A hate group is a social group that advocates and practices hatred, hostility, or violence towards members of a race, ethnicity, nation, religion, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, or any other designated sector of society. According to the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), a hate group's "primary purpose is to promote animosity, hostility, and malice against persons belonging to a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national origin which differs from that of the members of the organization."

Monitoring
In the US, the FBI does not publish a list of hate groups, and it also says that "investigations are only conducted when a threat or advocacy of force is made; when the group has the apparent ability to carry out the proclaimed act; and when the act would constitute a potential violation of federal law". The FBI maintains statistics on hate crimes.

Two private American non-profit organizations that monitor intolerance and hate groups are the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC). They maintain lists of what they deem to be hate groups, supremacist groups and antisemitic, anti-government or extremist groups that have committed hate crimes. The SPLC's definition of a "hate group" includes any group with beliefs or practices that attack or malign an entire class of people—particularly when the characteristics being maligned are immutable. However, at least for the SPLC, inclusion of a group in the list "does not imply a group advocates or engages in violence or other criminal activity." According to USA Today, their list ranges from "white supremacists to black nationalists, neo-Nazis to neo-Confederates."

The Canadian Anti-Hate Network is a nonprofit organization that monitors hate groups in Canada.

According to the SPLC, from 2000 to 2008, hate group activity saw a 50 percent increase in the US, with a total of 926 active groups. In 2019, the organization's report showed a total of 1,020 hate groups, the highest number in 20 years, and a 7% increase from 2017 to 2018. The previous high was 1,018 in 2011, and the recent low point was 2014, when the list included 784 groups.  A rise in white nationalist groups from 100 in 2017 to 148 in 2018 was the most significant increase in the 2019 report.

Since 2010 the term alt-right, short for "alternative right," has come into usage. This broad term includes a range of people who reject mainstream conservatism in favor of forms of conservatism that may embrace implicit or explicit racism or white supremacy. The alt-right is described as being "a weird mix of old-school neo-Nazis, conspiracy theorists, anti-globalists, and young right-wing internet trolls—all united in the belief that white male identity is under attack by multicultural, "politically correct" forces."

Violence and hate crimes

Four categories which are associated with hate groups' propensity for violence are: organizational capacity, organizational constituency, strategic connectivity, and structural arrangement. The larger an extremist group is and the longer it has existed, it is more prone to engage in violence.  Regionally, hate groups which are based in the West and the Northeast are more likely to engage in violence than those hate groups which are based in the South.  If a group has a charismatic leader, it is more likely to be violent.  Groups that share conflict-based relationships with other groups are more likely to engage in extreme violence.  The amount of ideological literature which a group publishes is linked to significant decreases in a group's violent behavior, with more literature linked to lower levels of violence.

The California Association for Human Relations Organizations (CAHRO) asserts that hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and White Aryan Resistance (WAR) preach violence against racial, religious, sexual and other minorities in the United States. Joseph E. Agne argues that hate-motivated violence is a result of the successes of the civil rights movement, and he asserts that the KKK has resurfaced and new hate groups have formed. Agne argues that it is a mistake to underestimate the strength of the hate-violence movement, its apologists and its silent partners.

In the US, crimes that "manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity, including the crimes of murder and nonnegligent manslaughter; forcible rape; robbery; aggravated assault; burglary; larceny-theft; motor vehicle theft; arson; simple assault; intimidation; and destruction, damage or vandalism of property",
directed at the government, an individual, a business, or institution, involving hate groups and hate crimes, may be investigated as acts of domestic terrorism.

Hate speech

After WWII, Germany found it necessary to criminalize Volksverhetzung ("incitement to hatred") to prevent resurgence of fascism.

Counter-terrorism expert Ehud Sprinzak argues that verbal violence is "the use of extreme language against an individual or a group that either implies a direct threat that physical force will be used against them, or is seen as an indirect call for others to use it." Sprinzak argues that verbal violence is often a substitute for real violence, and that the verbalization of hate has the potential to incite people who are incapable of distinguishing between real and verbal violence to engage in actual violence.

People tend to judge the offensiveness of hate speech on a gradient depending on how public the speech is and what group it targets. Although people's opinions of hate speech are complex, they typically consider public speech targeting ethnic minorities to be the most offensive.

Historian Daniel Goldhagen, discussing antisemitic hate groups, argues that we should view verbal violence as "an assault in its own right, having been intended to produce profound damage—emotional, psychological, and social—to the dignity and honor of the Jews. The wounds that people suffer by ... such vituperation ... can be as bad as ... [a] beating."

In the mid-1990s, the popularity of the Internet brought new international exposure to many organizations, including groups with beliefs such as white supremacy, neo-Nazism, homophobia, Holocaust denial and Islamophobia. Several white supremacist groups have founded websites dedicated to attacking their perceived enemies. In 1996, the Simon Wiesenthal Center of Los Angeles asked Internet access providers to adopt a code of ethics that would prevent extremists from publishing their ideas online. In 1996, the European Commission formed the Consultative Commission on Racism and Xenophobia (CRAX), a pan-European group which was tasked to "investigate and, using legal means, stamp out the current wave of racism on the Internet."

Religious hate groups

The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) has designated several Christian groups as hate groups, including the American Family Association, the Family Research Council, Abiding Truth Ministries, American Vision, the Chalcedon Foundation, the Dove World Outreach Center, the Traditional Values Coalition and Westboro Baptist Church. Some conservatives have criticized the SPLC for its inclusion of certain Christian groups, such as the Family Research Council, on its list.

The SPLC classifies the Nation of Islam (NOI) as a hate group under the black separatist category and the Israelite School of Universal Practical Knowledge (ISUPK) as a hate group under the black supremacist category. Members of the NOI believe that a black scientist named Yakub created a race of , who are considered the progenitors of White people, on the Greek island of Patmos. Historically a black-only group, White adherents now form a small part of the NOI membership. Alongside the ISUPK, numerous other sects and organizations within the Black Hebrew Israelite movement expound extremist, black supremacist, religious antisemitic, and anti-White racist beliefs, as well as homophobic, transphobic, and sexist beliefs.

The White supremacist religious group Creativity Movement (formerly the World Church of the Creator), led by Matthew F. Hale, is associated with violence and bigotry. Aryan Nations is another religiously-based White supremacist hate group.

The Westboro Baptist Church is considered a hate group by multiple sources and the WBC is monitored as such by the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center. The church has been involved in actions against gay people since at least 1991, when it sought a crackdown on homosexual activity at Gage Park six blocks northwest of the church. In addition to conducting anti-gay protests at military funerals, the organization pickets celebrity funerals and public events. Protests have also been held against Jews and Roman Catholics, and some protests have included WBC members stomping on the American flag or flying the flag upside down on a flagpole. The church also has made statements such as "thank God for dead soldiers," "God blew up the troops," and "God hates America." The church has faced several accusations of brainwashing and has been criticized as a cult because of its provocative stance against homosexuality and the United States, and it has been condemned by many mainstream LGBT rights opponents as well as by LGBT rights supporters.

Misogynistic hate groups

Misogynist hate groups which target women, particularly those groups whose members mostly consist of young men who include pickup artists, incels and hardline anti-woman groups, are sources of concern to some experts. Using recruitment techniques which are similar to those which are used by far-right extremist groups, they target teenagers and vulnerable young men, their recruitment tactics include the use of methods which are akin to grooming. UK author Laura Bates believes that some of these groups should be classified as misogynist terrorist groups. The Proud Boys, which, according to the Southern Poverty Law Center is known for its misogynistic rhetoric, has been designated as a domestic terrorist group in Canada.

Internet hate groups

Traditionally, hate groups recruited members and spread extremist messages by word of mouth, or through the distribution of flyers and pamphlets. In contrast, the Internet allows hate group members from all over the world to engage in real-time conversations. The Internet has been a boon for hate groups in terms of promotion, recruitment and expansion of their base to include younger audiences. An Internet hate group does not have to be part of a traditional faction such as the Ku Klux Klan.

While many hate sites are explicitly antagonistic or violent, others may appear patriotic or benign, and this façade may contribute to the appeal of the groups. Hate group websites work towards the following goals: to educate group members and the public, to encourage participation, to claim a divine calling and privilege, and to accuse out-groups (e.g. the government or the media).  Groups that work effectively towards these goals via an online presence tend to strengthen their sense of identity, decrease the threat levels from out-groups, and recruit more new members.

The Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC), in its 2009 iReport, identified more than 10,000 problematic hate and terrorist websites and other Internet postings. The report includes hate websites, social networks, blogs, newsgroups, YouTube and other video sites. The findings illustrate that as the Internet continues to grow, extremists find new ways to seek validation of their hateful agendas and recruit members.

Creators of hate pages and groups on Facebook choose their target, set up their page or group, and then recruit members. Anyone can create a Facebook group and invite followers to post comments, add pictures and participate in discussion boards. A Facebook page is similar, with the exception that one must "like" the page in order to become a member. Because of the ease of creating and joining such groups, many so-called hate groups exist only in cyberspace.
United Patriots Front, an internet-based Australian far-right anti-immigration and neo-nazi organization formed in 2015 has been described as a hate group.

Psychology of hate groups
Hateful intergroup conflict may be motivated by "in-group love," a desire to positively contribute to the group to which one belongs, or "out-group hate," a desire to injure a foreign group. Both individuals and groups are more motivated by "in-group love" than "out-group hate," even though both motivations might advance a group's status.  This preference is especially salient when a group is not situated in a competitive position against another.  This partiality towards cooperative behavior suggests that intergroup conflict might decline if group members devoted more energy to positive in-group improvements than to out-group competition. Groups formed around a set of moral codes are more likely than non-morality-based groups to exhibit "out-group hate" as a response to their especially strong sense of "in-group love."

Intergroup threat occurs when one group's interests threaten another group's goals and well-being. Intergroup threat theories provide a framework for intergroup biases and aggression.

One type of intergroup threat theory, realistic group conflict theory, addresses competition between groups by positing that when two groups are competing for limited resources, one group's potential success is at odds with the other's interests, which leads to negative out-group attitudes. If groups have the same goal, their interactions will be positive, but opposing goals will worsen intergroup relations.  Intergroup conflict may increase in-group unity, leading to a larger disparity and more conflict between groups.

Symbolic threat theory proposes that intergroup bias and conflict result from conflicting ideals, not from perceived competition or opposing goals. Biases based on symbolic threat tend to be stronger predictors of practical behavior towards out-groups than biases based on realistic threat.

Realistic group conflict theory and symbolic threat theory are, in some cases, compatible. Integrated-threat theory recognizes that conflict can arise from a combination of intergroup dynamics and classifies threats into four types: realistic threat, symbolic threat, intergroup anxiety, and negative stereotypes. Intergroup threat theories provide a framework for intergroup biases and aggression. Intergroup anxiety refers to a felt uneasiness around members of other groups, which is predictive of biased attitudes and behaviors. Negative stereotypes are also correlated with these behaviors, causing threat based on negative expectations about an out-group.

According to the 7-stage hate model, a hate group, if unimpeded, passes through seven successive stages. In the first four stages, hate groups vocalize their beliefs and in the last three stages, they act on their beliefs.  Factors that contribute to a group's likelihood to act include the vulnerability of its members as well as its reliance on symbols and mythologies.  This model points to a transition period that exists between verbal violence and acting out that violence, separating hardcore haters from rhetorical haters. Thus, hate speech is seen as a prerequisite of hate crimes, and as a condition of their possibility.

Hate group intervention is most possible if a group has not yet passed from the speech to the action stage, and interventions on immature hate groups are more effective than those that are firmly established. Intervention and rehabilitation is most effective when the one investigating a hate group can identify and deconstruct personal insecurities of group members, which in turn contribute to the weakness of the group.  Perhaps most critical to combating group hate is to prevent the recruitment of new members by supporting those who are most susceptible, especially children and youth, in developing a positive self-esteem and a humanized understanding of out-groups.

