Eleição para a Convenção Constitucional Chilena é uma eleição para os membros do Conselho Constitucional que foi realizada em 7 de maio de 2023. O voto era obrigatório. Os partidos de direita chilenos obtiveram uma maioria de 3/5 dos membros do conselho constitucional para redigir livremente uma nova constituição e remover a opção de veto para o campo de esquerda. Isso marcou uma mudança acentuada de uma maioria de esquerda que redigiu livremente uma primeira reescrita constitucional rejeitada em 2021.

A eleição ocorreu em resposta à rejeição de uma proposta de projeto constitucional em referendo nacional realizado em setembro de 2022. Após a derrota do projeto, foi alcançado um acordo multipartidário para reiniciar o processo, que posteriormente foi ratificado pelo Congresso por meio de uma emenda constitucional. O novo Conselho Constitucional seguirá o modelo do Senado e será composto por 50 membros eleitos pelas regiões. Além disso, o conselho terá um número igual de homens e mulheres.

Contexto
Em 4 de setembro de 2022, foi realizado um plebiscito nacional conhecido como "plebiscito de saída" para determinar se os eleitores concordavam com a nova Constituição Política da República elaborada pela Convenção Constitucional. A proposta de constituição, que enfrentou "intensas críticas de que era muito longa, muito esquerdista e muito radical", foi rejeitada por uma margem de 62% a 38%. Foi considerada uma das constituições mais progressistas do mundo, mas muitos eleitores a consideraram muito polarizadora e as controvérsias atolaram o processo. Portanto, a atual Constituição de 1980 continuou em vigor.

Acordo para o Chile
Os legisladores anunciaram o Acordo para o Chile em dezembro de 2022, como uma segunda tentativa de redigir uma nova constituição com regras diferentes. O acordo estabelece que um grupo de 50 assessores constitucionais eleitos diretamente redigirá a constituição com base em um anteprojeto preparado por uma comissão de 24 especialistas nomeados pelo Congresso. Além disso, um órgão de 14 membros nomeado pelo Congresso garantirá que o texto proposto esteja alinhado com os 12 princípios institucionais e fundamentais descritos no acordo.

O acordo foi alcançado em 12 de dezembro de 2022, e ratificado pelo Congresso um mês depois, com o Partido Republicano e o Partido do Povo não participando do acordo, embora concordando em participar das eleições.

Os membros do conselho serão eleitos diretamente em maio, com representação paritária de homens e mulheres e a participação dos povos indígenas. Será necessária uma maioria de três quintos de votos no Conselho para aprovar artigos, o que é inferior à maioria de dois terços exigida na convenção anterior. Ao contrário da convenção anterior, não será fixado o número de assentos reservados aos representantes indígenas; ao contrário, dependerá do número de votos que receberem. A comissão trabalhará no primeiro projeto de 6 de março a 6 de junho, e o Conselho Constitucional iniciará seus trabalhos trinta dias após sua eleição em 6 de junho de 2023. O conselho deve entregar o projeto de constituição até 6 de novembro, e um referendo obrigatório será realizado em 17 de dezembro de 2023.

Partidos e coligações em disputa

Resultados
Os partidos de direita chilenos obtiveram uma maioria de 3/5 dos membros do conselho constitucional para redigir livremente uma nova constituição e remover a opção de veto para o campo de esquerda. Isso marcou uma mudança acentuada de uma maioria de esquerda que redigiu livremente uma primeira reescrita constitucional rejeitada em 2021.

O Partido Republicano tornou-se a principal força política com 34% dos votos e 22 membros, dando ao partido o direito de veto nas emendas. A coalizão de esquerda do presidente Boric conquistou cerca de 27% e 17 assentos, enquanto uma coalizão separada de partidos tradicionais de direita obteve mais de 20% dos votos e 11 assentos. Os partidos de centro levaram o restante da votação, mas não conseguiram obter assentos.

Luis Silva, o candidato mais votado do Partido Republicano, disse a Newman que eles nunca quiseram substituir a constituição da era da ditadura. "É o nosso ponto de partida. Esse processo nos permite introduzir novos aspectos que acreditamos que nossa constituição merece." O líder do partido Kast, que perdeu para o presidente Boric em 2021, fez um discurso de vitória em Santiago; "Hoje é o primeiro dia de um futuro melhor, um novo começo para o Chile. O Chile derrotou um governo falido". O presidente Boric concedeu, acrescentando que o governo atuaria como fiador e apoiaria os pedidos do novo conselho; "o governo não se intrometerá no processo e respeitará a autonomia da entidade em suas deliberações."

Eleições no Chile
Chile
2023 no Chile
Eleições em 2023

Eleição para Convenção Constitucional Chilena de 2023


An Anthurium in uska genus han Liliopsida. An Anthurium in nahilalakip ha familia nga Araceae.

