Jeanne Baret o Jeanne Barret (pseudónimo Jean Baré) (La Comelle, Francia, 27 de julio de 1740-Saint-Aulaye, Francia, 5 de agosto de 1807) fue una botánica y exploradora francesa.

Es conocida por ser la primera mujer que dio la vuelta al mundo con la expedición de Bougainville en los barcos Boudeuse y Étoile de 1766 a 1769. Jeanne Baret se unió a la expedición disfrazada de hombre, haciéndose llamar Jean Baret. Se alistó como asistente del naturalista de la expedición, Philibert Commerson, poco antes de que los barcos de Bougainville zarparan de Francia. Según el relato de Bougainville, Baret era una experta en botánica. Jeanne Baret nació el 27 de julio de 1740 en el pueblo de La Comelle en la región francesa de Borgoña. Su registro de bautismo sobrevive y la identifica legalmente como hija de Jean Baret y Jeanne Pochard. Su padre trabajaba como jornalero y parece probable que fuera analfabeto, ya que no firmó el registro parroquial.

Poco se sabe de la infancia o la juventud de Baret. Más tarde le dijo a Bougainville que se había quedado huérfana y había perdido su fortuna en una demanda antes de empezar a disfrazarse de hombre. Su madre murió 15 meses después del nacimiento de Jeanne y su padre cuando ella tenía 15. Los historiadores coinciden en que algunos detalles de la historia que le contó a Bougainville fueron una invención para proteger a Commerson de la complicidad en su disfraz. Borgoña era en este momento una de las provincias más atrasadas de Francia en términos de la condición de las clases campesinas, y es probable que la familia de Baret estuviera bastante empobrecida.

Uno de los misterios de la vida de Baret es cómo obtuvo educación, ya que su firma en documentos legales posteriores proporciona evidencia de que no era analfabeta. Una de sus biógrafas, Glynis Ridley, sugiere que su madre podría haber sido de origen hugonote, un grupo que tenía una tradición de alfabetización más alta que la típica de las clases campesinas de la época. Otro biógrafo, John Dunmore, sugiere que le enseñó el párroco o que un miembro de la nobleza local la tomó como un caso de caridad. Danielle Clode, sin embargo, señala que Jeanne no firmó el registro parroquial por la muerte de su padre (o el nacimiento de su ahijado en 1756). Su primera firma conocida es en 1764, por lo que es más probable que Commerson le enseñe a escribir, tal vez para ayudarlo con su trabajo. Ella siempre firmó con su propio nombre 'Barret'.

Expedición alrededor del mundo
En 1766, Jeanne Baret se embarcó como asistente del botánico Philibert Commerson en la primera circunnavegación francesa del mundo, durante la cual se realizó un catálogo de especies de todo el planeta.

La expedición empleó dos barcos de guerra franceses, al mando de Louis Antoine de Bougainville, en los que no estaba permitida la presencia de mujeres, por lo que Baret tuvo que disfrazarse de hombre durante los tres años de travesía (1766-1769). Aunque embarcada de incógnito, finalmente fue descubierta su condición de mujer en 1768 y fue obligada a desembarcar en la Isla Mauricio junto a Commerson, el cual moriría  allí en 1773. En algún momento entre 1760 y 1764, Baret fue empleada como ama de llaves de Commerson, que se había establecido en Toulon-sur-Arroux, a unos 20 kilómetros (12 millas) al sur de La Comelle, tras su matrimonio en 1760. La esposa de Commerson, quien era hermana del párroco, murió poco después de dar a luz a un hijo en abril de 1762, y parece muy probable que Baret se hiciera cargo de la administración de la casa de Commerson en ese momento, si no antes.

También es evidente que Baret y Commerson compartían una relación más personal, ya que Baret quedó embarazada en 1764. La ley francesa en ese momento requería que las mujeres que quedaban embarazadas fuera del matrimonio obtuvieran un "certificado de embarazo" en el que pudieran nombrar al padre de su hijo por nacer. Sobrevive el certificado de Baret, de agosto de 1764; fue archivado en un pueblo a 30 kilómetros de distancia y presenciado por dos hombres importantes que también habían viajado una distancia considerable desde sus hogares. Ella se negó a nombrar al padre de su hijo, pero los historiadores no dudan que fue Commerson y que fue él quien también hizo los arreglos con el abogado y los testigos en su nombre.

Poco después, Baret y Commerson se mudaron juntos a París, donde ella continuó en el papel de su ama de llaves. Baret aparentemente cambió su nombre a "Jeanne de Bonnefoy" durante este período. Su hijo, nacido en diciembre de 1764, recibió el nombre de Jean-Pierre Baret. Baret entregó al niño al hospital de expósitos de París. Rápidamente fue colocado con una madre adoptiva, pero murió en el verano de 1765. (Commerson había dejado a su hijo legítimo de su matrimonio al cuidado de su cuñado en Toulon-sur-Arroux y nunca lo volvió a ver en su vida).

En 1765, Commerson fue invitado a unirse a la expedición de Bougainville. Dudó en aceptar porque a menudo se encontraba mal de salud; necesitaba la ayuda de Baret como enfermero, así como para llevar su casa y administrar sus colecciones y papeles. Su nombramiento le permitió un sirviente, pagado como un gasto real, pero las mujeres estaban completamente prohibidas en los barcos de la marina francesa en ese momento. En algún momento, se concibió la idea de que Baret se disfrazase de hombre para acompañar a Commerson. Para evitar el escrutinio, debía unirse a la expedición inmediatamente antes de que zarpara el barco, fingiendo ser una extraña para Commerson.

Antes de salir de París, Commerson redactó un testamento en el que dejaba a "Jeanne Baret, conocida como de Bonnefoi, mi ama de llaves", una suma global de 600 libras junto con los salarios adeudados y el mobiliario de su apartamento en París. Por lo tanto, si bien la historia que Baret inventó para beneficio de Bougainville para explicar su presencia a bordo del barco fue cuidadosamente diseñada para proteger a Commerson de la participación, existe una clara evidencia documental de su relación anterior, y es muy improbable que Commerson no fuera cómplice del plan.

Expedición del Bougainville

Baret y Commerson se unieron a la expedición de Bougainville en el puerto de Rochefort a finales de diciembre de 1766. Fueron asignados a navegar en el buque provisto, el Étoile. Debido a la gran cantidad de equipo que Commerson traía en el viaje, el capitán del barco, François Chenard de la Giraudais, cedió su propia cabina grande en el barco a Commerson y su "asistente". Esto le dio a Baret significativamente más privacidad de la que hubiera tenido de otra manera a bordo del barco abarrotado. En particular, la cabina del capitán le dio a Baret acceso a baños privados para que no tuviera que usar la ducha compartida con otros miembros de la tripulación.

Además del relato publicado de Bougainville, la historia de Baret figura en otras tres memorias supervivientes de la expedición: un diario mantenido conjuntamente por Commerson y Pierre Duclos-Guyot; un diario del Príncipe de Nassau-Siegen, pasajero de pago en la Boudeuse; y memorias de François Vivès, cirujano del Étoile. Vivès tiene más que decir sobre Baret, pero sus memorias son problemáticas porque él y Commerson estuvieron en malos términos durante todo el viaje, y su relato, en gran parte escrito o revisado después del hecho, está lleno de insinuaciones y comentarios rencorosos dirigidos tanto a Commerson como a Baret.

Commerson sufrió mucho tanto por el mareo como por una úlcera recurrente en la pierna en la primera parte del viaje, y Baret probablemente pasó la mayor parte del tiempo atendiéndolo. Aparte de la ceremonia de "cruzar la línea", que Commerson describió con cierto detalle en sus memorias, los botánicos tenían poco que hacer hasta que el Étoile llegó a Montevideo. Allí emprendieron expediciones a las llanuras y montañas circundantes. La pierna de Commerson todavía le molestaba, y Baret parece haber hecho gran parte del trabajo real, transportando suministros y muestras. En Río de Janeiro, un lugar mucho más peligroso, donde el capellán de Étoile fue asesinado en tierra poco después de su llegada, Commerson fue confinado oficialmente en el barco mientras su pierna sanaba, pero él y Baret recolectaron muestras de una vid en flor, a la que llamó Buganvillas.

Luego de una segunda visita a Montevideo, su próxima oportunidad de recolectar plantas fue en la Patagonia mientras los barcos de la expedición esperaban vientos favorables para llevarlos por el Estrecho de Magallanes. Aquí Baret acompañó a Commerson en las excursiones más problemáticas sobre terreno accidentado y ganó una reputación de coraje y fuerza. Commerson, todavía afectado por su lesión en la pierna, se refirió a Baret como su "bestia de carga" en estas expediciones. Además del trabajo manual que realizó en la recolección de plantas, piedras y conchas, Baret también ayudó a Commerson a organizar y catalogar sus especímenes y notas en las semanas siguientes, cuando los barcos entraron en el Pacífico.

Los relatos sobrevivientes de la expedición difieren sobre cuándo se descubrió por primera vez el género de Baret. Según Bougainville, los rumores de que Baret era una mujer habían circulado durante algún tiempo, pero su género no se confirmó finalmente hasta que la expedición llegó a Tahití en abril de 1768. Tan pronto como ella y Commerson aterrizaron en la costa, Baret fue inmediatamente rodeada por tahitianos que señalaron que ella era mujer. Era necesario devolverla al barco para protegerla de los emocionados tahitianos. Bougainville registró este incidente en su diario unas semanas después de que sucediera, cuando tuvo la oportunidad de visitar el Étoile para entrevistar personalmente a Baret.

En su relato, Vivès reporta mucha especulación sobre el género de Baret al principio del viaje y afirma que Baret afirmó ser un eunuco cuando fue confrontado directamente por La Giraudais (cuyo propio registro oficial no ha sobrevivido). El relato de Bougainville sobre el desenmascaramiento de Baret en Tahití no está corroborado por los otros relatos del diario de la expedición, aunque Vivès describe un incidente similar en el que Baret fue inmediatamente señalada como una mujer por el tahitiano Ahu-toru a bordo del barco. Vivès también describe un incidente diferente en Nueva Irlanda a mediados de julio en el que Baret fue sorprendido con la guardia baja, desnuda y "examinada" por un grupo de otros sirvientes de la expedición. Duclos-Guyot y Nassau-Siegen también registraron que se había descubierto que Baret era una mujer en Nueva Irlanda, pero sin mencionar detalles.

Ahu-toru viajó de regreso a Francia con la expedición y posteriormente fue interrogado extensamente sobre Baret. Los investigadores ahora creen que Ahu-toru realmente pensó que Baret era un travesti o mahu. Sin embargo, otros nativos tahitianos informaron de la presencia de una mujer en la expedición de Bougainville a visitantes posteriores a la isla, incluidos James Cook en 1769 y Domingo de Bonechea en 1772, lo que indica que su género era conocido por los tahitianos.

Después de cruzar el Pacífico, la expedición estaba desesperadamente escasa de alimentos. Después de una breve parada para abastecerse en las Indias Orientales Neerlandesas (ahora Indonesia), los barcos hicieron una parada más prolongada en la isla de Mauricio en el Océano Índico. Esta isla, conocida como Isla de Francia, fue entonces una importante estación comercial francesa. Commerson estaba encantado de descubrir que su viejo amigo y colega botánico Pierre Poivre se desempeñaba como gobernador en la isla, y Commerson y Baret se quedaron como invitados de Poivre. Probablemente Bougainville también alentó activamente este arreglo, ya que le permitió librarse del problema de una mujer ilegalmente a bordo de su expedición.

