Inghirami (italienisierte Form von Ingram) ist:

Name folgender Personen:
 Tommaso Inghirami, (1470–1516) (auch bekannt als Phaedra, Phaedrus oder Fedra), Humanist und Kardinal
 Jacopo Inghirami (1565–1624), Admiral des Großherzogtums Toskana
 Giovanni Inghirami (1779–1851), italienischer Astronom

Nach Giovanni Inghirami benanntes astronomisches Objekt:
 Inghirami (Mondkrater)
 Vallis Inghirami, Mondtal in der Nähe des Kraters

Inghirami


Kumulonimbus (lat. cumulus: gomila, hrpa + nimbus: oblak; međunarodna kratica Cb) je veliki, debeli i gusti oblak koji se uzdiže okomito uvis, katkada i iznad 10 kilometara. Donji mu je dio tamne, olovnosive boje, a gornji sadrži vlaknaste strukture, ispod kojih se često pojavljuju tamni rastrgani oblaci. Prema obliku može biti ćelav (calvus) i kosmat (capillatus). Debljina mu varira po godišnjem dobu: zimi je debljine 3-5 km, ljeti 8-10 km, a ponekad i 15 km. Gornji dio oblaka često se razvlači vodoravno pa oblak poprima oblik nakovnja (incus). Ako je podnica razvijenoga kumulonimbusa na temperaturi iznad 0 °C, sastoji se od kapljica vode. Iznad podnice nalazi se sloj pothlađenih kapljica (kapljica vode na temperaturama nižim od 0 °C), u većim visinama nalazi se mješavina ledenih kristalića i pothlađenih kapljica vode, a u najgornjem dijelu kumulonimbusa nalaze se samo kristali leda. Pod podnicom kumulonimbusa, ima često niskih, čupavih oblaka koji su spojeni s njom ili ne i katkad daju oborine u obliku virga. Kad im se zaledi gornji dio, nazivamo ih olujnim oblacima.

Ubraja se u konvekcijske oblake, jer nastaje razvojem kumulusa u nestabilnoj atmosferi (termika). Zbog burnih procesa u kumulonimbusu s velikim okomitim brzinama (više od 20 m/s) te jakim silaznim strujama na dijelu područja ispod oblaka, katkada je uzrokom vremenskih nepogoda (tuče, jakih mahova vjetra, udara munje, kratkotrajnih no vrlo snažnih pljuskova, a zimi gustih i krupnih snježnih pahulja) pa je opasn za zračne letjelice, a i za građevine na tlu.

Vrste oblaka prema visini i obliku
Osnovna podjela oblaka temelji se na činjenici da je, usprkos velikoj raznolikosti oblaka, moguće izdvojiti ograničen broj svojstvenih oblika, koji se često mogu naći u gotovo svim dijelovima svijeta. Takva podjela svojstvenih oblika sadrži podjelu na rodove, vrste i podvrste, a kao dopunu daje i odlike koje detaljnije opisuju pojedina svojstva oblaka. Druga osnovna podjela odnosi se na visinu na kojoj se pojavljuju oblaci.

S obzirom na visinu nad tlom na kojoj se pojavljuju, razlikuju se niski, srednji i visoki oblaci te oblaci okomitog razvoja. U umjerenim zemljopisnim širinama niski oblaci nalaze se na visinama između tla i 2 km, srednji na visinama između 2 i 7 km, a visoki između 7 i 13 km. Oblaci okomitog razvoja pojavljaju se u pravilu na visinama između 800 m i 13 km (iznimno i do 16 km). Gornje su granice slojeva oblaka u tropima podignute za koji kilometar, a u polarnim su predjelima za nekoliko kilometara spuštene.

Prvu morfološku razredbu oblaka izradio je 1803. engleski amaterski meteorolog Luke Howard (1772. – 1864.) i ona se u proširenom obliku zadržala do danas. Osnovna je pretpostavka te podjele da je unatoč velikoj raznovrsnosti oblika oblaka moguće izdvojiti 10 vrsta karakterističnih oblika koji se nalaze u svim krajevima svijeta:
 visoki oblaci: cirus (Ci), cirostratus (Cs) i cirokumulus (Cc),
 srednje visoki oblaci: altostratus (As) i altokumulus (Ac),
 niski oblaci: stratokumulus (Sc), stratus (St) i nimbostratus (Ns),
 oblaci okomitog razvoja: kumulus (Cu) i kumulonimbus (Cb).

Vrste se dalje dijele na podvrste: castellanus (poput dvorca s tornjevima), fibratus (vlaknast), floccus (poput pramena vune), fractus (izlomljen), lentikularis (lećast), nebulosus (bezobličan), stratiformis (slojevit), uncinus (kukičast), spissatus (zgusnut) i tako dalje. Neki oblici dodatno karakteriziraju pojedine oblake, na primjer vrh u obliku nakovnja (inkus) ili vrećaste izbočine na podnici (mamatus).

Slike

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Oblaci

Kumulonimbus


As a Man Thinketh é um livro de autoaperfeiçoamento e inspiracional, associado ao Movimento Novo Pensamento escrito por James Allen em 1903. Foi descrito pelo autor como "uma obra que lida com o poder do pensamento, e particularmente com o uso e aplicação do pensamento para desfechos bem sucedidos".

James Allen, um dos maiores teóricos e divulgadores do Movimento Novo Pensamento, nos mostra neste clássico que os bons pensamentos, quando disciplinados e sob controle, se transformam em realidade. Este livro nos ensina a adquirir força interior e a dominar nossos pensamentos, para termos uma vida mais saudável, feliz e abundante, que nos conduza à paz, à segurança e ao crescimento interior. Uma pessoa é literalmente o que ela pensa, sendo seu caráter a soma completa de todos os seus pensamentos.

Se você acompanhar as sugestões e os exemplos práticos, você poderá ver que o sucesso e a felicidade estão ao seu alcance: domine seus pensamentos e dominará seu destino. O título foi inspirado em uma passagem bíblica do Livro dos Provérbios, Cap. 23:7 "como imaginou na sua alma, assim é;".

O livro foi considerado um dos dez best sellers de autoajuda de todos os tempos pela revista The Christian Science Monitor.

Livros de 1902
Livros de autoajuda
Movimento do Novo Pensamento

As a Man Thinketh


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El Comité Nacional de la Unión Cívica Radical''' es la máxima autoridad del partido durante el receso de la Convención Nacional y su función es llevar a cabo lo que la misma determine. Teniendo en cuenta que la Convención suele sesionar una vez por año, en la práctica el Comité Nacional termina siendo el principal órgano partidario. Tiene su sede en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, en la calle Alsina 1786.

Conformación

Está conformado por una Mesa Directiva formada por un Presidente, tres Vicepresidentes, un Secretario General, veinticuatro Secretarios, un Tesorero y un Protesorero. Esta Mesa Directiva es el órgano ejecutivo del Comité Nacional y puede funcionar con siete de sus miembros. Si algún afiliado del partido resulta elegido presidente, automáticamente pasa a ser considerado Presidente Nato, pudiendo intervenir personalmente -o no- en las acciones que realice el Presidente.

Sus miembros deben ser delegados de la Convención Nacional y el quorum se obtiene con la mitad más uno del total de sus miembros, pudiendo sesionar en minoría con un tercio de los mismos en tanto y en cuanto haya habido una convocatoria oficial a la sesión.

Función

Su función principal es hacer cumplir la Carta Orgánica, las resoluciones de la Convención Nacional y evitar que se desvirtué el programa del partido. Además tiene a su cargo el tesoro del partido a nivel nacional, debiendo publicar sus ingresos e inversiones y su accionar está monitoreado por la Comisión de Cuentas.

Deberá también preparar el Orden del día de la Convención Nacional, debiendo informar de la misma 10 días antes de la convención y escuchar las opiniones de los convencionales al respecto. Deberá también presentar un informe anual a la Convención sobre la marcha y el labor en general del partido.

Si algún suceso externo al partido impide realizar la elección de las futuras autoridades, las que lo sean en ese momento verán prolongados sus mandatos hasta que sea posible realizar las elecciones. Esta cláusula fue pensada cuando el radicalismo estaba proscripto y era perseguido.

Presidentes

Referencias

Fuente
 Carta Orgánica de la UCR (de libre consulta)

Unión Cívica Radical


6796 Sundsvall este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
6796 Sundsvall este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul La Silla în cadrul programului UESAC. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,74 ua, o excentricitate de 0,06 și o înclinație de 5,0° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 6001-7000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Familia Padua

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1993
Centura de asteroizi

6796 Sundsvall


Die Ferme générale (sinngemäß übersetzt Generalfinanzpachtamt des Königreiches) war eine im absolutistisch regierten Frankreich im Jahre 1681 durch Jean-Baptiste Colbert gegründete Institution, deren Zweck in der Erhebung von Steuerpachten bestand. Colbert war 1668 von König Louis XIV zum Staatssekretär des Königlichen Haushalts (Secrétaire d'État à la Maison du Roi) ernannt worden. Bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt bestanden verschiedene Pachten nebeneinander.

Unter der Regentschaft von Ludwig XV. wurden im Jahre 1728 die bisher einzelnen Pachtungen nach deren Vereinigung zur ferme générale auf sechs Jahre an 40 Mitglieder verteilt. Ab dem Jahre 1755 waren es 60 Mitglieder. Die ferme générale erwirtschaftete immerhin fast die Hälfte der Staatseinnahmen des Ancien Régime.

