Joseph Dudley (September 23, 1647 – April 2, 1720) was a colonial administrator, a native of Roxbury in Massachusetts Bay Colony, and the son of one of its founders. He had a leading role in the administration of the Dominion of New England (1686–1689), which was overthrown in the 1689 Boston revolt. He served briefly on the council of the Province of New York, from which he oversaw the trial which convicted Jacob Leisler, the ringleader of Leisler's Rebellion. He then spent eight years in England in the 1690s as Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Wight, including one year as a Member of Parliament for Newtown (Isle of Wight). In 1702, he returned to New England after being appointed governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and Province of New Hampshire, posts that he held until 1715.

His rule of Massachusetts was characterized by hostility and tension, with political enemies opposing his attempts to gain a regular salary and regularly making complaints about his official and private actions. Most of his tenure was dominated by the French and Indian Wars, in which the two provinces were on the front lines with New France and suffered from a series of major and minor French and Indian raids. He orchestrated an unsuccessful attempt to capture the Acadian capital of Port Royal in 1707, raised provincial militia forces for its successful capture in 1710, and directed an unsuccessful expedition against Quebec in 1711.

Dudley's governorship initiated a hostility in Massachusetts toward royal governance, most frequently over the issue of the salaries of crown officials. The colonial legislature routinely challenged or disputed the prerogatives of the governor, and this hostility affected most of the governors of Massachusetts up to the American Revolutionary War and the end of British rule. Dudley's rule of New Hampshire, however, was comparatively uncontroversial.

Early life
Joseph Dudley was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts Bay Colony, on September 23, 1647. His mother was Katherine Dudley (née Dighton or Deighton; formerly Hackburne) and his father was Thomas Dudley, one of the founders and leading magistrates of the colony. His father was 70 when he was born and died in 1653. His mother then married Reverend John Allin, who raised the young Dudley at his home in Dedham, Massachusetts.

He graduated from Harvard College in 1665 and was admitted as a freeman in 1672. He became a member of the Massachusetts General Court representing Roxbury in 1673, and he was elected to the colony's council of assistants in 1676. King Philip's War broke out in 1675, and Dudley was a commissioner who accompanied the colonial militia into the field against the Indians. He was present at the Great Swamp Fight in which the Narragansett tribe was decisively defeated. In 1679, Dudley was recorded as owning an enslaved Native American girl. Dudley served for several years as a commissioner to the New England Confederation, and was sent by the administration on diplomatic missions to neighboring Indian communities. He served on a committee that negotiated the boundary between Massachusetts and the Plymouth Colony.

Revocation of the colonial charter
The colony's governance came under the scrutiny of King Charles II in the 1660s, and it faced a substantial threat in the late 1670s. Crown agent Edward Randolph was sent to New England in 1676 to collect customs duties and to enforce the Navigation Acts, and in the process he documented a list of issues and took his complaints to the Lords of Trade in London. The colonial leadership was divided on how to answer this threat. Dudley was part of a moderate faction which supported accommodating the king's demands, along with his brother-in-law Simon Bradstreet and William Stoughton, and they were opposed by others who did not want the crown to interfere in the colony's business. These factions were separated in part along class lines; the wealthier land owners and merchants who dominated the legislature's upper house (called the "court of assistants") favored accommodation, while the more representative lower house favored the opposition view.

In 1682, Massachusetts sent Dudley and John Richards to London as agents to represent its case to the Lords of Trade. Dudley brought a letter of introduction from Plymouth Governor Thomas Hinckley to colonial secretary William Blathwayt, and the favorable relationship that he established with Blathwayt contributed to his future success as a colonial administrator, but it also raised suspicions in the colony about his motives and ability to represent the colony's interests. The authority of the agents was limited, and the Lords of Trade insisted to the colonial administration that their agents be authorized to negotiate modifications to the colonial charter. The legislature refused this demand, which led to a quo warranto writ demanding the surrender of the colonial charter. Dudley brought this news to Boston at the end of 1683, igniting a heated debate in the legislature, with the opposition party again prevailing. The leadership of the opposition included Reverend Increase Mather, and they began to view the accommodationists as enemies of the colony, including Dudley and Bradstreet. Richards sided with the opposition, and Dudley was removed from the council of assistants in the 1684 election.

The episode also led to accusations that Dudley had secretly schemed in London to have the charter vacated as a means of personal advancement. He did discuss the form of a replacement government with Edward Randolph, although this discussion did not take place until after the quo warranto writ was issued. The opposition viewed this as evidence that he was hostile to the present order of the colony and was working against his commission as colonial agent. Randolph, in contrast, believed that Dudley's election loss meant that he would make a good crown servant. As a result, rumors began circulating in Boston in late 1684 that Dudley might be appointed governor, with Randolph as his deputy.

The charter was annulled in 1684, and the Lords of Trade began planning to combine the New England colonies into a single province called the Dominion of New England. This work was still in progress when King James II took the throne in 1685. However, there were difficulties in drafting a commission for intended governor Sir Edmund Andros, and this prompted Randolph to propose an interim appointment. Dudley was chosen for this post based on Randolph's recommendation, and a commission was issued to him on October 8, 1685, as President of the Council of New England. The territories covered by his commission included the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Province of New Hampshire, the Province of Maine, and the "Narragansett Country", a territory at the heart of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations (which both Massachusetts Bay and Connecticut Colony were trying to wrest away from Rhode Island). Randolph was appointed to a long list of subsidiary posts, including secretary of the colony, which gave him considerable power.

President of the Council of New England
Randolph arrived in Boston with Dudley's charter on May 14, 1686, and Dudley formally took charge of Massachusetts on May 25, but his rule did not begin auspiciously. A number of Massachusetts magistrates had been named to his council but they refused to serve, and he was unable to reconcile with Increase Mather, who refused to see him. According to Randolph, the Puritan magistrates "were of opinion that God would never suffer me to land again in this country, and thereupon began in a most arbitrary manner to assert their power higher than at any time before." Elections of colonial military officers were compromised when many of them also refused to serve. Dudley made a number of judicial appointments, generally favoring the political moderates who had supported accommodation of the king's wishes in the battle over the old charter. He renewed treaties with the Indians of northern New England, and traveled to the Narragansett Country in June to formally establish his authority there.

Dudley was significantly hampered by the inability to raise revenues in the dominion. His commission did not give him authority to introduce new revenue laws, and the Massachusetts government had repealed all such laws in 1683 in anticipation of losing their charter. Furthermore, many people refused to pay the remaining taxes on the grounds that they had been enacted by the old government and were thus invalid. Dudley and Randolph also attempted to introduce the Church of England into New England, but they were largely unsuccessful; they did not have buildings to house their new churches, and they recognized the danger of forcing Colonial churches to share their buildings with the Church of England.

Dudley and Randolph enforced the Navigation Acts, although they did not adhere to the letter of the law, understanding that some provisions of the acts were unfair, such as requiring payments of multiple duties. Some violations were overlooked, and they suggested to the Lords of Trade that the laws be modified to ameliorate these conditions. Nevertheless, the Massachusetts economy was harmed by their otherwise vigorous enforcement of the acts.

Dudley and Randolph eventually had a falling out over matters related to trade, administration, and religion. "I am treated by Mr. Dudley worse than by Mr. Danforth", Randolph wrote, comparing Dudley to one of the opposition magistrates.

While Dudley governed, the Lords of Trade decided to include the colonies of Rhode Island and Connecticut in the dominion, based on a petition from Dudley's council. Andros' commission had been issued in June, and he was given an annex to the commission with instructions to bring Rhode Island and Connecticut under his authority.

Service under Governor Andros
Governor Andros arrived in December 1686 and immediately assumed the reins of power. Dudley sat on his council and served as judge of the superior court and censor of the press. He also sat on the committee that worked to harmonize legislation throughout the dominion. Andros' appointed council was intended to represent all of the combined territories. However, travel was difficult, and the government did not reimburse travel expenses; consequently, his council was dominated by representatives from Boston and Plymouth.

Dudley and Randolph were widely regarded as a significant part of the tyranny of Andros' reign. Dudley's position as judge brought him the harshest criticisms and complaints, in particular when he enforced unpopular laws imposed by Andros concerning taxes, town meetings, and land titles. During this period, Dudley acquired ownership over a slave named Peter.

Word arrived in April 1689 of the 1688 Glorious Revolution, whereupon citizens rose up and arrested Andros. Dudley was away from the city but was arrested upon his return. Since he was ill, he was released into house arrest upon payment of a £1,000 bond, but a group descended on his home and carried him back to jail. He stayed in jail for ten months, in part for his own safety, and was then sent back to England at the command of King William, along with Andros and other dominion leaders. Colonial authorities brought charges against Andros and Dudley, but none of their agents in London were prepared to take responsibility for making those charges in court, so they were dismissed and both men were freed.

Dudley was stranded in London with limited connections, so he appealed to Blathwayt for assistance. He also asked business associate Daniel Coxe for help in finding a new position. Coxe was a proprietor of West Jersey and he considered Dudley for the post of lieutenant governor there, and Dudley was eventually recommended as chief of council to New York governor Henry Sloughter which he took up in 1691. In addition to his council duties, he negotiated with New York's Indians and sat as chief judge in the trial of Jacob Leisler, who had led the rebellion in 1689 that overthrew Andros' lieutenant governor Francis Nicholson. The trial was controversial, and Dudley's role made him many enemies. Leisler was convicted of high treason and sentenced to death. Governor Sloughter was initially opposed to immediately executing Leisler and his main ally and son-in-law Jacob Milborne, preferring to defer the decision to the king. But he changed his mind under pressure from anti-Leisler forces in his council, and the two men were executed on 16 May 1691. Cotton Mather claimed that Dudley was an influential force arguing for Leisler's execution, although this is disputed by testimony from anti-Leisler councillor Nicholas Bayard.

Dudley left New York for his home in Roxbury in 1692 and re-established connections with political friends such as William Stoughton, who had just been appointed lieutenant governor of the newly chartered Province of Massachusetts Bay under Sir William Phips.

Patronage
Dudley returned to England in 1693 and embarked on a series of intrigues to regain an office in New England. He ingratiated himself to the religious elements of the London political establishment by formally joining the Church of England. He acquired a patron in Baron Cutts, who engineered his appointment as lieutenant governor of the Isle of Wight where Cutts had been appointed governor. Dudley and Cutts assisted each other politically; Cutts worked to advance Dudley's agenda in London, while Dudley worked to promote that of Cutts on Wight. Dudley manipulated the parliamentary election processes on the island to ensure that Cutts' chosen candidates were elected, which made Cutts highly unpopular on Wight—although he continued as its governor until his death in 1707. Dudley also tried to assist Cutts with some financial difficulties, and he schemed with Cutts' father-in-law to gain permission to mint coins for use in New England.
Dudley returned to England in 1693 and embarked on a series of intrigues to regain an office in New England. He ingratiated himself to the religious elements of the London political establishment by formally joining the Church of England. He acquired a patron in Baron Cutts, who engineered his appointment as lieutenant governor of the Isle of Wight where Cutts had been appointed governor. Dudley and Cutts assisted each other politically; Cutts worked to advance Dudley's agenda in London, while Dudley worked to promote that of Cutts on Wight. Dudley manipulated the parliamentary election processes on the island to ensure that Cutts' chosen candidates were elected, which made Cutts highly unpopular on Wight—although he continued as its governor until his death in 1707. Dudley also tried to assist Cutts with some financial difficulties, and he schemed with Cutts' father-in-law to gain permission to mint coins for use in New England.

Dudley's principal object of intrigue was the removal of William Phips as Massachusetts governor, something that he did not hide from the colony's agents. Phips' rule was unpopular in Massachusetts, and he was recalled to England to answer a variety of charges brought by his opponents. Dudley caused Phips to be arrested shortly after his arrival, on the charge that Phips had withheld customs money from the crown. Phips died in February 1695 before the charges were heard, and Dudley was optimistic that he would be named the next governor.

At this point, Dudley's enemies from New York and Massachusetts joined forces to deny him the opportunity. Jacob Leisler's son was in London attempting to have the attainder reversed against his father's estate. A bill was introduced into Parliament to accomplish this, with assistance from Massachusetts agent Constantine Phips. The debate included a review of Leisler's trial, and Dudley was forced to appear and defend his role in it. Afterward, Phips wrote to Cotton Mather that Dudley "is not so much talked of to be governor", and the appointment went instead to Lord Bellomont.

