John James Conyers Jr. (May 16, 1929October 27, 2019) was an American politician of the Democratic Party who served as a U.S. representative from Michigan from 1965 to 2017. Conyers was the sixth-longest serving member of Congress and the longest-serving African American member of Congress in history.

After serving in the Korean War, Conyers became active in the civil rights movement. He also served as an aide to Congressman John Dingell before winning election to the House in 1964. He co-founded the Congressional Black Caucus in 1969 and established a reputation as one of the most left-wing members of Congress. Conyers joined the Congressional Progressive Caucus after it was founded in 1991. Conyers supported creation of a single-payer healthcare system and sponsored the United States National Health Care Act. He also sponsored a bill to establish Martin Luther King Jr. Day as a federal holiday, and was the first congressperson to introduce legislation in support of reparations for the descendants of African American slavery.

Conyers ran for Mayor of Detroit in 1989 and 1993, but he was defeated in the primary each time.

Conyers served as the ranking Democratic member on the House Committee on the Judiciary from 1995 to 2007 and again from 2011 to 2017. He served as chairman of that committee from 2007 to 2011 and as chairman of the House Oversight Committee from 1989 to 1995. As the longest-serving current member of Congress, Conyers was the dean of the House of Representatives from 2015 to 2017. By November 2017, he was the last remaining member of Congress who had served since the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson. In the wake of allegations that he had sexually harassed female staff members and secretly used taxpayer money to settle a harassment claim, Conyers resigned from Congress on December 5, 2017.

Early life, education, and early career

Conyers was born and raised in Detroit, the son of Lucille Janice (Simpson) and John James Conyers, a labor leader. Among his siblings was younger brother William Conyers. After graduating from Northwestern High School, Conyers served in the Michigan National Guard from 1948 to 1950; the U.S. Army from 1950 to 1954; and the U.S. Army Reserves from 1954 to 1957. Conyers served for a year in Korea during the Korean War as an officer in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and was awarded combat and merit citations.

After his active military service, Conyers pursued a college education. He earned both his BA (1957) and LL.B. (1958) degrees from Wayne State University. After he was admitted to the bar, he worked on the staff of Congressman John Dingell. He also served as counsel to several Detroit-area labor union locals. From 1961 to 1963, he was a referee for Michigan's workmen's compensation department.

Conyers became one of the leaders of the civil rights movement. He was present in Selma, Alabama, on October 7, 1963, for the voter registration drive known as Freedom Day.

U.S. House of Representatives

Elections

In 1964, Conyers ran for an open seat in what was then the 1st District, and defeated Republican Robert Blackwell with 84% of the vote. He was reelected 13 times with even larger margins. After the 1990 United States Census, Michigan lost a congressional district, and there was redistricting. Conyers's district was renumbered as the 14th district.

In 1992, Conyers won re-election to his 15th term in his new district, which included western suburbs of Detroit, with 82% of the vote against Republican nominee John Gordon. He won re-election another nine times after that. His worst re-election performance was in 2010, when he got 77% of the vote against Republican nominee Don Ukrainec. In 2013, his district was renamed as the 13th district.

In total, Conyers won re-election twenty-five times and was serving in his twenty-sixth term. He was the dean of the House as longest-serving current member, the third longest-serving member of the House in history, and the sixth longest-serving member of Congress in history. He was the second-longest serving member of either house of Congress in Michigan's history, trailing only his former boss, Dingell. He was also the last member of the large Democratic freshman class of 1964 who was still serving in the House.

In May 2014, Wayne County Clerk Cathy Garrett determined that Conyers had not submitted enough valid nominating petition signatures to appear on the August 2014 Primary Election ballot. Two of his workers circulating petitions were not themselves registered voters at the time, which was required under Michigan law. But on May 23, Federal District Judge Matthew Leitman issued an injunction placing Conyers back on the ballot, ruling that the requirement that circulators be registered voters was similar to an Ohio law which had been found unconstitutional in 2008 by a Federal appeals court. The Michigan Secretary of State's office subsequently announced they would not appeal the ruling.

Tenure

Conyers was one of the 13 founding members of the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) and was considered the Dean of that group. Formed in 1969, the CBC was founded to strengthen African American lawmakers' ability to address the legislative concerns of Black and minority citizens. He served longer in Congress than any other African American. In 1971, he was one of the original members of Nixon's Enemies List.

In 1965, Conyers won a seat as a freshman on the influential Judiciary Committee, which was then chaired by Democratic Congressman Emanuel Celler of New York. The assignment was considered an elite one, as Judiciary ranked behind only Ways and Means and Appropriations in terms of the number of Members who sought assignment there.

According to the National Journal, Conyers has been considered, with Pete Stark, John Lewis, Jim McDermott, and Barbara Lee, to be one of the most liberal members of Congress for many years. Rosa Parks, known for her prominent role in the Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott, moved to Detroit and served on Conyers's staff between 1965 and 1988.

Conyers was known to have opposed regulation of online gambling. He opposed the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006. After the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, Conyers introduced the first bill in Congress to make King's birthday a federal holiday. He continued to propose legislation to establish the federal holiday in every session of Congress from 1968 to 1983, when Martin Luther King Jr. Day was finally signed into law by President Ronald Reagan.

In 1983 he joined with 7 other Congressional Representatives to sponsor a resolution to impeach Ronald Reagan over his sudden and unexpected invasion of Grenada.

According to The New Republic, Conyers was a member of the Democratic Socialists of America in 1983.

Conyers introduced the "Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act" () in January 1989. He re-introduced this bill each congressional term. It calls for establishing a commission to research the history of slavery in the United States and its effects on current society, which is to recommend ways to remedy this injustice against African Americans. The current version was introduced and referred to committee on January 3, 2013. Conyers first introduced the proposed resolution in 1989, and has stated his intention to annually propose this act until it is approved and passed. Since 1997, the bill has been designated "H.R. 40", most recently, , alluding to the promise of "forty acres and a mule". If passed, the commission would explore the longstanding effects of slavery on today's society, politics, and economy.

Conyers served as the ranking Democratic member on the House Committee on the Judiciary from 1995 to 2007 and again from 2011 to 2017. He served as chairman of that committee from 2007 to 2011 and as chairman of the House Oversight Committee from 1989 to 1995. As the longest-serving current member of Congress, Conyers was the dean of the House of Representatives from 2015 to 2017.

In March 2016, Rep. Conyers and Representative Hank Johnson introduced legislation to protect consumers' access to civil courts. The bill was entitled the "Restoring Statutory Rights Act".

Conyers served more than 50 years in Congress, becoming the sixth-longest serving member of Congress in U.S. history; he was the longest-serving African American member of Congress. By November 2017, Conyers was the last remaining member of Congress who had served since the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson.

Nixon and Watergate

Conyers was critical of President Richard Nixon during his tenure. He was listed as number 13 on President Nixon's enemies list during the president's 1969–74 presidential tenure. The president's Chief Counsel described him as "coming on fast", and said he was "emerging" as a "black anti-Nixon spokesman". Conyers, who voted to impeach Nixon in July 1974, wrote at the time,

National Health Care Act

Conyers submitted the United States National Health Care Act (Expanded and Improved Medicare for All Act) (H.R. 676); as of 2015, it had 49 cosponsors. He introduced it with 25 cosponsors, in 2003, and reintroduced it each session since then. The act calls for the creation of a universal single-payer health care system in the United States, in which the government would provide every resident health care free of charge. To eliminate disparate treatment between richer and poorer Americans, the Act would prohibit private insurers from covering any treatment or procedure already covered by the Act.

House impeachment manager in Hastings trial
Conyers was one of the House impeachment managers who prosecuted the in case the impeachment trial of Judge Alcee Hastings. Hastings was found guilty by the United States Senate and removed from his federal judgeship.

Downing Street memo

On May 5, 2005, Conyers and 88 other members of Congress wrote an open letter to the White House inquiring about the Downing Street memo. This was a leaked memorandum that revealed an apparent secret agreement between the U.S. and British governments to invade Iraq in 2002. The Times, among the first to publish news of the leak, wrote that the discovered documented revealed the intentions of Bush and Blair to invade Iraq, along with revealing that the two had "discussed creating pretextual justifications for doing so."

The memo story broke in the United Kingdom, but did not receive much coverage in the United States. Conyers said: "This should not be allowed to fall down the memory hole during wall-to-wall coverage of the Michael Jackson trial and a runaway bride." Conyers and others reportedly considered sending a congressional investigation delegation to London.

What Went Wrong in Ohio

In May 2005, Conyers released What Went Wrong in Ohio: The Conyers Report On The 2004 Presidential Election. This dealt with the voting irregularities in the state of Ohio during the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election. The evidence offered consists of statistical abnormalities in the differences between exit poll results and actual votes registered at those locations. The book also discusses reports of faulty electronic voting machines and the lack of credibility of those machines used to tally votes.

Conyers was one of 31 members of the House who voted not to count the 20 electoral votes from Ohio in the 2004 presidential election. The state was won by Republican President George Bush by 118,457 votes.

Constitution in Crisis

On August 4, 2006, Conyers released his report, The Constitution in Crisis: The Downing Street Minutes and Deception, Manipulation, Torture, Retributions and Cover-ups in the Iraq War, an edited collection of information intended to serve as evidence that the Bush Administration altered intelligence to justify the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

The Constitution in Crisis examines much of the evidence presented by the Bush Administration prior to the invasion and questions the credibility of their sources of intelligence. In addition, the document investigates conditions that led to the torture scandal at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq, as well as further evidence of torture having been committed but not made known to the public. Finally, the document reports on a series of "smear tactics" purportedly used by the administration in dealing with its political adversaries. The document calls for the censure of President George W. Bush and Vice President Dick Cheney. Conyers refused to back impeachment proceedings, however.

On anti-Muslim intolerance

Conyers proposed House Resolution 288, which condemns "religious intolerance" and emphasizes Islam as needing special protection from acts of violence and intolerance. It states that "it should never be official policy of the United States Government to disparage the Quran, Islam, or any religion in any way, shape, or form," and "calls upon local, State, and Federal authorities to work to prevent bias-motivated crimes and acts against all individuals, including those of the Islamic faith." The bill was referred to the House subcommittee on the Constitution in June 2005.

In 2005, Conyers introduced House Resolution 160, a house resolution that would have condemned the conduct of Narendra Modi, then the chief minister of the State of Gujarat in India. The resolution was cosponsored by Republican Representative Joseph R. Pitts (Republican of Pennsylvania). The resolution's title was: "Condemning the conduct of Chief Minister Narendra Modi for his actions to incite religious persecution and urging the United States to condemn all violations of religious freedom in India." The resolution cited a 2004 United States Commission on International Religious Freedom report on Modi stating that he was "widely accused of being reluctant to bring the perpetrators of the killings of Muslims and non-Hindus to justice". (See 2002 Gujarat riots.) The resolution was not adopted.

Conyers v. Bush

In April 2006 Conyers, together with ten other senior congressmen, filed an action in the U.S. District Court in the Eastern District of Michigan, Southern Division, challenging the constitutionality of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The complaint alleged the bill was not afforded due consideration by the United States Congress before being signed by the President. The action was subsequently dismissed on grounds of lack of standing.

Ethics controversy

In April 2006, the FBI and the U.S. Attorney's office sent independent letters to the House Ethics Committee, saying two former aides of Conyers had alleged that Conyers used his staff to work on several local and state campaigns of other politiciansincluding his wifefor the Detroit City Council. (She won a seat in 2005.) He also forced them to baby-sit and chauffeur his children.

In late December 2006, Conyers "accepted responsibility" for violating House rules. A statement issued December 29, 2006, by the House Ethics Committee chairman Doc Hastings and Ranking Minority Member Howard Berman, said Conyers acknowledged what he characterized as a "lack of clarity" in his communications with staff members regarding their official duties and responsibilities, and accepted responsibility for his actions.

In deciding to drop the matter, Hastings and Berman said:

Copyright bill

Conyers repeatedly introduced the Fair Copyright in Research Works Act, a bill that would overturn the NIH Public Access Policy, an open-access mandate of the National Institutes of Health. Conyers's bill would forbid the government from mandating that federally funded research be made freely available to the public. The legislation was supported by the publishing industry, and opposed by groups such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation. Writers Lawrence Lessig and Michael Eisen accused Conyers of being influenced by publishing houses, who have contributed significant money to his campaigns.

