Christophe Fratin (Metz, 1 de enero de 1801-Le Raincy (Sena y Oise), 17 de agosto de 1864) fue un escultor francés especializado en la escultura de animales, asociado a las escuelas artísticas de Metz así como a la École de Paris, cuya obra estuvo presente en el Salón de París de 1831 a 1863.

Biografía

Sus inicios

Christophe Fratin nació en Metz el 1 de enero de 1801, hijo de Henry Fratin, zapatero y taxidermista y de Catherine Moderé, sin profesión.

Después de sus estudios en la escuela de diseño gratuita de Metz, se dice, fue por gusto común por los caballos, como un discípulo de Carle Vernet y Théodore Géricault en París.

A partir de 1831, expuso regularmente en el Salón, excepto en 1832 a causa de la epidemia de cólera. Durante sus exposiciones, se codeó con Antoine-Louis Barye que se impuso sucesivamente con el Tigre que devora un Gavial en 1831, y su monumental León con serpiente de 1833, dejando así, estos dos años allí, a Fratin en la sombra. Terminó por encontrar el éxito y el aprecio: las críticas son elogiosas, sus obras se vendían bien.

La suerte efímera desde 1831 a 1836

Los repetidos éxitos del escultor en los Salones de 1834, 1835 y 1836 suscitaron el interés de la aristocracia. Así trabajó en el Château de Dampierre para el duque de Luynes, donde realizó, en particular, los Leones del frontispicio del edificio principal y de importantes trabajos de decoración interior. Fratin, que sobresalió en la realización de objetos decorativos, proporcionó cuatro pequeñas piezas para la realización de un retablo de madera principesco, en el cual Barye fue es el principal artesano.

La clientela de Fratin rápidamente se convirtió en internacional: fue para Inglaterra entre 1833 y 1834, probablemente tras la venta (o el pedido) de los dos modelos del Salón Lévrier après le forcé  y el Dogue à la chaîne. El comprador fue un miembro del  Parlamento, Lord Powerscourt, que destinó a estos grupos para situarlos en la entrada de su residencia. El artista realizó también unos grandes grupos románticos para Potsdam para los castillos de Sans-Souci y de Babelsberg dónde algunos se encuentran desde entonces. Durante toda su carrera, el interés de la clientela inglesa no disminuyó. Este trabajador infatigable exportó incluso sus obras hasta San Petersburgo donde decoraban el parque del zar de Rusia.

El romanticismo se trasluce de una manera evidente en sus temas, donde el caballo tiene un lugar importante. Las críticas eran numerosas y a menudo elogiosas, presentaban a Fratin como el "rival temible" de Barye en la representación de los animales. Estas mismas críticas destacaban su calor que sabía infundir a sus modelos y su capacidad para proporcionar obras de gran tamaño. Las obras se expusieron en la "Maison Susse" que tenía un almacén con un pasillo de los Panoramas, donde se propusieron entonces en yeso.

Fue realmente en 1835, el año en el que empezaron las ediciones de los bronces de Fratin, esencialmente fundidos en los talleres Quesnel. Fratin fue así uno de los primeros -si no el primero- en lanzarse en la escultura de edición. Estos bronces fueron realizados por la técnica de la fundición de arena (que acababa de ser controlada por los fundidores de este tiempo) y los realizaban en dimensiones variables.

Estos primeros años se desarrollaron bajo los auspicios del éxito. Obtuvo pedidos públicos de su ciudad natal a la cual ofreció dos Perros tamaño natural, el año de su matrimonio, el 25 de junio de 1836 con Marguerite Sophie Pioche, la hija de su profesor de dibujo.

Los primeros reveses
El año del nacimiento de su hijo, Charles-Auguste, el 17 de abril de 1837, el Salón se volvió hostil a la joven generación romántica y la participación de Fratin se redujo a su muy bonita yegua preñada. No se presentó el año siguiente y durante los años 1840, se rechazaron los envíos a los Salones, en consecuencia los pedidos comenzaron a fallar. La carrera del artista pareció oscilar y las dificultades financieras, convertirse en una constante. El escultor se concentró entonces en las ediciones y la realización de pequeños modelos "para el comercio". Esta inflexión en su carrera estuvo reflejada por el pequeño retrato de encargo Fratin por él-même donde el humor del escultor apareció de manera brillante. El artista, con las manos en los bolsillos, está vestido con su ropa de trabajo en el taller y cubierta la cabeza con un gorro. Sus bolsillos están repletos de pequeños animales: monos, mastines, espanier…

Los últimos encargos
Durante los años que siguieron, Fratin apenas obtuvo pedidos públicos, como el pedido de los Aigles, vendido el 4 de junio de 1853, sin llegar a su origen, pero colocada sobre la explanada de Metz. Solicitó la compra de su grupo Caballo derribado por un tigre depositado en el Invernadero en noviembre de 1853, donde aún el pedido de un frontispicio representando La Caza en mayo de 1855, para el Tribunal Visconti del Palacio del Louvre entonces en plena construcción. Por fin, en septiembre de 1862, efectuó su último pedido por decisión ministerial del grupo en yeso, Cabra y cabritillo. Se presentó también en distintas exposiciones; en el Jardin d'acclimatation de Paris, con terracotas, la Exposición de la Sociedad de los Amigos de las Artes de Burdeos, lo Exposición Universal bajo el patrocinio de su majestad la Emperatriz, en Metz y para terminar, la Exposición Universal de Londres en 1862.

Las ventas públicas desde 1849 a 1864
Entre el 3 y el 5 de julio de 1849, tras dificultades financieras importantes, Fratin organizó en París la primera venta pública sin derechos de reproducción de 450 de sus modelos, lo que certifica de la gran producción del artista entre 1831 y 1849. Esta venta de tipo totalmente original para el tiempo, fue la primera de una serie de catorce. Pero la venta no pasó bien muy con un número importante de invendidos.

En 1850, Fratin se fue a residir en Vétheuil, hasta 1854. Desde allí, organizó su segunda venta, que se desarrolló del 16 al 18 de abril. Esta venta constó principalmente de los modelos en bronce con derechos de reproducción, lo que significa que Fratin renunciaba a la explotación de estas obras. Se precisa en el catálogo que son las «obras completas del autor». Esta venta está quizá inducida, por la esperanza de pedidos importantes y confirma la estructura comercial elegida por Fratin, que prefiere proponer sus obras en venta pública más que de abrir tienda como Antoine-Louis Barye o Pierre-Jules Mêne. La venta debe ser un fracaso porque en el año de 1851 las obras no vendidas de 1850 se proponen de nuevo a la venta en las mismas condiciones.

A excepción de algunos años de respiro —debido a los pedidos recibidos— Christophe Fratin organizó este tipo de venta cada año. Una de ellas, la séptima, era la primera constituida solamente de terracotas. Seguramente los originales de sus anteriores modelos de los que quería deshacerse, probablemente para consagrarse a nuevas obras. Las otras ventas se organizaron sobre un ritmo anual hasta la muerte del artista el 17 de agosto de 1864 en Le Raincy (Sena y Oise). Siguió su decimosexta y última venta (póstuma) los días 20 y 21 de diciembre de ese año.

Obras

Salones y encargos públicos
1831
 n° 2232, Fermer, cheval anglais de pur sang, et deux bouledogues jouant et un lévrier (modelos en cera).
1833
 n° 2563, Lévrier après le forcé (estudio en yeso).
 n° 2564, Dogue à la chaîne (estudio en yeso).
 n° 2565, Écorché de cheval (modelo en bronce).

1834
 n° 2047, Cheval sauvage attaqué par un tigre (grupo).
 n° 2048, Cerf du Canada forcé par des chiens (grupo).
 n° 2049, Portrait de Félix, cheval de pur sang du haras de Viroflay.
 n° 2050, Panthère tenant une gazelle (grupo en yeso).
 n° 2051, Vache morte que les loups vont dévorer (estudio en yeso).
1835
 n° 2250, Tigre terrassant un jeune chameau (grupo en bronce).
 n° 2251, Lion dévorant un zèbre (grupo en bronce).
 n° 2252, Éléphant tuant un tigre (grupo en bronce).
 n° 2253, Lionne apportant une proie à ses lionceaux (grupo en bronce).
 n° 2254, Cerf couché se léchant (figura en bronce).
 n° 2255, Cheval mort (figura en bronce).
 n° 2256, Rinbow, étalon appartenant à M. Rieussec (figura en bronce).
 n° 2257, Taureau combattant des chiens (grupo en yeso).
 n° 2258, Trois chevaux, scène de haras (grupo en yeso).
1836
 n° 1928, Lion entraînant une proie (grupo en bronce).
 n° 1929, Tigre tenant une proie (grupo en yeso).
1837
 n° 1927, Jument et son poulain (grupo en yeso).
1839
 n° 2204, Aigle et vautour se disputant une proie (grupo en bronce)
[[Archivo:Fratin.Port-cigares Jean Nicot.jpg|thumb|Fratin Grand porte-cigares, Tombeau à Jean Nicot.]]
1842
 Pot à tabac, Hommage à Jean Nicot.
1850
 n° 3394, Cheval pur sang, bronce (Situado en la "Esplanade de Metz").
 n° 3395, Deux cadres, têtes diverses.
 n° 3396, Étude (terracota).
1851
 Lion dévorant un cheval (yeso) (Expuesto en el Salón de 1853, a 1351) Encargo del Ministère de l'État.
1852
 n° 1397, Le Triomphe de l'aigle (grupo en yeso).
 Les Aigles (yeso) Encargo del Estado.
1853
 n° 1351, Cheval attaqué par un lion (grupo en yeso).
1860
 Combat d'un lion et d'un tigre (grupo en yeso) Encargo.
1861
 n° 3355, Cerf couché entendant la trompe.
 n° 1122, Une scène dans l'amphithéâtre, Exposition universelle de Metz.
 Combat d'un lion et d'un tigre (donado al museo de Metz por el Ministre d'État) Exposition universelle de Metz.
1862
 Chèvre et chevreau (grupo en yeso) Encargo ministerial.
1863
 n° 2368, Cheval arabe (yeso).

 Encargos privados

1839:
 Aigle et vautour se disputant un chamois (bronce, firmado, fechado 1839) Château de Babelsberg.
 Combat entre un éléphant et un lion (bronce fundido) Château de Babelsberg.
 Cerf poursuivi par des chiens (bronce marrón claro) Château de Babelsberg.
 Rhinocéros et tigre (bronce) Château de Babelsberg.
 Cheval et panthère (bronce) Château de Babelsberg.
 Aigle et vautour dévorant un cerf (bronce,1851) Château de Babelsberg.
 Lions (exterior, frontispicio) Château de Dampierre.
 Consoles soutenues par des panthères (interior) Château de Dampierre.
 Tony, cheval en bronze (Musée de Compiègne) Château de Dampierre.

1850:
 Lion y Jeune chevreuil, (dos grupos de bronce, firmados, fechados 1850, ofrecidos por Louis-Philippe) Château de Sans-Souci, Jardín siciliano.
 Aigle et serpent, (bronce) Château de Sans-Souci, Jardín siciliano.