Vorläufer
Als Vorläuferorganisation ist zunächst die gabelle zu nennen. Sie wurde während der Herrschaft Philipps IV. im Jahr 1286 als vorübergehende Konstruktion erdacht und erhoben, setzte sich aber dann unter Karl V. als ein dauerhaftes Steuereinnahmeinstrument durch. Die gabelle  stellte in Frankreich ursprünglich eine Steuererhebung auf jegliche Art von Waren dar; weitere Formen waren die gabella emigrationis (eine Steuer, die gegenüber Emigranten für mitgenommene Vermögen erhoben wurde) sowie die gabella hereditatis, die für eine ins Ausland gehende Erbschaft oder Schenkung zu entrichten war.

Die Ferme générale war durch Jean-Baptiste Colbert zum Zweck in der Erhebung von Steuerpachten begründet worden. Vor der Einführung der Steuerpacht gab es verschiedene Pachten nebeneinander. Mit der Aufnahme der Regentschaft von Ludwig XV. und der Übernahme der Regierungsgeschäfte durch Kardinal André-Hercule de Fleury im Jahre 1726 wurden im Jahre 1728 die bis dahin einzelnen Pachtungen zur ferme générale vereint.

Die cinq grosses fermes wurden  für eine bestimmte Zeit einzelnen Fermiers Généraux zur Pacht überlassen:
 Gabelles oder Salzsteuer;
 Steuererhebungen um die Stadt Paris herum, also Steuern auf einige Grundnahrungsmitteln, z. B. Öl, Zucker, Wein usw.;
 Vertragssteuern;
 Tabaksteuern (begründet zwischen Jahren 1674 bis 1675);
 Steuern für die französischen Gebiete in Nordamerika, die als domaine d'occident oder Ferme d'occident créée bezeichnet wurden (sie entstanden ebenfalls zwischen 1674 und 1675);
 ferner die Steuern für Stempelpapier Ferme du papier timbré (ebenfalls zwischen 1674 und 1675 eingeführt, siehe hierzu auch Aufstände gegen die neue Steuer auf Stempelpapier).

Erläuterungen
Die Steuerpacht ist ein Verfahren zur Steuererhebung, bei dem ein Staat Steuern und Abgaben nicht selbst, sondern über Privatleute (sog. Steuerpächter, fermiers généraux) einzieht, an die die Steuereinnahmen gegen Vorkasse oder laufende Zahlungen verpachtet werden. Die Zahlungen der Steuerpächter können vom Staat festgesetzt sein, oder das Recht zur Steuererhebung kann im Vorhinein ersteigert werden. Die Ferme générale war im Ancien Régime in Frankreich eine im obigen Sinne organisierte Institution, deren Aufgabe darin bestand, Zölle und Verbrauchsteuern im Namen des Königs innerhalb von bestehenden Sechs-Jahres-Verträgen zu erheben.

Mit dem Compte rendu au Roi oder Finanzbericht an den König vom 19. Februar 1781 berichtete der damalige französische Finanzminister Jacques Necker etwa über den aktuellen Zustand der königlich-staatlichen Finanzen und legte im Übrigen auch Rechenschaft über seine bisherige Reformpolitik ab.

Der Auftragnehmer, also der Steuerpächter (fermier général), verpflichtete sich zur Zahlung an die Staatskasse in Höhe der festgelegten Pacht und erhielt im Gegenzug einen Überschuss nach der Steuererhebung. Eine Obergrenze wurde für diese Vergütung aus dem Jahr 1780 eingestellt.
Für die Pacht in den Jahren 1768 bis 1774 musste die Ferme générale 90 Millionen Livres pro Jahr zahlen. Ein fermier général war somit verpflichtet, 1,5 Millionen Livres vorzustrecken. Nicht jeder der Pächter war allein zu solch einer umfangreichen Vorauszahlung in der Lage; somit taten sich mehrere Personen hinter dem Namen eines fermier zusammen, man nannte diese Gehilfen. Für sein an die Staatskasse vorgestrecktes Kapital hatte der fermier ein jährliches Anrecht auf 2400 Livres Spesenvergütung, 24.000 Livres Honorar, 10 % Zinsen für die erste Million und 6 % Zinsen für jede weitere halbe Million. Somit betrug das Einkommen eines fermier général jährlich circa 157.000 Livres (zum Vergleich: Ein mittlerer Beamter hatte ein Jahressalär von weniger als 1000 Livres.)

Ausformungen im 18. Jahrhundert
Die Mauer der Generalpächter (Mur des Fermiers généraux) in Paris wurde zwischen 1785 und 1788 errichtet. Nach den Angaben von Louis-Sébastien Mercier gab es 60 Schlagbäume an den Außenstellen und Einfallstraßen der Vororte von Paris, davon 24 Hauptschlagbäume und zwei Einlässe auf dem Wasserwege, zu deren Überwachung zwei Zollschiffe eingesetzt worden waren. An diesen Punkten waren Zollbeamte tätig. Bei Verstoß gegen das Reglement wurde ein Protokoll erstellt und ein entsprechendes Bußgeld erhoben.

Die Ferme générale war eine Institution des Ancien Régime. Sie fand sich damit während der Französischen Revolution stärkster Kritik ausgesetzt. Die Ferme Générale wurde 1790 aufgehoben. Die führenden Mitglieder wurden auf dem Schafott hingerichtet, insgesamt wurden 28 ehemalige Mitglieder des Konsortiums am 8. Mai 1794 guillotiniert, so auch Antoine Lavoisier und der Vater seiner Ehefrau Marie Anne Pierrete Paulze Lavoisier, Jacques Paulze (1723–1794).

Nach der Französischen Revolution führte man einen grundlegenden Wandel in den bisherigen Verhältnissen herbei. Im Jahre 1789 wurden in Frankreich alle Steuerfreiheiten und Privilegien aufgehoben und die allgemeine, gleichmäßig verteilte Grundsteuer eingeführt. Diese Veranlagung zu den direkten Steuern, zu denen dann die Grund- und Gebäudesteuer gehörten, war in der konstituierenden Versammlung durch einen Gesetzeserlass vom 1. Dezember 1790 festgelegt worden. Zu dem Ausführungsverfahren erschienen mehrere Verordnungen, abschließend wurde das Gesetz am 23. November 1798 verabschiedet.

Liste der Hauptzollpächter (fermiers généraux)
 Jacques-Mathieu Augeard (1732–1805)
 Nicolas Beaujon (1718–1786)
 Louis Béchameil de Nointel (1630–1703)
 Louis-Dominique-François Le Bas de Courmont (1706–1777)
 Louis-Dominique-Marie Le Bas de Courmont
 Jean-Benjamin de La Borde (1734–1794)
 Jean-François de La Borde (1691–1769)
 Étienne-Michel Bouret (1709–1777)
 Jacques Joseph Brac (1726–1794)
 Geoffroy Chalut de Vérin (1705–1787)
 André-Guillaume Darlus (1683–1747)
 Paul Delpech (1682–1751)
 Nicolas Deville de Noailly
 Charles Louis Claude Dupin, seigneur de Francueil (1716–1780)
 Claude Dupin (1686–1769)
 Charles-Claude-Ange Dupleix (1696–1750)
 Jean-Joseph-Louis Graslin (1728–1790)
 Antoine Gaspard Grimod de La Reynière (1687–1754)
 Laurent Grimod de La Reynière (1733–1793)
 Pierre Grimod du Fort (1692–1748)
 André Haudry (1688–1769)
 Claude Adrien Helvétius (1715–1771)
 Louis Denis Lalive de Bellegarde (1679 oder 1680–1751)
 Denis Joseph Lalive d'Épinay (1724–1782)
 Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743–1794)
 Jean Le Juge
 Charles-Guillaume Lenormant d'Étioles (1717–1799)
 Jean Bonaventure Le Lay de Villemaré (1659–1743)
 Laurent Mazade (1656–1743)
 François-Nicolas Mégret d'Étigny (1673–1734)
 Charles François Paul Le Normant de Tournehem (1684–1751)
 Alexandre Philbert Pierre de Parseval (1758–1794)
 Charles René de Parseval (1759–1794)
 Philbert de Parseval (1696–1766)
 Jacques Paulze (1723–1794)
 Paul Poisson de Bourvallais († 1718)
 Jean-François de La Porte (1675–1745)
 François de La Porte de Féraucourt († 1731)
 François de La Porte du Plessis (1695–1733)
 Charles Renouard de La Touanne († 1701)
 Sigisbert Richard
 Alexandre Le Riche de La Pouplinière (1693–1762)
 Pierre-Paul Riquet (1609–1680)
 Gilles de Ruellan (1575–1627)
 Charles Savalette (1683–1756)
 Jean Baptiste Louis Georges Seroux d'Agincourt (1730–1814)
 Jean-Baptiste Tavernier-Boullongne (1749–1794)
 Honoré Tholozan de Sézane (1731–1814), von Metz
 Jean-Joseph de Laborde (1724–1794)

Literatur
 Martin Hackenberg: Die Verpachtung von Zöllen und Steuern. Ein Rechtsgeschäft territorialer Finanzverwaltung im Alten Reich, dargestellt am Beispiel des Kurfürstentums Köln. (= Studien zu Policey und Policeywissenschaft). Klostermann, Frankfurt am Main 2001, ISBN 3-465-03177-6.
 Herwig Baum: Die Herausbildung der Zentralverwaltung im Frankreich des 17./18. Jahrhunderts. Grin Verlag, 2007, ISBN 3-638-68298-6.

