The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 (), or Convention between the United Kingdom and Russia relating to Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet (; ), was signed on August 31, 1907, in Saint Petersburg. It ended the longstanding rivalry in Central Asia and enabled the two countries to outflank the Germans, who were threatening to connect Berlin to Baghdad with a new railroad that could potentially align the Ottoman Empire with Imperial Germany.

The Convention ended the long dispute over Persia. Great Britain promised to stay out of northern Persia, and Russia recognized southern Persia as part of the British sphere of influence. Russia also promised to stay out of Tibet and Afghanistan. In exchange, London extended loans and some political support. The convention brought shaky British–Russian relations to the forefront by solidifying boundaries that identified respective control in Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet. It delineated spheres of influence in Persia, stipulated that neither country would interfere in Tibet's internal affairs, and recognized Britain's influence over Afghanistan. The agreement led to the formation of the Triple Entente.

Background

During the last third of the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire's advances into Central Asia and the consolidation of Great Britain's domination of South Asia led to intense rivalry between the two European powers. The conflicting interests centered on Afghanistan, Iran, and Tibet, three states that constituted buffers between the two powers. The emergence of the German Empire as a world power and the defeat in 1905 of Russia by a nascent Asian power, the Empire of Japan, in the Russo-Japanese War, helped to persuade some British and Russian officials of a need to resolve their respective differences in Asia. There was talk of an entente during the 1880s and 1890s, especially after Britain's occupation of Egypt in 1882. However, there was stiff resistance in Britain to a deal with Russia. In the leadup to the convention, there were discussions on the Straits question. Foreign Minister Sir  Edward Grey thought entente with Russia a good idea. On 20 October 1905, during the election, he said:
...if Russia accepts, cordially and whole-heartedly, our intention to preserve the peaceable possession of our Asiatic possessions, then I am quite sure that in this country no government will make it its business to thwart or obstruct Russia's policy in Europe. On the contrary, it is urgently desirable that Russia's position and influence be re-established in the councils of Europe.
and later, writing to his ambassador to Russia Sir Arthur Nicolson:
It is not for us to propose changes with regard to the treaty conditions of the Dardanelles. I  think some change in the direction desired by Russia would be admissible and we should be prepared to discuss the question if Russia introduces it.
In early 1907, Alexander Izvolsky, the Russian ambassador at Paris, raised the question and talks were carried on in London with Russian Ambassador Count Alexander Benckendorff. Little is known but the "suggestion appears to have been made that Russia should have free egress from the Black Sea through the Straits, while other powers should have the right to send their vessels of war into the Straits without going into the Black Sea" together with some talk of "Russia's occupying the Bosphorus and England the Dardanelles, after which the Straits might be opened to other warships as well." In the event nothing came of the discussions at the time.

Rise of Germany

On May 20, 1882, Germany entered into the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary, complementing its industrial and socio-political ascendance in the world arena. Furthermore, Germany dramatically increased its military output from the early 1900s up to the outbreak of the First World War. Under the unified German state, Otto von Bismarck worked to increase the nation's global influence and reach what was then the zenith of German power. While Britain and Russia were hostile to German designs in the region, members of the Triple Alliance were in turn opposed to Anglo-Russian influence in Asia. Thus, military and territorial expansion was Germany's key to making itself a major player in the international arena of power. Germany's interest in the Middle East took a secondary position, one subordinate to Germany's primary policy toward Europe, throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. While of secondary importance, it was a tool that was used to manipulate the Middle Eastern attempt to play off the Western powers against each other. Berlin peacefully made inroads into the Ottoman Empire and had few colonial aspirations in the region.

Trouble in Persia

In 1905, revolutionary activity spread throughout Tehran, forcing the shah to accept a constitution, allow the formation of a majles (parliamentary assembly), and hold elections. Major figures in the revolution had secular goals, which then created rifts in the clergy to the advantage of the monarchy. Neither the British nor the Russian governments approved of the new political arrangement, which was both liberal and unstable, and preferred a stable puppet government, which allowed foreign concessions and supported their designs in the region.

To facilitate their goals in Persia, the British and the Russian governments discussed splitting it into three zones. The agreement stipulated that it would "allocate the north, including Isfahan, to Russia; the south-east, especially Kerman, Sistan, and Baluchistan to Britain; and demarcate the remaining land between the two powers as a neutral zone". The division of Persia would reinforce the control of Britain and Russia over their respective territorial and economic interests in the country as well as allowed for continued interference in Persia's political system. With foreign help, the revolutionaries became outflanked by a combination of European and monarchist activities. The Persian government quickly came to realise that an Anglo-Russian alliance posed a larger threat to Iranian sovereignty than the two powers being hostile. Consequently, in 1907, Britain and Russia signed an agreement to regulate their economic and political interests.

Terms
The Anglo-Russian Convention formalized the spheres of influence of the Russian Empire and the British Empire in Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet.

Persia

The agreement recognized the country's sovereignty but also divided it into three separate zones. The agreement designated all of northern Iran, which bordered Russia's possessions in Transcaucasia and Central Asia, as an exclusive sphere of influence for Russian interests. The northern zone was defined as beginning at Qasr-e Shirin in the west, on the border with the Ottoman Empire, and running through Tehran, Isfahan and Yazd to the eastern border, where the frontiers of Afghanistan, Iran, and Russia intersected. A smaller zone in southeastern Iran, which bordered British India, was recognized as an exclusive sphere for Britain. The British zone extended west as far as Kerman in the south central and Bandar Abbas in the south. The area separating these two spheres, including part of central Iran and the entire southwest, was designated a neutral zone in which both countries and their respective private citizens could compete for influence and commercial privileges.

For Britain and Russia, the agreement was important in establishing a diplomatic alignment that endured until the First World War. The Persian government, however, had not been consulted about the agreement but was informed after it had been signed. Although not in a position to prevent Britain and Russia from implementing the agreement, the Persian government refused to recognize the accord's legitimacy since it threatened the country's national integrity. Iranian nationalists, in particular, were infuriated by Britain's signing of the treaty, a country that they had considered as a beacon of democracy during the Constitutional Revolution. Subsequently, an important legacy of the agreement was the growth of anti-British sentiments and other anti-Western attitudes as strong components of Iranian nationalism. The agreement did not eliminate all competition between the two powers with respect to their policies in Iran, but after 1907, broad co-operation was fostered, particularly when Anglo-Russian interests were threatened. In particular, Britain and Russia intervened in Iran's domestic politics, supporting the royalists in their struggle with the constitutionalists. The agreement lapsed in 1918, after it was renounced by the new revolutionary Soviet Russia.

Afghanistan

With the Anglo-Russian Convention Russia acknowledged that Afghanistan was in the British sphere of influence as long as the United Kingdom did not attack the country, and in exchange, the United Kingdom gave Russia's right to equal commerce and direct communication with Afghan officials on non-political topics. Habibullah Khan, the Emir of Afghanistan felt humiliated and outraged when he read the terms of the Convention, partly because the United Kingdom had not bothered to notify him about the negotiations or their conclusions. Like the terms relating to Persia, the agreement resulted in the growth of anti-British sentiments in Afghanistan.

Tibet

The Anglo-Russian Convention acknowledged the "Chinese suzerainty" over Tibet, and the United Kingdom pledged not to deal with Tibet unilaterally without the approval of the Chinese government. The United Kingdom thought that this convention would put a stop to Russia's expansionist efforts, which were threatening India, and with the development of Anglo-Russian ties in the early 1900s, both the United Kingdom and Russia acknowledged Tibet's role as a buffer in the Anglo-Russian Convention that also recognized the suzerainty of China over Tibet, although China did not accept the term "suzerainty" and instead used the term "sovereignty" to describe its status in Tibet since 1905. The conclusion of the Anglo-Russian Convention followed the British expedition to Tibet of 1903-1904, the Convention of Lhasa of 1904, and the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906 which essentially reestablished China's role as Tibet's controlling power.

See also
 Dogger Bank incident
 Entente Cordiale
 Franco-Russian Alliance
 The Great Game
 Persian Campaign

References

Further reading
 "The Recent Anglo-Russian Convention" The American Journal of International Law (1907) pp 979–984 online
 Abrahamiam, Ervand, A History of Modern Iran (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
 Adelson, Roger, London and the Invention of the Middle East: Money, Power, and War, 1902–1922 (St. Edmundsbury Press, 1995)
 Churchill, Platt Rogers. The Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 (1939).
 Habberton, William. Anglo-Russian Relations Concerning Afghanistan, 1837–1907 (U. of Illinois, 1937).

 Mahajan, Sneh. British foreign policy 1874–1914: The role of India (Routledge, 2003).
 Palmer, A. W. "The Anglo-Russian Entente" History Today (Nov 1957) 7#11 pp 748–754.
 Sicker, Martin. The Bear and the Lion: Soviet Imperialism and Iran (Praeger Publishers, 1988).
 Siegel, Jennifer, Endgame: Britain, Russia and the Final Struggle for Central Asia (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2002)
 Soroka, Marina. Britain, Russia and the Road to the First World War: The Fateful Embassy of Count Aleksandr Benckendorff (1903–16) (Routledge, 2016).
 Tomaszewski, Fiona K. A Great Russia: Russia and the Triple Entente (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002)
 Williams, Beryl J.  "The Strategic Background to the Anglo-Russian Entente of August 1907." Historical Journal 9#3 (1966): 360–73. online.

External links

Brigham Young University library website. The Anglo-Russian Entente

1907 in the United Kingdom
1907 in the Russian Empire
20th-century military alliances
Russia–United Kingdom military relations
Treaties concluded in 1907
Military alliances involving the United Kingdom
Military alliances involving Russia
Treaties of the Russian Empire
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Bilateral treaties of the United Kingdom
Bilateral treaties of Russia
1907 in Iran
Iran–Russia relations
Iran–United Kingdom relations

Anglo-Russian Convention


Vikingler ya da Norslar, İskandinavyalı korsan ve tüccar kavimlerdir. Aslında "Viking" veya "Nors" bir millet adı değildir; Danlara, Norveçlilere, İsveçlilere ve diğer İskandinavlara (Kuzey Cermenleri) kim olduklarına bakmaksızın verilen isimdir. Bu adlandırma Eski Norsçadaki Vikingr (yağmacı) sözcüğünden gelir ve Viking Çağı boyunca tüm Kuzey Cermenleri bu adla anılmıştır. Vikinglerin ataları antik Cermen halkları, konuştukları dil(ler) ise Cermen dil ailesine bağlı İskandinav dilleridir. Vikingler ömürlerinin büyük bir kısmını denizlerde geçirmiş olan savaşçı bir halktır. 8 - 11. yüzyıllar arasında kuzeybatı Avrupa'da birçok yeri ele geçirmişlerdir. Viking akınları ile birlikte birçok manastır yok olmuştur. Olaya tanıklık eden ve hayatta kalarak Avrupa'nın çeşitli bölgelerine dağılan keşişlerin dramatik ve trajik anlatımları, yüzyıllarca sürecek bir Viking korkusu ve düşmanlığı yaratmıştır. Vikingleri kaba, ilkel, medeniyetten uzak bir kavim olarak betimlemişlerdir. Bu anlatımların etkisiyle, Avrupalıların Viking kültürüne uzun süre kayıtsız kaldıkları anlaşılmaktadır. Göçebe ve savaşçı bir kavim olan Vikinglerin yazılı geleneği olmayışı, kültür izlerinin sürülmesini güçleştirmektedir. Yazılı kaynakların zayıflığına ve Batılı kaynaklardaki olumsuz Viking imajına karşılık, arkeolojik veriler, incelikli bir Viking maddi kültürünün varlığına işaret etmektedir.

