras el fatal accidente.

Banda y Bailarines

Banda
 Paolo Carta: Guitarra, Dirección musical.
 Bruno Zucchetti: Piano, Teclados
 Nicola Oliva: Guitarra eléctrica
 Emiliano Bassi: Batería
 Matteo Bassi: Bajo eléctrico
 Roberta Granà: Coros y Guitarra en Jamás Abandone/Non ho mai smesso
 Mónica Hill: Coros y Tambores en Y mi banda toca el rock/La mia banda suona il rock
 Gianluigi Fazio: Coros, Guitarra y Flauta traversa.

Bailarines
 Stefano Benedetti (Etapa latinoamericana)
 Valentina Beretta (Etapa latinoamericana)
 Bruno Centola
 Santo Giuliano
 Luca Paoloni
 Erika Simonetti
 Tiziana Vitto (Etapa latinoamericana)

Repertorio

Primera parte

Fecha cero
 18 de diciembre 2011, Rimini (Italia), 105 Stadium (Concierto Gratuito solo para miembros del Club de Fanes Oficial)

Pre-Tour Milán - Roma
diciembre
 22 de diciembre 2011, Milán (Italia), Mediolanum Forum de Assago
 23 de diciembre 2011, Milán (Italia), Mediolanum Forum de Assago
 25 de diciembre 2011, Milán (Italia), Mediolanum Forum de Assago Show Especial (Irene Grandi, Artista Invitada)
 26 de diciembre 2011, Milán (Italia), Mediolanum Forum de Assago (Eleonora Cupri, Artista Invitada)
 28 de diciembre 2011, Milán (Italia), Mediolanum Forum de Assago
 29 de diciembre 2011, Milán (Italia), Mediolanum Forum de Assago
 31 de diciembre 2011, Roma (Italia), PalaLottomatica Show Especial (Syria y Paola e Chiara, Artistas Invitadas)

enero
 1º de enero 2012, Roma (Italia), PalaLottomatica
 3 de enero 2012, Roma (Italia), PalaLottomatica
 4 de enero 2012, Roma (Italia), PalaLottomatica
 6 de enero 2012, Roma (Italia), PalaLottomatica

Tour América Latina
enero
 21 de enero 2012, São Paulo (Brasil), Credicard Hall
 22 de enero 2012, São Paulo (Brasil), Credicard Hall
 23 de enero 2012, São Paulo (Brasil), Credicard Hall
 25 de enero 2012, Buenos Aires (Argentina), Luna Park
 27 de enero 2012, Santiago (Chile), Movistar Arena
 30 de enero 2012, Lima (Perú), Jockey Club del Perú

febrero
 2 de febrero 2012, Caracas (Venezuela), Terraza CCCT
 6 de febrero 2012, Panama (Panamá), Figali Convention Center
 8 de febrero 2012, Santo Domingo (República Dominicana), Palacio de los deportes
 10 de febrero 2012, Monterrey (México), Arena Monterrey
 12 de febrero 2012, Ciudad de México (México), Auditorio Nacional
 14 de febrero 2012, Guadalajara (México), Arena VFG

Tour Italiano
marzo
 2 de marzo 2012, Ancona (Italia), PalaRossini
 3 de marzo 2012, Ancora (Italia), PalaRossini
 18 de marzo 2012, Florencia (Italia), Nelson Mandela Forum
 19 de marzo 2012, Florencia (Italia), Nelson Mandela Forum
 21 de abril 2012, Caserta (Italia), PalaMaggiò
 22 de abril 2012, Caserta (Italia), PalaMaggiò
 24 de marzo 2012, Génova (Italia), 105 Stadium
 25 de marzo 2012, Génova (Italia), 105 Stadium
 27 de marzo 2012, Turín (Italia), PalaOlimpico
 28 de marzo 2012, Turín (Italia), PalaOlimpico
 30 de marzo 2012, Treviso (Italia), Palaverde
 31 de marzo 2012, Treviso (Italia), Palaverde
abril
 2 de abril 2012, Treviso (Italia), Palaverde
 5 de abril 2012, Acireale (Italia), PalaTupparello
 6 de abril 2012, Acireale (Italia), PalaTupparello

Tour Europeo
abril
 10 de abril 2012, Zúrich (Suiza), Hallenstadion
 11 de abril 2012, Ginebra (Suiza), SEG Geneva Arena
 13 de abril 2012, París (Francia), Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy. (Helene Segara, artista invitada.)
 14 de abril 2012, Bruselas (Bélgica), Forest National
 17 de abril 2012, Bolonia (Italia), Unipol Arena
 20 de abril 2012, Madrid (España), Wizink Center
 21 de abril 2012, Barcelona (España), Palau Sant Jordi
 24 de abril 2012, Toulouse (Francia), Le Zenith
 26 de abril 2012, Niza (Francia), Palais Nikaia
 27 de abril 2012, Marsella (Francia), Le Dome
 29 de abril 2012, Metz (Francia), Galaxie
 30 de abril 2012, Estrasburgo (Francia), Le Zenith

mayo
 2 de mayo 2012, Lyon (Francia), Halle Tony Garnier
 3 de mayo 2012, Grenoble (Francia), Palais des sports
 6 de mayo 2012, Viena (Austria), Wiener Stadthalle
 8 de mayo 2012, Berlín (Alemania), O2 World
 10 de mayo 2012, Munich (Alemania), Circus Krone
 11 de mayo 2012, Múnich (Alemania), Circus Krone
 13 de mayo 2012, Stuttgart (Alemania), Beethovensaal
 15 de mayo 2012, Düsseldorf (Alemania), Philips Halle
 17 de mayo 2012, Hamburgo (Alemania), Laeiszhalle
 19 de mayo 2012, Ámsterdam (Países Bajos), Heineken Music Hall
 20 de mayo 2012, Amberes (Bélgica), Lotto Arena
 22 de mayo 2012, Londres (Reino Unido), Royal Albert Hall

