Lorenz Goetz (* 23. März 1810 in Simmern/Hunsrück; †  23. November 1894 in Neuwied) war ein deutscher Theologe, Politiker und Mitglied der Frankfurter Nationalversammlung.

Leben
Lorenz Goetz studiert von 1829 bis 1833 Theologie, Klassische Philologie und Französisch in Bonn und Heidelberg. In Bonn schloss er sich 1829 der Alten Bonner Burschenschaft an.

Nach seinem Studium wurde er zuerst Verwalter des Rektorats der höheren Stadtschule Simmern. Außerdem arbeitete er als Pfarrverwalter in Ravengiersburg (1834–1835).

Aufgrund seiner Mitgliedschaft in der Burschenschaft saß er 1835 dreieinhalb Monate in Untersuchungshaft auf der Festung Wesel, später wurde er zu sechs Jahren Festungshaft verurteilt. Die Strafe leistete er bis 1837 ab, als er begnadigt wurde. Im Zuge der Demagogenverfolgung wurde er im Schwarzen Buch der Frankfurter Bundeszentralbehörde (Eintrag Nr. 548) festgehalten.

1837 bis 1838 wurde er Rektor der höheren Stadtschule in Simmern und Pfarrer in Ravengiersburg. Ab 1838 bis 1880 war er Direktor der höheren Bürgerschule in Neuwied, seit 1841 außerdem Gründer und Leiter der Sonntagsschule für Handwerker in Neuwied. Im Laufe seines Lebens war er Teilnehmer zahlreicher rheinischer Direktorenkonferenzen.

Im Revolutionsjahr 1848 wurde er für den Wahlkreis 8 Provinz Rheinland (Neuwied) in das Paulskirchenparlament gewählt. Er blieb fraktionslos.

1850 war er Mitglied der außerordentlichen Synode zur Reorganisation der kirchlichen Ordnung.

1859 bis 1862 war er Mitglied des Hauses der Abgeordneten des Preußischen Landtags. Zur Krönung Wilhelm I. in Königsberg war er Vertreter des Landtags.

1880 ging er in den Ruhestand.

Literatur
 Peter Kaupp: Burschenschafter in der Paulskirche. Broschüre der Gesellschaft für burschenschaftliche Geschichtsforschung, 1999, S. 49.
 Helge Dvorak: Biographisches Lexikon der Deutschen Burschenschaft. Band I: Politiker. Teilband 2: F–H. Winter, Heidelberg 1999, ISBN 3-8253-0809-X, S. 156.
 Rainer Koch (Hrsg.): Die Frankfurter Nationalversammlung 1848/49. Ein Handlexikon der Abgeordneten der deutschen verfassungsgebenden Reichs-Versammlung. Kunz, Kelkheim 1989, ISBN 3-923420-10-2.

Einzelnachweise

Burschenschafter (19. Jahrhundert)
Mitglied des Preußischen Abgeordnetenhauses
Mitglied der Frankfurter Nationalversammlung
Deutscher
Geboren 1810
Gestorben 1894
Mann

Lorenz Goetz


Jylland veya Jütland, Danimarka topraklarının büyük bir kısmının bulunduğu ve güney ucu Almanya'da kalan yarımada. Bu yarımadanın en önemli kentleri Odense, Århus, Esbjerg, Sønderborg, Åbenrå, Tønder, Kolding, Flensburg, Schleswig ve Kiel'dir.

Muhtemelen, 5. yüzyılda Angluslar ve Saksonlarla birlikte Britanya'yı istila eden Jütilerin anavatanıdır.

Şehirler
Danimarka'nın Jutland seksiyonun en büyük şehirleri:

 Aarhus
 Aalborg
 Esbjerg
 Randers
 Kolding
 Horsens
 Vejle
 Herning
 Silkeborg
 Fredericia
 Viborg
 Holstebro
 Sønderborg
 Hjørring
 Frederikshavn
 Haderslev
 Skive

Aarhus, Randers, Kolding, Horsens, Vejle, Fredericia, Haderslev küçük şehirleridir.

Kaynakça

Ana Şehirler
 Jutland Yarımadasının Almanyaya ait olan kesimindeki en büyük şehirler  Kiel, Lübeck, Flensburg, and Neumünster.

Galeri

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Batı Danimarka resmi tanıtım sitesi (İngilizce)
 Schleswig-Holstein resmi tanıtım sitesi (İngilizce)

Ayrıca bakınız

Yutland


Ebba Magnusdotter Brahe (16 March 1596 – 5 January 1674) was a Swedish countess, landowner, and courtier. She is foremost known for being the love object of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, and because he wished to marry her prior to his marriage, plans which were however never realized. Their love affair has been famous in the Swedish romantic history and the subject of fiction, and are documented in their preserved correspondence.

Biography

Early life
Ebba Brahe was born to Magnus Brahe and Britta Stensdotter Leijonhuvud. She was the cousin of Margareta Brahe, Nils Brahe and Per Brahe the Younger. After the death of her mother, she was sent to the royal court to finish her upbringing. She served as maid of honor to Queen Dowager Christina of Holstein-Gottorp, who had been a personal friend to her mother, in 1611–1614, and to the elder queen dowager, Catherine Stenbock, in 1614–1618. She was described as a beauty, and John, Duke of Östergötland, was among her admirers.

At the royal court, she met King Gustavus Adolphus, who was her second cousin, once removed and they fell in love and wished to marry each other. It is not known exactly when their love affair started. By the letters exchanged between them, it seems that they were both equally in love with each other. Their first preserved love letters are from 6 March 1613, when their relationship was apparently already long established. In this letter, the king asked her to inform her father of his wish to marry her and give them their blessing. The marriage plans were however opposed by the queen dowager, who was the de facto ruler during her son's first years. She wished for her son to enter an arranged dynastic marriage of political convenience, and she regarded a marriage to a member of the national nobility politically risky and regarded the late queen Gunilla Bielke, who had been criticized for using her position to benefit her family, as a bad example of such a marriage. The dispute between the dowager queen, the king and Ebba Brahe about the marriage continued until 1615, and has been the subject of romantic plays, stories and poems for centuries. The queen dowager harassed her maid of honor Brahe and told her not to trust the promises of the king, which made the father of Brahe unwilling to give his blessing. The king tried to convince his mother with his half-sister Princess Catherine, Duke Henry Julius of Saxony, and chancellor Nils Chesnecopherus with messengers.

The queen dowager promised to consider the marriage if they agreed to a couple of years consideration, and the couple corresponded during his absence in the war. In 1614, she was moved from the court of Queen Dowager Christina to that of Queen Dowager Catherine to place her further away from the king. The 10 October, she wrote: "It is not suited from me as a humble lady to desire the person of Your Majesty". In spring 1615, it was made clear that the Queen dowager would never give her permission. During this time, the king himself had an affair with Margareta Slots during his absence in the war, which was to have helped Brahe to make her mind. The most famous trivia about this dispute, if indeed it happened, is believed to have taken place shortly after this, and is as follows. The queen dowager passed a window at the Stockholm Palace, followed by Ebba Brahe. On the windowpane, the queen dowager wrote with a diamond ring: "One thing you want, one thing you shall; that is the way in cases such as this", and left. Ebba Brahe stepped forward and wrote in reply: "I am happy with what I have, and thank my God for the grace of that". By this, Ebba Brahe accepted that the relationship with the monarch could never be official.

The same year, she received a proposal from Count Jacob De la Gardie, which she accepted two years later: 11 November 1617, her engagement was celebrated at the court of Queen Dowager Catherine, and 24 June 1618, Ebba Brahe married Jacob De la Gardie in the presence of the two queen dowagers and the brother of the king in Stockholm.

Later life

On 24 June 1618 she married Count Jacob De la Gardie. After the marriage, she moved with him to Swedish Estonia, where he served as governor, and lived with him there from 1619 until 1628. The relationship between Ebba Brahe and De la Gardie is described as happy, and the couple had fourteen children. Because of the frequent absence of her spouse in service she was given the responsibility of the family finances, and she moved extensively between Sweden and Estonia to manage the family estates. In 1628, the couple settled in Sweden. Ebba Brahe became known for her extravagant way of living and her taste for luxury.

Brahe also played a part at the royal court. In 1651, the historian Arnold Johan Messenius and his son accused her of having persuaded queen Christina not to marry by the use of witchcraft. Such an accusation could not be accepted about a noble, and the accusation eventually led to the accusers being decapitated for treason.

She favored her son Magnus Gabriel, and was said to have spoiled him and attending to his career. She was proud over his position as favourite to Queen Christina of Sweden, and supported his marriage to the Queen's cousin Princess Maria Eufrosyne von Zweibrücken-Kleeburg. When Magnus Gabriel lost his position as favorite with the queen in 1653, Ebba Brahe fell upon her knees before the queen to ask him to forgive him, and she also sought the help of Axel Oxenstierna to reinstate him in favor, though she privately blamed the Oxenstierna party for having caused the fall of Magnus Gabriel. During the minor regency of Charles XI in 1660–1672, her son Magnus Gabriel was one of the leading members and rulers of Sweden. Ebba Brahe actively used her influence over her son to put forward both her own and various supplicants demands, recommendations and suggestions.

Ebba Brahe also became known as a business person. As a widow, Ebba Brahe became one of the many powerful female land holders, who occupy a significant place in the local legends of Sweden during the 16th and 17th centuries, such as Barbro Påle, Sophia Drake, Margareta Huitfeldt and Margareta von Ascheberg. She became a successful land holder, managed her estates and expanded them. She acquired new estates from the formerly Danish province Skåne, which became a Swedish province in 1658 and had many large estates which were left behind by the Danish nobility.

After her husband's death in 1652 she successfully petitioned Queen Christina I of Sweden to found the city of Jakobstad in Finland, named in honor of her late husband. A street in Jakobstad, Ebba Brahe Esplanaden, has been named after her.

In fiction
A play, Gustav Adolf och Ebba Brahe, was written about Ebba Brahe by Gustav III of Sweden, composed by Johan Henric Kellgren, which was performed in the Gripsholm Castle Theatre in 1785; the play presents her son Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie as the son of the king. The play was performed at the Royal Swedish Opera in 1787 with Franziska Stading as Ebba Brahe.

Family
Her marriage with Jacob produced 14 children, seven of whom lived to maturity. None of her children are believed to have been fathered by King Gustavus Adolphus.
 Pontus De la Gardie (1619–1632).
 Christina De la Gardie (1620 – d. in infancy).
 Sophia De la Gardie (1621 – d. in infancy).
 Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1622–1686), Lord High Chancellor of the Privy Council of Sweden.
 Brita De la Gardie (1624 – d. in infancy).
 Gustaf Adolph De la Gardie (1626 – d. in infancy).
 Maria Sofia De la Gardie (1627–1694); married Gustaf Gabrielsson Oxenstierna, nephew of regent Axel Oxenstierna.
 Jakob Kasimir De la Gardie (1629–1658); married Ebba Sparre, intimate friend of Queen Christina of Sweden.
 Pontus Frederick De la Gardie (1630–1692).
 Christina Catharine De la Gardie (1632–1704); married Gustaf Otto Stenbock, mother of Magnus Stenbock.
 Johann Karl De la Gardie (1634 – d. in infancy).
 Birgitta Helena De la Gardie (1636 – d. in infancy).
 Axel Julius De la Gardie (1637–1710), Field Marshal and Governor-General over Estonia.
 Ebba Margaretha De La Gardie (1638–1696).

Notes
 Gustavus Adolphus' paternal grandmother, Margaret Eriksdotter Leijonhufvud, and Ebba Brahe's father's maternal grandmother, Brita Eriksdotter Leijonhufvud, were sisters.

References

Bibliography
 historiska-personer.nu
 Westerlund, Kerstin (2004), "Kvinnliga brukspatroner", Tekniska museet
 Norrhem, Svante (2007). Kvinnor vid maktens sida : 1632-1772. Lund: Nordic Academic Press. Libris 10428618.
 Biografi i Nordisk familjebok (andra upplagan, 1905)
 Ebba Brahe, urn:sbl:18040, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av G. Jacobson.), hämtad 2015-07-08.

Further reading

External links

Ebba
City founders
Swedish countesses
1596 births
1674 deaths
Swedish ladies-in-waiting
17th-century Swedish businesspeople
Swedish maids of honour
People from the Swedish Empire
Swedish ironmasters
17th-century women landowners
17th-century Swedish landowners
Court of Christina, Queen of Sweden
17th-century ironmasters

Ebba Brahe


Dimitriana Bezede (născută Surdu, ) este o atletă moldoveană, specializată în disciplina aruncarea greutății.

