The Middle East, also known as the Near East, is home to one of the Cradles of Civilization and has seen many of the world's oldest cultures and civilizations. The region's history started from the earliest human settlements and continues through several major pre- and post-Islamic Empires to today's nation-states of the Middle East.

The Sumerians became the first people to develop complex systems that were to be called "civilization" as far back as the 5th millennium BC. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost all of Middle East, particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–609 BC. From the early 7th century BC and onward, the Iranian Medes, followed by the Achaemenid Empire and other subsequent Iranian states and empires, dominated the region. In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean, which included much of the Near East. The Eastern Roman Empire, now commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruled from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity and gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. From the 3rd century to the course of the 7th century AD, the entire Middle East was dominated by the Byzantines and the Sasanian Empire. From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam. The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq dynasty. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the armies of the Mongol Empire, mainly Turkic, swept through the region. By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, who were linguistically Turkic and religiously Islamic and in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capital of Constantinople and made themselves sultans.

Large parts of the Middle East became a warground between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavid dynasty for centuries, starting in the early 16th century. By 1700, the Ottomans had been driven out of the Kingdom of Hungary and the balance of power along the frontier had shifted decisively in favor of the Western world. The British Empire also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French colonial empire extended its influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Kingdom of Italy seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with the European powers. A turning point in the region's history came when oil was discovered, first in Persia in 1908 and later in Saudi Arabia (in 1938) and the other Persian Gulf states, and also in Libya and Algeria. A Western dependence on Middle Eastern oil and the decline of British influence led to a growing American interest in the region.

During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, Syria and Egypt made moves towards independence. The British, the French, and the Soviets departed from many parts of the Middle East during and after World War II (1939–1945). The Arab–Israeli conflict in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine. Later in the midst of Cold War tensions, the Arabic-speaking countries of Western Asia and Northern Africa saw the rise of pan-Arabism. The departure of the European powers from direct control of the region, the establishment of Israel, and the increasing importance of the petroleum industry, marked the creation of the modern Middle East. In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was inhibited by political restrictions, corruption, cronyism, overspending on arms and prestige projects and overdependence on oil revenues. The wealthiest economies in the region per capita are the small oil-rich countries of Persian Gulf: Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates.

A combination of factors—such as the 1967 Six-Day War, the 1970s energy crisis beginning with the 1973 OPEC oil embargo in response to US support of Israel in the Yom Kippur War, the concurrent Saudi-led popularization of Salafism/Wahhabism, and the 1978-79 Iranian Revolution—promoted the increasing rise of Islamism and the ongoing Islamic revival (Tajdid). The Fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought a global security refocus from the Cold War to a War on Terror. Starting in the early 2010s, a revolutionary wave that is popularly known as the Arab Spring brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern and Maghreb countries. Clashes in western Iraq on 30 December 2013 were preliminary to the Sunni pan-Islamist ISIL uprising.

The term Near East can be used interchangeably with Middle East, but in a different context, especially in discussing ancient history, it may have a limited meaning, namely the northern historically-Aramaic-speaking Semitic people area and adjacent Anatolian territories, marked in the two maps below.

General
Geographically, the Middle East can be thought of as Western Asia with the addition of Egypt (which is the non-Maghreb region of Northern Africa) and with the exclusion of the Caucasus. The Middle East was the first to experience a Neolithic Revolution (c. the 10th millennium BCE), as well as the first to enter the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC) and Iron Age (c. 1200–500 BC).

Historically human populations have tended to settle around bodies of water, which is reflected in modern population density patterns. Irrigation systems were extremely important for the agricultural Middle East: for Egypt that of the lower Nile River, and for Mesopotamia that of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Levantine agriculture depended on precipitation rather than on the river-based irrigation of Egypt and Mesopotamia, resulting in preference for different crops. Since travel was faster and easier by sea, civilizations along the Mediterranean, such as Phoenicia and later Greece, participated in intense trade. Similarly, Ancient Yemen, much more conducive to agriculture than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula, sea traded heavily with the Horn of Africa, some of which it lingually Semitized. The Adnanite Arabs, inhabiting the drier desert areas of the Middle East, were all nomadic pastoralists before some began settling in city states, with the geo-linguistic distribution today being divided between Persian Gulf, the Najd and the Hejaz in the Peninsula, as well as the Bedouin areas beyond the Peninsula.

Since ancient times the Middle East has had several lingua franca: Akkadian ( 14th–8th century BC), Aramaic ( 8th century BC – 8th century AD), Greek ( 4th century BC – 8th century AD), and Arabic ( 8th century AD – present). Familiarity with English is not uncommon among the middle and upper classes. Arabic is not commonly spoken in Turkey, Iran, and Israel, and some varieties of Arabic lack mutual intelligibility, thus qualifying as distinct languages by this linguistic criterion.

The Middle East was the birthplace of the Abrahamic, Gnostic, and most Iranian religions. Initially the ancient inhabitants of the region followed various ethnic religions, but most of those began to be gradually replaced at first by Christianity (even before the 313 AD Edict of Milan) and finally by Islam (after the spread of the Muslim conquests beyond the Arabian Peninsula in 634 AD). To this day, however, the Middle East has, in particular, some sizable, ethnically distinct Christian minority groups, as well as Jews, concentrated in Israel, and followers of Iranian religions, such as Yazdânism and Zoroastrianism. Some of the smaller ethnoreligious minorities include the Shabak people, the Mandaeans and the Samaritans. It is somewhat controversial whether the Druze religion is a distinct religion in its own right or merely a part of the Ismailist branch of Shia Islam.

Prehistoric Near East

The Arabian Tectonic Plate was part of the African Plate during much of the Phanerozoic Eon (Paleozoic–Cenozoic), until the Oligocene Epoch of the Cenozoic Era. Red Sea rifting began in the Eocene, but the separation of Africa and Arabia occurred in the Oligocene, and since then the Arabian Plate has been slowly moving toward the Eurasian Plate.

The collision between the Arabian Plate and Eurasia is pushing up the Zagros Mountains of Iran. Because the Arabian Plate and Eurasia plate collide, many cities are in danger such as those in south eastern Turkey (which is on the Arabian Plate). These dangers include earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes.

The earliest human migrations out of Africa occurred through the Middle East, namely over the Levantine corridor, with the pre-modern Homo erectus about 1.8 million years BP. One of the potential routes for early human migrations toward southern and eastern Asia is Iran.

Haplogroup J-P209, the most common human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup in the Middle East today, is believed to have arisen in the region 31,700±12,800 years ago. The two main current subgroups, J-M267 and J-M172, which now comprise between them almost all of the population of the haplogroup, are both believed to have arisen very early, at least 10,000 years ago. Nonetheless, Y-chromosomes F-M89* and IJ-M429* were reported to have been observed in the Iranian plateau.

There is evidence of rock carvings along the Nile terraces and in desert oases. In the 10th millennium BC, a culture of hunter-gatherers and fishermen was replaced by a grain-grinding culture. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 6000 BC began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, forming the Sahara. Early tribal peoples migrated to the Nile River, where they developed a settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.

Neolithic agriculturalists, who may have resided in Northeast Africa and the Near East, may have been the source population for lactase persistence variants, including –13910*T, and may have been subsequently supplanted by later migrations of peoples. The Sub-Saharan West African Fulani, the North African Tuareg, and European agriculturalists, who are descendants of these Neolithic agriculturalists, share the lactase persistence variant –13910*T. While shared by Fulani and Tuareg herders, compared to the Tuareg variant, the Fulani variant of –13910*T has undergone a longer period of haplotype differentiation. The Fulani lactase persistence variant –13910*T may have spread, along with cattle pastoralism, between 9686 BP and 7534 BP, possibly around 8500 BP; corroborating this timeframe for the Fulani, by at least 7500 BP, there is evidence of herders engaging in the act of milking in the Central Sahara.

Ancient Near East

The ancient Near East was the first to practice intensive year-round agriculture and currency-mediated trade (as opposed to barter), gave the rest of the world the first writing system, invented the potter's wheel and then the vehicular and mill wheel, created the first centralized governments and law codes, served as birthplace to the first city-states with their high degree of division of labor, as well as laying the foundation for the fields of astronomy and mathematics. However, its empires also introduced rigid social stratification, slavery, and organized warfare.

Cradle of civilization, Sumer and Akkad
The earliest civilizations in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around 3500 BC by the Sumerians, in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), widely regarded as the cradle of civilization. The Sumerians and the Akkadians—who extended their empire to northern Mesopotamia (now northern Syria)—and later Babylonians and Assyrians all flourished in this region.

"In the course of the fourth millennium BC, city-states developed in southern Mesopotamia that were dominated by temples whose priests represented the cities' patron deities. The most prominent of the city-states was Sumer, which gave its language to the area, [presumably the first written language,] and became the first great civilization of mankind. About 2340 BC, Sargon the Great (c. 2360–2305 BC) united the city-states in the south and founded the Akkadian dynasty, the world's first empire."

During this same time period, Sargon the Great appointed his daughter, Enheduanna, as High Priestess of Inanna at Ur. Her writings, which established her as the first known author in world history, also helped cement Sargon's position in the region.

Egypt

Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the Nile valley of Lower and Upper Egypt was unified under the Pharaohs approximately around 3150 BC. Since then, Ancient Egypt experienced 3 high points of civilization, the so-called "Kingdom" periods:
 The Old Kingdom (2686–2181),
 The Middle Kingdom (2055–1650) and, most notably,
 The New Kingdom (1550–1069).
The history of Ancient Egypt is concluded by the Late Period (664–332 BC), immediately followed by the history of Egypt in Classical Antiquity, beginning with Ptolemaic Egypt.

The Levant and Anatolia

Thereafter, civilization quickly spread through the Fertile Crescent to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the Levant, as well as to ancient Anatolia. Ancient Levantine kingdoms and city states included Ebla City, Ugarit City, Kingdom of Aram-Damascus, Kingdom of Israel, Kingdom of Judah, Kingdom of Ammon, Kingdom of Moab, Kingdom of Edom, and the Nabatean kingdom. The Phoenician civilization, encompassing several city states, was a maritime trading culture that established colonial cities in the Mediterranean Basin, most notably Carthage, in 814 BC.

Assyrian empires

Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires that came to rule almost the entire Middle East—particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365–1076 BC and the Neo-Assyrian Empire of 911–605 BC. The Assyrian Empire, at its peak, was the largest the world had seen. It ruled all of what is now Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus, and Bahrain—with large swathes of Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Sudan, and Arabia.
"The Assyrian empires, particularly the third, had a profound and lasting impact on the Near East. Before Assyrian hegemony ended, the Assyrians brought the highest civilization to the then known world. From the Caspian to Cyprus, from Anatolia to Egypt, Assyrian imperial expansion would bring into the Assyrian sphere nomadic and barbaric communities, and would bestow the gift of civilization upon them."