House Report on George W. Bush presidency and proposed inquiry

On January 13, 2009, the House Committee on the Judiciary, led by Conyers, released Reining in the Imperial Presidency: Lessons and Recommendations Relating to the Presidency of George W. Bush, a 486-page report detailing alleged abuses of power that occurred during the Bush administration, and a comprehensive set of recommendations to prevent recurrence. Conyers introduced a bill to set up a "truth commission" panel to investigate alleged policy abuses of the Bush administration.

Bill reading controversy

In late July 2009, Conyers, commenting on the healthcare debate in the House, stated: "I love these members, they get up and say, 'Read the bill'... What good is reading the bill if it's a thousand pages and you don't have two days and two lawyers to find out what it means after you read the bill?" His remark brought criticism from government transparency advocates such as the Sunlight Foundation, which referred to readthebill.org in response.

Response to accusations regarding American Muslim spies

In October, Conyers responded to allegations from four Republican Congress Members, in the wake of the launch of the book Muslim Mafia, that the Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) sought to plant Muslim "spies" in Capitol Hill. He strongly opposed the accusations, saying:

WikiLeaks

At a December 16, 2010, hearing of the House Judiciary Committee on the subject of "the Espionage Act and the Legal and Constitutional Issues Raised by WikiLeaks", Conyers "argue[d] strongly against prosecuting WikiLeaks in hasteor at all." He strongly defended the whistleblowing organization, saying:

Conyers's statement was "in marked contrast to the repeated calls from other members of Congress and Obama administration officials to prosecute WikiLeaks head Julian Assange immediately."

Foreign policy

In 2014, Conyers, along with Ted Yoho, introduced a bipartisan amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act which would prohibit the United States Armed Forces from providing any form of  assistance to the Azov Battalion, a National Guard of Ukraine unit accused by Conyers of being a "far-right white supremacist militia". The amendment was subsequently passed by the House of Representatives in 2015. Conyers' decision to introduce the amendment was the subject of both praise and criticism, with detractors noting that claiming that large numbers of Neo-Nazis are members of the Azov Battalion is a common theme of propaganda in Russia.

Conyers stated, "If there's one simple lesson we can take away from U.S. involvement in conflicts overseas, it's this: Beware of unintended consequences. As was made vividly clear with U.S. involvement in Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion decades ago, overzealous military assistance or the hyper-weaponization of conflicts can have destabilizing consequences and ultimately undercut our own national interests." He also voiced concerns about sending anti-aircraft missiles to Syrian rebels.

Sexual harassment allegations and resignation

In 2015, a former employee of Conyers alleged that he had sexually harassed her and dismissed her. She filed an affidavit with the Congressional Office of Compliance. Conyers had entered into a confidentiality agreement with the former employee and had paid her a $27,000 (~$ in ) settlement from his publicly funded office budget in 2015. BuzzFeed reported on the allegations and settlement on November 20, 2017; Buzzfeed also reported allegations that Conyers "repeatedly made sexual advances to female staff," caressed female staffers' hands in a sexual manner, and rubbed their backs and legs in public.

On November 21, 2017, Conyers issued a statement in which he said, "In our country, we strive to honor this fundamental principle that all are entitled to due process. In this case, I expressly and vehemently denied the allegations made against me, and continue to do so. My office resolved the allegationswith an express denial of liabilityin order to save all involved from the rigors of protracted litigation."

Also on November 21, 2017, the House Ethics Committee launched an investigation into multiple sexual harassment allegations against Conyers.

On November 22, 2017, The Washington Post reported that Melanie Sloan, founder of Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW), publicly accused Conyers of having harassed and verbally abused her during her tenure working for the House Judiciary Committee. On one occasion, Sloan alleged that Conyers had summoned to his office, where she found him sitting in his underwear; she quickly departed.

Later in November 2017, there were reports that another woman accused Conyers of sexual harassment. House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, who had initially stated that Conyers was an "icon" and had done a great deal to protect women, called upon Conyers to resign. She said the allegations against him were "very credible".

On December 5, 2017, Conyers resigned his House seat because of his mounting sexual scandals. The announcement came the day after another former staffer released an affidavit accusing Conyers of sexual harassment. The same day, an article by The Washington Post published allegations by Courtney Morse that Conyers had threatened her with a similar fate to that of Chandra Levy, a staffer found murdered in a park in Washington, DC. She said that after she rejected his advances, he "said he had insider information on the case. I don't know if he meant it to be threatening, but I took it that way."

At a time when the #MeToo movement was pushing for action against men who harassed women, some media and supporters in Detroit believed Conyers had been unfairly treated. He was reported as the "first sitting politician to be ousted from office in the wake of the #MeToo movement."

Caucus memberships

 Founding Member and Dean of the Congressional Black Caucus
 American Sikh Congressional Caucus
 Congressional Progressive Caucus
 United States Congressional International Conservation Caucus
 Out of Afghanistan Caucus (Co-chair)
 Congressional Full Employment Caucus
 Congressional Arts Caucus
 Afterschool Caucuses
 Congressional NextGen 9-1-1 Caucus

Detroit mayoral campaigns

While serving in the U.S. House, Conyers made two unsuccessful runs for mayor of Detroit: one in 1989 against incumbent Coleman Young and again in 1993.

1989

Incumbent Democratic Mayor Coleman Young decided to run for a fifth term, despite growing unpopularity and the declining economy of Detroit. In the September primary, Young won with 51% of the vote. Accountant Tom Barrow qualified for the November run-off by having 24%, and Conyers received 18% of the vote. Despite the difficulties of the city, Young defeated Barrow in the run-off with 56% of the vote.

1993

In June 1993, incumbent Democratic Mayor Coleman Young decided to retire instead of seeking a sixth term, citing his age and health. Many observers believed he had decided not to test his growing unpopularity. In a Detroit News poll in February, 81% said Young should retire. Conyers was one of the 23 candidates who qualified for ballot access.

Dennis Archer was the front runner in the mayoral campaign from the beginning. The 51-year-old former State Supreme Court Justice raised over $1.6million to finance his campaign. He won the September primary with 54% of the vote. Conyers came in fourth place. Archer won the November election.

Electoral history

Personal life

Conyers married Monica Esters, a teacher in Detroit, in 1990. She was 25 and he was 61; they had two sons together, John James III and Carl Edward Conyers. Monica Conyers served as vice administrator of Detroit's public schools, and in 2005 was elected to the Detroit City Council. Monica Conyers pleaded guilty to bribery charges on June 26, 2009 and served slightly more than 27 months in prison; her sentence was completed on May 16, 2013. In September 2015, Monica Conyers filed for divorce, citing a "breakdown of the marriage". However, the Conyerses reconciled in late 2016.

Conyers's grandnephew, Ian Conyers, was elected to the Michigan Senate in 2016. He generated controversy by telling of Conyers's planned retirement in interviews before the Congressman announced it himself, and claiming his great-uncle's endorsement. Following the Congressman's resignation, Ian Conyers announced that he would run in the special election for the Congressman's seat. The Congressman instead endorsed his son, John Conyers III, as his successor. John Conyers III chose not to run. Ian Conyers was defeated in the Democratic primary by Rashida Tlaib.

Death
Conyers died at his home in Detroit on October 27, 2019, at the age of 90. His funeral was held on November4 at Detroit's Greater Grace Temple.

Honors and awards

In 2007, Conyers was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.

See also
 History of African Americans in Detroit
 List of African-American United States representatives
 List of Democratic Socialists of America who have held office in the United States
 PRO-IP Act
 United States National Health Care Act

Notes and references

External links

 CD14 at Michigan Liberal
 John Conyers's oral history video excerpts at The National Visionary Leadership Project
 John Conyers Jr for Congress
 Global Family Day movement co-founded by John Conyers and Linda Grover

Articles
 It's time for Karl Rove to go: The president needs to ask for a special prosecutor in the Valerie Plame case Congressman John Conyers Jr., Salon.com (October 15, 2003)
 Preserving Democracy: What Went Wrong in Ohio: Status Report of the House Judiciary Committee Democratic Staff (prepared at the request of Congressman John Conyers, January 5, 2005)
 Open letter to George W. Bush, re: Downing Street Memo (originally signed by 89 U.S. Congress members), John Conyers, et al. (May 5, 2005)
 Bush asked to explain UK war memo CNN (May 12, 2005)
 The Downing Street Memo John Conyers (May 27, 2005)
 Congressman John Conyers Talks About Bush Lying America Into War and His Campaign to Hold Bush Accountable: The Downing Street Memo and More (John Conyers interview), BuzzFlash (June 9, 2005)
 The Constitution in Crisis; The Downing Street Minutes and Deception, Manipulation, Torture, Retribution, and Coverups in the Iraq War (Investigative Status Report of the House Judiciary Committee Democratic Staff, December 2005)
 A Motion for Censure Congressman John Conyers Jr., The Nation (December 22, 2005)
 Q & A with Conyers Guernica Magazine, May 22, 2006
 House chair warns White House to comply with subpoenas, November 5, 2007

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1929 births
2019 deaths
21st-century American politicians
Activists for African-American civil rights
African-American members of the United States House of Representatives
African-American United States Army personnel
African-American people in Michigan politics
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
Baptists from Michigan
Burials in Michigan
Deans of the United States House of Representatives
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan
HuffPost writers and columnists
Lawyers from Detroit
Members of the Democratic Socialists of America from Michigan
Military personnel from Michigan
Nixon's Enemies List
People from Highland Park, Michigan
Politicians from Detroit
Spingarn Medal winners
United States Army officers
Wayne State University Law School alumni
Northwestern High School (Michigan) alumni
American reparationists
African Americans in the Korean War

John Conyers


Vladislav Vladimirovich Larin (; Curgã, 7 de outubro de 1995) é um taekwondista russo, campeão olímpico.

Carreira

Larin conquistou a medalha de ouro nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020 em Tóquio como representante do Comitê Olímpico Russo, após confronto na final contra o macedônio Dejan Georgievski na categoria acima de 80 kg. Ele chegou a praticar ginástica artística antes de sofrer uma lesão de longa data na mão, aos cinco anos de idade, o que o incentivou a interromper o curso.

Taekwondistas olímpicos da Rússia
Campeões olímpicos da Rússia
Taekwondistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020
Medalhistas nos Jogos Olímpicos de Verão de 2020

Vladislav Larin


Genovaitė ist ein litauischer weiblicher Vorname, abgeleitet von Genoveva. Die männliche Form ist Genovaitis.

Namensträgerinnen
 Genovaitė Dambrauskienė (* 1940), Arbeitsrechtlerin, Professorin für Privatrecht an der MRU-Universität in Vilnius
 Genovaitė Babachinaitė (* 1944), Kriminologin, Professorin an der MRU
 Genovaitė Sabaliauskaitė (1923–2020), Ballettartistin und Choreografin

Siehe auch
 Genoveita

Weiblicher Vorname
Litauischer Vorname

Genovaitė


Mira Nikolić (automobilistica), hrvatska automobilistica
 Mira Nikolić (glumica), srpska glumica

Mira Nikolić


The domain name is a generic top-level domain (gTLD) in the Domain Name System of the Internet. It is intended for use by individuals for representation of their personal name, nicknames, screen names, pseudonyms, or other types of identification labels.

History
The top-level domain was founded by Hakon Haugnes and Geir Rasmussen and initially delegated to Global Name Registry in 2001, and become fully operational in January 2002. Verisign was the outsourced operator for .name since the .name launch in 2002 and acquired Global Name Registry in 2008.

In late September 2007, security researchers accused Global Name Registry of harboring hackers by charging fees per WHOIS lookup. The policy of selling detailed registration info about domains in name for US$2 each was criticized as hindering community efforts to locate and clean up malware-spreading hosts, zombies, and botnet control servers located in name. The registry offers unlimited lookups to approved users who sign a 10-page legal agreement.

In November 2009, internationalized domain names (IDNs) became available for second- and third-level domain names. IDNs are domain names that are represented by user applications in the native character set of a language.

Structure
When the TLD name was first launched, only third-level registrations and forwarded e-mail addresses were available. Second-level registrations became available in January 2004.  The original intended structure of domain names was first.last.name, so that individuals could get a domain corresponding to their name.

The purpose of this sharing of second-level names was to ensure that the highest number of people possible could get an email address that included their last name. This sharing did not impact any other people with the same last name, and research by Global Name Registry showed that a majority of the world's population does not have an overlapping firstname–lastname combination.

