Buddhist texts are religious texts that belong to, or are associated with, Buddhism and its traditions. There is no single textual collection for all of Buddhism. Instead, there are three main Buddhist Canons: the Pāli Canon of the Theravāda tradition, the Chinese Buddhist Canon used in East Asian Buddhist tradition, and the Tibetan Buddhist Canon used in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.

The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, found in Afghanistan and written in Gāndhārī, they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE. The first Buddhist texts were initially passed on orally by Buddhist monastics, but were later written down and composed as manuscripts in various Indo-Aryan languages (such as Pāli, Gāndhārī, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit). These texts were collected into various collections and translated into other languages such as Buddhist Chinese (fójiào hànyǔ 佛教漢語) and Classical Tibetan as Buddhism spread outside of India.

Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial, and pseudo-canonical. Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between buddhavacana "word of the Buddha," many of which are known as "sutras", and other texts, such as "shastras" (treatises) or "Abhidharma".

These religious texts were written in different languages, methods and writing systems. Memorizing, reciting and copying the texts was seen as spiritually valuable. Even after the development and adoption of printing by Buddhist institutions, Buddhists continued to copy them by hand as a present authenticity exercise and spiritual practice

In an effort to preserve these scriptures, Asian Buddhist institutions were at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to bookmaking, including paper, and block printing which were often deployed on a large scale. Because of this, the first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947.

Buddhavacana
The concept of buddhavacana (word of the Buddha) is important in understanding how Buddhists classify and see their texts. Buddhavacana texts have special status as sacred scripture and are generally seen as in accord with the teachings of the historical Buddha, which is termed "the Dharma". According to Donald Lopez, the criteria for determining what should be considered buddhavacana were developed at an early stage, and that the early formulations do not suggest that Dharma is limited to what was spoken by the historical Buddha.

The Mahāsāṃghika and the Mūlasarvāstivāda considered both the Buddha's discourses and those of his disciples to be buddhavacana. A number of different beings such as Buddhas, disciples of the Buddha, ṛṣis, and devas were considered capable to transmitting buddhavacana. The content of such a discourse was then to be collated with the sūtras, compared with the Vinaya, and evaluated against the nature of the Dharma. These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a sangha, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder.

In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of buddhavacana is the Pāli Canon, also known as the Tripiṭaka ("three baskets"). Generally speaking, the Theravāda school rejects the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana (word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts as reliable sources. In East Asian Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon; the most common edition of this is the Taishō Tripiṭaka, itself based on the Tripiṭaka Koreana. This collection, unlike the Pāli Tripiṭaka, contains Mahāyāna sūtras, Śāstras (scholastic treatises), and Esoteric Buddhist literature.

According to Venerable Hsuan Hua from the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are five types of beings who may speak the sutras of Buddhism: a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a deva, a ṛṣi, or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a buddha that its contents are true Dharma. Then these sutras may be properly regarded as buddhavacana. Sometimes texts that are considered commentaries by some are regarded by others as buddhavacana.

In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Kangyur ('The Translation of the Word'). The East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist Canons always combined buddhavacana with other literature in their standard collected editions. However, the general view of what is and is not buddhavacana is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Kangyur, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan Vajrayāna Buddhism, in addition to containing sutras and Vinaya, also contains Buddhist tantras and other related Tantric literature.

The texts of the early Buddhist schools

Early Buddhist texts

The earliest Buddhist texts were passed down orally in Middle Indo-Aryan languages called Prakrits, including Gāndhārī language, the early Magadhan language and Pāli through the use of repetition, communal recitation and mnemonic devices. These texts were later compiled into canons and written down in manuscripts. For example, the Pāli Canon was preserved in Sri Lanka where it was first written down in the first century BCE.

There are early texts from various Buddhist schools, the largest collections are from the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda schools, but there are also full texts and fragments from the Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika, Mahīśāsaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda, and others. The most widely studied early Buddhist material are the first four Pāli Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chinese Āgamas. The modern study of early pre-sectarian Buddhism often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources.

Various scholars of Buddhist studies such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne, and A. K. Warder hold that early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical Buddha himself or at least to the early years of pre-sectarian Buddhism. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, these texts are sometimes referred to as "Hinayana" or "Śrāvakayāna".

Although many versions of the texts of the early Buddhist schools exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language is the Tipiṭaka (triple basket) of the Theravāda school. The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tripitakas of early schools include the Chinese Āgamas, which includes collections by the Sarvāstivāda and the Dharmaguptaka. The Chinese Buddhist canon contains a complete collection of early sutras in Chinese translation, their content is very similar to the Pali, differing in detail but not in the core doctrinal content. The Tibetan canon contains some of these early texts as well, but not as complete collections. The earliest known Buddhist manuscripts containing early Buddhist texts are the Gandharan Buddhist Texts, dated to the 1st century BCE and constitute the Buddhist textual tradition of Gandharan Buddhism which was an important link between Indian and East Asian Buddhism. Parts of what is likely to be the canon of the Dharmaguptaka can be found among these Gandharan Buddhist Texts.

There are different genres of early Buddhist texts, including prose "suttas" (Sanskrit: sūtra, discourses), disciplinary works (Vinaya), various forms of verse compositions (such as gāthā and udāna), mixed prose and verse works (geya), and also lists (matika) of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre. The Sūtras (Sanskrit; Pāli: Sutta) are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are considered to be buddhavacana by all schools. The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. They were later organized into collections called Nikāyas ('volumes') or Āgamas ('scriptures'), which were further collected into the Sūtra Piṭaka ("Basket of Discourses") of the canons of the early Buddhist schools.

Most of the early sutras that have survived are from Sthavira nikaya schools, no complete collection has survived from the other early branch of Buddhism, the Mahāsāṃghika. However, some individual texts have survived, such as the Śālistamba Sūtra (rice stalk sūtra). This sūtra contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the early sutras of the Sthavira schools such as dependent origination, the "middle way" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "five aggregates", the "three unwholesome roots", the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Another important source for Mahāsāṃghika sutras is the Mahāvastu ("Great Event"), which is a collection of various texts compiled into a biography of the Buddha. Within it can be found quotations and whole sutras, such as the Mahāsāṃghika version of the Dharmacakrapravartana.

The other major type of text aside from the sutras are the Vinayas. Vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline and the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community (sangha). However, Vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma-Vinaya) mean something like 'doctrine and discipline'. The Vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those that discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the "Jatakas", or birth stories. Various Vinaya collections survive in full, including those of the following schools: Theravāda (in Pali), Mula-Sarvāstivāda (in Tibetan translation) and the Mahāsānghika, Sarvāstivāda, Mahīshāsika, and Dharmaguptaka (in Chinese translations). In addition, portions survive of a number of Vinayas in various languages.

Aside from the Sutras and the Vinayas, some schools also had collections of "minor" or miscellaneous texts. The Theravāda Khuddaka Nikāya ('Minor Collection') is one example of such a collection, while there is evidence that the Dharmaguptaka school had a similar collection, known as the Kṣudraka Āgama. Fragments of the Dharmaguptaka minor collection have been found in Gandhari. The Sarvāstivāda school also seems to have had a Kṣudraka collection of texts, but they did not see it as an "Āgama". These "minor" collections seem to have been a category for miscellaneous texts, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early Buddhist schools.

Early Buddhist texts which appear in such "minor" collections include:

 The Dharmapadas. These texts are collections of sayings and aphorisms, the most well known of which is the Pali Dhammapada, but there are various versions in different languages, such as the Patna Dharmapada and the Gāndhārī Dharmapada.
 The Pali Udana and the Sarvāstivāda Udānavarga. These are other collections of "inspired sayings".
The Pali Itivuttaka ("as it was said") and the Chinese translation of the Itivṛttaka (本事經) by Xuanzang.
 The Pali Sutta Nipata, including texts such as the Aṭṭhakavagga and Pārāyanavagga. There is also a parallel in the Chinese translation of the Arthavargīya.
Theragāthā and Therīgāthā two collections of verses related to the elder disciples of the Buddha. A Sanskrit Sthaviragāthā is also known to have existed.

Abhidharma texts
Abhidharma (in Pāli, Abhidhamma) texts which contain "an abstract and highly technical systematization" of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist sutras. It is an attempt to best express the Buddhist view of "ultimate reality" (paramartha-satya) without using the conventional language and narrative stories found in the sutras. The prominent modern scholar of Abhidharma, Erich Frauwallner has said that these Buddhist systems are "among the major achievements of the classical period of Indian philosophy." Modern scholars generally believe that the canonical Abhidharma texts emerged after the time of the Buddha, in around the 3rd century BCE. Therefore, the canonical Abhidharma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of later Buddhists.

There are different types and historical layers of Abhidharma literature. The early canonical Abhidharma works (like the Abhidhamma Pitaka) are not philosophical treatises, but mainly summaries and expositions of early doctrinal lists with their accompanying explanations. These texts developed out of early Buddhist lists or matrices (mātṛkās) of key teachings, such as the 37 factors leading to Awakening. Scholars like Erich Frauwallner have argued that there is an "ancient core" of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest Abhidharma works, such as in the Theravada Vibhanga, the Dharmaskandha of the Sarvastivada, and the Śāriputrābhidharma of the Dharmaguptaka school.

Only two full canonical Abhidharma collections have survived both containing seven texts, the Theravāda Abhidhamma and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which survives in Chinese translation. However, texts of other tradition have survived, such as the Śāriputrābhidharma of the Dharmaguptaka school, the Tattvasiddhi Śāstra (Chéngshílun) and various Abhidharma type works from the Pudgalavada school.

Later post-canonical Abhidharma works were written as either large treatises (śāstra), as commentaries (aṭṭhakathā) or as smaller introductory manuals. They are more developed philosophical works which include many innovations and doctrines not found in the canonical Abhidharma.

Other texts

The early Buddhist schools also preserved other types of texts which developed in later periods, which were variously seen as canonical or not, depending on the tradition.

One of the largest category of texts that were neither Sutra, Vinaya nor Abhidharma includes various collections of stories such as the Jātaka tales and the Avadānas (Pali: Apadāna). These are moral fables and legends dealing with the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. The different Buddhist schools had their own collections of these tales and often disagreed on which stories were canonical.

Another genre that developed over time in the various early schools were biographies of the Buddha. Buddha biographies include the Mahāvastu of the Lokottaravadin school, the northern tradition's Lalitavistara Sūtra, the Theravada Nidānakathā and the Dharmaguptaka Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra.

One of the most famous of biographies is the Buddhacarita, an epic poem in Classical Sanskrit by Aśvaghoṣa. Aśvaghoṣa also wrote other poems, as well as Sanskrit dramas. Another Sanskrit Buddhist poet was Mātṛceṭa, who composed various pious hymns in slokas. Buddhist poetry is a broad genre with numerous forms and has been composed in many languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Aside from the work of Aśvaghoṣa, another important Sanskrit poet was Mātr̥ceṭa, known for his One Hundred and Fifty Verses. Buddhist poetry was also written in popular Indian languages, such as Tamil and Apabhramsa. One well known poem is the Tamil epic Manimekalai, which is one of the Five Great Epics of Tamil literature.

Other later hagiographical texts include the Buddhavaṃsa, the Cariyāpiṭaka and the Vimanavatthu (as well as its Chinese parallel, the Vimānāvadāna).

There are also some unique individual texts like the Milinda pañha (literally The Questions of Milinda) and its parallel in Chinese, the Nāgasena Bhikśu Sūtra (那先比丘經). These texts depict a dialogue between the monk Nagasena, and the Indo-Greek King Menander (Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects.

Theravāda texts

 The Theravāda tradition has an extensive commentarial literature, much of which is still untranslated. These are attributed to scholars working in Sri Lanka such as Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) and Dhammapala. There are also sub-commentaries (ṭīkā) or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the Visuddhimagga, or Path of Purification, which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka. According to Nanamoli Bhikkhu, this text is regarded as "the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada." A similar albeit shorter work is the Vimuttimagga. Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the Abhidhammattha-sangaha (11th or 12th century), a short 50 page introductory summary to the Abhidhamma, which is widely used to teach Abhidhamma.

Buddhaghosa is known to have worked from Buddhist commentaries in the Sri Lankan Sinhala language, which are now lost. Sri Lankan literature in the vernacular contains many Buddhist works, including as classical Sinhala poems such as the Muvadevāvata (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as King Mukhadeva, 12th century) and the Sasadāvata (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as a Hare, 12th century) as well as prose works like the Dhampiyātuvā gätapadaya (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pāli Dhammapada.

