The Yugoslav Wars were a series of separate but related ethnic conflicts, wars of independence, and insurgencies that took place in the SFR Yugoslavia from 1991 to 2001. The conflicts both led up to and resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia, which began in mid-1991, into six independent countries matching the six entities known as republics that had previously constituted Yugoslavia: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and North Macedonia (then named Macedonia). Yugoslavia's constituent republics declared independence due to unresolved tensions between ethnic minorities in the new countries, which fuelled the wars. While most of the conflicts ended through peace accords that involved full international recognition of new states, they resulted in a massive number of deaths as well as severe economic damage to the region.

During the initial stages of the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) sought to preserve the unity of the Yugoslav nation by crushing all republic governments. However, it increasingly came under the influence of Slobodan Milošević, whose government invoked Serbian nationalism as an ideological replacement for the weakening communist system. As a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and Macedonians, and effectively became a fighting force of only Serbs and Montenegrins. According to a 1994 report by the United Nations (UN), the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia; instead, it aimed to create a "Greater Serbia" from parts of Croatia and Bosnia. Other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the Yugoslav Wars, such as "Greater Albania" (from Kosovo, idea abandoned following international diplomacy) and "Greater Croatia" (from parts of Herzegovina, abandoned in 1994 with the Washington Agreement).

Often described as one of Europe's deadliest armed conflicts since World War II, the Yugoslav Wars were marked by many war crimes, including genocide, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing, and mass wartime rape. The Bosnian genocide was the first European wartime event to be formally classified as genocidal in character since the military campaigns of Nazi Germany, and many of the key individuals who perpetrated it were subsequently charged with war crimes; the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the UN in The Hague, Netherlands, to prosecute all individuals who had committed war crimes during the conflicts. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, while the Humanitarian Law Center estimates at least 130,000 casualties. Over their decade-long duration, the conflicts resulted in major refugee and humanitarian crises.

Naming
The Yugoslav Wars have alternatively been referred to as:
"Wars in the Balkans"
"Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia"
"Wars of Yugoslav Secession/Succession"
"Third Balkan War": a term used in the title of a book by British journalist Misha Glenny which alludes to the two previous Balkan Wars waged from 1912 to 1913. However, some contemporary historians have previously applied this term to World War I, because they believe it to be a direct sequel to the 1912–13 wars.
"Yugoslav/Yugoslavia/Yugoslavian Civil War", "Civil War in Yugoslavia"

Background

The state of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and its population was mostly composed of South Slavic Christians, though the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. Clear ethnic conflict between the Yugoslav peoples only became prominent in the 20th century, beginning with tensions over the constitution of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in the early 1920s and escalating into violence between Serbs and Croats in the late 1920s after the assassination of Croatian politician Stjepan Radić. This nation lasted from 1918 to 1941, when it was invaded by the Axis powers during World War II, which provided support to the Croatian fascist Ustaše (founded in 1929), whose regime carried out the genocide of Serbs, Jews and Roma by executing people in concentration camps and committing other systematic and mass crimes inside its territory.

The predominantly Serb Chetniks, a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force, committed mass crimes against Muslims and Croats that are considered a genocide by several authors, and they also supported the instatement of a Serbian monarchy and the establishment of a Yugoslav federation. The Communist-led Yugoslav Partisans were able to appeal to all groups, including Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, and also engaged in mass killings. In 1945, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) was established under Josip Broz Tito, who maintained a strongly authoritarian leadership that suppressed nationalism.

After Tito's death in 1980, relations between the six republics of the federation deteriorated. Slovenia, Croatia and Kosovo desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clear that there was no solution that was agreeable to all parties, Slovenia and Croatia moved towards independence. Although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, events in 1990 proved to be decisive. In the midst of economic hardship and the fall of communism in eastern Europe in 1989, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no effective authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, two provinces and the Yugoslav People's Army, and the communist leadership was divided along national lines.

The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Slobodan Milošević. Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded an even more centralized federation and Serbia's dominant role in it.

At the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in January 1990, the Serbian-dominated assembly agreed to abolish the single-party system. However, Slobodan Milošević, the head of the Serbian Party branch (League of Communists of Serbia) used his influence to block and vote down all other proposals from the Croatian and Slovene party delegates. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, a symbolic event representing the end of "brotherhood and unity".

The survey of Yugoslav citizens that was conducted in 1990 showed that ethnic animosity existed on a small scale. Compared to the results from 25 years before, there was a significant increase in ethnic distance among Serbs and Montenegrins toward Croats and Slovenes and vice versa.

Upon Croatia and Slovenia's declarations of independence in 1991, the Yugoslav federal government attempted to forcibly halt the impending breakup of the country, with Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Marković declaring that the secessions of Slovenia and Croatia were both illegal and contrary to the constitution of Yugoslavia, and he also expressed his support for the Yugoslav People's Army in order to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia. The Slovenes (represented by Milan Kučan and Lojze Peterle) and Croats argued that the act was not secession but disassociation (, ) from Yugoslavia as the federation was originally established as a voluntary union of peoples. The Badinter Commission ruled in November 1991 that the act was not secession but a separation as provided for by the constitution of the second Yugoslavia.

According to Stephen A. Hart, author of Partisans: War in the Balkans 1941–1945, the ethnically mixed region of Dalmatia held close and amicable relations between the Croats and Serbs who lived there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many early proponents of a united Yugoslavia came from this region, such as Ante Trumbić, a Croat from Dalmatia. However, by the time of the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars, any hospitable relations between Croats and Serbs in Dalmatia had broken down, with Dalmatian Serbs fighting on the side of the self-declared proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina.

Even though the policies throughout the entire socialist period of Yugoslavia seemed to have been the same (namely that all Serbs should live in one state), political scientist Dejan Guzina argues that "different contexts in each of the subperiods of socialist Serbia and Yugoslavia yielded entirely different results (e.g., in favour of Yugoslavia, or in favour of a Greater Serbia)". He assumes that the Serbian policy changed from conservative–socialist at the beginning to xenophobic nationalist in the late 1980s and 1990s.

In Serbia and Serb-dominated territories, violent confrontations occurred, particularly between nationalists and non-nationalists who criticized the Serbian government and the Serb political entities in Bosnia and Croatia. Serbs who publicly opposed the nationalist political climate during the Yugoslav wars were reportedly harassed, threatened, or killed. However, following Milošević's rise to power and the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars, numerous anti-war movements developed in Serbia. Protests were held against the actions of the Yugoslav People's Army, while protesters demanded the referendum on a declaration of war and disruption of military conscription, resulting in numerous desertions and emigrations.

With the escalation of the Yugoslav crisis, the JNA became
heavily dominated by Serbs. According to the former commander of the fifth army in Zagreb Martin Špegelj, 50% of the command positions were previously held by Croats, while a few years later at the beginning of the war all key positions were held by Serbs.

History

Conflicts

Slovenian War of Independence (1991)

The first of the conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA (Yugoslav People's Army) on 26 June 1991 after the separation of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991.

Initially, the federal government ordered the Yugoslav People's Army to secure border crossings in Slovenia. Slovenian police and Slovenian Territorial Defence blockaded barracks and roads, leading to stand-offs and limited skirmishes around the republic. After several dozen casualties, the limited conflict was stopped through negotiation at Brioni on 7 July 1991, when Slovenia and Croatia agreed to a three-month moratorium on separation. The Federal Army completely withdrew from Slovenia by 26 October 1991.

Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995)

Fighting in Croatia had begun weeks prior to the Ten-Day War in Slovenia. The Croatian War of Independence began when Serbs in Croatia, who were opposed to Croatian independence, announced their secession from Croatia.

In the 1990 parliamentary elections in Croatia, Franjo Tuđman became the first President of Croatia. He promoted nationalist policies and had a primary goal of the establishment of an independent Croatia. The new government proposed constitutional changes, reinstated the traditional Croatian flag and coat of arms, and removed the term "Socialist" from the title of the republic. The new Croatian government implemented policies that were seen as openly nationalistic and anti-Serbian in nature, such as the removal of the Serbian Cyrillic script from correspondence in public offices. In an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution, local Serb politicians organized a referendum on "Serb sovereignty and autonomy" in August 1990. Their boycott escalated into an insurrection in areas populated by ethnic Serbs, mostly around Knin, known as the Log Revolution.

Local police in Knin sided with the growing Serbian insurgency, while many government employees, mostly police where commanding positions were mainly held by Serbs and Communists, lost their jobs. The new Croatian constitution was ratified in December 1990, and the Serb National Council formed SAO Krajina, a self-proclaimed Serbian autonomous region.

Ethnic tensions rose, fueled by propaganda in both Croatia and Serbia. On 2 May 1991, one of the first armed clashes between Serb paramilitaries and Croatian police occurred in the Battle of Borovo Selo. On 19 May an independence referendum was held, which was largely boycotted by Croatian Serbs, and the majority voted in favour of the independence of Croatia. Croatia declared independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991. Due to the Brioni Agreement, a three-month moratorium was placed on the implementation of the decision that ended on 8 October.

The armed incidents of early 1991 escalated into an all-out war during the summer, with fronts being formed around the areas of the breakaway SAO Krajina. The JNA had disarmed the Territorial Units of Slovenia and Croatia prior to the declaration of independence, at the behest of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević. This was greatly aggravated by an arms embargo, imposed by the UN on Yugoslavia. The JNA was ostensibly ideologically unitarian, but its officer corps was predominantly staffed by Serbs or Montenegrins (70 percent).

As a result, the JNA opposed Croatian independence and sided with the Croatian Serb rebels. The Croatian Serb rebels were unaffected by the embargo because they were supported and supplied by the JNA. By mid-July 1991, the JNA moved an estimated 70,000 troops to Croatia. The fighting rapidly escalated, eventually spanning hundreds of square kilometers from western Slavonia through Banija to Dalmatia.

Border regions faced direct attacks from forces within Serbia and Montenegro. In August 1991, the Battle of Vukovar began, where fierce fighting took place with around 1,800 Croat fighters blocking the JNA's advance into Slavonia. By the end of October, the town was almost completely devastated as a result of land shelling and air bombardment. The Siege of Dubrovnik started in October with the shelling of UNESCO World Heritage Site Dubrovnik, where the international press was criticised for focusing on the city's architectural heritage, instead of reporting the destruction of Vukovar in which many civilians were killed.

