An ambigram is a calligraphic composition of glyphs (letters, numbers, symbols or other shapes) that can yield different meanings depending on the orientation of observation. Most ambigrams are visual palindromes that rely on some kind of symmetry, and they can often be interpreted as visual puns.

The term was coined by Douglas Hofstadter in 1983–1984. Most often, ambigrams appear as visually symmetrical words. When flipped, they remain unchanged, or they mutate to reveal another meaning. "Half-turn" ambigrams undergo a point reflection (180-degree rotational symmetry) and can be read upside down, while mirror ambigrams have axial symmetry and can be read through a reflective surface like a mirror. Many other types of ambigrams exist.

Ambigrams can be constructed in various languages and alphabets, and the notion often extends to numbers and other symbols. It is a recent interdisciplinary concept, combining art, literature, mathematics, cognition, and optical illusions. Drawing symmetrical words constitutes also a recreational activity for amateurs. Numerous ambigram logos are famous, and ambigram tattoos have become increasingly popular. There are methods to design an ambigram, a field in which some artists have become specialists.

Etymology

The word ambigram was coined in 1983 by Douglas Hofstadter, an American scholar of cognitive science best known as the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of the book Gödel, Escher, Bach.
It is a neologism composed of the Latin prefix ambi- ("both") and the Greek suffix -gram ("drawing, writing").

Hofstadter describes ambigrams as "calligraphic designs that manage to squeeze in two different readings." "The essence is imbuing a single written form with ambiguity".

Hofstadter attributes the origin of the word ambigram to conversations among a small group of friends in 1983.

Prior to Hofstadter's terminology, other names were used to refer to ambigrams. Among them, the expressions "vertical palindromes" by Dmitri Borgmann (1965) and Georges Perec, "designatures" (1979), "inversions" (1980) by Scott Kim, or simply "upside-down words" by John Langdon and Robert Petrick.

Ambigram was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in March 2011, and to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in September 2020.
Scrabble included the word in its database in November 2022.

History

Many ambigrams can be described as graphic palindromes.

The first Sator square palindrome was found in the ruins of Pompeii, meaning it was created before the Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
A sator square using the mirror writing for the representation of the letters S and N was carved in a stone wall in Oppède (France) between the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages, thus producing a work made up of 25 letters and 8 different characters, 3 naturally symmetrical (A, T, O), 3 others decipherable from left to right (R, P, E), and 2 others from right to left (S, N). This engraving is therefore readable in four directions.

Although the term is recent, the existence of mirror ambigrams has been attested since at least the first millennium. They are generally palindromes stylized to be visually symmetrical.

In ancient Greek, the phrase  (wash the sins, not only the face), is a palindrome found in several locations, including the site of the church Hagia Sophia in Turkey. It is sometimes turned into a mirror ambigram when written in capital letters with the removal of spaces, and the stylization of the letter  ().

A boustrophedon is a type of bi-directional text, mostly seen in ancient manuscripts and other inscriptions. Every other line of writing is flipped or reversed, with reversed letters. Rather than going left-to-right as in modern European languages, or right-to-left as in Arabic and Hebrew, alternate lines in boustrophedon must be read in opposite directions. Also, the individual characters are reversed, or mirrored. This two-way writing system reveals that modern ambigrams can have quite ancient origins, with an intuitive component in some minds.

Mirror writing in Islamic calligraphy flourished during the early modern period, but its origins may stretch as far back as pre-Islamic mirror-image rock inscriptions in the Hejaz.

The earliest known non-natural rotational ambigram dates to 1893 by artist Peter Newell. Although better known for his children's books and illustrations for Mark Twain and Lewis Carroll, he published two books of reversible illustrations, in which the picture turns into a different image entirely when flipped upside down. The last page in his book Topsys & Turvys contains the phrase The end, which, when inverted, reads Puzzle. In Topsys & Turvys Number 2 (1902), Newell ended with a variation on the ambigram in which The end changes into Puzzle 2.

In March 1904 the Dutch-American comic artist Gustave Verbeek used ambigrams in three consecutive strips of The UpsideDowns of old man Muffaroo and little lady Lovekins. His comics were ambiguous images, made in such a way that one could read the six-panel comic, flip the book and keep reading.

From June to September 1908, the British monthly The Strand Magazine published a series of ambigrams by different people in its "Curiosities" column. Of particular interest is the fact that all four of the people submitting ambigrams believed them to be a rare property of particular words. Mitchell T. Lavin, whose "chump" was published in June, wrote, "I think it is in the only word in the English language which has this peculiarity," while Clarence Williams wrote, about his "Bet" ambigram, "Possibly B is the only letter of the alphabet that will produce such an interesting anomaly."

Characteristics

Natural ambigrams

In the Latin alphabet, many letters are symmetrical glyphs. The capital letters B, C, D, E, H, I, K, O, and X have a horizontal symmetry axis. This means that all words that can be written using only these letters are natural lake reflection ambigrams. For example, BOOK, CHOICE, or DECIDE.

The lowercase letters l, o, s, x and z are rotationally symmetrical, while pairs such as b/q, d/p, m/w, n/u, and in some typefaces h/y and a/e, are rotations of each other. Thus, the words "sos", "pod", "suns", "yeah", "swims", "dollop", or "passed"  form natural rotational ambigrams.

More generally, a "natural ambigram" is a word that possesses one or more symmetries when written in its natural state, requiring no typographic styling. The words "bud", "bid", or "mom", form natural mirror ambigrams when reflected over a vertical axis, as does "ليبيا", the name of the country Libya in Arabic. The words "HIM", "TOY, "TOOTH" or "MAXIMUM", in all capitals, form natural mirror ambigrams when their letters are stacked vertically and reflected over a vertical axis. The uppercase word "OHIO" can flip a quarter to produce a 90° rotational ambigram when written in serif style (with large "feet" above and below the "I").

Like all strobogrammatic numbers, 69 is a natural rotational ambigram.

Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. Similarly, patterns in ambigrams are regularities found in graphemes.
As a consequence to this "natural" property, some shapes appear more or less appropriate to handle for the designer. Ambigram candidates can become "almost natural", when all the letters except maybe one or two are symmetrically cooperative, for example the word "awesome" possesses 5 compatible letters (the central s that flips around itself, and the couples a/e and w/m).

Single words or several words
A symmetrical ambigram can be called "homogram" (contraction of "homo-ambigram") when it remains unchanged after reflection, and "heterogram" when it transforms. In the most common type of ambigram, the two interpretations arise when the image is rotated 180 degrees with respect to each other (in other words, a second reading is obtained from the first by simply rotating the sheet).

Single word ambigrams

Douglas Hofstadter coined the word "homogram" to define an ambigram with identical letters. In this case, the first half of the word turns into the last half.

Several words

A symmetrical ambigram is called "heterogram" (contraction of "hetero-ambigram") when it gives another word.
Visually, a heterogram ambigram is symmetrical only when both versions of the pairing are shown together. The aesthetical appearance is more difficult to design, when a changing ambigram aims to be revealed in one way only, alternatively or separately, because symmetry generally enhances elegance. Technically, there are twice more combinations of letters involved in a hetero-ambigram than in a homo-ambigram. For example, the 180° rotational ambigram "yeah" contains only two pairs of letters: y/h and e/a, whereas the heterogram "yeah / good" contains four : y/d, e/o, a/o, and h/g.

A single word ambigram cannot be hetero-, but a multiple words ambigram can be homo- type if the letters overlapse, like in "upsidedown" written attached, for example. The ambigram saying "upsidedown" one way and "upsidedown" again the other way, means it is a two words homogram. But the ambigram saying "upside" one way and "down" after rotation, means it is a two words heterogram.

There is no limitation to the number of words potentially associable, and full ambigram sentences have even been published.

Types

Ambigrams are exercises in graphic design that play with optical illusions, symmetry and visual perception.
Some ambigrams feature a relationship between their form and their content. Ambigrams usually fall into one of several categories.

180° rotational ambigrams

"Half-turn" ambigrams or point reflection ambigrams, commonly called "upside-down words", are 180° rotational symmetrical calligraphies. We can read them right side up or upside down, or both.

Mirror ambigrams

A mirror ambigram, or reflection ambigram, is a design that can be read when reflected in a mirror vertically, horizontally, or at 45 degrees, giving either the same word or another word or phrase.

Vertical axis reflection ambigrams

When the reflecting surface is vertical (like a mirror for example), the calligraphic design is a vertical axis mirror ambigram.

The "museum" ambigram is almost natural with mirror symmetry, because the first two letters are easily exchanged with the last two, and the lowercase letter e can be transformed into s by a fairly obvious typographical acrobatics.

Vertical axis mirror ambigrams find clever applications in mirror writing (or specular writing), that is formed by writing in the direction that is the reverse of the natural way for a given language, such that the result is the mirror image of normal writing: it appears normal when it is reflected in a mirror. For example, the word "ambulance" could be read frontward and backward in a vertical axis reflective ambigram. Following this idea, the French artist Patrice Hamel created a mirror ambigram saying "entrée" (entrance, in French) one way, and "sortie" (exit) the other way, displayed in the giant glass façade of the Gare du Nord in Paris, so that the travelers coming in read entrance, and those leaving read way out.

Horizontal axis reflection ambigrams

When the reflecting surface is horizontal (like a mirroring lake for example), the calligraphic design is a horizontal axis mirror ambigram.

The book Ambigrams Revealed features several creations of this type, like the word "Failure" mirroring in the water of a pond to give "Success", or "Love" changing into "Lust".

Figure-ground ambigrams

In a figure / ground ambigram, letters fit together so the negative space around and between one word spells another word.

In Gestalt psychology, figure–ground perception is known as identifying a figure from the background. For example, black words on a printed paper are seen as the "figure", and the white sheet as the "background".
In ambigrams, the typographic space of the background is used as negative space to form new letters and new words. For example, inside a capital H, one can easily insert a lowercase i.

The oil painting You & Me (US) by John Langdon (1996) belongs to this category. The word "me" fills the space between the letters of "you".

Ambigram tessellations

With Escher-like tessellations associated to word patterns, ambigrams can be oriented in three, four, and up to six directions via rotational symmetries of 120°, 90° and 60° respectively, such as those created by French artist Alain Nicolas. Some words can also transform in the negative space, but the multiplication of constraints often has the effect of reducing either the readability or the complexity of the designed words.

Ambigram tessellations are word puzzles, in which geometry sets the rules.

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Chain ambigrams

A chain ambigram is a design where a word (or sometimes words) are interlinked, forming a repeating chain.
Letters are usually overlapped: a word will start partway through another word.
Sometimes chain ambigrams are presented in the form of a circle.
For example, the chain "...sunsunsunsun..." can flip upside down, but not the word "sun" alone, written horizontally.
A chain ambigram can be constituted of one to several elements. A single element ambigram chain is like a snake eating its own tail. A two-elements ambigram chain is like a snake eating the neighbor's tail with the neighbor eating the first snake's, and so on.