 Galería de imágenes

 Bibliografía
Périodiques
 "Animaux en plâtre, par M. Fratin", L'Artiste, t. VIII, 1833-1834.L'Artiste, t. IX, 1834, p.136-137.
 "De la sculpture et des bronzes de M. Fratin", L'Artiste, t. XI, 1834 p.46-47.
 "Animaux en bronze de M. Fratin, fondus par M. Quesnel", L'Artiste, t. XI, 1834 p.281-282.
 Vaucher, M. de "Fratin", Archives des hommes du jour, 1847.
 "Fratin", L'Artiste, 1864, t. II,  septembre, p.119.
 Janin, Jules, "Fratin", 1864, t. II,  octobre, p.166.

Obras generales
 Kjellberg, Pierre, Les bronzes du XIXe siècle, Dictionnaire des sculptures, Paris, Les éditions de l'amateur, 1987.
 Lami, Stanislas, Dictionnaire des sculpteurs de l'École française au dix-neuvième siècle, t.II, Paris, 1916 (Klaus reprint, 1970).

Monografías
 Bongon, Jacqueline, Le sculpteur animalier Christophe Fratin, Essai sur sa vie et son œuvre, Le Raincy [sans indication d'éditeur], 1983.
 Poletti, Michel; Richarme, Alain, Inventaire des oeuvres de Fratin'', Paris, Editions Univers du bronze, 2000.

Enlaces externos

 Bronze Gallery: Christophe Fratin
 Central Park Conservancy: Eagles and Prey

Escultores de Francia del siglo XIX
Sepultados en el cementerio de Montmartre
Nacidos en Metz

Christopher Fratin


Anthony Paul Kennedy Shriver (born July 20, 1965) is an American activist for people with intellectual disabilities. In 1989, he founded Best Buddies International, an international organization that helps people with intellectual disabilities to find employment and social opportunities. Through his mother, he is a nephew of World War II casualty Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., President John F. Kennedy, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, and Senator Ted Kennedy.

Early life and education
Shriver was born at St. Elizabeth's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, to Eunice Kennedy Shriver and Sargent Shriver, Jr. His mother is the founder of Special Olympics and his father is a founding director of the Peace Corps.

He graduated from the Georgetown Preparatory School in 1984. He then attended Brown University before transferring to Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., from which he graduated in 1988 with a double major in theology and history.

Career
Shriver is the founder and chairman of Best Buddies International a nonprofit 501(c)(3) organization which he created in 1989. Best Buddies is a nonprofit organization that provides adults and children with intellectual and developmental disabilities social inclusion and job opportunities. He has been able to get the organization to spread throughout the world and it has over 1500 chapters today. Shriver spoke in 2008 about the all-inclusive nature of the program:
"The great thing about Best Buddies is there's something for everybody. You can be a volunteer in some shape, form or fashion, whether you're volunteering to get your kids involved, whether your son or daughter is involved in their school program, whether you want to be a mentor yourself as an adult, whether you want to get an online Buddy, whether you're an employer and want to hire someone with a disability to work in your office—if you've got any sense of motivation and determination and want to give back, there's a role for you at Best Buddies, which I think is pretty unique. Even in Special Olympics, for most people, you can be a coach or a spectator, but you're not going to run the 50-yard dash. In Best Buddies, you're running the 50-yard dash with your Buddy. People get a different level of experience by participating, as opposed to writing a check, though that's important, too. But beyond writing checks, we need people to get involved and give their time."

Best Buddies has grown into a leading nonprofit entity with increasing international reach across six continents and 54 countries worldwide; establishing a global volunteer movement that creates opportunities for one-to-one friendships, integrated employment and leadership development for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

In 2017, the Boston Globe uncovered that donations from Best Buddies had been given to Tom Brady's personal charity. "Since 2011, while Brady has served as the face of its signature Massachusetts fund-raiser and helped it raise nearly $20 million, Best Buddies has paid $2.75 million to Brady's own charitable trust and has pledged to grant the organization an additional $500,000 in 2017--a total of $3.25 million.". In 2017, Boston Globe journalists were denied access to the annual Hyannis Port Challenge at Harvard university, Best buddies later apologized for the incident.

In addition, Anthony and his brother Timothy (the chairman of the Special Olympics) have recently aligned Best Buddies and the Special Olympics to create the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Challenge event, aimed to encourage greater acceptance and inclusion for those with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Shriver has also been a director of UniCapital Corp. since March 1998. UniCapital Corp. is an investment house.

He is currently on the board of directors of Level Brands.

Politics
Shriver - along with most members of the extended Kennedy family - is a part of the Democratic Party. In 2005, he considered running for Governor of Florida in the 2006 election. He was also said to have considered a run for Governor of Florida in the 2010 election.

Personal life
Shriver married Alina Mojica on July 2, 1993, in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. Until March 2020, he resided in Miami Beach, Florida, with Alina and their five children: Edward Nunez (Teddy), Eunice Julia Shriver, Francesca Maria Shriver, Carolina Fitzgerald Kennedy Shriver, and John Joseph Sargent Shriver. Alina and Anthony filed for divorce in November 2018; they sold their shared Miami Beach home in March 2020.

See also
 Kennedy family tree

References

9. International programs- Best Buddies, https://www.bestbuddies.org/international-programs/

External links
 bestbuddies.org, Best Buddies International official website
 Timothy & Anthony Shriver — Eunice's Legacy  ABILITY Magazine, Aug/Sept 2010
 Profile by Betsy J. Rosenblatt

1965 births
American disability rights activists
Georgetown University College of Arts & Sciences alumni
Florida Democrats
Kennedy family
Living people
Activists from Boston
People from Miami
People from Potomac, Maryland
Shriver family
Georgetown Preparatory School alumni

Anthony Shriver


Pigí, en , est un village du dème de Patras, district régional d'Achaïe, en Grèce-Occidentale.

Selon le recensement de 2011, le village est inhabité.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Village en Grèce-Occidentale

Pigí (Achaïe)


Scarodytes es un género de coleópteros adéfagos  perteneciente a la familia Dytiscidae.

Especies
Scarodytes antoni	(Fery & Stastny 2007)
Scarodytes halensis	(Fabricius 1787)
Scarodytes malickyi	(Wewalka 1977)
Scarodytes margaliti	(Wewalka 1977)
Scarodytes pederzanii	(Angelini 1973)
Scarodytes roberti	(Fery 2011)
Scarodytes ruffoi	(Franciscolo 1961)
Scarodytes savinensis                                  	(Zimmermann 1933)

Referencias

  2011: Scarodytes roberti nov. sp. from Greece (Coleoptera, Dytiscidae). Linzer biologische Beiträge, 43(1): 381-398. [not seen]
 ;  2007: Notes on the Scarodytes savinensis-complex with the description of two new taxa (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae). Linzer biologische Beiträge, 39(2): 877-899. abstract only seen
 des Gozis 1914 Tabl. Déterm. Dytiscides (ex Misc. ent., 21), 110. [not seen]
  1977: Die Arten der Gattung Scarodytes aus Griechenland und eine neue Art dieser Gattung aus Israel (Dytiscidae, Col.) Koleopterologische rundschau, 53: 137-144. PDF

Enlaces externos

 Nomenclator Zoologicus

Hydroporini

Scarodytes


An Habenaria castroi in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Roberto González Tamayo ngan Cuevas-figueroa. An Habenaria castroi in nahilalakip ha genus nga Habenaria, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Habenaria

Habenaria castroi


Margarita Wendy Widmann Lagarde de Berger (n. 11 de agosto de 1946, Ciudad de Guatemala) fue la primera dama de Guatemala durante el período de 14 de enero de 2004 al 14 de enero de 2008, esposa del expresidente de Guatemala Lic.Oscar Berger.

Biografía
Nació el 9 de diciembre de 1953 en la Ciudad de Guatemala, región central de Guatemala, realizó sus estudios de primaria y secundaria en el Colegio Monte María, es la quinta de seis hijos del matrimonio de  Walter Widmann y Carlota Lagarde. En 1967 contrajo matrimonio con el expresidente de Guatemala Oscar Berger, con quien  procreó cinco hijos: Oscar, Denise, Juan Esteban, Francisco y Wendy Berger Widmann. Actualmente es abuela de 5 nietos. Su interés por las relaciones humanas le impulsó a realizar estudios de Sociología en el Trinity College, Washington D. C., Estados Unidos.

Trayectoria política

Primera dama de la ciudad
En 1991, Oscar Berger asume el cargo de alcalde metropolitano de la Ciudad de Guatemala, durante ocho años, como esposa del jefe edil y presidenta se encargó de la Secretaría de Asuntos Sociales de la Municipalidad, Wendy realizó diversos proyectos para favorecer a grupos vulnerables, como la niñez y la mujer.

Impulsó la construcción de vivienda mínima y fundó el centro escolar "Francisco Col" con el objetivo de que los niños egresados del jardín infantil continúen sus estudios. Así mismo, consolidó el "Programa de Guarderías" éste para niños y niñas de familias en situación de pobreza, a quienes en la actualidad se les brinda alimentación, educación, recreación y cuidado de la salud. En 1996 Wendy de Berger colabora con el programa "Eduquemos a la Niña", diseñado para formar y ayudar a niñas y adolescentes en condiciones precarias, otorgándoles becas de estudio y planes de desarrollo integral.

Durante la campaña por la presidencia del Lic. Oscar Berger en 2003, diseñó y ejecutó el "Plan Nacional de Cruzadas de Mujeres", con el objetivo de escuchar el sentir y profundizar en el pensamiento de la mujer guatemalteca en sus lugares de origen.

Primera dama de Guatemala
El 14 de enero de 2004, asume la presidencia de la República el licenciado Oscar Berger, Wendy está al frente de la Secretaría de Obras Sociales de la Esposa del Presidente de la República de Guatemala por su siglas (SOSEP), cuya misión es promover y apoyar acciones en educación y salud que incidan de manera positiva en una generación de guatemaltecos y guatemaltecas sanos y con oportunidades de desarrollo. En este esfuerzo se le ha otorgado un espacio importante a la participación de la mujer.

Wendy de Berger se manifiesta con claridad la filosofía en los programas de desarrollo social: "Amigos de la Escuela", "Creciendo Bien", "Manos a la Obra" para que sean los miembros de sus comunidades los que generen su propio cambio. La esposa del expresidente Berger continua impulsando programas y proyectos sociales para beneficio de todos los guatemaltecos, especialmente aquellos que más necesitan la solidaridad de sus conciudadanos.

Referencias

Primeras damas de Guatemala
Alumnado de la Universidad Trinity Washington

Wendy de Berger


Vânturelul de Amur (Falco amurensis) este o specie endemică pentru partea asiatică a Rusiei (în special pe valea Amurului), nordul Chinei și Coreea de Nord. Iernează în Peninsula Arabă, India și Africa de Sud (regiune).

Pe data de 29.05.2017 a fost observat un exemplar la Murighiol.
Până de curând a fost considerată o subspecie a vânturelului de seară (Falco vespertinus).
De obicei se hrănește cu insecte și rozătoare mici.
Nu-și construiește cuib, ci ocupă cuiburi de ciori.

Falconidae

Falco amurensis


Procopie Ioan Dumitrescu  (n. 9 iunie 1845, Paris, Franța - d. ?) a fost un jurist, politician român liberal și primar al Bucureștiului în două rânduri: în perioada aprilie 1901 - noiembrie 1902 și în perioada februarie 1910 - ianuarie 1911. De asemenea în perioada august 1877 - noiembrie 1878, pe când România era angajată în Războiul de Independență, capitala nu a avut un primar, locul acestuia fiind luat de un ajutor de primar în pesoana lui Procop I. Dumitrescu.

