The ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) is a medium- to larger-sized strepsirrhine (wet-nosed) primate, and the most internationally-recognized lemur species, owing to its long, black-and-white, ringed tail. It belongs to Lemuridae, one of five lemur families, and is the only member of the Lemur genus. Like all lemurs, it is endemic to the island of Madagascar, where it is endangered. Known locally in Malagasy as  (, spelled  in French) or , it ranges from gallery forests to spiny scrub in the southern regions of the island. It is omnivorous, as well as the most adapted to living terrestrially of the extant lemurs.

The ring-tailed lemur is highly social, living in groups of up to 30 individuals.  It is also a female-dominant species, a commonality among lemurs. To keep warm and reaffirm social bonds, groups will huddle together. Mutual grooming is another vital aspect of lemur socialization (as with all primates), reaffirming social and familial connections, while also helping rid each other of any potential insects. Ring-tailed lemurs are strictly diurnal, being active exclusively during daylight hours. Due to this lifestyle, they also sunbathe; the lemurs can be observed sitting upright on their tails, exposing their soft, white belly fur towards the sun. They will often also have their palms open and eyes gently closed. Like other lemurs, this species relies strongly on their sense of smell, and territorial marking, with scent glands, provides communication signals throughout a group's home range. The glands are located near the eyes, as well as near the anus. The males perform a unique scent-marking behavior called spur-marking, and will participate in stink fights by dousing their tails with their pheromones and "wafting" it at opponents. Additionally, lemurs of both sexes will scent-mark trees, logs, rocks or other objects by simply rubbing their faces and bodies onto it, not unlike a domestic cat.

As one of the most vocal primates, the ring-tailed lemur uses numerous vocalizations, including calling for group cohesion and predator alarm calls. Experiments have shown that the ring-tailed lemur, despite the lack of a large brain (relative to simiiform primates), can organize sequences, understand basic arithmetic operations, and preferentially select tools based on functional qualities.

Despite adapting to and breeding easily under captive care (and being the most popular species of lemur in zoos worldwide, with more than 2,000 captive-raised individuals), the wild population of ring-tailed lemur is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List, due to habitat destruction, local hunting for bushmeat and the exotic pet trade. As of early 2017, the population in the wild is believed to have crashed to as low as 2,000 individuals due to these reasons, making them far more critically endangered. Local Malagasy farmers and logging industries frequently make use of slash and burn deforestation techniques, with smoke being visible on the horizon on most days in Madagascar, in an effort to accommodate livestock and to cultivate larger fields of crops.

Etymology
Although the term "lemur" was first intended for slender lorises, it was soon limited to the endemic Malagasy primates, which have been known as "lemurs" ever since. The name derives from the Latin term lemures, which refers to specters or ghosts that were exorcised during the Lemuria festival of ancient Rome. According to Carl Linnaeus's own explanation, the name was selected because of the nocturnal activity and slow movements of the slender loris. Being familiar with the works of Virgil and Ovid and seeing an analogy that fit with his naming scheme, Linnaeus adapted the term "lemur" for these nocturnal primates. However, it has been commonly and falsely assumed that Linnaeus was referring to the ghost-like appearance, reflective eyes, and ghostly cries of lemurs. It has also been speculated that Linnaeus may also have known that some Malagasy people have held legends that lemurs are the souls of their ancestors, but this is unlikely given that the name was selected for slender lorises from India. The species name, catta, refers to the ring-tailed lemur's cat-like appearance.  Its purring vocalization is similar to that of the domestic cat.

Following Linnaeus's species description, the common name "ring-tailed maucauco" was first penned in 1771 by Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant, who made note of its characteristic long, banded tail. (The term "maucauco" was a very common term for lemurs at this time.) The now universal English name "ring-tailed lemur" was first used by George Shaw in his illustrated scientific publication covering the Leverian collection, which was published between 1792 and 1796.

Evolutionary history
All mammalian fossils from Madagascar come from recent times. Thus, little is known about the evolution of the ring-tailed lemur, let alone the rest of the lemur clade, which comprises the entire endemic primate population of the island.  However, chromosomal and molecular evidence suggest that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates.  For this to have happened, it is thought that a very small ancestral population came to Madagascar via a single rafting event between 50 and 80 million years ago. Subsequent evolutionary radiation and speciation has created the diversity of Malagasy lemurs seen today.

According to analysis of amino acid sequences, the branching of the family Lemuridae has been dated to 26.1 ±3.3 mya while rRNA sequences of mtDNA place the split at 24.9 ±3.6 mya.  The ruffed lemurs are the first genus to split away (most basal) in the family, a view that is further supported by analysis of DNA sequences and karyotypes.  Additionally, Molecular data suggests a deep genetic divergence and sister group relationship between the true lemurs (Eulemur) and the other two genera: Lemur and Hapalemur.

The ring-tailed lemur is thought to share closer affinities to the bamboo lemurs of the genus Hapalemur than to the other two genera in its family. This has been supported by comparisons in communication, chromosomes, genetics, and several morphological traits, such as scent gland similarities.  However, other data concerning immunology and other morphological traits fail to support this close relationship. For example, Hapalemur species have short snouts, while the ring-tailed lemur and the rest of Lemuridae have long snouts. However, differences in the relationship between the orbit (eye socket) and the muzzle suggest that the ring-tailed lemur and the true lemurs evolved their elongated faces independently.

The relationship between the ring-tailed lemur and bamboo lemurs is the least understood. Molecular analysis suggests that either the bamboo lemurs diverged from the ring-tailed lemur, making the group monophyletic and supporting the current two-genera taxonomy, or that the ring-tailed lemur is nested in with the bamboo lemurs, requiring Hapalemur simus to be split off into its own genus, Prolemur.

The karyotype of the ring-tailed lemur has 56 chromosomes, of which four are metacentric (arms of nearly equal length), four are submetacentric (arms of unequal length), and 46 are acrocentric (the short arm is hardly observable).  The X chromosome is metacentric and the Y chromosome is acrocentric.

Taxonomic classification
Linnaeus first used the genus name Lemur to describe "Lemur tardigradus" (the red slender loris, now known as Loris tardigradus) in his 1754 catalog of the Museum of King Adolf Frederick.  In 1758, his 10th edition of Systema Naturae listed the genus Lemur with three included species, only one of which is still considered to be a lemur while another is no longer considered to be a primate. These species include: Lemur tardigradus, Lemur catta (the ring-tailed lemur), and Lemur volans (the Philippine colugo, now known as Cynocephalus volans).  In 1911, Oldfield Thomas made Lemur catta the type species for the genus, despite the term initially being used to describe lorises.  On January 10, 1929, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) formalized this decision in its publication of Opinion 122.

The ring-tailed lemur shares many similarities with ruffed lemurs (genus Varecia) and true lemurs (genus Eulemur), and its skeleton is nearly indistinguishable from that of the true lemurs. Consequently, the three genera were once grouped together in the genus Lemur and more recently are sometimes referred to as subfamily Lemurinae (within family Lemuridae).  However, ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia in 1962, and due to similarities between the ring-tailed lemur and the bamboo lemurs, particularly in regards to molecular evidence and scent glands similarities, the true lemurs were moved to the genus Eulemur by Yves Rumpler and Elwyn L. Simons (1988) as well as Colin Groves and Robert H. Eaglen (1988).  In 1991, Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz reviewed the evidence and came to a different conclusion, instead favoring to return the members of Eulemur and Varecia to the genus Lemur.  However, this view was not widely accepted and the genus Lemur remained monotypic, containing only the ring-tailed lemur.  Because the differences in molecular data are so minute between the ring-tailed lemur and both genera of bamboo lemurs, it has been suggested that all three genera be merged.

Because of the difficulty in discerning the relationships within family Lemuridae, not all authorities agree on the taxonomy, although the majority of the primatological community favors the current classification.

In 1996, researchers Steven Goodman and Olivier Langrand suggested that the ring-tailed lemur may demonstrate regional variations, particularly a high mountain population at Andringitra Massif that has a thicker coat, lighter coloration, and variations in its tail rings. In 2001, primatologist Colin Groves concluded that this does not represent a locally occurring subspecies.  This decision was later supported by further fieldwork that showed that the differences fell within the normal range of variation for the species.  The thicker coat was considered a local adaptation to extreme low temperatures in the region, and the fading of the fur was attributed to increased exposure to solar radiation.  Additional genetic studies in 2000 further supported the conclusion that population did not vary significantly from the other ring-tailed lemur populations on the island.

Anatomy and physiology

The ring-tailed lemur is a relatively large lemur.  Its average weight is . Its head–body length ranges between , its tail length is , and its total length is .  Other measurements include a hind foot length of , ear length of , and cranium length of .

The species has a slender frame and narrow face, fox-like muzzle.  The ring-tailed lemur's trademark—a long, bushy tail—is ringed in alternating black and white transverse bands, numbering 12 or 13 white rings and 13 or 14 black rings, and always ending in a black tip.  The total number of rings nearly matches the approximate number of caudal vertebrae (~25). Its tail is longer than its body and is not prehensile.  Instead, it is only used for balance, communication, and group cohesion.

The pelage (fur) is so dense that it can clog electric clippers. The ventral (chest) coat and throat are white or cream. The dorsal (back) coat varies from gray to rosy-brown, sometimes with a brown pygal patch around the tail region, where the fur grades to pale gray or grayish brown. The dorsal coloration is slightly darker around the neck and crown. The hair on the throat, cheeks, and ears is white or off-white and also less dense, allowing the dark skin underneath to show through. The muzzle is dark grayish and the nose is black, and the eyes are encompassed by black triangular patches.  Facial vibrissae (whiskers) are developed and found above the lips (mystacal), on the cheeks (genal), and on the eyebrow (superciliary).  Vibrissae are also found slightly above the wrist on the underside of the forearm.  The ears are relatively large compared to other lemurs and are covered in hair, which has only small tufts if any.  Although slight pattern variations in the facial region may be seen between individuals, there are no obvious differences between the sexes.

Unlike most diurnal primates, but like all strepsirrhine primates, the ring-tailed lemur has a tapetum lucidum, or reflective layer behind the retina of the eye, that enhances night vision.  The tapetum is highly visible in this species because the pigmentation of the ocular fundus (back surface of the eye), which is present in—but varies between—all lemurs, is very spotty.  The ring-tailed lemur also has a rudimentary foveal depression on the retina.  Another shared characteristic with the other strepsirrhine primates is the rhinarium, a moist, naked, glandular nose supported by the upper jaw and protruding beyond the chin.  The rhinarium continues down where it divides the upper lip.  The upper lip is attached to the premaxilla, preventing the lip from protruding and thus requiring the lemur to lap water rather than using suction.

The skin of the ring-tailed lemur is dark gray or black in color, even in places where the fur is white.  It is exposed on the nose, palms, soles, eyelids, lips, and genitalia.  The skin is smooth, but the leathery texture of the hands and feet facilitate terrestrial movement.  The anus, located at the joint of the tail, is covered when the tail is lowered.  The area around the anus (circumanal area) and the perineum are covered in fur.  In males, the scrotum lacks fur, is covered in small, horny spines, and the two sacs of the scrotum are divided.  The penis is nearly cylindrical in shape and is covered in small spines, as well as having two pairs of larger spines on both sides.  Males have a relatively small baculum (penis bone) compared to their size.  The scrotum, penis, and prepuce are usually coated with a foul-smelling secretion.  Females have a thick, elongated clitoris that protrudes from the labia of the vulva.  The opening of the urethra is closer to the clitoris than the vagina, forming a "drip tip".

Females have two pairs of mammary glands (four nipples), but only one pair is functional.  The anterior pair (closest to the head) are very close to the axillae (armpit).  Furless scent glands are present on both males and females.  Both sexes have small, dark antebrachial (forearm) glands measuring 1 cm long and located on the inner surface of the forearm nearly  above the wrist joint.  (This trait is shared between the Lemur and Hapalemur genera.) The gland is soft and compressible, bears fine dermal ridges (like fingerprints), and is connected to the palm by a fine, 2 mm–high, hairless strip.  However, only the male has a horny spur that overlays this scent gland.  The spur develops with age through the accumulation of secretions from an underlying gland that may connect through the skin through as many as a thousand minuscule  ducts. The males also have brachial (arm) glands on the axillary surface of their shoulders (near the armpit). The brachial gland is larger than the antebrachial gland, covered in short hair around the periphery, and has a naked crescent-shaped orifice near the center.  The gland secretes a foul-smelling, brown, sticky substance. The brachial gland is barely developed if present at all in females.  Both sexes also have apocrine and sebaceous glands in their genital or perianal regions, which are covered in fur.

Its fingers are slender, padded, mostly lacking webbing, and semi-dexterous with flat, human-like nails.  The thumb is both short and widely separated from the other fingers.  Despite being set at a right angle to the palm, the thumb is not opposable since the ball of the joint is fixed in place.  As with all strepsirrhines, the hand is ectaxonic (the axis passes through the fourth digit) rather than mesaxonic (the axis passing through the third digit) as seen in monkeys and apes.  The fourth digit is the longest, and only slightly longer than the second digit.  Likewise, the fifth digit is only slightly longer than the second.  The palms are long and leathery, and like other primates, they have dermal ridges to improve grip.  The feet are semi-digitigrade and more specialized than the hands.  The big toe is opposable and is smaller than the big toe of other lemurs, which are more arboreal.  The second toe is short, has a small terminal pad, and has a toilet-claw (sometimes referred to as a grooming claw) specialized for personal grooming, specifically to rake through fur that is unreachable by the mouth.  The toilet-claw is a trait shared among nearly all living strepsirrhine primates.  Unlike other lemurs, the ring-tailed lemur's heel is not covered by fur.

