La separación isótopica es el proceso de concentración de isótopos específicos de un elemento químico mediante la eliminación de otros isótopos, por ejemplo, la separación del uranio natural en uranio enriquecido y uranio empobrecido. Este es un proceso crucial en la fabricación de combustible de uranio para las centrales nucleares y también es necesario para la creación de armas nucleares basadas en uranio. Las armas de plutonio se crean a partir del plutonio producido en reactores nucleares, que deben ser operados de una determinada forma con el fin de que la mezcla isotópica o clasificación sea la adecuada. Aunque en general los elementos químicos se pueden purificar mediante procesos químicos, los isótopos del mismo elemento tienen propiedades químicas casi idénticas, lo que hace imposible este tipo de separación en la práctica, a excepción de la separación del deuterio.

Técnicas de separación

Hay tres tipos de técnicas de separación isótopica:

 Las basadas directamente en la masa del isótopo.
 Las basadas en las pequeñas diferencias en el tipo de reacción química producida por diferentes masas isotópicas.
 Las basadas en propiedades que no estén directamente relacionadas con la masa atómica, tales como resonancias nucleares.

El tercer tipo de separación es todavía experimental, todas las técnicas de separación práctica dependen de alguna manera de la masa atómica. Por tanto, es generalmente más fácil separar isótopos con una diferencia mayor de masa relativa. Por ejemplo, el deuterio tiene el doble de masa que el hidrógeno (ligero) corriente y por ello es más fácil de purificar que el uranio-235 separándolo del más común uranio-238. Por otro lado, separar el fisionable plutonio-239 del plutonio-240, si bien es deseable, ya que facilitaría la producción de las bombas de fisión de plutonio, se considera que no es práctica.
Ver también: Uranio enriquecido

Cascadas de enriquecimiento

La separación isótopica a gran escala siempre se hace en varias etapas que producen concentraciones sucesivamente más altas del isótopo deseado. Cada etapa enriquece el producto de la etapa anterior antes de ser enviado a la siguiente etapa. De manera similar, la fracción empobrecida se devuelve a la etapa anterior para su posterior procesamiento. Esto crea un sistema de enriquecimiento que en ingeniería química se denomina proceso en cascada.

Hay dos factores importantes que afectan al rendimiento de un proceso en cascada: el factor de separación, que es un número mayor que 1, y el número de etapas requeridas para obtener el enriquecimiento deseado.

Materiales comerciales

Hasta la fecha, solo se ha llevado a cabo la separación comercial a gran escala de tres elementos. En cada caso, el más raro de los dos isótopos más comunes de un elemento se ha concentrado para el uso de la tecnología nuclear:
Los isótopos de uranio han sido separados de preparar uranio enriquecido para su uso como combustible en los reactores nucleares y en armas nucleares.
Los isótopos de hidrógeno se han separado para preparar agua pesada para uso como moderador en reactores nucleares.
El litio-6 se ha concentrado para su uso en armas termonucleares.

Algunos de los elementos isótopicamente purificados se utilizan en pequeñas cantidades para aplicaciones especializadas, especialmente en la industria de semiconductora, donde el silicio purificado se utiliza para mejorar la estructura y la conectividad térmica del cristal.

La separación isotópica es un proceso importante para la tecnología nuclear pacífica y militar, y por lo tanto la capacidad de que una nación tenga para la separación de isótopos es de extremo interés para la comunidad científica.

Alternativas

La única alternativa a la separación isótopica es fabricar el isótopo requerido en su forma pura. Esto puede ser hecho por la irradiación de un objetivo adecuado, pero es necesario prestar atención a la selección del objetivo y a otros factores para asegurarse de que sólo el isótopo requerido del elemento de interés es producido. Los isótopos de otros elementos no son un problema tan grande ya que pueden ser eliminados por medios químicos.

Esto es particularmente relevante en la preparación de plutonio-239 de alta calidad para su uso en armas. No es práctico para separar Pu-239 de Pu-240 o Pu-241. El Pu-239 fisible se produce seguido de la captura de neutrones del uranio-238, pero una mayor captura de neutrones daría una producción de Pu-240 no-fisible y peor aún, a continuación, Pu-241, que es un emisor de neutrones bastante fuerte. Por lo tanto, los objetivos de uranio utilizados para producir plutonio militar deben ser irradiados durante sólo un corto tiempo, para minimizar la producción de estos isótopos no deseados. Por el contrario, la mezcla de plutonio con el Pu-241 lo hace inadecuado para las armas nucleares.

Métodos prácticos de la separación

Difusión
A menudo hecho con gases, pero también con líquidos, el método de difusión se basa en el hecho de que en equilibrio térmico, dos isótopos con la misma energía tendrán diferentes velocidades medias. Los átomos más ligeros (o las moléculas que los contienen) viajarán más rápidamente y serán más propensos a difundirse a través de una membrana. La diferencia en velocidades es proporcional a la raíz cuadrada de la relación de masas, así que se necesitan una mayor cantidad de etapas de cascada para obtener alta pureza. Este método es costoso debido a los trabajos necesarios para empujar gas a través de una membrana y las muchas etapas necesarias para ello.

La primera separación isotópica a gran escala se logró por Estados Unidos en las grandes plantas de difusión gaseosa de separación en Laboratorios Oak Ridge, que se establecieron como parte del Proyecto Manhattan. Estos utilizaron gas de hexafluoruro de uranio como proceso de fluido. Edward Adler y Edward Norris fueron los primeros en utilizar níquel en polvo y níquel electro-depositado como barreras de difusión. Ver difusión gaseosa.

Efecto centrifugo

Efecto centrífuga hace girar con rapidez el material permitiendo que los isótopos más pesados vayan más cerca de la pared exterior radial. Esto también se hace a menudo en forma gaseosa con una centrifugadora Zippe.

La separación centrífuga de isótopos se sugirió por primera vez por Aston y Lindemann en 1919 y los primeros experimentos exitosos fueron conseguidos por Beams y Haynes en los isótopos de cloro en 1936. Sin embargo los intentos de utilizar la tecnología durante el Proyecto Manhattan fueron improductivos. En la actualidad es el principal método utilizado en todo el mundo para enriquecer uranio, y como resultado sigue siendo un proceso bastante secreto, lo que dificulta una utilización más generalizada de la tecnología. En general una alimentación de gas UF6 está conectada a un cilindro que se hace girar a alta velocidad. Cerca del borde exterior de las moléculas de cilindros de gas más pesadas que contienen U-238 se recogen, mientras que las moléculas que contienen U-235 se concentran en el centro y se alimentan entonces con otra etapa en cascada. El uso de la tecnología centrífuga gaseosa para enriquecer isótopos es deseable ya que el consumo de energía se reduce considerablemente en comparación con las técnicas más convencionales, tales como plantas de difusión puesto que se necesitan menos etapas de cascada para alcanzar un grado similar de separación. De hecho, las centrifugadoras de gas con hexafluoruro de uranio han sustituido en gran medida la tecnología de difusión gaseosa para el enriquecimiento de uranio  Además de requerir menos energía para conseguir la misma separación, son posibles plantas mucho más pequeñas, por lo que se trata de una posibilidad económica para una nación pequeña tratando de producir armas nucleares.  Se cree que Pakistán ha utilizado este método en el desarrollo de sus armas nucleares.

Los tubos de vórtice fueron utilizados por Sudáfrica en su proceso de separación vórtice Helikon. El gas se inyecta tangencialmente en una cámara con una geometría especial que aumenta aún más su rotación a una velocidad muy alta, provocando que los isótopos se separen. El método es sencillo, porque los tubos de vórtice no tienen partes móviles, pero sí energía intensiva, alrededor de 50 veces mayor que las centrifugadoras de gas. Un proceso similar, conocido como boquilla de impulsión, creada en Alemania, con una planta de demostración construida en Brasil y llegaron a desarrollar un sitio para alimentar las plantas nucleares del país.

Electromagnética

Este método es una forma de espectrometría de masas, y se refiere a veces con el mismo nombre. Se utiliza el hecho de que las partículas cargadas son desviadas en un campo magnético y la cantidad de deflexión depende de la masa de la partícula. Es muy caro para la cantidad producida, ya que tiene un rendimiento muy bajo, pero puede permitir que se alcance un grado de pureza muy alto. Este método se utiliza a menudo para el procesamiento de pequeñas cantidades de isótopos puros para la investigación o uso específico (por ejemplo, trazadores isótopicos), pero no es práctico para el uso industrial.

En  Oak Ridge y en la Universidad de California en Berkeley, Ernest O. Lawrence desarrolló la separación electromagnética para gran parte del uranio utilizado en la primera bomba atómica de los Estados Unidos (ver Proyecto Manhattan). Los dispositivos que utilizan su principio se denominan calutrónes. Después de la guerra, el método fue abandonado en gran medida como impracticable. Sólo se había llevado a cabo (junto con la difusión y otras tecnologías) para garantizar que habría suficiente material para su uso, sea cual sea el coste. Su principal contribución posible al esfuerzo de guerra fue la de concentrar aún más el material de las plantas de difusión gaseosa a niveles aún más altos de pureza.

Láser
En este método un láser está sintonizado a una longitud de onda que excita solamente un isótopo del material e ioniza los átomos preferentemente. La absorción de resonancia de la luz para un isótopo depende de su masa y cierta  hiperfina además de las interacciones entre los electrones y el núcleo, permitiendo que los láseres finalmente se sintonicen para interactuar con sólo un isótopo. Después de que el átomo este ionizado se puede quitar de la muestra mediante la aplicación de un campo eléctrico. Este método es a menudo abreviado como AVLIS (separación de isótopos de vapor atómico por láser). Este método se ha desarrollado recientemente puesto que la tecnología láser ha mejorado, aunque actualmente no se usa ampliamente. Es una preocupación importante para aquellos en el campo de proliferación nuclear, ya que puede ser más barato y más fácil de ocultar que otros métodos de separación de isótopos. Láser sintonizables utilizado en AVLIS incluyen el láser de colorante y, más recientemente láser de diodo s.

Un segundo método de separación por láser se conoce como MLIS (Molecular Laser Isotope Separation). En este método, un láser infrarrojo se dirige a gas de hexafluoruro de uranio, las moléculas que contienen un excitantes U-235 átomo. Un segundo láser libera una flúor átomo, dejando pentafluoruro de uranio, que luego se precipita a partir del gas. Cascada de las etapas MLIS es más difícil que con otros métodos, porque la UF 5 se debe refluorinated (volver a la UF 6) antes de ser introducido en la etapa de MLIS siguiente. Los esquemas alternativos de MLIS Actualmente se están desarrollando (usando un láser primero en la región del infrarrojo cercano o visible) donde un enriquecimiento de más del 95% puede obtenerse en una sola etapa, pero los métodos (todavía) no alcanzó viabilidad industrial. Este método se llama OP-IRMPD (Entonada pre-excitación -  IR múltiple disociación de fotones).

Por último, el proceso SILEX, desarrollado por Silex Systems en Australia, ha sido recientemente autorizado a General Electric para el desarrollo de una planta piloto de enriquecimiento. El método utiliza el hexafluoruro de uranio como materia prima, y utiliza imanes para separar los isótopos después de un isótopo es preferentemente ionizado. Otros detalles del proceso no se describen.

Métodos químicos

Aunque los isótopos de un solo elemento normalmente se describen como si tuvieran las mismas propiedades químicas, esto no es estrictamente cierto. En particular, las velocidad de reacción son muy poco afectadas por la masa atómica.

