Sanskrit literature broadly comprises all literature in the Sanskrit language. This includes texts composed in the earliest attested descendant of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language known as Vedic Sanskrit, texts in Classical Sanskrit as well as some mixed and non-standard forms of Sanskrit. Literature in the older language begins with the composition of the Ṛg·veda between about 1500 and 1000 BCE, followed by other Vedic works right up to the time of the grammarian Pāṇini around 6th or 4th century BCE (after which Classical Sanskrit texts gradually became the norm).

Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion, while Classical Sanskrit is the language of many of the prominent texts associated with the major Indian religions, especially Hinduism, but also Buddhism, and Jainism. Some Sanskrit Buddhist texts are also composed in a version of Sanskrit often called Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit or Buddhistic Sanskrit, which contains many Middle Indic (prakritic) elements not found in other forms of Sanskrit.

Early works of Sanskrit literature were transmitted through an oral tradition for centuries before they were written down in manuscript form.

While most Sanskrit texts were composed in ancient India, others were composed in Central Asia, East Asia or Southeast Asia.

Sanskrit literature is vast and includes religious scripture, various forms of poetry (such as epic and lyric), drama and narrative prose. It also includes substantial works covering secular and technical sciences and the arts. Some of these subjects include: law and custom, grammar, politics, economics, medicine, astrology-astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, music, dance, dramatics, magic and divination, and sexuality.

Overview

Literature in the Vedic and the Classical language differ in numerous respects. The Vedic literature that survives is almost entirely religious, being focused on the prayers, hymns to the gods (devas), sacrifices and other concerns of the Vedic religion. The language of this archaic literature (the earliest being the Rigveda), Vedic Sanskrit, is different in many ways (and much less regular) than the "classical" Sanskrit described by later grammarians like Pāṇini. This literature was transmitted orally during the Vedic period, only later was it written down.

Classical Sanskrit literature is more varied and includes the following genres: scripture (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain), epics, court poetry (kavya), lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious law (dharma), the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sexual intercourse (kama), philosophy, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter. On the other hand, the Classical Sanskrit language was much more formalized and homogeneous, partly due to the influence of Sanskrit grammarians like Pāṇini and his commentators.

Sanskrit was an important language for medieval Indian religious literature. Most pre-modern Hindu literature and philosophy was in Sanskrit and a significant portion of Buddhist literature was also written in either classical Sanskrit or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Many of these Sanskrit Buddhist texts were the basis for later translation into the Chinese Buddhist Canon and Tibetan Canon. Many Jain texts were also written in Sanskrit, like the  Tattvartha sutra, Bhaktamara Stotra, etc.

Classical Sanskrit also served as a common language of scholarship and elites (as opposed to local vernacular who were only understood regionally).

The invasions of northern India by Islamic powers in the 13th century severely damaged Indian Sanskrit scholarship and the dominance of Islamic power over India eventually contributed to the decline of this scholarly language, especially since Muslim rulers promoted Middle Eastern languages. However, Sanskrit remains in use throughout India, and is used in rituals, religious practice, scholarship, art, and other Indian traditions.

Vedic literature

Chronology
Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the literature of Vedic Sanskrit:

 Ṛg·vedic Hymns
 Mantras
 Saṃhitā prose
 Brāhmaṇa prose
 Sūtras

The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās comprising the four Vedas: ṛk, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.

Ṛg·veda

The Ṛg·veda, the first and oldest of the four Vedas, is the foundation for the others. The Ṛg·veda is made of 1028 hymns named sūktas, composed of verses in strictly regulated meters. These are collected into saṃhitās. There are about 10,000 of these verses that make up the Ṛg·veda. The Ṛg·vedic hymns are subdivided into 10 maṇḍalas, most of which are attributed to members of certain families. Composition of the Ṛg·vedic hymns was entirely oral, and for much of its history, the Ṛg·veda has been transmitted only orally, written down likely no sooner than in the second half of the first millennium of the Common Era.

The later Vedas
The Sāmaveda is not an original composition: it's almost entirely (except 75) made of stanzas taken from the Ṛgveda and rearranged with reference to their place in the Soma sacrifice. This book is meant to be sung to certain fixed melodies, and may thus be called the book of chants, sāman. The Yajurveda like the Sāman is also largely made of verses taken from the Ṛgveda, but also contains several prose formulas. It is called the book of sacrificial prayers yajus.

The last of the four, the Atharvaveda, both by the internal structure of the language used and by comparison with the Ṛg·veda, is a much later work. However, the Atharvaveda represents a much earlier stage of thought of the Vedic people, being composed mainly of spells and incantations appealing to demons, and is rife with notions of witchcraft, derived from a much earlier period.

Brāhmaṇas

The Brāhmaṇas (a subdivision within the Vedas) concern themselves with the correct application of Vedic ritual, and the duties of the Vedic priest (hotṛ: 'pourer, worshiper, reciter') the word being derived from bráhman meaning 'prayer'. They were composed at a period in time by which the Vedic hymns had achieved the status of being ancient and sacred revelations and the language had changed sufficiently so that the priests did not fully understand the Vedic texts. The Brāhmaṇas are composed in prose, unlike the previous works, forming some of the earliest examples of prose in any Indo-European language. The Brāhmaṇas intend to explain the relation between the sacred text and ritual ceremony.

The later part of the Brāhmaṇas contain material which also discuss theology and philosophy. These works were meant to be imparted or studied in the peace and calm of the forest, hence their name the Āraṇyakas ("Of the forest") The last part of these are books of Vedic doctrine and philosophy that came to be called Upaniṣads ("sitting down beside"). The doctrines in the Vedic or Mukhya Upaniṣads (the main and most ancient Upaniṣads) were later developed into the Vedānta ("end of the Vedas") system.

Vedic Sūtras
The Vedic Sūtras were aphoristic treatises concerned either with Vedic ritual (Kalpa Vedanga) or customary law. They arrived during the later period of the Brāhmaṇas when a vast mass of ritual and customary details had been accumulated. To address this, the Sūtras are intended to provide a concise survey of Vedic knowledge through short aphoristic passages that could be easily memorized. The Sūtras forego the need to interpret the ceremony or custom, but simply provide a plain, methodical account with the utmost brevity. The word sūtra, derived from the root siv-, 'to sew',  thus meaning 'sewn' or 'stitched together' eventually became a byword for any work of aphorisms of similar concision. The sutras in many cases are so terse they cannot be understood without the help of detailed commentaries.

The main types of Vedic Sūtras include the Śrautasūtras (focusing on ritual), Śulbasûtra (on altar construction), Gṛhyasūtras which focus on rites of passage and Dharmasūtras.

Hindu religious literature

Most ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, either Epic Sanskrit (the pre-classical language found in the two main Indian epics) or Classical Sanskrit (Paninian Sanskrit). In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts. This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.

Classification

Hindu Sanskrit texts are often subdivided into two classes:

 Śruti ("that which is heard") are believed to be 'revealed', examples being the Vedas and the early Upaniṣads. Many scholars include the Bhagavad·Gītā and Āgamas as Hindu scriptures. Dominic Goodall also includes Bhagavata Purāṇa and Yājñavalkya Smṛti.
 The Smṛti Sanskrit texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author, as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than Śruti in Hinduism. The Smṛti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāṅgas, the Hindu epics, the Sūtras and Śāstras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, and the Purāṇas, while some traditions also include Kāvya (courtly poetry), Bhāṣyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.

Indian Epics
The first traces of Indian epic poetry are seen in the Vedic literature, among the certain hymns of the Ṛgveda (which contain dialogues), as well as the Ākhyānas (ballads), Itihāsas ('traditional accounts of past events') and the Purāṇas found in the Vedic Brāhmaṇas. These poems were originally songs of praise or heroic songs which developed into epic poems of increasing length over time. They were originally recited during important events such as during the Vedic horse sacrifice (the aśvamedha) or during a funeral.

Another related genre were the "songs in praise of men" (gatha narasamsi), which focus on the glorious deeds of warriors and princes, which also developed into long epic cycles. These epic poems were recited by courtly bards called sutas, who may have been their own caste and were closely related to the warrior caste. There was also a related group of traveling singers called kusilavas. Indian kings and princes seem to have kept bards in their courts which sung the praises of the king, recite poems at festivals and sometimes even recite poetry in battle to embolden the warriors.

While there were certainly other epic cycles, only two have survived, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa.

Mahābhārata
The Mahābhārata is in a sense not just a single 'epic poem', but can be seen as a whole body of literature in its own right, a massive collection of many different poetic works built around the heroic tales of the Bharata tribe. Most of this literature was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE by numerous authors, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.

Already in the Ṛgveda, the Bharatas find mention as a warlike tribe, and the Brāhmaṇas also speak of Bharata, the son of Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā. The core of the Mahābhārata is a family feud in the royal house of the Kauravas (the descendants of Bharata), leading to a bloody battle at Kurukshetra. Over the centuries, an enormous mass of poetry, myths, legends, secondary tales, moral stories and more was added to the original core story. The final form of the epic is thus a massive 100,000 ślokas  across 18+1 books.

According to Winternitz, the Mahābhārata also shows the influence of the Brahmin class, which he argues was engaged in a project of appropriating the poetry of the bards (which was mainly a secular heroic literature) in order to infuse it with their religious theology and values.

The most influential part of the Mahābhārata is the Bhagavadgītā, which became a central scripture for the Vedanta school and remains widely read today.

Another important associated text, which acts as a kind of supplement (khila) to the Mahābhārata, is the Harivanhśa, which focuses on the figure of Krishna.

Rāmāyaṇa
In contrast to the Mahābhārata, the Rāmāyaṇa consists of only 24,000 ślokas divided into seven books, and in form is more purely regular, ornate epic poetry, a form of style which is the basis of the later Kāvya tradition. There are two parts to the story of the Rāmāyaṇa, which are narrated in the five genuine books. The first revolves around the events at the court of King Daśaratha at Ayodhya with one of his wives vying for the succession of the throne to her own son Bharata in place of the one chosen by the king, Rāma. The second part of the epic is full of myth and marvel, with the banished Rāma combating giants in the forest, and slaying thousands of demons. The second part also deals with the abduction of Rāmā's wife, Sītā by king Rāvaṇa of Lankā, leading Rāma to carry out to expedition to the island to defeat the king in battle and recover his wife.

Purāṇa
The Purāṇa are a large class of Hindu scriptures which cover numerous topics such as myth, legends of the Hindu gods, cosmogony, cosmology, stories of ancient kings and sages, folk tales, information about temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar and Hindu theology and philosophy. Perhaps the most influential of these texts is the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, a central text for Vaishnava theology. Other Purāṇas center on different gods, like the Shiva Purāṇa and the Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa.

Later Upaniṣads
The principal Upaniṣads can be considered Vedic literature since they are included within the Brahmanas and Aranyakas. However, numerous scriptures titled "Upaniṣads" continued to be composed after the closure of the Vedas proper. Of these later "Upaniṣads" there are two categories of texts:

 95 canonical Upaniṣads which are part of the Muktikā canon. These were composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE.
 Newer paracanonical Upaniṣads, which were composed through the early modern and modern eras and which deal with numerous non-Vedic topics.

Post-Vedic aphoristic literature

Sūtra style aphoristic literature continued to be composed on numerous topics, the most popular being on the different fields of Hindu philosophy.

The main Sūtra texts (sometimes also called kārikās) on Hindu philosophy include:

 Sāṁkhyakārikā
 Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra
 Mīmāṁsā Sūtra
 Nyāya Sūtra
 Vaiśeṣika Sūtra
 Yoga Sūtras of Patanjali
 Brahma Sūtra (i.e. Vedanta sutra)
 Gauḍapāda Kārikā
 Pāśupata Sūtras
 Shiva Sūtras
 Spandakārikā
 Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā of Utpaladeva

Commentaries

The various Sanskrit literature also spawned a large tradition of commentary texts, which were called Bhāṣyas, Vṛṭṭis, Tikas, Varttikas and other names. These commentaries were written on numerous genres of Sanskrit texts, including on Sūtras, on Upaniṣads and on the Sanskrit epics.

Examples include the Yogabhāṣya on the Yoga Sūtras, Shankara's Brahmasūtrabhāṣya, the Gitabhāṣya and Sri Bhāṣya of Ramanuja (1017–1137), Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana's Nyāya Sūtra Bhāshya and the Matharavṛṭṭi (on the Sāṁkhyakārikā).

Furthermore, over time, secondary commentaries (i.e. a commentary to a commentary) also came to be written.

Tantric literature
There are a varied group of Hindu Tantric scriptures titled Tantras or Agamas. Gavin Flood argues that the earliest date for these Tantric texts is 600 CE, though most of them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards.

Tantric literature was very popular during the "Tantric Age" (c. 8th to the 14th century), a period of time when Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout India. According to Flood, all Hindu traditions, Shaiva, Vaishnava, Smarta and Shakta (perhaps excepting the Srautas) became influenced by Tantric works and adopted some Tantric elements into their literature.