Cutts continued to be active on Dudley's behalf, and he secured him election as a Member of Parliament representing Newtown in 1701. This made it possible for Dudley to further expand his own political connections in London. He managed temporarily to mend political fences with Constantine Phips and Cotton Mather, and he began lobbying for the Massachusetts governorship after the death of Bellomont in 1701. In this he was successful, receiving commissions as governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire on 1 April 1702 from Queen Anne.

Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire
Dudley served as governor until 1715, and his administration was marked by regular conflict with the general court, particularly in the early years. His instruction from the English colonial office was to gain a regular salary for the governor. He and all of the succeeding royal governors, however, were unsuccessful in extracting this concession from the Colonial legislature, and it became a regular source of friction between representatives of crown and colony. Dudley pressed his complaint in letters to London, in which he complained of men "who love not the Crown and Government of England to any manner of obedience". He wrote in one letter to his son Paul, then the provincial attorney general, "this country will never be worth living in for lawyers and gentlemen, till the charter is taken away." This letter was discovered and published, fueling Colonial opposition to his rule. Dudley also angered the powerful Mather family when he awarded the presidency of Harvard to John Leverett instead of Cotton Mather. He consistently vetoed the election of councilors and speakers of the general court who had acted against him in 1689, further increasing his unpopularity in Massachusetts. In contrast, his tenure as Governor of New Hampshire was popular; its legislature specifically praised him to the Queen after learning of complaints levelled against him by his Massachusetts opponents.

Queen Anne's War

Dudley was active in managing colonial defenses during Queen Anne's War. He attempted to forestall French-orchestrated Indian hostilities by meeting with Indians at Casco Bay in June 1703, but the French had already begun rallying them to their cause and the war began with raids on the settlements of southern Maine in August 1703. Dudley called out the militia and licensed privateers to raid French shipping, such as Thomas Larimore; he also fortified the Massachusetts and New Hampshire frontiers from the Connecticut River to southern Maine. The French and Indians raided Deerfield in February 1704, prompting calls for retaliation, and Dudley authorized aging Indian fighter Benjamin Church to lead an expedition against settlements in Acadia. He also engaged in protracted negotiations for the return of captives taken at Deerfield.

Boston merchants and the Mathers accused Dudley of being in league with smugglers and others who were illegally trading with the French, in part because he specifically refused permission for Church to attack the Acadian capital and commercial center of Port Royal. He sought to forestall these criticisms in 1707 when he sent the colonial militia on a fruitless expedition against Port Royal. In 1708, a bitter attack on his administration was published in London entitled The Deplorable State of New England by reason of a Covetous and Treacherous Governor and Pusillanimous Counsellors, as part of a campaign to have him recalled. Dudley again rallied the provincial militias for a planned expedition against Quebec in 1709, but the supporting expedition from England was called off. Support arrived from England in 1710, and a successful siege led to the fall of Port Royal and the beginning of the Province of Nova Scotia.

Boston was again the organizing point for the 1711 Quebec Expedition combining British and provincial forces. The expedition failed disastrously, however, when some of its transports foundered on the shores of the Saint Lawrence River. During the war, Dudley also authorized expeditions against the Abenakis of northern New England, but these were largely ineffective. The war quieted to some extent after the fall of Port Royal, with only small raiding parties hitting frontier communities, and peace came in 1713 with the Treaty of Utrecht.

Dudley negotiated a separate peace with the Abenakis at Portsmouth, New Hampshire in 1713. He hoped to separate the western Kennebec tribe from French influence and consequently adopted a fairly hard line, threatening to withhold trade that was vital to their survival and reiterating claims of British sovereignty over them. The Treaty of Portsmouth (1713) resulted from those negotiations and repeated the claims of sovereignty. Dudley claimed that the French had ceded Abenaki lands as part of Acadia, and one sachem responded: "The French never said anything to us about it, and we wonder how they would give it away without asking us". Nevertheless, Dudley and succeeding governors treated the Abenaki as British subjects, and friction persisted over British colonial expansion into Maine which flared into Dummer's War in the 1720s.

Other issues

The war worsened currency and finance problems in Massachusetts. The province had been issuing paper currency since the 1690s, and the issue of large amounts of this currency was causing it to depreciate compared to precious metals used in other currencies. The situation caused a division between the colonists and the governor which was not repaired until the 1760s. Business leaders who borrowed money were happy to pay it back later with depreciated currency, while lenders sought reforms to stabilize the currency. In 1714, Dudley's opponents proposed that a bank should issue as much as £50,000 in currency, secured by the shareholder's real estate properties. Dudley was opposed to this scheme, and instead convinced the provincial legislature to issue £50,000 in bills of credit. The financially powerful interests whom he upset with this move proved to be his downfall.

In 1713, surveys determined that the border between Massachusetts and the Connecticut Colony had been incorrectly sited in the 17th century, and that Massachusetts had consequently distributed lands that actually belonged to Connecticut. Dudley and Connecticut Governor Gurdon Saltonstall negotiated an agreement in which Massachusetts would retain those lands but would grant to Connecticut an equivalent amount of land. The Equivalent Lands amounted to over  on either side of the Connecticut River in northern Massachusetts, southeastern Vermont, and southwestern New Hampshire. These lands were auctioned off in April 1716, and Connecticut used the proceeds to fund Yale College.

Dudley's commission expired in 1714, six months after the death of Queen Anne, as did that of Lieutenant Governor William Tailer. The governor's council was dominated by his political opponents, and they asserted its authority at that point. They assumed control of the government on February 14, 1715, under the provisions of the provincial charter concerning governance in the absence of the governor and his lieutenant. Just six weeks later, news arrived from England that Dudley's commission had been temporarily confirmed by King George I, and he was reinstated on March 21.

However, Dudley's political opponents were active in London, especially those involved in the land bank proposal, and they convinced the king to appoint Colonel Elizeus Burges as governor later in the year. Burges' commission was proclaimed in Boston on November 9, 1715, ending Dudley's commission. Burges was not in the colony, so governance fell to Lieutenant Governor Tailer whose commission had been renewed. Jonathan Belcher and Jeremiah Dummer, the brother of Dudley's son-in-law William Dummer, bribed Burges to resign his commission without leaving England in April 1716, and a new commission was issued to Samuel Shute, who promised to oppose attempts to introduce the land bank. He arrived in the colony and assumed the post of governor in October 1716, with William Dummer as his lieutenant.

Dudley retired to the family home in Roxbury. He acted as an informal advisor to Governor Shute upon his arrival, and made appearances at public and private functions. He died in Roxbury on April 2, 1720, and was buried next to his father in Roxbury's Eliot Burying Ground, accompanied with the pomp and ceremony appropriate to his position.

Family and legacy

In 1668, Dudley married Rebecca Tyng, who survived him by two years. They had 12 children, 10 of whom survived to adulthood. His son Paul served as attorney general and chief justice of Massachusetts, and Dudley, Massachusetts is named for his sons Paul and William, who were its first proprietors. His daughter Katherine Dudley married Lt. Governor William Dummer; another daughter Ann Dudley married John Winthrop (1681–1747), son of Wait Winthrop, grandson of John Winthrop the Younger and great-grandson of John Winthrop, Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. John Winthrop and Ann Dudley were parents of Catherine [Winthrop] wife of Colonel Epes Sargent the parents of Paul Dudley Sargent (1745-1828).

Dudley owned large tracts of land in Massachusetts when he died, principally in Roxbury and Worcester County. The Worcester properties he purchased from the Nipmuc in partnership with William Stoughton, and he was granted land in Oxford, Massachusetts for the purpose of settling French Huguenots. He frequently used his position to ensure that his land titles were judicially cleared, especially when president of the dominion and governor of the province. This was a practice that also benefited friends, relatives, and business partners. Edward Randolph wrote that it was "impossible to bring titles of land to trial before them where his Majesties's rights are concerned, the Judges also being parties." From 1713 to 1722, Dudley was recorded as owning a slave named Brill.

Historian John Palfrey wrote that Dudley "united rich intellectual attributes with a groveling soul", forging political connections and relationships in his early years for the purpose of his own advancement. He capitalized on his favorable family connections to the Puritan leadership of Massachusetts to establish connections in England, but then betrayed those Massachusetts connections when it became necessary to further his quest for power. Thomas Hutchinson also served as provincial governor and wrote an extensive history of Massachusetts; he wrote that Dudley "had as many virtues as can consist with so great a thirst for honour and power." Biographer Everett Kimball adds that Dudley "possessed a good deal of tact and personal charm, by which, when everything else failed, he could sometimes transform an enemy into a friend."

See also
 List of colonial governors of Massachusetts
 List of colonial governors of New Hampshire
 List of governors of the Isle of Wight

Notes

References

Further reading

1647 births
1720 deaths
American people of English descent
American slave owners
Burials in Boston
Colonial governors of Massachusetts
Colonial governors of New Hampshire
English MPs 1701–1702
Governors of the Dominion of New England
Harvard College alumni
Members of Parliament for the Isle of Wight
People from colonial Boston
People of Queen Anne's War
Politicians from Dedham, Massachusetts

Joseph Dudley


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Temmuz

Ağustos
 21 Ağustos - Dionisius Petavius, Denis Pétau Fransız Cizvit rahibi, tarihçi ve Antikçağ kronolojinin kurucusu

Eylül
 9 Eylül - Girolamo Frescobaldi, İtalyan besteci (ö. 1643)

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Doğduğu Gün ve Ay belli olmayanlar
 Hayashi Razan (), Neokonfüçyüsçü filozof (ö. 1657)

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1583


George V. Solcoiu (n. 18 martie 1889, Arini, jud. Brașov) a fost un deputat în Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, organismul legislativ reprezentativ al "tuturor românilor din Transilvania, Banat și Țara Ungurească", cel care a adoptat hotărârea privind Unirea Transilvaniei cu România, la 1 decembrie 1918.

Biografie
George V. Solcoiu s-a născut în Arini, fostul jud. Treiscaune, astăzi Brașov. A fost funcționar.

Activitatea politică

A participat la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918 ca delegat al cercului electoral Aita Mare, fostul jud. Treiscaune, astăzi Brașov.

Note

Bibliografie
 Ioan I. Șerban, Dorin Giurgiu, Ionela Mircea, Nicolae Josan, Dicționarul personalităților Unirii. Trimișii românilor transilvăneni la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia, Muzeul Național al Unirii, Alba Iulia, 2003, ISBN 973-8141-90-7

Lectură suplimentară
 Daniela Comșa, Eugenia Glodariu, Maria M. Jude, Clujenii și Marea Unire, Muzeul Național Transilvania, Cluj-Napoca, 1998
 Florea Marin, Medicii și Marea Unire, Editura Tipomur, Târgu Mureș, 1993
Neamțu, Gelu, Vaida-Voevod, Mircea, 1 decembrie 1918. Mărturii ale participanților, vol. I-II, Editura Academiei Române, București, 2005, ISBN 973-27-1258-9 (vol. I); ISBN 973-27-1264-3 (vol. I+II)
 Silviu Borș, Alexiu Tatu, Bogdan Andriescu, (coord.), Participanți din localități sibiene la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, Editura Armanis, Sibiu, 2015

Legături externe
  Membrii de drept ai Marii Adunării Naționale de la Alba-Iulia din 1 decembrie 1918, lista publicată în "Gazeta Oficială", Sibiu, nr. 1, 1/14 decembrie 1918

Vezi și
 Lista delegaților la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia

Nașteri în 1889
Delegați la Marea Adunare Națională de la Alba Iulia
Decese în secolul al XX-lea

George V. Solcoiu


Monika Knipschild-Pieper (* 27. August 1963 in Bochum-Ehrenfeld) ist eine deutsche Politikerin der Piratenpartei.

Leben und politischer Werdegang
1983 machte sie am Gymnasium am Ostring ihr Abitur. Danach studierte sie in Dortmund Sonderpädagogik. 1991 machte sie ihr Zweites Staatsexamen.

