The  was an act of domestic terrorism perpetrated on 20 March 1995, in Tokyo, Japan, by members of the cult movement Aum Shinrikyo. In five coordinated attacks, the perpetrators released sarin on three lines of the Tokyo Metro (then Teito Rapid Transit Authority) during rush hour, killing 13 people, severely injuring 50 (some of whom later died), and causing temporary vision problems for nearly 1,000 others. The attack was directed against trains passing through Kasumigaseki and Nagatachō, where the National Diet (Japanese parliament) is headquartered in Tokyo.

The group, led by Shoko Asahara, had already carried out several assassinations and terrorist attacks using sarin, including the Matsumoto sarin attack nine months earlier. They had also produced several other nerve agents, including VX, and attempted to produce botulinum toxin and had perpetrated several failed acts of bioterrorism. Asahara had been made aware of a police raid scheduled for March 22 and had planned the Tokyo subway attack in order to hinder police investigations into the cult and perhaps spark the apocalypse they believed in. The leader also wanted to start a Third World War.

In the raid following the attack, police arrested many senior members of the cult. Police activity continued throughout the summer, and over 200 members were arrested, including Asahara. Thirteen of the senior Aum management, including Asahara himself, were sentenced to death and later executed; many others were given prison sentences up to life. The attack remains the deadliest terrorist incident in Japan as defined by modern standards.

Background

Aum Shinrikyo

Origins

Aum Shinrikyo was founded in 1984 as a yoga and meditation class, initially known as , by pharmacist Chizuo Matsumoto. The group believed in a doctrine revolving around a syncretic mixture of Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, as well as Christian and Hindu beliefs, especially relating to the Hindu god Shiva. They believed Armageddon to be inevitable in the form of a global war involving the United States and Japan; that non-members were doomed to eternal hell, but could be saved if killed by cult members; and that only members of the cult would survive the apocalypse, and would afterwards build the Kingdom of Shambhala. In 1987, the group rebranded and established a New York branch; the following year, it opened a headquarters in Fujinomiya. Around this time, the mental health of Matsumoto (now going by the name Shoko Asahara) deteriorated – he developed a health anxiety and expressed suicidal views.

In August 1989, the group was granted official religious corporation status by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, giving it privileges such as tax breaks and freedom from governmental oversight. This recognition caused dramatic growth, including an increase in net worth from less than 430 million yen to over 100 billion yen (approximately $5.6m to $1.1b in 2017 dollars) over the next six years, as well as an increase in membership from around 20 members to around 20,000 by 1992.

The drastically increasing popularity of the group also saw an increase in violent behaviour from its members. In the year preceding its recognition by the Tokyo government, a member of the cult – Terayuki Majima – had accidentally drowned during a ritual; his body was cremated, with the remaining bones ground up and scattered over a nearby lake. Majima's friend – a fellow member of the group – was murdered by members acting under Asahara's orders, after he became disillusioned and tried to leave.

Three months after recognition, six Aum Shinrikyo members were involved in the murder of Tsutsumi Sakamoto and his family. Sakamoto had been working on a class-action lawsuit against the cult. Asahara had previously advanced the concept of 'poa''': a doctrine which stated that not only were people with bad karma doomed to an eternity in hell (unless they were 'rebirthed' through intervention by 'enlightened people'), but that it was acceptable to kill those at risk of bad karma to save them from hell.

 Early attempts to seize power
Asahara had experienced delusions of grandeur as early as 1985 – while meditating, he claims that the god Shiva had been revealed to him, and had appointed him 'Abiraketsu no Mikoto' ('The god of light who leads the armies of the gods'), who was to build the Kingdom of Shambhala, a utopian society made up of those who had developed 'psychic powers'.

In 1990, Asahara announced that the group would run 25 candidates in the election that year to the Japanese Diet, under the banner of . Despite showing confidence in their ability to gain seats in the diet, the party received only 1,783 votes; the failure to achieve power legitimately, blamed by Asahara on an external conspiracy propagated by "Freemasons and Jews", caused him to order the cult to produce botulinum and phosgene in order to overthrow the Japanese government. As members became disillusioned with the group (following contact with the outside world made during the election campaign) and defected, an attitude among the remaining members that 'the unenlightened' did not deserve salvation became accepted.

Attempts to stockpile botulinum toxin proved unsuccessful. Seiichi Endo – one of the members tasked with acquiring botulinum toxin – collected soil samples from the Ishikari River, and attempted to produce the toxin using three  capacity fermenters. In total, around 50 batches of  of a crude broth were producedhowever, the cult did not attempt to purify the broth (which mostly would have consisted of bacterial cultivation media; one member even fell into one of the fermenters and nearly drowned, but otherwise suffered no ill effects).

Despite mouse bioassays run by Tomomasu Nakagawa (another cult member assisting Endo) returning no toxic effects, in April 1990 the crude broth was loaded into three trucks equipped with custom spray devices, which was to be sprayed at two US naval bases, Narita airport, the Diet building, the Imperial Palace, and the headquarters of a rival religious group.

Simultaneously, Asahara announced that the coming apocalyptic war could not save people outside of the cult, and that members should attend a three-day seminar in Ishigakijima in order to seek shelter. The spraying attacks failed to cause any ill effects among the population but 1270 people attended the seminar, many of them becoming devout monks.

With the intention of building a compound incorporating facilities such as a phosgene plant (as well as facilities to manufacture VX and chlorine gas), Aum Shinrikyo used 14 dummy companies to purchase acres of land in Namino (now part of Aso city), and began construction. However, public attitudes towards the cult had become very negative due to suspicions around the cult's illegal activities. These attitudes were exacerbated once it was revealed to the surrounding community that the group had acted illegally. A police investigation in October resulted in the arrests of several Aum members, causing Asahara to fear a police raid – he hence ordered the destruction of all biological and chemical weapon stockpiles, and for the cult to focus on legitimate, non-violent strategies only.

 Restarting violent activity
After the destruction of the illegal weapon stockpiles, the cult relied on 'mainstream' methods to attract other members – this included frequent television appearances by Asahara, as well as the setting up of the 'Aum Shinrikyo broadcasting' radio station in Russia in April 1992. However, starting in late 1992, Asahara's mental health deteriorated further – he began to complain of hallucinations and paranoia, and he withdrew from public appearances (except on Aum Shinrikyo Broadcasting), claiming society was preventing him from fulfilling his destiny as Christ. The concurrent replacement of the previously predominantly female group of top advisers with a more aggressive male group led to the gradual restarting of the violent campaign to seize power. At some point in 1992, Asahara published Declaring Myself the Christ, in which he identified with the "Lamb of God".

He outlined a doomsday prophecy, which included a Third World War, and described a final conflict culminating in a nuclear Armageddon, borrowing the term from the Book of Revelation . His purported mission was to take upon himself the sins of the world, and he claimed he could transfer to his followers spiritual power and take away their sins.

Asahara claimed to be able to see dark conspiracies everywhere promulgated by Jews, Freemasons, the Dutch, the British Royal Family, and rival Japanese religions.

The president of the Okamura ironworks, an industrial plant facing debt troubles, was a member of the cult who consulted with Asahara about a takeover strategy. In September 1992, Asahara was made president of the ironworks, resulting in 90% of staff being dismissed or leaving due to the 'Aum-ification' of the plant. These workers were replaced with other members of the group. Over the course of 1993, the cult smuggled AK-74 rifles and 5.45x39mm bullets, and began to prototype rifles based on the AK-74 design.

Under the oversight of Endo, the biological weapons division of the cult resumedthis time pursuing not only botulinum toxin, but also anthrax, using improved  drum fermenters at their Kameido facility.

Again, the group did not attempt to purify the resulting product, which resembled a foul-smelling brown slurry. Further failed attacks on individuals were attempted in 1993 and 1994 using botulinum – first using a homemade sprayer mounted to a car, and then by mixing with juice – but neither had any effects. Five days before the sarin attack on the Tokyo subways, botulinum was dispersed in a failed attack on Kasumigaseki station – a dissident member had replaced the active compound with water, but the cult had failed to acquire an active strain of C. botulinum.

Similarly, the Aum anthrax program was a failure – despite having access to a sympathiser outside of the group who could acquire anthrax spores, the strain received by the group was a Sterne vaccine strain incapable of causing harm. It was unclear why, despite having this knowledge, the group executed two attacks in 1993 using this vaccine strain – once from the roof of the headquarters building in Kameido, and once from a truck with a custom spraying device, aimed at the Diet building, Imperial Palace, and Tokyo Tower. Both attacks caused no effects other than a foul smell, reported by passers-by.

In the summer of 1993, Endo attempted a different strategy – by desiccating the slurry, the B. anthracis spores could be spread as a powder, rather than through spraying – this was achieved with a crude hot air dryer. Nakagawa has claimed that an attempt was made to spread this powder through the centre of Tokyo, but this, also, had no effects. The total failure of the biological weapons program had, by mid-1993, convinced Asahara to focus on the chemical weapons division under Masami Tsuchiya. While Endo would be promoted within the cult to 'health minister' in 1994 – reflecting his seniority – no further attacks using biological weapons were attempted.

 Chemical weapon production

Tsuchiya had established a small laboratory in their Kamikuishiki complex in November 1992. After initial research (done at Tsukuba University, where he had previously studied chemistry), he suggested to Hideo Muraia senior Aum advisor who had tasked him with researching chemical weapons in November 1992, out of fear that the cult would soon be attacked with themthat the most cost-effective substance to synthesize would be sarin.

He was subsequently ordered to produce a small amountwithin a month, the necessary equipment had been ordered and installed, and  of sarin had been produced via synthetic procedures derived from the five-step DHMP process as originally described by IG Farben in 1938, and as used by the Allies after World War II.

After this small quantity had been produced, Murai ordered Tsuchiya to produce about when Tsuchiya protested, noting that this level of scaling was not feasible in a research laboratory, a chemical plant was ordered to be built alongside the biological production facility in the Fujigamine district of Kamikuishiki, to be labeled Satyan-7 ('Truth'). The specialized equipment and substantial chemicals needed to run the facility were purchased using shell companies under Hasegawa Chemical, a chemical company already owned by Aum. At the same time, in September 1993, Asahara and 24 other cult members traveled from Tokyo to Perth, Australia, bringing generators, tools, protective equipment (including gas masks and respirators), and chemicals to make sarin.

After repurchasing chemicals confiscated by customs, the group chartered aircraft from Perth to Banjawarn Station, where they searched for uranium deposits to make nuclear weapons and may have tested the efficacy of the synthesized sarin on animals. They remained in Australia for eight days and attempted to return in October of the same year, but were denied visasBanjawarn Station was sold by Aum in October of 1994 for ~AU$150,000 less than market rate, the buyers noted that the previous owners wanted the property sold as soon as possible. They left behind several drums of hazardous and toxic chemicals and empty bottles of sake strewn about the property. Being concerned, the new owners contacted the Australian Federal Police, who soon inspected the property due to concerns about its previous owners, and Banjawarn was exposed as a former chemical weapons testing site for Aum.

The Satyan-7 facility was declared ready for occupancy by September 1993 with the capacity to produce about  of sarin, being equipped with  capacity mixing flasks within protective hoods, and eventually employing 100 Aum members; the UN would later estimate the value of the building and its contents at $30 million.

Despite the safety features and often state-of-the-art equipment and practices, the operation of the facility was very unsafe – one analyst would later describe the cult as having a "high degree of book learning, but virtually nothing in the way of technical skill."

When the facility developed leaks, buckets were used to contain spills; several technicians inhaled fumes on repeated occasions, developing 'symptoms ranging from nosebleeds to convulsions', and toxic chemicals leaked from the site and into the soil. Citizens lodged complaints about foul smells several times, with the cult claiming that the US Army had assaulted the complex with poison gas. An accident at the plant in November 1994 would eventually force the suspension of the production of chemical agents.

By December, Tsuchiya had accumulated in total about  of sarinfrom this, two separate assassination attempts were made on Daisaku Ikeda, leader of Soka Gakkai (a rival Japanese religious movement), in mid-1994. The first attack involved a truck with a spraying system, as previously used – the spraying system malfunctioned, spraying sarin into the truck itself, and mildly poisoning the operators. The second attack utilized a truck modified to include an evaporation system based on heating sarin over a gas stove fire; despite prior warnings from cult member Kazuyoshi Takizawa, the truck caught fire during the dissemination, severely poisoning the driver Tomomitsu Niimi and causing both Niimi and Murai – the operators – to flee. Niimi received an injection of atropine and pralidoxime iodine, saving his life.

