Forced displacement (also forced migration or forced relocation) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR  defines 'forced displacement' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".

A forcibly displaced person may also be referred to as a "forced migrant", a  "displaced person" (DP), or, if displaced within the home country, an "internally displaced person" (IDP). While some displaced persons may be considered as refugees, the latter term specifically refers to such displaced persons who are receiving legally-defined protection and are recognized as such by their country of residence and/or international organizations.

Forced displacement has gained attention in international discussions and policy making since the European migrant crisis. This has since resulted in a greater consideration of the impacts of forced migration on affected regions outside Europe. Various international, regional, and local organizations are developing and implementing approaches to both prevent and mitigate the impact of forced migration in the previous home regions as well as the receiving or destination regions. Additionally, some collaboration efforts are made to gather evidence in order to seek prosecution of those involved in causing events of man-made forced migration. An estimated 100 million people around the world were forcibly displaced by the end of 2022, with the majority coming from the Global South.

Definitions
Governments, NGOs, other international organizations and social scientist have defined forced displacement in a variety of ways. They have generally agreed that it is the forced removal or relocation of a person from their environment and associated connections. It can involve different types of movements, such as flight (from fleeing), evacuation, and population transfer.

 The International Organization for Migration defines a forced migrant as any person migrating to "escape persecution, conflict, repression, natural and human-made disasters, ecological degradation, or other situations that endanger their lives, freedom or livelihood".
 According to UNESCO, forced displacement is "the forced movement of people from their locality or environment and occupational activities," with its leading cause being armed conflict.
 According to researcher Alden Speare, even movement under immediate threat to life contains a voluntary element as long as an option exists going into hiding, or attempting to avoid persecution. According to him "migration can be considered to be involuntary only when a person is physically transported from a country and has no opportunity to escape from those transporting him [or her]." This viewpoint has come under scrutiny when considering direct and indirect factors which may leave migrants with little to no choice in their decisions, such as imminent threats to life and livelihood.

Distinctions between the different concepts

 A migrant who fled their home because of economic hardship is an economic migrant, and strictly speaking, not a displaced person.
 If the displaced person was forced out of their home because of economically driven projects, such as the Three Gorges Dam in China, the situation is referred to as development-induced displacement.
 A displaced person who left their home region because of political persecution or violence, but did not cross an international border, commonly falls into the looser category of internally displaced person (IDP), subject to more tenuous international protection. In 1998, the UN Commission on Human Rights published the Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, defining internally displaced people as: "persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or leave their homes or places of habitual residence in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or natural or human-made disasters and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border."
 If the displaced person has crossed an international border and falls under one of the relevant international legal instruments, they may be able to apply for asylum and can become a refugee if the application is successful. Although often incorrectly used as a synonym for displaced person, the term refugee refers specifically to a legally-recognized status that has access to specific legal protections. Loose application of the term refugee may cause confusion between the general descriptive class of displaced persons and those who can legally be defined as refugees.
 Some forced migrants may, due to the country of residence's legal system, be unable to apply for asylum in that country. Thus, even though they meet the international law definition of a refugee they are unable to claim asylum and become recognised by their host country as refugees.
 A displaced person crossing an international border without permission from the country they are entering or without subsequently applying for asylum may be considered an illegal immigrant.
 Forced migrants are always either IDPs or displaced people, as both of these terms do not require a legal framework and the fact that they left their homes is sufficient. The distinction between the terms displaced person and forced migrant is minor; however, the term displaced person has an important historic context (e.g. World War II).

History of the term displaced person

The term displaced person (DP) was first widely used during World War II, following the subsequent refugee outflows from Eastern Europe. In this context, DP specifically referred to an individual removed from their native country as a refugee, prisoner or a slave laborer. Most war victims, political refugees, and DPs of the immediate post-Second World War period were Ukrainians, Poles, other Slavs, and citizens of the Baltic states (Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians) who refused to return to Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe.
A. J. Jaffe claimed that the term was originally coined by Eugene M. Kulischer. The meaning has significantly broadened in the past half-century.

Causes and examples
Bogumil Terminski distinguishes two general categories of displacement:

 Displacement of risk: mostly conflict-induced displacement, deportations and disaster-induced displacement.
 Displacement of adaptation: associated with voluntary migration, development-induced displacement and environmentally-induced displacement.

Natural causes
Forced displacement may directly result from natural disasters and indirectly from the subsequent impact on infrastructure, food and water access, and local/regional economies. Displacement may be temporary or permanent, depending on the scope of the disaster and the area's recovery capabilities. Climate change is increasing the frequency of major natural disasters, possibly placing a greater number of populations in situations of forced displacement. Also crop failures due to blight and/or pests fall within this category by affecting people's access to food. Additionally, the term environmental refugee represents people who are forced to leave their traditional habitat because of environmental factors which negatively impact their livelihood, or even environmental disruption i.e. biological, physical or chemical change in ecosystem. Migration can also occur as a result of slow-onset climate change, such as desertification or sea-level rise, of deforestation or land degradation.

Examples of forced displacement caused by natural disasters

 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami: Resulting from a 9.1 earthquake off the coast of North Sumatra, the Indian Ocean Tsunami claimed over 227,898 lives, heavily damaging coastlines throughout the Indian Ocean. As a result, over 1.7 million people were displaced, mostly from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India.
Hurricane Katrina (2005): Striking New Orleans, Louisiana, in late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina inflicted approximately US$125 billion in damages, standing as one of the costliest storms in United States history. As a result of the damage inflicted by Katrina, over one million people were internally displaced. One month after the disaster, over 600,000 remained displaced. Immediately following the disaster, New Orleans lost approximately half of its population, with many residents displaced to cities such as Houston, Dallas, Baton Rouge, and Atlanta. According to numerous studies, displacement disproportionally impacted Louisiana's poorer populations, specifically African Americans.
2011 East Africa drought: Failed rains in Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia led to high livestock and crop losses, driving majority pastoralist populations to surrounding areas in search of accessible food and water. In addition to seeking food and water, local populations' migration was motivated by an inability to maintain traditional lifestyles. According to researchers, although partly influenced by local armed conflict, the East African drought stands as an example of climate change impacts.

Man-made causes
Man-made displacement describes forced displacement caused by political entities, criminal organizations, conflicts, man-made environmental disasters, development, etc. Although impacts of natural disasters and blights/pests may be exacerbated by human mismanagement, man-made causes refer specifically to those initiated by humans. According to UNESCO, armed conflict stands as the most common cause behind forced displacement, reinforced by regional studies citing political and armed conflict as the largest attributing factors to migrant outflows from Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Examples of forced displacement caused by criminal activity

 Displacement in Mexico due to cartel violence: Throughout Mexico, drug cartel, paramilitary, and self-defense group violence drives internal and external displacement. According to a comprehensive, mixed methodology study by Salazar and Álvarez Lobato, families fled their homes as a means of survival, hoping to escape homicide, extortion, and potential kidnapping. Using a collection of available data and existing studies, the total number of displaced persons between 2006 and 2012 was approximately 740 thousands.
Displacement in Central America due to cartel/gang violence: A major factor behind US immigrant crises in the early 21st century (such as the 2014 immigrant crisis), rampant gang violence in the Northern Triangle, combined with corruption and low economic opportunities, has forced many to flee their country in pursuit of stability and greater opportunity. Homicide rates in countries such as El Salvador and Honduras reached some of the highest in the world, with El Salvador peaking at 103 homicides per 100,000 people. Contributing factors include extortion, territorial disputes, and forced gang recruitment, resulting in some estimates of approximately 500,000 people displaced annually.
Displacement in Colombia due to conflict and drug-related violence: According to researchers Mojica and Eugenia, Medellín, Colombia around 2013 exemplified crime and violence-induced forced displacement, standing as one of the most popular destinations for IDPs while also producing IDPs of its own. Rural citizens fled from organized criminal violence, with the majority pointing to direct threats as the main driving force, settling in Medellín in pursuit of safety and greater opportunity. Within Medellín, various armed groups battled for territorial control, forcing perceived opponents from their homes and pressuring residents to abandon their livelihoods, among other methods. All in all, criminal violence forced Colombians to abandon their possessions, way of life, and social ties in pursuit of safety.

Examples of forced displacement caused by political conflict

 1949–1956 Palestinian exodus
Jewish exodus from the Muslim world
 Vietnam War: Throughout the Vietnam War and in the years proceeding it, many populations were forced out of Vietnam and the surrounding countries as a result of armed conflict and/or persecution by their governments, such as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. This event is referred to as the Indochina refugee crisis, with millions displaced across Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America.
Salvadoran Civil War: Throughout and after the 12-year conflict between the Salvadoran government and the FMLN, Salvadorans faced forced displacement as a result of combat, persecution, and deteriorating quality of life/access to socioeconomic opportunities. Overall, one in four Salvadorans were internally and externally displaced (over one million people).
 2021 Myanmar coup d'état: Since the coup d'état of 1 February 2021, the Burmese military's ascendancy into power has resulted in widespread chaos and violence, aggravated by the refusal of large sections of the public to accept a military regime given the country's experiences during the second half of the 20th and early years of the 21st century. As a result, many in the public sector have initiated strikes, and the country has seen elevated levels of forced displacement, both internally displaced persons (IDPs) (208,000 since 1 February 2021) and refugees fleeing abroad (an estimated 22,000 since 1 February 2021). The particular political conflict causing the displacement has been flagged as symptomatic of that of a state on the brink of collapse. Two key indicators of this that have been highlighted are firstly, that levels of security have been severely reduced to the point where citizens are no longer protected from violence by the state; and secondly, goods and services are not being reliably supplied to citizens either by the ousted government or by the new military leadership, primarily as a result of the instability created and the strikes triggered. These internal problems are further reflected by the withdrawal of international recognition by both governmental and non-governmental bodies.

Examples of forced displacement caused by man-made environmental disasters

 2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires: Although man-made fires are a normal part of Amazonian agriculture, the 2019 dry season saw an internationally noted increase in their rate of occurrence. The rapidly spreading fires, combined with efforts from agricultural and logging companies, has forced Brazil's indigenous populations off their native lands.
Chernobyl disaster: A nuclear meltdown on April 26, 1986 near Pripyat, Ukraine contaminated the city and surrounding areas with harmful levels of radiation, forcing the displacement of over 100,000 people.
 Great Famine of Ireland: Between 1845 and 1849, potato blight, exacerbated by policy decisions and mismanagement by the U.K. government, caused millions of Irish people, largely potato-dependent tenant farmers, to starve or eventually flee the country. Over one million perished from subsequent famine and disease, and another million fled the country, reducing the overall Irish population by at least a quarter.

Other man-made displacement
 Human trafficking/smuggling: Migrants displaced through deception or coercion with purpose of their exploitation fall under this category. Due to its clandestine nature, the data on such type of forced migration are limited. A disparity also exists between the data for male trafficking (such as for labor in agriculture, construction etc.) and female trafficking (such as for sex work or domestic service), with more data available for males. The International Labour Organization considers trafficking an offense against labor protection, denying companies from leveraging migrants as a labor resource. ILO's Multilateral Framework includes principle no. 11, recommending that "Governments should formulate and implement, in consultation with the social partners, measures to prevent abusive practices, migrant smuggling and people trafficking; they should also work towards preventing irregular labor migration."
Slavery: Historically, slavery has led to the displacement of individuals for forced labor, with the Middle Passage of the 15th through 19th century Atlantic slave trade standing as a notable example.  Of the 20 million Africans captured for the trade, half died in their forced march to the African coast, and another ten to twenty percent died on slave ships carrying them from Africa to the Americas.
Ethnic cleansing: The systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. Examples include the Catholic removal of European Protestants (e.g. Salzburg Protestants) during the 16th through 19th centuries during the counter-Reformation and the cleansing of Jewish people and other ethnic minorities during the Holocaust. Additionally, critics of the deportation of indigenous peoples of the North America from their native lands may that as this.
 Suppressing political opposition: For example the forced settlements in the Soviet Union and population transfer in the Soviet Union including deportation of the Crimean Tatars, deportation of the Chechens and Ingush, deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union, deportation of the Soviet Greeks, and deportations of the Ingrian Finns
 Aligning ethnic composition with artificial political border: For example flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950), Polish population transfers (1944–1946), and Operation Vistula
 Colonization: For example the British governments transportation of Convicts in Australia, American Colonization Society and others' attempt to create a country for African Americans in Africa as Liberia, Japanese settlers in Manchukuo following Japanese invasion of Manchuria, and the Chinese military settlement of Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps in Xinjiang.