On 18 November 1991, the battle of Vukovar ended after the city ran out of ammunition. The Ovčara massacre occurred shortly after Vukovar's capture by the JNA. Meanwhile, control over central Croatia was seized by Croatian Serb forces in conjunction with the JNA Corps from Bosnia and Herzegovina, under the leadership of Ratko Mladić.

In January 1992, the Vance Plan established UN controlled (UNPA) zones for Serbs in the territory which was claimed by the Serbian rebels as the self-proclaimed proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) and brought an end to major military operations, but sporadic artillery attacks on Croatian cities and occasional intrusions into UNPA zones by Croatian forces continued until 1995. The majority of Croatian population in RSK suffered heavily, fleeing or evicted with numerous killings, leading to ethnic cleansing. The fighting in Croatia ended in mid-1995, after Operation Flash and Operation Storm. At the end of these operations, Croatia had reclaimed all of its territory except the UNPA Sector East portion of Slavonia, bordering Serbia. Most of the Serb population in the reclaimed areas fled and became refugees. The areas of "Sector East", unaffected by the Croatian military operations, came under UN administration (UNTAES), and were reintegrated to Croatia in 1998 under the terms of the Erdut Agreement.

Bosnian War (1992–1995)

On 2 April 1992, a conflict engulfed Bosnia and Herzegovina as it also declared independence from rump Yugoslavia. The war was predominantly a territorial conflict between the Bosniaks, who wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of the newly independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the self-proclaimed Bosnian Serb proto-state Republika Srpska and the self-proclaimed Croat Herzeg-Bosnia, which were led and supplied by Serbia and Croatia respectively, reportedly with a goal of the partition of Bosnia, which would leave only a small part of land for the Bosniaks. On 18 December 1992, the United Nations General Assembly issued resolution 47/121 in which it condemned Serbian and Montenegrin forces for trying to acquire more territories by force.

The Yugoslav armed forces had disintegrated into a largely Serb-dominated military force. The JNA opposed the Bosnian-majority led government's agenda for independence, and along with other armed nationalist Serb militant forces attempted to prevent Bosnian citizens from voting in the 1992 referendum on independence. They failed to persuade people not to vote, and instead the intimidating atmosphere combined with a Serb boycott of the vote resulted in a resounding 99% vote in support for independence.

On 19 June 1992, the war in Bosnia broke out, though the Siege of Sarajevo had already begun in April after Bosnia and Herzegovina had declared independence. The conflict, typified by the years-long Sarajevo siege and the Srebrenica genocide, was by far the bloodiest and most widely covered of the Yugoslav wars. The Bosnian Serb faction led by ultra-nationalist Radovan Karadžić promised independence for all Serb areas of Bosnia from the majority-Bosniak government of Bosnia. To link the disjointed parts of territories populated by Serbs and areas claimed by Serbs, Karadžić pursued an agenda of systematic ethnic cleansing primarily against Bosnians through massacre and forced removal of Bosniak populations. Prijedor ethnic cleansing, Višegrad massacres, Foča ethnic cleansing, Doboj massacre, Zvornik massacre, siege of Goražde and others were reported.

At the end of 1992, tensions between Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks rose and their collaboration fell apart. In January 1993, the two former allies engaged in open conflict, resulting in the Croat–Bosniak War. In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosnian Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the Washington Agreement. After the successful Flash and Storm operations, the Croatian Army and the combined Bosnian and Croat forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina conducted an operation codenamed Operation Mistral in September 1995 to push back Bosnian Serb military gains.

The advances on the ground along with NATO air strikes put pressure on the Bosnian Serbs to come to the negotiating table. Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease-fire and negotiate an end to the war in Bosnia. The war ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement on 14 December 1995, with the formation of Republika Srpska as an entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the United States reported in April 1995 (three months before Srebrenica massacre) that nearly 90 percent of all the atrocities in the Yugoslav wars up to that point had been perpetrated by Serb militants. Most of these atrocities occurred in Bosnia.

Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–1998)

In the 1990's, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) was formed. They started carrying out attacks on Serb civilians. By the early 1990s, there were attacks on Serbian police forces and secret-service officials in retaliation for the abuse and murder of Albanian civilians. A Serbian policeman was killed in 1995, allegedly by the KLA. The KLA sought to destabilize the region, hoping the United States and NATO would intervene. Serbian patrols were ambushed and policemen were killed. It was only in the next year that the KLA organization took responsibility for these attacks.

The KLA, originally composed of a few hundred Albanians, attacked several police stations and wounded many police officers in 1996–1997. In February 1996 the KLA undertook a series of attacks against police stations and Yugoslav government employees, saying that the Yugoslav authorities had killed Albanian civilians as part of an ethnic cleansing campaign. On 22 April 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in several parts of Kosovo.

In January 1997, Serbian security forces assassinated KLA commander Zahir Pajaziti and two other leaders in a highway attack between Pristina and Mitrovica, and arrested more than 100 Albanian militants.Adem Jashari, as one of the founders and leaders of the KLA, was convicted of terrorism in absentia by a Yugoslav court on 11 July 1997. Human Rights Watch subsequently described the trial, in which fourteen other Kosovo Albanians were also convicted, as "[failing] to conform to international standards".

The NATO North Atlantic Council claimed the KLA was "the main initiator of the violence" and that it had "launched what appears to be a deliberate campaign of provocation". Pursuing Jashari for the murder of a Serb policeman, the Serbian forces again attempted to assault the Jashari compound in Prekaz on 22 January 1998. Between 1991 and 1997, mostly in 1996–97, 39 persons were killed by the KLA. Attacks between 1996 and February 1998 led to the deaths of 10 policemen and 24 civilians.

Kosovo War (1998–1999)

After September 1990 when the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution had been unilaterally repealed by the Socialist Republic of Serbia, Kosovo's autonomy suffered and so the region was faced with state-organized oppression: from the early 1990s, Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down. Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions, including banks, hospitals, the post office and schools. In June 1991, the University of Priština assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs. Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new school year beginning in September 1991, forcing students to study at home.

A NATO-facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October, but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed. When the killing of 45 Kosovar Albanians in the Račak massacre was reported in January 1999, NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force to forcibly restrain the two sides. Yugoslavia refused to sign the Rambouillet Accords, which among other things called for 30,000 NATO peacekeeping troops in Kosovo; an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory; immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law; and the right to use local roads, ports, railways, and airports without payment and requisition public facilities for its use free of cost.
NATO then prepared to install the peacekeepers by force, using this refusal to justify the bombings.

The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia followed, an intervention against Serbian forces with a mainly bombing campaign, under the command of General Wesley Clark. Hostilities ended  months later with the Kumanovo Agreement. Kosovo was placed under the governmental control of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo and the military protection of the Kosovo Force (KFOR). The 15-month war had left thousands of civilians killed on both sides and over a million displaced.

Insurgency in the Preševo Valley (1999–2001)

The Insurgency in the Preševo Valley was an armed conflict between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and ethnic-Albanian insurgents of the Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac (UÇPMB), beginning in June 1999. There were instances during the conflict in which the Yugoslav government requested KFOR support in suppressing UÇPMB attacks, since the government could only use lightly armed military forces as part of the Kumanovo Agreement, which created a buffer zone so the bulk of the Yugoslav armed forces could not enter. Yugoslav president Vojislav Koštunica warned that fresh fighting would erupt if KFOR units did not act to prevent the attacks that were coming from the UÇPMB.

Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia (2001)

The insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia was an armed conflict in Tetovo which began when the ethnic Albanian National Liberation Army (NLA) militant group began attacking the security forces of the Republic of Macedonia at the beginning of February 2001, and ended with the Ohrid Agreement. The goal of the NLA was to give greater rights and autonomy to the country's Albanian minority, who made up 25.2% of the population of the Republic of Macedonia (54.7% in Tetovo). There were also claims that the group ultimately wished to see Albanian-majority areas secede from the country, although high-ranking NLA members have denied this.

Arms embargo
The United Nations Security Council had imposed an arms embargo in September 1991. Nevertheless, various states had been engaged in, or facilitated, arms sales to the warring factions. In 2012, Chile convicted nine people, including two retired generals, for their part in arms sales.

War crimes

Genocide

It is widely believed that mass murders against Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina escalated into genocide. On 18 December 1992, the United Nations General Assembly issued resolution 47/121 condemning "aggressive acts by the Serbian and Montenegrin forces to acquire more territories by force" and called such ethnic cleansing "a form of genocide". In its report published on 1 January 1993, Helsinki Watch was one of the first civil rights organisations that warned that "the extent of the violence and its selective nature along ethnic and religious lines suggest crimes of genocidal character against Muslim and, to a lesser extent, Croatian populations in Bosnia-Hercegovina".

A telegram sent to the White House on 8 February 1994 by U.S. Ambassador to Croatia, Peter W. Galbraith, stated that genocide was occurring. The telegram cited "constant and indiscriminate shelling and gunfire" of Sarajevo by Karadzic's Yugoslav People Army; the harassment of minority groups in Northern Bosnia "in an attempt to force them to leave"; and the use of detainees "to do dangerous work on the front lines" as evidence that genocide was being committed. In 2005, the United States Congress passed a resolution declaring that "the Serbian policies of aggression and ethnic cleansing meet the terms defining genocide".

A trial took place before the International Court of Justice, following a 1993 suit by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro alleging genocide. The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 indirectly determined the war's nature to be international, though clearing Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by the forces of Republika Srpska in Srebrenica. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica and failed to punish those responsible, and bring them to justice.

War crimes were conducted simultaneously by different Serb forces in different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in Bijeljina, Sarajevo, Prijedor, Zvornik, Višegrad and Foča. The judges however ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica in 1995. The court concluded that other crimes, outside Srebrenica, committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide per se.

The crime of genocide in the Srebrenica enclave was confirmed in several guilty verdicts handed down by the ICTY, most notably in the conviction of the Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić.

Ethnic cleansing

Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, forced expulsion, or killing of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority. These examples of territorial nationalism and territorial aspirations are part of the goal of an ethno-state. Detention camps such as Omarska and Trnopolje were also designated as an integral part of the overall ethnic cleansing strategy of the authorities.