Segunda Parte

Summer tour
junio
 4 de junio 2012, Verona (Italia), Arena de Verona
 5 de junio 2012, Verona (Italia), Arena de Verona
 6 de junio 2012, Verona (Italia), Arena de Verona
 9 de junio 2012, Perugia (Italia), PalaEvangelist
julio
 7 de julio 2012, Lucca (Italia), Plaza Napoleón (Festival de verano de Lucca)
 14 de julio 2012, Locarno (Suiza), Piazza Grande (Moon & Stars Festival)
 18 de julio 2012, Bari (Italia), Estadio de la Victoria
 21 de julio 2012, Palermo (Italia), Velódromo Paolo Borsellino. (Claudio Baglioni, artista invitado.)
 27 de julio 2012, Nápoles (Italia), Plaza del Plebiscito. (Pino Daniele, artista invitado.)
agosto
 1 de agosto 2012, Ta' Qali (Malta), Estadio Nacional
 6 de agosto 2012, Pescara (Italia), Estadio Adriático
 16 de agosto 2012, Montecarlo (Mónaco), Sporting Club

Ciudades con más fechas

Eventos cancelados y pospuestos

 4 de febrero 2012, San José, (Costa Rica), Palacio de los deportes
El 31 de enero mediante un comunicado de prensa los agentes representantes de Pausini informaron la cancelación de la presentación de la artistas italiana el 4 de febrero en el Palacio de los Deportes Costa Rica debido, según la nota, "a que TMG Producciones empresa responsable de organizar la actividad, no ha cumplido a nivel contractual su trabajo, olvidando por completo las garantías técnicas y de organización para el éxito del espectáculo". Ante esto Pausini se mostró triste ya que en sus 18 años de viajar por el mundo con sus shows nunca había cancelado una fecha, en el comunicado agregaron unas palabra de la artista:
"Estamos todos muy tristes, incrédulos y quiero decir a mis fanes en Costa Rica que lo siento más que nunca de no poderlos encontrar, haremos lo posible para regresar pronto, ahora esto es lo que deseo más que todo. Me han dicho que el dinero de los boletos comprados serán devueltos a todos, eso es lo mínimo que se debe hacer para respetar a mi querido público, que abrazo con cariño sincero", comentó.

 5 de marzo 2012, Reggio Calabria, (Italia), Palacalifiore
La madrugada del 5 de marzo el escenario sobre el que cantaría Laura se desplomó mientras era armado, provocando la muerte de un operario y heridas en otros dos, mediante una carta Laura expreso su desconcierto y su dolor por la muerte de Matteo Armellini. Así mismo la empresa F&P Group anuncio la cancelación del concierto, y cambio de fecha de las presentaciones de los siguientes 15 días, así como sus condolencias por la muerte de Matteo.

 7 de marzo 2012, Acireale, (Italia), PalaSport
Pospuesto para el 5 de abril.

 8 de marzo 2012, Acireale, (Italia), PalaSport
Pospuesto para el 6 de abril.

 11 de marzo 2012, Bolonia, (Italia), Unipol Arena
Pospuesto para el 17 de abril.

 13 de marzo 2012, Caserta, (Italia), PalaMaggio
El dos de marzo mediante un comunicado se informó la cancelación de este concierto por asuntos impostergables de la artista.

 15 de marzo 2012, Caserta, (Italia), PalaMaggio
Pospuesto para el 21 de marzo.

 16 de marzo 2012, Caserta, (Italia), PalaMaggio
Pospuesto para el 22 de marzo.

 21 de marzo 2012, Perugia, (Italia), PalaEvangelist
Pospuesto para el 9 de junio.

 3 de abril 2012, Treviso, (Italia), PalaVerde
Cancelado por el re-acomodo de fechas después del accidente de Reggio Calabria.

 4 de agosto 2012, Lecce, (Italia), Piazza Palio
El concierto originalmente programado al Stadio Via del Mare fue cambiado a la Piazza Palio porque el calendario deportivo dle estadio chocaba con el concierto de la cantante. El concierto fue definitivamente cancelado un día antes del evento debido al asesinato de un operario ocurrido en el lugar del concierto mientras se montaba la estructura del palco de la Fiera di Lecce. Aunque los medios de comunicación italianos inicialmente manejaron la noticia de que el operario había muerto en un accidente similar al de Reggio Calabria los organizadores de la gira emitieron un comunicado dando fe de que la estructura del escenario de Pausini aún se encontraba en Malta. Posteriormente las autoridades locales confirmaron que el accidente no había tenido nada que ver con el montaje del espectáculo.

 4 de diciembre 2012, Milán, (Italia), Mediolanum Forum
Cancelado por el embarazo de la cantante.

 5 de diciembre 2012, Milán, (Italia), Mediolanum Forum
Cancelado por el embarazo de la cantante.

 11 de diciembre 2012, Roma, (PalaLottomatica)
Cancelado por el embarazo de la cantante.

 12 de diciembre 2012, Roma, (PalaLottomatica)
Cancelado por el embarazo de la cantante.

