Lastavina (lastavičnjak, lastovina, krvnik, lat. Cynanchum), bilni rod iz porodice zimzelenovki, dio je potporodice svileničevki, smješten u podtribus Cynanchinae.

Ovom rodu pripada preko 250 vrsta zeljastih povijuša i trajnica, a rasprostranjen je po svim kontinentima. U Hrvatskoj je poznata vrsta šiljasti lastavičnjak ili šiljastolistna lastavina (Cynanchum acutum)

Vrste

 Cynanchum absconditum Liede
 Cynanchum abyssinicum Decne.
 Cynanchum acidum (Roxb.) Oken
 Cynanchum aculeatum (Desc.) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum acuminatum Humb. & Bonpl. ex Schult.
 Cynanchum acutum L.
 Cynanchum adalinae (K.Schum.) K.Schum.
 Cynanchum africanum (L.) Hoffmanns.
 Cynanchum alatum Wight & Arn.
 Cynanchum alternilobum (M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum altiscandens K.Schum.
 Cynanchum ambovombense (Liede) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum ampanihense Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum analamazaotrense Choux
 Cynanchum anderssonii Morillo
 Cynanchum andringitrense Choux
 Cynanchum angavokeliense Choux
 Cynanchum annularium (Roxb.) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum ansamalense Liede
 Cynanchum anthonyanum Hand.-Mazz.
 Cynanchum antsiranense (Meve & Liede) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum appendiculatopsis Liede
 Cynanchum appendiculatum Choux
 Cynanchum arabicum (Bruyns & P.I.Forst.) Meve & Liede
 Cynanchum arenarium Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum areysianum (Bruyns) Meve & Liede
 Cynanchum balense Liede
 Cynanchum baronii Choux
 Cynanchum batangense P.T.Li
 Cynanchum beatricis Morillo
 Cynanchum bernardii Morillo
 Cynanchum bicampanulatum M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum bisinuatum Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum blandum (Decne.) Sundell
 Cynanchum blyttioides Liede
 Cynanchum bojerianum (Decne.) Choux
 Cynanchum bosseri Liede
 Cynanchum boudieri H.Lév. & Vaniot
 Cynanchum boveanum Decne.
 Cynanchum bowmanii S.T.Blake
 Cynanchum brasiliense (Morillo) Liede
 Cynanchum brevicoronatum M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum brevipedicellatum (P.I.Forst.) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum bricenoi Morillo
 Cynanchum bungei Decne.
 Cynanchum callialatum Buch.-Ham. ex Wight
 Cynanchum carautanum (Fontella & E.A.Schwarz) Morillo
 Cynanchum caudigerum R.W.Holm
 Cynanchum celebicum Schltr.
 Cynanchum chanchanense Morillo
 Cynanchum chinense R.Br.
 Cynanchum chouxii Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum comorense Choux
 Cynanchum compactum Choux
 Cynanchum corymbosum Wight
 Cynanchum crassiantherae Liede
 Cynanchum crassipedicellatum Meve & Liede
 Cynanchum cristalinense Morillo
 Cynanchum cuatrecasasii Morillo
 Cynanchum cubense (A.Rich.) Woodson
 Cynanchum cucullatum N.E.Br.
 Cynanchum cyathiforme (Sundell) W.D.Stevens
 Cynanchum dalhousiae Wight
 Cynanchum daltonii (Decne.) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum danguyanum Choux
 Cynanchum decaryi Choux
 Cynanchum decipiens C.K.Schneid.
 Cynanchum decorsei (Costantin & Gallaud) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum defilippii Delponte
 Cynanchum descoingsii Rauh
 Cynanchum diazmirandae Morillo
 Cynanchum dimidiatum (Hassk.) Boerl.
 Cynanchum dombeyanum (Decne.) Morillo
 Cynanchum duclouxii M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum elachistemmoides (Liede & Meve) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum elegans (Benth.) Domin
 Cynanchum ellipticum (Harv.) R.A.Dyer
 Cynanchum erikseniae Morillo
 Cynanchum erythranthum Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum ethiopicum Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum eurychitoides (K.Schum.) K.Schum.
 Cynanchum eurychiton (Decne.) K.Schum.
 Cynanchum falcatum Hutch. & E.A.Bruce
 Cynanchum fasciculiflorum Morillo
 Cynanchum fernandezii Morillo
 Cynanchum fimbricoronum P.T.Li
 Cynanchum floribundum R.Br.
 Cynanchum floriferum Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum foetidum (Cav.) Kunth
 Cynanchum folotsioides Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum formosanum (Maxim.) Hemsl.
 Cynanchum forskaolianum Meve & Liede
 Cynanchum fragrans (Wall.) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum gentryi (Morillo) Liede
 Cynanchum gerrardii (Harv.) Liede
 Cynanchum gilbertii Liede
 Cynanchum giraldii Schltr.
 Cynanchum glomeratum Bosser
 Cynanchum gobicum Grubov
 Cynanchum goertsianum Morillo
 Cynanchum gonoloboides Schltr.
 Cynanchum gracillimum Wall. ex Wight
 Cynanchum graminiforme Liede
 Cynanchum grandidieri Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum graphistemmatoides Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum guatemalense Dugand
 Cynanchum guehoi Bosser
 Cynanchum hardyi Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum hastifolium K.Schum.
 Cynanchum haughtii Woodson
 Cynanchum hemsleyanum (Oliv.) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum heteromorphum Vatke
 Cynanchum heydei Hook.f.
 Cynanchum hickenii Malme
 Cynanchum hoedimeerium Bakh.f.
 Cynanchum hooperianum (Blume) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum humbert-capuronii Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum implicatum (Jum. & H.Perrier) Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum insigne (N.E.Br.) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum insipidum (E.Mey.) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum insulanum (Hance) Hemsl.
 Cynanchum itremense Liede
 Cynanchum jaliscanum (Vail) Woodson
 Cynanchum jaramilloi Morillo
 Cynanchum juliani-marnieri Desc.
 Cynanchum jumellei Choux
 Cynanchum junciforme (Decne.) Liede
 Cynanchum kaschgaricum Y.X.Liou
 Cynanchum kingdonwardii M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum kintungense Tsiang
 Cynanchum kwangsiense Tsiang & H.D.Zhang
 Cynanchum lanhsuense T.Yamaz.
 Cynanchum lecomtei Choux
 Cynanchum ledermannii Schltr.
 Cynanchum leptolepis (Benth.) Domin
 Cynanchum leptostephanum Diels
 Cynanchum leucophellum Diels
 Cynanchum lineare N.E.Br.
 Cynanchum liukiuense Warb.
 Cynanchum loheri Schltr.
 Cynanchum longipedunculatum M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum longipes N.E.Br.
 Cynanchum longirostrum (K.Schum.) W.D.Stevens
 Cynanchum lopezpalaciosii Morillo
 Cynanchum luteifluens (Jum. & H.Perrier) Desc.
 Cynanchum lysimachioides Y.Tsiang & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum maasii Morillo
 Cynanchum macranthum Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum macrolobum Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum madagascariense K.Schum.
 Cynanchum magale Buch.-Ham. ex Dillwyn
 Cynanchum mahafalense Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum mariense (Meve & Liede) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum mariquitense Mutis
 Cynanchum marnierianum Rauh
 Cynanchum masoalense Choux
 Cynanchum maximoviczii Pobed.
 Cynanchum megalanthum M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum membranaceum (Liede & Meve) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum menarandrense Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum messeri (Buchenau) Puech
 Cynanchum mevei Liede
 Cynanchum meyeri (Decne.) Schltr.
 Cynanchum microstemma (Turcz.) Morillo
 Cynanchum minahassae Schltr.
 Cynanchum montevidense Spreng.
 Cynanchum moramangense Choux
 Cynanchum moratii Liede
 Cynanchum morilloi P.T.Li
 Cynanchum mossambicense K.Schum.
 Cynanchum muricatum (Blume) Boerl.
 Cynanchum napiferum Choux
 Cynanchum natalitium Schltr.
 Cynanchum nematostemma Liede
 Cynanchum nielsenii Morillo
 Cynanchum obovatum (Decne.) Choux
 Cynanchum obtusifolium L.f.
 Cynanchum officinale (Hemsl.) Tsiang & H.D.Zhang
 Cynanchum orangeanum (Schltr.) N.E.Br.
 Cynanchum oresbium (Bruyns) Goyder
 Cynanchum otophyllum C.K.Schneid.
 Cynanchum ovalifolium Wight
 Cynanchum pachycladon Choux
 Cynanchum pamirense Tsiang & H.D.Zhang
 Cynanchum papillatum Choux
 Cynanchum paramorum Morillo
 Cynanchum pearsonianum Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum pedunculatum R.Br.
 Cynanchum peraffine Woodson
 Cynanchum perrieri Choux
 Cynanchum petignatii Liede & Rauh
 Cynanchum phillipsonianum Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum physocarpum Schltr.
 Cynanchum pichi-sermollianum (Raimondo & Fici) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum pietrangelii Morillo
 Cynanchum polyanthum K.Schum.
 Cynanchum praecox Schltr. ex S.Moore
 Cynanchum prevostii Morillo
 Cynanchum puberulum F.Muell. ex Benth.
 Cynanchum pulchellum (Wall.) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum purpureiflorum Morillo
 Cynanchum purpureum (Pall.) K.Schum.
 Cynanchum pusilum Grubov
 Cynanchum pycnoneuroides Choux
 Cynanchum racemosum (Jacq.) Jacq.
 Cynanchum radians (Forssk.) Lam.
 Cynanchum radiatum Jum. & H.Perrier
 Cynanchum rauhianum Desc.
 Cynanchum rensonii (Pittier) Woodson
 Cynanchum repandum (Decne.) K.Schum.
 Cynanchum resiliens (B.R.Adams & R.W.K.Holland) Goyder
 Cynanchum revoilii (Franch.) Khanum & Liede
 Cynanchum riometense Sundell
 Cynanchum rioparanense Sundell
 Cynanchum rossii Rauh
 Cynanchum rostellatum (Turcz.) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum roulinioides (E.Fourn.) Rapini
 Cynanchum rubricoronae Liede
 Cynanchum rungweense Bullock
 Cynanchum sahyadricum (Ansari & Hemadri) Liede & Khanum
 Cynanchum sarcomedium Meve & Liede
 Cynanchum schistoglossum Schltr.
 Cynanchum scopulosum Bosser
 Cynanchum sessiliflorum (Decne.) Liede
 Cynanchum sigridiae Meve & M.Teissier
 Cynanchum sinoracemosum M.G.Gilbert & P.T.Li
 Cynanchum socotranum (Lavranos) Meve & Liede
 Cynanchum somaliense (N.E.Br.) N.E.Br.
 Cynanchum staubii Bosser
 Cynanchum stenospira K.Schum.
 Cynanchum stoloniferum (B.R.Adams & R.W.K.Holland) Goyder
 Cynanchum subpaniculatum Woodson
 Cynanchum subtilis Liede
 Cynanchum suluense Schltr.
 Cynanchum sumbawanum Warb.
 Cynanchum surrubriflorum W.D.Stevens
 Cynanchum szechuanense Tsiang & H.D.Zhang
 Cynanchum tamense Morillo
 Cynanchum thruppii (Oliv.) Khanum & Liede
 Cynanchum toliari Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum trollii Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum tsaratananense Choux
 Cynanchum tuberculatum (Blume) Boerl.
 Cynanchum tunicatum (Retz.) Alston
 Cynanchum umtalense Liede
 Cynanchum unguiculatum (Britton) Markgr.
 Cynanchum vanlessenii (Lavranos) Goyder
 Cynanchum verrucosum (Desc.) Liede & Meve
 Cynanchum viminale (L.) L.
 Cynanchum violator R.W.Holm
 Cynanchum virens (E.Mey.) D.Dietr.
 Cynanchum wallichii Wight
 Cynanchum warburgii Schltr.
 Cynanchum wilfordii (Maxim.) Hook.f.
 Cynanchum zeyheri Schltr.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Svileničevke

Lastavina


Fijumanski dijalekt (fijum. el fiuman, tal. il fiumano) je venetski dijalekt koji se govori u gradu Rijeci. Njegovi se govornici nazivaju Fijumanima i uglavnom se izjašnjavaju kao Talijani. Postoji značajna literarna produkcija na ovome dijalektu (Mario Schittar, Gino Antoni, Oscarre Russi, Egidio Milinovich, Ettore Mazzieri, Mario Schiavato, Tiziana Dabović, Laura Marchig).

