Filosofisk pædagogik er praktisering af filosofi som pædagogik i form af for eksempel filosofisk undervisning, opdragelse eller dannelse. Den filosofiske pædagogik går tilbage til antikken. De tyske filosoffer Leonard Nelson og Otto Friedrich Bollnow bidrog til at modernisere den filosofiske pædagogik, og de senere år har der været forøget interesse for denne tilgang til pædagogik.

Der findes flere områder og retninger inden for filosofisk pædagogik, som også er udbredte i Danmark:

Områder

Filosofi med børn
I moderne tid ses ikke mindst filosofi med børn, der er en undervisningsmetode . Tilgangen blev grundlagt af den amerikanske filosof Matthew Lipman, der i 1972 oprettede Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children (IAPC) under Montclair State University. En anden vigtig filosof er Oscar Brenifier, der taler for en meget direkte diskussion i skolen. Han har blandt andet lavet en serie af tænk-selv bøger, der er en hjælp til voksne, som vil tale filosofisk sammen med børn. Ann Margaret Sharp har været med til at udvikle en feministisk filosofi for børn. Det kommer også til udtryk i Maria Vegaras børnebog om den franske feminist og filosof Simone de Beauvoir.

I Danmark er tilgangen især blevet gjort populær af Per Jespersen og Michael Højlund Larsen. Målet er for dem at få børn til at reflektere dybere over tilværelsen og argumentere for deres holdninger. Metoden foregår blandt andet ved, at børn sidder i en rundkreds og diskuterer konkrete filosofisk spørgsmål. Desuden udgav Ann Pihlgren i 2011 bogen Sokratiske samtaler i undervisningen. Denne bog retter sig mod brugen af sokratisk dialog i undervisningen i folkeskolen. Bogen beskæftiger sig med alle sider af livet. Lærke Groth og Dorete Kallesøe udgav i 2016 bogen Lommefilosoffen : håndbog i filosofi med børn. Bogen fokuserer blandt andet på, hvordan man skaber undersøgende fællesskaber. Målet er at fremme børns tænkning. Louise Nabe-Nielsen udgav i 2019 bogen Filosofi i skolen. Undervisning som rum for undren. Her lægges der særlig vægt på at fremme undringen i folkeskolen. Forfatteren er både lærer og filosof, og hendes bog giver praktiske anvisninger på, hvordan filosofien kan implementeres blandt elever i en dansk sammenhæng.

Ved Syddansk Universitet findes siden 2017 forsknings- og udviklingsprojektet 'Filosofi i skolen'. Her arbejdes blandt andet med dialogisk undervisning og filosofiske færdigheder. Målet er at forøge børns læring, karakterdannelse og skoleoplevelse i folkeskolen.

Filosofisk undervisning
I antikken finder man den filosofiske undervisning i en mere generel forstand, for eksempel hos Epiktet. Her er undervisningen i sig selv en særlig måde at praktisere filosofi på: Målet er her at få eleverne til at se problemer fra forskellige synsvinkler og reflektere på en bestemt måde. I andre varianter handler det mere om at skabe en særlig form for dannelse .

I nyere tid findes perspektivet blandt andet hos John Dewey. Han var en amerikansk filosof med særlig interesse i praktisk pædagogik. Der findes også nyere filosofisk undervisning med særligt fokus på blandt andet kreativ tænkning og moralsk dannelse samt feminisme. I forbindelse med sidstnævnte har Carla Claudia blandt andet udviklet en særlig feministisk undervisningsform. Her er de studerende ligestillede og diskuterer køn og overgreb.

Paul Freire brugte også filosofien som tilgang til undervisning inden for den kritiske pædagogik. Han var brasiliansk pædagog og filosof og optaget af at undervisningen skulle være frigørende og transformerende.

Filosofisk livskunst
Livskunst handler om kunsten at leve en højere eksistens med større bevidsthed. I Danmark blev den filosofiske livskunst genoplivet af filosoffen og terapeuten Anders Dræby. Ifølge ham kan denne tilgang også forstås som en særlig filosofisk pædagogik, der er baseret på principper om omdannelse og aflæring. Målet bliver her at skabe en transformation af mennesket, så det kan leve på en anden måde. Det indebærer ifølge bogen Livskunsten - filosofien om at vågne op til livet at vågne åndeligt op fra en slags søvngængertilværelse. Dette er en oplevelse, der ligger til grund for såvel den vestlige som den østlige filosofi. At vågne op forudsætter, at man forholder sig til døden, forvandler sit indre og træder ud af flokken og det konforme liv. Dermed er livskunsten også en spirituel dødspædagogik og åndspædagogik.

Filosofisk uddannelse, læring og vejledning
I Platons dialoger styrer Sokrates typisk samtalen, hvor han bruger en krydsforhørsteknik over for andres påstande for at påvise selvmodsigelser i deres holdning. Denne dialogform har dannet udgangspunkt for megen filosofisk uddannelse og vejledning gennem historien. Filosofisk uddannelse findes også i klassisk form på universiteter, men kan desuden have et mere specifikt fokus som for eksempel feministisk eller økologisk uddannelse.

Filosofisk pædagogik findes også som tilgange til læring, for eksempel som feministisk læring. Et andet eksempel er økologisk læring, som er filosofisk pædagogik, idet der udvikles en ny kritisk bevidsthed.. En tredje tilgang er den filosofiske vejledning. Her bruges den filosofien i den pædagogiske vejledning, for eksempel i feministisk vejledning. Hos Alex Riel bliver den filosofiske vejledning derimod til livsvejledning. Hans bog Metamening viser, hvordan livsvejledning kan bane vej for mere mening i livet. Dette er ikke blot vigtigt for den enkelte men også for menneskers sameksistens og for økologien. Desuden har Finn Thorbjørn Hansen skrevet om filosofisk vejledning.

Filosofisk dannelse og opdragelse
Et andet felt er måden, hvorpå filosofien kan bruges i dannelsen og opdragelsen af mennesket. Denne tanke går også tilbage til antikken og findes blandt andet hos Platon, hvor opdragelsen er en opgave for staten. Senere udgør den en del af grundlaget for fødslen af den moderne pædagogik hos Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Her er der dog tale om en rent fiktiv opdragelse. I nyere tid findes den filosofiske opdragelse også som en tanke hos blandt andre Friedrich Nietzsche og som en praksis hos John Dewey.

Den tyske filosof Volker Steenblock ser i Philisophisces Bildung: Einfuhrung in die Philosophiedidaktik und Handbuch: praktische Philosophie på en særlig akademisk variant, som er den dannelse, der foregår på de nutidens filosofiske universitetsuddannelser. Bogen kigger dermed også på den særlige filosofiske didaktik på universiteternes filosofiske uddannelser.

Marianne Friese og Birge Krondorfer har til gengæld rettet blikket mod betydningen af den feministiske dannelse. De mener, at der er brug for en særlig dannelse for, at kvinder kan frigøre sig.

Dorete Kallesøe og Lærke Groth skrev rapporten "Filosofiske samtaler i konfirmandundervisningen", der anbefalede filosofi som middel til dannelse for unge i Folkekirken. I Danmark er tilgangen desuden repræsenterer ved Finn Thorbjørn Hansen. Han har skrevet flere bøger om emnet.

Retninger

Eksistentiel pædagogik
Den tidlige eksistentielle pædagogik findes blandt andet hos Søren Kierkegaard og Friedrich Nietzsche. Senere benyttede den tyske filosof Otto Bollnow indsigter fra eksistentiel filosofi til at udarbejde en nyere eksistentiel pædagogik, hvor det er eksistensen, der er i fokus for opdragelse og dannelse. Bollnow lagde blandt andet vægt på den pædagogiske betydning af mødet. Desuden betoner han, hvordan livet kræver valg.

I nyere tid er Gert Biesta vigtig for eksistentiel pædagogik, som han har fornyet. Han kigger i bogen Verdensvendt uddannelse på, at uddannelse bør have en eksistentiel orientering. Pædagog og uddannelse bør således med god fordel være verdensvendt i stedet for rettet mod læreplaner og mål for eleven.

Bo Jacobsen er en vigtigst danske repræsentant for den eksistentielle pædagogik.. Han kigger på mødet med eleven og demokrati i undervisningen. Han foreslår en eksistentiel pædagogik, der er baseret på kortlægning og artikulation af deltagernes livserfaringer. Det drejer sig blandt andet om at møde elever ud fra deres livserfaring og sørge for, at de har medbestemmelse. I Danmark er tilgangen også repræsenteret af mange andre som Brian Degn Mårtensson, Finn Hedegaard Hansen, Boris Lauritsen.

Åndspædagogik
Åndelig pædagogik sætter fokus på pædagogik som åndelig praksis. Som filosofi findes den i Danmark hos Anders Dræby som livskunst. I bogen Livskunsten - filosofien om at vågne op til livet kommer pædagogikken til at kigge på åndelig opvågning gennem de to principper 'omdannelse' og 'livslang aflæring'. Denne åndspædagogik omfatter en forening af vestlig og østlig filosofi, der drejer sig om at virkeliggøre det gode liv baseret på menneskelige værdier. Det åndelige består i den forbindelse i at hæve sig over den rene selvopretholdelse, hvilket vil opleves som at vågne op fra et søvngængerliv.

Fænomenologisk pædagogik
Fænomenologien er læren om menneskets oplevelser af verden. Den filosofiske fænomenologi blev grundlagt af Edmund Husserl. Den fænomenologiske pædagogik omfatter anvendelse af fænomenologi i pædagogikken. Den fænomenologiske pædagogik hos blandt andre Max van Manen orienterer sig derfor mod den måde, eleven oplever verden på.. Den fænomenologiske pædagogik indtager en forudsætningsløs tilgang og ser på, hvordan lærere og pædagoger bør leve med børn med henblik på at hjælpe dem med at udvikle deres menneskelige egenskaber.

I Danmark har Søren Dupont udgivet bogen Pædagogik og fænomenologi mellem demokrati og dannelse. Bogen ser på, hvordan fænomenologien kan anvendes til at belyse pædagogiske problemstillinger. Bogen diskuterer forholdet mellem demokrati og hverdagsliv og argumenterer for udviklingen af en nærheds- og omsorgsetik. Mange andre som Charlotte Svendler Nielsen har også beskæftiget sig med fænomenologi i pædagogik.

Den eksistentielle fænomenologi er en kobling af fænomenologi og eksistentiel filosofi. Tilgangen blev grundlagt af Martin Heidegger. Den eksistentielfænomenologiske pædagogik er dette perspektiv udfoldet som praktisk pædagogik. Michael Ehrmantraut udfolder denne pædagogik i bogen Heidegger's Philosophic Pedagogy. Her ser han på Heideggers tilgang til undervisning i filosofi. Hans tilgang til forelæsninger for studerende og andre var således filosofisk.