Usage
Subdomains of name may be registered at the second-level (john.name) and the third-level (john.doe.name). It is also possible to register an e-mail address of the form email@example.com. Email forwarding will be operated by Verisign.  The target address can be specified by an additional EPP mapping. The second-level domain of third-level subdomains is shared, and may not be registered by individuals.

The WHOIS service for name is available at whois.nic.name. Domain name registrations are available from accredited ICANN registrars.

See also
Domain name

References

External links
IANA .name whois information
.name operator  website (Verisign)
.name Registry Agreement

Generic top-level domains
Computer-related introductions in 2001

de:Top-Level-Domain#Nichtgesponserte Domains (uTLD)
sv:Toppdomän#Generiska toppdomäner

.name


In der Hansestadt Stendal geborene, bedeutende Persönlichkeiten in der Reihenfolge ihres Geburtsjahrgangs:

13. bis 18. Jahrhundert

 Herebord von Bismarck (um 1200–1280), erster nachweisbarer Vertreter des Geschlechts derer von Bismarck
 Dietrich von Portitz (um 1300–1367), Erzbischof von Magdeburg
 Nikolaus von Bismarck (1307–1377), Stendaler Patrizier
 Reyner von Calven (um 1350–1421), Lübecker Ratsherr
 Fritz Grawert (?–1449), Kaufmann und Zirkelherr in Lübeck
 Jacob Schönebeck der Jüngere (1516–1579), Ratsherr, Kämmerer und Bürgermeister in Stendal
 Bartholomäus Schönebeck (1548–1605), Kaufmann, Bürgermeister und Ratsherr in Stendal
 Thomas Sagittarius (1577–1621), Philologe, philosophischer Logiker und Pädagoge
 Benedikt Schönebeck (1597–1665), Bürgermeister in Stendal
 Christoph Schönebeck (1601–1662), Jurist, Kurfürstlicher Geheimer Rat und Archivar
 Christian Luidtke (1621–1686), Bürgermeister in Stendal
 Christoph Praetorius (1631–1713), Jurist, Bibliothekar, Kämmerer und Kirchenlieddichter
 Lucas Heinrich Thering (1648–1722), Theologe
 Germanus Lüdke (1683–1735), Diakon am Dom in Stendal
 Samuel Lenz (1686–1776), Historiker, Jurist und Hochschullehrer
 Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), Archäologe und Kunstwissenschaftler
 Johann Christian Dieterich (1722–1800), Verleger
 Dietrich Wilhelm von Schultz (1733–1803), Generalmajor
 Heinrich Julius von Goldbeck (1733–1818), preußischer Justizminister
 Johann Karl August von Schultz (1737–1800), Generalmajor
 Konrad Friedrich Uden (1754–1823), Mediziner
 Friedrich August Göring (1771–1840), Pädagoge
 Heinrich Falckenberg (1771–1845), Verwaltungsbeamter
 Martin Friedrich Rabe (1775–1856), Baumeister
 Karl Friedrich Friccius (1779–1856), Generalauditeur der preußischen Armee
 Ludwig Dietrich Eugen von Gayl (1785–1853), Generalleutnant
 Karl von Froreich (1790–1867), Generalmajor
 Joachim Friedrich Christian Dieterichs (1792–1858), Tierarzt

19. Jahrhundert
 Emil von Bornstedt (1804–1885), preußischer Generalleutnant
 Adelbert von Bornstedt (1807–1851), Publizist und 1848er Revolutionär
 Rudolph Dulon (1807–1870), Theologe und Revolutionär
 Friedrich Loeffler (1815–1874), Militärarzt
 Amand von Ruville (1816–1884), Generalmajor
 Franz von Voss (1816–1907), preußischer Politiker
 Wilhelm von Voß (1819–1893), preußischer Generalleutnant
 Friedrich Hermann Haacke (1824–1899), Mediziner, Ehrenbürger von Stendal
 Hermann Fliege (1829–1907), Komponist
 Johannes Streccius (1831–1889), Sprachforscher, preußischer Offizier, zuletzt Generalleutnant
 Rudolf Baxmann (1832–1869), evangelischer Theologe und Autor
 Hans Fritsche (1832–1898), Kommunalpolitiker
 Felix Streccius (1833–1889), preußischer Offizier, zuletzt Generalmajor
 Werner Nolopp (1835–1903), Lehrer, Dirigent, Chorleiter und Komponist
 Leo August Pochhammer (1841–1920), Mathematiker
 Max Treu (1842–1915), Byzantinist
 Otto Schoetensack (1850–1912), Paläoanthropologe
 Richard Zeckwer (1850–1922), Komponist
 Paul Mohr (1851–1939), Pädagoge, Schuldirektor und wissenschaftlicher Autor
 Emil Döblin (1853–1918), Gewerkschafter
 Thilo von Westernhagen (1853–1920), General der Infanterie
 Adolf Trenckmann (1856–1932), Politiker, Bürgermeister von Neuruppin
 Christian Wilhelm Arminius (1861–1917), Schriftsteller und Gymnasialprofessor
 Frieda Menshausen-Labriola (1861–1939), Miniatur- und Porträtmalerin
 Franz Lusensky (1862–1924), Ministerialbeamter
 Ernst Grosse (1862–1927), Ethnologe und Kunstsammler
 Max Immelmann (1864–1923), Arzt und Radiologe
 Wilhelm von Bismarck (1867–1935), Jurist und preußischer Landrat
 Wilm von Stein-Liebenstein (1869–1954), Politiker (DNVP)
 Gertrud Jungnickel (1870–1947), Porträtmalerin in Freiburg im Breisgau
 Otto Borngräber (1874–1916), Schriftsteller, Dramatiker und Dramaturg
 Max Ebert (1879–1929), Vorgeschichtler, Professor in Königsberg, Riga und Berlin
 Walter Kleinow (1880–1944), Maschinenbauingenieur, Konstrukteur und Erfinder
 Otto Kramer (1880–nach 1950), Politiker (LDP)
 Wilhelm Bonatz (1883–?), Polizist und Gestapo-Mitarbeiter
 Gustav Köhler (1885–1952), Politiker (KPD)
 Ernst Pörner (1886–1965), Pädagoge und Heimatforscher
 Elsbeth Heise (1892–1977), Krankenschwester
 Alfred Ernst (1895–1953), NSDAP-Reichstagsabgeordneter
 Friedrich Wilhelm Elchlepp (1897–1956), Kurator
 Oscar Dieling (1898–1971), Journalist und Politiker (DDP, FDP)
 Curt Röding (1898–1969), Volkswirt und Kommunalpolitiker (NSDAP)
 Ludwig Turek (1898–1975), KPD-Mitglied und Schriftsteller

20. Jahrhundert

1901 bis 1950
 Heinz Assmann (1904–1954), Marineoffizier
 Anne-Gudrun Meier-Scherling (1906–2002), Juristin
 Gerhard Schröder (1908–1944), Historiker
 Hans Jütting (1909–1999), Manager und Stiftungsgründer, Ehrenbürger von Stendal
 Freidank Kuchenbuch (1910–1942), Prähistoriker
 Gerd Rinck (1910–2007), Jurist und Politiker (CDU)
 Fritz Wittenbecher (1910–?), Fußballspieler und -trainer
 Otto Hanebuth (1911–1988), Sportwissenschaftler
 Herbert von Buttlar (1912–1976), klassischer Archäologe
 Hans Cain (1919–1983), Mediziner
 Gerd Mehl (1922–2001), Sportreporter
 Paul-Friedrich Strauß (* 1922), General der Bundeswehr
 Irina Korschunow (1925–2013), Schriftstellerin
 Erich Stockmann (1926–2003), Musikethnologe
 Werner Zöhl (1926–2012), Maler
 Rudolf Wiechert (1928–2013), Chemiker
 Joachim Rohlfes (* 1929), Geschichtsdidaktiker und Historiker
 Gerhard Geise (1930–2010), Mathematiker
 Hansi Alpert (* 1932), Fußballspieler
 Günter Matthias (1934–2015), Tischtennisspieler
 Anette Brandhorst (1936–1999), Kunstsammlerin
 Peter Kittelmann (1936–2003), Politiker (CDU)
 Kurt Liebrecht (1936–2022), Fußballspieler
 Wilfried Klingbiel (* 1939), Fußballspieler
 Hans-Dieter Neidel (* 1939), Boxer
 Hans-Jürgen Rückborn (* 1940), Leichtathlet und Olympiateilnehmer
 Karl-Heinz Kago (1941–2021), Unternehmer
 Wolfgang Eschker (* 1941), Slawist, Schriftsteller und Übersetzer
 Thomas Schmidt (1942–2008), Schauspieler und Mediziner
 Fredrik Vahle (* 1942), Germanist, Übersetzer und Liedermacher
 Gerd Gies (* 1943), Tierarzt, nach 1990 erster Ministerpräsident Sachsen-Anhalts
 Michael Stoeber (* 1943), Kunsthistoriker
 Heinz-Ulrich Walther (* 1943), Eiskunstläufer und -preisrichter
 Eckhard Erxleben (* 1944), Lyriker
 Gisela Graichen (* 1944), Fernsehjournalistin
 Dieter M. Weidenbach (* 1945), Maler und Grafiker
 Horst Stottmeister (* 1948), Ringer
 Rainer Eigendorff (* 1949), Theaterregisseur
 Jörg-Michael Koerbl (* 1950), Schriftsteller, Dramaturg, Regisseur und Schauspieler
 Gudrun "Gigi" Meixner (* um 1950), Dekorateurin und Kunstsammlerin, seit 1968 mit US-amerikanischen Musiker Herbie Hancock verheiratet, lebt in Los Angeles

1951 bis 2000
 Gerd Schlaak (* 1952), Politiker (CDU)
 Eberhard Tiefensee (* 1952), Professor für Philosophie
 Bernd Zorn (* 1952), Ingenieur und Mechanikermeister
 Detlev Lehmann (* 1954), Politiker (SPD)
 Wolfgang Weiß (* 1954), Politiker (Die Linke)
 Klaus Martin Kopitz (* 1955), Musikwissenschaftler und Komponist
 Detlef Müller (* 1955), Politiker (SPD)
 Andreas Crusius (* 1956), Präsident der Ärztekammer Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
 Lothar Mittag (* 1956), Restaurator
 Rainer Karlsch (* 1957), Wirtschaftshistoriker
 Arnulf Wenning (* 1957), Popsänger
 Ilse Wischer (* 1959), Linguistin
 Niko Schlenker (* 1960), Komponist
 Ramona Nique (* 1961), Politikerin (FDJ)
 Ralf Seibicke (* 1961), Beamter
 Hardy Güssau (* 1962), Landtagsabgeordneter
 Carola Hornig (* 1962), Ruderin
 Andrea Jennert (* 1962), Schriftstellerin
 Kerstin Werner (* 1968), Hörfunkmoderatorin
 Elmar Harbrecht (* 1969), Volleyballspieler
 Kathrin Rösel (* 1970), Politikerin (CDU)
 Dominik Marks (* 1975), Fußballschiedsrichter
 Anke Wichmann (* 1975), Radrennfahrerin
 Aimée Gneist (* 1976), Schauspielerin
 Inka Müller (* 1976), Fußballschiedsrichterin
 Aline Staskowiak (* 1976), Schauspielerin und Synchronsprecherin
 Nora Jokhosha (* 1977), Schauspielerin
 Torsten Schemmel (* 1979), Schauspieler
 Claudia Engelmann (* 1980), Politikerin (Die Linke)
 Dominik Bliefert (* 1981), Schauspieler
 Marten Krebs (* 1981), Schauspieler
 Xenia Schüßler (* 1981), Politikerin (CDU)
 Marcus Faber (* 1984), Politiker (FDP)
 Christopher Lamprecht (* 1985), Fußballspieler
 Matthias Büttner (* 1990), Politiker (AfD)
 Franco Flückiger (* 1991), Fußballspieler
 Bastian Sieler (* 1987), Oberbürgermeister

Stendal
!

Liste von Söhnen und Töchtern Stendals


توماس هوبز (5 أبريل 1588 - 4 ديسمبر 1679) ، عالم رياضيات وفيلسوف إنجليزي. اشتهر بأعماله في الفلسفة السياسية. نشره كتابه لوياثان عام 1651 والذي كان الأساس لمعظم الفلسفة السياسية الغربية من منظور نظرية العقد الاجتماعي.