Conditions faced by displaced persons

Displaced persons face adverse conditions when taking the decision to leave, traveling to a destination, and sometimes upon reaching their destination. Displaced persons are often forced to place their lives at risk, travel in inhumane conditions, and may be exposed to exploitation and abuse. These risk factors may increase through the involvement of smugglers and human traffickers, who may exploit them for illegal activities such as drug/weapons trafficking, forced labor, or sex work. The states where migrants seek protection may consider them a threat to national security. Displaced persons may also seek the assistance of human smugglers (such as coyotes in Latin America) throughout their journey. Given the illegal nature of smuggling, smugglers may take use dangerous methods to reach their destination without capture, exposing displaced persons to harm and sometimes resulting in deaths. Examples include abandonment, exposure to exploitation, dangerous transportation conditions, and death from exposure to harsh environments.

In most instances of forced migration across borders, migrants do not possess the required documentation for legal travel. The states where migrants seek protection may consider them a threat to national security. As a result, displaced persons may face detainment and criminal punishment, as well as physical and psychological trauma. Various studies focusing on migrant health have specifically linked migration to increased likelihood of depression, anxiety, and other psychological troubles. For example, the United States has faced criticism for its recent policies regarding migrant detention, specifically the detention of children. Critics point to poor detention conditions, unstable contact with parents, and high potential for long-term trauma as reasons for seeking policy changes. Displaced persons risk greater poverty than before displacement, financial vulnerability, and potential social disintegration, in addition to other risks related to human rights, culture, and quality of life. Forced displacement has varying impacts, dependent on the means through which one was forcibly displaced, their geographic location, their protected status, and their ability to personally recover. Under the most common form of displacement, armed conflict, individuals often lose possession of their assets upon fleeing and possible upon arrival to a new country, where they can also face cultural, social, and economic discontinuity.

Responses to forced displacement

International response
Responses to situations of forced displacement vary across regional and international levels, with each type of forced displacement demonstrating unique characteristics and the need for a considerate approach. At the international level, international organizations (e.g. the UNHCR), NGOs (Doctors without Borders), and country governments (USAID) may work towards directly or indirectly ameliorating these situations. Means may include establishing internationally recognized protections, providing clinics to migrant camps, and supplying resources to populations. According to researchers such as Francis Deng, as well as international organizations such as the UN, an increase in IDPs compounds the difficulty of international responses, posing issues of incomplete information and questions regarding state sovereignty. State sovereignty especially becomes of concern when discussing protections for IDPs, who are within the borders of a sovereign state, placing reluctance in the international community's ability to respond. Multiple landmark conventions aim at providing rights and protections to the different categories of forcibly displaced persons, including the 1951 Refugee Convention, the 1967 Protocol, the Kampala Convention, and the 1998 Guiding Principles. Despite internationally cooperation, these frameworks rely on the international system, which states may disregard. In a 2012 study, Young Hoon Song found that nations "very selectively" responded to instances of forced migration and internally displaced persons.

World organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank, as well as individual countries, sometimes directly respond to the challenges faced by displaced people, providing humanitarian assistance or forcibly intervening in the country of conflict. Disputes related to these organizations' neutrality and limited resources has affected the capabilities of international humanitarian action to mitigate mass displacement mass displacement's causes. These broad forms of assistance sometimes do not fully address the multidimensional needs of displaced persons. Regardless, calls for multilateral responses echo across organizations in the face of falling international cooperation. These organizations propose more comprehensive approaches, calling for improved conflict resolution and capacity-building in order to reduce instances of forced displacement.

Local response
Responses at multiple levels and across sectors is vital. A research has for instance highlighted the importance of collaboration between businesses and non-governmental organizations to tackle resettlement and employment issues.

Lived in experiences of displaced persons will vary according to the state and local policies of their country of relocation. Policies reflecting national exclusion of displaced persons may be undone by inclusive urban policies. Sanctuary cities are an example of spaces that regulate their cooperation or participation with immigration law enforcement. The practice of urban membership upon residence allows displaced persons to have access to city services and benefits, regardless of their legal status. Sanctuary cities have been able to provide migrants with greater mobility and participation in activities limiting the collection of personal information, issuing identification cards to all residents, and providing access to crucial services such as health care. Access to these services can ease the hardships of displaced people by allowing them to healthily adjust to life after displacement .

Criminal prosecution
Forced displacement has been the subject of several trials in local and international courts. For an offense to classify as a war crime, the victim must be a "protected person" under international humanitarian law. Originally referring only categories of individuals explicitly protected under one of the four Geneva Conventions of 1949, "protected person" now may define a civilian or police force not participating directly in a conflict.

In Article 49, the Fourth Geneva Convention, adopted on 12 August 1949, specifically forbade forced displacementThe Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court defines forced displacement as a crime within the jurisdiction of the court:

 Following the end of World War II, the Krupp trial was held with a specific charge to the forced displacement of civilian populations for the purpose of forced labor. The US Military Tribunal concluded that "[t]here is no international law that permits the deportation or the use of civilians against their will for other than on reasonable requisitions for the need of the army, either within the area of the army or after deportation to rear areas or to the homeland of the occupying power".
 At the Nuremberg trials, Hans Frank, chief jurist in occupied Poland, was found guilty, among others for forced displacement of the civilian population.
 Several people were tried and convicted by the ICTY for connection to forced displacement during the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s. On 11 April 2018, the Appeals Chamber sentenced Vojislav Šešelj 10 years in prison under Counts 1, 10, and 11 of the indictment for instigating deportation, persecution (forcible displacement), and other inhumane acts (forcible transfer) as crimes against humanity due to his speech in Hrtkovci on 6 May 1992, in which he called for the expulsion of Croats from Vojvodina. Other convictions for forced displacement included ex-Bosnian Serb politician Momčilo Krajišnik, ex-Croatian Serb leader Milan Martić, former Bosnian Croat paramilitary commander Mladen Naletilić, and Bosnian Serb politician Radoslav Brđanin.
 On 17 March 2023, the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued arrest warrants for Vladimir Putin and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights Maria Lvova-Belova for war crimes of deportation and illegal transfer of children from occupied Ukraine to Russia.

See also
 Asylum seekers
 Climate migrant
 Development-induced displacement
 Deportation
 Population transfer
Refugees
Refugee employment
 Refugee roulette
 List of diasporas
 International Association for the Study of Forced Migration
 Displaced persons camps in post-World War II Europe
 Earl G. Harrison's "Report on DPs in Western Europe in 1945" to U.S. President Harry S. Truman
 Kampala Convention
 Divided family
 Forced displacement in popular culture
 Indian Removal
 Population cleansing

References

Further reading
 Betts, Alexander: Forced Migration and Global Politics. Wiley-Blackwell.

 Luciuk, Lubomyr Y.: "Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada, and the Migration of Memory," University of Toronto Press, 2000. Migration of people from Mirpur(AJK) for construction of Mangla Dam

External links

International Network on Displacement and Resettlement
Pictures of Refugees in Europe – Features by Jean-Michel Clajot, Belgian photographer
Oukloof forced removals in the Western Cape of South Africa – A community web site documenting the known history of the forced removal of the residents of Oukloof in the 1960s
Forced Migration Online provides access to a diverse range of relevant information resources on forced migration, including a searchable digital library consisting of full-text documents.
Back issues of migration journals (Disasters, Forced Migration Review, International Journal of Refugee Law, International Migration Review and Journal of Refugee Studies)
Eurasylum Many relevant documents on asylum and refugee policy, immigration and human trafficking/smuggling internationally
IDP Voices Forced migrants tell their life stories
Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Norwegian Refugee Council The leading international body monitoring conflict-induced internal displacement worldwide.
The International Association for the Study of Forced Migration brings together academics, practitioners and decision-makers working on forced migration issues.
The International Organization for Migration is a non-governmental organization with a major role mediating modern migration.
The Journal of Refugee Studies from Oxford University provides a forum for exploration of the complex problems of forced migration and national, regional and international responses.
Program for the Study of Global Migration, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva.
The Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford: a leading multidisciplinary centre for research and teaching on the causes and consequences of forced migration.
What is Forced Migration?, an introductory guide for those who are new to the subject.
Wits Forced Migration Studies Programme, Africa's leading centre for teaching and research on displacement, migration, and social transformation.
Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children

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Global issues
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Crimes against humanity

Forced displacement


වෛරසයක් යනු (ලතින් භාෂාවෙන් විෂ හෝ ධුලක යන තේරුම ඇත) අන්වීක්ෂීය රෝග කාරක ද්‍රව්‍යයක් වන අතර එය දාරක සෛලයකින් පිටත ප්‍රජනනය හා වර්ධනයට අපොහොසත් වේ. වෛරස අංශුවක් හෝ Virion කොටසක ආරක්ෂිත ප්‍රෝටීන සිවියක් වු කැප්සිඩය තුළ පිහිටි ඩී.එන්.ඒ. හෝ ආර්.එන්.ඒ. ප්‍රවේනි ද්‍රව්‍ය ඇත. මෙම කැප්සිඩයේ හැඩය සරල හෙලිප්සීය සහ විසංතිතල හැඩවල සිට වඩාත් සංකීර්ණ ව්‍යුහයක් ඇති දිගු වලිගයක් සහ ආවරණ කවරයක් සහිත විය හැකිය. මෙම වෛරස වලට සතුන්, ශාක, බැක්ටීරියාවන් ආසාදනය කළ හැකිය.

ජීව විද්‍යාඥයින්ට අනුව වෛරසයක් යනු ජීවි විශේෂයක් ද නැද්ද යන්න තවමත් මතභේදාත්මකය. ඇතමුන් මෙය අජීවි ද්‍රව්‍යයක් ලෙස සලකනුයේ ජීවි යයි විග්‍රහ කිරීමට අවශ්‍ය අංගයන් සම්පූර්ණ නොකරන බැවිනි. උදාහරණයක් ලෙස අනෙකුත් බොහෝ ජීවි විශේෂයන් මෙන් වෛරස සඳහා සෛල නොමැත. කෙසේ වුවත් වෛරස වලට ජාන පිහිටා ඇති අතර ඒවා ස්වාභාවික වරණය මගින් පරිණාමය වෙමින් පවතී. ඇතමුන් විග්‍රහ කරන අන්දමට වෛරස ජීවී බවේ එළිපත්තේ ඇති විශේෂයක් වේ. බොහෝ අවස්ථාවෙහි සිරුරේ ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණය මගින් වෛරස සම්පුර්ණයෙන්ම විනාශ කරනු ලබයි. ප්‍රතිජීවක ඖෂධ වෛරස සඳහා ප්‍රයෝජනවත් නොවේ. නමුත් ඇතැම් අවස්ථා වලදී ජීවිතයට අවධානමක් එල්ල කරන ආසාදන වලට ප්‍රතිකාර ක්‍රමයක් ලෙස ප්‍රති වෛරස ඖෂධ භාවිතා වේ. ජීවිත කාලය මුළුල්ලේම ප්‍රතිශක්තියක් ලබාදෙන එන්නත් මගින් එම අදාල වෛරස ආසාදනය ඇතිවීම වැළැක්විය හැකිය.

සම්භවය

නුතන වෛරසවල සම්භවය මුළුමනින්ම පැහැදිලි නැත. මෙයට හේතුව වන්නේ ඒවායෙහි සම්භවය විග්‍රහ කෙරෙන තනි යාන්ත්‍රණයක් නොමැති වීම විය හැකිය. ඒවා හොදින් පොසිලකරණය නොවන නිසා අණුක තාක්ෂණය භාවිතාකර ගනිමින් ඒවා හටගත් ආකාරය පිළිබදව සංකල්පයක් ඇති කර ගැනීමට උපකාරී වේ. ක්ෂුද්‍ර පොසිල හදුනා ගැනීම සහ අණුක ජෛව තාක්ෂණය පිළිබදව ඇති සමීක්ෂණ මගින් පොසිල පිළිබදව සාක්ෂි ආකියන් හෝ ප්‍රොටෙරෝසොයික් යන යුගවලට විහිදී යන්නක් බවට තවමත් සාක්ෂි නැත. මේ සදහා ප්‍රධාන කල්පිතයන් දෙකක් මේ වන විට පවතී.

ඉතාකුඩා ප්‍රමාණයක ජීනෝමයක් සහිත කුඩා වෛරසවල ජීනෝමය හටගෙන ඇත්තේ ජීවි සෛලවලින් බවට විශ්වාසයක් ඇත. ඒවායෙහි ජානමය ද්‍රව්‍ය හටගෙන ඇත්තේ හුවමාරු කරගත හැකි ජානමය ද්‍රව්‍යයන්වන ප්ලාස්මිඩ හෝ ට්‍රාන්ස්පෝසෝන වලිනි. ඒවා ජීනෝමය වෙතට ඇතුළුවීම පිටවීම හෝ එය තුළ ගමන්කිරීමක් සිදුවිය හැකිය. අළුතෙන් නව වෛරස ප්‍රභේදයන් ඇති වෙමින් පවතින නිසා වෛරස සදහා බොහෝ අවස්ථාවන් වලදී මුතුන් මිත්තන් ඇත.

