Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being.

Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall healthcare system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies.

From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.

Definitions and purposes

Definition
Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease", prolonging life and improving quality of life through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations (public and private), communities and individuals.  The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being. As such, according to the World Health Organization, "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity".

Related terms

Public health is related to global health which is the health of populations in the worldwide context. It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in "Health for all" people worldwide". International health is a field of health care, usually with a public health emphasis, dealing with health across regional or national boundaries. Public health is not the same as public healthcare (publicly funded health care).

The term preventive medicine is related to public health. The American Board of Preventive Medicine separates three categories of preventive medicine: aerospace health, occupational health, and public health and general preventative medicine. Jung, Boris and Lushniak argue that preventive medicine should be considered the medical specialty for public health but note that the American College of Preventive Medicine and American Board of Preventive Medicine do not prominently use the term "public health". Preventive medicine specialists are trained as clinicians and address complex health needs of a population such as by assessing the need for disease prevention programs, using the best methods to implement them, and assessing their effectiveness.

Since the 1990s many scholars in public health have been using the term population health. There are no medical specialties directly related to population health. Valles argues that consideration of health equity is a fundamental part of population health. Scholars such as Coggon and Pielke express concerns about bringing general issues of wealth distribution into population health. Pielke worries about "stealth issue advocacy" in population health. Jung, Boris and Lushniak consider population health to be a concept that is the goal of an activity called public health practiced through the specialty preventive medicine.

Lifestyle medicine uses individual lifestyle modification to prevent or revert disease and can be considered a component of preventive medicine and public health. It is implemented as part of primary care rather than a specialty in its own right. Valles argues that the term social medicine has a narrower and more biomedical focus than the term population health.

Purposes
The purpose of a public health intervention is to prevent and mitigate diseases, injuries and other health conditions. The overall goal is to improve the health of populations and increase life expectancy.

Characteristics and components
Public health is a complex term, composed of many elements and different practices. It is a multi-faceted, interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health.

Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of public health workers and professionals. Teams might include epidemiologists, biostatisticians, physician assistants, public health nurses, midwives, medical microbiologists, pharmacists, economists, sociologists, geneticists, data managers, environmental health officers (public health inspectors), bioethicists, gender experts, sexual and reproductive health specialists, physicians, and veterinarians.

The elements and priorities of public health have evolved over time, and are continuing to evolve. Different regions in the world can have different public health concerns at a given time.

Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.

Methods

Public health aims are achieved through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors, communities and environments. Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.

Many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the simple act of handwashing with soap can prevent the spread of many contagious diseases. In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, either during an outbreak of infectious disease or through contamination of food or water supplies. Public health communications programs, vaccination programs and distribution of condoms are examples of common preventive public health measures.

Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Many interventions of public health interest are delivered outside of health facilities, such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases.Public health plays an important role in disease prevention efforts in both the developing world and in developed countries through local health systems and non-governmental organizations.

Public health requires Geographic Information Systems (GIS) because risk, vulnerability and exposure involve geographic aspects.

Ethics

A dilemma in public health ethics is dealing with the conflict between individual rights and maximizing right to health. Public health is justified by consequentialist utilitarian ideas, but is constrained and critiqued by liberal, deontological, principlist and libertarian philosophies Stephen Holland argues that it can be easy to find a particular framework to justify any viewpoint on public health issues, but that the correct approach is to find a framework that best describes a situation and see what it implies about public health policy.

The definition of health is vague and there are many conceptualizations. Public health practitioners definition of health can different markedly from members of the public or clinicians. This can mean that members of the public view the values behind public health interventions as alien which can cause resentment amongst the public towards certain interventions. Such vagueness can be a problem for health promotion. Critics have argued that public health tends to place more focus on individual factors associated with health at the expense of factors operating at the population level.

Historically, public health campaigns have been criticized as a form of "healthism",  as moralistic in nature rather than being focused on health. Medical doctors, Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote a series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's the Health of The Nation campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by the public health movement to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs. A combination of inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been criticized as a form of "health fascism" by a number of scholars, objectifying the individual with no considerations of emotional or social factors.

Priority areas

Original focal areas

When public health initiatives began to emerge in England in modern times (18th century onwards) there were three core strands of public health which were all related to statecraft: Supply of clean water and sanitation (for example London sewerage system); control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine); an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Great Britain was a leader in the development of public health during that time period out of necessity: Great Britain was the first modern urban nation (by 1851 more than half of the population lived in settlements of more than 2000 people). This led to a certain type of distress which then led to public health initiatives. Later that particular concern faded away.

Changing and differing focal areas

With the onset of the epidemiological transition and as the prevalence of infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century, public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the infant mortality rate using preventive methods. In Britain, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% by 1930.

A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year.

Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS, diabetes, waterborne diseases, zoonotic diseases, and antibiotic resistance leading to the reemergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Antibiotic resistance, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011.

For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide have diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by 2030. In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal The Lancet, the authors opined that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation." The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity. The WHO's latest estimates  highlighted that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults were overweight in 2014, and 41 million children under the age of five were overweight in 2014. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings.

Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise. The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published a review of research on what local authorities can do to tackle obesity. The review covers interventions in the food environment (what people buy and eat), the built and natural environments, schools, and the community, as well as those focussing on active travel, leisure services and public sports, weight management programmes, and system-wide approaches.

Health inequalities, driven by the social determinants of health, are also a growing area of concern in public health.  A central challenge to securing health equity is that the same social structures that contribute to health inequities also operate and are reproduced by public health organizations. In other words, public health organizations have evolved to better meet the needs of some groups more than others. The result is often that those most in need of preventative interventions are least likely to receive them and interventions can actually aggravate inequities as they are often inadvertently tailored to the needs of the normative group. Identifying bias within public health research and practice is essential to ensuring public health efforts mitigate and don't aggravate health inequities.

Organizations

World Health Organization (WHO)
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health". The WHO's broad mandate includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox, the near-eradication of polio, and the development of an Ebola vaccine. Its current priorities include communicable diseases, particularly HIV/AIDS, Ebola, COVID-19, malaria and tuberculosis; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer; healthy diet, nutrition, and food security; occupational health; and substance abuse.

Others
Most countries have their own governmental public health agency, often called the ministry of health, with responsibility for domestic health issues.

For example, in the United States, state and local health departments are on the front line of public health initiatives. In addition to their national duties, the United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, headquartered in Atlanta, are also involved with international health activities.

Public health programs

Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions. However, public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. Although the collaboration of local health and government agencies is considered best practice to improve public health, the pieces of evidence available to support this is limited. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made major progress in promoting health, including substantially reducing the occurrence of cholera and polio and eradicating smallpox, diseases that have plagued humanity for thousands of years.

The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies core functions of public health programs including:
 providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed;
 shaping a research agenda and stimulating the generation, translation and dissemination of valuable knowledge;
 setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation;
 articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options;
 monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends.

In particular, public health surveillance programs can:
 serve as an early warning system for impending public health emergencies;
 document the impact of an intervention, or track progress towards specified goals; and
 monitor and clarify the epidemiology of health problems, allow priorities to be set, and inform health policy and strategies.
 diagnose, investigate, and monitor health problems and health hazards of the community

Behavior change

Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behaviors. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, over consumption of novel substances that are harmful is due to the activation of an evolved reward system for substances such as drugs, tobacco, alcohol, refined salt, fat, and carbohydrates. New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity. Research has found that behavior is more effectively changed by taking evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only presenting information about health effects. The marketing industry has long known the importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Films are increasingly being recognized as a public health tool. In fact, film festivals and competitions have been established to specifically promote films about health. Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing the harmful and undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on other persons and imposing smoking bans in public places have been particularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking.

Applications in health care
As well as seeking to improve population health through the implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including:
 Assessing current services and evaluating whether they are meeting the objectives of the health care system
 Ascertaining requirements as expressed by health professionals, the public and other stakeholders
 Identifying the most appropriate interventions
 Considering the effect on resources for proposed interventions and assessing their cost-effectiveness
 Supporting decision making in health care and planning health services including any necessary changes.
 Informing, educating, and empowering people about health issues

Conflicting aims
Some programs and policies associated with public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle-exchange programs. Another is the control of tobacco smoking. Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Supporters argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that the state may be encouraged to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall.

Psychological research confirms this tension between concerns about public health and concerns about personal liberty: (i) the best predictor of complying with public health recommendations such as hand-washing, mask-wearing, and staying at home (except for essential activity) during the COVID-19 pandemic was people's perceived duties to prevent harm but (ii) the best predictor of flouting such public health recommendations was valuing liberty more than equality.

Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing, however, as illustrated by the United Nations hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011.

Global perspectives

Disparities in service and access

There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers, monetary resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in developing countries results from and contributes to extreme poverty. For example, many African governments spend less than US$10 per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately US$4,500 per capita in 2000. However, expenditures on health care should not be confused with spending on public health. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in the strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seat belts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of a population, but typically money spent enforcing this rule would not count as money spent on health care.