Weblinks
  (französisch; PDF; 1,4 MB)
 Eugene N. White: France's Slow Transition from Privatized to Government-Administered Tax Collection: Tax Farming in the Eighteenth Century. (englisch)

Einzelnachweise

Geschichte Frankreichs in der Frühen Neuzeit
Organisation (Französische Revolution)
Rechtsgeschichte (Französische Revolution)
Wirtschaftsgeschichte (Frankreich)
Sozialgeschichte
Finanzwissenschaft
Zoll
Zollgeschichte
Steuerrechtsgeschichte
Fermegenerale
Gegründet 1681

Ferme générale


Walter III. Stewart (?, oko 1296. – dvorac Bathgate, 9. travnja 1327.), škotski plemić i šesti nasljedni veliki namjesnik Škotske (1309. – 1327.). Bio je otac škotskog kralja Roberta II. (1371. – 1390.), utemeljitelja kraljevske loze dinastije Stuarta.

Naslov velikog namjesnika Škotske, naslijedio je 1309. godine. Odigrao je važnu ulogu 1314. godine u bitci kod Bannockburna u kojoj je Robert Bruce obranio škotsku neovisnost od engleskih pretenzija i osigurao sebi naslov škotskog kralja. Nakon bitke, Walter Stewart je dobio ruku Robertove kćeri Marije Bruce (Marjorie), čime je njihov sin Robert postao nasljednik škotske krune, nakon smrti kralja Davida II., koji nije ostavio muškog nasljednika. Tim činom, obitelj Stuart je preuzela škotsko prijestolje i vladala Škotskom, a kasnije i Engleskom i Irskom, sve do početka 18. stoljeća.

Bilješke

Vanjske poveznice

 Stuart - Hrvatska enciklopedija

Stuarti
Veliki namjesnici Škotske
Životopisi, Škotska

Walter III. Stewart, veliki namjesnik Škotske


Australasien bestod af udøvere fra Australien og New Zealand som deltog samlet under Sommer-OL 1908 og Sommer-OL 1912. Dette var første gang udøvere fra New Zealand deltog. Fra og med Sommer-OL 1920 har Australien og New Zealand deltaget med egne separate hold.

Medaljeoversigt

Se også
 Australien ved OL
 New Zealand ved OL

Eksterne henvisninger
 Australasiens OL-statistik  på Sports-reference.com

Australasien ved sommer-OL
OL

Australasien ved OL


Mastigias papua ist eine Schirmqualle (Scyphozoa), die im Pazifischen Ozean in Lagunen und Inselseen vorkommt. Die Art hat durch ihr Massenvorkommen im Ongeim'l Tketau (Quallensee) auf dem der Insel Koror vorgelagerten Eiland Eil Malk (Palau) eine gewisse Bekanntheit unter Tauchsportinteressierten und in den Medien gefunden. Der taxonomische Status der Art und seine große Verbreitung wird allerdings aufgrund neuer morphologischer und molekularer Daten diskutiert. Es handelt sich wahrscheinlich eher um einen Artkomplex von mehreren kryptischen Arten.

Merkmale
Der halbkugelige Schirm kann einen Durchmesser bis zu 200 mm erreichen (ssp. salii). Die Grundfarbe ist bläulich, Oberfläche ist mit feinen Warzen besetzt. Die Grundfarbe einzelner Unterarten hat sich jedoch durch Einlagerung von Zooxanthellen zu Hellbraun abgewandelt. Zwischen den acht Schirmlappen sind tiefe Furchen ausgebildet. Die Mundarme erreichen etwa die Hälfte der Länge des Schirmdurchmessers. Das obere Drittel eines Armes ist einfach, die unteren zwei Drittel dreiflügelig. Die Arme enden meist in einer keuligen Verdickung. Die Arme können bei einigen Unterarten stark reduziert sein. Die rhopalialen Kanäle sind schlank und verzweigen sich.

Verbreitung, Vorkommen und Lebensweise
Nach den bisher publizierten Daten ist die Art von Indonesien im Westen, über die Philippinen bis Japan, und im Süden über Papua-Neuguinea bis Palau verbreitet. Sollten sich die neueren molekularbiologischen Daten bestätigen, müsste das Verbreitungsgebiet der eigentlichen Mastigias papua wohl stark eingeschränkt werden. Die Tiere leben in Lagunen, Brackwasserseen, marinen Seen und in Mangroven.

Taxonomie und Nomenklatur

Die Verbreitung und der Umfang der Art ist durch neue morphologische und molekularbiologische Untersuchungen stark in Zweifel gezogen worden. Die Art wurde von Alfred Goldsborough Mayer 1910 erstmals umfassend revidiert. Der Holotyp der Art stammt von Waigeo, der größten Insel der vier Hauptinseln der Raja-Ampat-Inselgruppe vor Westneuguinea (Indonesien). Bisher konnte kein Exemplar vom Locus typicus mit neueren Methoden untersucht werden. Neuere Untersuchungen von anderen Lokalitäten stellen allerdings die bisher angenommene weite geographische Verbreitung der Art in Zweifel. Dawson (2004, 2005) stellte große molekularbiologische und auch morphologische Unterschiede sowie Unterschiede in der Lebensweise der Populationen von Mastigias papua in den verschiedenen marinen Seen und den benachbarten offenen Lagunen auf Palau fest, die auf jeden Fall eine Trennung auf Unterartniveau rechtfertigen. Exemplare von der Mündung des Berau (östliches Kalimantan) und von Tufi (Oro-Provinz, Papua-Neuguinea weisen ebenfalls eine sehr große molekulargenetische Distanz zu den Populationen auf Palau auf, die auf Art-Niveau liegen. Es liegen damit wohl mindestens drei kryptische Arten vor. Die Fundorte der drei untersuchten Populationen (Berau, Tufi und Palau) liegen jedoch jeweils über 1000 km vom Locus typicus von Mastigias papua entfernt. Ohne Material von der Typuslokalität ist es derzeit nicht möglich zu entscheiden, welche der drei untersuchten Populationen Mastigias papua ist, oder ob sich sogar noch eine vierte Art in dem Artkomplex verbirgt, der bisher als Mastigias papua bezeichnet wird. Es ist daher eher wahrscheinlich, dass die Populationen von Palau nicht zu Mastigias papua zu stellen sind, sondern eine eigene Art darstellen. Um diesen taxonomischen Schritt gehen zu können, ist aber auch eine Untersuchung der übrigen Arten der Gattung Mastigias (M. albipunctata Stiasny, 1920, M. andersoni Stiasny, 1926, M. gracilis Vanhöffen, 1888), M. ocellatus (Modeer, 1791), M. pantherinus Haeckel, 1880, M. roseus (Reynaud, 1830) und M. sidereus Chun, 1896), die aus dem Indik und westlichen Pazifik aufgrund morphologischer Unterschiede beschrieben worden sind, notwendig. Außerdem muss noch berücksichtigt werden, dass Alfred Goldsborough Mayer in seiner großen zusammenfassenden Arbeit "Medusae of the World" noch eine weitere Art (von Japan) und eine Varietät mit Mastigias papua synonymisiert hat, die nach den obigen Erfahrungen durchaus eigene selbständige Arten sein könnten. Auch hierzu liegen noch keine Daten vor. Mastigias papua ist in seiner jetzigen Form ein Artkomplex von mindestens drei, eher sogar fünf oder mehr kryptischen Arten. Daher werden die von Dawson (2005) aufgestellten Unterarten in fünf verschiedenen marinen Seen auf Palau als Mastigias cf. papua ssp. bezeichnet.

 Mastigias cf. papua ssp. remengesaui Dawson, 2005 (Uet era Ongael, Ongael, Koror, Palau). Die Art ist durch zahlreiche, unterschiedlich große weiße Flecke auf der Exumbrella gekennzeichnet. Inter- und perradiale Kanäle, die mundnahen Partien der Tentakel und auch deren Spitzen sind häufig blau gefärbt. Der Schirm hat eine braune Grundfarbe, die durch die Zooxanthellen verursacht wird. Die planktonischen Medusen werden etwas über 15 cm groß. Sie sind nur gelegentlich häufig, fehlen aber auch zu gewissen Zeiten völlig. Sie finden sich von etwa 4 m Tiefe bis zum Seespiegel.
 Mastigias cf. papua ssp. nakamurai Dawson, 2005 (Goby Lake, Ngermeuangel, Koror, Palau) Die braune Grundfarbe wird bei kleinen Medusen durch blaue Flecke ergänzt. Bei kleineren und größeren Medusen sind auch gelbe Flecke am Schirmrand vorhanden. Die Medusen werden etwas über 15 cm groß. Sie kommen das ganze Jahr über in der Wassersäule von 0 bis 7 m vor.

 Mastigias cf. papua ssp. etpisoni Dawson, 2005 ("Quallensee", Ongeim'l Tketau, Mecherchar, Koror, Palau). Die Medusen sind braun, ohne blaue Pigmentierung, selten kommen feine weiße Flecke vor. Ansonsten sind keine Flecken vorhanden. Die verdickten Endteile der acht oralen Arme sind relativ kurz und breit. Die größten Medusen werden bis 23 cm groß. Die Medusen sind planktonisch und gewöhnlich das ganze Jahr über in der Wassersäule von 0 bis 13 m Tiefe vorhanden.