I Danmark har Ole Lund og Jens-Ole Jensen redigeret bogen Sans for bevægelse. Bogen undersøger, hvordan bevægelse og pædagogik er tæt sammenvævet. Dermed gives der inspiration til, hvordan lærere og pædagoger kan arbejde med erfaring og mening i forhold til at inddrage bevægelse i det pædagogiske arbejde.Frederik Pio bruger i bogen Om det uhørte den eksistentielle fænomenologi til at koble pædagogik og musikundervisning. Bogen er henvendt til undervisere, der arbejder med kunst og musik.

Hermeneutisk pædagogik
Hermeneutik er læren om fortolkning, fortolkningens filosofi eller fortolkningsvidenskab. Den stammer oprindeligt fra jura og teologi men blev i det 19. og 20. århundrede en del af human- og samfundsvidenskaberne.

Hermeneutisk pædagogik omfatter anvendelsen af hermeneutikken i pædagogikken. I den hermeneutiske pædagogik hos blandt andre Peter Sotiriou lægges der vægt på, at både lærer og elever fremsætter, diskuterer og genovervejer deres fortolkninger. Den hermeneutiske pædagogik er især inspireret af filosoffen Hans-Georg Gadamer og har blandt andet fokus på arbejde med fortolkning i klassen.

I Danmark har Torben Hanggaard Rasmussen i 2006 udgivet bogen Hermeneutik og pædagogik. Bogen giver en generel indføring i hermeneutikken og dens relevans for pædagogiske problemstillinger. Rasmussen inddrager ikke alene Gadamer men også hermeneutikerne Friedrich Schleiermacher og Wilhelm Dilthey.

Steinerpædagogik
Steinerpædagogik blev grundlagt af Rudolf Steinar som en anvendelse af hans pædagogiske filosofi i praksis. Tilgangen kaldes også Waldorf-pædagogik, og den kan til dels forstås som en særlig form for åndelig pædagogik. Den er blevet grundlag for udvikling af et verdensomspændende system med over 1100 skoler og mere end 2000 børnehaver i over firs forskellige lande.

Steinar-pædagogikkens grundlag er antroposofien, som er en esoterisk filosofi, der forener kristen filosofi og indisk filosofi. Ifølge denne filosofi består mennesket både af ånd, sjæl og krop, der må tages hensyn til i pædagogikken, som derfor også indeholder åndelig træning. Målet er at forene det åndelige i mennesket med det åndelige i verdensaltet.  Steiners pædagogik er baseret på en ide om, at menneskets opvækst består af 3 syv års perioder: 0-7, 7-14, og 14-21 år. I hver af disse tre perioder udvikler menneske nogle forskellige dele af sit væsen, henholdsvis krop, følelser og tanker. Pædagogikken tager derfor henholdsvis udgangspunkt i børnenes legemlige, sjælelige og åndelige udvikling.

I Danmark danner Sammenslutningen af Steinerskoler i Danmark rammen om arbejdet for 14 danske Steinerskoler. Herunder foregår uddannelsen i Steinerpædagogik på lærerseminariet Sophia.

Buddhistisk og spirituel pædagogik
Buddhistisk pædagogik er en del af buddhismen, og den har sin oprindelse i Asien men har fået en stor udbredelse i Vesten. Buddhismen kan forstås som en livsfilosofi, og buddhismen indeholder en særlig tilgang til undervisning og dannelse. Målet med denne tilgang er især elevens etiske dannelse og dannelse som et bevidst menneske.

I Danmark findes en mere udpræget spirituel pædagogik hos idehistorikeren Jes Bertelsen, der varetager en sådan spirituel undervisning på Vækstcentret. Pædagogikken er her inspireret af den tibetanske buddhisme og ser på træning af bevidsthed. Bertelsen er således fokuseret på udviklingen af en pædagogik, som retter sig mod menneskets højeste potentialer.

Den kinesiske taoisme har også fået betydning som en filosofisk tilgang til spirituel pædagogik. Taoisme lægger vægt på begrebet ikke-handling, der er afsæt for dannelse og undervisning med fokus på harmoni.

Aristotelisk pædagogik
Aristoteles benyttede sig af en dialektisk metode, hvor der blev anvendt logiske argumenter. I hans pædagogik blev opdragelse og dannelse knyttet til samfundets gode. Han ser både på vanens og fornuftens opdragelse og dannelse. Nogle hævder, at det centrale i den aristoteliske pædagogik er udviklingen af dømmekraft. Der er især fokus på hans pædagogik i etikken.

Nyere forsøg på at genoplive den aristoteliske pædagogik har blandt andet set på, hvordan viden og erkendelse kan gøres levende og blive en del af en livsform. I Danmark har Kaj Struve udgivet bogen Det pædagogiske blik på Aristoteles, der ser på de pædagogiske aspekter hos Aristoteles. Struve er især interesseret i, hvordan Aristoteles kan anvendes i folkeskolen.

Aristoteles anvender også protreptik som en dialogmetode, der er blevet genoplivet inden for ledelse og coaching. Disse praksisser har flere ligheder med pædagogik.

Sokratisk og platonisk pædagogik
Sokrates er en pædagogisk figur i Platons skrifter, og det er både muligt at tale om platonisk og sokratisk pædagogik.

Platons dialoger benytter først og fremmest den dialektiske metode til at nå frem til sandheden. Formålet med den platoniske pædagogik er, at eleven når en indsigt i de evige sandheder. Dette er ideerne, der styrer livet. For Platon havde pædagogikken både en etisk og en politisk funktion. Her skal både mænd og kvinder dannes til at være krigere og filosoffer. I den forbindelse er såvel gymnastik, kampkunst og videnskab vigtige. I sidste ende skal eleven kunne fungere som leder.

Sokrates var desuden kendt for brugen af sin majeutiske spørgemetode. Han stillede spørgsmål for at få folk til at reflektere og selv finde sandheden. Dette bruges i en moderne sammenhæng inden for tre forskellige former for sokratisk pædagogik:

 Den sokratiske dialog er en vigtig del af kognitiv terapi.. Denne metode har haft betydning for kognitiv pædagogik.
 Sokratisk dialog er den vigtigste teknik i logoterapi. Logoterapien er hovedinspiration for logopædagogikken, der ikke skal forveksles med logopædien .
 Endelig findes den sokratiske dialogmetode. Denne tilgang blev lanceret af den tyske filosof Leonard Nelsoni 1922. I Danmark er tilgangen blandt andet repræsenteret af Finn Thorbjørn Hansen. Den er en del af filosofisk undervisning og filosofi med børn, blandt andet i Ann Pihlgrens bog Sokratiske samtaler i undervisningen.

Stoisk pædagogik
Stoicismen var en vigtig filosofisk retning i antikken, der havde fokus på at man skulle kontrollere sine følelser. Den var baseret på terapeutiske, spirituelle og pædagogiske principper. Vigtige stoiske filosoffer var Zenon, Epiktet og Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Stoicismen havde sin storhedstid i Hellenismen og Romerriget.

Den stoiske filosofi er blevet genoplivet de senere år, dels som en tilgang til psykoterapi, men også til pædagogisk opdragelse, dannelse, livskunst og undervisning. Der er i høj grad tale om en pædagogik for voksne, der giver mulighed for selvomsorg og selvdannelse.

Beslægtede tilgange

Økopædagogik og klimapædagogik
Økopædagogik opstod i Sydamerika som en pædagogisk ambition om at tage højde for miljøets betydning. Økopædagogikken er blandt andet baseret på Paulo Freire og sætter fokus på at fremme kritisk økologisk bevidsthed og bæredygtighed. Paulo Freires perspektiv findes i bogen Pedagogy of Indignation. Økopædagogikken findes også i Danmark og har her haft tæt forbindelse til økofilosofien. En dansk repræsentant er Sten Clod Poulsen. Poulsen er psykolog og tidligere pædagogisk forsker, og han har fokus på bæredygtig undervisning. En særlig variant af økopædagogikken er økofeministisk pædagogik.

Klimapædagogikken er en anden og nyere variant, der har fokus på klimaforandringer. Her lægges vægt på, at undervisning er vigtig i forhold til klimaet. Skal de unge kunne bidrage til en bæredygtig verden, må de kunne forholde sig reflekteret og indsigtsfuldt til usikkerhed, dilemmaer og etiske valg. Blandt vigtigt klimafilosoffer er Jedediah Purdy

Filosofisk teater
Det filosofisk teater går tilbage til antikken og blev blandt andet brugt som opførelse af Platons dialoger. På den måde havde teatret en pædagogisk funktion.

Et nyere eksempel er Ludvig Holbergs stykke Erasmus Montanus. Her følges bondedrengen Rasmus Berg, der vender hjem efter et ophold i byen. Nu har han taget navnet Erasmus Montanus og fører sig arrogant og bedrevidende frem ved at belære om filosofisk lærdom.

Det absurde teater forsøgte især at formidle eksistentialismens og absurdismens filosofi. En vigtig repræsentant var Samuel Beckett, der rettede blikket mod menneskers møde med det absurde.

Det feministiske teater handler om køn og ligestilling. Det opstod i 1970'erne og har især et blik for kvinders livsforhold. Baggrunden var en indsigt i, at teatret traditionelt har været domineret af et mandligt blik. Vigtige eksponenter for det feministiske teater har været Michelene Wandor, Martha Boesing, Caryl Churchill og The Women's Theater Group i London.

Filosofisk film

Filmmediet er også blevet anvendt til at dramatisere filosofien. Det drejer sig for eksempel om instruktøren Roberto Rosselini , som i begyndelsen af 1970'erne instruerede fire fiktionsfilm om Sokrates, Augustin, Blaise Pascal og Rene Descartes.

Instruktøren Derek Jarmans fiktionsfilm Wittgenstein fra 1993 følger derimod filosoffen Ludwig Wittgensteins liv. Filmen tager både fat på Wittgensteins tidlige og sene sprogfilosofi.

Pinchas Perry lavede i 2007 filmen When Nietzsche Wept. Den er en filmatisering af Irvin D. Yaloms skønlitterære bog af samme navn. Filmen følger et fiktivt møde mellem filosoffen Friedrich Nietzsche og lægen Joseph Breuer.

Den danske instruktør Lennart Pasborgs dokumentarfilm Du og jeg fra 1994 følger filosofiske samtaler med fire børn. Her ses det, at barndommen er kilden til alle de store filosofiske spørgsmål. Lennart Pasborg har desuden instrueret filmen Martinus – Liv og Verdensbillede fra 2022.

Anne Regitze Wivel instruerede i 1994 dokumentarfilmen Søren Kierkegaard om den danske filosofs liv og tanker. Heri medvirker blandt andre Paul Müller, Johannes Møllehave, Joakim Garff og Niels Barfoed. Claus Bohm instruerede i 1996 dokumentarfilmen Filosof, som rummer forskellige interviews.

Filosofisk salon
Den filosofiske salon er et socialt arrangement, hvor en kreds af mennesker samles for at diskutere filosofiske emner.

Filosofisk symposium
Et symposium var oprindeligt et drikkegilde, og hos Platon bliver det også et forum for udveksling af filosofiske ideer. Man samles for eksempel for at fremstille og diskutere forskellige vinkler på et emne som kærlighed.

