Sania albastră este un film românesc din 1987 regizat de Ioan Cărmăzan. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Diana Gheorghian, Bogdan Stanoevici și Ioan Georgescu.

Rezumat

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

 Diana Gheorghian — Adriana
 Bogdan Stanoevici — Adrian
 Ioan Georgescu — Frânculescu
 Leni Pințea-Homeag — soția lui Manole
 Ion Andrei — Manole
 Constantin Ghenescu — Toma Nicolae
 Aura Urziceanu — cântăreața
 Valentin Teodosiu — George
 Valentin Mihali — matematicianul
 Liviu Timuș — al șaselea tânăr
 Benone Schwartz — al patrulea tânăr
 Mirela Nicolau — tânăra
 Cecilia Bîrboră
 Adriana Gădălean
 Petre Moraru
 Luminița Stoianovici
 Ruxandra Bergheanu
 Cătălin Ciornei
 Avram Birău
 Ileana Popescu

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 1.326.862 de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Vezi și
 1987 în film

Legături externe

Filme din 1987
Filme regizate de Ioan Cărmăzan
Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme dramatice românești

Sania albastră


Laura Mintegi Lakarra (Estella, Navarra, 26 de octubre de 1955) es una escritora en euskera, profesora de la Universidad del País Vasco y política española. Fue candidata a la presidencia del Gobierno Vasco por la coalición Euskal Herria Bildu para las elecciones al Parlamento Vasco de 2012.

Biografía
Aunque nació en Navarra, cuando era niña la familia se trasladó a Vizcaya. Residió en Bilbao y desde 1973 vive en Algorta, en el municipio vizcaíno de Guecho.

Está licenciada en Historia y es doctora en Psicología. En 1978 comenzó a dar clases en la ikastola Asti-Leku de Portugalete. Desde 1981 es profesora del Departamento de Didáctica de Lengua y Literatura de la Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU). Fue directora de este Departamento desde 1999 hasta 2006, cargo que ha vuelto a asumir desde 2010 hasta la actualidad. Ha sido candidata a la rectoría de la UPV/EHU en dos ocasiones.

Desde 2004 preside el Club Euskal PEN, la rama vasca del PEN Club Internacional, asociación internacional de escritores en favor de la libertad de expresión. En el año 2006, la Real Academia de la Lengua Vasca - Euskaltzaindia la nombró académica correspondiente.

Ha recibido entre otros premios literarios, el Premio de Novela Azkue, el Premio Ciudad de San Sebastián y el Premio Jon Mirande y en 2022 la Pluma de Oro, en reconocimiento a su trayectoria literaria. En otros tantos premios ha sido parte del jurado, como por ejemplo en el Certamen de Narrativa María Maeztu, las Becas Joseba Jaka, el Premio de Periodismo Rikardo Arregi, el Premio Anton Abbadia y el Premio de Derechos Humanos René Cassin.

Forma parte del Consejo de Dirección de la revista científica Revista de Psicodidáctica y colabora habitualmente en los medios de comunicación, tanto audiovisuales (ETB, Hamaika Telebista, Bizkaia Irratia, Egin Irratia, Bilboko Hiria Irratia, Euskalerria Irratia y Euskadi Irratia) como escritos (Anaitasuna, Argia, Susa, Ttu-ttuá, Egin, Egunkaria, Gara, Berria, Jakin y Hegats, entre otros).

Su obra más popular es Sisifo maite minez, un ensayo-novela sobre el enamoramiento. Esa novela fue traducida al castellano en el año 2003 como Sísifo enamorado y al neerlandés en el año 2011, como Sisyphus verliefd.

Trayectoria política
Laura Mintegi también ha desarrollado actividades políticas. Participó en las listas de Herri Batasuna en las elecciones al Parlamento Europeo de 1987 y de 1989. Ese mismo año fue nombrada responsable de la caja de resistencia de los profesores asociados que reclamaban la figura del profesorado propio para la UPV, entre quienes figuraba Antton Azkargorta, su pareja durante muchos años. En las elecciones generales de noviembre de 2011, fue candidata al Senado por Vizcaya dentro de la coalición Amaiur. En las elecciones de octubre de 2012 fue candidata a la presidencia del Gobierno Vasco por la coalición Euskal Herria Bildu. Tras ejercer de portavoz de la coalición en el Parlamento Vasco durante casi dos años, en julio de 2014 anunció que dejaba su escaño para volver a su trabajo universitario.

Obras
Hay más de cuarenta artículos en la base de datos de artículos científicos en euskera Inguma.

Narrativa
 Ilusioaren ordaina (1983, Erein)

Novela
 Bai... baina ez (1986, Susa): Reeditada en  Elkarlanean 1999
 Legez kanpo (1991, Elkar)
 Nerea eta biok (1994, Txalaparta)
 Sisifo maite minez (2001, Txalaparta)
 Ecce homo (2006, Txalaparta)

Ensayo
 Sujektibitatea euskal nobelagintzan: Stephen Crane-ren "The Red Badge of Courage" (1999, EHU)

Biografía
 Julene Azpeitia (1988, Gobierno Vasco)

Obra traducida
 La topera en Antología de la Narrativa Vasca Actual (1986, Edicions del Mall) (castellano)
 Mole Hole en Contemporary Basque Fiction (1990, University of Nevada/Reno) (inglés)
 Sísifo enamorado (2003, Txalaparta) (castellano)
 Nerea and I (2005, Peter Lang, New York) (inglés)
 Ecce homo (2007, ONCE) (braille en euskera)
 Ecce homo (2009, Txalaparta) (castellano)
 Sisyphus verliefd (2011, Zirimiri Press, Ámsterdam) (neerlandés)
 Ecce homo (2012, Pahl-Rugenstein, Bonn) (alemán)

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Ficha del Parlamento Vasco de Mintegi Lakarra, Laura.
  Laura Mintegi literaturaren zubitegian
  Subjektibitatea nobelagintzan. Stephen Crane-ren "The Red Badge of Courage"
 (en inglés) Laura Mintegi Basque Literature

Escritoras de Navarra
Escritoras en euskera
Políticos de Euskal Herria Bildu
Diputados de la X Legislatura del Parlamento Vasco
Alumnado de la Universidad del País Vasco
Profesores de la Universidad del País Vasco
Nacidos en Estella

Laura Mintegi


Major General Orde Charles Wingate,  (26 February 1903 – 24 March 1944) was a senior British Army officer known for his creation of the Chindit deep-penetration missions in Japanese-held territory during the Burma Campaign of the Second World War.

Wingate was an exponent of unconventional military thinking and the value of surprise tactics. Assigned to Mandatory Palestine, he became a supporter of Zionism and set up a joint British–Jewish counter-insurgency unit. Under the patronage of the area commander Archibald Wavell, Wingate was given increasing latitude to put his ideas into practice during the Second World War. He created units in Abyssinia and Burma.

At a time when Britain was in need of morale-boosting generalship, Wingate attracted British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's attention with a self-reliant aggressive philosophy of war, and was given resources to stage a large-scale operation. The last Chindit campaign may have determined the outcome of the Battle of Kohima, although the offensive into India by the Japanese may have occurred because Wingate's first operation had demonstrated the possibility of moving through the jungle. In practice, both Japanese and British forces suffered severe supply problems and malnutrition.

Wingate was killed in an aircraft accident in March 1944. The casualty rate the Chindits suffered, especially from disease, is a continuing controversy. Wingate believed that resistance to infection could be improved by inculcating a tough mental attitude, but medical officers considered his methods unsuited to a tropical environment.

Childhood and education
Wingate, the eldest of three sons, was born on 26 February 1903 at Naini Tal near Almora in Kumaon, India, into a military family (cousins of the Wingate baronets). His father, Colonel George Wingate (1852–1936), had become a committed member of the Plymouth Brethren early in his army career in India; at the age of 46, after wooing her for 20 years, he married (Mary) Ethel (1867–1943), the oldest daughter of the Orde Browne family, who were also Plymouth Brethren. His father retired from the army two years after Wingate was born.

Most of Wingate's childhood was spent in England. For the first 12 years of his life, he socialised primarily with his siblings. The seven Wingate children received a Christian education that was typical for that period, and time was set aside each day for studying and memorising the Scriptures.

In 1916, his family moved to Godalming where Wingate attended Charterhouse as a day boy. He did not board at the school nor did he participate in the activities of a public school education. Instead, he was kept busy at home by his parents, who encouraged their children to tackle challenging projects which fostered independent thought, initiative and self-reliance.

Early army career
After four years, Wingate left Charterhouse and in 1921 he was accepted at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the Royal Artillery's officers' training school. For committing a minor offence against the rules, a first-year student would be subjected to a ragging ritual named "running". This ritual consisted of the first-year being stripped and forced to run a gauntlet of senior students, all of whom wielded a knotted towel which was used to hit the accused on his journey along the line. On reaching the end, the first-year would then be thrown into an icy-cold cistern of water.

When it came time for Wingate to run the gauntlet, for allegedly having returned a horse to the stables too late, he walked up to the senior student at the head of the gauntlet, stared at him and dared him to strike.  The senior refused. Wingate moved to the next senior and did the same; he too refused. In turn, each senior declined to strike; coming to the end of the line, Wingate walked to the cistern and dived straight into the icy-cold water.

In 1923, Wingate received his Royal Artillery officer's commission and was posted to the 5th Medium Brigade at Larkhill on Salisbury Plain. During this period, he was able to exercise his great interest in horse riding, gaining a reputation for his skill (and great success) in point-to-point races and fox hunting, particularly for finding suitable places to cross rivers, which earned him the nickname "Otter". It was difficult for a 1920s army officer to live on his pay and Wingate, living life to the full, also gained a reputation as a late payer of his bills.

He was promoted to lieutenant on 29 August 1925. In 1926, Wingate was posted to the Army School of Equitation, where he excelled, much to the chagrin of the majority of the cavalry officers at the centre, who found him insufferable; he frequently challenged the instructors, as a demonstration of his rebellious nature.

Sudan, 1928–1933
Wingate's father's cousin, Sir Reginald Wingate, a retired army general who had been governor-general of the Sudan between 1899 and 1916 and high commissioner of Egypt from 1917 to 1919, had a considerable influence on Wingate's career. He gave him a positive interest in Middle East affairs and in Arabic. As a result, Wingate applied to take a course in Arabic at the School of Oriental Studies in London and passed out of the course, which lasted from October 1926 to March 1927, with a mark of 85/100.

In June 1927, with Cousin Rex's encouragement, Wingate obtained six months' leave in order to mount an expedition in the Sudan. Rex had suggested that he travel via Cairo and then try to obtain secondment to the Sudan Defence Force (SDF). Sending his luggage ahead of him, Wingate set off in September 1927 by bicycle, travelling first through France and Germany before making his way to Genoa via Czechoslovakia, Austria and Yugoslavia. From Genoa he took a boat to Egypt. From Cairo he travelled to Khartoum.

In April 1928, his application to transfer to the SDF came through and he was posted to the East Arab Corps, serving in the area of Roseires and Gallabat on the borders of Ethiopia, where the SDF patrolled to catch slave traders and ivory poachers. He changed the method of regular patrolling to ambushes.

