Jules Régis Debray (d. 1940) Fransız entelektüel, muhabir, devlet görevlisi ve profesör. Che Guevara'nın çalışmalarına, özellikle 1967'de tutuklanıp yargılandığı Bolivya'dayken, bilfiil katkıda bulunmuştur.

Yaşamı
Régis Debray, İkinci Dünya Savaşının ilk yıllarında; 1940'ta Paris'te büyük burjuvaların ve sanayicilerin oturduğu 16. bölgedeki Lubeck sokağında dünyaya geldi. Dedesi sanayici, babası avukat ve Saint-Sépulcre şövalyesi ve annesi Paris Belediyesi Meclis üyesi Jeanin Alexandre-Debray'dir. Çocukluk yılları burjuvaların çoğunlukta olduğu böyle bir çevrede geçti.

1955'te Janson de Sailly lisesi 1A sınıfında zeki bir öğrenci olarak dikkatleri üzerine çekmiştir. Felsefe ve edebiyata yoğun bir ilgisi vardır. Fizikten ve matematikten pek hoşlanmaz. Rimbaud, Baudelaire, André Malraux, Albert Camus, Pierre Mendès France gibi yazarların etkisindedir. Hovardalık devrinde Saint Germain des Pres'in müptelasıdır. Bu eğlence bölgesi, devrin gençliğinin vazgeçilmez mekanıdır. Kulüplere gider, "caz"dan hoşlanır. Arkadaşlarıyla Lubeck sokağındaki evinde, büyük ve camlı bir kitaplığın önünde kendi odasında toplanır. Hizmetçiye zahmet etmemeye özen gösterir, çünkü "ayrıcalıklı" konuma düşmek onda manevi bir sıkıntı yaratmaktadır. Kişiliğinin devrimci bir değişime uğramasında bu sıkıntının ahlaki ve sonra da politik bir boyuta varmasının etkisi olduğuna şüphe yok.

Cezayir'deki Fransız işgaline karşı tepkilerini arkadaşlarına ve çevresine de yansıtır. Cezayir'deki işkence olayları müthiş sinirini bozmuştur. İşgalci zihniyetteki anne ve babasının dostları arasında kendisini son derece rahatsız hissetmektedir. Nispeten bağımsız bir çizgi izleyen annesini "Fransız Cezayir"ini savunmakla suçlar. Babasıyla da arası pek sıkı değildir. Babasının aktardığına göre "sınıfını savunuyorsun ama bil ki bu sınıfın ömrü pek uzun değildir" der. Cezayir olaylarını protesto gösterilerinde yere yatar. Arkadaşlarıyla da karar alırlar: "Gerekirse askere gitmeyeceğiz."

Felsefe okumaya niyetlidir. Jean Paul Sartre'nın ateşli ve tutkulu yönüne hayrandır. Fransız kibar "komünist"leriyle arası bozuktur. Cezayir konusunda gerekli tepkiyi vermediklerine kanaat getirmiştir. Henüz Marksizm'le de arası iyi değildir, ona göre "Marksizm bireysel yaşamı açıklamamaktadır" ve "derin düşünceden yoksundur". Ergenlik dönemindeki atılgan bir genç için, bu kanaatlere sebep olanın geveze ve gerici teorisyen Fransız kibar ve korkak "komünist"leri olduğu ihtimali pek uzak değildir.
1957 yazında Londra'ya geçer. Sinemayla ilgilenir. Evinden ayrılarak tek başına yaşamaya başlar. Nietzsche ve Hegel'le ilgilenmektedir. Kant için "yazı yazmasını beceremeyen Alman" tanımlamasını kullanır. Yakın arkadaşı Jean ile birlikte komünistlere karışırlar. Aşırı sağcılar ile beraber giriştikleri eylemde Bourbon sarayını ele geçirirler. Fransa'da Sol'un güçsüzlüğü ve etkisizliği en üst düzeyde yaşanmaktadır o sıralar. Yunanistan'a bir yolculuk yapar ve geri gelir.

"Burada bir halt edilmez" diye feryad eder bir arkadaşı. Burası denen yer "geveze" ve "aydın" Fransa'dan başka bir yer değildir. 1960'ta Tunus'a gider ve orada devrimcilerle sohbetleri olur.
1960'ta Fransa'nın en prestijli okulu olan Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu'na yerleşir. Fransa'nın en devrimci profesörleri burada ders vermektedir. Arkadaşlarıyla beraber haftalık bir kadın dergisinin yazarını okulda pis bir odaya hapsederler. "Kültür ve Terör" isimli bir grupları vardır. Bu arada İspanyolcayı çok iyi öğrenmiştir ve Küba'ya ilgisi giderek devleşmektedir.

Küba'da Fidel ve Che gerçekleşmiş bir "mit"i temsil etmektedir. Yani gençlik ve devrim'i. Sartre şöyle yazar: "devrimin gençliği, gençliğin devrimidir". Fakat Fransa'da bunun esamesi okunmamaktadır. Paris'ten kibar ve geveze sol'dan nefreti hat safhaya çıkar. Tatilde Birleşik devletler'e gider Maimi- New York yolunu otostopla geçer. Ve nihayet buradan yolu Küba'ya düşer. Böylelikle arayış içindeki gençlik devri belki de sona ermiştir.

Debray önce başkent Havana'ya geçer, fakat burada fazla kalmayarak okuma yazma seferberliğine katılmak üzere, gerilla savaşının ilk kıvılcımının çaktığı Sierra-Maestra'ya geçer. Burada öğretmen yetiştiren okulda kalır. Küba köylüsünü ve sorunlarını açığa çıkarmaya çalışan bir psiko-sosyolojik çalışmaya katılır ve aynı zamanda tanıştığı bu çevre sayesinde kişiliğinde belirgin değişimler görülür. Kendi açıklarını da kapatmaya çalışmaktadır. Ailesinden aldığı bir telgraf üstüne Paris'e geri döner. Kübalıların eşsiz olduklarını söylemektedir. "Kibar Fransa ve kibar sol" onu boğmaktadır ve bu eziyete bir kere daha katlanmaya niyetli değildir :"Teori aşağılık bir şeydir, aydınlarınsa hepsi aptaldır". Hep konuşan ve sadece konuşan Fransa'da yaşamamağa karar kılar. Latin Amerika'yı ve oradaki devrimci yükselişi iyi tahlil etmek için tarih coğrafya, etnoloji ve ekonomi politik okur. Althusser'in yanında Marx'ı inceler. Marx'ın felsefesini okurken teori ile pratik arasındaki ilişkiyi somut bir şekilde kavramıştır. Şöyle der: "Aydınlar somut olmak zorundadırlar. Bu olmaksızın ya soytarı ya da haindirler. Ben bir hain ya da soytarı olamam, çünkü Marksistim". Kübalılardan müthiş bir ahlak dersi almış ve onlara bağlanmıştı. "Onlar her zaman çalışıyorlar, insan olunca onlar gibi olmalı" diyordu. 1962'de film çekimi için Venezuela'ya gider. Bu arada Latin Amerika'nın sorunlarını daha yakında incelemek maksadıyla bir yıl süreyle bir arabayla Paraguay hariç tüm Latin Amerika ülkelerinden geçer. Devrimlere gebe bu kıtayı incelerken Kastrizm'e olan bağlılığı ve onu derinden inceleme isteği onu yeni arayışlara iter.

Tekrar Fransa'ya dönüş yapar ve felsefede üniversite diploması üstünde bir unvan olan "agregation"unu hazırlar. Kısa süre Nancy lisesinde felsefe öğretmenliği yapmıştır. 1965 Kasımında Casa del America ödülünün jürisine katılmak üzere Küba'ya çağrılır. "Kastroculuk: Latin Amerika'da Uzun Yürüyüş" ve "Latin Amerika'da Devrimci Stratejinin Bugünkü Meseleleri" adlı makaleleri Küba'da oldukça ilgi toplamıştır. Üç kıta konferansının açılışından kısa süre önce Havana'ya ulaşır ve Fidel'le olan dostluğu git gide pekişmeye başlar. Fidel'in Gerilla savaşı üzerine tecrübelerini ve telkinlerini bir bir özümsemektedir. "Devrimde Devrim"deki düşünceleri git gide şekillenmeye başlar.

Che'nin yönettiği ELN içindeki örgütsel ve siyasi faaliyetleri

21 Aralık 1966 günü Fransız hükümetinin özel programı ile işbirliği çerçevesinde Havana'da felsefe dersleri vererek askerlik görevini yaparken, "Libre Havana" otelinin 21 numaralı odasında eline Che'den gelen mektup geçer. Che bu mektupta ona iki yıl önce gizli çalışmaya geçişinden beri kendisiyle röportaj yapabilecek ilk kişi olma teklifini yolluyordu. ELN'den örgütsel görevleri almaya başlamıştı. Fransa'ya dönüp orada kendisine Che'den gizli mesajı veren kişiyle irtibat kurduktan sonra Bolivya'ya geçti. Üzerinde Meksika'daki "Sucesos" isimli tirajlı gazete ve Maspero yayınevine ait kartlar bulunuyordu. Tanya'yla La Paz'da buluştu ve güneye yöneldi. 1966 yılında katıldığı Che Guevara'nın gerilla birliği içinde çeşitli sorumluluklar aldı. Kendisine Brezilya'da ünlü şehir gerillacısı Carlos Marighella'yla irtibata geçme ve gerilla için uluslararası ilişkiler yaratma görevinin verildiğini belirtmiştir. Che'nin örgütü içinde arkadaşlarınca "Fransız" diye isimlendirilmişti. Che, kendisinin yönettiği ELN (Bolivya Ulusal Kurtuluş Ordusu) saflarında gerilla savaşı verirken kaleme aldığı ve sonra "Bolivya Günlüğü" olarak yayınlanan günlüğünde, Jules Régis Debray'a verilen görevler ve özellikle yakalanması ve bunun sonrasında da yargılanması süreçlerinde onun hakkında tuttuğu notlar bulunabilir.

Régis Debray Gerilla örgütü için Bolivya kırlarına giderek, gerilla gücünün konuşlanması için en uygun yerlerin tespit edilmesi amacıyla Bolivya Komünist Partisi'nin ilişkilerinden yararlanarak bir süre buralarda kalmıştır. Bu çalışmalarında Bolivya'daki çeşitli kırsal alanlar için yaptığı tahlilleri bir rapor olarak Che'ye iletti.