Filosofisk terapi og psykiatri
Filosofisk terapi er ifølge American Psychological Association psykoterapi, der anvender filosofiske principper i forhold til følelser, handlinger og tanker. : Den moderne filosofiske terapi findes traditionelt set især som eksistentiel terapi, der er en af de store hovedretninger inden for psykoterapi, og den omfatter flere forskellige tilgange  . Hos Anders Dræby og Emmy van Deurzen bliver en af disse tilgange til en pædagogisk læringspraksis . Den filosofiske terapi findes desuden inden for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy samt kognitiv terapi og kognitiv adfærdsterapi, der blandt andet er baseret på stoicisme . Kognitiv terapi er en anden af de store hovedretninger inden for moderne psykoterapi, og både kognitiv terapi og eksistentiel terapi er evidensbaserede praksisser, der er internationalt anerkendte af The European Association for Psychotherapy, og American Psychological Association (APA) .

Filosofisk terapi er tæt forbundet med anvendelse af filosofi i psykiatrisk forståelse og behandling af psykiske lidelser. Vigtige filosofiske psykiatere er blandt andre Roland Kuhn, og Eugene Minkowski samt Viktor von Gebsattel og Thomas Fuchs.

Filosofisk rådgivning
Filosofisk rådgivning (eller filosofisk praksis eller filosofisk samtale) er en løs filosofisk samtaleform, der er baseret en særlig fortolkning af den sokratiske dialog. Den er grundlagt af Gerd Achenbach i 1980'erne . Tilgangen er ikke rettet mod terapeutisk håndtering af psykiske lidelser men mod intellektuel undren med henblik på afklaring af værdier og verdensbillede. Der lægges således stor vægt på intellektuel dialog og refleksion.

Vaughana Feary har stået bag en særlig feministisk tilgang til den filosofiske rådgivning. Her betones det, at rådgivningen må være feministisk for at være brugbar for kvinder. Der lægges især vægt på dyder.

I Danmark har Jeanette Bresson Ladegaard Knox redigeret bogen Filosofisk praksis i sundhedsarbejde.

Humanistisk pædagogik
Humanistisk pædagogik er en filosofisk og psykologisk tilgang til pædagogik. Den blev grundlagt af den amerikanske psykolog Carl Rogers, der også var ophavsmand til humanistisk psykologi.

Den humanistiske pædagogik ser på barnet som et helt menneske og lægger vægt på, at barnet får mulighed for at vokse som sig selv og realisere sine egne muligheder.

Den humanistiske pædagogik er nært beslægtet med humanistisk psykoterapi.

Livsoplysning og tilværelsesoplysning
Den danske teolog N. F. S. Grundtvig mente, at mennesket både er materie og ånd. Skolen skulle i den forbindelse være præget af åndsfrihed, der indebærer tanke- og religionsfrihed. Målet var livsoplysning.

Teologien K. E. Løgstrup anvendte begrebet tilværelsesoplysning om den undervisning, der kaster lys over menneskers liv

Protreptik
Protreptik er en konventionel filosofisk samtaleform, der kommer fra det græske ord protrépō, som betyder at motivere gennem at overtale eller instruere. Den anvendes inden for ledelse og coaching, og den trækker på en tradition fra Platon og Aristoteles.

På dansk grund har især filosoffen Ole Fogh Kirkeby skrevet om protreptikken i bøger som Proteprik - coaching og ledelse og Protreptik - samtale og selvindsigt. Desuden har flere andre set på protreptikken med bøger som Erfaringer med protreptik, Den protreptiske samtale og Protreptik i praksis.

Pædagogisk filosofi
Pædagogisk filosofi er den del af den akademiske fagfilosofi, som forholder sig til det pædagogiske felt. Pædagogisk filosofi er således intellektuelle refleksioner over og analyser af dannelse, opdragelse, undervisning og læring. Den pædagogiske filosofi kan dermed også betragtes som det teoretiske studie af pædagogikkens grundlag og begreber, mens den filosofiske pædagogik derimod er praktiseringen af filosofi som pædagogik

Litteratur

Central litteratur på dansk
 Aalbæk-Nielsen, Kaj (1975): "I tidens løb: eksistentiel pædagogik og historisk eksistens". København: Ejlers Forlag
 Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi (2018): "Brev til en nybagt forælder. Et feministisk manifest i femten punkter". Gyldendal
 Bengtson, Jan (2005): "Udfordringer i filosofisk pædagogik". Aarhus Universitetsforlag
 Brenifier, Oscar (2010): "Hvad tænker du om livet?". Forlaget Mindspace
 Brenifier, Oscar (2011): "Hvad tænker du om følelser?". Mindspace
 Brenifier, Oscar (2014): " Hvad tænker du om frihed?". Mindspace
 Brenifier, Oscar (2019): "Filosofi med børn i skolen". Forlaget Mindspace
 Dewey, John (2009): "Hvordan vi tænker". Klim
 Deurzen, Emmy van & Martin Adams (2012): "Eksistentiel terapi" - Hans Reitzels Forlag
 Dræby, Anders (2017): "John Deweys pædagogik som filosofisk livskunst". Det Kongelige Bibliotek
 Dræby, Anders (2018): "Livskunsten. Filosofien om at vågne op til livet". Akademisk Forlag
 Dræby, Anders & Emmy van Deurzen (2019). "Læringsudbyttet i kognitiv adfærdsterapi og eksistentiel terapi. Et sammenlignende forskningsstudie" - Tidsskrift for Psykoterapi, nr. 3, pp. 18-24
 Dupont, Søren (2012):" Pædagogik og fænomenologi mellem demokrati og dannelse". Roskilde Universitetsforlag
 Freire, Paulo (1993)"De undertryktes pædagogik". Christian Ejlers
 Gaare, Jørgen & Øystein Sjaastad (2004): "Pippi og Sokrates - et filosofisk drikkegilde i Villa Villakulla". Aarhus: Forlaget
 Groth, Lærke & Kallesøe, Dorte (2020). "Hvor er det snyd, vi ikke skal ha' det i 4. klasse!": filosofi med børn som understøttende undervisning i indskolingen på Frederiksberg. Liv I Skolen, 22. årgang(1), 98-105. [10].
 Hansen, Finn Thorbjørn (2000). "Den sokratiske dialoggruppe". Gyldendal
 Hansen, Finn Thorbjørn (2002). Det filosofiske liv. Et dannelsesideal for eksistenspædagogikken(også phd.-afhandling). Kbh.: Gyldendal.
 Hansen, Finn Thorbjørn (2010). At stå i det åbne. Dannelse gennem filosofisk undren og nærvær. Hans Reitzel.
 Jacobsen, Bo (1998): "Voksenundervisning og livserfaring". Christian Ejlers
 Jacobsen, Bo (2003): "Mød eleven". Hans Reitzels Forlag
 Jacobsen, Bo mfl. (2004): "Den vordende demokrat: en undersøgelse af skoleklassen som demokratisk lærested". Aarhus Universitetsforlag
 Jespersen, Per (1986): "Filosofisk undervisning. Klassens time for 10. klasse". SK-forlag
 Jespersen, Per (1993): "Børn og filosofi". OP
 Kallesøe, Dorte & Lærke Groth (2018). At filosofere over "synd" i 6. kl. Religionslæreren, 114(5), pp. 12-14.
 Kallesøe, Dorte, & Lærke Groth (2019). Filosofi på skemaet i indskolingen. Skolestart, (2), 10-12.
 Larsen, Michael Højlund (2018): "Praktisk filosofi med børn". Akademisk Forlag
 Lund, Ole og Jens-Ole Jensen (red) (2020): "Sans for bevægelse. Livsnerven i pædagogisk arbejde". Gyldendal
 Nabe-Nielsen, Louise (2019):"Filosofi i skolen. Undervisning som rum for undren". Hans Reitzels Forlag
 Nabe-Nielsen, Louise & Lho Høiris (2019): "Kan man være venner med en løve. Samtalebog for små og store filosoffer". Rum for undren
 Nietzsche, Friedrich (2014): "Shopenhauer som opdrager". Information
 Pihlgren, Ann (2011): "Sokratiske samtaler i undervisningen". Forlaget Frydenlund
 Riel, Alex (2016): "Praktisk livsfilosofi". Forlag1dk
 Riel, Alex (2018): "Metamening". Hedwig
 Rasmussen, Torben Hangaard (2006): "Hermeneutik og pædagogik: en aktuel indføring". Brøndby: Semiforlaget.
 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (2014): Emile. Gyldendal
 Steiner, Rudolf (1971):" Pædagogik og erkendelse af mennesket" Antroposofisk forlag
 Sørensen, Anders Dræby (2017): "Filosofisk terapi". Det Kgl Bibliotek
 Vegara, Maria (2019): "Simone de Beauvoir". Albert

Litteratur på norsk

 Bollnow, Otto (1976): Eksistensfilosofi og pedagogikk. Ejlers
 Steiner, Rudolf (1947). Steinerskolen og dens åndelige grundlag. Oslo: Vidarforlaget
 Steinar, Rudolf (1969): "Barnets oppdragelse fra åndsvidenskapens synspunkt." Vidarforlaget, Oslo.

Litteratur på tysk

 Bollnow, Otto (1959): "Existensphilosophie und pedagogik". Kohlhammer
 Bollnow, Otto (1973): "Philosophisches paedagogik". De Gruyter
 Bollnow, Otto (1987): "Zwischen Philosophie und Pädagogik, Vorträge und Aufsätze". Weitz, Aachen
 Nelson, Leonard (1922/29): "Die Sokratische Methode". VOL
 Steiner, Rudolf (1907). Die Erziehung des Kindes vom Gesichtspunkt der Geisteswissenschaft. Rudolf Steiner Online Archiv
 Steiner, Rudolf (1919). Allgemeine Menschenkunde als Grundlage der Pädagogik. Rudolf Steiner Online Archiv
 Steiner, Rudolf (1922). Ein Vortrag über Päsagogik während des "frabzösichen Kursus" am Gotheanum, 16. September 1922
 Steiner, Rudolf (1922). Menschliches Seelenleben und Geistesstreben. Ein Vortrag am 26. Mai 1922
 Steiner, Rudolf (1919/1961). Die pädagogische Grundlage der Waldorfschule. Rudolf Steiner NachlassverwaltunG