Curiosidades
 El escenario y el espectáculo son barrocos. Están basados en las ruinas de un templo de Bernini.
 El show tiene 5 partes que son: pop, dance, rock, acústico y bises.
 Las canciones están arregladas en un modo mucho más atrevido en directo. Ella misma dice que se atreve incluso mucho más que en el disco.
 Los bailarines y Laura llevan vestidos de LED's rojos durante el Medley Dance.
 Durante la interpretación de la canción "Invece no" Laura vuela sobre el escenario y viste una falda de 4 metros de largo con LEDs de diferentes colores diseñada exclusivamente para ella por la casa de moda inglesa CuteCircuit, esto solo en los conciertos Italianos previos al accidente de Reggio Calabria.
 En la parte rock, toca ella también la guitarra, una guitarra blanca. Específicamente en la canción Inédito.
 Hay un momento House en un cambio de vestido, en el que Bruno Zuchetti se convierte en DJ.
 Durante la primera etapa americana, después del cambio de vestuario para la canción A simple vista Laura aparecía entre el público.
 En los conciertos de Verona, Laura aparecía desde detrás de la arena atravesando la platea entre el público durante el intro de Benvenuto.
 En el concierto de Santiago, Chile, Laura vuelve al escenario con una bata desde camerinos y canta a capella "las cosas que no me espero".

Referencias

https://web.archive.org/web/20120917172800/http://fepgroup.it/it/news/laura-pausini/milano-roma-rimborso-biglietto
http://laura2u.blogspot.com.br/2012/09/pausini-anuncia-no-raduno-que-esta.html

Giras musicales de 2011
Giras musicales de 2012

Inedito World Tour 2011-2012


Circul Contemporan sau Circul Nou, cunoscut de asemenea ca nouveau cirque sau cirque contemporain în țările de limbă franceză, este un gen de arte ale circului care s-a dezvoltat în a doua jumătate a secolului XX. În cadrul circului contemporan, reprezentările transmit o istorie sau o temă prin intermediul instrumentelor circului tradițional (atletism, aerobică etc).

Circul contemporan se remarcă printr-o folosire foarte rară a animalelor în reprezentări.

Exemple de companii și trupe de circ contemporan includ  și  din Canada,  din Suedia,  și  din Franța.

 (în ), care se desfășoară în sudul Franței, este cel mai mare și mai cunoscut festival de circ contemporan din lume.

Note

Contemporan

Circ contemporan


කම්කරු නීතිය හැඳින්වීම

	කම්කරු නීතිය යනුවෙන් අදහස් කරනු ලබන්නේ සේව්‍ය-සේවක යන දෙපාර්ශ්වයේම වගකීම්, අයිතිවාසිකම් හා ගිවිසුම් පිළිබඳ නීතියයි. ඒ අනුව කම්කරු නීතියට පාදක වන්නේ සේව්‍ය-සේවක සම්බන්ධතාවයයි.

කම්කරු නීතියේ ඉතිහාසය

	18 වන ශතවර්ෂයේදී යුරෝපය තුළ ඇති වූ කාර්මික විප්ලවයේ ප්‍රතිඵලයක් ලෙස අද වන විට කම්කරු පන්තිය , වැටුප් ලබන පන්තිය හෝ වැඩ කරන පන්තිය යන විවිධ නම් වලින් හඳුන්වනු ලබන පිරිසක් බිහි විය. ශ්‍රමය පමණක් තම එකම සම්පත කොට ගත් ඔවුනට අතීතයේදී තම ශ්‍රමය සඳහා සාධාරණ මිලක් හෝ වටිනාකමක් ශ්‍රම වෙළඳපොළ තුළ හිමි වූයේ නැත. ඊට ප්‍රධාන ලෙසම හේතු වූයේ ඔවුන්ගේ ශ්‍රමය ලබා ගන්නා සේවායෝජකයින් ආර්ථිකමය වශයෙන් ප්‍රබල ස්ථානයක සිටීමත් ඔවුන් හා සාපේක්ෂව බලන කළ ශ්‍රමිකයින්ගේ කේවල් කිරීමේ ශක්තිය අඩු වීමත්ය. මෙහි ප්‍රතිඵලයක් ලෙස සේවායෝජකයා විසින් නියම කරනු ලබන කොන්දේසි වලට යටත්ව තම ශ්‍රමය සැපයීමට ඔවුන්ට සිදු වූ අතර ඒ හේතුවෙන් කම්කරු ජනයාගේ ශ්‍රමය සූරා කෑමට ලක් විය. එම යුගයේදී යුරෝපීය රාජ්‍යයන් විසින් ගෙන ගිය නිර්බාධක ආර්ථික ප්‍රතිපත්තිය හේතුකොටගෙන කම්කරුවන්ට සිදු වූ අසාධාරණයන් අවම කිරීම සඳහා රාජ්‍ය මැදිහත් වීමක් සිදු නොවූ හෙයින් කම්කරු පන්තිය දැඩි පිඩනයකට හසුව ජීවත් වූහ.

	නමුත් පසුකාලීනව කාල්මාක්ස් විසින් ඉදිරිපත් කරන ලද දර්ශනයත් කම්කරුවන් ඒකරාශී වීමත් කම්කරුවන් වෙනුවෙන් සිදු කළ උද්ඝෝෂණත් හේතුකොටගෙන රජයන් සිය නිර්බාධක රාජ්‍ය ප්‍රතිපත්තිය වෙනස් කරමින් රටේ අඩු වරප්‍රසාද ලත් හෝ වරප්‍රසාද නොලත් ජනකොටස් පිළිබඳව සොයා බලා ඔවුන්ගේ අභිවෘද්ධිය සඳහා කටයුතු කළ යුතු බව තේරුම් ගැනීමෙන් පසුව එම රාජ්‍යයන්ද සුභසාධනවාදී ප්‍රතිපත්ති ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීම ආරම්භ කළහ. අඩු වරප්‍රසාද ලත් කොටසක් වූ කම්කරු පන්තිය බලවත් සේවායෝජකයින් හමුවේ විඳි දුක් කරදර තරමක් දුරට හෝ තුනී කරලීම සඳහා රජය විසින් සේව්‍ය-සේවක සම්බන්ධතාවයට මැදිහත් විය.මේ අනුව සේවා ගිවිසුමට බලපෑම් කිරීම සඳහා ක්‍රමක්‍රමයෙන් රජයන් විසින් සුභසාධන නීති පැනවීම ආරම්භ කළ අතර එහි ප්‍රතිඵලයක් ලෙස කම්කරු නීතිය බිහි විය.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කම්කරු පන්තියක් බිහි වූ අන්දම

