Spanish literature generally refers to literature (Spanish poetry, prose, and drama) written in the Spanish language within the territory that presently constitutes the Kingdom of Spain. Its development coincides and frequently intersects with that of other literary traditions from regions within the same territory, particularly Catalan literature, Galician intersects as well with Latin, Jewish, and Arabic literary traditions of the Iberian peninsula. The literature of Spanish America is an important branch of Spanish literature, with its own particular characteristics dating back to the earliest years of Spain's conquest of the Americas (see Latin American literature).

Overview
The Roman conquest and occupation of the Iberian peninsula beginning in the 3rd century BC brought a Latin culture to Spanish territories. The arrival of Muslim invaders in 711 CE brought the cultures of the Middle and Far East. In medieval Spanish literature, the earliest recorded examples of a vernacular Romance-based literature mix Muslim, Jewish, and Christian culture. One of the notable works is the epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid, composed some time between 1140 and 1207. Spanish prose gained popularity in the mid-thirteenth century. Lyric poetry in the Middle Ages includes popular poems and the courtly poetry of the nobles. During the 15th century the pre-Renaissance occurred and literary production increased greatly. In the Renaissance important topics were poetry, religious literature, and prose.

In the 16th century the first Spanish novels appeared, Lazarillo de Tormes and Guzmán de Alfarache. In the Baroque era of the 17th century important works were the prose of Francisco de Quevedo and Baltasar Gracián. A notable author was Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, famous for his masterpiece Don Quixote de la Mancha. In this novel Cervantes consolidated the form of literature that the picaresque novel had established in Spain to a fictional narrative that became the template for many novelists throughout the history of Spanish literature.

In the Enlightenment era of the 18th century, notable works include the prose of Feijoo, Jovellanos, and Cadalso; the lyric of Juan Meléndez Valdés, Tomás de Iriarte and Félix María Samaniego), and the theater, with Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Ramón de la Cruz, and Vicente García de la Huerta. In Romanticism (beginning of the 19th century) important topics are: the poetry of José de Espronceda and other poets; prose; the theater, with Ángel de Saavedra (Duke of Rivas), José Zorrilla, and other authors. In Realism (end of the 19th century), which is mixed with Naturalism, important topics are the novel, with Juan Valera, José María de Pereda, Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín), Armando Palacio Valdés, and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez; poetry, with Ramón de Campoamor, Gaspar Núñez de Arce, and other poets; the theater, with José Echegaray, Manuel Tamayo y Baus, and other dramatists; and the literary critics, emphasizing Menéndez Pelayo.

In Modernism several currents appear: Parnasianism, Symbolism, Futurism, and Creationism. The destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by the U.S. in 1898 provoked a crisis in Spain. A group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), made changes to literature's form and content. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field. Leading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Eugenio d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. Around 1920 a younger group of writers—mostly poets—began publishing works that from their beginnings revealed the extent to which younger artists were absorbing the literary experimentation of the writers of 1898 and 1914. Poets were closely tied to formal academia. Novelists such as Benjamín Jarnés, Rosa Chacel, Francisco Ayala, and Ramón J. Sender were equally experimental and academic.

The Spanish Civil War had a devastating impact on Spanish writing. Among the handful of civil war poets and writers, Miguel Hernández stands out. During the early dictatorship (1939–1955), literature followed dictator Francisco Franco's reactionary vision of a second, Catholic Spanish golden age. By the mid-1950s, just as with the novel, a new generation which had only experienced the Spanish Civil War in childhood was coming of age. By the early 1960s, Spanish authors moved towards a restless literary experimentation. When Franco died in 1975, the important work of establishing democracy had an immediate impact on Spanish letters. Over the next several years a wealth of young new writers, among them Juan José Millás, Rosa Montero, Javier Marías, Luis Mateo Díez, José María Merino, Félix de Azúa, Cristina Fernández Cubas, Enrique Vila-Matas, Carme Riera, and later Antonio Muñoz Molina and Almudena Grandes, would begin carving out a prominent place for themselves within the Spanish cultural field.

Pre-medieval literature
The Roman conquest and occupation of the peninsula, spanning from the 3rd century BCE to 409 CE, brought a fully developed Latin culture to Spanish territories. The Roman philosopher Seneca (1 BCE–65 CE) was born in Spain as were the poets Martial (41–104  CE), Quintilian (35–100 CE), and Lucan (39–65 CE). While the invasion of Germanic tribes in the fifth century CE put an end to Roman Spain, the tribes' relative lack of advanced culture, including any kind of literary tradition, meant that any written literature produced in the Iberian Peninsula continued along Romanized lines. Outstanding amongst the works produced is Saint Isidore of Seville's () Etymologiae, an attempted summa of all classical knowledge. Called "the last scholar of the ancient world", St. Isidore penned theological and proto-scientific treatises, letters, and a series of histories that would serve as models for the rest of Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages.

The arrival of Muslim invaders in 711 CE brought the cultures of the Middle and Far East to the Iberian Peninsula and ultimately to all of Europe. During the era of relative religious tolerance that followed, writers such as the Jewish theologian Maimonides (1135–1204) or the Muslim polymath (1126–1198) Averroes penned works of theology, science, philosophy, and mathematics that would have lasting impacts on Hebrew and Muslim philosophy and prove essential to the flowering of the European Renaissance centuries later. While none of their works can be considered direct ancestors of a Spanish literary tradition, it was out of the cultural milieu fostered by such intellectual energy that the first written manifestations of a Spanish literature proper arise.

Medieval Spanish literature

Andalusi literature

The period of Islamic rule in Iberia from 711 to 1492 brought many new literary traditions to Spain. Most literature at this time was produced in standard Arabic, though poetry and other forms of literature of the Jewish golden age found expression in Judeo-Arabic or Hebrew. Maimonides, for example, wrote his magnum opus The Guide for the Perplexed in Arabic with Hebrew script.

Other major literary figures of the time include Ibn Arabi, Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, Ibn al-Khatib, Ibn Zaydún and Hafsa Bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya.

Important literary styles include the muwashah, maqama, and nawba.

Important works include Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, and Hadith Bayad wa Riyad.

The kharjas

The earliest recorded examples of a vernacular Romance-based literature date from the same time and location, the rich mix of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures in Muslim Spain, in which Maimonides, Averroes, and others worked. The Jarchas, dating from the 9th to the 12th centuries C.E., were short poems spoken in local colloquial Hispano-Romance dialects, known as Mozarabic, but written in Arabic script.  The Jarchas appeared at the end of longer poetry written in Arabic or Hebrew known as muwashshah, which were lengthy glosses on the ideas expressed in the jarchas. Typically spoken in the voice of a woman, the jarchas express the anxieties of love, particularly of its loss.

This combination of Hispano-Romance expression with Arabic script, only discovered in 1948, locates the rise of a Spanish literary tradition in the cultural heterogeneity that characterized Medieval Spanish society and politics. However, the Mozarabic language of the Jarchas appears to be a separate Romance language whose evolution from Vulgar Latin paralleled that of Castilian Spanish rather than deriving from or fusing into the latter. Hence, while the relatively recent discovery of the Jarchas challenges pride of chronological place that belonged for so long to the Poema del Cid (El Cantar de mío Cid) (1140 CE) in the history of Spanish literature, they cannot be seen as a precursor to Spain's great epic poem. What the discovery of the jarchas makes clear instead is that from its origins, the literature of Spain has arisen out of and born witness to a rich, heterogeneous mix of cultures and languages.

Cantar de Mio Cid

The epic poem Cantar de Mio Cid was written about a real man—his battles, conquests, and daily life. The poet, name unknown, wrote the epic in about 1140 and Cid supposedly died forty years before in 1099. This epic represents realism, because nothing was exaggerated and the details are very real, even the geography correctly portrays the areas in which Cid traveled and lived. Unlike other European epics, the poem is not idealized and there is no presence of supernatural beings. It has assonance instead of rhyme and its lines vary in length, the most common length being fourteen syllables. This type of verse is known as mester de juglaria (verse form of the minstrels). The epic is divided into three parts, also known as cantos.

Mester de Juglaría

Medieval Spanish poets recognized the Mester de Juglaría as a literary form written by the minstrels (juglares) and composed of varying line length and use of assonance instead of rhyme. These poems were sung to uneducated audiences, nobles and peasants alike.

Mester de Clerecía

This Castilian narrative poetry known as the Mester de Clerecía became popular in the thirteenth century. It is the verse form of the learned poets, usually clerics (hence the name 'clerecía'). The poetry was formal, with carefully counted syllables in each line.  Popular themes were Christian legends, lives of saints and tales from classical antiquity. The poems were recited to villagers in public plazas. Two traits separate this form from the mester de juglaría: didacticism and erudition. Gonzalo de Berceo was one of the greatest advocates of this school, writing on religious subjects.

Spanish prose

Spanish prose gained popularity in the mid-thirteenth century when King Alfonso X of Castile gave support and recognition to the writing form. He, with the help of his groups of intellectuals, directed the composition of many prose works including Las siete partidas, the first modern book of laws of the land written in the people's language. Another work was La primera crónica general which accounted for the history of Spain from the creation until the end of Alfonso's father's reign, San Fernando. For his direction of these works and many others he directed, Alfonso X is called the father of Spanish prose. His nephew, Don Juan Manuel is famous for his prose work El Conde Lucanor which is a frame story or short stories within an overall story. In this work, the Conde Lucanor seeks advice from his wise counselor, Patronio, who gives the advice through the telling of stories. Juan Manuel also wrote lesser-known works such as El libro de los estados on the social classes and El libro del caballero y escudero on philosophical discussions. Toward the end of the Middle Ages, writer Fernando del Pulgar (1436-1490?) created a new type of prose named the verbal portrait. This form is demonstrated by Pulgar's work Claros varones de Castilla in which he represents the detailed lives of twenty-four distinguished contemporaries. He explores their moral and psychological natures as well as physical traits. Pulgar was the official historian of the monarchs Fernando and Isabel, the famous Catholic Monarchs of Spain. This position gave him close encounters with the characters in this book, making the work realistic and detailed.

Lyric poetry of the Middle Ages

Lyric poetry in the Middle Ages can be divided into three groups: the jarchas, the popular poems originating from folk-songs sung by commoners, and the courtly poetry of the nobles. Alfonso X of Castile fits into the third group with his series of three hundred poems, written in Galician: Las cantigas de Santa María. Another poet, Juan Ruiz, or the Arcipreste de Hita is an outstanding lyricist of the fourteenth century. His only work, Libro de buen amor is a framework tale in which he includes translations from Ovid, satires, little poems called serranillas, twenty-nine fables, a sermon on Christian armor, and many lyric poems that praise the Virgin Mary. Poet Íñigo López de Mendoza, the Marqués de Santillana (1398–1458), begins to show the movement away from the traditions of the Middle Ages. He shows a knowledge of Latin authors and familiarity with the works of Dante and Petrarch. Mendoza was also the first to introduce the sonnet into Spanish literature. The last great poet of the Middle Ages is Jorge Manrique. He is famous for his work which laments the death of his father, Coplas a la muerte de su padre. In this piece, Manrique shows classical feelings by expressing himself in a universal manner (all things come to an end). He is still considered a poet of the Middle Ages in that he finds peace and finality in religion.

Renaissance

The 15th century may be thought of as a pre-Renaissance period. Literary production increases greatly. Outstanding poets of this century include Juan de Mena and Íñigo López de Mendoza (Marquess of Santillana). Spanish literature of the Middle Ages concludes with La Celestina by Fernando de Rojas.