En Mauricio, Baret continuó en su papel de asistente y ama de llaves de Commerson. Es probable que ella lo acompañara en la recolección de plantas en Madagascar y la isla de Borbón en 1770-1772. Commerson seguía teniendo serios problemas de salud y murió en Mauricio en febrero de 1773. Sus recursos económicos en la isla habían disminuido, su patrón Poivre había sido llamado a París. Mientras tanto, Baret parece haberse establecido de forma independiente, y se le concedió la propiedad en Port Louis en 1770.

Sola y sin recursos, trabajó en una taberna en Port Louis. Conoció a un oficial naval francés, natural de Perigord, Jean Dubernat, fue multada con 50 libras por servir alcohol los domingos de 1773. Luego, el 17 de mayo de 1774, se casó con Jean Dubernat, un suboficial del ejército francés que probablemente se encontraba en la isla de camino a su casa en Francia. Jeanne aportó una pequeña fortuna a su matrimonio, presumiblemente de la taberna y quizás de otras empresas comerciales que dirigía en la isla.

No hay constancia de cuándo exactamente Baret y su esposo llegaron a Francia, completando así la vuelta al mundo. Lo más probable es que fuera en algún momento de 1775. En abril de 1776, recibió el dinero que se le debía según el testamento de Commerson después de solicitarlo directamente al fiscal general. Con este dinero, se instaló con Dubernat en su pueblo natal de Saint-Aulaye, donde compraron propiedades con la riqueza de Jeanne y vivieron tanto con Dubernat como con las sobrinas y sobrinos de Jeanne.

En 1785, el Ministerio de Marina concedió a Baret una pensión de 200 libras al año. El documento que le otorga esta pensión deja en claro la alta consideración con la que se la tenía en este punto:

Jeanne Barré, mediante un disfraz, dio la vuelta al globo terráqueo en uno de los barcos comandados por el señor de Bougainville. Se dedicó en particular a ayudar al Sr. de Commerson, médico y botánico, y compartió con gran valentía las labores y peligros de este sabio. Su comportamiento fue ejemplar y el señor de Bougainville se refiere a él con todo el mérito. Su Señoría ha tenido la gentileza de conceder a esta extraordinaria mujer una pensión de doscientas libras al año que se sacarán del fondo para militares inválidos, la pensión se pagará a partir del 1 de enero de 1785.

Murió en Saint-Aulaye el 5 de agosto de 1807, a la edad de 67 años.

Contribuciones científicas
La pareja de botánicos recogió más de 6.000 muestras de especies vegetales de los lugares que visitaron: Brasil, el estrecho de Magallanes, Tahití, y las islas de Madagascar y Mauricio. Entre las contribuciones de Jeanne Baret se encuentra la primera descripción de la enredadera que con Commerson llamaron Bougainvillea.

A su vuelta de la Isla Mauricio, Jeanne trajo las muestras botánicas de Commerson, 30 cajas que contenían algo más de 5.000 especies, incluyendo 3.000 descritas como nuevas. Recibió su parte de la herencia de Commerson, y el rey Luis XVI reconoció sus méritos como asistente del botánico, la felicitó por su buen comportamiento, describiéndola como una "mujer extraordinaria" y dejándole una renta vitalicia.

A pesar de sus contribuciones científicas, la historia la mantuvo durante siglos apartada de todo reconocimiento por su labor y solo era recordada como amante de Commerson.

Commerson nombró a muchas de las plantas que coleccionó en honor a amigos y conocidos. A uno de ellos, un arbusto alto de hojas verde oscuro y flores blancas que encontró en Madagascar, lo llamó Baretia bonafidia. Pero el nombre de Commerson para este género no sobrevivió, ya que ya había sido nombrado cuando sus informes llegaron a París; actualmente se conoce como Turraea. Mientras que más de setenta especies son nombradas en honor a Commerson, solo una, Solanum baretiae, honra a Baret.

El Jardín Botánico de Nueva York incluye un espécimen de planta, atribuido a Comerson pero que se cree que fue recolectado por Baret con él, en su herbario.

Reconocimiento público

El reconocimiento de su papel como primera mujer en circunnavegar el globo y sus trabajos científicos quedaron oscurecidos hasta la publicación del libro El descubrimiento de Jeanne Baret (2010), de la escritora Glynis Ridley.

Durante el viaje, Commerson le dedicó un arbusto de la familia Meliaceae, Baretia bonafide. Sin embargo, la planta cambiaría más tarde su nombre por el de Turraea heterophylla, que sería sinónimo de Turraea floribunda.

El biólogo Eric Tepe, de la Universidad de Utah y la Universidad de Cincinnati, ha honrado su recuerdo, aplicando su nombre a una nueva especie vegetal recién descubierta, Solanum baretiae, de la familia Solanaceae, emparentada con la papa. Su compañero de expedición Philip Commerson ya había dado nombre a más de 70 especies (como el género Commersonia o numerosas especies con el epíteto commersonii).

Durante muchos años, la revista publicada de Bougainville, un éxito de ventas popular en su día, tanto en el francés original como en las traducciones al inglés, fue la única fuente de información ampliamente disponible sobre Baret. Una investigación más reciente ha descubierto datos y documentación adicionales sobre su vida, pero gran parte de la nueva información sigue siendo poco conocida e inaccesible para el público en general, especialmente fuera de Francia. La primera biografía en inglés de Baret, de John Dunmore, no se publicó hasta 2002, y solo en Nueva Zelanda. Otros artículos aparecieron sólo en revistas académicas.

La biografía de 2010 de Baret por Glynis Ridley, El descubrimiento de Jeanne Baret, atrajo la atención de un público más amplio sobre Baret y ayudó a deshacer algunos de los viejos conceptos erróneos sobre su vida. Sin embargo, la biografía de Ridley también ha sido muy criticada por algunos revisores por su confianza en cadenas improbables de especulación que no están corroboradas por ninguna otra fuente primaria o secundaria. Un nuevo trabajo de investigadores franceses ha proporcionado información de archivo más clara sobre la vida de Jeanne Barret, así como una nueva biografía de Danielle Clode, En busca de la mujer que navegó por el mundo, publicada en 2020.

El 26 de abril de 2018, en honor a Jeanne Barret, se da oficialmente el nombre de Monte Baret a una cordillera en el planeta Plutón. El 27 de julio de 2020, Google celebró su 280 cumpleaños con un Doodle de Google.

Eponimia
 (Araliaceae) Polyscias baretiana Bernardi
 (Asteraceae) Chrysanthemum barretii Costa ex Menezes
 (Crassulaceae) Sempervivum barretii Menezes

Bibliografía utilizada
 Fanny Deschamps, La Bougainvillée, Albin Michel, París, 1982
 Carole Christinat, « Une femme globe-trotter avec Bougainville: Jeanne Barret 1740-1807 », Annales de Bourgogne, t. 67, p. 41-45, Dijon, 1995  también en: Revue française d'histoire d'outre-mer, tome 83, p. 83-95, París, 1996
 John Dunmore, Jeanne Baret, First Woman around the World (1766-1768), Auckland, Heritage Press, 2002
 Jean-Jacques Antier, La prisonnière des mers du sud, Presses de la Cité, París, 2009
 Glynis Ridley, The Discovery of Jeanne Baret, Harper Collins Publishers, 2011
 Hubert Verneret, Le travesti de l'Étoile, Éditions de l'Armancon, 2011

Véase también
 Primeros viajes de exploración científica

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos
 Artículo en Le Monde (7 de enero de 2012)

 Jeanne Baret (Barret) (1740-1807), Pays de Bergerac: Culture et patrimoine

Botánicos de Francia del siglo XVIII
Exploradores de Francia del siglo XVIII
Botánicas de Francia
Naturalistas de Francia del siglo XVIII
Naturalistas de Francia del siglo XIX
Científicas de Francia
Circunnavegantes
Francesas del siglo XVIII
Nacidos en Saona y Loira

Jeanne Baret


Events from the year 1920 in France.

Incumbents
President:
 until 18 February: Raymond Poincaré
 18 February – 21 September: Paul Deschanel
 starting 21 September: Alexandre Millerand
President of the Council of Ministers:
 until 20 January: Georges Clemenceau
 20 January – 24 September: Alexandre Millerand
 starting 24 September: Georges Leygues

Events

In the opening of the year 1920, France was in a stronger position than she had been in for several generations. The Allied victory over Germany and the restoration of Alsace-Lorraine to France had placed France in the position which she occupied during the 17th and 18th century - that of the strongest power on the European continent. At the beginning of the year Raymond Poincaré was still president and Georges Clemenceau was still prime minister, but as both senatorial and presidential elections were due in January, important political changes occurred early in the year. At the general election for the Chamber of Deputies which took place in November 1919, there had been a strong tendency towards Conservatism, the Socialist Party being badly defeated. The elections for the Senate were held on 11 January, and these exhibited the same trend of opinion as had been shown in the previous autumn. Owing to the postponement of elections during the war, two-thirds of the nine-year senatorial seats had to be contested, and altogether 240 senators had to be elected. The elections proved to be an overwhelming victory for the various Liberal and Republican groups, who secured 218 seats. The parties of the Right won 20 seats, and the Socialists won 2.

While these important events were taking place in the internal politics of France, the final stages in the ratifying of the peace treaty with Germany were being passed through. The Treaty of Versailles was to come into force so soon as it had been ratified by Germany and by three of the principal Allied and Associated Powers; and since it had now been ratified by Germany and by France, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Japan (though not by the United States), it was only necessary that the protocols certifying these facts should be signed by the parties to the treaty, and formal peace would then exist between the Allied Powers and Germany. The Supreme Council of the Allies decided that this final ceremony should take place in Paris on 10 January. Two delegates were sent by the German government to carry out the signing of the protocol, Baron Kurt von Lersner and Herr von Simson. The ceremony took place at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Quai d'Orsay shortly after four o'clock on the afternoon of 10 January. The protocol was signed by Clemenceau for France, by David Lloyd George for Britain, by Francesco Saverio Nitti for Italy, and by Keishiro Matsui for Japan; and, of course, by the two German delegates. The protocol was also signed by the representatives of various minor Allied and Associated countries, which had already ratified the treaty, these being Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Panama, Peru, Poland, Siam, and Uruguay. The formal end of the war was timed at 6:15 p.m. on 10 January, but the actual signing of the protocol took place, as already stated, somewhat earlier on that same afternoon.

On 14 January, Léon Bourgeois was elected president of the Senate. And the election of the new president of France, by a joint session of the two houses of the legislature, was fixed for 17 January. The two most important candidates were Paul Deschanel and Clemenceau. Among the other candidates was Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch, who, however, secured very little support. The rivalry between Deschanel and Clemenceau revealed certain very interesting tendencies in French politics. The contest turned mainly on the terms of peace which had been imposed upon Germany. Clemenceau's supporters contended that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were satisfactory from the French point of view; his opponents declared that he had given way too much to the American and British standpoints, and that the peace was unsatisfactory, particularly in respect of the guarantees for the reparations due to France and in the matter of the French eastern frontier. A large body of French opinion had desired that France should secure the line of the Rhine as her eastern frontier. Deschanel represented these critics of the Treaty of Versailles. A preliminary ballot of the Republican groups gave 408 votes to Deschanel, and 389 votes to Clemenceau; and when this result was announced Clemenceau withdrew his candidature, but his name figured, nevertheless, in the formal voting of the National Assembly on 17 January. Altogether 888 legislators cast their votes, and Deschanel secured no fewer than 734 votes. The success of Deschanel was regarded in France as in some sense a victory for the opponents of the Treaty of Versailles. Deschanel was born in 1856, and had held the office of president of the Chamber of Deputies. Poincaré was to remain in office as president until 18 February.