The Theravāda textual tradition spread into Burma and Thailand where Pali scholarship continued to flourish with such works as the Aggavamsa of Saddaniti and the Jinakalamali of Ratanapañña. Pali literature continued to be composed into the modern era, especially in Burma, and writers such as Mahasi Sayadaw translated some of their texts into Pali.

There are also numerous Esoteric Theravada texts, mostly from Southeast Asia. This tradition flourished in Cambodia and Thailand before the 19th century reformist movement of Rama IV. One of these texts has been published in English by the Pali Text Society as "Manual of a Mystic".

Burmese Buddhist literature developed unique poetic forms from the 1450s onwards, a major type of poetry is the  which are long and embellished translations of Pali Buddhist works, mainly jatakas. A famous example of   poetry is the  (the  in nine sections, 1523). There is also a genre of Burmese commentaries or  which were used to teach Pali. The nineteenth century saw a flowering of Burmese Buddhist literature in various genres including religious biography, Abhidharma, legal literature and meditation literature.

An influential text of Thai literature is the "Three Worlds According to King Ruang" (1345) by Phya Lithai, which is an extensive Cosmological and visionary survey of the Thai Buddhist universe.

Mahāyāna texts

Mahāyāna sūtras
See Mahāyāna sūtras for historical background and a list of some sutras categorised by source.

Around the beginning of the common era, a new genre of sutra literature began to be written with a focus on the Bodhisattva ideal, commonly known as Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") or Bodhisattvayāna ("Bodhisattva Vehicle"). The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna,' but use the terms Vaipulya (extensive, expansive) sutras, or Gambhira (deep, profound) sutras.

There are various theories of how Mahāyāna emerged. According to David Drewes, it seems to have been "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Early dharmabhanakas (preachers, reciters of these sutras) were influential figures, and promoted these new texts throughout the Buddhist communities.

Many of these Mahāyāna sūtras were written in Sanskrit (in hybrid forms and in classical Sanskrit) and then later translated into the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons (the Kangyur and the Taishō Tripiṭaka respectively) which then developed their own textual histories. Sanskrit had been adopted by Buddhists in north India during the Kushan era and Sanskrit Buddhist literature became the dominant tradition in Buddhist India until the decline of Buddhism there.

Mahāyāna sūtras are also generally regarded by the Mahāyāna tradition as being more profound than the śrāvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sutras. The Mahāyāna sūtras are traditionally considered by Mahāyāna Buddhists to be the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna Buddhists explained the emergence of these new texts by arguing that they had been transmitted in secret, via lineages of supernatural beings (such as the nagas) until people were ready to hear them, or by stating that they had been revealed directly through visions and meditative experiences to a select few.

According to David McMahan, the literary style of the Mahāyāna sūtras reveals how these texts were mainly composed as written works and how they also needed to legitimate themselves to other Buddhists. They used different literary and narrative ways to defend the legitimacy of these texts as Buddha word. Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Gaṇḍavyūha also often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or śrāvaka are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings, while more the advanced elite, the bodhisattvas, are depicted as those who can see the highest teachings.

These sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word by various early Buddhist schools and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha, showing that they are aware of this claim.  Buddhist communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika school were divided along these doctrinal lines into sub-schools which accepted or did not accept these texts. The Theravāda school of Sri Lanka also was split on the issue during the medieval period. The Mahavihara sub-sect rejected these texts and the (now extinct) Abhayagiri sect accepted them. Theravāda commentaries mention these texts (which they call Vedalla/Vetulla) as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. Modern Theravāda generally does not accept these texts as buddhavacana (word of the Buddha).

The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from Bamiyan). However, according to Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in the production of these texts. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian, Yijing, and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.

Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, 'celestial' Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras. These texts also promoted new religious practices that were supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve, such as "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras." Some Mahāyāna sūtras claim that these practices lead to rebirth in Pure lands such as Abhirati and Sukhavati, where becoming a Buddha is much easier to achieve.

Several Mahāyāna sūtras also depict important Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas Amitabha, Akshobhya and Vairocana, and the bodhisattvas Maitreya, Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Avalokiteshvara. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of Buddhahood. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (lokuttara) beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.

According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood as a "mere appearance", his death is an unreal show, in reality he continues to live in a transcendent reality. Thus the Buddha in the Lotus sutra says that he is "the father of the world", "the self existent (svayambhu)...protector of all creatures", who has "never ceased to exist" and only "pretends to have passed away."

Hundreds of Mahāyāna sūtras have survived in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan translation. There many different genres or classes of Mahāyāna sutras, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras and the Pure Land sūtras. The different Mahāyāna schools have many varied classification schemas for organizing them and they see different texts as having higher authority than others.

Some Mahāyāna sūtras are also thought to display a distinctly tantric character, like some of the shorter Perfection of Wisdom sutras and the Mahavairocana Sutra. At least some editions of the Kangyur include the Heart Sutra in the tantra division. Such overlap is not confined to "neighbouring" yanas: at least nine "Sravakayana" texts can be found in the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur. One of them, the Atanatiya Sutra, is also included in the Mikkyo (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino-Japanese Buddhist literature. Some Mahāyāna texts also contain dhāraṇī, which are chants that are believed to have magical and spiritual power.

Major Mahāyāna sūtras
The following is a list of some well known Mahāyāna sutras which have been studied by modern scholarship:

Ajitasena Sutra – A "proto-Mahāyāna" text, possibly one of the earliest texts with Mahāyāna elements.
Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra – An early Mahāyāna text focused on bodhisattva monasticism.
 Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra – Possibly the earliest Prajñāpāramitā text.
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā (Diamond Sutra) – Another possibly early Prajñāpāramitā text, very popular.
 Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (Heart Sutra) – Another very popular Prajñāpāramitā text.
Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Infinite Life Sutra) – An influential text in Pure Land Buddhism.
 Amitabha Sutra – Another Pure land text.
Contemplation Sutra – Another Pure land text.
Pratyutpanna Sutra.
Shurangama Samadhi Sutra.
 Saddharmapundarīka-sūtra (Lotus Sutra) – One of the most influential texts in East Asian Buddhism.
Mahāratnakūta Sūtra – Actually a collection of various sūtras.
Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra (or Golden Light Sutra).
Avataṃsaka Sūtra – A compilation of numerous texts, such as the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra and the Daśabhūmika Sūtra.
Sandhinirmocana Sutra (c. 2nd century CE), the main sutra of Yogacara Buddhism, introduces the doctrine of the "three turnings".
Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra – One of the key "Buddha nature" (Tathāgatagarbha) sūtras.
Shrīmālādevi-simhanāda Sūtra – A "Buddha nature" text.
Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra – A "Buddha nature" text, very influential in East Asian Buddhism.
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra – Includes Yogacara and Tathāgatagarbha elements, influential in Zen Buddhism.
Samādhirāja Sūtra (or Candrapradīpa Sūtra), influential in the Madhyamaka scholasticism of Tibet.
 Vimalakīrti Sūtra – A sutra which depicts the teachings of a layman on non-dualism.
Brahmajāla Sūtra – A text which contains an influential listing of bodhisattva precepts.
Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra, which introduces the Om Mani Padme Hum mantra.
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra.

Indian treatises
The Mahāyāna commentarial and exegetical literature is vast. Many of these exegetical and scholastic works are called Śāstras, which can refer to a scholastic treatise, exposition or commentary.

Central to much of Mahāyāna philosophy are the works of the Indian scholar Nagarjuna. Especially important is his magnum opus, the Mūlamadhyamika-karikā, or Root Verses on the Middle Way, a seminal text on the Madhyamika philosophy. Various other authors of the Madhyamaka school followed him and wrote commentaries to his texts or their own treatises.

Another very influential work which traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna In East Asia is the Dà zhìdù lùn (*Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, The Great Discourse on Prajñāpāramitā). This is a massive Mahayana Buddhist treatise and commentary on the Prajñāpāramitā sutra in Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and it has been extremely important in the development of the major Chinese Buddhist traditions. Its authorship to Nagarjuna however has been questioned by modern scholars and it only survives in the Chinese translation by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE).

The Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (fourth century CE) is another very large treatise which focuses on yogic praxis and the doctrines of the Indian Yogacara school. Unlike the Dà zhìdù lùn, it was studied and transmitted in both the East Asian Buddhist and the Tibetan Buddhist traditions.

The works of Asanga, a great scholar and systematizer of the Yogacara, are also very influential in both traditions, including his magnum opus, the Mahāyāna-samgraha, and the Abhidharma-samuccaya (a compendium of Abhidharma thought that became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet). Various texts are also said to have received by Asanga from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including works such as Madhyāntavibhāga, the Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra, and the Abhisamayālamkara. Their authorship remains disputed by modern scholars however. Asanga's brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: Trisvabhāva-nirdesa, Vimsatika, Trimsika, and the Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya. Numerous commentaries were written by later Yogacara exegetes on the works of these two brothers.

The 9th Century Indian Buddhist Shantideva produced two texts: the Bodhicaryāvatāra has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favorite text of the 14th Dalai Lama.

Dignāga is associated with a school of Buddhist logic that tried to establish which texts were valid sources of knowledge (see also Epistemology). He produced the Pramāna-samuccaya, and later Dharmakirti wrote the Pramāna-vārttikā, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text.

East Asian works
The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (Dàshéng Qǐxìn Lùn) is an influential text in East Asian Buddhism, especially in the Hua-yen school of China, and its Japanese equivalent, Kegon. While it is traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, most scholars now hold it is a Chinese composition.

The Dhyāna sutras (Chan-jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the Sarvastivada school along with some early proto-Mahayana meditations. They were mostly the work of Buddhist Yoga teachers from Kashmir and were translated into Chinese early on.
The early period of the development of Chinese Buddhism was concerned with the collection and translation of texts into Chinese and the creation of the Chinese Buddhist canon. This was often done by traveling overland to India, as recorded in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, by the monk Xuanzang (c. 602–664), who also wrote a commentary on Yogacara which remained influential, the Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only.

East Asian Buddhism began to develop its own unique doctrinal literature with the rise of the Tiantai School and its major representative, Zhiyi (538–597 CE) who wrote important commentaries on the Lotus sutra as well as the first major comprehensive work on meditation composed in China, the Mohe Zhiguan (摩訶止観). Another important school of Chinese Buddhism is Huayan, which focused on developing their philosophical texts from the Avatamsaka. An important patriarch of this school is Fazang who wrote many commentaries and treatises.

The Tripitaka Koreana, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the Mongol invasions of Korea), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century. Still intact in good condition after some 750 years, it has been described by the UNESCO committee as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world".

Zen Buddhism developed a large literary tradition based on the teachings and sayings of Chinese Zen masters. One of the key texts in this genre is the Platform Sutra attributed to Zen patriarch Huineng, it gives an autobiographical account of his succession as Ch'an Patriarch, as well as teachings about Ch'an theory and practice. Other texts are Koan collections, which are compilations of the sayings of Chinese masters such as the Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate. Another key genre is that of compilations of Zen master biographies, such as the Transmission of the Lamp. Buddhist poetry was also an important contribution to the literature of the tradition.

After the arrival of Chinese Buddhism in Japan, Korea and Vietnam; they developed their own traditions and literature in the local language.

Vajrayana texts

Buddhist tantras

The late Seventh century saw the rise of another new class of Buddhist texts, the Tantras, which focused on ritual practices and yogic techniques such as the use of Mantras, Dharanis, Mandalas, Mudras and Fire offerings.

Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed "action Tantras" (kriyā tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras.

Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yogini Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood. Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals.

Some scholars such as Alexis Sanderson have argued that these later tantras, mainly the Yogini tantras, can be shown to have been influenced by non-Buddhist religious texts, mainly Tantric Śaivism and the Śaiva tantras.

In East Asian Esoteric Buddhism and its Japanese offshoot, the Shingon school, the most influential tantras are those which focus on Vairocana Buddha, mainly, the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra.