Scott Kim's "Infinity" works, and that of John Langdon "Chain reaction", are also self-referential, since the first is infinite in the literal sense of the word, and the second, both reversible at 180° and interfering around the letter O, evokes a chain reaction.

Spinonyms

A  is a type of ambigram in which a word is written using the same glyph repeated in different orientations.
WEB is an example of a word that can easily be made into a spinonym.

Perceptual shift ambigrams

Perceptual shift ambigrams, also called "oscillation" ambigrams, are designs with no symmetry but can be read as two different words depending on how the curves of the letters are interpreted. These ambigrams work on the principle of rabbit-duck-style ambiguous images.

For example Douglas Hofstadter expresses the dual nature of light as revealed by physics with his perceptual shift ambigram Wave / Particle.

90° rotational ambigrams

"Quarter-turn" ambigrams or 90° rotational ambigrams turn clockwise or counterclockwise to express different meanings. For example, the letter U can turn into a C and reciprocally, or the letters M or W into an E.

Totem ambigrams

A totem ambigram is an ambigram whose letters are stacked like a totem, most often offering a vertical axis mirror symmetry.
This type helps when several letters fit together, but hardly the whole word.
For example, in the , the letters M, A and I are individually symmetrical, and the pairing R/A is almost naturally mirroring.
When adequately stacked, the 5 letters produce a nice totem ambigram, whereas the whole name "Maria" would not offer the same cooperativeness.

The ambigrammist artist John Langdon designed several totemic assemblages, such as the word "METRO" composed of the symmetrical letter M, then section ETR, and below O; or the sentence "THANK YOU", vertical assembly of T, H, A, then of the symmetric NK couple, then finally Y, O, U.

Fractal ambigrams

In mathematics, a fractal is a geometrical shape that exhibits invariance under scaling.
A piece of the whole, if enlarged, has the same geometrical features as the entire object itself.
A fractal ambigram is a sort of space-filling ambigrams where the tiled word branches from itself and then shrinks in a self-similar manner, forming a fractal.
In general, only a few letters are constrainted in a fractal ambigram. The other letters don't need to look like any other, and thus can be shaped freely.

3-dimensional ambigrams

A 3D ambigram is a design where an object is presented that will appear to read several letters or words when viewed from different angles.
Such designs can be generated using constructive solid geometry, a technique used in solid modeling, and then physically constructed with the rapid prototyping method.

3-dimensional ambigram sculptures can also be achieved in plastic arts. They are volume ambigrams.

The original 1979 edition of Hofstadter's Gödel, Escher, Bach featured two 3-D ambigrams on the cover.

Complex ambigrams

Complex ambigrams are ambigrams involving more than one symmetry, or satisfying the criteria for several types. For example, a complex ambigram can be both rotational and mirror with a 4-fold dihedral symmetry. Or a spinonym that reads upside down is also a complex ambigram.

Symbols

Other languages

Ambigrams exist in many languages. With the Latin alphabet, they generally mix lowercase and uppercase letters. But words can also be symmetrical in other alphabets, like Arabic, Bengali, Cyrillic, Greek, and even in Chinese characters and Japanese kanji.

In Korean, 곰 (bear) and 문 (door), 공 (ball) and 운 (luck), or 물 (water) and 롬 (ROM) form a natural rotational ambigram. Some syllables like 응 (yes), 표 (ticket/signage) or 를 (object particle), and words like "허리피라우" (straighten your back) also make full ambigrams.

The han character meaning "hundred" is written 百, that makes a natural 90° rotational ambigram when the glyph makes a quarter turn counterclockwise, one sees "100".

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Numbers

An ambigram of numbers, or numeral ambigram, contains numerical digits, like 1, 2, 3...

In mathematics, a palindromic number (also known as a numeral palindrome) is a number that remains the same when its digits are reversed through a vertical axis (but not necessarily visually). The palindromic numbers containing only 1, 8, and 0, constitute natural numeric ambigrams (visually symmetrical through a mirror). Also, because the glyph 2 is graphically the mirror image of 5, it means numbers like 205 or 85128 are natural numeral mirror ambigrams. Though not palindromic in the mathematical sense, they read frontward and backward like real ambigrams.

A strobogrammatic number is a number whose numeral is rotationally symmetric, so that it appears the same when rotated 180 degrees. The numeral looks the same right-side up and upside down (e.g., 69, 96, 1001).

Some dates are natural numeral ambigrams.
In March 1961, artist Norman Mingo created an upside-down cover for Mad magazine featuring an ambigram of the current year. The title says "No matter how you look at it... it's gonna be a Mad year. 1961, the first upside-down year since 1881."
Tuesday, 22 February 2022, was a palindrome and ambigram date called "Twosday" because it contained reversible 2 (two).

Ambigrams of numbers receive most attention in the realm of recreational mathematics.

Ambigrams with numbers sometimes combine letters and numerical digits. Because the number 5 is approximately shaped like the letter S, the number 6 like a lowercase b, the number 9 like the letter g, it is possible to play on these similarities to design ambigrams. A good example is the Sochi 2014 (Olympic games) logo where the four glyphs contained in 2014 are exact symmetries of the four letters S, o, i and h, individually.

Other symbols

As alphabet letters are glyphs used in the writing systems to express the languages visually, other symbols are also used in the world to code other fields, like the prosigns in the Morse code or the musical notes in music.

Similarly to the ambigrams of letters, the ambigrams with other symbols are generally visually symmetrical, either point reflective or reflective through an axis.

The international Morse code distress signal  SOS  is a natural ambigram constituted of dots and dashes. It flips upside down or through a mirror.

In morse code, the letter P coded  and the letter R coded  are individually symmetrical, like many other letters and numbers. Also, the letter G coded  is the exact reverse of the letter W coded . Thus, the combination  /  coding the pairing G/W constitutes a natural ambigram. Consequently, meaningful natural ambigrams written in morse code certainly exist, like for example the words "wog"  , "Dou"    or "mom"   .

In music, the interlude from Alban Berg's opera Lulu is a palindrome, thus the score made up of musical notes is almost symmetrical through a vertical axis.

In biology, researchers study the ambigrammatic property of narnaviruses by using visual representations of the symmetrical sequences.

Fields

Art

Calligraphy and typography

Instead of simply writing them, ambigram lettering covers the art of drawing letters. In ambigram calligraphy, each letter acts as an illustration, each letter is created with attention to detail and has a unique role within a composition. Lettering ambigrams do not translate into combinations of alphabet letters that can be used like a typeface, since they are created with a specific candidate in mind.

The calligrapher, graffiti writer and graphic designer Niels Shoe Meulman created several rotational ambigrams like the number "fifty", the names "Shoe / Patta", and the opposition "Love / Fear".

The cover of the 7th volume of the typography book Typism is an ambigram drawn by Nikita Prokhorov.

The  American type designer Mark Simonson designed poetic and humorous ambigrams, such as the words "Revelation", "Typophile", and the symbiosis "Drink / Drunk". The last one makes a visual pun when printed on a shot glass, sold commercially.

Logos

Since they are visually striking, and sometimes surprising, ambigram words find large application in corporate logos and wordmarks, setting the visual identity of many organizations, trademarks and brands.

In 1968 or 1969, Raymond Loewy designed the rotational  ambigram logo.

The mirror ambigram DeLorean Motor Company logo, designed by Phil Gibbon, was first used in 1975.

Robert Petrick designed the invertible Angel logo in 1976.

The logo Sun (Microsystems) designed by professor Vaughan Pratt in 1982 fulfills the criteria of several types: chain ambigram, spinonym, 90° and 180° rotational symmetries.

The Swedish pop group ABBA owns a mirror ambigram logo stylized AᗺBA with a reversed B, designed by  in 1976.

The Ventura logo of the Visitors & Convention Bureau's board, in California, cost  and was created in 2014 by the DuPuis group. It uses a 180° rotational symmetry.

Other famous ambigram logos include:
the insurance company Aviva;
the acronym CRD (Capital Regional District) in the Canadian province of British Columbia;
the American multinational corporation DXC Technology;
the two-sided marketplace for residential cleaning Handy;
the brand name of French premium high-speed train services InOui;
the French company specializing in ticketing and passenger information systems IXXI;
the century-old brand Maoam of the confectionery manufacturer Haribo;
the American industrial rock band NIͶ;
the Japanese food company Nissin;
the biotechnology company Noxxon Pharma, founded in 1997;
the online travel agency Opodo in 2001;
the brand of food products OXO born in 1899;
the video game Pod;
the American developer and manufacturer of audio products Sonos;
the American professional basketball team Phoenix Suns;
the German manufacturer of adhesive products UHU;
the quadruple symmetrical logo UA from the American clothing brand  Under Armour ;
the Canadian corporation mandated to operate intercity passenger rail service VIA in 1978;
the American international broadcaster VOA, born in 1942;
and the Malaysian mobile virtual network operator XOX. The student edition of the Tesco Clubcard used 180° rotational symmetry.

Visual communication

Because they are visual puns, ambigrams generally attract attention, and thus can be used in visual communication to broadcast a marketing or political message.

In France, a mirror ambigram "Penelope / benevole" legible through a horizontal axis became a meme on the web after its diffusion on Wikimedia Commons.
Penelope Fillon, wife of French politician and former Prime Minister of France François Fillon, is suspected of having received wages for a fictitious job. Ironically, her name through the mirror becomes benevole (voluntary in French), suggesting dedication for a free service. Shared tens of thousands of times on the social networks, this humorous ambigram made the buzz via several French, Belgian and Swiss medias.

Ambigrams are regularly used by communication agencies such as Publicis to engage the reader or the consumer through two-way messages.
Thus, in 2021, male first names transformed into female first names are included in a Swiss advertising campaign aimed at raising awareness about gender equality. An intriguing catchphrase typography upside down invites the reader to rotate the magazine, in which the first names "Michael" or "Peter" are transformed into "Nathalie" or "Alice".

In 2015 iSmart's logo on one of its travel chargers went viral because the brand's name turned out to be a natural ambigram that read "+Jews!" upside down. The company noted that "...we learned a powerful lesson of what not to do when creating a logo."

Cinema posters sometimes seduce observers with ambigram titles, such as that of Tenet by Christopher Nolan, by central symmetry.
or Anna by Luc Besson around a vertical axis,

Comics

The American artist and writer Peter Newell published a rotational ambigram in 1893 saying "Puzzle / The end" in the book containing reversible illustrations Topsys & Turvys.