	බ්‍රිතාන්‍යයන් විසින් ශ්‍රී ලංකාව යටත් කර ගැනීමෙන් පසු ඔවුන් විසින් උඩරට ප්‍රදේශයන්හි ආරම්භ කළ වතු කර්මාන්තය හරහා මෙරට කාර්මික විප්ලවයක් සිදු විය. එම වකවානුවේදී වැවිලි කර්මාන්තය සඳහා අවශ්‍ය වූ කම්කරුවන් ලංකාවෙන්  සොයා ගත නොහැකි වූ බැවින් දකුණු ඉන්දියාවෙන් අඩු කුලියට කම්කරුවන් ගෙන්වා ගන්නා ලදී. ඒ අනුව අප රටේ කම්කරු පන්තියක් ආරම්භ වූයේ දකුණු ඉන්දියානු කම්කරුවන්ගෙනි.ලංකාවට නිදහස ලැබී විවිධ කර්මාන්ත ආරම්භ කරන තෙක්ම බ්‍රිතාන්‍යයන් මෙම රටේ වෙනත් කර්මාන්ත බිහි කිරීමට උත්සුක නොවීම හේතුවෙන් බොහෝ කලක් යන තෙක් ලංකාවේ කම්කරු පන්තියේ වර්ධනයක් සිදු නොවීය.

	මේ නිසා අප රටේ මුලින්ම ඇති වූ නීති කිහිපය පවා වතුකරයේ ඉන්දියානු  කම්කරුවන්ට අදාළ ඒවා විය. මෙරට මුල්ම කම්කරු නීතිය පනවනු ලැබුවේ 1841 දීය. 1948ට පෙර මෙරට පනවා තිබුණේ කම්කරු නීති 18ක් පමණි. දැනට විවිධ අංශ ආවරණය කරමින් පනත් 600ක් පමණ කම්කරු නීතිය සම්බන්ධයෙන් පැනවී ඇත. මෙම නීති රීති ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීම සඳහා එවකට සිටියේ කම්කරු පාලකවරයෙකි. නමුත් අද  ඒ වෙනුවට කම්කරු කොමසාරිස්වරයකු සිටී.

කම්කරු නීති වල අරමුණු

	කම්කරු නීති ක්‍රියාවට නැංවීම හරහා ඉටු කර ගැනිමට බලාපොරොත්තු වන අරමුණු කිහිපයක් පවතී,

I)   සමාජ සාධාරණත්වය තහවුරු කිරීම

II)   විධිමත් සේව්‍ය-සේවක සම්බන්ධතාවයක් ගොඩ නැඟීම හරහා කාර්මික
	              සාමය ඇති කිරීම

III)   සේවකයින්ගේ අවම සේවා කොන්දේසි පිළිබඳ සම්මුතින් පැනවීම

IV)   කාර්මික ආරවුල් වැළැක්වීම සහ අවම කිරීම

V)   කම්කරුවන්ගේ අයිතිවාසිකම් හා වගකීම් ආරක්ෂා කිරීම සහ තහවුරු කිරීම, කම්කරුවන්ට සවන් දීම.

VI)   ශ්‍රමිකයින්ගේ ජීවන තත්ත්වය උසස් කිරීම

VII)   අසාධාරණ සේවා සමාප්තීන් පිළිබඳ කටයුතු කිරීම හා රැකියාව සුරක්ෂිත කිරීම

VIII)   සේවකයින් පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු හෙළිදරව් කර ගැනීම හා ඒවා රැස් කිරිම

කම්කරු සබඳතා විධිමත් කිරීම සම්බන්ධයෙන් ක්‍රියාත්මක වන ප්‍රධාන කම්කරු නීති (ව්‍යවස්ථාපිත අණපනත්)

	එක් එක් ක්ෂේත්‍රය සම්බන්ධයෙන් විවිධාකාර වූ කම්කරු අණපනත් ක්‍රියාත්මක වේ.