Carieră
A participat la Campionatul European de Atletism din 2016. A făcut parte din lotul olimpic al Republicii Moldova la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016 și Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2020. La Campionatul Mondial de Atletism din 2017 a obținut locul 19.

În anul 2019 sportiva a obținut locul 9 Campionatul European în sală. La Universiada de la Napoli a cucerit locul 5 și la Campionatul Mondial de la Doha s-a clasat pe locul 12. În 2021 a participat la Jocurile Olimpice de la Tokio.

La Campionatul European în sală din 2023 de la Istanbul sportiva a obținut locul șapte.

Recordul personal al său este de 18,83 metri și datează din 2017. Recordul personal în sală este de 18,52 metri, stabilit la Istanbul în 2019, acesta fiind recordul național.

Realizări

Recorduri personale

Referințe

Legături externe

  Dimitriana Bezede  la olympics.com

Nașteri în 1994
Nașteri pe 12 aprilie
Aruncători cu greutatea
Atleți olimpici moldoveni
Sportivi moldoveni în viață
Atleți la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2016
Atleți la Jocurile Olimpice de vară din 2020

Dimitriana Bezede


8839 Novichkova este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
8839 Novichkova este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul astrofizic din Crimeea de Liudmila Cernîh. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 3,11 ua, o excentricitate de 0,18 și o înclinație de 5,0° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 8001-9000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1989
Centura de asteroizi

8839 Novichkova


Boys Don't Cry er en amerikansk romantisk dramafilm fra 1999 instrueret af Kimberly Peirce. Filmen er en dramatisering af den virkelige historien om Brandon Teena.

Medvirkende
 Hilary Swank som Brandon Teena/Teena Brandon
 Chloë Sevigny som Lana
 Peter Sarsgaard som John

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 1999
LGBT-relaterede film fra USA
Dramafilm fra USA
Film baseret på virkelige begivenheder

Boys Don't Cry (film)


Disperzijska bojila su u obliku vodenih disperzija, iz kojih čestice bojila prelaze u omekšana sintetska vlakna i u njima tvore čvrste otopine. Disperzna bojila se melju u prah u nazočnosti tvari koja pomaže disperziju, te skladište kao pasta, sprej ili prah. Uglavnom se koriste za bojanje poliestera. Disperzijska bojila u vodi su netopljiva ili teško topljiva, pa se za bojenje upotrebljavaju u obliku finih vodenih suspenzija u prisutnosti disperzionih sredstava (sapuna, deterdženata). Suspendiranu boju materijal apsorbira (upije) nakon što je ona prodrla u intermicelarne šupljine. Kemijski su to jednostavna antrakinonska bojila, monoazo-bojila i azometinska bojila, a imaju obično veći broj supstituenata: amino-, alkoksi-, hidroksialkil-, halogen, nitro- ili cijano-skupina. Primjenjuju se za bojanje acetatne svile i sintetičkih vlakana.

Umjetna bojila

Umjetna bojila ili sintetska bojila pojavljuju se nakon sinteze mauveina iz anilina (W. H. Perkin, 1856.). Njihova se tržišna primjena temeljila na proizvodnji velikih količina anilina iz katrana kamenog ugljena kao sirovine (otuda naziv katranske, odnosno anilinske boje). Nakon otkrića diazotacije i alizarinske sinteze u drugoj polovici 19. stoljeća, ostvarena je industrijska sinteza indiga, kongo crvenila, indantrena i mnogih drugih bojila. Disperzijska bojila uvedena su 1923., a reakcijska 1956. Bojila za tekstil u Hrvatskoj proizvodi od 1950. zagrebačka tvornica "Chromos – Organske boje". Umjetna bojila su jeftinija i velike učinkovitosti, stoga danas drže vodeći položaj u proizvodnji.

Sintetska bojila mogu se podijeliti prema materijalu koji se njima bojaju na bojila za tekstil, za kožu, za papir, za plastične mase, za hranu, za ulja, masti, voskove, tekuća goriva i maziva, za premazna sredstva i naliče i za druge specijalne svrhe. Bojila za tekstil mogu se podijeliti na bojila za biljna vlakna, za životinjska vlakna, za sintetička vlakna i za miješana vlakna ili tkanine. Među bojila za specijalne svrhe idu bojila za mikroskopiju, za fotografiju, za kozmetiku, za pirotehniku, za farmaceutske svrhe, za kemijsku analizu (indikatori).

Prema svojstvima bojanja dijele se bojila u ove grupe:
 bojila topljiva u vodi:
 bazna,
 kisela,
 močilna,
 metalkompleksna,
 supstantivna (direktna),
 reaktivna,
 leukoesteri reduktivnih bojila (indigosoli);
 bojila topljiva u alkoholu;
 bojila netopljiva u vodi:
 bojila koja se redukcijom mogu prevesti u leukospojeve topljive u vodi (reduktivna i sumporna bojila),
 disperziona bojila,
 bojila topljiva u mastima i uljima,
 pigmentna bojila,
 bojeni lakovi;
 bojila koja se grade na vlaknu (materijalu):
 naftol-AS bojila,
 acetatna bojila za razvijanje,
 oksidaciona bojila,
 bojila koja nastaju u diazotipiji,
 bojila za višeslojnu fotografiju u bojama.

Izvori

Pigmenti

Disperzijska bojila


Thomas Elbel (* 1945) ist ein deutscher Feinmechaniker und Professor für Elektrische Messtechnik, Sensorik und Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik an der Hochschule Hannover.

Leben
Nach einer Ausbildung zum Feinmechaniker und dem Abitur 1964 absolvierte Elbel bis 1969 in Studium der Theoretischen Elektrotechnik und Regelungstechnik an der TH Ilmenau. Anschließend folgte eine langjährige Industrie- und Forschungstätigkeit auf den Gebieten Elektronenstrahllithografie und Mikrosensorentwicklung. Elbel wurde im Jahr 1985 an der TH Ilmenau auf dem Gebiet der Festkörperelektronik promoviert. Seit 1991 ist er Professor an der FH Hannover.

Von 1997 bis 2002 war er Leiter des Angewandten Forschungsschwerpunktes an der FHH Angewandte Mikrosysteme für die mittelständische Industrie (AMIS).

Forschungsgebiete:
Elektrische Messtechnik
Sensorik
Grundlagen der Elektrotechnik
Thermische Sensoren, insbesondere Infrarotsensoren
Intelligente Mikrosensoren
Mikrosystemtechnik

Schriften
 Mikrosensorik, Vieweg Verlagsgesellschaft 1996, ISBN 3-5280-3377-0

Weblinks
 fh-hannover.de Abgerufen am 28. Februar 2012
  Abgerufen am 29. Februar 2012

Hochschullehrer (Hochschule Hannover)
Deutscher
Geboren 1945
Mann

Thomas Elbel (Elektrotechniker)


1924 ගිම්හාන ඔලිම්පික්  (ප්‍රංශ: Les Jeux olympiques d'été de 1924), නිල වශයෙන් Games of the VIII Olympiad හැඳින්වෙන්නේ 1924 වසරේ දී ප්‍රංශයේ පැරිස් නුවර පැවති 8 වන නූතන ඔලිම්පික් ක්‍රීඩා උළෙලයි. ඇම්ස්ටර්ඩෑම්, බාර්සිලෝනා, ලොස් ඇන්ජලීස්, ප්‍රාග් සහ රෝමය යන නගර පරාජය කරමින් ක්‍රීඩා උළෙලේ සත්කාරකත්වය සඳහා පැරිසිය තෝරා ගනු ලැබුවේ 1921 දී ලොසෑන් (ස්විට්සර්ලන්තයේ නගරයක්) හි පැවති 20 වන IOC සැසි වාරයේදී ය.

ඔලිම්පික්

1924 ගිම්හාන ඔලිම්පික්


Pauline Lecarpentier (née le 27 mai 1997 à Boulogne-sur-Mer) est une lutteuse libre française.

Carrière
Elle remporte aux Jeux de la Francophonie de 2017 à Abidjan la médaille de bronze dans la catégorie des moins de 69 kg.

En 2018, elle termine à la  place dans la catégorie des moins de 68 kg aux Jeux méditerranéens de 2018 à Tarragone.

Elle remporte la médaille d'argent dans la catégorie des moins de 62 kg au Grand Prix de France Henri Deglane 2019 à Nice. En 2020, elle participe à la Coupe du monde de lutte individuelle à Belgrade, en Serbie.

En janvier 2021, elle obtient la médaille d'argent dans la catégorie des moins de 76 kg au Grand Prix de France Henri Deglane 2021 à Nice. En mars 2021, elle participe au tournoi européen de qualification à Budapest, en Hongrie, dans l'espoir de se qualifier pour les Jeux olympiques d'été de 2020 à Tokyo, au Japon. En mai 2021, elle ne réussit à se qualifier pour les Jeux olympiques lors du tournoi mondial de qualification qui s'est tenu à Sofia, en Bulgarie.

Elle remporte la médaille d'argent dans la catégorie des moins de 68 kg au tournoi Dan Kolov - Nikola Petrov 2022 qui s'est tenu à Veliko Tarnovo, en Bulgarie. Un mois plus tard, elle obtient la médaille d'argent dans la catégorie des moins de 68 kg aux Championnats d'Europe de lutte 2022 à Budapest.

Elle est médaillée de bronze dans la catégorie des moins de 72 kg aux Championnats d'Europe de lutte 2023 à Zagreb.

Palmarès

Références

Liens externes

Lutteuse française
Naissance en mai 1997
Naissance à Boulogne-sur-Mer

Pauline Lecarpentier


Carvel Rock je nenaseljena hrid na Britanskim Djevičanskim otocima u Karibima. Nalazi se na južnom rubu otočja, južno od i otprilike između otoka đumbira i otoka Cooper.

Spužvama prekrivene gromade i vatreni koralji stvaraju stanište za razne ribe — murina Gymnothorax funebris, ribe Haemulon flavolineatum, Acanthurus coeruleus, Cantherhines macrocerus i druge.

Prema izbještajima ronilaca, u vodama oko otoka se mogu vidjeti morske pse, barakude, murine, jastoge, Ophioblennius atlanticus, Epinephelinae, Balistes vetula, Melichthys niger, Hemichromis, glavoče, skuše, Scomberomorus cavalla, rod Aulostomus, Equetus punctatus i Enneapterygius tutuilae.

Izvori

Otoci Britanskih Djevičanskih otoka

Carvel Rock (Britanski Djevičanski otoci)


Denis McCullough  (24 January 1883 – 11 September 1968) was a prominent Irish nationalist political activist in the early 20th century, who served as President of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) from 1915 to 1916.

Early career – IRB activist
McCullough was born at 1 Barrack Street, Belfast, on 24 January 1883, to Daniel McCullough, a publican, and Margaret Magee.

McCullough was a separatist nationalist from an early age. Both his father and grandfather were in the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), as was his brother. When he was 17, his father had him inducted into the IRB at the side door of a pub by a man who seemed to view the ritual as an unpleasant distraction to a night of drinking. The event disillusioned McCullough with the IRB, and he took it upon himself to revitalise the organisation, with assistance from, among others, Bulmer Hobson and Seán Mac Diarmada. The trio founded the Dungannon Clubs as a non-sectarian, republican, separatist organisation (it was later absorbed into Sinn Féin), for recruitment. They worked to remove "armchair republicans" from positions of power. Their cause prospered with the return of veteran Fenian Tom Clarke to Ireland in 1907.

President of IRB and Easter Rising
McCullough was elected to fill the vacant seat of the President of the IRB late in 1915, a position he held during the Easter Rising of 1916, though he took no active role in the rising itself. He was not a member of the Military Committee that was responsible for its planning. It is likely that the other members of the three man IRB executive, Clarke and MacDermott (the treasurer and secretary) supported his nomination as president because, as he was isolated in Belfast, he would be in no position to interfere with their plans. Nevertheless, during Holy Week he got word of what was afoot and travelled to Dublin to question Clarke and MacDermott, who avoided him as long as they could. Eventually they informed him of their plans, which he came to support. Although McCullough was an officer of the Irish Volunteers, in charge of 200 men in Belfast, it was decided that Belfast would not take part in the rising, given that the dominance of the Ulster Volunteers in the northeast could lead to sectarian civil war.

