Second Life is an online multimedia platform that allows people to create an avatar for themselves and then interact with other users and user-created content within a multi-user online virtual world. Developed and owned by the San Francisco–based firm Linden Lab and launched on June 23, 2003, it saw rapid growth for some years and in 2013 it had approximately one million regular users. Growth eventually stabilized, and by the end of 2017 the active user count had declined to "between 800,000 and 900,000". In many ways, Second Life is similar to massively multiplayer online role-playing games; nevertheless, Linden Lab is emphatic that their creation is not a game: "There is no manufactured conflict, no set objective".

The virtual world can be accessed freely via Linden Lab's own client software or via alternative third-party viewers. Second Life users, also called 'residents', create virtual representations of themselves, called avatars, and are able to interact with places, objects and other avatars. They can explore the world (known as the grid), meet other residents, socialize, participate in both individual and group activities, build, create, shop, and trade virtual property and services with one another.

The platform principally features 3D-based user-generated content. Second Life also has its own virtual currency, the Linden Dollar (L$), which is exchangeable with real world currency.

Second Life is intended for people ages 16 and over, with the exception of 13–15-year-old users, who are restricted to the Second Life region of a sponsoring institution (e.g., a school).

History

Philip Rosedale formed Linden Lab in 1999 with the intention of developing computer hardware to allow people to become immersed in a virtual world. In its earliest form, the company struggled to produce a commercial version of the hardware, known as "The Rig", which in prototype form was seen as a clunky steel contraption with computer monitors worn on shoulders. That vision changed into the software application Linden World, in which people participated in task-based games and socializing in a three-dimensional online environment. That effort eventually transformed into the better-known, user-centered Second Life. Although he was familiar with the metaverse of Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash, Rosedale has said that his vision of virtual worlds predates that book, and that he conducted early virtual world experiments during his college years at the University of California, San Diego, where he studied physics.

Second Life began to receive significant media attention in 2005 and 2006, including a cover story in BusinessWeek magazine featuring the virtual world and Second Life avatar Anshe Chung. By that time, Anshe Chung had become Second Lifes poster child and symbol for the economic opportunities that the virtual world offers to its residents. At the same time, the service saw a period of exponential growth of its user base.

One of the principal developers, Cory Ondrejka,  was forced to resign as chief technology officer in December 2007, with Rosedale citing irreconcilable differences in the way the company was run. Nevertheless, the platform continued to grow rapidly, and by January 2008, residents spent a total of 28,274,505 hours "inworld" and on average 38,000 residents were logged in at any moment. The maximum concurrency (number of avatars inworld) recorded was set at 88,200 in the first quarter of 2009.

Second Life was honored at the Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for advancing the development of online sites with user-generated content in 2008, adding to the media attention. Rosedale accepted the award, although he had announced plans to step down from his position as Linden Lab CEO and to become chairman of Linden Lab's board of directors instead in March 2008 . Rosedale announced Mark Kingdon as the new CEO effective May 15, 2008. In 2010, Kingdon was replaced by Rosedale, who took over as interim CEO. After four months, Rosedale abruptly stepped down from the Interim CEO position. It was announced in October 2010 that Bob Komin, Linden Lab's chief financial officer and chief operating officer, would take over the CEO job for the immediate future.

With the platform's failure to continue its high rate of growth after 2009, Linden Lab announced layoffs of 30% of its workforce in 2010. Some 21.3 million accounts were registered by this point, although the company did not make public any statistics regarding actual long-term consistent usage and numbers of dormant accounts.

Despite speculation as to the actual size of the user base, Second Life continued as a commercial success. In 2015, Second Life users cashed out approximately $60,000,000 (60 million US dollars) and Second Life had an estimated GDP of $500,000,000 (500 million US dollars), higher than some small countries.

Recognizing improvements in computing power and particularly in computer graphics, Linden Lab began work on a successor to Second Life, a VR experience called Sansar, launching a public beta in July 2017. Uptake was low and Linden Lab halted development in 2020 to focus their attention fully on Second Life. The rights to Sansar's assets were sold to Wookey Search Technologies, who are expected to continue development on the title without Linden Lab. Second Life, the usage of which peaked in the first decade of the 21st century, has been cited as the first example of the metaverse, a concept which has been taken up by other major corporations such as Facebook in 2021. As a notable precursor (which retains a small and loyal following), it provides several examples of virtual reality social issues and lessons learned.

Classification

During a 2001 meeting with investors, Rosedale noticed that the participants were particularly responsive to the collaborative, creative potential of Second Life. As a result, the initial objective-driven, gaming focus of Second Life was shifted to a more user-created, community-driven experience.

Second Lifes status as a virtual world, a computer game, or a talker, is frequently debated. Unlike a traditional computer game, Second Life does not have a designated objective, nor traditional game play mechanics or rules. It can also be argued that Second Life is a multi-user virtual world, because its virtual world facilitates interaction between multiple users. As it does not have any stipulated goals, it is irrelevant to talk about winning or losing in relation to Second Life. Likewise, unlike a traditional talker, Second Life contains an extensive world that can be explored and interacted with, and it can be used purely as a creative tool set if the user so chooses. In March 2006, while speaking at Google TechTalks, Rosedale said: "So, we don't see this as a game. We see it as a platform."

Second Life used to offer two main grids: one for adults (18+) and one for teens. In August 2010, Linden Lab closed the teen grid due to operating costs. Since then, users 16 and over can sign up for a free account. Other limited accounts are available for educators who use Second Life with younger students.

There are three activity-based classifications, called "Ratings", for sims in Second Life:
 General (formerly "PG"—no extreme violence or nudity)
 Moderate (formerly "Mature"—some violence, swearing, adult situations, some nudity)
 Adult (may contain overt sexual activity, nudity, and violence)

Residents and avatars

There is no charge for creating a Second Life account or for making use of the world for any period of time. Linden Lab reserves the right to charge for the creation of large numbers of multiple accounts for a single person (5 per household, 2 per 24 hours) but at present does not do so. A Premium membership (US$11.99 monthly, US$32.97 quarterly, or US$99 annually) extends access to an increased level of technical support, and also pays an automatic stipend of L$300/week into the member's avatar account, and after 45 days that resident will receive a L$700 bonus, making it L$1,000 for that week. This amount has decreased since the original stipend of L$500, which is still paid to older accounts. Certain accounts created during an earlier period may receive L$400. This stipend, if changed into USD, means that the actual cost for the benefit of extended tech support for an annual payment of US$72 is only about US$14, depending on the currency exchange rates. However, the vast majority of casual users of Second Life do not upgrade beyond the free "basic" account.

Avatars may take any form users choose (human, animal, vegetable, mineral, or a combination thereof) or residents may choose to resemble themselves as they are in real life. They may choose even more abstract forms, given that almost every aspect of an avatar is fully customizable. Second Life culture consists of many activities and behaviors that are also present in real life. A single resident account may have only one avatar at a time, although the appearance of this avatar can change between as many different forms as the Resident wishes. Avatar forms, like almost everything else in Second Life, can be either created by the user, or bought pre-made. A single person may also have multiple accounts, and thus appear to be multiple Residents (a person's multiple accounts are referred to as alts).

Avatars can travel via walking, running, vehicular access, flying, or teleportation. Because Second Life is such a vast virtual world, teleportation is used when avatars wish to travel instantly and efficiently. Once they reach their destination, they may travel in more conventional means at various speeds.

Avatars can communicate via local chat, group chat, global instant messaging (known as IM), and voice (public, private and group). Chatting is used for localized public conversations between two or more avatars, and is visible to any avatar within a given distance. IMs are used for private conversations, either between two avatars, or among the members of a group, or even between objects and avatars. Unlike chatting, IM communication does not depend on the participants being within a certain distance of each other. As of version 18.104.22.168 (2007-Aug-02), voice chat, both local and IM, was also available. Instant messages may optionally be sent to a Resident's email when the Resident is logged off, although message length is limited to 4096 bytes.

Identities in Second Life can relate to the users' personality or creating their own character. It is based on their decisions on how to express themselves. Most avatars are human, but they can choose to be vampires or animals. Sometimes, what they choose does not relate to their offline selves.

In Coming of Age in Second Life: An Anthropologist Explores the Virtually Human, anthropologist Tom Boellstorff notes that the interface of Second Life is designed with the purpose of disconnecting a player's virtual identity from their physical identity in mind. As of 2015 Second Life has made it possible to display one's legal name in the player's profile or as their screen name, but when Boellstorff first published the book in 2008 users were required to select a last name from a pre-determined list of options. Boellstorff describes this mentality as being in direct contrast to the one held by other mainstream social media websites, where anonymity is shunned and users are encouraged to make the link between their online and physical presence clear.

Content

The ability to create content and shape the Second Life world is one of the key features that separate this from online games. Built into the software is a 3D modeling tool based on simple geometric shapes that allows residents to build virtual objects. There is also a procedural scripting language, Linden Scripting Language, which can be used to add interactivity to objects.  Sculpted prims ("sculpties"), 3D mesh, textures for clothing or other objects, animations, and gestures can be created using external software and imported. The Second Life terms of service provide that users retain copyright for any content they create, and the server and client provide simple digital rights management (DRM) functions. However, Linden Lab changed their terms of service in August 2013 to be able to use user-generated content for any purpose. The new terms of service prevent users from using textures from third-party texture services, as some of them pointed out explicitly.

Economy

Second Life has an internal economy and closed-loop virtual token called the "Linden dollar (L$)". L$ can be used to buy, sell, rent or trade land or goods and services with other users. The "Linden Dollar" is a closed-loop virtual token for use only within the Second Life platform. Linden Dollars have no monetary value and are not redeemable for monetary value from Linden Lab. A resident with a surplus of Linden Dollars earned via a Second Life business or experiential play can request to refund their Linden Dollar surplus to PayPal. Linden Lab reports that the Second Life economy generated US$3,596,674 in economic activity during the month of September 2005, and in September 2006 Second Life was reported to have a GDP of $64 million. In 2009, the total size of the Second Life economy grew 65% to US$567 million, about 25% of the entire U.S. virtual goods market. Gross resident earnings are US$55 million in 2009 – 11% growth over 2008. In 2013, Linden Labs released an info graphic that showed that over 10 years $3.2 billion in transactions for virtual goods had exchanged between Second Life residents, with an average of 1.2 million daily transactions.

There is a high level of entrepreneurial activity in Second Life. Residents of Second Life are able to create virtual objects and other content. Second Life is unique in that users retain all the rights to their content which means they can use Second Life to distribute and sell their creations, with 2.1 million items listed on its online marketplace. At its height circa 2006, hundreds of thousands of dollars were changing hands daily as residents created and sold a wide variety of virtual commodities. Second Life also quickly became profitable due to the selling and renting of virtual real estate. 2006 also saw Second Lifes first real-world millionaire; Ailin Graef, better known as Anshe Chung (her avatar), converted an initial investment of US$9.95 into over one million dollars over the course of two and a half years. She built her fortune primarily by buying, selling, and renting virtual real estate.

Major tech corporations have tried to use Second Life to market products or services to Second Lifes tech-savvy audience. IBM, for example, purchased 12 islands within Second Life for virtual training and simulations of key business processes, but has since moved on to other platforms due to maintenance costs. Others, like musicians, podcasters, and news organizations (including CNET, Reuters, NPR's The Infinite Mind, and the BBC), have all had a presence within Second Life.