See also

 Anti-Defamation League
 Antifeminism
 Antireligion
 Conformity
 Ethnocentrism
 Far-right politics
 Far-right subcultures
 Fascism
 Fundamentalism
 Herd mentality
 Homophobia

 Incel
 Ku Klux Klan
 Left-wing politics
 Left-wing terrorism
 List of fascist movements
 List of Ku Klux Klan organizations
 List of neo-Nazi organizations
 List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
 List of white nationalist organizations
 Misogyny

 Misogyny
 Misandry
 Nativism (politics)
 Nazism
 Neo-Confederate
 Neo-Nazism
 Racism
 Religious terrorism

 Right-wing politics
 Right-wing populism
 Right-wing terrorism
 Ruscism
 Sexism
 Supremacism
 Transphobia
 Trumpism
 Xenophobia

References
Notes

Further reading
 Denning, Dorothy E. and Peter J. Denning. Internet Besieged: Countering Cyberspace Scofflaws. New York: ACM Press (1998)
Dudley, J. Wayne, '"Hate" Organizations of the 1940s: The Columbians, Inc.', Phylon, Vol. 42, No. 3 (3rd Qtr., 1981), pp. 262–274 (JSTOR)
 Jessup, Michael The Sword of Truth in the Sea of Lies: The Theology of Hate, Google Print, p.165-p.166, in Robert J. Priest, Alvaro L. Nieves (ed.), This Side of Heaven, Oxford University Press US, 2006,

External links

 Poisoning the Web: Hatred Online, Internet Bigotry, Extremism and Violence - The Anti-defamation League
 Hatewatch
 Online Hate - The Media Awareness Network
 Deconstructing Hate Sites
 Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes
 Hate Communities in Cyber Space; Manjeet Chaturvedi, Ishan, Ishita

 Active U.S. Hate Groups – a map at The Southern Poverty Law Center

Group
Social groups
Racism
Violence
Alt-right
White supremacy
Racially motivated violence

Hate group


Catedrala Sfântul Mina (în , Aghios Minas) este o biserică ortodoxă din Heraklion, Grecia, care îndeplinește funcția de catedrală a Arhiepiscopiei Cretei. Patronul bisericii este Sfântul Mina, protectorul orașului Heraklion, sărbătorit la 11 noiembrie. Ea este una dintre cele mai încăpătoare catedrale din Grecia, având o capacitate de 8.000 de persoane.

Istoric
În anul 1735 a fost construită în Heraklion o biserică mică dedicată Sf. Mina, care a îndeplinit funcția de catedrală a mitropoliților din Creta în timpul ocupației turcești. Ca urmare a faptului că biserica devenise neîncăpătoare, în imediata ei apropiere a fost construită în perioada 1862-1895 o nouă catedrală, după proiectul lui Atanasios Mussis. Construcția catedralei a început la 25 martie 1862, a fost întreruptă din cauza Revoltei Cretane din 1866-1869 și a fost reluată abia în 1883, la 14 ani după înfrângerea grecilor, fiind finalizată în cele din urmă în 1895. Catedrala a fost sfințită la 16 aprilie 1895 cu ocazia unei slujbe festive oficiate de mitropolitul Timotei al Cretei.

La 23 mai 1941, în timpul bombardamentului asupra orașului Heraklion, pe acoperișul bisericii a căzut o bombă, care însă nu a explodat și este acum expusă vederii publicului lângă zidul nordic.

Arhitectură

Biserica are o arhitectură cruciformă cu o cupolă centrală și două turnuri clopotniță înalte. Pereții și arcadele catedralei sunt construite în stil greco-bizantin, iar cupolele solide sunt pictate cu fresce bizantine tradiționale. Nava bisericii are 43,20 m lungime, 29,50 m lățime și o suprafață de 1.350 m2, dimensiuni care o fac să fie cea mai mare catedrală din Creta și una dintre cele mai mari din Grecia.

O biserică mai mică și mai veche dedicată Sf. Mina este situată în imediata apropiere a catedralei.

Fapte interesante
În ciuda faptului că Sfântul Mina este sfântul protector al orașului, nu există practic oameni care să poarte acest nume în Heraklion. Acest fapt se explică prin faptul că în secolul al XIX-lea părinții obișnuiau să-și abandoneze copiii pe treptele bisericii, iar băieții care ajungeau la orfelinatul bisericii erau numiți Minami, nume pe care locuitorii orașului Heraklion l-au asociat cu sărăcia și cu lipsa de adăpost. Din acest motiv, familiile grecești evită să-și boteze băieții cu numele de Mina.

Galerie

Note

Vezi și
 Biserica Cretei

Heraklion
Heraklion
Biserici din secolul al XIX-lea

Catedrala Sfântul Mina din Heraklion


Aceasta este o listă a punctelor extreme ale României, punctele aflate mai la nord, sud, est sau vest decât oricare altele, precum și cel mai înalt și cel mai de jos punct.

Latitudine și longitudine

 Nord - Horodiștea, județul Botoșani, ;
 Sud - Zimnicea, județul Teleorman, ;
 Vest - Beba Veche, județul Timiș, ;
 Est terestru - Sulina, județul Tulcea, ;
 Est maritim - punctul 5 al limitei zonei economice exclusive românești din Marea Neagră, .

Înălțime
 Cel mai înalt punct - Vârful Moldoveanu, Munții Făgăraș (2.544 m)
 Cel mai jos punct - Marea Neagră

Puncte extreme istorice
În perioada interbelică România era mai întinsă teritorial, având mai mult teritoriu în nord, sud și est.
 Nord - Babin, județul Cernăuți, ;
 Sud - Ecrina, județul Caliacra, ;
 Est - Bugaz, județul Cetatea Albă, .

Note

Geografia României
Puncte extreme ale Pământului
România

Punctele extreme ale României


Karen B. Ray is a  former Republican member of the North Carolina General Assembly who represented the state's ninety-fifth House district, including constituents in Catawba and Iredell counties.  Ray was a court reporter from Mooresville, North Carolina, and Iredell County commissioner, prior to her election to the assembly. After winning the Republican primary, she was unopposed in the 2002 general election for her seat.

Electoral history

2008

2006

2004

2002

References

Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
People from Mooresville, North Carolina
21st-century American politicians
21st-century American women politicians
County commissioners in North Carolina
Women state legislators in North Carolina
Republican Party members of the North Carolina House of Representatives

Karen B. Ray


Walter Alvarez (born October 3, 1940) is a professor in the Earth and Planetary Science department at the University of California, Berkeley. He is most widely known for the theory that dinosaurs were killed by an asteroid impact, developed in collaboration with his father, Nobel Prize–winning physicist Luis Alvarez.

Biography
Born in Berkeley, California, Alvarez is the son of Luis Walter Alvarez, a Nobel prize-winner in physics, and Geraldine Smithwick. His grandfather was the famed physician Walter C. Alvarez and his great-grandfather, Spanish-born Luis F. Alvarez, worked as a doctor in Hawaii and developed a method for the better diagnosis of macular leprosy. His great-aunt Mabel Alvarez was a noted California artist and oil painter.

Alvarez earned his B.A. in geology in 1962 from Carleton College in Minnesota and Ph.D. in geology from Princeton University in 1967. He worked for American Overseas Petroleum Limited in the Netherlands, and in Libya at the time of Colonel Gaddafi's revolution.  Having developed a side interest in archaeological geology, he left the oil company and spent some time in Italy, studying the Roman volcanics and their influence on patterns of settlement in early Roman times.

Alvarez then moved to Lamont–Doherty Geological Observatory of Columbia University, and began studying the Mediterranean tectonics in the light of the new theory of plate tectonics.  His work on tectonic paleomagnetism in Italy led to a study of the geomagnetic reversals recorded in Italian deep-sea limestones. Alvarez and his colleagues were able to date the reversals for an interval of more than 100 million years of the Earth's history by using Foraminifera biostratigraphy.

Impact theory

Alvarez and his father Luis W. Alvarez are most widely known for their discovery (with Frank Asaro and Helen Michel) that a clay layer occurring right at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary was highly enriched in the element iridium. Since iridium enrichment is common in asteroids, but very uncommon on the Earth, they further postulated that the layer had been created by the impact of a large asteroid with the Earth and that this impact was the likely cause of the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.

This iridium enrichment has now been observed in many other sites around the world. In addition, the immense Chicxulub crater off the northeast coast of the Yucatan Peninsula was identified and is now regarded as the definitive evidence of a large impact, and perhaps the cause of the event. Consequently, a majority of scientists now accept an impact scenario as the most likely cause for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction which occurred 66 million years ago and was responsible for the elimination of 75% of all then-existent species, including all non-avian dinosaurs.  His book, T. Rex and the Crater of Doom, details the discovery of the event.

In addition to his interest in extinction events and impacts, Alvarez has contributed to the understanding of Mediterranean tectonics, Roman geology and archeology, and the establishment of magnetostratigraphic correlations.

Big History

Alvarez began teaching a course in Big History at UC Berkeley in 2006 under the title "Big History: Cosmos, Earth, Life, Humanity." He last taught the course in 2011 where it was videotaped and made freely available online. According to Alvarez, Big History is the "attempt to understand, in a unified and interdisciplinary way, the history of the Cosmos, Earth, Life and Humanity." This definition was later adopted by the International Big History Association (IBHA). Alvarez's course is open to all majors and grade levels and seeks to provide a broad understanding of the past, present and future.

Alvarez helped organize a meeting of Big Historians at the Geological Observatory at Coldigioco in Italy in 2010 which resulted in the establishment of the International Big History Association. In 2011, the IBHA is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization.

Alvarez was one of the founding members of the IBHA, and served on the advisory board until August 7, 2014 when he stepped down at the 2014 IBHA conference held at Dominican University of California.

ChronoZoom

Alvarez's most recent contribution to the field of Big History has been the creation of a free, open source, zoomable timeline in partnership with Microsoft Research called ChronoZoom. ChronoZoom is a computer-graphical approach to dealing with this problem of visualizing and understanding time scales, and presenting vast quantities of historical information in a useful way. ChronoZoom was introduced at the 97th Annual Faculty Research Lecture at UC Berkeley.

Awards and honors

Alvarez is the recipient of numerous awards and honors. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1983, and elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1991. He was awarded the 2006 Nevada Medal, the 2008 Vetlesen Prize, and the Penrose Medal from the Geological Society of America. In 2005, he received the doctorate "Honoris Causa" in Geological Sciences from the University of Siena, Italy.

Minor planet 3581 Alvarez is named after him and his father, Luis Walter Alvarez.

Works
T. Rex and the Crater of Doom (Princeton University Press, 1997)
The Mountains of Saint Francis: The Geologic Events that Shaped Our Earth (W. W. Norton, December 2008)
A Most Improbable Journey: A Big History of our Planet and Ourselves (W. W. Norton, 2016)

References

External links
Walter Alvarez's Berkeley homepage
ChronoZoom project homepage

1940 births
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Living people
American geologists
Carleton College alumni
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
Big History
Penrose Medal winners
Princeton University alumni
Columbia University faculty
People from Berkeley, California
American people of Asturian descent
American people of Spanish descent
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Barringer Medal winners

Walter Alvarez


باتريك ويردي (30 سبتمبر 1978 في فينيسو)  لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي معتزل كان يجيد اللعب في خط الوسط .

مراجع

مواليد 1978
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون

باتريك ويردي


Man ooman er en film instrueret af Andreas Johnsen, Rasmus Poulsen.