In March 1930, Wingate was given command of a company of 300 soldiers with the local rank of bimbashi (major). He was never happier than when in the bush with his unit, but when at HQ in Khartoum, he antagonised the other officers with his aggressive and argumentative personality. He was granted the local rank of captain in the regular army on 16 April 1930.

At the end of his tour, Wingate mounted a short expedition into the Libyan desert to investigate the lost army of Cambyses, mentioned in the writings of Herodotus, and to search for the lost oasis of Zerzura. Supported by equipment from the Royal Geographical Society (the findings of the expedition were published in the Royal Geographical Magazine in April 1934) and the Sudan Survey Department, the expedition set off in January 1933. Although they did not find the oasis, Wingate saw the expedition as an opportunity to test his endurance in a very harsh physical environment, and also his organisational and leadership abilities. He concluded his service in the Sudan on 2 April 1933.

Return to the UK, 1933–1936
On his return to the UK in 1933, Wingate was posted to Bulford on Salisbury Plain and was heavily involved in retraining, as British artillery units were being mechanised. On the sea voyage from Egypt he met Lorna Moncrieff Patterson, who was 16 years old and travelling with her mother. They were married two years later, on 24 January 1935.

From 13 January 1935, Wingate was seconded to the Territorial Army as the adjutant of the 71st (West Riding) Field Brigade, a Territorial Army unit of the Royal Artillery, with the temporary rank of captain. He was promoted to the substantive rank of captain on 16 May 1936, and vacated his appointment as adjutant on 8 September.

Palestine and the Special Night Squads

In September 1936, Wingate was assigned to a staff officer position in the British Mandate of Palestine, and became an intelligence officer. From his arrival he saw the creation of a Jewish State in Palestine as being a religious duty, and immediately put himself into absolute alliance with Jewish political leaders. Palestinian Arab guerrillas had at the time of his arrival begun a campaign of attacks against both British mandate officials and Jewish communities.

Wingate became politically involved with a number of Zionist leaders, and became an ardent Zionist himself. He always returned to Kibbutz En Harod, because he felt familiar with the biblical judge Gideon, who fought in this area, and used it himself as a military base. He formulated the idea of raising small assault units of British-led Jewish commandos armed with grenades and light infantry small arms to combat the Arab revolt. Wingate took his idea personally to Wavell, who was then the commander of British forces in Palestine.

After Wavell gave his permission, Wingate convinced the Zionist Jewish Agency and the leadership of Haganah, the Jewish armed group.  In June 1938, the new British commander, General Haining, gave his permission to create the Special Night Squads (SNSs), armed groups formed of British and Haganah volunteers. The Jewish Agency helped pay salaries and other costs of the Haganah personnel.

Wingate trained, commanded and accompanied them on their patrols. The units frequently ambushed Arab saboteurs who attacked oil pipelines of the Iraq Petroleum Company, raiding border villages the attackers had used as bases. In these raids, Wingate's men sometimes imposed severe collective punishments on the villagers, which was criticised by Zionist leaders as well as Wingate's British superiors. Corporal Frank Howbrook, who took part in one of Wingate's operations, reported Wingate as saying "we'll teach these so-and-sos a lesson" after which villagers who had not confessed having seen or heard about the attack were led to a pool of burning black oil, and one after another thrown into it to be burned alive.

Wingate disliked Arabs, once shouting at Haganah fighters after a June 1938 attack on a village on the border between Mandatory Palestine and Lebanon, "I think you are all totally ignorant in your Ramat Yochanan [the training base for the Haganah] since you do not even know the elementary use of bayonets when attacking dirty Arabs: how can you put your left foot in front?" But the brutal tactics proved effective in quelling the uprising, and Wingate was awarded the DSO in 1938.

However, his deepening direct political involvement with the Zionist cause and an incident where he spoke publicly in favour of the formation of a Jewish state during his leave in Britain, caused his superiors in Palestine to remove him from command. He was so deeply associated with political causes in Palestine that his superiors considered him compromised as an intelligence officer in the country. He was promoting his own agenda rather than that of the army or the government. In May 1939, he was transferred to Britain. Wingate became a hero of the Yishuv (the Jewish Community), and was loved by leaders such as Zvi Brenner and Moshe Dayan, who trained under him and claimed that Wingate had "taught us everything we know."

Ethiopia and Gideon Force

Wingate was the commander of an anti-aircraft unit in Britain when the Second World War began. He repeatedly made proposals to the army and government for the creation of a Jewish army in Palestine which would rule over the area and its Arab population in the name of the British. His friend Wavell was commander-in-chief of Middle East Command based in Cairo, and he invited him to Sudan to begin operations against Italian occupation forces in Ethiopia. He created Gideon Force under William Platt, the British commander in Sudan, a Special Operations Executive (SOE) force composed of British, Sudanese, and Ethiopian soldiers.  At Khartoum, he and Tony Simonds joined Mission 101 controlled by London and Cairo.

Gideon force was named after the biblical judge Gideon who defeated a large force with a tiny band of men. Wingate invited a number of veterans of the Haganah SNS to join him, with the blessing of Ethiopia's Emperor Haile Selassie, and the group began to operate in February 1941. The Italians occupied Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941, and they conducted operations to "pacify" the people which killed about seven per cent of the population. There was a huge reservoir of hatred for the Italians as a result, and many Ethiopians were happy to assist Gideon Force. Wingate was temporarily promoted lieutenant colonel and put in command. He again insisted on leading from the front and accompanied his troops in the reconquest of Abyssinia.

Gideon Force harassed Italian forts and their supply lines with the aid of local resistance fighters, while regular army units took on the main Italian army. A small force of no more than 1,700 men took the surrender of about 20,000 Italians toward the end of the campaign. At the end of the fighting, Wingate and the men of Gideon Force linked with the force of Lt. Gen. Alan Cunningham which had advanced from Kenya in the south, and they accompanied the emperor in his triumphant return to Addis Ababa that May. Wingate was mentioned in dispatches in April 1941 and was awarded a bar to his DSO in December.

With the end of the East African Campaign on 4 June 1941, Wingate was removed from command of the dismantled Gideon Force and his rank reduced to that of major. During the campaign, he was irritated that British authorities ignored a request for decorations for his men. They also obstructed his efforts to obtain back pay and other compensation. He left for Cairo and wrote an official report which was extremely critical of his commanders, fellow officers, government officials, and many others. He was also angry that his efforts had not been praised by authorities and that he had been forced to leave Abyssinia without saying farewell to Emperor Selassie. He was most concerned about British attempts to stifle Ethiopian freedom, writing that attempts to raise future rebellions amongst populations must be honest ones and should appeal to justice.

Wingate contracted malaria soon after this and sought treatment from a local doctor instead of army medical staff because he was afraid that the illness would give his detractors a further excuse to undermine him. This doctor gave him a large supply of the drug Atabrine, which can produce depression as a side-effect if taken in high dosages. Wingate was already depressed by the official response to his Abyssinian command, and he was also sick with malaria; he attempted suicide by stabbing himself in the neck. Only prompt action by another officer saved him, and he was sent to Britain to recuperate.

A highly edited version of his report was passed to Winston Churchill through his political supporters in London, and Secretary of State for India Leo Amery contacted Wavell, Commander-in-Chief in India commanding the South-East Asian Theatre to enquire if there were any chance of employing Wingate in the Far East. Wingate was far from pleased with his posting as a "supernumerary major without staff grading", but he left Britain for Rangoon on 27 February 1942.

Burma

Chindits and the first long-range jungle penetration mission

Wingate was appointed colonel once more by General Wavell upon arrival in the Far East in March 1942, and he was ordered to organise guerrilla units to fight behind Japanese lines. However, the precipitate collapse of Allied defences in Burma forestalled further planning, and he flew back to India in April where he began to promote his ideas for jungle long-range penetration units. "Never ask favours", he recalled from his long association with Wavell, "but tell people if they care to help they can come along, that you yourself are going anyway".

Wavell was intrigued by Wingate's theories and gave him the (Indian 77th Infantry Brigade), from which he created a jungle long-range penetration unit. 77 Brigade was eventually named the Chindits, a corrupted version of a mythical Burmese lion called the chinthe.  By August 1942, he had set up a training centre at Dhana near Saugor district in Madhya Pradesh and attempted to toughen up the men by having them camp in the Indian jungle during the rainy season.  This proved disastrous, as the result was a very high sickness rate among the men. In one battalion, 70 per cent of the men went absent from duty due to illness, while a Gurkha battalion was reduced from 750 men to 500. Many of the men were replaced in September 1942 by new drafts of personnel from elsewhere in the army.

Meanwhile, he won few friends among the officer corps with his direct manner of dealing with fellow officers and superiors, along with eccentric personal habits. He would eat raw onions because he thought that they were healthy, scrub himself with a rubber brush instead of bathing, and greet visitors to his tent while completely naked. Wavell's political connections and patronage protected him from closer scrutiny, for he admired Wingate's work in the Abyssinian campaign, but Wingate remained the regimental gadfly always ready to flout the King's regulations; he grew a beard in the jungle and allowed his men to do the same. Nevertheless, he won plaudits by his outstanding courage and leadership in the face of the enemy.

The original 1943 Chindit operation was supposed to be a coordinated plan with the field army, but the Army's offensive into Burma was cancelled. Wingate then persuaded Wavell to let him proceed into Burma anyway, arguing the need to disrupt any Japanese attack on Sumprabum as well as to gauge the utility of long-range jungle penetration operations, and Wavell eventually gave his consent to Operation Longcloth. Wingate set out from Imphal on 12 February 1943 with the Chindits organised into eight separate columns to cross the Chindwin river. The force met with initial success in putting one of the main railways in Burma out of action, then Wingate led them deep into Burma and over the Irrawaddy River. However, they found conditions very different from what their intelligence had led them to expect. The area was dry and inhospitable and criss-crossed by motor roads which the Japanese were able to use to good effect, particularly by intercepting supply drops to the Chindits. They soon began to suffer severely from exhaustion and shortages of water and food.

On 22 March, Eastern Army HQ ordered Wingate to withdraw his units back to India. He and his senior commanders considered a number of options to achieve this, but all were threatened by the fact that the Japanese would be able to focus their attention on destroying the Chindit force, having no major army offensive in progress. They finally agreed to retrace their steps to the Irrawaddy, since the Japanese would not expect this, and then disperse to make attacks on the enemy as they returned to the Chindwin. By mid-March, the Japanese had three infantry divisions chasing the Chindits, who were eventually trapped inside the bend of the Shweli River. They were unable to cross the river intact and still reach British lines, so they split into small groups to evade enemy forces. The Japanese paid great attention to preventing air resupply of Chindit columns, as well as hindering their mobility by removing boats from the Irrawaddy, Chindwin, and Mu rivers and actively patrolling the river banks. The force returned to India by various routes during the spring of 1943 in groups ranging from single individuals to whole columns: some directly, others via a roundabout route from China, and always harassed by the Japanese. Casualties were high, and the force lost approximately one-third of its total strength.