Litteratur på engelsk
 Brenifier, Oscar (2016): "Why must I go to School?". Franklin Watts
 Brenifier, Oscar (2016): "Whats the Big Idea?". Franklin Watts
 Ehrmantraut, Michael (2010): "Heidegger's Philosophic Pedagogy". Continuum
 Kahn, Richard (2010)" Critical Pedagogy, Ecoliteracy, and Planetary Crisis: the Ecopedagogy Movement." PL
 Lipman, Matthew (1976): "Philosophy for Children"(with Terrell Ward Bynam). Oxford: Basil Blackwell
 Lipman, Matthew (1993)"Thinking Children and Education". Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt
 Lipman, Matthew (1988). "Philosophy Goes to School". Philadelphia: Temple U. Press
 Nelson, Leonard (2013): "Socratic Method and Critical Philosophy". Lcc
 Sassone, Leslie (2003): "The Process of Becoming: A democratic Nietzschean Philosophical Pedagogy for Individualization". Daph
 Seidel, Jackie (2014): "Ecological Pedagogy, Buddhist Pedagogy, Hermeneutic Pedagogy". Peter Lang
 Steiner, Rudolf (1926/1967). A Lecture on Eurythmy. London: Rudolf Steiner Press
 Steiner, Rudolf (1981): "The Education of the Child". AS
 Sorensen, Anders Draeby & Rosemary Lodge & Emmy Van Deurzen (2018): "Exploring Learning Outcomes in Existential Therapy". Existential Analysis, 29.1

Noter

Pædagogik

Filosofisk pædagogik


معركة الرأس الأحمر هي معركة وقعت بين المجاهدين الليبين وقوات الاحتلال الإيطالي لليبيا في 14 أبريل 1922 في الزاوية

اثر اندلاع حركة المقاومة في المنطقة الغربية لليبيا عقب استئناف الإيطاليين للعمل الحربي ونزولهم بقصر أحمد في يناير 1922. قام المجاهدون بتركيز قواهم في المنطقة الغربية, وضربوا حصارا حول الحامية الإيطالية في العزيزية, كما قاموا بقطع خطوط السكة الحديدية الواصلة بين طرابلس والزاوية, وطرابلس والعزيزية.
وفي نطاق هذه الحملة شن المجاهدون هجوما على الحامية الإيطالية في الرأس الأحمر بالزاوية يوم 14 أبريل 1922. ونشبت معركة بالموقع اضطر فيها الإيطاليون الي الاستنجاد بالسفينة الحربية (روما) لضرب منطقة القتال بالزاوية وتأمين سلامة الحامية وتكوين حصن عائم لإنقاذها عند الخطر.

مصادر

حروب التحرر العربية
رأس الأحمر

معركة الرأس الأحمر


Östaki borusu (Latince: Tuba auditiva) burnun arka kısmında bulunan ve geniz adı verilen bölge ile orta kulak arasında geçiş sağlayan bir kanaldır. Bu kanal orta kulağın hava almasını sağladığı gibi bu bölgedeki salgıların genze akması için de bir yol oluşturur.

Dış ortamdaki basınç değişikliklerinde orta kulağında buna uyum göstermesini sağlar. Kulak zarının ses titreşimlerinden ve dış basınçtan dolayı içeriye çökmemesinin sebebi de östaki borusu aracılığıyla boğazdan gelen havadır. Dış hava basıncının yüksek olduğu durumlarda kulak zarı içeriye kaçmamak için normalden daha çok zorlanır. Bu durumda zarın eski haline gelebilmesi için östaki borusundan gelen havanın basıncıyla, zara dış kulaktan gelen havanın basıncı dengelenir. Böylece kulak zarının zarar görmesi engellenmiş olur. Östaki borusu yaklaşık 3,5–4 cm boyutlarındadır. Çocuklarda düz olan bu kanal erişkinlerde bir dirsek oluşturur. Bu nedenle burundan ve genizden orta kulağa bakteri geçişi çocuklarda daha kolay olur ve çocuklar daha kolay orta kulak iltihabı geçirirler.

Kaynakça

Kulak

Östaki borusu


The phonology of Standard German is the standard pronunciation or accent of the German language. It deals with current phonology and phonetics as well as with historical developments thereof as well as the geographical variants and the influence of German dialects.

While the spelling of German is officially standardised by an international organisation (the Council for German Orthography) the pronunciation has no official standard and relies on a de facto standard documented in reference works such as  (German Pronunciation Dictionary) by Eva-Maria Krech et al.,  (Duden volume 6, The Pronunciation Dictionary) by Max Mangold and the training materials of radio and television stations such as Westdeutscher Rundfunk, Deutschlandfunk, or Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen. This standardised pronunciation was invented, rather than coming from any particular German-speaking city. But the pronunciation that Germans usually consider to be closest to the standard is that of Hanover.  Standard German is sometimes referred to as  (stage German), but the latter has its own definition and is slightly different.

Vowels

Monophthongs

Some scholars treat  as an unstressed allophone of . Likewise, some scholars treat  as an allophone of the sequence  or as a vocalized variant of /r/. The phonemic status of  is also debated – see below.

Notes
 Close vowels
  is close front unrounded .
  is close near-front rounded .
  is close back rounded .
  has been variously described as near-close front unrounded  and near-close near-front unrounded .
  is near-close near-front rounded .
  is near-close near-back rounded .
 Mid vowels
  is close-mid front unrounded .
 In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Bavarian and Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong .
  has been variously described as close-mid near-front rounded  and mid near-front rounded .
 In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong .
  is close-mid back rounded .
 In non-standard accents of the Low German speaking area, as well as in some Austrian accents it may be pronounced as a narrow closing diphthong .
  has been variously described as mid central unrounded . and  close-mid central unrounded . It occurs only in unstressed syllables, for instance in   ('occupy'). It is often considered a complementary allophone together with , which only rarely occurs in unstressed syllables (e.g. ). If a sonorant follows in the syllable coda, the schwa often disappears so that the sonorant becomes syllabic, for instance   ('pillow'),   ('donkey'). However, Standard German spoken in Luxembourg often lacks syllabic sonorants under the influence of Luxembourgish, so that e.g.  ('put') is pronounced , rather than .
  has been variously described as mid near-front unrounded  and open-mid front unrounded .
  has been variously described as mid front unrounded  and open-mid front unrounded .
  has been variously described as open-mid near-front rounded  and somewhat lowered open-mid near-front rounded .
  has been variously described as somewhat fronted open-mid back rounded  and open-mid back rounded .
 Open vowels
  is near-open central unrounded . It is a common allophone of the sequence  common to all German-speaking areas but Switzerland. As schwa  is never pronounced here, it may be more appropriate to interpret  as the vocalised allophone of the consonant /r/.
  has been variously described as open front unrounded  and open central unrounded . Some scholars differentiate two short , namely front  and back . The latter occurs only in unstressed open syllables, exactly as .
 Standard Austrian pronunciation of this vowel is back .
 Front  or even  is a common realization of  in northern German varieties influenced by Low German.
  has been variously described as open central unrounded  and open back unrounded . Because of this, it is sometimes transcribed .
 Back  is the Standard Austrian pronunciation. It is also a common realization of  in northern German varieties influenced by Low German (in which it may even be rounded ).
  notes that "there is a tendency to neutralize the distinction between , , and . That is, , , and  have final syllables which are perceptually very similar, and are nearly or completely identical in some dialects." He also says that "outside of a word context,  cannot be distinguished from . (As early as 1847, Verdi's librettist found it natural, when adapting a play by Schiller into the Italian language, to render the distinctly German name Roller as Rolla.)

Although there is also a length contrast, vowels are often analyzed according to a tenseness contrast, with long  being the tense vowels and short  their lax counterparts. Like the English checked vowels, the German lax vowels require a following consonant, with the notable exception of  (which is absent in many varieties, as discussed below).  is sometimes considered the lax counterpart of tense  in order to maintain this tense/lax division. Short  occur in unstressed syllables of loanwords, for instance in   ('psychometry'). They are usually considered allophones of tense vowels, which cannot occur in unstressed syllables (unless in compounds).

Northern German varieties influenced by Low German could be analyzed as lacking contrasting vowel quantity entirely:
  has a different quality than  (see above).
 These varieties also consistently lack , and use only  in its place.

Phonemic status of
The long open-mid front unrounded vowel  does not exist in many varieties of Standard German and is rendered as the close-mid front unrounded vowel , so that both  ('ear of grain') and  ('honor') are pronounced  (instead of "Ähre" being ) and both  ('bears') and  ('berries') are pronounced  (instead of  being ). However, the disputed vowel   seems much more stable in other contexts, i.e., not preceding /r/ as in the examples above. Other relevant minimal pairs include beten ('pray') – bäten ('bid, conjunctive'), dehnen ('stretch') – Dänen ('Danes'), Segen ('blessing') – Sägen ('saws, n.'). It has been debated whether  is a distinct phoneme or even exists, except when consciously self-censoring speech, for several reasons:
 The existence of a phoneme  is an irregularity in a vowel system that otherwise has pairs of long and tense vs. short and lax vowels such as  vs. . On the other hand, such irregularities are not ruled out by any principle.
 Although some dialects (e.g. Ripuarian and some Alemannic dialects) have an opposition of  vs. , there is little agreement across dialects as to whether individual lexical items should be pronounced with  or with . E.g. South Hessian dialects have /e:/ in Käse but /ɛː/ in Leben.
 The use of  is a spelling pronunciation rather than an original feature of the language. It is an attempt to "speak as printed" () and to differentiate the spellings  and  (i.e. speakers attempt to justify the appearance of  and  in writing by making them distinct in the spoken language).
 Speakers with an otherwise fairly standard idiolect find it rather difficult to utter longer passages with  and  in the right places. Such persons apparently have to picture the spellings of the words in question, which impedes the flow of speech. However, the examples above with a non-rhotic context for the disputed vowel distinction speak against this view.

Diphthongs

Phonemic

 has been variously described as ,  and .
  has been variously described as , ,  and .
  has been variously described as , , , , and .
  is found only in a handful of interjections such as   and  , and as an alternative to disyllabic  in words such as  .

Phonetic
The following usually are not counted among the German diphthongs as German speakers often feel they are distinct marks of "foreign words" (). These appear only in loanwords:
 , as in  , colloquially: .
 Many German speakers use  and  as adaptations of the English diphthongs  and  in English loanwords, according to , or they replace them with the native German long vowels  and . Thus, the word  may be pronounced  or . However,  and  do not recognize these diphthongs as phonemes, and prescribe pronunciations with the long vowels  and  instead.

In the varieties where speakers vocalize  to  in the syllable coda, a diphthong ending in  may be formed with every stressable vowel:

 notes that the length contrast is not very stable before non-prevocalic  and that ", following the pronouncing dictionaries (, ) judge the vowel in , ,  to be long, while the vowel in , ,  is supposed to be short. The factual basis of this presumed distinction seems very questionable." He goes on stating that in his own dialect, there is no length difference in these words, and that judgements on vowel length in front of non-prevocalic  which is itself vocalized are problematic, in particular if  precedes.

According to the "lengthless" analysis, the aforementioned "long" diphthongs are analyzed as , , , , , ,  and . This makes non-prevocalic  and  homophonous as  or . Non-prevocalic  and  may also merge, but the vowel chart in  shows that they have somewhat different starting points – mid-centralized open-mid front  for the former, open-mid front  for the latter.

 also states that "laxing of the vowel is predicted to take place in shortened vowels; it does indeed seem to go hand in hand with the vowel shortening in many cases." This leads to , , , , ,  being pronounced the same as , , , , , . This merger is usual in the Standard Austrian accent, in which e.g.  'bog' is often pronounced ; this, in contrast with the Standard Northern variety, also happens intervocalically, along with the diphthongization of the laxed vowel to , so that e.g.  'teacher' is pronounced  (the corresponding Standard Northern pronunciation is ). Another feature of the Standard Austrian accent is complete absorption of  by the preceding , so that e.g.  'scarce' is pronounced .

