El municipio de Zacualtipán de Ángeles es uno de los ochenta y cuatro municipios que conforman el estado de Hidalgo en México. La cabecera municipal y localidad más poblada es Zacualtipán.

El municipio se localiza al norte del territorio hidalguense entre los paralelos 20° 33' y 20° 45' de latitud norte; los meridianos  98° 25' y 98° 43' de longitud oeste; con una altitud de entre 500 y 2300  Este municipio cuenta con una superficie de 272.71 km², y representa el 1.31 % de la superficie del estado; se ubica en las de las regiones geográficas de las sierras Alta y Baja.

Colinda al norte con el municipio de Tianguistengo y Huayacocotla en el estado de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave; al este con el estado de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave; al sur con el estado de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave y los municipios de San Agustín Metzquititlán y Metztitlán; al oeste con los municipios de Metztitlán y Xochicoatlán.

Toponimia
El municipio de Zacualtipán deriva su nombre de la raíz "tzacualli" que etimológicamente significa, "lugar de escondites" o "lugar de montículos o pirámides" otras traducciones que aseguran que su significado es "donde se hacen paredes" o "donde se construye bien".

Geografía

Relieve e hidrográfica

En cuanto a fisiografía se encuentra dentro de las provincia de la Sierra Madre Oriental; dentro de la subprovincia del Carso Huasteco. Su territorio es meseta (56.0%) y sierra (44.0%).

En cuanto a su geología corresponde al periodo neógeno (26.57%), triásico (28.0%), jurásico (22.0%), cretácico (13.0%) y pérmico (8.0%). Con rocas tipo extrusiva: toba ácida (19.57%) y basalto (7.0%) Sedimentaria: arenisca-conglomerado (28.0%), lutita-arenisca (24.0%), caliza (13.0%) y caliza-lutita (6.0%). En cuanto a cuanto a edafología el suelo dominante es regosol (33.57%), luvisol (27.0%), acrisol (24.0%), cambisol (7.0%) y leptosol (6.0%).

En lo que respecta a la hidrología se encuentra posicionado en la región hidrológica del Pánuco (3.0%); en las cuencas del río Moctezuma; dentro de las subcuenca del río Calabozo (69.0%), río Metztitlán (27.0%) y río Los Hules (4.0%). El municipio cuenta con dos corrientes de agua, cuatro cuerpos de agua, también cuenta el río Zoyatla y Miniahuaco y con la laguna Chapultepec.

Clima

El municipio presenta una variedad de climas, Templado húmedo con abundantes lluvias en verano (36.0%), templado húmedo con lluvias todo el año (28.0%), semicálido húmedo con lluvias todo el año (18.0%), templado subhúmedo con lluvias en verano, de mayor humedad (9.0%), templado subhúmedo con lluvias en verano, de menor humedad (8.0%) y semiseco templado (1.0%). Registra una temperatura media anual 14 °C, precipitación pluvial de 2047 milímetros al año, y el período de lluvias es de junio a septiembre.

Ecología

En flora tiene una vegetación formada por la existencia de bosques con especies tales como el pino u ocote, tiene árboles de ocote rojo, encino, hoja ancha, mirra, oyamel, encino manzanilla, aquichique, tapachicle, xalama, shuete, señores principales, quebrache, xuchiate, coatlapal, nogal, y álamo; así mismo cuenta con árboles de mezquite, huizaches, nopal, órgano, etc. En cuanto a fauna se cuenta con coyote, lobo, mapache, zorra, tejón, armadillo, liebre y ardilla.

Parte de este municipio pertenece a la Barranca de Metztitlán, decretada como  Reserva de la Biósfera el 27 de noviembre de 2000 con una superficie de 96 042.90 ha; esta área también comprende los municipios de Acatlán, Atotonilco el Grande, Eloxochitlán, Huasca de Ocampo, Metztitlán, San Agustín Metzquititlán y Metepec.

Demografía

Población

De acuerdo a los resultados que presentó el Censo Población y Vivienda 2020 del INEGI, el municipio cuenta con un total de 38 155 habitantes, siendo 18 137 hombres y 20 018 mujeres. Tiene una densidad de 139.9 hab/km², la mitad de la población tiene 27 años o menos, existen 90 hombres por cada 100 mujeres.

El porcentaje de población que habla lengua indígena es de 4.93 %, el porcentaje de población que se considera afromexicana o afrodescendiente es de 2.89 %. Tiene una Tasa de alfabetización de 99.0 % en la población de 15 a 24 años, de 91.0 % en la población de 25 años y más. El porcentaje de población según nivel de escolaridad, es de 6.7 % sin escolaridad, el 59.7 % con educación básica, el 19.5 % con educación media superior, el 14.0 % con educación superior, y 0.1 % no especificado.

El porcentaje de población afiliada a servicios de salud es de 60.6 %. El 37.5 % se encuentra afiliada al IMSS, el 51.0 % al INSABI, el 10.6 % al ISSSTE, 0.7 % IMSS Bienestar, 0.1 % a las dependencias de salud de PEMEX, Defensa o Marina, 0.5 % a una institución privada, y el 0.5 % a otra institución. El porcentaje de población con alguna discapacidad es de 4.8 %. El porcentaje de población según situación conyugal, el 32.4 % se encuentra casada, el 30.8 % soltera, el 24.6 % en unión libre, el 6.2 % separada, el 1.2 % divorciada, el 4.8 % viuda.

Para 2020, el total de viviendas particulares habitadas es de 10 594 viviendas, representa el 1.2 % del total estatal. Con un promedio de ocupantes por vivienda 3.6 personas. Predominan las viviendas con tabique y block. En el municipio para el año 2020, el servicio de energía eléctrica abarca una cobertura del 99.0 %; el servicio de agua entubada un 60.8 %; el servicio de drenaje cubre un 97.9 %; y el servicio sanitario un 99.4 %.

Localidades

Para el año 2020, de acuerdo al Catálogo de Localidades, el municipio cuenta con 33 localidades.

Política

Se erigió como municipio el 8 de abril de 1825. El Honorable Ayuntamiento está compuesto por: un Presidente Municipal, un Síndico,  8 Regidores, y 50 Delegados municipales. De acuerdo al Instituto Nacional electoral (INE) el municipio esta integrado por 19 secciones electorales, de la 1600 a la 1618. Para la elección de diputados federales a la Cámara de Diputados de México y diputados locales al Congreso de Hidalgo, se encuentra integrado al III Distrito Electoral Federal de Hidalgo y al II Distrito Electoral Local de Hidalgo. A nivel estatal administrativo pertenece a la Macrorregión IV y a la Microrregión XX, además de a la Región Operativa VI Zacualtipán.

Cronología de presidentes municipales

Economía

En 2015 el municipio presenta un IDH de 0.744 Alto, por lo que ocupa el lugar 30.° a nivel estatal; y en 2005 presentó un PIB de $1,103,179,858.00 pesos mexicanos, y un PIB per cápita de $42,451.00 (precios corrientes de 2005).

De acuerdo con el Consejo Nacional de Evaluación de la Política de Desarrollo Social (Coneval), el municipio registra un Índice de Marginación Bajo. El 48.3% de la población se encuentra en pobreza moderada y 14.4% se encuentra en pobreza extrema. En 2015, el municipio ocupó el lugar 33 de 84 municipios en la escala estatal de rezago social.

A datos de 2015, en materia de agricultura se cultivan principalmente los productos siguientes: maíz grano con una superficie sembrada de 700 hectáreas, frijol con 97 hectáreas y algunos cultivos perennes como café cereza con 45 hectáreas. En ganadería se cría el ganado bovino de carne y leche con una población de 719 cabezas, porcino con 786 cabezas ovino con 570 y caprino con 517 cabezas. En avicultura existe una población de 38 300 aves, las cuales se crían para engorda y postura. En apicultura se cuenta con 6 colmenas, las cuales producen la miel y cera de abeja.

Para 2015 se cuenta con 1425 unidades económicas, que generaban empleos para 4914 personas. En lo que respecta al comercio, se cuenta con cinco tianguis, nueve tiendas Diconsa y dos lecheras Liconsa; además de un mercado público y un rastro. De acuerdo con cifras al año 2015 presentadas en los Censos Económicos por el INEGI, la Población Económicamente Activa (PEA) del municipio asciende a 13 307 personas de las cuales 12 863 se encuentran ocupadas y 444 se encuentran desocupadas. El 5.64%, pertenece al sector primario, el 50.42% pertenece al sector secundario, el 43.16% pertenece al sector terciario y el 0.78% no especificaron.

Véase también

 Municipios del estado de Hidalgo
 Historia del estado de Hidalgo
 Cultura del estado de Hidalgo

Notas

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Gobierno del Estado de Hidalgo - Sitio Oficial

Municipios del estado de Hidalgo

Municipio de Zacualtipán de Ángeles


The St. Johns River () is the longest river in the U.S. state of Florida and it is the most significant one for commercial and recreational use. At  long, it flows north and winds through or borders twelve counties. The drop in elevation from headwaters to mouth is less than ; like most Florida waterways, the St. Johns has a very slow flow speed of , and is often described as "lazy".

Numerous lakes are formed by the river or flow into it, but as a river its widest point is nearly  across. The narrowest point is in the headwaters, an unnavigable marsh in Indian River County. The St. Johns drainage basin of  includes some of Florida's major wetlands. It is separated into three major basins and two associated watersheds for Lake George and the Ocklawaha River, all managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District.

Although Florida was the location of the first permanent European settlement in what would become the United States, much of Florida remained an undeveloped frontier into the 20th century. With the growth of population, the St. Johns, like many Florida rivers, was altered to make way for agricultural and residential centers, suffering severe pollution and redirection that has diminished its ecosystem. The St. Johns, named one of 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998, was number 6 on a list of America's Ten Most Endangered Rivers in 2008. Restoration efforts are underway for the basins around the St. Johns as Florida's population continues to increase.

Historically, a variety of people have lived on or near the St. Johns, including Paleo-indians, Archaic people, Timucua, Mocama, French, Spanish, and British colonists, Seminoles, slaves and freemen, Florida crackers, land developers, tourists and retirees. It has been the subject of William Bartram's journals, Harriet Beecher Stowe's letters home, and Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings' books.  In the year 2000, 3.5 million people lived within the various watersheds that feed into the St. Johns River.

Geography and ecology
Starting in Brevard County and meeting the Atlantic Ocean at Duval County, the St. Johns is Florida's primary commercial and recreational waterway. It flows north from its headwaters, originating in the direction of the Lake Wales Ridge, which is only slightly elevated at  above sea level. Because of this low elevation drop, the river has a long backwater.  It ebbs and flows with tides that pass through the barrier islands and up the channel. Uniquely, it shares the same regional terrain as the parallel Kissimmee River, although the Kissimmee flows south.

Upper basin
The St. Johns River is separated into three basins and two associated watersheds managed by the St. Johns River Water Management District. Because the river flows in a northerly direction, the upper basin is located in the headwaters of the river at its southernmost point. Indian River County is where the river begins as a network of marshes, at a point west of Vero Beach aptly named the St. Johns Marsh in central Florida. The St. Johns River is a blackwater stream, meaning that it is fed primarily by swamps and marshes lying beneath it; water seeps through the sandy soil and collects in a slight valley. The upper basin measures approximately ; the St. Johns transforms into a navigable waterway in Brevard County. The river touches on the borders of Osceola and Orange Counties, and flows through the southeast tip of Seminole County, transitioning into its middle basin a dozen miles (19 km) or so north of Titusville.