Ilarom nga taxa

 Anthurium abelaezii
 Anthurium acanthospadix
 Anthurium acaule
 Anthurium acebeyae
 Anthurium achupallense
 Anthurium acutangulum
 Anthurium acutibacca
 Anthurium acutifolium
 Anthurium acutissimum
 Anthurium acutum
 Anthurium aduncum
 Anthurium affine
 Anthurium agnatum
 Anthurium alatipedunculatum
 Anthurium alatum
 Anthurium albertiae
 Anthurium albidum
 Anthurium albispatha
 Anthurium albobueyense
 Anthurium albovirescens
 Anthurium alcatrazense
 Anthurium alegriasense
 Anthurium algentryi
 Anthurium alluriquinense
 Anthurium alstonii
 Anthurium alticola
 Anthurium amargalense
 Anthurium ameliae
 Anthurium amnicola
 Anthurium amoenum
 Anthurium anceps
 Anthurium anchicayense
 Anthurium ancuashii
 Anthurium andicola
 Anthurium andinum
 Anthurium andraeanum
 Anthurium andreslovinense
 Anthurium angelopolinense
 Anthurium angosturense
 Anthurium angustatum
 Anthurium angustilaminatum
 Anthurium angustilobum
 Anthurium angustisectum
 Anthurium angustispadix
 Anthurium anorianum
 Anthurium antioquiense
 Anthurium antonioanum
 Anthurium antrophyoides
 Anthurium apanui
 Anthurium apaporanum
 Anthurium arenasense
 Anthurium argyrostachyum
 Anthurium aripoense
 Anthurium arisaemoides
 Anthurium aristatum
 Anthurium armeniense
 Anthurium aroense
 Anthurium arusiense
 Anthurium asplundii
 Anthurium atamainii
 Anthurium atramentarium
 Anthurium atropurpureum
 Anthurium atroviride
 Anthurium aureum
 Anthurium auritum
 Anthurium austin-smithii
 Anthurium baguense
 Anthurium bakeri
 Anthurium balaoanum
 Anthurium balslevii
 Anthurium barbacoasense
 Anthurium barclayanum
 Anthurium barreranum
 Anthurium barrieri
 Anthurium barryi
 Anthurium basirotundum
 Anthurium bayae
 Anthurium beckii
 Anthurium bellum
 Anthurium beltianum
 Anthurium bernardii
 Anthurium berriozabalense
 Anthurium berryi
 Anthurium besseae
 Anthurium betanianum
 Anthurium bimarginatum
 Anthurium binotii
 Anthurium birdseyanum
 Anthurium bittneri
 Anthurium bocainense
 Anthurium bogneri
 Anthurium bogotense
 Anthurium bonplandii
 Anthurium boudetii
 Anthurium brachypodum
 Anthurium bradeanum
 Anthurium bragae
 Anthurium bredemeyeri
 Anthurium brenesii
 Anthurium brent-berlinii
 Anthurium brevipedunculatum
 Anthurium brevipes
 Anthurium breviscapum
 Anthurium brevispadix
 Anthurium brittonianum
 Anthurium bromelicola
 Anthurium brownii
 Anthurium bucayanum
 Anthurium buchtienii
 Anthurium buganum
 Anthurium bullianum
 Anthurium bullosum
 Anthurium burgeri
 Anthurium bushii
 Anthurium cabrerense
 Anthurium cabuyalense
 Anthurium cachabianum
 Anthurium cainarachense
 Anthurium calimense
 Anthurium callejasii
 Anthurium caloveboranum
 Anthurium campii
 Anthurium camposii
 Anthurium canaliculatum
 Anthurium candolleanum
 Anthurium caperatum
 Anthurium caraboboense
 Anthurium caramantae
 Anthurium carchiense
 Anthurium cardenasii
 Anthurium carinatum
 Anthurium caripense
 Anthurium carneospadix
 Anthurium carnosum
 Anthurium carpishense
 Anthurium cartiense
 Anthurium cartilagineum
 Anthurium cataniapoense
 Anthurium caucanum
 Anthurium caucavallense
 Anthurium caulorrhizum
 Anthurium ceratiinum
 Anthurium ceronii
 Anthurium cerrateae
 Anthurium cerrobaulense
 Anthurium cerrocampanense
 Anthurium cerropelonense
 Anthurium cerropirrense
 Anthurium chacoense
 Anthurium chamberlainii
 Anthurium chamulense
 Anthurium chiapasense
 Anthurium chimborazense
 Anthurium chinchipense
 Anthurium chinimense
 Anthurium chiriquense
 Anthurium chocoense
 Anthurium chorense
 Anthurium chorranum
 Anthurium chrysolithos
 Anthurium churutense
 Anthurium cinereopetiolatum
 Anthurium circinatum
 Anthurium cirinoi
 Anthurium citrifolium
 Anthurium clarinervium
 Anthurium clarkei
 Anthurium clathratum
 Anthurium clavatum
 Anthurium clavigerum
 Anthurium cleistanthum
 Anthurium clidemioides
 Anthurium coclense
 Anthurium cocornaense
 Anthurium coerulescens
 Anthurium cogolloanum
 Anthurium coleomischum
 Anthurium coleorrhiza
 Anthurium collettianum
 Anthurium collinsii
 Anthurium colonchense
 Anthurium colonense
 Anthurium colonicum
 Anthurium coloradense
 Anthurium comtum
 Anthurium concinnatum
 Anthurium concolor
 Anthurium conjunctum
 Anthurium consimile
 Anthurium consobrinum
 Anthurium conspicuum
 Anthurium constrictum
 Anthurium conterminum
 Anthurium corallinum
 Anthurium cordatotriangulum
 Anthurium cordatum
 Anthurium cordifolium
 Anthurium cordiforme
 Anthurium cordobense
 Anthurium cordulatum
 Anthurium coriaceum
 Anthurium coripatense
 Anthurium correae
 Anthurium corrugatum
 Anthurium cotejense
 Anthurium cotobrusii
 Anthurium cowanii
 Anthurium crassifolium
 Anthurium crassilaminum
 Anthurium crassinervium
 Anthurium crassiradix
 Anthurium crassitepalum
 Anthurium crassivenium
 Anthurium cremersii
 Anthurium crenatum
 Anthurium croatii
 Anthurium crystallinum
 Anthurium cuasicanum
 Anthurium cubense
 Anthurium cucullispathum
 Anthurium cultrifolium
 Anthurium cupreonitens
 Anthurium cupreum
 Anthurium cupulispathum
 Anthurium curicuriariense
 Anthurium curtispadix
 Anthurium curvilaminum
 Anthurium curvispadix
 Anthurium cuspidatum
 Anthurium cuspidiferum
 Anthurium cutucuense
 Anthurium cuyabenoense
 Anthurium cylindratum
 Anthurium cymbiforme
 Anthurium cymbispatha
 Anthurium daguense
 Anthurium darcyi
 Anthurium davidsei
 Anthurium davidsoniae
 Anthurium debilipeltatum
 Anthurium debilis
 Anthurium decurrens
 Anthurium deflexum
 Anthurium delannayi
 Anthurium dendrobates
 Anthurium denudatum
 Anthurium diazii
 Anthurium digitatum
 Anthurium dolichocnemum
 Anthurium dolichophyllum
 Anthurium dolichostachyum
 Anthurium dombeyanum
 Anthurium dominicense
 Anthurium dorbayae
 Anthurium draconopterum
 Anthurium dressleri
 Anthurium dukei
 Anthurium durandii
 Anthurium dussii
 Anthurium dwyeri
 Anthurium dylanii
 Anthurium ecuadorense
 Anthurium effusilobum
 Anthurium effusispathum
 Anthurium eggersii
 Anthurium eichleri
 Anthurium emarginatum
 Anthurium eminens
 Anthurium ensifolium
 Anthurium ericae
 Anthurium ernestii
 Anthurium erskinei
 Anthurium erythrostachyum
 Anthurium esmeraldense
 Anthurium espinae
 Anthurium eximium
 Anthurium expansum
 Anthurium exstipulatum
 Anthurium fasciale
 Anthurium fatoense
 Anthurium faustomirandae
 Anthurium fendleri
 Anthurium fernandezii
 Anthurium filiforme
 Anthurium flavescens
 Anthurium flavidum
 Anthurium flavolineatum
 Anthurium flavoviride
 Anthurium flexile
 Anthurium folsomianum
 Anthurium fontellanum
 Anthurium fontoides
 Anthurium foreroanum
 Anthurium forgetii
 Anthurium formosum
 Anthurium fornicifolium
 Anthurium fortunatum
 Anthurium fosteri
 Anthurium fragae
 Anthurium fragrans
 Anthurium fragrantissimum
 Anthurium fraseri
 Anthurium friedrichsthalii
 Anthurium funiferum
 Anthurium furcatum
 Anthurium fuscopunctatum
 Anthurium fusiforme
 Anthurium gaffurii
 Anthurium galactospadix
 Anthurium galeanoae
 Anthurium galeottii
 Anthurium galileanum
 Anthurium gaskinii
 Anthurium gaudichaudianum
 Anthurium gehrigeri
 Anthurium geitnerianum
 Anthurium geniculatum
 Anthurium gentryi
 Anthurium giganteum
 Anthurium ginesii
 Anthurium giraldoi
 Anthurium gladiifolium
 Anthurium glanduligerum
 Anthurium glaucophyllum
 Anthurium glaucospadix
 Anthurium globosum
 Anthurium gomesianum
 Anthurium gonzalezii
 Anthurium gracile
 Anthurium gracililaminum
 Anthurium gracilipedunculatum
 Anthurium gracilispadix
 Anthurium grande
 Anthurium grandicataphyllum
 Anthurium grandifolium
 Anthurium grex-avium
 Anthurium gualeanum
 Anthurium guanacense
 Anthurium guanchezii
 Anthurium guatemalense
 Anthurium guayaquilense
 Anthurium gustavii
 Anthurium gymnopus
 Anthurium hacumense
 Anthurium hagsaterianum
 Anthurium halmoorei
 Anthurium hamiltonii
 Anthurium hammelii
 Anthurium harrisii
 Anthurium hastifolium
 Anthurium hebetatilaminum
 Anthurium hebetatum
 Anthurium herthae
 Anthurium hieronymi
 Anthurium hinoideum
 Anthurium hodgei
 Anthurium hoehnei
 Anthurium hoffmannii
 Anthurium holm-nielsenii
 Anthurium holquinianum
 Anthurium hookeri
 Anthurium hornitense
 Anthurium huacamayoense
 Anthurium huallagense
 Anthurium huampamiense
 Anthurium huanucense
 Anthurium huashikatii
 Anthurium huautlense
 Anthurium huberi
 Anthurium huixtlense
 Anthurium humboldtianum
 Anthurium humoense
 Anthurium hutchisonii
 Anthurium hygrophilum
 Anthurium ianthinopodum
 Anthurium icanense
 Anthurium idmense
 Anthurium illepidum
 Anthurium iltisii
 Anthurium imperiale
 Anthurium impolitum
 Anthurium incomptum
 Anthurium inconspicuum
 Anthurium incurvatum
 Anthurium incurvum
 Anthurium infectorium
 Anthurium intermedium
 Anthurium interruptum
 Anthurium inzanum
 Anthurium ionanthum
 Anthurium iramireziae
 Anthurium isidroense
 Anthurium jaramilloi
 Anthurium jefense
 Anthurium jenmanii
 Anthurium jesusii
 Anthurium jilekii
 Anthurium jimenae
 Anthurium joaquinense
 Anthurium johnmackii
 Anthurium johnsoniae
 Anthurium josei
 Anthurium julianii
 Anthurium julospadix
 Anthurium jureianum
 Anthurium kallunkiae
 Anthurium kamemotoanum
 Anthurium karstenianum
 Anthurium kastelskii
 Anthurium kayapii
 Anthurium knappiae
 Anthurium krukovii
 Anthurium kugkumasii
 Anthurium kunayalense
 Anthurium kunthii
 Anthurium kusuense
 Anthurium lacerdae
 Anthurium laciniosum
 Anthurium lactifructum
 Anthurium lancea
 Anthurium lancetillense
 Anthurium lancifolium
 Anthurium langendoenii
 Anthurium langsdorffii
 Anthurium lanjouwii
 Anthurium latemarginatum
 Anthurium latissimum
 Anthurium laucheanum
 Anthurium lautum
 Anthurium lechlerianum
 Anthurium lehmannii
 Anthurium lennartii
 Anthurium lentii
 Anthurium leonianum
 Anthurium leonii
 Anthurium leptocaule
 Anthurium leuconeurum
 Anthurium leveaui
 Anthurium lezamae
 Anthurium lhotzkyanum
 Anthurium libanoense
 Anthurium licium
 Anthurium lievenii
 Anthurium ligulare
 Anthurium lilacinum
 Anthurium limonense
 Anthurium lindenianum
 Anthurium lindmanianum
 Anthurium lineolatum
 Anthurium linganii
 Anthurium lingua
 Anthurium linguifolium
 Anthurium llanense
 Anthurium llewellynii
 Anthurium lloense
 Anthurium loefgrenii
 Anthurium lojtnantii
 Anthurium longicaudatum
 Anthurium longicuspidatum
 Anthurium longifolium
 Anthurium longigeniculatum
 Anthurium longipeltatum
 Anthurium longipes
 Anthurium longispadiceum
 Anthurium longissimilobum
 Anthurium longissimum
 Anthurium longistamineum
 Anthurium longistipitatum
 Anthurium longiusculum
 Anthurium loretense
 Anthurium louisii
 Anthurium lucens
 Anthurium lucidum
 Anthurium lucioi
 Anthurium lucorum
 Anthurium luschnathianum
 Anthurium lutescens
 Anthurium luteynii
 Anthurium luxurians
 Anthurium lygrum
 Anthurium maasii
 Anthurium macarenense
 Anthurium macbridei
 Anthurium macdanielii
 Anthurium machetioides
 Anthurium macleanii
 Anthurium macphersonii
 Anthurium macrocephalum
 Anthurium macrolonchium
 Anthurium macrophyllum
 Anthurium macrospadix
 Anthurium macrourum
 Anthurium maculosum
 Anthurium madisonianum
 Anthurium magdae
 Anthurium magnificum
 Anthurium magnifolium
 Anthurium maguirei
 Anthurium malagaense
 Anthurium malianum
 Anthurium manabianum
 Anthurium mancuniense
 Anthurium manuanum
 Anthurium marense
 Anthurium margaricarpum
 Anthurium marginellum
 Anthurium mariae
 Anthurium maricense
 Anthurium marinoanum
 Anthurium marmoratum
 Anthurium martianum
 Anthurium masfense
 Anthurium maximilianii
 Anthurium maximum
 Anthurium megapetiolatum
 Anthurium melastomatis
 Anthurium membranaceum
 Anthurium merlei
 Anthurium metallicum
 Anthurium miaziense
 Anthurium michelii
 Anthurium microphyllum
 Anthurium microspadix
 Anthurium minarum
 Anthurium mindense
 Anthurium miniatum
 Anthurium modicum
 Anthurium molle
 Anthurium montanum
 Anthurium monteverdense
 Anthurium monticola
 Anthurium monzonense
 Anthurium moonenii
 Anthurium morae
 Anthurium moronense
 Anthurium mostaceroi
 Anthurium mourae
 Anthurium multinervium
 Anthurium multisulcatum
 Anthurium munchiquense
 Anthurium myosuroides
 Anthurium myosurus
 Anthurium nakamurae
 Anthurium nangaritense
 Anthurium nanum
 Anthurium napaeum
 Anthurium narinoense
 Anthurium navasii
 Anthurium naviculare
 Anthurium nelsonii
 Anthurium nemorale
 Anthurium nemoricola
 Anthurium nervatum
 Anthurium nicolasianum
 Anthurium nigrescens
 Anthurium nigropunctatum
 Anthurium niqueanum
 Anthurium nitens
 Anthurium nitidulum
 Anthurium nitidum
 Anthurium nizandense
 Anthurium novitaense
 Anthurium nubicola
 Anthurium nutibarense
 Anthurium nymphaeifolium
 Anthurium obliquatum
 Anthurium oblongocordatum
 Anthurium obpyriforme
 Anthurium obscurinervium
 Anthurium obtusatum
 Anthurium obtusifolium
 Anthurium obtusilobum
 Anthurium obtusum
 Anthurium occidentale
 Anthurium ochranthum
 Anthurium ochreatum
 Anthurium ocotepecense
 Anthurium oerstedianum
 Anthurium oreodoxum
 Anthurium oreophilum
 Anthurium organense
 Anthurium orientale
 Anthurium orteganum
 Anthurium ottobuchtienii
 Anthurium ottonis
 Anthurium ovatifolium
 Anthurium oxyanthum
 Anthurium oxybelium
 Anthurium oxycarpum
 Anthurium oxyphyllum
 Anthurium oxystachyum
 Anthurium pachylaminum
 Anthurium pachyspathum
 Anthurium pageanum
 Anthurium palacioanum
 Anthurium palenquense
 Anthurium pallatangense
 Anthurium pallens
 Anthurium pallidicaudex
 Anthurium pallidiflorum
 Anthurium palmarense
 Anthurium palmatum
 Anthurium paludosum
 Anthurium panamense
 Anthurium panduriforme
 Anthurium papillilaminum
 Anthurium paradisicum
 Anthurium paraguasense
 Anthurium paraguayense
 Anthurium parambae
 Anthurium parasiticum
 Anthurium pariense
 Anthurium parile
 Anthurium parvispathum
 Anthurium parvum
 Anthurium pastasanum
 Anthurium patens
 Anthurium pauciflorum
 Anthurium paucinerve
 Anthurium payaminoense
 Anthurium pedatoradiatum
 Anthurium pedatum
 Anthurium pedunculare
 Anthurium pellucidopunctatum
 Anthurium peltatum
 Anthurium peltigerum
 Anthurium penae
 Anthurium pendens
 Anthurium pendulifolium
 Anthurium penningtonii
 Anthurium pentaphyllum
 Anthurium perijanum
 Anthurium perviride
 Anthurium pescadilloense
 Anthurium petrophilum
 Anthurium phyllobaris
 Anthurium pichinchae
 Anthurium pichindense
 Anthurium pilonense
 Anthurium pinkleyi
 Anthurium pirottae
 Anthurium pirrense
 Anthurium pittieri
 Anthurium piurensis
 Anthurium plantagineum
 Anthurium platyglossum
 Anthurium platyrhizum
 Anthurium plowmanii
 Anthurium plurisulcatum
 Anthurium pluviaticum
 Anthurium podophyllum
 Anthurium pohlianum
 Anthurium polydactylum
 Anthurium polyneuron
 Anthurium polyphlebium
 Anthurium polyschistum
 Anthurium polystictum
 Anthurium potarense
 Anthurium pradoense
 Anthurium praealtum
 Anthurium pranceanum
 Anthurium prolatum
 Anthurium prominens
 Anthurium promininerve
 Anthurium protensum
 Anthurium pseudospectabile
 Anthurium psilostachyum
 Anthurium ptarianum
 Anthurium puberulinervium
 Anthurium puberulum
 Anthurium pucayacuense
 Anthurium pulcachense
 Anthurium pulchellum
 Anthurium pulidoae
 Anthurium pulverulentum
 Anthurium punctatum
 Anthurium purdieanum
 Anthurium purpureospathum
 Anthurium purpureum
 Anthurium quinquenervium
 Anthurium quinquesulcatum
 Anthurium quipuscoae
 Anthurium radiatum
 Anthurium radicans
 Anthurium ramoncaracasii
 Anthurium ramonense
 Anthurium ramosense
 Anthurium ramosii
 Anthurium ranchoanum
 Anthurium ravenii
 Anthurium recavum
 Anthurium redolens
 Anthurium reflexinervium
 Anthurium regale
 Anthurium remotigeniculatum
 Anthurium remotum
 Anthurium renteriae
 Anthurium resectum
 Anthurium reticulatum
 Anthurium retiferum
 Anthurium rhizophorum
 Anthurium rhodorhizum
 Anthurium rigidifolium
 Anthurium rimbachii
 Anthurium riofrioi
 Anthurium riograndicola
 Anthurium rionegrense
 Anthurium riparium
 Anthurium rivulare
 Anthurium rodrigueziae
 Anthurium roezlii
 Anthurium rojasiae
 Anthurium roraimense
 Anthurium roseospadix
 Anthurium rotundatum
 Anthurium rotundilobum
 Anthurium rotundistigmatum
 Anthurium rubrifructum
 Anthurium rubrivellus
 Anthurium rugulosum
 Anthurium rupestre
 Anthurium rupicola
 Anthurium rzedowskii
 Anthurium saccardoi
 Anthurium sagawae
 Anthurium sagittale
 Anthurium sagittaria
 Anthurium sagittatum
 Anthurium sagittellum
 Anthurium salgarense
 Anthurium salvadorense
 Anthurium salvinii
 Anthurium samamaense
 Anthurium sanctifidense
 Anthurium sanguineum
 Anthurium santaritensis
 Anthurium santiagoense
 Anthurium sapense
 Anthurium sarmentosum
 Anthurium sarukhanianum
 Anthurium scaberulum
 Anthurium scandens
 Anthurium scherzerianum
 Anthurium schlechtendalii
 Anthurium schottianum
 Anthurium schunkei
 Anthurium sebastianense
 Anthurium seibertii
 Anthurium seleri
 Anthurium selloum
 Anthurium sellowianum
 Anthurium septuplinervium
 Anthurium shinumas
 Anthurium siccisilvarum
 Anthurium sidneyi
 Anthurium sierpense
 Anthurium signatum
 Anthurium silanchense
 Anthurium silverstonei
 Anthurium silvicola
 Anthurium silvigaudens
 Anthurium simonii
 Anthurium simpsonii
 Anthurium sinuatum
 Anthurium smaragdinum
 Anthurium smithii
 Anthurium sodiroanum
 Anthurium soejartoi
 Anthurium solitarium
 Anthurium solomonii
 Anthurium soukupii
 Anthurium sparreorum
 Anthurium spathiphyllum
 Anthurium spathulifolium
 Anthurium spectabile
 Anthurium splendidum
 Anthurium standleyi
 Anthurium stephanii
 Anthurium stipitatum
 Anthurium striatipes
 Anthurium striatum
 Anthurium striolatum
 Anthurium stuebelii
 Anthurium subaequans
 Anthurium subcarinatum
 Anthurium subcaudatum
 Anthurium subcoerulescens
 Anthurium subcordatum
 Anthurium subhastatum
 Anthurium subovatum
 Anthurium subrotundum
 Anthurium subsagittatum
 Anthurium subscriptum
 Anthurium subsignatum
 Anthurium subtriangulare
 Anthurium subtrilobum
 Anthurium subtruncatum
 Anthurium subulatum
 Anthurium sucrii
 Anthurium sulcatum
 Anthurium superbum
 Anthurium supianum
 Anthurium supraglandulum
 Anthurium suramaense
 Anthurium sylvestre
 Anthurium sytsmae
 Anthurium tacarcunense
 Anthurium tachiranum
 Anthurium tamaense
 Anthurium tarapotense
 Anthurium tatei
 Anthurium teimosoanum
 Anthurium tenaense
 Anthurium tenerum
 Anthurium tenuicaule
 Anthurium tenuifolium
 Anthurium tenuispica
 Anthurium teribense
 Anthurium ternifolium
 Anthurium terryae
 Anthurium testaceum
 Anthurium thompsoniae
 Anthurium thrinax
 Anthurium tikunorum
 Anthurium tilaranense
 Anthurium timplowmanii
 Anthurium titanium
 Anthurium tolimense
 Anthurium tonduzii
 Anthurium tonianum
 Anthurium torraense
 Anthurium treleasei
 Anthurium tremulum
 Anthurium trianae
 Anthurium tricarinatum
 Anthurium triciafrankiae
 Anthurium trifidum
 Anthurium trilobum
 Anthurium trinervium
 Anthurium triphyllum
 Anthurium trisectum
 Anthurium truncatulum
 Anthurium truncicola
 Anthurium tsamajainii
 Anthurium tunquii
 Anthurium tutense
 Anthurium tysonii
 Anthurium uasadiensis
 Anthurium uleanum
 Anthurium umbraculum
 Anthurium umbricola
 Anthurium umbrosum
 Anthurium unense
 Anthurium upalaense
 Anthurium urbanii
 Anthurium urvilleanum
 Anthurium utleyorum
 Anthurium wagenerianum
 Anthurium validifolium
 Anthurium validinervium
 Anthurium vallense
 Anthurium wallisii
 Anthurium walujewii
 Anthurium vanderknaapii
 Anthurium variegatum
 Anthurium variilobum
 Anthurium warintsense
 Anthurium warocqueanum
 Anthurium watermaliense
 Anthurium wattii
 Anthurium vaupesianum
 Anthurium weberbaueri
 Anthurium wedelianum
 Anthurium veitchii
 Anthurium velutinum
 Anthurium venadoense
 Anthurium wendlingeri
 Anthurium venosum
 Anthurium ventanasense
 Anthurium verapazense
 Anthurium werffii
 Anthurium verrucosum
 Anthurium versicolor
 Anthurium vestitum
 Anthurium whitmorei
 Anthurium victorii
 Anthurium vientense
 Anthurium willdenowii
 Anthurium willifordii
 Anthurium vinillense
 Anthurium wintersii
 Anthurium viridescens
 Anthurium viridispathum
 Anthurium vittariifolium
 Anthurium vomeriforme
 Anthurium wurdackii
 Anthurium xanthoneurum
 Anthurium xanthophylloides
 Anthurium yamayakatense
 Anthurium yarumalense
 Anthurium yatacuense
 Anthurium yetlense
 Anthurium yungasense
 Anthurium yurimaguense
 Anthurium yutajense
 Anthurium zuloagae