After-battle analysis
With the losses incurred during the first long-range jungle penetration operation, many officers in the British and Indian army questioned the overall value of the Chindits. The campaign had the unintended effect of convincing the Japanese that certain sections of the Burma/India Frontier were not as impassable as they previously believed, thus altering their strategic plans. As one consequence, the overall Japanese Army commander in Burma, Gen. Masakazu Kawabe, began planning a 1944 offensive into India to capture the Imphal Plain and Kohima, in order to better defend Burma from future Allied offensives.

In London, the Chindits and their exploits were viewed as a success after the long string of Allied disasters in the Far East theatre. Winston Churchill, an ardent proponent of commando operations, was, in particular, complimentary toward the Chindits and their accomplishments. The Japanese subsequently admitted that the Chindits had disrupted their plans for the first half of 1943.

As a propaganda tool, the Chindit operation was used to prove to the army and those at home that the Japanese could be beaten and that British/Indian troops could successfully operate in the jungle against experienced Japanese forces. On his return, Wingate wrote an operations report in which he was again highly critical of the army and even some of his own officers and men.  He also promoted more unorthodox ideas such as the idea that British soldiers had become weak by having too easy access to doctors in civilian life.  The report was again passed through back channels by Wingate's political friends in London directly to Churchill.  The Prime Minister then invited Wingate to London for talks.

Soon after Wingate arrived, Churchill decided to take him and his wife along to the Quebec Conference. There, Wingate explained his ideas of deep penetration warfare to the Combined Chiefs of Staff meeting on 17 August. Air power, radio, and recent developments in warfare would allow units to establish bases deep in enemy territory, breaching the outer defences, and extend the range of conventional forces. The leaders were impressed, and larger scale deep-penetration attacks were approved. By now, a war-substantive lieutenant-colonel and temporary brigadier, Wingate was promoted to the rank of acting major general on 18 September 1943.

Second long-range jungle penetration mission

After his meeting with Allied leaders, Wingate contracted typhoid by drinking water from a flower vase in a Cairo hotel while on his way back to India. Doctors were shocked as it was drummed into every serviceman that they should never use such a source as drinking water. His illness prevented him from taking a more active role in training of the new long-range jungle forces.

While Wingate was still in Burma, Wavell had ordered the formation of 111 Brigade, known as the "Leopards", along the lines of the 77 Brigade. He selected Brigadier Joe Lentaigne as the new commander. Wavell intended that the two brigades would operate in tandem with one engaged on operations while the other trained and prepared for the next operation. However, once back in India, Wingate was promoted to acting major general and was given six brigades. This involved breaking up the experienced 70th Division, which other commanders felt could be better used as a standard "line" division. At first, Wingate proposed to convert the entire front into one giant Chindit mission by breaking up the whole of the Fourteenth Army into Long-Range Penetration units, presumably in the expectation that the Japanese would follow them around the Burmese jungle in an effort to wipe them out. This plan was hurriedly dropped after other commanders pointed out that the Japanese Army would simply advance and seize the air bases from which Chindit forces were supplied, requiring a defensive battle and substantial troops that the Indian Army would be unable to provide.

In the end, a new long-range jungle penetration operation was planned, this time using all six of the brigades recently allocated to Wingate. The second long-range penetration mission was originally intended as a coordinated effort with a planned regular army offensive against northern Burma, but events on the ground resulted in cancellation of the army offensive, leaving the long-range penetration groups without a means of transporting all six brigades into Burma. Upon Wingate's return to India, he found that his mission had also been cancelled for lack of air transport. Wingate took the news bitterly, voicing disappointment to all who would listen, including Allied commanders such as Colonel Philip Cochran of the 1st Air Commando Group, which proved to be a blessing in disguise. Cochran told Wingate that cancelling the long-range mission was unnecessary; only a limited amount of aerial transport would be needed since, in addition to the light planes and C-47 Dakotas Wingate had counted on, Cochran explained that 1st Air Commando had 150 gliders to haul supplies: "Wingate's dark eyes widened as Phil explained that the gliders could also move a sizable force of troops. The general immediately spread a map on the floor and planned how his Chindits, airlifted deep into the jungle, could fan out from there and fight the Japanese".

With his new glider landing option, Wingate decided to proceed into Burma anyway. The character of the 1944 operations differed from those of 1943 in that they aimed to establish fortified bases in Burma out of which the Chindits would conduct offensive patrol and blocking operations. A similar strategy would be used by the French in Indochina years later at Dien Bien Phu.

Operation Thursday
Wingate planned that part of 77 Brigade would land by glider in Burma and prepare airstrips into which 111 Brigade and the remainder of 77 Brigade would be flown by C-47 transport aircraft. Three landing sites, codenamed "Piccadilly", "Broadway" and "Chowringhee" were selected. On the evening of 5 March as Wingate, Lieutenant General Slim (the commander of Fourteenth Army), Brigadier Michael Calvert (the commander of 77 Brigade) and Cochrane waited at an airfield in India for 77 Brigade to fly into "Piccadilly", an incident occurred which Wingate's critics later claimed to show his lack of firmness or balance.

Wingate had forbidden continuous reconnaissance of the landing sites to avoid compromising the security of the operation, but Cochrane ordered a last-minute reconnaissance flight which showed "Piccadilly" to be completely obstructed with logs. By Slim's account, Wingate became highly emotional and insisted that the operation had been betrayed, and that the Japanese would have set up ambushes on the other two landing sites. He passed the responsibility for ordering the operation to proceed or to be cancelled to Slim.

Slim ordered that the operation was to go ahead. Wingate then ordered that 77 Brigade would fly into "Chowringhee". Both Cochrane and Calvert objected, as "Chowringhee" was on the wrong side of the Irrawaddy and Cochrane's pilots were not familiar with the layout. Eventually, "Broadway" was selected instead. The landings were initially a failure, as many gliders crashed en route or on "Broadway", but Calvert's brigade soon made the landing ground fit to take aircraft, and sent the success signal. It was later found that the logs on "Piccadilly" had been laid there to dry by Burmese teak loggers.

Once all the Chindit brigades (less one which remained in India) had marched or flown into Burma, they established base areas and drop zones behind Japanese lines. By fortunate timing, the Japanese launched an invasion of India around the same time. By forcing several pitched battles along their line of march, the Chindit columns were able to disrupt the Japanese offensive, diverting troops from the battles in India.

The value of Wingate's Chindits has been disputed. Field Marshal William Slim argued that special forces in general had an overall negative effect on the prosecution of war by separating the best-trained and most committed troops from the main army.  However, Sir Robert Thompson, a Chindit who went on to become one of "world's leading expert on countering the Mao Tse-tung technique of rural guerrilla insurgency", wrote in his autobiography that "Every time I look at the picture of General Slim and his Corps Commanders being knighted by Lord Wavell as Viceroy on the field of battle after Imphal, I see the ghost of Wingate present. He was unquestionably one of the great men of [the 20th] century".

Regarding Operation Thursday, historian Raymond Callahan, author of Churchill and His Generals argues that "Wingate's ideas were flawed in many respects. For one thing, the Imperial Japanese Army did not have Western-style supply lines to disrupt, and tended to ignore logistics generally. When Special Force launched itself into Burma in March 1944, Wingate's ideas, so enchantingly laid out for Churchill, rapidly proved unworkable." However, the Japanese commander, Mutaguchi Renya, later stated that Operation Thursday had a significant effect on the campaign, saying "The Chindit invasion ... had a decisive effect on these operations ... they drew off the whole of 53 Division and parts of 15 Division, one regiment of which would have turned the scales at Kohima".

Death

On 24 March 1944, Wingate flew to assess the situations in three Chindit-held bases in Burma. On his return, he agreed to allow two British war correspondents' request for a lift even though the pilot protested that the plane was overloaded. Flying from Imphal to Lalaghat, the USAAF B-25 Mitchell bomber of the 1st Air Commando Group in which he was flying crashed into jungle-covered hills in the present-day state of Manipur in northeast India, killing all passengers aboard, including Wingate, who died an acting major general. In place of Wingate, Brigadier (later Lt.-Gen.) Walter Lentaigne was appointed to overall command of LRP forces. He flew out of Burma to assume command as Japanese forces began their assault on Imphal. Command of Lentaigne's 111 Brigade in Burma was assigned to Lt. Col. J.R. 'Jumbo' Morris.

Burial

Five of the nine killed in the airplane crash were members of the American flight crew: Lieutenant Brian F. Hodges, Spartanburg, South Carolina; Lieutenant Stephen A. Wanderer, Hamilton, Montana; Technical Sergeant James W. Hickey, Dallas; Technical Sergeant Frank Sadoski, Freeman Spur, Illinois; and Staff Sergeant Vernon A. McIninch, Purcell, Oklahoma. The British victims were Wingate and his aide, Captain George H. Borrow, and two London war correspondents, Stuart Emeny (News Chronicle) and Stanley Wills (Daily Herald).

The remains of the crew and passengers of the B-25 were initially buried in a common grave close to the crash site 40 miles from Imphal, in the village of Thiulon. On April 18, 1947, The Calcutta Statesman reported that the grave had been located by the Imperial War Graves Commission and the U.S. Graves Registration Service. It was officially announced on April 30, 1947, that the remains had been taken from the original burial site and reinterred at Imphal Military Cemetery.

United States law required the repatriation of American service members killed and temporarily buried overseas during World War II. Instances in which remains could not be individually identified were difficult when multiple nationalities were involved. In January 1947 the U.S. government proposed that all remains in such cases be returned to the United States for final burial. Negotiations with the U.K. and other Commonwealth governments led to an agreement that when group burials contained a majority of British remains, final disposition would be determined by the British. If the majority of the remains were American, all remains in the group would be returned to the U.S. for burial. Prior consultation with family members was prohibited in either case.

In December 1949, the remains of Wingate and the other victims of the airplane crash were removed from Imphal Military Cemetery. On November 10, 1950, they were buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

Commemoration

In a tribute to Wingate, Churchill called him "one of the most brilliant and courageous figures of the second world war ... a man of genius who might well have become also a man of destiny".

A memorial to Orde Wingate and the Chindits stands on the north side of the Victoria Embankment, near Ministry of Defence headquarters in London. The facade commemorates the Chindits and the four men awarded the Victoria Cross. The battalions that took part are listed on the sides, with non-infantry units mentioned by their parent formations. The rear of the monument is dedicated to Orde Wingate, and also mentions his contributions to the state of Israel.

To commemorate Wingate's great assistance to the Zionist cause, Israel's National Centre for Physical Education and Sport, the Wingate Institute (Machon Wingate) was named after him. A square in the Talbiya neighbourhood of Jerusalem, Wingate Square (Kikar Wingate), also bears his name, as does the Yemin Orde youth village near Haifa. A Jewish football club formed in London in 1946, Wingate Football Club was also named in his honour.

The General Wingate School, on the western city limit of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, commemorates Orde Wingate's contribution (along with the Gideon Force and the Ethiopian Patriots) to the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941, following the defeat of the Italian forces in that country.

A memorial stone in his honour stands in Charlton Cemetery, London, where other members of the Orde Browne family are buried. There is a memorial in Charterhouse School Chapel.