Porijeklo i upotreba

O ovome idiomu stručnjakinje pišu: "(...) u gradu su zasigurno već u 15. st. koegzistirali hrvatski jezik (...) te jedna varijanta venetskoga jezika (...) no s obzirom na povijesne činjenice, tj. da su već u 9. i 10. st. na istočnoj jadranskoj obali mletački trgovci, pomorci i vladini dužnosnici govorili mletačkim, vjerojatno se govorila i ranije".

"Bilo da je fijumanski dijalekt svojim temeljnim slojem kontinuanta jezika autohtonog romanskog življa s naknadnim naslojem venecijanizama, bilo da je njegova osnovica specifična mješavina talijanskih dijalekata italskih doseljenika od XIII. stoljeća nadalje s kasnijim postupnim venecijanskim jezičnim naslojem, u Rijeci je stoljećima supostojao s riječkom čakavštinom Hrvata (...)".

O njegovoj širokoj upotrebi u devetnaestostoljetnoj Rijeci svjedoči sljedeći citat iz mađarskog djela Fiume és magyar-horvát tengerpart (Budimpešta, 1900.): "Krenemo li uskim ulicama Staroga grada, na svakom ćemo koraku čuti starice kako na hrvatskom jeziku uvelike ogovaraju neku svoju znanicu ili znanca, a kada se već dobro zahuktaju odjednom započnu ogovaranje na talijanskom jeziku – bolje rečeno na nekome riječko-talijanskom narječju. Navratimo li u kakvu skromnu krčmu, čut ćemo svijet koji uz čašicu vina podjednako govori hrvatski kao i talijanski. Nonice na tržnici, prodavači riba i trgovci lubenicama, jednom riječju ljudi iz naroda nikada se i nigdje ne odriču svojega podrijetla."

Nadalje, riječka pedagoginja Gemma Harasim piše 1909.: "talijanski je jezik (tj. fijumanski) podjednako rasprostranjen gotovo kod svih stanovnika: među Hrvatima naročito, dapače mnogi se od njih služe njime u porodici i društvenome životu, premda su politički opredijeljeni protiv Talijana; talijanski poznaju, doduše nešto slabije i s tvrdim egzotičnim izgovorom, također i gotovo svi Mađari koji su se nama doselili. Prema tome talijanski jezik ostaje zasigurno općim jezikom sviju narodnosti: u mirnim poslovnim odnosima, u razgovorima, u obiteljima, i kao opće pravilo vrijedi da se prigodom susreta Mađara, Hrvata i Talijana kao jezik razmjene upotrebljava talijanski."

Kako je nakon Drugog svjetskog rata većina Fijumana napustila grad, fijumanski je sveden na manjinski jezik, kojim sada govori između 2-5% riječkog stanovništva.

Primjeri

Izvori

Rijeka

Fijumanski dijalekt


José Iván Moreno Dellano (Riolobos, Cáceres, 26 de febrero de 1981), más conocido futbolísticamente como Iván Moreno, es un futbolista español. Juega como extremo derecho y su último equipo fue la La Roda CF de Segunda División B

Trayectoria

Iván Moreno es un extremo derecho muy veloz y eléctrico. Se formó en la UP Plasencia, el equipo de su ciudad natal. Tras jugar en el Alavés C, pasó por distintos equipos modestos de Segunda División B y de Tercera División: Benidorm CF, CD Don Benito, Hellín Deportivo, Torredonjimeno CF y Díter Zafra.

Desde 2006 juega en el CD Guadalajara. Es uno de los jugadores más carismáticos de la historia del club, siendo junto a Sanmiguel y Jorge el único jugador que ha participado en los dos mayores hitos de la historia del club: el ascenso a Segunda División B en el año 2007 y el ascenso a la Liga Adelante conseguido en 2011.

Días después de conseguir el ascenso a la división de plata del fútbol español, Iván Moreno renovaba su contrato con el equipo alcarreño. Al igual que en las temporadas anteriores, durante la temporada 2011/12 es una de las piezas claves del club alcarreño, disputando 41 partidos de liga y anotando 7 goles. Sin embargo, sorprendentemente, al final de temporada el club decide no renovar su contrato.

El 26 de julio de 2012 se confirma su fichaje por la SD Ponferradina, equipo de la Liga Adelante. El 20 de julio de 2013 ficha por el Real Murcia CF. Tras el descenso administrativo del Real Murcia CF se le concede la carta de libertad y el 27 de agosto de 2014 firma con el Racing .

La temporada 2015/2016 juega en La Roda CF de Segunda División B

Clubes

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Página oficial del CD Guadalajara

Personas de Plasencia
Futbolistas de la provincia de Cáceres
Futbolistas del Benidorm Club de Fútbol
Futbolistas del Club Deportivo Don Benito
Futbolistas del Hellín Deportivo
Futbolistas del Torredonjimeno Club de Fútbol
Futbolistas del Club Deportivo Díter Zafra
Futbolistas del Deportivo Guadalajara
Futbolistas de la Sociedad Deportiva Ponferradina en los años 2010
Futbolistas del Real Murcia Club de Fútbol en los años 2010
Futbolistas del Real Racing Club de Santander en los años 2010
Futbolistas de la Unión Polideportiva Plasencia

Iván Moreno (futbolista nacido en 1981)


Denne side er en oversigt over de danske jumbobøger nr. 101-200, der oprindeligt blev udgivet fra 1989 til 1998 af Egmont Serieforlaget. Nr. 121-150 blev desuden genudgivet i 2005. Ingen af jumbobøgerne i oversigten har ISBN-numre, da det først indførtes med nr. 253, der blev udgivet i 2002. Alle bind er i B6-format med farver på alle sider. Nr. 101-127 er på 264 sider, mens nr. 128-200 er på 256 sider hver.

Bogryggene danner et motiv for hver 10 bind, et princip der indførtes med nr. 91. Nr. 101-110 viser marcherende elefanter, nr. 111-120 Anders And, nr. 121-130 Andersine, nr. 131-140 Pluto, nr. 141-150 Fedtmule, nr. 151-160 Mickey Mouse, nr. 161-170 Olkel Joakim, nr. 171-180 Stålanden, nr. 181-190 Rip, Rap og Rup og nr. 191-200 Georg Gearløs. Ved genudgivelsen af nr. 121-150 blev rygmotiverne skiftet ud så nr. 121-130 fik forsiden fra nr. 127 En rigtig rystetur som motiv, nr. 131-140 forsiden fra nr. 140 Anders på opdagelse og nr. 141-150 forsiden fra nr. 147 Panik i pengetanken.

Oversigt

Eksterne henvisninger
 Oversigt over jumbobøger fra Jan Wenneberg
 Oversigt over jumbobøger på Inducks
 Oversigt over jumbobøger på Comicwiki

Noter

Jumbobøger nr. 101-200


Hans von Dach (1927-2003) est un théoricien militaire suisse du temps de la guerre froide.

Il est l'auteur de l'influent manuel en sept volumes de 1957 sur la guerre de guérilla Total Resistance (Der totale Widerstand: Eine Kleinkriegsanleitung für Jedermann), qui a fait de lui le théoricien tactique suisse le plus connu à l'échelle internationale.

Biographie
Von Dach, un Bernois, a été employé de 1970 à 1980 dans la division formation du Département suisse de la défense. Son accent sur la guerre irrégulière à grande échelle n'était pas partagé par les hauts dirigeants de l'armée, qui préféraient concentrer les efforts de défense de la guerre froide de la Suisse sur des tactiques et des équipements conventionnels d'armes combinées. Par conséquent, ses opinions n'ont eu aucune influence sur la stratégie de l'armée.

Malgré le large lectorat trouvé par Total Resistance, von Dach n'a pas été promu au-delà du rang relativement subalterne de major, qu'il a atteint en 1963, bien avant sa retraite en 1988. C'était peut-être pour que l'Armée suisse puisse décliner plus facilement toute responsabilité de ses écrits, critiqués comme prônant une conduite contraire aux lois de la guerre. En 1974, le chef d'état-major général a opposé son véto à la publication de Total Resistance, alors très populaire parmi les officiers, en tant que manuel de l'armée en partie à cause de ces préoccupations. Von Dach les a contredit car croyant que l'Union soviétique, qu'il considérait comme la force d'occupation la plus probable pendant la guerre froide, n'aurait en aucun cas égard à la légalité de la guerre. Il a bénéficié d'un soutien tacite pour son travail d'auteur de la part de ses supérieurs militaires, la menace implicitant d'un effort soutenu de guérilla défensive représenté par ses écrits était considérée comme contribuant à la stratégie globale de défense suisse de dissuasion.

En plus de Total Resistance , von Dach est l'auteur de plus d'une centaine de publications sur la tactique y compris des manuels de l'armée, des articles de revues de défense et des livres. Dessinateur doué, il a illustré nombre de ses propres œuvres.

Dans sa vie privée, von Dach était engagé dans le travail social pour les sans-abri en tant que membre de l'Armée du salut.

Publications
 Total Resistance: Swiss Army Guide to Guerrilla Warfare and Underground Operations, Boulder, Colorado: Paladin Press, 1965.
 Gefechtstechnik, 1958.
 Kampfbeispiele, 1977.
 Kampfverfahren der Verteidigung, 1959.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Théoricien militaire
Naissance en 1927
Décès en 2003
Major de l'armée suisse
Armée du salut
Essayiste suisse
Guerre froide
Personnalité liée au canton de Berne

Hans von Dach


Les prêtres obituaires étaient des membres du clergé catholique voués à la célébration des , les messes et  prières collectives pour le salut des défunts.  Ils étaient rétribués par des dons ou des fondations annuelles ou perpétuelles prodiguées par des Catholiques soucieux du salut de leur âme après leur mort. Ils se sont répandus en Europe vers le . Le schisme en Angleterre et la Réforme dans les autres pays Européens majoritairement protestants a mis fin à leur existence au milieu du . En France ils ont disparu après la Révolution. En Espagne et dans son empire colonial la chute des fondations au début du  siècle cause la fin de l'existence des célébrants de messes pour les défunts.

Définition
La dénomination de prêtre obituaire reflète parfaitement la réalité de ces religieux ordonnés prêtres mais dont la principale et parfois unique occupation est de célébrer des Messes et prières pour les morts. Elle permet de recouper les différentes catégories d'ecclésiastiques exerçant cette fonction dans les provinces françaises mais aussi dans les autres pays Européens.

En France

Du Moyen Âge au
L'existence du purgatoire est reconnue officiellement par la décision d'un concile en 1274. C'est un passage quasiment obligé pour les âmes qui échappent à l'enfer. L'espoir d'accéder au paradis et surtout d'abréger le séjour dans ces lieux de souffrance  pousse le croyant à faire dire messes et prières pour son salut et celui de sa famille. Le culte des âmes du purgatoire apparaît au  en Provence autour d'Avignon où résidaient les Papes

Des chapelains chargés de célébrer les obits et d'honorer les fondations sont réunis en communauté  à l'église Saint-Pierre de Caen dès 1251. Des fraternités de prêtres naissent entre le  et le  en Normandie, en Bretagne, en Anjou, en Bourgogne, Franche-Comté, Lorraine, dans la Marche, le Limousin, l'Auvergne , le Rouergue et tout le sud-ouest. Elles sont présentes aussi dans le diocèse de Lyon qui comprenait les départements du Rhône, la Loire, l'Ain et débordait sur quelques autres limitrophes. Le nombre de ces fraternités ne cesse de grimper au cours du  pour atteindre son apogée au .

