Fort Amsterdam was a fortification on the southern tip of Manhattan Island at the confluence of the Hudson and East rivers. The fort and the island were the center of trade and the administrative headquarters for the Dutch and then British/Colonial rule of the colony, of New Netherland and thereafter the Province of New York. The fort was the nucleus of the settlement on the island which was named New Amsterdam and eventually renamed New York by the English, and was central to much of New York's early history.

Before the fort was constructed it was the scene where the purchase of Manhattan Island occurred. In its subsequent history the fort was known under various names such as Fort James, Fort Willem Hendrick and its anglicized Fort William Henry, Fort Anne, and Fort George. The fort changed hands eight times in various battles, the first episode involving Dutch governor Peter Stuyvesant who surrendered the fort to Richard Nicolls of England in 1664. In the 18th century, the fort was at the center of the Stamp Act riots in New York when it was used to store shipments of stamped paper brought over from England, while serving as a safe haven for a number of stamp tax collectors. During the American Revolution, it was involved in the Battle of Brooklyn when volleys were exchanged between the fort and British emplacements on Governor's Island. After 165 years of service, involving a number of conflicts, the fort was finally torn down in 1790 after the American Revolution. After the fort's demolition the Government House was constructed on the site as a possible house for the United States President. The site is now occupied by the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, which houses the National Museum of the American Indian; Bowling Green is nearby.

The construction of the fort marked the official founding date of New York City as recognized by its seal. In October 1683 what would become the first session of the New York legislature convened at the fort. Guns at the fort formed a battery that would later be the namesake of nearby Battery Park.

History
Starting with the founding and establishment of Fort Amsterdam in 1626, the fort, with its strategic location, overlooking the harbor and the mouth of the Hudson River,  and as a lucrative trade center, played a significant role tn the history that followed, all the way through the American Revolution, frequently changing hands between the Dutch, British and the Americans, with corresponding changes in the fort's name.

Establishment (1621–1660)

Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, and the greater Dutch colony of New Netherland, was chartered by the Dutch West India Company in 1621. Before Fort Amsterdam was constructed, the Dutch settlers erected a large stone building on the future location of the fort that served as a meeting house. It was surrounded by some 30 makeshift dwellings made from timber and bark, as finished building materials were scarce. The structures were surrounded by red cedar palisades which served as a temporary fort. Manhattan Island at this time was covered by woods and brush, with several marshes about the shore line, and at night the sound of bears and other wildlife could be heard.

During the 17th century, no settlement was secure without a fortification for defense and refuge. Historian Maud Wilder Goodwin maintains the fort existed not so much out of concern for the Indians, but over other ambitious and enterprising Europeans. Historian John Andrew Doyle, however, maintains that the fort, with its earthen walls, was intended more for a defense against Indians and was almost useless as a defense against a professional army or navy at that time.  In 1625, after much deliberation, it was decided that the best location for the fort would be at the southern tip of Manhattan Island, with the idea that it would be able to defend against any ship attempting to ascend the Hudson River.  The fort was designed by Kryn Fredericksen, deputy and chief engineer of the New Netherland colony. Seventeenth-century Dutch forts all followed a similar design. Probably originally intended as a standard star-shaped fort, Fort Amsterdam had four sides with a bastion at each corner to better protect the walls. The original plan was to face the wall with stone, but this was never accomplished. The fort was built of hard-packed earth or rubble because earthworks would absorb the shock of cannon fire without collapsing, as stone walls might. Fredericksen had instructions to employ the help of nearby Indians in the fort's construction.  and were never taken into slavery.

Under the direction of  the Dutch West India Company, the first appearance of negro slaves in New Amsterdam occurred  in 1626, and were used helping in the construction of the fort, clearing land, farming and other such work. Attitudes about slavery varied among the colonists. Some of the slaves were converted to Christianity, and later some of them were given their freedom and grants of land.

The fort became the nucleus of the New Amsterdam settlement and its mission was protecting New Netherland colony operations in the Hudson River against attack from the English and the French. Although its main function was military, it also served as the center of trading activity. It contained a barracks, a church, a house for the West India Company director, and a warehouse for the storage of company goods.

The company appointed Cornelius Jacobsen Mey in 1624 as the first (provisional) director of the New Netherland colony, and who was stationed at New Amsterdam at the fort, serving until 1625.

Mey was soon replaced by Willem Verhulst, who arrived in January, 1625. Verhulst served as the second director in 1625–1626. His term as director was marked with harsh and inconsistent punishment which infuriated the settlers. Realizing that food staples were in short supply in the newly developed settlement, the Dutch West India Company had shipped over some cattle, various live stock, seeds and farming equipment. The animals were initially kept on Governor's Island but the grazing proved inadequate so they were moved to a more fertile location on upper Manhattan Island.

At the time, Manhattan was sparsely settled, as most of the Dutch West India Company operations were upriver along the Hudson in order to conduct trading operation for beaver pelts. According to John Romeyn Brodhead, while the fort was under construction, three Wechquaesgeek people traveled south from the area of present-day Westchester County to barter beaver skins. When they reached the Kolck, a pond near what is now Chinatown, they were set upon by three farmhands, and one of the two adults was killed. When the young boy who was with them grew older, he took his revenge for the murder of his uncle, which act served as a pretext for Kieft's War.

At the direction of the Dutch West India Company, Verhulst was replaced as governor by the appointment of Peter Minuit, who arrived in 1625 and was appointed governor the following year. Minuit's first official task was to arrange a meeting with the local Indian chiefs and negotiate the purchase of Manhattan Island before any settlement and the erection of the fort was to occur. The meeting took place on May 26, 1626, on the rocky southernmost shore of the island, where a trade deal was made, which was gladly accepted by the Indians. Minuit promptly organized the first government of the colony, and was granted authority over its executive, legislative, and judicial functions. He also appointed a sheriff and a five-member advisory council, chosen from the most reputable men at the colony. On July 27, 1626 the Dutch ship, Arms of Amsterdam, arrived at Manhattan, commanded by captain Adriaen Joris, who in 1623 accompanied Captain May, and was left in charge of the colony at Fort Orange. By  September 26, the Arms of Amsterdam, with a cargo containing thousands of fur pelts, samples of grain, and a load of hardwood, departed for Holland with news of the purchase of Manhattan and the successful establishment of the new colony. By 1628, the population of Manhattan Island, including men, women and children, was 270.

In 1632, Minuit was replaced by Sebastiaen Jansen Krol who briefly served as director for a period of thirteen months. His replacement,  Wouter van Twiller, a clerk in the Dutch West India Company, who arrived at the fort, still under construction, aboard the Dutch ship, De Zoutberg along with a company of one hundred and four soldiers from Holland, the first military force to arrive at the colony, with Van Twiller officially as its first military head  Also aboard was the Reverend Everardus Bogardus.<  Relations with neighboring English colonies were uncertain, as they  were competing with the Dutch over trade with the Indians, prompting Twiller to strengthen the fort with stone at several locations.  The fort was completed in 1635.  He had built within the fort a guard-house and a small house for the soldiers. Outside the fort he built a New Netherland's first church, complete with a house and stable, a bakery, a goat-stable,  and a large storage shed to accommodate the ship builders.

Twiller, however, was generally disliked by the Dutch settlers. His financial management and accounting was poorly conducted and he neglected to report regularly to Amsterdam and had acquired a reputation for drunkenness. For this he was sharply and openly criticized by Borgardus from the pulpit and by the company's treasurer, Lubbertus Van Dincklagen, for which Twiller dismissed him and sent him back to Holland. Van Dincklagen immediately drew up a formal complaint and submitted it to the States General. After confirmed reports of Twiller's performance reached Holland it was decided that he be replaced as Director General of New Netherland. William Kieft was subsequently appointed as the new Director in September, 1637, arriving at New Amsterdam in March of the following year, effectively replacing Twiller.

Conditions in and about the fort by 1638 had deteriorated and were not promising, with incompetent governmental management contributing to a decline in trade, and making the prospect of farming bleak. Director Kieft upon inspection of the fort and surrounding area, found the fort in a ruinous condition, with its dilapidated walls which allowed the fort to be entered without difficulty from various points. All the carriages that mounted the cannons had fallen into decay, while the farms in the area had become neglected.

About 1640 conflicts with the Indians, who were robbing and murdering settlers for their fur and other goods, had increased into war. The garrison at Fort Amsterdam in 1643 consisted of only fifty to sixty soldiers, who were lacking in discipline and were often disorderly. The situation prompted Kieft to establish a code of military law for members of the garrison while on duty, which included stiff fines for blasphemy, slandering, intoxication or failure to appear for duty. The code was read aloud by a corporal every time the soldiers appeared for duty. After four years of fighting with the Indians a peace was finally reestablished in 1645. Under Kieft, however, public revenues overall were not forthcoming, smuggling was frequent and severely compromising legitimate trade, discontent and disorder was prevalent throughout the community, while protests and appeals for reform had no effect in getting Kieft and his subordinates to address the situation effectively. Subsequently when Peter Stuyvesant arrived at Fort Amsterdam in 1647 he was joyfully received. He was accompanied by Reverend Johannes Backerus, who was to replace Bogardus.

Johannes Megapolensis, a minister of the Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church, arrived at Fort Amsterdam from Rensselaerswyck Manor in 1664 after serving there for six years.  His arrival at Fort Amsterdam was subsequent to his assisting French missionary, Isaac Jogues, in his escape from the Mohawks. Jogues became the first Catholic priest to set foot on  Manhattan Island. While at the fort, Jogues observed and wrote an account of the condition of the fort, its repairs, and the activity on Manhattan, noting the various religions and languages spoken. As the population of Manhattan was increasing the West India Company sent out another minister, Domine Samuel Drisius, to assist Megapolensis who had served the Dutch congregation in England and could preach in Dutch, English and French. At the insistence of Stuyvesant,  and with children in need of baptism and religious instruction, Megapolensis was persuaded to remain in Manhattan.

As the population of the colony grew, there was a corresponding increase in the number of soldiers, and by 1650 the number of soldiers in New Netherland was roughly 250. By 1660, the population is estimated to have been around five-hundred, and by 1664 had grown to fifteen-hundred. That same year, Jacques Cortelyou was commissioned to conduct a survey and make a second map of New Amsterdam, which now had approximately three-hundred and fifty dwellings.

English rule (1664–1673)

On August 29, 1664, four English warships under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls, carrying 450 well-trained soldiers and bearing 120 heavy guns, arrived in New Amsterdam's harbor. Fort Amsterdam had a garrison of 250 men with only 24 pieces of artillery. Supplies were limited and food was in short supply, precluding any chance of enduring a prolonged siege. After surrounding the fort with ships and landed soldiers Nicolls demanded the Dutch surrender of the colony and Fort Amsterdam, which at the time was almost useless as a defense against a professional army and navy. Although Peter Stuyvesant, the Director of New Netherland, with his guns in place and ready to fire, was prepared to fight, prominent city residents, including Stuyvesant's son Balthazar, Hendrick Kip  and Reverend Megapolensis, all of whom signed a formal Remonstrance, persuaded Stuyvesant to stand down in the face of overwhelming odds.  On September 8, Stuyvesant raised the white flag of surrender and subsequently, after much protest and deliberation, he signed the colony over without any blood-shed during the Second Anglo–Dutch War. At the behest of the James II, Duke of York, Nicoll's was appointed governor whose objective was to oversee the occupation of the Dutch colony and establish government.

As the first governor of the province of New York, Nicoll's was greeted cordially by the Dutch and civic authorities whom he allowed to keep their offices and other stations. Under the previous rule of the West India Company, and their appointed governors, the rulership was autocratic; it denied basic rights of the people that were enjoyed in Holland, the motherland, while it favored the aristocratic class with grants of land and other special favors. As a result, the new English government was well received by most of the citizens, who were well rooted in Dutch and England culture and ideology, countries with strong democratic principles, derived from the Great Privilege and the Magna Carta, both documents of Catholic origin. The official capitulation of New Amsterdam to the English occurred on September 6, I664.