Neo-Babylonian and Persian empires

From the early 6th century BC onwards, several Persian states dominated the region, beginning with the Medes and non-Persian Neo-Babylonian Empire, then their successor the Achaemenid Empire known as the first Persian Empire, conquered in the late 4th century BC by the very short-lived Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great, and then successor kingdoms such as Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state in Western Asia.

After a century of hiatus, the idea of the Persian Empire was revived by the Parthians in the 3rd century BC—and continued by their successors, the Sassanids from the 3rd century AD. This empire dominated sizable parts of what is now the Asian part of the Middle East and continued to influence the rest of the Asiatic and African Middle East region, until the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century AD. Between the 1st century BC and the early 7th century AD, the region was completely dominated by the Romans and the Parthians and Sassanids on the other hand, which often culminated in various Roman-Persian Wars over the seven centuries. Eastern Rite, Church of the East Christianity took hold in Persian-ruled Mesopotamia, particularly in Assyria from the 1st century AD onwards, and the region became a center of a flourishing Syriac–Assyrian literary tradition.

Greek and Roman Empire

In 66–63 BC, the Roman general Pompey conquered much of the Middle East. The Roman Empire united the region with most of Europe and North Africa in a single political and economic unit. Even areas not directly annexed were strongly influenced by the Empire, which was the most powerful political and cultural entity for centuries. Though Roman culture spread across the region, the Greek culture and language first established in the region by the Macedonian Empire continued to dominate throughout the Roman period. Cities in the Middle East, especially Alexandria, became major urban centers for the Empire and the region became the Empire's "bread basket" as the key agricultural producer. Ægyptus was by far the most wealthy Roman province.

During the time that mystery cults were introduced to the region, traditional religions were often criticized and the cults gained societal influence. These cults formed around gods like Cybele, Isis, and Mithra.

As the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman and Persian Empires, it took root in the Middle East, and cities such as Alexandria and Edessa became important centers of Christian scholarship. By the 5th century, Christianity was the dominant religion in the Middle East, with other faiths (gradually including heretical Christian sects) being actively repressed. The Middle East's ties to the city of Rome were gradually severed as the Empire split into East and West, with the Middle East tied to the new Roman capital of Constantinople. The subsequent Fall of the Western Roman Empire therefore, had minimal direct impact on the region.

Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)

The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity, gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. By this time, Greek had become the 'lingua franca' of the region, although ethnicities such as the Syriacs and the Hebrew continued to exist. Under Byzantine/Greek rule the area of the Levant met an era of stability and prosperity.

Medieval Middle East

Pre-Islam
In the 5th century, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the Sasanian Empire of the Persians in what is now Iran and Iraq, and the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and the Levant. The Byzantines and Sasanians fought with each other a reflection of the rivalry between the Roman Empire and the Persian Empire seen during the previous five hundred years. The Byzantine-Sasanian rivalry was also seen through their respective cultures and religions. The Byzantines considered themselves champions of Hellenism and Christianity. Meanwhile, the Sasanians thought themselves heroes of ancient Iranian traditions and of the traditional Persian religion, Zoroastrianism.

The Arabian peninsula already played a role in the power struggles of the Byzantines and Sasanians. While Byzantium allied itself with the Kingdom of Aksum in the horn of Africa, the Sasanian Empire assisted the Himyarite Kingdom in what is now Yemen (southwest Arabia). Thus the clash between the kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar in 525 displayed a higher power struggle between Byzantium and Persia for control of the Red Sea trade. Territorial wars soon became common, with the Byzantines and Sasanians fighting over upper Mesopotamia and Armenia and key cities that facilitated trade from Arabia, India, and China. Byzantium, as the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, continued control of the latter's territories in the Middle East. Since 527, this included Anatolia, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Egypt. But in 603 the Sasanians invaded, conquering Damascus and Egypt. It was Emperor Heraclius who was able to repel these invasions, and in 628 he replaced the Sasanian Great King with a more docile one. But the fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.

The nomadic Bedouin tribes dominated the Arabian desert, where they worshiped idols and remained in small clans tied together by kinship. Urbanization and agriculture was limited in Arabia, save for a few regions near the coast. Mecca and Medina (then called Yathrib) were two such cities that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants. Nevertheless, some Arabs saw it fit to migrate to the northern regions of the Fertile Crescent, a region so named for its place between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that offered it fertile land. This included entire tribal chiefdoms such as the Lakhmids in a less controlled area of the Sasanian Empire, and the Ghassanids in a similar area inside of Byzantine territory; these political units of Arab origin offered a surprising stability that was rare in the region and offered Arabia further connections to the outside world. The Lakhmid capital, Hira was a center for Christianity and Jewish craftsmen, merchants, and farmers were common in western Arabia as were Christian monks in central Arabia. Thus pre-Islamic Arabia was no stranger to Abrahamic religions or monotheism, for that matter.

Islamic caliphate

While the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by warfare (602–628), a new power in the form of Islam grew in the Middle East. In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, Arab armies, led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East, taking more than half of Byzantine territory and completely engulfing the Persian lands. In Anatolia, they were stopped in the Siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the Byzantines, who were helped by the Bulgarians.

The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France in the Battle of Tours by the Franks. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire was the first empire to control the entire Middle East, as well three-quarters of the Mediterranean region, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the Mediterranean Sea. It would be the Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today. The Seljuq Empire would also later dominate the region.

Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia (Al-Andalus) and Morocco soon broke away from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with Baghdad in the eastern Mediterranean. Between 831 and 1071, the Emirate of Sicily was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the Normans the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western, and Byzantine influences. Palermo remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.

Africa was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Motivated by religion and conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the Holy Land. The Crusades were unsuccessful but were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire. They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power.

Islamic culture and science

Religion always played a prevalent role in Middle Eastern culture, affecting learning, architecture, and the ebb and flow of cultures. When Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Islam primarily consisted of the five pillars of belief, including confession of faith, the five prayers a day, to fast during the holy month of Ramadan, to pay the tax for charity (the zakāt), and the hajj, or the pilgrimage that a Muslim needed to take at least once in their lifetime, according to the five (or six) pillars of Islam. Islam also created the need for spectacularly built mosques which created a distinct form of architecture. Some of the more magnificent mosques include Al-Aqsa and the former Mosque of Cordoba. Islam unified the Middle East and helped the empires there to remain stable. Missionaries and warriors spread the religion from Arabia to North and Sudanic Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Mesopotamia area. This created a mix of cultures, especially in Africa, and the mawali demographic. Although the mawali would experience discrimination from the Umayyad, they would gain widespread acceptance from the Abbasids and it was because of this that allowed for mass conversions in foreign areas. "People of the book" or dhimmi were always treated well; these people included Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians. However, the crusades started a new thinking in the Islamic empires, that non-Islamic ideas were immoral or inferior; this was primarily perpetrated by the ulama (علماء) scholars.

Arabian culture took off during the early Abbasid age, despite the prevalent political issues. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics that would later find its way back to Western Europe. The works of Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, and Euclid were saved and distributed throughout the empire (and eventually into Europe) in this manner. Muslim scholars also discovered the Hindu–Arabic numeral system in their conquests of south Asia. The use of this system in Muslim trade and political institutions allowed for the eventual popularization of it around the world; this number system would be critical to the Scientific revolution in Europe. Muslim intellectuals would become experts in chemistry, optics, and mapmaking during the Abbasid Caliphate. In the arts, Abbasid architecture expanded upon Umayyad architecture, with larger and more extravagant mosques. Persian literature grew based on ethical values. Astronomy was stressed in art. Much of this learning would find its way to the West. This was especially true during the crusades, as warriors would bring back Muslim treasures, weapons, and medicinal methods.

Turks, Crusaders, and Mongols

The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuq Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia. They conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz. Egypt held out under the Fatimid caliphs until 1169, when it too fell to the Turks.

Despite massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the Christian Byzantine Empire continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean, preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe. The Seljuqs' defeat of the Byzantine military in the Battle of Manzikert in the 11th century and settling in Anatolia effectively marked the end of Byzantine power. The Seljuks ruled most of the Middle East region for the next 200 years, but their empire soon broke up into a number of smaller sultanates.

Christian Western Europe staged a remarkable economic and demographic recovery in the 11th century since its nadir in the 7th century. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France, and the emerging Holy Roman Empire, to enter the region. In 1095, Pope Urban II responded to pleas from the flagging Byzantine Empire and summoned the European aristocracy to recapture the Holy Land for Christianity. In 1099 the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem and founded the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived until 1187, when Saladin, the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, retook the city. Smaller crusader kingdoms and fiefdoms survived until 1291.

Mongol rule

The conquest of Baghdad and the death of the caliph in 1258 officiated the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and annexed its territories to the Mongol Empire, excluding Mamluk Egypt and the majority of Arabia. When the Khagan (or Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire, Möngke Khan, died in 1259, any further expansion by Hulegu was halted, as he had to return to the Mongol capital Karakorum for the election of a new khagan. His absence resulted in the first defeat of the Mongols (by the Mamluk Egyptians) during the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. Issues began to arise when the Mongols grew increasingly unable to reach a consensus as to whom to elect khagan. Additionally, societal clashing occurred between traditionalists who wished to retain their nomadic culture and Mongols moving towards sedentary agriculture. All of this led to the fragmentation of the empire in 1260. Hulegu carved out his Middle Eastern territory into the independent Ilkhanate, which included most of Armenia, Anatolia, Azerbaijan, Mesopotamia, and Iran.

The Mongols eventually retreated in 1335, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the region was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, Timur, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the Ottomans. Based in Anatolia, by 1566 they would conquer the Iraq-Iran region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the Ottoman Empire. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Medieval (Postclassical) Era in the Middle East.

Early Modern Near East

The Ottoman Empire (1299–1918)

By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman khans, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capitol of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. The Mamluks held the Ottomans out of the Middle East for a century, but in 1514 Selim the Grim began the systematic Ottoman conquest of the region. Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. Iraq was conquered almost in 40 years from the Iranian Safavids, who were successors of the Aq Qoyunlu.

The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years, despite brief intermissions created by the Iranian Safavids and Afsharids. By this time the Ottomans also held Greece, the Balkans, and most of Hungary, setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the Danube. Regions such as Albania and Bosnia saw many conversions to Islam, but Ottoman Europe was not culturally absorbed into the Muslim world.

Rivalry with the West
By 1699, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary, Poland-Lithuania and parts of the western Balkans in the Great Turkish War. In the Great Divergence, Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and technology. (Some historians argue that science had already been in decline in the Muslim world since the 14th century while other argue that sciences still continued until the 17th century.) The industrial revolution and growth of capitalism magnified the divergence, and from 1768 to 1918, the Ottomans gradually lost territory.

Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria achieved independence during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire became known as the "sick man of Europe", increasingly under the financial control of European powers. Domination soon turned to outright conquest: the French annexed Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1878 and the British occupied Egypt in 1882, though it remained under nominal Ottoman sovereignty. In the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 the Ottomans were driven out of Europe altogether, except for the city of Constantinople and its hinterland.

The British also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French extended their influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany.

Ottoman reform efforts

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with Europe. In the Ottoman Empire, the Tanzimat reforms re-invigorated Ottoman rule and were furthered by the Young Ottomans in the late 19th century, leading to the First Constitutional Era in the Empire that included the writing of the 1876 constitution and the establishment of the Ottoman Parliament. The authors of the 1906 revolution in Persia all sought to import versions of the western model of constitutional government, civil law, secular education, and industrial development into their countries. Throughout the region, railways and telegraph lines were constructed, schools and universities were opened, and a new class of army officers, lawyers, teachers, and administrators emerged, challenging the traditional leadership of Islamic scholars.

This first Ottoman constitutional experiment ended soon after it began, however, when the autocratic Sultan Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution in favor of personal rule. Abdul Hamid ruled by decree for the next 30 years, stirring democratic resentment. The reform movement known as the Young Turks emerged in the 1890s against his rule, which included massacres against minorities. The Young Turks seized power in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution and established the Second Constitutional Era, leading to a pluralist and multiparty elections in the Empire for the first time in 1908. The Young Turks split into two parties, the pro-German and pro-centralization Committee of Union and Progress and the pro-British and pro-decentralization Freedom and Accord Party. The former was led by an ambitious pair of army officers, Ismail Enver Bey (later Pasha) and Ahmed Cemal Pasha, and a radical lawyer, Mehmed Talaat Bey (later Pasha). After a power struggle between the two parties of Young Turks, the Committee emerged victorious and became a ruling junta, with Talaat as Grand Vizier and Enver as War Minister, and established a German-funded modernisation program across the Empire.

Enver Bey's alliance with Germany, which he considered the most advanced military power in Europe, was enabled by British demands that the Ottoman Empire cede their formal capital Edirne (Adrianople) to the Bulgarians after losing the First Balkan War, which the Turks saw as a betrayal by Britain. These demands cost Britain the support of the Turks, as the pro-British Freedom and Accord Party was now repressed under the pro-German Committee for, in Enver's words, "shamefully delivering the country to the enemy" (Britain) after agreeing to the demands to give up Edirne.

Modern Middle East

Final years of the Ottoman Empire

In 1878, as the result of the Cyprus Convention, the United Kingdom took over the government of Cyprus as a protectorate from the Ottoman Empire. While the Cypriots at first welcomed British rule, hoping that they would gradually achieve prosperity, democracy and national liberation, they soon became disillusioned. The British imposed heavy taxes to cover the compensation they paid to the Sultan for conceding Cyprus to them. Moreover, the people were not given the right to participate in the administration of the island, since all powers were reserved to the High Commissioner and to London.

Meanwhile, the fall of the Ottomans and the partitioning of Anatolia by the Allies led to resistance by the Turkish population, under the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the Turkish victory against the invading powers during the Turkish War of Independence, and the founding of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923. Atatürk, the Republic's first President, embarked on a program of modernisation and secularisation that pushed Turkey both economically and culturally closer to Europe and away from the Arab world. He abolished the caliphate, emancipated women, enforced western dress and the use of a new Turkish alphabet based on Latin script in place of the Arabic alphabet, and abolished the jurisdiction of the Islamic courts.

Another turning point came when oil was discovered, first in Persia (1908) and later in Saudi Arabia (1938) as well as the other Persian Gulf states, Libya, and Algeria. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily untapped reserves of crude oil, the most important commodity in the 20th century. The discovery of oil in the region made many of the kings and emirs of the Middle East immensely wealthy and enabled them to consolidate their hold on power while giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region.

As the West became dependent on Middle Eastern oil exports and British influence steadily declined, American interest in the region grew. Initially, Western oil companies established a dominance over oil production and extraction. However, indigenous movements towards nationalizing oil assets, oil sharing, and the advent of OPEC ensured a shift in the balance of power towards the Arab oil states.

World War I

In 1914, Enver Pasha's alliance with Germany led the Ottoman Empire into the fatal step of entering  World War I on the side of the Central Powers against the Entente, an alliance that included Russia, Great Britain and France. The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance, and concentrated on knocking them out of the war. When a direct assault failed at Gallipoli in 1916, they turned to fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains, exploiting the awakening force of Arab, Armenian, and Assyrian nationalism against the Ottomans.

The British found an ally in Sharif Hussein, the hereditary ruler of Mecca believed by many to be a descendant of Muhammad, who led an Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule, after being promised independence.

The Entente, won the war and the Ottoman Empire was abolished with most of its territories ceded to Britain and France; Turkey just managed to survive. The war transformed the region in terms of shattering Ottoman power which was supplanted by increased British and French involvement; the creation of the Middle Eastern state system as seen in Turkey and Saudi Arabia; the emergence of explicitly more nationalist politics, as seen in Turkey and Egypt; and the expansion of oil industry, particularly in the Gulf States.

Ottoman defeat and partition (1918–22)

When the Ottoman Empire surrendered to the Allies in 1918, the Arab patriots did not get what they had expected. Islamic activists of more recent times have described it as an Anglo-French betrayal. The governments of the European Entente had concluded a secret treaty before the armistice, the Sykes–Picot Agreement, partitioning the Middle East amongst themselves. The British had in 1917, endorsed the Balfour Declaration promising the international Zionist movement their support in re-creating the historic Jewish homeland in Palestine.

After the Ottomans were withdrew, Arab leaders proclaimed an independent state in Damascus, but were swiftly defeated by the forces of Great Britain and France who soon after establishing control, re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.

Syria became a French protectorate as a League of Nations mandate. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become Lebanon, another French protectorate. Iraq and Palestine became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "Kingdom of Iraq" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, Faisal, was installed as the King of Iraq. Iraq incorporated large populations of Kurds, Assyrians and Turkmens, many of whom had been promised independent states of their own.

Britain was granted a Mandate for Palestine on 25 April 1920 at the San Remo Conference, and, on 24 July 1922, this mandate was approved by the League of Nations. Palestine became the "British Mandate of Palestine" and  was placed under direct British administration. The Jewish population of Palestine, consisting overwhelmingly of recent migrants from Europe, numbered less than 8 percent in 1918. Under the British mandate, Zionist settlers were granted wide rein to immigrate initially, buy land from absentee landlords, set up a local government and later establish the nucleus of a state all under the protection of the British Army, which brutally suppressed multiple Palestinian Arab revolts in the years that followed, including in 1936. The Territory East of the Jordan River and west of Iraq was also declared a British Mandate when the Council of the League of Nations passed the British written Transjordan Memorandum on 16 September 1922. Most of the Arabian peninsula, including the Holy cities of Mecca and Medina, though not incorporated into either a British or French colonial mandate, fell under the control of another British ally, Ibn Saud, who in 1932, founded the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

1920–1945

During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, Syria and Egypt made moves towards independence. In 1919, Egypt's Saad Zaghloul orchestrated mass demonstrations in Egypt known as the First Revolution. While Zaghloul would later become Prime Minister, the British repression of the anticolonial riots led to around 800 deaths. In 1920, Syrian forces were defeated by the French in the Battle of Maysalun and Iraqi forces were defeated by the British when they revolted. In 1922, the (nominally) independent Kingdom of Egypt was created following the British government's issuance of the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence.

Although the Kingdom of Egypt was technically "neutral" during World War II, Cairo soon became a major military base for the British and the country was occupied. The British cited the 1936 treaty that allowed it to station troops on Egyptian soil to protect the Suez Canal. In 1941, the Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup in Iraq led to the British to invade, leading to the Anglo-Iraqi War. This was followed by the Allied invasion of Syria–Lebanon and the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.

In Palestine, conflicting forces of Arab nationalism and Zionism created a situation the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise of German dictator Adolf Hitler had created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to immigrate to Palestine and create a Jewish state. A Palestinian state was also an attractive alternative to the Arab and Persian leaders, instead of the de facto British, French, and perceived Jewish colonialism or imperialism, under the logic of "the enemy of my enemy is my friend".

New states after World War II
When World War II ended, the British, French, and Soviets, wirhdrew from most parts of the regions they had occupied both before and during the War II and seven Middle East states gained or regained independence:
 22 November 1943 – Lebanon
 1 January 1944 – Syria
 22 May 1946 – Jordan (British mandate ended)
 1947 – Iraq (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
 1947 – Egypt (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn to the Suez Canal area)
 1948 – Israel (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn)
 August 16, 1960 – Cyprus

The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine. This plan sought to create an Arab state and a separate Jewish state in the narrow space between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean. Jewish leaders accepted the plan, but Arab leaders rejected it.

On 14 May 1948, when the British Mandate expired, the Zionist leadership declared the State of Israel. In the 1948 Arab–Israeli War which immediately followed, the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia intervened and were defeated by Israel. About 800,000 Palestinians fled from areas annexed by Israel and became refugees in neighbouring countries, thus creating the "Palestinian problem", which has troubled the region ever since. Approximately two-thirds of 758,000–866,000 of the Jews expelled or who fled from Arab lands after 1948 were absorbed and naturalized by the State of Israel.

On August 16, 1960, Cyprus gained its independence from the British Empire. Archbishop Makarios III, a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected its first independent president, and in 1961 it became the 99th member of the United Nations.

Modern states

The modern Middle East was shaped by three things: departure of European powers, the founding of Israel, and the growing importance of the oil industry. These developments eventually led to increased U.S. involvement in the region. The United States was the ultimate guarantor of the region's stability as well as the dominant force in the oil industry after the 1950s. When revolutions brought radical anti-Western regimes to power in Egypt (1954), Syria (1963), Iraq (1968), and Libya (1969), the Soviet Union, seeking to open a new arena of the Cold War, allied itself with Arab socialist rulers like Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and Saddam Hussein in Iraq.

These regimes gained popular support with promises to destroy the state of Israel and other "western imperialists", and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses. When the Six-Day War of 1967 ended with an overwhelming Israeli victory, many viewed the defeat as the failure of Arab socialism. This represents a turning point when "fundamental and militant Islam began to fill the political vacuum created".

The United States, in response, felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were often almost as unattractive in western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a revolution led by the Shi'a clergy overthrew the monarchy in 1979 and established a theocratic state that proved to be far more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as 1948 Arab–Israeli War, 1956 Suez War, 1967 Six-Day War, 1967-1970 War of Attrition, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, as well as a number of lesser conflicts of lower intensity.

In Cyprus between 1955 and 1974, conflict arising between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots led to Cypriot intercommunal violence and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The Cyprus dispute remains unresolved.

