The Bear River Massacre, or the Engagement on the Bear River, or the Battle of Bear River, or Massacre at Boa Ogoi, took place in present-day Franklin County, Idaho, on January 29, 1863. After years of skirmishes and food raids on farms and ranches, the United States Army attacked a Shoshone encampment gathered at the confluence of the Bear River and Battle Creek in what was then southeastern Washington Territory, near the present-day city of Preston. Colonel Patrick Edward Connor led a detachment of California Volunteers as part of the Bear River Expedition against Shoshone tribal chief Bear Hunter. Hundreds of Shoshone men, women, and children were killed near their lodges; the number of Shoshone victims reported by local settlers was higher than that reported by soldiers.

Early history and causes

Cache Valley, originally called Seuhubeogoi (Shoshone for "Willow Valley"), was the traditional hunting ground for the Northwestern Shoshone. They gathered grain and grass seeds there, as well as fished for trout and hunted small game such as ground squirrel and woodchuck; and large game including bison, deer, and elk. This mountain valley had attracted fur trappers such as Jim Bridger and Jedediah Smith, who visited the region. Cache Valley was named for the trappers' practice of leaving stores of furs and goods (i.e., a cache) in the valley as a base for hunting in the surrounding mountain ranges.

So impressed were the trappers by the region that they recommended to Brigham Young that he consider the valley as a location for his settlement of Mormon pioneers. Instead, Young chose Salt Lake Valley. In the long term, Mormon settlers eventually moved to Cache Valley as well. As early as July 31, 1847, a 20-man delegation of Shoshone met with the Mormons to discuss their land claims in northern Utah.

Immigrant pressures causing Shoshone starvation
The establishment of the California and Oregon Trails, as well as the founding of Salt Lake City in 1847, brought the Shoshone people into regular contact with white colonists moving westward. By 1856, European Americans had established their first permanent settlements and farms in Cache Valley, starting at Wellsville, Utah, and gradually moving northward.

Brigham Young made the policy that Mormon settlers should establish friendly relations with the surrounding American Indian tribes. He encouraged their helping to "feed them rather than fight them". Despite the policy, the settlers were consuming significant food resources and taking over areas that pushed the Shoshone increasingly into areas of marginal food production. David H. Burr, Surveyor General of the Territory of Utah, reported in 1856 that the local Shoshone Indians complained that the Mormons used so much of the Cache Valley that the once abundant game no longer appeared. The foraging and hunting by settlers traveling on the western migration trails also took additional resources away from the Shoshone. As early as 1859, Jacob Forney, the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the Territory of Utah, recognized the impact of migrants, writing, "The Indians...have become impoverished by the introduction of a white population". He recommended that an Indian Reservation be established in Cache Valley to protect essential resources for the Shoshone. His superiors at the United States Department of the Interior did not act on his proposal. Desperate and starving, the Shoshone attacked farms and cattle ranches for food, not just for revenge but also survival.

In the early spring of 1862, Utah Territorial Superintendent of Indian Affairs, James Duane Doty, spent four days in Cache Valley and reported: "The Indians have been in great numbers, in a starving and destitute condition. No provisions having been made for them, either as to clothing or provisions by my predecessors... The Indians condition was such-with the prospect that they would rob mail stations to sustain life." Doty purchased supplies of food and slowly doled it out. He suggested furnishing the Shoshone with livestock to enable them to become herders instead of beggars.

On July 28, 1862, John White discovered gold on Grasshopper Creek in southwestern Montana mountains. Soon, miners created a migration and supply trail right through the middle of Cache Valley, between this mining camp and Salt Lake City. The latter was the nearest significant trading source of goods and food in the area.

Outbreak of the Civil War
When the American Civil War began in 1861, President Abraham Lincoln was concerned that California, which had just recently become a state, would be cut off from the rest of the Union. He ordered several regiments to be raised from the population of California to help protect mail routes and the communications lines of the West. Neither Lincoln nor the U.S. War Department quite trusted the Mormons of the Utah Territory to remain loyal to the Union, despite their leader Young's telegrams and assurances. The Utah War and Mountain Meadows massacre were still fresh in the minds of military planners. They worried that the Mormons' substantial militia might answer only to Young and not the federal government.

Col. Patrick Edward Connor was put in command of the 3rd California Volunteer Infantry Regiment and ordered to move his men to Utah, to protect the Overland Mail Route and keep peace in the region. Upon arriving in Utah, he established Camp Douglas (adjacent to the current location of the University of Utah) as the primary base of operations for his unit. It was within a few miles of the Mormon Temple construction site and downtown Great Salt Lake City.

Warnings and conflicts with Cache Valley settlers
Several incidents in the summer and fall of 1862 led to the battle between Bear Hunter and Col. Connor. These incidents were related to broad struggles between indigenous peoples and European-American settlers over almost the entire United States west of the Mississippi River. The attention of most of the nation's population was focused on the Civil War in the eastern states. Some historians have overlooked these incidents because they occurred near the ill-defined boundary of two different territories: those of Washington and Utah. While the incidents took place in proximity, the administrative centers dealing with them were more than  apart, so it was difficult to integrate reports. For example, for years, residents and officials believed Franklin and the area of conflict was part of the Utah Territory. Residents of Franklin sent elected representatives to the Utah Territorial Legislature; they were part of the politics of Cache County, Utah, until 1872 when a surveying team determined the community was in Idaho territory.

Pugweenee
When a resident of Summit Creek (now Smithfield) found his horse missing, he accused a young Shoshone fishing in nearby Summit Creek of having stolen the animal. Robert Thornley, an English immigrant and first resident of Summit Creek, defended the young Indian and testified for him. Nonetheless, a jury of locals convicted him and hanged him for stealing the horse. Local history recorded the Shoshone's name as Pugweenee. Later information reveals that Pugweenee is the Shoshone word for "fish" and so the man may have been saying, "Look at my fish," or "I was just fishing." The young Indian man was the son of the local Shoshone chief. Within a few days, the Shoshone retaliated by killing a couple of young men of the Merrill family gathering wood in the nearby canyon.

Massacre near Fort Hall

During the summer of 1859, a settler company of about 19 people from Michigan was traveling on the Oregon Trail near Fort Hall when they were attacked at night by people they assumed were local Shoshone. Several members of the company were killed by gunfire. The survivors took refuge along the Portneuf River, where they hid among the bullrushes and willow trees. Three days later, Lieutenant Livingston of Fort Walla Walla, leading a company of dragoons, met the survivors. He investigated the incident and documented what he called the brutality of the attack. According to the Deseret News of September 21, 1859, a detachment of Lieutenant Livingston's dragoons found five bodies at the scene of the massacre were mangled. A girl of only five years old had her ears cut off, her eyes gouged out, both legs amputated at the knees, and by all appearances, was made to walk on her stumps.

Reuben Van Ornum and the Battle of Providence

On September 9, 1860, Elijah Utter was leading migrants on the Oregon trail when they were attacked by a group of presumably Bannock and Boise Shoshone. Despite settlers' attempts to appease the Native Americans, the Indians killed nearly the entire migrant party and drove off their livestock. Alexis Van Ornum, his family, and about ten others hid in some nearby brush, only to be discovered and killed. Their bodies were discovered by a company of U.S. soldiers led by Captain Frederick T. Dent. Lieutenant Marcus A. Reno came across the mutilated bodies of six of the Van Ornums. The survivors reported that the attacking warriors took four Van Ornum children captive. As a direct result of this attack, the Army established a military fort near the present location of Boise, Idaho, along the migrant trail. Colonel George Wright requested $150,000 to establish a military post to sustain five troop companies.

Zachias Van Ornum, Alexis' brother, heard from a relative on the Oregon Trail that a small white boy of his missing nephew Reuben's age was being held by a group of Northwestern Shoshone, likely to be in Cache Valley. Van Ornum gathered a small group of friends and traveled to Salt Lake City to get help from the territorial government. There, he visited Col. Connor at Fort Douglas and asked for help to regain his nephew. Col. Connor agreed and sent a detachment of cavalry under the command of Major Edward McGarry to Cache Valley to rendezvous with Van Ornum near the town of Providence, Utah. Van Ornum located a small group of Shoshone warriors being led by Chief Bear Hunter. He and McGarry's men followed the Shoshone as they retreated to nearby Providence Canyon. After the Indians opened fire, McGarry gave the order "to commence firing and to kill every Indian they could see." A skirmish between the Shoshone and the U.S. Army lasted about two hours after the Shoshone established a defensible position in the canyon. Finally, Chief Bear Hunter signaled surrender by climbing a foothill and waving a flag of truce.

Together with about 20 of his people, Chief Bear Hunter was taken prisoner and transported to the soldiers' camp near Providence. When asked about the young white boy, Bear Hunter said that the boy had been sent away a few days earlier. McGarry instructed Bear Hunter to send his people to bring back the white boy. He held Bear Hunter and four warriors hostage. By noon the next day, the Shoshone returned with a small boy who fit the description of Reuben Van Ornum. Zachias Van Ornum claimed the boy was his nephew and took custody, departing to return to Oregon. The Shoshone protested, claiming that the boy was the son of a French fur trapper and the sister of Shoshone chief Washakie. After the federal troops left with Van Ornum and the young boy, McGarry reported to Col. Connor the boy's rescue "without the loss or scratch of man or horse." Bear Hunter complained to the settlers in Cache Valley, arguing they should have helped him against the soldiers. After a confrontation between Bear Hunter, some warriors from his band, and nearly 70 members of the Cache Valley militia, the settlers donated two cows and some flour as the "best and cheapest policy" as compensation.

Bear River crossing
On December 4, 1862, Connor sent McGarry on another expedition to Cache Valley to recover some stolen livestock from Shoshone. The Shoshone broke camp, fled in advance of the Army troops, and cut the ropes of a ferry at the crossing. McGarry got his men across the river but had to leave their horses behind. Four Shoshone warriors were captured and held for ransom, although they did not appear related to the theft. McGarry ordered that these men would be shot if the stock was not delivered by noon the next day. The Shoshone chiefs moved their people further north into Cache Valley. A firing squad executed the captives and dumped their bodies into the Bear River. In an editorial, the Deseret News expressed concern that the execution would aggravate relations with the Shoshone.

Incident on the Montana Trail
A.H. Conover, the operator of a Montana Trail freight-hauling service between mining camps of Montana and Salt Lake City, was attacked by Shoshone warriors who killed two men accompanying him: George Clayton and Henry Bean. Arriving in Salt Lake City, Conover told a reporter the Shoshone were "determined to avenge the blood of their comrades" killed by Major McGarry and his soldiers. He said the Shoshone intended to "kill every white man they should meet on the north side of the Bear River, till they should be fully avenged."

Attack on the Montana Trail
The final catalyst for Connor's expedition was a Shoshone attack on a group of eight miners on the Montana Trail. They had come within  of the central Shoshone winter encampment north of Franklin. The miners missed a turn and ended up mired and lost on the western side of the Bear River, unable to cross the deep river. Three men swam across to Richmond, where they tried to get provisions and a guide from the settlers. Before they returned, the other five men were attacked by Shoshone, who killed John Henry Smith of Walla Walla and some horses. When the Richmond people returned with the advance party, they recovered the body of John Smith and buried him at the Richmond city cemetery.