À partir de la deuxième moitié du . et jusqu'au  le clergé dans son ensemble devient pléthorique dans certaines régions françaises notamment en Normandie et en Auvergne. Les prêtres qui n'ont pas obtenu le bénéfice d'une cure ni de poste de vicaire ou de professeur de collège trouvent une occupation dans la célébration des obits.

Au  les fondations obituaires se font plus rares et le nombre des prêtres qui en vivaient diminue considérablement.

Le décret du 12 juillet 1790 réforme le clergé. Les prêtres sont dorénavant rétribués par l'état. Les prêtres obituaires disparaissent complètement.

Un clergé à part
Les prêtres obituaires n'ont pas de devoirs directs envers les paroissiens mais ils établissent une connexion très forte entre le monde des vivants et celui des morts. Les vivants donnent de l'argent ou des biens à l'église de leur paroisse pour que leur âme immortelle et celles de leurs parents soient délivrées de l'enfer et du purgatoire. Les âmes ainsi sauvées peuvent alors intercéder en faveur de celle de leurs proches. Bien que ces prêtres soient très nombreux ils sont rarement mentionnés dans les comptes rendus de visite pastorale. Ils sont souvent en surnombre dans les paroisses et figurent au dernier rang de la hiérarchie du clergé. Ils habitent dans leur famille, parfois louent  une chambre chez un particulier. Ils doivent d'abord s'acquitter de leurs fonctions obituaires mais on peut leur demander d'accomplir d'autres tâches comme de confesser les fidèles, de faire l'école ou d'assister les malades s'ils ont la formation nécessaire ce qui n'est pas souvent le cas jusqu'au .

Selon la richesse des paroisses la célébration des obits est assurée par un ou plusieurs prêtres. Quand ils sont très nombreux ils s'assemblent dans des sociétés qu'on retrouve en grand nombre dans le midi de la France. Les autres s'ajoutent simplement au personnel de la paroisse.

Les prêtres Habitués
Les prêtres habitués se rencontrent un peu partout en France notamment en Bretagne. On les qualifie aussi de natifs ou de choristes car ils doivent chanter à toutes les messes. Ces prêtres n'ont pas de rôle défini dans la paroisse. Leur existence n'est justifiée et maintenue que par les fondations d'obits. Ils peuvent devenir incontrôlables quand ils forment un groupe important dans la paroisse .
Dans les campagnes, les prêtres obituaires sont moins nombreux qu'en ville où ils pullulent. Ils peuvent tout de même être plusieurs dans certains villages. On les nomme obitiers dans le Calvados , dans la région de Soissons  et dans l'Aude. Certains de ces prêtres sont itinérants car ils ne disposent pas de revenus fixes. Dans les villages plus modestes où le nombre des obits est réduit, ceux-ci peuvent être acquittés par le curé lui-même ou son vicaire. Dans les régions très pauvres comme le Pays de Caux au , il n'y a pas d'obitier.

Les chapelains des chapellenies
Certains chapelains, appelés chapelains fondés par quelques auteurs, vivent aussi en grande partie des revenus suscités par la peur de l'au-delà. Par exemple Elisabeth, comtesse de Flandre, crée en 1182 une charge de chapelain pour . Ces chapelains ne disposent pas forcément d'une chapelle qui leur soit propre mais les messes, qu'elles soient quotidiennes, hebdomadaires ou mensuelles, doivent être dites à un autel fixe particulier désigné dans l'acte de fondation de la chapellenie. De même que les prêtres qui ont obtenu une cure, ils disposent d'un bénéfice qui leur assure un revenu régulier.

Les sociétés de prêtres obituaires
Dans certaines régions françaises les prêtres obituaires s'assemblent, sans toutefois vivre en commun, dans des sociétés ou fraternités. Tous fils de la paroisse, car ils y sont nés et baptisés, ils assurent un lien familial privilégié et fort entre les vivants et les morts. Au fil des siècles ces sociétés se dotent de statuts qui en règlent l'organisation. Les prêtres doivent connaître le plain-chant pour pouvoir donner de la solennité aux offices où leur présence est contrôlée. Astreints au célibat comme tous les membres du clergé, ils doivent observer des règles strictes de bonne conduite qu'ils ne respectent pas toujours. Ils portent divers noms :
 Prêtres filleuls en Limousin, Quercy et en Auvergne où ils peuvent également être communalistes car ils se partagent certains revenus. Jusqu'au début du , ils sont incultes. À partir de la seconde moitié de ce siècle certains communalistes sont à même de faire l'école
  Enfants-prêtres du diocèse de Bourges en Berry et de celui de Toul en Lorraine
  Purgatoriers ou prêtres du Purgatoire du Sud-Ouest de la France. Des consorces se créent  dans le diocèse de Toulouse. Après le Moyen Âge les consorcistes ne sont plus nécessairement natifs de la paroisse et disparaissent progressivement au cours du
 les Mépartistes ou Familiers en Bourgogne. Quelques comptes-rendus de visites épiscopales mentionnent le Mépart de Paray-le-Monial et exigent des règles plus strictes pour les sociétaires.

Les fadernes  ou messaus du pays gascon existaient depuis le . Elles regroupaient des prêtres de plusieurs paroisses. Les obits sont devenus leur principale source de revenus au . Bien d'autres types de sociétés de prêtres sont voués au service des prières et messes pour le repos des défunts dans d'autres régions comme en Provence.

La plupart de ces fraternités ont un rôle économique important. Elles servent de sociétés de crédit qui prêtent de l'argent à des taux raisonnables mais aussi avancent parfois des semences, du blé, en période de mauvaises récoltes.

En Angleterre
Les prêtres des chantreries.

Comme en France des messes obituaires pouvaient être dites par des prêtres déjà en place, curé ou vicaire d'une église paroissiale ou d'une institution ecclésiastique.

Vers le  quand les monastères ont été dans l'impossibilité de faire face aux trop nombreuses demandes de services obituaires, les laïcs ont créé des chantreries soutenues par des fondations temporaires ou perpétuelles .

Les fondations perpétuelles sont servies par trois sortes de chantreries :

 Un bénéfice assure le maintien d'un prêtre chargé de célébrer des messes, au moins une par jour, dans un lieu précis ; une chapelle ou à l'autel  d'une église paroissiale, collégiale ou d'une cathédrale. Ce prêtre  a des revenus fixes et garde son indépendance vis à vis du curé même s'il doit participer aux offices du lieu. La plupart du temps le prêtre appartient à la famille du fondateur qui assure ainsi un revenu à son parent.
 Une association de laïcs chargée par le ou les donateurs de gérer les legs destinés à rémunérer les messes et prières recrute les prêtres. Les membres de ces associations sont des marguilliers, appartiennent à une guilde ou aux conseils chargés de l'administration de la ville.
 Une institution ecclésiastique rétribue à sa discrétion un membre du clergé.

Les prêtres des chantreries chantaient à toutes les autres messes et pouvaient remplir diverses tâches comme celle d'enseigner. Les chantreries  ont commencé à disparaître au moment de la réforme anglaise  d'Henri VIII et ont été définitivement dissolues en 1545 et 1547 sous le règne d'Édouard VI. On peut encore trouver des maisons autrefois réservées aux prêtres des chantreries , ces bâtiments servaient aussi de local pour de petites écoles. Les très nombreuses chapelles dans les églises témoignent aussi de l'activité des prêtres obituaires.

En Allemagne
Au moins dans le nord de l'Allemagne, trois types de prêtres obituaires sont sensiblement semblables à ceux que l'on rencontre en Angleterre :

 Le prêtre chargé des obits est complètement sous l'autorité du titulaire de la paroisse et les biens donnés par le fondateur appartiennent à l'église.
 Sous le régime de la Commenda ou Befehlung le prêtre obtient une charge temporaire et reste sous l'autorité d'un laïc : fondateur du bénéfice et ses héritiers.
 Une Commenda permanente ou Lehnung est accordée au prêtre, mais celui-ci est sous l'autorité de l'église. Au fil du temps, contrairement au cas anglais, les laïcs regagnent de l'influence sur le tenant du bénéfice.

La Commenda est administrée par des curateurs laïcs qui sont en général membres du Rat ou de l'équipe paroissiale. Ils choisissent et rémunèrent le prêtre.

En Espagne
Le

En Espagne les demandes de messes pour le salut des défunts se multiplient vertigineusement au  comme partout en Europe. Les services sont assurés par des chapelains, titulaires de capellanias.

Les premiers chapelains qui vivent des fondations créées pour le salut des âmes des fondateurs apparaissent au  et leur nombre explose entre le  et la deuxième moitié du .
À la fin du , il y avait 200 000 chapellenies en Espagne.

En 1763 des mesures sont prises pour interdire la création  de nouvelles chapellenies. À partir de 1820 les chapellenies commencent à disparaître.

On distingue deux sortes de chapellenies :
Les collectives ou ecclésiastiques : créées à l'initiative de l'évêque pour pourvoir à la demande excessive de messes pour les défunts. les biens utilisés pour rémunérer les chapelains appartiennent à l'église et sont gérés par elle,
Les laïques, elles sont fondées par des particuliers. Les terres, fermes, moulins qui servent à alimenter les rentes de la chapellenie restent en la possession du fondateur qui choisit un membre de sa famille comme chapelain même s'il n'est pas encore encore prêtre mais sous réserve qu'il soit ordonné plus tard. Ce système permet de préserver les biens familiaux, d'assurer la subsistance des cadets  mais aussi  d'afficher le prestige du clan.

Dans les territoires de l'empire espagnol en Amérique
Au  l'Espagne étend son emprise politique, économique et religieuse sur les nouveaux territoires convertis en vice-royautés notamment en Nouvelle-Espagne. Les conquérants imposent leur religion catholique aux populations indigènes, leur inculquant la peur de l'enfer et le désir d'écourter leur séjour au Purgatoire considéré comme l'antichambre du ciel en faisant célébrer des messes. C'est le but des
qui se généralisent dans les colonies espagnoles à partir de la fin du   après le Concile de Trente. Elles connaissent une forte expansion pendant les deux siècles suivants et tombent progressivement en désuétude au .
Comme en Espagne, le fondateur d'une chapellenie assure souvent l'avenir d'un de ses fils ou neveux par la création d'une rente perpétuelle. Le chapelain peut bénéficier d'une partie de cette rente même s'il n'est pas encore ordonné prêtre. Les messes sont alors confiées à d'autres membres du clergé. Les chapellenies ont eu une grande importance dans l'économie de la Nouvelle Espagne par le rôle qu'elles ont joué sur le crédit bancaire.

Les autres vice-royautés d'Amérique du sud ont également été touchés par l'explosion des fondations pieuses et la multiplication de charges de prêtres obituaires. C'est le cas en Argentine avec les  ; les "prêtres particuliers". Des études sur le sujet ont été menées dans d'autres régions d'Amérique du Sud comme le Pérou, le Chili, la vice-royauté de Rio de la Plata, la Colombie.

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Bibliographie

 .
 .
 .
 .

Clergé catholique

Prêtre obituaire


Baron Congleton, of Congleton in the County Palatine of Chester, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1841 for the Whig politician and former Secretary at War and Paymaster of the Forces Sir Henry Parnell, 4th Baronet. His eldest son, the second Baron, devoted his life to religious work and was an early member of the Plymouth Brethren. The latter was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baron. He served in the Royal Navy and fought at the Battle of Navarino in 1827. His eldest surviving son, the fourth Baron, was a major-general in the British Army and served in the Crimean War and in the Anglo-Zulu War. The latter's eldest son, the fifth Baron, was killed in action in Ypres Salient during the First World War and was succeeded by his younger brother, the sixth Baron. , the titles are held by the latter's grandson, the ninth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2015.

The Parnell Baronetcy, of Rathleague in the Queen's County, was created in the Baronetage of Ireland on 3 November 1766 for the first Baron's grandfather John Parnell. He represented Maryborough in the Irish Parliament. His son, the second Baron, sat as a Member of the Irish House of Commons for Queen's County and served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in Ireland. His younger son was the aforementioned fourth Baronet, who was raised to the peerage in 1841.

Another member of the Parnell family was Charles Stewart Parnell. He was a grandson of William Parnell-Hayres, third son of the second Baronet.