Important Renaissance themes are poetry, with Garcilaso de la Vega and Juan Boscán; religious literature, with Fray Luis de León, San Juan de la Cruz, and Santa Teresa de Jesús; and prose, with the anonymous El Lazarillo de Tormes. Among the principal features of the Renaissance were the revival of learning based on classical sources, the rise of courtly patronage, the development of perspective in painting, and advances in science.
The most important characteristics of the Renaissance are:
 The prevalence of natural, uncomplicated language,  avoiding affectation, amaneramiento and the over-refined phrase, producing simple vocabulary and straightforward syntax.
 Themes such as love - conceived from the platonic point of view; nature - as somewhat idyllic (bucolic); pagan mythology - concerned with female beauty and the histories of the gods, following always the same classical ideal. In relation to these themes, various Renaissance points exist (???) some of them taken from the classical world:
 Carpe Diem, ("seize the day" or "take advantage of the moment"), which recommends the enjoyment of life before the arrival of old age.
 Collige, virgo, rosas which literary means  "Pick virgin the roses" and is a metaphor similar to  Carpe Diem but applied to female beauty, described always following the same plan: a young blonde, with serene, clear eyes, white skin, red lips, rosy cheeks, etc.
 The Beatus Ille or praise of rural life, away from material things, as opposed to life in the city, with its dangers and intrigues.
 The Locus Amoenus or description of nature in all its idyllic perfection.

Baroque

In the Baroque of the 17th century important topics are the prose of Francisco de Quevedo and Baltasar Gracián; the theater is notable (Lope de Vega, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, and Tirso de Molina); and poetry with Luis de Góngora (who is a Culteranist) and Francisco de Quevedo (who is a Conceptist). In the works of Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra notable novels are La Galatea and Don Quixote de la Mancha. The Baroque style used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music.

The Baroque is characterized by the following points:
 Pessimism: The Renaissance had not achieved its purpose of imposing harmony and perfection in the world, as the humanists intended, nor had it made man happier; wars and social inequality continued to be present; pain and calamities were commonplace throughout Europe. An intellectual pessimism took hold, which increased as time passed. This was shown by the angry character of the comedies of that epoch, and by rascal characters on which the picaresque novels are based.
 Disillusionment: As the Renaissance ideals failed, and, in the case of Spain, political power was being dispelled, disillusionment continued to arise in literature. Many cases recall those of two centuries before, with the Danza de la Muerte or Manrique's Coplas a la muerte de su padre. Quevedo said that life is formed by "successions of deceased". Newborns turn into the deceased, and diapers into the shroud that covers lifeless bodies. This leads to the conclusion that nothing is important except obtaining eternal salvation.
 Worry about the passing of time.
 Loss of confidence in the Renaissance ideals.

Enlightenment

In the Enlightenment of the 18th century, with the arrival of "the lights" to Spain, important topics are the prose of Fray Benito Jerónimo Feijoo, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, and José Cadalso; the lyric of the Salmantine school (with Juan Meléndez Valdés), the lyric of the Madrilenian group (with the story-tellers Tomás de Iriarte and Félix María Samaniego), and the lyric of the Sevillian school; and also the theater, with Leandro Fernández de Moratín, Ramón de la Cruz and Vicente García de la Huerta. Enlightenment thinkers sought to apply systematic thinking to all forms of human activity, carrying it to the ethical and governmental spheres in exploration of the individual, society and the state.

Three phases in the Spanish literature of the 18th century are distinguished:
 Anti-Baroquism (until approximately 1750): It fights against the style of the preceding Baroque, which is considered excessively rhetorical and twisted. The recreational literature is not cultivated, but they are more interested in the essay and satire, utilizing the language with simplicity and purity.
 Neoclassicism (until the end of the 18th century): It is strongly influenced by French and Italian classicism. The writers also imitate the old classics (Greek and Roman); its boom extended since the reign of Fernando VI until the end of the century.
 Pre-Romanticism (end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century): The influence of the English philosopher John Locke, together with that of the French Étienne Bonnot of Condillac, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Denis Diderot, will cause a new feeling, dissatisfaction with the tyranny of reason, that emphasizes the right of the individuals to express their personal emotions (repressed then by the neoclassicals), among which figures fundamentally love. This current announces the decline of Neoclassicism and opens the door to Romanticism.

Romanticism

Early Romanticism appeared with the singular figure of Manuel José Quintana.

In Romanticism (beginning of the 19th century) important topics are: the poetry of José de Espronceda and other poets; prose, which can have several forms (the historical novel, scientific prose, the description of regional customs, journalism —where Mariano José de Larra can be mentioned—; the theater, with Ángel de Saavedra (Duke of Rivas), José Zorrilla, and other authors. In the latter romanticism (post-romanticism) some appear:Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro. Some anti-romantic poets are Ramón de Campoamor and Gaspar Núñez de Arce. In part a revolt against aristocratic, social, and political norms of the Enlightenment period and a reaction against the rationalization of nature, in art and literature Romanticism stressed strong emotion as a source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as trepidation, horror, and the awe experienced in confronting the sublimity of nature. It elevated folk art, nature and custom.

The characteristics of the works of Romanticism are:
 Rejection of Neoclassicism. Contrary to the scrupulous severity and order with which the rules were observed in the 18th century, the romanticist writers combine the genres and verses of different measures, at times mixing verse and prose; in theater, the rule of the three units (place, space and time) is despised and they alternate comedy with drama.
 Subjectivism. Whatever kind of work it is, the exalted soul of the author pours into it all his feelings of dissatisfaction against a world that limits and breaks the flight of his desire about love, society, patriotism, etc. They do so in such a way that nature fuses with their state of spirit and it is melancholic, tetric, mysterious, dark... as opposed to the neoclassicals, who barely showed interest in the landscape. The longings for passionate love, desire for happiness, and possession of the infinite, cause a discomfort in the romanticist, an immense deception that from time to time carries them to suicide, as is the case of Mariano José de Larra.
 Attraction to the nocturnal and mysterious. The romantics situate their aching and disillusioned feelings in mysterious or melancholic places, such as ruins, forests, cemeteries...  Similarly they feel an attraction toward the supernatural, things that escape any logic, such as miracles, apparitions, visions of the afterlife, the diabolic and the witchlike...
 Escape from the world that surrounds them. Rejection of the bourgeois society in which they are forced to live makes the romanticist be evaded from his circumstances, imagining passed epochs in which their ideals prevailed over the others, or being inspired in the exotic. In contrast with the neoclassicals, who admired the Greco-Latin antiquity, the romanticists prefer the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Among their more frequent kinds of works, they cultivate the novel, legend and historic drama.
Various are the themes of the romanticist works:
 Oneself. In Espronceda's Song to Teresa, a heartwrenching confession of love and disillusion, he has managed to poeticize his feelings with great success.
 Passionate love, with sudden, total deliveries and quick abandonments. Exaltation and distaste.
 They are inspired in legendary and historic themes.
 Religion, although it is often in defiance of the consequent compassion and even exaltation of the devil.
 Social demands (revaluation of marginalized types, such as the beggar).
 Nature, shown in all its modalities and variations. Usually set in mysterious places, such as cemeteries, storms, the rough sea, etc.
 Satire, connected with political or literary events.

Realism

In Realism (end of the 19th century), which is mixed with Naturalism, important topics are the novel, with Juan Valera, José María de Pereda, Benito Pérez Galdós, Emilia Pardo Bazán, Leopoldo Alas (Clarín), Armando Palacio Valdés, and Vicente Blasco Ibáñez; poetry, with Ramón de Campoamor, Gaspar Núñez de Arce, and other poets; the theater, with José Echegaray, Manuel Tamayo y Baus, and other dramatists; and the literary critics, emphasizing Menéndez Pelayo. Realism offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were'. In the spirit of general "Realism," Realist authors opted for depictions of everyday and banal activities and experiences, instead of a romanticized or similarly stylized presentation.

The realistic works of this period are characterized by:

 Objective vision of reality through the direct observation of customs or psychological characters. They eliminate any subjective aspect, fantastic events, and every feeling that moves away from reality: "The novel is the image of life" (Galdós), "an artistic copy of reality" (Clarín).
 Defense of a thesis: the narrators write their works approaching reality from their moral conception. They are the so-called omniscient narrators.  The defense of a thesis usually compromises the objectivity of the novel.
 Themes that are familiar to the reader: marital conflicts, infidelity, defense of ideals, etc.
 The popular and colloquial language acquires great importance since it situates the characters in their real environment.

Modernist literature

In Modernism several currents appear: Parnasianism, Symbolism, Futurism, and Creationism. Literary Modernism in Spain was influenced by the "disaster of '98", Regenerationism, and the Free Institution of Education (founded by Giner de los Ríos). Modernism was rooted in the idea that "traditional" forms of art, literature, religious faith, social organization, and daily life had become outdated; therefore it was essential to sweep them aside.
The intellectual movement that thinks objectively and scientifically about the causes of the decadence of Spain as a nation between the 19th and the 20th century is called Regenerationism. It expresses a pessimist judgement about Spain. The regenerationist intellectuals divulgated their studies in journals with a big diffusion, so the movement expanded.
Some important Modernist authors are Salvador Rueda, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Miguel de Unamuno and Rubén Darío.

20th century literature

The Generation of 1898

The destruction of Spain's fleet in Cuba by U.S. gunboats in 1898 provoked a general cultural crisis in Spain. The "Disaster" of 1898 led established writers to seek practical political, economic, and social solutions in essays grouped under the literary heading of "Regeneracionismo". For a group of younger writers, among them Miguel de Unamuno, Pío Baroja, and José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín), the Disaster and its cultural repercussions inspired a deeper, more radical literary shift that affected both form and content. These writers, along with Ramón del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, Ramiro de Maeztu, and Ángel Ganivet, came to be known as the "Generation of 98". The label from its outset was controversial and even Azorín, the source of its origin, came to reject it. Nevertheless, it stuck as a way to describe a group of writers who turned in content from the more general exploration of universal middle class values characteristic of Nineteenth Century Realism to an obsession with questions of a more national nature. Their articles, essays, poems, and novels exploring Spanish history and geography carried existential overtones, expressing overall a sense of deep malaise at the social injustice, political bungling, and cultural indifference evident in contemporary Spanish society.

Within a matter of years, these young authors had transformed their nation's literary landscape. To be sure, established nineteenth century realists, such as Benito Pérez Galdós, continued to write novels and theater into the second decade of the twentieth century, and, again in the case of Galdós, were much admired by the new generation of writers. Nevertheless, with the novels of Unamuno, Azorín, Pío Baroja, and Valle Inclán, the theater of the latter, and the poetry of Antonio Machado and Unamuno, a definitive literary shift had taken place—a shift in both form and content—pointing towards the more celebrated experimental writings of Spain's vanguard writers of the 1920s.

Thanks to Azorín's designation of his fellow writers as a "generation", contemporary critics and later literary historians were to catalogue and then interpret the arrival of new batches of authors in such generational terms for nearly the next one hundred years. Certainly, the terminology possesses a certain organizational elegance and indeed, recognizes the significant impact of major political and cultural events on changing literary expressions and tastes (for example, the 1898 connection, or a 1927 literary celebration that briefly united nearly every major vanguard poet in Spain).

The Generation of 1914 or Novecentismo

The next supposed "generation" of Spanish writers following those of ´98 already calls into question the value of such terminology. By the year 1914—the year of the outbreak of the First World War and of the publication of the first major work of the generation's leading voice, José Ortega y Gasset—a number of slightly younger writers had established their own place within the Spanish cultural field. Leading voices include the poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, the academics and essayists Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Gregorio Marañón, Manuel Azaña, Eugenio d'Ors, and Ortega y Gasset, and the novelists Gabriel Miró, Ramón Pérez de Ayala, and Ramón Gómez de la Serna. While still driven by the national and existential questions that obsessed the writers of ´98, they approached these topics with a greater sense of distance and objectivity. These writers had enjoyed more formal academic training than their predecessors, many taught within the walls of academia, and one, Azaña, was to become President and face of the Second Republic. Their genre of choice were the essay and the article, their arguments more systematic, and their tastes, more European.