The surviving miners reached Salt Lake City. William Bevins testified before Chief Justice John F. Kinney and swore an affidavit describing Smith's murder. He also reported that ten miners en route to the city had been murdered three days before Smith. Kinney issued a warrant for the arrest of chiefs Bear Hunter, Sanpitch, and Sagwitch. He ordered the territorial marshal to seek assistance from Col. Connor for a military force to "effect the arrest of the guilty Indians."

Due to such reports, Connor was ready to mount an expedition against the Shoshone. He reported to the U.S. War Department before the engagement:

I have the honor to report that from information received from various sources of the encampment of a large body of Indians on Bear River, in Utah Territory, 140 miles north of this point, who had settlements in this valley to the Beaver Head mines, east of the Rocky Mountains, and being satisfied that they were a part of the same band who had been murdering emigrants on the Overland Mail Route for the last fifteen years, and the principal actors and leaders in the horrid massacres of the past summer, I determined, although the season was unfavorable to an expedition in consequence of the cold weather and deep snow, to chastise them if possible.

Military action in Cache Valley
In many ways, the soldiers stationed at Fort Douglas were spoiling for a fight. In addition to discipline problems among the soldiers, there was a minor "mutiny" among the soldiers where a joint petition by most of the California Volunteers requested to withhold over $30,000 from their paychecks for the sole purpose of instead paying for naval passage to the eastern states, and to "serve their country in shooting traitors instead of eating rations and freezing to death around sage brush fires...". Furthermore, they said they would gladly pay this money "for the privilege (original emphasis) of going to the Potomac and getting shot." The War Department declined this request.

Throughout most of January 1863, soldiers at Fort Douglas were preparing for a lengthy expedition traveling north to the Shoshone. Connor also wanted to keep the word of his expedition secret, making a surprise attack upon the Shoshone when he arrived. To do this, he separated his command into two detachments that were to come together from time to time on their journey to Cache Valley. His main concern was to avoid the problems that McGarry had faced in the earlier action, where the Shoshone had moved and scattered even before his troops could arrive.

Reaction to this military campaign was mixed. George A. Smith, in the official Journal History of the LDS Church, wrote:

It is said that Col. Connor is determined to exterminate the Indians who have been killing the Emigrants on the route to the Gold Mines in Washington Territory. Small detachments have been leaving for the North for several days. If the present expedition copies the doings of the other that preceded it, it will result in catching some friendly Indians, murdering them, and letting the guilty scamps remain undisturbed in their mountain haunts.

On the other hand, the Deseret News in an editorial, expressed:

...with ordinary good luck, the volunteers will "wipe them out." ....We wish this community rid of all such parties, and if Col. Connor be successful in reaching that bastard class of humans who play with the lives of the peaceable and law-abiding citizens in this way, we shall be pleased to acknowledge our obligations.Deseret News, 28 January 1863, p. 4

The first group to leave Fort Douglas was forty men of Company K, 3rd Regiment California Volunteer Infantry, commanded by Captain Samuel W. Hoyt, accompanied by 15 baggage wagons and two "mountain howitzers", totaling 80 soldiers. They left on January 22, 1863.

The second group was 220 cavalry, led personally by Connor himself with his aides and 50 men each from Companies A, H, K, and M of the 2nd Regiment of Cavalry, California Volunteers, which left on January 25. As orders specific for this campaign, Connor ordered each soldier to carry "40 rounds of rifle ammunition and 30 rounds of pistol ammunition". This was a total of nearly 16,000 rounds for the campaign. In addition, nearly 200 rounds of artillery shot were brought with the howitzers. As a part of the deception, the cavalry were to travel at night while the infantry moved during the day. Accompanying Connor was the former U.S. Marshal and Mormon scout, Orrin Porter Rockwell.

On the evening of January 28, Captain Hoyt's infantry finally arrived near the town of Franklin, where they spotted three Shoshone who were attempting to get food supplies from the settlers in the town. The Shoshone received nine bushels of wheat in three sacks. William Hull, the settler who was assisting the Shoshone, noted later:

we had two of the three horses loaded, having put three bushels on each horse...when I looked up and saw the Soldiers approaching from the south. I said to the Indian boys, "Here comes the Toquashes (Shoshone for U.S. Soldiers) maybe, you will all be killed. They answered 'maybe the Toquashes will be killed too," but not waiting for the third horse to be loaded, they quickly jumped upon their horses and led the three horses away, disappearing in the distance.

The sacks of grain carried by these Shoshone were later found by the 3rd California Volunteers during their advance the next day, apparently dropped by the Shoshone in their attempt to get back to their camp.

Col. Connor met up with Hoyt that evening as well, with orders to begin moving at about 1:00 am the next morning for a surprise attack, but an attempt to get a local settler to act as a scout for the immediate area led the actual advance to wait until 3:00 am.

This military action occurred during perhaps the coldest time of the year in Cache Valley. Local settlers commented that it was unseasonably cold even for northern Utah, and it may have been as cold as −20 °F (−30 °C) on the morning of the 29th when the attack began. Several soldiers had come down with frostbite and other cold-weather problems, so the 3rd volunteers were at only about 2/3 of their strength compared to when they had left Fort Douglas. Among the rations issued to the soldiers during the campaign was a ration of whiskey held in a canteen; several soldiers noted that this whiskey froze solid on the night before the attack.

Shoshone battle preparations
It is apparent that the Shoshone chiefs were far from ignorant of the potential for conflict with Col. Connor's soldiers, and some minor preparations were made simultaneously. Most of this involved mainly gathering foodstuffs from surrounding Mormon settlements in a fashion similar to the incident listed above with the residents of Richmond, Utah.

Most of the firearms that the Shoshone had at the time of the attack had been captured in minor skirmishes, traded from fur trappers, white settlers, and other Native American tribal groups, or simply antiques that had been handed down from one generation to another over the years. Their weapons were not as standardized or as well built as the guns issued by the Union Army to the soldiers of the California Volunteers.

Bear Hunter and the other Shoshone chiefs did, however, make some defensive arrangements around their encampment, in addition to simply selecting a generally defensible position in the first place. Willow branches had been woven into makeshift screens, hiding the position and numbers of Shoshone. They also dug a series of "rifle pits" along the eastern bank of Beaver Creek and the Bear River.

At the same time the arrest warrant was issued by Justice Kinney, Chief Sagwitch (named in the warrant) was in Salt Lake City trying to negotiate peace on behalf of the Northwestern Shoshone. A correspondent for the Sacramento Union reported, "The Prophet (Brigham Young) had told Sagwitch the Mormon people had suffered enough from the Shoshoni of Cache Valley and that if more blood were spilled, the Mormons might just "pitch in" and help the troops."

While it appears as though the deception by Connor to hide the numbers of his soldiers involved in the confrontation was successful, the Shoshone were not even then anticipating a direct military engagement with these soldiers. Instead, they were preparing for a negotiated settlement where the chiefs would be able to talk with officers of the U.S. Army and try to come to an understanding.

Massacre
Major McGarry and the first cavalry units of the 2nd Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry arrived at the massacre scene at 6:00 am, just as dawn broke over the mountains. Due to the weather conditions and deep snow, it took time for Connor to organize his soldiers into a battle line. The artillery never arrived as they got caught in a snow drift  from the Shoshone encampment.

Chief Sagwitch noted the approach of the American soldiers, saying just before the first shots were fired,

Look like there is something up on the ridge up there. Look like a cloud. Maybe it is a steam come from a horse. Maybe that's them soldiers they were talking about.

Initially, Connor tried a direct frontal offensive against the Shoshone positions but was soon overwhelmed with return gunfire from the Shoshone. The California Volunteers suffered most of their direct combat-related casualties during this first assault.

After temporarily retreating and regrouping, Connor sent McGarry and several other smaller groups into flanking maneuvers to attack the village from the sides and behind. He directed a line of infantry to block any attempt by the Shoshone to flee from the attack. After about two hours, the Shoshone had run out of ammunition. According to some later reports, some Shoshone were seen trying to cast lead ammunition during the middle of the battle and died with the molds in their hands. Bear Hunter was killed, with some later reporting that he had been among those casting bullets; Madsen described the possibility as "doubtful".

Casualties and immediate aftermath
The California Volunteers suffered 14 soldiers killed and 49 wounded, 7 mortally. After the officers concluded the battle was over, they returned with the soldiers to their temporary encampment near Franklin. Franklin residents opened their homes to wounded soldiers that night. They brought blankets and hay to the church meetinghouse to protect the other soldiers from the cold. Connor hired several men to use sleighs to bring wounded men back to Salt Lake City.

Connor estimated his forces killed more than 224 out of 300 warriors. He reported capturing 175 horses and some arms, and destroying 70 lodges and a large quantity of stored wheat in winter supplies. He left a small quantity of wheat on the field for the 160 captured women and children.

The death toll was large, but some Shoshone survived. Chief Sagwitch gathered survivors to keep his community alive. Sagwitch was shot twice in the hand and tried to escape on horseback, only to have the horse shot out from under him. He went to the ravine and escaped into the Bear River near a hot spring, where he floated under some brush until nightfall. Sagwitch's son, Beshup Timbimboo, was shot seven times but survived and was rescued by family members. Other band members hid in the willow brush of the Bear River or tried to act as if they were dead. Sagwitch and other survivors retrieved the wounded and built a fire to warm the survivors.

There was a large difference between the number of Indians reported killed by Connor and the number counted by the citizens of Franklin, the latter being much larger. The settlers also claimed the number of surviving women and children to be much fewer than what Connor claimed. In his 1911 autobiography, Danish immigrant Hans Jasperson claims to have walked among the bodies and counted 493 dead Shoshone.
In 1918, Sagwitch's son Be-shup, Frank Timbimboo Warner, said, "[H]alf of those present got away," and 156 were killed. He went on to say that two of his brothers and a sister-in-law "lived", as well as many who later lived at the Washakie, Utah, settlement, the Fort Hall reservation, in the Wind River country, and elsewhere.

Based on a variety of sources, Brigham D. Madsen estimates about 250 were killed in the definitive history of the massacre.

Effects on settlement of Cache Valley and long-term consequences
This conflict marked the final significant influence of the Shoshone nation upon Cache Valley and its immediate surroundings. In addition to opening the northern part of Cache Valley to Mormon settlement, Cache Valley also offered a staging area for additional settlements in southeastern Idaho. Friction between the Mormons and Col. Connor continued for many more years with accusations of harassment of non-Mormons in the Utah Territory and criticisms by Mormons of Connor's attempts to begin a mining industry in Utah.

Chief Sagwitch and many members of his band allied with the Mormons. Many were baptized and joined the LDS Church. Sagwitch was ordained as an Elder in the Melchizedek priesthood. Members of this band helped to establish the town of Washakie, Utah, named in honor of the Shoshone chief. Most of the remaining members of the Northwestern band of Shoshone built farms and homesteads under LDS Church sponsorship. Their descendants became largely integrated into mainstream LDS society. The Shoshone who were not involved with this settlement went to the Fort Hall Indian Reservation or the Wind River Indian Reservation.