Parnell baronets, of Rathleague (1766)
Sir John Parnell, 1st Baronet (c. 1720–1782)
Sir John Parnell, 2nd Baronet  (1744–1801)
Sir John Augustus Parnell, 3rd Baronet (1775–1812)
Sir Henry Brooke Parnell, 4th Baronet (1776–1842) (created Baron Congleton in 1841)

Barons Congleton (1841)

Henry Brooke Parnell, 1st Baron Congleton (1776–1842)
John Vesey Parnell, 2nd Baron Congleton (1805–1883)
Henry William Parnell, 3rd Baron Congleton (1809–1896)
Henry Parnell, 4th Baron Congleton (1839–1906)
Henry Bligh Fortescue Parnell, 5th Baron Congleton (1890–1914)
John Brooke Molesworth Parnell, 6th Baron Congleton (1892–1932)
William Jared Parnell, 7th Baron Congleton (1925–1967)
Christopher Patrick Parnell, 8th Baron Congleton (1930–2015)
John Patrick Christian Parnell, 9th Baron Congleton (born 1959)

The heir apparent is the present holder's eldest son, the Hon. Christopher John Edward Parnell (born 1987).

References

Attribution

Baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1841
Noble titles created for UK MPs
Congleton
1766 establishments in Ireland
1841 establishments in the United Kingdom

Baron Congleton


Tashi Namgyal (født 26. oktober 1893, død 2. december 1963) var Chogyal i Sikkim fra 1914 til sin død i 1963.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Kongelige fra Sikkim

Tashi Namgyal


The title King of Syria appeared in the second century BC in referring to the Seleucid kings who ruled the entirety of the region of Syria. It was also used to refer to Aramean kings in the Greek translations of the Old Testament, mainly indicating the kings of Aram-Damascus. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I, the region came under the rule of France, the United Kingdom and Prince Faisal of Hejaz, who was proclaimed King of Syria on 8 March 1920. Faisal's reign lasted a few months before he was overthrown by France and the title fell out of use.

Background

The term Syria was first applied by Herodotus in the 5th century BC to indicate a region generally extending between Anatolia and Egypt. With the advent of the Hellenistic period, Greeks and their Seleucid dynasty used the term "Syria" to designate the region between the Mediterranean and the Euphrates. The usage of the name in referring to the region during the Iron Age (ended 586 BC) is a modern practice.

List of monarchs

Seleucid dynasty
According to Polybius, King Antigonus I Monophthalmus established the Syrian kingdom which included Coele-Syria. The Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great defeated the Ptolemaic Kingdom in the Battle of Panium (200 BC); he annexed the Syrian lands controlled by Egypt (Coele-Syria) and united them with his Syrian lands, thus gaining control of the entirety of Syria. Starting from the 2nd century BC, ancient writers, such as Polybius and Posidonius, began referring to the Seleucid ruler as the king of Syria. The evidence for this title's usage by the kings is provided by the inscription of Antigonus son of Menophilus, who described himself as the "admiral of Alexander, king of Syria" (Alexander refers either to Alexander I Balas or Alexander II Zabinas).

Non-dynastic
Diodotus Tryphon, who opposed Demetrius II by raising Antiochus VI to the throne, killed his protege and declared himself king ruling until 138 when the Seleucids unified Syria again.

Seleucid dynasty

Ptolemaic dynasty

Seleucid dynasty

Ptolemaic dynasty

Seleucid dynasty

Artaxiad dynasty

Seleucid dynasty

Antonian dynasty

Hashemite dynasty
On 8 March 1920, prince Faysal of the House of Hashim, supported by the Syrian National Congress, declared himself king of the Arab Kingdom of Syria; the kingdom collapsed on 24 July of the same year.

Biblical usage for Aramean kings
In the first translation of the Old Testament into Greek written during the third century BC (called the Septuagint), Aram and Arameans were often translated as Syria and the Syrians; hence, the king was referred to as the king of Syria, and this was carried on by many English translations. Aram in the Hebrew Old Testament and Syria in the translation indicated the kingdom of Aram-Damascus most of the times. Occasionally, other Aramean regions were also referred to as Syria. In the view of W. Edward Glenny, the rendering of Aram by Syria might be explained by an anti-Syrian bias, since at the time of the translation, Syria belonged to the Seleucids, the Jews' main enemy; Aram-Damascus was the Jews' enemy during its Iron Age prime in the 9th century BC.

Aramean kings referred to as "kings of Syria"

See also

List of Seleucid rulers
List of Palmyrene monarchs
History of Syria
Greater Syria
Syrian nationalism

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

History of the Levant

List of Syrian monarchs


AIS getur verið:
 Sjálfvirkt auðkenniskerfi skipa á sjó (enska: Automatic identification system).
 Upplýsingaþjónusta flugmála (enska: Aeronautical Information Service)

AIS


තොටගමුවේ ශ්‍රී රාහුල හිමියන් සැලකෙන්නේ ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ කෝට්ටේ යුගයෙහි විසූ දීප්තිමත් ම කවියා වශයෙනි. බුද්ධිප්පසාදිනිය, පඤ්චිකා ප්‍රදීපය, පරෙවි සන්දේශය, කාව්‍යශේඛරය හා සැළලිහිණි සන්දේශය යන කෘතීන්හි කතුවරයා වූ රාහුල හිමියන් ක්‍රි. ව 1408 දී පමණ උපත ලබන්නට ඇතැයි මූලාශ්‍රානුසාරයෙන් අනුමාන කළ හැකි වුව ද උන්වහන්සේගේ අපවත් වීම පිළිබඳ පැහැදිලි හා නිශ්චිත තොරතුරු හමු නො වේ. සංස්කෘත, ප්‍රාකෘත, මාගධී, අපභ්‍රංශ, පෛශාචි, ශෞරසේනී යන භාෂා හයෙහි පරතෙරට පත් වූ හෙයින් ෂඩ්භාෂා පරමේශ්වර යන අන්වර්ථ නාමයෙන් ද හඳුන්වනු ලැබූ රාහුල හිමියෝ දෙස් විදෙස් සිසුන් ශාස්ත්‍රෝද්ග්‍රහණයේ යෙදුණු කීර්තිමත් අධ්‍යාපන ආයතනයක් වූ තොටගමුව විජයබා පිරුවනෙහි අධිපති ව වැඩ විසූහ.

ජීවිතය

ශ්‍රී රාහුල හිමියන්ගේ ජීවිතය පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු සොයාගත හැක්කේ එහිමියන් ලියූ පතපොත ද ජනප්‍රවාද ද යන දෙඅංශයෙනි. තමන් දෙමටාන නම් ග්‍රාමයෙහි කඳවුරු කුලයට අගමිණි බවත් සවැනි පැරකුම්බා රජු විසින් පුතකු ලෙසින් හදාවඩාගන්නා ලද බවත් සියලු ශාස්ත්‍රයන්හි කෙළ පැමිණි බවත්, පිරිසිදු ශීලයෙන් යුක්ත බවත්, සියල් ලොව වියතුන්ට සිළුමිණි බවත්, තොටගමුව විජයබා පිරුවන්පති බවත්  උන්වහන්සේ ම විවිධ කෘතිවල සඳහන් කොට තිබේ. එසේ ම තමන් උතුරුමුළ රාහුල මහ තෙරුන්වහන්සේගේ මුනුබුරු බව ද උන්වහන්සේ ම හෙළි කරති.

ජනප්‍රවාදයෙහි කියැවෙන පරිදි රාහුල හිමි ගම්පොල විසූ වික්‍රමබාහු නම් කුමරකුගේ පුතෙකි. එහෙත් ළදරු වියෙහි දී ම පියාගේ අභාවය නිසා අනාථ භාවයට පත් රාහුල කුමරු සවැනි පැරකුම්බා රජු විසින් ඇතිදැඩි කරගන්නා ලදැයි ද කියැවේ.

බටුවන්තුඩාවේ පඬිතුමා මේ ජනප්‍රවාදය මෙසේ සංග්‍රහ කරයි :
"උපායෙහි දක්ෂ වූ පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමා නොබෝ දවසකින් බලවත් උපායකින් අලකේශ්වරයන් මරවා රයිගම් පුරය හස්තප්‍රාප්ත කොට ගෙණ තුන් අවුරුද්දක් පමණ එහ් ම විසූයේ ය. මේ කාලයෙහි ගම්පළ විසූ භුවනෙකබාහු රජු ස්වර්ගපරායණ වූ හෙයින් ඒ රජහුගේ පුත්‍ර වූ අංගම්වල කුමාරයා ද සතර කෝරලේ සිටි ත්‍රිලෝකමල්ල කුමාරයාගේ පුත්‍ර සපුමල් කුමරු ද පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජුට පක්ෂ වූහ. මෙසේ පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජතුමා විජෘම්භිත වන කල්හි (දඹදෙණියට අඩුත්තු වූ) දෙමටාන ගම විසූ වික්‍රමබාහු කුමාරයා හදිසි රෝගයකින් මළේ ය. පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජ තෙමේ ඒ බැව් දැන වහා ම එහි ගොස් ඒ පළාත්වැසි අධිපතියන් තමන්ට නතු කොට ගත්තේ ය. ඒ කුමාරයාගේ දේවිය හා ළදරු පුත් රුවන පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජු හට අත්පත් වූහ. පරාක්‍රමබාහු මහරජ මට වෙන දරු කෙනෙකුන් නැති බැවින් දෙමටාන ගම ළදරු කුමරා කෙරෙහි පුත්‍ර ප්‍රේම උපන."

කුඩා රාහුල කුමරු පළමු වරට සවැනි පැරකුම්බා රජු හමු වූ මොහොතේ කියන ලදැයි ජනප්‍රවාදයේ එන කවිය මෙසේ ය:

මා වැනි බිලින්            දා
වර වර ළඟට කැන්        දා
දුක සැප කුමන්           දා
අසන නිරිඳෝ වෙන කොයින් දා

තව ද
ආදිච්චවංස කමලාකරභාකරරේන
රාජින්ද මොලිමණිරඤ්ජිත සාසනේන
ලංකිස්සරේන මයමත්‍රජ පේමබුද්ධ්‍යා
සංවඩ්ඪිතා පිතුපදාධිගතෙන යේන
(සූර්ය වංශය නමැති පියුම් පොකුණ පුබුදුවන රජවරුන්ගේ කිරුළුමිණි රැසින් හෙබවූ අණසක ඇති පිය තනතුරට පැමිණි ඒ ලංකේශ්වරයා විසින් ප්‍රත්‍ර ප්‍රේමයෙන් මම ඇති දැඩි කර ගනු ලැබීමි)

රාජා පරක්කන්ති භූජෝ යසස්සී
යෝ සිහළින්දෝ බහුපුඤ්ඤතේජෝ
පෝසෙසී මං සාධුගුණේහි යුත්තෝ
ආ බාලභාවං සුතපේම යුත්තෝ
(යසසින් හා බොහෝ පින් තෙදින් හෙබි පරාක්‍රමබාහු නම් වූ යම් සිංහල රජ කෙනෙක් වී ද යහ ගුණයෙන් හෙබී ඒ රජතුමා පුත්‍ර ප්‍රේමයෙන් යුක්තව කුඩා කල සිටම මා හදා වඩා ගත්තේ ය)

ආදී වශයෙන් රාහුල හිමියෝ ම මේ පුවත සිය පඤ්චිකා ප්‍රදීපය නමැති කෘතියෙහි හකුළුවා දක්වති. තතු එසේ නම් රාහුල කුමරු හැදී වැඩෙන්නට ඇත්තේ පැරකුම්බා රජුගේ දියණියන් වූ චන්ද්‍රවතී හා ලෝකනාථා යන දරු දෙදෙනා සමග එකට ය.