In the mid-to-late 1960s, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar took power in both Iraq and Syria. Iraq was first ruled by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, but was succeeded by Saddam Hussein in 1979, and Syria was ruled first by a Military Committee led by Salah Jadid, and later Hafez al-Assad until 2000, when he was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-Assad.

In 1979, Egypt under Nasser's successor, Anwar Sadat, concluded a peace treaty with Israel, ending the prospects of a united Arab military front. From the 1970s the Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, resorted to a prolonged campaign of violence against Israel and against American, Jewish, and western targets generally, as a means of weakening Israeli resolve and undermining western support for Israel. The Palestinians were supported in this, to varying degrees, by the regimes in Syria, Libya, Iran, and Iraq. The high point of this campaign came in the 1975 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 condemning Zionism as a form of racism and the reception given to Arafat by the United Nations General Assembly. Resolution 3379 was revoked in 1991 by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686.

Due to many of the frantic events of the late 1970s in the Middle East it culminated in the Iran–Iraq War between neighbouring Iran and Iraq. The war, started by Iraq, who invaded Iranian Khuzestan in 1980 at the behest of the latter's chaotic state of country due to the 1979 Islamic Revolution, eventually turned into a stalemate with hundreds of thousands of dead on both sides.

The fall of the Soviet Union and the collapse of communism in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of Soviet Jews to emigrate from Russia and Ukraine to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments, and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria, and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Iraq's Saddam Hussein increasingly relied on Arab nationalism as a substitute for socialism.

Saddam Hussein led Iraq into a prolonged and costly war with Iran from 1980 to 1988, and then into its fateful invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of Basra before 1918, and thus in a sense part of Iraq, even though Iraq had recognized its independence in 1961. In response, the United States formed a coalition of allies with Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Syria, gained UN approval, and evicted Iraq from Kuwait by force in the Gulf War. President George H. W. Bush did not, however, attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein, which the United States later came to regret. The Gulf War led to a permanent U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which offended many Muslims, and was a reason often cited by Osama bin Laden as justification for the September 11 attacks.

1990s–present

The worldwide change of governance in Eastern Europe, Latin America, East Asia, and parts of Africa following the dissolution of the Soviet Union did not occur in the Middle East. In the whole region, only Israel, Turkey and to some extent Lebanon and the Palestinian territories were considered to be democracies. Some countries had legislative bodies, but these were said to have little power. In the Persian Gulf states the majority of the population could not vote because they were guest workers rather than citizens.

In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was said to be limited by political restrictions, corruption, and cronyism, overspending on arms and prestige projects and over-dependence on oil revenues. The successful economies were countries that had oil wealth and low populations, such as Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates, where the ruling emirs allowed some political and social liberalization, but without giving up any of their own power. Lebanon also rebuilt a fairly successful economy after a prolonged civil war in the 1980s.

At the beginning of the 21st century, all these factors intensified conflict in the Middle East, which affected the entire world. Bill Clinton's failed attempt to broker a peace deal between Israel and Palestine at the Camp David Summit in 2000 led directly to the election of Ariel Sharon as Prime Minister of Israel and to the Second Intifada, which conducted suicide bombings on Israeli civilians. This was the first major outbreak of violence since the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993.

At the same time, the failures of most of the Arab governments and the bankruptcy of secular Arab radicalism led a section of educated Arabs (and other Muslims) to embrace Islamism, promoted both by Iran's Shi'a clerics as well as by Saudi Arabia's powerful Wahhabist sect. Many of the militant Islamists gained their military training while fighting Soviet forces in Afghanistan. Many of the Afghan jihadists, though supposedly none of the Arab volunteers, were funded by the United States under Operation Cyclone as part of the Reagan Doctrine, one of the longest and most expensive CIA covert operations ever.

One of these Arab militants was a wealthy Saudi Arabian named Osama bin Laden. After fighting against the Soviets in Afghanistan in the 1980s, he formed the al-Qaida organization, which was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, the USS Cole bombing and the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. The September 11 attacks led the George W. Bush administration to invade Afghanistan in 2001 to overthrow the Taliban regime, which had been harbouring Bin Laden and al-Qaida. The United States and its allies described this operation as part of a global "War on Terror".

In 2002, U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld developed a plan to invade Iraq, remove Saddam from power, and turn Iraq into a democratic state with a free-market economy, which they hoped would serve as a model for the rest of the Middle East. The United States and its principal allies—Britain, Italy, Spain, and Australia—could not secure United Nations approval for the execution of the numerous UN resolutions, so they launched an invasion of Iraq and deposed Saddam without much difficulty in April 2003.

The advent of a new western army of occupation in a Middle Eastern capital marked a turning point in the history of the region. Despite successful elections (although boycotted by large portions of Iraq's Sunni population) held in January 2005, much of Iraq had all but disintegrated, due to a post-war insurgency which morphed into persistent ethnic violence that the American army was initially unable to quell. Many of Iraq's intellectual and business elite fled the country, and many Iraqi refugees left as a result of the insurgency, further destabilizing the region. A responsive surge in U.S. forces in Iraq was largely successful in controlling the insurgency and stabilizing the country. U.S. forces withdrew from Iraq by December 2011.

By 2005, President George W. Bush's Road map for peace between Israel and the Palestinians was stalled, although this situation had begun to change with Yasser Arafat's death in 2004. In response, Israel moved towards a unilateral solution, pushing ahead with the Israeli West Bank barrier to protect Israel from Palestinian suicide bombers and proposed unilateral withdrawal from Gaza. In 2006 a new conflict erupted between Israel and Hezbollah Shi'a militia in southern Lebanon, further setting back any "prospects for peace".

In the early 2010s, a revolutionary wave popularly known as the Arab Spring brought major protests, uprisings, and revolutions to several Middle Eastern countries, followed by prolonged civil wars in Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and Libya. In 2014, a terrorist group and self-proclaimed caliphate calling itself the Islamic State made rapid territorial gains in western Iraq and eastern Syria, prompting international military intervention. At its peak, the group controlled an area containing an estimated 2.8 to 8 million people, 98% of which was lost by December 2017.

Maps of the Middle East from 1910 to 2010

See also
 Genetic history of the Middle East
 History of the Mediterranean region
 List of history journals#Middle East
 Middle Eastern empires
 Timeline of Middle Eastern history
 The oil crises
 British foreign policy in the Middle East
 United States foreign policy in the Middle East
 Near Eastern archaeology
By country:
 History of Armenia
 History of Azerbaijan
 History of Bahrain
 History of Cyprus
 History of Egypt
 History of Georgia
 History of Iran
 History of Iraq
 History of Israel
 History of Jordan
 History of Kuwait
 History of Lebanon
 History of Oman
 History of Palestine
 History of Qatar
 History of Saudi Arabia
 History of Syria
 History of Turkey
 History of the United Arab Emirates
 History of Yemen

General:
 History of North Africa
 History of Asia

References

Works cited

Further reading

 Cheta, Omar Youssef. "The economy by other means: The historiography of capitalism in the modern Middle East." History Compass (April 2018) 16#4 DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12444
 Cleveland, William L. and Martin Bunton. (2016) A History of the Modern Middle East. 6th ed. Westview Press.
 Fawaz, Leila Tarazi. A Land of Aching Hearts: The Middle East in the Great War (2014)
 Fawcett, Louise, ed. International relations of the Middle East (Oxford University Press, 2013)
 Gause III, F. Gregory. "'Hegemony' Compared: Great Britain and the United States in the Middle East." Security Studies 28.3 (2019): 565-587. https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2019.1604987
 Goldschmidt, Arthur, and Lawrence Davidson. A concise history of the Middle East (Westview Press, 1991)
 Issawi, Charles. An economic history of the Middle East and North Africa (Routledge, 2013) Excerpt and text search
 Issawi, Charles, ed. The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings (1966) online
 Kirk, George Eden. A short history of the Middle East: from the rise of Islam to modern times(Methuen, 1964) online

 Monroe, Elizabeth.  Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914–1956 (1963) online

 Vasiliev, Alexey. Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin (Routledge, 2018).

 Worth, Robert F., "Syria's Lost Chance" (review of Elizabeth F. Thompson, How the West Stole Democracy from the Arabs: the Syrian Arab Congress of 1920 and the Destruction of Its Historic Liberal-Islamic Alliance, Atlantic Monthly, 466 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 15 (8 October 2020), pp. 31–33. Worth writes (p. 33): "Perhaps things would have been different if the Syrians had been left to govern themselves a century ago."

External links

 Articles From Our Experts – Qatar Digital Library – an online portal providing access to previously undigitised British Library archive materials relating to Persian Gulf history and Arabic science
 The Middle East : peace and the changing order from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
 Ancient Civilizations Medicine
 Assyrians
 Middle East: Primary Cultural and Historical Zones

Middle Eastern studies
Articles containing video clips

History of the Middle East


Danus o Dan según Saxo Grammaticus en su Gesta Danorum fue uno de los primeros reyes legendarios de la protohistoria de Dinamarca durante los primeros siglos de la Era cristiana. Dice la leyenda que Dan es el patriarca de la nación danesa como su hermano Angul lo fue de los anglos. Danus casó con una matriarca muy reverenciada entre los teutones, Grytha quien le dio dos hijos Humblus y Lotherus, ambos también reyes legendarios.

Chronicon Lethrense
En el Chronicon Lethrense (), menciona un rey de Gamla Uppsala que tuvo tres hijos llamados, Dan, Nori y Östen. Dan gobernó Dinamarca, Nori gobernó Noruega, y Östen a los suecos.

Saga Skjöldunga
La saga Skjöldunga de Arngrímur Jónsson (1597), menciona a Rigus (una forma terrenal de Heimdal) que tuvo un hijo llamado Dan (Danum) y cuyos súbditos se llamaban daneses.

Rígsþula
El poema Rígsþula menciona al mismo Rigus (aquí Rígr), padre de Ríg-Jarl. Ríg-Jarl tuvo once hijos, el más joven llamado Kon ung. Un día, mientras cazaba y capturaba aves, un cuervo le habló y sugirió que ganaría más ir tras de los hombres, alabando las riquezas de "Dan y Danp", presuntamente dos de sus hermanos mayores.

Saga Ynglinga
En la saga Ynglinga de Snorri Sturluson () cita al rey Dyggvi de Suecia, cuya esposa era la hija del rey Danp, hijo de Rig, nombrado "rey" (nórdico antiguo: konungr) y hermana de Dan Mikillati, de quien Dinamarca tomó su nombre.

Referencias

Véase también
 Dan
 Reinos vikingos de Dinamarca

Bibliografía
 Dumézil, Georges (1973). From Myth to Fiction : The Saga of Hadingus. Trans. Derek Coltman. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16972-3.
 Davidson, Hilda Ellis (ed.) and Peter Fisher (tr.) (1999). Saxo Grammaticus : The History of the Danes : Books I-IX. Bury St Edmunds: St Edmundsbury Press. ISBN 0-85991-502-6. First published 1979-1980.