Handling
Jamaica har flere kirker, flere mord og flere fester per indbygger end noget andet sted på jorden. Over alt på øen festes der syv dage om ugen, og dansen er aggressiv og seksuelt ekstremt eksplicit. De unge dansere Fresh og Kemar ved hvad det hele handler om, og de guider os ind i de hæsblæsende street parties, hvor drengene kæmper om pigerne, der kæmper om at blive kåret som årets Dancehall Queen. Ever fresh, ever clean! Dancehall er den fattige underklasses musik, og selv om det handler om at se flashy ud og spille op til lir foran videokameraet, bobler spændingerne frem - ikke mindst i den rå og ultra seksualiserede dans, der sagtens kan fortsætte op i træer og lygtepæle og i den indgroede homofobi, der følger med.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2008

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Man ooman


The organ of Corti, or spiral organ, is the receptor organ for hearing and is located in the mammalian cochlea. This highly varied strip of epithelial cells allows for transduction of auditory signals into nerve impulses' action potential. Transduction occurs through vibrations of structures in the inner ear causing displacement of cochlear fluid and movement of hair cells at the organ of Corti to produce electrochemical signals.

Italian anatomist Alfonso Giacomo Gaspare Corti (1822–1876) discovered the organ of Corti in 1851. The structure evolved from the basilar papilla and is crucial for mechanotransduction in mammals.

Structure

The organ of Corti is located in the scala media of the cochlea of the inner ear between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct and is composed of mechanosensory cells, known as hair cells. Strategically positioned on the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti are three rows of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row of inner hair cells (IHCs). Surrounding these hair cells are supporting cells: Deiters cells, also called phalangeal cells, which have a close relation with the OHCs, and pillar cells, which separate and support both the OHCs and the IHCs.

Projecting from the tops of the hair cells are tiny finger-like projections called stereocilia, which are arranged in a graduated fashion with the shortest stereocilia on the outer rows and the longest in the center. This gradation is thought to be the most important anatomic feature of the organ of Corti because this allows the sensory cells superior tuning capability.

If the cochlea were uncoiled, it would roll out to be about 33 mm long in women and 34 mm in men, with about 2.28 mm of standard deviation for the population. The cochlea is also tonotopically organized, meaning that different frequencies of sound waves interact with different locations on the structure. The base of the cochlea, closest to the outer ear, is the most stiff and narrow and is where the high-frequency sounds are transduced. The apex, or top, of the cochlea is wider and much more flexible and loose and functions as the transduction site for low-frequency sounds.

Function

The function of the organ of Corti is to convert (transduce) sounds into electrical signals that can be transmitted to the brainstem through the auditory nerve. It is the auricle and middle ear that act as mechanical transformers and amplifiers so that the sound waves end up with amplitudes 22 times greater than when they entered the ear.

Auditory transduction
In normal hearing, the majority of the auditory signals that reach the organ of Corti in the first place come from the outer ear. Sound waves enter through the auditory canal and vibrate the tympanic membrane, also known as the eardrum, which vibrates three small bones called the ossicles. As a result, the attached oval window moves and causes movement of the round window, which leads to displacement of the cochlear fluid.
However, the stimulation can happen also via direct vibration of the cochlea from the skull. The latter is referred to as Bone Conduction (or BC) hearing, as complementary to the first one described, which is instead called Air Conduction (or AC) hearing. Both AC and BC stimulate the basilar membrane in the same way (Békésy, G.v., Experiments in Hearing. 1960).

The basilar membrane on the tympanic duct presses against the hair cells of the organ as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. The stereocilia atop the IHCs move with this fluid displacement and in response their cation, or positive ion selective, channels are pulled open by cadherin structures called tip links that connect adjacent stereocilia. The organ of Corti, surrounded in potassium-rich fluid endolymph, lies on the basilar membrane at the base of the scala media. Under the organ of Corti is the scala tympani and above it, the scala vestibuli. Both structures exist in a low potassium fluid called perilymph. Because those stereocilia are in the midst of a high concentration of potassium, once their cation channels are pulled open, potassium ions as well as calcium ions flow into the top of the hair cell. With this influx of positive ions the IHC becomes depolarized, opening voltage-gated calcium channels at the basolateral region of the hair cells and triggering the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. An electrical signal is then sent through the auditory nerve and into the auditory cortex of the brain as a neural message.

Cochlear amplification

The organ of Corti is also capable of modulating the auditory signal. The outer hair cells (OHCs) can amplify the signal through a process called electromotility where they increase movement of the basilar and tectorial membranes and therefore increase deflection of stereocilia in the IHCs.

A crucial piece to this cochlear amplification is the motor protein prestin, which changes shape based on the voltage potential inside of the hair cell. When the cell is depolarized, prestin shortens, and because it is located on the membrane of OHCs it then pulls on the basilar membrane and increasing how much the membrane is deflected, creating a more intense effect on the inner hair cells (IHCs). When the cell hyperpolarizes prestin lengthens and eases tension on the IHCs, which decreases the neural impulses to the brain. In this way, the hair cell itself is able to modify the auditory signal before it even reaches the brain.

Development
The organ of Corti, in between the scala tympani and the scala media, develops after the formation and growth of the cochlear duct. The inner and outer hair cells then differentiate into their appropriate positions and are followed by the organization of the supporting cells. The topology of the supporting cells lends itself to the actual mechanical properties that are needed for the highly specialized sound-induced movements within the organ of Corti.

Development and growth of the organ of Corti relies on specific genes, many of which have been identified in previous research (SOX2, GATA3, EYA1, FOXG1, BMP4, RAC1, and more), to undergo such differentiation. Specifically, the cochlear duct growth and the formation of hair cells within the organ of Corti.

Mutations in the genes expressed in or near the organ of Corti before the differentiation of hair cells will result in a disruption in the differentiation, and potential malfunction of, the organ of Corti.

Clinical significance

Hearing loss

The organ of Corti can be damaged by excessive sound levels, leading to noise-induced impairment.

The most common kind of hearing impairment, sensorineural hearing loss, includes as one major cause the reduction of function in the organ of Corti.  Specifically, the active amplification function of the outer hair cells is very sensitive to damage from exposure to trauma from overly-loud sounds or to certain ototoxic drugs.  Once outer hair cells are damaged, they do not regenerate, and the result is a loss of sensitivity and an abnormally large growth of loudness (known as recruitment) in the part of the spectrum that the damaged cells serve.

While hearing loss has always been considered irreversible in mammals, fish and birds routinely repair such damage. A 2013 study has shown that the use of particular drugs may reactivate genes normally expressed only during hair cell development. The research was carried out at Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Eye and Ear, and the Keio University School of Medicine in Japan.

Additional images

Notes

References

History. (n.d.).

Nicholls, J. G., Martin, A. R., Fuchs, P. A., Brown, D. A., Diamond, M. E., & Weisblat, D. A. (2012). From Neuron to Brain (5th ed., pp. 456–459). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Pritchard U. "On the organ of Corti in mammals". 2 March 1876, ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, volume 24, pp. 346–52
Pujol, R., & Irving, S. (2013). The Ear.

External links

 Dissecting the molecular basis of organ of Corti development
Organ of Corti 3D animation
 http://lobe.ibme.utoronto.ca/presentations/OHC_Electromotility/sld005.htm  Diagram at University of Toronto
 http://mayoresearch.mayo.edu/mayo/research/ent_research/images/image02.gif  Diagram at Mayo
 http://www.iurc.montp.inserm.fr/cric51/audition/english/corti/fcorti.htm  at University of Montpellier 1

See also

 Hearing
 Inner ear
 List of distinct cell types in the adult human body

Auditory system
Ear
Otology
Audiology

Organ of Corti


رافايل نادال هو بطل النسخة السابقة.

ترتيب المصنفين

  روجيه فيديرير (ربع النهائي)
  رافايل نادال (الدور الثاني)
 ' نوفاك ديوكوفيتش (البطل)
  نيكولاي دافيدينكو (الدور الثالث)
  ديفيد فيرر (الدور الثاني)
  أندي روديك (نصف النهائي)
  ديفيد نالبانديان (الدور الثاني)
  جيمس بليك (ربع النهائي)

  ريشارد جاسكيه (الدور الأول)
  جو ويلفريد تسونقا ''(الدور الأول)
  كارلوس مويا ''(الدور الأول)
  فرناندو غونزاليز ''(الدور الثالث)
  خوان موناكو ''(الدور الثاني)
  تومي روبريدو ''(ربع النهائي)
  بول هنري ماثيو ''(الدور الأول)
  اندي موراي ''(الدور الثاني)

النتائج

المفتاح
 Q = تأهل
 WC = بطاقة عبور
 LL = الخسارة بسبب الإصابة
 r = اعتزال
 W/O = walkover

النهائي

النصف الأعلى

المجموعة 1

المجموعة 2

النصف السفلى

المجموعة 3

المجموعة 4

روابط إضافية
 النتائج

بطولات كرة مضرب

رابطة محترفي التنس 2008
روما للماسترز 2008

بطولة روما للماسترز 2008 - فردي رجال


Al-Mustali, cunoscut sub numele complet ca Abū'l-Kāsim Aḥmad al-Musta'lī bil-Lāh, () a fost cel de-al nouălea calif fatimid între 1094 și 1101, onorat de secta ismailită Musta'li ca fiind al nouăsprezecelea imam.

Al-Mustali a fost făcut calif de către vizirul al-Afdal Șahanșah și a fost succesorul lui al-Mustansir Billah. În ansamblu, al-Mustali era subordonat lui Șahanșah. O complicație cu alegerea lui al-Mustali a fost faptul că fratele său mai mare, Nizar, a fost considerat de susținătorii lui drept moștenitorul de drept al tronului. Aceasta a dus la o luptă pentru putere între fatimizi și, deși revolta lui Nizar nu a avut succes (încheind cu moartea în închisoare în 1097), abaterile de la regulile de succesiune au provocat o schismă printre musulmanii ismailiți șiiți. În Siria și Iranul conduse de selgiucizi, secta Nizari s-a dezvoltat ulterior.

În timpul domniei lui Al-Mustali, Prima Cruciadă a stabilit Regatul Ierusalimului, Comitatul de Tripoli și Principatul Antiohiei, care au redus puterea fatimizilor în Levant și Palestina. El a fost urmat de fiul său al-Amir bi-Ahkami'l-Lah, după care domnia sectei Mustali sa împărțit din nou înntre Hafizi și Taiabi.

Note

Nașteri în 1074
Decese în 1101
Califi fatimizi
Ismailiți
Imami
Musulmani ai Primei Cruciade

Al-Mustali


Tatsuya Ikeda (født 18. maj 1988) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Oita Trinita.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Tatsuya Ikeda


كونسول (Konsole) هو طرفية للواجهة الرسومية كدي.

مميزات

 علامة تبويب عناوين تحديث ديناميكي واعتماداً على النشاط الجاري في المحطة الطرفية.
 سبليت - وضع عرض.
 وضع مؤشرات مرجعية "ssh"
 تخصيص لون المخططات.
 تخصيص أغلفة الرئيسية.
 إشعارات حول الصمت أو النشاط في المحطة
 تدريجيه بحث
 لا يمكن فتح دولفين أو المستخدمين يفضل مدير الملفات في برنامج المحطة الحالية دليل
 التصدير من الإنتاج في نص عادي أو لغة تأشير النص الفائق

مراجع

كدي
تطبيقات كدي

كونسول (كدي)


An Festuca vettonica in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Fuente, Ortúñez ngan Ferrero Lom.. An Festuca vettonica in nahilalakip ha genus nga Festuca, ngan familia nga Poaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Spain. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Festuca

Festuca vettonica


Psorothamnus schottii  es un arbusto de la familia de las fabáceas. Es originario del desierto de Sonora, en el norte de México, y las zonas adyacentes de Arizona y el desierto de Colorado, en California.

Descripción

Psorothamnus schottii es un arbusto que alcanza un tamaño de dos metros de altura máxima. Sus tallos, muy ramificados, son de color verde a gris-verdoso, lanosos y glandulares. Las  hojas son lineares de hasta 3 centímetros de largo y no están divididas en foliolos.
La inflorescencia es un racimo con hasta 15 flores. Cada flor tiene un color morado oscuro azul con la corola de hasta un centímetro de largo en un cáliz tubular con sépalos con lóbulos puntiagudos. El fruto es una cápsula leguminosa recubierta de glándulas que contiene una semilla.