According to published newspaper articles, Col. Connor and the California Volunteers were treated as heroes when they arrived at Fort Douglas and by their community in California. Connor was promoted to the permanent rank of brigadier general and given a brevet promotion shortly afterward to the rank of major general. Connor campaigned against Native Americans in the West for the remainder of the U.S. Civil War, leading the Powder River Expedition against the Sioux and Cheyenne.

Memorials and legacy

The Bear River Massacre Site is located near U.S. Route 91. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1990. The Northwestern Band of the Shoshone Nation acquired the site in 2018 to protect it as a sacred burial ground. They intend to erect a monument in memory of the massacre's victims.

The Smithsonian Institution repatriated two Shoshone human remains, that of a teenage man and a woman who was in her 20s when she was killed, back to the Shoshone people for burial. The remains were returned in 2013.

Little was known about the Bear River Massacre or the life and reputation of Patrick Edward Connor in his native Co Kerry in Ireland. However, on Monday 7 August 2023 (August Bank Holiday Monday) local radio station, Radio Kerry, broadcast a 90-minute radio documentary entitled Gloryhunter, Kerry's Indian Killer.

This documentary sets out a detailed account of the massacre and Connor's role in the dispossession and killing of first nation Americans in modern day Utah, Idaho and Colorado. It features interviews with historians and authors, as well as representatives of the Shoshone nation. The full documentary is available to hear on Spotify.

Further reading

Notes

References

Sources
Christensen, Scott R.; Sagwitch: Shoshone Chieftain, Mormon Elder (1822–1887); Logan, Utah; Utah State University Press; 1999;
Bear Hunter Bear Hunter (U.S. National Park Service) National Park Service
Franklin County Historical Society (Idaho); "The passing of the redman, being a succinct account of the last battle that wrested Idaho from the bondage of the Indians"; [Preston? Id.] Franklin County Historical Society and Monument Committee. [1917], Archive.org
Hart, Newell; The Bear River Massacre; Preston, Idaho; Cache Valley Newsletter Publishing Company; 1982;
Madsen, Brigham D.; Glory Hunter: A Biography of Patrick Edward Connor; Salt Lake City, Utah; University of Utah Press; 1990;
Madsen, Brigham D.; The Northern Shoshoni; Caldwell, ID; Caxton Printers Ltd.; 1980;
Madsen, Brigham D.; The Shoshoni Frontier and the Bear River Massacre; Salt Lake City, Utah; University of Utah Press; 1985;
Miller, Rod.; Massacre at Bear River; Caldwell, ID; Caxton Press: 2008;
Moore, Frank; The Rebellion Record; New York; G.P. Putnam; 1868;
Orton, Richard H.; Records of California Men in the War of Rebellion; Sacramento, California; State Office; 1890;

Simmonds, A.J.; In God's Lap: Cache Valley History as told in the newspaper columns of A.J. Simmonds; Logan, Utah; The Herald Journal; 2004;
Ricks, Joel E. (editor); The History of a Valley: Cache Valley, Utah-Idaho; Logan, Utah; Cache Valley Centennial Commission; 1956
Bancroft, Hubert Howe; History of Utah, 1540–1886; (reproduction) Las Vegas, Nevada; Nevada Publications;
Varley, James F.; Brigham and the Brigadier: General Patrick Connor and His California Volunteers in Utah and Along the Overland Trail; Tucson, Arizona; Westernlore Press; 1989;
Madsen, Brigham D.; Chief Pocatello; Moscow, Idaho; University of Idaho Press; 1986;
Reid, Kenneth C. (ed.) Approaching Bear River: Historic, Geomorphic, and Archaeological Investigations at the Bear River Massacre National Historic Landmark. Monographs in Idaho Archaeology and Ethnology No. 3. Idaho State Historical Society, State Historic Preservation Office, 2017.
Shannon, David H.; The Utter Disaster on the Oregon Trail: The Utter and Van Ornum Massacres of 1860; Caldwell, ID; Snake Country Publishing; 1993;

MultimediaThe Bear River Massacre (2000); producers: Michael Mill, Chris Dallin, and Richard James; Imagic Entertainment; 66 min.The House of the Lord: Cache Valley and the Logan Temple (2003); producer: Dennis Lyman; Temple Hill Videos; 60 min.

 External links

FranklinIdaho.org, An Early History of Franklin
OHS.org, Zacheas Van Ornum Petition for Indemnity
OHS.org News Article, Snake River Massacre Account by One of the Survivors
Everything2, Everything2.com, node about the Bear River Massacre
Jessie L. Bonner, "Tribe marks massacre with burial ground gathering", Indian Country Today'', February 12, 2010}

1863 in Washington Territory
Massacres in 1863
Bear River (Great Salt Lake)
Conflicts in 1863
Ethnic cleansing in the United States
Franklin County, Idaho
Idaho in the American Civil War
Indian wars of the American Old West
January 1863 events
Mormonism and Native Americans
Mormonism-related controversies
Native American genocide
Shoshone
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Idaho
Massacres of Native Americans by the United States military
Utah in the American Civil War
Native American history of Idaho
Native American history of Utah
History of racism in Idaho

Bear River Massacre


Alexander Windsor, conde de Úlster (nacido Alexander Patrick Gregers Richard; Londres, 24 de octubre de 1974) es el primogénito y único varón de los actuales duques de Gloucester, Ricardo y Brígida. Es, desde su nacimiento, el heredero presuntivo del ducado de Gloucester, por lo que utiliza el título de cortesía de conde de Úlster. Tiene un puesto en la línea de sucesión al trono británico y de los reinos de la Mancomunidad de Naciones.

Vida cotidiana
Fue educado en Eton y en el King's College de Londres (B.A. 1996) antes de ingresar en la Real Academia de Sandhurst.

Encargado de los «King's Royal Hussars» en 1995 y designado capitán desde el 16 de octubre de 2000 y mayor de 2008, el año 2002 estuvo en servicio militar activo en Kosovo.

Hoy día es director de la fundación de caridad, «Transnational Crisis Project».

Matrimonio
Se casó el 22 de junio de 2002 con la Dra. Claire Booth en la capilla real de palacio de St. James.

El conde y la condesa tienen dos hijos:

 Xan Windsor, barón Culloden (nacido el 12 de marzo de 2007).
 Lady Cosima Windsor (nacida el 20 de mayo de 2010).

Títulos
 1974: conde de Úlster (por cortesía).

Tiene el 32.º puesto en la línea de sucesión al trono británico.

  : Major (mayor/comandante) (2008)

Condecoraciones
  - Medalla al Servicio General
  - Medalla OTAN Kosovo
  - Medalla de Irak
  - Medalla del Jubileo de Oro
  - Medalla del Jubileo de Diamante
  - Medalla del Jubileo de Platino
  - Medalla de la Coronación del Rey Carlos III

Sucesión

Véase también
 Ducado de Gloucester
 Ducados en la nobleza del Reino Unido
 Condado de Warrington
 Cámara de los Lores

Enlaces externos
 Debrett's People of Today
 www.army.mod.uk
  www.sja.org.uk

Referencias

Alumnos del Colegio Eton
U
Casa de Windsor
Condes
Nobles de Reino Unido
Militares británicos del siglo XX
Militares británicos del siglo XXI

Alexander Windsor


O ataque de Aoréma, ocorreu no dia 15 de abril de 2023, na aldeia de Aorema, perto da cidade de Ouahigouya, na Região Norte de Burkina Faso, não muito longe da fronteira com a República do Mali, com ataques de organizações terroristas armadas onde pelo menos 44 pessoas foram mortas e outras 33 ficaram feridas. Essas organizações foram responsabilizadas pelo governador da região do Sahel, que também alegou que a ofensiva do exército as tornou ineficazes.

Contexto
Uma campanha de sete anos de organizações jihadistas ligadas à Al Qaeda e ao Estado Islâmico foi travada contra Burkina Faso. Segundo estimativas de ONGs, essas organizações iniciaram sua campanha no vizinho Mali em 2015, que resultou na morte de mais de 10.000 civis, soldados e policiais, além do deslocamento de pelo menos dois milhões de pessoas. Segundo dados oficiais, acredita-se que as organizações jihadistas governem 40% da nação.

Desde que o capitão Ibrahim Traoré derrubou o governo em um golpe em setembro de 2022, os ataques estão entre os piores. O novo chefe militar de Burkina Faso prometeu intensificar uma "ofensiva dinâmica" contra os jihadistas em resposta ao número de ataques rebeldes ocorridos desde o início do ano. O governador garantiu que estão sendo feitos esforços para acalmar a região.

Desenrolar
Em 15 de abril de 2023, um destacamento das Forças Armadas de Burkina Faso e dos Voluntários para a Defesa da Pátria foi atacado por jihadistas perto da comuna de Aoréma. Os confrontos começam por volta das 16h e duram cerca de duas horas.

Baixas
De acordo com um comunicado da província da Região Norte divulgado em 16 de abril, seis soldados e 34 milicianos dos Voluntários para a Defesa da Pátria foram mortos durante o ataque e 33 ficaram feridos.

Nos dias que se seguiram, Agnès Faivre, correspondente do jornal Libération, indica por sua vez que "as fontes de segurança convergem com um número de mortos de mais de 75, incluindo a maioria do VDP".

A governadoria também afirma que uma "resposta" foi lançada após o ataque e "permitiu neutralizar várias dezenas de terroristas".

O exército burquinense relatou oito soldados e 32 milicianos dos VDP mortos e cerca de trinta feridos. Também afirma que "pelo menos cinquenta terroristas" foram "neutralizados".

Atentados terroristas no Burquina Fasso
2023 em Burquina Fasso
Atentados terroristas da Al-Qaeda
Atentados terroristas de 2023

Ataque de Aoréma


هومي هون هو مسلسل اجتماعي كوميدي سوري من إنتاج عام 2004، وهو التجربة الإخراجية الوحيدة للفنان باسم ياخور الذي ظهر به ضيفًا في عدة حلقات.

قصة المسلسل
تقوم قصة المسلسل على عائلة تسمى عائلة الأغباشي والتي تعد من أرقى العائلات في دمشق وتتكون من كبيرة العائلة ثريا ( سلمى المصري) و أختها كرام (مها المصري) وأختها صباح (شكران مرتجى) بالإضافة إلى ابن كرام وهو فخري (باسم عيسى) والذي يدرس الطب خلفا لكبير عائلة الاغباشي المتوفي الطبيب فخري الاغباشي. وأثناء الحلقات الأولى ينضم لهم فيديل (أحمد الأحمد) بتوصية من جارهم الدكتور بهجت (حسن عويتي ) كمقيم بإيجار في المنزل ليتمكن من دراسة الفن المسرحي في المعهد العالي للفنون المسرحية. وأما مايا (ديمة قندلفت) فهي حفيدته للدكتور بهجت وتدرس الأدب الإنجليزي وغالبا ما تمضي وقتها مع عائلة الآغباشي ولهم صديقة تسمى جاكيلين خانم (سلافة عويشق ) و تكرهها أغلب العائلة وبالخصوص فيديل وفخري. تدور أحداث كل حلقة بشكل منفصل عن سابقاتها وبمتوسط نصف ساعة للحلقة الواحدة، ولكن الطابع الفكاهي والكوميدي في تناول قضايا العائلة أو حتى المجتمع المختلفة يوحد بين الحلقات.

