Paul Nicolai Hartmann (; 20 February 1882 – 9 October 1950) was a Baltic German philosopher. He is regarded as a key representative of critical realism and as one of the most important twentieth-century metaphysicians.

Biography
Hartmann was born a Baltic German in Riga, which was then the capital of the Governorate of Livonia in the Russian Empire, and which is now in Latvia. He was the son of the engineer Carl August Hartmann and his wife Helene, born Hackmann. He attended from 1897 the German-language high school in Saint Petersburg. In the years 1902–1903 he studied Medicine at the University of Yuryev (now Tartu), and 1903–1905 classical philology and philosophy at the Saint Petersburg Imperial University with his friend Vasily Sesemann. In 1905 he went to the University of Marburg, where he studied with the neo-Kantians Hermann Cohen and Paul Natorp. In Marburg began a lifelong friendship with Heinz Heimsoeth. In 1907 he received his doctorate with the thesis Das Seinsproblem in der griechischen Philosophie vor Plato (The Problem of Being in Greek Philosophy Before Plato). In 1909 he published the book Platos Logik des Seins (The Logic of Being in Plato). The same year he completed his habilitation on Proclus: Des Proklus Diadochus philosophische Anfangsgründe der Mathematik (Proclus Diadochus' Philosophical Elements of Mathematics).

In 1911, Hartmann married Alice Stepanitz, with whom he had a daughter, Dagmar, in 1912. In 1912 he published Die philosophischen Grundfragen der Biologie (The Philosophical Foundations of Biology). From 1914 to 1918 he did military service as an interpreter, letter censor, and intelligence officer. In 1919, i.e., after the war, he received a position as Privatdozent in Marburg. Around this time he met Martin Heidegger. In 1920 he became Associate Professor (außerordentlicher Professor) and in 1921 appeared the work that established him as an independent philosophical thinker, Grundzüge einer Metaphysik der Erkenntnis (Foundation of a Metaphysics of Knowledge). The following year he became Full Professor (ordentlicher Professor) as successor of the Chair held by Natorp. In 1925, he moved to Cologne, where he came into contact with Max Scheler. In 1926 he published his second major work—Ethik—in which he develops a material value ethics akin to that of Scheler. The same year he divorced from his wife.

In 1929 Hartmann married Frida Rosenfeld, with whom he had a son, Olaf (1930), and a daughter, Lise (1932). In 1931 he became Professor of Theoretical Philosophy in Berlin. He held the Chair until 1945. During this time he successively published many pieces of his ontology: Das Problem des geistigen Seins (The Problem of Spiritual Being) (1933), Zur Grundlegung der Ontologie (On the Foundation of Ontology) (1935), Möglichkeit und Wirklichkeit (Possibility and Actuality) (1938) and Der Aufbau der realen Welt. Grundriß der allgemeinen Kategorienlehre (The Structure of the Real World. Outline of the General Theory of Categories) (1940). The unrest of the National Socialist period seems to have left Hartmann relatively undisturbed in his task of developing a new ontology. In the "'-Dossiers über Philosophie-Professoren" (i.e. SD-files concerning philosophy professors) that were set up by the SS Security Service (SD) Nicolai Hartmann was classified from an SS-point of view in the following way: "has always been a nationalist. Loyal to National Socialism, too, without political activity, but a social attitude has to be acknowledged. (cf. donations to the NSV and hosting children during school vacations)".

In 1942, Hartmann edited a volume entitled Systematische Philosophie, in which he contributed the essay Neue Wege der Ontologie (New Ways of Ontology), which summarizes his work in ontology.

Between 1945 and 1950, Hartmann taught in Göttingen. He died of a stroke in 1950. In the year of his death, there appeared his Philosophie der Natur (Philosophy of Nature). His works Teleologisches Denken (Teleological Thinking) (1951) and Ästhetik (Aesthetics) (1953) were published posthumously.

He is regarded as an important representative of critical realism and as one of the major metaphysicians of the twentieth century. Among Hartmann's many students were Boris Pasternak, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Emil Cioran, Jakob Klein, Delfim Santos and Max Wehrli. He is the modern discoverer of emergence — originally called by him categorial novum. His encyclopedic work is basically forgotten today, although famous during his lifetime. His early work in the philosophy of biology has been cited in modern discussions of genomics and cloning, and his views on consciousness and free will are currently in vogue among contributors to the Journal of Consciousness Studies.

Ontology
Nicolai Hartmann equates ontology with Aristotle's science of being qua being. This science involves studying the most general characteristics of entities, usually referred to as categories, and the relations between them. According to Hartmann, the most general categories are:
 Moments of being (Seinsmomente): existence (Dasein) and essence (Sosein)
 Modes of being (Seinsweisen): reality and ideality
 Modalities of being (Seinsmodi): possibility, actuality and necessity

Existence and essence
The existence of an entity constitutes the fact that this entity is there, that it exists. Essence, on the other hand, constitutes what this entity is like, what its characteristics are. Every entity has both of these modes of being. But, as Hartmann points out, there is no absolute difference between existence and essence. For example, the existence of a leaf belongs to the essence of the tree while the existence of the tree belongs to the essence of the forest.

Reality and ideality
Reality and ideality are two disjunctive categories: every entity is either real or ideal. Ideal entities are universal, returnable and always existing while real entities are individual, unique and destructible. Among the ideal entities are mathematical objects and values. Reality is made up of a chain of temporal events. Reality is obtrusive, it is often experienced as a form of resistance in contrast to ideality.

Modalities of being
The modalities of being are divided into the absolute modalities (actuality and non-actuality) and the relative modalities (possibility, impossibility and necessity). The relative modalities are relative in the sense that they depend on the absolute modalities: something is possible, impossible or necessary because something else is actual. Hartmann analyzes modality in the real sphere in terms of necessary conditions. An entity becomes actual if all its necessary conditions obtain. If all these factors obtain, it is necessary that the entity exists. But as long as one of its factors is missing, it can't become actual, it is impossible. This has the consequence that all positive and all the negative modalities fall together: whatever is possible is both actual and necessary, whatever is not necessary is both non-actual and impossible. This is true also in the ideal sphere, where possibility is given by being free from contradictions.

Levels of reality
In Hartmann's ontological theory, the levels of reality are: (1) the inorganic level (German: anorganische Schicht), (2) the organic level (organische Schicht), (3) the psychical/emotional level (seelische Schicht) and (4) the intellectual/cultural level (geistige Schicht). In The Structure of the Real World (Der Aufbau der realen Welt), Hartmann postulates four laws that apply to the levels of reality.

 The law of recurrence: Lower categories recur in the higher levels as a subaspect of higher categories, but never vice versa.
 The law of modification: The categorial elements modify in their recurrence in the higher levels (they are shaped by the characteristics of the higher levels).
 The law of the novum: The higher category is composed of a diversity of lower elements, but it is a specific novum that is not included in the lower levels.
 The law of distance between levels: Since the different levels do not develop continuously but in leaps, they can be clearly distinguished.

Ethical theory

The central concept of Hartmann's ethical theory is that of a value.  Hartmann's 1926 book, Ethik, elaborates a material ethics of value according to which moral knowledge is achieved through phenomenological investigation into our experiences of values.  Moral phenomena are understood by Hartmann to be experiences of a realm of being which is distinct from that of material things, namely, the realm of values.  The values inhabiting this realm are unchanging, super-temporal, and super-historical, though human consciousness of them shifts in focus over time.  Borrowing a style of phrase from Kant, Hartmann characterizes values as conditions of the possibility of goods; in other words, values are what make it possible for situations in the world to be good.  Our knowledge of the goodness (or badness) of situations is derived from our emotional experiences of them, experiences which are made possible by an a priori capacity for the appreciation of value.  For Hartmann, this means that our awareness of the value of a state of affairs is not arrived at through a process of reasoning, but rather, by way of an experience of feeling, which he calls valuational consciousness.  If, then, ethics is the study of what one ought to do, or what states of affairs one ought to bring about, such studies, according to Hartmann, must be carried out by paying close attention to our emotional capacities to discern what is valuable in the world.  As such, Hartmann's conception of proper moral philosophy contrasts with rationalist and formalist theories, such as Kant's, according to which ethical knowledge is derived from purely rational principles.

Quotations

"The tragedy of man is that of somebody who is starving and sitting at a richly laden table but does not reach out with his hand, because he cannot see what is right in front of him. For the real world has inexhaustible splendour, the real life is full of meaning and abundance, where we grasp it, it is full of miracles and glory."

Works

Works in German
Books
 1909, Des Proklus Diadochus philosophische Anfangsgründe der Mathematik, Töpelmann, Gießen.
 1909, Platos Logik des Seins, Töpelmann, Gießen.
 1912, Philosophische Grundfragen der Biologie, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen.
 1921, Grundzüge einer Metaphysik der Erkenntnis, Vereinigung wissenschaftlichen. Verleger, Berlin.
 1923, Die Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus 1: Fichte, Schelling und die Romantik, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1926, Ethik, de Gruyter, Berlin-Leipzig.
 1929, Die Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus 2: Hegel, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1931, Zum Problem der Realitätsgegebenheit, Pan-Verlagsgesellschaft, Berlin.
 1933, Das Problem des geistigen Seins. Untersuchungen zur Grundlegung der Geschichtsphilosophie und der Geisteswissenschaften, de Gruyter, Berlin-Leipzig.
 1935, Ontologie, (4 Volumes) I: Zur Grundlegung der Ontologie, de Gruyter, Berlin-Leipzig.
 1938, II: Möglichkeit und Wirklichkeit, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1940, III: Der Aufbau der realen Welt: Grundriß d. allg. Kategorienlehre , de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1942, Systematische Philosophie, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart & Berlin.
 1943, Neue Wege der Ontologie, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart.
 1949, Einführung in die Philosophie, Luise Hanckel Verlag, Hannover.
 1950, IV: Philosophie der Natur : Abriss der speziellen Kategorienlehre, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1951, Teleologisches Denken, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1953, Asthetik, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1954, Philosophische Gespräche, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen.
 1955, Der philosophische Gedanke und seine Geschichte, Zeitlichkeit und Substantialität, Sinngebung und Sinnerfüllung, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1955, Kleinere Schriften ; *Bd. 1* Abhandlungen zur systematischen Philosophie, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1957, Kleinere Schriften ; *Bd. 2* Abhandlungen zur Philosophie-Geschichte, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1958, Kleinere Schriften ; *Bd. 3* Vom Neukantianismus zur Ontologie, de Gruyter, Berlin.

Articles
 1924, Diesseits von Idealismus und Realismus : Ein Beitrag zur Scheidg d. Geschichtl. u. Übergeschichtl. in d. Kantischen Philosophie  in: Sonderdrucke der Kantischen Studien, Pan Verlag R. Heise Berlin, pp. 160–206.
 1926, Aristoteles und Hegel, Beitrage zur Philosophie des Deutschen Idealismus, 3 (1923), pp. 1–36.
 1927, "Über die Stellung der ästhetischen Werte im Reich der Werte überhaupt", in Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Philosophy, Edgar Sheffield Brightman (ed.), New York: Longmans, Green, and Co, pp. 428–436.
 1933, Systematische Selbstdarstellung in: Deutsche systematische Philosophie nach ihren Gestaltern, Ebda, Berlin : Junker & Dünnhaupt, pp. 283–340.
 1935, Das Problem des Apriorismus in der Platonischen Philosophie in: Sitzungsberichte d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. Phil.-hist. Kl. 1935, 15, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1936, Der philosophische Gedanke und seine Geschichte, in: Abhandlungen d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wissenschaften. Phil.-hist. Kl. 1936, Nr 5, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1937, Der megarische und der Aristotelische Möglichkeitsbegriff : Ein Beitr. zur Geschichte d. ontolog. Modalitätsproblems, in; Sitzungsberichte d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. Phil.-hist. Kl. 1937, 10, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1938, Heinrich Maiers Beitrag zum Problem der Kategorien, in:  Sitzungsberichte d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. Phil.-hist. Kl. 1938, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1939, Aristoteles und das Problem des Begriffs, in: Abhandlungen der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften : Philosophisch-historische Klasse ; Jg. 1939, Nr 5, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1941, "Zur Lehre vom Eidos bei Platon und Aristoteles", in: Abhandlungen d. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. Phil.-hist. Kl. Jg. 1941, Nr 8, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1942, Neue Wege der Ontologie, in: Systematische Philosophie, N. Hartmann, editor, Stuttgart.
 1943, Die Anfänge des Schichtungsgedankens in der alten Philosophie, in:  Abhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften : Philosophisch-historische Klasse ; Jg. 1943, Nr 3, de Gruyter, Berlin.
 1946, Leibniz als Metaphysiker, de Gruyter, Berlin.