Buddhist Tantras are key texts in Vajrayana Buddhism, which is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. They can be found in the Chinese canon, but even more so in the Tibetan Kangyur which contains translations of almost 500 tantras. In the Tibetan tradition, there are various categories of tantra. The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism divide the Tantras into four main categories:

 Kriyayogatantra
 Charyayogatantra
 Yogatantra
 Anuttarayogatantra

Anuttarayogatantra (Higher Yoga Tantra) is known in the Nyingma school as Mahayoga. Some of the most influential Higher Tantras in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are the Guhyasamāja Tantra, the Hevajra Tantra, the Cakrasamvara Tantra, and the Kalacakra Tantra. The Nyingma school also has unique tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools, the most important of these are the Dzogchen tantras.

Other products of the Vajrayana literature
Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called terma (Tibetan: gTer-ma). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) believed either composed or hidden by tantric masters and/or elementally secreted or encoded in the elements and retrieved, accessed or rediscovered by other tantric masters when appropriate. Termas are discovered by tertöns (Tibetan: gTer-stons), whose special function is to reveal these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be 'mind termas,' which are 'discovered' in the mind of the tertön. The Nyingma school (and Bön tradition) has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so-called Tibetan book of the dead, the Bardo Thodol.

A sadhana is a tantric spiritual practice text used by practitioners, primarily to practice the mandala or a particular yidam, or meditation deity. The Sādhanamālā is a collection of sadhanas.

Vajrayana adepts, known as mahasiddha, often expounded their teachings in the form of songs of realization. Collections of these songs such as the Caryāgīti, or the Charyapada are still in existence. The Dohakosha is a collection of doha songs by the yogi Saraha from the 9th century. A collection known in English as The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa was composed by Tibetan Buddhist yogi Milarepa and is especially popular amongst members of the Kagyu school.

The Blue Annals () completed in 1476CE, authored by Gölo Zhönnupel (Tibetan: gos lo gzhon nu dpal, 1392–1481), is a historical survey of Tibetan Buddhism with a marked ecumenical view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout Tibet.

Namtar, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of Tibetan Buddhist texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their life story.

Kūkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism, and these are influential in Japanese Shingon Buddhism.

See also

 Abhidhamma Piṭaka
 Atthakatha
 Āgama (Buddhism)
 Buddhavacana
 Buddhist Publication Society
 Chinese Buddhist canon
 Dhammapada, one of the most widely read and best known Buddhist scriptures
 Dhamma Society Fund
 Early Buddhist Texts
 Gandharan Buddhist Texts, the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered
 Index of Buddhism-related articles
 List of historic Indian texts
 List of suttas
 Mahayana sutras
 Pali Canon
 Pali Literature
 Pali Text Society
 Palm-leaf manuscript
 Pariyatti (bookstore)
 Sanskrit Buddhist literature
 Sutta Piṭaka
 Taishō Tripiṭaka
 Tibetan Buddhist canon
 Timeline of Buddhism
 Tripiṭaka Koreana
 Vinaya Piṭaka
 Yana, Buddhist schools into "yanas" or "vehicles"

References

Bibliography
 The Rider encyclopedia of eastern philosophy and religion. London, Rider, 1989.
 Nakamura, Hajime. 1980. Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. 1st edition: Japan, 1980. 1st Indian Edition: Delhi, 1987.
 Skilton, Andrew. A concise history of Buddhism. Birmingham, Windhorse Publications, 1994.
 Warder, A. K. 1970. Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 2nd revised edition: 1980.
 Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism : the doctrinal foundations. London, Routledge, 1989.
 Zürcher, E. 1959. The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in early Medieval China. 2nd edition. Reprint, with additions and corrections: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1972.
 Susan Murcott. The First Buddhist Women Translations and Commentary on the Therigatha, 1991.

External links

The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts - Buddhism
Online Dharma Libraries (archived 19 April 2008)
The Buddhist Text Translation Society
SuttaCentral Public domain translations in multiple languages from the Pali Tipitaka as well as other collections, focusing on Early Buddhist Texts.
Pali Canon in English translation (incomplete).
Bibliography of Translations from the Chinese Buddhist Canon
Buddhist Canonical Text Titles and Translations in English
Beyond the Tipitaka: A Field Guide to Post-canonical Pali Literature (archived 6 April 2004)
Bibliography of Indian Philosophy, Karl Potter; includes lists of available translations and known or estimated dates of composition of many Buddhist sutras.
How old is the Suttapiṭaka? The relative value of textual and epigraphical sources for the study of early Indian Buddhism by Alexander Wynne, St John's College, Oxford University, 2003.
History of early Buddhism in Sri Lanka, The Mahawansa

Buddhist texts


Władysław Tarnowski, (Wróblewice, 4. lipnja 1836. – San Francisco, 19. travnja 1878.), poljski skladatelj i pijanist, pjesnik i dramatičar.

Životopis
Władysław Tarnowski rođen je u Wróblewicama od majke Ernestyne Tarnowski i oca Waleriana Tarnowskog, zemljoposjednika. Władysław je bio rođak Stanisława Tarnowskog. Studirao je pravo i filozofiju na Jagiellonskom sveučilištu u Krakovu od 1851. do 1857. godine. Godine 1861. umro je njegov otac pa je naslijedio Wróblewice. Do 1863. godine studirao je glazbu u Parizu. Władysław je sudjelovao u Siječanjskom ustanku 1863. godine.  Tada je studirao glazbu (kompoziciju i sviranje klavira) u Leipzigu, i studirao je s Franzom Lisztom u Rimu.

Djela

Poznata klavirska djela
 3 mazurke:
 Trois Mazurkas pour Piano, oko 1870.
 3 nokturna
 dédié à sa soeur Marie,
 Nuit sombre.
 Nuit claire.
 2 valcera:
 Valse_poeme, 1870.
 2 poloneze:
 Polonez dla Teofila Lenartowicza, 1872.
 Grande Polonaise quasi rapsodie symphonique composée et dediée à son ami T. Lenartowicz, 1874.
 mnogo improptus, između ostalog:
 Impromptu "L'adieu de l'artiste", oko 1870.
 Souvenir de la Canée, 1870.
 Fantazie-Impromptu
 1 klavirska sonata:
 Sonate à son ami Br. Zawadzki, ~ 1875.

Druga djela
 Extases au Bosphor, fantasie rapsodie sur les melodies orientales, op. 10, oko 1875.
 Marsz żałobny z osobnej całości symfonicznej poświęcony pamięci Augusta Bielowskiego, 1876.
 Ave Maria, 1876.
 Pensée funebre.
 Andantino pensieroso, 1878 (prvo izdanje nakon smrti).

Komorna glazba
 Quatour Re-majeur pour Deur Violons, Viola et Violonceller, 1874.
 Fantaisie quasi Sonate.
 Souvenir d'un ange, oko 1876.

Glazba za orkestar
 Symfonia d'un drammo d'amore, 1871.
 2 preludija:
 Karlińscy, 1874.
 Joanna Grey, 1875.
 Achmed oder der Pilger der Liebe ili Achmed, czyli pielgrzym miłości, (opera), 1875.

Pjesme
 A kto chce rozkoszy użyć, ili Jak to na wojence ładnie, 1863, (tekst pjesme: Władysław Tarnowski).
 Herangedämmert kam der Abend, (tekst pjesme: Heinrich Heine).
 Die Perle, (tekst pjesme: Władysław Tarnowski).
 Die Schwalben, (tekst pjesme: Władysław Tarnowski).
 Im Traum sah ich das Lieben, (tekst pjesme: Heinrich Heine).
 Ich sank verweint in sanften Schlummer ili Widzenie, (tekst pjesme: Władysław Tarnowski).
 Neig, o Schöne Knospe, (tekst pjesme: Mirza-Schaffy Vazeh).
 Kennst du die Rosen, oko 1870, (tekst pjesme: Władysław Tarnowski).
 Du Buch mit sieben Siegeln, oko 1870, (tekst pjesme: Ludwig Foglár).
 Ob du nun Ruhst, oko 1870, (tekst pjesme: Ludwig Foglár).
 Klänge Und Schmerzen, oko 1870, (tekst pjesme: Robert Hamerling).
 Nächtliche Regung, oko 1870, (tekst pjesme: Robert Hamerling).
 Strofa dello Strozzi e la risposttadi Michalangelo, (tekst pjesme: Filippo Strozzi i Michelangelo).
 Au soleil couchant, (tekst pjesme: Victor Hugo), 1873.
 Still klingt das Glöcklein durch Felder, ili Dźwięczy głos dzwonka przez pole, 1874, (tekst pjesme: Władysław Tarnowski).
 Alpuhara, 1877, (tekst pjesme: Adam Mickiewicz).
 Mein kahn, prije 1878, (tekst pjesme: Johann von Paümann ps. Hans Max).
 Drame
 Izaak, 1871.
 Karlinscy, 1874.
 Joanna Grey, 1874.
 Ostatnie sądy kapturowe, 1874.
 Finita la comedia, 1874.
 Zbirke pjesama
 Poezye studenta (1, 2, 3, 4, 1863-1865).
 Krople czary, 1865.
 Szkice helweckie i Talia, 1868.
 Piołuny, 1869.
 Nowe Poezye'', 1872.

Bilješke

Vanjske poveznice

Ostali projekti

Poljski književnici
Poljski pjesnici
Poljski skladatelji
Austrijski skladatelji
Poljski pijanisti
Operni skladatelji
Skladatelji glazbe romantizma

Władysław Tarnowski


Haisch ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Andreas Haisch (1901–1969), bayerischer Politiker
 Hermann Haisch (1938–2019), bayerischer Politiker
 Stephan Haisch (* 1967), Flottillenadmiral der Deutschen Marine

Haisch


يكون نظامان فيزيائيان في حالة توازن حراري إذا لم يكن هناك تدفق طاقة حرارية بينهما عندما يتم توصيلهما بمسار قابل للتسخين. التوازن الحراري يتبع القانون الصفري للديناميكا الحرارية. يكون النظام في حالة توازن حراري مع نفسه إذا كانت درجة الحرارة داخل النظام متجانسة مكانياً وزمانياً.

الأنظمة في حالة التوازن الديناميكي الحراري دائمًا ما تكون في حالة توازن حراري ، ولكن العكس ليس صحيح دائمًا. إذا كان الاتصال بين الأنظمة يسمح بنقل الطاقة كحرارة ولكن لا يسمح بنقل المادة أو نقل الطاقة كعمل "work"، فقد يصل النظامان إلى توازن حراري دون الوصول إلى توازن حراري ديناميكي.

يكون جسم ما في حالة توازن حراري عندما تكون درجة حرارته ثابتة، ويصدر منه إشعاع حراري بقدر ما يمتصه.

أمثلة على ذلك:
 الحديد المنصهر بالفرن
 الزجاج المنصهر بالفرن.
 العربة الواقفة بالكراج، أما إذا جاءت عربة من الخارج ووقفت بالكراج فلا تكون في حالة توازن حراري، حيث تبدأ درجة حرارة المحرك في الهبوط بالتدريج، حتى تصل إلى حالة التوازن الحراري بعد فترة زمنية .
 الشمس

مخلوط الماء

إذا كان لدينا كميتين من الماء كل منهما قدرها 1 لتر، واحدة منها في درجة حرارة 80 درجة مئوية والأخرى في 20 مئوية، وقمنا بخلطهما. يحدث توازن حراري في المخلوط بعد فترة زمنية قصيرة ويكون لدينا 2 لتر ماء عند درجة حرارة 50 مئوية.

درجة الحرارة النهائية = (20 + 80)/2

 = 100/2 = 50 درجة مئوية
يكون هذا الحساب صحيح في هذه الحالة فقط حيث كميتي الماء متساويتين، أما في الحالة العامة يجب استخدام علاقة التحويل الحراري في حالة التوازن كاملة.

انتقال الحرارة بالتوصيل وبالإشعاع

تنتقل الحرارة من نظام مغلق أو إليه عن طريق التوصيل الحراري أو بالإشعاع الحراري إلى نظام آخر. ويكون انتقال الحرارة دائما من الجسم الساخن إلى الجسم البارد حتي يحدث توازن لدرجة الحرارة بينهما. هذا ما ينص عليه القانون الصفري للديناميكا الحرارية.

تغير الحالة الداخلية لنظام معزول

إذا تركنا نظاما معزولا لفترة زمنية كافية فهو يصل إلى حالة توازن حراري حيث تكون درجة الحرارة فيه موزعة توزيعا منتظما. ولكن تلك الحالة لا تماثل حالة توازن ترموديناميكي، حيث أن التوازن الترموديناميكي يتطلب أيضا عدم انتقال مادة أو انتقال إشعاع في النظام.