فريق العمل
 تأليف : لبنى مشلح، لبنى حداد .
 إخراج : باسم ياخور .

الشخصيات الرئيسية
 سلمى المصري : ثريا خانوم
 مها المصري : كرام خانوم
 شكران مرتجى : صباح خانوم
 أحمد الأحمد : فيديل
 باسم عيسى : فخري
 ديمة قندلفت : مايا
 حسن عويتي : الدكتور بهجت
 سلافة عويشق : جاكلين خانوم

ضيوف الحلقات
 زهير عبد الكريم
 باسم ياخور
 نادين تحسين بك
 أمل عرفة
 مكسيم خليل
 أندريه سكاف
 هدى الشعراوي
 نزار أبو حجر
 عاصم حواط
 حسام تحسين بيك
 محمود سعيد
 جودي المصري
 صباح بركات
 رنا الأبيض

معلومات عن العمل
 سنة الإنتاج : 2004
 اللغة : العربية ، اللهجة السورية
 العرض : عرض لأول مرة على التلفزيون السوري الرسمي

مراجع

2004 حسب البلد
مسلسلات تلفزيونية سورية

هومي هون (مسلسل)


Let Poland be Poland (Neka Poljska bude Poljska) – televizijski program redatelja Marty Pasetta, u produkciji Američke agencije za međunarodne komunikacije u suradnji s američkim Ministarstvom obrane. Emitirana je 31. siječnja 1982. godine.

Povijest

Program je pratilo 185 milijuna gledatelja u 50 zemalja svijeta. Audio verzija Glasa Amerike pripremljena je u 39 jezičnih verzija. Program su prenosili i Radio Slobodna Europa, Radio Liberty i Radio France Internationale.

Neka Poljska bude Poljska izvješće je o događajima od 30. siječnja 1982. Ovaj dan je proglašen Međunarodnim danom solidarnosti s Poljskom.

Program je vodio Charlton Heston. U programu su, između ostalih, sudjelovali: Romuald Spasowski, Zdzisław Rurarz, Adam Makowicz, Czesław Miłosz, Mstisław Rostropowicz, Kirk Douglas, Max von Sydow, James Miechner, Henry Fonda, Glenda Jackson, Benny Andersson, Agnetha Fältskog, Anni-Frid Lyngstad, Paul McCartney, Björn Ulvaeus, Orson Welles, Madeleine Albright. Pjesmu "Ever Homeward" (poljski: "Slobodna srca") otpjevao je Frank Sinatra (fragment je otpjevan na poljskom).

Tijekom programa kontaktirani su čelnici zemalja i političari kako bi dali svoje izjave. Bili su, između ostalih: predsjednik Sjedinjenih Država Ronald Reagan, premijerka Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva Margaret Thatcher, premjer Portugala Francisco Pinto Balsemão, kancelar Savezne Republike Njemačke Helmut Schmidt, premijer Islanda Gunnar Thoroddsen, premier Belgije Wilfried Martens, premijer Japana Zenkō Suzuki, premijer Italije Arnaldo Forlani, premijer Norveške Kåre Willoch, premijer Kanade Pierre Trudeau, premijer Turske Bülent Ulusu, premijer Luksemburga Pierre Werner, premijer Španjolske Adolfo Suárez González, predsjednik Francuske François Mitterrand, predsjedavajući Zastupničkog doma Tip O'Neill, vođa većine u Senatu Howard Baker, senator, član senatskog odbora za vanjske poslove Clement Zablocki.

Političari su se fokusirali na kritiku autoritarnih poljskih vlasti i vlasti Sovjetskog Saveza, izrazili potpore poljskom narodu, solidarnost s osobama koje trpe represiju i dali jamstva o pružanja pomoći, uključujući i materijalnu pomoć.

Prenošene su i demonstracije potpore Poljacima iz raznih gradova diljem svijeta: New York, London, Bruxelles, Tokio, Lisabon, Sydney, Washington, Toronto, Chicago.

Naziv programa odnosi se na pjesmu Jana Pietrzaka "Neka Poljska bude Poljska".

U Poljskoj je ovaj program prvi put emitirala TVP Historia 13 prosinca 2011.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice
 Żeby Polska była Polską (1982 TV Movie) – Let Poland Be Poland u bazi podataka IMDb  (en).
 Ever Homeward: Sinatra Sings in Polish (His Way) (en).
 Let Poland Be Poland - Introduction – Dio programa "Let Poland Be Poland" (en).

Literatura
 Getler, Michael: ICA Plans Poland Spectacular. Washington Post, 28 siječnja 1982
 Buhmiller, Elisabeth: The Wick Whirlwind; Reagan's ICA Chief Brings Hollywood Hustle to Washington. Washington Post 11 svibanj 1982
 Kurtz, Howard and Early, Pete: Hollywood-style Diplomacy; Wick Adds Flair to US Story. Washington Post, 13 srpanj 1983
 Better to Let Poland Be? Time Magazine, 8 veljača 1982
 Danilov, Aleksander: 'Let Poland be Poland': Child of Politics Proved Mentall Deficient. Text of commentary on BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 9 veljača 1982

Povijest Poljske

Let Poland be Poland (TV program)


Carlos Reverdito (1924 – 1995) fue un arquitecto, político, urbanista, profesor  y decano uruguayo.

Biografía

Fue profesor universitario y decano de la Facultad de Arquitectura de la Universidad de la República entre los años 1970 y 1973 y un segundo período entre 1985 y 1992. Fue referente universitario y de la lucha democrática en el exterior del país. Destituido durante la dictadura militar entre los años 1973 y 1985. En el 2009 se coloca una placa a su homenaje en la Plazuela de los Arquitectos, ubicada en Bulevar Artigas y Bulevar España, frente a la Facultad de Arquitectura de la que fue decano. Junto a su socia y pareja la arquitecta Felicia Gilboa, desarrolló proyectos de arquitectura como la Sede del Centro de Protección de Choferes (Montevideo, 1958).

Actividad política

En las elecciones nacionales del año 1971 participó en la fundación del "Movimiento de Independientes 26 de Marzo" agrupación que representaba al "brazo político" del Movimiento de Liberación Nacional-Tupamaros.

Dada la vinculación de Reverdito al 26M histórico, fue perseguido por la dictadura, destituido del cargo de Decano de la Facultad de Arquitectura y Exiliado primero en Milán para luego establecerse hasta su retorno en Estrasburgo (Francia).

Referencias

Arquitectos de Uruguay del siglo XX
Egresados de la Universidad de la República
Profesores de la Universidad de la República

Carlos Reverdito


A central vowel, formerly also known as a mixed vowel, is any in a class of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel. (In practice, unrounded central vowels tend to be further forward and rounded central vowels further back.)

List
The central vowels that have dedicated symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet are:

 close central unrounded vowel
 close central protruded vowel
 close-mid central unrounded vowel  (older publications may use )
 close-mid central rounded vowel  (older publications may use )
 mid central vowel with ambiguous rounding
 open-mid central unrounded vowel  (older publications may use )
 open-mid central rounded vowel  (older publications may use )
 near-open central vowel with ambiguous rounding  (typically used for an unrounded vowel; if precision is desired,  may be used for an unrounded vowel and  for a rounded vowel)

There also are central vowels that do not have dedicated symbols in the IPA:
 close central compressed vowel
 near-close central unrounded vowel , ,  or  (unofficial symbol: )
 near-close central protruded vowel , ,  or  (unofficial symbol: )
 near-close central compressed vowel
 mid central unrounded vowel  or  (commonly written )
 mid central protruded vowel  or  (commonly written  as if it were close-mid)
 mid central compressed vowel
 open central unrounded vowel  (commonly written  as if it were front)
 open central rounded vowel

See also
Front vowel
Back vowel
List of phonetics topics
Relative articulation

Bibliography

Vowels by backness

Central vowel


József Haller () a fost un grafician, sculptor, pictor și scenograf din România.

A fost elev al Liceului de Artă din Cluj în perioada 1949-1953, apoi a absolvit în 1959 Institutul de Arte Plastice Ion Andreescu din Cluj la secția de sculptură. Profesori i-au fost Ion Irimescu, Artúr Vetro și András Kós. Este membru al Uniunii Artiștilor Plastici din România, al Asociației Națioanale a Artiștilor Maghiari și al Breslei Barabás Miklós din Cluj.
Din 1959 până la pensionare, timp de 40 de ani, a fost pictor scenograf la Teatrul de Tineret și de Păpuși Ariel, unde a conceput decorurile, costumele și păpușile a peste 120 de piese.

Expoziții personale

A susținut mai multe expoziții personale în România și în străinătate:
Tîrgu Mureș - 1970, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1990, 1995, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2015
Satu Mare - 1975 și 1981
Siegen - 1979
Cluj-Napoca - 1981
Miercurea Ciuc - 2003
Budapesta - 2005.

Expoziții colective în străinătate
Barcelona: Juan Miro – Expoziția națională de grafică (1975)
Mannheim - Artă contemporană din România (1979)
Maastricht - Grafică din România (1982)
Cracovia - Bienala internațională de grafică (1985)
Budapesta – Expoziția artiștilor plastici maghiari din România (1990, 1992, 1993, 1995)
Washington – Expoziția artiștilor plastici maghiari din Transilvania (1990)
Stockholm — Expoziție de pictură (1994, 1996)
Frankfurt — "Kaddisch"(1995)
Debrecen, Szarvas, Nyíregyháza — 12 artiști din Transilvania (1993)
Keszthely (1993), Dombóvár (1992)
Kecskemét — Arta plastică contemporană din Tg-Mureș (2000)
Muzeul ERNST din Budapesta – Timp de înjumătățire, Expoziția artiștilor plastici maghiari din România 1965-1975 (2002), Roma, Paris, Berlin, Stockholm, Moscva, București, Budapesta
Urme milenare - 10 graficieni din România (2005).

Tabere de creație
Iserlohn (1984, 1989, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2002, 2003), Lăzarea (1988)
Cătălina (1992)
Marcali (1992)
Zalaegerszeg (1993)
Tabăra de creație Bolyai din Tîrgu-Mureș (2009).

Ilustrații
A publicat un volum de ilustrații cu titlul Arany alapra arannyal, pe lângă care a mai ilustrat volumele unor poeți maghiari din România cum ar fi Sándor Kányádi, András Ferenc Kovács, Béla Markó. A publicat frecvent ilustrații pe paginile revistei literare Igaz Szó.