Translations in English
 Nicolai Hartmann, Ethics, London: George Allen & Unwin 1932. Reprinted with a new introduction by Andreas A. M. Kinneging - New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers, 2002-2004 in three volumes: I. Moral phenomena (2002); II. Moral values (2004); III. Moral freedom (2004).
 Nicolai Hartmann, "German Philosophy in the Last Ten Years", translated by John Ladd, Mind: A Quarterly Review of Psychology and Philosophy, vol. 58, no. 232, 1949, pp. 413–433.
 Nicolai Hartmann, New Ways of Ontology, Westport: Greenwood Press, 1952 (Reprinted with a new introduction by P. Cicovacki, Transaction Publishers, 2012).
 Nicolai Hartmann, "How Is Critical Ontology Possible? Toward the Foundation of the General Theory of the Categories, Part One", translated from "Wie ist kritische Ontologie überhaupt möglich?" (1924) by Keith R. Peterson, Axiomathes, vol. 22, 2012, pp. 315-354.
 Nicolai Hartmann, Possibility and Actuality. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2013 (Translation by Alex Scott and Stephanie Adair of Möglichkeit und Wirklichkeit, 1938).
 Nicolai Hartmann, Aesthetics. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2014 (Translation by Eugene Kelly of Ästhetik, 1953).
 Nicolai Hartmann, " The Megarian and the Aristotelian Concept of Possibility: A Contribution to the History of the Ontological Problem of Modality". Axiomathes, 2017 (Translation by Frederic Tremblay and Keith R. Peterson of "Der Megarische und der Aristotelische Möglichkeitsbegriff: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des ontologischen Modalitätsproblems", 1937).
 Nicolai Hartmann, "Max Scheler", translated by Frederic Tremblay, in Nicolai Hartmanns Neue Ontologie und die Philosophische Anthropologie: Menschliches Leben in Natur und Geist, edited by Moritz Kalckreuth, Gregor Schmieg, Friedrich Hausen, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2019, pp. 263-272.
 Nicolai Hartmann, Ontology: Laying the Foundations, Translation and Introduction by Keith R. Peterson, Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019.

See also
Supervenience

References

Further reading
Books
 1952, H. Heimsoeth and others, N. Hartmann, der Denker und seine Werk.
 1957, Jitendra Nath Mohanty, Nicolai Hartmann and Alfred North Whitehead: A Study in Recent Platonism, Calcutta: Progressive Publishers.
 1959, H. Hulsmann, Die Methode in der Philosophie N. Hartmanns.
 1962, K. Kanthack, N. Hartmann und das Ende der Ontologie.
 1965, I. Wirth, Realismus und Apriorismus in N. Hartmanns Erkenntnistheorie.
 1965, J. B. Forsche, Zur Philosophie Nicolai Hartmann".
 1971, E. Hammer-Kraft, Freiheit und Dependenz im Schichtdenken Nicolai Hartmanns.
 1973, R. Gamp, Die interkategoriale Relation und die dialektische Methode in der Philosophie N. Hartmanns.
 1974, S. U. Kang, Nächstenliebe und Fernstenliebe Eine kritische Auseinandersetzung mit Nicolai Hartmann.
 1974, Imre Szilágyi, Az érték szférája és objektivitásának paradoxonja (N. Hartmann értéketikájának kritikájához), Budapest.
 1982, Herbert Spiegelberg, The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (Chapter VI: Phenomenology in the Critical Ontology of Nicolai Hartmann).
 1984, Eva Hauel Cadwallader, Searchlight on Values: Nicolai Hartmann's Twentieth-Century Value Platonism, Washington: University press of America.
 1987, Dong-Hyun Son, Die Seinsweise des objektivierten Geistes: Eine Untersuchung im Anschluss an Nicolai Hartmanns Problematik des "geistigen Seins", Peter Lang
 1989, Arnd. Grötz, Nicolai Hartmanns Lehre vom Menschen, Frankfurt am Main, Lang.
 1990, William H. Werkmeister, Nicolai Hartmann's New Ontology, Tallahassee, Florida State University Press.
 1992, Roland H. Feucht, Die Neoontologie Nicolai Hartmanns im Licht der evolutionären Erkenntnistheorie, Regensburg, Roderer.
 1994, Abolghassem Sakersadeh, Immanenz und Transzendenz als ungelöste Problematik in der Philosophie Nicolai Hartmanns, Münster, Lit.
 1996, João Maurício Adeodato, Filosofia do direito: uma crítica à verdade na ética e na ciência (através de um exame da ontologia de Nicolai Hartmann), São Paulo, Saraiva.
 1997, Martin Morgenstern,Nicolai Hartmann zur Einführung, Hamburg, Junius.
 2000, Wolfgang, Harich, Nicolai Hartmann - Größe und Grenzen, edited by Martin Morgenstern, Wurzburg: Königshausen und Neumann.
 2001, Axiomathes (Springer), 12:3-4, special issue on N. Hartmann (Includes papers by Albertazzi, Cicovacki, Da Re, Johansson, Peruzzi, Poli, Tegtmeier, van der Schaar, Wildgen)
 2001, Nebil Reyhani, Hermann Weins Auseinandersetzung mit Nicolai Hartmann als sein Weg von der Ontologie zu einer philosophischen Kosmologie, PhD dissertation, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Mainz.
 2003, Gerhard Ehrl, Nicolai Hartmanns philosophische Anthropologie in systematischer Perspektive, Cuxhave, Junghans.
 2004, Alessandro Gamba, In principio era il fine. Ontologia e teleologia in Nicolai Hartmann, Milano, Vita e Pensiero.
 2007, Leszek Kopciuch, "Człowiek i historia u Nicolaia Hartmanna", Lublin, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.
 2009 Giuseppe D'Anna "Nicolai Hartmann. Dal conoscere all'essere", Brescia, Morcelliana
 2010, Leszek Kopciuch, "Wolnośc a wartości. Max Scheler - Nicolai Hartmann - Dietrich von Hildebrand - Hans Reiner", Lublin, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.
 2011, Roberto Poli, Carlo Scognamiglio and Frederic Tremblay (eds.), The Philosophy of Nicolai Hartmann, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter.
 2011, Eugene Kelly, Material Ethics of Value: Max Scheler and Nicolai Hartmann, Dordrecht: Springer.
 2012, Alicja Pietras, "W stronę ontologii. Nicolaia Hartmanna i Martina Heideggera postneokantowskie projekty filozofii", Kraków, Uniwersitas.
 2016, Keith Peterson and Roberto Poli (eds.), New Research on the Philosophy of Nicolai Hartmann, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter.