විශාල ජීලෝමයක් සහිත පොක්ස් වෛරසය වැනි වෛරස මුලදී කුඩා සෛලවලට පසුකාලීනව විශාල ධාරක සෛලවල ද පරපෝෂීව ජීවත් වේ. කාලයක් මුළුල්ලේ මෙම ජාන සදහා ඒවායෙහි පරපෝෂී ජීවන රටාව අවශ්‍ය නොවන අතර එය ප්‍රත්‍යාවර්ති පරිණාමය හෝ ආපස්සට සිදුවන පරිණාමයක් මගින් අනුකූලනය වේ. රිකට්සියා සහ ක්ලැමීඩියා යන බැක්ටිරීයාවන් ජීවි සෛල සදහා වෛරස මෙන් දාරක සෛල තුළ පමණක් ප්‍රජනනය විය හැකිය. මෙම බැක්ටීරියාවන්ගේ ධාරක සෛලවලින් පිටත ප්‍රජනනය වීමේ හැකියාව නොමැතිවීමේ පරපෝෂි ජීවන රටාව මගින් වෛරස ඇතිවීම පිළිබද නව සංකල්පයන් බිහිවී ඇත.

වෛරස ස්වයං විභේදනය විය හැකි පුරාතන ඩී.එන්.ඒ. වලින් සමන්විතවන අතර මේවන විට විග්‍රහකර ඇති අන්දමට ඒවා ජීවය සදහා මූලික වූවන් වේ. වෛරසවල ආකෘතියට වඩා සරළ ආකෘතියක් සහිත ද්‍රව්‍යයන් වනුයේ වයිරොයිඩ, සැටලයිට සහ ප්‍රියෝනයි.

වෛරසවල සොයාගැනීම්

ජල භීතිකා, කහ උණ සහ වසූරිය යන රෝග ඇති කරන වෛරස දශක ගණනාවක් මුළුල්ලේ මිනිසුන් හට බලපෑම් ඇති කර ඇත. පොලියෝ රෝග ඇති කිරීම සදහා හේතුව එවකට පැහැදිලිව නොතිබුණ ද පුරාතන ඊජිප්තු වෛද්‍ය ක්ෂේත්‍රයෙහි රූපාක්ෂර සාක්ෂි මගින් එකල ද පෝලියෝ රෝගය පිළිබදව අවබෝධයක් තිබූ බව පැහැදිලි වේ. 10 වන ශතවර්ෂයේදී මොහොමඩ් ඉබන්සකාරියා රාසි විසින් රචිත වසූරිය සහ සරම්ප පිළිබදව වූ නිබන්ධන වලින් එම රෝග දෙක පිළිබදව මුල්ම පැහැදිලි විස්තරාර්ථ කතනයක් දෙන ලදී. 1020 දී ඇවිසෙනා විසින් රචිත The Canon Of Medicine නම් ග්‍රන්ථයෙහි ඔහු ක්ෂය රෝගය සහ ලිංගාශ්‍රිත රෝග වැනි රො‍්ගවල බෝවන සුළු ස්වභාවය පිළිබදව විස්තර කරන ලද අතර ස්පර්ශයෙන් හෝ ජලය සහ පස් මගින් සහ සිරුරෙන් නිකුත්වන නොයෙකුත් ස්‍රාවයන් මගින් එම රෝගවල බෝවීමේ හැකියාව පිළිබද විස්තර කරන ලදී. තවද ඔහු මෙම රෝග බෝවීම වැළැක්වීමට සහ සීමාකිරීම සදහා රෝග නිරෝධායන ක්‍රම හදුන්වා දෙන ලදී.

14 වන ශතවර්ෂයේදී කාල මෘත්‍ය හෙවත් මහාමාරිය වසංගත රෝගය අල්-අන්ධාලුස් ප්‍රදේශය කරා ලගා වූ අවස්ථාවේදී ඉබන් කාටිමා විසින් මෙම රෝගය ඇති වනුයේ මිනිස් සිරුරට ඇතුළු වන ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවියෙකු මගින් බව සොයා ගන්නා ලදී.  මහා මාරිය රෝගය ඇති කිරීමට හේතු කාරක වන ජීවියා බැක්ටීරියාවක් වන බව පසුකාලීනව හදුනා ගන්නා ලදී. තවත් 14 වන ශතවර්ෂයේ විසූ වෛද්‍යවරයෙකුවන ඉබන් අල්-කාටි (1313 – 1374) විසින් රචිත මහාමාරිය පිළිබදව වූ නිබන්ධනයෙහි ඔහු සදහන් කර ඇත්තේ ස්පර්ශයෙන්, ඇදුම්වලින් සහ භාවිතා කරන උපකරණ මගින් එම රෝගය පැතිර යන ආකාරය පිළිබදවයි. ඔටෝමන් අධිරාජ්‍යයෙහි විසූ ඉංග්‍රීසි ජාතික තානාපතිවරයෙකුගේ බිරිද වූ මේරී මොන්ටෙගු විසින් 1717 දී  එම ප්‍රදේශයෙහි කාන්තාවන් තම දරුවන් වසූරිය රෝගයට එරෙහිව අත් එන්නත් කරන ආකාරය නිරීක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. 18 වන ශතවර්ෂයේ අග භාගයේදී එඩ්වඩ් ජෙනර් විසින් කරන ලද නිරීක්ෂණයකට අනුව ගව වසූරිය රෝගය වරක් වැළදී තිබු සාරා නේල්ම්ස් නම් කිරිදොවන්නියක් හට පසු කාලීනව වසූරිය රෝගය සෑදීමට එරෙහිව ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණයක් ඇති වී තිබුණි. ගව වසූරිය රෝගය ඇති කරන වෛරසය වසූරිය ඇති කරන වෛරසයට සමාන නමුත් එය වඩාත් හානිකර වෛරසයකි. මෙම සොයාගැනීම් මත පදනම්ව ජෙනර් විසින් වසූරිය සදහා එන්නතක් සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. ලෝක සෞඛ්‍ය සංවිධානය විසින් කාලයක් මුළුල්ලේ සිදුකරන ලද එන්නත්කරණ වැඩ සටහන් නිසා 1979 දී වසූරිය රෝගය මුළු ලොවින්ම තුරන් කරන ලද්දක් බවට ප්‍රකාශයට පත් කරන ලදී.

19 වන ශතවර්ෂය අග භාගයේදී චාල්ස් චැන්බර්ලන්ඩ් විසින් වර්ධක මාධ්‍යයක වගා කරන ලද බැක්ටීරියාවන් ෙපරා ඉවත් කිරීමේ හැකියාව ඇති කුඩා සිදුරු සහිත පෝසිලෙන් පෙරනයක් නිෂ්පාදනය කරන ලදී. ඩිමිත්‍රි අයිවර්නොව්ස්කි මෙම පෙරනය භාවිතා කරමින් දුම්කොළ ශාකයක ඇති වන Tobacco Mosaic Virus නම් වෛරසය පිළිබදව අධ්‍යයනය කරන ලදී. ඔහු ආසාදිත දුම්කොළ ශාකයක කොළ ඉතා හොදින් පොඩිකර මෙම පෙරනය මගින් පෙරීමකට ලක්කර ලැබෙන කොටස වෙනත් දුම්කොළ ශාකයක් ආසාදනය කිරීමට භාවිතා කරන ලදී. එමගින් රෝග කාරක ද්‍රව්‍ය බැක්ටීරියාවක් නොවන බවට හදුනා ගන්නා ලදී.  වෙනත් පර්යේෂකයන් මගින් ද මේ හා සමාන පර්යේෂණ සිදුකොට එවන් ප්‍රතිඵල ලබා ගන්නා ලදී. මෙම පරීක්ෂණ මගින් සොයාගන්නා ලද්දක් වනුයේ වෛරස බැක්ටීරියාවන්ට වඩා ප්‍රමාණයෙන් ඉතාමත්ම කුඩා බවයි. වෛරස යන වචනය ප්‍රබන්ධ කරන ලද්දේ ලන්දේසි ජාතික ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවි විද්‍යාඥයෙකු වූ මාටිනස් බිජරින්ක් විසිනි. ඔහු අයිවනොස්කි විසින් සිදුකරන ලද අත්හදා බැලීම් භාවිතයට ගනිමින් දුම්කොළ ශාකයට රෝග ඇති කරන රෝග කාරක ද්‍රව්‍ය බැක්ටීරියාවකට වඩා ඉතා කුඩා වූවක් බවට හදුන්වන ලදී. ඔහු ලතින් බසින් Contagium vivum fluidum (දියවන සුළු රො‍්ග කාරක ජීවි ද්‍රව්‍ය යන තේරුම් ඇති) යන්න වාක්‍යයෙහි භාවිතා කිරීම මගින් වෛරස පිළිබදව මුල්ම අදහස ඇති කරන ලදී. මුලින්ම හදුනා ගන්නා ලද මනුෂ්‍ය වෛරස වර්ගය වනුයේ කහ උණ වෛරසයයි.

20 වන ශතවර්ෂයේ මුල භාගයේදී  ෆෙඩ්රික් ට්වොට් විසින් වෛරස මගින් බැක්ටීරියාවක් ආසාදනය කළ හැකි බව සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. ෆිලික්ස් ඩි හෙරල්ඩ් විසින් කරන ලද සොයා ගැනීමකට අනුව ඒගාර් මාධ්‍යයක ව්‍යාප්ත කරන ලද තුනී ෛසල වර්ධනයක සෛල මරණයක් ඇති කිරීමට වෛරසවලට හැකිබව සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. මරණයට පත් වූ සෛල ඇති ප්‍රදේශයන් ගණන් කිරීම මගින් එම ද්‍රවකයෙහි අන්තර්ගත වූ වෛරස් පිළිබදව අදහසක් ලබාගැනීමට ඔහුට හැකියාව ලැබුණි. ඉලෙක්ට්‍රෝන අන්වීක්ෂයෙහි සොයාගැනීමත් සමගම වෛරස නිරීක්ෂණය කිරීමට මුල්මවරට අවස්ථාව පෑදුනි. 1935 දී වෙන්ඩල් ස්ටැන්ලි විසින් Tobacco Mosaic වෛරසය ස්පටිකීකරණය කිරීම මගින් එය සෑදී ඇත්තේ බහුතරයක් ප්‍රෝටීන් මගින් වන බව සොයාගන්නා ලදී. ඉන් කෙටි කාලයකට පසු වෛරස ප්‍රෝටීන සහ න්‍යෂ්ටික අම්ල යන කොටස් වලට බෙදන ලදී. 1939 දී මැක්ස් ඩෙල්බෘක් සහ E.L එලිස් විසින් කරන ලද සොයා ගැනීමකට අනුව අනෙකුත් ජීවී සෛලවලට වඩා බැක්ටීරියා භක්ෂකයන් වඩා වේගවත් ලෙස ප්‍රජනනය කරන බව සොයා ගන්නා ලදී.

මුල් කාලීනව විසූ වෛරස වේදින් හට ඇති වූ ප්‍රධානතම ගැටළුව නම් විෂබීජවලින් තොර වූ වර්ධක මාධ්‍යයක වෛරසයන්  වෙනත් සෛලීය ක්ෂුද්‍ර ජීවින් මෙන් වර්ධනය කිරීමට හැකියාව නොමැති වීමයි. මෙම සීමාකාරී සාධකයන් හේතුවෙන් වෛරස වේදියෙකු හට ජීවි සත්වයෙකු රෝග කාරක වෛරසය මගින් ආසාදනය කිරීම‍ට අවශ්‍ය වුණි. මෙය ඉතා හානිකර තත්වයකි. 1931 දී මුල්ම වරට අර්නස්ට් විලියම් ගුඩ්පාස්චර් විසින් ඉන්ෆුලුවෙන්සා වෛරසය සහ වෙනත් වෛරස වර්ග කිකිලි බිත්තරවල වර්ධනය කරන ලදී. කෙසේ නමුත් ඇතැම් වෛරස මෙලෙස කිකිලි බිත්තරවල වර්ධනය නොවන අතර ඒවා වර්ධනය සදහා වඩාත් නම්‍යශීලී සුක්ෂ්‍යම උපක්‍රම අවශ්‍ය වේ. මෙම ගැටළුව සදහා විසදුමක් 1949 දී ජෝන් ෆැන්ක්ලින් එන්ඩර්ස්, තෝමස් වෙලර් සහ ෆේඩ්රික් චැප්මන් රෝබින්ස් විසින් එක්ව සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. ඔවුන් ජීවී සත්ව සෛලවල පෝලියෝ වෛරසය වර්ධනය කිරීමේ ක්‍රමයක් සොයා ගන්නා ලදී. ඔවුන්ගේ සොයාගැනීම් මේ වන විට වඩාත් පුළුල්ව නවීකරණය වී ඇති අතර විෂබීජ වලින් තොර වර්ධක මාධ්‍යයන්හි වර්ධනය නොවන වෛරස සහ අනෙකුත් ආසාදිත ද්‍රව්‍යයන් වර්ධනය සදහා භාවිතා කරන ලදී.