In contrast to Unamuno's existential obsessions or Machado's conceptual, earth-bound verse, Juan Ramón's poetry pursued a more esoteric version of beauty and truth above all, while still manifesting an internalized sense of the existential dilemmas that plagued intellectuals in the first half of the twentieth century. Juan Ramón was Spain's great modernist poet and the maestro of the coming vanguardist Generation of 1927. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. José Ortega y Gasset became the spokesman for this and essential every generation of writers in the first half of the twentieth century. In essays like "Meditations on the Quijote," "The Rebellion of the Masses," and most famously, "The Dehumanization of Art," Ortega laid out theories of art and society that lucidly explained and celebrated twentieth century vanguard experimentation while holding fast to an elitist social vision whose eclipse this art ironically expressed. The most elusive voice of this generation, and arguably, unclassifiable within this group was the novelist Ramón Gómez de la Serna who carried the narrative experiments of Unamuno and Valle Inclán to absurd extremes, such as in his 1923 novel, El novelista, where varieties of plays with narrative subjectivity result in chapters envisioned through the eyes and voice of street lamps. More approachable and enduring are Gómez de la Serna's "Greguerías," an original form of aphorism that he described as "humor plus metaphor."

The Generation of 1927

Around 1920 a younger group of writers—mostly poets—began publishing works that from their beginnings revealed the extent to which younger artists were absorbing the literary experimentation of the writers of 1898 and 1914. Poets Pedro Salinas, Jorge Guillén, Federico García Lorca, Vicente Aleixandre, Dámaso Alonso, Rafael Alberti, Luis Cernuda, Manuel Altolaguirre were likewise the most closely tied to formal academia yet. Novelists such as Benjamín Jarnés, Rosa Chacel, Francisco Ayala, and Ramón J. Sender were equally experimental and academic. Many of this generation were full-time university professors, while others spent periods as guest teachers and students. All were scholars of their national literary heritage, again evidence of the impact of the calls of "Regeneracionistas" and the Generation of 1898 for Spanish intelligence to turn at least partially inwards.

This group of poets continues to be, without contest, the most celebrated and studied of Spain's twentieth century writers. Their work provides a capstone to what some have called the "Silver Age" of Spanish Letters, a period that began with the veritable explosion of novel production following the bloodless coup of 1868 and that would come to a tragic end with the outbreak of civil war in July 1936.

The writing of this supposed generation can be roughly divided into three moments. In their early years their work arises still out of mostly local and national traditions, culminating in their united celebration of the tri-centennial of the death of Golden Age poet Luis de Góngora. From mid decade until the arrival of Spain's Second Republic in 1931, the Generation's poets reached the apex of their experimental writings, manifesting a clear awareness of the international vanguard "—isms" sweeping major Western capitals of the day. After 1931, the Generation's writing increasingly displays the imprint of the political and social stresses that would lead to Spain's bloody civil war.

The Spanish Civil War

The Spanish Civil War, lasting from July 1936 to April 1939, had a devastating impact on the trajectory of Spanish letters. In July 1936, Spain was at the height of its Silver Age. Every major writer of the three major generations—1898, 1914, and 1927—was still alive and productive. Those of 1914 and 1927 were at the height or just reaching the height of their literary powers. Several were recognized among Western civilization's most talented and influential writers. But by April 1939, Miguel de Unamuno, Antonio Machado, and Federico García Lorca, among others, were dead. All but a small handful of the remaining writers had fled into exile, dispersed across the length of the American continent, most never to enjoy the close associations of conferences, tertulias, and theater premiers that had so often united them in pre-war Madrid.

Among the handful of civil war poets and writers, Miguel Hernández stands out. A young disciple and associate of the Generation of 1898, Hernández, like Lorca, became a martyr to the Republican cause but this time as a post-war prisoner, fighting and writing as a soldier poet throughout the war and then languishing and dying in one of Franco's prisons in 1942. Among his important works, Perito en lunas (1933) from his pre-war surrealist days and Viento del pueblo (1937), evidence of the work of a soldier-poet, stand out.

Witnessing the early dictatorship (1939–1955)

The earliest years of the post-war were characterized more by hunger, repression, and suffering than by any significant literature. The published works of this period were true to pseudo-fascist dictator Francisco Franco's reactionary vision of a second Spanish golden age than to the material and existential anguish facing the majority of the country's population of the time. Neo-baroque poetry and paeans to Franco's Spain satisfied the censors but has enjoyed no subsequent critical shelf-life.

Ironically, the narrative production of one of Franco's censors would provide the first sign of literary revival in post-war Spain. In 1942, Camilo José Cela's novel, , used just enough experimental arrangement (temporally disjointed narrative development to problematize simple accusations of political cause-effect critique; prefaces and post-scripts that confuse authorial intentions) to avoid the censors´ cuts and to present to discerning Spanish readers an exposé of a spiritually troubled, socially impoverished, and structurally violent society. Cela was to remain for the next five decades as one of Spain's most important novelists, eventually receiving the Nobel Prize for literature in 1989.

With the 1945 publication of the Nadal Prize winning  by Carmen Laforet and the 1947 release of Miguel Delibes's , readers of intelligent Spanish narrative at last had cause for hope. While the fresh, joyful experimentation of Spain's "Silver Age" writers had disappeared, Cela, Laforet, and Delibes at least showed a renewed commitment to a kind of writing that first, was connected to Spain's material reality, and second, would stretch itself aesthetically in its attempts to capture the experience.

By the middle of the next decade, a whole new generation of novelists was latching onto the early models laid down by Cela and Laforet. Equally influenced by the films of the Italian neorealists, novelists such as Luis Romero (, 1951), Rafael Sánchez Ferlosio (, 1956), Jesús Fernández Santos (, 1956), Carmen Martín Gaite (, 1957), Ignacio Aldecoa (, 1954), and Juan Goytisolo (, 1954) produced a social realist tradition that was as celebrated as it was short-lived.

Spanish poetry experienced renewal along similar lines. Dámaso Alonso's poem, "Insomnia" (1947) captures much of the angst and sense of violence that informed the works of Cela et al. and that would infuse the Spanish poetry of the era:

Poems by José Hierro, Blas de Otero, and Gabriel Celaya were more direct, penning poems with such transparent titles as  (Hierro),  (Otero), or  (Celaya).

Economic and cultural renewal (1955–1975)

However, by the mid-1950s, just as with the novel, a new generation which had only experienced the Spanish civil war in childhood was coming of age. While still informed by the material social and political conditions of Spanish society, the works of Ángel González, Claudio Rodríguez, José Ángel Valente, José Agustín Goytisolo, Francisco Brines, and Gloria Fuertes among others are less politically committed. Scholars differentiate these poets´ social focus as one of communication of experience versus Hierro's and Celaya's representation of experience. That is, while these younger poets were still interested in talking about Spain, they were at least equally focused on the interactive processes of communication with the reader who was contemporaneously living these experiences. Rather than passively ingest the poet's vision of contemporary society, the poets of what came to be called variously the generation of 1956 or "of the 1960s" produced poetry that engaged the reader in the interpretation if not the production of that vision.

By the early 1960s, the brief social realist burst in narrative was already growing stale. Numerous novelists took a brief hiatus from writing. The general consensus as a new decade began was that the straightforward "realism" of the previous decade, while manifesting the brutal "truth" of contemporary Spanish life under Franco, ultimately failed politically in that it directly modeled the very transparent discourse used so effectively by the authoritarian regime to crush the very opposition to which these writers aspired. Shaped in part by the French "nouveau roman" of writers like Alain Robbe-Grillet, the French "La Nouvelle Vague" cinema of Godard and Truffaut, and Latin American "Boom", Spanish novelists and poets, beginning perhaps with Luis Martín Santos's novel, Tiempo de silencio (1961), returned to the restless literary experimentation last seen in Spanish letters in the early 1930s. Among Spain's most celebrated "New Novels" of this period, Juan Benet's Volverás a Región (1967), Camilo José Cela's San Camilo, 36 (1969), Miguel Delibes's Cinco horas con Mario (1966), Juan Goytisolo's so called "Trilogy of Treason" consisting of Señas de identidad (1966), Reivindicación del conde Don Julián (1970), and Juan sin tierra (1975), Gonzalo Torrente Ballester's La saga/fuga de J.B. (1972), Juan Marsé's Si te dicen que caí (1973), and Luis Goytisolo's tetralogy Antagonía (1973–1981) stand out. While arguably pulling Spanish narrative by the collar from the relative dark of social realism towards the aesthetic standards of Europe's most elite avant-garde, many of these novels proved almost unreadable to much of the public, a reality nicely embodied at the end of Juan Goytisolo's trilogy when an already deconstructed Spanish prose gradually transforms into an unreadable Arabic.

The novel's experimentation was shadowed in Spanish poetry. José María Castellet's publication of Nueve novísimos poetas españoles recognized a group of artists whose works had similarly returned to early century experimentation. The works of Pere Gimferrer, Guillermo Carnero, and Leopoldo Panero, arguably the most important poets of the group, manifest a decidedly baroque style full of oblique cultural references, metapoetic devices, and other forms of extreme poetic self-consciousness spilling into the precious. Like the works of the New Novelists, this poetry was for a select group of readers, if not exclusive to the poets themselves.

Writing in the democracy (1975–1999)

When Franco at last died in November 1975, the important work of establishing democracy had an immediate impact on Spanish letters. Elitist narrative and poetry quickly gave way to narrative and poetry interested anew in not merely teaching (via content or style) but in delighting. Storytelling became the mantra for a new generation of Spanish novelists. Eduardo Mendoza's La verdad sobre el caso Savolta (1975) invited readers to escape to the roaring 1920s of Spain's pre-political, culturally vibrant Silver Age. While availing itself of various "New Novel" experiments such as narrative fragmentation, the use of mixed media, and the presence of numerous often contradictory narrative voices, Mendoza's novel could be read and enjoyed as an adventure story with romantic and dramatic appeal.

Carmen Martín Gaite's 1978 novel, El cuarto de atrás, was another manifestation of the happy melding of experiment with old-fashioned storytelling, pulling readers down through various narrative levels to explore dark memories of Spain's recent political past but with the light, ironic touch of a romance novel. Over the next several years a wealth of young new writers, among them Juan José Millás, Rosa Montero, Javier Marías, Luis Mateo Díez, José María Merino, Félix de Azúa, Cristina Fernández Cubas, Enrique Vila-Matas, Carme Riera, and later Antonio Muñoz Molina and Almudena Grandes, would begin carving out a prominent place for themselves within the Spanish cultural field. During the 1980s, Spanish narrative began appearing regularly on best seller lists for the first time since the pre-war era and many of this new generation became literary and cultural celebrities, living off their work as writers with all its blessing and curses, including the obligation to publish or perish.

By the 1990s, the pressure to produce for the large publishing houses was clearly diminishing the early literary promise of some of these writers. On the other hand, some like Javier Marías, after publishing since the early 1970s, finally achieved international fame, appearing on best-seller lists throughout Europe. Marías's novels Corazón tan blanco (1992) and Mañana en la batalla piensa en mí (1994), and his ever-expanding experiment with real fiction (begun with 1989's Todas las almas and continued through weekly newspaper columns, 1998's Negra espalda del tiempo, and extended in his 21st century trilogy, Tu rostro mañana), placed him on numerous critics´ Nobel Prize shortlists.

The big money available through novel publishing manifest itself in the 1990s in the explosion of literary prizes, awarded in Spain, unlike the UK's Man Booker or the U.S.´s Pulitzer, to unpublished works. Literary prizes became little more than publicity opportunities. The long-standing Planeta and Nadal prizes, already media events, grew in importance and remuneration. They were joined during the decade by the Primavera, Alfaguara, and Lara Prizes, the return of the Café Gijón and the Biblioteca Breve prizes. Most carried large sums for the winners and guaranteed—often obligated—long international book tours.