එසේ ම තමන් උතුරු මුල මහ තෙරිඳුන්ගේ මුනුබුරෙකු හැටියට ද හඳුන්වාදීමට රහල් හිමියෝ රිසි වූහ.
කුලග මිණි පිවිතුරු
දෙමටාන ගම කඳවුරු
තොටගමු වැසි සොඳුරු
උතුරු මුල මහ තෙරිඳු මුනුබුරු

ගිරා සන්දේශ කතුවරයා ද රහල් හිමියන් උතුරුමුල තෙරිඳුන්ට සම්බන්ධ කොට දක්වයි
පිවිතුරු උතුරු මුල මහ තෙරිඳුට සොඳුරු
මුනුබුරු මහරු ගුණසරු පිළිවෙත් ගැඹුරු

අධ්‍යාපනය සහ භාෂා, සාහිත්‍යික, සාමයික සේවය
රාහුල හිමියන්ට එවක ලබාගත හැකි ඉහළ ම මට්ටමේ අධ්‍යාපනයක් ලබා දීමට පැරකුම්බා රජු උත්සුක වූ බව පෙනේ. එහිමියන්ගේ ගුරුවරයා ගැන පැහැදිලි සඳහනක් හමු නොවෙතත් ඒ වීදාගම මහාස්ථවිර නමින් ප්‍රකට වූ හිමිනමක් බව අනුමාන කෙරේ. මේ වීදාගම හිමියන් බුදුගුණ අලංකාරය ලියූ වීදාගම හිමියන් නො වේ.

සංස්කෘත, ප්‍රාකෘත, මාගධී, අපභ්‍රංශ, පෛශාචි, ශෞරසේනී යන භාෂා හයෙහි පරතෙරට පත් වූ හෙයින් ෂඩ්භාෂා පරමේශ්වර යන අන්වර්ථ නාමයෙන් ද හඳුන්වනු ලැබූහ. තව ද මාහිමි නමැති සංඝරාජ පදවිය ද තොටගමුව විජයබා පිරුවනෙහි අධිපතීත්වය ද ඉසිළූ රාහුල හිමියෝ දේශීය මෙන් ම විදේශීය සිසුනට ද අධ්‍යාපනය ලබා දෙමින් සවැනි පැරකුම්බා රජුන්ගේ රාජ කාලය පුරා ම ප්‍රමුඛ කාර්යභාරයක් ඉටු කළහ. රාහුල හිමියන්ගේ බොහෝ කෘති ලියැවුනු වර්ෂ සඳහන් ව ඇත්තේ ද පැරකුම්බා රජුගේ රාජප්‍රාප්තියේ පටන් ගණන් බලමිනි.

එසේ වුව ද සවැනි පැරකුම්බා රජුගේ අභාවයෙන් පසු රාහුල හිමියන් රටේ ප්‍රධාන පෙළේ සාමයික හා ශාස්ත්‍රීය කටයුතුවලින් ඉවත් ව සිටි බවක් පෙනේ. උපසම්පදාව ලබනු පිණිස ලංකාවට පැමිණි බුරුම භික්ෂූන් උදෙසා  පැවැත්වූ උපසම්පදා උළෙලට සහභාගී වූ නායක හිමිවරුන් අතර රාහුල හිමියන්ගේ නම සඳහන් නො වීම මේ අනුමානය සනාථ කරන අවස්ථාවකි.මෙම සිත් තැවුල නිසා උන්වහන්සේ නිර්නාමිකව ජීවත් වී තිබේ. උන්වහන්සේගේ දිවියේ අවසන් සමය ගල් ලෙනක ගත කර ඇති බව සදහන් වේ.

අපවත් වීම පිළිබඳ ජනප්‍රවාද
සවැනි පැරකුම්බා රජුගෙන් පසු සිහසුනට පත් උලකුඩය දේවියගේ පුත් ජයවීර පරාක්‍රමබාහු රජු ඝාතනය කළ සපුමල් කුමරු ශ්‍රී භුවනෙකබාහු නමින් රජ බවට පත් වූ පසු රාහුල හිමියන් පිළිබඳ කිසිදු වාර්තාවක් අසන්නට නොලැබේ. කළකිරුණු සිත් ඇති රාහුල හිමියන් පිරුවන්වාසය හා රාජසභා ආශ්‍රය අතහැර පස්දුන් කෝරළේ ඉඳුරුගල නම් පර්වතයක වූ ගල් ලෙනක වාසය කළ බව ද මරණාසන්න කාලයෙහි සිද්ධාලෝක නම් ඖෂධයක් වළඳා මෘත ශරීරය නොදිරන ලෙස සලස්වා අපවත් වූ බව ද කලක් නොදිරා පැවතුණු දේහය පෘතුගීසීන් විසින් ගෝවට ගෙන යන ලද බව ද ජනප්‍රවාදයෙහි එයි:
"සතුරු සිංහල සාවියර් සෙන්පතිහු යුදයට පත් වතාවේ
ඉඳුරු ගල ගල් ලෙනේ යක් සෙන් අරග්ගනිමින් තිබු මනාවේ
අතුරු අවුරුදු දහස් ගණනක් පවතිනුව කළ මතුරු ජීවේ
මහරු රාහුල තෙරිඳුගේ මළ සිරුර ගෙන ගොස් තැබිය ගෝවේ"

කෘති
රාහුල හිමියන් මුලින් ම රචනා කළ කෘතිය වශයෙන් අද ඉතිරි ව තිබෙන්නේ පරෙවි සන්දේශය නමැති කෘතිය යි. ඉන් පසු කාව්‍යශේඛරය ද සැළලිහිණි සන්දේශය ද රචනා කෙරිණි. මෙයින් පළමුවැන්න හා තෙවැන්න සන්දේශ කාව්‍ය හෙවත් දූත කාව්‍ය ගණයට අයත් වේ. අවසාන භාගයේ ලියන ලද මොග්ගල්ලානපංචිකාප්‍රදීපය නමැති කෘතිය, මොග්ගල්ලානපංචිකා හෙවත් මොග්ගල්ලාන ව්‍යාකරණය නමින් ප්‍රකට පාළි ව්‍යාකරණ ග්‍රන්ථයට සම්පාදනය කෙරුණු අර්ථ ව්‍යාඛ්‍යාවකි. ඉන් පසු පදසාධන නමැති පාළි ව්‍යාකරණ කෘතිය වෙනුවෙන් සිංහල බසින් ලියූ අර්ථ විවරණයක් වූ බුද්ධිප්පසාදිනිය රචනා කරන ලදි.

මූලාශ්‍ර

අඩවියෙන් බැහැර පිටු
 සැළලිහිණි සන්දේශය

චරිත කතා
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික භික්ෂූහූ
චරිතාපදාන
භික්‍ෂූහූ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික බෞද්ධයෝ
ලාංකික සිංහලයෝ

තොටගමුවේ ශ්‍රී රාහුල හිමි


Xanthocyparis vietnamensis, zimzeleno drvo poznato kao vijetnamski zlatni čempres, danas možda jedino u rodu Xanthocyparis, u koji su se uključivale i vrste Callitropsis nootkatensis (ranije Cupressus nootkatensis) i Xanthocyparis pendula, navodi se kao sinonim za Cupressus pendula Thunb.

Izvori

Čempresovke

Xanthocyparis vietnamensis


La Coupe du Portugal de football 1982-1983 est la  de la Coupe du Portugal de football, considéré comme le deuxième trophée national le plus important derrière le championnat.

La finale est jouée le 21 août 1983, au stade des Antas à Porto, entre le Benfica Lisbonne et le FC Porto. Le Benfica remporte son dix-huitième trophée en battant le FC Porto 1 à 0 et réussit le doublé coupe-championnat cette saison, le FC Porto se qualifie pour la Coupe d'Europe des vainqueurs de coupe de football 1983-1984 en tant que finaliste perdant.

Finale

Voir aussi
 Championnat du Portugal de football 1982-1983

1982-1983
Portugal
Sport au Portugal en 1982
Sport au Portugal en 1983

Coupe du Portugal de football 1982-1983


An Tripsacum latifolium in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Albert Spear Hitchcock. An Tripsacum latifolium in nahilalakip ha genus nga Tripsacum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Tripsacum

Tripsacum latifolium


Doris Lessing (doğum adıyla Doris May Tayler, 22 Ekim 1919, Kirmanşah - 17 Kasım 2013, Londra), Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahibi Britanyalı yazardır.

Hayatı
1919'da babasının bir bankanın yöneticiliğini yaptığı İran'da doğdu. Beş yaşında ailesiyle birlikte Rodezya (bugünkü adıyla Zimbabve) sınırları içinde bulunan bir çiftliğe taşındı. Salisbury'de bir Katolik okulunda eğitim gördü. 14 yaşındayken ailesine isyan ederek okulu bıraktı ve sırasıyla hemşirelik, telefon operatörlüğü ve katibelik yaptı. 18 yaşında Rodezya parlamentosunda çalışmaya başladı ve ülkede ırkçılık karşıtı bir sol partinin kurulmasında rol aldı. 1943'te sona eren ilk evliliğinin ardından Komünist Partiye katıldı ve Alman siyasi eylemci Gottfried Lessing ile evlendi. 1949'da eşinden ve Rodezya'dan ayrılıp oğluyla birlikte Londra'ya geldi. O tarihten sonra yaşamını profesyonel bir yazar olarak Londra'da sürdürdü ve 17 Kasım 2013 tarihinde burada öldü.

Lessing çok sayıda romanı ve kısa hikâyesinde daha çok 20. yüzyılın toplumsal ve siyasi karmaşasına yakalanmış bireylerin yaşamlarını ele alır. Eserlerinin başlıca temalarının feminizm, cinsiyetler arası savaş ve bütünlük peşinde koşan bireyler olduğu söylenebilir. Lessing'in çoğunlukla Afrika'nın güneyinde ya da Britanya'da geçen eserlerindeki bağımsızlığına son derece düşkün, sosyalist ve feminist kadın kahramanlar, tıpkı yazarları gibi, içinde yaşadıkları toplumların kültürel kısıtlamalarına karşı başkaldırırlar. En çok okunan ve en çok çevrilmiş romanı Altın Defter (1962) kadın hareketinin köşetaşlarından biri olarak görülmektedir.

11 Ekim 2007 günü Nobel Edebiyat Ödülünü kazanmıştır. Bu ödüle layık görülen en yaşlı kişidir.

Edebî kariyeri
On beş yaşında, Lessing hikâyelerini dergilere satmaya başladı İlk romanı The Grass Is Singing, 1950'de yayınlandı. Onun uluslararası ilgisini çeken çalışması Altın Defter 1962'de yayınlandı. Ölümüne kadar, bazıları takma adla 50'den fazla roman yayınlamıştı.

1982'de Lessing, yeni yazarların eserlerini basmaya çalışırken karşılaştıkları zorluğu göstermek için edebi takma ad Jane Somers altında iki roman yazdı. Romanlar, Lessing'in İngiltere'deki yayıncısı tarafından reddedildi, ancak daha sonra başka bir İngiliz yayıncı olan Michael Joseph ve ABD'de Alfred A. Knopf tarafından kabul edildi. İyi Bir Komşunun Günlüğü İngiltere ve ABD'de 1983'te ve If the Old Could her iki ülkede 1984'te yayımlandı, ikisi de Jane Somers tarafından yazıldığı gibi. 1984'te her iki roman da her iki ülkede de yeniden yayımlandı (Viking Books ABD'de yayınlandı), bu sefer tek bir kapak altında, The Diaries of Jane Somers: The Diary of a Good Neighbor ve If the Old Could başlıklı, yazar olarak Doris Lessing'i listeledi.

Lessing, 1992'de var olmayan bir İmparatorlukla bağlantılı bir onur olarak bir kadınlığı (DBE) reddetti; 1977'de bir OBE'yi reddetmişti. Daha sonra 1999'un sonunda "göze çarpan vatan hizmeti" için Şeref Arkadaşı olarak atanmayı kabul etti. Ayrıca Kraliyet Edebiyat Derneği tarafından Edebiyat Arkadaşı yapıldı.

