Cochin Jews (also known as Malabar Jews or Kochinim, from ) are the oldest group of Jews in India, with roots that are claimed to date back to the time of King Solomon. The Cochin Jews settled in the Kingdom of Cochin in South India, now part of the state of Kerala. As early as the 12th century, mention is made of the Jews in southern India by Benjamin of Tudela. They are known to have developed Judeo-Malayalam, a dialect of Malayalam language.

Following their expulsion from Iberia in 1492 by the Alhambra Decree, a few families of Sephardi Jews eventually made their way to Cochin in the 16th century. They became known as Paradesi Jews (or Foreign Jews). The European Jews maintained some trade connections to Europe, and their language skills were useful. Although the Sephardim spoke Ladino (i.e., Spanish or Judeo-Spanish), in India they learned Judeo-Malayalam from the Malabar Jews. The two communities retained their ethnic and cultural distinctions. In the late 19th century, a few Arabic-speaking Jews, who became known as Baghdadi, also immigrated to southern India, and joined the Paradesi community.

After India gained its independence in 1947 and Israel was established as a nation, most of the Malabar Jews made Aliyah and emigrated from Kerala to Israel in the mid-1950s.
In contrast, most of the Paradesi Jews (Sephardi in origin) preferred to migrate to Australia and other Commonwealth countries, similar to the choices made by Anglo-Indians.

Most of their synagogues still exist in Kerala, with a few being sold or adapted for other uses.
Among the 8 synagogues that survived till the mid-20th century, only the Paradesi synagogue still has a regular congregation. Today it also attracts tourists as a historic site.
The Kadavumbhagam Ernakulam Synagogue was restored in 2018 and houses a sefer torah with occasional services managed by one of few remaining Cochin Jews of the ancient Malabari Jewish tradition. A few synagogues are in ruins and one was even demolished and a two-storeyed house was built in its place.
The synagogue at Chendamangalam (Chennamangalam) was reconstructed in 2006 as Kerala Jews Life Style Museum.
The synagogue at Paravur (Parur) has been reconstructed as Kerala Jews History Museum.

History

First Jews in South India

P. M. Jussay wrote that it was believed that the earliest Jews in India were sailors from King Solomon's time. It has been claimed that following the destruction of the First Temple in the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BCE), some Jewish exiles came to India. Only after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE are records found that attest to numerous Jewish settlers arriving at Cranganore, an ancient port near Cochin. Cranganore, now transliterated as Kodungallur, but also known under other names, is a city of legendary importance to this community. Fernandes writes, it is "a substitute Jerusalem in India". Katz and Goldberg note the "symbolic intertwining" of the two cities.

Ophira Gamliel notes however that the first physical evidence of the presence of Jews in South India dates only to the granting of the Kollam copper plates. The copper plates are a trade deed dated to the year 849 C.E bestowed upon the Nestorian merchant magnate Maruvan Sapir Iso and the Saint Thomas Christian community by Ayyan Atikal, the ruler of the Kingdom of Venad. The copper plates include signatures in Kufic, Pahlavi, and Hebrew and serve as evidence of West Asian mercantilism in Kerala.

In 1768, a certain Tobias Boas of Amsterdam had posed eleven questions to Rabbi Yehezkel Rachbi of Cochin. The first of these questions addressed to the said Rabbi concerned the origins of the Jews of Cochin and the duration of their settlement in India. In Rabbi Yehezkel's response (Merzbacher's Library in Munich, MS. 4238), he wrote: "after the destruction of the Second Temple (may it soon be rebuilt and reestablished in our days!), in the year 3828 of anno mundi, i. e., 68 CE, about ten thousand men and women had come to the land of Malabar and were pleased to settle in four places; those places being Cranganore, Dschalor, Madai [and] Plota. Most were in Cranganore, which is also called Mago dera Patinas; it is also called Sengale."

Saint Thomas, an Aramaic-speaking Jew from the Galilee region of Israel and one of the disciples of Jesus, is believed to have come to Southern India in the 1st century, in search of the Jewish community there. It is possible that the Jews who became Christians at that time were absorbed by what became the Nasrani Community in Kerala.

A number of scholars have noted that the Cochin Jews maintain striking cultural similarities to the Knanaya, Jewish-Christian migrants from Persia who settled in Kodungallur, Kerala in the 4th or 8th century. These symmetries are noted in both the wedding traditions and especially the folk songs of the two communities, some songs maintaining the exact same lyrics with few corruptions and variations.

Central to the history of the Cochin Jews was their close relationship with Indian rulers. This was codified on a set of copper plates granting the community special privileges. The date of these plates, known as "Sâsanam", is contentious. The plates are physically inscribed with the date 379 CE, but in 1925, tradition was setting it as 1069 CE. Indian rulers granted the Jewish leader Joseph Rabban the rank of prince over the Jews of Cochin, giving him the rulership and tax revenue of a pocket principality in Anjuvannam near Cranganore, and rights to seventy-two "free houses".

The Hindu king gave permission in perpetuity (or, in the more poetic expression of those days, "as long as the world, sun and moon endure") for Jews to live freely, build synagogues, and own property "without conditions attached". A family connection to Rabban, "the king of Shingly" (another name for Cranganore), was long considered a sign of both purity and prestige within the community. Rabban's descendants led this distinct community until a chieftainship dispute broke out between two brothers, one of them named Joseph Azar, in the 16th century.

The Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela, speaking of Kollam (Quilon) on the Malabar Coast, writes in his Itinerary:"[t]hroughout the island, including all the towns thereof, live several thousand Israelites. The inhabitants are all black, and the Jews also. The latter are good and benevolent. They know the law of Moses and the prophets, and to a small extent the Talmud and Halacha."These people later became known as the Malabari Jews. They built synagogues in Kerala beginning in the 12th and 13th centuries. The oldest known gravestone of a Cochin Jew is written in Hebrew and dates to 1269 CE. It is near the Chendamangalam Synagogue, built in 1614, which is now operated as a museum.

In 1341, a disastrous flood silted up the port of Cranganore, and trade shifted to a smaller port at Cochin (Kochi). Many of the Jews moved quickly, and within four years, they had built their first synagogue at the new community.

The Portuguese Empire established a trading beachhead in 1500, and until 1663 remained the dominant power. They continued to discriminate against the Jews, although doing business with them. A synagogue was built at Parur in 1615, at a site that according to tradition had a synagogue built in 1165. Almost every member of this community emigrated to Israel in 1954.

In 1524, the Muslims, backed by the ruler of Calicut (today called Kozhikode and not to be confused with Calcutta), attacked the wealthy Jews of Cranganore because of their primacy in the lucrative pepper trade. The Jews fled south to the Kingdom of Cochin, seeking the protection of the Cochin Royal Family (Perumpadapu Swaroopam). The Hindu Raja of Cochin gave them asylum. Moreover, he exempted Jews from taxation but bestowed on them all privileges enjoyed by the tax-payers.

The Malabari Jews built additional synagogues at Mala and Ernakulam. In the latter location, Kadavumbagham Synagogue was built about 1200 and restored in the 1790s. Its members believed they were the congregation to receive the historic copper plates. In the 1930s and 1940s, the congregation was as large as 2,000 members, but all emigrated to Israel.

Thekkambagham Synagogue was built in Ernakulum in 1580, and rebuilt in 1939. It is the synagogue in Ernakulam sometimes used for services if former members of the community visit from Israel. In 1998, five families who were members of this congregation still lived in Kerala or in Madras.

A Jewish traveler's visit to Cochin
The following is a description of the Jews of Cochin by 16th-century Jewish traveler Zechariah Dhahiri (recollections of his travels circa 1558).

1660 to independence

The Paradesi Jews, also called "White Jews", settled in the Cochin region in the 16th century and later, following the expulsion from Iberia due to forced conversion and religious persecution in Spain and then Portugal. Some fled north to Holland but the majority  fled east to the Ottoman Empire. Both "Black Jews" and the "White Jews" (the Spanish Jews) of Malabar claimed that they are the true inheritors of the old Jewish culture.Some went beyond that territory, including a few families who followed the Arab spice routes to southern India. Speaking Ladino language and having Sephardic customs, they found the Malabari Jewish community as established in Cochin to be quite different. According to the historian Mandelbaum, there were resulting tensions between the two ethnic communities. The European Jews had some trade links to Europe and useful languages to conduct international trade

When the Portuguese occupied the Kingdom of Cochin, they allegedly discriminated against its Jews. Nevertheless, to some extent they shared language and culture, so ever more Jews came to live under Portuguese rule (actually under the Spanish crown, again, between 1580 and 1640). The Protestant Dutch killed the raja of Cochin, allied of the Portuguese, plus sixteen hundred Indians in 1662, during their siege of Cochin. The Jews, having supported the Dutch military attempt, suffered the murderous retaliation of both the Portuguese and Malabar populations. A year later, the second Dutch siege was successful and, after slaughtering the Portuguese, they demolished most Catholic churches or turned them into Protestant churches (not sparing the one where Vasco da Gama had been buried). They were more tolerant of Jews, having granted asylum claims in the Netherlands. (See the Goa Inquisition for the situation in nearby Goa.)

The Paradesi Jews built their own house of worship, the Paradesi Synagogue. The latter group was very small by comparison to the Malabaris. Both groups practiced endogamous marriage, maintaining their distinctions. Both communities claimed special privileges and the greater status over each other.

In the early 20th century, Abraham Barak Salem (1882–1967), a young lawyer who became known as a "Jewish Gandhi", worked to end the discrimination against meshuchrarim Jews. Inspired by Indian nationalism and Zionism, he also tried to reconcile the divisions among the Cochin Jews. He became both an Indian nationalist and Zionist. His family were descended from meshuchrarim. The Hebrew word denoted a manumitted slave, and was at times used in a derogatory way. Salem fought against the discrimination by boycotting the Paradesi Synagogue for a time. He also used satyagraha to combat the social discrimination. According to Mandelbaum, by the mid-1930s many of the old taboos had fallen with a changing society.

Relations between the Cochin Jews, Madras Jews, and Bene Israel
Although India is noted for having four distinct Jewish communities, viz Cochin, Bene Israel (of Bombay and its environs), Calcutta, and New Delhi, communications between the Jews of Cochin and the Bene Israel community were greatest in the mid-19th century. According to native Bene Israel historian Haeem Samuel Kehimkar (1830-1909), several prominent members from the "White Jews" of Cochin had moved to Bombay in 1825 from Cochin, of whom are specifically named Michael and Abraham Sargon, David Baruch Rahabi, Hacham Samuel, and Judah David Ashkenazi. These exerted themselves not only in changing the minds of the Bene-Israel and of their children generally, but also particularly in turning the minds of these few of the Bene-Israel, who through heathen influence had gone astray from the path of the religion of their forefathers, to the study of their own religion, and to the contemplation of God. David Rahabi effected a religious revival at Revandanda, followed by his successor, Hacham Samuel.

Although David Rahabi was convinced that the Bene Israel were the descendants of the Jews, he still wanted to examine them further. He therefore gave their women clean and unclean fish to be cooked together, but they singled out the clean from the unclean ones, saying that they never used fish that had neither fins nor scales. Being thus satisfied, he began to teach them the tenets of the Jewish religion. He taught Hebrew reading, without translation, to three Bene Israel young men from the families of Jhiratker, Shapurker and Rajpurker. David Rahabi is said to have been killed as a martyr in India, two or three years after coming upon the Bene Israel, by a local chief.

Another influential man from Cochin, who is alleged to have been of Yemenite Jewish origin, was Hacham Shellomo Salem Shurrabi who served as a Hazan (Reader) in the then newly formed synagogue of the Bene-Israel in Bombay for the trifling sum of 100 rupees per annum, although he worked also as a book-binder. While engaged in his avocation, he was at all times ready to explain any scriptural difficulty that might happen to be brought to him by any Bene Israel. He was a Reader, Preacher, Expounder of the Law, Mohel and Shochet. He served the community for about 18 years, and died on 17 April 1856.

Since 1947

India became independent from British rule in 1947 and Israel established itself as a nation in 1948. With the heightened emphasis on the Partition of India into a secular republic of India and a semi-theocratic Pakistan, most of the Cochin Jews emigrated from India. Generally they went to Israel (made aliyah).
Many of the migrants joined the moshavim (agricultural settlements) of Nevatim, Shahar, Yuval, and Mesilat Zion. Others settled in the neighbourhood of Katamon in Jerusalem, and in Beersheba, Ramla, Dimona, and Yeruham, where many Bene Israel had settled. The migrated Cochin Jews still continue to speak Malayalam. Since the late 20th century, former Cochin Jews have also immigrated to the United States. It is recorded that currently only 26 Jews live in Kerala, who is located in different parts of Kerala such as Cochin, Kottayam and Thiruvalla.

In Cochin, the Paradesi Synagogue is still active as a place of worship, but the Jewish community is very small. The building also attracts visitors as a historic tourist site.

Genetic analysis

Genetic testing into the origins of the Cochin Jewish and other Indian Jewish communities noted that until the present day the Indian Jews maintained in the range of 3%-20% Middle Eastern ancestry, confirming the traditional narrative of migration from the Middle East to India. The tests noted however that the communities had considerable Indian admixture, exhibiting the fact that the Indian Jewish people "inherited their ancestry from Middle Eastern and Indian populations".