Distincții
În calitate de pictor scenograf, pe lângă multele distincții, a primit Premiul special pentru întreaga activitate în arta animației, în 2004.
Ordinul "23 August", medalia de a XX-a aniversare (1964)
A Magyar Köztársasági Érdemrend kiskeresztje (1995)
Diplomă de Onoare a Ministerului Culturii din România (1995)
Ordinul Meritul Cultural "Cavaler" al Ministerului Culturii din România (2004).

Aprecieri
.
.

Note

Bibliografie
Cebuc A, Florea V., Lăptoiu. N.: Enciclopedia Artiștilor Români Contemporani. Editura ARC 2000 (2001).
Banner Zoltán: Haller József. Marosvásárhely, Mentor Kiadó (2002). ISBN 973-599-005-9
Barbosa, Octavian: Dicționarul artiștilor români contemporani, Editura Meridiane (1976).
Pepino, Cristian (coord.): Dicționarul teatrului de păpuși, marionete și animație din România, Editura Alma (2000).

Lectură suplimentară
Biblioteca Județeană Mureș: Haller József , accesat la 4 ianuarie 2016
Biblioteca Centrală Universitară "Mihai Eminescu" Iași: Haller József , accesat la 7 ianuarie 2016
Erdély Művészetéért Alapítvány – VármegyE-Galéria: Haller József, accesat la 3 ianuarie 2016
Haller József, accesat la 3 ianuarie 2016

Nașteri în 1935
Sătmăreni
Artiști români din secolul al XX-lea
Artiști români din secolul al XXI-lea
Decorați cu Ordinul 23 August
Decorați cu Ordinul Meritul Cultural
Membri ai Uniunii Artiștilor Plastici din România
Decese în 2017
maghiari din Transilvania

József Haller


An Paspalum goyasense in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Davidse, Morrone, Zuloaga. An Paspalum goyasense in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paspalum, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paspalum

Paspalum goyasense


Riku Matsuda (født 3. maj 1999) er en japansk fodboldspiller, som spiller for den japanske fodboldklub Gamba Osaka.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Riku Matsuda (fodboldspiller, født 1999)


The Istvaeones were a Germanic group of tribes living near the banks of the Rhine during the Roman Empire which reportedly shared a common culture and origin. The Istaevones were contrasted to neighbouring groups, the Ingaevones on the North Sea coast, and the Herminones, living inland of these groups.

In linguistics, the term "Istvaeonic languages" is also sometimes used in discussions about the grouping of the northwestern West Germanic languages, consisting of Frankish and its descendants (principally Old Dutch) as well as several closely related historical dialects. Whether or not the Istvaeones spoke a Germanic language according to modern definitions, the theory proposes that their language indirectly influenced later Germanic languages in the area as a substrate.

Nomenclature
The term Istvaeonic is derived from a culturo-linguistic grouping of Germanic tribes mentioned by Tacitus, who used the spelling "Istæuones" in his Germania, and Pliny the Elder, who used the spelling "Istuaeones". Pliny further specified its meaning by claiming that the Istævones lived near the Rhine. Jacob Grimm in the book Deutsche Mythologie argued that Iscaevones was the correct form, partly because it would connect the name to an ancestor figure in Norse mythology named Ask and partly because in Pseudo-Nennius where the name Mannus is corrupted as Alanus, the ancestor of the Istaevones appears as Escio or Hisicion. Pseudo-Nennius derives his information from the Frankish Table of Nations (c. 520), which names the Franks, Romans, Bretons and Alamanni as descendants of Istio, one of the three sons of Mannus. (Other spellings of this name that appear in the manuscripts include Estio, Escio, Hostius, Ostius, Hisisio, Hissitio, Hisitio, Hessitio and Scius.)

Tacitus (56 – ~120 AD):
The Germanic tribes themselves I should regard as aboriginal, and not mixed at all with other races through immigration or intercourse. (...) In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past, they celebrate an earth-born god, Tuisco, and his son Mannus, as the origin of their race, as their founders. To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called Ingævones; those of the interior, Herminones; all the rest, Istævones.

Pliny the Elder (23 – 79 AD):
There are five German races; the Vandili, parts of whom are the Burgundiones, the Varini, the Carini, and the Gutones: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of whom are the Cimbri, the Teutoni, and the tribes of the Chauci. The Istævones, who join up to the Rhine [proximi autem rheno istuaeones], and to whom the Cimbri belong [sic.], are the third race; while the Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi, the Hermunduri, the Chatti, and the Cherusci: the fifth race is that of the Peucini, who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Dacians previously mentioned.

The Istvaeones (Pliny) or Istaevones (Tacitus) are therefore one of the least clearly defined of these groups, but Pliny and Tacitus and other classical sources clearly associated various tribes with the Rhine frontier region, and the description of Pliny also explains that the Chatti, Cherusci and Chauci are not included in the group. In this period, between them and the Rhine, Tacitus also specifically named various tribes such as the Chamavi, Bructeri, Sugambri, Ubii and others. Also by implication the definitions above include all of the Romanized Germani Cisrhenani on the Roman side of the Rhine, because Tacitus (and before him by Julius Caesar) agreed that these peoples were related to the Germanic tribes on the other side of the Rhine. Tacitus mentions that in his time they called themselves the Tungri. He also mentions that some Rhine tribes by his time, such as the Batavi, and Cananefates, were in fact recent immigrants, and relatives of the Chatti. Throughout the Roman era, starting already in the time of Caesar, more eastern Germanic tribes pressed the Rhine area, most famously the Chauci, Saxons and Suevians, pushing tribes into the area such as the Usipetes, Tencteri and Ampsivarii. Despite the pressures from two directions, the Chamavi and Bructeri survived in the same area until late Roman times, along with various tribes who may have been there in the time of Tacitus, or may have immigrated, such as the Salii and Chattuari (whose name suggests a connection to the Chatti).

The historical sources give no complete account of the Istvaeones. Modern historians attempt to extrapolate their tribal constituents based on later sources, archeological findings and linguistic information.

Istvaeones as possible ancestors to the Franks

There is an overlap between Germanic tribes generally assumed to have been Istvaeonic in terms of dialect and culture, and the tribes who came later to be thought of collectively as the earliest "Franks". Edward James  speculated that the Chamavi may have been the first such tribe, around which neighbours came also to be called by this name:

A Roman marching-song joyfully recorded in a fourth-century source, is associated with the 260s; but the Franks' first appearance in a contemporary source was in 289. [...] The Chamavi were mentioned as a Frankish people as early as 289, the Bructeri from 307, the Chattuarri from 306-15, the Salii or Salians from 357, and the Amsivarii and Tubantes from c. 364-75.

The large "Irmionic" nation of the Chatti also seem to have been considered Franks, or allies of the Franks, at least once. In one of the last mentions of them as a separate people, Sulpicius Alexander, cited by Gregory of Tours mentions them as being led along with the Ampsivarii by the Frankish king Marcomer.

Other Franks, sometimes called  Salii, moved into Roman territory from north of the Rhine and were settled at the delta island of Batavia, and then Toxandria. In the 5th century, in the time of Flavius Aëtius they conquered as far as Tournai, despite Roman opposition, and later worked with the Romans against Attila the Hun. Further up the Rhine, the Franks eventually had a kingdom centred upon the Roman city of Cologne, on the left bank of the Rhine. The Chattuari also apparently crossed the Rhine and held lands on both sides. A separate Chamavi population possibly still existed as late as the 8th century, when it has been proposed that a separate legal code was published under Charlemagne, the Lex Chamavorum.

During the late 5th century, the Frankish frontier tribes and the Roman territories of Northern Gaul came to be politically united under a Frankish military leader of northern Roman Gaul, King Clovis I, and his Merovingian dynasty. He published the Lex Salica, a legal code applicable to the Roman region south of the original Frankish territories, from the Loire in modern France to the Silva Carbonaria in modern Belgium. It grew to rule large parts of the former Western Roman Empire and Germania.

At some point in the above sequence, the ethnonyms "Frank" and "Frankish" morphed into a term closer in meaning to a proto-state or political identity, rather than a tribal or ethnic designation and can no longer be considered synonymous with the Istvaeones. However from the Merovingian period it is clear, as for example reported by Gregory of Tours, that there was a "Frankish language" distinct from the Romance languages which continued to be spoken by much of the population in what would become France.

The Istvaeones as a linguistic grouping

The German linguist Friedrich Maurer (1898–1984), in his book "Nordgermanen und Alemannen", used the term Istvaeones to refer to a unattested proto-language, or dialectal grouping, ancestral to Old Frankish, Old Dutch and, at the very least, influenced several dialects of West Central German.

The Istvaeones as an archeological culture

Finds assigned to the Istvaeones are characterized by a greater heterogeneity than can be found in the other Germanic archaeological groupings. Their predominant burial type is the pyre grave. There are no richly equipped princely graves or weapons as grave goods to be found as, for example, occur with the neighboring Elbe Germanic groups. Scholars have speculated about whether weapons were used as "immaterial" grave goods  instead. In other words, weapons made of metal were placed on the pyre of a warrior, for example, but only his ashes were buried in the pyre grave. This is, however, a controversial thesis. Weapons as grave goods first appear in northern Gaul, i.e. on the Roman side of the Rhine, in burial graves, and are not found to the east of the Rhine until the Merovingian period.

References

Bibliography
 Grimm, Jacob (1835). Deutsche Mythologie (German Mythology); From English released version Grimm's Teutonic Mythology (1888); Available online by Northvegr © 2004-2007:Chapter 15, page 2-; 3. File retrieved 11-18-2015.
 Tacitus, Germania (1st Century AD). (in Latin)
 Friedrich Maurer (1942) Nordgermanen und Alemannen:  Studien zur germanische und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde, Strasbourg:  Hünenburg.

See also
List of Germanic peoples

Early Germanic peoples
Pre-Roman Iron Age

Istvaeones


Stephen William Hawking (8 Ocak 1942, Oxford - 14 Mart 2018, Cambridge), İngiliz fizikçi, kozmolog, astronom, teorisyen ve yazar.

Stephen Hawking, Einstein'dan bu yana dünyaya gelen en parlak teorik fizikçi olarak kabul edilmektedir. 12 onur derecesi almıştır. 1982'de CBE ile ödüllendirilmiş, bundan başka birçok madalya ve ödül almıştır. Royal Society'nin ve National Academy of Sciences (Amerikan Ulusal Bilimler Akademisi) üyesidir.

Hayatı
Hawking 8 Ocak 1942 yılında hayata gözlerini açmıştır. 8 yaşındayken Londra'dan 20 mil uzaktaki St Albans'a gitti. 11 yaşında St Albans okuluna kayıt oldu. İleride, "Size ilham veren bir öğretmeniniz oldu mu?" sorusuna, St Albans'ta öğretmeni olan Dikran Tahta'dan söz ederek cevap verecekti.

Hawking St Albans Okulu'ndan mezun olduktan sonra babasının eski okulu Oxford Üniversitesi kolejine devam etti. Babası onun tıp okumasını istiyordu, ancak o matematiği seviyordu. Fakat okulun matematik bölümü mevcut değildi. Bu yüzden onun yerine fizik öğrenimi görmeye başladı. Üç yıl sonra doğa bilimlerinde birinci sınıf onur madalyasıyla ödüllendirildi.