McCullough stated in his application for an Irish military pension in 1937 that, 'I brought out my men in Belfast and mobilised them at Coalisland to cooperate with the Tyrone Volunteers in accordance with orders from Pearse and Connolly received by me. Their orders were to bring all available men and arms across Ulster to Connaught to join Mellows there. They were insistent, especially James Connolly, that we were to "fire no shot in Ulster". I thought these orders were mad ones but determined to carry out orders if possible'.

McCullough led Volunteers in his area to Dungannon, County Tyrone, from where they would link up with Liam Mellows in Connacht. Although the Volunteer's Chief of Staff Eoin MacNeill issued a countermanding order, cancelling orders for the rising, McCullough took 150 Volunteers and Cumman na mBan by train from Belfast to Dungannon, where he found the local volunteers under Patrick McCartan did not want to leave their home area. McCullough therefore decided to return to Belfast. During the abortive Rising, he accidentally shot himself in the hand. He was arrested that week and taken to Richmond Barracks, Dublin. He spent several months interned at Frongoch internment camp and imprisoned in Reading Gaol.

On his release he married Agnes Ryan, a sister of James Ryan, Josephine Ryan and Phyllis Ryan
 and sister-in-law to their husbands Seán T. O'Kelly and Richard Mulcahy.

It has been argued that as president of the Irish Republican Brotherhood at the time of the Easter Rising, the title President of the Irish Republic was by rights his, and not Patrick Pearse's. However, as he had no real role in the planning of the insurrection, and was not in the vicinity of Dublin, where it was clear the leadership would need to be, it is understandable that Pearse was given the title instead. McCullough's decision not to fight in the Easter Rising lost him his pre-eminent position among Belfast republicans. One, Sean Cusack, later said that he told McCullough, "we all felt he had, to some extent, let us down".

War of Independence and Treaty
McCullough felt he was sidelined during the Rising, and left the IRB. He was an ordinary volunteer in the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921), during which he was arrested and imprisoned by the British several times and held for long periods. He was imprisoned from May 1918 to March 1919 and again from September 1920 to January 1921 and finally from late January to December 1921.

In early 1922 he was sent by Michael Collins to America to liaise between the IRB and its American sister organisation Clan na Gael.

In 1922, he supported the Anglo-Irish Treaty, despite its acceptance of the Partition of Ireland, as a way of keeping the republican movement united and focused on the north. He later said of the split in the southern movement, "while they were making up their minds about the Treaty, their people in the north were being killed day by day. They could not stand up the terror in Ulster unless they had a united organisation behind them". He was unaware  that Michael Collins continued to covertly arm the IRA in Ulster until August 1922, partly to protect nationalists there and partly to try to bring down the Northern Irish state.

After the Treaty, in early 1922 he was sent by George Gavan Duffy to the United States to make contact with Irish republican organisations there. He later settled in Dublin in the new Irish Free State.

Business and later political career
McCullough's political activity went alongside maintaining and developing an instrument making and retail music business in Belfast's Howard Street, generated from his original trade as a piano tuner. F.J. Biggar, the solicitor antiquarian and friend of Roger Casement, encouraged its growth with orders for bagpipes for his boy bands. In time, after he moved to Dublin, this became McCullough Pigott of Suffolk Street and marked the beginning of a highly successful and influential Free State business career. He distinguished himself in forming the New Ireland Assurance Company. A director of Clondalkin Paper Mills, he also had a role in the Irish Army School of Music, and the Gate Theatre. While in the U.S. as Special Commissioner for the Free State (leaving his wife in charge of the music business), McCullough's new premises in Dawson Street were destroyed by an Anti-Treaty IRA land mine as a reprisal during the Irish Civil War.

He was an unsuccessful Sinn Féin candidate at the 1918 general election for the Tyrone South constituency. On 20 November 1924, McCullough stood as the Cumann na nGaedheal candidate at a by-election in the Donegal constituency, following the resignation of Cumann na nGaedheal TD Peter Ward. He was elected to the 4th Dáil, but did not stand again at the next general election, held in June 1927.

References

1883 births
1968 deaths
Cumann na nGaedheal TDs
Irish Republican Army (1919–1922) members
Members of the 4th Dáil
Members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood
Politicians from Belfast
Sinn Féin parliamentary candidates

Denis McCullough


Image Cytometry Standard (ICS) je digitalni višedimenzijski datotečni format u uporabi u mikroskopiji u znanostima o životu. Ne pohranjuje samo podatke o slici, nego i mikroskopske parametre koji su opis optičkih podataka pri dobivanju slike.

ICS je prvi put predložen u : P. Dean, L. Mascio, D. Ow, D. Sudar, J. Mullikin, Proposed standard for image cytometry data files, Cytometry, n. 11, str. 561-569, 1990

Izvorna datoteka ICS u stvari rabi dvije odvojene datoteke: datoteku tekstovnog zaglavlja koja je ekstenzije .ics i druga, znatno veća koja sadrži podatke o slici, ekstenzije .ids. Ovo omogućuje sabijanje podataka dok je datoteka zaglavlja ostaje dostupna.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Otvarač ICS-a za  ImageJ

Tipizacija datoteka po nastavcima

Image Cytometry Standard


Lindsay Stewart Smith (1917–1970) fue un naturalista, y botánico australiano. Desarrolló actividades académicas en el Museo y Herbario, en el Jardín botánico de Brisbane.

Honores
 1922

Epónimos
Tres especies le fueron dedicadas, entre ellas:
 (Rutaceae) Acronychia smithii T.G.Hartley

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Botánicos de Australia
Escritores en inglés del siglo XX
Profesores de Australia

Lindsay Stewart Smith


Klubi Futbollistik Teuta Durrës, commonly referred to as Teuta, is an Albanian professional football club based in Durrës. They currently compete in the Kategoria Superiore and they play their home games at the Niko Dovana Stadium.

The club was founded on 29 January 1920 as Klubi Sportiv Urani (Uranium Sport Club), and they were a founding member of the Albanian National Championship in 1930, as well as runners-up in the 1931 National Championship. They have won the Kategoria Superiore twice in 1994 and in 2021, and they have also won the Albanian Cup four times, as well as finishing runners-up in three Albanian Supercups.

History

Early history
The club was founded on 29 January 1920 as Klubi Sportiv Urani, which literally translates to Uranium Sport Club, and they changed their name to Sport Klub Durrës just two years later 1922. They kept the same name until they joined the Albania national championship as one of the original six members alongside SK Tiranë, Skënderbeu Korçë, Bashkimi Shkodran, Urani Elbasan and Sportklub Vlorë. In 1930, before entering the National Championship, the club changes its name to the Klubi Sportiv Teuta Durrës, in reference to Queen Teuta of Illyria. In the first national championship they finished fifth out of six teams, collecting three wins and two draws out of ten games. The following season they finished as runners-up in the league, as they lost 4–1 in the championship final against SK Tiranë, where the club's goalkeeper Niko Dovana famously scored the equaliser in the first leg which ended in a 1–1 draw.

After Communism took control of Albania the club was forced to change its name to KS Ylli i Kuq Durrës, literally meaning KS Red Star Durrës. Just 3 years later in 1950 the club dropped KS Red Star Durrës from its name and was simply called SK Durrës once again, before renaming to SK Puna Durrës a 1-year later in 1951. The club changed its name again in 1958 to KS Lokomotiva Durrës which they kept until the fall of Communism in Albania in 1991. Since 1991 the club has renamed KS Teuta Durrës, with the football team being called KF Teuta.

Hasanbelliu era
In 1999 local businessman and owner of Eurotech Cement Edmond Hasanbelliu he  was named as the new president of the club, he brought in Hasan Lika as manager immediately. He began investing in the club and introduced Albanian internationals Sokol Prenga and Suad Liçi in the club, alongside a host of other players including Orges Shehi and Arjan Sheta. In the club's first season under Hasan Lika and Edmond Hasanbelliu they finished in third place, behind Tomori Berat and eventual winners KF Tirana. They also had a successful Albanian Cup run as they eliminated Flamurtari Vlorë, KF Tirana and Dinamo Tirana to reach the final against KS Lushnja, which ended 0–0 after extra time and Teuta won the game 5–4 on penalties. They qualified for the second qualifying round of the UEFA Cup in the following season, where they faced Austrian side SK Rapid Wien. They were eliminated following a 6–0 aggregate loss, after 4–0 and 2–0 losses.

Recent years
In November 2013 the president Hasanbelliu announced that the club had sold a 50% stake to Swiss company Gea Sport, who promised investment in the club in order to achieve domestic success as well as have good runs in Europe. The firm's first action as shareholders was to replace the Albanian coach Gugash Magani with the Italian Roberto Sorrentino, who became the club's first ever foreign coach. Following less than 2 months as shareholders Gea Sport were instrumental in bringing in 11 players during the January transfer window, most of which were foreigners, in an attempt to push for the title. on 24 February 2014, Sorrentino was fired as the first team coach following a string of poor results. The club announced the appointment of Ilir Daja the day after Sorrentino's departure.

Stadium

The club play their home games at the Niko Dovana Stadium which was built in 1965 and currently has a capacity of around 13,000. The stadium was previously known as the Lokomotiva Stadium between 1958 and 1991 during Communism while the club was named Lokomotiva Durrës. The stadium has also been host to the Albania national team in 2010 where they played a friendly against Uzbekistan. During the 2013–14 season, according to the club's official website the average league attendance was 2,638.

Honours
 Kategoria Superiore:
 Winners: 1993–94, 2020–21
 Runners-up: 1931, 1992–93, 1994–95, 1995–96, 2006–07, 2011–12
 Albanian Cup:
 Winners: 1994–95, 1999–2000, 2004–05, 2019–20
 Runners-up: 1957, 1974–75, 1993–94, 2000–01, 2002–03, 2006–07
 Albanian Supercup
 Winners: 2020, 2021
 Runners-up: 1994, 2000, 2005
 Kategoria e Parë:
 Winners: 1959, 1961
 Sporti Popullor Cup:
 Winners: 1982
 Ylli Cup:
 Winners: 1985

Supporters
Teuta's fans are known as  Djemtë e Detit 1994 (Boys of the Sea). and PIRATËT 2016 (PIRATES 2016) and MARINSAT 2017 (MARINSAT 2017)

European record

 QR = Qualifying Round
 1R = First Round
 2R = Second Round

Players

Current squad

Current staff

Records
 Biggest ever victory: Teuta Durrës 16–0 KF Elbasani (17 April 1932), (1932 Superliga)
 Biggest ever defeat: Teuta Durrës 0–9 KF Tirana (15 April 1934), (1934 Superliga)
 Highest league points tally: 67 points from 33 games (2006–07 Superliga)
 Lowest league points tally: 4 points from 10 games (1946 Superliga)
 Best league goal difference: +28 from 34 games (1995–96 Superliga)
 Worst league goal difference: -22 from 18 games (1937 Superliga)
 Most league wins: 20 wins from 34 games (1995–96 Superliga)
 Least league wins: 1 win from 10 games (1946 Superliga)
 Most league losses: 16 losses (1989–90), (2004–05), (2005–06 Superliga)
 Least league losses: 1 loss from 8 games (1931 Superliga)