Articles
 1935, Hilda Oakeley, "Professor Nicolai Hartmann's Concept of Objective Spirit," Mind, vol. 44, pp. 39–57.
 1942, Lewis White Beck, "Nicolai Hartmann's Criticism of Kant's Theory of Knowledge," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, vol. 2, pp. 472–500.
 1943, Michael Landmann, "Nicolai Hartmann and Phenomenology," Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, vol. 3 pp. 393–423.
 1951, Helmut Kuhn, "Nicolai Hartmann's Ontology," Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 1, pp. 289–318.
 1953, Jacob Taubes, "The Development of the Ontological Question in Recent German Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics, vol. 6, pp. 651–664.
 1954, John E. Smith, "Hartmann's New Ontology," Review of Metaphysics, vol. 7, pp. 583–601.
 1956, Eva Schaper, "The Aesthetics of Hartmann and Bense," Review of Metaphysics, vol. 10, pp. 289–307.
 1960, Helen James, "Nicolai Hartmann's Study of Human Personality," New Scholasticism, vol. 34, pp. 204–233.
 1961, Robert Hein, "Nicolai Hartmann: A Personal Sketch," Personalist, vol 42, pp. 469–486.
 1963, Stanislas Breton, "Ontology and Ontologies: The Contemporary Situation," International Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 3, pp. 339–369.
 1963, Paul K. Feyerabend, "Professor Hartmann's Philosophy of Nature," Ratio, vol. 5, pp. 91–106.
 1963, Jitendra Nath Mohanty, "Remarks on Nicolai Hartmann's Modal Doctrine," Kant Studien, vol. 54, pp. 181–187.
 1966, Caroline Schuetzinger, "The Gnoseological Transcendence in Nicolai Hartmann's Metaphysics of Cognition (First Part)," Thomist, vol. 30, pp. 1–37.
 1966, Caroline Schuetzinger, "The Gnoseological Transcendence in Nicolai Hartmann's Metaphysics of Cognition (Second Part)," Thomist, vol. 30, pp. 136–196.
 1984, Richard Bodeus, "The Problem of Freedom According to Nicolai Hartmann," International Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 55–60.
 1984, Eva Hauel Cadwallader, "The Continuing Relevance of Nicolai Hartmann's Theory of Value", Journal of Value Inquiry, vol. 18, pp. 113–121.
 1984, Frederick Kraenzel, "Nicolai Hartmann's Doctrine of Ideal Values: An Examination," Journal of Value Inquiry, vol. 18, pp. 299–306.
 1986, Janina Makota, "Nicolai Hartmann's and Roman Ingarden's Philosophy of Man," Reports on Philosophy, vol. 10, pp. 69–79.
 1994, Wolfgang Drechsler and Rainer Kattel, "Nicolai Hartmann", Akademia, vol. 6, pp. 1579–1592.
 1997, Robert Welsh Jordan, "Nicolai Hartmann." Encyclopedia of Phenomenology, eds Lester Embree, Elizabeth A. Behnke, Thomas Seebohm, Jitendra Nath Mohanty, Joseph J. Kockelmans, et al. Contributions to Phenomenology, vol. 18, Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 288-292.
 1998, Roberto Poli, "Levels," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 9, pp. 197–211.
 2001, Predrag Cicovacki, "New Ways of Ontology - The Ways of Interaction", Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 159–170.
 2001, Gabor Csepregi, "The Relevance of Nicolai Hartmann's Musical Aesthetics," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 339–354.
 2001, Antonio Da Re, "Objective Spirit and Personal Spirit in Hartmann's Philosophy," Axiomathes, vol. 12, pp. 317–326.
 2001, Ingvar Johansson, "Hartmann's Nondeductive Materialism, Superimposition, and Supervenience," Axiomathes, vol. 12, pp. 195–215.
 2001, Leszek Kopciuch, "Metafizyka historii u Nicolaia Hartmanna. Granice rozumu historycznego", in:  Z. J. Czarnecji (ed.), "Dylematy racjonalności. Między rozumem teoretycznym a praktycznym, Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowoskiej, pp. 133-152.
 2001, Erwin Tegtmeier, "Hartmann's General Ontology," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 217–225.
 2001, Maria Van der Schaar, "Hartmann's Rejection of the Notion of Evidence," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 285–297.
 2001, Robert Welsh Jordan, "Hartmann, Schutz, and the Hermeneutics of Action," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 327–338.
 2001, Roberto Poli, "The Basic Problem of the Theory of Levels of Reality," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 261–283.
 2001, Alberto Peruzzi, "Hartmann's Stratified Reality," Axiomathes: An International Journal in Ontology and Cognitive Systems, vol. 12, pp. 227–260.
2002, Robert Welsh Jordan, "Nicolai Hartmann: Proper Ethics is Atheistic, Phenomenological Approaches to Moral Philosophy. a Handbook, edited by John J. Drummond and Lester Embree, Dordrecht; Boston; London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 175-196.
 2005, Leszek Kopciuch, "Aprioryzm w czuciu wartości u N. Hartmanna", in: H. Jakuszko (ed.), "Racjonalność teoretyczna i praktyczna", "Annales UMCS", vol. XXX, Sect. I, pp. 153–173.
 2006, Leszek Kopciuch, "Krytyka relatywizmu aksjologicznego u N. Hartmanna", "Edukacja Filozoficzna" vol. 41, pp. 157–170.
 2006, Alicja Pietras, "Pojęcie kategorii a problem granic poznania. Nicolai Hartmann a Immanuel Kant", "Czasopismo Filozoficzne" vol 1, pp. 22-40.
 2007, Leszek Kopciuch, "O sile i bezsile wartości u Nicolaia Hartmanna", in: K. łojek (red.), "Człowiek w kulturze", Warszawa: Wydawnictwo  WSFiZ, pp. 233–244.
 2007, Leszek Kopciuch, "Przedmiot czucia wartości w etyce N. Hartmanna", "Etyka", No.40, pp. 49–61.
 2007, Leszek Kopciuch, "O trudnościach w poznawaniu wartości etycznych u N. Hartmanna", in: M. Hetmański (ed.), "Epistemologia współcześnie", Kraków: Universitas, pp. 445–453.
 2008, Leszek Kopciuch, "O różnicy w budowie dzieła sztuki u R. Ingardena i N. Hartmanna (w sprawie zarzutów Ingardena względem N. Hartmanna)", "Kwartalnik Filozoficzny", vol. XXXVI, issue 2, pp. 101–114.
 2008, Leszek Kopciuch, "Zum Problem der Geschichtsphilosophie bei N. Hartmann", in: D. Pater (ed.)"Eine Philosophie – eine Welt – ein Mensch", Hannover: Europäische Akademie der Naturwissenschaften, pp. 13–28.
 2008, Alicja Pietras, "Nicolaia Hartmanna krytyka logicyzmu". W: Z problemów współczesnej humanistyki III. Red. A. J. Noras. Katowice 2008, p. 95-111.
 2009, Leszek Kopciuch, "Wolna wola – G. W. Leibniz i N. Hartmann", in: H. Jakuszko, L. Kopciuch (ed.), "W kręgu zagadnień filozofii XVII wieku", Lublin: Lubelskie Towarzystwo Naukowe, Wydawnictwo Olech, pp. 213–222.
 2009, Leszek Kopciuch, "Nicolaia Hartmanna prawa bytu realnego", "Acta Universitatis Lodziensis", Folia Philosophica, vol. 22, pp. 105–115
 2010, Leszek Kopciuch, "Kilka uwag o stosunku Hartmanna do etyki Kanta, "Studia Philosophica Wratislaviensia", vol. V, fasc. 2, pp. 167–170.
 2010, Leszek Kopciuch, "O stosunku N. Hartmanna do A. Schopenhauera, "Idea. Studia nad strukturą i rozwojem pojęć filozoficznych", vol. XXII, pp. 51–61.
 2011, Frederic Tremblay, "Nicolai Hartmann's Definition of Biological Species," in R. Poli, C. Scognamiglio, F. Tremblay (eds.), The Philosophy of Nicolai Hartmann, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 125-139.
 2011, Leszek Kopciuch, "Nicolaia Hartmanna krytyka podmiotu transcendentalnego w etyce", in: P. Parszutowicz, M. Soin (ed.), "Idea transcendentalizmu. Od Kanta do Wittgensteina", Warszawa: Wydawnictwo IFiS PAN, pp. 279–294.
2011, Alicja Pietras, "Nicolai Hartmann as a Post-Neo-Kantian", in R. Poli, C. Scognamiglio, F. Tremblay (eds.), The Philosophy of Nicolai Hartmann, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 237-251.
 2011, Alicja Pietras, "Recepcja myśli Kanta w filozofii Hartmanna i Heideggera. Problem relacji między filozofią a naukami szczegółowymi", in: A. J. Noras, T. Kubalica (eds.), "Filozofia Kanta i jej recepcja",  Katowice 2011,  Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego, pp. 217-228.
 2012, Alicja Pietras, "O interpretacji z punktu widzenia ontologii bytu duchowego Nicolaia Hartmanna", in: M. Brodnicki, J. Jakubowska, K. Jaroń (eds.), "Historia interpretacji. Interpretacja historii", Gdańsk 2012, Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Gdańskiego, pp. 25-35.
 2012, Alicja Pietras, "Pojęcie aprioryczności w filozofii Nicolaia Hartmanna", "Ruch Filozoficzny",Tom LXIX, nr 3-4, Toruń 2012, pp. 421-435.
 2013, Alicja Pietras, "Nicolaia Hartmanna projekt syntezy myślenia i intuicji", "Przegląd Filozoficzny – Nowa Seria", R 22: 2013, Nr 1 (85), pp. 335-350.
 2013, Alicja Pietras, "Problem principium individuationis w ontologii Nicolaia Hartmanna", "Filo-Sofija", nr 23 (2013/14), pp. 175-184.
 2013, Frederic Tremblay, "Nicolai Hartmann and the Metaphysical Foundation of Phylogenetic Systematics," Biological Theory, vol. 7, n. 1, pp. 56-68.
 2016, Vélez León, Paulo. "An Intellectual Profile of Nicolai Hartmann (1882-1950). Part I". Disputatio. Philosophical Research Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 457-538. (In Spanish)
 2017, Frederic Tremblay, "Vladimir Solovyov, Nicolai Hartmann, and Levels of Reality," Axiomathes, vol. 27, n. 2, pp. 133-146.
 2017, Frederic Tremblay, "Historical Introduction to Nicolai Hartmann's Concept of Possibility," Axiomathes, vol. 27, n. 2, pp. 193-207.
 2018, Alicja Pietras, "The Ontology of Processual Being: Nicolai Hartmann's Interpretation of the Hegelian Dialectical Process," Constructivist Foundations 14 (1), pp. 62-65,
 2019, Frederic Tremblay, "Ontological Axiology in Nikolai Lossky, Max Scheler, and Nicolai Hartmann." In Moritz Kalckreuth, Gregor Schmieg, Friedrich Hausen (eds.), Nicolai Hartmanns Neue Ontologie und die Philosophische Anthropologie: Menschliches Leben in Natur und Geist, Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter, pp. 193-232.
 2021, Alicja Pietras, "Nicolai Hartmann and the Transcendental Method, ''Logic and Logical Philosophy 30, n. 3, pp. 461–492.

External links

 Nicolai Hartmann Society
 Levels of Reality in the Ontology of Nicolai Hartmann
 Martin Morgenstern, Vom Idealismus zur realistischen Ontologie. Das Frühwerk Nicolai Hartmanns, in: Philosophia: E-Journal of Philosophy and Culture, 5/2013.

1882 births
1950 deaths
Writers from Riga
People from Kreis Riga
Baltic-German people
Kantian philosophers
Ontologists
Systems scientists
20th-century German philosophers
Philosophy of biology
Existentialists
Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin

Nicolai Hartmann


A cerveja Marafada é uma marca de cerveja artesanal portuguesa produzida na Quinta dos avós (Algarve) desde 2015.

História
A cerveja Marafada começou como um projeto de André Gonçalves e Ruben Pires que começaram a produzir cerveja caseira para consumo privado e que rapidamente passaram para a sua comercialização.

Atualmente tem quatro variedades de cerveja com produção contínua e frequentemente lançam edições especiais sazonais e/ou temporárias.

Desde 2015 que estes cervejeiros colaboram também com o Museu de Portimão na recriação de um dia na Pré-história nos monumentos megalíticos de Alcalar onde apresentam uma cerveja cuja receita tem por base as evidências arqueológicas.

Em 2017 lançaram a Orange Witbier na primeira edição do festival Silves, "Capital da Laranja". Esta cerveja, estilo witbier, tem como um dos seus ingredientes laranja de Silves, um dos produtos emblemáticos desta região.

Cervejas de produção contínua
 Silves witbier;
 Algarve Pale Ale;
 India Pale Ale;
 Stout.

Edições especiais
 Dupla IPA;
 Tripla IPA;
 Strong Ale;
 Tuber Bock;
 Bikini Sour;
 Roxana Banana Weissbier;
 Geirinhas Imperial Stout;
 Märzen;
 Baltiska Baltic Porter;
 Rocha Negra Irish Extra Stout;
 Pumpkin Ale.

Ver também
 Cerveja
 Cerveja no mundo
 Bebidas alcoólicas

Marcas de cerveja de Portugal
Fundações em Portugal em 2015

Marafada


Salix tarraconensis es una especie de sauce perteneciente a la familia de las salicáceas. Es un endemismo de España, donde crece en taludes subalpinos a una altitud de 500-1400 metros en Tarragona y Castellón.

Descripción
Es un  pequeño arbusto caducifolio que alcanza un tamaño de 1 m de altura. La hojas son alternas, de 5-15 mm de largo y 2.5 mm de ancho, con un margen muy finamente dentado, de color verde por el haz y más pálido por el envés, con pelos cortos de color blanquecino.

Puede ser confundida con Rhamnus pumilus, por su aspecto similar en estado vegetativo.

Taxonomía
Salix tarraconensis fue descrita por Carlos Pau y publicado en Font Quer in Treb. Inst. Catalana Hist. Nat. 1: 15 (1915)
EtimologíaSalix: nombre genérico latino para el sauce, sus ramas y madera.tarraconensis: epíteto geográfico que alude a su localización en Tarraco.
SinonimiaSalix tarraconensis f. macrophylla GoerzSalix tarraconensis f. microphylla'' Goerz

Nombre común
 Castellano: salenca tortosina.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Description of Salix tarraconensis
 See photos of Salix tarraconensis

tarraconensis
Endemismos ibéricos
Plantas descritas en 1915
Plantas descritas por Pau

Salix tarraconensis


A Primeira Missa ou Tristes Tropeços, Enganos e Urucum é um filme brasileiro de 2014, dirigido pela cineasta Ana Carolina. O filme marca o retorno da cineasta Ana Carolina aos cinemas, depois de 10 anos afastada.

Sinopse
Baseado no quadro Primeira Missa no Brasil de Victor Meireles, a narrativa se passa através um grupo de cineastas, tentando reconstruir um marco na história do Brasil: a encenação da primeira missa no país, com a chegada dos portugueses. Índios perdidos estão reunidos em torno dos patrícios, que discutem como proceder o rito religioso.

Elenco
 Alessandra Maestrini como Sônia Duarte
 Oscar Magrini como Silvano Bréscia "O Produtor"
 Fernanda Montenegro como Nossa Senhora
 Xuxa Lopes como Índia
 Wagner Molina como Ubirajara
 Rui Unas como Pero Vaz de Caminha
 Marcantonio Del Carlo como Pedro Álvares Cabral
 Beto Coville como Henrique Soares de Coimbra
 Arrigo Barnabé como O Pirata
 Rita Lee como Pirata
 Tuna Dwek como Índia
 Rosa Grobman como Juciara Tamoyo
 Dagoberto Feliz como O Diretor

Ligações externas

 A Primeira Missa ou Tristes Tropeços, Enganos e Urucum (em inglês) no Letterboxd

Filmes de drama do Brasil
Filmes do Brasil de 2014
Filmes em língua portuguesa
Filmes de drama da década de 2010


Quatsino est une municipalité située dans la province de la Colombie-Britannique, dans l'Île de Vancouver.