Im Januar 2010 trat sie der Piratenpartei bei. Von der Gründung des Kreisverbandes Bochum am 18. November 2010 bis zum 30. Januar 2013 war sie dessen Erste Vorsitzende. Am 13. Mai 2012 wurde Monika Pieper auf Platz 8 der Landesliste der Piratenpartei Nordrhein-Westfalen bei der Landtagswahl in Nordrhein-Westfalen 2012 als Abgeordnete in den Landtag von Nordrhein-Westfalen gewählt. Sie war Parlamentarische Geschäftsführerin ihrer Fraktion. Mit dem Scheitern der Piraten an der Fünf-Prozent-Hürde bei der Landtagswahl 2017 schied Pieper aus dem Landtag aus.

Weblinks

 Monika Pieper auf piratenpartei-nrw.de
 Knipschild-Piepers Profil im PIRATEN-Wiki

Einzelnachweise

Landtagsabgeordneter (Nordrhein-Westfalen)
Mitglied der Piratenpartei Deutschland
Politiker (21. Jahrhundert)
Deutscher
Geboren 1963
Frau

Monika Pieper


11112 Cagnoli este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
11112 Cagnoli este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Dossobuono la Observatorul Madonna di Dossobuono. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,93 ua, o excentricitate de 0,23 și o înclinație de 15,2° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 11001-12000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1995
Centura de asteroizi

11112 Cagnoli


The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), originally the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, is an American 501(c)(3)
nonprofit organization founded in 1924 and dedicated to the advancement of zoos and public aquariums in the areas of conservation, education, science, and recreation. AZA is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland, and accredits zoos. There were 238 accredited facilities as of 2019, primarily in the US, and also a handful in eleven other countries.

History
In October 1924 the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums was formed as an affiliate of the American Institute of Park Executives. In 1966, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums became a professional branch affiliate of the newly formed National Recreation and Park Association, which absorbed the American Institute of Park Executives.

In the fall of 1971, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums membership voted to become an independent association. On January 19, 1972, it was chartered as the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums with its executive office located in Wheeling, West Virginia, within the Oglebay Park Good Zoo. In 1994, the shorter name American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) was adopted.

In early 2018, AZA acquired the Wildlife Trafficking Alliance to help grow public awareness about the purchase and sale of illegal wildlife products in the United States.

The Association of Zoos and Aquariums reported 195 million visitors to its 236 accredited member facilities in 2017.

Activities
The organization is active in institution accreditation, animal care initiatives, education and conservation programs, collaborative research and advocacy.

AZA serves as an accrediting body for zoos and aquariums and ensures accredited facilities meet higher standards of animal care than required by law. Institutions are evaluated every five years in order to ensure standards are met and to maintain accreditation. As of 2019 AZA had 238 accredited facilities in the US and eleven other countries: Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, The Bahamas, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Argentina, Spain, Hong Kong, Singapore, and South Korea.

Approximately 800,000 animals representing 6,000 species are in the care of AZA-accredited facilities, including 1,000 threatened or endangered species. The association also facilitates both species survival plans and population management plans, which serve to sustainably manage genetically diverse captive populations of various animal species.

AZA holds a conference in September, one of the largest zoo and aquarium professionals' events in the US.

AZA also manages the citizen science program FrogWatch USA.

Accreditation
In the United States, any public animal exhibit must be licensed and inspected by the United States Department of Agriculture, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Drug Enforcement Administration, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and others. Depending on the animals they exhibit, the activities of zoos are regulated by laws including the Endangered Species Act, the Animal Welfare Act, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 and others. Additionally, zoos in North America may choose to pursue accreditation by AZA.

The American association has developed a definition for zoological gardens and aquariums as part of its accreditation standards: "A permanent cultural institution which owns and maintains captive wild animals that represent more than a token collection and, under the direction of a professional staff, provides its collection with appropriate care and exhibits them in an aesthetic manner to the public on a regularly scheduled basis. They shall further be defined as having as their primary business the exhibition, conservation and preservation of the earth's fauna in an educational and scientific manner."

To achieve accreditation, a zoo must pass an application and inspection process and meet or exceed AZA's standards for animal health and welfare, fundraising, zoo staffing, and involvement in global conservation efforts. Inspection is performed by three experts (typically one veterinarian, one expert in animal care, and one expert in zoo management and operations) and then reviewed by a panel of twelve experts before accreditation is awarded. This accreditation process is repeated once every five years.

AZA estimates that there are approximately 2,800 animal exhibits operating under USDA license as of 2019; fewer than 10% are accredited. Certification is possible for facilities that hold animals, but are not regularly open to the public.

Saving Animals From Extinction
AZA's Saving Animals From Extinction (SAFE) program prioritizes collaboration between zoos and aquariums to support highly vulnerable species. SAFE builds on existing recovery plans to implement strategic conservation and public engagement activities. In 2017, AZA member zoos and aquariums invested $15.6 million towards SAFE program species.

The SAFE program signature species include the African lion, African vultures, Asian elephant, Atlantic Acropora coral, black-footed ferret, black rhinoceros, cheetah, eastern indigo snake, giraffe, gorilla, sea turtles, orangutan, radiated tortoise, red wolf, sea turtles, sharks and rays, vaquita, western pond turtle and whooping crane. There were more than 20 species or taxonomic groups included in the program as of 2019.

Annual Report on Conservation and Science
The association has a computerized database called the Annual Report on Conservation and Science. This helps track AZA research projects worldwide.

AZA member zoos and aquariums contribute $220 million to conservation projects each year.  They participate in 115 reintroduction programs, including more than 40 programs for species listed as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act.

In 2017, member institutions reported participating in field conservation projects benefiting over 860 species in 128 countries. AZA zoos and aquariums spent $25 million on research and published 170 books, book chapters, journal articles, conference proceeding papers, posters and theses or dissertations. Animal care, health and welfare, followed by species and habitat conservation, describe 68% of the AZA community's research.

List of member zoos and aquariums
To be a member, a facility must either be accredited or certified.

Accredited facilities
Accredited facilities maintain a professional staff and appropriate animal care, and are open to the public on a predictable basis. The following list is from 2013.

Certified related facilities
Certified facilities maintain a professional staff and appropriate animal care, but are not open to the public on a predictable basis.

Former members

Notable people

Melanie R. Bond, biologist, primate scientist and author

See also
 List of zoo associations
 World Association of Zoos and Aquariums

References

External links

Zoo associations
Trade associations based in the United States

Organizations established in 1924
1924 establishments in the United States
Silver Spring, Maryland

Association of Zoos and Aquariums


Mary je žensko ime, engleski oblik hrvatskog imena Marija.

Osobe s imenom Mary
 Mary Astor (1906. – 1987.), američka glumica
 Mary Catherine Bateson (1939. – 2021.), američka antropologica
 Mary Beale (1633. – 1699.), engleska slikarica
 Mary J. Blige (rođena 1971.), američka pjevačica i glumica
 Mary Boleyn (oko 1499. – 1543.), sestra engleske kraljice Ane Boleyn
 Mary Beth Bonacci, američka govornica i kolumnistica
 Mary Cassatt (1844. – 1926.), američka slikarica i grafičarka
 Mary Daly (1928. – 2010.), američka akademkinja
 Mary Edith Durham (1863. – 1944.), britanska antropologica
 Mary Dyer (oko 1611. – 1660.), engleska kvekerka
 Mary Ann Glendon (rođena 1938.), američka profesorica i veleposlanica
 Mary Harris (1837. – 1930.), američka učiteljica, krojačica i sindikalna organizatorica
 Mary Hoare (1744. – 1820.), engleska likovna umjetnica
 Mary Jane Kelly (oko 1863. – 1888.), peta žrtva londonskog serijskog ubojice Jacka Trbosjeka
 Mary McAleese (rođena 1951.), irska političarka i akademkinja
 Mary McCormack (rođena 1969.), američka glumica
 Mary T. Meagher (rođena 1964.), američka plivačica
 Mary Moser (1744. – 1819.), engleska slikarica
 Mary Nevill (rođena 1961.), britanska hokejašica na travi
 Mary Ann Nichols (1845. – 1888.), prva žrtva londonskog serijskog ubojice Jacka Trbosjeka
 Mary Pickford (1892. – 1979.), američka glumica
 Mary Pierce (rođena 1975.), francuska tenisačica
 Mary Lynn Rajskub (rođena 1971.), američka glumica i komičarka
 Mary Robinson (rođena 1944.), irska političarka
 Mary Seacole (1805. – 1881.), britanska jamajčanska iscjeliteljica i poslovna žena
 Mary Shelley (1797. – 1851.), engleska književnica
 Mary Helen Stefaniak (rođena 1951.), američka spisateljica
 Mary Augusta Ward (1851. – 1920.), britanska spisateljica
 Mary Wayte (rođena 1965.), američka plivačica
 Mary Wollstonecraft (1759. – 1797.), engleska književnica i filozofkinja

Imena

Mary (ime)


Zerdüştçülük, Zerdüştîlik ya da Mecûsîlik, günümüzden 3.500 yıl önce Zerdüşt tarafından İran'da kurulan, yaklaşık M.Ö. 6. yüzyıldan M.S. 7. yüzyıla kadar Pers, Med ve Sasani İmparatorluğu'nun dini olan, içerisinde düalist ve eskatolojik inanışın ilk örneklerini barındıran, Dünya'nın en eski tek tanrıcı vahiy dini. Bu dine inananlar Zerdüştçü, Mazdaist ve Zerdüştî olarak adlandırılıyor olup bedenen öldükten sonra dirilip Ahûra Mazda'nın huzuruna çıkacaklarına ve orada sorgulanacaklarına inanırlar. Zamanla Zerdüştlüğün Zurvanizm gibi alt dalları ortaya çıkmıştır. Zurvanizm inancı, Zurvan olarak bilinen zaman ve kader tanrısını baş tanrı konumuna yükseltmiştir.

Zerdüştlüğün kutsal metni Avesta'dır ve ilk olarak Avestaca dilinde yazılmıştır. Ahûra Mazda'nın Avestaca kelime anlamının "bilge efendi" olduğu düşünülmektedir. 9. yüzyıl itibarıyla Zerdüşt bilginleri, dînî metinleri dönemin dili olan Pehlevice yazmaya başlamıştır.

Günümüzde dinin doğduğu ülke olan İran'da yalnızca yaklaşık 30.000 Zerdüştî bulunurken en fazla Zerdüştinin yaşadığı diaspora ülke Hindistan'dır. İran'ın İslâm ordularınca fethedilmesinden sonra ülkeyi terk ederek Hindistan'a yerleşen bu topluluğa coğrafî kökenlerine ithafen Parsî denir.

Etimoloji
Anlam olarak Zerdüşt kelimesi (Zoroaster), Zarathustra'nın Yunanca karşılığıdır. Adına eklenen uştra sözcüğünün bilinen anlamı deve ile ilgisi yoktur. Kimi akademisyenlerin önerdiği, kökü uş "pırıldamak" olandan zaratha (altın) ve uştra (ışık) türetilerek oluşan ad, dünyaya ışık getirenlerin en büyüklerinden birine verilmiş ad olarak "Altın ışığın adamı" anlamındadır. Halk dilinde ise Zerdüşt, yaşayan yıldız olarak nitelendirilir.

Türkçede kullanım
Türkçede yaygın ve Zerdüştlük biçiminde yerleşmiş olan terime Zerdüştçülük yahut Zerdüştilik şeklinde rastlamak mümkündür. Zerdüştlük kullanımında bu dine bağlı olan insanlar Zerdüşti yahut Zerdüştçü olarak adlandırılmak durumundadır, zira Zerdüşt dinin kurucusunun adıdır.

Ayırt edici özellikler

Zerdüştlük, Budizm gibi felsefi yönü de ön plana çıkan inançlar arasındadır. Zerdüştlüğün temelinde iyilik ve kötülüğün savaşı yatar. Zerdüşt, yeryüzündeki kavganın tanrının ruhu Spenta Mainyu ile şeytanın ruhu arasında olduğuna inanırdı ve her inananın iyilik için savaşması gerekirdi. Zerdüştlükteki şeytan inancı ile İbrahimi dinlerdeki melek anlayışı arasında benzerlikler vardır. Zerdüştlük inancında Tanrı kabul edilen Ahura Mazda "Aklın Efendisi" ile sembolize edilir, Ehriman ise kötülüğün güçlerini temsil eder ve iyilik-kötülük mücadelesi bu noktada başlar.