Enlaces externos
 Elton, Oliver (tr.) (1905). The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus. New York: Norroena Society. Disponible en línea
 Olrik, J. and H. Ræder (1931). Saxo Grammaticus : Gesta Danorum. Disponible en línea

Reyes vikingos legendarios de Dinamarca

Danus


Cuatro santos en tres actos (título original en inglés, Four Saints in Three Acts) es una ópera en un prólogo y cuatro actos con música de Virgil Thomson y libreto en inglés de Gertrude Stein. Escrita en 1927-8, contiene alrededor de 20 santos y tiene al menos cuatro actos. Totalmente innovadora en su forma, contenido y elenco todo formado por negros, con cantantes dirigidos por la directora coral negra Eva Jessye y apoyada por su coro.

Thomson sugirió el tema, y el libreto tal como se presentó puede leerse en las obras completas de Stein. La ópera se centra en dos santos españoles del siglo XVI, el anterior soldado Ignacio de Loyola y la mística Teresa de Ávila—así como sus colegas, reales e imaginarios: San Plan, Santa Dote, San Trama, San Chávez, etc.  Thomson decidió dividir el papel de santa Teresa entre dos cantantes, "Santa Teresa I" y "Santa Teresa II",  y añadió presentador y presentadora (Compère y Commère- literalmente compadre y comadre, los padrinos) para cantar las direcciones escénicas de Stein.

Argumento
Después de que el coro cante un preludio, el Acto I se desarrolla en la catedral de Ávila; se titula "Santa Teresa medio dentro medio fuera". El acto II, "Podrían ser montañas si no fuera Barcelona", implica un telescopio y miradas de una mansión celestial. El Acto III, "San Ignacio y uno de dos literalmente" es un pícnic y contiene la famosa aria de Ignacio "Pigeons on the grass alas" (Palomas en la hierba). Acaba con un ballet semejante a un tango. El breve Acto IV ("Las hermanas y los santos reunidos y representando por qué se marcharon para quedarse") se ambienta en el jardín de un monasterio. Antes de que caiga el telón, el Compadre anuncia "Último acto", y el coro responde "Which is a fact" (Lo que es un hecho).

Elenco del estreno
El elenco de la producción original incluyó:
 Edward Matthews como "San Ignacio" (barítono).
 Beatrice Robinson-Wayne como "Santa Teresa I" (soprano).
 Bruce Howard como "Santa Teresa II" (contralto).
 Embry Bonner como "San Chávez" (tenor).
 Bertha Fitzhugh Baker como "Santa Dote" (soprano).
 Randolph Robinson como "San Plan".
 Abner Dorsey como "el Compadre" (bajo).
 Altonnell Hines como "la Comadre" (mezzo).
 Ruby Greene.
 Inez Matthews (hermana de Edward Matthew).
 Charles Holland.
 El Coro de Eva Jessye, dirigido por Eva Jessye.

Producciones
Representada por vez primera en el Wadsworth Atheneum de Hartford (7 de febrero de 1934), Cuatro santos en tres actos se estrenó en Broadway el 20 de febrero de 1934. La ópera destacó porque desafiaba muchas aspectos tradicionales de la ópera. El libreto de Stein se centraba más en una afinidad por los sonidos de las palabras que en presentar una narrativa. La música de Thomson era poco convencional en su verdadera simplicidad.  La pionera de la música negra Eva Jessye dirigió a los cantantes y a su coro en la producción. La producción en sí, sin embargo, la dirigió John Houseman, quien tenía 31 años de edad y que sólo recientemente había prestado atención al teatro después de una carrera como especulador en el teatro internacional del grano.

Los atractivos escenarios de la primera producción, diseñados por la artista Florine Stettheimer, incluyeron telones de celofán, y los vestidos, también de Stettheimer, eran de encaje colorido, seda y tafetán.  Frederick Ashton proporcionó la coreografía (después de que George Balanchine rechazara el trabajo).

También fue inusual representar santos europeos con un elenco de afroamericanos, para lo que no había precedente en la historia estadounidense. Estos elementos tan poco convencionales llevaron a una exitosa y bien recibida primera producción.  Mientras que los críticos se mostraron divididos, el público aceptó el mundo de fantasía creado por los cantantes, que pronunciaron vívidamente las palabras y las melodías dadas a sus personajes santos.

La ópera se representaría más adelante como un oratorio de concierto, como en dos retransmisiones radiofónicas de 1942 y 1947. Interpretaciones escénicas fueron producidas en 1952 y 1973.  En 1981, una versión de concierto de Nueva York fue interpretada para la celebración del 85 cumpleaños de Thomson. Para esta interpretación, Betty Allen, Gwendolyn Bradley, William Brown, Clamma Dale, Benjamin Matthews, Florence Quivar y Arthur Thompson cantaron los papeles principales.

También ha habido representaciones por parte de Robert Wilson y el coreógrafo Mark Morris, quien creó una pieza de danza.

Esta ópera rara vez se representa en la actualidad; en las estadísticas de Operabase  no aparece entre las óperas representadas en el período 2005-2010.

Referencias
Notas

Fuentes
 Southern, Eileen. 1997. The Music of Black Americans: A History.  3.ª edición. Nueva York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-03843-2 [cloth] ISBN 0-393-97141-4 [pbk]
 Tommasini, Anthony. 1998. Virgil Thomson: Composer on the Aisle. Nueva York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-31858-3
 Watson, Steven. 1998. Prepare for Saints: Gertrude Stein, Virgil Thomson, and the Mainstreaming of American Modernism. Nueva York: Random House. ISBN 0-67944-139-5
 escrito por la estudiosa de su obra Renate Stendhal, autora de "Gertrude Stein in Words and Pictures"
Renate Stendhal, ed., Gertrude Stein In Words and Pictures: A Photobiography. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 1989. ISBN 0-945575-99-8; ISBN 978-0-945575-99-3. Gertrude Stein Pictures...
Licencia

Óperas estrenadas en Estados Unidos
Óperas de Virgil Thomson
Óperas en inglés
Óperas de 1934

Cuatro santos en tres actos


Svetoslav Todorov (în ; n. 30 august 1978 în Dobrich, Bulgaria) este un fost fotbalist bulgar care a jucat la echipa națională a țării sale pe postul de atacant. Todorov este cel mai bun marcator al lui Litex Loveci din toate timpurile din Prima Ligă a Bulgariei.

Cariera pe echipe

Primii ani
Todorov și-a început cariera la clubul bulgar de prima divizie Dobrudzha Dobrich în 1996-1997, marcând de două ori în douăsprezece meciuri. Apoi a ajuns la câștigătoarea celei de-a doua ligi din anul anterior, Litex Lovech, unde a marcat 34 de goluri în 70 de meciuri pe parcursul a patru sezoane. Forma lui a atras atenția cluburilor engleze și, după încercări cu Preston North End și West Ham United, s-a alăturat echipei West Ham în ianuarie 2001. În timp ce a jucat în Bulgaria a fost un jucător care lua rar cartonașe, fiind eliminat o singură dată, pe 13 mai 2000, într-o partidă cu Spartak Varna scor 0-1 într-un meci din PFG A.

West Ham United
Todorov a semnat cu echipa West Ham în ianuarie 2001, pentru o sumă de transfer de 500 000 de lire sterline, care putea crește la 2 milioane de lire sterline, în funcție de numărul de meciuri jucate. El și-a făcut debutul într-o înfrângere cu 3-0 cu Liverpool și a marcat primul său gol pentru club în al treilea joc, o înfrângere cu 3-2 acasă în Cupa Angliei cu Tottenham și apoi a marcat primul gol în campionat împotriva lui Middlesbrough. Cu toate acestea, după ce antrenorul Harry Redknapp a plecat de la club în mai 2001, Todorov nu a intrat în grațiile noului antrenor și a jucat doar opt meciuri sub noul antrenor Glenn Roeder în sezonul 2001-2002.

Portsmouth
Todorov a semnat cu Portsmouth în martie 2002 pentru 750.000 de lire sterline, avându-l lângă el la conferința de presă pe directorul sportiv Harry Redknapp, care l-a adus la West Ham. Redknapp l-a descris ca fiind "un fotbalist foarte inteligent [care] va crea o concurență bună în atac". El a fost eliminat pentru comportament nesportiv în cel de-al doilea meci jucat pentru Portsmouth, o înfrângere cu 2-0 la Preston și a jucat un singur meci în sezonul 2001-2002. A devenit titular în prima echipă din sezonul 2002-2003, făcând 45 de apariții în campionat și marcând 26 de goluri, inclusiv un hat-trick în meciul final al sezonului împotriva lui Bradford City, cu Portsmouth câștigând al doilea eșalon al fotbalului englez, promovând astfel în Premier League. El a fost cel mai bun marcator al sezonului anterior, depășindu-l pe David Johnson de la Nottingham Forest cu hat-trick-ul marcat în ultima zi a sezonului; Redknapp a declarat că: "Todorov a avut un sezon grozav. El este golgheter în Prima Divizie după golurile de astăzi. L-am cumpărat de la vechiul meu club West Ham și a avut multe de îndurat de la început. . . El s-a descurcat minunat, dovedind că este un mare jucător." Todorov a semnat un nou contract pe trei ani cu Portsmouth în iulie 2003.

Cu câteva zile înainte de începerea sezonului de Premier League, Todorov s-a accidentat grav, suferind o ruptură de ligament încrucișat anterior la genunchi în urma unor accidentări suferite la antrenamente. Această accidentare a necesitat o intervenție chirurgicală la genunchi și se aștepta să piardă tot restul sezonului 2003-2004. El a revenit în februarie 2004, jucând pentru echipa de rezerve a lui Portsmouth și a revenit la prima echipă într-un meci cu Liverpool. El a jucat un singur meci pentru Portsmouth în Premiership în timpul sezonului 2003-2004 și a necesitat o nouă intervenție chirurgicală la genunchi în mai 2004, din cauza căreia a ratat Campionatul European din 2004 și întregul sezon 2004-2005. El a semnat un nou contract în august 2005 și, după ce a jucat foarte puțin în ultimele două sezoane, a fost oferit drept împrumut pentru a-și recăpăta forma fizică. În cele din urmă, el a rămas la Portsmouth și a fost folosit în principal ca rezervă în sezonul 2005-2006. El a marcat golul victoriei împotriva lui West Bromwich Albion în al doilea meci al lui Harry Redknapp de la revenirea la Portsmouth, în decembrie 2005 și a marcat goluri cruciale împotriva lui West Ham, Blackburn Rovers și Sunderland, care au ajutat-o pe Portsmouth să evite retrogradarea.