Virtual goods include buildings, vehicles, devices of all kinds, animations, clothing, skin, hair, jewelry, flora and fauna, and works of art. Services include business management, entertainment, and custom content creation (which can be broken up into the following six categories: building, texturing, scripting, animating, art direction, and the position of producer/project funder). L$ can be purchased using US dollars and other local currencies on the LindeX exchange provided by Linden Lab. Customer USD wallets obtained from Linden Dollar sales on the Lindex are most commonly used to pay Second Lifes own subscription and tier fees; only a relatively small number of users earn enough profit to request a refund to PayPal. According to figures published by Linden Lab, about 64,000 users made a profit in Second Life in February 2009, of whom 38,524 made less than US$10, while 233 made more than US$5000. Profits are derived from selling virtual goods, renting land, and a broad range of services.

Technology

Second Life comprises the viewer (also known as the client) executing on the user's personal computer, and several thousand servers operated by Linden Lab.

Client
Linden Lab provides official viewers for the operating systems Windows, macOS, and most distributions of Linux where the more known ChromeOS has been excluded so far. The viewer renders 3D graphics using OpenGL technology. The viewer source code was released under the GPL in 2007 and moved to the LGPL in 2010.

There are now several mature third-party viewer projects, the most popular being Firestorm, that contain features not available in the Linden Lab 'Official' client, target other platforms or cater to specialist & accessibility needs. The main focus of third party development is exploring new ideas and working with Linden Lab to deliver new functionality.

An independent project, libopenmetaverse, offers a function library for interacting with Second Life servers. libopenmetaverse has been used to create non-graphic third party viewers.

There are several Alternate Viewers published by Linden Lab used for software testing by volunteers for early access to upcoming projects. Some of these clients only function on the "beta grid" consisting of a limited number of regions running various releases of unstable test server code.

Server

Each full region (an area of 256×256 meters) in the Second Life "grid" runs on a single dedicated core of a multi-core server. Homestead regions share 3 regions per core and Openspace Regions share 4 regions per core, running proprietary software on Debian Linux. These servers run scripts in the region, as well as providing communication between avatars and objects present in the region.

Every item in the Second Life universe is referred to as an asset. This includes the shapes of basic 3D polygon objects formally known as Primitive Mesh (commonly known as primitives or prims for short), the digital images referred to as textures that decorate primitives, digitized audio clips, avatar shape and appearance, avatar skin textures, LSL scripts, information written on notecards, and so on. Each asset is referenced with a universally unique identifier or UUID.

Assets are stored on Isilon Systems storage clusters, comprising all data that has ever been created by anyone who has been in the Second Life world. Infrequently used assets are offloaded to S3 bulk storage. , the total storage was estimated to consume 100 terabytes of server capacity. The asset servers function independently of the region simulators, though the region simulators act as a proxy for the client, request object data from the asset servers when a new object loads into the simulator. Region simulators areas are commonly known as sims by residents.

Each server instance runs a physics simulation to manage the collisions and interactions of all objects in that region. Objects can be nonphysical and non-moving, or actively physical and movable. Complex shapes may be linked together in groups of up to 256 separate primitives. Additionally, each player's avatar is treated as a physical object so that it may interact with physical objects in the world. , Second Life simulators use the Havok 2011.2 physics engine for all in-world dynamics. This engine is capable of simulating thousands of physical objects at once.

Linden Lab pursues the use of open standards technologies, and uses free and open source software such as Apache, MySQL, Squid and Linux. The plan is to move everything to open standards by standardizing the Second Life protocol. Cory Ondrejka, former CTO of Second Life, stated in 2006 that a while after everything has been standardized, both the client and the server will be released as free and open source software.

In January 2021, Linden Labs completed the migration of all of its services and databases to AWS servers.

OpenSimulator

In January 2007, OpenSimulator was founded as an open-source simulator project. The aim of this project is to develop a full open-source server software for Second Life clients. OpenSIM is BSD Licensed and it is written in C# and can run under Mono environment. From 2008, alternative grids began to emerge and many of these allow cross visits from other grids through the hypergrid protocol using OpenSimulator.

Applications

Arts

Second Life residents express themselves creatively through virtual world adaptations of art exhibits, live music, live theater and machinima, as well as other art forms.

Competitive entertainment
A wide variety of recreational activities, both competitive and non-competitive, take place on the Second Life Grid, including both traditional sports and video game–like scenarios.

Education

Second Life is used as a platform for education by many institutions, such as colleges, universities, libraries and government entities. Since 2008, the University of San Martin de Porres of Peru has been developing Second Life prototypes of Peruvian archeological buildings, and training teachers for this new paradigm of education. The West Virginia University (WVU) Department of Special Education has used Second Life widely in education, and it provided teaching certification and certificates of degree in seven different distance education programs. WVU started a pilot program in the college's computer lab in spring 2011.

Embassies

The Maldives was the first country to open an embassy in Second Life. The Maldives' embassy is located on Second Life's "Diplomacy Island", where visitors will be able to talk face-to-face with a computer-generated ambassador about visas, trade and other issues. "Diplomacy Island" also hosts Diplomatic Museum and Diplomatic Academy. The Island is established by DiploFoundation as part of the Virtual Diplomacy Project.

In May 2007, Sweden became the second country to open an embassy in Second Life. Run by the Swedish Institute, the embassy serves to promote Sweden's image and culture, rather than providing any real or virtual services. The Swedish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Carl Bildt, stated on his blog that he hoped he would get an invitation to the grand opening.

In September 2007, Publicis Group announced the project of creating a Serbia island as a part of a project Serbia Under Construction. The project is officially supported by Ministry of Diaspora of Serbian Government. It was stated that the island will feature the Nikola Tesla Museum, the Guča Trumpet Festival and the Exit Festival. It was also planned on opening a virtual info terminals of Ministry of Diaspora.

On Tuesday, December 4, 2007, Estonia became the third country to open an embassy in Second Life. In September 2007, Colombia and Serbia opened embassies. As of 2008, North Macedonia and the Philippines have opened embassies in the "Diplomatic Island" of Second Life. In 2008, Albania opened an embassy in the Nova Bay location. SL Israel was inaugurated in January 2008 in an effort to showcase Israel to a global audience, though without any connection to official Israeli diplomatic channels. In 2008 Malta opened an embassy on Second Life.

Religion

Religious organizations have also begun to open virtual meeting places within Second Life. In early 2007, LifeChurch.tv, a Christian church headquartered in Edmond, Oklahoma, and with eleven campuses in the US, created "Experience Island" and opened its twelfth campus in Second Life. In July 2007, an Anglican cathedral was established in Second Life; Mark Brown, the head of the group that built the cathedral, noted that there is "an interest in what I call depth, and a moving away from light, fluffy Christianity".

The First Unitarian Universalist Congregation of Second Life was established in 2006. Services have been held regularly, making the FUUCSL Congregation one of the longest-running active congregations in Second Life.

The Egyptian-owned news website Islam Online has purchased land in Second Life to allow Muslims and non-Muslims alike to perform the ritual of Hajj in virtual reality form, obtaining experience before actually making the pilgrimage to Mecca in person.

Second Life also offers several groups that cater to the needs and interests of humanists, atheists, agnostics, and freethinkers. One of the most active groups is SL Humanism which has been holding weekly discussion meetings inside Second Life every Sunday since 2006.

Relationships
Romantic relationships are common in Second Life, including some couples who have married online. The social engagement offered by the online environment helps those who might be socially isolated. In addition, sex is often encountered. However, to access the adult sections requires age verification. There are also large BDSM and Gorean communities.

Second Life relationships have been taken from virtual online relationships into personal, real-world relationships. Booperkit Moseley and Shukran Fahid were possibly the first couple to meet in Second Life and then marry in real life. Booperkit travelled to the United States to meet Shukran and he returned to England with her after one week. They married in 2006, had twin boys in 2009, and are still married. Some couples meet online, form friendships, and eventually move to finding one another in the real world. Some even have their weddings on Second Life, as well as in a real-world setting.Relationships in virtual worlds have an added dimension compared to other social media, because avatars give a feeling of proximity making the voyeur experience more intense than simply a textual encounter. The complexities of those encounters depend on the engagement levels of the people behind the avatars, whether they are engaging disassociatively (entertainment only), immersively (as if the avatar was them), or augmentatively (meaning they engage for a real-life purpose).

Science
Second Life is used for scientific research, collaboration, and data visualization. Examples include SciLands, American Chemical Society's ACS Island, Genome, Virginia Tech's SLATE, and Nature Publishing Group's Elucian Islands Village.

Social network
Second Life can be a real-time, immersive social space for people including those with physical or mental disabilities that impair their first lives, who often find comfort and security interacting through anonymous avatars. (Indeed, some academics believe using Second Life might even help improve motor ability for people with Parkinson's disease.). An example of how Second Life has been used by disabled people is Wheelies, the widely publicised disability-themed nightclub founded by Simon Stevens.

Music streams
Shoutcast and Icecast radio stations can be streamed into a land parcel in Second Life. The streaming codec is MP3, as AAC and Vorbis are not currently supported. There are internet radio providers that offer these services or select from a list. At the time of this writing, media on a prim (MOAP) is not a reliable enough way of displaying media and such, sites listed work best with Parcel Media or Parcel Audio.

Work spaces

Second Life gives companies the option to create virtual workplaces to allow employees to virtually meet, hold events, practice any kind of corporate communications, conduct training sessions in 3D immersive virtual learning environment, simulate business processes, and prototype new products.

In 2020, CEO of Second Life Ebbe Altberg announced a microsite for Second Life to serve as a space for digital meetings to take place amidst global social distancing, self-isolation, and quarantine orders during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Notable events and influence

Second Life movie
In 2007 director David Fincher worked with screenwriter Peter Straughan to make a Second Life movie based on Tim Guest's novel "Second Lives". The movie was rumored to feature Sacha Baron Cohen as protagonist Plastic Duck, a zany Second Life resident who drove founder Philip Rosedale bonkers.

Ban of Woodbury University

Linden Lab has twice, in 2007 and 2010, banned a California educational institution, Woodbury University, from having a representation within Second Life. On April 20, 2010, four simulators belonging to the university were deleted and the accounts of several students and professors terminated, according to The Chronicle of Higher Education. Edward Clift, dean of the School of Media, Culture and Design at Woodbury University, told The Chronicle of Higher Education that their campus "was a living, breathing campus in Second Life", including educational spaces designed mostly by students, such as a mock representation of the former Soviet Union and a replica of the Berlin Wall. According to Clift, the virtual campus did not "conform to what Linden Lab wanted a campus to be".

The article in The Chronicle of Higher Education concluded with: "Meanwhile, many people in Second Life expressed on blogs that they were glad to see the virtual campus go, arguing that it had been a haven for troublemakers in the virtual world."

The Alphaville Herald

In 2004, the newspaper The Alphaville Herald, founded and edited by the philosopher Peter Ludlow, migrated to Second Life, and in the following years the newspaper played a prominent role in reporting on Second Life and in the public discussion of the game. The newspaper, which was known as The Second Life Herald from 2004 to 2009, was later edited by the Internet pioneer Mark P. McCahill. According to scholars Constantinescu and Decu, The Alphaville Herald was the first "virtual free press," pioneering mass communication in virtual worlds.

2007 "Virtual Riot"
In January 2007, a "virtual riot" erupted between members of the French National Front (FN) who had established a virtual HQ on Second Life, and "anti-racism" activists, including Second Life Left Unity, a socialist and anti-capitalist user-group. Since then, several small Internet-based organizations have claimed some responsibility for instigating the riots.