Las técnicas que utilizan este son más eficaces para los átomos ligeros como el hidrógeno. Los isótopos más ligeros tienden a reaccionar a la evaporación con mayor rapidez que los isótopos pesados, lo que permite que sean separados. Así es como se produce agua pesada comercialmente, ver proceso de sulfuro de Girdler para más detalles. Los isótopos más ligeros también se disocian más rápidamente bajo un campo eléctrico. Este proceso, en una gran cascada, fue utilizado en la planta de producción de agua pesada en Rjukan.

Un candidato para el mayor efecto isotópico cinético alguna vez medido a temperatura ambiente, 305, con el tiempo puede ser utilizado para la separación de tritio (T). Los efectos de la oxidación de formiato aniniones de tritio a OTA se midieron como:

Gravedad

Los isótopos de carbono, oxígeno y nitrógeno pueden ser purificados enfriando estos gases o compuestos casi hasta su temperatura de licuefacción en columnas de gran altura (200 a 700 pies de altura - 70 a 200 metros). Los isótopos más pesados se hunden y el los isótopos más ligeros se elevan, donde se recogen fácilmente. El proceso se desarrolló a finales de 1960 por los científicos del Laboratorio Nacional de Los Álamos. Este proceso también se conoce como "destilación criogénica".

La UTS (unidad de trabajo de separación)

La "'unidad de trabajo separación de  (UTS) es una unidad compleja que es una función de la cantidad de uranio procesado y el grado en que se enriquece, es decir, el grado de aumento en la concentración de la U -235 isótopo con respecto al resto.

La unidad de separación es estrictamente el kilogramo, y mide la cantidad de trabajo de separación (indicativo de la energía utilizada en el enriquecimiento) cuando de comer y las cantidades de producto se expresan en kilogramos. El esfuerzo realizado en la separación de una masa F de la alimentación de ensayo xf en una masa P del ensayo del producto XP y pérdida de masa W y ensayo es xw expresado en términos del número de unidades de trabajo de separación necesarias, dada por la expresión SWU = WV ( XW) + PV' ( xp) - FV (' XF), donde V ( x) es la "función de valor", definido como V ( x) = (1 - 2 x )ln ((1 - x) / x).

Trabajo de separación se expresa en SWUs, SW kg o kg UTA (del alemán' Urantrennarbeit)

 1 SWU = 1 kg SW = 1 kg UTA
 1 = 1,0 t kSWU SW = 1 t UTA
 1 = 1 kt MSWU SW = 1 kt UTA

Si, por ejemplo, se comienza con 100 kilogramos (220 libras) de uranio natural, que toma alrededor de 60 SWU para producir 10 kilogramos (22 libras) de uranio enriquecido en U-235 hasta el 4,5%

Isótopos separadores para la investigación

Los rayos radiactivos de isótopos específicos son ampliamente utilizados en los campos de la física experimental, la biología y la ciencia de los materiales. La producción y la formación de estos átomos radiactivos en un haz iónico para el estudio es todo un campo de la investigación llevada a cabo en muchos laboratorios en todo el mundo. El primer separador isótopico se desarrolló en el ciclotrón de Copenhague por Bohr y compañeros de trabajo utilizando el principio de separación electromagnética. Hoy en día, hay muchos laboratorios de todo el mundo que suministran haces de iones radiactivos para su uso. Podría decirse que el director de Isotope Separation On-Line (ISOL) es ISOLDE en el CERN, , que es un servicio conjunto en Europa extendido a través de la frontera franco-suiza cerca de la ciudad de Ginebra. Este laboratorio utiliza principalmente la espalación del protón de carburo de uranio que se dirige a producir una amplia gama de fragmentos de fisión radiactivos que no se encuentran naturalmente en la tierra. Durante espalación (bombardeo con protones de alta energía), un objetivo carburo de uranio se calienta a varios miles de grados, de manera que se liberan los átomos radiactivos producidos en la reacción nuclear. Una vez fuera del objetivo, el vapor de átomos radiactivos viaja a una cavidad ionizadora. Esta cavidad ionizadora es un tubo delgado hecho de un metal hecho para el trabajo bajo teniendo en cuenta las colisiones con las paredes para liberar un electrón de un átomo libre. Una vez ionizado, las especies radiactivas son aceleradas en un campo electrostático y se inyectan en un separador electromagnético. Como los iones que entran en el separador de la energía son aproximadamente iguales, aquellos iones con una masa menor serán desviadas por el campo magnético por una cantidad mayor que aquellos con una masa pesada. Esta curvatura de radio diferente permite la purificación isobárica a tener lugar. Una vez purificados isobáricamente, el haz de iones se envía entonces a los experimentos individuales. Con el fin de aumentar la pureza de la viga isobárica, la ionización láser puede tener lugar dentro de la cavidad ionizadora para ionizar selectivamente una cadena de un solo elemento de interés. En el CERN, este dispositivo se llama Resonance Ionization Laser Ion Source (RILIS). Actualmente más del 60% de todos los experimentos optan por usar los Rilis para aumentar la pureza de los rayos radioactivos.

Capacidad de producción de rayo en las instalaciones IGSOL

Puesto que la producción de átomos radiactivos por la técnica ISOL depende de la química del átomo libre del elemento a ser estudiado, hay ciertos rayos que no pueden ser producidos por el simple bombardeo de protones de los objetivos de actínidos gruesos. Los metales refractarios tales como el tungsteno o el renio no surgen del objetivo incluso, a altas temperaturas debido a su baja presión de vapor. Con el fin de producir este tipo de rayos, se requiere un objetivo fino. La técnica del Ion Guide Isotope Separator On Line (IGSOL) fue desarrollado en 1981 en el laboratorio ciclotrón de la Universidad de Jyväskylä en Finlandia . En esta técnica, un objetivo de uranio delgado se bombardea con protones y los productos de reacciones nucleares retroceden de la meta en estado de carga. Los retrocesos se detienen en una cámara de gas y luego salen a través de un pequeño orificio en el lado de la cámara donde son acelerados electrostáticamente y se inyectan en un separador de masa. Este método de producción y la extracción se lleva a cabo en un plazo de tiempo más corto en comparación con la técnica ISOL estándar y los isótopos con una vida media corta (sub milisegundos) puede ser estudiado mediante un IGISOL. Un IGISOL También se combina con una fuente láser de iones en el separador de Lovaina isotópica en línea (LISOL) en Bélgica . Los objetivos finos, en general, proporcionan cantidades significativamente menores de iones radiactivos que las fuentes de destino de espesor y ese es su principal inconveniente.

A medida que la física nuclear experimental progresa, se hace cada vez más importante estudiar los núcleos radiactivos más exóticos. Para ello, son necesarias técnicas más ingeniosas para crear núcleos con proporciones extremas de protones/neutrones. La técnica más prometedora hasta la fecha es el uso de múltiples objetivos. Por primera producir un rayo radiactivo por un método ISOL y luego reacelerarlo para hacerle dar en un segundo blanco fino, se pueden producir núcleos muy exóticos. El Laboratorio Nacional de Ciclotrón Superconductor en la Universidad Estatal de Míchigan es un buen ejemplo de este tipo de instalaciones. Cuanto mayor es la energía de interacción, generalmente más exóticos del núcleo producido. Entonces es necesario ser capaz de frenar estos núcleos hacia abajo una vez que han sido producidos. Los pioneros en la instalación japonesa RIKEN fueron los primeros en utilizar un receptor gigante de gas y los nuevos campos eléctricos para hacer esto, lo que se está convirtiendo en la técnica estándar.

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Utilization of kinetic isotope effects for the concentration of tritium, GM Brown, TJ Meyer et al., 2001.
 Uranium Production
 Uranium Enrichment  from the World Nuclear Association
 Annotated bibliography on electromagnetic separation of uranium isotopes form the Alsos Digital Library

Isótopos

Separación isotópica


Povijest Židova povijest je njihove religije i kulture, onako kako se razvijala i komunicirala s drugim narodima, religijama i kulturama.

Iako se judaizam kao religija prvi put pojavljuje u grčkim spisima tijekom helenističkog razdoblja (323. – 31. pr. Kr.), a najranije spominjanje Izraela upisano je na steli Merneptaha iz 1213. – 1203. pr. Kr., spominjanja Izraelaca u vjerskoj literaturi sežu unazad do oko 1500 pr. Kr. Židovska dijaspora započela je s asirskim zatočeništvom i nastavila se povećavati u mnogo većem obujmu za vrijeme babilonskog progonstva. Židovi su također bili rašireni širom Rimskog Carstva, a to se nastavilo u manjoj mjeri i tijekom razdoblja bizantske vladavine u srednjem i istočnom Mediteranu. Bizantsko je Carstvo je 638. godine izgubilo kontrolu nad Levantom. Arapsko islamsko carstvo pod kalifom Omarom osvojilo je Jeruzalem i zemlje Mezopotamije, Sirije, Palestine i Egipta. Zlatno doba židovske kulture u Španjolskoj poklopilo se sa srednjim vijekom u Europi, razdobljem muslimanske vladavine na većem dijelu Iberijskog poluotoka. Tijekom tog vremena Židovi su bili općeprihvaćeni u društvu i cvjetao je židovski vjerski, kulturni i ekonomski život. Međutim, 1492. godine Židovi su primorani napustiti Španjolsku pa su masovno naselili Osmansko Carstvo i sadašnju Italiju. Između 12. i 15. stoljeća Židovi  Aškenazi proživljavali su jako progonjenje u srednjoj Europi, zbog čega su se selili u Poljsku.

Tijekom klasičnog osmanskog razdoblja (1300. –  1600.), Židovi su, zajedno s većinom drugih zajednica u carstvu, uživali određenu razinu blagostanja. U 17. stoljeću u zapadnoj je Europi bilo mnogo značajnog židovskog stanovništva. U razdoblju europske renesanse i prosvjetiteljstva dogodile su se značajne promjene u židovskoj zajednici. U 18. su stoljeću Židovi počeli voditi kampanju za oslobađanje od restriktivnih zakona i integraciju u šire europsko društvo. Tijekom 1870-ih i 1880-ih židovsko stanovništvo u Europi počelo je aktivnije raspravljati o emigraciji u Izrael i ponovnoj uspostavi židovske nacije u svojoj nacionalnoj domovini. Cionistički pokret službeno je osnovan 1897. godine. U međuvremenu su Židovi Europe i Sjedinjenih Američkih Država stjecali slavu na polju znanosti, kulture i gospodarstva. Među onima su koji se općenito smatraju najpoznatijima znanstvenik Albert Einstein i filozof Ludwig Wittgenstein. Mnogi nobelovci u to vrijeme bili su Židovi, kao što su i danas.

Godine 1933., s dolaskom Adolfa Hitlera i nacista na vlast u Njemačkoj, položaj Židova postajao je sve teži. Ekonomske krize, rasno-antisemitski zakoni i strah od nadolazećeg rata naveli su mnoge Židove da pobjegnu iz Europe u Palestinu, Sjedinjene Američke Države i Sovjetski Savez. Godine 1939. počeo je Drugi svjetski rat i do 1941. Hitler je okupirao gotovo cijelu Europu, uključujući Poljsku, u kojoj su tada živjeli milijuni Židova, i Francusku. Godine 1941., nakon invazije na Sovjetski Savez, pokrenuto je Konačno rješenje, velika organizirana operacija neviđenih razmjera, usmjerena na uništenje židovskog naroda, a rezultirala je progonom i ubojstvom Židova u Europi, uključujući i europsku Sjevernu Afriku. Ovaj genocid, u kojem je metodično istrijebljeno oko šest milijuna Židova, poznat je kao holokaust ili Shoah (hebrejski izraz). U Poljskoj je tri milijuna Židova ubijeno u plinskim komorama u svim koncentracijskim logorima zajedno, a milijun samo u kompleksu logora Auschwitz.