Traditions and way of life

The 12th-century Jewish traveller Benjamin of Tudela wrote about the Malabari coast of Kerala: "They know the law of Moses and the prophets, and to a small extent the Talmud and Halacha." European Jews sent texts to the community of Cochin Jews to teach them about normative Judaism.

Maimonides (1135–1204), the preeminent Jewish philosopher of his day, wrote,
"Only lately, some well-to-do men came forward and purchased three copies of my code [the Mishneh Torah], which they distributed through messengers... Thus, the horizon of these Jews was widened, and the religious life in all communities as far as India revived."

In a 1535 letter sent from Safed to Italy, David del Rossi wrote that a Jewish merchant from Tripoli had told him the India town of Shingly (Cranganore) had a large Jewish population who dabbled in yearly pepper trade with the Portuguese. As far as their religious life, he wrote that they "only recognize the Code of Maimonides, and possessed no other authority or traditional law". According to the contemporary historian Nathan Katz, Rabbi Nissim of Gerona (the Ran) visited the Cochini Jews. They preserve in their song books the poem he wrote about them. In the Kadavumbhagam synagogue, a Hebrew school was available for both "children's education and adult study of Torah and Mishnah".

The Jewish Encyclopedia (1901-1906) said,
"Though they neither eat nor drink together, nor intermarry, the Black and the White Jews of Cochin have almost the same social and religious customs. They hold the same doctrines, use the same ritual (Sephardic), observe the same feasts and fasts, dress alike, and have adopted the same language Malayalam. ... The two classes are equally strict in religious observances",According to Martine Chemana, the Jews of Cochin "coalesced around the religious fundamentals: devotion and strict obedience to Biblical Judaism, and to the Jewish customs and traditions ... Hebrew, taught through the Torah texts by rabbis and teachers who came especially from Yemen."

 Piyyutim
The Jews of Cochin had a long tradition of singing devotional hymns (piyyutim) and songs on festive occasions, as well as women singing Jewish prayers and narrative songs in Judeo-Malayalam; they did not adhere to the Talmudic prohibition against public singing by women (kol isha).

Judeo-Malayalam

Judeo-Malayalam (; ) is the traditional language of the Kochinim, spoken today by a few dozens of people in Israel and by probably fewer than 25 in India. In their antiquity, Malabar Jews may have used Judeo-Persian as evident from the Kollam Copper plates.

Judeo-Malayalam is the only known Dravidian Jewish language. Since it does not differ substantially in grammar or syntax from other colloquial Malayalam dialects, it is not considered by many linguists to be a language in its own right, but a dialect, or simply a language variation. Judeo-Malayalam shares with other Jewish languages like Ladino, Judeo-Arabic, and Yiddish, common traits and features. For example, verbatim translations from Hebrew to Malayalam, archaic features of Old Malayalam, Hebrew components agglutinated to Dravidian verb and noun formations and special idiomatic usages based on its Hebrew loanwords. Due to the lack of long-term scholarship on this language variation, there is no separate designation for the language (if it can be so considered), for it to have its own language code (see also SIL and ISO 639).

Unlike many Jewish languages, Judeo-Malayalam is not written using the Hebrew alphabet. It does, however, like most Jewish languages, contain many Hebrew loanwords, which are regularly transliterated, as much as possible, using the Malayalam script. Like many other Jewish languages, Judeo-Malayalam also contains a number of lexical, phonological and syntactic archaisms, in this case, from the days before Malayalam became fully distinguished from Tamil.

Cochin Jewish synagogues

A synagogue is called a beit knesset (Mal: ബേത് ക്‌നേസേത് | Heb: בית כנסת) in Judeo-Malayalam or "Jootha Palli" (Mal: ജൂതപള്ളി) with joothan meaning Jew in Malayalam and -palli a suffix added to prayer houses of the Abrahamic faiths. Throughout their history numerous synagogues have been constructed and lost to time. in their first settlement at Shingly (Cranganore), there were 18 synagogues as per their oral traditions. Today no archaeological evidence has been yet uncovered to validate these traditions. However the custom of naming their synagogues as "Thekkumbhagam" (lit: south side) and "Kadavumbhagam" (lit: River side) is cited as a cultural memory of two such synagogues that once stood in Muziris. Several oral songs sung by Cochini women also contain references to these synagogues. Apart from these, numerous Syrian Christian churches of the St. Thomas Christian community in Kerala claim to have been built on old synagogues, though archaeological evidence is scarce.

Synagogues believed to have existed or speculated on basis of oral traditions include:

 Madayi Synagogue, Madayi
 Cranganore Synagogue, Shingly
 Thekkumbhagam synagogue, Shingly
 Kadavumbhagam Synagogue, Shingly

Synagogues in recorded history whose location and/or remains have been lost in time:

 Palayoor Synagogue, Palur (known only from a rimon (ornament) bearing its name)
 Kokkamangalam Synagogue, Kokkamangalam
 Kochangadi Synagogue,(1344 A.D - 1789 A.D) Kochangadi (oldest synagogue in recorded history)Saudi Synagogue, (1514 A.D-1556 A.D), Saude, a locality south of Fort Kochi.
 Tir-Tur Synagogue, (1745 A.D-1768 A.D) Thiruthur, KochiMuttam Synagogue (1800A.D), Muttam, Alappuzha
 Fort Kochi Synagogue, (1848 A.D), Fort Kochi (congregation of meschuhrarim)Seremban Synagogue, Seremban, Malaysia

Extant synagogues in Kerala:

 Kadavumbhagam Mattancherry Synagogue, (1130 A.D or 1539 A.D), Mattanchery
 Thekkumbhagam Mattancherry Synagogue, (1647 A.D), Mattanchery (demolished in 1960's)
 Chendamangalam Synagogue, (1420 or 1614 A.D), Chendamangalam
 Mala Synagogue, (1400 A.D or 1597 A.D), Mala
 Paravur Synagogue, (1164 A.D or 1616 A.D), Parur
 Kadavumbhagam Ernakulam Synagogue, (1200 A.D), Ernakulam
 Thekkumbhagam Ernakulam Synagogue, (1200 A.D or 1580 A.D), Ernakulam
 Paradesi Synagogue, (1568 A.D), Mattancherry (oldest active synagogue)

Cochini synagogues in Israel:

 Moshav Nevatim Synagogue, Nevatim (interiors taken from Thekkumbhagam Ernakulam Synagogue)Mesilat Zion Synagogue, Mesilat ZionNehemiah Motta Synagogue', Giv'at Ko'ah

Cochin Jewish surnames

Notable Cochini Jews
 Joseph Rabban, the first leader of the Jewish community of Kodungallur, was given copper plates of special grants from the Chera ruler Bhaskara Ravivarman II from Kerala
 Aaron Azar, among the last Jewish princes of Kodungallur
 Joseph Azar, the last Jewish prince of Kodungallur
Sarah bat Israel, whose tombstone (d. 1249 A.D) is the oldest found in India
Eliyah ben Moses Adeni, a 17th century Hebrew poet from Cochin.
Ezekiel Rahabi (1694–1771), chief Jewish merchant of the Dutch East India Company in Cochin
 Nehemiah ben Abraham (d. 1615 A.D), (Nehemiah Mutha), patron saint of Malabar Jews
 Abraham Barak Salem (1882–1967), Cochin Jewish Indian nationalist leader
Benjamin Meyuhasheem, the last Cochin Jew in Seremban, Malaysia
 Ruby Daniel (1912-2002), Indian-Israeli author and subject of Ruby of CochinMeydad Eliyahu, Israeli artist
Dr. Eliyahu Bezalel, renowned horticulturist
Elias "Babu" Josephai, caretaker of Kadavumbagam Synagogue
Sarah Jacob Cohen (1922-2019), the oldest member of the Paradesi community

 Gallery

See also
 List of Synagogues in Kerala
 History of the Jews in India
 Gathering of Israel
Meshuchrarim
Paradesi Jews
Abraham Barak Salem
Joseph Rabban
 Judaism
 Anjuvannam

Notes

References
Fernandes, Edna. (2008) The Last Jews of Kerala. London: Portobello Books.
 Koder, S. "History of the Jews of Kerala", The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, ed. G. Menachery, 1973.
 Puthiakunnel, Thomas. (1973) "Jewish Colonies of India Paved the Way for St. Thomas", The Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India, ed. George Menachery, Vol. II., Trichur.
 Daniel, Ruby & B. Johnson. (1995). Ruby of Cochin: An Indian Jewish Woman Remembers. Philadelphia and Jerusalem: Jewish Publication Society.
 The Land of the Permauls, Or, Cochin, Its Past and Its Present  Day, Francis (1869). The Land of the Permauls, Or, Cochin, Its Past and Its Present, Cochin Jewish life in 18th century, read Chapter VIII (pp. 336 to 354), reproduced pp. 446–451 in ICHC I, 1998, Ed. George Menachery. Francis Day was a British civil surgeon in 1863.
Walter J. Fischel, The Cochin Jews, reproduced from the Cochin Synagogue, 4th century, Vol. 1968, Ed. Velayudhan and Koder, Kerala History Association, Ernakulam, reproduced in ICHC I, Ed. George Menachery, 1998, pp. 562–563
 de Beth Hillel, David. (1832) Travels; Madras.

 Jussay, P.M. (1986) "The Wedding Songs of the Cochin Jews and of the Knanite Christians of Kerala: A Study in Comparison". Symposium.

 Hough, James. (1893) The History of Christianity in India.
 Lord, James Henry. (1977) The Jews in India and the Far East. 120 pp.; Greenwood Press Reprint;
 Menachery, George, ed. (1998) The Indian Church History Classics, Vol. I, The Nazranies, Ollur, 1998.
 Katz, Nathan; & Goldberg, Ellen S; (1993) The Last Jews of Cochin: Jewish Identity in Hindu India. Foreword by Daniel J. Elazar, Columbia, SC: Univ. of South Carolina Press.
 Menachery, George, ed. (1973) The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopedia of India B.N.K. Press, vol. 2, , Lib. Cong. Cat. Card. No. 73-905568 ; B.N.K. Press

 Weil, Shalva. From Cochin to Israel. Jerusalem: Kumu Berina, 1984. (Hebrew)
 Weil, Shalva. "Cochin Jews", in Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember and Ian Skoggard (eds) Encyclopedia of World Cultures Supplement, New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2002. pp. 78–80.
 Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) Encyclopaedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, USA: ABC CLIO. 2008, 3: 1204–1212.
 Weil, Shalva. India's Jewish Heritage: Ritual, Art and Life-Cycle, Mumbai: Marg Publications, 2009. [first published in 2002; 3rd edn.].
 Weil, Shalva. "The Place of Alwaye in Modern Cochin Jewish History." Journal of Modern Jewish Studies. 2010, 8(3): 319-335
 Weil, Shalva.  "Cochin Jews" in Judith Baskin (ed.) Cambridge Dictionary of Judaism and Jewish Culture, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. pp. 107.

Further reading

 Katz, Nathan. (2000) Who Are the Jews of India?; Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
 Katz, Nathan; Goldberg, Ellen S; (1995) "Leaving Mother India: Reasons for the Cochin Jews' Migration to Israel", Population Review 39, 1 & 2 : 35–53.
George Menachery, The St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Vol. III, 2010, Plate f.p. 264 for 9 photographs,
Paulose, Rachel. "Minnesota and the Jews of India", Asian American Press, 14 February 2012
 Weil, Shalva. "Obituary: Professor J. B. Segal." Journal of Indo-Judaic Studies. 2005, 7: 117–119.
 Weil, Shalva. "Indian Judaic Tradition." in Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby (eds) Religions in South Asia, London: Palgrave Publishers. 2006, pp. 169–183.
 Weil, Shalva. "Indo-Judaic Studies in the Twenty-First Century: A Perspective from the Margin", Katz, N., Chakravarti, R., Sinha, B. M. and Weil, S. (eds) New York and Basingstoke, England: Palgrave-Macmillan Press. 2007.
 Weil, Shalva. "Cochin Jews(South Asia)." in Paul Hockings (ed.) Encyclopedia of World Cultures, Boston, Mass: G.K. Hall & Co.2. 1992, 71–73.
 Weil, Shalva. "Cochin Jews." in Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember and Ian Skoggard (eds) Encyclopedia of World Cultures Supplement. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. 2002, pp. 78–80.
 Weil, Shalva. "Judaism-South Asia", in David Levinson and Karen Christensen (eds) Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 2004, 3: 284–286.

 Weil, Shalva. "Jews in India." in M.Avrum Erlich (ed.) Encyclopaedia of the Jewish Diaspora, Santa Barbara, USA: ABC CLIO. 2008.

External links

 Cochin Jews
(1687) Mosseh Pereyra de Paiva - Notisias dos Judeos de Cochim
 "Calcutta Jews", Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901-1906 edition
 "Cochin Jewish musical heritage", The Hindu, 15 May 2005
 news "Indian officials recount Cochin Jewish history", The Hindu'', 11 September 2003
 The Synagogues of Kerala
 Synagogues of Chendamangalam and Pavur, Kerala

Jews and Judaism in India
Kerala society

Jewish ethnic groups
Social groups of Kerala
Ethnic groups in Kerala
Judaism in Kerala
South Indian communities
Ethnic groups in India

Cochin Jews


Le Conseil législatif d'Australie-Méridionale () est la chambre haute du Parlement d'Australie-Méridionale, un État de l'Australie.