A urmat studii în Drept la Paris, din 1870 intrând în magistratură, unde a rămas doar șase ani, pentru a se dedica apoi carierei politice. La începutul carierei sale a fost prefect al Poliției Capitalei, în perioada 6 noiembrie 1876 – 15 februarie
1877.

Pentru activitatea sa a fost decorat Comandor al Ordinul național "Steaua României".

În prezent, o stradă din sectorul 2 al Bucureștiului  îi poartă numele.

Referințe

Nașteri în 1845
Decese cu dată necunoscută
Juriști români
Politicieni români din secolul al XIX-lea
Politicieni români din secolul al XX-lea
Primari ai Bucureștiului
Decorați cu Ordinul Steaua României
Prefecți de poliție români
Membri ai Partidului Național Liberal

Procopie Ioan Dumitrescu


The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) F-15E Strike Eagle is an American all-weather multirole strike fighter derived from the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. The F-15E was designed in the 1980s for long-range, high-speed interdiction without relying on escort or electronic-warfare aircraft. United States Air Force (USAF) F-15E Strike Eagles can be generally distinguished from other US Eagle variants by darker aircraft camouflage, conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) mounted along the engine intake ramps (although CFTs can also be mounted on earlier F-15 variants) and a tandem-seat cockpit.

The Strike Eagle has been deployed for military operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, and Libya, among others.  During these operations, the strike fighter has carried out deep strikes against high-value targets and combat air patrols, and provided close air support for coalition troops. It has also been exported to several countries.

Development

Origins
The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle was introduced by the USAF to replace its fleet of McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs. Unlike the F-4, the F-15 was designed for the air superiority mission with little consideration for a ground-attack role; the F-15 Special Project Office opposed the idea of F-15s performing the interdiction mission, giving rise to the phrase "Not a pound for air to ground." In service, the F-15 has been a successful fighter, scoring over 100 aerial combat victories and zero losses in air-to-air combat as of 2007.

Despite a lack of official interest, McDonnell Douglas quietly worked on an F-15-derived interdictor fighter. The company envisaged the aircraft as a replacement for the General Dynamics F-111 and the remaining F-4s, as well as to augment the existing F-15s. In 1978, the USAF initiated the Tactical All-Weather Requirement Study, which looked at McDonnell Douglas's proposal and other options such as the purchase of further F-111Fs. The study recommended the F-15E as the USAF's future strike platform. In 1979, McDonnell Douglas and Hughes began a close collaboration on the development of the F-15E's air-to-ground capabilities.

To assist in the F-15E's development, McDonnell Douglas modified the second TF-15A prototype, AF serial number 71-0291, as a demonstrator. The aircraft, known as the Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator, first flew on 8 July 1980. It was previously used to test conformal fuel tanks (CFTs), initially designed for the F-15 under the designation "FAST Pack", with FAST standing for "Fuel and Sensor, Tactical. It was subsequently fitted with a Pave Tack laser designator targeting pod to allow the independent delivery of guided bombs. The demonstrator was displayed at the 1980 Farnborough Airshow.

Enhanced Tactical Fighter
In March 1981, the USAF announced the Enhanced Tactical Fighter program to procure a replacement for the F-111. The program was later renamed the Dual-Role Fighter (DRF) competition. The concept envisioned an aircraft capable of launching deep air interdiction missions without requiring additional support by fighter escort or jamming. General Dynamics submitted the F-16XL, while McDonnell Douglas submitted the F-15E. The Panavia Tornado was also a candidate, but since the aircraft lacked a credible air-superiority fighter capability, coupled with the fact that it was not American-made, it was not seriously considered.

The DRF evaluation team, under the direction of Brigadier General Ronald W. Yates, ran from 1981 through 30 April 1983, during which the F-15E logged more than 200 flights, demonstrated takeoff weight of more than , and validated 16 different weapons-carrying configurations. McDonnell Douglas, to assist 71-0291 in the evaluation, added to the program other F-15s, designated 78-0468, 80-0055, and 81-0063. The single-engined F-16XL was a promising design, which with its radically redesigned cranked-delta wing, greatly boosted performance; if selected, the single- and two-seat versions were to be designated F-16E and F-16F, respectively. On 24 February 1984, the USAF chose the F-15E; key factors in the decision were the F-15E's lower development costs compared to the F-16XL (US$270 million versus US$470 million), a belief that the F-15E had future growth potential, and possessing twin-engine redundancy. The USAF was initially expected to procure 400 aircraft, a figure later revised to 392.

Construction of the first three F-15Es started in July 1985. The first of these, 86-0183, made its maiden flight on 11 December 1986. Piloted by Gary Jennings, the aircraft reached a maximum speed of Mach 0.9 and an altitude of 40,000 feet (12,000 m) during the 75-minute flight. This aircraft had the full F-15E avionics suite and the redesigned front fuselage, but not the aft fuselage and the common engine bay. The latter was featured on 86-0184, while 86-0185 incorporated all the changes of the F-15E from the F-15. On 31 March 1987, the first officially completed F-15E made its first flight.

The first production F-15E was delivered to the 405th Tactical Training Wing, Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, in April 1988. Production continued into the 2000s with 236 produced for the USAF through 2001.

Upgrade programs and replacement

The F-15E was upgraded with the Raytheon AN/APG-82(V)1 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar after 2007, and the first test radar was delivered to Boeing in 2010. It combines the processor of the APG-79 used on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet with the antenna of the APG-63(V)3 AESA being fitted on the F-15C; it was named APG-63(V)4 until it received the APG-82 designation in 2009. The new radar is to be part of the F-15E Radar Modernization Program, which also includes a wideband radome (enabling operation on more radar frequencies) and environment control and electronic warfare improvements.

Having a sturdier airframe rated for twice the lifetime of earlier variants, the F-15E is expected to remain in service past 2025. , the USAF's F-15E fleet had an average age of 21 years and an average airframe flying time of 6,000 hours. In 2012, the USAF was reportedly considering future options; no replacement for the F-15E is slated. In 2021, Boeing stated that its F-15EX Eagle II aircraft will replace the existing fleet of F-15C Eagle fighters in the USAF, with the option to also begin replacing the F-15E Strike Eagle aircraft. The F-15EX Eagle II follows very closely to the Strike Eagle design, with a two-seat configuration as well as further air to ground capabilities. The USAF has stated that they will look into the F-15EX replacing the Strike Eagles at a later time. Another choice is the F-35 Lightning II, set to replace other aircraft such as the F-16 Falcon; a F-35E variant was studied. Adding a second seat to the F-35 is complex and costly, especially to preserve its stealth profile; providing for greater range and payload would also be difficult tasks. Alternatively, the role could be covered by a combination of fighter and bomber aircraft, such as the B-21 Raider. The F-15E may also be replaced by a clean-sheet sixth-generation aircraft design.

ALASA
On 24 March 2014, Boeing won a $30.6 million contract from DARPA as part of the Airborne Launch Assist Space Access (ALASA) program.  The goal of the program is to cut the cost of putting microsatellites into orbit by 66% through advances in launch systems.  Under the 11-month contract, Boeing will build twelve  launch vehicles, each with a payload capability up to . An ALASA vehicle is to be fitted under an F-15E, which will climb to 40,000 ft, then be released and fire its four engines to reach low-Earth orbit.  Awarding the contract to Boeing would make use of the F-15E as the carriage vehicle, as previous design contracts had been given to Lockheed Martin to use the F-22 Raptor and Virgin Galactic to use their SpaceShip Two aircraft. DARPA had previously insisted they wanted to select an aircraft they would not need to modify heavily to carry and launch the ALASA payload. The project was terminated in late 2015.

Design

The F-15E's deep-strike mission is a radical departure from the original intent of the F-15 since it was designed as an air-superiority fighter under the mantra "not a pound for air-to-ground." The basic airframe, however, proved versatile enough to produce a very capable strike fighter. The F-15E, while designed for ground attack, retains the air-to-air lethality of the F-15, and can defend itself against enemy aircraft.

The F-15E prototype was a modification of the two-seat F-15B. Despite its origins, it includes significant structural changes as well as more powerful engines. The aft fuselage was designed to incorporate the more powerful engines with advanced engine bay structures and doors, which incorporate Superplastic forming and diffusion bonding technologies. The back seat is equipped for a weapon systems officer (WSO, pronounced "wizzo") to work the air-to-ground avionics via multiple screens; these view the radar, electronic warfare, or thermographic cameras, monitor aircraft or weapons status and possible threats, select targets, and use an electronic moving map to navigate. Two hand controls are used to select new displays and to refine targeting information; displays can be moved from one screen to another using a menu of display options. Unlike previous two-place jets (e.g. the F-14 Tomcat and Navy variants of the F-4), whose back seat omitted flying controls, the F-15E's back seat is equipped with its own stick and throttle so the WSO can take over flying, albeit with reduced visibility.

For extended range, the F-15E is fitted with two conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) that hug the fuselage to produce lower drag than conventional underwing/underbelly drop tanks. They carry 750 U.S. gallons (2,800 L) of fuel, and house six weapons hardpoints in two rows of three in tandem. Unlike conventional drop tanks, CFTs cannot be jettisoned, thus increased range is a trade-off for increased drag and weight compared to a "clean" configuration.

The tactical electronic warfare system (TEWS) integrates all countermeasures on the craft: radar warning receivers, radar jammer, radar, and chaff/flare dispensers are all tied to the TEWS to provide comprehensive defense against detection and tracking. This system includes an externally mounted ALQ-131 ECM pod which is carried on the centerline pylon when required. The MIDS Fighter Data Link Terminal, produced by BAE Systems, improves situational awareness and communications capabilities via the Link 16 datalink.

The APG-70 radar allows crews to detect ground targets from longer ranges; one feature is that, after a sweep of a target area, the crew may freeze the air-to-ground map then switch to air-to-air mode to scan for aerial threats. During air-to-surface weapon delivery, the pilot is capable of detecting, targeting, and engaging air-to-air targets while the WSO designates ground targets. The APG-70 is to be replaced by the AN/APG-82(V)1 AESA radar, which began flight tests in January 2010 with initial operational capability expected in 2014.

Its inertial navigation system uses a laser gyroscope to continuously monitor the aircraft's position and provide information to the central computer and other systems, including a digital moving map in both cockpits. The LANTIRN system is mounted externally under the engine intakes; it allows the aircraft to fly at low altitudes, at night, and in any weather conditions, to attack ground targets with a variety of precision-guided and unguided weapons. The LANTIRN system gives the F-15E exceptional accuracy in weapons delivery day or night and in poor weather, and consists of two pods attached to the exterior of the aircraft. At night, the video picture from the LANTIRN can be projected on the head-up display (HUD), producing an infrared image of the ground.