وعلى سبيل المثال نفترض قضيبا من الحديد قمنا بتسخين أحد أطرافه، فعندما نعزله تبدأ الحرارة تتوزع فيه حتى يصل بعد فترة زمنية كافية إلى درجة حرارة متساوية، وخلال فترة انتشار الحرارة فيه لا يكون القضيب في حالة توازن حراري.

وإذا افترضنا وجود خزان كبير ممتلأ بالماء ويحتوي على غبار، فعندما نتركه زمن كافي تحت تأثير الجاذبية الأرضية فإن الغبار سوف يترسب في قاع الخزان ويصل إلى حالة تكون فيها درجة الحرارة موزعة توزيعا متساويا وبدون أن يكون الضغط فيه ولا الكثافة موزعة توزيعا متساويا، وعلى الرغم من ذلك يكون النظام في حالة توازن حراري وأيضا توازن ترموديناميكي، إذ لا يحدث فيه انتقال للحرارة ولا لحبيبات الغبار.

محرك الاحتراق الداخلي

في أسطوانة محرك الاحتراق الداخلي يختلط بخار الكيروسين مع الهواء، وعندما يشعل المخلوط بشرارة كهربائية يحترق الكيروسين ويتولد ثاني أكسيد الكربون وماء. فإذا حدث ذلك وكانت الأسطوانة معزولة ترتفع درجة الحرارة فيها وأثناء ارتفاع درجة الحرارة لا تكون الاسطوانة ومحتوياتها في حالة توازن حراري، ولكن بعد فترة زمنية ستتوزع درجة الحرارة فيهم بالتساوي.

الثلج والماء

إذا قمنا بعزل كوبا به ماء دافئ وقطعة من الثلج، يبدأ الثلج في الانصهار. وأثناء انصهار الثلج لا يكون النظام في توازن حراري، ولكن بعد فترة زمنية تتوزع درجة الحرارة في الكوب توزيعا متساويا.

مثل تلك التغيرات في الأنظمة المعزولة نصفها بأنها عملية غير عكوسية، بمعنى أن التغير يسير من ذاته في اتجاه معلوم، ولكن سير التغير في الاتجاه العكسي لا يمكن أن يسري من نفسه. وهذا هو مضمون القانون الثاني للديناميكا الحرارية. ومن الصعب تحقيق عزل نظام في الطبيعة ولكننا نحاول ذلك قدر استطاعتنا في تجاربنا المعملية.

اقرأ أيضا
 حمل حراري
 جسم أسود
 قانون بلانك
 توازن ترموديناميكي

مراجع

انتقال الحرارة
درجة الحرارة
ديناميكا حرارية
كميات فيزيائية
مفاهيم فيزيائية

توازن حراري


(acronym TVE, branded tve,  "Spanish Television") is Spain's national state-owned public television broadcaster and the oldest regular television service in the country. It was also the first regular television service in Equatorial Guinea.

TVE began as a standalone company dependent on the Ministry of Information and Tourism. After undergoing several restructurings and reorganizations, it is currently the television division, while Radio Nacional de España (RNE) is the radio division, of Radiotelevisión Española (RTVE), the public corporation which has the overall responsibility for the national broadcasting public services under a parliament-appointed president who, in addition to being answerable to a board of directors, reports to an all-party committee of the national parliament, as provided for in the Public Radio and Television Law of 2006.

TVE launched its first channel on 28 October 1956 as the first regular television service in Spain. It was the only one until 15 November 1966, when TVE launched a second channel. As TVE held a monopoly on television broadcasting in the country, they were the only television channels until the first regional public television station was launched on 16 February 1983, when Euskal Telebista started broadcasting in the Basque Country. Commercial television was launched on 25 January 1990, when Antena 3 started broadcasting nationwide. On 20 July 1968, TVE also became the first regular television service in Equatorial Guinea, with the inauguration of its broadcasts in the then-Spanish autonomous region of Equatorial Guinea.

Its headquarters and main production center is Prado del Rey in Pozuelo de Alarcón, with additional production centers in San Cugat del Vallés and in the Canary Islands. TVE's news services are located at its Torrespaña facilities, at the foot of the broadcasting tower in Madrid. Although almost all the programming of its channels is in Spanish and is the same for all of Spain, TVE has territorial centers in every autonomous community and produces and broadcasts some local programming in regional variations in each of them in the corresponding co-official language.

TVE's activities were previously financed by a combination of advertising revenue and subsidies from the national government, but since 1 January 2010, it has been supported by subsidies only.

History

1950s
 was established at a building of Paseo de la Habana in Madrid, and after some time of technical tests, its free-to-air black-and-white fullscreen standard-definition monaural live analog terrestrial television transmissions on VHF frequencies were officially launched on 28 October 1956 with a special inaugural program. The next day, three evening hours a day of regular live broadcasting began from its single  studio, becoming the first regular television service in Spain. At that time, there were only 600 receivers in operation in the city and the coverage barely reached a radius of .

An initial news bulletin, called Últimas Noticias, was created within a week and a weather forecast was first aired on 2 November 1956. On 13 January 1957, the first fiction was produced, an adaptation of the 1916 one-act play Before Breakfast by Eugene O'Neill, and in February 1957, the first fiction series, the sitcom Los Tele-Rodríguez. On 15 September 1957, the evening edition of the flagship Telediario newscast was premiered, with the afternoon edition following on 28 April 1958.

On 27 April 1958, TVE aired its first live broadcast from out-of-studio, the 1957–58 La Liga season football match between Atlético Madrid and Real Madrid CF from the Metropolitano Stadium in Madrid. On 12 October 1958, the broadcasting center in Zaragoza was inaugurated and on the first week of February 1959, the broadcasting center in Barcelona began to operate. On 14 July 1959, the Miramar studios in Barcelona were opened.

1960s
The first TVE production for abroad was the coverage for the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) of the arrival in Madrid of the President of the United States Dwight D. Eisenhower on 21 December 1959. As the link with the Eurovision telecommunications network was not ready yet, it was taped and sent by plane to the nearest Eurovision node in Marseille. Once the link was ready, the first live broadcast from Spain to abroad was the 1959–60 European Cup season football match between Real Madrid and OGC Nice from the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid on 2 March 1960 through it. The first live broadcast from abroad to Spain was the second half of the European Cup final match between Real Madrid and Eintracht Frankfurt from Hampden Park in Glasgow on 18 May 1960 through Eurovision. The first full live coverage from abroad to Spain was the Wedding of Baudouin of Belgium and Fabiola de Mora y Aragón from Brussels on 15 December 1960, also through Eurovision. TVE took part in the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time in its  on 18 March 1961 in Cannes, with the song "Estando contigo" by Conchita Bautista.

On 12 February 1964, the Canary Islands production center in Las Palmas was opened to serve the archipelago. On 18 July 1964, Prado del Rey in Pozuelo de Alarcón was inaugurated to replace the facilities at Paseo de la Habana. It was opened with three studios already in operation and another six studios under construction. Studio 1 had an area of , which made it the largest television studio in Europe at the time. Shows and fiction production was soon transferred there, but the news services were not transferred until 1967. In August 1966, the first permanent foreign correspondent was stationed in London, followed in 1968 by the ones in New York, Vienna and Brussels. On 15 November 1966 its second channel was launched on UHF frequencies.

TVE participated in the production of Our World television special with thirteen other national broadcasters from around the world coordinated by the EBU. This was the first live multinational multi-satellite television production ever and it was transmitted to twenty-four countries, including Spain, on 25 June 1967. TVE contributed with a segment, live on board some fishing vessels sailing in the Gulf of Cádiz, showing the work of the fishermen and praising the country's fishing industry.

Televisión Española became also the first regular television service in Equatorial Guinea on 20 July 1968 when it inaugurated its production center at Santa Isabel de Fernando Poo, in the then-Spanish autonomous region of Equatorial Guinea, and began broadcasts. Since there was no television link with peninsular Spain, the programming consisted of programs made locally and programs received from Prado del Rey on tape. From its antenna located  above sea level atop Pico de Santa Isabel, the broadcasts reached the mainland province of Río Muni and the neighboring countries Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon. After the country declared independence on 12 October 1968, the new authorities accused it of broadcasting "racist programming" and "imperialist propaganda", and TVE ended up closing the station. Shortly after they resumed their broadcasts as Televisión Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial (TVGE) but they ceased broadcasting definitively in 1973 and the few remaining Spanish technicians left the country. The Equatoguinean government re-established TVGE in 1979.

On 29 March 1969, TVE carried out the largest own-produced event until then, the 14h edition of the Eurovision Song Contest live from the Teatro Real in Madrid, following  at the  with the song "La, la, la" by Massiel. It was the second Eurovision Song Contest transmitted in full color, and since TVE did not have the required color equipment at the time, it had to rent it abroad. In Spain itself, the domestic broadcast and the copy that TVE kept in its archives was in black-and-white. The event was transmitted live to the EBU member broadcasters through the Eurovision network, to the International Radio and Television Organisation (OIRT) member broadcasters through the Intervision network and to broadcasters in Chile, Puerto Rico and Brazil via satellite.

1970s

On 25 April 1971, the production center in the Canary Islands, which until then had operated autonomously, began to broadcast to the archipelago the live signal of TVE's first channel received from Prado del Rey through the recently launched Intelsat IV F-2 satellite. With this, the coverage of the first channel reached almost the entire territory of Spain while the second channel was only reaching the metropolitan areas of the main capitals. On 24 May 1971, the first delegation was opened in Bilbao, followed by the ones in Santiago de Compostela on 25 July 1971 and in Seville on 29 July 1971, which would later become the first territorial centers.

After two years of test transmissions, regular PAL color transmissions started in August 1972 with the Summer Olympics in Munich, with all programming transmitted in color in 1977 and color commercials starting in 1978. A colour test card designed exclusively for TVE by Finn Hendil, under the supervision of Erik Helmer Nielsen from Philips, replaced its previous black-and-white card developed by Eduardo Gavilán.

On 25 November 1972, TVE produced the very first edition of the annual OTI Festival live from the Palacio de Exposiciones y Congresos auditorium in Madrid. The event was transmitted live to the Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana (OTI) member broadcasters via satellite. TVE also produced the sixth edition from the Centro Cultural de la Villa de Madrid on 12 November 1977, the 14h edition from Teatro Lope de Vega in Seville on 21 September 1985 and the 21st, 22nd and 23rd editions from Teatro Principal in Valencia on 5 December 1992, 9 October 1993 and 14–15 October 1994 respectively.

Between 1977 and 1983, TVE produced the weekly variety show 300 millones with the support of OTI. The show was broadcast in Spain and transmitted to the Spanish-language OTI member broadcasters via satellite. It was also broadcast on Spanish-language stations in the Philippines and the Netherlands Antilles.

1980s
On 23 February 1981, Televisión Española was recording the roll-call vote for the investiture of the country's next Prime Minister at the Congress of Deputies plenary hall when 200 armed Civil Guard officers broke into the building in a coup d'état. The assailants immediately disabled the television cameras by force, but a TVE operator, Pedro Francisco Martín, managed to continue transmitting from one of the four cameras without their noticing. Prado del Rey was receiving the transmission through an internal closed circuit and half an hour of the incident was recorded. Fernando Castedo, General Director of RTVE, hid the tape with the footage inside his chair's cushion and sat on it when some military rebels took Prado del Rey for more than one hour. As soon as they left, he sent two camera crews to the Palace of Zarzuela to record the King's speech repudiating the coup. Each crew returned to Prado del Rey with a copy of the speech in a different car and by different route, escorted by the Royal Guard, and it was broadcast as soon as they arrived. The footage of the assault inside the Congress was not aired until all the deputies were released after the failure of the coup the following day.

TVE was in charge of producing the official live television feed of the 1982 FIFA World Cup, which allowed it to carry out a major modernization with the construction of the Torrespaña broadcasting tower in Madrid and the production center at its foot, which served as International Broadcast Centre during the event, both inaugurated on 7 June 1982. On 27 June 1983, a new production center in Sant Cugat del Vallès replaced the Miramar studios in Barcelona. Also in 1983, the central news services moved to the Torrespaña production center and ever since 14 November, Telediario has been broadcast from there.