Into this economically charged mix stepped two new phenomena, the literary superstar and the literary celebrity. The former is almost entirely embodied by journalist turned novelist Arturo Pérez-Reverte who has managed to merit a certain critical acclaim while topping the sales charts with nearly every novel he writes. Many of his novels have been converted into popular films. A lesser figure as far as novel sales, but still important to the overall industry is the literary celebrity. These celebrities range from politically powerful figures like Antonio Muñoz Molina and Jon Juaristi to brief media flashes like Ray Loriga, José Ángel Mañas, and Lucía Etxebarría. The latter three were the most representative members of the last of the twentieth century's supposed literary "generations." The "Generación X," as critics dubbed them, brought black humor to a certain kind of post-political social realism focused principally on sex, drugs, rock-n-roll and the mental illness that accompanies it. These writers proved an excellent marketing phenomenon. That their works will endure is doubtful.

New novelists whose work is more likely to endure that began publishing in this period include Rafael Chirbes, Belén Gopegui, David Trueba, the Basques writers Bernardo Atxaga and Álvaro Bermejo, the Galician's Manuel Rivas and Suso de Toro among others. In the final decade of the 1990s, then, arguably five generations of writers—from Cela, to Sánchez Ferlosio, to Mendoza, to Muñoz Molina, to the Generation X authors—were sharing the expanding literary space of Spanish narrative. Notwithstanding the plethora of prize money that threatened to drown out quality with media-generated noise, the Spanish literary field at the end of the twentieth century was as promising as it had been since the 1920s.

Contemporary literature
Javier Marías is widely considered as the most distinguished author in contemporary Spanish literature. Other acclaimed and widely read writers both nationally and internationally are Enrique Vila-Matas, Rosa Montero, Antonio Muñoz Molina, as well as more commercial authors like Carlos Ruiz Zafón. In recent years authors such as Elvira Navarro and Javier Cercas have published acclaimed best-selling novels.

Outline
 Middle Ages
 Epics:
 The Lay of the Cid
 Poema de Fernán González
 Mocedades de Rodrigo
 Alfonso X
 Juan Ruiz (Libro de buen amor)
 Gonzalo de Berceo (Milagros de Nuestra Señora)
 Jorge Manrique (Coplas a la muerte de su padre)
 Renaissance and Baroque (Siglo de oro)
 The classical prose
 Anonymous (Lazarillo de Tormes)
 Fernando de Rojas (La Celestina)
 Alonso de Ercilla (La Araucana)
 Bernal Díaz del Castillo (Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España)
 Bernardino de Sahagún (Historia General de las cosas de la Nueva España)
 Mateo Alemán (Guzmán de Alfarache)
 Baltasar Gracián (El Criticón)
 Miguel de Cervantes (Don Quixote, Novelas ejemplares)
 The classical Spanish theater
 Juan del Encina
 Lope de Rueda
 Guillén de Castro (Las Mocedades del Cid)
 Lope de Vega (El perro del hortelano, Fuenteovejuna)
 Pedro Calderón de la Barca (La vida es sueño)
 Tirso de Molina (El burlador de Sevilla)
 Juan Ruiz de Alarcón
 Spanish classical poetry
 Garcilaso de la Vega
 Juan Boscán
 Fray Luis de León
 Luis de Góngora
 Francisco de Quevedo
 Saint John of the Cross
 Saint Teresa of Ávila
 Philosophy
 Francisco de Vitoria
 Juan Luis Vives
 Antonio de Nebrija (Gramática Castellana)
 Gómez Pereira
 Bartolomé de las Casas (Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias)
 Francisco Suárez
 Luis de Molina
 The 18th century
 Neoclassical prose
 José Cadalso (Cartas marruecas, Noches lúgubres)
 Benito Jerónimo Feijoo
 José Francisco de Isla
 Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
 Neoclassical poetry
 Tomás de Iriarte (Fábulas literarias)
 Juan Meléndez Valdés
 Félix María de Samaniego
 Neoclassical theater
 Vicente García de la Huerta (Raquel)
 Leandro Fernández de Moratín (El sí de las niñas)
 The 19th century
 Romanticists
 Romantic Prose
 Juan Donoso Cortés
 Mariano José de Larra
 Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo
 Romantic poetry
 Manuel José Quintana
 Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer (Rhymes, Legends)
 José de Espronceda (El estudiante de Salamanca, La canción del pirata)
 Rosalía de Castro
 Romantic theater
 Adelardo López de Ayala
 Antonio García Gutiérrez (El trovador)
 Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch (Los amantes de Teruel)
 Francisco Martínez de la Rosa (La conjuración de Venecia)
 Duque de Rivas (Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino)
 José Zorrilla (Don Juan Tenorio)
 Realists
 Benito Pérez Galdós (Fortunata y Jacinta, Episodios Nacionales, Misericordia)
 Leopoldo Alas, Clarín (La Regenta, Su único hijo)
 Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (Arroz y tartana, Los cuatro jinetes del Apocalipsis)
 Emilia Pardo Bazán (Los pazos de Ulloa)
 Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau (El anacronópete)
 Pedro Antonio de Alarcón (El sombrero de tres picos)
 Armando Palacio Valdés (La hermana San Sulpicio)
 José María de Pereda (Sotileza)
 Juan Valera (Pepita Jiménez, Juanita la Larga)
 Concepción Arenal
 The 20th century
 Generation of 98
 Prose
 Ángel Ganivet
 Pío Baroja (The Tree of Knowledge)
 Miguel de Unamuno (Mist)
 José Martínez Ruiz, Azorín
 Poetry
 Antonio Machado (Soledades, Campos de Castilla)
 Manuel Machado
 Mario Satz
 Theater
 Jacinto Benavente (Los intereses creados)
 Ramón del Valle-Inclán (Luces de bohemia, Martes de Carnaval)
 Generation of 27
 Rafael Alberti (Marinero en tierra)
 Vicente Aleixandre
 Dámaso Alonso (Hijos de la ira)
 Manuel Altolaguirre
 Luis Cernuda
 Gerardo Diego
 García Lorca (Yerma, La casa de Bernarda Alba)
 Jorge Guillén
 Leopoldo Panero
 Emilio Prados
 Pedro Salinas (La voz a ti debida)
 Miguel Hernández (The farmer of more air, El rayo que no cesa)
 Philosophy
 George Santayana
 María Zambrano
 José Ortega y Gasset (Meditaciones sobre el Quijote)
 Alexandre Deulofeu
 Julián Marias
 Fernando Savater
 Xavier Zubiri
 Eugenio d'Ors
 Prose
 Camilo José Cela (La colmena, La familia de Pascual Duarte)
 Fernando Fernán Gómez (El viaje a ninguna parte)
 Miguel Delibes (Cinco horas con Mario, Los santos inocentes)
 Gonzalo Torrente Ballester (Los gozos y las sombras)
 Manuel Vázquez Montalbán (Yo maté a Kennedy)
 Max Aub
 Salvador de Madariaga
 Poetry
 Ramón Gómez de la Serna (Greguerías)
 Jorge Semprún
 José Luis Cano
 José María Pemán
 Theater
 Santiago Rusiñol
 Alejandro Casona (La dama del alba)
 Antonio Buero Vallejo (Historia de una escalera)
 Manuel Azaña
 Fernando Arrabal
 Paloma Pedrero

See also
 Latin American literature
 Philippine literature in Spanish
 List of Spanish-language authors
 List of Spanish-language poets
 Catalan literature
 Galician-language literature
 List of Asturian language authors
 The Premio Cervantes prize is awarded to honour the career of a writer in the Spanish language, regardless of nationality.
 José María Gironella
 Arabic literature, for literature produced in Islamic Spain

References

 Gies, David T. (Ed.). The Cambridge History of Spanish Literature. Cambridge University Press, 2008. .

External links

 La biblioteca virtual "Miguel de Cervantes" Online Spanish literature texts.
 Palabra virtual Latin American Poetry.

Spanish literature


Eğitim ve Bilim Emekçileri Sendikası ya da kısaca EĞİTİM SEN, 23 Ocak 1995'te kurulmuş, şu anda Kamu Emekçileri Sendikaları Konfederasyonu'na bağlı olarak eğitim, öğretim ve bilim hizmetleri iş kolunda örgütlenen sendikadır. Genel merkezi Ankara'dadır.

Sendikanın kurulduğu hizmet kolu

Sendika Eğitim, Öğretim ve Bilim Hizmet Kolunda kurulmuştur. Bu hizmet koluna, hizmet koluna dahil kurumları gösterir. Yönetmelikte belirtilen kurumlar ve işyerleri dahildir.

Genel merkez organları
Egitim-Sen'in genel merkez organları şunlardır:

 Merkez Genel Kurulu
 Merkez Yönetim Kurulu
 Merkez Denetleme Kurulu
 Merkez Disiplin Kurulu
 Başkanlar Kurulu

Dış bağlantılar

Kaynakça

Kamu Emekçileri Sendikaları Konfederasyonu
1995'te kurulan kuruluşlar
Ankara merkezli kuruluşlar
Türkiye'deki sendikalar
Türkiye'de eğitim

EĞİTİM SEN


Sheree Jefferson (* 25. März 1972) ist eine neuseeländische Badmintonspielerin.

Karriere
Sheree Jefferson nahm 1991, 1993, 1997 und 1999 an den Badminton-Weltmeisterschaften teil. 1992 siegte sie bei den New Zealand Open. 1997 wurde sie Ozeanienmeisterin im Damendoppel, 1999 gewann sie dort Bronze. Bei den Auckland International wurde sie 1997 und 1998 Zweite.

Referenzen

Badmintonspieler (Neuseeland)
Ozeanienmeister (Badminton)
Neuseeländer
Geboren 1972
Frau
Teilnehmer an den Commonwealth Games (Neuseeland)

Sheree Jefferson


1888 (MDCCCLXXXVIII), Miladi takvime göre Pazar günü başlayan artık yıldır. Şu anda, Roma rakamlarıyla yazıldığında en çok rakamın (13) olduğu yıldır. Yine 13 haneli olan bir sonraki yıl 2388 yılıdır. Bu durum, Roma rakamlarıyla 14 rakamlı olan 2888 yılına kadar devam edecektir.

Olaylar
13 Ocak - National Geographic Society, Washington'da kurularak National Geographic dergisinin ilk sayısı yayınladı.
6 Şubat - Gillis Bildt, İsveç başbakanı oldu (1888–1889).
 11 Şubat - Sirkeci Garı'nın temeli atıldı.
9 Mart - I.Wilhelm öldü, yerine geçen III. Friedrich Alman İmparatoru ve Prusya Kralı oldu.
16 Mart - Yunanistan Millî Kütüphanesi'nin temeli Atina'da atıldı.
16 Nisan - Alman İmparatorluğu, Nauru adasını ilhak etti.
10 Mayıs - Japonya'da bir petrol ve gaz enerjisi markası olan Eneos'un öncülü olan Nippon Oil, Niigata'da kuruldu.
3 Haziran - Sedang Krallığı, günümüz Vietnam'ında kuruldu .
 Benjamin Harrison Birleşik Devletler'in 23. başkanı oldu
 New York eyaletinde suçlular elektrikli sandalye ile idam edilmeye başlandı
 Tarsus Amerikan Lisesi St. Paul's Institute at Tarsus adıyla eğitime başladı.
 İzmir Atatürk Lisesi Mekteb-i Sultani olarak eğitime başladı.
 Haydarpaşa -İzmir-Ankara demiryolu imtiyazının Almanlar'a verilmesi

Doğumlar

Eylül
 12 Eylül - Maurice Chevalier, Fransız aktör ve şarkıcı (ö. 1972)
 16 Eylül - Frans Eemil Sillanpää, Fin yazar
 26 Eylül - T. S. Eliot Amerika Birleşik Devletleri doğumlu İngiliz şair.