Large parts of the world remained plagued by largely preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition to this however, many developing countries are also experiencing an epidemiological shift and polarization in which populations are now experiencing more of the effects of chronic diseases as life expectancy increases, the poorer communities being heavily affected by both chronic and infectious diseases. Another major public health concern in the developing world is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year. Intermittent preventive therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in endemic countries.

Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that health is affected by many factors including class, race, income, educational status, region of residence, and social relationships; these are known as "social determinants of health". The upstream drivers such as environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, social inclusion and many others effect the distribution of health between and within populations and are often shaped by policy. A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally have the worst health, but even the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social level. The new public health advocates for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner.

The health sector is one of Europe's most labor-intensive industries. In late 2020, it accounted for more than 21 million employment in the European Union when combined with social work. According to the WHO, several countries began the COVID-19 pandemic with insufficient health and care professionals, inappropriate skill mixtures, and unequal geographical distributions. These issues were worsened by the pandemic, reiterating the importance of public health. In the United States, a history of underinvestment in public health undermined the public health workforce and support for population health, long before the pandemic added to stress, mental distress, job dissatisfaction, and accelerated departures among public health workers.

Health aid in developing countries

Health aid to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries. Health aid to developing countries has shown a significant increase after World War II as concerns over the spread of disease as a result of globalization increased and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa surfaced. From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with wealthy countries continuously donating billions of dollars every year with the goal of improving population health. Some efforts, however, receive a significantly larger proportion of funds such as HIV which received an increase in funds of over $6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which was more than twice the increase seen in any other sector during those years. Health aid has seen an expansion through multiple channels including private philanthropy, non-governmental organizations, private foundations such as the Rockefeller Foundation or the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the World Bank or UNICEF. The result has been a sharp rise in uncoordinated and fragmented funding of an ever-increasing number of initiatives and projects. To promote better strategic cooperation and coordination between partners, particularly among bilateral development agencies and funding organizations, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) spearheaded the establishment of ESSENCE, an initiative to facilitate dialogue between donors/funders, allowing them to identify synergies. ESSENCE brings together a wide range of funding agencies to coordinate funding efforts.

In 2009 health aid from the OECD amounted to $12.47 billion which amounted to 11.4% of its total bilateral aid. In 2009, Multilateral donors were found to spend 15.3% of their total aid on bettering public healthcare.

International health aid debates
Debates exist questioning the efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from wealthy countries is necessary in order for developing countries to escape the poverty trap. Opponents of health aid claim that international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course of development, causes dependence on aid, and in many cases the aid fails to reach its recipients. For example, recently, health aid was funneled towards initiatives such as financing new technologies like antiretroviral medication, insecticide-treated mosquito nets, and new vaccines. The positive impacts of these initiatives can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and polio; however, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds may cause many of these efforts to never come into achievement.

Economic modeling based on the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and the World Health Organization has shown a link between international health aid in developing countries and a reduction in adult mortality rates. However, a 2014–2016 study suggests that a potential confounding variable for this outcome is the possibility that aid was directed at countries once they were already on track for improvement. That same study, however, also suggests that 1 billion dollars in health aid was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths occurring between ages 0 and 5 in 2011.

Sustainable development goals for 2030

To address current and future challenges in addressing health issues in the world, the United Nations have developed the Sustainable Development Goals to be completed by 2030. These goals in their entirety encompass the entire spectrum of development across nations, however Goals 1–6 directly address health disparities, primarily in developing countries. These six goals address key issues in global public health, poverty, hunger and food security, health, education, gender equality and women's empowerment, and water and sanitation. Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These goals are designed to lessen the burden of disease and inequality faced by developing countries and lead to a healthier future. The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established.

History

Until the 18th century

From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. Definitions of health as well as methods to pursue it differed according to the medical, religious and natural-philosophical ideas groups held, the resources they had, and the changing circumstances in which they lived. Yet few early societies displayed the hygienic stagnation or even apathy often attributed to them. The latter reputation is mainly based on the absence of present-day bioindicators, especially immunological and statistical tools developed in light of the germ theory of disease transmission.

Public health was born neither in Europe nor as a response to the Industrial Revolution. Preventive health interventions are attested almost anywhere historical communities have left their mark. In Southeast Asia, for instance, Ayurvedic medicine and subsequently Buddhism fostered occupational, dietary and sexual regimens that promised balanced bodies, lives and communities, a notion strongly present in Traditional Chinese Medicine as well. Among the Mayans, Aztecs and other early civilizations in the Americas, population centers pursued hygienic programs, including by holding medicinal herbal markets. And among Aboriginal Australians, techniques for preserving and protecting water and food sources, micro-zoning to reduce pollution and fire risks, and screens to protect people against flies were common, even in temporary camps.

Western European, Byzantine and Islamicate civilizations, which generally adopted a Hippocratic, Galenic or humoral medical system, fostered preventive programs as well. These were developed on the basis of evaluating the quality of local climates, including topography, wind conditions and exposure to the sun, and the properties and availability of water and food, for both humans and nonhuman animals. Diverse authors of medical, architectural, engineering and military manuals explained how to apply such theories to groups of different origins and under different circumstances. This was crucial, since under Galenism bodily constitutions were thought to be heavily shaped by their material environments, so their balance required specific regimens as they traveled during different seasons and between climate zones.

In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders. For instance, in Greek and Roman antiquity, army generals learned to provide for soldiers' wellbeing, including off the battlefield, where most combatants died prior to the twentieth century. In Christian monasteries across the Eastern Mediterranean and western Europe since at least the fifth century CE, monks and nuns pursued strict but balanced regimens, including nutritious diets, developed explicitly to extend their lives. And royal, princely and papal courts, which were often mobile as well, likewise adapted their behavior to suit environmental conditions in the sites they occupied. They could also choose sites they considered salubrious for their members and sometimes had them modified.

In cities, residents and rulers developed measures to benefit the general population, which faced a broad array of recognized health risks. These provide some of the most sustained evidence for preventive measures in earlier civilizations. In numerous sites the upkeep of infrastructures, including roads, canals and marketplaces, as well as zoning policies, were introduced explicitly to preserve residents' health. Officials such as the muhtasib in the Middle East and the Road master in Italy, fought the combined threats of pollution through sin, ocular intromission and miasma. Craft guilds were important agents of waste disposal and promoted harm reduction through honesty and labor safety among their members. Medical practitioners, including public physicians, collaborated with urban governments in predicting and preparing for calamities and identifying and isolating people perceived as lepers, a disease with strong moral connotations. Neighborhoods were also active in safeguarding local people's health, by monitoring at-risk sites near them and taking appropriate social and legal action against artisanal polluters and neglectful owners of animals. Religious institutions, individuals and charitable organizations in both Islam and Christianity likewise promoted moral and physical wellbeing by endowing urban amenities such as wells, fountains, schools and bridges, also in the service of pilgrims. In western Europe and Byzantium, religious processions commonly took place, which purported to act as both preventive and curative measures for the entire community.

Urban residents and other groups also developed preventive measures in response to calamities such as war, famine, floods and widespread disease. During and after the Black Death (1346–53), for instance, inhabitants of the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Europe reacted to massive population decline in part on the basis of existing medical theories and protocols, for instance concerning meat consumption and burial, and in part by developing new ones. The latter included the establishment of quarantine facilities and health boards, some of which eventually became regular urban (and later national) offices. Subsequent measures for protecting cities and their regions included issuing health passports for travelers, deploying guards to create sanitary cordons for protecting local inhabitants, and gathering morbidity and mortality statistics.  Such measures relied in turn on better transportation and communication networks, through which news on human and animal disease was efficiently spread.

After the 18th century
With the onset of the Industrial Revolution, living standards amongst the working population began to worsen, with cramped and unsanitary urban conditions. In the first four decades of the 19th century alone, London's population doubled and even greater growth rates were recorded in the new industrial towns, such as Leeds and Manchester. This rapid urbanization exacerbated the spread of disease in the large conurbations that built up around the workhouses and factories. These settlements were cramped and primitive with no organized sanitation. Disease was inevitable and its incubation in these areas was encouraged by the poor lifestyle of the inhabitants. Unavailable housing led to the rapid growth of slums and the per capita death rate began to rise alarmingly, almost doubling in Birmingham and Liverpool. Thomas Malthus warned of the dangers of overpopulation in 1798. His ideas, as well as those of Jeremy Bentham, became very influential in government circles in the early years of the 19th century. The latter part of the century brought the establishment of the basic pattern of improvements in public health over the next two centuries: a social evil was identified, private philanthropists brought attention to it, and changing public opinion led to government action. The 18th century saw rapid growth in voluntary hospitals in England.

The practice of vaccination began in the 1800s, following the pioneering work of Edward Jenner in treating smallpox. James Lind's discovery of the causes of scurvy amongst sailors and its mitigation via the introduction of fruit on lengthy voyages was published in 1754 and led to the adoption of this idea by the Royal Navy. Efforts were also made to promulgate health matters to the broader public; in 1752 the British physician Sir John Pringle published Observations on the Diseases of the Army in Camp and Garrison, in which he advocated for the importance of adequate ventilation in the military barracks and the provision of latrines for the soldiers.