Marketing
Corporate marketers, especially during the height of Second Life in the cultural zeitgeist of 2005–2010, have been accused of being overly credulous of the actual reach and influence of Second Life. Journalists have theorized this might be partially due to blithely accepting total account statistics rather than harder-to-discern active player counts. Reasons for account "inflation" can include in-world systems which encourage the creation of bogus extra accounts such as "traffic bots" which simply remain stationary in a store, causing the system to rank the store as popular because there are people there, as well as simply idle and long inactive accounts. One article in Wired featured a marketer for Coca-Cola who found Second Life to be essentially deserted when personally inspecting it, yet still funded a marketing campaign there anyway from fear of missing out.

Griefing and denial of service attacks

Second Life has been attacked several times by groups of residents abusing the creation tools to create objects that harass other users or damage the system. This included grey goo objects which infinitely reproduce, eventually overwhelming the servers; orbiters which throw an avatar so far upwards they cannot get back down in a reasonable timeframe without teleporting; cages which surround avatars, preventing them from moving, and similar tools. Although combat between users is sanctioned in certain areas of the world, these objects have been used to cause disruption in all areas. Attacks on the grid itself, such as Grey Goo, are strictly forbidden anywhere on the grid. It was possible to perpetrate denial-of-service attacks (DoS) on other users simply by scripting objects that spew screen filling characters from anywhere on the grid to another avatar's location, thereby disabling a clear view to the virtual world. Bugs in the client and server software were also exploited by griefers to kick users, crash servers, and revert content before being patched out.

The Emerald client and in-world logging scripts
The Emerald client was developed by a group of users based on Snowglobe, an opensource fork of the Second Life client. Several groups alleged that the Emerald viewer contained Trojan code which tracked user details and demographics in a way that the developers could later recover. One of these groups was banned from Second Life by Linden Lab after publishing their discovery. Shortly afterward, a member of the Emerald team was accused of a DDOS attack against another website. In response, Linden Lab revoked Emerald's third-party viewer approval and permanently banned several of Emerald's developers. Due to what happened with Emerald, Linden Lab instituted a new third-party viewer policy.

The support staff and one of the developers of the Emerald project, who was not banned, left to work on a new viewer project, Phoenix (using some of the Emerald codebase, but without Off-the-Record Messaging nor any potentially malicious code). The Phoenix team are now the developers behind Firestorm Viewer, a fork of Second Life'''s "viewer 2.0" open source client.

 Criticism and controversy Second Life has seen a number of controversies. Issues range from the technical (budgeting of server resources), to moral (pornography), to legal (legal position of the Linden Dollar, Bragg v. Linden Lab). Security issues have also been a concern.

 Regulation
In the past, large portions of the Second Life economy consisted of businesses that are regulated or banned. Changes to Second Lifes terms of service in this regard have largely had the purpose of bringing activity within Second Life into compliance with various international laws, even though the person running the business may be in full compliance with the law in their own country.

On July 26, 2007, Linden Lab announced a ban on in-world gambling due to federal and state regulations on Internet gambling that could affect Linden Lab if it was permitted to continue. The ban was immediately met with in-world protests.

In August 2007, a $750,000 in-world Linden Dollar bank or Ponzi scheme called Ginko Financial collapsed due to a bank run triggered by Linden Lab's ban on gambling. The aftershocks of this collapse caused severe liquidity problems for other virtual "Linden Dollar banks", which critics had long asserted were scams. On Tuesday, January 8, 2008, Linden Lab announced the upcoming prohibition of payment of fixed interest on cash deposits in unregulated banking activities in-world. All banks without real-world charters closed or converted to virtual joint stock companies by January 22, 2008. After the ban, a few companies continue to offer non-interest bearing deposit accounts to residents, such as the e-commerce site XStreet, which had already adopted a zero-interest policy 3 months before the Linden Lab interest ban.

 Technical issues Second Life has suffered from difficulties related to system instability. These include increased system latency, and intermittent client crashes. However, some faults are caused by the system's use of an "asset server" cluster, on which the actual data governing objects is stored separately from the areas of the world and the avatars that use those objects. The communication between the main servers and the asset cluster appears to constitute a bottleneck which frequently causes problems. Typically, when asset server downtime is announced, users are advised not to build, manipulate objects, or engage in business, leaving them with little to do but chat and generally reducing confidence in all businesses on the grid.

Another problem is inventory loss, in which items in a user's inventory, including those which have been paid for, can disappear without warning or permanently enter a state where they will fail to appear in-world when requested (giving an "object missing from database" error). Linden Lab offers no compensation for items that are lost in this way, although a policy change instituted in 2008 allows accounts to file support tickets when inventory loss occurs. Many in-world businesses will attempt to compensate for this or restore items, although they are under no obligation to do so and not all are able to do so. A recent change in how the company handles items which have "lost their parent directory" means that inventory loss is much less of a problem and resolves faster than in recent years. "Loss to recovery times" have gone from months (or never) to hours or a day or two for the majority of users, but inventory loss does still exist.Second Life functions by streaming all data to the user live over the Internet with minimal local caching of frequently used data. The user is expected to have a minimum of 300kbit/s of Internet bandwidth for basic functionality. Due to the proprietary communications protocols, it is not possible to use a network proxy service to reduce network load when many people are all using the same location, such as when used for group activities in a school or business.

 Quality assurance
Criticism of quality assurance of Second Life states that Linden Lab focuses too much on bringing new features to the production environment instead of fixing long-standing bugs that, in the worst case, cause financial loss for the users. On April 30, 2007, an open letter signed by over 3,000 users was sent to Linden Lab to protest the quality assurance process of the company. Linden Lab has responded to the open letter.

 Frame rate
Computer hardware and Internet connections capable of smoothly rendering high quality content in other MMOGs may perform poorly in Second Life, resulting in low frame rates and unresponsive controls on even minimal graphical configurations. The problem is especially prevalent when large numbers of avatars congregate in one area. The problem is largely due to the fact that the world is entirely user created, and the majority of content created by users is made without any sort of basic graphical optimization. As a result, objects with both unnecessarily high polygon counts, and unnecessarily high resolution textures are prevalent. It is not uncommon for users to have to download and use upwards of a dozen times the amount of resources than would actually be required for the equivalent visual result. Certain areas have guidelines for script usage, which helps reduce lag by reducing resources used server-side, but does nothing to alleviate the primary issue above.

 Congestion

A single region (65,536 m2 of land hosted on a single CPU) is set to accommodate a limited number of Residents (40 on 'mainland' regions, up to 100 on private islands), causing some popular locations such as teleportation points to become inaccessible at times. It is possible for an area of land a Resident has paid for to become inaccessible because another area in the same region has exhausted the avatar limit.

 Customer security
On September 8, 2006, Linden Lab released a news bulletin that revealed their Second Life database had been compromised and customer information, including encrypted passwords and users' real names, had likely been accessed. However, it was later revealed that the hacker had in fact been focused on trying to cheat the in-world money system and their access to personal information was believed incidental, although a full alert was still raised for safety's sake.

 Fraud and intellectual property protection
Although Second Lifes client and server incorporate digital rights management technology, the visual data of an object must ultimately be sent to the client in order for it to be drawn; thus unofficial third-party clients can bypass them. One such program, CopyBot, was developed in 2006 as a debugging tool to enable objects to be backed up, but was immediately hijacked for use in copying objects; additionally, programs that generally attack client-side processing of data, such as GLIntercept, can copy certain pieces of data. Such use is prohibited under the Second Life TOS and could be prosecuted under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.

Linden Lab may ban a user who is observed using CopyBot or a similar client, but it will not ban a user simply for uploading or even selling copied content; in this case, Linden Lab's enforcement of intellectual property law is limited to that required by the "safe harbor" provisions of the DMCA which used to require a regular mail DMCA complaint. However, since 2019 an electronic DMCA complaint form is also available.

A few high-profile businesses in Second Life have filed such lawsuits, none of the cases filed to date have gone to trial, and most have been dismissed pursuant to a settlement agreement reached between the parties. Another case where settlement and dismissal was gained may be found in the matter of Eros, LLC v. Linden Research, Inc. As of October 7, 2010, the case was transferred to private mediation and the plaintiffs filed for dismissal of charges on March 15, 2011.

Most users in the world as paying, private individuals are, likewise, effectively unprotected. Common forms of fraud taking place in-world include bogus investment and pyramid schemes, fake or hacked vendors, and failure to honor land rental agreements.
A group of virtual landowners online have filed a class action lawsuit against the company, claiming the company broke the law when it rescinded their ownership rights. The plaintiffs say a change in the terms of service forced them to either accept new terms that rescinded their virtual property ownership rights, or else be locked out of the site.

 OpenSpaces

Linden Lab, for a period, offered Openspace regions to users: regions which were purchased in packs of four, with all four running on a single CPU core, intended to be placed next to an existing region to create the effect of larger size. The fee for 4 Openspaces was identical to that for a single private region. However, in March 2008, this rule was modified to permit Openspaces to be bought individually and placed elsewhere, as well as increasing the prim load each one could handle. Openspaces were made available for a US$415 downpayment plus a US$75 monthly fee.

In October 2008, Linden Lab announced that the Openspaces being used for this purpose were being misused; there was in fact no technical throttle limiting their usage. Linden Lab raised the monthly fee per Openspace to US$125, the same cost as half a region; added an avatar limit of 20; and renamed it to Homestead.

A week after the initial announcement Linden Lab stated its intention to add technical limits. A revised Openspace product, with far fewer prims, a no-residency rule, and costing the same monthly amount, was announced.

In May 2009, Linden Lab announced they were "grandfathering" Openspace sims (now rebranded as "Homesteads"), after a protracted protest movement caused a major amount of negative publicity and funded potential litigation.

 Sex
Some media attention has been given to sexual activity involving avatars with a childlike appearance. The United Kingdom and Germany are among the countries investigating new laws to combat simulated child pornography. The USA has attempted to pass several laws forbidding simulated child pornography; however, each one has been struck down by the US Supreme Court as an infringement on the First Amendment right to free speech.

As of May 2007, two such countries, Germany and Belgium, have launched a police investigation into age of consent-related offenses in Second Life (including both trading of non-virtual photography and involuntary virtual sexual activity with childlike avatars by means of virtual identity theft). Linden Lab responded by issuing a statement that any "depiction of sexual or lewd acts involving minors" was a bannable offence.

In France, a conservative family union, Familles de France, sued Linden Lab in June 2007, alleging that Second Life gave minors access to sexual content, including bondage, zoophilia and scatophilia, as well as gambling, and advertisements for alcohol, drugs or tobacco. Linden Lab pointed out that the virtual world is not meant for children (people under the age of 18) because of the mature content and interactions within Second Life. However, minors aged between 13 and 17 can access Second Life, but they will be restricted to what they can see or do based on age. The Second Life world is split into sections/worlds and each one is given a maturity rating similar to films: General, Moderate and Adult. Minors aged 13–17 can access areas with a General Rating only.Second Life Main Grid regions are rated either "General", "Moderate", or "Adult" (previously "PG", "Mature", or "Adult"). Builds, textures, actions, animations, chat, or businesses that are of an adult nature are regulated by the Second Life Terms of Service to only occur in simulators with a Moderate or Adult rating. General rated sims exist as an alternative for residents who do not wish to reside in areas where adult-oriented activities and businesses are permitted.