Despite the failure of the attack, the members of Aum were convinced of sarin's efficacy, prompting Asahara to appoint Takizawa in charge of operations of Satyan-7; Tsuchiya was assigned to several other projects and would go on to manufacture several psychoactives – LSD, PCP, methamphetamine, mescaline, and phenobarbital to be used in the cult activities and brainwashing; he would also manufacture small amounts of phosgene, VX, soman, cyclosarin, and gunpowder. These compounds would be used in several attacks and assassination attempts:

 Matsumoto sarin attack

In June 1994, Asahara ordered the cult to assassinate the judges involved in deciding a commercial land dispute involving the cult, due to his belief that they would not deliver a favourable judgement. About a week later, on 27 June,  of sarin was loaded onto a truck equipped with a fan, heater, and pumpsix members, pre-administered with sarin antidotes and wearing improvised gas masks, began the propagation of sarin at around 10:40pm, spraying for around 10–20 minutes.

Due to it being a warm evening, many residents had left their windows open while they sleptthe first emergency call was made at 11:09pm. Within an hour, a mass disaster caused by an unknown toxic gas had been declared. Fifty-eight people were hospitalised, of whom seven people died in the immediate aftermath, and an eighth 14 years later, and an additional 253 people sought medical care at outpatient clinics.

Investigations after the Matsumoto attack were generally inconclusive, with the primary suspect being Yoshiyuki Kōno, whose wife had been left comatose by the attack. Blame would not be clearly attributed to Aum Shinrikyo until after the subway attack, despite tipoffs – in September 1994, two anonymous letters were sent to major media outlets in Japan – the first asserting that the group were responsible for the attack, and the second claiming that Matsumoto was an open-air 'experiment of sorts', noting that the results would have been much worse if sarin had been released indoors, such as in 'a crowded subway'.

Following an accident at Satyan-7 the next month (and complaints from the surrounding communities), a police investigation revealed methylphosphonic acid and isopropyl methylphosphonic acid – the former being a degradation product of sarin, and the latter being a definitive signature of both sarin production and of failures in production. However, there was no law at the time prohibiting the production of the nerve agents. This evidence was left unacted on, but was leaked to the Yomiuri Shimbun in January 1995, alerting Asahara and the cult, and causing Nakagawa and Endo to begin the process of destroying and/or hiding all nerve agents and biological weapons, which lasted until the end of February.

 Preparation for the attack
Fingerprint evidence for an Aum member linked to an earlier kidnapping, in addition to the sarin-contaminated soil samples, caused the police to set a raid date for 22 March. Asahara was made aware of the impending raid by two cult members inside the Japan Self-Defense Forces, and ordered an attack on Tokyo subway lines close to the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department on the morning of the 20th March – possibly as a desperate attack to initiate the apocalypse.

To aid in this, Tsuchiya was ordered by Endo to produce sarin again on 18 March – due to a lack of normal precursors as a result of the chemical destruction process, the sarin produced was of a lower quality and caused the normally colourless sarin to appear brown.  of the chemical was manufactured and stored in a large container, from which it was decanted into plastic bags. Later forensic analysis found that the sarin utilised in the attack was roughly half as pure as that used in the Matsumoto attack.

 Attack
On Monday, 20 March 1995, five members of Aum Shinrikyo launched a chemical attack on the Tokyo subway (on lines that are part of the present-day Tokyo Metro), one of the world's busiest commuter transport systems, at the peak of the morning rush hour. The chemical agent used, liquid sarin, was contained in plastic bags which each team then wrapped in newspaper. Each perpetrator carried two packets totaling approximately  of sarin, except Yasuo Hayashi, who carried three bags totalling approximately  of sarin. Aum originally planned to spread the sarin as an aerosol but did not follow through with it.  Sarin has an LD50 of , corresponding to  for a  human; however, dispersal issues dramatically reduced its effectiveness.

Carrying their packets of sarin and umbrellas with sharpened tips, the perpetrators boarded their appointed trains. At prearranged stations, the sarin packets were dropped and punctured several times with the sharpened tip of the umbrella. Each perpetrator then got off the train and exited the station to meet his accomplice with a car. Leaving the punctured packets on the floor allowed the sarin to leak out into the train car and stations. This sarin affected passengers, subway workers, and those who came into contact with them. Sarin is the most volatile of the nerve agents, which means that it can quickly and easily evaporate from a liquid into a vapor and spread into the environment. People can be exposed to the vapor even if they do not come in contact with the liquid form of sarin. Because it evaporates so quickly, sarin presents an immediate but short-lived threat.

 Chiyoda Line

The team of Ikuo Hayashi and Tomomitsu Niimi were assigned to drop and puncture two sarin packets on the Chiyoda Line. Hayashi was the perpetrator and Niimi was his getaway driver. On the way to Sendagi Station, Niimi purchased newspapers to wrap the sarin packets in—the Japan Communist Party's Akahata and the Sōka Gakkai's Seikyo Shimbun.

Hayashi eventually chose to use Akahata. Wearing a surgical mask commonly worn by the Japanese during cold and flu season, Hayashi boarded the first car of southwest-bound 07:48 Chiyoda Line train number A725K (JR East 203 series set 67) which was running on a through service from the Joban Line. As the train approached Shin-Ochanomizu Station, the central business district in Chiyoda, he punctured one of his two bags of sarin, leaving the other untouched, and exited the train at Shin-Ochanomizu.

The train proceeded down the line with the punctured bag of sarin leaking until 4 stops later at Kasumigaseki Station. There, the bags were removed and eventually disposed of by station attendants, of whom two died. The train continued on to the next station where it was completely stopped, evacuated and cleaned.

 Marunouchi Line

 Ogikubo-bound

Two men, Ken'ichi Hirose and Koichi Kitamura, were assigned to release two sarin packets on the westbound Marunouchi Line destined for Ogikubo Station. The pair left Aum headquarters in Shibuya at 6:00 am and drove to Yotsuya Station. There Hirose boarded a westbound Marunouchi Line train, then changed to a northbound JR East Saikyō Line train at Shinjuku Station and got off at Ikebukuro Station. He then bought a sports tabloid to wrap the sarin packets in and boarded the second car of Marunouchi Line train A777 (02 series set 16).

As he was about to release the sarin, Hirose believed the loud noises caused by the newspaper-wrapped packets had caught the attention of a schoolgirl. To avoid further suspicion, he got off the train at either Myogadani or Korakuen Station and moved to the third car instead of the second.

As the train approached Ochanomizu Station, Hirose dropped the newspapers to the floor, repeated an Aum mantra and punctured both sarin packets with so much force that he bent the tip of his sharpened umbrella. Both packets were successfully broken, and all  of sarin was released onto the floor of the train. Hirose then departed the train at Ochanomizu and left via Kitamura's car waiting outside the station. Hirose's clumsy release of the sarin resulted in him accidentally poisoning himself, but he was able to administer an antidote stored in Kitamura's car.

At Nakano-sakaue Station, 19 stops later, two severely injured passengers were carried out of the train car, while station attendant Sumio Nishimura removed the sarin packets (one of these two passengers was the only fatality from this attack). The train continued with sarin still on the floor of the third car. Five stops later, at 8:38 am, the train reached Ogikubo Station, the end of the Marunouchi Line, all while passengers continued to board the train. The train continued eastbound until it was finally taken out of service at Shin-Kōenji Station two stops later. The entire ordeal resulted in one passenger's death with 358 being seriously injured.

 Ikebukuro-bound

Masato Yokoyama and his driver Kiyotaka Tonozaki were assigned to release sarin on the Ikebukuro-bound Marunouchi Line. On the way to Shinjuku Station, Tonozaki stopped to allow Yokoyama to buy a copy of Nihon Keizai Shimbun, to wrap the two sarin packets. When they arrived at the station, Yokoyama put on a wig and fake glasses and boarded the fifth car of the Ikebukuro-bound 07:39 Marunouchi Line train number B801 (02 series set 50). As the train approached Yotsuya Station, Yokoyama began poking at the sarin packets. When the train reached the next station, he fled the scene with Tonozaki, leaving the sarin packets on the train car. The packets were not fully punctured. During his drop, Yokoyama left one packet fully intact, while the other packet was only punctured once (and with a small hole), resulting in the sarin being released relatively slowly.

The train reached the end of the line, Ikebukuro, at 8:30 am where it would head back in the opposite direction. Before it departed the train was evacuated and searched, but the searchers failed to discover the sarin packets. The train departed Ikebukuro Station at 8:32 am as the Shinjuku-bound A801. Passengers soon became ill and alerted station attendants of the sarin-soaked newspapers at Kōrakuen Station. One station later, at Hongō-sanchōme, staff removed the sarin packets and mopped the floor, but the train continued on to Shinjuku. After arriving at 9:09 am, the train once again began to make its way back to Ikebukuro as the B901. The train was finally put out of service at Kokkai-gijidō-mae Station in Chiyoda at 9:27 am, one hour and forty minutes after Yokoyama punctured the sarin packet. The attack resulted in no fatalities, but over 200 people were left in serious condition.

 Hibiya Line

 Tōbu Dōbutsu Kōen-bound

Toru Toyoda and his driver Katsuya Takahashi were assigned to release sarin on the northeast-bound Hibiya Line.

The pair, with Takahashi driving, left Aum headquarters in Shibuya at 6:30 am. After purchasing a copy of Hochi Shimbun and wrapping his two sarin packets, Toyoda arrived at Naka-Meguro Station where he boarded the first car of northeast-bound 07:59 Hibiya Line train number B711T (Tobu 20000 series set 11). Sitting close to the door, he set the sarin packets on the floor. When the train arrived at the next station, Ebisu, Toyoda punctured both packets and got off the train. He was on the train for a total of two minutes, by far the quickest sarin drop out of the five attacks that day.

Two stops later, at Roppongi Station, passengers in the train's first car began to feel the effects of the sarin and began to open the windows. By Kamiyacho Station, the next stop, the passengers in the car had begun panicking. The first car was evacuated and several passengers were immediately taken to a hospital. Still, with the first car empty, the train continued down the line for one more stop until it was completely evacuated at Kasumigaseki Station. This attack killed one person and seriously injured 532 others.

 Naka-Meguro-bound

Yasuo Hayashi and Shigeo Sugimoto were the team assigned to drop sarin on the southwest-bound Hibiya Line departing Kita-Senju Station for Naka-Meguro Station. Unlike the rest of the attackers, Hayashi carried three sarin packets onto the train instead of two. Prior to the attack, Hayashi asked to carry a flawed leftover packet in addition to the two others in an apparent bid to allay suspicions and prove his loyalty to the group.

After Sugimoto escorted him to Ueno Station, Hayashi boarded the third car of southwest-bound 07:43 Hibiya Line train number A720S (03 series set 10) and dropped his sarin packets to the floor. Two stops later, at Akihabara Station, he punctured two of the three packets, left the train, and arrived back at Aum headquarters with Sugimoto by 8:30 am. Hayashi made the most punctures of any of the perpetrators. By the next stop, passengers in the third car began to feel the effects of the sarin. Noticing the large, liquid-soaked package on the floor and assuming it was the culprit, one passenger kicked the sarin packets out of the train and onto Kodenmachō Station's subway platform. Four people in the station died as a result.

A puddle of sarin remained on the floor of the passenger car as the train continued to the next station. At 8:10 am, after the train pulled out of Hatchōbori Station, a passenger in the third car pressed the emergency stop button. The train was in a tunnel at the time, and was forced to proceed to Tsukiji Station, where passengers stumbled out and collapsed on the station's platform and the train was taken out of service.

The attack was originally believed to be an explosion and was thus labeled as such in media reports. Eventually, station attendants realized that the attack was not an explosion, but rather a chemical attack. At 8:35 am, the Hibiya Line was completely shut down and all commuters were evacuated. Between the five stations affected in this attack, 8 people died and 275 were seriously injured.

 Main perpetrators
Ten men were responsible for carrying out the attacks: five released the sarin, while the other five served as getaway drivers.

The teams were:

Naoko Kikuchi, who was involved in producing the sarin gas, was arrested after a tipoff in June 2012, but was acquitted in 2015 on the grounds that she was unaware of the plot.

Katsuya Takahashi was arrested soon afterward. He was later convicted and given a life sentence.

 Ikuo Hayashi

(Born January 23, 1947) Prior to joining Aum, Hayashi was a senior medical doctor with "an active 'front-line' track record" at the Ministry of Science and Technology. The son of a doctor, Hayashi graduated from Keio University. He was a heart and artery specialist at Keio Hospital, which he left to become head of Circulatory Medicine at the National Sanatorium Hospital in Tokai, Ibaraki (north of Tokyo).