In March 1904 the Dutch-American comic artist Gustave Verbeek used ambigrams in three consecutive strips of The UpsideDowns of old man Muffaroo and little lady Lovekins. His comics were ambiguous images, made in such a way that one could read the six-panel comic, flip the book and keep reading. In The Wonderful Cure of the Waterfall (13 March 1904) an Indian medicine man says 'Big waters would make her very sound', while when flipped the medicine man turns into an Indian woman who says  'punos dery, eay apew poom, serlem big'. Which is explained as, 'poor deary' several foreign words that meant that she would call the 'Serlem Big'. The next comic called At the House of the Writing Pig (20 March 1904), where two ambigram word balloons are featured. The first features an angry pig trying to make the main protagonist leave by showing a sign that says; 'big boy go away, dis am home of mr h hog', up side down it reads 'Boy yew go away. We sip. Home of hog pig.' The protagonist asks the pig if it wants a big bun, upon which it replies 'Why big buns? Am mad u!', which flips into 'In pew we sang big hym'. Finally in The Bad Snake and the Good Wizard (1904 Mar 27) there are two more ambigrams. The first turns 'How do you do' into the name of a wizard called 'Opnohop Moy', the second features a squirrel telling the protagonist 'Yes further on' only to inform it that there are 'No serpents here' on his way back. In a 2012 Swedish remake of the book, the artist Marcus Ivarsson redraws The Bad Snake and the Good Wizard in his own style. He removes the squirrel, but keeps the other ambigram. 'How do you do' is replaced by 'Nejnej' (Swedish for no) and the wizard is now called 'Laulau'.

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Oubapo, workshop of potential comic book art, is a comics movement which believes in the use of formal constraints to push the boundaries of the medium. Étienne Lécroart, cartoonist, is a founder and key member of Oubapo association, and has composed cartoons that could be read either horizontally, vertically, or in diagonal, and vice versa, sometimes including appropriate ambigrams.

Drawings and paintings

The British painter, designer and illustrator Rex Whistler, published in 1946 a rotational ambigram "¡OHO!" for the cover of a book gathering reversible drawings.

The artist John Langdon, specialist of ambigrams, designed many color paintings featuring ambigrams of all kinds, figure-ground, rotational, mirror or totem. Among other influences, he particularly admires M. C. Escher's drawings.

The Canadian artist Kelly Klages painted several acrylics on canvas with ambigram words and sentences referring to famous writers' novels written by William Shakespeare or Agatha Christie, such as Third Girl, The Tempest, After the Funeral, The Hollow, Reformation, Sherlock Holmes, and Elephants Can Remember.

Sculptures

The German conceptual artist Mia Florentine Weiss built a sculptural ambigram , that has traveled Europe as a symbol of peace and change of perspective. Depending on which side the viewer looks at it, the sculpture says "Love" or "Hate". A similar concept was installed in  front of the Reichstag building in Berlin with the words "Now / Won". Both sculptures are mirror type ambigrams, symmetrical around a vertical axis.

The Swiss sculptor Markus Raetz made several three-dimensional ambigram works, featuring words generally with related meanings, such as
YES-NO (2003),
ME-WE (2004, 2010),
OUI-NON (2000–2002) in French,
SI–NO (1996)
and TODO-NADA (1998) in Spanish
These are anamorphic works, which change in appearance depending on the angle of view of the observer.
The OUI–NON ambigram is installed on the Place du Rhône, in Geneva, Switzerland, at the top of a metal pole. Physically, the letters have the appearance of iron twists. With the perspective, this work demonstrates that reality can be ambiguous.

Some ambigram sculptures by the French conjurer  are reversible by a half-turn rotation, and can therefore be exhibited on a support in two different ways.

Literature

Palindromes

Ambigrams are sorts of visual palindromes. Some words turn upside down, others are symmetrical through a mirror. Natural ambigram palindromes exist, like the words "wow", "malayalam" (Dravidian language), or the biotechnology company Noxxon that possesses a palindromic name associated to a rotational ambigram logo. But some words are natural ambigrams, though not palindromes in the literary acception, like "bud" for example, because b and d are different letters. As a result, some words and sentences are good candidates for ambigrammists, but not for palindromists, and reciprocally, since the constraint slightly differ. Authors of ambigrams also benefit from a certain flexibility by playing on the typeface and graphical adjustments to influence the reading of their visual palindromes.

Oulipo, workshop of potential literature, seeks to create works using constrained writing techniques. Georges Perec, French novelist and member of the Oulipo group, designed a rotational ambigram, that he called "vertical palindrome". Sibylline, the sentence "Andin Basnoda a une épouse qui pue" in French means "Andin Basnoda has a smelly wife". Perec did not care about punctuation spaces, but his creation flips easily with a classical font like Arial.

Visual palindromes sometimes perfectly illustrate literary contents. The American author Dan Brown incorporated John Langdon's designs into the plot of his bestseller Angels & Demons, and his fictional character Robert Langdon's surname was a homage to the ambigram artist.

The fantasy novel Abarat, written and illustrated by Clive Barker, features an ambigram of the title on its cover.

Calligrams

A calligram is text arranged in such a way that it forms a thematically related image. It can be a poem, a phrase, a portion of scripture, or a single word. The visual arrangement can rely on certain use of the typeface, calligraphy or handwriting. The image created by the words illustrates the text by expressing visually what it says, or something closely associated.

In Islamic calligraphy, symmetrical calligrams appear in ancient and modern periods, forming mirror ambigrams in Arabic language.

The word "OK" turned 90° counterclockwise evokes a human icon, with the letter O forming the head and the letter K the arms and the legs. The Norwegian Climbing Club  (acronym "OK") borrowed the concept of this natural calligram for their official logo.

Semantics

As described by Douglas Hofstadter, ambigrams are visual puns having two or more (clear) interpretations as written words.

Multilingual ambigrams can be read one way in a language, and another way in a different language or alphabet.
Multi-lingual ambigrams can occur in all of the various types of ambigrams, with multi-lingual perceptual shift ambigrams being particularly striking.

Like certain anagrams with providential meanings such as "Listen / Silent" or "The eyes / They see", ambigrams also sometimes take on a timely sense, for example "up" becomes the abbreviation "dn", very naturally by rotation of 180°.
But on the other hand, it happens that the luck of the letters makes things bad. This is the case with the weird anagram "Santa / Satan", as it is with a rotational ambigram that has gone viral because of the paradoxical and unintentional message it expresses. Spotted in 2015 on a metal medal marketed without bad intention, the text "hope" displays upside down with a fairly obvious reading "Adolf", first name of the Nazi leader situated at the antipodes of optimism. This coincidence photographed by an Internet user was relayed by several media and constitutes an ambiguous image.

Mathematics

Recreational mathematics is carried out for entertainment rather than as a strictly research and application-based professional activity. An ambigram magic square exists, with  the sums of the numbers in each row, each column, and both main diagonals the same right side up and upside down (180° rotational design). Numeral ambigrams also associate with alphabet letters. A "dissection" ambigram of "squaring the circle" was achieved in a puzzle where each piece of the word "circle" fits inside a perfect square.

Burkard Polster, professor of mathematics in Melbourne conducted researches on ambigrams and published several books dealing with the topic, including Eye Twisters, Ambigrams & Other Visual Puzzles to Amaze and Entertain. In the abstract Mathemagical Ambigrams, Polster performs several ambigrams closely related to his realm, like the words "algebra", "geometry", "math", "maths", or "mathematics".

Calculator spelling is an unintended characteristic of the seven-segment display traditionally used by calculators, in which, when read upside-down, the digits resemble letters of the Latin alphabet. Also, palindromic numbers and strobogrammatic numbers sometimes attract attention of mathematician ambigrammists.

Ambigram tessellations and 3D ambigrams are two types particularly fun for the mathematician in geometry. Word patterns in tessellations can start from 35 different fundamental polygons, such as the rhombus, the isosceles right triangle, or the parallelogram.

Word puzzles are used as a source of entertainment, but can additionally serve an educational purpose. The American puzzle designer Scott Kim published several ambigrams in Scientific American in Martin Gardner's
"Mathematical Games" column, among them long sentences like "Martin Gardner's celebration of mind" turning into "Physics, patterns and prestidigitation".

Philosophy and cognition

Duality and analogy

In the word "ambigram", the root ambi- means "both" and is a popular prefix in a world of dualities, such as day/night, left/right, birth/death, good/evil. In Wordplay: The Philosophy, Art, and Science of Ambigrams, John Langdon mentions the yin and yang symbol as one of his major influences to create upside down words.

Ambigrams are mentioned in Metamagical Themas, an eclectic collection of articles that Douglas Hofstadter wrote for the popular science magazine Scientific American during the early 1980s.

Cognition and psychology

Legibility is an important aspect in successful ambigrams. It concerns the ease with which a reader decodes symbols. If the message is lost or difficult to perceive, an ambigram does not work. Readability is related to perception, or how our brain interprets the forms we see through our eyes.

Symmetry in ambigrams generally improves the visual appearance of the calligraphic words. Hermann Rorschach, inventor of the Rorschach Test notices that asymmetric figures are rejected by many subjects. Symmetry supplies part of the necessary artistic composition.

For many amateurs, designing ambigrams represents a recreational activity, where serendipity can play a fertile role, when the author makes an unplanned fortunate discovery.

Magic

In magic, ambigrams work like visual illusions, revealing an unexpected new message from a particular written word.

In the first series of the British show Trick or Treat, the show's host and creator Derren Brown uses cards with rotational ambigrams. These cards can read either 'Trick' or 'Treat'.

Ambiguous images, of which ambigrams are a part, cause ambiguity in different ways. For example, by rotational symmetry, as in the Illusion of The Cook by Giuseppe Arcimboldo (1570); sometimes by a figure-ground ambivalence as in Rubin vase; by perceptual shift as in the rabbit–duck illusion, or through pareidolias; or again, by the representation of impossible objects, such as Necker cube or Penrose triangle. For all these types of images, certain ambigrams exist, and can be combined with visuals of the same type.

John Langdon designed a figure-ground ambigram "optical illusion" with the two words "optical" and "illusion", one forming the figure and the other the background. "Optical" is easier to see initially but "illusion" emerges with longer observation.

Tattooing

One of the most dynamic sectors that harbors ambigrams is tattooing. Because they possess two ways of reading, ambigram tattoos inked on the skin benefit from a "mind-blowing" effect. On the arm, sleeve tattoos flip upside-down, on the back or jointly on two wrists they are more striking with a mirror symmetry. A large range of scripts and fonts is available. Experienced ambigram artists can create an optical illusion with a complex visual design.