Composé de 22 membres élus au scrutin à vote unique transférable pour huit ans, renouvelés par moitié tous les quatre ans, il siège à Adélaïde, la capitale de l'État.

Système électoral
Le conseil législatif est doté de  pourvus pour des mandats de huit ans mais renouvelés par moitié tous les quatre ans au scrutin à vote unique transférable dans une unique circonscription électorale couvrant l'État entier. Dans ce mode de scrutin, à finalité proportionnelle, les électeurs classent au moins autant de candidats que de sièges à pourvoir par ordre de préférences en écrivant un chiffre à côté de chacun de leur noms sur le bulletin de vote, 1 étant la première préférence.

Dans la pratique, les candidats sont regroupés sur le bulletin de vote par partis, et les électeurs peuvent librement sélectionner l'ensemble des candidats de ce parti ou en sélectionner des candidats de partis différents, à condition d'en sélectionner au moins douze. Les électeurs ont cependant la possibilité de voter directement pour le parti de leur choix en cochant une seule case, auquel cas l'ensemble de leurs préférences sont attribués aux candidats présentés par le parti dans l'ordre proposé par ce dernier. Les bulletins de vote sont imprimés avec les partis disposés horizontalement au-dessus d'une ligne sous laquelle leurs candidats sont disposés en colonnes verticales. Un vote directement par candidats est ainsi couramment appelé  (Below the Line) et un vote par partis  (Above the Line). Les partis ne sont pas contraint de présenter autant de candidats que de sièges à pourvoir et tendent à en présenter un nombre restreint afin de limiter la dispersion des voix de leurs électeurs, notamment chez les petit partis.

Au moment du dépouillement, il est d'abord établi le quota de voix à atteindre par un candidat pour obtenir un siège en divisant le nombre de votes valides plus un par le nombre de sièges à pourvoir plus un. Les premières préférences sont d'abord comptées et le ou les candidats ayant directement atteint le quota sont élus. Pour chaque candidat élu, les secondes préférences de ses électeurs sont ajoutés au total des voix des candidats restants, permettant éventuellement à ces derniers d'atteindre à leur tour le quota. Si aucun candidat n'a atteint le quota dans la circonscription, ou qu'il reste des sièges à pourvoir après attribution des secondes préférences, le candidat arrivé dernier est éliminé et ses secondes préférences attribuées aux candidats restants. Si un candidat est élu ou éliminé et que ses secondes préférences vont à un candidat lui-même déjà élu ou éliminé, les préférences suivantes sont utilisées, et ainsi de suite. L'opération est renouvelée jusqu'à ce qu'autant de candidats que de sièges à pourvoir atteignent le quota.

À partir de 1979, les élections du conseil interviennent toujours en même temps que celles de l'Assemblée. Depuis un amendement constitutionnel entrepris en 2001, elles sont fixées tous les quatre ans au troisième samedi du mois de mars.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Politique en Australie
 Parlement d'Australie-Méridionale
 Assemblée d'Australie-Méridionale
 Gouvernement de l'Australie-Méridionale
 Premier ministre d'Australie-Méridionale
 Gouverneur d'Australie-Méridionale
 Chambre haute

Liens externes

Politique en Australie-Méridionale
Australie-Meridionale


ශී‍්‍ර ජයවර්ධනපුර කෝට්ටේ සමයයට අයත් ගද්‍ය නිර්මාණ අතර විශාලතම කෘතිය වන්නේ සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරයයි. සද්ධර්මය නම් වූ රුවන් ආකරය යන අර්ථයෙන් මේ නම යෙදී ඇත.

සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරය කි‍්‍ර.ව. 1419 දී පමණ ලියැවුණු බව පිළිගැනේ. මෙහි කතුවරයාණන් සිද්ධාර්ථ හෙවත් ධර්මදින්නාචාර්ය විමලකීර්ති නම් හිමිපාණන්වූ වේ. උන් වහන්සේ ගම්පොළ සමයේ වැඩ විසූ හා නිකාය සංග‍්‍රහය, සද්ධර්මාලංකාරය ආදි වූ කෘති ලියූ දෙ වැනි ධර්මකීර්ති මහා ස්ථවිරයන්ගේ ශිෂ්‍යයකු වේ. මේ සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරය ලිවීම සඳහා වික‍්‍රමබාහු නම් මහා ස්ථවිර නමකගේත් වීරසුන්දර කුමර නම් උපාසක කෙනෙකුගේත් ආරාධනය ලැබුණු බව පැවැසෙන හෙයින් එය බාහිර නිමිත්ත වූ පෙනේ. සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරය පරිච්ඡේද 36 කට බෙදා දක්වා තිබේ. ඒවා ප‍්‍රකීර්ණ සංග‍්‍රහ කථා, අභිනීනාර සංග‍්‍රහ කථා, දශපරමාර්ථ පාරමිතා කථා, අභිනිෂ්ක‍්‍රමණ සංග‍්‍රහ කථා, මෙත්තෙය්‍ය සංග‍්‍රහ කථා, බුද්ධාද්භූත කි‍්‍රයා සංග‍්‍රහ කථා ආදි වශයෙන් කතුවරයාණන් විසින් ම නම් කොට තිබේ. මේ කෘතියෙහි අර්ථ රසයට වඩා ශබ්ද රසයට මුල් තැන දී ඇති සේ පෙනේ. දොළොස් වැනි සහ දහතුන් වැනි පරිච්ඡේදවලින් ලංකා ඉතිහාසය හා ශාසනික ඉතිහාසය පිළිබඳ තොරතුරු රැුසක් ප‍්‍රකාශ වේ. දාහතර වැනි පරිච්ඡේදයේ සිට ලක්දිව භික්ෂු සමාජයට අදාළ විස්තර රැසක් ද අනාවරණය වේ. සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරය, ධම්මදින්නාචාර්ය විමලකීර්ති හිමියන් අතින් ලියැවුණු දෘශ්‍යමාන එක ම සාහිත්‍ය කෘතිය වේ. ශී‍්‍ර ජයවර්ධනපුර කෝට්ටේ සමයේ ලියැවුණු වටිනාකම ගද්‍ය නිබන්ධය ලෙසින් සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරය සැලකිය හැකිය.

සද්ධර්ම රත්නාකරය


42924 Betlem este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
42924 Betlem este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Observatorul din Ondřejov par l'Observatorul din Ondřejov. Asteroidul prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,36 ua, o excentricitate de 0,22 și o înclinație de 2,9° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 42001-43000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

42924 Betlem


يوم التروية هو اليوم الثامن من شهر ذي الحجة، وسمي بهذا الاسم لأن الناس كانوا يرتوون فيه من الماء في مكة ويخرجون به إلى منى حيث كان معدوماً في تلك الأيام ليكفيهم حتى اليوم الأخير من أيام الحج، وقيل سمي بذلك لأن الله أرى إبراهيم المناسك في ذلك اليوم.

سبب التسمية
سمي بهذا الاسم لأن الناس كانوا يتروون من الماء فيه يعدونه ليوم عرفة، وقيل: سمي بذلك لأن إبراهيم عليه السلام رأى تلك الليلة في المنام ذبح ابنه فأصبح يروي في نفسه أهو حلم؟ أم من الله؟ فسمي يوم التروية.

أعمال يوم التروية
بالنسبة للحاج المقرن والمفرد فهما يبقيان على إحرامهما من الميقات، أما الحاج المتمتع فيحرم بالحج، والمستحب أن يحرم به صباحا قبل الزوال، يتوجه الحاج بعد ذلك إلى مشعر منى لقضاء هذا اليوم والمبيت بها بعد التنسيق مع مطوفي الحجاج، والمبيت في منى سنة وليس واجب؛ بمعنى أن الحاج لو تقدم إلى عرفة ولم يبت في منى في ليلة التاسع فلا حرج عليه، ومنى منطقة صحراوية تبعد حوالي 7 كم شمال شرق مكة على الطريق الرابط بين مكة ومزدلفة، ويستحب للحاج الإكثار من الدعاء والتلبية أثناء فترة إقامته في منى، كما يقوم الحاج بأداء صلاة الظهر وصلاة العصر وصلاة المغرب وصلاة العشاء قصرا دون جمع؛ بمعنى أن كل صلاة تصلى منفردة، ثم يقضي ليلته هناك، ويصلي الحاج بعد ذلك صلاة الفجر ويخرج من منى متجها إلى عرفة لقضاء يوم الحج الأكبر.

مراجع

مواقيت الحج

يوم التروية


Çini, bir yüzü sırlı, su geçirmez bir tabaka veya cam ile seramiğin ateşle birbirine kaynaştırılması sonucu ortaya çıkan levha.

Tarihçe

Etimoloji

Kelimenin aslı Osmanlıca çînî (Çin'e ait, Çin işi) olup porselen sanatını dünyaya tanıtan Çinliler'e izafetle Çin isminden türetilmiştir.

Üretimi
Çeşitli biçimlerdeki levhaların renklendirilip sırlanarak fırınlanması sonucu, eriyen sırın çini hamurundan yapılmış levha üzerinde meydana getirdiği koruyucu saydam tabaka çini sanatının esası olmuş ve kullanıldığı mimari süslemeye solmayan bir renklilik sağlamıştır.

Tarihi gelişimi
Çeşitli devir ve bölgelere göre teknik değişiklikler göstererek zenginleşen çininin ilk örnekleri, tuğla üzerine renkli sırın kullanılması ile eski Mısır ve Mezopotamya'da oluşturulmuştur. Sırlı levhaların İslâmiyet'ten önce Uygurlar tarafından kullanılmış olması bu tekniğin Türk sanatındaki köklü geçmişini gösterir. Fakat çini büyük bir teknik çeşitlenme ile sürekli gelişmesini asıl İslâm sanatında ve daha çok da İslâmiyet'ten sonraki Türk sanatında ortaya koymuştur. Özellikle Sâmerrâ kazılarında bulunan Abbâsîler devrine ait yeşil ve sarı sırlı levhalar ile sır üstüne perdah (lüster) tekniğinde koyu kırmızı, kahverengi, sarı ve turuncu boyalarla madenî tozlar kullanılmıştır. Türk çini sanatının tarihi ilk Müslüman Türk devletlerinden Karahanlılara kadar dayanmaktadır. Bu da çini sanatının bin yılı aşkın bir geçmişe sahip olduğunu göstermektedir.

Büyük Selçuklular ve Anadolu Selçukluları çiniyi mimari süslemelerde sıkça kullanmış, Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti'nin dağılmasından sonra, çini sanatında Osmanlı Devleti'nin kuruluşuyla yeni bir dönem başlamıştır.

Bursa'nın İznik ilçesinde başlamıştır. Orada yapımı azalınca Kütahya'da yapılmaya başlanmıştır.

İznik Çinisi

İlk Osmanlı dönemi İznik çinileri, Bursa Yeşil Camii ve türbesinde (1421), Bursa Muradiye Camii'nde (1426), Edirne Muradiye Camii (1433) ve Çinili Köşk'te (1472) görülebilmektedir. Bunlar genellikle mozaik veya sırlı boya teknikleri ile üretilmiş çinilerdir. Bu dönem çinilerinde lacivert, mavi, turkuaz, siyah renkleri ağırlıktadır ve daha çok geometrik desenler kullanılmıştır. Bu dönemde, mimaride kullanılan duvar çinilerine kâşi, süs ve mutfak eşyası çinilere ise evâni deniliyordu.

16. yüzyılda İznik'te üretilen çinilerde gerek kalite ve gerekse desen üretiminde büyük gelişmeler olmuş ve Türk çini sanatı en parlak dönemini yaşamıştır. Osmanlı, mozaik gibi teknikleri bırakmış sır altı boya ve sır tekniğini geliştirmiştir. Bunun yanı sıra saray nakkaşhanesinde yeni motifler geliştirilmeye ve üretilmeye başlanmıştır. Kırmızı, yeşil, mavi, lacivert, turkuaz ve kahverenginin kullanımıyla İznik çinilerinde yeni bir devir yaşanmaya başlanmıştır.

Kütahya Çinisi
Kütahya'da ilk çini örnekleri 14. yüzyılın sonlarında görülmeye başlanırken çinide asıl ilerleme İznik'in çini sanatının zirvesinde olduğu 16. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından sonra başlar. Özellikle İstanbul'un çini ihtiyacını karşılamak için Kütahya'da çini atölyeleri kurulmuş, Osmanlı'nın gerileme dönemiyle beraber İznik'te çinicilik de aynı hızda gerilemeye başlamıştır. 18. yüzyılda çinicilik sanatının İznik'te tamamen kaybolmasıyla Kütahya bu alanda faaliyet gösteren tek yer olmuştur. Osmanlı'da çiniciliğin en güzel ve son örnekleri Hafız Mehmed Emin Efendi'nin elinden çıkmıştır.

Milet işi
Kırmızı hamurdan yapılmış beyaz astarlı Osmanlı dönemi seramikleri milet işi adı altında bilinmektedirler. Ak çini olarak da adlandırılan bu eserlerin bezemeleri siyah, kobalt mavisi, patlıcan moru ve firuze gibi renklerde olabilmektedir.

Haliç işi
Ayrıca bakınız Haliç işi

15. yüzyıl sonuyla 16. yüzyıl başlarında daha çok vazo, kase, tabak, kandil gibi biçimlerde üretilmiş, mavi beyaz Osmanlı seramiği.