يعد توماس هوبز أحد أكبر فلاسفة القرن السابع عشر بإنجلترا وأكثرهم شهرة خصوصا في المجال القانوني حيث كان بالإضافة إلى اشتغاله بالفلسفة والأخلاق والتاريخ، فقيها قانونيا ساهم بشكل كبير في بلورة كثير من الأطروحات التي تميز بها هذا القرن على المستوى السياسي والحقوقي.كما عرف بمساهمته في التأسيس لكثير من المفاهيم التي لعبت دورا كبيرا ليس فقط على مستوى النظرية السياسية بل كذلك على مستوى الفعل والتطبيق في كثير من البلدان وعلى رأسها مفهوم العقد الاجتماعي.
كذلك يعتبر هوبز من الفلاسفة الذين وظفوا مفهوم الحق الطبيعي في تفسيرهم لكثير من القضايا المطروحة في عصرهم.

كان هوبز مناصرًا للملكية المطلقة، ولكنه طور أيضًا بعض أساسيات الفكر الليبرالي: الأوروبي: حق الفرد والمساواة الطبيعية بين جميع البشر والشخصية الاعتبارية للنظام السياسي (التي أدت لاحقًا إلى التمييز بين المجتمع المدني والدولة)؛ وهو أيضًا صاحب رأي أن جميع القوى السياسية الشرعية يجب أن تكون «ممثلة» وقائمة على قبول الشعب؛ والتفسير الحر للقانون الذي يمنح الناس حرية فعل ما لم ينص القانون على تجريمه صراحةً.

كان توماس هوبز أحد مؤسسي فلسفة السياسة الحديثة. وظل فهمه للبشر باعتبارهم مادة وحركة تنفذ نفس القوانين المادية مثل أية مادة وحركة أخرى ذات تأثير كبير؛ وظل اعتباره للطبيعة البشرية باعتبارها تعاونًا مركزه الذات وللمجتمعات السياسية قائمة على «العقد الاجتماعي» أحد أهم الموضوعات في الفلسفة السياسية.

ساهم هوبز أيضًا إلى جانب الفلسفة السياسية في عدد متنوع من المجالات الأخرى، من بينها التاريخ والهندسة وفيزياء الغازات والإلهيات والأخلاق والفلسفة العامة.

النشأة والتعليم
ولد توماس هوبز يوم 5 من إبريل عام 1588 في ويستبورت، التي هي الآن جزء من ميلمزبيري في ويلتشير في إنجلترا. ولد تومس هوبز قبل أوانه عندما سمعت والدته بقدوم غزو الأرمادا الإسبانية، ويقول هوبز عن ذلك لاحقًا «لقد وضعت أمي توءمًا: أنا والخوف.» كانت طفولته عادية جدًا، ولا يُعرف اسم والدته. وكان والده الذي يدعى هوبز أيضًا يعمل فيقار في شارلتون وويستبورت. وكان لتوماس هوبز الأب شقيق أكبر منه اسمه فرانسيس هوبز وكان تاجرًا ثريًا ولم تكن له أسرة منفصلة. وكان لتوماس هوبز، الابن، شقيق اسمه إدموند يكبره بعامين تقريبًا. ولقد هجر توماس الأب زوجته وولديه وابنته وتركهم في رعاية أخيه فرانسيس، بعدما أُجبر على الفرار من لندن بعد اشتراكه في مشاجرة مع أحد رجال الدين خارج كنيسته. تلقى هوبز تعليمه في كنيسة ويستبورت منذ أن كان عمره أربعة أعوام، ثم انتقل بعدها إلى مدرسة ميلمزبيري ثم انتقل إلى مدرسة خاصة يديرها رجل شاب اسمه روبرت لاتيمير الذي تخرج من جامعة أكسفورد. كان هوبز تلميذًا يشار له بالبنان، وفي عام 1603 تقريبًا مجدلاين هول التي ترتبط ارتباطًا وثيقًا بـ كلية هيرتفورد، بأكسفورد. ولقد كان العميد جون ويلكنسون شخص تطهيري وكان له تأثير على هوبز.

كان يبدو في الجامعة أن هوبز يتبع منهجًا تعليميًا خاصًا به، ولم يكن منجذبًا كثيرًا بالتعليم الدراسي". ولم يكمل شهادة الليسانس حتى عام 1608؛ ولكن أوصى به سير جيمس هيوسي، لدى أستاذه في مجدلاين، ليكون معلمًا لابنه ويليام كافيديش بارون هاردويك (وأصبح لاحقًا إير ديفونشير) وبدأ علاقة طويلة الأمد مع هذه العائلة.

في باريس (1630 – 1637)
وجد هوبز وظيفة كمعلم خاص لجيرفيس كليفتون، ابن السير جريفيس كليفتون، وقضى معظم وقت تدريسه له في باريس حتى عام 1631. عقب ذلك وجد هوبز مرة أخرى وظيفة مع عائلة كافيندش كمعلم خاص لويليام كافنديش، الإيرل الثالث لديفونشاير، والابن الأكبر لتلميذه السابق. وخلال السبعة أعوام التي تلت ذلك، وإلى جانب التدريس، وسع هوبز معرفته بالفلسفة، مما أيقظ بداخله الفضول حول جدالات ومناظرات الفلسفة الكبرى. وقد زار فلورنسا عام 1636، وأصبح بعدها مناظرا معتادا في الصالونات الفلسفية بباريس بصحبة مارن ميرسين.

كان اهتمام هوبز الدراسي الأول دراسة فلسفات فيزياء الحركة والزخم الفيزيائي. ورغم اهتمامه بهذه الظواهر، إلا أنه لم يحبذ الأعمال التجريبية كتلك الفيزيائية. ثم أمضى قدما في فهم النظام الفكري الذي كرس للاستفاضة فيه معظم حياته. كان بداية مخططه أن يؤلف بحثا منفصلا عن مبادئ الأجسام، وتبيين كيف أن تفسير الظواهر الفيزيائية من حيث حركتها ممكن، وذلك وفق الفهم السائد حينها حول الحركة وميكانيكيتها. ميز هوبز حينئذ الإنسان عن الطبيعة والنباتات. وفي مؤلف آخر له، قام بتوضيع الحركات الفيزيائية المحددة التي تتدخل في الظواهر الفريدة من الإحساس، المعرفة، العاطفة، والشغف، والتي وفقها تتكون العلاقات بين إنسان وآخر. وأخيرا، أوضح في مؤلفه الأهم ما يحرك الإنسان للانخراط في المجتمع، وجادل بأن ذلك واجب التنظيم لتفادي وقوع الإنسان في الوحشية والبؤس. وبذلك فقد اقترح توحيد ظواهر الجسم، الإنسان، والدولة معا.

في إنجلترا
عاد هوبز إلى موطنه الذي مزقه الاستياء عام 1637، مما أعاقه عن المضي قدما في تنفيذ خططه الفلسفية بانتظام. لكنه بحلول نهاية البرلمان القصير عام 1640 قام بتأليف «مبادئ القانون الطبيعي والسياسي». إلا إنه لم ينشر، وتم تداوله كمخطوطة بين معارفه. رغم ذلك، نشرت نسخة مقرصنة منه بعد عشرة أعوام. رغم أن الظاهر أن معظم كتاب مبادئ القانون قد تبلور قبل جلسة البرلمان القصير، إلا أن هناك أجزاء انفعالية منه تشير إلى تأثر بالأزمة السياسية المتصاعدة. لكن رغم ذلك، فإن كثيرا من مبادئ هوبز السياسية لم تتغير بين كتابي مبادئ القانون ولوياثان، الأمر الذي يوضح أن الحرب الأهلية الإنجليزية لم تؤثر على نهجه في نظرية العقد الاجتماعي. على أن جدالات لوياثان تختلف عن مبادئ القانون حين يأتي الأمر إلى أهمية الموافقة في خلق التزام سياسي. وبالتحديد، كتب هوبز في مبادئ القانون أن الممالك القديمة لم تنشأ بالضرورة بموافقة المحكومين، لكنه نادى بالعكس في لوياثان. ربما كان ذلك انعكاسا لأفكار هوبز عن جدل المشاركة أو انعكاس لرد فعله تجاه مؤلفات البطرياركيين من أمثال السير روبرت فيلمر بين أعوام 1640 و1651.

الفكر السياسي
تأثر هوبز بالأفكار العلمية المعاصرة، وقصد من نظريته السياسية أن تكون نظامًا شبه هندسي، توصل فيها إلى الاستنتاجات الحتمية من الفرضيات. الاستنتاج العملي الرئيسي لنظرية هوبز السياسية هو: أن الدولة أو المجتمع لا يمكن أن يكونا آمنين إلا تحت التصرف المطلق للحاكم. من هذا يتبع الرأي القائل بأنه لا يمكن لأي فرد أن يحمل حقوق الملكية ضد الحاكم، وبناءً عليه قد يأخذ الحاكم البضائع من رعاياه دون موافقتهم. تكمن أهمية وجهة النظر هذه كونها طوِرت لأول مرة في ثلاثينيات القرن الماضي عندما سعى تشارلز الأول إلى زيادة الإيرادات من رعاياه دون موافقة البرلمان.

اللفياثان
في كتاب اللفياثان، عرض هوبز مذهبه حول أساس الدول والحكومات الشرعية وخلق علم موضوعي للأخلاق. يشرح جزء كبير من الكتاب ضرورة وجود سلطة مركزية قوية لتجنب شر الشقاق والحرب الأهلية.

بدايةً من الفهم الآلي للبشر وشغفهم، يفترض هوبز كيف ستبدو الحياة بدون حكومة، وهي حالة يسميها حالة الطبيعة. يملك كل شخص في تلك الحالة الحق، أو الترخيص، لكل شيء في العالم. يقول هوبز أن هذا سيؤدي إلى «حرب الجميع ضد الجميع». يحتوي الوصف على ما أطلق عليه أحد المقاطع الأكثر شهرة في الفلسفة الإنجليزية، والتي تصف الحالة الطبيعية للبشرية التي سيكون عليها الإنسان لولا المجتمع السياسي:«في هذه الحالة: لا يوجد مكان للصناعة لأن إنتاجها غير مؤكد، وبالتالي لا توجد ثقافة للأرض، ولا ملاحة، ولا استخدام للسلع التي يمكن استيرادها عن طريق البحر، ولا مبنى حضاري. لا توجد أدوات للتحرك، والإزالة، وأشياء كهذه تتطلب الكثير من القوة، ولا علم لوجه الأرض، ولا يوجد حساب للوقت، ولا فنون، ولا خطابات، ولا مجتمع. الأسوأ من ذلك كله هو الخوف المستمر وخطر الموت العنيف، وحياة الإنسان المنعزلة، والفقيرة، والشريرة، والبهيمية، والقصيرة.»في مثل هذه الحالة: يخشى الناس الموت ويفتقرون إلى كل الأشياء الضرورية للحياة القيّمة، والأمل في التمكن من الحصول عليها. ولتجنب ذلك، ينضم الناس إلى العقد الاجتماعي ويؤسسون مجتمعًا مدنيًا. وفقًا لهوبز، المجتمع سكان وسلطة ذات سيادة يتنازل لأجلها جميع الأفراد في هذا المجتمع عن بعض الحقوق بقصد الحماية. لا يمكن مقاومة أي قوة تمارسها هذه السلطة، لأن القوة السيادية للحامي مستمدة من تسليم الأفراد قوتهم السيادية للحماية. وبالتالي فإن الأفراد هم أصحاب جميع القرارات التي اتخذها الحاكم. «من يشتكي من أذى الحاكم كمن يشتكي من أنه هو نفسه المجرم، وبالتالي لا ينبغي عليه أن يتهم إلا نفسه، ومن المستحيل أن يتهم نفسه كون الشخص لا يمكن أن يلحق الأذى بنفسه». لا يوجد مبدأ لفصل السلطات في مناقشة هوبز. وفقًا لهوبز يجب على الحاكم السيطرة على القوى المدنية والعسكرية والقضائية والكنسية، وحتى الكلمات.