The upper basin of the St. Johns was significantly lowered in the 1920s with the establishment of the Melbourne Tillman drainage project. This drained the St. Johns' headwaters eastward to the Indian River through canals dug across the Ten-Mile Ridge near Palm Bay. As of 2015, these past diversions are being partially reversed through the first phase of the Canal 1 Rediversion project.

The river is at its narrowest and most unpredictable in this basin. Channel flows are not apparent and are usually unmarked. The most efficient way to travel on this part of the river is by airboat. Approximately 3,500 lakes lie within the overall St. Johns watershed; all are shallow, with maximum depths between . The river flows into many of the lakes, which further confuses navigation. Eight larger lakes and five smaller ones lie in the upper basin; one of the first is named Lake Hell 'n Blazes (sometimes polished to read as Lake Helen or Hellen Blazes), referencing oaths yelled by boatmen and fishermen in the early 19th century, frustrated when trying to navigate through floating islands of macrophytes, or muck and weeds, as the islands changed location with the creeping flow. Lakes Washington, Winder, and Poinsett are located further along this stretch of the river. The northernmost points of the upper basin contain the Tosohatchee Wildlife Management Area, created in 1977 to assist with filtration of waters flowing into the larger St. Johns.

Wetlands in the upper and middle basin are fed by rainwater, trapped by the structure of the surrounding land. It is an oxygen- and nutrient-poor environment; what grows usually does so in peat which is created by centuries of decaying plant material. Water levels fluctuate with the subtropical wet and dry seasons. Rain in central and north Florida occurs seasonally during summer and winter, but farther south rain in winter is rare. All plants in these basins must tolerate water fluctuation, both flooding and drought. Sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), cypress (Taxodium), and swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora) trees often find great success in this region on raised land called hammocks.  Trees that live in water for long periods usually have buttressed trunks, tangled, braided roots, or protrusions like cypress knees to obtain oxygen when under water, but the majority of plant life is aquatic. Wetland staples include the American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata), pitcher plants, and Virginia iris (Iris virginica). In the southernmost points of the river, Cladium, or sawgrass, grows in vast swaths of wet prairie that at one time extended into the Everglades. These wetland flora are remarkably successful in filtering pollutants that otherwise find their way into the river.

Middle basin

For  the river passes through a  basin fed primarily by springs and stormwater runoff. This basin, spreading throughout Orange, Lake, Volusia, and Seminole Counties, is home to the greater Orlando metropolitan area, where two million people live and major tourist attractions are located. The topography of the middle basin varies between clearly distinguishable banks along the river and broad, shallow lakes. Two of the largest lakes in the middle basin are created by the river: Lake Harney and Lake Monroe. The shallow  Lake Harney is fed by the long narrow Puzzle Lake; immediately north is the Econlockhatchee River, which joins to increase the volume of the St. Johns to where navigation becomes easier for larger boats. The river veers west, touching on Lake Jesup before it empties into Lake Monroe, passing the city of Sanford. It is at this point that the St. Johns' navigable waterway, dredged and maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers with channel markers maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard, begins. Lake Monroe, a large lake at  with an average depth of , drains a surrounding watershed of . Sanford has adapted to the lake by building some of its downtown area on the waterfront; citizens use boat transportation and Sanford's public dock to commute into town.

Optimally an  deep channel about  wide after leaving Lake Monroe, the St. Johns meets its most significant tributary in the middle basin, the spring-fed Wekiva River, discharging approximately  a day into the St. Johns. Near this confluence are the towns of DeBary and Deltona. Forests surrounding the Wekiva River are home to the largest black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus) population in Florida; several troops of Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) have adapted to live near the river as well. The monkeys' introduction to Florida is unclear; they were reportedly brought either to serve in backdrop scenes of Tarzan movies filmed around the Silver River in the 1930s, or to lend an air of authenticity to "jungle cruises" provided by an enterprising boat operator around the same time.

Of most vital importance to marshes are invertebrate animals, the foundation of food webs. Amphibious invertebrates such as apple snails (Pomacea paludosa), crayfish, and grass shrimp consume plant material, hastening its decomposition and acting as a food source for fish and birds. Insect larvae use water for breeding, feeding upon smaller copepods and amphipods that live in microscopic algae and periphyton formations. Mosquitos, born in water, are in turn the favorite food of 112 species of dragonflies and 44 species of damselflies in Florida. These animals are water hardy and adaptable to dry conditions when water levels fluctuate from one season to the next or through drought and flood cycles.

Of vertebrates, numerous species of frog, salamander, snake, turtle, and alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) proliferate in marsh waters. Most of these animals are active at night. Frog choruses are overwhelming; during alligator mating season the grunts of bulls join in. The marshes around the St. Johns River upper basin teem with birds. A recent study counted 60,000 birds in one month, nesting or feeding in the upper basin. Wading and water birds like the white ibis (Eudocimus albus), wood stork (Mycteria americana), and purple gallinule (Porphyrio martinicus) depend on the water for raising their young: they prey upon small fish and tadpoles in shallow water and puddles in the dry season. In successful seasons, their colonies can number in the thousands, creating a cacophony of calls and fertilizing trees with their droppings.

Lake George

The river turns north again as it rolls through a  basin spreading across Putnam, Lake, and Marion Counties, and the western part of Volusia County. Slightly north of the Wekiva River is Blue Spring, the largest spring on the St. Johns, producing over  a day. Florida springs stay at an even temperature of  throughout the year. Because of this, Blue Spring is the winter home for West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris), and they are protected within Blue Spring State Park. Manatees are large, slow-moving herbivorous aquatic mammals whose primary threats are human development and collisions with swiftly moving watercraft. Many parts of the St. Johns and its tributaries are no-wake zones to protect manatees from being critically or fatally injured by boat propellers. Human interaction with manatees in Blue Spring State Park is forbidden.

Bordering to the north of Blue Spring State Park is Hontoon Island State Park, accessible only by boat. In 1955 an extremely rare Timucua totem representing an owl was found buried and preserved in the St. Johns muck off of Hontoon Island. The figure may signify that its creators were part of the owl clan. Representing different clans of the Timucua, two more totems—in all, the only totems in North America to have been found outside of the Pacific Northwest—shaped like a pelican and otter were found in 1978 after being snagged by a barge at the bottom of the river. River otters (Lutra canadensis) can be found through the length of the St. Johns and its tributaries, living in burrows or in the roots of trees bordering waterways. They eat crayfish, turtles, and small fish, and are active usually at night, playful but shy of human contact.

The St. Johns creeps into the southern tip of Lake George, the second largest lake in Florida at ,  wide and  long. The watershed surrounding Lake George expands through , lying within Ocala National Forest and Lake George State Forest, that protect an ecosystem dominated by pine and scrub more than  and  in size, respectively. Flatwoods forests dominate the Lake George watershed, with slash pines (Pinus elliottii), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), and over 100 species of groundcover or herbal plants that grow in poor, sandy soil. Flatwoods pine forests stay relatively dry, but can withstand short periods of flooding. Larger land animals such as wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo), sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis), and the largest population of southern bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus) in the contiguous U.S, find it easier to live in the flatwoods. Typical mammals that live in these ecosystems, such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and white tailed-deer (Odocoileus virginianus), are ones that prefer dry, flat areas with good ground cover and available nesting sites.

Ocklawaha River

The Ocklawaha River flows north and joins the St. Johns as the largest tributary, and one of significant historical importance. The Ocklawaha (also printed as Oklawaha) drainage basin expands through Orange, Lake, Marion, and Alachua Counties, comprising a total of . Ocala, Gainesville, and the northern suburbs of the Orlando metropolitan area are included in this basin. There are two headwaters for the Ocklawaha: a chain of lakes, the largest of which is Lake Apopka in Lake County, and the Green Swamp near Haines City in Polk County, drained by the Palatlakaha River. The Silver River, fed by one of Florida's most productive springs expelling  daily, is located about midway along the  Ocklawaha.

Confederate Captain John William Pearson named his militia after the Ocklawaha River called the Ocklawaha Rangers in the American Civil War. Prior to the civil war, Pearson ran a successful health resort in Orange Springs. After the civil war Pearson's Orange Springs resort declined in popularity due to the increasing attention to nearby Silver Springs—the source of the Silver River—at the turn of the 20th century, popularizing the Ocklawaha. Georgia-born poet Sidney Lanier called it "the sweetest waterlane in the world" in a travel guide he published in 1876. The river gave Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings access to the St. Johns from her homestead at Orange Lake. The region served as a major fishing attraction until a decline in water quality occurred in the 1940s, and since then further degradation of the river and its sources have occurred. In particular, Lake Apopka earned the designation of Florida's most polluted lake following a chemical spill in 1980 that dumped DDE in it.  It has experienced chronic algal blooms caused by citrus farm fertilizer and wastewater runoff from nearby farms.

The proliferation of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus), and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) in central Florida is a major attraction for fishermen from all over the country. The St. Johns is home to 183 species of fish, 55 of which appear in the main stem of the river. One, the southern tessellated darter (Etheostoma olmstedi) is found only in the Ocklawaha. Some are marine species that either migrate upriver to spawn or have found spring-fed habitats that are high in salinity, such as a colony of Atlantic stingrays (Dasyatis sabina) that live in Lake Washington in the upper basin. Ocean worms, snails, and white-fingered mud crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) have also been found far upriver where tidal influences are rare. In contrast, American eels (Anguilla rostrata) live in the St. Johns and Ocklawaha and spawn in the Sargasso Sea in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. After a year living in the ocean, many of them find their way back to the St. Johns to live, then, prompted by the phases of the moon, make the return journey to spawn and die.

Lower basin
From the intersection of the Ocklawaha River,  to the Atlantic Ocean, the St. Johns lies within the lower basin, draining a total area of  in Putnam, St. Johns, Clay, and Duval Counties. Twelve tributaries empty into the river in the lower basin. The St. Johns River widens considerably on the north end of Lake George; between Lake George and Palatka the river ranges between  wide. Between Palatka and Jacksonville, that widens further to between . This portion of the river is the most navigable and shipping is its primary use. The Army Corps of Engineers maintains shipping channels at least  deep and  wide. North of Jacksonville, the channels are expanded to  deep and between  wide.

The towns and cities along the lower basin of the river are some of the oldest in Florida, and their histories have centered on the river. Both Palatka and Green Cove Springs have been popular tourist destinations in the past. Several smaller locations along the river sprang up around ferry landings, but when rail lines and then Interstate highways were constructed closer to the Atlantic Coast, many of the towns experienced significant economic decline, and ferry landings were forgotten.

The final  of the river's course runs through Jacksonville with a population of more than a million. Much of the economic base of Jacksonville depends on the river:  of goods are shipped in and out of Jacksonville annually. Exports include paper, phosphate, fertilizers, and citrus, while major imports include oil, coffee, limestone, cars, and lumber. The Port of Jacksonville produces $1.38 billion in the local economy and supports 10,000 jobs. The U.S. Navy has two bases in the Jacksonville area: Naval Station Mayport, at the mouth of the river, serves as the second largest Atlantic Fleet operation and home port in the country. Naval Air Station Jacksonville is one of the service's largest air installations, home to two air wings and over 150 fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft, and the host for one of only two full-fledged Naval Hospitals remaining in Florida.