Other
There are also numerous other types of Hindu religious works, including prose and poetry.

Among prose works there are important works like the Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha (which is important in Advaita Vedanta), the Yoga-Yājñavalkya and the Devi Mahatmya (a key Shakta work).

When it comes to poetry, there are numerous stotras (odes), suktas and stutis, as well as other poetic genres. Some important works of Hindu Sanskrit poetry include the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi, the Hanuman Chalisa, the Aṣṭāvakragītā, Bhaja Govindam, and the Shiva Tandava Stotra.

Another group of later Sanskrit Hindu texts are those which focus on Hatha Yoga, and include the Dattātreyayogaśāstra (13th century), the Gorakṣaśataka (13th century), the Haṭhayogapradīpikā (15th century) and the Gheraṇḍasaṁhitā (17th or 18th-century).

Scientific & Secular literature
Over time, Sanskrit works on the secular sciences (śāstra or vidyā) were composed on a wide variety of topics. These include: grammar, poetry, lexicography, geometry, astronomy, medicine, worldly life and pleasure, philosophy, law, politics, etc.

The learning of these secular sciences took place by way of a guru expounding the subject orally, using works of aphorisms, the sūtra texts, which on account of their terseness would be meaningful only to those who knew how to interpret them. The bhāṣyas, the commentaries that followed the sūtras were structured in the style of student-teacher dialogue wherein a question is posed, a partial solution, the pūrvapakṣa, proposed, which is then handled, corrected and the final opinion established, the siddhānta. In time, the bhāṣyas evolved to become more like a lecture.

The sūtras were initially regarded as definite. This was later circumvented, in the field of grammar, by the creation of vārttikas, to correct or amend sūtras. Another form often employed was the śloka, which was a relatively simple metre, easy to write and remember. Sometimes a mix of prose and verse was used. Some of the later work, such as in law and poetics, developed a much clearer style which avoided a propensity towards obscurity that verse was prone to.

The study of these secular works was widespread in India. Buddhist institutions like Nalanda also focused on the study of four of these secular sciences, known as the vidyāsthānas. These are: linguistic science (sabdavidya), logical science (hetuvidya), medical science (cikitsavidya), science of fine arts and crafts (silpakarmasthanavidya). The fifth main topic studied at Buddhist universities were the spiritual sciences (adhyatmavidya). These Indian Sanskrit language disciples also had an influence on Himalayan cultures, like Tibet, which not only adopted Buddhist religious literature but also these secular works. The Tibetan scholar Sakya Pandita (1182-1251) was a well known scholar of Sanskrit, and promoted the study of these secular disciplines among Tibetans. The study of Sanskrit grammars and prosody was also practiced in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, even when the Pali language focused Theravada school rose to prominence in those regions.

Linguistic literature

By the time of the Sūtra period, the Sanskrit language had evolved sufficiently to make increasing parts of the older literature hard to understand, and to recite correctly. This led to the emergence of several classes of works intended to resolve this matter. These works were styled like the religious Sūtras, however they were not religious per se but focused on the linguistic study of the Sanskrit language. The main topics discussed in these works were grammar (vyākaraṇa), phonetics (śikṣā) and etymology (nirukta). These are traditionally part of the vedāṅga ("limbs of the Veda"), six auxiliary disciplines that developed along with the study of the Vedas.

One of the earliest and most important of these works is the Vedic era Prātiśākhya Sūtras, which deal with accentuation, pronunciation, prosody and related matters in order to study the phonetic changes that have taken place in Vedic words.

The Sanskrit grammatical tradition
The early grammatical works of the linguist Yāska (some time between 7th and 4th century BCE), such as his Nirukta, provides the foundation of the study of Sanskrit grammar and etymology.

The most influential work for the Indian Sanskrit grammatical tradition is the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, a book of succinct Sūtras that meticulously define the language and grammar of Sanskrit and lay the foundations of what is hereafter the normative form of Sanskrit (and thus, defines Classical Sanskrit). After Pāṇini, other influential works in this field were the Vārttikakāra of Kātyāyana, the  of the grammarian Patañjali and Bhartṛhari's Vākyapadīya (a work on grammar and philosophy of language).

Over time, different grammatical schools developed. There was a tradition of Jain grammarians and Buddhist grammarians and a later tradition of Paninian grammarians.

Lexicography
There were numerous lexicographical works written in Sanskrit, including numerous dictionaries attributed to figures like Bana, Mayura, Murari, and Sriharsha. According to Keith, "of lexica two main classes exist—synonymous, in which words are grouped by subject-matter, and homonymous (anekartha, nanartha), but the important synonymous dictionaries usually include a homonymous section."

One of the earliest lexicons (kośaḥ) is Amarasiṃha's Nāmalingānusāsana, better known as the Amarākośa. According to Keith, Amarasiṃha, who possibly flourished in the 6th century, was "certainly a Buddhist who knew the Mahāyāna and used Kālidāsa." Other lexica are later works, including the short Abhidhānaratnamālā of the poet-grammarian Halāyudha (c. 950), Yādavaprakāsha's Vaijayantī, Hemacandra's Abhidhānacintāmaṇi and Anekarthasabdakosha of Medinikara (14th century).

Dharma literature

The Vedic practice of sūtras pertaining to the correct performance of ritual was extended to other matters such as the performance of duties of all kinds, and in social, moral and legal spheres. These works came to be known as Dharmasūtras and Dharmaśāstras in contradistinction to the older gṛhyasūtras and śrautasūtras although no distinction was felt initially. Like other sūtras, this was terse prose peppered with a few ślokas or verses in triṣtubh metre to emphasize a doctrine here and there. More broadly, works in the field of civil and religious law come under the banner of dharmaśāstra.

Examples of such works are:

 Gautamīya dharmaśāstra
 Hāritā dharmaśāstra
 Vasiṣṭha dharmaśāstra
 Baudhāyana dharmaśāstra
 Āpastambīya dharmasūtra
 Vaiṣṇava dharmaśāstra
 Vaikhānasa dharmaśāstra
The most important of all dharma literature however is the Manusmṛiti, which was composed in verse form, and was intended to apply to all human beings of all castes. The Manusmṛiti deals with a wide variety of topics including marriage, daily duties, funeral rites, occupation and general rules of life, lawful and forbidden food, impurity and purification, laws on women, duties of husband and wife, inheritance and partition, and much more. There are chapters devoted to the castes, the conduct of different castes, their occupations, the matter of caste admixture, enumerating in full detail the system of social stratification. The Manu·smṛti has been dated to the couple of centuries around the turn of the Common Era. According to recent genetic research, it has been determined that it was around the first century CE that population mixture among different groups in India, prevalent on a large scale from around 2200 BCE, ground to a halt with endogamy setting in.

Other secular literature

Sanskrit literature also covers a variety of other technical and secular topics including:

 The Bārhaspatya sūtras, a work of the materialistic Charvaka school of Indian philosophy.
 Astrological and Astronomical literature (Jyotisha), including the Jyotiṣavedāṅga, the Āryabhaṭīya, the Sūrya Siddhānta, and the Varāhamihira Bṛhatsaṃhitā. These works also discuss other topics like divination and agriculture.
 Closely associated with jyotisha are Indian Mathematical works such as the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta
 Alchemical literature (Rasāyana), including the works of Nāgārjuna, such as the Rasaratanakaram
 Works on politics, statecraft and other related topics, the most famous of which is the Arthaśāstram. Others include the Nitisara of Kamandaki, the Nitivakyamrta of Somadeva Suri and the Yuki-ḵalpataru ascribed to Bhoja.
 Works on archery (dhanurveda) and the science of horses (asvāyurveda).
 The study of jewels (ratnaśāstra).
 Medical Ayurvedic literature, including the great Ayurveda classics such as the Carakasaṃhitā, the Suśrutasaṃhitā and the works of Vāgbhaṭa.
 Kāma Śāstras (works on love, pleasure and sexuality), the most famous of which is the Kāma-sūtra. Other works include Kokkaka's Ratirahasya (13th century) and Kalyanamalla's (16th century) Anangaranga.
 Indian Architectural literature (vāstuśāstra), such as the Manushyalaya Chandrika and the Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra.
 Literature on arts and crafts (śilpaśāstra), such as works on sculpture, music (such as the Saṅgītaratnākara), acting and dance (described in the Nāṭyaśāstra), painting (Vishnudharmottara), etc.

Buddhist literature

In India, Buddhist texts were often written in classical Sanskrit as well as in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit (also known as "Buddhistic Sanskrit" and "Mixed Sanskrit"). While the earliest Buddhist texts were composed and transmitted in Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrits, later Indian Buddhists translated their canonical works into Sanskrit or at least partially Sanskritized their literature.

Beginning in the third century, Buddhist texts also began to be composed in classical Sanskrit. Over time, Sanskrit became the main language of Buddhist scripture and scholasticism for certain Buddhist schools in the subcontinent, especially in North India. This was influenced by the rise of Sanskrit as a political and literary lingua franca, perhaps reflecting an increased need for elite patronage and a desire to compete with Hindu Brahmins. The Buddhist use of classical Sanskrit is first seen in the work of the great poet and dramatist Aśvaghoṣa (c. 100 CE). The Sarvāstivāda school is particularly known for having translated their entire canon into Sanskrit.

Other Indian Buddhist schools, like the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravāda and Dharmaguptaka schools, also adopted Sanskrit or Sanskritized their scriptures to different degrees. However, other Buddhist traditions, like Theravada, rejected this trend and kept their canon in Middle Indic languages like Pāli.

Sanskrit also became the most important language in Mahayana Buddhism and many Mahāyāna sūtras were transmitted in Sanskrit. Some of the earliest and most important Mahayana sutras are the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, many of which survive in Sanskrit manuscripts.

Indian Buddhist authors also composed Sanskrit treatises and other works on philosophy, logic-epistemology, jatakas, epic poetry and other topics. While a large number of these works only survive in Tibetan and Chinese translations, many key Buddhist Sanskrit works do survive in manuscript form and are held in numerous modern collections.

Sanskrit was the main scholastic language of the Indian Buddhist philosophers in the Vaibhasika, Sautrantika, Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools. These include well known figures like Kumāralatā, Nāgārjuna, Āryadeva, Asaṅga, Vasubandhu, Yaśomitra, Dignāga, Sthiramati, Dharmakīrti, Bhāviveka, Candrakīrti, Śāntideva and Śāntarakṣita. Some Sanskrit works which were written by Buddhists also cover secular topics, such as grammar (vyākaraṇa), lexicography (koṣa), poetry (kāvya), poetics (alaṁkāra), and medicine (Ayurveda).

The Gupta (c. 4th–6th centuries) and Pāla (c. 8th–12th centuries) eras saw the growth of large Buddhist institutions such as Nālandā and Vikramashila universities, where many fields of knowledge (vidyasthanas) were studied in Sanskrit, including Buddhist philosophy. These universities also drew foreign students from as far away as China. One of the most famous of these was the 7th century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who studied Buddhism in Sanskrit at Nalanda and took over 600 Sanskrit manuscripts back to China for his translation project. Chinese pilgrims to India like Yijing described how in these universities, the study of Buddhist philosophy was preceded by extensive study of Sanskrit language and grammar.

During the Indian Tantric Age (8th to the 14th century), numerous Buddhist Tantras and other Buddhist esoteric literature was written in Sanskrit. These tantric texts often contain non-standard Sanskrit, prakritic elements and influences from regional languages like apabhramśa and Old Bengali. These vernacular forms are often in verses (dohas) which may be found within esoteric Sanskrit texts.

Jain literature

The earliest Jain scriptures, the Jain Agamas, were composed and orally transmitted in Prakrit. Later in the history of Jainism (after about the 8th century CE), Jain authors began composing literature in other languages, especially classical Sanskrit while also retaining the use of Jain Prakrit.

The most important Jain Sanskrit work is Umaswati's (c. sometime between the 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) Tattvarthasūtra (On the Nature of Reality). The Tattvarthasūtra is considered an authoritative work on Jain philosophy by all traditions of Jainism and thus it is widely studied.

Other influential Jain Sanskrit authors include: Samantabhadra, Pūjyapāda (who wrote the most important commentary to the Tattvarthasūtra, entitled Sarvārthasiddhi), Siddhasēna Divākara (c. 650 CE), Akalanka, Haribhadra-sūri (c 8th century) author of the Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya, Hemachandra (c. 1088-1172 CE) who wrote the Yogaśāstra, and Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) a scholar of Navya-Nyāya.

Kāvya

There is a large corpus of classical Sanskrit poetry from India in a variety of genres and forms. According to Siegfried Lienhard in India, the term Kāvya refers to individual poems, as well as "poetry itself, i.e., all those works that conform to artistic and literary norms." Indian poetry includes epic and lyrical elements. It may be entirely in prose (gadya), entirely in verse (padya) or in a mixed form (misra). Kāvya works are full of alliteration, similes, metaphors and other figures of speech.