Nichols' first official act was to rename the city from New Amsterdam to New York, in recognition of James's title as Duke of York, while the fort was renamed Fort James, in honor of James II of England. Designed primarily as a defense against Indians the fort was considered almost useless for guarding the entry to the Hudson River or repelling a military siege, and subsequently a battery was erected at the southern most shore of the island and fitted out with artillery. In 1668 Nicolls resigned the governorship and returned to England, where he resumed his service to the Duke of York. He was replaced as governor by Francis Lovelace on August 28, 1668.

Dutch rule (1673–1674)

Beginning in the spring of 1672, the Third Anglo-Dutch War broke out. The following year, two Dutch fleets, commanded by Admiral Cornelis Evertsen aboard the flagship Swaenenburgh, and Commodore Jacob Binckes, had combined their fleets and were plundering English shipping in the Caribbean and Chesapeake Bay, before they arrived at Fort James on August 7, 1673, which was Evertsen's ultimate objective before he departed Holland which at the time was almost defenseless in the face of such a force. The fleet, consisting of twenty-three ships, carrying 1,600 men, was alarming to acting captain Sheriff John Manning, who was left in command while Lovelace was away visiting Governor Winthrop at Hartford. The fort at this time only had a garrison of no more than 80 men with only 30-36 guns mounted along its walls. Manning tried in vain to summon reinforcements from nearby towns and made attempts to forestall the eminent recapture of Fort James.

Before the arrival of the Dutch fleet, the Dutch burghers and 400 Dutch colonists had grown impatient and resentful with English rulership as their appeals for rights and liberties were constantly ignored, and conveyed this sentiment to the Dutch upon their arrival. Manning sent an envoy of three men from the fort to Admiral Evertsen's ship with a message asking why the Dutch had arrived "in such a hostile manner". Evertsen replied that they had come to take back what he felt was rightfully theirs. The envoy then insisted that they see Evertsen's commission, where he replied that it was stuck in the barrel of his cannon, and that the English would see it soon enough if they did not surrender the fort. Subsequently, the next day the Dutch fleet exchanged broadsides with the fort for about four hours, while Anthony Colve, commander of Marines, landed 600 men on the west side of Manhattan Island and on July 30, 1673, forced the English garrison into surrendering the fort. On August 2, with New Amsterdam once again under Dutch rule, the Council of War appointed Colve as military governor-general of the province and Fort Orange, who in turn appointed Cornelius Steenwyk as Councillor of State, with executive privileges.

In 1674, the fort and New Orange were turned back over to the English in the Treaty of Westminster (1674) which included a provision that the colony of New Netherland be returned to England, which ended the war (the Dutch got Suriname). The fort was officially renamed Fort Willem Hendrick in honor of William III of England, who was Stadtholder and Prince of Orange, and changed the name from New Orange back to New York.

English rule (1674–1689)
After the treaty was secured, the English once again named the area "New York" and returned the Fort James name. Edmund Andros was appointed governor and served from February 9, 1674 to April 18, 1683. On November 10, 1674, Andros received the surrender of the town, while their religious and other rights and property were not lost or compromised.

In September 1682, James, Lord Proprietor of the Province of New York, appointed Thomas Dongan, 2nd Earl of Limerick, an Irishman and staunch Catholic, who had arrived at New York on August 25, 1863, as Vice-admiral in the Navy and provincial governor (1683–1688) to replace Edmund Andros. Dongan organized the first representative assembly of New York Province at Fort James, on October 14, 1683.

Dongan had served in the French army for many years, which made him familiar with French customs and diplomacy. His service in the Low Countries had given him a first-hand knowledge of the Dutch language. Upon his arrival, Dongan was not very impressed with New York, which at the time was a small town, and likewise had the same regard for the fort, which after he inspected it, said its walls could be battered down by artillery in an hour. On the face of the gate to the fort was a faded emblem of the Coat of Arms of the Duke of York. Here, Dongan turned and bowed to the cheering crowd and entered the fort. He was greeted by Captain Anthony Brockholls, the acting governor of the Province of New York, and commander of the fort, who was accompanied by a company of regular infantry. Brockholls exclaimed to Dongan that he had great difficulty maintaining order, and that he was relieved over his arrival. At the time of his appointment, the province was bankrupt and in a state of rebellion. Dongan was able to restore order and stability. He was also the first to establish batteries of cannon to the south of the fort.

Colonist rule (1689–1691)
In 1689, following the Glorious Revolution (English Revolution of 1688), in which William and Mary acceded to the throne, German-born colonist Jacob Leisler seized Fort James in what was called Leisler's Rebellion, replacing deposed Francis Nicholson who had fled New York City. Leisler arrived at New Amsterdam from England in 1660, a penniless soldier of the East India Company. He started out in the trade business and soon married a rich merchant's widow, and by 1689 he achieved prosperity and respectability. As acting governor of New York, he represented the common people against a group of wealthy leaders represented by Pieter Stuyvesant and others and enacted a government of direct popular representation as well as bringing reform to the many governmental provisions that previously existed. The people appealed to Stuyvesant to capitulate and accept the generous offers Leisler was providing, as they had already endured corruption, abuse, and other hardships under the previous rulership. At the direction of governor Henry Sloughter, Leisler and ten others were eventually arrested and imprisoned at the fort. After a long and involved trial, Leissler, along with Jacob Milborne, were found guilty of treason and executed on May 16, 1691.

British rule (1691–1775)

Leisler's rule ended in 1691, when British sovereign William's new governor (appointed in 1690) finally reached New York. The fort had earlier been named for Willem when he was head of the Dutch government. He became the sovereign of the English government by the overthrow of James in the Glorious Revolution. The fort was renamed Fort William Henry in honor of the new Protestant king.

Governor Hunter was replaced by William Burnet who arrived at Manhattan  in September 16, 1720. Rather than calling for elections for a new assembly, as was customary, Burnet  summoned the standing provincial assembly, with whom he found favor, to meet at Fort George, where it voted for  revenues to sustain the government for the following five years. The assembly also prohibited any trading of Indian goods with  the French, which greatly compromised the business interests of New York's merchants.

In 1756, John Campbell, Earl of Loudoun, was appointed commander of all English forces in North America Prompted by the loss of  Fort Oswego during the  French and Indian War, he sent one thousand regulars to strategically located New York City for winter quarters. The old barracks in Fort George were prepared for them, while the fort underwent repairs and major improvements to its structure.  To aid in the defense of the harbor, a good number of heavy cannon were.also added to the battery and other strategic locations near the fort.

Prelude to the revolution
Fort George became the target of American riots following Parliament's passage of the Stamp Act on March 4, 1765. The first shipment of stamps for New York and Connecticut arrived at New York on October 23, 1765. The ships were confronted by some 2000 angry colonists. Subsequently, the stamps had to be quietly unloaded in the middle of the night and brought into Fort George, which at the time had a garrison of only 200 regulars. On October 31, the day before the Stamp Act was to be enforced, thousands of colonists took to the streets. As a precaution, British authorities beforehand had the guns at the battery spiked along with any not inside the fort, making them inoperable. The protests, agitation and violence over the Stamp Act reached a climax from November 1–3, as a result of the arrival of the stamps brought to and held at Fort George.

Cadwallader Colden, the acting governor of the Province of New York from 1763 to 1765, was residing at the fort at the time, but admitted that he had no real authority outside its gates. On November 1, 1765, the garrison was put on alert and manned the walls of the fort, and was soon greeted by the approaching colonists. A courier emerged from the crowd and approached the gate, bearing a message for Cadwallader, which he handed to the sentry. Addressed to Cadwallader specifically, its message was the culmination of over a year's frustration and anger over the proposed imposition of the Stamp Act, which ultimately gave Cadwallader, now 77 years of age, an ultimatum, threatening in pointed language that he not participate in the enforcement of the Stamp Act. Reports of violent riots occurring in Newport, Boston, and elsewhere continued to reach Cadwallader's desk. Jared Ingersoll, stamp agent from Connecticut, and William Franklin, Governor of New Jersey, under extreme pressure not to enforce the Stamp Act had their supplies of stamped paper transported to Fort George for safe keeping.

During the early morning hours of November 2, engineers and workers worked earnestly to strengthen the fort. Artillery office Major Thomas James was in command of the fort, who later testified before Parliament that he could have killed more than 900 of the rioters, but added that had he done so, the colonists could in little time have amassed 50,000 fighting men from New York alone, and that there would have been no chance in holding the fort. General Gage later said that had the colonists been fired on, the revolution would have began that year. Colden, concerned that Fort George had an inadequate garrison, requested reinforcements, which General Gage provided, while James brought new cannons to the fort. The fort also provided a safe haven for several stamp masters, including Zachariah Hood from Maryland, who, at the invitation of Colden, had fled to the fort to escape the wrath of the Sons of Liberty and other angry colonists.

In the face of growing numbers of angry colonists, General Gage and the Governor's Council, wanting to spare New York's Loyalist families from what seemed like imminent ruin, insisted that Colden strike a compromise and surrender the stamped paper. After initially delaying, Colden, now acting as an official stamp distributor, knowing he could not stand alone on matters, ultimately convinced the Common Council to pay for all surrendered and destroyed stamps. The subsequent surrender of the stamps brought calm to the city, while New York's colonial newspapers called for peace. After calm returned to the city Colden's political adversaries blamed him for the mishap, and ultimately had his governorship replaced by Sir Henry Moore. In the effort to maintain peace and restore order to the city, Moore had met with the influential Isaac Sears, a leader of the Sons of Liberty, and others, and shortly thereafter opened the gates of the fort and invited everyone in.

Colonist rule (1775–1776)

In the American Revolution, the colonists under George Washington seized the fort in 1775, before the colonies formally seceded from the British Empire. During the Battle of Long Island, guns from the fort engaged British frigates starting on July 12, 1776. On July 12, the British ships HMS Phoenix and HMS Rose, with a few smaller vessels in attendance, sailed from Staten Island and began moving into the mouth of the Hudson River, prompting alarm guns to sound in New York. The cannons from batteries at Red Hook and Governors Island commenced firing at the small British fleet. Artillery fire also commenced from Fort George, under the command of New York artillery captain Alexander Hamilton, who at the time was nineteen, but had little effect. Fearing that the British capture of the fort was eminent, Hamilton and his artillery teams hauled off more than ten cannons, shortly before a barge from HMS Asia approached and fired on the fort and its vicinity.

In September 1776, under the command of Henry Clinton the British made a Landing at Kip's Bay, and soon recaptured Fort George, along with lower Manhattan, forcing General Washington and his army to retreat north and eventually into New Jersey, at Valley Forge where they would remain for most of the following winter. The British soon occupied the entire city and ruled New York from the fort throughout the war.

British rule (1776–1783)

The British occupied the city and ruled New York from Fort George throughout the remainder of the war. Having been subjected to a large fire in 1776, the city experienced another great fire in 1778, with the subsequent destruction of many dwellings, and along with the British presence, the city became very crowded with overall poor living conditions for many of its inhabitants. After the British occupation of Manhattan Island was completed, the fort was not involved in any further military engagements for the remainder of the war.