Eylül 1966'da Bolivya'da Yukarı-Beni ve Chapare bölgelerini keşif için görevlendirilerek bu bölgelere hareket etti. Burada 1965'te Bolivya Komünist Partisi'nden koparak, kurulan ve silahlı mücadele yolunu seçmiş, başında Moises Guevara'nın bulunduğu Marksist-Leninist örgütün yaptığı hazırlıkları incelemiştir. Bu örgüt Che'ye 20 kişilik bir gerilla gücünü katacağını belirtmiş, fakat 1967 Şubat'ının ilk günlerinde ancak bu örgütün saflarından 8 Bolivyalı gerilla merkez karargahına gelmiştir. Bunlardan da çoğu örgütten kaçmış ve Bolivya oligarşisiyle işbirliği yaparak kendilerini satmışlardır. Régis Debray da ELN'nin Arjantinli üyesi Ciro Roberto Bustos (Pelado) ile beraber Tania adlı bir Kübalı bir kadın devrimci tarafından aynı süre zarfında gerilla merkez karargahına gelmiştir. (Tania: alman asıllı H. Tamaraa Bunker)

Debray, 20 Nisan 1967 gününde gerillaların kampından ayrıldıktan kısa bir süre sonra, Muyopampa köyünde Ciro Roberto Bustos ve İngiliz gazeteci Roth ile beraber tutuklandı. Roth adlı gazeteci de aynı gün bir köylünün yardımıyla gerilla kampına ulaşmıştı. Bu sırada tutuklandıkları köyde bulunan bir Bolivyalı gazeteci henüz kimlikleri tespit edilemeyen tutukluların resmini çekerek basına vermiş ve bu resim Pesencia adlı gazetede yayınlanarak, Debray, C. R. Bustos ve Roth'un çatışmada vurularak öldürüldüğü yönündeki ordunun yayınladığı askeri belge yalanlanmış ve Debray, Bustos ve Roth'un gizlice katledilmeleri olasılığı ortadan kalkarak yargılanmalarına başlanmıştır.

Tutuklanmalarının ardından İngiliz gazeteci Roth kefaletle serbest bırakılmıştır. Bu şahıs daha önce Bolivya ordusuyla işbirliği yapmış birisidir ve hemen salıverilmesi onun ajan olduğunu akla getirmiştir.

Tutuklandıktan sonra gazeteci olduğunu beyan etmiş, fakat savunmasında gerilla örgütünün siyasal amaçlarını açıklamıştır. Yargılanması sırasında general De Gaulle Bolivyalı amerikan kuklası diktatöre mektup yazarak ona insanca muamele edilmesini talep etmiş, Amerikan kuklası diktatör Bariontes ise ölmesi gerektiğini söylemişse de, yargılanması sonucunda 30 sene hapse mahkûm edilmiştir. Serbest bırakılması için uluslararası kamuoyunda Jean Paul Sartre gibi aydınlar ve tanınmış isimlerce kampanya başlatılmış ve 1970'te serbest bırakılmıştır.

3 yıl hapisten sonra serbest kaldıktan sonra Şili'ye giden Regis Debray, daha sonra burada faşist cunta tarafından katledilen Allende ile röportajlar yapmış ve bunu "Allende Anlatıyor" isimli kitapta yayınlamıştır. Şili'de faşist darbenin olmasından sonra, 1973'te Fransa'ya dönmüştür.

Latin Amerika devriminin sorunlarına ustaca çözümler getiren "Devrimde Devrim" isimli kitabı, uluslararası devrimci harekette, gerilla savaşını savunan ve pratikte sürdüren kesimler arasında tartışma konusu olmuştur.

Regis Debray'ın bahsi geçen "Devrimde Devrim" adlı eseri, Türkiye devrimci hareketinde de tartışma konusu olmuş, ve uluslararası sağ pasifist çizginin Türkiye'deki versiyonlarından "PDA" grubu "Debraycılık eleştirisi" adı altında devrimci harekete karşı saldırılarını bu kitabı ele alarak sürdürmüştür. Bu konuda Hüseyin Cevahir'in Devrimci Yol Sempatizanları tarafından yayınlanan "Küba Devrimi Üzerine" başlıklı yazısı dahil, daha pek çok yazıda devrimci hareketin pasifistlere karşı tespitleri ileri sürülmüştür.

Ülkesine döndükten sonra Latin Amerika'yla olan bağlarını devam ettirmiş, Nikaragua devrimini yerinde incelemiştir. Gerilla hareketlerine olan bağlılığı ve devrimci mücadelelere olan desteği sürmüşse dahi, Fransa cumhurbaşkanı "sosyalist" François Mitterand'ın Latin Amerika danışmanı olmuştur. Meksika'daki EZLN üzerine yazdığı bir yazısında gerillanın tarihsel devrimci işlevi üzerinde durmuştur. Marksizm'in hatalı olduğunu söylese dahi, karşı devrimcilere karşı mücadelesini devam ettirmiş, Uluslararası gerilla hareketlerine destek vermiştir.

Yazdığı ve Türkiye'de yayınlanan kitaplar

 DEVRİMDE DEVRİM
 CHE'NİN GERİLLASI
 ZAMANE DELİKANLISI
 HAPİSHANEDE BİR KÜÇÜK BURJUVA
 ALLENDE ANLATIYOR

Hüseyin Cevahir'in Küba Devrimi Üzerine yazısı

1940 doğumlular
Devrim teorisyenleri
École Normale Supérieur'de öğrenim görenler
Gerilla savaş teorisyenleri
Fransız akademisyenler
Yaşayan insanlar
Fransa cumhurbaşkanlığı danışmanları

Régis Debray


Interior design is the art and science of enhancing the interior of a building to achieve a healthier and more aesthetically pleasing environment for the people using the space. An interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such enhancement projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that includes conceptual development, space planning, site inspections, programming, research, communicating with the stakeholders of a project, construction management, and execution of the design.

History and current terms

In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.

The profession of interior design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from the development of industrial processes.

The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession. The profession of interior design is separate and distinct from the role of interior decorator, a term commonly used in the US; the term is less common in the UK, where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking, not yet officially a profession.

In ancient India, architects would also function as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect—one of the gods in Indian mythology. In these architects' design of 17th-century Indian homes, sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen inside the palaces, while during the medieval times wall art paintings were a common feature of palace-like mansions in India commonly known as havelis. While most traditional homes have been demolished to make way to modern buildings, there are still around 2000 havelis in the Shekhawati region of Rajashtan that display wall art paintings.

In ancient Egypt, "soul houses" (or models of houses) were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. From these, it is possible to discern details about the interior design of different residences throughout the different Egyptian dynasties, such as changes in ventilation, porticoes, columns, loggias, windows, and doors.

Painting interior walls has existed for at least 5,000 years, with examples found as far north as the Ness of Brodgar, as have templated interiors, as seen in the associated Skara Brae settlement. It was the Greeks, and later Romans who added co-ordinated, decorative mosaics floors, and templated bath houses, shops, civil offices, Castra (forts) and temple, interiors, in the first millennia BC. With specialised guilds dedicated to producing interior decoration, and formulaic furniture, in buildings constructed to forms defined by Roman architects, such as Vitruvius: De architectura, libri decem (The Ten Books on Architecture).

Throughout the 17th and 18th century and into the early 19th century, interior decoration was the concern of the homemaker, or an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.

Commercial interior design and management
In the mid-to-late 19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior design in the mid-20th century.

In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.

As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons, and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.

This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German émigré brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling decoration, patterned floors, and carpets and draperies.

A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century. Jones' first project was his most important—in 1851, he was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton's gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition but also the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow, and blue for the interior ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much critical acclaim. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament (1856), in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design and decoration.

Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s, he worked in collaboration with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art collector Alfred Morrison as well as Ismail Pasha, Khedive of Egypt.

In 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished companies of the period were Crace, Waring & Gillowm and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these firms included Thomas Edward Collcutt, Edward William Godwin, Charles Barry, Gottfried Semper, and George Edmund Street.

Transition to professional interior design

By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers. She advocated the individual adoption of a particular style, tailor-made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish's shell and the bird's nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.

The move toward decoration as a separate artistic profession, unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers, received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its president, it represented almost 200 decorators around the country. By 1915, the London Directory listed 127 individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda and Agnes Garrett were the first women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work – Suggestions for House Decoration in Painting, Woodwork and Furniture – spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.

By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of major American cities and was considered a national authority on home design. An important influence on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorian-style interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac, and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore, uncomfortable and rarely used. The book is considered a seminal work, and its success led to the emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie de Wolfe.

Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with, she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy, red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more practical; she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night. She compiled her ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste.

In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her business to New York City and Chicago. Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls, and wreaths.

Expansion
The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards, spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications, standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.

Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers, builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons, the government of interior design standards and qualifications was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design. Organisations such as the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute, founded in 1938, governed various areas of design.

It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design Association was founded.

Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations. Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.

Interior decorators and interior designers

Interior design is the art and science of understanding people's behavior to create functional spaces, that are aesthetically pleasing, within a building. Decoration is the furnishing or adorning of a space with decorative elements, sometimes complemented by advice and practical assistance. In short, interior designers may decorate, but decorators do not design.

Interior designer
Interior designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on planning, functional design and the effective use of space, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer in fine line design can undertake projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require an understanding of technical issues such as window and door positioning, acoustics, and lighting. Although an interior designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their designs stamped for approval by a structural engineer. Interior designers often work directly with architects, engineers and contractors.

Interior designers must be highly skilled in order to create interior environments that are functional, safe, and adhere to building codes, regulations and ADA requirements. They go beyond the selection of color palettes and furnishings and apply their knowledge to the development of construction documents, occupancy loads, healthcare regulations and sustainable design principles, as well as the management and coordination of professional services including mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and life safety—all to ensure that people can live, learn or work in an innocuous environment that is also aesthetically pleasing.

Someone may wish to specialize and develop technical knowledge specific to one area or type of interior design, such as residential design, commercial design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, furniture design, and spatial branding.
Interior design is a creative profession that is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is not always an artistic pursuit and can rely on research from many fields to provide a well-trained understanding of how people are often influenced by their environments.

Color in interior design
Color is a powerful design tool in decoration, as well as in interior design, which is the art of composing and coordinating colors together to create a stylish scheme on the interior architecture of the space.

It can be important to interior designers to acquire a deep experience with colors, understand their psychological effects, and understand the meaning of each color in different locations and situations in order to create suitable combinations for each place.

Combining colors together could result in creating a state of mind as seen by the observer, and could eventually result in positive or negative effects on them. Colors can make the room feel either more calm, cheerful, comfortable, stressful, or dramatic. Color combinations can make a tiny room seem larger or smaller. So it is for the Interior designer to choose appropriate colors for a place towards achieving how clients would want to look at, and feel in, that space.