Historical list of coaches

 Adem Karapici (1956-1957)
 Skënder Jareci (1960)
 Tom Gjini (1963-1964)
 Loro Boriçi (1965-1967)
 Refik Resmja (1971-1973)
 Skënder Jareci (1970s)
 Bejkush Birçe (1980s)
 Kristaq Toçi (1990-1991)
 Edmond Miha (1992-1993)
 Haxhi Ballgjini (1994)
 Bashkim Koka (1994-1996)
 Shkëlqim Muça (Jul 1, 1996 – Jun 30, 1998)
 Enver Shehu (1998)
 Hasan Lika (1999-2001)
 Hysen Dedja (2001)
 Hasan Lika (2002)
 Edmond Zalla (2002)
 Hasan Lika (2003)
 Vasil Bici (Jun 1, 2003 – Sep 18, 2003)
 Hasan Lika (Sep 18, 2003 – Mar 13, 2004)
 Stavri Nica (Mar 20, 2004 – Jun 1, 2004)
 Edmond Zalla (Jul 1, 2004 – Sep 28, 2004)
 Stavri Nica (Sep 29, 2004 – Oct 4, 2004)
 Neptun Bajko (Oct 15, 2004 – Feb 27, 2005)
 Stavri Nica (Feb 27, 2005 – Jun 1, 2005)
 Hasan Lika (Jul 1, 2005 – Feb 24, 2006)
 Stavri Nica (Mar 1, 2006 – Mar 18, 2006)
 Alfred Ferko (Mar 19, 2006 – Jun 1, 2006)
 Sulejman Starova (July 1, 2006 – June 30, 2007)
 Hysen Dedja (July 1, 2007 – Sept 30, 2007)
 Gentian Begeja (Oct 1, 2007 – Nov 27, 2007)
 Kristaq Mile (Nov 28, 2007 – Jun 1, 2008)
 Sulejman Starova (Aug 24, 2008 – May 30, 2009)
 Mirel Josa (Jul 1, 2009 – Jan 31, 2010)
 Ylli Shehu (Feb 4, 2010 – Jun 3, 2010)
 Edi Martini (Jun 9, 2010 – May 24, 2011)
 Hasan Lika (May 27, 2011 – Sep 3, 2012)
 Gentian Begeja (Sep 14, 2012 – Jan 22, 2013)
 Gugash Magani (Jan 28, 2013 – Nov 16, 2013)
 Roberto Sorrentino (Nov 18, 2013 – Feb 24, 2014)
 Ilir Biturku (Feb 25, 2014 – May 30, 2014)
 Hasan Lika (Jun 5, 2014 – Nov 24, 2014)
 Gentian Begeja (Nov 24, 2014 – May 2015)
 Gugash Magani (Jun 2, 2015 – May 2016)
 Julian Ahmataj (Jun 2016 – Jul 2016)
 Hito Hitaj (Jul 2016 – Sep 2016)
 Cesare Beggi (Sep 2016)
 Roberto Cevoli (Oct 2016)
 Gugash Magani (Oct 2016 – Dec 2017)
 Stavri Nica (Dec 2017 – Feb 2018)
 Gentian Begeja (Feb 2018 – May 2018)
 Bledi Shkëmbi (Jun 2018 – Dec 2019)
 Edi Martini (Dec 2019 – Nov 2021)
 Renato Arapi (Nov 2021 – Dec 2021)
 Edi Martini (Dec 2021 – Jan 2022)
 Renato Arapi (Jan 2022 – Sep 2022)
 Bledi Shkëmbi (Sep 2022 – Nov 2022)
 Edi Martini (Nov 2022 – Jun 2023)
 Diego Longo (Jun 2023 – Sep 2023)
 Edi Martini (Sep 2023 –)

Title winning coaches

References

External links

 Teuta Durrës at EUFO.de

Association football clubs established in 1920
Football clubs in Albania
Football clubs in Durrës
Sport in Durrës
1920 establishments in Albania

KF Teuta Durrës


Timothey N'Guessan (født 18. september 1992) er en fransk håndboldspiller, som spiller i FC Barcelona Handbol i Spanien og for Frankrigs herrerhåndboldlandshold.

Referencer

Håndboldspillere fra Frankrig

Timothey N'Guessan


جامع كانو مسجد جامع أنشأه أحفاد رجل الأعمال البحريني يوسف بن أحمد كانو على الكورنيش بحي الشاطئ في مدينة الدمام بالمنطقة الشرقية بالمملكة العربية السعودية  لخدمة مسلمي ومواطني المنطقة.

كان يصلي فيه الشيخ سعد الغامدي إماماً حتى عام 2010 تقريباً ، و طارق الشامسي مؤذناً. وبجواره مركز منار الهدى، وهو مركز إسلامي لخدمة شباب المنطقة. وتقام فيه صلاة العيد.

مراجع

مساجد الدمام

جامع كانو


El RIM-67 Standard ER (SM-1ER/SM-2ER) es un misil superficie-aire (SAM) y antibuque de rango extendido desarrollado originalmente para la Armada de los Estados Unidos (USN). El RIM-67 fue desarrollado para reemplazar al RIM-8 Talos, un sistema de los años 1950 desplegado en una variedad de barcos de la USN.

RIM-67A SM-1 de Rango Extendido (ER)

El RIM-67A (SM-1ER bloque I) fue el reemplazo del misil RIM-8 Talos de la Marina americana. La mejora de la tecnología permitió la reducción de tamaño del RIM-67 con respecto a los anteriores RIM-2 Terrier. Los buques existentes con el sistema de control de disparo de misiles guiados Mk86 o "Terrier" fueron adaptados para emplear el nuevo misil. Los buques que pasaron de los RIM-2 Terrier a los RIM-67A eran todavía conocidos como buques Terrier a pesar de que estaban equipados con misiles más recientes.

RIM-67 y RIM-156 SM-2 de Rango Extendido (ER)

La segunda generación del misil estándar, el misil estándar 2, fue desarrollada para el sistema de combate Aegis, y el programa NTU (New Threat Upgrade), programa que estaba planeado para los buques Tartar y Terrier existentes. La principal diferencia con el misil estándar 1 es la introducción de la orientación inercial para cada fase de vuelo del misil excepto para la fase terminal donde se ha mantenido el radar de guiado semi-activo. Este cambio de diseño se realizó para que los misiles tuvieran tiempo de compartir los radares de iluminación y permitir que buques equipados con dichos radares pudieran defenderse de ataques saturados de misiles.

Los buques Terrier reacondicionados como parte del programa NTU fueron modernizado para operar el misil RIM-67B (SM 2ER bloque II). Sin embargo, los buques Aegis no estaban equipados con lanzadores que tuvieran suficiente espacio para el más largo RIM-67B.

El RIM-156A Standard SM-2ER bloque IV con el propulsor Mk 72 fue desarrollado para compensar la falta de un SAM de largo alcance para la clase de cruceros Aegis Ticonderoga. Esta configuración también puede utilizarse para la fase terminal de defensa contra misiles balísticos.

Hubo un plan para construir un misil estándar armado con una ojiva nuclear W81 para reemplazar a los anteriores misiles nucleares Terrier (RIM-2D). La USN suprimió el requisito para los misiles nucleares en la década de 1980, y el proyecto fue cancelado.

El estándar también puede utilizarse contra buques, en el rango de visión usando su modo de guiado semi-activo, o más allá del horizonte mediante orientación inercial y guiado terminal por infrarrojos.

Se espera que una nueva generación de misiles estándar de alcance extendido comience a funcionar en 2011. Este misil se cubre en un artículo separado. Consulte RIM-174 Standard ERAM para más detalles.

Historia operacional

Durante la  guerra Irán-Irak (1980-1988), Estados Unidos desplegó misiles estándar para proteger a su marina, así como a otros barcos en el Golfo Pérsico de ataques iraníes. Según la Fuerza Aérea iraní, sus F-4 Phantom II fueron atacados por SM-2ERs, pero lograron evadirlos, con daños no graves en uno de los aviones debido a la metralla.

El 18 de abril de 1988, durante la Operación Mantis Religiosa el USS Simpson (FFG-56) disparó cuatro misiles RIM-66 Standard y el USS Wainwright (CG-28) disparó dos misiles RIM-67 estándar contra el Joshan , una nave de ataque rápido iraní de la clase Kaman (Combattante II). Los ataques destruyeron la superestructura del buque iraní pero no lo hundió inmediatamente, aunque lo hizo posteriormente.

Despliegue

El RIM-67 estándar fue desplegado en los buques de las siguientes clases reemplazando al RIM-2 Terrier, y nunca preparado para los lanzadores verticales VLS. Todos los buques utilizaron el AN/SPG-55 para orientación. El sistema de lanzamiento de misiles usado fue el Mk10. Los nuevos buques equipados con el programa NTU operaron el RIM-67B que utiliza orientación inercial para cada fase de la intercepción excepto en la fase terminal donde los radares AN/SPG-55 iluminan al objetivo.

 USS     Long Beach (CGN-9) SM-1ER posteriormente     SM-2ER con NTU .
 Destructores clase Farragut SM-1ER     posteriormente SM-2ER (DDG-42 con NTU).
 Cruceros clase Leahy SM-1ER posteriormente SM-2ER     con NTU.
 USS     Bainbridge (CGN-25) SM-1ER posteriormente SM-2ER con NTU .
 Cruceros clase Belknap SM-1ER     posteriormente SM-2ER con NTU.
 USS Truxtun (CGN-35) SM-1ER posteriormente SM-2ER     con NTU.

El RIM-156 estándar bloque IV, es una versión que ha sido desarrollada para el sistema de combate Aegis, tiene un propulsor compacto de pequeño tamaño para la primera etapa de disparo desde el sistema de lanzamiento de misiles guiados Mk41. Como los anteriores RIM-67B emplea orientación inercial/mando con guiado terminal por radar semi-activo.

 Cruceros de clase Ticonderoga (sólo unidades con VLS)
 Destructores de clase Arleigh Burke

El último buque en operar el RIM-67 fue el Crucero italiano Vittorio Veneto (550) que se retiró en 2003. El RIM-156A está todavía en servicio a fecha de 2010. El RIM-174 Standard ERAM o misil estándar seis (SM-6) está entrando en servicio como reemplazo.

Variantes superficie-aire

Galería

Referencias

Véase también

S-300
RIM-2 Terrier
RIM-8 Talos
RIM-24 Tartar
RIM-66 Standard
RIM-161 Standard Missile 3
RIM-174 Standard ERAM
Sistema de Combate Aegis
New Threat Upgrade

Enlaces externos

 Raytheon Standard missile website, mfr of Standard missiles
 Designation systems.net - RIM-67
 FAS - SM-2ER
 GlobalSecurity.org - SM-2
 Navweaps.com

Misiles de Estados Unidos
Misiles antiaéreos
Misiles antibuque

RIM-67 Standard


Spotlight este un film american biografic dramatic din 2015 regizat de Tom McCarthy. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Mark Ruffalo și Michael Keaton. În 2016 a câștigat Premiul Oscar pentru cel mai bun film. Scenariul este scris de McCarthy și Josh Singer. Subiectul filmului este ancheta jurnalistică a ziarului Boston Globe pe tema abuzurilor sexuale din Biserica Catolică, cu referire la cele comise în Arhidieceza de Boston.

Prezentare

Distribuție
Echipa Spotlight
 Mark Ruffalo - Michael Rezendes
 Michael Keaton - Walter "Robby" Robinson
 Rachel McAdams - Sacha Pfeiffer
 Liev Schreiber - Marty Baron
 John Slattery - Ben Bradlee Jr.
 Brian d'Arcy James - Matt Carroll

Personaje secundare
 Stanley Tucci - Mitchell Garabedian, attorney
 Gene Amoroso - Stephen Kurkjian, Boston Globe general investigative reporter
 Jamey Sheridan - Jim Sullivan, an attorney representing the Church
 Billy Crudup - Eric MacLeish, an attorney
 Maureen Keiller - Eileen McNamara, Boston Globe columnist
 Richard Jenkins - Richard Sipe, psychotherapist (telephone voice, uncredited)
 Paul Guilfoyle - Peter Conley
 Len Cariou - Cardinal Bernard Law
 Neal Huff - Phil Saviano
 Michael Cyril Creighton - Joe Crowley
 Laurie Heineman - Judge Constance Sweeney

Note

Legături externe

 Spotlight at Rotten Tomatoes
 "The story behind the 'Spotlight' movie" from The Boston Globe
 Spotlight at History vs. Hollywood
 Criticism of Spotlight

Vezi și
 Oscar 2016
 A 73-a ediție a Premiilor Globul de Aur

Filme din 2015
Filme americane
Filme în limba engleză
Filme regizate de Tom McCarthy
Filme Participant Media
Filme Open Road Films
Filme premiate cu Oscar
Filme premiate cu Premiul Societății Naționale a Criticilor de Film pentru cel mai bun film

Spotlight (film)


Rijeka u Iranu većinom su sezonske i tradicionalno nisu bile u stanju ispuniti potrebe gradskih naselja. Glavne rijeke kao što su Arvand, Araks, Zajanderud, Sefid i Atrek bile su oskudne i jako udaljene jedna od druge u ogromnim prostranstvima Stare Perzije.
S rastom urbanih naselja tijekom stoljeća, lokalno iskopani duboki bunari (duboki do 100 metara), više nisu mogli držati korak s potražnjom, što je dovelo do sustavnog kopanja specijalizirane mreže kanala poznate kao kanati. Ovi podzemni akvedukti, izgrađeni prije nekoliko tisuća godina, ne trpe nikakav gubitak isparavanja, a u njima za vodu ne postoji opasnost onečišćenja.

Smatra se kako su Perzijanci gradili prve kanate 2000 godina prije negoli Rimljani akvadukte.