Geleneksel olarak Zerdüştiler yeryüzünün insan kalıntılarıyla bozulmaması gerektiğine inanırlar. Bu yüzden ölülerin cesetlerini defnetmek yerine üstü açık kulelerin çatılarında akbabalara ve doğal etkenlere karşı korumasız bir şekilde bırakırlar.

Bu inancın tanrısı Ahura Mazda'dır. Zerdüşt Espantaman, bu dinin peygamberidir.

Doğal elementleri kutsal sayarlar ve bu elementler (su, toprak, hava, ateş) kirletilmekten korunur. Bununla ilişkili olarak ateşe, aydınlığa veya Güneş'e bakılarak ibadet edilir. Bu inanç Zerdüşt Espenteman tarafından getirilmiştir.

Tarihsel gelişim ve etkileşimler
Zerdüştlüğün peygamberin yaşadığı dönemde yaygın olmadığı bilinmektedir. Batı İran'da Zerdüştlüğün vaizleri, üyeleri sadece Medyalıların değil Persler arasında da bilinen magi rahip aşiretiyle karşılaştılar. Araştırmacılar, bu yeni fikirlerin magilerden gelen itirazlarla karşılaştığına inanıyorlar. Zerdüştlük, bu tarihten sonra da İslamiyet'in İran'da yayılmasına kadar genişlemeye devam etmiştir. Zerdüştiler MS 600 civarında Müslümanların Pers topraklarını ele geçirmesinden sonra İslamiyete geçmiş ve geriye az sayıda Zerdüşti kalmıştır.

Zerdüşt dininin yaratıcısı olan üç peygamberden bahsedilir; I. Zerdüşt yaklaşık olarak MÖ 3000 yıllarında yaşayan Mahabat, II. Zerdüşt yaklaşık olarak MÖ 2040 yıllarında yaşayan Haşeng (bunun İbrahim olduğu da söylenir), III. Zerdüşt ise MÖ 660 yaşayan Zerdüşt'ün kendisidir.

III. Zerdüşt bilge, ileri bir düşünce adamı ve filozof olarak tanımlanır. Zerdüştlük esas olarak III. Zerdüşt tarafından sistemleştirilerek yaygınlaştırılmıştır. Zerdüşt'ün kurduğu dinin adına Mazdaizm denilir. Zerdüşt Mazdaizm'le tek tanrıcılığa yönelirken, çok tanrılığı aşar ve tanrıyı egemenlerden alarak, insanlığın özlemleriyle birleştiren bir güce dönüştürür. Zerdüşt tanrının kötülükleri affetmeyeceğine inanır ve kötülüklere karşı savaşımını bir tanrı emri olarak öne sürer.

Zerdüşt'ün filozof yönünü doğa, toplum ve insan gerçeğine ilişkin perspektiflerinde görmek mümkündür. Antik çağ Yunan filozoflarında, Zerdüşt inanışının geliştirdiği kavramların etkilerine rastlanır; MÖ 538 dönemlerinde yaşayan Theopampos, iyi- kötü mücadelesini tabiatın kendi içindeki kanunu olarak algılar.

Heraklitos doğadaki her şeyin sürekli değişim içinde olduğunu öne sürer ve hareket kuramında Zerdüşt'ün karşıtlar mücadelesi fikrinden etkilenir. Bundan yola çıkarak, Zerdüşt'ün gök, ışık, Güneş ve diğer göksel varlıkların çözümlemesini yorumlayarak fiziksel evrenin öz devinimlerini formüle eder. Zerdüşt'ün felsefi inancı dünyanın beş temel elementten oluştuğunu belirtir. Bunlar toprak, su, ateş, hava ve bitkidir. Zerdüşt inancının yaşandığı Mezopotamya bölgesinin hayat tarzı, coğrafi konumu ve yaşam koşulları bu tespitlerin kaynağını oluşturur.

Zerdüştçülükte inanç sistemi
Zerdüştilikte, dünyanın dört evreden oluştuğuna inanılır. Birinci dönemde iyilik ve kötülük ortaya çıkar. İkinci evrede Dünya karanlığa, felakete ve kötülüklere gömülür. Üçüncü evrede iyilik ve kötülük mücadelesinde iyilik kazanır, Zerdüşt halklara doğruyu, adaleti göstererek karanlığı ve aydınlığı birbirinden ayrıştırır. Dördüncü evrede ise her tür kötülük ve karanlık kaybolacak, dünyaya barış ve kardeşlik hâkim olacaktır. Zerdüşt burada dünyayı aşamalara ayırırken, ilk dönem insanın yaradılış dönemini konu alır. İkinci dönemde, tufanla insanoğlunun uğradığı felaket vurgulanır. Üçüncü dönemde, Zerdüştlük ve sonrasında gelişen uygarlığa vurgu yapılır. Dördüncü aşama da ise insanoğlunun geleceğe dair taşıdığı umuda, özgürlük düşlerine çağrışım yaparak, geleceği tasavvur eder.

Ateşin kutsal sayılması

Zerdüştlük felsefesinde su, hava, toprak, ateş kutsal sayılır ve ateşe, aydınlığa veya Güneş'e bakılarak ibadet edilir. Işığın ve aydınlıkların, Tanrı Ahura Mazda'nın fiziksel temsili olduğuna inanılır. Bununla ilişkili olarak ateş, iyi ve kötüyü birbirinden ayıran Tanrısal bir güce sahiptir. Bu inanca göre, ateş bütün varlıklarda bulunur ve canlı ve cansızlarda farklı biçimlerde var olur. İnsanda, hayvanda, bitkilerde, gökte ve yerde bu ateşi değişik zaman ve durumlarda görmek mümkündür. En kutsal olan ateş ise, Tanrı Ahura Mazda ile insan arasındaki ateştir.

Kutsal metinler
Kutsal kitaplar

Zerdüşt, Gatalar denen dörtlükler yazmıştır. Bu dörtlükler Avesta denen kutsal kitapta toplanmıştır. Bu yazılar Zerdüşt'ün neye inandığını anlatan tek belgedir.

Zerdüşt Dini 3 ilahi

AHUNA-VAIRYA (Yasna 27.13)

Ölümlü efendiler gerçekleştirirken iradelerini Dünya üzerinde,
Böyle onların Aşa Hocalarının bilgeliğiyle;
Vohu Menah'ın armağanları gelir ödül olarak
Yaşamın efendisi sevgiyle yapılmış eylemlere;
Tabii ki Ahura'nın Kşatriya'sı aşağıya gelir
Hizmet edenlere gayretle alçak gönüllü kardeşlerine.

AŞEM VOHU (Yasna 27.14)

İyi olanların en iyisidir doğruluk,
Işıltılı amacıdır dünya üzerindeki yaşamın;
Bu Işık'a ulaşır biri doğrulukla yaşarken
Yalnızca en yüce doğruluk adına.

YENGHE HATAM (Yasna 27.15)

Taparız bu erkeklere ve kadınlara,
Her ibadetleri
Aşa, yaşamın sonsuz yasası ile dolu olan;
Onlar Mazda Ahura'nın gözünde
En iyi ve en ölümlülerdir;
Bunlar en gerçek liderleridir insanoğlunun.

Avesta ya da Zend Avesta

Zerdüştlüğün kutsal metinlerinin derlendiği Avesta genellikle iki bölüme ayrılır. Birinci bölüm Vendidad, Visperad ve Yasna'yı içerir. Vendidad, çeşitli dînî yasalar ve efsanevi hikâyelerden oluşur. Visperad, kurban edilirken okunan duaları içerir. Yasna ise benzer dualar ve Avesta'da kullanılan genel dilden farklı bir lehçeyle yazılı beş gata içerir. Avesta'nın ikinci bölümüne Khorda Avesta (Küçük Avesta) adı verilir ve tüm inananlar tarafından farklı elementlerin varolduğu belirli günlerde okunabilen kısa dualar içerir. Bu duaların beşine Gah, 30'una Sirozah, üçüne Afrigan ve altısına da Nyayish denir.

Zerdüştlerin yaşam tarzları ve prensipleri
Zerdüştlük inancına göre Tanrı kadın ve erkeği bir arada ve birbirine arkadaş olarak yaratmıştır. Bu inançta kadın ve erkek eşit olarak kabul edilmektedir. Zerdüşt inancının gelişip yayıldığı bölgelerde çok eşliliğin azaldığı ve tek eşliliğin arttığı görülmüştür. Zerdüştilikte, doğru yaşama, ahlâkî emirlere uyma esastır. Ahlâki emirler; iyi düşünce, iyi söz, iyi iş diye özetlenir. Fakirlere cömert davranma, yabancılara misafirperverlik, bütün lekelerden uzak kalma, toprağı sürme, sığırlara bakma, sıkıcı şeyleri imha da faziletli işlerden sayılır. Bazı cinsi konular ve ölü bedenine temas, kirlenmeye yol açar, özel ayinler gerektirir. Yine Zerdüşt inancı her alanda tarım ve hayvancılıkla uğraşılıp bol üretimin sağlanmasını tavsiye etmektedir. Temiz hayvanlardan sayılan köpek ve kedinin öldürülmesini büyük günah saymaktadır. Döllenmeyi ve çiftleşmeyi önleme kesin olarak yasaklanmıştır. Bu inançta şarabın ibadetle ilgili olarak dînî düşüncelerin geliştirilip derinleştirilmesi ve ruh gözünün açılması amacıyla içilmekte olduğu vurgulanır. Avesta'nın Gatha bölümünde belirtildiğine göre dînî inanç alanında şarkı ve şiirlerin önemli bir yeri olduğu görülür. Zerdüşt'ün Cennet'i şarkılı bir yer olarak değerlendirdiği dikkate alınırsa bunun önemi daha iyi kavranır.

Temel ibadetler
Zerdüştiler ateşe tapmazlar, ancak ateşi yüceltirler onu kıble kabul ederek ateş önünde dua ederler. Ancak Zerdüştlükte asıl kıble Güneş'tir. Zerdüştiler dünyada bulunan elementlerin saf olduğuna ve ateşin tanrının ışığı veya irfanı olduğuna inanırlar. Ateş Ateşgede denilen tapınaklarda yakılır ve ateşe üflemek öldürülmeyi gerektirecek kadar büyük bir günahtır. Dini törenlere ya da ayinlere çok fazla önem vermeden, "iyi sözler, iyi düşünceler ve iyi hareketler" ilkelerine odaklanırlar.

Zerdüştler günde 5 kere dua ederler. Ancak ibadet zorlayıcı değildir, miktar ve şekli tapınan kişi tarafından belirlenir.

Zerdüştlerin dinî törenlerinde ateşin önünde ayinler yapmalarının sebebi, ateşin karanlığı önlemesidir, zira Zerdüşt inancına göre, kötülük karanlıkla özdeşleşmiştir.

Diğer din ve inançlara etkileri
Sabiilik, Zedüştlük ve Yahudilik karışımı bir din olarak kabul edilmektedir. İslam dinine derin etkileri bulunan Hanifliğin de bir çeşit sabiilik olduğu ileri sürülmüştür.

Yahudilerin Babil sürgününde Zerdüşt inançlarından etkilendikleri ve bâzı inançların Yahudi, Hristiyan ve İslâm kültürlerine Zerdüştlükten geçtiği düşünülmektedir;

Zerdüşt'ün anası on beş yaşında bir bakire iken, bir ışık huzmesinin ziyaretine uğrayarak hâmile kalmıştır. Ayrıca ilk kez müritleri ile su üzerinde yürüyen, miraca çıkan, tanrı ile yüz yüze görüşen, ölmeden cennet ve cehennem' gören Zerdüştün kendisidir. Zerdüştlük inancına göre Cehennem üzerinde kurulu olan Sinvat (Çinvat) köprüsünden geçilerek Cennet'e ulaşılır. Ancak cehennemde üç gün kalınarak günahlardan temizlenilmesi gerekecektir. İbrahimî dinlerdeki "6 günde" yaratılış ve mehdi-mesih inançlarının ilk izlerine Zerdüştlükte rastlanabilir.