According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb and Croat forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and Republic of Serbian Krajina by the Serbs; and Herzeg-Bosnia by the Croats).

According to the ICTY, Serb forces from the SAO Krajina deported at least 80–100,000 Croats and other non-Serb civilians in 1991–92. The total number of exiled Croats and other non-Serbs range from 170,000 (ICTY), a quarter of a million people (Human Rights Watch) or as many as 500,000, according to the UNHCR. Also, at least 700,000 to as many as 863,000 Albanians were deported from Kosovo in 1999. More than 80% of the total population of Kosovo was displaced by June 1999. Further hundreds of thousands of Muslims were forced out of their homes by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina. By one estimate, the Serb forces drove at least 700,000 Bosnian Muslims from the area of Bosnia under their control. According to a 1994 U.N. report, Croatian forces also engaged in ethnic cleansing against Serbs in eastern and western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina region, though on a more restricted scale and in lesser numbers.

Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.

Wartime sexual violence and rape

War rape occurred as a matter of official orders as part of ethnic cleansing, to displace the targeted ethnic group. According to the Trešnjevka Women's Group, more than 35,000 women and children were held in such Serb-run "rape camps". Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač, and Zoran Vuković were convicted of crimes against humanity for rape, torture, and enslavement committed during the Foča massacres.

The evidence of the magnitude of rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina prompted the ICTY to openly deal with these abuses. Reports of sexual violence during the Bosnian War (1992–1995) and Kosovo War (1998–1999) perpetrated by the Serbian regular and irregular forces have been described as "especially alarming". The NATO-led Kosovo Force documented rapes of Albanian, Roma and Serbian women by both Serbs and members of the Kosovo Liberation Army.

Others have estimated that during the Bosnian War, between 20,000 and 50,000 women, mostly Bosniak, were raped. There are few reports of rape and sexual assault between members of the same ethnic group.

War rape in the Yugoslav Wars has often been characterized as a crime against humanity. Rapes which were perpetrated by Serb forces served to destroy the cultural and social ties which existed between the victims and their communities. Serbian policies allegedly urged soldiers to rape Bosniak women until they became pregnant as an attempt towards ethnic cleansing. Serbian soldiers hoped to force Bosniak women to carry Serbian children through repeated rape. Often Bosniak women were held in captivity for an extended period of time and only released slightly before the birth of a child conceived of rape. The systematic rape of Bosniak women may have carried further-reaching repercussions than the initial displacement of rape victims. Stress, caused by the trauma of rape, coupled with the lack of access to reproductive health care often experienced by displaced peoples, led to serious health risks for victimized women.

During the Kosovo War, thousands of Kosovo Albanian women and girls became victims of sexual violence. War rape was used as a weapon of war and it was also used as an instrument of systematic ethnic cleansing; rape was used to terrorize the civilian population, extort money from families, and force people to flee their homes. According to a report by the Human Rights Watch group in 2000, rape in the Kosovo War can generally be subdivided into three categories: rapes in women's homes, rapes during flight, and rapes in detention. The majority of the perpetrators were Serbian paramilitaries, but also included Serbian special police or Yugoslav army soldiers. Virtually all of the sexual assaults Human Rights Watch documented were gang rapes involving at least two perpetrators. Since the end of the war, rapes of Serbian, Albanian, and Roma women by ethnic Albanians – sometimes by members of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) – have been documented, but they have not occurred on a similar scale. Rapes frequently occurred in the presence, and with the acquiescence, of military officers. Soldiers, police, and paramilitaries often raped their victims in the full view of numerous witnesses.

A 2013 report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Croatia entitled 'Assessment of the Number of Sexual Violence Victims during the Homeland War on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia and Optimal Forms of Compensation and Support of Victims', determined the estimated victims (male and female) of rape and other forms of sexual assault on both sides to number between approximately 1,470 and 2,205 or 1,501 and 2,437 victims. Most victims were non-Serbs assaulted by Serbs. By region, the largest number of rapes and acts of sexual violence occurred in Eastern Slavonia, with an estimated 380–570 victims. According to the UNDP report, between 300 and 600 men (4.4–6.6% of those imprisoned) and between 279 and 466 women (or 30–50% of those imprisoned) suffered from various forms of sexual abuse while being held in Serbian detention camps and prisons (including those in Serbia proper). Between 412 and 611 Croat women were raped in the Serb-occupied territories, outside of detention camps, from 1991 to 1995. Croat forces were also known to have committed rapes and acts of sexual violence against Serb women during Operations Flash and Storm, with an estimated 94–140 victims. Sexual abuse of Serb prisoners also occurred in the Croat-run Lora and Kerestinec camps.

Humanitarian consequences and material damage

Casualties

Some estimates put the number of killed in the Yugoslav Wars at 140,000. The Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. Slovenia's involvement in the conflicts was brief, thus avoiding higher casualties, and around 70 people were killed in its ten-day conflict. The War in Croatia left an estimated 22,000 people dead, of which 15,000 were Croats and 7,000 Serbs.

Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the heaviest burden of the fighting: between 97,207 and 102,622 people were killed in the war, including 64,036 Bosniaks, 24,905 Serbs, and 7,788 Croats. By share, 65% of the killed were Bosniaks, 25% Serbs, and 8% Croats. In the Kosovo conflict, 13,535 people were killed, including 10,812 Albanians (80%) and 2,197 Serbs (16%). The highest death toll was in Sarajevo: with around 14,000 killed during the siege, the city lost almost as many people as the entire war in Kosovo.

In relative and absolute numbers, Bosniaks suffered the heaviest losses: 64,036 of their people were killed in Bosnia, which represents a death toll of over 3% of their entire ethnic group. They experienced the worst plight in the Srebrenica massacre, where the mortality rate of the Bosniak men (irrespective of their age or civilian status) reached 33% in July 1995.
The share of Bosniaks among all the civilian fatalities during the Bosnian War was around 83%, rising to almost 95% in Eastern Bosnia.

During the War in Croatia, 43.4% of the killed on the Croatian side were civilians.

Internally displaced persons and refugees

The Yugoslav Wars caused one of the largest refugee crises in European history. It is estimated that the wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo produced about 2.4 million refugees and an additional 2 million internally displaced persons.

The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused 2.2 million refugees or displaced, of which over half were Bosniaks. Up until 2001, there were still 650,000 displaced Bosniaks, while 200,000 left the country permanently.

The Kosovo War caused 862,979 Albanian refugees who were either expelled from the Serb forces or fled from the battle front. In addition, 500,000 to 600,000 were internally displaced, which means that, according to the OSCE, almost 90% of all Albanians were displaced from their homes in Kosovo by June 1999. After the end of the war, Albanians returned, but over 200,000 Serbs, Romani and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo. By the end of 2000, Serbia thus became the host of 700,000 Serb refugees or internally displaced from Kosovo, Croatia and Bosnia.

From the perspective of asylum for internally displaced or refugees, Croatia took the brunt of the crisis. According to some sources, in 1992 Croatia was the host to almost 750,000 refugees or internally displaced, which represents a quota of almost 16% of its population of 4.7 million inhabitants: these figures included 420 to 450,000 Bosnian refugees, 35,000 refugees from Serbia (mostly from Vojvodina and Kosovo) while a further 265,000 persons from other parts of Croatia itself were internally displaced. This would be equivalent of Germany being a host to 10 million displaced people or France to 8 million people.

Official UNHCR data indicate that Croatia was the host to 287,000 refugees and 344,000 internally displaced in 1993. This is a ratio of 64.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants. In its 1992 report, UNHCR placed Croatia #7 on its list of 50 most refugee burdened countries: it registered 316 thousand refugees, which is a ratio of 15:1 relative to its total population. Together with those internally displaced, Croatia was the host to at least 648,000 people in need of an accommodation in 1992. In comparison, Macedonia had 10.5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants in 1999.

Slovenia was the host to 45,000 refugees in 1993, which is 22.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants. Serbia and Montenegro were the host to 479,111 refugees in 1993, which is a ratio of 45.5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants. By 1998 this grew to 502,037 refugees (or 47.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants). By 2000 the number of refugees fell to 484,391 persons, but the number of internally displaced grew to 267,500, or a combined total of 751,891 persons who were displaced and in need of an accommodation.

Material damage

Material and economic damages brought by the conflicts were catastrophic. Bosnia and Herzegovina had a GDP of between $8–9 billion before the war. The government estimated the overall war damages at $50–$70 billion. It also registered a GDP decline of 75% after the war. 60% of the housing in the country had been either damaged or destroyed, which proved a problem when trying to bring all the refugees back home. Bosnia also became the most landmine contaminated country of Europe: 1820 km2 of its territory were contaminated with these explosives, which represent 3.6% of its land surface. Between 3 and 6 million landmines were scattered throughout Bosnia. Five thousand people died from them, of which 1,520 were killed after the war.

In 1999, the Croatian Parliament passed a bill estimating war damages of the country at $37 billion. The government alleges that between 1991 and April 1993 an estimated total of 210,000 buildings in Croatia (including schools, hospitals and refugee camps) were either damaged or destroyed from shelling by the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the JNA forces. Cities affected by the shelling were Karlovac, Gospić, Ogulin, Zadar, Biograd and others. The Croatian government also acknowledged that 7,489 buildings belonging to Croatian Serbs were damaged or destroyed by explosives, arson or other deliberate means by the end of 1992. From January to March 1993 another 220 buildings were also damaged or destroyed. Criminal charges were brought against 126 Croats for such acts.

Sanctions against FR Yugoslavia created a hyperinflation of 300 million percent of the Yugoslav dinar. By 1995, almost 1 million workers lost their jobs while the gross domestic product had fallen 55 percent since 1989. The 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia resulted in additional damages. One of the most severe was the bombing of the Pančevo petrochemical factory, which caused the release of 80,000 tonnes of burning fuel into the environment. Approximately 31,000 rounds of depleted Uranium ammunition were used during this bombing.

International war crimes trials: ICTY/IRMCT

The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was a body of the United Nations established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the Yugoslav Wars, and to try their perpetrators. The tribunal was an ad hoc court located in The Hague, Netherlands. One of the most prominent trials involved ex-Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, who was in 2002 indicted on 66 counts of crimes against humanity, war crimes and genocide allegedly committed in wars in Kosovo, Bosnia and Croatia. His trial remained incomplete since he died in 2006, before a verdict was reached. Nonetheless, ICTY's trial "helped to delegitimize Milosevic's leadership", as one scholar put it.

