The Appalachian dulcimer (many variant names; see below) is a fretted string instrument of the zither family, typically with three or four strings, originally played in the Appalachian region of the United States. The body extends the length of the fingerboard, and its fretting is generally diatonic.

Name
The Appalachian dulcimer has many variant names. Most often it is simply called a dulcimer (also rendered as "dulcimore", "dulcymore", "delcimer", "delcimore", etc.). When it needs to be distinguished from the unrelated hammered dulcimer, various adjectives are added (drawn from location, playing style, position, shape, etc.), for example:  mountain dulcimer; Kentucky dulcimer; plucked dulcimer; fretted dulcimer; lap dulcimer; teardrop dulcimer; box dulcimer; etc. The instrument has also acquired a number of nicknames (some shared by other instruments):  "harmonium", "hog fiddle", "music box", "harmony box", and "mountain zither".

Origins and history
Although the Appalachian dulcimer first appeared in the early 19th century among Scotch-Irish immigrant communities in the Appalachian Mountains, the instrument has no known precedent in Ireland, Scotland or Northern England.  Because of this, and a dearth of written records, the history of the Appalachian dulcimer has been, until fairly recently, largely speculative. Since 1980, more extensive research has traced the instrument's development through several distinct periods, and has likely origins in several similar European instruments:  the Swedish hummel, the Norwegian langeleik, the German scheitholt, and the French épinette des Vosges. Folk historian Lucy M. Long said of the instrument's history:

Charles Maxson, an Appalachian luthier from Volga, West Virginia, speculated that early settlers were unable to make the more complex violin in the early days because of lack of tools and time. This was one of the factors which led to the building of the dulcimer, which has less dramatic curves. He too cited the langeleik, scheitholt and épinette des Vosges as ancestor instruments.

Few true specimens of the mountain dulcimer exist from earlier than about 1880, when J. Edward Thomas of Knott County, Kentucky, began building and selling them. The instrument became used as something of a parlor instrument, as its modest sound volume is best-suited to small home gatherings. But for the first half of the 20th century the mountain dulcimer was rare, with a handful of makers supplying players in scattered pockets of Appalachia. Virtually no audio recordings of the instrument exist from earlier than the late 1930s.

The soprano Loraine Wyman, who sang Appalachian folk songs in concert venues around the time of the First World War, created a brief splash for the Appalachian dulcimer by demonstrating it in concerts, and was portrayed in Vogue magazine (right) holding her instrument, a Thomas. But Wyman preferred singing with the more robust support of the piano. The instrument achieved its true renaissance in the 1950s urban folk music revival in the United States through the work of Jean Ritchie, a Kentucky musician who performed with the instrument before New York City audiences. In the early 1960s, Ritchie and her husband George Pickow began distributing dulcimers made by her Kentucky relative Jethro Amburgey, then the woodworking instructor at the Hindman Settlement School. They eventually began producing their own instruments in New York City. Meanwhile, the American folk musician Richard Fariña (1937–1966) was also bringing the Appalachian dulcimer to a much wider audience, and by 1965 the instrument was a familiar presence in folk music circles.

In addition to Amburgey, by then winding down his production, influential builders of mid-1960s included Homer Ledford, Lynn McSpadden, A.W. Jeffreys and Joellen Lapidus. In 1969 Michael and Howard Rugg formed a company called Capritaurus. As well as being the first to mass-produce the instrument, they made design changes to make the instrument easier to produce and to play. The body was made larger, and they installed metal friction or geared tuners, rather than traditional wooden pegs, to make tuning easier and more reliable.

Construction and form
Organologically, the Appalachian dulcimer is a plucked box-zither; it is considered to be a folk instrument. Appalachian dulcimers are traditionally constructed of wood, and early instruments were typically made all of one wood, using wood commonly found in the particular area of the mountains where the builder lived. More recently guitar aesthetics and construction ideals have been applied, with a tone wood such as spruce or cedar preferred for the top of the soundbox. A harder wood, such as mahogany or rosewood, will be used for the back, sides, and neck, and a hardwood such as rosewood, maple, or ebony is used for the fingerboard. As the modern dulcimer arose in America, and the bulk of them are still made there, American hardwoods such as walnut, oak, cherry, and apple are also still frequently employed by makers.

As with many folk instruments the Appalachian dulcimer has been made—and continues to be made—in many shapes, sizes, and variations in construction details; however, certain forms have proven more popular than others, and tended to predominate. The general format has a long narrow soundbox, with the "neck" centered in the soundbox and running the length of the instrument. Typical instruments are 70–100 cm (27 1/2–39 1/2 in.) long; 16–19 cm (6 1/2–7 1/2 in) wide at the widest bout; and the soundbox has a uniform depth of about 5–6 cm (2–2.5 in). The top of the fingerboard sits about 1.25 cm (1/2 in) above the top of the soundbox. The soundbox will typically have from two to four soundholes, two in the lower bout and two in the upper bout. These take various shapes, with traditional favorites being a heart, or the traditional "f-hole" of the violin, but makers frequently personalize their instruments with their own unique soundhole shapes.

The overall shape of the instrument has taken many forms, but the most popular are the hourglass (or figure 8), the ellipse, the teardrop, and a long narrow trapezoid or rectangle.

At one end of the neck is the headstock, which contains the tuners. Headstocks most commonly have either a scroll shape (similar to the headstock of orchestral string instruments such as the violin), or a shape similar to that found on parlour guitars or banjos. To some extent, the shape of the headstock may be dictated by the style of tuners chosen. Older instruments and some modern "traditional" designs use violin-style wooden friction pegs. Modern instruments will more typically employ metal tuning machines, of either adjustable friction style, or geared (e.g. guitar) style.

At the other end of the neck is the tailblock which contains pins or brads for securing the other (loop) end of the strings. Strings are stretched between the end pins and tuners, passing over a bridge (at the tailblock end), and a nut (at the headstock), which determines the sounding length of the strings. In between the nut and the bridge lies the fingerboard, which is fitted with (typically) 12–16 metal, diatonically spaced frets; a zero fret may or may not be employed. Between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge the neck is carved down creating a scalloped hollow that passes close to the top of the soundbox. This area, called the strum hollow, is the space in which the plectrum, fingers, or beater is employed to sound the strings (see Playing).

Both single-player and two-player instruments have been made, as have multi-neck single player units (see Variants). The vast majority of Appalachian dulcimers are single-neck, single player instruments, and these have been made with anywhere from two to a dozen strings, three being the most common number on older instruments. Modern instruments typically have 3, 4, 5, or 6 strings, arranged in either three or four courses. Many possible string arrangements exist, but the following are typical:

 3-string:  Three single-string courses.
 4-string:  Three courses, two single-strung; one double-strung. The doubled course is almost always the highest-pitched (melody) course.
 4-string:  Four single-string courses.
 5-string:  Three courses: Two double-strung; one single-strung. The single string is usually the middle course, with the bass and melody courses being double strung.
 5-string:  Four courses: One double-strung; three single-strung. The double strung course is the melody course.
 6-string:  Three double-strung courses.

Production
Appalachian dulcimers are often made by individual craftsmen and small, family-run businesses located in the American South and particularly in Appalachia. It is easy and relatively common to order custom instruments, and custom-built Appalachian dulcimers can run considerably less in cost than other custom-built stringed instruments (e.g., guitar, mandolin, or banjo).

Cheap imports from Romania, Pakistan and China are slowly making inroads into the American market. John Bailey's book, Making an Appalachian Dulcimer, is one of several still in print that provide instructions for constructing a dulcimer.

Frets, strings, tuning and modes

Fret placement
The frets of the Appalachian dulcimer are typically arranged in a diatonic scale. This is in contrast with instruments like the guitar or banjo, which are fretted chromatically. As early as the mid-1950s some makers began to include at least one additional fret, usually the so-called "six and a half", "6½" or "6+" fret a half step below the octave. This enables one to play in the Ionian mode when tuned to D3-A3-D4 (the traditional tuning for the Mixolydian mode),  where the scale starts on the open (unfretted) string. This arrangement is often found to be more conducive to chord-melody play. It also became common to add a fret one octave up from the 6+ fret, called the "13+" fret, and by the late 1970s these additional frets had become standard.

Eventually, some builders began to offer further additional frets at the "1+" and "8+" positions or (as an alternative) the "4+" and "11+" positions. These additional frets facilitate the use of still more scales and modes without retuning. As was probably inevitable, this trend eventually led to the availability of fully chromatic dulcimers, with twelve frets per octave, permitting playing in any key without re-tuning. Chromatic fretting, however, remains somewhat controversial among dulcimer players, with traditionalists preferring what they feel is the greater authenticity of the diatonic fingerboard.

Strings
Appalachian dulcimers are strung with metal wire strings; wound strings may be used for the lower pitched courses. These strings are very similar to those used on banjos and guitars, and before manufacturers provided special "dulcimer sets", banjo strings were frequently used. On a typical dulcimer string gauges range between about 0.026 in. and 0.010 in. in diameter, although gauges outside this range may be employed to facilitate special tunings or extended range playing styles.

Tuning

There is no one "standard tuning" for the Appalachian dulcimer, but as with the shape of the instrument, certain tuning arrangements have proven more popular than others. Traditionally, the Appalachian dulcimer was usually tuned (from left to right) to G3-G3-C3, C4-G3- C3, or C4-F3-C3.  Note:  Because the dulcimer is most often played on the lap or with the instrument lying on a table, when the instrument is held upright (headstock at the top), the highest pitched string will be on the left—this is the reverse of most other string instruments (e.g., guitar, bass, fiddle, etc.) where the lowest string is on the left. Dulcimer players, however, are accustomed to naming their strings from lowest to highest (as would a guitarist or violinist). which means that the strings are usually named reverse order from which they appear on the instrument, i.e., right to left. Thus the tunings cited above would more commonly be given as:  C3-G3-G3; C3-G3-C4; and C3-F3-C4. This convention will be followed for the rest of the article.

With the Appalachian dulcimer revival of the 1950s and 1960s players began to favor higher-pitched tunings; this is not uncommon in the history of many stringed instruments, with players often claiming that the higher tunings make their instrument sound "brighter". In consequence, the original traditional tunings migrated up a whole step, and became:  D3-A3-A3; D3-A3-D4; and D3-G3-D4, which are the most common modern tunings for three-course Appalachian dulcimers.

Modes
D3-A3-A3, is in a I V V harmonic relationship. That is, the tonic note of the diatonic major scale is on the bass string and the middle and melody strings are at an interval of a perfect fifth above it. This tuning places the tonic (diatonic) fret on the melody string. This facilitates playing melodies in the Ionian mode (the major scale). The melody is played on the top string (or string pair) only, with the unfretted drone strings providing a simple harmony, giving the instrument its distinctive sound.

To play in a different key, or in a different mode, a traditional player would have to retune the instrument. For example, to play a minor mode melody the instrument might be tuned to D3-A3-C4. This facilitates playing the Aeolian mode (the natural minor scale), where the scale begins at the first fret.

While the most common current tuning is D3-A3-D4, some teachers prefer the more traditional D3-A3-A3 or the so-called "Reverse Ionian" tuning, D3-G3-d4. "Reverse" tunings are ones in which the key note is on the middle string and the bass string is the fifth of the scale, but in the octave below the middle string. This is sometimes suggested by teachers as an easier tuning. From D3-G3-D4 one can put a capo on the first fret to play in the Dorian mode, or retune the second string (to A3), to play in the Mixolydian mode, then from Mixolydian, capo the first fret to play in the Aeolian mode.

Playing

With only three or four strings and a simple diatonic fret pattern, the Appalachian dulcimer is generally regarded as one of the easiest string instruments to learn. The traditional way to play the instrument is to lay it flat on the lap and pluck or strum the strings with the right hand, while fretting with the left. Alternatively, the dulcimer may also be placed on a wooden table, using the table as an extended resonator to boost volume. The instrument is generally strung with the melody string (or string pair) on the player's side of the instrument, and the bass string on the outside.

In traditional play, fretting is achieved with a "noter"—typically a short length of dowel or bamboo (see photo at left)—on the melody course, while the middle and bass strings ring as unfretted drones. This style of play is now referred to as "noter-drone" play. In some traditions, players use a feather quill with the barbs removed to strum the instrument. The frets on early mountain dulcimers were usually simple wire staples spanning only halfway across the fingerboard, meaning only the melody string course could be fretted. By the early 1960s, many dulcimer makers had abandoned staples in favour of manufactured fret wire extending across the entire width of the fingerboard. This enabled players to fret all the strings, allowing for chording and an expanded melodic range. A variety of new, "noter-less" playing styles emerged now collectively referred to as "chord-melody"  play. The emergence of full-width frets also compelled makers to fret their instruments in equal temperament. The fret patterns on the older half-width-fret instruments rarely adhered to equal temperament, and intonation varied from builder to builder. With a simple melody played against the drone, these idiosyncratic scales could add warmth and a distinctive flavour to the music, but the old non-standard fret patterns often produce a dissonance when chorded that some find unacceptable.