Notes et références

Article connexe
 Quatsino Sound

Liens externes

Municipalité en Colombie-Britannique

Quatsino


Mari El (; ; ), officially the Mari El Republic, is a republic of Russia. It is in the European region of the country, along the northern bank of the Volga River, and administratively part of the Volga Federal District. The republic has a population of 696,459 (2010 Census). Yoshkar-Ola is the capital and largest city.

Mari El, one of Russia's ethnic republics, was established for the indigenous Mari people, a Finnic nation who have traditionally lived along the Volga and Kama Rivers. The plurality of the republic's population are ethnic Russians (47.4%) and Mari (43.9%), with minority populations of Tatars and Chuvash. The official languages are Russian and Mari. Mari El is bordered by Nizhny Novgorod Oblast to the west, Kirov Oblast to the north, Tatarstan to the east, and Chuvashia to the south.

Geography

The Republic is located in the eastern part of the East European Plain of Russia, along and mostly to the north of the Volga River. The swampy Mari Depression is in the west of the Republic, contrasted by hillier landscapes in the east where the highest point of the Republic (at ) is located. The Republic borders with Kirov Oblast in the north and east, the Republic of Tatarstan in the southeast and south, the Chuvash Republic in the south, and with Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in the west and north.

There are 476 rivers in the Republic, with the Volga and its tributaries being the major water arteries. Most rivers are considered to be minor— wide and  deep—and usually freeze between mid-November and mid-April. There are over 700 lakes and ponds; many located in the swampy areas and have areas of less than  and depths of . Lake Yalchik, occupying , is the largest by area, while Lake Tabashinskoye is the deepest. Swamps cover large areas— and up to —and usually freeze in December. While swamps tend to be shallow, with an average depth of , they are impassable in fall and spring due to flooding.

Climate is moderately continental, with moderately cold and snowy winters and warm and often rainy summers. The average temperatures range from  in summer to  in winter. November is the windiest month of the year. Annual precipitation varies from .

There are virtually no natural resources of industrial significance in the Republic. Other resources include peat, mineral waters, and limestone. About 50% of the Republic's territory is forested, although the level of forestation varies significantly from one district to another.

History

Ancient Mari tribes were known since the 5th century, though archaeologists suspect that the Mari culture is much older in its roots. Later their area was a tributary of Volga Bulgaria and the Golden Horde. In the 1440s it was incorporated into the Khanate of Kazan and was occupied by the Tsardom of Russia (governed by Ivan the Terrible) after the fall of Kazan in 1552.

After the Russian Revolution, under the Bolshevik regime, the Mari Autonomous Oblast was established on 4 November 1920. It was re-organized into the Mari ASSR on 5 December 1936, at the same time as the enactment of the 1936 Soviet Constitution. In its present form, the Mari El Republic was formed on 22 December 1990. On 21 May 1998, Mari El alongside Amur, Ivanovo, Kostroma, and Voronezh Oblast signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. This agreement was abolished on 31 December 2001.

The name of the republic is based on the ethnic self-designation of its indigenous population – , "Mari" (from , "man, husband"), and , "country, land".

Administrative divisions

Politics

The head of government in the Mari El Republic is the Head (formerly President). As of 2017, the Head was Alexander Yevstifeyev, who was appointed in April 2017.

The government of Mari El has been pursuing Russification in recent years, with the former head of the republic, Leonid Markelov, ordering many Mari language newspapers to close.  Many ethnic Mari activists live in fear of violence. The Mari activist and chief editor Vladimir Kozlov was badly beaten after he criticized Markelov's government. Other Mari leaders have been subject to violence, legal persecution, and intimidation.

The Mari people's native religion, based on the worship of the forces of nature, has encountered hostility as well. Vitaly Tanakov was charged with inciting religious, national, social, and linguistic hatred after publishing the book The Priest Speaks.

The International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights (IHF) and the Moscow Helsinki Group (MHG), in an exhaustive 2006 report Russian Federation: The Human Rights Situation of the Mari Minority of the Republic of Mari El, found widespread evidence of political and cultural persecution of Mari people, and of "a broader trend of repression of dissidents in the republic".

Demographics
Population:

Vital statistics
Source: Russian Federal State Statistics Service

Note: Total fertility rate source.

Ethnic groups

Though the Mari people have lived in the area for millennia, they did not have a designated territory before the Russian Revolution of 1917. According to the 2021 Census, only 58.2% of the Mari within Russia live in the Mari El Republic, while 20.1% live in the Republic of Bashkortostan (consisting of the Eastern Mari, who fled to Bashkorostan to escape religious persecution). During the last Soviet Census (1989), 4% of the Mari of the Soviet Union lived outside of Russia.

Since World War II, more ethnic Russians and Tatars have moved into the area. According to the 2021 Census, Russians make up 52.5% of the republic's population (up from 47.4% in 2010), while the ethnic Mari make up 40.1% (down from 43.9%). Other groups include Tatars (4.8%), Chuvash (0.6%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.

Religion

The religions with the most adherents in the republic are Russian Orthodoxy, the Mari native religion, the Old Believers, and Islam. The traditional Mari religion (Chimari yula) is still practised today by many Mari people and is the main religion of the Mari of Bashkortostan; also practised is a syncretism with Christianity. The Czars took drastic measures to force Christianity on the Mari, going so far as blowing up a holy mountain, and the persecution of the religion went on under the Soviet Union.

During the 1990s the religion was officially recognized by the State and began to revive. The Mari gather at around 520 holy groves where they offer animal and vegetable sacrifices, there are about 20 festivals yearly. Although traditional religion is one of Mari El's three officially recognized religions (along with Orthodoxy and Islam) Mari religious practises have come under increasing pressure, according to human rights groups.

According to a 2012 survey, 47.8% of the population of Mari El adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6–15% adheres to the Mari native religion, 6% adheres to Islam, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Old Believers and 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without church affiliation or members of other Orthodox churches. In addition, 25% of the population is "spiritual but not religious", 6% is atheist and 4.2% follows other religions or did not answer the question.

Education
The most important facilities of higher education are Mari State Technical University and Mari State University, both located in Yoshkar-Ola. There are also more than 900 primary and secondary schools located throughout the republic.

For the past few years, the Mari El Republic has been participating in the national project "Education" ("Oбразование"), which is designed to improve education throughout Russia by bringing new technology into the classroom, improving material conditions in schools, and providing financial awards to extraordinary students and teachers. Although the Mari language is officially a state language, Mari educators and administrators have been forced from their positions in recent years and Mari-language education has been defunded, according to the U.S. State Department, the European Union, and others.

Economy
The most developed industries are machine construction, metalworking, timber, woodworking, and food industries. Most of the industrial enterprises are located in the capital Yoshkar-Ola, as well as in the towns of Kozmodemyansk, Volzhsk, and Zvenigovo.

The largest companies in the region include Mariysky Oil Refinery (revenues of $ million in 2017), Mari Pulp and Paper Mill ($ million), Shelanger Chemical Plant "Siver" ($ million), Marbiopharm ($ million).

Transportation
Traveling cheaply and quickly to various towns and villages within the Republic is made possible through a network of fifteen train stations, fifty-three bus stations, and numerous marshrutkas. The republic is connected to different regions throughout Russia by daily trains to and from Moscow and Kazan, flights on one commercial airline from Yoshkar-Ola Airport, located near Yoshkar-Ola, and a port on the Volga River in Kozmodemyansk. There are also four other minor river ports in the republic. Regional automobile code is 12.

Communication
Telephony, Internet service, and cable television are provided by VolgaTelecom.

Culture

There are many museums located throughout the territory of the republic. The largest ones include the National Museum, the Museum of History, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Yoshkar-Ola; the Museum of Arts and History, the Ethnographic Open-Air Museum, and the Merchant Life Museum in Kozmodemyansk; and the Sheremetyev Castle Museum-reserve in Yurino. There are also museums dedicated to the poet Nikolay Mukhin and the composer Ivan Klyuchnikov-Palantay in Yoshkar-Ola and the house-museum of writer Sergei Chavayn in Chavaynur.

Five theaters are located in Yoshkar-Ola with performances in both the Russian and Mari languages.

Notable people
Valentin Kolumb, poet
Shabdar Osyp, author
Andrei Eshpai, composer, pianist

See also
 Mari National Rebirth Party "Ushem"

Notes

References

Sources

External links

 Old Official website of the Mari El Republic
 Official website of the Mari El Republic
 Industry in the Mari El Republic
Mari El Republic nature views and sceneries
A short Meadow Mari-English dictionary
 Meadow Mari-Russian-Japanese dictionary
 About nature in Mari EL republic
Kimberli Mäkäräinen's Meadow Mari Grammar
 Map of Mari El

Further reading
Daniel Kalder.  Lost Cosmonaut: Observations of an Anti-tourist

States and territories established in 1936
Russian-speaking countries and territories
Regions of Europe with multiple official languages
Republics of Russia

Mari El


Sørkedalen er en dal mod nordvest i Oslo kommune. Dalen ligger mellem Voksenåsen og Tryvannshøgda i øst og Venneråsen i vest. Det meste af dalen hører til Nordmarka. En mindre del ligger i bydelen Vestre Aker.

Selvom dalen ligger nær Oslo, så har området et landligt præg. Der er tale om et bygdesamfund med landbrug, egen kirke og egen skole. Dalen er et yndet udflugtsmål for skiløbere og ryttere.

Vestre Aker
Oslos geografi
Dale i Norge

Sørkedalen


(20496) Jeník, denumire internațională (20496) Jenik, este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
20496 Jeník este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul din Ondřejov de Lenka Šarounová. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,04 ua, o excentricitate de 0,18 și o înclinație de 13,3° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 20001-21000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

20496 Jeník


This is a list of aviation-related events from 1917.

Events
 During her 30 November 1916 – 24 February 1918 cruise, the Imperial German Navy commerce raider Wolf carries a Friedrichshafen FF.33e seaplane nicknamed Wölfchen ("Little Wolf" or "Wolf Cub"), which during 1917 singlehandedly captures at least four of the 37 enemy ships Wolf captures and sinks during her cruise. Wölfchen makes between 54 and 56 flights, the most by any World War I shipboard aircraft.
 The Aircraft Committee of the Royal Navys Grand Fleet decides to phase balloon ships out of naval service. The balloon ships are returned to mercantile service, or converted into balloon depot ships (to inflate and maintain balloons for use by other ships) or seaplane carriers.
 The Imperial Russian Navy operates the worlds second-most-powerful seaplane carrier force, behind only that of the British Royal Navy.
 The Gallaudet Aircraft Company changes its name to Gallaudet Aircraft Corporation.
 The Groupe Latécoère aircraft company is founded in Toulouse, France.
 The French Armys Service Aeronautique experiments with the use of a Breguet 14 as an air ambulance for rapid casualty evacuation on the Western Front.

January
 The Luftstreitkrafte (German Air Force) disbands three Kampfgeschwader (bomber wings) and redesignates their squadrons as Schutzstaffeln (escort squadrons). Operating two-seat Albatros L 1 DDK, Rumpler 4A 13, Gotha Taube, and Fokker M.8 aircraft, the new "Schusta" squadrons are tasked with escorting two-seat observation planes of the Feldflieger Abteilungen (field flying detachments) and Artillerieflieger Abteilungen (artillery flying detachments) during their reconnaissance flights, and are based with them.
 The Thomas Brothers Aeroplane Company merges with the Morse Chain Works to form the Thomas-Morse Aircraft Corporation in Ithaca, New York.
 January 11 - The Royal Navy seaplane carrier Ben-my-Chree is sunk by Ottoman artillery while in harbor at Castelorizo Island, becoming the only aviation ship of any nationality sunk by enemy action during World War I.
 January 12 – Manfred von Richthofen receives the Pour le Mérite (the "Blue Max") for having shot down 16 Allied aircraft since September 1916.
 January 27 - A French air raid on Freiburg, Germany takes place.