On 18 January, Clemenceau resigned from office as premier; and Poincaré entrusted Alexandre Millerand with the task of forming a cabinet. Millerand found no difficulty in obtaining the necessary support, and the full list of the members of his cabinet was published two days later. F. Marsal was minister of finance, A. Lefevre was minister of war, and A. Sarraut was minister for the colonies. Millerand, who himself took the portfolio of foreign affairs, was sixty years of age, and had greatly distinguished himself as minister for war during the critical days of 1914. His first reception by the Chamber of Deputies was somewhat stormy, and a vote of confidence on 22 January was only passed by 281 votes to 240. But a second vote of confidence on 30 January was passed by 510 votes to 70.

On 5 February and 6 February, there was an important debate on foreign policy in the Chamber of Deputies; and a long speech was delivered by the prime minister. He said that the new cabinet had every intention of continuing the same foreign policy which had enabled France to surround herself with such faithful allies during the war. In reference to the Adriatic problem, Millerand said that the only desire of France was to reach a satisfactory solution of the difficulties existing in this part of the world - a solution in perfect agreement with the sister nation of Italy and with the Serbian people. In regard to the Bulgarian question the premier said that on the previous day he had received news that the Bulgarian parliament had ratified the treaty. Passing on to a consideration of the proposed peace terms for Turkey, Millerand answered certain criticisms which had been made earlier in the debate by Marcel Cachin. France, he declared, had important and historic interests in the East, and these she had no intention of abandoning. "M. Cachin declared yesterday that we appeared to be threatening the independence of the Syrian populations. No French government has ever entertained such a design, and it is a libel on France to reproach her with a policy of conquest which has never entered her mind. The only wish of France is to give these populations justice and a good administration. When yesterday I heard the government credited with intentions which it has not, I seemed to hear an echo of the slanders levelled by the German government at the work of France in Morocco."

Turning to the question of relations with Russia, Millerand said that contrary to the allegations of Cachin, Britain had been true to her agreements, and none of the Allies had entered into any agreement with the Soviet government. In regard to Poland, the French government intended to maintain the closest friendship with that country, and if she were attacked by the Bolsheviks she would receive every support. Finally, the prime minister dealt with the carrying out of the Treaty of Versailles. He said that the cabinet intended to maintain complete accord with France's allies; and although it was regrettable that the United States had not so far ratified the treaty, yet the Reparations Commission had begun its work smoothly, and he felt no anxiety as to the ultimate adhesion of America to the treaty. He said that Germany had been dilatory in the matter of fulfilling the stipulations of the treaty, particularly in regard to the essential deliveries of coal. "I mean to avail myself at the right moment of all the means placed at my disposal by the treaty, and I declare, without making any kind of threat, but merely in order that the position may be quite clear and well understood, that we do not intend to claim anything from Germany to which she is not strictly bound under the terms of the treaty, but we shall exact everything she owes us, and to obtain it we shall have recourse to the measures of all kinds provided for in the treaty."

After the conclusion of the debate the house passed a vote of confidence in the government by 513 votes to 68.

After his assumption of office on 18 February, Deschanel sent the usual presidential message to parliament. Deschanel said that there was no higher destiny than that of serving France, and he thanked the legislators for having permitted him to continue to serve her in union with themselves. He hoped to maintain the national unity which had been so conspicuous during the war. "Our first duty is to define clearly our diplomatic, military, economic, and financial policy to the country. We can only build up our policy for the future on sound bases. I appeal to all the experience and talent of the members of this assembly on behalf of this act of sincerity and moral probity. To strengthen the unity between all peoples who fought for the right, and who, by reason of that fact, are great, to strengthen the bonds with those peoples whose affinities or interests bind them to us - this is the first guarantee of peace and the basis of that League of Nations to which the Treaty of Versailles entrusted the execution of certain capital clauses, and which we should support by means of effective action in order to spare the world fresh horrors. France wishes that the treaty to which Germany appended her signature shall be obeyed, and that the aggressor shall not take from her the fruits of her heroic sacrifices. She means to live in security. Today, as yesterday, our policy is an affair of will-power, energy, and faith. The Russian people fought by our side during three years for the cause of Liberty; may it, master of itself, soon resume in the plenitude of its genius the course of its civilizing mission. The Eastern question causes periodical wars. The fate of the Ottoman Empire has not yet been settled. Our secular interests, rights, and traditions ought to be safeguarded there too."

Turning to questions of internal politics, Deschanel said that the work of restoring France to prosperity would be arduous, and he declared that the person who evaded the payment of taxes was acting like a soldier who deserts his post on the field of battle. It was essential that conflicts between capital and labour should be avoided. In his peroration Deschanel exhorted the legislators to follow in the footsteps of the heroic Frenchmen who had won the war: "We shall accomplish our formidable task if we keep in our souls that sacred flame which rendered France the Republic Invincible, and saved the world."

In the middle of February the trial of Joseph Caillaux, the ex-prime minister of France, who had been under arrest for treason since January 1918, commenced. The case was regarded as the most important of the treason trials, of which there had been a long series since the middle of the war. Caillaux was tried before the Senate, sitting as a High Court of Justice, with Léon Bourgeois as president of the court. The prolonged delay in bringing Caillaux to trial was because investigations had to be made in many different parts of the world, including South America. Caillaux was charged with "having sought to weaken the security of the state abroad by intrigues, machination, and intelligence with the enemy of a nature likely to favour enemy action in regard to France, or her Allies, fighting against common enemies, and thus to advance the progress of the enemy armies." M. Lescouvé (the public prosecutor), M. Moinet, and others appeared for the prosecution. M. Giafferi, M. Moutet, and others appeared for the defense. The trial was extremely long and also in many respects extremely dramatic. The trial began, on 17 February, with a series of interrogations by the president of the court, and this part of the scene alone lasted for several days. Next there came a cross-examination of the prisoner by the public prosecutor. Many of Caillaux's activities were investigated in great detail and at great length. He was questioned regarding his relations with an enemy agent named Minotto, in South America, regarding his relations with another enemy agent, a certain Count Lipscher, and also in regard to his associations with the traitors Lenoir, Bolo, and Duval, who had already been executed for treason. The prisoner had also to account for his close association with various schemers in Italy, including the notorious Cavallini. During these interrogations, Caillaux frequently made long speeches on all manner of political questions. In the matter of Count Lipscher little to his discredit appears to have transpired; but apart from the details of the investigation it was obvious that if the prisoner had been entirely innocent of the charges brought against him, he had had a surprising amount of association with undesirable persons. And it was also established that the German government regarded Caillaux as the right man to approach under circumstances favourable to Germany. Moutet, speaking for the defense, attributed political motives to the accusers, and said that notwithstanding the fact that the world had been ransacked for evidence for many months, the evidence produced was of a ridiculous and trumpery character. After many weeks of investigation the capital charge of treason was dismissed, and the prosecution did not ask for the death sentence; but Caillaux was found guilty on the minor count of correspondence with the enemy, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment, ten years' interdiction of rights of voting and eligibility for any public function, and five years' prohibition from appearing in certain places indicated by the government. It was found that his relations with Bolo and Almereyda did not fall within the penal code, but he was condemned for his friendship with Minotto, Cavallini, and to some extent for his association with Count Lipscher. Having already served more than two years' imprisonment, Caillaux was set at liberty at the end of the trial. The verdict was given on 23 April.

During the spring there were serious labour troubles in France. At the end of February a serious dispute arose on the Paris, Lyon, and Mediterranean Railway system, owing to disciplinary measures which had been taken against one man. A strike was declared on that line on 25 February, and subsequently spread to the state lines also. The government immediately called to the colours those employees who were in the Army Reserve. A general strike of railwaymen was declared on 29 February; but the response was only partial, and an agreement was reached within twenty-four hours. At the beginning of May another railway strike broke out, and on this occasion the labour agitators hoped to make the strike universal, and it was supported by the General Confederation of Labour (CGT), who called out the seamen, dockers, and miners in support of the railwaymen. The aims of the General Confederation were not only economic, but also partly political; and they announced that they aimed at the international allotment of war burdens, an economic entente of all peoples on a basis of cooperation, at the cessation of all colonial expeditions, and at general disarmament. The response to the call on the part of the workers was, however, half-hearted and partial, though in certain localities, including Marseille, the strike was almost universal. The strike was extremely unpopular in the country at large, and the government took legal proceedings against the revolutionary ring-leaders. Within a week it was clear that the strike would fail, owing to the apathy or actual hostility of a large part of the working classes, but it was not until 21 May that the leaders of the General Confederation declared the strike at an end.

In February the government issued a new 5% state loan, which became known as the "Recovery Loan". The subscription lists remained open for several weeks, and it was announced in April that the total amount subscribed was 15,700,000,000 francs.

During the spring and summer certain differences of opinion, important but not fundamental, arose between the French and British governments. In a debate in the Chamber of Deputies on 25 March, Louis Barthou, who had once been prime minister and was now chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the lower house, delivered a speech on foreign policy generally in which he took occasion to attack the policy of the British government. He complained that Britain had profited more than any other country by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles; and that the course of events had recently been such that the hatred of Germany was now directed almost exclusively against France. This was, he said, particularly the case in the matter of permitting Germany to deal with her own war criminals, for which concession Britain had gained all the credit in German eyes. The speaker made various other complaints against the British government in general and Lloyd George in particular; but it was clear before the end of his speech that he did not carry the Chamber with him. On the following day, Millerand made a reply in which he endeavoured to remove the bad impression created by Barthou's speech. The prime minister said that there was no "crisis in the alliance"; and he pointed out that the reason the concession to Germany in the matter of the war criminals was signed by the British prime minister was that at the time the note was sent the peace conference was sitting in London. The premier said, however, that France was determined to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles fulfilled, and although the British government were in favour of allowing the German government to send troops into the Ruhr District, to suppress the Spartacist insurrection there, France viewed these movements of troops with grave concern.

The differences between the French and British governments were also apparent at the beginning of April, when the German government was suppressing the Spartacist revolt. To the east of the Allied armies in the occupied portion of Germany there was a neutral zone, into which, by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the German government were not allowed to send troops. During the Spartacist insurrection which followed the coup d'état in Berlin (see 1920 in Germany), the revolutionaries in the valley of the Ruhr, a highly industrialized district which was included in the neutral zone, took advantage of the unavoidable absence of the government forces to seize control of the entire administration of this important part of Germany. The German government applied for permission to send forces into this part of the neutral zone in the exceptional circumstances which had arisen, as without doing so it was impossible for them to overcome the revolt in the neutral zone itself, or to prevent the successful insurrection in that zone lending important support to the Spartacists farther east. The British, Italian, and American governments were all in favour of allowing the German government, which in the circumstances existing was a bulwark against the spread of Bolshevism, to send a limited number of troops into the neutral zone until law and order had been reestablished there. The French government, however, interposed obstacles to the granting of any such license to the German government. The revolt continued to spread, and at the beginning of April German troops marched into the Ruhr Valley to restore order, although no permission for them to do so had been granted by the Allies as a whole. Thereupon the French government, without the consent of the British and Italian governments, ordered their own troops to march forward into the neutral zone - though not into the same part of the neutral zone - and to occupy various German towns as a penalty for the German advance. Frankfurt, Darmstadt, and Hanau were occupied on 6 April, and Homburg was entered on the following day. Black troops took part in the advance, a point which gave special umbrage to the Germans. This independent action on the part of the French government led to an interchange of somewhat sharp notes between London and Paris, the British government taking exception both to the French advance in itself and still more so to the fact that the advance had been made without due consultation with the other Allied governments. Within a few days, however, an agreement between the French and British governments was reached. The black troops were immediately withdrawn, and the French government made it clear that in the future they would not act without securing the consent of the other Allies. The British government on their side made it clear that they intended to see the terms of the Treaty of Versailles respected by the German government. After the suppression of the Ruhr revolt, both the German and French troops were withdrawn.