Godine 1945. židovske organizacije otpora u Palestini ujedinile su se u Židovski pokret otpora, koji je napao britanske vlasti. David Ben-Gurion je 14. svibnja 1948. proglasio uspostavu židovske države u Eretz Izraelu poznate kao Država Izrael. Odmah zatim susjedne arapske države napadaju novu državu, ali se novoosnovana država odupire. Godine 1949. rat je završio i država Izrael počela se  razvijati i apsorbirati ogromne valove stotina tisuća Židova iz cijeloga svijeta. Danas je Izrael parlamentarna demokracija s preko 9 milijuna ljudi, od kojih su oko 7 milijuna Židovi. Najveće su židovske zajednice u Izraelu i Sjedinjenim Američkim Državama, a postoje i značajne zajednice u Francuskoj, Argentini, Rusiji, Velikoj Britaniji, Australiji, Kanadi i Njemačkoj.

Izvori

Židovi
Povijest Izraela
Judaizam

Povijest Židova


Masaharu Nakagawa (jap. ; * 22. Februar 1947 in der Präfektur Tokio) ist ein ehemaliger japanischer Politiker der Liberaldemokratischen Partei (zuletzt Abe-Faktion). Von 2004 bis 2022 war er Sangiinabgeordneter für die Präfektur Tokio, von 2017 bis 2018 Umweltminister.

Nakagawa, der Schwiegersohn von Hara Bunbē (LDP, Sangiinabgeordneter für Tokio und Umweltminister), wurde nach seinem Studium an der rechtswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Tokio Beamter im Finanzministerium. 2001 wechselte er ins Umweltministerium, wo er 2002 zum beamteten Staatssekretär (jimujikan) aufstieg.

Bei der Sangiin-Wahl 2004 trat Nakagawa als einziger LDP-Kandidat in der Präfektur Tokio (damals vier Mandate) an und wurde mit dem höchsten Stimmenanteil gewählt, 2010 wurde er als einer von zwei LDP-Kandidaten mit dem dritthöchsten Stimmenanteil für eine zweite Amtszeit wiedergewählt. Im Sangiin war er von 2008 bis 2009 Vorsitzender des Kultus- und Wissenschaftsausschusses, 2010 Vorsitzender des Sonderausschusses für Okinawa und die Nördlichen Territorien. In der Partei wurde er 2011 Vizevorsitzender des politischen Forschungsrates.

Nach der dritten Umbildung des dritten Kabinetts Shinzō Abe war Nakagawa Umweltminister und gleichzeitig Staatsminister für Atomkatastrophenschutz.

Zur Sangiin-Wahl 2022 zog sich Nakagawa aus der Politik zurück.

Weblinks

 Sangiin: ,

Einzelnachweise

Umweltminister (Japan)
Mitglied des Sangiin
LDP-Mitglied (Japan)
Japaner
Geboren 1947
Mann

Masaharu Nakagawa (Politiker, 1947)


De senere tre kongedømmer (892–936) refererer til de tre tidligere koreanske kongedømmer Silla, Hubaekje ("Senere Baekje") og Hugoguryeo ("Senere Goguryeo") frem til kongedømmet Goryeo erobrede det meste af Koreahalvøen i 936.

Hubaekje og Hugoguryeo mente begge at have deres udspring fra perioden "Tre kongedømmer", som blev samlet af Silla i 660'erne, selv om Hugoguryeo ikke har så meget at gøre med Goguryeo. Perioden var præget af uro under dronning Jinseong af Silla og bliver ofte omtalt som perioden mellem Gyeon Hwons grundlæggelse af Hubaekje frem til Goryeo forenede alle kongedømmerne på halvøen.

Noter

Litteratur
 The Academy of Korean Studies, Korea through the Ages Vol. 1, The Editor Publishing Co., Seoul, 2005.

Koreas historie

De senere tre kongedømmer


Exactitatea (sau acuratețea) și precizia sunt noțiuni care definesc calitatea unei măsurări în sens metrologic, pe baze statistice. Acuratețea indică cât de apropiate sunt anumite rezultate de valoarea lor considerată a fi reală, iar precizia indică cât de apropiate sunt rezultatele unele față de altele. Astfel, precizia este un indicator pentru erorile de măsurare.

Noțiuni din vocabularul standard al metrologiei
 a definit expres unele noțiuni legate de exactitatea și precizia de măsurare în standardul OIML V 2-200 a cărei traducere oficială în limba română este SR Ghid ISO/CEI 99: 2010.

 Bias-ul unui instrument de măsurare indică deviația de la realitate (inexactitatea) sa. Bias este un cuvânt englez care se traduce cu predilecție, părtinire, înclinare ș.a. Ca valoare bias-ul este egal cu media indicațiilor repetate minus o valoare de referință a mărimii.
 Bias-ul de măsurare este o estimare a unei erori de măsurare sistematice.
 Bugetul incertitudinii reprezintă declararea unei incertitudini a măsurării, a componentelor sale și a calculelor și combinărilor acestora.
 Corecția este o compensare a unui efect sistematic estimat.
 O evaluare de tip A a incertitudinii măsurării este o evaluare a unei componente a incertitudinii măsurării printr-o analiză statistică a valorilor măsurate ale mărimii obținute în condiții de măsurare definite.
 O evaluare de tip B a incertitudinii măsurării este o evaluare a unei componente a incertitudinii măsurării determinate prin alte mijloace decât o evaluare de tip A a incertitudinii măsurării.
 Exactitatea măsurarii reprezintă concordanța dintre o valoare măsurată a mărimii și o valoare reală a mărimii pentru un măsurand.
 Factorul de acoperire este un număr mai mare decât unu cu care se înmulțește o incertitudine standard combinată a măsurării pentru a se obține o incertitudine extinsă.
 Justețea măsurării reprezintă concordanța dintre media unui număr infinit de valori măsurate multiplicate ale mărimii și o valoare de referință a mărimii.
 Precizia măsurării este concordanța dintre indicații sau valori măsurate ale mărimii obținute prin măsurări repetate ale aceluiași obiect sau ale unor obiete similare, în condiții specificate.
 Precizia intermediară de măsurare este precizia măsurării în condiții de măsurare cu precizie intermediară.
 Reglarea unui sistem de măsurare reprezintă un set de operații la un sistem de măsurare astfel încât acesta să furnizeze indicațiile prescrise corespunzătoare unor valori date ale unei mărimi care trebuie măsurată.
 Reglarea la zero a unui sistem de măsurare este reglarea unui sistem de măsurare astfel încât acesta să furnizeze o indicație zero corespunzând valorii zero a unei mărimi ce trebuie măsurată.
 ''Selectivitatea unui sistem de măsurare reprezintă proprietatea unui sistem de măsurare, utilizându-se o procedură de măsurare specificată, prin care sistemul furnizează valori măsurate ale mărimii pentru unul sau mai mulți măsuranzi, astfel încât valorile fiecărui măsurand sunt independente în raport cu alți măsuranzi sau cu alte mărimi legate de fenomenul, corpul sau substanța în curs de investigare.

Note

Metrologie
Articole cu definiții standard din metrologie
Biostatistică

Exactitate și precizie


Čajnik je posuda za namakanje listova čaja ili biljne mješavine u kipućoj ili gotovo kipućoj vodi i za posluživanje dobivene tekućine – čaja. Osušeni listići čaja dostupni su ili u čajnim vrećicama ili u rinfuzi; u potonjem se slučaju za zadržavanje listova u čajniku tijekom točenja čaja ili namakanja mogu upotrijebiti cjedila za čaj. Čajnici uglavnom imaju otvor s poklopcem na vrhu u koji se stavljaju suhi listići čaja i vruća voda, dršku i kljun iz kojeg se izlijeva čaj. Neki čajnici u kljun imaju ugrađeno cjedilo. Poklopci često imaju manju rupu za zrak da tijekom izlijevanja čaj ne bi prskao ili curio iz kljuna. U suvremeno se doba može upotrijebiti i posebna navlaka koja izolira toplinu; njome se može ubrzati namakanje ili spriječiti prebrzo hlađenje sadržaja u čajniku.

Povijest

Čajnik je osmišljen u Kini tijekom dinastije Yuan. Vjerojatno je tad bio izrađen od keramičkih kotlića i vinskih posuda, koji su tad izrađivani od bronce i ostalih metala i koji su tisućama godina bili dio kineske kulture. Prethodne kineske dinastije tijekom pripreme čaja nisu upotrebljavale čajnike. Tijekom dinastije Tang za kuhanje mljevenog čaja upotrebljavao se kotao, a čaj se posluživao u zdjelama. Tijekom dinastije Song čaj se pripremao tako da se kipuća voda iz kotlića izlila u zdjelu s mljevenim listovima čaja. Potom se za miješanje čaja upotrebljavao kist. Pisani dokaz o postojanju čajnika pojavljuje se u tekstu Jiyuan Conghua iz dinastije Yuan, u kojem se opisuje čajnik koji je autor teksta, Cai Shizhan, kupio od učenjaka Sun Daominga. U vrijeme dinastije Ming čajnici su se nalazili diljem Kine. Najstariji čajnik koji je očuvan do danas nalazi se u muzeju Flagstaff House Museum of Teaware; procjenjuje se da je nastao 1513. i autorstvo se pripisuje osobi imena Gongchun.

Rani čajnici poput onih koji se i dalje upotrebljavaju u suvremenim ritualima gongfu maleni su prema zapadnjačkim standardima. U njima je veći omjer listova i vode, što kuharu omogućuje veću kontrolu nad različitim oblicima kuhanja i stvaranje nekoliko manjih čajeva. Poslije kuhanja čaj bi se izlio u posebnu posudu i potom utočio u manje šalice nekoliko osoba koje piju, nakon čega bi se ponovno kuhao. Takvim su se kuhanjem čaja stvarali različiti okusi.

Tradicionalno kinesko posuđe za čaj uglavnom se izrađivalo od gline s područja oko grada Yixinga. Takav se oblik gline nije glazirao, zbog čega je glina s vremenom mogla upiti okus kuhanih čajeva i pojačati okus naknadnih čajeva. Određene osobe koje sudjeluju u ritualu gongfu vlastite neglazirane posude upotrebljavaju za posebne vrste čajeva, a katkad i posebne inačice.

Od kraja 17. stoljeća čaj se počeo izvoziti iz Kine u Europu kao dio izvoza egzotičnih začina i luksuznih dobara. Brodovi koji su prenosili čaj također su prenosili i čajnike od porculana. Podglazura većine tih čajnika bila je plave i bijele boje. Iako je porculan bio potpuno ostakljen, morska ga voda nije mogla oštetiti, pa su čajnici stajali ispod palube, a sam se čaj prevozio iznad nje da bi ostao suh.

U Europi su u početku čaj pili samo pripadnici viših društvenih slojeva zbog njegove skupoće. Čajnici od porculana bili su pogotovo poželjni jer se porculan tad još nije proizvodio u Europi. Tek je 1708. Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus osmislio način stvaranja porculana u njemačkom gradu Dresdenu i dvije godine poslije pokrenuo je tvrtku Meissen. Kad su europske grnčarije počele proizvoditi vlastito posuđe za čaj, bile su nadahnute kineskim posuđem.