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Anthurium

Anthurium


වෘත්තියක රඳාපවතින හර මූලධර්ම දෙකක් ඇත.
 අන්‍යන්ට උදවුකිරීම
 මහජනයාට යහපතක් සිදුකිරීම.

Professions include:
 ගණකාධිකාරී
 ඖෂධවේදී
 Actuaries
 ගෘහනිර්මාණ ශිලිපී
 දන්ත ශල්‍යවේදී
 Economists
 ඉංජිනේරු
 Lawyerෙ
 හෙදි
 වෛද්‍ය
 භෞතවේදී
 Psychologists
 Clergymen
 Scientists
 Social workers
 Statisticians
 ශල්‍යවේදී
 ගුරු

References

වෘත්තීන්

වෘත්තීන් ලැයිස්තුව


1වන ආවර්තයේ ඇති රසායනික මූලද්‍රව්‍යය

2වන ආවර්තයේ ඇති රසායනික මූලද්‍රව්‍යය

3වන ආවර්තයේ ඇති රසායනික මූලද්‍රව්‍යය

ආවර්තිතා වගුව
ආවර්තිතා වගුවෙහි ආවර්තයන්
රසායන විද්‍යාව

ආවර්තය (ආවර්තිතා වගුව)


Der Kongreß amüsiert sich ist ein 1965 entstandener Farb- und Kostümfilm mit Lilli Palmer und Curd Jürgens in den Hauptrollen.

Handlung
Der Film beginnt anders als die beiden vorhergehenden Verfilmungen. Eine Touristengruppe im zeitgenössischen Wien des Jahres 1965 (Drehzeit dieses Films) besucht das dortige Wachsfigurenkabinett und bleibt vor der Figur des Fürsten Metternich stehen. Plötzlich werden sie anderthalb Jahrhunderte zurückkatapultiert und landen im Jahr 1815, zur Zeit des Wiener Kongress'.

Dort versucht Metternich infolge der napoleonischen Eroberungskriege das europäische Gleichgewicht wiederherzustellen. Der Korsenkaiser ist (vorerst) geschlagen und auf die Insel Elba verbannt worden. Doch sehr viel mehr als die große Weltpolitik beschäftigt die Emissäre aus ganz Europa ihre privaten Eskapaden. Metternich lässt seine Geliebte Rosa von dem Räuberhauptmann Grasl nach Prag geleiten, um seinen politischen Gegnern aus dem In- und Ausland keinerlei Angriffsfläche zu bieten. Rosa mag nicht in die Provinz abgeschoben werden und bittet daher ihren Jugendfreund, Baron Stefan, sie nach Wien zurückzubringen.

Bei den Hintergrundgesprächen und am Verhandlungstisch der Konferenzteilnehmer wird zäh darum gerungen, wie man mit Frankreich umgehen soll. Staatsminister Talleyrand erweist sich als geschickter Vertreter der Interessen seines Landes und weiß die Einheit der europäischen Siegermächte auf Kosten Frankreichs zu verhindern. Für weitere Unruhe sorgt das Auftauchen eines falschen Napoleons. Zar Alexander wiederum schaut lieber den schönen Frauen hinterher, als sich mit der hohen Politik zu befassen, und schläft nach seinen Trinkgelagen und so manchem nächtlichen Liebesabenteuer während der Beratungen ein.

Metternichs rechte Hand, Friedrich von Gentz, soll im Auftrag seines Herrn dem russischen Herrscher die polnische Gräfin Kopinskaja zuführen, damit diese für Metternich den Zaren ob seiner Verhandlungstaktik und -pläne aushorchen kann. Außerdem soll sie Alexander zugunsten der Lösung der "polnischen Frage" beeinflussen. Doch Alexander zeigt vielmehr Interesse an der kleinen Anni, einem herzigen Wiener Mäd'l. Schließlich greift auch noch Metternichs Gattin in das Geschehen ein. Sie rettet Baron Stefan vor den Fängen der Justiz. Denn der Baron soll der Gerichtsbarkeit zugeführt werden, da er dabei erwischt wurde, wie er Napoleons Gattin Marie-Louise und ihren Sohn nach Elba zu Napoleon bringen wollte.

Bald glätten sich die Wogen. Herzen finden zueinander, und der Kongress scheint sich in Wohlgefallen aufzulösen. Selbst Zar Alexander wagt das Unerhörte: Er tanzt mit Anni öffentlich einen bis dahin verpönten Wiener Walzer. Da erreicht die Versammlung eine Schreckensnachricht: Napoleon ist geflohen und im Süden Frankreichs gelandet!

Produktion
Der Film erlebte am 18. März 1966 seine Welturaufführung. Der Kongreß amüsiert sich ist bereits die dritte Verfilmung des Filmstoffs Der Kongreß tanzt. Vorhergehende Verfilmungen entstanden 1931 und 1955. Diese leicht veränderte Version entstand nach einer Vorlage von Hans Habe.

Mit Der Kongreß amüsiert sich endete die respektable Filmkarriere des ungarischen Regisseurs Géza von Radványi weitgehend. Kurz hintereinander hatte er zwei deutsch-dominierte, internationale Coproduktionen mit einem festen Team fertiggestellt. Unmittelbar vor Der Kongreß amüsiert sich realisierten Radvanyi und seine Produzenten Aldo von Pinelli und Georg M. Reuther mit dem Drehbuchautor Fred Denger und dem Kameramann Heinz Hölscher eine weitere Großproduktion, Onkel Toms Hütte.

Das Ehepaar Herta Hareiter und  Otto Pischinger entwarfen die umfangreichen Filmbauten, die Kostüme stammen von Hill Reihs-Gromes. Die im Film zu sehenden prachtvollen Säle sind Teil der Wiener Hofburg.

Die Operettenmusik von Johann Strauß wurde von Robert Stolz dirigiert. Stolz trug auch die Lieder Mei Glaserl hat ein Loch und Sag ja bei.

Der Film wurde im Superpanorama 70 (2.20:1) Format hergestellt.

Kritik
Das große Personenlexikon des Films nannte den Film: "ein Stück glamouröses Kostümkino."

Das Lexikon des Internationalen Films urteilte: "Großer Unterhaltungsaufwand, geringes Amüsement."

Der Internetauftritt von Cinema fand, dem "operettenhaften, leidlich komischen Kostümfilm" diente die staatliche Neuordnung Europas auf dem Wiener Kongress als historischer Hintergrund für einen "gefällig[en], bunt[en] und auch etwas angestaubt[en]" Film.

Der Evangelische Film-Beobachter befand: "Klischeehafte Darstellung der Geschichte und der Skandälchen rund um den Wiener Kongreß 1814/15. Eine stümperhafte Umarbeitung des alten Operettenfilms «Der Kongreß tanzt». Durchschnitts-Unterhaltung üblicher Art. Ab 16, aber ohne Empfehlung."

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Filmtitel 1965
Deutscher Film
Österreichischer Film
Französischer Film
Historienfilm
Wiener Kongress
Géza von Radványi

Der Kongreß amüsiert sich


සන්තතිකව චලනය වන වස්තුවක් දකින බවට හඟවමින් ඇස සහ මොළය රැවටීම සඳහා තත්පරයකට රූප රාමු 12ක් (රූප රාමුවක් යනු එක් සම්පූර්ණ රූපයකි) හෝ ඊට වැඩි සංඛ්‍යාවක් පෙන්විය යුතුය. තත්පරයකට රූප රාමු 70 ඉක්මවා පෙන්වන විට තාත්වික බවේ හෝ සන්තතික චලනය පිළිබඳ හැඟීම තවදුරටත් වැඩි දියුණු වීමක් සිදු නොවේ. ඊට හේතුව ඇස සහ මොළය රූප තේරුම් ගන්නා ආකාරයයි. තත්පරයකට රූප රාමු 12කට අඩු සංඛ්‍යාවක් ප්‍රදර්ශනය කරන විට බොහෝ පුද්ගලයන්හට නව රූප රාමුවක් පෙන්වීමත් සමඟ ඇති වන ගැස්සෙන සුළු ස්වභාවය හඳුනා ගත හැකි අතර එවිට තාත්වික චලනය පිළිබඳ ඇති වූ හැඟීම බිඳ වැටේ. සාම්ප්‍රදායික ක්‍රමයට අතින් අඳිනු ලබන කාටූන් සජීවීකරණ ක්‍රමවේදයන්හි දී බොහෝ විට ඇඳිය යුතු රූප රාමු ගණන අවම කර ගැනීම සඳහා තත්පරයකට රූප රාමු 15ක් බැඟින් පෙන්වනු ලබන අතර කාටූනවල ඇති ශෛලීගත ස්වභාවය හේතුවෙන් මේ තත්වය පිළිගත හැකි වේ. නමුත් පරිගණක සජීවීකරණය මඟින් වඩාත් තාත්වික රූප නිර්මාණය කෙරෙන බැවින් තාත්වික බව තහවුරු කිරීම සඳහා පරිගණක සජීවීකරණයේ දී වඩාත් ඉහල රූප රාමු සංඛ්‍යාතයක් භාවිත කළ යුතු වේ.