Dentition

The ring-tailed lemur has a dentition of , meaning that on each side of the jaw it has two incisors, one canine tooth, three premolars, and three molar teeth.  Its deciduous dentition is .  The permanent teeth erupt in the following order: m 1/1 (first molars), i 2/2 (first incisors), i 3/3 (second incisors), C1 (upper canines), m 2/2 (second molars), c1 (lower canines), m 3/3 (third molars), p 4/4 (third premolars), p 3/3 (second premolars), p 2/2 (first premolars).

Its lower incisors (i1 and i2) are long, narrow, and finely spaced while pointing almost straight forward in the mouth (procumbent).  Together with the incisor-shaped (incisiform) lower canines (c1), which are slightly larger and also procumbent, form a structure called a toothcomb, a trait unique to nearly all strepsirrhine primates.  The toothcomb is used during oral grooming, which involves licking and tooth-scraping.  It may also be used for grasping small fruits, removing leaves from the stem when eating, and possibly scraping sap and gum from tree bark.  The toothcomb is kept clean using a sublingual organ—a thin, flat, fibrous plate that covers a large part of the base of the tongue.  The first lower premolar (p2) following the toothcomb is shaped like a canine (caniniform) and occludes the upper canine, essentially filling the role of the incisiform lower canine.  There is also a diastema (gap) between the second and third premolars (p2 and p3).

The upper incisors are small, with the first incisors (I1) space widely from each other, yet closely to the second incisors (I2).  Both are compressed buccolingually (between the cheek and the tongue).  The upper canines (C1) are long, have a broad base, and curve down and back (recurved).  The upper canines exhibit slight sexual dimorphism, with males exhibiting slightly larger canines than females.  Both sexes use them in combat by slashing with them.  There is a small diastema between the upper canine and the first premolar (P2), which is smaller and more caniniform than the other premolars.  Unlike other lemurs, the first two upper molars (M1 and M2) have prominent lingual cingulae, yet do not have a protostyle.

Ecology
The ring-tailed lemur is diurnal and semi-terrestrial. It is the most terrestrial of lemur species, spending as much as 33% of its time on the ground. However it is still considerably arboreal, spending 23% of its time in the mid-level canopy, 25% in the upper-level canopy, 6% in the emergent layer and 13% in small bushes. Troop travel is 70% terrestrial.

Troop size, home range, and population density vary by region and food availability. Troops typically range in size from 6 to 25, although troops with over 30 individuals have been recorded. The average troop contains 13 to 15 individuals. Home range size varies between . Troops of the ring-tailed lemur will maintain a territory, but overlap is often high. When encounters occur, they are agonistic, or hostile in nature. A troop will usually occupy the same part of its range for three or four days before moving. When it does move, the average traveling distance is . Population density ranges from 100 individuals per  in dry forests to 250–600 individuals per km2 in gallery and secondary forests.

The ring-tailed lemur has both native and introduced predators. Native predators include the fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), the Madagascar harrier-hawk (Polyboroides radiatus), the Madagascar buzzard (Buteo brachypterus) and the Madagascar ground boa (Acrantophis madagascariensis). Introduced predators include the small Indian civet (Viverricula indica), the domestic cat and the domestic dog.

Geographic range and habitat

Endemic to southern and southwestern Madagascar, the ring-tailed lemur ranges further into highland areas than other lemurs.  It inhabits deciduous forests, dry scrub, montane humid forests, and gallery forests (forests along riverbanks). It strongly favors gallery forests, but such forests have now been cleared from much of Madagascar in order to create pasture for livestock. Depending on location, temperatures within its geographic range can vary from  at Andringitra Massif to  in the spiny forests of Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve.

This species is found as far east as Tôlanaro, inland towards the mountains of Andringitra on the southeastern plateau, among the spiny forests of the southern part of the island, and north along the west coast to the town of Belo sur Mer.  Historically, the northern limits of its range in the west extended to the Morondava River near Morondava.  It can still be found in Kirindy Mitea National Park, just south of Morondava, though at very low densities.  It does not occur in Kirindy Forest Reserve, north of Morondava.  Its distribution throughout the rest of its range is very spotty, with population densities varying widely.

The ring-tailed lemur can be easily seen in five national parks in Madagascar: Andohahela National Park, Andringitra National Park, Isalo National Park, Tsimanampetsotse National Park, and Zombitse-Vohibasia National Park.  It can also be found in Beza-Mahafaly Special Reserve, Kalambatritra Special Reserve, Pic d'Ivohibe Special Reserve, Amboasary Sud, Berenty Private Reserve, Anja Community Reserve, and marginally at Kirindy Mitea National Park.  Unprotected forests that the species has been reported in include Ankoba, Ankodida, Anjatsikolo, Anbatotsilongolongo, Mahazoarivo, Masiabiby, and Mikea.

Within the protected regions it is known to inhabit, the ring-tailed lemur is sympatric (shares its range) with as many as 24 species of lemur, covering every living genus except Allocebus, Indri, and Varecia.  Historically, the species used to be sympatric with the critically endangered southern black-and-white ruffed lemur (Varecia variegata editorum), which was once found at Andringitra National Park; however, no sightings of the ruffed lemur have been reported in recent years.

In western Madagascar, sympatric ring-tailed lemurs and red-fronted lemurs (Eulemur rufifrons) have been studied together. Little interaction takes place between the two species. While the diets of the two species overlap, they eat in different proportions since the ring-tailed lemur has a more varied diet and spends more time on the ground.

Diet
The ring-tailed lemur is an opportunistic omnivore primarily eating fruits and leaves, particularly those of the tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica), known natively as kily. When available, tamarind makes up as much as 50% of the diet, especially during the dry, winter season. The ring-tailed lemur eats from as many as three dozen different plant species, and its diet includes flowers, herbs, bark and sap. It has been observed eating decayed wood, earth, spider webs, insect cocoons, arthropods (spiders, caterpillars, cicadas and grasshoppers) and small vertebrates (birds and chameleons). During the dry season it becomes increasingly opportunistic.

Behavior

Social systems
Troops are classified as multi-male groups, with a matriline as the core group. As with most lemurs, females socially dominate males in all circumstances, including feeding priority. Dominance is enforced by lunging, chasing, cuffing, grabbing and biting. Young females do not always inherit their mother's rank and young males leave the troop between three and five years of age. Both sexes have separate dominance hierarchies; females have a distinct hierarchy while male rank is correlated with age. Each troop has one to three central, high-ranking adult males who interact with females more than other group males and lead the troop procession with high-ranking females. Recently transferred males, old males or young adult males that have not yet left their natal group are often lower ranking. Staying at the periphery of the group they tend to be marginalized from group activity.

For males, social structure changes can be seasonal. During the six-month period between December and May a few males migrate between groups. Established males transfer on average every 3.5 years, although young males may transfer approximately every 1.4 years. Group fission occurs when groups get too large and resources become scarce.

In the mornings the ring-tailed lemur sunbathes to warm itself. It faces the sun sitting in what is frequently described as a "sun-worshipping" posture or lotus position. However, it sits with its legs extended outward, not cross-legged, and will often support itself on nearby branches. Sunning is often a group activity, particularly during the cold mornings. At night, troops will split into sleeping parties huddling closely together to keep warm.

Despite being quadrupedal the ring-tailed lemur can rear up and balance on its hind legs, usually for aggressive displays. When threatened the ring-tailed lemur may jump in the air and strike out with its short nails and sharp upper canine teeth in a behaviour termed jump fighting. This is extremely rare outside of the breeding season when tensions are high and competition for mates is intense. Other aggressive behaviours include a threat-stare, used to intimidate or start a fight, and a submissive gesture known as pulled-back lips.

Border disputes with rival troops occur occasionally and it is the dominant female's responsibility to defend the troop's home range. Agonistic encounters include staring, lunging approaches and occasional physical aggression, and conclude with troop members retreating toward the center of the home range.

Olfactory communication

Olfactory communication is critically important for strepsirrhines like the ring-tailed lemur. Males and females scent mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands. The ring-tailed lemur will perform a handstand to mark vertical surfaces, grasping the highest point with its feet while it applies its scent. Use of scent marking varies by age, sex and social status. Male lemurs use their antebrachial and brachial glands to demarcate territories and maintain intragroup dominance hierarchies. The thorny spur that overlays the antebrachial gland on each wrist is scraped against tree trunks to create grooves anointed with their scent. This is known as spur-marking.

In displays of aggression, males engage in a social display behaviour called stink fighting, which involves impregnating their tails with secretions from the antebrachial and brachial glands and waving the scented tail at male rivals.

Ring-tailed lemurs have also been shown to mark using urine.  Behaviorally, there is a difference between regular urination, where the tail is slightly raised and a stream of urine is produced, and the urine marking behavior, where the tail is held up in display and only a few drops of urine are used.  The urine-marking behavior is typically used by females to mark territory, and has been observed primarily at the edges of the troop's territory and in areas where other troops may frequent.  The urine marking behavior also is most frequent during the mating season, and may play a role in reproductive communication between groups.

Auditory communication

The ring-tailed lemur is one of the most vocal primates and has a complex array of distinct vocalizations used to maintain group cohesion during foraging and alert group members to the presence of a predator.  Calls range from simple to complex.  An example of a simple call is the purr (), which expresses contentment.  A complex call is the sequence of clicks, close-mouth click series (CMCS), open-mouth click series (OMCS) and yaps () used during predator mobbing. Some calls have variants and undergo transitions between variants, such as an infant "whit" (distress call) transitioning from one variant to another ().

The most commonly heard vocalizations are the moan () (low-to-moderate arousal, group cohesion), early-high wail () (moderate-to-high arousal, group cohesion), and clicks () ("location marker" to draw attention).

Breeding and reproduction

The ring-tailed lemur is polygynandrous, although the dominant male in the troop typically breeds with more females than other males. Fighting is most common during the breeding season. A receptive female may initiate mating by presenting her backside, lifting her tail and looking at the desired male over her shoulder. Males may inspect the female's genitals to determine receptiveness. Females typically mate within their troop, but may seek outside males.

The breeding season runs from mid-April to mid-May. Estrus lasts 4 to 6 hours, and females mate with multiple males during this period.  Within a troop, females stagger their receptivity so that each female comes into season on a different day during the breeding season, reducing competition for male attention. Females lactate during the wet season, from December through April, when resources are readily available. Females gestate during the dry season, from May through September, when resources are low. Females give birth during seasons where resources, such as flowers, are in peak. Gestation lasts for about 135 days, and parturition occurs in September or occasionally October.  In the wild, one offspring is the norm, although twins may occur. Ring-tailed lemur infants have a birth weight of  and are carried ventrally (on the chest) for the first 1 to 2 weeks, then dorsally (on the back).

The young lemurs begin to eat solid food after two months and are fully weaned after five months. Sexual maturity is reached between 2.5 and 3 years. Male involvement in infant rearing is limited, although the entire troop, regardless of age or sex, can be seen caring for the young. Alloparenting between troop females has been reported. Kidnapping by females and infanticide by males also occur occasionally. Due to harsh environmental conditions, predation and accidents such as falls, infant mortality can be as high as 50% within the first year and as few as 30% may reach adulthood.  The longest-lived ring-tailed lemur in the wild was a female at the Berenty Reserve who lived for 20 years. In the wild, females rarely live past the age of 16, whereas the life expectancy of males is not known due to their social structure.  The longest-lived male was reported to be 15 years old.  The maximum lifespan reported in captivity was 27 years.

Cognitive abilities and tool use
Historically, the studies of learning and cognition in non-human primates have focused on simians (monkeys and apes), while strepsirrhine primates, such as the ring-tailed lemur and its allies, have been overlooked and popularly dismissed as unintelligent. A couple of factors stemming from early experiments have played a role in the development of this assumption. First, the experimental design of older tests may have favored the natural behavior and ecology of simians over that of strepsirrhines, making the experimental tasks inappropriate for lemurs. For example, simians are known for their manipulative play with non-food objects, whereas lemurs are only known to manipulate non-food objects in captivity. This behaviour is usually connected with food association. Also, lemurs are known to displace objects with their nose or mouth more so than with their hands.  Therefore, an experiment requiring a lemur to manipulate an object without prior training would favor simians over strepsirrhines. Second, individual ring-tailed lemurs accustomed to living in a troop may not respond well to isolation for laboratory testing. Past studies have reported hysterical behaviour in such scenarios.

The notion that lemurs are unintelligent has been perpetuated by the view that the neocortex ratio (as a measure of brain size) indicates intelligence. In fact, primatologist Alison Jolly noted early in her academic career that some lemur species, such as the ring-tailed lemur, have evolved a social complexity similar to that of cercopithecine monkeys, but not the corresponding intelligence. After years of observations of wild ring-tailed lemur populations at the Berenty Reserve in Madagascar and as well as baboons in Africa, she more recently concluded that this highly social lemur species does not demonstrate the equivalent social complexity of cercopithecine monkeys, despite general appearances.

Regardless, research has continued to illuminate the complexity of the lemur mind, with emphasis on the cognitive abilities of the ring-tailed lemur. As early as the mid-1970s, studies had demonstrated that they could be trained through operant conditioning using standard schedules of reinforcement. The species has been shown to be capable of learning pattern, brightness, and object discrimination, skills common among vertebrates. The ring-tailed lemur has also been shown to learn a variety of complex tasks often equaling, if not exceeding, the performance of simians.