During the spring and summer there were various conferences between the French, British, and other Allied governments, at San Remo, Hythe, Spa, and elsewhere, these conferences relating largely to the reparations due from Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. At these discussions similar differences of opinion appear to have existed between the British and French representatives, the British being more disposed than the French to recognize the difficulties with which the German government were confronted. But these differences of opinion only related to questions of method, and were in no way fundamental. In the middle of May Poincaré, the ex-president of France, resigned his position as president of the Reparations Commission, on account of what he regarded as the undue leniency which had been shown towards Germany. Millerand stated publicly, however, that he thought Poincaré's fears were groundless.

In May President Paul Deschanel became mentally incapacitated; he resigned his office in September. It was soon evident that the great majority of public men desired that Millerand should himself become president. The premier at first declined to accede to these demands, but after some delay he consented to do so. The election took place on 23 September, and out of 892 votes cast, no fewer than 695 were given Millerand. A Socialist candidate, Gustave Delory, obtained 69 votes. Millerand announced that he hoped somewhat to increase the powers of the presidential office, particularly in regard to foreign policy. Georges Leygues became prime minister and minister for foreign affairs; but otherwise the composition of the cabinet remained unchanged. On 25 September the Chamber of Deputies passed a vote of confidence in the new government by 515 votes to 71. It was notable that in the statements issued both by the new president and by the new government, it was proclaimed that France would do her utmost to make the League of Nations a success. At the end of November Leygues visited London to confer with British and Italian statesmen on the Greek crisis and other matters.

In the middle of November it was announced that the government proposed to reduce the period of military service from two years to eighteen months.

In November Lord Derby, the British ambassador in Paris, retired from that office, and was succeeded by Lord Hardinge. It was also announced that Paul Cambon, the veteran French ambassador in London, would retire in January 1921.

Throughout the year there was considerable, though intermittent, discussion on the proposal that France should resume diplomatic relations with the Vatican; and at the end of November the government proposal to renew relations was approved by the Chamber of Deputies by 387 votes to 210.

The defeat of the Socialists at the general election of 1919 appeared to have caused that party to become more extreme in its views. And after much discussion throughout the year 1920, a great Socialist conference held at Tours in December voted by a large majority in favour of adhesion to the so-called Third International, the international organization of Socialists which was under the control of the Bolsheviks of Moscow.

The financial situation in France gave occasion for most serious anxiety. Among other unfavourable features, the exchange value of the franc had fallen greatly since the end of the war, and, with fluctuations, stood at about 60 francs to the pound sterling during most of the year; and the value of the franc in terms of the American dollar was even lower.

The ordinary budget for 1920 provided for a revenue of 15,885,000,000 francs and for an expenditure of 17,860,000,000 francs. It was anticipated that the extraordinary expenditure would amount to over 7,000,000,000 francs.

2 February - France occupies Memel.
26 March - German government asks France for permission to use its own troops against rebellious Ruhr Red Army in the French-occupied area.
16 May - Joan of Arc is canonised. Over 30,000 people attended the ceremony in Rome, including 140 descendants of Joan of Arc's family. Pope Benedict XV presided over the rite.
17 May - French and Belgian troops leave the cities they have occupied in Germany.
4 June - Treaty of Trianon, Treaty of Peace between the Allies and Hungary.
14 July - France declares that Faisal I of Syria is deposed and occupies Damascus and Aleppo.
21 July - Interallied Mission to Poland is launched.
23 July - The French defeat the Syrian army in the Battle of Maysalun.
31 July - France prohibits the sale or prescription of contraceptives.
10 August - Treaty of Sèvres is signed.
23 December - United Kingdom and France ratify the border between French-held Syria and British Mandate Palestine.

Science and technology

Rail transport
23 February – 4 March, 4–29 May - 1920 French railway strikes

Sport
27 June - Tour de France begins.
27 July - Tour de France ends, won by Philippe Thys of Belgium.

Births

January to March
10 January
 Raymond Cauchetier, photographer (died 2021)
 Georges Marchal, actor (died 1997)
14 January - Jean Dutourd, novelist (died 2011)
16 January - Claude Abadie, jazz clarinetist (died 2020)
17 January - Georges Pichard, comics artist (died 2003)
18 January - Fernand Oury, teacher and creator of modern French schooling (died 1997)
30 January - Robert Hersant, newspaper magnate (died 1996)
2 February - Raymond Daudel, theoretical and quantum chemist (died 2006)
18 February - Rolande Falcinelli, organist, pianist and composer (died 2006)
22 February
 André Barrais, basketball player (died 2004)
 Henri de Laulanie, Jesuit priest and agriculturalist (died 1995)
25 February - Jean Emile Charon, nuclear physicist (died 1998)
27 February - Jacques Charon, actor and film director (died 1975)
4 March - Jean Lecanuet, politician (died 1993)
8 March - Michel Moine, journalist and parapsychologist (died 2005)
10 March - Boris Vian, writer, poet and musician (died 1959)
12 March - Françoise d'Eaubonne, feminist writer (died 2005)
18 March - Pierre Plantard, draughtsman, principal perpetrator of the Priory of Sion hoax (died 2000)
29 March
Bertrand Gille, historian of technology (died 1980)
Pierre Moinot, novelist (died 2007)

April to June
7 April - Jean Marsan, screenwriter and actor (died 1977)
13 April – Marthe Cohn, member of the French resistance during World War II and nurse
15 April - Roger Rondeaux, cyclo-cross racer (died 1999)
13 May - Roger Calmel, composer (died 1998)
6 June - Serge Lang, journalist, alpine skier, and founder of the alpine skiing World Cup (died 1999)
7 June - Georges Marchais, head of the French Communist Party (died 1997)
9 June - Pierre Lambert, Trotskyist leader (died 2008)
17 June - François Jacob, biologist, shared the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine

July to September
1 July - Henri Amouroux, historian and journalist (died 2007)
1 July - Henri Legay, operatic tenor (died 1992)
20 July - Robert Boulin, politician (died 1979)
25 July - Jean Carmet, actor (died 1994)
24 August - Jean Desailly, actor (died 2008)
5 September - Jean Lartéguy, writer, journalist, and former soldier (died 2011)
8 September - Madeleine Rebérioux, historian (died 2005)

October to December
15 October - Henri Verneuil, playwright and filmmaker (died 2002)
24 October - Robert-Joseph Coffy, Roman Catholic Cardinal (died 1995)
24 October - Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, mathematician (died 1996)
25 October - Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz, member of the French Resistance and president of ATD Quart Monde (died 2002)
28 October - Bernard Pertuiset, neurosurgeon (died 2000)
29 October - Guy Héraud, politician and lawyer (died 2003)
31 October - Joseph Gelineau, priest and composer (died 2008)
31 October - Jean Royer, politician, former Minister, and former Mayor of Tours (died 2011)
28 November - René Chocat, basketball player (died 2000)
30 November - Denise Glaser, French television producer
1 December - Pierre Poujade, politician (died 2003)
5 December - Roger Lévêque, cyclist (died 2002)
26 December - Maurice Gendron, cellist and teacher (died 1990)

Full date unknown
François Boyer, screenwriter (died 2003)
René Le Hir, Breton nationalist (died 1999)

Deaths
2 January - Paul Adam, novelist (born 1862)
25 January - Jeanne Hébuterne, artist and subject for Amedeo Modigliani (born 1898)
11 February - Gaby Deslys, dancer and actress (born 1881)
25 February - Marcel-Auguste Dieulafoy, archaeologist (born 1844)
17 May - Jean-Louis Pascal, academic architect (born 1837)
14 June - Gabrielle Réjane, actress (born 1856)
20 June - Marie Adolphe Carnot, chemist, mining engineer and politician (born 1839)
11 July - Eugénie de Montijo, widow of Napoleon III (born 1826)
31 August - Louis Ducos du Hauron, pioneer of colour photography (born 1837)
7 October - Gaston Floquet, mathematician (born 1847)
13 November
Luc-Olivier Merson, painter and illustrator (born 1846)
Hans-Georg Tersling, Danish-born architect (born 1857)
12 December - Paul Lacôme, composer (born 1838)

See also
 List of French films of 1920

References

Sources
Much of the text in the "Events" section of this article was copied verbatim from The Annual Register: 1920 (London: Longman's Green,  1921) – see online edition and online pp 158ff.). This source was published before 1923 and is out of copyright.

1920s in France

1920 in France


Claude-François-Marie Attiret de Mannevil (aussi écrit Manneville) est un architecte français né à Dole le , et mort à Riom le .

Biographie
Claude-François-Marie Attiret est le fils d'Antoine-Louis Attiret (1713-1783), avocat et architecte, et d'Anne-Thérèse Saillard (1719- ), frère de Claude-André Attiret (1751-1813) et de Jean-Baptiste-François Attiret (1747-1794), prêtre et architecte à Paris. Antoine-Louis Attiret est le cousin de Jean-Denis Attiret, jésuite et peintre de l'empereur de Chine.

Claude-François-Marie Attiret a d'abord été inspecteur des Bâtiments et Domaines du Comte d'Artois en Auvergne, puis architecte de la ville de Riom.

Famille
Il s'est marié à Clermont-Ferrand le  avec Françoise Amy dont il a eu un fils, Michel Attiret (Riom, 1785-1855).

Généalogie simplifiée de la famille Attiret :

Constructions
 Il a travaillé sur l'aménagement du Palais des ducs d'Auvergne pour le transformer en palais de Justice. Il a réalisé plusieurs plans du palais de Jean de Berry qui sont aux Archives municipales de Riom.
 La Halle aux Blés de Riom et la place du Marché-Neuf où elle a été élevée, en 1793-1797.
 La porte de Layat (1782-1784).
 La maison Claret.
 Sa propre maison, 4 rue Hellénie, à Riom, entre 1815 et 1823.
 Plusieurs fontaines :
 Fontaine Desaix
 Fontaine du Crapaud
 Fontaine de Chazerat
 Transformation du couvent des cordeliers en Maison centrale de Riom.
 Château de Davayat.
 Château de Bulhon.
 Château de Blanzat.
 Château de la Terrasse, à Crevant-Laveine.