The AN/AAQ-13 navigation pod contains a terrain-following radar which allows the pilot to safely fly at a very low altitude following cues displayed on a HUD; it also can be coupled to the autopilot to provide "hands off" terrain-following capability. This pod also contains a forward-looking infrared system which is projected on the HUD, typically used during nighttime or low-visibility operations. The nav pod is installed beneath the right engine intake. The targeting pod contains a laser designator and a tracking system that mark an enemy for destruction as far away as 10 mi (16 km). Once tracking has started, targeting information is automatically handed off to infrared homing air-to-surface missiles or laser-guided bombs. The targeting pod is mounted beneath the left engine intake; configurations may be either the AN/AAQ-14, AN/AAQ-28(V) Litening, or the AN/AAQ-33 Sniper.

The F-15E carries the most air-to-ground weapons in the USAF inventory. It is also armed with AIM-9 Sidewinders and AIM-120 AMRAAMs, retaining the counter-air capabilities of its Eagle lineage, being fully capable of Offensive-Counter-Air operations. Like the F-15C, it also carries an internally mounted General Electric M61A1 20 mm cannon with 500 rounds, which is effective against enemy aircraft and "soft" ground targets.

Since 2004, South Korean firm LIG Nex1 has been manufacturing the F-15's Head-up display; a total number of 150 HUDs were delivered by 2011. LIG Nex1 had been a participant in the F-15K program as a subcontractor to Rockwell Collins. LIG Nex1 is also preparing to manufacture F-15's new multi-function display and flight control computer. Also since 2004, Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) has produced the F-15's wings and forward fuselages; in 2008, KAI established another production line for Singapore's F-15SG. KAI is involved in the design and manufacture of the Conformal Weapons Bay (CWB) for the F-15 Silent Eagle.

The engines used on early aircraft are Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-220. Later batches feature the more powerful P&W F100-PW-229 engines. Saudi Arabian and Israeli aircraft originally used P&W F100-229 engines. In 2008, Saudi Arabia decided to re-engine their F-15S and F-15SA fleets with General Electric F110-GE-129 engines. The South Korean F-15K had two different engines; the first batch are powered by GE F110 engines, while the second batch are powered by P&W F100 engines. The Singapore Air Force equipped their F-15SG fleet with GE F110 engines.

Operational history

United States
The F-15E was first delivered to the U.S. Air Force operational units in 1988. The F-15E reached initial operational capability on 30 September 1989 at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in North Carolina with the 4th Tactical Fighter Wing, 336th Tactical Fighter Squadron.

Gulf War

The F-15E was deployed in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 for Operation Desert Shield. The 336th Tactical Fighter Squadron flew to Seeb Air Base in Oman to begin training exercises in anticipation of an Iraqi attack on Saudi Arabia; in December, the 335th and 336th squadrons relocated to Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia, closer to Iraq's border. At the start of Operation Desert Storm, 24 F-15Es launched an attack on five fixed Scud installations in western Iraq on 17 January 1991.  Missions against Scud sites continued through that night with a second strike of 21 F-15Es. At night-time, F-15Es flew hunter missions over western Iraq, searching for mobile SCUD launchers. By conducting random bombings in suspected areas, it was hoped to deter the Iraqis from setting up for a Scud launch.

On the war's opening night, an F-15E failed to hit a MiG-29 with an AIM-9 Sidewinder; other F-15Es also unsuccessfully engaged this lone MiG-29, which was eventually brought down by a missile of unknown origin. On 18 January, during a strike against a petrol oil and lubricant plant near Basrah, an F-15E was lost to enemy fire, killing both pilot and WSO. F-15E crews described this mission as the most difficult and dangerous of the war as it was heavily defended by SA-3s, SA-6s, SA-8s and Rolands as well as by anti-aircraft artillery. Two nights later, a second and final F-15E was downed by an Iraqi SA-2; the crew survived and evaded capture for several days and made contact with coalition aircraft, but a rescue was not launched due to security issues over an airman who failed to identify himself with proper codes. The Iraqis later captured both airmen.

F-15Es destroyed 18 Iraqi jets on the ground at Tallil air base using GBU-12s and CBU-87s. On 14 February, an F-15E scored its only air-to-air kill of the war: a Mil Mi-24 helicopter. While responding to a request for help by US Special Forces, five Iraqi helicopters were spotted. The lead F-15E of two, via its FLIR, acquired a helicopter in the process of unloading Iraqi soldiers, and released a GBU-10 bomb. The F-15E crew thought the bomb had missed its target and were preparing to use a Sidewinder when the helicopter was destroyed. The Special Forces team estimated that the Hind was roughly  over the ground when the  bomb hit its target. As another Coalition bombing operation had commenced, the F-15Es disengaged from combat with the remaining helicopters.

F-15Es struck heavily defended targets throughout Iraq, prioritizing SCUD missile sites. Missions aimed at killing Iraqi President Saddam Hussein were undertaken by F-15Es, bombing several suspected locations. Prior to the ground war, F-15Es flew tank plinking missions against Iraqi vehicles in Kuwait. After 42 days of combat, a cease fire came into effect on 1 March 1991, leading to the creation of Northern and Southern no-fly zones over Iraq.

Operations Southern Watch and Northern Watch

Following Desert Storm, two no-fly zones over Iraq were set up, and enforced typically by US and UK aircraft. In one incident, an attack on up to 600 Kurdish refugees by Iraqi helicopters at Chamchamal, northern Iraq, was observed by a flight of F-15Es. As they were not allowed to open fire, the F-15Es instead conducted several high speed passes as close as possible to the Iraqi helicopters to create severe wake-turbulence, while aiming lasers at the helicopter's cockpits to attempt to blind their crews; this caused the crash of one Hind. Afterwards, USAF leadership ordered F-15Es not to fly below  to deter a repetition.

F-15Es of the 391st Fighter Squadron, 492d Fighter Squadron, and 494th Fighter Squadron regularly deployed to Turkey throughout the 1990s. In January 1993, in breach of the ceasefire agreement, Iraqi targets below the 32nd parallel north were attacked; 10 F-15Es conducted a punitive strike days later. Most missions were of a defensive nature, the Strike Eagles carried a flexible range of weapons on a typical mission. AWACS aircraft were in close contact with F-15E crews, who would receive new taskings while airborne and thus could fly unplanned attacks on Iraqi targets. After 1993, no-fly zone violations were minimal as Iraq staged a minor withdrawal; in 1997, Turkey approved the creation of Operation Northern Watch (ONW) and permitted US forces to use the Incirlik air base.

In December 1998, Operation Desert Fox was conducted when Iraq refused UNSCOM inspections. On 28 December 1998, three F-15Es struck an SA-3 tracking radar and optical guidance unit, each dropping two GBU-12 500-pound precision-guided munitions (PGMs). After Desert Fox, Iraq frequently violated the no-fly zones, thus F-15Es conducted several pre-planned retaliatory strikes; in ONW alone, weapons were expended on at least 105 days. Between 24 and 26 January 1999, F-15Es expended several AGM-130s and GBU-12s against SAM sites near Mosul, northern Iraq. They also flew in support of Operation Provide Comfort and Operation Provide Comfort II.

Operations in the Balkans

Operation Deny Flight was a United Nations-enforced no-fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina due to the deteriorating situation in the Balkans. In August 1993, F-15Es from 492nd and 494th FS deployed to Aviano, Italy. In late 1993, NATO ordered a limited F-15E strike at Udbina airfield, targeting Serbian forces in neighboring Croatia. Eight F-15Es armed with GBU-12s took off to attack an SA-6 anti-aircraft vehicle; the mission was cancelled mid-flight over the application of stringent Rules of Engagement. In December 1993, F-15Es launched to destroy a pair of SA-2s which had fired upon two Royal Navy Sea Harrier FRS 1s. In August 1995, F-15Es of 90th Fighter Squadron were also deployed. The 492d and 494th flew over 2,500 sorties since starting Deny Flight, 2,000 of these by 492d. In August 1995, in support of NATO's Operation Deliberate Force, F-15Es flew strike missions against Serbian armor and logistics around the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo. On 9 September, an F-15E deployed the type's first GBU-15 bomb; dropping nine on Bosnian-Serb ground forces and air defense targets near Banja Luka.

In response to the displacement of Kosovars and the Serbian government's rejection of a NATO ultimatum, Operation Allied Force was launched in March 1999.  A total of 26 F-15Es flew the first strikes of Allied Force against Serb surface-to-air-missile sites, anti-aircraft batteries and early warning radar stations. Strike Eagles were deployed to Aviano as well as RAF Lakenheath in the UK. In-theater, F-15Es conducted close air support (CAS) missions, a popular concept within the USAF. Missions typically lasted around 7.5 hours, included two aerial refuelings; F-15Es would carry a mix of air-to-air and air-to-ground munitions to perform both combat air patrol duties as well as strike missions in the same mission. Mobile SAM launchers posed a considerable threat to NATO aircraft and had made successful shoot-downs, most notably of a Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk. In order to strike from increased distances, the F-15E was equipped with the AGM-130, which provided a stand-off strike capability.

Operation Enduring Freedom

Weeks after the  in 2001, the 391st Fighter Squadron deployed to Ahmad al-Jaber air base, Kuwait, to support Operation Enduring Freedom during the War in Afghanistan. F-15Es met little resistance during initial missions. On the first night, the main targets were Taliban military structures, supply depots, and al-Qaeda training camps and caves. Both the AGM-130 and GBU-15  bombs were expended; this was the GBU-15's first combat usage. GBU-24s and GBU-28s were used against reinforced targets, command and control centers and cave entrances. F-15Es often operated in pairs alongside pairs of F-16Cs. Within weeks of the start of combat operations, there was a lack of targets to strike as nearly all targets had been already destroyed. The Taliban had access to SA-7 and FIM-92 Stinger portable surface-to-air missiles, posing no threat to most aircraft flying above . Additionally, fixed SAM sites near cities as Mazar-i-Sharif and Bagram were struck early on; Afghanistan had rapidly become a low-threat environment for air operations.

Aircraft commonly flew on-call support missions for allied ground forces, F-15Es usually carried MK-82 and GBU-12 bombs in this role, other weapons were sometimes carried, during one mission a GBU-28, two GBU-24s and six GBU-12s were released. Frequent targets during the rest of the war were individual insurgents, light vehicles and supply convoys; cannon fire was often expended as well as bombs from F-15Es. It was during combat over Afghanistan that four 391st crews conducted the longest fighter mission in history; lasting a total of 15.5 hours, nine of those hours spent flying over the target area. Two F-15Es attacked two Taliban command and control facilities, two buildings suspected of being used by Taliban fighters, and a road block; the F-15Es refueled 12 times during the mission.

On 4 March, another incident known as the Battle of Roberts' Ridge involved several F-15Es performing a CAS mission. Aircraft destroyed a Taliban observation post and responded to nearby enemy mortar fire upon Navy SEAL forces searching for an ambushed MH-47E Chinook in the Shah-i-Kot Valley. Several bombs were dropped as the SEAL team took fire, however one bomb missed due to the aircrew using incorrect coordinates. An MH-47 carrying a rescue team was downed by an RPG while attempting to support the SEALs. Following refueling, the F-15Es dropped a further 11 GBU-12s in coordination with ground forces, and fired their cannons on Taliban forces in close proximity to the survivors of the downed MH-47. F-16s of 18th Fighter Squadron also made strafing passes until cannon ammunition was depleted, then resorting to further bomb drops. The F-15Es suffered technical issues involving both radio and weapon failures, several GBU-12s were dropped before returning to Al Jaber in Kuwait.