Specialties

Residential
Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type design is specific for individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodeling of an existing structure. It is often a process that takes months to fine-tune and create a space with the vision of the client.

Commercial
Commercial design encompasses a wide range of subspecialties.
 Retail: includes malls and shopping centers, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising, and showrooms.
 Visual and spatial branding: The use of space as a medium to express a corporate brand.
 Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks.
 Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities.
 Hospitality and recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cruise ships, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theaters, music and concert halls, opera houses, sports venues, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc.
 Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and universities, religious facilities, etc.
 Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities.
 Exhibition: includes museums, gallery, exhibition hall, specially the design for showroom and exhibition gallery.
 Traffic building: includes bus station, subway station, airports, pier, etc.
 Sports: includes gyms, stadiums, swimming rooms, basketball halls, etc.
 Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of interior design.
 Self-employment.
 Employment in private sector firms.

Other
Other areas of specialization include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design, exhibit design, event design (including ceremonies, weddings, baby and bridal showers, parties, conventions, and concerts), interior and prop styling, craft styling, food styling, product styling, tablescape design, theatre and performance design, stage and set design, scenic design, and production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and the University of Florida offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies.

Profession

Education

There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice.

In many countries, several university degree courses are now available, including those on interior architecture, taking three or four years to complete.

A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organization of interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.D. programs available for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (i.e. gerontological or healthcare design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level.

Working conditions
There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for smaller firms and online renovation platforms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, who made up 32% of interior designers in 2020, usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs and wishes.

In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval by clients or construction permitting. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality, relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations. However, with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design alternatives has become easier and requires less travel.

Styles

Art Deco

The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau. The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes, a world's fair held in Paris in 1925. Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new technologies and materials.

Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining, and clean lines. The style offered a sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before.

Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors, aluminium, lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin. The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very popular at the time – for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin and furs. The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials.

The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color, and black and white. In interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey, and platinum tended to predominate. Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels.

Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time. As the style developed, bright vibrant colors became popular as well.

Art Deco furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes, and clean lines. Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns.

Modern Art
Modern design grew out of the decorative arts, mostly from the Art Deco, in the early 20th century. One of the first to introduce this style was Frank Lloyd Wright, who had not become hugely popularized until completing the house called Fallingwater in the 1930s. Modern art reached its peak during the 1950s and '60s, which is why designers and decorators today may refer to modern design as being "mid-century". Modern art does not refer to the era or age of design and is not the same as contemporary design, a term used by interior designers for a shifting group of recent styles and trends.

Arab Materials
"Majlis painting", also called nagash painting, is the decoration of the majlis, or front parlor of traditional Arabic homes, in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen. These wall paintings, an arabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: "Called 'nagash' in Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house."

The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area's textile and weaving patterns. "In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and ornamentation characterize those of Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and vegetable pigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail. Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an indicator of social and economic change."

Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. "You could tell a family's wealth by the paintings," Um Abdullah says: "If they didn't have much money, the wife could only paint the motholath, the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green, yellow and brown." When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such as Fatima Abou Gahas.

The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines, triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. "Some of the large triangles represent mountains. Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall paintings in 'Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past."

"Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light, delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork... all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard white plaster (though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh, examples can be seen in unadorned clay.

Media popularization

Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom, popular interior design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC), and Selling Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program called Trading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In addition, both HGTV and the DIY Network also televise many programs about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators, and home improvement experts in a myriad of projects.

Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will & Grace. There is also another show called Home MADE. There are two teams and two houses and whoever has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime, Designed to Sell, and The Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price. The show called Design Star has become more popular through the five seasons that have already aired. The winners of this show end up getting their own TV shows, of which are Color Splash hosted by David Bromstad, Myles of Style hosted by Kim Myles, Paint-Over! hosted by Jennifer Bertrand, The Antonio Treatment hosted by Antonio Ballatore, and finally Secrets from a Stylist hosted by Emily Henderson. Bravo also has a variety of shows that explore the lives of interior designers. These include Flipping Out, which explores the life of Jeff Lewis and his team of designers; Million Dollar Decorators explores the lives of interior designers Nathan Turner, Jeffrey Alan Marks, Mary McDonald, Kathryn Ireland, and Martyn Lawrence Bullard.

Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle shows include Martha Stewart Living and Living Large featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland, among others.

Many interior design magazines exist to offer advice regarding color palette, furniture, art, and other elements that fall under the umbrella of interior design. These magazine often focus on related subjects to draw a more specific audience. For instance, architecture as a primary aspect of Dwell, while Veranda is well known as a luxury living magazine. Lonny Magazine and the newly relaunched, Domino Magazine, cater to a young, hip, metropolitan audience, and emphasize accessibility and a do-it-yourself (DIY) approach to interior design.

Gallery

Notable interior decorators

Other early interior decorators:
 Sibyl Colefax
 Dorothy Draper
 Pierre François Léonard Fontaine
 Syrie Maugham
 Margery Hoffman Smith
 Elsie de Wolfe
 Arthur Stannard Vernay
 Frank Lloyd Wright

Many of the most famous designers and decorators during the 20th century had no formal training. Some examples include Sister Parish, Robert Denning and Vincent Fourcade, Kerry Joyce, Kelly Wearstler, Stéphane Boudin, Georges Geffroy, Emilio Terry, Carlos de Beistegui, Nina Petronzio, Lorenzo Mongiardino, Mary Jean Thompson and David Nightingale Hicks.

Notable interior designers in the world today include Scott Salvator, Troy Adams, Jonathan Adler, Michael S. Smith, Martin Brudnizki, Mary Douglas Drysdale, Kelly Hoppen, Kelly Wearstler, Nina Campbell, David Collins, Nate Berkus, Sandra Espinet, Jo Hamilton and Nicky Haslam.

See also
 1960s decor
 American Society of Interior Designers
 Blueprint
 British Institute of Interior Design
 Chartered Society of Designers
 Environmental psychology
 Experiential interior design
 Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis
 Interior architecture
 Interior design psychology
 Interior design regulation in the United States
 Japanese interior design
 Primitive decorating
 Wall decals
 Window treatment

References

External links

Candace Wheeler: The Art and Enterprise of American Design, 1875–1900, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which includes a great deal of content about early interior design

Architectural design
Decorative arts
Home economics

Interior design


Der Purpurschneidige Blut-Helmling (Mycena sanguinolenta) ist eine Pilzart aus der Familie der Mycenaceae. Er hat einen braunen bis gräulichen und mehr oder weniger weinrötlich getönten Hut sowie weißliche bis graue Lamellen mit rotbraunen Schneiden. Bricht der Stiel, tritt ein rotbrauner und wässriger Saft aus. Der sehr häufige und weit verbreitete Helmling erscheint von Mai bis Oktober im Laub- und Nadelwäldern sowie in Heiden und Mooren auf morschem Holz oder Nadelstreu. Der Purpurschneidige Blut-Helmling ist kein Speisepilz.

Merkmale

Makroskopische Merkmale

Der Hut ist 5–18 mm breit, glockig-gewölbt bis ausgebreitet und im Alter abgeflacht, wobei der Rand manchmal leicht zurückgebogen sein kann. Die Hutmitte weist oft einen flachen Buckel oder eine kleine Papille auf. Vom Rand bis zum Scheitel scheinen die Lamellen als deutliche Riefung durch. Die matte Huthaut ist creme-ockerlich und leicht rosa getönt oder braunrot bis purpur-bräunlich gefärbt. Oft hat der Hut ein dunkleres, rötliches braunes Zentrum, eine dunkelbraune bis rosa-beige Mitte und zum Rand hin eine hellbraune bis braun-violette Farbe.

Die aufsteigenden Lamellen sind am Stiel schmal angeheftet oder laufen mit einem kurzen Zahn daran herab. 13–17 Lamellen erreichen den Stiel. Sie sind schmutzig weiß bis blassgrau, während die glatten Lamellenschneiden rotbraun bis weinrot gefärbt sind. Das Sporenpulver ist weißlich.

Der 3–8 cm lange und bis zu 2 mm dünne Stiel ist sehr brüchig und mehr oder weniger zylindrisch. Innen ist er hohl, außen kahl und grau-rosa, weinrot bis purpur-bräunlich gefärbt. Jüngere Fruchtkörper sondern an verletzten Stellen einen wässrigen, weinroten bis braun-rosafarbenen Saft ab. Die bisweilen etwas verbreiterte Stielbasis ist dicht mit weißen, abstehenden Fasern striegelig bedeckt.

Das Fleisch ist dünn und graurosa. Es riecht und schmeckt eventuell etwas nach Rettich, ist aber meist nahezu geruchlos.

Mikroskopische Merkmale
Die apfelkernförmigen Sporen sind 8–10 µm lang und 5,5–6 µm breit. Sie sind glatt und amyloid. Die keulenförmigen und 4-sporigen Basidien messen 27–35 × 8–10 µm. Die Cheilozystiden sind 27–55 µm lang und 6,5–10 µm breit und bilden ein steriles Band auf der Lamellenschneide. Sie sind spindelförmig, glatt und haben einen rotbraunen Inhalt. Zur Spitze verengen sie halsartig, besitzen gelegentlich auch zwei Hälse oder grobe, seitliche Auswüchse. Falls vorhanden sind die Pleurozystiden ganz ähnlich geformt. Die Lamellentrama ist dextrinoid, verfärbt sich also unter Zugabe von Jodreagenzien weinrötlich.

Die Hyphen der Huthaut sind 2–4,5 µm breit und haben einfache bis etwas verzweigte Auswüchse (15,2 × 1,5–2 µm), die eine dichte Masse bilden können. Die Hyphen der Stielrinde messen 1–3,5 µm in der Breite und zeigen spärlich einfach bis gabelförmige, zylindrische Auswüchse (1,5–4,5 × 1–2 µm). Die Caulozystiden (18–55 × 5,5–9 µm) ähneln den Cheilozystiden. Schnallenverbindungen sind vorhanden.

Artabgrenzung
Die Art ist gekennzeichnet durch den weinrötlich getönten Hut, die weißlichen bis grauen Lamellen mit der rotbraunen Schneide und die rotbraune, wässrige Milch, die sowohl aus dem Hut als auch aus dem Stiel austreten kann, wenn der Fruchtkörper angeschnitten wird (besonders an den Lamellen und am Hutrand). Der ähnliche Große Blut-Helmling (Mycena haematopus) ist größer und wächst büschelig auf morschem Holz. Untersucht man Trockenmaterial, so sind vor allem die scharf zugespitzten Cheilocystidia ein nützliches Bestimmungsmerkmal.