Public health legislation in England

The first attempts at sanitary reform and the establishment of public health institutions were made in the 1840s. Thomas Southwood Smith, physician at the London Fever Hospital, began to write papers on the importance of public health, and was one of the first physicians brought in to give evidence before the Poor Law Commission in the 1830s, along with Neil Arnott and James Phillips Kay. Smith advised the government on the importance of quarantine and sanitary improvement for limiting the spread of infectious diseases such as cholera and yellow fever.

The Poor Law Commission reported in 1838 that "the expenditures necessary to the adoption and maintenance of measures of prevention would ultimately amount to less than the cost of the disease now constantly engendered". It recommended the implementation of large scale government engineering projects to alleviate the conditions that allowed for the propagation of disease. The Health of Towns Association was formed at Exeter Hall London on 11 December 1844, and vigorously campaigned for the development of public health in the United Kingdom. Its formation followed the 1843 establishment of the Health of Towns Commission, chaired by Sir Edwin Chadwick, which produced a series of reports on poor and insanitary conditions in British cities.

These national and local movements led to the Public Health Act, finally passed in 1848. It aimed to improve the sanitary condition of towns and populous places in England and Wales by placing the supply of water, sewerage, drainage, cleansing and paving under a single local body with the General Board of Health as a central authority. The Act was passed by the Liberal government of Lord John Russell, in response to the urging of Edwin Chadwick. Chadwick's seminal report on The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population was published in 1842 and was followed up with a supplementary report a year later. During this time, James Newlands (appointed following the passing of the 1846 Liverpool Sanatory Act championed by the Borough of Liverpool Health of Towns Committee) designed the world's first integrated sewerage system, in Liverpool (1848–1869), with Joseph Bazalgette later creating London's sewerage system (1858–1875).

The Vaccination Act 1853 introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination in England and Wales. By 1871 legislation required a comprehensive system of registration run by appointed vaccination officers.

Further interventions were made by a series of subsequent Public Health Acts, notably the 1875 Act. Reforms included the building of sewers, the regular collection of garbage followed by incineration or disposal in a landfill, the provision of clean water and the draining of standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes.

The Infectious Disease (Notification) Act 1889 mandated the reporting of infectious diseases to the local sanitary authority, which could then pursue measures such as the removal of the patient to hospital and the disinfection of homes and properties.

Public health legislation in other countries

In the United States, the first public health organization based on a state health department and local boards of health was founded in New York City in 1866.

In Germany during The Weimar Republic the country faced many public health catastrophes. The Nazi Party had a goal of modernizing health care with Volksgesundheit, German for people's public health; this modernization was based on the growing field of eugenics and measures prioritizing group health over any care for the health of individuals.  The end of World War 2 led to the Nuremberg Code, a set of research ethics concerning human experimentation.

Epidemiology

The science of epidemiology was founded by John Snow's identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854 cholera outbreak in London. Snow believed in the germ theory of disease as opposed to the prevailing miasma theory. By talking to local residents (with the help of Reverend Henry Whitehead), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the Broad Street pump did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to close the well pump by removing its handle.

Snow later used a dot map to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering the water to homes, leading to an increased incidence of cholera. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science of epidemiology.

Control of infectious diseases

With the pioneering work in bacteriology of French chemist Louis Pasteur and German scientist Robert Koch, methods for isolating the bacteria responsible for a given disease and vaccines for remedy were developed at the turn of the 20th century. British physician Ronald Ross identified the mosquito as the carrier of malaria and laid the foundations for combating the disease. Joseph Lister revolutionized surgery by the introduction of antiseptic surgery to eliminate infection. French epidemiologist Paul-Louis Simond proved that plague was carried by fleas on the back of rats, and Cuban scientist Carlos J. Finlay and U.S. Americans Walter Reed and James Carroll demonstrated that mosquitoes carry the virus responsible for yellow fever. Brazilian scientist Carlos Chagas identified a tropical disease and its vector.

Society and culture

Education and training
Education and training of public health professionals is available throughout the world in Schools of Public Health, Medical Schools, Veterinary Schools, Schools of Nursing, and Schools of Public Affairs. The training typically requires a university degree with a focus on core disciplines of biostatistics, epidemiology, health services administration, health policy, health education, behavioral science, gender issues, sexual and reproductive health, public health nutrition, and occupational and environmental health.

In the global context, the field of public health education has evolved enormously in recent decades, supported by institutions such as the World Health Organization and the World Bank, among others. Operational structures are formulated by strategic principles, with educational and career pathways guided by competency frameworks, all requiring modulation according to local, national and global realities. It is critically important for the health of populations that nations assess their public health human resource needs and develop their ability to deliver this capacity, and not depend on other countries to supply it.

Schools of public health: a US perspective
In the United States, the Welch-Rose Report of 1915 has been viewed as the basis for the critical movement in the history of the institutional schism between public health and medicine because it led to the establishment of schools of public health supported by the Rockefeller Foundation. The report was authored by William Welch, founding dean of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, and Wickliffe Rose of the Rockefeller Foundation. The report focused more on research than practical education. Some have blamed the Rockefeller Foundation's 1916 decision to support the establishment of schools of public health for creating the schism between public health and medicine and legitimizing the rift between medicine's laboratory investigation of the mechanisms of disease and public health's nonclinical concern with environmental and social influences on health and wellness.

Even though schools of public health had already been established in Canada, Europe and North Africa, the United States had still maintained the traditional system of housing faculties of public health within their medical institutions.  A $25,000 donation from businessman Samuel Zemurray instituted the School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine at Tulane University in 1912 conferring its first doctor of public health degree in 1914.  The Yale School of Public Health was founded by Charles-Edward Amory Winslow in 1915. The Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health was founded in 1916 and became an independent, degree-granting institution for research and training in public health, and the largest public health training facility in the United States. By 1922, schools of public health were established at Columbia and Harvard on the Hopkins model. By 1999 there were twenty nine schools of public health in the US, enrolling around fifteen thousand students.

Over the years, the types of students and training provided have also changed. In the beginning, students who enrolled in public health schools typically had already obtained a medical degree; public health school training was largely a second degree for medical professionals. However, in 1978, 69% of American students enrolled in public health schools had only a bachelor's degree.

Degrees in public health

Schools of public health offer a variety of degrees generally fall into two categories: professional or academic. The two major postgraduate degrees are the Master of Public Health (MPH) or the Master of Science in Public Health (MSPH). Doctoral studies in this field include Doctor of Public Health (DrPH) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in a subspecialty of greater Public Health disciplines. DrPH is regarded as a professional degree and PhD as more of an academic degree.

Professional degrees are oriented towards practice in public health settings. The Master of Public Health, Doctor of Public Health, Doctor of Health Science (DHSc/DHS) and the Master of Health Care Administration are examples of degrees which are geared towards people who want careers as practitioners of public health in health departments, managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms, among others. Master of Public Health degrees broadly fall into two categories, those that put more emphasis on an understanding of epidemiology and statistics as the scientific basis of public health practice and those that include a more wide range of methodologies.  A Master of Science of Public Health is similar to an MPH but is considered an academic degree (as opposed to a professional degree) and places more emphasis on scientific methods and research.  The same distinction can be made between the DrPH and the DHSc. The DrPH is considered a professional degree and the DHSc is an academic degree.

Academic degrees are more oriented towards those with interests in the scientific basis of public health and preventive medicine who wish to pursue careers in research, university teaching in graduate programs, policy analysis and development, and other high-level public health positions. Examples of academic degrees are the Master of Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Doctor of Science (ScD), and Doctor of Health Science (DHSc). The doctoral programs are distinct from the MPH and other professional programs by the addition of advanced coursework and the nature and scope of a dissertation research project.

Notable people
 John Graunt (1620–1674)  was a British citizen scientist who laid the foundations for epidemiology.
 Edward Jenner (1749–1823) created the smallpox vaccine, the first vaccine in the world. He is often known as "the father of immunology."
 Benjamin Waterhouse (1753–1846) introduced the smallpox vaccine in the United States.
 Lemuel Shattuck (1793–1859) has been described as an "architect" and "prophet" of American public health
 John Snow (1813-1858) was 'the father of modern epidemiology'.
 Sir Joseph William Bazalgette (1819–1891) created a sewer network for central London in response to the Great Stink of 1858. This proved instrumental in relieving the city from cholera epidemics.
 Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) conducted research that laid the foundation for our understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases.
 Robert Koch (1843–1910) used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease"and directly provided proofs for that germ theory of diseases, therefore creating the scientific basis of public health, saving millions of lives.
 Charles V. Chapin (1856–1941) public health advocate and researcher credited with planting "the roots of quality in public health" in the United States
 Sara Josephine Baker (1873–1945) was an "instrumental force in child and maternal health"
 Nora Wattie (1900–1994) led the development of public health services and sanitation, and education in improving women and child health in the poorest slums of Glasgow, for which she received the OBE.
 Jonas Salk (1914–1995) developed one of the first polio vaccines and campaigned vigorously for mandatory vaccinations.
 Ruth Huenemann (1910–2005) She became a pioneer in the study of childhood obesity in the 1960s studying the diet and exercise habits of Berkeley teenagers.
 Edmond Fernandes ( 1990-) Demonstrated proof of concept to end the burden of Malnutrition in India and around the world.
 Dilip Mahalanabis - Credited to have evolved and utilized ORS to save thousands of lives during the liberation war.