Consonants
With around 22 to 26 phonemes, the German consonant system has an average number of consonants in comparison with other languages. One of the more noteworthy ones is the unusual affricate .

 can be uvular, alveolar or even dental, a consonant or a semivowel, see below.
 is bilabial–labiodental , rather than purely labiodental .
 can be apical alveolar , laminal alveolar  or laminal denti-alveolar . The other possible pronunciation of  that has been reported to occur in unstressed intervocalic positions is retroflex . Austrian German often uses the laminal denti-alveolar articulation.
 is always clear , as in most Irish English accents. A few Austrian accents may use a velarized  instead, but that is considered non-standard.
In the Standard Austrian variety,  may be affricated to  before front vowels.
 can be laminal alveolar , laminal post-dental  (i.e. fronted alveolar, articulated with the blade of the tongue just behind upper front teeth), or even apical alveolar . Austrian German often uses the post-dental articulation.  are always strongly fricated.
 are strongly labialized palato-alveolar sibilants .  are fricated more weakly than . There are two variants of these sounds:
Laminal, articulated with the foremost part of the blade of the tongue approaching the foremost part of the hard palate, with the tip of the tongue resting behind either upper or lower front teeth.
Apico-laminal, articulated with the tip of the tongue approaching the gums and the foremost part of the blade approaching the foremost part of the hard palate. According to , this variant is used more frequently.
 has a number of possible realizations:
 Voiced apical coronal trill , either alveolar (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge), or dental (articulated with the tip of the tongue against the back of the upper front teeth).
 Distribution: Common in the south (Bavaria and many parts of Switzerland and Austria), but it is also found in some speakers in central and northern Germany, especially the elderly. It is also one of possible realizations of  in the Standard Austrian accent, but a more common alveolar realization is an approximant . Even more common are uvular realizations, fricatives  and a trill .
 Voiced uvular trill , which can be realized as voiceless  after voiceless consonants (as in ). According to  it is often a flap  intervocalically (as in ).
 Distribution: Occurs in some conservative varieties—most speakers with a uvular  realize it as a fricative or an approximant. It is also one of possible realizations of  in the Standard Austrian accent, but it is less common than a fricative .
 Dorsal continuant, about the quality of which there is not a complete agreement:
  describe two fricative variants, namely post-palatal  and velar . The post-palatal variant appears before and after front vowels, while the velar variant is used in all other positions.
  describe it as voiced post-velar fricative .
  and  describe it as voiced uvular fricative ;
  states that "with educated professional radio and TV announcers, as with professional actors on the stage and in film, the [voiced uvular] fricative [realization of]  clearly predominates."
 In the Standard Austrian accent, the uvular fricative is also the most common realization, although its voicing is variable (that is, it can be either voiced  or voiceless ).
  writes that "the place of articulation of the consonant varies from uvular in e.g.  ('red') to velar in e.g.  ('kick'), depending on back or front vowel contexts." He also notes that  is devoiced after voiceless plosives and fricatives, especially those within the same word, giving the word  as an example. According to this author,  can be reduced to an approximant in an intervocalic position.
  describe it as a uvular fricative  or approximant . The latter is less likely to occur word-initially.
 Distribution: Almost all areas apart from Bavaria and parts of Switzerland.
 Near-open central unrounded vowel  is a post-vocalic allophone of (mostly dorsal) varieties of . The non-syllabic variant of it is not always near-open or central; it is similar to either  or , depending on the environment.
 Distribution: Widespread, but less common in Switzerland.
The voiceless stops , ,  are aspirated except when preceded by a sibilant. Many southern dialects do not aspirate , and some northern ones do so only in a stressed position. The voiceless affricates , , and  are never aspirated, and neither are any other consonants besides the aforementioned .
The obstruents  are voiceless lenis consonants  in southern varieties. Voiceless lenis consonants  continue to contrast with voiceless fortis consonants . The section  covers the issue in more detail.
In Austria, intervocalic  can be lenited to fricatives .
Before and after front vowels ( and, in varieties that realize them as front,  and/or ), the velar consonants  are realized as post-palatal . According to , in a parallel process,  before and after back vowels ( and, in varieties that realize them as back,  and/or ) are retracted to post-velar  or even uvular .
There is no complete agreement about the nature of ; it has been variously described as:
a fricative ,
a fricative which can be fricated less strongly than ,
a sound variable between a weak fricative and an approximant, and
an approximant , which is the usual realization in the Standard Austrian variety.
In many varieties of standard German, the glottal stop, , occurs in careful speech before word stems that begin with a vowel and before stressed vowels word-internally, as in Oase [ʔo.ʔaː.zə] (twice). It is much more frequent in northern varieties than in the south. It is not usually considered a phoneme. In colloquial and dialectal speech,  is often omitted, especially when the word beginning with a vowel is unstressed.
The phonemic status of affricates is controversial. The majority view accepts  and , but not  or the non-native ; some accept none, some accept all but , and some accept all.
Although  occurs in native words, it only appears in historic clusters of  +  (e.g. deutsch < OHG diutisc) or in words with expressive quality (e.g. glitschen, hutschen).  is, however, well-established in loanwords, including German toponyms of non-Germanic origin (e.g. Zschopau).
 and  occur only in words of foreign origin. In certain varieties, they are replaced by  and  altogether.
 is occasionally considered to be an allophone of , especially in southern varieties of German.
 and  are traditionally regarded as allophones after front vowels and back vowels, respectively. For a more detailed analysis see below at ich-Laut and ach-Laut. According to some analyses,  is an allophone of  after  and according to some also after . However, according to , the uvular allophone is used after  only in the Standard Austrian variety.
Some phonologists do not posit a separate phoneme  and use  instead, along with  instead of . The phoneme sequence  is realized as  when  can start a valid onset of the next syllable whose nucleus is a vowel other than unstressed , , or . It becomes  otherwise. For example:

  ~

Ich-Laut and ach-Laut

 is the voiceless palatal fricative  (which is found in the word   'I'), and  is the voiceless velar fricative  (which is found in the word   the interjection 'oh', 'alas').   is the German word for 'sound, phone'. In German, these two sounds are allophones occurring in complementary distribution. The allophone  occurs after back vowels and  (for instance in   'book'), the allophone  after front vowels (for instance in   'me/myself') and consonants (for instance in   'fear',   'sometimes'). The allophone  also appears after vocalized  in superregional variants, e.g. in   'fear'. In southeastern regiolects, the  is commonly used here, yielding .

In loanwords, the pronunciation of potential fricatives in onsets of stressed syllables varies: in the Northern varieties of standard German, it is , while in Southern varieties, it is , and in Western varieties, it is  (for instance in :  vs.  vs. ).

The diminutive suffix  is always pronounced with an  . Usually, this ending triggers umlaut (compare for instance   'dog' to   'little dog'), so theoretically, it could only occur after front vowels. However, in some comparatively recent coinings, there is no longer an umlaut, for instance in the word   (a diminutive of  'woman'), so that a back vowel is followed by a , even though normally it would be followed by a , as in   ('to smoke'). This exception to the allophonic distribution may be an effect of the morphemic boundary or an example of phonemicization, where erstwhile allophones undergo a split into separate phonemes.

The allophonic distribution of  after front vowels and  after other vowels is also found in other languages, such as Scots, e.g. licht  'light', dochter  'daughter', and the same distribution is reconstructed for Middle English. However, it is by no means inevitable: Dutch, Yiddish, and many Southern German dialects retain  (which can be realized as  instead) in all positions. It is thus reasonable to assume that Old High German ih, the ancestor of modern , was pronounced with  rather than . While it is impossible to know for certain whether Old English words such as niht (modern night) were pronounced with  or ,  is likely (see Old English phonology).

Despite the phonetic history, the complementary distribution of  and  in modern Standard German is better described as backing of  after a back vowel, rather than fronting of  after a front vowel, because  is used in onsets (  'chemistry') and after consonants (  'newt'), and is thus the underlying form of the phoneme.

According to Kohler, the German  is further differentiated into two allophones,  and :  occurs after  (for instance in   'book') and  after  (for instance in   'brook'), while either  or  may occur after , with  predominating.

In Western varieties, there is a strong tendency to realize  as unrounded  or , and the phoneme may be confused or merged with  altogether, secondarily leading to hypercorrection effects where  is replaced with , for instance in  , which may be realized as .

Within German dialects, a large variation exists as to the environments which trigger or prevent one realization or the other.

Fortis–lenis pairs
Various German consonants occur in pairs at the same place of articulation and in the same manner of articulation, namely the pairs , , , , . These pairs are often called fortis–lenis pairs, since describing them as voiced–voiceless pairs is inadequate. With certain qualifications, ,  and  are also considered fortis–lenis pairs.

Fortis-lenis distinction for  is unimportant.

The fortis stops  are aspirated in many varieties. The aspiration is strongest in the onset of a stressed syllable (such as   'thaler'), weaker in the onset of an unstressed syllable (such as   'father'), and weakest in the syllable coda (such as in   'seed'). All fortis consonants, i.e.  are fully voiceless.

The lenis consonants  range from being weakly voiced to almost voiceless  after voiceless consonants:   ('kasbah'),   ('to resign'),   ('red-yellow'),   ('dropping'),   ('intention'),   ('wooden jalousie'),   ('to chase away'),   ('to drop'),   ('fruit juice').  states that they are "to a large extent voiced"  in all other environments, but some studies have found the stops  to be voiceless word/utterance-initially in most dialects (while still contrasting with  due to the aspiration of the latter).

 are voiceless in most southern varieties of German. For clarity, they are often transcribed as .

The nature of the phonetic difference between the voiceless lenis consonants and the similarly voiceless fortis consonants is controversial. It is generally described as a difference in articulatory force, and occasionally as a difference in articulatory length; for the most part, it is assumed that one of these characteristics implies the other.

In various central and southern varieties, the opposition between fortis and lenis is neutralized in the syllable onset; sometimes just in the onset of stressed syllables, sometimes in all cases.

The pair  is not considered a fortis–lenis pair, but a simple voiceless–voiced pair, as  remains voiced in all varieties, including the Southern varieties that devoice the lenes (with however some exceptions). Generally, the southern  is realized as the voiced approximant . However, there are southern varieties which differentiate between a fortis  (such as in   'culpable' from Middle High German stræflich) and a lenis  (, such as in   'polite' from Middle High German hovelîch); this is analogous to the opposition of fortis  () and lenis .

Coda devoicing
In varieties from Northern Germany, lenis stops in the syllable coda are realized as fortis stops. This does not happen in varieties from Southern Germany, Austria or Switzerland.