 Mastigias cf. papua ssp. saliii Dawson, 2005 (Clear Lake, Koror, Palau). Die hellbraune Grundfarbe verursacht durch die Zooxanthellen wird durch eine blaue Pigmentierung in den inter- und perradialen Kanälen ergänzt. Die verdickten Endteile der acht oralen Arme sind kurz bis mittellang und lanzettförmig. Die Medusen werden bis 20 cm groß. Sie leben in 0 bis 9 m Tiefe und sind gewöhnlich recht häufig. Sie können aber auch vollkommen fehlen. Der Salzgehalt des Wassers ist zur Zeit des Erscheinens der Medusen deutlich erniedrigt (22,6–28,1 psu). Die Polypen werden in 6 bis 7 m Tiefe auf sich zersetzenden Blättern gefunden.
 Mastigias cf. papua ssp. remeliiki Dawson, 2005 (Uet era Ngermeuangel, Ngermeuangel, Koror, Palau). Die Grundfarbe ist goldbraun durch die eingelagerten Zooxanthellen. Flecke auf der Exumbrella fehlen bei den meisten Exemplaren. Sind aber welche vorhanden, dann sind sie häufig und unregelmäßig geformt. Die blaue Pigmentierung fehlt völlig. Die verdickten Endteile der acht oralen Arme sind paddelförmig, lanzettförmig oder selten dreispitzig und immer recht kurz. Die Medusen sind etwa 8 bis 12 cm groß. Die Medusen kommen das gesamte Jahr über in der Wassersäule (0 bis 16 m) vor. Das Wasser ist meist leicht brackisch (24,5 bis 31,5 psu). Die Polypen wurden in etwa 6 bis 16 m Wassertiefe angeheftet an Hartsubstrat, zerfallende Blätter und Holz gefunden.

Die Unterarten entstanden durch die Isolierung von Populationen der Lagunenart durch den steigenden Meeresspiegel nach der letzten Zwischeneiszeit. Die Senken stehen über Karsthohlräume mit dem Meeresspiegel in Verbindung; der Seespiegel entspricht in etwa dem Meeresspiegel. Das bedeutet, dass die tiefsten Seen ("Quallensee", Ongeim'l Tketau: 60 m tief) auch die ältesten Seen sind und nicht älter als 12000 Jahre alt sein können.

Literatur
 Michael N Dawson: Morphological variation and systematics in the Scyphozoa: Mastigias (Rhizostomeae, Mastigiidae) – a golden unstandard?. In: Hydrobiologia. 537, 2005, S. 185–206, doi:10.1007/s10750-004-2840-8. PDF
 Michael N Dawson: Five new subspecies of Mastigias (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae: Mastigiidae) from marine lakes, Palau, Micronesia. In: Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK. 85, 2005, S. 679–694, doi:10.1017/S0025315405011604. PDF
 Paul Lassenius Kramp: Synopsis of the Medusae of the World. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 40, 1961, S. 359/60.

Weblinks

 meerwasser-lexikon.de: Mastigias papua
 Monterey Bay Aquarium: Spotted Jelly

Belege

Einzelnachweise

Schirmquallen
Scyphozoa

Mastigias papua


An Juncus antarcticus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Joseph Dalton Hooker. An Juncus antarcticus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Juncus, ngan familia nga Juncaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Juncus

Juncus antarcticus


!Artigos com hCards
Mark Mylod é um realizador de cinema e televisão e produtor executivo britânico. Começou a sua carreira no mundo da comédia, realizando programas televisivos britânicos como Shooting Stars, O Riso ao Poder, A Família Royle, graças aos quais recebeu dois BAFTA TV Awards. Posteriormente, realizou episódios de séries dramáticas como Shameless (versão britânica), No Limite, Entourage - Vidas em Hollywood, The Affair e A Guerra dos Tronos.

Destacou-se ao realizar episódios da série dramática Succession (2018–2023), da HBO, pela qual venceu dois Emmys. Recebeu aclamação e notoriedade por realizar episódios como "This Is Not for Tears" (2019), "All the Bells Say" (2021) e "Connor's Wedding" (2023). Durante esse período, realizou também o filme de sátira de humor negro O Menu (2022), que foi bem recebido pela crítica.

Carreira
Mark Mylod atuou como realizador de múltiplos programas televisivos, tanto nos Estados Unidos como no Reino Unido, vários deles para a BBC. Realizou ainda os filmes Ali G Indahouse, Quem Está Morto Sempre Aparece e A Lista dos Ex e as séries Cold Feet, A Família Royle, e Bang Bang, It's Reeves and Mortimer.

Mylod co-produziu a série de televisão Entourage - Vidas em Hollywood, da HBO, realizando também vários episódios. Atuou como produtor executivo e realizador de vários episódios (incluíndo o piloto) da versão americana da comédia dramática No Limite, da Showtime.

Em 2011, Mylod atuou como realizador e produtor executivo do episódio piloto da série de fantasia Era Uma Vez, da ABC. Em 2014, realizou o piloto da série televisiva americana The Affair. No mesmo ano, realizou o 3º e 4º episódios da 5ª temporada da série A Guerra dos Tronos, da HBO. Posteriormente, voltou a participar nesta última, realizando o 7º e 8º episódios da 6ª temporada e 2º e 3º episódios da 7ª temporada.

Mylod foi produtor executivo e realizou vários episódios da série Succession, da HBO. Realizou o filme O Menu, protagonizado por Ralph Fiennes e Anya Taylor-Joy. O filme estreou em novembro de 2022, com aclamação da crítica.

Filmografia
Cinema

 Ali G Indahouse (2002)
 Quem Está Morto Sempre Aparece (2005)
 A Lista dos Ex (2011)
 O Menu (2022)

Televisão

Vida Pessoal
Mylod é casado com a figurinista Amy Westcott.

Prémios e Nomeações

Referências

Vencedores dos Emmy do Primetime
Pessoas vivas
Cineastas do Reino Unido

Mark Mylod


Köseli, Çiçekdağı - Kırşehir ili Çiçekdağı ilçesine bağlı kasaba
 Köseli, Kozan - Adana ili Kozan ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Tut - Adıyaman ili Tut ilçesine bağlı köy
 Köseli, Bala - Ankara ili Balâ ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Bismil - Diyarbakır ili Bismil ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Onikişubat - Kahramanmaraş ili Onikişubat ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Cide - Kastamonu ili Cide ilçesine bağlı köy
 Köseli, Sumbas - Osmaniye ili Sumbas ilçesine bağlı köy
 Köseli, Bafra - Samsun ili Bafra ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Kavak - Samsun ili Kavak ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Atakum - Samsun ili Atakum ilçesine bağlı mahalle
 Köseli, Durağan - Sinop ili Durağan ilçesine bağlı köy
 Köseli, Gemerek - Sivas ili Gemerek ilçesine bağlı köy
 Köseli, Çaykara - Trabzon ili Çaykara ilçesine bağlı mahalle

Köseli


Uncontrolled format string is a type of software vulnerability discovered around 1989 that can be used in security exploits. Originally thought harmless, format string exploits can be used to crash a program or to execute harmful code. The problem stems from the use of unchecked user input as the format string parameter in certain C functions that perform formatting, such as printf(). A malicious user may use the %s and %x format tokens, among others, to print data from the call stack or possibly other locations in memory. One may also write arbitrary data to arbitrary locations using the %n format token, which commands printf() and similar functions to write the number of bytes formatted to an address stored on the stack.

Details
A typical exploit uses a combination of these techniques to take control of the instruction pointer (IP) of a process, for example by forcing a program to overwrite the address of a library function or the return address on the stack with a pointer to some malicious shellcode. The padding parameters to format specifiers are used to control the number of bytes output and the %x token is used to pop bytes from the stack until the beginning of the format string itself is reached. The start of the format string is crafted to contain the address that the %n format token can then overwrite with the address of the malicious code to execute.

This is a common vulnerability because format bugs were previously thought harmless and resulted in vulnerabilities in many common tools. MITRE's CVE project lists roughly 500 vulnerable programs as of June 2007, and a trend analysis ranks it the 9th most-reported vulnerability type between 2001 and 2006.

Format string bugs most commonly appear when a programmer wishes to output a string containing user supplied data (either to a file, to a buffer, or to the user). The programmer may mistakenly write printf(buffer) instead of printf("%s", buffer). The first version interprets buffer as a format string, and parses any formatting instructions it may contain. The second version simply prints a string to the screen, as the programmer intended. Both versions behave identically in the absence of format specifiers in the string, which makes it easy for the mistake to go unnoticed by the developer.

Format bugs arise because C's argument passing conventions are not type-safe. In particular, the varargs mechanism allows functions to accept any number of arguments (e.g. printf) by "popping" as many arguments off the call stack as they wish, trusting the early arguments to indicate how many additional arguments are to be popped, and of what types.

Format string bugs can occur in other programming languages besides C, such as Perl, although they appear with less frequency and usually cannot be exploited to execute code of the attacker's choice.

History
Format bugs were first noted in 1989 by the fuzz testing work done at the University of Wisconsin, which discovered an "interaction effect" in the C shell (csh) between its command history mechanism and an error routine that assumed safe string input.

The use of format string bugs as an attack vector was discovered in September 1999 by Tymm Twillman during a security audit of the ProFTPD daemon. The audit uncovered an snprintf that directly passed user-generated data without a format string. Extensive tests with contrived arguments to printf-style functions showed that use of this for privilege escalation was possible.  This led to the first posting in September 1999 on the Bugtraq mailing list regarding this class of vulnerabilities, including a basic exploit. It was still several months, however, before the security community became aware of the full dangers of format string vulnerabilities as exploits for other software using this method began to surface. The first exploits that brought the issue to common awareness (by providing remote root access via code execution) were published simultaneously on the Bugtraq list in June 2000 by Przemysław Frasunek and a person using the nickname tf8. They were shortly followed by an explanation, posted by a person using the nickname lamagra. "Format bugs" was posted to the Bugtraq list by Pascal Bouchareine in July 2000.  The seminal paper "Format String Attacks" by Tim Newsham was published in September 2000 and other detailed technical explanation papers were published in September 2001 such as Exploiting Format String Vulnerabilities, by team Teso.