الخصوم

جون برمهال
نشر الأسقف جون برمهال في عام 1654 مقالة صغيرة بعنوان «الحرية والضرورة»، موجهة إلى هوبز. التقى برمهال، وهو أرميني قوي، هوبز وناقشه، وبعد ذلك كتب آراءه وأرسلها بشكل خاص ليرد عليه هوبز على النحو الواجب ولكن ليس من أجل النشر. ومع ذلك أخذ أحد معارفه الفرنسيين نسخة من الرد ونشره بعنوان «رسالة تمجيدية سخية». رد برمهال في عام 1655، عندما طبع كل ما كان يمر بينهما تحت عنوان (الدفاع عن الحرية الحقيقية للأعمال الإنسانية من الضرورة السابقة أو الخارجية). كان هوبز مستعدًا للأسئلة المتعلقة بالحرية والضرورة والفرصة في عام 1656، إذ أجاب «بقوة مذهلة» على الأسقف. ولعل هذا أول عرض واضح للمذهب الحتمي النفسي، أوضح أهمية نموذجي هوبز في تاريخ الجدل حول الإرادة الحرة. عاد الأسقف في عام 1658 بـ «انتقاد الملاحظات النقدية للسيد هوبز»، وتضمن ملحقًا ضخمًا بعنوان «صيد لفياثان الحوت العظيم».

جون واليس
عارض هوبز الترتيبات الأكاديمية السائدة، وهاجم بعنف نظام الجامعات الأصلية في لفياثان. نشر كتاب «في الجسم»، الذي لم يتضمن فقط وجهات نظر مغرضة في الرياضيات ولكن أيضًا دليلًا خاطئًا على تربيع الدائرة. كل هذا دفع علماء الرياضيات إلى استهدافه للمناظرة، وأثار جون واليس ليصبح أحد خصومه الأكثر ثباتًا. من عام 1655 العام الذي نشر فيه «في الجسم» ذهب كل من هوبز وواليس في جولة في محاولة ليدحض كل منهما مواقف الآخر. بعد سنوات من النقاش، اكتسب الخلاف حول إثبات تربيع الدائرة سمعة سيئة لدرجة أنها أصبحت واحدة من أكثر الخلافات المشينة في التاريخ الرياضي.

آراء دينية
اتهِم هوبز بالإلحاد من العديد من المعاصرين، واتهمه برمهال بتعاليم يمكن أن تؤدي إلى الإلحاد. كان هذا اتهامًا كبيرًا، وكتب هوبز في إجابته على مقال برمهال بعنوان «القبض على لفياثان»، بأن «الإلحاد، والعقوق، وما شابهها هي كلمات لأكبر قدر من الافتراء». ودافع هوبز دائمًا عن نفسه من هذه الاتهامات. في الآونة الأخيرة أيضًا قُدمت الكثير من وجهات نظره الدينية من قبل علماء مثل ريتشارد توك وجون غريفيل اغارد بوكوك، ولكن ما زال هناك خلاف واسع النطاق حول الأهمية الدقيقة لآراء هوبز غير العادية حول الدين.

أوضح مارتينيتش أن مصطلح «الملحد» في زمن هوبز طُبِق في كثير من الأحيان على الناس الذين آمنوا بالله ولكن ليس في العناية الإلهية، أو على الأشخاص الذين آمنوا بالله ولكنهم حافظوا أيضًا على معتقدات أخرى لا تتفق مع هذا الاعتقاد. يقول إن هذا «التناقض أدى إلى العديد من الأخطاء في تحديد من كان ملحدًا في بداية الفترة الحديثة». في هذا المعنى الموسع الحديث للإلحاد، اتخذ هوبز مواقفًا عارضت بشدة تعاليم الكنيسة في عصره. على سبيل المثال: جادل مرارًا وتكرارًا أنه لا توجد مواد غير مادية، وأن كل الأشياء بما في ذلك الأفكار البشرية، وحتى الله والجنة والجحيم أشياء مادية، وبرأيه توجد مادة وحركة المادة. وقال إنه «على الرغم من أن الكتاب المقدس يعترف بالأرواح، لكنه لا يقول أين هي، إنها غير مادية، وهذا يعني أنها بدون أبعاد وكمية». (في هذا الرأي، ادعى هوبز أنه يتبع ترتليان). مثل جون لوك الذي صرح أيضًا بأن الوحي الحقيقي لا يمكن أن يختلف أبدًا مع العقل البشري والتجربة، على الرغم من أنه جادل أيضًا بأنه يجب على الناس قبول الوحي وتأويلاته لسبب وجوب قبول أوامر الحاكم لتجنب الحرب.

أثناء جولته في البندقية، تعرف هوبز على فولجنزيو ميكانيزيو، أحد المقربين من باولو ساربي، الذي كتب ضد ادعاءات البابوية للسلطة الدنيوية ردًا على قرار البابا بول الخامس ضد البندقية، الذي رفض الاعتراف بالامتيازات البابوية. دعا جيمس الأول الرجلين إلى إنجلترا عام 1612. جادل ميكانيزيو وساربي بأن الله يريد الطبيعة البشرية، وأن الطبيعة البشرية تشير إلى استقلال الدولة في الشؤون الدنيوية. عندما عاد إلى إنجلترا في عام 1615، حافظ ويليام كافنديش على مراسلات مع ميكانيزيو وساربي وترجم هوبز رسائل الأخير من الإيطالية، ووزعها بين دائرة الدوق.

المراجع

قائمة المصادر

 Macpherson, C. B. (1962). The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Malcolm, Noel. (2002). Aspects of Hobbes. New York: Oxford University Press.
 Malcolm, Noel. (2007). Reason of State, Propaganda, and the Thirty Years' War: An Unknown Translation by Thomas Hobbes. Oxford University Press.
 Manent, Pierre. (1994) An Intellectual History of Liberalism
 Martinich, A. P. (2003) "Thomas Hobbes," The Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 281: British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500–1660, Second Series, Detroit: Gale, pp. 130–144.

 Martinich, A. P. (1997) Thomas Hobbes, New York: St. Martin's Press.
 Martinich, A. P. (1992) The Two Gods of Leviathan: Thomas Hobbes on Religion and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Martinich, A. P. (1999) Hobbes: A Biography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
 Martinich, A. P. Philosophy and Government, 1572–1651, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
 Oakeshott, Michael (1975), "Hobbes on Civil Association", Oxford: Basil Blackwell
 Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.
 Shapin, Steven and Shaffer, Simon (1995). Leviathan and the Air-Pump. Princeton: Princeton University Press
 Strauss, Leo (1936). The Political Philosophy of Hobbes; Its Basis and Its Genesis. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 Strauss, Leo (1959). "On the Basis of Hobbes's Political Philosophy," in What Is Political Philosophy?, Glencoe, IL: Free Press, chap. 7.
 Skinner, Quentin. (1996). Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy of Hobbes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 Tönnies, Ferdinand (1925). Hobbes. Leben und Lehre, Stuttgart: Frommann, 3rd ed.
 Vieira, Monica Brito. (2009) The Elements of Representation in Hobbes, Leiden: Brill Publishers.
 Zagorin, Perez. (2009) Hobbes and the Law of Nature, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.

انظر أيضًا
 الحقوق الطبيعية والقانونية#توماس هوبز
 القانون الطبيعي#هوبز
 خدعة هوبز

وصلات خارجية

مراجع
  هوبز، توماس - الموسوعة العربية الميسرة، 1965

أنطولوجيون
إنجليز مغتربون في فرنسا
خريجو قاعة المجدلية (أكسفورد)
خريجو كلية المجدلية
رياضياتيون إنجليز
فلاسفة أخلاق
فلاسفة الأديان
فلاسفة التاريخ
فلاسفة الثقافة
فلاسفة الرياضيات
فلاسفة العصر الحديث المبكر
فلاسفة العقل
فلاسفة القرن 17
فلاسفة اللغات
فلاسفة إنجليز
فلاسفة إنجليز في القرن 17
فلاسفة بريطانيون
فلاسفة تعليم
فلاسفة سياسيون
فلاسفة سياسيون إنجليز
فلاسفة علم الاجتماع
فلاسفة علوم
فلاسفة قانون
فلاسفة ملحدون
فلاسفة نظرية المعرفة
فيزيائيون إنجليز
كتاب إنجليز في القرن 17
كتاب باللغة اللاتينية في القرن 17
كتاب ذكور إنجليز في القرن 17
كتاب في القرن 17
لاهوتيون إنجليز
ماديون
منظرو البلاغية
منظرون على الحضارة الغربية
مواليد 1588
مواليد 996 هـ
ميتافيزيقيون
نقاد اجتماعيون
نقاد الأديان
نقاد الكاثوليكية
نقاد المسيحية
وفيات 1090 هـ
وفيات 1679
وفيات في ديربيشاير
نقاد بريطانيون في المسيحية

توماس هوبز


Finn Rudaizky (født 18. marts 1942 på Rigshospitalet i København) er en dansk politiker, medlem af Dansk Folkeparti, som har været medlem af Københavns Borgerrepræsentation siden 1994 på nær i perioden maj 2017 – januar 2018, hvor han var erklæret ikke-valgbar af Valgbarhedsnævnet.

Baggrund
Rudaizky var i sin ungdom med til at gøre Boldklubben Frems ynglingehold til danske mestre 1960, på hold med senere landsholdsspillerne Leif Nielsen og Birger Larsen. Senere spillede han på Skovshoveds divisionshold.

Rudaizky er uddannet med HH (1966) og som ejendomsmægler (1985). Han har i mange år arbejdet som konsulent og marketingchef.

Rudaizky var formand for Det mosaiske Troessamfund fra 1979 til 1982 og tidligere formand for Folkebevægelsen mod Nazisme.

I maj 2018 var Rudaizky modtager af Grundlovsforeningen Dansk Kulturs kulturpris.

Politisk karriere
Rudaizky var tidligere medlem af Socialdemokratiet, men var løsgænger i Borgerrepræsentation fra 2005-2008, hvor han meldte sig ind i Dansk Folkeparti. Han forlod Socialdemokraterne med den officielle forklaring, at han ikke ville sidde i gruppe med sin partifælle, Sikandar Malik Siddique, fordi denne havde deltaget i et møde med den islamistiske organisation Hizb ut-Tahrir. Rudaizky var medlem af Socialdemokratiet i 37 år.
I Borgerrepræsentationen har han tidligere været socialordfører for Socialdemokraterne og næstformand i familie- og arbejdsmarkedsudvalget. Han er nu medlem af Socialudvalget. Han har stillet op til folketingsvalg fire gange uden at blive valgt.

Retssagen mod Rudaizky
Rudaizky blev i 2017 dømt ved Københavns Byret for at have lækket "personfølsomme oplysninger" om Omar Abdel Hamid El-Hussein, der i februar 2015 gennemførte terrorangrebene på Krudttønden og Københavns Synagoge. Straffen var 10 dagbøder a 1.000 kr. plus sagens omkostninger på 30.000 kr. Rudaizky nægtede sig skyldig, idet han henviste til sagens samfundsmæssige betydning. I forbindelse med sagen har Københavns Politi i øvrigt sigtet to journalister fra henholdsvis BT og Berlingske.

Dommen fik efterfølgende Valgbarhedsnævnet til at afgøre, at Rudaizky havde mistet sin valgbarhed til Københavns Borgerrepræsentation og regionsrådet i Region Hovedstaden, så han var tvunget til at forlade disse.

Familie
Finn Rudaizkys forældre kom til Danmark som flygtninge fra pogromerne i det Russiske Kejserrige. Faderen, bogholder Falk Meyer Rudaizky, kom i 1912 som 4-årig fra Ritawen i dagens Litauen, og moderen Chana Buraks kom også som 4-årig fra Sjedletz i dagens Polen i 1913. Hans fars søster og hendes to børn omkom i en koncentrationslejr under 2. verdenskrig, mens Finn Rudaizky selv som etårig i oktober 1943 undslap under redningen af de danske jøder sammen med sin far, mor og søster i en fiskerbåd via havnen i Dragør til Sverige.
Finn Rudaizky er gift og har to døtre. Den ene bor i Israel, den anden i USA.