Zoonoses
ජීව විද්‍යාව
වෛරස
ක්‍ෂුද්‍ර ජීවීන්
ක්‍ෂුද්‍රජීවවේදය

වෛරස


The Pygmalion effect, or Rosenthal effect,  is a psychological phenomenon in which high expectations lead to improved performance in a given area and low expectations lead to worse. The effect is named for the Greek myth of Pygmalion, the sculptor who fell so much in love with the perfectly beautiful statue he created that the statue came to life. The psychologists Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson present a view, that has been called into question as a result of later research findings, in their book Pygmalion in the Classroom; borrowing something of the myth by advancing the idea that teachers' expectations of their students affect the students' performance. Rosenthal and Jacobson held that high expectations lead to better performance and low expectations lead to worse, both effects leading to self-fulfilling prophecy.

According to the Pygmalion effect, the targets of the expectations internalize their positive labels, and those with positive labels succeed accordingly; a similar process works in the opposite direction in the case of low expectations. The idea behind the Pygmalion effect is that increasing the leader's expectation of the follower's performance will result in better follower performance. Within sociology, the effect is often cited with regard to education and social class.

Rosenthal–Jacobson study
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson's study showed that children's performance was enhanced if teachers were led to expect enhanced performance from children.  By the same token, if teachers were led to expect lower performance from children, then the children's performance would be diminished. The authors purported that the study's results supported the hypothesis that performance can be positively or negatively influenced by the expectations of others. This phenomenon is called the observer-expectancy effect. Rosenthal argued that biased expectancies could affect reality and create self-fulfilling prophecies.

All students in a single California elementary school were given a disguised IQ test at the beginning of the study. These scores were not disclosed to teachers. Teachers were told that some of their students (about 20% of the school chosen at random) could be expected to be "intellectual bloomers" that year, doing better than expected in comparison to their classmates. The bloomers' names were made known to the teachers. At the end of the study, all students were again tested with the same IQ test used at the beginning of the study.  All six grades in both experimental and control groups showed a mean gain in IQ from before the test to after the test.  However, first- and second-graders showed statistically significant gains favoring the experimental group of "intellectual bloomers." This led to the conclusion that teacher expectations, particularly for the youngest children, can influence student achievement. Rosenthal believed that even attitude or mood could positively affect the students when the teacher was made aware of the "bloomers." The teacher may pay closer attention to and even treat the child differently in times of difficulty.

Rosenthal predicted that elementary school teachers may subconsciously behave in ways that facilitate and encourage the students' success. When finished, Rosenthal theorized that future studies could be implemented to find teachers who would encourage their students naturally without changing their teaching methods. Rosenthal and Jacobson's study of the Pygmalion effect was criticized for both weak methodology and lack of replicability (see Pygmalion in the Classroom).

The prior research that motivated this study was conducted in 1911 by psychologists regarding the case of Clever Hans, a horse that gained notoriety because it was supposed to be able to read, spell, and solve math problems by using its hoof to answer. Many skeptics suggested that questioners and observers were unintentionally signaling Clever Hans. For instance, whenever Clever Hans was asked a question the observers' demeanor usually elicited a certain behavior from the subject that in turn confirmed their expectations. For example, Clever Hans would be given a math problem to solve, and the audience would get very tense the closer he tapped his foot to the right number, thus giving Hans the clue he needed to tap the correct number of times.

Mediator - leadership behaviour
Leadership was identified by Eden and Shani as a mediator of the Pygmalion effect. The study discovered that trainees with strong command potential gave instructors better overall leadership evaluations than trainees in the control group. According to a later analysis of the survey by Eden, instructors were rated more positively on each of the four management leadership dimensions by Bowers and Seashore. Eden referred to this phenomenon as the Pygmalion leadership style (PLS). PLS includes consistently promoting, supporting, and reinforcing expectations, which leads to the subordinates adopting, accepting, or internalizing those expectations. Notably, those instructors needed to be made aware of their different manner of treating the trainees, supporting Rosenthal's claim that how instructors treat high-expectations people are not consciously intended or deliberate.

Mediator - The Galatea effect
The second mediator of the Pygmalion effect is the direct result of PLS, labeled by Eden and Ravid as the Galatea effect, which is the effect of directly manipulating trainees' self-expectations of themselves. The PLS leadership behaviors have the chance to raise trainees' expectations of their performance. In the IDF training program study, Eden and Ravid observed that raising instructors' expectations for particular trainees led to both greater performance (the Pygmalion effect) and increased self-expectations for those trainees. The research also demonstrated that improving these trainees' performance levels may be accomplished by directly raising their expectations by telling them—rather than their instructors—that they had high potential.

Criticism of the Pygmalion effect

The educational psychologist Robert L. Thorndike described the poor quality of the Pygmalion study. The problem with the study was that the instrument used to assess the children's IQ scores was seriously flawed. The average reasoning IQ score for the children in one regular class was in the mentally disabled range, a highly unlikely outcome in a regular class in a garden variety school. In the end, Thorndike concluded that the Pygmalion findings were worthless. It is more likely that the rise in IQ scores from the mentally disabled range was the result of regression toward the mean, not teacher expectations. Moreover, a meta-analysis conducted by Raudenbush showed that when teachers had gotten to know their students for two weeks, the effect of a prior expectancy induction was reduced to virtually zero.

Students' views of teachers
Teachers are also affected by the children in the classroom. Teachers reflect what is projected into them by their students. An experiment done by Jenkins and Deno (1969) submitted teachers to a classroom of children who had either been told to be attentive, or unattentive, to the teachers' lecture. They found that teachers who were in the attentive condition would rate their teaching skills as higher. Similar findings by Herrell (1971) suggested that when a teacher was preconditioned to classrooms as warm or cold, the teacher would start to gravitate towards their precondition. To further this concept, Klein (1971) did the same kind of study involving teachers still unaware of any precondition to the classroom but with the class full of confederates who were instructed to act differently during periods over the course of the lecture. "Klein reported that there was little difference between students' behaviors in the natural and the positive conditions." In a more observational study designed to remove the likes of the Hawthorne effect, Oppenlander (1969) studied the top and bottom 20% of students in the sixth grade from a school that tracks and organizes its students under such criteria.

Application in the workplace
The behavior a leader directs at an employee can affect employee behavior consistent with the leader's expectations. Leader expectations of an employee may alter leader behavior. For example, a leader may expect an employee to be engaged in learning activities and in turn, the employee may engage in more learning, consistent with the idea self-fulfilling prophesy. Leaders have power over employees (including the power to fire an employee) and, thus, behavior change in employees may be the result of that power differential.

Application in military settings
The Pygmalion effect is further confirmed in military settings after its application in the workplace. Eden and Shani used instructors and trainees from Israeli Defense Force (IDF) training programs in 1982 to experiment with a military setting to verify the Pygmalion effect. They randomly chose a group of trainees and told the instructors that they had exceptional leadership potential. In turn, this group outperformed the control groups on four objective tests. This study was noteworthy since it used adult Israeli soldiers as a sample rather than the previous sample of the American child, inferring that the Pygmalion effect could be applied to different contexts rather than only the original classroom setting where it was originally noticed and replicated, confirming its generalisability.

Application in nursing
The Pygmalion effect has been noted in several non-educational contexts. For instance, in a nursing home, nurses were told that some patients would progress more quickly in their rehabilitation than others. These patients demonstrated lower levels of depression and required hospitalization less frequently than those with average expectations.

The Pygmalion effect has also been discussed in relation to treating alcohol dependence since it was discovered that therapists who characterized their clients as "motivated" had a lower dropout rate than those who labeled them as "unmotivated".

Gender limitations
One significant constraint of the practical application of Pygmalion research is the unresolved issue of whether the Pygmalion effect operates uniformly across genders. Notably, studies conclude a lack of the Pygmalion effect for women. This suggests that, unlike their male colleagues, the higher standards for female leaders could only sometimes result in increased subordinate performance.

Female subordinates have been utilized in many studies, which in turn failed to demonstrate a significant correlation between the Pygmalion effect. For instance, King's unpublished research in 1970 provided two examples of failed Pygmalion effect attempts that both primarily involved female subordinates. The Pygmalion effect was undetectable in Sutton and Woodman's research of female principal attendants in the retail industry.

Ethical limitations
The traditional Pygmalion practice entails deception, which may be considered unethical in actual organizational contexts. According to some researchers, it shouldn't be made a default practice in these real-life circumstances. Managers have to be deceived by their boss or staff personnel during the implementation of this manipulation. If the deception were revealed and revealed publicly, it could lead to a significant deterioration of trust within the workplace.

See also
 Golem effect
Law of attraction (New Thought)
 List of eponymous laws
 Matthew effect
 Placebo effect
 Positive feedback
 Sports psychology
 Stereotype threat

References

Further reading

External links
 Pygmalion effect in banks, at school, and in the army
 Pygmalion Effect Video

Cognitive biases

Pygmalion effect


بلدية سانت كيرزي ديل باليس (بالكاتالانية: Sant Quirze del Vallès) هي إحدى بلديات مقاطعة برشلونة، والتي تقع في منطقة كاتالونيا، شرق إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 17.819 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2007).

مراجع

بلديات في مقاطعة برشلونة
بلديات في فالس أوكيدنتل

سان كويريكو ديل فاليس


Die Estnische Badmintonmeisterschaft 1985 fand im April 1985 in Tartu statt. Es war die 21. Austragung der Titelkämpfe.

Medaillengewinner

Weblinks
Statistiken zum estnischen Badminton

1985
Badminton 1985
Badmintonwettbewerb in Tartu

Estnische Badmintonmeisterschaft 1985


A retirada das tropas americanas no Iraque foi a saída gradativa das Forças Armadas dos Estados Unidos no Iraque, desde 20 de março de 2020 a 9 de dezembro de 2021. Em dezembro de 2019, o Iraque e Estados Unidos começaram a discutir a retirada parcial das tropas. Em janeiro de 2020, durante protestos massivos e após uma escalada de tensões entre os Estados Unidos e Irã, o Conselho de Representantes do Iraque aprovou uma medida não vinculativa para "expulsar todas as tropas estrangeiras de seu país", incluindo tropas americanas e iranianas. Após a votação, o até então presidente americano, Donald Trump, começou a retirar as tropas em março, apesar da relutância inicial.

Em março de 2020, a coalizão liderada pelos americanos, Força-Tarefa Conjunta Combinada — Operação Resolução Inerente (CJTF–OIR), começou a transferir o controle de uma série de instalações militares de volta para as forças de segurança iraquianas, citando os desdobramentos da missão multianual contra os islâmicos do Estado Islâmico do Iraque e do Levante (EIIL). Em 4 de abril de 2020, quatro bases foram transferidas. As transferências de base e retirada foram aceleradas devido à pandemia de COVID-19 no Iraque e à ameaça de representantes iranianos.

Em fevereiro de 2021, a Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte (OTAN) anunciou que iria expandir sua missão para treinar as forças iraquianas em sua luta contra a insurgência do Estado Islâmico no Iraque, revertendo parcialmente a retirada das tropas lideradas pelos EUA. Em abril de 2021, o Comando Central Americano declarou que não haviam planos para uma retirada total de suas forças do Iraque, citando ameaças contínuas representadas pela insurgência do Estado Islâmico e milícias apoiadas pelo Irã.

Em julho de 2021, Joe Biden anunciou que encerraria a missão de combate americano no Iraque até o final de 2021, com as tropas restantes servindo como assessoria e assistência. A missão de combate dos Estados Unidos foi formalmente concluída em 9 de dezembro.

Antecedentes

Os Estados Unidos completaram sua retirada anterior de tropas em dezembro de 2011, concluindo a Guerra do Iraque. Em junho de 2014, os Estados Unidos formaram a Força-Tarefa Conjunta Combinada — Operação Resolução Inerente (CJTF-OIR) e re-interveio a pedido do governo iraquiano devido à ascensão do Estado Islâmico do Iraque e do Levante (EIIL). O Irã também interveio no Iraque em junho de 2014. Em 9 de dezembro de 2017, o Iraque declarou vitória contra o EIIL, concluindo a guerra no Iraque em 2017 e iniciando a mais recente insurgência do EIIL no Iraque.