Since the lenis stops  are unvoiced or at most variably voiced (as stated above), this cannot be called devoicing in the strict sense of the word because it does not involve the loss of phonetic voice. More accurately, it can be called coda fortition or a neutralization of fortis and lenis sounds in the coda. Fricatives are truly and contrastively voiced in Northern Germany. Therefore, the fricatives undergo coda devoicing in the strict sense of the word. It is disputed whether coda devoicing is due to a constraint which specifically operates on syllable codas or whether it arises from constraints which "protect voicing in privileged positions".

Coda voicing
As against standard pronunciation rules, in western varieties including those of the Rhineland, coda fortis–lenis neutralization results in voicing rather than devoicing if the following word begins with a vowel. For example,  becomes  and  becomes . The same sandhi phenomenon exists also as a general rule in the Luxembourgish language.

Stress
In German words there is always one syllable carrying main stress, with all other syllables either being unstressed or carrying a secondary stress. The position of the main stress syllable has been a matter of debate. Traditionally, word stress is seen as falling onto the first stem syllable. In recent analyses, there is agreement that main stress is placed onto one of the last three (stressable) syllables. Within this three-syllable window, word stress is put regularly onto the second-to-last syllable, the penultimate syllable. However, syllable quantity may modify this pattern: a heavy final or prefinal syllable, i.e., one with a long vowel or with one or more consonants in the syllable coda, will usually attract main stress.

Examples
 final stress: Eleˈfant, Krokoˈdil, Kaˈmel
 penultimate stress: ˈTurban, ˈKonsul, ˈBison
 antepenultimate stress: ˈPinguin,  ˈRisiko, ˈMonitor

A set of illustrative examples also stems from Japanese loan words, as these cannot be borrowed with their stress patterns (Japanese has a system of pitch accents, completely different from word stress in Germanic languages):

final stress: Shoˈgun, Samuˈrai
 penultimate stress: Mitsuˈbishi, Ikeˈbana
 antepenultimate stress: Hiˈroshima,  ˈOsaka

A list of Japanese words in German reveals that none of the words with four syllables has initial stress, confirming the three-syllable-window analysis.

Secondary stresses precede the main stress if at least two syllables are present, as in ̩Bib-li- ̩o-the-'ka-rin.

Suffixes, if containing a stressable vowel, are either stressed (-ei, ion, -al, etc.) or unstressed (-ung, -heit, -isch, etc.)

In addition, German uses different stresses for separable prefixes and inseparable prefixes in verbs and words derived from such verbs:
 Words beginning with , , , , , ,  and a few other inseparable prefixes are stressed on the root.
 Words beginning with the separable prefixes , , , , and most prepositional adverbs are stressed on the prefix.
 Some prefixes, notably , , , and , can function as separable or inseparable prefixes and are stressed or not accordingly.
 A few homographs with such prefixes exist. They are not perfect homophones. Consider the word . As  (separable prefix), it means 'to rewrite' and is pronounced , with stress on the first syllable. Its associated noun,  is also stressed on the first syllable – . On the other hand,  (inseparable prefix) is pronounced , with stress on the second syllable. This word means 'to paraphrase', and its associated noun,  is also stressed on the second syllable – . Another example is the word ; with stress on the root () it means 'to drive around (an obstacle in the street)', and with stress on the prefix () it means 'to run down/over' or 'to knock down'.

Acquisition

General
Like all infants, German infants go through a babbling stage in the early phases of phonological acquisition, during which they produce the sounds they will later use in their first words. Phoneme inventories begin with stops, nasals, and vowels; (contrasting) short vowels and liquids appear next, followed by fricatives and affricates, and finally all other consonants and consonant clusters. Children begin to produce protowords near the end of their first year. These words do not approximate adult forms, yet have a specific and consistent meaning. Early word productions are phonetically simple and usually follow the syllable structure CV or CVC, although this generalization has been challenged. The first vowels produced are , , and , followed by , , and , with rounded vowels emerging last. German children often use phonological processes to simplify their early word production. For example, they may delete an unstressed syllable ( 'chocolate' pronounced ), or replace a fricative with a corresponding stop (  'roof' pronounced ). One case study found that a 17-month-old child acquiring German replaced the voiceless velar fricative  with the nearest available continuant , or deleted it altogether (  'book' pronounced  or ).

Prosodically, children prefer bisyllabic words with the pattern strong – weak over monosyllabic words.

Vowel space development
In 2009, Lintfert examined the development of vowel space of German speakers in their first three years of life. During the babbling stage, vowel distribution has no clear pattern. However, stressed and unstressed vowels already show different distributions in the vowel space. Once word production begins, stressed vowels expand in the vowel space, while the F1 – F2 vowel space of unstressed vowels becomes more centralized. The majority of infants are then capable of stable production of F1. The variability of formant frequencies among individuals decreases with age. After 24 months, infants expand their vowel space individually at different rates. However, if the parents' utterances possess a well-defined vowel space, their children produce clearly distinguished vowel classes earlier. By about three years old, children command the production of all vowels, and they attempt to produce the four cardinal vowels, , ,  and , at the extreme limits of the F1–F2 vowel space (i.e., the height and backness of the vowels are made extreme by the infants).

Nasals
The acquisition of nasals in German differs from that of Dutch, a phonologically closely related language. German children produce proportionately more nasals in onset position (sounds before a vowel in a syllable) than Dutch children do. German children, once they reached 16 months, also produced significantly more nasals in syllables containing schwas, when compared with Dutch-speaking children. This may reflect differences in the languages the children are being exposed to, although the researchers claim that the development of nasals likely cannot be seen apart from the more general phonological system the child is developing.

Phonotactic constraints and reading
A 2006 study examined the acquisition of German in phonologically delayed children (specifically, issues with fronting of velars and stopping of fricatives) and whether they applied phonotactic constraints to word-initial consonant clusters containing these modified consonants. In many cases, the subjects (mean age = 5.1) avoided making phonotactic violations, opting instead for other consonants or clusters in their speech. This suggests that phonotactic constraints do apply to the speech of German children with phonological delay, at least in the case of word-initial consonant clusters. Additional research has also shown that spelling consistencies seen in German raise children's phonemic awareness as they acquire reading skills.

Sound changes

Sound changes and mergers
A merger found mostly in Northern accents of German is that of  (spelled ) with  (spelled , , or ). Some speakers merge the two everywhere, some distinguish them everywhere, others keep  distinct only in conditional forms of strong verbs (for example   'I would give' vs.   'I give' are distinguished, but   'bears' vs.   'berries' are not. The standard pronunciation of  is ).

Another common merger is that of  at the end of a syllable with  or , for instance   ('war'), but   ('wars');   ('he lay'), but   ('we lay'). This pronunciation is frequent all over central and northern Germany. It is characteristic of regional languages and dialects, particularly Low German in the North, where  represents a fricative, becoming voiceless in the syllable coda, as is common in German (final-obstruent devoicing). However common it is, this pronunciation is considered sub-standard. Only in one case, in the grammatical ending  (which corresponds to English -y), the fricative pronunciation of final  is prescribed by the Siebs standard, for instance   ('important'),   'importance'. The merger occurs neither in Austro-Bavarian and Alemannic German nor in the corresponding varieties of Standard German, and therefore in these regions  is pronounced .

Many speakers do not distinguish the affricate  from the simple fricative  in the beginning of a word, in which case the verb  ('[he] travels') and the noun  ('horse') are both pronounced . This most commonly occurs in northern and western Germany, where the local dialects did not originally have the sound . Some speakers also have peculiar pronunciation for  in the middle or end of a word, replacing the  in  with a voiceless bilabial fricative, i.e. a consonant produced by pressing air flow through the tensed lips. Thereby  ('drop') becomes , rather than .

Many speakers who have a vocalization of  after  merge this combination with long  (i.e.  >  or  >  or ). Hereby,  ('sheep') and  ('sharp') can both be pronounced  or . This merger does not occur where  is a front vowel while  is realised as a back vowel. Here the words are kept distinct as  ('sheep') and  ('sharp').

In umlaut forms, the difference usually reoccurs:   or  vs.  . Speakers with this merger also often use  (instead of formally normal ) where it stems from original . The word  ('arks') is thus pronounced , which makes a minimal pair with  , arguably making the difference between  and  phonemic, rather than just allophonic, for these speakers.

In the standard pronunciation, the vowel qualities , , , , as well as , , , , are all still distinguished even in unstressed syllables. In this latter case, however, many simplify the system in various degrees. For some speakers, this may go so far as to merge all four into one, hence misspellings by schoolchildren such as  (instead of ) or  (instead of Portugal).

In everyday speech, more mergers occur, some of which are universal and some of which are typical for certain regions or dialect backgrounds. Overall, there is a strong tendency of reduction and contraction. For example, long vowels may be shortened, consonant clusters may be simplified, word-final  may be dropped in some cases, and the suffix  may be contracted with preceding consonants, e.g.  for   ('to have').

If the clusters , , , or  are followed by another consonant, the stops ,  and  usually lose their phonemic status. Thus while the standard pronunciation distinguishes   ('whole') from   ('goose'), as well as   from  , the two pairs are homophones for most speakers. The commonest practice is to drop the stop (thus ,  for both words), but some speakers insert the stop where it is not etymological (,  for both words), or they alternate between the two ways. Only a few speakers retain a phonemic distinction.

Middle High German
The Middle High German vowels  and  developed into the modern Standard German diphthong , whereas  and  developed into . For example, Middle High German   and   ('hot' and 'white') became Standard German   and  . In some dialects, the Middle High German vowels have not changed, e.g. Swiss German   and  , while in other dialects or languages, the vowels have changed but the distinction is kept, e.g. Bavarian   and  , Ripuarian   and   (however the Colognian dialect has kept the original [ei] diphthong in ), Yiddish    and   .

The Middle High German diphthongs ,  and  became the modern Standard German long vowels ,  and  after the Middle High German long vowels changed to diphthongs. Most Upper German dialects retain the diphthongs. A remnant of their former diphthong character is shown when  continues to be written  in German (as in  'love').

Loanwords

German incorporates a significant number of loanwords from other languages. Loanwords are often adapted to German phonology but to varying degrees, depending on the speaker and the commonness of the word.  and  do not occur in native German words but are common in a number of French and English loan words. Many speakers replace them with  and  respectively (especially in Southern Germany, Austria and Switzerland), so that  (from English jungle) can be pronounced  or . Some speakers in Northern and Western Germany merge  with , so that  (phonemically ) can be pronounced ,  or . The realization of  as , however, is uncommon.