Notes et références

Annexes

Bibliographie

Liens externes

 Vincent Claustre, Contribution à un dictionnaire des architectes jurassiens ou ayant exercé dans le département du Jura au  siècle : Attiret de Manneville, Claude François Marie (1750-1823), Société d'émulation du Jura, 2020
 Ville de Riom : Orientations d'aménagement et de programmation. Place de la Fédération

Architecte français du XVIIIe siècle
Architecte français du XIXe siècle
Naissance en septembre 1750
Naissance à Dole
Décès en janvier 1823
Décès à Riom
Décès à 72 ans

Claude-François-Marie Attiret


Arthrostylidiinae, je podtribus jednosupnica iz porodica trava (Poaceae), dio tribusa Bambuseae. Postoji šesnaest rodova, a ime dolazi po rodu Arthrostylidium Rodovi
 Glaziophyton Franch. (1 sp.)
 Cambajuva P. L. Viana, L. G. Clark & Filg. (1 sp.)
 Didymogonyx (L. G. Clark & Londoño) C. D. Tyrrell, L. G. Clark & Londoño (2 spp.)
 Elytrostachys McClure (2 spp.)
 Rhipidocladum McClure (21 spp.)
 Arthrostylidium Rupr. (29 spp.)
 Aulonemiella L. G. Clark, Londoño, C. D. Tyrrell & Judz. (2 spp.)
 Aulonemia Goudot (48 spp.)
 Colanthelia McClure & E. W. Sm. (11 spp.)
 Filgueirasia Guala (2 spp.)
 Alvimia C. E. Calderón ex Soderstr. & Londoño (3 spp.)
 Atractantha McClure (5 spp.)
 Actinocladum McClure ex Soderstr. (1 sp.)
 Athroostachys Benth. ex Benth. & Hook. fil. (2 spp.)
 Merostachys Spreng. (58 spp.)
 Myriocladus'' Swallen (13 spp.)

Izvori

Bambuseae

Arthrostylidiinae


A simulação (em inglês, malingering) é a fabricação, fingimento ou exagero de sintomas físicos ou psicológicos com o objetivo de alcançar um resultado desejado, como o não querer trabalhar ou o conseguir benefícios em um contexto forense.

A simulação não é um diagnóstico médico, mas pode ser registrada como um "foco de atenção clínica" ou um "motivo de contato com os serviços de saúde". A simulação é categorizada como distinta de outras formas de comportamento excessivo de doença, como transtorno de somatização e transtorno factício, embora nem todos os profissionais de saúde mental concordem com essa formulação.

A falha em detectar casos reais de simulação impõe um ônus econômico aos sistemas de saúde, programas de compensação de trabalhadores e programas de deficiência, como seguro de invalidez da Previdência Social e benefícios de invalidez de veteranos. requerentes.

A simulação é uma ofensa de corte marcial nas Forças Armadas dos Estados Unidos sob o Código Uniforme de Justiça Militar, que define o termo como "fingindo doença, deficiência física, lapso mental ou perturbação."

De acordo com o Departamento de Seguros do Texas, fraudes que incluem simulação custam à indústria de seguros dos Estados Unidos aproximadamente 150 bilhões de dólares por ano. Outras fontes não industriais relatam que pode ser tão baixo quanto 5,4 bilhões de dólares.

Ver também

Alegação de insanidade mental
SIMS (Structured Inventory of Malingered Symptomatology)
Síndrome de Ganser
Hipocondria
Falseabilidade

Simulação
Psicologia jurídica
Comunicação de falsidades

Malingering


Entras si quieres y sales si puedes er en dansk oplysningsfilm fra 2006, der er instrueret af Yans Felippe Geckler Medina og Malene Rykær.

Handling
I Tegucigalpa, hovedstaden i Honduras, møder seerne Carlos og Isabel, to unge mennesker med talrige tatoveringer, der er ladet med symboler. Hvilke budskaber skal tatoveringerne bringe til deres omgivelser? De skal være med til skabe respekt. I filmen fortæller de to unge selv om deres liv i de bander, hvis symbol de bærer, og om deres kamp for slippe ud igen til et anstændigt liv.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2006

Oplysningsfilm fra Danmark

Entras si quieres y sales si puedes


Sómalska (sómalíska, sómalí) er kúsískt mál talað af 5 - 6 milljónum aðallega í Sómalíu þar sem það er ríkismál ásamt arabísku, einnig nokkuð í Kenía, Eþíópíu og Djíbútí. ritað með latínustafrófi.

Kúsísk tungumál
Sómalía

Sómalska


الشرق الأوسط هو مصطلح جيوسياسي يشير عمومًا إلى منطقة بلاد الشام وشبه الجزيرة العربية والأناضول (بما في ذلك تركيا الحديثة وقبرص) ومصر وإيران والعراق. استخدم المصطلح على نطاق واسع كبديل عن مصطلح الشرق الأدنى (المعاكس للشرق الأقصى) في أوائل القرن العشرين. سبب مصطلح الشرق الأوسط تشويشًا بسبب تعريفاته المتغيرة، واعتبره البعض عنصريًا أو ذا مركزية أوروبية. تشمل مناطقه الأغلبية العظمى من المناطق التي يشملها تعريف غرب آسيا، لكن بدون القوقاز ومتضمنًا مصر بأكملها وليس فقط شبه جزيرة سيناء.

معظم دول الشرق الأوسط (13 من 18) هي جزء من العالم العربي. الدول الأكثر اكتظاظًا في المنطقة هي مصر وإيران وتركيا، في حين تعد المملكة العربية السعودية هي الأكبر من حيث المساحة. يعود تاريخ الشرق الأوسط إلى العصور القديمة، مع الإشارة إلى أهمية المنطقة الجيوسياسية لآلاف السنين. تعود أصول العديد من الديانات الرئيسية إلى الشرق الأوسط، بما في ذلك اليهودية والمسيحية والإسلام. يشكل العرب المجموعة الاجتماعية العرقية الرئيسية في المنطقة، ويتبعهم الأتراك، والفرس، والأكراد، والأذريون، والأقباط، واليهود، والآشوريون، والتركمان العراقيون والقبارصة اليونانيون.

يتمتع الشرق الأوسط عادة بمناخ حار وجاف، خاصة في شبه الجزيرة العربية والمناطق المصرية. تؤمن العديد من الأنهار الرئيسية مياه الري من أجل دعم الزراعة في المناطق المحدودة هناك مثل دلتا النيل في مصر، ومستجمعات مياه نهر دجلة ونهر الفرات في بلاد ما بين النهرين (العراق والكويت وشرق سوريا)، ومعظم ما يعرف اليوم باسم الهلال الخصيب. وعلى نحو معاكس، يتمتع الساحل الشرقي ومعظم تركيا بمناخ محيطي أكثر اعتدالًا ورطوبة. تمتلك معظم الدول المجاورة للخليج العربي احتياطات هائلة من النفط، حيث يستفيد ملوك شبه الجزيرة العربية اقتصاديًا بشكل خاص من صادرات النفط. يعد الشرق الأوسط بسبب مناخه الجاف واعتماده الكبير على صناعة الوقود الأحفوري مساهمًا كبيرًا في التغير المناخي، ويعد من المناطق المتوقع أن تتأثر بتلك التغيرات بشكل كبير وعلى نحو سلبي.

يوجد مفاهيم أخرى في المنطقة من ضمنها الشرق الأوسط الكبير وشمال أفريقيا (مينا) الأوسع نطاقًا، والذي يتضمن دول مثل المغرب والسودان أو «الشرق الأوسط الكبير» الذي يتضمن أيضًا بشكل إضافي أجزاء من شرق أفريقيا وأفغانستان وباكستان وأحيانًا آسيا الوسطى ومنطقة ما وراء القوقاز (جنوب جبال القوقاز).

الانتقاد والاستخدام
أدى وصف أوسط إلى بعض الالتباس حول تغيير التعريفات. كان مصطلح «الشرق الأدنى» يستخدم في اللغة الإنجليزية قبل الحرب العالمية الأولى للإشارة إلى البلقان والإمبراطورية العثمانية، في حين يشير مصطلح «الشرق الأوسط» إلى القوقاز وبلاد فارس والأراضي العربية، وفي بعض الأحيان يشمل أفغانستان والهند وغيرها. في المقابل، كان مصطلح «الشرق الأقصى» يشير إلى دول شرق آسيا (كالصين واليابان وكوريا.. إلخ).

توقف استخدام مصطلح «Near East-الشرق الأدنى» في الإنجليزية بشكل كبير مع زوال الإمبراطورية العثمانية، في حين أصبح مصطلح «الشرق الأوسط» ينطبق على الدول الناشئة في العالم الإسلامي. من ناحية ثانية، استخدم مصطلح «الشرق الأدنى» في مجالات أكاديمية متنوعة، بما فيها علوم الآثار والعصور القديمة، حيث يصف المنطقة ذاتها التي يعبر عنها مصطلح «الشرق الأوسط» الذي لا تستخدمه هذه المجالات.

استخدمت حكومة الولايات المتحدة مصطلح «الشرق الأوسط» بشكل رسمي لأول مرة في عام 1957 في مبدأ آيزنهاور المتعلق بأزمة السويس. عرف وزير الخارجية جون فوستر دالاس الشرق الأوسط بأنه «المنطقة الممتدة بين وضمن ليبيا في الغرب وباكستان في الشرق، وسوريا والعراق في الشمال، وشبه الجزيرة العربية في الجنوب، إضافة إلى السودان وإثيوبيا. أوضحت وزارة الخارجية في عام 1958 أن مصطلحات مثل «الشرق الأدنى» و«الشرق الأوسط» كانت قابلة للتبادل، وعرفت المنطقة على أنها تشمل فقط مصر، وسوريا، وإسرائيل، ولبنان، والأردن، والعراق، والسعودية، والكويت، والبحرين وقطر.

تم أيضًا رفض مصطلح الشرق الأوسط بوصفه مصطلح استعماري وعنصري.

ورد في كتاب الإرشادات لوكالة أسوشيتد برس أن مصطلح الشرق الأدنى كان يشير سابقًا إلى دول الغرب البعيدة، بينما كان مصطلح الشرق الأوسط يشير إلى الدول الشرقية، لكنهما الآن مترادفان. تقول الإرشادات فيه:استخدم مصطلح الشرق الأوسط (Middle East) ما لم يكن مصطلح الشرق الأدنى (Near East) مستخدمًا في مصدر القصة. يمكن أيضًا استخدام مصطلح Mideast، لكن يفضل استخدام مصطلح Middle East.انتقد حنفي (1998) مصطلح Middle East أيضًا بصفته مصطلح ذا توجه أوروبي («بناء على تصور غربي بريطاني»).

يوجد مصطلحات مشابهة لمصطلح الشرق الأدنى والشرق الأوسط في اللغات الأوروبية الأخرى، ولكن بما أنه وصف نسبي، فإن المعاني تعتمد على البلد وهي مختلفة عن المصطلحات الإنجليزية. ما يزال مصطلح Naher Osten(الشرق الأدنى) شائع الاستخدام في الألمانية (مصطلح Mittlerer Osten أكثر شيوعًا حاليًا في النصوص الصحفية المترجمة من مصادر إنجليزية، حتى وإن كان له معنى مختلف)، ويبقى مصطلح Ближний Восток أو Blizhniy Vostok في الروسية، أو في البلغارية Близкия Изток، أو في البولندية Bliski Wschód أو في الكرواتية Bliski istok (يعني الشرق الأدنى في اللغات السلافية الأربعة) هو المصطلح الوحيد المناسب للمنطقة. مع ذلك، بعض اللغات لديها مرادفات لمصطلح «الشرق الأوسط»، مثل Moyen-Orient في الفرنسية، و Mellanöstern في السويدية، و Oriente Medio أو Medio Oriente في الإسبانية، وفي الإيطالية Medio Oriente.

ربما بسبب تأثير الصحافة الغربية، أصبح المقابل العربي للمصطلح (الشرق الأوسط) هو الاستخدام المعتاد في الصحافة العربية السائدة، ويشمل نفس المعنى المستخدم للمصطلح (Middle East) في أمريكا الشمالية وأوروبا الغربية.