February
 The Royal Flying Corpss No. 100 Squadron, the first British night fighter squadron, is formed.
 Germany begins Operation Türkenkreuz ("Turks Cross") bombing campaign against England, initially using airships.
 The United States Army forms the 7th Aero Squadron for service in the Panama Canal Zone.
 February 7 – Suffering progressive damage due to a series of crashes in bad visibility and poor weather, the Imperial German Navy Zeppelin L 36 finally crashes onto the Aller river and is destroyed by high winds. Her crew survives.
 February 8 – Flying a SPAD VII, the French ace Georges Guynemer becomes the first Allied pilot to shoot down a German heavy bomber when he downs a Gotha G.III.
 February 13 – Over the Gulf of Mexico off Pensacola, Florida, United States Marine Corps aviator Francis Thomas Evans, Sr., performs an aerobatic loop in a Curtiss N-9 floatplane, becoming the first person to loop a seaplane – a feat previously believed impossible in an N-9 even by the N-9s manufacturer. He will receive a Distinguished Flying Cross for the achievement in 1936. However, the recovery techniques he discovers when the N-9 stalls and spins – previously thought impossible to recover from in an N-9 – during some of the days loop attempts prove of far greater importance and have been in use ever since.
 February 26 – In anticipation of a possible entry by the United States into World War I, U.S. Marine Corps aviator Alfred A. Cunningham receives orders to establish, equip, and command an aviation company for a Marine Corps advance base force at the Philadelphia Navy Yard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
 Late February
 The German Navy Zeppelin L 42 achieves an altitude of , a record for an airship.
 The commander of the German Naval Airship Service, Peter Strasser, requests the authorization of a force of 30 naval Zeppelins, 24 for use over the North Sea and six for service over the Baltic Sea.

March
 Royal Naval Air Service Handley Page O/100 bombers begin night attacks on German naval bases, railway stations and railway junctions, and industrial targets.
 United States Navy Lieutenant Kenneth Whiting proposes to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels that the Navy acquire a ship with an aircraft catapult and a flight deck. Although rejected on June 20, it is the first serious U.S. Navy consideration given to acquisition of an aviation ship since the American Civil War (1861–1865).
 March 8 – Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, inventor of the practical dirigible, dies.
 March 13 – The United States Armys 6th Aero Squadron is organized in the Territory of Hawaii, operating three Curtiss N-9 seaplanes.
 March 16–17 (overnight) – The German Naval Airship Service attempts to bomb England for the first time in 1917, in the first use of new Zeppelins designed for high-altitude flight that the Services commander, Peter Strasser, believes will be too high for British air defenses to reach. The five Zeppelins – at least three of which achieve altitudes of between  – mostly bomb open countryside and do only £79 in damage and kill no one. Disabled by mechanical failure, L 39 drifts over Compiègne, France, and is shot down by French antiaircraft guns with the loss of her entire crew, and L 35 is badly damaged while landing in Germany. The success of the Zeppelins in reaching high altitudes during a bombing raid encourages Strasser, who accompanies the raid aboard L 42, to plan a new bombing offensive.
 March 21 – The flight of the World's First Drone. At the Royal Flying Corps  Upavon base one of the de Havilland unmanned 22-foot span monoplane Aerial Target aircraft was launched off a pneumatically powered ramp and flew briefly under radio control from the ground. The 'pilot' (on the ground) was Henry Segrave. This was witnessed by dozens of generals from all of the allied nations probably in England for the Imperial War Conference. The inventor of the control system was Dr. Archibald Low, the officer commanding the RFC secret Experimental Works in Feltham, Middlesex.

April
 Known as Bloody April. The Royal Flying Corps, while supporting the Arras offensive, loses 245 aircraft—140 in the first two weeks—out of an initial strength of 365. Aircrew casualties are 211 killed or missing and 108 captured. The opposing Germans lose only 66 aircraft.
 April 6
 The United States enters World War I, declaring war on Germany.
 United States Marine Corps aviation has a total strength of seven officers and 43 enlisted men.
 April 13 – Royal Naval Air Service flying boats begin flying "Spider Web" patrols over the North Sea in the vicinity of the North Hinder light ship to detect German submarines in the area. The new patrol pattern, resembling a spider web, allows four aircraft to search a 4,000-square-mile (10,000-square-kilometer) area in about five hours, only half the time it takes a surfaced submarine to transit the area. The flying boats make 27 patrols in the next 18 days, sight eight German submarines, and make bombing attacks against three of them.
 April 20 – The United States Navys first airship, DN-1 flies for the first time at Pensacola, Florida. Tests of the highly unsuccessful DN-1 come to an end only nine days later.
 April 24 – Flying a Halberstadt CL.II, Hauptmann Eduard W. Zorer, the commanding officer of Schutzstaffel 7 – a German escort squadron charged with using its two-seater aircraft to escort two-seat reconnaissance aircraft – drops down to an altitude of  to use machine-gun fire to support German troops counterattacking British trenches along the Gavrelle-Rœux road near Arras during the Battle of Arras. Under fire from hundreds of British rifles and machine guns, he and his pilot spray the British trenches with 500 rounds of ammunition before a hit in their engine forces them to withdraw. The incident represents the birth of close air support as a mission of the world's air forces.
 April 26 – The Pacific Aero Products Company is renamed the Boeing Airplane Company.

May
 May 1 – The German Navy Zeppelins L 43 and L 45 conduct reconnaissance patrols over the North Sea off the coast of Scotland, patrolling off the Firth of Forth and Aberdeen, respectively.
 May 4 – The German Navy Zeppelin L 43 attacks a force of British light cruisers and destroyers in the North Sea near the Dogger Bank with three 50-kg (110-lb) bombs, hitting the light cruiser  with bomb splinters. It one of the few cases of an airship attacking warships.
 May 7
British ace Major Edward Mannock claims his first kill.
British ace Captain Albert Ball (44 victories) is killed in a crash following a dogfight with Lothar von Richthofen, who also crashes but survives.
 May 11 – German ace Edmund Nathanael (15 victories) flying an Albatros D.V of Prussian Jagdstaffel 5 is shot down in flames and killed as the 9th of 21 victories of Scottish ace Captain William Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick of No. 23 Squadron RFC at Bourlon Wood in Belgium.
 May 14 – Flying the Curtiss H.12 Large America flying boat 8666, Royal Naval Air Service Flight Commander Robert Leckie shoots down the German Zeppelin L 22  north-northwest of Texel Island. It is the first time that a flying boat shoots down a Zeppelin.
 May 19 – The United States adopts an official national insignia for U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and U.S. Marine Corps aircraft for the first time, a white star centered in a blue circle with a red disc centered within the star ; the U.S. Coast Guard does not adopt it. Except for an 18-month interruption in 1918-1919, the marking will remain in use until June 1942.
 May 23–24 (overnight) – Six German Navy Zeppelins attempt a high-altitude raid on London and the south of England and encounter bad weather. They drop most of their bombs onto open countryside, killing one man, injuring no one else, and inflicting £599 in damage, and all return safely to Germany, although the raid reveals many mechanical problems and physical difficulties for crewmen during sustained high-altitude flights. Informed of the results of the raid, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany says, "In spite of this success, I am of the opinion that the day of the airship is past for attacks on London. They should be used as scouts for the High Seas Fleet and strategic reconnaissance, not for bombing raids on London." The Chief of the Naval Staff argues that the bombing campaign is tying down many British personnel, guns, and aircraft on home air defense duties, and Wilhelm II agrees to allow raids to continue if conditions are favorable.
 May 24 – Turbulence throws the observer aboard a German Aviatik C.V, First Lieutenant Otto Berla, from his cockpit without a parachute. As he falls, an updraft forces the tail of the aircraft upward, and he punches through the plywood of the Aviataks fuselage aft of his cockpit. The Aviatiks pilot returns him safely to base.
 May 25
The Imperial German Army's Luftstreitkräfte begins Operation Türkenkreuz ("Turk's Cross"), a heavier-than-air bombing campaign targeting London. The first operation is a mass daylight air raid by 21 Gotha G.IV bombers flying from near Ghent which divert from London due to clouds over the city and attack secondary targets in Folkestone and the Shorncliffe Army Camp, killing 95 people and injuring 195. Seventy-four British aircraft take off to intercept, but the Germans lose only one Gotha, shot down by nine Royal Naval Air Service Sopwith Pups that engage the bombers as they fly over the coast of Belgium on their way back to base. It is the first of 22 German heavier-than-air raids on the United Kingdom during World War I.
French ace Lieutenant René Dorme is killed in action. His 23 victories will tie him with Lieutenant Gabriel Guérin for ninth-highest-scoring French ace of World War I.

June
 Birdseye B. Lewis and Chance M. Vought found the Lewis & Vought Corporation, which later will become the Chance Vought Corporation.
 U.S. Army Colonel Raynal Bolling leads the Bolling Mission to Europe to examine the practicality of constructing British and French fighters in the United States. It leads to the establishment of the Engineering Division of the U.S. Department of Wars Bureau of Aircraft Production to test its recommendations and to the manufacturing of the Airco DH.9 bomber and Bristol F.2B fighter in the United States.
 An attack prior to the Battle of Messines Ridge on a British supply train by German aircraft disrupts the supply of British ammunition, forcing British artillery to cease firing after three hours.
 At Naval Air Station Pensacola in Pensacola, Florida, the United States Navy armored cruiser Huntington lofts a kite balloon, the first U.S. Navy ship to do so.
 June 5
 Royal Flying Corps Lieutenants Harold Satchell and Thomas Lewis of No. 20 Squadron shoot down and kill German ace Leutnant Karl Emil Schäfer. His 30 victories will place him in a tie with five other pilots as the 28th-highest-scoring German ace of World War I.
The Imperial German Army's Luftstreitkräfte conducts the second raid of Operation Türkenkreuz ("Turk's Cross"), a heavier-than-air bombing campaign targeting London. Unable to bomb London due to weather, the 22 Gotha G.IV bombers divert to a secondary target, a Royal Navy facility at Sheerness, killing 13 people in exchange for the loss of one bomber. The raid takes place in daylight.
 The United States Navy's First Aeronautical Detachment disembarks from the collier USS Jupiter in France under the command of Kenneth Whiting. It is the first U.S. military unit to arrive in Europe.
 June 6 – The worlds first landplane designed for use as a torpedo bomber, a Sopwith Cuckoo, is completed for the Royal Naval Air Service.
 June 13 – The third raid of Germany's Operation Türkenkreuz is the first to reach London. In daylight, 14 German Gotha G.IV bombers bomb London, and seven others attack small towns in Kent and Essex. It is the deadliest and most destructive air raid on the United Kingdom of World War I. Attacking in daylight, they drop 118 bombs, killing 162 people – including more than 18 children killed by a single bomb that hits a primary school in Poplar – and injuring 432. The casualty total is greater than that inflicted by all the German airship attacks on the United Kingdom combined up to that time. Although 92 British aircraft take off to intercept the raid, all of the German bombers return safely to base.
 June 14
Royal Naval Air Service Curtiss H.12 Large America flying boat 8677 shoots down the German Zeppelin L.43 in flames over the North Sea, with the loss of the Zeppelins entire crew.
The American aviator, aircraft manufacturer, and airline entrepreneur Thomas W. Benoist dies in a streetcar accident in Sandusky, Ohio. His company, Benoist Aircraft, soon ceases production and goes out of business.
 Mid-June – The United States Marine Corps bases aircraft at Marine Barracks, Quantico, Virginia, for the first time, beginning a presence which eventually will lead to the establishment of Marine Corps Air Station Quantico there.
 June 16–17 (overnight) – Five German Navy Zeppelins attempt a high-altitude raid on London and southern England. Only two arrive over England. L 42 bombs Ramsgate and detonates a munitions dump, wrecking the naval base, inflicting £29,000 pounds in damage, killing three civilians, and injuring 14 civilians and two Royal Navy personnel, then returns safely to Germany. L 48 bombs open fields outside Harwich before Royal Flying Corps Lieutenant L. P. Watkins of No. 37 Squadron shoots her down in flames killing 14 of the 17 men on board and fatally injuring one of the survivors. Among the dead is Viktor Schütze, the deputy commander of the German Naval Airship Service.
 June 20 – The British war cabinet decides to increase the size of the Royal Flying Corps from 108 to 200 squadrons, with most of increase coming in bomber squadrons.
 June 24 – The Imperial German Army's air service, the Luftstreitkräfte, brings together four Jagdstaffeln (fighter squadrons) – Jagstaffeln ("Jastas") 4, 6, 10, and 11 – to form Germany's first Jagdgeschwader (fighter wing), Jagdgeschwader I. Manfred von Richthofen is promoted from commanding officer of Jasta 11 to commanding officer of Jagdgeshwader I. Jagdgeschwader I will become known as the "Flying Circus," thanks to the colorful paint schemes on its aircraft and possibly because it often moved from place to place for its operations in a manner similar to a traveling circus.
 June 27 – German ace Leutnant Karl Allmenröder is shot down and killed. His 30 victories will tie him with five other pilots as the 28th-highest-scoring German ace of World War I.
 June 28 – An aircraft takes off successfully from a flying-off platform mounted on a warships gun turret for the first time when Royal Naval Air Service Flight Commander F. J. Rutland takes off from a platform aboard the British light cruiser HMS Yarmouth in a Sopwith Pup.