Indians divided poetry into two main categories: poetry that can be seen (drsya, preksya, i.e. drama/theater) and poetry that can only be listened to (sravya).

Metrical Indian poetry can also be divided into two other categories:

 Mahākāvya (Major Poetry), also known as sargabandha, which are large poems divided into sections or cantos (sargas)
 Laghukāvya (Minor Poetry), shorter poems or single stanzas
According to Lienhard "whereas metrical poetry led a flourishing existence both as mahakavya and laghukavya, prose poems (gadya) and literature in mixed prose and verse (campu) tended to assume the major form. The only exceptions are the panegyric inscriptions (prasasti) and religious epistles (lekha) commonly found in Buddhist societies which may both be composed in the kavya style. Both are written either all in prose or in a mixture of alternately prose and verse and must therefore be counted as belonging to the minor form representing prose kavya or campu - a point that Indian theorists seem to have neglected."

Kāvya was employed by court poets in a movement that flourished between c. 200 BCE and 1100 CE. While the Gupta era is considered by many to have seen the highest point of Indian Kāvya, many poems were composed before this period as well as after. Sanskrit Kāvya also influenced the literature of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and the Malay Archipelago. The study of Sanskrit Kāvya also influenced Tibetan literature, and was promoted by Tibetan Buddhist scholars like Sakya Pandita.

Sanskrit Kāvya poetry also flourished outside the courts, in towns, learned schools and the homes of pandits and other elites and continues to be composed and studied today. Kāvya was often recited in public gatherings, court receptions and in societies which gathered specifically for the study and enjoyment of poetry. Kavis (Kāvya poets) also competed with each other for rewards and for the support of elites and kings (who often appointed court poets). Kavis were highly educated and many of them would have been pandits with knowledge of other sciences such as grammar, lexicography and other fields. Indian authors held that an important quality of these poets was said to be pratibhā, poetic imagination.

The beginnings of Kāvya is obscure. Lienhard traces its beginnings to "the close of the Late Vedic Period (about 550 B.C.)...as this was a time that saw the slow emergence of poetic forms with characteristics of their own, quite different both functionally and structurally from previous models." The earliest Kāvya poems were short stanzas in the minor form (laghukāvya), sometimes just being one stanza poems (muktakas). Few of these early works have survived.

Laghukāvya
Laghukāvya mainly refers to short poems, which can be single stanza (muktaka), double stanza poems (yugmaka), and several-stanza poems (kulakas). Short poetry was also termed khandakavya and a collection of stanzas or anthology was called a kosa. The earliest laghukāvyas were in prakrits, but some also began to be written in Sanskrit in time.

The earliest laghukāvyas where muktakas (also sometimes called gāthā), single stanzas. These were most commonly lyrical nature poems, lyrical love poems, religious poems or reflective didactic poems. According to Lienhard "muktaka poetry generally paints miniature pictures and scenes, or else it carefully builds up a description of a single theme."

Some of the earliest of these early poems are found in the Buddhist canon, which contain two the verse anthologies: the Theragāthā (Verses of the Elder Monks) and Therīgāthā (Verses of the Elder Nuns). Only the Pali versions of these survive, but they also existed in Prakrit and Sanskrit.

There are also some surviving stanzas which are attributed to important figures like the grammarian Panini, the scholar Patañjali, and Vararuci, but these attributions are uncertain.

Some important Sanskrit poets whose collections of short poems have survived include Bhartṛhari (fl. c. 5th century CE), known for his Śatakatraya, Amaru (7th century), author of the Amaruśataka (which mainly contains erotic poetry) and Govardhana (12th century), author of the Āryāsaptaśatī.

There are numerous anthologies which collect short Sanskrit poetry from different authors, these works are our main source of short Sanskrit poems. One widely celebrated anthology is the Subhāṣitaratnakoṣa (Anthology of Well Said Jewels) of the Buddhist monk and anthologist Vidyakara (c. 1050–1130). Other important anthologies include:  Jalhana's Subhāṣitamuktāvalī (13th century), Sridharadasa's Saduktikarṇāmṛta (1205), Śārṅgadharapaddhati (1363) and Vallabhadeva's Subhāṣitāvalī (Chain of Beautiful Sayings, c. 16th century).

Samghatas and Khandakavyas
In between muktaka and mahākāvya there are medium length Sanskrit poems which are linked stanzas (between eight and one hundred stanzas) using one Sanskrit metre and one theme (such as the six Indian seasons, love and eros, and nature). They are variously called "series of stanzas" (samghata) or khandakavya.

Examples of these medium length poems include: the Ṛtusaṃhāra, the Ghatakarpara Kavyam, and the Meghadūta of Kālidāsa (the most famous of all Sanskrit poets) which popularized the sandeśa kāvya (messenger poem), Jambukavi's Candraduta (8th to 10th century), Jinasena's Parsvabhyudaya (a Jain work), Vedanta Desika's Hansasandeśa, the Kokila Sandeśa, and Rūpa Gosvāmin's Haṃsadūta (16th century). Another genre of medium length poems were panegyrics like the Rājendrakarṇapūra of Sambhu.

Religious medium length kāvya style poems (often called stotras or stutis) were also very popular and they show some similarities with panegyrics. According to Lienhard, some of the figures which are most widely written about in medium length religious poems include: "Gautama Buddha, Durga-Kali (or Devi), Ganesa, Krsna (Govinda), Laksmi, Nrsimha, Radha, Rama, Sarasvati, Siva, Surya, the Tathagatas, the Tirthamkaras or Jinas, Vardhamana Mahavira and Visnu." Only some of the Sanskrit hymns to the gods can be considered literary kāvya, since they are truly artistic and follow some of the classic kāvya rules.

According to Lienhard, the literary hymns of the Buddhists are the oldest of these. Aśvaghoṣa is said to have written some, but they are all lost. Two Buddhist hymns of the poet Mātṛceṭa* (c. 70 to 150 CE), the Varṇārhavarṇa Stotra or Catuḥśataka and the Satapancasataka or Prasadapratibha ((Stotra) on the Splendour of Graciousness (of the Buddha)) have survived in Sanskrit. They are some the finest Buddhist stotras and were very popular in the Buddhist community in India. There are also some Buddhist stotras attributed to other Buddhist masters like Nagarjuna (2nd-3rd century CE), Chandragomin (5th century) and Dignāga as well as two Buddhist stotras by King Harshavadana. Some important later Buddhist stotras are Sragdharastotra (about 700) by Sarvajñamitra, Vajradatta's Lokesvara-sataka (9th century), the tantric Mañjuśrīnāma-saṃgīti and Ramacandra Kavibharati's 15th century Bhaktisataka (which is influenced by the Bhakti movement).

There are also many Sanskrit Jaina stotras, most of which are dedicated to the Jain Tirthankaras. They include the Bhaktacamarastotra by Manatunga (7th century), Nandisena's Ajitasantistava, the Mahavirastava by Abhayadeva (mid 11th century) and the stotras of Ramacandra (12th century).

There are numerous literary Hindu hymns which were written after the time of Kālidāsa. Some of the most important ones are Bāṇabhaṭṭa's Caṇḍīśataka, the Suryasataka by Mayurbhatta, numerous hymns attributed to Adi Shankara (though the majority of these were likely not composed by him), the Mahimnastava, the Shaiva Pañcāśati (14th century), Abhinavagupta's Shaiva stotras, the southern Mukundamala and Narayaniyam, the Krishnakarṇāmrutam, and the poems of Nilakantha Diksita, Jagannātha Paṇḍitarāja, Gangadevi, Ramanuja, Jayadeva, Rupa Goswami, and Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa (17th century).

Mahākāvya
According to Lienhard, the most important feature of mahākāvya (Long poems) is that they are divided into chapters or cantos (sargas). Fully versified Mahākāvyas (called sargabandhas) are written in many different metres. Mahākāvyas may also be written fully in prose or in a mixture of verse and prose (mostly called campu). Sargabandhas commonly center around a hero and also include villains. They almost never end in a tragic manner. Indian epic poetry like the Rāmāyaṇa forms an important influence on Sanskrit mahakāvya literature.

The oldest extant mahākāvyas are those of the Buddhist poet and philosopher Aśvaghoṣa (c. 80 – c. 150 CE). His Buddhacarita (Acts of the Buddha) was influential enough to be translated into both Tibetan and Chinese. The Chinese pilgrim Yijing (635–713 CE) writes that the Buddhacarita was "...extensively read in all the five parts of India and in the countries of the South Sea (Sumātra, Jāva and the neighbouring islands)...it was regarded as a virtue to read it in as much as it contained the noble doctrine in a neat compact form." Another mahākāvya by Aśvaghoṣa is the Saundarananda, which focuses on the conversion of Nanda, Buddha's half-brother.

The great mahākāvyas
Kālidāsa, called by many the Shakespeare of India, is said to have been the finest master of the Sanskrit poetic style. Arthur Macdonell describes this great poets' words as having a "firmness and evenness of sound, avoiding harsh transitions and preferring gentle harmonies; the use of words in their ordinary sense and clearness of meaning; the power to convey sentiment; beauty, elevation, and the employment of metaphorical expressions". Kālidāsa's greatest Kāvyas are the Raghuvaṃśa and the Kumārasambhava.

This Raghuvaṃśa (The Genealogy of Raghu) chronicles the life of Rāma alongside his forefathers and successors in 19 cantos, with the story of Rāma agreeing quite closely that in the Rāmāyaṇa. The narrative moves at a rapid pace, is packed with apt and striking similes and has much genuine poetry, while the style is simpler than what is typical of a mahakāvya. The Raghuvaṃśa is seen to meet all the criteria of a mahākāvya, such as that the central figure should be noble and clever, and triumphant, that the work should abound in rasa and bhāva, and so on. There are more than 20 commentaries of this work that are known. The Kumārasambhava (The Birth of Kumāra) narrates the story of the courtship and wedding of Śiva and Pārvatī, and the birth of their son, Kumāra. The poem finishes with the slaying of the demon Tāraka, the very purpose of the birth of the warrior-god. The Kumārasambhava showcases the poet's rich and original imaginative powers making for abundant poetic imagery and wealth of illustration. Again, more than 20 commentaries on the Kumāra·sambhava have survived.

These two great poems are grouped by Indian tradition along with four more works into "the six great mahākāvyas". The other four greats are: Bhāravi's (6th century CE) Kirātārjunīya, Māgha's (c. 7th Century CE) Śiśupālavadha, the Bhaṭṭikāvya (also known as Rāvaṇavadha) and Śrīharṣa's (12th century CE) Naiṣadhīyacarita, which is the most extensive and difficult of the great mahākāvyas (and contains many references to Indian philosophy). Over time, various commentaries where also composed on these poems, especially the Naiṣadhīyacarita.

Later mahākāvyas
Between Kālidāsa's time and the 18th century, numerous other sargabandhas were composed in the classic style, such as Mentha's Hayagrīvavadha (6th century), King Pravarasena II's Setubandha, the Sinhalese poet Kumaradasa's Janakiharana, Rajanaka Ratnakara's Haravijaya, the Nalodaya, the Buddhist Sivasvamin's Kapphinabhyudaya (9th century), and Buddhaghosa's Padyacudamani (a life of the Buddha, c. 9th century). Later sargabandhas tended to be more heavily loaded with technical complexity, erudition and extensive decoration. Authors of these later works include the 12th century Kashmiri Shaivas Kaviraja Rajanaka Mankha and Jayaratha, Jayadeva, author of the innovative and widely imitated Gitagovinda, Lolimbaraja's Harivilasa (mid 16th century), the Shaivite Bhiksatana(kavya) of Gokula, Krsnananda's 13th century Sahrdayananda, and the numerous works of Ramapanivada.

After the 8th century, many sophisticated Jain mahākāvyas were written by numerous Jain poets (mainly from Gujarat), including Jatasimhanandi's Varangacarita (7th century), Kanakasena Vadiraja Suri's Yasodharacarita, and the Ksatracudamani by Vadibhasimha Odayadeva. Jain authors also wrote their own versions of the Ramayana with Jain themes, such as the Padmapurana of Ravisena (678 A.D.).

Other later mahākāvyas are poems based on historical figures which embellish history with classic poetic themes such as Parimala's Navasāhasāṅkacarita, Bilhana's Vikramāṅkadevacarita (11th century) and Madhurāvijayam (The Conquest of Madurai, c. 14th-century) by Gangadevi, which chronicles the life a prince of the Vijayanagara Empire and his invasion and conquest of the Madurai Sultanate. Rashtraudha Kavya by Rudrakavi chronicles the history of Maratha Bagul kings of Baglana and Khandesh and details their role and position in military history involving important figures such as the Bahmanis, Mahmud Begada, Humayun, Akbar, Murad Shah,etc.