Prevention in compilers
Many compilers can statically check format strings and produce warnings for dangerous or suspect formats. In the GNU Compiler Collection, the relevant compiler flags are, -Wall,-Wformat, -Wno-format-extra-args, -Wformat-security, -Wformat-nonliteral, and -Wformat=2.

Most of these are only useful for detecting bad format strings that are known at compile-time. If the format string may come from the user or from a source external to the application, the application must validate the format string before using it.  Care must also be taken if the application generates or selects format strings on the fly. If the GNU C library is used, the -D_FORTIFY_SOURCE=2 parameter can be used to detect certain types of attacks occurring at run-time. The -Wformat-nonliteral check is more stringent.

Detection

Contrary to many other security issues, the root cause of format string vulnerabilities is relatively easy to detect in x86-compiled executables: For printf-family functions, proper use implies a separate argument for the format string and the arguments to be formatted. Faulty uses of such functions can be spotted by simply counting the number of arguments passed to the function; an 'argument deficiency' is then a strong indicator that the function was misused.

Detection in x86-compiled binaries

Counting the number of arguments is often made easy on x86 due to a calling convention where the caller removes the arguments that were pushed onto the stack by adding to the stack pointer after the call, so a simple examination of the stack correction yields the number of arguments passed to the printf-family function.'

See also
 Cross-application scripting exploits a similar kind of programming error
 Cross-site scripting
 printf
 scanf
 syslog
 Improper input validation
 SQL injection is a similar attack that succeeds when input is not filtered

References

Further reading

  (vii+663 pages)

External links
 Introduction to format string exploits 2013-05-02, by Alex Reece
 scut / team-TESO Exploiting Format String Vulnerabilities v1.2 2001-09-09
 WASC Threat Classification - Format String Attacks
 CERT Secure Coding Standards
 CERT Secure Coding Initiative
 Known vulnerabilities at MITRE's CVE project.
 Secure Programming with GCC and GLibc (2008), by Marcel Holtmann

Computer security exploits

Uncontrolled format string


Lesli Kay (Charleston, 13 de junho de 1965) é uma atriz estadunidense, conhecida principalmente por seus papéis nas novelas As the World Turns e The Bold and the Beautiful da CBS.

Filmografia

Televisão

Ligações externas

Nascidos em 1965
Atores dos Estados Unidos
Atrizes de televisão dos Estados Unidos
Atrizes premiadas com o Emmy do Daytime

Lesli Kay


Toys "R" Us is an American toy, clothing, and baby product retailer owned by Tru Kids (doing business as Tru Kids Brands) and various others. The company was founded in 1957; its first store was built in April 1948, with its headquarters located in Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey, in the New York metropolitan area.

While originally considered a category killer, the rise of mass merchants and online retailers cost Toys "R" Us its share of the toy market. The company was further hampered by a significant debt load, the result of a leveraged buyout organized by private equity firms. The company filed for bankruptcy in 2017 and 2018, closing all of its stores in the US, UK, and Australia, with the last US stores closing in 2021. Operations in other international markets such as Asia and Africa were less affected, but chains in Canada, parts of Europe and Asia were eventually sold to third parties.

In August 2021, WHP Global announced that Toys "R" Us would be opening over 400 stores within Macy's starting in 2022. The flagship store is located in New Jersey at the American Dream shopping and entertainment complex.

History

Origins
In April 1948, Charles P. Lazarus founded a baby-furniture retailer, Children's Bargain Town in Washington, D.C., during the post-war baby boom. It was acquired in 1966 by Interstate Department Stores, Inc.

The focus of the store changed in June 1957, and the first Toys "R" Us, dedicated exclusively to toys rather than furniture, was opened by Lazarus in Rockville, Maryland. Lazarus also designed and stylized the Toys "R" Us logo, which featured a backwards "R" to give the impression that a child wrote it. The store chain grew successfully and built a brand which was recognized to many children born in the 1960s and 1970s, and shared in the success of the birth of popular culture successes of action figures (Star Wars, GI Joe), dolls (Cabbage Patch Kids, Rainbow Brite), video games (Nintendo's Super Mario series and other co-developed names, original SEGA Genesis stations and titles), and ultimately the co-branded FAO series, as the higher-end FAO Schwarz stores folded.

21st century
The board of directors installed John Eyler as CEO (formerly of FAO Schwarz) in May 2000. Eyler launched a plan to remodel and re-launch the chain. Blaming market pressures (primarily competition from Walmart and Target), Toys "R" Us considered splitting its toy and baby businesses. On March 17, 2005, a consortium of Bain Capital Partners LLC, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) and Vornado Realty Trust announced a $6.6 billion leveraged buyout of the company. Public stock closed for the last time on July 21, 2005, at $26.75—a 63% increase since when it first announced that the company was put up for sale. Toys "R" Us became a privately owned entity after the buyout. The company still files with the Securities and Exchange Commission, as required by its debt agreements.

In December 2013, eight days before Christmas, Toys "R" Us announced their stores in the United States would stay open for 87 hours straight. The flagship store of the retailer in Times Square was open for 24 hours a day from December 1 to 24, to cater to tourists. The announcement came after snow and rain caused a nearly 9 percent year-over-year decline in U.S. store foot traffic. This move also pushed the retailer to hire an additional 45,000 seasonal workers to cater to the demand of the extended store hours. Since the toy business is highly seasonal, more than 40% of the company's sales come in during the fourth quarter of the year.

In 2014, Toys "R" Us announced its "TRU Transformation" strategy, which concentrated on efforts to fix foundational issues affecting future growth, including making stores less cluttered, improving the customer experience, clearer pricing strategies and promotions, and tighter integration of its retail and online businesses. In 2015, the company launched the first of a new concept store called the "Toy Lab" in Freehold, New Jersey. The new layout provided more space for interactive exhibits and areas to play with new toys before purchase. This concept has since been expanded to stores in California, Delaware, Florida, New York and Pennsylvania.

Bankruptcy

On September 18, 2017, Toys "R" Us, Inc. filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, stating the move would give it flexibility to deal with $5 billion in long-term debt by borrowing $2 billion so it could pay suppliers for the upcoming holiday season and invest in improving current operations. The company has not had an annual profit since 2013. It reported a net loss of US$164 million in the quarter ending April 29, 2017. It lost US$126 million in the same period in the prior year. It had been paying US$400 million per year to service its debt, which prevented it from investing in improvements to in-store experiences to compete with Amazon and Walmart. Although the "retail apocalypse" was a factor, some analysts cited that the rapid increase in debt occurred under its private equity ownership. The company was reported to have a total workforce of 64,000 in September 2017.

It was initially stated that only the U.S. and Canadian operations would be affected, and that its brick-and-mortar stores and online sales sites would continue to operate. In January 2018, the company announced it would liquidate and close up to 182 of its stores in the U.S. as part of its restructuring, as well as convert up to 12 stores into co-branded Toys "R" Us and Babies "R" Us stores.

On February 28, 2018, it was reported that the company was exploring retaining its stronger Canadian operations, and the divestiture of some of its corporate-owned stores to franchises (leaving approximately 200 in a downsized chain). Toys "R" Us Inc. later announced that all U.S. locations would be closed.

On March 15, 2018, Toys "R" Us received approval from the bankruptcy court to liquidate its stores. There were buyers interested in acquiring groups of stores to use as showrooms, as well as others interested in acquiring the chain's brand and associated intellectual property. The company indicated in filings that the Canadian operations were profitable, and desired to preserve the operations of the 82-store chain through a sale. MGA Entertainment had made an offer to acquire the Canadian operations. MGA Entertainment CEO Isaac Larian attempted to raise $200 million through investments and public crowdfunding to purchase at least 400 of the U.S. locations.

Liquidation sales began on March 23, 2018. The chain's online store shut down on March 29, redirecting visitors to information on the liquidation and closures. On April 24, 2018, it was announced that the Canadian division would be sold to Fairfax Financial for approximately $234 million, and would continue to operate the locations under the Toys "R" Us name. Fairfax stated that it was potentially interested in purchasing U.S. locations as an extension of these Canadian operations.

On April 13, a bid was made by Isaac Larian to buy 356 Toys "R" Us stores for $890 million, but was rejected on April 17 and was fully scrapped on April 23.

On June 29, 2018, Toys "R" Us permanently closed all of its remaining U.S. locations, after 70 years of operations. In early July 2018, it was reported that unknown benefactors had bought all of the remaining stock of two locations in North Carolina so they could be donated to charity.

In November 2018, Fortune noted that the absence of the retailer during the 2018 holiday season represented a  chunk of toy sales from which other retailers could benefit. Party supply retailer Party City capitalized on the closures by establishing temporary pop-up stores under the branding Toy City, some of which filled vacancies left by Toys "R" Us locations.

Restructuring, Tru Kids, Inc., WHP Global, second restructuring, and third restructuring
On October 1, 2018, the company issued a bankruptcy court filing which stated that it would no longer auction off its intellectual property, since its controlling lender planned to "[revive] the business behind the Toys 'R' Us and Babies 'R' Us brand names" with a focus on maintaining existing licensing agreements and establishing new retail opportunities. The company evaluated that selling its brand at auction "[was] not reasonably likely to yield a superior alternative."

At the Toy Industry Association's Fall Toy Preview, the company unveiled plans for a preliminary venture to be known as Geoffrey's Toy Box, a wholesale store-within-a-store concept that the company planned to deploy in time for the holiday shopping season. The company planned to revive the Toys "R" Us and Babies "R" Us brands in the future. In November 2018, it was announced that grocery market chain Kroger would add toy displays under the Geoffrey's Toy Box brand to some of its locations, to sell selections of Toys "R" Us private-label products. The brand operates under Geoffrey LLC, an intellectual property holding company within Toys "R" Us.