Several convictions were handed over by the ICTY and its successor, the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (IRMCT). The first notable verdict confirming genocide in Srebrenica was the case against Serb General Radislav Krstić: he was sentenced in 2001, while the Appeals Chamber confirmed the verdict in 2004. Another verdict was against ex-Bosnian Serb leader, Radovan Karadžić, who was also convicted for genocide. On 22 November 2017, general Ratko Mladić was sentenced to a life in prison.

Other important convictions included those of ultranationalist Vojislav Šešelj, paramilitary leader Milan Lukić, Bosnian Serb politician Momčilo Krajišnik, Bosnian Serb general Stanislav Galić, who was convicted for the siege of Sarajevo, the former Assistant Minister of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs and Chief of its Public Security Department, Vlastimir Đorđević, who was convicted for crimes in Kosovo, ex-JNA commander Mile Mrkšić as well as both of Republic of Serbian Krajina ex-Presidents Milan Martić and Milan Babić. The follow-up International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals convicted Jovica Stanišić and Franko Simatović, State Security Service officers within the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Serbia, and conclued:

The ICTY also declared about the political goals of the war:

Several Croats, Bosniaks and Albanians were convicted for crimes, as well, including ex-Herzegovina Croat leader Jadranko Prlić and commander Slobodan Praljak, Bosnian Croat military commander Mladen Naletilić, ex-Bosnian Army commander Enver Hadžihasanović and ex-Kosovo commander Haradin Bala.

In the Trial of Gotovina et al, Croatian Generals Ante Gotovina and Mladen Markač were ultimately acquitted on appeal in 2012.

By 2019, based on its statute, the ICTY concluded that the Serb officials were found guilty of persecutions, deportation and/or forcible transfer (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Vojvodina. They were also found guilty of murder (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo; as well as terror (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) and genocide (Article 4) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croat forces were not found guilty of anything in Croatia, but were found guilty of deportation, other inhumane acts (forcible transfer), murder and persecutions (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Bosniak forces were found guilty of inhuman treatment (grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, Article 2), murder; cruel treatment (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. One Albanian official was found guilty of torture, cruel treatment, murder (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) in Kosovo.

Aftermath

Gunrunning
After the fighting ended, millions of weapons were left with civilians who held on to them in case violence should resurface. These weapons later turned up on the arms black market of Europe.

In 2018 there were no exact official figures on how many firearms are missing; in Serbia authorities have given estimates ranging from 250,000 to 900,000 of different kinds are in circulation. In Bosnia, public reports state a figure of 750,000. At the end of 2017, a man entered a bus in Banja Luka carrying two bags with 36 hand grenades, three assault rifles, seven handguns, a mine and hundreds of cartridges with Gothenburg as the destination. He was stopped in the neighbouring country of Slovenia. A 26-year-old woman was stopped at the border to Croatia with three antitank weapons and a hand grenade. Police found four machine guns, three battle rifles, three assault rifles and a large quantity of explosives at the home of a 79-year-old man. According to a UNDP official, getting civilians to give up their arms to state authorities is complicated as people are then forced to trust that authorities will protect them. Instead, criminals collect the weapons. Some of the missing weapons were used in the November 2015 Paris attacks during which 130 people were killed by jihadists. Other arms were assault rifles used in the 2015 Gothenburg pub shooting.

Successor-state government efforts to reduce the prevalence of illegally held arms are co-ordinated through a Regional Approach to Stockpile Reduction (RASR) focused on reducing stockpiles, arms diversion and unexplained explosions in South-east Europe. Partners include the European Union, the US Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement, the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) and NATO's Support and Procurement Agency.  Funded by the US Government, activities include annual workshops attended by US government officials from the Departments of State and Defense and defense ministry representatives from the Yugoslav successor states .

Drug trafficking
Since the beginning of hostilities between warring factions in the former Yugoslavia, the Kosovo Liberation Army as well as the Serbian mafia have been involved in the illegal drug trade, particularly with West Asian heroin entering Central and Western Europe. In the early 1990's, 2,000 Albanians from Kosovo were held in Swiss jails on charges of arms and drug smuggling. Over the course of the war, a total of several tons of heroin were confiscated by Interpol and local law enforcement. Illegal drug smuggling operations also led to additional crimes all across Western Europe, which included bank robberies and extortion committed by criminal gangs operating out of Eastern Europe. The intensification of heroin consumption in Western Europe led to the expansion of open air drug markets, particularly in Switzerland. Bosnian criminal gangs continue to have a significant impact on global drug trafficking, through entering the lucrative cocaine trade.

Timeline

1990
Log Revolution. SAO Krajina is proclaimed over an indefinite area of Croatia.

1991

Slovenia and Croatia declare independence in June, North Macedonia in September. War in Slovenia lasts ten days, and results in dozens of fatalities. The Yugoslav army leaves Slovenia after intervention of the UN which insisted that Slovenia be allowed to leave, but supports rebel Serb forces in Croatia. The Croatian War of Independence begins in Croatia. Serb areas in Croatia declare independence, but are recognized only by Belgrade.
Vukovar is devastated by bombardments and shelling, and other cities such as Dubrovnik, Karlovac and Osijek sustain extensive damage. Refugees from war zones overwhelm Croatia, while Europe is slow to accept refugees.
In Croatia, about 250,000 Croats and other non-Serbs forced from their homes or fled the violence.

1992

Vance Plan signed, creating four United Nations Protection Force zones for Serbs and ending large-scale fighting in Croatia.
Bosnia declares independence. Bosnian war begins with the Bosnian Serb military leadership, most notably Ratko Mladić, trying to create a new, separate Serb state, Republika Srpska, through which they would conquer as much of Bosnia as possible for the vision of either a Greater Serbia or a rump Yugoslavia.
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia proclaimed, consisting of Serbia and Montenegro, the two remaining republics.
United Nations impose sanctions against FR Yugoslavia for its support of the unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina in Croatia and Republika Srpska in Bosnia. In May 1992, Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia become UN members. FR Yugoslavia claims being sole legal heir to SFRY, which is disputed by other republics. UN envoys agree that Yugoslavia had 'dissolved into constituent republics'.
The Yugoslav army retreats from Bosnia, but leaves its weapons to the army of Republika Srpska, which attacks poorly armed Bosnian cities of Zvornik, Kotor Varoš, Prijedor, Foča, Višegrad, Doboj. Prijedor ethnic cleansing and siege of Sarajevo start. Hundreds of thousands of non-Serbian refugees flee.
Bosniak-Croat conflict begins in Bosnia.

1993

Fighting begins in the Bihać region between Bosnian Government forces loyal to Alija Izetbegović, and Bosniaks loyal to Fikret Abdić, also supported by the Serbs.
Sanctions in FR Yugoslavia, now isolated, create hyperinflation of 300 million percent of the Yugoslav dinar.
Ahmići massacre: the Croat forces kill over a hundred Bosnian Muslims.
Battle of Mostar. UNESCO World Heritage Site Stari Most (The Old Bridge) in Mostar, built in 1566, was destroyed by Croatian HVO forces. It was rebuilt in 2003.
ARBiH launch Operation Neretva '93 against HVO in Herzegovina which ended in a stalemate.

1994
Markale market shelling in Sarajevo.
Peace treaty between Bosniaks and Croats arbitrated by the United States, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina formed.
FR Yugoslavia starts slowly suspending its financial and military support for Republika Srpska.

1995
Srebrenica massacre reported. 8,000 Bosniaks killed by Serb forces.
Croatia launches Operation Flash, recapturing a part of its territory, but tens of thousands of Serb civilians flee from the area. The RSK responds with the Zagreb rocket attack.
Croatia launches Operation Storm, reclaiming all UNPA zones except Eastern Slavonia, and resulting in exodus of 150,000–200,000 Serbs from the zones. Yugoslav forces do not intervene. War in Croatia ends.
NATO launches a series of air strikes on Bosnian Serb artillery and other military targets. Croatian and Bosnian army start a joint offensive against Republika Srpska.
Dayton Agreement signed in Paris. War in Bosnia and Herzegovina ends. Aftermath of war is over 100,000 killed and missing and two million people internally displaced or refugees.

1996
FR Yugoslavia recognizes Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina.
Fighting breaks out in Kosovo between Albanians rebels and FR Yugoslav authorities.
Following allegations of fraud in local elections, tens of thousands of Serbs demonstrate in Belgrade against the Milošević government for three months.

1998
Eastern Slavonia peacefully reintegrated into Croatia, following a gradual three-year handover of power.
Fighting in Kosovo gradually escalates between Albanians demanding independence and the state.

1999
Račak massacre, Rambouillet talks fail. NATO starts a military campaign in Kosovo and bombards FR Yugoslavia in Operation Allied Force.
Following Milošević's signing of an agreement, control of Kosovo is handed to the United Nations, but still remains a part of Yugoslavia's federation. After losing wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Kosovo, numerous Serbs leave those regions to find refuge in remainder of Serbia. In 1999, Serbia was host to some 700,000 Serb refugees or internally displaced.
Fresh fighting erupts between Albanians and Yugoslav security forces in Albanian populated areas outside of Kosovo, with the intent of joining three municipalities to Kosovo (Preševo, Bujanovac and Medveđa).
Franjo Tuđman dies. Shortly after, his party loses the elections.

2000
Slobodan Milošević is voted out of office, and Vojislav Koštunica becomes the new president of Yugoslavia. With Milošević ousted and a new government in place, FR Yugoslavia restores ties with the west. The political and economic sanctions are suspended in total, and FRY is reinstated in many political and economic organizations, as well as becoming a candidate for other collaborative efforts.

2001
An Albanian insurgency begins in Macedonia.
Conflict in Southern Serbia ends in defeat for Albanians.
Conflict in Macedonia ends with the Ohrid Agreement.