Wingate Golf Club, Harare, Zimbabwe is named after the general and there are photographs of him in the Clubhouse. The club was set up to accommodate Jewish and Catholic members since The Royal Harare Golf Club in the past didn't admit either.

The deep-penetration tactics pioneered by the Chindits were adopted by the Indonesian National Army during the Indonesian National Revolution against the Netherlands. As conventional defensive tactics failed to make up for the technological advantage held by the Dutch, Indonesian General A.H. Nasution ordered Indonesian units to carry out 'Wingate' actions by penetrating into enemy lines and setting up pockets of resistance during the closing stages of the revolution in 1948.

Eccentricities
Wingate was known for various eccentricities. For instance, he often wore an alarm clock around his wrist, which would go off at times, and had raw onions and garlic on a string around his neck, which he would occasionally bite into as a snack (the reason he used to give for this was to ward off mosquitoes). He often went about without clothing. In Palestine, recruits were used to having him come out of the shower to give them orders, wearing nothing but a shower cap, and continuing to scrub himself with a shower brush. Sometimes Wingate would eat only grapes and onions.

Lord Moran, Winston Churchill's personal physician, wrote in his diaries that "[Wingate] seemed to me hardly sane – in medical jargon a borderline case." Likewise, referring to Churchill's meeting with Wingate in Quebec, Max Hastings wrote that, "Wingate proved a short-lived protégé: closer acquaintance caused Churchill to realise that he was too mad for high command."

Field Marshal Montgomery told Moshe Dayan in 1966 that he considered Wingate to have "been mentally unbalanced and that the best thing he ever did was to get killed in a plane crash in 1944."

Historiography
Wingate's eccentric and strong-willed personality, his reputation for being difficult, advocacy of irregular warfare and his Zionism have led to sharply opposed assessments by historians. The British historian Simon Anglim called Wingate the most controversial British general of the Second World War as no other British general from that war produced such starkly polarized interpretations. The Chindit operations have been presented as either costly operations that achieved nothing or inspired operations that tied down Japanese troops that could have been used in the invasion of India. In Britain, the two opposing tendencies has been for historians to portray him either as a mentally unstable, delusional figure operating well beyond his level of competence as in official works by I.S.O. Playfair and Woodburn Kirby or alternatively as a visionary, a leader of men noted for his audacity, courage and toughness as in works by Charles Rolo, Bernard Fergusson, Wilfred Burchett, and Leonard Mosley.

Attempts to achieve a balance between the opposing views of Wingate were Orde Wingate and the Historians by Peter Mead, Wingate and the Chindits by David Rooney and Orde Wingate by Christopher Sykes. In Ethiopia, Wingate is remembered as liberator from the Italian occupation. In Israel, Wingate's role in creating and leading the SNS, which became the prototype of the Israeli Defense Forces, has made him a national hero, a man celebrated for his Zionism and courage, in the words of the Israeli historian Michael Oren a "heroic, larger-than-life figure to whom the Jewish people owed a deep and enduring debt".

The two most popular Israeli books about Wingate, both written by SNS veterans were In the Path of Fighters by Israel Carmi and Orde Wingate: His Life and Works by Avraham Akavia. By contrast, Palestinian historians portrayed Wingate very negatively as a thuggish fanatic who terrorized Palestinian villages during the Arab Revolt.

In recent years, the Israeli New Historians have taken a critical picture of Wingate with Tom Segev calling him "quite mad, and perhaps a sadist, too" and a war criminal. Oren has accused Segev of maligning Wingate, arguing that Segev has "edited" accounts by contemporaries to imply that Wingate was present at incidents in Palestine when he was in London at the time.

Family
Orde Wingate had a wife, Lorna, and a son born six weeks after his death, Lt Col Orde Jonathan Wingate, who joined the Honourable Artillery Company after a regular Army career in the Royal Artillery and became the regiment's commanding officer and later regimental colonel. He died in 2000 at the age of 56, and was survived by his wife and two daughters.

He was also related to Reginald Wingate and Ronald Wingate. The Governor of Malta, Sir William Dobbie, was his uncle. His sister was missionary and linguist Rachel O. Wingate.

In popular culture
In 1976, the BBC produced a three-part drama called Orde Wingate, based on his life, in which he was played by Barry Foster. The programme was made on a limited budget with reduced or stylized settings. It did not attempt to tell the complete story of his life, but presented key episodes in a non-linear way, mainly his time in Palestine but including Burma. Foster reprised his role as Wingate in a 1982 TV movie A Woman Called Golda.
A fictionalised version of Wingate called "P.P. Malcolm" appears in Leon Uris's novel Exodus, while he also appears in another Leon Uris novel, The Haj. Additionally, in James Michener's The Source, a reference is made to the "Orde Wingate Forest", which is located in Israel at Mount Gilboa.
"Wingate and Chindits" is an episode of the documentary TV series Narrow Escapes of World War II first presented in the United States on the Military Channel in 2012.
An episode of The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest titled "AMOK" features a highly fictional take on Wingate's legacy in which his death was "a bit of a charade ... and a devilishly clever one at that". While exploring in Borneo, the Quest clan come across a mysterious valley and native village headed by Orde Wingate II, a fictionalized son of the true man. It is explained that during the course of the Second World War, Wingate had come across the valley and befriended the people indigenous to it. Finished with the war and knowing that the Allied Powers were close to winning in the Pacific, Wingate decided to lie low and live out the rest of his life peacefully in the valley, and so faked the plane crash leading to his apparent demise. In order to protect the valley from intruders, he created the identity of the Amok, a savage sloth-like, Bigfoot creature based on an Indonesian guardian spirit.

Footnotes

Citations

References

Further reading

External links

 Abi Moriya, "Orde Charles Wingate"
 Orde Charles Wingate 1903–1944
Correspondence Archive between Orde and Lorna Wingate, and Chaim Weizmann  Shapell Manuscript Foundation
 Major General Orde Wingate 1903–1944 Transcript of a lecture given by Trevor Royle in Edinburgh on 17 September 2002 for "The Second World War Experience Centre".
 Orde Wingate – The Friend
 Biography of Orde  Charles Wingate
 The Chindits
 Nadav Man, "The Friend"
 Orde Wingate collections at the John Rylands Library, University of Manchester.
Generals of World War II
British Army Officers 1939−1945
"In Search of Zerzura" The Geographical Journal, 83(4), 281–308.

1903 births
1944 deaths
British Army major generals
Alumni of SOAS University of London
British Army generals of World War II
British Christian Zionists
British military personnel of the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine
British Plymouth Brethren
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Graduates of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich
Guerrilla warfare theorists
People educated at Charterhouse School
People from Nainital
Royal Artillery officers
Sudan Defence Force officers
Wingate Institute
Burma in World War II
Recipients of the MacGregor Medal
British Army personnel killed in World War II
Military personnel of British India
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in India
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1944

Orde Wingate


The Detroit People Mover (DPM) is a  elevated automated people mover system in Detroit, Michigan, United States. The system operates in a one-way loop on a single track encircling downtown Detroit, using Intermediate Capacity Transit System linear induction motor technology developed by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation. In , the system had a ridership of , or about  per weekday as of .

The People Mover is supplemented by the QLine streetcar, which connects the system with Midtown, New Center, and the Detroit Amtrak station. The system also connects to DDOT and SMART bus routes as part of a comprehensive network of transportation in metropolitan Detroit.

History

Planning
The Detroit People Mover has its origins in 1966, with the creation of the federal Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) to develop new types of transit. In 1975, following the failure to produce any large-scale results and increased pressure to show results, UMTA created the Downtown People Mover Program (DPM) and sponsored a nationwide competition that offered federal funds to cover much of the cost of planning and construction of such a system. UMTA reviewed thirty-five full proposals. From these, they selected proposals from Cleveland, Houston, Los Angeles, and St. Paul.  In addition, UMTA decided they would approve proposals from Baltimore, Detroit, and Miami to develop People Mover systems if they could do so with existing grant commitments. Of the seven cities with UMTA approval for their People Mover proposals, only Detroit and Miami persevered to build and operate systems.

The Ford Motor Company was involved in one of the designs of the People Mover and had hired AlScott Service Company to design and build a room size working model of the system. This model was used for Ford's proposals in their attempt to build the system.

The People Mover was intended to be the downtown distributor for a proposed city and metro-wide light rail transit system for Detroit in the early 1980s; however, funding was scaled back.  President Gerald Ford had promised $600 million in federal funds. Plans included a subway line along Woodward Avenue that would turn into a street level train at McNichols and eventually go all the way to Pontiac, with additional rail lines running along Gratiot and a commuter line between Detroit and Port Huron. Inability of local leaders to come to an agreement led to the $600 million commitment being withdrawn by the Reagan administration, though plans for the People Mover still moved forward. At the time of planning, the system was projected to have a ridership of 67,700 daily.

During construction, the system was initially owned by the Southeastern Michigan Transportation Authority (SEMTA). It was acquired by the Detroit Transportation Corporation (DTC) on October 4, 1985. The DTC was incorporated in 1985 as a Michigan Public Body Corporate for the purpose of acquiring, owning, constructing, furnishing, equipping, completing, operating, improving, enlarging, and/or disposing of the Central Automated Transit Systems (CATS). The DTC was created by the City of Detroit, Michigan pursuant to Act 7 of Public Acts of 1967 and is a component unit of the City of Detroit and accounts its activity as per proprietary funds.

Opening

The Downtown People Mover (DPM) officially opened to the public on July 31, 1987. In the first year, an average of 11,000 riders used the People Mover each day; the one-day record was 54,648. Originally, the People Mover System was operated and maintained by UTDC on a month-to-month basis; the DTC took over operations and maintenance on November 18, 1988.

Service disruptions from construction
In October 1998, the implosion of the J. L. Hudson Department Store damaged part of the nearby track and forced the system to shut down. The system ran limited service until the track was completely repaired in late 1999.

In 2000, the David Whitney Building closed, cutting off access to the Grand Circus Park station. The station later reopened, though it lacked elevator access until the station was renovated with the building's reopening in 2015.

During construction of Compuware World Headquarters, the Cadillac Center station was temporarily closed as part of the parking structure was built around it. The station remained largely untouched and unmodified, although the entrance was slightly expanded, and a walkway to the garage was added.

In 2002, the original Renaissance Center station was closed and demolished. This was part of a multi-year renovation of the Renaissance Center, in which concrete berms in front of the complex were removed to make it more inviting to the rest of downtown. The system ran limited service due to the gap in the track during construction, leading to a drop in ridership, before the new station and track opened on September 3, 2004. The original station's tile artwork was destroyed in the demolition, though its creator, George Woodman, designed a replacement work for the new station.

The Grand Circus Park station closed for renovations on August 16, 2014, as part of renovation work in the David Whitney Building. A new station lobby was added with a direct entrance to the building, and an elevator was added to provide step-free access. Trains continued to operate in a one-way loop, bypassing Grand Circus Park, for most of the station's closure, though the line was briefly split into two segments (with transfers at Millender Center) while part of the track was closed. The Grand Circus Park station officially reopened on June 13, 2015. A connecting QLine station was added shortly thereafter, opening with the system in May 2017.