Taxonomía
Psorothamnus schottii fue descrita por (Torr.) Barneby y publicado en Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 27: 31, en el año 1977.
Sinonimia
Dalea schottii Torr. basónimo
Dalea schottii var. puberula (Parish) Munz
Parosela puberula (Parish) Standl.
Parosela schottii (Torr.) A.Heller
Parosela schottii var. puberula Parish
Psorodendron puberulum (Parish) Rydb.
Psorodendron schottii (Torr.) Rydb

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Jepson Manual Treatment - Psorothamnus schottii
USDA Plants Profile
Psorothamnus schottii - Photo gallery

schottii

Psorothamnus schottii


Orca (« énergie » en islandais) est un projet pilote de géo-ingénierie destiné à capturer le dioxyde de carbone dans l'atmosphère, situé en Islande en contrebas de la chaîne volcanique Hengill, à 30 kilomètres de la capitale Reykjavik. Cette usine a été lancée en septembre 2021 par la start-up suisse Climeworks en partenariat avec le projet islandais de stockage souterrain Carbfix. D'une superficie de 1.700 mètres carrés, d'un coût de 10 à 15 millions de dollars, ces installations peuvent aspirer jusqu'à 4.000 tonnes de CO2 par an, lequel est stocké dans une mine de basalte à 1 kilomètre de profondeur. Ce projet se distingue du captage de CO2 à la sortie des cheminées d'industries polluantes, car elle aspire l'air ambiant et en retire le CO2 par un système de filtration. Il s'agit du plus grand projet de captage et séquestration géologique de CO2 du monde, avec le projet « Bison » dans l'État américain du Wyoming, mais ce dernier n'est pas encore opérationnel et devrait démarrer fin 2023.

Historique

Choix de l'implantation

Le choix du lieu est stratégique, puisqu'au cœur de ces grandes plaines islandaises se trouve une centrale géothermique, permettant à l'usine de fonctionner uniquement avec des énergies renouvelables. L'électricité produite grâce aux abondantes ressources énergétiques de l'Islande sont déjà utilisées à plus de 70% par le secteur industriel, essentiellement des usines d'aluminium.

En plus d'abondantes ressources énergétiques grâce à la géothermie, l'Islande a aussi un sous-sol minéral et minier particulièrement riche. Cette île est un « laboratoire à ciel ouvert » pour de nombreux chercheurs : géologie, sciences de la Terre, sismologie, biologie, ou encore biologie marine. Mais l'Islande en raison des nombreux glaciers qui s'y trouve, est aussi un pays particulièrement exposé aux conséquences du changement climatique, ce qui pousse son gouvernement à une politique particulièrement volontariste pour lutter contre. Selon une étude publiée en août 2022 dans la revue Communications Earth & Environment du groupe Nature, l'Arctique s'est réchauffé près de quatre fois plus vite que le reste du monde lors des quarante dernières années.

Chronologie du projet

En 2006, le projet islandais Carbfix est lancé sous l'impulsion de l'université de Reykjavik, du CNRS de Toulouse, de l'Institut de la Terre à l'université de Columbia et de la compagnie Reykjavík Energy. Dès 2007, désormais bénéficiant de fonds de l'Union européenne, d'autres universités se joignent à ces recherches. Carbfix devient une société de recherches spécialisée dans le « mélange au bon ratio d'eau et de CO2 », puis pour le captage de ce gaz, se tourne vers la start-up zurichoise Climeworks né en 2009, un partenariat qui permet les années suivantes à Orca de voir le jour.

Entre 2012 et 2014, des injections sont effectuées sur le site pilote, à la centrale géothermique de Hellisheiði, avec des résultats sont plus que probants : 95% du CO2 et du sulfure d'hydrogène infiltrés se sont transformés en minéraux en moins de deux ans. Plus de 100 publications scientifiques sont écrites sur cette expérience de Carbix. De son côté, Climeworks installe le premier projet pilote de « capture directe dans l'air » (en anglais DAC pour « direct air capture ») à proximité du site d'incinération des ordures ménagères de la commune suisse de Hinwil en 2017.

La construction de l'usine d'Orca commence en mars 2020 et dure une quinzaine de mois. En mai 2021, le secrétaire d'État américain Anthony Blinken se rend en Islande et visite les installations de Carbfix près de la station géothermique de Hellisheiði. Lors de ce déplacement, il rencontre, la Première ministre islandaise Katrin Jakobsdottir et le ministre des Affaires étrangères Gudlaugur Thordarson, et participe à la réunion ministérielle du Conseil de l'Arctique.

L'usine Orca ayant nécessité un investissement de 10 à 15 millions de dollars commence à fonctionner le 8 septembre 2021. L'inauguration se fait en présence de la première ministre Katrín Jakobsdóttir, de l'ancien présent islandais Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson (1996 à 2016), et du maire de Reykjavik Dagur B. Eggertsson.

Processus technique
L'usine Orca met en application à grande échelle la technologie de capture de CO2 dans l'air de Climeworks, et le système de transformation chimique de Carbfix.

Quatre collecteurs, chacun assorti de 8 ventilateurs brassent l'air pour l'aspirer et le faire passer à travers des filtres. Huit conteneurs superposés en duo forment une structure d'une dizaine de mètres de haut où l'air est aspiré par l'avant avec un ventilateur et rejeté, purifié, à l'arrière.

A l'intérieur des conteneurs-collecteurs, un matériau sélectif (une poudre à base d'amines) filtre les molécules de CO2 ; dès que le filtre est saturé, celui-ci est fermé par deux ouvertures sur les côtés, puis chauffé à environ 100°C. L'opération, qui dure environ quatre heures, permet de séparer le dioxyde de carbone « pur », qui est alors acheminé via un pipeline souterrain de trois kilomètres vers des injecteurs situés sous des dômes gris. Climeworks ne dévoile ni les performances ni la consommation d'énergie de ce système.

Dissous dans l'eau – l'idée est de rendre le CO2 « physique » en le mêlant à de l'eau – le gaz y est injecté à haute pression dans la roche basaltique, entre 800 et 2.000 mètres de profondeur. Le mélange aqueux chargé en CO2 pénètre dans la roche poreuse et se solidifie grâce à une réaction chimique du gaz avec le calcium, le magnésium et le fer contenus dans le basalte, pour former des minéraux carbonatés très stables à long terme.

Cette technique reproduit en deux ans un processus naturel qui peut prendre plusieurs milliers d'années : la minéralisation du dioxyde de carbone. Ce procédé, très énergivore bénéficie d'un approvisionnement énergétique abondant et bon marché grâce à la centrale géothermique de Hellisheiði.

Selon Isabelle Czernichowski-Lauriol, déléguée à la Recherche et à l'Appui aux Politiques Publiques au Bureau de recherches géologiques et minières : ..

Modèle économique
Sur les quatorze autres sites opérés par Climeworks, le CO2 est vendu en vue d'être recyclé, principalement dans les boissons gazeuses, contrairement à l'usine d'Orca, où le gaz est stocké sous terre. Pour être rentable, Climeworks a donc dû trouver un nouveau modèle économique axé sur la compensation carbone proposée à des particuliers (environ 8.000 lors du lancement de l'usine) et à des entreprises. Ces « clients » peuvent choisir entre trois types d'abonnement, dont l'un consiste à payer mensuellement pour retirer une certaine quantité de CO2.

Actuellement (juin 2022), Climeworks propose sur son site web des abonnements mensuels avec un prix fixe d'1 euro par kilo de CO2 capté avec trois offres suggérées : 30 kg, 50 kg, ou 100 kg de CO2 captés par mois. Le client peut suivre sur un tableau de bord la quantité de CO2 extraite de l'atmosphère grâce à son soutien financier, tandis qu'un certificat lui est envoyé chaque fin d'année indiquant son bilant annuel.

Parmi les entreprises, Microsoft (à la fois client et investisseur, s'est engagé en juillet à acheter pour 10 000 t de crédit carbone à Climeworks), Shopify, The Economist group, ou encore Swiss Re ont signé un contrat avec Climeworks, qui leur propose d'acheter des « retraits de CO2 » pour environ 600 dollars par tonne, et ainsi compenser leur propre pollution. Le coût du captage d'une tonne de CO2 dans l'air coûterait entre 80 et 200 euros selon une estimation de la Commission européenne en 2019.

En janvier 2023, Climeworks annonce avoir délivré ses premiers certificats de compensation carbone à ses entreprises clientes : Microsoft, la plateforme de commerce en ligne Shopify et la société de paiement digital Stripe. En mai 2023, la banque américaine JPMorgan Chase annonce débourser une enveloppe de 200 millions d'euros pour financer le captage et le stockage de 800.000 tonnes de CO2 en partenariat avec plusieurs entreprises, dont Climeworks.

Limites

Insuffisance au regard des émissions mondiales de CO2
Cette technique coûte cher et l'usine n'absorbe que 4000 tonnes de CO2 par an, soit l'impact carbone de toute la durée d'utilisation de 870 voitures, ou à 4 000 vols Paris-New-York, ou encore au niveau mondial, l'équivalent de trois secondes d'émission de CO2. Si l'Islande, où plus de 70 % de l'énergie primaire provient de la géothermie et qui dispose de ressources en eau abondantes, semble le terrain d'expérimentation idéal pour cette technologie, celle-ci n'est pas reproductible partout.

Le coût d'exploitation d'une telle technologie
Paradoxalement, bien que les concentrations de CO2 dans l'atmosphère soient assez alarmantes pour justifier de tels investissements dans des technologies de décarbonation, celles-ci restent insuffisante (0,041%) pour que les procédés de capturer le dioxyde de carbone dans l'atmosphère soient efficaces. En effet, Orca doit aspirer et filtrer deux millions de mètres cubes d'air en moyenne, soit l'équivalent de 800 piscines olympiques, pour capturer une seule tonne de CO2, un procédé très énergivore et coûteux. Toutefois, une piste possible serait de se contenter de capter « seulement »  les deux tiers du CO2 contenu dans l'air prélevé, ce qui améliorerait significativement l'efficacité par rapport au prix.

Les projets de capture de dioxyde de carbone en sortie des cheminées d'usine où sa concentration dans les fumées est comprise entre 4 et 40 % sont plus faciles, mais ces deux procédés ne sont pas en concurrence, chacun devant s'ajouter à l'autre pour éliminer un maximum de CO2 de l'atmosphère.

Le coût de capture du CO2 serait de 50 et 180 euros par tonne dans les fumées industrielles, et monte à 335 euros par tonne lors qu'il est aspiré et capté dans l'atmosphère. Mais selon l'Agence Internationale de l'Énergie, ces coûts pourraient chuter en dessous de 100 euros par tonne dès 2030 pour des installations disposant de grandes ressources d'énergies renouvelables, confirmant l'avantage compétitif de l'Islande.

Perspectives
En octobre 2022, après un an d'activité, Julie Gosalvez, directrice du marketing de Climework en fait un bilan positif, déclarant : . Les cofondateurs de Climeworks, Christoph Gebald et Jan Wurzbacher, croient en leur projet et prévoient de construire entre 2025 et 2030 des usines capables de capter 1 million de tonnes de CO2 par an, et ambitionnent d'atteindre 1 milliard de tonnes vers 2050.

La technologie d'Orca peut être reproduite à des échelles toujours plus grandes dans le monde là où les conditions d'accès à l'énergie renouvelable et au stockage souterrain sont disponibles. Au niveau mondial, en 2022, une trentaine d'installations à grande échelle sont en opération pour décarboner la production d'électricité (centrale charbon, centrale gaz) et l'industrie (aciérie, cimenterie, chimie) et 35 à 40 millions de tonnes sont ainsi captées et stockées annuellement. Les experts du GIEC estiment qu'il faudrait en capter et stocker 50, voire 100, fois plus d'ici 2035 pour répondre aux objectifs de neutralité carbone – ce qui appelle au déploiement des moyens de capture et séquestration de CO2 à grande échelle. Ces derniers rappellent cependant que la sobriété est incontournable pour limiter le réchauffement climatique.