Kilder
 Portræt af Finn Rudaizky - JP
  Portræt: Finn Rudaizky skiller vandene - Politiken

Referencer

Medlemmer af Københavns Borgerrepræsentation fra Dansk Folkeparti
Regionsrådsmedlemmer fra Dansk Folkeparti
Tidligere medlemmer af Københavns Borgerrepræsentation fra Socialdemokraterne
Medlemmer af Københavns Borgerrepræsentation i 1900-tallet
Medlemmer af Københavns Borgerrepræsentation i 2000-tallet
Jøder fra Danmark
Foreningsformænd fra Danmark
Fodboldspillere fra Boldklubben Frem
Fodboldspillere fra Skovshoved IF
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog

Finn Rudaizky


Il Vernacoliere is an Italian monthly satirical magazine based in Livorno, Tuscany, Italy, founded in 1982 by editor-director Mario Cardinali. The periodical started to operate as a successor of the pre-existing Livornocronaca, first issued in 1961. Il Vernacoliere is characterised by its absence of advertising, its satirical style, and for the widespread use of the dialect of Livorno. It is now distributed throughout Tuscany, in many newsstands of central Italy, and in selected ones in the rest of Italy.

History and profile
The magazine traces its roots in Livornocronaca, which operated weekly from 1961 to 1969 and which was written in standard Italian. Livornocronaca was issued twice a month from 1969 to 1972, and eventually only monthly with the subtitle Il Vernacoliere. In 1982, the title Livornocronaca was dropped, and the name was changed permanently into Il Vernacoliere. The magazine slowly but steadily gained momentum beyond the borders of the Province of Livorno, and it is now read in most Northern and Central Italy.

Il Vernacoliere is well known for its popular, raw, heavily irreverent political and social satire, written in the dialect of Livorno or, at the very least, with a distinctive Tuscan tinge. The magazine features satirical articles, comics, and an editorial note (in standard Italian), with the occasional addition of opinion pieces. Amongst Italian magazines, Il Vernacoliere is notable for having no advertising, covering all its expenses with the sale of the journal and of the associated gadgets. Its famous locandine, (in ) are saucy showcases of the main articles of the magazine, to be displayed at newsstands. Their text is written by the Director.

The founder and current Director of Il Vernacoliere is Mario Cardinali. He is also the author of most political satire pieces, written in pure and witty Livorno dialect.  Notable Vernacoliere contributors include Federico Maria Sardelli, Daniele Caluri, Max Greggio, Marco Citi, Ettore Borzacchini, and Andrea Camerini.

The periodical is considered to be one of the freest magazines currently published in Italy. According to journalist Camillo Langone, it is an example that, in present-day Italy, satire can be published at a dialectal level only, while not viable in standard Italian.

See also
 List of magazines published in Italy

References

External links
 Official website

1982 establishments in Italy
Vernacoliere
Vernacoliere
Vernacoliere
Magazines established in 1982
Mass media in Livorno
Vernacoliere
Bi-monthly magazines published in Italy

Il Vernacoliere


Jaschina ist der Familienname folgender Personen:

 Olga Jaschina (* 1986), russische Skilangläuferin

Jaschina


El hermano bastardo de Dios est un film espagnol réalisé par Benito Rabal, sorti en 1986.

Synopsis
Pepe Luis se souvient de son enfance à Cuenca pendant la guerre d'Espagne.

Fiche technique
 Titre : El hermano bastardo de Dios
 Réalisation : Benito Rabal
 Scénario : Agustín Cerezales, Benito Rabal d'après le roman de José Luis Coll
 Musique : Juan Pablo Muñoz Zielinski
 Photographie : Paco Femenia
 Montage : José María Biurrún
 Production : Jesús Palacios (producteur délégué)
 Société de production : Almadraba Producciones
 Pays :
 Genre : Drame et guerre
 Durée : 102 minutes
 Dates de sortie :
 :  (Madrid)

Distribution
 Francisco Rabal : Rosendo
 Asunción Balaguer : Mme. Trini
 Agustín González : M. Enrique
 María Luisa Ponte : Alejandra
 Mario Pardo : Tío Julio
 Terele Pávez : Ramona
 Juan Diego : Omar Hazim
 Rafael Álvarez : Tonto

Distinctions
Le film a été nommé pour deux prix Goya.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Film espagnol sorti en 1986
Film dramatique espagnol
Film de guerre espagnol
Adaptation d'un roman espagnol au cinéma
Film sur la guerre d'Espagne

El hermano bastardo de Dios


An Ficinia dasystachys in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Charles Baron Clarke. An Ficinia dasystachys in nahilalakip ha genus nga Ficinia, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Ficinia

Ficinia dasystachys


NBA 1987./88. je bila 42. po redu sezona sjevernoameričke profesionalne košarkaške lige.

U finalnoj seriji doigravanja prvaci Zapadne konferencije Los Angeles Lakersi su omjerom 4:0 pobijedili prvake Istočne konferencije Detroit Pistonse i obranili naslov prvaka i tako po 11. put postali prvaci lige.

Poredak po divizijama na kraju regularnog dijela sezone

Napomena: (d) - ušli u doigravanje, Pob - pobjede, Por - porazi

Doigravanje

Napomena: u zagradi je plasman unutar konferencije

Finalna serija

Napomena: (I) - pobjednik Istočne konferencije, (Z) - pobjednik Zapadne konferencije

Nagrade za sezonu 1987./88.

Izvori

1987./88.

NBA 1987./88.


Bejliket Tunis var et autonomt beylik af det Osmanniske rige, det blev grundlagt den 15. juli, 1705, efter at Hafsidene ledet af Al-Husayn I ibn Ali at-Turki besejrede de tyrkiske Deys der kontrollerede hvad der nu er Tunesien.

Historie
Selvom dejene blev besejret, fortsatte Tunesien at være en vassal af det osmanniske rige, I det 19. århundrede blev landet mest autonome, selv om det stadig var officielt en osmannisk provins. I 1861 vedtog Tunesien den første forfatning i den arabiske verden, men en bevægelse mod uafhængighed blev hæmmet af den fattige økonomi og politiske uro. I 1869 erklærede Tunesien sig konkurs, og en international finansiel kommission med repræsentanter fra Frankrig, Det Forenede Kongerige og Italien tog kontrol over økonomien.

Tunesien blev et protektorat af Frankrig den 12. maj 1881, efter at franskmændene hævdede, at tunesiske tropper havde krydset grænsen til deres koloni i Algeriet. Tunesien modtog senere sin uafhængighed fra Frankrig den 20. marts 1956.

Noter

Osmanniske Rige

Bejliket Tunis


John Charles Bryan Barnes MBE (born 7 November 1963) is an English former professional football player and manager. Often considered one of the greatest English players of all time, Barnes currently works as an author, as well as a commentator and pundit for ESPN and SuperSport. Initially a quick, skilful left winger, he moved to central midfield later in his career. Barnes won two League titles and two FA Cups with Liverpool. He was also an FA Cup runner-up with Watford, Liverpool and Newcastle United. He earned 79 international caps for England.

Barnes was born and raised in Jamaica as the son of a military officer from Trinidad and Tobago and a Jamaican mother. He moved to London, England, with his family when he was 12 years old. He joined Watford aged 17 in 1981, before playing 296 competitive games for them, scoring 85 goals. He debuted for England in 1983, and in 1987 joined Liverpool for £900,000. In his ten seasons there, Liverpool won the then-top-flight First Division twice and the FA Cup twice. He scored 106 goals in 403 matches. By the time of his last cap, in 1995, he had more caps than any other black England player. After two years at Newcastle United, he ended his playing career at Charlton Athletic in 1999. Barnes had eight months as Celtic head coach when his former Liverpool manager Kenny Dalglish was director of football. He has since managed the Jamaica national team, in 2008–09, and English club Tranmere Rovers, for four months in 2009.

Barnes was the PFA Players' Player of the Year once (in 1987–88) and the Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year twice (in 1987–88 and 1989–90). In 2005, he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame. In 2006, in a poll of Liverpool fans' favourite players, Barnes came fifth; a year later, FourFourTwo magazine named him Liverpool's best all-time player. In 2016, The Times readers voted him England's greatest-ever left-footed player.

Barnes has published two books: John Barnes: The Autobiography (1999), which was followed by The Uncomfortable Truth About Racism (2021), both of which were met with a largely positive reception. In 2022, he returned to Liverpool as an official Club Ambassador.

Early life
Barnes was born in Jamaica, to Roderick Kenrick "Ken" Barnes (a Trinidadian) and Frances Jeanne Hill (a Jamaican). Ken Barnes hailed from Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago emigrating to Jamaica in 1956 as a member of the West India Regiment. He joined the Jamaica Defence Force when formed after the nation's 1962 independence when he was initially commanding officer of the 1st Battalion Jamaica Regiment. In 1973 he was promoted to colonel remaining in the army until retiring in 1989. While in the army, he was a semi-professional footballer for a Jamaica National Premier League club and also captained the Jamaica national football team. Barnes spent his early childhood living in Jamaica's biggest military base, playing football and living a disciplined life. His father was president of the Jamaica Amateur Swimming Association and later formed Jamaica's first bobsleigh team.

Barnes' father was a huge squash and football fan who encouraged his son to pursue sports, having named him after Welsh footballer John Charles. Ken Barnes, who was promoted to Colonel in 1973, was appointed Defence adviser to the High Commission of Jamaica, London (1976–1981) and Barnes moved to London with his family in January 1976 when he was 12 years old. He attended the rugby-playing St Marylebone Grammar School then a short stint at Haverstock School, Camden Town. While at school he played four years of youth football at the Stowe Boys Club in Paddington.

Club career

Watford
Barnes was noticed by Watford as a teenager while playing for Middlesex League club Sudbury Court. After a successful trial game in Watford's reserves, Barnes signed on 14 July 1981 for the fee of a set of kits.

Barnes debuted aged 17 as a substitute on 5 September 1981 in a Football League Second Division 1–1 home draw with Oldham Athletic. With manager Graham Taylor Watford were eight months away from completing a five-year rise from the Fourth Division to the First.

Barnes quickly established himself as a regular player and scored 12 Second Division goals as Watford were promoted, as runners-up to fierce rivals Luton Town to the top flight of English football at the end of season 1981–82. Watford finished runners-up for the League title to Liverpool the season after. Watford lost the 1984 FA Cup Final as under-dogs 2–0 to Everton. Watford lost a 1986–87 FA Cup semi-final to Tottenham Hotspur.

At the end of the 1986–87 season, Taylor called time on his 10-year spell as Watford manager to take charge at Aston Villa. His successor, Dave Bassett, resigned to losing Barnes to a bigger club, gave Alex Ferguson the chance to sign Barnes for Manchester United. Ferguson rejected the offer still having faith in United's left winger Jesper Olsen. Ferguson later admitted that he regretted not signing Barnes, especially as Barnes helped extend Liverpool's dominance in England by three seasons, while Olsen fell out of favour at Old Trafford and had left by the end of 1988, with his successors Ralph Milne and Danny Wallace failing to live up to expectations. Ferguson's United waited until 1990 to win a major trophy and 1993 to win the league title.

Barnes left Watford on 9 June 1987 to sign for Liverpool FC on June 12, 1987 after 233 league appearances scoring 65 goals.

Liverpool
Barnes arrived at Kenny Dalglish's Liverpool in the same close season as England teammate Peter Beardsley and linked up with new signings John Aldridge and Ray Houghton. John Barnes signed for Liverpool FC on June 12, 1987. He debuted for the Reds along with Beardsley on 15 August 1987 in the 2–1 league win at Arsenal at Highbury. After 9 minutes Barnes and Beardsley combined to set up Aldridge to score. Barnes' first Liverpool goal was on 12 September beating Oxford United 2–0 at Anfield.

In Barnes' first Liverpool season they won the League title, remaining undefeated for the first 29 games of the season. Barnes' 15 Liverpool league goals in his first season there was second only to John Aldridge. The 2 April 2–1 defeat at Nottingham Forest was the last of only two league defeats that season. 11 days later Barnes, Beardsley, Houghton and Aldridge were instrumental in Liverpool's 5–0 home win over Forest described by Tom Finney as "One of the finest exhibition I've seen the whole time I've played and watched the game. You couldn't see it bettered anywhere, not even in Brazil." The double however was thwarted by Lawrie Sanchez' Wimbledon goal beating Liverpool 1–0 in the 1988 FA Cup Final. Barnes was a key performer on the Anfield Rap; the club's cup final song that UK charted at number 3. Barnes was voted PFA Player of the Year.