Using modern dulcimers with full-width frets arranged for equal temperament, contemporary players have borrowed from chord theory and imported technique from other stringed instruments to greatly expand the versatility of the instrument. But a wide variety of playing styles have long been used. Instead of strumming the strings with a pick, for example, they might be strummed or picked with the fingers, or even beaten with a small stick. Jean Ritchie's The Dulcimer Book has an old photograph of Mrs. Leah Smith of Big Laurel, Kentucky, playing the dulcimer with a bow instead of a pick, with the tail of the dulcimer held in the player's lap, and the headstock resting on a table pointing away from her. In their book In Search of the Wild dulcimer, Robert Force and Al d'Ossché describe their preferred method as "guitar style": The dulcimer hangs from a strap around the neck, and the instrument is strummed like a guitar, although their fretting style is still overhand. They also describe playing "autoharp style" where "the dulcimer is held vertically with the headstock over the shoulder." Lynn McSpadden, in his book Four and Twenty Songs for the Mountain Dulcimer, states that some players "tilt the dulcimer up sideways on their laps and strum in a guitar style." Still other dulcimer players use a fingerstyle technique, fingering chord positions with the fretting hand and rhythmically plucking individual strings with the strumming hand, creating delicate arpeggios.

Contemporary use

The Appalachian dulcimer is now a core instrument in the American old-time music tradition, but styles performed by modern dulcimer enthusiasts run the gamut from traditional folk music through popular and experimental forms. Some players exploit its similarity in tone to certain Middle Eastern and Asian instruments. Increasingly, modern musicians have contributed to the popularity of the solid-body electric dulcimer. Dulcimer festivals take place regularly in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, because the Appalachian dulcimer has achieved a following in a number of countries.

Though the mountain dulcimer has long been associated with the older generation, it has gradually attracted a number of younger players who have discovered its charms. Because it is easy to play, many music teachers consider it to be an especially good educational instrument. Consequently, it is often used in educational settings, and some music classes make their own dulcimers. However, due to limitations of budget, time, and craftsmanship, they are usually made from cardboard.

Brian Jones, of The Rolling Stones, played the electric Appalachian dulcimer on their 1966 album Aftermath, notably on "Lady Jane". He can be seen playing the instrument during their performance on the Ed Sullivan Show. He was influenced to use the instrument after hearing recordings of Richard Fariña. Perhaps one of the most famous players of the Appalachian dulcimer is singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell, who first played the instrument on studio recordings in the late 1960s, and most famously on the album Blue (1971), as well as in live concerts.
Peter Buck of R.E.M. plays the electric Appalachian dulcimer. Paul Westerberg of The Replacements also plays an Appalachian dulcimer on their 1989 single "I'll Be You".

Cyndi Lauper is also a high-profile mountain dulcimer player, having studied with the late David Schnaufer. Lauper played dulcimer on her ninth studio album The Body Acoustic, and the tour to support the record featured her performing songs like "Time After Time" and "She Bop" solo on the mountain dulcimer. Contemporary professional musicians who view the dulcimer as their primary instrument include Stephen Seifert of Nashville and Irish blues guitarist Rory Gallagher, who used a dulcimer on his later albums. Orlando-based musician Bing Futch performs using a special dual-fretboard mountain dulcimer as well as a custom resonator and is one of only two mountain dulcimer players to have competed in the International Blues Challenge, advancing to the semifinals in the 2015 edition of the competition; during the 2016 edition, Futch made it to the finals and was awarded "Best Guitarist" in the solo-duo category, despite performing solely on the Appalachian mountain dulcimer.

Variants
As a folk instrument, wide variation exists in Appalachian dulcimers.
 Body shapes: As previously noted, dulcimers appear in a wide variety of body types, many of which are recorded in A Catalog of Pre-Revival Dulcimers. A representative array would include: hourglass, teardrop, trapezoid, rectangular, elliptical ("Galax-style"), violin-shaped, fish-shaped, and lute-back.
 Materials: In addition to plywood, laminates, and solid woods, some builders are using experimental materials such as carbon fiber. Dulcimers are also made of cardboard. Often sold as low-cost kits, cardboard dulcimers offer surprisingly good sound and volume. Their low cost and resistance to damage make them particularly suited to institutional settings, such as elementary school classrooms.

 Number of strings: Dulcimers may have as few as two or as many as 12 strings (in up to six courses). Up to the 1960s most mountain dulcimers had three strings. The most popular variant today is four strings in three courses, with doubled melody strings.

 Sizes and range:  Larger and smaller dulcimers are made, which extend the range of the instrument to higher and lower pitches, and to fill parts in dulcimer ensembles:
Baritone dulcimer:  These are just larger versions of the regular dulcimer, designed to be tuned to a lower pitch. Typically they are designed to be tuned a fourth lower: A3-E3-A2 or A3 A3-E3-A2, although any of the variant tuning patterns may be adapted to this lower pitched instrument.
Bass dulcimer:  Very rare, these monsters may approach four feet long. They were designed for ensemble playing, and are tuned one octave lower than the dulcimer:  A2-E2-A1 or A2 A2-E2-A1.
Soprano or piccolo dulcimer:  These are smaller dulcimers which range in size from about 80% all the way down to about 50% of the regular dulcimer in length. They are designed to support higher pitches, and tuning is typically a fourth higher:  G4-D4-G3 or G4 G4-D4-G3. The smaller size and reduced scale-length also facilitates playing by persons with smaller hands, such as children.
Alto Dulcimer: This is similar to the soprano dulcimer but larger and better suited in has a lower pitch
Other sizes have been experimented with, including contrabass dulcimers.

 Courting dulcimers: One unusual variant is the "courting dulcimer." This instrument consists of one large dulcimer body with two separate fingerboards. The instrument is laid across the laps of two facing individuals (the eponymous "courting" pair) and used to play duets.
 Double-neck dulcimers: Somewhat the same as a "courting dulcimer", but with both fretboards (or "necks") facing the same direction. Popularized by performer Bing Futch, it allows for multiple tunings without changing instruments.
Solid-body electric dulcimer: acoustic dulcimers may be electrified with pickups, and several builders produce solid-body electric dulcimers.
Aquavina: a dulcimer employing a metal resonator filled partially with water. The resonator is agitated while playing, producing an eerie oscillation of the harmonics.

Hybrid instruments
 Bowed dulcimers: Dulcimers that can be played with bows; in the modern era heavily modified variants have been made exclusively for bowed playing.
Guitar dulcimer: a hybrid of guitar and dulcimer, with the body more closely resembling a guitar, but the string configuration and pegs of a dulcimer. The stringing pattern on these instruments are frequently the reverse of the dulcimer, with low-pitched strings on the left and higher strings on the right, and they are usually held and played like a guitar, in guitar position. This variant was first explored, and later patented, by Homer Ledford, and called the "dulcitar." (see below)
Dulcitar (also stick dulcimer or strum-stick): a long-necked fretted instrument, similar to a guitar or mandolin, with diatonic dulcimer fretting. It differs from the guitar dulcimer chiefly in having a much narrower and shallower body, closer to the proportions of the soundbox of the Appalachian dulcimer. These instruments are known by a wide variety of names, with the most common commercial model being the McNally Strumstick.
Banjo dulcimer: resembles a standard dulcimer, but with a banjo-head on the body. This variant was first explored, and later patented, by Homer Ledford, and called the "dulcijo." Similar instruments include the "Ban-Jammer" (Mike Clemmer), the "Banjimer" (Keith Young) and the "Banj-Mo" (Folk Notes). The "Dulci-Jo" is a banjo/dulcimer hybrid with a thumb string like a clawhammer banjo, 3 strings and a diatonic fret pattern, shaped more like a banjo and played upright, and built by Michael Fox of NC.
Resonator dulcimer: a standard dulcimer, with a resonator added to the body, in imitation of the resonator guitar. This variant was first explored, and later patented, by Homer Ledford and called the "dulcibro".

See also
 Hearts of the Dulcimer
 List of Appalachian dulcimer players

References

External links

Hearts of the Dulcimer-Podcast – a podcast dedicated to exploring the mountain dulcimer's past, present, and future.
Hearts of the Dulcimer-Film – a feature-length documentary about the mountain dulcimer.
In Search of the Wild Dulcimer – free online version of the book on the author's site.
Dulcimer Players News, a magazine in publication since 1974, for hammered and fretted "dulcimer" enthusiasts.
Everything Dulcimer – Online community featuring articles, listings and discussion forums.
The Dulcimerica Video Podcast – A video podcast featuring performances, lessons, interviews and travelogs.
Friends of the Mountain Dulcimer – a supportive online learning community of mountain dulcimer players.

Appalachian culture
Fretted zithers
American musical instruments
German musical instruments
Diatonic instruments

Appalachian dulcimer


Austin Powers puede referirse a:

Austin Powers (personaje), espía inglés ficticio interpretado por Mike Myers;
La serie de películas de dicho personaje:
Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, primera película de Austin Powers (1997);
Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me, segunda película de Austin Powers (1999);
Austin Powers in Goldmember, tercera película de Austin Powers (2002)