Country examples

Canada
In Canada, the Public Health Agency of Canada is the national agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and chronic disease control and prevention.

Cuba
Since the 1959 Cuban Revolution the Cuban government has devoted extensive resources to the improvement of health conditions for its entire population via universal access to health care. Infant mortality has plummeted. Cuban medical internationalism as a policy has seen the Cuban government sent doctors as a form of aid and export to countries in need in Latin America, especially Venezuela, as well as Oceania and Africa countries.

Colombia and Bolivia
Public health was important elsewhere in Latin America in consolidating state power and integrating marginalized populations into the nation-state.  In Colombia, public health was a means for creating and implementing ideas of citizenship. In Bolivia, a similar push came after their 1952 revolution.

Ghana

Though curable and preventive, malaria remains a major public health issue and is the third leading cause of death in Ghana. In the absence of a vaccine, mosquito control, or access to anti-malaria medication, public health methods become the main strategy for reducing the prevalence and severity of malaria. These methods include reducing breeding sites, screening doors and windows, insecticide sprays, prompt treatment following infection, and usage of insecticide treated mosquito nets. Distribution and sale of insecticide-treated mosquito nets is a common, cost-effective anti-malaria public health intervention; however, barriers to use exist including cost, household and family organization, access to resources, and social and behavioral determinants which have not only been shown to affect malaria prevalence rates but also mosquito net use.

France

Mexico

United States

The United States lacks a coherent system for the governmental funding of public health, relying on a variety of agencies and programs at the federal, state and local levels.
Between 1960 and 2001, public health spending in the United States tended to grow,
based on increasing expenditures by state and local government, which made up 80–90% of
total public health spending.  Spending in support of public health in the United States peaked in 2002 and declined in the following decade. State cuts to public health funding during the Great Recession of 2007–2008 were not restored in subsequent years.
As of 2012, a panel for the  U.S. Institute of Medicine panel warned that the United States spends disproportionately far more on clinical care than it does on public health, neglecting "population-based activities that offer efficient and effective approaches to improving the nation's health."  , about 3% of government health spending was directed to public health and prevention. This situation has been described as an "uneven patchwork" and "chronic underfunding".
The COVID-19 pandemic has been seen as drawing attention to problems in the public health system in the United States and to a lack of understanding of public health and its important role as a common good.

See also
 Global health
 Health care
 Health equity
 Health policy
 Health system
 Health law
 Effects of climate change on human health
 European Public Health Association (EUPHA) is an umbrella organization for public health associations and institutes in Europe
 List of national public health agencies
 Universal health care

References

Euthenics
Health economics
Health policy
Medical humanities
Health education
Primary care
Health sciences
Health law
Global health
Health standards
Public health education

Public health


الهوية 2.0 (2.0 Identity)، كما تسمى أيضا الهوية الرقمية، هي الثورة المتوقعة للتحقق من الهوية على الإنترنت باستخدام التقنيات المتطورة والتي تركز على المستخدم مثل بطاقات المعلومات (Information Cards) أو الهوية المنفتحه (OpenID). تنبثق الهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0)من نظرية وب 2.0 لتحول الشبكة العالمية (شبكة عنكبوتية عالمية). تركيزالهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0) طريقة بسيطة وحره لتعاملات الهوية وهي مماثلة لتلك التي في العالم المادي، مثل رخصة القيادة.

وصفتها مجموعة شركة بيرتون للتحليل الصناعي (Burton Group)، بأنه «استخدام الهوية Identity 2.0) 2.0) اليوم يشبه إلى حد كبير نظم الهوية الغير مباشرة، ولكن مع مزايا وجود وسيط رقمي، كما هو الحال مع رخصة القيادة، يوفر المصّدر للمستخدم وثيقة مصدقة تتضمن المطالبات (الاستحقاقات). ثم يمكن للمستخدم اختيار عرض هذه المعلومات عندما يتطلب الوضع».

نموذج الانترنت الحالي يجعل تعريف الواحد من موقع إلى موقع صعب التحديد. وقد وصف هذا في تقرير مجموعة بيرتون (Burton Group)حيث كُتب في هذا التقرير: " نظم الهوية اليوم _ والتي تمثل بناء "1.0"، تتميز بدعم قوي لإدارة المجال ولكنها تظهر قيود متكيفه ومرنة عندما تتواجه مع المتطلبات الواسعة النطاق للهوية في سيناريوهات الإنترنت ".وفي ضوء ذلك، يعتقد مؤيدوا التركيز على المستخدم "أن بروتوكولات الاتحاد (من تحالف الحرية (Liberty Alliance) _ منظمة تطوير معايير المعلومات المهيكلة [OASIS]، ومجموعة عمل خدمات الويب (خدمة ويب)) محصنه من قبل نموذج مركزي النطاق ولكنها لا تعمل الكثير لإعادة صياغة أسس الهوية المعمارية للنظم لدعم بناء اضخم.

العقبة الرئيسية لإنشاء الهوية 2.0(Identity 2.0) هو قوة البنية التحتية الموجودة. يعكس بحث المحللين الصناعيين غارتنر (Gartner Research) وجهة النظر هذه في في تقرير أغسطس عام 2006، مشيرين:

"الهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0) سوف تكون ذات صلة للشركات على الانترنت _ وخاصة الشركات التي تركز على المستهلك _ ولكن ليس قبل عام 2008، وهناك مبادرات متعدده للهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0)_ بما فيها البطاقة الرقمية لويندوز من شركة مايكروسوفت(Microsoft's CardSpace) (بطاقة المعلومات سابقاً)، اسكسيب (Sxip) وهيقينز (Higgins). وبالرغم من أن جميع المبادرات كانت فعاله لبروتوكولات الانترنت(Internet Protocols) وكذلك بروتوكولات الشبكة (Web Protocols)، إلا أن هناك أساليب مختلفة لتخزين صفات الهوية (identity attributes)و تأمين التفاعلات؛ هذه الطرق المختلفة ليست واضحة من جهة التشغيل المتبادل، وتفتقر إلى معايير موحدة على أساس اطار العمل.

يتطلب نجاح طرق الهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0)أن يقوم مقدمي الخدمات بتعديل مواقعها على الإنترنت وخدماتها لطلب وقبول وتوثيق بيانات الهوية من العملاء ومقدمي الهوية، وهذا يطرح احتمال مشكلة "البيضة والدجاجة" وبموجبه لا يدرك المستهلكين الحاجة إلى خلق شخصيات رقمية حتى تتوفر الخدمات لاستخدامها".

بعد ذلك بعام، نشرت غارتنر (Gartner) نظرة مُحدثة في تقرير هايب سيكل (Hype Cycle Report) لعام 2007 عن تقنيات إدارة الهوية والوصول (IAM Technologies) والمواقف التي تهتم بالعملاء، تقنيات الهوية 2.0 مثل الهوية المنفتحه (OpenID)، والبطاقة الرقمية لويندوز (Microsoft's CardSpace) وهيغنز (Higgins) وقالت بأنها «مشغلات التقنية» التي تواصل«الارتفاع»، على الرغم من سنتين إلى خمس سنوات بعيدا عن الاعتماد السائدة.وهم يوصون بأن يقوم المستهلك الذي يواجه المنظمات برصد تطور هذه «أطر عمل الهوية الشخصية (Personal Identity Frameworks)»

في نهج الهوية 2.0(Identity 2.0)، بدلا من استخدام أسماء مستخدم / كلمات المرور متعددة للتسجيل في موقع على شبكة الإنترنت (مثل النموذج الحالي)، ستسمح الهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0)للمستخدمين باستخدام هوية واحدة تكون ذات شفافية ومرونه. تركز الهوية 2.0 (Identity 2.0) حول المستخدم ولا تتمحور حول الدليل. ويتطلب تعاملات معرفيه بين المستخدمين والوكلاء (المواقع) باستخدام بيانات يمكن التحقق منها، وبالتالي توفير المزيد من التعاملات التي يمكن تعقبها.

باستخدام هوية واحدة في كل وقت يمكن أن يؤدي إلى فضح الخصوصية أو الأمن، لا سيما في الحالات التالية:

 عندما ُتنتحل ويعبث بالهوية المفتوحة (OpenID).
 عندما لا يقوم المستخدمين باختيار هوية ذات توثيق قوي ولكنهم يجبرون على القيام بذلك عن طريق خصائص النظام أو ضغوط السوق.
 عندما تربط الإجراءات التي ليس لها صله مع غرض التنبؤ أو التحكم في سلوك المستخدم.

يمكن توفير البيانات التي بالإمكان التحقق منها ولكن لا يمكن ربطها من قبل المستخدمين عن طريق وثائق تفويض رقمية مجهوله. الأبعاد الخفية لبناء الثقة في حالات ادنى من المعرفة التامة، والتي هي المفهوم البديهي في العالم المادي، ويتم التحقيق عن طريق التفاوض الموثوق.