Changes in direction
The system originally ran counter-clockwise. It changed directions to run clockwise in August 2008, following a short closure to replace sections of the track. This change in direction was intended to reduce the time needed to connect between more popular destinations. The switch to clockwise also reduced the time required to complete the loop, as the route, run clockwise, has one short, relatively steep uphill climb, and then coasts downhill for most of the route, allowing trains to use gravity to accelerate.

In late December 2019, the People Mover tested counter-clockwise operation. The system began running counter-clockwise on weekends in February 2020, and then switched back to counter-clockwise full-time on March 1.

COVID-19 shutdown and reopening
The People Mover shut down on March 30, 2020, due to reduced ridership amid the COVID-19 pandemic.

After a planned 2021 reopening was postponed, the system resumed limited service on May 20, 2022, running six days a week, stopping at six of the 13 stations (Michigan Avenue, Huntington Place, West Riverfront, Millender Center, Greektown, Grand Circus Park). Broadway and Financial District reopened thirteen days later on June 2, followed by Renaissance Center and Fort/Cass on September 14, Bricktown on November 21, Cadillac Center on May 23, 2023, and Times Square on June 26, 2023.

To attract riders, fares were initially waived from reopening day through August, and later extended through October 2022.

Fares
The regular fare is $0.75 per trip, with discounts available for seniors. Children 5 and under ride free.  Fares can be paid using quarters at the turnstiles, or with tokens dispensed by machines in the stations. Monthly and annual passes are available, and can be purchased online or at the Detroit Transportation Corporation's office in the Buhl Building.

The fare was originally $0.50, until it was raised to the current rate in November 2011.

Cost-effectiveness and use
In 2006, it was reported that the People Mover costs $8.3 million annually in city and state subsidies to run, and the system has drawn criticism for its cost-effectiveness. In every year between 1997 and 2006, the cost per passenger mile exceeded $3, and was $4.28 in 2009, compared with Detroit bus routes that operate at $0.82 (for comparison, the New York City Subway operates at $0.30 per passenger mile).

The Mackinac Center for Public Policy reported that according to a 2004 survey, fewer than 30% of the riders were Detroit residents and that Saturday ridership (likely out-of-towners) dwarfed that of weekday usage.

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the People Mover generated about $1 million to $1.5 million in revenue annually from fares, conventions, and advertising space. There was a mix of riders in 2019: about 50% to 60% were office workers in the downtown area, while others included weekend social riders, area residents, tourists, and conventiongoers.

Expansion proposals
There have been proposals to extend the People Mover northward to the New Center and neighborhoods not within walking distance of the city's downtown. A proposal was put forward by Marsden Burger, former manager of the People Mover, to double the length of the route by extending the People Mover along Woodward Avenue to West Grand Boulevard and into the New Center area. New stops would have included the Amtrak station, Wayne State University, the Detroit Medical Center, and Henry Ford Hospital. The plan was proposed at a tentative cost of $150–200 million, and would have been paid for by a combination of public and private financing. Much of the proposed route to New Center would eventually be followed by the QLine streetcar, which opened in 2017.

Rolling stock

The People Mover's fleet consists of twelve automated Intermediate Capacity Transit System cars, built by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation in Kingston, Ontario. They operate in two-car trains.

The trains originally bore a white livery with green and yellow stripes. Beginning in the early 2000s, the cars began to be wrapped with advertisements; by the 2010s, every car was adorned with an ad wrap.

Operations and maintenance
The People Mover's operations center, garage, and maintenance facilities are located at the Times Square station.  Cars enter the garage via a siding, which branches off from the main line to a second platform at Times Square. This siding allows the system to be used in a two-way bypass manner when part of the circular track is closed. Maintenance equipment is lifted up to track level by crane, but not stored with the DPM cars.

Governance
The People Mover is owned and operated by the Detroit Transportation Corporation (DTC), a public body corporate funded by, but independent of, the Detroit city government. It is currently headquartered on the fourth floor of the Buhl Building in the city's Financial District (across the street from the Financial District station).

The agency is governed by a six-member Board of Directors, which appoints a General Manager to oversee day-to-day operations.

Transit Police and security

In addition to operating the People Mover, the DTC is also the parent organization of the Detroit Transit Police. The agency's roughly 30 officers have full arrest powers, with jurisdiction over the People Mover, DDOT buses, the Rosa Parks Transit Center, and the QLINE.

Originally formed only to patrol the People Mover, the Transit Police began DDOT patrols in March 2014, in response a spike in crime on buses. As of May 2022, the Transit Police no longer conduct regular patrols on the People Mover, with the DTC instead contracting with private security firms for People Mover patrols; they initially hired Detroit-based City Shield Security Services, before switching to Securitas in April 2023.

Ridership
The system was designed to move up to 15 million riders a year. In 2008 it served approximately 2 million riders. This meant the system averaged about 7,500 people per day, about 2.5 percent of its daily peak capacity of 288,000. In 2006, the Mover filled less than 10 percent of its seats.

Among the busiest periods was the five days around the 2006 Super Bowl XL, when 215,910 patrons used the service. In addition to major downtown concerts and sporting events, other high ridership times include the week of the annual North American International Auto Show in January and the Youmacon anime convention at the end of October, ever since the convention expanded in 2012 to use Huntington Place in addition to the Renaissance Center. The system had 92,384 riders during the 2014 extended con weekend.

Incidents

1990 derailment
In 1990, a train derailed at Cadillac Center after a manhole cover fell onto the track.

2015 derailment
On January 22, 2015, at approximately 10:10 PM, one of the cars jumped a rail, hitting the platform at Times Square. No injuries were reported, and the system was shut down for 17 hours for an investigation. According to a DTC press release, a bracket beneath the train dislodged and caught underneath the rear car, causing the train to disengage from the track. A door was dislodged upon impact.

2016 accident
On May 15, 2016, 53-year-old Michael Whyte fell onto the track between the cars of a stopped train at Times Square. The train then departed automatically as normal, dragging Whyte along the track to his death. Following this incident, bollards were added to the system's platforms, preventing passengers from falling into the space between the cars. Whyte's family filed a lawsuit, alleging negligence on the part of the DTC. Whyte's death is, to date, the only fatal accident in the People Mover's history.

Stations
The network has 13 stations. As the system runs in a one-way loop with a single track, each station only has one side platform, except for Times Square, which has a siding leading to the system's garage and an island platform.

Public art
Originally, the 13 stations were not planned to have any distinctive features. However, in 1984, after construction had recently begun, Irene Walt assembled a volunteer committee to persuade the project agency to include artwork in each station. Called the Downtown Detroit People Mover Art Commission (later known as Art in the Stations), they raised $2 million to finance the project. As a result, there are 18 new original pieces of art spread throughout the stations, plus a piece from 1903 that had previously been in storage, on permanent loan from the Detroit Institute of Arts.

The commission's efforts and art installation were documented in a 30-minute film, Art in the Stations, by Sue Marx and Pamela Conn, who had recently won an Academy Award for the short documentary Young at Heart. Art in the Stations premiered at the Detroit Institute of Arts in 1989.

In 2004, a coffee table book by Walt, also titled Art in the Stations, was published, with photographs by Balthazar Korab and information on all the station artwork and the artists who created them.

Art was completed with the system opening in 1987 unless otherwise noted:

 Grand Circus Park
 Catching Up (Artist: J. Seward Johnson Jr – bronze statue)
 Times Square
 In Honor of W. Hawkins Ferry (Artist: Tom Phardel / Pewabic Pottery – glazed tile)
 Untitled (1993) (Artist: Anat Shiftan / Pewabic Pottery – tile mural)
 Michigan Avenue
 Voyage (Artist: Allie McGhee – tile mural)
 On the Move (Artist: Kirk Newman – cast bronze shape on tile)
 Fort/Cass
 Untitled (Artist: Farley Tobin – tile mural)
 Progression II (1993) (Artist: Sandra jo Osip – bronze sculpture)
 Huntington Place
 Calvacade of Cars (1988) (Artist: Larry Ebel/Linda Cianciolo Scarlett – mural)
 West Riverfront
 Voyage (Artist: Gerome Kamrowski – venetian glass mosaic)
 Financial District
  'D' for Detroit (Artist: Joyce Kozloff – hand painted ceramic mural)
 Millender Center
 Detroit New Morning (Artist: Alvin D. Loving Jr. - painted glazed tiles)
 Renaissance Center
 Dreamers and Voyagers Come to Detroit (Artist: George Woodman – ceramic tile mural; destroyed with original station's demolition in 2002)
 Siberian Ram (1993) (Artist: Marshall Fredericks – cast bronze sculpture)
 Path Games (2004) (Artist: George Woodman – ceramic tile mural)
 Bricktown
 Beaubien Passage (Artist: Glen Michaels – bas relief on porcelain panels)
 Greektown
 Neon for the Greektown Station (Artist: Stephen Antonakos – free form neon light display)
 Cadillac Center
 In Honour of Mary Chase Stratton (Artist: Diana Kulisek Pancioli/Pewabic Pottery – tile mural interspersed with bronze plaque by Carlo Romanelli 1903)
 Broadway
 The Blue Nile (Artist: Charles McGee – painted mural panels)
 Untitled (Artist: Jun Kaneko – tile)

See also

 Art on the Move
 List of rapid transit systems
 List of United States rapid transit systems by ridership
 Metromover
 Transportation in metropolitan Detroit

References

External links
 Official website
 YouTube.com: On-Ride Video of the Detroit People Mover
 National Transit Database profile of the Detroit People Mover

1987 establishments in Michigan
ART people movers
Culture of Detroit
Downtown Detroit
Economy of Detroit
People mover systems in the United States
Railway lines opened in 1987
Rapid transit in Michigan
Transportation in Detroit
Urban people mover systems

Detroit People Mover


El trastorno de la conducta alimentaria no especificado es una alteración de la conducta alimentaria que no cumple los criterios para ser diagnosticado como anorexia nerviosa, ni tampoco como bulimia nerviosa. A veces se usa el acrónimo EDNOS, que procede de la expresión inglesa Eating Disorder not Otherwise Specified. Este diagnóstico está incluido en la última edición del Manual diagnóstico y estadístico de los trastornos mentales (DSM-IV).

Esta categoría se usa frecuentemente para incluir aquellos pacientes que cumplen la mayoría, pero no todos, los requisitos para ser diagnosticados de anorexia nerviosa o bulimia nerviosa. Por ejemplo una mujer que tiene los síntomas de anorexia nerviosa, pero cuyos ciclos menstruales son normales y regulares.

Criterios diagnósticos
Los criterios diagnósticos establecidos para realizar el diagnóstico de EDNOS deben corresponder a uno de los siguientes apartados:
 Mujeres que cumplen todos los requisitos para poder ser diagnosticadas de anorexia nerviosa, excepto que presentan menstruaciones regulares.
 Se cumplen todos los criterios establecidos para el diagnóstico de anorexia nerviosa, excepto el peso, que se encuentra dentro de límites considerados normales.
 Cumple los criterios de bulimia nerviosa excepto por el hecho de que la frecuencia de los atracones y otras conductas alimentarias no adecuadas ocurren con menor frecuencia de dos veces por semana o se han prolongado menos de tres meses.
 Empleo frecuente de conductas alimentarias no adecuadas después de la ingesta de pequeñas cantidades de alimentos en una persona de peso normal.  Por ejemplo provocarse el vómito después de tomar un trozo de chocolate.
 Masticar la comida y después expulsarla sin tragarla o tragando cantidades muy pequeñas.
 Comilonas recurrentes sin que existan las acciones compensatorias características de la bulimia nerviosa.