U kolonijalnoj je Americi Boston postao središte za proizvodnju srebra i umjetnost. Među brojnim bostonskim umjetnicima postojale su četiri veće obitelji na tržištu srebra: Edwards, Revere, Burt i Hurd. Među njihovim se umjetničkim djelima nalaze i srebrni čajnici.

Zadržavanje topline
Da bi čajnici ostali vrući nakon kuhanja prvog čaja, rana su se engleska kućanstva služila posebnom jastučastom navlakom koja se navlačila na čajnik. Početkom 20. stoljeća često je bila ukrašena čipkom ili motivima brvnare, a u suvremeno je doba navlaka ponovno ušla u uporabu nakon ponovne konzumacije mljevenih listova čaja.

Curenje
Kod nekih čajnika dolazi do sporog curenja tijekom kojeg mlaz teče niz vanjski dio kljuna, pogotovo na početku ili kraju izlijevanja. Ta se pojava u različito doba objašnjavala na različite načine. Ako se vanjska površina kljuna prilagodi tako da bude više hidrofobična i ako se smanji polumjer zakrivljenosti, može se izbjeći curenje.

Marokanski čajnik

U Maroku su za pripremu marokanskog čaja od mente nužni čajnici od nehrđajućeg čelika. Marokanski su čajnici otporni na toplinu i mogu se staviti izravno na štednjak. Dio su marokanskog rituala ispijanja čaja uz raznobojne čajne šalice. Dizajn im može biti minimalistički ili iznimno ukrašen.

U kontekstima nevezanim za kuhanje čaja

Čajnik ima istaknut oblik i katkad je poznat po stvarima koje nemaju veze s njegovom glavnom svrhom.
Čajnik iz Utaha standardni je referentni objekt u računalnoj grafici i po svojoj je popularnosti usporediv s izrazom "Hello, World". Pojavljuje se kao temeljni grafički oblik u mnogim aplikacijama za grafički dizajn, među kojima su AutoCAD, POV-Ray, OpenGL, Direct3D i 3ds Max.
Russellov čajnik jest analogija koju je osmislio Bertrand Russell kojom se napadaju religijske tvrdnje za koje se ne može dokazati da su lažne, tijekom čega ih se uspoređuje s istoimenim čajnikom. Taj je koncept nadahnuo naslov albuma Flying Teapot francusko-britanskog rock sastava Gong iz 1973.
Čajnik se nalazi u američkoj pjesmi za djecu "I'm a Little Teapot" iz 1939.
Na korejskom području čajnik se često upotrebljava kao posuda u kojoj se poslužuju različita vina.
Dio zviježđa Strijelca sastoji se od asterizma (odnosno niza zvijezda koji se službeno ne smatra zviježđem) koji nalikuje čajniku.
Hans Christian Andersen napisao je bajku koja se zove Čajnik.

U arhitekturi
 Godine 2004. malezijski je kult Sky Kingdom izradio gotovo 11 metara visok čajnik krem boje neobično duga kljuna, koji je viši od samog čajnika i dio je privatna simbolizma koje pokriva i gotovo jednako veliku plavu vazu pored čajnika. Tijekom suzbijanja te sekte u kolovozu 2005. buldožeri i veći strojevi srušili su ta zdanja.
 Najveći arhitektonski čajnik na svijetu navodno se nalazi u Zapadnoj Virginiji. Godine 1938. William "Babe" Devon izradio je "čajnik iz Chestera". U početku se radilo o velikoj bačvi izrađenoj za reklamnu kampanju piva Hires Root Beer. Devon je kupio tu bačvu u Pennsylvaniji i prenio je u Chester u Zapadnoj Virginiji, gdje je postavljena na raskršću cesta State Route 2 i U.S. Route 30. Tada su dodani kljun i drška, a drvena je bačva prekrivena aluminijem da bi se stvorio oblik čajnika. Na vrh je postavljena velika staklena kugla koja je predstavljala čvor na "poklopcu". Taj se čajnik nalazio pred Devonovom grnčarijom. Lokalni su tinejdžeri prodavali suvenire na ograđenom mjestu za prodaju koje se nalazilo unutar čajnika.
 Benzinska postaja Teapot Dome Service Station nalazi se u gradu Zillahu u Washingtonu. Sagrađena je 1922. kao četiri i pol metra visok čajnik. Dizajnirana je kao šala koja je aludirala na tadašnji skandal Teapot Dome. Premještena je nekoliko puta i više nije aktivna benzinska postaja.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Sestrinski projekti

Mrežna mjesta
Kratka povijest čajnika Muzeja Stoke-on-Trent
Engleski čajnici – njihovo podrijetlo i vrste
Čajnici u Britanskom muzeju
Čajnici u Muzeju umjetnosti Metropolitan

Kuhinjsko posuđe
Lončarstvo

Čajnik


Coniraya (parfois appelé Coniraya Viracocha) est le dieu masculin de la Lune dans le panthéon inca. Cette divinité pré-colombienne, liée à la fertilité, descendit sur Terre pour créer les villages, les champs, les canaux et les cultures en terrasses sur les collines au profit des humains.

Coniraya et Cavillaca
De même que Loki dans le panthéon scandinave, il se déguisait souvent pour venir jouer des tours aux hommes et aux femmes des Andes.

Selon une légende orale des habitants de Cuzco retranscrite autour  1570 par , Coniraya tomba sous le charme d'une jeune vierge prénommée Cavillaca. D'une très grande beauté, elle était désirée de tous, mais refusait tous ses prétendants. Un jour, le dieu se transforma en oiseau pour voler jusqu'à un arbre lucuma auquel s'était adossée la jeune fille. Il féconda un des fruits mûrs, le fit tomber sur la tête de Cavillaca, qui goûta au délicieux fruit. Neuf mois plus tard, elle enfanta d'un père inconnu. Sachant qu'elle était pourtant toujours vierge, Cavillaca comprit alors que seul un  « huaca », un des esprits sacrés incas, avait pu la mettre enceinte par quelque sortilège.

C'est pourquoi elle réunit un peu plus tard tous les « huacas » du pays, qui avaient à cette occasion revêtu leurs plus beaux atours pour attirer le regard de la belle. Elle leur demanda alors d'avouer lequel d'entre eux l'avait ainsi mise enceinte sans qu'elle s'en rende compte. Comme aucun d'entre eux ne répondit, Cavillaca chargea alors son fils de se diriger vers celui qui était son géniteur. L'enfant rampa alors vers Coniraya, qui  assistait à la scène.

Profondément mortifiée qu'on puisse imaginer qu'elle avait été mise enceinte par un être aussi médiocre, Cavillaca s'enfuit en courant vers le rivage. Aussitôt, Coniraya, très amoureux d'elle, se lança à sa poursuite en se transformant pour apparaître couvert de vêtements magnifiques. Mais elle, dédaigneuse, ne fit qu'accélérer sa course sans même se retourner. Et elle courut si vite que Coniraya ne put la rattraper avant d'arriver au rivage, malgré l'aide qu'il demanda aux animaux qu'il rencontra, condor, renard, puma ou perroquets. Mais, lorsqu'il parvint au bord de la mer, la belle Cavillaca et son enfant s'étaient transformés en pierre, pour échapper enfin à l'humiliation de cette poursuite par celui qu'elle prenait pour un mendiant méprisable.

Dans la culture populaire

Depuis cet événement, condors, renards, pumas et perroquets ont chacun acquis une réputation particulière auprès des descendants des Incas. Car Coniraya avait béni le condor et le puma, qui lui avaient dit la vérité sur la fuite de Cavillaca, mais maudit le renard, qui lui avait menti, ainsi que les perroquets, qui n'avaient fait que répéter ses questions.

D'autre part, l'un des cratères de la planète naine Cérès a été nommé du nom de Coniraya, dieu de la Lune.

Références

Annexes

Bibliographie
 , page 148.

Articles connexes
 Mythologie inca

Liens externes
  Coniraya Viracocha, sur mythologica.fr (consulté le 20 février 2022).

Légende

Coniraya


ديفيد ليناريس  (5 أكتوبر 1975 في جورا) لاعب كرة قدم فرنسي يلعب حاليا لصالح نادي الدرجة الثانية ديجون الفرنسي في خط الوسط .

روابط خارجية

مراجع

لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية فرنسيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم رجالية مغتربون في إسبانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم من جورا (إقليم فرنسي)
لاعبو وسط كرة قدم رجالية
أشخاص على قيد الحياة
رياضيون فرنسيون مغتربون في إسبانيا
رياضيون من جورا
فرنسيون من أصل إسباني
لاعبو أولمبيك ليون
لاعبو الدوري الإسباني الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي
لاعبو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
لاعبو تروا
لاعبو ديجون
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون
لاعبو كرة قدم فرنسيون مغتربون
لاعبو كرة قدم مغتربون في إسبانيا
لاعبو كرة قدم من بورغوني- فرانش كومتيه
لاعبو نادي تنريفه
مدربو الدوري الفرنسي
مدربو الدوري الفرنسي الدرجة الثانية
مدربو كرة قدم فرنسيون
مدربو نادي ديجون
مواليد 1975

ديفيد ليناريس


In economics, average cost (AC) or unit cost is equal to total cost (TC) divided by the number of units of a good produced (the output Q):

Average cost has strong implication to how firms will choose to price their commodities. Firms' sale of commodities of certain kind is strictly related to the size of the certain market and how the rivals would choose to act.

Short-run average cost

Short-run costs are those that vary with almost no time lagging. Labor cost and the cost of raw materials are short-run costs, but physical capital is not.

An average cost curve can be plotted with cost on the vertical axis and quantity on the horizontal axis. Marginal costs are often also shown on these graphs, with marginal cost representing the cost of the last unit produced at each point; marginal costs in the short run are the slope of the variable cost curve (and hence the first derivative of variable cost).

A typical average cost curve has a U-shape, because fixed costs are all incurred before any production takes place and marginal costs are typically increasing, because of diminishing marginal productivity. In this "typical" case, for low levels of production marginal costs are below average costs, so average costs are decreasing as quantity increases.  An increasing marginal cost curve intersects a U-shaped average cost curve at the latter's minimum, after which the average cost curve begins to slope upward.  For further increases in production beyond this minimum, marginal cost is above average costs, so average costs are increasing as quantity increases. For example: for a factory designed to produce a specific quantity of widgets per period—below a certain production level, average cost is higher due to under-used equipment, and above that level, production bottlenecks increase average cost.

Long-run average cost

Long-run average cost is the unit cost of producing a certain output when all inputs, even physical capital, are variable. The behavioral assumption is that the firm will choose that combination of inputs that produce the desired quantity at the lowest possible cost.

A long-run average cost curve is typically downward sloping at relatively low levels of output, and upward or downward sloping at relatively high levels of output. Most commonly, the long-run average cost curve is U-shaped, by definition reflecting economies of scale where negatively sloped and diseconomies of scale where positively sloped.

If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per-unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale (i.e., is operating in a downward sloping region of the long-run average cost curve) if and only if it has increasing returns to scale, the latter being exclusively a feature of the production function.  Likewise, it has diseconomies of scale (is operating in an upward sloping region of the long-run average cost curve) if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale.  With perfect competition in the output market the long-run market equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long-run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).

If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified.  For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input's per-unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels.  Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.