مراجع

تحديد هوية
مصطلحات حوسبة
ويب 2.0

الهوية 2.0


UEFA Europa League 2015-16 var den 45. udgave af den næsthøjst rangerende europæiske klubturnering i fodbold, den syvende udgave siden relanceringen af turneringen til UEFA Europa League fra UEFA Cup.

Finalen bliver spillet på St. Jakob-Park i Basel, Schweiz.

Runder og lodtrækningsdatoer
Alle lodtrækninger fandt sted i UEFA's hovedkvarter i Nyon, Schweiz, med mindre andet er angivet.

Kvalifikation

Første kvalifikationsrunde
Første runde blev spillet den 1. og 3. juli, mens returkampene blev spillet den 8. 10. og 11. juli 2014.

Anden kvalifikationsrunde
De første kampe blev spillet den 17. juli, mens returkampene blev spillet den 22. og 24. juli 2014.

Tredje kvalifikationsrunde
De første kampe blev spillet 28. og 29. juli, mens returkampene blev spillet den 4. og 5. august 2015.

Play-off
De første kampe blev spillet den 18. og 19. august, mens returkampene blev spillet den 25. og 26. august 2015.

Gruppespillet

Lodtrækningne til gruppespillet blev afholdt i Monaco den 28. august 2015. De 48 hold blev fordelt i tolv grupper med fire hold, med den restriktion, at hold fra samme  forening ikke kunne blive trukket til at spille imod hinanden. Holdene blev seedet i fire hold baseret på UEFA's klubkoefficienter.

I hver gruppe spiller holdene imod hverandre hjemme-og-ude i round-robin format. Gruppevinderne og nummer to kvalificerer sig til play-off fasen med 32 hold, og dertil kommer de otte hold med en tredieplads-placering fra gruppespillet. Kampdagene er 17. september, 1. oktober, 22. oktober, 5. november, 26. november og 10. december 2015.

I alt 24 nationale fodboldforbund vil være repræsenteret i gruppespillet. Augsburg, Belenenses, Gabala, Groningen, Midtjylland, Monaco, Sion og Skënderbeu Korçë vil få deres debut-kampe i gruppespillet (Monaco har dog spillet i UEFA Cup gruppespillet). Skënderbeu Korçë er det første hold fra Albanien, der spiller i et gruppespil fra en af EUFA's konkurrencer.

Gruppe A

Gruppe B

Gruppe C

Gruppe D

Gruppe E

Gruppe F

Gruppe G

Gruppe H

Gruppe I

Gruppe J

Gruppe K

Gruppe L

Slutspil
{{32TeamBracket-2legs-except final
| hold-width      = 170
| nowrap          = yes
| compact         = yes

| RD1             = Sekstendelsfinaler
| RD2             = Ottendedelsfinaler
| RD3             = Kvartfinaler
| RD4             = Semifinaler
| RD5             = Finalen

| RD1-team01      =  Villarreal
| RD1-score01-1   = 1
| RD1-score01-2   = 1
| RD1-score01-agg = 2
| RD1-team02      =  Napoli
| RD1-score02-1   = 0
| RD1-score02-2   = 1
| RD1-score02-agg = 1

| RD1-team03      =  Sporting CP
| RD1-score03-1   = 0
| RD1-score03-2   = 1
| RD1-score03-agg = 1
| RD1-team04      =  Bayer Leverkusen
| RD1-score04-1   = 1
| RD1-score04-2   = 3
| RD1-score04-agg = 4

| RD1-team05      =  Sparta Prague
| RD1-score05-1   = 1
| RD1-score05-2   = 3
| RD1-score05-agg = 4
| RD1-team06      =  Krasnodar
| RD1-score06-1   = 0
| RD1-score06-2   = 0
| RD1-score06-agg = 0

| RD1-team07      =  Galatasaray
| RD1-score07-1   = 1
| RD1-score07-2   = 1
| RD1-score07-agg = 2
| RD1-team08      =  Lazio
| RD1-score08-1   = 1
| RD1-score08-2   = 3
| RD1-score08-agg = 4

| RD1-team09      =  Borussia Dortmund
| RD1-score09-1   = 2
| RD1-score09-2   = 1
| RD1-score09-agg = 3
| RD1-team10      =  Porto
| RD1-score10-1   = 0
| RD1-score10-2   = 0
| RD1-score10-agg = 0

| RD1-team11      =  Fiorentina
| RD1-score11-1   = 1
| RD1-score11-2   = 0
| RD1-score11-agg = 1
| RD1-team12      =  Tottenham Hotspur
| RD1-score12-1   = 1
| RD1-score12-2   = 3
| RD1-score12-agg = 4

| RD1-team13      =  Augsburg
| RD1-score13-1   = 0
| RD1-score13-2   = 0
| RD1-score13-agg = 0
| RD1-team14      =  Liverpool
| RD1-score14-1   = 0
| RD1-score14-2   = 1
| RD1-score14-agg = 1

| RD1-team15      =  Midtjylland
| RD1-score15-1   = 2
| RD1-score15-2   = 1
| RD1-score15-agg = 3
| RD1-team16      =  Manchester United
| RD1-score16-1   = 1
| RD1-score16-2   = 5
| RD1-score16-agg = 6

| RD1-team17      =  Fenerbahçe
| RD1-score17-1   = 2
| RD1-score17-2   = 1
| RD1-score17-agg = 3
| RD1-team18      =  Lokomotiv Moskva
| RD1-score18-1   = 0
| RD1-score18-2   = 1
| RD1-score18-agg = 1

| RD1-team19      =  Sion
| RD1-score19-1   = 1
| RD1-score19-2   = 2
| RD1-score19-agg = 3
| RD1-team20      =  Braga
| RD1-resultat20-1   = 2
| RD1-resultat20-2   = 2
| RD1-resultat20-agg = 4

| RD1-team21      =  Shakhtar Donetsk
| RD1-resultat21-1   = 0
| RD1-resultat21-2   = 3
| RD1-resultat21-agg = 3
| RD1-team22      =  Schalke 04
| RD1-resultat22-1   = 0
| RD1-resultat22-2   = 0
| RD1-resultat22-agg = 0

| RD1-team23      =  Anderlecht (forl)
| RD1-resultat23-1   = 1
| RD1-resultat23-2   = 2
| RD1-resultat23-agg = 3
| RD1-team24      =  Olympiakos
| RD1-resultat24-1   = 0
| RD1-resultat24-2   = 1
| RD1-resultat24-agg = 1

| RD1-team25      =  Marseille
| RD1-resultat25-1   = 0
| RD1-resultat25-2   = 1
| RD1-resultat25-agg = 1
| RD1-team26      =  Athletic Bilbao| RD1-resultat26-1   = 1
| RD1-resultat26-2   = 1
| RD1-resultat26-agg = 2

| RD1-team27      =  Valencia| RD1-resultat27-1   = 6
| RD1-resultat27-2   = 4
| RD1-resultat27-agg = 10
| RD1-team28      =  Rapid Wien
| RD1-resultat28-1   = 0
| RD1-resultat28-2   = 0
| RD1-resultat28-agg = 0

| RD1-team29      =  Saint-Étienne
| RD1-resultat29-1   = 3
| RD1-resultat29-2   = 1
| RD1-resultat29-agg = 4
| RD1-team30      =  Basel (u)
| RD1-resultat30-1   = 2
| RD1-resultat30-2   = 2
| RD1-resultat30-agg = 4

| RD1-team31      =  Sevilla| RD1-resultat31-1   = 3
| RD1-resultat31-2   = 0
| RD1-resultat31-agg = 3
| RD1-team32      =  Molde
| RD1-resultat32-1   = 0
| RD1-resultat32-2   = 1
| RD1-resultat32-agg = 1

| RD2-team01      =  Villarreal| RD2-score01-1   = 2
| RD2-score01-2   = 0
| RD2-score01-agg = 2
| RD2-team02      =  Bayer Leverkusen
| RD2-score02-1   = 0
| RD2-score02-2   = 0
| RD2-score02-agg = 0

| RD2-team03      =  Sparta Prague| RD2-score03-1   = 1
| RD2-score03-2   = 3
| RD2-score03-agg = 4
| RD2-team04      =  Lazio
| RD2-score04-1   = 1
| RD2-score04-2   = 0
| RD2-score04-agg = 1

| RD2-team05      =  Borussia Dortmund| RD2-score05-1   = 3
| RD2-score05-2   = 2
| RD2-score05-agg = 5
| RD2-team06      =  Tottenham Hotspur
| RD2-score06-1   = 0
| RD2-score06-2   = 1
| RD2-score06-agg = 1

| RD2-team07      =  Liverpool| RD2-score07-1   = 2
| RD2-score07-2   = 1
| RD2-score07-agg = 3
| RD2-team08      =  Manchester United
| RD2-score08-1   = 0
| RD2-score08-2   = 1
| RD2-score08-agg = 1