Köken bilimi
Viking adı muhtemelen Eski Norsça vik (dere) sözcüğünden ya da Eski İngilizce wic (kamp) sözcüğünden türemiştir. Nors ise Eski Norsça noord (kuzey) sözcüğünden türemiştir. Erken dönem İskandinav dillerinde "vikingr" sözcüğü "korsan" anlamına gelir.

Varyaglar
İsveçli olan Varyaglar doğuya doğru yayılmış, 11. yüzyılda Karadeniz'e, hatta İran'a kadar uzanmışlardı. Bunların çoğu Rusya'da Novgorod ve Ukrayna'da ise Kiev'e yerleştiler, barışçı ticaret erbabı olarak ipek karşılığında kürk ve köle alışverişi yaptılar. Bunların içinden prens Ryurik Hanedanı Rusya'da 16. yüzyıla kadar hüküm sürdü.

Normanlar

Normanlar, Danimarka ve Norveç Vikinglerinin Fransa'nın Normandiya bölgesine yerleşmiş ve Fransızca dilini benimsemiş olan kısmıdır.

Danimarkalı ve Norveçli olan Normanlar («kuzey adamları») batıya doğru denizleri ele geçirmeye giriştiler. Usta gemici ve korkunç savaşçı olan bu insanlar; İzlanda ile Grönland'ı ve Kanada kıyılarını sömürgeleştirdiler. Pruvası ejderha başı biçiminde olan, yelkenle ve kürekle yol alan, dibi hemen hemen düz inşa ettikleri uzun teknelerin üstünde Büyük Britanya'ya çıktılar; zengin manastırları yağmalayıp ağır fidyeler alarak her yere korku ve dehşet saldılar. Aynı hızlı akın tekniği, anakarada da uygulandı.

Sen Nehri boyunca denizden yukarı çıkan Normanlar; 845 ve 885 senelerinde iki kez Paris'e saldırdılar. Luvar vadisi, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Lizbon, Sevilla, hatta İtalya bile onların saldırısına uğradı (Robert Guiscard, 11. yüzyılda Sicilya'yı ele geçirecektir). Ragnar ve 911 yılında Rollo, sonraları Normandiya adını alan bölgeye yerleşti ve yüz yıl kadar sonra buradan yola çıkan Piç William İngiltere'yi işgalle girişti.

İşgaller

Vikinglerin büyük bir kısmı batıya doğru ilerlerken, Bizans'ın batısını koruyan Vareg Vikingleri de doğuya doğru ilerlemişlerdir. Vikinglerin İstanbul'a geldiğine dair çok ciddi araştırmalar yapılmaktadır. 8. ve 11. yüzyıllar arasında Avrupa'da yaşanan bu döneme, tarihte Viking Devri denir.

Şu anki İsveç, Norveç, Danimarka, İzlanda ve Faroe Adaları Viking kökenlidir.

Viking soyundan gelen Normanlar; 11. yüzyılda Büyük Britanya'yı ele geçirmiş ve İngiltere'nin en güçlü hanedanı olmuşlardır. Norman işgali, Britanya'nın son uğradığı son işgaldir.

Kültür
Vikingler cenaze törenlerini, ölülerini tahtadan ve içi toprakla doldurulmuş bir kayığa koyup yakarak gerçekleştirirlerdi.

Sanılanın aksine Vikingler başlarına boynuzlu ya da kanatlı kasklar takmamışlardır. Aslında Vikinglerin hemen hemen yarısı savaş meydanlarında kask bile takmamışlardır ve başları korumasız savaşmışlardır. Kask kullanan Vikingler ise muhtemelen rütbeli ve zengin olanlarıdır ve taktıkları kasklar herhangi bir ayırt edici özelliği olmayan kubbeli ve konik kasklardır. Bunların sayısı da oldukça sınırlı olduğundandır ki günümüze kadar ulaşabilen Viking kasklarının sayısı bir hayli azdır.

Kaynakça

Ayrıca bakınız
 Normanlar
 Eski Nors dili

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Vikingler


Frances Elena Farmer (September 19, 1913August 1, 1970) was an American actress and television hostess. She appeared in over a dozen feature films over the course of her career, though she garnered notoriety for sensationalized accounts of her life, especially her involuntary commitment to psychiatric hospitals and subsequent mental health struggles.

A native of Seattle, Washington, Farmer began acting in stage productions while a student at the University of Washington. After graduating, she began performing in stock theater before signing a film contract with Paramount Pictures on her 22nd birthday in September 1935. She made her film debut in the B film Too Many Parents (1936), followed by another B picture, Border Flight, before being given the lead role opposite Bing Crosby in the musical Western Rhythm on the Range (1936). Unhappy with the opportunities the studio gave her, Farmer returned to stock theater in 1937 before being cast in the original Broadway production of Clifford Odets's Golden Boy, staged by New York City's Group Theatre. She followed this with two Broadway productions directed by Elia Kazan in 1939, but a battle with depression and binge drinking caused her to drop out of a subsequent Ernest Hemingway stage adaptation.

Farmer returned to Los Angeles, earning supporting roles in the comedy World Premiere (1941) and the film noir Among the Living (1941). In 1942, publicity of her reportedly erratic behavior began to surface and, after several arrests and committals to psychiatric institutions, Farmer was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. At the request of her family, particularly her mother, she was committed to an institution in her home state of Washington, where she remained a patient until 1950. Farmer attempted an acting comeback, mainly appearing as a television host in Indianapolis on her own series, Frances Farmer Presents. Her final film role was in the 1958 drama The Party Crashers, after which she spent the majority of the 1960s occasionally performing in local theater productions staged by Purdue University. In the spring of 1970, she was diagnosed with esophageal cancer, from which she died on August 1, 1970, aged 56.

Farmer has been the subject of two feature films and several books focusing on her time spent institutionalized, during which she claimed to have been subjected to systemic abuse. Her posthumously released, ghostwritten, and widely discredited autobiography, Will There Really Be a Morning? (1972), details these claims, but has been exposed as a largely fictional work by a friend of Farmer's to clear debts. Another discredited 1978 biography of her life, Shadowland, alleged that Farmer underwent a transorbital lobotomy during her institutionalization, but the author has since stated in court that he fabricated this incident and several other aspects of the book. A 1982 biographical film based on this book depicted these events as true, resulting in renewed interest in her life and career.

Life and career

1913–1935: Early life
Frances Elena Farmer was born on September 19, 1913, in Seattle, Washington, the daughter of Cora Lillian (née Van Ornum; 18731955), a boardinghouse operator and dietician and Ernest Melvin Farmer (18741956), a lawyer. Her father was originally from Spring Valley, Minnesota, while her mother was from Oregon and a descendant of pioneers. Lillian's maternal grandparents were John and Jemima (Skews) Rowe, who came to Waldwick, Wisconsin, from Truro, England, in 1849. Farmer had an older sister, Edith; an older brother, Wesley; and an older half-sister, Rita, conceived during her mother's first marriage. Before the birth of Wesley and Edith, Lillian had given birth to a daughter who died of pneumonia in infancy. When she was four years old, Farmer's parents separated, and her mother moved with the children to Los Angeles, where her sister Zella lived. In early 1925, the family moved north to Chico, California, where Lillian pursued a career in nutrition research. Shortly after arriving in Chico, Lillian concluded that caring for the children was interfering with her ability to work. The children's Aunt Zella then drove them to Albany, Oregon, where they boarded a train back to Seattle to live with their father.

Farmer's inconsistent home life had a notable effect on her and, upon returning to Seattle, she recalled: "In certain ways, that train trip represented the end of my dependent childhood. I began to understand that there were certain things one could expect from adults, and others that one could not expect...being shunted from one household to another was a new adjustment, a fresh confusion, and I groped for ways to compensate for the disorder." The next year, her mother returned to Seattle after her home in Chico burned down. In Seattle, the family shared a household, but Lillian and Ernest remained separated despite his attempts to repair their marriage. In the fall of 1929, when Farmer was 16, Lillian and Ernest divorced, and Lillian moved to a cottage in Bremerton, Washington, while the children remained with their father.

In 1931, while a senior at West Seattle High School, Farmer entered and won $100 from The Scholastic Art & Writing Awards, a writing contest sponsored by Scholastic Magazine, with her controversial essay "God Dies". It was a precocious attempt to reconcile her wish for, in her words, a "superfather" God, with her observations of a chaotic and godless world. In her autobiography, she wrote that the essay was influenced by her reading of Friedrich Nietzsche: "He expressed the same doubts, only he said it in German: Gott ist tot. God is dead. This I could understand. I was not to assume that there was no God, but I could find no evidence in my life that He existed or that He had ever shown any particular interest in me. I was not an atheist, but I was surely an agnostic, and by the time I was 16, I was well indoctrinated into this theory."

After graduating from high school, Farmer enrolled at the University of Washington, initially majoring in journalism. She worked various jobs to pay her tuition, including as an usherette in a cinema, a waitress, a tutor, a laborer in a soap factory, and a singing waitress at Mount Rainier National Park. During her sophomore year, Farmer became involved with the university's drama department productions, which were considered citywide cultural events. She starred in numerous UW plays, including Helen of Troy, Everyman, and Uncle Vanya. In late 1934, she starred in UW's production of Alien Corn, which earned her favorable reviews in local press.

During her final year of college in 1935, Farmer won a subscription contest for the leftist newspaper The Voice of Action. The first prize was a trip to the Soviet Union. Farmer accepted the prize, despite her mother's strong objections, so that she could see the pioneering Moscow Art Theatre. Her interest in such topics fostered speculations that she was not only an atheist, but also a Communist. The same year, she graduated from the university with a Bachelor of Arts degree in drama.

1935–1936: Early films and rise to fame

Returning from the Soviet Union in the summer of 1935, Farmer stopped in New York City, hoping to launch a theater career. There, she met talent agent Shepard Traube, who referred her to Paramount Pictures talent scout Oscar Serlin, who arranged for a screen test. Paramount offered her a seven-year contract, which Farmer signed in New York City on her 22nd birthday. After completing screen tests on Long Island, Farmer moved to Los Angeles to begin working for Paramount. Upon arrival, she underwent dental surgery to fix a gap in her front teeth, and she spent long hours screen-testing and training on the Paramount studio lot. In November 1935, she was cast in the B-movie Too Many Parents (1936), a comedy about young men in military school. The film was a box-office success. After completing it in February 1936, Farmer wed fellow Paramount contract player Leif Erickson, whom she met on the studio lot. She was then cast in a lead role in the drama Border Flight.