Loanwords from English
Many English words are used in German, especially in technology and pop culture. Some speakers pronounce them similarly to their native pronunciation, but many speakers change non-native phonemes to similar German phonemes (even if they pronounce them in a rather English manner in an English-language setting):
 English  are usually pronounced as in RP or General American; some speakers replace them with  and  respectively (th-alveolarization) e.g.  .
 English  can be pronounced the same as in English, i.e. , or as the corresponding native German  e.g.   or . German and Austrian speakers tend to be variably rhotic when using English loanwords.
 English  is often replaced with German  e.g.  .
 word-initial  is often retained (especially in the South, where word-initial  is common), but many speakers replace it with  e.g.  .
 word-initial  and  are usually retained, but some speakers (especially in South Western Germany and Western Austria) replace them with  and  e.g.   or ,   or .
 English  is usually retained, but in Northern and Western Germany as well as Luxembourg, it is often replaced with  e.g.  .
 In Northern Standard German, final-obstruent devoicing is applied to English loan words just as to other words e.g.  ,   or ,  . However, in Southern Standard German, in Swiss Standard German and Austrian Standard German, final-obstruent devoicing does not occur and so speakers are more likely to retain the original pronunciation of word-final lenes (although realizing them as fortes may occur because of confusing English spelling with pronunciation).
 English  and  are often replaced with  and  respectively e.g.  .
 English  and  are pronounced the same, as German  (met–mat merger) e.g.  .
 English  and  are pronounced the same, as German  (cot–caught merger) e.g.  .
 English  is usually pronounced as German  e.g.  .
 English  is usually pronounced as German  e.g.   or .
 English  is pronounced as  (happy-tensing) e.g.  .

Loanwords from French
French loanwords, once very numerous, have in part been replaced by native German coinages or more recently English loanwords. Besides , they can also contain the characteristic nasal vowels , ,  and  (always long). However, their status as phonemes is questionable and they are often resolved into sequences either of (short) oral vowel and  (in the north), or of (long or short) oral vowel and  or sometimes  (in the south). For example,   ('balloon') may be realized as  or ,   ('perfume') as  or  and   ('orange') as  or .

Sample
The sample text is a reading of "The North Wind and the Sun". The phonemic transcription treats every instance of  and  as  and , respectively. The phonetic transcription is a fairly narrow transcription of the educated northern accent. The speaker transcribed in the narrow transcription is 62 years old, and he is reading in a colloquial style. Aspiration, glottal stops and devoicing of the lenes after fortes are not transcribed.

The audio file contains the whole fable and was recorded by a much younger speaker.

Phonemic transcription

Phonetic transcription

Orthographic version

See also
German orthography

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 Listen to the pronunciation of German first names

Standard German phonology


سومو هي بلدة في مقاطعة بافيا الإيطالية في إقليم لومبارديا، وتقع على بعد حوالي 40 كم جنوب ميلانو ونحو 8 كم جنوب غرب بافيا، وعلى الحدود الشرقية لLomellina التقليدية في المنطقة.

تحيط بسومو البلديات التالية: باستيدا بانكارانا، كافا منارا، زيناسكو.

التطور الديموغرافي

مراجع

بلديات مقاطعة بافيا
مدن وبلدات في لومبارديا

سومو (بافيا)


The Heinkel He 274 was a German  heavy bomber design developed during World War II, purpose-designed for high-altitude bombing with pressurized crew accommodation. Due to the Allied advance through Northwest Europe, the prototypes were abandoned at the French factory where they were being built. They were completed after the war by the French and used for high-altitude research.

Background

On 17 November 1938, the owner of the Heinkel aviation firm, Ernst Heinkel, requested permission from the RLM that two of the requested eight prototype airframes for the nascent He 177 heavy bomber project, specifically the V3 and V4 airframes, be set aside for a trial installation of four separate Junkers Jumo 211 powerplants.  Heinkel had foreseen that an individually engined version of his bomber would someday be preferred, quite unlike the requested fitment of the coupled pairs of Daimler-Benz DB 601 inverted V12 engines, each known as a DB 606 — weighing some 1.5 tonnes apiece — which ended up being fitted to all of the eight He 177 V-series prototypes at the request of the RLM, and the Luftwaffe High Command, with the concerned government agencies citing the desire for a dive-bombing capability to be present even with a heavy-bomber-sized offensive warplane, something Ernst Heinkel vehemently disagreed with.

By April 1939, interest in developing a high-altitude version of the He 177 had arisen, and on 27 April 1939, the first proposal for such an aircraft was presented to Heinkel by his firm's engineering staff. The aircraft was intended to have a reduced crew of three, with a fully pressurized nose compartment for the pilot and bombardier/forward gunner, and separate pressurized tail gun emplacement. The result, in December 1940, was the specification for the He 177A-2 high altitude bomber design, with a four-person crew (pilot, bombardier, forward gunner and tail gunner) in the two specified pressurized compartments, and powered by the regular A-series pair of DB 606 coupled engines. The defensive armament had been reduced to a trio of Ferngesteuert-Lafette FL 81Z remote gun turrets, each with a twin-barrel MG 81 armament installation each in an upper nose mount, forward dorsal and (as part of the Bola casemate-style gondola under the nose) forward ventral location each, and a single MG 131 machine gun in an He 177A-1-style, pressurized manned flexible tailgun emplacement.  The A-2 version had even been considered for a pioneering in-flight refueling capability, possibly using Ju 290 maritime patrol aircraft as the tankers. With in-flight refueling, the range of the A-2 would have been extendable to some 9,500 km (5,900 mi) of total flight distance.

The Heinkel firm had been working on practical cockpit pressurization methods and hardware for both the A-2, and slightly later A-4 versions (identical to the A-2, except for the fitting of a pair of the later DB 610 coupled engines) from 1940 through the late summer of 1941, when the DB 610-powered A-4's pressurized cockpit in provisional form, almost identical in external appearance to the standard "Cabin 3" He 177A-series production cockpit, was ready for tests and development.

By October 1941, a more developed "He 177H" specification for a high-altitude Heinkel-designed heavy bomber had emerged from the proposed A-2 and A-4 coupled-engine designs, with the intent of carrying a 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) bombload over a maximum range of some 3,000 km (1,895 mi), and accepted by the RLM for the first time since the rejection of Dr. Heinkel's initial November 1938 request for two of the early He 177 V-series prototype airframes to get them, an individual four-engine installation was being considered for any He 177-based bomber airframe, with a quartet of either BMW 801 or DB 603 unitized-installation engines — the DB 603 powerplants being unitized in a Heinkel factory-specific design also used for the He 219 — among the choices of powerplants being specified, with the same sort of reduced-armament defensive weapon format as the A-2 and A-4 were intended to have.

In conjunction with his request for help from Generalmajor Eccard Freiherr von Gablenz in May 1942, concerning the suitability of aircraft for the Amerikabomber contract competition as that proposal first appeared, Generalfeldmarschall Erhard Milch also received von Gablenz's opinion on the He 177 and its He 274 development, with von Gablenz stating that neither of these Heinkel "heavy bomber" designs had anywhere near the range to conduct a mission approaching the demands of the new contract.

A pair of the early He 177A-0 pre-production prototypes were renamed the He 177 V10 and V11 for the purposes of high-altitude trials and were to be the first to test the A-4 pattern pressurized cockpit design at altitude. Only the V11 was used for the needed research and managed to achieve an altitude of 9,200 m (30,200 ft) on 9 August 1943. Further tests continued through October of that year, before the V10 and V11 were grounded in April 1944.

In February 1943, the same month by which the RLM's first mention of any official status had occurred for design work on an entirely separate, Heinkel He 277-named heavy bomber design to be paid to Heinkel's engineering shops by them, and becoming the Heinkel firm's Amerikabomber contract contender, any further work on the coupled-engined He 177A-2 and A-4 designs was halted by order of the RLM. The four-engined He 177H high-altitude design proposal had gained in importance from that time, evidenced by Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring's derisive "welded-together engines" complaints in August 1942, regarding the He 177 A-series unending engine problems from the choice of the 1.5 tonne-weight apiece DB 606 and 610 "power systems" for the A-series operational aircraft. This resulted in a trio of parallel programs under development by the Heinkel engineering shops for four-engined heavy bomber designs, from February 1943 to 20 April 1944.

Development
The first proposal for what would become the He 274 started with six airframe orders for what had been known as the He 177H, which were requested from Heinkel as early as mid-October 1941, all to have four engines in stretched production He 177A-3 fuselages. The main production version had been lengthened by 160 cm aft of the wing's trailing edge for better stability and also used for the A-5 subtype — mated to longer span, four-engined wings.  These proposed aircraft were shortly thereafter officially given the airframe project number 8-274 by the RLM; due to the busy Heinkel factory design offices and aircraft manufacturing facilities, this new "He 274" high-altitude bomber was to have its prototypes built in France by the Societe des Usines Farman (Farman Brothers) in Suresnes. Two He 274 prototypes were ordered built in France by the Farman Brothers and four pre-production prototypes by the Heinkel's Heinkel-Nord headquarters at its Rostock-Marienehe (today's Rostock-Schmarl) facility. Farman at Suresnes, began their prototype development.

Work on the requested half-dozen He 274 prototype airframes was leveraged off Heinkel aircraft production at AIA Breguet, Toulouse where French factories produced Heinkel components and Junkers aviation engines. French production facilities at Toulouse for Heinkel aircraft were severely damaged by Royal Air Force (RAF) air raids on the night of 5/6 March 1944 and again by the US Eighth Air Force on 25 June 1944. This frustrated completion of the French prototypes, as the design work in Germany and Austria had begun by February 1943, on what had emerged as the Heinkel entry in the trans-Atlantic Amerikabomber strategic heavy bomber design competition, the Heinkel He 277. While the RLM-designated 8-277 airframe's design work had been progressing at the Heinkel-Sud facility in Vienna from before that time, the general arrangement "Typenblatt" drawings for the never-completed He 277, with a design influence for the fuselage's geometry from the smaller Heinkel He 219 night fighter, show that it had also adopted many features from the He 274, especially its twin tail. The Heinkel entry for the Amerika Bomber competition would itself end up being cancelled on 20 April 1944, with not one completed airframe to show for it.

Characteristics
Major differences between the He 274 and the He 177 A were abandonment of the twin coupled "power system" engine arrangement in favor of four independent DB 603A-2 fully unitized engines, cooled by annular radiators nearly identical in appearance to those on the similarly-powered Heinkel He 219 night fighter as an integral part of each "unitized" engine's installation, an extended rear fuselage with a twin tail fin empennage, a pressurized double glazed cockpit of nearly identical external appearance to the 177A's standard "Cabin 3" nose, a longer wingspan, and a more conventional, single oleo strut-per-side set of twinned-wheel main undercarriage, abandoning the cumbersome four-strut main gear system of the He 177A, needed for the earlier design's pair of larger-diameter, four-blade propellers.