Using an unofficial nickname of "The River City", Jacksonville has a culture centered on the St. Johns. An annual footrace named the Gate River Run accepts 18,000 participants who travel a course along and over the river twice. The largest kingfishing tournament in the U.S. is held on a St. Johns tributary, where sport fishers concentrate on king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla), cobia (Rachycentron canadum), dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus) and Wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri). The home stadium for the Jacksonville Jaguars faces the river, as does most of the commercial center of downtown. Seven bridges span the St. Johns at Jacksonville; all of them allow tall ships to pass, although some restrict passing times when train or automobile traffic is heavy.

Tides cause seawater to enter the mouth of the St. Johns River and can affect the river's level into the middle basin. As a result, much of the river in Jacksonville is part seawater, making it an estuarine ecosystem. The animals and plants in these systems can tolerate both fresh and salt water, and the fluctuations in saline content and temperatures associated with tidal surges and heavy rainfall discharge. Marine animals such as dolphins and sharks can be spotted at times in the St. Johns at Jacksonville as can manatees. Fish such as mullet (Mullidae), flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma), shad (Alosa sapidissima), and blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) migrate from the ocean to freshwater springs upriver to spawn.

Although freshwater invertebrates inhabiting and comprising algae and periphyton make the foundation of food webs in the middle and lower basin, zooplankton and phytoplankton take that role in the estuarine habitat. Mollusks gather at the St. Johns estuary in large numbers, feeding on the bottom of the river and ocean floors. The abundance and importance of oysters (Crassostrea virginica) is apparent in the many middens left by the Timucua in mounds many feet high. Oysters and other mollusks serve as the primary food source of shorebirds. The large trees that line the river from its source to south of Jacksonville begin to transition into salt marshes east of the city. Mayport is home to approximately 20 shrimping vessels that use the mouth of the St. Johns to access the Atlantic Ocean.

Formation and hydrology

Geologic history
Lying within a coastal plain, the St. Johns River passes through an area that was at one time barrier islands, coastal dunes, and estuary marshes. The Florida Peninsula was created primarily by forces and minerals from the ocean. It lies so low that minor fluctuations in sea levels can have a dramatic effect on its geomorphology. Florida was once part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Lying underneath the visible rock formations is a basement of igneous granite and volcanic composition under a sedimentary layer formed during the Paleozoic era 542 to 251 million years ago. During the Cretaceous period (145 to 66 million years ago), the basement and its sedimentary overlay were further covered by calcium carbonate and formations left by the evaporation of water called evaporites. What covers the peninsula is the result of simultaneous processes of deposits of sands, shells, and coral, and erosion from water and weather. As ocean water has retreated and progressed, the peninsula has been covered with sea water at least seven times. Waves compressed sands, calcium carbonate, and shells into limestone; at the ocean's edge, beach ridges were created by this depositional forming. North-south axis rivers, such as the St. Johns, were created by past beach ridges which were often divided by swales. As ocean water retreated, lagoons formed in the swales, which were further eroded by acidic water. Barrier islands, furthermore, formed along the Atlantic Coast, surrounding the lagoon with land and forming a freshwater river.

From its origins to approximately the area of Sanford, the St. Johns flows north. It takes a sharp turn west near Sanford for a few miles—which is referred to as the St. Johns River offset, but shortly changes direction to flow north again. Geologists hypothesize that the west-flowing offset may have formed earlier than the north flowing portions, possibly during the late Tertiary or early Pleistocene era 66 to 12 million years ago. Some fracturing and faulting may also be responsible for the offset. Although seismic activity in Florida is mostly insignificant, several minor earthquakes have occurred near the St. Johns River, caused by the trough created by Pangaean rifting.

Springs and aquifers

All of Florida's abundant fresh water is the result of precipitation that returns to the atmosphere in a process called evapotranspiration that involves evaporation and transpiration of moisture from plants. As rains fall, most of the water is directed to lakes, streams, and rivers. However, a significant amount of fresh water is held underground but close to the surface in aquifers. A surficial aquifer consisting mostly of clay, shells, and sand is over a confining layer of denser materials. Wells are drilled in the surficial aquifer, which supplies better quality water in areas where the deepest aquifer has a high mineral content. Occasionally the confining layer is fractured to allow breaches of water to percolate down to recharge the layer below. The Floridan Aquifer, underneath the confining layer, underlies the entire state and portions of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and South Carolina. It is particularly accessible in the northern part of Florida, serving as the fresh water source of metropolitan areas from St. Petersburg north to Jacksonville and Tallahassee.

Acidic rainwater erodes the limestone and can form caverns. When the overlay of these caverns is particularly thin—less than —sinkholes can form. Where the limestone or sand/clay overlay dissolves over the aquifer and the pressure of the water pushes out, springs form. The upper and middle basins of the St. Johns River are located in a portion of the peninsula where the aquifer system is thinly confined, meaning springs and sinkholes are abundant. Springs are measured in magnitude of how much water is discharged, which is dependent upon season and rainfall. The greatest discharge is from first magnitude springs that emit at least  of water per second. There are four first magnitude springs that feed the St. Johns River: Silver Springs in Marion County, emitting between /second; Silver Glen Spring straddling Marion and Lake Counties, emitting between /second; Alexander Springs in Lake County, emitting between /second; and Blue Spring in Volusia County, emitting between /second.

Rainfall and climate

The St. Johns River lies within a humid subtropical zone. In summer months, the temperature ranges from , and between  in the winter, although drops may occur in winter months to below freezing approximately a dozen times. Water temperatures in the river correlate to the air temperatures. The average range of water temperatures is between , rising in the summer months. Where the river widens between Palatka and Jacksonville, wind becomes a significant factor in navigation, and both whitecap waves and calm surface waters are common.

Rain occurs more frequently in late summer and early fall. Tropical storms and nor'easters are common occurrences along the Atlantic coast of Florida; the St. Johns River lies between  inland, so any storm striking the counties of Indian River north to Duval produces rain that is drained by the St. Johns River. Tropical Storm Fay in 2008 deposited  of rain in a 5-day period, most of it located near Melbourne. The St. Johns near Geneva in Seminole County rose  in four days, setting a record. The river near Sanford rose  in 36 hours. Fay caused severe flooding in the middle basin due not only to the deluge but the flat slopes of the river. Typically, however, the St. Johns basin receives between  of rain annually, half of it in summer months. The rate of evapotranspiration corresponds to rainfall, ranging between  a year, most of it occurring in the summer.

Flow rates and water quality

The entire river lies within the nearly flat Pamlico terrace, giving it an overall gradient of  per mile (km); it is one of the flattest major rivers on the continent. Its proximity to the ocean in the lower basin affects its rise and fall with tides and salinity. Tides regularly affect water levels as far south as Lake George; when combined with extreme winds, the river's tidal effects can extend to Lake Monroe  away and have on occasion reached Lake Harney. Tides typically raise the river level about  at Jacksonville, decreasing some to  at Orange Park where the river widens, and increasing back to  at Palatka as it narrows. As a result of tidal effects, discharge measurements in the lower basin are often inaccurate. However, the estimated rate of discharge between the Ocklawaha River and the center of Jacksonville ranges from  per second. The nontidal discharge at the mouth at Mayport averages  per second, but with tides it exceeds  per second, and following heavy rains combined with tides can top  per second. Farther upriver, the discharge rate ranges from  per second near Lake Poinsett to  per second near DeLand. The confluence of numerous springs, the Econlockhatchee River, and the Wekiva River causes the average discharge to increase by  per second between Lake Harney and DeLand, representing the greatest annual average increase of streamflow along the St. Johns.

As distance between the mouth of the St. Johns and the middle and upper basins increases, the salinity in the river gradually decreases. Marine water measures at 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or more while fresh water measures below 2 ppt. What ranges in between is characterized as brackish water. Near the center of Jacksonville, average measures have been collected at 11.40 ppt. Farther south at the Buckman Bridge, joining the south side of Jacksonville to Orange Park, it decreases to 2.9 ppt and falls again to 0.81 ppt at the Shands Bridge near Green Cove Springs.

Dissolved oxygen in fresh water is measured to indicate the health of plant and animal life. It enters water through the atmosphere and from aquatic plant photosynthesis, and is affected by water pressure and temperature. Rapid decomposition of organic materials will decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen in the river, as will nutrients added to the water artificially by wastewater treatment runoff or drainage from fertilized agricultural fields. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the State of Florida recommend no less than 5 mg of oxygen per liter. Several locations on the St. Johns or its tributaries reported at or below these minimums in the 1990s, including the mouth of the Wekiva River, the St. Johns at the town of Christmas, and in the early 2000s at Blue Spring and Blackwater Creek. Sustained low levels of dissolved oxygen may create algal blooms, which may also cause a further decrease in dissolved oxygen.

Like all blackwater streams in Florida, the color of most of the St. Johns is black, owing to the tannins in leaf litter and decaying aquatic plants. Spring fed streams, on the other hand, are remarkably clear and visibility is very high, even when the river bottom is dozens of feet below.

Human history

Pre-Columbian people
Humans arrived on the Florida Peninsula about 12,000 years ago when the ocean was about  lower than today, and the peninsula was double its current size. These earliest people are called Paleo-Indians. They were primarily hunter–gatherers who followed large game, such as mastodons, horses, camels, and bison. Much of the land was far from water—most fresh water was contained in glaciers and polar ice caps. As a result, Florida was an arid landscape with few trees, dominated by grasslands and scrub vegetation.

Around 9,000 years ago, the climate warmed, melting much of the polar ice caps and many glaciers, creating a wetter environment and submerging half the peninsular shelf. As Paleo-Indians now did not have to travel as far to find water, their camps became more permanent, turning into villages. With evidence of a wide variety of tools constructed around this time, archeologists note the transition into Archaic people. The Archaic people made tools from bone, animal teeth, and antlers. They wove fibers from plants such as cabbage palms and saw palmettos. A few burial sites have been excavated—including the Windover Archaeological Site in Brevard County near Titusville—that provide evidence of burial rituals. Archaic peoples interred their dead in shallow peat marshes, which preserved much of the human tissue. Further climate change between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago led to the Middle Archaic period; evidence suggests that human habitation near the St. Johns River first occurred during this era. Populations of indigenous people increased significantly at this time, and numerous settlements near the St. Johns have been recorded from this era; the banks of the St. Johns and its arteries are dotted with middens filled with thousands of shells, primarily those of Viviparus georgianus—a freshwater snail—and oysters.