In 1990, he resigned his job and left his family to join Aum in the monastic order Sangha, where he became one of Asahara's favorites and was appointed the group's Minister of Healing, as which he was responsible for administering a variety of "treatments" to Aum members, including sodium pentothal and electric shocks to those whose loyalty was suspect. These treatments resulted in several deaths.

Hayashi later reported to the Japanese police investigators about the sarin attacks and Aum activities post-Tokyo subway attack; his cooperation with the authorities resulted in numerous arrests and convictions, and he was given a life sentence instead of death penalty. Tomomitsu Niimi, who was his getaway driver, was sentenced to death due to his involvement in other crimes perpetrated by Aum members. He was executed at the Osaka Detention House on 6 July 2018 with six others of those principally involved.

 Kenichi Hirose

Kenichi Hirose (June 12, 1964 – July 26, 2018) was 30 years old at the time of the attacks. Holder of a postgraduate degree in physics from Waseda University, Hirose became an important member of the group's Chemical Brigade in their Ministry of Science and Technology. He was also involved in the group's Automatic Light Weapon Development scheme.

Hirose teamed with getaway driver Kōichi Kitamura. After releasing the sarin, Hirose showed symptoms of sarin poisoning. He was able to inject himself with the antidote (atropine sulphate) and was rushed to the Aum-affiliated Shinrikyo Hospital in Nakano for treatment. Medical personnel at the hospital had not been given prior notice of the attack and were consequently clueless regarding what treatment Hirose needed. When Kitamura realized that he had driven Hirose to the hospital in vain, he instead drove to Aum's headquarters in Shibuya where Ikuo Hayashi gave Hirose first aid.

Hirose was later sentenced to death for his role in the attack. His appeal against his death sentence was rejected by the Tokyo High Court on 28 July 2003 and the sentence was upheld by the Supreme Court of Japan on 6 November 2009. Hirose was executed at the Tokyo Detention House on 26 July 2018, along with five other cult members.

Kitamura, Hirose's getaway driver, was sentenced to life imprisonment.

 Toru Toyoda
Toyoda (January 23, 1968 – July 26, 2018) was 27 at the time of the attack. He studied Applied Physics at University of Tokyo's Science Department and graduated with honors. He also held a master's degree, and was about to begin doctoral studies when he joined Aum, where he belonged to the Chemical Brigade in their Ministry of Science and Technology.

Toyoda was sentenced to death. The appeal against his death sentence was rejected by the Tokyo High Court on July 28, 2003, and was upheld by the Supreme Court on November 6, 2009. Toyoda was executed at the Tokyo Detention House on 26 July 2018.

Katsuya Takahashi was Toru Toyoda's getaway driver. Takahashi was arrested in June 2012. In 2015, Takahashi was convicted for his role in the attack and was sentenced to life in prison. His appeal was rejected by the Tokyo High Court in September 2016.

 Masato Yokoyama
Yokoyama (October 19, 1963 – July 26, 2018) was 31 at the time of the attack. He was a graduate in Applied Physics from Tokai University's Engineering Department. He worked for an electronics firm in Gunma Prefecture for three years after graduation before leaving to join Aum, where he became Undersecretary at the group's Ministry of Science and Technology. He was also involved in their Automatic Light Weapons Manufacturing scheme. Yokoyama was sentenced to death in 1999. His appeals were rejected, and he was executed at the Nagoya Detention House on 26 July 2018.

Kiyotaka Tonozaki, a high school graduate who joined the group in 1987, was a member of the group's Ministry of Construction, and served as Yokoyama's getaway driver. Tonozaki was sentenced to life imprisonment.

 Yasuo Hayashi
Yasuo Hayashi (December 15, 1957 – July 26, 2018) was 37 years old at the time of the attacks, and was the oldest person at the group's Ministry of Science and Technology. He studied Artificial Intelligence at Kogakuin University; after graduation he traveled to India where he studied yoga. He then became an Aum member, taking vows in 1988 and rising to the number three position in the group's Ministry of Science and Technology.

Asahara had at one time suspected Hayashi of being a spy. The extra packet of sarin he carried was part of "ritual character test" set up by Asahara to prove his allegiance, according to the prosecution.
Hayashi fled after the attacks. He was arrested 21 months later, one thousand miles from Tokyo on Ishigaki Island. He was later sentenced to death. His appeal was rejected by the Tokyo High Court in 2008. Hayashi was executed at the Sendai Detention House on 26 July 2018.

Hayashi's getaway driver was Shigeo Sugimoto, whose lawyers argued he played only a minor role in the attack, but the argument was rejected and he was sentenced to life in prison.

 Kōichi Kitamura
 is a Japanese convicted domestic terrorist and member of the doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo. In 1995, he served as getaway driver for one of the perpetrators of the Tokyo subway sarin attack, Kenichi Hirose. He was 27 years old when the attack was committed. He is currently serving a life sentence for the attack and other offenses.

 Crimes and conviction
Kitamura is a native of Aichi Prefecture and joined Aum Shinrikyo in the late 1980s after reading a book written by leader Shoko Asahara.

During the attack he drove Kenichi Hirose to the Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line where Hirose boarded a train and punctured two bags of liquid sarin, causing the death of one person. Kitamura also aided cult fugitive Takeshi Matsumoto in hiding from justice between the months of March and April 1995 for the crime of kidnapping.

He was a fugitive until November 1996 when he was arrested in Tokorozawa, Saitama. In his first trial in May 1997 he admitted to the crimes and reportedly renounced the cult although he maintained the belief that Asahara had superpowers and his lawyer said that he still was under the spell of the cult.

He was sentenced to life imprisonment in November 1999, with the presiding judge chastising him for playing an "indispensable role" in the attack. The judge also highlighted his self-righteous motive for his crimes and pronounced the sentencing saying that:

After the verdict was read, his lawyer said that Kitamura was still under Asahara's spell which made him a victim of the cult as well. He also said that the court had dismissed this point adding that he would discuss with him whether to appeal to the higher courts.

In January 2002, the Tokyo High Court upheld his sentence, which he called "too harsh" given his role in the attack. The court refuted his argument and highlighted his lack of remorse as motive for upholding the sentence.

 Aftermath
Following the attack, Japanese police raided Aum Shinrikyo facilities and arrested members. The cult's headquarters in Tokyo was raided by police on May 16, 1995. Due to fears that armed cult members might resist the raid, the 1st Airborne Brigade of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force was stationed nearby to provide support if needed.

 Injuries and deaths
On the day of the attack, ambulances transported 688 patients and nearly 5,000 people reached hospitals by other means. In total, 278 hospitals saw 5,510 patients – 17 of whom were deemed critical, 37 severe, and 984 moderately ill with vision problems. About 85% of those reporting to hospitals were the "worried well", or psychogenic patients, who had to be distinguished from those who had physical symptoms. The categorization was that a moderate casualty just had miosis (excessive constriction of the pupil), a severe casualty was short of breath or had muscular twitching or gastrointestinal problems as well as miosis, and a severe or critical casualty required intensive care unit care.
Several of those affected by sarin went to work in spite of their symptoms, not realizing that they had been exposed to sarin. Most of the victims sought medical treatment as the symptoms worsened and as they learned of the actual circumstances of the attacks via news broadcasts.

By mid-afternoon, over 500 mildly affected victims had recovered from vision problems and were released from hospital. Most of the remaining patients were well enough to go home the following day, and within a week only a few critical patients remained in hospital. The death toll on the day of the attack was eight, with four more dying subsequently. Hospitals only became aware that sarin was involved after about two hours, and then started administering 2-PAM and atropine.

Several of those affected were exposed to sarin only by helping those who had been directly exposed. Among these were passengers on other trains, subway workers and health care workers.

A 2008 law enacted by the Japanese government authorized payments of damages to victims of the gas attack, because the attack was directed at the government of Japan. As of December 2009, 5,259 people have applied for benefits under the law.  Of those, 47 out of 70 have been certified as disabled and 1,077 of 1,163 applications for serious injuries or illnesses have been certified.

Surveys of the victims in 1998 and 2001 showed that many were still suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. In one survey 20% of 837 respondents complained that they felt insecure when on a train, while 10% answered that they tried to avoid any nerve-attack related news. Over 60% reported chronic eyestrain and said their vision had worsened.

Until 2008, 12 fatalities resulting from the attack had been officially acknowledged. However, in 2008 a survey of victims was conducted by the prefectural police department for the purpose of allocating compensation. This survey determined that a man who had died the day after the attack had also been killed by sarin inhalation, thereby increasing the officially recognised death toll to 13. On 10 March 2020 another victim, who had been bedridden for 25 years since the attack, died. 56-year-old Sachiko Asakawa's cause of death was determined to be hypoxic encephalopathy caused by sarin poisoning; she is considered the attack's 14th fatality.

 Emergency services

Emergency services, including police, fire and ambulance services, were criticised for their handling of the attack and the injured, as were the media (some of whom, though present at subway entrances and filming the injured, hesitated when asked to transport victims to the hospital) and the Subway Authority, which failed to halt several of the trains despite reports of passenger injury. Health services including hospitals and health staff were also criticised; one hospital refused to admit a victim for almost an hour, and many hospitals turned victims away. Other prefectures near Tokyo like Kanagawa, Chiba and Saitama sent emergency services to Tokyo to support the rescue operation, and other hospitals in the region, including in Yokohama, Kawasaki and Urayasu received casualties. The cause of the incident was not immediately understood, and many hospitals received information on diagnosis and treatment only because a professor at Shinshu University's school of medicine happened to see reports on television. Dr. Nobuo Yanagisawa had experience with treating sarin poisoning after the Matsumoto incident; he recognized the symptoms, had information on diagnosis and treatment collected, and led a team who sent the information to hospitals throughout Tokyo via fax.

St. Luke's International Hospital in Tsukiji was one of very few hospitals in Tokyo at that time to have the entire building wired and piped for conversion into a "field hospital" in the event of a major disaster. This proved to be a very fortunate coincidence as the hospital was able to take in most of the 600+ victims at Tsukiji Station, resulting in no fatalities at that station.

As there was a severe shortage of antidotes in Tokyo, sarin antidote stored in rural hospitals as an antidote for herbicide/insecticide poisoning was delivered to nearby Shinkansen stations, where it was collected by a Ministry of Health official on a train bound for Tokyo. An Osaka company that manufactured 2-PAM rushed emergency supplies to Tokyo unsolicited on hearing the news.

 Defense offered by Japanese and American scholars
Aum had carefully cultivated the friendship of Japanese scholars of religion. After the sarin gas attack, some of them, including Shimada Hiromi, a professor at Tokyo's Japan Women's University, suggested Aum may be innocent. Shimada later apologized, claiming he had been deceived by Aum, but his and others' statements damaged the public image of scholars of religion in general in Japan. Shimada later had to resign from his academic position.

In May 1995, Aum contacted an American group known as AWARE (Association of World Academics for Religious Education), founded by American scholar James R. Lewis, claiming that the human rights of its members were being violated. Lewis recruited human rights lawyer Barry Fisher, scholar of religion J. Gordon Melton, and chemical expert Thomas Banigan. They flew to Japan, with their travel expenses paid by Aum, and announced that they will investigate and report through press conferences at the end of their trip.

In the press conferences, Fisher and Lewis announced that Aum could not have produced the sarin with which the attacks had been committed. They had determined this, Lewis said, with their technical expert, based on photos and documents provided by the group.

However, the Japanese police had already discovered a sophisticated chemical weapons laboratory at Aum's main compound in March. The facility was capable of producing thousands of kilograms of sarin a year; far in excess of what was used. Later investigation showed that Aum not only created the sarin used in the subway attacks, but had committed previous chemical and biological weapons attacks, including a previous attack with sarin that killed eight people and injured 144."Matsumoto sarin victim dies 14 years after attack" , Yomiuri Shimbun, 6 August 2008.

British scholar of Japanese religions Ian Reader, in a detailed account of the incident, reported that Melton "had few doubts by the end of his visit to Japan of Aum's complicity" and eventually "concluded that Aum had in fact been involved in the attack and other crimes" In fact, the Washington Post account of the final press conference mentioned Lewis and Fisher but not Melton. A Christian anti-cult Web site called Apologetic Index quoted the Washington Post article and implied that Melton had spoken in the press conference. Melton was, however, not mentioned in the original Washington Post article.