More recently, research at the Duke Lemur Center has shown that the ring-tailed lemur can organize sequences in memory and retrieve ordered sequences without language. The experimental design demonstrated that the lemurs were using internal representation of the sequence to guide their responses and not simply following a trained sequence, where one item in the sequence cues the selection of the next. But this is not the limit of the ring-tailed lemur's reasoning skills. Another study, performed at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve, suggests that this species along with several other closely related lemur species understand simple arithmetic operations.

Since tool use is considered to be a key feature of primate intelligence, the apparent lack of this behavior in wild lemurs, as well as the lack of non-food object play, has helped reinforce the perception that lemurs are less intelligent than their simian cousins. However, another study at the Myakka City Lemur Reserve examined the representation of tool functionality in both the ring-tailed lemur and the common brown lemur and discovered that, like monkeys, they used tools with functional properties (e.g., tool orientation or ease of use) instead of tools with nonfunctional features (e.g., color or texture). Although the ring-tailed lemur may not use tools in the wild, it can not only be trained to use a tool, but will preferentially select tools based on their functional qualities. Therefore, the conceptual competence to use a tool may have been present in the common primate ancestor, even though the use of tools may not have appeared until much later.

Conservation status
In addition to being listed as endangered in 2014 by the IUCN, the ring-tailed lemur has been listed since 1977 by CITES under Appendix I, which makes trade of wild-caught specimens illegal. Although there are more endangered species of lemur, the ring-tailed lemur is considered a flagship species due to its recognizability. As of 2017, only about 2,000 ring-tailed lemurs are estimated to be left in the wild, making the threat of extinction far more serious for them than previously believed.

Three factors threaten ring-tailed lemurs. First and foremost is habitat destruction.  Starting nearly 2,000 years ago with the introduction of humans to the island, forests have been cleared to produce pasture and agricultural land. Extraction of hardwoods for fuel and lumber, as well mining and overgrazing, have also taken their toll.  Today, it is estimated that 90% of Madagascar's original forest cover has been lost. Rising populations have created even greater demand in the southwest portion of the island for fuel wood, charcoal, and lumber. Fires from the clearing of grasslands, as well as slash-and-burn agriculture destroy forests.  Another threat to the species is harvesting either for food (bushmeat), fur clothing or pets. Finally, periodic drought common to southern Madagascar can impact populations already in decline.  In 1991 and 1992, for example, a severe drought caused an abnormally high mortality rate among infants and females at the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve.  Two years later, the population had declined by 31% and took nearly four years to start to recover.

The ring-tailed lemur resides in several protected areas within its range, each offering varying levels of protection. At the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, a holistic approach to in-situ conservation has been taken.  Not only does field research and resource management involve international students and local people (including school children), livestock management is used at the peripheral zones of the reserve and ecotourism benefits the local people.

Outside of its diminishing habitat and other threats, the ring-tailed lemur reproduces readily and has fared well in captivity.  For this reason, along with its popularity, it has become the most populous lemur in zoos worldwide, with more than 2500 in captivity as of 2009.  It is also the most common of all captive primates.  Ex situ facilities actively involved in the conservation of the ring-tailed lemur include the Duke Lemur Center in Durham, North Carolina, the Lemur Conservation Foundation in Myakka City, Florida, and the Madagascar Fauna Group headquartered at the Saint Louis Zoo.  Due to the high success of captive breeding, reintroduction is a possibility if wild populations were to crash.  Although experimental releases have met success on St. Catherines Island in Georgia, demonstrating that captive lemurs can readily adapt to their environment and exhibit a full range of natural behaviors, captive release is not currently being considered.

Ring-tailed lemur populations can also benefit from drought intervention, due to the availability of watering troughs and introduced fruit trees, as seen at the Berenty Private Reserve in southern Madagascar.  However, these interventions are not always seen favorably, since natural population fluctuations are not permitted.  The species is thought to have evolved its high fecundity due to its harsh environment.

Cultural references

The ring-tailed lemur is known locally in Malagasy as  (pronounced , and spelled maki in French) or  (pronounced  or colloquially ).  Being the most widely recognized endemic primate on the island, it has been selected as the symbol for Madagascar National Parks (formerly known as ANGAP).  The Maki brand, which started by selling T-shirts in Madagascar and now sells clothing across the Indian Ocean islands, is named after this lemur due to its popularity, even though the company's logo portrays the face of a sifaka and its name uses the French spelling.

The first mention of the ring-tailed lemur in Western literature came in 1625 when English traveller and writer Samuel Purchas described them as being comparable in size to a monkey and having a fox-like long tail with black and white rings. Charles Catton included the species in his 1788 book Animals Drawn from Nature and Engraved in Aqua-tinta, calling it the "Maucauco" and regarding it as a type of monkey.

A Ring-tailed lemur named Dotty regularly appeared with Jonny Morris on the BBC television programme Animal Magic.

The species was further popularized by the Animal Planet television series Lemur Street, as well as by the character King Julien in the animated Madagascar film and TV franchise. The ring-tailed lemur was also the focus of the 1996 Nature documentary A Lemur's Tale, which was filmed at the Berenty Reserve and followed a troop of lemurs.  The troop included a special infant named Sapphire, who was nearly albino, with white fur, bright blue eyes, and the characteristic ringed tail.

A Ring-tailed lemur played a role in the 1997 comedy film Fierce Creatures, starring John Cleese, who has a passion for lemurs. Cleese later hosted the 1998 BBC documentary In the Wild: Operation Lemur with John Cleese, which tracked the progress of a reintroduction of black-and-white ruffed lemurs back into the Betampona Reserve in Madagascar. The project had been partly funded by Cleese's donation of the proceeds from the London premier of Fierce Creatures.

Notes

References

Literature cited

External links

 Official ring-tailed lemur species survival plan
 Ring-tailed Lemur: Lemur catta – Tree of Life Project
 ARKive – images and movies of the ring-tailed lemur
 Primate Info Net Lemur catta Factsheet
 Lemur Conservation Foundation: ring-tailed lemurs
 Nature: A Lemur's Tale
 PBS: In the Wild: Operation Lemur with John Cleese

Mammals described in 1758
Lemurs
National symbols of Madagascar
Articles containing video clips
Species endangered by the pet trade
Endemic fauna of Madagascar
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Ring-tailed lemur


College of New Jersey may refer to:

 Princeton University, originally named the College of New Jersey
 The College of New Jersey, a public university in Ewing Township, New Jersey, United States

College of New Jersey


is a town located in Kamo District, Gifu Prefecture, Japan. , the town had an estimated population of 5,714 and a population density of 340 persons per km2, in 1962 households. The total area of the town was .

Geography
Tomika is located in south-central Gifu Prefecture. The city is bordered by Seki to the west and Minokamo to the east. Mount Nashiwari is within the town's boundaries. The Kawaura  and Tsubo Rivers flow through the town. The town has a climate characterized by characterized by hot and humid summers, and mild winters  (Köppen climate classification Cfa).  The average annual temperature in Tomika is 15.1 °C. The average annual rainfall is 2074 mm with September as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 27.8 °C, and lowest in January, at around 3.3 °C.

Neighbouring municipalities
Gifu Prefecture
Seki
Minokamo

Demographics
Per Japanese census data, the population of Tomika has remained relatively steady over the past 50 years.

History
The area around Tomika was part of traditional Mino Province.  During the Edo period, the area was tenryō territory controlled directly by the Tokugawa shogunate. With the post Meiji restoration cadastral reforms, Kamo District within Gifu Prefecture was created, and the village of Tomida was established on April 1, 1897. Tomida merged with the village of Kajita on July 1, 1954, forming the village of Tomika (taking its name from Tomida (富田) and Kajita (加冶田) Tomika was elevated to town status on July 1, 1974. A referendum to merge into the city of Minokamo, was defeated in 2004.

Education
Tomika has one public elementary school operated by the town government, and one public junior high school operated jointly between Tomika and neighbouring Minokamo. The town does not have a high school.

Transportation

Railway
 Nagaragawa Railway Etsumi-Nan Line

Highway
 Tōkai-Kanjō Expressway

References

External links

Towns in Gifu Prefecture

Tomika, Gifu


22769 Aurelianora este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
22769 Aurelianora este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Gnosca de Stefano Sposetti. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,10 ua, o excentricitate de 0,14 și o înclinație de 3,1° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 22001-23000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

22769 Aurelianora


Telestes je rod šaranki.

Vrste
Priznato je 14 vrsta koje spadaju pod ovaj rod:
 Telestes beoticus (Stephanidis, 1939.)
 Telestes croaticus (Steindachner, 1866.) (Hrvatski pijor)
 Telestes dabar (Boguckaja, Zupančič, Bogut & Naseka, 2012.) (Dabarska gaovica)
 Telestes fontinalis (M. S. Karaman, 1972.) (Krbavski pijor)
 Telestes karsticus (Marčić, Buj, Duplić, Ćaleta, Mustafić, Zanella, Zupančič & Mrakovčić, 2011.) (Kapelska svjetlica)
 Telestes metohiensis (Steindachner, 1901.) (Gatačka gaovica)
 Telestes miloradi (Boguckaja, Zupančič, Bogut & Naseka, 2012.) (Konavoski pijor)
 Telestes montenigrinus (Vuković, 1963.)
 Telestes muticellus (Bonaparte, 1837.)
 Telestes pleurobipunctatus (Stephanidis, 1939.)
 Telestes polylepis (Steindachner, 1866.) (Svjetlica)
 Telestes souffia (A. Risso, 1827.)  (Blistavac)
 Telestes turskyi (Heckel, 1843.) (Turski klen)
 Telestes ukliva (Heckel, 1843.) (Cetinska ukliva)

Izvori

Telestes


أوليفر (أولي) بيرنارد  (14 أكتوبر 1979 في باريس) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي من دون نادي حاليا ويجيد اللعب في خط الدفاع .

المسيرة الرياضية
صنع بيرنارد اسمه في نادي نيوكاسل يونايتد الإنجليزي بعدما انتقل إليه قادما من نادي ليون الفرنسي وأمضى في النادي 5 سنوات من 2000 إلى 2005 ثم وافق على الانتقال بعقد إعارة لمدة موسم كامل 2000/2001 إلى نادي دارلينغتون الاسكتلندي .

بسبب الفشل في التوصل إلى اتفاق على تجديد العقد فقد قرر بيرنارد الرحيل عن نادي نيوكاسل يونايتد وتوجه إلى نادي ساوثهامبتون حيث وقع على عقد يمتد لخمسة أشهر فقط اعتبارا من 31 يناير 2005 .

بعد هبوط فريق ساوثهامبتون من الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز إلى بطولة دوري كرة القدم في نهاية موسم 2004/2005 قرر بيرنارد عدم تجديد العقد ورحل إلى نادي رينجرز الإسكتلندي ووقع معهم على عقد يمتد موسمين اثنين اعتبارا من 1 سبتمبر 2005 .

بعد نهاية أول موسم له في نادي رينجرز قرر المدرب الفرنسي بول لوجوين الاستغناء عن بيرنارد بعدما شارك في 9 مباريات فقط وأصبح عالة على الفريق.

تضاربت آراء مشجعو نادي نيوكاسل يونايتد بعدما تم التعاقد معه مجددا في 1 سبتمبر 2006 حيث فضل بيرنارد العرض المقدم من نادي نيوكاسل يونايتد على عرض نادي ليدز يونايتد .

على الرغم من ذلك فإن فترته الثانية في نادي نيوكاسل يونايتد لم تحقق له النجاح حيث عانى بيرنارد من عدم اكتمال لياقته البدنية بسبب سلسلة متواصلة من الإصابات تعرض لها أثناء التدريبات. في 16 مايو 2007 صرح المدير الفني لنادي نيوكاسل يونايتد سام ألارديس بأن بيرنارد بالإضافة إلى تايتوس برامبل، أوغوتشي أونييوو، كريغ مور ، وبافيل سيرنيتشيك سوف يتم الاستغناء عنهم في فترة الانتقالات الصيفية.

حاليا يتدرب بيرنارد في نادي تورونتو الكندي من أجل المحافظة على لياقته البدنية بعدما تقدم صديقه لاعب الوسط بفريق تورونتو لورينت روبرت بطلب إلى إدارة النادي من أجل السماح لصديقه بالتدرب مع الفريق.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إسكتلندا
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إنجلترا
مدافعو كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون من باريس
فرنسيون من أصل غواديلوبي
لاعبو الدوري الإسكتلندي الممتاز
لاعبو الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو دارلينغتون إف سي
لاعبو دوري الدرجة الأولى الإنجليزي
لاعبو رينجرز
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إنجلترا
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو نادي ساوثهامبتون
لاعبو نيوكاسل يونايتد
مواليد 1979
مواليد في باريس
لاعبو كرة قدم من باريس

أوليفر بيرنارد


Thermus aquaticus is a species of bacteria that can tolerate high temperatures, one of several thermophilic bacteria that belong to the Deinococcota phylum.  It is the source of the heat-resistant enzyme Taq DNA polymerase, one of the most important enzymes in molecular biology because of its use in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) DNA amplification technique.

History

When studies of biological organisms in hot springs began in the 1960s, scientists thought that the life of thermophilic bacteria could not be sustained in temperatures above about . Soon, however, it was discovered that many bacteria in different springs not only survived, but also thrived in higher temperatures. In 1969, Thomas D. Brock and Hudson Freeze of Indiana University reported a new species of  thermophilic bacteria which they named Thermus aquaticus. The bacterium was first isolated from Mushroom Spring in the Lower Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park, which is near the major  Great Fountain Geyser and White Dome Geyser, and has since been found in similar thermal habitats around the world.