Ekim
 9 Ekim - Nikolay Buharin, Bolşevik devrimci, entelektüel, Sovyet siyasetçi (ö. 1938)

Aralık
 22 Aralık - Joseph Arthur Rank, İngiliz sanayici ve film yapımcısı (ö. 1972)

Doğduğu gün ve ay bilinmeyenler
 Ebu'l Faruk Süleyman Hilmi Silistrevi, din adamı, bilgin,alim
 Cafer Sayılır, TBMM 4. dönem Eskişehir milletvekili (ö. 6 Mayıs 1947).
 Ord. Prof. Dr. Mustafa Hulki Erem, elektrik mühendisi (ö. 1956)

Ölümler
 29 Ocak  - Edward Lear, İngiliz sanatçı, yazar (d. 1812)
 31 Ocak  - Giovanni Bosco, İtalyan rahip, eğitimci ve Salezyenler tarikatının kurucusu (d. 1815)
 5 Şubat  – Anton Mauve, Hollandalı ressam (d. 1838)
 18 Şubat - Köprülü Hamdi, Türk asker ve bürokrat.
 6 Mart - Louisa May Alcott, Amerikalı romancı (d. 1832)
 9 Mart – I. Wilhelm, Almanya kralı.
 24 Mart - Théodore Frère, Fransız ressam (d. 1814)
 15 Nisan - Matthew Arnold, İngiliz şair (d. 1822)
 26 Mayıs – Ascanio Sobrero, İtalyan kimyager (d. 1812)
 15 Haziran – III. Friedrich, Almanya kralı.
 16 Ağustos - John S. Pemberton, Amerikalı eczacı, Coca-Cola'nın kurucusu (d. 1831)
 24 Ağustos  - Rudolf Clausius, Alman fizikçi, termodinamik biliminin başlıca kurucularından (d. 1822)
 11 Eylül  - Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Arjantinli politikacı, yazar ve Arjantin'in altıncı devlet başkanı. (d. 1811)
 23 Eylül – François Achille Bazaine, Fransız general (d. 1811)
 2 Aralık - Namık Kemal, Türk şair (d. 1840)
 3 Aralık - Carl Zeiss, Alman iş insanı, Carl Zeiss AG'nin kurucusu (d. 1816)
 24 Aralık - Mihail Loris-Melikov, Rus devlet adamı, general (d. 1826)
 Ali Rıza Efendi - Mustafa Kemal Atatürk'ün babası (d. 1841)

Artık yıllar

1888


Min afrikanske dagbog er en dansk børnefilm fra 1999, der er instrueret af Jon Bang Carlsen efter eget manuskript. Filmen er udgivet på dvd sammen med Min irske dagbog og En gammel bamses fortælling.

Handling
Hjalmar er 9 år og er med sin lillebror Simon på rejse i Sydafrika, hvor deres far er på filmoptagelse. Hjalmar går i forskellige skoler og får nye kammerater. Det land, han møder, er ikke hans drømmes Afrika om søde buskmænd, men et samfund, der er midt i voldsom forandring. Hjalmar får kammerater, der har levet halvdelen af deres liv under apartheid og halvdelen i en periode, hvor alle fra tigger til præsident forsøger at finde deres nye roller. Raceproblematikken er stadig aktuel, og Hjalmar får den helt ind på kroppen, når han tvivler på sine afrikanske venners egentlige motiv for at besøge ham i det store fine hus.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1999

Film instrueret af Jon Bang Carlsen
Børnefilm fra Danmark

Min afrikanske dagbog


Rosco & Sonny je talijanska serija stripova koju su stvorili Claudio Nizzi i Giancarlo Alessandrini.

Pozadina
Seriju je 1981. godine započeo Claudio Nizzi kao pisac i Giancarlo Alessandrini kao crtač, a kasnije su ih zamijenili Rodolfo Torti i Rudy Salvagnini. U strip časopisu Il Giornalino je izlazio više od 30 godina, ukupno oko 280 epizoda.Glavni likovi bili su plavokosi Rosco i crvenokosi Sonny, par policajaca kojekarakteriziraju neobične metode istrage. Posljednja epizoda, "Missione finale", objavljena je 5. svibnja 2012. i završila je s nekoliko policajaca koji napuštaju policiju, Sonny je postao košarkaš, a Rosco spisatelj.

Izvori

Daljnje čitanje
Luigi Marcianò, "Rosco e Sonny: due poliziotti... in pensione?", Fumetto, No. 85, March 2013, Associazione Nazionale Amici del Fumetto e dell'Illustrazione.

Talijanski strip

Rosco i Sonny


Holberg est une communauté située dans la province de la Colombie-Britannique, sur l'Île de Vancouver.

Notes et références

Municipalité en Colombie-Britannique
District régional de Mount Waddington

Holberg


Balık aşağıdaki anlamlara gelebilir:

 Balık, suda yaşayan omurgalı hayvan
 Balık eti, yiyecek olarak tüketilen balıklar
 Balık (yerleşim), eski Türk yerleşim birimi
 astronomi ve astroloji:
 Balıklar takımyıldızı veya Pisces (takımyıldız), bir takımyıldız
 Balık (astroloji), Zodyaktaki burçlardan biri
 Balıkçılık, balıkların yemek için veya zevk amaçlı olarak avlanması

Soyadları

Balık (anlam ayrımı)


II. Vittorio Emanuele Abidesi veya Altare della Patria (Ulusun Mihrabı) ya da Il Vittoriano, İtalya'nın başkenti Roma'da bulunan ünlü yapı. Piazza Venezia ve Capitol Tepesi arasında yer alır. Abide 1885 - 1911 yılları arasında Giuseppe Sacconi tarafından Birleşmiş İtalya Krallığı'nın ilk kralı II. Vittorio Emanuele'yi onurlandırmak için yapılmıştır.

Abide beyaz, saf mermerden yapılmış olup görkemli merdivenlere ve heykellere sahiptir: Uzun corinthian sütunları, at üstündeki Vittorio Emanuele heykeli, sağ ve sol üst köşelerde yer alan tanrıça Victoria'nın üstünde olduğu dört at heykeli. Abide aynı zamanda I. Dünya Savaşı sonrasında inşa edilen Meçhul Asker Mezarlığı'nı da içermektedir. Yapının girişi de Birleşmiş İtalya müzesine ev sahipliği yapmaktadır.

Dış bağlantılar
 Haritalar ve havadan fotoğraflar - Google Maps
 Il Vittoriano - Quirinale, residence of the Head of State

Roma'daki görülecek yerler
Roma'daki yapılar
İtalya'daki anıtlar
Sunaklar
İtalya'nın ulusal sembolleri

Abide
1935'te tamamlanan yapılar

II. Vittorio Emanuele Abidesi


Arsenda, poznata i kao Arsenda od Béziersa (katalonski: Arsenda de Besiers), bila je katalonska plemkinja, grofica Urgella. Bila je prva supruga grofa Ermengola II. od Urgella; par je bio bez djece.

Nije poznato tko su bili njezini roditelji. Prema jednoj hipotezi, Arsenda je bila iz Béziersa, kći Vilima I. od Béziersa i njegove supruge, čije je ime također bilo Arsenda.

Arsenda je umrla prije god. 1030. te se Ermengol ponovno oženio.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
Obitelj grofa Ermengola II.
Grofovi Urgella

Arsenda


O Concurso Espanha (em espanhol Concurso España) foi uma competição de futebol espanhola, organizada pela Federación Española de Clubs de Foot-ball (FECF), precursora da Real Federação Espanhola de Futebol (RFEF). Foi criada como uma nova competição na que os jogadores estrangeiros tinham permitido jogar, após eles terem sido banidos da Copa do Rei. Apenas foi jogada uma única edição por enteiro em 1912, a qual foi ganhada pelo Deportivo La Coruña. Ela foi oficialmente reconhecida pela RFEF o 25 de março de 2023.

Em 1913, a Real Unión Española de Clubs de Foot-ball (RUECF), uma divisão da FECF, organizou uma competição semelhante chamada Copa Espanha (em espanhol Copa España), da que não se chegou a disputar a fase final.

História

Proibição de jogadores estrangeiros na Copa do Rei
Durante a Copa do Rei de 1911, houve uma grande polêmica em relação á participação dos jogadores estrangeiros. O Deportivo La Coruña e a Academia de Ingenieros desistiram antes do sorteio. Durante o torneio, houve mais protestos e ameaças de retirada de alguns times. Após o jogo entre o Athletic Bilbau e o Fortuna Vigo, a Real Sociedad protestou alegando o alinhamento ilegal de dois jogadores ingleses na equipa do Athletic. A FECF rejeitou o protesto e a Real Sociedad retirou-se da competição. A maioria dos times restantes ameaçaram com fazer o mesmo, assim que o Athletic decidiu não usar mais esses jogadores, mas recusou o pedido do Fortuna Vigo de repetir a partida já jogada. Esta disputa foi um fator crucial na decisão do Athletic Bilbao de contratar somente jogadores bascos locais a partir de então, uma política do clube que continua até o século XXI.

Para a Copa do Rei de 1912, a FECF não permitiu o alinhamento de jogadores estrangeiros. Especificamente, o ponto 7 das regras da competição estabelecia que: "os jogadores que compõem as equipas para este campeonato e seus suplentes devem ser espanhóis, considerando-se como tal aqueles que o são de acordo com a Constituição do Estado Espanhol".

Concurso Espanha da FECF  (1912-13)
Em maio de 1912, a assembléia da FECF decidiu criar um novo torneio no qual os jogadores estrangeiros puderem participar. A ideia surgira seis meses antes, como compensação por não lhes permitir jogar a Copa do Rei. A competição foi chamada Concurso España e foi projetada para ser disputada todos os anos. Qualquer clube filiado à FECF podia inscrever-se, mas apenas o fizeram os clubes galegos Deportivo La Coruña, Vigo FC e Pontevedra Sporting Club, este último desistindo antes da realização do torneio, deixando assim a competição num confronto direto entre Deportivo e Vigo. O jogo final começou na Corunha o 7 de setembro de 1912. Quando o resultado era 4–3 a favor do Deportivo e faltavam poucos minutos para o final, a partida foi suspensa por falta de luz. Os minutos restantes foram jogados no dia seguinte. O jogo terminou sem modificações no placar, vencendo o Deportivo La Coruña o torneio. A seguir foi jogado  um amistoso entre os dois clubes, o qual foi ganhado pelo Vigo por 3–2. Este torneio foi oficialmente reconhecido pela RFEF o 25 de março de 2023.

Na já antes referida assembléia da FECF de maio de 1912, houve uma cisão federativa. Vários clubes, incluindo a Real Sociedad e o FC Barcelona, decidiram deixar a FECF após divergências, formando no final do ano a sua própria federação em San Sebastián, a Real Unión Española de Clubs de Foot-ball (RUECF). A FECF publicou as regras para a disputa da segunda edição do Concurso España, cujas finais começariam o 6 de setembro de 1913, mas isto não ocorreu porque naquela altura as duas federações acima mencionadas já estavam em pleno processo de dissolução e constituição da nova Real Federação Espanhola de Futebol (RFEF).