The advent of regional types of pottery and stone tools made of flint or limestone marked further advancements around 500 BCE. The Archaic people transitioned into settled groups around Florida. From the central part of the state north, along the Atlantic Coast lived people in the St. Johns culture, named for the most significant nearby natural formation. Around 750 CE, the St. Johns culture learned to cultivate corn, adding to their diet of fish, game, and gourds. Archeologists and anthropologists date this agricultural advancement to coincide with a spread of archeological sites, suggesting that a population increase followed. When European explorers arrived in north Florida, they met the Timucua, numbering about 14,000, the largest group of indigenous people in the region. The later Seminole people called the river Welaka or Ylacco. These forms may derive from the Creek wi-láko, "big water", a compound usually applied to large rivers that run through lakes; the St. Johns forms and borders numerous lakes. Alternately, the Seminole name may derive from walaka (from wi-alaka, "water" and "coming"), perhaps a reference to the river's slow discharge and the tidal effects on it. The name is sometimes rendered as "Chain of Lakes" in English.

Colonial era

Though the first European contact in Florida came in 1513 when Juan Ponce de León arrived near Cape Canaveral, not until 1562 did Europeans settle the north Atlantic coast of the peninsula. Early Spanish explorers named the river Rio de Corientes (River of Currents). The St. Johns River became the first place colonized in the region and its first battleground: when French explorer Jean Ribault erected a monument south of the river's mouth to make the French presence known, it alarmed the Spanish who had been exploring the southern and western coast of the peninsula for decades. Ribault was detained after he returned to Europe.

In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière arrived to build Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River; they called the river Rivière de Mai because they settled it on May 1. An artist named Jacques LeMoyne documented what he saw among the Timucuan people in 1564, portraying them as physically powerful and not lacking for provisions. Fort Caroline did not last long, though relations with the local Timucua and Mocamas were friendly. The colony was unable to support itself; some of the French deserted. Those who remained were killed in 1565 by the Spanish, led by Pedro Menéndez, when they marched north from St. Augustine and captured Fort Caroline. The river was renamed San Mateo by the Spanish in honor of the Apostle Matthew, whose feast was the following day. Capturing Fort Caroline allowed the Spanish to maintain control of the river.

The French and Spanish continued to spar over who would control the natural resources and native peoples of the territory. The Timucua, who had initially befriended the French, were not encouraged to make the Spanish allies because of colonial governor Pedro Menéndez de Avilés' abhorrence of French Protestantism and his view that the Timucuan beliefs were "Satanic". By 1573, the Timucua were in outright rebellion, testing the governor's patience and forcing Spanish settlers to abandon farms and garrisons in more interior parts of Florida; the Spanish could not persuade the Timucua to keep from attacking them.

Over a hundred years later, missionaries had more success, setting up posts along the river. Spanish Franciscan missionaries gave the river its current name based on San Juan del Puerto (St. John of the Harbor), the mission established at the river's mouth following the demise of the French fort. The name first appeared on a Spanish map created between 1680 and 1700.

The Timucua, as other groups of indigenous people in Florida, began to lose cohesion and numbers by the 18th century. A tribe located in modern-day Georgia and Alabama called the Creeks assisted with this; in 1702, they joined with the Yamasee and attacked some of the Timucua, forcing them to seek protection from the Spanish who forced them into slavery. The Creeks began assimilating other people and spread farther south until they were known by 1765 as Seminoles by the British, a term adapted from cimarrones that meant "runaways" or "wild ones". The Seminoles employed a variety of languages from the peoples the Creeks had assimilated: Hitchiti, Muskogee, as well as Timucua. Between 1716 and 1767, the Seminoles gradually moved into Florida and began to break ties with the Creeks to become a cohesive tribe of their own. The St. Johns provided a natural boundary to separate European colonies on the east bank and indigenous lands west of the river.

After Florida came under the Kingdom of Great Britain's jurisdiction in 1763, Quaker father and son naturalists John and William Bartram explored the length of the river while visiting the southeastern United States from 1765 to 1766. They published journals describing their experiences and the plants and animals they observed. They were charged by King George III to find the source of the river they called the Picolata or San Juan, and measured its widths and depths, taking soil samples as they traveled southward. William returned to Florida from 1773 to 1777 and wrote another journal about his travels, while he collected plants and befriended the Seminoles who called him "Puc Puggy" (flower hunter). William's visit took him as far south as Blue Spring, where he remarked on the crystal clear views offered by the spring water: "The water is perfectly diaphanous, and here are continually a prodigious number and variety of fish; they appear as plain as though lying on a table before your eyes, although many feet deep in the water." Bartram's journals attracted the attention of such prominent Americans as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. The success of these journals inspired other naturalists such as André Michaux to further explore the St. Johns, as he did in 1788, sailing from Palatka south to Lake Monroe, and gave names to some of the plants described by the Bartrams' journals. Michaux was followed by William Baldwin between 1811 and 1817. Subsequent explorers, including John James Audubon, have carried William's Travels Through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Florida with them as a guide.

In 1795, Florida was transferred back to Spain which lured Americans with cheap land. A former loyalist to Britain who left South Carolina during the American Revolutionary War, a planter and slave trader named Zephaniah Kingsley seized the opportunity and built a plantation named Laurel Grove near what is now Doctors Lake, close to the west bank of the St. Johns River, south of where Orange Park is today. Three years later, Kingsley took a trip to Cuba and purchased a 13-year-old Wolof girl named Anna Madgigine Jai. She became his common-law wife, and managed Laurel Grove while Kingsley traveled and conducted business. The plantation grew citrus and sea island cotton (Gossypium barbadense). In 1814, they moved to a larger plantation on Fort George Island, where they lived for 25 years, and owned several other plantations and homesteads in what is today Jacksonville and another on Drayton Island at the north end of Lake George. Kingsley later married three other freed women in a polygamous relationship; Spanish-controlled Florida allowed interracial marriages, and white landowners such as James Erwin, George Clarke, Francisco Sánchez, John Fraser, and Francis Richard Jr.—early settlers along the river—all were married to or in extramarital relationships with African women.

Territorial Florida and statehood

The first years following Florida's annexation to the United States in 1821 were marked with violent conflicts between white settlers and Seminoles, whose bands often included runaway African slaves. The clashes between American and Seminole forces during the establishment of the Florida territory are reflected in the towns and landmarks along the St. Johns named for those who were directly involved. Even before Florida was under U.S. jurisdiction, Major General Andrew Jackson was responsible for removing the Alachua Seminoles west of the Suwannee River, either killing them or forcing them farther south towards Lake County, in 1818. Jackson's efforts became the First Seminole War, and were rewarded by the naming of a cattle crossing across a wide portion of the St. Johns near the Georgia border—previously named Cowford—to Jacksonville. The result of Jackson's offensive was the transfer of Florida to the U.S. Following the Seminole Wars, a gradual increase in commerce and population occurred on the St. Johns, made possible by steamship travel. Steamboats heralded a heyday for the river, and before the advent of local railroads, they were the only way to reach interior portions of the state. They also afforded the citizens of Jacksonville a pastime to watch competing races. By the 1860s, weekly trips between Jacksonville, Charleston, and Savannah were made to transport tourists, lumber, cotton, and citrus. The soil along the St. Johns was considered especially successful for producing sweeter oranges.

Florida's involvement in the U.S. Civil War was limited compared to other Confederate states because it had a fraction of the populations of states that had been developed. Florida provided materials to the Confederacy by way of steamboats on the St. Johns, although the river and the Atlantic coasts were blockaded by the U.S. Navy. One action in Florida's role in the Civil War was the sinking of the , a Union paddle steamer used for patrolling the St. Johns to keep materials from reaching the Confederate Army. In 1864, near Palatka, Confederate forces under the command of Capt. John Jackson Dickison captured, burned, and sank the USS Columbine, making her perhaps the only ship commandeered by the Confederacy. The same year and farther downriver, Confederates again sank a Union boat, the Maple Leaf, which struck a floating keg filled with explosives and settled into the muck near Julington Creek, south of Jacksonville. Part of the shipwreck was recovered in 1994, when it was discovered that many Civil War-era artifacts, including daguerreotypes and wooden matches, had been preserved in the river muck.

Although the Spanish had colonized Florida for two centuries, the state remained the last part of the east coast of the United States to be developed and explored. Following the Civil War, the State of Florida was too far in debt to build roads and rail lines to further its progress. Florida Governor William Bloxham in 1881 appealed directly to a Pennsylvania-based industrialist named Hamilton Disston, initially to build canals to improve steamboat passage through the Caloosahatchee River, and later to drain lands in the central part of the state for agriculture. Disston was furthermore persuaded to purchase  of land in central Florida for $1 million, which at the time was reported to be the largest purchase of land in human history. Disston was ultimately unsuccessful in his drainage attempts, but his investment sparked the tourist industry and made possible the efforts of railroad magnates Henry Flagler and Henry Plant to construct rail lines down the east coast of Florida, including a rail link between Sanford and Tampa. Disston was responsible for creating the towns of Kissimmee, St. Cloud, and several others on the west coast of Florida.

A New York Times story reporting on Disston's progress in 1883 stated that before Disston's purchase and the subsequent development, the only places worth seeing in Florida were Jacksonville and St. Augustine, with perhaps an overnight trip on the St. Johns River to Palatka; by 1883 tourist attractions had extended  south. More attention was paid to the St. Johns with the increasing population. Florida was portrayed as an exotic wonderland able to cure failing health with its water and citrus, and the region began to be highlighted in travel writings. To relieve his bronchitis, Ralph Waldo Emerson stayed briefly in St. Augustine, calling north Florida "a grotesque region" that was being swarmed by land speculators. Emerson poignantly disliked the public sale of slaves, adding to his overall distaste. Following the Civil War, however, famed author Harriet Beecher Stowe lived near Jacksonville and traveled up the St. Johns, writing about it with affection: "The entrance of the St. Johns from the ocean is one of the most singular and impressive passages of scenery that we ever passed through: in fine weather the sight is magnificent." Her memoir Palmetto Leaves, published in 1873 as a series of her letters home, was very influential in luring northern residents to the state.

One unforeseen aspect of more people coming to Florida proved to be an overwhelming problem. Water hyacinths, possibly introduced in 1884 by Mrs W. W. Fuller, who owned a winter home near Palatka, grow so densely that they are a serious invasive species. By the mid-1890s, the purple-flowered hyacinths had grown to reside in  of the river and its arteries. The plants prevent the navigation of watercraft, fishing, and sunlight from reaching the depths of the river, affecting both plant and animal life. The government of Florida found the plants to be so vexing that it spent almost $600,000 between 1890 and 1930 in an unsuccessful bid to rid the creeks and rivers of north Florida of them.

Land boom

An Englishman named Nelson Fell, persuaded by Disston's advertisements to make his fortunes in Florida, arrived in the 1880s. An engineer by trade, Fell purchased  near Lake Tohopekaliga to create a town named Narcoossee, which had a population of more than 200 English immigrants by 1888. A spate of poor luck and tense British-American relations followed, prompting Fell to spend some years investing in infrastructure in Siberia, but he returned in 1909 with ideas of developing wetlands in central Florida. He was further encouraged by the political promises of Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward to drain the Everglades during his 1904 campaign. In 1910 Fell purchased  of land for $1.35 an acre and started the Fellsmere Farms Company to drain the St. Johns Marsh in 1911 and send water into the Indian River Lagoon, promoting the engineered canals and other structures as wondrously efficient in providing land to build a massive metropolis. Some progress was made initially, including the establishment of the town of Fellsmere in which land was sold for $100 an acre, but sales lagged because of a scandal regarding land sale fraud and faulty draining reports from the Everglades. The company then found itself short of funds due to mismanagement. Torrential rains ruptured the newly constructed levees and dikes and forced the company by 1916 to go into receivership. Fell left Florida for Virginia in 1917.

Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings used the St. Johns as a backdrop in her books South Moon Under and The Yearling, and several short stories. In 1933 she took a boat trip along the St. Johns with a friend. In the upper basin, she remarked on the difficulty of determining direction due to the river's ambiguous flow, and wrote in a chapter titled "Hyacinth Drift" in her memoir Cross Creek that she had the best luck in watching the way the hyacinths floated. Rawlings wrote, "If I could have, to hold forever, one brief place and time of beauty, I think I might choose the night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River."

Florida in the 20th century experienced a massive migration into the state. Undeveloped land sold well and draining to reclaim wetlands has often gone unchecked, and often encouraged by government. The St. Johns headwaters decreased in size from  to one between 1900 and 1972. Much of the land was reclaimed for urban use, but agricultural needs took their toll as fertilizers and runoff from cattle ranching washed into the St. Johns. Without wetlands to filter the pollutants, the chemicals stayed in the river and flushed into the Atlantic Ocean. Boaters destroyed the floating islands of muck and weeds in the upper basin with dynamite, causing the lakes to drain completely.

What could have been the most serious human impact on nature in central Florida was the Cross Florida Barge Canal, an attempt to connect the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of the state by channeling the Ocklawaha River, first authorized in 1933. The canal was intended to be  long,  wide, and  deep. Canal construction was top among the engineering priorities in the state, and by 1964 the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction on the Cross Florida Barge Canal. Flood control was the primary impetus behind its construction, though the broader reasoning and feasibility of the project remained unclear. The Army Corps of Engineers was also constructing hundreds of miles of canals in the Everglades at the same time and by the 1960s was being accused of wasting tax money through its unnecessary construction projects. In 1969 the Environmental Defense Fund filed suit in federal court to stop construction on the canal, citing irreparable harm that would be done to Florida waterways and the Floridan Aquifer, central and north Florida's fresh water source.

A separate canal, the St. Johns-Indian River Barge Canal, was planned to link the river with the Intracoastal Waterway; the project never broke ground, and was canceled soon after the Cross Florida Barge Canal was suspended.

Restoration

When steamboats were superseded by the railroad, the river lost much of its significance to the state. The influx of immigrants to Florida settled primarily south of Orlando, adversely affecting the natural order of wetlands there. Within the past 50 years, however, urban areas in the northern and central parts of the state have grown considerably. In the upper basin, population increased by 700 percent between 1950 and 2000, and is expected to rise another 1.5 million by 2020.

Nitrates and phosphorus used as lawn and crop fertilizers wash into the St. Johns. Broken septic systems and seepage from cattle grazing lands create pollution that also finds its way into the river. Storm water washes from street drains directly to the river and its tributaries: in the 1970s, the Econlockhatchee River received  of treated wastewater every day. Wetlands were drained and paved, unable to filter pollutants from the water, made worse by the river's own slow discharge. Algal blooms, fish kills, and deformations and lesions on fish occur regularly in the river from Palatka to Jacksonville. Although most of the pollutants in the river are washed from the southern parts of the river, the Jacksonville area produces approximately 36 percent of them found in the lower basin.

The State of Florida implemented a program named Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) in 1987 to assist with river cleanups, particularly with nonpoint source pollution, or chemicals that enter the river by soaking into the ground, as opposed to direct piped dumping. SWIM assists local jurisdictions with purchasing land for wetlands restoration. The St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD) is charged by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) with restoring the river. The first step in restoration, particularly in the upper basin, is the purchase of public lands bordering the river; ten different reserves and conservation areas have been implemented for such use around the St. Johns headwaters. Around Lake Griffin in the Ocklawaha Chain of Lakes, the SJRWMD has purchased  of land that was previously used for muck farming. More than  have been purchased along Lake Apopka to restore its wetlands, and the SJRWMD has removed nearly  of gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum), a fish species that stores phosphorus and adds to algae problems. The SJRWMD has also set minimum levels for the lakes and tributaries in the St. Johns watersheds to monitor permitted water withdrawals and declare water shortages when necessary.

To assist with river cleanup and the associated funds for improving water quality in the St. Johns, Mayor John Delaney of Jacksonville waged a campaign to get it named as an American Heritage River, beginning in 1997. The designation by the Environmental Protection Agency is intended to coordinate efforts among federal agencies to improve natural resource and environmental protection, economic revitalization, and historic and cultural preservation. The campaign was controversial as the Republican mayor defended asking for federal government assistance, writing "Other rivers have relied heavily on federal help for massive environmental clean-ups. It's the St. Johns' turn now." Twenty-two towns along the St. Johns and environmental, sporting, recreation, boating, and educational organizations also supported its designation, but several prominent Republican politicians expressed concerns over increased federal regulations and restrictions on private property ownership along the river; the Florida House of Representatives passed a resolution asking President Bill Clinton not to include the St. Johns. Despite this, Clinton designated the St. Johns as one of only 14 American Heritage Rivers out of 126 nominated in 1998 for its ecological, historic, economic and cultural significance.

The continuing increase of population in Florida has caused urban planners to forecast that the Floridan Aquifer will no longer be able to sustain the people living in north Florida. By 2020, 7 million people are predicted to live in the St. Johns basins, double the number living there in 2008. Proposals to use  a day from the St. Johns, and another  from the Ocklawaha River, for fresh water are controversial, prompting a private organization named St. Johns Riverkeeper to nominate it to the list of the Ten Most Endangered Rivers by an environmental watchdog group named American Rivers. In 2008, it was listed as #6, which was met with approval from Jacksonville's newspaper, The Florida Times-Union, and skepticism from the SJRWMD.

The St. Johns River is under consideration as an additional water source to meet growing public water needs. In 2008, the river's Water Management District undertook a Water Supply Impact Study of the proposed water withdrawals and asked the National Research Council to review science aspects of the study as it progressed. This resulted in a series of four reports that assessed the impact of water withdrawal on river level and flow, reviewed potential impacts on wetland ecosystems, and presented overall perspectives on the Water Management District study. The National Research Council found that, overall, the District performed a competent job in relating predicted environmental responses, including their magnitude and general degree of uncertainty, to the proposed range of water withdrawals. However, the report noted that the District's final report should acknowledge such critical issues as include future sea-level rises, population growth, and urban development. Although the District predicted that changes in water management would increase water levels and flows that exceed the proposed surface water withdrawals, these predictions have high uncertainties.

The report also noted concerns about the District's conclusion that the water withdrawals will have few deleterious ecological effects. This conclusion was based on the model findings that increased flows from upper basin projects and from changes in land use (increases in impervious areas) largely compensated for the impacts of water withdrawals on water flows and levels. Although the upper basin projects are positive insofar as they will return land to the basin (and water to the river), the same cannot be said about increased urban runoff, the poor quality of which is well known.

See also

 List of lakes of the St. Johns River
 List of crossings of the St. Johns River
 List of Florida rivers
 List of rivers of the Americas by coastline
 South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

 Belleville, Bill (2000). River of Lakes: A Journey on Florida's St. Johns River, University of Georgia Press.
 Benke, Arthur; Cushing, Colbert (eds.) (2005). Rivers of North America, Elsevier/Academic Press.
 Cabell, Branch and Hanna, A. J. (1943). The St. Johns: A Parade of Diversities, Farrar & Rinehart, Rivers of America Series.
 Gannon, Michael (ed.) (1996). A New History of Florida, University Press of Florida.
 McCarthy, Kevin (2004). St. Johns River Guidebook, Pineapple Press.
 Miller, James (1998). An Environmental History of Northeast Florida, University Press of Florida.
 Noll, Steven and Tegeder, M. David (August 2003). From Exploitation to Conservation: A History of the Marjorie Harris Carr Cross Florida Greenway hosted at the Florida Department of Environmental Protection website. Retrieved on July 19, 2009.
 Randazzo, Anthony and Jones, Douglas (eds.) (1997). The Geology of Florida. University Press of Florida.
 Rawlings, Marjorie (1942). Cross Creek, First Touchstone Edition 1996: Simon & Schuster.
 Read, William Alexander (2004). Florida Place Names of Indian Origin and Seminole Personal Names, University of Alabama Press.
 Schafer, Daniel L. (March 2003). Anna Madgigine Jai Kingsley: African Princess, Florida Slave, Plantation Slaveowner. University Press of Florida.
 Simpson, J Clarence; Boyd, Mark F. (ed.) (1956). A Provisional Gazetteer of Florida Place-names of Indian Derivation. Florida Geological Survey, Special Publication No. 1.
 Stowe, Harriet B. (1873). Palmetto-Leaves. J. R. Osgood and Company.
 Tebeau, Charlton (1971). A History of Florida, University of Miami Press.
 Whitney, Ellie; Means, D. Bruce; Rudloe, Anne (eds.) (2004) Priceless Florida: Natural Ecosystems and Native Species. Pineapple Press, Inc.
 Young, Claiborne (1996). Cruising Guide to Eastern Florida, Pelican Publishing Company.

External links

 Florida Department of Environmental Protection:
 Lower basin
 Middle basin
 Upper basin
 St. Johns River Water Management District
 St. Johns Riverkeeper
 A History of Central Florida Podcast - Hontoon Owl Totem, Travel Dining, Fishing Boats

American Heritage Rivers
Rivers of Florida
North Florida
Bodies of water of Indian River County, Florida
Rivers of Brevard County, Florida
Rivers of Osceola County, Florida
Rivers of Orange County, Florida
Rivers of Seminole County, Florida
Rivers of Volusia County, Florida
Rivers of Polk County, Florida
Bodies of water of Putnam County, Florida
Bodies of water of Clay County, Florida
Inlets of Florida
NJCAA athletics

St. Johns River


නොච්චියාගම යනු අනුරාධපුර දිස්ත්‍රික්කයේ බටහිර ප්‍රදේශයේ අනුරාධපුර නගරයට කි.මී. 26ක් පුත්තලම පැත්තට වන්නට පිහිටි ප්‍රාදේශීය ලේකම් කොට්ඨාසයකි.

Nochchiyagama


Chair 06 er en dansk kortfilm fra 2006, der er instrueret af Tina Scherzberg.

Handling
Chair 06 referer til den britiske kunstner Allen Jones' værk: Chair (1967). I Allen Jones' skulptur er kvinden som objekt ført ud i det ekstreme, idet hun er skildret som brugsgenstand, som stol, koblet med en utvetydig seksuel objektgørelse. Tina Scherzbergs hensigt med Chair 06 er at lege med 'og gå i clinch med' betydningerne, samt de følelser skulpturen vækker. Hendes fokus er at portrættere en kvinde som undersøger det at gøre sig selv til objekt.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2006
Kortfilm fra Danmark

Chair 06


The economic concept of a capital good (also called complex product systems (CoPS), and means of production) is as a "...series of heterogeneous commodities, each having specific technical characteristics ..." in the form of a durable good that is used in the production of goods or services. Capital goods are a particular form of economic good and are tangible property.