Ökologie
Der Purpurschneidige Blut-Helmling lebt saprobiontisch auf Humus, totem Holz und anderen pflanzlichen Rückständen zwischen Gras und Moos. Man findet ihn auf abgefallenen Zweigen und moosbedeckten Laub- und Nadelbäumestämmen sowie in der Nadelstreu. Die Fruchtkörper erscheinen meist gesellig von Mai bis Oktober im Laub- und Nadelwald. Bei mildfeuchter Witterung findet man den Helmling schon ab Mitte April und bis Anfang Januar.

Verbreitung

Der Purpurschneidige Blut-Helmling ist in Australien und auf der ganzen nördlichen Erdhalbkugel verbreitet. Der Helmling wurde in Nordasien (Kaukasus, Sibirien, Kamtschatka, Korea, Japan, China), Nordamerika (USA, Kanada), auf den Kanaren und in Nordafrika nachgewiesen. Sein Verbreitungsgebiet ist meridional bis boreal und reicht vom warmen Mittelmeergebiet bis in die kühlen Nadelwaldregionen. In Nordamerika ist er häufig und weit verbreitet und kommt von Maine bis Washington und im Süden von North Carolina bis Kalifornien vor. Im Norden reicht sein Verbreitungsgebiet von Neuschottland bis Britisch-Kolumbien (Kanada). In Europa kommt der Helmling im Süden von Spanien bis Rumänien vor. Er ist in Westeuropa, Mitteleuropa und in ganz Fennoskandinavien weit verbreitet. Die Nordgrenze seines Verbreitungsgebietes reicht bis zum 70 Breitengrad.

In Deutschland und Österreich ist die Art durchweg dicht verbreitet und häufig.

Systematik
Der Helmling wurde von Johannes Baptista von Albertini als Agaricus sanguinolentus beschrieben. 1871 stellte ihn der Mykologe Paul Kummer in die Gattung Mycena, sodass er seinen heute gültigen Namen bekam. Das Artattribut (Epitheton) leitet sich von dem lateinischen Wort sanguinolentus ab und bedeutet "blutig".

Infragenetische Systematik
Der Purpurschneidiger Blut-Helmling wird von Maas Geesteranus in die Sektion Sanguinolentae gestellt. Bei den Vertretern der Sektion scheidet der Stiel beim Anschneiden eine orangebraune bis rötliche Milch aus und die Fruchtkörper schwärzen nicht beim Trocknen.

Molekulare phylogenetische Untersuchungen von verschiedenen europäischen Helmlingsarten zeigen, dass der Purpurschneidiger Blut-Helmling eng mit dem Weißmilchenden Helmling (Mycena galopus) verwandt ist. Auch der Rosablättriger Helmling Mycena galericulata und der Große Blut-Helmling (Mycena haematopus) gehören zu den phylogenetisch nah verwandten Arten.

Bedeutung

Speisewert
Der Helmling ist zwar vermutlich essbar, lohnt aber kaum ein Sammeln.

Inhaltsstoffe
Die Fruchtkörper des Purpurschneidigen Blut-Helmling enthalten die blauen Alkaloidpigmente Sanguinon A und B, die bisher nur bei dieser Art nachgewiesen wurden, sowie das rot gefärbte Alkaloid Sanguinolentaquinon. Die Sanguinone sind chemisch mit dem Mycenarubin-A des Rosa Rettich-Helmling und mit den Discorhabinen verwandt, die von verschiedenen marinen Schwämmen gebildet werden. Obwohl die Funktion der Sanguinone bisher noch nicht bekannt ist, wurde vermutet, dass sie neben ihrem Beitrag zur Hutfärbung auch eine ökologische Rolle spielen, da auf den Fruchtkörper kaum pilzfressende Tiere gefunden werden. Wenn der Pilz in Reinkultur im Labor gezüchtet wird, produziert er das Antimykotikum Hydroxystrobilurin-D. Außerdem gehört der Purpurschneidige Blut-Helmling zu den über 30 Helmlingsarten mit Biolumineszenz.

Quellen

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

Helmlinge
Ungenießbarer Pilz

Purpurschneidiger Blut-Helmling


عبد الله بن عبد العزيز بن عبد الله بن عبد الله بن عمر بن الخطاب، تابعي مدني ولد سنة 98 هـ. وتوفي في المدينة سنة 184 هـ.

روايته للحديث
 روى عن: إبراهيم بن سعد الزهري، وعبد الله بن عبد الرحمن بن معمر بن حزم، ووالده عبد العزيز بن عبد الله العمري، وخالد بن منصور.
 روى عنه: عبد الملك بن إبراهيم، وأسود بن سالم، وإسحاق بن إبراهيم، وجابر بن مرزوق، وسليمان بن محمد بن يحيى بن عروة، وعبيد بن جناد.

أقوال علماء أهل السنة فيه
 ابن حبان: من أزهد أهل زمانه، وأكثرهم تخليا للعبادة، وأكثرهم مواظبة عليها، وما له كثير حديث يرجع إليه، وروى عنه سفيان بن عيينة.
 النسائي: ثقة.
 ابن حجر العسقلاني: ثقة زاهد.
 ابن سعد: كان عابداً ناسكاً زاهداً.
 يحيى بن معين: صالح ليس به بأس.

مراجع

صفحات تحتاج تصنيف سنة الولادة
محدثو تبع التابعين
وفيات 184 هـ
مواليد 98 هـ
مواليد 717
مواليد في المدينة المنورة
وفيات في المدينة المنورة
وفيات 801

عبد الله بن عبد العزيز العمري


Olaylar

Doğumlar

Ölümler
 26 Haziran - Julianus, Konstantin Hanedanı'na mensup Roma imparatoru (d. 331/332)

363


غليزا 229 (Gliese 229) نظام ثنائي يتكون من قزم أحمر ونجم بارد، أول قزم بني يكتشفه الفلكيون؛ يبعدان عنا نحو 19 سنة ضوئية. يرى في اتجاه كوكبة الأرنب. ومن المعروف أن القزم الأحمر نجم متوهج. صور «غليزا 229 أ» تبدي جرما مرافقا في عام 1994 ، وتأكد العلماء في عام 1995 أنه قزم بني (غليزا 229 ب) يدور حول النجم.

تبلغ كتلة غليزا 229أ نحو 58% من كتلة الشمس ويبلغ قطره نحو 69% من قطر الشمس. غليزا 229ب يعتبر صغيرا بحيث لا ينشأ فيه اندماج الهيدروجين كما يحدث لنجوم النسق الأساسي للنجوم - ولكن يمكن أن يحدث فيه اندماج الديوتيريوم حيث يحتاج هذا التفاعل إلى حرارة أقل. تبلغ كتلة غليزا ب نحو 70 مرة أكبر من المشتري (أي 07و0 كتلة شمسية. على الرغم من ذلك فلا يعتبر غليزا ب كوكبا.

القزم البني غليزا 229ب نشأت فيه حرارة داخلية كافية لبدء التحام الديوتيريوم حيث يدمج به بروتون ويكونان هيليوم-3 ؛ ولكن يبدوا من المشاهدة أن الديوتيروم به قد احترق وانتهى منذ وقت طويل
.
 تبلغ درجة حرارة سطح غليزا 229ب نحو 950 كلفن.

من المعروف أن النجم غليزا 229 هو نجم متوهج منخفض النشاط ، مما يعني أنه يخضع لزيادات عشوائية في لمعانه بسبب النشاط المغناطيسي على السطح. يوضح الطيف خطوط انبعاث الكالسيوم في نطاقي H و K. تم الكشف عن انبعاث الأشعة السينية من هالة هذا النجم. قد يكون سبب ذلك هو تفاعل حلقات مغناطيسية مع غاز الغلاف الجوي الخارجي للنجم. لم يتم الكشف عن نشاط بقعة نجومية على نطاق واسع. [2]

مدار هذا النجم عبر مجرة درب التبانة له انحراف مركزي قدره 0.07 وميل مداري قدره 0.005.

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 تيد 1
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أجرام جليزا وجليزا-يارايس
أجرام فلكية اكتشفت في 1994
أجرام فلكية اكتشفت في 2014
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أنظمة كوكبية لديها كوكبان مؤكدان
كوكبة الأرنب
مسح بون الفلكي
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نجوم ثنائية
نجوم مضيئة
نجوم نوع-T

غليزا 229


Pixeline Skolehjælp: Lær om Førstehjælp – Det lille bjørnehospital er det trettene spil i Pixeline Skolehjælp serien. Spillet er fra 2008, og er udgivet af Krea Media.

Spillet starter med at Pixeline besøger et bjørnehospital, og under kyndig vejledning fra doktor bjørn, skal hun hjælpe patienterne med at give dem den rigtige behandling.

Det gøres ved at gå igennem fem mini spil, hvor man bl.a. skal ringe efter hjælp, vælge det rigtige billedet i en farlig situation, lave almindelig førstehjælp, behandle af tilskadekomne og give livgivende førstehjælp. For vært af udfordringer man klar, for man et diplom.

Til sidst når man har samlet alle diplomer, er man udlært, og kan give førstehjælp.

Referencer

Lær om Førstehjælp - Det lille bjørnehospital
Computerspil fra 2008


La famille Cartier est une famille dont les membres ont joué un rôle important à Tours dans l'industrie et le négoce au  et .

Personnalités

Jean Cartier-Aubin (1697-1789)
Jean Cartier naît le 10 mars 1697 à Tours (paroisse Notre-Dame-la-Riche) de Jean Cartier, maître ouvrier en soie, et de Marguerite Dris (ou Drye). Son grand-père, André Cartier, est notaire de la baronnie de Preuilly et vicomté de La Guerche.

Il est échevin de Tours, député de la paroisse Notre-Dame-La-Riche et capitaine du Grand Quartier de La Riche.

Marié avec Françoise Maillet (1720) puis avec Françoise Aubin (1739), il est le père de 15 enfants, dont l'abbé Jean Cartier (1723-1810) et Françoise Cartier (épouse de François Audebert-Cartier).

Il meurt le 16 avril 1789 à Tours.

Jean Cartier (1723-1810)

Joseph Cartier-Cuisnier (1722)
Joseph Cartier naît le 23 avril 1722 à Barrou du marchand Joseph Cartier et de Françoise Cougnault. Son grand-père est André Cartier, notaire de la baronnie de Preuilly et vicomté de La Guerche.

Marchand-fabricant en soie à Tours, procureur de la corporation en 1774, il est député de paroisse et commissaires des notables pour les blés. Il est désigné comme électeur de la communauté des maîtres ouvriers en soie pour l'élection des députés aux États généraux de 1789.

Il acquiert l'ancien hôtel de la Boule-d'Or, situé au  de la rue Nationale.