Çini yapımı işçiliği
Geleneksel seramik sanatlarından biri olan çini sanatının üretim sürecini ve tekniklerini kapsayan bir mesleki uğraştır. Bu işçilik, yüzyıllardır dünyanın çeşitli bölgelerinde yaygın olarak kullanılan ve zengin bir kültürel mirasa sahip olan bir sanat formudur. Coğrafya dersleri, çini yapımı işçiliğini inceleyerek öğrencilere bu sanatın tarihi, kültürel önemi ve coğrafi dağılımı hakkında kapsamlı bir perspektif sunmayı amaçlar.

Çini, genellikle beyaz, mavi, yeşil ve kırmızı renklerin hakim olduğu seramik bir malzemedir. Çini yapımı işçiliği, kökeni binlerce yıl öncesine dayanan bir sanat formudur. Bu sanatın ilk örneklerine M.Ö. 9. yüzyılda Mezopotamya ve Orta Doğu'da rastlanır. Daha sonra Persler, Araplar ve Moğollar gibi farklı medeniyetlerin etkisiyle çini yapımı işçiliği yaygınlaşmış ve gelişmiştir.

Çini yapımı işçiliği, özellikle Doğu Asya'da büyük bir öneme sahiptir. Çin, Japonya ve Kore gibi ülkelerde çini üretimi ve işçiliği, zengin bir kültürel mirasın parçası haline gelmiştir. Özellikle Ming ve Qing Hanedanlıkları döneminde Çin çini sanatı büyük bir gelişme göstermiş ve dünyanın dört bir yanına yayılmıştır.

Üretim Süreci ve Teknikleri
Çini yapımı işçiliği, karmaşık bir üretim süreci gerektirir ve ustaların dikkatli çalışmalarını gerektirir. Genellikle aşağıdaki adımları içeren bir süreç izlenir:

 Ham Madde Hazırlığı: İlk adım, çini yapımı için gerekli olan ham maddenin hazırlanmasıdır. Bu genellikle kilin özenle seçilmesi ve belirli oranlarda karıştırılmasıyla gerçekleştirilir.
 Şekillendirme: Ham maddenin şekillendirilmesi, çini yapımının temel adımlarından biridir. Bu adımda, çiniye istenilen şekli vermek için ham madde çeşitli tekniklerle şekillendirilir. Bunlar arasında  elde şekillendirme, dökme yöntemi, presleme ve tornalama gibi teknikler bulunur. Elde şekillendirme, çini ustalarının elleriyle ham maddeyi yoğurarak istenilen formu vermesini sağlar. Dökme yöntemi, kalıpların kullanıldığı ve ham maddenin kalıplara dökülerek şekillendirildiği bir tekniktir. Presleme ise önceden hazırlanmış olan çini tozunun özel bir pres makinesi kullanılarak sıkıştırılması ve kalıplara yerleştirilmesidir. Tornalama ise çark üzerinde dönen ham maddenin şekillendirilmesini sağlar.
 Kurutma: Şekillendirme işlemi tamamlandıktan sonra, çini parçaları kurumaya bırakılır. Bu süreçte suyun yavaşça buharlaşmasıyla çini parçaları sertleşir ve dayanıklı hale gelir.
 Dekorasyon: Çini yapımının en önemli aşamalarından biri dekorasyon sürecidir. Çini parçaları, farklı renklerde sırlarla veya boya teknikleriyle süslenir. Geleneksel olarak mavi ve beyaz renkler, çini işçiliğinde sıklıkla kullanılır. Bu süreçte çini ustaları, el becerileri ve estetik anlayışlarıyla eşsiz desenler ve motifler oluştururlar. Coğrafi faktörler, çini işçiliği desenlerinde ve motiflerinde kullanılan renklerin ve sembollerin belirlenmesinde önemli bir rol oynar. Örneğin, doğal çevre, yerel kültür ve dini inançlar, çini desenlerinde yansıtılabilir.
 Fırınlama: Dekorasyon tamamlandıktan sonra, çini parçaları fırına yerleştirilir ve yüksek sıcaklıkta pişirilir. Bu işlem, çini parçalarının dayanıklılığını artırır ve sırların parlaklık kazanmasını sağlar.
 Finisaj: Fırından çıkan çini parçaları, soğuduktan sonra son finisaj işlemlerine tabi tutulur. Bu aşamada parçaların kenarları düzeltilir, gerekiyorsa cilalanır veya verniklenir.

Coğrafi Dağılımı
Çini yapımı işçiliği, dünyanın farklı bölgelerinde farklı coğrafi etkiler altında gelişmiştir. İşte çini yapımı işçiliğinin coğrafi dağılımının bazı önemli örnekleri:

 Doğu Asya: Çin, Japonya ve Kore gibi Doğu Asya ülkeleri, çini yapımı işçiliği konusunda büyük bir öneme sahiptir. Özellikle Çin'de Ming ve Qing Hanedanlıkları döneminde çini sanatı büyük bir gelişme göstermiştir. Bu ülkelerde çini, mimari süslemelerde, seramik eşyaların üretiminde ve geleneksel sanat eserlerinde yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır.
 Orta Doğu: Çini yapımı işçiliği, Orta Doğu'da da köklü bir geçmişe sahiptir. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde İznik çinileri büyük ün kazanmıştır. Aynı zamanda İran'da da çini yapımı işçiliği gelişmiş ve İran çinileri, zengin desenleri ve renkleriyle tanınmıştır.
 Akdeniz Bölgesi: Akdeniz'in çeşitli bölgelerinde de çini yapımı işçiliği yaygın olarak görülmektedir. Özellikle İspanya'nın Endülüs bölgesi, İtalya'nın Sicilya adası ve Portekiz, Akdeniz tarzı çinilerle ünlüdür. Bu bölgelerdeki çiniler genellikle Arap ve İspanyol etkilerini yansıtmaktadır.
 Avrupa: Avrupa'da çini yapımı işçiliği özellikle 17. ve 18. yüzyıllarda popülerlik kazanmıştır. İngiltere, Fransa, Hollanda ve Almanya gibi ülkelerde çini üretimi ve işçiliği önemli bir sanayi haline gelmiştir. Delft çinileri, Wedgwood çinileri ve Meissen çinileri gibi ünlü Avrupa çini stilleri bulunmaktadır.
 Amerika: Amerika kıtasında da çini yapımı işçiliği gelişmiştir. Özellikle Meksika ve Kolombiya gibi Latin Amerika ülkelerinde çini sanatı, yerel kültür ve el işçiliğiyle harmanlanarak benzersiz eserler ortaya çıkmaktadır.

Çini yapımı işçiliğinin coğrafi dağılımı, her bölgenin kendine özgü tarzlarının ve tekniklerinin gelişmesine katkıda bulunmuştur. Böylece çini, farklı kültürlerin ve coğrafyaların zenginliğini yansıtan bir sanat formu haline gelmiştir.

Çini Sanatının Türk Kültüründeki Önemi
Çini sanatı, Türk kültüründe büyük bir öneme sahiptir. Türk çini sanatı, binlerce yıllık bir geçmişe sahip olan ve Türk İslam sanatının önemli bir parçası olan bir sanat formudur. İşte çini sanatının Türk kültüründeki önemini vurgulayan bazı noktalar:

 Mimari Süslemeler: Türk çini sanatı, özellikle Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde mimari süslemelerde büyük bir rol oynamıştır. Camiler, saraylar, türbeler ve diğer önemli yapılar, çini desenleriyle süslenmiştir. İznik çinileri, Osmanlı mimarisinde sıkça kullanılan ve ünlü olan bir örnektir.
 El Sanatları ve Dekoratif Eşyalar: Türk çini sanatı, el sanatları ve dekoratif eşyaların üretiminde yaygın olarak kullanılmıştır. Çini, tabaklar, vazolar, kâseler, çay takımları ve diğer çeşitli eşyaların üretiminde kullanılan bir malzeme olmuştur. Bu eserler, Türk evlerinde ve müzelerde hala önemli bir yer tutmaktadır.
 Kültürel Mirasın Korunması: Türk çini sanatı, Türk kültürel mirasının önemli bir parçasıdır ve korunması gereken bir değer olarak görülmektedir. Çini ustaları, geleneksel teknikleri ve desenleri kuşaktan kuşağa aktarmışlardır. Türkiye'de çeşitli eğitim ve atölye programları, bu sanatın gelecek nesillere aktarılmasını ve geliştirilmesini desteklemektedir.
 Estetik Değer: Türk çini sanatı, kendine özgü desenleri, canlı renkleri ve zarif hat işçiliğiyle dikkat çeker. İnce işçilik ve estetik değerleriyle Türk çinileri, dünya çapında tanınır hale gelmiştir. Bu sanat, Türk estetiğinin önemli bir temsilcisidir ve Türk kültürünün güzellik anlayışına katkıda bulunur.
 Kültürel Kimlik ve Tanıtım: Türk çini sanatı, Türk kültürünün önemli bir parçası olarak Türkiye'nin tanıtımında etkili olmuştur. Türk çinileri, ülkenin turizm sektöründe popüler bir cazibe merkezi haline gelmiştir. Yabancı ziyaretçiler, Türk çinilerini ve çini atölyelerini ziyaret ederek Türk kültürünü yakından deneyimleme fırsatı bulmaktadır.

Resim galerisi

Ayrıca bakınız
 Fayans
 Seramik
Lüster
 Hausmalerei

Halk sanatları
El sanatları

Çini


ජාතික දිනය () යනු, 1945 සැප්තැම්බර් 2 දිනදී ප්‍රංශය වෙතින්  වියට්නාම නිදහස ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කිරීම සිහිකරමින්,  වියට්නාමයේදී සැප්තැම්බර් 2 දිනදී සැමරෙන, ජාතික නිවාඩු දිනයකි. එය රටෙහි ජාතික දිනය වෙයි.

ඉතිහාසය
දෙවන ලෝක යුද්ධයෙහිදී ජපානය විසින් වියට්නාමය අල්ලාගෙන සිටි නමුදු එහි රැඳෙමින් කිසියම් බලපෑමක් යෙදීමට ප්‍රංශයට ඉඩ දුනි.  1945 අගෝස්තුවෙහිදී යුද්ධය නිමාවත් සමගම, වියට්නාමයේ බල රික්තයක් නිමැවිණි. මෙයින් ප්‍රයෝජනය ගත්  වියට් මිං විසින් රට පුරා "අගෝස්තු විප්ලවය" දියත් කළේ, රජයේ කාර්යාල අල්ලා ගැනුමටය. 1945 අගෝස්තු 25 දිනදී, බවො ඩායි අධිරාජයා විසින් කිරුළ අත්හැරීම හා සමගම, ඌයෙං රාජ වංශය නිමාවට පත් විය. එක්සත් ජනපද නිදහස් ප්‍රකාශය සහ ප්‍රංශ විප්ලවයේ  මිනිසාගේ සහ පුරවැසියාගේ අයිතිවාසිකම් ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කිරීම සිහිපත්කරමින් පැවැත්වූ කථාවක් තුලින්, කොමියුනිස්ට් වියට් මිං සංවිධානයේ නායක හෝ චිං මිං විසින්,  1945 සැප්තැම්බර් 2 දිනදී, බා ඩිං චතුරස්‍රයේදී,  වියට්නාම ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදී ජනරජය (DRVN) යන නව නාමයෙන් වියට්නාමයේ නිදහස ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කළේය.

සංස්ථාපනය
වියට්නාම් යුද්ධය කෙළවර වීමට ආසන්නව තිබියදී හා එයට පසුව, වියට්නාම කොමියුනිස්ට් පක්ෂය සහ ඉන්පසුව එක්සත් වියට්නාමයේ රජය විසින් ජාතික නිවාඩු දිනයන්හී ඒකිකෘත ලැයිස්තුවක් සංස්ථාපනය කෙරිණි.  මෙම නව නිවාඩු දිනයන් අතර,  මැයි මස පළමුවන දින ජාත්‍යන්තර කම්කරු දිනය, අගෝස්තු 19වන දින අගෝස්තු විප්ලවයේ සංවත්සරය, සැප්තැම්බර් 2වන දින වියට්නාමයේ ජාතික දිනය සහ, මැයි 19වන දින හෝ චිං මිං ගේ උපන්දිනය අඩංගු විය. චන්ද්‍ර නව වසර, ටෙට් නුයෙං ඩෑං සහ මධ්‍ය-ශරච්චන්ද්‍ර, ටෙට් ට්‍රැං තූ, යන දිනයන් සාම්ප්‍රදායික ලෙස සැමරීම දිගටම සිදු කෙරිණි.

ආශ්‍රිත

වියට්නාමයේ රජයේ නිවාඩු
සැප්තැම්බරයේ පැවැත්වෙන සිහිකිරීම්
ජාතික දින
ස්ථාවර නිවාඩුදින

ජාතික දිනය (වියට්නාමය)


Helizandro Emiro Terán Bermúdez é um religioso pertencente à Ordem de Santo Agostinho . Nomeado  Sucedeu como Arcebispo de Mérida.

Biografia
Nasceu em Maracaibo , capital do estado de Zulia , em 7 de junho de 1965.