In 2015, an ambigram tattoo went viral following an advertising campaign developed by the Publicis group two years earlier. The Samaritans of Singapore organization, active in suicide prevention, has a 180° reversible "SOS" ambigram logo, acronym of its name and homonym of the famous SOS distress signal.
In 2013, this center orders advertisements that could be inserted in magazines to make readers aware of the problem of depression among young people, and the communication agency notices the symmetrical aspect of the logo. As a result, it begins to produce several ambigrammatic visuals, staged in photographic contexts, where sentences such as "I'm fine", "I feel fantastic" or "Life is great" turn into "Save me", "I'm falling apart", and "I hate myself". Readers noticing this logo placed at the upper left corner of the page with an upside-down typographical catchphrase rotate the newspaper and visualize the double calligraphed messages, which call out with the SOS.
These ads are so influential that Bekah Miles, an American student herself coming out of a severe depression, chooses to use the "I'm fine / Save me" ambigram to get a tattoo on her thigh. Posted on Facebook, the two-sided photography immediately appeals to many young people, impressed or sensitive to this difficulty.
To educate its students, George Fox University in the United States then relays the optical illusion in its official journal, through a video totaling more than three million views and the information is also reproduced in several local media and international organizations, thus helping to popularize this famous two-way tattoo.
Less fortunate, another teenage girl, aged 16, committed suicide, with her also this ambigram found on a note in her room, "I'm fine / Save me", reversible calligraphy today printed on badges and bracelets, for educational purposes.

Manufacturing

Clothing and fashion

Adidas marketed a line of sneakers called "Bounce", with an ambigram typography printed inside the shoe.

Several clothing brands, such as Helly Hansen (HH), Under Armour (UA), or , raise an ambigram logo as their visual identity.

Mirror ambigrams are also sometimes placed on T-shirts, towels and hats, while socks are more adapted to rotational ambigrams. The conceptual artist Mia Florentine Weiss marketed T-shirts and other products with her mirror ambigram .
Likewise, the city of Ventura in California sells sweatshirts, caps, jackets, and other fashion accessories printed with its rotational ambigram logo.

Accessories

The CD cover of the thirteenth studio album Funeral by American rapper Lil Wayne features a 180° rotational ambigram reading "Funeral / Lil Wayne".

The special edition paper sleeve (CD with DVD) of the solo album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard by Paul McCartney features an ambigram of the singer's name.

The Grateful Dead have used ambigrams several times, including on their albums Aoxomoxoa and American Beauty.

Although the words spelled by most ambigrams are relatively short in length, one DVD cover for The Princess Bride movie creates a rotational ambigram out of two words "Princess Bride," whether viewed right side up or upside down.

The cover of the studio album Create/Destroy/Create by rock band Goodnight, Sunrise is an ambigram composition constituted of two invariant words, "create" and "destroy", designed by Polish artist Daniel Dostal.

The reversible shot glass containing a changing message "Drink / Drunk", created by the typographer Mark Simonson was manufactured and sold in the market.

The concept of reversible sign that some merchants use through their windows to indicate that the store is sometimes "open", sometimes "closed", was inaugurated at the beginning of the 2000s, by a rotational ambigram "Open / Closed" developed by David Holst.

Creating ambigrams

Different ambigram artists, sometimes called ambigrammists, may create distinctive ambigrams from the same words, differing in both style and form.

Handmade designs

There are no universal guidelines for creating ambigrams, and different ways of approaching problems coexist.
A number of books suggest methods for creation, including WordPlay, Eye Twisters, and Ambigrams Revealed, in English.

Ambigram generators

Computerized methods to automatically create ambigrams have been developed. Most of them function on the simplified principle of mapping a single letter to another single letter. Because of this weakness, most of them can only map a word to itself or to another word that is the same length and do not combine letters.
Thus, the generated ambigrams are in general of poor quality when compared to hand made ambigrams. More sophisticated techniques employ databases of thousands of curves to create complex ambigrams. Some ambigram generators are free, while some others require payment.

Artists

John Langdon and Scott Kim each believed that they had invented ambigrams in the 1970s.

Douglas Hofstadter

Douglas Hofstadter coined the term.

To explain visually the numerous types of possible ambigrams, Hofstadter created many pieces with different constraints and symmetries. Hofstadter has had several exhibitions of his artwork in various university galleries.

According to Scott Kim, Hofstadter once created a series of 50 ambigrams on the name of all the states in the US.

In 1987 a book of 200 of his ambigrams, together with a long dialogue with his alter ego Egbert G. Gebstadter on ambigrams and creativity, was published in Italy.

John Langdon

John Langdon is a self-taught artist, graphic designer and painter, who started designing ambigrams in the late 1960s and early 70s. Lettering specialist, Langdon is a professor of typography and corporate identity at Drexel University in Philadelphia.

John Langdon produced a mirror image logo "Starship" in 1972-1973, that was sold to the rock band Jefferson Starship.

Langdon's ambigram book Wordplay was published in 1992. It contains about 60 ambigrams. Each design is accompanied by a brief essay that explores the word's definition, its etymology, its relationship to philosophy and science, and its use in everyday life.

Ambigrams became more popular as a result of Dan Brown incorporating John Langdon's designs into the plot of his bestseller, Angels & Demons, and the DVD release of the Angels & Demons movie contains a bonus chapter called "This is an Ambigram".  Langdon also produced the ambigram that was used for some versions of the book's cover. Brown used the name Robert Langdon for the hero in his novels as an homage to John Langdon.

Blacksmith Records, the music management company and record label, possesses a rotational ambigram logo designed by John Langdon.

Scott Kim

Scott Kim is one of the best-known masters of the art of ambigrams. He is an American puzzle designer and artist who published in 1981 a book called Inversions with ambigrams of many types.

Other artists

Nikita Prokhorov is a graphic artist, typographer and professional ambigrammist. His book Ambigrams Revealed showcases ambigram designs of all types, from all around the world.

Born in 1946, Alain Nicolas is a specialist of figurative and ambigram tessellations. In his book, he performed many tilings with various words like "infinity", "Einstein" or "inversion" legible in many orientations. According to The Guardian, Nicolas has been called "the world's finest artist of Escher-style tilings".

References

Bibliography

Further reading

 Hofstadter, Douglas R., "Metafont, Metamathematics, and Metaphysics: Comments on Donald Knuth's Article 'The Concept of a Meta-Font'"  Scientific American (August 1982) (republished, with a postscript, as chapter 13 in the book Metamagical Themas )

External links

Word play
Constrained writing
Rotational symmetry
1983 neologisms

Ambigram


Viktor Örlygur Andrason (fæddur 5. febrúar 2000) er íslenskur knattspyrnumaður sem spilar fyrir Víking Reykjavík. Hann er miðjumaður en getur þó spilað allar stöður. Viktor Örlygur fæddist í Danmörku en hefur búið meirihluta ævinnar í Reykjavík. Hann hefur spilað með uppeldisfélaginu Víkingi frá því hann var lítill.

Heimildir

Íslenskir knattspyrnumenn

Viktor Örlygur Andrason


Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (d. 4 Ocak 1710; Jesi, Marche, İtalya – ö. 16 Mart 1736; Pozzuoli, İtalya), İtalyan barok besteci, org ve keman sanatçısıdır.

Hayatı
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, 4 Ocak 1710 tarihinde İtalya'nın Marche bölgesine bağlı bir komün olan Jesi'de doğdu. Asıl soyadı "Draghi" idi. Ailesi, atalarının doğum yeri olan Pergola'dan Jesi'ye yerleşmiş olduğundan bölge sakinleri tarafından "Pergolesi" takma adı verildi.

1725'te Napoli'ye gitmeden önce Jesi'de yerel bir müzisyen olan Francesco Santi'nin yanında müzik eğitimi aldı. Kısa hayatında dramatik müzikte birçok yenilikler yapmakta başarılı olmuştur. İnsan sesine yazdığı eserlerle dikkati çekmiştir. 16 Mart 1736'da henüz 26 yaşında iken Pozzuoli'de veremden öldü.

Pergolesi, özellikle "Comedia dell'arte" adı verilen klasik İtalyan komedilerinin müzikal ve lirik elemanlarla pekleştirilmesi olan "Opera buffa" tarzının ilk bestecilerinden birisidir. İlk operası "lI Maestro di Musica" olup, müzikal bir intermezzodur. Aynı tarzda yazılmış olan "La Conversione e morte di San Guglielmo" adlı eseri 1731 yılında temsil edilmiştir. Hanım olan hizmetçi (La Serva Padrona)" ilk defa 1733'te, ciddi operası "Il Progionier Superbo (Mağrur Tutuklu)"nun ikinci ve üçüncü perdeleri arasında intermezzo eseri olarak oynanmıştır. Hala günümüzde geçerliliğini sürdüren bir bestesi "Stabat Mater" adlı ilahidir.

Ayrıca, hamisi Prens Stiglione için yazılmış trio sonatları, piyano parçaları, senfoniler ve konçertoları vardır.

Seçilmiş opera eserleri

Ayrıca bakınız
 Ünlü operalar listesi
 Opera bestecileri listesi

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar
  IMSLP websitesi  "Pergolesi,_Giovanni_Battista" maddesi    (Erişme: 21.10.2010)
 Fondazione Pergolesi Spontini   (Erişme: 21.10.2010)

1710 doğumlular
Iesi doğumlular
1736 yılında ölenler
18. yüzyılda İtalyanlar
İtalyan opera bestecileri
Barok dönem bestecileri
Roma Katolik besteciler ve müzisyenler
Veremden ölenler
İtalya'da veremden ölenler

Giovanni Battista Pergolesi


Stephen X may refer to:

 Pope Stephen IX (r. 1057–58)
 Ștefăniță Lupu, Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia between 1659 and 1661, and again in 1661

Stephen X


Područna nogometna liga Rijeka – Prvi razred, također i kao Prvi razred Područne nogometne lige Rijeke; Područna liga Rijeka – 1. razred, Područna liga Rijeka (Prvi razred) je bila liga četvrtog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1971./72.
Sudjelovalo je 12 klubova, a prvak je bila "Klana".

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Riječko-pulska zona 1971./72.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 Oskar Valenčić, Slavko Gržinić: Zlatni pir Nogometnog kluba "Klana" : [1931-1981], Rijeka, 1981., UDK: 796.332::061.2(497.13 Klana)"1931/1981", str. 120-125
 Niko Cvjetković: "SD "Borac" Bakar : 1920-1990.", Bakar, 1990., UDK:796(497.13 Bakar)"1920/1990", str. 229-234
 kvarnerski.com, RIJEČKI NOGOMET 1970.-1982. (SPORT jučer&danas – 3), objavljeno 22. rujna 2013., pristupljeno 21. prosinca 2019.
 kvarnerski.com, SAMO NA KVARNERSKOM: NOGOMET RIJEKE i OKOLICE dio 1. (1945-1991), objavljeno 25. srpnja 2013., pristupljeno 21. prosinca 2019.

1971-72 1
Rijeka-1
1971-72 Rijeka

Područna nogometna liga Rijeka – 1. razred 1971./72.