Kurtarıcı beklentisi birçok dini inançta temel karakterdir. Zerdüştlükte ise beklenen kurtarıcı birçok özellikleri ise İsa Mesih ile benzer özellikler taşır; " Ölülerin dirilişi ve ve son yargılama ile bitecek 4. devrede temiz bir bakireden Zerdüşt doğar ve O'nun tebliğinin tesiri 10 asır sürer. Daha sonra zamanla dünyanın umumi ahlaki durumu kötüleşecektir. Zerdüşt'ten sonra 2. bin yılda Zerdüşt neslinden bir peygamber gelecek ve bu durum 3. bin yılda da devam edecektir."

Popüler kültürde Zerdüştlük
Voltaire, 18. yüzyıl ortalarında yazdığı bir eserde Zerdüşt bir kahramana yer vermiştir.
Goethe, Doğu-Batı Divanının bir bölümünü Zerdüştlüğe ayırmıştır.
Thomas Moore, Lalla-Rookhda Zerdüşlerin yazgısına ağıt yazmıştır.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart'ın Sihirli Flütünde Zerdüştlükten esinlendiği düşünülmektedir.
Freddie Mercury, Zerdüşt geleneğe sahip olması ile gurur duymaktaydı.
Friedrich Nietzsche, felsefi konuları ele aldığı kitabına Böyle Buyurdu Zerdüşt adını vermiştir.
Richard Strauss, Nietzsche'nin eseri ile aynı adı verdiği bir beste hazırlamıştır.
Mazda adlı otomobil üreticisinin adı Zerdüştlükte tapınılan Ahura Mazda'dan gelmektedir
George R. R. Martin'in Buz ve Ateşin Şarkısı serisindeki yarı tanrı Azor Ahai, Zerdüşt temalardan esinlenilerek kurgulanmıştır.
Yıldız Savaşları serisindeki aydınlık ve karanlığın kozmik çatışması temasının Zerdüştlükten esinlenildiği düşünülmektedir.

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar
Ayyıldız, Esat. "Klasik Arap Şiirinde Zaman Olgusu ve Kökeni" . Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi 22/1 (Mart 2022), 67-97. https://doi.org/10.33415/daad.1037608

Ayrıca Bakınız

 Zurvân
 Zurvanizm
 Dehr

Kaynakça

  Zend Avesta Formasyonu
  Zerdust Ibadeti

Dış bağlantılar

  Zerdüştlük arşivleri
  www.dunyadinleri.com Dunyadinleri.Com Tüm dinlerin türkçe buluşma adresi
  Zerdüştlük
  Zerdüştlük kutsal metinleri
 İran'da Zerdüştiler: Gittikçe küçülen bir cemaat...

Zerdüştçülük


Borden es una parroquia civil y un pueblo del distrito de Swale, en el condado de Kent (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Borden tiene una superficie de 7,19 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Borden tenía 2154 habitantes (47,96% varones, 52,04% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 299,58 hab/km². El 18,34% eran menores de 16 años, el 73,21% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 8,45% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 41,28 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 21,55% estaban solteros, el 64,07% casados y el 14,38% divorciados o viudos.

El 96,61% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 1,11% de la población, mientras que el 2,27% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 98,93% eran blancos, el 0,42% mestizos, el 0,51% asiáticos y el 0,14% de cualquier otro salvo negros y chinos. El cristianismo era profesado por el 79,81%, el budismo por el 0,14%, el hinduismo por el 0,32%, el judaísmo por el 0,14%, el islam por el 0,37% y cualquier otra religión, salvo el sijismo, por el 0,32%. El 13,41% no eran religiosos y el 5,48% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

1103 habitantes eran económicamente activos, 1063 de ellos (96,37%) empleados y 40 (3,63%) desempleados. Había 842 hogares con residentes, 34 vacíos y 3 eran alojamientos vacacionales o segundas residencias.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Kent
Parroquias civiles de Kent

Borden (Kent)


Demissie Wolde (* 8. März 1937) ist ein ehemaliger äthiopischer Marathonläufer.

1964 wurde er Zehnter bei den Olympischen Spielen in Tokio. 1968 kam er beim Fukuoka-Marathon auf den 13. Platz, und 1969 siegte er beim Košice-Marathon mit seiner persönlichen Bestzeit von 2:15:37 h. Bei den Olympischen Spielen 1972 in München lief er auf dem 18. Platz ein.

Sein älterer Bruder Mamo Wolde wurde 1968 Olympiasieger im Marathon.

Weblinks

Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 1964
Teilnehmer der Olympischen Sommerspiele 1972
Marathonläufer (Äthiopien)
Olympiateilnehmer (Äthiopien)
Äthiopier
Geboren 1937
Mann

Demissie Wolde


Edith Martineau ( - )  est une aquarelliste britannique.

Biographie

Edith Martineau est née à Liverpool, fille de James Martineau, un éminent ministre unitarien. Elle est d'abord formée à la Liverpool School of Art mais part avec sa famille à Londres, où elle commence à suivre des cours à la Leigh's School of Art. Elle soumet son travail à la Royal Society of British Artists en 1862. Elle reste fidèle à la peinture à l'aquarelle et est membre de diverses sociétés d'aquarellistes, et en 1888, Martineau est élue associée de la Royal Watercolour Society.

Martineau expose son travail au Palais des Beaux-Arts à l'Exposition universelle de 1893 à Chicago, Illinois.

Sa peinture de 1888 Potato Harvest est incluse dans le livre de 1905 Women Painters of the World.

Edith meurt à Hampstead, à l'âge de 66 ans, et est enterrée dans la tombe de la famille Martineau du côté est du cimetière de Highgate.

Références

Liens externes

Femme peintre britannique
Peintre britannique du XIXe siècle
Personnalité inhumée au cimetière de Highgate
Décès en février 1909
Naissance en juin 1842
Décès à 66 ans

Edith Martineau


Easy to Love  é um filme musical estadunidense de 1953 dirigido por Charles Walters e coreografado por Busby Berkeley. É estrelado por Esther Williams, Van Johnson e Tony Martin.

O longa-metragem foi anunciado pela outubro de 1952. E teve cenas parcialmente filmadas em Cypress Gardens a partir de 12 de fevereiro de 1953.

Sinopse
Julie apresenta-se no Cypress Garden e está apaixonada por seu patrão Ray Lloyd, sem ser correspondida. Triste com a situação, ela fica mais decepcionada quando ele a chama para ir a Nova York.

Elenco
Esther Williams como Julie Hallerton
Van Johnson como Ray Lloyd
Tony Martin como Barry Gordon
John Bromfield como Hank
Edna Skinner como Nancy Parmel
Carroll Baker como Clarice
Hal Borne como Melvin
Emory Parnell como Sr. Huffnagel

Filmes dos Estados Unidos de 1953
Filmes em língua inglesa
Filmes dirigidos por Charles Walters
Filmes de comédia romântica dos Estados Unidos
Filmes musicais dos Estados Unidos
Filmes de comédia romântica da década de 1950
Filmes musicais da década de 1950
Filmes ambientados na Flórida
Filmes gravados na Flórida
Filmes da Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer

Easy to Love


This is a list of urban areas in the California as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau, ordered according to their 2010 estimated Census populations. In the table, UA refers to "urbanized area" (urban areas with population over 50,000) and UC refers to "urban cluster" (urban areas with population less than 50,000). The list includes urban areas with a population of at least 10,000. Rows in green indicate that part of the area lies outside of California. Rows without a rank indicate that the center of the area is outside of California.

References

External links

 U.S. Census Bureau Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana UA data profile
 U.S. Census Bureau San Francisco-Oakland UA data profile
 U.S. Census Bureau San Diego UA data profile

Regions of California
Urban areas

List of California urban areas


, (født 22. juli 1937, død 27. november 1999) var en japansk-amerikansk fribryder og træner, bedst kendt under sit rign-navn Hiro Matsuda. Han trænede mange professionelle fribrydere, herunder Hulk Hogan, The Great Muta, "Mr. Wonderful" Paul Orndorff, Scott Hall, Lex Luger, "Cowboy" Bob Orton og Ron Simmons.

Eksterne henvisninger/kilder
 Biografi på WWE.com

Wrestlere fra Japan

Hiro Matsuda


Em seu sentido mais geral, o bem-estarismo é uma teoria sobre o que tem valor ou o que importa. Pode ser definido como a visão de que o bem-estar é a única coisa que tem valor intrínseco. Os bem-estaristas puros sustentam que esse valor é diretamente determinado pelos graus individuais de bem-estar de cada entidade. Os bem-estaristas impuros, por outro lado, incluem outros fatores relacionados ao bem-estar, como se o bem-estar é distribuído igualmente entre as entidades sencientes. Alguns autores entendem o bem-estarismo em um sentido mais específico: não apenas como uma teoria do valor, mas também como uma teoria moral. Deste ponto de vista, o que se deve fazer é determinado, em última instância, por considerações de bem-estar. Neste sentido, muitas vezes é visto como um tipo de consequencialismo e pode tomar a forma de utilitarismo, no qual a ação, política ou regra correta é aquela que conduz à máxima quantidade de bem-estar.

É importante para várias discussões e argumentos sobre o bem-estarismo como a natureza do bem-estar é entendida. Bem-estar se refere ao que é bom para alguém ou o que faz uma vida valer a pena viver. Os hedonistas tentam dar um relato mais substancial do bem-estar, sustentando que todas e somente as experiências de prazer e dor constituem o bem-estar de alguém. Esta visão é rejeitada pelos teóricos do desejo, que equiparam o bem-estar com o cumprimento do desejo. As teorias de listas objetivas, por outro lado, também incluem fatores objetivos ou independentes da mente como constituintes do bem-estar.

Diversos argumentos a favor e contra o bem-estarismo são encontrados na literatura acadêmica. Os argumentos a favor geralmente se focalizam em intuições gerais sobre a importância do bem-estar no que diz respeito à maioria dos julgamentos avaliativos. Os críticos do bem-estarismo frequentemente se concentram em contra-exemplos específicos nos quais essas intuições gerais parecem falhar. Isto inclui casos de prazeres maliciosos, o valor da beleza e da arte, e a chamada "conclusão repugnante". Algumas objeções são dirigidas especificamente ao bem-estarismo puro, mas são evitadas pelo bem-estarismo impuro.

O bem-estarismo tem sido influente no direito e na economia.

Como uma teoria do valor
Entendido como uma teoria do valor, o bem-estarismo se preocupa com que coisas têm valor. Ele tenta fornecer um relato geral para responder a perguntas como se uma determinada coisa é boa ou qual de duas alternativas é melhor. Expresso em termos de mundos possíveis, sustenta que "o valor relativo de mundos possíveis é totalmente determinado por como os indivíduos estão se saindo". Expresso em termos de uma função, o bem-estarismo é a tese de que "a bondade relativa de estados de coisas alternativos é baseada exclusivamente nas respectivas coleções de utilidades individuais destes estados de coisas e deve ser considerada como uma função crescente deles". O valor em questão é geralmente entendido como um certo tipo de valor: valor intrínseco ou o que é bom em si mesmo. Isto é contrastado com o valor extrínseco, que pertence a coisas que são úteis como um meio para outra coisa. Neste sentido, o bem-estarismo é a visão de que o bem-estar é a única coisa que tem valor intrínseco. Isto pode ser articulado afirmando que o valor dos resultados depende, em última instância, apenas dos benefícios de cada um dos afetados. O bem-estarismo implica que quaisquer dois resultados que são idênticos em termos de bem-estar têm o mesmo valor, não importa o quanto difiram de outra forma. O bem-estar em questão é geralmente entendido em seu sentido mais amplo, ou seja, como o bem-estar não apenas dos seres humanos, mas de qualquer ser senciente.

Dentro do bem-estarismo há discordâncias sobre a forma exata como o bem-estar determina o valor. Entre as diferentes formulações do bem-estarismo, é possível distinguir entre versões puras e impuras. O bem-estarismo puro () sustenta que o valor de um mundo possível depende apenas dos graus individuais de bem-estar das diferentes entidades nele. Os utilitaristas, por exemplo, focam na soma total do bem-estar de todos e sustentam que uma ação é correta se maximiza esta soma total. O bem-estar impuro (), por outro lado, também envolve outros fatores relacionados ao bem-estar. Estes fatores podem incluir se o bem-estar é distribuído igualmente entre as entidades e a medida em que as entidades merecem o nível de bem-estar que têm.