In some industries, long-run average cost is always declining (economies of scale exist indefinitely). This means that the largest firm tends to have a cost advantage, and the industry tends naturally to become a monopoly, and hence is called a natural monopoly. Natural monopolies tend to exist in industries with high capital costs in relation to variable costs, such as water supply and electricity supply.

Relationship to marginal cost

When average cost is declining as output increases, marginal cost is less than average cost. When average cost is rising, marginal cost is greater than average cost. When average cost is neither rising nor falling (at a minimum or maximum), marginal cost equals average cost.

Other special cases for average cost and marginal cost appear frequently:
 Constant marginal cost/high fixed costs: each additional unit of production is produced at constant additional expense per unit. The average cost curve slopes down continuously, approaching marginal cost. An example is hydroelectric generation, which has no fuel expense, limited maintenance expenses and a high up-front fixed cost (ignoring irregular maintenance costs or useful lifespan). Industries with fixed marginal costs, such as electrical transmission networks, may meet the conditions for a natural monopoly, because once capacity is built, the marginal cost to the incumbent of serving an additional customer is always lower than the average cost for a potential competitor. The high fixed capital costs are a barrier to entry.
 Two popular pricing mechanisms are average cost pricing (or rate of return regulation) and marginal cost pricing. A monopoly produces where its average cost curve meets the market demand curve under average cost pricing, referred to as the average cost pricing equilibrium.
 Minimum efficient scale: Marginal or average costs may be nonlinear, or have discontinuities. Average cost curves may therefore only be shown over a limited scale of production for a given technology. For example, a nuclear plant would be extremely inefficient (high average cost) for production in small quantities. Similarly, its maximum output for any given time period may essentially be fixed, and production above that level may be technically impossible, dangerous or extremely costly. The long run elasticity of supply are higher, as new plants could be built and brought on-line.
 Zero fixed costs (long-run analysis) and constant marginal cost: since there are no economies of scale, average cost is equal to the constant marginal cost.

Relationship between AC, AFC, AVC and MC

1. The Average Fixed Cost curve (AFC) starts from a height and goes on declining continuously as production increases.

2. The Average Variable Cost curve, Average Cost curve and the Marginal Cost curve start from a height, reach the minimum points, then rise sharply and continuously.

3. The Average Fixed Cost curve approaches zero asymptotically. The Average Variable Cost curve is never parallel to or as high as the Average Cost curve due to the existence of positive Average Fixed Costs at all levels of production; but the Average Variable Cost curve asymptotically approaches the Average Cost curve from below.

4. The Marginal Cost curve always passes through the minimum points of the Average Variable Cost and Average Cost curves, though the Average Variable Cost curve attains the minimum point prior to that of the Average Cost curve.

See also
 Cost curve
 Socially optimal firm size
 Average variable cost
 Average fixed cost

References

External links
 Long-Run Average Total Cost by Fiona Maclachlan, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

Costs

Average cost


Beotsvanska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu er fulltrúi Botsvana í knattspyrnu og er stjórnað af knattspyrnusambandi landsins. Liðið hefur aldrei komist í úrslitakeppni HM en komst í Afríkukeppnina árið 2012.

Afrísk knattspyrnulandslið
Karlalandslið í knattspyrnu
Botsvana

Botsvanska karlalandsliðið í knattspyrnu


Antônio Bento da Silva Filho, conocido como Toni Garrido (Río de Janeiro, 7 de septiembre de 1967) es un cantante, actor y presentador de televisión brasileño. Es el vocalista de la banda de reggae Cidade Negra.

Trabajos
TV
 2010 - Una rosa con amor .... Frazão
 2007 - Caminos del corazón .... Gustavo Gama
 2002 - Fama ... Presentador

Cine
 2008 - Fados .... Modinha
 2003 - Deus É Brasileiro .... São Pedro
 1999 - Orfeu .... Orfeu
 1998 - Como Ser Solteiro

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Actores de Brasil
Cantantes masculinos de Brasil
Nacidos en Río de Janeiro
Cantantes afrobrasileños

Toni Garrido (actor)


Branston puede hacer referencia a:

 Branston, un pueblo en el condado de Lincolnshire (Inglaterra);
 Branston, una parroquia civil y un pueblo en el condado de Staffordshire (Inglaterra);
 Branston Pickle, un relish encurtido comercializado por la marca de alimentos Branston del Reino Unido.

Branston


Thomas Mun (17. júní 1571 – 21. júlí 1641) var breskur kaupsýslumaður og hagfræðingur. Mun var einn af stjórnendum Breska Austur-Indíafélagsins, og einn af mikilvægustu fulltrúum merkantílismans. Mun er iðulega talinn upphafsmaður klassísks ensks merkantilisma, ásamt Edward Misselden. Ásamt Misselden setti Mun fram kenningu um mikilvægi jákvæðs viðskiptajöfnuðar við umheiminn, frekar en afgang af viðskiptum við hvert ríki fyrir sig. Líkt og aðrir merkantilistar taldi Mun að uppspretta auðs væri að finna í utanríkisviðskiptum.  Adam Smith eyddi miklu púðri í að hrekja og gagnrýna kenningar Mun í riti sínu Auðlegð Þjóðanna.

Ævi
Thomas Mun kom af efnaðri kaupmannafjölskyldu í London. Fjölskyldan stundaði viðskipti með klæði og vefnaðarvöru, en afi hans var myntsláttumaður og einn af stjórnendum Konunglegu Myntsláttunnar. Ekkert er vitað um menntun Mun, en hann er talinn hafa öðlast þekkingu á viðskiptum og peningamálum í gegnum fjölskyldu sína og eigin reynslu af utanríkisviðskiptum.

Faðir Mun lést þegar hann var ungur. Stjúpfaðir hans var auðugur kaupmaður sem stundaði viðskipti við Austurlönd Fjær og starfaði Mun sem lærlingur í fyrirtæki stjúpföður síns. Mun hóf eigin rekstur 1596, með viðskiptum við Miðjarðarhaf, sérstaklega Ítalíu og Austurlönd Nær, Tyrkland, Sýrland og Líbanon. Mun dvaldi löngum stundum erlendis, þar á meðal á Ítalíu. Hann var einn af stofnendum Austur Indíafélagsins, og var árið 1615 kjörinn einn af stjórnendum þess, og var einn af mest áberandi og atkvæðamestu stjórnendum þess.

Thomas Mun kvæntist Ursulu Malcott þegar hann var 41 árs. Þau eignuðust saman börnin John, Mary og Anne og bjuggu þau öll saman í London.

Framlög til hagfræði
Thomas Mun gaf út sitt fyrsta rit árið 1621, Ritgerð um viðskipti, frá Englandi til Austurlanda Fjær (enska: A Discourse of trade, from England unto the East Indies). Ritið var svar við gagnrýni á Austur-Indíafélagið, sem var sakað um að stuðla að neikvæðum viðskiptajöfnuði Englands, og að hafa þar með stuðlað að kreppu sem gekk yfir England á árunum 1618-1622.

Upphaf þess má rekja til þess að félagið fjármagnaði viðskipti sín með því að flytja út góðmálma til að fjármagna viðskipti á erlendri grundu, sem margir töldu óeðlielega viðskiptahætti, og grafa undan velmegun og rýra auð Englands. Mun bendir á að ef félagið gæti ekki flutt gull og silfur úr landi til að borga fyrir vörur á Indlandi myndi það ekki binda endi á skort á gulli og góðmálmum í Englandi, heldur stöðva innflutning og hefta útflutning, því England þyrfti að flytja inn vörur og hráefni til að flytja áfram til annarra landa. "Peningar geta af sér viðskipti, og viðskipti geta af sér aukna peninga." Það sem skipti máli væri greiðslujöfnuður Englands við öll lönd, ekki hvort það væri neikvæður eða jákvæður jöfnuður í viðskiptum við einstaka ríki..

Mun hafnaði því að athafnir eða ætlanir einstaka kaupmanna stýrðu straumi peninga í alþjóðaviðskiptum eða gengisbreytingum, heldur væri það greiðslujöfnuður hagkerfisins við útlönd. Efnahagsstefna stjórnvalda ætti að stefna að jákvæðum viðskiptajöfnuði með öllum ráðum, efla útflutning, setja hömlur á innflutning munaðarvöru og styðja við einokunarfyrirtæki á borð við Austur Indíafélagið sem fluttu inn hráefni í iðnað, og fluttu út fullunnar vörur.

Mikilvægasta framlag Mun var rit hans Auður Englands með utanríkisviðskiptum (enska: England´s treasure by foreign trade) sem hann skrifaði í kringum 1630, en var ekki gefin út fyrr en 1664 af syni hans, John Mun. Ritið er talið eitt mikilvægasta hagfræðirit 17. aldar, þar sem það tekur saman allar helstu hugmyndir og kenningar kaupauðgisstefnunnar með skýrum hætti. Fyrir utan hugmyndina um viðskiptajöfnuð setur hann einnig fram hugmyndir um verðteygni útflutningsvöru, en fyrri hagfræðingar, á borð við Malynes, höfðu talið útflutning og innflutning fullkomlega óverðteyginn. Í ritinu gagnrýndi Mun bæði  góðmálmaáherslu (enska bullionist) fyrri merkantilískra hagfræðinga, og skort enskra kaupsýslumanna á aga og fyrirhyggju og bendir á Holland sem fyrirmynd. Hann benti á Spán sem dæmi um misheppnaða hagstjórn, en þrátt fyrir að hafa aðgang að nánast óþrjótandi uppsprettu góðmálma í nýlendum sínum í Ameríku væri Spánn fátækt land. Ástæðan væri sú að Spánverjar fluttu inn meira af vörum en þeir fluttu út, sem yrði til þess að góðmálmar flæddu hraðar úr landi en inn.

Tilvísanir

Enskir rithöfundar

Thomas Mun


Republička nogometna liga Bosne i Hercegovine – Zapad je bila liga jedna od tri skupine "Republičke nogometne lige Bosne i Hercegovine", četvrtog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1989./90. Sudjelovalo je 16 klubova, a prvak je bila "Krajina" iz Cazina.

Ljestvica

 U slučaju neriješenog rezultata se izvodilo raspucavanje jedanaesterca te bi pobjednik dobio 1 bod, a poraženi u raspucavanju bi ostao bez bodova
 Kralje – danas dio naselja Bihać
 Titov Drvar – tadašnji naziv za Drvar

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 Dario Hamzić: Omladinski fudbalski klub "Berek" Prijedor : 1975. – 1992., Rijeka, 2016.,  , str. 66-72

1989-90 zapad
 Zapad
1989-90 Zapad

Republička nogometna liga Bosne i Hercegovine – Zapad 1989./90.


Solenoid (zavojnica) je vrsta staničnog vlakna koje nastaje u procesu pakiranja molekule DNK.

Ključnu ulogu u tom procesu imaju histoni. Od osnovne jedinice pakiranja nukleosoma, koji nastaje namatanjem (1,65x do 1,8X) molekule DNK oko histonskog oktamera (tvore ga nukleosomalni histoni, 2x H2A, 2x H2B, 2x H3, 2x H4, ukupno njih osam). Nastali nukleosomi se dalje povezuju odnosno pakiraju pomoću histona H1 čime nastaje tzv. 30 nm (nanometar) - kromatinsko vlakno. Nastalo vlakno zapetljava se dalje te nastaje 300 nm -vlakno ili solenoid. Ta je duljina u biti promjer interfaznog kromosoma.