2007'de Lessing, Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'ne layık görüldü. Ödülü 88 yaşında 52 günlükken aldı, bu da onu ödül zamanında edebiyat ödülünün en yaşlı kazananı ve herhangi bir kategoride üçüncü en yaşlı Nobel ödülü sahibi (Leonid Hurwicz ve Raymond Davis Jr.'dan sonra) yaptı. Ayrıca İsveç Akademisi tarafından 106 yıllık tarihinde Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü'ne layık görülen yalnızca on birinci kadındı. 2017'de, sadece 10 yıl sonra, Nobel madalyası açık artırmaya çıkarıldı. Daha önce 2016'da André Gide için yapılan müzayedede edebiyat dalında yalnızca bir Nobel madalyası satılmıştı.

Nobel Ödülü duyurusu geldiğinde Lessing market alışverişi yapıyordu. Eve gelen bir gazeteci toplantısına geldiğinde, "Aman Tanrım!" diye haykırdı. "Avrupa'daki tüm ödülleri kazandım, her biri kanlı, bu yüzden hepsini kazandığım için çok mutluyum. Bu bir floş." O, Nobel Ödülünü Kazanmamak Üzerine Nobel Dersi adını verdi ve bunu küresel fırsat eşitsizliğine dikkat çekmek ve kurgu yazarlarının bu eşitsizliklerin giderilmesine dahil olabileceğini önermek için kullandı. Lessing, "Bizi şekillendiren, bizi tutan, bizi yaratan - iyi ve kötü için - hayal gücümüzdür. Yırtıldığımızda, incindiğimizde, hatta yok edildiğinde bizi yeniden yaratacak olan hikayelerimizdir." Ders şöyleydi: daha sonra HIV/AIDS tarafından savunmasız hale getirilen çocuklar için para toplamak amacıyla sınırlı sayıda yayınlandı. 2008'de BBC'nin Front Row'una verdiği bir röportajda, ödülün kendisini yazmak için zaman ve enerjiden yoksun bırakmasından sonra medyanın artan ilgisinin olduğunu belirtti. Son kitabı Alfred ve Emily 2008'de çıktı.

Eserleri
Türkçede yayımlanan eserleri

 Define (Maarif Vekaleti, 1944)
 Miss Sara Sampson (Milli Eğitim Basımevi, 1948)
 Altın Defter 1/2 (Mitos Yayınları, 1973)
 Türkü Söylüyor Otlar (Can Yayınları, 1983)
 Afrika Öyküleri (Kaynak Yayınları, 1985)
 Terörist (Afa Yayınları, 1988)
 Sevme Alışkanlığı (Mitos Yayınları, 1990)
 Evlenmeyen Adamın Hikâyesi (İletişim Yayınları, 1990)
 Beşinci Çocuk (Afa Yayınları, 1990)
 Cehenneme İniş İçin Açıklama (Öteki Yayınları, 1991)
 Siyah Madonna (Ayrıntı Yayınları, 1991)
 Bir Yaşam Öyküsü İçin Notlar (Bebekus, 1992)
 Gene Aşk (Can Yayınları, 1997)
 Şikasta: Argostaki Kanopus Arşivleri I (Çivi Yazıları, 1999)
 Evlilikler: Argostaki Kanopus Arşivleri II (Çivi Yazıları, 1999)
 Sirius Deneyleri: Argostaki Kanopus Arşivleri III (Çivi Yazıları, 1999)
 8. Gezegen: Argostaki Kanopus Arşivleri IV (Çivi Yazıları, 1999)
 Mara ile Dann (Can Yayınları, 2001)
 Kedilere Dair (Metis Yayınları, 2004)
 Tenimin Altında (1919-1949) (Dünya Yayıncılık, 2004)
 Büyükanneler (Çitlembik Yayınları, 2008)
 Alfred ile Emily (Can Yayınları, 2008)
 Hayatta Kalma Güncesi (Can Yayınları, 2010)
 Son Aydınlık Yaz (Kırmızı Kedi, 2013)
 İyi Terörist (Kırmızı Kedi, 2013)
 Anılar (Kırmızı Kedi, 2014)
 Martha Quest: Şiddetin Çocukları 1 (Everest, 2015)
 On Dokuz Numaralı Oda (Can Yayınları, 2015)
 İyi Bir Evlilik - Şiddetin Çocukları 2 (Everest, 2017)
 İçinde Yaşamayı Seçtiğimiz Hapishaneler (Çitlembik Yayınları, 2017)
 Fırtına - Şiddetin Çocukları 3 (Everest, 2018)
 Jack Orkney'nin Günaha Çağrılışı (Can Yayınları, 2018)
 Kıyısız - Şiddetin Çocukları 4 (Everest, 2020)
Cehenneme İniş Talimatnamesi (Delidolu Yayınları, 2020 - )

Hakkında çıkan kitaplar

 Doris Lessing'i Yeniden Okumak, Claire Sprague (İkileme ve Tekrarlama ile İlgili Anlatım Kalıpları) (Doruk, 2012)
 Doris Lessing: Marksizmden Sufizme Bir Yaşam Felsefesi, Seda Arıkan (Çizgi Kitabevi, 2018)

Dış bağlantılar
 Doris Lessing web sitesi

Kaynakça

1919 doğumlular
İran doğumlular
2013 yılında ölenler
20. yüzyıl Britanyalı yazarları
21. yüzyıl Britanyalı yazarları
Britanyalı komünistler
Britanyalı mutasavvıflar
Nobel Edebiyat Ödülü sahipleri
Médicis Ödülü
Nobel Ödülü sahibi kadınlar
Londra'da ölenler
Royal Society of Literature üyeleri

Doris Lessing


Susanne i Badet er en stumfilm fra 1915 instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr. efter manuskript af Valdemar Hansen.

Handling

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Film instrueret af Lau Lauritzen Sr.
Stumfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 1915

Susanne i Badet (film)


Normanski ili normanski francuski (Normaund, francuski: Normand, Guernésiais: Normand, Jèrriais: Nouormand) je, ovisno o klasifikaciji, ili francuski dijalekt ili romanski jezik koji se može klasificirati kao jedan od Oïl jezika zajedno s francuskim, pikardskim i valonskim. Naziv "normanski francuski" ponekad se koristi za opisivanje ne samo normanskog jezika, već i administrativnih jezika anglo-normanskog i pravnog francuskog koji se koriste u Engleskoj. Uglavnom, pisani oblici normanskog i modernog francuskog jezika su međusobno razumljivi. Ta je razumljivost uvelike uzrokovana planiranom prilagodbom normanskog jezika francuskom pravopisu (pismu).

Povijest
Kada su norveški Vikinzi iz današnje Skandinavije stigli u Neustriju, u zapadni dio tadašnjeg Kraljevstva Franaka, i naselili zemlju koja je postala poznata kao Normandija, ti ljudi koji govore sjevernogermanski su došli živjeti među lokalnim galoromanskim – govornog stanovništva. S vremenom su se zajednice zbližile, tako da je Normandija nastavila tvoriti ime regije, dok su izvorni Nordijci bili u velikoj mjeri asimilirani od strane galoromanskih ljudi, usvajajući njihov govor, ali i dalje pridonosivši nekim elementima iz staronordijskog jezika i nordijske kulture.

Kasnije, kada su osvajali Englesku, normanski vladari u Engleskoj bi se na kraju asimilirali, usvajajući tako govor lokalnih Engleza. U oba slučaja, elite su pridonijele elemente vlastitog jezika novo obogaćenim jezicima koji su se razvili na teritorijima. U Normandiji je normanski jezik naslijedio samo oko 150 riječi iz staronordijskog. Utjecaj na fonologiju je sporan, iako se tvrdi da je zadržavanje aspiriranih /h/ i /k/ u normanskom jeziku posljedica nordijskog utjecaja.

Romanski jezici

Normandijski jezik


En alveolær konsonant eller alveolar udtales ved at tungen føres sammen med tandkødet, og fæstnes til fortænderne. De frikative alveolære konsonanter inddeles i dentale, alveopalatale og postalveolære, mens de øvrige normalt grupperes sammen som alveolære.

Se også
Det internationale fonetiske alfabet

Fonetik

Alveolær konsonant


Zouréhatou Kassah-Traoré née Tcha-Kondo est une femme politique togolaise.

Biographie

Carrière
Zouréhatou Kassah-Traoré est pendant plusieurs années à la tête de la Direction Nationale de Contrôle des Marchés Publics (DNCMP).

Membre de l'Union pour la République (UNIR), Zouréhatou Kassah-Traoré est élue députée à l'Assemblée nationale lors des  élections législatives togolaises de 2018 dans la circonscription d'Assoli. Elle est nommée au gouvernement en tant que ministre des Infrastructures et des Transports le 5 janvier 2019. En raison de la législation imposant un non-cumul des mandats, elle quitte son mandat de députée le 22 mars 2019 et est remplacée par Adjaratou Abdoulaye.

Articles connexes
 Germaine Kouméalo Anaté
 Mawougno Aziablé
 Cina Lawson
 Adjaratou Abdoulaye

Notes et références

Ministre togolais des Transports
Député de la Quatrième République (Togo)
Femme politique togolaise
Personnalité de l'Union pour la République (Togo)
Ministre togolais des Travaux publics

Zouréhatou Kassah-Traoré


Crkva Rođenja Presvete Bogorodice, pravoslavna crkva u Zenici. Nalazi se na adresi Travnička cesta 4, kod Sveučilišta u Zenici, sa zapadne strane rijeke Bosne, prema Maloj Brodi.

Povijest
Prije izgradnje svoje crkve, zenički pravoslavci su molitve obavljali u staroj brvnari na mjestu današnjeg kina u centru grada. Godine 1883. počela je za vrijeme dok je paroh bio Stevan Savić gradnja pravoslavne crkve Rođenja Presvete Bogorodice u Zenici. Tijekom dvogodišnje gradnje crkve umro je, ali su stanovnici nastavili gradnju te je crkva dovršena i osveštena 1885. godine. Iste je godine zatvorena stara molitvena brvnara.

Ikonostas je 1895. napravio makedonski arhitekt, autor arhitektonskih planova za Sabornu crkvu u Sarajevu i Skoplju. Prema njegovim planovima zenički su majstori podigli crkvu do krova. Tad je nestalo novca, pa se odustalo od vrlo skupe kupole te su napravili krov na četiri vode i malu kupolu. Crkveni zvonik je u rumunjskom stilu. Vanjština crkve vrlo je neobična. Ikonostas je skraćen tijekom povijesti. Za 100. obljetnicu gradnje (1985.) crkva je oslikana freskama. Nažalost tada nije bilo hidroizolacije zbog čega su danas od vlage oštećeni donji dijelovi slika. Srećom preživjela je sve ratove i nije nikada doživjela veća oštećenja. Pustošenja je bilo, no ne takvih da se sve moralo iznova graditi. 2011. godine dobila je novu fasadu i stolariju. 2012. godine izgrađen je u crkvi vrlo skupi središnji polijelej jedinstvena izgleda, koji privlači pažnju ljepotom. Na trošak općine crkva je osvijetljena 2016. godine. Nedavno je ugrađen novi asfalt da bi vjernici lakše mogli pristupiti. Danas je jedan od najljepših spomenika i bogomolja u Zenici.

Proglašena je nacionalnim spomenikom Bosne i Hercegovine.

Izvori

Katoličke crkve u Zenici
Pravoslavne crkve u Bosni i Hercegovini
Nacionalni spomenici Bosne i Hercegovine

Crkva Rođenja Presvete Bogorodice, Zenica


A Diocese de Dibrugarh (Latim:Dioecesis Dibrugarhensis) é uma diocese localizada no município de Dibrugarh, no estado de Assão, pertencente a Arquidiocese de Guwahati na Índia. Foi fundada em 12 de julho de 1951 pelo Papa Pio XII. Com uma população católica de 134.855 habitantes, sendo 1,9% da população total, possui 37 paróquias com dados de 2020.

História

Em 12 de julho de 1951 o Papa Pio XII cria a Diocese de Dibrugarh através do território da Diocese de Shillong. Em 1964 a Diocese de Dibrugarh juntamente com a Diocese de Shillong perdem território para a formação da Diocese de Tezpur. Em 1973 perde território para a formação da Diocese de Kohima-Imphal. Por fim, em 2005 perde território para a formação da Diocese de Miao.