Sušna naseljena područja Irana su opstala samo zahvaljujući drevnom kanatnom sustavu vijugavih vodonosnika kroz riječne doline i podzemne tunele koristeći samo silu teže, često kilometarima dugim tunelima. Tradicionalni sustav komunalnog upravljanja još uvijek je na mjestu i omogućuje pravedno i održivo dijeljenje i distribuciju vode. Kanati pružaju izuzetno svjedočanstvo kulturne tradicije i civilizacije u pustinjskim područjima sušne klime. Zbog toga je UNESCO 2016. godine na popis mjesta svjetske baštine u Aziji upisao jedanaest kanata koji predstavljaju ovaj sustav, a koji uključuju odmorišta za radnike, rezervoare za vodu i vodenice.

Najstariji očuvani kanat u Iranu je onaj pokraj grada Zarača u središnjem Iranu koji je stariji od 3000 godina, a dug je 71 km.
Jedan od najstarijih i najvećih koji je i danas u uporabi je pored grada Gonabada. Smatra se kako je star 2700 godina, a kao vodovod i za navodnjavanje koristi ga oko 40.000 ljudi koji žive u okolici. Najdublje okno duboko je 360 metara, dok je ukupna dužina kanata 45 kilometara. Područja oko Jazda, Horasana i Kermana poznata su po brojnim sustavima kanata koji se koriste za dovod pitke vode i za navodnjavanje.

U tradicionalnoj iranskoj arhitekturi, kariz (کاریز) je manji kanat, koji se najčešće koristi u gradskom području. Karizima se nazivaju i sporedni kanati koji opskrbljuju glavni kanat koji vodi do konačnog odredišta.

Osim po izumu kanata, Iranci su poznati i po izumima antičkih vodospremnika (ab anbar, آب انبار) i prvih hladnjača u povijesti (jakčala).

Izvori

Hidrotehnika
Znanost i tehnologija u Iranu
Svjetska baština u Iranu

Tradicionalni perzijski vodovodni sustavi


Selenipedium, rod orhideja iz potporodice Cypripedioideae. Postoje 12 priznatih vrsta u tropskoj Južnoj Americi, Panami i Trinidadu.

Vrste
 Selenipedium aequinoctiale Garay
 Selenipedium aucourdianum Sambin & Chiron
 Selenipedium buenaventurae (Szlach. & Kolan.) P.J.Cribb
 Selenipedium chica Rchb.f.
 Selenipedium chironianum Sambin & Braem
 Selenipedium dodsonii P.J.Cribb
 Selenipedium garayanum Szlach. & Kolan.
 Selenipedium isabelianum Barb.Rodr.
 Selenipedium olgae Szlach. & Kolan.
 Selenipedium palmifolium (Lindl.) Rchb.f. & Warsz.
 Selenipedium steyermarkii Foldats
 Selenipedium vanillocarpum Barb.Rodr.

Sinonimi
 Apedium Chiron, Sambin & Braem
 Selenipedilum Pfitzer

Izvori

Cypripedioideae

Selenipedium


Arena der Kühnen heißen die Filme
 Arena der Kühnen (1953), sowjetischer Zirkusfilm
 Arena der Kühnen (1987), sowjetischer Sportfilm

Arena der Kühnen


Hungaroring er et motorsportsanlæg i Ungarn, beliggende ved byen Mogyoród, 20 kilometer nordøst for landets hovedstad Budapest. Siden åbningen i 1986, har banen årligt lagt asfalt til Ungarns Grand Prix i Formel 1-serien, og var det første sted bagved Jerntæppet, hvor et løb i serien blev afviklet.

Historie
Formel 1-chefen Bernie Ecclestone havde nogle år under Den kolde krig ønsket sig et Grand Prix i Sovjetunionen, men efter at dette ikke kunne lade sig gøre, blev blikket rettet mod Budapest. Det første ønske, var at oprette en gadebane i en park i byen, men dette blev afvist af den ungarske regering. Den besluttede i stedet at bygge en permanent bane ved Mogyoród, nordøst for Budapest.

Første spadestik til banen blev taget 1. oktober 1985, og allerede otte måneder senere var byggeriet afsluttet, hvilket er den hurtigste opførsel af en Formel 1-bane hidtil. 10. august 1986 vandt brasilianske Nelson Piquet det første Formel 1-løb i Ungarn.

I 2008 blev der underskrevet en kontrakt, der sikrede, at der til og med 2016-sæsonen skulle køres Formel 1 på Hungaroring.

Vindere af Formel 1 på Hungaroring

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

 Hungarorings officielle hjemmeside

Budapest
Formel 1-baner
Motorsportsanlæg i Ungarn
Etableret i 1986

Hungaroring


Akoubounou ist eine Landgemeinde im Departement Abalak in Niger.

Geographie
Akoubounou liegt in der nördlichen Sahelzone. Die Nachbargemeinden sind Abalak im Nordosten, Azèye im Südosten, Ibohamane im Süden, Tabalak im Südwesten und Kao im Nordwesten. Bei den Siedlungen im Gemeindegebiet handelt es sich um 62 Dörfer, 5 Weiler, 24 Lager und 20 Wasserstellen. Der Hauptort der Landgemeinde ist das Dorf Akoubounou.

Geschichte
Die Landgemeinde Akoubounou ging als Verwaltungseinheit 2002 im Zuge einer landesweiten Verwaltungsreform aus einem Teil eines zuvor gemeindefreien Gebiets hervor.

Bevölkerung

Bei der Volkszählung 2012 hatte die Landgemeinde 47.961 Einwohner, die in 6678 Haushalten lebten. Bei der Volkszählung 2001 betrug die Einwohnerzahl 10.348 in 1988 Haushalten.

Im Hauptort lebten bei der Volkszählung 2012 3454 Einwohner in 380 Haushalten, bei der Volkszählung 2001 844 in 162 Haushalten und bei der Volkszählung 1988 444 in 86 Haushalten.

Im Hauptort leben Angehörige der Tuareg-Untergruppe Ait-Awari.

Politik
Der Gemeinderat (conseil municipal) hat 15 gewählte Mitglieder. Mit den Kommunalwahlen 2020 sind die Sitze im Gemeinderat wie folgt verteilt: 11 PNDS-Tarayya, 2 RUDD-Zumua, 1 MNSD-Nassara und 1 RDP-Jama'a.

Jeweils ein traditioneller Ortsvorsteher (chef traditionnel) steht an der Spitze von 57 Dörfern in der Gemeinde, darunter dem Hauptort.

Kultur und Sehenswürdigkeiten
Alle zwei Jahre findet das Kamel-Festival Shiriken in Akoubounou statt.

Wirtschaft und Infrastruktur
Die Gemeinde liegt am Übergang der Zone des Agropastoralismus des Südens zur Zone der reinen Weidewirtschaft des Nordens. Im Hauptort wird ein Markt abgehalten. Ein staatliches Viehzuchtzentrum wurde im Dorf Ibécétane eingerichtet. Gesundheitszentren des Typs Centre de Santé Intégré (CSI) sind im Hauptort und in der Siedlung Ibécétane vorhanden. Durch Akoubounou verläuft die Nationalstraße 25, die den Ort via Abalak mit der Regionalhauptstadt Agadez und via Tabalak mit der Regionalhauptstadt Tahoua verbindet.

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Niger
Tahoua (Region)
Ort in Afrika

Akoubounou


Liberales (Liberaalit) es un partido de libre mercado de Finlandia. Fundado en 1965 como una re-unificación del Partido de la Gente y la Liga liberal. Originalmente llamado Partido Liberal de la Gente (Liberaalinen Kansanpuolue), fue re-estilizado como Liberales (Liberaalit) en el 2000.

Los Liberales fue suprimido del registro de partidos en el 2007 después de no obtener ningún puesto en dos elecciones parlamentarias consecutivas.

Líderes
 1965–1968 Mikko Juva
 1968–1978 Pekka Tarjanne
 1978–1982 Jaakko Itälä
 1982–1984 Arne Berner
 1984–1990 Kyösti Lallukka
 1990–1992 Kaarina Koivistoinen
 1992–1993 Kalle Määttä
 1993–1995 Tuulikki Ukkola
 1995–1997 Pekka Rytilä
 1997–2000 Altti Majava
 2000–2001 Oili Korkeamäki
 2001–2005 Tomi Riihimäki
 2005–2008 Ilkka Innamaa
 2008–2011 Kimmo Eriksson
 2011– Jouni Flemming

Elecciones

a Respecto a la suma de los escaños obtenidos por el Partido Popular de Finlandia y la Liga Liberal en 1962.
b En las listas del Partido del Centro.

Partidos políticos de Finlandia
Partidos liberales
Partidos políticos fundados en 1965
Partidos políticos disueltos en 2011

Liberales (Finlandia)


المشعاع  أو الألواح المشعة هي نظم تدفئة تستخدم الحرارة القادمة عبر أنابيب وضعت وراء سطح البيئة. وهي تسمية قد تكون مضللة رغم انتشارها، وذلك لأن أكثر الحرارة تُنقل - عبر هذا الجهاز - بالحمل الحراري ولا تُنقل أكثرها بالإشعاع الحراري.

الحرارة تأتي عن طريق الإشعاع وليس عن طريق الحمل الحراري، كما هو الحال مع السخانات (المشعاع) المستخدمة في التدفئة المنزلية. يستخدم المشع لتبريد الاجزاء الداخلية لمحرك الاحتراق الداخلي في المركبات والطائرات (التي تعتمد محرك الاحتراق الداخلي) والدرجات النارية والقطارات واي منظومة تعتمد على محرك الاحتراق الداخلي في عملها. مبدأ عمله يعتمد على تدوير سائل يسمى سائل التبريد، حيث يمر هذا السائل داخل الأجزاء الداخلية للمحرك حاملاً الحرارة عن طريق مبدأ التبادل الحراري ثم يعود للمشعاع الذي بدوره ينشر هذه الحرارة في الهواء الخارجي. سائل التبريد غالباً يكون ذو أساس مائي، وقد يستخدم (الزيت). لتدوير هذا السائل غالباً تستخدم مضخة تعمل على تدويره ما بين المحرك والمشعاع. كذلك تستخدم مروحة تعمل على تمرير الهواء من خلال المشعاع، لتبريد السائل.

الاستخدام في المركبات

ان المركبات التي تستخدم محرك الاحتراق الداخلي المُبرد بسوائل، يتصل المشعاع بقنوات تنقل سائل التبريد لداخل المحرك عن طريق الضخ. قد يكون سائل التبريد مجرد الماء (في المناطق التي لا يتجمد فيها الماء) لكن في الغالب يستخدم خليط ما بين الماء ومضاد التجمد.
المشعاع ينقل الحرارة من السائل للهواء المحيط به، مشتتاً بذلك الحرارة بعيداً عن المحرك.بالإضافة لتبريد المحرك فأن المشعاع يبرد كذلك ناقل الحركة الآلي، جهاز التكييف، وفي بعض الأحيان، زيت المحرك.
يوضع المشعاع في أكثر الأماكن تعرضاً للهواء (في مقدمة المركبة) حيث ان هذا الموضع يتعرض لدفق كبير من الهواء نتيجة لتحرك للأمام، خلف فتحة مغطاة بشبكة للحماية وذلك للمحركات التي تقع في منتصف أو في خلف المركبة، وفي حالة المحرك الأخير قد يتطلب هذا الموضع انابيب توصيل طويلة بين المشعاع والمحرك حينها قد يتم اللجواء لسحب الهواء من أعلى أو من الجوانب من خلال فتحات مخصصة لهذا الغرض وذلك في المركبات الطويلة مثل (الحافلات).

بنية المشعاع

يتألف المشعاع من زوجين من الخزانات مرتبطة في ما بينها بممرات ضيقة تدعى اللب، الذي يشكل مساحة واسعة مقارنة بحجمه، يصنع اللب من رقائق معدنية تكبس لتصبح على شكل (اقنية), ثم تلحم مع بعضها، على مر السنين كان يصنع المشعاع من شَبُةُ نحاس أصفر أو النحاس ويلحم للخزانات التي كذلك تصنع من شَبُةُ نحاس أصفر أو النحاس. في عصرنا الحالي تصنع الخزانات من البلاستيك، وذلك لتقليل تكاليف التصنيع وكذلك تقليل الوزن، وكذلك اللب فأنه يصنع من الالمنيوم، هذه البنية الحديثة سهلة الصيانة، عن سابقتها.