On 13 January 1986, weekdays breakfast television broadcasts began. On 16 May 1988, the teletext was incorporated to the broadcast signal, which allowed closed captioning to begin in November 1990. On 12 September 1988, Estudios Buñuel were opened in Madrid with three studios, one of them being the largest television studio in Europe at the time with an area of , and were in operation until 30 July 2015.

On 19 May 1989, in response to the European Economic Community (EEC) requirement to separate the natural monopoly of infrastructure management from the competitive operations of running services, and with the imminent arrival of commercial television, TVE's broadcasting network, including the Torrespaña tower, was transferred to Retevisión. While it was already appearing on certain live broadcasts as early as 1982, it was not until November 1989 that the logo bug appeared permanently at the bottom right corner of the screen on its both channels, except during commercials.

1990s
For the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics the Organizing Committee created a host broadcaster expressly, Radio Televisión Olímpica '92 (RTO'92), in order to guarantee that the international signal was produced objectively and impartially. RTO'92 managed the staff and the production and technical resources hired to RTVE, the Corporació Catalana de Ràdio i Televisió (CCRTV) and the EBU. With a workforce of 3,083 people –of which 800 were from TVE–, and over 50 mobile units –15 from TVE–, RTO'92 provided live coverage of all Summer Olympic sports for the first time ever –except for a few preliminary events–, some 2,800 hours of live television footage, to its international rights-holders. Additionally, 500 TVE workers and eight mobile units were in charge of producing TVE's personalized coverage, with La 2 dedicating all its programming exclusively to the Games 24 hours a day. For Catalonia, TVE and Televisió de Catalunya (TVC) joined forces to broadcast the Games also in Catalan, creating the Canal Olímpic, a 24 hours channel in Catalan dedicated exclusively to the Games that occupied TVC's Canal 33 frequency.

The 1992 Olympics were also the first in which a comprehensive coverage in high-definition television (HDTV) was attempted. The European HDTV broadcast of the Summer Olympics was managed by the joint venture "Barcelona 1250" created by RTO'92, RTVE, Retevisión and PESA, with the financial support of the EEC and a workforce of over 300 production and technical staff. TVE was in charge of the planning and lay-out of the technical facilities, all the engineering and the provision of qualified personnel. A total of 225 hours and 45 minutes was broadcast in analog HD-MAC standard in 1,250 lines and 16:9 aspect ratio, with commentary in five languages –Spanish, English, French, German and Italian– in addition to the non-commentary sound track, of eighteen different sports at seventeen venues, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. Events from five venues were covered live –80% of the total broadcast time– and other events were recorded for a delayed broadcast. On-screen text and graphics were shown in HDTV for the first time ever. Nearly 700 viewing sites installed throughout Europe, including the fifty HDTV receivers installed in various pavilions at the Seville Universal Exposition, were able to receive the broadcast.

On 1 December 1989 TVE international television service, on 12 February 1994 an all-sports channel and on 15 September 1997 an all-news channel were launched. In 1993, stereophonic sound and a sound multiplex for the original language in foreign productions began to be available in the broadcast signal.

2000s to present day
On 8 August 2008, regular test digital high-definition television transmissions started through TVE HD in 720p with the Summer Olympics in Beijing. On 1 January 2010, TVE dropped broadcasting commercial advertising on all its channels, with only  self-promotions, institutional campaigns, and sponsorships allowed. With analog service discontinued on 3 April 2010, all its terrestrial free-to-air channels have only been available through the digital terrestrial television (DTT) ever since. On 31 December 2013, the first regular HDTV DTT channels were launched, simulcasting La 1 and Teledeporte, initially in 720p and later in 1080i.

TVE broadcast live the 2022 FIFA World Cup in ultra-high-definition (UHD), 4K resolution and HDR quality, free-to-air through the DTT. It was the first UHD HDR broadcast of an event of that complexity and duration through the DTT ever.

Corporate identity

Current television channels

, La 2, Teledeporte, 24 Horas and Clan are free-to-air channels currently available in Spain through digital terrestrial television in both HDTV and SDTV versions. They broadcast in 1080i and Dolby Digital Plus for the HDTV feed and the signal is downscaled to 16:9 576i stereo for the SDTV feed. TVE Internacional, 24 Horas Internacional and Clan Internacional are available abroad via satellite. Star TVE HD is a pay television channel only available in HDTV in multichannel television providers in the Americas. Channels are also available on streaming, and its content on demand, on the RTVE Play online platform.

News services
Telediario is the flagship television newscast produced by TVE's news services at its Torrespaña facilities in Madrid. Three Telediario editions a day are produced: the breakfast edition at 06:30 CET/CEST, the afternoon edition at 15:00 and the evening edition at 21:00; and they are simulcast live on , on 24 Horas news channel, on TVE Internacional and on RTVE Play. Additional international editions are also produced and aired on TVE Internacional every day. TVE's territorial centers in every autonomous community produce and broadcast in regional variations in each of them, a shorter midday local bulletin on  and RTVE Play. TVE's news services are also in charge of the 24-hour rolling news service of 24 Horas news channel and of the non-daily news programmes, such as Informe Semanal, of all its channels.

They are also in charge of La 2 Noticias ("The 2 News"), La 2's own national news bulletin, which began as an original nightly news bulletin in the late 1980s but it was turned into a breakfast news-programme in the mid-1990s and was later revamped as a nightly news bulletin, reverting to its original timeslot at 22:00. In 2015, La 2 Noticias moved to a later timeslot, 01:05.

Programming

References

External links

 RTVE Corporation Official Site

Televisión Española


An Carex dianae in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel. An Carex dianae in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex dianae


දිවි ගෙවුමට ඉඩ සලසන නගර දිනය යනු, මරණ දඬුවම අහෝසි කිරීමට අනුබල සපයන ලෝක ව්‍යාප්ත උත්සවශ්‍රීයකි. එය සැම වසරකම නොවැම්බර් 30 දිනදී සැමරෙයි.

දිවි ගෙවුමට ඉඩ සලසන නගර දිනය


Giuliano Collina (* 1938 in Intra) ist ein italienischer Maler. 1962 absolvierte er seinen Abschluss in der Bildhauerklasse von Marino Marini an der Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera in Mailand.
Er lebt seit 1944 mit seiner Familie in Como, wo er auch arbeitet.

Literatur
 M. De Micheli, Nuova figurazione e crisi dell'informale, in "l'Unità", Mailand 1962
 M. Radice, Il pittore Giuliano Collina alla Galleria delle Ore, in "La Provincia", Como 1962
 L. Caramel, testo in catalogo della mostra, Galleria Il Mosaico, Chiasso 1966
 E.Gualazzi, Ventottesima Biennale di Milano, in "Le Arti", Milano, febbraio G. Collina, testo in catalogo della mostra personale, Galleria Studio della Quaglia, Verona 1973
 M. Bignardi, Il volto ridipinto: asterischi per Giuliano Collina, testo in catalogo della mostra personale, Galleria Spazio Mecenate, Lucera, 1990
 A.P. Fiorillo, Giuliano Collina, Galleria Spazio Mecenate Lucera, in "Terzo Occhio", Bologna 1990
 S. Rossi, Giuliano Collina. Pittura in forma d'uomo. La Piazza, Edizioni Bora, Bologna 1992
 M. Botta, testo di presentazione del libro La città dipinta: Como, il lago, il territorio – 110 carte disegnate, dipinte e scritte da Giuliano Collina 1961-1997, Enazo Pifferi Editore, Como 2000
 Giuliano Collina. Animi domus. Ediz. italiana e inglese, Mazzotta, Mailand 2003
 Giuliano Collina. Il corpo è sacro. Opere dal 1990 al 2009, Busto Arsizio 2009

Weblinks

 http://www.accademiagalli.com/blog/2025

Maler der Neuzeit
Italiener
Geboren 1938
Mann

Giuliano Collina


O evento feminino do skeleton nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022 foi disputado no Xiaohaituo Bobsleigh e Luge Track em Pequim, nos dias 10 e 12 de fevereiro.

Medalhistas

Resultados

Individual feminino

Skeleton nos Jogos Olímpicos de Inverno de 2022 - Feminino


Den tyske hemmelighed - en film om krig, kærlighed - og løgn er en dansk portrætfilm fra 2005, der er instrueret af Lars Johansson.

Handling
Kirsten Blohm er født i 1946 i et amerikansk fængsel i Tyskland. Hendes søgen efter sin herkomst afdækker historien om moderen Signe Gondrup og en tysk officer. En historie om krig og kærlighed, flugt og fangenskab, tavshed og løgn. Filmen følger Kirsten Blohms opklaring og rejse i sin mors fodspor. En opklaring, der afdækker en række dramatiske begivenheder og fører meget mere med sig, end hun på forhånd kunne ane.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Portrætfilm fra Danmark
Danske film fra 2005


Rima Sharp ist eine gewundene Rille auf dem Mond, die auf die selenografischen Koordinaten 46,02 ° N 50,36 ° W zentriert ist. Sie verläuft westlich des namensgebenden Kraters Sharp im Mare Frigoris in nordsüdlicher Richtung. Der Name dieser Mondstruktur wurde 1964 von der Internationalen Astronomischen Union (IAU) genehmigt.

Zirka 20 Kilometer westlich der Rille, nahe dem Massiv Louville Omega landete am 1. Dezember 2020 die chinesische Mondsonde Chang'e 5.
Man geht davon aus, dass Rima Sharp die Hauptquelle für die von der Sonde zurückgebrachten Bodenproben ist. Aus einer Zählung der Kraterdichte am Boden der Rille schloss man, dass sie sich vor etwa 1,7 Milliarden Jahren gebildet haben musste.
Später wurde das Alter des zurückgebrachten Materials über einen Vergleich des Blei-Isotopen-Verhältnisses auf 1,96 Milliarden Jahre bestimmt.

Siehe auch
 Liste der Rillenstrukturen des Erdmondes
 Mons Rümker

Einzelnachweise

Mondrille

Rima Sharp


Treubiaceae, biljna porodica iz divizije jetrenjarki čija današnja dva roda čine ujedno i zaseban red Treubiales. Porodici pripada i fosilnki rod Treubiites s vrstom Treubiites kidstonii.

Rodovi
 Genus Apotreubia S. Hatt. & Mizut.,  4 spp
 Genus Treubia  K.I. Goebel,  7spp
 Genus †Treubiites Schuster 1966, 1 †spp

Izvori

Haplomitriopsida
Biljni redovi
Biljne porodice

Treubiaceae


توهوكو شينكانسن  هو خط للسكك الحديدية فائقة السرعة (شينكانسن) في اليابان يربط طوكيو مع هاتشينوه في محافظة آوموري ليصل إجمالي طوله إلى 593 كم، وهو أطول خط شينكانسن في اليابان. يمر الخط في أكثر المناطق قلة من حيث عدد السكان في منطقة توهوكو في جزيرة هونشو. ويتفرع منه خطان هما خط شينكانسن ياماغاتا وخط شينكانسن أكيتا. يدير الخط شركة إيست جابان للسكك الحديدية (جيه آر الشرق).

الجدول الزمني
 28 نوفمبر، 1971 : البدء ببناء الخط.
 23 يونيو، 1982 : افتتاح جزء موريوكا - أوميا.
 14 مارس، 1985 : افتتاح جزء أوينو - أوميا.
 20 يونيو، 1991 : افتتاح جزء طوكيو - أوينو.
 أكتوبر 1998 : الراكب رقم مليار ينقل على خط توهوكو شنكانسن.
 1 ديسمبر، 2002 :افتتاح جزء موريوكا - هاتشينوه.

حاليا امتداد من هاتشينوهه إلى شين أومورى قيد الإنشاء، ومن المقرر افتتاحه في ديسمبر 2010.

المراجع

الروابط الخارجية
 موقع شركة جيه آر الشرق

النقل بالسكك الحديدية في اليابان
تأسيسات سنة 1982 في اليابان
خطوط سكك حديدية افتتحت في سنة 1982
خطوط سكة حديد في اليابان
سكك حديدية فائقة السرعة
شركات السكك الحديدية اليابانية
شينكانسن
قطار فائق السرعة حسب البلد

توهوكو شينكانسن


Rikarena es una agrupación merenguera que se popularizó en los 90, sobre todo en la juventud de aquella época en Venezuela, Colombia y la República Dominicana. La agrupación fue formada en el año 1994 por el también merenguero Kinito Méndez, que como respuesta a que no producía merengues con buenas letras, decidió formar un grupo de jóvenes que cantaran merengue con dosis de amor y al mismo tiempo bailables.