Estudos
 Obteve o título de Bacharel em Ciências pela Escola Gonzaga de Maracaibo.
 Bacharel em Teologia pela Pontifícia Universidade Salesiana de Roma (UPS)
 Bacharel em Educação Integral pela Universidade Católica Cecilio Acosta (UNICA)
 Licenciado em Teologia Dogmática, pela Pontifícia Universidade Gregoriana, menção summa cum laude.
 Título de "Baccalaureatum em Filosofia" pela Pontifícia Universidade Salesiana de Roma , menção summa cum laude.
 Em 2005 defende sua tese de doutorado intitulada: "Maria Typus Ecclesiae in Doctrina Sancti Augustini"; obtendo assim o doutorado em Teologia Dogmática, com menção summa cum laude .

Agostiniano e padre
Entrou na Ordem de Santo Agostinho em , depois de seus votos perpétuos como frade agostiniano, foi ordenado sacerdote em  em sua cidade natal, Maracaibo, pela imposição de mãos e oração de consagração de Dom Ovidio Pérez Morales, na paróquia agostiniana de Nossa Senhora do Perpétuo Socorro.

Ofícios como padre
 Professor do Colégio San Agustín de Caricuao, Caracas .
 Professor da Faculdade de Teologia (ITER) da Universidade Católica Andrés Bello (UCAB).
 Reitor do Colégio de San Agustín em Caricuao,
 Conselheiro e secretário vicário da Ordem de San Agustín na Venezuela.
 Secretário da Comissão de Justiça e Paz do Vicariato da OSA na Venezuela.
 Membro da Comissão Internacional de Estudos da Ordem de Santo Agostinho e da administração do instituto Agostinianum em Roma.
 Vigário Provincial da Ordem de San Agustín na Venezuela.

Episcopado

Bispo de Ciudad Guayana
O Papa Francisco o nomeou  7º Bispo da Diocese de Ciudad Guayana em .

Recebeu a ordenação episcopal na Paróquia San Alfonso María Ligorio, el Paraíso, em Caracas, em . Seu consagrador foi o Arcebispo de Mérida, Baltazar Porras. Seus co-consagradores foram Raúl Biord Castillo SDB, Bispo de La Guaira e Polito Rodríguez Méndez , Bispo de San Carlos de Venezuela .

Tomou posse canônica da Diocese de Ciudad Guayana no sábado , 7 de outubro do mesmo ano.

Arcebispo Coadjutor de Mérida
Em 19 de março de 2022, o Papa Francisco o nomeou Arcebispo Coadjutor da Arquidiocese de Mérida.

Sucedeu como Arcebispo em 17 de janeiro de 2023.

Naturais de Maracaibo
Agostinianos
Alunos da Pontifícia Universidade Salesiana
Alunos da Pontifícia Universidade Gregoriana
Arcebispos católicos da Venezuela

Helizandro Terán Bermúdez


المقولة عند الفيلسوف الألماني إيمانويل كانت  هي توضيح لنظرية أرسطو في المعرفة. وجد كانت أن هناك عاملين في المعرفة الأصيلة هما المواد الخام والتجارب الحسية. أي أما الفهم أو ملكة تكوين الأحكام. ووضح هذا في كتابه نقد العقل المجرد .

المعني اللغوي

كلمة «مقولة»  مشتقة من مصدر «القول» وهي ترجمة للكلمة اليونانية «كاتيجوريا». ومعناها «العلاقة».

وقد دخلت هذه الكلمة تقريبا على جميع اللغات.

وكان الفيلسوف اليوناني أرسطو يدرس أهم مظاهر المعرفة في عصره فوجدها تقوم على عشرة أسس، وقد جمعها أرسطو وشرحها وسماها «المقولات».

قال أرسطو أن المقولات أو المحمولات العشر هي:

مراجع

 المقولات العشر
 الخواص الفلسفية للتصنيف

فلسفة
كانطية
مفاهيم

المقولة عند كانت


جايمس غيبسون، توفي في 1951، رئيس سابق لنادي مانشستر يونايتد الإنجليزي في الفترة ما بين 1931 و1951.

مراجع

أشخاص من سالفورد
إنجليز
مواليد 1877
مواليد في سالفورد
وفيات 1951

جايمس غيبسون


Upchurch es una parroquia civil y un pueblo del distrito de Swale, en el condado de Kent (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Upchurch tiene una superficie de 11,9 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Upchurch tenía 2398 habitantes (49,67% varones, 50,33% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 201,51 hab/km². El 20,1% eran menores de 16 años, el 75,35% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 4,55% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 38,45 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 22,44% estaban solteros, el 65,03% casados y el 12,53% divorciados o viudos.

El 96,71% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 1,33% de la población, mientras que el 1,96% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 97,58% eran blancos, el 0,88% mestizos, el 0,71% asiáticos, el 0,38% negros, el 0,13% chinos y el 0,21% de cualquier otro. El cristianismo era profesado por el 78,91%, el hinduismo por el 0,21%, el islam por el 0,25%, el sijismo por el 0,38% y cualquier otra religión, salvo el budismo y el judaísmo, por el 0,46%. El 13,15% no eran religiosos y el 6,64% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

1231 habitantes eran económicamente activos, 1196 de ellos (97,16%) empleados y 35 (2,84%) desempleados. Había 956 hogares con residentes y 20 vacíos.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Kent
Parroquias civiles de Kent

Upchurch


El Palacio de Hisham (, Ḫirbat al-Mafjar, que se traduce literalmente como "El lugar donde el agua brota de la tierra"), y localmente conocido como Qasr Hisham (en árabe , Qasr Hisham, literalmente "Palacio de Hisham"), es el nombre actual de las ruinas de un palacio omeya. Se encuentra a orillas del Wadi Nuwayima, en Khirbat al-Mafjar, a 5 km al norte de Jericó, en Palestina. Antes de convertirse en palacio fue una villa amurallada que gozaba de un complejo sistema de riego del período romano, aprovechando tres fuentes (Ayn al-Sultan, Ayn al-Nuwayima y Ain al-Duyuk).

Se cree que fue construido hacia 743-744 por el futuro califa Walid II al final del reinado de Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (723-743), inspirado en los baños romanos, con exquisitos mosaicos y decoración en estuco. El complejo incluye el propio palacio, el patio, la casa de baños, la mezquita, una fuente con jardines y un recinto de 60 hectáreas con plantas, animales, mosaicos y elaboradas decoraciones. El palacio mismo es un gran edificio cuadrado con entrada monumental y habitaciones en dos plantas, en torno a un gran patio porticado. La sala de baño servía también de sala de audiencias y sala de banquetes.

Historia del yacimiento arqueológico

El yacimiento se descubrió en 1873. F.J.Bliss tomó apuntes de la zona norte del yacimiento, pero no la excavó, y la principal fuente de información arqueológica deriva de las excavaciones del arqueólogo palestino D.C. Baramki entre los años 1934 y 1948. En 1959, un compañero de Baramki, el administrador colonial del Mandato Británico Robert W. Hamilton, publicó el principal trabajo sobre el Palacio de Hisham: Khirbat al-Mafjar: Una Mansión Árabe en el Valle del Jordán. Desafortunadamente, el trabajo arqueológico de Baramki no se reflejó en este libro, que por lo tanto tiene solamente un enfoque relacionado con la historia del arte. La investigación de Baramki sobre los aspectos arqueológicos del yacimiento, especialmente los relacionados con la cerámica, se publicó en diversos informes y artículos preliminares de la publicación trimestral de la Oficina Palestina de Antigüedades. Muchos de los hallazgos de las excavaciones de Baramki y Hamilton, en particular las esculturas y estatuillas humanas, inusuales en el arte islámico, se encuentran ahora en el Museo Rockefeller de Jerusalén.

En 2006 se desarrollaron nuevas excavaciones bajo la dirección del Dr. Hamdan Taha, del Ministerio de Turismo y Antigüedades de la Autoridad Nacional Palestina. A día de hoy, se está desarrollando una investigación adicional por parte del Proyecto Mafjar de Jericó, en colaboración con arqueólogos de la Universidad de Chicago.
En 2015 se firmó un acuerdo entre el Ministerio de Turismo y Antigüedades palestino y la Agencia de Cooperación Internacional de Japón que permitió la excavación, restauración y exposición de los 825 metros cuadrados del mosaico del palacio, uno de los más grandes del mundo. Para protegerlo del clima muy seco y cálido, se construyó una cúpula que recubre una planta de basílica que contenía una piscina y lujosos baños de inspiración romana bizantina, al lado de una amplia sala de recepciones y banquetes. Abierta al público en noviembre de 2021, está equipada con pasarelas elevadas y miradores que permiten a los visitantes contemplar el mosáico sin dañarlo.

Contexto histórico

Es difícil establecer con seguridad un contexto histórico para el Palacio de Hisham. No hay referencias textuales en el yacimiento, por lo que las excavaciones arqueológicas son la única fuente de información histórica disponible. En el curso de las excavaciones de Baramki se encontró un ostracon con el nombre inscrito de Hisham, lo que se tomó como una prueba de que la construcción del palacio dataría del reinado del califa Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. Como consecuencia, Robert Hamilton razonó que el palacio funcionó como residencia de Walid II, un sobrino de Hisham que se hizo famoso por su estilo de vida extravagante. Desde un punto de vista arqueológico, parece seguro que el palacio es producto de la arquitectura de la dinastía omeya de la primera mitad del , aunque los detalles concretos sobre sus inquilinos y su uso siguen sin estar claros.
Como yacimiento arqueológico, el Palacio de Hisham pertenece a la categoría de Castillos del Desierto, una serie de monumentos que datan del periodo omeya y que se encuentran en Siria, Jordania, Israel y Palestina. Aunque distan mucho unos de otros en términos de tamaño, ubicación y función, todos ellos pueden establecer un nexo con diversos personajes de la familia dominante de los Omeyas. Algunos de los castillos del desierto, como por ejemplo Qasr al-Hallabat o Qasr Burqu, suponen la ocupación islámica de estructuras previas de origen romano o gasánida. Otros castillos, como Qastal, Qasr Al Azraq o al-Muwaqqar, están conectados a las rutas comerciales y a escasos recursos acuíferos. Con pocas excepciones, el patrón básico de los castillos del desierto suele ser el de un palacio cuadrado parecido a los fuertes romanos, unos baños, un embalse o una presa y, a menudo, un cercado agrícola. Existen varias interpretaciones de los castillos del desierto, aunque parece poco probable que una sola teoría pueda explicar la gran diversidad observada en sus registros arqueológicos.

Aunque tradicionalmente se pensaba que el palacio había sido abandonado tras el terremoto del año 747/8, el detallado análisis de Baramki muestra que dicha creencia es incorrecta. El análisis de la cerámica indica que su uso continuó durante el periodo ayubí, con una fase de especial relevancia entre los años 900 y 1000. Se espera que excavaciones futuras ayuden a formar una idea más detallada del uso continuado del palacio a lo largo de diversos periodos históricos.

Arquitectura

El mayor edificio del complejo es el palacio, una edificación casi cuadrada con torres redondas en las esquinas. En su origen tenía dos plantas y se accedía a él por una gran puerta en el centro de la pared oriental. Las salas interiores estaban alineadas alrededor de un pórtico central pavimentado que contenía un sótano o sirdab, necesario para proporcionar algo de protección contra el calor. La sala que daba hacia el sur del pórtico era una mezquita con un mihrab construido en el muro exterior. Al este de la entrada del palacio había un pabellón y una fuente. Otra mezquita aún más grande estaba situada al noreste de la entrada del palacio. El complejo dedicado a los baños se encuentra al norte del palacio, separado de este por un solar. Esta estructura independiente tiene aproximadamente 30 metros cuadrados de superficie y tres de sus cuatro lados incorporan exedras redondas que se proyectan hacia la parte exterior del edificio. La cara oriental de los baños tenía una entrada ornamentada en el centro, flanqueada también por exedras. En el interior había una sala principal cuadrada con una piscina. Todo el suelo del edificio de los baños estaba cubierto por un espectacular mosaico. Desde la esquina noroeste se accedía a una sala especial de recepción o diwan, cuyo suelo estaba cubierto por el famoso mosaico del "árbol de la vida", que representaba a leones y gacelas a los pies de un árbol. Las salas dedicadas al baño propiamente dicho estaban pegadas al muro norte del complejo y se calentaban desde debajo del suelo con hipocaustos.

Hay un muro que abarca el palacio, los baños y la mezquita exterior. Baramki descubrió en sus excavaciones la puerta sur del muro, pero el reciente descubrimiento de la puerta norte, perfectamente alineada con la primera, indica que todo el Palacio de Hisham se concibió para ser construido de una sola vez como una unidad completa.

Hacia el norte de los baños se encuentran las ruinas de una gran estructura cuadrada que ha pasado por muchas fases de reconstrucción y reutilización. Aunque inicialmente se asumió que esta parte del palacio era un khan o un caravasar, recientes excavaciones parecen indicar que la parte norte del complejo tuvo una función agrícola durante los periodos omeya y abasí.

Decoración

Los elementos ornamentales del Palacio de Hisham se encuentran entre las mejores representaciones del arte del periodo omeya y están bien documentadas en los trabajos de Robert Hamilton. El elemento artístico más famoso del yacimiento es el mosaico del "árbol de la vida" en el diwan de la sala de baños, aunque el mosaico del suelo de la sala principal de ese mismo edificio no es menos imponente. Todos los mosaicos del Palacio de Hisham son de una calidad extrema y representan una amplia variedad de figuras, motivos y colores.