Some later poems focused on specific poetic devices, some of the most popular being paronomasia (slesa) and ambiguous rhyme (yamaka). For example, the poems of Vasudeva (10th century), such as Yudhiṣṭhira-vijaya and Nalodaya, were all yamaka poems while the Ramapalacarita of Sandhyakara Nandin is a slesakavya.

One final genre is the Śāstrakāvya, a kāvya which also contains some didactic content which instructs on some ancient science or knowledge. Examples include Halayudha's Kavirahasya (a handbook for poets), Bhatta Bhima's Arjunaravaniya (which teaches grammar) and Hemacandra's Kumarapalacarita (grammar).

Prose mahākāvya
While most early mahākāvyas were all in verse, the term mahākāvya could also be applied to any long prose poem and these became more popular after the 7th century, when the great masters of prose (gadya) lived. These are Daṇḍin (author of the Daśakumāracarita) Subandhu (author of the Vāsavadattā) and Bāṇabhaṭṭa (author of Kādambari and Harshacarita). Prose mahākāvyas replaced virtuosity in metre with highly complex and artistic sentences. Other important writers of Sanskrit prose poems include Bhūṣaṇa bhaṭṭa, Dhanapala (the Jain author of the Tilakamañjari), and Vadibhasimha Odayadeva (author of the Gadyacintāmaṇi).

Campū
Campū (also known as gadyapadyamayi) is a poetic genre which contains both verse and prose. This genre was rare during the first millennium CE, but later grew in popularity, especially in South India. The earliest Sanskrit example of this genre is Trivikramabhatta's Nalacampu (or Damayanticampu, c. 10th century). While many other Sanskrit works also contain a mixture of verse and prose, like Āryaśūra's Jātakamālā, Lienhard notes that these are not true campūs. This is because "in true campū there is a calculated balance between prose that is as perfect as possible and stanzas in the genuine kavya style."

Some important campūs include Somaprabha Suri's Yaśastilakacampū (9th century, Jain), Haricandra's Jivandharacampū (Jain), the Ramayanacampū, Divakara's Amogharaghavacampu, the 17th century female poet Tirumalamba's Varadambikaparinaya, Venkatadhvarin's Visvagunadarsacampu, Jiva Gosvamin's voluminous Gopalacampu, Raghunathadasa's Muktacaritra, and the 18th century Maithili poet Krishnadutta's Shri Janraj Champu.

Works on prosody and poetics
There are also numerous Sanskrit works which discuss prosody and poetics. The earliest work which discusses poetics is Bharatamuni's Nāṭyaśāstra (200 B.C. to 200 A.D.), a work which mainly deals with drama. Piṅgalá (fl. 300–200 BCE) authored the Chandaḥśāstra, an early Sanskrit treatise on prosody.

Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri lists four main school of Indian poetics and their main figures:

 The Alaṅkāra school which draws on Bhāmaha's (c. 7th century) Kāvyālaṅkāra, Udbhaṭa's Alankarasamgraha and Rudrata's Kāvyālaṅkāra.
 The Riti school - Daṇḍin's (fl. 7th–8th century) Kāvyādarśa is influenced by the Alaṅkāra school and introduces the concept of guna. The Kāvyādarśa was very influential for Vāmana, the 8th century founder of the Riti school and author of the Kāvyālaṅkāra Sūtra.
 The Rasa school draws on the Nāṭyaśāstra's aphorism on rasa (emotional flavor). The key figure of this school is Bhaṭṭanāyaka, author of the Hṛdayadarpaṇa.
 The Dhvani school which makes use of Anandavardhana's (c. 820–890 CE) Dhvanyāloka and the commentary of Abhinavagupta (who also wrote the Abhinavabharati, a commentary on the Nāṭyaśāstra). This school emphasizes "aesthetic suggestion" (dhvani).

Later influential works on poetics include Mammaṭa's (11th century) Kāvyaprakāśa, the writings on poetics by Kshemendra, Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana, Vagbhata's Vagbhatalankara, and Rupa Gosvamin's Ujjvalanilamani.

Subhāṣita

Outside of Kāvya proper are also numerous poetic works (often called subhāṣita, "well said") which can be classified as gnomic poetry and didactic poetry. These are mainly poems which contain some wise saying, aphoristic lesson (often ethical), popular maxim or a proverb (lokavakya). These are thousands of Subhāṣitas on many themes. The Dharmapada is one important early collection of aphorisms.

There are also many didactic works attributed to Cāṇakya (but actually written by numerous authors), such as the Rājanītisamuccaya, Cāṇakyanīti, Cāṇakyarājanīti, Vṛddha-Cāṇakya, and the Laghu-Cāṇakya. Another important collection of gnomic sayings is the Nisataka of Bhartrhari.

Later examples of this genre include the Jain Amitagati's Subhasitaratnasaridoha, Kṣemendra's Cārucaryā, Darpadalana and Samayamatrka, Kusumadeva's Dṛṣṭāntaśataka, Dya Dviveda's Nitimañjari (1494), and Vallabhadeva's Subhāṣitāvalī (15th century). There are also numerous anthologies of subhāṣita, such as the Cātakāṣṭaka.

Sanskrit drama

Indian classical drama (dṛśya, nātaka) was also mainly written in Sanskrit and there are many examples of this Sanskrit literary genre. Bharata's Nāṭyaśāstra (3rd century CE) is the earliest work which discusses Sanskrit dramaturgy. Sanskrit drama focuses on the sentiments and on heroic characters. Classically, the endings are happy, never tragic. References to Sanskrit drama are found throughout ancient Sanskrit texts, including the great epics.

Some of the earliest Sanskrit dramas are those of Aśvaghoṣa (only a fragment of his Śāriputraprakaraṇa survives) and the many plays of Bhāsa (c.1st century BCE), most of which are based on the two great epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana). Kalidasa is widely considered to be the greatest Sanskrit playwright, hailed for his linguistic mastery and economy of style. He wrote three plays: Vikramōrvaśīyam, Mālavikāgnimitram, Abhijñānaśākuntalam.

Other important plays include the Mṛcchakaṭika (The Little Clay Cart, 5th century) and the Mudrārākṣasa.

Harṣa, a 7th-century Indian emperor, was also known as a great playwright with a simple and delicate style. His Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyadarsika are well known Sanskrit dramas.

The Mattavilāsaprahasana (A Farce of Drunken Sport) is a short one-act Sanskrit play. It is one of the two great one act plays written by Pallava King Mahendravarman I (571– 630CE) in the beginning of the seventh century in Tamil Nadu.

Bhavabhuti (8th century) is one of the great playwrights after Kalidasa. Other major Sanskrit playwrights include Visakhadatta, Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇa, Murari, Rajasekhara, Kshemisvara, Damodaramishra, and Krishnamishra.

Later Sanskrit dramaturgical texts also continued to be written in the second millennium, such as the Shilparatna which discusses dance and drama.

Other Sanskrit narratives
There are various classical Sanskrit collections of fables one of the most influential of which is the early Pañcatantra, a work that was widely imitated. Other works include the Hitopadeśa and Srivara's Kathakautuka. Buddhist Jatakas (tales of the Buddha's past lives) is a similar genre and includes the Divyāvadāna, Āryaśūra's Jātakamālā (a collection of Buddhist fables), and Ksemendra's various works like the Avadānakalpalatā.

Folk tale (or fairy tale) collections include the Vetala Pañcaviṃśati, Siṃhāsana Dvātriṃśikā, and the Suktasaptati. There is also Somadeva's Kathāsaritsāgara (Ocean of the Streams of Stories).

There are also poetic historical chronicles like the Rajatarangini of Kalhana, Rashtraudha Kavya of Rudrakavi, Shivbharata and Paramanandkavya of Paramananda, Rajaramcharitra of Keshavbhatt, Sri Janraj Champu of Krishna Dutta.

Hemacandra's (1088-1172) Trisastisalakapurusacaritra is one example of Jain didactic narrative in Sanskrit.

There are also abridged retellings of more ancient lost texts, such as Budhasvāmin's Bṛhatkathāślokasaṃgraha.

Modern Sanskrit literature

Literature in Sanskrit continues to be produced. These works, however, have a very small readership. In the introduction to Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets (1992), Radhavallabh Tripathi writes:

Most current Sanskrit poets are employed as teachers, either pandits in pāṭhaśālas or university professors. However, Tripathi also points out the abundance of contemporary Sanskrit literature:

Similarly, , in Post-Independence Sanskrit Literature: A Critical Survey, estimates that more than 3000 Sanskrit works were composed in the period after Indian Independence (i.e., since 1947) alone. Further, much of this work is judged as being of high quality, both in comparison to classical Sanskrit literature, and to modern literature in other Indian languages.

Since 1967, the Sahitya Akademi, India's national academy of letters, has had an award for the best creative work written that year in Sanskrit. In 2009, Satyavrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award.
Vidyadhar Shastri  wrote two epic poems (Mahakavya), seven shorter poems, three plays and three songs of praise (, he received the Vidyavachaspati award in 1962. Some other modern Sanskrit composers include Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra (known as Triveṇī Kavi, composer of short stories and several other genres of Sanskrit literature), Jagadguru Rambhadracharya (known as Kavikularatna, composer of two epics, several minor works and commentaries on Prasthānatrayī).

Another great Sanskrit epic that remained largely unrecognised till lately is "Dhruv Charitra" written by Pandit Surya Dev Mishra in 1946. He won laurels of appreciation by renowned Hindi and Sanskrit critics like Hazari Prasad Dwiedi, Ayodhya Singh Upadhyay "Hariaudh", Suryakant tripathi "Nirala", Laldhar Tripathi "Pravasi".

See also

 Literature
 Sanskrit drama
 Hindu scripture
 Buddhist texts
 Early Medieval literature
 Indian literature
 List of Sanskrit poets
 List of ancient Indian writers
 Legendary creatures in Sanskrit mythology

 Revival and significance
 Sanskrit revival
 Clay Sanskrit Library
 List of Sanskrit universities in India
 List of Sanskrit academic institutes outside India
 List of historic Sanskrit texts
 Symbolic usage of Sanskrit
 Sanskrit-related topics
 Sanskrit Wikipedia

Notes

Glossary

Brahmic notes

References

Bibliography

 Gonda, Jan (ed.) A History of Indian Literature, Otto Harrasowitz, Wiesbaden.
 Studies on Modern Sanskrit Writings: Ādhunika-saṃskṛta-sāhityānuśīlanam. Papers Presented in the Section on Modern Sanskrit Writings (Proceedings of the 15th World Sanskrit Conference, 2012). Edited by Jürgen Hanneder and Måns Broo with an introduction by R. V. Tripathi.

 Lienhard, Siegfried (1984). A History of Classical Poetry: Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit (A History of Indian Literature Vol. III) Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
 Macdonell, Arthur Anthony, A History of Sanskrit Literature, New York 1900

 S. Ranganath, Modern Sanskrit Writings in Karnataka, Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, 2009.
 Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
 Bhattacharji Sukumari, History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, Sangam Books, London, 1993,

 Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1927 (1907)
 Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature Vol. I. Introduction, Veda, National Epics, Puranas and Tantras. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1972
 Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature Vol. II. Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Oriental books, New Delhi, 1972

External links

 GRETIL: Göttingen Register of Electronic Texts in Indian Languages a cumulative register of the numerous download sites for electronic texts in Indian languages.
 TITUS Indica
 Vedabase.net:  Vaishnava literatures with word for word translations from Sanskrit to English.
 Official page of the Clay Sanskrit Library, publisher of classical Indian literature with facing-page texts and translations. Also offers numerous downloadable materials.
 Sanskrit Documents Collection: Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc., and a metasite with links to translations, dictionaries, tutorials, tools and other Sanskrit resources.
 MAHE Mahabharata Digital Concordance by Department of Philosophy - Manipal
 Sanskrit Literature at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy

Indian literature by language
Indian literature

Medieval poetry
History of literature in India
Indian religious texts
Vedas
Ancient literature
Epic poetry
Oral literature
Vedic hymns
Nepalese literature by language

Sanskrit literature


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Osteitis Condensans Ilii


Tokyo (; Tōkyō, "Doğunun Başkenti") veya resmî adıyla Tokyo Metropolü (東京都; Tōkyō-to), Japonya'nın başkenti ve prefektörlüklerinden biridir. 13,453 km2 olup, 38.505.000 milyon  nüfuslu megapol bir bölge olan Tokyo dünyanın en büyük kentidir. Son yapılan araştırmalara göre yaşamın en pahalı olduğu kentlerinden birisi olarak gösterilen Tokyo, 2022 yılında dünyanın en pahalı 9. kentiydi.  Honşu'nun orta kesiminde, Büyük Okyanus'un bir girintisi olan Tokyo Körfezi'nin kıyısında, Sumida Nehri'nin ağzında yer alır.