Biology
T. aquaticus shows best growth at 65–70 °C (149–158 °F), but can survive at temperatures of 50–80 °C (122–176 °F). It primarily scavenges for protein from its environment as is evidenced by the large number of extracellular and intracellular proteases and peptidases as well as transport proteins for amino acids and oligopeptides across its cell membrane. This bacterium is a chemotroph—it performs chemosynthesis to obtain food. However, since its range of temperature overlaps somewhat with that of the photosynthetic cyanobacteria that share its ideal environment, it is sometimes found living jointly with its neighbors, obtaining energy for growth from their photosynthesis. T. aquaticus normally respires aerobically but one of its strains, Thermus aquaticus Y51MC23, is able to be grown anaerobically.

The genetic material of T. aquaticus consists of one chromosome and four plasmids, and its complete genome sequencing revealed CRISPR genes at numerous loci.

Morphology
Thermus aquaticus is generally of cylindrical shape with a diameter of 0.5 μm to 0.8 μm. The shorter rod shape has a length of 5 μm to 10 μm. The longer filament shape has a length that varies greatly and in some cases exceeds 200 μm. T. aquaticus has shown multiple possible morphologies in different cultures. The rod-shaped bacteria have a tendency to aggregate. Associations of several individuals can lead to the formation of spherical bodies 10 μm to 20 μm in diameter, also called rotund bodies. These bodies are not composed of cell envelope or outer membrane components as previously thought, but are instead made from remodelled peptidoglycan cell wall. Their exact function in the survival of T. aquaticus remains unknown but has been theorised to include temporary food and nucleotide storage, or they may play a role in the attachment and organisation of colonies.

Enzymes from T. aquaticus
T. aquaticus has become famous as a source of thermostable enzymes, particularly the Taq DNA polymerase, as described below.

Aldolase
Studies of this extreme thermophilic bacterium that could be grown in cell culture was initially centered on attempts to understand how enzymes, which are normally inactive at high temperature, can function at high temperature in thermophiles. In 1970, Freeze and Brock published an article describing a thermostable aldolase enzyme from T. aquaticus.

RNA polymerase
The first polymerase enzyme isolated from T. aquaticus in 1974 was a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, used in the process of transcription.

Taq I restriction enzyme

Most molecular biologists probably became aware of T. aquaticus in the late 1970s or early 1980s because of the isolation of useful restriction endonucleases from this organism. Use of the term Taq to refer to Thermus aquaticus arose at this time from the convention of giving restriction enzymes short names, such as Sal and Hin, derived from the genus and species of the source organisms.

DNA polymerase ("Taq pol")

DNA polymerase was first isolated from T. aquaticus in 1976. The first advantage found for this thermostable (temperature optimum 72°C, does not denature even in 95 °C) DNA polymerase was that it could be isolated in a purer form (free of other enzyme contaminants) than could the DNA polymerase from other sources. Later, Kary Mullis and other investigators at Cetus Corporation discovered this enzyme could be used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process for amplifying short segments of DNA, eliminating the need to add E. coli polymerase enzymes after every cycle of thermal denaturation of the DNA. The enzyme was also cloned, sequenced, modified (to produce the shorter 'Stoffel fragment'), and produced in large quantities for commercial sale. In 1989 Science magazine named Taq polymerase as its first "Molecule of the Year". In 1993, Mullis was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with PCR.

Other enzymes
The high optimum temperature for T. aquaticus allows researchers to study reactions under conditions for which other enzymes lose activity. Other enzymes isolated from this organism include DNA ligase, alkaline phosphatase, NADH oxidase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, amylomaltase, and fructose 1,6-disphosphate-dependent L-lactate dehydrogenase.

Controversy
The commercial use of enzymes from T. aquaticus has not been without controversy. After Brock's studies, samples of the organism were deposited in the American Type Culture Collection, a public repository. Other scientists, including those at Cetus, obtained it from there. As the commercial potential of Taq polymerase became apparent in the 1990s, the National Park Service labeled its use as the "Great Taq Rip-off".  Researchers working in National Parks are now required to sign "benefits sharing" agreements that would send a portion of later profits back to the Park Service.

See also
 Biotechnology
 Geyser
 Thermophiles

References

Further reading

External links
Type strain of Thermus aquaticus at BacDive -  the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

Bacteria described in 1969
Deinococcota
Organisms living on hydrothermal vents
Polymerase chain reaction
Thermophiles
Thermozoa

Thermus aquaticus


Aylak Adam, Türk yazar Yusuf Atılgan'ın 1959'da yayımlanan ilk romanıdır. "Kış", "ilkyaz", "yaz" ve "güz" olmak üzere dört "mevsim" başlığından oluşan eserde mevsimlerden kış, ilkyaz ve yaz kendi içlerinde yedi bölüme ayrılırken güz mevsimi dört bölüme ayrılmaktadır. 28 yaşlarında, içerisinde hizmetçilerin olduğu evde çocukluğunun geçtiği söylenen, kumar düşkünü babaya sahip bir roman karakteri olan C.'nin hayatına anlam verecek değeri
arama çabası romanda anlatılmaktadır.

1958 yılında Yunus Nadi Roman Ödülü'nde ikincilik kazanan Aylak Adam'da bilinç akışı, iç monolog, diyalog, geriye dönüş, günlük, mektup ve leitmotif tekniği kullanılmıştır. Roman, farklı karakterler ve anlatıcılar tarafından anlatılmaktadır.

Konu
Bir ismin bile çok görüldüğü C.'nin bir yıl boyunca başından geçen olayları anlatan kitap, dörde ayrılmış olup her bölümde farklı mevsimlerde C.nin yaşantısını ele almıştır. Babasından kalan emlaklardan aldığı kiralarla çalışmadan geçinebilen C., gününü kitap okuyarak, kahvehanelere, restoranlara, barlara giderek, film izleyerek, bol bol yürüyerek, sanat çevresinden arkadaşlarıyla sohbet ederek ve durmadan düşünerek geçirir… C., toplumla uyuşamayan, ataerkil yapıya ait olamayan, iki kişiden kurulmuş toplumların "en iyisi" olduğunu düşünen ve bu uğurda 'gerçek aşk'ı arayan; huysuz, sıkılgan, mutsuz ve 'aylak' bir adamdır. Romanın konu edildiği bir yıl boyunca C.'nin başından iki aşk macerası geçer. İlkinde üniversite öğrencisi 'süssüz, sade' Güler'den umduğunu bulamayan C., yaz aylarında gittiği pansiyonda karşılaştığı eski sevgilisi 'ressam ve kişilikli' Ayşe ile de olaylı bir aşk süreci yaşar.

Aylak Adam, aradığı ve tek tutamak olarak gördüğü gerçek sevgiyi, o kadını ararken aslında sürekli O'na teğet geçmektedir. Yolda, tramvayda ya da kumsalda çok yaklaşmakta; fakat O'na erişememektedir.

Yayımlanma geçmişi
Romanın ilk baskısı 1959 yılında İstanbul'da Varlık Yayınları tarafından yapıldı. İkinci baskı 1974'te Ankara'da Bilgi Yayınevi, üçüncü baskı ise 1985'te İstanbul'da İletişim Yayınları tarafından yapıldı. Kitap 2000'den itibaren Yapı Kredi Yayınları tarafından, yazarın bütün yapıtları serisi dahilinde basıldı. 2009 yılında, aynı yayınevi romanın ellinci yılı anısına ciltli büyük boy bir baskı yayımladı. Bir defalık ve toplam 3000 nüsha olarak basılan bu kitabın her bir kopyası numaralandırıldı.

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar
 Kılıç, Melike. Türk Romanında Flanör Düşüncenin Eleştirel İki Yorumu: Aylak Adam ve Aylaklar. (2017, yüksek lisans tezi)
 Cuşa, Hasan. Yusuf Atılgan'ın Aylak Adam Romanına Bahtin'in Diyoloji Kuramı Eksenli Bir Yaklaşım. (2014, yüksek lisans tezi)
 Gül, Büyü. A Freudian Study Of The Grass is Singing, Aylak Adam And the White Hotel. (2007, yüksek lisans tezi)

Dış bağlantılar

 Yapı Kredi Yayınları'nda Aylak Adam

Kaynakça

Çağdaş Türk romanları
Yusuf Atılgan romanları
1959 romanları
Türkçe romanlar
İlk romanlar
Konusu İstanbul'da geçen romanlar

Aylak Adam


Lorenzo Imperiali (Gênova, 21 de fevereiro de 1612 - Roma, 21 de setembro de 1673) foi um cardeal do século XVII

Nascimento
Nasceu em Gênova em 21 de fevereiro de 1612. Filho de Michele Imperiali (1565-1616), príncipe de Oria, e Maddalena Spinola, membros das duas principais famílias do patriciado genovês. Seu sobrenome também está listado como Imperiale. Tio do cardeal Giuseppe Renato Imperiali (1690). Tio-avô dos cardeais Giuseppe Spinelli (1735) e Cosimo Imperiali (1753).

Educação
(Nenhuma informação encontrada)..

Início da vida
Foi a Roma durante o pontificado do Papa Urbano VIII. Vice-legado em Bolonha. Governador das cidades de Fano e Ascoli. Durante a ausência do cardeal Antonio Barberini, legado em Ferrara, ocupou seu lugar. Clérigo da Câmara Apostólica. Governador da província do Património e do Estado de Castro como comissário geral delle armi . Enviado pelo Papa Inocêncio X a Fermo para reprimir a revolta que custou a vida de seu governador, 1648. Governador de Roma, 29 de janeiro de 1653 até 29 de abril de 1654..

Ordens sagradas
(Nenhuma informação encontrada)..

Cardinalado
Criado cardeal e reservado in pectore no consistório de 19 de fevereiro de 1652; publicado no consistório de 2 de março de 1654; recebeu o gorro vermelho e o título de S. Crisogono, em 23 de março de 1654. Participou do conclave de 1655, que elegeu o Papa Alexandre VII. Legado em Ferrara, 23 de abril de 1657. Governador de Roma novamente, 14 de julho de 1660 até outubro de 1662; por causa do incidente entre o duque de Crécquy, embaixador da França, e as tropas da Córsega, foi transferido como legado para a recém-criada legação na província das Marcas , em 3 de novembro de 1662; mais tarde, renunciou à sua legação e foi a Paris explicar sua conduta ao rei francês. Participou do conclave de 1667, que elegeu o Papa Clemente IX. Participou do conclave de 1669-1670, que elegeu o Papa Inocêncio XI..

Morte
Morreu em Roma em 21 de setembro de 1673, perto das 17 horas, Roma. Exposta na igreja de S. Agostino, Roma, onde se realizou o funeral a 23 de setembro de 1673, e sepultada à direita da capela de S. Tommaso da Villanuova, nessa mesma igreja.

Cardeais nomeados pelo papa Inocêncio X

Lorenzo Imperiali


Onthophagus thainuaensis é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Masumoto, Ochi & Hanboonsong em 2008.

Referências

Ligações externas

thainuaensis
Coleópteros descritos em 2008

Onthophagus thainuaensis


Lenapizha (True Tiger, Real Lynx, Underneath Lynx), Pravi tigar moćno je mitološko vodeno čudovište plemena Miami i Illinois, nešto poput križanca golemog risa i zmaja. Njegovo englesko ime je pogrešno, jer tigrovi nisu porijeklom iz Sjeverne Amerike; pravi prijevod imena Miami-Illinois zapravo je "Pravi ris", iako je čudovište više poput tigra. "Aramipinchiwa" znači "ris ispod" (referenca na dom čudovišta ispod vode), "Wapipinzha" znači "bijeli ris", a "Michipinchiwa" znači "veliki ris".

Prema legendi, Pravi tigrovi žive na dnu jezera i uzrokuju utapanje ljudi. Pravi tigar obično se opisuje kao tijelo ogromnog risa sa svijetlim krznom, rogovima, oklopljenim ljuskama i oštrim bodljama koje mu se spuštaju niz leđa. Indijanci Miami True Tigrove povezuju sa zvijezdama padalicama.

Izvori

Indijanska mitologija (mitska čudovišta)
Indijanska mitologija (vodeni duhovi)
Miami mitologija
Illinois mitologija

Lenapizha


147'ler olayı, 27 Mayıs 1960 askerî darbesinin ardından kurulan askerî yönetimin 147 öğretim üyesini üniversitelerden ihraç etme kararıdır.

Süreç
Ekim 1960'ta Millî Birlik Komitesi 147 öğretim üyesini üniversitelerden uzaklaştırdı. Görevine son verilenler arasında Emin Bilgiç, Ali Fuat Başgil, Sabahattin Eyüboğlu, Yavuz Abadan, Nusret Hızır, Tarık Zafer Tunaya, Mîna Urgan, Haldun Taner de vardı. Genelde bu tasfiyeler üniversite içinden gelen ihbarlara dayanıyordu. Kararı protesto etmek için Fikret Narter (İTÜ), Sıddık Sami Onar (İÜ), Suut Kemal Yetkin (Ankara Üniversitesi) ve Turhan Feyzioğlu (ODTÜ) gibi rektör ve birçok öğretim üyesi görevinden istifa etti. 1962 yılında çıkarılan yasayla öğretim üyelerine geri dönüş hakkı tanındı.

Haldun Taner, Dostoyevski'nin aynı adlı tamamlanmamış öyküsünden esinlenerek, 147'lerin görevden alınışıyla ilgili "Timsah" adlı oyunu yazdı. O dönem gazete yazılarında 147'lere destek vermiş olan Taner, "Timsah"la görevden alınan öğretim üyelerine destek olmayı ve onlara moral vermeyi amaçladı. Oyun 2008'de yazarın eşi Demet Taner ile Selçuk Erez'in çabasıyla Haldun Taner'in Timsahı adıyla kitap olarak basıldı.