Hawking daha sonra kozmoloji (evrenbilim) üzerine çalışmak üzere Cambridge'e gitti. O zamanlar Oxford'da evren bilimi üzerine çalışma yoktu. Cambridge'de danışman olarak Fred Hoyle'u istemesine karşın Dennis Sciama atanmıştı. Doktorasını aldıktan sonra ilk önce araştırma asistanı, daha sonra Gonville and Caius College'da doçent oldu. 1973'te Gökbilim Enstitüsünden ayrılarak Uygulamalı matematik ve Kuramsal fizik bölümüne geçti. 1979'dan sonra matematik bölümünde Lucasian matematik profesörü oldu. Bu profesörlük 1663 yılında üniversite parlamento üyesi olan Henry Lucas tarafından kurulmuştu. İlk olarak Isaac Barrow sonra 1669'da Isaac Newton'a verilmişti.

Hawking evrenin temel ilkeleri üzerine çalıştı. Roger Penrose ile birlikte Einstein'ın Uzay ve Zamanı kapsayan Genel Görelilik Kuramının, Big Bang'le başlayıp karadeliklerle sonlandığını gösterdi. Bu sonuç Kuantum mekaniği ile Genel Görelilik Kuramı'nın birleştirilmesi gerektiğini ortaya koyuyordu. Bu yirminci yüzyılın ikinci yarısının en büyük buluşlarından biriydi. Bu birleşmenin bir sonucu da karadeliklerin aslında tamamen kara olmadığını, fakat radyasyon yayıp buharlaştıklarını ve görünmez olduklarını ortaya koyuyordu. Diğer bir sonuç da evrenin bir sonu ve sınırı olduğuydu. Bu da evrenin başlangıcının tamamen bilimsel kurallar çerçevesinde meydana geldiği anlamına geliyordu.

Stephen Hawking kuantum fiziği ve kara deliklerle ilgili iddialarıyla, bugün yaşayan bilim insanları arasında dünyada en çok tanınan isimdir. Kitapları, 40 dile çevrildi; evrenle ilgili çılgın teorik bilgilerini popüler hale getirmek için gereken maddi bağımsızlığı sağlayacak ve Cambridge Üniversitesi'ndeki uygulamalı matematik ve teorik fizik laboratuvarını geliştirecek kadar da sattı. Hawking, hastalığıyla gizemli bir kişilik oluşturmaktadır. Son kitabı "Ceviz Kabuğundaki Evren"de, dünyanın büyük bir felaket ile karşı karşıya kalabileceğini belirterek uzayda insan kolonileri kurulmasını gündeme getirmişti. Bir fenomen haline gelen ve milyonlarca satan "Zamanın Kısa Tarihi: Büyük Patlamadan Karadeliklere" kitabı, Hawking'e asıl şöhreti getirmişti. İlk kitabının yayımlanmasından bu yana gerçekleşen önemli buluşların ardındaki sırrı açığa çıkaran "Ceviz Kabuğundaki Evren", "Zamanın Kısa Tarihi"nin bir devamı sayılabilir. Yeni kitabıyla yazar, bizleri çoğu kez gerçeklerin kurmacadan daha şaşırtıcı olduğu teorik fiziğin en üst noktalarına çıkarıyor ve evrenin temel ilkelerine dair anlaşılır yorumlarda bulunuyor. Görelilik kuramından zaman yolculuğuna, süper kütleçekiminden Süpersimetriye, kuantum teorisinden M-Kuramı'na ve bütünsel beyin algılanımına kadar evrenin bilinen en kışkırtıcı sırlarına kapı aralayan kitap, Einstein'ın "Genel Görelilik Kuramı" ile Richard Feynman'ın çoklu geçmiş düşüncesini birleştirerek evrende olup bitenleri tanımlayabilecek eksiksiz ve tek bir teori geliştirmeye çalışıyor. Okur, kitabı bir bilimsel eser olarak algılayabileceği gibi, rahatlıkla bir bilimkurgu romanı gibi de değerlendirebilir. Hawking'in "karmaşık önermeleri günlük yaşamdan çekip aldığı analojilerle resmetme becerisi" buna imkân tanımaktadır. 2012'de "Büyük Tasarım" adlı kitabını da çıkartmıştır. Kitaplarında genellikle bir "Yaratan"ın varlığını reddeden Stephen Hawking, Her Şeyin Teorisi (Birleştirilmiş Alan Kuramı)'ne ulaşıldığı zaman, kainatın oluşum sürecinde, 'Tanrı' kavramına ihtiyaç olmadığını da net bir dille ifade eder.

Kişisel hayatı

Hastalığı
Stephen Hawking, amyotrofik lateral skleroz (ALS) hastalığının nadir görülen, erken kendini gösterip yavaş ilerleyen bir formundan muzdaripti. Bu hastalığın teşhisi 1963'te, Hawking 21 yaşındayken konuldu; doktorları tarafından Hawking'e iki yıllık ömür biçildi. Motor nöronların zamanla yüzde seksenini öldürerek sinir sistemini felç eden; ancak beynin zihinsel faaliyetlerine dokunmayan bu hastalık, Hawking'i tekerlekli sandalyede yaşamaya mahkûm etti. 1970'lerin sonlarında konuşma yetisi gittikçe de zayıflamaya başladı, bu dönemde sadece en yakınları tarafından anlaşılan Hawking'in dış dünyayla iletişimini dediklerini dinleyip tekrarlayan yakınları sağlamaktaydı. 1985'te CERN'i ziyaret ederken zatürre kaptı. Bu nedenle nefes borusuna delik açılması gerekti ve sesini tamamen yitirdi. 1986'dan itibaren koltuğuna yerleştirilmiş, yazıları sese dönüştürebilen bilgisayarı sayesinde insanlarla iletişim kurabildi. Bilimsel uğraşlarında ve günlük yaşantısında çevresinden ve ailesinden destek aldı. Konuşmak istediği anda, elindeki elektronik aleti sıkarak, sandalyesine bağlı özel bilgisayarının ekranına, dakikada ortalama 10 kelimeyi sıralayabilmekteydi. Bilgisayarının hafızasında yaklaşık 2600 kelime bulunmaktadır. Böylece herhangi bir kelimeyi söylemek istediğinde ekrana yazabilmekteydi. Sağlıklı insanların konuşmalarında kullandığı kelime sayısı da 2500 civarındadır. Dolayısıyla Hawking, duygularını ifade etmede kelime sıkıntısı çekmemekteydi. 2005'te el kaslarını hareket etme yetisini kaybetmesiyle yanağındaki kasları kullanarak kelime seçmeye başladı.

Ödülleri

 Albert Einstein Madalyası (1979)

Ölümü
14 Mart 2018 tarihinde sabaha karşı, Cambridge, İngiltere'deki evinde 76 yaşında öldü. Ailesi ölüm sebebi hakkında, "Huzur içinde öldü." açıklamasını yaptı. Stephen Hawking'in henüz 21 yaşındayken yakalandığı ve tedavisi olmayan ALS hastalığı yüzünden öldüğü düşünülmektedir.

Kişisel görüşleri
Hawking insanların 100 yıl içerisinde dünyayı terk etmesi ve farklı dünyalarda koloniler kurması gerektiğini söylemiştir. Hawking'e göre insanlar koloni kuramazlarsa hayatta kalamayacaktır.

Eserleri

Teknik
 Singularities in Collapsing Stars and Expanding Universes (D. W. Sciama ile birlikte), 1969 Comments on Astrophysics and Space Physics Vol 1 #1
 The Nature of Space and Time (Roger Penrose ile birlikte, Michael Atiyah'ın önsözüyle), New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-691-05084-8
 The Large Scale Structure of Spacetime (George Ellis ile birlikte), 1973 ISBN 0-521-09906-4
 The Large, the Small, and the Human Mind, (Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright ve Roger Penrose ile birlikte), Cambridge University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-521-56330-5 (hardback), ISBN 0-521-65538-2 (karton kapaklı), Canto edition: ISBN 0-521-78572-3
 Information Loss in Black Holes, Cambridge University Press, 2005
 God Created the Integers: The Mathematical Breakthroughs That Changed History, Running Press, 2005 ISBN 0-7624-1922-9

Popüler
 A Brief History of Time, (Bantam Press 1988) ISBN 0-553-05340-X
 Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays, (Bantam Books 1993) ISBN 0-553-37411-7
 The Universe in a Nutshell, (Bantam Press 2001) ISBN 0-553-80202-X
 On The Shoulders of Giants. The Great Works of Physics and Astronomy, (Running Press 2002) ISBN 0-7624-1698-X
 Zamanın Daha Kısa Tarihi, (Bantam Books 2005) ISBN 0-553-80436-7

Çocuk kitapları
 George's Secret Key To The Universe, Lucy Hawking ile birlikte (Random House, 2007) ISBN 978-0-385-61270-8
 George's Cosmic Treasure Hunt, (Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing, 2009) ISBN 978-1-4169-8671-3
 George and the Big Bang, (Doubleday, 2011) ISBN 978-0-385-61191-6

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Resmi sitesi
 Cambridge Üniversitesi
 Video : Stephen Hawking kainat hakkında büyük sorular soruyor
 Stephen Hawking: God didn't create universe

1942 doğumlular
Oxford doğumlular
20. yüzyıl filozofları
21. yüzyıl filozofları
İngiliz kozmologlar
İngiliz ateistler
Engelli İngilizler
Cambridge Üniversitesinde öğrenim görenler
Cambridge Üniversitesi öğretim üyeleri
Lucasian Matematik Profesörleri
University College, Oxford'da öğrenim görenler
Royal Society üyeleri
Ulusal Bilimler Akademisi üyeleri
Amerikan Felsefe Topluluğu üyeleri
2018 yılında ölenler
İngiliz anı yazarları
İngiliz bilimkurgu yazarları
Başkanlık Özgürlük Madalyası sahipleri
Kraliyet Astronomi Derneği Altın Madalyası sahipleri
Görelilik teorisyenleri
Wolf Fizik Ödülü sahipleri
İngiltere'de ölenler
20. yüzyıl İngiliz yazarları
20. yüzyıl astronomları
21. yüzyıl İngiliz yazarları
21. yüzyıl astronomları
Din eleştirmenleri
Motor nöron hastalığından ölenler
İskoç asıllı İngilizler
Order of the Companions of Honour
Albert Einstein Madalyası sahipleri
Britanya İmparatorluk Nişanı
İngiliz bilim yazarları
Royal Society of Arts üyeleri
Maxwell Madalyası sahipleri
Engelli bilim insanları
Ateist fizikçiler

Stephen Hawking


Gököz, Bursa ilinin Keles ilçesine bağlı bir mahalle.

Tarihçe
Yöredeki en eski üç mahalleden biri olduğu bilinen mahallenin tarihçesi ile ilgili Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri Dairesi Başkanlığına başvuruda bulunulmuştur. Araştırma sonuçlandırılmış ve tercüme edilmektedir. Kuruluşuyla ilgili kesin bir tarih olmasa da Osmanlı kayıtlarında Kite'ye bağlı gözükmektedir. 1953 yılında 5 km güneyindeki Keles'in ilce olmasıyla birlikte buraya bağlanmıştır.