The He 274's advanced, high-altitude cockpit, despite its aforementioned He 177A-like resemblance from an external view, comprised a pressurized compartment for a crew of four, this employing double walls of heavy-gauge alloy, hollow sandwich-type glazing and inflatable rubber seals, a pressure equivalent to that at 2,500 m (8,200 ft) being maintained at high altitude. Largely unnecessary defensive armament was restricted to a single forward-firing 13 mm (.51 in) caliber MG 131 machine gun and remotely controlled dorsal and ventral Fernbedienbare Drehlafette FDL 131Z gun turrets each containing a pair of MG 131s and with the dorsal turret operated from a slightly offset Plexiglas domed rotating sighting station in the roof of the flight deck as most A-series He 177s were, with the ventral unit aimed from the rear of the ventral Bola gondola. The powerplants selected were the same type of  Daimler-Benz DB 603A Kraftei "power-egg" unitized engine installations, complete with their He 219-style annular radiators that were placed on the wings of the quartet of ordered He 177B prototypes, but for the He 274's use, added DVL-designed TK 11 turbochargers, one per engine, for better power output at high altitude.

Abandoned prototypes
Construction of the two prototypes, the He 274 V1 and V2 did not commence until 1943. They were to have been built in France by SAUF at Suresnes, France, but the prototypes were not completed in time. The He 274 V1 was being readied for flight testing at Suresnes in July 1944 when the approach of Allied forces necessitated the evacuation of Heinkel personnel working on the project. Minor difficulties had delayed the flight testing and transfer of the aircraft to Germany, and orders were therefore given to destroy the virtually completed prototype. Only minor damage was actually done to the airframe of the He 274 V1, and repairs were begun after the Allied occupation.

The He 274 V1 was repaired by Ateliers Aéronautiques de Suresnes (AAS) and used by the Armée de l'Air (French Air Force) for several years as a high-altitude research plane. It was renamed the AAS 01A. The He 274 V2 was eventually completed as the AAS 01B, completed with the alternate choice of Heinkel-Hirth 2291 turbochargers, in place of the TK 11 units used by the He 274 V1's engines.

Eventually the V2 flew exactly two years (on 27 December 1947) after the AAS 01A. By this time, the AAS organization had been absorbed into the French SNCASO (Société nationale des constructions aéronautiques du sud-ouest, or commonly, Sud-Ouest) aviation conglomerate. Both of the AAS 01 completed and airworthy versions of the He 274 were eventually broken up in late 1953, after serving as "mother ships" for aerial launching, in the manner of a composite or parasite aircraft, of a number of early French advanced jet and rocket test aircraft like the unpowered Sud-Ouest SO.4000 M.1, almost always launched from a strut-braced, above-fuselage position.  The Leduc 0.10 and Leduc 0.16 also each had their first aerial tests from atop the pair of surviving He 274 prototypes. The slightly less powerful, French designed four-engined SNCASE SE.161 Languedoc airliner design took over this "mother ship" role later in the 1950s, for further air launch duties with French high-speed aerodynamic research prototypes.

Operators

 French Air Force

Specifications (He 274 V1)

See also

References

Sources

 Jane's fighting aircraft of World War II. Studio Books, 1989.
 Green, William. Warplanes of the Third Reich. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1970 (4th Impression 1979). .
 Griehl, Manfred and Dressel, Joachim. Heinkel He 177-277-274, Airlife Publishing, Shrewsbury, England 1998. .
 Gunston, Bill & Wood, Tony. Hitler's Luftwaffe. London: Salamander Books Ltd., 1977. .

1940s German bomber aircraft
World War II heavy bombers of Germany
He 274
Four-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1945
Four-engined piston aircraft
Twin-tail aircraft

Heinkel He 274


Adapa, Adaba Mezopotamya mitolojisinde yaratılmış ilk insandır. Adapa Sümer kralları listesi'nde ulusun ilk lideri olarak geçer. Farklı biçimlerinde Oanes ve Alulim olarak da anıldığı olmuştur. Akadca'da ismi adamu, erkek insan anlamına gelir. Öykü tevrat anlatılarında yer alan yasak meyveden yiyen Âdem ile Havva'nın cennetten atılması öyküsü ile ilişkilendirilmektedir.

Adapa antik Eidug şehrinin kralıydı. Enki tarafından yaratıldığına inanılırdı, bir bakıma Enki'nin oğlu olarak düşünülmüştür. Yarı faniydi ama ölümsüzlerin kuvvetine sahipti. Evrenin tüm bilgisinin üçte birine sahip olduğu, bu bilginin ona Enki tarafından öğretildiğine inanılırdı. İnsanlığa dili öğretenin Adapa olduğuna inanılır.

Kral olarak görevlerinin yanı sıra bir rahip ve üfürükçüydü. Öldükten sonra yarı tanrılar sınıfı olarak değerlendirilen yedi büyük bilge (apkallu)'dan biri olmuştur.

Adapa mitinin öyküsü
Mite göre Adapa tanrısal soydan gelen bir fanidir. Balıkçı teknesini devirdiği gerekçesiyle Güney Rüzgârının kanatlarını kırınca cennetin ve tanrıların tanrısı olan Anu'nun önünde hesaba çekilmesi gerekir. Adapanın koruyucu tanrısı olan Ea/Enki, cennetteyken yiyip içmemesi gerektiği konusunda onu uyarır. Bu aslında bir aldatmadır, böylece Adapa'nın ölümsüz olma şansını elinden almıştır.

Bu mite göre ise insanların ölümlü oluşu Adapa'nın aptallığından kaynaklıdır. Enki (Ea), oğluna bilgelik vermiş, ama ölümsüz yaşamı vermemiştir. Bir gün Adapa'nın önüne ölümsüzlüğü elde etme şansı çıkar, ancak Adapa reddeder. Tanrı Anum'un huzuruna çağrılır. Ea, önceden ona orada ölüm için yiyecek ve içecek verileceğini, onlardan tatmamasını haber verir. Hüküm verileceği gün, öteki tanrılar onu tutarlar ve yumuşayan Anum, ölümsüzlük yiyecek ve içeceğini getirtir. Adapa bunları da almak istemez. Anum, şaşırıp nedenini sorar. Adapa şöyle yanıtlar: "Bir başkası yemeyeceksin, içmeyeceksin, dedi". Anum, buna bakıp Adapa'nın yeryüzüne atılmasını emreder.

 Günümüz inançlarına etkiler
Yahudilerin Babil sürgünü sırasında Yahudi bilginleri tarafından diğer mitolojik unsurlarla birlikte kültürel hafızaya alınan Adapa öyküsü ilk insan ve insanlığın atası olarak Tevrat'ın yazımı sırasında Tevrat anlatımlarına (genesis) konu edilmiş, kültürel miras olarak Ortadoğu din ve inanışlarına aktarılmıştır.

Adapa ve diğer sümer mitolojilerine ait çok sayıda imgenin Adem ve tufan hikâyeleri gibi Tevrat anlatılarına aktarıldığı düşünülmektedir. Bunlardan bazıları Adem (Adam) ismi, sonsuz yaşam sürülen cennette yaşamaktayken yasak meyvelerden yeme ile bağlantılı bir şekilde tanrı tarafından hesaba çekilme ve cennetten atılma, her şeyin isminin (bilgisinin) kendisine öğretilmiş olması, kendisinin ilk insan olmakla birlikte ilk rahip (ibrahimi dinlerde ilk peygamber) oluşu, cennetten medeniyete ait sanat veya bilgileri getirmesi, Ea ile Eva (Havva) isim ve rollerine ait benzeşmelerdir.

 Ayrıca bakınız
 Sümer Mitolojisi
 Sümerler
 Babil sürgünü
 Adem
 Havva

 Kaynakça
1:''' Üfürükçü'', yani kötü ruhları kovan kimse.

Sümer mitolojisi
Kurgusal Iraklılar
Sümer destan kahramanları

Adapa


أوسكار سبييا ريبيرا  ولد في 29 شتنبر ب البسيط هو دراج إسباني.

التصنيف

سباقات أو مراحل فاز بها

روابط خارجية

مراجع

أشخاص على قيد الحياة
أشخاص من مقاطعة البسيط
دراجو سباق طواف فرنسا
دراجون إسبان
دراجون في طواف إسبانيا
دراجون في طواف إيطاليا
دراجون من قشتالة-لا مانتشا
دراجون ودراجات كولمبيون
رياضيون إسبان في قضايا منشطات
فائزون في مراحل طواف كولومبيا
قضايا منشطات في ركوب الدراجات
مواليد 1976
مواليد 1986
مواليد في البسيط

أوسكار سبييا ريبيرا


Miguel Ángel García Aráuz (8 de octubre de 1911 - 28 de diciembre de 2003) fue un prelado guatemalteco de la Iglesia católica. Fue el Primer Obispo de Jalapa quien tomó posesión canónica de la Diócesis de Jalapa el 30 de abril de 1951 a la edad de 39 años. También fue Obispo Auxiliar de la Arquidiócesis de Guatemala.

Biografía
Miguel Ángel García nació en la Ciudad de Guatemala el 8 de octubre de 1911. Realizó sus estudios de primaria en la Casa Central, además en la Escuela República Oriental del Uruguay, prosiguió su preparación hasta obtener el título de Bachiller en Ciencias y Letras, y posteriormente ingresó al Seminario Conciliar de Guatemala. Fue ordenado sacerdote el 6 de enero de 1939 por el Nuncio Apostólico en Guatemala Giuseppe Beltrami, párroco de diferentes parroquias.

Episcopado
El 3 de septiembre de 1944, a los 32 años, fue ordenado Obispo Titular de Sophene y Auxiliar de la Arquidiócesis de Guatemala, por el Nuncio Apostólico en Guatemala Giuseppe Beltrami, sus co-consagradores fueron Mariano Rossell y Arellano, Arzobispo Metropolitano de Santiago de Guatemala, y Jorge García Caballeros, Obispo de Quetzaltenango-Los Altos.

El 11 de abril de 1951, el Santo Padre Pío XII lo nombra como Primer Obispo de Jalapa. Fue Administrador Apostólico de la Diócesis de Zacapa hasta el 30 de noviembre de 1955, y fue Obispo de la Diócesis de Jalapa hasta su retiro el 29 de enero de 1987. Fue miembro de la Conferencia Episcopal de Guatemala

Durante su Ministerio Episcopal fundó la Congregación de "Marta y María", junto a Madre Ángela Eugenia Silva Sánchez de origen colombiano, para señoritas que unieran la contemplación y el trabajo, el 6 de enero de 1979. Para la formación cristiana de los niños fundó el Colegio Particular Mixto "Liceo Jalapa, en 1952. Su lema Episcopal: "Spes mea in Deo est" (Mi esperanza está en Dios) le acompañó a lo largo de su vida pastoral al frente de la Iglesia Católica. Monseñor García Arauz, recibió muchos reconocimientos por su brillante labor, sobresaliendo la Orden del Quetzal que le otorgó el Gobierno de Guatemala, el 20 de agosto de 1969.

Fallecimiento
Falleció el 28 de diciembre de 2003, a los 92 años de edad, y fue enterrado en la Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Expectación, en la ciudad de Jalapa.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Obispos de Guatemala
 Ficha en Catholic-hierarchy.org

Obispos de Guatemala
Obispos nombrados por Pío XII
Sacerdotes católicos de Guatemala

Miguel Ángel García y Aráuz