| RD2-team09      =  Fenerbahçe
| RD2-score09-1   = 1
| RD2-score09-2   = 1
| RD2-score09-agg = 2
| RD2-team10      =  Braga| RD2-score10-1   = 0
| RD2-score10-2   = 4
| RD2-score10-agg = 4

| RD2-team11      =  Shakhtar Donetsk| RD2-score11-1   = 3
| RD2-score11-2   = 1
| RD2-score11-agg = 4
| RD2-team12      =  Anderlecht
| RD2-score12-1   = 1
| RD2-score12-2   = 0
| RD2-score12-agg = 1

| RD2-team13      =  Athletic Bilbao (u)
| RD2-score13-1   = 1
| RD2-score13-2   = 1
| RD2-score13-agg = 2
| RD2-team14      =  Valencia
| RD2-score14-1   = 0
| RD2-score14-2   = 2
| RD2-score14-agg = 2

| RD2-team15      =  Basel
| RD2-score15-1   = 0
| RD2-score15-2   = 0
| RD2-score15-agg = 0
| RD2-team16      =  Sevilla| RD2-score16-1   = 0
| RD2-score16-2   = 3
| RD2-score16-agg = 3

| RD3-team01      =  Villarreal| RD3-score01-1   = 2
| RD3-score01-2   = 4
| RD3-score01-agg = 6
| RD3-team02      =  Sparta Prague
| RD3-score02-1   = 1
| RD3-score02-2   = 2
| RD3-score02-agg = 3

| RD3-team03      =  Borussia Dortmund
| RD3-score03-1   = 1
| RD3-score03-2   = 3
| RD3-score03-agg = 4
| RD3-team04      =  Liverpool| RD3-score04-1   = 1
| RD3-score04-2   = 4
| RD3-score04-agg = 5

| RD3-team05      =  Braga
| RD3-score05-1   = 1
| RD3-score05-2   = 0
| RD3-score05-agg = 1
| RD3-team06      =  Shakhtar Donetsk| RD3-score06-1   = 2
| RD3-score06-2   = 4
| RD3-score06-agg = 6

| RD3-team07      =  Athletic Bilbao
| RD3-score07-1   = 1
| RD3-score07-2   = 2
| RD3-score07-agg = 3
| RD3-team08      =  Sevilla (pen.)
| RD3-score08-1   = 2
| RD3-score08-2   = 1
| RD3-score08-agg = 3

| RD4-team01      =  Villarreal
| RD4-score01-1   = 1
| RD4-score01-2   = 0
| RD4-score01-agg = 1
| RD4-team02      =  Liverpool| RD4-score02-1   = 0
| RD4-score02-2   = 3
| RD4-score02-agg = 3

| RD4-team03      =  Shakhtar Donetsk
| RD4-score03-1   = 2
| RD4-score03-2   = 1
| RD4-score03-agg = 3
| RD4-team04      =  Sevilla| RD4-score04-1   = 2
| RD4-score04-2   = 3
| RD4-score04-agg = 5

| RD5-team01      =  Liverpool
| RD5-score01     = 1
| RD5-team02      =  Sevilla'| RD5-score02     = 3
}}

 Sekstendedelsfinaler
Sammendrag

|}

 Kampe Fenerbahçe vandt 3–1 sammenlagt.Tottenham Hotspur vandt 4–1 sammenlagt.Borussia Dortmund vandt 3–0 sammenlagt.Anderlecht vandt 3–1 sammenlagt.Manchester United vandt 6–3 sammenlagt.Sevilla vandt 3–1 sammenlagt.Villarreal vandt 2–1 sammenlagt.4–4 sammenlagt. Basel vandt på reglen om mål på udebane.Valencia vandt 10–0 sammenlagt.Liverpool vandt 1–0 sammenlagt.Sparta Prag vandt 4–0 sammenlagt.Lazio vandt 4–2  sammenlagt.Braga vandt 4–3 sammenlagt.Shakhtar Donetsk vandt 3–0 sammenlagt.Athletic Bilbao vandt 2–1 sammenlagt.Bayer Leverkusen vandt 4–1 sammenlagt.''

Noter

Ottendedelsfinaler

|}

Kvartfinaler

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Semifinaler

|}

Finalen
Finalen blev spillet den 18. maj 2016 på St. Jakob-Park i Basel, Schweiz.

Referencer

Se også
 UEFA Champions League 2015-16

UEFA Europa League 2015-16


نادي الخلود السعودي هو نادي كرة قدم سعودي يقع في محافظة الرس بمنطقة القصيم. تأسس عام 1970، وينافس في دوري الدرجة الأولى السعودي.

كرة القدم
الفريق الأول يلعب في دوري اندية الدرجة الأولى للمحترفين ( تويتر دوري يلو ) بعد ان صعد عام 2020-2021 المدير الفني الكابتن خالد القروني مساعده نهاري آل سالم وكابتن الفريق مؤيد الطليحي واداري الفريق عادل الخليفة

تشكيلة الفريق الحالية

المعارون

الطاقم الإداري

رؤساء النادي
أول رئيس لمجلس إدارته هو (عبد الله العواجي) وقد تعاقب على رئاسته عددٌ من الأسماء منهم :
 عبد الله العواجي
 فهد محمد الشلاح
 عبد الرحمن خالد الباهلي
 صالح عبد الله العايد
 سليمان محمد الرميح
 سليمان علي المزروع
 محمد النيف المحمد
 صالح عساف العواجي
 خالد غانم المزروع
 ناصر حسين العساف
 عبد العزيز عبد الرحمن البطي
 ضيف الله الصالحي
 سليمان إبراهيم المسيطير
 صالح محمد الفوزان
 خالد غانم المزروع
 صالح عبد الله الخليفة

الأنشطة الرياضية الأخرى

تنس الطاولة
أبرز لعبة في نادي الخلود هي لعبة تنس الطاولة حيث حصل الفريق على بطولة التنس على مستوى المملكة العربية السعودية لأكثر من مرة

مراجع

أندية كرة قدم أسست في 1970
أندية كرة قدم في الرس
خلود
تأسيسات سنة 1970 في السعودية
الرياضة في منطقة القصيم
محافظة الرس

نادي الخلود


අන්තිම රාත්‍රි භෝජනය යනු ක්‍රිස්තියානි විශ්වාසය ප්‍රකාර, ජේසුස් වහන්සේ විසින්,  එතුමාගේ කුරුසියේ ඇණ ගැසීමට පෙර,  ජෙරුස‍ලෙමෙහිදී  එතුමාගේ අපෝස්තුළුවරුන් හා සමග එක්ව හිඳ, අනුභව කල අවසන් භෙෘ්ජනයයි.

අන්තිම රාත්‍රි භෝජනය


Fritillaria conica est une espèce de plantes à fleurs de la famille des liliacées (Liliaceae), originaire du sud-ouest de la Grèce. Elle est endémique du Péloponnèse.

Description
Fritillaria conica est une herbe de 7-35 cm de haut avec une tige glabre portant 5-8 feuilles vert clair, brillantes et non glauques. Les feuilles sont lancéolées à oblongues-lancéolées. Les feuilles basales sont opposées, les feuilles supérieures sont alternes. Les 1-2 fleurs terminales, en forme de cône ou de dôme, sont de couleur jaune clair sans aucun motif. Les fleurs sont penchées. Après la pollinisation, des capsules non ailées, cylindriques à subglobales, se forment et contiennent des graines largement ailées, qui sont parmi les plus larges parmi les espèces grecques de Fritillaria.
Le jeu de chromosomes diploïde est de 2n = 24.

Écologie
Cette espèce se trouve sur des pentes calcaires rocheuses à des altitudes de 350 m, en compagnie de Quercus coccifera, Pistacia lentiscus et Phlomis fruticosa. La floraison a lieu de mars à avril.

Étymologie
Le nom de l'espèce conica provient de la forme conique des fleurs.

Conservation de l'espèce
Cette espèce menacée d'extinction possède de petites populations réparties sur une zone estimée à 400 km². Les populations ne couvrent qu'une superficie de 12 à 16 km². Il ne reste qu'environ 1175 spécimens adultes à l'état sauvage. Un chiffre qui continue à diminuer. Les populations ne sont toutefois pas très fragmentées et on les trouve dans quatre sites différents. La conservation de l'espèce est menacée par l'agriculture, l'aquaculture, l'élevage et l'élevage en ranch. Le surpâturage constitue un défi, car la formation de graines est limitée par la destruction des tiges fleuries. Cette espèce a également une faible capacité à se reproduire par voie végétative. Des efforts de conservation ex situ ont été entrepris et l'espèce est protégée à la fois par la législation nationale et internationale.