	* සේවා කොන්දේසි සහ නියමයන්

		1) 1954 අංක 19 දරණ සාප්පු හා කාර්යාල සේවක පනත

		2) 1947 අංක 47 දරණ පඩි පාලක සභා ආඥා පනත

	* කාර්මික සම්බන්ධතා

		1) 1950 අංක 43 දරණ කාර්මික ආරවුල් පනත

		2) 1935 අංක 14 දරණ වෘත්තීය සමිති ආඥා පනත

		3) 1971 අංක 45 දරණ කම්කරුවන්ගේ සේවය අවසන් කිරීමේ (විශේෂ විධිවිධාන) පනත

	* ස්ත්‍රීන්, ළමුන් සහ තරුණයින් සේවයේ යෙදවීමේදී අදාළ වන විශේෂ කොන්දේසි

		1) 1956 අංක 47 දරණ ස්ත්‍රීන් ළමුන් සහ තරුණයින් සේවයේ යෙදවීමේ පනත

		2) 1934 අංක 39 දරණ මාතෘ ප්‍රතිලාභ ආඥා පනත

		3) 1939 අංක 32 දරණ ප්‍රසූතිකාධාර ආඥා පනත

	* සේවක විශ්‍රාම ප්‍රතිලාභ

		1) 1958 අංක 15 දරණ සේවක අර්ථ සාධක අරමුදල් පනත

		2) 1980 අංක 46 දරණ සේවක භාර අරමුදල් පනත

		3) 1983 අංක 12 දරණ පාරිතෝෂික දීමනා පනත

	* සේවක සුරක්ෂිතතාවය හා සෞඛ්‍යය ආරක්ෂා කිරීම

		1) 1942 අංක 45 දරණ කර්මාන්තශාලා ආඥා පනත

		2) 1934 අංක 19 දරණ කම්කරු වන්දි ආඥා පනත

	* ශ්‍රමිකයින් පුහුණු කිරීම

		1) 1971 අංක 49 දරණ ජාතික ආධුනිකත්ව මණ්ඩල පනත

		2) 1978 අංක 08 දරණ පෞද්ගලික අංශයේ පුහුණු වන්නන් සේවයේ යෙදවීමේ පනත

කම්කරු නීති ක්‍රියාත්මක කිරීම

	ඉහත දක්වන්නට යෙදුණු කම්කරු අණපනත් වල ඇතුළත් ප්‍රතිපාදන සේවායෝජකයින් විසින් නියමාකාරයෙන් ක්‍රියාත්මක කරයිද යන්න සොයා බැලීමේ කාර්යය පැවරී ඇත්තේ කම්කරු දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවටය. එම කොන්දේසි හා නියමයන් උල්ලංගනය කරන්නන්ට විරුද්ධව නීති මඟින් කටයුතු කිරීම කම්කරු කොමසාරිස්වරයාගේ වගකීමකි. එම කොන්දේසි හා නියමයන් කැඩීම දඩ මුදලකට හා/හෝ සිරදඬුවමකට යටත් කළ හැකි වරදවල් ලෙස සැළකේ.

මේ අඩවිත් බලන්න
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ නීති පද්ධතිය
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අධිකරණ පද්ධතිය
 ජාත්‍යන්තර අපරාධ අධිකරණය

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පවත්නා වූ නීති තත්වය
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ආරවුල් නිරාකරණය
 සිවිල් නඩු සම්බන්ධ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ පවත්නා වූ නීති තත්වය
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ විවාහ නීතිය
 ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ ඉඩම් ලියාපදිංචිය
 පාරිභෝගික ආරක්ෂණය
 මහජන අර්ථසිද්ධි නඩුකර
 සාක්‍ෂි
 අත්අඩංගුවට ගැනීම
 මූලික අයිතිවාසිකම්

නීතිය

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කම්කරු නීතිය


اللويزة هي إحدى القرى اللبنانية من قرى قضاء جزين في محافظة الجنوب.

الموقع والجغرافيا
ترتفع اللويزة عن البحر نحو 850 م

تبعد عن بيروت 80 كلم، وعن مركز المحافظة صيدا 37 كلم، وعن مركز القضاء جزين 18 كلم.

ينبع من القرية نبع الطاسة الذي يغذي القرى المجاورة بالمياه.

المراجع

قرى جبل عامل

اللويزة (جزين)


Helosciadium, bijni rod iz porodice štitarki rasprostranjen po dijelovima Europe, Azije i Afrike. Pripada mu nekoliko vrsta od kojih su neke ranije uključivane u rod Apium.

Vrste
 Helosciadium bermejoi (L.Llorens) Popper & M.F.Watson
 Helosciadium crassipes W.D.J.Koch ex Rchb.
 Helosciadium inundatum (L.) W.D.J.Koch
 Helosciadium × longipedunculatum (F.W.Schultz) Desjardins
 Helosciadium milfontinum Fern.Prieto, Pinto-Cruz, Nava & Cires
 Helosciadium × moorei (Syme) Bab.
 Helosciadium nodiflorum (L.) W.D.J.Koch
 Helosciadium repens (Jacq.) W.D.J.Koch

Izvori

Oenantheae

Helosciadium


HMS Black Swan, was the name ship of the  sloops of the Royal Navy. This class was admired for its sea-going qualities.

Construction and design
Black Swan, named after the black swan, was laid down by Yarrow Shipbuilders on 20 June 1938, launched on 7 July 1939, and commissioned on 27 January 1940.

The Black Swan class was a lengthened version of the earlier s. The main gun armament consisted of six QF 4 inch Mk XVI anti-aircraft guns in three twin turrets, with the fourth 4 inch turret of the Egret class removed to allow addition of a quadruple barrel 2-pounder pom-pom short-range anti-aircraft gun. Anti submarine armament consisted of depth charge throwers with 40 depth charges carried.

When completed, Black Swan was not fitted with the planned quadruple pom-pom, but with two quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun mounts fitted instead. The pom-pom was installed in May 1941, and the ineffective machine guns replaced by a single Oerlikon 20 mm cannon in September that year. The Hedgehog anti-submarine weapon and two more 20 mm cannon were fitted in June 1942, and a further three cannon were fitted in 1943. The ship's depth charge complement was increased to 110 during the war.

After a successful 'Warship Week' National Savings campaign in March 1942 the ship was adopted by the civil community of Widnes, Lancashire

Operational history
Black Swan was initially deployed on convoy escort missions along the British east coast, before the Norwegian Campaign caused Black Swan to be attached to the Home Fleet, where it was used to provide anti-aircraft cover to the Allied landings at Åndalsnes. Black Swan was heavily engaged by German bombers before being hit by a bomb which passed through the ship before exploding, on 27 April 1940.

After repair, in June Black Swan returned to escort duty in the North Sea, before being damaged by a mine on 1 November 1940. This time, the ship was under repair until May 1941, when it was transferred to Western Approaches Command, escorting convoys in the Irish Sea. Black Swan was again slightly damaged by bombing in August that year and was transferred to Londonderry as part of the 37th Escort Group, escorting convoys to and from Gibraltar.

On 25 October Black Swan rescued 34 survivors in a lifeboat from the cargo ship , which had been sunk two days earlier. After a  search the sloop rescued another 27 survivors in a second lifeboat from the same ship. The next month Black Swan escorted convoys in support of Operation Torch.