Miguel de Icaza (1972), Meksikalı bir özgür yazılım programcısı. Başlıca GNOME, Mono ve Midnight Commander projeleri ile bilinmektedir.

Miguel de Icaza, Meksiko'da 1972 senesinde dünyaya gelmiştir. National Autonomous University of Mexico'da (UNAM) üniversite eğitimine başlamış, fakat mezun olamamıştır. Babası fizikçi ve annesi biyolog olan Miguel de Icaza, özgür yazılım yazmaya 1992 yılında başlamıştır.

1972 doğumlular
Meksikalı bilgisayar bilimcileri
Meksikalı blogcular
GNOME
Linux
Yaşayan insanlar

Miguel de Icaza


Rödermark is a town in the Offenbach district in the Regierungsbezirk of Darmstadt in Hesse, Germany, southeast of Frankfurt am Main and northeast of Darmstadt.

Geography

Location
The town lies mostly in the Messeler Hügelland, a part of the Lower Main Plain with gentle hills. Differences in elevation are slight, reaching from about 130 m above sea level on the Rodau riverside flats east of Ober-Roden up to about 200 m above sea level on the Bulau. Rödermark is surrounded by greenbelts, found mainly in the area of the river Rodau. The Rodau crosses the municipal area from west to east. The northern areas of Bulau, Messenhausen and Waldacker have a mainly residential function, whereas the main centres of Ober-Roden and Urberach offer a complete infrastructure. The nearest Autobahn interchanges are ten kilometres away, and Frankfurt Airport some 25 km away. Rödermark lies within the area covered by the Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund, and on the grounds of Rödermark-Ober-Roden station's favourable location, it is the terminus of Rhine-Main S-Bahn line S1 and a station on RMV line 61.

The fiftieth parallel of north latitude (50°N) passes through the municipal area.

Neighbouring communities
Rödermark borders in the north on the town of Dietzenbach, in the east on the town of Rodgau, in the south on the communities of Eppertshausen and Messel (both in Darmstadt-Dieburg) and in the west on the town of Dreieich.

Constituent communities
Rödermark's Stadtteile are Messenhausen with 796 inhabitants, Ober-Roden with 12,749 inhabitants, Urberach with 11,537 inhabitants, Waldacker with 2,885 inhabitants and Bulau (as at 30 June 2007).

Ober-Roden
The community of Ober-Roden, which until 1977 was self-administering, is today the biggest of the five constituent communities. Through suburbanization in the 1960s and 1970s, Ober-Roden became an important residential community for commuters.

The town library, the cultural hall, the daycare centre and the primary school all stand right on the brook, the Rodau, in Ober-Roden's centre and together with the stately Gothic Parish Church of St. Nazarius (locally sometimes called the Rodgaudom – Rodgau Cathedral – although it is no such thing), some timber-frame houses and a comfortable outdoor café lend the town centre a certain flair.

Ober-Roden is the location of the comprehensive school and Europaschule (European school) Oswald-von-Nell-Breuning-Schule

Transport in Ober-Roden

Ober-Roden is a local rail transport hub. From here begins line S 1 of the Rhine-Main S-Bahn towards Wiesbaden by way of Offenbach Ost, Frankfurt Hbf and Frankfurt-Höchst. Also found in Ober-Roden is an operational midpoint on the Dreieich Railway (Dreieichbahn) offering links to Urberach and Dreieich (from Dreieich-Buchschlag to Langen, Darmstadt, Frankfurt Airport and Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof) and serving Dieburg in the other direction. From there connections are available to Aschaffenburg, Darmstadt and places in the Odenwald.

In connection with the plans for the Regionaltangente West (RTW) project, running the Dreieichbahn with RTW trains was in the past considered. For Ober-Roden this would have meant a direct rail link with Frankfurt Airport. The financing for the needed line expansion, however, is long-term, and the project, at least for the present, does not appear in the general transport plan.

Urberach
Urberach was until 31 December 1976 a self-administering community in what was then the Dieburg district. Since municipal reform came into force in Hesse on 1 January 1977, Urberach has been a constituent community of Rödermark, and since then has also belonged to the Offenbach district. Nevertheless, Urberach dwellers today still feel more of a connection with Dieburg and Darmstadt than with Offenbach.

Rödermark has developed itself in all its constituent communities into an attractive residential and living area. Adding to the town's attractiveness are in particular the new work done on part of the town core in 2003 and 2004, the many shops there together with the market halls on the outskirts, a bathhouse with sauna facilities and greenspace (back in operation in June 2006 after conversion), the hilly location of Bulau with its great worth as a recreation area and other similar things.

Urberach was in the past a centre for the potter's craft. A pottery museum, a pottery market and the clay vessel in Urberach's coat of arms all recall this great tradition.

Urberach has been since 2002 the seat of the newly founded Berufsakademie Rhein-Main, a professional academy whose focus is on economics and business informatics.

Urberach dwellers call themselves Orwischer.

Population development
(each time as at 31 December)
 1998: 25,787
 1999: 25,814
 2000: 26,049
 2001: 26,126
 2002: 26,285
 2003: 26,289
 2004: 28,189
 2005: 28,107
 2006: 26,161
 2008: 27.858
 2011: 26.297
 2012: 27.805
 2013: 26.494
 2015: 27.242

History
Rödermark was founded on 1 January 1977 out of the up until this point self-administering communities of Ober-Roden and Urberach. On 23 August 1980, Rödermark was officially granted town rights. The name goes back to the late mediaeval communal forest (marca raodora) known as the Rödermark.

Celtic finds have been unearthed in archaeological digs in town.

History of Ober-Roden
There is some likelihood that there was once a convent in the community that was put under the Lorsch Abbey by Abbess Aba in 786, but final proof of this is still lacking. The settlement of Rotaha had its first documentary mention in 790 in a donation to the Lorsch Abbey. Furthermore, a Frankish nobleman named Erlulf donated all his holdings in Ober-Roden, Nieder-Roden and Bieber to the Lorsch Abbey on 22 April 791.

In 903, the Rotaha monastery was confirmed as the Lorsch Abbey's tenant. The parish church in Ober-Roden is, like the abbey itself, consecrated to Saint Nazarius, and was Mother Church for Urberach, Nieder-Roden, Messel and Dudenhofen.

As part of the Amt of Steinheim, the village was sold in 1425 by the former landlords, the Lords of Eppstein, to Electoral Mainz. For the next several centuries the Electoral Prince-Archbishop of Mainz was the landlord.

In 1576 there were 80 households here, but in 1681 there were only 31 households and 117 inhabitants.

In 1786, the communally held land shared by Ober-Roden and several other villages was partitioned and shared out among Ober-Roden, Nieder-Roden, Urberach, Messel, Dietzenbach, Hainhausen, Jügesheim and Dudenhofen.

The Amtsvogtei of Dieburg passed with Ober-Roden after Secularization to Hesse. In 1829, Ober-Roden had 1,295 inhabitants. In 1832, the place passed from the Landratsbezirk of Langen to the Offenbach district. From 1874 to 1977, the community belonged to the Dieburg district.

In 1896, the Rodgaubahn (railway) from Offenbach am Main by way of Ober-Roden to Dieburg was built, as was the Dreieichbahn by way of Urberach to Sprendlingen in 1905.

In 1939, the community had 3,608 inhabitants. In 1957, Messenhausen merged with Ober-Roden after having shared with it the same mayor since 1821, while still keeping its own municipal budget. In 1977 in the course of municipal reform in Hesse, Ober-Roden was merged with Urberach, whereupon the new amalgamated municipality became Rödermark.

History of Urberach
Urberach was named for the first time in 796 as a branch parish of Ober-Roden according to the Lorsch codex. The place had its first documentary mention in 1275 as Orbruch. Electoral Mainz acquired the lordly rights over Urberach in the Late Middle Ages. The village belonged to the Mainz Amt of Dieburg.

In 1280, part of Urberach ended up with Frankfurt as a fief.

In 1305, an estate from Urbruch belonged to Ober-Roden.

In 1425, Urbruch and Ober-Roden were sold to the Archbishop of Mainz.

In 1706, the Archbishop of Mainz, Lothar Franz von Schönborn, ceded Urbarach to Count Johann Philipp of Isenburg-Büdingen in exchange for Weisenau and Hechtsheim. Urberach thenceforth belonged to the Amt of Philippseich, a younger line of the House of Isenburg.

In 1786 the Röder Mark was dissolved.

After the Principality of Isenburg-Birstein was dissolved in 1816, Urberach passed to the Grand Duchy of Hesse and has been Hessian ever since. In 1821, the community was grouped into the Landratsbezirk of Offenbach and in 1832 assigned to the Offenbach district. From 1874 to 1977, Urberach belonged to the Dieburg district.

The population figure rose from 1,488 in 1861 to 2,807 in 1939 and 9,558 in 1978. In 1977 in the course of municipal reform in Hesse, Urberach was merged with Ober-Roden, whereupon the new amalgamated municipality became Rödermark.

History of Messenhausen
The village had its first documentary mention in 1282. In the time that followed, the Lords of Eppstein enfeoffed various noble families with Messenhausen. Up until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Lords of Frankenstein had been the fiefholders for centuries. In 1806, the community passed to the Grand Duchy of Hesse.

In 1821, Messenhausen's mayoral office was united with Ober-Roden's, although each place maintained its own budget up until 1957, when Messenhausen joined Ober-Roden. Messenhausen had 80 inhabitants in 1829 and 605 in 1978.

Churches
Rödermark's traditional character is Catholic. Owing to migration into the town in the latter half of the 20th century, however, many Evangelical Christians now also live here. Today there are five Christian parishes:

 St. Nazarius Ober-Roden (Catholic)
 Ober-Roden (Evangelical)
 St. Gallus Urberach (Catholic)
 Petrusgemeinde Urberach (Evangelical)
 Free Evangelical parish of Rödermark

The oldest ecclesiastical building in Rödermark is the Dreifaltigkeitskapelle ("Trinity Chapel") on the way into the community of Messenhausen (built in 1820).