Notes et références

conica
Espèce de Liliaceae (nom scientifique)

Fritillaria conica


Garnelo es una familia española, cuyos orígenes se remontan al  en Villafranca del Bierzo en León. Junto con las familias Teijeiro de Valcarce y de la Válgoma, son de las estirpes bercianas que siempre gozaron de la calidad de caballeros hijosdalgo. Los Garnelo probaron su nobleza en la Real Chancillería de Valladolid en numerosas ocasiones y en particular en 1686, 1692, 1698, 1704 y 1759. Destacaron como académicos, banqueros, bodegueros y miembros de la curia eclesiástica y emparentaron con nobles linajes leoneses y otros linajes militares vascos. Una rama se estableció en Valencia a principios del , y de allí pasó a Córdoba, ganando gran prestigio artístico y académico hasta el punto de constituirse en una de las dinastías artísticas más importantes en España a finales del  y principios del .

En la actualidad existen aproximadamente unos mil descendientes de esta familia, establecidos en Ponferrada y León, principalmente, pero también en Barcelona, Madrid y Galicia. Algunas ramas surgidas de las distintas uniones matrimoniales son las familias de Allanegui Garnelo, Bermúdez de Castro Garnelo, de Castro Garnelo, Garnelo de Armas, Garnelo Fernández de Córdoba y de la Peña Fernández-Garnelo.

Orígenes del apellido Garnelo
Se trata de un apellido de origen etimológico céltico, sajón o suevo cuya primera aproximación se encuentra en documentos del Castillo de Ulver (Priaranza del Bierzo) sobre el  en que se habla del "Sajón" del castillo (nombre genérico de un mando militar) refiriéndose a él como "Garnelius".
La primera referencia de hidalguía encontrada en la Real Chancillería de Valladolid data del seis de marzo de 1495 (Registro de Ejecutorias, Caja 0082.0010 ES-47186.Archv/22.214.171.124. ) relacionada con Gonzalo Garnelo, vecino de Paradela del Río.
Otro miembro conocido fue Don Antonio Villafañe y Garnelo de Velasco, Escribano en la Corte de Felipe II, 1590. Una rama enlazó con los Condes de Gondomar y otra con los Vizcondes de Quintanilla de Flórez. Otra rama con el linaje militar de Allanegui. Otra rama enlazó con la familia de don Jaime de Castro, quien fue magistrado de la Sala Primera del Tribunal Supremo, y su hermano, don Antonio, exalcalde de Santiago de Compostela.

Armas

Hay dos Escudos de Armas del apellido Garnelo:
El Primero: en oro, una bolsa, de gules, con una Y de oro, coronada de oro. Bordadura de gules con ocho torres, de oro, almenadas, donjonadas y mazonadas de sable y aclaradas adornadas) de gules. El segundo: escudo fajado de sinople y de plata.

Garnelo ilustres

Don Antonio Villafañe y Garnelo de Velasco, Escribano en la Corte de Felipe II, 1590.

Doña María Garnelo de la Granja, 1717 casada con el hijodalgo Don Jacinto Núñez Villagroy, Colegial en el Mayor de Salamanca.

Don Vicente Garnelo y Villafañe ( -1830), procurador mayor de Causas y Contador de Horas de la Insigne Iglesia Colegial de Villafranca del Bierzo.

Beato Benito Garnelo y Álvarez (1876-1939), mártir de la Guerra Civil, asesinado en Paracuellos de Jarama el 30 de noviembre de 1936, religioso de la Orden de San Agustín (agustinos) beatificado el 28 de octubre de 2007 por el papa Benedicto XVI.

Comandante Don Félix de Paz y Garnelo, Jefe de la VIII Bandera del Tercio Don Juan de Austria de la Legión en el Sáhara (1958-1975).

Doctor José Antonio de Paz y Garnelo, Catedrático de Pediatría en la Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Encomienda de la Orden Civil de Sanidad, Hijo Predilecto de la Villa de Cacabelos, Villafranca del Bierzo, desde 1975.

La dinastía artística de los Garnelo y sus protagonistas

La dinastía artística de los Garnelo se inicia con José Ramón Garnelo y Gonzálvez (Enguera, 1830 - Montilla, 1911), médico de profesión. Cultivaba con especial afición letras y artes, disfrutando de una extensa cultura. En 1867, año siguiente al del nacimiento de José Santiago, José Ramón Garnelo Gonzálvez se trasladó a Montilla, donde desarrolló, con la participación de su familia, una amplia labor cultural, logrando con ello despertar inquietudes artísticas en sus hijos. Montilla gozaba por aquel entonces de un ambiente casi universitario, que se proyectaba a otras ciudades andaluzas. La inclinación de sus hijos hacia el Arte se vería con el tiempo acrecentada con las aficiones del padre y sólo gracias al profundo humanismo de éste, y a su constante ánimo, pudo transmitir plenamente su íntima vocación a tres de sus hijos: Eloísa, pintora distinguida y consumada; Manuel, escultor y catedrático de Bellas Artes; y José, que representa el punto culminante de esta dinastía de artistas.

Don José Garnelo y Alda (1866-1944), Pintor de la Corona, Numerario de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando y de la Real Academia de Ciencias, Bellas Letras y Nobles Artes de Córdoba, Catedrático de Dibujo del antiguo y ropajes de la Escuela de San Fernando de Madrid, Catedrático de la Escuela de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado de Madrid, Subdirector del Museo del Prado, Premio de la Escuela de Santa Isabel de Hungría, Medalla de oro de la Exposición Universal de Chicago, Vicedirector de la Escuela Provincial de Bellas Artes de Zaragoza, Caballero de la Real y Distinguida Orden de Carlos III, Profesor de Pablo Picasso, Comendador de la Orden de Alfonso XII y Oficial de la Orden de Leopoldo II de Bélgica.

Don Isidoro Garnelo y Fillol (1867-1939), Pintor y acuarelista español, que cultivó temas de género y religiosos. Catedrático de colorido y composición, así como director de la Academia de Bellas Artes de San Carlos.

Don José Ramón Garnelo López de Vinuesa

Museo Garnelo

El museo alberga la mayor colección de pinturas de Don José Garnelo y Alda, uno de los más destacados pintores españoles. El edificio del museo es una casa palacio "de nobles trazas" de fines del . Fue propiedad de la Condesa de Aguilar, hermana del Conde de la Cortina, y adquirido por el Ayuntamiento de Montilla en 2000.

Teatro Garnelo

Teatro construido en 1917 según el proyecto de Don José Ramón Garnelo y González, bajo la dirección artística de sus hijos Manuel (escultor) y José (pintor). Fue rehabilitado a finales del  respetando su fachada, aunque lamentablemente no se ha conservado su ornamentación interior. El teatro tiene aforo para 300 personas y es gestionado por el Ayuntamiento de Montilla.

Véase también
 Condado de Gondomar
 Don José Garnelo y Alda
 Vizcondado de Quintanilla de Flórez

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos
 Museo Garnelo

Garnelo
Garnelo
Historia de Castilla y León

Garnelo


Victor Tafel (* 24. September 1881 in Adrianopel; † 25. Januar 1946 in Freiberg; vollständiger Name: Victor Eugen Tafel) war ein deutscher Metallurge. Er war ordentlicher Professor für Metallhüttenkunde und Direktor des Metallhüttenm. Instituts der TH Breslau.

Besondere Bekanntheit erlangte er durch seine Lehrbücher der Metallhüttenkunde.

Victor Tafel war ein Enkel des Theologen Johann Friedrich Immanuel Tafel. Mit seiner Frau Lotte geb. Roch hatte er vier Kinder. Mit dem ebenfalls an der TH Breslau lehrenden Wilhelm Tafel war er nur sehr entfernt verwandt (Vetter 4. Grades).

Seit seinem Studium an der Bergakademie Freiberg war er Mitglied des Corps Teutonia Freiberg.

Literatur

 Degeners Wer ist's? Berlin 1935, S. 1590
 Kürschners Deutscher Gelehrten Kalender Berlin 1954, S. 2732

Einzelnachweise

Metallurg
Hochschullehrer (Technische Universität Breslau)
Corpsstudent (20. Jahrhundert)
Deutscher
Geboren 1881
Gestorben 1946
Mann

Victor Tafel


Nou Estadi İspanya'nın Tarragona şehrinde çok amaçlı olarak inşa edilen bir stadyum.

Stadyumda çoğunlukla futbol müsabakaları yapılmaktadır. İspanya'nın Gimnàstic de Tarragona takımının maçlarını yaptığı stadyum, 12.000 seyirci kapasitelidir.

2017 Akdeniz Oyunları'na ev sahipliği yapacaktır.

Galeri

İspanya'daki stadyumlar
Katalonya'daki futbol sahaları

Nou Estadi


Coconut - Micul dragon (engleză Coconut - The Little Dragon) este un serial de animație german, ce se bazează pe filmul CGI cu nume comun din 2014, care la rândul său se bazează pe seria de cărți pentru copii Little Dragon scrisă de Ingo Siegner.

Serialul este produs de Gabriele Walther și a avut premiera oficială pe canalul german KiKA, pe data de 2 noiembrie 2015. Premiera în România a fost pe canalul Boomerang, pe data de 22 mai 2017 (inițial ar fi trebuit să înceapă cu două săptămâni mai înainte, pe 8 mai, dar datorită unor probleme materiale tehnice premiera a fost mutată).