On 2 April 1943, when escorting Convoy OS 45, from Liverpool to Freetown, Black Swan and the   sank the top-scoring U-boat  off the coast of Portugal.

In 1943 Black Swan for a short time saw action near Iceland to provide escort against the U-boat threat, after which she served in the Mediterranean, on Malta and Adriatic convoy protection duties. From there, Black Swan passed through the Suez Canal en route to the Asia, Far East and Pacific theatres against the Japanese forces. The ship was on active duties as far as Australia and the Philippine Islands.

At the end of hostilities in 1945 Black Swan followed the cruiser  into Shanghai and were the first Royal Navy warships to liberate Japanese concentration camps containing British and Empire prisoners.

In 1949 she took part in the Yangtze Incident when she, with others, went to aid of . Black Swan suffered 12 men wounded and severe damage to her superstructure in a fierce engagement with Chinese batteries and fell back. The failed relief effort cost 46 killed and 64 injured. Black Swan also served in the Korean War and was involved in the Battle of Chumonchin Chan. Black Swan was scrapped in 1956 at Troon in Scotland. She was affiliated with TS Black Swan – a Sea Cadet Corps unit in Walton-on-Thames, Surrey.

Notes

References

1939 ships
Black Swan-class sloops
Korean War sloops of the United Kingdom
Royal Navy ship names
Sloops of the United Kingdom
World War II sloops of the United Kingdom
Maritime incidents in 1949

HMS Black Swan (L57)


Darenth es una parroquia civil y un pueblo del distrito de Dartford, en el condado de Kent (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Darenth tiene una superficie de 9,04 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Darenth tenía 4779 habitantes (48,8% varones, 51,2% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 528,65 hab/km². El 22,52% eran menores de 16 años, el 71,58% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 5,9% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 36,42 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 27,63% estaban solteros, el 56,9% casados y el 15,47% divorciados o viudos.

El 95,08% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 1,4% de la población, mientras que el 3,52% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 94,75% eran blancos, el 1,28% mestizos, el 2,59% asiáticos, el 0,73% negros, el 0,21% chinos y el 0,44% de cualquier otro. El cristianismo era profesado por el 71,84%, el budismo por el 0,06%, el hinduismo por el 0,92%, el judaísmo por el 0,06%, el islam por el 0,8%, el sijismo por el 0,69% y cualquier otra religión por el 0,13%. El 14,9% no eran religiosos y el 10,61% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

2404 habitantes eran económicamente activos, 2295 de ellos (95,47%) empleados y 109 (5,36%) desempleados. Había 1806 hogares con residentes y 27 vacíos.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Kent
Parroquias civiles de Kent

Darenth


19499 Eugenybiryukov este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
19499 Eugenybiryukov este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Stația Anderson Mesa în cadrul programului LONEOS. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,73 ua, o excentricitate de 0,10 și o înclinație de 12,9° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 19001-20000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1998
Centura de asteroizi

19499 Eugenybiryukov


Aderus atriceps é uma espécie de inseto besouro da família Aderidae. Foi descrita cientificamente por Maurice Pic em 1900 como um nomen novum para uma instância descrita como Xylophilus nigricollis por George Charles Champion em 1896.

Distribuição geográfica
Habita em Granada.

Referências

atriceps
Insetos descritos em 1900
Espécies descritas por Maurice Pic
Espécies descritas por George Charles Champion

Aderus atriceps


Mehmet Haberal (d. 29 Ekim 1944, Subaşı, Pazar, Rize), Türk cerrah, akademisyen.

3 Kasım 1975'te Hacettepe Hastanesi'nde Türkiye'deki ilk organ naklini gerçekleştirmiştir. Başkent Üniversitesi'nin kurucusudur.

Tıp alanında çok sayıda uluslararası ödülün sahibi Haberal, 2010 yılında Amerikan Cerrahlar Koleji tarafından şeref üyeliğine seçilmiştir.

24. dönem Zonguldak milletvekili olarak görev yapmıştır.

Yaşamı
1944 yılında Rize'nin Pazar ilçesine bağlı Subaşı köyünde doğdu. 1954 yılında Zonguldak Gazi İlkokulu'nu bitirdi. 1961 yılında Zonguldak Mehmet Çelikel Lisesi'nde orta ve lise öğrenimini tamamladı.

1967 yılında Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi'nden mezun oldu ve 1971 yılında genel cerrahi uzmanı oldu. ABD'nin Teksas eyaleti Galveston şehrindeki Shriner Yanık Enstitüsü'nde ve John Seally Hastanesi'nde yanık tedavisi yüksek uzmanlık (1973); Colorado Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi, Organ Nakli Merkezi'nde yüksek uzmanlığı yaptı (1974-1975).

3 Kasım 1975 tarihinde Hacettepe Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Genel Cerrahi Bölümü'nde, Türkiye'de ilk kez annesinden 12 yaşındaki bir çocuğa, akrabalararası böbrek naklini gerçekleştirdi. 10 Ekim 1978'de Avrupa Trasplantasyon Birliği'nden (Eurotransplant) sağlanan ölü böbrek ile Türkiye'de ilk defa kadavradan böbrek naklini gerçekleştirdi. 2238 sayılı Kanun ile organ ve doku nakli yasasının çıkmasında rol oynadı.

1979'da Ankara'da 1. Ulusal Yanık Kurultayını Ankara'da düzenleyen Haberal, 1980'de Türkiye Organ Nakli ve Yanık Tedavi Vakfı'nı kurdu ve iki yıl sonra Mart 1982'de aynı vakfa bağlı Hemodiyaliz Merkezi'ni açtı. Aynı yıl, genel cerrahi profesörü oldu.