Austin Powers


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 Katapsuxis Raf. (1 sp.)
 Ligusticum L. s. lat. (20 spp.)
 Cynapium Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray (1 sp.)
 Tamamschjania Pimenov & Kljuykov (1 sp.)
 Tribus Aciphylleae Watson & Downie
 Aciphylla J. R. Forst. & G. Forst. (44 spp.)
 Lignocarpa J. W. Dawson (2 spp.)
 Scandia J. W. Dawson (2 spp.)
 Gingidia J. W. Dawson (12 spp.)
 Anisotome Hook. fil. (17 spp.)
 Tribus Arcuatopterus clade
 Arcuatopterus M. L. Sheh & R. H. Shan (6 spp.)
 Sillaphyton Pimenov (1 sp.)
 Wangsania B. Y. Lee & Hyun (1 sp.)
 Tribus Spiroceratium clade
 Spiroceratium H. Wolff (1 sp.)
 Tribus Scandiceae Spreng.
 Subtribus Glaucosciadium clade
 Glaucosciadium B. L. Burtt & P. H. Davis (2 spp.)
 Ladyginia Lipsky (3 spp.)
 Subtribus Scandicinae Tausch
 Todaroa Parl. (1 sp.)
 Athamanta L. (11 spp.)
 Conopodium W. D. J. Koch (9 spp.)
 Sphallerocarpus Besser ex DC. (1 sp.)
 Chaerophyllum L. (68 spp.)
 Scandix L. (13 spp.)
 Anthriscus [Pers.] Hoffm. (12 spp.)
 Myrrhis Mill. (1 sp.)
 Osmorhiza Raf. (11 spp.)
 Kozlovia Lipsky (5 spp.)
 Chaerophyllopsis Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Geocaryum Coss. (13 spp.)
 Subtribus Acronema clade
 Harrysmithia H. Wolff (2 spp.)
 Tilingia Regel & Tiling (3 spp.)
 Rupiphila Pimenov & Lavrova (1 sp.)
 Acronema Falc. ex Edgew. (32 spp.)
 Angelica p. min. p. (1 sp.)
 Halosciastrum (Nakai) Koidz. (1 sp.)
 Haloselinum Pimenov (1 sp.)
 Ligusticum p. min. p. (2 spp.)
 Meeboldia H. Wolff (4 spp.)
 Oreocomopsis Pimenov & Kljuykov (3 spp.)
 Ostericum Hoffm. (12 spp.)
 Pachypleurum Ledeb. (3 spp.)
 Pleurospermum p. min. p. (2 spp.)
 Pternopetalum Franch. (22 spp.)
 Pterygopleurum Kitag. (1 sp.)
 Sinocarum H. Wolff ex R. H. Shan & F. T. Pu (19 spp.)
 Synclinostyles Farille & Lachard (2 spp.)
 Spuriopimpinella (H. Boissieu) Kitag. (6 spp.)
 Rohmooa Farille & Lachard (1 sp.)
 Xyloselinum Pimenov & Kljuykov (3 spp.)
 Subtribus Ferulinae Drude
 Cephalopodum Korovin (3 spp.)
 Leutea Pimenov (9 spp.)
 Ferula L. (223 spp.)
 Eriosynaphe DC. (1 sp.)
 Palimbia Besser (3 spp.)
 Autumnalia Pimenov (2 spp.)
 Fergania Pimenov (1 sp.)
 Kafirnigania Kamelin & Kinzik. (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Artediinae Baczyski, Wojew., S.R.Downie & Spalik
 Artedia L. (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Torilidinae Dumort.
 Yabea Koso-Pol. (1 sp.)
 Glochidotheca Fenzl (1 sp.)
 Szovitsia Fisch. & C. A. Mey. (1 sp.)
 Lisaea Boiss. (3 spp.)
 Turgenia Hoffm. (2 spp.)
 Torilis Adans. (18 spp.)
 Rhopalosciadium Rech. fil. (1 sp.)
 Astrodaucus Drude (3 spp.)
 Subtribus Daucinae Dumort.
 Orlaya Hoffm. (3 spp.)
 Caucalis L. (1 sp.)
 Daucus L. (45 spp.)
 Silphiodaucus (Koso-Pol.) Spalik, Wojew., Banasiak, Piwczyñski & Reduron (2 spp.)
 Cuminum L. (3 spp.)
 Ammodaucus Coss. & Durieu (2 spp.)
 Laserpitium L. (8 spp.)
 Laserocarpum Spalik & Wojew. (1 sp.)
 Ekimia H. Duman & M. F. Watson (4 spp.)
 Thapsia L. (23 spp.)
 Siler Mill. (2 spp.)
 Laser Borkh. ex G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb. (8 spp.)
 Froriepia K. Koch (1 sp.)
 Yildirimlia Dogru-Koca (1 sp.)
 Tribus Careae Baill.
 Aegopodium L. (9 spp.)
 Hladnikia Rchb. (1 sp.)
 Aegokeras Raf. (1 sp.)
 Falcaria Fabr. (1 sp.)
 Rhabdosciadium Boiss. (8 spp.)
 Gongylosciadium Rech. fil. (1 sp.)
 Ptychotis W. D. J. Koch (2 spp.)
 Chamaesciadium C. A. Mey. (1 sp.)
 Berberocarum Zakharova & Pimenov (1 sp.)
 Carum L. (10 spp.)
 Fuernrohria K. Koch (1 sp.)
 Vinogradovia Bani, D. A. German & M. A. Koch (1 sp.)
 Selinopsis Coss. & Durieu ex Munby (2 spp.)
 Caropodium Stapf & Wettst. ex Stapf (3 spp.)
 Grammosciadium DC. (4 spp.)
 Tribus Pyramidoptereae Boiss.
 Microsciadium Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Bunium L. (32 spp.)
 Tamamschjanella Pimenov & Kljuykov (2 spp.)
 Carum p. p. part 2 (5 spp.)
 Astomaea Rchb. (2 spp.)
 Lagoecia L. (1 sp.)
 Postiella Kljuykov (1 sp.)
 Hellenocarum H. Wolff (3 spp.)
 Oliveria Vent. (1 sp.)
 Oreoschimperella Rauschert (3 spp.)
 Angoseseli Chiov. (1 sp.)
 Sison L. (4 spp.)
 Ammoides Adans. (2 spp.)
 Adenosciadium H. Wolff (1 sp.)
 Ormopterum Schischk. (2 spp.)
 Schtschurowskia Regel & Schmalh. ex Regel (2 spp.)
 Sclerotiaria Korovin (1 sp.)
 Lipskya (Koso-Pol.) Nevski (1 sp.)
 Scaligeria DC. (24 spp.)
 Neomuretia Kljuykov, Degtjareva & Zakharova (2 spp.)
 Gongylotaxis Pimenov & Kljuykov (1 sp.)
 Carum p. p. part 1 (1 sp.)
 Crithmum L. (1 sp.)
 Cyclospermum Lag. (3 spp.)
 Schulzia Spreng. (6 spp.)
 Karnataka P. K. Mukh. & Constance (1 sp.)
 Kedarnatha P. K. Mukh. & Constance (6 spp.)
 Pyramidoptera Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Elwendia Boiss. (30 spp.)
 Schrenkia Fisch. & C. A. Mey. (12 spp.)
 Mogoltavia Korovin (2 spp.)
 Oedibasis Koso-Pol. (4 spp.)
 Elaeosticta Fenzl (6 spp.)
 Galagania Lipsky (6 spp.)
 Hyalolaena Bunge (12 spp.)
 Tribus Pimpinelleae Spreng.
 Zeravschania Korovin (14 spp.)
 Nothosmyrnium Miq. (2 spp.)
 Aphanopleura Boiss. (3 spp.)
 Haussknechtia Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Arafoe Pimenov & Lavrova (1 sp.)
 Bubon L. (3 spp.)
 Psammogeton Edgew. (13 spp.)
 Parapimpinella Fern. Prieto, Sanna & Arjona (1 sp.)
 Pimpinella L. (173 spp.)
 Kelussia Mozaff. (1 sp.)
 Registaniella Rech. fil. (1 sp.)
 Afrosison H. Wolff (3 spp.)
 Frommia H. Wolff (1 sp.)
 Phellolophium Baker (2 spp.)
 Cryptotaenia sect. Afrosciadium (3 spp.)
 Tribus Sinodielsia clade
 Cenolophium W. D. J. Koch (1 sp.)
 Sinodielsia H. Wolff (2 spp.)
 Sphaenolobium Pimenov (4 spp.)
 Tribus Opopanax clade
 Bonannia Guss. (1 sp.)
 Petroedmondia Tamamsch. (1 sp.)
 Magydaris W. D. J. Koch ex DC. (2 spp.)
 Smyrniopsis Boiss. (3 spp.)
 Opopanax W. D. J. Koch (4 spp.)
 Stefanoffia H. Wolff (2 spp.)
 Kadenia Lavrova & V. N. Tikhom. (2 spp.)
 Lithosciadium Turcz. (2 spp.)
 Magadania Pimenov & Lavrova (2 spp.)
 Tribus Apieae Takht. ex V. M. Vinogr.
 Stoibrax Raf. (3 spp.)
 Modesciadium P. Vargas & Jim. Mejías (1 sp.)
 Diplolophium Turcz. (7 spp.)
 Visnaga Gaertn. (2 spp.)
 Ammi L. (4 spp.)
 Petroselinum Hill (1 sp.)
 Sclerosciadium W. D. J. Koch (1 sp.)
 Rutheopsis A. Hansen & Kunkel (2 spp.)
 Billburttia Magee & B.-E. van Wyk (2 spp.)
 Deverra DC. (9 spp.)
 Apium L. (11 spp.)
 Anethum L. (6 spp.)
 Foeniculum Hill (2 spp.)
 Tribus Tordylieae W. D. J. Koch
 Subtribus Lefebvrea clade
 Lefebvrea A. Rich. (12 spp.)
 Stenosemis E. Mey. ex Harv. & Sond. (2 spp.)
 Afrosciadium P. J. D. Winter (18 spp.)
 Capnophyllum Gaertn. (4 spp.)
 Dasispermum Neck. ex Raf. (7 spp.)
 Scaraboides Magee & B.-E. van Wyk (1 sp.)
 Cynorhiza Eckl. & Zeyh. (3 spp.)
 Nanobubon Magee (3 spp.)
 Notobubon Magee (13 spp.)
 Haplosciadium Hochst. (1 sp.)
 Afroligusticum C. Norman (14 spp.)
 Subtribus Tordyliinae Drude
 Vanasushava P. K. Mukh. & Constance (1 sp.)
 Semenovia p. min. p. (2 spp.)
 Semenovia Regel & Herder (33 spp.)
 Pastinacopsis Golosk. (1 sp.)
 Scrithacola Alava (1 sp.)
 Zosima Hoffm. (4 spp.)
 Tricholaser Gilli (2 spp.)
 Tordylium L. (16 spp.)
 Heracleum L. (84 spp.)
 Ainsworthia Boiss. (3 spp.)
 Synelcosciadium Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Tordyliopsis DC. (1 sp.)
 Pastinaca L. emend. Calest. (16 spp.)
 Leiotulus Ehrenb. (14 spp.)
 Trigonosciadium Boiss. (6 spp.)
 Tetrataenium (DC.) Manden. (20 spp.)
 Kandaharia Alava (1 sp.)
 Stenotaenia Boiss. (7 spp.)
 Lalldhwojia Farille (3 spp.)
 Pinda P. K. Mukh. & Constance (2 spp.)
 Polyzygus Dalzell (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Cymbocarpum clade
 Ormosciadium Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Ducrosia Boiss. (6 spp.)
 Cymbocarpum DC. (5 spp.)
 Kalakia Alava (1 sp.)
 Tribus Echinophoreae Benth. & Hook. fil.
 Trachyspermum Link (13 spp.)
 Nirarathamnos Balf. fil. (1 sp.)
 Mediasia Pimenov (1 sp.)
 Physotrichia Hiern (6 spp.)
 Pseudoselinum C. Norman (1 sp.)
 Rughidia M. F. Watson & E. L. Barclay (2 spp.)
 Dicyclophora Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Pycnocycla Lindl. (15 spp.)
 Ergocarpon C. C. Towns. (1 sp.)
 Echinophora L. (9 spp.)
 Anisosciadium DC. (3 spp.)
 Tribus Conieae Rouy
 Conium L. (6 spp.)
 Tribus Coriandreae W. D. J. Koch
 Krubera Hoffm. (1 sp.)
 Coriandrum L. (3 spp.)
 Bifora Hoffm. (2 spp.)
 Silaum Mill. (1 sp.)
 Tribus Selineae Spreng.
 Subtribus Seseli subgroup (Selineae sensu stricto)
 Seseli L. (141 spp.)
 Selinum L. (10 spp.)
 Vicatia DC. (3 spp.)
 Lomatocarum Fisch. & C. A. Mey. (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Cachrydinae Meisn.
 Diplotaenia Boiss. (5 spp.)
 Azilia Hedge & Lamond (1 sp.)
 Prangos Lindl. (43 spp.)
 Bilacunaria Pimenov & V. N. Tikhom. (4 spp.)
 Cachrys L. (8 spp.)
 Ferulago W. D. J. Koch (52 spp.)
 Subtribus Arracacia clade
 Ottoa Kunth (1 sp.)
 Paraselinum H. Wolff (1 sp.)
 Coaxana J. M. Coult. & Rose (2 spp.)
 Myrrhidendron J. M. Coult. & Rose (5 spp.)
 Mathiasella Constance & C. L. Hitchc. (1 sp.)
 Donnellsmithia J. M. Coult. & Rose (19 spp.)
 Dahliaphyllum Constance & Breedlove (1 sp.)
 Austropeucedanum Mathias & Constance (1 sp.)
 Rhodosciadium S. Watson (15 spp.)
 Perissocoeleum Mathias & Constance (4 spp.)
 Prionosciadium S. Watson (23 spp.)
 Enantiophylla J. M. Coult. & Rose (1 sp.)
 Coulterophytum B. L. Rob. (3 spp.)
 Pedinopetalum Urb. & H. Wolff (1 sp.)
 Niphogeton Schltdl. (18 spp.)
 Tauschia Schltdl. (32 spp.)
 Neonelsonia J. M. Coult. & Rose (1 sp.)
 Arracacia Bancr. (39 spp.)
 Subtribus Dichoropetalum clade
 Aethusa L. (1 sp.)
 Dichoropetalum Fenzl (36 spp.)
 Siculosciadium C. Brullo, Brullo, S. R. Downie & Giusso (1 sp.)
 Johrenia DC. (6 spp.)
 Subtribus Angelica clade
 Saposhnikovia Schischk. (1 sp.)
 Cnidium Cusson (6 spp.)
 Peucedanum p. min. p. (1 sp.)
 Epikeros Raf. (1 sp.)
 Angelica L. (97 spp.)
 Chymsydia Albov (2 spp.)
 Tschulaktavia Bajtenov (1 sp.)
 Agasyllis Spreng. (1 sp.)
 Mastigosciadium Rech. fil. & Kuber (1 sp.)
 Taenidia (Torr. & A. Gray) Drude (2 spp.)
 Subtribus Xatardia clade
 Xatardia Meisn. ex Zeyh. (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Trinia clade
 Thecocarpus Boiss. (2 spp.)
 Exoacantha Labill. (1 sp.)
 Lomatocarpa Pimenov (3 spp.)
 Ligusticopsis p. min. p. (4 spp.)
 Glehnia F. Schmidt ex Miq. (1 sp.)
 Carlesia Dunn (1 sp.)
 Kailashia Pimenov & Kljuykov (2 spp.)
 Oreocome Edgew. (9 spp.)
 Ligusticopsis Leute (16 spp.)
 Dimorphosciadium Pimenov (2 spp.)
 Cortia DC. (4 spp.)
 Gasparrinia Bertol. (1 sp.)
 Stewartiella Nasir (1 sp.)
 Rumia Hoffm. (1 sp.)
 Trinia Hoffm. (13 spp.)
 Ledebouriella H. Wolff (1 sp.)
 Stenocoelium Ledeb. (4 spp.)
 Sclerochorton Boiss. (1 sp.)
 Thamnosciadium Hartvig (1 sp.)
 Cyathoselinum Benth. (1 sp.)
 Horstrissea Greuter, Gerstb. & Egli (1 sp.)
 Cortiella C. Norman (4 spp.)
 Kitagawia Pimenov (10 spp.)
 Ferulopsis Kitag. (2 spp.)
 Pilopleura Schischk. (2 spp.)
 Sajanella Soják (1 sp.)
 Phlojodicarpus Turcz. ex Ledeb. (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Cervaria subgroup
 Cervaria Wolf (3 spp.)
 Subtribus Hippomarathrum subgroup
 Hippomarathrum G. Gaertn., B. Mey. & Scherb. (4 spp.)
 Tribus Hymenidium clade
 Pterocyclus Klotzsch (4 spp.)
 Conioselinum p. min. p. (1 sp.)
 Angelica p. min. p. (9 spp.)
 Melanosciadium Boiss. (3 spp.)
 Conioselinum Fisch. ex Hoffm. (17 spp.)
 Vvedenskya Korovin (1 sp.)
 Levisticum Hill (1 sp.)
 Seselopsis Schischk. (2 spp.)
 Paulita Soják (3 spp.)
 Kuramosciadium Pimenov, Kljuykov & Tojibaev (1 sp.)
 Subtribus Peucedanum subgroup
 Pteroselinum Rchb. (2 spp.)
 Paraligusticum Tikhom. (1 sp.)
 Dystaenia Kitag. (2 spp.)
 Karatavia Pimenov & Lavrova (1 sp.)
 Endressia J. Gay (2 spp.)
 Xanthoselinum Schur (2 spp.)
 Imperatoria L. (3 spp.)
 Tommasinia Bertol. (1 sp.)
 Peucedanum L. (s. str.) (11 spp.)
 Sivadasania N. Mohanan & Pimenov (1 sp.)
 Taeniopetalum Vis. (3 spp.)
 Thysselinum Adans. (2 spp.)
 Peucedanum L. (s. lat.) (42 spp.)
 Macroselinum Schur (1 sp.)
 Xanthogalum Avé-Lall. (3 spp.)
 Ormosolenia Tauscher (1 sp.)
 Oreoselinum Mill. (1 sp.)
 Tribus Perennial North American clade
 Apiastrum Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray (1 sp.)
 Spermolepis Raf. (11 spp.)
 Notiosciadium Speg. (1 sp.)
 Podistera S. Watson (3 spp.)
 Harbouria J. M. Coult. & Rose (1 sp.)
 Lomatium Raf. (101 spp.)
 Oreonana Jeps. (3 spp.)
 Aletes J. M. Coult. & Rose (3 spp.)
 Villarrealia G. L. Nesom (1 sp.)
 Cymopterus Raf. (25 spp.)
 Rhysopterus J. M. Coult. & Rose (1 sp.)
 Pseudocymopterus J. M. Coult. & Rose (5 spp.)
 Aulospermum J. M. Coult. & Rose (9 spp.)
 Vesper R. L. Hartm. & G. L. Nesom (6 spp.)
 Eurytaenia Torr. & A. Gray (2 spp.)
 Pteryxia Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray (3 spp.)
 Oreoxis Raf. (4 spp.)
 Musineon Raf. (6 spp.)
 Neoparrya Mathias (1 sp.)
 Orumbella J. M. Coult. & Rose (1 sp.)
 Shoshonea Evert & Constance (1 sp.)
 Thaspium Nutt. (3 spp.)
 Zizia W. D. J. Koch (3 spp.)
 Cotopaxia Mathias & Constance (2 spp.)
 Polytaenia DC. (3 spp.)
 Oligocladus Chodat & Wilcz. (1 sp.)
 Ammoselinum Torr. & A. Gray (3 spp.)