Years later, several incidents occurred. On 23 August 2007, a friendly fire incident involved an F-15E mistakenly dropping a  bomb on British forces, killing three soldiers; the stated cause was confusion between the air controller and the F-15E on the bombing coordinates. On 13 September 2009, an F-15E shot down a non-responsive MQ-9 Reaper drone over Northern Afghanistan to prevent it entering foreign airspace.

Operation Iraqi Freedom

In late 2002, during tension over suspected Iraqi possession of weapons of mass destruction, the 4th Fighter Wing at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base was ordered to maintain at least one squadron ready to deploy to the Persian Gulf. During January 2003, the 336th was deployed to Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, in coordination with planners of the Combined Air Operations Center at Prince Sultan Air Base, Saudi Arabia. In late January, F-15Es began flying in Operation Southern Watch, typically performing surveillance and reconnaissance missions. Additional roles included simulated combat against potential Iraqi targets and regional familiarization with local procedures and rules of engagement. During OSW, F-15Es struck targets in southern and western Iraq, including radars, radio stations, command and control sites, and air defences. On one night, four F-15Es released multiple GBU-24s on the Iraqi Republican Guard/Baath Party HQ in Basrah while another flight of four destroyed a nearby Air Defense Sector HQ with six GBU-10s.

In late February, the 336th received additional aircrews, many drafted from the two non-deployable squadrons at Seymour Johnson (the 333d and 334th Fighter Squadrons) and 391st Fighter Squadron at Mountain Home Air Force Base, for a total of four aircrews per F-15E. In March, the 335th Fighter Squadron's personnel and aircraft joined the 336th at Al Udeid. One objective was the destruction of Iraq's air defenses and Early Warning radar network near the Jordanian border, allowing F-16s and helicopters to operate from Jordan from the war's outset. Several radar sites and radio relay stations were hit in western Iraq near the "H3" airfield, encountering heavy anti-aircraft fire.

On 19 March, as F-117 Nighthawks dropped bombs over Baghdad, targeting a house where Saddam Hussein was believed to be; F-15Es dropped GBU-28s around the H3 airfield. On 20 March, the effective start of the war, F-15Es fired AGM-130s against communication, command and control buildings, and other key targets in Baghdad; some weapons missed their intended targets, possibly due to jamming by EA-6B Prowlers in the vicinity. On 3 April 2003, an F-15E mistook a M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System (MLRS) for an Iraqi surface-to-air missile site and dropped a  laser-guided bomb, killing three and wounding five others.

On 7 April 2003, an F-15E, crewed by Captain Eric Das and Major William Watkins, performed a key interdiction mission in support of special forces; it was likely shot down by AA fire while bombing targets around Tikrit. Das and Watkins were posthumously awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Purple Heart. During the war, F-15Es were credited with destroying 60% of the Iraqi Medina Republican Guard's total force; they also struck 65 MiGs on the ground, and destroyed key air defense and command buildings in Baghdad. F-15Es worked with other jets deployed to Al Udeid, including RAAF F/A-18s, USAF F-16s and F-117s, RAF Panavia Tornados and US Navy F-14s.

Operation Odyssey Dawn
Following the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on 17 March 2011, 18 USAF F-15Es were amongst other NATO and allied aircraft were deployed to enforce the Libyan no-fly zone as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn. On 21 March 2011, an F-15E from the 492d FS crashed near Bengazi, Libya. Both crew members parachuted into territory held by resistance elements of the Libyan population and were eventually rescued by US Marines. Equipment problems caused a weight imbalance and contributed to the crash when leaving the target area.

Operations against Islamic State (2014–present)
USAF F-15Es have participated in Operation Inherent Resolve against Islamic State (IS) militants in Iraq and Syria. On the morning of 23 September 2014, numerous American and Arab aircraft conducted air strikes in Syria against IS fighters, training compounds, headquarters and command and control facilities, storage facilities, a finance center, supply trucks, and armed vehicles. The Pentagon released videos of targets hit by ordnance deployed by F-15Es, taken by their AN/AAQ-33 Sniper targeting pods. Between August 2014 and January 2015, F-15Es flew 37 percent of all USAF sorties.

USAF F-15Es based at RAF Lakenheath in the United Kingdom performed several long range strikes against IS camps and prominent figures in Libya. On 13 November 2015, a pair of F-15Es killed Abu Nabil al-Anbari, the leader of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant in Libya, in a strike near Darnah, Eastern Libya. On 20 February 2016, USAF F-15Es hit an IS training camp near Sabratha where foreign fighters were based, reportedly killing Noureddine Chouchane, a 36-year-old Tunisian jihadist linked to the 2015 Sousse attacks. Sources said that 49 people were killed and 6 wounded; two Serbians kidnapped by IS in 2015 were also reportedly killed.

On 8 June 2017, an F-15E shot down a pro-Syrian Regime UAV near Al Tanf, Syria; according to OIR officials, it was downed after deploying "one of several weapons it was carrying near a position occupied by Coalition personnel... [It was] similar in size to a U.S. MQ-1 Predator". The drone may have been a Shahed 129; on 20 June 2017, a second Shahed-129 was downed by an F-15E near the 50 mile exclusion zone around Al-Tanf.

On 21 August 2021, a USAF F-15E shot down an unidentified drone with an AIM-9X Sidewinder missile as the drone approached US forces in Eastern Syria.

Israel

The F-15I is operated by the Israeli Defense Force/Air Force No 69 Squadron, succeeding the F-4 Phantom II. It is used akin to a strategic bomber due to its long range, high munition capacity and advanced systems.

After the Gulf War in 1991, in which Israeli towns were attacked by SCUD missiles based in Iraq, the Israeli government decided a long range strike aircraft was needed, issuing a Request for Information (RFI). In response, Lockheed Martin offered a version of the F-16 Fighting Falcon, while McDonnell Douglas offered both the F/A-18 Hornet and the F-15E. On 27 January 1994, the Israeli government announced their intention to buy 21 modified F-15Es, designated F-15I. On 12 May 1994, the US Government authorized the purchase of up to 25 F-15Is by Israel. In November 1995, Israel ordered four extra F-15Is; 25 were built from 1996 to 1998. Some of the air-to-air missiles aircraft can carry: the AIM-9L, Rafael Python 4 and the Rafael Python 5 infrared-homing missiles; and the AIM-7 Sparrow and the AIM-120 AMRAAM radar-guided missiles. In 1999, Israel announced its intention to procure more fighters and that a possible contender was the F-15I. However, the contract went to the F-16I.

Saudi Arabia

In November 2009, Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) F-15s, along with Saudi Tornados, performed air raids amid the Houthi insurgency in north Yemen. It was the RSAF's first military action over hostile territory since Operation Desert Storm. In October 2010, Saudi Arabia requested 84 F-15SA (Saudi Advanced) fighters, upgrading of its existing F-15S fleet to F-15SA standard, and related equipment and weapons through a Foreign Military Sale (FMS). On 29 December 2011, the U.S. signed a $29.4 billion contract to sell 84 F-15SAs, as well as the F-15S upgrades. In June 2012, an FMS contract for 68 F-15S to F-15SA modification kits was placed with Boeing. On 20 February 2013, the maiden flight of the first new-build F-15SA occurred.

Saudi led in intervention in Yemen (2015–present)

On 26 March 2015, Saudi F-15Ss, along with other Arab coalition assets, started striking targets in Yemen as part of the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen, called Operation Decisive Storm. Opposing a joint force composed of former Houthi rebels and Yemeni Army forces, the strikes, at least initially, were met by ineffective anti-aircraft fire that reportedly only caused damage when falling to the ground. Early strikes were aimed at air defense sites, Army HQs, military airports, ballistic missiles depots, and launchers. During these attacks, a Saudi F-15S crashed into the Gulf of Aden after circling over the sea; its two pilots ejected safely and were recovered from the sea by a USAF HH-60G rescue helicopter; Arab coalition reports claimed enemy fire was not involved, while Houthi and Iranian sources claimed they had shot it down. On 8 January 2018, a RSAF F-15S was reportedly shot down by a Houthi surface-to-air missile; a Houthi-released video shows the F-15 increasing speed and releasing decoy flares before being struck by a projectile and apparently suffering major damage. On 9 January 2018, the Houthi media, Al-Masirah, announced that the F-15 had been damaged but did not crash.

On 21 March 2018, Houthi rebels released a video allegedly showing a RSAF F-15 being hit in Saada province by a R-27 air to air missile adapted for surface to air use. As in the video of the previous similar hit recorded on 8 January, the target, while clearly hit, seems not falling to the sky when the video stops. Saudi forces confirmed the hit, while saying the jet safely landed at a Saudi base. Saudi sources confirmed the incident involved a surface-to-air missile being launched at the jet from inside Saada airport.

Potential operators

Egypt
A US agreement to sell F-15s to Egypt for the Egyptian Air Force was announced in March 2022. A contract needs to be finalized after price and delivery date are determined.

Thailand
The Royal Thai Air Force is seeking for multirole fighter to replace F-16A/B Block 15 ADF in service. On 31 December 2021, the RTAF Commander-in-chief announced that the Air Force proposes to buy 8 to 12 F-35As in 2023. On 12 January 2022, the council of ministers approved the first batch of four F-35As. On 22 May 2023, a Royal Thai Air Force source stated that the United States Department of Defense implied it will turn down Thailand's bid to buy F-35s, and instead offer F-16 Block 70, F-15E Strike Eagle or F-15EX Eagle II fighters.

Variants

F-15E variants

Two-seat all-weather long-range strike and ground-attack aircraft for the USAF. A total of 236 were built from 1985 to 2001.

F-15I

The F-15I is operated by the Israeli Air Force where it is known as the Ra'am (רעם – "Thunder"). It is a dual-seat ground attack aircraft powered by two Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 engines, and is based on the F-15E.

The F-15I features different avionic systems to USAF F-15E to meet Israeli requirements. Initially, Sharpshooter targeting pods designed for IAF F-16s were fitted for night-time strikes, but were less capable than the LANTIRN pods used on USAF F-15Es; Israel later bought 30 LANTIRN pods. The F-15Is initially lacked Radar Warning Receivers; Israel installed its own Elisra SPS-2110 electronic warfare equipment as well as a new central computer and embedded GPS/INS system. All sensors can be slaved to the Display and Sight Helmet (DASH) helmet-mounted sight, providing both crew members a means of targeting which the F-15E lacks. The F-15I uses the APG-70I radar; its terrain mapping capability can locate targets difficult to spot while under adverse weather conditions and can detect large airliner-sized targets at , and fighter-sized targets at ; it has a reduced resolution one-third below the APG-70. In January 2016, Israel approved F-15I upgrades such as structural changes, an AESA radar, updated avionics, and new weapons.

F-15K

The F-15K Slam Eagle (Korean: F-15K 슬램 이글) is a derivative of the F-15E, operated by the Republic of Korea Air Force. Several major components were outsourced to South Korean companies under an offset agreement, wherein South Korea was responsible for 40% of production and 25% of assembly. The fuselage and wings are supplied by Korea Aerospace Industries, flight control actuator by Hanwha Corporation, electronic jammer and radar warning receiver by Samsung Thales, head-up display, airborne communication system, and radar by LIG Nex1, and engines by Samsung Techwin under license before final assembly at Boeing's St. Louis facility.