ඉහල රූප රාමු සංඛ්‍යාතයන්හි දී ගැස්සෙන සුළු ස්වභාවයක් දැකිය නොහැකි වීමට හේතුව "persistence of vision" යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වේ. කුඩා කාල ප්‍රාන්තර තුළ ඇස සහ මොළය එක්ව ක්‍රියාත්මක වෙමින් ඇසට පෙනෙන දර්ශනය තත්පරයකින් පංගුවක කාලයක් ගබඩා කර තබා ගන්නා අතර එහි දී රූප රාමු අතර සිදු වන කුඩා පැනීම් ස්වයංක්‍රීයව සන්තතික තත්වයට පත් කෙරේ. ඇමරිකා එක්සත් ජනපදයේ චිත්‍රපටි ශාලාවල චිත්‍රපට ප්‍රදර්ශනය කෙරෙනුයේ තත්පරයට රූප රාමු 24ක සීඝ්‍රතාවයෙන් වන අතර මෙය සන්තතික චලනය පිළිබඳ හැඟීම ලබා දීම සඳහා ප්‍රමාණවත් වේ.

සරල උදාහරණයක්

තිරය සම්පූර්ණයෙන් වැසී යන සේ කළු වර්ණය වැනි තනි පසුබිම් වර්ණයක් යොදනු ලැබේ. අනතුරුව තිරයේ දකුණු පස එළුවෙකු අඳිනු ලැබේ. අනතුරුව නැවත තිරය වැසී යන සේ කළු වර්ණය යොදා එළුවා මුල් පිහිටුමෙන් මඳක් වම් පසට වන සේ නැවත අඳිනු ලැබේ. මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය නැවත නැවතත් සිදු කෙරෙන අතර එක් එක් අවස්ථාවේ දී එළුවා සුළු ප්‍රමාණයකින් වම් පසට චලනය කෙරේ. මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය ප්‍රමාණවත් තරම් සීඝ්‍රතාවකින් නැවත නැවත සිදු කළ හොත් එළුවා සන්තතිකව වම් පසට චලනය වන බවක් පෙනෙනු ඇත. මෙම මූලික ක්‍රියාවලිය රූපවාහිනිය සහ චිත්‍රපටවල දැකගත හැකි සියළු චලන රූප නිර්මාණය සඳහා භාවිතා කෙරේ.
චලනය වන එළුවා වස්තුවක පිහිටුම වෙනස් කිරීම පිලිබඳ උදාහරණයක් වේ. ප්‍රමාණය, හැඩය, ආලෝකකරණය සහ වර්ණය වැනි වස්තුවක ගුණාංගයන්ගේ වඩාත් සංකීර්ණ පරිවර්තනයන් සිදු කිරීම සඳහා බොහෝ විට සරලව නැවත ඇඳීම හෝ පිටපත් කිරීම වෙනුවට ගණනය කිරීම් සහ පරිගණක ප්‍රවාචනය භාවිතා කළ යුතු වේ.

චිත්‍රපට

පරිගණක රූ නිර්මාණ තාක්ෂණය ඇසුරෙන් නිෂ්පාදනය කළ ස්වාධීන සජීවීකරණ නිර්මාණ 1976 ව‍සරේ පටන් නිර්මාණය වූ නමුත් ඒවායේ ජනප්‍රියත්වය ඉතා සීඝ්‍රයෙන් ඉහල නැගීම සිදු වූයේ එක්සත් ජනපද සජීවීකරණ ක්ෂේත්‍රයේ නූතන යුගය තුළ දීය. මුල් වරට සම්පූර්ණ වශයෙන් පරිගණක ආශ්‍රයෙන් නිර්මාණය කළ රූපවාහිනී කතා මාලාව වූයේ ReBoot නම් කතා මාලාව වන අතර මුල්වරට සම්පූර්ණයෙන් පරිගණක ඇසුරින් නිර්මාණය කළ චිත්‍රපටය Toy Story නම් විය. මෙම නිර්මාණයන් පිළිවෙලින් 1994 සහ 1995 යන වසරවල දී එළි දැක්වුණි. වැඩි දුර විස්තර සඳහා පරිගණක සජීවීකරණය ඇසුරෙන් නිර්මාණය කළ චිත්‍රපට ලැයිස්තුව බලන්න.

ආධුනික සජීවීකරණ නිර්මාණ

YouTube වැනි සිය සාමාජිකයන්ට තමාගේම චිත්‍රපට අන් අයට බැලිය හැකි වන පරිදි උඩුගත කිරීමට ඉඩ සලසන වෙබ් අඩවිවල ජනප්‍රියත්වය හේතුවෙන් බොහෝ විට පොදුවේ ආධුනික පරිගණක සජීවීකරණ නිර්මාණකරුවන් ලෙස සැලකෙන පිරිස ක්‍රමයෙන් ප්‍රමාණයෙන් වැඩි වෙමින් පවතී. මෙය සඳහා නොමිළේ ලබා ගත හැකි විවිධ උපාංගවල පැවැත්මත් Windows Movie Maker වැනි මෘදුකාංගත් දායක වේ. අවශ්‍ය උපාංග සහිත ඕනෑම පුද්ග‍ලයෙකුට තම සජීවීකරණයන් දහස් ගණනකට නැරඹීම සඳහා ඉදිරිපත් කළ හැක. බොහෝ ඉහල ක්‍රියාකාරීත්වයක් ඇති සජීවීකරණ මෘදුකාංග ද පරීක්ෂණ මට්ටමින් අධ්‍යාපනමය සහ වාණිජමය නොවන කටයුතු සඳහා විවිධ සීමාවන්ට යටත්ව භාවිතා කිරීමේ හැකියාව පවතී. ආධුනික සජීවීකරණ නිර්මාණය කිරීමේ එක් ක්‍රමයක් වන්නේ අන්තර්ජාලයට පහසුවෙන් උඩුගත කළ හැකි සහ ඒ ඔස්සේ පහසුවෙන් නැරඹිය හැකි GIF ගොණු ආකෘතිය භාවිතයෙන් නිර්මාණයන් සිදු කිරීමයි. මෙම ගොණු ආකෘතිය භාවිතයෙන් සජීවීකරණයන් නිර්මාණය කළ හැකි මෘදුකාංග අතරට Beneton Movie GIF , GIF Movie Gear , Ulead GIF Animator ආදිය අයත් වේ.

ගෘහ නිර්මාණ සජීවීකරණය

ගෘහ නිර්මාණ ශිල්පීන් පාරිභෝගිකයන් සහ ගොඩනැඟිලි ඉදි කරන්නන් සඳහා ත්‍රිමාණ ආකෘති නිර්මාණය කර ගැනීමට සජීවීකරණ ආයතනවල සේවය ලබා ගනී. මෙය සාම්ප්‍රදායික ඇඳීම් ක්‍රමවේදවලට වඩා නිරවද්‍ය විය හැක. ගෘහ නිර්මාණ සජීවීකරණ තාක්ෂණය පරිසරය සහ අවට ගොඩනැඟිලි සමඟ කිසියම් ගොඩනැඟිල්ලකට තිබිය හැකි සම්බන්ධතාවයන් දැක ගැනීම සඳහා ද භාවිතා කළ හැක.

පරිගණකයක් ආශ්‍රියෙන් චරිත සහ වස්තු නිර්මාණය

ත්‍රිමාණ පරිගණක සජිවි කරණයේදී ත්‍රිමාන ආකෘති නිර්මාණය, ක්‍රම ලේඛිත චලනයන් සමග සංයෝජනය සිදු කෙරෙයි. සත්‍ය ත්‍රිමාන කණ්ඩාංක පද්ධතියක් මත ජ්‍යාමිතික මුදුන්, මුහුණු සහ දාර ඇසුරින් ආකෘති නිර්මාණය කෙරෙයි. මෙහිදි මැටි හෝ හුණු බදාම භාවිත කරන පරිද්දෙන්ම වස්තූන් ඇඹීමක් සිදු කෙරෙන අතර එහිදි දල හැඩතල වලින් ආරම්භ කොට නිෂ්චිත තොරතුරු ඇතුළත් කිරීම දක්වා විවිධ ඇඹීම් උපාංග භාවිතා කෙරෙයි. ත්‍රිමාන දැලිස විරූපනය සදහා අස්ථි / සන්ධි පද්ධතියක් නිර්මාණය කෙරෙයි. (උදා - මැනව රූපි ආකෘතියක් ගමන් කිරීමට සැලැස්වීම සදහා) රිගින් (Rigging) යනුවෙන් හැදින්වෙන ක්‍රියාවලිය ඔස්සේ අතාත්වික රූකඩය සදහා විවිධ පාලක සහ අල්ලු සකස් කෙරෙන අතර මේවා සජිවිකරණ නිර්මාපකයා විසින් චරිතය හැසිරවීමට භාවිතා කරයි. Toy Story නම් Pixar සමාගම මගින් නිර්මාණය කල චිත්‍රපටයෙහි අඩංගු වු Woody නම් චරිතය සදහා විශේෂිත සජිවිකරණ පාලක 700 ක් භාවිතා වේ. The Chronicles of Narnia – The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe නම් චිත්‍ර ප‍ටයේ Aslan නම් චරිතය සදහා මෙවැනි පාලක 1851 ක් තිබු අතර ඉන් 742 ක් චරිතයේ මුහුණ සදහා භාවිත වු ඒවා විය. මෙම චරිත නිර්මාණය කිරීම සදහා Rhythm and Hues චිත්‍රාගාරයට වසර දෙකක් ගත විය. 2004 වසරේ ඉදිරිපත් කෙරුණු The Day After Tomorrow චිත්‍රපටය නිර්මාණය කිරීමේදී වීඩියෝ විමර්ෂණ සහ නිරවද්‍ය භූ විද්‍යාත්මක කරුණු ඇසුරෙන් දරුණු කාලගුණික බලපෑම් පිළිබද ආකෘති නිර්මාණය කිරීමට නිර්මාණ කරුවන්ට සිදුවිය.

King Kong චිත්‍ර පටයේ 2005 ප්‍රති නිර්මාණයේදී නිර්මාණ ශිල්පීන්ට රූපරාමු සදහා ගෝරිල්ලාගේ උචිතම පිහිටුම නිර්ණය කර ගැනීම සදහාත් සත්වයා මත මානව ගුණාංග නිර්මාණය සදහාත් (මේ සදහා ඇන්ඩිගේ හැගීම් ප්‍රකාශන භාවිතා විය.) ඇන්ඩි සර්කිස්  ආධාර විය. පීටර් ජැක්සන්ගේ The Lord of the Rings චිත්‍ර පටයේ Gollum චරිතය ද සර්කිස් විසින් රඟ දක්වන ලදී.

Toho චිත්‍රාගාරය සිය ප්‍රසිද්ධ Godzilla චරිතය නිරූපණය සදහා පරිගණක රූ නිර්මාණ ක්‍රම යොදා ගැනීම ප්‍රතික්ෂේප කළේය. ඔවුන්‍මේ සදහා ඉදිරිපත් කල පැහැදිලි කිරීම වුයේ තමන් හැම විටම ඒ සදහා Suitmation තාක්ෂණය භාවිත කළ අතර ඒ වෙනුවට පරිගණක භාවිතය චරිතයේ සජිවී බවට හානි කිරීමට හේතු විය හැකි බවයි.

පරිගණක සජිවන ප්‍රවර්ධන උපකරණ

පරිගණකයක් සහ සජිවන මෘදුකාංගයක් භාවිතයෙන් පරිගණක සජිවන නිර්මාණය කර ගත හැකිය. Amorphium, Art of illusion, Poser ray Dream studio, Bryce, Maya, Blender, Truespece, Light ware, 3D studio max, soft image XSI Alice සහ Adobe Flash (ද්විමාන) සජිවන මෘදුකාංග වලට උදාහරණ වේ.

මීට අමතරව තවත් මෘදුකාංග රැසක් ඇත. ඒවා ඉලක්කගත වෙළෙඳපොළ අනුව මෙම මෘදුකාංගයන්හි මිල විශාල වශයෙන් වෙනස් වේ. ප්‍රාථමික ගණයේ ක්‍රමලේඛ මඟින් ද ඉතාම අගනා සජිවන නිර්මාණ කළ හැකිය. කෙසේ වෙතත් මෙම විදුදැනුම සඳහා සාමාන්‍ය ගෘහස්ත පරිගණකයක් භාවිතා කරන්නේ නම් ඒ සඳහා බොහෝ වේලාවක් ගත වේ. එබැවින් වීඩියෝ ක්‍රියා නිර්මාණකරුවන්  අඩු විශ්ලේෂණ (Low resolution) සහිත  අඩු බහුඅස‍්‍ර ගණන් කිරීම් ක්‍රම භාවිතා කිරීමට හුරු වි සිටිති. එමඟින් එම චිත්‍රක තත්‍ය කාලිනව ගෘහස්ථ පරිගණකයෙහි නිරූපණය කළ හැකිය. මෙම සංදර්භය තුළ photorealistic සජිවනය ප්‍රායෝගික නොවේ.