Lista de bispos
A seguir uma lista de bispos desde a criação da diocese em 1951.

Ligações externas

Dibrugarh
Dibrugarh

Diocese de Dibrugarh


Isthmura é um género de anfíbios da família Plethodontidae. É endémico do México.

Espécies
 Isthmura bellii (Gray, 1850)
 Isthmura boneti (Alvarez and Martín, 1967)
 Isthmura corrugata Sandoval-Comte, Pineda-Arredondo, Rovito, and Luría-Manzano, 2017
 Isthmura gigantea (Taylor, 1939)
 Isthmura maxima (Parra-Olea, García-París, Papenfuss, and Wake, 2005)
 Isthmura naucampatepetl (Parra-Olea, Papenfuss, and Wake, 2001)
 Isthmura sierraoccidentalis (Lowe, Jones, and Wright, 1968)

Referências

Pletodontídeos
Gêneros de anfíbios

Isthmura


Control charts are graphical plots used in production control to determine whether quality and manufacturing processes are being controlled under stable conditions. (ISO 7870-1)
The hourly status is arranged on the graph, and the occurrence of abnormalities is judged based on the presence of data that differs from the conventional trend or deviates from the control limit line.
Control charts are classified into Shewhart individuals control chart (ISO 7870-2) and CUSUM(CUsUM)(or cumulative sum control chart)(ISO 7870-4).

Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts (after Walter A. Shewhart) or process-behavior charts, are a statistical process control tool used to determine if a manufacturing or business process is in a state of control.  It is more appropriate to say that the control charts are the graphical device for Statistical Process Monitoring (SPM). Traditional control charts are mostly designed to monitor process parameters when the underlying form of the process distributions are known. However, more advanced techniques are available in the 21st century where incoming data streaming can-be monitored even without any knowledge of the underlying process distributions.  Distribution-free control charts are becoming increasingly popular.

Overview
If analysis of the control chart indicates that the process is currently under control (i.e., is stable, with variation only coming from sources common to the process), then no corrections or changes to process control parameters are needed or desired. In addition, data from the process can be used to predict the future performance of the process. If the chart indicates that the monitored process is not in control, analysis of the chart can help determine the sources of variation, as this will result in degraded process performance. A process that is stable but operating outside desired (specification) limits (e.g., scrap rates may be in statistical control but above desired limits) needs to be improved through a deliberate effort to understand the causes of current performance and fundamentally improve the process.

The control chart is one of the seven basic tools of quality control. Typically control charts are used for time-series data, also known as continuous data or variable data. Although they can also be used for data that has logical comparability (i.e. you want to compare samples that were taken all at the same time, or the performance of different individuals); however the type of chart used to do this requires consideration.

History
The control chart was invented by Walter A. Shewhart  working for Bell Labs in the 1920s. The company's engineers had been seeking to improve the reliability of their telephony transmission systems. Because amplifiers and other equipment had to be buried underground, there was a stronger business need to reduce the frequency of failures and repairs. By 1920, the engineers had already realized the importance of reducing variation in a manufacturing process. Moreover, they had realized that continual process-adjustment in reaction to non-conformance actually increased variation and degraded quality. Shewhart framed the problem in terms of Common- and special-causes of variation and, on May 16, 1924, wrote an internal memo introducing the control chart as a tool for distinguishing between the two. Shewhart's boss, George Edwards, recalled: "Dr. Shewhart prepared a little memorandum only about a page in length. About a third of that page was given over to a simple diagram which we would all recognize today as a schematic control chart. That diagram, and the short text which preceded and followed it set forth all of the essential principles and considerations which are involved in what we know today as process quality control." Shewhart stressed that bringing a production process into a state of statistical control, where there is only common-cause variation, and keeping it in control, is necessary to predict future output and to manage a process economically.

Shewhart created the basis for the control chart and the concept of a state of statistical control by carefully designed experiments. While Shewhart drew from pure mathematical statistical theories, he understood that data from physical processes typically produce a "normal distribution curve" (a Gaussian distribution, also commonly referred to as a "bell curve"). He discovered that observed variation in manufacturing data did not always behave the same way as data in nature (Brownian motion of particles). Shewhart concluded that while every process displays variation, some processes display controlled variation that is natural to the process, while others display uncontrolled variation that is not present in the process causal system at all times.

In 1924, or 1925, Shewhart's innovation came to the attention of W. Edwards Deming, then working at the Hawthorne facility. Deming later worked at the United States Department of Agriculture and became the mathematical advisor to the United States Census Bureau. Over the next half a century, Deming became the foremost champion and proponent of Shewhart's work. After the defeat of Japan at the close of World War II, Deming served as statistical consultant to the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. His ensuing involvement in Japanese life, and long career as an industrial consultant there, spread Shewhart's thinking, and the use of the control chart, widely in Japanese manufacturing industry throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

Bonnie Small, worked in an Allentown plant in the 1950s after the transistor was made. Used Shewhart's methods to improve plant performance in quality control and made up to 5000 control charts. In 1958, "The Western Electric Statistical Quality Control Handbook" had appeared from her writings and led to use at AT&T.

Chart details

A control chart consists of:
 Points representing a statistic (e.g., a mean, range, proportion) of measurements of a quality characteristic in samples taken from the process at different times (i.e., the data)
 The mean of this statistic using all the samples is calculated (e.g., the mean of the means, mean of the ranges, mean of the proportions) - or for a reference period against which change can be assessed.  Similarly a median can be used instead.
 A centre line is drawn at the value of the mean or median of the statistic
 The standard deviation (e.g., sqrt(variance) of the mean) of the statistic is calculated using all the samples - or again for a reference period against which change can be assessed. in the case of XmR charts, strictly it is an approximation of standard deviation, the  does not make the assumption of homogeneity of process over time that the standard deviation makes.
 Upper and lower control limits (sometimes called "natural process limits") that indicate the threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely' and are drawn typically at 3 standard deviations from the center line

The chart may have other optional features, including:
 More restrictive upper and lower warning or control limits, drawn as separate lines, typically two standard deviations above and below the center line. This is regularly used when a process needs tighter controls on variability.
 Division into zones, with the addition of rules governing frequencies of observations in each zone
 Annotation with events of interest, as determined by the Quality Engineer in charge of the process' quality
 Action on special causes
(n.b., there are several rule sets for detection of signal; this is just one set. The rule set should be clearly stated.)

 Any point outside the control limits
 A Run of 7 Points all above or all below the central line - Stop the production
 Quarantine and 100% check
 Adjust Process.
 Check 5 Consecutive samples
 Continue The Process.
 A Run of 7 Point Up or Down - Instruction as above

Chart usage

If the process is in control (and the process statistic is normal), 99.7300% of all the points will fall between the control limits. Any observations outside the limits, or systematic patterns within, suggest the introduction of a new (and likely unanticipated) source of variation, known as a special-cause variation. Since increased variation means increased quality costs, a control chart "signaling" the presence of a special-cause requires immediate investigation.

This makes the control limits very important decision aids. The control limits provide information about the process behavior and have no intrinsic relationship to any specification targets or engineering tolerance. In practice, the process mean (and hence the centre line) may not coincide with the specified value (or target) of the quality characteristic because the process design simply cannot deliver the process characteristic at the desired level.

Control charts limit specification limits or targets because of the tendency of those involved with the process (e.g., machine operators) to focus on performing to specification when in fact the least-cost course of action is to keep process variation as low as possible. Attempting to make a process whose natural centre is not the same as the target perform to target specification increases process variability and increases costs significantly and is the cause of much inefficiency in operations. Process capability studies do examine the relationship between the natural process limits (the control limits) and specifications, however.

The purpose of control charts is to allow simple detection of events that are indicative of an increase in process variability.  This simple decision can be difficult where the process characteristic is continuously varying; the control chart provides statistically objective criteria of change. When change is detected and considered good its cause should be identified and possibly become the new way of working, where the change is bad then its cause should be identified and eliminated.

The purpose in adding warning limits or subdividing the control chart into zones is to provide early notification if something is amiss. Instead of immediately launching a process improvement effort to determine whether special causes are present, the Quality Engineer may temporarily increase the rate at which samples are taken from the process output until it is clear that the process is truly in control. Note that with three-sigma limits, common-cause variations result in signals less than once out of every twenty-two points for skewed processes and about once out of every three hundred seventy (1/370.4) points for normally distributed processes. The two-sigma warning levels will be reached about once for every twenty-two (1/21.98) plotted points in normally distributed data. (For example, the means of sufficiently large samples drawn from practically any underlying distribution whose variance exists are normally distributed, according to the Central Limit Theorem.)

Choice of limits
Shewhart set 3-sigma (3-standard deviation) limits on the following basis.

The coarse result of Chebyshev's inequality that, for any probability distribution, the probability of an outcome greater than k standard deviations from the mean is at most 1/k2.
The finer result of the Vysochanskii–Petunin inequality, that for any unimodal probability distribution, the probability of an outcome greater than k standard deviations from the mean is at most 4/(9k2).
In the Normal distribution, a very common probability distribution, 99.7% of the observations occur within three standard deviations of the mean (see Normal distribution).

Shewhart summarized the conclusions by saying:

... the fact that the criterion which we happen to use has a fine ancestry in highbrow statistical theorems does not justify its use. Such justification must come from empirical evidence that it works. As the practical engineer might say, the proof of the pudding is in the eating.

Although he initially experimented with limits based on probability distributions, Shewhart ultimately wrote:

Some of the earliest attempts to characterize a state of statistical control were inspired by the belief that there existed a special form of frequency function f and it was early argued that the normal law characterized such a state. When the normal law was found to be inadequate, then generalized functional forms were tried. Today, however, all hopes of finding a unique functional form f are blasted.

The control chart is intended as a heuristic. Deming insisted that it is not a hypothesis test and is not motivated by the Neyman–Pearson lemma. He contended that the disjoint nature of population and sampling frame in most industrial situations compromised the use of conventional statistical techniques. Deming's intention was to seek insights into the cause system of a process ...under a wide range of unknowable circumstances, future and past.... He claimed that, under such conditions, 3-sigma limits provided ... a rational and economic guide to minimum economic loss... from the two errors:

Ascribe a variation or a mistake to a special cause (assignable cause) when in fact the cause belongs to the system (common cause). (Also known as a Type I error or False Positive)
Ascribe a variation or a mistake to the system (common causes) when in fact the cause was a special cause (assignable cause). (Also known as a Type II error or False Negative)

Calculation of standard deviation

As for the calculation of control limits, the standard deviation (error) required is that of the common-cause variation in the process. Hence, the usual estimator, in terms of sample variance, is not used as this estimates the total squared-error loss from both common- and special-causes of variation.

An alternative method is to use the relationship between the range of a sample and its standard deviation derived by Leonard H. C. Tippett, as an estimator which tends to be less influenced by the extreme observations which typify special-causes.

Rules for detecting signals

The most common sets are:

The Western Electric rules
The Wheeler rules (equivalent to the Western Electric zone tests)
The Nelson rules

There has been particular controversy as to how long a run of observations, all on the same side of the centre line, should count as a signal, with 6, 7, 8 and 9 all being advocated by various writers.

The most important principle for choosing a set of rules is that the choice be made before the data is inspected. Choosing rules once the data have been seen tends to increase the Type I error rate owing to testing effects suggested by the data.

Alternative bases

In 1935, the British Standards Institution, under the influence of Egon Pearson and against Shewhart's spirit, adopted control charts, replacing 3-sigma limits with limits based on percentiles of the normal distribution. This move continues to be represented by John Oakland and others but has been widely deprecated by writers in the Shewhart–Deming tradition.

Performance of control charts

When a point falls outside the limits established for a given control chart, those responsible for the underlying process are expected to determine whether a special cause has occurred. If one has, it is appropriate to determine if the results with the special cause are better than or worse than results from common causes alone. If worse, then that cause should be eliminated if possible. If better, it may be appropriate to intentionally retain the special cause within the system producing the results.