Later that year, Farmer was cast in her first "A" feature, Rhythm on the Range, a Western starring Bing Crosby. She recalled of the film: "I had had a crush on him [Crosby] since my high school days, and stood in awe of the fact that in my first important film I was actually working as his leading lady." Rhythm on the Range earned favorable reviews and brought Farmer an enhanced public reputation. After its release, Paramount studio head Adolph Zukor phoned her and told her, "now that she was a rising star she'd have to start acting like one." Farmer was resistant, however, and spent most of her time at her home in Laurel Canyon with Erickson, forgoing invitations to Hollywood parties and events. In an attempt to make her marketable, Paramount chose to brand her in press releases as "the star who would not go Hollywood," focusing on her "eccentric" fashion tastes.

During the summer of 1936, she was lent to Samuel Goldwyn to appear in Come and Get It, based on the novel by Edna Ferber, in which she portrayed a young woman pursued by her mother's former lover. Howard Hawks was originally signed to direct, but was replaced by William Wyler midway through production; Farmer was indignant and clashed with Wyler during filming. He later said, "The nicest thing I can say about Frances Farmer is that she is unbearable." Though her working relationship with Wyler was tumultuous, Hawks remembered Farmer with admiration, saying that she "had more talent than anyone I ever worked with." Producers chose to premiere the film in Seattle, Farmer's hometown. At the premiere, Farmer was notably quiet and spoke little to reporters, which resulted in news reports that she was cold and aloof. Nevertheless, Come and Get It earned praise from the public and critics, with several reviews greeting Farmer as a newfound star, some likening her to Greta Garbo.

In 1937, she was lent to RKO to star opposite Cary Grant in The Toast of New York, the story of a Wall Street tycoon. The film's production was turbulent as Farmer was unhappy with the rebranding of her character from a hard-edged vixen to "an ingénue fresh from Sunnybrook." On set, she argued with director Rowland V. Lee and gave belittling interviews to the press. Unsatisfied with her career direction after The Toast of New York, Farmer resisted the studio's control and every attempt it made to glamorize her private life. A 1937 Collier's article, though, sympathetically described her as indifferent to the clothing she wore and said she drove an older-model "green roadster". Also in 1937, she appeared in the crime drama Exclusive opposite Fred MacMurray and the Technicolor adventure film Ebb Tide opposite Ray Milland.

1937–1941: Transition to theater

Unsatisfied with the expectations of the studio system and wanting to enhance her reputation as a serious actress, Farmer left Hollywood in mid-1937 to do summer stock on the East Coast, performing in Westchester, New York, and Westport, Connecticut. There, she attracted the attention of director Harold Clurman and playwright Clifford Odets, who invited her to appear in a three-month production of Odets' play Golden Boy, produced by the Group Theatre. The play opened in November 1937 and ran for a total of 248 performances. Her performance at first received mixed reviews, with Time commenting that she had been miscast. Due to Farmer's box-office appeal, however, the play became the biggest hit in the group's history. By 1938, when the production had embarked on a national tour, regional critics from Washington, DC, to Chicago gave her rave reviews.

During the run of Golden Boy, Farmer began a romantic affair with Odets, but he was married to actress Luise Rainer and did not offer Farmer a commitment. Farmer felt betrayed when Odets suddenly ended the relationship, and when the group chose another actress for its London runan actress whose family helped secure funds for the playshe came to believe that the group had used her drawing power selfishly to further the success of the play. Disheartened, Farmer returned to Los Angeles to star opposite husband Erickson in Ride a Crooked Mile (1938). In April 1939, she performed in a short-run Broadway production of Quiet City, an experimental play directed by Elia Kazan. In November that year, she returned to Broadway, portraying Melanie in Thunder Rock, also directed by Kazan, and produced by the Group Theater. The play was not well received, and Farmer was profoundly unhappy after its closing in December 1939. She subsequently accepted a role in a Broadway adaptation of Ernest Hemingway's The Fifth Column, for which she was scheduled to begin rehearsing in early 1940. During rehearsals, Farmer began binge drinking in an effort to alleviate her depression. She ultimately chose to withdraw from the production, resulting in a $1,500 fine from the Theater Guild, for "unprofessionalism".

She returned to Paramount, which assigned her a role in South of Pago Pago (1940), in which she portrayed Ruby, a woman traveling with a group of adventurers searching for pearls on an island. She was then lent to Warner Bros. to star in Flowing Gold, an adventure drama set against the oil industry, opposite John Garfield. After completing the film, Farmer returned to the East Coast to appear in summer-stock theater. Following a "lonely winter" spent living in New York City, Farmer drove back to Los Angeles in the spring of 1941, and rented a lavish mansion in Santa Monica. Her next film was World Premiere (1941), a comedy starring John Barrymore. She followed this with a supporting part in the film noir Among the Living (1941), co-starring with Susan Hayward and Albert Dekker.

During this time, Farmer was "seeking in work a respite from her personal struggles." Clurman temporarily moved into her Santa Monica home to keep her company while she completed filming of Badlands of Dakota, a Western in which she starred as Calamity Jane opposite Robert Stack. Farmer again fought with the studio over the role, which she felt was over-glamorized, further damaging her reputation with studio executives. She next appeared opposite Tyrone Power and Roddy McDowall in the film Son of Fury (1942) (on loan to 20th Century Fox), portraying the scheming daughter of a British aristocrat. Later that year, Paramount suspended her after she refused to accept a part in the film Take a Letter, Darling and voided her contract. Meanwhile, her marriage to Erickson had disintegrated, and he began dating actress Margaret Hayes. Their divorce was finalized on June 12, 1942, and Erickson married Hayes the same day.

1942–1949: Legal troubles and psychiatric confinement
On October 19, 1942, Farmer was stopped by Santa Monica police for driving with her headlights on high beam in the wartime blackout zone that affected most of the West Coast. Some reports stated she was unable to produce a driver's license, and was verbally abusive to the officers. The police suspected her of being drunk and she was jailed overnight. Farmer was fined $500 and given a 180-day suspended sentence. She immediately paid $250 and was put on probation. With her vehicle impounded and her driver's license suspended, Farmer holed up in her Santa Monica home and denied the press interviews.

In November 1942, her agent secured her a role in an independent film adaptation of John Steinbeck's Murder at Laudice, which was set to film in Mexico City. Upon arriving in Mexico, she discovered that the shooting script was unfinished, and the production never reached fruition. While in Mexico City, Farmer was allegedly charged with drunk and disorderly conduct and disturbing the peace, and was forced by authorities to return to the United States. Upon returning to California, she found her Santa Monica home cleared of her possessions and inhabited by a strange family. Farmer later contended that her mother and sister-in-law had stripped the house and stored her belongings while she was gone. Her mother rented her a room at the Knickerbocker Hotel in Hollywood, where she temporarily took residence.

By January 1943, Farmer had failed to pay the remainder of her fine, and a bench warrant was issued for her arrest. At almost the same time, a studio hairdresser filed an assault charge alleging that Farmer had hit her in the face and dislocated her jaw on set. Shortly after, Farmer was allegedly seen running down Sunset Boulevard topless after getting into a brawl at a bar. On January 14, 1943, police went to the Knickerbocker to arrest her, but she did not surrender peacefully and was dragged from the hotel naked.

At her hearing the following morning, Farmer behaved erratically. She claimed the police had violated her rights; demanded an attorney; and threw an inkwell at the judge. When asked about her drinking habits, Farmer told the judge: "I put liquor in my milk... in my coffee and in my orange juice." She also admitted to regularly drinking benzedrine. The judge sentenced her to 180 days in jail. While being taken from the courtroom, Farmer knocked down a policeman and bruised another, along with a matron; she ran to a phone booth where she tried to call her attorney, but was subdued by the police. When they physically carried her away, she shouted: "Have you ever had a broken heart?"

Through the efforts of her sister-in-law, a deputy sheriff in Los Angeles County, Farmer avoided jail time and was instead transferred to the psychiatric ward of Los Angeles General Hospital on January 20. There, she was diagnosed with "manic depressive psychosis, probably the forerunner of a definite dementia praecox." Days later, with assistance from the Screen Actors Guild, she was transferred to the Kimball Sanitarium, a minimum-security psychiatric institute in the San Fernando Valley. Psychiatrists there diagnosed her with paranoid schizophrenia. She was administered insulin shock therapy, then a standard psychiatric procedure, whose side effects included intense nausea. Her family later claimed they did not consent to the treatment, as documented in her sister's self-published book, Look Back in Love, and in court records; Farmer herself later alleged that she was given insulin treatments for 90 consecutive days. After nine months at the Kimball Sanitarium, Farmer walked out of the institute one afternoon and traveled to her half-sister Rita's house, over  away. They called their mother in Seattle to complain about the insulin treatments.

Lillian traveled to California and began a lengthy legal battle to take formal guardianship of Frances from the state of California. Although several psychiatrists testified that Farmer needed further treatment, her mother prevailed. The two of them left Los Angeles by train on September 13, 1943. Farmer moved in with her parents in West Seattle, but her mother and she fought bitterly. Farmer wrote in her autobiography: "Mamma and I had fought, argued, threatened, and screamed until it had finally come down to a climax of two exhausted women sitting across from each other in a small, cluttered kitchen. We were enemies who had grown tired of pretending." After one violent physical attack, Lillian had Farmer committed to Western State Hospital at Steilacoom, Washington. In a 1958 television interview by Ralph Edwards on his This is Your Life program, Frances recalled her experience:

Three months later, in early July 1944, she was pronounced "completely cured" and released. Shortly after her release, on July 15, Farmer was arrested for vagrancy in Antioch, California.

In January 1945, Farmer's father brought her to stay at her aunt's ranch in Yerington, Nevada. During her stay, Farmer ran away from the residence. She was discovered several days later at a movie theater in Reno, and returned by police to her aunt's home. Several months later, on May 18, 1945, Lillian filed for a sanity hearing for Farmer after she ran away from their home in Seattle. The hearing was held on May 21, during which the court ruled that Farmer was to be recommitted to Western State Hospital. She remained an inmate of the hospital for the next five years, with the exception of a brief parole in 1946. Throughout her internment, Farmer remained in the high-security ward for the hospital's "violent" patients. Her treatment at Western State was subject to significant public and critical discussion in the years after her death.

1950–1958: Post-hospitalization and comeback attempt
On March 23, 1950, at her parents' request, Farmer was paroled back into her mother's care. A year later, on March 25, 1951, Farmer was formally discharged from the jurisdiction of Western State, but was not made aware of it for two years; in the interim, she believed her recommitment to the hospital an imminent threat. In June 1953, upon discovering her discharge, Farmer requested that her mother's conservatorship be lifted, which the Superior Court did. With her freedom restored, Farmer took a job sorting laundry at the Olympic Hotel in Seattle, the same hotel where she had been fêted in 1936 at Come and Get It's premiere. While working at the Olympic Hotel, a co-worker set Farmer up on a blind date with Alfred H. Lobley, a 45-year-old city utility worker. The two married in April 1954, and moved in with Lillian, who was growing senile and needed assistance at home. Within the year, Lillian was sent to a nursing home, after which Farmer's marriage to Lobley began to disintegrate.