Lewis, on the other hand, maintained his opinion that Aum had been framed, and wrote that having the trip funded by Aum had been arranged "so that financial considerations would not be attached to our final report".

Reader concluded that, "The visit was well-intentioned, and the participants were genuinely concerned about possible violations of civil rights in the wake of the extensive police investigations and detentions of followers." However, it was ill-fated and detrimental to the reputation of those involved. While distinguishing between Lewis' and Melton's attitudes, Reader observed that Melton was criticized as well by both Japanese media and some fellow scholars. Using stronger words, Canadian scholar Stephen A. Kent chastised both Lewis and Melton for having put the reputation of the whole category of scholars of new religious movements at risk.

 Murakami book
Popular contemporary novelist Haruki Murakami wrote Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche (1997). He was critical of the Japanese media for focusing on the sensational profiles of the attackers and ignoring the lives of the victimized average citizens. The book contains extensive interviews with the survivors, telling their stories. Murakami later added a second part to the work, The Place That Was Promised. The additional section consists of a series of interviews with present and former Aum Shinrikyo members, first published in Bungei Shunjū.

 Aum/Aleph today

The sarin attack was the most serious attack upon Japan since World War II. Shortly after the attack, Aum lost its status as a religious organization, and many of its assets were seized. The Diet (Japanese parliament) rejected a request from government officials to outlaw the group. The National Public Safety Commission received increased funding to monitor the group. In 1999, the Diet gave the commission board powers to monitor and curtail the activities of groups that have been involved in "indiscriminate mass murder" and whose leaders are "holding strong sway over their members", a bill custom-tailored to Aum Shinrikyo.

Asahara was sentenced to death by hanging on 27 February 2004, but lawyers immediately appealed the ruling. The Tokyo High Court postponed its decision on the appeal until results were obtained from a court-ordered psychiatric evaluation, which was issued to determine whether Asahara was fit to stand trial. In February 2006, the court ruled that Asahara was indeed fit to stand trial, and on 27 March 2006, rejected the appeal against his death sentence. Japan's Supreme Court upheld this decision on 15 September 2006. Two re-trial appeals were declined by the appellate court. In June 2012, Asahara's execution was postponed due to the further arrests of the two remaining Aum Shinrikyo members wanted in connection with the attack. Japan does not announce dates of executions, which are by hanging, in advance of them being carried out. On 6 July 2018, the Ministry of Justice announced that Asahara had been executed that morning with six others of those principally involved.

On 27 November 2004, all the Aum trials concluded, excluding Asahara's, as the death sentence of Seiichi Endo was upheld by Japan's Supreme Court. As a result, among a total of 189 members indicted, 13 were sentenced to death, five were sentenced to life in prison, 80 were given prison sentences of various lengths, 87 received suspended sentences, two were fined, and one was found not guilty.

In May and June 2012, the last two of the fugitives wanted in connection with the attack were arrested in the Tokyo and Kanagawa area. Of them, Katsuya Takahashi was taken into custody by police near a comic book cafe in Tokyo.

The group reportedly still has about 2,100 members, and continues to recruit new members under the name "Aleph" as well as other names. Though the group has renounced its violent past, it still continues to follow Asahara's spiritual teachings. Members operate several businesses, though boycotts of known Aleph-related businesses, in addition to searches, confiscations of possible evidence and picketing by protest groups, have resulted in closures.

 In popular culture
 The Fine Art of Invisible Detection (2021) by Robert Goddard: The attack is a central plot element of the book with the main character's husband being a fatal victim of the attack.
 In the anime Mawaru Penguindrum, the fates of a handful of characters are explored  and intertwined through a subway terrorist attack. Many references to the year 1995 are presented as well.
 In the short-lived TV series Now and Again the main villain, The Eggman, uses a chemical dispersed via broken eggs in a Japanese subway, clearly taking inspiration from the event.
 The attack is referenced in the 2005 horror film Saw II.
 One fictional portrayal of the Tokyo train gas terrorist attack is in the game Tales of the Black Forest, where the player can experience a fictionalized version of the events leading up to the attack.
 In the Netflix series Alice In Borderland, Shibuki describes a game she had participated in that involved a subway station and poison gas. This could be a possible reference to the incident.

 See also

 A, a documentary film made following the arrest of the leaders of Aum Shinrikyo
 Banjawarn Station, a cattle station in Western Australia owned by Aum Shinrikyo
 Capital punishment in Japan
 List of executions in Japan
 Me and the Cult Leader Religion in Japan

 Notes

 References

 Bibliography
 "Survey: Subway sarin attack haunts more survivors" in Mainichi Online June 18, 2001.
 Detailed information on each subway line, including names of perpetrators, times of attack, train numbers and numbers of casualties, as well as biographical details on the perpetrators, were taken from Underground: The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche by Haruki Murakami.
 Ataxia: The Chemical and Biological Terrorism Threat and the US Response , Chapter 3 – Rethinking the Lessons of Tokyo, Henry L. Stimson Centre Report No. 35, October 2000

 Bonino, Stefano. Il Caso Aum Shinrikyo: Società, Religione e Terrorismo nel Giappone Contemporaneo, 2010, Edizioni Solfanelli, . Preface by Erica Baffelli.

 External links
 "Aum Shinrikyo", Dark History Podcast 2018-06-15
 Aum Shinrikyo A history of Aum and list of Aum-related links
 The Aum Supreme Truth Terrorist Organization – The Crime library Crime Library article about Aum
 I got some pictures of sarin scattered on the metro floor Several pictures taken by One of the passengers on the scene (in Japanese)
 "Homebrew chemical terror bombs, hype or horror?," The Register''

1995 in Tokyo
1995 murders in Japan
Accidents and incidents involving Tokyo Metro
Attacks by Aum Shinrikyo
Chemical weapons attacks
Heisei period
History of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force
March 1995 crimes
March 1995 events in Asia
Massacres in 1995
Massacres in Japan
Murder in Tokyo
Railway accidents and incidents in Japan
Religious terrorism
Terrorist incidents in Japan in 1995
Terrorist incidents in Tokyo
Tokyo
Political violence in Japan

Tokyo subway sarin attack


L'étang du Grazel est une surface d'eau lagunaire située sur le littoral méditerranéen du département de l'Aude à Gruissan, ouvert sur la mer Méditerranée, entrée du port de cette ville.

Description
L'étang est inclus sur le périmètre du Parc naturel régional de la Narbonnaise en Méditerranée, au nord de l'étang de l'Ayrolle dont il est la prolongation avec les salins de l'ile Saint Martin. Il est partagé en deux par le canal du Grazel reliant l'étang de Gruissan à la Méditérannée. La plage du Grazel, sa rive nord ouest borde le village de Gruissan.

Au nord un chenal construit en 2006 le relie à Étang de Mateille.

Le plan d'eau permanent est bordé de prés salés périodiquement submergés.

Divers

 Le site est classé en ZNIEFF (910011252) et en Zone humide protégée par la convention de Ramsar (FR7200023).

 L'étang du Grazel est une zone de production conchylicole.

 Sport : Présence d'une base de cerf volant de traction (glisse aérotractée) et kitesurf

 Ecomusée des salins de Gruissan (histoire des méthodes de culture du sel, vieux outils utilisés par les sauniers, faune et flore du salin, la viticulture).

Voir aussi

 Lagune
 Étang de Bages-Sigean
 Étang de Gruissan
 Étang de l'Ayrolle
 Étang de Campignol
 Salins de Gruissan ou de l'ile Saint Martin ou de la reprise
 Étang de Mateille
 Parc naturel régional de la Narbonnaise en Méditerranée

Notes et références

Lagune du littoral dans le département de l'Aude

Étang du Grazel


A OTAN (Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte) é uma aliança internacional que consiste em 31 estados membros da Europa, América do Norte e Ásia. Foi estabelecida com a assinatura do Tratado do Atlântico Norte em 4 de abril de 1949. O Artigo Quinto do tratado estabelece que se ocorrer um ataque armado contra um dos Estados membros, este será considerado um ataque contra todos os membros, e os outros membros prestarão assistência ao membro atacado, com forças armadas, se necessário.

Dos 31 países membros, 28 estão localizados na Europa, dois na América do Norte e um na Ásia. Todos os membros têm forças armadas, exceto a Islândia, que não tem um exército típico (mas tem uma guarda costeira e uma pequena unidade de especialistas civis para as operações da OTAN).

Três dos estados membros têm armas nucleares: França, Reino Unido e Estados Unidos.

Os doze membros fundadores da Organização foram: Bélgica, Canadá, Dinamarca, Estados Unidos, França, Islândia, Itália, Luxemburgo, Noruega, Países Baixos, Portugal e Reino Unido. Nos anos 1950, mais três países foram incluídos: Grécia e Turquia, em 1952, e Alemanha Ocidental, em 1955. A Espanha ingressou em 1982. Após o fim da Guerra Fria, mais 14 países foram adicionados, sendo  três antigos membros do Pacto de Varsóvia (Hungria, República Tcheca e Polônia), que aderiram em 1999 (convidados em 1997). Em 1990, com a reunificação da Alemanha, o território da antiga Alemanha Oriental foi incorporado à Alemanha.
Em maio de 2000, os três países do Báltico e mais sete da Europa Oriental formaram o grupo de Vilnius, a fim de pressionar pelo ingresso do grupo, na OTAN. Em 2004, Bulgária, Estônia, Letônia, Lituânia, Romênia, Eslováquia e Eslovênia tiveram seu ingresso aprovado; em 2009, foi a vez da Albânia e da Croácia; em 2020, a Macedônia do Norte. Montenegro aderiu em 2017; e em 2023, a Finlândia.

Fundação e expansão

A OTAN adicionou novos membros nove vezes desde sua fundação em 1949, com um total atual de 31 membros. Doze países participaram da fundação da OTAN: Bélgica, Canadá, Dinamarca, França, Islândia, Itália, Luxemburgo, Holanda, Noruega, Portugal, Reino Unido e Estados Unidos. Em 1952, a Grécia e a Turquia tornaram-se membros da aliança, a que se juntaram posteriormente a Alemanha Ocidental (em 1955) e a Espanha (em 1982). Em 1990, com a reunificação da Alemanha, a OTAN cresceu para incluir o antigo país da Alemanha Oriental. Entre 1994 e 1997, foram criados fóruns mais amplos de cooperação regional entre a OTAN e os seus vizinhos, incluindo a Parceria para a Paz, a iniciativa Diálogo Mediterrâneo e o Conselho de Parceria Euro-Atlântico. Em 1997, três ex-países do Pacto de Varsóvia, Hungria, República Tcheca e Polônia, foram convidados a aderir à OTAN. Após este quarto alargamento em 1999, o grupo de Vilnius dos países bálticos e sete países da Europa de Leste formaram-se em Maio de 2000 para cooperar e fazer lobby por mais adesão à OTAN. Sete desses países aderiram ao quinto alargamento em 2004. Os Estados Adriáticos Albânia e Croácia aderiram ao sexto alargamento em 2009, Montenegro em 2017 e Macedónia do Norte em 2020. Em 2023, foi a vez da Finlândia aderir a organização.

Países membros

Gastos militares
Os Estados Unidos têm gastos militares mais significativos do que todos os outros membros juntos. As críticas ao fato de muitos Estados membros não estarem contribuindo com sua parte justa de acordo com o acordo internacional feitas pelo então presidente dos EUA, Donald Trump, causaram várias reações de figuras políticas americanas e europeias, que vão do ridículo ao pânico.

A pesquisa de 2016 do Pew Research Center entre seus estados membros mostrou que, embora a maioria dos países visse a OTAN positivamente, a maioria dos membros da OTAN preferia manter seus gastos militares tais como estão.

A resposta sobre se seu país deveria ajudar militarmente outro país da OTAN se entrasse em um sério conflito militar com a Rússia também foi mista. Aproximadamente metade ou menos em seis dos oito países pesquisados dizem que seu país deveria usar força militar se a Rússia atacar um país vizinho que é aliado da Otan. Pelo menos metade em três dos oito países da OTAN dizem que seu governo não deveria usar força militar em tais circunstâncias. A oposição mais forte à resposta de guerra está na Alemanha (58%), seguida pela França (53%) e Itália (51%). Mais da metade dos americanos (56%) e canadenses (53%) estão dispostos a responder à agressão militar russa contra um país companheiro da OTAN. Uma pluralidade de britânicos (49%) e poloneses (48%) também cumpriria seu compromisso do Artigo 5. E os espanhóis estão divididos sobre o assunto: 48% apoiam, 47% se opõem.