Marié avec Marie Cuisnier des Blinières, fille de Pierre Cuisnier des Blinières, conseiller du Roi, et de Marie Catherine Thoisnier, il est le père de Joseph-Pierre-Sylvain Cartier-Douineau.

François Cartier-Roze (1734-1808)
François Cartier naît le 14 janvier 1734 à Barrou du marchand Joseph Cartier et de Françoise Cougnault. Il épouse Charlotte Roze, arrière petite-fille de Jean Roze, fondateur Soieries Jean Roze.

Fabricant et négociant de tissus à Tours, il se forme une fortune considérable dans le monde de la soierie.

Il acquiert l'hôtel de Choiseul en 1772 pour la somme de  livres.

François Cartier-Rose joue également un rôle dans la vie publique tourangelle. Député de la paroisse de Saint-Pierre-le-Puellier en 1788, il prend une part active dans la recherche de grains au printemps 1789 et dans l'organisation des États généraux, intégrant les rangs du Comité permanent dès sa création, dont il devient l'un des présidents. Président de la Commission municipale transitoire (janvier 1790), il participe à l'organisation des opérations électorales destinées à mettre en place la nouvelle municipalité et est élu officier municipal de Tours. Devenu premier officier municipal dès l'année suivante, il supplée régulièrement le maire Prudent-Jean Bruley. Il s'éloigne progressivement de la Révolution, inquiet de son évolution, refusant ainsi la place de maire à laquelle les électeurs le porte en décembre 1792.

Il obtient une mention honorable à l'Exposition des produits de l'industrie française organisée à Paris en 1801. Associé à son fils André Joseph, il y reçoit une médaille d'argent l'année suivante.

Il meurt le 12 mai 1808 à Tours.

Charles Cartier-Saint-René (1752-1822)

Joseph Cartier-Douineau (1758)

André Joseph Cartier (1764-1830)
André Joseph Cartier naît le 9 novembre 1764 à Tours de François Cartier, négociant et fabricant de tissus, et de Charlotte Roze (des Soieries Jean Roze).

Associé à son père, il reçoit une médaille d'argent à l'Exposition des produits de l'industrie française à Paris de 1802.

Installé comme manufacturier d'étoffes et tapissier à Paris, il commercialise les étoffes familiales sous le nom de Cartier fils au 315 rue de la Loi (aujourd'hui rue de Richelieu) depuis le début des années 1790. Il devient fournisseur officiel de la Maison de l'Empereur dès 1804 puis de celle du Roi.

Il est propriétaire de l'hôtel particulier situé à l'angle des rues de Richelieu et Saint-Augustin.

Marié à Geneviève Paulmier, il est le père d'Henry Frédéric Cartier.

Il meurt le  à Paris .

Étienne-Jean-Baptiste Cartier (1780-1859)

Frédéric Cartier (1797-1865)
Henry Frédéric Cartier naît le  à Paris d'André Joseph Cartier et de Geneviève Paulmier.

Manufacturier d'étoffes et tapissier à Paris, il succède à son père à la tête de la Maison Cartier fils, « fournisseur du Roi » et de son entourage.

Il est membre du conseil d'arrondissement de Mantes (Seine-et-Oise).

Il est fait chevalier de la Légion d'honneur

Il épouse Marie Lucile Rousselle (Roussel), héritière du domaine de Villarceaux.

Il meurt le  à Paris .

Étienne Cartier (1813-1887)

Louis Cartier de Saint-René (1839-1916)
Léon Louis Henri Cartier de Saint-René naît le  à Graçay de Sélim Cartier de Saint-René, notaire à Graçay, juge de paix du canton de Chârost, et d'Elisa Peyroulx.

Magistrat et historien, maire de Mareuil-sur-Arnon, il est auteur de nombreuses publications sur le Berry.

Gendre de Théophile Bidard, il est le beau-père de François Mahé de Chenal de La Bourdonnais.

Il meurt en 1916 à Saint-Florent-sur-Cher.

Galerie de portraits

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie
Cartier fils, tapissier des souverains, in Historia, 5 février 2018
Cartier fils, un tapissier parisien au temps de Balzac, Archives nationales
Béatrice Baumier, Tours entre Lumières et Révolution : Pouvoir municipal et métamorphoses d'une ville (1764-1792), Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2007
Mémoires de la Société archéologique de Touraine
Archives départementales d'Indre-et-Loire, Tours, sous-série , Archives d'origine privée, pièces isolées et petits fonds : Généalogie blasonnée de la famille Roze, cote  399/1 ; Généalogie de la famille Cartier, cote  399/2

Liens externes
Cartier fils (famille),        Archives nationales

Famille de Touraine et du Berry
Dynastie industrielle
Famille française

Famille Cartier de Saint-René


Bertha est une ville américaine située dans le comté de Todd, dans le Minnesota. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de .

Notes et références

Liens externes

Ville au Minnesota
Comté de Todd (Minnesota)

Bertha (Minnesota)


Las elecciones estatales de Tlaxcala de 1980 tuvieron lugar el domingo 2 de noviembre de 1980, en ellas fueron renovados los siguientes cargos de elección popular en el estado mexicano de Tlaxcala:

 Gobernador de Tlaxcala. Titular del poder ejecutivo del estado y electo para un periodo de seis años no renovables en ningún caso. El candidato electo fue Tulio Hernández Gómez.
 19 Diputados al Congreso del Estado:  electos de manera directa por cada uno de los Distritos Electorales.

Resultados electorales

Gobernador

Ayuntamientos

Véase también
 Elecciones estatales de México
 Tlaxcala

Tlaxcala
Elecciones de Tlaxcala

Elecciones estatales de Tlaxcala de 1980


Karl Waldemar Ziegler (; 26 November 1898 – 12 August 1973) was a German chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963, with Giulio Natta, for work on polymers. The Nobel Committee recognized his "excellent work on organometallic compounds [which]...led to new polymerization reactions and ... paved the way for new and highly useful industrial processes". He is also known for his work involving free-radicals, many-membered rings, and organometallic compounds, as well as the development of Ziegler–Natta catalyst. One of many awards Ziegler received was the Werner von Siemens Ring in 1960 jointly with Otto Bayer and Walter Reppe, for expanding the scientific knowledge of and the technical development of new synthetic materials.

Biography

Early life and education

Karl Ziegler was born on 26 November 1898 in Helsa near Kassel, Germany and was the second son of Karl Ziegler, a Lutheran minister, and Luise Rall Ziegler. He attended Kassel-Bettenhausen in elementary school. An introductory physics textbook first sparked Ziegler's interest in science. It drove him to perform experiments in his home and to read extensively beyond his high school curriculum. He was also introduced to many notable individuals through his father, including Emil Adolf von Behring, recognized for the diphtheria  vaccine. His extra study and experimentation help explain why he received an award for most outstanding student in his final year at high school in Kassel, Germany. He studied at the University of Marburg and was able to omit his first two semesters of study due to his extensive background knowledge. His studies were interrupted however, as during 1918 he was deployed to the front as a soldier to serve in World War I. He received his Ph.D. in 1920, studying under Karl von Auwers. His dissertation was on "Studies on semibenzole and related compunds" which led to three publications.

Career

Karl Ziegler showed an eagerness for science at an early age.  He progressed through schooling quickly receiving a doctorate from the University of Marburg in 1920.  Soon after, he briefly lectured at the University of Marburg and the University of Frankfurt.

In 1926 he became a professor at the University of Heidelberg where he spent the next ten years researching new advances in organic chemistry.  He investigated the stability of radicals on trivalent carbons leading him to study organometallic compounds and their application in his research. He also worked on the syntheses of multi-membered ring systems. In 1933 Ziegler published his first major work on large ring systems, "Vielgliedrige Ringsysteme" which presented the fundamentals for the Ruggli-Ziegler dilution principle.

In 1936 he became Professor and Director of the Chemical Institute (Chemisches Institut) at the University of Halle-Saale and was also a visiting lecturer at the University of Chicago. Ziegler, who was a Patron Member of the SS received the War Merit Cross 2nd Class in October 1940.

From 1943 until 1969, Ziegler was the Director of the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research (Max-Planck-Institut fur Kohlenforschung) formerly known as the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fur Kohlenforschung) in Mülheim an der Ruhr as a successor to Franz Fischer.

Karl Ziegler was credited with much of the postwar resurrection of chemical research in Germany and helped found the German Chemical Society (Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker) in 1949.  He served as president for five years. He was also the president of the German Society for Petroleum Science and Coal Chemistry (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mineralölwissenschaft und Kohlechemie), from 1954 to 1957.
In 1971, The Royal Society, London, elected him as a Foreign Member.

Personal life

In 1922, Ziegler married Maria Kurtz. They had two children, Erhart and Marianna. His daughter, Dr. Marianna Ziegler Witte was a doctor of medicine and married a chief physical of a children's hospital (at that time) in the Ruhr. His son, Dr. Erhart Ziegler, became a physicist and patent attorney. In addition to his children, Karl Ziegler has five grandchildren by his daughter, and five by his son. At least one of his grandchildren, Cordula Witte, attended his Nobel Prize reception as there is a picture of the two of them happily dancing. Ziegler enjoyed traveling around the world with his family, especially on cruises. He even charted special cruises and airplanes for eclipse viewing. It was during a 1972 eclipse-viewing cruise with his grandson that Karl Ziegler became ill. He died a year later.

Ziegler and his wife were great lovers of the arts, particularly paintings. Karl and Maria would present each other with paintings for birthdays, Christmases, and anniversaries. They amassed a large collection of paintings, not necessarily of one particular period, but of paintings they enjoyed. Maria, being an avid gardener, particularly enjoyed flower paintings by Emil Nolde, Erich Heckel, Oskar Kokoschka, and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. Karl enjoyed pictures of the places that he and his wife called home, including pictures of Halle and the Ruhr valley. Forty-two images from their shared collection were incorporated into a foundation, bequeathed to the Mülheim Ziegler Art Museum.

As a man of many discoveries, Karl Ziegler was also a man of many patents. As a result of his patent agreement with the Max Planck Institute, Ziegler was a wealthy man. With part of this wealth, he set up the Ziegler Fund with some 40 million deutsche marks to support the institute's research. Another namesake is the Karl-Ziegler-Schule, an urban high school that was founded on 4 December 1974, renaming a previously existing school. The school is located in Mülheim, Germany.

Karl Ziegler died in Mülheim, Germany on 12 August 1973; his wife died in 1980.

Scientific advancements
Throughout his life, Ziegler was a zealous advocate for the necessary indivisibility of all kinds of research. Because of this, his scientific achievements range from the fundamental to the most practical, and his research spans a wide range of topics within the field of chemistry. As a young professor, Ziegler posed the question: what factors contribute to the dissociation of carbon-carbon bonds in substituted ethane derivatives? This question was to lead Ziegler on to a study of free radicals, organometallics, ring compounds, and, finally, polymerization processes.