Referencias

Trastornos alimentarios

Trastorno de la conducta alimentaria no especificado


Marin Frčko, hrvatski vozač relija Profesionalni je vozač relija. Ostvario je desetke nastupa na velikim natjecanjima.

Kao suvozač, većinom se natjecao u paru s Goranom Francetićem, najviše u vozilu Mitsubishi Lancer Evo VIII, zatim u vozilu Mazda 323 GT-R i Mitsubishi Lancer Evo IX.

S Danielom Šaškinom organizirao svjetsko prvenstvo u rallyju (WRC) 2021, 2022 i 2023 g.

Pokrenuo je hrvatsko sudjelovanje na najpoznatijem svjetskom relijaškom natjecanju, Rallyju Dakar. Na njemu je sudjelovao dok se Dakar još vozio na autentičnim rutama na sjeveru Afrike. Četiri se puta natjecao kao suvozač, a dvaput je uspio doći do cilja.

Izvori

Životopisi, Poreč
Hrvatski vozači relija

Marin Frčko


Rostock, Almanya'nın Mecklenburg-Vorpommern eyaletinde bulunan en büyük şehirdir. Almanya'nın diğer kalabalık şehirlerine karşılık, surlarının büyük bir kısmının ayakta kalabildiği az sayılı büyükşehirlerinden biridir.

Coğrafî konum

Rostock şehri Mecklenburg-Vorpommern eyaletinin Baltık Denizi üzerinde bulunan sahillerinin hemen hemen ortasındadır. Şehrin ortasından Warnow Nehri geçer. Rostock, Warnow Nehri'nin her iki yakasındadır. Rostock şehrinin belediye sınırları Warnow Nehri'nin kıyısında yaklaşık 20 km uzunluğunda olup Baltık Denizi sahiline kadar uzanmaktadır. Şehrin Warnemünde semti şehir merkezinin 12 km kuzeyinde olup Baltık Denizi kıyısındadır. Şehrin en yoğun binalarla dolu bölgesi nehrin batı sahillerinde bulunmaktadır. Şehrin en yoğun nüfuslu bölgeleri şehrin batısı ve güneybatısındadır. Nehrin doğu sahilde bulunan belediye sınırları içindeki bölgeler ise sanayi bölgesidir ve "Rostock Heide Kırlığı"nda ormanlık araziyi kapsar.

Baltık Denizi kıyıları, tarihî şehir merkezinin 16 km kuzeyinde bulunan Rostock-Warnemünde sayfiye semtindedir. Rostock, bir liman şehri olarak tanınmakta olup uluslararası limanı şehrin doğusundadır. Rostock şehrinin Baltık Denizi kıyısından güneye doğru kuzey-güney uzunluğu 21,6 km'dir ve doğu-batı yönünde en geniş tarafı 19,4 km'dir.

Rostock'un nüfusu (2017 sonu itibarıyla) 208.409'tir.

Uluslararası ortaklık

Resimler

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

  Tarih özeti

Rostock


Adenauerplatz ist der Name folgender Plätze in Deutschland:
 Adenauerplatz (Berlin)
 Adenauerplatz (Bielefeld)
 Adenauerplatz (Friedrichshafen)
 Adenauerplatz (Heidelberg)

Siehe auch:
 Adenauerplatz, Roman von Friedrich Christian Delius (1984)
 Konrad-Adenauer-Platz

Adenauerplatz


El 5.º Batallón Aéreo de Reemplazo (5. Flieger-Ersatz-Abteilung) fue una unidad de la Luftwaffe de la Alemania nazi.

Historia
Fue formado en agosto de 1935 en Neubiberg. El 1 de octubre de 1935 es renombrado como 15.º Batallón Aéreo de Reemplazo.

Comandante
Teniente Coronel Albert Vierling (1 de agosto de 1935 - 28 de febrero de 1937)

Referencias

 WW2 - 5. Flieger-Ersatz-Abteilung

Luftwaffe (Wehrmacht)
Batallones aéreos de reemplazo
Unidades militares alemanas de la Segunda Guerra Mundial

5.º Batallón Aéreo de Reemplazo


Citybasket Recklinghausen ist ein Basketball-Verein aus Recklinghausen. Spielorte der zahlreichen Teams sind die Vestische Arena Alfons Schütt, die über rund 800 Plätze verfügt (ohne zeitweilige, behelfsmäßige Sitzplätze auf der Sportfläche), sowie die Sporthalle des Kuniberg Kollegs in Recklinghausen, die rund 600 Plätze aufweist.

Geschichte
Im Herbst 1976 trat eine private Basketballgruppe als Abteilung dem TV 1863 Recklinghausen bei. Damit wurde erstmals organisiert Basketball in Recklinghausen betrieben.

An der Spitze der Basketballer stand Werner Geske, ein ehemaliger Basketballnationalspieler. Der Start des Trainingsbetriebes erfolgte in Recklinghausen-Süd, im Theodor-Heuss-Gymnasium. Im September 1982, mit der Eröffnung der neuen Sporthalle am Gymnasium Petrinum, verfügte die Basketballabteilung über eine eigene Sporthalle. Der Start als Basketballabteilung im TV 1863 erfolgte mit vier Gruppen, davon eine Damengruppe.

In der Saison 1977/78 begann der Meisterschaftsbetrieb mit einer Damen- und einer Herrenmannschaft. Im Dezember 1977 hatte die Abteilung bereits 85 Mitglieder.

Unter Werner Geskes Regie wuchs die Abteilung und es wurden neue Mannschaften gebildet. In der Saison 1978/79 gingen bereits fünf Teams, davon zwei Jugendteams an den Start. Im Jahr 1979 waren es acht Teams und die Herren steigen in die 1. Kreisliga auf. 1980 konnte die Basketballabteilung bereits 110 Mitglieder verzeichnen. Als Dietmar Tottmann die Abteilung übernahm, hatte diese eine Größenordnung erreicht, die eine Verselbständigung erforderte. 1994 trennte sich die Basketballabteilung vom TSV 1863 Recklinghausen und gründete mit Citybasket Recklinghausen einen eigenen Verein.

Herren
2010 stieg die erste Herrenmannschaft von der 2. in die 1. Regionalliga West auf und wurde 2011/2012 Meister der 1. Regionalliga West sowie darüber hinaus Pokalsieger im WBV, sodass die Mannschaft ab der Saison 2012/2013 in der ProB antrat. Die Mannschaft erreichte 2013, 2014 und 2016 die ProB-Playoffs, kam aber jeweils nicht über die erste Runde hinaus. 2017 stieg Recklinghausen als Tabellenletzter in die 1. Regionalliga ab. Zur Saison 2017/18 übernahm Johannes Hülsmann das Traineramt, das zuvor Maik Berger bekleidet hatte. Hülsmann ging 2021 als Assistenztrainer zum Zweitligisten Phoenix Hagen, neuer Recklinghäuser Trainer wurde der langjährige Profispieler Konrad Tota. Die Zusammenarbeit dauerte es bis zum Jahresende 2021, dann kam Robin Singh als neuer Trainer. Zur Saison 2022/23 wurde Dhnesch Kubendrarajah das Traineramt übertragen.

Trainer der Herrenmannschaft

Damen
Die erste Damenmannschaft spielte in der Saison 2016/17 in der Regionalliga. Sie erreichten den zweiten Tabellenplatz und stiegen in die 2. Basketball Bundesliga der Damen auf.

Diese Saison beendete Citybasket sportlich auf dem letzten Platz. Wegen einigen Verschiebungen wäre ein Start in der Saison 2018/2019 möglich gewesen. Man hat sich aufgrund der Kosten jedoch dagegen entschieden.

Jugend
In allen Jugendbundesligen treten die Recklinghäuser alleine oder in Startgemeinschaften als Metropol Baskets an.

Seit der Aufnahme des Sportbetriebes wurden zahlreiche Titel von der Kreis- bis zur NRW-Liga errungen.

Erfolge
Der Verein spielte bereits erfolgreich unter anderen in folgenden Ligen:

 1. Herren 2. Bundesliga ProB Nord
 2. Herren Oberliga
 1. Damen 1. Bundesliga
 U 19 männlich NBBL (Bundesliga)
 U 16 männlich JBBL (Bundesliga)
 U 17 weiblich WNBL (Bundesliga)
 weitere Nachwuchsteams treten in der NRW-Liga, Regionalliga etc. an

Bisher wurden folgende Titel erreicht:
 Sieger im WBV Pokal der Herren 2011/2012
 Aufstieg in die Bundesliga der Damen 1999
 Qualifikation der 1. Herren für die Bundesliga ProB
 Meisterschaft der 1. Regionalliga West 2011/2012
 Deutscher Meister weibliche U 20 2000/2001
 Regionalliga Meister U20 2007/2008 (Goldene Generation)
 Meisterschaft der Oberliga-Herren 2018 (mit Spielern der Goldenen Generation)
 Meisterschaft der Oberliga-Damen 2018

Bedeutende Spieler
Nationalspieler des Citybasket Recklinghausen
 Natalie Gohrke (letzter Verein Marburg)
 Dorothea Richter (letzter Verein Wasserburg)
Wichtige Spieler der Herrenmannschaft
 Robert Franklin: Der US-Amerikaner spielte von 2008 bis 2014 sowie in der zweiten Hälfte der Saison 2015/16 für Citybasket und war auf dem Spielfeld einer der Hauptverantwortlichen, dass dem Verein Aufstiege in die 1. Regionalliga und in die 2. Bundesliga ProB gelangen. Franklin wurde von eurobasket.com zweimal (2011, 2012) zum Spieler des Jahres der 1. Regionalliga West gekürt.
 Mirko Bregulla: Er spielte zwischen 2009 und 2017 für Recklinghausen und machte den Weg von der 2. Regionalliga in die ProB mit.
 Christoph Bruns: Seit 2010 Leistungsträger der Mannschaft; stieg 2012 mit Recklinghausen in die ProB auf.
Auswahlspieler
 Annika Küper (Jahrgang 1997)
 Leonie Schiermeyer (Jahrgang 1997)
 Oliver Pahnke (Jahrgang 1998)
 Seraphina Asuamah-Kofoh (Jahrgang 1999)
 Valentin Bredeck (Jahrgang 2001)

Kader der 1. Herren
Herrenteam von Citybasket Recklinghausen in der Saison 2017/2018:

Stand: 1. März 2018

Weblinks
Citybasket Recklinghausen
Homepage der 2. Basketball Bundesliga

Einzelnachweise

Recklinghausen, Citybasket
Sportverein (Recklinghausen)

Citybasket Recklinghausen


وحدة دلالية صغرى هي وحدة معنوية مركبة في واحد.