Uma das formas menos controversas de bem-estarismo é chamada Paretianismo fraco. Sustenta que um estado é melhor que outro estado se é melhor para todos os envolvidos, ou seja, se o bem-estar de todos é maior no primeiro estado. Mas este princípio não se aplica nos casos em que há uma troca, ou seja, onde o bem-estar de alguns aumenta enquanto diminui para outros. Os igualitaristas, por outro lado, argumentam que é mais importante aumentar o bem-estar daqueles que geralmente estão em piores condições. Esta ideia pode ser captada por uma abordagem prioritarista que leva em conta o bem-estar de todos, mas dá maior peso ao bem-estar daqueles que se encontram em piores condições. Um argumento contra esse tipo de abordagem é que ele se afasta da intuição original que impulsiona o bem-estarismo: que o bem-estar é a única coisa intrinsecamente valiosa. Mas a igualdade é uma relação entre entidades e não intrínseca a nenhuma delas. Um requisito importante geralmente associado às teorias bem-estaristas é que elas devem ser neutras em relação aos agentes (). De acordo com a neutralidade agencial, não deve importar a quem pertence o bem-estar, mas apenas que seja mais alto ou melhor distribuído em geral.

O bem-estarismo como teoria do valor pode ser interpretado como um compromisso teórico do utilitarismo junto com o consequencialismo.  O consequencialismo é a teoria de que apenas atos que levam ao melhor resultado global possível são moralmente requeridos ou permitidos. O consequencialismo por si só deixa aberto como avaliar qual dos dois resultados possíveis é melhor. Mas este tema é abordado pelo bem-estarismo. Combinados, eles constituem o utilitarismo, ou seja, a visão de que se deve agir de forma a produzir "a maior quantidade de bem para o maior número".

Como uma teoria moral
Alguns autores consideram que o bem-estarismo inclui a tese ética de que a moralidade depende fundamentalmente do bem-estar dos indivíduos. Neste sentido, o bem-estarismo é geralmente visto como uma forma de consequencialismo, que sustenta que as ações, políticas ou regras devem ser avaliadas com base em suas consequências. Mas às vezes também é definido em um sentido mais geral como consistindo em três teses: que o bem-estar individual existe, que tem significado moral e que nada mais tem significado moral.

É comumente aceito por muitas teorias éticas que as considerações de bem-estar desempenham um papel importante para como se deve agir. Por exemplo, ao aprender que uma alternativa é melhor em termos de bem-estar que outra, o agente geralmente tem uma razão para agir de tal maneira que produza a primeira alternativa em vez da segunda. Mas o bem-estarismo em seu sentido ético, vai além deste acordo de senso comum ao sustentar que, em última instância, o bem-estar é a única coisa que importa em termos do que se deve fazer. Isto envolve não apenas determinar o que é melhor, mas também inclui o fator do que está no poder do agente para fazer, ou seja, quais ações possíveis estão disponíveis para o agente.

Natureza do bem-estar
A questão da natureza do bem-estar é no centro de muitos debates sobre o bem-estarismo. Em muitos casos, depende da concepção de bem-estar se um certo argumento a favor ou contra o bem-estarismo é bem-sucedido. Em seu sentido mais geral, bem-estar se refere ao que é bom para alguém ou o que faz uma vida valer a pena viver. Isto é geralmente entendido como um componente subjetivo, ou seja, que o bem-estar sempre pertence a um indivíduo e é expresso por como esse indivíduo se sente. Apesar da caracterização comum em termos positivos, o bem-estar é geralmente entendido como ocorrendo em graus que também podem ser negativos. O termo "bem-estar" é frequentemente usado como sinônimo de outros termos, como bem pessoal, estar no interesse do agente, valor prudencial, eudaimonia e utilidade. É geralmente aceito que apenas seres sencientes são capazes de bem-estar.

As teorias de bem-estar tentam dar um relato mais substancial do que constitui o bem-estar, além das características gerais acima mencionadas. Essas teorias podem ser divididas em teorias hedonistas, teorias do desejo e teorias de listas objetivas. Os hedonistas sustentam que todas e apenas as experiências de prazer e dor constituem o bem-estar de alguém. Neste contexto, o prazer e a dor são entendidos no sentido mais amplo, ou seja, como tudo o que se sente bem ou mal. Os casos paradigmáticos são experiências sensoriais associadas, por exemplo, a sexo ou lesão. Mas também inclui outros tipos de experiências, como a alegria intelectual ao compreender uma nova teoria ou como sofrer uma crise existencial.

De acordo com as teorias do desejo, bem-estar consiste no cumprimento de desejos ou em conseguir o que se quer. Em muitos casos concretos, os hedonistas e os teóricos do desejo estão de acordo, já que o cumprimento de desejos e o prazer muitas vezes andam de mãos dadas: conseguir o que se quer tende a ser prazeroso, assim como não consegui-lo tende a ser desagradável. Mas há algumas exceções em que os dois se separam. Este é o caso, por exemplo, quando o agente não sabe que um de seus desejos já foi cumprido. Outro contra-exemplo é devido aos maus desejos, cujo cumprimento teria consequências terríveis para o agente. Para evitar estes contra-exemplos, algumas teorias do desejo focam não no que o agente realmente deseja, mas no que o agente desejaria se estivesse bem informado.

As teorias de listas objetivas contrastam com o hedonismo e as teorias do desejo, pois incluem fatores objetivos que são independentes dos estados mentais do agente. Tais fatores podem incluir a amizade, ter virtudes ou aperfeiçoar a natureza humana. As objeções às teorias de listas objetivas muitas vezes se centram na plausibilidade da afirmação de que fatores independentes do sujeito podem determinar o bem-estar de uma pessoa, mesmo se a pessoa não se preocupe com estes fatores. Por exemplo, é questionável se ter amigos melhoraria o bem-estar de alguém que não se importa com a amizade.

Argumentos a favor e contra
Vários argumentos a favor e contra o bem-estarismo foram apresentados na literatura acadêmica. Esses argumentos às vezes são dirigidos especificamente ao próprio bem-estarismo. Mas frequentemente surgem em discussões de outras teorias, como o utilitarismo ou o hedonismo, e são dirigidos ao bem-estarismo apenas implicitamente ao afetar os aspectos bem-estaristas dessas teorias.

A favor
Um argumento comumente citado a favor do bem-estarismo é que nada seria bom ou mau em um mundo sem seres sencientes. Portanto, não importaria se um mundo assim tivesse água limpa, aquecimento global ou desastres naturais. A razão disso é que, segundo o bem-estarismo, não haveria nem bem-estar positivo nem negativo: nada importaria porque nada teria um impacto no bem-estar de ninguém. Outro argumento é que muitas das coisas comumente vistas como valiosas têm um impacto positivo no bem-estar de alguém. Neste sentido, a saúde e a prosperidade econômica são valiosas porque tendem a aumentar o bem-estar geral. Por outro lado, muitas coisas consideradas más, como doença ou ignorância, tendem a ter um impacto negativo no bem-estar, de forma direta ou indireta. Há também vários argumentos indiretos a favor do bem-estarismo na forma de críticas aos concorrentes teóricos do bem-estarismo. Às vezes, afirma-se que alguns deles não conseguem distinguir corretamente entre o que é valioso de alguma forma e o que é valioso em última instância, ou que não levam em conta todas as consequências.

Contra
Um argumento importante contra o bem-estarismo diz respeito ao valor do prazer. Há um consenso muito amplo entre os bem-estaristas de que o prazer é o único ou pelo menos um constituinte central do bem-estar. O problema surge devido ao fato de que nem todos os prazeres parecem ser igualmente valiosos. Tradicionalmente, este debate se concentrava na diferença entre prazeres inferiores e superiores. John Stuart Mill, por exemplo, argumentou que os prazeres inferiores do corpo são menos valiosos que os prazeres superiores da mente. Segundo esta visão, o prazer que se tem ao estudar uma teoria filosófica é mais valioso que o prazer que se tem ao comer no restaurante favorito, mesmo se os graus destes dois prazeres sejam iguais. Se for verdade, isso representaria uma objeção importante ao bem-estarismo puro, já que aponta para uma fenda entre o grau de bem-estar e o valor. Mas esse problema pode ser evitado pelo bem-estarismo impuro. No debate contemporâneo, tem sido sugerido que algumas formas de prazer têm até mesmo um valor negativo, por exemplo, prazeres maliciosos como schadenfreude. Tais exemplos representam problemas ainda mais sérios para o bem-estarismo, já que o prazer parece ser bom para o agente e, portanto, constitui bem-estar, embora, ao mesmo tempo, tem um valor negativo. Uma resposta a este tipo de contra-exemplo é sustentar que os prazeres maliciosos têm valor positivo e argumentar que o elemento negativo não diz respeito ao valor simpliciter da experiência do prazer em si, mas sim ao valor moral do caráter da pessoa.

Outro tipo de objeção se concentra no valor da beleza. Neste sentido, foi afirmado que as coisas belas possuem um valor que é independente do bem-estar de qualquer pessoa. G. E. Moore, por exemplo, sustenta que um mundo é melhor se é belo do que se é feio, mesmo se não contém seres sencientes. Mas nem todos compartilham a intuição de Moore a respeito deste exemplo. Neste sentido, foi argumentado que o valor da beleza não reside no objeto belo por si só, mas na experiência positiva do mesmo. Um argumento semelhante contra o bem-estarismo deve-se a Susan Wolf, que afirma que não se pode explicar o valor das grandes obras de arte focalizando apenas o bem-estar que elas causam. Ben Bramble se opôs a esta linha de argumentação, apontando que grandes obras de arte podem causar bem-estar de várias formas. Estas formas não se restringem apenas ao prazer que se tem ao percebê-las, mas incluem outros componentes, como a motivação para descobrir obras de arte semelhantes ou para compartilhar a experiência com amigos.

Mais um problema surge ao comparar alternativas nas quais o bem-estar em jogo não pertence às mesmas pessoas em ambas as alternativas, mas a pessoas diferentes. Este é o caso, por exemplo, ao decidir se seria melhor para as gerações futuras ter um número baixo de pessoas, cada uma com um bem-estar muito alto, em contraste com um número alto de pessoas, cada uma com um bem-estar que é apenas ligeiramente positivo. Segundo uma perspectiva, o que conta é o bem-estar total. Nesta visão, ter um número suficiente de pessoas com um bem-estar ligeiramente positivo seria melhor que ter poucas pessoas com um bem-estar muito alto. Este ponto de vista foi rejeitado por Derek Parfit, que o chamou de "conclusão repugnante". Outra solução sustenta que o que importa não é o bem-estar total, mas o bem-estar médio. Nesta visão, a alternativa de poucas pessoas com um bem-estar muito alto seria preferível.

Uma linha de argumentação diferente sugere que o bem-estarismo é falso, já que, estritamente falando, não há bem-estar. A ideia subjacente dessa tese é que o bem-estar é o que é bom para alguém. Com base nessa definição, G. E. Moore argumenta que não há bem-estar, pois a bondade não pode ser restrita a uma pessoa neste sentido, ou seja, há bom ou mau em um sentido absoluto, mas não há bom ou mau para alguém.

Outra crítica, dirigida especificamente ao bem-estarismo puro, é baseada na intuição comum de que as pessoas moralmente boas merecem um alto grau de bem-estar, mas as pessoas moralmente más não. Neste sentido, o bem-estar das pessoas moralmente más ou seria menos valioso ou até mesmo teria um valor negativo. Immanuel Kant expressa uma ideia semelhante ao afirmar que o bem supremo é "virtude e felicidade juntas ... em uma pessoa". Este ponto também é enfatizado por W. D. Ross, que sustenta que a "justiça", definida como felicidade em proporção ao mérito, é intrinsecamente valiosa. Os bem-estaristas impuros podem acomodar esta intuição sustentando que o bem-estar das pessoas moralmente más tem menos valor. Mas esse ajuste não está disponível para o bem-estarismo puro.