1983 yılında Ankara'da ilk organ nakli kurultayını düzenledi. Ertesi yıl, Orta Doğu'da organ paylaşımı ve teminini kolaylaştırmak için Orta Doğu Diyaliz ve Organ Nakli Vakfı'nı kurdu. 1985'te Ankara'da Türkiye Organ Nakli ve Yanık Tedavi Vakfı Hastanesi'ni kurdu. 1987'de Orta Doğu Organ Nakli Derneği'ni kurdu ve başkanlığını üstlendi. 1990 yılında  Türkiye Organ Nakli Derneği'nin kurucu üyesi ve başkanı oldu.

1986'da Haberal Eğitim Vakfı'nı kurdu.

1991 Türkiye genel seçimlerinde Doğru Yol Partisi'nin Rize milletvekili adayı oldu fakat meclise giremedi. Partinin seçim vaatlerinden birisi olan ve 1992 yılında başlatılan Yeşil Kart uygulamasının mimarıdır.

1994 yılında Ankara'da Türkiye'nin ilk vakıf üniversitelerinden birisi olan Başkent Üniversitesi'ni  kurdu ve kurucu rektör olarak görev yaptı. Ergenekon operasyonu kapsamında tutuklanana kadar rektörlüğü sürdürdü.

2000 yılında dönemin başbakanı Bülent Ecevit tarafından cumhurbaşkanlığı teklif edildi ancak bu teklifi kabul etmedi. 2004'te Kanal B, Radyo Başkent ve Başkent Haber Ajansı'nı kurdu.

17 Nisan 2009'da Ergenekon operasyonu  kapsamında tutuklandı. Aynı gün geçirdiği kalp spazmından sonra iki yıl Cerrahpaşa Hastanesi'ndeki tek kişilik bir odada tutuklu kaldı; 11 Mart 2011'de Silivri Cezaevi'ne gönderildi. Tutuklu bulunduğu sırada 2010 yılında Amerikan Cerrahlar Koleji tarafından şeref üyeliğine seçildi. Bu üyeliğe seçilen ilk Türk oldu. 2011 Türkiye genel seçimlerinde CHP Zonguldak milletvekili olarak seçildi ancak  seçildiği tarihte cezaevinde olduğu için seçimden sonra uzun süre milletvekili yeminini edip TBMM'de göreve başlayamadı.  5 Ağustos 2013'te karara bağlanan Ergenekon davasında "cebir ve şiddetle hükûmetin görevini yapmayı engelleme" suçunu işlediğine kanaat getirilerek 12 yıl 6 ay hapis cezasına çarptırıldı. 6 Ağustos 2013 tarihinde tahliye edildi. Milletvekili seçilmesinden 27 ay sonra, 2 Ekim 2013 günü TBMM'de yemin edebildi. Ergenekon Davası, "Ergenekon isimli bir örgüt yok." diyerek 21 Nisan 2016 tarihinde Yargıtay tarafından bozuldu. Haberal'in mahkemede yargıçlar karşısındaki sözlü savunması, çapraz sorgudaki yanıtları ve avukatların savunmaları "Prof.Dr. Mehmet Haberal'ın Sözlü Silivri Savunması: Suçum Ne?" adıyla kitaplaştırıldı.

Haberal, 2012 yılında 27 ülkeden 66 bilim insanı ile "Dünya Tıp, Tıbbi Araştırma-Teknik ve Etik Bilimler Akademisi'ni (WAMBES)" kurdu.

22 Ağustos 2016 tarihinde Dünya Organ Nakli Derneği Kongresinde oybirliği ile 2018-2020 dönemi için dernek başkanlığına seçildi. 2017'de Amerikan Cerrahlar Koleji Uluslararası Yardımseverlik (Philanthropy (Filantropizm)) Ödülü'ne layık görüldü.

Biri TBMM 26. dönem Ankara milletvekili Erkan Haberal olmak üzere 4 çocuk babasıdır.

Bazı çalışmaları
1975'te Türkiye'de ilk kez canlı donörden böbrek naklini, 1978'de de Türkiye'de ilk kez kadavradan böbrek naklini gerçekleştirdi.
1987'de Orta Doğu Organ Nakli Derneği'ni kurdu ve başkanlığını üstlendi.
8 Aralık 1988'de Kuzey Afrika, Orta Doğu ve Türkiye'de ilk kadavradan karaciğer naklini gerçekleştirdi.
15 Mart 1990'da Türkiye'de ilk kez canlı donörden karaciğer nakli ameliyatını yapmıştır. Bu, sadece Türkiye'de değil, Avrupa, Orta Doğu ve Afrika'daki ilk olma özelliğini taşımaktadır.
16 Mayıs 1992'de, aynı canlı donörden kısmi karaciğer ve böbrek naklini gerçekleştirdi.
Ağustos 2004'te Japonya'da yapılan Dünya Yanık Derneği (International Society for Burn Injuries-ISBI) kongresinde 2006-2008 Dönem Başkanlığı'na seçildi.
2012'de Orta Doğu Organ Nakli Derneği başkanlığına bir kez daha seçildi.
Elsevier Yayınevi tarafından Şubat 2013 tarihinde yapılan araştırmaya göre Mehmet Haberal, "Transplantasyon" alanında bilimsel yayında Türkiye'de birinci, dünyada ise ikinci sırada yer aldı.
2016 yılında, Dünya Organ Nakli Derneği 2018-2020 dönemi başkanlığına seçildi.