Farmer remained estranged from her sister until Lillian's death from a stroke in March 1955. After their mother's death, Farmer's sister Edith moved to Portland, Oregon, to be nearer to their father, who died there on July 15, 1956, also of a stroke. During this time, Farmer and Edith occasionally corresponded. Edith claimed that on one occasion, Farmer visited her in Portland, where the two spent an afternoon at The Grotto, a Catholic sanctuary they had once visited with their father.

In late 1957, Farmer separated from Lobley and relocated to Eureka, California, where she found work as a bookkeeper and secretary at a commercial photo studio. In Eureka, she met Leland C. Mikesell, an independent broadcast promoter from Indianapolis, who recognized her at a local bar. The two soon became romantically involved, and Mikesell envisioned a career comeback for her. They moved to San Francisco, where Farmer temporarily worked as a clerk at the Park Sheraton Hotel. In 1958,  Mikesell and she married.

In a December 1957 interview with Modern Screen, Farmer said: "I blame nobody for my fall. I had to face agonizing decisions when I was younger. The decisions broke me. But, too, there was a lack of philosophy in my life. With faith in myself and in God I think I have won the fight to control myself." She subsequently made two appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show, during one of which she played guitar and sang "Aura Lee", a folk song she had performed in Come and Get It (1936). She also appeared on This Is Your Life in an attempt to clarify the veracity of the publicity she had received throughout her career. Farmer explained to This is Your Life'''s host, Ralph Edwards:

Edwards later asked Farmer about her supposed alcoholism: "Other stories accuse you of being an alcoholic. Were you, Frances?" Farmer's reply was, "No, I was never an alcoholic", an adamant denial that also applied to Edwards's subsequent question about "dope".

In August 1957, Farmer returned to the stage in New Hope, Pennsylvania, for a summer-stock production of Enid Bagnold's The Chalk Garden. Through the spring of 1958, Farmer appeared in several live television dramas, some of which are preserved on kinescope; the same year, she made her last film, The Party Crashers, a potboiler drama produced by Paramount and described by one writer as "a crappy B-movie about wild teenagers and stupid adults." Then, in July 1958, Farmer accepted the lead role in a production of Yes, My Darling Daughter, due to the reciprocal arrangements that existed between one of the summer-stock East Coast theaters in which she performed and venues in the Midwest; this particular role was based at a theater in Indianapolis.

1959–1964: Stage and television work
Farmer's stage work proved beneficial, as she received the opportunity to host her own daytime movie program, Frances Farmer Presents. The show was created after a television executive from the local National Broadcasting Company (NBC) affiliate, WFBM-TV (now known as WRTV), saw her performance in The Chalk Garden in August 1958. The program made her popular as an amiable host, and she subsequently received an award as a local businesswoman of the year. By March 1959, though, national wire service reports indicated that she had separated from Mikesell and that he was suing her for breach of contract. In 1959, Farmer moved in with Jeanira "Jean" Ratcliffe, a widow with whom she became good friends in Indianapolis.

In 1962, Farmer appeared in a Purdue University production of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull. The following year, her divorce from Mikesell was finalized in Indianapolis. Frances Farmer Presents ended in the summer of 1964; the station's general manager had fired her in April, hired her back two months later, but then dismissed Farmer permanently in late August/early September, aggravated by her alleged drinking binges. Farmer continued her stage work and accepted a role in a Purdue Summer Theatre production of Ketti Frings's Look Homeward, Angel. In 1965, she played Claire Zachanassian in Purdue's production of Friedrich Dürrenmatt's The Visit, which ran at the Loeb Playhouse on campus from October 22 to 30, 1965. The production has been described as follows:

During the production of The Visit, Farmer was involved in a drunk-driving crash. When confronted by police, she recalled: "Rather than answering as Frances Farmer, I reverted to my role in the play and [suddenly became] the richest woman in the world, shouting to high heaven that I would buy his goddamned town. I got out stiff-legged and ivory-handed, quoting all the imperious lines I could remember. Unfortunately, this did not [sit] well with the [cop], and a patrol car took me to jail." Ironically, following reports of the incident in the media, the next night's performance of The Visit completely sold out. Farmer was very reluctant to return to the stage, but was encouraged by Ratcliffe; Farmer recounted the experience of the performance in her autobiography: "[T]here was a long silent pause as I stood there, followed by the most thunderous applause of my career. [The audience] swept the scandal under the rug with their ovation." It was "my finest and final performance. I knew I would never need to act onstage again. I felt satisfied and rewarded."

1965–1970: Final years
During the early and mid-1960s, Farmer was actress-in-residence at Purdue University, and spent the majority of her free time painting and writing poetry.  She and Ratcliffe attempted to start a small cosmetics company, but although their products were successfully field-tested, the project failed after the man who handled their investment portfolio embezzled their funds. In 1968, she formally converted to Roman Catholicism, as she claimed to have felt God in her life and sensed that she "would have to find a disciplined avenue of faith and worship." She recounted her experience:  Farmer had a great affection for the Saint Joan of Arc church and attended services there regularly in her last years. During this period, she also gave up drinking, and began considering writing an autobiography. She negotiated a collaboration with Lois Kibbee, who encouraged her to tape-record her life story. The experience was emotionally jarring for Farmer, specifically the revisiting of medical records from her institutionalization. The book went unfinished, but Ratcliffe used its manuscript in compiling Farmer's posthumously released autobiography, Will There Really Be a Morning?.

Death
In the spring of 1970, Farmer was diagnosed with esophageal cancer, which was attributed to a life of heavy smoking. She was hospitalized for three weeks before being sent home for a brief period. She died of the cancer at Indianapolis Community Hospital on August 1, 1970. She is interred at Oaklawn Memorial Gardens Cemetery in Fishers, Indiana.

Posthumous controversies
Allegations of psychiatric mistreatment

In the years after Farmer's death, her treatment at Western State was the subject of serious discussion and wild speculation. Kenneth Anger included a chapter relating her breakdown in his 1965 work Hollywood Babylon. Farmer's posthumously published autobiography Will There Really Be a Morning? described a brutal incarceration. In the book, Farmer claimed she had been brutalized and mistreated in numerous ways. Some of the claims included being forced to eat her own feces and act as a sex slave for male doctors and orderlies. Farmer recounted her stay in the state asylum as "unbearable terror": "I was raped by orderlies, gnawed on by rats, and poisoned by tainted food. I was chained in padded cells, strapped into strait-jackets and half-drowned in ice baths."

Jean Ratcliffe, a close friend and companion of Farmer, arranged the publication of Will There Really Be a Morning?. Controversy exists over what portions of the book she edited or ghostwrote. Ratcliffe claimed she wrote only the final chapter about Farmer's death.

Lobotomy claims
In 1978, Seattle film reviewer William Arnold published Shadowland, which for the first time alleged that Farmer had been the subject of a transorbital lobotomy. Scenes of Farmer being subjected to this lobotomy procedure were featured in the 1982 film Frances, which had initially been planned as an adaptation of Shadowland, though its producers ultimately reneged on their agreement with Arnold. During a court case against the film's producers, Brooksfilms, Arnold revealed that the lobotomy episode and much of his biography was "fictionalized". Years later, on a DVD commentary track of the movie, director Graeme Clifford said, "We didn't want to nickel-and-dime people to death with facts."

Farmer's family, former lovers, and three ex-husbands all denied, or did not confirm, that the procedure took place. Farmer's sister, Edith, said the hospital asked her parents' permission to perform the lobotomy, but her father was "horrified" by the notion and threatened legal action "if they tried any of their guinea-pig operations on her." Western State recorded all of the 300 lobotomies performed during Farmer's time there; no evidence has been found that Farmer received one. In 1983, Seattle newspapers interviewed former hospital staff members, including all the lobotomy ward nurses who were on duty during Farmer's years at Western State, and they all said she was never a patient on that ward. Dr. Walter Freeman's private records contained no mention of Farmer. Charles Jones, a psychiatric resident at Western State during Farmer's stays, also said that Farmer never had a lobotomy.

Writer Jeffrey Kauffmann published an extensive online essay, "Shedding Light on Shadowland", that debunks much of Arnold's book, including the account of the lobotomy.

In popular culture
In 1982, Jessica Lange portrayed Farmer in the feature film Frances; the film depicts Farmer undergoing a lobotomy, the veracity of which has been disputed. The next year, a television adaptation of Will There Really Be a Morning? was released with Susan Blakely as Farmer. Another feature film based on her life, Committed, was produced in 1984.

In music, she is portrayed in the following songs:

 "The Medal Song" on "Waking Up with the House on Fire" (1984) by Culture Club
 "Paint By Numbers (Song for Frances)" on "I Thought You'd Be Taller!" (1984) by Romanovsky and Phillips
 "Ugly Little Dreams" on "Love Not Money" (1985) by Everything but the Girl
 "Frances" on "Soothe" (1992) by Motorpsycho
 "Frances Farmer Will Have Her Revenge on Seattle" (1993) by Nirvana on their final studio album, In Utero.
 "Frances Farmer" (2004) by Patterson Hood
 "Rats!Rats!Rats!" (2006) by Deftones, the eight track from Saturday Night Wrist
 "Didn't I See This Movie?" (2009) by Tom Kitt and Brian Yorkey from the musical Next to Normal.

French singer-songwriter Mylène Farmer chose her stage name in homage to the actress. She is mentioned in "Lobotomy Gets Them Home" (1989) on The Men They Couldn't Hang's album Silvertown. She was the subject of a stage play by Sally Clark, Saint Frances of Hollywood (1996).

In the 2017 Netflix original series Mindhunter, the character version of Edmund Kemper erroneously says Farmer was lobotomized.

Farmer was referenced in the 2022 "The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel" episode "Billy Jones and the Orgy Lamps" with a character's mental breakdown being described as  "full-on Frances Farmer."

Filmography

Stage credits

 See also

 Eleanor Riese
 Nellie Bly

Notes

References

Works cited

 Brigitte Tast, Hans Jürgen Tast: Frances Farmer. Eine Fotogeschichte. Hildesheim 1979, ISBN 3-88842-010-5.
 Brigitte Tast, Hans Jürgen Tast: Frances Farmer. Kulleraugen-Materialsammlung Nr. 7''. Schellerten 1984, ISBN 3-88842-107-1.

External links

 "God Dies"an original essay by Farmer, composed in 1931
 Shedding Light on Shadowland – Essay debunking many commonly believed myths about Farmer, with a wealth of previously undisclosed information about her
 Frances Farmer biography by HistoryLink, Washington State

1913 births
1970 deaths
20th-century American actresses
American film actresses
American stage actresses
American television actresses
20th-century American memoirists
American television personalities
American women television personalities
Burials in Indiana
Deaths from cancer in Indiana
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Paramount Pictures contract players
Actresses from Seattle
Catholics from Washington (state)
People with schizophrenia
University of Washington alumni
American women memoirists
West Seattle High School alumni

Frances Farmer


Jernbane Allé er navnet på flere veje i Danmark:
 Jernbane Allé (Espergærde)
 Jernbane Allé (Odense)
 Jernbane Allé (Store Heddinge)
 Jernbane Allé (Tåstrup)
 Jernbane Allé (Vanløse)
 Jernbane Allé (Vildbjerg)

Jernbane Allé


La acción de oro es una acción nominal que permite a su poseedor vencer a todas las demás acciones y accionistas en una votación bajo ciertas circunstancias. Su poseedor suele ser una organización gubernamental, un Gobierno o un Estado. Este tipo de títulos financieros son habituales en compañías públicas que están siendo o fueron sometidas a un proceso de privatización y transformación en una compañía cotizada. Aunque no solamente se utiliza en estos casos, puede suceder que en la constitución de una empresa entre particulares surja esta acción de oro, como medio de garantía o seguridad en la inversión de uno de los socios o, beneficios otorgados por un tercero. Este último puede ser el caso de un banco que presta una cierta suma de dinero, pero el deudor no puede por determinadas razones, (excusables para su momento) cumplir con el pago, en este caso se le otorga una acción dorada al banco para que este pueda proteger  sus intereses.