تأتي تسمية «المشرق»، أيضًا من الجذر العربي لكلمة الشرق، وتشير إلى منطقة محددة بشكل متنوع حول بلاد الشام، وهي الجزء الشرقي من العالم الناطق باللغة العربية (مقابل المغرب العربي، الجزء الغربي). على الرغم من أن أصل هذا المصطلح يعود إلى الغرب، غير أنه وإلى جانب اللغة العربية فإن لغات البلدان الأخرى في الشرق الأوسط تستخدم أيضًا ترجمة له. المرادف الفارسي لمصطلح الشرق الأوسط هو خاورمیانه (Khāvar-e miyāneh)، والمرادف العبري هو המזרח התיכון (hamizrach hatikhon)، والمرادف التركي هو Orta Doğu والمرادف اليوناني هو Μέση Ανατολή (Mesi Anatoli).

مصطلح الشرق الأوسط

أول استخدام لمصطلح الشرق الأوسط كان في خمسينيات القرن التاسع عشر في مكتب الهند البريطانية. إلا أن المصطلح أصبح معروفاً على نطاق واسع عندما استخدمه الخبير الاستراتيجي في البحرية الأمريكية ألفريد ثاير ماهان في عام 1902 لتمييز المنطقة الواقعة بين شبه الجزيرة العربية والهند. يستعمل هذا المصطلح للإشارة للدول والحضارات الموجودة في هذه المنطقة الجغرافية. سميت هذه المنطقة في عهد الاكتشافات الجغرافية من قبل المكتشفين الجغرافيين بالعالم القديم وهي مهد الحضارات الإنسانية وكذلك مهد جميع الديانات الإبراهيمية.

يعدّ الشرق الأوسط من أكثر مناطق العالم توتراً أمنياً حيث شهد أكثر من 10 حروب منها الحروب العربية الإسرائيلية والحرب العراقية الإيرانية وغزو العراق للكويت وشهد غزو العراق 2003 الاحتلال الأمريكي البريطاني لدولة العراق والمشكلة النووية الإيرانية والاحتلال الإسرائيلي لفلسطين والحرب الإسرائيلية على لبنان ولا نستطيع التكهن بأن الحروب في هذه المنطقة ستنتهي لما لها من أهمية اقتصادية وإستراتيجية ومصالح دول كبرى.

شهد الشرق الأوسط عبر تاريخه الطويل العديد من الحروب العربية الإسرائيلية. يعاني سكانه من الفقر بشكل عام. يعتمد غالبية سكان الشرق الأوسط على الزراعة كمصدر رزق عام وعدد ضئيل جداً منهم فقط يعتمد على الصناعة باستثناء دولة إسرائيل التي تعتمد على الصناعة والزراعة بنفس الوقت حيث تعد دولة غربية متطورة وحديثة. والدول العربية البترولية التي يعتمد اقتصادها على الصناعات البترولية مثل السعودية وقطر والإمارات وعمان والكويت فتتميز بتطور هياكلها الاقتصادية وارتفاع مستويات المعيشة.
ما زالت إسرائيل حتى اليوم تشهد خلافات مع باقي دول الشرق الأوسط بالرغم من اتفاقيات السلام بينها وبين الأردن ومصر.

معظم دول الشرق الأوسط نامية نسبيًا بسبب سكانها فالدول تهتم كثيراً بعدم الهجرة الداخلية من المناطق القليلة السكان إلى المناطق المكتظة وبالاخص إلى العاصمة. هذه الهجرة تؤدي إلى انهيار المدن تحت وطئة سكانها المهاجرين وبسبب التزايد الطبيعي العالي.

هناك دول في الشرق الأوسط تشتهر بموارد النفط الكثيرة كبعض دول الخليج. فقد تطورت دول الخليج تطورًا كبيرًا بعد اكتشاف النفط فيها بسبب التزايد المستمر في طلبه. فأصبحت دبي من أكبر مدن العالم الترفيهية والسياحية حيث تطور هناك كل شيء: البنى التحتية والمراكز الترفيهية والعلمية والهندسة البنائية والكثير من الأشياء الأخرى.

تعاني دول الشرق الأوسط من نقص كبير بالمياه فقد تخالفت دول كثيرة بسبب هذا الموضوع وربما تحدث حرب كبيرة مستقبلياً بسبب هذه المشكلة.

كل دول الشرق الأوسط تقع في قارة آسيا باستثناء مصر وهي:
دول الهلال الخصيب: سوريا، ولبنان، والعراق، والأردن، وفلسطين

دول شبه الجزيرة العربية: السعودية، والإمارات، وقطر، وعمان، واليمن، والبحرين، والكويت

دول الهضبة الإيرانية والأناضول: إيران، وتركيا.

المناطق والدول

الشرق الأوسط الكبير

الأهمية العالمية للشرق الأوسط
للشرق الأوسط أهمية عالمية من الدرجة الأولى، وهذا في اتجاهين:

أهمية اقتصادية
تنبع الأهمية الاقتصادية في المنطقة بسبب وجود النفط فيها ويقدر احتياطي النفط في الشرق الأوسط بـ %66 من احتياط النفط العالمي.في نهاية القرن العشرين أنتج الشرق الأوسط حوالي ثلث الإنتاج العالمي من النفط، وتعدّ هذه المنطقة المزود الرئيسي للنفط للعالم المتطور وخاصةً أوروبا، الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، روسيا واليابان، وهذا أعطى لبعض الدول في الشرق الأوسط قوة اقتصادية أثّرت كثيرًا على شعوب المنطقة. النفط الشرق أوسطي موجود بكثرة في منطقة الخليج العربي، وعلى هذا الأساس تحاول الدول الكبرى أن تشرف على المنطقة واليوم المشرف الوحيد على المنطقة هو الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.
صفة خاصة للنفط في الشرق الأوسط أنه غير مكلف، فمن كل بئر نفط تستخرج كميات كبيرة ولا حاجة لحفر آبار كثيرة وعميقة.

أهمية دينية
يعتبر الشرق الأوسط منشئ العديد من الديانات منها الديانات الابراهيمية السماوية وديانات كالبهائية والدرزية والزرداشتية وديانات أخرى.

أهمية ثقافية
يعتبر الشرق الأوسط مهد اولى الحضارات ك حضارة بلاد الرافدين والحضارة الفرعونية المصرية وحضارة سبأ في اليمن والانباط في غرب شبه الجزيرة العربية

أهمية إستراتيجية
كلمة إستراتيجية هي كلمة يونانية الأصل من كلمة استراتيجوس ومعناها قائد عسكري ذو أهمية كبيرة، فللشرق الأوسط أهمية إستراتيجية كبيرة جداً بين المناطق المحيطة بها، فهي حلقة وصل أو جسر بين دول وقارات العالم.
 مناطق وأقاليم

انظر أيضًا
 قائمة أغنى بلدان الشرق الأوسط
 أكبر المناطق الحضرية في الشرق الأوسط
 تاريخ الشرق الأوسط
 التسلسل الزمني لتاريخ الشرق الأوسط

المراجع

روابط خارجية

 مقالة: القيمة الاستراتيجية للشرق الأوسط، للدكتور فايز الدويري.

ترجمة مساعدة
جغرافية غرب آسيا
دول الشرق الأوسط
شمال إفريقيا
غرب آسيا
مركزية أوروبية
مناطق آسيا
مناطق إفريقيا

الشرق الأوسط


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Karin Månsdotter (in English Catherine; 6 November 1550 – 13 September 1612) was first a mistress of King Eric XIV of Sweden and then briefly queen as his wife.

Early life
Karin was born in Stockholm to a soldier and later prison guard named Måns (her surname is a patronym, literally "daughter of Måns") and his wife Ingrid. Her mother came from a family of peasants in Uppland, and was said to have sold vegetables on the square. Both her parents are believed to have died  1560. According to legend, Eric XIV first noticed her selling nuts at a square in Stockholm, and was so astonished by her beauty that he took her to court as his lover; in reality, however, Karin Månsdotter was in 1564 employed as a servant to Karin, wife of the king's trusted court musician Gert Cantor, who held a tavern and a guest house in his home, and likely served their guests as a waitress. She was a maid to the King's sister, Princess Elizabeth, when she became mistress to the king in 1565.

Royal mistress

Karin seems to have entered into a relationship with Eric in the spring of 1565. The position seems to have been quite official, as she was given expensive clothes and appeared with him openly at court, and was given her own apartment and servants. In the summer of 1565, she belonged to the king's retinue to Skara, where she was provided for from the bailiff's provision for the warfaring army, which was otherwise reserved for the army, and illustrates her new status. The royal accounts states that she was given a new and expensive wardrobe and her own staff, among them her own former employer: Karin, the wife of Gert Cantor. When her daughter Sigrid was born in 1566, she was treated as a legitimate princess. Before this the king had several mistresses in parallel, such as Agda Persdotter and Doredi Valentinsdotter, but when Karin entered his life, he dismissed them all. She also received education and learned to read and write. His treatment of her caused much astonishment. The ideas of the time suggested witchcraft and love potions to explain the deep attachment.

Karin is reported to have had a fiancé before she met Eric, an ensign named Maximilian. After she became royal mistress, he managed to get into the palace, where he was discovered by Carl the manservant and taken to the king, who had him killed. According to chronicler Daniel Hund, he was in fact trapped by Eric, who had asked Karin to send for him. The truth of the story is unknown.

Karin Månsdotter's portrait was done only in her husband's scribbled drawings in captivity and in a latter-day bust at her grave (a portrait long believed to be of her has been discovered to be of her sister-in-law). She was described as very beautiful with long blond hair and innocent eyes, and her personality seems to have been calm, humble and natural. The king was mentally unstable, and she seems to have been the only one who could comfort him and calm him down, which made her appreciated by his relatives, who considered her good for him. She had no personal enemies at court, but she was not respected, and their marriage in 1568 was considered a scandal and may have contributed to his dethronement.

Sometime in 1567, Eric decided to marry Karin in accordance to the agreement he made with the council in 1561, in which he had been promised to marry whom he pleased. His plans was supported by his advisor Jöran Persson, as the foreign negotiations had failed and a native aristocrat as queen would have threatened Persson's position. Karin is reported to have been a good friend of Persson's wife Anna Andersdotter, who apparently often accompanied her on her travels between the different royal palaces.

It is unknown whether Karin Månsdotter had any political influence, but a popular image in Swedish history was of her serving as a counterweight to the king's advisor Jöran Persson; a painting by Georg von Rosen three hundred years later (1871) illustrates this, showing the king on the floor, confused by his inner demons, with Karin Månsdotter at one side holding his hand, looking like an innocent angel giving him strength to resist the demands of Jöran Persson, standing on the other side of him, trying to get him to sign a document.

Her contemporaries, specially the nobles at court, early used her to appeal to Eric on their behalf, and it seems as she did her best to do so, which is illustrated in the Sture Murders in Uppsala in 1567, which could perhaps describe the form of her influence on Eric. In May 1567, Eric is considered to have suffered from some sort of mental collapse. He imprisoned several men from the noble family Sture, among them count Svante. Countess Märta Sture, sister of the former queen Margaret Leijonhufvud, appealed to Karin Månsdotter that the prisoners be protected. Karin assured her no-one would hurt the prisoners. Later the same morning, the king visited Svante Sture in prison, fell on his knees before him and begged for his friendship. Later the same day, however, the Sture prisoners were executed. Eric disappeared shortly afterwards, and Karin participated in the search; he was found in the Odensala vicarage.

Karin Månsdotter donated to the sisters of Vadstena Abbey on three occasions between 1566 and 1568, and it is noted that her largest donation was made during Eric's sickness in 1567.