Tarihçe
Tokyo Körfezi kıyısında liman şehri Tokyo, Edo (haliç kapısı) adı ile tanınmıştı. Edo Kalesi 12. yüzyılda güçlü samuray klanı Edo ailesinin yurdu olarak Japon tarihinde meydana çıktı. 1603'te Tokugawa Şogunluğu kurucusu Tokugawa Ieyasu, Edo'yu şogun yönetiminin başkenti yaptı. Şogunluk rejimi altında Edo, Japonya'nın kültürel ve ekonomik, politik alanında merkezine gelişti.

1868'de Şogun yönetimine son veren İmparator Meiji, 3 Eylül 1868 tarihli Edo'yu adlandırarak Tokyo yapmasına dair imparator fermanı ile Kyoto'dan Edo kalesindeki eski şogun sarayına göç edip, eski başkent Kyoto'dan doğuda başkent olduğundan dolayı şehrin adı Tokyo'ya değişti.

Tokyo, 12 Eylül 1923'teki depremden büyük zarar gördü. Depremden sonra şehir yeniden inşa edildi ve bu dönemde çevresinde banliyöler teşekkül etmeye başladı. 20 yıl sonra II. Dünya Savaşı'nda ABD uçakları tarafından ciddi bombardıman edilerek tekrar yıkıldı.

Tokyo 1950'lerden sonra ülke ekonomisine paralel bir gelişme göstererek hızla büyüdü ve bugünkü seviyesine ulaştı.

Coğrafya

Tokyo anakarası, Tokyo Körfezi'nin kuzeybatısında yer almakta olup yaklaşık olarak doğudan batıya 90 km ve kuzeyden güneye 25 km yayılmaktadır. Tokyo'nun ortalama rakımı 40 metredir. Tokyo Metropolü'nün doğusunda Chiba, batısında Yamanashi, güneyinde Kanagawa ve kuzeyinde Saitama prefektörlükleri ile sınırı bulunmaktadır. Anakara Tokyo ayrıca doğu yarısını kaplayan özel semtlere ve batıya uzanan Tama bölgesine (多摩 地域) bölünmüştür. Tokyo'nun enlemi 35.65'tir (36. kuzey paraleli'nin yakınındadır) ve Roma (41.90), Madrid (40.41), New York City (40.71) ve Pekin'den (39.91) daha güneydedir.

Tokyo Metropolü'nün idari sınırları içinde, doğrudan güneyde Pasifik Okyanusunda yer alan iki ada zinciri vardır: Izu Adaları ve anakaradan 'den fazla uzağa uzanan Ogasavara Adaları. Bu adalar ve batıdaki dağlık bölgeler nedeniyle, Tokyo'nun genel nüfus yoğunluğu rakamları, Tokyo'nun kentsel ve banliyö bölgeleri için gerçek rakamların çok altındadır.

Japon yasaları'na göre, Tokyo valiliği, metropol olarak tercüme edilen bir to (都) olarak belirlenmiştir. Tokyo Eyaleti, kilometre kare başına  6.100 kişi ile en kalabalık ve en yoğun ildir. Coğrafi bölgeye göre, yalnızca Osaka ve Kagawa'nın üzerinde üçüncü en küçüktür. İdari yapısı, Japonya'nın diğer vilayetlerininkine benzer. 1943 yılına kadar Tokyo şehrini oluşturan 23 özel mahallesi (特別区, tokubetsu-ku), her biri bir belediye başkanına, bir konseye ve şehir statüsüne sahip, kendi kendini yöneten belediye'lerdi.

Bu 23 özel mahalleye ek olarak, Tokyo ayrıca her biri yerel bir yönetime sahip 26 şehir (市 -shi), beş kasaba (町 -chō veya machi) ve sekiz köy (村 -son veya -mura) içerir. Tokyo Büyükşehir Hükümeti, 23 özel bölge ve vilayeti oluşturan şehirler ve kasabalar dahil olmak üzere tüm metropolü yönetir. Halk tarafından seçilmiş bir vali ve büyükşehir meclisi tarafından yönetilmektedir. Merkezi Shinjuku semtindedir.

İklim
Tokyo, ılıman dönencealtı iklimine (Köppen iklim sınıflandırması Cfa) sahiptir. Yazlar sıcak ve nemli olup kışlar ise serin geçmektedir.

Tanıtım
Şehrin merkezinde hendekler ve geniş bahçelerle çevrili İmparatorluk Sarayı yer alır. Sarayın doğusunda, Japon iş dünyasının merkezi olarak nitelendirilen Maranouçi semti bulunur; kuzeydoğusunda ise pek çok üniversitenin ve basımevinin bulunduğu Kanda semti uzanır. Resmi binalar sarayın güneyindeki Kasumigaseki semtinde toplanmıştır. Millî parlamento binası ise Kasumigaseki'nin batısındadır. Dünyaca meşhur bir alışveriş merkezi olan Ginza semti şehrin doğu kesimindedir. Tokyo'nun mimarisi iki veya üç katlı ahşap evlerden, Meiji döneminden kalma taş yapılara ve beton veya çelikten yapılmış gökdelenlere kadar değişen bir çeşitlilik gösterir. Japonya'nın başlıca ibadet merkezi olan Meiji Tapınağı bir millî abide olarak kabul edilir.

Başlangıçta depreme karşı mukavim olsun diye binalar 30 metreyle sınırlandırılmış, fakat 1960'lardan sonra bu yüksekliği aşan depreme dayanıklı pek çok yeni bina inşa edilmiştir. Bunların başlıcaları Mainiçi Yayınevi, Tokyo Katedrali, Millî Tiyatro ve Uluslararası Ticaret Merkezi'dir.

Yönetim ve idari bölümler

Japon yasalarına göre Tokyo bir metropol (都 to) statüsüne sahip bir prefektörlük olarak tanımlanmakta olup idari yapısı Japonya'nın diğer prefektörlükleri ile aynıdır. Metropol 1943 yılında kurulmuş olup bu tarihe kadar Tokyo, Tokyo prefektörlüğüne (東京府, Tōkyō-fu) bağlı bir şehirdi. Eski Tokyo şehrinin bulunduğu bölge 23 adet özel semte (特別 区 -ku) ayrılmakta olup her birinin kendi belediye başkanı ile meclisi bulunmaktadır ve bağımsız bir şehir gibi yönetilmektedirler.

Şehrin doğu kesiminde 23 adet özel semt bulunmaktadır:

Batı kesiminde ise 26 adet kentsel yönetim bulunmaktadır:

Ek olarak Tokyo'nun en batısında Nishitama ilçesi bulunmakta olup ilçe üç kasaba olan Hinode, Mizuho ve Okutama ve bir köy olan Hinohara'yı içermektedir.

Ayrıca Izu ve Ogasavara adaları idari yönden Tokyo'ya bağlıdır.

Ekonomi

Tokyo, dünyanın en büyük metropol ekonomisine sahiptir. PricewaterhouseCoopers tarafından yürütülen bir araştırmaya göre, 38 milyon nüfuslu Büyük Tokyo Bölgesi (Tokyo-Yokohama, TYO) 2012'de (Satın alma gücü paritesine göre) toplam GSYİH'ye sahipken, bu listenin başında yer aldı.

Tokyo, uluslararası büyük bir finans merkezi olup, dünyanın en büyük yatırım bankaları ve sigorta şirketlerinin birkaçının merkezini barındırır ve Japonya'nın ulaşım, yayımcılık, elektronik ve yayıncılık endüstrilerinin merkezidir.

II. Dünya Savaşı'nın ardından Japonya ekonomisinin merkezileşmiş büyümesi sırasında, birçok büyük firma, hükûmete daha iyi erişimden yararlanmak amacıyla merkezlerini Osaka (tarihi ticaret başkenti) gibi şehirlerden Tokyo'ya taşıdı. Bu eğilim, Tokyo'da devam eden nüfus artışı ve yüksek yaşam maliyeti nedeniyle yavaşlamaya başladı.

Tokyo, Ekonomist İstihbarat Birimi tarafından 2006'da yerini Oslo'ya ve daha sonra Paris'e bıraktığında sona eren 14 yıl üst üste dünyanın en pahalı (en yüksek yaşam maliyeti) şehri olarak derecelendirildi.

Tokyo, 1960'larda önde gelen bir uluslararası finans merkezi (IFC) olarak ortaya çıktı ve New York ve Londra ile birlikte dünya ekonomisi için üç "komuta merkezinden" biri olarak tanımlandı. 2020 Küresel Finans Merkezleri Endeksi'nde Tokyo dünyanın en rekabetçi dördüncü finans merkezine (New York, Londra, Şanghay, Hong Kong, Singapur, Pekin, San Francisco, Shenzhen ve Zürih gibi şehirlerin yanı sıra) sahip olarak sıralandı. ilk 10) ve Asya'da en rekabetçi ikinci (Şanghay'dan sonra). Japon finans piyasası 1984'te yavaş yavaş açıldı ve 1998'de "Japon Büyük Patlaması" ile uluslararasılaşmayı hızlandırdı. Singapur ve Hong Kong'un rakip finans merkezleri olarak ortaya çıkmasına rağmen, Tokyo IFC Asya'da önemli bir konumunu korumayı başarıyor. Tokyo Menkul Kıymetler Borsası, Japonya'nın en büyük borsasıdır ve piyasa değeri bakımından dünyanın üçüncü, hisse cirosu bakımından dördüncü en büyük borsasıdır. 1990'da Japon varlık fiyatları balonunun sonunda dünya borsa değerinin %60'ından fazlasını oluşturuyordu.

Tarım, Ormancılık ve Balıkçılık Bakanlığı'na göre, Tokyo'nun 2003 yılı itibarıyla 8.460 hektar (20.900 dönüm) tarım arazisi vardı ve onu ülkenin illeri arasında son sıraya yerleştirdi. Tarım arazileri Batı Tokyo'da yoğunlaşmıştır. Sebze, meyve ve çiçek gibi çabuk bozulan ürünler, vilayetin doğu kesimindeki pazarlara rahatlıkla sevk edilebilir. Komatsuna ve ıspanak en önemli sebzelerdir; 2000 yılı itibarıyla Tokyo, merkezi ürün pazarında satılan komatsuna'nın %32,5'ini tedarik ediyordu.

Yüzölçümünün %36'sı ormanlarla kaplı olan Tokyo'da özellikle dağlık batı toplulukları olan Akiruno, Ōme, Okutama, Hachiōji, Hinode ve Hinohara'da geniş Japon çamı ve Japon selvi yetişmektedir. Kereste fiyatlarındaki düşüşler, üretim maliyetindeki artışlar ve ormancılık nüfusu arasında ilerleyen yaşlılık, Tokyo'nun üretiminde bir düşüşe neden oldu. Ek olarak, özellikle Japon çamından gelen polen, yakınlardaki nüfus merkezleri için önemli bir alerjendir. Tokyo Körfezi bir zamanlar önemli bir balık kaynağıydı. Tokyo'nun balık üretiminin çoğu, Izu Ōshima ve Hachijō-Jima gibi dış adalardan geliyor. Skipjack ton balığı, nori ve aji okyanus ürünleri arasındadır.

Tokyo'da turizm de ekonomiye katkıda bulunur. 2006'da Tokyo'ya 4.81 milyon yabancı ve 420 milyon Japon ziyareti yapıldı; Tokyo Büyükşehir Hükûmeti'ne göre bu ziyaretlerin ekonomik değeri 9,4 trilyon yen olarak gerçekleşti. Birçok turist, Tokyo'nun Tokyo'nun özel semtlerindeki çeşitli şehir merkezlerini, mağazaları ve eğlence bölgelerini ziyaret eder. Kültürel teklifler arasında hem her yerde var olan Japon pop kültürü hem de Şibuya ve Harajuku gibi semtler, Studio Ghibli anime merkezi gibi alt kültürel cazibe merkezleri ve ülkenin sanat eseri ulusal hazinelerinin %37'sine ev sahipliği yapan Tokyo Ulusal Müzesi gibi müzeler (87/233) bulunmaktadır.

Tokyo'daki Toyosu Pazarı, 11 Ekim 2018'de açıldığından beri dünyanın en büyük toptan balık ve deniz ürünleri pazarıdır. Aynı zamanda her türden en büyük toptan gıda pazarlarından biridir. Kōtō koğuşunun Toyosu bölgesinde yer almaktadır. Toyosu Pazarı, selefi Tsukiji Balık Pazarı ve Nihonbashi Balık Pazarının geleneklerine güçlü bir şekilde sahiptir ve her gün yaklaşık 50.000 alıcı ve satıcıya hizmet vermektedir. Perakendeciler, toptancılar, müzayedeciler ve kamu vatandaşları, dört yüzyıldan fazla bir süre sonra hala şehri ve gıda arzını beslemeye devam eden benzersiz bir organize kaos mikrokozmosu yaratarak pazara sık sık gelirler.