Em maio de 2019, quatro navios mercantes foram atacados por minas de lapas no Golfo de Omã. As tensões aumentaram entre os Estados Unidos e o Irã, depois que os Estados Unidos culparam a Exército dos Guardiães da Revolução Islâmica pelo incidente. Em junho de 2019, ocorreu um incidente quase idêntico envolvendo dois navios mercantes. Em dezembro de 2019, os Estados Unidos começaram a confrontar com o Iraque os planos de retirada de certas bases. Nesse mesmo mês, a Base Aérea K-1 foi atacada, resultando em uma morte americana e seis feridos. Os Estados Unidos alegaram que a Brigada Hezbollah, um grupo de representação iraniano, foi o responsável pelo ataque. Os Estados Unidos responderam realizando ataques aéreos no Iraque e na Síria contra locais da Brigada Hezbollah.

De 31 de dezembro de 2019 a 1 de janeiro de 2020, a Embaixada dos Estados Unidos em Bagdá foi atacada em resposta aos ataques aéreos. Em 3 de janeiro de 2020, os Estados Unidos realizaram um ataque aéreo que matou o general iraniano Qasem Soleimani e o comandante da Brigada Hezbollah, Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis. O Iraque protestou que o ataque aéreo violou sua soberania.

Retirada

Voto iraquiano para retirada de tropas estrangeiras
Em 5 de janeiro de 2020, o Conselho de Representantes do Iraque votou para obrigar o governo do Iraque a "trabalhar para acabar com a presença de todas as tropas estrangeiras em solo iraquiano." Não ficou claro se a resolução era vinculativa e nenhum cronograma para a retirada foi estabelecido. Qais Khazali, líder do grupo iraniano Asa'ib Ahl al-Haq, declarou: "Se [as tropas americanas] não saírem, serão consideradas forças de ocupação." O presidente Trump ameaçou impor sanções ao Iraque em resposta à votação. De acordo com uma carta enviada por um alto comandante dos Estados Unidos a oficiais iraquianos em 6 de janeiro de 2020, "os Estados Unidos poderiam estar se preparando para retirar suas tropas", mas depois o general do Exército Americano, Mark Milley, anunciou que era um rascunho enviado por "sério erro".

Em 8 de janeiro de 2020, o Irã lançou a Operação Mártir Soleimani, realizando ataques com mísseis contra as tropas americanas estacionadas no Iraque.  110 militares americanos sofreram lesões cerebrais traumáticas. Os Estados Unidos responderam insistindo que suas tropas permaneceriam no Iraque.  Falando sobre a retirada, Trump afirmou: "Em algum momento, queremos sair. Mas este não é o ponto certo." Dois dias depois, Abdul-Mahdi reiterou que todas as tropas estrangeiras devem se retirar do Iraque, incluindo o Irã. Em 24 de janeiro de 2020, manifestantes iraquianos marcharam para exigir que os americanos retirassem suas tropas. Devido a questões de segurança, alguns países da Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte (OTAN), incluindo Canadá, Alemanha, Croácia e Eslováquia, disseram que estavam concluindo suas missões de treinamento e retirando tropas do Iraque, pelo menos naquele momento.

Transferências de base e pandemia de COVID-19

Em 11 e 14 de março de 2020, Camp Taji foi atacado, supostamente pelo Kata'ib Hezbollah, matando três membros da coalizão. Em resposta, os Estados Unidos respondeu ao primeiro ataque mirando cinco instalações de armazenamento de armas com ataques aéreos. Em 19 de março de 2020, a base de al-Qaim perto da fronteira Iraque-Síria foi transferida da coalizão para as forças de segurança iraquianas. O general iraquiano Tahsin Khafaji declarou: "Este é o primeiro passo para a retirada das tropas americanas do Iraque." Em 20 de março de 2020, a CJTF-OIR confirmou que certas tropas se retirariam do Iraque devido à pandemia de COVID-19. No mesmo dia, o Comando Central dos Estados Unidos (USCENTCOM) ordenou um "movimento de interrupção" de 14 dias, impedindo qualquer tropa americana de entrar ou sair do Iraque e do Afeganistão por causa da pandemia.

O Exército americano deixou a base de Qayyarah em 26 de março. A base Aérea K-1, a ser transferida pelos Estados Unidos, ficava perto de Kirkuk. Em 4 de abril de 2020, a coalizão transferiu a base aérea de Al-Taqaddum, tornando-a a quarta base a ser transferida para as forças iraquianas. O Estado Islâmico planejou tirar vantagem do vácuo no deserto da Síria causado pela retirada acelerada do coronavírus das tropas dos Estados Unidos. Em um comunicado à imprensa de abril de 2020, a CJTF-OIR reiterou que as transferências de base foram pré-planejadas e "não estão relacionadas a ataques recentes contra bases iraquianas que hospedam tropas da coalizão, ou a situação contínua do COVID-19 no Iraque." um relatório do inspetor geral divulgado em maio de 2020 admitiu que, embora as transferências de base tenham sido planejadas com antecedência, elas foram aceleradas devido à ameaça de proxies iranianos e à pandemia.

"Diálogo estratégico" entre Estados Unidos e Iraque
Em junho de 2020, o governo iraquiano ainda não havia agido sobre a resolução parlamentar de janeiro para pedir a saída de tropas estrangeiras, e os militares iraquianos estariam relutantes em deixar as forças americana completamente. Em 1 de junho, a Espanha anunciou suas intenções de se retirar de sua base primária no Iraque até o final de julho. Os Estados Unidos e o Iraque programaram novas negociações sobre cooperação militar, política e econômica para junho. O diálogo de segurança entre os dois países ocorreu pela última vez em 2018. Em 9 de junho de 2020, antes do início do diálogo, um ataque com foguete contra tropas dos EUA no Aeroporto Internacional de Bagdá terminou sem feridos. As negociações Iraque-EUA começaram em 11 de junho e devem ser conduzidas virtualmente e devem continuar por meses. As negociações começaram em meio a tensões contínuas com o Irã e um ressurgimento dos ataques do EIIL. De acordo com o The New York Times, a insurgência do grupo terrorista começou a se intensificar em meados de 2020, parcialmente devido às forças de segurança iraquianas desviarem recursos para impor toques de recolher e bloqueios devido à pandemia de COVID-19.

A coalizão anti-terrorista transferiu o controle do campo de Besmaya para as forças iraquianas em 25 de julho de 2020. A base foi amplamente usada pelas forças espanholas para treinar tropas iraquianas e foi a sétima instalação militar entregue ao governo iraquiano em 2020. Em 23 de agosto, as tropas americanas se retiraram da Base Taji e a entregaram às forças de segurança iraquianas. Em 28 de agosto, um oficial dos Estados Unidos disse que eles mesmos deveriam reduzir as tropas de 5,2 mil para 3,5. Em 9 de setembro, os militares americanos disseram que reduziriam suas tropas no Iraque para 3 mil.

Ver também
Retirada das tropas americanas no Afeganistão (2020–2021)
Retirada das tropas dos Estados Unidos do Iraque (2007–2011)

Operações militares envolvendo os Estados Unidos
2020 no Iraque
2021 no Iraque
2020 nos Estados Unidos
2021 nos Estados Unidos

Retirada das tropas americanas no Iraque (2020–2021)


Anne Rheinheimer (* 26. Februar 1993 in Kaiserslautern) ist eine deutsche Fußballspielerin.

Karriere
Rheinheimer wechselte Anfang 2010 vom Regionalligisten SC Siegelbach zum Bundesligisten 1. FFC Frankfurt. Am 5. April 2010 gelang ihr in einem Spiel gegen den ASV Hagsfeld ihr erstes Tor für Frankfurts zweite Mannschaft. Ihr Profi-Debüt für den FFC hatte Rheinheimer am 6. März 2011 im Spiel gegen den Hamburger SV, als sie kurz vor Ende der Partie für Meike Weber eingewechselt wurde. In der Saison 2011/12 stand sie nicht mehr im Kader der ersten Frankfurter Mannschaft. Nach zweieinhalb Jahren beim FFC wechselte Rheinheimer im Sommer 2012 zum Zweitligisten TSG 1899 Hoffenheim und unterschrieb dort einen Vertrag bis zum 30. Juni 2014. Nach Ablauf des Vertrages verließ sie Hoffenheim.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Fußballspieler (1. FFC Frankfurt)
Fußballspieler (TSG 1899 Hoffenheim)
Sportler (Kaiserslautern)
Sport (Landkreis Kaiserslautern)
Deutscher
Geboren 1993
Frau

Anne Rheinheimer


Anđelko Marušić, hrvatski nogometaš, igrao za splitski Hajduk
 Anđelko Marušić (nogometaš iz Širokog Brijega), hrvatski nogometaš iz BiH, igrao za Široki Brijeg

Anđelko Marušić (razdvojba)


Chaquan () is a Chinese martial art that features graceful movements and some acrobatic aerial maneuvers and includes a large range of weapons. Chaquan falls under the classification Changquan, a type of Northern Chinese martial arts known for their extended, long movements.

The style is associated with the Hui people and related to the Turkic people from Central Asia. In the legend, a Turkic warrior named "Zha Mi-Er" (maybe Sameer [name of Arabic origin] or Dämir [meaning "iron" in Turkic]); ) from current Xinjiang or Central Asia passed down this martial art to the Chinese locals in the current Xandong province during the late Ming dynasty. One famous master of Chaquan was Wang Ziping, who was known for his great strength. Other modern day masters include Zhang Wenguang, Ma Jinbiao, and Liu Hongchi.

Chaquan is one of the sources of the contemporary Wushu Changquan, which is often seen in movies and tournaments.

Chaquan is a system that has six main weapons (staff, saber, sword, spear, kwandao, hookswords). It emphasizes long range movements and stances combined with speed and power. The style includes many forms, including 10 lines of tantui for basic power training, 10 longer sets of Chaquan, and other forms as well.

Notes

References

Further reading
 Wu Bin, Li Xingdong e Yu Gongbao, Essentials of Chinese Wushu, Foreign languages press, Beijing, 1992,
 Carmona José, De Shaolin à Wudang, les arts martiaux chinois, Gui Trenadiel editeur.

External links
Kung fu Montreal, traditional Chinese martial arts - Northern Shaolin / Chaquan

Chinese martial arts
Chinese swordsmanship

Chaquan


Günther Schmidt ist der Name folgender Personen:

* Günther Schmidt (Dirigent) (1903–1954), deutscher Musiker, Dirigent und Orchestergründer
 Günther Schmidt (Entomologe) (1909–1997), deutscher Entomologe
 Günther Schmidt (Physiker) (1921–2017), deutscher Physiker
 Günther Schmidt (Fußballspieler) (1924–2013), deutscher Fußballspieler
 Günther Schmidt (General) (1925–2017), Generalmajor der NVA
 Günther Schmidt (Ornithologe) (1928–1992), deutscher Lehrer und Ornithologe
 Günther Schmidt (Ingenieur) (* 1935), deutscher Ingenieur
 Günther Schmidt-Bohländer (1915–nach 1970), deutscher Chorleiter und Dirigent
 Günther Schmidt-Hern (1914–nach 1952), deutscher Architekt
 Günther Schmidt-Jescher (1909–1959), deutscher Kapellmeister und Musikdirektor
 Günther Schmidt-Räntsch (1921–1996), deutscher Jurist und Ministerialdirektor
 Günther J. Schmidt (1918–2009), deutscher Unternehmer

Siehe auch:
 Günter Schmidt
 Gunther Schmidt
 Gunter Schmidt

Günther Schmidt


La bataille de Hodów est une bataille entre le royaume de Pologne et les forces du khanat de Crimée, qui s'est déroulée en juin 1694 dans la voïvodie ruthène, près du village de Hodów (situé dans l'oblast de Ternopil de l'actuelle Ukraine).

Prélude
En juin 1694, les forces musulmanes tatares attaquèrent le territoire polonais avec l'intention de piller la campagne et de capturer des prisonniers afin d'obtenir des rançons. Les forces polonaises envoyées pour les arrêter se composaient de sept unités chorągwie de hussards et de pancerni, totalisant environ  au total. L'historien Mirosław Nagielski estimant leur nombre à environ 100 hussards et 300 pancerni. Le nombre de Tatars fût estimé entre  et ,  étant le chiffre le plus souvent retenu. Jean III Sobieski, alors roi de Pologne, évoque également le chiffre de .

Bataille
La première rencontre a lieu dans les champs près de Hodów. La cavalerie polonaise de  charge alors l'avant-garde tatare de  et les fait se retirer. Sous le poids écrasant du nombre d'ennemis, les forces polonaises se retirent alors et se barricadent à Hodòw, en utilisant de lourdes clôtures en bois laissées là par les invasions tatares antérieures.  durant, les troupes polonaises résistèrent aux attaques incessantes des Tatars. Bien qu'à court de munitions, les polonais ont continué à tirer sur l'ennemi en utilisant des pointes de flèches tatares comme munitions improvisées.