Historia
El término apareció en los años 1980 cuando el Gobierno Británico mantuvo acciones de oro en diferentes empresas privatizadas, táctica seguida en la privatización de diferentes empresas posteriormente en diferentes países de Europa.

Más adelante fue introducida en Rusia (en ruso: Zolotaya Aktsiya, "Золотая Акция") en noviembre de 1992.

Enlaces externos
Golden Share en Investopedia.com

Capital
Finanzas

Acción de oro


Pazar, Ankara ilinin Kızılcahamam ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Tarihçe
Mahallenin adı, eskiden kurulan bölge pazarının bu mahallede olması sebebiyle Pazar mahallesi olmuştur.

Mahallenin tarihi Kızılcahamam Tarihinden de eskidir. Eski bir yerleşim bölgesi olan Pazar, Hititler başta olmak üzere birçok anadolu medeniyetinin önemli yerleşim birimlerinden biri olmuştur. Selçuklu döneminde çıkan iç çatışmalar esnasında mahallenin demografik yapısı tamamen değişmiştir.  Bu tarihten itibaren bölgeye yoğun olarak Çiğil Türkleri yerleşmişlerdir. "Çıtak" ya da "çiti ak" yani beyaz çitli sözü çiğil Türklerinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Çiğil Türkleri, Ankara Savaşı esnasında Timur'un otağında dikili duran Çiğil tuğlarını görünce, birçok oğuz boyu ile birlikte savaş esnasında Timur'un ordusuna katılmıştır. Daha sonra yaşanan fetret döneminde Timur'un desteğini alan bu türkmenler bölgeyi büyük bir ticaret merkezi haline getirmişlerdir. Bölgede kurulan pazara uzak yerleşim bölgelerinden tüccarlar gelmişlerdir. Bu dönemde bölgeye kıpçak yerleşimlerinin başladığı görülmektedir. Sarışın yeşil gözlü bu Türkmenler, kuzeydeki boy ve aşiret çatışmalarından uzaklaşmak ve kendilerine yeni meralar bulmak amacıyla bölgeye yerleşmişlerdir. Bununla birlikte yine Osmanlı döneminde nüfusun bir bölümü Osmanlı İskan politikaları dolayısıyla Rumeliye taşınmıştır. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu için Pazar önemli bir yerleşim bölgesidir. Taycılık, hayvancılık ve tarım bölgenin o dönemdeki yoğun uğraşları arasındadır. Hacı Turhasan Bey 'in önderliğini yaptığı Durhasanoğulları beyliği bu bölgede hüküm sürmüştür. Bölge Osmanlı Rus savaşı döneminde Tatar göçü almıştır. Yaklaşık 10 hane olan bu Tatarlar bölgeye yakın köylere yerleştirilmişlerdir.

Dünya Savaşı esnasında mahalle nüfusunun büyük bir kısmı cephede savaş esnasında şehit düşmüştür. Bu dönemin ardından yine Millî Mücadele yıllarında da geride kalan yetişkin erkek nüfus cepheye taşınmıştır. Cumhuriyet'in kurulması ile birlikte mahalle nüfusu yeniden artış göstermeye başlamış, lakin Kızılcahamam'ın merkez olarak belirlenmesinin ardından Köy nüfusu başta Ankara olmak üzere çevre yerleşim birimlerine göç etme eğilimi göstermiştir.

Kızılcahamam'dan daha eski bir yerleşim birimi olan Pazar'da Camiiye dönüştürülmüş Ermeni kilisesi, Ermeni ve Rumlara (Romalılara) ait mezar kalıntıları, Selçuklu döneminde ait çeşitli kalıntılar bulunmaktadır.

Coğrafya
Kızılcahamam'a 24 km, Ankara'ya ise 65 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 Pazar nahiyesi
 Kızılcahamam

Kızılcahamam'ın mahalleleri

Pazar, Kızılcahamam


foi um oficial militar e político japonês. Durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, ele foi um importante planejador tático no Exército Imperial Japonês; ele desenvolveu os planos detalhados para a bem-sucedida invasão japonesa da Malásia no início da guerra. Ele também ajudou a planejar e liderar a ofensiva japonesa final durante a Campanha de Guadalcanal. Em 1939, Masanobu tomou parte ativa na guerra de fronteira com os soviéticos; comandando uma unidade do Exército de Kwantung na Batalha de Khalkhin Gol (conhecida como Nomohan no Japão). Perspicaz e intelectualmente arrogante, frequentemente serviu em funções de estado-maior durante grandes operações.

Tsuji esteve profundamente envolvido nas atrocidades japonesas durante a guerra, incluindo a Marcha da Morte de Bataan e o Massacre Sook Ching ("Expurgo através da Purificação"). Ele evitou a acusação por crimes de guerra japoneses no final da guerra escondendo-se na Tailândia. Ele retornou ao Japão em 1949 e foi eleito para a Dieta como defensor do militarismo renovado. Em 1961, ele desapareceu em uma viagem ao Laos.

Tsuji estava entre os militaristas japoneses mais agressivos e influentes. Ele foi um dos principais proponentes do conceito de gekokujō (literalmente "a base derrubando o topo"), agindo sem ou contrariamente à autorização vinda de cima. Ele incitou o confronto fronteiriço de 1939 com a URSS e foi um defensor veemente da guerra contra os Estados Unidos.

Ele tinha fortes visões "pan-asiáticas" e achava que os povos de outros países asiáticos deveriam apoiar o Japão contra as potências ocidentais. Suas visões ultranacionalistas e militaristas, e seu histórico de guerra, lhe renderam o apoio de muitos nacionalistas japoneses com ideias semelhantes, ao fim do qual seus apoiadores ergueram-lhe uma estátua na cidade de Kaga, no Japão.

Biografia
Masanobu Tsuji nasceu na província de Ishikawa no Japão, em 11 de outubro de 1901. Ele recebeu sua educação secundária em uma academia militar e depois se formou na Academia do Exército Imperial Japonês. Em 1932, Tsuji entrou em ação na China e, posteriormente, viajou até Sinkiang.

Em 1934, ele era ativo nas intrigas políticas do Exército como membro da Tōseiha ("Fação do Controle") e ajudou a bloquear a tentativa de golpe-de-estado da rival Kōdōha ("Facção do Caminho Imperial"). Isso lhe trouxe o patrocínio do general e futuro primeiro-ministro Hideki Tojo e do general e futuro ministro da Guerra Seishirō Itagaki. Tsuji serviu como oficial de estado-maior no Exército de Kwantung de 1937-1939. Sua atitude agressiva e insubordinada exacerbou os conflitos fronteiriços soviético-japoneses e ajudou a incitar a Batalha de Khalkhin Gol em 1939.

Hokushin-ron
Masanobu Tsuji era um ardente defensor da "Doutrina de Expansão para o Norte" (Hokushin-ron, "Caminho do Norte"), uma doutrina política japonesa do final do século XIX e início do século XX que via as regiões da Manchúria e da Sibéria como espaço-vital de expansão e influência japoneses. Essa doutrina passou a dominar a política externa japonesa a partir da Primeira Guerra Sino-Japonesa na década de 1890, e gozando de amplo apoio dentro do Exército Imperial Japonês durante o período Entre-Guerras. Seus apoiadores às vezes eram chamados de Grupo de Ataque Norte. Ela guiou tanto a invasão japonesa de Taiwan (1895) quanto o Tratado Japão-Coreia de 1910, que anexou a Coreia ao Japão.

Após a Guerra Russo-Japonesa (1904-5), o Marechal Príncipe Yamagata Aritomo, um arquiteto ideológico político e militar do Hokushin-ron, traçou as linhas de uma estratégia defensiva contra a Rússia, e dentro dessa lógica os japoneses foram mobilizadas como parte da intervenção na Sibéria durante a intervenção dos Aliados na Guerra Civil Russa, com a esperança de que o Japão pudesse se ver livre de qualquer futura ameaça russa ao separar a Sibéria e formar um estado-tampão independente. Sob o controle total do chefe do Estado-Maior, Yui Mitsue, um extenso planejamento para a expedição foi realizado e os japoneses finalmente mobilizaram 70.000 soldados sob o comando do General Kikuzo Otani – muito mais do que qualquer outra potência aliada havia previsto. Além disso, embora os Aliados tivessem previsto operações apenas nas proximidades de Vladivostok, em poucos meses as forças japonesas haviam penetrado até o oeste do Lago Baikal e Buriácia, e em 1920, conglomerados zaibatsu como Mitsubishi, Mitsui e outros abriram escritórios em Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Nikolayevsk-on-Amur e Tchita, trazendo consigo mais de 50.000 colonos civis.

Em 1920, a coalizão internacional retirou suas forças da Sibéria mas o exército japonês permaneceu. Suas tentativas nessa primeira empreitada foram abandonadas finalmente em 1922 devido à pressão internacional, por conta do expansionismo descarado de Tóquio, e nacional pelo custo alto de manter a ocupação da região. O Japão perdeu 1.399 mortos em combate e outros 1.717 mortos por doenças durante a sua intervenção na Sibéria.

Para governar seus territórios continentais na Manchúria, o Japão criou o Exército de Kwantung em 1919. No altamente politizado Exército Imperial Japonês das décadas de 1920 e 1930, o Exército de Kwantung era um reduto da radical "Facção do Caminho Imperial" (Kōdōha), e muitos de seus altos oficiais defendiam abertamente a mudança política no Japão através da violenta derrubada do governo civil para trazer uma Restauração Shōwa, com uma reorganização da sociedade e da economia ao longo das linhas fascistas estatais. Eles também defendiam uma política externa mais agressiva e expansionista em relação ao continente asiático. Membros ou ex-membros do Exército Kwantung foram ativos em inúmeras tentativas de golpe contra o governo civil, culminando com o Incidente de 26 de fevereiro de 1936, onde a facção Kōdōha foi dissolvida.

Um passo essencial na doutrina Hokushin-ron era que o Japão tomasse o controle da Manchúria, de modo a obter uma extensa fronteira terrestre com a União Soviética. A insubordinação de militares japoneses rebeldes no Exército de Kwantung em 1931 levou ao Incidente de Mukden e forneceu um pretexto para a invasão japonesa da Manchúria; em um ato maciço de insubordinação (gekokujo) contra as ordens expressas da liderança política e militar baseada em Tóquio. O Exército de Kwantung tinha apenas 12.000 homens para a invasão da Manchúria e precisava de reforços, com o ministro da Guerra Sadao Araki (um sólido defensor do Hokushin-ron) transferindo forças do Exército Chosen (comandado pelo General Seishirō Itagaki) do norte da Coreia para a Manchúria sem permissão de Tóquio. Um Estado-fantoche foi então criado no nordeste da China e na Mongólia Interior, nomeado Manchukuo e governado sob uma forma de monarquia constitucional.