147'ler listesi
28 Ekim 1960 tarihli "Üniversiteler öğretim üyelerinden bazılarının vazifelerinden affına ve bâzılarının diğer fakülte ve yüksek okullara nakline dair Kanun"'da yer alan 147'ler listesi aşağıdadır.

 Ord. Prof. Dr. Tevfik Remzi Kazancıgil
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Kazım İsmail Gürkan
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Fahri Arel
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Naci Bengisu
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Muzaffer Esat Güçhan
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Ekrem Şerif Egeli
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Naşit Erez
 Ord. Prof. Dr. İhsan Şükrü Aksel
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Cevat Kerim İncedayı
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Osman Cevdet Çubukçu
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Ekrem Behçet Tezel
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Zeki Zeren
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Tevfik Berkman
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Üveis Maskar
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Abdülhak Kemal Yörük
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Ali Fuat Başgil
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Hakkı Saymen
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Kemalettin Birsen
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Halil Arslanlı
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Mazhar Nedim Göknil
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Galip Okandan
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Ali Tanoğlu
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Mazhar Şevket İpşiroğlu
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Nurettin Çuhadar
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Emin Onat
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Feridun Ansan
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Ratip Berker
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Hilmi İleri
 Prof. Dr. Kamil Akol
 Prof. Dr. Şevket Soysal
 Prof. Dr. Kenan Tükel
 Prof. Dr. Müfide Küley
 Prof. Dr. Muhterem Gökmen
 Prof. Dr. Şinası Hakkı Erel
 Prof. Dr. Ömer Özek
 Prof. Dr. Ziya Öktem
 Prof. Dr. Necmettin Polvan
 Prof. Dr. Hıfzı Timur
 Prof. Dr. Tarık Zafer Tunaya
 Prof. Dr. Takiyettin Mengüşoğlu
 Prof. Dr. Afif Erzen
 Prof. Dr. Minâ (Urgan) Irgat
 Prof. Dr. Fuat Sezgin
 Prof. Dr. Sabahattin Eyüboğlu
 Prof. Dr. Süheyla Bayrav
 Prof. Dr. Kudret Mavitan
 Prof. Dr. Bekir Daoğlu
 Prof. Dr. Orhan Safa
 Prof. Dr. Muhittin Binan
 Prof. Dr. Sabri Oran
 Prof. Dr. Kemal Ahmet Aru
 Prof. Dr. Necati Engez
 Prof. Dr. Necati Acun
 Prof. Dr. Yusuf Berdan
 Prof. Dr. Orhan Ünsaç
 Prof. Dr. Turgan Sabis
 Prof. Dr. Reşat Nalbantoğlu
 Prof. Dr. Yavuz Abadan
 Prof. Dr. Bülent Nuri Esen
 Prof. Dr. Rahmi Ören
 Prof. Dr. Hâmit Sadi Selen
 Prof. Dr. Muhittin Erel
 Prof. Dr. İzzet Birand
 Prof. Dr. Aziz Köklü
 Prof. Dr. Fadıl Hakkı Sur
 Prof. Dr. İbrahim Hakkı Karafaki
 Prof. Dr. Halet Çambel
 Prof. Dr. Hikmet Belbez
 Prof. Dr. Hasan Eren
 Prof. Dr. Emin Bilgiç
 Prof. Dr. Feridun Nafiz Uzluk
 Prof. Dr. Zafer Paykoç
 Prof. Dr. Hâmi Kocaş
 Prof. Dr. Behçet Kamay
 Prof. Dr. Kâzım Aras
 Prof. Dr. Vefik Vassaf Akan
 Prof. Dr. İzzet Kantemir
 Prof. Dr. Celal Ertuğ
 Prof. Dr. Abdülbaki Nusret Hızır
 Prof. Dr. İsmail Nafiz Alkan
 Prof. Dr. Selim Palavan
 Prof. Dr. Mustafa Santur
 Prof. Dr. Münir Ülgür
 Prof. Dr. Enver Berkmen
 Prof. Dr. Celal Saraç
 Doç. Dr. İbrahim Berkan
 Doç. Dr. Ziya Üstün
 Doç. Dr. Tahsin Artunkal
 Doç. Dr. Cihat Gürsan
 Doç. Dr. Baha Sezer
 Doç. Dr. Rauf Saygın
 Doç. Dr. Ercüment Bora
 Doç. Dr. Merih Odman
 Doç. Dr. Şinasi Güçhan
 Doç. Dr. Ferhan Berker
 Doç. Dr. Türkan Erbengi
 Doç. Dr. Halit Kayalı
 Doç. Dr. Rana Kartal
 Doç. Dr. Rahmi Çobanoğlu
 Doç. Dr. Bülent Köprülü
 Doç. Dr. Zahit İmre
 Doç. Dr. Halit Kemal Elbir
 Doç. Dr. Ferih Tongsir
 Doç. Dr. Necmettin Berkin
 Doç. Dr. İsmet Giritli
 Doç. Dr. Münir Aktepe
 Doç. Dr. Abdükadir Karahan
 Doç. Dr. Cevdet Perin
 Doç. Dr. Adnan Benk
 Doç. Dr. İsmail Yalçınlar
 Doç. Dr. Haldun Taner
 Doç. Dr. Aran Ersümer
 Doç. Dr. Eyüp Kömürcüoğlu
 Doç. Dr. Orhan Bolak
 Doç. Dr. Necibe Saraçoğlu
 Doç. Dr. İsmail Utkular
 Doç. Dr. Mehpare Helibronn
 Doç. Dr. S. Bayramoğlu
 Doç. Dr. S. Nigâr
 Doç. Dr. Memduh Yaşa
 Doç. Dr. Mukbil Özyörük
 Doç. Dr. Şerif Baştav
 Doç. Dr. Enver Bostancı
 Doç. Dr. Belma Çakmur
 Doç. Dr. Necip Berksan
 Doç. Dr. Alaattin Orhon
 Eylemsiz Doç. Dr. Servet Güvener
 Eylemsiz Doç. Dr. Yusuf Keçeci
 Eylemsiz Doç. Dr. Arsan Zarfçı
 Başasistan Dr. İhsan Ünlüer
 Başasistan Dr. Fikret Avunduk
 Başasistan Dr. Kemal Aydınlıoğlu
 Başasistan Dr. Orhan Ternar
 Başasistan Dr. Selim Baruh
 Başasistan Dr. Mehmet Dinçöz
 Öğretim Görevlisi Dr. Fikret Ozansoy
 Asistan Dr. Yani Stomadiyadiz
 Asistan Dr. Ahmet Akdoğan
 Asistan Dr. Şevkiye İnalcık
 Asistan Aristidi Karyofili
 Asistan Ayhan Önder
 Asistan Aydın Aydıncı
 Asistan Slavço
 Asistan Özer Ozankaya
 Asistan Olcay Kansu
 Asistan Orhan Duru
 Asistan Atilla Tolun

Ayrıca bakınız
 1402'likler

Kaynakça

Konuyla ilgili yayınlar
 Beyaz kitap-147'ler Mes'elesi, Sermet Matbaası, İstanbul 1962.

147'ler


Left Democrats can mean:

Democrats of the Left (Democratici di Sinistra) - a former political party in Italy
Left Democrats (Vänsterdemokraterna) - a former political party in Sweden
Left and Democrats (Lewica i Demokraci) - a former political alliance in Poland
LeftDem
Left Democratic Manch, Assam

See also
Left Democratic Front (disambiguation)
Democratic Left (disambiguation)

Left Democrats


1931 දී ආරම්භ වු යුගය ලංකාවේ අධ්‍යාපන ඉතිහාසයේ ඉතාමත් වැදගත් කාල පරිච්ඡේදයකි. 1931 දී ක්‍රියාත්මක කරන ලද ඩොනමෝර් ආණ්ඩු ක්‍රමය විසින් ප්‍රථම වරට ස්වදේශිකයන්ට අභ්‍යන්තර පාලනය පිළිබද  සෑහෙන බලයක් පවරන ලදි. 1931 දී මුඵ ආසියාවෙන්ම ප්‍රථම වරට සර්ව ජන ඡන්ද බලය ලාංකිකයන්ට ප්‍රධානය කරන ලදි. ඡන්දය මගින් ව්‍යවස්ථාදායක සභාවේ නියෝජිතයන් තෝරන ලදි. රාජ්‍ය මන්ත්‍රණ සභා ක්‍රමය යටතේ, ඵක් විධායක කමිටුවක් යටතට අධ්‍යාපනය පත් වු අතර මෙම විධායක කමිටුවේ සභාපතිවරයා අධ්‍යාපන ඇමතිවරයා ලෙස සලකනු ලැබීය. මෙම ඇමති ධුරයට පත් වුයේ සී.ඩබීලීව් ඩබීලිව් කන්නන්ගර මහාතාය. මේ සමගම අධ්‍යාපන ප්‍රතිපත්ති තීරණය කිරීමේ බලය අධ්‍යාපන ඇමතිවරයා සතු විය.

කන්නන්ගර මහතා 1931 සිට 1947 දක්වා මුළු යුගයේම අධ්‍යාපන ඇමතිවරයා ලෙස කටයුතු කරන ලදි. ඵම නිසා මෙම යුගය  කන්නන්ගර යුගය  නම් වේ. මෙම යුගයේ දී ඇති කරන ලද අධ්‍යාපන ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණයක් වශයෙන් 05 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණයේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව විභාගයක් පැවැත්විම ගත හැකිය. මෙම විභාගය පැවැත්වීමේ අරමුණක් වුයේ,

අඩු අදායම ලබන දක්ෂ සිසුන්ට සම අධ්‍යාපන අවස්ථාවක් සැලසීමයි.

මෙම පාඨශාලිය ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ක්‍රමය වරින් වර ප්‍රතිශෝධනයට පක් වුවකි. ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ක්‍රමය වෙනස් වීමි වලට භාජනය වූයේ අධ්‍යාපන අධ්‍යක්ෂ ජනරාල්ගේ චක්‍රලේඛයට අනුවයි. 1942.02.10 දින අධ්‍යාපන විධායක කමිටු රැස්වීමේදි යෝජනා මගින් ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පැවැත්විය යුතු ආකාරය පිළිබදව ප්‍රකාශ කර ඇත. මෙම පරික්ෂණයට පෙනී සිටිමට සුදුසුකමි ලෙස මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාල පිහිටි ප්‍රදේශයේ රජයේ හෝ ආධාර ලබන හෝ පාසලක හෝ මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයක හෝ පශ්චාත් ප්‍රාථමික පන්තියක ඉගෙනීම ලැබීමත් වාර්ෂික ආදායම රූපියල් 600/= ට අඩු වීමත් දක්වා තිබුණු අතර වයස් සීමාව ගැන සලකා නොතිබිණි. මෙම සුදුසුකමි වලට අනුව පවත්වනු ලැබූ විභාගයට අනුව 1944 දී ඵක් මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයක ශිෂ්‍යත්වධාරින් 40 ක් ඇතුලත් වන සේ ශිෂ්‍යත්වය ලබා දෙනු ලැබීය. මෙම ශිෂ්‍යත්ව 40 සදහා සුදුස්සන් තෝරා ගනු ලැබුවේ ඵ් ඵ් මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලය පිහිටි ප්‍රදේශයේ  ඉගෙනුම ලැබු සිසුන්ගෙනි. මෙසේ තෝරා ගනු ලැබු සිසුන් සියලු දෙනාම නේවාසිකව කෑම බීම ලබමින් ඉගෙන ගත යුතු විය.

ඉහත අයුරින් ආරම්භ වු ඵක් මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයක් සදහා ශිෂ්‍යත්ව 40 ක් දීමේ වැඩ පිළිවෙළ රජය මුහුණ පෑ ආර්ථික දුෂ්කරතාව නිසා 1946 දී ඵම ශිෂ්‍යත්ව සංඛ්‍යාව 15 දක්වා අඩු කරන ලදි. විභාගය සදහා පෙනී සිටිය හැකි දරුවන්ගේ දෙමාපියන්ගේ ආදායම් සීමාව 1945.10.22 දින අධ්‍යාපන අධ්‍යක්ෂ ජනරාල්ගේ චක්‍ර ලේඛනයකින් රුපියල් 600/= සිට රුපියල් 900/= ක් දක්වා වැඩි කරන ලදි. මේ අයුරින් ක්‍රියාත්මක වු ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණය 1967 දක්වා නොකඩවා පැවැත්විණි.

නමුත් 1968 දී මෙතෙක් පැවතී 05 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණය අ‍හෝසි කොට ඵ් වෙනුවට 08 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ඉගෙනුම ලබන සිසුන් සදහා ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණය පැවැත්විණි. ඵය හැදින්වුයේ  80 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ සිසුන් සදහා විද්‍යාමය විෂයන් පිළිබදව රජයේ මහා විද්‍යාලයන්හී හා මධ්‍ය මහා විද්‍යාලයන්හී ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ප්‍රධානය කිරිමේ විභාගය යනුවෙනි.සිසුන් තෝරා ගනු ලැබුවේ අධ්‍යාපන දිස්ත්‍රික්ක 23 අනුව ඵ් ඵ් දිස්ත්‍රික්ක වලදී ඉහලම කුසලතාවක් පෙන්වන සිසුන්ගෙනි.

නමුත් 08 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ පැවැත් වු ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණය නැවත 1970 දී වෙනස් කෙරිණි. ඵම වෙනස් වීම අනුව 08 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ හා 05 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණය වෙනුවට   ජාතික නාවෝදය  නමි 07 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණයක් ආරම්භ කෙරිණි.