Linden Lab has created an Adult rated "mainland" continent named Zindra in response to its other "mainland" continents being mostly General.

Unauthorized copying of contentSecond Life features a built-in digital rights management system that controls the movement of textures, sounds, scripts, and models with the Second Life servers at Linden Lab. At some point, though, this data must be sent to a user's computer to be displayed or played—an issue fundamental to any system attempting to apply restrictions to digital information.

In November 2006 controversy arose over a tool called CopyBot, developed as part of libsecondlife and was intended to allow users to legitimately back up their Second Life data. For a brief period, an unmodified CopyBot allowed any user to replicate SL items or avatars (although not scripts, which run only on the servers at Linden Lab). Later changes to the SecondLife protocols prevented unmodified copies of CopyBot from working. Nevertheless, the basic issue of users being able to duplicate content that is sent to them remains.

Residents who copy content belonging to other users face being banned from Second Life, but Linden Lab has so far never sued any of these users for copyright infringement; since the resident creators (and not Linden Lab) retain ownership of the rights, it is not clear whether Linden Lab would legally be able to do so. Linden Lab does, however, comply with DMCA takedown notices served to them against resident content; serving a DMCA Takedown Notice is the normal procedure recommended by Linden Lab for having copyrighted content illegally resold on Second Life.

Any user who uploads, publishes or submits any content keeps the intellectual property rights of that content, however both Linden Lab and other users gain their own rights from your content. Linden Lab receives a content license from anything a user uploads to the server. Section 7.3 of the Second Life terms of service states; "you hereby automatically grant Linden Lab a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free, sub-license able, and transferable licence to use, reproduce, distribute, prepare derivative works of, display, and perform the content solely for the purpose of providing and promoting the service".

A user who uploads their content to a public area also gives a content licence to other users as well, which allows other users to replicate and record for use in Machinima (as outlined in section 7.4, Snapshot and Machinima Policy).

Regardless of what rights and licences are given, Linden Lab takes no responsibility for the outcome of any dispute between users or the server regarding content. Section 10.2 states; "you release Linden Lab (and its officers, directors, shareholders, agents, subsidiaries, and employees) from claims, demands, losses, liabilities and damages (actual and consequential) of every kind nature, known and unknown, arising out of or in any way connected with any dispute you have or claim to have with one or more users, including whether or not Linden Lab becomes involved in any resolution or attempted resolution of the dispute". Section 10.3 repeats a similar passage but regarding the responsibility of Linden Lab during any data or technical fault.

Litigation
Bragg v. Linden Lab

In 2006, attorney Marc Bragg sued Linden Lab, claiming that it had illegally deprived him of access to his account after he discovered a loophole in the online land auction system which allowed regions to be purchased at prices below reserve. Although most users and commentators believed that Bragg would have no chance of winning, a number of legal developments occurred as a result of the case, including a court ruling that parts of the Second Life Terms of Service were unenforceable, due to being an unconscionable contract of adhesion. The case eventually ended with Bragg's virtual land and account being restored to him in a confidential out-of-court settlement. Since the settlement created no legal precedent, it left users with confusion as to what legal rights they truly had with respect to their virtual land, items, and account. Many of Bragg's legal arguments rested on the claim—advertised on Linden Lab web site—that virtual land within Second Life could be "owned" by the purchasing user, which was removed shortly after the settlement.

Eros, LLC and Grei v. Linden Lab
Eros, LLC and Shannon Grei brought forth a class action suit in US District Court in Northern California against Linden Research, Inc on September 15, 2009 (Case4:09-cv-04269-PJH). Court papers allege the defendants knowingly and profitably turned a blind eye to copyright and trademark violations within the Second Life service.Wired.com: "[PDF] E-f iling, " Wired.com, .

Evans et al. v. Linden Lab
In 2010, a group of banned SL users filed suit against Linden Lab and CEO Philip Rosedale, in the same Pennsylvania Federal District Court that the Bragg case was adjudicated in, with the same judge, to deal with further land seizures and account suspensions by the Lab against various customers. Due to the Terms of Service agreement changes since the Bragg case, defendants attorneys successfully argued to move the suit to federal court in California, where the case lingered for several years. The judge did rule that there was a basis to turn the litigation into a class action, and that there were two classes under which claimants could file claims. The primary class was those who suffered economic damages to their livelihoods, through loss of their business revenues in SL. The secondary class was those who suffered property losses from loss of land, money on hand, and virtual goods in avatar inventories. In May 2013, attorney for defendants negotiated a settlement agreement with one of the lead attorneys that, in plain language, agreed to refund region setup fees for private island owners, pay land owners 2 Linden Dollars per square meter of virtual land, refund all L$ and USD amounts in the plaintiffs' accounts at the time of suspension, and allow the plaintiffs the option of either receiving $15US as compensation for loss of accounts and inventory virtual goods OR restoration of their accounts in order to sell their goods on the SL Marketplace. The settlement agreement went to final hearing in March 2014, with an objection from claimant Mike Lorrey as to the vagueness of certain terms in the settlement as to which fees exactly would be refunded. With the resolution of that objection, claimants who had filed claims prior to March 28, 2014, began to receive settlement money a few months later.

 In popular culture
Since its debut in 2003, Second Life has been referred to by various popular culture media, including literature, television, film and music. In addition, various personalities in such media have themselves used or employed Second Life for both their own works and for private purposes.

In September 2006, former Governor of Virginia Mark Warner became the first politician to appear in a MMO when he gave a speech in Second Life. Musicians followed suit, with Redzone being credited by Wired and Reuters as the first band to tour in Second Life in February 2007. Then, in June 2008, author Charles Stross held a conference in Second Life to promote an upcoming novel. Second Life was also featured prominently, and used as a tool to locate a suspect, in the television show CSI: NY in 2007. In the American sitcom The Office, Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) is known to play the game, most notably in the episode "Local Ad".

Research

Much of the published research conducted in Second Life is associated with education and learning. Unlike computer games, Second Life does not have a pre-defined purpose and allows for highly realistic enactment of real life activities online. One such study tested the usefulness of SL as an action learning environment in a senior course for management information systems students. Another presented a case study in which university students were tasked with building an interactive learning experience using SL as a platform. Both problem-based learning and constructionism acted as framing pedagogies for the task, with students working in teams to design and build a learning experience which could be possible in real life.

Situated learning has also been examined in SL, in order to determine how the design and social dynamics of the virtual world support as well as constrain various types of learning. The paper, "The future for (second) life and learning", published in the British Journal of Educational Technology, examines the potential of Second Life to further innovative learning techniques. It notes trends within the SL innovation to date, including the provision of realistic settings, the exploitation of pleasant simulated environments for groups, and the links with other learning technologies. It also considers the creativity sparked by SLs potential to offer the illusion of 3-D 'spaces' and buildings, and points to infinite imaginative educational possibilities.

Second Life has also offered educational research potential within the medical and healthcare fields. Examples include in-world research facilities such as the Second Life Medical and Consumer Health Libraries (Healthinfo Island—funded by a grant from the US National Library of Medicine), and VNEC (Virtual Neurological Education Centre—developed at the University of Plymouth, UK).

There have also been healthcare related studies done of SL residents.  Studies show that behaviors from virtual worlds can translate to the real world. One survey suggests that users are engaged in a range of health-related activities in SL which are potentially impacting real-life behaviors.

Another focus of SL research has included the relationship of avatars or virtual personas to the 'real' or actual person. These studies have included research into social behavior and reported two main implications. The first is that SL virtual selves shape users' offline attitudes and behavior. The research indicated that virtual lives and physical lives are not independent, and our appearances and actions have both online and offline consequences. The second deals with experimental research and supports the idea that virtual environments, such as SL, can enable research programs in that people behave in a relatively natural spread of behavioral patterns.

The SL avatar-self relationship was also studied via resident interviews, and various enactments of the avatar-self relationship were identified. The study concluded that SL residents enacted multiple avatar-self relationships and cycled through them in quick succession, suggesting that these avatar-self relationships might be shaped and activated strategically in order to achieve the desired educational, commercial, or therapeutic outcomes.

Anthropologist Tom Boellstorff describes the anthropological applications of studying Second Life and its userbase in Coming of Age in Second Life: An Anthropologist Explores the Virtually Human. Boellstorff explores the relationship between anonymity and community when everyone in a community belongs to varying degrees of anonymity, and how this feeds into the idea of digital collectivity. He also comments on the phenomenon of data becoming "part of social context" that has been observed both inside and outside of Second Life as surveillance becomes more integrated into everyday life. He stresses the difference between the concepts of anonymity and pseudonymity, identifying Second Life users as belonging to the latter group of people - though their avatars are not directly linked to their real identities and reputations, they have forged new ones in this online space, a unique effect of creating an online persona in the digital age.

 See also
 CyberTown
 Libraries in virtual worlds#Second Life libraries
 Simulated reality
 Social simulation game
 Virtual reality
 Metaverse

 References

 Further reading
 Hillis, Ken. (2009) Online A Lot of the Time. Durham: Duke University Press (see Chapter 4).0
 Kaplan Andreas M., Haenlein M. (2009) Consumer use and business potential of virtual worlds: The case of Second Life, International Journal on Media Management, 11(3).
 Kaplan Andreas M., Haenlein M. (2009) The fairyland of Second Life: About virtual social worlds and how to use them, Business Horizons, 52(6).
 Olsen, Per; Li Gang, Qin (2011). Second Life Love. A dialog between two partners in Second Life. New York: Lulu Press.
 Martin, Neo; Second Life Fraud. Fraud and intellectual property protection in Second Life.  New York: Public Journal
 Robbins, Sarah, and Mark R. Bell. Second Life for Dummies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub., 2008. Print.
 Rymaszewski, Michael. Second Life The Official Guide. Sybex Inc, 2008. Print.
 Zerzan, John. Telos 141, Second-Best Life: Real Virtuality''.  New York: Telos Press Ltd., Winter 2007.
 SK Alamgir Hossain, Abu Saleh Md Mahfujur Rahman, and Abdulmotaleb El Saddik, "Interpersonal haptic communication in second life", in Haptic Audio-Visual Environments and Games (HAVE), 2010 IEEE International Symposium on, October 16–17, 2010, Phoenix, Arizona, USA, pp. 1 –4.
 Taşçı, D., Dinçer, D. "The Creation Of Academic Consulting Environment in Virtual Worlds And An Assessment Of Challenges Faced By Learners in This Environment", Conference proceedings of "eLearning and Software for Education", 01, 2011, p. 290–296.

External links

2003 software
2003 video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Open-world video games
Video games developed in the United States
Windows games
Video games using Havok
Online games

Second Life


Las Playas de la Tortuga Ormara es un tramo de 10 km de playa de arena a lo largo de la costa de Baluchistán, en el país asiático de Pakistán. Con una superficie de 2.400 hectáreas, fue designado un sitio Ramsar (no 1070), el 10 de mayo de 2001.

Un número considerable de las tortugas marinas tienen presencia aquí, incluyendo la tortuga golfina (Lepidochelys olivacea) y la tortuga verde (Chelonia mydas). Es posible que la tortuga carey también este presente. No hay un número significativo de aves migratorias.

La captura de tortugas para la exportación y la acumulación de desechos plásticos son las principales amenazas.