July
 The only Handley Page O/100 in the Mediterranean theater bombs Constantinople in an attempt to begin a bombing campaign against the Ottoman Empires capital city.
 July 7 – In daylight, 22 German Gotha G.IV bombers make the fourth attack on the United Kingdom of Operation Türkenkreuz, killing 57 to 65 people and injuring 193 to 245 (sources differ on casualty totals). British aircraft fly 100 sorties to intercept the German bombers, shooting one down and damaging three others; the bombers shoot down two of the intercepting British aircraft.
 July 12 – Royal Naval Air Service Flight Lieutenant O. A. Butcher, manning a kite balloon lofted by the destroyer  off the Shetland Islands, sights the German submarine U-69 at a range of , allowing Patriot to intercept U-69 and sink her with depth charges.
 July 17 – United States Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels approves construction of the United States Navy′s Naval Aircraft Factory, to be built at League Island Navy Yard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
 July 22 – In daylight, German Gotha G.IV bombers make the fifth attack on the United Kingdom of Operation Türkenkreuz, bombing Felixstowe and Harwich.
 July 27
 Flying a SPAD XII, Georges Guynemer shoots down a German DFW aircraft, becoming the first French ace with 50 victories.
 The Naval Aircraft Factory, the in-house aircraft production and research arm of the U.S. Navy, is established.

August
 The Imperial German Army's air service, the Luftstreitkrafte, perfects close air support tactics during the Battle of Passchendaele, with close-air-support aircraft escorted by fighters attacking British troops with machine guns and hand grenades. The Germans discover that groups of four to six aircraft work best and that the ideal altitude from which to attack trenches is , while  is best for attacking larger targets like artillery batteries and reserve infantry concentrations. They find that line-astern formations are best to reduce the effects of enemy ground fire and line-abreast formations are best for fending off enemy fighters.
 United States Secretary of War Newton D. Baker announces the completion of the first Liberty engine 28 days after its design began. Before the end of World War I, 13,574 will be manufactured, and total will reach 20,478 by 1919.
 August 1 – The German Navy Zeppelin L 53 achieves an altitude of , a new record for an airship.
 August 2
Italian ace Pier Ruggero Piccio scores his eighth victory by shooting down Austro-Hungarian ace Frank Linke-Crawford, who is flying a two-seat aircraft without a rear gunner on board. Linke-Crawford survives uninjured.
A Sopwith Pup flown by Royal Naval Air Service Squadron Commander Edwin Dunning becomes the first aircraft to land aboard a moving ship, the hybrid aircraft carrier-battlecruiser .
 August 6 – Ground is broken on the United States Navy′s Naval Aircraft Factory at League Island Navy Yard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
 August 7 – Dunning is killed on his third landing when the Pup falls over the side of Furious.
 August 12 – In daylight, German Gotha G.IV bombers make the sixth attack on the United Kingdom of Operation Türkenkreuz, bombing Shoeburyness and Southend. In the fifth raid on July 22 and this raid, the Germans lose a combined five bombers, one of them shot down and the other four wrecked in crashes on landing as they return to their bases.
 August 17 – Tasked to study how the United Kingdoms air forces could be best organized for the war with Germany and to consider whether they should remain subordinate to the British Army and Royal Navy, General Jan Smuts completes the Smuts Report. In it, he observes that an air service could be used as "an independent means of war operations," that "there is absolutely no limit to the scale of its future independent war service," that soon "aerial operations with their devastation of enemy lands and destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale may be the principal operations of war, to which older forms of military and naval operations may become secondary and subordinate." He projects that by the summer of 1918 "the air battle front will be far behind the Rhine" while the ground front is still bogged down in Belgium and France and that air attacks on German industry and lines of communication could be an "important factor in bringing about peace." The report is the foundation of a new theory of warfare advocated by British bomber advocates and will inspire the creation of the independent Royal Air Force in 1918.
 August 18 – The Luftstreitkrafte attempts the largest heavier-than-air raid against the United Kingdom of World War I, sending 28 Gotha bombers from their bases in Belgium to attack England despite predictions of unfavorable winds. After two hours in the air, they have only reached Zeebrugge on the Belgian coast, and it takes them another hour to reach the coast of England, where they find themselves  off course. With too little fuel to go on, the strike commander orders the bombers to abort the raid and return to base; two of them come down in the North Sea, two others crash-land in the neutral Netherlands, and others are lost in crash-landings in Belgium.
 August 21 – Flying a Sopwith Pup fighter launched from a flying-off platform mounted on a gun turret of the Royal Navy light cruiser , Royal Naval Air Service Flight Sub-Lieutenant B. A. Smart shoots down the German Navy Zeppelin L 23 in flames over the North Sea with the loss of her entire crew. Smart is recovered safely along with his planes engine and one of its machine guns after he ditches his fighter in the sea.
 August 21–22 (overnight) – Eight German Navy Zeppelins commanded by German Naval Airship Service commander Peter Strasser aboard L 46 attempt a high-altitude raid on England. Only L 41 crosses the British coastline; she bombs the Kingston upon Hull area, destroying a chapel and injuring one civilian.
 August 22 – The Luftstreitkrafte sends 15 Gotha bombers to attack England in a daylight raid. Five turn back over the North Sea, and the remaining 10 encounter British fighter aircraft and heavy antiaircraft fire over the Isle of Thanet. Two Gothas are shot down immediately, and another is shot down over Dover. The losses prompt to Germans to halt daylight raids over the United Kingdom and switch to night bombing.

September
 In a second bombing raid against Constantinople, the sole Handley Page O/100 in the Mediterranean is forced down in the Gulf of Xeros by engine failure and its crew taken prisoner by Ottoman forces.
 The Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet, Admiral David Beatty, proposes an aerial torpedo attack by 120 Sopwith Cuckoo torpedo bombers launched from eight converted merchant ships against the German High Seas Fleet at its moorings in Germany. Training for the raid takes place in the Firth of Forth, but the war will end before it can be carried out.
 September 3 – The United States Armys 1st Aero Squadron arrives in France.
 September 3–4 (overnight) – After the losses suffered in the face of improving British air defences in the August 22 daylight raid against England, the Imperial German Army's air service, the Luftstreitkrafte, decides to experiment with night raids, sending five Gotha bombers to attack Chatham Dockyard in Kent. The raid kills 152, including 130 Royal Navy recruits who die in a direct hit on their barracks in the highest death toll inflicted by a single aerial bomb during World War I. The German bombers find that British night defenses are weak.
 September 4–5 (overnight) – The Germans attempt a second heavier-than-air night raid against the United Kingdom, sending 11 Gotha bombers to raid London. Nine of the planes reach England, but only five reach London. British aircraft fly 18 defensive sorties, but fail to make contact with the German aircraft; the British flights, however, demonstrate the feasibility of using the Sopwith Camel as a night fighter. One Gotha fails to return, probably shot down by antiaircraft guns at Fort Borstal in Rochester.
 September 11 – French ace Capitaine Georges Guynemer goes missing in action while flying a SPAD XIII during combat with German aircraft near Poelkapelle, Belgium. Kurt Wisserman of Jasta 3 is credited with shooting him down, but Guynemers body is never found. Guynemer has 54 kills at the time of his death.
 September 15 – Flying a Fokker Dr.I, German ace Oberleutnant Kurt Wolff is shot down and killed in a dogfight with Royal Flying Corps Sopwith Camels north of Wervicq, Belgium. His 33 kills will tie him with Leutnant Otto Koennecke and Leutnant Heinrich Bongartz as the 20th-highest-scoring German ace of World War I.
 September 17 – While on convoy escort duty in the Atlantic Ocean, the United States Navy armored cruiser Huntington has her kite balloon blown away in bad weather. For rescuing the balloonist, a shipfitter from her crew is awarded the 3rd Medal of Honor of World War I.
 September 22 – A Royal Naval Air Service Curtiss H-12 flying boat piloted by Flight Sub-Lieutenant N. Magor sinks the German submarine UB-32 in the North Sea. It is the only confirmed instance of a British aircraft sinking a German submarine without the assistance of surface ships during World War I.
 September 23 – During an epic 10-minute dogfight against six Royal Flying Corps SE.5s of No. 56 Squadron, the German ace Werner Voss, flying a Fokker Dr.I triplane, is shot down and killed by the British ace Arthur Rhys-Davids north of Frezenberg, Belgium. At the time of his death, Voss has 48 victories and is the second-leading German ace behind Manfred von Richthofen at the time; Voss will be the fourth-highest-scoring German ace of World War I.
 September 24–25 (overnight)
Nine German Navy Zeppelins set out to attack the middle and north of England. Only L 35 makes a deep penetration of England, dropping her bombs near Rotherham. Total damage inflicted by the raid is £2,210.
Sixteen German Gotha bombers set out to raid the United Kingdom. Thirteen reach England; five of them reach London, while the other eight bomb Dover and other targets in Kent.
 September 25–26 (overnight) – Fifteen German Gotha bombers set out to bomb London, but only three reach the city. One of the bombers comes down in the North Sea, probably the victim of a British Sopwith 1½ Strutter flown by Douglas Bell and George Williams of the Royal Flying Corps's No. 78 Squadron.
 September 28 – In accordance with an agreement between Italy and the United States for the United States to receive bomber aircraft from Italy and United States Army Air Service cadets to receive flight training from the Royal Italian Army's Military Aviation Corps in exchange for raw materials from the United States, the first 46 American cadets arrive at Foggia, Italy, for training. Another 250 soon join them, and almost 500 American aviators will receive training in Italy – primarily at Foggia – before the war ends in November 1918.
 September 28–29 (overnight) – Twenty-seven German bombers – 25 Gothas and two Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI bombers – attempt a raid on England, but most turn back due to bad weather. Those that do reach England drop bombs that injure three people and inflict £129 in damage. Three Gothas are lost, and six others are damaged while landing. It is the first time that the new giant Zeppelin-Staaken Riesenflugzeuge, operated by the German Riesenflugzeug Abteilungen ("Giant Airplane Detachments") Rfa 500 and Rfa 501, take part in bombing operations against the United Kingdom; they are the largest bombers ever used in bombing Britain, including those used by Germany and Italy during World War II.
 September 29–30 (overnight) – Seven Gothas and two Zeppelin-Staaken R.VIs set out to raid England. Their bombs kill 40 people and injure 87. One Gotha is lost. By this time, the population of London is so alarmed by the German night raids that up to 300,000 people seek shelter in London Underground stations at night, while others leave the city to seek overnight accommodation elsewhere or to sleep in open fields in the countryside.
 September 30-October 1 (overnight) – Eleven Gotha bombers raid England.