On January 20, 2019, the company emerged from bankruptcy as Tru Kids.

As of June 21, 2019, the company planned to open new stores in the US slated to be 10,000 square feet, roughly a third of the size of the big box brand that closed in 2018. On November 27, 2019, Toys "R" Us opened a retail store at Westfield Garden State Plaza in Paramus, New Jersey. On December 7, 2019, a second location was opened at The Galleria in Houston, Texas.

On October 8, 2019, the company relaunched the Toys "R" Us website, which would feature a focus on resources and videos highlighting popular toys. The site was established in partnership with Target, with users being redirected to Target.com to place their orders. In 2020, the agreement lapsed, and Amazon replaced Target as the site's fulfillment partner.

In 2021, as a result of financial losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the only two U.S. stores once again closed down. The Houston location closed on January 15, 2021, and the Paramus location closed on January 26, 2021. The company stated that they made a strategic decision to pivot their store strategy, so they can look for new stores and platforms that will offer better traffic and that they continue to invest in channels where customers will want to experience their brand.

On March 15, 2021, it was announced that brand management company WHP Global acquired a controlling interest in Tru Kids, which is the parent company of the Toys R Us, Babies R Us and Geoffrey the Giraffe brands. Going forward WHP will be managing Tru Kids business, and help guiding its expansion. In North America WHP plans to open Toys R Us stores, again — ideally ahead of the holiday season and could come on various formats to include flagships, pop-ups, airport locations or mini stores inside other retailers' shops. WHP has not yet set a number of locations it plans to open in the United States. WHP is backed by a $350 million equity commitment from funds that are managed by Oaktree Capital Management. Financial terms of the deal have yet to be disclosed.

On August 19, 2021, WHP announced a new shift in branding by partnering with Macy's to sell toys on the retailer's website and open store-within-a-store locations at 400 department store locations.

On December 16, 2021, Toys "R" Us opened a two-story flagship store in the American Dream mall in New Jersey.

On August 7, 2022, Toys "R" Us opened new locations in nine states: California, Georgia, New Jersey, Illinois, Nevada, Louisiana, New York, Maryland and Missouri. These stores are located inside Macy's stores and range from 1,000 to 10,000 square feet. The company plans to open a store in every Macy's location in the United States by October 15, 2022, just in time for the holiday season.

On September 29, 2023, WHP announced their intention to open 24 new physical stores in the United States. These stores would be stand-alone locations and would begin to open in 2024. WHP also announced smaller stores that would be located in airports and cruise ships. The first of these smaller stores is set to open in November 2023, and will be located in Dallas Fort Worth International Airport.

Flagship store

In July 2001, Toys "R" Us opened an international flagship store in New York's Times Square at a cost of $35 million. The 110,000 square-foot store included various themed zones such as Barbie (with a life-size dreamhouse), Jurassic Park (with an animatronic T-Rex), Lego, and the signature indoor Ferris wheel. The flagship store also served as a gaming destination, partnering with Microsoft to be the world's first location to launch the original Xbox console on November 15, 2001. In 2006, the store added a Dance Dance Revolution SuperNova arcade machine in its electronics department. The store later added a full amusement arcade, known as "R"Cade. In 2010, a Wonka shop opened on the second floor of the flagship store. The store drew thousands of tourists for over a decade before the company decided to cancel its lease on the space in December 2015.

In August 2017, Toys "R" Us announced a 35,000 square-foot temporary store near the original one that would be open around the Christmas shopping season.

Charitable giving
From 2004 until its demise in 2018, Toys "R" Us Inc., the former owner of Toys "R" Us, had partnered with the Toys for Tots foundation to serve as a donation site for anyone donating unwrapped toys or monetary gifts. However, there is no evidence that the current parent, Tru Kids Inc., has continued Toys "R" Us's relationship with Toys for Tots and the Toys for Tots Foundation has not included any recent information on their website concerning Toys "R" Us since the Toys "R" Us Inc. bankruptcy filing in 2018.

Product safety
Toys "R" Us had reportedly implemented high safety standards in 2007 and had vowed to take an aggressive approach towards holding vendors accountable for meeting those standards. Former chairman and CEO Gerald L. Storch, testifying before the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government on toy safety in September 2007, said he supported new legislation strengthening toy-safety standards and outlined new initiatives the retailer had set forth to ensure that its customers receive timely information on recalls (including a new website).

In 2008, the company introduced stricter product safety standards exceeding federal requirements. Among the new standards was a requirement for materials inside toys to meet a standard of 250 parts per million of lead for all products manufactured exclusively for the retailer (compared with the federal standard of 600 ppm). Toys "R" Us also announced the requirement that baby products be produced without the addition of phthalates, which have raised concerns about infant safety. The company had adjusted its requirements to meet new federal standards enacted with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008.

International operations
During its most recent entry into a new market in November 2011, when it opened its first licensed store in Poland (Blue City), Toys "R" Us, International operated more than 600 international stores and over 140 licensed stores in 35 countries and jurisdictions outside the United States. At its peak, Toys "R" Us, International had presence in 40 countries.

Many of these stores were corporate-owned, but stores in some countries were independently owned and operated with Toys "R" Us licensing its name to a local company.

Canada

In addition to its expansion in the United States, Toys "R" Us launched a worldwide presence in September 1984 when the company opened its first international wholly-owned store in Canada.

As of its sale to Fairfax Financial on June 1, 2018, the chain comprises 82 stores that continue to operate under the Toys "R" Us name following the sale. In 2021, Doug Putman, through his company Putman Investments, announced that he would buy Toys "R" Us Canada from Fairfax Financial.

Australia

The Australian wing of Toys "R" Us entered voluntary administration on May 22, 2018. On June 20, it was announced that all of their Australian stores would be closing as well. The closure of all 44 stores was concluded on August 5, 2018.

On June 5, 2019, Toys "R" Us returned in Australia when Tru Kids partnered with Hobby Warehouse to relaunch the website for the chain.

Africa and the Middle East
Since 1995 the Al-Futtaim Group has operated stores in Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Stores in Israel are operated by the Fishman retail group, while stores in Saudi Arabia are owned by Tasweeq Company. Stores in South Africa, Namibia, and Zambia are also independently owned and operated.

Asia

Toys "R" Us has extensive presence in East Asian territories and Southeast Asia under the umbrella of Toys "R" Us Asia, a loose amalgamation of joint ventures with local companies. Toys "R" Us stores operate in Brunei, China (mainland, Hong Kong, and Macau), India, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand.

The Asian unit was originally established in 1985 as a partnership between Toys "R" Us and Fung Retailing, the retail subsidiary of the Fung Group (a Hong Kong-based conglomerate that also owns Li & Fung, a major retail distributor), with the parent company owning a majority 85% stake while Fung Retailing owns the remainder of the shares. Following Toys "R" Us' sale of the Asian unit in November 2018, Fung Retailing becomes the lead shareholder of the unit, holding an increased share of 21% while Toys "R" Us' remaining 79% is distributed among a consortium of Toys "R" Us' lenders.

In 1991, Toys "R" Us opened their first stores in Japan as a joint venture with . The joint venture was supposed to last until 2018, but Toys "R" Us withdrew in 2006; after suing for breach of contract, McDonald's Holdings was awarded an ¥1.38 billion ($13.35 million) settlement in 2008. After their joint venture ended, Toys "R" Us increased their ownership from approximately 48% to about 61%, and integrated it into their overall Asian operation in 2017.

Locations in South Korea and India are established through joint ventures formed in conjunction with Lotte Mart in 2007 and Lulu Hypermarket in 2017, respectively.

For RRHI to compete with SM Retail's Toy Kingdom, in 2006, RRHI obtained the license to operate Toys "R" Us stores in the Philippines, with the first one to open in Robinsons Galleria.

Buoyed by increasing demand for toys in the Asia Pacific region, the Asian and Japanese arms of Toys "R" Us are among the Toys "R" Us subsidiaries that have remained profitable into the 2000s and 2010s, registering "double-digit" revenue growth through the mid-to-late 2010s. In 2015, Toys "R" Us Asia posted a total turnover of US$1.85 billion; for the year ended January 2017, net sales from China and Southeast Asia totaled at approximately US$375 million while the Japanese arm would net sales of US$1.3 billion from Toys "R" Us, despite recently declining yearly profits, and US$20.3 million from Babies "R" Us.

While representatives of the Asian arm of Toys "R" Us have consistently cited that they operate as a separate legal entity from the parent company and are unaffected by events at the parent company, Toys "R" Us had engaged in talks since February 2018 to offload Toys "R" Us Asia's majority stake to a bidder for a proposed US$1 billion while outlets in Asia continue to operate unaffected. The planned bid was revised downwards to US$760 million in August and scheduled for September while Toys "R" Us sought a United States court order to strip Fung Retailing, a Hong Kong-based partner managing the majority of Toys "R" Us Asian operations, of its right-of-first-refusal purchase option and force Fung Retailing to release its share of the unit. This follows allegations by Toys "R" Us of Fung Retailing delaying the sale via court proceedings filed through the Hong Kong judiciary system to discourage rival bidders and acquire Toys "R" Us share at a lower price; the Eastern District of Virginia bankruptcy court would subsequently issue an order for Fung Retailing to drop its court order for the delay in a September 28, 2018, report.