Even when a process is in control (that is, no special causes are present in the system), there is approximately a 0.27% probability of a point exceeding 3-sigma control limits. So, even an in control process plotted on a properly constructed control chart will eventually signal the possible presence of a special cause, even though one may not have actually occurred. For a Shewhart control chart using 3-sigma limits, this false alarm occurs on average once every 1/0.0027 or 370.4 observations. Therefore, the in-control average run length (or in-control ARL) of a Shewhart chart is 370.4.

Meanwhile, if a special cause does occur, it may not be of sufficient magnitude for the chart to produce an immediate alarm condition. If a special cause occurs, one can describe that cause by measuring the change in the mean and/or variance of the process in question. When those changes are quantified, it is possible to determine the out-of-control ARL for the chart.

It turns out that Shewhart charts are quite good at detecting large changes in the process mean or variance, as their out-of-control ARLs are fairly short in these cases. However, for smaller changes (such as a 1- or 2-sigma change in the mean), the Shewhart chart does not detect these changes efficiently. Other types of control charts have been developed, such as the EWMA chart, the CUSUM chart and the real-time contrasts chart, which detect smaller changes more efficiently by making use of information from observations collected prior to the most recent data point.

Many control charts work best for numeric data with Gaussian assumptions. The real-time contrasts chart was proposed to monitor process with complex characteristics, e.g. high-dimensional, mix numerical and categorical, missing-valued, non-Gaussian, non-linear relationship.

Criticisms

Several authors have criticised the control chart on the grounds that it violates the likelihood principle. However, the principle is itself controversial and supporters of control charts further argue that, in general, it is impossible to specify a likelihood function for a process not in statistical control, especially where knowledge about the cause system of the process is weak.

Some authors have criticised the use of average run lengths (ARLs) for comparing control chart performance, because that average usually follows a geometric distribution, which has high variability and difficulties.

Some authors have criticized that most control charts focus on numeric data. Nowadays, process data can be much more complex, e.g. non-Gaussian, mix numerical and categorical, or be missing-valued.

Types of charts

†Some practitioners also recommend the use of Individuals charts for attribute data, particularly when the assumptions of either binomially distributed data (p- and np-charts) or Poisson-distributed data (u- and c-charts) are violated. Two primary justifications are given for this practice. First, normality is not necessary for statistical control, so the Individuals chart may be used with non-normal data. Second, attribute charts derive the measure of dispersion directly from the mean proportion (by assuming a probability distribution), while Individuals charts derive the measure of dispersion from the data, independent of the mean, making Individuals charts more robust than attributes charts to violations of the assumptions about the distribution of the underlying population. It is sometimes noted that the substitution of the Individuals chart works best for large counts, when the binomial and Poisson distributions approximate a normal distribution. i.e. when the number of trials  for p- and np-charts or  for u- and c-charts.

Critics of this approach argue that control charts should not be used when their underlying assumptions are violated, such as when process data is neither normally distributed nor binomially (or Poisson) distributed. Such processes are not in control and should be improved before the application of control charts. Additionally, application of the charts in the presence of such deviations increases the type I and type II error rates of the control charts, and may make the chart of little practical use.

See also
Analytic and enumerative statistical studies
Common cause and special cause
Distribution-free control chart
W. Edwards Deming
Process capability
Seven Basic Tools of Quality
Six Sigma
Statistical process control
Total quality management

References

Bibliography

External links

NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods
Monitoring and Control with Control Charts

Product management
Quality
Quality control tools
Statistical charts and diagrams
Change detection

Control chart


Esther Margareta Vilar (rođ. Katzen), argentinska liječnica i spisateljica njemačko-židovskog podrijetla.

Studirala medicinu na Sveučilištu u Buenos Airesu, 1960. kao stipendistica odlazi u Zapadnu Njemačku na doškolovanje iz sociologije i psihologije. Bavila se i prevođenjem, a u Bavarskoj je jedno vrijeme radila i u struci.

Poznata je kao kritičarka glavnostrujaškog feminizma držeći da su žene te koje »ovladavaju« muškarcima snošajem, emocionalnom ucjenom, zlopotrebom romantike i sl., kako navodi u svojoj uspješnici The Manipulated Men. Zbog svojih je stavova u feminističkim krugovima bila etiketirana »fašistkinjom«, a njezine knjige uspoređivane su s nacističkom propagandom (Jurišnikom i sl.)

Izvori

Argentinski znanstvenici
Liječnici
Publicisti

Esther Vilar


Scala de comă Glasgow ( GCS ) sau scorul Glasgow este o scală neurologică care urmărește să ofere o modalitate fiabilă și obiectivă de înregistrare a stării de conștiență a unei persoane, atât pentru evaluarea inițială, cât și pentru evaluarea ulterioară. O persoană este evaluată în funcție de criteriile scalei, iar punctele rezultate dau scorul acelei persoane între 3 (indicând o inconștiență profundă) și 14 (scala originală) sau 15 (scala modificată sau revizuită mai larg).

Scala de comă Glasgow a fost inițial utilizată pentru a evalua nivelul de conștiență al unei persoane după o leziune a capului, iar acum este utilizată de serviciile medicale de urgență, de asistente medicale și de medici ca fiind aplicabilă tuturor pacienților cu afecțiuni medicale și traumatice acute. În spitale, este utilizat și pentru monitorizarea pacienților din unitățile de terapie intensivă .

Scala a fost publicată în 1974 de Graham Teasdale și Bryan J. Jennett, ambii profesori de neurochirurgie la Institutul de Științe Neurologice din cadrul Universității din Glasgow, la Southern General Hospital din oraș.

GCS (Glasgow Coma Scale) este utilizat ca parte a mai multor sisteme de evaluare ICU, incluzând APACHE II, SAPS II și SOFA, pentru a evalua starea sistemului nervos central . Indicația inițială de utilizare a GCS a fost pentru evaluările în serie ale persoanelor cu traumatisme cerebrale și comă timp de cel puțin șase ore în stabilirea neurochirurgicală a ICU, deși este frecvent utilizată și în cadrul unităților spitalicești. Scala similară Rancho Los Amigos este utilizată pentru a evalua recuperarea leziunilor traumatice ale creierului.

GCS a fost actualizată în urma unei revizuiri a utilității scalei de către medici. S-a hotărât că mai multe lucruri trebuiau actualizate, ca elementul Deschiderea Ochilor / Răspunsul Ocular, ceea ce înseamnă că, în loc ca răspunsul la "stimulentul dureros" să fie considerat 2, o persoană care își deschide ochii ca răspuns la presiune este acum considerată 2 la răspunsul ocular.

Elemente ale scalei

De reținut că este acceptabil un răspuns motor al oricărui membru.  Scala este alcătuită din trei teste: răspunsuri oculare, verbale și motorii . Sunt luate în considerare cele trei valori separate, precum și suma acestora. Cel mai mic posibil GCS (gradat 1 în fiecare element) este de 3 (comă adâncă sau moarte), în timp ce cel mai înalt este de 15 (persoană complet trează).

Răspunsul ocular (E)
Există patru trepte, începând cu cele mai severe:

 Fără deschidere a ochiului
 Deschiderea ochilor ca răspuns la stimul dureros. (Un stimul dureros periferic, cum ar fi strângerea lunulei unghiei, care este mai eficientă decât un stimul central, cum ar fi strângerea osului trapez al mâinii, datorită unui efect de grimasă).
 Deschiderea ochilor când i se vorbește. (Să nu se confunde cu trezirea unei persoane care dormea; astfel de oameni primesc un scor de 4, nu de 3)
 Ochii se deschid spontan

Răspunsul verbal (V)
Există cinci trepte, începând cu cele mai severe:

 Nu există un răspuns verbal
 Sunete incomprehensibile. (Mormăit, dar fără cuvinte. )
 Cuvinte inadecvate. (Discurs articulat sau exclamator, dar nu schimb de cuvinte. Spune cuvinte, dar nu în propoziții).
 Confuz. (Persoana răspunde la întrebări coerent, dar există dezorientare și confuzie).
 Orientată. (Persoana răspunde coerent și adecvat la întrebări precum numele și vârsta persoanei, unde este și de ce, anul, luna etc).

Răspunsul motric (M)
Există șase trepte:

1. Nu există răspuns motor
2. Poziționare decerebrată accentuată de durere (răspuns extensor: adducerea brațului, rotația interioară a umărului, pronația antebrațului și extensie la cot, flexia încheieturii și a degetelor, extensia piciorului, flexia labei piciorului)
3. Poziționarea decorticată accentuată de durere (răspunsul flexor: rotația interioară a umărului, flexia antebrațului și a încheieturii mâinii cu pumnul strâns, extensia piciorului, flexia labei piciorului)
4. Retragerea la durere (absența posturii anormale, imposibilitatea de a ridica mîna dincolo de bărbie la presiune supraorbitală, dar o retrage atunci când este ciupită loja unghiulară / loja unghiei)
5. Localizează durerea (mișcări intenționate spre stimuli dureroși; de exemplu, aduce mana dincolo de bărbie când se aplică presiunea supraorbitală)
6. Ascultă de comenzi (persoana face lucruri simple când i se cere)

Interpretare
Elementele individuale, precum și suma scorului sunt importante. Prin urmare, scorul este exprimat sub forma "GCS 9 = E2 V4 M3 la 07:35".

În general, leziunile cerebrale sunt clasificate ca:

 Severă, GCS <8-9
 Moderată, GCS 8 sau 9-12 (controversată)
 Minoră, GCS ≥ 13.

Intubația traheală și umflarea sau deteriorarea gravă a feței sau a ochiului fac imposibilă testarea răspunsurilor verbale și oculare. În aceste condiții, scorul este dat ca 1 cu un modificator atașat (de ex "E1c", unde "c" = închis sau "V1t" unde t = tub). Adesea, 1 este lăsat afară, așa că scara citește Ec sau Vt. Un compozit ar putea fi "GCS 5tc". Acest lucru ar însemna, de exemplu, ochii închiși din cauza umflării = 1, intubat = 1, lăsând un scor motor de 3 pentru "flexie anormală".

GCS are o aplicabilitate limitată la copii, în special sub vârsta de 36 de luni (la care performanța verbală a unui copil sănătos ar fi de așteptat să fie slabă). În consecință, Scala pediatrică de comă Glasgow a fost dezvoltată pentru evaluarea copiilor mai mici.

Revizuiri

 Glasgow Coma Scale: În timp ce scala de 15 puncte este cea predominantă în uz, aceasta este de fapt o modificare și este mai corect menționată ca Scala de comă modificată Glasgow. Scala inițială a fost o scală de 14 puncte, omițând categoria "flexiei anormale". Unele centre utilizează încă această scală mai veche, dar cele mai multe (inclusiv unitatea din Glasgow, unde au fost realizate lucrările inițiale) au adoptat modelul modificat.
 Scala Rappaport Coma / Near Coma a făcut alte modificări.
 Meredith W., Rutledge R, Fakhry SM, EMery S, Kromhout-Schiro S au propus calcularea punctajului verbal bazat pe răspunsurile măsurabile ale ochiului și ale motorului.
 Revizuirea cea mai răspândită a fost Simplificarea scalei motrice și a scalelor verbale care scurtează secțiunile respective ale GCS fără pierderi de precizie.
 GCS pentru persoanele intubate este notat din 10, deoarece componenta verbală cade.

Controversă
GCS a intrat sub presiune din partea unor cercetători care se confruntă cu o fiabilitate scăzută și cu lipsa utilității prognostice.
Deși nu există o alternativă convenită, scorurile mai noi, cum ar fi scala motrice  simplificată și scorul FOUR au fost, de asemenea, dezvoltate ca îmbunătățiri ale GCS.

Deși fiabilitatea interraterului acestor scoruri mai noi a fost puțin mai mare decât cea a GCS, ele nu au obținut consensul ca înlocuitori.

Vezi și

 Scala AVPU
 Scala de comă Blantyre
 Scorul de avertizare timpurie
 Scala Rancho Los Amigos
 Scorul revizuit al traumei

Referințe

Medicină de urgență

Scala de comă Glasgow