1970 දී ජාතික නවෝදය ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ලාභියෙකුට ගෙවනු ලබන වාර්ෂික දීමනාව පිළිබදව ඒ.ඒ වර්ණකුලසුරිය (warnakulasuriya A.A. 1996 ) පහත වගුවකින් ගෙන හැර ඇත.

සංඛ්‍යා සටහන් අංකය -01.1

(මුලාශය -ඒ.ඒ.වර්ණකුලසුරිය .1996).

වාර්ෂික සිසුන් 2500 තෝරා ගනු ලබු අතර එයින් වාර්ෂිකව 1176 ට පමන ශිෂ්‍යාධාර ගෙවු බව පෙනේ. එම ශිෂ්‍යාධාර ගෙවනු ලැබුවේ රුපියල් 3600/= ට අඩු වාර්ෂික ආදායම ලබා ගන්නා දෙමව්පියන්ගේ දරුවන්ට පමණි. මෙම ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරික්ෂණයට පෙනී සිටීමට හැකි වුයේ  වයස අවුරුදු 14 ට අඩු සිසුන්ටය.

ඉහත අයුරින් පැවතී ජාතික නවෝදය ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ක්‍රමය 1973 දී අහෝසි වු අතර 1973 දී නැවතත් 05 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ක්‍රමය ආරම්භ විය. මෙයට හේතුව වුයේ 1972 අධ්‍යාපන ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ මගින් 06 ශ්‍රේණියේ සිට 09 ශ්‍රේණිය දක්වා කණිෂ්ඨ ද්විතියික අධ්‍යාපනයක් ආරම්භ කිරීමය. මේ නිසා 07 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේදී පරීක්ෂණ  පවත්වා ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ලබා දීම තව දුරටත් ප්‍රයෝජනවත් කාර්යක් ලෙස සලකනු නොලැබීය.

1973 සිට පැවැත්වීම ආරමීභ කළ 05 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව පරීක්ෂණය  දෙස බලන විට පෙනී යන්නේ, ජාතික නවෝදය ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ක්‍රමයේදී මෙන් මෙම පරීක්ෂණයට ද ආදායම් සීමාවක් ආධාර ලබා දීම සදහා පමණක් පනවා තිබුණි. නමුත් 1981 දී ශිෂ්‍යත්වධාරින්ට ආධාර මුදල් ගෙවීමෙදී ආධායම් සීමාව රුපියල් 6000/= කිරීමත්, ශිෂ්‍යත්වධාරින්ට ගෙවන ආධාර මුදල් වැඩි කිරීමත්ය. ගෙවනු ලැබු දීමනාව පහත දැක්වේ.

සංඛ්‍යා සටහන් අංකය  01-2.

(මුලාශය -ඒ.ඒ.වර්ණකුලසුරිය.1996).

එකම පවුලේ ළමයින් දෙදෙනෙකුට හෝ වැඩි ගණනකට ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ප්‍රධානය කර තිබේ නම්, ශිෂ්‍යත්ව සදහා සුදුසුකම් ලබන තෙවැන්නාට ආධායම් සීමාව නොසලකා ආධාර මුදල් ගෙවීම මෙම ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ක්‍රමයේ විශේෂ ලක්ෂණයක් විය.අවුරුදු කිහිපයක ශිෂ්‍යත්ව විභාග ප්‍රතිඵල පහත දැක්වේ.

සංඛ්‍යා සටහන් අංකය    01-3.

(මුලාශය - විභාග දේපාර්තුමේන්තු වාර්තාව.2007).

ඉහත වගුවට අනුව 2003 වසරේ ශිෂ්‍යත්වය අසමත් වී ඇති ප්‍රතිශතය 7.93% ක් වන අතර අසමත් වු ගණන 92.07% කි. 2004 වර්ෂය ගත් විට  එම වර්ෂයේ ශිෂ්‍යත්වය සමත් වී ඇත්තේ 8.04% ක් වන අතර අසමත් වු ගණන 91.96%කි. 2005 වර්ෂය ගත් විට එම වර්ෂය තුළද ශිෂ්‍යත්වය සමත් වී ඇත්තේ 7.95% ක් වන අතර අසමත් වු ගණන 92.05% ක ප්‍රතිශතයකි. 2007 වර්ෂය, එම වර්ෂය  තුළද ශිෂ්‍යත්වය සමත් වී ඇත්තේ 11.09% ක් වන අතර අසමත් වු ප්‍රතිශතය 88.05% කි. මේ තත්වය පහත ප්‍රස්ථාරයකින් නිරුපණය කළ හැකිය.

ප්‍රස්ථාර අංක  -01.

05 වෙනි ශ්‍රේණියේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව විභාගය (2003-2007) පෙනී සිටී
සිසුන්ගේ සමත් වු ප්‍රතිශතය.

ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ අධ්‍යාපනය
අධ්‍යාපනය - ශ්‍රී ලංකාව
අධ්‍යාපනය

ශිෂ්‍යත්ව විභාගය


Freddie Mercury (5 Eylül 1946, Zanzibar – 24 Kasım 1991, Londra), Britanyalı şarkıcı, şarkı yazarı ve müzik grubu Queen'in solistidir.

Gerçek adı, Farrokh Bulsara'dır. Sahnedeki duruşu, şovu, pek çok kişi tarafından hâlâ dünyanın en güçlü vokali olarak anılan sesi, Queen'i insanlık tarihinin en çok tanınan müzik gruplarından biri haline getirmesi ile tanınan, Queen grubunun kurucusu ve vokalistidir. 'Rock müzik' ve 'Operanın' bir arada kullanımı başta olmak üzere, değişik müzik türlerini bir arada harmanlayan bir müzik anlayışına sahiptir. "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Somebody to Love", "We Are the Champions", "Don't Stop Me Now", "Killer Queen" ve "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" gibi pek çok uluslararası hit parçanın yazarıdır. Komplike bir özgüvene ve cesarete sahip olduğunu o yıllarda sahip olduğu dış görünüşü, müziği ve Queen ile tüm dünyaya hissettirmiştir. Yıllarca Queen grubundaki çalışmaları ile birlikte solo olarak da çalışmıştır. Ses aralığı 4 oktavdı, konuşma sesi bariton aralığında, şarkı söylerken sesi tenordu. Dişleri nedeniyle kendini özgüvensiz hissediyordu ancak sesinin etkilenebileceğinden endişelendi ve dişlerinde herhangi bir değişiklik yapmadı. Mercury ayrıca İlk Asyalı Rock Star olarak adlandırılır. 1991 senesinde AIDS'in getirdiği komplikasyonlar sonucu yaşamını yitirmiştir. Ölümünden sonra geriye kalan grup üyeleri, toplumun AIDS farkındalığının artması amacıyla The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert adında bir konser düzenlemişlerdir.

2005 senesinde Blender dergisinin okuyucuları Mercury'yi gelmiş geçmiş en iyi erkek sanatçı seçtiler ve 2008 senesinde, Rolling Stone dergisi onu "Tüm Zamanların En İyi 100 Şarkıcısı" sıralamasında 18. sıraya yerleştirdi. 2009 senesinde Classic Rock dergisinin yaptığı ankette Mercury gelmiş geçmiş en iyi rock müzik sanatçısı seçildi. Vizelli tarafından tarihte en çok iz bırakmış sanatçılardan biri seçilen Mercury, 2009 yılının Ocak ayında Birleşik Krallık'ta istatistik konusunda bir otorite olarak kabul edilen OnePoll tarafından skiddle.com'un katkılarıyla ve oldukça geniş çaplı katılımla gerçekleştirilen bir ankete göre Rock Tanrısı adına layık görüldü.

Mercury'nin vokalliği ile Queen, 300 milyon civarı bir satış başarısı elde etmiştir. Queen genel olarak The Beatles'den sonraki en önemli rock grubu olarak kabul görür. Bu güne kadar Celine Dion, George Michael, Lady Gaga, Katy Perry, Extreme, Michael Jackson, Foo Fighters, Kurt Cobain, Guns N' Roses, Metallica, Manic Street Preachers, The Killers, The Smashing Pumpkins, Radiohead, My Chemical Romance, Kansas, Iron Maiden, Ben Folds Five, Robbie Williams gibi birçok şarkıcının veya grubun üzerinde etki bırakmıştır.

Çocukluk yılları
Parsi kökenli bir ailede zamanın İngiliz kolonisi olan Zanzibar adasında (şimdiki Tanzanya'nın bir parçası) doğmuştur. Kashmira adında bir kız kardeşi vardır.

Mercury, Bombay'daki (Hindistan) St. Peter yatılı okuluna geri gönderildi. Bu okulda piyano çalmayı öğrendi ve ilk grubu The Hectics'e katıldı. Çocukluğunun büyük kısmını Hindistan'da büyükannesi ve teyzesi ile geçirdi. Zanzibar'a dönmeden önce St. Mary's Lisesi'nde eğitimini tamamladı. Zanzibar'daki 1964 devrimi nedeniyle, 17 yaşında iken ailesi ile birlikte Birleşik Krallık'a taşındılar. Ealing Art College'da Sanat ve Grafik Tasarım alanında diploma aldı.

Şarkıcı ve yorumcu
Freddie Mercury, geniş kitlelerce rock müziğin en büyük vokalistlerinden biri olarak kabul edilmiştir.

Freddie Mercury çok özel bir sese sahipti. Normal konuşma sesi bariton aralığında olmasına karşın şarkı söylerkenki sesi tenor idi. Kaydedilmiş vokal aralığı yaklaşık 4 oktav idi (falsetto dahil). Vokal aralığına ilaveten Mercury teknik olarak zor şarkıları da çok güçlü bir sesle yorumlamıştır. Ancak, ses tellerindeki nodüllerden rahatsız olması nedeniyle (ameliyat olmayı reddetmiştir) pek çok konserinde yüksek notaları düşürmüştür. Mercury hiç formal vokal eğitimi almadığını söylemiştir.

Şarkı yazımı
Freddie Mercury, Queen'in "Greatest Hits" albümündeki 17 şarkının 10'unun yazarıdır. Bunlar arasında: "Killer Queen", "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Somebody to Love", "We Are the Champions" ve "Don't Stop Me Now" sayılabilir. 1980'lerde grubun dört üyesi de şarkı yazıyordu. Ancak Mercury'nin şarkılarında dikkati çeken en büyük özellik, Rock, heavy metal ve disco gibi farklı tarzları kullanabilmesiydi. Bazı şarkılarının yapısı diğerlerine göre çok daha kompleks, bazılarınınki ise oldukça basitti. Örneğin, "Bohemian Rhapsody"nin çevrimsiz bir yapısı vardır ve yaklaşık 60 akor içerir. Buna karşın, "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" şarkısında sadece birkaç akor vardır. Mercury oldukça karmaşık harmoniler yazmış olmasına rağmen, çok az nota bilgisi olduğunu söylemiştir.

Queen topluluğunun dört üyesi de şarkı yazarı olmasına rağmen, ilk albümlerinin yapımında Queen ile birlikte stüdyo çalışmalarına katılan yapımcı Gary Langan: "Freddie, diğerlerinin şarkı yazmalarına her zaman destek vermiştir. Oysa çalıştığım diğer gruplarda durum hiç de böyle değildi; belli bir kişi şarkı yazardı, başka yazan olursa da şarkısını kabul ettirmek için epeyce uğraşması gerekirdi." demiştir. Mercury şarkılarının çoğunu piyanoda yazmış ve genellikle grup arkadaşları ve gitarist Brian May için teknik olarak zor notalar seçmiştir. Gitar yeteneği oldukça düşük seviyede olmasına karşın, gitar için de Bohemian Rhapsody'de duyulanlar dahil olmak üzere pek çok melodi ve riff yazmıştır. "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" şarkısını da gitarda yazmıştır.

Solo çalışmaları
Queen ile yaptıkları çalışmalara ilaveten Mercury iki de solo albüm çıkarmıştır: "Mr. Bad Guy" (1985) ve "Barcelona" (1988). İlki daha çok pop ağırlıklı olup disko ve dans müziği tarzındadır. "Barcelona" ise Mercury'nin hayranı olduğu opera sanatçısı Montserrat Caballé ile birlikte kaydedilmiştir.

Britanya'da albüm listelerinde 23 hafta kalmasına rağmen, Queen'in diğer albümlerine göre "Mr. Bad Guy"ın ticari anlamda pek de başarılı olmadığı söylenir. Buna karşın, 1993'te "Living On My Own"'un bir remiksi (aynı albümden bir şarkı) Britanya listelerinde birinci sıraya yükselmiş, 13 hafta listede kalmış ve Mercury'ye ölümünden sonra Ivor Novello Ödülünü kazandırmıştır. Müzik eleştirmeni David Prato, "Mr. Bad Guy"ı "baştan sona seçkin" olarak nitelendirmiş ve Mercury'nin "bilinmeyen bir bölgeye uzanarak saygın bir iş yaptığını" söylemiştir. Albümde ağırlıklı olarak sentezleyici (Synthesizer) kullanılmıştı ve bu durum önceki Queen albümlerinin karakterinden çok farklıydı.

"Barselona", opera şarkıcısı Montserrat Caballé ile kaydedilmiş olup pop müzik ile operanın elementlerini içeriyordu. Caballé, albümün, kendi kariyerindeki en büyük başarılarından biri olduğunu söylemiş ve Mercury için: "O sadece bir pop şarkıcısı değil, bir müzisyen idi, piyanonun başına geçer ve beste yapmaya başlardı. Farklı müzik stillerini bir araya getirmenin yeni bir yolunu keşfetmişti. O bu işi yapan ilk ve tek kişidir." şeklinde konuşmuştur. Eylül 2006'da, Birleşik Krallık'ta Freddie Mercury'nin 60. doğum günü şerefine, onun solo çalışmasını da içeren bir derleme albüm piyasaya çıkmıştır. Albüm Britanya listelerine ilk 10'dan giriş yapmıştır.