Ulaşım

Büyük Tokyo Metropolü'nün merkezi olan Tokyo, demiryolu ve kara taşımacılığında Japonya'nın en büyük yerel ve uluslararası merkezidir. Ancak hava sahası II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasında ABD ordusunun münhasır kontrolü altındadır. Tokyo içindeki toplu taşımaya, ikincil rol yapan otobüsler, monoraylar ve tramvaylar ile çeşitli operatörlerce işletilen büyük "temiz ve verimli" tren ve metro ağı hakimdir. Tokyo'da 62'ye varan elektrikli tren hattı ve 900'den fazla tren istasyonu vardır.

Şibuya Geçidi aynı anda yaklaşık 3.000 kişinin karşıya geçtiği "dünyanın en işlek yaya geçididir".

İkinci Dünya Savaşı'nın bir sonucu olarak, Japon uçaklarının Tokyo üzerinden uçması genellikle yasaktır. Bu yüzden Japonya Tokyo'nun dışında havalimanları yapmıştır. Chiba prefektörlüğü'ndeki Narita Uluslararası Havalimanı uluslararası yolcuların Japonya'ya açılan ana kapısıdır. Japonya'nın bayrak taşıyıcıları olan Japan Airlines ve All Nippon Airways'in bu havaalanında aktarma merkezi vardır. Ōta'daki ıslah edilmiş arazide Haneda Uluslararası Havalimanı iç ve dış hat uçuşları sunar. 2018 itibarıyla, Tokyo hava sahasından Haneda'ya bazı uçuş rotalarına izin verilir.

Tokyo tarafından yönetilen çeşitli adaların kendi havaalanları vardır. Hachijō-jima (Hachijojima Havalimanı), Miyakejima (Miyakejima Havalimanı) ve Izu Ōshima 'nın (Oshima Havalimanı) Tokyo International'a ve diğer havaalanlarına seferleri vardır.

Demiryolu, dünyadaki en geniş kentsel demiryolu ağına ve eşit derecede büyük yüzey hat ağına sahip olan Tokyo'da  en başta gelen ulaşım türüdür. JR East, Tokyo şehir merkezini çevreleyen Yamanote Hattı döngüsü de dahil olmak üzere Tokyo'nun en büyük demiryolu ağını işletir. Tokyo metropol bölgesinin tamamında ve Honshū'nun kuzeydoğu kesiminin geri kalanında demiryolu hatları işletir. JR East ayrıca Şinkansen yüksek hızlı tren hatlarından da sorumludur.

Metro ağını iki farklı kuruluş işletir: özel Tokyo Metrosu ve devlet Tokyo Metropoliten Ulaşım Bürosu. Büyükşehir yönetimi ve özel taşıyıcılar, otobüs güzergahları ve tramvay güzergahı işletir. Tokyo, Shinagawa ve Shinjuku dahil olmak üzere dev tren istasyonlarındaki ana terminallerle yerel, bölgesel ve ulusal hizmetler vardır.

Otoyollar başkenti Büyük Tokyo Bölgesi, Kantō bölgesi ve Kyūshū ve Shikoku adalarındaki diğer noktalara bağlar. 1964 Yaz Olimpiyatları'ndan hemen önce bu yolları yapmak için çoğu yol mevcut yolların üzerine inşa edildi. Diğer ulaşım, özel servislerde ve şehir ve kasabalarda çalışan taksileri içerir. Ayrıca uzun mesafeli feribotlar Tokyo adalarına hizmet verir, iç ve dış limanlara yolcu ve yük taşır.

Eğitim
Japonya'daki üniversite ve yüksekokulların büyük bölümü Tokyo'dadır. Tokyo Üniversitesi dışındaki başlıca millî yükseköğretim kurumları Tokyo Teknoloji Enstitüsü, Hitotsubashi Üniversitesi ve Tokyo Güzel Sanatlar Üniversitesi'dir. Özel üniversitelerin en önemlileri Vaseda ve Keio üniversiteleridir.

Kültür

Tokyo'da birçok müze vardır. Ueno Parkı'nda ülkenin en büyük müzesi ve geleneksel Japon sanatında uzman Tokyo Ulusal Müzesi; Ulusal Batı Sanatı Müzesi ve Ueno Hayvanat Bahçesi vardır. Diğer müzeler, Odaiba'daki Ulusal Gelişen Bilim ve Yenilik Müzesi; Tokyo'nun merkezinden Sumida Nehri'nin karşısında Sumida'da bulunan Edo-Tokyo Müzesi; Aoyama'daki Nezu Müzesi ve İmparatorluk Sarayı yakınındaki Millî Diyet Kütüphanesi, Millî Arşivler ve Ulusal Modern Sanat Müzesi'dir.

Tokyo'da performans sanatları için birçok tiyatro vardır. Bunlar, Japon dramasının geleneksel biçimleri için milli ve özel tiyatrolardır. Noh için Ulusal Noh Tiyatrosu ve Kabuki için Kabuki-za dikkat çekicidir.

Senfoni orkestraları ve diğer müzik organizasyonları modern ve geleneksel müzik icra eder. Şibuya'daki Tokyo Yeni Ulusal Tiyatro, opera, bale, çağdaş dans ve drama dahil olmak üzere sahne sanatlarının ulusal merkezidir. Tokyo ayrıca samimi kulüplerden Nippon Budokan gibi uluslararası ünlü alanlara kadar değişen büyüklükteki mekanlarda modern Japon ve uluslararası pop ve rock müziğine ev sahipliği yapar.

Tokyo'da birçok farklı festival düzenlenir. Hie Shrine'daki Sannō, Asakusa Shrine'daki Sanja ve iki yılda bir düzenlenen Kanda Festivalleri başlıca etkinliklerdir. Kanda Festivali'nin özenle süslenmiş şamandıraları ve binlerce insanla yapılan geçit töreni vardır.

Her yıl temmuzun son cumartesi günü Sumida Nehri üzerinde muazzam bir havai fişek gösterisi bir milyondan fazla izleyicinin ilgisini çeker.

İlkbaharda kiraz çiçekleri açtıktan sonra, pek çok bölge sakini çiçeklerin altında piknik yapmak için Ueno Parkı, Inokashira Parkı ve Shinjuku Gyoen Ulusal Bahçesi'nde toplanır.

Şibuya'nın mahallesi Harajuku, gençlik stili, modası ve cosplayi ile uluslararası olarak tanınır.

Kasım 2007'de  Michelin toplamda 191 yıldız, yani Tokyo'nun en yakın rakibi Paris'in yaklaşık iki katı yıldız vererek Tokyo'da kaliteli yemek için ilk rehberini yayınlamıştı. 2017 itibariyle Tokyo'da 227 restoran ödüllendirildi ( Paris'te 92 restoran ödüllendirilmişti). Oniki işetmeye en çok üç yıldız (Paris'te 10 tane 3 yıldızlı işletme vardı), 54 işletmeye iki yıldız ve 161 işletmeye ise tek yıldız verildi.

Turizm
Japonya'nın kültür merkezi olan Tokyo'da pek çok müze, kütüphane ve üniversite bulunur.

Kardeş şehirler
Tokyo'nun birçok şehir ve eyalet ile kardeş şehir anlaşması bulunmaktadır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Tokyo


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تتكون معظم التلعات من صيرورة طويلة الأمد يَحُتُّ فيها جريان ماء الأنهار الصخور ابتداء من مستوى هضبة، و تتكون جدرانها من صخور أشد صلابة وبالتالي أكثر مقاومة للحت. تتكون جدران التلعة عادة من الصخر الرملي الصلد أو الجرانيت.

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توجد التلعات على كواكب غير الأرض أيضا، مثل وادي مارينر على سطح المريخ الذي يعد أكبر تلعة معروفة في النظام الشمسي.

اقرأ أيضا

 أخدود بليد ريفر
 غراند كانيون

مراجع

أخاديد
تضاريس تعرية
تضاريس منحدرة
تضاريس نهرية
علم شكل الأرض
مناظر طبيعية

خانق (تضاريس)


GMA Network eller GMA, er en kommerciell tv-kanal i Filippinerne som ejes af GMA Network Inc. I Filippinerne, heder den også som The Kapuso Network. Kanalen begyndte sine sendinger 29. oktuber 1961 som RBS TV Channel 7. Kanalens hovedkvarter er placeret i GMA Network Center i Quezon City.

Eksterne henvisninger

 GMA Networks hjemmeside

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Etableret i 1961

GMA Network (tv-kanal)


Marcelino Herrera Vegas (Caracas, Venezuela, 3 de octubre de 1870-Buenos Aires, Argentina, 8 de junio de 1958) y establecido con su familia en Argentina a los siete años de edad, se doctoró en medicina en su país de adopción convirtiéndose en «uno de los representantes más brillantes de la generación».

Biografía
Marcelino Isaac del Carmen Herrera Vegas Palacios, tal su nombre completo, nació en Caracas, Venezuela, el 3 de octubre de 1870, segundo hijo del doctor Rafael Herrera Vegas y de María del Carmen Palacios Vegas.

Al asumir el gobierno de Venezuela el general Antonio Guzmán Blanco tras la Revolución de Abril de ese año, la familia de Rafael Herrera Vegas sufrió persecuciones y su misma casa fue saqueada aunque personalmente no había tenido participación política ni desempeñado cargo alguno.

En esas condiciones, tras el parto de Marcelino Herrera Vegas falleció su madre y el viudo con sus dos hijos emigró a Cuba y luego a Brasil. En Brasil fue contratado por el gobierno argentino a raíz de la epidemia de fiebre amarilla en Buenos Aires pero no fue hasta 1877, cuando Marcelino contaba con 7 años de edad, que la familia se afincó definitivamente en la ciudad de Buenos Aires.

Tras efectuar sus estudios secundarios en el Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires ingresó a la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Buenos Aires donde se graduó de médico en 1893 con medalla de oro y una tesis sobre "Quistes hidatídicos".

Tras recibirse visitó con los doctores Máximo Castro y Daniel Juan Cranwell clínicas de Estrasburgo, Viena, Berlín y París.

Tres años después regresó a Buenos Aires y tras trabajar en los servicios de cirugía del Hospital Rawson y del Hospital Español pasó a desempeñarse en el Servicio de Cirugía Infantil del Hospital de Clínicas.

En 1918 fue designado Jefe del Servicio de Cirugía de Adultos en el Hospital Parmenio Piñero, cargo que desempeñó hasta 1921, año en que se retiró.

Sus numerosas publicaciones en revistas especializadas del país y del extranjero, entre las que sobresale "Hydatid cysts of the lung in children" (1928), contribuyeron a cimentar el creciente prestigio de la cirugía argentina.

Especializado en hidatidosis, junto a Cranwell publicó también "Los quistes hidatidicos en la República Argentina", resultado de la experiencia adquirida con más de 970 casos de esa grave enfermedad parasitaria tratados en el Hospital de Clínicas.

Tras ocupar cargos en las organizaciones argentinas de su especialidad, ingresó a la Academia Nacional de Medicina junto con su padre. En 1907 fue puesto al frente de esa institución.

Casó con María Luisa del Carmen Pereyra Iraola (1872, 1947) con quien tuvo numerosos hijos: Marcelino Leonardo José (1899, 1951), María Luisa Mauricia (1901, 1919), Jorge Francisco José (1902, 1972), María Teresa Clara (1903, 2001), Laura María Concepción (1905), Sara María Antonia (1908, 1935) y Concepción Herrera Vegas Pereyra Iraola (1910).

En abril de 1942 se inauguraba el nuevo edificio de la Academia Nacional de Medicina, situado en la esquina de las avenidas Las Heras y Coronel Díaz en un terreno donado por Marcelino y su hermano Rafael Herrera Vegas Palacios. Gran bibliófilo, Marcelino Herrera Vegas donó también su biblioteca de 12.000 volúmenes. Por ese motivo, el entonces presidente de la Academia doctor Mariano Rafael Castex resolvió que esa sección de la biblioteca llevara el nombre de su padre Rafael y que su efigie en mármol se colocase a la entrada del nuevo edificio.

Falleció en la ciudad de Buenos Aires el 8 de junio de 1958, a los 88 años de edad.

Notas y referencias

Bibliografía
Marcelino Herrera Vegas, Los quistes hidatidicos en la República Argentina, Coni Hermanos, 1901
Marcelino Herrera Vegas, Hydatid cysts of the lung in children, Lamb, 1928
Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Boletín de la Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires, Volumen 79, Elche, 1968
Vicente Osvaldo Cutolo, Nuevo diccionario biográfico argentino (1750-1930), Editorial

Enlaces externos
Médicos argentinos: Marcelino Herrera Vegas (1870-1958)
Marcelino Isaac del Carmen Herrera Vegas Palacios
Rafael Herrera Vegas
Asociación Médica Argentina: Marcelino Herrera Vegas

Caraqueños
Médicos de Argentina del siglo XIX
Médicos de Argentina del siglo XX
Cirujanos de Argentina
Presidentes de la Asociación Médica Argentina
Filántropos de Argentina
Médicos de Venezuela
Alumnado de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de Buenos Aires
Miembros de la Academia Nacional de Medicina de Buenos Aires
Nacidos en Caracas
Fallecidos en Buenos Aires

Marcelino Herrera Vegas


Invermere (auch Invermere on the Lake) ist eine Distriktgemeinde im Südosten der kanadischen Provinz British Columbia.