American rule (1783–1790)

After peace was established with Britain in 1783, Washington received word that the British would soon evacuate New York. As Washington and his army marched south on Manhattan Island, Washington noted the devastation, lack of trees, shrubs, and the many buildings that were left in ruins. Washington's advance came to a halt at the barrier enclosing the inner city and Fort George. A volley of cannon signaled that the British had departed New York. While waiting for the American army to secure the island, Washington received word that the British had sabotaged the flag pole inside Fort George, by removing its ropes, knocking off its the cleats and by greasing the pole, all as measures taken to hinder the Americans from raising their flag at the fort. After a brief reception at Cape's Tavern, Washington, Governor Clinton and the cavalcade entered the fort. After an extended effort the flagpole was repaired and its missing parts replaced, after which John Van Arsdale ascended the pole and attached the American flag, on Evacuation Day, November 25, 1783, after the British finally pulled out.

In 1788, the government ordered the razing of Fort George (as it was then known). Its materials were used as landfill to add to the shore and expand the Battery. The fort was torn down in 1790, and the Government House, intended as the presidential residence, was built on the site.

The need for new fortifications soon became apparent, especially as tensions started rising again with France and Great Britain. In 1798, guns were placed in temporary fortifications on the Battery. Eventually a new fort, Castle Clinton, was built on Lower Manhattan to the southwest, shortly before the outbreak of the War of 1812 with Britain.

The site of Fort James was redeveloped for the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House. Prior to landfilling and the creation of Battery Park, it was located at the shoreline of the Hudson River but is now a few blocks away.

See also
 List of Directors of New Netherland
 Fortifications of New Netherland
 New Netherland settlements
 History of New York City (prehistory–1664)
 History of New York City (1665–1783)
 Dutch colonization of the Americas
 List of colonial governors of New York
 Province of New York and the Stamp Act
 Stamp Act Congress

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

  (Reprinted in 1996)

Further reading

External links

 Painting of Fort Amsterdam in 1650, by L. f. Tanillio

 See Map # 1

Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
Amsterdam
1625 establishments in the Dutch Empire
Bowling Green (New York City)

Fort Amsterdam


Eric Dudley Carruthers (né le  à Agincourt, mort le  à Tidworth) est un joueur britannique de hockey sur glace.

Famille
Son grand-père, John Carruthers, fut candidat pour le Parti libéral du Canada dans la circonscription de Kingston en 1872 et 1874.

Il est le frère cadet de Colin Carruthers.

Carrière

Militaire
Eric Carruthers est diplômé du Kingston Collegiate and Vocational Institute et du Collège militaire royal du Canada.

Il participe à la Première Guerre mondiale dans la Royal Field Artillery. D'abord lieutenant, il atteint le grade de major.

Il meurt après une appendicectomie à l'hôpital militaire de Tidworth.

Sportive
Eric Carruthers fait partie de l'équipe nationale de Grande-Bretagne qui remporte la médaille de bronze aux Jeux olympiques de 1924 à Chamonix. Alors que les Britanniques sont surclassés par les deux équipes nord-américaines en 1924, ils remportent la médaille de bronze en battant de justesse la Suède grâce à un triplé d'Eric Carruthers. En tout, il marque douze buts pendant le tournoi.

Carruthers revient aux Jeux Olympiques en 1928 à Saint-Moritz. Il marque à nouveau sept buts et devient le meilleur buteur britannique aux Jeux olympiques.

Il participe également au championnat du monde 1930 et au championnat d'Europe 1931.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Naissance en novembre 1895
Naissance à Toronto
Décès en novembre 1931
Décès à 36 ans
Décès dans le Wiltshire
Mort liée à une opération chirurgicale
Joueur canadien de hockey sur glace
Joueur anglais de hockey sur glace
Joueur de hockey sur glace aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1924
Joueur de hockey sur glace aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 1928
Médaillé de bronze olympique britannique
Attaquant de hockey sur glace
Militaire britannique de la Première Guerre mondiale

Eric Carruthers


Maíra Liguori, brasileira, é uma jornalista, publicitária e diretora das organizações Think Olga e Think Eva.

Duas organizações irmãs, a Think Eva é uma consultoria de inovação social que ajuda as empresas a se conectarem verdadeiramente com as mulheres minimizando a desigualdade de gênero. Já a Think Olga é uma ONG de inovação social que atua com a sociedade civil no âmbito de interesse da igualdade de gênero. A sua missão é sensibilizar a sociedade em busca de mudança.

Maíra recebeu pelo seu trabalho nas ONGs, o prêmio Leão de Prata em Cannes (2021), bi-campeã do prêmio WEPs da ONU Mulheres, e finalista do Prêmio Caboré (2021). Liguori está na lista da BBC 100 Mulheres do ano de 2017, e nesse mesmo ano a plataforma Meio & Mensagem a escolheu como uma das pessoas que estão transformando o setor de comunicação.

Veja também

 100 Mulheres (BBC)
 Lista das 100 Mulheres (BBC) do ano de 2017

Pessoas na lista BBC 100 Mulheres de 2017
Brasileiras nas listas BBC 100 Mulheres

Maíra Liguori


The Constitution of the Russian Federation () was adopted by national referendum on 12 December 1993. Russia's constitution came into force on 25 December 1993, at the moment of its official publication, and abolished the Soviet system of government. The current Constitution is the second most long-lived in the history of Russia, behind the Constitution of 1936.

The text was drafted by the 1993 Constitutional Conference, which was attended by over 800 participants. Sergei Alexeyev, Sergey Shakhray, and sometimes Anatoly Sobchak are considered as the primary co-authors of the constitution. The text was inspired by Mikhail Speransky's constitutional project and the current French constitution. The USAID-funded lawyers also contributed to the development of the draft.

It replaced the previous Soviet-era Constitution of 12 April 1978, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (which had already been amended in April 1992 to reflect the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the sovereignty of the Russian Federation), following the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis.

Structure
The constitution is divided into two sections. Overall it creates a system of crown-presidentialism (see Partlett 2022 for details), which affords vast power to the office of the president to dominate executive, legislative, and judicial power.

Preamble
There is no division.

Section One
The Fundamentals of the Constitutional System ()
Rights and Freedoms of Man and Citizen ()
The Federal Structure ()
The President of the Russian Federation ()
The Federal Assembly ()
The Government of the Russian Federation ()
Judicial Power and Procuracy ()
Local Self-Government ()
Constitutional Amendments and Review of the Constitution ()

Section Two
Concluding and Transitional Provisions

Provisions
Especially on human rights and fundamental freedoms, the Constitution provides for human rights and freedoms of citizens according to the universally recognised principles and norms of international law as well as to their listing in the Constitution. (It affirms that the listing in the Constitution of the Russian Federation of the fundamental rights and freedoms shall not be interpreted as a rejection and derogation of other universally recognised human rights and freedoms.)

Executive

The Constitution of the Russian Federation specifies that the President is the Russian head of state, setting domestic and foreign policy and representing Russia both within the country and internationally [Article 80]. While the original constitution stipulated a four-year term and a maximum of two terms in succession, the current constitution decrees a six-year term. The four-year term was in effect while Vladimir Putin served his first and second terms; with the two-term limit, he was barred from the presidency in 2008. Instead, he served as Prime Minister while Dmitry Medvedev served as president for four years. Putin was re-elected to his third term in 2012; with the six-year term, he was elected to his fourth term in 2018. Article 81 specifies the method of election, including a secret ballot; Articles 82–93 detail powers, responsibilities, and limitations of the presidency. The constitution provides for a "strong presidency"; not only is the president the "Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation", the president also has the power to dissolve the State Duma.

Legislative branch

The legislature is the Federal Assembly of Russia, which consists of two chambers: the State Duma (the lower house) and the Federation Council (the upper house). The two chambers possess different powers and responsibilities: the State Duma is of more significance, as it carries the main responsibility for passing federal laws. Although a bill may originate in either legislative chamber (or be submitted by the President, government, local legislatures, Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, or High Arbitration Court), it must be first considered by the State Duma and be adopted by a majority vote before being turned over to the Federation Council, which has 14 days to take a vote on it. If the bill is adopted by the Federation Council, it must be signed by the President to become law. If rejected by the Federation Council, the bill will be returned to the State Duma, which can then override the council's rejection by passing it again with a two-thirds vote in the same form. The President has a final veto, but the State Duma and Federation Council also have an overriding power by passing with a two-thirds vote.

Judiciary

While the Russian Federation Constitution enumerates a strong and independent judicial branch, the reality is a question of debate. The constitution provides for judicial immunity, lifetime appointments/"irremovable" justices, the supremacy of the courts to administer justice, and affirms that judges need only submit to the constitution and the federal law. Additionally, Article 123 provides for open and fair trials, as well as equal application of the law. Three courts are delineated: Constitution Court of the Russian Federation, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, and the Higher Arbitration Court; each court is "appointed by the Council of the Federation upon the proposals by the President." The Constitution requires 19 judges for the Constitution Court, but does not specify the number of justices for the other courts. As of 2002, the Supreme Court has 115 members; due to the expansion of duties in 2014, the number of seats was increased to 170. In September 2014, the Institute of Modern Russia reported that the Russian Federation's Supreme Arbitration Court had been dissolved and that judicial matters previously under its authority had been transferred to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.

Amending the Constitution
The procedure for amending the Constitution is outlined in Chapter Nine. Proposals on amendments to and revision of the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation may be submitted by the President of the Russian Federation, the Council of Federation, the State Duma, the Government of the Russian Federation, legislative (representative) bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and by groups consisting of not less than one fifth of the members of the Council of Federation or of the deputies of the State Duma.

Article 137 covers updating the provisions of Article 65 of the Constitution of Russia. An update regarding the change of the name of the subject of the Russian Federation is carried out by a decree of the President of Russia on bringing the name of the subject of the Russian Federation in the text of the Constitution of the Russian Federation in accordance with the decision of the subject of the Russian Federation. An update regarding changes in the subject composition of the Russian Federation is carried out in accordance with the federal constitutional law on the admission to the Russian Federation and the formation of a new constituent entity of the Russian Federation, on changes in the constitutional and legal status of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, which should contain an indication of the inclusion of relevant changes or additions to Article 65 of the Constitution of Russia.

Article 136 covers updating the provisions of chapters 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 of the Constitution of Russia. An update is carried out in the form of a special act: a law of the Russian Federation on amendments to the Constitution, which is adopted by the parliament similarly to the federal constitutional law, but then also requires ratification by the legislative bodies of the constituent entities of the Federation. Moreover, one law of the Russian Federation on the amendment to the Constitution covers interrelated changes to the constitutional text; the law itself receives a name reflecting the essence of this amendment.

Article 135 covers updating the provisions of chapters 1, 2, and 9 of the Constitution of Russia. An update to any of these chapters is considered a revision of the Constitution's fundamental provisions, which is possible only through the adoption of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation by the Russian Constitutional Assembly or by popular vote.

2008 amendments

The amendments of 2008, which were proposed in November 2008 and came into force on 31 December 2008, are the first substantial amendments to the Constitution of Russia of 1993 and extended the terms of the President of Russia and the State Duma from four to six and five years, respectively. Earlier only minor adjustments concerning the naming of the federal subjects or their merging were made, which require a much simpler procedure.

February 2014 amendments

July 2014 amendments

On 21 March 2014, Federal Constitutional Law No. 6 «On the Adoption of the Republic of Crimea into the Russian Federation and the Formation of New Subjects within the Russian Federation - the Republic of Crimea and the Federal City of Sevastopol» was adopted.

2020 amendments

The amendments of 2020 remove the "in a row" clause from the article regulating the maximum number of presidential terms, discounting previous presidential terms before the amendment enters into force. Other changes are recognition of Russia as a successor to the Soviet Union in relation to international organizations, treaties, and assets of the USSR stipulated by international treaties outside the territory Russian Federation, banning ceding Russian territory, diminishing the accomplishments by the "defenders of the fatherland" and their role in World War II is no longer allowed, and enshrining God and heterosexual marriage in the constitution. Other amendments would enshrine the role of the Russian language as that of "state forming people", a constitutional reference to God and giving statutory backing to the State Council.