مضخة سائل التبريد

سابقاً كان يتم تدوير سائل التبريد داخل دائرة التبريد (بين المشعاع والمحرك) بواسطة مبدأ التحريك الحراري أو الإزاحة الحرارية ببطئ، وذلك عندما يسخن سائل التبريد داخل المحرك فأن كثافته تخف فيرتفع، في المقابل فأن سائل التبريد يبرد داخل المشعاع فتزيد كثافته فا ينزل، هنا يحدث التبادل بين السائل الحار القادم من المحرك من الأعلى والسائل البارد القادم من المشعاع من الأسفل وهكذا يتحركان في دائرة تستمر دائماً لكن ببطئ. هذا الأسلوب يناسب المحركات الثابت (غير المخصصة للمركبات).
ان هذا المبدأ في تحريك سائل التبريد يفضل فيه زيادة المسافة العمودية بين المشعاع والمحرك، ليتناسب مع حركة السائل الساخن الصاعد والسائل البارد النازل.
ان المركبات تستخدم في تحريك سائل التبريد داخل دائرة التبريد مضخة تدوير، تستمد حركتها من المحرك نفسه بستخدام منظومة مسننات أو في الغالب حزام ناقل يسمى حزام المروحة حيث انه إذا تعطل هذا الحزام فأن منظومة التبريد بالكامل تتعطل مسبباً ارتفاع حرارة المحرك.

المدفئة

أو مدفئة المقصورة هي شكل من اشكال المشعاع ولكن بصورة مصغرة تعتمد في عملها على مجموعة من الصممات اوالمشتتات أو كليهما، حيث تعترض مرور السائل لتوجهه لمشعاع مصغر داخل مقصورة القيادة، هذا المشعاع المصغر ملحق به مراوح دفع، حيث يقوم على تدفئة مقصورة القيادة بجزء من حرارة المحرك، ومبدأ عمله هو تماما ً مثل مبدأ عمل مشعاع المحرك حيث يقوم لب المشعاع المصغر بتّبادل الحراري الذي يوفر الدفئ الملائم لمقصورة القيادة.

منظم الحرارة

ان التحكم بحرارة المحرك تتم من خلال صمام يدعى منظم الحرارة، محكم التثبيت باستخدام الشمع، يعترض دائرة التبريد، هذا الصمام يفتح عندما يصل المحرك للحرارة المثالية اللازمة للتشغيل الأمثل، عندما يبرد المحرك أكثر من اللازم فأن الصمام ينغلق. هناك ممر تجاوز ضيق يسمح لمنظم الحرارة بأختبار التغيرات الحرارية التي تطرء على جانبية عندما يبدأ المحرك بأكتساب الحرارة. يسمح منظم الحرارة لسائل التبريد بالخروج لمضخة التدوير، ثم يعود بعد ذلك للمحرك ثانية، متجاوزاً بذلك مرحلة المرور على المشعاع.
هذه الدائرة القصيرة التي تقتصر على الدوران من وإلى المحرك فقط، بدون المرور على المشعاع اللازم للتبريد، تسمح للمحرك بأكتساب الحرارة سريعاً وهي الحرارة المثلى لعمل المحرك.
عندما يصل المحرك للحرارة المثالية، عندها يُفتح منظم الحرارة سامحاً لسائل التبريد باللأنتقال إلى المشعاع، لكي لا ترتفع حرارة المحرك كثيراً.

عندما تكتسب الحرارة المثلى للمحرك، فأن صمام منظم الحرارة يستمر في عمله، بالتحكم بدفق سائل التبريد للمشعاع، محفظاً بذلك على الحرارة المثالية للمحرك,
تحت الظروف القاسية، مثل الصعود ببطئ على هضبة في جو حار، فأن صمام منظم الحرارة يكون في وضع مفتوح تقريباً بالكامل، لأن المحرك يعمل قريب من أقصى طاقته، في حين ان دفق الهواء المار من خلال المشعاع يكون ضعيفاً (يلعب دفق الهواء دوراً مهم في قدرة المشعاع لتشتيت الحرارة).
في الجهة المقابلة، فأن النزول من على منحدر في ليلة باردة تحت ضغط بسيط من المحرك، فأن صمام منظم الحرارة يكون تقريبأ في حالة انغلاق، لأن المحرك يعمل بطاقة بسيطة بينما المشعاع يشتت مزيداً من الحرارة أكثر من ما ينتجها المحرك، نتيجة للدفق العالي من الهواء، في هذه الحالة فأن تمرير المزيد من سائل التبريد للمشعاع يساهم بجعل المحرك يبرد اقل من الحرارة المثالية اللازمة للتشغيل. تأثير اخر يحدث كذلك، بأن مشعاع تدفئة المقصورة لن ينتج الحرارة المطلوبة لتدفئة المقصورة.
صمام منظم الحرارة بحركته الدائمة بين الأنفتاح والأنغلاق، تحت مختلف الظروف، وفي مختلف السرعات، يساهم بالمحافظة على حرارة المحرك المثالية المطلوبة للحصول على الأداء الأفضل من المحرك.

تدفق الهواء

عوامل أخرى تؤثر على حرارة المحرك، تتضمن حجم المشعاع، ونوع مروحة التبريد، حجم المشعاع يتم اختياره بنائاً على حرارة المحرك المثالية المصممه للأداء الأفضل، تحت مختلف الظروف القاسية من الحرارة والبرودة، التي قد يتعرض لها المحرك(مثل الصعود على تل تحت عزم عالي للمحرك في يوم حار).
ان سرعة تدفق الهواء من خلال المشعاع تلعب دوراً هام بتشتيت أو اشعاع الحرارة، سرعة المركبة تحدد ذلك، مقابل الجهد اللازم من المحرك للوصول لهذه السرعة، في تنظيم ذاتي مبني على تغذية راجعة ذاتية. بالإضافة لذلك هناك مروحة تُقاد من المحرك نفسه، هي كذلك تُزامن سرعة دوران المحرك.
المروحة الملحقة بالمحرك غالباً تنظم دورانها من خلال قابض الحركة الخاص يدعى viscous-drive clutch, الذي يتزلق ويخفف سرعة دوران المروحة عند درجات الحرارة المتدنية. هذا الأجراء اقتصادي، بحيث انه لا داعي لتضييع الطاقة اللازمة لتحريك المروحة في الأجواء الباردة.
في المركبات الحديثة هناك عوامل أخرى تنظم معدلات الحرارة مثل، السرعة المتغيرة، ومراوح مشعاع دوارة. هذه المراوح الكهربائية يتم التحكم بها من خلال كاشف مقياس حرارة عبارة عن مقلاد (مفتاح) أو من حاسوب المركبة. كذلك فأن المراوح الكهربائية تملك ميزات اضافية، مثل إعطاء تدفق هواء جيد وتبريد عندما يكون المحرك في أقل طاقة، أو في حركة بطيئة نسبياً، مثل ما يحدث أثناء زحمة السير,
قبل مرحلة تطوير قابض الحركة الخاص بالمروحة، والمراوح الكهربائية، كانت المحركات تزود بمروحة بسيطة توفر دفق هواء في كل الأوقات التي لها سلبيات كثيرة خصوصا ًبالمركبات التي تتطلب قدرات تبريد عالية وبالتالي مشعاع كبير ,,مثل المركبات التجارية والشاحنات، والتي غالباً ما تبرد أكثر من اللازم تحت جهد بسيط من المحرك في الاوقات الباردة. ولم يؤثر ظهور كاشف مقياس الحرارة بشيئ، حيث انه ما ان يكون في وضع الفتح في المشعاع الكبير ومع مروحة محرك بسيطة، فأنه يؤدي لأنخفاض حاد في درجة الحرارة. كان الحل في ذلك الوقت تزويد المشعاع بحجاب يتم تعديلة جزئياً أو كلياً لحجب دفق الهواء العالي. الحجاب يصنع في ابسط اشكالة من مواد بسيطة مثل (القماش والمطاط الذي يغطى به المشعاع), بعض المركبات كانت تحوي على حجاب يتم تعديله من مقصورة القيادة لأعطاء التحكم المطلوب.

ضغط سائل التبريد
ان كافئة المحرك الحرارية تتناسب طردياً مع الحرارة الداخلية للمحرك، يُبقى سائل التبريد تحت ظروف ضغط أعلى من الضغط الجوي، لزيادة درجة غليانه. يوجد بالمشعاع صمام تخفيف الضغط pressure-relief valve موضوع داخل غطاء المشعاع، هذا الضغط المحدد للصمام يتفاوت بحسب طرازات المركبات، ولكن غالباً يقع بين 9 إلى 15 psi.

مراجع

أجزاء المحرك
أنظمة تبريد المحركات
تدفئة وتكييف
تصميم بيئي
مبادلات حرارية

مشعاع (تبريد المحرك)


Le Rose Bowl 2022 est un match de football américain de niveau universitaire joué après la saison régulière de 2021, le  au Rose Bowl situé à Pasadena dans l'État de Californie aux États-Unis.

Il s'agit de la  édition du Rose Bowl.

Le match met en présence l'équipe des Utes de l'Utah issue de la Pacific-12 Conference et l'équipe des Buckeyes d'Ohio State issue de la Big Ten Conference.

Il débute vers  locales et est retransmis à la télévision par ESPN.

Sponsorisé par la société Capital One Venture X, le match est officiellement dénommé le 2021 Rose Bowl Game presented by Capital One Venture X.

La journée est organisée par l'association   et est précédée le matin par la Parade du Tournoi des Roses. Les tickets du match sont digitalisés remplaçant les traditionnels tickets colorés en papier. L'acteur LeVar Burton préside le match et est désigné {{Langue|en| pour la parade et le match. Le thème en est «  » (en français, Rêves. Crois. Réalises.}}.

Ohio State gagne le match sur le score de 48 à 45 et se voit décerner le  «  ».

Présentation du match

Il s'agit de la  première rencontre entre ces deux équipes ;

Utes de l'Utah

Avec un bilan global en saison régulière de 10 victoires et 3 défaites (8-1 en matchs de conférence), Utah est éligible et accepte l'invitation pour participer au Rose Bowl de 2022, leur première participation au Rose Bowl.

Ils terminent  de la Division Sud de la Pacific-12 Conference. Ils remportent 38-10 la finale de conférence jouée contre les Ducks de l'Oregon.

À l'issue de la saison 2021 (bowl non compris), ils seront classés #11 aux classements CFP et Coaches et #10 au classement AP.

Buckeyes d'Ohio State
Avec un bilan global en saison régulière de 10 victoires et 2 défaites (8-1 en matchs de conférence), Ohio State est éligible et accepte l'invitation pour participer au Rose Bowl de 2022, leur  participation au Rose Bowl :

Ils terminent  de la Division Est de la Pacific-12 Conference derrière #2 Michigan.

À l'issue de la saison 2021 (bowl non compris), ils seront classés #6 au classement CFP et #7 aux classements AP et Coaches.

Résumé du match

Début du match à  locales, fin à  locales pour une durée totale de jeu de .

Températures de , vent de nord-est de , ensoleillé.

Statistiques

Articles connexes

 Culture du football américain
 Football américain universitaire aux États-Unis
 Lexique du football américain et canadien
 Liste des College Bowls de football américain
 Championnat NCAA de football américain
 Championnat NCAA de football américain 2021

Notes et références

2022
Utes de l'Utah
Buckeyes d'Ohio State
Bowl universitaire américain en janvier 2022

Rose Bowl 2022


ධාරාශිව් ලෙන් යනු ඉන්දියාවේ මහාරාෂ්ට්‍ර ප්‍රාන්තයේ ඔස්මානාබාද් නගරයට 8 km නුදුරින් පිහිටි බලාඝත් කඳුවැටියේ ඇති ලෙන් 7කින් සමන්විත ලෙන් සංකීර්ණයකි. මෙම ලෙන් ඉන්දියාවේ පුරාවිද්‍යා දෙපාර්තමේන්තුවේ අවධානයට ලක්වූ අතර ජෙම්ස් බර්ගස් විසින් රචිත Archaeological survey of India ග්‍රන්ථයේ ද මේ පිළිබඳ සඳහන් වේ. මහාරාෂ්ට්‍ර රජය විසින් ධාරාශිව් ලෙන් ආරක්ෂිත ප්‍රදේශයක් ලෙස ප්‍රකාශයට පත්කොට ඇත.