In the summer of 1988 Ian Rush re-signed for Liverpool. Following the death of 96 Liverpool fans in April 1989 as a result of the Hillsborough disaster, Barnes attended several funerals and visited the injured in hospital. He pulled out of an England international friendly in order to fulfil these public duties. Liverpool won the 1989 FA Cup Final with a 3–2 victory over Merseyside rivals Everton, with Barnes creating goals from the left wing for Rush. In the 1988–89 title decider at Anfield, Arsenal's Michael Thomas' 92nd minute, league winning goal occurred in their counter-attack 17 seconds after Barnes lost ball possession attempting to dribble past Kevin Richardson.

Barnes played in the 1990 title winning side at Liverpool and scored 22 league goals from the left wing – the highest goal tally of his career. Ian Rush scored four fewer league goals than Barnes. Barnes was voted Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year, and expectations from England manager Bobby Robson were also high, seeing Barnes as a key component in the buildup to Italia 90. Teammate Peter Beardsley has since said Barnes at the end of the 1980s was "The best player I ever played with, bar none. For three or four years at the end of the '80s, John was possibly the best player in the world."

Barnes continued to play regularly for Liverpool and England into the 1990s. In 1990–91 he scored 16 league goals. Arsenal were league champions in the season of Kenny Dalglish's resignation and his replacement by Graeme Souness as manager. Liverpool had qualified for the 1991–92 UEFA Cup, being readmitted to European competitions a year after the ban on all other English clubs in European competitions since the Heysel disaster in 1985 had been lifted. This was the first time Barnes had played in European competitions since Watford's 1983–84 UEFA Cup campaign. However, Barnes missed most of the 1991–92 season due to a succession of injuries and played just 12 league games, scoring once, as Liverpool finished sixth in the league – their lowest finish in two decades and the first time since 1981 that they had failed to finish champions or runners-up. Liverpool won the 1992 FA Cup Final but Barnes missed the game through injury. The next month in June he was injured playing for England in Helsinki in a warm up game before Euro 92. Barnes was out injured for five months. He never recovered his explosive burst of speed that had been a key element of his play. He was now past his playing peak.

Barnes and several other senior players had frosty relationships with Souness during this period as the manager tried to impose new methods quickly. Many senior pros resented his hard discipline approach as well as the increased pressure in training. Barnes also once had to make a public apology to Souness after he gave an interview criticising the tactics employed by the manager before an important match. Young teammate Robbie Fowler also said in his autobiography that Souness felt at the time Barnes was past his best, but in Fowler's (and others') opinion he still had a lot to offer and was still one of the most talented players at the club.

Souness later stated in his autobiography that Barnes, due to his injuries, was now taking a "less demanding" central midfield playmaker's role as opposed to a goalscoring winger. Despite the effects of the injuries, Barnes was still regarded as one of the club and country's best players and Souness noted that Barnes "Retained his quality on the ball, using it well and rarely losing possession". Mark Walters who had played for Souness at Glasgow Rangers had been purchased as cover/competition for Barnes but failed to displace him.

After Liverpool's league title in 1990 Liverpool was usurped by Arsenal, Leeds United, Manchester United, and Blackburn Rovers each winning the league at least once. Under Evans, Barnes and younger players like Steve McManaman, Jamie Redknapp and Robbie Fowler (who had been given their debuts by either Dalglish or Souness) won the 1994–95 Football League Cup and were 1996 FA Cup Final runners-up due to Eric Cantona's Manchester United goal that gave United a second league and FA Cup double in three seasons. Liverpool's Spice Boys team drew stinging criticism for wearing matching cream Armani suits to the final.

By the mid-1990s, Barnes had been moved from the left wing to the position of a holding midfielder. He often captained the side in 1995–96 when regular captain Ian Rush lost his place to new signing Stan Collymore. When Rush departed to Leeds United at the season's end Barnes became full-time captain. Barnes created the final goal after a dribble and passing movement for Stan Collymore during Liverpool's 4–3 win against Newcastle at Anfield, which is often considered the greatest game in Premier League history.

Jamie Carragher debuted for the Liverpool first team in January 1997 and said that despite the 33-year-old Barnes now being past his peak, he was still the best player at the club. "Technically, he's the best player I've ever trained or played with, he was great with both feet, they were both exactly the same. I'd say he's the best finisher I've ever played with (including Torres, Fowler, Owen). Barnes never used to blast his shots – they'd just get placed right in the corner. You speak with the players from those great Liverpool sides and ask them who the best player they played with was and they all say John Barnes," Carragher commented.

On 13 August 1997 three months before his 34th birthday, after 10 years at Liverpool with 407 appearances, 108 goals, and five major trophies, Barnes left on a free transfer. He had missed just three Premier League games in his final season at Anfield, scoring four goals (including a memorable late winner against Southampton just after Christmas) as they had led the table for much of the first half of the season before being overhauled by eventual champions Manchester United at the end of January and having to settle for a fourth-place finish. Paul Ince, with a completely contrasting combative style, was signed from Inter Milan to replace Barnes in central midfield.

Newcastle United
Barnes was subsequently snapped up by former teammate and manager Kenny Dalglish, who was managing Newcastle United. Although an approach had already been made by Harry Redknapp of West Ham, Barnes had agreed in principle to join them, until at the final moment Dalglish called him, and Barnes changed his mind. In the 1997–98 season Barnes played up front mostly, deputising for Alan Shearer after Shearer was injured for most of the season, and Barnes ended up Newcastle's top league scorer with six goals, highlighting the Magpies' lack of ability to score in the absence of the injured Shearer, while Ferdinand and Beardsley had both been sold. Former Liverpool colleague Ian Rush and England colleague Stuart Pearce were also drafted in for the 1997–98 season. Pearce has since stated in his autobiography, Psycho, that he felt Barnes was overweight by the time he joined Newcastle and that both Barnes and Rush had less desire than himself to win at that stage in their careers as they had already won everything, and that they could have had more of an edge to them.

Newcastle (the previous season's Premier League runners-up) endured a disappointing league campaign and finished 13th, although they did reach the 1998 FA Cup Final, and Barnes went onto the field for the fourth FA Cup final of his career. However, Newcastle lost 2–0 to Arsenal, and following the sacking of Dalglish early in the 1998–99 season, he was left isolated and shunned along with a number of Kenny Dalglish and Kevin Keegan era players including Rob Lee and Stuart Pearce. Barnes with many others was dropped from the first team by new manager Ruud Gullit and spent several months in the reserves despite, in his opinion, "excelling in training" and showing he had lost none of his quality if some of his pace. He felt that himself and others were deliberately being cold shouldered to make it known Gullit wanted his own players in; Barnes had worked briefly with Gullit during the 1998 World Cup ITV commentary team, and they had played numerous international matches played against each other in the 1980s and 1990s, but they were not friends. Barnes knew it was the last straw when even his MBE from the Queen was overlooked by Gullit after a presentation had been given to Stuart Pearce for receiving one – this was in the winter of 1998 and he knew he was unwanted. Barnes left the club on a free transfer to newly promoted Charlton on 10 February 1999.

Charlton Athletic
Barnes made his debut for Charlton on 13 February 1999, coming on as a substitute in a 1–0 home win over Liverpool. He made a further 11 league appearances that season, mostly as a substitute, and did not score any goals. Defeat on the final day of the season relegated the Addicks back to Division One, and Barnes announced his retirement as a player after 20 years.

Celtic
During his short spell as Celtic manager, Barnes would later register as a player, although he did not make an appearance for the Scottish side.

Racism
During his playing career, Barnes (like other Black players of his era) was frequently the target of racial abuse from the terraces. At one of his first appearances at Anfield, Barnes said that the tea lady had, intentionally or unintentionally, served tea to all the players in the lounge except him, and he made a joke about it by asking light-heartedly, "Is it because I'm Black?" As well as being abused by opposition players, on occasions Barnes reported overhearing teammates making racist remarks towards other black players in opposition teams. One instance of racial abuse by a section of Everton supporters in the Merseyside derby at Anfield led to Everton chairman Philip Carter disowning the offending supporters, branding them "scum". The highest profile racial incident of his career was captured in a photograph where Barnes, in full Liverpool kit and mid-match, casually backheeled away a banana which had been hurled at him during a match with Everton at Goodison Park.

International career

Although born in Jamaica, Barnes had no intention of representing Jamaica at international level as the "Reggae Boyz had not yet made a significant mark on world football and he was eager to get to the game's biggest stage".

At the time of Barnes' international career, FIFA's national team eligibility criteria allowed British passport holders to represent one of the British football associations if they had no blood ties to the United Kingdom. Barnes had already planned to represent England where he had lived since the age of 12. Barnes said: "the only reason I played for England was because they were the first to ask...if Scotland had asked [first]...You go and play for Scotland."

Barnes debuted for Bobby Robson's England on 28 May 1983 as a second-half substitute for Watford teammate Luther Blissett in a 0–0 at Northern Ireland's Windsor Park in the British Championship. Blissett was the fifth and Barnes the seventh black full England football internationalists.

England failed to qualify for the 1984 European Championships, so instead toured South America. On 10 June 1984 Barnes v Brazil dribbled through several Brazilian defenders and rounded Roberto Costa to score in a friendly match at Rio de Janeiro's Estádio do Maracanã.

It was after the World Cup that Barnes became a British passport holder. Speaking in 2008, Barnes said "I don't even know if the English F.A. didn't know that I wasn't born there and wasn't brought up there...maybe I played (for England) illegally, right?"

In his early England days, he and fellow black player Mark Chamberlain were subjected to threats from racist groups. Barnes was abused by supporters of the National Front on the plane back from South America in June 1984; with the group claiming that England had only won 1–0 against Brazil because Barnes' goal "didn't count".

Bobby Robson did not use Barnes at the 1986 World Cup until the quarter-final with 15 minutes left when trailing 2–0 against Argentina. (BBC commentator Barry Davies shouted: "Go on! Run at them!" when Barnes was given the ball), setting up a goal for Gary Lineker and laying on another chance denied by the head of Lineker's Argentine marker. England were eliminated with Barnes praised for his contribution and many asked why he had not played more nor in previous games. He then became a regular starter for England at both the 1988 European Championships and 1990 World Cup.

As part of a front four with Gary Lineker, Peter Beardsley, and Chris Waddle, England lost all three of their group games at the 1988 European Championships. However, Robson stayed in his job.

Barnes pulled out of England's first international game after the Hillsborough disaster due to grief he felt at the time. In his absence, England won the World Cup qualifier against Albania 5–0 at Wembley on 26 April 1989.

In the Football World Cup 1990 lead up, Barnes played several times as a forward alongside Gary Lineker, and in a warm up game against Uruguay played well and scored a half volley from a Stuart Pearce cross. Barnes again rapped this time in New Order's UK Number 1, "World in Motion", tie-in song.

At the 1990 World Cup he injured his groin against Belgium shortly after his volleyed goal was wrongly disallowed for offside. England went out to West Germany on penalties in the semi-final.

In June 1992 v Finland in Helsinki in England's last warm up game before the 1992 European Championships, he tore his achilles tendon. He was injured for five months. In his absence England were eliminated at the group phase. On his return he had lost his explosive burst of speed and was now past his peak.

In a Wembley 1994 World Cup qualifier against San Marino, Barnes was booed by an entire section of England fans after the whole team played poorly. Barnes later believed an article attributed to Jimmy Greaves in the Daily Mirror, which cited his supposed support for the West Indies cricket team and questioned his loyalty to the England team, had influenced the crowd to boo.

He earned a surprise England recall in 1994 under Terry Venables and was in the squad in the run up to Euro '96 after improved form for Liverpool, although he was not selected for the final tournament squad despite England not having an established left-sided alternative.

Barnes' 79 caps (11 goals) made him England's record capped black player for a time. Compared to his club form, he was never seen as a player who peaked wearing an England shirt. Bobby Robson described him as the "Greatest enigma" of his career; whilst including him for his all time dream team England squad of all the players he had picked as manager in his 1990 book "Against All Odds" (placing him on the bench), he was baffled at Barnes's inconsistency. He described Barnes as being a player of "the highest calibre" but sometimes being unable to reach for that bit extra when he or Captain Bryan Robson shouted at him to take more players on.

Barnes has since said he felt the systems England played were "rigid" focusing on speed, aggression, and attacking through the centre rather than patient, passing play. He also said he could receive the ball as few as six or seven times in a game whereas at Liverpool he may receive it more than twenty times, and he had more freedom under Kenny Dalglish who did not ask him to stay on the left wing all the time. England also had a very different system to Liverpool at the time, who were much more free-flowing, and later said that to have got the best out of him, they would have needed a similar system to the one used by Dalglish, which was never likely to happen. He also cited Glenn Hoddle and Chris Waddle as players he felt England were unable to get the best out of.