Véase también
Geografía de Pakistán
Geografía de Asia

Referencias

Playas de Pakistán
Sitios Ramsar en Pakistán

Playas de la Tortuga Ormara


CivCity: Rome, Firefly ve Firaxis stüdyosunun ortak çalışması ile yapılmış olan şehir kurma stratejisidir. Civilization serisinden ilham alınarak yapılmış bir oyundur. Bu oyunda eski Roma İmparatorluğu'nu oluşturma fırsatı verilmiştir.

Dış bağlantılar
 Civilization Türkiye Fan Sitesi
 2K Games sitesi
 Firefly Studios sitesi
 IGN Preview
 Forum for CivCity: Rome

Civilization
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde geliştirilen video oyunları
Şehir kurma oyunları
Microsoft Windows oyunları
Birleşik Krallık'ta geliştirilen video oyunları

CivCity: Rome


Ipswich Town F.C. je engleski profesionalni nogometni klub iz Ipswicha, Suffolka. Trenutačno se natječe u Championshipu. Klub je osnovan 1878. godine.

Klupski uspjesi

Domaći uspjesi
Englesko prvenstvo/FA Premier liga:
 Prvak (1): 1961./62.

Europski uspjesi
Kup UEFA:
 Prvak (1): 1980./81.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Službena stranica

Engleski nogometni klubovi

Ipswich Town F.C.


Coğrafi olarak Kuzey Yarım Küre için kış solstisi (gün dönümü), Güney Yarım Küre için ise yaz solstisidir (gün dönümü).

Olaylar

 1516 - Gazze Muharebesi gerçekleşti.
 1603 - Osmanlı Padişahı III. Mehmet öldü, yerine oğlu I. Ahmet tahta çıktı.
 1898 - Pierre Curie ve Marie Curie, radyoaktif radyum elementini keşfettiler.
 1918 - Osmanlı Padişahı Vahdettin, Meclis-i Mebûsan'ı feshetti.
 1925 - Sovyet sinema yönetmeni Sergey Ayzenştayn'ın, Potemkin Zırhlısı adlı filmi gösterime girdi.
 1937 - İlk uzun, sesli ve renkli çizgi film olan ve Walt Disney'in yapımcılığındaki, Pamuk Prenses ve Yedi Cücelerin galası yapıldı.
 1953 - Türk-Fransız Ticaret Antlaşması imzalandı; antlaşma hükümlerine göre Fransa, Türkiye'ye 100 milyon lira tutarında kredi açacak.
 1958 - De Gaulle, Fransa'da 5. Cumhuriyetin Başkanı seçildi.
 1959 - Farah Diba, muhteşem bir törenle, İran Şahı Muhammed Rıza Pehlevi ile evlendi.
 1959 - İlk İlhan İskender Tiyatro Armağanı'nı, Nedret Güvenç ve Ulvi Uraz aldı.
 1959 - Kim dergisi bir ay süreyle kapatıldı. Kim'in sahibi ve Yazı İşleri Müdürü Şahap Balcıoğlu'na 16 ay hapis cezası verildi.
 1961 - Londra'dan Tel Aviv'e giden İngiliz Havayolları British Airways'a ait yolcu uçağı, Esenboğa Havaalanı'ndan ayrılışından bir dakika sonra düşerek parçalandı: 26 ölü, 8 yaralı.
 1963 - Kanlı Noel: Kıbrıslı Türklere karşı silahlı saldırılar başlatıldı.
 1964 - İngiliz Parlamentosu, cinayet suçu için verilen ölüm cezasını kaldırdı.

 1968 - Apollo 8, Ay yörüngesindeki görevleri için fırlatıldı.
 1969 - Türkiye İşçi Partisi (TİP) Genel Başkanı Mehmet Ali Aybar istifa etti, yerine Şaban Yıldız seçildi.
 1971 - TL'nin değeri yeniden belirlendi: 1 dolar = 14 lira.
 1971 - Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Sekreterliğine, Avusturyalı diplomat Kurt Waldheim seçildi.
 1972 - Doğu Berlin'de iki Almanya arasında Temel Anlaşma imzalandı.
 1973 - İstanbul'da Hacı Bekir'in Kadıköy, Karaköy, Beyoğlu ve Eminönü işyerlerinde grev başladı.
 1978 - Kahramanmaraş'ta sağcılar, iki sol görüşlü öğretmeni öldürdü.
 1985 - Konya Genelevi'nde çalışan kadınlar, kendilerini teşhir etmeleri yasaklanınca greve gittiler.
 1986 - Şanghay'da toplanan 50 bin öğrenci demokrasi istedi.
 1987 - Cumhuriyet döneminin 46. Hükümeti olan, İkinci Turgut Özal Hükûmeti kuruldu.
 1988 - Lockerbie Faciası: Pan American World Airways'a ait Boeing 747 tipi yolcu uçağı, Londra-New York seferini yaparken, İskoçya'nın Lockerbie kasabası üzerinde infilak etti: 21 ülkeden 270 kişi öldü (yerde bulunan 11 kişi dahil).
 1989 - Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, Panama'yı işgal etti.
 1990 - Lice Kaymakamlığına baskıları şikayet etmek için giden köylülere ateş açıldı, 1 kadın ve 1 çocuk öldü.
 1991 - Rusya, Belarus, Ukrayna, Kazakistan, Moldova, Azerbaycan, Ermenistan, Özbekistan, Tacikistan, Türkmenistan ve Kırgızistan liderleri, bir araya gelerek, Sovyetler Birliği'ne son verdiler ve Bağımsız Devletler Topluluğu'nu (BDT) (Commonwealth of Independent States) kurduklarını açıkladılar.
 1995 - Beytüllahim şehrinin kontrolü, İsrail'den Filistin'e geçti.
 1999 - Hakkında iki gıyabi tutuklama kararı bulunan, Şişli eski Belediye Başkanı Gülay Aslıtürk, Londra'da yakalandı.
 2005 - Birleşik Krallık'ta hemcinsler arasında medeni birliktelik yasallaştı. Elton John ve hayat arkadaşı David Furnish bu yasadan ilk yararlanan çift oldu.
 2012 - Maya takviminde 13. baktunun başlangıcı. (5200 yıl)
2020 - Jüpiter ve Satürn arasında büyük kavuşum yaşandı. Bu, 1623'ten beri iki gezegen arasındaki en yakın kavuşumdu.

Doğumlar
 1401 - Masaccio, İtalyan ressam (ö. 1428)
 1596 - Petro Mohila, etkili bir Ruthenya Ortodoks ilahiyatçısı ve reformcusu (ö. 1647)
 1603 - Roger Williams, Protestan Püriten ilahiyatçı (ö. 1683)
 1758 - Jean Baptiste Eblé, Fransız general ve mühendis (ö. 1812)
 1773 - Robert Brown, İskoç botanikçi (ö. 1858)
 1778 - Anders Sandøe Ørsted, Danimarkalı avukat, siyasetçi ve hukukçu (ö. 1860)
 1788 - Adamo Tadolini, İtalyan heykeltıraş (ö. 1868)
 1795 - Leopold von Ranke, Alman tarihçi (ö. 1886)
 1799 - George Finlay, İskoç tarihçi (ö. 1875)
 1804 - Benjamin Disraeli, Britanyalı politikacı ve Birleşik Krallık Başbakanı (ö. 1881)
 1805 - Thomas Graham, İskoç kimyacı (ö. 1869)
 1815 - Thomas Couture, Fransız ressam ve resim öğretmeni (ö. 1879)
 1840 - Namık Kemal, Türk şair (ö. 1888)
 1874 - Juan Bautista Sacasa, Nikaragualı tıp doktoru ve siyasetçi (1932-36 arasında Nikaragua Başkanı) (ö. 1946)
 1889 - Sewall Wright, Amerikalı genetikçi (ö. 1988)
 1890 - Hermann Joseph Muller, Amerikalı genetik bilgini (ö. 1967)
 1892 - Walter Hagen, Amerikalı golfçü (ö. 1969)
 1896 - Konstantin Rokosovski, Sovyet asker ve devlet adamı (ö. 1968)
 1917 - Heinrich Böll, Alman yazar ve Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahibi (ö. 1985)
 1918 - Kurt Waldheim, Avusturyalı politikacı ve devlet adamı (ö. 2007)
 1920 - Alicia Alonso, Kübalı balerin (ö. 2019)
 1921 - P. N. Bhagwati, Hint bürokrat ve hakim (ö. 2017)
 1926 - Arnošt Lustig, Çek yazar (ö. 2011)
 1928 - Ed Nelson, Amerikalı oyuncu (ö. 2014)
 1935 - John G. Avildsen, Amerikalı film yönetmeni (ö. 2017)
 1935 - Lorenzo Bandini, İtalyan Formula 1 yarışçısı (ö. 1967)
 1935 - Phil Donahue, Amerikalı yazar ve film yapımcısı
 1935 - Stela Popescu, Rumen oyuncu, hayırsever ve televizyon sunucusu (ö. 2017)
 1937 - Jane Fonda, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1938 - Rómulo Méndez, Guatemalalı futbol hakemi (ö. 2022)
 1939 - Carlos do Carmo, Portekizli şarkıcı ve söz yazarı (ö. 2021)
 1939 - Malcolm Hebden, İngiliz oyuncu
 1940 - Frank Zappa, Amerikalı müzisyen (ö. 1993)
 1942 - Hu Jintao, Çinli politikacı
 1943 - İstemi Betil, Türk oyuncu ve seslendirme sanatçısı (ö. 2011)
 1947 - Paco de Lucia, İspanyol müzisyen (ö. 2014)
 1948 - Samuel L. Jackson, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1951 - Steve Perryman, İngiliz millî futbolcu ve teknik direktör
 1952 - Dennis Boutsikaris, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1953 - Betty Wright, Amerikalı soul ve R&B şarkıcısı, söz yazarı (ö. 2020)
 1954 - Christine Evert, Amerikalı tenisçi
 1955 - Ali İpin, Türk tiyatro oyuncusu
 1955 - Jane Kaczmarek, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1957 - Cem Gürdap, Türk sinema oyuncusu (ö. 2007)
 1957 - Ray Romano, Amerikalı oyuncu, stand-up komedyen ve senarist ve seslendirme sanatçısı
 1959 - Florence Griffith-Joyner, Amerikalı atlet (ö. 1998)
 1959 - Corinne Touzet, Fransız oyuncu ve film yapımcısı
 1960 - Maiko Kemper, Hollandalı oyuncu
 1965 - Andy Dick, Amerikalı televizyon ve radyo sunucusu
 1965 - Anke Engelke, Alman komedyen, oyuncu ve sunucu
 1965 - Cem Özdemir, Türk ve Çerkes asıllı Alman siyasetçi
 1966 - Kiefer Sutherland, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1967 - Miheil Saakaşvili, Gürcü-Ukraynalı siyasetçi ve hukukçu
 1969 - Julie Delpy, Fransız oyuncu ve müzisyen
 1972 - Gülçin Hatıhan, Türk oyuncu
 1973 - Matías Almeyda, Arjantinli eski futbolcu
 1973 - Karahan Çantay, Türk model ve oyuncu
 1975 - Charles Michel, Belçikalı siyasetçi
 1976 - Mark Dickel, Yeni Zelandalı basketbolcu
 1976 - Sedat Kapanoğlu, Türk bilişimci ve Ekşi Sözlük'ün kurucusu
 1977 - Emmanuel Macron, Fransız bankacı, bürokrat ve siyasetçi
 1978 - Shaun Morgan, Güney Afrikalı müzisyen
 1979 - Steve Montador, Kanadalı profesyonel buz hokeyi oyuncusu (ö. 2015)
 1981 - Cristian Zaccardo, İtalyan futbolcu
 1981 - İnci Özkasnak, Türk ekonomist, TV sunucusu
 1983 - Steven Yeun, Koreli-Amerikaı aktör
 1985 - Tom Sturridge, İngiliz oyuncu
 1991 - Riccardo Saponara, İtalyan futbolcu
 1992 - Junior Tallo, Fildişili futbolcu
 1994 - Ahmed Halil, Tunuslu milli futbolcu
 1996 - Kaitlyn Dever, Amerikalı oyuncu
 1996 - Ben Chilwell, İngiliz futbolcu