El grupo debutó de inmediato siendo un éxito, su primer gran hit fue el Merengue Riko, de su primera producción "¡Sacúdelo Que Tiene Arena!". Este primer álbum fue un exitazo, puesto que no solo el Merengue Riko alcanzó los primeros lugares, también "Ay!!" "Te Dejé de Querer" "Nunca Te Mentí", "El Juramento", "De Nada", "De Cola a Cola".

Rikarena, fue escogida por la Asociación de Cronistas de Arte –Acroarte y sus premios, entonces Casandra, como la orquesta merenguera "Revelación del año 1995".

Su segunda producción llamada "Más Rika Que Nunca" fue también todo un éxito y permitió afianzar el grupo en el gusto de la gente, logrando así proyectarse fuera de su natal Dominicana, en países como Colombia, Panamá, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, Perú y toda Centroamérica. De este álbum de 1995 cabe resaltar: "Sueños", "Te Voy a Hacer Falta", "Cutibili Pacha", "El Tazo", Nada, Nada", entre otros.

Para el álbum de 1997 titulado: "Sin Medir Distancia" que fuera el último del cuarteto original, ya que Guarionex y Wester, saldrían a finales de ese año: cabe destacar que no tuvo un éxito tan grande como los anteriores destacándose solo un par de ellos como: "No Puedo Olvidarla", "Antonio Pérez", "El Merengazo" y "Era Mentira".

En 1998 lanzan el álbum "...Con To'" con dos nuevos integrante que sustituyen a Guarionex y Wester , Daniel Santacruz y Peter. En este álbum cabe destacar el exitazo "Fuego Con To', "¿Por Qué Tanto Problema?", "El Ki Ki Ki", entre otros. Después de esta producción, la agrupación ya tenía más vigencia en países como Colombia y Panamá, y comienza a descender en Dominicana.

El año 2000 lanzan la que sería su última producción exitosa, "Con Arena Nueva" y esto gracias al éxito del merengue "Cuando el Amor Se Daña".

En el año 2003 lanzan "Pa Rato" que cuenta con reintegración de Wester Hernandez.

En el año 2015 lanzan "La Perdida", canción que actualmente suena en todas las emisoras y será parte de su próximo álbum.

En la actualidad el frente está integrado por Henry Trinidad y Shiro Méndez, quienes son fundadores; además de Jimmy Cleiner.

Discografía

 ¡Sacúdelo Que Tiene Arena! (1994)

 Ay!!
 Nunca Te Mentí
 Te Dejé de Querer
 De Nada
 El Merengue Riko
 Muero Porque No Muero
 La Inversión del Amor
 El Juramento
 Eres
 De Cola a Cola

 Más Rika Que Nunca (1995)

 Sueños
 Te Voy a Hacer Falta
 La Chica de Arena
 Me Hicieron Olvidar
 Cutibili Pachá
 La Mirada
 Romperé
 Nada, Nada
 El Amor Se Va
 El Tazo

 Sin Medir Distancia (1997)

 Era Mentira
 Cúrame
 La Nena Rika
 El Merengazo
 Sin Medir Distancia
 No Puedo Olvidarla
 El Patú
 Rechupaletea
 Se Me Fue Mi Vida (feat. Barrio Boyzz)
 Antonio Pérez

 ...Con To'  (1998)

 Fuego Con To'
 Licor
 ¿Por Qué Tanto Problema?
 El Ki Ki Ki
 El Amor Que Soñé
 No Te Soporto
 El Gritico
 Te lo Agradezco
 El Dulcito
 Su Marío

 20th Anniversary (1999)

 Ay!!
 Nunca Te Mentí
 De Nada
 El Merengue Riko
 La Inversión del Amor
 Eres
 Era Mentira
 La Chica de Arena
 El Merengazo
 Su Marío
 El Ki Ki Ki
 Sueños
 Te Voy a Hacer Falta
 Licor
 Fuego Con To'

 Con Arena Nueva (2000)

 Cuando el Amor Se Daña
 Ella Es Tan Bella
 Castigadora
 El Parar Pan Pan
 Taquicardia
 Tu Cuerpo en la Arena
 Angélica la Loca
 Casualidad
 Ay Que Pena
 No Sufriré
 Niní
 Cuando el Amor Se Daña (Versión Balada)

 20 Éxitos (2002)

Vol. 1

 Ay!!
 Sueños
 No Puedo Olvidarla
 El Amor Que Soñé
 Nunca Te Mentí
 Cuando el Amor Se Daña
 El Merengue Riko
 Te Dejé de Querer
 Te Voy a Hacer Falta
 Tu Cuerpo en la Arena

Vol. 2

 De Nada
 La Nena Rika
 El Merengazo
 Fuego Con To'
 No Sufriré
 El Amor Se Va
 El Kikiki
 La Chica de Arena
 El Juramento
 Yo No Fui

 Pa' Rato (2003)

 La Piratería
 Mojadita
 Quién Me Va a Querer
 No le Doy Mente
 Estoy Loco
 Balilemos Todos
 Cuando Te Conocí
 El Pakimpa
 Llévame Contigo
 No Puede Más de Amor
 Prohíbeme
 Entrégame Tu Amor

Congos de Oro

Otorgado en el Festival de Orquestas del Carnaval de Barranquilla:

Enlaces externos
https://www.facebook.com/RikarenaOficial
Facebook
https://www.facebook.com/groups/rikarenaoficial/
https://twitter.com/rikarena
https://plus.google.com/u/0/+RikarenaOrq/posts

Agrupaciones de merengue de la República Dominicana
Cuartetos de música de República Dominicana
Grupos de música formados en 1993
Grupos de música de los años 1990
Grupos de música de los años 2000
Grupos de música de los años 2010

Rikarena


43999 Gramigna este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
43999 Gramigna este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Pianoro de Vittorio Goretti. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,14 ua, o excentricitate de 0,06 și o înclinație de 1,6° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 43001-44000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1997
Centura de asteroizi

43999 Gramigna


جامعة جندوبة، هي جامعة تونسية تقع في مدينة جندوبة شمال غربي البلاد. تتضمن الجامعة كلية واحدة، 7 معاهد و5 مؤسسات ذات الإشراف المزدوج. بلغ عدد الطلاب الدارسين فيها في السنة الجامعية 2008-2009 حوالي 15000 طالبا فيما بلغ عدد إطارات التدريس فيها 837 إطارا. يترأس الجامعة مصطفى النصراوي ويتولى منصب الكاتب العام العربي الحناشي.

مؤسساتها
الكليات:
 كلية العلوم القانونية والاقتصادية والتصرف بجندوبة

المعاهد:
 المعهد العالي للعلوم الإنسانية بجندوبة
 المعهد العالي للموسيقى والمسرح بالكاف
 المعهد العالي للدراسات التطبيقية في الإنسانيات بالكاف
 المعهد العالي للغات التطبيقية والإعلامية بباجة
 المعهد العالي للفنون والحرف بسليانة
 المعهد العالي للإعلامية بالكاف
 المعهد العالي للبيوتكنولوجيا بباجة

المؤسسات ذات الإشراف المزدوج:
 المدرسة العليا للفلاحة بالكاف
 المعهد الأعلى للرياضة والتربية البدنية بالكاف
 المدرسة العليا للمهندسين بمجاز الباب
 معهد المراعى والغابات بطبرقة
 المعهد العالي لعلوم التمريض بالكاف

مراجع

وصلات خارجية
 جامعة جندوبة.

|*
تأسيسات سنة 2003 في تونس
جامعات تونس
هيئات تعليمية أسست في 2003

جامعة جندوبة


إي.تي.  هو فيلم خيال علمي أمريكي أنتج عام 1982، من أنتاج وإخراج ستيفن سبيلبرغ وكتابة ميليسا ماثيسون. يحكي الفيلم قصة صبي اسمه إليوت  يصادق مخلوق فضائي ودود ضل سبيله إلى كوكب الأرض، فيحاول إليوت مساعدته للعودة إلى كوكبه الأم بدون أن تعرف أمه والحكومة بأمره. «إي.تي.» هو اسم المخلوق الفضائي.

حقق الفيلم نجاحاً وشعبية كبيرة جداً، حيث تجاوز في أيراداته فلم حرب النجوم وبقي أعلى الأفلام في الإيرادات لمدة عشر
سنوات. النقاد اعتبروا الفلم قصة صداقة خالدة. وهو مصنف كأفضل فلم خيال علمي تم صنعه حسب موقع روتين توميتوز. في عام 2002 تم إصدار نسخة من الفلم بمناسبة الذكرى العشرين على إصداره والنسخة تحتوي على لقطات معدلة ومشاهد إضافية.

القصة

عند وصول الكائن الفضائي إي تي إلى الأرض، يحميه طفل اسمه إليوت من أعين الغرباء، ويحاول إعادته إلى كوكبه قبل أن يتسبب جو الأرض في موته، إليوت هو صبي عادي لا يمتلك أي شيء يميزه عن أقرانه، إلا أن هذه الحياة العادية تنقلب رأسا على عقب، عندما يعثر إليوت على إي تي، يقرر إليوت الاحتفاظ بالكائن الفضائي الذي يطلق عليه اسم إي تي، ويقوم بتخبئته في مكان سري، بعدما اكتشف أنه كائن مسالم لا خطر منه، ويعتبره أحد أصدقائه ويتعامل معه على هذا الأساس، ولكن صحة إي تي تبدأ في التدهور لعدم قدرته على التكيف مع الجوّ في كوكب الأرض، ويكون الحال الوحيد لإنقاذه هو العثور على طريقة لإعادته لكوكبه، والآن يقف الطفل إليوت أمام الاختيار الصعب بين التضحية بصديقه المقرب من أجل إنقاذه، أو التمسك بوجود الصديق بصورة تعجل بموته.

المواضيع
استمد سبيلبرغ قصة الفيلم من طلاق والديه. وصف غاري أرنولد من صحيفة ذا واشنطن بوست الفيلم بأنه «سيرة ذاتية روحيًا، وتصوير لصانع الأفلام كطفل نمطي يعيش في الضواحي متميز بمخيلة متقدة غامضة». توجد إشارات عديدة إلى طفولته خلال الفيلم: يلفق إليوت مرضه من خلال وضع ميزان الحرارة على المصباح في حين يغطي وجهه بعبوة تسخين، وهي حيلة طبقها سبيلبرغ الصغير بشكل متكرر. تحمل مضايقة ماكيل لإليوت صدى مضايقات سبيلبرغ لشقيقاته الأصغر سنًا. كما أن تحول مايكل من شخص مزعج لأخيه إلى راع له يعكس ما عاشه سبيلبرغ عندما احتاج إلى العناية بأخواته بعد رحيل والدهم.

ركز النقاد على نقاط التشابه بين حياة إي تي وحياة إليوت، والذي أصبح كائنًا «غريبًا» بعد فقدان والده. كتب أنتوني أوليفر سكوت من صحيفة ذا نيويورك تايمز أنه «في حين كان [إي تي] أكثر الموجودات وضوحًا ويأسًا، يعاني [إليوت] بطريقته الخاصة من الرغبة في العودة إلى المنزل». إي تي هو الرسالة الأولى والأخيرة باسم إليوت. يعتبر موضوع النمو والنضج في صميم الفيلم. وصف الناقد هنري شيهان الفيلم بأنه يعيد قص حكاية بيتر بان من وجهة نظر الطفل المفقود (إليوت): لا يمكن لإي تي أن يحيا جسديًا على الأرض كما لا يمكن لبيتر بان أن يحيا عاطفيًا في نيفرلاند؛ يلعب علماء الحكومة دور القراصنة في نيفرلاند.