Outra objeção, que diz respeito ao bem-estarismo puro em particular, é devida à impressão comum de que é mais importante aumentar o bem-estar daqueles que estão em piores condições. Assim, diante da questão de se aumentar o bem-estar de uma pessoa feliz ou de uma pessoa infeliz, deve-se beneficiar a pessoa infeliz. Esta intuição parece se basear na ideia de que o que importa não é apenas um alto bem-estar total, como sugere o bem-estarismo puro, mas também uma distribuição equitativa. Uma maneira de explicar a intuição inicial é formular o problema não em termos de bem-estar, mas em termos de recursos. Neste sentido, dar cem dólares a uma pessoa pobre seria melhor que dá-lo a uma pessoa rica. Isto pode ser explicado pelo bem-estarismo puro, já que a mesma quantidade de recursos significaria mais para a pessoa pobre e, portanto, teria um impacto maior em seu bem-estar.

Consequencialismo
Economia do bem-estar
Teorias éticas
Utilitarismo

Bem-estarismo


La forteresse de Kherson est une protection de la ville de Kherson et du Dniepr.

Histoire
Construite en 1778 par l'architecte de l'Amirauté Vetochnikov, elle a subi de nombreuses modifications de ses plans lors de la réalisation.

Éléments subsistants
Profondément remanié lors de l'époque soviétique, subsistent les portes nord et sud, une poudrière, quelques parties du rempart en terre, le bâtiment de l'Amirauté, la Cathédrale Sainte-Catherine. Une grande partie fut convertie en parc et utilisée par le stade et l'ascenseur du port.

Notes et références

Annexes

Articles connexes
 Liste de musées en Ukraine.

Liens externes

Kherson
Patrimoine classé d'Ukraine

Forteresse de Kherson


Gaïa Alexia, née en 1987 à Strasbourg, est une autrice française de romance. Après avoir été repérée sur la plateforme communautaire de concours d'écriture Fyctia, elle connaît le succès en librairie grâce à sa saga Adopted Love (publiée chez Hugo & cie, dans le label New Romance). Elle revient par la suite en librairie avec Baby Random, Le Marchand de sable puis Queen Bee.

Biographie

Ses débuts sur des plateformes d'écriture
Alors qu'elle est toiletteuse canin, Gaïa Alexia partage ses romans avec une communauté grandissante sur la plateforme d'écriture Wattpad. Chaque semaine, elle donne rendez-vous à ses abonnés (24.700 personnes en 2022) pour les « jeudis sacrés », afin de découvrir un nouveau chapitre de son histoire en cours.

Sa première publication en librairie
Le jury désignant le gagnant du concours est séduit à son tour par l'histoire de Gaïa Alexia, lui permettant de remporter le contrat d'édition promis au vainqueur. En octobre 2017, les deux premiers tomes d'Adopted Love sont publiés en librairie par Hugo Poche. Le public est immédiatement au rendez-vous, la classant dans les meilleures ventes du genre pour une autrice française, dès ses premières semaines de publication.

Gaïa Alexia prend alors la décision de se consacrer pleinement à l'écriture.

Romancière en New Romance

Avec plus de 100.000 exemplaires écoulés de ses deux premières séries, Gaïa Alexia est l'autrice française la plus vendue en New Romance. Avec plus de 100.000 livres vendus entre 2017 et 2018, elle est une autrice française spécialisée dans ce genre.

En 2021, paraît pour la première fois un texte n'ayant jamais été précédemment diffusé en ligne par l'autrice sur une plateforme d'écriture : Queen Bee. On y suit les aventures d'une Instagrammeuse star, déclarée morte dix ans plus tôt alors qu'elle est tout ce qu'il y a de plus vivante. Le gendarme chargé de mener l'enquête en voyant de toutes les couleurs face à cette héroïne au caractère bien trempé.

Œuvres

2017

 Adopted Love, tome 1, éditions Hugo Poche
 Adopted Love, tome 2, éditions Hugo Poche

2018

 Baby Random, tome 1, éditions Hugo Poche
 Baby Random, tome 2, éditions Hugo Poche
 Baby Random, tome 3, éditions Hugo Poche

2019

 Le Marchand de sable, tome 1, éditions Hugo & cie
 Le Marchand de sable, tome 2, éditions Hugo & cie

2020

 Adopted Love, tome 3, éditions Hugo Poche
 Coffret Adopted Love, illustré, éditions Hugo Poche

2021

 Queen Bee, éditions Hugo & cie
 Adopted Love, tome 1 illustré, éditions Hugo Poche
 Adopted Love, tome 2 illustré, éditions Hugo Poche
 Adopted Love, tome 3 illustré, éditions Hugo Poche

Références

Liens externes

Naissance à Strasbourg
Naissance en 1987
Romancière française du XXIe siècle

Gaïa Alexia


The prince's wand (also known as a penis plug) is a piece of body piercing jewelry. It consists of a hollow tube with a threaded cap at the end. The tube is inserted into the urethra, and a stem is inserted through a Prince Albert piercing and into another threaded hole on the side of the tube. The general shape is similar to a police nightstick. The little side stem holds the tube in place. The threaded cap, often just a ball, can be removed so the wearer can urinate through the hollow tube without having to remove the jewelry (from the Prince Albert piercing).

Most prince's wands are held in place by a Prince Albert (PA) piercing, but any urethral piercing can be used, and some wands require no piercing.

Prince's wands are somewhat uncommon, expensive to buy and relatively difficult to manufacture or procure. They are most popular among men who enjoy urethral play. Prince's wands require precision measurements of the penis and urethra both flaccid and erect, in addition to the original Prince Albert piercing.

Types of prince's wands

There are three basic types of prince's wands. The most common, or standard type is the basic "policeman's nightstick".  Ringed wands have one or more external rings that are attached to the bead on the outside stem of the wand that passes through the PA piercing, and encircle the penis. Finally, pinless wands do not require a PA piercing to wear, as they have no stem to insert through a piercing.

Rarer features include more than one stem, e.g. two opposite ones for an ampallang or an apadravya or multiple stems for more than one piercing, and various attachments to the external beads.

References

Body piercing jewellery

Prince's wand


José Contreras (Guasdualito, estado Apure, Venezuela; 20 de octubre de 1994) es un futbolista venezolano que juega como portero en Águilas Doradas Rionegro de la Primera A de Colombia. Su primer equipo profesional fue el Aragua Fútbol Club, equipo con el cual debutó en la Primera División de Venezuela.

Deportivo Pasto
Contreras llega al Deportivo Pasto en reemplazo de Luis Delgado. Debutaría en los cuartos de final de Copa Colombia frente al América de Cali atajando 3 penaltis.
Consolidándose como uno de las figuras del equipo nariñense ganándose la titular y el cariño de la gente de San Juan de Pasto.

Selección nacional
Ha sido internacional con las selecciones sub-17 y sub-20 de . Con la selección de mayores fue convocado por primera vez para un partido amistoso ante  el 10 de agosto de 2011, sin embargo no llegó a debutar.

Participaciones internacionales

Campeonato Sudamericano Sub-17

Campeonato Sudamericano Sub-20

Copa América

Clubes

Estadísticas
 Actualizado hasta el último partido jugado. Aguilas vs Independiente Medellín.

Palmarés

Torneo Nacionales

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Perfil de José Contreras en Soccerway

Apureños
Futbolistas de Venezuela
Futbolistas de la selección de fútbol de Venezuela en los años 2010
Futbolistas de Venezuela en la Copa América Centenario
Futbolistas del Aragua Fútbol Club
Futbolistas del Deportivo Táchira Fútbol Club
Futbolistas de La Berrichonne de Châteauroux
Guardametas de fútbol de Venezuela

José David Contreras


Poliandrija (mnogomuštvo, od grčkog πολυ- (latinično: poli) 'puno' i -ανδρία (latinično: -andria) 'muštvo, povezano s muškarcima') označava vrstu zajednice života jedne žene s više muškaraca.

Većina religija – u povijesnim društvima brak je religijsko pitanje – zabranjuje poliandriju. Čak i ondje gdje nije bila zabranjivana prakticirana je vrlo rijetko. Danas se slučajeva poliandrije, makar rijetkih, može pronaći u Tibetu, Butanu, Nepalu i dijelovima Indije.

U povijesti se poliandriju moglo naći primjerice u kineskim provincijama Sečuan i Yunnan, dijelovima Tanzanije, Kenije i Nigerije te na nekim pacifičkim otocima.

Povezani članci
 Poligamija

Socijalna kultura
Brak

Poliandrija


Ernst Curtius (; 2 September 181411 July 1896) was a German archaeologist, historian and museum director.

Biography

He was born in Lübeck.  On completing his university studies he was chosen by C. A. Brandis to accompany him on a journey to Greece for the prosecution of archaeological researches. Curtius then became Karl Otfried Müller's companion in his exploration of the Peloponnese, and on Müller's death in 1840 he returned to Germany. In 1844 he became an extraordinary professor at the University of Berlin, and in the same year he was appointed tutor to Prince Frederick William (afterwards the Emperor Frederick III), a post which he held until 1850.

After holding a professorship at Göttingen and undertaking a further journey to Greece in 1862, Curtius was appointed (in 1863) ordinary professor at Berlin. In 1874 he was sent to Athens by the German government and there concluded an agreement by which the excavations at Olympia were entrusted exclusively to Germany.  In 1891 Curtius was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society. Curtius died in Berlin on 11 July 1896.

Excavation in Olympia
On 10 June 1852 Ernst Curtius delivered his famous oration on Olympia at the Singakademie in Berlin in the presence of royal family, which marked the first step towards excavations of Olympia, and gave great impetus for the historical archaeological works in Greece.  Following the death of Eduard Gerhard in 1867, Curtius succeeded him as professor of classical archaeology at Berlin. At the same time, Curtius served as a director of the Altes Museum and Antiquarium. The Turko-Russian War (1877-78) delayed the process of reaching an agreement between Greek and German governments for undertaking excavation at Olympia.

Curtius's imperial connections helped him to convince the government to nationalize the German Archaeological Institute in 1874, and open a branch in Athens. In 1874, the Greek government granted the exclusive right to the German Archaeological Institute to excavate at Olympia. A landmark agreement in the history of archaeology was signed by Curtius on 25 April 1874 at Athens, which mandated the Germans to leave all finds in Greece. A special museum was built on the site for this purpose.

In 1875 Curtius led large-scale expeditions of archeologists to systematically unearth Olympia. The first excavation was begun at Olympic in Elis, the original Olympic site, where for a thousand years, the Olympic Games had been held. Within six years, they cleared the Olympic stadium, with its runner's starting blocks and judges' seat. The excavators also uncovered temple of Zeus's and Hera.

The findings were published in scientific journals in voluminous throughout Europe between 1890 and 1897. Similarly, the German archaeologists were able to bring to life the knowledge of Olympic with paintings of the Olympic site, and the procedures of the Olympic Games. These helped the western world to understand the importance of reviving the Olympic Games.

Works
His best-known work is his History of Greece (1857–1867). It presented in an attractive style what were then the latest results of scholarly research, but it was criticized as wanting in erudition. It is now superseded. His other writings are chiefly archaeological. The most important are:
Die Akropolis von Athen (1844)
Naxos (1846)
Peloponnesos, eine historisch-geographische Beschreibung der Halbinsel (1851)
Olympia (1852)
Die Ionier vor der ionischen Wanderung (1855)
Attische Studien (1862–1865)
Ephesos (1874)
Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia (1877, etc.)
Olympia und Umgegend (edited by Curtius and F. Adler, 1882)
Olympia. Die Ergebnisse der von dem deutschen Reich veranstalteten Ausgrabung (with F. Adler, 1890–1898)
Die Stadtgeschichte von Athen (1891)
Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1894)

His collected speeches and lectures were published under the title of Altertum und Gegenwart (5th ed., 1903 foll.), to which a third volume was added under the title of Unter drei Kaisern (2nd ed., 1895).

Family
His brother, Georg Curtius, was a noted philologist.

References
Notes

Sources
 This work in turn cites:
 L. Gurlitt, Erinnerungen an Ernst Curtius (Berlin, 1902) This work has a full list of his writings.

 F. Curtius, Ernst Curtius. Ein Lebensbild in Briefen (1903)
 T. Hodgkin, Ernest Curtius (1905)

External links

An Olympic Excavation, a description of Curtius' excavations at Olympia
Ernst Curtius Papers. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.