După ce a înscris de două ori pentru Portsmouth în primele trei meciuri din sezonul 2006-2007, Todorov a fost împrumutat echipei Wigan Athletic în august 2006 sub formă de împrumut pentru un sezon. Antrenorul de la Wigan, Paul Jewell, l-a descris ca fiind "un atacant veritabil care trăiește pentru a introduce mingea în plasă". Cu toate acestea, el a jucat în doar cinci meciuri pentru Wigan, fără să marcheze, și a revenit la Portsmouth în ianuarie 2007. El a jucat din nou în sezonul 2006-2007, intrând pe teren din postura de rezervă în meciul cu Fulham din martie 2007.

Charlton Athletic
După ce nu s-a mai impus la Portsmouth în sezonul 2006-2007, Todorov a ajuns la echipa Charlton Athletic în luna iulie a anului 2007, care nu a plătit nimic pe el și cu care a semnat un contract pe un an. Primul gol în campionat pentru Charlton l-a marcat împotriva rivalei din Londra Crystal Palace în septembrie 2007 dar după ce a suferit o accidentare la genunchi în meciul cu Plymouth din octombrie 2007, Todorov a lipsit în restul sezonului 2007-2008. El a semnat un nou contract pe un an în iunie 2008, dar nu a primit un nou contract la sfârșitul sezonului 2008-2009.

Litex Loveci
A semnat cu fostul său club Litex Loveci în calitate de jucător liber de contract la 16 iulie 2009. Pe 8 august 2009, a marcat întoarcerea sa în Prima Ligă a Bulgariei cu un gol marcat în minutul 89, după ce a intrat în locul lui Ivelin Popov în victoria cu 5-0 victoria cu Lokomotiv Mezdra. La 25 octombrie 2010, Todorov a înscris un gol în ultimul minut împotriva lui Levski Sofia pentru a-și ajuta echipa să câștige cu 2-1. În ianuarie 2011, Todorov a fost ales de fanii lui Litex drept cel mai bun jucător al clubului pentru anul 2010. Pe 12 iulie 2011, el a marcat de două ori reușind să-și ajute echipa să câștige cu 2-1 împotriva echipei muntenegrene Mogren în meciul din primul tur preliminar al Ligii Campionilor 2011-2012. Todorov a părăsit clubul în vara anului 2012.

Hoverla Ujgorod
La sfârșitul lunii august 2012, a semnat un contract pe un an cu nou promovata FC Hoverla Ujorogd din Prima Ligă Rusă. Todorov și-a făcut debutul pentru FC Hoverla Ujgorod pe 31 august 2012, în victoria scor 2-1 cu Tavria Simferopol și a jucat ultimul meci din cariera sa profesională la 24 noiembrie, în deplasare scor 1-5 împotriva lui Șahtior Donețk. A părăsit echipa în ianuarie 2013 și, mai târziu, și-a anunțat retragerea.

Viața personala
Todorov este căsătorit cu Severina și are un fiu.

Referințe

Legături externe

Profilul jucatorului Svetoslav Todorov      la cafc.co.uk
 Profil BBC
 Bulgaria - jucători internaționali

Atacanți
Fotbaliști ai Charlton Athletic FC
Fotbaliști ai Wigan Athletic FC
Fotbaliști ai West Ham United FC
Fotbaliști ai Portsmouth FC
Fotbaliști ai Premier League
Fotbaliști internaționali bulgari
Fotbaliști bulgari
Antrenori bulgari de fotbal
Oameni în viață
Nașteri în 1978

Svetoslav Todorov


Jessica Jennifer Williams (Baltimore, Maryland, 17 de marzo de 1948 - 12 de marzo de 2022) fue una compositora y pianista estadounidense de jazz, considerada una de las principales pianistas de la escena actual."

Historial
Comenzó a recibir clases de piano con cuatro años, y con siete estudió piano clásico en el Peabody Conservatory of Music. Se trasladó a Filadelfia(Pensilvania) siendo adolescente, y pronto comenzó a tocar en el quinteto de Philly Joe Jones, que había sido baterista de Miles Davis.

En 1977, se trasladó a San Francisco, California, donde tocó en diversas bandas, entre ellas las de Eddie Harris, Dexter Gordon, Tony Williams, y Stan Getz. También fue pianista habitual en Keystone Korner. realizó grabaciones para los sellos Candid, Fantasy, Timeless, Concord, Jazz Focus, Hep, y MaxJazz. Creó su propio sello en 1997, con el nombre de Red and Blue Recordings, donde publicó desde entonces su material.

Recibió tres nominaciones a los Grammy, por los discos Nothin' But the Truth (1986)
y Live At Yoshi's, Vol. 1 (2004). Su álbum This Side Up (2002) alcanzó el puesto #24 en el Top Jazz Albums de Billboard. En los años 2004 y 2006, ha sido artista invitada en los "Mary Lou Williams Women in Jazz Festivals", que se celebran en el John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, en Washington D. C..

Discografía (selección)
1976 Portal of Antrim — Adelphi
1978 Portraits — Adelphi
1979 Orgonomic Music — Clean Cuts
1980 Rivers of Memory — Clean Cuts
1982 Update — Clean Cuts
1986 Nothin' But the Truth — BlackHawk
1990 And Then, There's This — Timeless
1992 Live at Maybeck Recital Hall, Vol. 21 — Concord Jazz
1993 Next Step — Hep
1993 Arrival — Jazz Focus
1994 Momentum — Jazz Focus
1994 Song That I Heard — HEP
1994 In the Pocket — Hep
1994 Encounters — Jazz Focus
1995 Inventions — Jazz Focus
1995 Joy — Jazz Focus
1995 Intuition — Jazz Focus
1996 Gratitude — Candid
1996 Jessica's Blues — Jazz Focus
1996 Victoria Concert — Jazz Focus
1997 Higher Standards — Candid
1998 Encounters, Vol. 2 — Jazz Focus
1998 Joyful Sorrow: A Solo Tribute to Bill Evans — BlackHawk
1999 In the Key of Monk — Jazz Focus
1999 Ain't Misbehavin''' — Candid
2000 Jazz in the Afternoon — Candid
2000 Blue Fire — Jazz Focus
2001 I Let a Song Go out of My Heart — Hep
2001 Some Ballads, Some Blues — Jazz Focus
2002 This Side Up — MAXJAZZ
2003 All Alone — MAXJAZZ
2004 Live At Yoshi's, Vol. 1 — MAXJAZZ
2004 The Real Deal — Hep Jazz
2005 Live at Yoshi's, Vol. 2 — MAXJAZZ
2006 Billy's Theme: A Tribute to Dr. Billy Taylor — Origin Arts
2008 Songs for a New Century — Origin Arts
2009 The Art of the Piano — Origin Arts
2010 Touch — Origin Arts
2011 Freedom Trane — Origin Arts
2012 Songs of earth - Origin Records
2014 ''With love - Origin Records

Notas y referencias

Este artículo, en su versión inicial, está tomado de Wikipedia en inglés.

Enlaces externos

Pianistas de jazz de Estados Unidos
Músicos de bop
Nacidos en Baltimore

pl:Jessica Williams

Jessica Williams


26355 Grueber este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
26355 Grueber este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Linz de Erich Meyer. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,52 ua, o excentricitate de 0,25 și o înclinație de 12,2° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 26001-27000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1998
Centura de asteroizi

26355 Grueber


قصر الزاوش، هو قصر مهجور يقع في مدينة أريانة شمال وسط العاصمة تونس. يرجع بناء القصر إلى القرن الثامن العشر وقد أخذ اسمه عن الجنرال بشير الزاوش. يعد القصر من المعالم القديمة القليلة التي مازات قائمة في أريانة وهو أحد ثلاثة قصور كبيرة تقع في المدينة إلى جانب قصر البكوش وقصر بن عياد. تحيط بالقصر حديقة كبيرة يوجد بها عدة أشجار نخيل. يطغى على الطابع المعماري لغرف القصر الطراز الأندلسي كأغلب القصور التونسية. بني بجانبه عام 1999 مبنى إداري صغير.

قصور تونس

قصر الزاوش


Melanthalia, rod crvenih algi iz porodice Gracilariaceae smješten u tribus Gracilariopsideae, dio potporodice Melanthalioideae. Taksonomski je priznati rod endemičan za Australiju i Novi Zeland, s jednom vrstom iz Nove Kaledonije. Postoje četiri vrste.

Vrste
 Melanthalia abscissa (Turner) J.D.Hooker & Harvey
 Melanthalia obtusata (Labillardière) J.Agardh
 Melanthalia polydactylis J.Agardh
 Melanthalia vieillardii Kützing

Izvori

Gracilariales

Melanthalia


Codruț Sebastian Cioranu () este un fotbalist român, care evoluează pe postul de fundaș central la clubul din Liga a II-a, Metalul Reșița.

Note

Legături externe
Profile at Romaniansoccer.ro

Fotbaliști români
Români în viață
Sportivi români în viață
Fotbaliști ai CSM Politehnica Iași
Fotbaliști ai FC Sportul Studențesc

Codruț Cioranu


Audrey Faith McGraw (djevojački Perry; Ridgeland, Mississippi, SAD, 21. rujna 1967.), profesionalno poznata kao Faith Hill, američka je pjevačica i glazbena producentica. Ona je jedna od najuspješnijih country glazbenih umjetnica svih vremena, prodavši više od 40 milijuna albuma diljem svijeta. Faith Hill udana je za američkog pjevača Tima McGrawa s kojim je snimila nekoliko dueta.

Njezina prva dva albuma, "Take Me as I Am" (1993.) i "It Matters to Me" (1995.), bili su veliki uspjesi, postigavši zajedno tri prva mjesta na Billboard Country ljestvici. Zatim je postigla mainstream i međužanrovski uspjeh sa svoja sljedeća dva albuma, "Faith" (1998.) i "Breathe" (1999.). Faith je postigla svoj prvi međunarodni uspjeh početkom 1998., pjesmom "This Kiss", dok je "Breathe" postao jedan od najprodavanijih country albuma svih vremena, potaknut ogromnim uspjehom pjesama "Breathe" i "The Way You Love Me". Masovno se prodao diljem svijeta i donio joj tri Grammyja.

Godine 2001. snimila je pjesmu "There You'll Be" za glazbu za film "Pearl Harbor" i postigla međunarodni uspjeh. To je njezin najprodavaniji singl u Europi. Sljedeća dva albuma, "Cry" (2002.) i "Fireflies" (2005.), bili su komercijalni uspjesi; prvi je producirao još jedan žanrovski singl, "Cry", koji je Faith Hill donio nagradu Grammy, a drugi album je producirao singlove "Mississippi Girl" i "Like We Never Loved at All", koji su joj donijeli još jednu nagradu Grammy.

Faith Hill osvojila je pet nagrada Grammy, 15 nagrada Akademije za country glazbu, šest nagrada "American Music Awards" i nekoliko drugih nagrada. Njezina turneja Soul2Soul II 2006. sa suprugom Timom McGrawom postala je jedna od najprofitabilnijih turneja po SAD-u svih vremena.