El estuco encontrado en el yacimiento también es de una calidad excepcional. Cabe reseñar también la estatua que representa a una figura masculina con una espada, a menudo asociada con el califa, que solía estar en un nicho sobre la entrada del edificio de los baños. Más estatuas de hombres y mujeres de estuco, algunas de ellas semidesnudas, adornaban este edificio. Los patrones geométricos y vegetales también son bastante comunes.

Aunque Hamilton describió las tallas del Palacio de Hisham como poco profesionales y caóticas, muchos historiadores del arte han encontrado con posterioridad similitudes entre estas y diversos motivos iraníes. Hana Taragan afirma que los motivos del yacimiento son ejemplos levantinos de un lenguaje visual del poder islámico que se fusionan con influencias sasánidas en Irak. Priscilla Soucek ha llamado la atención sobre las representaciones del mito islámico de Salomón.

Mantenimiento y visitas
El Palacio de Hisham es el monumento islámico más importante de Palestina desde un punto de vista arqueológico y recibe numerosas visitas tanto de turistas como de los propios palestinos. Según las cifras del Ministerio de Turismo y Antigüedades de Palestina, 43.455 personas lo visitaron en 2010. El yacimiento es un destino frecuente para escolares palestinos y suele ser la primera parada de los turistas extranjeros que entran en Palestina por el Puente Allenby. Diversos dignatarios extranjeros han visitado recientemente el yacimiento, que también ha sido escenario de una producción de la obra Ricardo II de Shakespeare.

Según el Global Heritage Fund (GHF), el rápido crecimiento urbanístico de Jericó y la expansión agrícola de la zona están limitando el acceso de los arqueólogos al yacimiento, del que gran parte sigue todavía sin excavar. Los intentos de restaurar y proteger las estructuras más importantes se han visto entorpecidos por la falta de recursos económicos. En un artículo de 2010 titulado Salvar Nuestro Patrimonio Agonizante, el GHF identificó el Palacio de Hisham como uno de los 12 monumentos a nivel mundial más "al borde" de una pérdida y destrucción irreparable.

Miscelánea
La editorial de guías de viajes Lonely Planet tomó una fotografía del Palacio de Hisham como imagen de portada de su guía para Israel y los Territorios Palestinos.

Galería

Bibliografía
 Bacharach, Jere. (1996) "Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage." Muqarnas Vol. 13: 27-44.
 Baer, Eva. "Khirbat al-Mafjar." Encyclopaedia of Islam 2nd ed.
 Barker, Graeme (1999). Companion Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Londres: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06448-1
 Bliss, F.J. (1894) "Notes on the Plain of Jericho." Palestinian Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement. 175-183.
 Bowersock, Glen Warren, Brown, Peter and Grabar, Oleg (1999). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-51173-5
 Bussagli, Marco (2005). Understanding Architecture. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-089-7
 Hamilton, Robert W. (1959) Khirbat al-Mafjar: An Arabian Mansion in the Jordan Valley Oxford: Oxford UP.
 Hamilton, Robert W. (1988) Walid and his Friends: An Umayyad Tragedy Oxford: Oxford UP.
 Hansen, Inge Lyse and Wickham, Chris (2000). The Long Eighth Century. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-11723-7
 Hollingsworth, Mary (2003). Art in World History. Giunti. ISBN 88-09-03474-0
 Holt, Peter Malcolm, Lambton, Ann Katherine Swynford and Lewis, Bernard (1999). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29138-0
 Necipoğlu, Gülru (1997). Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-10872-6
 Petersen, Andrew (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06084-2
 Soucek, Priscilla. (1993) "Solomon's Throne/Solomon's Bath: Model or Metaphor." Ars Orientalis Vol. 23: 109-134.
 Taha, Hamdan. (2005) "Rehabilitation of Hisham's Palace in Jericho." in F. Maniscalco ed. Tutela, Conservazione e Valorizzazione del Patrimonio Culturale della Palestina. Naples. 179-88.
 Taragan, Hana. (2003) "Atlas Transformed--Interpreting the 'Supporting Figures' in the Umayyad Palace at Khirbat al-Mafjar." East and West Vol. 53: 9-29.
 Turner, Tom (2004). Garden History: Philosophy and Design 2000 BC – 2000 AD. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-31748-7
 Whitcomb, Donald. (1988) "Khirbat al-Mafjar Reconsidered: The Ceramic Evidence." Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 271: 51-67.
 Whitcomb, Donald (forthcoming) "Khirbat al-Mafjar and the Archaeological Heritage of Palestine.

Referencias

 Khirbat al-Mafjar

Califato Omeya
Edificios islámicos
Historia de Palestina
Arquitectura del siglo VIII
Hisham
Asia en el siglo VIII
Jericó
Monumentos de Palestina
Turismo en Palestina

Palacio de Hisham


Patron Kim? (Özgün adı: Who's the Boss?), 1984-1992 yılları arasında Amerikan TV kanalı ABC'de yayınlanmış olan komedi dizisi.

Konusu
Sakatlık yüzünden beyzbol hayatı biten eski bir sporcu olan dul baba Tony Micelli, Brooklyn'den, kahya olarak iş bulduğu Connecticut'taki bir eve kızı Samantha ile beraber yerleşir. Evin sahibi Angela Bower, oğlu Jonathan ile oturan boşanmış bir kadındır. Bir reklam firmasında yöneticidir. Angela'nın annesi Mona Robinson da eve sık sık gelmektedir. Kızı angela'dan çok daha aktif bir sosyal hayatı vardır.

Karakterler
 Tony Micelli (Tony Danza)
 Angela Bower (Judith light)
 Samantha Micelli (Alyssa Milano)
 Jonathan Bower (Danny Pintauro)
 Mona Robinson (Katherine Helmond)

Türkiye'deki yayını
Türkiye'de 1980'li yıllarda TRT2'de bazı sezonları oynamıştır. Doksanlı yıllarda Star ve Kanal D'de ve 2000'li yılların başında CNBC-e'de de oynayan dizi, 2005 yılında Digiturk platformuna bağlı ComedyMax kanalında gösterilmiştir. Sonraki yıllarda aynı platformun bir diğer kanalı RetroMax'da yayınlanmıştır.

Ayrıca aynı isim ile atv'de yayınlanmış bir yerli uyarlaması da vardır, kısa sürmüştür.

Türkiye uyarlaması
Who's The Boss? dizisinin Türkiye uyarlaması Patron Kim? adıyla başrollerinde Cem Davran, Janset ve Ayten Gökçer'in oynadığı bir sitcom olarak 2003 yılında atv'de yayınlanmıştır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

1984'te başlayan Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1992'de sona eren Amerika Birleşik Devletleri televizyon dizileri
1980'lerde Amerika Birleşik Devletleri komedi televizyon dizileri
1990'larda Amerika Birleşik Devletleri komedi televizyon dizileri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri komedi dizileri
American Broadcasting Company programları
İngilizce televizyon programları
Sony Pictures Television dizileri

Patron Kim?


මනසේ සිදුවන නිර්මාණකරණය මෙසේ හැදින්වේ. මෙයටම ප්‍රපංචකරණය යන්න ද යෙදේ. පපංචේති යනුවෙන් පාලි යෙහි යෙදේ. පපංච සංඥා සංඛා යනු එහි වැඩුනු අවස්ථාවයි. ඉංග්‍රීසියෙන් 'ඇබ්ස්ට්‍රැක්ශන්' යන්නෙන් මෙයට අනුරූපවූ සංකල්පයක් විස්තර වේ. මෘදුකාංග නිර්මාණකරණයේදී යෙදෙන වස්තූන් මූලික ( object orientation) කේතකරණයේදී ද මෙම සංකල්පය භාවිතා කරයි.

"එදිනෙදා ජීවිතයේදී අප නිරන්තරයෙන් වස්තූන් (objects)ඇසුරු කරමු. උදාහරණ ලෙස මිනිසුන්, සතුන්, ගස්, කාර්, ගුවන්යානා, ගොඩනැගිලි, පරිගණක ආදිය. මිනිසුන් සිතීමේදී වස්තු සංකල්පය යෙදාගනී. අපට ඉතා පුදුමාකාරවූ ප්‍රපංචනය කිරීමේ හැකියාවක් ඇත. එමගින් අපි තිරයමත වර්ණ පික්සල් වෙනුවට  මිනිසුන්, ගුවන්යානා, ගස් හා කදු දකිමු. අපට, අප කැමැතිනම්, මුහුදු වැලි, වෙරලක් ලෙසද, ගස් ගොමුවක් කැළෑවක් ලෙසද, ගඩොල් වැටියක් තාප්පයක් හෝ ගෙයක් ලෙසද දැකිය හැක."

බාහිර සබැදි
වියුක්ත සංකල්ප
වියුක්ත චින්තනය

සාමාන්‍යයන්
විශේෂයන්

අර්ථය
මඩ උපමාව

ආශ්‍රේය

ප්‍රපංචනය - abstraction


Eksplosionerne i Tianjin  var to eksplosioner i en havn (verdens 10.-største havn) i et industrikvarter i den østkinesiske millionby Tianjin (150 km sydøst for Beijing), der fandt sted med et halvt minuts mellemrum onsdag den 12. august 2015 klokken 23.20, lokal tid. Eksplosionerne havde en kraft på hhv. 3 og 21 tons TNT. Kraften bag den anden eksplosion svarede til 2,7 på Richterskalaen.

Myndighederne holdt såvel journalister som befolkningen på flere kilometers afstand af ulykken og slettede indlæg på det sociale medie Weibo, for at kontrollere, hvilke oplysninger, der blev offentliggjort om ulykken.

Der er blevet frigivet satellitbilleder, optaget af et japansk meteorologisk institut, der viser, at eksplosionerne kan ses fra rummet.

Baggrund
Det vurderes, at årsagen til eksplosionerne var, at brandfolk forinden havde brugt vand til at slukke en brand i en container med, hvilket fik tilstedeværelsen af både ammoniumnitrat, kaliumnitrat og calciumcarbid, der hver for sig kan føre til eksplosioner, til at forårsage de to eksplosioner. Efterfølgende er 200 specialister i kemiske stoffer af hæren blevet sat til at teste byens luft, for at undersøge indholdet af giftige gasser.

Eksplosionerne, der kunne mærkes på ti kilometers afstand, stammede fra en lagerbygning, ejet af firmaet Tianjin Dongjiang Port Ruihai International Logistics, hvor der blev opbevaret farligt gods. Efter fund af natriumcyanid  på ulykkesstedet har myndighederne evakueret en skole samt personer, der bor i nærheden.

Konsekvenser
Eksplosionerne kostede 173 mennesker livet og sårede omkring 700. Ubekræftede rygter taler dog om flere end 500 dræbte. heraf mindst 50 brandmænd . Udover de menneskelige konsekvenser blev der ødelagt flere tusinde biler af mærkerne Renault, Hyundai Toyota og Volkswagen, der befandt sig i området. Skibscontainere sprang i luften og krøllede sammen. Desuden er udløbet til havet afspærret, for at forhindre lækage af kemikalier til Det Gule Hav. Trykbølgen trykkede ruder ind, så glasskår lå inde i bygningerne.

Referencer

Ulykker
Begivenheder i 2015
Kina

Eksplosionerne i Tianjin


Louis Tyrone "Lou" Williams (* 27. Oktober 1986 in Memphis, Tennessee) ist ein US-amerikanischer Basketballspieler. Derzeit ist der Guard ein Free Agent. Zuletzt spielte er in der NBA für die Atlanta Hawks.

NBA-Karriere

Philadelphia 76ers (2005–2012)
Nach einer erfolgreichen Zeit an der South Gwinnett High School mit zahlreichen Auszeichnungen entschied sich Williams gegen den Umweg über ein College und meldete sich direkt für die NBA-Draft 2005 an. In diesem wurde er erst an 45. Stelle von den Philadelphia 76ers ausgewählt. In seiner Rookie-Saison erhielt er wenig Einsatzzeit. Er nahm nur an 30 Spielen teil und erzielte dabei im Schnitt 1,9 Punkte.

Auch zum Anfang seiner zweiten NBA-Saison hatte Williams Probleme und wurde ins D-League-Team der Fort Worth Flyers abgeschoben. Nach drei erfolgreichen Spielen kehrte er für den Rest der Saison zu den 76ers zurück und erhielt etwas mehr Einsatzminuten. In der Saison 2007/08 etablierte Williams sich in der Mannschaft. In 80 Spielen erzielte er in durchschnittlich 23,3 Minuten je Begegnung 11,5 Punkte und verteilte 3,2 Assists. Nach der Saison unterschrieb er einen Fünfjahresvertrag zu deutlich verbesserten Bezügen.

In der folgenden Saison verbesserte er seine Werte in geringem Maße weiter. In der Saison 2009/10 stand er erstmals in 38 Spielen in der Startaufstellung. Mit 14 Punkten und 4,2 Assists pro Spiel erreichte er die besten Werte seiner bisherigen NBA-Karriere.

In der Saison 2011/12 blieben die Werte stabil. Die 76ers erreichten nach einem Jahr Pause wieder die Playoffs, scheiterten in der ersten Runde aber an den Miami Heat.