From 25 June to 1 July 2020, a nationwide vote took place, with 78% of voters voting in favor of the amendments with a turnout of 65%, according to official results.

Putin signed an executive order on 3 July 2020 to officially insert the amendments into the Russian Constitution; they took effect on 4 July 2020.

2022 annexations
After the signing of "treaties of annexation" with Russian occupation authorities during the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, the text of the constitution was updated to include the Donetsk People's Republic, Kherson Oblast, Luhansk People's Republic, and Zaporizhzhia Oblast. As of December 2022, none of these territories is fully controlled by Russian forces, and Russian law does not define their borders: Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov stated that Russia will "continue consultations with the residents" as to the oblast borders, and that the people's republics are annexed "in the 2014 borders", but high-level Russian collaborator Oleg Tsariov stated that "there are no 2014 borders".

Differences between the Constitution and the laws
The Constitution of Russia:

 secures the state system, basic rights and freedoms, defines the form of the state and the system of supreme state authorities;
 has the highest legal force;
 has direct effect (the provisions of the constitution must be implemented regardless of whether other acts contradict them);
 it is characterized by stability due to a special, complicated order of acceptance and change;
 it is the basis for the current legislation.

Numismatics
On December 10, 2018, a commemorative coin made of copper-nickel alloy with a nominal value of 25 rubles "The 25th anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of the Russian Federation" was issued. On the reverse of the coin there is a relief image of an open book with a drawing of the coat of arms of the Russian Federation on the left page and the inscription "КОНСТИТУЦИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ" on the right page. The commemorative coin was issued in a circulation of 1,000,000 and is a legal means of cash payment in the territory of the Russian Federation.

See also

Former constitutions

 October Manifesto (1905)
 Russian Constitution of 1906
 Decree on the system of government of Russia (1918)
 Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918
 Act on the establishment of the All-Russian supreme power (1918)
 1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union
 Russian Constitution of 1925
 1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union
 Russian Constitution of 1937
 1977 Constitution of the Soviet Union
 Russian Constitution of 1978

Others

 2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia
 2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia
 Constitution of the Soviet Union
 Constitutional economics
 Constitutionalism
 Impeachment in Russia
 Institute of State and Law
 Law of the Russian Federation
 Term limits in Russia
 Human rights in Russia

Notes

References

Partlett, William.  The Dangers of Popular Constitution-Making, Brooklyn Journal of International Law, Volume 38, 193-238 (2012). Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=1924958.

Partlett, William. Crown-Presidentialism. International Journal of Constitutional Law (2022). Available at https://academic.oup.com/icon/advance-article/doi/10.1093/icon/moac006/6569412?login=true.

External links

 Text of the Russian constitution translated in English, does not include 2020 amendment, on Constituteproject.org
 Text of the Russian constitution in Russian
 Text of the Russian constitution translated in English – archived from an official website of the Government of the Russian Federation
 The Russian Constitution, with the Russian text and unofficial translations to English, German, and French
 Amendments to the Russian Constitution
 Information about the Russian Constitution
 Information about the Russian Constitution

1993
1993 in law
1993 in Russia
Government of Russia
History of Russia (1991–present)
December 1993 events in Russia

Constitution of Russia


Die Kennzeichenbeleuchtung (auch Kennzeichenleuchte) oder in der Schweiz die Kontrollschildbeleuchtung eines Kraftfahrzeuges dient dem Zweck, die Ablesbarkeit des hinteren Kraftfahrzeugkennzeichens auch bei Dunkelheit zu gewährleisten.

Für das Automobildesign stellt die Einhaltung der dazu bestehenden europäischen und nationalen Regelungen eine besondere Herausforderung dar.

Rechtliche Vorschriften
Für die Mitgliedsstaaten der Europäischen Union bestimmt die Verordnung (EG) Nr. 661/2009 des Europäischen Parlaments und des Rates vom 13. Juli 2009 in ihrem Anhang IV eine Reihe von dem Übereinkommen über die Annahme einheitlicher technischer Vorschriften für Radfahrzeuge, Ausrüstungsgegenstände und Teile, die in Radfahrzeuge(n) eingebaut und/oder verwendet werden können, und die Bedingungen für die gegenseitige Anerkennung von Genehmigungen, die nach diesen Vorschriften erteilt wurden angeschlossenen Regelungen für verbindlich, darunter auch die Regelungen Nr. 4 und Nr. 48, die detaillierte Vorschriften für die Genehmigung der Beleuchtungseinrichtungen für das hintere Kennzeichenschild von Kraftfahrzeugen und ihren Anhängern (in Regelungen Nr. 4) sowie für die Genehmigung von Fahrzeugen hinsichtlich des Anbaus der Beleuchtungs- und Lichtsignaleinrichtungen (in Regelung Nr. 48) enthalten. Fahrzeuge der Klasse L3e dürfen gemäß Anhang VIII der Verordnung (EU) Nr. 168/2013 des Europäischen Parlaments und des Rates vom 15. Januar 2013 – nach Wahl des Herstellers – stattdessen auch mit "Beleuchtungs- und Lichtsignaleinrichtungen im Einklang mit UN-ECE-Regelung Nr. 53 Rev. 2 und ihren Änderungen 1 und 2" ausgerüstet sein; die Genehmigung eine Fahrzeuges nach Regelung Nr. 53 setzt gemäß deren Ziffer 6.5.1. eine Beleuchtungseinrichtung für das hintere Kennzeichen voraus, die wiederum als Einrichtung der Kategorie 2 nach der Regelung Nr. 50 genehmigt ist.

In der Bundesrepublik Deutschland wird die Beleuchtungseinrichtung des hinteren Kennzeichens durch  Abs. 6 Sätze 2 bis 4 der Fahrzeug-Zulassungsverordnung (FZV) geregelt, dessen Satz 2 auf die mit Wirkung vom 1. November 2014 aufgehobene Richtlinie 76/760/EWG und auf die ECE-Regelung Nummer 4 in der jeweils geltenden Fassung, und dessen Satz 3 zu Krafträdern auf die mit Wirkung vom 1. Januar 2016 aufgehobene Richtlinie 97/24/EG und auf die ECE-Regelung Nr. 53 in der jeweils geltenden Fassung verweist.

Danach ist eine Kennzeichenleuchte grundsätzlich für alle Kraftfahrzeuge und Anhänger vorgeschrieben. Lediglich Versicherungskennzeichen für Kleinkrafträder (Mofas) und vierrädrige Leichtfahrzeuge müssen nicht beleuchtet sein ( Abs. 4 Satz 2 FZV). Für Anhänger in der Land- und Forstwirtschaft, die häufig abnehmbare Leuchtenträger verwenden, gelten besondere Bestimmungen. Es dürfen nur Kennzeichenleuchten verwendet werden, für die eine ECE-Genehmigung erteilt wurde. Diese ist erkennbar an dem internationalen Genehmigungszeichen, das u. a. aus einem Kreis besteht, in dem sich der Buchstabe "E" und die Kennzahl des Landes befinden, das die Genehmigung erteilt hat. Beim Einbau einer Leuchte ohne diese Kennzeichnung kann bei sehr strikter Auslegung die Betriebserlaubnis des Kraftfahrzeuges erlöschen.

Bauweise und Funktion
Die elektrische Schaltung muss so ausgeführt sein, dass die Kennzeichenbeleuchtung immer gleichzeitig mit den Rückleuchten und eventuell vorhandenen Begrenzungsleuchten ein- und ausgeschaltet wird. Verwendet werden zunehmend Leuchtdioden. Diese sind unter anderem wegen ihres geringeren Wärmeverlusts effizienter als herkömmliche Glühlampen und vor allem erheblich langlebiger. In der Regel funktionieren sie über die gesamte Lebensdauer des Fahrzeuges. Das Licht der Kennzeichenleuchte soll möglichst farblos sein, damit die Farben des Kennzeichens nicht wesentlich verändert erscheinen. Um eine Irritation nachfahrender Kraftfahrer zu vermeiden, darf kein Lichtstrahl unmittelbar nach hinten ausstrahlen; das heißt, das Licht der Kennzeichenbeleuchtung darf nicht erkennbar sein. Das wird durch die Festlegung eines bestimmten Lichtausfallswinkels erreicht. Darüber hinaus enthalten die Vorschriften detaillierte Vorgaben unter anderem zur Intensität, zum Lichtstärkepegel, zur Leuchtdichte und zum Lichtquellenmodul.

Die Kennzeichenbeleuchtung bei mehrspurigen Fahrzeugen und Anhängern ist immer in Verbindung mit dem rechten Begrenzungslicht abzusichern, damit beim Ausfall der linken Begrenzungsleuchte das Fahrzeug noch als ein mehrspuriges zu erkennen ist.

Kennzeichenbeleuchtung im Automobildesign

Der hohe Detaillierungsgrad der rechtlichen Vorgaben stellt für das Design insbesondere von geschwungenen Pkw-Karosserien mit rundlichem Heck bisweilen eine besondere Herausforderung dar. So kann zum Beispiel der vorgeschriebene Winkel von acht Grad, in dem das Licht auf das Kennzeichen treffen muss, nur eingehalten werden, indem entweder eine Leuchte direkt auf die Karosserie aufgesetzt oder – umgekehrt – das Kennzeichen in die Karosserie bis zu sieben Zentimeter vertieft eingebaut wird.

Als Beispiel einer Integration der Kennzeichenbeleuchtung in das Gesamtdesign eines Fahrzeuges gilt der frühe Volkswagen 1200 (Brezelkäfer): Hier wurde auf die halbovale Motorhaube mittig ein tropfenförmiges Gehäuse aufgesetzt. Zweck dieser geschwungenen und sich nach oben verjüngenden Gestaltung war es unter anderem, die Kennzeichenbeleuchtung ansprechend zu integrieren. Bei sehr frühen Modellen war auch die einzige Bremsleuchte in diesem Gehäuse untergebracht, bis es später zwei Bremsleuchten in den aufgesetzten Lampengehäusen auf den Kotflügeln gab. Bei späteren Modellen wurde diese Gestaltung der Motorhaube wieder geändert, eine aufgesetzte Leuchteneinheit blieb aber lange erhalten.

Eine andere Gestaltung der Kennzeichenbeleuchtung findet sich beim Ferrari Dino Pininfarina: Hier wurden diese Leuchten in die Hohlräume der beiden Stoßstangenhälften versteckt integriert.

Alternativen
Entgegen verbreiteter Vorstellungen können die 1971 eingeführten reflektierenden Kennzeichen eine Kennzeichenbeleuchtung nicht ersetzen. Diese vor allem aus Sicherheitsgründen eingeführten Kennzeichen ( Abs. 2 Satz 2 FZV) erleichtern zwar ein Ablesen durch nachfolgende Kraftfahrer, nicht jedoch durch Fußgänger auf unbeleuchteten Landstraßen oder durch Überwachungskameras.

Eine Alternative bieten selbstleuchtende Kennzeichen, die 2006 vom Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt zugelassen wurden.
Es handelt sich dabei um sehr flache Nummernschilder, die selbst Licht abstrahlen und somit die üblichen Kennzeichenleuchten überflüssig machen. Es gibt verschiedene Systeme, beispielsweise Kennzeichenschilder, die mittels einer rückstrahlenden Elektrolumineszenz-Folie hinterleuchtet werden. Von dem Unternehmen 3M entwickelte Schilder dieser Bauart wurden 2002 in den ersten Modellen des Volkswagen Phaeton eingebaut.