Politics

Town council
The municipal elections held from 2006 to 2021 yielded the following results:

Mayors
Rödermark's mayors since 1977 have been:
Karl Martin Rebel, CDU (1977–1982)
Walter Faust, CDU (1982–1993)
Alfons Maurer, CDU (1993–2005)
Roland Kern, AL/Greens (2005–2019)
Jörg Rotter, CDU (2019–present)

Twin towns – sister cities

Rödermark is twinned with:
 Tramin an der Weinstraße, Italy (1975, originally with Urberach)
 Saalfelden am Steinernen Meer, Austria (1976, originally with Ober-Roden)
 Bodajk, Hungary (1992)
 Pleśna, Poland (2022)

Economy
Rödermark's economy is based on midsize businesses. Besides the many retail and craft businesses, the following major companies are resident in Rödermark:
CeoTronics AG (speech transmission)
Zeppelin Systems GmbH (mechanical engineering)
Winkelmann Palsis (vibration technology)
Elta (consumer electronics, cooling appliances)
Videor E. Hartig GmbH   (video technology distribution)
Köhl (office furniture)
Adicon (building)
Schleinkofer GmbH (mechanical engineering)
Galvanni Europe GmbH (clothes)

Notable people
 Peter Kunter (born 1941), footballer, lives in Rödermark and had a dental practice in Urberach in 1974–2005
 Bernd Spier (born 1944), singer, lives in Waldacker and has been running a real estate business in Ober-Roden
 Werner Lorant (born 1948), football player and manager, lived in Ober-Roden in 1979–1982
 Kristina Bach (born 1962), singer, lived in Rödermark-Urberach in the 1990s

References

External links

Offenbach (district)

Rödermark


غاز الفحم  (أو غاز الاستصباح) هو وقود غازي سريع الاشتعال، وهو أحد نواتج التقطير الإتلافي للفحم، وهو ما يصل للبيوت عن طريق شبكات الغاز للتغذية المنزلية. يشير المصطلح الأعم غاز المدينة إلى الوقود الغازي المصنع لبيعه إلى المستهلكين في البلديات.

غاز الفحم المستخرج في عملية التكويك أو التقطير الإتلافي للفحم، استغل بشكل كبير في القرن التاسع عشر وبدايات القرن العشرين في عمليات الإنارة والطهي والتسخين. لقد واكب تطور الغاز المصنع الثورة الصناعية والحضارة المدنية. كما أن المركبات الثانوية، كقطران الفحم والنشادر، كانت في وقت ما مصدراً كيميائياً خاماً مهماً لصناعة الأصبغة، والمواد الكيميائية. فكل الطيف اللوني لألوان الأصبغة التركيبية يصنع من غاز الفحم وقطران الفحم.

واعتماداً على العملية المستخدمة في استخراجه، فإن غاز الفحم مكون من مزيج من الغازات المولدة للحرارة:الهيدروجين، والميثان وأول أكسيد الكربون، وهيدروكربونات طيارة، مع كمية صغيرة كشوائب من الغازات غير المولدة للحرارة: ثاني أوكسيد الكربون والنتروجين.

وقبل تطوير مصادر الغاز الطبيعي ونظم نقله خلال الأعوام 1940م و 1950م، فإن كل الوقود وغاز الإنارة المستخدم في الولايات المتحدة وبريطانيا كان يصنع من الفحم.

اكتشافه

كان (ميردوك) الذي ولد عام 1752 في كوخ صغير بمقاطعة (إيرشير) بإنجلترا مولعاً في صباه بإجراء التجارب العملية. وكان يأخذ من الطَّفل المشوب بزيت البترول الذي ينضح من أرض مزرعة أبيه قطعاً يشعلها. وكان على مقربة من المزرعة ترعة صغيرة على شاطئها كهف كان يلعب فيه ذلك الصبي. وذات يوم استرق إبريق الشاي من أمه وملأه بهذا الطًّفل وسخنه تسخيناً شديداً ثم أشعل الدخان الذي انبعث من صنبوره فوجده قد أضاء كهفه. وانتقل بعد ذلك إلى (كورنوال) حيث شب وواصل تجاربه. فسخن الفحم في شبه مرجل تصل بين غطائه المحكم ومكتبه أنبوبة، فإذا ما ولى النهار أشعل الغاز المنبعث من الأنبوبة. وجاء الناس من البلاد المجاورة ليروا ذلك المصباح العجيب الذي لا شريط له.
وفي يوم أراد ميردوك إطفاء اللهب فوضع (كشتبان) زوجته فوق الأنبوبة، وتصادف أن كان في الكشتبان ثقب دقيق فانبعث منه الغاز واشتعل بضوء أدهش (ميرودك) فقد وجده أنصع بكثير من اللهب الكبير، وكان هذا مولد مصباح غاز الاستصباح.

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Robert Ridgway () a fost un ornitolog american specializat în sistematică. El a fost numit în anul 1880 de către Spencer Fullerton Baird, secretar al Instituției Smithsoniene, pentru a fi primul curator de păsări cu normă întreagă la Muzeul Național al Statelor Unite ale Americii, titlu deținut până la moartea sa. În 1883, el a ajutat la fondarea Uniunii Ornitologice Americane, unde el a servit ca responsabil și editor al revistei. Ridgway a fost un remarcabil taxonomist descriptiv, culminând munca sa de o viață cu Păsările din America de Nord și de Mijloc (opt volume, 1901-1919). În timpul vieții sale, el a fost de neegalat în numărul  de specii de păsări din America de Nord pe care el le-a descris pentru știință. Ca illustrator tehnic, Ridgway a utilizat propriile sale picturi și desene schiță pentru a complementa scrierile sale. De asemenea, el a publicat două cărți care au sistematizat numele de culori pentru a descrie păsări, O Nomenclatură a Culorilor pentru Naturaliști (1886) și Standardele Culorilor și Nomenclatura Culorilor (1912). Ornitologii din toată lumea continuă să citeze studii de culoare și cărțile lui Ridgway.

Lucrări

Publicații selectate
 Ridgway, Robert.  1869 (March).  "The Belted Kingfisher Again," American Naturalist 3(1):53–54.  Retrieved 28 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1870.  "A New Classification of the North American Falconidae, with Descriptions of Three New Species."  Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 22: 138–150.  Retrieved 15 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1872 (December).  "On the Relation between Color and Geographical Distribution in Birds, as Exhibited in Melanism and Hyperchromism." (part 1 of 2) American Journal of Science, 3rd ser., 4(24): 454–460.  Retrieved 21 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1873 (September).  "On the Relation between Color and Geographical Distribution in Birds, as Exhibited in Melanism and Hyperchromism."  (part 2 of 2)  American Journal of Science, 3rd ser., 5(25): 39–43.  Retrieved 21 January 2013.
 Baird, S.F., T.M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway.  1874.  A History of North American Birds: Land Birds.  Little, Brown, Boston.  Volume I, 596 pp.; Volume II, 590 pp.; Volume III, 560 pp.  Retrieved 14 January 2013.  A special edition, published in the same year, of 50 copies contained 36 plates hand-colored by Ridgway.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1877.  "Ornithology." Volume IV, part III, pp. 303–669, of King, Clarence, Report of the Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel.  U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.  Retrieved 3 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1880 (September).  "A Catalogue of the Birds of North America," Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 3: 163–246.  Retrieved 19 November 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1881.  "Nomenclature of North American Birds Chiefly Contained in the United States National Museum,"  Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum 21:1–94.
 Ridgway, Robert. 1882. "Description of Two New Thrushes from the United States."  Proceedings of the United States National Museum 4: 374–379.  Retrieved 15 January 2013.  Description of Bicknell's thrush, as Hylocichla aliciæ bicknelli.
 Baird, S.F., T.M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway.  1884. The Water Birds of North America.  Little, Brown, Boston.  Volume I, 537 pp.; Volume II, 552 pp.  Retrieved 14 January 2013.
 American Ornithologists' Union.  1886.  The Code of Nomenclature and Check-List of North American Birds.  New York.  Retrieved 28 January 2013.  Members of the Committee: Elliott Coues, J.A. Allen, Robert Ridgway, William Brewster, and H.W. Henshaw.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1886.  A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists, and Compendium of Useful Knowledge for Ornithologists.  Little, Brown, Boston.  129 pp. 10 colored plates and 7 plates of outline illustrations.  Retrieved 4 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1887.  A Manual of North American Birds, Illustrated by 464 Outline Drawings of the Generic Characters.  J.B. Lippincott, Philadelphia.  631 pp.  Retrieved 14 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1889.  "A Descriptive Catalog of the Birds of Illinois," part I of Ridgway, Robert, and Forbes, S.A., The Ornithology of Illinois.  State Laboratory of Natural History, Springfield, Ill.  Volume I of part I.  Retrieved 22 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1890 (February). "Scientific Results of Explorations by the U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Albatross, No. I: Birds Collected on the Galapagos Islands in 1888." Proceedings of the United States National Museum 12(767): 101–128.  Retrieved 11 March 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1891.  "Directions for Collecting Birds."  Bulletin of the United States National Museum 39A: 1–27.  Retrieved 19 March 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1892.  "The Humming Birds."  Report of the National Museum for 1890: 253–383.  Retrieved 21 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert. 1894 (November). "Descriptions of Twenty-Two New Species from the Galapagos Islands."  Proceedings of the United States National Museum 17(1007): 357–370.  Retrieved 22 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1895.  "A Descriptive Catalog of the Birds of Illinois," part I of Ridgway, Robert, and Forbes, S.A., The Ornithology of Illinois.  State Laboratory of Natural History, Springfield, Ill. Volume II of part I.  Retrieved 22 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert. 1897 (March). "Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago."  Proceedings of the United States National Museum 19(1119): 459–670.  Retrieved 21 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1901 (October).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  A Descriptive Catalogue of the Higher Groups, Genera, Species, and Subspecies of Birds Known to Occur in North America, from the Arctic Islands to the Isthmus of Panama, the West Indies and Other Islands of the Caribbean Sea, and the Galapagos Archipelago.  No. 50, Part I.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  745 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1902 (October).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part II.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  854 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1904 (December).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part III.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  840 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1907 (July).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part IV.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  1029 pp.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1911 (November).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part V.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  892 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1912.  Color Standards and Color Nomenclature. Washington, D.C.  44 pp. 53 colored plates. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1914 (April).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part VI.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  902 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1916 (May).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part VII.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  556 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1919 (June).  The Birds of North and Middle America.  No. 50, Part VIII.  U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.  868 pp.  Retrieved 12 January 2013.
 Ridgway, Robert.  1923 (April).  "A Plea for Caution in the Use of Trinomials." The Auk 40(2): 375–376.  Retrieved 28 January 2013.

Referințe

Note

Bibliografie

Link-uri externe

 Ridgway Documente de Familie de la Universitatea de Stat din Utah
 Standarde de culoare și de culoare nomenclatura
 Historical marker de comemorare Ridgway și Păsări de Paradis
 Universitatea Harvard Ierbare & Biblioteci botaniști date de intrare
 Robert Ridgway pasăre specimen desene
 Ridgway (1886) Un nomenclator de culori pentru naturaliști, și compendiu de cunoștințe utile pentru ornitologi - Linda Sala de Bibliotecă
 Ridgway (1912) standarde de Culoare și de culoare nomenclatura - Linda Sala de Bibliotecă
Nașteri în 1850
Decese în 1929
Pictori americani din secolul al XIX-lea
Pictori americani din secolul al XX-lea
Ilustratori americani
Ornitologi americani
Botaniști cu abreviere de autor
Membri ai Academiei Naționale de Științe a Statelor Unite
Laureați ai National Academy of Sciences
Oameni din Illinois
Zoologi cu abreviere de autor

Robert Ridgway


The Bixaceae are a family of dicotyledonous plants commonly called the achiote family. Under the Cronquist system, the family was traditionally placed in the order Violales. However, newer arrangements move it, with some other families previously in the Violales, into the Malvales.