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

Štitarke

Apioideae


Michelangelo Mattei ou Michael Angelus Matthaeius (8 de maio de 1628 - 22 de dezembro de 1699) foi um prelado católico romano que serviu como patriarca titular de Antioquia de 1693 a 1699 e arcebispo titular de Hadrianópolis em Haemimonto de 1689 a 1693.

Sucessão episcopal

Ligações externas e fontes adicionais
  (for Chronology of Bishops)
  (for Chronology of Bishops)
  (for Chronology of Bishops)
  (for Chronology of Bishops)

Mortos em 1699
Nascidos em 1628
Bispos católicos
Bispos nomeados pelo Papa Inocêncio XII
Bispos nomeados pelo Papa Alexandre VIII

Michelangelo Mattei


An Setaria palmeri in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Johannes Jan Theodoor Henrard. An Setaria palmeri in nahilalakip ha genus nga Setaria, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Setaria

Setaria palmeri


Paul Tabori (născut Pál Tábori; ) a fost un romancier evreu maghiar, jurnalist și cercetător în domeniul parapsihologiei. El a publicat, de asemenea, sub pseudonimul Peter Stafford. A fost fratele scriitorului și regizorului de teatru George Tabori.

Tinerețea
Tabori s-a născut pe 5 august 1908 în orașul Budapesta din Ungaria. Era primul fiu al jurnalistului, scriitorului și istoricului amator Cornelius Tabori (1879-1944). Tatăl lui, Cornelius, a murit la Auschwitz în 1944, dar mama lui a reușit să scape de naziști, fugind la Budapesta. Paul Tabori s-a mutat la Londra în 1938 și s-a stabilit în Stafford Terrace din cartierul londonez Kensington.

A urmat studii în Elveția, Germania și Ungaria, după care a obținut titlul de doctor al Universității Kaiser Friedrich Wilhelm din Berlin și a devenit apoi doctor în economie și științe politice la Universitatea Pazmany Peter din Budapesta. Mai târziu, a lucrat ca jurnalist în Ungaria și la Londra.

Cercetări parapsihologice
În The Art of Folly (1961), Tabori a inclus un capitol care documentează înșelăciunile săvârșite de diferiți spiritiști. Stephen Potter a scris într-o recenzie că lucrarea lui Tabori "ne oferă una dintre cele mai bune scurte relatări pe care le-am citit vreodată a examinării științifice a pretinselor cazuri de spiritism și a înșelăciunilor săvârșite de unii oameni de seamă ca Oliver Lodge și Conan Doyle".

Tabori și Peter Underwood au mărturisit în cartea lor Ghosts of Borley (1973) că ei credeau că "unele fenomene de la Borley Rectory erau reale". Cercetătorul H. Trevor Hall i-a criticat pe Tabori și Underwood că au selectat doar acele dovezi care le susțineau punctul de vedere. Potrivit lui Hall presupusele fenomene paranormale de la Borley Rectory aveau cauze naturale: unele scârțâituri erau produse de mișcarea șobolanilor sau de zborul liliecilor. Altele erau farse menite să-i sperie și să-i alunge pe localnici precum aruncarea cu pietre către casă de către băieții din sat sau aprinderea unor focuri în clădire de către vagabonzii care încercau să se încălzească.

Piet Hein Hoebens a evaluat împreună cu Marcello Truzzi câteva cazuri de investigare detectivistică cu ajutorul mijloacelor parapsihologice în Germania de dinainte de război, care au fost prezentate în lucrarea Crime and the Occult (1974) a lui Tabori, concluzionând că acele cazuri au fost interpretate greșit.

Alte activități
Tabori a fost vicepreședinte al The Ghost Club timp de mai mulți ani până la moartea lui. A fost executorul pe plan literar al testamentului parapsihologului britanic Harry Price și a scris o biografie a lui Price.

El a murit pe 9 noiembrie 1974, la vârsta de 66 de ani.

Scrieri

Ficțiune

 They Came to London (1943)
 The Lion and the Vulture (1944)
 Private Gallery (1944)
 Solo (1948)
 Uneasy Giant (1949)
 Heritage of Mercy (1949)
 The Talking Tree (1950)
 The Frontier (1950)
 The Green Rain (1961)
 The Survivors (1964)
 The Doomsday Brain (1967)
 The Invisible Eye (1967)
 The Torture Machine (1969)
 The Cleft (1969)
 The Demons of Sandorra (1970)
 Lily Dale (1972)
 The Wild White Witch (1973)

Non-ficțiune
 Epitaph for Europe (1943)
 Harry Price: The Biography of a Ghost Hunter (1950)
 Alexander Korda (1959)
 The Natural Science of Stupidity (1959); republicată în 1993 ca The Natural History of Stupidity (1993)
 The Art of Folly (1961)
 The Book of the Hand (1962)
 Companions of the Unseen (1968)
 Dress and Undress (1969)
 Anatomy of Exile: A Semantic and Historic Study (1971)
 Erotic Edwardian Fairy Tales (1970)
 Beyond the Senses: A Report on Psychical Research in the Sixties (1971)
 Erotic Victorian Fairy Tales (1971)
 Secret and Forbidden (1971)
 Social History of Rape (1971)
 Pioneers of the Unseen (1972)
 Ghosts of Borley: Annals of the Haunted Rectory (1973), de Tabori și Peter Underwood
 Crime and the Occult: A Forensic Study (1974)

Note

Legături externe
  sub acest nume – și ca Paul Hefner (fără înregistrări), Peter Stafford (1), Christopher Stevens (1) și Paul Tabor (5)
 Hefner, Stafford, Stevens și Tabor la WorldCat

Nașteri în 1908
Decese în 1974
Evrei maghiari
Jurnaliști maghiari
Romancieri maghiari
Jurnaliști evrei
Romancieri din secolul al XX-lea
Oameni din Budapesta
Oameni din Austro-Ungaria

Paul Tabori


Jesus liebt Dich ist ein deutscher Kinodokumentarfilm aus dem Jahr 2008 von Lilian Franck, Matthias Luthardt, Michaela Kirst und Robert Cibis. Er wurde rein beobachtend gedreht. Er hatte auf der Berlinale 2008 seine Weltpremiere. Jesus liebt Dich vermittelt, was es bedeutet, ein evangelikaler Missionar zu sein. Er zeigt einen Ausschnitt aus dem weltweiten Kampf zwischen religiösem Fundamentalismus und säkularer Aufklärung.
Die TV-Kurzfassung von 52 Minuten heißt Die Liga Gottes und enthält animierte Infografiken, welche in der längeren Kinofassung nicht vorkommen.

Handlung
Im Sommer 2006 reisen mehr als 20.000 christliche Fundamentalisten aus aller Welt zur WM nach Deutschland. Es ist nicht die Leidenschaft für Sport, die sie mit den Millionen Fußballfans teilen, sondern liegt ihre Mission darin, das Christentum zurück nach Europa zu bringen. Einer von ihnen ist Scott Rourk, ein evangelischer Pastor aus New York City. Mit 250.000 US-Dollar gründete er seine eigene Kirche, deren Entstehung durch den Film Die Menschenfischer (2004) begleitet wurde. Rourk reist mit Cody Mui, einem von ihm Neubekehrten, nach Berlin. Dort treffen sie mit Tilman Pforr zusammen. Dieser studierte "Mission und Entwicklungshilfe" an der University of the Nations und entwickelte anschließend ein Konzept, nach welchem er Missionare in ganz Deutschland einsetzt.
Auf Schloss Hurlach empfängt Pforr die Missionsteams und hält täglich mit ihnen Gottesdienste ab, nach denen zu Spenden aufgerufen wird.

Begleitet wird auch Gershom Sikaala, der in Sambia geborene und aufgewachsene Missionar. Er macht es sich zur Aufgabe, in die muslimischen Länder Afrikas zu gehen, um sie von einer anderen, besseren Religion zu überzeugen. Durch die Organisation Jugend mit einer Mission kommt er schließlich nach Deutschland.

Kritiken

Einzelnachweise

Weblinks

 Website des Filmes

Deutscher Film
Dokumentarfilm
Filmtitel 2008

Jesus liebt Dich


Trasmiera, também conhecida como merindade de Trasmiera e historicamente como Tresmiera{{
nre|«Os de Tresmiera podem pescar em alto mar para comer, mas não para vender. Todos os outros não podem fazê-lo sob penas graves, sobre as quais esta vila executória tem […]
}} é uma das comarca históricas do norte de Espanha, na província e comunidade autónoma da Cantábria. Tem 558 km² de área e em  tinha  habitantes. Situa-se a leste do rio Miera e estende-se até ao ; na costa estende-se pelas baías de Santander , ocupando uma grande parte do litoral oriental da Cantábria. A costa nessa área caracteriza-se pelas suas falésias e belas praias, como as de , , , as de Noja e a de . No interior a comarca tem extensos prados, instalações hoteleiras e parques de campismo.