Ver também
Expansão da OTAN

Notas

Bibliografia

OTAN
Alianças militares
Listas de países

Estados-membros da OTAN


Stephen M. Larson, američki planetolog.

Životopis
Larson radi kao planetolog na Lunar and Planetary Laboratory u SAD. Poznat je po radu na kometima. 1980-ih je digitalizirao fotografije prolaska Halleyeva kometa od 1910., za proučavati komu i lažnu jezgru, time dajući u evidenciju nove detalje naravi i sadržaja repa kometa. Narednih je godina nastavivši proučavati komete, razvio je algoritme za digitalnu obradu fotografija kometa, među kojim je filtar Larson-Sekanina kojim se mnogo služe profesionalni i amaterski astronomi.

Također je pokretačem organizacije Near Nucleus Studies iz programa International Halley Watch. Njegov program motrenja kometa spektroskopijom i slikama nastavlja otkrivati zanimljive aspekte kometnih fenomena.

S Johnom W. Fountainom, s točnošću dokazuje postojanje 11. Saturnova satelita (Epimeteja) i izračunao mu period revolucije, prije nego što su brojnih podataka iz 1980. koji su razbistrili zbunjujuće podatke iz 1966., jer su onda Saturnovi prsteni bili u ravnini promatranja.

Ostavio je svoje ime dvjema periodičnim kometima numeriranima kao 250P/Larson, 261P/Larson, 374P/Larson i 382P/Larson te nenumerirani P/2014 E1 (Larson) te neperiodični komet C/2009 F1 (Larson).

Suotkrivač Saturnova satelita Telesta.

S Carlom W. Hergenrotherom otkrio dva asteroida: 5. travnja 1994. asteroid (306387) 1994 GR8 i 28. siječnja 2005. asteroid (85316) 1995 BA4.

Njemu je u čast ponio ime asteroid 3690 Larson.

Bilješke i referencije

Američki astronomi
Otkrivači asteroida
Otkrivači kometa

Stephen M. Larson


නවීන පංචප්‍රයාමය, එකිනෙකට ඉතා වෙනස් ක්‍රීඩා ඉසව් පහකින් සමන්විත ඔලිම්පික් ක්‍රීඩාවකි. එම ක්‍රීඩා ඉසව් වන්නේ කඩු සටන්, 200m නිදහස් ආර පිහිනුම්, අශ්වාරෝහක සහ ඒකාබද්ධිත පිස්තෝල වෙඩි තැබීමේ හා 3200m රට හරහා දිවීමේ ඉසව්ව යන ඒවා යි.  මෙම ක්‍රීඩාව 1912 වසරේ සිට ඔලිම්පික් තරඟාවලියේ හර ක්‍රීඩාවක් වන අතර 1949 වසරේ සිට ලෝක ශුරතාවලියක් ද පැවැත්වෙයි.

නියම වශයෙන් ක්‍රීඩාව සඳහා දින හතරක් හෝ පහක් ගතවන නමුත් වඩාත් වැඩි ප්‍රේක්ෂක ආකර්ෂණයක් දිනා ගැනීම සඳහා 1996 දී එක් දින ආකෘතියක් හඳුන්වා දෙනු ලැබීය. කෙසේ වෙතත් මෙම ක්‍රීඩාව ඔලිම්පික් ක්‍රීඩාවක් ලෙස පැවති දීර්ඝ ඉතිහාසය තුළ, නවීන ඔලිම්පික් තරඟාවලියට එය එක්වීම සාධාරණීකරණය කිරීමට කිහිප අවස්ථාවක දී ම සිදු විය.  2013 පෙබරවාරි 11 ලොසේන් හිදී IOC විසින් නවීන පංචප්‍රයාමය 2020 දක්වා ඔලිම්පික් තරඟාවලියේ  හර ක්‍රීඩා 25 අතුරින් එකක් ලෙසට නැවත වතාවක් තහවුරු කරන ලදී. පාලනාධිකාරිය වන  Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne (UIPM) විසින් ලොව සියළු මහද්වීප වල රටවල් 90 කට වඩා ක්‍රීඩා කරනු ලබන මෙම ක්‍රීඩාවේ අන්තර්ජාතික පරිපාලනය සිදු කරනු ලබයි.

ක්‍රීඩා

නවීන පංචප්‍රයාමය


An Anthurium kunayalense in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Thomas Bernard Croat ngan Vannini. An Anthurium kunayalense in nahilalakip ha genus nga Anthurium, ngan familia nga Araceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Anthurium

Anthurium kunayalense


Glencree (en irlandés: Gleann Crí)) es un valle en las montañas de Wicklow en el este de Irlanda. Es el segundo valle más cercano en las montañas a la ciudad de Dublín, siendo el primero el de Glencullen. El río Dargle fluye hacia el valle, que se eleva a una altura de unos 400 metros. El fondo del valle es el sitio donde se localiza la aldea de Enniskerry.

La parte superior de la cañada evidencia una ruta militar, construida por el ejército británico en el  con el fin de combatir a las guerrillas Irlandesas, donde se produjo la rebelión irlandesa de 1798. Un cuartel fue construido en Glencree, junto a la carretera en 1806. Como consecuencia del fin de las guerras napoleónicas en 1815, el edificio fue desalojado por el ejército británico.

Véase también
 Geografía de la República de Irlanda
 Geografía de Europa

Referencias

Valles de la República de Irlanda

Glencree


Morbid Tales debitantski je EP švicarskog ekstremnog metal sastava Celtic Frost. EP je objavljen u studenom 1984. godine, a objavila ga je diskografska kuća Noise Records.

Počasti
Intenzitet thrash metala na Morbid Tales imao je ogroman utjecaj na razvoj tadašnjeg death metala i black metala. Elemente su kasnije prisvojili pioniri oba žanra. Turoban i ozbiljan modni stil sastava također je uvelike utjecao na kasnije sastave, što uključuje i corpse paint. Godine 2017., časopis Rolling Stone stavio je Morbid Tales na 27. mjesto njihove ljestvice '100 najboljih metal albuma svih vremena.'

Popis pjesama
Svu glazbu napisao je Thomas Gabriel Fischer, sve tekstove napisali su Thomas Gabriel Fischer i Martin Ain, osim gdje je drugačije naznačeno.

Osoblje
Celtic Frost
Tom Warrior – vokali, gitara, produciranje, inženjer zvuka, dizajn
Martin Ain – bas-gitara, prateći vokali, produciranje, inženjer zvuka, dizajn
Dodatni glazbenici
Steve Priestly – bubnjevi, udaraljke
Horst Müller – dodatni vokali
Hertha Ohling – dodatni vokali
Wolf Bender – violina
Ostalo osoblje
Urs Sprenger – omot albuma, tipografija
Walter Schmid – remastering
Burzelbar Martin Kyburz – fotografija
"Mad" Horst Müller	– produciranje, miksanje, inženjer zvuka, mastering
Karl-U. Walterbach – izvršni producent

Izvori

Albumi sastava Celtic Frost
Albumi iz 1984.

Morbid Tales


Suslivka (în ) este un sat în comuna Nosivkî din raionul Ciudniv, regiunea Jîtomîr, Ucraina.

Suslivka, Ciudniv, Jîtomîr
Suslivka, Ciudniv, Jîtomîr
Suslivka, Ciudniv, Jîtomîr

Suslivka, Ciudniv


Det vi ikke måtte se - Om filmcensur er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1995 med instruktion og manuskript af Prami Larsen.

Handling
Siden Statens Filmcensurs start i 1913 er film blevet beklippet for at beskytte publikum mod for stærke filmoplevelser - det være sig voldelige eller erotiske. Her er der chance for at se det, publikum ikke måtte se og lidt om hvorfor, det skulle ud.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1995

Censur
Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Det vi ikke måtte se - Om filmcensur


Vahiy ya da  tanrısal esin (), İslamî terminolojide buyruk veya düşüncelerin Allah tarafından peygamberlere bildirilmesine veya bu bildirinin kendisine denir. İslamî inanışta vahiy peygamberlere gelir ve sadece Cebrail aracılığıyla iner.

Vahiy ile gelen her türlü söz Allah'ın sözüdür. İçinde vahiylerin toplandığı kitapların (kutsal kitaplar) Allah'a ait olduklarına inanılır. Müslümanlar, Kur'an dışındaki kutsal kitapların muharref, aslının kaybolup yeniden insan eliyle yazılmış olduğunu iddia ederler.

İslamî anlayışta Allah'ın insanlara peygamberleri vasıtası ile vahiy göndermesinin birtakım nedenleri bulunmakta olup bunların en önemlisi Allah'ın insanları uyarmak istemesidir. Müslümanlar Allah'ın, Kur'an'ı bir öğüt olarak ve anlaşılması için indirdiğine inanır. Özet olarak vahiy, insanlığa tek ve gerçek inanç esasları, iyi, doğru ve güzel olanı öğretmek için gönderilmiştir.

İslam dışı kaynaklarda kutsal kitapların kaynağı "esin" kavramıyla ifade edilir. Esin, İslamî terminolojideki ilham karşılığı olarak değerlendirilebilir. "İlahî esin" ile yazılan kutsal kitabın İslamî anlayıştan farklı olarak tanrı sözleri yanında askerî ve politik önderlerin söz ve emirlerinin, çobanlar, krallar, esirler ve sâkîler tarafından yazılmış olan tarih, soyağaçları, kanunlar, şiirler, ilahiler ve kehanetlerin bulunduğu, yazılanların yazıldığı döneme ait insanların anlayış ve kavrayışıyla ilgili özellikler taşıdığı vurgulanır.

İslam'da vahyin çeşitleri
Ehl-i Sünnet'e göre vahyin iki çeşidi vardır:
 Vahy-i metlüv (tilâvet edilen/ okunan vahiy): Kur'an'ı meydana getiren ayetlerin tamamı. Bu vahiy, İslam'a göre Allah kelamı olup namazda okunur.
 Vahy-i gayri metlüv (tilâvet edilmeyen/ okunmayan vahiy): Hadislerle bugüne gelen ve lafzı Peygamber'e ait olan vahiy.

Ayrıca bakınız
 Apokalips
 Hayali anı sendromu
 Sezgi
 Vahiy kâtipleri

Kaynakça

Dinî kavramlar
Kâhinlik
Arapçadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Vahiy


مكدامية ثلاثية الأوراق أو جوز أستراليا (الاسم العلمي:Macadamia ternifolia) هي نوع نباتي يتبع جنس المكدامية من الفصيلة البروطية موطنه أستراليا.

شجرتها
الشجرة كبيرة منتشرة الأفرع والأوراق كبيرة مموجة جلدية طولها حوالي 30 سم بحوافها أسنان قليلة أو غير موجودة تحمل الأزهار في عناقيد طويلة غير متفرعة كاملة لونها سمني مشوب بشقرة، يحمل كل عنقود 2 – 20 ثمرة كروية الشكل قطرها حوال 2.5 سم غلافها الخارجي جلدي ينشق عن غلاف داخلي صلب لامع خشن سميك يحتوي على بذرة كروية أو بذرتين كل منهما نصف كرة ، بها زيت تتراوح نسبته بين 60 ، 80 % وقليل من الحلاوة يجعل طعمها لذيذاً، تجفف الثمار في الشمس ثم تكسر لا ستخراج اللب الذي يجفف بدوره ويحمص أو يحمر في الزيت ويملح وتؤكل الثمار طازجه. أما ثمار نوه ماكاداميا انتجريفوليا فيفوق طعمها طعم الأولي عند تحميصها، وللشجره خشب صلب يمكن الإفادة منه ويعظم نموها في الأراضي الغنية العميقة ويعتدل في الأراضي الرملية، وهي بطيئة النمو متأخرة الإثمار تحتاج إلى فترة باردة وأخرى جافة كيما تزهر، نجحت زراعتها في مصر وفي أستراليا أنتجت سلالات أرق قشراً وأغني زيتاً وألذ طعماً ويتكاثر النبات بالبذور التي تعيش بحالة جيدة لمدة طويلة بعد جمعها.

انظر أيضًا
 مكدامية

مراجع

أشجار أستراليا
أشجار
أصنوفات سماها فرديناند فون مولر
أنواع مهددة بالانقراض حسب القائمة الحمراء للاتحاد العالمي للحفاظ على الطبيعة ومواردها
بروطيات في أستراليا
مأكولات الدغل الأسترالي
مكدامية
مكسرات
نباتات كوينزلاند
نباتات وصفت في 1857

مكدامية ثلاثية الأوراق


James Howard Dunn (født 2. november 1901, død 1. september 1967) var en amerikansk teater-, tv- og filmskuespiller. Han arbejdede med sin far som en børsmægler på Wall Street i tre år, før at forfølge en karriere som skuespiller.