DNK pakiran u solenoide razlikuje se od DNK u nukleosomnom obliku, jer nije prepisivački aktivan. Sve većim namatanjem solenoidi stječu rastuću sposobnost većeg namatanja tvoreći kromosome. Sad već solenoidna zavojnica jedna oko druge tvori petlju, od 20 do 80.000 baznih parova, praćenu rozetom koja se sastoji od šest povezanih petlja, zatim zavojnicu i na kraju dvije kromatide. Konačni rezultatk je metafazni kromosom. Potpuno kondenzirani kromatin promjera je do 700 nm.

Izvori

Stanična jezgra

Solenoid (DNK)


Onthophagus triundulatus é uma espécie de inseto do género Onthophagus, família Scarabaeidae, ordem Coleoptera.

Foi descrita cientificamente por Balthasar em 1964.

Referências

Ligações externas

triundulatus
Coleópteros descritos em 1964

Onthophagus triundulatus


Sorbus decora, communément appelé le Sorbier décoratif, est une espèce de plantes de la famille des Rosaceae.

Liste des variétés
Selon  :
 variété Sorbus decora var. decora
 variété Sorbus decora var. groenlandica (C.K. Schneid.) G.N. Jones

Notes et références

Liens externes

Rosaceae

Sorbier décoratif


"Guld Jul" er en single, der er skrevet og sunget af den danske sanger Gulddreng, udgivet i 2016. I teksten synger Gulddreng om, hvor rig han er, bl.a. ved at nævne, hvordan han holder jul på D'Angleterre. Han synger i teksten direkte til en kvinde, som han prøver at score. Han beskriver desuden sig selv som julemanden. Musikvideoen er betalt af Ford Motor Company. Sangen blev, ligesom Gulddrengs tidligere fem singler, nummer et på både Tracklisten og det danske Spotify.

Hitlister

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Singler fra 2016
Sange fra 2016
Sange fra Danmark
Nummer-et hits i Danmark
Julesange

Guld jul


A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Sustainability in fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such as overexploitation and growth or recruitment overfishing, will result in the loss of significant potential yield; that stock structure will erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and their economic infrastructures will cycle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than its predecessor; and that changes will occur in the trophic balance (fishing down marine food webs).

Overview

Global wild fisheries are believed to have peaked and begun a decline, with valuable habitats, such as estuaries and coral reefs, in critical condition. Current aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, such as salmon, does not solve the problem because farmed piscivores are fed products from wild fish, such as forage fish. Salmon farming also has major negative impacts on wild salmon. Fish that occupy the higher trophic levels are less efficient sources of food energy.

A report at the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2021 stated that: "Sustainable fisheries accounted for approximately 0.1 per cent of global GDP in 2017".

Defining sustainability

Three ways of defining a sustainable fishery exist:
 Long term constant yield is the idea that undisturbed nature establishes a steady state that changes little over time. Properly done, fishing at up to maximum sustainable yield allows nature to adjust to a new steady state, without compromising future harvests. However, this view is naive, because constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems, which dooms this approach. Stock abundance fluctuates naturally, changing the potential yield over short and long-term periods.
 Preserving intergenerational equity acknowledges natural fluctuations and regards as unsustainable only practices which damage the genetic structure, destroy habitat, or deplete stock levels to the point where rebuilding requires more than a single generation. Providing rebuilding takes only one generation, overfishing may be economically foolish, but it is not unsustainable. This definition is widely accepted.
 Maintaining a biological, social and economic system considers the health of the human ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A fishery which rotates among multiple species can deplete individual stocks and still be sustainable so long as the ecosystem retains its intrinsic integrity. Such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the reduction and possible extinction of some species.

Social sustainability
Fisheries and aquaculture are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, mostly in developing countries.

Social sustainability can conflict with biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the society can use. Major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the flow of such products continues. Humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystems, depleting or driving to extinction many species.

According to Hilborn, the "loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests." For example, in recent years, barndoor skates have been caught as bycatch in the western Atlantic. Their numbers have severely declined and they will probably go extinct if these catch rates continue. Even if the barndoor skate goes extinct, changing the ecosystem, there could still be sustainable fishing of other commercial species.

Environmental sustainability
The focus of sustainable fishing is often on the fish. Other factors are sometimes included in the broader question of sustainability. The use of non-renewable resources is not fully sustainable. This might include diesel fuel for the fishing ships and boats: there is even a debate about the long term sustainability of biofuels. Modern fishing nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon. Synthetic braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester, polypropylene or high performance fibers such as ultra high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and aramid.

Energy and resources are employed in fish processing, refrigeration, packaging, logistics, etc. The methodologies of life-cycle assessment are useful to evaluate the sustainability of components and systems. These are part of the broad question of sustainability.

Obstacles

Overfishing

Overfishing can be sustainable. According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a misallocation of societies' resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or sustainability".

Overfishing is traditionally defined as harvesting so many fish that the yield is less than it would be if fishing were reduced. For example, Pacific salmon are usually managed by trying to determine how many spawning salmon, called the "escapement", are needed each generation to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. The optimum escapement is that needed to reach that surplus. If the escapement is half the optimum, then normal fishing looks like overfishing. But this is still sustainable fishing, which could continue indefinitely at its reduced stock numbers and yield. There is a wide range of escapement sizes that present no threat that the stock might collapse or that the stock structure might erode.

On the other hand, overfishing can precede severe stock depletion and fishery collapse. Hilborn points out that continuing to exert fishing pressure while production decreases, stock collapses and the fishery fails, is largely "the product of institutional failure".

Today over 70% of fish species are either fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or recovering from depletion. If overfishing does not decrease, it is predicted that stocks of all species currently commercially fished for will collapse by 2048.

A Hubbert linearization (Hubbert curve) has been applied to the whaling industry, as well as charting the price of caviar, which depends on sturgeon stocks. Another example is North Sea cod. Comparing fisheries and mineral extraction tells us that human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a Hubbert depletion cycle.

Habitat modification

Nearly all the world's continental shelves, and large areas of continental slopes, underwater ridges, and seamounts, have had heavy bottom trawls and dredges repeatedly dragged over their surfaces. For fifty years, governments and organizations, such as the Asian Development Bank, have encouraged the fishing industry to develop trawler fleets. Repeated bottom trawling and dredging literally flattens diversity in the benthic habitat, radically changing the associated communities.

Changing the ecosystem balance

Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.
 How we are emptying our seas, The Sunday Times, May 10, 2009.
 Pauly, Daniel (2004) Reconciling Fisheries with Conservation: the Challenge of Managing Aquatic Ecosystems Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.

Climate change

Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems. Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. This reduces sustainable catch levels across many habitats, puts pressure on resources needed for aquaculture, on the communities that depend on fisheries, and on the oceans' ability to capture and store carbon (biological pump). Sea level rise puts coastal fishing communities at risk, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater) fisheries and aquaculture. As climate change causes oceans to warm up, fish are forced to move away, into cooler Northern waters. This can cause overcrowding in these areas.

Ocean pollution

A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been affected by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff, overfishing, and other abuses. Pollution is not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) mapped the impacts of stressors such as climate change, pollution, exotic species, and over-exploitation of resources on the oceans. The report shows at least 75 percent of the world's key fishing grounds may be affected.

Diseases and toxins

Large predator fish can contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can affect fetal development, memory, mental focus, and produce tremors.

Irrigation
Lakes are dependent on the inflow of water from its drainage basin. In some areas, aggressive irrigation has caused this inflow to decrease significantly, causing water depletion and a shrinking of the lake. The most notable example is the Aral Sea, formerly among the four largest lakes in the world, now only a tenth of its former surface area.

Remediation

Fisheries management

Fisheries management draws on fisheries science to enable sustainable exploitation. Modern fisheries management is often defined as mandatory rules based on concrete objectives and a mix of management techniques, enforced by a monitoring control and surveillance system.

 Ideas and rules: Economist Paul Romer believes sustainable growth is possible providing the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules, rather than simply hectoring fishers. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish. He characterizes failures as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.

 Fishing subsidies: Government subsidies influence many of the world fisheries. Operating cost subsidies allow European and Asian fishing fleets to fish in distant waters, such as West Africa. Many experts reject fishing subsidies and advocate restructuring incentives globally to help struggling fisheries recover.

 Economics: Another focus of conservationists is on curtailing detrimental human activities by improving fisheries' market structure with techniques such as salable fishing quotas, like those set up by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, or laws such as those listed below.

 Valorization of by-catch: helping to avoid discards (and their associated adverse ecological impacts) by valorizing by-catch products, as they are good sources for protein hydrolizates, peptones, enzymatic mixtures or fish oil being these products of interest different industrial sectors.
Payment for Ecosystem Services: Environmental economist Essam Y Mohammed argues that by creating direct economic incentives, whereby people are able to receive payment for the services their property provides, will help to establish sustainable fisheries around the world as well as inspire conservation where it otherwise would not.
 Sustainable fisheries certification: A promising direction is the independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea. These programs work at raising consumer awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases.
 Ecosystem based fisheries: See next section

Ecosystem based fisheries

According to marine ecologist Chris Frid, the fishing industry points to marine pollution and global warming as the causes of recent, unprecedented declines in fish populations. Frid counters that overfishing has also altered the way the ecosystem works:Everybody would like to see the rebuilding of fish stocks and this can only be achieved if we understand all of the influences, human and natural, on fish dynamics. ... fish communities can be altered in a number of ways, for example they can decrease if particular-sized individuals of a species are targeted, as this affects predator and prey dynamics. Fishing, however, is not the sole cause of changes to marine life—pollution is another example.... No one factor operates in isolation and components of the ecosystem respond differently to each individual factor.The traditional approach to fisheries science and management has been to focus on a single species. This can be contrasted with the ecosystem-based approach. Ecosystem-based fishery concepts have been implemented in some regions. In a 2007 effort to "stimulate much needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science, a group of scientists offered the following ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists:

Marine protected areas

Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. Each nation defines MPAs independently, but they commonly involve increased protection for the area from fishing and other threats.

Marine life is not evenly distributed in the oceans. Most of the really valuable ecosystems are in relatively shallow coastal waters, above or near the continental shelf, where the sunlit waters are often nutrient rich from land runoff or upwellings at the continental edge, allowing photosynthesis, which energizes the lowest trophic levels. In the 1970s, for reasons more to do with oil drilling than with fishing, the U.S. extended its jurisdiction, then 12 miles from the coast, to 200 miles. This made huge shelf areas part of its territory. Other nations followed, extending national control to what became known as the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that most of the most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate laws.

Daniel Pauly characterises marine protected areas as "a conservation tool of revolutionary importance that is being incorporated into the fisheries mainstream." The Pew Charitable Trusts have funded various initiatives aimed at encouraging the development of MPAs and other ocean conservation measures.

Sustainable Fish Farming

Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as "aquaculture", fish farming, when done right, can be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like—to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers. Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh "cages" submerged underwater.

Because they are not catching the fish out in the open ocean, fish farmers are able to control the environment in which the fish exist. Sustainable fish farming practices do not use dangerous chemicals, hormones, or antibiotics on their fish, which benefits the surrounding marine environment, and the human consumers themselves. In addition to this, sustainable fish farming is able to control what their fish eat: farmers will take care to keep the fish's diet healthy and balanced. Conversely, one of the most unsustainable practices within the fish farming industry occurs is when farmers feed the fish pellets of animal waste. The quality of ocean water in and around fish farms is up to the farmers to maintain, and due to the fact that the mesh cages take up only a certain amount of space in the ocean, fish farmers can ensure that waste and other byproducts are not polluting the water. Everything from fish oils to fish skin may be incorporated into something new: for example, fish oils can become a beneficiary supplement for both animals and humans.