Essa intervenção do exército aumentou seu prestígio, e levou a marinha a engendrar a crise de Xanghai no ano seguinte para também participar na glória. Masanobu Tsuji desembarcou em Xanghai com o reforço do exército, como comandante de companhia, e participou da batalha urbana então em curso. No mesmo ano de 1932, choques de fronteira espontâneos começaram a ocorrer entre os japoneses de Manchukuo e os soviéticos e seus aliados da República Popular da Mongólia.

Segunda Guerra Mundial

Após a derrota em Khalkhin Gol, Masanobu Tsuji se opôs a quaisquer novos conflitos com a URSS. Após o ataque à URSS em 1941, os alemães instaram os japoneses a se juntarem à invasão, e muitos militares japoneses queriam vingar a derrota em Khalkhin Gol. No entanto, Tsuji foi um influente defensor do ataque aos Estados Unidos. O General Ryukichi Tanaka testemunhou após a guerra que "o protagonista mais determinado a favor da guerra com os Estados Unidos era Tsuji Masanobu". Tsuji escreveu mais tarde que sua experiência do poder de fogo soviético em Khalkhin Gol o convenceu a não atacar a União Soviética em 1941.

Seus protetores no Exército o transferiram com segurança para Taiwan, onde ele ajudou a organizar a escola de guerra na selva do Exército. Ele foi então designado para a Seção de Operações do Estado-Maior, onde se tornou um forte defensor da guerra com os Estados Unidos e a Grã-Bretanha. Foi alegado que no final de 1941, ele planejou o assassinato do primeiro-ministro Fumimaro Konoye, caso Konoye conseguisse a paz com os EUA.

Quando a guerra com os Estados Unidos e a Grã-Bretanha começou, Tsuji estava no estado-maior do General Tomoyuki Yamashita, cujo exército invadiu a Malásia. Ele foi o grande responsável pelo planejamento do desembarque bem-sucedido de Yamashita na Malásia e da campanha subsequente contra Cingapura. Após a captura de Cingapura, Tsuji ajudou a planejar o Sook Ching – um massacre sistemático de milhares de chineses cingapurianos e malaios julgados passíveis de serem hostis ao Japão.

Tsuji planejou o ataque terrestre japonês na Nova Guiné, através da Trilha de Kokoda. Nesta como em outras operações, ele ordenou movimentos ofensivos ousados, independentemente das dificuldades ou dos custos para as tropas envolvidas.

No final de 1942, Tsuji foi para Guadalcanal, onde planejou e liderou o último grande ataque japonês em 23 e 24 de outubro. Depois que esses ataques foram derrotados, Tsuji foi pessoalmente a Tóquio para pedir reforços adicionais. Mas ele então aceitou a conclusão da Marinha de que nada poderia passar para a ilha e recomendou a evacuação das tropas restantes. Ele impressionou o imperador com sua franqueza; mas o fiasco de Guadalcanal o desacreditou. Ele foi enviado para o QG japonês em Nanquim, que estava praticamente inativo, pelo próximo ano. Enquanto estava lá, ele fez contatos com vários chineses, incluindo colaboradores e agentes do governo de Chiang Kai-shek.

Em meados de 1944, Tsuji foi enviado para a Birmânia (hoje Mianmar), onde as forças japonesas foram repelidas em Imphal. Tsuji foi designado para o 33º Exército, que enfrentou os chineses no nordeste da Birmânia. Ele era um planejador enérgico e eficiente, embora notoriamente arrogante; uma vez Masanobu ajudou a reprimir o pânico nas fileiras tomando um banho ostensivamente sob fogo nas linhas de frente.

Atrocidades e crimes de guerra

Tsuji ajudou a planejar o Massacre Sook Ching ("Expurgo através da Purificação") contra a população étnica chinesa de Cingapura, depois se estendendo aos chineses da Malásia. O massacre transcorreu entre 18 de fevereiro e 4 de março de 1942, em várias localidades do país. Após a guerra, as autoridades japonesas reconheceram que o massacre ocorreu, mas discordaram sobre o número de mortes que o Japão havia causado. O Japão afirmou que não mais de "5.000 mortes" ocorreram, enquanto o primeiro primeiro-ministro de Cingapura, Lee Kuan Yew, que foi quase uma vítima do Sook Ching, afirmou que números verificáveis o colocariam em "cerca de 70.000", incluindo os números da Malásia.

De acordo com o testemunho do pós-guerra obtido de um correspondente de guerra incorporado ao 25º Exército, o Coronel Hishakari Takafumi, uma ordem para matar 50.000 chineses, 20% do total da população, foi emitida por altos oficiais do estado-maior de operações de Yamashita, seja pelo Tenente-Coronel Tsuji Masanobu, chefe de Planejamento e Operações, ou pelo Major Hayashi Tadahiko, Chefe do Estado-Maior. A triagem foi realizada principalmente pela Kempeitai (a polícia militar japonesa) nas áreas urbanas e pela Divisão de Guardas Imperiais nos demais distritos. Inicialmente, o plano era que a operação fosse realizada de 21 a 23 de fevereiro de 1942; o que posteriormente foi prorrogado até 4 de março.

Masanobu foi então transferido para o estado-maior do General Masaharu Homma nas Filipinas. Após a rendição americana, Tsuji procurou matar todos os prisioneiros americanos e encorajou os maus-tratos brutais e o assassinato casual de prisioneiros na Marcha da Morte de Bataan. Ele também executou muitos funcionários do governo filipino capturados, inclusive ordenando a execução do chefe de justiça filipino, José Abad Santos, e a tentativa de execução do ex-presidente da Câmara dos Deputados, Manuel Roxas.

Após a guerra, os criminosos de guerra japoneses foram processados, mas Tsuji fugiu e conseguiu evitar o julgamento pelo Massacre Sook Ching. Alguns outros oficiais do exército, por seguirem o comando de Tsuji, foram acusados e dois deles foram executados. Por causa dos crimes de guerra na Marcha da Morte de Bataan, o General Homma, que se considerava um humanista e ficou surpreso ao ouvir sobre os fatos da Marcha da Morte de Bataan após a guerra, foi responsabilizado por seus subordinados e foi executado enquanto Tsuji estava foragido.

Vida pós-guerra e desaparecimento
Quando a posição japonesa na Birmânia entrou em colapso em 1945, Masanobu Tsuji escapou, primeiro para a Tailândia e depois para a China, onde renovou os contatos feitos em Nanquim. Ele também visitou o Vietnã, então em desordem com o Viet Minh resistindo ao restabelecimento do domínio francês. Na China, Tsuji era tanto um prisioneiro quanto funcionário da inteligência chinesa.

Em 1948, ele foi autorizado a renunciar ao serviço chinês e retornou ao Japão. Ele começou a publicar livros e artigos sobre suas experiências de guerra, incluindo um relato da vitória japonesa na Malásia. Ele também escreveu sobre seus anos escondidos em Senkō Sanzenri (潜行三千里;) "3.000 li (milhas chinesas) escondido", que se tornou um best-seller. Ele foi eleito para a Dieta em 1952 e reeleito duas vezes.

Em abril de 1961, ele viajou para o Laos e nunca mais se ouviu falar dele. Pensava-se que ele poderia ter sido morto na Guerra Civil do Laos, mas também havia rumores de que ele se tornou um conselheiro do governo norte-vietnamita. Ele foi declarado morto em 20 de julho de 1968.

Informações divulgadas posteriormente em arquivos da CIA
Arquivos da CIA desclassificados em 2005-2006 mostram que Tsuji também trabalhou para a CIA como espião durante a Guerra Fria. Os arquivos também reconheceram os escritos de Tsuji em seu livro Senkō Sanzenri como sendo principalmente factuais. Os documentos descreviam Masanobu Tsuji como um "par inseparável" com Takushiro Hattori, e os declaravam "extremamente irresponsáveis" e que "não assumiriam as consequências de suas ações". Além disso, Tsuji é considerado "o tipo de homem que, dada a chance, iniciaria a Terceira Guerra Mundial sem quaisquer receios", e como um ativo para a CIA, ele foi descrito como não tendo valor devido à falta de experiência em política e manipulação de informações.

Além disso, os arquivos contêm informações de que Hattori teria planejado um golpe para derrubar o governo japonês em 1952, que envolveria o assassinato do primeiro-ministro Shigeru Yoshida e sua substituição por Ichiro Hatoyama, do Partido Liberal Democrata (PLD); mas Tsuji impediu o golpe, persuadindo o grupo de que os verdadeiros inimigos não eram conservadores como Yoshida, mas o Partido Socialista. Dois documentos da CIA dizem que a trama teria o apoio de 500.000 pessoas no Japão e que o grupo planejava usar um contato que controlava uma facção dentro da Agência de Segurança Nacional – uma precursora do Ministério da Defesa – para ajudar a lançar o golpe. Os arquivos da CIA, no entanto, dizem que as operações estavam repletas de vazamentos de inteligência, prejudicadas pela falta de agentes competentes e profundamente comprometidas pelas rivalidades entre os próprios golpistas. As principais prioridades dos agentes, segundo os documentos, eram os lucros e um eventual ressurgimento de um Japão militarista. Ainda, os arquivos também afirmam que a CIA soube da trama somente após o fato e que a informação foi obtida de uma fonte não confiável vinda da China. Alguns acadêmicos, como Tetsuo Arima, da Universidade de Waseda, sugeriram que toda a história pode ter sido um blefe vazado para os chineses pelo próprio Tsuji, como uma maneira de fazê-lo parecer mais influente do que realmente era.

De acordo com os arquivos da CIA, quando Tsuji retornou de Hanói a Vientiane, ele foi sequestrado pelo Partido Comunista Chinês e estava preso em Yunnan, ostensivamente para ser usado de alguma forma para piorar as relações Japão-EUA ou a posição do Japão no Sudeste Asiático. Tsuji foi considerado ainda vivo em 8 de agosto de 1962 com base na análise de caligrafia realizada na escrita em um envelope que foi trazido a eles em 24 de agosto de 1962. No entanto, nunca mais se ouviu sobre ele.

Ver também
 Lista de pessoas que desapareceram misteriosamente
 Massacre Sook Ching

Condecorações
 Ordem do Tesouro Sagrado, 3ª Classe
 Ordem da Pipa Dourada, 4ª Classe e 5ª Classe
 Ordem do Sol Nascente, Raios Dourados com Roseta
 Decoração da Manchúria, 4ª Classe e 5ª Classe
 Medalha de Comemoração da Coroação do Imperador Showa
 Medalha Comemorativa do Censo
 Medalha Comemorativa da Fundação da Manchúria
 Medalha de Comemoração do 2.600º Ano após a Ascensão do Imperador Jimmu
 Medalha de Campanha do Incidente Chinês
 Medalha de Campanha do Incidente da Manchúria

Leitura adicional

Ligações externas

CIA
Mortos em ano desconhecido
Membros da Câmara dos Representantes do Japão
Membros da Câmara dos Conselheiros
Militares japoneses da Segunda Guerra Mundial
Mortos na década de 1960
Nascidos em 1901

Masanobu Tsuji


Zehra Nesrin Sipahi, (d. 29 Ekim 1934, İstanbul), Türk klasik Türk müziği sanatçısı.