Kennzeichenbeleuchtung in Japan

Eine Besonderheit stellen die in Japan auf Antrag erhältlichen lichtdurchlässigen Kennzeichen dar. Dabei wird nicht das Kennzeichen selbst beleuchtet, sondern unmittelbar hinter dem Kennzeichen befindliche Leuchten lassen Zahlen und Schriftzeichen durchscheinen.
Erste Versuche im Jahre 1970 begannen auf der schneereichen Nordinsel Hokkaidō. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die von den Glühbirnen abgegebene Wärme ausreicht, um den Schnee auf den Kennzeichen zu schmelzen. Diese frühen Bauarten konnten jedoch die Schriftzeichen nicht gleichmäßig erhellen. Neuere Bauarten dieser sogenannten "jiko-shiki" (字光式) (deutsch etwa "Schriftzeichen-Beleuchtung") basieren auf Leuchtdioden, welche die gesamte Fläche des Kennzeichens von hinten gleichmäßig ausleuchten. Das Licht strahlt dabei jedoch nur durch die aus grünen Kunststoff-Formteilen gebildeten Schriftzeichen, die so bei Dunkelheit klar ablesbar erscheinen.

Sonstiges
Wer die Kennzeichenbeleuchtung ausschaltet, um die Ablesbarkeit des hinteren Kennzeichens zu vereiteln, macht sich wegen Kennzeichenmissbrauchs strafbar. Das gilt auch für ein bewusstes Abschalten der Kennzeichenbeleuchtung durch technische Maßnahmen. In einer Entscheidung des Oberlandesgerichts Stuttgart (OLG Stuttgart Beschluss vom 6. Juli 2011, 2 Ss 344/11) wurde die Beleuchtung als zwingender Bestandteil des hinteren Nummernschildes bestätigt. Siehe auch  Abs. 1 der Straßenverkehrs-Ordnung und  Abs. 1 Nr. 3 des Straßenverkehrsgesetzes.

Siehe auch
 Themenliste Straßenverkehr
 Fahrzeugbeleuchtung
 Standlicht
 Kfz-Kennzeichen (Deutschland)
 Automatische Nummernschilderkennung
 e-Plate

Literatur
 Hans-Hermann Braess, Ulrich Seiffert: Vieweg Handbuch Kraftfahrzeugtechnik. 6. Auflage, Verlag Vieweg + Teubner Wiesbaden 2011, ISBN 978-3-8348-1011-3.
 Jürgen Kasedorf, Richard Koch: Service-Fibel für die Kfz-Elektrik. 15. Auflage, Vogel Buchverlag, 2007, ISBN 978-3-8343-3098-7.
 Joachim Petsch: Geschichte des Auto-Designs. DuMont Buchverlag, Köln 1982, ISBN 3-7701-1330-6.

Weblinks
 Weiterführende Informationen zur Kennzeichenbeleuchtung

Einzelnachweise

Fahrzeugleuchte

Kennzeichenbeleuchtung


An Cryptochloa capillata in uska species han Liliopsida nga syahan ginhulagway ni Carl Bernhard von Trinius, ngan ginhatag han pagkayana nga asya nga ngaran ni Thomas Robert Soderstrom. An Cryptochloa capillata in nahilalakip ha genus nga Cryptochloa, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Cryptochloa

Cryptochloa capillata


Storz-koblinger, er slangekoblinger, der bl.a. bruges til brandhaner, brandslanger, men også større slanger. Storz er en standardiseret klo-kobling med gummitætning, hvor slangen kan kobles til, eller samles med en anden slange, uden gevind, men dog ofte med et værktøj, på grund af koblingens diameter. Den blev indført som standard slangekobling ved danske brandvæsner i 1941.

Brandhaner/brandstandere er i Danmark delt op i A, B og C standere, hvor A-standeren kan give mest vand og C-standeren mindst. C-standere bliver sjældnere, da de giver en begrænset mængde vand i forhold til deres pris og vedligeholdelsesomkostninger. Storz-koblingens størrelse følger brandstanderens størrelse. A-stander bruger større slangediameter end C-stander. Storz-koblingen er oftest af aluminium, rustfast stål eller messing. Brandværktøj i messing anvendes, hvor man vil være sikker på, at værktøjet ikke kan forårsage gnister. I udlandet anvendes D-slanger ofte til højtrykslanger, men ikke altid.

Slangerne er ligeledes opdelt i A-, B- og C-slanger alt efter ydeevne. A-slanger giver 1200 l/min. B-slanger giver 600 l/min. og C-slanger giver 200 l/min.

Brand- og redningsudstyr
Koblinger

Storzkobling


Yasumichi Uchima (født 10. september 1984) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Sagan Tosu og Gainare Tottori.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Yasumichi Uchima


سلسلة جبال المسمى تسمى قديما  سلسلة جبال محجر، هي سلسلة جبال ممتدة من (جبل العرقوب) جنوبا حتى النفود الكبير (عالج) شمالا. وتعتبر من ضمن سلسلة جبال منطقة حائل.

المعلقات
قال أبو زياد كما في شرح المعلقات للتبريزي
(محجر جبل حوله رمل حجر به).

نقل البكري (أن كل جبل أزَّرَه رمل فهو محجر)، ولهذا فإن هذا الاسم يطلق على جبال ومواضع كثير، وهو الذي ذكره لبيد بقوله لأنه ذكر معه في البيت الجبلين وفردة ورجامها.
 قال فيه بشر بن أبي خازم الأسدي
معاليـة لا هـم إلا محجـر وحرةُ ليلى السهلُ منها فلوبُها

 وهو الذي أورد فيه الهجري قول الشاعر
ألا إن برقا لاح بين محجر وبين اللوى برق لعيني شائقُ

 وهو الذي جرى فيه يوم لطي على غَنِي فقال فيه زيد الخيل الطائي
نحن صَبَحْناهم غداة محجر بالخيل محقبة على الأبدانِ

وقال أيضا:
قتلنا غنيا يوم سفح مُحَجّر مجاهرة نفسي فداء مجاهرِ

 وقال طفيل الغنوي
وهن الألى أدركن تَبْلَ محجر وقد جعلت تلك التنابيل تنشبُ

 قال علامة الجزيرة حمد الجاسر
إن كل الأوصاف المتقدمة تنطبق على جبل يدعى المِسْمَى بكسر الميم وسكون السين وفتح الميم الثانية والف مقصورة.

المراجع

مصادر
 كتاب الأمكنة لنصر الإسكندري
 معجم البلدان لياقوت الحموي
 معجم ما استعجم للبكري
 التعليقات والنوادر للهجري
 شرح المعلقات للتبريزي
 الأماكن للحازمي
 معجم شمال المملكة للجاسر
 مجلة العرب للجاسر السنة السابعة

مسمى

جبال المسمى


Dereyazıcı, Çorum ilinin Alaca ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köy, 1925 yılı kayıtlarında Dereağcı adıyla geçmekte olup, 1930 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır. Daha önceleri Mecitözü kazasına bağlıyken, 19 Ocak 1930'da Hüseyinabat kazasına bağlandı.

Coğrafya
Köy, Çorum il merkezine 68 km, Alaca ilçe merkezine 18 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Alaca belde ve köyleri

Dereyazıcı, Alaca


An Aristida hackelii in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni José Arechavaleta. An Aristida hackelii in nahilalakip ha genus nga Aristida, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Uruguay. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Aristida

Aristida hackelii


Bernd Schuster (Augsburg, 22. prosinca 1959.) je njemački nogometni menadžer i bivši nogometaš.

Rođen je 22. prosinca 1959. u Augsburgu, u tada Zapadnoj Njemačkoj. Njegov je nadimak "der Blonde Engel", što znači "plavi anđeo".

Počeo je profesionalnu karijeru u dobi od 18 godina u 1. FC Kölnu 1978. godine, nakon izvrsnih igara za reprezentaciju mladih Zapadne Njemačke. Ostao je tamo do 1980. Igrao je 56 puta i postigao 10 golova.

Godine 1980. preselio se u Barcelonu. Tijekom '80.-ih godina bio je jedan od najboljih igrača. Bio je u lošim odnosima s predsjednikom Josepom Luizom Nunezom i s trenerima kao što su: Helenio Herrera, Udo Lattek, Terry Venables i Luis Aragonés. Osvojio je europsku srebrnu loptu 1980. i brončanu loptu 1981. i 1985. U Barceloni je osvojio jedno prvenstvo Španjolske, tri kupa, jedan Superkup i jedan Kup pobjednika kupova.

Godine 1988. preselio se u Real Madrid. Bilo je mnogo kontroverzi i suparništva dvaju klubova. U prvoj sezoni osvojio je dvostruku krunu i Superkup, a u drugoj prvenstvo. Za Real je igrao 61. utakmicu i zabio 13 golova.

Godine 1990. preselio se u Atlético Madrid. Osvojio je dva kupa i bio vice-prvak Španjolske. Igrao je 85 utakmica i postigao 11 golova.

Vratio se u svoju domovinu 1993. godine. Otišao je u Bayer Leverkusen. Unatoč naporima, nije uspio osvojiti ligu ili njemački kup. U izboru za najbolji gol 1994. godine, osvojio je sva prva tri mjesta. Igrao je 59 utakmica i postigao 8 golova. Poslije je ostvario i zapaženu trenersku karijeru trenirajući Real Madrid, 1. FC Köln, Šahtar Donjeck i mnoge druge poznate klubove.

Njemački nogometaši
Nogometaši madridskog Reala
Nogometaši Barcelone
Nogometaši Bayer Leverkusena

Bernd Schuster


Bad Ass ist ein US-amerikanischer Actionfilm mit Danny Trejo aus dem Jahr 2012.

Der Film basiert auf einem als AC Transit Bus fight bekannten Vorfall vom 15. Februar 2010, bei dem der damals 67-jährige US-Amerikaner Thomas Bruso einen Afroamerikaner in einem Stadtbus in Oakland zu Boden prügelte, nachdem er nach einer heftigen Diskussion provoziert und angegriffen worden war.

Handlung
Als der US-amerikanische Soldat Frank Vega in den 1970er-Jahren aus dem Vietnamkrieg in seine Heimat zurückkehrt, wird er u. a. von seinen alten Schulfreunden gedemütigt und aus der Gesellschaft ausgestoßen, was gleichzeitig auch sein Berufsleben drastisch erschwert. Dies ändert sich erst vierzig Jahre später, als er in einem Stadtbus einen älteren Afroamerikaner vor zwei Neonazis beschützt und ihm dadurch als lokaler "Held" wieder Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt wird. Als jedoch sein Freund Klondike von Gangmitgliedern ermordet wird und die Polizei sich anscheinend nicht wirklich darum kümmert, beschließt Vega, Selbstjustiz auszuüben und sich eigenhändig an den Tätern zu rächen.

Hintergrund

"AC Transit Bus fight"

Der als AC Transit Bus fight bekannte Vorfall, auf dem die Handlung von Bad Ass aufbaut, war eine Auseinandersetzung zweier Männer an Bord eines Stadtbusses der Firma AC Transit in Oakland, Kalifornien am 15. Februar 2010. Amateuraufnahmen der Auseinandersetzung zwischen dem 67-jährigen US-Amerikaner Thomas A. Bruso und einem 50-Jährigen afroamerikanischen Mann mit Vornamen Michael wurden auf YouTube veröffentlicht, und dort über 5 Millionen Mal aufgerufen. Für Kontroversen sorgten zahlreiche rassistische Kommentare, die von Benutzern der Webseite gepostet wurden.