Atlanta Hawks (2012–2014)
Im Juli 2012 entschied sich Williams nach sieben Jahren in Philadelphia, die 76ers zu verlassen. Er unterschrieb einen Vertrag bei den Atlanta Hawks. In zwei Jahren bei den Hawks war Williams ein wichtiger Bestandteil der Mannschaft und agierte meist als "Sechster Mann" von der Bank kommend. Allerdings verpasste er aufgrund von Verletzungen viele Spiele.

Toronto Raptors (2014–2015)
Im Juni 2014 wechselte Lou Williams im Tausch gegen John Salmons zu den Toronto Raptors. Williams absolvierte 80 Saisonspiele und erzielte einen Saisonschnitt von 15,5 Punkte pro Spiel, den besten seiner bisherigen Karriere. Er stand zudem in keinem einzigen Spiel in der Anfangsaufstellung. Für seine Leistungen wurde er am Ende der Saison mit dem NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award, als bester Bankspieler der Saison, ausgezeichnet.

Los Angeles Lakers (2015–2017)
Im Juli 2015 wurde Lou Williams von den Los Angeles Lakers unter Vertrag genommen. Bei den Lakers hatte Williams aufgrund einiger Verletzungen zunächst Probleme, seine Rolle zu finden, was sich jedoch zur Saison 2016/2017 änderte. Durch den Abgang von Lakers-Legende Kobe Bryant rückte Williams vermehrt in den Mittelpunkte und gehörte in einer Mannschaft mit Leistungsschwankungen zu den besten Spielern.

Houston Rockets (2017)
Im Februar 2017 gaben ihn die Lakers im Austausch für Corey Brewer und ein Erstrundenauswahlrecht im kommenden Draft an die Houston Rockets ab. Bei den Texanern kam er in den verbleibenden 23 Saisonspielen auf 14,9 Punkte im Schnitt.

Los Angeles Clippers (2017–2021)
Am 28. Juni 2017 wurde er in einem großangelegten Tausch mit drei weiteren Spielern als Gegenwert für den neunfachen NBA All-Star Chris Paul zu den Los Angeles Clippers transferiert.

Am 10. Januar 2018 erzielte Williams mit 50 Punkten seinen Karrierehöchstwert und verhalf damit den Clippers zu einem 125:106-Sieg gegen die Golden State Warriors, dies war außerdem der erste Sieg der Clippers gegen die Warriors seit 2014. Nachdem Williams in der Saison 2017/18 das beste Jahr seiner Karriere gespielt hatte, in welchem er im Durchschnitt 22,6 Punkte, 5,3 Assists und 2,5 Rebounds pro Spiel erzielte, gewann er den zweiten NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award seiner Karriere.

Am 25. Januar 2019 erzielte Lou Williams in einem 106:101-Sieg gegen die Chicago Bulls mit 31 Punkten, 10 Assists und 10 Rebounds das erste Triple-Double seiner Karriere und wurde nach Detlef Schrempf (1993) der zweite Spieler in NBA-Geschichte, welcher ein Triple-Double von der Bank kommend erreichte und dabei mindestens 30 Punkte verbuchte. Am 11. März 2019 erzielte Williams 34 Punkte und verhalf den Clippers damit zu einem 140:115-Sieg gegen die Boston Celtics und überholte Dell Curry als der Spieler, der als Einwechselspieler die meisten Punkte erreichte. Am Ende der Saison erhielt Lou Williams zum dritten Mal in seiner Karriere den NBA Sixth Man of the Year Award. Williams ist zusammen mit Jamal Crawford der Spieler, dem diese Auszeichnung am häufigsten zuteilwurde.

Am 15. April 2019 erzielte Williams 36 Punkte und 11 Assists und half damit den Clippers, einen 31 Punkte betragenden Rückstand gegen die Golden State Warriors aufzuholen. Einen größeren Rückstand innerhalb eines Spiels hatte in den NBA-Playoffs noch keine Mannschaft aufgeholt. In diesem Spiel wurde zum zweiten Spieler in der Geschichte der NBA Playoffs, welcher von der Bank kommend mindestens 30 Punkte und 10 Assists oder mehr erzielte.

In der Saison 2019/20 schaffte Williams es fast erneut, zum besten Bankspieler des Jahres gekrönt zu werden, letztlich erhielt aber sein Mannschaftskamerad Montrezl Harrell die Auszeichnung.

Atlanta Hawks (2021–2022)
Am 25. März 2021 wurde Williams nach knapp vier Jahren bei den Clippers zu den Atlanta Hawks getauscht. Eigenen Aussagen zufolge erwog Williams, seine Laufbahn zu beenden, als er von diesem Transfer erfuhr, entschied sich schlussendlich aber dafür, seine Karriere fortzuführen.

Erfolge

 Lou Williams ist der erste Spieler, dem es mit den Toronto Raptors gelang, den Sixth Man Award (Saison 2014/15) als bester Bankspieler der Saison zu gewinnen.

 In der Saison 2017/18 errang er diese Auszeichnung bei den Los Angeles Clippers zum zweiten Mal.

 In der Saison 2018/19 erhielt er diese Auszeichnung abermals und wurde nach Jamal Crawford der erst zweite Spieler, der diese zum dritten Mal gewann.

 Er ist neben Detlef Schrempf der einzige NBA-Spieler, dem von der Bank kommend ein Triple-Double mit mindestens 30 Punkten gelang.

Karriere-Statistiken

NBA

Reguläre Saison

Play-offs

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Basketballspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
Sportler (Atlanta)
Sportler (Los Angeles)
Sportler (Houston)
Basketballspieler (Los Angeles Lakers)
Sportler (Toronto)
Sportler (Philadelphia)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1986
Mann

Lou Williams


An Bambusa jaintiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Radha Binod Majumdar. An Bambusa jaintiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Bambusa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Bambusa

Bambusa jaintiana


La Conflict Intelligence Team (CIT) est une organisation d'enquête indépendante originaire de Russie qui mène une enquête open-source sur les événements qui se déroulent pendant les conflits armés, en particulier les actions des troupes russes en Ukraine, Syrie, Libye et République centrafricaine. Avec Bellingcat et , c'est l'un des plus grands groupes de ce type à avoir émergé pendant la guerre russo-ukrainienne.

Historique
Le groupe a été fondé en 2014 par Ruslan Leviev, un programmeur de Sourgout (Russie).
Proche d'Alexey Navalny, il aurait une formation de juriste. Selon d'autres sources, il aurait un diplôme en ingénierie aéronautique, et occupe un poste de responsable de la société de médias Newscaster.

Selon lui, en 2011, il a été confronté à une fraude massive lors des élections à la Douma d'État, après quoi il a rejoint les actions de l'opposition russe et a créé une société réalisant des diffusions en ligne de diverses actions, notamment Euromaïdan. Après l'annexion de la Crimée par la Russie et le début de la guerre dans le Donbass, Leviev a commencé à couvrir et à enquêter sur les événements de ces conflits, y compris la participation de l'armée russe à ceux-ci. Au début, son groupe s'appelait Guerre en Ukraine (WIU), et en septembre 2015, après le début de l'intervention militaire russe en Syrie, il a changé son nom pour celui actuel. Par rapport aux autres groupes similaires, CIT se distingue par le petit nombre de participants (6 ou 8 personnes travaillant à temps plein) et le fait qu'ils sont tous russophones. Les noms de la plupart des membres du groupe sont gardés secrets pour des raisons de sécurité.

Jusqu'en 2022, le groupe opérait principalement en Russie et faisait face à des menaces qui comprenaient deux tentatives d'engager des poursuites pénales contre Leviev, une convocation au bureau du procureur militaire, une attaque au Zelyonka par un inconnu, des appels téléphoniques avec des menaces de mort et une attaque de pirate par le groupe CyberBerkut. Le 5 mars 2022, CIT a annoncé avoir quitté la Russie afin de pouvoir continuer à travailler.

Activité
Le CIT a mené un certain nombre d'enquêtes internationalement reconnues sur la présence et les activités des troupes russes en Syrie et en Ukraine, en particulier la mort de soldats russes dans ces pays et l'utilisation par la Russie d'armes à sous-munitions en Syrie. Des preuves claires de son utilisation (démenties par les autorités russes) ont été trouvées dans des photos et des vidéos des médias d'État russes. En examinant des photographies et des cartes, le CIT a également réfuté la thèse officielle russe selon laquelle les troupes russes en Syrie n'ont pas participé à des batailles terrestres. En collaboration avec Bellingcat, le groupe a étudié les circonstances de l'abattage du Boeing 777 dans la région de Donetsk en 2014. CIT a clarifié les détails de la biographie des suspects dans l'empoisonnement de Sergueï et Ioulia Skripal en 2018, a enquêté sur le meurtre d'Alexander Taraikovsky, un participant aux manifestations biélorusses, en 2020, et a informé en détail des préparatifs de la Russie pour l'invasion de l'Ukraine en 2022. Le groupe collabore avec les principaux médias occidentaux qui publient ses enquêtes, notamment la BBC, Reuters, Sky News et Der Spiegel.

Références

Liens externes
 Site officiel (en russe)
 Équipe de renseignement sur les conflits sur Twitter

Journalisme d'enquête
Journalisme citoyen
Renseignement de sources ouvertes

Conflict Intelligence Team


The line of battle is a tactic in naval warfare in which a fleet of ships forms a line end to end.  The first example of its use as a tactic is disputed—it has been variously claimed for dates ranging from 1502 to 1652. Line-of-battle tactics were in widespread use by 1675.

Compared with prior naval tactics, in which two opposing ships closed on one another for individual combat, the line of battle has the advantage that each ship in the line can fire its broadside without fear of hitting a friendly ship. This means that in a given period, the fleet can fire more shots. Another advantage is that a relative movement of the line in relation to some part of the enemy fleet allows for a systematic concentration of fire on that part. The other fleet can avoid this by manoeuvring in a line itself, with a result typical for sea battles since 1675: two fleets sail alongside one another (or on the opposite tack).

Background
The first recorded mention of the use of a line of battle tactic is to be found in the Instructions, provided in 1500 by Manuel I, king of Portugal, to the commander of a fleet dispatched to the Indian Ocean. The precision in the Instructions suggests that the tactic was in place before this date. Portuguese fleets overseas deployed in line ahead, firing one broadside and then putting about in order to return and discharge the other, resolving battles by gunnery alone. In a treatise of 1555, The Art of War at Sea, Portuguese theorist on naval warfare and shipbuilding, Fernão de Oliveira, recognized that at sea, the Portuguese "fight at a distance, as if from walls and fortresses...". He recommended the single line ahead as the ideal combat formation.

Line-of-battle tactics had been used by the Fourth Portuguese India Armada at the Battle of Calicut (1503), under Vasco da Gama, near Malabar against a Muslim fleet. One of the earliest recorded deliberate uses is documented in the First Battle of Cannanore between the Third Portuguese India Armada under João da Nova and the naval forces of Calicut, earlier in the same year. Another early, but different form of this strategy, was used in 1507 by Afonso de Albuquerque at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, in the first conquest of Ormuz. Albuquerque commanded a fleet of six carracks manned by 460 men, and entered Ormuz Bay, being surrounded by 250 warships and a 20,000 men army on land. Albuquerque made his small fleet (but powerful in its artillery) circle like a carrousel, but in a line end-to-end, and destroyed most of the ships that surrounded his squadron. He then captured Ormuz.

From the mid-16th century, the cannon gradually became the most important weapon in naval warfare, replacing boarding actions as the decisive factor in combat. At the same time, the natural tendency in the design of galleons was for longer ships with lower forecastles and aftercastles, which meant faster, more stable vessels. These newer warships could mount more cannons along the sides of their decks, concentrating their firepower along their broadside.

Development during the Anglo-Dutch battles of the early 1650s
Until the mid-17th century, the tactics of a fleet were often to "charge" the enemy, firing bow chaser cannon, which did not deploy the broadside to its best effect. These new vessels required new tactics, and "since ... almost all the artillery is found upon the sides of a ship of war, hence it is the beam that must necessarily and always be turned toward the enemy. On the other hand, it is necessary that the sight of the latter must never be interrupted by a friendly ship. Only one formation allows the ships of the same fleet to satisfy fully these conditions. That formation is the line ahead [column]. This line, therefore, is imposed as the only order of battle, and consequently as the basis of all fleet tactics." The Dutch admiral Maarten Tromp first used the line of battle tactic in the action of 18 September 1639, although some have disputed this.

Captains on both sides of the First Anglo-Dutch War appear to have experimented with the technique in 1652, possibly including  Robert Blake at the Battle of Dover (19 May 1652). Tromp faced Blake as he approached from Rye with 12 ships. After Tromp refused to strike sail in salute, a battle took place, but the Dutch, despite their superior numbers, failed to capture any English ships. The engagement was, according to the historian Ben Wilson, "a good old-fashioned melee lacking any sophisticated tactics".

The Battle of the Kentish Knock (28 September 1652) revealed the weakness of the Dutch fleet, largely consisting of smaller ships, against the English. The Dutch consequently began a large shipbuilding programme. The Battle of Dungeness (30 November 1652) was a victory for the Dutch, and led to the revitalisation of the Commonwealth Navy. One innovation introduced by George Monck (the first English professional soldier to become a senior naval officer) and Deane was the Articles of War, which introduced the concept of Red, White, and Blue squadrons, each with an admiral, a vice admiral, and a rear admiral, The Articles of War established the line of battle as a tactic for naval warfare.