Compte tenu de la maturité de ces technologies (plusieurs décennies pour les moyens de captage dans les fumées industrielles), ces objectifs de déploiement sont considérés comme atteignables, mais cela nécessite une baisse du coût de leur installation. Selon le cabinet d'études norvégien Rystad Energy, le marché des équipements de captage et stockage du CO2 devrait quadrupler entre 2022 et 2025 pour atteindre 50 milliards de dollars. Portée par les investissements en cours en Europe et en Amérique du Nord, la filière devrait ainsi être en mesure de séquestrer 150 millions de tonnes par an, contre 40 millions en 2022.

Les capacités de stockage souterrain en Europe sont estimées à environ 300 milliards de tonnes de CO2, soit l'équivalent de 100 ans d'émissions mondiales en 2019, mais les capacités et l'intégrité de ces sites doit être évaluée et confirmée pour garantir la pérennité et la sécurité du stockage sur le long terme. Enfin, des mécanismes de soutien financier et un cadre réglementaire sont nécessaires pour accélérer la mise en place de la filière, mais la prise de conscience de l'urgence climatique a pour effet d'augmenter les financement publics et d'entreprises alloués à ce type de projet.

En Islande
En juin 2022, Climework, après avoir levé 600 millions d'euros, annonce qu'une nouvelle usine dix fois plus grande qu'Orca, baptisé « Mammouth », permettra de retirer chaque année 36 000 tonnes de CO2 de l'atmosphère, et devrait êter en fonctionnement d'ici 18 à 24 mois. L'objectif de Climeworks est d'éliminer 1 % des gaz à effets de serre émis sur Terre d'ici à 2025 et ainsi de lutter, à son échelle, contre le réchauffement climatique. Carbfix prévoit également à l'été 2022 une injection pilote avec de l'eau de mer, pour adapter sa technique, qui nécessite actuellement 20 à 25 tonnes d'eau désalinisée par tonne de .
Un ambitieux hub portuaire de transport et stockage de , baptisé « Coda Terminal », impliquant Carbfix, est en construction à Straumsvik au sud de la capitale Reykjavik, et devrait être opérationnel en 2025. Il s'agira d'une sorte de « ferme » de recyclage qui accueillera des citernes de  acheminées par bateau, les traitera et les recyclera dans le sol.

Un premier navire en opération doit permettre de traiter  de  par an en 2025, avec un objectif dix fois plus élevé de 3 millions de tonnes de  en 2030. Pour un investissement d'environ 200 millions d'euros, Carbfix espère en tirer un revenu annuel de 25 à 45 millions d'euros. Le  importé viendrait principalement de sites industriels d'Europe du Nord. acheminé par des navires de transport tourneront au méthanol et la solution de l'ammoniac pour que le bilan carbone de son transport n'en annule pas les bénéfices. Selon Carbfix, environ 4 à 7 % du CO2 serait libéré dans l'atmosphère lors du transport.

Au niveau international
Climeworks a été fondée à peu près au même moment que deux autres start-ups qui utilisent le système de capture directe du CO2 dans l'air : la société américaine Global Thermostat, ou le groupe canadien Carbon Engineering.  Global Thermostat a abandonné une entreprise avec Exxon Mobil pour construire une usine qui capturerait 4 000 tonnes par an, l'échelle d'Orca. Carbon Engineering. possède un prototype fonctionnel qui peut capturer environ 300 tonnes par an et travaille avec Occidental Petroleum pour construire une usine pouvant capturer 1 million de tonnes de CO2 par an. Cette start-up est aussi soutenue par l'entrepreneur et philanthrope américain Bill Gates.

Au total, en novembre 2021, dix-neuf usines « direct air capture » , la plupart petites, sont opérationnelles dans le monde, essentiellement en Europe, aux États-Unis et au Canada selon un rapport de l'Agence internationale de l'énergie.

En mai 2022, le gouvernement américain de Joe Biden annonce un plan de 3,5 milliards de dollars pour des projets de captage de dioxyde de carbone afin de contribuer à la lutte contre le changement climatique. Les quatre projets que le ministère américain de l'Énergie prévoit de financer pourraient capturer et stocker au moins un million de tonnes de CO2 par an. En théorie, 4 000 milliards de tonnes de CO2 pourraient être recyclées en Europe et 7 500 milliards de tonnes aux États-Unis.

Climeworks, qui a construit 16 installations de capture de CO2 à travers l'Europe, a pour objectif de capturer 1 % des émissions mondiales annuelles de CO2 – plus de 300 millions de tonnes – d'ici 2025, et 500 000 tonnes d'ici 2030. Cette technologie apportera son concours à la lutte contre le réchauffement climatique, mais le Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat  rappelle qu'agir sur la demande en énergie et la consommation de biens et services permettrait de réduire les émissions de gaz à effet de serre de 40 à 70 % d'ici à 2050.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Bibliographie

Rapport

Articles scientifiques

Articles de presse

Sites web

Site web de Carbfix
Site web de Climework

Articles connexes

Géoingénierie

Orca (usine)


İslam mezhepleri, başlangıçta İlk dönemlerde Ali ile Muaviye arasındaki savaş ve İslam toplumundaki bölünme Sünnilik, Şiîlik ve Haricilik şeklinde ilk mezhepsel ayrışmayı beraberinde getirmiştir.

Erken dönemlerde değişik İslam şehirlerinde, bu şehirlerin adıyla anılan fıkıh okulları bulunmaktaydı. Şam (Evzâ'i), Kufe, Basra, Medine okulları bunlardan bazılarıdır. Daha sonra Irak okulu Hanefi, Medine okulu ise Maliki mezhepleri olarak konsolide olmuş, Şafii, Hanbeli, Zahiri ve Ceriri mezhepleri daha sonra ortaya çıkmışlardır.

Daha sonra İnanç etrafında yapılan tartışmalarla inanç (itikad) mezhepleri de ortaya çıkmıştır.

Sünniler günümüzde inanç açısından Maturidilik ve Eşarilik, fıkhi açıdan da Hanefi, Şafii, Maliki, Hanbelî ve bazen ise  Caferi   mezheplerine bağlıdırlar. Bu dört mezhepten ilki olan Hanefi mezhebi itikad olarak Maturidiliğe diğer üç mezhep ise Eşariliğe bağlıdırlar. Bu mezhepler dışında, Sünnilik'te olan icma-i ümmete, kıyasa ve re'ye başvurulmasını kabul etmeyen, her sorunun çözümünü yalnızca Kur'an'da, Sünnette, sahabe ve tabiunun görüş ve uygulamalarında arayan bir grup daha vardır. Bunlar; Selefiyye veya Selefiyyun (geçmişe bağlılar) olarak anılır. Bu düşünceye bağlı olanlar ortaya çıkan yeni sorunlara çözüm bulmakta yetersiz kaldıkları için fazla yandaş kazanamamışlardır. Hanbelî mezhebi, Selefiyye anlayışına en yakın Sünni mezhep olarak tanınır.

Şiîlerin günümüzde bağlı olduğu en büyük fırka ise İmamiyye (Caferiyye)'dir. Bunun dışında sayıları az olmakla birlikte Zeydiyye ve İsmailîyye fırkaları da günümüze ulaşmıştır.

Haricilerin ise günümüze ulaşmış olan tek fırkası İbadiyyedir.

Sünnîlik

Sünnî inanç mezhepleri

İtîkâdî açıdan Sünni mezhepler iki tanedir. Bunlar

 Maturidi Mezhebi; İmam Maturidi tarafından kurulmuştur.
 Eş'ari Mezhebi; İmam Eş'ari tarafından kurulmuştur.

Bu iki mezhep temelde birdir. Ancak teferruata ait kırka yakın konuda fikir ayrılığına düşmüşlerdir. Fikir ayrılığına düştükleri konular sadece ayrıntılardan ibarettir.

Sünnî Fıkıh Mezhepleri

Fıkhî açıdan Sünni mezhepler dörttür. Bunlar:

 Hanefi mezhebi; İmam Ebu Hanife'nin adını taşıyan mezheptir.
 Şafii mezhebi; İmam Şafii'nin adını taşıyan mezheptir.
 Maliki mezhebi; İmam-ı Malik'nin adını taşıyan mezheptir.
 Hanbelî mezhebi; İmam Ahmed İbni Hanbel'nin adını taşıyan mezheptir.

Beşinci bir mezhep de var idi ancak zamanla tükenmiştir:
 Zahiri mezhebi; İmâm Dâvud-u Zâhîrî'nin adını taşıyan mezheptir.

Fıkhî mezhepler arasında uygulama ve ibadetlerde bazı farklılıklar görülür.

Şiîlik

 Câferîlik; İmâm Câʿfer-i Sâdık'ın adını taşıyan mezheptir.
 Zeydîlik; İmâm Ali Zeyn el-Âb'ı-Dîn'in oğlu Zeyd bin Ali'nin adını taşıyan mezheptir.
 İsmâilîlik; İmâm Câʿfer-i Sâdık'ın büyük oğlu imam İsmâ'îl bin Câʿfer el-Mûbarek'in adını taşıyan mezhep.

Haricîlik

Ali ve Muaviye arasında sürdürülen savaşlar ve mücadelelerde Hâricîler üçüncü grup olarak ortaya çıkmışlardır. Siyasi, itikadi veya tarihi bazı ihtilaflar nedeniyle Hâricîler kendi içlerinde de çeşitli gruplara ayrılmışlardır. Bu grupların bazıları İslam dininin temel akide kaidelerini takip ederken, bazıları İslam dininin itikadi prensiplerinden ayrılarak İslam dairesi dışı ilan edilmiş ve İslam dininin dışında incelenmiştir. Fakat bu grupların da temelleri Haricilere ve İslam dinine dayanır.

Haricî Grupların Başlıcaları
 Ezarika
 Sufr'îyye
 Necedat
 Acaride
 İbadiyye

İslâmda aşırı kabul edilenler
 Meymûn'îyye
 Yezîd'îyye
 Selefiye

Değerlendirme ve tartışmalar
Mezhepler ayet ve hadisleri farklı anlamaktan kaynaklanan ekollerdir ve farklı anlayışların en baştan itibaren İslam toplumunda bulunması doğaldır. Ancak farklı anlayışların kurumsallaşması anlamında Muhammed'in zamanında mezhep olduğu söylenemez.

Her inançta ister dini, ister siyasi, ister bilim olsun görüş ayrılıkları kaçınılmazdır. Bu durum, Kur'an'ın Hûd suresinin 118-119 ayetlerinde şöyle açıklanmaktadır;
 Rabbin dileseydi insanları elbette tek bir ümmet yapardı. Fakat onlar hep ihtilâf içinde olacaklardır, rabbinin esirgedikleri müstesna; zaten O insanları buna uygun yaratmıştır. Böylece rabbinin, "Andolsun ki cehennemi hem insanlar hem cinlerle dolduracağım" sözü yerini bulmuş oldu. (11:118-119)
Dini meselelerde inananlar Muhammed'e geliyor, soruyordu. Muhammed hüküm veriyor, muhakeme için gelenlerin davalarını neticeye bağlıyordu. Bazen de soruyu cevaplandırmak için konu hakkında vahiy gelmesini bekliyordu. Eğer ayet açıklamaya muhtaçsa, Muhammed o ayeti izah ediyordu.

Muhammed'in sözleri kesin bağlayıcılığa sahipti, bir meselede ne diyorsa, Sahabiler onu yapıyorlardı. Çünkü bununla ilgili Allah'ın emri vardı: "Muhammed size ne emretmişse alın, neyi yasaklıyorsa ondan da kaçının…" (Bkz: Kur'an 59:6-7)

Böyle olunca, Muhammed hayatta iken farklı mezheplere ihtiyaç yoktu diye düşünenler olsa da, günümüzde mezheplere gerçekten ihtiyaç var mı, yok mu diye farklı âlimler tarafınca tartışılmaktadır. Bu görüşün en önemli gerekçelerinden bir tanesi de, mezheplerin varlığının İslam âleminde birlik oluşturulmasında en büyük engellerden biri olarak görülmesidir. Mezhep karşıtı olanlar tarafından Kuran'dan Al-i İmran Suresi 103. ayet gösterilir: "Hep birlikte Allah'ın ipine (Kur'an'a) sımsıkı sarılın. Parçalanıp bölünmeyin..."