ඉතිහාසය
ධාරාශිව් ලෙන් ක්‍රි.ව. 5-7වන සියවස් අතර කාලයේ නිර්මාණය වන්නට ඇතැයි විශ්වාස කෙරේ. පළමු ලෙන ක්‍රි.ව. 10වන සියවසේ රාෂ්ට්‍රකූටයන්ගේ සමයේ සොයාගැනුණු අතර මෙම ලෙන් බෞද්ධ ලෙන් ද, නැතහොත් ජෛන ලෙන් ද යුනවෙන් වාද විවාද පවතියි. විශ්වාස කෙරෙන්නේ මුලින් මෙම ලෙන් බෞද්ධ ලෙන් වූ බවත්, පසුව ඒවා ජෛනාගමිකයන්ගේ ප්‍රයෝජනයට ගෙන ඇති බවයි.

ලෙන්

මෙහි ලෙන් 7ක් ඇති අතර,  ඉන් 1වන ලෙස කුළුණු 20ක පීඨිකාවකින් සමන්විත ය. ප්‍රධාන ලෙනක් වන ලෙන් අංක 2 අජන්තාවේ වාකාටක ලෙන් ආදර්ශයට ගෙන තනා ඇත. මෙහි මධ්‍ය ශාලාව අඩි 80 x 80 ප්‍රමාණයේ වන අතර, එහි භික්ෂූන්ගේ වාසය සඳහා කුටි 14ක් ඇත. ගර්භගෘහයේ පද්මාසනයෙන් වැඩහිඳින ගෞතම බුදුන් වහන්සේගේ ප්‍රතිමාවක් ඇත. තෙවන ලෙන ද පළමු ලෙනට සමාන වන අතර, මෙහි පසුව ඇති ලෙන් ජෛන ලෙන් වේ.

වර්තමාන තත්ත්වය
ධාරාශිව් ලෙන් බෞද්ධ සහ ජෛන යන සම්ප්‍රදායයන් දෙකටම අයත් යැයි මත ඉදිරිපත්ව තිබේ. කෙසේනමුත් මහාරාෂ්ට්‍ර ප්‍රාන්තයේ ලෙන් 1200ක ජේම්ස් බර්ගස් විසින් සිදුකරන ලද අධ්‍යයනයක දී පෙනීගොස් ඇත්තේ සැබැවින්ම ක්‍රි.ව. 5වන සියවසේ දී ධාරාශිව් ලෙක් බෞද්ධ ලෙන් වූ බවයි. 12වන සියවසේ දී ඉන් ඇතැම් ලෙන් ජෛන ලෙන් බවට පත්වී ඇත.

මේවාත් බලන්න
 අජන්තා ලෙන්
 එල්ලෝරා ලෙන්
 තුල්ජා භවානි දේවාලය

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

ඔස්මානාබාද් දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ සංචාරක ආකර්ෂණයන්
බෞද්ධ ලෙන්
ඉන්දියානු ශෛලමය ගෘහනිර්මාණ ශිල්පය
මහාරාෂ්ට්‍රයේ ලෙන්
ජෛන ශෛලමය ගෘහනිර්මාණ ශිල්පය
12වන සියවසේ ජෛන දේවාල

ධාරාශිව් ලෙන්


İkinci Çağ veya Güneşin İkinci Çağı, J. R. R. Tolkien'in hayalî evreni Orta Dünya'da bir zaman dilimidir. Kurgusal Orta Dünya Tarihi'de, aslında gerçek Dünya'nın tarihinin kadim zamanları ima edilmiştir.

İkinci Çağ, Manwë'nin habercisi Eönwë'nin komuta ettiği Batılı Efendiler'in Morgoth'u Boşluk'a yollaması ile başlamıştır.

3441 yıl süren bu periyot, Númenor'un Çöküşü'nden bir süre sonra İnsanların ve Elflerin Son İttifakı tarafından Sauron'un mağlup edilmesi ile sona ermiştir.

Bu çağın belirleyici olayları Númenor'un Yükselişi, Sauron'un Yükselişi, Yüzüktayflarının yaratılışı ve Yüzükler için Elfler ve Sauron arasında yaşanan ilk savaşlardır.

İkinci Çağ, Silmarillion'da anlatılan Birinci Çağ ve Yüzüklerin Efendisi'nin de yer aldığı Üçüncü Çağ'dan farklı olarak kronolojisi ayrıntılı olarak kaydedilmemiştir. Bununla birlikte, Yüzüklerin Efendisi'''nde İkinci Çağ hakkında bazı bilgiler verilir. Bu bilgiler arasında, Morgoth'un son yenilişi ile Birinci Çağ'ın sona ermesi ve Sauron'un ilk yenilişi ile Üçüncü Çağ'ın başlaması vardır.Yüzüklerin Efendisi Ek B'de geçen Yılların Hikâyesi başlıklı yazıda, İkinci Çağ hakkında bazı bilgiler verilir, bunlar özellikle Yüzüklerin Efendisi'ndeki olaylar ve kişilerle ve/veya Güç Yüzükleri ile alakalı bilgilerdir. Yüzüklerin Efendisi Ek A, Númenor'un kraliyet ailesinin şeceresi bulunmaktadır. Ayrıca Unfinished Tales'''de, Númenor ve bazı kralları ile ilgili daha ayrıntılı bilgi mevcuttur. İkinci Çağ ile ilgili başka birkaç yazı daha mevcuttur ancak birçok hikâye
bilinen olaylara dair bilgiler verip hiç bilinmeyen bazı dönemleri boşlukta bıraktığı için İkinci Çağ 'ın bütünü ile ilgili bilgiler, eksik kalmaya devam etmektedir.

Ayrıca bakınız
Arda tarihinin kronolojisi

2

İkinci Çağ


Educational assessment or educational evaluation is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on the knowledge, skill, attitudes, aptitude and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning. Assessment data can be obtained from directly examining student work to assess the achievement of learning outcomes or can be based on data from which one can make inferences about learning. Assessment is often used interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), a course, an academic program, the institution, or the educational system as a whole (also known as granularity). The word 'assessment' came into use in an educational context after the Second World War.

As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable and clear student learning outcomes for learning, providing a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform improvement in student learning. Assessment is an important aspect of educational process which determines the level of accomplishments of students.

The final purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of knowledge, and the process of learning.

Types
The term assessment is generally used to refer to all activities teachers use to help students learn and to gauge student progress. Assessment can be divided for the sake of convenience using the following categorizations:
 Placement, formative, summative and diagnostic assessment
 Objective and subjective
 Referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and ipsative (forced-choice))
 Informal and formal
 Internal and external

Placement, formative, summative and diagnostic
Assessment is often divided into initial, formative, and summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices.
 Placement assessment – Placement evaluation is used to place students according to prior achievement or personal characteristics, at the most appropriate point in an instructional sequence, in a unique instructional strategy, or with a suitable teacher conducted through placement testing, i.e. the tests that colleges and universities use to assess college readiness and place students into their initial classes. Placement evaluation also referred to as pre-assessment or initial assessment, is conducted prior to instruction or intervention to establish a baseline from which individual student growth can be measured. This type of assessment is used to know what the student's skill level is about the subject. It helps the teacher to explain the material more efficiently. These assessments are not graded.
 Formative assessment – Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project. Formative assessment also referred to as "educative assessment," is used to aid learning. In an educational setting, a formative assessment might be a teacher (or peer) or the learner, providing feedback on a student's work and would not necessarily be used for grading purposes. Formative assessments can take the form of diagnostic, standardized tests, quizzes, oral questions, or draft work. Formative assessments are carried out concurrently with instructions. The result may count. The formative assessments aim to see if the students understand the instruction before doing a summative assessment.
 Summative assessment – Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In an educational setting, summative assessments are typically used to assign students a course grade. Summative assessments are evaluative. Summative assessments are made to summarize what the students have learned, to determine whether they understand the subject matter well. This type of assessment is typically graded (e.g. pass/fail, 0-100) and can take the form of tests, exams or projects. Summative assessments are often used to determine whether a student has passed or failed a class. A criticism of summative assessments is that they are reductive, and learners discover how well they have acquired knowledge too late for it to be of use.
 Diagnostic assessment – Diagnostic assessment deals with the whole difficulties at the end that occurs during the learning process.

Jay McTighe and Ken O'Connor proposed seven practices to effective learning. One of them is about showing the criteria of the evaluation before the test. Another is about the importance of pre-assessment to know what the skill levels of a student are before giving instructions. Giving a lot of feedback and encouraging are other practices.

Educational researcher Robert Stake explains the difference between formative and summative assessment with the following analogy:

Summative and formative assessment are often referred to in a learning context as assessment of learning and assessment for learning respectively. Assessment of learning is generally summative in nature and intended to measure learning outcomes and report those outcomes to students, parents and administrators. Assessment of learning generally occurs at the conclusion of a class, course, semester or academic year. Assessment for learning is generally formative in nature and is used by teachers to consider approaches to teaching and next steps for individual learners and the class.

A common form of formative assessment is diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment measures a student's current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a suitable program of learning. Self-assessment is a form of diagnostic assessment which involves students assessing themselves. Forward-looking assessment asks those being assessed to consider themselves in hypothetical future situations.

Performance-based assessment is similar to summative assessment, as it focuses on achievement. It is often aligned with the standards-based education reform and outcomes-based education movement. Though ideally, they are significantly different from a traditional multiple choice test, they are most commonly associated with standards-based assessment which use free-form responses to standard questions scored by human scorers on a standards-based scale, meeting, falling below or exceeding a performance standard rather than being ranked on a curve. A well-defined task is identified and students are asked to create, produce or do something, often in settings that involve real-world application of knowledge and skills. Proficiency is demonstrated by providing an extended response. Performance formats are further differentiated into products and performances. The performance may result in a product, such as a painting, portfolio, paper or exhibition, or it may consist of a performance, such as a speech, athletic skill, musical recital or reading.

Objective and subjective
Assessment (either summative or formative) is often categorized as either objective or subjective. Objective assessment is a form of questioning which has a single correct answer. Subjective assessment is a form of questioning which may have more than one correct answer (or more than one way of expressing the correct answer). There are various types of objective and subjective questions. Objective question types include true/false answers, multiple choice, multiple-response and matching questions. Subjective questions include extended-response questions and essays. Objective assessment is well suited to the increasingly popular computerized or online assessment format.

Some have argued that the distinction between objective and subjective assessments is neither useful nor accurate because, in reality, there is no such thing as "objective" assessment. In fact, all assessments are created with inherent biases built into decisions about relevant subject matter and content, as well as cultural (class, ethnic, and gender) biases.

Basis of comparison
Test results can be compared against an established criterion, or against the performance of other students, or against previous performance:

Criterion-referenced assessment, typically using a criterion-referenced test, as the name implies, occurs when candidates are measured against defined (and objective) criteria. Criterion-referenced assessment is often, but not always, used to establish a person's competence (whether s/he can do something). The best-known example of criterion-referenced assessment is the driving test, when learner drivers are measured against a range of explicit criteria (such as "Not endangering other road users").
Norm-referenced assessment (colloquially known as "grading on the curve"), typically using a norm-referenced test, is not measured against defined criteria. This type of assessment is relative to the student body undertaking the assessment. It is effectively a way of comparing students. The IQ test is the best-known example of norm-referenced assessment. Many entrance tests (to prestigious schools or universities) are norm-referenced, permitting a fixed proportion of students to pass ("passing" in this context means being accepted into the school or university rather than an explicit level of ability). This means that standards may vary from year to year, depending on the quality of the cohort; criterion-referenced assessment does not vary from year to year (unless the criteria change).
Ipsative assessment is self-comparison either in the same domain over time, or comparative to other domains within the same student.

Informal and formal
Assessment can be either formal or informal. Formal assessment usually implies a written document, such as a test, quiz, or paper. A formal assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student performance, whereas an informal assessment does not contribute to a student's final grade. An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and may include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics, performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self-evaluation, and discussion.

Internal and external
Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e. teachers). Students get the mark and feedback regarding the assessment. External assessment is set by the governing body, and is marked by non-biased personnel. Some external assessments give much more limited feedback in their marking. However, in tests such as Australia's NAPLAN, the criterion addressed by students is given detailed feedback in order for their teachers to address and compare the student's learning achievements and also to plan for the future.

Standards of quality
In general, high-quality assessments are considered those with a high level of reliability and validity. Other general principles are practicality, authenticity and washback.