Notes

References

Citations

General and cited sources

Books
 Allcock, John B. Explaining Yugoslavia (Columbia University Press, 2000)
 Allcock, John B. et al. eds., Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia (1998)

 Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)

Scholarly journal articles

Other sources

 Ferguson, Kate. An investigation into the irregular military dynamics in Yugoslavia, 1992–1995. Diss. University of East Anglia, 2015

External links

 Video on the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
 Information and links on the Third Balkan War (1991–2001)
 Nation, R. Craig. "War in the Balkans 1991–2002"

 Bitter Land, a multilingual database of mass graves in the Yugoslav Wars by Balkan Investigative Reporting Network

Aftermath of the Cold War
Conflicts in 1991
Conflicts in 1992
Conflicts in 1993
Conflicts in 1994
Conflicts in 1995
Proxy wars
Wars involving NATO
Wars involving the Balkans
Wars of independence

Yugoslav Wars


බෙස්තියගේ දොන් බර්ටි සංඝතිස්ස ගුණතිලක (උපත 1924 අගෝස්තු 2 - විපත 2022 මාර්තු 6), හෙවත් බර්ටි ගුණතිලක, යනු ශ්‍රී ලංකා සිනමාවේ, වේදිකාවේ සහ රූපවාහිනියේ නළුවෙකි. ඔහු වඩාත් ජනප්‍රිය වන්නේ "විනෝද සමය" රූපවාහිනී විකට කතාමාලාවේ "බබා" චරිතය සඳහා ය.

පෞද්ගලික ජීවිතය
බර්ටි ගුණතිලක 1924 අගෝස්තු 2 වන දින මහනුවර අම්පිටියේදී උපත ලැබීය. අම්පිටිය ප්‍රාථමික විද්‍යාලයෙන් මූලික අධ්‍යාපනය ලබා මහනුවර සංඝරාජ පිරිවෙනෙන් ද්විතීයික අධ්‍යාපනය ලබා ඇත. ඊට පසු ආයුර්වේද වෛද්‍ය විද්‍යාලයට බැඳුණු අතර පාසල් කාලයෙන් පසු ඔහු කුලියාපිටිය ගල්පොල විද්‍යාලයේ සහකාර ගුරුවරයෙකු ලෙස සේවයට බැඳුණි. ඊට පසු තම රැකියාව එපා වනතුරු පොත් කඩයක් පටන් අරන් සිංහල බෞද්ධයා පත්තරේ සෝදුපත් කියවන්නෙක් විදියට වැඩ කළේය. ඔහු 1953 මහජන පුවත්පත ආරම්භ කරන විට බෙදාහැරීමේ අංශයේ සිටියේය. 1953 දී ඔහු චන්ද්‍රරත්න මානවසිංහ සහ මීමන ප්‍රේමතිලක ගේ සහාය ඇතිව ලංකා සීමාසහිත එක්සත් ප්‍රවෘත්ති පත් සමාගම හෙවත් ලේක්හවුස් ප්‍රකාශකයන් හා සම්බන්ධ විය. ඔහු එහි කනිෂ්ඨ සෝදුපත් කියවන්නෙක් ලෙස වසර දොළහක් සේවය කළේය. ඒ කාලයේ ඔහු ලේක්හවුස් වෘත්තීය සමිතිය විසින් ගෙන ගිය අරගලවලට සම්බන්ධ වු නිසා ඔහුට රැකියාව අහිමි වෙන ලදි.

ඔහු විවාහ වී සිටියේ සෝමා ගුණතිලක නමැති ගුරුවරිය සමඟය. ගොඩකවෙල ඇමටියාගොඩ විද්‍යාලයේ පැවැති උත්සවයකට ආරාධිතයකු ලෙස ගුණතිලකට ආරාධනා කර තිබූ පාසලක උත්සවයකදී ඔහුට සෝමා හමුවිය. ඔහුගේ බිරිඳ 1993 දී මිය ගියාය. මෙම යුවළට පුතුන් දෙදෙනෙක් - භාරත සහ හර්ෂ; සහ දියණියන් දෙදෙනෙක් - ජීවනී සහ කුමුදුනී - සිටී. භාරත රූපවාහිනී කාර්මික ශිල්පියෙකි. හර්ෂ ව්‍යාපාරිකයෙකි. කුමුදුනී රූපවාහිනී සංස්ථාවේ සේවය කරයි.

ගුණතිලක 2022 මාර්තු 6 වන දින කහවත්ත කහවත්ත මූලික රෝහලේදී වයස අවුරුදු 97 දී මිය ගියේය.

වෘත්තීය ජීවිතය
ගුණතිලක 1947 දී "ළමා පිටිය" වැඩසටහනෙන් රේඩියෝ සිලෝන් වෙත සම්බන්ධ විය. ඉන්පසු ජෝසප් සෙනෙවිරත්න, වින්සන්ට් වීරසේකර, හැරියට් සුරවීර, පිටිපන සිල්වා, සිසිර කුමාර මානික්කආරච්චි සමඟින් 1948 "විනෝද සමය" ගුවන් විදුලි නාට්‍යයට සම්බන්ධ වෙන ලදි.

1954 දී ගුණතිලක ඔහුගේ සමීප මිතුරන් වූ ඇනස්ලි ඩයස් සහ සැමුවෙල් රොද්‍රිගු සමඟ එක්ව රේඩියෝ සිලෝන් සඳහා "විහිළු තහළු" විකට වැඩසටහන ඉදිරිපත් කළේ එච්.ඩී. විජේදාසගේ ආරාධනාවකට අනුවය. එය අතිශයින් ජනප්‍රිය වූ අතර "ඩයස්-සැමුවෙල්-බර්ටි" ජනතාව හඳුන්වනු ලැබුවේ ''රාජ තුන් කට්ටුව'' යනුවෙනි. පසු වසරවලදී, ගැමුණු විජේසූරිය, ජෝසප් සෙනෙවිරත්න, ඇල්ෆ්‍රඩ් පෙරේරා සහ මර්සි එදිරිසිංහ වැනි තවත් බොහෝ චරිත වැඩසටහනට ඇතුළත් විය.

1983 දී ශ්‍රී ලංකාවේ රූපවාහිනී වැඩසටහන් ආරම්භ විය. රූපවාහිනියේ ආරම්භක වැඩසටහන "නන්දන වින්දන" සඳහා බර්ටි, ඇනස්ලි සහ සැමුවෙල් යන තිදෙනා ඇතුළත් විය. 1960 සිට 1990 දක්වා ඔවුන් රූපවාහිනියේ සහ ගුවන් විදුලියේ සෑම විකට වැඩසටහනකම පාහේ පෙනී සිටියහ. වරක් ගුණතිලක ජනප්‍රිය හාස්‍ය කතා නාට්‍යයක් වන ''විනෝද සමය'' හි කෙටි කලිසමක්, කටේ සූප්පුවක්, වතුර බෝතලයක්, පැන්සලක් සහ පොතක් පැළඳ පාසල් සිසුවකු ලෙස "ටූ ටෝන්" චරිතයක් මවා පෑවේය. මෙම චරිතය අතිශයින්ම ජනප්‍රිය විය. ඔහු "විනෝද සමය" හි "අපුරු මළුව", "සන්තෝෂය", "අතේ අමරුව", "අපුරු ආදරය", "මාදුරු මැදිරි රෑ ගැනීම", "ඌ මට ගැහුව, මට ඌ ගැහුව" වැනි ජනප්‍රිය කථාංග බොහොමයක් ලියා ඇත.. මෙම වාක්‍ය ඛණ්ඩය ශ්‍රී ලංකාව තුළ ඉතා ජනප්‍රිය විය.

ඔහුගේ මංගල සිනමා දර්ශනය 1951 දී රාජා වහබ් කාශ්මීර් විසින් අධ්‍යක්ෂණය කරන ලද "බණ්ඩා නගරයට පැමිණීම" චිත්‍රපටය හරහා පැමිණියේය. එය දේශීය චිත්‍රාගාරයක නිර්මාණය වූ පළමු චිත්‍රපටය ලෙසද ඉතිහාස ගතවේ. ඉන්පසුව "පෙම් මල් මාලා", "පාලම යට", "දෙවියනි සත්‍ය සුරකින්න", "මන මෝහිනී" සහ "සෝමි බෝයිස්" වැනි ජනප්‍රිය වාණිජ චිත්‍රපටවල සහය ප්‍රහසන චරිත රැසක රඟපෑවේය.

2013 දී කිංස්ලි විජේසුන්දර විසින් රචිත ඔහුගේ චරිතාපදානය "සදාදරණීය බර්ටි" ගුණතිලක මහතාගේ 89 වැනි උපන්දින සාදයට සමගාමීව කොස්නාතොට ගොඩකවෙල පිහිටි ඔහුගේ නිවසේදී එළිදැක්විණි.

2013 නොවැම්බර් මස 13 වන දින සංස්කෘතික කටයුතු අමාත්‍යාංශය විසින් ජාතික සාහිත්‍ය කලා උළෙලේ දී "දේශ නේත්‍රු" සම්මානය පිරිනමන ලදී. 2014 ජනවාරි 12 වැනි දින රූපවාහිනී රාජ්‍ය සම්මාන උළෙලේදී රූපවාහිනී ක්ෂේත්‍රයට කළ සේවය වෙනුවෙන් ඔහුට ජීවිතයේ එක් වරක් පිදෙන් යාවජීව සම්මානයෙන් පිදුම් ලබා ඇත. 2021 දී, සිංහල සිනමාවේ මුල් දශකවල සිංහල සිනමාවට අමිල මෙහෙවරක් කළ කලාකරුවන් 21 දෙනෙකු වෙනුවෙන් පවත්වන ලද උත්සවයේදී ඔහු සම්මානයෙන් පිදුම් ලැබීය.

යොමු කිරීම්

බාහිර සබැඳි
 ජනමාධ්‍ය ඇමති රංගන ශිල්පි බර්ටි ගුණතිලකගේ සැපදුක් විමසයි
 මිය ගිය පසුව නොව ජීවත්ව සිටියදී අගය කළ යුතු චරිත – බර්ටි ගුණතිලක
 ප්‍රවීණ කලාකරු බර්ටි ගැන හුවමාරුවන පුවත ව්‍යාජයි
 රවීණ කලාකරු බර්ටි ගුණතිලක මහතාගේ ඉල්ලීමට ජනපතිගේ අවධානය
 ඉස්සර කරපු දේවල් කරන්ඩ බැරිකම ගැන තමා දුක
 විහිලු තහළු, උසුළු විසුළු, කවටකම් ආදිය දියුණු සමාජයක ලක්ෂණද?
 බර්ටිට ඇමති විමල්ගෙන් නිවසක්
 ඌ මට ගැහුවා මට ඌ ගැහුවා

ශ්‍රී ලාංකික නළුවෝ
සිනමාවේ හාස්‍ය නළුවෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික හාස්‍ය නළුවෝ
ශ්‍රී ලාංකික අධ්‍යක්ෂවරු
සිංහල ජනයා

බර්ටි ගුණතිලක


Joseph Glover, normalmente referido como José ou Josse, (falecido no final de 1638) era um ministro inglês não conformista, conhecido por ter sido um pioneiro da impressão nas colónias inglesas da América do Norte e um dos principais responsáveis pela criação do Harvard College.