Kendilerini Kur'an Müslümanı olarak görenler mezhepleri kabul etmezler.

İnananlar açısından mezheplerin bağlayıcı olup olmadığı da tartışıla gelen meselelerdendir. Mezhepler arası çatışmaların siyasi, dini karakterde egemenlik ya da menfaate dayalı çatışmalar olması muhtemeldir.

Prof. Dr. Abdülaziz Bayındır:
 şeklinde geleneksel anlayışın Kur'an ifadelerinden farklılaşmış olabileceğine dikkat çeker.

Ayrıca bakınız
 İslam dini siyasi mezhepleri
 İslam dini itikadî mezhepleri
 İslam dini fıkıh mezhepleri

Dış bağlantılar
  Mezheplerin Kur'an İslamını değiştirmesi, Abdülaziz Bayındır
  Bazı mezhepsel farklılıklar

Dipnotlar

İslam'da bölünmeler

İslam mezhepleri


Olaylar
 Waldeck devleti kuruldu (dağılışı 1918).

Doğumlar
 6 Ağustos - İmparator Go-Toba, Japonya'nın geleneksel veraset düzenine göre 82. imparatoru (ö. 1239)
 6 Kasım - I. İzzeddin Keykâvus, Türkiye Selçuklu Sultanı (ö. 1220)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Kamil bin Adil, Eyyubiler Mısır Sultanı, Eyyubiler Suriye Sultanı (ö. 1238)

Ölümler
 30 Mart - Müstazî, Abbasi halifesi (d. 1142)
 27 Haziran - Turanşah, Eyyubi meliki
 18 Eylül - VII. Louis, Frank kralı, öncülü VI. Louis'in oğlu (d. 1120)
 24 Eylül - I. Manuil, Bizans imparatoru (d. 1118)
 25 Ekim - Salisburyli John, İngiliz din adamı, yazar, eğitimci ve diplomat (d. 1120)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Bekter, Moğol kabile şefi olan Yesügey'in oğlu ve sonraları Cengiz Han olarak anılacak olan Temuçin'in üvey kardeşi

1180


Husky Energy Inc. was a Canadian company engaged in hydrocarbon exploration, headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It operates in Western and Atlantic Canada, the United States and the Asia Pacific region, with upstream and downstream business segments. In the 2020 Forbes Global 2000, Husky Energy was ranked as the 1443rd-largest public company in the world.

In January 2021, Husky was acquired by Cenovus Energy. Its retail operations were sold to Federated Co-operatives and Parkland Corporation later that year.

History

Husky Energy was founded in 1938 in Cody, Wyoming as the Husky Refining Company, with the acquisition by Glenn Nielsen of assets of the 4-year-old Park Refining Company from founder Valentine Monroe Kirk. The first refinery was in Cody, with a second constructed later in Riverton, Wyoming.

In 1946, the Company relocated to Canada, with the Riverton refinery moved to Lloydminster, Alberta to take advantage of the expanding asphalt and heavy oil opportunities in the area. A wholly-owned subsidiary, Husky Oil and Refining Ltd., was created and headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The Cody refinery continued operations well into the 1970s, producing primarily asphalt. The refinery was razed in the late 1990s.

In 1978–1979, amid a bidding war between Petro-Canada and Occidental Petroleum, controlling ownership of Husky was acquired by Alberta Gas Trunk Lines (which in 1980 became NOVA Corporation).

In 1986, Hong Kong-based Li Ka-shing acquired 43% of Husky, and in 1991 he purchased NOVA's remaining interests, expanding his stake to 95%.

In 1998, Husky purchased Mohawk Oil, the largest independent chain of consumer filling stations in Western Canada.

In 2000, the company acquired Renaissance Energy, controlled by Li Ka-shing.

In 2003, it acquired the Canadian unit of the American-based Marathon Oil Corporation.

In November 2017, Husky acquired the a refinery in Superior, Wisconsin from Calumet Specialty Products Partners LP for $492 million.

In 2019, the company dropped a bid to acquire MEG Energy after failing to get shareholder support.

In 2020, Cenovus Energy offered to acquire Husky for $3.8 billion; Li would own 27.2% of the merged company. The acquisition was completed in January 2021.

Incidents
On April 26, 2018, Husky's Superior, Wisconsin refinery experienced a series of explosions and fires, resulting in 11 injuries, one of which was critical. A mandatory evacuation was issued by the Mayor of Superior, Jim Paine after the fire spread and caused multiple additional explosions and Douglas County, Wisconsin was declared a state of emergency. The black smoke resulting from the explosions and fire traveled as far south as Solon Springs, WI, 22 miles south of the refinery.

Operations

Its offshore business includes the Asia Pacific and Atlantic regions. In Asia Pacific, Husky's Liwan Gas Project in the South China Sea achieved first production in 2014. The liquids-rich BD field offshore of Indonesia came online in 2017, and the company is advancing additional shallow water fields.

Husky also has a portfolio of oil sands leases, encompassing some 2,500 square kilometres in the Fort McMurray region of northern Alberta. Its Sunrise Energy Project achieved first production in early 2015.

In the Atlantic region, off Canada's East Coast, the company holds interests in 20 exploration licenses and producing properties at Terra Nova and White Rose. In the United States, the company owns a refinery in Lima, Ohio, a refinery in Superior, Wisconsin and holds a 50% ownership interest with BP in the BP-Husky Toledo Refinery in Oregon, Ohio.

Assets and holdings

At 2015 year-end, Husky Energy had total proved reserves before royalties of 1.3 billion boe and probable reserves of 1.6 billion boe. In 2015 its reserves replacement ratio was 166% (136% including economic factors), reflecting new additions from heavy oil thermal projects, the Sunrise Energy Project, the Liwan Gas Project and the company's natural gas fields offshore Indonesia. It owns approximately 490 retail stations in Canada.

Husky is the operator of the White Rose field and a partner in the Terra Nova project in the Jeanne d'Arc Basin offshore Newfoundland. The White Rose field (located offshore Newfoundland in the Jeanne d'Arc Basin) includes two production wells at South White Rose that came online in 2015. Exploration work is underway at the Bay du Nord discovery area in the Flemish Pass, with partner Statoil.

Husky also owns a 40% interest in the Wenchang project offshore China, located near the mouth of the Pearl River. The remaining 60% of the project is owned by the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC). Husky is advancing the liquids-rich BD field offshore Indonesia, along with three additional shallow water fields.

Husky owns and operates the Lloydminster Heavy Oil Upgrader in Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, the Asphalt Refinery in Lloydminster, Alberta, the Lima Refinery in Lima, Ohio, and the Superior Refinery in Superior, Wisconsin, and is a 50% owner with BP of a refinery in Toledo, Ohio. Husky also operates the Husky Lloydminster Ethanol Plant and the Minnedosa Ethanol Plant.

Husky Energy's operations are divided into two business segments: Upstream and Downstream.

The Upstream division focuses on oil and gas exploration and extraction. In addition to its existing producing assets and opportunities in Heavy Oil and Western Canada, the company has identified three pillars for growth: the Asia Pacific Region, the Oil Sands and the Atlantic Region.

Its Heavy Oil business include seven thermal developments in Saskatchewan.

The company's Western Canada portfolio includes a focus on resource plays.

In the Asia Pacific Region, Husky's Liwan Gas Project in the South China Sea began production in 2014. Husky is advancing the liquids-rich BD field offshore Indonesia, along with three additional shallow water fields.

Husky has a portfolio of oil sands leases, encompassing 2,500 square kilometres in the Fort McMurray region of northern Alberta. Its Sunrise Energy Project achieved first production in early 2015 and supports online applicants.

Husky is using steam-assisted gravity drainage technology at Sunrise, where bitumen is heated with steam to reduce its viscosity. When the liquid becomes more fluid, it is pumped to the surface and back to the central facility.

Husky has managed the terminal operations for Western Canada Select (WCS)—one of North America's largest heavy crude oil streams— since it came on stream in 2004.

Downstream
The Lloydminster Upgrader, in Lloydminster, Alberta, converts heavy oil to a high-quality, low sulphur synthetic oil.

Husky's asphalt refinery, in Lloydminster, Alberta, produces more than 30 different types and grades of road asphalt.

Husky's Ethanol Plant in Minnedosa, Manitoba has been producing ethanol to be blended into gasoline since 1981. In 2007 it was expanded and produces about 130 million litres of ethanol per year.

The Husky Lloydminster Ethanol Plant came online in 2006 and produces 130 million litres of ethanol per year. In Canada ethanol is blended into gasoline. Feedstock for the plant is mainly non-food feed-grade wheat purchased locally. The plant can also produce Corn ethanol.

Like other Midwest refiners, Husky was revamping its Lima, Ohio refinery to process Western Canadian Select, (WCS) a heavier but less expensive crude oil. Since 2012 "Lima has run over 60,000 bpd of Canadian crude, but only about 3,000 bpd of that would be particularly heavy with an API gravity below 30." In early January 2015, an explosion damaged the refinery's 26,000-bpd isocracker unit. Later that year Husky announced that, given the low price of oil, it would postpone its US$300 million crude oil flexibility project. The project will process up to 40,000 bpd of WCS.

Husky and BP arranged a joint venture in 2008 in order to develop and process Alberta bitumen through which Husky acquired a 50% share in the 155,000-bpd BP-Husky Toledo Refinery in Oregon, Ohio and BP acquired a 50% share of the Husky-operated Sunrise field in Alberta. This refinery has been upgraded with a coker and is processing bitumen from Sunrise.

Retail operations
In December 2009, Husky acquired 98 Sunoco and Petro-Canada stations in Ontario as part of Suncor Energy's acquisition of Petro-Canada.

In October 2015, Husky announced an agreement with Imperial Oil to combine its commercial cardlock network with Esso's network. As part of the agreement, all Husky cardlock locations were rebranded as Esso cardlocks in 2017, and selected retail locations—including Husky's travel centres—were also converted to Esso.

In January 2019, Husky stated that it was exploring the sale of its retail network and Prince George refinery.  In December 2021, Husky announced its intent to sell 337 gas stations to Parkland Fuel and Federated Co-operatives, retaining only its commercial fuels business. Per a ruling by the Competition Bureau, both companies will be required to divest certain locations to each other or third-parties. Federated Co-operatives will transfer its locations to local members under the Co-op brand, or independent owners under the Tempo brand.

Corporate governance
Notable members of the board of directors of Husky Energy are: Victor Li, Canning Fok, Asim Ghosh, Stephen Bradley, Eva Kwok, and Frederick Ma.

Tommy Douglas served as a director of Husky Oil after his retirement from politics in 1979.

The current Chief Executive Officer and President of Husky is Rob Peabody. Peabody assumed the role in December 2016, taking over the position from Asim Ghosh, who had served as the CEO since 2010.

References

External links

Companies formerly listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
Oil companies of Canada
Natural gas companies of Canada
CK Hutchison Holdings
Companies based in Calgary
Energy companies established in 1938
Non-renewable resource companies established in 1938
Retail companies established in 1938
Gas stations in Canada
Automotive fuel retailers
Canadian brands
Truck stop chains
1938 establishments in Wyoming
2021 mergers and acquisitions

Husky Energy


Svijet

Književna djela

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

Hrvatska i u Hrvata

Književna djela

Događaji

Osnivanja

Nagrade i priznanja

Rođenja

Smrti

 22. siječnja – Matija Antun Relković, hrvatski prozaik (* 1732.)

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Književnost u 1798.