Hayatı
29 Ekim 1934 tarihinde İstanbul'un Yeşilköy semtinde doğdu. Ailesi Kırım Tatarları'ndandır. Yeşilköy İlkokulu ve Bakırköy Ortaokulu'nndan sonra sanat okulunun moda ve biçki-dikiş kursuna devam etti. İngilizce öğrenmek için bir Amerikan okuluna devam etti. Önce klasik Batı müziği ve şan dersleri alan Nesrin Sipahi'nin klasik Türk müziğine olan yeteneği, İstanbul Belediye Konservatuvarı'nda hocası Ahmet Nuri Canaydın tarafından fark edildi. Şerif İçli'den ders aldı. İstanbul Radyosu'nda münferit programlara çağrılırken, açılan sınava girerek 1953 yılında TRT Ankara Radyosu'nda kadrolu sanatçı olarak göreve başladı. Radyoya girişini, ağabeyi olan tiyatro sanatçısı Nihat Akçan'ın o zamanki eşi tiyatrocu Yıldız Kenter'in teşvik ettiğini ifade etti. Ankara Radyosu'nda, Ankara Devlet Konservatuvarı'nın hocalarından ders gördü. Radyoda Ferit Ruşen Kam, Refik Ahmet Sevengil, Halil Bedii Yönetken, Suphi Ziya Özbekkan ve Ekrem Güyer'den istifade etti. İlk plağı 1957 yılında Odeon Plak Şirketi yapımı Bir rüzgârdır gelir geçer sanmıştım başlıklı kayıt oldu.

23 Ocak 1957'de Hasan Aldemir Sipahi ile evlenerek Akcan olan soyadını değiştirdi. Bu evlilikten iki erkek çocuk sahibi oldu. Sanat yaşamında Sipahi soyadını kullandı ve Nesrin Sipahi adıyla tanındı.

1965 yılında Tamer Yiğit'le baş rolünü paylaştığı Kalbimdeki Serseri başlıklı müzikal filmde oynadı.1974 yılında o dönemin Fenerbahçe futbolcularıyla kulübün bilinen ilk marşı olan sözleri Fecri Ebcioğlu'ya ait Yaşa Fenerbahçe'yi söyledi

1998 yılında Kültür Bakanlığı tarafından devlet sanatçısı unvanı verildi. Klasik Türk müziği şarkıcısı olarak uzunca bir dönem gazinolarda assolistlik yapan sanatçı 1968 yılında tarzının dışına çıkarak popüler müzik tarzında birer aranjman olan Bebek ve Arkadaşımın Aşkısın adlı şarkılar söyledi.

Azerbaycan'daki tek konserini 1970 yılı Haziran ayında o zamanki Azerbaycan Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti'nin başkenti Bakü'de verdi. 25 yıl aradan sonra, 29 Ekim 2016'da Cemal Reşit Rey Konser Salonu'nda konser veren Nesrin Sipahi, doğum gününü sahnede kutladı. Müziğe katkılarından dolayı 2016 yılında Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Özel Ödülü'ne lâyık görüldü. Nesrin Sipahi, ödülünü 9 Şubat 2017 tarihinde Cumhurbaşkanlığı Külliyesi'nde gerçekleştirilen törende Cumhurbaşkanı Recep Tayyip Erdoğan'ın elinden aldı.

Müzik hayatı

Müziğe olan yeteneğinin genç yaşta farkına varan sanatçı, İstanbul Belediye Konservatuvarı'nda öğrenim gördüğü sırada, Şerif İçli'den Harbiye'de bestekârın İstanbul Radyosu'nun karşısındaki  evinde ders almaya başladı. Bu süreçte İstanbul Radyosu'nda bazı kayıtlara katılan sanatçı, Ankara Radyosu'nda stajyer sanatçı mülakatının yapılacağını öğrenince, ağabeyinin ve ablasının Ankara'da yaşadığı bu dönemde sınava girdi ve başarılı oldu. 1953 yılından itibaren Ankara Radyosu'nda çalışmalarına başlayan, düzenlediği Anadolu konser turnesinin ardından 1968 yılında çıkardığı Bebek - Arkadaşımın Aşkısın ve Yunus - Karamehmet 45'lik plaklarıyla geniş dinleyici kitlesi edinen<ref>Siyah Beyaz Aşkların Sesi: Nesrin Sipahi  Bir Zamanlar. 16 Nisan 2010 tarihinde erişilmiştir.</ref> sanatçı, davet edildiği ülkelerde de ismini duyurdu.

1965 tarihli yönetmenliğini Ülkü Erakalın'ın yaptığı Veda Busesi adlı filmde kullanılan şarkıları Nesrin Sipahi seslendirdi. Başrollerini Türkan Şoray ile Tunç Okan'ın paylaştığı filmde kullanılan Veda Busesi başlıklı Yusuf Nalkesen bestesi şarkı, satış rekoru kırarak Sipahi'ye altın plak ödülü kazandırdı.

1998 yılında Kültür Bakanlığı'nca verilen devlet sanatçısı unvanı aldı

Sanatçının hususiyetini, özellikle sesinin gürlüğü, genişliği ve sanatçının repertuvar tercihleri karakterize etmektedir. Sanatçı, sesinin genişliği sayesinde, Münir Nurettin Selçuk'un Endülüs'te raks eseri örneğinde olduğu gibi, zorlu ve çıkışlı eserleri oldukça yetkin bir biçimde seslendirdi. Nesrin Sipahi bu şarkının hikâyesini şöyle anlattı:"Münir Nurettin Selçuk Ankara Radyosu'na ihtar çekiyor; benim bestelediğim şarkıları koro okuyabilir, ama solo okunmasına iznim yoktur. Yahya Kemal'in Endülüs'te Raks başlıklı şiirini besteleyen Münir Nurettin Selçuk, Nesrin Sipahi'nin bu şarkıyı plağa okuyacağını haber alınca evine gelerek bizzat dinlemiş, özellikle vurgu yapacağı yerlere dikkat çekmiş. Merhum, Plaktan kendisine düşen telifi almayı reddederek o para ile, Teşvikiye Camisi'nin tahta perdelerinin yenilenmesini ve Teşvikiye Polis Karakolu için odun alınmasını istemiş"Popüler eserleri sıklıkla seslendirmekle birlikte, sanatçının klasik eserlere özel bir önem atfettiği, özellikle Neoklasik dönem eserlerini oldukça doyurucu bir şekilde icra ettiği kaydedilmelidir. Sanatçının Türk Sanat Müziği'nin 12 Pırlantası başlıklı albümü, Kudsi Erguner yönetiminde hazırlanan ve Paris'te yayınlanan bir albümü ve Osman Nihat Akın'ın En Seçme Eserleri başlıklı albümü, seçkin saz sanatçılarıyla hazırlanması, geleneksel icrayı ve sanatçının musikî zevkini yansıtması itibarıyla diğer çalışmalarından ayrılır. TRT Arşiv programlarında sanatçının başkaca geleneksel icraları da düzenli olarak yayınlanmaktadır.

 Filmografi
Nesrin Sipahi, tek bir filmde oynamıştır. Kalbimdeki Serseri filminde Tamer Yiğit ile baş rolde oynamıştır.
 1965: Kalbimdeki Serseri Albümleri
 1983: Aşk Mevsime Bakmaz 1992: Sharki (Kudsi Ergüner ile) 2000: Nesrin Sipahi 1 2000: Nesrin Sipahi 2 2006: Nesrin Sipahi - Türk Sanat Müziği Serisi 2009: Nesrin Sipahi'den Türküler''

Kaynakça

1934 doğumlular
Devlet Sanatçıları
Klasik Türk müziği şarkıcıları
Kırım Tatarı asıllı Türkler
Yaşayan insanlar
Türk kadın pop şarkıcıları

Nesrin Sipahi


An Trichopilia tortilis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni John Lindley. An Trichopilia tortilis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Trichopilia, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Trichopilia

Trichopilia tortilis


Psihologia transpersonală este un sub-domeniu sau o "școală" de psihologie, care integrează aspecte spirituale și transcendente ale experienței umane în cadrul psihologiei moderne. Este de asemenea posibil să se definească ca o psihologie spirituală. Transpersonalul constă în "experiențe în care sentimentul de identitate sau de sine se extinde dincolo (trans) de individ sau de persoană pentru a cuprinde aspecte mai largi ale omenirii, ale vieții, ale acelui psyché sau ale cosmosului". Acesta a fost, de asemenea, definit ca "dezvoltare dincolo de nivelele convenționale, personale sau individuale"

Aspecte luate în considerare în psihologia transpersonală includ  auto-dezvoltare spirituală, auto dincolo de ego, experiențe de vârf, experiențe mistice, transă sistemică, crize spirituale, evoluție spirituală, convertirea religioasă, stări modificate de conștiință, practici spirituale, și alte sublime și/sau neobișnuite experiențe extinse de viață. Disciplina încearcă să descrie și să integreze experiența spirituală în cadrul teoriei psihologice moderne și de a formula o nouă teorie care să cuprindă o astfel de experiență.

Psihologia transpersonală are mai multe contribuții în domeniul academic, precum și studii de dezvoltare umană, conștiință și spiritualitate. Psihologia transpersonală are, de asemenea, contribuții în domeniile psihoterapiei și psihiatriei.

Definiție
Lajoie și Shapiro au revizuit patruzeci de definiții ale psihologiei transpersonale care au apărut în literatura de specialitate, în perioada 1968-1991. Ei au descoperit că cinci teme cheie, în special, ocupă un loc proeminent în aceste definiții: stări de conștiință; potențial mai mare sau final; dincolo de ego sau de sinele personal; transcendență și spiritualul. Bazat pe acest studiu, autorii au propus următoarea definiție a psihologiei transpersonale: psihologia transpersonală se ocupă cu studiul celui mai mare potențial al omenirii, și cu recunoașterea, înțelegerea și realizarea de stări de conștiință unitive, spirituale și transcendente.

Într-un comentariu al definițiilor anterioare, Walsh și Vaughan au sugerat că psihologia transpersonală este un domeniu al psihologiei care se concentrează pe studiul experiențelor transpersonale și fenomenele conexe. Aceste fenomene includ cauzele, efectele și lucrurile corelate cu experiențele transpersonale și de dezvoltare, precum și disciplinele și practicile inspirate de ele. Ei au criticat, de asemenea, mai multe definiții ale psihologiei transpersonale care duceau la ipoteze implicite, sau presupoziții care, poate, nu definesc neaparat domeniul ca un întreg.