After 1652, battles would be determined by the ability of a line of battle to not be broken down. The line was difficult to maintain when ships performed differently from each other and were affected by the sea conditions and the "chaos of conflict". At the Battle of Portland (18–20 February 1653), the English were scattered at the start of the battle, and so were unable to attack the Dutch fleet effectively. It was at Portland that Monck saw how little control admirals had in controlling a fleet and passing commands to his ships. One of the first precise written instructions adopting the line of battle tactic were contained in the English Navy's Fighting Instructions, written by Blake and his colleagues, and published in 1653. Instructions for the better ordering of the Fleet in Fighting, issued on 29 March 1653, was the first clear evidence of the line of battle becoming official policy.

During the Battle of the Gabbard (2/3 June 1653), both fleets began parallel to each other, arranged in three squadrons nose to tail.  The English ships were able to fire continuous broadsides, resulting in terrible loss of life and damage to the Dutch fleet. The Dutch were unable to approach the enemy at close quarters, their preferred tactic. This usually prevailed if they could isolate and attack individual ships. The tactic revealed by the Battle of the Gabbard was not new to naval warfare, but was a consequence of the reforms imposed on the English navy. The New Fighting Instructions meant that senior officers could more easily control their ship captains, who could no longer easily evade fighting, or race heroically ahead of the rest of the fleet.

The line-of-battle tactic favoured very large ships that could sail steadily and maintain their place in the line in the face of heavy fire. The change toward the line of battle also depended on an increased disciplining of society and the demands of powerful centralized government to keep permanent fleets led by a corps of professional officers. These officers were better able to manage and communicate between the ships they commanded than the merchant crews that often comprised large parts of a navy's force. The new type of warfare that developed during the early modern period was marked by a successively stricter organization. Battle formations became standardized, based on calculated ideal models. The increased power of states at the expense of individual landowners led to increasingly larger armies and navies. A ship that was powerful enough to stand in the line of battle came to be called a ship of the line of battle, or line of battle ship. In time this became shortened to battleship.

Problems associated with the tactic

The line of battle often resulted in indecisive engagements. Fleet commanders sometimes met with greater success by altering or abandoning the line of battle outright, by breaking the enemy line and moving through it, as occurred during the Four Days Battle, Battle of Schooneveld, and the Battle of Trafalgar. Another tactic cut off and isolated part of the enemy's line, while concentrating a stronger force on it (as happened during the Battle of Texel and the Battle of the Saintes).

If the opposing fleets were of similar size, a portion of the line might be overwhelmed by focused gunfire of the entire enemy line by  tactic known as doubling. Ships broke through the enemy line and then, acting simultaneously with other vessels that remained on the original side, would engage the enemy fleet.

The main problem with the line of battle was that when the fleets were of similar size, naval actions using it were generally indecisive. The French in particular were adept at gunnery and would generally take the leeward position to enable their fleet to retire downwind while continuing to fire chain-shot at long range to bring down masts. Eventually so many vessels in a line would be damaged that they would be forced to retire for repairs while the French took few casualties and very little damage.

Age of Steam and later developments

In the years following the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 the Admiralty carried out a radical reform of ship design — between 1810 and 1840 every detail was altered, and more advances occurred during this period than had happened since the 1660s. There was however no change in the principle of the tactic of a line of battle. These alterations were superseded by changes brought about by the advance of steam power and industrially-produced armaments.

Marine steam engines replaced wind power during the 19th century, with HMS Ajax converted to steam in 1846, being the first steam ship of the line. The Crimean War showed that sailing ships needed to be converted if they were to be of any military use. The introduction of the gun turret, which made it impossible to have ships with a full rig, meant that by the 1870s sail power had been abandoned. Battleships of the line were still in use in the early 20th century, using steam-driven propellers, and armed with turrets. With the introduction of ironclad warships, ramming again became a method of attack, as occurred at the Battle of Lissa (1866), the first ever fleet engagement involving iron-clad ships.

When ramming fell out of fashion, the logic of the line of battle tactic returned. It was used in the Battle of Tsushima (1905), the Battle of Jutland (1916), and—for the last time—in the Battle of Surigao Strait (1944). The development of aircraft carriers meant that gun engagements were no longer decisive, so that there was no longer any need for a line-of-battle formation.

See also
 Sailing ship tactics
 Naval tactics in the Age of Steam
 Crossing the T

Notes

Sources

Further reading

Naval warfare tactics
Tactical formations
Naval warfare of the Early Modern period
Age of Sail

Line of battle


الوصفة طبية (℞) هي وثيقة الرعاية الصحية التي يحررها الطبيب في شكل تعليمات التي تحكم خطة رعاية المريض. قد تشمل الوصفات الطبية أوامر يجب أن يقوم بها المريض، أو توجيهات إلى الممرضة أو الصيدلي أو الطبيب المعالج الأخر.

الشكل والتعريف
في الولايات المتحدة، تنقسم صيغة الوصفة الطبية إلى سبعة أجزاء. ومع ذلك، في روتين الوصف الحديث، لم تعد بعض الأجزاء قابلة للتطبيق أو مدرجة بشكل يومي.

التعريف: كي تُعد وصفة طبية وصفةً طبية قانونية، يجب تقديمها من قبل شخص مؤهل، طبيب أسنان، أو معالج بالأعشاب، أو ممرض ممارس متقدم، أو صيدلي، أو طبيب، أو طبيب بيطري، إلخ، ممن يكون الدواء الموصوف ضمن مجال ممارستهم لوصف مثل هكذا علاجات. بغض النظر عما إذا كانت الوصفة تحتوي على مواد خاضعة للرقابة أو علاجات تحتاج إلى أدوية متاحة دون وصفة طبية.

يمكن إدخال الوصفات الطبية إلى نظام السجلات الطبية الإلكترونية وإرسالها إلكترونيًا إلى الصيدلي. عوضًا من ذلك، يمكن أن تكون الوصفة مكتوبة بخط اليد على نماذج للوصفات، مطبوعة مسبقًا ومجمعة ضمن كراسات، أو تطبع على نماذج مماثلة باستخدام طابعة الكمبيوتر أو حتى على ورق عادي تبعًا للظروف. في بعض الحالات، قد تُنقل الوصفة الطبية من الطبيب إلى الصيدلي شفهيًا على الهاتف؛ وتزيد هذه الممارسة من خطر حدوث خطأ طبي. يتضمن محتوى الوصفة الطبية اسم وعنوان مقدم الوصفة وأي متطلبات قانونية أخرى مثل رقم التسجيل (مثل رقم دي إي إيه في الولايات المتحدة). يختلف اسم المريض في كل وصفة. في المملكة المتحدة وأيرلندا، يجب تسجيل اسم المريض وعنوانه أيضًا.

تُؤرخ كل وصفة طبية وقد تضع بعض السلطات القضائية مهلة زمنية لصرف الوصفة الطبية. في الماضي، احتوت الوصفات على تعليمات للصيدلي ليستخدمها في تركيب المنتج الصيدلاني ولكن معظم الوصفات الطبية حاليًا تحدد المنتجات الصيدلانية المُصنعة والتي تتطلب القليل أو لا تتطلب تحضيرًا من قبل الصيدلي. تحتوي الوصفات الطبية أيضًا على توجيهات ليتبعها المريض عند تناول الدواء. وتُطبع هذه التوجيهات على بطاقة بيانات المنتج الصيدلاني.

تشير كلمة «الوصفة»، التي أتت من «بري» («قبل») و «سكريبتس» («الكتابة، مكتوبة»)، إلى حقيقة أن الوصفة هي تعليمات يجب تدوينها قبل أن يتم تحضير الدواء المركب. في أغلب الأحيان، يسمي العاملون في الصناعة الوصفات الطبية ببساطة «نصوصًا».

في بعض الدول، صيغت تشريعات من أجل الماريجوانا الطبية، تطالب بـ «توصية» مكتوبة أو شفهية من قبل اختصاصي الرعاية الصحية، اعتقادًا أنه يمكن تمييز المكتوبة منها من الناحية القانونية عن الوصفة الطبية، ولكن بما أن تقديم المشورة المكتوبة للمريض هي فحوى الوصفة الطبية، عُدَّ هذا الاعتقاد خاطئًا. قد تعتمد السلطات القضائية تعريفًا قانونيًا لـ «الوصفة» يُطبّق كمصطلح فني فقط عند تطبيق تلك الحالة (انظر أدناه إلى الوصفات التي يمكن ملؤها بشكل قانوني ببنود تحتاج لوصفة طبية)، لكن التعريف القانوني العام للكلمة هو هذا التعريف الواسع.

المحتوى
توجد للعديد من الأدوية التي تحمل علامات تجارية بدائل من الأدوية المكافئة التي تماثلها من الناحية العلاجية والكيميائية. تحتوي الوصفات الطبية أيضًا على تعليمات بشأن ما إذا كان الواصف سيسمح للصيدلي باستبدال نسخة مكافئة من الدواء. ويمكن الإبلاغ عن هذه التعليمات بعدة طرق.

في بعض السلطات القضائية، تحتوي الوصفة المطبوعة مسبقًا على سطرين للتوقيع: يطبع في أسفل أحد السطرين عبارة «يصرف كما هو مكتوب»؛ وفي أسفل السطر الآخر «يُسمح تبديله». تحوي بعضها على مربع مطبوع مسبقًا «يصرف كما هو مكتوب» من أجل أن يتحقق منه الواصف (ولكن من السهل أن يتحقق منه أي شخص لديه حق الوصول إلى الوصفة الطبية). ينص البروتوكول لدى سلطات قضائية أخرى على أن الواصف يجب أن يكتب بخط اليد أحد العبارات التالية: «يصرف كما هو مكتوب»، «دي إيه دبليو»، «الالتزام بالاسم التجاري»، «لا تبدل»، «ممنوع التبديل»، «ضروري طبيًا»، «لا تبادل». قد تستخدم السلطات القضائية الأخرى لغات مختلفة تمامًا، ناهيك عن صيغة الكلمات المختلفة. في بعض السلطات القضائية، قد يكون إدراج سن الطفل في الوصفة الطبية شرطًا قانونيًا. بالنسبة لوصفات طب الأطفال، ينصح البعض بإدراج عمر الطفل إذا كان عمر المريض أقل من اثني عشر عامًا وإدراج عمره بالسنوات والأشهر بحال كان عمره أقل من خمس سنوات. (بشكل عام، من المفيد إدراج عمر الطفل في الوصفة الطبية). وإضافة وزن الطفل مفيد كذلك.

غالبًا ما تحتوي الوصفات الطبية على خانة «تصنيف». عند تفقدها، يُطلب من الصيدلي تصنيف الدواء وتقديم معلومات حول الوصفة نفسها بالإضافة إلى تعليمات تناول الدواء. وإلا، ببساطة يُعطى المريض التعليمات.

يقوم بعض الواصفين علاوةً على ذلك، بإبلاغ المريض والصيدلي بدواعي استعمال الدواء؛ أيّ ما يعالجه. وهذا يساعد الصيدلي في التحقق من وجود أخطاء، فالعديد من الأدوية الشائعة تُستخدم لعلاج العديد من الحالات الطبية.

تحدد بعض الوصفات عدد «التكرارات» أو «العبوات» المسموح بها وما إن كان مسموح تكرارها؛ يحصل هذا في حال كان المريض سيأخذ الدواء نفسه أكثر من مرة دون الحصول على وصفة طبية جديدة من الطبيب المعالج. قد تقيد اللوائح إعادة تكرار بعض أنواع الأدوية.

في العمليات الجماعية، قد يحتوي الجزء المطبوع مسبقًا من الوصفة على أسماء العديد من الواصفين. يضع الواصفون عادةً دائرة حول أسمائهم، للإشارة إلى من وصف الدواء أو قد يكون هناك خانة اختيار بجانب أسمائهم.

كتابة الوصفات

سهولة القراءة
من المعروف عن الوصفات الطبية المكتوبة بخط اليد، أنها غير مقروءة في كثير من الأحيان. في الولايات المتحدة، كانت كتابة خط اليد غير الواضحة هي المسؤولة بشكل غير مباشر عن مقتل أكثر من 7000 شخص سنويًا، وفقًا لتقرير صدر في يوليو عام 2006 من معهد الطب التابع لأكاديميات العلوم الوطنية (آي أو إم). استخدم الأطباء عبر التاريخ الكلمات والاختصارات اللاتينية لنقل الوصفة بالكامل إلى الصيدلي. ما زالت هذه الاختصارات مستخدمة على نطاق واسع حتى الآن، ويجب فهمها من أجل تفسير الوصفات الطبية. في أوقاتٍ أخرى، وعلى الرغم من أن بعض الأحرف المفردة تكون غير واضحة، إلا أن موقع الأحرف المقروءة وطول الكلمة يكفي لتمييز الدواء استنادًا إلى معلومات الصيدلي. عندما يكون هناك ما يدعو للشك، يقوم الصيادلة بالاتصال بالطبيب. سنت بعض السلطات القضائية تشريعات بخصوص الوصفات الطبية المقروءة (مثل فلوريدا). وقد دعا البعض إلى التخلص من الوصفات المكتوبة بخط اليد كليًا، وتزايد استعمال الوصفات المطبوعة على الحاسوب بشكل كبير في بعض الأماكن.

مراجع

انظر أيضا
 تدبير

رموز
سلامة المرضى
علم الأدوية السريري
قوانين الصحة
مصطلحات طبية

وصفة طبية