Coğrafya
Bursa iline 54 km, Keles ilçesine 5 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar
 Gököz sitesi

Keles'in mahalleleri

Gököz, Keles


Cortinarius orellanus (Elias Magnus Fries, 1838) sin. Cortinarius rutilans (Lucien Quélet, 1898), Dermocybe orellana (Elias Magnus Fries ex Adalbert Ricken, 1915), este o specie de ciuperci otrăvitoare care face parte din încrengătura Basidiomycota, în ordinul Agaricales, familia Cortinariaceae și genul Cortinarius. Denumirea populară a speciei este pălăria nebunului sau cortinaria de munte. Alături de Cortinarius rubellus sin. speciosissimus și de Amanita phalloides este una din cele mai otrăvitoare ciuperci cunoscute, fiind absolut mortală chiar și în cazul consumului de numai 30 de grame de materie crudă.

Apariție
Acest Cortinarius coabitează cu diverse foioase, rareori cu conifere, fiind un simbiont micoriza (formează micorize pe rădăcinile arborilor). În România, Basarabia și Bucovina de Nord se dezvoltă sub fagi, stejari, aluni și castani comestibili, preferând căldura, favorizând soluri acide și nisipoase. El poate apărea din (iulie) august până la sfârșitul lui octombrie. Trăiește în Europa, Asia și Africa nordică.

Taxonomie
Numele binomial și cel curent valabil (2021) a fost determinat de către renumitul savant suedez Elias Magnus Fries în cartea sa Epicrisis systematis mycologici, seu synopsis hymenomycetum din 1838, dar soiul a căzut în uitare până în anii 1950. Toate celelalte încercări de redenumire precum variațiile descrise sunt acceptate drept sinonime.

Trebuie menționat că taxonul Cortinarius rutilans a lui Lucien Quélet (1897) și Dermocybe orellana a lui Adalbert Ricken (1915) mai sunt uzate în cărți micologice până în prezent.

Epitetul specific se trage de la nefrotoxinul orelanină (C10H8O6N2), hotărât de savantul polonez Stanisław Grzymala, din cauza concentrării mari a acestui venin în ciupercă.

Descriere

 Pălăria: fermă și puțin fibroasă cu un diametru de 3-7 (8,5) cm și cu o grosime de 1,5 cm în centru este la început conică, în formă de clopoțel cu marginea răsucită spre interior, devenind în cursul maturizării din ce în ce mai aplatizată, până când în cele din urmă este convexă și adesea cocoșată cu rupturi la marginea acum ascuțită, amintind astfel de bureți ai genului Inocybe. Cuticula este fin solzoasă dar ocazional și aspru pâsloasă, uscată, la umezeală lipicioasă până slab unsuroasă. Coloritul schimbă cu timpul de la palid portocaliu spre ruginiu. La sfârșitul dezvoltării precum prin umezeală apare maro sau brun-roșcat. La margine este aproape mereu mai deschis.
 Lamelele: sunt destul de groase, în special spre mijloc, asociate adesea foarte distanțat, intercalate și bifurcate, cu nervuri verticale, fiind ori rotunjit atașate sau ușor decurente cu un dinte la picior. Coloritul este ocru până ruginiu, după maturizarea sporilor, brun ca scorțișoara, din cauza decolorații acestora. Cortina vălului parțial în tinerețe este gălbui și numai slab pronunțat.
 Piciorul: solid și fibros radial cu o lungime de 4- 7 (9) cm, mai mult sau mai puțin cilindric precum puțin conic spre bază, dar nu rar cu o grosime în partea de sus de 1-1,7 (2) cm și în cea de jos de 0,8-1,2 cm, este plin pe dinăuntru, la bătrânețe uneori gol tubular. Suprafața netedă până mătăsoasă, striată vertical, are un colorit de fundal galben, spre vârf cu nuanțe portocalii, fiind spre bază mai maroniu. Nu prezintă un inel.
 Carnea: compactă și fibroasă este gălbuie până ocru închis, sub pălărie brun-roșcată, fiind repede năpădită de larvele Mycetophilidae-lor o familie din ordinul dipterelor. Mirosul slab de ridichi și gustul plăcut invită la consum.
Nu încercați-o niciodată, deoarece ingredientele pot afecta rinichii și ficatul!
 Caracteristici microscopice: are spori ocru-gălbui, alungit elipsoidali, cu pereți ceva groși, fin verucoși și structuri apicale cristaline, cu o mărime de 8,5-12,5 x 5,5-6,5 microni. Pulberea lor este maronie. Basidiile clavate cu 4 sterigme fiecare au o dimensiune de 15-20 x 8-9 microni. Pileocistidele (elemente sterile de pe suprafața pălăriei) au hife pigmentate brun cu cleme.
 Reacții chimice: Buretele se decolorează cu fenol brun-violet, cu Hidroxid de potasiu brun, cuticula brun-negricios, coaja piciorului brun-roșcat și carnea cu tinctură de Guaiacum încet slab verde-măsliniu.

Toxicitate
După ce descrierile lui Elias Magnus Fries au fost uitate sau neglijate, astfel acest burete extrem de toxic a fost considerat comestibil până în anii 1950. Atunci, în Polonia, a avut loc o epidemie de otrăvire între anii 1952 și 1957, care a afectat mai mult de 100 de persoane, dintre care multe au murit. A fost descoperit, că toți cei afectați au mâncat ciuperci din specia Cortinarius orellanus. Savantul polonez Stanisław Grzymala a creat apoi primul raport sistematic cu privire la otrăvirea prin acest burete în anii din 1953 la 1962, enumerând 136 de cazuri. Grzymala a izolat toxina din ciupercă și a numit-o în mod logic Orellanin. Cercetările dovedesc aceeași toxicitate pentru animale ca la om. Organele cele mai grav atacate au fost în toate cazurile rinichii.

Dar orellanina nu este singura toxină activantă, în afară de aceasta sunt conținute și polipeptide (în total zece) ca de exemplu phallatoxina și amatoxina. Deosebit de rău pentru persoana respectivă îmbolnăvită este perioada de latență lungă de 3-17 zile. În acest timp, rinichii sunt ireversibil distruși. S-a dovedit că cea mai lungă perioadă de incubare a durat 162 de zile.

Bureți similari
Familia Cortinariaceae este o familie foarte largă de ciuperci cu aparență tare diferită. Aici sunt arătate doar sorți cu caracter asemănător, între ele otrăvitoare, suspecte, comestibile sau incomestibile. Cine nu se pricepe, trebuie să evite neapărat culesul și consumul acestei specii. Cele mai multe confuzii cu ciuperci comestibile se întâmpla atunci când buretele este încă tânăr.Aici câteva exemple:

Imagini de bureți similari

Note

Bibliografie
 Bruno Cetto: "I funghi dal vero", vol. 1-7, Editura Arte Grafiche Saturnia, Trento 1976-1993 (pentru cercetarea în total)
 Marcel Bon: "Pareys Buch der Pilze", Editura Kosmos, Halberstadt 2012, p. 80-81, ISBN 978-3-440-13447-4
 Rose Marie Dähncke: "1200 Pilze in Farbfotos", Editura AT Verlag, Aarau 2004, ISBN 3-8289-1619-8
 René Flammer, Egon Horak: "Giftpilze – Pilzgifte. Pilzvergiftungen - . Ein Nachschlagewerk für Ärzte, Apotheker, Biologen, Mykologen, Pilzexperten und Pilzsammler", Editura  Schwabe, Basel 2003, ISBN 3-7965-2008-1
 Ewald Gerhard: "Der große BLV Pilzführer" (cu 1200 de specii descrise și 1000 fotografii), Editura BLV Buchverlag GmbH & Co. KG, ediția a 9-a, München 2018, ISBN 978-3-8354-1839-4
 Jean-Louis Lamaison & Jean-Marie Polese: "Der große Pilzatlas", Editura Tandem Verlag GmbH, Potsdam 2012, ISBN 978-3-8427-0483-1
 German Josef Krieglsteiner, Andreas Gminder: "Die Großpilze Baden-Württembergs", vol. 5: "Ständerpilze. Blätterpilze III", Editura Ulmer, Stuttgart 2010, ISBN 978-3-8001-3572-1
 J. E. și M. Lange: "BLV Bestimmungsbuch - Pilze", Editura BLV Verlagsgesellschaft, München, Berna Viena 1977, ISBN 3-405-11568-2
 Till E. Lohmeyer & Ute Künkele: "Pilze – bestimmen und sammeln", Editura Parragon Books Ltd., Bath 2014, ISBN 978-1-4454-8404-4
 Meinhard Michael Moser în Helmut Gams: "Die Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze (Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Russulales)", ediția a 5-a, Editura VEB Fischer, Jena 1983, cu 429 ilustrații

Legături externe

 Cortinarius orellanus, film în limba italiană 1
 Cortinarius orellanus, film în limba italiană 2

Cortinarius
Micoriză
Ciuperci otrăvitoare
1838 în știință

Cortinarius orellanus


Salda Gölü, Burdur'un Yeşilova ilçesinde, ilçe merkezine 4 km uzaklıkta, ormanla kaplı tepeler, kayalık araziler ve küçük alüvyal ovalarla çevrili hafif tuzlu karstik bir göldür. Göller Yöresi içinde, dışa akışı olmayan kapalı havzalı yapıdadır. Yüzölçümü yaklaşık 44 kilometrekaredir. 184 metreye varan derinliği ile Türkiye'nin 3. en derin gölüdür. Gölde oluşan hidromanyezit minerali "biyolojik mineralizasyon" un en güzel ve güncel örneklerinden biridir.

Salda gölü, 14.03.2019 tarih ve 824 sayılı Cumhurbaşkanı Kararı ile Özel Çevre Koruma Bölgesi olarak tespit ve ilan edilmiş, 15.03.2019 tarih ve 30715 sayılı Resmi Gazete'de yayımlanmıştır.

İklimi

Salda gölü ve çevresinde Akdeniz iklimi hakimdir. Ortalama sıcaklık 15 °C'dir. En sıcak ayı olan Ağustos'da sıcaklık 30 °C'ye çıkarken en soğuk ayı Ocak ayında sıcaklık ortalaması 2 °C'ye düşer. En çok yağış olan ayı Ocakda yağış miktarı 162 mm iken en az yağış alan ayında, Temmuzda 16 mm yağış ortalamasına sahiptir.