Free radical compounds

While still a doctoral student at University of Marburg, Ziegler published his first major article which showed how halochromic (R3C+Z−) salts could be made from carbinols. Previous work had left the impression that halochromic salts or free radicals (R3C•) required R to be aromatic. He was encouraged to try to synthesize similarly substituted free radicals, and successfully prepared 1,2,4,5-tetraphenylallyl in 1923 and pentaphenylcyclopentadienyl in 1925. These two compounds were much more stable than previous tri-valent carbon free radicals, such as triphenylmethyl. His interest in the stability of tri-valent carbon free-radical compounds brought him to publish the first of many publications in which he sought to identify the steric and electronic factors responsible for the dissociation of hexa-substituted ethane derivatives.

Many-membered ring compounds

Ziegler's work with many-membered ring compounds also utilized the reactive nature of alkali metal compounds. He used strong bases such as the lithium and sodium salts of amines, to accomplish the cyclization of long-chain hydrocarbons possessing terminal cyano groups. The initially formed ring compound was then converted to the desired macrocyclic ketone product. Ziegler's synthetic method, which included running reactions at high dilution to favor the intramolecular cyclization over competing intermolecular reactions, resulted in yields superior to those of existing procedures (Laylin): he was able to prepare large-ringed alicyclic ketones, C14 to C33, in yields of 60–80%. An outstanding instance of this synthesis was the preparation of muscone, the odiferous principle of animal musk by Leopold Ružička. Ziegler and co-workers published the first of their series of papers on the preparation of large ring systems in 1933. For his work in this area and in free-radical chemistry he was awarded the Liebig Memorial Medal in 1935.

Organometallic compounds

Ziegler's work with free radicals led him to the organo compounds of the alkali metals. He discovered that ether scission opened a new method of preparing sodium and potassium alkyls, and found that these compounds could easily be converted to the hexa-substituted ethane derivatives. The nature of the substituent could be easily and systematically altered using this synthetic route by simply changing the identity of the ether starting material.

Lithium alkyls

Later, in 1930, he directly synthesized lithium alkyls and aryls from metallic lithium and halogenated hydrocarbons via metal–halogen exchange. This convenient synthesis spurred numerous studies of RLi reagents by others, and now organolithium reagents are one of the most versatile and valuable tools of the synthetic organic chemist. Ziegler's own research on lithium alkyls and olefins was to lead directly to his discovery of a new polymerization technique some 20 years later.

Living polymerization

In 1927, he found that when the olefin stilbene was added to an ethyl ether solution of phenylisopropyl potassium, an abrupt color change from red to yellow took place. He had just observed the first addition of an organoalkali metal compound across a carbon-carbon double bond. Further work showed that he could successively add more and more of the olefinic hydrocarbon butadiene to a solution of phenylisopropyl potassium and obtain a long-chain hydrocarbon with the reactive organopotassium end still intact. Oligomers such as these were the forerunners of the so-called "living polymers".

Polyethylene

Since Ziegler was working at the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research, ethylene was readily available as a byproduct from coal gas. Because of this cheap feedstock of ethylene and the relevance to the coal industry, Ziegler began experimenting with ethylene, and made it a goal to synthesize polyethylene of high molecular weight. His attempts were thwarted because a competing elimination reaction kept occurring causing an anomalous result: instead of ethylene being converted into a mixture of higher aluminum alkyls, its dimer, 1-butene, was almost the only product. It was reasoned that a contaminant must have been present to cause this unexpected elimination reaction, and the cause was eventually determined to be traces of nickel salts. Ziegler realized the significance of this finding; if a nickel salt could have such a dramatic influence on the course of an ethylene-aluminum alkyl reaction, then perhaps another metal might delay the elimination reaction. Ziegler and his student H. Breil found that salts of chromium, zirconium, and especially titanium did not promote the R2AlH-elimination but, instead, enormously accelerated the "growth" reaction. Simply passing ethylene, at atmospheric pressure, into a catalytic amount of TiCl3 and Et2AlCl dissolved in a higher alkane led to the prompt deposition of polyethylene. Ziegler was able to obtain high molecular weight polyethylene (MW > 30,000) and, most importantly, to do so at low ethylene pressures. The Ziegler group suddenly had a polymerization procedure for ethylene superior to all existing processes.

Ziegler–Natta catalyst

In 1952, Ziegler disclosed his catalyst to the Montecatini Company in Italy, for which Giulio Natta was acting as a consultant. Natta denoted this class of catalysts as "Ziegler catalysts" and became extremely interested in their ability and potential to stereoregularly polymerize α-olefins such as propene. Ziegler, meanwhile concentrated mainly on the large-scale production of polyethylene and copolymers of ethylene and propylene. Soon the scientific community was informed of his discovery. Highly crystalline and stereoregular polymers that previously could not be prepared became synthetically feasible. For their work on the controlled polymerization of hydrocarbons through the use of these novel organometallic catalysts, Karl Ziegler and Giulio Natta shared the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Awards and honours

Karl Ziegler received many awards and honors.  The following highlights some of the most significant awards:
Liebig-Denkmünze medal (1935); This medal was awarded by the present day German Chemical Society and is given to a German chemist for their outstanding accomplishments and creativity. Ziegler received the award because of his work in the synthesis of multi-membered ring systems and stable tri-valent carbon radicals.
War Merit Cross, 2nd class (19 October 1940)
Carl Duisberg Plakette (1953); This award is given for outstanding service to the promotion of chemistry from the German Chemical Society.
Lavoisier Medal (1955); This award is given by the French Chemical Society to scientists in various disciplines of chemistry.
Carl Engler Medal (1958); This award is given by the German Society of Petroleum Science and Coal Chemicals, of which he was the president in earlier years.
Werner von Siemens Ring (1960); This ring is awarded by the Werner von Siemens Foundation and is considered the highest German award for individuals who by their performance and skills opened up new technological paths.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1963); "[His] excellent work on organometallic compounds has unexpectedly led to new polymerization reactions and thus paved the way for new and highly useful industrial processes."
Swinburne Medal of the Plastics Institute, London (1964); This award recognizes an individual who has made a significant advancement to the science, engineering or technology of plastics.
Grand Merit Cross with Star and Sash (Großes Verdienstkreuz mit Stern und Schulterband) of the Federal Republic of Germany (1964)
International Synthetic Rubber Medal of Rubber and Plastics Age (1967)
Grand Federal Cross of Merit (Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany)(1969); Ziegler was given this award for his work in the area of Science and Technology.
Pour le Mérite for Arts and Sciences (formerly Peace Class) (1969)
Foreign Member of the Royal Society (1971)
Wilhelm Exner Medal (1971).
Memorial tablet of the German Chemical Society under the Historic Landmarks of Chemistry program (Historische Stätten der Chemie) at the Max Planck Institute for Coal Research in Mülheim an der Ruhr (2008)
Honorary doctorates from the Technical University of Hannover, Giessen University, University of Heidelberg and Darmstadt Technical University
The Karl-Ziegler-Schule in Mülheim was named after Ziegler
The Karl Ziegler Foundation is located at the German Chemical Society and gives the Science Award, the  (worth 50,000 euros)

See also
Dienone–phenol rearrangement
List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry

References

External links
  including the Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1963 Consequences and Development of an Invention

1898 births
1973 deaths
People from Hesse-Nassau
Förderndes Mitglied der SS
20th-century German chemists
University of Marburg alumni
Polymer scientists and engineers
German Nobel laureates
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
Werner von Siemens Ring laureates
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
Max Planck Society people
Academic staff of Goethe University Frankfurt
Presidents of the German Chemical Society
Max Planck Institute directors

Karl Ziegler


Crittenden County may mean:

In the United States:
 Crittenden County, Arkansas
 Crittenden County, Kentucky

Crittenden County


Agriopleura je rod rudista koji pripada porodici Radiolitidae.

Rasprostranjenost
Ostatci roda Agriopleura pronađeni su u: Alžiru, Egipatu, Francuskoj, Grčkoj, Hrvatskoj, Kubi, Mađarskoj, Njemačkoj, Omanu i Španjolskoj. U Hrvatskoj su ostatci ovog roda pronađeni u Tounju.

Taksonomija
Rodu Agriopleura pripadaju sljedeće vrste:
 Agriopleura blumenbachi Studer, 1834.
 Agriopleura carinata Matheron, 1878.
 Agriopleura libanica Astre, 1930.
 Agriopleura marticensis d'Orbigny, 1847.
 Agriopleura sequana Masse & Fenerci-Masse, 2014.

Izvori

Rudisti

Agriopleura


Jason Shiga (born	1976) is an American cartoonist who incorporates puzzles, mysteries and unconventional narrative techniques into his work.

Early life
Jason Shiga is from Oakland, California. His father, Seiji Shiga, was an animator who worked on the 1964 Rankin-Bass production Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. Jason Shiga was a pure mathematics major at the University of California at Berkeley, from which he graduated in 1998.

Career
Shiga is credited as the "Maze Specialist" for Issue #18 (Winter 2005/2006) of the literary journal McSweeney's Quarterly, which features a solved maze on the front cover and a (slightly different) unsolved maze on the back. The title page of each story in the journal is headed by a maze segment labeled with numbers leading to the first pages of other stories.

Shiga has also drawn and written several comics and illustrated features for Nickelodeon Magazine, some of which feature his original creations, and some starring Nickelodeon characters such as SpongeBob SquarePants and the Fairly OddParents.

Shiga makes a cameo appearance in the Derek Kirk Kim comic Ungrateful Appreciation as a Rubik's Cube-solving nerd.

Techniques and materials
According to the rear credits page of Empire State: A Love Story, Shiga, who was inspired by an actual Greyhound Bus trip from Oakland to New York to create that story, pencilled it with a yellow No. 2 pencil on copy paper. He then inked it with a lightbox and a 222 size Winsor & Newton brush, and lettered it with a Micron 08 felt-tip pen. The colors were applied digitally by John Pham.

Awards

Won
 2019 Gran Guinigi winner: Best Series, Demon.
 2017 Eisner Comic Industry Award winner: Best Graphic Album-Reprint, Demon
 2014 Ignatz Award winner: Outstanding Series, Demon.
 2007 Stumptown Comics Award winner: Best Writing, Bookhunter.
 2003 Ignatz Award winner: Outstanding Story, Fleep.
 2003 Eisner Comic Industry Award winner: Talent Deserving of Wider Recognition.
 1999 Xeric Award winner: Double Happiness.