Queen

Eric XIV married Karin morganatically in 1567, and officially in 1568, when she was ennobled and crowned queen under the name Katarina Magnusdotter (a formal version of her name). The first, secret wedding ceremony, was performed by Archbishop Laurentius Petri on 29 December 1567. During this period, Eric was periodically affected by his mental problems, and a regency ruled in his stead. The marriage, Eric's mental problems and Karin's elevation caused rumours. In a letter to Eric's sister Sophia, it was reported that "The lunacy which dominates him is a consequence of his deeds. He was somewhat unstable even before, and now he is completely so, guided by his wife", implying that Karin used witchcraft. The wife of Eric's advisor Jöran Persson, Anna Andersdotter, a close friend of Karin, was accused of having spread the rumours and sentenced for slander, but was pardoned on request by Karin herself. The regency arrested many of Eric's advisors, and Karin intervened for many of them. When Eric recovered and the regency was disbanded, Karin intervened in making peace between Eric and his brother, Duke John.

On 10 February 1568, Karin was ennobled and given the official seal of a queen. In a letter to her sisters-in-law, the princesses Sophia and Elisabeth, it is noted that she had erased the first draft, which formally called them "Dear sisters", and that she did not call herself "Queen", but "Chosen Queen", which has been interpreted to the fact that she knew that her position was not fully accepted within the aristocracy. Eric is reported to have plans to have his brothers and other enemies killed before the wedding, but they were to have been warned of these plans by Karin Månsdotter through queen dowager Catherine Stenbock. It was later noted that these people did not attend the wedding.

The official wedding took place in Storkyrkan on 4 July 1568, followed next day by the coronation. Karin Månsdotter was walked to the altar by the king's cousin Per Brahe under a banner of golden textile carried by four nobles. The wedding was unique; never before had the children of the couple been present at a royal wedding. Both the infant son and the daughter of Eric and Karin were present to confirm their official status. They were placed under the banner between their parents. On 9 June the son had been baptized carried by Queen Dowager Catherine Stenbock. The coronation was celebrated with great festivities in Stockholm to confirm the new queen's legitimacy. Karin's peasant relatives, her three maternal uncles from Uppland, Hans Jakobsson, Jakob Jakobsson and Erik Nilsson, were present dressed in clothes made for them by the royal tailor. During the coronation, the Lord Chancellor Nils Gyllenstierna, who was carrying the crown, fainted and dropped the crown to the floor. This was regarded as a bad omen.

During her period as queen, Karin made gifts to her friends and relatives, such as Anna Nilsdotter i Hammarstorp, who has been identified as her sister despite her different patronymicon, her paternal cousins in Sko kloster, and her "Fränka" (meaning "Female relative") Anna Eriksdotter i Sko. Queen Karin is noted to have granted two royal estates in 1568: on 1 May, she granted the income from Rörstrand in Solna to Torbrjörn Klockare in Stockholm, and on 24 July, she granted Aleby in Botkyrka to Lasse Jakobsson, signing herself in the first document as "Karin Månsdotter" and in the second as "Katarina Regina". On both occasions, she described different privileges and conditions for the holders. Granting royal estates and deciding their privileges was something normally done by monarchs, and showed her personal influence.

Soon after the coronation, Eric's brothers rebelled and he was imprisoned.

Imprisonment
Karin was imprisoned with Eric at first at the Royal Palace of Stockholm, and then at Castle of Turku (1570–71), at Kastelholm Castle in Åland, at Gripsholm Castle (1571–73) and Västerås Castle (1573). Shortly after they were imprisoned, their children were placed in the care of Queen Dowager Catherine Stenbock and their French governess Johanna (Jeanne) de Herboville, but were reunited with their parents in 1570. Karin gave birth to two children in captivity in 1570 and 1572, both of whom died in prison. During their imprisonment, it was reported that Karin reproached Eric for the people he had killed during his reign, "as he in his power had innocent people put to death and by doing so caused the imprisonment and misery of his wife and children as well as himself".

In the summer of 1569, an attempt to free the prisoners and restore Eric to his throne (the 1569 Plot) was made by a group of conspirators led by Karin's head lady-in-waiting, Elin Andersdotter, and Karin's personal secretary Thomas Jakobsson. The conspiracy was discovered and Andersdotter and Jakobsson were executed. Eric was involved in the plans, but it is not mentioned in the documents if Karin was, although the leading conspirators were in her employment. It is known that Eric was on at least three occasions physically abused by his keeper, but it is not thought that this happened in the presence of Karin.

Queen Karin and her children were separated from her husband on 14 June 1573 to prevent the birth of any more legitimate offspring. King Eric described it in his diary as: "My wife has been taken from me by use of violence". Karin and her children were taken to the Castle of Turku (Åbo) in Finland where she remained under house arrest until the death of her husband four years later. During these years, two conspiracies were discovered with the purpose of reinstating Eric: the Mornay Plot, and another plot two years later. In 1575, her son was taken from her and sent to Poland to be placed under the care of the Jesuits, but she was allowed to keep her daughter. In 1577, she received the news of her husband's death. She was treated with kindness and given the royal estate Liuksiala Manor in Kangasala, Finland, where she lived the rest of her life.

Widowhood

Karin Månsdotter returned to the Swedish court on two occasions. In 1577, newly widowed, she travelled to Stockholm to ask for financial support, which she received. The second time was in 1582, when she met with Queen Catherine Jagiellon and Queen Dowager Katarina Stenbock at Svartsjö Castle, in what was called "The Meeting of Three Queens Catherine".

In 1587, her daughter Sigrid was appointed lady-in-waiting to the new king's daughter, Princess Anna, who followed her brother King Sigismund to Warsaw where he had been elected king. Karin accompanied her on her journey. In Warsaw, she met her son Gustaf again, twelve years after he had been taken from her. She saw him once again in Estonia in 1595, and unlike the previous meeting, this meeting has been confirmed. He was now a Catholic, had forgotten her and they could not speak to each other because he had forgotten the Swedish language, the only language Karin was able to speak; she could identify him only by his birthmarks. He was poor and worked as a mercenary. She tried to help him financially, and for the rest of her life tried to get permission for him to return to Sweden, but never saw him again. Her daughter Sigrid, on the other hand, married two Swedish noblemen and often spent time with her mother.

Karin became respected and liked in Finland; during the great peasant rebellion (Cudgel War) in 1596–97, the rebels refrained from plundering her estate. She was also successful in managing the affairs of the estate; in 1587, Liuksiala Manor was one of the most lucrative estates in Finland, and in 1599 it became the second-most lucrative. She kept her neutrality during the Finnish aristocracy's conflict with Charles IX of Sweden in 1597–99. Her daughter, whose spouse had been loyal to King Sigismund, was forced to flee from Charles IX to Riga in 1598, but when she returned in 1603, Karin gave her refuge.

In August 1605, Charles IX gave instructions that Karin and her niece (her sister's daughter, who was apparently staying with her) should be moved to Stockholm. It is not known why, but it may have been because of the political situation in Russia, where her son was a participant. However, the instructions were never carried out. In 1606, Karin asked Charles for permission to free her tenants from the royal taxes so she could use their tax money to buy the freedom of her son, who was at the time a prisoner in Russia, but the king refused. In 1607, Karin nonetheless forbade her tenants to pay the royal taxes. The king then sent her his representatives to explain that this could not be accepted. Soon after, the affair ended with the death of her son in captivity. She died peacefully after a period of illness at Liuksiala. She is buried in the Cathedral of Turku.

Karin Månsdotter was the first royal mistress to a Swedish monarch to become queen since Christina Abrahamsdotter in 1470. Although three Queens of Sweden in her same century were not of royal blood, but noblewomen, Karin Månsdotter was the only one before Silvia (1976) who was a commoner — not counting Queen Desideria, who although born a commoner became Princess of Ponte Corvo four years before becoming Swedish royalty.

Family
Karin Månsdotter had the following children with the king:

 Princess Sigrid of Sweden (1566–1633) (born before the marriage), lady-in-waiting, spouse of two nobles.
 Prince Gustav of Sweden (1568–1607) (born before the marriage), mercenary.
 Henrik (1570–1574)
 Arnold (1572–1573)

Karin Månsdotter in fiction
Karin Månsdotter has been portrayed in films and books. The film Karin Månsdotter by Alf Sjöberg was made in 1954. Finnish author Mika Waltari wrote a historical novel  in 1942 (originally written in Finnish, and translated in to Swedish in 1943).

Legacy
The asteroid 832 Karin is named in her honour.

Notes

References
 Lars-Olof Larsson (in Swedish): Arvet efter Gustav Vasa (The legacy of Gustav Vasa) (2005)

Further reading

External links
 Kaarina Maununtytär (1550 - 1612)

1550 births
1612 deaths
16th-century Swedish people
House of Vasa
Mistresses of Swedish royalty
People from Uppland
Catherine 1568
16th-century Finnish people
17th-century Finnish people

Karin Månsdotter


Esta é uma lista dos municípios do Rio Grande do Sul por população, segundo o censo de 1890, o segundo realizado no Brasil e o primeiro realizado na era republicana.

Municípios

História do Rio Grande do Sul
Populacao
Rio Grande do Sul

Lista de municípios do Rio Grande do Sul por população (1890)


Distancias es una película del año 2008.

Sinopsis
Un grupo de refugiados del Congo está bloqueado en Rabat. La frontera con España les impide cruzar a Europa. En una remota habitación en la periferia de la ciudad ensayan una pieza de teatro sobre su propia experiencia. Una obra imperfecta, inacabada. La vida real se confunde con su representación. Entre ellos, Apollinaire cuenta, frontalmente, un eterno viaje de final incierto. Archivos televisivos muestran migrantes expulsados al desierto, obligados a empezar de nuevo. Rostros que han perdido sus nombres. Detrás permanecen los espacios vacíos de lo sucedido. Huellas silenciosas que revelan su historia como nuestra.

Premios
 Premio del Público - Festival dei Popoli, Florencia 2008

Festivales
Rompan Límites – Muestra de Cine Experimental de Maldonado (Uruguay). "Border, displacement and creation. Questionen the contemporary" (Oporto). I Festival de Cine Migrante de Bogotá. Festival Migrant Scène de Toulouse y Burdeos. I Festival de Cine Migrante de Buenos Aires. IV Festival Sinima de Soria. XV MedFilm Festival – Cine del Mediterráneo de Roma. 14 Festival Internacional de Cine de Ourense. Perspektive 09 - Festival Internacional de Cine Documental de Nuremberg. VI Festival de Cine Africano de Tarifa. Muestra Ovni 2009, CCCB. VI Documenta Madrid – Festival Internacional de Documentales.

Website
http://distancias.es

Referencias

Películas documentales sobre refugiados

Distancias (película)


Atherstone es una parroquia civil y una villa del distrito de North Warwickshire, en el condado de Warwickshire (Inglaterra).

Geografía
Según la Oficina Nacional de Estadística británica, Atherstone tiene una superficie de 4,17 km².

Demografía
Según el censo de 2001, Atherstone tenía 8338 habitantes (48,5% varones, 51,5% mujeres) y una densidad de población de 1999,52 hab/km². El 19,48% eran menores de 16 años, el 73,21% tenían entre 16 y 74 y el 7,32% eran mayores de 74. La media de edad era de 39,74 años. Del total de habitantes con 16 o más años, el 26,41% estaban solteros, el 55,88% casados y el 17,71% divorciados o viudos.