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 علم المعاني
 سمة دلالية
 مونيم

علم المعاني

وحدة دلالية صغرى


Charles Osborne (Anthon, Iowa, 2 de abril de 1894 - Sioux City, 1 de mayo de 1991) fue un ciudadano estadounidense que sufrió de un ataque de hipo de forma continua durante 68 años (desde 1922 hasta 1990).

Biografía
Osborne nació en Anthon, Iowa, y entró en el Libro Guinness de los récords como el hombre con el mayor ataque de hipo de la historia. Su hipo comenzó en 1922 y persistió durante 68 años. Su condición también le llevó a ser invitado en el programa de radio Ripley, ¡aunque usted no lo crea! en 1936. También fue invitado al programa televisivo de la ABC That's Incredible! en 1980, y a The Tonight Show con Johnny Carson en 1983. Osborne apareció en el artículo Dear Abby, así como en una pregunta del juego de mesa Trivial Pursuit.

El hipo de Osborne comenzó en 1922, mientras colgaba un cerdo para sacrificarlo cayéndose en el acto, y se detuvo un año antes de su muerte, a los 96 años. A pesar de su estado, el granjero pudo llevar una vida normal. Se casó dos veces y tuvo ocho hijos. Osborne falleció debido a complicaciones derivadas de úlceras en el hospital Maria Health Center, en la ciudad de Sioux City, Iowa, el 1 de mayo de 1991.

Referencias

Personas por condición médica o psicológica

Charles Osborne (hipo)


Damon Salvatore este personajul principal din serialul de televiziune The Vampire Diaries. Povestea acestuia începe in anul 1864, în Mistic Falls, la conacul tatălui său, unde locuia cu fratele (Stefan Salvatore) și părintele acestuia (Giusseppe Salvatore). Într-o zi, o femeie pe nume Katherine Pierce vine pentru a sta la conac sub pretextul că locuința acesteia și parinții ei arseseră într-un accident teribil.
Damon și Stefan se îndrăgostesc de Katherine.
Damon și Stefan ajung să fie transformați în vampiri de Katherine, aceasta fiind un vampir din secolul al-IV-lea, dar Damon ia hotărârea să plece de lângă fratele său și de atunci își continuă viața eternă ca un vampir singuratic.
Într-o zi, și el și Stefan se întorc în Mistic Falls, unde se îndrăgostesc de frumoasa Elena Gilbert. Elena si Stefan sunt împreună pentru un timp, până Elena este transformată în vampir și realizează că este îndragostită de Damon.

Personaje fictive introduse în 1991
Personaje din seriale de televiziune
Vampiri

Damon Salvatore


Olaylar
 Emîr Mevdûd hizmetindeki Selçuklu kuvvetleri, Urfa'yı kuşattı.

Doğumlar

Ölümler

1110


Greyfurt veya altıntop (Citrus paradisi), sedef otugiller (Rutaceae) familyasından bugün birçok çeşit ve kültür formları yetiştirilen, yaprak dökmeyen meyve türü.

Greyfurt 1750'li yıllarda Jamaika'da ortaya çıkmış doğal hibrid bir türdür zira Jamaika'nın yerli tatlı portakalının yanında yetiştirilmek üzere Kaptan Shaddock tarafından Güney Asya'dan getirilen yine bir turunç cinsi olan pomelo türü bu adada dikildiğinde bu iki türün birbiriyle tozlaşmaya girdiği ve bunun sonunca 3. bir tür olan greyfurt'un ortaya çıktığı görülmüştür. Jamaika'dan dünyaya bu tür yayılmıştır. En çok greyfurt üretimi yapan ülke Çin'dir.

Yaprakları derimsidir. Çiçekleri beyazımsı renkli, meyveleri büyük, toparlak yassı, açık sarı renkli, ince kabuklu, bol usarelidir. Meyvelerinin çekirdekli ve çekirdeksiz cinsleri bulunur. Meyve dilimlerinin kabukları soyulunca acılık kalmaz, rahatlıkla yenebilir.

Meyvelerinden gıda olarak istifade edilir. C vitamini bakımından zengindir. Meyve kabuklarından marmelat yapılır. Hazmı kolaylaştıran ve kabızlığı önleyen greyfurt mikropları öldürme özelliği ile faydalı bir besindir.

Etimoloji
Greyfurt kelimesi, İngilizce dilinde üzüm ve meyve kelimelerinin birleştirilmesi ile oluşturulmuş "grapefruit" kelimesinden Türkçeye geçmiştir. Meyve, salkım şeklinde yetişen meyvesine atfen bu şekilde adlandırılmıştır. Türkiye'de 2. Dünya Savaşı ertesinde duyulmuş, kısa bir süre greypfrut yazıldıktan sonra greyfurt yazımı yerleşmiştir. Meyveye atıfta bulunan ilk Türkçe kaynak 1949 yılında Cumhuriyet Gazetesi olmuştur. Meyveye altıntop adının neden verildiği bilinmemektedir. Ayrıca, Kıbrıs'ta ve bazı yörelerde kızmemesi de denmektedir

Tıbbi etkileri
Yapılan araştırmalar, greyfurt suyunun veya greyfurtun bazı ilaçlarla birlikte alınmasının zararlı yan etkiler ortaya çıkarabileceğini gösterdi. İlaçlar bağırsaklarda ve karaciğerde bulunan CYP450 enzimiyle parçalanarak vücudumuzdan atılmaktadırlar.  Bu enzimin ince bağırsaklarda bulunan P-450 3A4 isimli bir türü, greyfurt suyu içince yok olmakta ve bu nedenle de ilacın parçalanması geciktiğinden kanda birikmekte ve sonuçta ilaç zehirlenmesine neden olabilmektedir. Bu nedenle ilaç kullanan kişilerin greyfurt tüketmeden önce greyfurtun ilaca etkilerini bilmeleri önerilmektedir.

Dünya üretimi

Kaynakça
 A possible identification with an actual Captain Chaddock who traded in the West Indies in the 17th century, was suggested by J. Kumamoto, R. W. Scora, H. W. Lawton and W. A. Clerx, "Mystery of the forbidden fruit: Historical epilogue on the origin of the grapefruit, Citrus paradisi (Rutaceae)", Economic Botany, 41.1 (January, 1987:97-107).

Citrus
Melez organizmalar
Jamaika florası
Tropikal tarım

Greyfurt


Oracle bone script () is an ancient form of Chinese characters that is the oldest known form of Chinese writing. Oracle bone writing was engraved on oracle bones, which were animal bones or turtle plastrons that were used in pyromantic divination during the late 2nd millennium BC. The vast majority of oracle bone inscriptions, of which about 150,000 pieces have been discovered, were found at the Yinxu site located in Xiaotun Village, Anyang, Henan Province. The latest significant discovery is the Huayuanzhuang storage of 1,608 pieces, 579 of which were inscribed, found near Xiaotun in 1993. They record pyromantic divinations of the last nine kings of the Shang dynasty, beginning with Wu Ding, whose accession is dated by different scholars at 1250 BC or 1200 BC.  Oracle bone inscriptions of Wu Ding's reign have been radiocarbon dated to 1254–1197 BC±10 years. After the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou dynasty in c. 1046 BC, divining with milfoil became more common, and a much smaller corpus of oracle bone writings date from the Western Zhou.  Thus far, no Zhou sites have been found with a cache of inscriptions on the same scale as that at Yinxu, although inscribed oracle bones appear to be more widespread, being found near most major population centers of the time, and new sites have continued to be discovered since 2000.

The late Shang oracle bone writings, along with a few roughly contemporaneous inscriptions in a different style cast in bronzes, constitute the earliest significant corpus of Chinese writing. The script is essential for the study of Chinese etymology, as Shang writing is the oldest known member and ancestor of the Chinese family of scripts, preceding the bronzeware script. It is also the direct ancestor of over a dozen East Asian writing systems developed over the next three millennia, including the Chinese and Japanese logographic and syllabaric scripts still in current use.  In terms of content, the inscriptions, which range from under ten characters for incomplete prognostications to over 100 characters in rare cases (a few dozen being typical), deal with a wide range of topics, including war, ritual sacrifice, agriculture, as well as births, illnesses, and deaths in the royal family. Thus, they provide invaluable insight into late Shang dynasty civilization and society.

Oraculology is the discipline for the study of oracle bones and the oracle bone script.

Name
The common Chinese term for oracle bone script is   ("shell and bone script"), which is an abbreviation of   ("tortoise-shell and animal-bone script"). This term is a translation of the English phrase "inscriptions upon bone and tortoise shell", which was coined by the American missionary Frank H. Chalfant (1862–1914) in his 1906 book Early Chinese Writing, and first appeared in Chinese books in the 1930s.
In earlier decades, Chinese authors used a variety of names for the inscriptions and the script, based on the place they were found (Yinxu), their purpose (bǔ  "to divine") or the method of writing (qì  "to engrave"), one common term being   ("Yinxu divinatory texts").

As the majority of oracle bones bearing writing date from the late Shang dynasty, oracle bone script essentially refers to a Shang script.

Precursors

It is certain that Shang-lineage writing underwent a period of development before the Anyang oracle bone script because of its mature state. For example, many characters had already undergone extensive simplification and linearization; the processes of semantic extension and phonetic loan had also clearly been at work for some time, at least hundreds of years and perhaps longer. However, no significant quantity of clearly identifiable writing from before or during the early to middle Shang cultural period has been discovered. The few Neolithic symbols found on pottery, jade, or bone at a variety of cultural sites in China are very controversial, and there is no consensus that any of them are directly related to the Shang oracle bone script.

Style

The oracle bone script of the late Shang dynasty appears pictographic, as does its contemporary, the Shang writing on bronzes. The earliest oracle bone script appears even more so than examples from late in the period (thus some evolution did occur over the roughly 200-year period). Comparing the oracle bone script to both Shang and early Western Zhou period writing on bronzes, the oracle bone script is clearly greatly simplified, and rounded forms are often converted to rectilinear ones; this is thought to be due to the difficulty of engraving the hard, bony surfaces, compared with the ease of writing them in the wet clay of the molds the bronzes were cast from. The more detailed and more pictorial style of the bronze graphs is thus thought to be more representative of typical Shang writing (as would have normally occurred on bamboo books) than the oracle bone script forms, and this typical style continued to evolve into the Zhou period writing and then into the seal script of the Qin in the late Zhou period.

It is known that the Shang people also wrote with brush and ink, as brush-written graphs have been found on a small number of pottery, shell and bone, and jade and other stone items, and there is evidence that they also wrote on bamboo (or wooden) books just like those found from the late Zhou to Hàn periods, because the graphs for a writing brush (聿 yù, depicting a hand holding a writing brush) and bamboo book (冊 cè, a book of thin vertical slats or slips with horizontal string binding, like a closed Venetian blind turned 90 degrees) are present in the oracle bone script. Since the ease of writing with a brush is even greater than that of writing with a stylus in wet clay, it is assumed that the style and structure of Shang graphs on bamboo were similar to those on bronzes, and also that the majority of writing occurred with a brush on such books. Additional support for this notion includes the reorientation of some graphs, by turning them 90 degrees as if to better fit on tall, narrow slats; this style must have developed on bamboo or wood slat books and then carried over to the oracle bone script. Additionally, the writing of characters in vertical columns, from top to bottom, is for the most part carried over from the bamboo books to oracle bone inscriptions. In some instances lines are written horizontally so as to match the text to divinatory cracks, or columns of text rotate 90 degrees in mid stream, but these are exceptions to the normal pattern of writing, and inscriptions were never read bottom to top. The vertical columns of text in Chinese writing are traditionally ordered from right to left; this pattern is found on bronze inscriptions from the Shang dynasty onward. Oracle bone inscriptions, however, are often arranged so that the columns begin near the centerline of the shell or bone, and move toward the edge, such that the two sides are ordered in mirror-image fashion.