චිත්‍රපට, ටෙලිනාට්‍ය සහ පරිගණක ක්‍රිඩාවන්හි වීඩියෝ පටිපාටි නිර්මාණකරණයේ නියැලෙන වෘත්තිමය සජිවිකරණ ශිල්පියෝ වඩාත්  විස්තරාත්මක photorealistic සජීවන නිර්මාණය කරති. මෙවැනි උසස් ප්‍රමිතියකින් යුක්ත වන චිත්‍රපට සජීවන නිර්මාණයක් අවසන් කිරීමට, ගෘහස්ථ පරිගණකයක් සඳහා වසර 10 සිට 100 දක්වා කාලයක් වැය විය හැකිය. එබැවින් මේ සඳහා වඩා ප්‍රබල වර්ක් ස්ටේෂන් පරිගණක, සකසන 2 සිට 4 පමණ ඇති බැවින් එම පරිගණක වඩා ප්‍රබලය. තවද ඒවා විදු දැනුම් සඳහා විශේෂිත පරිගණක වේ. එක් යෝධ පරිගණකයක් ලෙස ක්‍රියා කිරීම සඳහා වර්ක් ස්ටේෂන් පරිගණක විශාල ප්‍රමාණයක් ජාල ගත කර ඇත. මෙහි ප්‍රතිපලය වනුයේ වසර 5,6 කින් නිමා කර ගත හැකි පරිගණක සජිවන චිත්‍රපටයකි(කෙසේ වෙතත්, මෙම ක්‍රියාවලිය සම්පුර්ණයෙන්ම විදැනුම් පමණක් ඇතුලත් නොවන්නකි). වර්ක් ස්ටේෂන් පරිගණකයක් ඩොලර් 2000 - 1600 ක් පමණ මිලක් වන අතර වඩා මිල අධික  වර්ක් ස්ටේෂන් හි භාවිතා වන අධි තාක්ෂණික දෘඩාංග නිසාවෙන් ඒවායෙහි විදු දැනුම වේගවත්ය. විදු දැනුම මෘදුකාංගයක් වන පිස්සාර්ස් රෙන්ඩමන්, මෙන්ටල්රේ යන විදු දැනුම් මෘදුකාංගයට අභියෝගයක් එල්ල කරමින් සජිවන කර්මාන්තයේ විශාල වශයෙන් යොදා ගැනේ. මෙය නිල පික්සාර් වෙබ් අඩවියක ඩොලර් 5000 - 8000 ත් අතර මිලකට ලබා ගත හැකිය. එමෙන්ම මෙම මෘදුකාංගය maya සහ  Soft Image XSI වැනි සජීවිකරණ ක්‍රමලේඛ සමඟ Linux, Mac OSX සහ Microsoft Windows පාදක වර්ක් ස්ටේෂන් පරිගණකයන් හි යොදා ගත හැකිය. වෘත්තිමය සජීවිකරණ ශිල්පියෝ ඩිජිටල් චිත්‍රපට කැමරා  අංගචලන අල්ලා ගැනීමට (motion capturer) සහ ක්‍රියාව ග්‍රහණය කරගැනීමට (performance capture),  නිල්තිර (bluescreens) චිත්‍රපට සංස්කරන මෘදුකාංග සහ වෙනත් උපකරණ භාවිතා කරයි.

ත්‍රිමාණ සජීවීකරණය


سليم بن أبي فراج بن سليم بن أبي فراج البشري (1248 - 1335 هـ) عالم مسلم، كان شيخ الأزهر في عصره، وواحد من المشايخ الستة الذين تولوا مشيخة الأزهر مرتين، وهو من فقهاء المالكية.

مولده ونشأته
المولود في قرية محلة بشر التابعة الآن لمركز شبراخيت بمحافظة البحيرة لعام 1248 هجري. في عائلة من العائلات الميسورة، ولما بلغ السابعة من العمر توفي والده، وتلقى مبادئ العلم، وحفظ القرآن الكريم في قريته، وفي التاسعة من عمره سافر إلى القاهرة لطلب العلم، ونزل في بيت خاله، وقرأ عليه العلوم وروايات القرآن، وكان يتعبد في المسجد الزينبي ليلا، ويذهب إلى الأزهر نهارا لتلقي الدروس، وقد عُين خاله أمينا لكسوة المحمل في أول ولاية سعيد باشا، فخرج معه إلى الحجاز حاجّا.

حياته العلمية
درس الشيخ سليم في أعرق جامعة إسلامية ألا وهي الجامع الأزهر، وقد ترقى في المراتب العلمية والروحية حتى نال تلك المنزلة الرفيعة وهي تولي مشيخة الأزهر لفترتين متعاقبتين كانت الأولى سنة 1899 م، والثانية استمرت من سنة 1909 ميلادي حتى سنة وفاته 1917 ميلادي. تميزت فترة توليه لمشيخة الأزهر بالحزم وحسن الإدارة حيث تم في عهده تطبيق نظام امتحان الراغبين في التدريس بالأزهر.

مؤلفاته
أثرى الشيخ البشري المكتبة الأزهرية والإسلامية عموما بمؤلفات نذكر منها:
 «وضح النهج» شرح نهج البردة لأحمد شوقي
 «حاشية تحفة الطلاب لشرح رسالة الآداب»
 «تقرير علي السعد»
 «حاشية على رسالة الشيخ عليش في التوحيد»
 «الاستئناس في بيان الأعلام وأسماء الأجناس» وهو بحث في النحو عُوِّل عليه كثيرا في التدريس بالأزهر
 «المقامات السنية في الرَّد على القادح في البعثة النبوية»
 «عقود الجمان في عقائد أهل الإيمان»

ذريته
عرف في جيله بأنه والد 6 من العلماء المشايخ، وأشهرهم هو ابنه عبد العزيز البشري، الأديب المشهور الذي كان مراقبا عاما للمجمع اللغوي، وعبد الله، ومحمد طه، وهو أكبرهم، وأحمد، وعبد الرحيم، وعبد السلام.

وفاته
توفي في شهر ذي الحجة سنة 1335 للهجرة في القاهرة، ودفن في مدفن السادة المالكية بقرافة السيدة نفيسة.

المراجع

مالكية
علماء دين سنة مصريون
أشخاص من شبراخيت
شيوخ الأزهر
مواليد 1248 هـ
مواليد 1832
وفيات 1335 هـ
وفيات 1917
علماء مسلمون في القرن 13 هـ
علماء مسلمون في القرن 14 هـ

سليم البشري


Johann Georg Elser (; 4 January 1903 – 9 April 1945) was a German worker who planned and carried out an elaborate assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazi leaders on 8 November 1939 at the Bürgerbräukeller in Munich (known as the Bürgerbräukeller Bombing). Elser constructed and placed a bomb near the platform from which Hitler was to deliver a speech. It did not kill Hitler, who left earlier than expected, but it did kill 8 people and injured 62 others. Elser was held as a prisoner for more than five years until he was executed at Dachau concentration camp less than a month before the surrender of Nazi Germany.

Background

Family and early life
Georg Elser (the name normally used to refer to him) was born in Hermaringen, Württemberg, to Ludwig Elser and Maria Müller. His parents married one year after his birth, and Maria moved to Königsbronn to live with Ludwig on his smallholding. His father was a timber merchant, while his mother worked on the farm. Georg was often left to care for his five younger siblings: Friederike (born 1904), Maria (born 1906), Ludwig (born 1909), Anna (born 1910) and Leonhard (born 1913). He attended elementary school in Königsbronn from 1910 to 1917 and showed ability in drawing, penmanship and mathematics. His childhood was marred by his father's heavy drinking. Elser recalled in his interrogation by the Gestapo in 1939 how his father habitually came home late from work drunk.

Career and social life
In 1917, Elser worked for half a year assisting in his father's business. Seeking independence, he started an apprenticeship as a lathe operator at the smelter in Königsbronn, but had to quit for health reasons. Between 1919 and 1922, he was apprenticed to master woodworker Robert Sapper in Königsbronn. After topping his class at  Heidenheim Trade School, he worked in the furniture factory of Paul Rieder in Aalen. In 1925, he left home to briefly work at the Wachter woodworking company in the small community of Bernried, near Tettnang. Exploring along Lake Constance on foot, he arrived at Friedrichshafen, where he found employment shaping wooden propellers for the fledgling aircraft-manufacturer Dornier.

In August 1925, a work-friend enticed Elser to go with him to Konstanz to work in a clock factory. Due to lack of work, the clock factory closed down, was sold, then reopened as the Schuckmann Clock Factory. Elser was re-employed, but, along with the other employees, he was dismissed when the factory mysteriously burned down after the owner had unsuccessfully tried to sell the failing business. During this period, Elser shared a room with a Communist co-worker who convinced him to join the Red Front-Fighters League. He also joined traditional dress and dance groups (). In 1929, he found work with Schönholzer, a small woodworking company in Bottighofen; this required Elser to cross the border daily into Switzerland. The work ran out within six months, however, and he was let go.

Around this time Elser met a waitress, Mathilde Niedermann. When she became pregnant, he drove her to Geneva in Switzerland. Mathilde was found to be in the fourth month of pregnancy, precluding a legal abortion. The child was born, a boy named Manfred. When Elser left Mathilde, he was left with child-support payments that often surpassed his weekly wage.

In 1930, Elser began commuting daily by ferry from Konstanz to work in the small Rothmund clock factory in Meersburg where he made housings for wall and table clocks. At the Kreuzlingen Free Temperance Union he started a friendship with a seamstress, Hilda Lang. Between May and August 1932, after Rothmund closed down, he lived with several families in Meersburg doing odd carpentry jobs.

In August 1932, Elser returned to Königsbronn after receiving a call for help from his mother. His alcoholic father, often violent and abusive towards her, was now heavily in debt. Elser assisted his parents in their work and supplemented his income by making furniture in a home workshop until his father was forced to sell the family property in late 1935. Elser escaped the grim family situation with music, playing flute, accordion, bass and the zither. He joined the Zither Club in Königsbronn in early 1933.

At around this time, Elser joined a hiking club where he met Elsa Härlen. He moved to lodge in the Härlens' basement, building kitchen cabinets, kitchen chairs and a doll's house for Elsa. Their love affair in the spring of 1936 led to her separation from her husband in 1937 and divorce in 1938.

In 1936, Elser worked with a carpenter named Grupp in Königsbronn, making desks and installing windows, but soon gave up the job, believing the pay was too low. He began working as a labourer at the Waldenmaier armament factory in Heidenheim, commuting by train or by bike from Königsbronn. While working there, he began a friendship with a fellow employee, Maria Schmauder.

In 1938, Elser's parents bought half of a double house together with their son Leonhard and his wife. Elser felt cheated, and was forced to move out of the house, severing ties with his family except for his sister Maria in Stuttgart. In May 1939, he moved in with the Schmauder family in nearby Schnaitheim.

At Waldenmaier, Elser worked in the shipping department and had access to many parts of the plant, including the "special department" where fuses and detonators were produced. After his arrest and confession, Elser told the Gestapo: "Before the decision to take my action in the fall of 1938, I had stolen neither parts nor powder from the factory."

Ideology and religion
Elser, a carpenter and cabinet-maker by trade, became a member of the left-leaning Federation of Woodworkers Union. He also joined the Red Front-Fighters' Association, although he told his interrogators in 1939 that he attended a political assembly no more than three times while a member. He also stated that he voted for the  Communist Party until 1933, as he considered the KPD the best defender of workers' interests. There is evidence that Elser opposed Nazism from the beginning of the  regime in 1933; he refused to perform the Hitler salute, did not join others in listening to Hitler's speeches broadcast on the radio, and did not vote in the elections or referendums during the Nazi era.

Elser met Josef Schurr, a Communist from Schnaitheim, at a Woodworkers Union meeting in Königsbronn in 1933. Elser had extreme views, supported by a letter that Schurr sent to a newspaper in Ulm in 1947 which stated that Elser "was always extremely interested in some act of violence against Hitler and his cronies. He always called Hitler a 'gypsy'—one just had to look at his criminal face."

Elser's parents were Protestant, and he attended church with his mother as a child, though his attendance lapsed. His church attendance increased during 1939 - after he had decided to carry out the assassination attempt - either at a Protestant or Roman Catholic church. He claimed that church attendance and the recitation of the Lord's Prayer calmed him. He told his arresting officers: "I believe in the survival of the soul after death, and I also believed that I would not go to heaven if I had not had an opportunity to prove that I wanted good. I also wanted to prevent by my act even greater bloodshed."

Prelude

Motive
During four days of interrogation in Berlin (19–22 November 1939), Elser articulated his motive to his interrogators:

Five years later in Dachau concentration camp, SS officer Lechner claimed Elser revealed his motive to him:

Plot
In order to find out how best to implement his assassination plan, Elser travelled to Munich by train on 8 November 1938, the day of Hitler's annual speech on the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch. Elser was not able to enter the Bürgerbräukeller until 10:30 p.m., when the crowd had dispersed. He stayed until midnight before going back to his lodging. The next morning, he returned to Königsbronn. On the following day, 10 November, the anti-Jewish violence of the Kristallnacht took place in Munich.
"In the following weeks I slowly concocted in my mind that it was best to pack explosives in the pillar directly behind the speaker's podium," Elser told his interrogators a year later. He continued to work in the Waldenmaier armament factory in Heidenheim and systematically stole explosives, hiding packets of powder in his bedroom. Realising he needed the exact dimensions of the column to build his bomb he returned to Munich, staying 4–12 April 1939. He took a camera with him, a Christmas gift from Maria Schmauder. He had just become unemployed due to an argument with a factory supervisor.

In April–May 1939, Elser found a labouring job at the Vollmer quarry in Königsbronn. While there, he collected an arsenal of 105 blasting cartridges and 125 detonators, causing him to admit to his interrogators, "I knew two or three detonators were sufficient for my purposes, but I thought the surplus will increase the explosive effect." Living with the Schmauder family in Schnaitheim he made many sketches, telling his hosts he was working on an "invention".