A society acquires capital goods by saving wealth that can be invested in the means of production. People use them to produce other goods or services within a certain period. Machinery, tools, buildings, computers, or other kinds of equipment that are involved in the production of other things for sale are capital goods. The owners of the capital good can be individuals, households, corporations, or governments. Any material used to produce capital goods is also considered a capital good.

Capital goods are one of the three types of producer goods, the other two being land and labour.  The three are also known collectively as "primary factors of production". This classification originated during the classical economics period and has remained the dominant method for classification.

Many definitions and descriptions of capital goods production have been proposed in the literature. Capital goods are generally considered one-of-a-kind, capital intensive products that consist of many components. They are often used as manufacturing systems or services themselves. Examples include hand tools, machine tools, data centers, oil rigs, semiconductor fabrication plants, and wind turbines. Their production is often organized in projects, with several parties cooperating in networks (Hicks et al. 2000; Hicks and McGovern 2009; Hobday 1998).

A capital good lifecycle typically consists of tendering, engineering and procurement, manufacturing, commissioning, maintenance, and (sometimes) decommissioning.

Capital goods are a major factor in the process of technical innovation.
 All innovations—whether they involve the introduction of a new product or provide a cheaper way of producing an existing product—require that the capital goods sector shall produce a new product (machine or physical plant) according to certain specifications. - Rosenberg, Capital Goods, Technology, and Economic Growth (1963)

Capital goods are a constituent element of the stock of capital assets, or fixed capital and play a key role in the economic analysis of "... growth and production, as well as the distribution of income..."

Immaterial capital goods

Capital goods can also be immaterial, when they take the form of intellectual property. Many production processes require the intellectual property to (legally) produce their products. Just like material capital goods, they can require substantial investment, and can also be subject to amortization, depreciation, and divestment.

Differences from consumer goods
People buy capital goods to use as static resources to make other goods, whereas consumer goods are purchased to be consumed.

For example, an automobile is a consumer good when purchased as a private car.

Dump trucks used in manufacturing or construction are capital goods because companies use them to build things like roads, dams, buildings, and bridges.

In the same way, a chocolate bar is a consumer good, but the machines that produce the candy are capital goods.

Some capital goods can be used in both production of consumer goods or production goods, such as machinery for the production of dump trucks.

Consumption is the logical result of all economic activity, but the level of future consumption depends on the future capital stock, and this in turn depends on the current level of production in the capital-goods sector. Hence if there is a desire to increase consumption, the output of the capital goods should be maximized.

Importance
Capital goods, often called complex products and systems (CoPS) (Gann and Salter 2000; Hobday 2000), play an important role in today's economy (Acha et al. 2004). Aside from allowing a business to create goods or provide services for consumers, capital goods are important in other ways. In an industry where production equipment and materials are quite expensive, they can be a high barrier to entry for new companies. If a new business cannot afford to purchase the machines it needs to create a product, for example, it may not be able to compete as effectively in the market. Such a company might turn to another business to supply its products, but this can be expensive as well. This means that, in industries where the means of production represent a large amount of a business's start-up costs, the number of companies competing in the market is often relatively small.

Investment required
The acquisition of machinery and other expensive equipment often represents a significant investment for a company. When a business is struggling, it often puts off such purchases as long as possible, since it does not make sense to spend money on equipment if the company is not around to use it. Capital spending can be a sign that a manufacturer expects growth or at least a steady demand for its products, a potentially positive economic sign.
In most cases, capital goods require a substantial investment on behalf of the producer, and their purchase is usually referred to as a capital expense. These goods are important to businesses because they use these items to make functional goods for customers or to provide consumers with valuable services. As a result, they are sometimes referred to as producers' goods, production goods, or means of production.

In international trade
In the theory of international trade, the causes and nature of the trade of capital goods receive little attention. Trade-in capital goods is a crucial part of the dynamic relationship between international trade and development. The production and trade of capital goods, as well as consumer goods, must be introduced to trade models, and the entire analysis integrated with domestic capital accumulation theory.

See also
Capital (economics)
Final good
Means of production
Physical capital

§ Listed in The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics

References

Further reading

Articles
 Hagemann, Harold, 1987.  "capital goods", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, 1st Edition.

Capital (economics)
Factors of production
Management cybernetics

Capital good


مركز الدراسات والبحوث الإنسانية والاجتماعية هو مركز أكاديمي مستقل تأسس  يوم 23 يوليو 2002 في مدينة وجدة من مجموعة من الخبراء والباحثين في مختلف أصناف المعرفة.

أهداف المركز
• تنمية البحث والدراسة في مختلف المجالات العلمية والحقول المعرفية، وخاصة في ميادين: العلوم الإنسانية والاجتماعية والقانونية والدراسات المستقبلية، ومختلف ميادين النشاط الفكري.
• دعم وتشجيع الطلبة الباحثين ومختلف الدارسين والباحثين والمهتمين في مشاريعهم العلمية والأكاديمية والبحثية.
• تيسير وتشجيع البحث والدراسة في إطار أنشطة ترتبط بأهداف المركز.
• المساهمة في تنشيط الحركة الثقافية والفكرية جهويا ووطنيا.
• تأسيس فضاء للحوار والتواصل بين المثقفين والباحثين والمهتمين ومختلف الفاعلين الثقافيين محليا وجهويا ووطنيا ودوليا.
• مد جسور التواصل مع الكفاءات العلمية والفكرية الوطنية الموجودة خارج أرض الوطن.
• ربط العلاقات العلمية، والتعاون مع المؤسسات الجامعية وباقي المراكز والمؤسسات ذات الاهتمام المشترك.

وسائل عمل المركز

•	الأبحاث والدراسات والأعمال الفكرية والأكاديمية.
•	إعداد ونشر الدراسات والأبحاث التي ينجزها المركز.
•	إنجاز الدراسات والأبحاث المطلوبة من المركز من قبل جهات أخرى.
•	ترجمة الأعمال العلمية، والدراسات من اللغة العربية إلى اللغات الأجنبية، ومن اللغات الأجنبية إلى اللغة العربية ونشرها.
•	المحاضرات والندوات والملتقيات الدراسية والمؤتمرات العلمية.
•	ورشات العمل والدورات التكوينية.
•	وحدات ومجموعات البحث لإنجاز المشاريع والأعمال العلمية.
•	تيسير وتشجيع البحث والدراسة في إطار مجالات ترتبط بأهداف المركز.
•	المكتبات العامة أو المتخصصة لفائدة الباحثين على المستوى المحلي والجهوي.
•	الدورية والمجلة، للتعريف بالمركز ومتابعة أنشطته، ونشر إصداراته وإنتاجاته.

المكتبة

 أسس المركز مكتبة متخصصة تضم أهم الكتب في مجالات العلوم الإنسانية والاجتماعية والفلسفة والقانون والتاريخ والحضارة والدراسات الإسلامية، إضافة إلى عدد مهم من الكتب والدوريات بلغات مختلفة عربية وفرنسية وإنجليزية وإسبانية... وتتوفر المكتبة حاليا على مجلات بأعدادها الكاملة، وعلى بعض المطبوعات الحجرية النادرة. نظرا للنقصان الذي تعاني منه مدينة وجدة، إذ لا تتوفر بها مكتبة ترقى إلى ما يرجوه الباحثون، وستكون المكتبة وهي في مراحل متقدمة من نموها دعامة للبحث العلمي الإنساني والاجتماعي، والمكتبة بالإضافة إلى ما سبق تسعى إلى تحقيق أهداف الوحدات المشتغلة في المركز فيما يتعلق بإنجاز أعمالها البحثية. وتمتلك المكتبة رصيدا مهما في مجال الدراسات الفلسطينية، وهي مدعمة لعمل إحدى الوحدات العلمية بالمركز،. وفي سبيل تنمية مصادر المكتبة اقتنى المركز بعض المكتبات الخاصة.

أنشطة المركز
قام المركز بعقد ندوات دولية و أيام دراسية و محاضرات و حلقات علمية داخلية وبتنسيق مع جهات مختلفة (جامعة محمد الأول، المجلس العلمي المحلي، جمعية حوار، مؤسسة مولاي سليمان).

الندوات التي نظمها المركز
 الندوة الدولية: "[http://www.cerhso.com/detail_nedawat.asp?idZ=8 مراكز الأبحاث:إنتاج المعرفة ومسؤوليات المثقف]" 10يونيو 2005.
 المهرجان الدولي الأول للفن الفوتوغراف تحت شعار: الصورة بين المعلومة والإثارة 21-05-2009

 بمشاركة الأساتذة
- الدكتور نصر محمد عارف: رئيس قسم الدراسات الإسلامية بجامعة زايد (الإمارات العربية المتحدة)، وأستاذ العلوم السياسية بجامعة القاهرة.
- الدكتور مصطفى المرابط: أستاذ بكلية العلوم بجامعة محمد الأول بوجدة، والنائب الأول لرئيس منتدى الحكمة للمفكرين والباحثين.
- الدكتور سعيد خالد الحسن: أستاذ العلوم السياسية بجامعة محمد الخامس بالرباط.

 الندوة الدولية: "التراث العلمي العربي الإسلامي "الإحياء والتفعيل"'''
Le patrimoine scientifique arabo-musulman "Connaissance et renaissance"

الأربعاء والخميس 26-27 أبريل 2006 بقاعة نداء السلام كلية الآداب بوجدة" بتعاون مع جامعة محمد الأول ومؤسسة مولاي سليمان لإنعاش المدن العتيقة بالجهة الشرقية.
بمشاركة الأساتذة:
- البروفيسور عبد الهادي التازي: عضو أكاديمية المملكة.
- الأستاذ محمد علال سيناصر: عضو أكاديمية المملكة.
- الدكتور سعد الصقلي: طبيب أسنان وباحث.
- الأستاذ محمد الرمشاني: مختص في علم التوقيت.
- Andrée BAZZANA: جامعة ليون بفرنسا.

آفاق مستقبلية
	ضمن خطة عمله المستقبلية، أدرج المركز عددا من الأنشطة، ومجالات التعاون الثنائي مع عدد من المؤسسات الزميلة، وهكذا تم برسم الموسم المقبل وضع مخطط عمل من ضمن ما يضمه ما يلي:
- شراكة لإعداد بعض البرامج المشتركة بين المركز والمعهد العالمي للفكر الإسلامي بواشنطن.
- إصدار نسخة عربية من مجلة مستقبلات: FUTURIBLES الفرنسية الشهرية.
- ترجمة كتاب السيرة الفكرية للدكتور عبد الوهاب المسيري، وكتاب نقد تقارير التنمية البشرية للأستاذ منير شفيق إلى اللغة الفرنسية.
- إخراج مشروع ترجمة من اللغة الإنجليزية إلى اللغة العربية أنجزها المركز لمجموعة من الدراسات في النقد الثقافي.
- عقد ندوة دولية في موضوع «الأبعاد غير المطروقة لحدث صبرا وشاتيلا» في شتنبر 2006.
- عقد ندوة دولية بتعاون مع الإيسيسكو، حول«الحدود في العالم الإسلامي رؤية مستقبلية»، في ربيع 2007
- إطلاق مشروع دراسة وتوثيق شامل لمداخل تاريخ العلوم عند العرب والمسلمين، بشراكة مع مجموعة بحث مختصة بكلية العلوم وجدة.
- تنظيم ورشة نقاش فكرية حول «دستور العمل في الفكر الإسلامي»بتعاون مع مركز البحوث بمؤسسة خالد الحسن في فبراير 2006.
- انطلاق برنامج الدورات التدريبية المتقدمة لفائدة الباحثين في مختلف مجالات العمل البحثي المنظم برسم الموسم الأكاديمي 2005/2006.