Although small, this family includes trees, herbs, and shrubs. The plants are bisexual, and all species have five sepals. All plants within the Bixaceae produce a red, orange, or yellow latex.

Genera
The Bixaceae include three genera and a total of 25 species, although Cochlospermum is sometimes placed into its own family Cochlospermaceae. The best-known species is the source of annatto, the achiote, which belongs to the type genus of the family.
Bixa
Cochlospermum (Amoreuxia is now a synonym)
Diegodendron

References

External links
 Bixaceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. https://web.archive.org/web/20070103200438/http://delta-intkey.com/

Malvales families

Bixaceae


CorbaScript is an object-oriented scripting language designed for use with CORBA.

External links
The CorbaScript Language
CORBA Scripting joint revised submission
Regular Expressions: Manage CORBA with scripting ITworld
IDLScript/CorbaScript Tutorial by Christophe Gransart

Object-oriented programming languages
Scripting languages

CorbaScript


Q.E.D. Quod erat demonstrandum este un film românesc din 2013 regizat de Andrei Gruzsniczki. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Sorin Leoveanu, Ofelia Popii, Florin Piersic jr..

Prezentare

Distribuție
Distribuția filmului este alcătuită din:

Note

Legături externe

Vezi și
 2013 în film

Filme românești
Filme în limba română
Filme din 2013
Filme regizate de Andrei Gruzsniczki

Q.E.D. Quod erat demonstrandum


Franz Xaver Haberl (født 12. april 1840 i Oberellenbach i Niederbayern, død 5. september 1910 i Regensburg) var en tysk musikhistoriker.

Efter at have modtaget præstevielsen 1862 i Passau var han først domkapelmester og musikpræfekt sammesteds, blev senere en række år organist ved den tyske kirke (Santa Maria dell'Anima) i Rom, endelig 1871—82 domkapelmester i Regensburg, æresdiaconus ved domkirken i Palestrina, 1889 dr. theol. honoris causa i Würzburg. Den af ham i 1875 stiftede kirkemusikskole i Regensburg er af fremragende betydning, navnlig som repræsentant for den reformatoriske bevægelse i den romerskkatolske kirkemusik, hvilken går ud på en tilbagevenden til de gamle overleveringer, den gregorianske sang og Palestrinastilen. Som historiker har Haberl ved omfattende og indgående arkivforskninger givet betydelige bidrag til musikhistorien, især i sine afhandlinger Wilhelm Dufay og Die römische Schola cantorum (i Bausteine zur Musikgeschichte, I—III), fremdeles i den af ham redigerede Cæcilien-Kalender og dens fortsættelse Kirchenmusikalisches Jahrbuch. Hans Magister choralis var i sin tid en af de bedste og mest benyttede lærebøger i gregoriansk sang (12 oplag og oversat på forskellige sprog). Et betydeligt arbejde har Haberl desuden nedlagt i den store Palestrinaudgave, som omfatter alle mesterens værker i partiturudgave (33 bind).

Kilder

Katolske præster fra Tyskland
Musikhistorikere fra Tyskland
Organister fra Tyskland
Dirigenter fra Tyskland
Tyskere i 1800-tallet
Personer fra Bayern

Franz Xaver Haberl


Hoya rhodostele er fjölær jurt í vaxblómaættkvísl.  Útbreiðslan er á Norður-Súmötru.

Tilvísanir

Vaxblómaættkvísl

Hoya rhodostele


بلدية بوزيلو دي زارزون ، هي بلدية تقع في مقاطعة قصرش والتي تقع في منطقة إكستريمادورا، غرب إسبانيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها 601 نسمة وفقاً لإحصائية سنة (2002).

مراجع

أماكن مأهولة في قصرش
بلديات قصرش

بوزيلو دي زارزون


is a series of crossover fighting games developed and published by Capcom, featuring characters from their own video game franchises and comic book series published by Marvel Comics. The series originated as coin-operated arcade games, though later releases would be specifically developed for home consoles, handhelds, and personal computers.

Its gameplay borrows heavily from Capcom's previous Marvel-licensed fighting games X-Men: Children of the Atom and Marvel Super Heroes; however, instead of focusing on single combat, the games incorporated tag team battles. Players form teams of two or three characters and, controlling one fighter at a time, attempt to damage and knock out their opponents. Players can switch out their characters during the match, allowing team members to replenish their health and prolong their ability to fight. The series' gameplay is also distinguished from other fighting game franchises due to its character assist mechanics and emphasis on aerial combat.

The Marvel vs. Capcom series has received generally positive reviews from critics, who have praised its fast-paced gameplay, animated visuals, and wealth of playable characters. On the other hand, the games have been criticized for their lack of content, especially more recent installments. The series has enjoyed broad appeal, especially in markets outside of Japan, selling approximately 10 million units as of 2023.

Games

X-Men vs. Street Fighter was initially released as an arcade game in 1996. The game was later ported to the Sega Saturn in 1997 and PlayStation in 1998. It established the series' basic gameplay conventions by combining Street Fighter-style combat with tag team features. X-Men vs. Street Fighter also borrowed gameplay concepts from Capcom's previous Marvel-licensed fighting games, X-Men: Children of the Atom and Marvel Super Heroes.
Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter was released in arcades in 1997. It was then ported to the Sega Saturn in 1998 and PlayStation in 1999. The game expanded the playable roster to the larger Marvel Universe, introducing characters such as Captain America, Hulk, and Spider-Man. It was also responsible for introducing character assist moves to the franchise, a gameplay element which would influence future Marvel vs. Capcom installments.
Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes debuted in arcades in 1998. Ports to the Dreamcast and PlayStation soon followed in 1999. Rather than strictly using Street Fighter characters, the game included characters from other Capcom video game franchises, such as Mega Man, Morrigan, and Strider Hiryu. It removed the character assist feature used in Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter and implemented its own system, which randomly allocated guest characters to each player.
Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes was released in arcades in 2000 and ported to the Dreamcast within the same year. The game received ports to the PlayStation 2 and Xbox in 2002. It was then re-released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 through the Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network, respectively, in 2009. Lastly, a version for iOS devices was released in 2012. Featuring a large playable roster, Marvel vs. Capcom 2 reused the assist features from Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter and changed the series' two-on-two battle system to three-on-three fights.
Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011. The series' traditional sprites transitioned into 3D character models while retaining the 2D-style combat. The game includes various gameplay features designed to make it more accessible to newer players, such as the additions of a comeback mechanic and a more simplified control scheme.
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, a standalone updated edition of the original Marvel vs. Capcom 3, was released for PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, and Xbox 360 in 2011. The game was also released for the PlayStation 4 via the PlayStation Network in 2016; releases for the Xbox One via the Xbox Live Arcade and Microsoft Windows via Steam followed in 2017. It features new characters, stages, modes, and other enhancements to improve game balance and online functionality.
Marvel vs. Capcom Origins, a compilation game which includes Marvel Super Heroes and Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 through the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade, respectively, in 2012. It features high-definition visuals, online multiplayer, dynamic challenges, and unlockables.
Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite was released in 2017 for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows. It features two-on-two battles, similar to earlier Marvel vs. Capcom games, and removes traditional assist moves in favor of its own dual-character combo system. The game also implements a gameplay mechanic involving the Infinity Stones, which grants players unique abilities and upgrades depending on the type of stone selected. It is the first game to feature a cinematic story mode.

Related media
In 2011, a series of Minimates based on the playable characters from Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds were released by Art Asylum.

Udon Entertainment published Marvel vs. Capcom: Official Complete Works art book consisting of promotional artwork, sketches and bonus material from the video game collaborations between Marvel and Capcom, beginning with the 1993 arcade game The Punisher to Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3. It contains contributions from a variety of artists and illustrators, including Akiman, Bengus, Shinkiro, Joe Madureira, Adi Granov, Joe Ng, Long Vo, Chamba, Adam Warren and Takeshi Miyazawa. Official Complete Works made its international debut at San Diego Comic-Con on July 11, 2012, in an exclusive hardcover edition. The hardcover also featured a wrap-around cover designed by Udon Entertainment and Capcom artist Alvin Lee, and digitally-painted by Udon's Genzoman. A standard-format softcover was released in November 2012 by Diamond Comics.

Within the Marvel Comics multiverse, the Marvel vs. Capcom universe is designated as "Earth-30847".

Gameplay

The basic gameplay of the Marvel vs. Capcom series was originally derived from X-Men: Children of the Atom and Marvel Super Heroes. Players compete in battle using characters with unique moves and special attacks. Using a combination of joystick movements and button presses, players must execute various moves to damage their opponent and deplete their life gauge, or alternatively, have the most cumulative health when the timer runs out. However, unlike the two aforementioned games, which focus on single combat, the Marvel vs. Capcom series revolve around tag team-based combat. Instead of choosing a single character, players select multiple characters to form teams of two or three. Each character on the team is given their own life gauge. Players control one character at a time, while the others await off-screen. Players are also free to swap between their characters at any point during the match. As characters take damage, portions of their life gauge will turn red, known as "red health", which represents the amount of health that a character can recover if the player tags them out. The off-screen, dormant characters will slowly replenish their red health, allowing players to cycle through their team members and prolong their ability to fight. Furthermore, as characters deal and receive damage, a colored meter at the bottom of the screen known as the "Hyper Combo Gauge" will gradually fill. By expending meter from their Hyper Combo Gauge, players can perform "Hyper Combos" – powerful, cinematic attacks that deal heavy damage to the opponent – in addition to several other special techniques. If one character loses all of their health, they are knocked out and the next available fighter will automatically come into play.

Each successive Marvel vs. Capcom installment has added, removed, or altered gameplay elements over the course of the series' history. X-Men vs. Street Fighter added two-on-two tag team features. Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter introduced the concept of the "assist" by allowing the player to summon their off-screen partner to perform a special move without switching characters. This feature was replaced in Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, which instead randomly allocated an unplayable guest character with a preset assist move before each match; in addition, assists were limited to only a few uses per round. The assist features from Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter were re-incorporated into the following sequel, Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes, once again granting players the ability to call in their off-screen characters at any time during the match without constraint. Marvel vs. Capcom 2 also increased the number of characters per team by one, providing a three-on-three battle format. Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds introduced "X-Factor", a comeback mechanic which offers increased damage, speed, and red health regeneration for a limited time upon activation. Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite reverts to two-on-two partner battles and removes traditional character assists. Infinite also implements the Infinity Stones as a gameplay mechanic, where each of the six stones grants unique abilities and enhancements to the player.