I 1931 underskrev Fox Studios en kontrakt med ham, og han indspillede 22 film med ham.

Dunn medvirkede bl.a i Kærlighed og Knock Out (1932) og Hello, Sister! (1933). Hans præstation i filmen Der vokser et træ i Brooklyn fra 1945 indbragte ham en Oscar for bedste mandlige birolle.

Han var gift med Edna Rush fra 1945 til 1967 efter skilsmisse fra Frances Gifford i 1942.

Eksterne henvisninger

Skuespillere fra New York
Personer fra New York City
Amerikanere i 1900-tallet
Oscar for bedste mandlige birolle

James Dunn


Levha tektoniği () } Dünya'nın litosfer'inin yaklaşık 3,4 milyar yıl öncesinden beri yavaş hareket eden birçok büyük tektonik levha içerdiği düşünülen genel kabul görmüş bilimsel bir teoridir.

Model, 20. yüzyılın ilk on yıllarında geliştirilen kıta kayması kavramına dayanır. Levha tektoniği, 1960'ların ortalarından sonlarına kadar deniz tabanının yayılması doğrulandıktan sonra yer bilimciler tarafından genel olarak kabul edildi.

Levha tektoniği veya levha hareketleri, en geniş anlamıyla litosferin yapısını ve bu yapıyı oluşturan evreleri araştıran jeoloji dalıdır.

Tektonik, yapısal jeoloji ile yakından ilgili fakat ondan farklı bir jeoloji disiplinidir. Yapısal jeoloji kayaçların geometrisi ile uğraşır; oysa tektonik, yeryuvarının büyük ölçekli yapıları ve bunları oluşturan kuvvetler ve hareketler üzerinde durur.

Gezegenin en sert dış kabuğu olan Dünya'nın litosferi (kabuk ve üst manto), nasıl tanımlandıklarına bağlı olarak yedi veya sekiz ana levhaya ve birçok küçük plakaya bölünmüştür. Plakaların buluştuğu yerde, onların göreli hareketi plaka sınırı tipini belirler: yakınsak, ıraksak veya  transform. Depremler, volkanik aktivite, dağ oluşumu ve okyanus çukur oluşumları bu levha sınırlarında veya faylar boyunca meydana gelir. Plakaların göreli hareketi genellikle yılda sıfır ila 10 cm arasında değişir.

Tektonik plakalar, her biri kendi kabuğuyla kaplı okyanusal litosferden ve daha kalın kıtasal litosferden oluşur. Yakınsak sınırlar boyunca, yitim işlemi veya bir levhanın diğerinin altında hareket etmesi, alttakinin kenarını manto içine taşır; kaybolan malzeme alanı, deniz tabanının yayılmasıyla farklı kenarlar boyunca yeni (okyanus) kabuğun oluşumuyla dengelenir. Bu şekilde, litosferin toplam geoid yüzey alanı sabit kalır. Levha tektoniğinin bu öngörüsü aynı zamanda taşıma bandı ilkesi olarak da adlandırılır. Daha önceki teoriler, çürütüldüğünden beri, kademeli büzülme (daralma) veya kademeli yerkürenin genişlemesini önerirdi.

Tektonik plakalar hareket edebilir çünkü Dünya'nın litosferinin alttaki astenosfer'den daha çok mekanik dayanımı vardır. Mantodaki yanal yoğunluk değişimleri konveksiyonu yani Dünya'nın katı mantosunun yavaş sürünen hareketiyle ile sonuçlanır. Levha hareketinin, topografyadaki farklılıklar (sırt topoğrafik yüksektir) ve kabuktaki yoğunluk değişiklikleri nedeniyle (yeni oluşan kabuk soğudukça ve sırttan uzaklaştıkça yoğunluk artar) deniz tabanının yayılan sırtlardan uzağa hareketinin bileşimince yönlendirildiği düşünülmektedir.

Yitim bölgelerindeki nispeten soğuk, yoğun okyanus kabuğu manto hücresinin aşağı doğru konveksiyon yapan kolu üzerinden mantoya doğru batar. Bu faktörlerin her birinin göreceli önemi ve birbirleriyle olan ilişkileri belirsizdir ve hala tartışma konusudur.

Temel ilkeler

Dünyanın dış katmanları litosfer ve astenosfer olarak ikiye ayrılır. Bu bölünüş mekanik özellikler ve ısı transferindeki farklara dayanır. Litosfer daha soğuk ve sertken, astenosfer daha sıcaktır ve daha kolay akar. Isı transferi açısından litosfer ısıyı iletim ile kaybederken, astenosfer ayrıca ısıyı konveksiyon ile aktarır ve hemen hemen adyabatik sıcaklık gradyanlıdır. Bu bölünüş aynı katmanların manto (litosferin hem astenosferi hem de manto kısmını içerir) ve kabuğa "kimyasal" alt bölümü ile karıştırılmamalıdır. Belirli bir manto parçası veya astenosfer sıcaklığına ve basıncına bağlı olarak farklı zamanlarda litosferin parçası olabilir.

Plaka tektoniğinin temel ilkesi, litosferin sıvı benzeri (visko-elastik katı) astenosfer üzerinde hareket eden ayrı ve farklı tektonik plakalar olarak var olmasıdır. Plakalar yılda 10–40 mm/yıl (Atlantik Ortası Sırtı tırnak uzaması hızında) ile yaklaşık 160 mm/yıl (Nazca Plakası  ile saç kılı büyüme hızında) arası hızlarda hareket ederler. Bu hareketin arkasındaki tahrik mekanizması aşağıda açıklanmıştır.

Tektonik litosfer plakaları, bir veya iki tür kabuk malzemesiyle kaplı litosferik mantodan oluşur: okyanus kabuğu (eski metinlerde silikon ve magnezyumdan  sima diye bahsedilir) ve kıtasal kabuk (silikon ve alüminyumdan sial). Ortalama okyanus litosferi genellikle  kalınlığındadır . Kalınlığı yaşının bir fonksiyonudur: zaman geçtikçe iletken şekilde soğur ve tabanına alttaki soğutma mantosu eklenir. Okyanus ortası sırtlarda oluştuğu ve dışa doğru yayıldığı için kalınlığı, oluştuğu okyanus ortası sırttan uzaklığının bir fonksiyonudur. Okyanus litosferinin batmadan önce kat etmesi gereken tipik  mesafe, okyanus ortası sırtlarda yaklaşık  kalınlıktan dalma bölgeleri'nde 'den biraz fazlaya kadar değişir. Daha kısa veya daha uzun mesafeler için dalma zonu kalınlığı azalır veya artar. Kıta litosferi genellikle yaklaşık 200 km kalınlıktadır ancak bu kıtaların havzaları, sıradağları ve sabit kratonik iç kısımları arasında büyük miktarda değişir.

İki levhanın birleştiği yere "levha sınırı" denir. Plaka sınırları genellikle depremler gibi jeolojik olaylarla ve dağlar, volkanlar, okyanus ortası sırtları ve okyanus çukurları gibi topoğrafik özelliklerin oluşumuyla ilişkilendirilir. Dünyadaki aktif volkanların çoğu günümüzde en aktif ve yaygın olarak bilinen Pasifik Levhası'nın Ateş Çemberi ile levha sınırları boyunca oluşur. Bu sınırlar aşağıda daha ayrıntılı olarak tartışılmaktadır. Levhaların iç kısımlarında bazı volkanlar oluşur ve bunlar çeşitli şekillerde iç levha deformasyonuna ve manto duman bulutlarına dayandırılır.

Yukarıda açıklandığı gibi, tektonik plakalar kıta kabuğunu veya okyanus kabuğunu içerebilir ve çoğu plaka her ikisini de içerir. Örneğin, Afrika Levhası kıtayı ve Atlantik ve Hint Okyanuslarının taban kısımlarını kapsar. Okyanusal kabuk ile kıtasal kabuk arasındaki ayrım oluşum biçimlerdedir.

Okyanusal kabuk deniz tabanı yayılma merkezlerinde oluşurken, kıtasal kabuk yay volkanizması ve tektonik süreçler yoluyla mikrolevhaların birikmesiyle oluşur ancak bu mikrolevhalardan bazıları standart oluşum ve yayılma merkezleri ve kıtaların altına dalma döngüsünden çıktıklarında kıtanın parçası olduğu düşünülen okyanus kabuğu parçaları olan ofiyolit dizilerini içerebilir. Okyanusal kabuk da farklı bileşimleri nedeniyle kıtasal kabuktan daha yoğundur. Okyanus kabuğu daha yoğundur çünkü kıtasal kabuktan ("felsik") daha az silikon ve daha ağır elementler ("mafik") içerir.

Bu yoğunluk katmanlaşmasının sonucu olarak, okyanus kabuğu genellikle deniz seviyesinin altında yer alırken (örneğin Pasifik Levhasının çoğu gibi), kıtasal kabuk yüzer şekilde deniz seviyesinin üzerinden çıkıntı yapar (Bu ilkenin açıklaması için izostasi sayfasına bakınız).
Levha tektoniğinin temel ilkeleri, Alman bilim insanı Alfred Wegener'in Kıta Kayması Teorisi'nin geliştirilmesi sonucu oluşmuştur. Günümüzdeki kıtalar, 300 ila 175 milyon yıl önce Pangea adı verilen tek parça halinde bir kıtaydı. Bu kıtayı çevreleyen okyanus ise Panthallasa olarak adlandırılır. Dünya'nın yüzeyi kesintisiz gibi görünüyorsa da gerçekte dev boyuttaki bir yap-boz gibi birbirine geçen parçalardan oluşmaktadır. Levha adı verilen bu parçalar, çok yavaş olarak sürekli biçimde birbirlerine göre hareket ederler. Bir levha, yalnızca okyanusal ya da kıtasal litosferden oluşabildiği gibi her iki litosfer türünü de içerebilir. Levhalar, levha sınırı ya da levha kenarı ile sonlanır. Depremlerin ve yanardağların çoğu bu bölgelerde görülür. Zaman içerisinde katmanlar hareket ettikçe Pangaea ikiye ayrıldı. Kuzeyde Laurasia ve güneyde Gondwanaland oluştu. Bu iki kıta Tetis denizi ile ikiye ayrıldı. Katmanların hareketi ile kıtalar iyice ayrılarak bugünkü hâlini aldı.

Yer kabuğunun parçaları, manto üzerinde, izostazi adı verilen, bir ağacın su üzerinde yüzmesi ile karşılaştırılabilecek bir denge halinde dururlar. Mantonun kaldırma gücü, su ve ağaç örneğinde olduğu gibi kabuğun manto içine 'batmış' olan hacmi ile orantılıdır. Bu nedenle yükseltilerin fazla olduğu kıta bölgelerinde, artan kütle ile koşut olarak kabuğun manto derinliklerine uzanan kısmı da daha fazla olmalıdır. Yüksek dağ sıralarının derinlere dalan 'kökleri' yer kabuğunun böyle alanlarda 70 km kadar kalın olmasına yol açar. Öte yandan, karaların yükselmesi, bağıl olarak daha hafif materyalden oluşmaları ile ilişkilidir. Böylece okyanusal kabuk daha ince olmasına karşın daha ağır materyalden oluşmuş ve astenosfer içine doğru kıtalara oranla daha fazla 'batmış' durumdadır. Bu, kıtaların manto içerisine doğru uzanan daha derin kökleri olmasına rağmen ağırlık merkezlerinin okyanus tabanlarına oranla daha yüksekte yer alması ile sonuçlanır.

Yüzey şekillerinin jeolojik zaman boyutu içinde evrimi levha hareketleri çerçevesinde gerçekleşir. Yer kabuğu ve hemen altındaki manto katmanının birleşmesinden oluşan taş küre (litosfer), yavaş bir hareketle yer değiştiren 12 ayrı 'levha' halinde, değişken bir yap-boz tablosu oluşturur. Yarı akışkan astenosfer tabakası üzerinde yüzer durumda bulunan bu levhaların hareketi için gereken enerjiyi, astenosfer tabakasındaki konveksiyon akımları sağlar. Levhalar birbirleriyle sürekli temas halinde olduklarından, hareketlerinin yön ve şiddetini, yerin derinliklerinden gelen itici gücün özellikleri olduğu kadar levhaların birbiri ile olan ilişkileri de belirler. Böylece, kısa dönemde belirli bir düzen içinde süren levha hareketlerinin, zaman ölçeği büyütüldüğünde kaotik ve önceden belirlenemez bir biçimde gerçekleştiği gözlenir.