إضافة إلى ذلك، الأمر الذي يزيد التقاطع بين القصتين هو أن ماري تقرأ قصة بيتر بان لغيرتي في أحد مشاهد الفيلم. لاحظ فينسنت كانبي من صحيفة ذا نيويورك تايمز بشكل مشابه أن الفيلم «يعيد بكل حرية صياغة عناصر من [..] بيتر بان وساحر أوز». لاحظ بعض النقاد أن تصوير سبيلبرغ للضواحي الأمريكية ظلامي كثيرًا على عكس الاعتقاد الشائع. تبعًا للناقد أنتوني سكوت «بيئة الضواحي، بما فيها من أطفال مهملين وآباء تعيسين، بألعابها المكسورة ومأكولاتها السريعة ذات العلامات التجارية، تبدو كأنها خرجت من قصة لريموند كارفر». كتب تشارلز تايلور من موقع صالون «أفلام سبيلبرغ، على عكس ما توصف دائمًا، ليست تصويرًا هوليووديًا مثاليًا لحياة العائلات والضواحي. تحمل المنازل في هذه البيئة ما تدعوه الناقدة الثقافية كارال آن مارلينغ باسم 'علامات الاستخدام العنيف'».

وجد عدد من النقاد الآخرين نقاط تقاطع دينية بين إي تي ويسوع المسيح. وصف أندرو نايجلز قصة إي تي بأنها «الصلب بمفهوم العلم العسكري» و «إعادة الإحياء بالحب والإيمان». تبعًا لكاتب سيرة حياة سبيلبرغ جوزيف ماكبرايد، توجهت شركة يونيفرسال بيكتشرز بشكل مباشر إلى السوق المسيحية، وذلك من خلال ملصق يذكر بلوحة خلق آدم لميكيلانجيلو (بالتحديد تفصيل 'تلامس الإصبعين') والشعار الذي يقول 'السلام'. رد سبيلبرغ بأنه لم يرغب في إدخال أي رمزيات دينية في الفيلم، مازحًا بقوله «إذا ذهبت إلى أمي وقلت لها 'أمي، لقد صنعت فيلمًا يحوي رمزيات دينية مسيحية' ماذا سوف يكون ردها برأيك؟ إنها تملك مطعمًا للأطعمة الحلال (كوشر) في لوس أنجلس).

مع تراكم كمية كبيرة من النقد السينمائي حول الفيلم، حلل العديد من الكتّاب هذا الفيلم بطرق أخرى أيضًا. اعتُبر الفيلم حكاية خرافية معاصرة وخضع للتحليل النفسي. ذكرت المنتجة كاثلين كينيدي أن التسامح موضوع مهم في فيلم إي تي، وقد أصبح أكثر وضوحًا في أعمال سبيلبرغ اللاحقة مثل قائمة شندلر. بسبب كونه وحيدًا خلال سنوات المراهقة، وصف سبيلبرغ القصة بكونها «حكاية أقلية». يمتزج طابع التواصل المميز لسبيلبرغ مع مفهوم التفاهم المتبادل: ذكر أن الصداقة الأساسية في الفيلم بين الإنسان الكائن الفضائي تمثل تصويرًا لإمكانية تجاوز الخصوم في العالم الحقيقي خلافاتهم.

تقبل الفيلم

الإصدار والمبيعات
عُرض الفيلم قبل إصداره رسميًا على المجهور في هيوستن، تكساس، حيث حصل على تقييم إيجابي من قبل الجمهور. صدر الفيلم رسميًا في الحفل الختامي لمهرجان كان السينمائي عام 1982، وصدر في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية في الحادي عشر من يونيو عام 1982. حصل على المرتبة الأولى في شباك التذاكر عند عرضه إذ جمع مبلغ 11 مليون دولار في الأسبوع الافتتاحي، وبقي في قمة مبيعات شبابيك التذاكر لمدة ستة أسابيع؛ تأرجح بعد ذلك بين المركزين الأول والثاني حتى أكتوبر، قبل العودة إلى المركز الأول للمرة الأخيرة في ديسمبر خلال فترة إعادة عرض قصيرة في موسم الأعياد.

في عام 1983 تجاوز إي تي فيلم حرب النجوم كأكثر الأفلام ربحًا في التاريخ، وبحلول نهاية فترة عرضه في السينما كان قد جمع مبلغ 359 مليون دولار في أمريكا الشمالية و619 مليون دولار حول العالم. يقدر موقع بوكس أوفيس موجو أن الفيلم باع أكثر من 120 مليون تذكرة في الولايات المتحدة خلال فترة عرضه الأولى. حصل سبيلبرغ على 500,000 دولار يوميًا كحصة من الأرباح، في حين ارتفعت أرباح شركة هيرشي بنسبة 65% بسبب استخدام حلوى ريسز بيسز. قدم «النادي الرسمي لإي تي» صورًا فوتوغرافية ورسالة إخبارية تدع القراء «يعيشون لحظات الفيلم الخالدة ومشاهدهم المفضلة مرة أخرى» وسجلًا فوتوغرافيًا مع «منزل تلفون» ومقاطع صوتية أخرى.

أُعيد إصدار الفيلم مرة أخرى عامي 1985 و2002، محققًا 60 مليون دولار و68 مليون دولار على الترتيب، ليصل إلى إجمالي عالمي قدره 792 مليون دولار جمعت منه أمريكا الشمالية 435 مليون دولار. حافظ على الرقم القياسي العالمي حتى تجاوزه فيلم الحديقة الجوراسية -الذي أخرجه سبيلبرغ أيضًا- عام 1983، على الرغم من نجاحه في المحافظة على الرقم القياسي المحلي لمدة أربعة أعوام أخرى، قبل أن يستعيد حرب النجوم الصدارة من خلال إعادة إصدار للفيلم الأصلي.

صدرت منه نسخة مسجلة على الفي إتش إس والليزرديسك في السابع والعشرين من أكتوبر عام 1988؛ من أجل مكافحة القرصنة الرقمية، لُونت واقيات الشريط وحاملات الشريط على أشرطة الكاسيت الفيديوية باللون الأخضر، ثُبت على الشريط ذاته لصاقة مجسمة لشعار يونيفيرسال عام 1963 (بشكل مشابه للصور المجسمة على بطاقة الائتمان)، وشُفر باسم شركة ماكروفيجن. في أمريكا الشمالية لوحدها، وصلت مبيعات الفي إتش إس إلى 75 مليون دولار. في عام 1991، بدأت شركة سيرز ببيع أشرطة إي تي بشكل حصري في متاجرها كجزء من الترويج لموسم الأعياد. أُعيد طرح الفيلم على أقراص في إتش إس والليزرديسك مرة أخرى عام 1996. تضمن قرص الليزرديسك وثائقيًا مدته 90 دقيقة. تضمن هذا الوثائقي -الذي أنتجه وأخرجه لورنت بوزيرو- مقابلات مع سبيلبرغ والمنتجة كاثلين كينيدي والمؤلف جون وليامز وعدد من أفراد الطاقم التمثيلي وفريق الإنتاج. تضمن القرص أيضًا إعلانات سينمائية تشويقية وتسجيلًا موسيقيًا حصريًا ومشاهد محذوفة وألبوم صور ثابتة. تضمن قرص في إتش إس  عشر دقائق من الوثائقي ذاته الموجود على الليزرديسك.

باع الفيلم أكثر من 15 مليون وحدة في إتش إس في الولايات المتحدة، وجمع أكثر من 250 مليون دولار من خلال عائدات مبيعات الفيديو. أُجر كاسيت الفي إتش إس الخاص بالفيلم أكثر من ستة ملايين مرة خلال أول أسبوعين من إصداره عام 1988، وهو رقم قياسي حافظ على فيلم إي تي حتى إطلاق نسخة في إتش إس من فيلم باتمان في العام التالي. جمع إصدار فيلم إي تي على أقراص الدي في دي والبلوراي عام 2012 مبلغ 24.4 مليون دولار حتى عام 2017 في الولايات المتحدة. جمع فيلم إي تي أكثر من مليار دولار من خلال بيع البضائع التجارية والهدايا المتعلقة بالفيلم حتى عام 1998.

وصلات خارجية

أفلام أمريكية في عقد 1980
أفلام آيماكس
أفلام أطفال خيال علمي
أفلام أمبلين للترفيه
أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أنتجها ستيفن سبيلبرغ
أفلام الأرشيف الوطني الأمريكي السينمائي
أفلام إنتاج 1982
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية في عقد 1980
أفلام بلوغ سن الرشد الأمريكية
أفلام تدور أحداثها في ضواحي المدن
أفلام تقع أحداثها في سنة 1982
أفلام تقع أحداثها في لوس أنجلوس
أفلام حائزة على جائزة الأوسكار لأفضل تأثيرات بصرية
أفلام حائزة على جائزة الأوسكار لأفضل خلط أصوات
أفلام حائزة على جائزة غولدن غلوب لأفضل فيلم دراما
أفلام حول عيد الهالوين
أفلام حولت إلى ألعاب فيديو
أفلام خيال أمريكية للأطفال
أفلام خيال علمي إنتاج عقد 1980
أفلام خيال علمي مغامرات أمريكية
أفلام ستيفن سبيلبرغ
أفلام سجلها جون ويليامز
أفلام عن الأسر المفككة
أفلام عن الحياة خارج الأرض
أفلام عن الصداقة
أفلام عن الطلاق
أفلام عن تحريك عقلي
أفلام عن تخاطر
أفلام كتب نصها السينمائي ميليسا ماثيسون
أفلام مصورة في لوس أنجلوس
أفلام مصورة في لوس أنجلوس (كاليفورنيا)
أفلام مغامرات أطفال أمريكية
أفلام من إنتاج كاثلين كينيدي
أفلام يونيفرسال بيكتشرز
روايات 1985
زيارات الكائنات الفضائية في الأفلام
شخصيات خيالية من خارج الأرض
مؤنسون خياليون

إي تي (فيلم)


Diboranul (denumit și boroetan) este un compus chimic din clasa boranilor, format din bor și hidrogen, cu formula B2H6. Este un compus gazos incolor, foarte instabil și piroforic, cu un miros neplăcut dulceag. Se amestecă cu aerul formând amestecuri explozive. Se aprinde spontan în aerul umed la temperatura camerei.

Obținere
Există mai multe metode de obținere a diboranului. Majoritatea reacțiilor presupun folosirea unor donori de ion hidrură în reacție cu halogenuri de bor și alcoxizi. Sinteza industrială a diboranului include reducerea trifluorurii de bor BF3 cu hidrură de sodiu, hidrură de litiu sau hidrură de litiu și aluminiu:
8 BF3  +  6 LiH  →  B2H6  +  6 LiBF4

Proprietăți
Fiind un compus piroforic, diboranul reacționează exoterm cu oxigenul formând trioxid de bor și apă. Reacția este atât de exotermă încât s-a luat în considerare posibilitatea de a fi folosit ca și combustibil pentru rachete, dar nu a fost acceptat, fiind prea scump și greu de manipulat:

 B2H6 + 3 O2 → B2O3 + 6 H2O (ΔHr = –2035 kJ/mol = –73.47 kJ/g)

Diboranul reacționează violent cu apa cu formare de hidrogen și acid boric:

 B2H6 + 6 H2O → 2 B(OH)3 + 6 H2 (ΔHr = –466 kJ/mol = –16.82 kJ/g)

Diboranul de asemenea reacționează cu metanolul, obținându-se hidrogen și ester de trimetoxiborat:

 B2H6 + 6 MeOH → 2 B(OMe)3 + 6 H2

Prin tratarea diboranului cu amalgam de sodiu se obține NaBH4 și Na[B3H8]
În mod similar, cu hidrură de litiu în eter dietilic se obține borohidrură de litiu

 B2H6 + 2 LiH → 2 LiBH4

Diboranul reacționează cu clorura de hidrogen anhidră sau cu bromura de hidrogen gazoasă cu obținerea unei halohidruri de bor:

 B2H6 + HX → B2H5X + H2      (X = Cl, Br)

Vezi și
 Boran
 Disilan

Referințe

Borani
Agenți reducători

Diboran


Der Große Preis von Großbritannien 1952 fand am 19. Juli auf der Rennstrecke von Silverstone statt und war das fünfte von acht Rennen der Automobil-Weltmeisterschaft 1952.