Premisă
Serialul se petrece pe Insula Dragon, unde sunt două tabere de dragoni: cei de foc, care pot zbura, și cei Gourmet, cărora le plac mâncarea și au dezabilitatea zborului. Personajele principale sunt micuțul Coconut dragonul de foc și prietenii săi cei mai buni, Oscar dragonul Gourmet și Matilda porcul spinos. Aceștia au tot timpul parte de multe aventuri pe insulă, dar în același timp intră și în foarte multe belele, de obicei cauzate de neatenția și entuziasmul lui Coconut. Dar întotdeauna cei trei găsesc o cale de rezolvare, iar în același timp Coconut învață lecții valoroase din aceste greșeli.

Personaje
 Coconut - personajul principal al serialului. Este un dragon portocaliu cu șeapcă albastră, foarte optimist și aventuros, dar cam neatent, iar singura sa slăbiciune este faptul că încă nu poate zbura. Lui nu îi pasă de ce spun alții, și vrea să vadă totul prin proprii ochi și să aibă noi experiențe de unul singur, indiferent de dificultate. Dar uneori curiozitatea sa exagerată îl pune în noi aventuri.
 Oscar - este unul din cei mai buni prieteni ai lui Coconut. Este un dragon purpuriu ce face parte din tribul Gourmet. Ca și celorlalți dragoni de rasa sa, cel mai mult îi place să mănânce, și o cam face tot timpul. De asemenea, este neînfricat de absolut nimic, sau cel puțin așa crede el.
 Matilda - este a doua cea mai bună prietenă a lui Coconut, un porc spinos de culoare gălbuie. Este foarte deșteaptă, și știe foarte multe lucruri, și întotdeauna îi dă lui Coconut sfaturi bune și ajutătoare pentru planurile sale. Dar ea poate depista orice risc, nu ca și Coconut, dar chiar și atunci este optimistă și găsește rezolvarea în orice.
 Mette - este mama lui Coconut, care este foarte strictă și mereu îl ceartă când dă de belele. Ei îi este foarte frică că i se poate întâmpla ceva oribil lui Coconut, și foarte greu îl lasă să iasă din casă fără măsuri de siguranță.
 Magnus - este tatăl lui Coconut, care este mai timid și de obicei îl ajută și el pe Coconut când are necazuri.
 Bunicul Georgie (en. Grampa Georgie) - Georgie este bunicul lui Coconut și tatăl lui Magnus, care este poate cel mai înțelept dintre toți dragonii. Este mereu deschis să încerce lucrui noi și mereu pregătit să asculte nevoile și îngirjorările nepotului său. El este cel care plantează iarba de foc în fiecare an, fără care dragonii nu ar mai putea scuipa nici o flacără. Georgie este foarte impresionat de spiritul de aventurier al lui Coconut și chiar îl încurajează către acest lucru, lucru de care uneori părinții săi nu sunt prea de acord.
 Adele - ea este mama lui Oscar, un dragon Gourmet ce este foarte rafinată și chiar mai fițoasă. Nu prea este de acord cu prietenia dintre fiul ei și Coconut, dar deoarece a văzut cât de apropiați sunt, a decis să-i mai dea o șansă.
 Herbert - este tatăl lui Oscar
 Mini Mo - este un dragon de pământ de mărime foarte mică, care poartă ochelari de soare și de obicei are o fire foarte amuzantă. De obicei intră și el în aventurile lui Coconut și ale prietenilor săi.
 Marele Mo (en. Big Mo) - este tot un dragon de pământ, și în același timp vărul lui Mini Mo. Dar spre deosebire de acesta, el este foarte gigant, chiar cel mai mare dintre toți dragonii, și capul său ajunge până la soare. Acesta trăiește în tărâmurile ierbii. Chiar dacă ei diferă mult de mărime, Marele și Mini Mo se înțeleg foarte bine.
 Baldwin - Baldwin este un dragon de peșteră negru, cu ochelari de soare. Toți dragonii se tem de el datorită unui zvon că acesta iese noaptea și mănâncă orice întâlnește în cale, când de fapt tot ce vrea acesta sunt nuci și fructe de pădure. De aceea îi este cam prea frică să iasă din peștera sa, și de aceea acesta are tot timpul un miros respingător și neplăcut, care îi îndepărtează și mai mult pe ceilalți dragoni de el.
 Ananas (en. Pineapple) - Ananas este cea mai mare rivală a lui Coconut, care se crede mai bună decât el la orice. Ea și Coconut se întrec în multe chestii, iar el îi dovedește mai tot timpul că poate face orice dacă se străduiește cu adevărat.
 Proselinda - Proselinda este profesoara lui Coconut de la școala de zbor. În ciuda vârstei sale înaintate, ea este încă plină de energie. Ea își ia treaba de profesor într-o manieră foarte serioasă, și vrea să scoată din elevii ei tot ce e mai bun, chiar dacă are prea multe dificultăți cu Coconut. Ananas este eleva ei favorită.
 Domnul Gheară (en. Mr. Claw) - Domnul Gheară este un dragon albastru foarte politicos, dar care trăiește cu soția sa obsesivă și milioanele de ouă de dragon într-o peșteră călduroasă din munți. El face orice pentru doamna Gheară, și are grijă de ea cu un devotament imens. Dar deși au foarte multe griji pe capul lor, cei doi formează un cuplu perfect și foarte puternic. De obicei îl pune pe Coconut să aibă grijă de numeroșii lor pui când aceștia pleacă la o întâlnire.
 Șef (en. Chef) - Șef este persoanjul negativ al serialului. Este regele și șeful satului Gourmet, care deține totul. Nu îl suportă mai de loc pe Coconut, și mereu pune la cale planuri mișelești pentru a-l îndepărta de ceilalți dragoni Gourmet, de obicei folosindu-l pe Oscar ca momeală. Șef este foarte morocănos, și tratează oribil ceilalți locuitori ai satului său, mai ales pe slugile sale. De asemenea, manierele sale cam lasă de dorit.
 Gustărică (en. Tasty Treat) - Gustărică este un mic pui de vițel, și animalul de companie al lui Oscar. Este foarte jucăuș, dar uneori cam neascultător.

Episoade

Legături externe

 Site web oficial

Desene animate
Seriale de animație
Seriale germane
Boomerang
Personaje de desen animat
Seriale de televiziune din 2016

Coconut - Micul dragon (serial)


Efectele sterice sunt anumite efecte observate în chimia organică, care sunt cauzate de influența dimensiunii unei grupe funcționale dintr-o moleculă în timpul unei reacții chimice, asupra conformației sau interacțiilor intermoleculare.

Tipuri

Impedimentele sterice
Impedimentele, întârzierile sau împiedicările sterice presupun îngreunarea unei reacții chimice din cauza volumului steric mare. Efectul de impediment steric a fost inițial observat de către A.W. Hofmann în anul 1872.

Repulsiile sterice

Atracțiile sterice

Importanță

Vezi și
 Teoria ciocnirilor

Referințe

Stereochimie
Geometrie moleculară

Efect steric


علم المسالك والممالك هو عِلم جديد ظهر في العصر العباسي وحوالي سنة 232 هجرية وبعد قرن من تأسيس دولة بني العباس وتحديدا في عهد الخليفة المعتمد العباسي، حيث ظهر علم المسالك والممالك بوضع ابن خرداذبة متولى البريد والأخبار في بلاد الجبل في الذي ألف كتاب المسالك والممالك سنة[846 م].

وتطور هذالعلم على يد عدد من المؤلفين وكتاب الدواوين الذين كانت تتجمع بين أيدهم معطيات كثيرة عن الطرق والمسالك والخراج والواردات والنفقات، وأسماء المواضع. وبلغ هذا العلم ذروته في العصر المملوكي بموسوعة مسالك الأبصار في ممالك الأمصار ل ابن فضل الله العمري المتوفى سنة 749 هجرية [1338 م]، واختتم بكتاب زبدة كشف الممالك في بيان الطرق والمسالك ل خليل بن شاهين الظاهري المتوفى سنة 873 هجرية [1468 م]، الذي يعد آخر المصنفات العربية الإسلامية في هذا العلم.

مشاهير علماء المسالك والممالك

من ابن خرداذبة إلى خليل بن شاهين الظاهري ظلت المؤلفات على كثرتها تحمل الاسم نفسه المسالك والممالك أو شيئاً قريباً من ذلك، مثل كتاب الجيهاني وابن حوقل والإصطخري والبكري الحسن بن أحمد المهلبي صاحب كتاب العزيزي الذي نقل ابن العديم عن المهلبي مقاطع مهمة تتعلق بحلب والثغور الشمالية قبل سقوطها نهائياً في يد البيزنطيين أواسط القرن الرابع الهجري. كما نقل عنه ياقوت الحموي في معجم البلدان وكذلك نقل عنه أبو الفداء في تقويم البلدان

علم المسالك والممالك

علم المسالك والممالك


Balcalı, Samsun ilinin Tekkeköy ilçesine bağlı bir mahalledir.

Coğrafya
Samsun iline 28 km, Tekkeköy ilçesine 14 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Dış bağlantılar

Tekkeköy'ün mahalleleri

Balcalı, Tekkeköy