In 2002, ROKAF selected the F-15K for its F-X fighter program, during which the F-15K, the Dassault Rafale, the Eurofighter Typhoon and Sukhoi Su-35 were evaluated. A total of 40 aircraft were ordered, deliveries began in 2005. On 25 April 2008, a second batch of 21 F-15Ks were ordered, worth 2.3 trillion Korean won (US$2.3 billion). This second batch differs from first batch aircraft in having Pratt & Whitney F100-PW-229 (EEP) engines, license-produced by Samsung Techwin, for commonality with the KF-16 fleet. ROKAF had received 50 F-15Ks by June 2011. ROKAF expects the F-15K to be in service until 2060.

The F-15K has several atypical features to the F-15E, such as an AAS-42 Infra-red search and track, a customized Tactical Electronics Warfare Suite to reduce weight and increase jamming effectiveness, cockpit compatibility with night vision devices, ARC-232 U/VHF radio with Link 16, and advanced APG-63(V)1 mechanical-scanned array radar. The APG-63(V)1 radar has common digital processing equipment with the APG-63(V)3 AESA radar, and can be upgraded to an AESA radar via antenna replacement. The F-15K is equipped with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System and weapons such as AGM-84K SLAM-ER, AGM-84H Harpoon Block II, and KEPD 350.

F-15S

The F-15S is a variant of the F-15E supplied to the Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) in the 1990s. Saudi Arabia previously sought to buy up to 24 F-15Fs, a proposed single-seat variant, but was blocked by the U.S. Congress. The F-15S, initially referred to as F-15XP, is almost identical to the USAF F-15E, the only major difference in the AN/APG-70 radar's performance in synthetic aperture mode. 72 were built from 1996 to 1998. In October 2007, GE announced a US$300 million contract with Saudi Arabia for 65 GE F110-GE-129C engines for the F-15S.

F-15SG

The F-15SG (formerly F-15T) is a variant ordered by the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) after an evaluation involving five other fighters. It was chosen on 6 September 2005 over the Dassault Rafale, the only other remaining aircraft in contention. On 22 August 2005, the US Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) notified Congress of a potential Foreign Military Sale (FMS) of weapons, logistics and training to Singapore; options included AIM-120C and AIM-9X missiles; GBU-38 JDAM and AGM-154 JSOW air-to-ground weapons, night vision goggles and Link 16 terminals. The F-15F designation was also reserved. An order for 12 F-15SGs was placed in December 2005. On 22 October 2007, Singapore exercised an option for eight more F-15SGs within the original contract. Four more were later bought. The first F-15SG was rolled out on 3 November 2008; deliveries began in 2009; all 24 were declared operational in September 2013. Further F-15SGs were ordered, including 8 in 2010 and 8 in 2014, for a total of 40 F-15SGs by 2018.

F-15 Advanced Eagle variants
The F-15 Advanced Eagle represents a more substantial upgrade over previous models in that it has a new fly-by-wire control system and wing structure that enables two additional underwing weapons hardpoints (increasing the number from nine to eleven). Additional enhancements include the option of a large area display cockpit, the Raytheon AN/APG-82(V)1 or APG-63(V)3 AESA radar, General Electric F110-129 engines, digital Joint Helmet-Mounted Cueing Systems for pilot and WSO, and a digital electronic warfare system among other enhancements. In a typical escort configuration, the Advanced Eagle can carry 16 AIM-120 AMRAAM; 4 AIM-9X Sidewinder short-range missiles; and 2 AGM-88 HARMs. For precision strike, it can carry 16 GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs ; 4 AMRAAMs; one 2,000 lb Joint Direct Attack Munition; 2 HARMs; and 2 fuel drop tanks.

F-15SA

The F-15SA (Saudi Advanced) is a version for the RSAF and the first to have the new fly-by-wire flight control system in place of the hybrid electronic/mechanical system used by previous F-15s, which allows for weapons carriage on the previously unused outer wing hardpoints. The F-15SA includes the APG-63(V)3 AESA radar, digital electronic warfare systems (DEWS), and infrared search and track (IRST) systems. It also had a redesigned cockpit once intended for the F-15SE.

F-15QA
The F-15QA (Qatar Advanced) Ababil is a variant for the Qatar Emiri Air Force. In November 2016, the US State Department approved the sale of up to 72 F-15QAs to Qatar in a $21.1 billion (~$ in ) deal that included weapons, support, equipment, and training. In June 2017, Qatar signed a deal to buy 36 F-15QAs for US$12 billion (~$ in ). On 13 April 2020, the first F-15QA took its maiden flight. On 22 June 2021, Boeing announced that it will integrate an Elbit Systems anti-jamming systems into the F-15QA, allowing it to fly into heavy electromagnetic interference environment uninterrupted.

F-15IA
The F-15IA (Israel Advanced) is a variant for the Israeli Air Force based on the F-15EX and Advanced Eagle. The Israeli Defense Forces approved the plan to acquire 25 new-build F-15IA and upgrade 25 F-15Is to the F-15IA standard in February 2020.

F-15EX Eagle II

In 2018, the USAF and Boeing discussed a proposed single-seat variant of the F-15QA called the F-15X, with improvements such as advanced avionics and electronics, AESA radar, and an increased service life. The USAF opted for the two-seat F-15EX to replace its F-15Cs and maintain fleet size. The F-15EX can perform homeland and airbase defense, no-fly zone enforcement, and deploy standoff munitions, but it is not expected to be survivable against modern air defenses by 2028. The U.S. Defense Department ordered eight F-15EXs in July 2020 for $1.2 billion, and the USAF announced plans in August 2020 to replace F-15Cs in the Florida and Oregon Air National Guards with F-15EXs. The first F-15EX was delivered to the USAF in March 2021 and named Eagle II. The FY2021 defense appropriations bill funded F-15EX procurement at $1.23 billion for 12 aircraft, with orders for 144 F-15EXs to-date.

Proposed variants

F-15H
The F-15H Strike Eagle (H for Hellas) was a 1990s proposed export version of F-15E for Greece, which was selected by the Greek Ministry of Defence and the Hellenic Air Force, but the government chose new F-16s and Mirage 2000-5s instead.

F-15G
A F-15G Wild Weasel was a proposed two-seat version to replace the F-4G Wild Weasel in the suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) role. The F-15G was studied in 1986. A proposed modification to F-15Cs for the SEAD role was studied in 1994–95, but F-16Cs were modified to perform this role instead.

F-15SE Silent Eagle
The F-15SE Silent Eagle was a proposed variant with fifth generation fighter features, such as internal weapons carriage and radar-absorbent material. The Silent Eagle featured conformal weapons bays (CWB) to hold weapons internally instead of conformal fuel tanks, the twin vertical tails are canted outward 15 degrees to reduce radar cross section; the majority of the CWB's area is for weapons storage, a minority is used for fuel storage. The F-15SE was optimized for air-to-air missions, lacking all-aspect stealth features for missions inside areas protected by ground-based anti-aircraft systems. The first production F-15E, s/n "86-0183", was modified to become a Silent Eagle demonstrator. It first flew in July 2010 with a left-side conformal weapons bay, and successfully launched an AMRAAM missile from the CWB in July 2010. Potential customers were Saudi Arabia, Israel, Japan, and South Korea; however the Saudis chose to procure the F-15SA, while Israel, Japan, and South Korea selected the F-35.

F-15GA
Boeing offered 90 F-15GA (German Advanced) fighters to Germany as replacements for its Tornado IDSs and ECRs. Luftwaffe chose 35 F-35A Lightning II and 15 Eurofighter Typhoon (ECR EW variant) instead.

F-15GSE Global Strike Eagle
The F-15GSE was a 2006 proposal for a space strike version of the F-15E, for attacking satellites. It is proposed to be an unmanned remotely-piloted variant, carrying a 3-stage-to-orbit solid rocket ASAT missile on its back between the twin-tails.

Operators

 Israeli Air Force – 25 F-15I aircraft in use as of January 2014
69 Squadron – Hatzerim AFB

 Republic of Korea Air Force – 59 F-15Ks in service in 2019. Sequentially, 40 and 21 units were delivered, of which two units crashed.
11th Fighter Wing (제11전투비행단), based at Daegu
 102nd Fighter Squadron
 122nd Fighter Squadron
 110th Fighter Squadron

 Qatar Emiri Air Force - 36 F-15QAs on order
Flying Wing 5 – Al Udeid Air Base
51st Squadron

 Royal Saudi Air Force – 70 F-15S Eagles in service as of January 2014 with 84 F-15SAs on order.
No. 3 Wing RSAF – King Abdulaziz Air Base
No. 92 Squadron RSAF
No. 5 Wing RSAF – King Khalid Air Base
No. 6 Squadron RSAF
No. 55 Squadron RSAF

Republic of Singapore Air Force – 40 F-15SGs
142 Squadron "Gryphon"
149 Squadron "Fighting Shikra"
366th Fighter Wing - Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho
428th Fighter Squadron

 United States Air Force – 219 F-15Es in operation as of April 2019
4th Fighter Wing – Seymour-Johnson AFB, North Carolina
333d Fighter Squadron
334th Fighter Squadron
335th Fighter Squadron
336th Fighter Squadron
48th Fighter Wing - RAF Lakenheath, United Kingdom
492d Fighter Squadron
494th Fighter Squadron
53d Wing - Eglin Air Force Base, Florida
85th Test and Evaluation Squadron
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron (Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada)
57th Wing - Nellis AFB, Nevada
17th Weapons Squadron
96th Test Wing - Eglin AFB, Florida
40th Test Squadron
366th Fighter Wing - Mountain Home Air Force Base, Idaho
389th Fighter Squadron
391st Fighter Squadron
414th Fighter Group - Seymour-Johnson AFB, NC
307th Fighter Squadron

Accidents and losses

Specifications (F-15E)

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Davies, Steve. Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle. London: Airlife Publishing, 2002. .
 Davies, Steve. Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle, All-Weather Attack Aircraft. London: Airlife Publishing, 2003. .
 Davies, Steve. F-15C/E Eagle Units of operation Iraqi Freedom (Osprey Combat Aircraft #47). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2004. .
 Davies, Steve. F-15E Strike Eagle Units in Combat 1990–2005. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2005. .
 Davies, Steve and Doug Dildy. F-15 Eagle Engaged: The World's Most Successful Jet Fighter. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007. .

 Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 1998. .
 Rininger, Tyson. F-15 Eagle at War. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2009. .
 Spick, Mike, ed. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI, 2000. .

External links

 F-15E USAF fact sheet
 F-15 page, and F-15EX Super Eagle page on Boeing.com, Boeing F-15IA (Israeli Advanced) poster
 F-15E.info, Strike Eagle site

1980s United States fighter aircraft
Twinjets
F-15E Strike Eagle
F-015E Strike Eagle
Delta-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1986
Fourth-generation jet fighter
Twin-tail aircraft

McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle


Le cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny est une série de plans des paroisses de la généralité de Paris levés de 1776 à 1791, qu'on appelle souvent plans d'intendance. L'intendant de Paris Bertier de Sauvigny cherche ainsi à répartir plus équitablement l'impôt, en évaluant les revenus globaux de chaque paroisse. Ce cadastre n'est pas encore dressé par parcelles mais par grandes masses de cultures à l'intérieur de chaque paroisse, parce que celle-ci est l'échelon géographique de répartition de la taille, en pays de taille personnelle, ce choix étant également plus rapide et devant rencontrer moins d'opposition.