Hintergrund
Die enorme Zahl von 32 Nennungen traf für den Grand Prix auf der baulich leicht geänderten Strecke von Silverstone ein. Neben den Werksteams von Ferrari und Gordini trat hier erstmals Connaught mit vier Wagen für Downing, Poore, Thompson und McAlpine bei einem Weltmeisterschaftslauf an. Doch weder das Team noch einer der Fahrer etablierte sich in den nächsten Jahren in der Fahrerweltmeisterschaft. Im Ferrari-Werksteam stand den Stammpiloten Ascari, Farina und Taruffi je ein 500 mit 2,0-l-Motor zur Verfügung, das Privatteam Ecurie Espadon meldete einen 500 für Rudolf Fischer und einen weiteren 212 mit 1,5-l-V12-Motor für seinen Schweizer Landsmann Peter Hirt. Weitere private Ferrari-Nennungen gaben Peter Whitehead und Roy Salvadori ab. Letzterer gab hier sein Debüt in einem Weltmeisterschaftslauf. Bei Gordini ersetzte Maurice Trintignant den eine Woche zuvor verletzten Jean Behra. Neben Connaught starteten mit 4 HWM, 5 Cooper und je einem Alta, ERA, Frazer-Nash und Aston sechs weitere britische Marken. Das Maserati-Werksteam war nicht erschienen.

Training
Trotz der großen Anzahl von englischen Fahrzeugen hatte keines von ihnen gegen die erneut dominanten Ferraris eine echte Chance. Farina und Ascari fuhren mit jeweils 1:50 min die schnellsten Zeiten, gefolgt von Taruffi, der 3 Sekunden langsamer war. Manzon im Gordini vervollständigte die erste Startreihe. Die Connaught lagen mit den Cooper in etwa gleichauf und teilten sich die zweite Reihe.

Rennen
Den Start gewann Ascari vor Farina und dem exzellent gestarteten Dennis Poore im Connaught. Taruffi verlor zum dritten Mal in Folge am Start deutlich an Positionen und musste sich erst wieder nach vorne kämpfen. In der 14. Runde konnte er sich auf die dritte Position vorarbeiten. Von da an schien das Rennen einen ähnlich eintönigen Verlauf zu nehmen wie in Frankreich. Doch in der 26. Runde bog Farina in die Box ab, um seine Zündkerzen zu wechseln. Dadurch fiel er auf die siebte Position zurück. Der Kerzenwechsel brachte jedoch keine entscheidende Verbesserung und so konnte er sich im weiteren Verlauf des Rennens nur noch um einen Platz verbessern. Ascari gewann seinen dritten Grand Prix in Folge, den zweiten, bei dem er das gesamte Feld überrundete. Hinter den Ferraris behaupteten sich die Connaught in ihrem ersten Rennen erstaunlich gut. Der bestplatzierte war Poore, der zeitweilig auf dem dritten Platz lag, sich aber in der 49. Runde Mike Hawthorn im Cooper geschlagen geben musste. Von den 32 gestarteten Fahrzeugen waren am Ende noch 22 dabei. Für die damalige Zeit bedeutete das eine sehr hohe Zuverlässigkeit der Rennwagen.

Meldeliste

Klassifikation

Startaufstellung

Rennergebnis

WM-Stand nach dem Rennen

Die ersten fünf bekamen 8, 6, 4, 3 bzw. 2 Punkte; einen Punkt gab es für die schnellste Runde. Es zählen nur die vier besten Ergebnisse aus acht Rennen. * schließt den Punkt für die schnellste Runde ein, Zahlen in Klammern sind Streichresultate.

Einzelnachweise

1952
Grossbritannien
Sportveranstaltung in West Northamptonshire

Großer Preis von Großbritannien 1952


Michael Ray Dibdin Heseltine, baron Heseltine CH PC (født 21. marts 1933 i Swansea, Wales) er en britisk forretningsmand og konservativ politiker, der har været vicepremierminister og forsvarsminister, og som har haft andre fremtrædende poster.

I 1990 stillede Michael Heseltine op som modkandidat mod den siddende premierminister Margaret Thatcher. Det blev dog John Major, der blev konservativ partileder og premierminister.

Medlem af Underhuset
I 1966–1974 var Michael Heseltine valgt til Underhuset for Tavistock i Devon.

I 1974–2001 var han valgt for Henley-on-Thames i Oxfordshire. Her blev han afløst af Boris Johnson.

Medlem af Overhuset
Michael Heseltine blev medlem af Overhuset i juli 2001.

Poster som minister
Michael Heseltine var miljøminister i 1979–1983 og igen i 1990–1992.

Han var forsvarsminister i 1983–1986 og handelsminister i 1992–1995.

Michael Heseltine var vicepremierminister og førstesekretær for staten i 1995–1997. På begge disse poster blev han afløst af Labour-politikeren John Prescott.

Thatchers afgang
I 1990 udfordrede Michael Heseltine den konservative partileder Margaret Thatcher. Ved den første afstemning fik Heseltine 40,9 procent af stemmerne, mens Thatcher fik 54,8 procent.

Ved den anden afstemningsrunde fik John Major 49.7 procent, Heseltine fik 35,2 procent og Douglas Hurd fik 15,1 procent af stemmerne.

Ved den tredje runde blev John Major valgt uden modkandidat.

Britiske konservative politikere
Næstformænd for de britiske konservative
Vicepremierministre fra Storbritannien
First Secretaries of State
Forsvarsministre fra Storbritannien
Miljøministre fra Storbritannien
Handelsministre fra Storbritannien

Michael Heseltine, baron Heseltine


St. Severin ist eine römisch-katholische Kirche in Köln-Lövenich in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Sie ist im Kern eine romanische Pfeilerbasilika.

Geschichte
In einer in das Jahr 1028 datierten Urkunde wurden durch Pfalzgraf Ezzo Besitzungen in Lövenich der Abtei Brauweiler geschenkt. In der gleichen Urkunde wird bereits auch die Lövenicher Kirche genannt. Bei dieser Urkunde handelt es sich jedoch möglicherweise um eine Fälschung des Brauweiler Konvents aus dem 12. Jahrhundert. Da St. Severin durch Kunsthistoriker in das 12. Jahrhundert datiert wird, bestand zu dieser Zeit jedenfalls in Lövenich eine Kirche, die später im liber valoris um 1300 auch erwähnt wurde. 1361 überließ Erzbischof Wilhelm von Gennep das Patronat an der Kirche der Kommende des Johanniterordens in Köln, St. Johann und Cordula, in deren Besitz das Gotteshaus bis zur Säkularisation verblieb.

1765 wurde die Kirche durch Brand schwer beschädigt und 1858 restauriert und erweitert. Dabei verlängerte man die Seitenschiffe der flachgedeckten, dreischiffigen romanischen Pfeilerbasilika nach Osten und legte die Apsiden nieder. Das ehemalige gewölbte Chorjoch wurde mit offenem Dachstuhl als zusätzliches Langhausjoch konzipiert, an welches ein neoromanischer Chor mit Chorjoch angefügt wurde. Gleichzeitig entfernte man im Äußeren großteils das alte Tuffsteinmauerwerk und ersetzte es durch Backstein, so dass der ursprüngliche Bestand der heute verputzten Kirche kaum noch zu erkennen ist.

Im Jahr 1996 wurde in St. Severin eine neue Orgel der Orgelbaufirma Klais aus Bonn mit 16 Registern und mechanischer Spiel- und Registertraktur eingebaut.

Glocken
Das fünfstimmige Geläut der Lövenicher St-Severin-Kirche wurde 1959 in der Glockengießerei Mabilon Saarburg gegossen.

Literatur
 Manfred Becker-Huberti, Günther A. Menne (Hrsg.): Kölner Kirchen. Die Kirchen der katholischen und evangelischen Gemeinden in Köln. J. P. Bachem Verlag, Köln 2004.
 Paul Clemen (Hrsg.): Die Kunstdenkmäler des Landkreises Köln, Düsseldorf 1897.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Severin
Severinskirche
Lövenich (Köln)
Kirchengebäude im Erzbistum Köln
Severin
Romanische Kirche

St. Severin (Lövenich)


Gartneren og herskabet er en tegnefilm i serien Der var engang... (eng. titel The Fairytaler), der blev udsendt i forbindelse med H.C. Andersens 200 års fødselsdag i 2005. Filmen bygger på H.C. Andersens eventyr Gartneren og herskabet.

Danske Stemmer:
 H.C. Andersen Henrik Koefoed
 Herre Thomas Mørk
 Frue Ditte Gråbøl
 Larsen Lasse Lunderskov
 Prinssesen Kaya Brüel
 Dreng Sofus Addington

Bagom:
 Instruktør: Jørgen Lerdam
 Original musik af: Gregory Magee
 Hovedforfatter: Gareth Williams
 Manuskriptredaktører: Linda O' Sullivan, Cecilie Olrik
 Oversættelse: Jakob Eriksen
 Lydstudie: Nordisk Film Audio
 Stemmeinstruktør: Steffen Addington
 Animation produceret af: A. Film A/S
 Animationsstudie: Wang Film Production

En co-produktion mellem
Egmont Imagination, A. Film & Magma Film

I samarbejde med:
Super RTL & DR TV

Eksterne henvisninger

Der var engang
Film fra Danmark (administrationskategori)

Gartneren og herskabet (Der var engang...)


Piai (Pia, Piai'ima), U nekim tradicijama Indijanaca Carib, Piai je brat blizanac boga Makunaima. Za njih se kaže da su sinovi Sunca. Piai je otac medicine, a njegovo ime u mnogim karipskim jezicima znači "vrač".

Izvori

Indijanska mitologija (braća blizanci)
Cariban

Piai


Le ganglion vestibulaire (ou ganglion de Scarpa) est le ganglion sensitif du nerf vestibulaire branche du nerf vestibulocochléaire.

Il est situé à l'intérieur du méat acoustique interne.

Le ganglion contient les corps cellulaires des neurones bipolaires qui sont en contact synaptique avec les  cellules ciliées du système vestibulaire : cellules ciliées des crêtes ampulaires des canaux semi-circulaires et de la macula de l'utricule et de la saccule.

La partie supérieure du ganglion reçoit le nerf utriculo-ampullaire, le nerf utriculaire, le nerf ampullaire antérieur et le nerf ampullaire latéral.

La partie inférieure reçoit le nerf ampullaire postérieur et le nerf sacculaire.

C'est un relais sensitif pour les réflexes lié à l'équilibre et pour le réflexe vestibulo-oculaire.

À la naissance, il est déjà proche de sa taille définitive.

Notes et références

Nerf crânien

Ganglion vestibulaire


Fondé en 1834, le Bulletin du bibliophile est une revue française consacrée au livre et à son histoire. Il est le plus ancien périodique existant consacré à ce sujet.

Histoire
Le Bulletin du bibliophile fut créé en 1834 par le libraire Jacques-Joseph Techener et  l'écrivain Charles Nodier. Parmi les contributeurs du premier volume figuraient ainsi Jacques-Charles Brunet, Georges Duplessis, Jean-Michel Constant Leber ou Gabriel Peignot.

La publication porta le titre « Bulletin du Bibliophile et du bibliothécaire » de 1858 à 1962. Elle fut successivement dirigée par Jacques-Joseph Techener (jusqu'en 1864), Léon Techener (de 1865 à 1888), Georges Vicaire (de 1896 à 1921) et Fernand Vandérem (de 1922 à 1939). À la mort de Vandérem, elle fut reprise par le libraire Louis Giraud jusqu'en 1962. En 1969, après sept ans d'interruption, la publication est relancée par Claude Guérin, successeur de Louis Giraud, sous l'égide de l'Association internationale de bibliophilie. Elle fut dirigée par François Chapon jusqu'en 1989, puis par Annie Charon (professeur à l'Ecole des chartes, 1989-2014), Guillaume Fau (conservateur à la BnF, 2014-2021) et Rémi Jimenes (maître de conférence au Centre d'études supérieures de la Renaissance (Tours), depuis 2021).

Depuis 1989, le Bulletin paraît à raison de deux numéros par an. Sa publication est assurée par les éditions Électre (éditions du Cercle de la librairie), sous l'égide et avec le soutien de l'Association internationale de bibliophilie.

Contenu
Le Bulletin du bibliophile est une revue académique à comité de lecture. Son contenu est sélectionné par un comité de rédaction qui comprend des universitaires, des conservateurs de bibliothèques et des libraires.

Il publie des articles relatifs à l'histoire du livre (imprimé ou manuscrit) : imprimerie, reliure, bibliothèques et pratiques de collection.

Références

Voir aussi
 Le Bulletin du bibliophile de 1834 à 1855 sur le site de Gallica

Revue littéraire en France
Revue d'histoire du livre
Revue de science de l'information
Revue de sciences humaines et sociales
Histoire du livre
Bibliophilie

Bulletin du bibliophile