Structure and function

Despite the pictorial nature of the oracle bone script, it was a fully functional and mature writing system by the time of the Shang dynasty, i.e., able to record the Old Chinese language in its entirety and not just isolated kinds of meaning. This level of maturity clearly implies an earlier period of development of at least several hundred years. From their presumed origins as pictographs and signs, by the Shang dynasty, most graphs were already conventionalized in such a simplified fashion that the meanings of many of the pictographs are not immediately apparent. Compare, for instance, the pictographs at the left. Without careful research to compare these to later forms, one would probably not know that these represented 豕 shĭ "swine" and 犬 quǎn "dog" respectively. As Boltz (1994 & 2003 p. 31–33) notes, most of the oracle bone graphs are not depicted realistically enough for those who do not already know the script to recognize what they stand for; although pictographic in origin they are no longer pictographs in function. Boltz instead calls them zodiographs (p. 33), reminding us that functionally they represent words, and only through the words do they represent concepts, while for similar reasons Qiu labels them semantographs.

By the late Shang oracle bone script, the graphs had already evolved into a variety of mostly non-pictographic functions, including all the major types of Chinese characters now in use. Phonetic loan graphs, semantic-phonetic compounds, and associative compounds were already common. One structural and functional analysis of the oracle bone characters found that they were 23% pictographs, 2% simple indicatives, 32% associative compounds, 11% phonetic loans, 27% phonetic-semantic compounds, and 6% uncertain.

Although it was a fully functional writing system, the oracle bone script was not fully standardized. By the early Western Zhou period, these traits had vanished, but in both periods, the script was not highly regular or standardized; variant forms of graphs abound, and the size and orientation of graphs is also irregular. A graph when inverted horizontally generally refers to the same word, and additional components are sometimes present without changing the meaning. These irregularities persisted until the standardization of the seal script in the Qin dynasty.

There are over 30,000 distinct characters found from all the bone fragments so far, which may represent around 4,000 individual characters in their various forms. The majority of these still remain undeciphered, although scholars believe they can decipher between 1,500 and 2,000 of these characters. One reason for the difficulty in decipherment is that components of certain oracle bone script characters may differ in later script forms. Such differences may be accounted for by character simplification and/or by later generations misunderstanding the original graph, which had evolved beyond recognition. For instance, the standard character for 'autumn' (秋) now appears with 禾 ('plant stalk') as one component and 火 ('fire') as another component, whereas the oracle bone script form of the character depicts an insect-like figure with antennae – either a cricket or a locust – with a variant depicting fire  below said figure. In this case, the modern character is a simplification of an archaic variant 𪛁 (or 𥤚) which is closer to the oracle bone script form – albeit with the insect figure being confused with the similar-looking character for 'turtle' (龜) and the addition of the 禾 component. (Another rarer simplification of 𪛁 is 龝, with 龜 instead of 火).

Another reason is that some characters exist only in the oracle bone script, dropping out of later usage (usually being replaced in their duties by other, newer characters). One good example is shown in the fragment labeled "Oracle script for Spring".  The top left character in this image has no known modern Chinese counterpart.  In such cases, context – when available – may be used to determine the possible meaning of the character. In other cases, the character may be assumed to be a phonosemantic compound, and its rough meaning can be inferred based on the semantic component.  For instance, an oracle bone character was recently found which consists of 礻 on the left and 升 on the right ([礻升] when converted from oracle bone forms to their modern printed equivalents).  This character may reasonably be guessed to a compound with 示 ('altar') as the semantic and 升 (modern reading 'sheng') as the phonetic.  Though no modern character consists of these two components, it likely refers to a type of Shang dynasty ritual with a name similar to the pronunciation of 升 in Old Chinese.  In the same collection of fragments, the character [阝心] was surmised to be a place name, since the semantic component 阜 means 'mound; hill', and the divination concerned the king traveling for a royal hunt.

Zhou dynasty oracle bones

The numbers of oracle bones with inscriptions contemporaneous with the end of Shang and the beginning of Zhou is relatively few in number compared with the entire corpus of Shang inscriptions. Until 1977, only a few inscribed shell and bone artifacts were known. Zhou related inscriptions have been unearthed since the 1950s, with find fragments having only one or two characters. In August 1977, a large hoard of several thousand pieces was discovered in an area closely related to the heartland of the ancient Zhou. Of these, only two or three hundred items were inscribed.

Scholarship

Among the major scholars making significant contributions to the study of the oracle bone writings, especially early on, were:
 Wang Yirong recognized the characters as being ancient Chinese writing in 1899.
 Liu E collected five thousand oracle bone fragments, published the first collection of 1,058 rubbings entitled Tieyun Canggui (鐵雲藏龜, Tie Yun's [i.e., Liu E] Repository of Turtles) in 1903, and correctly identified thirty-four characters.
 Sun Yirang was the first serious researcher of oracle bones.
 Luo Zhenyu collected over 30,000 oracle bones and published several volumes, identified the names of the Shang kings, and thus positively identified the oracle bones as being artifacts from the Shang reign.
 Wang Guowei demonstrated that the commemorative cycle of the Shang kings matched the list of kings in Sima Qian's Records of the Historian.
 Dong Zuobin identified the diviners and established a chronology for the oracle bones as well as numerous other dating criteria.
 Guo Moruo editor of the Heji, the largest published collection of oracle bones.
 Ken-ichi Takashima, first scholar to systematically treat the language of the oracle bones from the perspective of modern linguistics.

Computer encoding
A proposal to include the oracle bone script in Unicode is being prepared. Codepoints U+35400 through U+36BFF in Unicode Plane 3 (the Tertiary Ideographic Plane) have been tentatively allocated.

Samples

See also
Mojikyo – Software developed by Mojikyo researchers that includes a set of oracle bone characters.
Chinese family of scripts

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

Boltz, William G. (1994; revised 2003). The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System. American Oriental Series, vol. 78. American Oriental Society, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
Chen Zhaorong 陳昭容. (2003) Qinxi wenzi yanjiu: Cong hanzi-shi de jiaodu kaocha 秦系文字研究 ﹕从漢字史的角度考察 (Research on the Qin (Ch'in) Lineage of Writing: An Examination from the Perspective of the History of Chinese Writing). Taipei: Academia Sinica, Institute of History and Philology Monograph. .
Gao Ming 高明 (1996). Zhongguo Guwenzi Xuetonglun 中国古文字学通论. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
Keightley, David N. (1978). Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China. University of California Press, Berkeley. Large format hardcover,  (out of print); A 1985 ppbk 2nd edition also printed, .
Keightley, David N. (2000). The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China (ca. 1200–1045 B.C.). China Research Monograph 53, Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California – Berkeley. , ppbk.
Liu Xiang 刘翔 et al., (1989, 3rd reprint 1996). Shang-zhou guwenzi duben 商周古文字读本 (Reader of Shang-Zhou Ancient Characters). Yuwen Publishers.
Qiu Xigui Chinese Writing (2000). Translation by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. .
Shen, Chen. (2002). Anyang and Sanxingdui: Unveiling the Mysteries of Ancient Chinese Civilizations. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.
Thorp, Robert L. "The Date of Tomb 5 at Yinxu, Anyang: A Review Article," Artibus Asiae (Volume 43, Number 3, 1981): 239–246.

Xu Yahui 許雅惠 (2002). Ancient Chinese Writing, Oracle Bone Inscriptions from the Ruins of Yin. Illustrated guide to the Special Exhibition of Oracle Bone Inscriptions from the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica. English translation by Mark Caltonhill and Jeff Moser. National Palace Museum, Taipei. Govt. Publ. No. 1009100250.
Zhao Cheng 趙誠 (1988). Jiǎgǔwén Jiǎnmíng Cídiǎn – Bǔcí Fēnlèi Dúbĕn 甲骨文簡明詞典 – 卜辭分類讀本. Beijing: Zhōnghúa Shūjú, /H•22

External links

 More on Oracle Bone Script, at BeyondCalligraphy.com

Divination
History of the Chinese script
Shang dynasty
Obsolete writing systems
Oraculology
Yinxu

Oracle bone script


මුසාවාදය යනු අනුන් මුළා කිරීමේ අදහසින් අසත්‍ය පැවසීම ය. මුසාවාද අකුසලය සඳහා සම්පූර්ණ විය යුතු අංග:
 කියන කරුණ අසත්‍යයක් වීම
 අනුන් රැවටීමේ චේතනාව
 එම අසත්‍යය කරුණ ඇඟවීමට උත්සහ දැරීම
 කියන ලද කරුණ ඇසූ පුද්ගලයා විසන් තේරුම් ගැනීම

මුසාවාදය


Harold Capistran Hollenbeck (* 29. Dezember 1938 in Passaic, New Jersey) ist ein US-amerikanischer Jurist und Politiker. Zwischen 1977 und 1983 vertrat er den Bundesstaat New Jersey im US-Repräsentantenhaus.

Werdegang
Harold Hollenbeck besuchte die öffentlichen Schulen in East Rutherford und studierte danach bis 1961 an der Fairleigh Dickinson University in Rutherford. Nach einem anschließenden Jurastudium an der University of Virginia und seiner 1965 erfolgten Zulassung als Rechtsanwalt begann er in Ridgewood in diesem Beruf zu arbeiten. Gleichzeitig schlug er als Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei eine politische Laufbahn ein. In den Jahren 1967 bis 1969 war er Gemeinderat in East Rutherford. Zwischen 1969 und 1971 saß er als Abgeordneter in der New Jersey General Assembly; danach gehörte er von 1972 bis 1973 dem Staatssenat an. Im Jahr 1968 war er Delegierter zur Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, auf der Richard Nixon als Präsidentschaftskandidat nominiert wurde.

Bei den Kongresswahlen des Jahres 1976 wurde Hollenbeck im neunten Wahlbezirk von New Jersey in das US-Repräsentantenhaus in Washington, D.C. gewählt, wo er am 3. Januar 1977 die Nachfolge von Henry Helstoski antrat. Nach zwei Wiederwahlen konnte er bis zum 3. Januar 1983 drei Legislaturperioden im Kongress absolvieren. Im Jahr 1982 unterlag er dem Demokraten Robert Torricelli. Seit 1987 ist Hollenbeck Richter am New Jersey Superior Court.

Weblinks

Mitglied des Repräsentantenhauses der Vereinigten Staaten für New Jersey
Mitglied des Senats von New Jersey
Mitglied der New Jersey General Assembly
Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei
Richter (New Jersey)
Rechtsanwalt (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1938
Mann

Harold C. Hollenbeck