Lage
Die Stadt liegt nahe der Grenze zu Alberta im Nordwesten des Lake Windermere. Der Hauptteil der eigentlichen Ortschaft liegt zwischen dem See und dem Columbia River. Nach Calgary im Nordosten sind es ca. 120 Kilometer.

Geschichte
Invermere wurde im Jahre 1810 als Handelsplatz eingerichtet. Früher wurde der Ort Copper City und Canterbury genannt, bevor er den Namen Invermere erhielt (nach den Schottischen Wörtern inver ("aus dem Mund heraus") und mere ("See")).

Erst nach einer langen Zeit verhaltenen Wachstums kam es am 22. Mai 1951 zur Anerkennung der politischen Gemeinde Village Invermere (incorporated) und der damit verbundenen Zuerkennung der kommunalen Selbstverwaltung. Eine weitere Anerkennung als District of Invermere erfolgte am 29. November 1984.

Demographie
Der Zensus im Jahr 2011 ergab für die Distriktgemeinde eine Bevölkerungszahl von 2955 Einwohnern. Die Bevölkerung hatte dabei im Vergleich zum Zensus von 2006 um 1,6 Prozent abgenommen, während die Bevölkerung in ganz British Columbia gleichzeitig um 7 Prozent angewachsen war.

Bei dem Zensus im Jahr 2016 wurden 3391 Einwohner gezählt.

Verkehr

In Richtung Nord-Süd führt, auf der östlichen Seite des Lake Windermere, der Highway 93/95 durch die Distriktgemeinde. Die Durchgangsstraße Toby Creek Road verbindet die Ortschaft mit dem Highway. Nach Calgary im Nordosten sind es ca. 120 km.

Etwa 2 Kilometer nordöstlich der Gemeinde befindet sich der Flugplatz (Transport Canada Identifier: CAA8). Der Flugplatz hat nur eine 914 Meter kurze asphaltierte Start- und Landebahn.

Weiterhin führt durch den Ort eine Eisenbahnstrecke, die nordwestlich am Dorothy Lake vorbeiführt.

Der öffentliche Personennahverkehr wird regional durch das "Columbia Valley Transit System" angeboten, welches von BC Transit betrieben wird. Das "Columbia Valley Transit System" bietet zwei Verbindungen an:
 North Connector (Edgewater–Radium Hot Springs–Invermere) und
 South Connector (Invermere–Windermere–Fairmont Hot Springs–Canal Flats)

Persönlichkeiten
 Shaw Madson (* 1977), Schauspieler und Synchronsprecher
 Christine Keshen (* 1978), Curlerin

Tourismus
Mit bis zu knapp 40.000 Gästen an Sommerwochenenden bildet Invermere das Tourismus-Zentrum im Tal des Columbia River zwischen Golden und Cranbrook. Im Sommer ist Invermere ein Touristenziel für Besucher aus Calgary.

Weblinks
 Homepage des Ortes

Einzelnachweise

Ort in British Columbia
Regional District of East Kootenay

Invermere


Samir Abd Muhammad al-Khlifawi (død januar 2014), bedre kendt som sit Noms de guerre Haji Bakr, han var "the strategic head" af Islamisk Stats(IS) organisation, og tidligere efterretningsoberst i Saddam Husseins efterretningsvæsen kendt som Mukhabarat. Officielt fungerede han som chef for IS's militærråd og var lederen Abu Bakr al-Baghdadis højeste stedfortræder i Syrien. Efter hans død blev der fundet papirer i hans hjem som ser ud til at bevise han og tilligere efterretningsofficers var de enlige ledere bag al-Baghdadi, og at Khlifawi var den, der har udtænkt de planerne for IS's erobringer og administration af territorierne i Syrien og Irak. Han blev dræbt i Syrien af rivaliserende oprørere i januar 2014.

Han har tidligere været arresteret og indsat i Camp Bucca af amerikanske styrker efter Invasionen af Irak i 2003, sammen med flere af de mænd som senere dannede det første lederskab af IS, deriblandt Abu Muslim al-Turkmani, Abu Abdulrahman al-Bilawi og lederen Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger
 Christoph Reuter, The Terror Strategist: Secret Files Reveal the Structure of Islamic State, Der Spiegel, 18 April 2015

Personer fra Irak
Terrorister

Haji Bakr


Mølleparken er en offentlig park i Århus Midtby. Mølleparken blev anlagt i 1926 på det sted, hvor Aarhus Mølle havde ligget ved Aarhus Å siden 1200-tallet. I dag ligger parken ved siden af ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum og udgør en del af hovedstien for fodgængere mellem ARoS og Latinerkvarteret.

Mølleparken blev kraftigt omlagt i 2006-2008 som en del af fritlægningen af Aarhus Å, og den indeholder i dag store, åbne rekreative områder med faciliteter til gadesport såsom basketball, panna og bordtennis samt betonborde til at spille skak, backgammon og dam på.

Der er opstillet 11 buster af danske forfattere i den nordlige ende af parken, og de forestiller Steen Steensen Blicher, Marie Bregendahl, J. P. Jacobsen, Johannes V. Jensen, Jakob Knudsen, Thøger Larsen, Jacob Paludan, Henrik Pontoppidan, Johan Skjoldborg, Harry Søiberg og Jeppe Aakjær. Bronzeskulpturen af Elskovskampen fra den oprindelige park, udført af Johannes Berg, står der stadig, og i 2014 blev den bevægelige skulptur Snake af den internationalt anerkendte billedhugger Phil Price opstillet i parken efter byrådet havde indkøbt den. Den blev købt efter at være blevet kåret som publikums favorit ved Sculpture by the Sea i 2013 på Tangkrogen.

Historie
Vandmøllen i Aarhus blev nævnt første gang i 1289. Den var krongods indtil 1664. De senere ejere opkøbte land langs Aarhus Å, og skabte de haver, der blev begyndelsen på Mølleparken. Aarhus Mølle fungerede som vandmølle til 1870erne og derefter som dampmølle til 1903. Aarhus Kommune købte møllegrunden i 1909, men med den klausul, at Ernst og Wilhelmine Weiss kunne blive boende. Efter Wilhelmine Weiss' død i 1926 blev møllebygningerne flyttet til Den Gamle By og der blev anlagt en park på stedet.

Fra 1934 lå indgangen til Aarhus Hovedbibliotek i Mølleparken, hvilket er årsagen til, at der er blevet opstillet buster af forfattere. Parken er blevet renoveret i 2014, og i sommeren 2015 blev biblioteksfunktionerne flyttet til Dokk1 ved havnefronten. Konsortiet Biblioteksparken A/S er i færd med at renovere og ombygge den tidligere biblioteksbygning til et hostel med 444 sengepladser samt på vestsiden af denne at opføre et nyt boligbyggeri med 85 lejligheder. Det nye hostel, BOOK1 Design Hostel, skulle efter planen være indviet i marts 2020. Åbningen er dog blevet udskudt på ubestemt tid på grund af coronavirus.

Galleri

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Parker i Aarhus
Etableret i 1926

Mølleparken (Aarhus)


An Serapias oulmesiaca in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Helmut Baumann ngan Siegfried Künkele. An Serapias oulmesiaca in nahilalakip ha genus nga Serapias, ngan familia nga Orchidaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Morocco. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Serapias

Serapias oulmesiaca


Sebuja je naseljeno mjesto u sastavu općine Zenica, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, BiH. U blizini je Sebujska rijeka, u babinskom slijevu. Stiješnjena je u kanjonu između planine Vranice (1017 m/m) i Vranjskog brda (989 m/m).

Ime
Jedno tumačenje imena je prema bujnoj vegetaciji ("sve buja", sve dobro raste). Drugo tumačenje imena izvodi ime iz staroslavenskog izraza "се бўја" = "gle (evo, eto) buči". Prema ovom je Babina rijeka bučila, stvarala buku što čini ovo tumačenje vjerojatnijim.

Promet
Važno je križanje lokalnih puteva otkamo se prilazi brojnim selima na brdima oko Sebuje.

Povijest
1895. godine prvi se put spominje u popisnim knjigama, što ne poriče mogućnost da je selo postojalo prije. Na tom su popisu popisivači skupa iskazali Vranoviće, Jasiku, Bijele Vode i Sebuju. Na popisu je tad bilo 35 nastanjenih kuća i 2 nenastanjene kuće i 248 stanovnika, od čega 134 muškaraca i 114 žena. Vjerski sastav bio je 180 muslimana i 68 pravoslavnih.

Gospodarstvo
Obližnji predjeli su među najljepšima u BiH i dio su Parka prirode Babina. i Tisovac (istok).
Neko je vrijeme u Sebuji radila tvornica slatkiša Niagfara koja je propala baš kad je počela izvoziti taan alvu u SAD.

Turizam
Omiljeno izletište za izletnike, rekreativce i ljubitelje prirode iz Zenice i drugih gradova su obližnji Pepelari, gdje je planinarski dom Dom zdravstvenih radnika kojim upravlja Planinarsko društvo "Tvrtkovac" iz Zenice. Do Doma se najbrže i najlakše dođe autobusom od Zenice do Sebuja, a odatle se za tri sata laganog hoda i laganog uspona stiže preko Rogatke ili Bistrovca do doma.

Stanovništvo
Prema popisu 1991. ovdje su živjeli:

 Muslimani - 57 (69,51%)
 Srbi - 24 (29,27%)
 Hrvati - 1 (1,22%)

Prema popisu 1981. ovdje je živjelo 80 stanovnika, od čega:
 Muslimani - 50 (62,50%)
 Srbi - 26 (32,50%)
 Hrvati - 1 (1,25%)
 Jugoslaveni - 2 (2,50%)
 ostali i nepoznato - 1 (1,25%)

Prema popisu 1971. ovdje je živjelo 116 stanovnika, od čega:
 Muslimani - 53 (45,69%)
 Srbi - 52 (44,83%)
 Hrvati - 9 (7,75%)
 ostali i nepoznato - 2 (1,72%)

Izvor

Naselja u Zeničko-dobojskoj županiji
Zenica

Sebuja


Chandi (Caṇḍī) — također poznata kao Chandika (Caṇḍika) — hinduistička je božica, smatrana spojem božicâ Parvati, Lakšmi i Sarasvati. Ona je najstrašniji oblik Šakti, ženske energije svemira. Šaktisti — hinduisti koji posebno štuju božice — smatraju Chandi inkarnacijom Adi Parashakti, koja je najviši oblik Šakti. Za Chandi se kaže da ne može tolerirati zlo te je zbog toga put do nje iznimno težak.

Devi Mahatmya
U svetom spisu Devi Mahatmya, u kojoj je proslavljena Šakti, Chandi je spomenuta kao moć Brahmana, koja uništava zle asure. Zbog toga ju šaktisti zazivaju kako bi uklonila zapreke s puta prema oslobođenju.

Bengal
Chandi je iznimno popularna u Bengalu, gdje ju smatraju Šivinom ženom te Ganešinom majkom. Tamo je povezana i s Kali.

Pogledajte također
Chandigarh — indijski grad nazvan po Chandi
Chandi di Var — himna Chandi

Izvori i bilješke

Hinduističke božice

Chandi


Finala Ligii Campionilor 2017 a fost ultimul meci al turneului european organizat de UEFA (Liga Campionilor 2016-17).

Aceasta a fost jucată pe Millennium Stadium din Cardiff , Țara Galilor pe 3 iunie 2017  între echipa italiană Juventus și echipa spaniolă Real Madrid , într-o repetare a finalei 1998. Real Madrid a câștigat meciul cu 4-1, scor ce a asigurat câștigarea celui de-al 12-lea trofeu, în timp ce Juventus a pierdut pentru a 7-a oară în istorie, o finală de Liga Campionilor.

Real Madrid a câștigat dreptul de a juca împotriva câștigătoarei 2016-17 UEFA Europa League , Manchester United , în Supercupa Europei 2017 . Ei au devenit astfel prima echipă care a reușit să-și apere titlul în epoca Ligii Campionilor,și , de asemenea s-au calificat pentru a intra în semifinalele Campionatul Mondial al Cluburilor FIFA 2017 ca reprezentantul UEFA.

Câștigătoarea Ligii Campionilor 2016-17 va participa automat la Supercupa Europei 2017, urmând a juca împotriva câștigătoarei  UEFA Europa League 2016-17, respectiv Manchester United. Pe lângă această ocazie de a participa la Supercupa Europei 2017, Real Madrid  va juca în semifinalele Campionatului Mondial al Cluburilor 2017.