Glover foi reitor de Sutton, então no condado de Surrey, de 1628 a 1636. Casou-se pela segunda vez em cerca de 1630 com Elizabeth Harris, filha do reverendo Nathaniel Harris, Reitor de Bletchingley em Surrey.

Glover visitou a Nova Inglaterra em cerca de 1634 e obteve apoio para o que viria a ser o Harvard College. Conseguiu comprar uma impressora e um equipamento para assegurar fundos tanto na Inglaterra como na Holanda e assinou um acordo com os ferreiros Stephen e Matthew Daye e três trabalhadores em 7 de junho de 1638 em Cambridge para enviar o equipamento para a América a bordo do navio John of London e mais tarde operá-lo. Glover morreu de febre durante a viagem de regresso à América mais tarde em 1638, mas a sua esposa e os irmãos Daye puderam continuar com o seu trabalho na instalação de uma impressora na Nova Inglaterra.

O documento da Sociedade Antiquária Americana que Glover tinha escrito o seu testamento a 16 de maio de 1638, e foi aprovado no Tribunal de Prerrogativa de Cantuária a 22 de dezembro desse ano.

Usando o equipamento que Glover tinha adquirido, Daye publicou The Free Man's Oath em 1639, que era documentação para um juramento de lealdade aos colonos. The Whole Booke of Psalmes, publicado no ano seguinte, em 1640, que se tornou o primeiro livro completo a ser publicado no Novo Mundo.

José e Elizabeth Glover tiveram um filho, John, que também se licenciou em Harvard e doutor, e morreu em 1668.

Jose Glover


Secure copy protocol (SCP) is a means of securely transferring computer files between a local host and a remote host or between two remote hosts. It is based on the Secure Shell (SSH) protocol. "SCP" commonly refers to both the Secure Copy Protocol and the program itself.

According to OpenSSH developers in April 2019, SCP is outdated, inflexible and not readily fixed; they recommend the use of more modern protocols like SFTP and rsync for file transfer. As of  OpenSSH version 9.0, scp client therefore uses SFTP for file transfers by default instead of the legacy SCP/RCP protocol.

Secure Copy Protocol
The SCP is a network protocol, based on  the BSD RCP protocol,  which supports file transfers between hosts on a network.  SCP uses Secure Shell (SSH) for data transfer and uses the same mechanisms for authentication, thereby ensuring the authenticity and confidentiality of the data in transit.  A client can send (upload) files to a server, optionally including their basic attributes (permissions, timestamps). Clients can also request files or directories from a server (download).  SCP runs over TCP port 22 by default.  Like RCP, there is no RFC that defines the specifics of the protocol.

Function
Normally, a client initiates an SSH connection to the remote host, and requests an SCP process to be started on the remote server.  The remote SCP process can operate in one of two modes:
 source mode, which reads files (usually from disk) and sends them back to the client, or
 sink mode, which accepts the files sent by the client and writes them (usually to disk) on the remote host.
For most SCP clients, source mode is generally triggered with the -f flag (from), while sink mode is triggered with -t (to).  These flags are used internally and are not documented outside the SCP source code.

Remote to remote mode
In the past, in remote-to-remote secure copy, the SCP client opens an SSH connection to the source host and requests that it, in turn, open an SCP connection to the destination.  (Remote-to-remote mode did not support opening two SCP connections and using the originating client as an intermediary).  It is important to note that SCP cannot be used to remotely copy from the source to the destination when operating in password or keyboard-interactive authentication mode, as this would reveal the destination server's authentication credentials to the source.  It is, however, possible with key-based or GSSAPI methods that do not require user input.

Recently, remote-to-remote mode supports routing traffic through the client which originated the transfer, even though it is a 3rd party to the transfer. This way, authorization credentials must reside only on the originating client, the 3rd party.

Issues using talkative shell profiles
SCP does not expect text communicating with the SSH login shell.  Text transmitted due to the SSH profile (e.g. echo "Welcome" in the .bashrc file) is interpreted as an error message, and a null line (echo "") causes SCP client to deadlock waiting for the error message to complete.

scp program
The SCP program is a software tool implementing the SCP protocol as a service daemon or client.  It is a program to perform secure copying.

Perhaps the most widely used SCP program is the OpenSSH command line scp program, which is provided in most SSH implementations. The scp program is the secure analog of the rcp command.  The scp program must be part of all SSH servers that want to provide SCP service, as scp functions as SCP server too. Since OpenSSH 9.0, the program has been updated to use the newer, more secure SFTP protocol; an -O option is added for using SCP with old SCP-only servers.

Syntax
Typically, a syntax of scp program is like the syntax of cp (copy):

Copying local file to a remote host:
 scp LocalSourceFile user@remotehost:directory/TargetFile

Copying file from remote host and copying folder from remote host (with -r switch):
 scp user@remotehost:directory/SourceFile LocalTargetFile
 scp -r user@host:directory/SourceFolder LocalTargetFolder

Note that if the remote host uses a port other than the default of 22, it can be specified in the command. For example, copying a file from host:
 scp -P 2222 user@host:directory/SourceFile TargetFile

Other clients
As the Secure Copy Protocol implements file transfers only, GUI SCP clients are rare, as implementing it requires additional functionality (directory listing at least). For example, WinSCP defaults to the SFTP protocol. Even when operating in SCP mode, clients like WinSCP are typically not pure SCP clients, as they must use other means to implement the additional functionality (like the ls command). This in turn brings platform-dependency problems.

More comprehensive tools for managing files over SSH are SFTP clients.

Security
In 2019 vulnerability  was announced related to the openssh SCP tool and protocol allowing users to overwrite arbitrary files in the SCP client target directory.

See also

References

Cryptographic software
Cryptographic protocols
Network file transfer protocols

Secure copy protocol


Transpoziția Bamberger este o reacție de transpoziție specifică fenil-hidroxilaminelor. Se realizează în mediu puternic acid și are loc transpoziția compușilor la 4-aminofenoli. Reacția a fost denumită după chimistul german Eugen Bamberger (1857–1932).

Hidroxilaminele de la care se pornește sunt de obicei sintetizate prin reacții de hidrogenare a nitrobenzenilor corespunzători, utilizând catalizatori de rodiu sau zinc.

Mecanism de reacție
Mecanismul transpoziției Bamberger începe cu protonarea N-fenil-hidroxilaminei notate cu 1. Poate avea loc de asemenea și o N-protonare, notată cu 2, care este favorizată, dar conduce la un produs nefavorabil. În urma reacției de protonare notată cu 3 se obține un intermediar cu ion nitreniu 4, care poate suferi atacul nucleofil al unei molecule de apă, în urma căruia se obține 4-aminofenolul 5, care este produsul final dorit al reacției de transpoziție.

Vezi și
Reacția de alchilare Friedel-Crafts
Transpoziție Hofmann-Martius
Transpoziție Fries
Transpoziție Fischer-Hepp

Note

Reacții de transpoziție
Bamberger

Transpoziție Bamberger


Vogatsikó, en , est un village du dème d'Argos Orestique, district régional de Kastoria, en Macédoine-Occidentale, Grèce.

Selon le recensement de 2011, la population du village s'élève à .

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Liens externes

Village en Macédoine-Occidentale

Vogatsikó


An Dactylorhiza sivasiana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Eugen Baumann, Siegfried Künkele, Jany Renz ngan Gerd Taubenheim. An Dactylorhiza sivasiana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Dactylorhiza, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Turkey. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Dactylorhiza

Dactylorhiza sivasiana


Muros (sardinski: Mùros) je grad i općina (comune) u pokrajini Sassariju u regiji Sardiniji, Italija. Nalazi se na nadmorskoj visini od 305 metara i ima 852 stanovnika. Prostire se na 11,23 km². Gustoća naseljenosti je 76 st/km².Susjedne općine su: Cargeghe, Osilo, Ossi i Sassari.

Izvori

Gradovi na Sardiniji

Muros


Şarkılarım Dağlara, Ahmet Kaya'nın 14. müzik albümüdür. 12 Mayıs 1994'te Raks Müzik tarafından piyasaya sürülmüştür. 2.800.000 adet bandrolle rekor kırarak 90'ların en çok satan albümlerinden olmuştur. Albümün düzenlemesi Osman İşmen'e, kayıt ve miksajı Sıtkı Acim'e aittir.

Şarkı listesi

Kaynakça

Ahmet Kaya albümleri
Raks Müzik albümleri
1994 albümleri

Şarkılarım Dağlara


La conférence d'Alger  ou «  Conférence des chefs d'État et de gouvernement des pays non-alignés », se tient du 5 au 9 septembre 1973. La conférence réunit alors 75 États et organisations internationales. Après cette conférence, les non-alignés choisissent définitivement de privilégier les questions de développement plutôt que la recherche d'une reconnaissance sur la scène politique internationale. Selon les participants, l'objectif d'une décolonisation économique ne peut être atteint que par l'action concertée et l'aide mutuelle entre pays producteurs de matières premières. Une telle analyse débouche, entre autres, sur la décision des pays de l'OPEP d'augmenter en 1973 le prix du pétrole, véritable arme économique contre les pays riches, ou sur la signature d'accords de coopération économique entre la CEE et les pays Afrique Caraïbes Pacifique, dits pays ACP (Convention de Lomé, 1975).

Référence

Articles connexes

 Conférence de Bandung

 Mouvement des non-alignés

Tiers-mondisme
Alger

Conférence d'Alger


Andres Veiel (Stuttgart, ) es un director de cine alemán.