Another gameplay element that helps to distinguish the Marvel vs. Capcom series from other fighting game franchises is its emphasis on aerial combat. Every character in the Marvel vs. Capcom series is given a "Launcher" move, which sends the opponent flying up into the air. The player can then choose to follow up immediately by using a "Super Jump", which allows a character to jump much higher than normal, in order to continue their combo; these airborne combos are called "Air Combos" or "Aerial Raves". Marvel vs. Capcom 3 introduced a gameplay feature known as the "Team Aerial Combo" or "Aerial Exchange", giving players the opportunity to extend their Air Combos further by quickly tagging in their other characters while mid-air.

As Capcom's design philosophy for the series has changed to appeal to a wider audience, the control scheme has been repeatedly modified to accommodate people less familiar with the fighting game genre. The first three installments utilized the same layout of six attack buttons, separated as three pairs of light, medium, and hard punches and kicks. In Marvel vs. Capcom 2, in order to make the game more accessible, the layout was tweaked to four attack buttons, consisting of two pairs of light and heavy punches and kicks, and two dedicated assist buttons. The control scheme was further simplified with the release of Marvel vs. Capcom 3, which included three attack buttons designated to undefined light, medium, and hard attacks, two assist buttons, and an "exchange button" used to perform Launchers and switch between characters during Air Combos. In addition, Marvel vs. Capcom 3 included two different control scheme options: Normal Mode and Simple Mode. Simple Mode, designed for casual players, allows players to perform special moves and Hyper Combos with single button presses at the expense of limiting a character's available moveset.

Characters
Marvel vs. Capcom has featured over 100 playable fighters, primarily drawn from comic book series published by Marvel Comics and video games franchises developed and produced by Capcom. The games have introduced a few original characters, which include Norimaro from Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, and Amingo, Ruby Heart, and SonSon from Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes. In addition to the playable cast, other characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes make appearances in the games in varying capacities. Both Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter and Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes include secret characters which can be played by inputting specific sequences of joystick movements on the character select screen. These secret characters consist of palette swaps of existing fighters with different moveset properties. Clash of Super Heroes also has unplayable summon characters as part of its "Guest Character/Special Partner" assist system.

Many Marvel vs. Capcom installments also allow players to fight as the games' boss characters in special game modes, with the exception of Abyss from Marvel vs. Capcom 2. Characters that have not been playable frequently make cameo appearances in the games' cutscenes and stage backgrounds. Lastly, numerous non-playable Marvel and Capcom characters are featured as "Ability Cards" in the Heroes and Heralds game mode in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3. Out of all the playable characters, Ryu and Chun-Li are the only ones to have appeared in every game released thus far.

Notes

History

Capcom's partnership with Marvel Comics began in 1993 with the release of The Punisher, an arcade beat 'em up based on the comic book series of the same name. Capcom then created their first Marvel-licensed fighting game, X-Men: Children of the Atom, in 1994. Marvel Super Heroes soon followed in 1995. Many of the gameplay mechanics used in the Marvel vs. Capcom series were first developed and refined in these two fighting games, serving as precursors to the series. In 2011, then-current Capcom USA Strategic Marketing Director of Online and Community Seth Killian stated that many fighting game aficionados, including himself, consider them to have laid the foundation for the series.

The idea for implementing tag teams was allegedly inspired by an easter egg from Capcom's own 1995 fighting game Street Fighter Alpha: Warriors' Dreams. In a secret "Dramatic Battle" mode, two players, controlling Ryu and Ken, were able to fight against an AI-controlled M. Bison at the same time. The easter egg itself had drawn inspiration from the final battle sequence from Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie, which featured a similar fight scene. Recognizing the uniqueness of a team-up concept, Capcom began to work on their next project. After their earlier licensing ventures with Children of the Atom and Marvel Super Heroes, the company decided to combine Marvel's X-Men franchise, their own Street Fighter franchise, and their team-up concept, leading to the creation of X-Men vs. Street Fighter. The game debuted in Japanese arcades in 1996, establishing the series' fast-paced, tag team-based gameplay style.

Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter was then released in 1997, which replaced most of the X-Men cast with other heroes from the Marvel Universe and introduced the character assist mechanic. Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes later followed in 1998, exchanging the majority of the Street Fighter cast with characters from other Capcom video games series, such as Mega Man and Darkstalkers. In 1999, Capcom announced the development of yet another sequel, called Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes. Marvel vs. Capcom 2 heavily re-used assets from previous Capcom-developed games, including Street Fighter Alpha, Darkstalkers, and the earlier Marvel vs. Capcom titles, resulting in a large roster of 56 playable characters. Shortly after the release of the PlayStation 2 and Xbox ports for Marvel vs. Capcom 2, Capcom lost the use of the Marvel license, putting the series on an indefinite hiatus. However, with the resurgence of 2D fighting games in 2008, owing to the success of Street Fighter IV, Marvel requested Capcom to collaborate with them once again. Capcom would announce the development of the next installment in the Marvel vs. Capcom series, Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds, in 2010. The game was eventually released in 2011. An updated version of Marvel vs. Capcom 3, titled Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, was released later in the same year. The high-definition compilation game Marvel vs. Capcom Origins was then released in 2012.

Following the release of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 for the PlayStation Vita in 2012, Marvel's new parent company, The Walt Disney Company, which acquired Marvel in 2009, chose not to renew Capcom's license with the Marvel characters, instead opting to put them in its own self-published Disney Infinity series. As a result, Capcom had to pull both Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 and Marvel vs. Capcom 2 off their online platforms in 2013. However, in 2016, Disney announced its decision to cancel the Disney Infinity series, discontinue self-publishing efforts, and switch to a licensing-only model, allowing them to license their characters to third-party game developers, including Capcom. Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite was revealed in 2016, and then released in 2017.

Reception

The Marvel vs. Capcom series has received reviews ranging from average to positive from critics. According to Capcom President and COO Haruhiro Tsujimoto, the games have enjoyed broad appeal, especially in markets outside of Japan. ,  units of the series have been sold, making it Capcom's seventh best-selling franchise.

The series' first three titles, X-Men vs. Street Fighter, Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter, and Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes, received praise for their frantic gameplay style, visual flair, playable character rosters, and the quality of their sprite animations. The games' Dreamcast and Sega Saturn ports were also lauded for their technical performance, matching the capabilities of the arcade versions. Conversely, the PlayStation ports were criticized for their removal of tag team battles and noticeable decline in frame rate and animation quality – changes which stemmed from the console's RAM limitations.

Marvel vs. Capcom 2: New Age of Heroes received similar praise, with particular attention given towards the large cast and the addition of three-on-three combat. The Dreamcast, PlayStation 2, and Xbox versions were criticized for their lack of online multiplayer support outside Japan. These concerns were addressed with the release of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 ports, which reviewers commended for their smooth online experience. A common source of complaints was the game's jazz-inspired soundtrack, which critics deemed as out of place.

In addition to its character variety and visual presentation, Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds garnered praise for simplifying the series' combat mechanics and control scheme, thus making it more accessible for players new to fighting games. Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom was applauded for its additions to the character roster, gameplay tweaks, and improved online functionality. Both games, however, were criticized for their lack of game modes and single-player content. Marvel vs. Capcom Origins was praised for preserving the original arcade releases' integrity and its addition of online multiplayer, dynamic challenges, and unlockable content; however, in remaining faithful to the arcade versions, some reviewers criticized the games for their outdated gameplay and unbalanced fighters. Marvel vs. Capcom: Infinite received mixed to positive reviews, with critics praising its implementation of new gameplay mechanics, such as the "Active Switch" combo system and the addition of the six Infinity Stones. On the other hand, the game was criticized for its presentation, particularly its art direction, and its character roster.

In 2012, Complex ranked Marvel vs. Capcom at number 37 on the list of the best video game franchises, commenting that "a frenetic pace and over the top effects work together to make this franchise stand the test of time".

References
Notes

Footnotes

External links
 - Arcade version

Arcade video games
Street Fighter
Fighting games
2D fighting games
2.5D fighting games
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1996
Video games developed in Japan

Marvel vs. Capcom


El colibrí de corbata roja, colibrí bronce de cara verde o colibrí lumaquela (Augastes lumachella), es una especie de ave de la familia Trochilidae, endémica del estado de Bahia, Brasil.

Hábitat
Vive en áreas rupestres entre 950 y 1.600 m de altitud, donde predominan cactáceas, bromélias, orquídeas y veloziáceas.

Descripción
El macho mide 10,1 cm de longitud y la hembra 8,9 cm. Ambos pesan alrededor de 4 g. El pico es negro, recto y mide 19,2 mm. El macho presenta color verde dorado brillante en la frente, el mentón y la garganta, la cual tiene en la base una línea pectoral blanca con un corbatín rojo rubí en el centro. La corona y las mejillas y los lados del cuello son negro terciopelo con tonos azulados. Las partes superiores e inferiores y los élitros son de color verde dorado brillante. Las alas son de color negro y morado; bajo rojo cobrizo; las cubiertas superiores de la cola son de color azul verdoso. Las patas son de color negro.

La hembra es de color ligeramente más pálido. Las corona, el dorso y la nuca son verde azulado; las mejillas, el mentón, los lados del cuello y la garganta son de color gris a marrón; en la parte inferior y debajo de la cola el blanco y el gris se mezclan. Las plumas de la cola son de color rojo dorado, con las plumas externas de color gris.

Reproducción
Construye un nido a una altura del suelo de 60 a 100 cm, con forma de copa cónica muy abierta arriba. Está construido muy abierto construido en forma de copa entrepiernas. Está construido de fragmentos de cactus, hojas, telarañas y musgo. El nido se ve de color gris amarillento a gris.

Referencias

Bibliografía
 Grantsau, Rolf (1968) "Die Wiederentdeckung der brasilianischen Kolibris Augastes scutatus und Augastes lumachellus"; Journal of Ornithology 109 (4): 434-437.
 Grantsau, Rolf (1988) Die Kolibris Brasiliens. Expressao e Cultura, Río de Janeiro. ISBN 85-208-0101-3
 Scheithauer, Walter (1982) Kolibris. Fliegende Edelsteine. BLV Buchverlag. ISBN 3-405-10684-2

Enlaces externos

 Almeida, Almir (2010) Foto macho; WikiAves.
 Jones, Stephen (2010) Foto, macho; WikiAves.
 Humberto, Claudio (2010) Foto, hembra; WikiAves.

lumachella
Aves de América del Sur
Taxones descritos por René Primevère Lesson
Animales descritos en 1838

Augastes lumachella