Newspapers at the time of his England career even queried whether his disciplinarian upbringing in Jamaica to a military family and rumoured beatings as a child from his parents had contributed to his underperformance as an England footballer.

After 12 years Barnes won his 79th and last cap on 6 September 1995 in a 0–0 friendly draw with Colombia at Wembley that contained extrovert Colombian goalkeeper René Higuita's 'Scorpion Kick.' Barnes was in the top ten most capped players list for eleven years until David Beckham and then Gary Neville edged him from ninth to 11th.

In 1999, Tony Adams picked Barnes to be in his England dream team in his book Addicted, citing that Barnes "could pass, move, dribble, had Brazilian style movement... what more could you want?" He also backed Barnes's view that England at times used rigid systems.

Managerial career

Celtic
In a "dream ticket" style move, Barnes was appointed head coach of Celtic on 8 June 1999 working under Kenny Dalglish as director of football. After his appointment he later re-registered himself as a player but never played a competitive game for Celtic. He was sacked 8 months into his tenure following a home 3–1 1999–2000 Scottish Cup defeat by lower division Inverness Caledonian Thistle in February. The result led to the newspaper headline, "Super Caley go ballistic, Celtic are atrocious". Kenny Dalglish took over first-team duties until the end of the season. Although Dalglish won the League Cup in the process, his contract was not renewed and the board decided to replace him with Martin O'Neill.

Jamaica
Barnes entered discussions with the Jamaica Football Federation in September 2008 regarding the possibility of him managing the Jamaica national team. On 16 September 2008, Barnes was appointed as manager of Jamaica announcing Mike Commane as his assistant. Barnes guided his new Jamaican charges to a first-place finish in the 2008 Caribbean Championships, qualifying as the top Caribbean side for the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup.

In February 2009, Barnes told Sky Sports that he wanted to return to club management if the opportunity arose. It was reported in May 2009 that Barnes contacted English League Two side Port Vale to see whether he could replace out-going manager Dean Glover. Ultimately, though, the potential move to Port Vale did not happen. Instead, on 14 June 2009 he confirmed that he was to be appointed manager of League One side Tranmere Rovers.

Tranmere Rovers
Barnes was officially named as manager of Tranmere Rovers on 15 June 2009, with Jason McAteer assisting him. He got off to a disastrous start, with Tranmere only winning three of their first fourteen games. On 9 October 2009, Barnes was sacked by the club six days after a 5–0 defeat at Millwall and a run of just two wins from eleven league games.

Accolades
Former England international Tom Finney remarked that "players like John Barnes come along just once in a lifetime." Twice in his career, Barnes was voted Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year. He also won the PFA Players' Player of the Year. Although he is widely regarded as among the most underperforming players, when compared to his club form, to wear an England shirt, Barnes was voted England's "greatest left foot" by readers of The Times in 2016, ahead of Chris Waddle and Jimmy Greaves. Barnes was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2005 in recognition of his contribution to the English game.

The Liverpool fans' adoration for "Digger" (he was nicknamed after the character Digger Barnes in the American soap opera Dallas) was emphasised when he finished in the top 5 of the poll 100 Players Who Shook The Kop which was conducted by the official Liverpool Football Club web site in the summer of 2006. More than 110,000 supporters worldwide voted for their 10 favourite players of all time, Barnes finished 5th behind Robbie Fowler (4th), Ian Rush (3rd), Steven Gerrard (2nd) and the man that signed him three times (for Liverpool, Newcastle and Celtic) Kenny Dalglish (1st).

He also appears frequently as a selection in FourFourTwo magazine's Perfect XI, a choice in which current and former professional footballers select the best 11 players they have ever seen, played with or against, including selections by Michael Owen, Steve McManaman, Peter Beardsley, Ian Wright and Jamie Carragher.

Music career

He performed the Keith Allen-penned rap section of New Order's "World in Motion" as well as appearing on the track "Anfield Rap", a Liverpool FC FA Cup Final song, rapping the lyrics "Liverpool FC is hard as hell/ United, Tottenham, Arsenal", and performing lead rap in Liverpool's '96 cup final song "Pass & Move (It's the Liverpool Groove)".

"World in Motion" reached #1 in the charts and spent 18 weeks in the UK top 75 (including re-releases in 2002 and 2010) although Barnes was only paid a flat rate of £200 and received no royalties. "Anfield Rap" reached #3 and spent 6 weeks in the top 75, and "Pass & Move" reached #4 and spent 4 weeks in the top 75.

The rap portion of "World in Motion" is the most remembered part of the original song, becoming an iconic piece of English football culture in its own right, familiar to subsequent generations of England football fans not yet born by 1990.

Personal life

Barnes was first married to and subsequently divorced Suzy, with whom he has two sons and two daughters. Barnes' second wife is called Andrea and they have two daughters and a son.

With fellow former footballers Les Ferdinand and Luther Blissett, he founded Team48 Motorsport, a team aiming to promote young racing drivers of African-Caribbean background. In 2008, the team entered the British Touring Car Championship, running Alfa Romeos for white Jamaican Matthew Gore and 18-year-old black Briton Darelle Wilson. However, the project never got off the starting line and the team failed to show up for any of the races.

A few days after being sacked by Tranmere, Barnes was declared bankrupt. He has described the bankruptcy as a technicality, saying: "The bankruptcy issue is a tax oversight which is being dealt with." Barnes' claims of the bankruptcy being a "tax oversight" proved true and the order was quickly overturned.

Media, charity work and politics
As a sporting icon in England in the early 1990s Barnes appeared in a commercial for the energy drink Lucozade, launching their Lucozade Sport drink. Barnes became a pundit on ITV and a presenter of the football coverage on Five as well as having his own weekly football discussion show on LFC TV called The John Barnes Show, every Thursday. He also worked as an ambassador for Save the Children. Barnes has appeared on several shows and media outlets to promote his charity work, including a notable appearance on Soccer AM in February 2009 performing the "World in Motion" rap and a parody of the mistimed advert by ITV in the previous week's Everton vs. Liverpool FA Cup tie, with Barnes' "Under-11 World Champion Baton-twirling" routine missed by mock commercials. In 2001, Barnes appeared on Lily Savage's Blankety Blank.

In 2000, Barnes presented a one off soccer special with Lisa Rogers entitled The Pepsi World Challenge, devised and produced by Nathan Carey and airing on Channel 5 in the UK. The show was edited with local presenters around the world.

He was the subject of a This is Your Life programme in 2001, when he was surprised by Michael Aspel.

Barnes competed in the fifth series of Strictly Come Dancing which started in October 2007. His dance partner was Nicole Cutler. They finished in seventh place. He was also the first male celebrity to receive a ten from the judges, which he got for his salsa.

After an absence of nearly eight years, Barnes returned to football in late 2007. He agreed to run several coaching clinics across the Caribbean for young players with the possibility of them joining Premier League side Sunderland on trial.

He made a guest appearance as himself in episode 10 of Series 6 of Waterloo Road that was aired on BBC One on Wednesday, 27 October 2010.

He has been used as a pundit in ESPN's coverage of the FA Cup 2010, and in SuperSport's coverage of the UEFA Champions League 2010–2011, in South Africa.

He appeared on Russell Howard's Good News best bits show on Thursday, 15 December 2011, as his Mystery Guest. In the show he was dressed as Santa Claus and along with Russell Howard he performed his famous rap from New Order's "World in Motion".

On 17 October 2012, Barnes featured in series 9, episode 9 of the BBC series Who Do You Think You Are?.

Barnes has suggested the American National Football League's Rooney Rule, which requires teams to interview minority candidates for coaching positions, should be adopted by the Premier League.

In 2016 in the run-up to the 2016 EU referendum, Barnes refuted Michael Gove's claim that he wished the United Kingdom to leave the European Union, clarifying that he supports continued UK membership of the EU.

In January 2018, Barnes participated as a housemate on the twenty-first series of Celebrity Big Brother.

On 21 February 2019, Barnes was a guest on Question Time, commenting on racism and discrimination in society.

Career statistics

Club

International
Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Barnes goal.Managerial statisticsAs of 6 September 2009''

Honours

Player
Liverpool
 Football League First Division: 1987–88, 1989–90
 FA Cup: 1988–89, 1991–92
 League Cup: 1994–95
 FA Charity Shield: 1988, 1989, 1990

Manager
Jamaica
 Caribbean Cup: 2008

Individual
 PFA Players' Player of the Year: 1988
 FWA Footballer of the Year: 1988, 1990
 PFA First Division Team of the Year: 1987–88, 1989–90, 1990–91
 PFA Team of the Century (1977–1996): 2007
 Member of the Order of the British Empire: 1998
 Inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame: 2005

See also

 List of England international footballers born outside England

References

External links

 Player profile at LFChistory.net

 John Barnes index at Sporting-heroes.net

1963 births
Living people
Footballers from Kingston, Jamaica
English association football commentators
Men's association football wingers
Charlton Athletic F.C. players
England men's international footballers
England men's under-21 international footballers
English men's footballers
1986 FIFA World Cup players
1990 FIFA World Cup players
Jamaican people of Trinidad and Tobago descent
Sportspeople of Trinidad and Tobago descent
English sportspeople of Trinidad and Tobago descent
English sportspeople of Jamaican descent
Liverpool F.C. players
Liverpool F.C. non-playing staff
Black British male rappers
United Kingdom
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Newcastle United F.C. players
Premier League players
UEFA Euro 1988 players
Watford F.C. players
English Football League players
English football managers
Jamaica national football team managers
Expatriate football managers in Jamaica
Celtic F.C. managers
English Football Hall of Fame inductees
Black British sportsmen
Jamaican emigrants to the United Kingdom
Scottish Premier League managers
Footballers from the City of Westminster
People from Mayfair
Sportspeople from the City of Westminster
English autobiographers

John Barnes


Fly ist eine US-amerikanische Jazzband, die aus Mark Turner (Saxophone), Larry Grenadier (Kontrabass) und Jeff Ballard (Schlagzeug) besteht.

Die Musiker gründeten das pianolose Trio, nachdem sie zuvor in Chick Coreas Bandprojekt Originations zusammengearbeitet hatten; Ballard und Grenadier hatten bereits als Jugendliche in Kalifornien miteinander gespielt. 2003 entstand bei Savoy Records das Debütalbum Fly, das im Folgejahr veröffentlicht wurde. Im Januar 2008 nahm das Trio in New York das zweite Album Sky & Country auf, das bei ECM erschien. 2010 trat das Trio, das sich als "demokratisches Kollektiv" versteht, bei dem jedes Mitglied Stücke zum Repertoire beisteuert und keiner als Bandleader agiert, auf Jazz Baltica und auf dem Newport Jazz Festival auf. 2012 folgte das Album Year of the Snake. Stilistisch orientiert sich das Trio Allmusic zufolge an Aufnahmen von John Coltrane und Wayne Shorter auf dem Blue Note-Label.

Diskographie
 Fly (Savoy, 2003)
 Sky & Country (ECM, 2008)
 Year Of The Snake (ECM, 2011)

Weblinks
 Biografie bei All About Jazz

Einzelnachweise

Jazzband
US-amerikanische Band

Fly (Jazzband)


طاقة الفراغ  هي طاقة الخلفية الموجودة في الفضاء حتى مع خلوه من المادة (تسمى الفضاء الخالي). تم اشتقاق مصطلح طاقة الفراغ من الجسيمات الافتراضية والتي أشتقت بدورها من مبدأ الريبة. يمكن الاستدلال على تأثيراتها من ظواهر مختلفة مثل تأثير كازيمير ، الاشعاع التلقائي وإزاحة لامب كما يعتقد أن لها دور في سلوك المقاييس الكونية.

تتنبأ النظرية النسبية بتكافؤ كل من الكتلة والطاقة وعليه إذا صحت طاقة الفراغ فيجب أن تبذل قوة جاذبية.

مراجع

انظر أيضًا
 تأثير كازيمير
 طاقة الصفر
 الطاقة المظلمة
 الثابت الكوني

الطاقة في الفيزياء
طاقة مظلمة
فراغ
نظرية الحقل الكمومي

طاقة الفراغ