El Congo es una región geográfica del África ecuatorial situada en la Selva lluviosa tropical del África Central llamada Selva del Congo.  Debe su nombre al grupo étnico predominante de la región, los congo y al reino que fundaron en 1400, el Reino del Congo; nombre que a la actualidad han heredado la República Democrática del Congo y la República del Congo.

Tratándose de un término histórico, los límites de la región del Congo pueden ser muy variables. Usualmente se considera que el área incluye a las 2 repúblicas mencionadas y a Cabinda, antiguo Congo portugués. Pero desde el punto de vista geográfico se le relaciona con la Cuenca del Congo, por lo que alcanza parte de la República Centroafricana, Camerún y otros países vecinos. Biogeográficamente la selva se extiende hasta el Golfo de Guinea, formando un conjunto de ecosistemas relacionados que los organismos ecológicos internacionales suelen denominar Bosques de la Cuenca del Congo (WWF, USAID), constituido básicamente por toda la selva ecuatorial del África Central. En el  se le llamó en ocasiones Baja Guinea a la región al sur del río Congo en oposición a la Alta Guinea en el África Occidental.

Demográficamente se considera a la región como un área cultural, con un predominio de los pueblos bantúes y presencia minoritaria de los pueblos pigmeos. Geológicamente la región se asienta en el Cratón del Congo.

Geología

Cratón del Congo

Desde el punto de vista geológico, la región del Congo constituye un cratón originado en el Paleoproterozoico, hace más de 2500 millones de años. Abarca el África Central desde Sudán del Sur hasta Angola. Cuando el continente Gondwana se partió en África y Sudamérica hace 200 millones de años, una pequeña parte del cratón del Congo se quedó en Brasil formando el cratón de São Francisco.

Formación de la Cuenca del Congo
Durante el Paleozoico, la región del Congo fue sometida a sucesivos hundimientos que dieron lugar a la formación de un gran lago. Dislocaciones del Cenozoico pusieron a este lago en contacto con el mar. Sedimentos lacustres procedentes de las mesetas circundantes dieron su forma final a la cuenca del Congo y a la red hidrográfica actual.

Ecología

La selva del Congo

También denominada Bosques de la cuenca del Congo, Selvas del África Central o región del Golfo de Guinea y Cuenca del Congo. Los ecosistemas forestales de la región ocupan la mayor parte del África central, desde las costas del Océano Atlántico del Golfo de Guinea a las montañas albertinas del Rift al Este. Constituye la segunda mayor selva tropical continua del mundo y representa aproximadamente una quinta parte de los bosques con dosel cerrado del mundo tropical. Esta vasta área alberga una gran biodiversidad, incluyendo más de 10.000 especies de plantas, 1000 especies de aves, 400 especies de mamíferos y tres de las cuatro especies de grandes simios. Es también el hogar de más de 24 millones de personas, muchas de las cuales dependen de la selva para su subsistencia.

Cubre más de 1.800.000 kilómetros cuadrados destacando seis países:

Sin embargo la región incluye parte de los países circundantes, tales como Nigeria, Santo Tomé y Príncipe, Uganda, Ruanda y Burundi, llegando a una pequeña parte de Benín, Tanzania y Angola.

Aún conserva un área sustancial, aunque ha ido declinando rápidamente. El 75 por ciento de selva remanente de África se encuentra en esta región. La mayor parte se encuentra en la cuenca del Río Congo (Congo Democrático), y a pesar de que el bosque continuo se extendía desde el África occidental, ha sufrido una severa deforestación, debido a la tala y a la agricultura. La utilización de madera en África Central, principalmente en Gabón, Camerún y Congo, se incrementó para llenar el vacío que dejaron los exportadores madereros de África occidental al retirarse del mercado. Como consecuencia, la deforestación en África Central se aceleró a la tasa máxima de cualquier región, durante los 80 e inicios de los 90. En conjunto, África tuvo la mayor tasa de deforestación de cualquier región biogeográfica en los periodos de 1980-1990, 1990-2000 y 2000-2005.

Ecorregiones
Dentro de esta región biogeográfica, se encuentran varias ecorregiones, todas ellas consideradas del tipo bioma de selva lluviosa y figuran como zonas prioritarias para la conservación. Entre ellas tenemos:

 Selva alta albertina.
 Selva baja del Congo nororiental
 Selva baja del Congo central
 Selva pantanosa del Congo oriental
 Selva pantanosa del Congo occidental
 Selva baja del Congo noroccidental
 Selva costera ecuatorial atlántica
 Selva baja insular del golfo de Guinea
 Selva alta de Bioko y monte Camerún
 Selva de la cordillera de Camerún
 Selva costera del Cross-Sanaga y Bioko
 Selva de transición del Cross-Níger
 Selva pantanosa del delta del Níger
 Selva baja de Nigeria

Historia

Prehistoria

Los humanos modernos ocuparon la región muy pronto, la cultura Sangoense se desarrolló en África central hace más de 130.000 años. Uno de los restos arqueológicos más antiguos que testimonia la aparición de los humanos modernos son puntas de arpón para pescar, develando complejidad en su elaboración y con una antigüedad de unos 85.000 años, son prueba que en el Congo se desarrolló el comportamiento humano moderno al menos 40.000 años antes que en Europa.

La evidencia genética sostiene que desde hace aproximadamente 60.000 años la población dominante fueron los pueblos pigmeos cazadores-recolectores. Pero hace unos 4500 años llegan pueblos bantúes procedentes de Nigeria y Camerún, y El Congo se convierte en el centro de la expansión bantú hacia el sur según la evidencia lingüística y genética, lo que conllevó la difusión agrícola y el predomino de los pueblos bantúes sobre los pigmeos hasta el punto de producirse la extinción de las lenguas pigmeas primigenias.

Edad Media y Moderna
A partir del  se constituyeron reinos o estados más organizados, entre los que destacan:
 Reino del Congo
 Imperio luba
 Reino de Ndongo

La exploración europea condujo a la conquista y administración de las siguientes entidades:
 Congo portugués.
 Congo francés que luego formó parte del África Ecuatorial Francesa.
 Estado Libre del Congo que luego deviene en el Congo Belga.

Enlaces externos
 Selvas de la región afrotropical, Selva tropical del Congo y Selva del Congo en imágenes de Mongabay.com
 Selva del Congo de África .com
 Selva tropical del Congo de Lular.com
 La cuenca del río Congo de El próximo viaje.com
 The Congo rainforest of central Africa de Greenpeace

Referencias

Congo
Ecorregiones de bosque tropical húmedo

El Congo (región)


La publicación Rolde, subtitulada Revista de cultura aragonesa, es la revista de la asociación cultural Rolde de Estudios Aragoneses (REA), declarada de Utilidad Pública por el Ministerio de Interior en 1997. Nacida en noviembre de 1977 y con periodicidad variable aunque generalmente trimestral, Rolde es la revista cultural aragonesa más longeva y el fruto de la primera asociación nacionalista aragonesa posterior a la Guerra Civil.

Origen

La revista fue impulsada en noviembre de 1977 por los propios fundadores de la asociación REA, cuando esta aún se llamaba Rolde de Estudios Nacionalista Aragonés (RENA): José Luis Melero (que con el tiempo se convirtió en un reputado bibliófilo y escritor y fue, además, consejero del Real Zaragoza), que aún pertenece al Consejo de Redacción, José Ignacio López Susín, (nombrado miembro del Consejo de las Lenguas de Aragón en 2011 y Director General de Política Lingüística del Gobierno de Aragón), Jorge Cáncer, Guillermo Bovio y Carlos Polite.

A todos estos inquietos estudiantes de la Universidad de Zaragoza (apenas tenían 20 años), se sumaron más tarde nombres a los que el tiempo también dotaría de gran prestigio como Vicente Pinilla, Salvador Badía, Julia Ara, Chesús Bernal, José Luis Acín y Antonio Peiró. En 2003 se incorporó quien en la actualidad sigue coordinando las labores de la revista (Antonio Pérez Lasheras y Gerardo Alquézar lo hicieron anteriormente): Víctor Juan Borroy, profesor de la Universidad de Zaragoza, director del Museo Pedagógico de Aragón, ensayista y novelista.

Línea ideológica

Ya desde el editorial de su primer ejemplar, la revista demostró actuar sobre dos ejes, el político y el cultural, si bien en 1991 la primera vertiente perdió protagonismo en favor de la segunda. Al considerar que la Chunta Aragonesista, partido fundado cinco años antes por muchos de los socios del REA, ya defendía los valores del nacionalismo aragonés de izquierdas, la asociación prescindió de la palabra "nacionalista" en su nombre. Sin embargo, la revista ha conservado siempre el compromiso aragonesista de los primeros Roldes y se ha posicionado muy firmemente a favor de la plena autonomía y en contra del trasvase del Ebro.

Objetivo editorial
La revista ha realizado inmensos esfuerzos para reivindicar la cultura aragonesa en diferentes momentos históricos y en muy variadas disciplinas, con el objetivo de fomentar su análisis, comprensión y difusión. Destaca también el esfuerzo puesto en la promoción de jóvenes artistas y escritores aragoneses: desde la propia página web (www.rolde.org) se invita a los jóvenes creadores a enviar sus colaboraciones a la revista, sin que la falta de experiencia o renombre sea un impedimento. Muchos de los más importantes escritores aragoneses comenzaron publicando en Rolde sus primeros trabajos.

Situación actual
Actualmente la revista subsiste sobre todo gracias a sus cerca de 500 suscriptores, dado que su irregular periodicidad acaba resultando un inconveniente para la venta directa en la mayoría de quioscos. Desde 2006, algunos contenidos de los tres o cuatro números anuales pueden descargarse gratuitamente en formato PDF desde su página web. Puntualmente, con ocasión de acontecimientos especiales, la revista realiza números dobles monográficos (Destacan los dedicados, por ejemplo, a Miguel Labordeta y Joaquín Costa). El último número (el 138-139) fue un homenaje colectivo al recientemente fallecido Félix Romeo, escritor, crítico, presentador e intelectual de incalculable influencia en la sociedad aragonesa y gran amigo y colaborador de la revista.

Colaboradores
Pese a que los contenidos de Rolde son cedidos gratuitamente por sus autores, la revista puede alardear de haber visto pasar por sus páginas a los más ilustres literatos, intelectuales y artistas aragoneses (y no solo aragoneses) de la época reciente.

Escritores:

 Eloy Fernández Clemente
 José Antonio Labordeta
 Luis Alegre
 Félix Romeo
 José Luis Melero
 Ignacio Martínez de Pisón
 Antón Castro
 Francho Nagore Laín
 Óscar Latas Alegre
 Vicente Pinilla
 Antonio Pérez Lasheras
 Ángel Guinda
 Agustín Sánchez Vidal

Artistas:

 Jorge Gay
 Natalio Bayo
 José Manuel Broto
 Ignacio Fortún
 Antonio Saura
 Salvador Victoria
 Julia Dorado
 José Herrera
 Pepe Cerdá

Revistas de Aragón
Revistas en aragonés
Revistas en español
Medios de comunicación de Aragón
Nacionalismo aragonés

Rolde: revista de cultura aragonesa


L'Association Sportive des Postes, Télégraphes et Téléphones (abrégé ASPTT), regroupe les associations sportives omnisports marocaines des fonctionnaires des PTT fondes en 1892.

Histoire
Article détaillé : PTT Maroc

C'est à Tanger, au milieu du  siècle, que des bureaux de poste étrangers ont fait leur apparition au Maroc. Ils permettaient aux pays d'assurer une présence dans le Royaume en vue de gérer les transactions commerciales par le biais de leurs établissements postaux, véritables clés de voûte du développement économique, social et culturel. Ces établissements postaux étrangers ont par la suite été développés dans l'ensemble des villes du nord du Maroc :
 Bureaux français en 1854 ;
 Bureaux espagnols en 1865 ;
 Bureaux anglais en 1872 ;
 Bureaux allemands en 1899.