Copa Espanha da RUECF (1913)
A nova RUECF começou imediatamente a organizar as suas próprias competições, primeiro com a disputa da sua própria Copa do Rei de 1913, e depois com o seu torneio chamado Copa España no qual podiam participar os jogadores estrangeiros. Os clubes participantes foram FC Barcelona, Catalá SC, Pontevedra Auténtico, Real Club Coruña, Irún Sporting, Club Deportivo Bilbao e Real Sociedad, dos quais FC Barcelona, Pontevedra Auténtico e Real Sociedad se classificaram para a fase final, que estava marcada para os dias 25, 26 e 27 de julho. Porém, posteriormente foi adiada para o final de agosto, mas não se concretizou porque nessa altura a RUECF e a FECF estavam em pleno processo de dissolução e constituição da nova RFEF.

Campeões

Ver também
Supercopa da Espanha
Campeonato da Espanha
Copa do Rei

Competições de futebol da Espanha
Competições nacionais de futebol da Europa

Concurso Espanha


Onthophagus pseudovinctus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Tagliaferri & Moretto em 2012.

Referências

Ligações externas

pseudovinctus
Coleópteros descritos em 2012

Onthophagus pseudovinctus


El lago de Beloslav () es un lago costero o limán localizado en la costa búlgara del mar Negro, cerca de la pequeña ciudad de Beloslav (8.382 hab. en 2010) que le da nombre. Está unido por un canal de navegación con el lago de Varna. Antes de que el canal fuese construido, el lago era de agua dulce, pero ahora es salobre. Los ríos Devnya y Provadiyska desaguan en este lago. El área del limán es de 4-10 km², con una longitud de 3,5 km y una anchura de 0,5 km, una profundidad máxima de 14 m y una salinidad de 10 ‰.

Beloslav
Varna
Provincia de Varna
Varna

Lago Beloslav


RFA Salvalour (A494) was a salvage ship of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.

Salvalour was built by the Goole Shipbuilding & Repair Company, Goole, launched on 2 November 1944, and commissioned on 4 September 1945. The ship was decommissioned in October 1955 and laid up in reserve. She was sold into commercial service on 25 November 1971, and was scrapped in Pakistan in February 1978.

References

King Salvor-class salvage vessels
Ships built in Goole
1944 ships

RFA Salvalour (A494)


විශේෂ සිදුවීම්
 324 – Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium.
 987 – Hugh Capet is crowned King of ප්‍රංශය, the first of the Capetian dynasty that would rule ප්‍රංශය till the French Revolution in 1792.
  2006   – Asteroid 2004 XP14 flies within  of Earth.
2009 – Mark II.5 Skytrain cars enter service in Metro Vancouver.

උපත්
1423 – King Louis XI of ප්‍රංශය (d. 1483)
1442 – Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado of Japan (d. 1500)
1530 – Claude Fauchet, French historian (d. 1601)

මරණ
1570 – Aonio Paleario, Italian humanist
1642 – Maria de' Medici, wife of Henry IV of ප්‍රංශය (b. 1573)
2009 – John A. Keel, American Fortean, television scriptwriter, author of The Mothman Prophecies (b. 1930)

Holidays and observances
Christian Feast Day
Heliodorus of Altino
Mucian
Patriarch Anatolius of Constantinople
Pope Leo II
Translation of Saint Thomas, one of four days in the year on which Quarter Sessions sat.
Emancipation Day (United States Virgin Islands)
Independence Day, celebrates the liberation of Minsk from Nazi occupation by Soviet troops in 1944. (Belarus)
 The start of the Dog Days according to The Old Farmer's Almanac but not according to established meaning in most European cultures.

බාහිර සබැඳි

 BBC: On This Day

 On This Day in Canada

ජූලි
ග්‍රෙගරි දිනදසුනේ දින

ජූලි 3


Sho Murata (født 2. april 1987) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Mito HollyHock og Thespakusatsu Gunma.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Sho Murata


عبد الوهاب الزهيري هو أحدأبطال قوات الصاعقة في حرب الاستنزاف.

تكريمه
تمت ترقيته استثنائيا لدوره في معركة رأس العش في يوليو 1967 التي كانت أول انتصار للقوات المصرية بعد هزيمة يونيو 1967. والتي كانت أول معركة في العالم ينتصر فيها المشاة على الدبابات.

دوره في حرب الإستنزاف
كان قائد المجموعة (2) قتال والتي قامت بمنع تقدم القوات بتدمير عربتان نصف جنزير للعدو وقتل جنود العدو والاستيلاء على الاسلحة ومركبة منهما وقامت بإمداد المجموعات الأخرى بها

مصادر
 أبطال معركة رأس العش في ضيافة بيت الصحفيين

وحدات الصاعقة (مصر)
مصريون شاركوا في حرب الاستنزاف
وفيات 2012

عبد الوهاب الزهيري


Timočka buna je srpski film iz 1983. godine, zasnivan na povijesnim zbivanjima poznatim pod nazivom "Timočka buna". Režiju i scenarij potpisuje Žika Mitrović. Film prati sudbinu dva brata: Lazara, kojega glumi Ljubiša Samardžić i Sibina, kojega glumi Velimir Bata Živojinović u doba velike bune protiv kralja Milana Obrenovića, koja je sredinom listopada 1883. godine na ustanak digla više od 20.000 ljudi. Snimljen u produkciji Avala filma i Morava filma.

Radnja

Uča, učitelj u malome mjestu u Timočkoj krajini se zaljubio u mladu Austrijanku. Pokraj ljubavi, vezuje ih i buntovnički duh protiv nepravde i tiranije. S druge strane, Učin brat Sibin, kraljev časnik, ostaje vjeran kralju i tradiciji, smatra kako će Lazarevo priključenje ustanku, ukaljati čast obitelji.

Glavne uloge
 Ljubiša Samardžić - Lazar "Uča"
 Velimir Bata Živojinović - kapetan Sibin
 Dragomir Bojanić Gidra - poslanik Ljuba Didić
 Danilo Lazović - kralj Milan Obrenović
 Vesna Čipčić - kraljica Natalija Obrenović
 Mirko Babić - Milisav "Golja"
 Dušan Janićijević - predsjednik vlade Nikola Hristić
 Irfan Mensur - Nikola Pašić
 Faruk Begolli - potpukovnik
 Dragan Ocokoljić - svećenik
 Bogoljub Petrović - poručnik
 Miodrag Popović
 Ljiljana Sedlar
 Stevan Šalajić
 Minja Vojvodić - Petko
 Jelena Žigon - Sibinova žena
 Mirko Petković
 Slobodan Kolaković
 Milutin Mićović
 Ljubo Škiljević

Izvori

  Članak o filmu na IMDb

Povijesni filmovi
Srbijanski filmovi 1980-ih

Timočka buna (film)


"Imagine", John Lennon tarafından yazılmış ve seslendirilmiş ütopik bir şarkının adıdır. Şarkı sanatçının 1971 tarihli Imagine isimli albümünde yer almaktaydı. Her ne kadar çeşitli versiyonları yapılmış olsa ve zaman içinde birçok farklı sanatçı şarkıyı seslendirmiş olsa da hâlâ en çok sevilen ve beğenilen versiyonu orijinal olanıdır.

Bugün en çok sevilen şarkılardan olan Imagine, Rolling Stone'un Tüm Zamanların En İyi 500 Şarkısı anketinde üçüncü olmuştur.

Lennon şarkıyı "din-karşıtı, milliyetçilik-karşıtı, geleneklere karşı ve anti-kapitalist fakat şeker kaplı olduğu için kabul görmüş" olarak tanımlamıştır. Bu tanım Geoffrey Giuliano'nun Lennon in America isimli kitabında belirtilmiştir.

Şarkıda Lennon, kendi ütopya görüşünün hayal edilmesini ister, orada ülke yoktur, din yoktur, mülk yoktur ve uğruna öldürecek ya da ölecek herhangi bir şey yoktur. Orada sadece barış içinde yaşayan ve tüm dünyayı paylaşan insanlar vardır.

Her ne kadar şarkı sözlerinin Lennon'un daha barışçıl bir dünyaya dair umutlarından doğduğu düşünülmüş olsa da, aslında şarkının nakaratı Yoko Ono tarafından daha Lennon'la tanışmadan önce çeşitli şiirlerinde ve Grapefruit isimli kitabında kullanılmıştı. Nakaratın ilham kaynağı 2. Dünya Savaşı sırasında, Ono'nun Japonya'da geçirdiği çocukluğu, bu döneme verdiği tepkidir. Lennon, birkaç sefer, şarkının sözleri için her ikisinin de (Yoko Ono'nun da) anılması gerektiğini belirtmiştir.

Şarkı farklı yerlerde kullanılmış, kabul edilmiş, farklı sanatçılar tarafından defalarca seslendirilmiş ve farklı şeylere ilham kaynağı olmuştur. Bunlardan bazıları:

 "Imagine" insan hakları örgütü Amnesty International yani Uluslararası Af Örgütü'nün resmi şarkısıdır.
 1993'te, Lennon'un Ölüm Yıldönümünde, David Bowie şarkıyı canlı olarak yeniden seslendirmiştir (cover yapmıştır).
 1999'da BMI "Imagine" şarkısını 20. yüzyılda en çok seslendirilen 100 şarkıdan biri seçmiştir.
 2004'te, A Perfect Circle grubu şarkıyı eMOTIVE isimli albümlerinde yeniden seslendirdi (cover yaptı).
 2015'te, Lady Gaga şarkıyı 2015 Avrupa Oyunları'nın yapıldığı Azerbaycan'ın başkenti Bakü'de oyunların açılışında seslendirdi.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Lyrics007.com - Imagine şarkı sözleri
 Yoko'nun etkisi

1971 single'ları
1971 şarkıları
1975 single'ları
1980 single'ları
Barış sembolleri
Dini eleştiren şarkılar
En İyi Pop Vokal İşbirliği Grammy Ödülü
Federation of the Italian Music Industry'den altın sertifika alan single'lar
John Lennon şarkıları
John Lennon tarafından yazılan şarkılar
John Lennon'ın yapımcısı olduğu şarkılar
Madonna şarkıları
Rock baladları
Savaş karşıtı şarkılar
Soft rock şarkıları
1980'lerde İngilizce şarkılar

Imagine (John Lennon şarkısı)


Harry Brakmann Helmsley (March 4, 1909 – January 4, 1997) was an American real estate billionaire whose company, Helmsley-Spear, became one of the country's biggest property holders, owning the Empire State Building and many of New York's most prestigious hotels. His second marriage to Leona Roberts ("Queen of Mean") led to charges of false accounting and tax evasion as well as a celebrated trial, where Harry was judged too frail to plead, but Leona was fined and jailed.

Early career
Harry Helmsley was the son of Henry Helmsley, a wholesale dry goods buyer, and the former Minnie Brakmann. He was born in Manhattan and brought up in The Bronx, attending Evander Childs High School, where he did not graduate. The family could not afford a college education, but his grandfather got him a job as an office boy in a real estate firm, Dwight, Voorhis & Perry, where he showed a keen talent for the business and was made a partner. In 1938, he bought the firm, renaming it Dwight, Voorhis & Helmsley. In the early stages of his career, his portfolio consisted mainly of smaller properties in less-affluent parts of New York City, though it was extensive and highly profitable.

Notable properties and companies

In 1954, Helmsley bought the Lincoln Building, a major office skyscraper on Forty-second Street. A year later, he bought a real estate management company owned by Leon Spear, and the firm became known as Helmsley-Spear.

In 1961, Helmsley bought the Empire State Building—then the tallest building in the world—despite warnings that the maintenance costs would be too high. Other notable New York office properties that Helmsley owned during his career included the Helmsley Building (230 Park Avenue), the Graybar Building (420 Lexington Avenue), the Flatiron Building (175 Fifth Avenue), the Fisk Building (250 West 57th Street), the Toy Center (200 Fifth Avenue) and 1350 Broadway. He also invested in large residential properties including Park West Village on Manhattan's west side, Tudor City on the east side, and in Fresh Meadows in Queens and Parkchester in the Bronx. Industrial properties included the Starrett-Lehigh Building in Manhattan and Bush Terminal in the Bronx.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Helmsley began investing in hotels. Among his holdings were the Helmsley Windsor Hotel (West 58th Street), the Park Lane Hotel (Central Park South) and the Helmsley Palace, which he built behind the Villard Houses on Madison Avenue between 50th and 51st Streets.