In July, in a secluded orchard owned by his parents, Elser tested several prototypes of his bomb. Clock movements given to him in lieu of wages when leaving Rothmund in Meersburg in 1932 and a car indicator "winker" were incorporated into the "infernal machine". In August, after a bout of sickness, he left for Munich. Powder, explosives, a battery and detonators filled the false bottom of his wooden suitcase. Other boxes contained his clothes, clock movements and the tools of his trade.

The Bürgerbräukeller
Elser arrived in Munich on 5 August 1939. Using his real name, he rented a room in the apartments of two unsuspecting couples, at first staying with the Baumanns and from 1 September, Alfons and Rosa Lehmann. He soon became a regular at the Bürgerbräukeller restaurant for his evening meal. As before, he was able to enter the adjoining Bürgerbräukeller Hall before the doors were locked at about 10:30 p.m.

Over the next two months, Elser stayed all night inside the Bürgerbräukeller 30 to 35 times. Working on the gallery level and using a flashlight dimmed with a blue handkerchief, he started by installing a secret door in the timber panelling to a pillar behind the speaker's rostrum. After removing the plaster behind the door, he hollowed out a chamber in the brickwork for his bomb. Normally completing his work around 2:00–3:00 a.m., he dozed in the storeroom off the gallery until the doors were unlocked at about 6:30 a.m. He then left via a rear door, often carrying a small suitcase filled with debris.

Security was relatively lax at the Bürgerbräukeller. Christian Weber, a veteran from the Beer Hall Putsch and the Munich city councillor, was responsible. However, from the beginning of September, after the outbreak of war with Poland, Elser was aware of the presence of air raid wardens and two "free-running dogs" in the building.

While he worked at night in the Bürgerbräukeller, Elser built his device during the day. He purchased extra parts, including sound insulation, from local hardware stores and became friends with the local master woodworker, Brög, who allowed him use of his workshop.

On the nights of 1–2 November, Elser installed the explosives in the pillar. On 4–5 November, which were Saturday and Sunday dance nights, he had to buy a ticket and wait in the gallery until after 1 a.m. before he could install the twin-clock mechanism that would trigger the detonator. To celebrate the completion of his work, Elser recalled later, "I left by the back road and went to the Isartorplatz where at the kiosk I drank two cups of coffee."

On 6 November, Elser left Munich for Stuttgart to stay overnight with his sister, Maria Hirth, and her husband. Leaving them his tool boxes and baggage, he returned to Munich the next day for a final check. Arriving at the Bürgerbräukeller at 10 p.m., he waited for an opportunity to open the bomb chamber and satisfy himself the clock mechanism was correctly set. The next morning he departed Munich by train for Friedrichshafen via Ulm. After a shave at a hairdresser, he took the 6:30 p.m. steamer to Konstanz.

Bombing

Hitler's escape
The high-ranking Nazis who accompanied Adolf Hitler to the anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch on 8 November 1939 were Joseph Goebbels, Reinhard Heydrich, Rudolf Hess, Robert Ley, Alfred Rosenberg, Julius Streicher, August Frank, Hermann Esser and Heinrich Himmler. Hitler was welcomed to the platform by Christian Weber.

Unknown to Elser, Hitler had initially cancelled his speech at the Bürgerbräukeller to devote his attention to planning the imminent war with France, but changed his mind and attended after all. As fog was forecast, possibly preventing him from flying back to Berlin the next morning, Hitler decided to return to Berlin the same night by his private train. With the departure from Munich's main station set for 9:30 p.m., the start time of the reunion was brought forward half an hour to 8 p.m. and Hitler cut his speech from the planned two hours to a one-hour duration.

Hitler ended his address to the 3000-strong audience of the party faithful at 9:07 p.m., 13 minutes before Elser's bomb exploded at 9:20 p.m.  By that time, Hitler and his entourage had left the Bürgerbräukeller. The bomb brought down part of the ceiling and roof and caused the gallery and an external wall to collapse, leaving a mountain of rubble. About 120 people were still in the hall at the time. Seven were killed (the cashier Maria Henle, Franz Lutz, Wilhem Kaiser, a radio announcer named Weber, Leonhard Reindl, Emil Kasberger, and Eugen Schachta). Another sixty-three were injured, sixteen seriously, with one dying later. All but one of those killed were members of the Nazi Party, of which all but one had been longtime supporters of the ideology.

Hitler did not learn of the attempt on his life until later that night on a stop in Nuremberg. When told of the bombing by Goebbels, Hitler responded, "A man has to be lucky." A little later Hitler had a different spin, saying, "Now I am completely at peace! My leaving the Bürgerbräukeller earlier than usual is proof to me that Providence wants me to reach my goal."

Honoring the victims
In Munich on 9 November, the annual guard of honour for the sixteen "blood martyrs" of the NSDAP who died in the Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 was held at the Feldherrnhalle as usual. Two days later, at the same location, an official ceremony for the victims of the Bürgerbräukeller bombing took place. Hitler returned from Berlin to stand before seven flag-draped coffins as Rudolf Hess addressed the SA guard, the onlookers, and listeners to Grossdeutsche Rundfunk ("Greater German Radio"). In his half-hour oration, Hess was not short on hyperbole:

After "Der gute Kamerad" was played, Hitler placed a wreath of chrysanthemums on each coffin, then stepped back to lift his arm in the Nazi salute. The very slow playing of "Deutschland über alles" ended the solemn ceremony.

Arrest
At 8:45 p.m. on the night of 8 November, Elser was apprehended by two border guards,  from the Swiss border fence in Konstanz. When taken to the border control post and asked to empty his pockets he was found to be carrying wire cutters, numerous notes and sketches pertaining to explosive devices, firing pins and a blank colour postcard of the interior of the Bürgerbräukeller.  At 11 p.m., during Elser's interrogation by the Gestapo in Konstanz, news of the bombing in Munich arrived by teleprinter. The next day, Elser was transferred by car to Munich Gestapo Headquarters.

Investigation
While still returning to Berlin by train, Hitler ordered Heinrich Himmler to put Arthur Nebe, head of Kripo (Criminal Police), in charge of the investigation into the Munich bombing. Himmler did this, but also assigned total control of the investigation to the chief of the Gestapo, Heinrich Müller.  Müller immediately ordered the arrest of all Bürgerbräukeller personnel, while Nebe ran the onsite investigation, sifting through the debris.

Nebe had early success, finding the remains of brass plates bearing patent numbers of a clock maker in Schwenningen, Baden-Würtemberg. Despite the clear evidence of the German make, Himmler released to the press that the metal parts pointed to "foreign origin".

Himmler offered a reward of 500,000 marks for information leading to the capture of the culprits, and the Gestapo was soon deluged with hundreds of suspects. When one suspect was reported to have detonator parts in his pockets, Otto Rappold of the counter-espionage arm of the Gestapo sped to Königsbronn and neighbouring towns. Every family member and possible acquaintance of Elser was rounded up for interrogation.

At the Schmauder residence in Schnaitheim, 16-year-old Maria Schmauder told of her family's recent boarder who was working on an "invention", had a false bottom in his suitcase, and worked at the Vollmer quarry.

Interrogation in Munich
On 9 November, as only one of many suspects being held at Munich Gestapo Headquarters, Elser did not attract much attention for a few days, but when face-to-face meetings took place with Bürgerbräukeller staff, waitress Maria Strobl identified Elser as the odd customer who never ordered more than one drink. Later, on the basis of his Swabian accent, Elser was identified by a storekeeper as the man to whom he had sold a "sound proofing insulation plate" to deaden the sound of ticking clocks.

Nebe called in Franz Josef Huber, head of the Gestapo in Vienna, to assist. Huber had the idea of asking Elser to bare his knees. When he did, they were found to be badly bruised, the apparent result of working at low level during his night work at the Bürgerbräukeller.

Dr Albrecht Böhme, head of the Munich Kripo, was witness to a severe and prolonged beating of Elser, in which he said Himmler participated. He later recalled: "But Elser, who was groaning and bleeding profusely from the mouth and nose, made no confession; he would probably not have been physically able to, even if he had wanted to." However, on 15 November, Elser made a full written confession, though the document did not survive the war.

Interrogation in Berlin
Elser was transferred to Berlin Gestapo Headquarters on Prinz Albrecht Strasse, possibly on 18 November. His parents, siblings and their spouses, together with his former girlfriend Elsa Härlen, were taken by train to Berlin to be held in Moabit prison and then in the grand Hotel Kaiserhof. His mother, sister Maria Hirth, brother-in-law Karl Hirth and Elsa Härlen were interrogated in the presence of Elser.

In 1950, Elsa Härlen recollected:

Härlen was left in no doubt that Elser was only repeating what his interrogators wanted him to say. Apart from Maria Hirth and her husband, who were considered accomplices and imprisoned for over one year, the family members and Härlen were allowed to return home. While in Berlin, Härlen received special attention, being interviewed by Heinrich Himmler, having an audience with Adolf Hitler, and being quizzed by Martin Bormann. However, she did not help their cause, which was to find some fragment of evidence that Elser had not acted alone.

While in Berlin, Elser made five full-size drawings of the design of his bomb in order to persuade his interrogators that he was the sole instigator of the assassination attempt. These drawings are referred to in the Gestapo interrogation report, but have not survived.

Interrogation report
Five days of torture, 19–23 November, produced the Gestapo Protokoll (interrogation report). The document was signed off by Kappler, Schmidt and Seibold for the "Kriminalkommissare". Buried in the German archives in Koblenz until 1964, this report is now considered the most important source of information on Elser. The report did not mention the interrogation of Elser's family members and Elsa Härlen in Berlin, as the report contains only the answers Elser gave to his interrogators. On the vital question that he was the sole instigator, Elser had this to say:

When Himmler read the final report, he flew into a rage and scrawled in green ink on the red cover: "What idiot wrote this?"

Nazi propaganda
Discarding the interrogation report that found Elser solely responsible, Hitler proceeded to use the Bürgerbräukeller bombing for propaganda purposes. On 22 November, German newspapers were filled with the story that the assassin, Georg Elser, had been funded by the British Intelligence Service, while the organiser of the crime was Otto Strasser. Photos of two British SIS officers, Richard Henry Stevens and Sigismund Payne Best, captured in the Venlo Incident on 9 November 1939, shared the front page of Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung with a photo of Georg Elser.

SS officer Walter Schellenberg later wrote in his memoirs (The Labyrinth):

The Swiss magazine Appenzeller Zeitung reported on 23 November 1939 that Otto Strasser had denied any knowledge of Elser, Best or Stevens in an interview in Paris. On 13 November, Swiss authorities had expelled Strasser from Switzerland, after he was found to have made disparaging remarks about Hitler in a foreign newspaper in October.

Torture, drugs and hypnosis
The basement cells of the Berlin Gestapo Headquarters were notorious for the inhumane treatment of prisoners. It was rumoured Elser was kept imprisoned on the top floor until January or February 1941.

Arthur Nebe told Hans Gisevius of Elser's frayed state during this period. Gisevius wrote later,

Walter Schellenberg wrote of a conversation with Heinrich Müller, who told him,

Three days later, Schellenberg heard from Müller that three doctors had worked on Elser for twenty-four hours, injecting him with "sizable quantities of Pervitin", but he continued to say the same thing. Four hypnotists were summoned. Only one could put Elser into a trance, but the prisoner stuck to the same story. The psychologist wrote in his report that Elser was a "fanatic" and had a pathological desire for recognition. He concluded by saying pointedly: Elser had the "drive to achieve fame by eliminating Hitler and simultaneously liberating Germany from the 'evil of Hitler.'"

Reconstruction of the bomb
While at Berlin Gestapo Headquarters, Müller put Elser into a workshop and ordered him to reconstruct the explosive device he used at the  Bürgerbräukeller. When Reinhard Heydrich and Walter Schellenberg visited Elser in the workshop, Schellenberg noted, "He [Elser] responded to questioning only with reluctance but opened up when he was praised for his craftsmanship. Then he would comment on his reconstructed model in detail and with great enthusiasm."

Elser's reconstruction of his Bürgerbräukeller bomb was held in such high regard by the Gestapo, they adopted it into their field manuals for training purposes.

Aftermath

Consequences for associates
The day after the bombing at the Bürgerbräukeller, outraged SS guards at Buchenwald Concentration Camp took revenge. Twenty-one Jews were killed by firing squad, and all Jews in the camp suffered three days of food deprivation.

The Gestapo descended on the village of Königsbronn to interrogate the inhabitants, asking the same questions over and over for months on end. The village was stigmatized as a nest of criminals and became known as "Assassinville". Elsewhere, everyone who might have had contact with Elser was hunted down and interrogated by the Gestapo.

The quarry owner Georg Vollmer and his employees were severely beaten during Gestapo interrogations. Sentenced to 20 years in Welzheim concentration camp for negligence in dealing with explosive materials, Vollmer was released in 1941 after his wife petitioned Rudolf Hess through old connections. Losing her mind in fear her husband would be taken away again, she died six months after his release. Prior to her death she started a rumor that a Zurich music dealer named Kuch, with a group of three Communists, had put Elser up to the assassination attempt.

Waldenmaier, the owner of the Waldenmaier armaments factory in Heidenheim, was more fortunate than Vollmer. With the backing of the Abwehr in 1944, he received the War Service Cross First Class for significant contributions to the war effort. In 1940, a Gestapo man had told him: "In spite of repeated torture, Elser had stuck to his story that he had carried out the attack in order to save the working people and the entire world from war."