Liste des clubs fédérés sous le nom d'ASPTT
Au Maroc, de nombreux clubs sont fédérés par leur histoire commune sous le nom de ASPTT, dont :

 ASPTT Casablanca
 ASPTT Mohammédia
 ASPTT Meknès
 ASPTT Oujda
 ASPTT Rabat
 ASPTT Fès

Voir aussi

Liens externes
 Liste des ASPTT du Maroc

Club omnisports au Maroc

ASPTT Maroc


Šefik Bešlagić (Gornja Tuzla, 6. travnja 1908. – Sarajevo, 18. studenoga 1990.) bosanskohercegovački kulturni povjesničar.

Životopis
Osnovnoškolsko obrazovanje završio je u Doboju, nižu gimnaziju u Tuzli. Učiteljsku školu završio je u Sarajevu 1928., a višu pedagošku školu pohađao je u Zagrebu od 1935. do 1937., gdje je i diplomirao. U vremenu od 1938. do 1943. kao nastavnik službovao je u Drnišu, Konjicu i Tuzli, a od 1947. do 1949. bio je direktor gimnazije u Doboju. Vanredno je studirao u Beogradu na Filozofskom fakultetu od 1949. do 1950. Godine 1955. dobio je zvanje stručnog suradnika, 1959. zvanje savjetnika, a 1961. zvanje višeg stručnog saradnika.  Od 1952. do 1967. (kada je i umirovljen) bio je direktor Zemaljskog zavoda za zaštitu spomenika kulture i prirodnih rijetkosti (Zavoda za zaštitu spomenika kulture) SR Bosne i Hercegovine. Umro je 19. studenoga 1990.

Obnašao je dužnost predsjednika Društva konzervatora Jugoslavije te urednika časopisa Naše starine. Najvećim dijelom svoga djelovanja istraživao je srednjovjekovne nadgrobne spomenike, a posebno stećke. Dobitnikom je Dvadesetsedmojulske nagrade SR Bosne i Hercegovine za 1972. i nagradom "Veselin Masleša" za naučnoistraživački rad, kao i Plakete grada Sarajeva, Plakete grada Doboja te Povelje Turističkog saveza SR Bosne i Hercegovine.

Izbor iz djela
 Kupres (1954.)
 Stećci na Blidinju (1959.)
 Kalinovik (1962.)
 Grborezi (1964.)
 Popovo (1966.)
 Stećci Centralne Bosne (1967.)
 Stećci – Kataloško topografski pregled (1971.)
 Stećci – kultura i umjetnost (1982.)
 Kamene stolice srednjovjekovne Bosne i Hercegovine (1985.)
 Leksikon stećaka (posmrtno, 2004.)

Izvori

Bosanskohercegovački povjesničari

Šefik Bešlagić


Coral is a feminine given name derived from the  precious coral used to make jewelry. The name is ultimately derived from the Greek word korallion and the Latin coralium.

The name came into fashion in the Anglosphere in the late 1800s along with other gemstone names for girls. Coral necklaces were traditionally worn by young children to protect them from illness.

Usage
The name was at the height of popularity in most English-speaking countries in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20th century. Its greatest popularity in Spain was between 1980 and 2010. The name has since declined in popularity but remains in regular use. In the United States, 128 newborn girls were named Coral in 2021. Name variants Coralie and Coraline are also in regular use for girls.

Notable people
Coral Aguirre, pen name of Argentinean-born playwright, musician, and professor of literature Angélica Claro Canteros (born 1938)
Coral Amiga, English actress
Coral Atkins (1936-2016), English actress who opened and ran a home for disadvantaged children
Coral Barbas, Spanish academic who is a professor at the Universidad CEU San Pablo in Madrid, Spain and is known for her research on metabolomics and integration of chemical data
Coral Bell (1923-2012), Australian academic who wrote about international relations and power politics
Coral Bentley (born 1984), retired Australian synchronized swimmer who competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics
Coral Bistuer (born 1966), Spanish taekwondo practitioner
Coral Bracho (born 1951), Mexican poet, translator, and doctor of Literature
Coral Browne (1913-1991), Australian-American stage and screen actress
Coral Buttsworth (1900-1985), Australian tennis player
Coral Casado Ortiz (born 1996), Spanish professional racing cyclist
Coral Drouyn (born 1945), English-Australian actress, singer, and screenwriter/story editor
Coral Egan, Canadian jazz and pop singer
Coral-Jade Haines (born 1996), English women's footballer
Coral Herrera (born 1977), Spanish feminist writer and communicator based in Costa Rica, known for her critique of the concept of romantic love and her contributions to queer studies
Coral Hull (born 1965), Australian author, poet, artist, and photographer
Coral Lansbury (1929-1991), Australian-born feminist writer and academic
Coral Palmer (born 1942), former New Zealand netball player and coach
Coral Petkovich, Australian writer and translator
Coral Bernadine Pollard (born circa 1940), Barbadian artist
Coral Short (born 1973), queer Canadian multimedia artist and coordinator
Coral Smith (born 1979), American former reality television personality
Coral Taylor (born 1961), Australian female rally co-driver
Coral Wong Pietsch (born 1947), American lawyer who serves as a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for Veteran Claims

Fictional characters
Coral in Finding Nemo
Coral in Faerie Tale Theatre's "The Little Mermaid"
Coral in Saban's Adventures of the Little Mermaid
Coral in The Chronicles of Amber
Coral in Cocktail
Coral in Losing Gemma
Coral in South Sea Sinner
Coral in Dead Ringers
Coral in Sea Wees
Coral in Business with Friends
Coral in The Power and the Glory
Coral in Permissive
Coral in Studio One
Coral in Marvin's Room
Coral in Taxi
Coral in Armchair Theatre
Coral in Marshall Law
Coral in Killer Net
Coral in Strong Medicine
Coral in My Favorite Martians
Coral in The Magic Roundabout
Coral in Water Rats
Coral in Mercy Peak
Coral in Blue Bayou
Coral in The Wedding Video
Coral in Within These Walls
Coral in Assault on Precinct 13
Coral in Jonathan Creek
Coral in La Mariée était en noir
Coral in L'Amour
Coral in Gotita de amor
Coral in El Deseo
Coral in Corazones al límite
Coral Fabre in Profundo carmesí
Coral Mermaid in Amy, la niña de la mochila azul
Coral Machado in Todo por tu amor
Coral Labrada in En carne propia
Coral Torress Olavaria in Ser bonita no basta
Coral Davis in Malpractice
Coral Stacey in Family Affairs
Coral Oates in Class Act
Coral Manning in Ground Control: Dark Conspiracy
Coral O'Connor in Echo Point
Coral Harland in Mountain Justice
Coral Careen in Dr. Heckyl and Mr. Hype
Coral Garrett in Holby City
Coral Bloom in Shortland Street
Coral Richardson in All Saints
Coral Lambert in Prisoner
Coral Whitman in Baywatch
Coral Ward in Sons and Daughters
Coral Grable in Animal Behavior
Coral Kiss in SeaChange
Coral Wilson in The Force
Coral Hoople in Common Law Cabin
Coral Trollarwise in Trollz
Coral Lasonne in Crossroads
Coral Mills in The Hughleys
Coral Mayberry in Lou Grant
Coral Prescott in "Flashpoint", a 1966 episode of the Australian TV series Homicide
Coral Musker in Orient Express
Coral Galvins in Law & Order
Coral Watson in Ironside
Coral King in Home and Away
Coral Lips in Arabian Nights (2000)
Miss Coral in I Never Promised You A Rose Garden
Coral-Ann in The Troubleshooters
Cure Coral (a.k.a Sango Suzumura) in Tropical-Rouge! PreCure

References

English feminine given names
Feminine given names
Given names derived from gemstones

Coral (name)


Dany Chamoun (; 26 August 1934 – 21 October 1990) was a prominent Lebanese politician.  A Maronite Christian, the younger son of former President Camille Chamoun and brother of Dory Chamoun, Chamoun was also a politician in his own right.

Biography

Early life and education
Chamoun was born in Deir el-Qamar on 26 August 1934. He was the younger son of the former President Camille Chamoun. He studied civil engineering in the United Kingdom at Loughborough University

Political career

Chamoun reported that he had not had any interest in politics before the Lebanon civil war. He became the National Liberal Party Secretary of Defense in January 1976, after the death of its predecessor Naim Berdkan. As Supreme Commander of the NLP's military wing, the Tigers, he also played a major role in the early years of the Lebanese Civil War.

By 1980, the Phalangist-dominated Lebanese Forces were under the command of Bachir Gemayel. The Tigers were eliminated as a military force in a surprise attack by Gemayel's militia on 7 July 1980.

Chamoun's life was spared, and he fled to the Sunni Muslim-dominated West Beirut. He then went into self-imposed exile.

He served as General Secretary of the National Liberal Party from 1983 to 1985, when he replaced his father as the party leader. In 1988, he became President of the revived Lebanese Front—a coalition of nationalist and mainly Christian parties and politicians that his father had helped to found. The same year, he announced his candidacy for the Presidency of Lebanon to succeed Amine Gemayel (Bashir's brother), but Syria (which by this time occupied some 70 percent of Lebanese territory) vetoed his candidacy.

Gemayel's term expired on 23 September 1988 without the election of a successor. Chamoun declared his strong support for Michel Aoun, who had been appointed by the outgoing president to lead an interim administration and went on to lead one of two rival governments that contended for power over the next two years. He strongly opposed the Taif Agreement, which not only gave a greater share of power to the Muslim community than they had enjoyed previously, but more seriously, in Chamoun's opinion, formalized what he saw as the master-servant relationship between Syria and Lebanon, and refused to recognize the new government of the President Elias Hrawi, who was elected under the Taif Agreement.

War period
On January 18, 1976 Dany Chamoun was one of the militia commanders that participated in the Karantina Massacre, Chamoun conducted an interview after the massacre in which he denied that it was a massacre, instead referring to it as a "concise military operation" aimed at reclaiming private property.

On June 28, 1976 Dany Chamoun led the attack on Tal el-Zaatar palestinian camp which resulted in a significant loss of life and displacement of Palestinian refugees. Dany Chamoun and Bachir Gemayel claimed that they didn't destroy the entire camp out of concern for the lives of civilians.

Death
On 21 October 1990, Chamoun, along with his second wife Ingrid Abdelnour (aged 45), and his two sons, Tarek (aged 7) and Julian (aged 5), were killed.

Chamoun was survived by his two daughters Tracy (through his first wife) and Tamara, eleven months old at the time of the massacre. Tracy had been overseas at the time of the massacre while Tamara survived.

Aftermath and trials
On 24 June 1995, the Lebanese Tribunal found Samir Geagea guilty of the murder of Dany Chamoun and his family. He was sentenced to death commuted to life in prison with hard labour. Co-defendants Camille Karam and Rafic Saadeh were sentenced to ten and one year respectively. Ten other members of the Lebanese Forces were sentenced to life in absentia. The case was based entirely on circumstantial evidence and the trial was described by Amnesty International as seriously flawed. Geagea remained on trial for the Saydet al-Najat Church bombing.  The verdict was rejected by a part of the Lebanese public opinion and by Dany's brother, Dory Chamoun, who declared that the Syrian occupation army was responsible for the massacre. Geagea was released as a part of a joint goodwill national reconciliation policy, after the Syrian departure.

See also
 List of assassinated Lebanese politicians
 List of attacks in Lebanon
 Tracy Chamoun

References

External links
Jean-Marc Aractingi, La politique à mes trousses, éditions L'Harmattan, Paris, 2006 ().

1934 births
1990 deaths
People from Chouf District
Lebanese Maronites
Assassinated Lebanese politicians
Deaths by firearm in Lebanon
Warlords
People murdered in Lebanon
National Liberal Party (Lebanon) politicians
Terrorism deaths in Lebanon
People of the Lebanese Civil War
Children of presidents of Lebanon
Chamoun family
Candidates for President of Lebanon
Lebanese anti-communists
1990s assassinated politicians

Dany Chamoun