Ölümler
 72 - Havari Tomas, İsa'nın on iki havarisinden biri
 975 - Muiz, 19 Mart 953 - 21 Aralık 975 arasında Fatımi Devleti'nin 4. halifesi ve 14. İsmailiyye imamı (d. 931)
 1375 - Giovanni Boccaccio, İtalyan yazar ve şair (d. 1313)
 1549 - Marguerite de Navarre, Fransız Rönesans yazarı ve Fransa Kralı I. François'nın kardeşi (d. 1492)
 1597 - Peter Canisius, Cizvit tarikatı'nın ilk üyelerinden biri (d. 1520)
 1603 - III. Mehmet, Osmanlı'nın 13. Padişahı (d. 1566)
 1824 - James Parkinson, İngiliz hekim, jeolog, paleontolog ve politik eylemci (d. 1755)
 1863 - Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli, Romalı şair (d. 1791)
 1882 - Francesco Hayez, İtalyan ressam (d. 1791)
 1920 - Muhammed Abdullah Hasan, Somalili dini ve siyasi lider (d. 1856)
 1933 - Knud Rasmussen, Kuzey kutbuna ilk ulaşan Danimarkalı kâşif ve etnolog (d. 1879)
 1935 - Kurt Tucholsky, Alman gazeteci ve yazar (d. 1890)
 1937 - Frank B. Kellogg, Amerikalı avukat, siyasetçi ve Nobel Barış Ödülü sahibi (d. 1856)
 1940 - F. Scott Fitzgerald, İrlanda asıllı Amerikalı yazar (d. 1896)
 1943 - Mahmut Esat Bozkurt, Türk akademisyen ve devlet adamı (d. 1892)
 1945 - George S. Patton, Amerikalı asker ve II. Dünya Savaşı'nda ABD Ordusu generali (d. 1885)
 1950 - Hattie Wyatt Caraway, Amerikalı politikacı (d. 1878)
 1964 - Carl Van Vechten, Amerikalı yazar ve fotoğrafçı (d. 1880)
 1968 - Vittorio Pozzo, İtalyan eski futbolcu ve teknik direktör (d. 1886)
 1970 - Elyesa Bazna (Çiçero), Arnavut asıllı Türk casus (d. 1904)
 1988 - Nikolaas Tinbergen, Hollanda asıllı etolog ve ornitolog (d. 1907)
 1991 - Abdullah Baştürk, Türk sendikacı ve DİSK Genel Başkanı (d. 1929)
 1992 - Stella Adler, Amerikalı oyuncu (d. 1901)
 1998 - Ernst-Günther Schenck, Alman doktor ve SS-Obersturmbannführer (d. 1904)
 2006 - Saparmurat Türkmenbaşı, Türkmenistan Devlet Başkanı (d. 1940)
 2009 - Edwin G. Krebs, Amerikalı biyokimyacı (d. 1918)
 2010 - Enzo Bearzot, İtalya'yı şampiyonluğa taşıyan teknik direktör (d. 1927)
 2013 - İsmet Abdülmecid, Arap Birliği eski genel sekreteri, eski Mısır dışişleri bakanı ve diplomat (d. 1923)
 2014 - Billie Whitelaw, İngiliz aktris (d. 1932)
 2015 - Emanuel Yarbrough, Amerikalı sumo-pankreas güreşçisi, oyuncu ve dövüş sporcusu (d. 1964)
 2016 - Deddie Davies, Galli oyuncu (d. 1938)
 2016 - Şehmus Özer, Türk futbolcu (d. 1980)
 2017 - Bruce McCandless II, Amerikalı astronot (d. 1937)
 2017 - Chu Ishikawa, Japon müzsiyen (d. 1966)
 2018 - Edda Göring, Alman aktris (d. 1938)
 2019 - Ramachandra Babu, Hint görüntü yönetmeni (d. 1947)
 2019 - Martin Peters, İngiliz millî futbolcu ve teknik direktör (d. 1943)
 2019 - Muhammed Şahrur, Suriyeli düşünür ve yazar (d. 1938)
 2020 - Ikenwoli Godfrey Emiko, Nijeryalı iş insanı, hayırsever ve geleneksel hükümdar (d. 1955)
 2020 - K. T. Oslin, Amerikalı country şarkıcısı, aktris, yapımcı ve söz yazarı (d. 1942)
 2020 - Motilal Vora, Hint siyasetçi (d. 1928)
 2022 - Pakize Suda, Türk oyuncu ve yazar (d. 1952)

Tatiller ve özel günler
 En uzun gece (Şeb-i yelda)
 Kış gündönümü (Kuzey yarımkürede)
 Dünya Kooperatifçilik Günü
 Fırtına: Gündönümü Fırtınası

1221
21

21 Aralık


Çankırı ili, Yapraklı İlçesine bağlı köyün adının nereden geldiği tam olarak bilinmemektedir.
Köyde 35 hane vardır ve eski Yukarı Yaka Köyü deprem ve toprak kayması sonucu aşağı tarafa inilmiştir. 55 hane bulunmaktadır. İl merkezine 45, ilçe Yapraklı'ya 23 km uzaklıktadır.

Köy nüfusunu çok yakından ilgilendiren mevsimlik ve devamlı göç olayı Yaka Köyü'nde de yaşanmaktadır. Köylünün büyük bir kısmı Ankara'da yaşamaktadır İstanbul'da da yaşayan ahali mevcuttur. Tahıl üretiminde 1 e 10 verim sağlayan arpa, buğday, fiğ yetiştirilmektedir
Köy, orman köyüdür. Çam, meşe, ardıç, yabani elma, yaban armuduna ve cevize rastlamak mümkündür. Bunun yanında bozkır görünümünü de yansıtan bir özelliğe sahiptir. Zaman zaman dere kenarlarında kavak ağaçlarına rastlanmaktadır. Sebze evlerin önü hariç yetiştirilmez.
Köyde ilköğretim okulu vardır ama yetersiz örgenci sayısı vardır zaman zaman kapatılmak durumlarına gelmiştir
Köyün en büyük sıkıntısı su sorunudur. Köy derneğinin bu sorunu aşma amacıyla su deposu yaptırmak için çalışmaları bulunmaktadır.

Köy derneği uzun yıllardır su sorunu çözemediler

Bilgi kutusu bulunmayan yerleşim yerleri

Yaka, Yapraklı


Lagos : Nijerya'nın en büyük şehri ve eski başkenti.

 Lagos : Portekiz'in Algarve bölgesinde bir belediye (Por.: concelho) ve şehir.

Lagos (anlam ayrımı)


Enigma eller aenigma kan referere til flere artikler:

Videnskab og teknologi
 Enigma, en tysk krypteringsmaskine der blev blandt andet blev anvendt af tyskerne under 2. verdenskrig.
 Aenigma (edderkop), en slægt af edderkopper fra Sydafrika
 Aenigma (bille), en slægt af biller
 Enigma, kodenavnet til Red Hat Linux 7.2

Steder
 Enigma (Georgia), USA, en by
 Enigma (Tennessee), USA, et sted i Tennessee
 Enigma Peak, Palmer Land, Antarctica

Musik
 Enigma Records, a popular rock and alternative American record label in the 1980s
 Enigma (musikprojekt), et elektronisk musikprojekt fra Tyskland, grundlagt af Michael Cretu
 Enigma (UK band), et band fra 1980'erne

Albums
 Ænigma (In Vain-album), og et album af det norske progresive dødsmetalband In Vain
 Enigma (Ill Niño-album)
 Enigma (Keith Murray-album), 1996
 Enigma (Aeon Zen-album)

Sange
 "Enigma (Give a Bit of Mmh to Me)", sang af Amanda Lear fra 1978
 "Enigma", en sang fra Trapts album Trapt fra 2002
 "Enigma", en sang fra Amorphis' album Silent Waters fra 2007
 "Enigma", en sang fra Within The Ruins' album Phenomena fra 2014
 "Aenigma", en song Luca Turillis album Prophet of the Last Eclipse

Film og Tv
 Enigma (film fra 1982), med Martin Sheen og Sam Neill
 Aenigma (film), en film af Lucio Fulci fra 1987
 Enigma (film fra 2001), film der bygger på Robert Harris roman
 Enigma (film fra 2009), en kortfilm af Shumway Brothers
 Enigma (tv-serie), en serie på Biography Channel
 "Enigma" (Stargate SG-1), en episode af Stargate SG-1
 "Enigma" (NCIS), en episode af NCIS
 Enigma (Derren Brown), et fjernsynsshow
 Enigma, en karakter i tv-serien Nip/Tuck

Udgivelser
 Enigma (roman), en roman af Robert Harris fra 1995
 "Enigma" og "An Enigma", to digte af Edgar Allan Poe
 Enigma, den anden roman i serien The Trigon Disunity af Michael P. Kube-McDowell
 The Enigma, en månedlig udgivelse fra National Puzzlers' League
 Enigma, et matematisk spil i New Scientist
 Enigma (tegneserie), flere tegneserier med dette navn
 Enigma (manga), en manga udgivet i Weekly Shōnen Jump i 2010

Computerspil
 Enigma (computerspil), computerspil fra 2001
 Enigma, et fiktiv område i Wing Commander
 Enigma, et fiktivt runeord Diablo II: Lord of Destruction
 Enigma, antagonisten i Spy Fiction
 Enigma, en fiktiv helt i Warcraft III-spillet Defense of the Ancients
 Enigma, fiktivt bær i Pokémon

Andet
 The Enigma (kunstner) (født Paul Lawrence), amerikansk skuespiller og musiker
 Enigma (yacht), en af verdens største private superyachter
 Enigma (rutsjebane), en rutsjebane i Pleasurewood Hills, Suffolk, England
 Enigma Titanium, et britiske cykelfirma
 Enigma Motorsport, et britisk motorsportshold
 Enigma-variationer, fjorten variationer komponeret af Edward Elgar
 Enigma (museum), kommunikationsmuseum i København

Enigma (flertydig)


Eilert Dahlberg (born 2 April 1953 in Anundsjö, Sweden), who uses the stage name Eilert Pilarm, is a Swedish Elvis impersonator. He gained fame when he performed on Morgonpasset on Sveriges Radio in 1992.

Career
Pilarm self-released several cassettes before his debut CD Greatest Hits was released in 1996 on MCA. Eilert is Back! followed in 1998 and Live in Stockholm appeared in 2000. He stopped performing in 2002 after 600 gigs and six albums.

Pilarm is one of several musicians featured in Irwin Chusid's book Songs in the Key of Z, which focuses on outsider music.

His album Eilerts Jul ("Eilert's Christmas") frequently appears in internet lists of "worst album covers of all time".

He used to own a Royal Enfield motorbike, but has since sold it, and at present it resides in Tavelsjö.