El 97,79% de los habitantes eran originarios del Reino Unido. El resto de países europeos englobaban al 0,97% de la población, mientras que el 1,24% había nacido en cualquier otro lugar. Según su grupo étnico, el 98,67% eran blancos, el 0,41% mestizos, el 0,54% asiáticos, el 0,14% negros, el 0,18% chinos y el 0,06% de cualquier otro. El cristianismo era profesado por el 80,68%, el budismo por el 0,14%, el hinduismo por el 0,2%, el islam por el 0,06%, el sijismo por el 0,25% y cualquier otra religión, salvo el judaísmo, por el 0,1%. El 10,36% no eran religiosos y el 8,2% no marcaron ninguna opción en el censo.

3929 habitantes eran económicamente activos, 3735 de ellos (95,06%) empleados y 194 (4,94%) desempleados. Había 3558 hogares con residentes, 95 vacíos, y 5 eran alojamientos vacacionales o segundas residencias.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de Warwickshire
Parroquias civiles de Warwickshire

Atherstone


Domnall Bregach Ua Máel Shechlainn, (tué en 1173) est le dernier  roi de Mide effectif de 1169 à 1173.

Origine
Domnall Bregach (c'est-à-dire de Brega) est le fils de l'éphémère souverain Máel Sechlainn mac Domnaill Ua Máel Sechlainn (mort en 1115) lui-même fils de  Domnall mac Flainn Ua Máel Sechlainn, roi de Mide de 1087 à 1094

Contexte
En 1169 Diarmait mac Domnaill Ua Máel Sechlainn roi de Mide et d'une « partie du Leinster, faiseur de rois en Irlande » est tué par Domnall de Brega, le fils de Máelseachlainn
L'année suivante Domnall Bregach et les « Hommes de l'est du Mide » se révoltent contre , roi de Breifne, et Ruaidri Ua Conchobair, et font allégeance à Diarmait Mac Murchada En représailles les otages détenus par Tighernán Ua Ruairc sont mis à mort. Domhnall Bregach est contraint de conclure une paix avec Tighearnan Ua Ruairc, et les Hommes de Mide peuvent regagner leur maisons  Deux ans plus tard Donnall Bregach  est tué par son demi-frère Art mac Máel Sechlainn meic Domnaill Ua Máel Sechlainn et un certain  Muintir Laeghachain, à l'abbaye de Durrow fondée par saint Colomba.

Succession
En 1163, Muircheartach le fils et héritier de Domhnal Bregach, meurt accidentellement en tombant ivre d'un pont à Cork et en se noyant dans le Sabrann  Domnall Bregach sera le dernier souverain effectif du royaume de Mide car l'année précédant sa mort, son domaine a été inféodé en avril 1172 à Hugues de Lacy et les deux prétendants à sa succession seront successivement éliminés. Après sa mort un conflit éclate entre l'instigateur de son meurtre Art mac Máel Sechlainn et certain Magnus Ua Máel Sechlainn, d'origine inconnue qui contrôlait le Iarthar Mide c'est-à-dire l'Est de Mide.

Magnus Ua Máel Sechlainn (anglicisé en Ó Melaghlin), seigneur  de l'Est du Mide sera pendu dès 1175 par les anglo-normands après avoir été capturé par trahison par eux à Trim  L'autre prétendant  Art mac Máel Sechlainn (i.e: Ó Melaghlin) , seigneur de l'Ouest de Mide, sera traîtreusement tué par Diarmait Finn Ua Briain, un fils de Toirdhelbach mac Diarmata Ua Briain, à l'instigation des anglo-normands. Un certain Máel Sechlainn Beg ou Melaghlin Beg lui succède de 1184 à 1213 dans son domaine réduit et trois jours plus tard il défait le même Diarmait, lors d'un combat dans lequel de nombreux combattants sont tués dont le fils de Mahon O'Brien

Notes et références

Sources

 :

Liens externes
  Liens avec University College Cork & Annales des quatre maîtres, Annales d'Ulster & Annales de Tigernach

Roi de Mide au XIIe siècle
Décès en 1173

Domnall Bregach Ua Máel Sechlainn


Isı yalıtımı, sıcaklık gradyanı içinden olan ısı akışının düşürülerek, sıcaklık gradyeninin korunması. Isı, doğal olarak yüksek sıcaklıktan, düşük sıcaklığa doğru akar ve direncin en az olduğu yol boyunca en fazla ısı akışı oluşur. Yüksek sıcaklık bölgesinin yanından, düşük sıcaklık bölgesine bir sıcaklık gradyeni oluşur.

Büyük alet/araçların birçoğunda yalıtım yer alır. Örneğin, fırınlarda, soğutucularda, dondurucularda ve su ısıtıcılarında. Çoğu halde, yalıtım çevreye olan ısı kaybını engellemeye yarar. Diğer hallerde ise, çevreden gelen ısıya karşı koruma sağlar.

Kullanılan malzemelerin ısı iletkenlik sayıları birbirlerinden farklıdır. Ama sadece ısı iletkenlik değeri (λ) 0,065 W/mK değerinin altında olanlar ısı yalıtım malzemesidir. Beklentilere ve amaca göre doğru malzeme kullanıldığından emin olunmalı ve alınan malzemenin yalıtım şartlarına dikkat edilmelidir.

Kaynakça

yalıtım
Termodinamik

Isı yalıtımı


حمل التضحية أو الفداء هو حمل (خروف صغير أو معنى مجازي) يقتل بالتضحية أو طريقة أخرى من اجل سبب ما

مجازا هي تعبير عن شخص لا امل له ان يجتاز التحدي القادم لكنه يوضع في المشكلة من اجل المصلحة العامة

في الفن
حمل التضحية في الفن هو شخصية مساعدة مهمتها الوحيدة الموت من اجل اثبات شر الشخص الشرير

استعارات سياسية ترمز إلى أشخاص
شخصيات أصيلة
عبارات كتابية
مجازات تشير إلى حيوانات
مصطلحات دينية
نقد أدبي

حمل التضحية


Franklin Rosborough Thomas (September 5, 1912 – September 8, 2004) was an American animator and pianist. He was one of Walt Disney's leading team of animators known as the Nine Old Men.

Biography
Thomas was born on September 5, 1912, in Santa Monica, California, to Frank Thomas, a teacher, and Ina Gregg. He had two older brothers, Lawrence and Welburne. He grew up in Fresno. Frank Thomas attended Stanford University, where he was a member of Theta Delta Chi fraternity and  worked on campus humor magazine The Stanford Chaparral with Ollie Johnston.  After graduating from Stanford in 1933, he attended Chouinard Art Institute, then joined The Walt Disney Company on September 24, 1934, as employee number 224.  There he animated dozens of feature films and shorts, and also was a member of the Dixieland band Firehouse Five Plus Two, playing the piano.

Career

His work in animated cartoon shorts included Brave Little Tailor, in which he animated scenes of Mickey Mouse and the king, Mickey and the bear in The Pointer, and German dialogue scenes in the World War II propaganda short Education for Death (shortly before Thomas enlisted in the Army Air Forces). During World War II he was assigned to the First Motion Picture Unit where he made training films.

In feature films, among the characters and scenes Thomas animated were the dwarfs crying over Snow White's "dead" body, Pinocchio singing at the marionette theatre, Bambi and Thumper on the ice, Lady and the Tramp eating spaghetti, the three fairies in Sleeping Beauty, Merlin and Arthur as squirrels and the "wizard's duel" between Merlin and Madam Mim in The Sword in the Stone (in which he was paired with animator Milt Kahl to great effect), King Louie in The Jungle Book (the song number "I Wan'na Be Like You" featuring King Louie and Baloo the Bear re-teamed him with Kahl), the dancing penguins in Mary Poppins, and Winnie The Pooh and Piglet in Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day and Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too. Thomas was directing animator for several memorable villains, including the evil stepmother Lady Tremaine in Cinderella, the Queen of Hearts in Alice in Wonderland, Captain James Hook in Peter Pan, and story consultant in Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland.
He retired from Disney on January 31, 1978.  In the 1980s and 1990s, Thomas served on the advisory board of the National Student Film Institute and often was a presenter at the annual film festival's award ceremonies.

Thomas co-authored, with fellow Disney legend Ollie Johnston, the comprehensive book Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life, first published by Abbeville Press in 1981.  Regarded as the definitive resource book on traditional hand-drawn character animation (particularly in the Disney style), the book has been republished numerous times, and is widely considered "the bible" among character animators. The book summarized the Disney approach to animation through the so-called 12 basic principles of animation.

Thomas and Johnston were also profiled in the 1995 documentary Frank and Ollie, which screened at the 20th Toronto International Film Festival, directed by Thomas's son Theodore Thomas. The film profiled their careers, private lives, and the personal friendship between the two men. In 2012, Theodore Thomas also directed another short documentary, "Growing up with Nine Old Men", included in the Diamond edition of Disney's Peter Pan DVD.

Thomas's last work in an animated film before his death was for The Incredibles (directed by Brad Bird), although he voiced a character, rather than animating one. Frank and his friend and colleague Ollie Johnston voiced and were caricatured as two old men saying "That's old school ..." "Yeah, no school like the old school." The pair had previously been heard, and caricatured, as the two train engineers in Bird's The Iron Giant. Thomas died in La Cañada Flintridge, California, on September 8, 2004, three days after his 92nd birthday. His widow, Jeanette A. Thomas, died on September 29, 2012.

The 2001 biography Walt Disney's Nine Old Men & The Art of Animation by John Canemaker () chronicles Thomas' life.

On the Animation Podcast, Disney director John Musker discussed Frank Thomas, and mentioned that at one time, fellow animation great Chuck Jones had christened Thomas the "Laurence Olivier of animators."

Filmography

Films

Television series

Books (all with Johnston)

 Disney Animation: The Illusion of Life
 Too Funny For Words: Disney's Greatest Sight Gags
 The Disney Villain ()
 Bambi: The Story and the Film, accompanied by a flip book

References

External links

 Frank and Ollie's official site
 Disney Legends
 Camouflage – A Cartoon in Technicolor, World War II animated training film directed by Frank Thomas, via the Internet Archive

1912 births
2004 deaths
American animators
Animators from California
Disney Legends
Dixieland pianists
Firehouse Five Plus Two members
First Motion Picture Unit personnel
People from Fresno, California
People from La Cañada Flintridge, California
Walt Disney Animation Studios people
Articles containing video clips

Frank Thomas (animator)


Polimerização catiônica é uma forma de polimerização em cadeia onde o iniciador catiônico transfere carga para o monômero, tornando este reativo. Esse monômero reativo reage de forma semelhante com outros monômeros para formar um polímero. Os tipos de monômeros necessários para a polimerização catiônica são limitados a alcenos com susbtituintes doadores de elétrons e heterociclos. Similar as reações de polimerização aniônica, a polimerização catiônica é muito sensível ao tipo de solvente utilizado. Especificamente, a habilidade do solvente para formar íons livres irá determinar a reatividade da cadeia catiônica. A polimerização catiônica é usada na produção de Poli-isobutileno e Poli(N-vinilcarbazola), o PVK.

Referências

Reações químicas
Reações orgânicas
Polímeros

Polimerização catiônica


Den 22. udgave af La Flèche Wallonne Féminine blev afholdt den 24. april 2019. Det var det ottende løb i UCI Women's World Tour 2019.  Løbet blev vundet af hollandske Anna van der Breggen fra Boels-Dolmans for femte år i træk.

Hold og ryttere

Danske ryttere
 Annika Langvad kørte for Boels-Dolmans
 Cecilie Uttrup Ludwig kørte for Bigla Pro Cycling
 Louise Norman Hansen kørte for Team Virtu Cycling Women

Resultater

Startliste

Eksterne henvisninger

Cykelløb i 2019
2019

La Flèche Wallonne Féminine 2019