Laws and treaties
International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the 1966 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. United States laws related to marine conservation include the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National Marine Sanctuaries program. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

Reconciling fisheries with conservation

At the Fourth World Fisheries Congress in 2004, Daniel Pauly asked, "How can fisheries science and conservation biology achieve a reconciliation?", then answered his own question, "By accepting each other's essentials: that fishing should remain a viable occupation; and that aquatic ecosystems and their biodiversity are allowed to persist."

A relatively new concept is relationship farming. This is a way of operating farms so they restore the food chain in their area. Re-establishing a healthy food chain can result in the farm automatically filtering out impurities from feed water and air, feeding its own food chain, and additionally producing high net yields for harvesting. An example is the large cattle ranch Veta La Palma in southern Spain. Relationship farming was first made popular by Joel Salatin who created a 220 hectare relationship farm featured prominently in Michael Pollan's book The Omnivore's Dilemma (2006) and the documentary films, Food, Inc. and Fresh. The basic concept of relationship farming is to put effort into building a healthy food chain, and then the food chain does the hard work.

Awareness campaigns

Various organizations promote sustainable fishing strategies, educate the public and stakeholders, and lobby for conservation law and policy. The list includes the Marine Conservation Biology Institute and Blue Frontier Campaign in the U.S., The U.K.'s Frontier (The Society for Environmental Exploration) and Marine Conservation Society, Australian Marine Conservation Society, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Langkawi Declaration, Oceana, PROFISH, and the Sea Around Us Project, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers, Frozen at Sea Fillets Association and CEDO.

Some organizations certify fishing industry players for sustainable or good practices, such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea.

Other organizations offer advice to members of the public who eat with an eye to sustainability. According to the marine conservation biologist Callum Roberts, four criteria apply when choosing seafood:
 Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
 Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
 Is there a large amount of bycatch taken with the target species?
 Does the fishery have a problem with discards—generally, undersized animals caught and thrown away because their market value is low?

The following organizations have download links for wallet-sized cards, listing good and bad choices:
 Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch, USA
 Blue Ocean Institute, USA
 Marine Conservation Society, UK
 Australian Marine Conservation Society
 The Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative

Global goals
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include, as goal number 7: target 2, the intention to "reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss", including improving fisheries management to reduce depletion of fish stocks.

In 2015, the MDGs then evolved to become the Sustainable Development Goals with Goal 14 aimed at conserving life below water. Its Target 14.7 states that "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".

Data issues

Data quality
One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is inadequate data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries management decisions is poor data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on population models, but the models need quality data to be accurate. Scientists and fishery managers would be better served with simpler models and improved data.

Unreported fishing
Estimates of illegal catch losses range between $10 billion and $23 billion annually, representing between 11 and 26 million tonnes.

 Incidental catch

Shifting baselines
Shifting baselines is the way significant changes to a system are measured against previous baselines, which themselves may represent significant changes from the original state of the system. The term was first used by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries". Pauly developed the term in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before human exploitation) and thus work with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long-term decline, but it is the level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation redefines what is "natural".

History

In his 1883 inaugural address to the International Fisheries Exhibition in London, Thomas Huxley asserted that overfishing or "permanent exhaustion" was scientifically impossible, and stated that probably "all the great sea fisheries are inexhaustible". In reality, by 1883 marine fisheries were already collapsing. The United States Fish Commission was established 12 years earlier for the purpose of finding why fisheries in New England were declining. At the time of Huxley's address, the Atlantic halibut fishery had already collapsed (and has never recovered).

Traditional management of fisheries
Traditionally, fisheries management and the science underpinning it was distorted by its "narrow focus on target populations and the corresponding failure to account for ecosystem effects leading to declines of species abundance and diversity" and by perceiving the fishing industry as "the sole legitimate user, in effect the owner, of marine living resources." Historically, stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work to be providing services to the fishing industry. These scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and the science that raised the issues. This happened even as commercial fish stocks deteriorated, and even though many governments were signatories to binding conservation agreements.

See also
 Community-supported fishery
 The End of the Line
 Ocean Conservancy
 International Seafood Sustainability Foundation
 Worldwatch Institute
 Marine Life Protection Act
 Ocean Outcomes
 Aral Sea
 List of commercially important fish species
 Aquaculture Stewardship Council
 Marine Stewardship Council
 Sustainable seafood

References

Sources
 Norse, Elliott A. and Crowder, Larry B. (Eds.) (2005) Marine Conservation Biology: The Science of Maintaining the Sea's Biodiversity, Island Press.
Ray, G. Carleton and McCormick-Ray, Jerry (eds). (2004). "Coastal-marine conservation: science and policy". Malden, Ma: Blackwell.
Marine Conservation Biology Institute (MCBI ) Bibliography of resources.
 McLeod, Karen and Leslie. Heather (Eds.) (2009) Ecosystem-Based Management for the Oceans Island Press.
 Berkes F, Mahon R, McConney P, Pollnac R and Pomeroy R (2001) Managing Small-Scale Fisheries: Alternative Directions and Methods IDRC.
 Mann, Kenneth and Lazier, John (3rd Ed. 2005) Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems: Biological-Physical Interactions in the Oceans Wiley-Blackwell.
 Norse EA and Crowder LB (Eds) (2005) Marine conservation biology: the science of maintaining the sea's biodiversity Island Press.
 Duffy, J. Emmett (2008) Marine biodiversity and food security Encyclopedia of Earth. Updated 25 July 2008.

 Hilborn R (2008) "Knowledge on how to achieve sustainable fisheries"  Pages 45–56 in K Tsukamoto, T Kawamura, T Takeuchi, TD Beard Jr, MJ Kaiser (eds), Fisheries for Global Welfare and Environment, 5th World Fisheries Congress 2008.

Fish conservation

Sustainable fishery


بابل هي مدينة إيرانية تقع في محافظة مازندران شمال شرق طهران قرب بحر قزوين، يقدر عدد سكان المدينة بحوالي 283 ألف نسمة حسب إحصاءات عام 2006م. تعتمد المدينة في اقتصادها على تجارة المواد الغذائية والصناعات النسيجية. يعود تاريخ إنشاءها إلى القرن السادس عشر ميلادي حيث كانت تعرف باسم بارفروشده أو بارفروش.

المناخ
يظهر الجدول التالي التغييرات المناخية على مدار السنة لبابل:

أعلام

 أفشين
 توحيدي الطبري
 مرتضى بورعليغنجي
 محمد علي البارفروشي
 مزيار بجاني

مراجع

مدن إيران
مدن محافظة مازندران

بابل (إيران)


Podsavezna nogometna liga Bitola, također kao i Liga nogomotnog podsaveza Bitola, Podsavezna nogometna liga Bitolj je bila liga četvrtog stupnja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1962./63.
Sudjelovalo je 10 klubova, a prvak je bila "Pelagonija" iz Bitolja.

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

 Izvori:

Unutrašnje poveznice
 Makedonska liga 1962./63.

Vanjske poveznice

Izvori

 "Godišnjak FSJ 1962-63", Beograd, 1963., ISSN: 0351-2894, str. 257

MAK 1962-63 Bitola
MAK 2 Bitola
1962-63 2 Bitola
1962-63 2 Bitola

Podsavezna nogometna liga Bitola 1962./63.


John T. «Jack» Carpenter (18 de septiembre de 1984) es un actor estadounidense.

Filmografía

Cine
 Lipshitz Saves the World (2007)
 Sydney White (2007)
 Held Up (2008)
 The Journal (2008)
 I Love You, Beth Cooper (2009)
 Harvest (2010)
 Hitched Brett (2010)
 Putzel (2012)

Televisión
 The Return of Jezebel James (2008)
 Law & Order (2009)
 The Good Wife (2011)

Enlaces externos

Actores de cine de Estados Unidos
Actores de televisión de Estados Unidos
Actores masculinos de Estados Unidos del siglo XXI

Jack Carpenter


Erotic furniture, also known as sex furniture, is any form of furniture that is designed to act as an aid to sexual activity. This includes furniture and harnesses designed to aid positioning, assisting with comfort, penetration level and stimulation. Other types of erotic furniture are constructed to be an aid to erotic bondage. The functionality may be obvious or the erotic furniture may be designed to appear as conventional furniture. Some conventional items of furniture such as the four-poster bed and the chaise longue traditionally have erotic associations, but they are not considered to be erotic furniture as their primary use is not erotic. Erotic furniture can also  be furniture decorated with erotic art.

History
In ancient Assyria there are examples of furniture decorated with erotic reliefs dating to the 13th century BC.

In the 18th century, the Russian Empress Catherine the Great collected erotic furniture, including tables with penises for legs and other items carved in relief with penises and vulvas.

The 1791 French novel Les Délices de Coblentz describes beds that are designed to increase sexual pleasure by virtue of the elasticity of their springs.

The British king Edward VII, who was heavily overweight, used a specially constructed "love chair" () when he visited the famous brothel, Le Chabanais in Paris. The piece still exists and a replica is exhibited at the Musée de l'Erotisme in Pigalle.

Edward Gorey's The Curious Sofa, (1961) is a neo-Victorian pseudo-porno satire described as a "pornographic illustrated story about furniture". The book consists of euphemistic illustrations with strategically deployed objects, such as potted plants and tree branches, that block the reader's view of sexual activities taking place on furniture.

The British pop artist Allen Jones has designed erotic furniture. His piece Hatstand, Table and Chair, consisting of scantily clad female mannequins converted to items of furniture, was first exhibited in 1970.

In modern times erotic furniture continues to be produced mainly by small businesses rather than large scale manufacturers.

Types

Specifically designed furniture for erotic purposes can include:
 Devices to aid impact play activities such as erotic spanking and flagellation. Examples of this type of furniture include the Berkley Horse and the X-cross.
 Sex swings, either freestanding or temporarily installable in places such as doorways.
 Fisting slings
 Sex gliders (also known as monkey rockers) – rocking stools with built-in dildos
 Devices for using gravity to aid in lovemaking without the use of complicated slings.
 Various types of angled foam wedges or specially designed sex pillows that support various sex positions. Liberator Shapes are an example which can be used to improve g-spot and cervical stimulation. Another example are the ergonomically based Lovebumpers.
 Bondage equipment such as stocks, pillories and cages.
 Smotherboxes and other queening stools used for facesitting.
 Sex chairs and sex sofas, positioning furniture which in some cases have openings to allow for genital or anal access.
 The Love Chair, a chair made of curved tubular steel, articulated in several ways and designed to facilitate otherwise impossible sexual acts. This device was advertised in men's magazines in the mid-1970s, and is seen in at least one of Nina Hartley's Guide to videos, but it is no longer commercially available.
 Wooden horses, which are shaped much like the sawhorses used for carpentry, but have a sharpened edge and are primarily sat on to achieve a feeling similar to a crotch rope in bondage.
 Sybians, a type of sex machine consisting of a vibrating saddle-like seat with an upward-pointing shaft for internal stimulation.

See also
 Human furniture
 List of BDSM equipment
 Sex machine
 Sex toy

References

Bibliography

  (101 pages. Design criteria for assistive furniture, with sections on accommodation of disabled persons.)