A comarca não tem atualmente estatuto administrativo, pois apesar de já existir uma lei para a divisão em comarcas da Cantábria desde 1999, esta ainda não foi regulamentada.

 História
Os vestígios mais antigos conhecidos da região são da Pré-história e encontram-se nas cavernas de Puente Viesgo, Santoña, Miera e  (em , Ribamontán al Monte). Os vestígios da presença romana são escassos, exceto na baía de Santoña, pois a romanização da zona foi pouco relevante. Em contrapartida, a cultura dos povos cântabros persistiu até ao final do Reino Visigótico .

Entre os séculos VIII e X teve lugar um processo de repovoamento, o que indica que a região estaria praticamente desabitada. O rei  das Astúrias , duque da Cantábria, mandou repovoar o que agora se conhece como Comarca de Trasmiera, onde havia muito poucos núcleos humanos. O repovoamento foi feito seguindo o costuma da época, patrocinando a fundação de pequenos mosteiros, em volta dos quais se foram estabelendo assentamentos de famílias vizinhas transumantes que se organizaram em aldeias, que deram origem a muitas das povoações atuais. Aos monges era oferecida a propriedade (a chamada presúria) de terras sem uso na condição de as cultivarem. Os mosteiros de repovoamento mais antigos foram os de São Vicente de Fístoles (em , Santa María de Cayón) e  em Santoña. Este último teve um amplo domínio jurisdicional que durou até ao , mas a partir do , uma ordem real obrigou-o a depender do , na Rioja e assim se manteve até ao , quando a desamortização extinguiu os mosteiros.

Nos documentos do  a comarca aparece como delimitação geográfica e administrativa. Esta delimitação contribuiu para que ao longo dos séculos se tenham podido conservar muitos costumes e atividades ancestrais. Uma das atividades mais curiosas é o uso de moinhos de maré, que funcionaram até há pouco tempo; na localidade de .

Historicamente a Cruz de , na localidade homónima do município de Liérganes, marcava o limite ocidental de Trasmiera com o território das . Considera-se que a cruz marca a divisória entre a Cantábria oriental (que começa em Trasmiera) e a Cantábria ocidental.

 Merindade de Trasmiera
Trasmiera aparece citada na crónica de  , escrita no , e foi vinculada ao Condado de Castela no século seguinte. A partir do  a demarcação foi estabelecida com entidade administrativa por ordem real. Em finais do  registaram-se na região numerosos episódios das , provocadas pelas diversas famílias que compunham a estrutura senhorial da Cantábria em disputa pela ampliação dos seus domínios. Em Trasmiera a guerra foi protagonizada pelo enfrentamento entre a família Giles de Solórzano, apoiada pelos , e a família Negretes de .

O rei era representado na região por um merino (meirinho) que no início era um membro da Casa de Lara, originária da ; passado algum tempo, os merinos passaram a ser escolhidos entre as famílias autóctones da comarca. Regida pelos seus "concelhos de homens de ", a comarca conseguiu livrar-se do imposto da  no . Os Reis Católicos  ajudaram a consolidar a estrutura interna em juntas — Cudeyo, Ribamontán, Siete Villas, Cesto e Voto, a que depois se juntaram, mediante carta de irmandade, as vilas de Santoña e Escalante, assim como o lugar de Argoños em 1579. Cada junta construiu a sua casa de audiência e cadeia, ao passo que as juntas gerais da merindade eram realizadas em , que era a capital da merindade. Até à criação dos ayuntamientos (municípios) constitucionais, em 1834, a merindade gozou de consideráveis isenções fiscais, um alto grau de autogoverno e isenções militares para fins de autodefesa.

 Municípios

 Ofícios artísticos tradicionais trasmeranos
Ao longo de séculos houve vários ofícios artísticos nos quais ganharam grande fama muitos naturais de Trasmiera tiveram muita fama, nomeadamente os mestres de obras os artesãos de retábulos e de sinos.

 Mestres canteiros

A fama dos mestres canteiros de Trasmiera remonta à Idade Média e praticamente não há catedral ou grande monumento em Espanha no qual não tenham trabalhado mestres trasmeranos. O ofício de canteiro na região tinha tradicionalmente uma boa formação e era conhecido fora da comarca. Durante os séculos XV a XVIII deu-se o grande apogeu da construção em Espanha, Portugal e nas suas colónias americanas e muitos canteiros trasmeranos trabalharam em grandes obras, como o Mosteiro do Escorial, a Catedral de Siguença e vários grandes monumentos da Galiza, mas deixaram muito poucas marcas na Cantábria.

Sabe-se que no início do  numerosos pedreiros de Trasmiera foram chamados para trabalhar na construção das muralhas de Ávila. A partir do  há registo de que trabalhavam em toda a Castela e tinham cargos de responsabilidade. Isso levou-os a criar um grémio, uma associação fechada e esotérica na qual comunicavam por meio de um jargão especial que só eles conheciam, chamada .

O ofício era transmitido de pais para filhos, proporcionando a estes últimos uma aprendizagem especial que lhes permitia serem mestres e dirigir obras de catedrais antes dos 30 anos. Os contratos eram temporários e sazonais. A emigração ocorria geralmente em março, para regressar no inverno. Os canteiros mais famosos e mais solicitados por vezes estavam anos fora das suas terras e só regressavam para casar ou para administrar as suas propriedades e às vezes para fazer o testamento. Mesmo quando estavam muitos anos fora de casa, não perdiam a condição de vizinhos do local de origem. Os seus apelidos quase sempre refletiam o lugar de procedência. Alguns destes pedreiros chegaram a obter o estatuto de fidalgos, com as suas próprias armas heráldicas outorgadas pelo rei, e em alguns casos ocuparam cargos públicos. O sobrenome da família nobre Cantera (pedreira em ) tem origem em Trasmiera, devido à existência de numerosas pedreiras das quais se extraía pedra que era levada para Bilbau e que também era usada para edificações em ,  e outros locais.

 Mestre de obras trasmeranos famosos

 João de Castilho  — Considerado o maior arquiteto português do , pois as suas obras mais relevantes foram feitas em Portugal, onde viveu, dirigiu obras em pelo menos cinco edifícios atualmente classificadas como Património Mundial, como os mosteiros dos Jerónimos em Lisboa, da Batalha, e de Alcobaça, o Convento de Cristo em Tomar e a cidadela de Mazagão, além de também ter trabalhado nas catedrais de de Burgos e de de Sevilha.
 Diogo de Castilho  — meio-irmão do anterior, foi também arquiteto em Portugal, onde dirigiu obras, por exemplo, nos mosteiros dos Jerónimos, de Santa Cruz em Coimbra, de São Marcos na mesma cidade, da Serra do Pilar em Gaia e na Igreja de São Francisco do Porto.
 Martín, Bartolomé e Gaspar de Solórzano — Trabalharam na Catedral de Palência.
 Juan Gil de Hontañón  — Trabalhou nas catedrais de Toledo, de Segóvia e foi mestre de obras na Catedral Nova de Salamanca.
 Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón  — Filho do anterior, trabalhou nas catedrais de Salamanca, de Segóvia, de Valladolid, , de Plasencia e de Santiago de Compostela, no Palácio de Monterrey em Salamanca e no  em Alcalá de Henares.
 Diego de Riaño  — Catedral e  (Paços do Concelho) de Sevilha.
   — Discípulo de Diego de Siloé, trabalhou na Catedral de Granada e foi mestre de obras da Catedral de Sevilha, onde terminou a construção da .
   — Foi mestre de obras nas catedrais de de Lugo e Santiago de Compostela; nesta cidade dirigiu também vários obras de relevo, nomeadamente nos conventos de São Francisco, São Martinho Pinário e São Paio de Antealtares.
   — Foi arquiteto real em Valladolid.
   — Substituiu Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón como mestre de obras da Catedral de Santiago de Compostela no fim do . Nessa cidade dirigiu as obras do claustro da catedral, nomeadamente a fachada exterior que dá para a Praça do Obradoiro e em 1570 foi nomeado mestre-mor da cidade. Dirigiu também obras de reparação na Catedral de Ourense e de várias pontes e mosteiros.
   — Várias obras em Valladolid.
   — Arquiteto do duque de Lerma em Valladolid.
   — Tem uma obra muito extensa e diversificada, nomeadamente para várias ordens religiosas e para as dioceses de Burgos, , Oviedo e Pamplona, nomeadamente a adaptação das respetivas catedrais aos convénios do Concílio de Trento. Foi também o autor de várias fortalezas,pontes e palácios, como o  em , da , além de ter sido "Inspetor Geral das Obras do Arcebispado de Burgos".
  (século XVIII) — Comissário Geral de Obras Públicas durante os reinados de  e .
  — Obras em Valladolid, Toro e Zamora.
  — Autor de um tratado de arquitetura.

 Mestres retabulistas
A conceção e construção de retábulos foi outro ofício tradicional da Cantábria em geral e de Trasmiera em particular. A talha em madeira foi muito apreciada durante a Idade Média e Renascimento e depois do Concílio de Trento (1563), que promoveu o culto das imagens e dos retábulos, surgiram na região várias oficinas especializadas. A atividade teve o seu apogeu no , uma época sobre a qual há extensa documentação.

Alguns retabulistas, como ,  e  alcançaram grande prestígio, nomeadamente na Rioja, Castela e País Basco. Os chamados "Mestres das Sete Vilas" (em redor da baía de Santoña) foram os que tiveram mais contacto com as oficinas castelhanas. Muitos desses retabulistas eram arquitetos consumados e tinham oficinas onde trabalhavam os talhadores, carpinteiros, assembladores, douradores e toda uma série de artesãos especializados necessários para a construção de  retábulos de alta qualidade. Estas oficinas trabalhavam com escultores, pintores e outros artistas.

Alguns dos ofícios indispensáveis nas oficinas de retábulos eram o mestre arquiteto, que organizava a estrutura e fazia o desenho; o mestre entalhador, que se encarregava dos motivos decorativos; o mestre carpinteiro; o mestre escultor; os mestres pintores, que se ocupavam da policromia; e os mestres douradores, que se ocupavam do douramento e dos estofados. Além dos mestres, nas oficinas havia também aprendizes e oficiais (operários). Durante os primeiros cinco anos o mestre ensinava o aprendiz, alimentava-o e dava-lhe sapatos. Se o aprendiz quisesse continuar como oficial'', passava pelo menos mais cinco anos até alcançar um nível no ofício que lhe permitia tornar-se independente estabelendo-se por conta própria.

Estilo das imagens
O mestres retabulistas trasmeranos foram muito influenciados pelo  de Miguel ângelo e dos seus seguidores, muito em voga na primeira fase da Contrarreforma (). As imagens são muito realistas e expressivas, deixando muito patente o sofrimento dos santos e mártires. O expoente máximo desta corrente é o basco , discípulo de Juan de Juni. O estilo dos mestres escultores foi evoluindo e em meados do  deixam-se influenciar pela corrente do galego Gregorio Fernández. As oficinas dos retabulistas imitam e difundem as novas modas até que os gostos vão mudando e no final do século as imagens vão sendo gradualmente suprimidas e a os retábulos passam a ter outro tipo de decoração.

Mestres sineiros

O fabrico de sinos na Cantábria é uma tradição que remonta à Idade Média. A comarca de Trasmiera foi o berço de prestigiados fundidores de sinos, cuja fama ultrapassou as fronteiras de Espanha, tendo sido contratados em várias partes da Europa e da América. O ofício desenvolveu-se sobretudo na Junta das Sete Vilas, formada pelas localidades de Bareyo, , , Arnuero, , Isla (Arnuero), , Meruelo e Noja, onde houve numerosas oficinas de sinos. O conhecimento foi transmitido de pais para filhos ao longo dos séculos, tendo-se constituído linhagens de mestres sineiros.