Nominated
 2018 Angouleme Festival Sélection Officielle, Demon.
 2018 Angouleme Festival Prix du Public, Demon.
 2016 Los Angeles Times Book Prize nominee: Graphic Novel/Comics, Demon.
 2016 Ignatz Award nominee: Outstanding Series, Demon.
 2014 Ignatz Award nominee: Outstanding Webcomic, Demon.
 2012 Harvey Award nominee: Best Letterer, Best Inker, Best Writer, Best Artist, Empire State.
 2011 Harvey Award nominee: Best Original Graphic Publication for Younger Readers, Meanwhile.
 2007 Eisner Comic Industry Award nominee: Best Graphic Album, Bookhunter.
 2007 Ignatz Award nominee: Outstanding Graphic Novel, Bookhunter.
 2004 Eisner Comic Industry Award nominee: Best Single Issue or One-Shot, Fleep.

Bibliography

Books
Double Happiness, 2000 Shigabooks
Fleep, 2002 Sparkplug Comics
Bookhunter, 2007 Sparkplug Comics (French translation, éditions Cambourakis, 2008)
Meanwhile, 2010 Amulet Books (French translation as Vanille ou chocolat, éditions Cambourakis, 2012)
Empire State - A Love Story (or Not), 2011 Abrams
Demon, Volume 1, 2016 First Second
Demon, Volume 2, 2017 First Second
Demon, Volume 3, 2017 First Second
Demon, Volume 4, 2017 First Second
Adventuregame Comics: Leviathan, 2022 Amulet Books (French translation as Leviathan, éditions Cambourakis, 2022), ISBN 978-1-4197-5779-2

Self-published minicomics
Phillip's Head, 1997
The Adventures of Doorknob Bob, 1997
Mortimer Mouse, 1997
The Family Circus (parody), 1997
The Last Supper, 1997
Grave of the Crickets, 1998
The Bum's Rush, 1998
The Date, 1999
Meanwhile..., 2001
Hello World, 2003
Bus Stop, 2004
Knock Knock, 2006

References

External links

 Fleep, the collected comic
 Time article on Jason, web exclusive
 Asian Week Article (February 2001)
 Comixpedia

1976 births
Alternative cartoonists
American bloggers
American webcomic creators
Artists from Oakland, California
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Living people
Eisner Award winners for Talent Deserving of Wider Recognition
American people of Japanese descent
Ignatz Award winners
Date of birth missing (living people)

Jason Shiga


Agostino Ricci, lateinisch Augustinus Riccius, war ein italienischer Astronom des 16. Jahrhunderts.

Er war jüdischer Abstammung und Schüler des jüdischen Astronomen Abraham Zacuto, konvertierte aber später zum Christentum. In Italien begegnete er nach 1511 dem deutschen Gelehrten Agrippa von Nettesheim, dessen Interesse für die Kabbala und die hermetischen Wissenschaften er teilte.

Sein bekanntestes Werk ist De motu octaue sphere ("Über die Bewegung der achten Sphäre"). Das Werk erschien 1513 in lateinischer Sprache und abermals 1521 in Paris.

Der Mondkrater Riccius ist nach ihm und dem jesuitischen Gelehrten Matteo Ricci benannt.

Einzelnachweise

Astronom (16. Jahrhundert)
Geboren im 15. Jahrhundert
Gestorben im 16. Jahrhundert
Mann
Person als Namensgeber für einen Mondkrater

Agostino Ricci (Astronom)


Abdul Kerim Nadir-paša (1807. – 1883.), poznat još kao i 'Abd al-Karim Nadir-paşa bio je turski general.

Vojnu akademiju završio je u Istanbulu, a više vojno obrazovanje stekao je u Beču. U Krimskom ratu zapovijedao je snagama iz Anatolije. Postigao je neke uspjehe u Crnogorsko-turskom ratu iz 1862. godine. Kao ministar rata za vrijeme vladavine sultana Murata V. napravio je reorganizaciju turske vojske. Uspješno je vodio rat protiv Srbije 1876., no kasnije je zbog neuspjeha Dunavskih postrojbi tijekom Rusko-turskog rata smijenjen i prognan na otok Rodos, gdje je i umro.

Literatura

 "Abud Kerim Nadir-paša", U: Vojna enciklopedija, sv. 1., Beograd: Izdanje redakcije Vojne enciklopedije, 1970., str. 2.

Vojni zapovjednici Osmanskog Carstva

Abdul Kerim Nadir-paša


Yasuhiro Yamamura (født 18. august 1976) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Ventforet Kofu og Mito HollyHock.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Yasuhiro Yamamura


Frankenbrunn ist ein Ortsteil des Marktes Oberthulba im Landkreis Bad Kissingen in Bayern.

Geographische Lage
Das Kirchdorf Frankenbrunn liegt westlich von Oberthulba. Die durch Frankenbrunn verlaufende KG 35 führt westwärts nach Hetzlos und mündet in die B 27. Ostwärts führt die KG 35 nach Reith. Südlich von Frankenbrunn verläuft der Fränkische Marienweg.

Geschichte
Auf Frankenbrunner Gebiet wurden bereits um 450 v. Chr. (in der Latènezeit) Hügelgräber angelegt. Der älteste dokumentarische Nachweis von Frankenbrunn selbst ist die Bestätigung des "Benediktinerinnenklosters Thulba mit Franchenborne" in einem im Jahr 1141 von Papst Innozenz II. ausgestellten Schutzbrief. Im Mittelalter entstanden enge Pfarreien- und Wirtschaftsverhältnisse zwischen Frankenbrunn, Reith und Thulba, als beispielsweise im Jahr 1504 zwischen diesen Orten ein Weistum vereinbart wurde. Ein Würzburger Bestandsbrief aus dem Jahr 1603 belegt frühzeitige Anfänge des Weinbaus in Frankenbrunn. Im Jahr 1718 wurde nach zehn Jahren der Bau der von Frater Josef aus Schönberg bei Bensheim gestifteten Michaelskapelle vollendet. Eine eigene Kirche für Frankenbrunn entstand mit der St.-Bonifatius-Kirche erst im Jahre 1949; die Bauarbeiten hatten zwei Jahre gedauert.

Am 1. Mai 1978 wurde Frankenbrunn im Rahmen der Gemeindegebietsreform nach Oberthulba eingemeindet.

Weblinks
 Frankenbrunn auf www.oberthulba.de
 Geschichte von Frankenbrunn auf www.oberthulba.de
 Die St.-Michaelskapelle auf www.oberthulba.de
 Die Filiale und die St.-Bonifatius-Kirche in "Pfarreiengemeinschaft St. Michael im Thulbatal"

Einzelnachweise

Ort im Landkreis Bad Kissingen
Oberthulba
Ehemalige Gemeinde (Landkreis Bad Kissingen)
Ersterwähnung 1141
Gemeindeauflösung 1978
Kirchdorf (Siedlungstyp)

Frankenbrunn


Snow Hill Township ist der Name folgender Townships in den Vereinigten Staaten:

 Snow Hill Township (Missouri)
 Snow Hill Township (North Carolina)

Snow Hill Township


Fraxinus uhdei er tegund af eskitré sem vex í Mexíkó til Mið-Ameríku. Það hefur villst úr ræktun og orðið ílent í Bólivíu, Havaí og Puerto Rico. Í Havaí er tegundin talin ágeng.

Tilvísanir

Smjörviðarætt

Fraxinus uhdei


Samuel Sugenheim (* 8. Mai 1811; † 15. März 1877) war ein deutscher Historiker.

Leben
Sugenheim wurde 1811 als Sohn eines jüdischen Kaufmanns in Frankfurt geboren. Körperliche Gebrechen erlaubten ihm nur bis zum 13. Lebensjahr die Schule zu besuchen. Sein umfangreiches Wissen auf verschiedensten Gebieten erarbeitete sich Sugenheim im Selbstunterricht. Schriftstellerisch beschränkte sich Sugenheim auf das Gebiet der Geschichtswissenschaft.

Werke
 Staatsleben des Klerus im Mittelalter, 1839 (archive.org)
 Frankreichs Einfluß auf, und Beziehungen zu Deutschland seit der Reformation bis zur ersten französischen Staatsumwälzung (1517–1789). Erster Band (Bis zum Tode König Heinrichs IV.). Stuttgart 1845. Zweiter Band (1610–1789). Stuttgart 1856.
 Geschichte der Jesuiten in Deutschland, 1847 (UB Paderborn)
 Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft und Hörigkeit in Europa, 1864 (Google Books)
 Geschichte des deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur, 1867

Weblinks

Deutscher
Historiker
Geboren 1811
Gestorben 1877
Mann

Samuel Sugenheim


MTM Enterprises ou MTM Productions est une société de production cinématographique et télévisuelle indépendante établie en 1969 par Mary Tyler Moore et son époux d'alors Grant Tinker afin de produire le Mary Tyler Moore Show.

MTM produit un grand nombre de programmes télévisés à succès des années 1970 et 1980. La mascotte de la société est un chat tabby orange nommé Mimsie qui apparaît sur le logo dans un ruban doré en référence parodique à Leo le lion de la Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.

Toutes les émissions de la MTM sont maintenant la propriété de Disney par le biais de sa succursale 20th Television.