Biografía
Mientras terminaba sus estudios de psicología en los años 1980, siguió un curso de dirección cinematográfica y teatral en el Künstlerhaus Bethanien, dirigido por el realizador polaco Krzysztof Kieslowski. También dirigió la filmación de su propia obra de teatro Der Kick, acerca de un brutal asesinato en un pueblo de Brandenburgo, que se representó en el teatro Maxim Gorki de Berlín y en el teatro Basel de Basilea.

Debutó como director de largometrajes de ficción con Si no nosotros, ¿quién?. Tiene en su haber numerosos documentales, entre los que destacan Black Bos BRD, ganador del premio al mejor documental en los Premios del Cine Europeo, un retrato del terrorista Wolfgang Grams y del banquero Alfred Herrhausen, asesinado por la RAF; y Die Spielwütigen, ganador del Premio Panorama en el Festival de Berlín y nominado por los Premios del Cine Europeo al mejor documental, un seguimiento a largo plazo de cuatro alumnos de la Academia Ernst Busch de Arte Dramático.

Dirigió su primer documental, Winternachstraum, en 1991, al que siguió el premiado Balagan, con la compañía teatral judeopalestina Akko. En lo muy personal Die Überlebenden, explora la trayectoria de tres antiguos compañeros de estudios que se suicidaron.

Filmografía
 Winternachtstraum. Documental. 82 min. (1992)
 Balagan. Documental. 90 min. (1993)
 Die Überlebenden. Documental. 90 min. (1996)
 Black Box BRD. Documental. 101 min. (2001)
 Die Spielwütigen. Documental. 108 min. (2004)
 Der Kick. 82 min (2006)
 Si no nosotros, ¿quién?. Largometraje. 124 min. (2011).

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Directores de cine de Alemania
Personas de Baden-Wurtemberg
Nacidos en Stuttgart
Miembros de la Academia de las Artes de Berlín

Andres Veiel


Jumpei Takaki (født 1. september 1982) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Shimizu S-Pulse, Consadole Sapporo, Montedio Yamagata og Tokyo Verdy.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Jumpei Takaki


Martin Murray (født 27. september i 1982 St. Helens i Merseyside, England) er en britisk professionel bokser. Han har været WBA interim mellemvægtsmester fra 2012 til 2014, britisk og Commonwealth-mellemvægtsmester mellem 2010 og 2012, og har udfordret fire gange om en verdensmesterskabstitel. Hans mest bemærkelsesværdige sejre er mod Nick Blackwell, Max Bursak, Domenico Spada, Gabriel Rosado og Arman Torosyan. Han har lidt nederlag til Sergio Martínez, Gennady Golovkin, Arthur Abraham og George Groves og boksede uafgjort mod Felix Sturm.

Boksere fra Storbritannien
Boksere fra England

Martin Murray


PG 1617+175 ou Mrk 877 est une galaxie Seyfert type 1 qui se caractérise par son noyau lumineux. Au niveau 1 le noyau est très lumineux et il masque le reste de sa galaxie tandis que le type 2 se caractérise par un noyau moins brillant que le type 1. PG 1617+175 contient un quasar actif qui produit toute l'émission de PG 1617+175, c'est d'ailleurs la lumière de ce quasar qui masque le reste de la galaxie. Cette galaxie se situe dans la constellation d'Hercule à plus de 15.4 millions d'années-lumière.

Découverte de Mrk 877
Mrk 877 a été découverte par le télescope spatial IRAS en 2000, découverte qui s'est faite lors d'une étude des galaxies de Seyfert avec l'instrument IRAS. Cette étude s'est faite avec l'aide du Two-Micron All-Sky Survey, ces deux instruments travaillant dans le domaine des rayons infrarouges et semi infrarouges.

Références

Galaxie elliptique
Trou noir supermassif
Quasar

PG 1617+175


Peter Sunde Kolmisoppi (alias brokep; * 13. September 1978 in Uddevalla) ist ein schwedischer Unternehmer, Softwareentwickler und IT-Experte. Er hat norwegische und finnische Wurzeln. Er ist für seine Tätigkeiten als Mitgründer und ehemaliger Sprecher von The Pirate Bay sowie als Gründer von Flattr bekannt.

Leben
Peter Sunde Kolmisoppi wurde am 13. September 1978 in Uddevalla als zweites Kind eines Reisemonteurs und einer Personalberaterin geboren. Sein älterer Bruder ist der Schriftsteller Mats Kolmisoppi. Als Sunde zwischen acht und neun Jahren alt war, ließen sich seine Eltern scheiden, woraufhin er mit seinem Bruder und seiner Mutter nach Bergen in Norwegen zog. Sunde begann zu dieser Zeit mit dem Programmieren und dem Kopieren von Videospielen und Computerprogrammen.

2003 wurde er Mitglied der schwedischen Piratbyrån, und einige Monate später gründeten Sunde, Fredrik Neij und Gottfrid Svartholm The Pirate Bay, wobei Sunde Pressesprecher wurde. Er blieb bis Ende 2009 Sprecher von The Pirate Bay. Im August 2011 gründeten Sunde und Fredrik Neij die File-Sharing-Seite Bayfiles, die auf legales Tauschen abzielt. Sunde spricht Schwedisch, Norwegisch, Englisch, Finnisch und Deutsch.

Zur Europawahl 2014 trat Sunde für die Piratenpartei Finnland an.

Gerichtsprozess gegen Mitglieder von The Pirate Bay
Am 31. Januar 2008 wurden die Betreiber von The Pirate Bay – Sunde, Fredrik Neij, Gottfrid Svartholm und Carl Lundström  – wegen Beihilfe zu Verstößen gegen das Urheberrecht angeklagt. Der Pirate-Bay-Prozess begann am 16. Februar 2009. Am 17. April 2009 wurden Sunde und die Mitangeklagten wegen der "Hilfe zur Verfügbarmachung von Copyright-Inhalten" schuldig befunden. Jeder Angeklagte wurde zu einem Jahr Haft und zu einer Schadensersatzzahlung von 30 Millionen Schwedischen Kronen (etwa 2.700.000 Euro oder 3.600.000 US-Dollar), aufgeteilt auf alle Angeklagten, verurteilt. Nach dem Urteil wurde eine Pressekonferenz gehalten, in der Sunde einen handgeschriebenen Schuldschein in die Höhe hielt, wobei er angab, dass dies der komplette Schadensersatz sei, den er zahlen wird. Er sagte zudem:

Die Verteidigungsanwälte verfügten am Appellationsgericht Svea hovrätt einen Antrag auf Wiederaufnahme des Verfahrens vor dem Landesgericht aufgrund des Verdachts der Befangenheit des Richters Tomas Norström, der, ohne dies vor dem Prozess bekanntzugeben, in zwei Vereinigungen aktiv war, die sich um die Wahrung und Entwicklung des Urheberrechts bemühen. Nach schwedischem Recht treten Urteile nicht in Kraft, bis alle Berufungen bearbeitet sind. In einem Berufungsverfahren im Jahr 2010 wurden die Haftstrafen abgemildert, so wurde Sunde zu acht Monaten Haft verurteilt, die insgesamte Schadensersatzzahlung jedoch auf 46 Millionen schwedische Kronen (etwa 5,2 Millionen Euro) angesetzt. Anfang 2012 wurde ein weiteres Berufungsgesuch vom obersten Gerichtshof Högsta domstolen abgelehnt, wodurch das Urteil rechtskräftig wurde.
Im Mai 2012 richtete Sunde ein Gnadengesuch an die schwedische Regierung, bei dem er auf seine Gesundheit und die geschäftlichen Angelegenheiten seines Unternehmens Flattr hinwies.
Im Juni 2012 legte Sunde zusammen mit Fredrik Neij Beschwerde beim Europäischen Gerichtshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR) ein, welcher mit dem Beschluss am 19. Februar 2013 die Beschwerde als unzulässig zurückwies. Im Mai 2014 bestätigte Schwedens Oberstes Gericht das Urteil gegen ihn.

Am 31. Mai 2014 wurde Sunde in Oxie nahe Malmö festgenommen. Sunde saß daraufhin im Gefängnis Västervik Norra ein. Am 10. November 2014 wurde Sunde wieder freigelassen.

Teile eines Interviews mit Sunde, in denen er über Copyright, das Internet und Kultur spricht, sind in der Dokumentation Steal This Film enthalten.

Flattr

Flattr ist ein Social-Payment-Service, welcher von Peter Sunde und Linus Olsson gegründet wurde. Er erlaubt Benutzern, mittels Klicken eines "Flattr-Buttons" auf Webseiten kleine Geldbeträge zu spenden. Zur Zeit der Ankündigung des Service im Februar 2010 erklärte Sunde, dass das monatlich eingezahlte Geld gleichmäßig zwischen den geklickten Buttons im Monat verteilt werde. Er sagte zudem: "Wir wollen die Menschen dazu bewegen, Geld genauso wie Content zu teilen". Im Oktober 2010 gab er seinen Rücktritt aus dem Aufsichtsrat von Flattr bekannt, wobei er weiter für Flattr arbeitet.

Hemlis
Hemlis (umgangssprachlich schwedisch für Geheimnis) war die Idee eines Ende-zu-Ende-verschlüsselten Privatnachrichtendienstes, welche Sunde gemeinsam mit Leif Högberg und Linus Olsson am 10. Juli 2013 veröffentlichte. Das zeitgleich gestartete Crowdfunding, bei welchem man 100.000 USD für die Entwicklung einsammeln wollte, konnte nach drei Tagen und sieben Stunden mit 152.310 US-Dollar erfolgreich abgeschlossen werden. Der Hemlis Messenger war zuletzt in der Beta-Phase und wurde von Usern (Android, iOS) getestet. Die Weiterentwicklung wurde zum 22. April 2015 eingestellt.

Politik
Zur Europawahl 2014 kandidierte Sunde in Finnland für die dortige Piratenpartei. Die Europäische Piratenpartei (PPEU) nominierte ihn gemeinsam mit der PPEU-Vorsitzenden Amelia Andersdotter als Kandidaten für das Amt des Kommissionspräsidenten.