October
 At Ochey, France, the British Royal Flying Corps forms its first wing dedicated to long-range bombardment of targets in Germany. It will later become VIII Brigade.
 The United States Marine Corps divides its Marine Aeronautical Company into two units, the First Aviation Squadron equipped with land planes and the First Aeronautical Squadron equipped with seaplanes. The latter unit is intended for antisubmarine patrols from the Azores.
 October 1
 The Royal Navy tests an aircraft catapult for the first time, using a compressed-air catapult aboard the catapult trials ship Slinger to launch an unmanned Short 184 with its fuselage fabric removed and engine replaced by ballast.
 The Royal Navy conducts the first launch of an aircraft from a battleship or battlecruiser, when Royal Naval Air Service Flight Commander Frederick Rutland takes off in a Sopwith Pup fighter from a platform mounted on a 15-inch (381-mm) gun turret of the battlecruiser .
 October 1–2 (overnight) – Eighteen Gotha bombers of the Imperial German Army's air service, the Luftstreitkräfte, set out to raid the United Kingdom. Eleven of them reach England. British antiaircraft guns fire 14,000 rounds at them without scoring a single hit. The intensity of German air raids over the past week have created a shortage of antiaircraft shells and worn out the barrels of many antiaircraft guns, and falling fragments from antiaircraft shells have killed eight people and injured 67 in England.
 October 7 – L 57, a German Navy Zeppelin modified to be able to make a long-distance flight from Yambol, Bulgaria, to Mahenge, German East Africa, to deliver medical supplies and munitions to German ground forces there, and as such the largest airship ever built at the time at  and carrying 2,418,700 cubic feet (68,490 cubic meters) of hydrogen gas, is wrecked and destroyed by fire while attempting to take off for a test flight in poor weather.
 October 19 – The U.S. Army opens Love Field in Dallas, Texas as a flight training base. The airfield is later converted to civil use, becoming the primary commercial airport for the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex until 1974, and continues to serve as an important regional airport.
 October 19–20 (overnight) – The German Navy dispatches 13 Zeppelins on a high-altitude raid against the middle of England, and they encounter an unexpected gale. Two never leave their sheds; the other 11 set out for England and become lost in the storm. Most bomb open countryside, although L 41 damages the Austin Motor Works at Longbridge and L 45 bombs Northampton and London, killing 24 and injuring nine people. The British use muzzled antiaircraft guns around London to avoid guiding Zeppelins to the city, and the attack becomes known as the "Silent Raid." Although 73 British planes take off to intercept the raid, none have the ability to reach the Zeppelins operating altitude. The storm scatters the Zeppelins widely across Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France during their return flights and only six reach Germany safely. L 55 sets an altitude record for airships of  during her homebound flight before being damaged beyond repair in a hard landing in Germany; L 44 is shot down in flames by French artillery over the Western Front with the loss of all hands; L 49 lands in France and is captured along with her entire crew; L 45 lands in France and is destroyed by her crew, who are captured; and L 50 makes a hard landing in France, after which 15 of her crew manage to get off the airship and are captured and she drifts away and crosses France before disappearing over the Mediterranean Sea with four men still aboard.
 October 29–30 (overnight) – Three German Luftstreitkräfte bombers set out for the first heavier-than-air raid on England in four weeks. Two divert to Calais, France, due to bad weather; the third reaches England and bombs the Essex coast.
 October 30 – The German ace Leutnant Heinrich Gontermann is performing aerobatics when the upper wing of his Fokker Dr.I fighter breaks off. He is fatally injured in the subsequent crash. His 39 victories will tie him with Leutnant Carl Menckhoff as the 13th-highest-scoring German ace of World War I.
 October 30–31 (overnight) – Twenty-two German Gotha bombers set out to raid London, with the newly developed 4.5-kg (9.9-lb) incendiary bombs included in their bombloads. Fewer than half the bombers reach the London area; they bomb the city's eastern suburbs, but many of the incendiary bombs fail to ignite. The rest of the planes bomb Kent, where they destroy a gasometer in Ramsgate but achieve little else. Five of the bombers crash while attempting to land upon returning to their bases. Bad weather will prevent another raid against England until December.

November
 November 19 – The Battle of Caporetto ends. The 27-day battle has caught the Italian Corpo Aeronautico Militare ("Military Aviation Corps") by surprise and it has lost a great deal of equipment, but it claims to have shot down 39 enemy aircraft in 70 air-to-air engagements during the battle.
 November 21–24 – In an attempt to deliver medical supplies and munitions to German ground forces in German East Africa, the German Navy Zeppelin L 59, specially modified for long-range flights, makes a 6,757-kilometer (4,196-statute mile) journey from Yambol, Bulgaria, over European Turkey, Asia Minor, and the Mediterranean Sea and into Africa to a point west of Khartoum before being recalled to Yambol, which she reaches after 95 hours 5 minutes continuously in the air at an average speed of . The flight sets a new aircraft endurance record. She returns to Yambol with enough fuel aboard to have remained in the air for another 64 hours.
 November 28 – The United States Navy′s Naval Aircraft Factory is completed at  League Island Navy Yard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 110 days after groundbreaking.

December
 The Imperial German Army's air service, the Luftstreitkräfte, begins to operate a radio-equipped Rumpler C.IV off the coast of England to report weather conditions and reduce the chance of adverse weather interfering with Luftstreitkräfte bomber raids against the United Kingdom.
 Imperial German Navy Zeppelins make daily reconnaissance patrols over the Heligoland Bight throughout the month.
 December 5–6 (overnight) – After weeks of unfavorable weather, the Luftstreitkräfte makes its first heavier-than-air raid against the United Kingdom since October 1917. Nineteen Gotha and two Riesenflugzeug bombers attack in several waves, causing £100,000 in damage, mostly in London, but inflicting few casualties. British antiaircraft guns shoot down two Gothas and their crews are captured; a third bomber and its crew go missing. It is the last German bombing raid against the United Kingdom until January 1918.
 December 6 – Chikuhei Nakajima and Seibi Kawanishi found the Japan Aeroplane Manufacturing Work Company Ltd. It is the first aircraft manufacturing company in Japan.
 December 7 – The Battle of Cambrai comes to end, with 10 German ground-attack squadrons having provided close air support to German ground forces during the 17-day battle. German ground-attack aircraft have played a key role in halting the British advance, convincing the Luftstreitkrafte of the need for a permanent ground-attack force.
 December 9 – Romania signs an armistice with the Central Powers, withdrawing from participation in World War I.

First flights
 Berkmans Speed Scout
 Nieuport 24
 Orenco A
 Phönix D.I
 Saunders T.1
 Standard M-Defense, prototype of the Standard E-1
 Voisin X
 Late 1917 – Siemens-Schuckert D.III

January
 Sopwith Camel flown by Harry Hawker
 January 5 – Sage Type 3
 January 15 – Siemens-Schuckert R.VII
 January 24 – Aviatik D.I, also known as Berg D.I and Berg Fighter
 January 28 – Junkers J.I

February
 Junkers J.4
 February 16 – Fairey Campania, first aircraft designed for seaplane carrier operations

March
 March 19 – Ansaldo SVA
 March 20 – Sturtevant B

April
 Avro 529
 April 4 – SPAD S.XIII
 April 11 – Marinens Flyvebaatfabrikk M.F.3
 April 20 – U.S. Navy blimp DN-1

May
May 23 – Sopwith Dolphin
May 24 – B-1, the first U.S. Navy B-class blimp

June
 Siemens-Schuckert D.II
Sopwith Cuckoo
Thomas-Morse S-4
June 14 – Nieuport 28
June 22 – Port Victoria P.V.7

July
Airco DH.9
Avro 530
Siemens-Schuckert Dr.I
July 5 – Fairey N.9

August
 Westland N.1B

September
 Bellanca CD
 Bellanca CE
 September 7 – Port Victoria P.V.8
 September 13 – Sopwith 3F.2 Hippo
 September 14 – Fairey III
 September 17 – Junkers J 7, prototype of the Junkers D.I

October
 October 15 – Alcock Scout

November
 Ansaldo A-1 Balilla
 November 9 – Siemens-Schuckert DDr.I
 November 30 – Vickers Vimy,

December
 December 9 – Schaefer & Sons R.S.
 December 10 – Junkers J 8, prototype of the Junkers CL.I

Entered service
 Aviatik D.I, also known as Berg D.I and Berg Fighter, with the Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Aviation Troops
 Siemens-Schuckert D.I with the German Luftstreitkräfte
 Spring 1917 – Nieuport 24
 Summer 1917 – Breguet 14 with the French Armys Service Aéronautique

January
 Airco DH.4 with No. 55 Squadron Royal Flying Corps

February
 Sopwith Triplane with No.1 (Naval) Squadron, Royal Naval Air Service
 February 26 – Siemens-Schuckert R.VII with the German Luftstreitkräfte

March
 Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 with No. 56 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps.

April
 Bristol F.2A with No. 48 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps

May
 Airco DH.5 with No. 24 and No. 32 Squadrons, Royal Flying Corps.

June
 Sopwith Camel with the Royal Flying Corps

August
 Junkers J.I with the Imperial German Army's Luftstreitkräfte

November
 Airco DH.9 with the Royal Flying Corps′s No. 108 Squadron

December
 Phönix D.I with the Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Aviation Troops

Retirements

April
 Avro 528 by the Royal Naval Air Service
 Gotha G.II by the Imperial German Army′s Luftstreitkräfte

November
 Siemens-Schuckert R.VI by the Imperial German Army's Luftstreitkräfte

Notes

References
 Bruce, J.M. "The S.E.5: Historic Military Aircraft No. 5". Flight, 17 July 1953. Pages 85–89, 93.
 Mason, Francis K. The British Bomber Since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1994. .
 Robertson, Bruce. Sopwith – The Man and His Aircraft. London: Harleyford, 1970. .
Taylor, H.A. Fairey Aircraft since 1915. London:Putnam, 1988. .
Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft Since 1912. London: Putnam, 1994. .

Aviation
Aviation by year

1917 in aviation


Finale UEFA Lige prvaka 2022./23. bila je finalna utakmica UEFA Lige prvaka 2022./23., ukupno 68. sezone najjačeg europskog klupskog natjecanja koje se organizira pod okriljem UEFA-e, a 31. sezone od reformiranja natjecanja iz Kupa prvaka u UEFA Liga prvaka. Finale je igrano 10. lipnja 2023. na Olimpijskom stadionu Atatürk u turskom gradu Istanbul. Finale su igrali Manchester City i Inter Milan. Manchester City je dobio Inter Milan s minimalnih 1:0. Pobjednički gol postigao je Rodri u 68. minuti utakmice.

Momčadi

Put do finala

Napomena: Rezultati finalista navedeni su na prvom mjestu (D: domaćin; G: u gostima; N: neutralni teren).

Utakmica

Detalji
Ždrijeb za domaćina iz "administrativnih razloga" održan je nakon ždrjebova za četvrtfinale i polufinale.

Statistike

Bilješke

Izvori

Vidi još
 UEFA Liga prvaka 2022./23.
 Finale UEFA Europske lige 2023.
 UEFA Superkup 2023.

Vanjske poveznice
 Službena web-stranica

Liga prvaka 2023.

Finale UEFA Lige prvaka 2023.


Assentiz adını taşıyan Portekiz'de yerleşim birimleri:

 Assentiz - Rio Maior belediyesinde bucak.
 Assentiz ya da Assentis - Torres Novas belediyesinde bucak.