تمثيلية المركز في المحافل الدولية

قام المركز بعدد من الزيارات إلى مراكز الدراسات والأبحاث داخل الوطن وخارجه، تم خلالها عقد لقاءات متنوعة مع شخصيات فكرية ومسؤولين عن مؤسسات ومراكز علمية تم خلالها التعريف بالمركز وتوسيع نطاق صداقاته، كما تم الاتفاق على عدد من صيغ التعاون بين المركز وبين مختلف هذه المؤسسات، فقد حضر المركز:

- معرض القاهرة الدولي للكتاب المنعقد ما بين 26/1/2005 و8/2/2005.
- فعاليات علمية بكوالالمبور بماليزيا من 25/7/2005 إلى 27/7/2005.
- العشاء السنوي لمركز الإمارات للدراسات والأبحاث يوم 22/7/2005.
- فعاليات علمية بمدن أنقرة وإستانبول بتركيا ما بين 14/7/2005 و19/7/2005
- مؤتمر علمي دولي بعمان من 27/11/2005 إلى 29/22/2005.
- مجموعة من المؤسسات العلمية والبحثية بالأردن من 30/11/2005 إلى 01/12/2005.

وصلات خارجية

تأسيسات سنة 2002 في المغرب
علوم اجتماعية
مراكز أبحاث
منظمات أسست في 2002
منظمات غير ربحية مقرها في المغرب
مؤسسات فكر ورأي
مؤسسات فكر ورأي في المغرب
وجدة

مركز الدراسات والبحوث الإنسانية والاجتماعية وجدة


El Congreso del Estado Libre y Soberano de Michoacán de Ocampo es el órgano depositario del poder legislativo del estado mexicano de Michoacán. Es una asamblea unicameral compuesta por cuarenta diputados, de los cuales veinticuatro son electos por mayoría relativa y dieciséis por representación proporcional. Su sede es el Palacio Legislativo de Michoacán en Morelia.

Su composición se renueva cada tres años con una nueva legislatura. Cada diputado tiene un suplente que lo reemplaza para las faltas temporales y permanentes de su compañero de fórmula. Los diputados pueden ser reelectos hasta por cuatro periodos consecutivos.

La composición del congreso se elige en las elecciones locales. Los veinticuatro diputados de mayoritaria relativa son electos directamente por cada uno de los distritos electorales uninominales en los que se divide el Estado según lo determine el Instituto Nacional Electoral. Los dieciséis diputados por representación proporcional son electos indirectamente por un sistema de lista de candidatos votados en una sola circunscripción plurinominal.

De los Diputados
De acuerdo con la Constitución de Michoacán, los diputados son representantes del pueblo y, para ser electo diputado por cualquiera de los dos principios de elección, se necesita cubrir con ciertos requisitos.

Dichos requisitos están señalados en el artículo 23 de la Constitución de Michoacán, el cual señala que para ser diputado se requiere:

I.- Ser ciudadano mexicano por nacimiento y ser michoacano en ejercicio de sus derechos;

II.- Ser originario del distrito por el que haya de ser electo por el principio de mayoría relativa, o tener una residencia efectiva en el mismo no menor a dos años previos al día de la elección. Los oriundos o residentes de los municipios cuyo territorio comprende más de un distrito, podrán ser electos en cualquiera de ellos; y,

III.- Tener veintiún años cumplidos el día de la elección.

Así pues, el subsecuente artículo 24 establece que personas no podrán ser diputados, las cuales son:

I.- Los ciudadanos que tengan mando de fuerza pública en el Estado;

II.- Los funcionarios de la Federación, los titulares de las dependencias básicas y de las entidades de la organización administrativa del Ejecutivo y los ayuntamientos, los Consejeros del Poder Judicial, los Magistrados del Supremo Tribunal de Justicia, del Tribunal Electoral y del Tribunal de Justicia Administrativa;

III.- Los jueces de primera instancia, los recaudadores de rentas, los presidentes municipales, los síndicos y los regidores;

IV.- Los ministros de cualquier culto religioso;

V.- Los consejeros y funcionarios electorales federales o estatales, a menos que se separen un año antes del día de la elección; y,

VI.- Los que se encuentren suspendidos de sus derechos políticos.

Los ciudadanos enumerados en las fracciones I, II y III pueden ser electos, siempre que se separen de sus cargos noventa días antes de la elección.

Los diputados son inviolables por las opiniones que manifiesten en el desempeño de su cargo, es decir,  no pueden ser procesados judicialmente por ellas, por lo que gozan de fuero. El Presidente del Congreso debe velar por el respeto a ese fuero constitucional de los diputados.

Los diputados, durante el período de su encargo, no pueden tener ninguna comisión o empleo de la Federación, del Estado o del Municipio por los cuales disfrute sueldo, a excepción salvo los de docencia y beneficencia, sin licencia previa del Congreso. De ser así, cesarán en sus funciones representativas mientras dure su nueva ocupación.

El Congreso se renueva totalmente cada tres años y se instala el 15 de septiembre del año en que se celebra la elección. El Congreso sesiona por años legislativos comprendidos del 15 de septiembre al catorce de septiembre del año siguiente. El gobernador del Estado, así como el presidente y los magistrados del Supremo Tribunal de Justicia del Estado, asisten a la sesión de apertura de cada años legislativo del Congreso.

De la Legislatura
El Congreso funciona por Legislaturas, a las cuales se les denomina agregando previamente el número nominal que les corresponda. Cada Legislatura tiene un periodo constitucional de duración de tres años, y éstas se dividen por Años Legislativos.El Pleno del Congreso dentro del año legislativo sesiona en dos periodos ordinarios de sesiones. La integración inmediata anterior del Congreso del Estado la conformó la LXXIII Legislatura (septuagésima tercera), con una duración comprendida por el periodo del 15 de septiembre de 2015 al 14 de septiembre de 2018.

Grupos Parlamentarios
Los grupos parlamentarios son las formas de organización que adoptan los diputados que pertenecen a un mismo partido político; estos grupos deben coadyuvar al buen desarrollo del proceso legislativo. Un grupo parlamentario puede estar constituido por dos o más diputados, dicho grupo deberá llevar la nombre del Partido. Sólo puede haber un grupo parlamentario por Partido Político representado en el Congreso.

De los Órganos del Congreso
Los principales órganos del Congreso del Estado son la Mesa Directiva y la Junta de Coordinación Política (ambos fungen como órganos de gobierno interior), así como las Comisiones.

La Mesa Directiva
La Mesa Directiva se integra por un presidente, quien es el presidente del Congreso, un vicepresidente y tres secretarios, por un periodo de un año, electos en votación nominal y en un solo acto, a propuesta de la Junta de Coordinación Política, cuidando la representación plural del Congreso.

Corresponde al Presidente del Congreso preservar el orden y la libertad en el desarrollo de los debates, deliberaciones y votaciones en el Pleno; velar por el equilibrio entre las participaciones de los legisladores y de los grupos parlamentarios; asimismo hace prevalecer el interés general del Congreso por encima de los intereses particulares o de grupo.  El Vicepresidente asiste al Presidente del Congreso en el ejercicio de sus funciones. En ausencia del Presidente, el vicepresidente ejercerá todas las facultades y obligaciones de éste. Los Secretarios, son órganos de apoyo a la Presidencia en sus labores Legislativas; en el orden de su elección, los Diputados electos como Secretarios ocupan la primera, la segunda y la tercera secretaría.

Para el actual primer año legislativo de la LXXIV Legislatura (2018-2021), el 15 de septiembre de 2018 asumieron los cargos en la Mesa Directiva los siguientes Diputados:
 Presidente de la Mesa Directiva:
 José Antonio Salas
 Vicepresidente:
 Fermín Bernabé Baena
 Secretarios:
 Primer Secretario: Octavio Ocampo
 Segundo Secretario: Yaraví Ávila
 Tercer Secretario: María Teresa Mora Covarrubias

La Junta de Coordinación Política
La Junta representa la integración política del Congreso y por tanto, es el órgano que impulsa el entendimiento político entre los Diputados, así como con las instancias y órganos que resulte necesario, a fin de alcanzar acuerdos para que el Pleno esté en condiciones de adoptar las decisiones que le corresponden. La Junta es un órgano colegiado que se integra con los Coordinadores de cada Grupo Parlamentario, así como por el diputado propuesto por la Representación Parlamentaria, y por el presidente del Congreso quien tendrá derecho a voz. La Junta tiene un Presidente. La Presidencia de la Junta es rotativa entre los Coordinadores de los Grupos Parlamentarios que representen al menos el veinte por ciento del Congreso.

Los actuales miembros de la Junta de Coordinación Política son los Diputados:
 Presidente de la Junta de Coordinación Política:
 Alfredo Ramírez Bedolla
 Integrantes
 Javier Estrada Cárdenas
 Adrián López Solís
 Eduardo Orihuela Estefan
 Brenda Fabiola Fraga Gutiérrez
 Ernesto Núñez Aguilar
 José Antonio Salas Valencia

Las Comisiones
Para el desempeño de sus atribuciones legislativas, administrativas, de fiscalización e investigación del Congreso, los Diputados integran Comisiones, las cuales pueden ser de dictamen, especiales o de protocolo. Todas las Comisiones son colegiadas y se integran procurando reflejar la pluralidad del Congreso hasta con un máximo de cinco Diputados, presididas por el primero de los nombrados a propuesta de la Junta. Las comisiones especiales se integrarán por el número de diputados que disponga su acuerdo de creación.

Legislaturas

Legislatura Actual
Actualmente, el Congreso del Estado se encuentra en su LXXV Legislatura (septuagésima quinta), la cual durará por el periodo comprendido del 15 de septiembre de 2021 al 14 de septiembre de 2024. Cuenta con 28 comisiones de dictamen y una comisión especial. A continuación, se hará la relación del número de diputados, según el partido político al que representan.

Diputados por partido político (LXXV Legislatura)

Ahora, se procederá a nombrar a los diputados de acuerdo al principio de elección por el cual resultaron elegidos para desempeñar su cargo. (Desactualizado)

Mayoría relativa
<span style="color:#555555" span>

Representación proporcional

Véase también
 Anexo:Congresos de las entidades federativas de México
 Gobernador de Michoacán
 Congreso de la Unión

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Congreso del Estado de Michoacán

Congreso del Estado de Michoacán


ශ්‍රී ලංකා නිදහස් පොදුජන සන්ධානය (, ඉංග්‍රීසිː) යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකා පොදුජන පෙරමුණ, ශ්‍රී ලංකා නිදහස් පක්ෂය සහ කුඩා පක්ෂ පහළොවක් එක්ව 2019 දී පිහිටුවන ලද වාමාංශික දේශපාලන සන්ධානයකි .