Yıllar geçtikçe, Freddie Mercury'nin nadir bulunan solo albümleri daha da değer kazanmıştır. Örneğin, Barcelona albümündeki "Guide Me Home" şarkısının şu anki değeri yaklaşık £1,000 ($1,800) dır. Bir diğer değerli parça da, 1969'daki Beach Boys şarkısının 1973'teki tekrarı olan I Can Hear Music olup Larry Lurex sahne adı altında kaydedilmiştir. Yaygın bir şekilde korsanı yapılan bu eserin orijinali çok değerli bir koleksiyon parçasıdır.

Mercury, Michael Jackson ile, "There Must Be More To Life Than This" ve "State of Shock" gibi resmen yayımlanmayan birkaç şarkıda birlikte çalışmıştır. Mercury'nin, Michael Jackson ile birlikte kaydettiği "Victory" adlı parça henüz piyasaya çıkmamıştır.

Cat Fancy dergisinin Ocak 2004 sayısındaki habere göre, Mercury kedileri çok severdi ve hatta hayatının bir döneminde 10 kadar kedisi vardı. Mercury'nin kişisel yardımcısı Peter Freestone, patronunun kedilere "en az insanlar kadar değer verdiğini" yazmıştır. Nitekim, Mr. Bad Guy albümü ve Innuendo albümünde "Delilah" ile "Bijou" şarkıları aynı isimde iki kedisine ithaf etmiştir. Mercury, video ve albüm kapaklarında bir kediyi canlandıran giysiler giymiştir.

Mercury, Parsi kökenli olduğunu pek çok hayranından gizlemiş ve röportajlarda soykütüğünden nadiren bahsetmiştir. Çoğu kaynakta Freddie Mercury'nin Hint kökeninden geldiği belirtilse de, aslında kendisi İran'a Müslümanlık geldiği zaman Hindistan'a göç eden Zerdüştlerin soyundan gelmektedir. Pek çok arkadaşı, Mercury'nin etnik kökeninden utandığını ve uzun yıllar Hint göçmenlere karşı şiddet ve ırkçı isyan hareketlerine sahne olmuş bir ülkede ırkçı bir tepkiden korktuğunu açıklamışlardır. Öte yandan gruptaki arkadaşı Roger Taylor, Mercury'nin etnik kökenini, sadece rock müzisyeni kimliğine uymadığı için geri plana ittiğini ileri sürmüştür. Yaşamının son yıllarında, "These Are the Days of Our Lives" filmindeki sıska görünüşü de bu dedikoduların yayılmasını körüklüyor ve ciddi bir rahatsızlığı olduğunu belli ediyordu.

22 Kasım 1991'de Mercury, Queen'in menajeri Jim Beach'i Kensington'daki evine çağırdı ve bir basın açıklaması hazırladılar. Ertesi gün, aşağıdaki açıklama basına verildi:

Freddie Mercury, bu açıklamadan 24 saat kadar sonra, evinde, yakın arkadaşlarının kollarında, 45 yaşında öldü. Resmi ölüm nedeni, AIDS'ten dolayı yakalandığı bronşiyal pnömoni idi. Yıllardır dinsel törenlere katılmamasına rağmen, cenaze töreni zerdüşt bir rahip tarafından yönetildi. Kensal Green mezarlığında yakıldı. Küllerine ne olduğu bilinmemekle birlikte, Cenevre Gölüne serpildiği, ailesine verildiği gibi çeşitli rivayetler vardır. Queen'in geride kalan üyeleri The Mercury Phoenix Trust'ı kurdular ve The Freddie Mercury Tribute Konseri düzenlediler. Şefine 500.000 £, kişisel yardımcısına 500.000 £, şoförüne 100.000 £ ve eşi Jim Hutton'a 500.000 £, eski yaşam boyu arkadaşı Mary Austin'e ise malikanesini bırakmıştır.

Etkilendikleri
Freddie Mercury'nin ailesi, onun çocukluğunda hep Hint müziği dinlerdi ve onun ilk etkilendiği kişi de bir Bollywood playback şarkıcısı olan Lata Mangeshkar idi. Record Collector dergisine göre, Britanya'ya taşındıktan sonra, Mercury büyük bir Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles ve Led Zeppelin hayranı oldu. Hendrix için: "Jimi Hendrix çok önemlidir. O benim idolümdür. Sahnedeki duruşu ile bir rock yıldızı için tam bir örnek teşkil eder. Onu birisiyle karşılaştırmanıza imkân yoktur. Sihiriniz ya vardır ya da yoktur. Geliştirilecek bir şey değildir bu. Onun yerini kimse dolduramaz." demiştir. Mercury'nin hayran olduğu bir diğer kişi de, şarkıcı ve oyuncu Liza Minnelli idi. 1975 yılında verdiği bir röportajda Minnelli için: "Liza'nın her tarafından yetenek akıyor. Üstün bir enerjiye ve güce sahip. Kendini dinleyicisine aktarması ise çok etkileyici. Ondan öğrenilecek çok şey var. şeklinde konuşmuştur.

Ondan geriye kalanlar

Son anketler
 Son anketlere göre Mercury Britanya'da hala popülerliğini koruyor. Örneğin, 600.000 İngilizin katıldığı 1999 Binyıl anketinde bir müzisyen ve şarkı yazarı olarak sırasıyla 14. ve 15. sıraları aldı.
 2002'de BBC tarafından desteklenen ve halkın oylarıyla oluşturulan, "En büyük 100 İngiliz" listesinde 58. olmuştur.
 Mercury'nin iki şarkısı; "Bohemian Rhapsody" ve "We Are The Champions", farklı anketlerde dünyanın en sevilen şarkıları olarak seçildi. En son olarak, 66 ayrı ülkede 600.000 kişiyle yapılan ankette, "We Are The Champions" dünyanın en popüler şarkısı seçildi. Bu sonuç, "Bohemian Rhapsody" şarkısını son 50 yılın en beğenilen şarkısı ilan eden bir başka büyük anketin bulgusuyla tezat içindedir.
 DigitalDreamDoor'daki çevrimiçi müzik topluluğu, Freddie Mercury'yi "En büyük 100 rock vokalisti" listesinde sürekli olarak 1 numarada tutmaktadır.
 BBC radyosunun düzenlediği "20. yüzyılın en büyük şarkıcıları" listesinde Mercury, en yüksek puan alan hard rock vokalisti idi ve 10. sırada yer almıştı. MTVnin, "Son 25 yılın en büyük şarkıcıları" listesinde 2. sırayı almıştır.
 Son olarak yapılan bir ankete göre Mercury <<Ultimate Rock God>> yani 'Rock ın Tanrısı' ilan edildi.

 Binyıl pulu
Kraliyet posta servisi Freddie Mercury'nin anısına "Binyıl pulu" çıkarmıştır. Pulun arka planında Queen'in davulcusu Roger Taylor'ın görünmesi tartışmalara yol açmıştır. O zamanlar, pullarda sadece İngiliz kraliyet ailesinin resimleri basılabilirdi fakat bu politika daha sonra değiştirilmiştir. Aslında bu gelenek, onlarca yıl önce 1967'de, dünyanın çevresini yelkenlisi ile tek başına dolaşan Sir Francis Chichester için çıkarılan pul ile bozulmuştu (1967).

 60. doğum günü kutlamalarını saran tartışmalar
25 Ağustos 2006'da İslamik Seferberlik ve Çoğalma (UAMSHO) adlı bir örgüt, Zanzibar hükûmetinin kültür bakanlığına çağrıda bulunarak, Freddie Mercury'nin 60. doğum günü kutlamalarının engellenmesini talep etmiştir.

UAMSHO'nun planlanan kutlamalara ilişkin şikayetleri arasında: Mercury'nin Müslüman olmayışı, homoseksüel bir yaşam sürmesi, gerçek bir Zanzibar'lı olmayışı ve "Mercury'yi Zanzibar'la ilişkilendirmekle, bir İslam adası olan Zanzibar'ın itibarının zedelenecek olması" vardı. Ve planlanan kutlamalar iptal edildi.

 Freddie Mercury hakkında söylenenler
 Queen ile birlikte "Under Pressure" şarkısını kaydeden ve The Freddie Mercury Tribute Konserinde sahne alan rock yıldızı David Bowie, Mercury hakkında: "Tüm teatral rock yıldızları içinde Freddie bu işi en ileri götürendir. Tayt giyen bir adama her zaman hayranlık duymuşumdur. Bir kez onun konserini izledim ve gerçekten de dedikleri gibi seyirciyi avuçlarının içine almasını gayet iyi biliyor. Bir klişeyi kendi avantajına dönüştürebiliyor." demiştir.
 Barcelona albümünde Mercury ile birlikte çalışan, opera sanatçısı Montserrat Caballé: "Freddie ile hemen hemen tüm diğer rock yıldızları arasındaki fark, onun sesini satmasını bilmesiydi." şeklinde konuşmuştur.

 Queen'in geride kalan üyelerinden Brian May ve Roger Taylor ile sahne alan pop yıldızı Robbie Williams: "Freddie, eğer oradaysan ve çalışmanı kanalize etmek için bir sanatçı seçmek istiyorsan, lütfen bana bir albüm ya da en azından ortadaki sekizi ver." demiştir.
 Wayne's World adlı filmi ile "Bohemian Rhapsody" yi genç nesillere duyuran komedyen Mike Myers, Mercury için: "Tiyatrosallığı vardı, hayattan daha büyüktü, yeni, taze ve süperdi. İnsan kılığında dolaşan bir tanrıydı." demiştir.
 Rock şarkıcısı Rob Halford: "Freddie'nin öldüğünü duyduğumda çok üzüldüm. Dünya büyük bir yorumcuyu, harika bir sesi, usta bir müzisyeni kaybetti. Tanrıya şükür, sonsuza dek dinleyebileceğimiz müziği var." demiştir.
 "Onu seyrettim, öldüğünü gördüm, ve benim için çok acı vericiydi, çünkü onu gerçekten çok seviyordum, sesi ile uyumlu yaşadı ve öldü." Dave Mustaine (Megadeth).
 LGBT aktivistlerince sürekli eleştirilen Axl Rose da sadık bir Freddie Mercury hayranı idi ve: "Çocukken Mercury'nin şarkı sözlerine tutunmasaydım, nerede olurdum bilemem. Müziğin tüm formlarını onlardan öğrendim. Tüm yaşamım boyunca daha büyük bir öğretmenim olmadı." dediği bilinir." Rose, The Freddie Mercury Tribute Konserinde, "We Will Rock You" ve "Bohemian Rhapsody" şarkılarında Elton John'a eşlik etmiştir.
 Kurt Cobain'in intihar ettiğinde (1994) bıraktığı iddia edilen notta şunlar yazılıdır: "Okurken veya yazarken müzik dinleme veya müzik oluşturma zevkini yıllardır hissetmedim. Bu konuda hissettiğim suçluluk duygusunu tarif etmeye kelimeler yetmez. Örneğin, sahne arkasında iken ve ışıklar sönüp de kalabalığın çılgınca haykırışları başladığında, bu beni Freddie'yi etkilediği gibi etkilemiyordu. Freddie bundan hoşlanıyordu, kalabalıktan gelen sevgi ve hayranlıktan tat alıyordu, ki buna hep saygı duymuş ve kıskanmışımdır.
 Bir radyo röportajında şarkıcı Tori Amos, 1999'daki şarkısını (Sugar) yazabilmek için Freddie Mercury'nin ruhunu çağırdığını söylemiştir: "Banyodaydım. Kafamın içindeki ses Freddie'ninki idi, akorlarla oynuyordum ve bu şarkıyı yazmama neden olan bu şeyleri düşünüyordum ve birden onun: "Şeker, o bana şeker getiriyor" dediğini duydum. ve dedim ki: "Teşekkürler Freddie..."
 Müzik dünyasından yakın arkadaşı Elton John ise Freddie'nin ölümü üzerine şu cümleyi söylemiştir: "Tanrı en sonunda kare asını tamamladı dostum.. Janis Joplin, John Lennon, Elvis Presley ve sen... Arkadaşım olduğun için teşekkürler.. Seni her zaman seveceğiz."
 Dave Grohl (Foo Fighters) ise her zaman etkilendiği Freddie Mercury'den şöyle söz etmiştir: "Dünyada karşısındaki seyirci kitlesine hitap edebilen 2 insan tanıdım.. Biri Papa, diğeri Freddie Mercury.."
 Daimi dostu Elton John, onun hakkında düşüncelerini şöyle belirtmiştir: "Bu kahrolası adamın(!) sesi o kadar güçlü ki piyano çalarken vokaline dikkat etme ihtiyacı bile hissetmiyor"

 Diskografi
 Solo albümleri
 Mr. Bad Guy (1985)
 Barcelona (1988, Montserrat Caballé ile birlikte)
Ölümünden sonra yayımlananlar:
 The Freddie Mercury Album/The Great Pretender (1992)
 The Solo Collection (10 CD ve 2 DVD)/Solo (3 CD) (2000)
 Lover of Life, Singer of Songs — The Very Best of Freddie Mercury Solo (2006)