Stadion

Finala a avut loc pe Millennium Stadium,din Țara Galilor. Acest stadion a fost ales ca urmare a unei decizii a Comitetului Executiv UEFA din Praga, Republica Cehă.

Meci

Statisticile meciului

Vezi și
 Liga Campionilor 2016-17
 Supercupa Europei 2017

Referințe

Legături externe
UEFA Champions League (official website)
2017 UEFA Champions League Final, UEFA.com

2017

Finala Ligii Campionilor 2017


هذا الجدول الزمني لبطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2006. جميع أوقات المباريات حسب (ت ع م+02:00).

المراجع

كأس العالم 2006

جدول مباريات كأس العالم 2006


Julius Wilhelm Hornung (* 1861 in Tübingen; † 21. April 1929 ebenda) war ein königlich Württembergischer (Hof)-Fotograf in Tübingen. Er war ein Sohn des Malers und Fotografen Wilhelm Hornung.

Leben

1884 übernahm Julius Wilhelm Hornung das Atelier seines früh verstorbenen Vaters Wilhelm Hornung in der Uhlandstraße 11 in Tübingen. Es ist anzunehmen, dass er bereits früher in dem Atelier des Vaters gearbeitet hatte. In den ersten Jahren nach der Übernahme bis in die 1890er Jahre firmierte er unter dem gleichen Namen wie sein Vater. Da er die Tradition des Vaters im gleichen Atelier fortführte, fällt es bei undatierten Fotos aus den 1880er und 90er Jahren schwer, die Arbeit des Sohnes von der des Vaters zu unterscheiden.

Julius Wilhelm Hornung "produzierte eine große Zahl von Scherzmontagen für Studentenverbindungen, an deren Exaktheit und Qualität Sinners Arbeiten mit grob wirkenden Bildkombinationen nicht heranreichen konnten". Ähnlich wie sein Vater machte er auch Erinnerungsfotos für Vereine und Belegschaften von Firmen.

Um 1900 erhielt Hornung den Titel eines "königlichen Hofphotographen". Er war gesellschaftlich sehr aktiv: Seit etwa 1898 saß er als Mitglied der Deutschen Partei im Gemeinderat der Stadt Tübingen. Am 30. Dezember 1898 wurde er vom neuen Bürgerausschuss zu dessen stellvertretendem Obmann (an Seite von Prof. Teuffel als Obmann) gewählt. Er war Vorstand des Tübinger Sängerkranzes. Ferner war er Vorstandsmitglied der Tübinger Ortsgruppe des Vereins zur Erhaltung der Volkstrachten in Schwaben.

Hornung machte auch ab und zu andere Fotos als Scherzmontagen und ironischerweise sind von diesen anteilmäßig mehr erhalten. (vgl. die unten angefügte Liste)

Hornung reproduzierte frühe, von Johann Gottlieb Nörrenberg 1848 angefertigte, Daguerreotypien mit Stadtansichten Tübingens (siehe: Tübinger Ansichten vom Schloss) die dadurch den Nachkommen überliefert wurden.

Julius Wilhelm Hornung übernahm auch von seinem Vater den Hopfenanbau. Die beiden Hopfenspeicher in der Wöhrdstraße existierten bis ins 20. Jahrhundert.

Hornung war verheiratet mit Sofia Hornung geborene Stahl, mit der er mehrere Kinder hatte.
Da keines seiner Kinder ernsthaftes Interesse an Fotografie hatte, veräußerte Hornung sein Atelier – höchstwahrscheinlich mit den Original-Glasplatten seiner Fotos und auch der Fotos seines Vaters – vor 1925 an Lorenz Bäuerle, lebte aber weiter als Privatier in der Uhlandstraße 11 bis zu seinem Tod. Das Fotoatelier übernahm 1933 Walter Borst (Neueröffnung am 10. August). Es existierte unter dieser Adresse bis Ende der 1950er Jahre. Anfang der 1960er wurde das Haus renoviert und jegliche Spuren der Existenz eines Fotoateliers wurden damals getilgt. Auf diese Weise ist das Originalwerk der zwei bedeutenden Tübinger Fotografen verloren gegangen. Im Umlauf gibt es aber immer wieder (inzwischen stark verblasste und vergilbte) Originalabzuge.

Bekannte Werke
 1890er Jahre Mathilde Weber
 1890er Jahre Karl von Liebermeister
 1898 Verein der Ausländer, Tübingen
 um 1899 Mensur bei Corps Rhenania
 um 1900 Großer Kneipsaal im früheren Haus des Corps Suevia Tübingen
 1901: Erinnerungsbild der Tübinger Abiturienten, (Fotomontage, Postkarte, Stadtarchiv Tübingen, Postkartensammlung Hartmaier, Album 95)
 1906 Erich Schairer
 1907 (oder kurz davor): Polizeiwache am Tübinger Rathaus kurz vor dem Abriss (Stadtarchiv Tübingen)
 6. Oktober 1907: Fahnenweihe des Pioniervereins für Tübingen und Umgebung im Hof der Gastwirtschaft Zum Hanskarle in Tübingen (Fotomontage, "wohlgelungene photographische Aufnahme")
 11. Januar 1909: Zug der Burschenschaft "Germania" auf der Neckarbrücke in Tübingen
 1911: Die "Sennhütte" als Interimskneipe des Corps "Rhenania" (Archiv Corps Rhenania, Kabinettformat)
 um 1916: Verwundete des Ersten Weltkrieges in einem Tübinger Lazarett (Postkarte, Stadtarchiv Tübingen, Fotosammlung 134-020)
 1920er Jahre Eugen Hofmeister

Einzelnachweise

Bibliographie

 Ulrich Hägele: Fotografische Satire. Julius Hornungs Tübinger Montagen um 1900. In: Schwäbische Heimat, 69 Jg. 2018, Heft 1, S. 70–76
 Ulrich Hägele: Experimentierfeld der Moderne. Fotomontage 1890–1940. Tübinger Vereinigung für Volkskunde (TVV), Tübingen 2017, ISBN 978-3-932512-91-9
 Udo Rauch, Antje Zacharias (Hrsg.): …und grüßen Sie mir die Welt. Tübingen – eine Universitätsstadt auf den Postkarten. Stadtmuseum Tübingen 2007, ISBN 978-3-910090-78-1
 Udo Rauch: Quartier der Polizei. Das Tübinger Rathaus von hinten gesehen. In: "Schwäbisches Tagblatt", 8. August 2005
 Wolfgang Hesse: Ansichten aus Schwaben. Kunst, Land und Leute in Aufnahmen der ersten Tübinger Lichtbildner und des Fotografen Paul Sinner (1838–1925). Gebrüder Metz, Tübingen 1989, ISBN 3-921580-79-X

Weblinks

 Wolfgang Hesse: Fahne. Feier. Fotografie, In: "Rundbrief-Fotografie", hrsg. von Wolfgang Hesse und Klaus Pollmeier in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Museumsverband Baden-Württemberg e.V., der Sektion Archive und Geschichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Photographie e.V. (DGPh) und dem Sächsischen Museumsbund

Fotograf (19. Jahrhundert)
Fotograf (20. Jahrhundert)
Fotograf (Tübingen)
Königlich Württembergischer Hoflieferant
Württemberger
Deutscher
Geboren 1861
Gestorben 1929
Mann

Julius Wilhelm Hornung


Cetus ya da Balina takımyıldızı, modern 88 takımyıldızdan biridir. Kuzey gökkürededir. Cetus adı, her ne kadar günümüzde sıklıkla balina dense de, Yunan mitolojisi'ndeki bir deniz canavarı olan Cetus´tan gelmektedir. Balina, Kova, Balık ve Irmak takımyıldızları gibi diğer suyla ilgili tasvir edilen takımyıldızlarla birlikte, Su olarak bilinen gökyüzü bölgesindedir.

Dikkat çekici nesneler

Tutulma düzlemi
Her ne kadar Balina zodyağın bir parçası olmasa da, tutulma düzlemi (ekliptik) bu takımyıldız bölgesinin çok yakınından geçer, bu yüzden gezegenler kısa süreli de olsa Balina takımyıldızı bölgesinde gözlenebilirler. Asteroitlerin yörüngeleri genellikle gezegenlerden daha büyük eğikliğe sahip olduğundan bu durum daha çok asteroitlerde geçerlidir; örneğin asteroit 4 Vesta, 1807'de bu takımyıldız bölgesinde keşfedilmiştir.

Yıldızlar
Bu takımyıldızın en dikkat çekici yıldızı, keşfedilmiş ilk değişen yıldız olan Mira'dır (ό Ceti). 331.65 günlük bir periyotla 2.0 kadirlik en yüksek görünür parlaklığına ulaşarak gökyüzünün en parlak yıldızlarından biri haline gelir ve eğitimsiz bir gözle bile kolaylıkla seçilebilir; ardından parlaklığı yeniden 10.1 kadire düşer. David Fabricius tarafından 1596'daki keşfi gökyüzünün değişmezliği varsayımını yıktı ve Kopernik devrimine destek sağladı.

Bu takımyıldızdaki diğer yıldızlar: α Ceti (Menkar), takımyıldızın en parlak yıldızı olan β Ceti (Deneb Kaitos) veGüneş'e en yakın 17. yıldız olan τ Cetidir.

Diğer derin uzay nesneleri
Balina, galaktik düzlemden oldukça uzakta bulunmaktadır, bu yüzden pek çok uzak galaksi Samanyolu'nun tozları tarafından belirsizleştirilmeksizin görülebilir. Bunların içinde Messier 77 (NGC 1068), δ Ceti yıldızı yakınlarındaki 9. kadirden bir sarmal gökadadır ve bu takımyıldız bölgesindeki en parlağıdır.

Kaynakça
 Ian Ridpath ve Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564.

Kaynakça
 İngilizce Vikipedi'deki Cetus maddesinin 2 Temmuz 2009, 19:33 tarihli sürümü

Dış bağlantılar

 The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cetus
 Star Tales – Cetus

Kurgusal balinalar

Cetus (takımyıldız)


A Mouthful of Air (Respire Fundo, no Brasil) é um filme de drama psicológico estadunidense de 2021 roteirizado, dirigido e produzido por Amy Koppelman, baseado em seu romance de 2003 com o mesmo nome. O filme é estrelado por Amanda Seyfried, Finn Wittrock, Jennifer Carpenter, Michael Gaston, Amy Irving e Paul Giamatti. Foi lançado em 29 de outubro de 2021 pela Stage 6 Films.

Sinopse
Na véspera do primeiro aniversário de seu filho, Julie Davis (Amanda Seyfried) sobrevive a uma tentativa de suicídio. Nas semanas seguintes de sua recuperação, ela tenta mostrar gratidão pelas coisas positivas da vida, mas continua sofrendo de ansiedade. A descoberta de que está grávida pela segunda vez a obriga a enfrentar os traumas de sua experiência.

Filmes dos Estados Unidos de 2021

A Mouthful of Air


Le muscle du tragus est un muscle peaucier du pavillon de l'oreille.

Description

Origine
Le muscle du tragus s'insère sur le cartilage du tragus.

Trajet
Les fibres musculaires ont un court trajet vertical en une bande aplatie.

Terminaison
Il se termine sur le tissu cartilagineux et fibreux unissant la conque et l'origine de l'hélix.

Innervation
Il est innervé par une branche temporo-faciale du nerf facial.

Action
Le muscle ne modifie que très peu la forme auriculaire chez la majorité des individus, cette action pourrait augmenter l'ouverture de la conque chez certains.

Références

tragus

Muscle du tragus


Theodore "Steve" Brown (January 13, 1890September 15, 1965) was a jazz musician best known for his work on string bass.  Like many New Orleans bassists, he played both string bass and tuba professionally.

Brown was the younger brother of trombonist Tom Brown. In his youth he played with his brother's band in New Orleans. Because of his devil-may-care personality he was nicknamed "Steve" after Steve Brodie, a man who became famous for jumping off the Brooklyn Bridge on a dare. Few musicians knew Brown's real name.

Brown went north to Chicago in 1915 with his brother Tom in the first wave of jazz musicians to go to the city. He was a member of the New Orleans Rhythm Kings in the early 1920s, where his slap style on bass attracted attention.

In 1924 he joined Jean Goldkette's Orchestra, with whom he remained until 1927, creating the first recordings of the style. In 1927, he joined the top-paying band in the United States, Paul Whiteman's Orchestra.

Around 1930 he settled in Detroit, Michigan, which would be his home for the rest of his life.  He led his own band and continued playing with traditional jazz and Dixieland bands into the 1950s.

Wellman Braud, bass player with the Duke Ellington orchestra, once called Brown the greatest of all bass players.

References

1890 births
1965 deaths
Jazz musicians from New Orleans
American jazz double-bassists
Male double-bassists
20th-century American musicians
Slap bassists (double bass)
20th-century double-bassists
20th-century American male musicians
American male jazz musicians
New Orleans Rhythm Kings members
Victor Recording Orchestra members

Steve Brown (bass player)