Levhaların hareketlerinde yer kabuğunun bütün bu özellikleri rol oynar. Levhalar ortalama olarak yılda birkaç santimetre ölçeğinde hareket ederler (Bu kayma en uç örnek olan Pasifik levhası için yılda 15 santimetreye ulaşmaktadır). Hareket halindeki levhaların birbirleri arasında üç tür ilişkisi olabilir.

 Yaklaşma.
 Uzaklaşma.
 Yan yana kayma.

Yeryüzünün alanı sabit olduğuna göre yaklaşma sınırlarında bir miktar levha yüzeyinin yok olması, uzaklaşma sınırlarında ise yeni levha yüzeyi yaratılması gerekmektedir. Bu nedenle birinci tür levha sınırlarına 'yıkıcı', ikinci tür sınırlara ise 'yapıcı' sınırlar adı verilir. Üçüncü tür, 'yanal doğrultulu' ya da 'dönüşüm' () sınırlarıdır.

Yaklaşan levhaların ikisi de okyanussal levha ise biri diğerinin altına doğru kayar, bu durum 'dalma-batma' olarak adlandırılır. Bir okyanus levhası, bir kıta levhası ile karşılaştığında, daha ağır olduğu için onun altına doğru kayar, yine dalma-batma durumu gerçekleşir. Dalma-batma söz konusu olduğunda manto tabakasının sıcak derinliklerine inen taş küre dilimi ısınarak erir ve akışkan halde yükselir. Bu, yaklaşma sınırlarındaki yanardağ etkinliğinin ve dağ oluşumunun temelidir. İki kıtasal levhanın yaklaşması ise çarpışma ile sonuçlanır, her iki levha da manto içine batamayacak kadar hafif ve kalın olduğundan büyük bir deformasyonla yüksek dağ sıraları ve platolar ortaya çıkar (Himalaya dağları ve Tibet yaylası gibi).

Uzaklaşan levhalar ise yeni okyanus kabuğunun oluşmasına yol açarlar. Bu olay, iki levha arasında açılan boşluğa üst manto kaynaklı akışkan materyalin dolması ve soğuyarak katılaşması sonucunda gerçekleşir. Bu şekilde oluşan okyanus sırtları yer kabuğunun en genç bölgeleridir. Levhalar ayrıldıkça sırt ortadan büyümeye devam eder, sırtın her iki yanına doğru uzaklaşan genç litosfer soğudukça hacmi azalır, yoğunluğu artar ve hem küçülme hem de batma nedeniyle yükseltisi azalır. Okyanus tabanının okyanus sırtından en uzak kesimleri en yaşlı kısmıdır. Bu alanların eninde sonunda bir başka levha ile karşılaşarak batmaya başlaması kaçınılmaz olduğundan okyanusal kabuğun ömrü sınırlıdır ve bilinen en yaşlı okyanus kabuğu örnekleri 190 milyon yıl yaşındadır. Bu şekilde okyanus kabuğu sürekli yenilenirken, kıta kabuğu dalma-batma mekanizması ile ortadan kaldırılamadığından, yanardağ ve dağ oluşum etkinlikleri ile kıta kütlesine eklenen materyal zaman içinde giderek artar, milyarlarca yıllık süreç içerisinde kıtalar alan ve kalınlık açısından büyümeye devam ederler. Bazen bir kıta, ters yönde etki eden kuvvetlerin sonucunda ikiye ayrılabilir. Böyle bir durumda uzaklaşan parçaların arasını doldurmaya başlayan manto materyali yine okyanus kabuğu niteliğinde bir yapı oluşturmaya başlar, bu alanın soğuyup alçalması sonucunda yeni bir okyanus doğmuş olur.

Kıta Kayması Teorisi

Kıtaların birbirlerine ve okyanus havzalarına göre girmiş olduğu büyük ölçekli yatay hareketlere denir. Günümüzdeki kıtaların, büyük taşküre (litosfer) levhalarının sürüklenerek yer değiştirmesi sonucunda ortaya çıktığına ilişkin ilk düşünceler daha 18. yüzyılın sonlarında ortaya atıldı. Güney Amerika'nın doğusundaki çıkıntının Afrika'nın batı kıyılarındaki girintiye tam oturduğuna dikkati çeken Alman doğa bilimci Alexander von Humboldt, 1800 yılında Atlas Okyanusunun iki yakasının çok önceleri bitişik olduğu tezini geliştirdi. Bundan 50 yıl kadar sonra Fransız bilim insanı Antonio Snider, Kuzey Amerika ve Avrupa'daki kömür yataklarında belirlenen benzer bitki fosillerinin Humboldt'un bu varsayımını doğruladığını, aksi halde bu benzerliği açıklamanın başka yolu olmadığını ileri sürdü.1908'de Amerikalı Frank B. Taylor, Dünya'daki bazı sıradağların oluşumunu, kıtaların çarpışması düşüncesine dayalı olarak açıklamaya çalıştı.

Son çeyrek milyar yılın benzetimi
Bilgisayar Destekli Haritalama Laboratuvarı'nın bir köşesinde alelâde bir kutu içerisinde 14 jeolojik harita var ve 1 kg ağırlığında. Bu kutu, Dünya coğrafyasının son 250 milyon yıllık serüvenini anlatıyor. Serüvenin kahramanı, hâlen çıkarılmakta olan petrole yataklık etmiş ve "Tetis" adı verilen tropikal bir okyanus. Levhaların kaymasıyla kapanan bu denizden günümüze ulaşan, birer iç deniz olan Akdeniz, Karadeniz ve Hazar Denizi'dir.

Proje, 1980'li yılların ortasında başladı. Pierre-Marie Curie Üniversitesi'nden Profesör Jean Decourt, Luc Emmanuel Ricou ve Bruno Vrielynck'in öncülüğünde bir grup jeolog, Yerküre tarihinin son 250 milyon yılı üzerine yapılmış Dünya'nın birçok noktasındaki araştırma sonuçlarını bir araya getirerek büyük bir sentezi gerçekleştirmeye girişti. 124 araştırmacıyı bugüne kadar denenmemiş bir çalışmanın etrafında bir araya getiren projenin hedefi, Tetis'in fiziki coğrafyasını ortaya çıkarmaktır.

Tetis Okyanusu

Yaklaşık 250 milyon yıl önce, karaların bütünü Pangea adındaki tek bir kıta şeklindedir. Bu kıta, güneyde Gondvana (bugünkü Güney Amerika, Afrika, Madagaskar, Hindistan ve Avustralya), Kuzeyde Lavrasya (bugünkü Kuzey Amerika, Avrupa ve Asya)'dan oluşmaktadır. Yeryüzünün geri kalan kısmı ise Panthalassa adındaki uçsuz bucaksız dev bir okyanusla kaplıdır. Pangea'nın doğusunda üçgen şeklinde dev bir körfez yer almaktadır. İşte bu okyanus da Tetis Okyanusu'nu oluşturmaktadır.

Resim galerisi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Archive.org Levha tektoniği kuramının oluşumu ve gelişimi

Levha tektoniği

Levha tektoniği


Die Liste der deutschen Botschafter in Australien enthält die Botschafter der Bundesrepublik Deutschland in Australien.
Die deutsche Botschaft in Australien befand sich von 1952 bis 1958 in Sydney. Danach zog sie nach Yarralumla, einen Stadtteil von Canberra. Sie besitzt ebenfalls Zuständigkeit für Nauru, Papua-Neuguinea, Salomonen und Vanuatu. Vor 1952 bestand zeitweilig ein Generalkonsulat des Deutschen Reiches in Sydney, später in Melbourne. Es war auch für Ozeanien zuständig.

Botschafter des Norddeutschen Bundes bzw. des Deutschen Reiches bis 1914

Vor 1879 unterhielt Deutschland nur konsularische Beziehungen zu Australien.

Botschafter der Bundesrepublik Deutschland

Siehe auch
 Australisch-deutsche Beziehungen
 Botschafter der DDR in Australien
 Deutsche Botschaft Canberra

Literatur
 Tobias C. Bringmann: Handbuch der Diplomatie, 1815–1963: Auswärtige Missionschefs in Deutschland und Deutsche Missionschefs im Ausland von Metternich bis Adenauer, de Gruyter, 2001, S. 91

Weblinks
 Website der Deutschen Botschaft Canberra

Einzelnachweise

!
Australien
Deutschland


Dhalai (en bengalí: ধলাই জেলা) es un distrito de la India en el estado de Tripura. Código ISO: IN.TR.DH.

Comprende una superficie de 2523 km².

El centro administrativo es la ciudad de Ambassa.

Demografía
Según censo 2011 contaba con una población total de 377988 habitantes, de los cuales 183 646 eran mujeres y 194 342 varones.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Sitio web oficial.

Dhalai

Distrito de Dhalai


An Chrysopogon aucheri in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Pierre Edmond Boissier, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Otto Stapf. An Chrysopogon aucheri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Chrysopogon, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Chrysopogon (Poaceae)

Chrysopogon aucheri


Swarm Technologies, Inc. é uma empresa privada construindo uma constelação de satélites de baixa orbita para comunicações com dispositivos de Internet Das Coisas (IoT) usando uma técnica Store and forward. Em 16 de Julho de 2021, a Swarm entrou em acordo para se tornar uma subsidiária da SpaceX.

In-Q-Tel, o braço de capital de risco da CIA, lista a Swarm Technologies como uma de suas startups.

Eles possuem uma licença da Comissão Federal de Comunicações (FCC) para Satélite de comunicação de baixa largura de banda em órbita terrestre baixa.

Em fevereiro de 2021, a Swarm anunciou que seus serviços comerciais agora estavam ativos usando 72 satélites comerciais, fornecendo seus dados globais de baixo custo aos clientes.

O Swarm Tile é o seu modem satelital dedicado a dados bidirecionais, desenhado para baixo consumo de energia e para ser embutido em placas de produtos de terceiros. Outros produtos incluem o plano de dados e um kit de desenvolvimento.

História
A Swarm Technologies foi fundada em 2016 por Sara Spangelo e Benjamin Longmier, ex-funcionários do Google e da Apple, respectivamente.

Tecnologia e uso
A Swarm Technologies oferece planos de transferência de dados a partir de US$ 60 por ano por dispositivo conectado. A este preço, podem ser transmitidos mensalmente 750 pacotes de dados de 192 bytes cada.

Links externos

Categoria
Empresas aeroespaciais dos Estados Unidos

Swarm Technologies


Alvarelhos Portekiz'de Valpaços belediyesine bağlı olan, 12,83 km2 yüzölçümüne sahip, 172 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Portekiz'in freguesiaları
Valpaços

Alvarelhos (Valpaços)


ثيريون (Θύριον) هي مدينة في أيتوليا كي أكارنانيا في مقاطعة كينتريكي إلادا في اليونان.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 661   نسمة.

المراجع

مدن اليونان

ثيريون


Alice Cecilia Linh Svensson (født 1991) er en svensk skuespillerinde og sanger.

Sangere fra Sverige

Alice Svensson


La lagune de Jacarepaguá est une lagune située dans les quartiers de Jacarepaguá et de Barra da Tijuca, dans la zone ouest de la municipalité de Rio de Janeiro, au Brésil.

Toponyme
« Jacarepaguá » est un terme d'origine Tupi qui signifie « anse du lieu des alligators », par la jonction des termes îakaré (alligator), paba (lieu) et kûá (anse).

Description

La végétation comporte de la mangrove. L'étang est impropre à la baignade, à la pêche et aux sports nautiques en raison de la pollution. Un suivi systématique de la qualité de l'eau du complexe lagunaire de Jacarepaguá est effectué mensuellement dans huit stations d'échantillonnage, avec deux points de collecte dans la lagune de Jacarepaguá, trois dans la lagune de Marapendi, un dans la lagune de Camorim et deux dans la lagune de Tijuca. Les principaux indicateurs physiques et chimiques de la qualité de l'eau sont analysés, ainsi que la communauté phytoplanctonique quant à sa composition quantitative et qualitative. La surveillance effectuée dans le complexe lagunaire peut être intensifiée en raison d'événements éventuels qui altèrent la qualité de ses eaux, en particulier pendant l'été.

Les lagunes de Jacarepaguá et de Tijuca sont souvent affectées par la mortalité des poissons. Selon le biologiste Mario Moscatelli, l'espèce la plus touchée est le tilapia : à cause du vent fort, beaucoup sont piégés dans l'eau.