References

External links
Official website
A fan site

1953 births
Living people
Elvis impersonators
Outsider musicians
People from Örnsköldsvik Municipality
Swedish male musicians

Eilert Pilarm


Paul Bouyer est un industriel et ingénieur du son né le 2 novembre 1907 à Tours et décédé le 30 décembre 1999 à Montauban, qui a donné son nom à une entreprise électronique.

Industriel du son
En 1933, Paul Bouyer fonde sa société Bouyer Industrie, spécialisée dans la fabrication de postes de radio et dans sonorisation d'espaces publics comme les aéroports, les gares puis les supermarchés à partir des années 70.

Le savoir-faire en électroacoustique des systèmes Bouyer réside dans le fait de rendre la voix intelligible dans un espace où le son est perturbé, sans nécessairement augmenter le volume sonore. Sa technologie dite du 100 V a été exportée dans de nombreux pays, notamment le métro de Singapour.

En 1989, la société compte 450 collaborateurs quand Paul Bouyer la cède. Plusieurs repreneurs et fonds de pension se succèdent, de même que les plans sociaux.

Postérité de Bouyer Industrie
Après ces incertitudes, les salariés ont également tenté de reprendre leur entreprise en 2010.

Finalement, la société DEF reprend et redresse l'entreprise Bouyer à partir de 2011 grâce à l'aide de nombreux financements croisés.

Un carrefour giratoire porte le nom de Paul Bouyer sur la nationale 20 à Montauban, près de l'ancien siège social.

Notes et références

Industriel français du XXe siècle
Naissance en novembre 1907
Naissance à Tours
Décès en décembre 1999
Décès à Montauban
Décès à 92 ans

Paul Bouyer


Modern Masquerades es el último álbum de estudio de la banda irlandesa de rock progresivo, Fruupp.

Análisis
El último trabajo de Fruupp, y se despiden con una muestra de su talento innato para la música. "Modern Masquerades" comienza con el apacible tema "Misty Morning Way" que contiene coros muy similares a los de "Prince of Darkness", canción perteneciente a su álbum anterior The Prince of Heaven's Eyes. "Masquerading with Dawn" tiene una melodía pegadiza, la duradera composición titulada "Gormenghast" tiene una increíble progresión con la participación al saxofón de Ian. "Mystery Might" es una canción cerebral con un principio y un estribillo enigmático, pero con una parte de progresión que rompe con el tema. "Why" es una reflexiva, mágica, introspectiva, literal y elegante composición al piano. "Janet Planet" es una breve canción alegre e imaginativa. Por último, para cerrar el que fue el último trabajo musical de Fruupp, "Sheba's Song", una de las mejores canciones de la historia del propio grupo: pues es una canción progresiva, muy bien estructurada, con un intenso y llamativo final...

Incluso "Sheba's Song" sirvió como inspiración para intérpretes de rap.

Personal
 Peter Farrelly: bajo, flauta, voz
 Martin Foye: batería, percusión
 John Mason: teclados, vibráfono, voz
 Vincent McCusker: guitarras, voz

Músico invitado

 Ian McDonald: saxo

Listado de canciones

 1. Misty Morning Way (6:55)

 2. Masquerading With Dawn (7:15)

 3. Gormenghast (10:46)

 4. Mystery Might (8:20)

 5. Why (4:08)

 6. Janet Planet (2:54)

 7. Sheba's Song (8:26)

 Duración total: 48:44

Referencias
 Sobre el álbum.
 Sobre el álbum.

Álbumes de rock progresivo
Álbumes de 1975
Álbumes en inglés

Modern Masquerades


Kommunistisk Forbund Marxister-Leninister (KFML) var en dansk maoistisk orienteret venstrefløjsorganisation grundlagt i 1968.

KFML blev grundlagt af en række kræfter, der i perioden omkring 1965 var brudt ud af Kommunistisk Arbejdskreds (KAK) og havde tilbragt et par år i andre partier, særligt VS og disses ungdomsparti Socialistisk Ungdoms Forum. I disse partier fandt de dog kun ringe forståelse for deres maoistiske verdenssyn, og derfor valgte de i 1968 at gå ud og grundlægge KFML som en egen "partiforberedende organisation" med det formål senere at danne et kommunistisk parti.

En af grundlæggerne var historikeren Benito Scocozza, der efter sit brud med KAK i 1965 havde en periode i VS, hvis hovedbestyrelse han var blevet valgt til i maj 1968, blot fire måneder før stiftelsen af KFML. Et andet stort tilskud kom fra VS' (tidligere SF's) ungdomsorganisation, SUF, hvor en gruppe maoister, hvoraf en del med baggrund i KAK, havde forsøgt at vinde organisationen over på et maoistisk grundlag, hvilket mislykkedes og førte til den maoistiske fraktions eksklusion fra SUF. Disse stiftede efterfølgende Kommunistisk Ungdom Marxister-Leninister, som fungerede som ungdomsorganisation tilknyttet KFML indtil 1971, hvor man på grund af problemer i organisationen valgte at slå sig sammen med KFML.

KFML så sig selv som allieret med Kinas kommunistiske parti, hvis linje de anså for en videreførsel af den traditionel kommunistiske ideologi, i modsætning til Sovjetunionens revisionistiske linje, herhjemme repræsenteret ved DKP. KFML var dog også kritiske over for på den ene side VS, som de opfattede som et "borgerligt" arbejderparti undermineret af antiautoritære strømninger og reformisme, og på den anden side KAK og deres chefideolog Gottfred Appel, som i KFML's optik havde afblæst den hjemlige klassekamp i forventningen om et oprør i den tredje verden.

KFML voksede op gennem halvfjerserne, bl.a. i konkurrence med Boligorganisationen Marxister-Leninister (BOml), det senere Marxistisk-Leninistisk Enhedsparti (MLE), der var blevet stiftet i 1972 som et forsøg på at give slumstormerbevægelsen et vist teoretisk og organisatorisk fundament. KFML og BOml lå en tid i forhandlinger om sammenslutning, der dog i sidste ende mislykkedes, men efter nogle år tilsluttede resterne af MLE sig alligevel KFML, der var vokset betydeligt. Ligeledes udviklede KFML en betydelig faglig praksis og deltog bl.a. i en række vellykkede faglige konflikter, som også gavnede KFML's anseelse og tro på egen formåen.

Dette førte frem mod, at man i 1976 besluttede, at KFML nu var nået så langt, at tiden var inde til at indfri formålet om at stifte et egentligt kommunistisk parti. I løbet af sommeren og efteråret holdt mange omfattende diskussioner for at udarbejde et decideret partiprogram til afløsning af det gamle principprogram, der var blevet vedtaget i 1970, og på kongressen i november 1976 blev det nye partiprogram vedtaget, hvorved KFML omdannedes til Kommunistisk Arbejderparti.

Noter

Maoisme
Etableret i 1968
Ophørt i 1976
Tidligere politiske partier i Danmark
Kommunistiske partier fra Danmark


Podhradie este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Topoľčany din regiunea Nitra. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 293 de locuitori. Se învecinează cu comuna Zlatníky.

Istoric
Localitatea Podhradie este atestată documentar din 1245.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Podhradie, Topoľčany


Steinbach ist ein Ortsteil der Gemeinde Schleusegrund im Landkreis Hildburghausen in Thüringen.

Lage
Steinbach ist erreichbar über die Kreisstraße 519. Das Dorf liegt auf einer höheren Ebene des Thüringer Waldes und ist der höchstgelegene Ortsteil der Gemeinde.

Geschichte
Bis 1815 gehörte der Ort zum hennebergischen bzw. kursächsischen Amt Schleusingen und gelangte dann an den Kreis Schleusingen der neugebildeten preußischen Provinz Sachsen, bei dem er bis 1945 verblieb. Die Naturbühne für die Urlauberregion wurde 1955–1957 als Natur-Theater "Deutsch-Sowjetische Freundschaft" errichtet.

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Ort im Landkreis Hildburghausen
Geographie (Schleusegrund)
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Hildburghausen)

Steinbach (Schleusegrund)


Laskarina Bouboulina (în , ; ), cunoscută și sub numele de Bubulina, a fost o femeie comandant naval grec, eroină a Războiului de Independență al Greciei din 1821 și amiral al Marinei Imperiale Ruse.

Primii ani
Bubulina s-a născut într-o închisoare din Constantinopol; ea provine din comunitatea arvanită (albaneză) de pe insula Hydra. Era fiica lui Stavrianos Pinotsis, un căpitan din insula Hydra, și al soției acestuia, Skevo. Otomanii îl închiseseră pe Pinotsis pentru participarea sa la Revolta Orlov din 1769-1770 împotriva dominației otomane. Ea s-a născut în timpul uneia dintre vizitele mamei ei la închisoare. Tatăl ei a murit curând după acel moment, iar mama și copilul s-au întors în insula Hydra. Ele s-au mutat în insula Spetses patru ani mai târziu, când mama ei s-a căsătorit cu Dimitrios Lazarou-Orlof. Bouboulina a avut opt frați vitregi.

Ea s-a căsătorit de două ori, prima oară cu Dimitrios Yiannouzas și mai târziu cu bogatul armator și căpitan de navă Dimitrios Bouboulis, luându-i numele de familie. Bouboulis a fost ucis în luptă împotriva piraților algerieni în 1811. Având vârsta de 40 de ani, Bouboulina i-a preluat averea și afacerile comerciale și a mai construit alte patru nave pe propria ei cheltuială, inclusiv marea navă de război Agamemnon.

În 1816, otomanii au încercat să confiște proprietățile Bouboulinei pentru că cel de-al doilea soț al ei luptase alături de ruși împotriva turcilor în Războaiele Ruso-Turce. Ea a călătorit la Constantinopol pentru a-l întâlni pe ambasadorul rus contele Pavel Stroganov și a-i cere protecția. În semn de recunoaștere a serviciilor aduse rușilor de către Bouboulis, Strogonov a trimis-o în siguranța în Crimeea. Ea s-a întâlnit, de asemenea, cu mama lui Mahmud al II-lea, care, după aceea, l-ar fi convins pe fiul ei să lase neatinsă averea Bouboulinei. După trei luni de exil în Crimeea, Bouboulina s-a întors la Spetses.

Sprijinul acordat mișcării de independență
Se presupune că Bubulina s-a alăturat organizației Filiki Etaireia care pregătea declanșarea unei revoluții pentru eliberarea Greciei de sub dominația otomană. Ea ar fi fost una dintre puținele femei membre ale organizației, dar nu se află înscrisă în listele membrilor. A cumpărat arme și muniții pe propria ei cheltuială și le-a adus în secret pe navele ei la Spetses, pentru a lupta "pentru binele națiunii mele". Construcția navei Agamemnon a fost terminată în anul 1820. Ea i-a mituit pe funcționarii turci să ignore mărimea navei, iar Agamemnon a devenit mai târziu una dintre cele mai mari nave de război ale rebelilor greci. A organizat, de asemenea, trupe înarmate proprii, compuse din locuitorii insulei Spetses. Ea și-a folosit o mare parte din avere pentru a-i aproviziona cu hrană și muniții pe marinarii și soldații aflați sub comanda ei.