On November 16, 2018, Toys "R" Us Asia announced that the parent company has formally sold the Asian unit to Fung Retailing and multiple Toys "R" Us lenders at a valuation of US$900 million (later revised to US$760 million), with Fung Retailing receiving an increase in shares of the unit to become the lead shareholder of Toys "R" Us Asia and the unit securing the licensing rights to retain the Toys "R" Us namebrand.

Turkey
Toys "R" Us entered Turkey in 1996 by licensing its brand to Turkish firm Uluslararası Çocuk Çarşıları A.S. In 2008, the firm terminated Toys "R" Us' licensing agreement and rebranded the 35 stores as Toyiki. However, under the new brand, the company struggled and had entered bankruptcy various times. In July 2010, Toyiki shut down their 32 remaining stores in exchange for debts.

Europe

Poland
Toys "R" Us entered the Polish market in October 2011, with their first store opening in Blue City, Warsaw. In October 2014, they began online operations.

The Polish operations remained unaffected during the bankruptcy, and by 2017 16 stores were operating. Eventually, the Polish chain began to close stores to cover the cost of debts and losses affected from the COVID-19 pandemic, closing seven of them in 2021. In February 2022, the store's website was shuttered and the remaining stores were closed throughout the year, and currently, only the Łódź store remains in operation.

United Kingdom
The first European Toys "R" Us stores were located in the United Kingdom, with the first store opening in 1985. At its peak, the chain had over 105 stores in the country. They were operated by Toys "R" Us Limited.

On December 4, 2017, the company reported that it would be liquidating and closing at least 26 stores in the United Kingdom as part of an insolvency restructuring known as a company voluntary arrangement. After amassing £15 million in unpaid taxes, Toys "R" Us Limited entered administration on February 28, 2018, after failing to find a buyer. On March 2, 2018, it was announced that all UK stores would begin a liquidation sale, and on March 14, 2018, it was announced that all UK stores were expected to close within six weeks. On April 24, 2018, Toys "R" Us stopped trading in the United Kingdom after 33 years of service. All stores were closed by April 24, 2018.

On 28 October 2021, Toys "R" Us announced plans to reopen its UK arm, initially through online purchasing from its Australian arm, then with physical branches opening from 2022 onwards. The online store reopened the following year, and this was followed up with a deal with WH Smith to open up Toys "R" Us branded concessions inside nine WH Smith stores.

DACH countries
Stores in Germany, Austria and Switzerland were operated by Toys "R" Us AG.

In April 2018, it was announced that Smyths would acquire Toys "R" Us AG, although they were still pending by July. The deal was completed in January 2019, and all stores were rebranded as Smyths shortly afterward.

France
In July 2018, Toys "R" Us France went into receivership in order to look for a buyer. The franchise including 44 of the stores was purchased by French company Jellej Jouets in October 2018. In April 2019, they sold the stores over to Luderix International, the owners of rival chain PicWic. The merger was soon completed, and by July 2019 all Toys "R" Us and PicWic stores were rebranded as PicWicToys.

Due to profit losses caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the chain closed several of their stores in 2020, and soon went into receivership in May 2022. In July 2022, Smyths, who already owned the ex-Toys "R" Us stores in German-speaking areas, purchased PicWicToys.

Iberia
In August 2018, Toys "R" Us Iberia, consisting of stores in Spain and Portugal, was sold to Green Swan. In April 2022, Toys "R" Us Iberia filed for bankruptcy. In July 2022, Italian business PRG Retail Group purchased Toys "R" Us Iberia under a long-term agreement with the brand owners WHP Global, and continue operating the stores and website under the brand.

Scandinavia
In Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden, Toys "R" Us stores were independently operated by Top-Toy under license. Because of this, these respective stores were not affected by the bankruptcy of Toys "R" Us' parent company. However, Top Toy would file for bankruptcy itself on December 30, 2018, due to poor holiday sales. with all Toys "R" Us stores closing by January 10, 2019.

Netherlands
In the Netherlands, 17 stores were operated under the brand by third-party licensee Speelhoorn. In March 2009, the contract between the two companies was not renewed, with Speelhoorn re-branding all the stores as Toys XL. which would be later purchased by rival business Intertoys in 2017. They originally attempted to sell the stores in 1997 to Blokker but were denied permission due to competition costs.

Stores
Until their liquidation and closing in 2018, the company owned 739 stores in the United States, in addition to more than 750 international stores and more than 245 licensed stores in 37 countries and jurisdictions.

Other brands

Imaginarium
Imaginarium was a private label brand of Toys "R" Us for most of their toys that was acquired in 1999. Originally after the acquisition by Toys "R" Us in 1999, it also operated stores until 2004.

Kids "R" Us

Kids "R" Us was a children's discount clothing retailer. Their first stores opened in February 1983 in Paramus, New Jersey, and Brooklyn, New York. The chain folded in January 2004 after the retailer suffered deteriorating same-store sales and to focus more on the Toys "R" Us brand. While the standalone stores closed in 2003, the stores combined with Toys "R" Us would stay until at least 2014 when they all closed.

Babies "R" Us

The first Babies "R" Us store opened in April 1996 in Westbury, New York. In February 1997, Toys "R" Us acquired Duncan-based Baby Superstore, Inc., a 78-store chain, for $376 million. The locations were converted into Babies "R" Us. The store operates as a specialty baby products retailer and grew to about 260 stores in the United States. The stores offer an assortment of products for newborns, infants, and toddlers. The company also maintains a registry and offers pre- and post-natal classes and events.

In 2011, Toys "R" Us began to open co-branded locations with Babies "R" Us departments at 21 new locations, and 23 remodeled locations.

Babies "R" Us reopened in July 2023 with a brand new flagship location inside the American Dream mall in East Rutherford, New Jersey.

FAO Schwarz
In May 2006, Toys "R" Us, Inc., acquired toy retailer FAO Schwarz including the retailer's flagship store on Fifth Avenue in New York City, as well as its e-commerce site, FAO.com. The company closed the FAO Schwarz flagship store in New York on July 15, 2015, citing rising rental costs, but continued to carry FAO Schwarz-branded toys in its Toys "R" Us and Babies "R" Us stores until 2017.

Toys "R" Us Express
For the 2009 holiday-shopping season, Toys "R" Us tried a smaller-store concept to attract customers and 90 "Holiday Express" stores across the United States and Canada were opened. The Holiday Express stores are smaller than regular Toys "R" Us stores, often in malls, and offer a more limited selection of merchandise than would be available at a stand-alone Toys "R" Us store. Most (if not all) of these 90 stores were opened in shopping-center and mall spaces that had been vacated by store chains closing their doors during the recession (including KB Toys, several of which were taken over by Toys "R" Us). Toys "R" Us's plan was to keep the Holiday Express stores open until early January 2010 and close them shortly thereafter, but the success of so many prompted the company to reconsider and several were kept open. These stores are known as "Toys "R" Us Express". Beginning in May 2010, Toys "R" Us opened a total of 600 Express stores. Four more were converted to Toys "R" Us outlet stores. As with the larger, basic Toys "R" Us stores, these locations also closed along with the outlet stores in the United States during summer 2018.

Web operations

Toys "R" Us began selling toys online with the launch of Toysrus.com in 1998. Following a disastrous Christmas 1999 trading period during which the company failed to deliver gifts on time, Toys "R" Us entered into a ten-year contract with online retailer Amazon in 2000 to be the exclusive supplier of toys on the website. Amazon eventually reneged on the terms of the contract by allowing third-party retailers to use its marketplace to sell toys, citing Toys "R" Us's failure to carry a sufficiently large range of goods, including the most popular lines. In 2006, Toys "R" Us successfully sued Amazon; the company was awarded $51 million in damages in 2009, just over half of the $93 million initially claimed.

It placed at No. 29 in the Internet Retailer Top 500 Guide for 2012. Toysrus.com was one of the most visited sites in the specialty toy and baby products retail category with an assortment of toys. In addition, Babiesrus.com offered a wide selection of baby products and supplies and access to the company's baby registry.

Looking to expand its web portfolio, in February 2009, the company acquired online toy seller eToys.com from Parent Co., which filed for bankruptcy protection in December 2008. Financial terms were not disclosed. Around the same time, it was reported that Toys "R" Us, Inc. bought Toys.com for an estimated $5.1 million. Today, the company operates Toys.com to list unadvertised and exclusive deals available on its portfolio of e-commerce sites.

In 2010, Toys "R" Us, Inc. reported that its Internet sales grew 29.9% year-over-year to $782 million from $602 million, and in April 2011, the company announced plans to open a dedicated e-commerce fulfillment center in McCarran, Nevada. The company later reported online sales of $1 billion for 2011 and $1.1 billion for 2012.

Under Tru Kids, the Toys "R" Us website was revived in 2019 in partnership with Target, with online orders being redirected to Target.com for fulfillment. In 2020, the site switched to Amazon as its fulfillment partner. This lasted until 2021, when fulfillment was handed over to Macys.com as part of their deal with Toys "R" Us.

Mascot

Formerly known as "Dr. G. Raffe" in 1950s print advertisements for Children's Bargaintown, Geoffrey the Giraffe evolved in name and appearance over the next decade to become the official mascot of the renamed Toys "R" Us. He also made his first TV commercial appearance on television in 1973. Serving as a "spokesanimal" for the brand, Geoffrey's design went through several phases over the next 50+ years before the current star-spotted iteration was finalized in November 2007.

In 2017, the company sponsored the live camera broadcast for April the Giraffe, which helped support giraffe conservation and awareness. The sponsored camera of pregnant April the giraffe went viral with millions of views on YouTube and across social media platforms.