Références

Source de traduction

Jacarepagua
Géographie de Rio de Janeiro

Lagoa de Jacarepaguá


L'Albatros L 9 était un biplan de reconnaissance monoplace construit en Allemagne pendant la Première Guerre mondiale.

Conception
La conception L 9 comportait un biplan de reconnaissance non armé avec deux baies d'entretoises par aile, et il était propulsé par un seul moteur à pistons en ligne Mercedes D.I. L'avion avait des ailes épaisses et hypersustentatrices similaires à celles des Albatros C.IV, G.II et G.III.

Références

L09
Avion de reconnaissance
Avion militaire allemand
Avion biplan
Avion à hélices
Avion monomoteur
Avion militaire de la Première Guerre mondiale

Albatros L 9


Roštilj (mađarski: rostély, od njemačkog Rost) dio je ložišta peći i parnih kotlova na kojem leži gorivo. Roštilj je ravna ili kosa rešetka koja omogućuje prolaz zraka do goriva i propadanje pepela u pepeonik. Zbog takva rešetkasta oblika, roštiljem se u tehnici nazivaju i druge njemu slične konstrukcije (npr. roštiljne konstrukcije u građevinarstvu, sastavljene od mreže kruto povezanih grednih nosača), a u pripremi hrane i rešetka na kojoj se drži meso ili druge namirnice dok se peku na otvorenoj vatri.

Roštilj peći obično je izrađen od lijevanoga željeza. Mali kotlovi, ručno loženi, također imaju nepokretni ravni roštilj. Kod velikih parnih kotlova, međutim, ovisno o veličini i vrsti goriva, roštilj je velik i često složen mehanizam. Kosi roštilj može biti stepenast ili gladak, a omogućuje loženje neprekidnim dodavanjem ugljena i odvođenjem pepela na kraju roštilja. Za ugljen s niskom temperaturom taljenja pepela izrađuje se sastavljeni kosi roštilj, koji protresa poseban mehanizam te time pospješuje kotrljanje ugljena i sprječava lijepljenje pepela. Za velike kotlove, koji se lože krutim gorivom, rabe se člankasti pokretni roštilji, izrađeni od niza ploča zglobno vezanih u beskonačni lanac, koji u ložište neprekidno unosi gorivo, a na kraju izbacuje trosku i pepeo.

Izvori

Vidi još
 Pljeskavica
 Ćevapi
 Miješano meso

Vanjske poveznice

 "Barbecue". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911.
 Barbecue Food Safety (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture)
 The Internet BBQ FAQ
 Barbecue: A History of the World's Oldest Culinary Art Web cast from the Library of Congress

Hrana
Konstrukcije

Roštilj


SpongeBob SquarePants: The Cosmic Shake é um jogo de plataforma desenvolvido pela Purple Lamp Studios e publicado pela THQ Nordic. É baseado na série animada Bob Esponja Calça Quadrada da Nickelodeon e tem lançamento previsto para 31 de janeiro de 2023, no Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows e Xbox One.

Jogabilidade
O Cosmic Shake é um jogo de plataforma 3D. Como Bob Esponja, o jogador navega por vários mundos temáticos distintos, conhecidos como "Wishworlds" dentro do jogo, com a ajuda de Patrick, que foi transformado em um balão.

Desenvolvimento e lançamento
The Cosmic Shake foi desenvolvido pela Purple Lamp Studios, que já havia desenvolvido anteriormente o título SpongeBob SquarePants: Battle for Bikini Bottom – Rehydrated (2020). Concebido como uma sequência espiritual de Rehydrated, o projeto recebeu luz verde após o sucesso comercial do jogo. Enquanto Battle for Bikini Bottom tinha três personagens jogáveis, Bob Esponja, Patrick e Sandy, cada um com uma ou mais habilidades especiais, Purple Lamp decidiu ter apenas um personagem jogável em Bob Esponja, que possui múltiplas habilidades especiais em The Cosmic Shake. Trajes desbloqueáveis tornaram-se o foco principal do jogo.

A THQ Nordic anunciou o jogo pela primeira vez em setembro de 2021, como parte de sua apresentação de décimo aniversário. A THQ Nordic revelou um novo trailer com jogabilidade no final de sua apresentação de jogos em agosto de 2022. Uma demonstração jogável do jogo foi apresentada na Gamescom 2022. Mais tarde, em setembro, durante uma apresentação do Nintendo Direct, foi revelado que o jogo seria lançado em 2023.

O jogo foi lançado em 31 de janeiro de 2023, no Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, Windows e Xbox One. Uma edição física limitada, a "BFF Edition", esta disponível em todas as plataformas e inclui uma estátua do Bob Esponja, um Patrick inflável, um amuleto com colar, bolas saltitantes em miniatura, jogos americanos, DLC "Costume Pack" e uma caixa especial.

Recepção

SpongeBob SquarePants: The Cosmic Shake recebeu avaliações "mistas ou postivas", de acordo com o site agregador de analises, Metacritic.

Ligações externas

Jogos otimizados para Xbox One X
Jogos para Xbox One
Jogos para Windows
Jogos eletrônicos com Unreal Engine
Jogos eletrônicos da THQ Nordic
Jogos eletrônicos baseados em SpongeBob SquarePants
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Jogos de plataforma 3D

SpongeBob SquarePants: The Cosmic Shake


Olaylar

Doğumlar
 30 Mayıs
 İmparator Renzong, Çin'in Song Hanedanı'nın dördüncü imparatoru (ö. 1063)
 İmparator Yingzong, Çin'in Song Hanedanı'nın beşinci imparatoru (ö. 1067)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 IV. Mihail, Bizans imparatoru (ö. 1041)

Ölümler
 İoannis Kurkuas, Bizans'ın İtalya Katepanonu

1010


Khudadat bey Rafibeyli (en azéri : Xudadat bəy Rəfibəyli, né le 12 janvier 1878 à Eliwavethpol et mort le  juin 1920 à Bakou), également connu sous le nom de Rafibeyov, est un homme d'État de l'Empire russe, gouverneur général de Gandja et ministre de la Santé de la République démocratique d'Azerbaïdjan.Il est le père de l'écrivain azerbaïdjanais Nigar Rafibeyli, le beau-père de Rasul Rza et le grand-père d'Anar Rzayev, président de l'Union des écrivains d'Azerbaïdjan.

Début de la carrière médicale
Après avoir terminé le gymnase à Gandja, il part pour Kharkov pour étudier la médecine à l'Université d'État de Kharkov. Diplômé en 1903, il retourne à Gandja et commence sa pratique médicale. Il est reconnu comme l'un des premiers chirurgiens professionnels diplômés d'Azerbaïdjan. En 1914, il crée la première société médicale d'Azerbaïdjan à Elisavethpol, offrant à la population des soins médicaux gratuits.

Carrière politique
Après la révolution de 1917 en Russie, Rafibeyli est élu membre du comité exécutif intérimaire du Conseil national musulman, puis membre du Conseil national azerbaïdjanais.Avec la création de la République démocratique d'Azerbaïdjan le 28 mai 1918, Rafibeyli reçoit plusieurs postes au sein du gouvernement. Le 17 juin 1918, lorsque le deuxième cabinet de l'ADR se réunit, il est nommé à la tête du nouveau ministère de la Santé et des Affaires sociales. Pendant son mandat, il crée plusieurs hôpitaux et laboratoires médicaux dans tout le pays et ouvre le bureau du Croissant-Rouge en Azerbaïdjan.Le 6 mai 1919,  il est nommé par décret gouverneur de Gandja.

Activité littéraire
Il travaille beaucoup dans le domaine de la culture. A l'initiative de Rafibeyov, une société a été créée pour étudier l'héritage du classique de la poésie persane, Nizami Gandjavi. Rafibeyov lui-même mène des travaux de recherche et écrit beaucoup. Par exemple, son essai sur l'éminent médecin et publiciste azerbaïdjanais Hasan bey Aghayev est connu dans l'annuaire de Tiflis "Calendrier Caucasien" pour l'an 1916.

Mérites reconnus
Pour ses contributions aux soins de santé au sein de l'Empire russe, Rafibeyli reçoit l'Ordre de Saint Stanislas du troisième degré. En mai 1919, Rafibeyli est nommé gouverneur général du gouvernement de Gandja.

Mort violente
Après la prise de contrôle de l'Azerbaïdjan par les bolcheviks le 28 avril 1920 Rafibeyli est exécuté par le peloton d'exécution bolchevique sans procès sur l'île de Narguin à quelques kilomètres de Bakou.

Notes et références

Naissance en janvier 1878
Décès en juin 1920
Ministre azerbaïdjanais de la Santé
Récipiendaire de l'ordre de Saint-Stanislas (russe)
Décès à 42 ans

Khudadat bey Rafibeyli


La loi du 9 août 1849 sur l'état de siège est une loi française importante, votée sous la Deuxième République, définissant les contours du régime de l'état de siège en France. Elle a servi de base pour l'article 36 de la Constitution de la Cinquième République.

Historique
La France ne disposait pas d'une loi fixant les modalités d'un état de siège. Toutefois, l'article 106 de la Constitution française de 1848 disposait qu'. L'année suivante, le gouvernement met en branle la rédaction d'un projet de loi visant à préciser les modalités de l'état de siège.

Le projet de loi est présenté le 28 juillet 1849 à l'Assemblée nationale par Jules Dufaure, ministre de l'Intérieur, au nom de Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, président de la République. Le 7 août 1849, le représentant Alexandre Fourtanier exposa à l'Assemblée nationale le rapport de la commission chargée d'examiner le projet de loi sur l'état de siège. La loi est votée à la majorité.

Contenu

Conditions
La loi du 9 août 1849 sur l'état de siège définit un régime large de l'état de siège. Les dispositions sont activées dans les « cas de péril imminent pour la sécurité intérieure ou extérieure » (art. 1).

Votation
Comme le précise le deuxième article de la loi, l', sauf quelques exceptions énumérées. Si l'Assemblée ne siège pas, c'est le président de la République qui le déclare, après avis du Conseil des ministres. Il doit alors informer l'Assemblée. Cette dernière vote pour maintenir ou lever l'état de siège (art. 3).

Dans le cas des colonies, c'est au gouverneur de décider de manière autonome de l'état de siège.

Conseils de guerre et tribunaux civils
La loi permet (mais ce n'est que facultatif) de substituer aux tribunaux civils les conseils de guerre lorsqu'il s'agit de certaines infractions. L'art. 8 dispose ainsi :« Les tribunaux militaires peuvent être saisis de la connaissance des crimes et délits contre la sûreté de la République, contre la Constitution, contre l'ordre et la paix publique, quelle que soit la qualité des auteurs principaux et les complices. »C'est un général qui doit rédiger l'acte rendant compétent le conseil de guerre pour telle ou telle infraction déterminée.

Restrictions des libertés
L'article 9 énumère une série de restrictions de libertés publiques, dont en particulier la liberté de réunion et la « liberté de domicile » (permettant à l'armée d'éloigner d'une zone toute personne qui n'y est pas domiciliée ou tout repris de justice), ainsi que la possibilité de détenir des armes. Il permet enfin des perquisitions de jour et de nuit par l'autorité militaire. L'art. 11 précise enfin que tous les autres droits garantis par la Constitution et « dont la jouissance n'est pas suspendue en vertu des articles précédents » sont maintenus.

Abolition de la liberté de la presse
La liberté de la presse est abolie dans le cadre de l'état de siège. L'autorité militaire a le droit, .

Transfert des pouvoirs
Comme le précise l'article 7, l'état de siège se définit par le fait que les pouvoirs de maintien de l'ordre traditionnellement dévolus aux autorités civiles sont transférés aux militaires. Néanmoins, .

Jurisprudence
La loi a fait l'objet d'une jurisprudence importante. Le Conseil d'État a jugé, dans les arrêts Delmotte et Senmartin du 6 août 1915, que les décisions prises dans le cadre de l'état de siège réglé par la loi sont susceptibles d'être contestées devant le juge administratif.

Applications
La loi a été mise en application lors de troubles révolutionnaires en 1849, ainsi que lors de la Commune de Paris, de la Première Guerre mondiale et de la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

Notes et références

Loi française du XIXe siècle
Août 1849
1849 en France

Loi du 9 août 1849 sur l'état de siège


Paracuru es un municipio brasileño del estado del Ceará. Su población estimada en 2004 era de 30.927 habitantes. Distante a 84 km de Fortaleza, es la única sede de municipio del interior cearense bañada por el mar.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Ceará

Paracuru