A importância dos mestres sineiros cântabros foi tal que diversos estudiosos assinalam que não há catedral, basílica ou igreja em Espanha que não tenha tido nos seus campanários a marca de um fundidor cântabro. No México e no Peru há várias catedrais com sinos fabricados por mestres trasmeranos. Em 1797 foi fundido um sino para a Catedral de Lima que se chama "A Cantábria", o que reflete a importância dos seus artesãos e do seu lugar de procedência. Em 1753 foi fabricado por mestres de Arnuero para a Catedral de Toledo aquele que é considerado o maior sino de Espanha, com 14,4 toneladas, que demorou dois anos a ser fabricado. Diz-se que quando tocou pela primeira vez os vidros da cidade partiram-se e as grávidas abortaram com o susto, o que levou a que fosse perfurado para amortecer o volume das suas badaladas. Quando os príncipes das Astúrias se casaram, o presente oficial da Cantábria aos foi o sino "Virgem Bem Aparecida", com 1,6 toneladas, fundido em  por dois dos últimos herdeiros da tradição sineira trasmerana, os irmãos Portilla.

Notas

Bibliografia

Trasmiera


Pamukkale, güneybatı Türkiye'deki Denizli ilinde doğal bir mevkidir. Kent Kaplıcaları ve akan sulardan kalan karbonat minerallerin teraslarını, travertenlerini kapsamaktadır.

Konum
Türkiye'nin Ege bölgesinde, ılıman bir iklimi olan Menderes Nehri vadisinde bulunur. Hem yerli hem de yabancı turistlerin tercih yerlerindendir.

Eski Hierapolis kenti, toplam 2.700 metre uzunluğunda, 600 metre genişliğinde ve 160 metre yüksekliğindeki beyaz "kalenin" üzerine inşa edilmişti. Pamukkale, Denizli'nin 20 km uzaktaki merkezindeki vadinin karşı tarafındaki tepelerden görülebilir. 5–10 km yakınında Laodikya antik kenti bulunur. 5 km ilerisinde ise uluslararası bir termal merkez olan Karahayıt köyü vardır. Pamukkale UNESCO tarafından belirlenen Dünya Miras Listesi'nde yer almaktadır. Travertenler; görsel zenginliğin yanı sıra kalp rahatsızlıkları, romatizma, sindirim, solunum, dolaşım ve deri rahatsızlıklarına iyi gelmektedir
.

Jeoloji
Pamukkale terasları, kaplıca suyu tarafından çökeltilmiş bir tortullu kayaç olan travertenden oluşur.

Bu bölgede, 35 °C den 100 °C ye kadar olan sıcaklık aralığında 17 adet sıcak su kaynağı vardır.

Kaynakça
 Özel

Dış bağlantılar
 Pamukkale'nin uydudan görünüşü Google Maps
 Pamukkale Resmi Web Sitesi

Denizli ilindeki yeryüzü şekilleri
Büyük Menderes Nehri
Türkiye'deki Dünya Mirasları
Denizli ilindeki görülecek yerler
Pamukkale

Pamukkale


Cellât, ölüm cezalarının infazını gerçekleştiren kişinin unvanıdır. Bu şahıslar, ölüm cezasının kabul gördüğü ülkelerde ilgili cezai kurumun personeli olarak da görev yaptıkları gibi; Cellatlık da yerinde infaz gibi kuraldışı ölüm cezalarının infazında kişinin özel bir görevi değil, keyfi bir davranış biçimi olarak da algılanabilir.

Osmanlı'da cellatlar sağırdırlar ve cellât olarak seçilecek kişinin dili kesilir.

Tarihçe
Cellât, arapça "Kırbaçla Vurmak" anlamına gelen "Celd" kökünden türemiştir. Osmanlılarda cellatlar; önceleri Hırvatlardan, daha sonra da Çingenelerden seçilmiştir. İnfaz edilecek kimsenin yüzlerini görmemesi için göz yuvaları kesilmiş kar maskesi benzeri bir bere taktıklarına birçok seyahatnamede rastlanır.

Cellat


Die erste Verleihung der portugiesischen Auszeichnung Globo de Ouro fand am 8. April 1996 im Coliseu dos Recreios in Lissabon statt und wurde von Catarina Furtado moderiert. Als Ehrengäste traten u. a. Valeria Mazza und Eros Ramazzotti auf.

Den Globo de Ouro, für ihre Leistungen im Jahr 1995, erhielten folgende Persönlichkeiten:

Kategorien

Kino
 Bester Film: Adão e Eva von Joaquim Leitão
 Bester Regisseur: Joaquim Leitão für Adão e Eva
 Beste Schauspielerin: Maria de Medeiros für Adão e Eva (Regie: Joaquim Leitão)
 Bester Schauspieler: Joaquim de Almeida für Adão e Eva (Regie: Joaquim Leitão)

Sport
 Persönlichkeit des Jahres: Fernanda Ribeiro

Mode
 Persönlichkeit des Jahres: Nuno Gama

Theater
 Persönlichkeit des Jahres: Eunice Muñoz

Musik
 Bester Einzelinterpret: Dulce Pontes
 Beste Gruppe: Delfins
 Bestes Lied: Sou como um Rio – Delfins

Fernsehen
 Bester Moderator Information: José Rodrigues dos Santos
 Bester Moderator Unterhaltung: Herman José
 Beste Sendung Fiktion und Komödie: Camilo e Filho
 Beste Sendung Unterhaltung: Chuva de Estrelas
 Beste Sendung Information: Jornal da Noite

Lebenswerk
 David Mourão-Ferreira

Weblinks

 Liste der Gewinner der Globos de Ouro 1996, archivierte Kopie der Website www.globosdeouro.pt, abgerufen am 13. März 2023 (mit allen hier genannten Daten)

1996
Preisverleihung 1996
Filmjahr 1996
Preisverleihung in Lissabon
Film (Lissabon)
Coliseu dos Recreios

Globos de Ouro 1996


Crkva sv. Petke - Venerande je katolička crkva iznad naselja Gornji Šušanj (stari naziv je Sušanj), Bar, Crna Gora. Danas pripada Kotorskoj biskupiji, a ne Barskoj nadbiskupiji. Granica ove dvije biskupije je rijeka Željeznica u Baru, gdje su ranije graničile Austro-Ugarska i Osmansko Carstvo, a kasnije, kratko, Austro-Ugarska i Kneževina Crna Gora. Stoljećima je bila crkva katolika toga kraja, a danas se smatra kapelom na groblju.

Povijest

Starija crkva svete Petke je iz srednjega vijeka, a novija je moguće s kraja 16., a svakako s početka 17. stoljeća, jer je nadbiskup Marin Bici (1608. – 1624.) bio pozvan da je posveti 1610. godine. Pavao Butorac je pisao o katoličkom potiskivanju kulta svete Petke, kultom svete Ane i izmjeni naziva crkava iz sv. Petka ili Veneranda u sv. Ana. On je zapisao: Ipak se ime sv. Petke održalo u Tivtu, gdje se očuvala do danas crkvica pod nazivom sv. Petka, a predio se do crkve zove Petkovica, zatim u Sušnju, gdje je župska crkva posvećena sv. Petki, kako je bila i prijašnja iz srednjega vijeka, sad kapela na groblju, te u spičanskom polju kraj Sutomora, gdje još postoji kapelica sv. Petke, sva je prilika iz XIII st. Starija crkva je zbog svog naziva (kult sv. Petke je jak kod pravoslavaca) po svemu sudeći bila pravoslavna. Današnji naziv mjesta Šušanj, ranije Sušanj (Butorac i nadgrobni spomenici kod crkve), Paroco di Sussani (nadbiksup Vicko Zmajević, 18. stoljeće) i najstariji oblik Susanna (nadbiskup Marin Bici, 17. stoljeće), je u mogućoj vezi sa svetom Anom, u kontekstu preimenovanja sv. Petke u sv. Anu. Susanna bi tako bila sv. Anna, kao što je i obližnje mjesto Sustaš od sv. Anastazija (kao i Zadarska katedrala), Sutomore je od sv. Marije, Sutorina od sv. Irina, Supetar od sv. Petar... Svetu Petku pravoslavni slave i 26. srpnja po julijanskom kalendaru, a katolici sv. Anu slave 26. srpnja po gregorijanskom kalendaru.

Izgrađena je kao jednobrodna građevina pravokutne osnove. Iznad zapadnog dijela naknadno je dozidan manji kameni zvonik na preslicu s jednim otvorom. Sa zapadne strane ima dozidani otvoreni trijem. Crkva je zidana grubo obrađenim kvaderima kamena u vodoravnim redovima. Nalazi se u blizini Velje Mogile koju vjernici posjećuju u višestoljetnoj tradiciji procesije, jednom godišnje, na Spasovo. Od crkve svete Petke vjernici u procesiji idu na vrh Velje Mogile. Crkva je oltarom okrenuta ka jugoistoku, a oko crkve je katoličko groblje. Nalazi se na vrhu brda, s lijepim pogledom na Bar i Sutomore.

Nadbiskup barski i primas Srbije Marin Bici ju je posjetio 20. veljače 1610. godine i o tome zapisao: ...selo koje se zove Šušanj (Susanna), jer su me njegovi stanovnici zvali da im posvetim crkvu koja se zove sveta Veneranda i da održim krizmu. Ovo se selo sastoji od 80 kuća, sve latinskih. Stanovnici su zbog bijede i siromaštva koje vlada u ovom kraju bili bez kapelana, ali su, ipak, ustrajali na stanovištu da mogu, s obzirom na priličan broj kuća, dati izdržavanje jednom fratru iz Bara, franjevcu Šibenčaninu, koji bi mogao stalno biti tamo, jer je to selo udaljenije od grada od drugih sela. Ovdje sam se morao zadržati nekoliko dana više, jer sam u crkvi našao pod sasvim razrovan, pa sam ga dao popločati. Tu se svako jutro, uz učešće naroda i iz drugih sela, držalo bogosluženje i održavale propovijedi. Tom prilikom nadbiskup je krizmao 127 osoba.

Nadbiskup barski i primas Srbije Andrija Zmajević je o ovoj crkvi i ostatcima samostana Sv. Marije Ratačke, 61 godinu nakon Marina Bicija, 1671. godine, zapisao: Petog dana vizitacije otišao sam u selo Sušanj, u kojem sam našao 46 kuća katolika s 157 duša za pričest. Crkva koja stoji na jednom uzdignutom brežuljku je posvećena sv. Venerandi (Petki), jedna druga, srušena, na jednom rtu blizu mora, zvana je sv. Marija Ratačka, sa samostanom, takođe razvaljenim, koji je pripadao ocima benediktincima, vrlo prostranih posjeda, koje sada drže Turci. U kapelama navedene crkve koje su opstale celebrira se više puta godišnje, naročito na dan Navještanja i Tijelova, a u molitvama učestvuje cijeli okolni kraj.

Nadbiskup zadarski (prije toga nadbiskup barski) Vicko Zmajević je 20. lipnja 1719. godine u Zadru napisao pismo Kongregaciji za širenje vjere u Rimu u kojem, između ostaloga, moli novčanu pomoć za župnika u siromašnu Sušanju (Paroco di Sussani) u Barskoj nadbiskupiji. 25. rujna iste godine, na kraju pisma se zahvaljuje Kongregaciji za pomoć što ju je ova Kongregacija posvjedočila župniku i katolicima mjesta Sušanj (Sussani) u Barskoj nadbiksupiji.

Izvori

Petka

Crkva sv. Petke – Venerande u Gornjem Šušanju, Bar


In the mathematical discipline of graph theory, a matching or independent edge set in an undirected graph is a set of edges without common vertices. In other words, a subset of the edges is a matching if each vertex appears in at most one edge of that matching. Finding a matching in a bipartite graph can be treated as a network flow problem.

Definitions

Given a graph  a matching M in G is a set of pairwise non-adjacent edges, none of which are loops; that is, no two edges share common vertices.

A vertex is matched (or saturated) if it is an endpoint of one of the edges in the matching.  Otherwise the vertex is unmatched (or unsaturated).

A maximal matching is a matching M of a graph G that is not a subset of any other matching. A matching M of a graph G is maximal if every edge in G has a non-empty intersection with at least one edge in M. The following figure shows examples of maximal matchings (red) in three graphs.

A maximum matching (also known as maximum-cardinality matching) is a matching that contains the largest possible number of edges.  There may be many maximum matchings.  The matching number  of a graph  is the size of a maximum matching. Every maximum matching is maximal, but not every maximal matching is a maximum matching. The following figure shows examples of maximum matchings in the same three graphs.

A perfect matching is a matching that matches all vertices of the graph. That is, a matching is perfect if every vertex of the graph is incident to an edge of the matching. A matching is perfect if |E|=|V|/2. Every perfect matching is maximum and hence maximal. In some literature, the term complete matching is used. In the above figure, only part (b) shows a perfect matching. A perfect matching is also a minimum-size edge cover. Thus, the size of a maximum matching is no larger than the size of a minimum edge cover: . A graph can only contain a perfect matching when the graph has an even number of vertices.