See also
Gamleys
Toys "R" Us, Inc. v. Step Two, S.A

Notes

References

Further reading
Jamie Morgan & Muhammad Ali Nasir (2020) "Financialised Private Equity Finance and the Debt Gamble: The Case of Toys R Us." New Political Economy.
"Charles P. Lazarus: The Titan of Toys "R" Us" by Anne Koopman, 1991

External links

 Corporate website

Companies based in Passaic County, New Jersey
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2017
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom
American companies established in 1948
Retail companies established in 1948
Retail companies disestablished in 2018
Retail companies established in 2019
Toy retailers of the United States
Li & Fung
Private equity portfolio companies
Babycare
Kohlberg Kravis Roberts companies
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1984 establishments in England
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Defunct retail companies of the Netherlands
Defunct retail companies of the United Kingdom
Toy retailers of Australia
2019 disestablishments in France
Re-established companies
Australian companies established in 1993
French companies established in 1983
Dutch companies established in 1983
British companies established in 1984
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Toys "R" Us


«Dialogue Symphonie» es el primer sencillo de la banda japonesa Moi dix Mois. Lanzado el 19 de noviembre de 2002.

Lista de canciones

Sencillos de 2002
Sencillos de Moi dix Mois

en:Dialogue Symphonie

Dialogue Symphonie


Joel Edgerton (Blacktown, Sídney, Nueva Gales del Sur, 23 de junio de 1974) es un actor, director y guionista australiano conocido por haber participado en la serie televisiva The Secret Life of Us. En el cine, es conocido por interpretar a Charlie Price en la película Kinky Boots, al joven Owen Lars en las exitosas películas Star Wars: Episodio II - El ataque de los clones y en Star Wars: Episodio III - La venganza de los Sith, a Brendan Conlon en la película Warrior, a Tom Buchanan en el filme El gran Gatsby y a Ramsés II en la película Exodus: Gods and Kings.

Biografía
Su madre es ama de casa y su padre, Michael, es un abogado y promotor inmobiliario, su hermano mayor es el actor y doble australiano Nash Edgerton.

En 2003 comenzó a salir con la deportista Cathy Freeman, pero la relación terminó en 2005.

En 2009 salió brevemente con la actriz Isabel Lucas.

Joel salió con la diseñadora Alexis Lexi Blake, la pareja se comprometió, sin embargo la relación y el compromiso terminaron en 2013.

Trayectoria
Es miembro de la compañía Blue-Tongue Films junto a los actores Nash Edgerton, Kieran Darcy-Smith, Luke Doolan y David Michod.

En teatro ha aparecido en obras como Blackrock, Third World Blues, Love for Love y Henry V.

En 1996 interpretó a Crosby en el episodio "Eyewitness" de la serie Water Rats, más tarde volvió a aparecer en la serie, esta vez interpretando a Aaron Lawrence en el episodio "Force of Habit" en 1999.

En 1998 apareció en la película Praise protagonizada por Peter Fenton y Sacha Horler donde interpretó a Leo.

Entre 2001 y 2002 interpretó a William "Will" McGill en la serie The Secret Life of Us. Ese mismo año interpretó de nuevo a Will en la película del mismo nombre.

En 2002 apareció en la popular película Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones donde interpretó al joven Owen Lars, el hermanastro de Anakin Skywalker y tutor y tío de Luke Skywalker. En 2005 volvió a interpretar a Owen, esta vez en Star Wars: Episode III - Revenge of the Sith. En 1977 un Owen más viejo fue interpretado por el actor Phil Brown durante la película Star Wars: Episodio IV - Una nueva esperanza.

En 2002 apareció en el tráiler Tropfest en Australia junto a la actriz Kimberley Davies, la cual fue dirigida por Patrick Hughes. También narró "A Midsummer Night's Dream" interpretada por la Sinfonía de la Orquesta de Melbourne Melbourne en el campus de la universidad Waterfront en Geelong, Victoria, Australia.

En 2010 se unió al elenco de la película Ga'Hoole: la leyenda de los guardianes donde prestó su voz para el personaje de Metalbeak, el principal antagonista de la película y líder de los Puros. En la película trabajó junto a actores como Hugo Weaving, Helen Mirren y Sam Neill.

En 2011 apareció en la película dramática Warrior donde interpretó a un antiguo luchador de la UFC Brendan Conlon que decide regresar a las peleas. En la película trabajo junto a los actores Tom Hardy, quien interpretó a su hermano Tommy Riordan, y a Jennifer Morrison, quien interpretó a su esposa Tess Conlon. Ese mismo año apareció en la película de terror y ciencia ficción The Thing donde interpretó al piloto de helicóptero Sam Carter. La película es la precuela de The Thing (1982), protagonizada por Kurt Russell.

En 2012 apareció en la película El gran Gatsby donde interpretó a Tom Buchanan junto a Leonardo DiCaprio. y en la película Zero Dark Thirty donde interpretó a Patrick, líder de escuadrón y miembro del DEVGRU, comúnmente conocido como Equipo SEAL 6, una unidad de misiones especiales de nivel 1 de la marina estadounidense. En la película compartió créditos con los actores Mark Strong, Jessica Chastain y su hermano Nash Edgerton.

En 2014 dio vida al faraón Ramsés II en la película Exodus: Gods and Kings.

En 2015 apareció en el filme Life. Ese mismo año trabajó en la película Black Mass, donde encarnó a John Connolly, un amigo de la infancia del gángster Whitey Bulger (Johnny Depp).

En marzo de 2016 se anunció que Edgerton aparecería en la película Bright, donde compartió créditos con el actor Will Smith. En agosto del mismo año se anunció que se había unido al elenco de la película Red Sparrow donde compartió créditos con la actriz Jennifer Lawrence.

Filmografía

Películas

Series de televisión

Director, productor, narrador y escritor

Apariciones

Teatro

Premios y nominaciones

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Digital Spy > Celebrity News > Joel Edgerton
 Joel Edgerton en TV.com
 Joel Edgerton en Zimbio

Actores de televisión de Australia
Reparto de Star Wars

Joel Edgerton


Alerji, vücudun, aslında zararlı olmayan bazı maddelerden veya hava şartlarından etkilenmesi ya da psikolojik etkenler sonucu bazı maddelere aşırı reaksiyon göstermesidir.

Normalde vücudu koruyan bağışıklık sistemi, bazı insanlarda zararlı olmayan birtakım çevresel antijenlere (alerjen) karşı da aşırı yanıt verir. Bu reaksiyonlara "alerji" adı verilir. Alerjik reaksiyonlar tek tip değildir, birçok yolla ortaya çıkarlar, vücudun değişik bölümlerinde meydana gelebilirler ve çeşitli şiddette olabilirler.

Alerjik reaksiyonlara neden olan maddelere "alerjen" denir. Bu maddeler solunum yolu ile alınabildiği gibi, ciltten temas ya da yiyecek şeklinde ağızdan da alınabilir. Bu maddeler alerjik reaksiyon gelişebilmesi için vücuda daha önceden girmiş olmaları gerekir. Yani vücudun bağışıklık sisteminin bu maddeyle daha önce karşılaşması ve bunlara duyarlı hale gelmesi gerekir. Daha sonraki karşılaşmalarda çok hızlı bir şekilde reaksiyonlar gelişir. Reaksiyon gelişiminden de vücuttaki mast hücrelerinin alerjenler aracılığı ile parçalanması ve içinden "histamin" denilen maddenin çıkması sorumludur. Aşağıda özellikle solunum yolu ile alınan ve en sık karşılaşılan alerjenler verilmiştir.

Alerji belirtileri kaşıntı, kurdeşen ya da astım, alerjik rinit (saman nezlesi) belirtileri, hapşırma, burun akıntısı, burun ve genizde kaşıntı, burun tıkanıklığı ve geniz akıntısı olarak görülebilir. Kişi, eğer bazı maddelerle temasından dolayı alerji oluyorsa, o maddenin uzaklaştırılması ile sorun çözümlenmiş olur.

İmmün (bağışıklık) sistem, yabancı maddelerle karşılaştığında onları tanımayı ve belleğine almayı öğrenir. Ardından yabancı maddelere (antijenlere) karşı antikorlar üreterek yanıtını hazırlar. Organizmada ne zaman aynı antijen görülse hatırlama özelliği nedeniyle daha önceden hazırlanmış yanıt başlar. Bu nedenle örneğin, saman nezlesi olan bir kişi her yıl polenlerle karşılaşınca immun sistemdeki bu özellik sebebiyle hemen reaksiyon gösterir.

Alerji çeşitleri
 Alerjik rinit
 Alerjik astım
 Alerjik dermatit
 Alerjik konjonktivit
 Alfa-Gal Alerjisi

Genel alerjikler
 Bitkiler ve polenleri;
 çavdar
 yulaf
 çayır otu
 Huş ağaçları
 Isırgan otu
 küf sporları
 İlaçlar;
 penisilinler
 sülfonamidler
 salisilatlar
 lokal anestezikler
 Yiyecekler;
 fındık
 susam
 çikolata
 deniz ürünleri
 yumurta
 bezelyeler, fasulyeler, fıstıklar, soya fasulyesi ve diğer baklagiller
Et ve et ürünleri köfte vs.
 soya
 süt
 buğday
 mısır ya da darı
 Böcek ısırıkları;
 arı sokması
 yaban arısı
 akrep vb. hayvanlar
 Hayvansal ürünler;
 hayvan kılı
 hamamböceği
 akarlar
 Diğer;
 Lateks
 Sigara dumanı

Dış bağlantılar
 Amerikan Alerji Akademisi
 Astım ve Alerji birliği(Amerika)
 Astımla ilgili

Alerjiloji
İmmünoloji
Dermatoloji
Fransızcadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler

Alerji