1814 births
1896 deaths
Archaeologists from Lübeck
People of the Antikensammlung Berlin
Directors of museums in Germany
Ancient Olympia
19th-century German historians
19th-century German writers
19th-century German male writers
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
German male non-fiction writers

Ernst Curtius


Alþjóðaflugvöllur Nanning Wuxu (IATA: NNG, ICAO: ZGNN) (kínverska: 南宁吴圩机场; rómönskun: Nánníng Wúxū Jīchǎng) er flughöfn Nanning höfuðborgar Guangxi héraðs í  Alþýðulýðveldinu Kína. Hann er eini flugvöllur héraðsins sem býður upp á alþjóðlegar tengingar.

Flugvöllurinn er staðsettur um 31 kílómetra suðvestur af miðborg Nanning í bænum Wuxa, sem gefur vellinum nafn. Hann hefur tvær farþegamiðstöðvar og er meginflughöfn héraðsins Guangxi. Árið 2019 þjónaði flugvöllurinn um 15.8 milljónum farþega og 122.000 tonnum af farmi.

Saga

Í síðari heimsstyrjöldinni var flugvöllurinn þekktur sem Nanning flugvöllur og var notaður af fjórtánda flugher Bandaríkjahers til varna í Kína (1942–1945). Það voru aðallega njósnaflug yfir landsvæðum sem Japanir höfðu náð á vald sitt. Einnig voru orrustu- og sprengjuflugvélar ásamt birgðavélum fyrir kínverska landherinn. Bandaríkjamenn lokuðu aðstöðu sinni árið 1945.

Núverandi flugvöllurinn var síðan byggður árið 1962 og mikið endurnýjaður árið 1990. Önnur flugstöð, 189.000 fermetra, opnaði síðan árið 2014. Flugvöllurinn er hannaður til að takast á við 16 milljónir farþega árlega og því kominn að þolmörkum sínum.

Fjölgun flugfarþega hefur verið gríðarleg. Árið 2002 voru farþegar um ein milljón, 2 milljónir árið 2006 og árið 2019 notuðu 15.8 milljónir farþega flugvöllinn.

Í byggingu er nýr flugvöllur, Nanning Lingli alþjóðaflugvöllur, í bænum Lingli, um 45 kílómetrar að miðbæ Nanning og um 80 kílómetrum frá Nanning Wuxu vellinum. Í framtíðinni verður hann meginflughöfn héraðsins.

Flugfélög

Flugfélögin China Eastern Airlines, China Southern Airlines, Shenzhen Airlines og heimaflugfélagið Guangxi Beibu Gulf Airlines (GX Airlines) eru öll umfangsmikil á vellinum. Alls starfa 45 farþegaflugfélög á vellinum og þrjú til farmflutninga.

Flugleiðir

Flugvöllurinn býður meira flug til meira en 60 innlendra og erlendra borga. Langflestir áfangastaðirnir eru innan Kína, en einnig eru alþjóðaflug til Hong Kong, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Singapúr, Bandar Seri Begawan og fleiri staða.

Tölfræði

Samgöngur við völlinn

Strætisvagnar tengja flughöfnina við miðborg Nanning og nærliggjandi borgir og svæði. Í byggingu er tenging við snarlestarkerfi Nanning borgar.

Tenglar

 Nanning borg.
 Guangxi hérað.
 Kínverskur vefur alþjóðaflugvallarins Nanning Wuxu
 Vefsíða Travel China Guide um Nanning Wuxu flugvöllinn.. Almennar upplýsingar, kort af flugvellinum, samgöngur almenningsvagna á flugvöllinn o.fl.

Heimildir

Flugvellir í Kína

Nanning Wuxu alþjóðaflugvöllurinn


An Crepidium taylorii in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Oakes Ames, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Dariusz Lucjan Szlachetko. An Crepidium taylorii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Crepidium, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Crepidium

Crepidium taylorii


Jerzy Władysław Pawłowski  () a fost un scrimer polonez specializat pe sabie. Din șase participări la Jocurile Olimpice a cucerit cinci medalii olimpice, inclusiv aurul la individual la México 1968. La Campionatul Mondial a câștigat și 18 medalii, inclusiv șapte de aur. A fost și un spion și un agent dublu pentru CIA.

Carieră
S-a născut în 1932 într-o familie foarte patriotă. Bunicul său fusese un membru Legiunii poloneze comandată de Józef Piłsudski, și tatăl său a luptat mai întâi în armata poloneză în timpul invaziei Poloniei, apoi în Batalionul "Zośka" al mișcării de rezistență  Armia Krajowa. A crescut în Varșovia ocupată de naziști.

După cel de-al Doilea Război Mondial a practicat boxul, săritura în lungime și săritura cu prăjina. S-a interesat de scrimă din întâmplare, după ce a găsit o sabie veche într-o groapă de gunoi. Pan Wołodyjowski, Andrzej Kmicic și Jan Skrzetuski, eroii romanului istoric Prin foc și sabie lui Henryk Sienkiewicz, au devenit idolii săi. În anul 1949 a fost descoperit de maestrul Janos Kevey, care l-a selecționat în lotul național chiar după un an de pregătire.

În paralel, el s-a alăturat serviciului de informații polonez, Urząd Bezpieczeństwa. Potrivit lui Pawłowski, era vorba de a elimina pericolul represaliilor împotriva tatălui, legate de rolul acestuia în AK. Serviciul secret i-a cerut să-i spioneze pe colegii săi de lot când se deplasează în străinătate. El și-a început activitatea de spion sub porecla "Papagal" (în ). Curând după aceea s-a înrolat ca ofițer în armata poloneză și s-a alăturat serviciilor militare de informații sub porecla "Cinstit" (Szczery). În mod ironic, făcea și în același timp trafic de ceasuri și de echipamente vestici. În aceeași perioadă s-a căsătorit cu actrița Teresa Szmigielówna.

În anul 1953 a avut primele sale rezultate de notat: medalia de argint la individual la Campionatul Mondial de juniori și bronzul pe echipe la Campionatul Mondial de seniori. La Melbourne 1956 a obținut prima sa medalie olimpică, argintul, fiind depășit de maghiarul Rudolf Kárpáti. A fost laureat și cu argint la proba pe echipe. Un an următor a creat surpriză, devenind pentru prima dată campion mondial la individual: comitetul de organizare nu avea nici un disc cu imnul național al Poloniei, care a fost cântat a capella de polonezii prezenți în sală. Pawłowski devenit o celebritate în Polonia, ducând un stil de viață somptuos, cu o mașină de lux și tablouri cu semnătura unor mari pictori, pe care îl explica de sume câștigate la poker. În realitate, some mari de bani pierdute la acest joc l-au condus la divorț.

În anul 1964 a fost recrutat de CIA ca agent dublu pe marginea unei competiție în Statele Unite. Treizeci de ani mai târziu a afirmat că a acționat din patriotism și din ură pentru comunism. Potrivit generalului Czesław Kiszczak, Pawłowski era motivat mai degrabă de cupiditate. În orice caz, Pawłowski nu avea nici un acces la documente confidențiale, ci a transmis zvonuri despre personalitățile pe care le frecventa. La Jocurile Olimpice din 1968 de la Ciudad de México a ajuns în fază finală, unde l-a întâlnit pe marele său rival, sovieticul Mark Rakita. Condus cu scorul de 3–4, a dat două tuse la rând pentru a câștiga titlul olimpic. Și-a continuat activitatea competițională până în 1970, cucerind de-a lungul carierei cinci medalii olimpice și 18 medalii mondiale. În anul 1972 a fost desemnat de Federația Internațională de Scrimă drept "cel mai bun sabrer vreodată în lume". Un an mai târziu a fost ales președintele Federației Poloneze de Scrimă.

În luna aprilie 1975 a fost arestat în cel mai mare secret. Un an mai târziu a fost condamnat pentru spionaj la 25 de ani de închisoare. Și-a ispășit sentința în Varșovia și Barczew. În 1985 a făcut obiectul unui schimb cu spioni KGB arestați în Vest, dar a ales să rămână în Polonia. Câteva zile mai târziu a fost amnistiat de Consiliu de Stat. A rămas foarte discret până la căderea Zidului Berlinului în 1989, după care s-a prezentat drept un patriot și drept un prizonier de conștiință. La vârsta de 57 de ani, a luat parte la o competiție de nivel înalt și le-a bătut pe conaționalii săi mai tineri, pierzând chiar cu Janusz Olech, vicecampionul olimpic în 1988. După acest incident, Federația Poloneză de Scrimă i-a interzis să participe la competițiile nationale. În anul 1994 și-a publicat autobiografia sub titlul Duelul meu cel mai lung (Najdłuższy pojedynek).

A murit acasă, în urma unui infarct miocardic, la vârsta de 72 de ani.

Referințe

Legături externe

  Prezentare la Comitetul Olimpic Polonez

Scrimeri olimpici polonezi
Medaliați olimpici cu aur polonezi
Medaliați olimpici cu argint polonezi
Medaliați olimpici cu bronz polonezi
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 1952
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 1956
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 1960
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 1964
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 1968
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 1972
Sabreri

Jerzy Pawłowski


Olha Bohdanivna Jovnir (; ) este o scrimeră ucraineană specializată pe sabie, laureată cu aur pe echipe la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2008 de la Beijing. A fost campioană mondială în 2009 și campioană europeană în 2010, tot pe echipe.

S-a apucat de scrimă la vârsta de 11 ani sub îndrumarea Olhei Șturbabina la școala sportivă (КДЮСШ) de la Netișîn. S-a alăturat lotului național ucrainean în 2007.

Note

Legături externe

 Prezentare  la Confederația Europeană de Scrimă

Scrimeri olimpici ucraineni
Medaliați olimpici cu aur ucraineni
Scrimeri la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2008
Sabreri

Olha Jovnir


Paul Renucci  (* 8. März 1915 in Erbajolo, Département Haute-Corse; † 9. November 1977 in Beaulieu-sur-Mer) war ein französischer Romanist, Italianist und Literaturwissenschaftler.

Leben und Werk
Paul Renucci, Sohn des Italienisch-Professors Toussaint Renucci, besuchte Schulen in Clermont-Ferrand und Marseille, dann das Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Er studierte in Pavia und an der Sorbonne. Nach der Agrégation war er von 1936 bis 1945 Gymnasiallehrer in Toulouse mit Lehrauftrag an der Universität und journalistischer Tätigkeit. 1951 habilitierte er sich in Paris mit der Arbeit Dante disciple et juge du monde gréco-latin (2 Bde., Paris 1953–1954). Ab 1946 war er an der Universität Straßburg Maître de conférences, von 1952 bis 1957 Professor (von 1951 bis 1954 auch in Manchester). Ab 1957 hatte Renucci an der Sorbonne (später Universität Paris IV) als Nachfolger von Henri Bédarida den Lehrstuhl für Italienisch und Rumänisch inne. Er starb vor seiner Emeritierung. Renucci war Ritter der Ehrenlegion.

Weitere Werke
(Hrsg. mit Renzo Milani) Torquato Tasso, Aminta, Paris 1952
Dante, Paris 1958, 1963
(Vorwort) Goldoni, Théâtre, Paris 1972 (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade)
(Hrsg.) Luigi Pirandello, Théâtre complet, Paris 1977, 1987 (Bibliothèque de la Pléiade)

Literatur
Trente ans de recherche sur la culture italienne 1947–1977. In: Revue des études italiennes, Nr. 24. 1978, S. 7–327 (Schriftenverzeichnis und 13 gesammelte Schriften)
Béatrice und Michel Wattel, Qui était qui. XXe siècle, Levallois-Perret 2005.
Le Monde 9. Dezember 1977

Weblinks

Romanist
Hochschullehrer (Universität Straßburg)
Hochschullehrer (University of Manchester)
Hochschullehrer (Sorbonne)
Mitglied der Ehrenlegion (Ritter)
Franzose
Geboren 1915
Gestorben 1977
Mann

Paul Renucci


Eucallia boussingaultii es una especie de coleóptero adéfago de la familia Carabidae. Es el único miembro del género monotípico Eucallia.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 ION
 Nomenclator Zoologicus

Iresina
Insectos descritos en 1843

Eucallia