Am Anfang des ersten Videos sitzt Bruso im hinteren Teil des Busses gegenüber von Michael. Bruso gab später an, Michael hätte ihm als Reaktion auf eine harmlose Bemerkung hin Rassismus unterstellen wollen. Als er sich in den vorderen Teil des Wagens zurückzieht, folgt Michael ihm dorthin und setzt die verbale Auseinandersetzung fort. Als Michael Bruso an der Schulter berührt, steht Bruso auf und schlägt ihm mehrmals mit der Faust ins Gesicht, sodass dieser zu Boden fällt. Im nächsten Bild sieht man Michael blutend in einem Haltegriff Brusos um Gnade flehen. Bruso lässt ihn los und verlässt, Beleidigungen äußernd, den Bus. Michael kehrt auf seinen Sitz zurück und fordert einen Krankenwagen, wobei er das Wort "ambulance" in Afroamerikanischem Englisch wie "ambalance" oder "amber-lamps" ausspricht, was im Internet zu Belustigungen führte und in zahlreichen Videos persifliert wird; die Figur Amber Lamps in Bad Ass ist eine Parodie darauf. In einem weiteren Video ist zu sehen, wie Bruso unmittelbar nach dem Vorfall auf der Straße randaliert, schreit, und gegen einen Zeitungsspender tritt. Beide Männer wurden später in einem lokalen Krankenhaus behandelt. Kein Beteiligter wurde verhaftet.

Thomas Bruso
Thomas Alexander "Tommy Slick" Bruso, auf dem die Figur Frank Vega aus Bad Ass basiert, stammt aus Chicago, Illinois. Anders als oftmals behauptet war Bruso zwar bei der Army, hat aber nie im Vietnamkrieg gedient. Er wurde nach nur 3 Monaten (Feb – Mai 1969) aus der Army entlassen. Aufgrund seiner Mitwirkung am AC Transit Bus fight erlangte er 2010 unter dem Pseudonym "Epic Beard Man" bzw. "Vietnam Tom" in der Internetszene Kultstatus. Eine braune Bauchtasche sowie ein hellblaues T-Shirt mit dem Aufdruck "I AM a Motherfucker" auf dem Rücken wurden, wie sein weißer Bart, zu einer Art Markenzeichen, die auch in Craig Moss' Spielfilm aufgegriffen werden. Zuvor war bereits ein anderes Video von ihm veröffentlicht worden, das zeigt, wie er am 3. August 2009 im Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum von Polizisten zweimal mit einer Elektroschockpistole niedergestreckt wird, nachdem er sich weigert, ihren Anweisungen nachzugehen.

Nach dem Zwischenfall wurde er Gegenstand zahlreicher Interviews und Reportagen. Nathan Maas, ein Grafikdesigner aus Portland, Oregon, produzierte unter dem Titel I am a Motherfucker eine Dokumentation über Bruso, in der er über sein Leben, seine Hintergründe und seinen Umgang mit dem ungewohnt hohen Bekanntheitsgrad spricht. Der Film wurde auf YouTube veröffentlicht. Für die Entwicklung des Charakters Frank Vega, in Bad Ass vom aus Mexiko stammenden Schauspieler Danny Trejo dargestellt, arbeitete das Produktionsteam mit Bruso zusammen, nachdem es die Filmrechte von ihm erworben hatte.

Verfolgungsjagdszene
Fast die gesamte Verfolgungsjagd mit den zwei Bussen am Ende des Films wurde aus dem Film Red Heat aus dem Jahr 1988 von Walter Hill mit Arnold Schwarzenegger übernommen. Einige Szenen der Verfolgungsjagd wurden anders geschnitten, und die Farben der Busse wurden digital leicht verändert. Auch die Fahrziele auf den Hinweisanzeigen der Busse wurden gegenüber dem Original digital verändert.

Veröffentlichung
Die Dreharbeiten zu Bad Ass wurden im Mai 2011 abgeschlossen. Die US-Premiere fand am 13. April 2012 statt, die Vertriebsrechte für Deutschland liegen bei 20th Century Fox. Die Free-TV-Premiere war am 20. Mai 2014 um 23 Uhr auf Tele 5.

Ein erster Trailer wurde im Dezember 2011 auf YouTube sowie auf weiteren Internetseiten veröffentlicht, der zweite mit dem Titel The Golden Years am 6. März im iTunes Store.

Soundtrack
Der Soundtrack des Films kam bereits am 24. Januar 2012 vorab auf CD und als MP3-Download auf den Markt. Er umfasst 12 dem Hip-Hop-Genre zuzuordnende Songs, interpretiert von diversen US-amerikanischen und mexikanischen Rappern.

Rezeption

Vorwurf von Rassismus
Weil für den Film der ursprüngliche Vorfall umgeschrieben und dadurch verfremdet worden ist, gab es bereits vor der Veröffentlichung Kontroversen. Während in der Vorlage ein Weißer von einem Schwarzen zum Einsatz körperlicher Gewalt provoziert wird, würden im Film die Rollen ausgetauscht werden, indem gezeigt wird, wie zwei Rechtsextremisten einen Schwarzen belästigen und ein von einem mexikanischen Amerikaner dargestellter Mann in das Geschehen eingreift, um das Opfer zu verteidigen. Daraus folgten Vorwürfe von Rassismus sowohl durch diverse Kritiker als auch durch zahlreiche Fans in Internetforen.

Mögliche Fälschung
Als Reaktion auf den im Dezember 2011 veröffentlichten Trailer vermuteten einige Kolumnisten, es könne sich um eine Fälschung handeln, ähnlich der im Rahmen des Filmprojekts Grindhouse von Robert Rodriguez und Quentin Tarantino produzierten "Fake-Trailer", in denen Hauptdarsteller Danny Trejo ebenfalls mitwirkte. Sarah Benned zum Beispiel schrieb, der Trailer sei "entweder eine Parodie, der Trailer einer solchen oder lediglich ein Vorwand, Danny Trejo eine Bauchtasche tragend Leute verprügeln zu lassen".

Fortsetzungen
2014 entstand die Fortsetzung Bad Ass 2: Bad Asses. An der Seite von Trejo spielt hier Danny Glover. 2015 folgte mit Bad Asses on the Bayou ein dritter Teil, ebenfalls mit Glover und Trejo in den Hauptrollen.

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website

 Original "AC Transit Bus fight" auf YouTube

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 2012
US-amerikanischer Film
Actionfilm
Independentfilm

Bad Ass


Bulgogi (din limba coreeană bul-gogi ), literalmente "foc carne", este un gui (fel de mâncare la grătar sau prăjit în stil coreean) din felii subțiri, marinate de carne de vită sau de porc gătite pe grătar sau pe plită. Carnea este de multe ori prăjită în tigaie atunci când este gătită acasă. Vrăbioara, antricotul sau spata sunt bucăți de carne de vită utilizate frecvent pentru preparare. Acest fel de mâncare provine din zona de nord a peninsulei coreene și este foarte popular în Coreea de Sud. Bulgogi este atât de răspândit în Coreea de Sud, încât poate fi găsit de la restaurante de lux, la supermarketuri locale care vând pachete care trebuie doar prăjite.

Etimologie
Bulgogi provine de la cuvântul coreean bul-gogi (불고기), constând din bul ("foc") și gogi ("carne"). Cuvântul compus este derivat din dialectul Pyongan, deoarece acest fel de mâncare este considerat delicatesă în această zonă, aflată în prezent în Coreea de Nord. După eliberarea peninsulei coreeane de sub ocupația japoneză în 1945, mâncarea a devenit populară în Seul și în alte părți din Coreea de Sud, unde a fost adusă de către refugiații din Pyongan. Cuvânt a fost apoi inclus în ediția din 1947 a Dicționarului Limbii Coreene, cu sensul de carne gătită la grătar direct peste foc de cărbuni.

În Dicționarul Limbii Coreene Standard, publicat de Institutul Național al Limbii Coreene, cuvântul este inclus cu sensul de carne, precum cea de vită, care este tăiată în felii subțiri, marinate și gătite la grătar pe foc. Cuvântul este, de asemenea, inclus în dicționarele de limba engleză, precum Merriam-Webster și Oxford Dictionary of English. Merriam-Webster datează prima apariție a cuvântului în vocabularul englez american în 1961.

Istoric
Se crede că bulgogi își are originea în timpul erei Goguryeo (37 î.e.n – 668 e.n.), atunci când acesta se numea maekjeok (맥적, 貊炙), iar carnea de vită era gătită la grătar pe frigare. În timpul dinastiei Joseon acesta se numea neobiani (너비아니), însemnând carne "într-un strat subțire", fiind pregătit în mod tradițional mai ales pentru nobili și cei bogați.

Mod de preparare și servire

Bulgogi este preparat din felii subțiri de vrăbioară sau alte bucăți de carne de vită superioare. Înainte de preparare, carnea este marinată pentru a-i da aromă și a o frăgezi într-un amestec de sos de soia, zahăr, ulei de susan, usturoi, piper negru măcinat și alte ingrediente opționale, precum ceapă verde, ghimbir, ceapă sau ciuperci, mai ales ciuperci albe sau matsutake. Pentru frăgezire, se folosește piure de pere si ceapă. Uneori, tăiței celofan sunt adăugați, dar acest pas variază în funcție de regiune și de rețeta folosită.

Bulgogi este în mod tradițional gătit la grătar, dar metoda prăjirii în tigaie a devenit și ea populară. Căței de usturoi întregi, ceapă feliată și ardei grași tocați sunt de asemenea gătite la grătar lângă carne. Acest fel de mâncare este uneori servit cu o garnitură de salată verde sau alte legume cu frunze, care sunt folosite pentru a apuca și înveli o bucată de carne, de multe ori înmuiată în ssamjang, sau alte garnituri și apoi mâncate împreună.

În cultura populară
Bulgogi este servit în restaurante în Coreea, iar multe localuri fast-food vând hamburgeri cu aromă de bulgogi. Carnea din hamburger este marinată în sos bulgogi sos și este servită cu salată verde, roșii, ceapă, și, uneori, brânză.

Variante

 Kongnamul-bulgogi
 Osam-bulgogi

Vezi și

 Galbi
 Grătar coreean

Referințe

Bucătăria coreeană

Bulgogi


විජේ සිං ඩියොල් ලෙස 1969 ජනවාරි 27 වැනි දින උපත ලද බොබී ඩියොල්, බොලිවුඩ් නළුවෙකි. සිනමාවට සම්බන්ධ පවුලකට ඉපිදි ඔහුගේ පියා සැවොම ගෞරව කරන "ධර්මෙන්ද්‍රර' වන අතර ඔහුගේ සොහොයුරා "සනී ඩියොල් " ය.  සනී ඩියොල් ද, ඉන්දීය හින්දි සිනමාවේ සාර්ථක නළුවෙකි.

1969 උපත්

බොබී ඩියොල්


إدوارد جيمس أولموس (24 فبراير 1947 في لوس أنجلس، كاليفورنيا) هو ممثل أمريكي مكسيكي الأصل. يعمل أيضا كمخرج ومنتج.

في شبابه المبكر قرر إدوار وهو في سن الثالثة عشر أن يصبح مغني روك وكان في ذلك الوقت لاعب بيزبول. حقق في سنوات الستينات والسبعينات من القرن الماضي نجاحا في النوادي، لكن صديق له نصحه أن يغير مهنته إلى التمثيل. تحصل عام 1978 على جائزة توني. شهرته الحقيقة كانت من خلال تمثيله دور كاستيلو في المسلسل التلفزيوني ميامى فايس (1984-1989). رُشح عام 1988 لجائزة الأوسكار.

فاز عام 1997 بجائزة ألما عن دوره في فيلم سيلينا - الحلم الأمريكي.

إدوارد جيمس متزوج في الوقت الحالي من الممثلة بورتوريكية ليماري نادال.