Le travail d'arpentage est réalisé paroisse par paroisse par des arpenteurs professionnels, souvent locaux. Le travail est contrôlé par les subdélégués de l'intendant. Les arpenteurs sont de petits titulaires d'un office, d'une valeur relativement faible, qui travaillent souvent en famille et dont la formation est essentiellement pratique et empirique. Ils sont coordonnés par Pierre Dubray, ingénieur géographe de l'intendant et arpenteur lui-même.

L'arpenteur reconnaît les limites de la paroisse à arpenter. Ensuite, il mesure les surfaces par grandes masses de cultures, par triangulation, grâce essentiellement à la chaîne d'arpenteur, à l'équerre et en utilisant pour ses calculs le théorème de Pythagore. Les mesures sont exprimées en unités locales et en arpents du roi. Elles sont consignées dans un procès-verbal, qui sert à lever un plan. Le tout est envoyé à l'intendant et l'arpenteur est payé si le travail est jugé bien fait. Il outrepasse souvent le délai imparti d'un mois. Au total, le projet est mené à bien en  mais l'essentiel du travail est effectué de 1783 à 1788. Il soulève peu d'opposition.

Ce cadastre inspire probablement le premier cadastre napoléonien, également dressé par masses de cultures. Certains résultats chiffrés sont recopiés d'un cadastre à l'autre. Des comparaisons de surfaces montrent l'exactitude des mesures du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny.

Aujourd'hui, les relevés d'arpentage et les plans de ce cadastre sont conservés dans les dépôts des archives départementales, sous le nom de plans d'intendance, et sont parfois accessibles en ligne. Ils constituent des sources historiques de premier ordre, mobilisées pour des études portant sur des aspects très divers.

La nécessité d'un cadastre

Des préoccupations fiscales
Le cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny a été réalisé de 1776 à 1791, sous l'autorité de l'intendant de la généralité de Paris, Louis Bénigne Bertier de Sauvigny. Il s'agit d'une enquête sur le paysage de la généralité de Paris menée dans le cadre d'une réforme fiscale, la tarification de la taille, poursuivie par les intendants de Paris successifs, Louis Jean Bertier de Sauvigny puis son fils Louis Bénigne Bertier de Sauvigny. Ce dernier, par la réalisation de ce cadastre, cherche à mieux connaître les potentialités agricoles de chaque paroisse pour obtenir un meilleur rendement de l'impôt en le répartissant équitablement.

Il répond aussi à une préoccupation d'inventaire territorial qui se répand alors dans l'appareil administratif monarchique. Dans le même temps, progresse dans la société l'idée de l'adéquation de la justesse mathématique et de la justice fiscale. Ce projet fait partie de l'élan de modernisation que connaît l'Ancien Régime dans la seconde moitié du , période pendant laquelle différentes réformes administratives et fiscales sont tentées, souvent avec peu de succès. Bertier de Sauvigny aboutit à des résultats concrets : l'établissement de la valeur moyenne de la terre dans chaque paroisse et un taux d'imposition théorique de chaque ferme.

Un cadastre par masses de cultures
Le cadastre établi sous son autorité ne représente pas les parcelles, mais reprend un arpentage par masses de cultures (vignes, champs, pâturages, etc.) pour la paroisse entière, charge à elle de répartir ensuite équitablement l'impôt entre ses habitants. En pays de taille personnelle, c'est-à-dire d'impôt sur le revenu des personnes, cela suffit. Un cadastre parcellaire n'apparaît nécessaire qu'en pays de taille réelle, où sont taxées les propriétés et non les revenus, comme en Haute-Guyenne, dans la généralité de Limoges ou en Auvergne ou plus au sud en Languedoc, où sont élaborés les compoix. En pays de taille personnelle, la population est très méfiante face aux tentatives d'établissement d'un cadastre parcellaire, vues comme un moyen d'augmenter la charge fiscale. Ainsi, le contrôleur général des finances Henri Bertin échoue dans cette tâche en 1763. Le cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny soulève moins d'opposition.

Bertier de Sauvigny a d'autant moins de raisons d'entreprendre un cadastre parcellaire que la cour des aides, en 1768, réaffirme que le pouvoir royal ne peut se mêler de la répartition de la taille dans les paroisses. De plus, quand il prend la suite de son père Louis Jean Bertier de Sauvigny comme intendant de Paris, celui-ci a déjà limité la marge de manœuvre des collecteurs paroissiaux de la taille par une série de tarifs. Enfin, un cadastre par masses de cultures est beaucoup plus rapide à lever qu'un cadastre parcellaire.

Au début de son administration, Bertier de Sauvigny se contente d'ordonner des arpentages quand il constate des anomalies. Ce n'est que progressivement que l'entreprise de levée du cadastre est systématisée.

Les hommes du cadastre
Pour réaliser son cadastre, Bertier de Sauvigny s'appuie sur les subdélégués et les arpenteurs.

Les subdélégués
La généralité de Paris est divisée trente-quatre élections et subdélégations, avec chacune à leur tête un subdélégué, qui seconde et représente l'intendant. C'est bien plus que dans les autres généralités du royaume. Le subdélégué est choisi par l'intendant. Il est rémunéré par des gratifications de l'intendant, des honoraires et des offices de judicature ou municipaux. Il est souvent stable et succède parfois à son père dans sa fonction. Il est secondé par un greffier et, comme l'intendant, accomplit des tâches touchant des domaines variés : justice, police, voirie, finances.

En ce qui concerne l'établissement du cadastre, le subdélégué organise l'arpentage dans les paroisses et participe au tableau de classement de celles-ci. Il contrôle administrativement le travail d'arpentage, visant les procès-verbaux et les plans et rendant compte à l'ingénieur géographe en chef, Pierre Dubray, de la qualité du travail des arpenteurs. Ces derniers font l'essentiel du travail de terrain.

Les arpenteurs
Les arpenteurs soumettent leur projet d'arpentage à l'ingénieur géographe de l'intendant, Dubray, puis à l'intendant lui-même. S'ils sont agréés, ils reçoivent une commission pour arpenter une liste précise de paroisses. Pierre Dubray coordonne ainsi l'ensemble des opérations d'arpentage. Il choisit , dont des membres de son entourage : son fils Guillaume, Lucien (qui est peut-être son frère), son voisin Denis Duchesne, ses apprentis Antoine Schmid et Pierre Villeneuve. Les autres arpenteurs sont issus de toute la généralité et arpentent en général des paroisses proches de chez eux.

Ils sont titulaires d'un office d'arpentage. C'est une profession jugée sensible puisqu'elle touche à la propriété de la terre. Ce sont donc des officiers et certains sont également notaires. Il s'agit toutefois d'offices de faible valeur, de  au début du  à environ  en 1772. Cette charge permet certains privilèges, comme l'exemption de gabelle, de milice et de collecte de taille. Les arpenteurs ne sont pas les plus riches des ruraux mais ont une certaine aisance financière, qui leur permet de supporter les coûts des opérations d'arpentage puisqu'ils ne sont rémunérés qu'une fois la tâche terminée. Pierre Dubray, dont les compétences professionnelles sont reconnues et qui joue un rôle important dans l'ensemble de l'opération, ne possède à sa mort en 1784 qu'une fortune de , son office d'arpenteur et de notaire royal, d'une valeur de , ayant déjà été cédé à son fils Guillaume. Le niveau de richesse de celui-ci, loin d'être négligeable, reste cependant bien inférieur à celui des riches fermiers laboureurs du Bassin parisien.

Les arpenteurs n'appartiennent pas au même milieu social et culturel que les ingénieurs et topographes du roi, qui participent à l'établissement des cartes comme celle de Cassini et fréquentent les sociétés savantes. Les arpenteurs sont plus des hommes de terrain, formés de manière empirique par l'apprentissage, souvent familial, comme les Dubray. Toutefois, ils ont aussi  une certaine culture livresque et possèdent des volumes de géométrie et de méthodes de mesure.

Élaborer le cadastre

Mesurer les surfaces
Conformément à sa commission, l'arpenteur doit mesurer les masses de cultures à l'intérieur de chaque paroisse. Il faut d'abord en établir les limites. Les paroisses ecclésiastiques et les paroisses fiscales coïncident généralement à la campagne, mais les petites villes, qui constituent une seule collecte fiscale, sont souvent divisées en paroisses ecclésiastiques, alors qu'il peut arriver qu'un hameau soit érigé en collecte fiscale. C'est clairement cette dernière qui est la circonscription utilisée.

Une fois les limites connues, l'arpenteur mesure chaque nature de terrain, les bois, les labours, les prés, etc. et l'indique sur un procès-verbal, en s'exprimant à la fois dans l'unité de mesure du lieu et en mesure du roi, c'est-à-dire un arpent de  par perche et  carrées par arpent (). Ces procès-verbaux sont portés sur des cahiers de format identique.

Les difficultés métrologiques ne sont pas négligeables. En effet, si les surfaces sont presque toujours exprimées en arpents, la valeur de celui-ci varie considérablement. L'arpent du roi () est utilisé dans un peu plus d'un tiers des paroisses, l'arpent commun () se retrouve dans un tiers d'entre elles et l'arpent de Paris () dans environ 10 %. Au total, le mot arpent désigne cinquante unités de surface différentes, allant de  à . Le nombre de perches carrées par arpent varie de 64 à 100. La longueur de la perche va de   à  soit de  à .

Les techniques d'arpentage sont assez simples. Il s'agit de la triangulation, menée avec une chaîne ou une corde et une équerre. L'arpenteur mesure les côtés de la parcelle et calcule ensuite sa surface selon la forme de la parcelle. Pour repérer un angle droit susceptible de lui servir de base, il utilise une équerre, qu'on appelle aussi croix d'arpenteur ou bâton d'arpenteur. Le cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny ne levant que les grandes masses de cultures, les surfaces à mesurer sont considérables et nécessitent l'utilisation du théorème de Pythagore, qui dispense d'aller mesurer sur le terrain le troisième côté. On ne sait pas quelles sont les instructions de l'intendant pour tenir compte du relief.

La mesure des distances se fait plutôt avec une chaîne qu'une corde, qui rétrécit quand elle est mouillée. Comme la chaîne est lourde, l'arpenteur emploie un porte-chaîne. Il existe aussi un appareil plus sophistiqué, l'odomètre. Pour mesurer les angles, d'autres instruments sont apparus : la planchette qui porte une alidade, le graphomètre, le théodolite ou le quart de cercle. Toutefois, il est probable que les arpenteurs du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny ne possèdent pas ces outils.

Lever le plan
Ensuite, l'arpenteur lève un plan de la paroisse mesurée. Ce plan n'est pas directement indispensable au but poursuivi, la répartition de l'impôt, d'autant plus qu'ils n'est pas parcellaire. En fait, le plan est à la fois un outil de vérification du procès-verbal et la manifestation d'une volonté de maîtriser, voir et représenter l'espace, typique de la France des Lumières. L'échelle utilisée est d'environ 1/6 000, proche de celle qui sera choisie pour le cadastre napoléonien par masses de culture, 1/5 000. Ces plans comportent les noms des paroisses limitrophes, le sens d'écoulement des cours d'eau et les points cardinaux, le nord n'étant pas forcément en haut de la feuille. Les couleurs sont portées au lavis et identiques pour tous les plans : les bois en vert foncé, les prés en vert tendre, les vignes en jaune, les labours couleur de terre pâle, les bâtiments en carmin, les cours d'eau en bleu.