Assentiz


Katarina Ježić (født d. 19 december 1992 i Rijeka, Kroatien) er en kvindelig kroatisk håndboldspiller som spiller for tyske Kastamonu Belediyesi GSK og det Kroatiens kvindehåndboldlandshold.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Håndboldspillere fra Kroatien
Håndboldspillere fra Siófok KC
Håndboldspillere fra ŽRK Budućnost

Katarina Ježić


Gastrodieae, tribus orhideja, dio potporodice Epidendroideae. Postoji 4 priznatih rodova; tipični je Gastrodia R.Br. s 92 vrste.

Rodovi
 Tribus Gastrodieae Lindl.
 Gastrodia R. Br. (97 spp.)
 Uleiorchis Hoehne (4 spp.)
 Auxopus Schltr. (4 spp.)
 Didymoplexis Griff. (31 spp.)

Izvori

Epidendroideae

Gastrodieae


Kazgan Han, Çağatay Hanlığı'nın valilerinden biridir. Tarihteki önemi, Timur'u himayesine almasıdır.

1350 yıllarında Türkistan ve Sogd diyarında hüküm süren Kazgan Han, Timur'un başarılarından etkilenerek onu yanına almış ve ordularının başına geçirmiştir. Timur, Kazgan Han'ın ordusunda yüzbaşıyken yaralanmış ve topal kalmıştır. Hasımları topallığından dolayı Aksak Timur lakabını takmışlardır. Kazgan Han ordusunda gösterdiği başarılardan dolayı kızı Olcay Türkan'ı Timur'la evlendirmiştir. Daha sonra düşmanları Kazgan Han'ı pusuya düşürerek öldürmüşlerdir. Timur da Hakan Kazgan'ı öldürtenlere savaş açarak hepsini ortadan kaldırtmıştır.

Çağatay Hanlığı

Kazgan Han


La Milla del Río es una localidad del municipio de Carrizo, en la provincia de León, Comunidad Autónoma de Castilla y León, (España).

Situación

Se encuentra en la ribera del río Órbigo, próxima a las localidades de Huerga del Río, Armellada, Quiñones del Río, Alcoba de la Ribera, Villanueva de Carrizo y Carrizo de la Ribera.

Evolución demográfica

Localidades de la Ribera del Órbigo
Localidades de Carrizo

La Milla del Río


Dame Susan Elizabeth Anne Devoy  (born 4 January 1964) is a New Zealand former squash player and senior public servant. As a squash player, she was dominant in the late 1980s and early 1990s, winning the World Open on four occasions. She served as New Zealand's Race Relations Commissioner from 2013 to 2018.

Early life and family
Devoy was born in Rotorua, the youngest of seven children and her parents' only daughter. Her family, including her six brothers, also played squash and Devoy started playing when she was very young. She began playing in tournaments when she was nine and turned professional at the age of 17 after leaving MacKillop College halfway through her final year. She competed on the professional circuit for eleven years from 1981 to 1992.

She married her manager and fellow squash player John Oakley, on 12 December 1986 in Rotorua's St Michael's Church. Together, they have four sons, the eldest of whom is track athlete Julian Oakley. Julian is an NCAA Division I athlete at Providence College, located in Rhode Island, United States, and has a 3:57.22 personal best for the mile.

Playing career
Devoy turned professional at the age of 17. Her first World Open title came in 1985, with a subsequent win in 1987. Further World Open titles came in 1990 and 1992. For most of her career, the World Open was held biennially, a fact that stopped Devoy potentially doubling her tally. She did, however, win the coveted British Open eight times, a record only beaten by Heather McKay in the 1960s/70s and by Janet Morgan in the 1950s.

In 1992, the year of her unexpected retirement, she was the Australian, British, French, Hong Kong, Irish, New Zealand, Scottish, Swedish and World squash champion.

World Open Finals: 5 (4 titles, 1 runner-up)

Awards and honours
In the 1986 New Year Honours, Devoy was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire, for services to squash, and elevated to Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1993 Queen's Birthday Honours, for services to squash and the community. She was named New Zealand Sports Person and Sports Woman of the Year in 1985. In 1990, she was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal.

In the 1998 Queen's Birthday Honours, Devoy was appointed a Dame Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to sport and the community, becoming the youngest New Zealander since Sir Edmund Hillary to receive a titular honour.

Post-playing career
In the October 2001 local elections, she successfully stood in the inaugural district health board elections for Auckland DHB on the Citizens & Ratepayers-Now ticket. She resigned from that position in February 2004, citing concerns about limited political impact that DHBs have but also because she had since moved to Tauranga.

In Tauranga, she was the chief executive of Sport Bay of Plenty and held that position for five years.

In April 2009 an accusation was made that the testimonial Devoy wrote for Tony Veitch in support of the return of his passport was edited and used in his support at his sentencing for injuring with reckless disregard in relation to an assault on his former partner Kristin Dunne-Powell in 2006.

New Zealand Race Relations Commissioner
In March 2013, Devoy was chosen as the successor to Joris de Bres for the position of Race Relations Commissioner. She was selected by Justice Minister Judith Collins, who was later forced to defend the appointment, which was surrounded by some controversy, including concern over prior remarks by Devoy including in her role as a Bay of Plenty Times columnist. In particular, references were made to her criticism of Waitangi Day as a national holiday, and those who wear burqas in New Zealand. The Mana Party called for her sacking, and the Green Party said her views on Waitangi Day were "embarrassing".

Devoy officially began her five-year job on 1 April 2013. During her first few weeks in office, Devoy was criticised for refusing to comment on a number of race-related controversies, including a tirade against Chinese immigrants by New Zealand First leader Winston Peters.

Through the remainder of her tenure, Devoy publicly challenged some politicians on their race relations positions. She said that politicians are role models and "it's my job to call them out". She said NZ First leader Winston Peters' retelling of Arthur Calwell's comment that "two Wongs don't make a White" was "outdated rhetoric" with "no place in New Zealand's future". When ACT leader Jamie Whyte equated Māori with pre-revolutionary French aristocrats, Devoy said it was "grotesque and inflammatory" to equate Māori, whose socio-economic status lags behind other New Zealanders, with aristocrats murdered because of their privilege. In 2015, some Chinese people in New Zealand were "dismayed" when Labour MP Phil Twyford released data equating "Chinese sounding" surnames with foreigners while Devoy opined that it was "deeply offensive" for Chinese children to hear MPs insinuating their Chinese sounding surnames meant they were foreigners when their families had, in her opinion, helped and continued to help build New Zealand. Devoy also criticised NZ First MP Ron Mark for telling Korean-born National MP Melissa Lee to go back to Korea if she didn't like it in New Zealand. Devoy argued that New Zealand citizens born overseas are "not second class citizens" and "have a right to an opinion". All politicians stood by their statements with Whyte calling for her resignation. Devoy also called on Prime Minister John Key to meet with New Zealand Muslim leaders as tensions in the Middle East continued to rise.

Devoy also spoke out against what she views as 'everyday racism' regularly supporting those who have spoken out and encourage New Zealanders to "not stand by" while others are racially abused. Māori New Zealander Rikki Hooper was humiliated while shopping in her supermarket, while Muslims and Jews have also criticised abuse and attacks as have rugby players in Canterbury and taxi drivers in Southland.

Devoy regularly called for an increase in the country's annual refugee quota, which at that time had remained unchanged since 1987.

In the wake of the November 2015 Paris attacks, Devoy and Hazim Arafeh, president of the Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand, released a joint statement condemning violent extremism and "standing alongside all innocent victims of terrorism in peace, solidarity and humanity." Following the Christchurch mosque shootings in March 2019, Devoy called on New Zealanders to listen to the voices of vulnerable people, challenge hate, and "stand up for human rights by letting Muslim Kiwis know that you've got their back."

Devoy's term ended in 2018 and she was succeeded the following year by former Gisborne Mayor Meng Foon.

Later life
She currently lives in Tauranga. She is a supporter of a New Zealand republic. Devoy has supported charities including as New Zealand patron for the Muscular Dystrophy Association. In 2007, she appeared on Like Minds, Like Mine TV commercials in New Zealand to counter the stigma and discrimination associated with mental illness. As a contestant on Celebrity Treasure Island 2022, where she was an intruder who entered the show partway through the competition, her chosen charity was The Aunties.

See also
 List of WISPA number 1 ranked players
 Official Women's Squash World Ranking

References

External links

1964 births
Living people
New Zealand people of Irish descent
New Zealand republicans
People educated at John Paul College, Rotorua
New Zealand Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Dames Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit
New Zealand female squash players
Sportspeople from Rotorua
Sporting dames
Auckland District Health Board members
Participants in New Zealand reality television series

Susan Devoy


Internetski šahovski poslužitelj (ICS) je vanjski poslužitelj koji pruža kapacitete za igrati, raspravljati i razmatrati šah preko Interneta. Izraz se posebice odnosi na infrastrukturu za spajanje igrače kroz razne grafičke šahovske klijente  locirane na računalu svakog korisnika.

Povijest

1970-ih šah se mogao igrati dopisno u Platovskom programu zvanom "chess3".  Nekoliko korisnika redovno se služilo chess-om 3. Često je pojedini korisnik napravio nekoliko poteza dnevno, ponekad simultano igrajući partije u tijeku. Teorijski moglo se koristiti chess3 za igrati cijelu partiju šaha u jednoj sesiji, ali nije bilo uobičajeno ovako koristiti chess3. PLATO ni na koji način nije bio spojen na Internetov prethodnik ARPANET koji bi dopuštao masovnu uporabu u javnosti i posljedica je bila da je još uvijek relativno nepoznat javnosti.

1980-ih igranje šaha preko e-pošte još uvijek poprilična novotarija. Latencija s e-poštom bila je manja nego kod tradicijskog dopisnog šaha preko papirnih pisama. Igrač je često mogao dovršiti dvanaestak poteza tjedno. Poboljšanjem mrežne tehnologije, javnost, široka uporaba centraliziranih poslužitelja za igru uživo postala je mogućnost.

Internet Chess Club

Prvi internetski šahovski poslužitelj, Internet Chess Server, (ICS) pokrenut je 15. siječnja 1992. godine, programirali su ga Michael Moore i Richard Nash.Na poslužitelj su se igrači prijavljivali preko telneta a ploča je bila tekst u ASCII. Bilo je mnogo bugova pa su se događali lažni matovi, bili su mogući nedopušteni potezi. Siječnja 1992. pokrenut je Free Internet Chess Server. Daniel Sleator iz ICS-a 1. ožujka 1995. najavio je namjeru komercijaliziranja ICS-a i preimenovao ga je u Internet Chess Club. Nezadovoljni programeri iz ICS-a 1996. predvođeni Chrisom Petroffom pokrenuli su Free Internet Chess Server. 1996. John Fanning, stric utemeljitelja Napstera Shawna Fanninga pokrenuo je komercijalni Chess.net. 1997. pokrenut je World Chess Network. Tijekom godina poslije stvoreno je nekoliko internetskih šahovskih poslužitelja. Najpopularniji su Chess.com, Chesshub.com, Lichess.org, ICC, Playchess.com, FICS i Chesscube. Šah je također bio u ponudi nespecijalističkih stranica Yahoo! Games. Chess Live, prije US Chess Live dok je bio podružnica Šahovskog saveza SAD je bio pretplatnički poslužitelj koji je otvoren 8. veljače 2000., a zatvoren 29. svibnja 2007. godine kad ga je kupio Internet Chess Club i spojen sa  World Chess Network čime je stvoren World Chess Live. World Chess Live spojen je u i postao dio Internet Chess Cluba 19. ožujka 2012.

Vidi
 Računalni šah
 Šahovski program
 Popis inačica šaha

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
History of the Internet Chess Server 1992–1995, Chris Petroff (eng.)

Internetski šahovski poslužitelj


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