Sex toys
Furniture

Erotic furniture


احتياجات الإنسان الأساسية وفقا لمدرسة «تنمية المقياس البشري»("Human Scale Development") التي وضعها مانفريد ماكس-نيف وغيرهم (انطونيو إليزالدي ومارتن هوبنهاين)، تعتبر وجودية (ناجمة من حالة كونه إنساناً) وهي قليلة، محدودة وقابلة للتصنيف (كتمييز لها عن المفهوم التقليدي للحاجات الاقتصادية التقليدية التي هي بلا حدود، ونهمة). كما أنها ثابتة لجميع الثقافات البشرية وعبر فترات زمنية تاريخية. والذي يتغير على مر الزمن وبين الثقافات هي الاستراتيجيات التي من خلالها تُشبَع هذه الاحتياجات.من المهم أن تفهم احتياجات الإنسان كنظام - أي أنها مترابطة ومتفاعلة. في هذا النظام، لا يوجد تسلسل هرمي للاحتياجات (وبصرف النظر عن الحاجة الأساسية لمعيشتهم أو البقاء على قيد الحياة) كما افترض علماء النفس الغربيين مثل ماسلو، إلى حدِ ما، التزامن والتكامل والمبادلات هي من أبرز ملامح عملية تلبية الاحتياجات.

مانفريد ماكس-نيف وزملاؤه، طوروا تصنيف للاحتياجات البشرية والعملية التي من خلالها يمكن للمجتمعات التعرف على «ثرواتهم» و«فقرهم» وفقا لكيفية اشباع احتياجاتهم الإنسانية الأساسية.

هذه المدرسة لتنمية المقياس البشري (Human Scale Development) توصف بأنها، «ركزت واستندت على أساس إشباع الحاجات الأساسية للإنسان، في جيل تزايد مستويات الاعتماد على الذات، وعلى بناء الارتباط العضوي للناس مع الطبيعة والتكنولوجيا، وبخصوص العمليات العالمية مع النشاط المحلي، والفردية (الخصوصية) مع الاجتماعية، والتخطيط مع الحكم الذاتي، وبخصوص المجتمع المدني مع الدولة».

صنف ماكس-نيف الاحتياجات الأساسية للإنسان على النحو التالي:

 الوجود (العيش).
 الحماية.
 المودة (العاطفة).
 الإدراك (الفهم).
 المشاركة.
 أوقات الفراغ.
 الإبداع.
 الهوية.
 والحرية.

و أيضاً تصنف الاحتياجات وفقاً للفئات الوجودية من وجود، وامتلاك، وعمل، وتفاعل. ومن هذه الأبعاد، 36 خلية مصفوفة قد طورت.

المراجع

أوضاع اقتصادية اجتماعية
اقتصاد اجتماعي
اقتصاد بيئي
دافع
نظريات تحفيزية

احتياجات الإنسان الأساسية


La Ciudad cinematográfica de Ghazali (en persa شهرک سینمایی غزالی) es un sitio de cine ubicado al oeste de Teherán, cerca de la autopista de Teherán - Karaj.

Historia
La Ciudad cinematográfica de Ghazali se construyó sobre una iniciativa de Ali Hatami, apoyar a los artistas y cineastas iraníes con las subvenciones y el gobierno. Este es un sitio donde los antiguos barrios de Teherán en la dinastía Kadjar y la dinastía Pahlavi del siglo pasado se reconstruyeron a los efectos de filmación de películas y series de televisión.

Cine de Irán

Ciudad cinematográfica de Ghazali


The National Electoral Council () (CNE) is one of the five branches of government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela that was designed to be independent. It is the institution that has the responsibility of overseeing and guaranteeing the transparency of all elections and referendums in Venezuela at the local, regional, and national levels. The creation of the CNE was ratified in Venezuela's 1999 constitutional referendum. Following the election of Nicolás Maduro – Hugo Chávez's handpicked successor – into the presidency, the CNE has been described as being pro-Maduro.

History
The CNE was preceded by the Supreme Electoral Council, which was established under an electoral law on September 11, 1936. This entity was replaced by the CNE in 1997 with the passage of a new Organic Law of Suffrage and Participation.

Organization
The National Electoral Council (CNE) is composed of five persons; three of them nominated by civil society, one by the faculties of law and political science at national universities, and one by the Citizen Power. The three members nominated by civil society shall have six alternates in ordinal sequence, and each appointed by the universities and the Citizen Power has two alternates, respectively. Members of the National Electoral Council last seven years in office and be elected separately: the three nominated by civil society at the beginning of each period of the National Assembly, and the other two in the middle of it. Members of the National Electoral Council shall be appointed by the National Assembly with the vote of two thirds of its members. Members of the National Electoral Council will designate from among its members its president, in accordance with the law. (Article 296 Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela).

The CNE officials are: Tibisay Lucena (CNE President, President of the National Electoral Commission), Sandra Oblitas Ruzza (Vice President, President of the Civil and Electoral Registry Commission), Vicente José Gregorio Díaz Silva (President of the Political Participation and Finance Commission), Socorro Elizabeth Hernández de Hernández (Member of the National Electoral Commission) and Tania D' Amelio Cardiet (Member of the Civil and Electoral Registry Commission). The CNE also has a general secretary, Xavier Antonio Moreno Reyes, and a juridical consultant, Roberto Ignacio Mirabal Acosta.

Analysis
The electoral system of Venezuela is  controversial. The Supreme Tribunal of Justice, with the majority supporting Chávez, elected officials to the supposedly non-partisan National Electoral Council of Venezuela (CNE) despite the 1999 Constitution stating for the National Assembly of Venezuela to perform the task. That resulted with the CNE board having a majority consisting of Chavistas or those that supported Chávez. Since then, the Venezuelan government controlled by the PSUV ruling party has manipulated elections, holding control of the CNE, the media and through government spending.

According to the United States Department of State, there is "widespread pre- and post-election fraud, including electoral irregularities, government interference, and manipulation of voters" and "opposition political parties [have] operated in a restrictive atmosphere characterized by intimidation, the threat of prosecution or administrative sanction on questionable charges, and restricted media access". International observers have had difficulties monitoring the elections, though the Bolivarian government accepts the praise of their elections from UNASUR allies.

See also
Venezuelan recall referendum of 2004
2005 Venezuelan parliamentary election
2006 Venezuelan presidential election
2007 Venezuelan constitutional referendum

References

External links

Venezuela

National Electoral Council (Venezuela)


Hormacrus es un  género de coleópteros adéfagos de la familia Carabidae.

Comprende las siguientes especies:

 Hormacrus latus Sloane, 1898
 Hormacrus minor Blackburn, 1890

Referencias

Enlaces externos
 Hormacrus en ION

Lestignathina

Hormacrus


جَبّاس قرية تونسية تقع بمعتمدية المكناسي من ولاية سيدي بوزيد، شمال مدينة المكناسي على الطريق الجهوية رقم 83.

انظر أيضا

مواضيع ذات علاقة
 معتمدية المكناسي.
 ولاية سيدي بوزيد.

قرى ولاية سيدي بوزيد

جباس (سيدي بوزيد)


Fra Jurica (Juro) Šalić (Dragočaj, 1. listopada 1948.  Bihać, 14. prosinca 2008.), rimokatolički svećenik iz Bosne i Hercegovine hrvatske nacionalnosti, iz reda franjevaca provincije sv. Križa Bosna Srebrena, zavičajni povjesničar

Životopis

Rodio se je u Dragočaju. Osnovnu školu pohađao je u Motikama i Dragočaju a Franjevačku klasičnu gimnaziju u Visokom. Novicijat je proveo u Kraljevoj Sutjesci 1968./69. godine. Potom je studirao bogoslovlje i odslužio obvezni vojni rok.  27. travnja 1975. se je zaredio za svećenika. Služobavo je u ovim župama: Breške, Tuzla, Petrićevac, Bugojno, Lepenica i Barlovci. U Barlovcima je proveo najburnija vremena te župe, od 1985. do 1998. godine. Potom je službovao u misiji u Vojniću među prognanicima iz Bosne. Vodio je potom katoličku misiju za prognanike u Tušiloviću kod Karlovca. Uz pastoral, bavio se je istraživanjem povijesti svog kraja. Umro je 14. prosinca 2008. u 61. godini života, 40. redovništva u franjevačkom Redu i 34. svećeništva. Sveta misa zadušnica i ispraćaj bio je u župnoj crkvi sv. Ante Padovanskoga u Bihaću 15. prosinca 2008. godine. Sveta misa zadušnica bila je i 16. prosinca 2008. na Petrićevcu a pokop je bio na Fratarskom groblju.

Djela
Djela:
 Hod u vjeri, 1991.

 Sjeverozapadno od Banje Luke, 1999.

 Diljem zavičaja, 2000.

 Franjevci sjeverozapadne Bosne, 2002.

 S banjalučkih strana, 2003.

Izvori

Hrvatski katolički svećenici
Životopisi, Bihać
Hrvatski povjesničari iz Bosne i Hercegovine

Jurica Šalić


Veraset, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti uyruğunda bulunan kişilere ait mallar ile Türkiye'de bulunan malların veraset yoluyla veya herhangi bir surette olursa olsun ödünsüz bir tarzda bir kişiden diğer kişiye geçişi Veraset ve İntikal Vergisine bağlıdır.
Bu vergi, Türk uyruğunda bulunan kişilerin yabancı memleketlerde aynı yollardan elde edecekleri malları da kapsar.

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti uyruğundaki bir kişinin Türkiye sınırları dışında bulunan malını veraset yoluyla veya öbür surette ödünsüz bir tarzda geçiş yapan ve Türkiye'de ikâmetgâhı olmayan yabancı kişi bu vergi ile yükümlü kılınmaz.

Ayrıca bakınız
Miras hukuku

Dış bağlantılar
 Veraset İşlemleri

Hukuk terimleri
Miras hukuku

Veraset


est un magazine de jeux vidéo japonais publié par ASCII Media Works.

Le premier magazine est publié en  sous forme d'édition spéciale du magazine Dengeki G. Le premier numéro est publié officiellement le . Dengeki PlayStation totalise 686 numéros et a cessé de paraître le . Dengeki PlayStation continue son activité à travers le site Dengeki Online.

Références

Magazine de jeu vidéo consacré aux consoles Sony
Magazine japonais de jeu vidéo
Magazine MediaWorks

Dengeki PlayStation


Jane Eyre er en amerikansk dramafilm fra . Filmen er instrueret af Christy Cabanne, og har Virginia Bruce og Colin Clive i hovedrollerne, og er den første filmatisering som bruger lyd.

Medvirkende
 Virginia Bruce som Jane Eyre
 Colin Clive som Edward Rochester
 Beryl Mercer som Mrs. Fairfax
 David Torrence som Mr. Brocklehurst
 Aileen Pringle som Lady Blanche Ingram
 Edith Fellows som Adele Rochester
 Jean Darling som Jane Eyre som barn
 Lionel Belmore som Lord Ingram
 Jameson Thomas som Charles Craig
 Ethel Griffies som Grace Poole
 Claire Du Brey som Bertha Rochester
 William Burress som Minister
 Joan Standing som Daisy
 Richard Quine som John Reed
 Anne Howard som Georgianna Reed (ukrediteret)
 Olaf Hytten som Jeweler (ukrediteret)
 Clarissa Selwynne som Mrs. Reed (ukrediteret)
 William Wagner som Halliburton (ukrediteret)

Eksterne henvisninger

Amerikanske film fra 1934
Engelsksprogede film
Dramafilm fra USA
Film baseret på bøger

Jane Eyre (film fra 1934)