A near-perfect matching is one in which exactly one vertex is unmatched.  Clearly, a graph can only contain a near-perfect matching when the graph has an odd number of vertices, and near-perfect matchings are maximum matchings. In the above figure, part (c) shows a near-perfect matching. If every vertex is unmatched by some near-perfect matching, then the graph is called factor-critical.

Given a matching M, an alternating path is a path that begins with an unmatched vertex and whose edges belong alternately to the matching and not to the matching. An augmenting path is an alternating path that starts from and ends on free (unmatched) vertices. Berge's lemma states that a matching M is maximum if and only if there is no augmenting path with respect to M.

An induced matching is a matching that is the edge set of an induced subgraph.

Properties

In any graph without isolated vertices, the sum of the matching number and the edge covering number equals the number of vertices. If there is a perfect matching, then both the matching number and the edge cover number are .

If  and  are two maximal matchings, then  and . To see this, observe that each edge in  can be adjacent to at most two edges in  because  is a matching; moreover each edge in  is adjacent to an edge in  by maximality of , hence

Further we deduce that

In particular, this shows that any maximal matching is a 2-approximation of a maximum matching and also a 2-approximation of a minimum maximal matching. This inequality is tight: for example, if  is a path with 3 edges and 4 vertices, the size of a minimum maximal matching is 1 and the size of a maximum matching is 2.

A spectral characterization of the matching number of a graph is given by Hassani Monfared and Mallik as follows:  Let  be a graph on  vertices, and  be  distinct nonzero purely imaginary numbers where . Then the matching number of  is  if and only if (a) there is a real skew-symmetric matrix  with graph  and  eigenvalues  and  zeros, and (b) all real skew-symmetric matrices with graph  have at most  nonzero eigenvalues. Note that the (simple) graph of a real symmetric or skew-symmetric matrix  of order  has  vertices and edges given by the nonozero off-diagonal entries of .

Matching polynomials

A generating function of the number of k-edge matchings in a graph is called a matching polynomial.  Let G be a graph and mk be the number of k-edge matchings.  One matching polynomial of G is

Another definition gives the matching polynomial as

where n is the number of vertices in the graph.  Each type has its uses; for more information see the article on matching polynomials.

Algorithms and computational complexity

Maximum-cardinality matching

A fundamental problem in combinatorial optimization is finding a maximum matching. This problem has various algorithms for different classes of graphs.

In an unweighted bipartite graph, the optimization problem is to find a maximum cardinality matching.  The problem is solved by the Hopcroft-Karp algorithm in time  time, and there are more efficient randomized algorithms, approximation algorithms, and algorithms for special classes of graphs such as bipartite planar graphs, as described in the main article.

Maximum-weight matching

In a weighted bipartite graph, the optimization problem is to find a maximum-weight matching; a dual problem is to find a minimum-weight matching. This problem is often called maximum weighted bipartite matching, or the assignment problem. The Hungarian algorithm solves the assignment problem and it was one of the beginnings of combinatorial optimization algorithms. It uses a modified shortest path search in the augmenting path algorithm. If the Bellman–Ford algorithm is used for this step, the running time of the Hungarian algorithm becomes , or the edge cost can be shifted with a potential to achieve  running time with the Dijkstra algorithm and Fibonacci heap.

In a non-bipartite weighted graph, the problem of maximum weight matching can be solved in time   using Edmonds' blossom algorithm.

Maximal matchings

A maximal matching can be found with a simple greedy algorithm. A maximum matching is also a maximal matching, and hence it is possible to find a largest maximal matching in polynomial time. However, no polynomial-time algorithm is known for finding a minimum maximal matching, that is, a maximal matching that contains the smallest possible number of edges.

A maximal matching with k edges is an edge dominating set with k edges. Conversely, if we are given a minimum edge dominating set with k edges, we can construct a maximal matching with k edges in polynomial time. Therefore, the problem of finding a minimum maximal matching is essentially equal to the problem of finding a minimum edge dominating set. Both of these two optimization problems are known to be NP-hard; the decision versions of these problems are classical examples of NP-complete problems. Both problems can be approximated within factor 2 in polynomial time: simply find an arbitrary maximal matching M.

Counting problems

The number of matchings in a graph is known as the Hosoya index of the graph. It is #P-complete to compute this quantity, even for bipartite graphs. It is also #P-complete to count perfect matchings, even in bipartite graphs, because computing the permanent of an arbitrary 0–1 matrix (another #P-complete problem) is the same as computing the number of perfect matchings in the bipartite graph having the given matrix as its biadjacency matrix. However, there exists a fully polynomial time randomized approximation scheme for counting the number of bipartite matchings. A remarkable theorem of Kasteleyn states that the number of perfect matchings in a planar graph can be computed exactly in polynomial time via the FKT algorithm.

The number of perfect matchings in a complete graph Kn (with n even) is given by the double factorial (n − 1)!!. The numbers of matchings in complete graphs, without constraining the matchings to be perfect, are given by the telephone numbers.

The number of perfect matchings in a graph is also known as the hafnian of its adjacency matrix.

Finding all maximally matchable edges

One of the basic problems in matching theory is to find in a given graph all edges that may be extended to a maximum matching in the graph (such edges are called maximally matchable edges, or allowed edges). Algorithms for this problem include:

 For general graphs, a deterministic algorithm in time  and a randomized algorithm in time .
 For bipartite graphs, if a single maximum matching is found, a deterministic algorithm runs in time .

Online bipartite matching
The problem of developing an online algorithm for matching was first considered by Richard M. Karp, Umesh Vazirani, and Vijay Vazirani in 1990.

In the online setting, nodes on one side of the bipartite graph arrive one at a time and must either be immediately matched to the other side of the graph or discarded. This is a natural generalization of the secretary problem and has applications to online ad auctions. The best online algorithm, for the unweighted maximization case with a random arrival model, attains a competitive ratio of .

Characterizations

Kőnig's theorem states that, in bipartite graphs, the maximum matching is equal in size to the minimum vertex cover. Via this result, the minimum vertex cover, maximum independent set, and maximum vertex biclique problems may be solved in polynomial time for bipartite graphs.

Hall's marriage theorem provides a characterization of bipartite graphs which have a perfect matching and the Tutte theorem provides a characterization for arbitrary graphs.

Applications

Matching in general graphs
 A Kekulé structure of an aromatic compound consists of a perfect matching of its carbon skeleton, showing the locations of double bonds in the chemical structure. These structures are named after Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, who showed that benzene (in graph theoretical terms, a 6-vertex cycle) can be given such a structure.
 The Hosoya index is the number of non-empty matchings plus one; it is used in computational chemistry and mathematical chemistry investigations for organic compounds.
 The Chinese postman problem involves finding a minimum-weight perfect matching as a subproblem.

Matching in bipartite graphs
 Graduation problem is about choosing minimum set of classes from given requirements for graduation.
 Hitchcock transport problem involves bipartite matching as sub-problem.
 Subtree isomorphism problem involves bipartite matching as sub-problem.

See also
 Matching in hypergraphs - a generalization of matching in graphs.
 Fractional matching.
 Dulmage–Mendelsohn decomposition, a partition of the vertices of a bipartite graph into subsets such that each edge belongs to a perfect matching if and only if its endpoints belong to the same subset
 Edge coloring, a partition of the edges of a graph into matchings
 Matching preclusion, the minimum number of edges to delete to prevent a perfect matching from existing
 Rainbow matching, a matching in an edge-colored bipartite graph with no repeated colors
 Skew-symmetric graph, a type of graph that can be used to model alternating path searches for matchings
 Stable matching, a matching in which no two elements prefer each other to their matched partners
 Independent vertex set, a set of vertices (rather than edges) no two of which are adjacent to each other
 Stable marriage problem (also known as stable matching problem)

References

Further reading

External links
 A graph library with Hopcroft–Karp and Push–Relabel-based maximum cardinality matching implementation

Combinatorial optimization
Polynomial-time problems
Computational problems in graph theory

Matching (graph theory)


FK Hazar Lenkeran (Azerice: Xəzər Lənkəran Futbol Klubu) Lenkeran şehrinde kurulmuş ve 2004-2016 yılları arasında faaliyet göstermiş bir Azerbaycan futbol kulübüdür.

2004-05 sezonunda ligi Neftçi ile beraber lider olarak tamamlarken, şampiyonu belirlemek amacıyla yapılan karşılaşmayı 2-1 kaybederek şampiyonluğu Neftçi'ye bıraktı. Ayrıca Azerbaycan'da yapılmış en pahalı transfer Hazar Lankaran'a aittir. Yapılan bu transfer Türkiye millî futbol takımında da top koşturmuş golcü Oktay Derelioğlu'dur. Oktay Derelioğlu 18 gol atarak Azerbaycan'da gol kralı olmuş ilk Türk futbolcudur.

2015-2016 sezonu sonunda Azərbaycan Premyer Liqası'nda sonuncu olarak küme düşen takım, bir sonraki sezon ülke şampiyonalarında mücadele etmeme kararı aldı.

Azerbaycan Premyer Ligası'nda on iki sezon oynayarak bir şampiyonluk, üç kez Azerbaycan Kupası'nı kazandı. Hazar ayrıca, Avrupa'nın büyük futbol kulüplerinden oluşan önceki G-14'ün yerini alan bir organizasyon olan Avrupa Kulüpler Birliği'nin bir üyesiydi.

Başarılar

Azərbaycan Premyer Liqası
 Şampiyon - 2006-07

Azerbaycan Kuboku
 Şampiyon - 2006-07, 2007-08, 2010-11

BDT Kupası
 Şampiyon - 2008

Lig ve kupa tarihçesi

Teknik direktörleri
Güncelleme: 26 Kasım 2013

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Resmî Ağsayfası
 "FIRTINA" bağımsız Taraftar Kulübü
 AFFA.az sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran
 UEFA.com sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran
 EUFO.de sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran
 Weltfusball.de sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran
 Transfermarkt.de sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran
 National Football Teams.com sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran
 Football-Lineups.com sayfalarında Hazar Lankaran

Azerbaycan'daki futbol kulüpleri
2004'te kurulan futbol kulüpleri
2016'da feshedilen futbol kulüpleri

Hazar Lenkeran FK


Check Your Head ist das dritte Studioalbum der amerikanischen Hip-Hop-Gruppe Beastie Boys. Es wurde im April 1992 veröffentlicht.

Geschichte
Im Gegensatz zum Vorgängeralbum kehrten die Beastie Boys mit Check Your Head zu ihren Punk-Rock-Wurzeln zurück. Erstmals seit ihren ersten EPs spielten sie auch die Instrumente selbst. Das Album wurde in den G-son-Studios in Atwater Village in Kalifornien aufgenommen. Es war das erste Album, das ganz von Mario Caldato Jr. co-produziert wurde. Das Album erreichte Platz 10 der Billboard 200.

2009 erschien eine Deluxe Edition auf 2 CDs bzw. 2 LPs mit neuen Songs, Remixen und Liveaufnahmen.

Kritik

Die Webseite AllMusic gab dem Album die Höchstwertung. Stephen Thomas Erlewine schrieb, die Platte habe Trends gesetzt und vorweggenommen.

Pitchfork Media setzte es auf Platz 34 der besten Alben der 1990er-Jahre.

Jeff Weiss bezeichnete Check Your Head als "größtes Meisterwerk" des Rap-Rocks.

Titelliste
Jimmy James – (3:14)
Funky Boss – (1:35)
Pass the Mic – (4:17)
Gratitude – (2:45)
Lighten Up – (2:41)
Finger Lickin' Good – (3:39)
So What'cha Want – (3:37)
The Biz vs. the Nuge – (00:33)
Time for Livin' – (1:48)
Something's Got to Give – (3:28)
The Blue Nun – (00:32)
Stand Together – (2:47)
Pow – (2:13)
The Maestro – (2:52)
Groove Holmes – (2:33)
Live at P.J.'s – (3:18)
Mark on the Bus – (1:05)
Professor Booty – (4:13)
In 3's – (2:23)
Namasté – (4:01)

Einzelnachweise

Album (Hip-Hop)
Album 1992
Mehrfach-Platin-Album (Vereinigte Staaten)
Beastie Boys

Check Your Head


Davon Jefferson (* 3. November 1986 in Lynwood, Kalifornien) ist ein professioneller amerikanischer Basketballspieler. Zurzeit spielt er in der russischen PBL für BK Jenissei aus Krasnojarsk.