Genel özellikleri
Suyunun temizliği ve turkuaz rengiyle oluşan güzel manzaranın yanı sıra, güneybatı ve güneydoğu kıyılarında yer alan küçük kumsallar alanın rekreaktif amaçlı kullanımına olanak sağlamaktadır. Salda Gölü Burdur ilinin yaklaşık 60 km batısında yer alır. Türkiye'nin en derin, en temiz, en berrak özelliklere sahip gölü olarak tanınıyor. Deniz seviyesinden yüksekliği 1140 m'dir. Göl suyunun terkibinde magnezyum, soda ve kil bulunması bazı cilt hastalıklarının tedavisinde yararlı sonuçlara sebep oluyor. Uzmanların yaptığı araştırmalara göre göl suyu sivilcelere iyi geliyor. Gölün arka kısmında kalan orman örtüsü keklik, tavşan, tilki, yaban domuzu, göl ise yaban ördeklerine ev sahipliği yapıyor. Göl içindeki suların çekilmesiyle görülmeye başlayan yedi beyaz ada bulunmaktadır.

Flora ve fauna
Kış aylarında önemli sayılarda barındırdığı pasbaş, patka ve dik kuyruk ördek Salda Gölü'nün uluslararası öneme sahip sulak alanlar içerisinde yer almasını sağlamaktadır. Çevresi karaçam ormanlarıyla çevrili olup plajları vardır. Gölde dört balık (sazan, ot balığı, Salda yosunbalığı, çamur balığı), damalı su yılanı, ova kurbağası yaşar. Ot balığı Burdur'a, Salda yosunbalığı Salda Gölü'ne endemiktir.

Hidrolojik özellikleri
Salda Gölü, sert su ve çok yüksek alkalin özelliğine sahip bir göldür. Trofik durum indeksine göre besin maddesince fakir, oligotrofik özelliktedir. Fazlaca düşük azot ve fosfat ürünleri ve bunun sonucunda çok düşük klorofil a yoğunluğuna sahip olması bunun göstergesidir.

Salda gölü akarsular, yüzeye düşen yağış, yeraltısuları ile beslenir, buharlaşma ile su kaybeder. Gölün alan ve seviyesi yağışlara göre yıllar içinde değişir. Salda (Karakova) Dere, Doğanbaba Deresi, Köpek Deresi gibi sürekli akarsular ve Karanlık Deresi, Kuruçay, Kayadibi Deresi gibi mevsimlik akarsular Salda Gölü'ne dökülür. Son 20 yıldır, göl seviyesinde 3-4 metreyi bulan bir çekilme olmuştur. Hâlen çekilme devam etmektedir.

Gölün doğusunda Yeşilova ilçesi, güneybatısında Salda, kuzeybatısında Doğanbaba ve kuzeydoğusunda Kayadibi köyleri yer almaktadır. Salda Gölü ve çevresi, 14.06.1989'da 1. derece Doğal Sit Alanı olarak tescil edilmiş ve koruma altına alınmış, daha sonra Antalya Kültür ve Tabiat Varlıkları Kurulunun 28.07.1992 tarih ve 1501 sayılı kararıyla, Salda Gölü kıyısındaki bazı mahaller, 2. derece Doğal Sit Alanı olarak tescil edilmiştir. 2012 yılında mesire yeri olarak kullanılan göl çevresindeki 12 ha alan Salda Gölü Tabiat Parkı ilan edilmiştir.

Galeri

Ayrıca bakınız
 Oluşumlarına göre Türkiye'nin gölleri listesi
 Türkiye'deki göller

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
 Uzaydan Salda gölü
 www.saldagolu.com

Burdur'daki göller
Göller Yöresi
Krater gölleri
Yeşilova
Türkiye'deki Önemli Kuş Alanları
Türkiye'deki göller

Salda Gölü


An Lipocarpha prieuriana in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Ernst Gottlieb von Steudel. An Lipocarpha prieuriana in nahilalakip ha genus nga Lipocarpha, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Lipocarpha

Lipocarpha prieuriana


Le makech ou maquech est un bijou d'insectes vivants du Yucatán, plus particulièrement une broche fabriquée à partir d'un coléoptère du genre Zopheridae, l'espèce .

La légende
Le makech serait lié à une légende maya du Yucatán impliquant une ancienne princesse et son amant, mais il n'y a pas de sources à cette légende. L'histoire comporte plusieurs variantes, mais les plus populaires racontent que leur amour fut interdit et que la princesse eut le cœur brisé lorsqu'ils furent découverts et que son amant fut condamné à mort. Un chaman transforma alors l'homme en un scarabée qui pouvait être décoré et porté sur le cœur de la princesse en souvenir de leur lien éternel.

La tradition
Si le port d'un tel type de broche est attesté chez les Mayas, il a connu un boom lors de l'essor de l' (le henequen est transformé en textile sous diverses formes pour obtenir une gamme de produits à usage domestique, commercial, agricole et industriel,) au  qui apporta prospérité à la région et permit des transformations luxueuses dans la vie quotidienne, l'habillement et l'architecture. Cette tradition est ensuite redevenue à la mode dans les

Décoration
Si à l'origine les broches étaient décorées de pierres précieuses, elles sont aujourd'hui recouvertes de babioles, et attachées sur le côté gauche du chemisier d'une femme par une petite chaîne fixée à une épingle.

Zopherus chilensis
Son aire de répartition s'étend du Nord de la Colombie et du Venezuela au centre-sud du Mexique, où il préfère rester autour du bois en décomposition dans les régions relativement chaudes et arides

Zopherus chilensis ne présente pas de dimorphisme sexuel et peut mesurer jusqu'à  de long. Il ne vole pas et ne se déplace pas rapidement, est très résistant et peut vivre plusieurs mois sans eau. Son cycle de vie est très lent et il se reproduit rarement.

Pour le conserver, il est conseillé d'avoir un terrarium chaud et sec avec des bûches couvertes de lichen.

Impact
Cette pratique traditionnelle est controversée car son extraction à l'état sauvage a considérablement diminué les populations, qui ne bénéficient pas d'un statut de protection et ne se reproduisent pas en captivité.

Cet usage est aussi critiqué car il peut être assimilé à de la maltraitance animale.

Une autre problématique est que de nombreux touristes étrangers les ramènent dans leur pays, et qu'il y a un risque que dans certains lieux elle devienne une espèce invasive ou qu'elle soit vectrice de maladies. Des autorisations sont normalement nécessaires pour franchir les frontières, et, par exemple, plusieurs spécimens confisqués sont, avec leurs décorations, parmi les collections de coléoptères du musée national d'histoire naturelle des États-Unis de Washington.

Notes et références

Broche
Insecte dans la culture
Culture au Yucatán
Mode féminine

Makech


Rîpa Adîncă este un monument al naturii de tip geologic sau paleontologic în raionul Ocnița, Republica Moldova. Este amplasat la marginea nordică a satului Verejeni. Are o suprafață de 6 ha. Obiectul este administrat de Întreprinderea Agricolă "Nistru".

Referințe

Adîncă, Rîpa
Raionul Ocnița

Rîpa Adîncă


Kinesko-indijski rat, bio je oružani sukob koji je trajao od listopada do studenog 1962. a nastao je zbog graničnih sporova između Narodne Republike Kine i Republike Indije. Završio je kineskom pobjedom. Odigravao se u sjeni tadašnje Kubanske raketne krize. Vodio se istovremeno na dva bojišta udaljena 1000 kilometara: Zapadnom bojištu za Aksai Čin i Istočnom bojištu na području tzv. "Sjeveroistočne granične agencije", odnosno indijske savezne države Arunachal Pradesh, odnosno na nadmorskim visinama od nekoliko tisuća metara.

Pozadina
Rat je nastao kao rezultat graničnih sporova koji su svoje korijene imali u vremenima britanske kolonijalne administracije u Indiji.  Konkretno, glavni spor je nastao oko tzv. McMahonove crte, koju je 1914. predložio britanski diplomat Henry Mc Mahon. Britanci su svoje prste u Tibetu imali još od 1904. kada su ga okupirali, da bi kasnije priznali Kini pravo na njega, no kad je u Kini 1911. izbila revolucija, Dalaj Lama je preuzeo vlast u Tibetu, što su 1914. priznali i Britanci. 1914. sazvana je tzv. "Simla konferencija", koja se vodla tripartitno između Indije, Kine i Tibeta, kako bi se odredile granice. Na konferenciji je predložena Mc Mahonova crta s kojim su se složile britanska i tibetska strana, no ne i Kina, koja je Tibet smatrala svojim teritorijem još od vremena Qing dinastije. Kad su se Kinezi tome usprotivili, Britanci i Tibećani dogovor su sklopili bilateralno a teritorij južno od te crte za britansku stranu postao je dio Britanske Indije.

1947. Indija je postala nezavisna, čime je naslijedila granicu, a dvije godine kasnije završio je i Kineski građanski rat u kojem su komunisti preuzeli vlast koja se konsoidirala nakon stoljeća nemira i mlitave državne vlasti.

1950. Kinezi su pokrenuli invaziju na Tibet, kojom su ga osvojili i anektirali. U idućim godinama Kinezi su čak i bili spremni prihvatiti Mc Mahonovu crtu pod uvjetom da Indija odustane od Aksai Čina, što Indijci nisu bili voljni napraviti. Kinezima je ova regija bila važna radi cestovnog povezivanja svojih zapadnih provincija (npr. Xinjiang) s državnim centrima na istoku. Novi problemi nastali su 1959. kad je Indija pružila azil Dalaj Lami, koji je iz Tibeta pobjegao u Indiju, na ogorčenje Kineza. Nakon što su Kinezi počeli graditi ceste u Aksai Činu, indijski premijer Nehru, krenuo je s politikom prednje vojne prisutnosti (tzv. forward policy), zbog čega je Indijska vojska počela graditi manje vojne baze na kineskom teritoriju unutar spornih područja.

Rat

Od jeseni 1962. zaredali su se granični incidenti. Narodnooslobodilačka armija Kine 20. listopada pokrenula je sinkronizirani napad na obje fronte, koji je nakon četiri dana rezultirao zauzimanjem strateški važnog grada Tawanga na istočnom bojištu u Arunachal Pradeshu. Na zapadnoj, pak fronti, u Aksai Činu, Kinezi su također zauzeli 43 000 km2 teritorija. 14. studenog indijska je vojska pokušala izbaciti NOV Kine iz istočnog dijela spornih područja, što je rezultiralo pokretanjem masovnog kineskog napada u tom sektoru pod kojim su indijski položaji ostali "pregaženi" a snage NOV Kine zaustavile su napredovanje tek kad su stigle do podnožja Himalaja u dolini rijeke Brahmaputra. Do 21. studenog, Kineske su se snage jednostrano proglasile prekid vatre te se povukle s indijskog teritorija na istočnom dijelu bojišta, iza McMahonove linije, no ne i s novoosvojenih područja u Aksai Činu, koji su ostali pod njihovom kontrolom do današnjih dana.

Posljedice
Nakon rata, Nehru je pretrpio kritike u svojoj državi da je isprovocirao rat s Kinom bez adekvatne pripreme, te da u ratu nije koristio zrakoplovstvo u kojem je Indija bila nadmoćnaa nad Kinom. Raspale su se i perspektive za stvaranje tzv. "Azijskog bloka" između Kine i Indije kojim bi se dvije države oduprle dvijema glavnim blokovima u hladnom ratu.

Izvori

Hladni rat
Indijska vojna povijest
Indijsko-kineski odnosi
Indijski

Kinesko – indijski rat