Pe 13 martie 1821 Bouboulina a arborat pe catargul navei Agamemnon propriul ei steag grecesc, bazat pe steagul împăraților bizantini din dinastia Comnenilor. Populația insulei Spetses s-a revoltat pe 3 aprilie și mai târziu și-a unit forțele cu marinarii de pe navele ce proveneau de pe alte insule grecești. Bouboulina a navigat cu opt nave la Nafplion și a început o blocadă navală. Mai târziu, ea a luat parte la blocada navală și la eliberarea orașelor Monemvasia și Pylos. Fiul ei, Yiannis Yiannouzas, a murit în mai 1821 în bătălia de la Argos împotriva unui număr superior de militari otomani.

Ea a ajuns la Tripoli la timp pentru a asista la căderea orașului pe 11 septembrie 1821 și pentru a-l întâlni pe generalul Theodoros Kolokotronis. Copiii lor Eleni Boubouli și Panos Kolokotronis s-au căsătorit mai târziu. În perioada care a urmat înfrângerii garnizoanei otomane, Bouboulina a salvat o mare parte din femeile aflate în serviciul sultanului.

După declararea independenței
Când facțiunile rivale au declanșat un război civil în 1824, guvernul grec a arestat-o pe Bouboulina din cauza legăturii ei de familie cu generalul Kolokotronis, ce fusese întemnițat anterior; guvernul a dispus, de asemenea, uciderea ginerelui ei. În cele din urmă ea a fost trimisă în exil la Spetses. Averea ei a fost cheltuită în războiul de independență.

Moartea sa
Laskarina Bouboulina a fost ucisă în 1825 în urma unui conflict de familie ce a avut loc în Spetses. Fiica familiei Koutsis și fiul Bouboulinei, Gheorghios Yiannouzas, fugiseră împreună. Plecat în căutarea ei, tatăl fetei, Christodoulos Koutsis, a mers la casa Bouboulinei cu câțiva membri înarmați ai familiei sale. Înfuriată, Bouboulina i-a înfruntat de la balcon. După o ceartă cu Christodoulos Koutsis, cineva a împușcat-o. Ea a fost lovită de un glonț în frunte și ucisă instantaneu; criminalul nu a fost identificat.

Moștenire

După moartea ei, împăratul Alexandru I al Rusiei a acordat Bubulinei gradul onorific de Amiral al Marinei Ruse, făcând-o, până de curând, singura femeie din istoria navală care a deținut acest titlu. Descendenții ei au vândut nava Agamemnon statului elen, care a redenumit-o Spetsai. Ea a fost incendiată de către Andreas Miaoulis, împreună cu fregata Hellas și cu corveta Hydra, în baza navală Poros, în următorul război civil grec din 1831.

"Muzeul Bouboulina" de pe insula Spetses este găzduit într-un conac vechi de 300 de ani ce a aparținut celui de-al doilea soț al Bouboulinei, în care urmașii ei continuă să locuiască încă. O statuie se află în portul de pe insula Spetses. Mai multe străzi din Grecia și Cipru sunt numite în onoarea ei, printre care Strada Bouboulina aflată în centrul Atenei în apropiere de Universitatea Tehnică Națională (Polytechnion) și de Muzeul Național de Arheologie, precum și în Pireu și Nicosia.

Bouboulina a fost reprezentată pe reversul bancnotei grecești de 50 de drahme din 1978 și pe reversul monedei grecești de 1 drahmă din 1988-2001.

Un film de ficțiune grec, Bouboulina, a fost produs în 1959, scenarizat și regizat de Kostas Andritsos și având-o în rolul titular pe Irene Papas.

Ego Y Laskarina, o piesă de teatru având-o în rolul principal pe actrița greacă Mimi Denisi (el) a fost pusă în scenă în 1999.

Un film documentar intitulat The Brave Stepped Back: The Life and Times of Laskarina Bouboulina a fost realizat despre ea în 2005 și prezentat la Armata Festival din Spetses, Grecia.

Note

Legături externe

 Bouboulina museum official site

Nașteri în 1771
Decese în 1825
Oameni din Istanbul
Amirali ruși

Laskarina Bouboulina


18. April er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 1947 instrueret af Poul Meyer.

Eksterne henvisninger

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1947

18. April (dokumentarfilm)


Anemiaceae, biljna porodica u redu Schizaeales čije su vrste roda Anemia ponekad uklopljene u porodicu Schizaeaceae.

Postoje i dva fosilna roda koja se pripisuju ovoj porodici

Rodovi
 Anemia Sw., (117 spp.)
 Palaeomohria Archangelsky 2009 †
 Protornithopteris C.F. Reed, 1947 †

Izvori

Schizaeales

Anemiaceae


Raúl Antonio Borrás (Alcorta, Provincia de Santa Fe, 13 de junio de 1933 - Pergamino, Provincia de Buenos Aires, 25 de mayo de 1985) fue un político argentino que ejerció como ministro de Defensa durante los primeros años de la presidencia de Raúl Alfonsín.

Biografía

Se radicó muy joven en Pergamino (provincia de Buenos Aires), donde cursó sus estudios. Siendo estudiante secundario se inclinó por la actividad política y se afilió a la Unión Cívica Radical.

Fue presidente del Concejo Deliberante de la ciudad de Pergamino. En 1964, el presidente Arturo Illia lo nombró subsecretario de Agricultura de la Nación; ejerció ese cargo hasta el golpe de Estado del 28 de junio de 1966, en que el general Juan Carlos Onganía derrocó a Illia.

Periodismo
Durante los años siguientes se dedicó al periodismo: había sido encargado de la sección agropecuaria del diario La Voz del Plata, y colaborador del diario La Opinión (de Pergamino).

En esos años fundó y dirigió el diario Pueblo, opositor a la dictadura de Juan Carlos Onganía.

Política
Participó en la formulación de una alternativa a la conducción tradicional del radicalismo, que determinaría, en 1972, la fundación del Movimiento de Renovación y Cambio, liderado por Raúl Alfonsín.

Fue diputado nacional entre 1973 y 1976.

Estrecho colaborador de Alfonsín, durante la Dictadura de Videla fue un firme sostenedor de su candidatura presidencial. Alfonsín lo nombró su jefe de campaña en 1983, y, tras la victoria electoral (el 30 de octubre de 1983) lo eligió para el cargo de ministro de Defensa de la Nación.

Desde el principio de su mandato apoyó la reestructuración de las Fuerzas Armadas, con la intención de desmantelar el aparato represivo organizado durante la dictadura.

Secundó al Presidente en su intención de someter a juicio a los responsables de la represión ilegal desatada durante la dictadura. Reformó el Código de Justicia Militar para posibilitar el juzgamiento de los militares por juzgados comunes, quitándolos del fuero militar, en los casos de crímenes contra civiles.

Fallecimiento
A fines de 1984 fue intervenido de urgencia por un cáncer de pulmón, del que se recuperó para retornar su actividad política. Volvió a ser internado el 18 de mayo; falleció el 25 de mayo de 1985 en Buenos Aires.

Sus restos descansan en el Cementerio de la Recoleta, en Buenos Aires.

Familia
Su hijo Raúl Borrás fue candidato a diputado provincial por la Unión Cívica Radical y jefe de campaña de Ricardo Alfonsín (hijo del presidente Alfonsín) en 2011.

Referencias

Ministros de Defensa de Argentina
Diputados del Congreso de la Nación Argentina por la Provincia de Buenos Aires
Periodistas de Argentina
Políticos de la Unión Cívica Radical
Políticos de la provincia de Buenos Aires
Políticos de la provincia de Santa Fe
Alcortenses
Sepultados en el cementerio de la Recoleta
Gabinete de Raúl Alfonsín
Fallecidos por cáncer de pulmón en Argentina
Fallecidos en Buenos Aires

Raúl Borrás


Žabokrečina (lat. Zannichellia), maleni biljni rod vodenih trajnica iz porodice mrjesnjakovki (Potamogetonaceae). Sastoji se od šest vrsta, od kojih u Hrvatskoj raste Z. palustris, nazivana žabokrijek ili barska žabokrečina, vrsta koja je prisutna na svim kontinentima.

Barska žabokrečina je zeljasta trajnica, vitke stabljike, i duge do 50 cm. Biljka živi isključivo pod vodom, pa je i oprašivanje i oplodnja potpuno podvodna.

Ime roda dolazi po talijanskom botaničaru Zannichelliju, (1662-1729).

Vrsta
 Zannichellia andina Holm-Niels. & R.R.Haynes
 Zannichellia aschersoniana Graebn.
 Zannichellia contorta (Desf.) Cham.
 Zannichellia obtusifolia Talavera, García-Mur. & H.Smit
 Zannichellia palustris L.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Mrjesnjakovke

Žabokrečina


Breitenbrunn

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Haingrund

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Lützel-Wiebelsbach

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Rimhorn

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Seckmauern

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Abgegangene Kulturdenkmäler

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Weblinks

Lutzelbach
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Liste der Kulturdenkmäler in Lützelbach


Lunático é um termo antiquado que se refere a uma pessoa que é vista como mentalmente doente, perigosa, tola, ou louca —condições antes atribuídas a "lunatismo". A palavra deriva de lunaticus que significa "da Lua" ou "aluado".

História

O termo "lunático" deriva da palavra latina lunaticus, que originalmente se referia principalmente à epilepsia e à loucura, como doenças que se pensava serem causadas pela lua. A versão Rei Jaime da Bíblia registra "lunatick" no Evangelho de Mateus, que foi interpretado como uma referência à epilepsia. Nos séculos IV e V , os astrólogos costumavam usar o termo para se referir a doenças neurológicas e psiquiátricas. Filósofos como Aristóteles e Plínio, o Velho, argumentaram que a lua cheia induzia indivíduos insanos com transtorno bipolar, fornecendo luz durante as noites que de outra forma seriam escuras e afetando indivíduos suscetíveis através da conhecida rota da privação do sono. Até pelo menos 1700, também era uma crença comum que a lua influenciava febres, reumatismo, episódios de epilepsia e outras doenças.

Uso do termo "lunático" na legislação
Na jurisdição da Inglaterra e País de Gales, os "Lunacy Acts 1890-1922" se referiam a "lunáticos", mas o Mental Treatment Act 1930 mudou o termo legal para "pessoa de mente insana".

Em 5 de dezembro de 2012, a Câmara dos Representantes dos EUA aprovou uma legislação aprovada anteriormente pelo Senado dos EUA removendo a palavra "lunático" de todas as leis federais nos Estados Unidos. O presidente Barack Obama assinou o 21st Century Language Act de 2012 em lei em 28 de dezembro de 2012.

"De mente insana" ou non compos mentis são alternativas para "lunático", o termo mais conspícuo usado para insanidade na lei no final do século XIX.

Distância lunar
O termo lunático às vezes era usado para descrever aqueles que procuravam descobrir um método confiável de determinar a longitude (antes de John Harrison desenvolver o método do cronômetro marinho para determinar a longitude, a principal teoria era o Método das Distâncias Lunares, avançado pelo Astrônomo Real Nevil Maskelyne). O artista William Hogarth retratou um "lunático de longitude" na oitava cena de seu trabalho de 1733 A Rake's Progress. Vinte anos depois, porém, Hogarth descreveu o cronômetro H-1 de John Harrison como "um dos movimentos mais requintados já feitos".

Mais tarde, os membros da Sociedade Lunar de Birmingham se autodenominaram lunáticos. Em uma época com pouca iluminação pública, a sociedade se reunia na noite de lua cheia ou próximo dela.

Ver também

 Efeito lunar
 História da psiquiatria

Referências

Termos médicos obsoletos
Lua
Termos pejorativos para pessoas
Psicopatologias

Lunático