Incapables de vaincre les Polonais, les Tatars envoyèrent des Tatars baltiques parlant polonais afin de convaincre les troupes polonaises de se rendre. Lorsque le commandant polonais répondit « Venez nous chercher si vous le pouvez », les Tatars se retirèrent à Kamieniec Podolski et cessèrent entièrement leurs pillages, n'ayant presque rien gagné malgré un très large avantage numérique et d'importantes pertes de troupes.

Conséquences
Le roi Jean III Sobieski profita de cette victoire exceptionnelle pour remonter le moral de l'armée et versa de généreuses compensations à ceux qui perdirent leurs chevaux, finança le traitement des blessés et récompensa ceux qui capturèrent des soldats ennemis.

Notes et références

Bataille impliquant la Pologne

Bataille de Hodów


Samo par godina za nas peti je studijski album srpskog rock sastava Ekatarina Velika, objavljen 1989. Ovo je zadnji album na kojem je Bojan Pečar bio dio sastava kao basist. Producent albuma bili su Mitar "Suba" Subotić, Theodore Yanni i Ekatarina Velika, sa Subom i Yanniem kao gostima na albumu. Drugi gost na albumu bila je
Tanja Jovićević (glavni vokal sastava Oktobar 1864), kao prateći vokal.

U studenom 2006., pjesma "Par godina za nas" izabrana je za najbolju pjesmu na B92 ljestvici 100 najboljih domaćih pjesama, slušatelja radia B92 u Srbiji.

Popis pjesama

Zasluge

Milan Mladenović - vokali, gitara
Margita Stefanović - klavir, keyboard
Bojan Pečar - bas gitara
Žika Todorović - bubnjevi

Izvori

Albumi sastava Ekatarina Velika

Samo par godina za nas


පූජ්‍ය වල්පොල ගෝතම ස්වාමීන් වහන්සේ බවුන් පැලැස්ස නිර්මාතෘන් වහන්සේ යි. ත්‍රිපිටක ධර්මය ට පටහැනි නොවන පරිද්දෙන් පිරිසිදු සද්ධර්මය දේශනා කරන අතර මාධ්‍ය ඔස්සේ ලෝ පුරා ධර්මය ප්‍රචාරය කරනු ලබයි.
පුරා වසර දහයකට අධික කාලයක් මුළුල්ලේ නෙත් fm නාලිකාවේ සෙනසුරාදා සිත්නෙත් අසපුව ධර්ම දේශනාව හා ධර්ම සාකච්ඡාව මෙහෙයවනු ලබයි.
බුදු දහම
Monk
Buddhist monk

පුජ්‍ය වල්පොල ගෝතම හිමි


Danielle Leigh Curiel, née le , connue professionnellement sous le nom de DaniLeigh, est une chanteuse, compositrice, rappeuse, danseuse et chorégraphe américaine.

Initialement danseuse intermittente, DaniLeigh commence sa carrière en publiant des reprises de chansons populaires sur YouTube, avant de déménager à Los Angeles, où elle danse et conçoit des chorégraphies pour d'autres artistes. Elle collabore Prince, sur le clip de son single Breakfast Can Wait.

En , DaniLeigh signe chez Def Jam Recordings.

Biographie
Danielle Leigh Curiel naît le , à Miami, en Floride. Ses parents sont originaires de la République Dominicaine.

Elle danse dès l'âge de douze ans et chante dès quatorze ans. Elle se sent trop timide pour chanter devant les autres jusqu'au moment où elle reçoit des commentaires positifs. Elle publie sur You Tube des reprises vocales de chansons, telles que So Beautiful, de Musiq Soulchild et forme, avec sa sœur Amanda, elle le duo pop Curly Fryz.

Musique
DaniLeigh déménage à Los Angeles, où elle danse pour des artistes tels que Pharrell Williams et Nelly Furtado. Alors qu'elle n'est âgée que de dix-huit ans, elle est sollicitée par Prince pour participer au clip de son single Breakfast Can Wait, qui est un succès. Prince encadre ensuite DaniLeigh jusqu'à sa mort en .

En , elle sort son premier single D.O.S.E., mais ce n'est qu'en  qu'elle connait le succès avec son single Play, chanson d'autonomisation destinée aux femmes et aux Latinos, qui met en vedette le rappeur américano-mexicain Kap G. Elle signe avec Def Jam Recordings et sort, également en , son premier EP, Summer with Friends, suivi de The Plan, en , morceau sur lequel collaborent les rappeurs YG, Lil Yachty, Lil Baby et YBN Nahmir. Elle publie ensuite d'autres singles, tels que Lil Bebe, remixé avec la voix de Lil Baby, et Easy, avec celle de Chris Brown.

En , elle joue dans le clip Hot Girl Summer, de Megan Thee Stallion, avec Ty Dolla Sign et Nicki Minaj. La même année, elle réalise la chorégraphie du clip BOP on Broadway, de DaBaby.

En , DaniLeigh présente des excuses après avoir publié sur les réseaux sociaux l'extrait d'une chanson intitulée Yellow Bone, critiquée pour sa promotion du colorisme.

Sources d'inspiration et style musical
DaniLeigh cite Missy Elliott, Aaliyah, Drake et Rihanna comme sources d'inspiration. Sa musique est principalement de style R&B ; elle y incorpore des éléments de hip hop et de musique sud-américaine.

Vie privée
DaniLeigh a une fille dont le père est le rappeur DaBaby.

Discographie

EPs
  : Summer With Friends

LPs
  : Summer With Friends
  : The Plan
  : My Present
  : MOVIE
  : In My Feelings

Singles
  : D.O.S.E.
  : In My Feelings ( Kap G)
  : Lil Bebe ( Lil Baby) (RIAA : Platine)
  : Blue Chips
  : Life
  : No Limits
  : Easy Remix ( Chris Brown) (RIAA : 3 x Platine)
  : Cravin ( G-Eazy)
  : Levi Hight ( DaBaby)
  : Dominican Mami ( Fivio Foreign)

Liens externes

Notes et références

Rappeuse américaine
Chanteuse américaine de pop
Chanteur américain de RnB
Chorégraphe américain
Chanteuse américaine du XXIe siècle
Artiste afro-américaine
Artiste de Def Jam Recordings
Nom de scène
Chanteuse afro-américaine
Compositrice américaine
Danseuse américaine du XXIe siècle
Naissance à Miami
Naissance en décembre 1994

DaniLeigh


Tartrat-ionen er navnet på den negative ion, som dannes ved fraspaltning af to protoner fra 2,3 dihydroxybutandisyre (vinsyre).

Tartrat-ionen har molekylformlen C4H4O6^2-

Ioner

Tartrat


Ulotrichales, red zelenih algi u razredu Ulvophyceae. Postoji preko 200 vrsta u desetak porodica.

Porodice

 Binucleariaceae Škaloud & Leliaert
 Collinsiellaceae Chihara
 Gayraliaceae K.L.Vinogradova
 Gloeotilaceae Ettl & Gärtner
 Gomontiaceae De Toni
 Hazeniaceae Škaloud & Leliaert
 Helicodictyaceae Whitford & G.J.Schumacher
 Kraftionemaceae Wetherbee & Verbruggen
 Monostromataceae Kunieda
 Planophilaceae Škaloud & Leliaert
 Sarcinofilaceae Škaloud & Leliaert
 Tupiellaceae Škaloud & Leliaert
 Ulotrichaceae Kützing
 Ulotrichales familia incertae sedis

Izvori

Ulvophyceae

Ulotrichales


Direktør Ivar Knudsen paa Prøvesejlads med et Dieselskib er en dansk stumfilm fra 1913 med med ukendt instruktør.

Handling
Burmeister & Wains direktør Ivar Knudsen ses på dækket ombord på dieselmotorskibet "Siam" sammen med en del andre høje herrer såsom ØKs direktør H.N. Andersen og B&W-direktør Martin Dessau. Også Anker Kirkegaard ses på dækket. Ivar Knudsen ses også i maskinrummet.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 1913
Dokumentariske optagelser
Stumfilm fra Danmark


NGC 82 este o stea situată în constelația Andromeda. A fost descoperită în 23 octombrie 1884 de către Guillaume Bigourdan.

Note

Vezi și
 NGC 81
 NGC 83

Stele
Obiecte NGC
Constelația Andromeda
Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1884
Obiecte astronomice descoperite de Guillaume Bigourdan

NGC 82


"To A Louse, On Seeing One on a Lady's Bonnet at Church" is a 1786 Scots language poem by Robert Burns  in his favourite meter, standard Habbie. The poem's theme is contained in the final verse:

In this poem the narrator notices a lady in church, with a louse that is roving, unnoticed by her, around in her bonnet. The poet chastises the louse for not realising how important his host is, and then reflects that, to a louse, humans are all equal prey, and that they would be disabused of their pretensions if they were to see themselves through each other's eyes.  An alternative interpretation is that the poet is musing to himself how horrified and humbled the pious woman would be if she were aware she was harbouring a common parasite in her hair.

See also
 To a Mouse

References

1786 poems
Poetry by Robert Burns
1786 in Scotland
Scots-language works

To a Louse


Indicele de iod reprezintă masa de iod exprimată în grame care este consumată de către 100 de grame dintr-o anumită substanță chimică. Indicele de iod este cel mai adesea folosit pentru determinarea cantității unor acizi grași nesaturați. Gradul de nesaturare al acestor compuși provine de la legăturile duble dintre atomii de carbon conținute în moleculă, iar acestea sunt cele care reacționează cu iodul. Cu cât este mai marea valoarea indicelui de iod, cu atât un compus conține mai multe legături C=C.

Determinare
Determinarea indicelui de iod este un exemplu particular de analiză iodometrică. Soluția de iod are o culoare brun-gălbuie, iar prin adăugarea acesteia la soluția probei de determinat se observă decolorarea. Dispariția culorii specifice soluției de iod este datorată unei reacții de adiție a halogenului la dublele legături C=C din moleculele compusului. Astfel, se determină cantitatea de iod care a reacționat.

Reacția chimică asociată acestei metode de analiză include formarea unui diiodoalcan vicinal (R și R' reprezintă grupe alchil sau alte grupe organice):

Alchena precursor (R-CH=CH-R') este incoloră, și la fel este și produsul organoiodurat (RCHI-CHIR').

Procedura tipică include tratarea acidului gras cu un exces de soluție Hanuš sau soluție Wijs, care sunt soluții de monobromură de iod (IBr) și respectiv monoclorură de iod (ICl) în acid acetic glacial. Monohalogenura de iod nereacționată este tratată cu iodură de potasiu, iar în urma reacției se obține iod elemental, a cărui concentrație se poate determina prin titrare cu tiosulfat de sodiu.

Vezi și
 Aciditate
 Indice de saponificare
 Iodometrie

Referințe

Chimie analitică
Iod

Indice de iod


Fica Entre Nós é uma minissérie brasileira produzida pela Gusta Film e distribuída através do Instagram de criadores de conteúdo que estão no elenco. A série tem roteiro de Rob Gordon e direção de Rodrigo Fernandes. A primeiro temporada foi lançada em 18 de abril de 2023 com episódios diários.

Enredo
Duda nunca perdeu a esperança de reencontrar seu namorado, Gab, que desapareceu sem deixar vestígios, e tenta seguir a vida ao lado dos amigos Cissa e Bruno. Mas tudo muda quando os três encontram o corpo de Gab numa floresta. O choque de Duda se torna ainda maior quando Gab aparece para ela. O rapaz sabe que está morto, mas não se lembra como isso aconteceu. Ele pede ajuda a Duda para descobrir quem está por trás do crime. A partir daí, dá-lhe suspense, com a possibilidade de que o assassino esteja muito mais próximo do que eles imaginam.

Elenco
Gusta Stockler como Gabriel (Gab)
Thalita Meneguim como Eduarda (Duda)
Gabie Fernandes como Cissa
Diego Cruz como Bruno
Ernesto Thiago como Policial

Ligações externas

Programas de televisão em língua portuguesa
Séries de televisão de drama
Séries de televisão da década de 2020
Webséries
Webséries em língua portuguesa

Fica Entre Nós


Changxi () var en månegudinde i kinesisk mytologi, tilbedt af forskellige folkeslag i Kina og andre asiatiske lande , hvor hun havde 12 måneskiver som døtre, og dannede pendant til solgudinden Xihe med hendes 10 solbørn. Changxi var som Xihe også kone af himlens kejser Di Jun, guden af den østlige himmel.

Changxi med hendes døtre boede i Vest, mens Xihe med hendes 10 solbørn boede i Øst i sanglandet Fusang. Ligesom en af solskiverne ville vandre over himlen om dagen, ville en af de 12 månedøtre efter tur begive sig over himlen om natten. I løbet af natten ville måneskiven blive beskidt og dækket af støv, så Månemoderen ville bade månen efter afsluttet vandring i den samme flod, hvor Solmoderen også ville bade sine solbørn efter dagens vandring.