In addition to Helmsley-Spear, which had 450 employees by 1980, he also owned Brown Harris Stevens, Inc., a residential brokerage firm. Helmsley bought Brown Harris Stevens in 1964. In addition to its high-end residential brokerage business, the company managed residential buildings, including some of the most prestigious co-ops on Park and Fifth Avenues and Central Park West. When Helmsley sold the business in 1995, the company managed 128 buildings.

Helmsley became known as the most influential real estate magnate in the city. In addition to his activities in Manhattan, in the early 1970s Helmsley built the Palace on Brickell, a 254-unit residential condominium tower located along Miami's prestigious Brickell Avenue.

Helmsley's success was attributed largely to a gift for salesmanship, a willingness to delegate authority, and a less-usual acquisition policy of long-term fixed-rate mortgages during a slump and cash purchases when interest rates were low. This policy has since become standard in real estate.

Marriage to Leona
In 1938, he had married a widow, Eve Ella Sherpick Green. In 1971, he divorced her and the next year married Leona Roberts, vice-president of one of his many companies. She was a high-profile manager, dynamic but abrasive ("Queen of Mean"), and she demanded a luxurious lifestyle, quite unlike the modest private life he had been living until then. Basing themselves in a penthouse in the Helmsley-owned Park Lane Hotel on Central Park South, they moved into hotel construction and operation on a big scale, diversifying beyond New York for the first time, to many other big centres. Their portfolio included The Helmsley Middletowne Hotel, the New York Helmsley Hotel (also known as the New York Harley), The Helmsley Windsor Hotel, the St. Moritz (now the Ritz-Carlton), the Carlton House hotels, the Harley Hotel chain and The Helmsley Building in New York City.
In 1980, Harry received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York."

His crown jewel was New York's 50-story Helmsley Palace Hotel on Madison Avenue at Fiftieth Street. The hotel opened in 1980 to great fanfare and soon became known as the city's most elegant venue. However, it marked the beginning of financial and legal troubles that would dog the marriage until Harry's death. Partly due to Leona's extravagant plans and frequent demands for changes, the cost of the building skyrocketed, and it was proved that they had contracted some work out to their own subsidiaries at inflated prices. In 1988, they were also charged with major tax evasion based on false accounting. By this time, Harry was judged too frail to plead but Leona served 18 months in prison, in addition to being heavily fined.

Death
Helmsley died of pneumonia at age 87 at a hospital in Scottsdale, Arizona, and left all of his empire ($5.5 billion) to his wife, Leona. His remains were initially entombed at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York, but later moved to Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York.

In popular culture
Helmsley's marriage to Leona was dramatized in the 1990 TV movie Leona Helmsley: The Queen of Mean, which starred Lloyd Bridges as Harry and Suzanne Pleshette as Leona. Pleshette was nominated for an Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award for the portrayal.

See also
 The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust

References

External links
 American National Biography Listing for Harry Helmsley

1909 births
1997 deaths
American billionaires
American hoteliers
American real estate businesspeople
Deaths from pneumonia in Arizona
Businesspeople from the Bronx
Burials at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery
20th-century American businesspeople

Harry Helmsley


Rehab Elsherbini (en ), née le , est une coureuse cycliste égyptienne.

Carrière
Aux Championnats d'Afrique de cyclisme sur route 2022 à Charm el-Cheikh, Rehab Elsherbini est médaillée de bronze en contre-la-montre par équipes ainsi qu'en contre-la-montre par équipes mixtes.

Palmarès sur route
 2022
  Médaillée de bronze du championnat d'Afrique du contre-la-montre par équipes
  Médaillée de bronze du championnat d'Afrique du contre-la-montre par équipes mixtes

Notes et références

Liens externes

Coureuse cycliste égyptienne
Naissance en septembre 1999

Rehab Elsherbini


Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are an epithelial cell line derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, often used in biological and medical research and commercially in the production of recombinant therapeutic proteins. They have found wide use in studies of genetics, toxicity screening, nutrition and gene expression, particularly to express recombinant proteins. CHO cells are the most commonly used mammalian hosts for industrial production of recombinant protein therapeutics.

History
Chinese hamsters had been used in research since 1919, where they were used in place of mice for typing pneumococci. They were subsequently found to be excellent vectors for transmission of kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis), facilitating Leishmania research.

In 1948, the Chinese hamster was first used in the United States for breeding in research laboratories. In 1957, Theodore T. Puck obtained a female Chinese hamster from Dr. George Yerganian's laboratory at the Boston Cancer Research Foundation and used it to derive the original Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line. Since then, CHO cells have been a cell line of choice because of their rapid growth in suspension culture and high protein production.

The thrombolytic medication alteplase (Activase), which was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in 1987, was the first commercially available recombinant protein produced from CHO cells. CHO cells have played a significant role in the production of recombinant protein therapeutics since, with CHO cells producing 70% of biologics and monoclonal antibodies in 2016.

Properties
All CHO cell lines are deficient in proline synthesis. Also, CHO cells do not express the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which makes them ideal in the investigation of various EGFR mutations.

Furthermore, Chinese hamster ovary cells are able to produce proteins with complex glycosylations, post-translational modifications (PTMs) similar to those produced in humans. They are easily growable in large-scale cultures and have great viability, which is why they are ideal for GMP protein production. Also, CHO cells are tolerant to variations in parameters, be it oxygen levels, pH-value, temperature or cell density.

Having a very low chromosome number (2n=22) for a mammal, the Chinese hamster is also a good model for radiation cytogenetics and tissue culture.

Variants
Since the original CHO cell line was described in 1956, many variants of the cell line have been developed for various purposes. In 1957, CHO-K1 was generated from a single clone of CHO cells. Variants of K1 include the deposits in ATCC, ECACC, and a version adated for growth in protein-free medium.

CHO-K1 was mutagenized in the 1970s with ethyl methanesulfonate to generate a cell line lacking  dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) activity, referred to as CHO-DXB11 (also referred to as CHO-DUKX). However, these cells, when mutagenized, could revert to DHFR activity, making their utility for research somewhat limited. Subsequently in 1983, CHO cells were mutagenized with gamma radiation to yield a cell line in which both alleles of the DHFR locus were completely eliminated, termed CHO-DG44. These DHFR-deficient strains require glycine, hypoxanthine, and thymidine for growth. Cell lines with mutated DHFR are useful for genetic manipulation as cells transfected with a gene of interest along with a functional copy of the DHFR gene can easily be screened for in thymidine-lacking media. Due to this, CHO cells lacking DHFR are the most widely used CHO cells for industrial protein production.

More recently, other selection systems have become popular and with vector systems that can more efficiently target active chromatin in CHO cells, antibiotic selection (puromycin) can be used as well to generate recombinant cells expressing proteins at high level. This sort of system requires no special mutation, so that non-DHFR-deficient host cell culture have been found to produce excellent levels of proteins.

Since CHO cells have a very high propensity of genetic instability (like all immortalised cells) one should not assume that the names applied indicate their usefulness for manufacturing purposes. For example, the three K1 offspring cultures available in 2013 each have significant accumulated mutations compared to each other. Most, if not all industrially used CHO cell lines are now cultivated in animal component free media or in chemically defined media, and are used in large scale bioreactors under suspension culture. The complex genetics of CHO cells and the issues concerning clonal derivation of cell population was extensively discussed.

Genetic manipulation
Much of the genetic manipulation done in CHO cells is done in cells lacking DHFR enzyme. This genetic selection scheme remains one of the standard methods to establish transfected CHO cell lines for the production of recombinant therapeutic proteins. The process begins with the molecular cloning of the gene of interest and the DHFR gene into a single mammalian expression system.  The plasmid DNA carrying the two genes is then transfected into cells, and the cells are grown under selective conditions in a thymidine-lacking medium.  Surviving cells will have the exogenous DHFR gene along with the gene of interest integrated in its genome. The growth rate and the level of recombinant protein production of each cell line varies widely. To obtain a few stably transfected cell lines with the desired phenotypic characteristics, evaluating several hundred candidate cell lines may be necessary.

The CHO and CHO-K1 cell lines can be obtained from a number of biological resource centres such as the European Collection of Cell Cultures, which is part of the Health Protection Agency Culture Collections. These organizations also maintain data, such as growth curves, timelapse videos of growth, images, and subculture routine information.

Industrial use
CHO cells are the most common mammalian cell line used for mass production of therapeutic proteins. They can produce recombinant protein on the scale of 3–10 grams per liter of culture. Products of CHO cells are suitable for human applications, as they allow post-translational modifications to recombinant proteins which can function in humans.

See also

Cell culture
Drug development
Preclinical development

References

External links
Chinese Hamster Genome Database
 Recombinant Protein Therapeutics from CHO Cells — 20 Years and Counting

Cellosaurus entry for CHO
Cellosaurus entry for CHO-K1
Cellosaurus entry for CHO-DG44
Cellosaurus entry for CHO-DXB11

Rodent cell lines

Chinese hamster ovary cell


Bukinist je trgovac starim knjigama. Pojam potječe od trgovaca antikvarnih knjiga na obali Seine u Parizu, ali je kasnije proširen i na prodavače koji na uličnim štandovima prodaju rabljene i nove knjige te druge publikacije kolekcionarske vrijednosti, kao što su marke, časopisi i plakati.

Pariški bukinisti

Etimologija
Riječ bukinist potječe iz francuske riječi bouquiniste = knjižar, prema riječi bouquin = knjižica. Prvobitni pojam boucquain vjerojatno je izveden iz flamanske riječi boeckîn i javlja se još 1459. godine, a oblik bouquin se ustalio u 16. stoljeću, koje se uzima kao vrijeme nastanka bukinistike.

Organizacija
Strogi gradski propisi Pariza reguliraju izgled, postavljanje i održavanje štandova bukinista, jer se nalaze na području koje je 1991. uvršteno u Unescovu svjetsku baštinu. Zbog poštovanja te stroge regulative o njihovoj trgovini, bukinisti od 2011. godine imaju olakšicu te ne moraju plaćati porez niti najam prostora na parapetima.

Postavljanje
Prema podatcima iz 1993. godine, ukupno 244 štanda bukinista u Parizu raspoređeni su na naspramnim obalama rijeke Seine (slika desno), od mosta Pont de Sully do mosta Pont Royal, u dužini 2 km na lijevoj i 1,5 km na desnoj obali. Štandovi su u stvari "zelene kutije" postavljene na parapetima duž kejeva.

Izgled

Prema uredbama gradonačelnika Pariza i gradske uprave iz 1993., 2010. i 2011. godine svaki bukinist može imati najviše 4 kutije, čije su najveće dimenzije 200 × 75 cm, 60 cm visina stranice prema rijeci i 35 cm visine prema keju, te s razmakom među kutijama od 20 cm može zauzeti prostor od najviše 8,60 m. Kutija s otvorenim poklopcem ne smije prijeći visinu od 210 cm. Boja kutija propisana je kao vert wagon (zelena kola), povijesna zelena boja prve metropole, ista kao kod Wallaceovih fontana (javne fontane za piće) i Morrisovih stupova (oglasni stupovi).

Sadržaj
Sadržaj štanda mogu biti stare knjige i dokumenti, rabljene knjige, stare gravire i eventualno roba koja ilustrira kejeve i bukiniste. Dozvoljena je i prodaja novih knjiga nezavisnih izdavača. Procjenjuje se da ukupno na svim štandovima samo starih knjiga ima oko 300.000, dok broj ostalog materijala nije poznat.