Histoire

Productions
 1956-1964 : The Steve Allen Show
 1970-1977 : The Mary Tyler Moore Show
 1972-1978 : Newhart
 1974-1975 : Friends and Lovers
 1974-1975 : The Texas Wheelers
 1974-1978 : Rhoda
 1975 : The Bob Crane Show
 1975-1976 : Doc
 1975 : Three for the Road
 1975-1977 : Phyllis
 1976 : The Lorenzo and Henrietta Music Show
 1976-1978 : The Tony Randall Show
 1977-1982 : Lou Grant
 1977-1978 : The Betty White Show
 1977-1978 : We've Got Each Other
 1978-1981 : The White Shadow
 1978-1982 : WKRP in Cincinnati
 1978 : Mary
 1979 : The Mary Tyler Moore Hour
 1979-1980 : The Last Resort
 1979-1980 : Paris
 1980 : Carlton Your Doorman
 1981-1987 : Capitaine Furillo
 1982-1988 : Hôpital St Elsewhere
 1982-1990 : Newhart
 1983 : Bay City Blues
 1984 : The Duck Factory
 1985-1986 : Mary
 1986 : Fresno
 1987 : The Popcorn Kid
 1987-1988 : Beverly Hills Buntz
 1987-1988 : Einsenhower and Lutz
 1988 : Annie McGuire
 1988-1989 : Tattingers
 1989-1990 : FM
 1989-1996 : Rescue 911
 1990 : City
 1990 : Capital News
 1990-1991 : You Take the Kids
 1990-1992 : The Trials of Rosie O'Neill
 1990-1994 : Evening Shade
 1991-1993 : The New WKRP in Cincinnati
 1992-1995 : Graham Kerr's Kitchen
 1993-1998 : Docteur Quinn, femme médecin
 1993-1996 : La Saga des McGregor
 1993 : Xuxa
 1994-1995 : Christy
 1994-1995 : Boogies Diner
 1995-1997 : Family Challenge
 1996-1998 : Sparks
 1996-1997 : Bailey Kipper's P.O.V.
 1996-1997 : The Cape
 1996-1998 : Shopping Spree
 1996-1997 : Wait 'til You Have Kids
 1996-2000 : Le Caméléon
 1997 : It Takes Two
 1997-1998 : Good News
 2001 : America's Funniest Home Videos

Notes et références

Liens externes

Société de production de télévision ayant son siège aux États-Unis
Société de production de cinéma ayant son siège aux États-Unis
Entreprise fondée en 1969
Entreprise disparue en 1998
Filiale de la Walt Disney Company

MTM Enterprises


Mehlem, Almanya'nın Kuzey Ren-Vestfalya eyaletinde, Bonn kentine bağlı bölge.
Bad Godesberg idari merkezine bağlı Mehlem, Bonn'un güney ucunu meydana getirir; Renanya-Palatina eyaletine komşudur. İlk kez kayıtlara 804 yılında Mielenheim adıyla geçti. 1935 yılında Bad Godesberg'e, 1969'da yapılan düzenlemeyle de Bonn'a bağlandı. Ren nehri manzarası bölgeyi öne çıkaran özellikler arasında yer alır. Ren'in hemen karşısında yer alan Ejderha Kayalığı (Drachenfels) bu önemi daha da artırır. Söz konusu manzara, 1948-1957 yılları arasında Mehlem'de yaşayan ressam André Osterritter'in birçok yapıtına da esin kaynağı olmuştur.

Mehlem


Detective es un término de origen inglés, que literalmente significa detectar un hecho, descubrir, revelar, investigar, desenmascarar o aclarar circunstancias así como personas con ellas involucradas. La palabra proviene del latín detectus, y este del verbo detegere formado por de- (quitar) y -tegere (cubrir); en resumen y en su origen significó "quitar la cubierta".
Se utiliza el término detective para referirse a las personas que se dedican a investigar a diferencia de los objetos a los cuales se les denomina detector.
Como término policial, detective es aquel que investiga ciertos hechos así como las circunstancias que los rodearon, y así como las personas relacionadas o involucradas con los mismos. Un detective es un investigador, que puede ser privado o miembro de la policía (oficial de policía, que no viste uniforme, sino que va de paisano, siendo una figura que generalmente se da en países anglosajones).

Los detectives privados, para poder desarrollar su labor, deben tener algún tipo de autorización para desempeñar estas actividades, así como una capacitación adecuada. En España, se exige la titulación universitaria de investigación privada, mientras que en otros países solo es preciso solicitar un permiso oficial.

En la ficción, en el cine o en la literatura, detective es cualquier persona que resuelve crímenes.

Los detectives en la Inglaterra previctoriana y victoriana

Aun cuando parezca extraño, a diferencia de otros países del continente europeo que disponían de policía en exceso, Inglaterra no contó con una fuerza policial estatal hasta bien entrado el .

La custodia de los bienes y las vidas de los ciudadanos de Londres, por ejemplo, se encomendaba a agentes o detectives privados que ejercían su oficio en condiciones harto precarias.

Eran conocidos como los "Carlitos", porque su existencia databa del antiguo tiempo de los reyes Carlos. Su cargo no era muy codiciado por el inglés medio, y únicamente aceptaban ejercer tal función de vigilancia, ancianos cuya jubilación no alcanzaba para sobrevivir o desocupados carentes de cualquier preparación.

No era de sorprender que frente a los embates de una delincuencia irrefrenable, la ciudadanía clamara por verdadera protección. No obstante, se siguió insistiendo con detectives o agentes particulares, tras leyes promulgadas durante los reinados de Jorge II (1737) y de su sucesor Jorge III (1777), monarcas que ordenaron la creación de una guardia nocturna destinada a patrullar la City de Londres y otras ciudades prominentes de Gran Bretaña, con el objeto de evitar incendios, hurtos, homicidios, violaciones, y desórdenes en general.

Pero esta legislación fracasó, pues los detectives que sustituyeron a los "Carlitos", aunque eran hombres más jóvenes, duchos, y mejor equipados, en muchos casos también eran corruptos y congeniaban con los bribones. Se generalizó y se tornó habitual por aquel entonces la práctica de la felonía y de los sobornos.

De hecho, los habitantes se veían forzados a acordar con los malhechores, entregándoles dinero para que aquellos accediesen a devolver los bienes y valores que previamente habían hurtado.

A veces, estos detectives impuestos por las leyes de los reyes Jorge intercedían entre el agresor y la víctima logrando un trato medianamente justo, actuando con probidad y eficacia, pero tal conducta no constituía la regla sino la rara excepción.

Ilustrados por estas líneas, los lectores deben entender que el concepto "detective" evolucionó a lo largo del tiempo, variando también de un país a otro y a veces en forma bastante importante (referencias: [Thomson-1937], [Cornwell-2006], [Pombo-2011]).

Ficción

Las historias sobre detectives son usuales en la literatura desde el inicio del . Sherlock Holmes, personaje de Arthur Conan Doyle, así como Hércules Poirot, personaje de Agatha Christie, son los detectives más famosos en las novelas y en la pantalla grande.

España

En España, la figura y profesión del detective se enmarca en el desarrollo de la investigación privada, no existiendo ninguna relación con las fuerzas y cuerpos de seguridad del Estado, como sí existe en el mundo anglosajón, donde el detective suele ser un oficial de policía, que va de paisano. En cambio el rango tiene él título de inspector, que cumple las mismas funciones.

Esta profesión está regulada por ley de Seguridad Privada, donde se establece el marco legal que describe y normativiza: en qué consiste las funciones del detective, quién puede desarrollarlas, requisitos del detective (con respecto a su formación universitaria, cómo deben ser las sociedades de detectives, etc), régimen disciplinario y sancionador, etc.

Existen unas 4.000 licencias o TIP (Tarjeta de Identidad Profesional) expedidas, sin embargo, se calcula que menos del 50 % ejercen esta profesión en la actualidad.

Brasil

En Brasil, la profesión de detective particular, que no debe ser confundida con la de investigador de policía, está asociada con su formación y destreza, aunque no requiere ningún tipo de afiliación en ningún sindicato o asociación profesional.

Pero para que un detective pueda ejercer su profesión legalmente, necesita que se registre en la Prefeitura Municipal de la ciudad donde va a ejercer, obteniendo así su inscrição municipal. Y así, cumpliendo con esas formalidades y obligaciones, se podrá ejercer la profesión de detective en forma legal.

El Ministério do Trabalho e Emprego (MTE), califica al detective particular a través del CBO 3518-05 - DETETIVE PROFISSIONAL, por lo que en Brasil la profesión está legalmente constituida y reconocida.

A pesar de que la actividad aún no está reglamentada por el Governo Federal o a través de alguna ley ordinaria, la profesión es muy antigua en el país, y existe hace más de setenta años. La registración o colegiación, según decisión del Supremo Tribunal Federal, no es obligatoria, pero se suele hacer en forma voluntaria, pues sirve como punto de referencia para los profesionales.

Legislación profesional
El Senado Federal, a través de la Lei nº 3099 de fecha 24 de febrero de 1957, estableció en Brasil las condiciones para los servicios de informaciones reservadas o confidenciales, de tipo comercial o de tipo personal. Y el Decreto nº 50.532 de fecha 3 de mayo de 1961, se ocupa del funcionamiento de las empresas a las que se refiere la citada ley número 3099.

Bibliografía
 [Thomson-1937] Sir Basil Thomson - "La historia de Scotland Yard"; Edición de Espasa-Calpe S.A, Madrid, España, 1937, traducción de G. Sans Huélin.
 [Cornwell-2006] Patricia Cornwell - "Retrato de un asesino, Jack el Destripador: Caso Cerrado"; Ediciones B. S.A, Barcelona, España, 2006, traducción de María Eugenia Ciocchini.
 [Pombo-2011] Gabriel Pombo - Detectives en la Inglaterra previctoriana y victoriana.

Referencias

Véase también
 Detective privado
 El detective de ficción

Enlaces externos

Detective (investigador)


Cea de-a șaptea generație (Generația VII) a francizei Pokémon include adăugarea a 86 de specii fictive de creaturi la seria de jocuri video de bază în jocurile Nintendo 3DS Pokémon Sun and Moon  și jocurile 3D 2017 Pokémon Ultra Sun and Ultra Moon, alte specii introduse într-o actualizare din 2018 a jocului mobil spin-off Pokemon Go alături de jocuri din seria de bază din 2018 Nintendo Switch jocuri  Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!, adăugând la un total de 88. De la Pokémon X and Y, toții Pokémon au fost proiectate de o echipă de aproximativ 20 de artiști, condusă de Ken Sugimori și Hironobu Yoshida. Sun and Moon au loc în regiunea tropicală Alola, compusă în întregime din insule. Let's Go, Pikachu! și Let's Go, Eevee! sunt stabilite în regiunea Kanto, aceeași setare ca generația I.  Pokémon Go este un joc mobil realitate augmentat, care utilizează funcțiile GPS și camera de pe telefonul smartphone al jucătorului pentru a afișa Pokemon sălbatic în mediul înconjurător al jucătorului.  Pokemon numărul 722 Rowlet la numarul 802 Marshadow in Pokédex Național a fost lansat în Sun și Moon în 2016, iar numărul 803 Poipole la numarul 807 Zeraora a fost lansat în Ultra Sun și Ultra Moon în 2017. Doi Mythical Pokémon, Meltan and Melmetal apar în Pokémon Go în 2018; Meltan apare în sălbăticie în Pokémon Go când un Pokémon este transferat la Let's Go, Pikachu! sau Let's Go, Eevee!, în timp ce Melmetal poate fi obținut numai prin evoluția lui Meltan în Pokémon Go când jucătorul colectează bomboane. Unele specii de Pokémon din această generație au fost introduse în adaptările animate ale francizei înainte de Sun și Moon.

În plus față de noile specii de Pokémon, au apărut două noi forme de Zygarde în Sun și Moon - care au apărut anterior în Pokémon anime:: forma de câine "Zygarde 10% Forme" și forma de Mecha "Forma Zygarde Complete (100%)"

Lista Pokémonilor

Note

Referințe

Listă de Pokémon
2010

Lista generației VII de Pokémon