Hartelius, Caplan și Rardin au efectuat o analiză retrospectivă a definițiilor psihologiei transpersonale. Au găsit trei teme dominante care definesc domeniul: psihologia de dincolo de ego, psihologia integratoare /holistică, și psychologia transformării. Analiza a sugerat faptul că domeniul a trecut de la un timpuriu accent pe stările alternative de conștiință la o viziune mai extinsă a integrității și transformării umane. Această dezvoltare, potrivit autorilor, a mutat câmpul cercetării mai aproape de abordările integrale ale lui Ken Wilber și ale teoreticienilor post-aurobindonieni.

Caplan (2009: p. 231) dă și el o definiție:Perspectivele holistice și unitatea sunt centrale pentru viziunea psihologiei transpersonale asupra lumii

Dezvoltarea domeniului academic

Origini
Printre gânditorii considerați a fi stabilit cadrul pentru studiile transpersonale sunt William James, Carl Jung, Roberto Assagioli și Abraham Maslow. Mai recent, atenția a adus la lumină aspectele transpersonale ale lucrărilor  netraduse ale lui Jean Piaget, și a susținut că experiențele transpersonale ale lui Piaget și interesele teoretice au fost o motivație majoră în cercetarea psihologică întreprinsă de acesta. O revizuire de către Vich sugerează că cea mai veche utilizare a termenului de "transpersonal" poate fi găsită în notele de curs pe care William James le-a pregătit pentru un semestru la Universitatea Harvard în 1905-6. Sensul atunci, diferit de utilizarea de azi, a fost în contextul empirismului radical al lui James, în care există o relație intimă între un subiect care percepe și un obiect perceput, recunoscând că toate obiectele sunt dependente de faptul de a fi percepute de cineva. Unii comentatori menționează, de asemenea, mișcarea psihedelică, studiul psihologic al religiei, parapsihologia și interesul pentru sistemele și practicile spirituale răsăritene ca influențe care au modelat la început domeniul psihologiei transpersonale.

O altă figură importantă în stabilirea psihologiei transpersonale a fost Abraham Maslow, care a publicat deja lucrări cu privire la experiențe umane extreme. Maslow este creditat a fi prezentat o schiță a psihologiei-a patra forță (fourth-force psychology), numită psihologia transhumanistică (transhumanistic psychology), într-o prelegere intitulată "Cel mai îndepărtat colț al naturii umane", în 1967. În 1968, Maslow a fost printre cei care a anunțat psihologia transpersonală ca o "a patra forță" în psihologie, , în scopul de a o distinge de celelalte trei forțe ale psihologiei: psihanaliza, behaviorismul și psihologia umanistă. Utilizarea timpurie a termenului de "transpersonal" poate fi, de asemenea, atribuită lui Stanislav Grof și Anthony Sutich. În acest moment, în 1967-68, Maslow a fost, de asemenea, într-un dialog strâns cu Grof și Sutich, cu privire la numele și orientarea noului domeniu. După Powers termenul de "transpersonal" începe să apară în reviste academice din 1970 încoace.

Atât psihologia umanistă cât și psihologia transpersonală au fost asociate cu Mișcarea Potențialului Uman. Un centru de creștere pentru terapii alternative și filosofii care au crescut din contra-cultura 1960, în locuri precum Esalen, California

Ramuri și domenii conexe
Există mai multe școli psihologice și sucursale care au influențat domeniul psihologiei transpersonale. Printre aceste școli găsim psihologia analitică a lui Carl Jung, psihosinteza lui Roberto Assagioli, și psihologia umanistă a lui Abraham Maslow.. Principalele modele transpersonale de psihoterapie, revizuite de Cortright, sunt modelele lui Ken Wilber, C. G Jung, Michael Washburn, Stanislav Grof și Hameed Ali.

Dr. William J. Barry a definit psihologia transpersonală ca o validă metoda de cercetare în domeniul educației, în teza sa de doctorat și în dezvoltarea teoriei calității transformaționale (CT).Au existat aplicații pentru studiile privind afacerile și managementul. Alte disciplină transpersonală , cum ar fi  antropologia transpersonală și studiile transpersonale ale afacerilor sunt enumerate printre discipline transpersonale.

Arta transpersonală este una dintre disciplinele luate în considerare de Boucovolas, care începe prin a remarca că, în conformitate cu Breccia și, de asemenea, cu definițiile utilizate de către International Transpersonal Asociation în 1971, arta transpersonală poate fi înțeleasă ca reprezentând acele lucrări de artă care se bazează pe teme importante, dincolo de sinele individual, cum ar fi conștiință transpersonală. Acest lucru face ca critica artei transpersonale să fie relevantă pentru abordările mistice ale creativității.  Critica artei transpersonale, cum notează Boucovolas, poate fi considerată aceea care pretinde că critica de artă convențională a fost prea mult angajată pe linia sublinierii dimensiunilor raționale ale artei și mai deloc pe linia dimensiunilor spirituale ale artei, sau aceea care consideră că lucrările de artă au o semnificație dincolo de individ. Anumite aspecte din psihologia lui Carl Jung, precum și mișcări, cum ar fi terapia prin muzică și terapia prin artă, pot, de asemenea, să țină de acest domeniu. Boucovolas citează Breccia (1971), ca un exemplu timpuriu de arta transpersonala, și susține că, la momentul apariției articolului său, teoreticianul integral Ken Wilber a avut recente contribuții în acest domeniu. Mai recent, Jurnalul de Psihologie Transpersonală, în 2005, Volumul 37, a lansat o ediție specială dedicată mass-mediei, care conținea articole despre critica de film, care pot fi integrate acestui domeniu.

Mai multe domenii academice au o puternică legătură cu domeniul psihologiei transpersonale. Domeniile academice înrudite includ Studii despre agonie, Parapsihologie și Psihologia umanistă. Principalele constatări ale studiilor asupra agoniei sunt reprezentate în Manualul de Psihiatrie și Psihologie Transpersonală și în Wiley-Blackwell Manualul de Psihologie Transpersonală. Experimentarea agoniei este, de asemenea, discutată în raport cu alte categorii transpersonale și spirituale. Principalele constatări ale Parapsihologiei sunt, de asemenea, reprezentate în Manualul de psihiatrie și psihologie transpersonală și în  Manualul de psihologie transpersonală al lui Wiley-Blackwell.

Referințe

Psihologie clinică
Meditație
Școli de psihologie
New Age

Psihologia transpersonală


Edward Richard George Heath, (d. 9 Temmuz 1916 - ö. 17 Temmuz 2005) İngiliz siyasetçi ve 1970 ve 1974 arası Birleşik Krallık Başbakanı.

Hayatı ve Eğitimi
Marangoz ve hizmetçi bir ailenin çocuğu olarak dünyaya geldi. Oxford Üniversitesi'nde Gramer eğitimi aldı ve öğrenci siyaseti lideri oldu. İkinci Dünya Savaşı'nda subay olarak hizmet verdi.

Siyasi Hayatı
Kısa süreliğine hükûmetin sekterliği anlamına gelen kamu hizmetinde çalıştı sonrasında istifa ederek Bexley seçim bölgesinden 1950 seçimlerinde milletvekili oldu.1965 yılında Muhafazakar Parti lideri oldu. 1966 yılındaki genel seçimlerini kaybetti ama bir sonraki seçim olan 1970 seçimlerinde başbakan oldu.1973 yılında Birleşik Krallık'ın Avrupa Birliği'ne üye olma yolunda çalışmalarda başarılı oldu.Yaklaşık iki yıl sonra, Birleşik Krallık'ta yapılan ilk ulusal referandumda çalışma İngiliz halkı tarafından onaylandı.

Sonraki Yaşamı
Seçimi kaybını yaşayan Heath, partisinin yeni ideolojik yönünü eleştirdi. Yenilgisine rağmen muhafazakâr üyelerince hâlâ popülerdi. Thatcher ile ilişkisi zayıf oldu ve bu nedenle ABD Büyükelçiliği, NATO genel sekreterliği görevlerini reddetti. 1992 yılında en uzun süre milletvekilliği nedeniyle Avam Kamarasının babası unvanı verildi. 23 Nisan 1992 yılında Dizbağı nişanı alarak İngiliz soylusu oldu ve isminin başına Sör unvanını aldı.

Ölümü
Heath 87 yaşındayken Salzburg kentinde tatildeyken Akciğer embolisi geçirdi ve asla tam olarak iyileşemedi. Hayatının son iki yılında çok az sayıda halka göründü.

Edward Heath 17 Temmuz 2005 tarihinde zatürreden öldü. Cenazesine 1500 kişi katıldı BBC'de canlı yayınlandı. Ölümünün ardından Westminster Abbey'de anma töreni düzenlendi.

Kaynakça

1916 doğumlular
2005 yılında ölenler
İngiliz muhafazakârlar
Birleşik Krallık başbakanları
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1950-1951)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1951-1955)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1955-1959)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1959-1964)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1964-1966)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1966-1970)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1970-1974)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1974)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1974-1979)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1979-1983)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1983-1987)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1987-1992)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1992-1997)
Birleşik Krallık Avam Kamarası (1997-2001)
Britanya İmparatorluk Nişanı
Charlemagne Ödülü sahipleri
İngiliz Anglikanlar
Birleşik Krallık çalışma bakanları
Balliol College'da öğrenim görenler

Edward Heath


Moving On é uma série de televisão britânica criada e produzida por Jimmy McGovern. O primeiro episódio foi ao ar na BBC One em 18 de maio de 2009 e, desde então, um total de 65 episódios foram transmitidos.

Elenco
Neil Bell ... Dave
Alicia Brockenbrow ... Chantelle
John Draycott ... Geoff
Olivia Fenton ... Abigail
Warren Brown ... Frank
Emma Lowndes ... Alice
Neil Fitzmaurice ... Les
Adam Long ... Hugh Penrose
Steve Evets ... Mick
Jo-Anne Knowles ... Lisa
Rebecca Atkinson ... Kaycee
Jack Deam ... Lee
Melanie Kilburn ... June
Robert James-Collier ... Aiden
Amy Nuttall ... Debra
Ramon Tikaram ... Charan Sarin
Rob Jarvis ... Bryan

Episódios

Ligações externas
Moving On (em inglês) no IMDb

Programas de televisão do Reino Unido que estrearam em 2009
Programas de televisão em língua inglesa
Programas da BBC

Moving On


A Berrelhas é um operador de transportes públicos coletivos rodoviários com atividade na área de Viseu, em Portugal. Fundada por Bernardo de Almeida, um pioneiros da camionagem em Portugal, estava originalmente sediada em Rio de Moinhos (mun. Penalva do Castelo).

Na década de 1960, quando a Berrelhas estava nas mãos de Luís Almeida e irmãos, filhos do fundador, iniciou-se a expansão da empresa, com a aquisição da sua congénere Empresa Bernardinos de Camionagem das mãos de Eduardo da Costa, que havia sanado a operação desta..

Em 2019 a concessão do sistema MUV (municipal de Viseu) foi atribuída à Berrelhas.

Em dados de 2022, a Berrelhas regista uma frota histórica de 139 veículos, dos quais 72 se encontram operacionais em seu nome.

Empresas de transportes públicos de Portugal
Empresas de transporte por autocarros de Portugal

Berrelhas