Karriere

College
Jefferson war ab 2006 an der University of Southern California eingeschrieben und widmete sich in seinem ersten Collegejahr hauptsächlich seinem Studium. Erst ab dem zweiten Jahr wurde er dann regelmäßig im Hochschulteam Trojans in der NCAA eingesetzt. Anschließend wurde er in das "All-Freshman-First-Team" der Pac-10 Conference der NCAA gewählt. Jefferson ließ sich nach diesem einen Jahr 2008 direkt auf die Liste für den Entry Draft der NBA setzen und wurde dennoch nicht ausgewählt.

Profizeit
Im selben Jahr unterschrieb Jefferson seinen ersten Profivertrag bei Maccabi Haifa in der israelischen Superliga. Mit Maccabi erreichte er das Finale des israelischen Pokals und belegte Platz drei in der israelischen Meisterschaft. Auf das Startrecht im ULEB Cup hat Maccabi allerdings verzichtet. Nach seinem Wechsel zu ASVEL 2010 bestritt Jefferson neben der französischen Meisterschaft die ersten Spiele in der EuroLeague. Nach nur einem Jahr in Frankreich wechselte Jefferson in die russische PBL zu Triumph Ljuberzy. Neben der russischen Meisterschaft in der er 2012 zum All-Season MVP gewählt wurde, erreichte er mit Triumph das Viertelfinale der Baltic Basketball League und den 3. Platz in der FIBA Eurochallenge 2012.

Im Sommer 2012 war er für wenige Spiele in Guangzhou bei Liu Sui Whampoa in der unterhalb der Chinese Basketball Association angesiedelten chinesischen Nationalliga aktiv. Ende November 2012 kehrte er schließlich nach Russland zurück, blieb aber im asiatischen Raum, und spielt seitdem für Jenissei Krasnojarsk.

Auszeichnungen
 MVP der regulären Saison in der PBL 2012.

Weblinks
 Davon Jefferson – Spielerprofil auf den Webseiten der FIBA Europe (englisch).
 Davon Jefferson – Spielerprofil auf den Webseiten der PBL (englisch).

 Davon Jefferson Stats - USC Trojans – Statistiken aus NCAA-Spielzeiten auf statsheet.com (englisch)
 Player Bio: Davon Jefferson – Spielerprofil auf den Sportseiten der USC (englisch)

Basketballspieler (Vereinigte Staaten)
US-Amerikaner
Geboren 1986
Mann
Basketballspieler (Maccabi Haifa)
Basketballspieler (ASVEL Lyon-Villeurbanne)

Davon Jefferson


Božo Henigman (Hönigman) (Zagreb, 25. prosinca 1922.), hrvatski zagonetač i novinski urednik.

Rodio se na Božić 1922. u Zagrebu, u kojemu je pohađao osnovnu školu, gimnaziju i studirao na [Fakultet šumarstva i drvne tehnologije u Zagrebu|Poljoprivredno-šumarskom fakultetu]].

Još kao studentu objavljene su mu prve zagonetke 1946. u zagrebačkomu Problemu. Bio je tehničkim urednikom Rebusa. Uređivao je zagonetačku rubriku u Večernjemu listu.

Jedan je od osnivača ŽRK Lokomotive.

Izvori

Životopisi, Zagreb
Hrvatski enigmatičari

Božo Henigman


944 (CMXLIV) pazartesi günü başlayan bir artık yıldır.

Olaylar
 16 Aralık - Bizans imparatoru I. Romanos, oğulları Stefanos ve Konstantinos tarafından tahttan indirildi.

Doğumlar
 Fujiwara no Sukemasa, Japon devlet adamı (ö. 998)

Ölümler
 Mâtürîdî, İslam alimi (d. 863)

944


En Algérie, la Sebeïba (en tifinagh : ⵙⴱⵉⴱⴰ, en arabe : السبيبة) désigne une célébration compétitive pratiquée par deux communautés de Djanet. Elle mêle danse, chant, et port de costume traditionnel. En 2014, l'UNESCO l'inscrit sur la liste représentative du patrimoine culturel immatériel de l'humanité, sous l'intitulé Le rituel et les cérémonies de la Sebeïba dans l'oasis de Djanet, Algérie.

Pratique

L'origine de cette fête est indéterminée. On raconte que deux tribus du Tassili n'Ajjer mènent une guerre fratricide, mais se réconcilient en apprenant la victoire de Moïse sur le Pharaon. C'est leur paix que célèbre cette fête. Le premier mois du calendrier lunaire musulman se déroule la Sebeïba, qui dure dix jours et est pratiquée par deux communautés de Djanet (les habitants d'El Mihân et ceux de Zelouaz, deux quartiers de Djanet ). Des danseurs et des chanteuses participent à un concours de neuf jours nommé Timoulawine afin de pouvoir se produire pour la Sebeïba, qui a lieu le lendemain. Le lieu du rituel se nomme loghya. Les danseurs sont vêtus de tenues guerrières et portent des épées, symboles de guerre, là où les foulards féminins représentent la paix. Ils peuvent entrer en transe. L'amghar, chef de chaque groupe, joue un rôle important pour assurer la victoire. Les chanteuses sont accompagnées de tambourins (les gonga) et interprètent de la musique traditionnelle. Une transmission intergénérationnelle a lieu. Vêtements (dont la Tekoumba, coiffe traditionnelle), bijoux (certains sont volumineux et en formes de triangle), armes et instruments de musique sont faits et entretenus par des artisans locaux. Le jury est composé de Kel Imnas, hommes nobles, qui assistent à la représentation sur leurs chameaux.

Reconnaissance

En 2014, Le rituel et les cérémonies de la Sebeïba dans l'oasis de Djanet, Algérie intègre la liste représentative du patrimoine culturel immatériel de l'humanité. D'après la description officielle de l'UNESCO, cette cérémonie constitue un marqueur  de l'identité culturelle des Touaregs du Sahara algérien. Elle est sublimation des pulsions en ce qu'elle permet à des tribus rivales de s'affronter sur le plan artistique au lieu de le faire sur le plan physique.

Notes et références

Patrimoine culturel immatériel de l'humanité en Algérie
Danse au patrimoine culturel immatériel de l'humanité
Danse en Algérie

Sebeïba


Sir Norman Brearley, né le  et mort le , est un pilote commercial et militaire australien et l'un des pionniers de l'industrie du transport aérien en Australie.

Jeunesse
Norman Brearly nait le  à Geelong, dans l'état de Victoria. Il est le quatrième enfant, sur cinq, de Robert Hilliard Brearley, tanneur, et Mary Karen Petersen. Ils s'installent à Perth, en Australie occidentale, en 1906. Il y étudie la mécanique et l'électricité jusqu'à ses .

Carrière aéronautique

Première Guerre mondiale
En , après avoir entrepris un apprentissage de  en tant que mécanicien, Norman Brearley se rend au Royaume-Uni et s'engage dans le Royal Flying Corps pour suivre une formation de pilote.

Sur le front occidental, il est d'abord affecté au , puis transféré au , où il pilote des éclaireurs Airco DH.2 (notamment des patrouilles aux côtés du sergent James McCudden). En , il abat un ballon d'observation allemand et reçoit la Croix militaire.

Cependant, en novembre de la même année, il est abattu et gravement blessé alors qu'ils attaquent avec un autre pilote sept avions allemands. Les balles lui perforent ses deux poumons : il se pose dans le no man's land, mais réussit à ramper jusqu'aux lignes alliées. Pour son courage, il reçoit l'Ordre du Service distingué.

Il retourne en Australie occidentale pour se rétablir. Il retourne ensuite en Grande-Bretagne où il devient instructeur de vol, d'abord à Gosport puis comme commandant de l'école de vol spécial de Lilbourne. Il donnera notamment des cours aux frères Macpherson Smith, ces derniers effectuant le premier vol Angleterre - Australie, ainsi qu'à Harry Cobby.

A la fin de guerre, la Royal Air Force le nomme major et est retiré du service actif le .

Après la guerre

Après la fin des hostilités, Norman Brearley achète deux avions Avro 504 (plus un moteur de rechange), qu'il fait expédier en Australie. Il débute par des meetings aériens et des démonstrations.

En 1921, il fonde la , une compagnie aérienne basée à Geraldton. Le gouvernement le subside pour une ligne aérienne entre Geraldton et Derby. Il achète pour l'occasion six Bristol Type 28 Tourer et engage des pilotes, dont Charles Kingsford Smith. Si les débuts sont difficiles, la compagnie prospère.

La même année, il obtient la première licence de pilote civil d'Australie, conformément aux règlements de navigation aérienne de 1921. Sa licence est numérotée en tant que licence n° 2, mais il n'existe pas de licence n° 1 à l'époque : une licence portant ce numéro ne sera délivrée qu'en 1930, lorsqu'elle sera offerte à Amy Johnson en l'honneur de son vol record de Londres à l'Australie.

En 1924, la compagnie ouvre une nouvelle ligne vers Perth et en 1927, il ouvre l'école de pilotage de Perth à l'aérodrome de Maylands.

En 1928, il obtient un contrat pour transporter du courrier entre Perth et Adélaïde. Pour l'occasion, il achète des De Havilland Hercules qui peuvent transporter  et des . En 1934, il perd les droits sur la ligne et deux ans plus tard, il se retire de l'aviation commerciale lorsqu'il fusionne sa compagnie aérienne avec lAustralian National Airways.

Seconde Guerre mondiale
En 1940, durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il devient flight lieutenant dans Royal Australian Air Force et s'occupe de diverses écoles de pilotage. En 1942, il est promu group captain et commande la No. 4 Service Flying Training School à Geraldton d' à .

Fin de vie
Après la guerre, il est nommé directeur de la Sydney Atkinson Motors Ltd. Il dépose de nombreux brevets et s'intéresse au golf et voyage énormément. En 1965, il est fait commandeur de Ordre de l'Empire britannique et anobli en 1971. En 1974, il reçoit la .

Il meurt le 9 juin 1989 à  et est incinéré.

Vie privée
Norman Brearley épouse Violet Claremont Stubbs à Christ Church, Claremont, le , alors qu'il se remet de ses blessures. Elle décède en 1982, à l'âge de 85 ans. Le couple a un fils et une fille.

Notes et références

Voir aussi

Biographie

Liens externes

Aviateur australien
Homme d'affaires
Naissance en décembre 1890
Naissance à Geelong
Décès en juin 1989
Décès à 98 ans
Membre de la Royal Aeronautical Society
Titulaire de la Air Force Cross (Royaume-Uni)
Compagnon de l'ordre du Service distingué
Commandeur de l'ordre de l'Empire britannique
Titulaire de la croix militaire (Royaume-Uni)

Norman Brearley


Dies ist eine Liste der österreichischen Botschafter beim Heiligen Stuhl in Rom, einschließlich der vormals habsburgischen und kaiserlichen Botschafter (seit 1492). Die österreichische Botschaft beim Heiligen Stuhl befindet sich in der Via Reno 9; der Amtsbereich des Botschafters umfasst neben dem Heiligen Stuhl auch den Malteserorden und die Republik San Marino.

Geschichte

Der Kirchenstaat war vom 17. Mai 1809 bis 24. Mai 1817 von Frankreich annektiert. Durch die Schlussakte des Wiener Kongress von 1815 wurde er restauriert. 1856 wurde die österreichische Gesandtschaft zur Botschaft aufgewertet. Unter dem Vorwand gegen das Risorgimento vorzugehen, griffen 1860 Truppen des Königreich Sardinien den Kirchenstaat an und schlug dessen Truppen. In der Folge wurden die Legationen Bologna, Ferrara und Romagna später Umbrien sowie Marken durch das Königreich Sardinien annektiert.

Missionschefs
Diese Liste enthält nur die ständigen Botschafter und Gesandten. Über die Jahrhunderte kamen zu wichtigen Verhandlungen oder Vertragsabschlüssen immer wieder kaiserliche Sondergesandte in die Ewige Stadt, die dann gegenüber dem ständigen Botschafter eine hervorgehobene Rolle einnahmen.

Siehe auch
 Liste der österreichischen Botschafter

Einzelnachweise

!Liste
!Liste
Heiliger Stuhl
Osterreich


Air Jelly (Luft-Gelee) ist ein Bionik-Projekt, das im Rahmen des Bionic Learning Network von Festo entwickelt wurde. Es stellt gewissermaßen eine "fliegende Qualle" dar und besteht aus einem mit Helium gefüllten Ballonett. Air Jelly ist das erste Indoor-Flugobjekt mit peristaltischem Antrieb und erhielt 2010 den Designpreis der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.
Der Name leitet sich von den englischen Wörtern Air = Luft und Jellyfish = Qualle ab.

Quellen
 Projektvorstellung bei festo.com

 YouTube: Air Jelly im Flug

Modellflug
Bionik
Festo
Wikipedia:Artikel mit Video
Biologiemodell

Air Jelly