The Munich locksmith Max Niederholer, who had unwittingly supplied Elser with metal parts, was bound and beaten and detained for two weeks by the Gestapo. Being born in London did not help his case. Maria Schmauder's father was subjected to lengthy interrogation, particularly as Elser had admitted to listening to foreign radio stations in his house—even though that practice was not banned until 1 September 1939. Mathilde Niedermann was interrogated over several nights by the Gestapo in 1939. She maintained that Elser was "completely uninterested in politics", even though it was in Konstanz that he became friendly with Communists. Almost sixty years later, Mathilde and Elser's son, Manfred Buhl, spoke at the dedication of the Georg-Elser-Platz in Munich in 1997—the same year he died.

Elser's lover Elsa Härlen said Elser "led a double life and completely separated his political life from his private life". In an interview in 1959, she said she did not want any restitution from the government of the Federal Republic, as "it was those gypsies that were there before" — meaning the Nazis — that had brought her harm. Generally his family had difficulty coming to terms with his confession as the sole instigator. In 1950, his mother continued to lay the blame on others saying: "I don't think my son would come up with anything like that on his own".

Imprisonment

Elser never faced a trial for the bombing of the Bürgerbräukeller. After his year of torment at Berlin Gestapo Headquarters, he was kept in special custody in Sachsenhausen concentration camp between early 1941 and early 1945. At Sachsenhausen, Elser was held in isolation in a T-shaped building reserved for protected prisoners. Accommodated in three joined cells, each 9.35 m2, there was space for his two full-time guards and a work space to make furniture and other things, including several zithers.

Elser's apparent preferential treatment, which included extra rations and daily visits to the camp barber for a shave, aroused interest amongst other prisoners, including British SIS officer Payne Best. He wrote later that Elser was also allowed regular visits to the camp brothel. Martin Niemöller was also a special inmate in the Sachsenhausen "bunker" and believed the rumours that Elser was an SS man and an agent of Hitler and Himmler. Elser kept a photo of Elsa Härlen in his cell. In early 1945, Elser was transferred to the bunker at Dachau concentration camp.

Death
In April 1945, with German defeat imminent, the Nazis' intention of staging a show trial over the Bürgerbräukeller bombing had become futile. Hitler ordered the execution of special security prisoner "Eller" — the name used for Elser in Dachau — along with Wilhelm Canaris, Dietrich Bonhoeffer and others who had plotted against him. The order, dated 5 April 1945, from the Gestapo HQ in Berlin, was addressed to the Commandant of the Dachau concentration camp, SS-Obersturmbannführer Eduard Weiter.

The order came into the possession of Captain S. Payne Best in May 1945, and appeared in Best's book, The Venlo Incident. That part of the order relating to Elser reads:

The signature on the order was illegible, according to Best.

In his 1947 book, To The Bitter End, Hans Bernd Gisevius commented on the order:

On 9 April 1945, four weeks before the end of the war in Europe, Georg Elser was shot dead and his fully dressed body immediately burned in the crematorium of Dachau Concentration Camp. He was 42 years old.

In 1954, SS-Oberscharführer Theodor Bongartz, the man in charge of the crematorium at Dachau, was determined to have been the murderer of Georg Elser, during a German court proceeding in which SS-Unterscharführer Edgar Stiller was on trial as an accessory to murder. As the SS man in charge of the special prisoners at Dachau from 1943 to 1945, Stiller was accused of escorting Elser to the crematorium where he was allegedly shot by Bongartz. Theodor Bongartz was not brought to account as he had died of an illness in 1945.

A plaque dedicated to Elser's memory in Königsbronn says:

Conspiracy theories
Elser has been the subject of rumours and various conspiracy theories since the Bürgerbräukeller bombing. After the war, Protestant pastor and theologian Martin Niemöller, also in custody in the "bunker" at Sachsenhausen, gave credence to the rumour that Elser had been a member of the SS and that the whole assassination attempt had been staged by the Nazis to portray Hitler as being protected by Providence. Many others, like quarry owner Georg Vollmer, building on his dead wife's contribution, weighed in with their version of the truth. In 1948, Allen Welsh Dulles, the future Director of Central Intelligence (de facto head of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency) summed up a range of conspiracy theories when he wrote:

In 1969, historical research by Anton Hoch based on The Gestapo Protokoll (interrogation report) dated 19–23 November 1939, found that Elser had acted alone and there was no evidence to involve the Nazi regime or any outside group in the assassination attempt.

Memorials

In contrast to the conspirators of the 20 July 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler, Elser was barely acknowledged in the official commemorative culture of the Federal Republic of Germany until the 1990s. A breakthrough to a positive way of looking at Elser came with the publication of a biography by Hellmut G. Haasis in 1999 followed by an expanded and revised edition in 2009. Since 2001, every two years the Georg-Elser Prize is awarded for courage, and on the occasion of Elser's 100th Birthday in January 2003, Deutsche Post issued a special stamp.

There are at least 60 streets and places named after Elser in Germany and several monuments. Claus Christian Malzahn wrote in 2005: 'That he was for so long ignored by the historians of both East and West Germany, merely goes to show just how long it took Germany to become comfortable with honestly confronting its own history. Johann Georg Elser, though, defied ideological categorization—and for that reason, he is a true German hero.'

In 2008, a music venue called Georg Elser Hallen was demolished in Munich. However, as of 2014, there were five venues in Munich bearing the name Georg Elser Hallen. In 2011, a  steel sculpture of Georg Elser was unveiled in Berlin, by German playwright Rolf Hochhuth. The memorial, which cost 200,000 euros, was built on Hochhuth's initiative, after the city authorities dismissed the project as too expensive. In the end, the Berlin state senate financed the Elser sculpture. In September 1979, the Bürgerbräukeller was demolished. On its site now stands the GEMA Building, the Gasteig Cultural Centre and the Munich City Hilton Hotel. A plaque in the pavement at the entrance to the GEMA Building marks the position of the pillar that concealed Elser's bomb. 8. November 1939 is the name of the Johann Georg Elser Memorial in Munich to commemorate the resistance fighters fighting against the Nazis. The monument is located in the Maxvorstadt district.

The story of Elser is commemorated in the 1989 film Seven Minutes () directed by Klaus Maria Brandauer, and the 2015 film 13 Minutes (), directed by Oliver Hirschbiegel.

The Georg Elser Prize was established in 2001. It is awarded every two years to individuals who have demonstrated civil courage or civil disobedience against injustice committed by the state.

See also
 List of assassination attempts on Adolf Hitler

References
Notes

Further reading
 Evans, Richard J., The Third Reich at War. Penguin Press, 2008, pp. 109–111.
 Moorhouse, Roger, Killing Hitler: The Third Reich and the Plots against the Führer. Jonathan Cape, 2006, pp. 36–58.
 Steinbach, Peter and Tuchel, Johannes, Georg Elser. Der Hitler-Attentäter.  Berlin: Be.bra-Wissenschafts-Verlag, 2008, .
 Tom Ferry, "GEORG ELSER: The Zither Player", 2016,

External links

 Tom Ferry, Georg Elser  Detailed documentation at georgelser.info

 Georg Elser und das Attentat vom Bürgerbräukeller 1939 at shoa.de
 Heilige – Selige – Ehrwürdige – Namen – Geschichten – Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon at heiligenlexikon.de
 "The Carpenter Elser Versus the Führer Hitler" Der Spiegel, 8 November 2005
 Mike Dash, One Man Against Tyranny , 18 August 2011

1903 births
1945 deaths
People from Heidenheim (district)
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
Rotfrontkämpferbund members
Executed failed assassins of Adolf Hitler
Executed communists in the German Resistance
German people who died in Dachau concentration camp
Resistance members who died in Nazi concentration camps
Protestants in the German Resistance
People executed by Nazi Germany by firearm
People from Baden-Württemberg executed in Nazi concentration camps
German carpenters

Georg Elser


ට්සෞ () යනුවෙන් හැඳින්වෙන්නේ මධ්‍යම දකුණු තායිවානයේ ස්ව‍දේශික ජන කොට්ඨාසයකි. මොවුන් ඔස්ට්‍රොනේසියානු ජන කොට්ඨාසයක් වේ. මොවුන් චීන සමූහාණ්ඩුවේ පරිපාලන ස්ථිතීන් තුනක් වන නන්ටෞ ප්‍රාන්තය, චියායි ප්‍රාන්තය සහ කාඕහ්සියුං ප්‍රාන්තය තුළ ව්‍යාප්ත වී ඇත.

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ප්‍රකට ට්සෞවරු
 ෆ්‍රැන්චෙස්කා කාඕ, නිළියක, ගායිකාවක සහ රූපවාහිනී නිවේදිකාවකි.
 ටෑං ලැන්හුවා (湯蘭花), තායිවාන ගායිකාවක සහ නිළියකි. ඇගේ ස්වදේශික නාමය වන්නේ යුරුනානා දනීව් යන්නයි.
 ටිබුසුන්ගු 'ඉ වයායානා, ස්වදේශික ජනතා කවුන්සිලයේ නියෝජ්‍ය අමාත්‍යවරයායි.

මේවාත් බලන්න

 ට්සෞ භාෂාව
 තායිවාන ආදිවාසීන්

ආශ්‍රේයයන්

තායිවාන ආදිවාසීන්
තායිවානයේ ජන වර්ග

ට්සෞ ජනයා


The Mysterious Planet is the first serial of the larger narrative known as The Trial of a Time Lord which encompasses the whole of the 23rd season of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who. It was first broadcast in four weekly parts on BBC1 from 6 to 27 September 1986. The title The Mysterious Planet is not used on-screen and only appears in the serial's scripts with the four episodes that comprise the story being transmitted as The Trial of a Time Lord Parts One to Four.

In the serial, the Sixth Doctor (Colin Baker) is put on trial by his own people, the Time Lords, accused of meddling in the affairs of Earth far in the future, when it has been renamed Ravolox and relocated light years from its original location. Much of the story consists of video testimony presented by the prosecutor the Valeyard (Michael Jayston) of the Doctor attempting to stop the robot Drathro from causing an explosion that would threaten the entire universe.

Plot

Events of the serial are framed on an arcing plot that carries through the other three serials of the 23rd season. In this, the Sixth Doctor is forced to land the TARDIS aboard a Gallifreyan space station, where he is brought into a courtroom. The Inquisitor informs the Doctor he is on trial for conduct unbecoming a Time Lord; evidence will be presented by the Valeyard. The first evidence is shown through video footage, taken from the Matrix, of the Doctor's recent involvement in the planet Ravolox, where the Valeyard shows that the Doctor willingly became involved in the affairs of the planet. The Doctor denies these charges as the Valeyard brings them. After showing the video, the Valeyard affirms he has more evidence sufficient to call for the end of the Doctor's life.

As shown by the court evidence, the Doctor and Peri land on Ravolox, both noting a similarity to Earth. The Doctor is aware that Ravolox was devastated by a fireball, according to official records, but the presence of flourishing plant life makes him suspicious. As they walk, they are observed by Sabalom Glitz and Dibber, mercenaries on the planet attempting to destroy a "black light" generator in order to destroy the L3 robot deep underground that it powers. The Doctor and Peri find a tunnel and enter to find remains that appear to be that of the Marble Arch tube station on the London Underground Central line, piquing the Doctor's curiosity further. The Doctor wishes to proceed deeper, but Peri is worried and stays behind.

Peri is soon captured by a local human tribe, led by Katryca, and brought to their camp. Katryca informs Peri that she will need to take many husbands for the tribe, and locks her away with Glitz and Dibber; the two were captured after approaching the tribe to try to convince them to let them destroy the generator, which the tribe has taken as a totem. The three manage to overpower the guards and escape, but not before planting a bomb on the black light generator. They are pursued by the tribe.

The Doctor, in exploring the modern underground complex, is also captured by humans under watch by "the Immortal". He is brought before the Immortal, the L3 robot that Glitz is looking for. The robot calls itself Drathro, and is following its instructions to maintain the habitat of the underground system. Drathro orders the Doctor to make necessary repairs, but the Doctor manages to temporarily electrify the robot and make his escape. Drathro sends a service robot after the Doctor.

Peri, Glitz, and Dibber eventually meet up with the Doctor back at the ruins of Marble Arch, trapped between the tribe and the service robot. However, the tribesmen disable the service robot and recapture the group including the Doctor. The Doctor tries to explain the nature of the tribe's totem, but Katryca is unimpressed and places them in a cell again. While there, Glitz confirms that Ravolox is actually Earth. Drathro reactivates the service robot and sends it into the tribe's village to recapture the Doctor, but the tribe is able to disable it again; Katryca decides they should attack Drathro's "castle" to steal its technology for themselves. The Doctor and Peri use the opportunity to escape and re-enter the underground complex, aware that the black light generator is now damaged beyond repair, and if it should self-destruct, it could take the whole universe with it.

Katryca and the tribe are easily defeated by Drathro. When the Doctor arrives, he attempts to plead for Drathro to shut himself down in order to disable the black light system, but Drathro refuses. Glitz, Dibber and Peri arrive after being detained by Drathro, and Glitz offers to take the robot aboard his ship, which has a functioning black light system. Drathro agrees, and departs with the mercenaries. The Doctor finds the black light system is already beginning to self-destruct, and reconfigures the system so that its explosion would be limited to the underground complex. The Doctor, Peri, and the other humans living underground escape in time. The remains of the tribe offer to take in those humans that were living underground, and the Doctor and Peri say their goodbyes.