U jednoj od kutija mogu se prodavati stare kovanice, medalje, poštanske marke, razglednice i suveniri Pariza, izbjegavajući predmete bez umjetničke vrijednosti. Zabranjeno je izlaganje i prodaja materijala koji je u suprotnosti s moralom ili javnim poretkom.

Radno vrijeme
Radno vrijeme također je strogo regulirano. Osim za lošeg vremena, štandovi moraju biti otvoreni najmanje 4 dana tjedno, od toga 3 dana na štandu mora biti vlasnik, a u ostale dane može imati zamjenu (suprug, roditelj ili zaposlenik). Dozvoljeni su prekidi u radu zbog održavanja, godišnjeg odmora (do 6 tjedana) i bolovanja (do 3 mjeseca), o čemu vlasnik mora obavijestiti gradsku upravu.

Povijest
Izum tiskarskog stroja 1440. godine i razvoj tiskarstva iza toga potaknuo je trgovinu knjigama, kako u knjižarama, tako i kod malih putujućih dobavljača i prodavača. Razvoju bukinistike umnogome su doprinijela politička i religijska previranja u narednim stoljećima.

O nastanku pariških bukinista kolaju dvije priče:

Među bukinistima se može čuti legenda po kojoj je brod koji je prevozio knjige potonuo kod katedrale Notre-Dame. Mornari s broda su zaranjali i pokušavali spasiti što više knjiga. Izvađene knjige su sušili na parapetima i prodavali prolaznicima, kako bi donekle nadoknadili izgubljenu zaradu. Ta se zarada ispostavila dovoljnom za početak trgovine. Iako je priča zanimljiva, nije potkrijepljena dokazima.

Vjerojatnija je priča po kojoj tradicija bukinista u Parizu potječe iz 16. stoljeća od putujućih prodavača novina, knjiga, kalendara i raznih brošura. Prodavači su robu izlagali na stalcima ili na prostirkama na zemlji ili su hodali okolo s drvenom kutijom ili košarom na prsima, koja je remenom bila ovješena oko vrata. Međutim, prava konkurencija knjižarama bile su prijenosne knjižare na kolicima (karijola), koje su bile pogodne za brzi bijeg od tada veoma aktivne cenzure.

Monarhija se bojala da će s bukinistima imati isti problem kao s tiskarima, koji su omogućili da knjige dopru do svih slojeva društva, podrivajući vjerske institucije, zbog čega je Katolička crkva na Tridentskom saboru 1559. izdala Index Librorum Prohibitorum (popis zabranjenih knjiga). Kraljevskim ukazom iz 1577. bukinisti su izjednačeni s lopovima, ali već sljedeće godine presudom suda 10 trgovaca dobilo je dozvolu za rad, na mjestima i sa sadržajem koji su im određeni. Krajem 16. i početkom 17. stoljeća ovi ukazi i presude su ukinuti.

Od srpnja 1606. Pont-Neuf (novi most) se ustalio kao mjesto trgovaca knjigama. U to vrijeme nije bilo kuća, pa je široka ulica s pločnicima pogodovala trgovcima. Za nekoliko godina postala je jedna od glavnih ulica, jer su trgovci privlačili posjetitelje. Za godišnju naknadu mogli su postaviti prijenosne trgovine na Pont-Neufu i na okolnim pristaništima. Godine 1620. bila su registrirana 24 trgovca.

Utjecaj
Pod utjecajem pariških bukinista, mnogi gradovi širom svijeta imaju stalne ulične štandove za prodaju knjiga i drugog sadržaja. Na primjer,

Štandovi bukinista u Nišu:

Izvori
 Natuknica "bukinist" na Hrvatskoj enciklopediji, www.enciklopedija.hr (pristupljeno: 19. veljače 2020.)
 Natuknica "bouquin2" u rječniku Émile Littré's Dictionnaire de la langue française sa stranice fr.thefreedictionary.com/bouquin  (pristupljeno: 19. veljače 2020.)
 Kristin Kusnic Michel, Paris' Riverside Bouquinistes, članak na stranici Rick Steves' Europe  (pristupljeno: 19. veljače 2020.)
 Arhivirana stranica izvorne stranice Postavljanje štandova bukinista, sažetak propisa i dokumenti za preuzimanje, www.paris.fr   (arhivi pristupljeno: 20. veljače 2020.)
 Le Parapet, tromjesečnik u pdf formatu, broj 53. iz lipnja 2007. sa stranice Bouquinistes de Paris Alaina Ryckelyncka, arhiva na web.archive.org  (arhivi pristupljeno: 19. veljače 2020.)

Vanjske poveznice

knjige

Bukinist


Campo do Gerês Portekiz'de Terras de Bouro belediyesine bağlı olan, 62,38 km² yüzölçümüne sahip, 187 nüfuslu (2001) bir bucaktır (Portekizce: freguesia).

Terras de Bouro'nun bucakları

Campo do Gerês


Birol Pekel (1 Ocak 1938, İstanbul - 7 Şubat 2004, İstanbul), Türk millî futbolcu ve teknik direktör.

Futbolculuk kariyeri

Kulüp takımları kariyeri
Birol Pekel, İstanbul Ticaret Lisesi'nde sporla tanıştı. Üç çocuklu bir ailenin tek oğlu olan Birol Pekel, Beylerbeyi'nde lisanslı olarak basketbol oynarken Hakkı Yeten tarafından keşfedilerek tesadüfen futbola geçiş yaptı.

Beylerbeyi'nde soliç olarak çok başarılı maçlar çıkartarak büyük kulüplerin dikkatini çekti. 1959 yılında transfer olduğu Beşiktaş'ta 1963'e kadar 131 lig maçı oynadı ve 26 gol kaydetti. Türkiye Kupası'nda da Beşiktaş adına 5 gol attı.

Birol Pekel, o dönemlerin ünlü sloganı, "Şenol – Birol gol"ün kahramanlarından biriydi. Hatta Fatma Girik ve Şenol Birol ile birlikte başrolünü paylaştıkları "Şenol Birol Gool" adlı filmde rol almışlardır. Şenol Birol ile birlikte Beşiktaş'ta çok başarılı maçlar çıkarttıktan sonra yine Şenol'la birlikte 1963 yılında Fenerbahçe'ye transfer oldu. Beş yıl sarı-lacivertli formayı giydikten sonra 1968 yılında futbolu bıraktı.

Millî takım kariyeri
14 kez millî takım formasını giydi ve bu karşılaşmalarda üç gol kaydetti.

Teknik direktörlük kariyeri
Futbolu bıraktıktan sonra önce ticaretle meşgul oldu ve spor yazarlığı yaptı. 1975/1976 sezonunda Antalyaspor'da antrenörlük görevinde bulundu. Aynı zamanda sarı-lacivertli kulübün Yüksek Divan Kurulu üyesi de olan Birol Pekel, 7 Şubat 2004 günü İstanbul'da öldü.

İstatistikleri

Millî takım istatistikleri

Millî takım golleri
NOT:Evsahibi olarak Türkiye baz alınmıştır.

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

1938 doğumlular
2004 yılında ölenler
Türk erkek futbolcular
Resim aranan futbolcular
Beşiktaş JK futbolcuları
Fenerbahçe SK futbolcuları
Beylerbeyi SK futbolcuları
Türkiye millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Süper Lig futbolcuları
Kadıköy doğumlu futbolcular
İstanbul'da ölenler
Karacaahmet Mezarlığı'na defnedilenler
Türkiye A2 millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Türkiye 18 yaş altı millî futbol takımı futbolcuları
Forvet futbolcular

Birol Pekel


Honorius de Autun, cunoscut uneori și ca Honorius Augustodunensis, (c. 1080-1154?) a fost un teolog foarte popular din secolul al XII-lea. El a scris despre foarte multe subiecte, într-un mod non-scolastic, cu un stil plin de viață, astfel încât lucrările sale au putut fi accesibile și comunității laice. El a fost, prin urmare, un fel de popularizator al învățăturii epocii.

Viața
Foarte puțin se cunosc despre viața lui Honorius de Autun. El spune despre sine că este Honorius Augustodunensis ecclesiae presbyteri et scholasticus, dar nimic altceva nu este cunoscut. "Augustodunensis" a fost probabil preluat de la numele localității Autun (Augustodunum), dar identificarea este acum în general respinsă.  Sigur este însă că a fost călugăr și că a călătorit în Anglia, unde a fost pentru o vreme student a lui Anselm de Canterbury. Spre sfârșitul vieții se pare că Honorius de Autun s-a retras la o mănăstire scoțiană din Regensburg, Bavaria.

Lucrări
Printre lucrările lui Honorius de Autun se numără:

 Elucidarium: o prezentare a credințelor creștine, pe care Honorius a scris-o în Anglia. Acestă lucrare a fost frecvent tradusă în limbile vernaculare.
 Sigillum sanctae Mariae: un set de lecții despre cum trebuie sărbătorită Adormirea Maicii Domnului, împreună cu un comentariu la Cântarea Cântărilor, pe care o vedea ca fiind în principal despre Fecioara Maria.
 Gemma animae: O tratare alegorică a practicilor liturgice.
 Un comentariu la Cântarea Cântărilor, (păstrat într-un manuscris de la aprox. 1170).
 Un lung comentariu la Psalmi.
 Clavis physicae, prima parte (1-315) este un rezumat al primelor patru cărți ale lui  Ioan Scotus Erigena Periphyseon (De divisione naturae), iar cea de-a doua parte (316-529) este o reproducere a celei de-a cincea cărți.
 De luminaribus ecclesiae: o bibliografie a autorilor creștini, care se încheie cu o listă de douăzeci și una de lucrări proprii.

Cea mai importantă lucrare a lui Honorius de Autun a fost Imago mundi, o enciclopedie de cosmologie și geografie, combinată cu o cronică a istoriei lumii. Acesta a fost tradus în mai multe limbi vernaculare și a fost foarte populară în întreaga perioadă medievală.

Note

Bibliografie
 Honorius Augustodunensis, Clavis physicae, ediție critică a primei părți (§§ 1-315) și introducere (în limba italiană) de Paolo Lucentini, Romi: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1974
 Honorius Augustodunensis, La "Clavis physicae" (316-529) di Honorius Augustodunensis. Studio e edizione, ediție critică a celei de-a doua parți (§§ 316-529) și introducere (în limba italiană) de Pasquale Arfé, Napoli: Liguori 2012.
 Jacques le Goff, Intelectualii în Evul Mediu, trad. de Nicole Ghimpețeanu, Editura Meridiane, București, 1994.
 Étienne Gilson, Filozofia în Evul Mediu, trad. de Ileana Stănescu, Editura Humanitas, București, 1995.

Nașteri în 1080
Decese în 1154
Teologi catolici
Teologi creștini din secolul al XII-lea
Teologi francezi
Scriitori de limbă latină din secolul al XII-lea

Honorius de Autun


O nuntă cum n-a mai fost este un film românesc din 1969 regizat de Mirel Ilieșiu, Eugen Popiță.

Prezentare

Primire
Filmul a fost vizionat de 607.619 spectatori de spectatori în cinematografele din România, după cum atestă o situație a numărului de spectatori înregistrat de filmele românești de la data premierei și până la data de 31 decembrie 2014 alcătuită de Centrul Național al Cinematografiei.

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 1969 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 1969
Filme documentare românești

O nuntă cum n-a mai fost


Liptovská Teplá este o comună slovacă, aflată în districtul Ružomberok din regiunea Žilina. Localitatea se află la , se întinde pe o suprafață de  și în 2017 număra 1.015 locuitori.

Istoric
Localitatea Liptovská Teplá este atestată documentar din 1264.

Note

Legături externe

Localități din Slovacia

Liptovská Teplá