Ödüller
1983-Sedat Simavi Vakfı Sağlık Bilimleri Ödülü
1985- Amerikan Yanık Derneği "Everett Idris Evans Özel Ödülü"
2000- Dünya Transplantasyon Derneği'nin Roma'daki kongresi "Milenyum Madalyası"
2006- Kuveyt Sağlık Bakanı Şeyh Ahmad Al-Abdulla Al-Sabah "Ömür Boyu Başarı Ödülü"
2010- Amerikan Cerrahlar Koleji "Şeref Üyesi"
2017- Amerikan Cerrahlar Koleji Uluslararası Yardımseverlik (Philanthropy) Ödülü

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 "Suçum Ne?" kitabı

1944 doğumlular
Pazar doğumlular
Türk tıp akademisyenleri
Ankara Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesinde öğrenim görenler
Başkent Üniversitesi rektörleri
Türk profesörler
Sedat Simavi Ödülü sahipleri
TBMM 24. dönem Zonguldak milletvekilleri
Yaşayan insanlar
Türk cerrahlar
Ergenekon davası sanıkları
Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi mensubu siyasetçiler
Hacettepe Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi öğretim üyeleri
Hemşinliler (etnik grup)

Mehmet Haberal


A lockout is a work stoppage or denial of employment initiated by the management of a company during a labour dispute. In contrast to a strike, in which employees refuse to work, a lockout is initiated by employers or industry owners.

Lockouts are usually implemented by simply refusing to admit employees onto company premises, and may include changing locks or hiring security guards for the premises. Other implementations include a fine for showing up, or a simple refusal of clocking in on the time clock. For these reasons, lockouts are referred to as the antithesis of strikes.

Lockouts are common in major league sports, many of which operate as legalized cartels. In the United States and Canada, the National Football League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League have all experienced lockouts.

Causes
A lockout is generally an attempt to enforce specific terms of employment upon a group of employees during a dispute. It is often used to force unionized workers to accept new conditions, such as lower wages. If the union is asking for higher wages, better benefits, or maintaining benefits, a manager may use the threat of a lockout – or an actual lockout – to convince the union to relent.

Examples
Far from all labour disputes involve lockouts (or strikes), but lockouts have been used on a large scale around the world during and after industrialization. Some of the lockout incidents are historically significant.

Ireland
The Dublin Lockout was a major industrial dispute between 20,000 workers and 300 employers in Dublin. The dispute lasted from 26 August 1913 to 18 January 1914, and is often viewed as the most severe and significant industrial dispute in the history of Ireland. Central to the dispute was the right to unionize.

United States
In the United States, under federal labour law, an employer may hire only temporary replacements during a lockout. In a strike, unless it is an unfair labour practice strike, an employer may legally hire permanent replacements. Also, in many US states, employees who are locked out are eligible to receive unemployment benefits, but they are not eligible for such benefits during a strike.

For the above reasons, many American employers have historically been reluctant to impose lockouts and instead try to provoke a strike. However, as American unions have increasingly begun to resort to slowdowns rather than strikes, lockouts have become a more common tactic of many employers. Even as strikes are on the decline, lockouts are on the rise in the US.

In 1892, after several wage cuts and disputes with the employers at the Homestead Steel Mill in Homestead, Pennsylvania, the union called for a strike after the company stopped discussing its decisions with the union. Henry Clay Frick shut down the plant and locked out all workers, preventing them from entering the mill.

Recent notable lockout incidents have been reported in professional sports, notably involving Major League Baseball in the 1990 and 2021–22 offseasons, the National Basketball Association in the 1995 offseason, the 1996 offseason, and the 1998–99 and 2011–12 seasons, the National Hockey League in the 1994–95, 2004–05 and 2012–13 seasons, and the National Football League in the 2011 offseason. The controversial 2012 NFL referee lockout involved referees, not players. In 2005, the NHL became the first major professional sports league in North America to cancel an entire season due to a lockout.

In September 2016, Long Island University became the first institution of higher education to use a lockout against its faculty members.

Australia
On 8 April, 1998, stevedoring company Patrick Corporation sought to restructure its operations for productivity reasons. In an industrial watershed event, it sacked all its workers and imposed a lockout on wharves around Australia.

On 29 October 2011, Qantas declared a lockout of all domestic employees in the face of ongoing union industrial action. That cancelled all flights, grounding the entire fleet for several days.

Canada
On August 15, 2005, 5,500 employees of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, a Canadian public broadcaster were locked out by CEO Robert Rabinovitch in a dispute over future hiring practices. While services continued during the lock-out, programming consisted mainly of repeats, with news coverage being provided by the BBC on TV and wire-service feeds on radio. The lock-out ended on October 11, 2005.

Denmark
On 2 April 2013, the Danish Union of Teachers () and the National Union of Municipalities () declared a lockout for more than 60,000 primary school teachers across the country. Over 600,000 students were also affected by the lockout and could not go to school.

The dispute was about whether teachers should have extra working time, as the Local Government Association (KL) wanted. The Danish Union of Teachers (DFL) was against it and could not find a solution. After 24 days of being locked out, the teachers lost the labour dispute on 25 April 2013, with a government intervention to end the lockout. The government chose to apply all of KL's main demands, and the teachers received a small wage increase as compensation.

Lock-in
The term lock-in refers to the practice of physically preventing workers from leaving a workplace. In most jurisdictions, it is illegal, but it is occasionally reported, especially in some developing countries.

Lock-ins should not be confused with a sitdown strike, like the Flint sit-down strike between the United Automobile Workers and General Motors Corporation.

More recently, lock-ins have been carried out by employees against management, which have been labeled 'bossnapping' by the mainstream media. In France during March 2009, 3M's national manager was locked in his office for 24 hours by employees in a dispute over redundancies. The following month, union employees of a call center managed by Synovate in Auckland locked the front doors of the office, in response to management locking them out.  Such practices bear some resemblance to the gherao in India. It is also caused by disagreement between employer and employees in a certain department.

See also

 Capital strike
 Dublin Lockout
 FaSinPat, an Argentine recovered factory following a lockout
 Government shutdown
 Lockout (sports)
 National Hockey League
 Strikebreaker
 Walkout

References

External links

 Account of the great farm lockout of 1872 on EASF

Labor relations
Labor disputes
Protest tactics

Lockout (industry)