 Solo seçilmiş şarkılar
 Love Kills (1984)
 I Was Born to Love You (1985)
 Made in Heaven (1985)
 Living on My Own (1985)
 Time (1986)
 The Great Pretender (1987) (1993'te tekrar yayımlandı)
 Barcelona (Montserrat Caballé ile birlikte (1987), 1992'de tekrar yayımlandı)
 In My Defence (1992)
 Living on My Own (No More Brothers remiksi, 1993)
 Love Kills (Sunshine People Remiksleri, 2006)Queen grubuyla yayınladığı albümler 1973 - Queen
 1974 - Queen II
 1974 - Sheer Heart Attack
 1975 - A Night At The Opera
 1976 - A Day At The Races
 1977 - News Of The World
 1978 - Jazz
 1979 - Live Killers
 1980 - The Game
 1980 - Flash Gordon
 1981 - Greatest Hits
 1982 - Hot Space
 1984 - The Works
 1986 - A Kind Of Magic
 1986 - Live Magic
 1989 - The Miracle
 1989 - Queen At The Beeb
 1991 - Innuendo
 1991 - Greatest Hits II
 1992 - Live At Wembley'86
 1992 - The 12" Collection
 1992 - Classic Queen
 1995 - Made In Heaven
 1995 - Queen In Nuce
 1997 - Queen Rocks
 1999 - Greatest Hits III
 2000 - The Platinum Collection
 2004 - Live At The Bowl
 2007 - Rock MontrealQueen albümlerinde bulunan şarkıları'''
 1973 – Keep Yourself Alive (Queen) 1973 – Great King Rat (Queen) 1973 – My Fairy King (Queen) 1973 – Liar (Queen) 1973 – Jesus (Queen) 1973 – Seven Seas Of Rhye (Enstrumental) (Queen) 1974 – Ogre Battle (Queen II) 1974 – Fairy Feller's Master-Stroke (Queen II) 1974 – Nevermore (Queen II) 1974 – The March Of The Black Queen (Queen II) 1974 – Funny How Love Is (Queen II) 1974 – Seven Seas Of Rhye (Queen II) 1974 – Killer Queen (Sheer Heart Attack) 1974 – Flick Of The Wrist (Sheer Heart Attack) 1974 – Lily Of The Valley (Sheer Heart Attack) 1974 – In The Lap Of The Gods (Sheer Heart Attack) 1974 – Bring Back That Leroy Brown (Sheer Heart Attack) 1974 – In The Lap Of The Gods… Revisited (Sheer Heart Attack) 1975 – Death On Two Legs (A Night At The Opera) 1975 – Lazing On A Sunday Afternoon (A Night At The Opera) 1975 – Seaside Rendezvous (A Night At The Opera) 1975 – Love Of My Life (A Night At The Opera) 1975 – Bohemian Rhapsody (A Night At The Opera) 1976 – You Take My Breath Away (A Day At The Races) 1976 – The Millionaire Waltz (A Day At The Races) 1976 – Somebody To Love (A Day At The Races) 1976 – Good Old-Fashioned Lover Boy (A Day At The Races) 1977 – We Are The Champions (News Of The World) 1977 – Get Down, Make Love (News Of The World) 1977 – My Melancholy Blues (News Of The World) 1978 – Mustapha (Jazz) 1978 – Jealousy (Jazz) 1978 – Bicycle Race (Jazz) 1978 – Let Me Entertain You (Jazz) 1978 – Don't Stop Me Now (Jazz) 1980 – Play The Game (The Game) 1980 – Crazy Little Thing Called Love (The Game) 1980 – Don't Try Suicide (The Game) 1980 – Ming's Theme (Flash Gordon) 1980 – The Ring (Flash Gordon) 1980 – Football Fight (Flash Gordon) 1980 – The Kiss (Flash Gordon) 1980 – Vultan's Theme (Flash Gordon) 1982 – Staying Power (Hot Space) 1982 – Body Language (Hot Space) 1982 – Life Is Real (Hot Space) 1982 – Cool Cat (Hot Space) 1984 – It's A Hard Life (The Works) 1984 – Man On The Prowl (The Works) 1984 – Keep Passing The Open Windows (The Works) 1984 – Is This The World We Created? (The Works) 1986 – Pain Is So Close To Pleasure (A Kind Of Magic) 1986 – Friends Will Be Friends (A Kind Of Magic) 1986 – Princes Of The Universe (A Kind Of Magic) 1989 – Party (The Miracle) 1989 – Khashoggi's Ship (The Miracle) 1989 – The Miracle (The Miracle) 1989 – Breakthru (The Miracle) 1989 – Rain Must Fall (The Miracle) 1989 – My Baby Does Me (The Miracle) 1989 – Was It All Worth It (The Miracle) 1991 – I'm Going Slightly Mad (Innuendo) 1991 – Don't Try So Hard (Innuendo) 1991 – All God's People (Innuendo) 1991 – Delilah (Innuendo) 1991 – The Hitman (Innuendo) 1991 – Bijou (Innuendo) 1991 – The Show Must Go On (Innuendo) 1991 – Mad The Swine (Innuendo) 1995 – It's A Beautiful Day (Made In Heaven) 1995 – Made In Heaven (Made In Heaven) 1995 – Let Me Live (Made In Heaven) 1995 – Mother Love (Made In Heaven) 1995 – I Was Born To Love You (Made In Heaven) 1995 – A Winter's Tale (Made In Heaven) Queen

 Biyografiler
 Boyce, Simon. They Died Too Young: Freddie Mercury. Parragon. ISBN 0-7525-1105-X
 Clarke, Ross. Freddie Mercury: A Kind Of Magic. ISBN 1-874130-01-9
 Evans, David and Minns, David. Freddie Mercury: This is the Real Life. Brittania, 1992. ISBN 0-9519937-1-2, ISBN 0-9519937-0-4
 Evans, David and Minns, David. Freddie Mercury — The Real Life: The Truth Behind The Legend. ISBN 1-901953-00-9
 Freestone, Peter. Freddie Mercury: An Intimate Memoir By the Man Who Knew Him Best. Omnibus Press, 2001.
 Freestone, Peter and Evans, David. Mister Mercury. ISBN 0-9533341-0-4
 Hutton, Jim and Waspshott, Tim. Mercury and Me. Bloomsbury, 1994. ISBN 0-7475-1922-6
 Jackson, Laura. Mercury: The King of Queen. London: Smith Gryphon, 1996. ISBN 1-85685-132-X
 Jones, Lesley-Ann. Freddie Mercury. The Definitive Biography. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1997. ISBN 0-340-67209-9
 Marten, Neville and Hudson, Jeffrey. Rock Lives: The Ultimate Story: Freddie Mercury & Queen. Castle Communications, 1995. ISBN 1-86074-040-5
 Sky, Rick. The Show Must Go On. Fontana, 1992. ISBN 0-00-637843-9
 Freddie Mercury: A life, In His Own Words.'' 22 Eylül 2006'da yayımlandı.

Dış bağlantılar
Beyazperde ' de Freddie Mercury
 Official Freddie Mercury site (Lover of Life Singer of Songs)
 Queen Archives - Freddie Mercury röportajları
 The Voice: Freddie Mercury - Mercury'sesi ile ilgili detaylı bilgiler
 Official Queen site
 The Official International Queen Fan Club
 Official Freddie Mercury MySpace page
 Google Video'da belgesel
 Denis O'Regan tarafında çekilmiş Freddie Mercury fotoğrafları
 Freddie Mercury - King of Queen Freddie'nin yaşamı hakkında bilgiler

Kaynakça

Hint asıllı İngilizler
İngiliz piyanistler
Queen üyeleri
1946 doğumlular
İngiliz erkek şarkıcılar
İngiliz rock şarkıcıları
LGBT şarkıcılar
Britanyalı LGBT müzisyenler
Biseksüel müzisyenler
Birleşik Krallık'ta LGBT kişiler
Tanzanya'da LGBT kişiler
Ivor Novello Ödülü sahipleri
AIDS'e bağlı hastalıklardan ölenler
1991 yılında ölenler
BRIT Ödülü sahipleri
[[Kategori:Persler
Hollywood Records sanatçıları
Britanyalı LGBT şarkıcılar

Freddie Mercury


Les dolmens de Kervignon, dont il ne demeure désormais qu'un unique dolmen, étaient un ensemble d'édifices mégalithiques situé sur la commune de Plobannalec-Lesconil, dans le département français du Finistère.

Historique
Dans sa description du site, qu'il visite en 1880, Paul du Châtellier distingue quatre groupes de mégalithes plus ou moins ruinés, voire en voie de disparition mais la localisation de ces groupes est assez imprécise. Il fouille uniquement le seul dolmen encore visible et ses abords immédiats. Par arrêté du 8 avril 1922, un dolmen est classé au titre des monuments historiques.

Description

Le premier groupe, situé à  à l'est du village de Kervignon, aurait été constitué « d'un dolmen central et de plusieurs chambres latérales ». Il était déjà à l'époque « à peu près détruit ». Le second groupe,  situé à  au nord du village était complètement ruiné en raison de l'extraction des pierres probablement destinées à la construction des habitations voisines. Le troisième groupe, situé à  au nord-est du village, était dans un état similaire pour les mêmes raisons, mais il comportait encore un tertre. Le quatrième groupe, situé à  du précédent, était le moins endommagé et du Châtellier en entreprit une fouille sommaire. Il incluait encore un dolmen comportant une table de couverture en granite de  de longueur sur  de largeur et d'une épaisseur moyenne de . Selon du Châtellier, ce dolmen, orienté nord-sud, comportait « à l'est une très belle chambre, à ciel ouvert, mesurant  sur . A l'ouest et au nord du dolmen devaient aussi exister des chambres analogues ». Sous la table du dolmen, le sol de la chambre était pavé de pierres brutes, reposant sur un lit de terre jaune, ce dallage étant lui-même recouvert d'une couche de sable de grève de  d'épaisseur.

La grande chambre située à l'est du dolmen, de forme rectangulaire, était délimitée par de grands orthostates de  de hauteur, enfoncé sur  de profondeur. Le sol de cette chambre était lui aussi pavé de pierres brutes, dont une très grande de  sur , reposant sur un lit de terre jaune d'une épaisseur de .

Sur le plan fourni par du Châtellier, la table de couverture du dolmen repose encore sur quatre orthostates, deux de chaque côté, ce qui correspond à la disposition du seul dolmen encore existant sur le site mais aucune trace de la grande chambre orientale n'est plus visible.

Matériel archéologique
Lors de sa fouille, du Châtellier découvrit, autour du dolmen, plusieurs percuteurs, des éclats de silex, de nombreux charbons de bois et des tessons de poterie correspondant à des vases à fond rond. Dans le coin nord-est de la chambre, les nombreux tessons d'une poterie grossière recueillis permirent de reconstituer un grand vase, d'un diamètre de  à l'orifice, décoré de petits mamelons disposés par paires. Dans une couche de cendre mêlée de charbons de bois, située sous le pavage interne de la chambre, il recueillit deux outils en silex noirs finement retouchés et, vers le fond de la chambre, plusieurs percuteurs, éclats de silex et tessons d'une poterie grossière.

Sur le sol de la grande chambre orientale, du Châtellier découvrit la moitié d'un « marteau en pierre polie » percé d'un trou circulaire inachevé « destiné à recevoir un manche ». Dans la couche de cendre mêlée de charbons de bois qui recouvrait le dallage sur  d'épaisseur, il recueillit quelques percuteurs et éclats de silex (dont un grattoir) et des tessons d'une poterie grossière.

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Articles connexes
 Sites mégalithiques du Finistère
 Liste des monuments historiques du Finistère

Liens externes

Kervignon
Kervignon
Monument historique dans le Finistère
Monument historique classé en 1922

Dolmens de Kervignon


Sort hvid dreng er en dokumentarfilm instrueret af Camilla Magid efter manuskript af Rasmus Heisterberg.

Handling
Shida er den nye dreng i klassen på en engelsksproget kostskole i Tanzania. Han er genert, har ingen selvtillid, taler ikke et ord engelsk og så er han albino. Han er blevet fjernet fra hjemmet, ligesom de fleste af landets albinobørn for at blive beskyttet fra heksedoktorernes jagt på deres liv. Filmen følger Shidas første år på en kostskolen, hvor disciplinen hård og tolerancen lav. Men skolen er også en chance for ham for at få en god uddannelse og kæmpe sig ud af en tilværelse på bunden af samfundet. Med hjælp fra sin nye ven Allan gør han alt, hvad han kan for at blive accepteret af lærere og elever.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2012

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Sort hvid dreng


Dietraching heißen folgende geographische Objekte:

 Dietraching (Eggenfelden), Ortsteil der Stadt Eggenfelden, Landkreis Rottal-Inn, Bayern
 Dietraching (Gemeinde Moosbach), Ortschaft in der Gemeinde Moosbach, Bezirk Braunau am Inn, Oberösterreich
 Dietraching (Gemeinde Sankt Georgen), Ortschaft in der Gemeinde St. Georgen bei Obernberg am Inn, Bezirk Ried im Innkreis, Oberösterreich
 Dietraching (Gemeinde St. Marienkirchen), Ortschaft in der Gemeinde St. Marienkirchen bei Schärding, Bezirk Schärding, Oberösterreich

Dietraching


Crangon es un género de crustáceos decápodos de la familia Crangonidae.

Especies
Se reconocen las siguientes especies:
 Crangon affinis
 Crangon alaskensis
 Crangon alba
 Crangon allmanni
 Crangon amurensis
 Crangon capensis
 Crangon cassiope
 Crangon crangon
 Crangon dalli
 Crangon gracilis
 Crangon hailstonei
 Crangon hakodatei
 Crangon handi
 Crangon holmesi
 Crangon lockingtonii
 Crangon nigricauda
 Crangon nigromaculata
 Crangon propinquus
 Crangon septemspinosa
 Crangon uritai

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Decapoda
Taxones descritos por Johan Christian Fabricius

Crangon