Production

Preproduction
In February 1985, the BBC announced that the planned twenty-third season of Doctor Who had been cancelled. After vocal protests by the press and Doctor Who fans (including a charity single, "Doctor in Distress"), the BBC announced that the programme was merely on "hiatus", and would return in September 1986.  Several stories which had been planned or commissioned for the original Season 23 were abandoned in favour of an overarching "trial" theme, reflecting the fact that the programme itself was on trial at the BBC.

This story was the last complete Doctor Who story written by Robert Holmes. Its plot is similar to Holmes' first contribution to Doctor Who, The Krotons. In both stories, an alien machine subjugates a humanoid civilisation and forces its brightest young people into its service.

Production
The opening model shot of the Time Lord Space Station where the trial is held throughout the season was the most expensive model shot from the classic series run (costing more than £8,000). The sequence depicts the Time Lord Space Station orbiting in space then dragging the TARDIS inside via the use of a tractor beam.

From this serial until the end of the show in 1989, all location work would be recorded on Outside Broadcast (OB) tape instead of the usual 16mm film. The only footage shot on film for this episode was the opening special effects shot of the TARDIS. The BBC had been encouraging the replacement of film cameras with OB cameras since the early 1980s on the grounds that they were cheaper, and mixed with studio-shot material better. John Nathan-Turner had actually wanted to switch to OB shooting as early as Peter Davison's first season in 1982, but met with resistance from the directors working on the show at the time, so was overruled.

Roger Brierley, who voiced the role of Drathro, was originally supposed to wear the robot costume and physically play the role, but it was realised that the costume would not fit Brierley's  frame. Therefore, a special effects assistant, Paul McGuinness, who helped design the costume, was called in to physically play Drathro, while Brierley spoke his lines from off-camera.

Post-production
Dominic Glynn was hired to score the incidental music for The Mysterious Planet, then John Nathan-Turner offered him the chance to rearrange the opening title music. His new score for the opening theme was the shortest-lived, lasting for this season alone (not counting the unused 1973 version by Delia Derbyshire and Paddy Kingsland).

Cast notes
The actor playing Merdeen, Tom Chadbon, had previously appeared in the 1979 Fourth Doctor serial City of Death.

Reception
The serial generally receives a poor response, similar to the other stories of this era. Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times was critical of the serial: "a dismal last gasp from ailing writer Robert Holmes. The travails of the Saxon-like Tribe of the Free and whey-faced tunnel-dwellers are totally unengaging. Lifeless characters, clumsy robots, flimsy cliffhangers, zero peril."
AV Club's Christopher Bahn said: "'Mysterious Planet' never really takes off, laden down by the script, a lot of time wasted running around in the forest or down corridors, and some atrocious acting by some of the minor characters, particularly Joan Sims as Katryca, the Boadica-esque warrior queen who sounds like she's escaped from a community-theater Shakespeare in the Park production."

Commercial releases

In print

A novelisation of this serial, written by Terrance Dicks, was published by Target Books in November 1987.

Home media
In October 1993, this story was released on VHS as part of the three-tape The Trial of a Time Lord set. It was released on DVD on 29 September 2008, similarly boxed with the other three stories of this season. This serial was also released as part of the Doctor Who DVD Files in Issue 129 on 11 December 2013.

These four episodes, along with the remaining 10 episodes, were released on blu-ray on October 7 2019. Extended versions of these four episodes (along with extended versions of the remaining 10 episodes) were included as extras on Discs 5 & 6.

References

External links

Target novelisation

On Target – The Mysterious Planet

Sixth Doctor serials
Doctor Who serials novelised by Terrance Dicks
1986 British television episodes
Fiction set in the 7th millennium or beyond

The Mysterious Planet


Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) have been named HMAS Geelong, for the city of Geelong, Victoria.
, a Bathurst-class corvette launched in 1941 and lost after colliding with an American tanker in 1944
, a Fremantle-class patrol boat launched in 1984 and decommissioned in 2006

Battle honours
Ships named HMAS Geelong are entitled to carry two battle honours:
 Pacific 1942–44
 New Guinea 1944

References

Royal Australian Navy ship names

HMAS Geelong


Zvjezdasti anis (badijan, lat. Illicium), rod korisnih ljekovitih grmova i drveća iz porodice šisandrovki, nekada uključivan u vlastitu porodicu Illiciaceae. Priznato je oko 40 vrsta koje rastu po Aziji (Indokina, Kina, Japan, Koreja, Sumatra, Borneo, Filipini) i jugoistoku SAD-a, Antilima i Meksiku.

Poznatije vrste su japanski zvjezdasti anis (Illicium anisatum) i Illicium verum.

Vrste

 Illicium angustisepalum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium anisatum L.
 Illicium arborescens Hayata
 Illicium brevistylum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium burmanicum E.H.Wilson
 Illicium cambodianum Hance
 Illicium cubense A.C.Sm.
 Illicium difengpium B.N.Chang
 Illicium dunnianum Tutcher
 Illicium ekmanii A.C.Sm.
 Illicium fargesii Finet & Gagnep.
 Illicium floridanum Ellis
 Illicium griffithii Hook. fil. & Thomson
 Illicium guajaibonense (Imkhan.) Judd & J. R. Abbott
 Illicium henryi Diels
 Illicium hottense A.Guerrero
 Illicium jiadifengpi B.N.Chang
 Illicium kinabaluense A.C.Sm.
 Illicium lanceolatum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium leiophyllum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium macranthum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium majus Hook.fil. & Thomson
 Illicium manipurense Watt ex King
 Illicium merrillianum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium micranthum Dunn
 Illicium minwanense B.N.Chang & S.D.Zhang
 Illicium modestum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium pachyphyllum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium parviflorum Michx.
 Illicium parvifolium Merr.
 Illicium peninsulare A.C.Sm.
 Illicium petelotii A.C.Sm.
 Illicium philippinense Merr.
 Illicium pseudosimonsii Q.Lin
 Illicium ridleyanum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium simonsii Maxim.
 Illicium stapfii Merr.
 Illicium sumatranum A.C.Sm.
 Illicium tashiroi Maxim.
 Illicium tenuifolium (Ridl.) A.C.Sm.
 Illicium ternstroemioides A.C.Sm.
 Illicium tsaii A.C.Sm.
 Illicium verum Hook.fil.
 Illicium viridiflorum Yahara, A. Nagah. & Tagane
 Illicium wardii A.C.Sm.

Vanjske poveznice

Vidi i
Badijanovke

Izvori

Austrobaileyales

Zvjezdasti anis


Die Autobahn Qingshuihe–Yining oder Qingyi-Autobahn (), chin. Abk. G3016, ist eine regionale Autobahn im Uigurischen Autonomen Gebiet Xinjiang im Nordwesten Chinas. Die 53 km lange Autobahn zweigt bei Qingshuihe im Kreis Huocheng von der Autobahn G30 ab und führt in südöstlicher Richtung bis Gulja, das in chinesischer Sprache Yining genannt wird.

Einzelnachweise

Autobahn in der Volksrepublik China
Straße in Asien
Straße in Xinjiang

Autobahn Qingshuihe–Yining


A fusão de poderes é uma característica de algumas formas parlamentares de governo, onde diferentes ramos do governo estão misturados, normalmente os ramos executivo e legislativo. É contrastado com a separação de poderes encontrada nas formas de governo presidencial e semipresidencial, onde os poderes legislativo e executivo são na origem separados pelo voto popular. A fusão de poderes existe em muitas democracias parlamentares, senão na maioria. No entanto, em todas as políticas democráticas modernas, o judiciário não possui poderes legislativos ou executivos.

O sistema surgiu pela primeira vez como resultado da evolução política no Reino Unido ao longo de muitos séculos, quando os poderes do monarca foram limitados pelo Parlamento. Acredita-se que o próprio termo fusão de poderes tenha sido cunhado pelo especialista constitucional britânico Walter Bagehot.

Prós e contras
Uma vantagem da fusão de poderes, segundo seus defensores, é que é mais fácil para o governo agir. Não existe virtualmente nenhuma maneira de haver um impasse da maneira que às vezes pode ocorrer quando o legislativo e o executivo estão separados. Veja, no entanto, a Crise Constitucional Australiana de 1975 para um contraexemplo (em relação à natureza executiva dupla de alguns sistemas parlamentares).

A desvantagem de uma fusão de poderes, paradoxalmente, é o poder que dá ao Poder Executivo, e não ao Poder Legislativo. Em uma fusão de poderes, o chefe de governo deve ter a confiança da maioria na legislatura. Se a maioria for composta por membros do próprio partido, o chefe de governo pode usar esses apoiadores para controlar os negócios da legislatura, protegendo assim o executivo de ser verdadeiramente responsável e ao mesmo tempo aprovar quaisquer leis convenientes para o governo. Uma revolta de membros do próprio partido do governo (ou, se o governo for de coalizão ou governo minoritário, apoiando partidos) é possível, mas a disciplina partidária, juntamente com a tendência de muitos eleitores de votar contra governos instáveis, torna tal revolta pouco atraente e, portanto, rara.

Muitos estados responderam a isso instituindo ou mantendo legislaturas multicamerais, nas quais todas as casas devem aprovar a legislação da mesma forma. A casa responsável é geralmente a mais poderosa e a única com o poder real de encerrar o governo. Outras casas, no entanto, muitas vezes podem vetar ou pelo menos adiar projetos de lei controversos, talvez até que o desempenho do governo possa ser julgado pelo eleitorado. Eles também fornecem fóruns adicionais para investigação sobre a conduta do executivo. Além disso, como o futuro do governo não está em jogo em outras casas, os membros do partido governista ou da coalizão nessas casas podem ser mais livres para se opor a políticas governamentais específicas com as quais discordam. Uma segunda abordagem para conter o poder executivo é a eleição da casa responsável por alguma forma de representação proporcional, como no caso do Japão. Isso muitas vezes, mas não necessariamente, leva a coalizões ou governos minoritários. Esses governos têm o apoio do legislativo quando sua sobrevivência está em jogo, mas um controle menos absoluto sobre seus procedimentos.

Uma fusão de poderes foi especificamente rejeitada pelos formuladores da constituição americana por medo de que ela concentrasse um nível perigoso de poder em um corpo. No entanto, outros países rejeitam o sistema presidencialista pelo mesmo motivo, argumentando que concentra muito poder nas mãos de uma pessoa, especialmente se o impeachment e a destituição do cargo forem difíceis.

Exemplos

Austrália
A Austrália tem um sistema parlamentar parcialmente derivado de Westminster, no qual o poder executivo é inteiramente composto por membros do poder legislativo. Os ministros do governo são obrigados a ser membros do parlamento – mas o judiciário federal protege estritamente sua independência dos outros dois poderes.

Canadá
O Canadá, como outros países parlamentares que usam o sistema de Westminster, tem uma fusão entre os poderes executivo e legislativo, com o primeiro-ministro e outros ministros do gabinete sendo membros do parlamento. O senador Eugene Forsey, do Canadá observou que "no Canadá, o governo e a Câmara dos Comuns não podem estar em desacordo por mais de algumas semanas. Governo ou uma nova Câmara dos Comuns". No entanto, os dois ramos têm papéis distintos e, em certos casos, podem entrar em conflito um com o outro. Por exemplo, em junho de 2021, o presidente da Câmara dos Comuns instruiu um membro do serviço público a cumprir uma ordem da Câmara dos Comuns para compartilhar determinados documentos com a Câmara dos Comuns, e o servidor público se recusou a fazê-lo. O governo federal anunciou que vai contestar a decisão do presidente na Justiça Federal.

Dinamarca
O governo dinamarquês conta com a confiança do parlamento, o Folketinget, para permanecer no poder. Se houver uma moção de censura bem-sucedida contra o governo, ela desmorona e um novo governo é formado ou novas eleições são convocadas. Assim, o Poder Executivo depende do Poder Legislativo.

França
A atual Quinta República Francesa é um exemplo da fusão de poderes de um país que não segue o sistema de Westminster. Em vez disso, a França segue um modelo conhecido alternativamente como sistema semipresidencial ou sistema 'presidencial-parlamentar misto', que existe em algum lugar entre as democracias parlamentares e as democracias presidencialistas.

Israel
Israel tem um sistema parlamentar derivado de Westminster, no qual o governo é geralmente composto por membros do Knesset, o parlamento de Israel. É legalmente possível em Israel nomear ministros que não sejam membros do Knesset, mas isso geralmente não é feito. Por lei, o primeiro-ministro e o vice-primeiro-ministro devem ser membros do Knesset.

Suécia
O sistema parlamentar na Suécia, desde sua nova constituição em 1974, instituiu uma fusão de poderes por meio da qual o princípio da "soberania popular" serve como a luz orientadora do princípio do governo e forma a primeira linha da constituição.

Reino Unido
O Reino Unido é geralmente considerado o país com a mais forte fusão de poderes. Até 2005, o Lord Chancellor era uma fusão completa de todos os ramos, sendo orador na Câmara dos Lordes, ministro do governo à frente do Departamento do Lord Chancellor e chefe do judiciário.

Ver também

 Constitucionalismo
 Economia constitucional
 Governo misto
 Soberania parlamentar
 Hierarquia das normas (toda norma deve estar de acordo com a lei superior)
 Governo responsável

Referências

Governo
Política

Fusão de poderes (política)