Godine 2001., časopis "Ladies Home Journal" proglasio ju je jednom od "30 najmoćnijih žena u Americi". Godine 2009., "Billboard" ju je proglasio najboljom suvremenom umjetnicom 2000-ih, kao i 39. najboljom umjetnicom. Od 2007. do 2012., Faith Hill dala je glas uvodnoj pjesmi za NBC-jevu emisiju "Sunday Night Football". Godine 2019. dobila je zvijezdu na Hollywoodskoj stazi slavnih.

Izvori

Američki pjevači
Country glazbenici
Dobitnici nagrade Grammy

Faith Hill


Pedicularideae, tribus volovotkovki, dio reda medićolike (Lamiales). Postoji 21 rod čije vrste su prisutne po svim kontinentima osim Australije. Najrasprostranjeniji je rod Pedicularis ili ušljivac.

Gerardia Benth. je sinonm za Agalinis Raf.

Rodovi

 Pedicularis L. (666 spp.)
 Orthocarpus Nutt. (10 spp.)
 Cordylanthus Nutt. ex Benth. (13 spp.)
 Dicranostegia (A. Gray) Pennell (1 sp.)
 Chloropyron Behr (4 spp.)
 Triphysaria Fisch. & C. A. Mey. (6 spp.)
 Castilleja L. fil. (211 spp.)
 Phtheirospermum Bunge (1 sp.)
 Lamourouxia Kunth (29 spp.)
 Leptorhabdos Schrenk (1 sp.)
 Brachystigma Pennell (1 sp.)
 Esterhazya J. C. Mikan (6 spp.)
 Agalinis Raf. (67 spp.)
 Clevelandia Greene (1 sp.)
 Seymeria Pursh (21 spp.)
 Macranthera Torr. ex Benth. (1 sp.)
 Dasistoma Raf. (1 sp.)
 Aureolaria Raf. (8 spp.)
 Silviella Pennell (2 spp.)
 Seymeriopsis Tzvelev (1 sp.)
 Omphalothrix Maxim. (1 sp.)
</div>

Sinonimi
 Pedicularidaceae Juss.

Izvori

Volovotkovke

Pedicularideae


El Gran Grifón Vendeano es una raza de perro de caza originario de Francia existente desde el siglo XVI y fue el primero de los grifones vendeanos en criarse.

Es un descendiente de los "Canis Segusius" de los galos, a través de los llamados King's whites y Griffon Fauve de Bretagne, quien también es ancestro del Basset Fauve de Bretagne.

Existen varias razas de grifones originarios de Vendée, todos ellos de menor tamaño: Briquet Grifón Vendeano, Gran Basset Grifón Vendeano y el Pequeño Basset Grifón Vendeano.  Otras razas de grifones relacionadas son Basset leonado de Bretaña, el Grifón azul de Gascuña y el Grifón del Nivernais.

Referencias

"Grand Griffon Vendéen" FCI-Standard N° 282, 18 February 2000 Fédération Cynologique Internationale (World Canine Federation) standard;
Choron, Sandra and Choron, Harry (2005) Planet Dog: A Doglopedia Houghton Mifflin Books, Boston, ISBN 0618517529 p. 180;

Enlaces externos
 Grand Griffon Vendéen
Club du Griffon Vendéen (fr)

Grupo 6 de la FCI
Perros de deporte
Grifón
Razas de perro de Francia

Grifón vandeano grande


An Tillandsia lucida in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Charles Jacques Édouard Morren ngan John Gilbert Baker. An Tillandsia lucida in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tillandsia, ngan familia nga Bromeliaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Tillandsia

Tillandsia lucida


Ladies Tour of Norway er et etapeløb i cykling for kvinder. Den første udgave af løbet blev holdt fra den 15. til 17. august 2014 i Halden i det sydøstlige Norge. Det første løb bestod af en enkeltstartsprolog og to etaper med linjeløb. Løbet er af UCI klassificeret som et kategori 2.WWT løb.

Vindere af klassementet

Referencer

Ladies Tour of Norway


Goran Hrvić (Lukavac, 1955.), bh. slikar Po struci dipl. inž. elektrotehnike.

Životopis
Rođen u Lukavcu 1955. godine. Od rane mladosti bavio se slikarstvom, a od 1973. godine izlaže svoja djela. Završio je Elektrotehnički fakultet u Tuzli. Zaposlio se i radio u KHK Boris Kidrič, kasnije GIKIL u Lukavcu do odlaska mirovinu. U rodnom gradu je živio do 2003. godine, nakon čega se preselio u Tuzla. Član je Udruženja likovnih umjetnika Tuzlanske županije - ULUTK od osnivanja Udruženja i bio je jedan od osnivača.
Sudionik je više likovnih kolonija i susreta: Lukavački likovni susreti, Ratna likovna kolonija Lukavac, Majsko drugovanje na Sani - Sanski Most, Tvornički radnik - Belišće, Vrbovečki likovni susreti - Vrbovec, Likovna kolonija Marić - Husino.    Izlagao je na 10 samostalnih i preko 100 zajedničkih izložbi.

Samostalne izložbe

 Elektrotehnički fakultet Tuzla, 1979.
 Dom kulture "Đuro Pucar Stari" Lukavac, 1983.
 Dom armije Osijek, 1984.
 Ernestinovo, 1984.
 Robna kuća "Lukavčanka", Lukavac, 1986.
 Dom kulture "Đuro Pucar Stari" Lukavac, 1986./
 Dom Mladih Tuzla, 2000.
 Art Gallery GIKIL-a Lukavac 2011./
 Bosanski kulturni centar (BKC) Sarajevo 2014./
 Bosanski kulturni centar (BKC) Tuzla 2014.

Nagrade

 Prva nagrada na konkursu za zastavu, grb, plaketu i amblem grada Lukavca 31.srpnja 2003.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Panoramio - Goran Hrvić

Životopisi, Tuzla
Bosanskohercegovački slikari

Goran Hrvić


Pseudomonas aeruginosa  este o bacterie Gram-negativă, în formă de bastonaș (bacil), comună, care poate provoca boli la plante și animale, inclusiv oameni.

Bacterii aerobe, nepretentioase privind cultivarea, se dezvolta facil in 24 de ore, la 37 de grade Celsius, in atmosfera obisnuita.  O specie de importanță medicală considerabilă, P. aeruginosa este un "patogen rezistent la  ()" prototipic, recunoscut pentru omniprezența sa, mecanismele sale avansate de rezistență la antibiotice intrinsec avansate, și asocierea sa cu boli grave – în special infecții nosocomiale, cum ar fi   și diverse sindroame de septicemie.

Sistematică
Tulpini:
 ATCC 10145
 CCUG 551
 CFBP 2466
 CIP 100720
 DSM 50071
 JCM 5962
 LMG 1242
 NBRC 12689
 NCCB  76039
 NCIMB  8295
 NCTC 10332
 NRRL  B-771
 VKM B-588

Note

Legături externe

Proteobacterii
Bacterii Gram-negative

Pseudomonas aeruginosa


نادي جيرونا لكرة القدم  نادي كرة قدم إسباني يقع في مدينة جيرونا في إقليم كتالونيا ، ويلعب في الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الأولى. صعد موسم 2022-23. تم تأسيس النادي في سنة 1930.

اللاعبين

الفريق الأول

الاحتياط

المٌعارون
تنتهي إعارة جميع اللاعبين في 30 يونيو 2023.

المراجع

أندية الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
أندية الدوري الإسباني
أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1930
أندية كرة قدم في كتالونيا
تأسيسات سنة 1930 في إسبانيا
الرياضة في جرندة

نادي جيرونا


Esta é uma lista demostrando as exportações de bens de cada uma das vinte e cinco sub-regiões portuguesas, ordenadas pela sub-região e ano, mostrando os valores de cada ano desde 2011. Os dados baseiam-se nas estatísticas oficiais do Instituto Nacional de Estatística.

Exportações por sub-região
A lista mostra as sub-regiões portuguesas por exportações em 2021, junto com a comparação da posição entre 2020 e 2021, a variação entre 2020 e 2021, a participação e a variação da participação entre 2020 e 2021.

Desenvolvimento das exportações
A lista mostra as sub-regiões portuguesas pelo desenvolvimento das exportações desde 2011, mostrando os valores de cada dois anos, e a variação final em 2021.

Posição entre as sub-regiões
A lista mostra as sub-regiões portuguesas pela posição das exportações em 2011, mostrando os valores de cada dois anos, e a variação final em 2021.

Dados anuais
A lista mostra as sub-regiões portuguesas com os dados anuais das exportações desde 2011.

Listas de economia de Portugal

Lista de sub-regiões portuguesas ordenadas por exportações


9052 Uhland este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
9052 Uhland este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Tautenburg de Freimut Börngen. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,46 ua, o excentricitate de 0,19 și o înclinație de 2,2° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 9001-10000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Familia  Nysa

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1991
Centura de asteroizi

9052 Uhland


Gereyðingarvopn eru vopn sem geta valdið miklum skaða á fólki, manngerðu eða náttúrulegu umhverfi eða lífhvolfinu. Orðið er aðallega notað um kjarnavopn, geislavopn, efnavopn og lífræn vopn. Upphaflega var hugtakið notað yfir teppasprengingar í spænsku borgarastyrjöldinni og síðari heimsstyrjöld, en eftir kjarnorkuárásirnar á Hiroshima og Nagasaki hefur það aðallega verið notað um óhefðbundin vopn. Notkun orðsins er oft umdeild þar sem það þykir fremur pólitískt en tæknilegt. Þannig hafa til dæmis tölvuárásir og heimatilbúnar sprengjur hryðjuverkamanna verið kölluð "gereyðingarvopn".

Gereyðingarvopn
Fjöldamorð
Manngerðar hamfarir

Gereyðingarvopn


O Le Rhône 9J foi um motor aeronáutico giratório de nove cilindros produzido na França pela Gnome et Rhône, também conhecido como Le Rhône 110 hp em referência à sua potência nominal.

O Le Rhône 9J foi instalado em vários tipos de aviões militares da Primeira Guerra Mundial, sendo produzido sob licença na Grã-Bretanha pela "W.H. Allen Son & Company" de Bedford, e na Alemanha pela "Motorenfabrik Oberursel".

Visão geral
Em comum com outros motores Le Rhône de série, o 9J apresentava tubos de indução de cobre altamente visíveis e usava uma única haste push-pull para operar suas duas válvulas no cabeçote. A principal diferença visual entre o 9J e o motor Le Rhône 9C anterior, menos potente, é que a tubulação do coletor de admissão de cobre (com extremidades inferiores de seção redonda) no 9J de 110 hp está presa ao cárter atrás dos cilindros, enquanto no 9C (de 80 cv) os coletores de admissão (com extremidades inferiores retangulares) são totalmente visíveis de frente.