Weblinks

 Blog von Peter Sunde
 Peter Sunde bei Twitter
 Die Geschichte von Pirate Bay (schwedisch)
 Peter Sunde: It's Evolution, Stupid

Einzelnachweise

Unternehmer (Schweden)
Mitglied der Piratenpartei (Finnland)
Schwede
Geboren 1978
Mann

Peter Sunde


Heimur spendýranna (The Life of Mammals) er bók eftir David Attenborough. Helga Guðmundsdóttir þýddi yfir á íslensku en Iðunn gaf bókina út.

Heimildir

Bókmenntir

Heimur spendýranna


Paris, Fransa'nın başkentidir. Şu anlamlara da gelebilir:

Kişiler
 Paris (mitoloji): Yunan mitolojisi karakteri.

 Paris Hilton: Hilton otellerinin varisi

Yerleşim yerleri

ABD'deki yerleşim yerleri
 Paris, Arkansas
 Paris, Dakota Territory, bugün Beresford, Güney Dakota
 Paris, Idaho
 Paris, Illinois
 Paris, Kentucky
 Paris, Maine
 Paris, Michigan
 Paris, Missouri
 Paris, New York
 Paris, Ohio
 Paris, Pennsylvania
 Paris, Tennessee
 Paris, Teksas
 Paris, Grant County, Wisconsin
 Paris, Kenosha County, Wisconsin
 Paris Township, Michigan
 New Paris, Indiana
 New Paris, Ohio
 New Paris, Pennsylvania
 South Paris, Maine
 St. Paris, Ohio
 West Paris, Maine

Kanada'daki yerleşim yerleri
 Paris, Ontario
 Paris, Yukon

Film, televizyon
 Paris, Texas

Müzik
 Paris (Paris Hilton albümü)
 Paris (The Cure albümü)

Botanik
 Paris, bitki bir cinsi
 Paris quadrifolia, Avrupa'da florası

Diğer

 Paris sendromu

Paris (anlam ayrımı)


إليزا غلاديس ميلفينا دين  (2 شباط/فبراير 1912 - 31 أيّار/مايو 2009) كانت رسّامة خرائط وموظفة مدنيّة من المملكة المتحدة وهي أيضًا الناجية الأخيرة من غرق سفينة تيتانيك في 15 نيسان/أبريل 1912؛ حيثُ كانت تبلغُ من العمرِ حينها شهرين فقط ما جعلها أصغر مسافر على متنِ السفينة.

الحياة المُبكّرة والتعليم
وُلدت ميلفينا دين في برانسكومب بإنجلترا في الثاني من شباط/فبراير عام 1912. والدها هوَ بيرترام فرانك دين (1886–1912) أمّا والدتها فهيَ جورجيت إيفا لايت (1879-1975). كان لديها أخٌ أكبر يُدعى بيرترام فير دين وهوَ من مواليد 21 أيّار/مايو 1910. لم تتزوج دين قط وليس لديها أطفال. تُوفيّ والدها على متنِ سفينة تيتانيك بينما تُوفيّت والدتها في 16 أيلول/سبتمبر 1975 عن عمر ناهزَ الـ 96 عامًا في حين توفي شقيقها الوحيد في 14 نيسان/أبريل 1992 عن عمرٍ ناهزَ الـ 81 عامًا والذي تزامنَ مع الذكرى الثمانين لغرقِ سفينة تيتانيك.

درست ميلفينا وبيرترام في مدارس ساوثهامبتون المحليّة وبخاصّة في مدرسة جريج. بعدَ وفاة والدها؛ كانت تنوي والدتها الزواج مرة أخرى ومن غيرِ المعروف ما إذا كانت فعلت أم لم تفعل. بعد حادث غرق سفينة تيتانيك؛ نجت دين ولمّا بلغت الثامنة من عُمرها أُخبرت بكلّ ما حصل وبأنّها كانت من ضمنِ ركّاب السفينة التي تحطّمت وغرقت في منتصف البحر. في سنّ شبابها؛ عملت دين لدى الحكومة البريطانية خِلال الحرب العالمية الثانية ثمّ اشترت شركة هندسة محلية وعملت رفقة آخرين بها قبلَ أن تنتقل للعملِ كرسّامة خرائط فضلًا عن عملها كسكرتيرة في أحدِ الشركات.

على متن تيتانيك

غرق السفينة
قرر والدا دين مغادرة المملكة المتحدة والهجرة إلى ويتشيتا في كانساس حيث كان لأبيها أقرباء هناك وكان ابن عمه يمتلك متجراً للتبغ كان سيشاركهُ في ملكيّته. لم يكن من المفترض أن يكونوا على متن سفينة تيتانيك (تُكتب في حالات أخرى تايتانيك) ولكن بسبب إضراب عُمّال الفحم نُقلوا إليها حيثُ اشتروا تذاكر للدرجة الثالثة. في وقتٍ ما من الرحلة؛ شعر والدها باصطدام السفينة مع جبل الجليد في ليلة 14 نيسان/أبريل 1912؛ فخرج ليتحقّق بنفسه ثمّ عاد إلى المقصورة طالبًا من زوجته تلبيس الأطفال والصعود على سطح السفينة. وُضعت دين ووالدتها وشقيقها في قارب النجاة رقم 10 وكانوا من بين أول ركّاب الدرجة الثالثة الذين فروا قبل غرق السفينة بالكامل بينما فشلَ والدها في الالتحاق بأيّ قارب للنجاة – حيثُ أُعطيت الأفضليّة للنساء والأطفال على الباقي – ما أدى إلى وفاتهِ في وسطِ البحر ولم يُتعرّف على جثته.

العودة إلى المملكة المتحدة

بعدَ نجاة العائلة الصغيرة المكوّنة من ثلاث أشخاص بعدما فقدوا ربّ الأسرة؛ قرّرت الوالدة العيشَ في مدينة كانساس لتحقيقِ رغبة زوجها في بدء حياة جديدة في الولايات المتحدة. ومع ذلك؛ عادت بعد مدّة رفقة طفليها الصغيرينِ إلى مدينتها الأم في المملكة المتحدة.

السنوات اللاحقة
بدأت دين تشتهر بعدما تحدثت عنها الصحافة المكتوبة بصفتها أصغر راكبة على متنِ سفية تيتانيك؛ وعلى مرّ السنين شاركت في العديد من المؤتمرات والمَعارض والأفلام الوثائقية والمقابلات الإذاعية والتلفزيونية والمراسلات الشخصية. بحلول عام 1997؛ أبحرت ميلفينا إلى نيويورك إلى جانب العديد من أعضاء «جمعية تيتانيك التاريخية» على متن سفينة الملكة إليزابيث 2. بعد بضعة أيام في نيويورك؛ سافرت ميلفينا إلى مدينة كانساس سيتي وزارت المنزل الذي يملكه عمها والذي كان من المفترض أن ستستقر عائلتها فيه. هناك حيثُ التقت العديد من أحفاد عمها لأول مرة. حضرت في العام الموالي في مؤتمر تيتانيك في سبرينغفيلد بماساتشوستس وآخر في عام 1999 في مونتريال بكيبيك في كندا. كان من المقرر أيضًا أن تُشارك في احتفال الذكرى السنوية الرابعة والتسعين لغرق السفينة في عام 2006 لكنّ مشاكلها الصحيّة حالت دون ذلك. ظهرت دين أيضًا في عدّة حلقات من البرنامج الوثائقي لحظات تيتانيك الذي عُرض على قناة التاريخ التلفزيونية.

في المُقابل رفضت دين رفض بشدة رؤية فيلم تيتانيك (1997) لمخرجهِ جيمس كاميرون حيثُ قالت إنّ عددًا من الكوابيس لاحقتها بعد مشاهدتها لفيلم ليلة للتذكر  عام 1958 والذي يحكي نفس القصّة. في مقابلة صحفيّة في وقتٍ لاحق؛ قالت دين إنها يمكن أن تتخيّل والدها كواحد من الركّاب الذين تقطعت بهم السبل على متن السفينة الغارقة وهذا كان أحد الأسباب الذي علّلت بها موقفها ذاك. عادت دين في عام 2007 لتتحدث عنها الصحافة؛ لكن هذه المرة بعدما انتقدت إحدى حلقات مسلسل دكتور هو والتي اقتُبست فيها قصّة غرق سفينة تيتانيك لتجسدِ قصّة أخرى مشابهة لها تتحدثُ عن اصطدام نيزكٍ في الفضاء وعلّقت على الموضوع قائلةً:

بحلول تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 2007؛ أصبحت دين آخر ناجية من غرق سفينة تيتانيك بعد وفاة باربارا ويست عن عمرٍ ناهزَ الـ 96 عامًا في إنجلترا.

المشاكل الصحية
قبلت دين في نيسان/أبريل 2008 دعوة للتحدث في ساوثامبتون بمناسبة مرور 96 سنة على غرقِ السفينة لكنّها عانت من مشاكل صحيّة على مستوى الجهاز التنفسي ما أجبرها على رفضِ الدعوة فيما بعد. بحلول كانون الأول/ديسمبر 2008؛ أُجبرت دين على بيعِ العديد من ممتلكات أسرتها بما في ذلك حقيبة سفر قدمت لها ولأمها في نيويورك بعد الغرق لدفع تكاليف الرعاية الطبية الخاصة بها عقب تعرضها لكسرٍ في الفخذ؛ وفي شباط/فبراير 2009 أعلنت دين من جديد أنها ستبيع عدة عناصر أخرى لدفع تكاليفها الطبية المتزايدة التي قالت إنها تتجاوز 3000 جنيه إسترليني في الشهر.

الوفاة
تُوفيّت دين بسبب الالتهاب الرئوي في صباح يوم 31 أيّار/مايو 2009 بعدَ 97 عامًا وسبعة أسابيع في دار التمريض في أشورست بهامبشاير. أُحرقت جثتها في 24 تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 2009 ورُمي رمادها في شاطئ ساوثامبتون حيث أبحرت سفينة تيتانيك.

المراجع

أشخاص من ساوثهامبتون
بريطانيون في الحرب العالمية الثانية
رسامو خرائط بريطانيون
طاقم وركاب آر إم إس تيتانيك
عالمات رسم خرائط
علماء رسم خرائط في القرن 20
علماء من ساوثهامبتون
مواليد 1912
ناجون من غرق آر إم إس تيتانيك
وفيات 2009
وفيات الالتهاب الرئوي في إنجلترا
وفيات بأمراض معدية في إنجلترا
وفيات بسبب ذات الرئة

ميلفينا دين