Les arpenteurs sont payés après réception du plan et des procès-verbaux, vérifiés et éventuellement rectifiés. Les frais d'arpentage, réglés par le receveur des tailles de chaque élection à l'arpenteur, sont ensuite comptés à la charge  des paroisses. Le tarif est de trois sols l'arpent du roi, sans défraiement pour les déplacements, réduits puisque les arpenteurs habitent souvent à faible distance. Les indicateurs locaux des limites sont également rémunérés.

Un effort de
À la mort de Bertier de Sauvigny, tué au début de la Révolution le , le cadastre est presque terminé et le sera deux ans plus tard. Le travail aura duré quinze ans. Les documents actuellement conservés, plans et procès-verbaux, couvrent 95 % des collectes. Certains espaces ne sont pas concernés, parce qu'ils sont exemptés de taille : les villes de Paris, Versailles et Poissy et les grandes forêts, celles de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Meudon et Compiègne.

L'établissement de ce cadastre a dû coûter environ un demi-million de livres. L'essentiel du travail est effectué de 1783 à 1788, au rythme de  arpentées par an, sans logique d'ensemble dans la chronologie, sauf pour les marges de la généralité qui sont arpentées en dernier. La plupart du temps, la tâche est terminée dans l'année qui suit l'ordonnance de l'intendant. Les arpentages ont surtout lieu au printemps, en avril-mai, la seconde saison favorable étant l'automne.

Dans la majorité des cas, l'arpenteur ne respecte pas le délai d'un mois qui lui est normalement imparti pour rendre le procès-verbal et le plan. Il lui faut en moyenne trois mois par paroisse pour toutes les opérations à effectuer. Pierre Dubray lui-même ne tient pas toujours le délai, alors qu'il l'a lui-même fixé. Les plus ponctuels sont Jean-Nicolas Devert, installé à Rivecourt, qui arpente le plus grand nombre de paroisses, 152, et Jean-Louis Droit, de Montereau-Fault-Yonne. Louis-François Durelle, demeurant à Brienon-l'Archevêque, arpente la surface la plus étendue, près de , mais va plus lentement. Pierre Dubray se rend vite compte que la qualité du travail varie selon l'arpenteur et il érige Devert en modèle tandis qu'il critique et fait refaire le travail d'autres, comme Pierre-Georges Doderlain.

Exceptionnellement, il faut reprendre complètement la démarche. Le chevalier Closquinet de La Roche, arpenteur, empêtré dans des rivalités locales, ne rend aucun plan au bout de plus d'un an. En décembre 1784, il se voit retirer la commission que lui a confiée l'intendant en 1783 et un autre arpenteur le remplace. Les arpenteurs sont suivis de près par les subdélégués.

Dans 98 % des cas, les habitants accueillent bien l'arpenteur, qu'ils connaissent souvent, et ne s'opposent pas à l'arpentage, qui ne les implique pas personnellement puisqu'il est réalisé par masses de cultures et non par parcelles. Les contestations, 2 % de l'ensemble seulement, portent soit sur les mesures elles-mêmes, soit sur la pertinence de la réforme fiscale qui est à l'origine de la confection du cadastre.

Du cadastre à la source historique

D'un cadastre à l'autre
Avant qu'il soit décidé de créer un cadastre parcellaire, le premier cadastre napoléonien est d'abord dressé par masses de cultures, Cette première entreprise cadastrale à l'échelle de la France semble s'être inspirée de l'expérience du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny dans la généralité de Paris.

Les premiers arpentages du nouveau cadastre par masses de cultures décidé par Bonaparte sont réalisés une dizaine d'années seulement après les derniers du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny, parfois par les mêmes arpenteurs. La tentation de reprendre les mesures du premier cadastre au lieu d'aller effectuer des relevés sur le terrain est donc grande. C'est pourquoi le directeur des contributions directes de Seine-et-Marne, par exemple, fait enfermer les plans du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny. Toutefois, il est manifeste que certains résultats chiffrés sont recopiés d'un cadastre à l'autre.

L'exactitude des plans d'intendance du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny est à souligner. Les comparaisons avec le premier cadastre napoléonien par masses de cultures font apparaître des écarts de surface d'environ 10 %, ce qui est peu. On peut néanmoins incriminer ici le biais de la copie. Or, pour certaines communes qui ont conservé les mêmes limites, les superficies communales indiquées sur le relevé de 1829 du cadastre parcellaire sont les mêmes, à l'hectare près, que celles du cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny converties.

Des sources précieuses
Aujourd'hui, les procès-verbaux d'arpentage et les plans (appelés plans d'intendance) dressés pour le cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny sont conservés dans les dépôts des archives des départements :

Ce sont des sources utilisées dans des études historiques variées, à différentes échelles, locales ou régionales. Procès-verbaux d'arpentage et plans d'intendance permettent de reconstituer les paysages et les activités agricoles en général ou d'en étudier certaines en particulier. Ils sont aussi mobilisés pour étudier la transmission des terres, les châteaux et leurs communs, décrire les réseaux routiers ou l'hydrographie, contextualiser des fouilles archéologiques, etc.

Annexes

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Cadastre de France
 Cartographie de la France
 Fiscalité d'Ancien Régime

Liens externes

Notes et références

Notes

Références

 Autres sources

Cartographie
Carte du XVIIIe siècle
Cadastre
Ancien Régime
Fiscalité sous l'Ancien Régime en France

Cadastre de Bertier de Sauvigny


An Aristida teretifolia in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni José Arechavaleta. An Aristida teretifolia in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aristida, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aristida

Aristida teretifolia


Bösdorf Almanya'nın kuzeyinde Schleswig-Holstein eyaletinde, Plön iline bağlı belediye. 21,1 km² yüzölçümüne sahiptir. Nüfusu, 31 Aralık 2015 itibarıyla yaklaşık 1.298 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Kilometrekare başına yaklaşık 62 kişilik bir nüfus yoğunluğuna sahiptir. Belediye Başkanlığı Joachim Schmidt tarafından yürütülmektedir.

Dış bağlantılar
 http://www.boesdorf-holstein.de

Kaynakça

Plön iline bağlı yerleşim birimleri

Bösdorf


Cabo Delgado  is the northernmost province of Mozambique. It has an area of  and a population of 2,320,261 (2017). As well as bordering Mtwara Region in the neighboring country of Tanzania, it borders the provinces of Nampula and Niassa. The region is an ethnic stronghold of the Makonde tribe, with the Makua and Mwani as leading ethnic minorities.

Pemba is the capital of the province; other important cities include Montepuez and Mocímboa da Praia.

History

The province shares its name with Cape Delgado (), a coastal headland on the border between Mozambique and Tanzania, which forms the northernmost point in Mozambique.

On 25 September 1964, FRELIMO guerrillas arrived from Tanzania and, with help from some individuals of the surrounding population, attacked a Portuguese administrative post in the province. This raid marked the beginning of the Mozambican War of Independence, part of the Portuguese Colonial War, the former of which was an armed struggle between the Portuguese colonial authorities in the then-Portuguese Overseas Province of Mozambique and the independence movement. This province was the focus of Operation Gordian Knot, where the Portuguese forces attempted to wipe out the guerrilla bases in the province.

Jihadist insurgency

Beginning in October 2017, armed Islamist extremists linked to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) launched a jihadist insurgency in the Cabo Delgado region. The militants launched attacks and committed mass beheadings, and in August 2020 seized the port town of Mocimboa da Praia. The group sometimes refers to itself as al-Shabaab, although they do not have known links with the Somali al-Shabaab, a different jihadist group. In March 2021, the U.S. Department of State designated Ahlu Sunna Wal Jammah (ASWJ), a group operating in Cabo Delgado with the participation of "foreign fighters" from Tanzania, as a franchise of ISIL and added it to its list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. The International Crisis Group reported in March 2021 that while ISIL has contact with the jihadists in Mozambique and has given some level of financial assistance, ISIL likely does not exert command and control authority over the group.

Mozambique Defence Armed Forces have been battling the extremists. Many civilians have been displaced by the fighting. In September 2020, ISIL insurgents captured Vamizi Island in the Indian Ocean. Over fifty people were beheaded by terrorists in the province in April 2020 and a similar number in November 2020. In March 2021, the NGO Save the Children reported that Islamist militants were beheading children, some as young as 11.

On March 24, 2021, the militants seized Palma, murdering dozens of civilians and displacing more than 35,000 of the town's 75,000 residents. Many fled to the provincial capital, Pemba. In July 2021 Southern African Development Community deployed its military mission to the province Southern African Development Community Mission in Mozambique (SAMIM).

As of February 2022, there are still a few civilians being killed due to the lingering insurgency and several insurgent camps were found by the Mozambican authorities.

Demographics

Religion
Mozambique is a majority-Christian country; however two northern provinces have an Islamic majority – Niassa (61 percent) and Cabo Delgado (54 percent). In Cabo Delgado, only three districts have a Catholic majority – Muidumbe (67 percent) and Mueda (54 percent) in the north and Namuno (61 percent) in the south. Two other districts have significant Catholic populations – Nangade (42 percent Catholic, 36 percent Muslim) in the north and Chiure (44 percent Muslim, 42 percent Catholic) in the South, whilst twelve have Muslim majorities, including Pemba; four are more than 90 percent Muslim. Coastal administrative posts are all over 75 percent Muslim.

Districts

Cabo Delgado Province is divided into the 16 districts of:
 Ancuabe District – covering 4,606 km² with 109,792 inhabitants,
 Balama District – covering 5,619 km² with 126,116 inhabitants,
 Chiúre District – covering 4,210 km² with 230,044 inhabitants,
 Ibo District – covering just 48 km² with 9,509 inhabitants,
 Macomia District – covering 4,049 km² with 81,208 inhabitants,
 Mecúfi District – covering 1,192 km² with 43,573 inhabitants,
 Meluco District – covering 5,799 km² with 25,184 inhabitants,
 Mocímboa da Praia District – covering 3,548 km² with 94,197 inhabitants,
 Montepuez District – covering 15,871 km² with 185,635 inhabitants,
 Mueda District – covering 14,150 km² with 120,067 inhabitants,
 Muidumbe District – covering 1,987 km² with 73,457 inhabitants,
 Namuno District – covering 6,915 km² with 179,992 inhabitants,
 Nangade District – covering 3,031 km² with 63,739 inhabitants,
 Palma District – covering 3,493 km² with 48,423 inhabitants,
 Pemba-Metuge District – covering 1,094 km² with 65,365 inhabitants (excluding the city of Pemba),
 Quissanga District – covering 2,061 km² with 35,192 inhabitants;
and the municipalities of:
 Mocimboa da Praia
 Montepuez
 Pemba – covering 194 km² with 141,316 inhabitants.

Economy

Mining
Balama mine

References

External links
  Cabo Delgado Province official site

Provinces of Mozambique

Cabo Delgado Province