Reliability
Reliability relates to the consistency of an assessment. A reliable assessment is one that consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar) cohort of students. Various factors affect reliability—including ambiguous questions, too many options within a question paper, vague marking instructions and poorly trained markers. Traditionally, the reliability of an assessment is based on the following:
 Temporal stability: Performance on a test is comparable on two or more separate occasions.
 Form equivalence: Performance among examinees is equivalent on different forms of a test based on the same content.
 Internal consistency: Responses on a test are consistent across questions. For example: In a survey that asks respondents to rate attitudes toward technology, consistency would be expected in responses to the following questions:
 "I feel very negative about computers in general."
 "I enjoy using computers."

The reliability of a measurement x can also be defined quantitatively as:
 where  is the reliability in the observed (test) score, x;
 and  are the variability in 'true' (i.e., candidate's innate performance) and measured test scores respectively.  can range from 0 (completely unreliable), to 1 (completely reliable).

There are four types of reliability: student-related which can be personal problems, sickness, or fatigue, rater-related which includes bias and subjectivity, test administration-related which is the conditions of test taking process, test-related which is basically related to the nature of a test.

Validity

Valid assessment is one that measures what it is intended to measure. For example, it would not be valid to assess driving skills through a written test alone. A more valid way of assessing driving skills would be through a combination of tests that help determine what a driver knows, such as through a written test of driving knowledge, and what a driver is able to do, such as through a performance assessment of actual driving. Teachers frequently complain that some examinations do not properly assess the syllabus upon which the examination is based; they are, effectively, questioning the validity of the exam.

Validity of an assessment is generally gauged through examination of evidence in the following categories:
 Content validity – Does the content of the test measure stated objectives?
 Criterion validity – Do scores correlate to an outside reference? (ex: Do high scores on a 4th grade reading test accurately predict reading skill in future grades?)
 Construct validity – Does the assessment correspond to other significant variables? (ex: Do ESL students consistently perform differently on a writing exam than native English speakers?)

Others are:
 consequential validity
 face validity

A good assessment has both validity and reliability, plus the other quality attributes noted above for a specific context and purpose. In practice, an assessment is rarely totally valid or totally reliable. A ruler which is marked wrongly will always give the same (wrong) measurements. It is very reliable, but not very valid. Asking random individuals to tell the time without looking at a clock or watch is sometimes used as an example of an assessment which is valid, but not reliable. The answers will vary between individuals, but the average answer is probably close to the actual time. In many fields, such as medical research, educational testing, and psychology, there will often be a trade-off between reliability and validity. A history test written for high validity will have many essay and fill-in-the-blank questions. It will be a good measure of mastery of the subject, but difficult to score completely accurately. A history test written for high reliability will be entirely multiple choice. It isn't as good at measuring knowledge of history, but can easily be scored with great precision. We may generalize from this. The more reliable our estimate is of what we purport to measure, the less certain we are that we are actually measuring that aspect of attainment.

It is well to distinguish between "subject-matter" validity and "predictive" validity. The former, used widely in education, predicts the score a student would get on a similar test but with different questions. The latter, used widely in the workplace, predicts performance. Thus, a subject-matter-valid test of knowledge of driving rules is appropriate while a predictively valid test would assess whether the potential driver could follow those rules.

Practicality
This principle refers to the time and cost constraints during the construction and administration of an assessment instrument. Meaning that the test should be economical to provide. The format of the test should be simple to understand. Moreover,  solving a test should remain within suitable time. It is generally simple to administer. Its assessment procedure should be particular and time-efficient.

Authenticity
The assessment instrument is authentic when it is contextualized, contains natural language and meaningful, relevant, and interesting topic, and replicates real world experiences.

Washback
This principle refers to the consequence of an assessment on teaching and learning within classrooms. Washback can be positive and negative. Positive washback refers to the desired effects of a test, while negative washback refers to the negative consequences of a test. In order to have positive washback, instructional planning can be used.

Evaluation standards
In the field of evaluation, and in particular educational evaluation in North America, the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation has published three sets of standards for evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards were published in 1988, The Program Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) were published in 1994, and The Student Evaluation Standards were published in 2003.

Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote educational evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate. In these sets of standards, validity and reliability considerations are covered under the accuracy topic. For example, the student accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance.

In the UK, an award in Training, Assessment and Quality Assurance (TAQA) is available to assist staff learn and develop good practice in relation to educational assessment in adult, further and work-based education and training contexts.

Summary table of the main theoretical frameworks

The following table summarizes the main theoretical frameworks behind almost all the theoretical and research work, and the instructional practices in education (one of them being, of course, the practice of assessment). These different frameworks have given rise to interesting debates among scholars.

Controversy
Concerns over how best to apply assessment practices across public school systems have largely focused on questions about the use of high-stakes testing and standardized tests, often used to gauge student progress, teacher quality, and school-, district-, or statewide educational success.

No Child Left Behind
For most researchers and practitioners, the question is not whether tests should be administered at all—there is a general consensus that, when administered in useful ways, tests can offer useful information about student progress and curriculum implementation, as well as offering formative uses for learners. The real issue, then, is whether testing practices as currently implemented can provide these services for educators and students.

President Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) on January 8, 2002. The NCLB Act reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. President Johnson signed the ESEA to help fight the War on Poverty and helped fund elementary and secondary schools. President Johnson's goal was to emphasize equal access to education and establish high standards and accountability. The NCLB Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills. To receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade level.

In the U.S., the No Child Left Behind Act mandates standardized testing nationwide. These tests align with state curriculum and link teacher, student, district, and state accountability to the results of these tests. Proponents of NCLB argue that it offers a tangible method of gauging educational success, holding teachers and schools accountable for failing scores, and closing the achievement gap across class and ethnicity.

Opponents of standardized testing dispute these claims, arguing that holding educators accountable for test results leads to the practice of "teaching to the test." Additionally, many argue that the focus on standardized testing encourages teachers to equip students with a narrow set of skills that enhance test performance without actually fostering a deeper understanding of subject matter or key principles within a knowledge domain.

High-stakes testing

The assessments which have caused the most controversy in the U.S. are the use of high school graduation examinations, which are used to deny diplomas to students who have attended high school for four years, but cannot demonstrate that they have learned the required material when writing exams. Opponents say that no student who has put in four years of seat time should be denied a high school diploma merely for repeatedly failing a test, or even for not knowing the required material.

High-stakes tests have been blamed for causing sickness and test anxiety in students and teachers, and for teachers choosing to narrow the curriculum towards what the teacher believes will be tested. In an exercise designed to make children comfortable about testing, a Spokane, Washington newspaper published a picture of a monster that feeds on fear. The published image is purportedly the response of a student who was asked to draw a picture of what she thought of the state assessment.

Other critics, such as Washington State University's Don Orlich, question the use of test items far beyond standard cognitive levels for students' age.

Compared to portfolio assessments, simple multiple-choice tests are much less expensive, less prone to disagreement between scorers, and can be scored quickly enough to be returned before the end of the school year. Standardized tests (all students take the same test under the same conditions) often use multiple-choice tests for these reasons. Orlich criticizes the use of expensive, holistically graded tests, rather than inexpensive multiple-choice "bubble tests", to measure the quality of both the system and individuals for very large numbers of students. Other prominent critics of high-stakes testing include Fairtest and Alfie Kohn.

The use of IQ tests has been banned in some states for educational decisions, and norm-referenced tests, which rank students from "best" to "worst", have been criticized for bias against minorities. Most education officials support criterion-referenced tests (each individual student's score depends solely on whether he answered the questions correctly, regardless of whether his neighbors did better or worse) for making high-stakes decisions.

21st century assessment
It has been widely noted that with the emergence of social media and Web 2.0 technologies and mindsets, learning is increasingly collaborative and knowledge increasingly distributed across many members of a learning community. Traditional assessment practices, however, focus in large part on the individual and fail to account for knowledge-building and learning in context. As researchers in the field of assessment consider the cultural shifts that arise from the emergence of a more participatory culture, they will need to find new methods of applying assessments to learners.

Large-scale learning assessment

Large-scale learning assessments (LSLAs) are system-level assessments that provide a snapshot of learning achievement for a group of learners in a given year, and in a limited number of domains. They are often categorized as national or cross-national assessments and draw attention to issues related to levels of learning and determinants of learning, including teacher qualification; the quality of school environments; parental support and guidance; and social and emotional health in and outside schools.

Assessment in a democratic school
The Sudbury model of democratic education schools do not perform and do not offer assessments, evaluations, transcripts, or recommendations. They assert that they do not rate people, and that school is not a judge; comparing students to each other, or to some standard that has been set is for them a violation of the student's right to privacy and to self-determination. Students decide for themselves how to measure their progress as self-starting learners as a process of self-evaluation: real lifelong learning and the proper educational assessment for the 21st century, they allege.

According to Sudbury schools, this policy does not cause harm to their students as they move on to life outside the school. However, they admit it makes the process more difficult, but that such hardship is part of the students learning to make their own way, set their own standards and meet their own goals.

The no-grading and no-rating policy helps to create an atmosphere free of competition among students or battles for adult approval, and encourages a positive cooperative environment amongst the student body.

The final stage of a Sudbury education, should the student choose to take it, is the graduation thesis. Each student writes on the topic of how they have prepared themselves for adulthood and entering the community at large. This thesis is submitted to the Assembly, who reviews it. The final stage of the thesis process is an oral defense given by the student in which they open the floor for questions, challenges and comments from all Assembly members. At the end, the Assembly votes by secret ballot on whether or not to award a diploma.

Assessing ELL students
A major concern with the use of educational assessments is the overall validity, accuracy, and fairness when it comes to assessing English language learners (ELL). The majority of assessments within the United States have normative standards based on the English-speaking culture, which does not adequately represent ELL populations. Consequently, it would in many cases be inaccurate and inappropriate to draw conclusions from ELL students' normative scores. Research shows that the majority of schools do not appropriately modify assessments in order to accommodate students from unique cultural backgrounds. This has resulted in the over-referral of ELL students to special education, causing them to be disproportionately represented in special education programs. Although some may see this inappropriate placement in special education as supportive and helpful, research has shown that inappropriately placed students actually regressed in progress.

It is often necessary to utilize the services of a translator in order to administer the assessment in an ELL student's native language; however, there are several issues when translating assessment items. One issue is that translations can frequently suggest a correct or expected response, changing the difficulty of the assessment item. Additionally, the translation of assessment items can sometimes distort the original meaning of the item. Finally, many translators are not qualified or properly trained to work with ELL students in an assessment situation. All of these factors compromise the validity and fairness of assessments, making the results not reliable. Nonverbal assessments have shown to be less discriminatory for ELL students, however, some still present cultural biases within the assessment items.

When considering an ELL student for special education the assessment team should integrate and interpret all of the information collected in order to ensure a non biased conclusion. The decision should be based on multidimensional sources of data including teacher and parent interviews, as well as classroom observations. Decisions should take the students unique cultural, linguistic, and experiential backgrounds into consideration, and should not be strictly based on assessment results.

Universal screening
Assessment can be associated with disparity when students from traditionally underrepresented groups are excluded from testing needed for access to certain programs or opportunities, as is the case for gifted programs. One way to combat this disparity is universal screening, which involves testing all students (such as for giftedness) instead of testing only some students based on teachers' or parents' recommendations. Universal screening results in large increases in traditionally underserved groups (such as Black, Hispanic, poor, female, and ELLs) identified for gifted programs, without the standards for identification being modified in any way.

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

 American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council for Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Brown, G. T. L. (2018). Assessment of Student Achievement. New York: Routledge.
Carless, David. Excellence in University Assessment: Learning from Award-Winning Practice. London: Routledge, 2015.
 Klinger, D., McDivitt, P., Howard, B., Rogers, T., Munoz, M., & Wylie, C. (2015). Classroom Assessment Standards for PreK-12 Teachers: Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation.
Kubiszyn, T., & Borich, G. D. (2012). Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom Application and Practice (10th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Miller, D. M., Linn, R. L., & Gronlund, N. E. (2013). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
National Research Council. (2001). Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Nitko, A. J. (2001). Educational assessment of students (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill.
Phelps, Richard P., Ed. Correcting Fallacies about Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2008.
 Phelps, Richard P., Standardized Testing Primer. New York: Peter Lang, 2007.
Russell, M. K., & Airasian, P. W. (2012). Classroom Assessment: Concepts and Applications (7th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Shepard, L. A. (2006). Classroom assessment. In R. L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational Measurement (4th ed., pp. 623–646). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Academic transfer

School terminology
Standards-based education
Thought

Educational assessment