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من مونتيبيلو (كاليفورنيا)
أمريكيون لاتينيون
أمريكيون من أصل مكسيكي
حائزون على جائزة إيمي
حائزون على جائزة غولدن غلوب
سجناء ومعتقلون من قبل الحكومة الفيدرالية للولايات المتحدة
مخرجو أفلام أمريكيون من أصل مكسيكي
مخرجو أفلام من كاليفورنيا
مخرجو تلفزيون أمريكيون
ممثلو أداء صوتي رجال أمريكيون
ممثلو أفلام أمريكيون
ممثلو تلفزيون أمريكيون
ممثلون أمريكيون
ممثلون أمريكيون في القرن 20
ممثلون أمريكيون في القرن 21
ممثلون أمريكيون من أصل مكسيكي
ممثلون من لوس أنجلوس (كاليفورنيا)
مواليد 1947
مواليد في لوس أنجلوس
خريجو جامعة ولاية كاليفورنيا (لوس أنجلوس)
خريجو جامعة كاليفورنيا الولائية (ساكرامنتو)

إدوارد جيمس أولموس


Thomas Grey, 2nd Earl of Stamford, PC (c. 165431 January 1720) was a British peer and politician.

Biography
Grey was the only son of Thomas, Lord Grey of Groby, and inherited his title from his grandfather. His mother was Lady Dorothy Bourchier, daughter of Edward Bourchier, 4th Earl of Bath.

Grey took some part in resisting the arbitrary actions of James II, and was arrested in July 1685. After his release he took up arms on behalf of William of Orange in the Glorious Revolution, after whose accession to the throne he was made a Privy Counsellor (1694) and Lord Lieutenant of Devon (1696). Politically he was described as an "unrepentant Whig", who reaffirmed his belief in the Popish Plot by voting against the motion to reverse the attainder on William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford.

In 1697 he became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1699 President of the Board of Trade, being dismissed from his office upon the accession of Anne in 1702. From 1707 to 1711, however, he was again President of the Board of Trade.

He married twice: firstly in 1651, Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Daniel Harvey (diplomat), ambassador to the Ottoman Empire (divorced), and secondly in 1691, Mary, daughter of Joseph Maynard, MP in the Cavalier Parliament. On his death without surviving children, his titles and Leicestershire estate at Bradgate Park passed to his first cousin Henry Grey, 3rd Earl of Stamford (1685–1739), a grandson of the first earl, from whom the later earls were descended.

Arms

The arms of the head of the Grey family are blazoned Barry of six argent and azure in chief three torteaux gules.

See also
 List of deserters from James II to William of Orange

Notes

References

Kenyon, J. P. The Popish Plot 2nd Edition Phoenix Press 2000

1650s births
1720 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
17th-century English nobility
18th-century English nobility
Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster
Lord-Lieutenants of Devon
Members of the Privy Council of England
Fellows of the Royal Society
People of the Rye House Plot
Thomas
Earls of Stamford
Presidents of the Board of Trade
Whig (British political party) politicians
People of the Glorious Revolution
Barons Grey of Groby

Thomas Grey, 2nd Earl of Stamford


اكس-بلاين (en:X-plane) هي لعبة محاكاة طيران طورت من أجل الحاسوب. وهي الأكثر انتشارا في أوساط العامة مقارنة مع مايكروسوفت فلايت سيميولتر لأنها أكثر واقعية، هذا بالإضافة إلى الإمكانيات المتميزة التي تتيحها.

معلومات إضافية

اكس-بلاين لعبة احتكارية أي أنها ليست مجانية وهي تقبل بيئات نظام مختلفة مما يزيد تفوقها.تتيح للمستخدمين إمكانيات متقدمة كإمكانية تغيير الطائرات أو إنشاء طائرات جديدة كما يمكن تغيير الأمكنة إلى غير ذلك وهذه امتيازات تتفوق بها على مايكروسوفت فلايت سيميولتر.

يمكن لعب اكس-بلاين على الإنترنت بإضافة ملحقات وهكذا يصبح الجو أكثر جمالا بتواجد أصدقاء يحلقون في نفس الوقت.

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 (en) الموقع الرسمي

ألعاب آي أو إس
ألعاب أندرويد
ألعاب فيديو 1993
ألعاب فيديو 1995
ألعاب فيديو حول محاكاة الطيران
ألعاب فيديو مطورة في الولايات المتحدة
ألعاب لينكس
ألعاب ماك أو إس
ألعاب ماك أو إس الكلاسيكي
ألعاب ماكنتوش
ألعاب ويندوز

إكس بلين


الدكتور حسن عبد الله حمدان المعروف باسم مهدي عامل (ولد في بيروت عام 1936) ابن بلدة حاروف الجنوبية قضاء النبطية. متزوج من إيفلين بران، وله ثلاثة أولاد: كريم وياسمين ورضا.

تلقى علومه في مدرسة المقاصد في بيروت وأنهى فيها المرحلة الثانوية.

نال شهادة الليسانس والدكتوراه في الفلسفة من جامعة ليون، فرنسا. درّس مادة الفلسفة بدار المعلمين بقسنطينة (الجزائر)، ثم في ثانوية صيدا الرسمية للبنات (لبنان). انتقل بعدها إلى الجامعة اللبنانية معهد العلوم الاجتماعية كأستاذ متفرغ في مواد الفلسفة والسياسة والمنهجيات.

كان عضوا بارزا في اتحاد الكتّاب اللبنانيين والمجلس الثقافي للبنان الجنوبي، ورابطة الاساتذة المتفرغين في الجامعة اللبنانية. انتسب إلى الحزب الشيوعي اللبناني عام 1960، وانتخب عضوا في اللجنة المركزية للحزب في المؤتمر الخامس عام 1987.

في الثامن عشر من أيار عام 1987 اغتيل في أحد شوارع بيروت، وهو في طريقه إلى جامعته الجامعة اللبنانية معهد العلوم الاجتماعية الفرع الأول، حيث كان يدرس فيها مواد الفلسفة والسياسة والمنهجيات.

من أقواله «لست مهزوما ما دمت تقاوم». وعلى إثر اغتيال مهدي عامل أعلن يوم التاسع عشر من أيار من كل عام «يوم الانتصار لحرية الكلمة والبحث العلمي».

نشأته وحياته
هو مفكر ومناضل شيوعي ولد في بيروت عام 1936 من بلدة حاروف قضاء النبطية.اسمه الحقيقي حسن عبد الله حمدان. في العام 1955 انهى مرحلة الدراسة الثانوية من مدرسة المقاصد في بيروت، سافر إلى فرنسا في عام 1956 ونال من جامعة ليون شهادتي الإجازة والدكتوراه في الفلسفة.وفي العام 1960 انتسب إلى صفوف الحزب الشيوعي اللبناني.في عام 1963 سافر إلى الجزائر واشتغل لمدة اربع سنوات في التعليم في دار المعلمين بمدينة قسنطينة، وكتب بالفرنسية عدة مقالات نشرت في مجلة "الثورة الأفريقية" الصادرة في الجزائر. في عام 1968 درّس مادة الفلسفة في ثانوية صيدا الرسمية للبنات وبقي في عمله هذا إلى ان انتقل عام 1976 إلى الجامعة اللبنانية-معهد العلوم الاجتماعية، ليدرّس فيها مواد الفلسفة والسياسة والمنهجيات. ولقد كانت بداية حسن حمدان في مجلة "الطريق" تحت اسم مهدي عامل، الذي أصبح يُعرف به فيما بعد.
تعتبر هذه الفترة (1968-1976) من الفترات المهمة في حياة حسن حمدان، حيث بدأ فيها ممارسة مشروعه الفكري والكتابة باللغة العربية، في وطنه، لدراسة واقعه الاجتماعي دراسة علمية وتمييز كونية قوانين الماركسية فيه، لتبدأ، بحسب حسن حمدان، «صيرورة الفكر العربي فكرًا علميًا» مبتعدًا عن القولبة وتكرار المقولات الجاهزة. ولقد ادرك خطورة ما يقوم به بقوله :

أعماله
- أصدر مهدي عامل عام 1972 كتابه الأول "مقدمات نظرية لدراسة اثر الفكر الاشتراكي في حركة التحرر الوطني". وقسّمه إلى قسمين: القسم الأول "في التناقض" والقسم الثاني "في نمط الإنتاج الكولونيالي" الذي صدر عام 1976. وتكمن اهمية هذا الكتاب في ان مهدي بحث فيه في مجال جديد في الفكر الماركسي، وهناك جزء ثالث من الكتاب بعنوان "في تمرحل التاريخ" والذي استشهد قبل أن يكمله.
- في عام 1973، صدر كتابه "ازمة الحضارة العربية ام ازمة البرجوازيات العربية"، وفيه انتقد أعمال الندوة الفكرية التي عقدت في الكويت تحت عنوان أزمة التطور الحضاري في الوطن العربي
- مع اندلاع الحرب الأهلية في لبنان في عام 1979، صدر كتابه "النظرية في الممارسة السياسية، بحث في اسباب الحرب الاهلية في لبنان"
- وفي عام 1980، صدر كتابه "مدخل إلى نقض الفكر الطائفي-القضية الفلسطينية في ايديولوجية البرجوازيةاللبنانية"، عرض فيه المفاهيم الاساسية التي تكوّن ايديولوجية البرجوازية اللبنانية، وانتقدها من موقع نقيض لها، هو موقع الطبقة العاملة، مظهرًا بنقده البعد السياسي الذي تغيّبه ايديولوجية البرجوازية في نظرتها إلى القضية الفلسطينية.
- في عام 1984 صدر ديوانه شعره الثاني "فضاء النون" تحت اسم هلال بن زيتون. وفي عام 1985 صدر كتابه "في علمية الفكر الخلدوني" وهو عبارة عن تمرين، بحسب قوله، لقراءة نص تراثي بفكر مادي علمي. وفي العام نفسه صدر له ايضًا كتاب بعنوان "هل القلب للشرق والعقل للغرب-ماركس في استشراق ادوارد سعيد" الوارد في كتاب "الاستشراق" في "ماركس وعلاقته بالفكر الاستشراقي وبالشرق الاسيوي".
- في عام 1986 صدر كتابه "في الدولة الطائفية" الذي حلل فيه طبيعة النظام السياسي-الطائفي القائم في لبنان، بهدف كشف الصراع الطبقي الذي تحجبه الايديولوجية الطائفية بمظهر طائفي، لتؤيد الانتماء للطائفة لا للوطن، لتأييد النظام السياسي-الطائفي واعادة انتاجه.
- بعد استشهاد مهدي عامل جُمعت مقالاته وكتاباته التربوية والتعليمية التي كتبها من 1968 إلى 1973 ونُشرت في عام 1991 في كتاب بعنوان" في قضايا التربية والسياسة التعليمية"، حلل فيها الآلية السياسية التعليمية للدولة، في لبنان، التي تعمل من خلالها على ضرب التعليم الرسمي وتعميق الانتماء الطائفي لاعادة إنتاج النظام السياسي-الطبقي-الطائفي.

مؤلفاته
من مؤلفات مهدي عامل:
 مقدمات نظرية: لدراسة أثر الفكر الاشتراكي في حركة التحرر الوطني. 1972 الطبعة الأولى، 1986 الطبعة الخامسة.
 أزمة الحضارة العربية أم أزمة البرجوازيات العربية. الطبعة الأولى 1974، الطبعة الثالثة 1989.
 النظرية في الممارسة السياسية. بحث في أسباب الحرب الاهلية. الطبعة الأولى 1979. الثالثة 1989.
 مدخل إلى نقض الفكر الطائفي - القضية الفلسطينية في ايديولوجية البرجوازية اللبنانية. الطبعة الأولى 1980. الطبعة الثالثة 1989.
 هل القلب للشرق والعقل للغرب. الطبعة الأولى 1985. الطبعة الثالثة 1990.
 في علمية الفكر الخلدوني. الطبعة الأولى 1985. الطبعة الثالثة 1990.
 في الدولة الطائفية. الطبعة الأولى 1986.
 نقد الفكر اليومي. الطبعة الأولى 1988. لم ينتهِ.
 في تمرحل التاريخ، الطبعة الأولى، 2001.
له العديد من المساهمات النظرية المنشورة والتي ستنشر ضمن الأعمال الكاملة.
 في الشعر:
 تقاسيم على الزمان، الطبعة الأولى 1974.
 فضاء النون، الطبعة الأولى 1984.