O motor Le Rhône 9J foi fabricado sob licença na Alemanha pela Motorenfabrik Oberursel e vendidos como Oberursel Ur.II.

Exemplares de motores Le Rhône 9J estão em exibição pública em museus de aviação, com vários remanescentes em estado de aeronavegabilidade, alimentando aeronaves vintage restauradas e reproduções autênticas de tais aeronaves.

Variantes
Le Rhône 9Ja
(1916) , motor giratório de nove cilindros. 953 construídos por "W.H. Allen Son & Co."
Le Rhône 9Jb
(1916) , motor giratório de nove cilindros.
Le Rhône 9Jby
(1916) , motor giratório de nove cilindros.
Le Rhône M-2 produção na URSS pós-WWI,

Aplicações

Le Rhône 9Ja

Exemplares remanescentes

Uma réplica do Bristol M.1, de propriedade e operada pela "Shuttleworth Collection", permanece em condições de aeronavegabilidade e é alimentada por um motor Le Rhône 9J. O Avro 504 aeronavegável da coleção também é movido por um motor rotativo Le Rhône 110 hp. A reprodução do Avro 504 no "Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome" também voou com um motor Le Rhone 9J original, assim como a primeira reprodução do triplano Fokker Dr.I de Cole Palen (agora aposentado) para os shows aéreos do "Old Rhinebeck" na década de 1960, com o registro americano N3221.

Uma réplica em escala real do Nieuport 11 construída por Walt e Joe Pfeifer no início da década de 1960, agora operada pela "The Vintage Aviator Limited", voa na Nova Zelândia com um Le Rhone 9C.

Exemplares em exibição
Os motores Le Rhône 9J preservados estão em exibição pública nos seguintes museus:
 Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center
 Shuttleworth Collection
 Museu de aviação da Hungria
 Museo Nacional de Aeronáutica, Buenos Aires, Argentina
 Golden Age Air Museum no aeroporto de Grimes em Bethel PA

Ver também
 Bentley BR1
 Clerget 9B
 Gnome Monosoupape

Bibliografia
 Lumsden, Alec. British Piston Engines and their Aircraft. Marlborough, Wiltshire: Airlife Publishing, 2003. .
 Gunston, Bill. World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines. Cambridge, England. Patrick Stephens Limited, 1989.

Ligações externas

 Le Rhône rotary engine - Images and description
 YouTube Video of Le Rhône 9J-powered Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome Avro 504
 New-build reproduction Oberursel Ur.II rotary engine run-up from New Zealand

Motores a explosão

Le Rhône 9J


<noinclude>

مهرجان الفلم العربي في فلسطين مهرجان سينمائي فلسطيني، تعرض فيه أهم الأفلام العربية التي حظيت باهتمام نقدي كبير ومتابعة جماهيرية واسعة، وحاز معظمها على جوائز في مهرجانات عربية وعالمية مهمة، في عدة مدن هي القدس، رام الله، نابلس ،الناصرة، غزة وبيت لحم. وتقوم مؤسسة «يبوس» للإنتاج الفني في فلسطين بالأشراف على المهرجان، بالتعاون مع عدة مراكز ثقافية فلسطينية.

مراجع

سينما عربية

مهرجانات في فلسطين

مهرجان الفيلم العربي في فلسطين


Košický Klečenov este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Košice-okolie din regiunea Košice. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 284 de locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Košický Klečenov este atestată documentar din 1427.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Košický Klečenov


Begonia integerrima é uma espécie de planta do grupo Begonia.

Taxonomia
A espécie foi decrita em 1821 por Kurt Sprengel.

Os seguintes sinônimos já foram catalogados:

 Begonia integerrima cardioides  Irmsch.
 Begonia populnea  A.DC.

Conservação
A espécie faz parte da Lista Vermelha das espécies ameaçadas do estado do Espírito Santo, no sudeste do Brasil.

Distribuição
A espécie é endêmica do Brasil e encontrada nos estados brasileiros de Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro e São Paulo.
A espécie é encontrada no domínio fitogeográfico de Mata Atlântica, em regiões com vegetação de floresta ombrófila pluvial.

Ecologia
A espécie parece não ser capaz de autopolinização. É visitada por abelhas.

Plantas
Flora do Espírito Santo (estado)
Espécies citadas na Lista Vermelha de Ameaça da Flora Brasileira
Espécies citadas na Lista de Espécies da Flora Ameaçadas do Espírito Santo
Plantas descritas em 1821

Begonia integerrima


الخزينة العامة للبلاد التونسية هي إحدى المصالح التابعة لوزارة المالية التونسية ويوجد مقرها بشارع الحبيب ثامر.

يتولى أمين المال العام كل ما يعهد اليه حسب التشريع والتراتيب الجارية من إجراء مراقبات أو قبض أو جباية أموال عمومية أو القيام بغيرها من العمليات.
ويقوم بمهمة محاسب مختص لمصاريف الدولة المتعهد بها والمأذون بدفعها على صناديق الخزينة ويقوم أيضا بكافة العمليات الخارجة عن الميزانية ويتولى إدارة الأموال المحفوظة لديه ويقوم بكافة العمليات الرامية إلى تصفية حساب الخزينة مع مثيلاتها الأجنبية.
ويقوم أيضا بمهمة محاسب الدين العمومي.

اقتصاد تونس
معالم أثرية مصنفة في ولاية تونس

الخزينة العامة للبلاد التونسية


Il existe plusieurs routes ayant comme numéro 633 dans le monde.

 Route régionale 633 en Finlande
 Route nationale 633 en France

Route 633


El fiofío coroniamarillo (Myiopagis flavivertex), también denominado fío-fío de corona amarilla (en Perú), bobito corona amarilla (en Venezuela) o elenita coroniamarilla (en Ecuador), es una especie de ave paseriforme de la familia Tyrannidae perteneciente al género Myiopagis. Es nativo del norte de América del Sur.

Distribución y hábitat
Se distribuye de forma disjunta. Muy localmente en el noreste y sur de Venezuela a oriente de la cuenca del río Orinoco (noreste de Monagas hacia el sur hasta Delta Amacuro, Amazonas) y extremo este de Colombia (noreste de Guainía); en Guyana, Surinam, Guayana francesa y en la Amazonia brasileña a lo largo del río Amazonas (Amazonas hacia el este hasta Pará y Amapá, hacia el sur a lo largo del río Madeira hasta el norte de Rondônia), y en el noreste de Ecuador (Sucumbíos, norte de Orellana) y noreste de  Perú (este de Loreto, Ucayali).

Esta especie es considerada poco común en su hábitat natural, el estrato medio y bajo de bosques de várzea y selvas pantanosas, por debajo de los 300 m de altitud.

Descripción
Mide entre 12,5 y 13 cm de longitud y pesa 12 g. Por arriba es de color oliváceo, más oscuro en la corona con una lista de color amarillo brillante (casi siempre oculta) y la región supraloral blanquecina; las alas son oscuras con dos prominentes barras amarillas. La garganta y el pecho son oliva grisáceo; el vientre amarillo pálido. Puede parecer desprolijo; generalmente es identificado por su hábitat y voz mucho más que por su apariencia.

Comportamiento
Es encontrado solitario o en pares; se encarama bastante derecho en su percha en el interior del bosque. Generalmente no se junta a bandadas mixtas.

Alimentación
Su dieta consiste de insectos.

Vocalización

Su canto, diferenciado, es un explosivo, agudo y espinoso «yiiír-yiir-yiir-yiu» repetido a cada largos intervalos; puede variar para un rápido «yíu-yiyiyiyiyiyiyiu-yiu».

Sistemática

Descripción original
La especie M. flavivertex fue descrita por primera vez por el zoólogo británico Philip Lutley Sclater en 1887 bajo el nombre científico Elainea (error) flavivertex; la localidad tipo es «Cachiboya, alto Ucayali, Perú.».

Etimología
El nombre genérico femenino «Myiopagis» se compone de las palabras del griego «muia, muias» que significa 'mosca', y «pagis» que significa 'atrapar'; y el nombre de la especie «flavivertex», se compone de las palabras del latín «flavus» que significa 'amarillo, amarillo dorado'  y «vertex, verticis» que significa 'corona de la cabeza'.

Taxonomía
Probablemente sea pariente cercana a Myiopagis viridicata. Es monotípica.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Videos, fotos y sonidos de Myiopagis flavivertex en eBird.
 Sonidos y mapa de distribución de Myiopagis flavivertex en xeno-canto.
 Fotos y sonidos de  guaracava-de-penacho-amarelo Myiopagis flavivertex en Wikiaves.
 Galería de fotos de Yellow-crowned Elaenia Myiopagis flavivertex en VIREO.

flavivertex
Aves de América del Sur
Animales descritos en 1887
Taxones descritos por Philip Lutley Sclater

Myiopagis flavivertex


La Conférence interafricaine de la prévoyance sociale abrégée CIPRES, est une organisation intergouvernementale créée le . C'est un organisme qui œuvre dans le domaine de la prévoyance sociale en Afrique. Le but de la CIPRES est d'accompagner les organismes de prévoyance sociale affiliés afin de garantir leur bonne gouvernance, leurs performances et leur pérennité. Elle entend promouvoir, réguler et appuyer la protection sociale en Afrique et contribuer à relever les défis qui y sont inhérents.

Historique
Le traité portant création de la Conférence Interafricaine de la Prévoyance Sociale (CIPRES) a été adopté le 21 septembre 1993 à Abidjan.

Mission
Lors de sa création, la Conférence interafricaine de la prévoyance sociale avait pour objectifs :
 établir des règles communes de gouvernance ;
 instaurer une inspection des organismes de prévoyance sociale en vue de réguler leur fonctionnement dans le but mieux préserver les intérêts des assurés ;
 effectuer des études et suggérer des propositions visant à harmoniser les cadres législatifs et réglementaires des organismes de prévoyance sociale ;
 favoriser l'implémentation d'une stratégie de renforcement des compétences des cadres des organismes de prévoyance sociales affiliés par des actions de formation initiale et continue.

États membres

La CIPRES compte  membres :

Gouvernance
La CIPRES est composée de trois institutions principales :
 le conseil des ministres (principal organe de décision de la CIPRES) : il est constitué des ministres des différents États membres chargés de la prévoyance sociale dans leur pays respectif
 la commission de surveillance : elle contrôle, surveille et veille à l'exécution des objectifs de la CIPRES
 le secrétariat exécutif (Cécile Gernique Djukam Bouba) : il prépare, exécute, réalise et suit les actes et décisions adoptés par le conseil des ministres et la commission de surveillance de la CIPRES

Notes et références

Liens externes

 .

Association ou organisme ayant son siège au Togo
Organisme fondé en 1993