De tolv måner var symbol for de 12 lunare måneder i et kalenderår og var del af det asiatiske 12 års-system, kaldt De Jordiske Grene. De 10 solskiver var så ugesystemet med 10 dage, kaldt for De Himmelske Stammer. De Jordiske Grenes 12 måneder sat sammen med De Himmelske Stammer 10-dagesugen er det lunisolare kinesiske kalendersystem, brugt den dag i dag i Kina og andre asiatiske lande. De asiatiske 12 måneder som "Jordiske Grene" er symboliseret af de 12 astrologiske dyr, som i Vesten er blevet berømt som den kinesiske dyrekreds, mens 10-dagesugen ikke er så kendt. I Kina troede man, at både solgudinden Xihe og Changxi havde opfundet sol-månekalenderen for at holde styr på, hvilke af deres talrige børn, der skulle frem den dag eller nat.

Da de to gudinder optræder som par af modsætninger,og hersker over den kinesiske sol-månekalender, var Xihe og Changxi også blevet opfattet som ypperste symboler for Yin og yang. Hermed var Xihe yang som solgudinde og Changxi yin som månegudinde, når yin-yang konceptet blev udviklet med fremgang af taoisme i Kina.

Changxi nævnes tidligst i krøniken Klassikeren om Bjerge og Havets Vande, Shan-hai Ching. Der står følgende i en sætning om hende: "Kejseren Jun giftede sig med Changxi, som fødte tolv Måner."

Changxi med de 12 månedøtre kan ofte forveksles med Chang'e, som også var månegudinde tilbedt af andre kinesiske folkeslag og havde andre myter tilknyttet.  Changxi var "en vigtig tidlig månegudinde", men hendes betydning og stillingen blandt andre kinesiske guddomme gradvis forsvandt og hun var til sidst "nedgraderet til laverestående position". Derefter steg den anden månegudinde Chang'e i betydning, og derfor forveksles med Changxi. Forskeren Sharron Gu foreslog, at forvekslingen kan også skyldes de næsten enslydende navne, som udtales næsten ens og hører til i samme sprogfamilie. Derudover kunne både Changxi og Chang'e begge have haft oprindelse i samme, ældre og ukendt månegudinde.

På planeten Venus er der flere store, aflange, dybe kratere (chasma), opkaldt af astronomerne efter forskellige gudinder fra alverdens mytologier, og her blev chasma Changxi på 220 km i diameter opkaldt efter månegudinden i 1997 (geografisk ligger den på Venus 59.0S breddegrad og 17.0E længdegrad).

Kildehenvisninger

Litteratur

Eksterne henvisninger

 Kinesiske myter (på engelsk)

Måneguder
Kinas historie
Mytologi

Changxi


Bartolomé Pitiscus (o Bartolomeo, 1561-1613) fue un matemático, astrónomo y teólogo alemán.

Semblanza
Bartolomé Pitiscus acuñó el término trigonometría en su obra Trigonometria: sive de solutione triangulorum tractatus brevis et perspicuus (1595, primera edición publicada en Heidelberg). Esta consiste en cinco libros de trigonometría plana y esférica. Algunas veces se afirma que Pitiscus es el inventor del punto o separador decimal, el símbolo que separa enteros de fracciones decimales, que aparece en sus tablas trigonométricas y que fue aceptado después por John Napier en sus trabajos logarítmicos.

Pitiscus editó Thesaurus mathematicus (1613), obra en la que mejoró las tablas trigonométricas de Georg Joachim Rheticus y también le corrigió Magnus Canon doctrinæ triangulorum.

El escritor Samuel Pitiscus (1637-1727) fue su sobrino.

Eponimia
 El cráter lunar Pitiscus lleva este nombre en su memoria.

Referencias

 S. Gottwald, H.-J. Ilgauds, K.-H. Schlote (Hrsg.): Lexikon bedeutender Mathematiker. Verlag Harri Thun, Frankfurt a. M. 1990 ISBN 3-8171-1164-9

Enlaces externos
 Biography MacTutor History of Mathematics archive
 Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie  :de:s:ADB:Pitiscus, Bartholomaeus

Nacidos en Zielona Góra
Fallecidos en Heidelberg
Teólogos protestantes
Teólogos de Alemania del siglo XVI
Matemáticos de Alemania del siglo XVI

Bartolomé Pitiscus


Angelo Carlos Pretti (født 10. august 1965) er en tidligere brasiliansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Yokohama Flügels.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Brasilien

Angelo Carlos Pretti


"Til Siælen. En Ode" (også skrevet "Til Sielen") er et dansk digt af Johannes Ewald udgivet i samlingen Samtlige skrifter i 1780.

Digtet er en ode, et hyldestdigt, der kan opdeles i tre: de første strofer med sjælen og dens eksistens i skyggen (sjælen sammenlignes blandt andet med en ørneunge), midten med sjælens ønske om frelse, og de sidste strofer med sjælens vej til frelse.

Digtet består af 29 strofer på hver fire urimede linjer.

"Til Siælen. En Ode" indgår i lyrikantologien af 12 digte i Kulturkanonen fra 2006.

Referencer

Digte fra Danmark
Litteratur i 1780
Kulturkanonen

Til Siælen


Jules Louis Dupré (5 de abril de 1811 - 6 de outubro de 1889) foi um pintor francês, um dos principais membros da escola Barbizon de pintores paisagistas. Se  Corot significa a letra e  Rousseau pelo aspecto épico da poesia da natureza, Dupré é o expoente de seus aspectos trágicos e dramáticos.

Nascidos em 1811
Mortos em 1889
Naturais de Nantes
Pintores da França

Jules Dupré


Hollywood Vampires er debutalbummet fra den amerikanske rock supergruppe Hollywood Vampires, der blev dannet i 2015 af Alice Cooper, Johnny Depp og Joe Perry for at ære rockmusikken fra 1970'erne. Albummet blev udgivet den 11. september 2015 på Republic Records, og har gæsteoptrædender fra bl.a. Paul McCartney, Robby Krieger, Orianthi, Dave Grohl, Slash, Brian Johnson, Joe Walsh, Perry Farrell og Zak Starkey.

Indhold
Albummet består primært af coverversioner af rocksange fra 70'erne, med undtagelse af to nye numre som er skrevet af Cooper og Depp med titlerne "My Dead Drunk Friends" og "Raise the Dead". Det inkluderer også en voice-over med titlen "The Last Vampire", der er indtalt af Christopher Lee (hvor han reciterer passager fra Dracula). Hollywood Vampires blev indspillet kort inden Lees død, og er således hans sidste optræden på et album.

Spor
 "The Last Vampire" – 1:35
 "Raise the Dead" – 3:31
 "My Generation" – 2:47
 "Whole Lotta Love" – 4:13
 "I Got a Line on You" – 2:48
 "Five to One / Break On Through (To the Other Side)" – 4:17
 "One / Jump into the Fire" – 5:07
 "Come and Get It" – 2:59
 "Jeepster" – 2:42
 "Cold Turkey" – 3:07
 "Manic Depression" – 2:43
 "Itchycoo Park" – 2:55
 "School's Out / Another Brick in the Wall pt. 2" – 5:14
 "My Dead Drunk Friends" – 4:30

Personel
Musikere

Alice Cooper – vokal, mundharmonika, baggrundsvokal
Justin Cortelyou – keyboard & sound design
Johnny Depp – guitar, baggrundsvokal, keyboard & sound design
Dennis Dunaway – bas
Bob Ezrin – piano, keyboard og lyddesign, baggrundsvokal
Perry Farrell – vokal, baggrundsvokal
Dave Grohl – trommer
Tommy Henriksen – guitar, strengeinstrumenters, keyboard, baggrundsvokal, programmering
Brian Johnson – vokal
Charlie Judge – farsifa
Robby Krieger – guitar
Abe Laboriel, Jr. – trommer, baggrundsvokal
Sir Christopher Lee – vokal
Sir Paul McCartney – vokal, klaver, bas
Orianthi – guitar
Joe Perry – guitar, baggrundsvokal
Slash – guitar
Neil Smith – trommer
Glen Sobel – trommer
Zak Starkey – trommer
Joe Walsh – guitar
Kip Winger – basguitar, baggrundsvokal
Bruce Witkin – guitar, basguitar, keyboard, klaver, baggrundsvokal

Hitlister

Referencer

Debutalbum fra 2015
Hardrock-album
Debutalbum fra USA

Hollywood Vampires (Hollywood Vampires-album)


Dragan Žarković (Sârbă chirilică: Дpaгaн Жapкoвић ; n. 16 aprilie 1988, Belgrad) este un fotbalist sârb, care evoluează pe postul de fundaș central, fiind, în prezent, liber de contract. De-a lungul carierei a evoluat la cluburi precum BSK Borča, ASA Târgu Mureș, Ermis Aradippou sau Nea Salamina.

Legături externe
 Dragan Žarković Profil pe utakmica.rs

Fotbaliști sârbi
Sportivi sârbi în viață
Fotbaliști ai ASA Târgu Mureș

Dragan Žarković


Bijeg, izvorna naslova Bieg, roman hrvatskog književnika Milutina Cihlara Nehajeva iz 1909. godine. Žanrovski, roman je psihološki, društveni i sadrži brojne autobiografske elemente. Iz podnaslova Povijest jednog našeg čovjeka otkriva da se po tipologiji romana Wolfganga Kaysera radi o romanu lika.

Ispočetka književna kritika nije shvaćala Nehajev Bieg te ga je različito vrednovala. Onovremeni najugledniji hrvatski književni kritičar Antun Gustav Matoš negativno se izrazio o Biegu, ocijenivši ga vrlo loše napisanim romanom, zamjerajući mu jezičnu i kompozicijsku nemarnost, a jedino se pozitivno izrazio o Nehajevu referirajući se na njegovu školsku spremu, da je mladi bečki kemičar "vrstan "kemičar duša" " tj. "pronicav psiholog". Glavno što spočitava romanu je bezvoljnost i pasivnost protagonista te sličnost tragedije s onom iz novijih književnih strujanja iz inozemnih stranih književnosti. Drugu stranu romana vidio je Ljubomir Maraković, koji je iznio tvrdnu da "čitava moderna nije u romanu, na polju pripovjedačkog rada opsežnije koncepcije, dala ništa što bi zaista bilo na visini superiorne umjetničke koncepcije ondašnjeg čovjeka i ondašnjeg vremena osim Nehajevljeva Bijega." Prevagnula su mišljenja slična Marakovićevim, te se Bijeg danas kvalificira kao najreprezentativnije djelo hrvatske moderne. Takva ocjena doista mu pripada, jer u Cihlarovu romanu dolazi do "značajnije defabularizacije romana te je naglasak stavljen na psihičke, osjetilne i autoanalitične radnje lika, koji nije ništa drugo do jedna varijanta oblomovskoga i turgenjevskog 'suvišnog čovjeka' ".

Većinu pripovijedaka Milutina Cihlara Nehajeva može se promatrati kao pripremu za Bieg. Središnji lik romana je Đuro Andrijašević, njegovo "stanje svijesti, vladanje, reakcije te položaj u društvu od djetinjstva pa sve do tragičnoga svršetka". Ostalim likovima zadaća je "što iscrpnija i slikovitija motivacija i karakterizacija samog Đure". Nehajev je težio stvoriti umjetnost koja će govoriti u ime vlastite epohe. Sprovodio je pišući u svojim djelima o darovitim, no emocionalno nestabilnim i društveno marginaliziranim intelektualcima, a u Biegu je tragična sudbina mladog i obrazovanog Đure Andrijaševića, koji ne pronalazi svoje mjesto u malograđanskoj, učmaloj sredini.

Iz usporedbe romana Bieg Milutina Cihlara Nehajeva i Isušena kaljuža njegova rođaka i prijatelja Janka Polića Kamova izvodi se zaključak da im je šira obiteljska atmosfera bila ista ili slična.

Kasnije dolazi do Cihlarovih pomaka. U romanu Vuci "nekako šalje odgovore sam sebi, polemizira sam sa sobom, u ime upravo matoševskog kulta energije, borbenosti, čvrstoće, u ime svega onoga što je bilo negirano u njegovim ranijim djelima, u romanu Bijeg i ostalim njegovim novelama.

Wikizvor
 Bieg / M. Nehajev, Društvo hrvatskih književnika, Zagreb, 1909. (2. izd., 1917.) (Bieg: povijest jednog našeg čovjeka)

Izvori

Hrvatski romani

Bijeg (roman Milutina Cihlara Nehajeva)


A perpetual calendar  is a calendar valid for many years, usually designed to look up the day of the week for a given date in the past or future.