مراجع

أساتذة الجامعة اللبنانية
أشخاص من قضاء النبطية
أعضاء هيئة تدريس الجامعة اللبنانية
اشتراكيون مسلمون
خريجو جامعة ليون
سياسيو الحزب الشيوعي اللبناني
سياسيون لبنانيون مغتالون
سياسيون من جبل عامل
شخصيات الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية
شعراء لبنانيون
شعراء لبنانيون في القرن 20
شيعة لبنانيون
شيوعيون لبنانيون
صحفيون في القرن 20
صحفيون لبنانيون
فلاسفة القرن 20
فلاسفة لبنانيون
فلاسفة مسلمون
ماركسيون لبنانيون
مواليد 1936
وفيات 1407 هـ
وفيات 1987

مهدي عامل


Mærkelige dyr er en propagandafilm instrueret af Karl Roos efter manuskript af Karl Roos.

Handling
Skovsvin. En særlig race af mennesker der uden omtanke smider affald i de danske skove.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1944

Affaldshåndtering
Propagandafilm fra Danmark

Mærkelige dyr


ජයි ශ්‍රී ක්‍රිෂ්ණා (සිංහල: ජය ශ්‍රී ක්‍රිෂ්ණා) යනු සාගර් පික්චර්ස් වෙතින් නිෂ්පාදිත ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලාවකි. මෙය 2008 ජූලි 21 සිට 2009 සැප්තැම්බර් 15 දක්වා කලර්ස් නාළිකාවෙන් හින්දි බසින් විකාශය විය. මෙහි දෙමළ හඬකැවූ ප්‍රභේදය රාජ් ටීවී ඔස්සේ 2009 අප්‍රේල් 20 සිට 2010 ජූනි 14 තෙක් විකාශය විය.

නළු මේඝන් ජාදව් මෙහි ක්‍රිෂ්ණාගේ චරිතය නිරූපණය කරයි. මෙය රාමනන්ද් සාගර්ගේ සාර්ථක වැඩසටහනක් වූ ශ්‍රී ක්‍රිෂ්ණාහි ප්‍රතිනිර්මාණයකි. මෙය මෙහෙයවන ලද්දේ සාගර් පික්චර්ස්හි මෝති සාගර් විසිනි. මේ සඳහා මහාභාරතය, හරිවංස, භගවත පුරාණය සහ විෂ්ණු පුරාණය පාදක කොටගෙන ඇත. රිෂ්තේ නාළිකාව මගින් මෙය එක්ස්ත රාජධානියේ ද විකාශය කරන ලදී. ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුළ මෙහි දෙමළ හඬකැවූ ප්‍රභේදය සිංහල උපසිරැසි සමගින් ශක්ති ටීවී නාළිකාව ඔස්සේ විකාශය විය.

කථා පුවත
ජයි ශ්‍රී ක්‍රිෂ්ණා මගින් විෂ්ණු දෙවියන්ගේ ක්‍රිෂ්ණ අවතාරය පිළිබඳ නිරූපණය වේ. මෙමගින් ඉන්දියාවේ ගෝඛුල්, මථුරා, හස්තිනාපුර සහ ද්වාරකා යන නගර පසුබිම් වී ඇත. ක්‍රිෂ්ණාගේ උපතේ සිට ඔහුගේ ළමා විය, යොවුන් විය වැනි අවස්ථාවන්හි කථාපුවත් හෙවත් ලීලාවන් ද, මථුරාවේ සහ ද්වාරකාවේ කුමරුන් ලෙස සිටි අවධි ද නිරූපණය කෙරේ.

මඛාන් චෝර් (මෝරු සොරා) ලෙස ප්‍රචගිත ක්‍රිෂ්ණා සහ සුදාම අතර සදාකාලික මිත්‍රත්වයක් පැවතිණි. තවද, ක්‍රිෂ්ණා විසින් පුතානා රාක්ෂ රැජින සහ විෂ සහිත කාලිය නාගයා දමනය කළේ ය. තවත් රසවත් කථා පුවතක් වන්නේ ක්‍රිෂ්ණා කුඩා දරුවකුව සිටි කාලයේ ඔහුගේ හදාගත් මව වූ යශෝධා ඔහු‍ගේ මුඛය තුළින් සම්පූර්ණ විශ්වයම දැක තිබීමයි.

නව යොවුන් වියේ දී ඔහු සහ රාධා අතර දිව්‍යමය සම්බන්ධතාවයක් පැවතිණි. වෘන්දාවනයේ ගෝපිකාවන් සමග ඔහු සිදුකළ නර්තනය රාස ලීලා ලෙස ප්‍රකට විය. පසුව, ඔහු වැඩුණු මිනිසකු බවට පත්වීමත් සමග මෙම කතාමාලාව තුළින් ඔහු සිය දුෂ්ට මාමණ්ඩිය වූ කංස විනාශ කළ අයුරු නිරූපණය වේ. (නමුත් පුරාවෘත්තවල සඳහන් වන්නේ ක්‍රිෂ්ණා සිය මාමණ්ඩියව මරාදමන විට ඔහු වයස අවුරුදු 12ක පමණ ලාබාල දරුවකු බවයි)

කුමරකු බවට පත්වීමත් සමග, ක්‍රිෂ්ණා රුක්මිණී, සත්‍යභාමා සහ ජම්බාවතී සමග විවාහ වේ. එසේම ක්‍රිෂ්ණා විසින් නරකාසුර නම් රාක්ෂයාගේ සිරභාරයේ සිටි තරුණියන් 16,100 දෙනකුව ද විවාහ කර ගනු ලබයි. ඔහු මෙය සිදු කරන්නේ ඔවුන්ගේ ගෞරවය රැක ගැනීමටයි. ක්‍රිෂ්ණාගේ භාර්යාවන් විෂ්ණු දෙවියන්ගේ බිසව වන ලක්ෂ්මී දේවියගේ විවිධ ස්වරූපයන් යැයි විශ්වාස කෙරේ.

එසේම කතාමාලාව මගින් ක්‍රිෂ්ණා විසින් පාණ්ඩවයන්ගේ මස්සිනා වූ අයුරුත්, අර්ජුනගේ හොඳම මිතුරා වූ අයුරුත් නිරූපිත ය. ද්‍රෞපදීට සොහොයුරකු බඳුවූ ඔහු, මහා දූ කෙළියේ දී අසාධාරණ ලෙසින් පාණ්ඩවයන්ගේ දේපළ සමග ඇයව දිනාගත් කෞරවයන්ගේ අඩන්තේට්ටම්වලින් ඇයව මුදා ගනියි. කුරුක්ෂේත්‍ර මහා යුද්ධයට පෙර ඔහු භගවද් ගීතාවේ ඥානය අර්ජුනට ලබා දෙයි.

කතාමාලාව මගින් තවදුරටත් ක්‍රිෂ්ණා පරිපූර්ණ පුත්‍රයකු, ස්වාමි පුරුෂයකු, සොහොයුරකු, මිතුරකු, රජකු සහ පෙම්වතකු ලෙස නිරූපණය කොට ඇත. මෙමගින් ක්‍රිෂ්ණාගේ යෞවන විය තෙක් සිදුවීම් දක්නට ලැබේ.

චරිත නිරූපණය

නිෂ්පාදක කණ්ඩායම

මහාභාරතය පාදක කරගත් නිර්මාණ
ඉන්දියානු මිත්‍යා රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා
2008 ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා ඇරඹීම්
2009 ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා අවසන් වීම්
කලර්ස් (රූපවාහිනී නාළිකාව) කතාමාලා
ඉන්දියානු රූපවාහිනී සෝප් ඔපෙරා
කාව්‍ය පාදක කරගත් රූපවාහිනී වැඩසටහන්
රූපවාහිනී කතාමාලා

ජයි ශ්‍රී ක්‍රිෂ්ණා


Gündönümü ya da gün dönümü, yılda iki kez tekrarlanan ve Güneş'in yarımkürelerde en büyük açılarla düştüğü günlerdir. Bulunulan yarımküreye göre gündüzlerin veya gecelerin, kısalmaya veya uzamaya başladığı tarihlerdir.

Kış gündönümünde (yaklaşık 21 Aralık), güneş ışınları Oğlak Dönencesine dik açıyla düşer. Kuzey yarımkürede gündüzler uzamaya, güney yarımkürede kısalmaya başlar. Bu tarih kuzey yarımkürede kışın, güney yarımkürede yazın başlangıcı sayılır. Güney yarımkürede en uzun gün, kuzey yarımkürede en uzun gece yaşanır. Kuzey yarımkürede gölgelerin en uzun olduğu gündür.

Yaz gündönümünde (yaklaşık 21 Haziran), güneş ışınları Yengeç Dönencesine dik açıyla düşer. Kuzey yarımkürede gündüzler kısalmaya, güney yarımkürede uzamaya başlar. Bu tarih, kuzey yarımkürede yazın, güney yarımkürede kışın başlangıcı sayılır. Güney yarımkürede en kısa gün, kuzey yarımkürede en kısa gece yaşanır. Kuzey yarımkürede gölgelerin en kısa olduğu gündür.

Kaynakça

Astronomide zaman
Mevsimler
Güneş Sistemi'ndeki astronomi olayları
Güneş Sistemi'nin mekaniği

Gündönümü


පුදුචෙරි යනු දක්ෂිණ භාරතයේ ප්‍රංශ යටත් විජිතයක් ව පැවති ප්‍රදේශයකි. වර්තමානයේ එය භාරතයේ කේන්ද්‍රීය පාලන ප්‍රදේශයකි.

පොන්ඩිචෙරි


عبد الرحيم شحاتة كان محافظ الفيوم ثم محافظ الجيزة ثم محافظ القاهرة ثم وزير للتنمية المحلية بمصر.

ولد الدكتور عبد الرحيم هاشم شحاته في قرية ميت مرجا سلسيل مركز الجمالية محافظة الدقهلية عام 1936م. تخرج في كلية الزراعة بجامعة القاهرة وتم تعيينه معيدا بها عام 1960. حصل شحاتة على درجة الماجستير في الوراثة الزراعية وتربية النباتات من جامعة منيسوتا بالولايات المتحدة عام 1962 ثم درجة الدكتوراه في الوراثة الزراعية وتربية النباتات من الجامعة ذاتها.

وكانت أولى الوظائف التي شغلها باحث بوزارة الزراعة عام 1978 ثم عمل وكيلا لمركز البحوث الزراعية خلال الفترة من عام 1982 وحتى عام 1985 ثم مديرا لمركز البحوث الزراعية خلال الفترة من عام 1985 إلى عام 1987.

خلال الفترة من عام 1987 وحتى عام 1993 شغل الدكتور عبد الرحيم شحاتة منصب محافظ الفيوم ثم منصب محافظ الجيزة خلال الفترة من عام 1993 وحتى عام 2000 ثم منصب محافظ القاهرة منذ عام 9 يوليه 1997 - 15 يوليه 2004 ثم منصب وزير للتنمية المحلية.

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من محافظة الدقهلية
خريجو كلية الزراعة جامعة القاهرة
محافظو الجيزة
محافظو الفيوم
محافظو القاهرة
مواليد 1936
مواليد في الدقهلية (محافظة)
وزراء تنمية محلية مصريون

عبد الرحيم شحاتة