ඉතිහාසය
2019 ඔක්‌තෝබර් 31 වැනිදා ශ්‍රී ලංකා පොදුජන පෙරමුණ සහ ශ්‍රී ලංකා නිදහස් පක්‍ෂය ඇතුළු පක්‍ෂ දාහතක් ශ්‍රී ලංකා නිදහස් පොදුජන සන්ධානය පිහිටුවීම සඳහා කොළඹදී ගිවිසුමක් අත්සන් කරන ලදී.   දේශපාලන පක්ෂ දාහත වූයේ:

ශ්‍රී ලංකා නිදහස් පොදුජන සන්ධානය 2019 ශ්‍රී ලංකා ජනාධිපතිවරණයේදී ශ්‍රී ලංකා පොදුජන පෙරමුණ අපේක්ෂක ගෝඨාභය රාජපක්ෂට සහාය දෙන්න තීරණය කළා.   2020 පාර්ලිමේන්තු මැතිවරණයට එක්සත් ජනතා නිදහස් සන්ධානයේ පූර්වගාමියා වූ  පොදු ජන පෙරමුණේ ලකුණ වන පුටුව ලකුණින් තරග කිරීමට සැලසුම් කර තිබුණි.   කෙසේ වෙතත්, 2020 පෙබරවාරි මාසයේදී සන්ධානය ශ්‍රී ලංකා පොදුජන පෙරමුණේ මල් පොහොට්ටුව ලකුණින් මැතිවරණයට තරග කිරීමට මැතිවරණ කොමිෂන් සභාවටට අයදුම්පතක් ඉදිරිපත් කළේය.

මැතිවරණ ඉතිහාසය

මූලාශ්‍ර

2019 establishments in Sri Lanka
Political parties established in 2019
Left-wing nationalist parties
දෙමළ-භාෂා පෙළ ඇතුළත් ලිපි

ශ්‍රී ලංකා නිදහස් පොදුජන සන්ධානය


Le lambswool est une laine d'agneau obtenu lors de la première tonte d'un mouton, vers l'âge de sept mois. Cette laine, douce, élastique et glissante est utilisée dans les textiles haut de gamme.

La toison de sevrage est de la laine de  ou plus courte de jeunes moutons, qui ont été tondus pour la première fois, et qui présentent la structure caractéristique de la pointe et de l'agrafe de l'agneau.

Voir aussi

 Laine
 Mouton
 Poil
 Textile
 Industrie textile
 Histoire de la laine et du drap

Notes et références

Laine

Lambswool


Riellaceae, porodica jetrenjarnica, dio je reda Sphaerocarpales. Postoje tri roda unutar porodice

Rodovi
 Austroriella Cargill & J. Milne
 Riella Mont.

Izvori

Sphaerocarpales

Riellaceae


Sinchi Roca (kečua. Zinchi Roq'a) (Tampuquiru, ? - Cusco, o. 1258.), drugi vladar Kraljevstva Cusco (o. 1228. - o. 1258.) iz dinastije Cuzcohurin. Sin je i nasljednik prvog vladara Inka Manaca Cápaca († o. 1228.) i Mame Ocllo.

Sincha Roca je u postojećim povijesnim izvorima i kasnijim kronikama nastalim na osnovu usmene tradicije kao miroljubiv vladar koji se nije odveć upuštao u vojne kampanje, već je nastojao konsolidirati državu koju mu je ostavio u nasljedstvo njegov otac. Promicao je uporabu sustava navodnjavanja u svrhu razitka poljoprivrede i prema tradiciji, obavio je prvi popis stanovništva države Inka te izvršio teritorijalnu podjelu.

Otac ga je oženio s Mamom Cocom i imao je više sinova. Međutim, nije ga naslijedio prvorođeni sin Manco Sacapa, već mlađi sin Lloque Yupanqui čime je poremetio sustav nasljeđivanja prijestolja kojeg je ustanovio njegov otac.

Bilješke

Vanjske poveznice

 Sinchi Roca - Britannica Online
 Sinchi Roca - historiaperuana.pe
 Inca Sinchi Roca - todosbrelahistoriadelperu.blogspot.hr

Inke

Sinchi Roca


Ukraïna Moloda (en , Jeune Ukraine) est un quotidien en langue ukrainienne basé à Kiev avec un tirage de  exemplaires. Il est publié par la société d'État . Début 2018, la rédaction du journal est invitée à quitter son bureau loué à .

 Aperçu
Créé en 1991, il a d'abord été créé en tant que journal du Comité central du Parti communiste d'Ukraine orienté vers la jeune génération, mais en août de la même année, il devient indépendant [du parti].

Il soutient les politiques pro-occidentales, le président élu Viktor Iouchtchenko, et est très critique à l'égard du président Leonid Koutchma. Il propose des reportages, des analyses et des interviews sur les actualités nationales et internationales.Ukraïna Moloda'' est membre de l'Association ukrainienne des éditeurs de presse (UAPP).

En 2006, le président de la Verkhovna Rada Oleksandr Moroz a remporté un procès contre "Ukraïna Moloda".

Articles
 "Ukraïna Moloda" : "Bihus-gate" est l'opération spéciale du FSB ou le détournement Kolomoïsky ("Україна молода": "Бігус-гейт" - спецоперація ФСБ або диверсія Колода» Glavcom. 16 mars 2019
 Commencez à dire "Non" (Почніть говорити «НІ») . Site Ludmila Kalabukha.

Références

Liens externes
 Ukraïna Moloda en ligne
 Informations sur le journal de la Verkhovna Rada

Presse écrite en ukrainien
Titre de presse créé en 1991

Ukraïna Moloda


Basirhat (en bengalí: বসিরহাট ) es una ciudad de la India, en el distrito de 24 Parganas norte, estado de Bengala Occidental.

Geografía
Se encuentra a una altitud de 11  a 70 km de la capital estatal, Calcuta, en la zona horaria UTC +5:30.

Demografía
Según estimación 2010 contaba con una población de 121 995 habitantes.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Bengala Occidental

Basirhat


Cell proliferation is the process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two daughter cells.  Cell proliferation leads to an exponential increase in cell number and is therefore a rapid mechanism of tissue growth.  Cell proliferation requires both cell growth and cell division to occur at the same time, such that the average size of cells remains constant in the population. Cell division can occur without cell growth, producing many progressively smaller cells (as in cleavage of the zygote), while cell growth can occur without cell division to produce a single larger cell (as in growth of neurons).  Thus, cell proliferation is not synonymous with either cell growth or cell division, despite these terms sometimes being used interchangeably.

Stem cells undergo cell proliferation to produce proliferating "transit amplifying" daughter cells that later differentiate to construct tissues during normal development and tissue growth, during tissue regeneration after damage, or in cancer.

The total number of cells in a population is determined by the rate of cell proliferation minus the rate of cell death.

Cell size depends on both cell growth and cell division, with a disproportionate increase in the rate of cell growth leading to production of larger cells and a disproportionate increase in the rate of cell division leading to production of many smaller cells. Cell proliferation typically involves balanced cell growth and cell division rates that maintain a roughly constant cell size in the exponentially proliferating population of cells. Cell proliferation occurs by combining cell growth with regular "G1-S-M-G2" cell cycles to produce many diploid cell progeny.

In single-celled organisms, cell proliferation is largely responsive to the availability of nutrients in the environment (or laboratory growth medium).

In multicellular organisms, the process of cell proliferation is tightly controlled by gene regulatory networks encoded in the genome and executed mainly by transcription factors including those regulated by signal transduction pathways elicited by growth factors during cellcell communication in development. Recently it has been also demonstrated that cellular bicarbonate metabolism, which is  responsible for cell proliferation, can be regulated by mTORC1 signaling. In addition, intake of nutrients in animals can induce circulating hormones of the Insulin/IGF-1 family, which are also considered growth factors, and that function to promote cell proliferation in cells throughout the body that are capable of doing so.

Uncontrolled cell proliferation, leading to an increased proliferation rate, or a failure of cells to arrest their proliferation at the normal time, is a cause of cancer.

References

Cellular processes

Cell proliferation


An Schismus pleuropogon in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Otto Stapf. An Schismus pleuropogon in nahilalakip ha genus nga Schismus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Schismus

Schismus pleuropogon


Patronyme

 Shahra Razavi, scientifique d'origine iranienne et haute fonctionnaire des Nations unies.

Toponymes

 Khorassan-e Razavi, une des 31 provinces d'Iran.

Autres
 Astan-e Qods Razavi : bonyad iranien (fondation caritative).

Razavi


Božidar Špišić (Sisak, 6. rujna 1879. – Zagreb, 31. srpnja 1957.), hrvatski liječnik ortoped, pionir hrvatske ortopedije, dopisni član HAZU

Životopis
Rodio se u Sisku. U Grazu završio studij medicine. 1904. u Austriji i Njemačkoj usavršavao znanja ortopedije, dotad u Hrvatskoj posve nepoznatoj medicinskoj grani. Djeluje u Zagrebu. Već 1908. uredio je privatni ortopedski zavod u Zagrebu, ujedno prvi na jugoistoku Europe, a samo sedam godina poslije, ratne 1915. i prvu Ortopedsku bolnicu s ortopedskim radionicama i školom za invalide. Poslije rata godine 1922. započeo je nastavu ortopedije na zagrebačkome Medicinskom fakultetu. 1930. godine postao dopisni član HAZU. Iste godine osnovao je u Zagrebu Ortopedsku kliniku, koju je vodio i u ratu, sve do 1945. godine. U međuvremenu je 1933. postao redoviti profesor Medicinskoga fakulteta te njegov dekan u dva navrata. U NDH je bio i rektor zagrebačkog sveučilišta, od 1943. do 1944. godine.

Špišićev liječnički interes bio je usmjeren ka problematici sakate djece, liječenju i rehabilitaciji invalida, funkcionalnim liječenjem u ortopediji. Isticao je socijalnomedicinsku važnost te medicinske grane. Uveo je više originalnih terapijskih postupaka. Napisao prvi hrvatski udžbenik iz ortopedije. Bilo je to 1952. godine. Ortopedija.

Božidar Špišić je bio vrsna glasa. Tenor je bio krasan i dok je u Münchenu specijalizirao ortopediju, umalo se dogodilo da je dobio angažman u tamošnjem kazalištu. Špišićeva kći Mira (1905. – 1997.), mati je hrvatskoga reumatologa svjetskog glasa, publicista, urednika, leksikografa, poliglota i "kvakača" Theodora Dürrigla (Zagreb, 10. listopada 1916.).

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Rektori Sveučilišta u Zagrebu
WorldCat

Hrvatski ortopedi
Životopisi, Sisak
Životopisi, Zagreb
Dopisni članovi HAZU

Božidar Špišić


Mændenes 90 kg konkurrence i judo under sommer-OL 2016 i Rio de Janeiro blev afholdt d. 10. august 2016 på Carioca Arena 2.

90 kg (herrer)

Judo under sommer-OL 2016 – 90 kg (herrer)


Odostomia es el género más especiosos de los caracoles de mar. Este género se encuentra actualmente en Pyramidellidae en la subfamilia en el Odostomiinae. Hay varios cientos de especies en el género (Schander 1999).

Este género es común en todos los océanos desde los trópicos hasta las regiones polares. Es conocida sobre todo en zonas costeras y playas de arena, y es menos común en las profundidades del mar.

Subespecies

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Pyramidellidae

Odostomia