For the Gregorian and Julian calendars, a perpetual calendar typically consists of one of three general variations:
 14 one-year calendars, plus a table to show which one-year calendar is to be used for any given year.  These one-year calendars divide evenly into two sets of seven calendars: seven for each common year (the year that does not have a February 29) with each of the seven starting on a different day of the week, and seven for each leap year, again with each one starting on a different day of the week, totaling fourteen. (See Dominical letter for one common naming scheme for the 14 calendars.)
 Seven (31-day) one-month calendars (or seven each of 28–31 day month lengths, for a total of 28) and one or more tables to show which calendar is used for any given month.  Some perpetual calendars' tables slide against each other so that aligning two scales with one another reveals the specific month calendar via a pointer or window mechanism. The seven calendars may be combined into one, either with 13 columns of which only seven are revealed, or with movable day-of-week names (as shown in the pocket perpetual calendar picture).
 A mixture of the above two variations - a one-year calendar in which the names of the months are fixed and the days of the week and dates are shown on movable pieces which can be swapped around as necessary.

Such a perpetual calendar fails to indicate the dates of moveable feasts such as Easter, which are calculated based on a combination of events in the Tropical year and lunar cycles. These issues are dealt with in great detail in computus.

An early example of a perpetual calendar for practical use is found in the Nürnberger Handschrift GNM 3227a. The calendar covers the period of 1390–1495 (on which grounds the manuscript is dated to c. 1389). For each year of this period, it lists the number of weeks between Christmas day and Quinquagesima. This is the first known instance of a tabular form of perpetual calendar allowing the calculation of the moveable feasts that became popular during the 15th century.

Other uses of the term "perpetual calendar"

Offices and retail establishments often display devices containing a set of elements to form all possible numbers from 1 through 31, as well as the names/abbreviations for the months and the days of the week, to show the current date for convenience of people who might be signing and dating documents such as checks.  Establishments that serve alcoholic beverages may use a variant that shows the current month and day but subtracting the legal age of alcohol consumption in years, indicating the latest legal birth date for alcohol purchases.  A common device consists of two cubes in a holder. One cube carries the digits zero to five. The other bears the digits 0, 1, 2, 6 (or 9 if inverted), 7, and 8. This is sufficient because only one and two may appear twice in date and they are on both cubes, while the 0 is on both cubes so that all single-digit dates can be shown in double-digit format.  In addition to the two cubes, three blocks, each as wide as the two cubes combined, and a third as tall and as deep, have the names of the months printed on their long faces.  The current month is turned forward on the front block, with the other two month blocks behind it.

Certain calendar reforms have been labeled perpetual calendars because their dates are fixed on the same weekdays every year. Examples are The World Calendar, the International Fixed Calendar and the Pax Calendar. Technically, these are not perpetual calendars but perennial calendars. Their purpose, in part, is to eliminate the need for perpetual calendar tables, algorithms, and computation devices.

In watchmaking, "perpetual calendar" describes a calendar mechanism that correctly displays the date on the watch 'perpetually', taking into account the different lengths of the months as well as leap years. The internal mechanism will move the dial to the next day.

Algorithms
Perpetual calendars use algorithms to compute the day of the week for any given year, month, and day of the month.  Even though the individual operations in the formulas can be very efficiently implemented in software, they are too complicated for most people to perform all of the arithmetic mentally. Perpetual calendar designers hide the complexity in tables to simplify their use.

A perpetual calendar employs a table for finding which of fourteen yearly calendars to use. A table for the Gregorian calendar expresses its 400-year grand cycle: 303 common years and 97 leap years total to 146,097 days, or exactly 20,871 weeks. This cycle breaks down into one 100-year period with 25 leap years, making 36,525 days, or one day less than 5,218 full weeks; and three 100-year periods with 24 leap years each, making 36,524 days, or two days less than 5,218 full weeks.

Within each 100-year block, the cyclic nature of the Gregorian calendar proceeds in the same fashion as its Julian predecessor:  A common year begins and ends on the same day of the week, so the following year will begin on the next successive day of the week.  A leap year has one more day, so the year following a leap year begins on the second day of the week after the leap year began.  Every four years, the starting weekday advances five days, so over a 28-year period, it advances 35, returning to the same place in both the leap year progression and the starting weekday.  This cycle completes three times in 84 years, leaving 16 years in the fourth, incomplete cycle of the century.

A major complicating factor in constructing a perpetual calendar algorithm is the peculiar and variable length of February, which was at one time the last month of the year, leaving the first 11 months March through January with a five-month repeating pattern: 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, ..., so that the offset from March of the starting day of the week for any month could be easily determined.  Zeller's congruence, a well-known algorithm for finding the day of the week for any date, explicitly defines January and February as the "13th" and "14th" months of the previous year to take advantage of this regularity, but the month-dependent calculation is still very complicated for mental arithmetic:

Instead, a table-based perpetual calendar provides a simple lookup mechanism to find offset for the day of the week for the first day of each month.  To simplify the table, in a leap year January and February must either be treated as a separate year or have extra entries in the month table:

Perpetual Julian and Gregorian calendar tables

Table one (cyd)
The following calendar works for any date from 15 October 1582 onwards, but only for Gregorian calendar dates.

Table two (cymd)

Table three (dmyc)

See also
Determination of the day of the week
Doomsday rule
Long Now Foundation
Year 10,000 problem

References

External links

 Sliding Perpetual Calendar on one sheet of paper (U.S. version, PDF)
 Sliding Perpetual Calendar on one sheet of paper (non U.S. version, PDF)
 Conical or Pyramidal Year Calendar (with "First of March table", PDF)
 New Perpetual Calendar for any year
 Perpetual Calendar in JavaScript

Calendars

Perpetual calendar


Iconoclasta es una banda mexicana de música progresiva formada en la Ciudad de México en 1980. Sus integrantes originales eran Ricardo Moreno (compositor y guitarrista), Rosa Flora Moreno (teclados), Nohemí D'Rubín (bajo), Víctor Baldovinos (batería) y Ricardo Ortegón (guitarra) y en los últimos años se integró la virtuosa bajista y vocalista Greta Silva.

Han mezclado la música clásica, la electrónica y el jazz con el rock, añadiendo ritmos tradicionales mexicanos como el son. Fundaron su propio sello discográfico "Discos Rosenbach" debido a la falta de apoyo de las casas discográficas comerciales. Esto les permitió desarrollar su creatividad al máximo y componer música progresiva, sin avenirse a las restricciones consumistas impuestas por la industria disquera. Hacia esa meta, el grupo trabajó arduamente, estudiando, ensayando y dando conciertos durante tres años, y al mismo tiempo componiendo y depurando lo que sería la música de su primer LP.

Discografía

Álbumes de estudio

 Iconoclasta (1983)
 Reminiscencias (1985)
 Suite Mexicana (EP) (1987)
 Soliloquio (1987)
 Adolescencia Crónica (1989)
 En Busca de Sentido (1989)
 La Reencarnación de Maquiavelo (1992)
 De Todos Uno (1994)
 La Granja Humana (2000)
 Resurrección (2009)
 Movilidad (2013)

En vivo

 Iconoclasta En Concierto (1991)
 Live In France (2002)

Recopilaciones

 Siete Años (1988)
 Trece Años (1996)

Referencias

Artistas de Musea
Grupos de música de México
Grupos de rock de México
Grupos de música de Ciudad de México
Grupos de rock de la Ciudad de México
Grupos de rock progresivo de México
Grupos de música de los años 1980
Grupos de música de los años 1990
Grupos de música de los años 2000
Grupos de música de los años 2010
Grupos de música de los años 2020
Grupos de música formados en 1980
Grupos de música formados en los años 1980

Iconoclasta (banda)


El XL Campeonato Mundial de Tiro se celebró en Phoenix (Estados Unidos) en el año 1970 bajo la organización de la Federación Internacional de Tiro Deportivo (ISSF) y la Federación Estadounidense de Tiro.

Las competiciones se realizaron en el campo de tiro Black Canyon Range de la ciudad estadounidense.

Resultados

Masculino

Femenino

Medallero

Enlaces externos
Resultados oficiales en el banco de datos de la ISSF (en inglés)

Campeonatos mundiales de tiro deportivo

Campeonato Mundial de Tiro de 1970


Den Campanianske vulkanbue er en vulkanbue som består af flere aktive, sovende, eller udslukkede vulkaner i provinsen Campania i Italia. Vulkanbuen er centreret om Napolibugten. Foruden Vesuv omfatter vulkanbuen blandt andet bjergene Campi Flegrei og Epomeo. Vulkanbuen er en del af et større område med vulkansk aktivitet som også blandt andet omfatter Stromboli og Etna.

Vulkaner i Italien

Campanianske vulkanbue


17945 Hawass este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi.

Descriere
17945 Hawass este un asteroid din centura principală de asteroizi. A fost descoperit pe  la Reedy Creek de John Broughton. El prezintă o orbită caracterizată de o semiaxă mare de 2,57 ua, o excentricitate de 0,10 și o înclinație de 2,2° în raport cu ecliptica.

Vezi și
 Lista planetelor minore: 17001-18000
 Centura de asteroizi

Referințe

Obiecte astronomice descoperite în 1999
Centura de asteroizi

17945 Hawass


යම් ගැටළුවක් විසදීම සදහා Program එකක් ලිවිමට පෙර එම ගැටළුව  විසදන ක්‍රමය පියවරෙන් පියවර විස්තරාත්මකව  කොටස් වලට වෙන්කර ගත යුතුය. එයට Algorithm එකක් යයි කියනු ලැබේ. Algorithm  එක programming language එක මත රදා නොපවතී. එය තමන්ගේ භාෂාවෙන් ලිවිය හැක. එසේ නොමැතිනම් diagram එකකින් ද ඉදිරිපත් කළ හැක. එසේත් නොමැති නම් code (Pseudo code) වලින් ද ඉදිරිපත් කළ හැක.

ඇල්ගොරිදම්


Edward Conway (1564 - ) est un soldat et homme d'État anglais. Parmi ses descendants figurent la reine Élisabeth II et Barack Obama .

Biographie
Il est le fils et l'héritier de Sir John Conway d'Arrow, et sa femme Ellen ou Eleanor, fille de Sir Fulke Greville de Beauchamp's Court, Warwickshire .

Il commande un régiment d'infanterie au sac de Cadix en 1596, où il est fait chevalier . Il est ensuite gouverneur de Brielle, une ville de prudence anglaise près de Rotterdam aux Pays-Bas, où sa fille Brilliana Harley (qui épouse Robert Harley) est née. Dans le premier parlement tenu sous le règne de Jacques , il siège en tant que député de Penryn. Lorsque Brielle est rendu aux États de Hollande en 1616, il reçoit une pension.

Il est nommé au Conseil privé en 1622 et nommé secrétaire d'État en janvier 1623 pour cinq ans. Au parlement qui s'est réuni le 19 février 1624, il est réélu pour Evesham. Il est créé baron Conway, de Ragley, en 1624 ou 1625 et vicomte Conway en 1627, et reçoit le titre de pairie irlandaise de vicomte Killultagh. Sans doute en raison de son séjour aux Pays-Bas, il est partisan d'une politique étrangère « protestante » ; il est envoyé comme ambassadeur à Prague. En 1628, il est nommé Lord président du Conseil, poste qu'il occupe jusqu'à sa mort le 3 janvier 1631.

Famille
Conway épouse d'abord Dorothy (morte en 1613), fille de Sir John Tracy de Tedington, Gloucestershire, et veuve d'Edmund Bray. Ils ont trois fils et quatre filles, dont son héritier Edward .

En 1614  ou 1615, il épouse en secondes noces Katherine (morte en 1639), fille de Giles Hueriblock, un marchand de Gand, et veuve de John West (mort en 1612) et Richard Fust (mort en 1613), tous deux du Compagnie des épiciers de Londres. Elle est une importante investisseuse dans les entreprises du Nouveau Monde, notamment la Virginia Company . La deuxième Lady Conway laisse divers legs pour l'éducation et le soulagement de la pauvreté. Elle est enterrée dans l'église paroissiale d'Acton .

Références

Liens externes

Vicomte de la pairie d'Irlande
Personnalité liée au Warwickshire
Membre du Conseil privé d'Angleterre
Brielle
Lord Président du Conseil
Lord-lieutenant du Hampshire
Décès en janvier 1631
Naissance en 1564

Edward Conway (1er vicomte Conway)


Le Kazakhstan participe aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022 à Pékin en Chine. Il s'agit de sa  à des Jeux d'hiver.

Athlètes engagés

Résultats

Biathlon

Combiné nordique

Patinage de vitesse

Patinage de vitesse sur piste courte (short-track)

Saut à ski

Ski acrobatique

Ski alpin

Ski de fond

Notes et références

Kazakhstan
2022
Jeux olympiques d'hiver

Kazakhstan aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2022