The State of Mérida commonly known simply as Mérida (, ) is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. The state capital is Mérida, in the Libertador Municipality.

Located in the Western Andean Region, Mérida State covers a total surface area of , making it the fifteenth-largest in Venezuela. In 2011, had a census population of 828,592, the fourteenth most populous.

History

Pre-Colonial

According to recent studies in archaeology, history and anthropology, The Andean region seems to have been inhabited since very remote times (perhaps several thousand years) by unknown groups that have left very few traces.

Then, around our era, another ethnic group of great cultural importance arrives in the region, perhaps of Chibcha origin, since they share with these their mythology, funeral and settlement patterns, housing construction, agricultural techniques, etc. When the Spanish arrive in the Andean Cordillera it will be with this second group you will come in contact with. It is assumed that the majority of today's farmers are descendants of this Chibcha trunk group.

Another later and significant influence for the Andean pre-Hispanic culture are the Arawak groups, belonging to the most important ethnic groups of South America and the Caribbean, which migrated to the Venezuelan Andes during the 9th century AD. Finally, shortly before the arrival of the Spanish, we have a late penetration of Caribbean groups into the Andean region.

From the data of the chroniclers and the archaeological testimonies, today we know that the indigenous agricultural techniques like the irrigation systems (called acequias by the Spaniards) and the cultivation in terraces or andenes (used in all the South American Andes to take advantage of the slopes of the mountains) show for the time of the contact the existence of an economic infrastructure that supposes the presence of a numerous native population in the Andean Mountain range, as well as the existence of a hierarchical political organization and a network of communications in all the zone.

The Spaniards will use this indigenous population base for the development of the society they intended to establish in America. An important area of encomiendas and doctrinal towns. Thanks to this, the current toponymy of the Venezuelan Andes has preserved the names of the many indigenous groups that inhabited this region: Timoto-Cuica, Chama, Mocotíes, Mucuchíes, Tabayes, Mucutuy, Aricagua, etc.

Spanish colonization
In 1558 Juan Rodríguez Suárez founded the city of Mérida, in the name of the Corregimiento de Tunja, in honor of his native city of Mérida in Spain. In December 1607 Merida was separated from the Corregimiento de Tunja and united with the government of La Grita forming the corregimiento de Merida y La Grita. On November 3, 1622 it became the governorship of Merida with Juan Pacheco Maldonado as governor.

In 1676 Maracaibo (separated from the province of Venezuela) and Mérida-La Grita are united in a governorship called Province of Mérida del Espíritu Santo de Maracaibo (capital in Mérida) under the Audiencia of Bogota and then known as "province of Maracaibo" since 1678 that city becomes the capital of the governorship.

By 1677 the Pirate Michel de Grandmont sacked Trujillo, this attack led Governor Jorge de Madureira to change the capital of the province to the city of Maracaibo in 1678, to organize a more effective defense of the territory.

The territory of the province of Merida depended on the Viceroyalty of New Granada until 1777, when the Captaincy General of Venezuela was created.

19th century

In 1811 the province of Merida decided to rebel against Spain and join the process of Venezuelan Independence, along with seven other provinces to form the First Republic of Venezuela. The region would be represented by a star on the Venezuelan flag ever since.

In 1812 an earthquake devastates the city of Merida, and soon after the province is reconquered by the royalists.

The following year during the Admirable Campaign, Simón Bolívar liberates Mérida from the Realists, entering through La Grita (then the province of Mérida) in May 1813. On his journey he passes through Bailadores, Merida and Timotes liberating the province of Merida. With the victory of the Admirable Campaign, Merida is incorporated to the Second Republic of Venezuela.

In 1814 With the loss of the Second Republic, Merida is again temporarily incorporated into the Captaincy General of Venezuela. Three years later, the popular independence movement known as La Patriecita, will be suffocated by the Spanish royalists in 1818.

By 1820 the crossing of the Andes by Bolivar's army, frees Merida again. With the victory of Boyacá on August 7, only the provinces of Maracaibo and Coro remained realistic and Merida was incorporated into the Third Republic of Venezuela.

In 1821 Merida was incorporated into Gran Colombia as part of the Department of Zulia, but in 1830 when Venezuela separated from Gran Colombia, the Department of Zulia was renamed the Province of Maracaibo. The provinces of Merida and Coro were immediately separated, leaving the province composed only of the sections Zulia and Trujillo.

In 1835 the division of the province was established in: Canton Mérida, Canton Mucuchíes, Canton Ejido, Canton Bailadores, Canton La Grita, Canton San Cristóbal and Canton San Antonio del Táchira and in 1842 the governor of the province Gabriel Picón inaugurates the first monument to Bolívar in the world known as La Columna in Milla Park.

Around 1856 the cantons of La Grita, San Crsitóbal and San Antonio del Táchira separate to form the Province of Táchira.

On November 23, 1863, the State of Merida was created with the territory of Merida, Ejido, Bailadores, Mucuchies and Timotes. In 1868 it was incorporated to the State of Zulia, together with Táchira, but it was separated in 1869.

In 1874 it was renamed Guzmán State. In 1881, it became part of the Great State of the Andes together with Táchira and Trujillo. This state was dissolved in 1899 and was limited to the territory it had as an independent state.

20th century
Since 1909 it has been a state of Merida. At the beginning of the century in 1912, after the closure of the Universidad Central de Venezuela by the government of Juan Vicente Gómez, the city of Mérida was left as the only one in the country with access to higher education, a situation that would last until 1922 when the UCV was reopened.

Geography
The state of Merida is located in the west of Venezuela, in the so-called Andean region, forming part of the Andes mountain range of the South American continent; of the three states (Merida, Tachira and Trujillo) that are located in this region. The territory of the state is located in the highest part of Venezuela, therefore, makes Merida the highest state of Venezuela, with altitudes above 4,000 m.a.s.l., reaching its highest point in Pico Bolivar at about 4,970 m.a.s.l.

Mérida is one of the states with the greatest geographical diversity, presenting different landscapes throughout its territory, with high areas above 4,000 m.a.s.l., medium areas with elevations around 900 and 1,600 m.a.s.l. and areas closer to sea level such as the so-called Southern Zone of the Lake below 200 m.a.s.l.

Climate

The climate is temperate but in the relatively small area of Mérida state, there are usually several dramatic climatic changes that occur daily. The climate in Mérida city has an average high temperatures between 24 °C and 25 °C, and low temperatures between 14 °C and 16 °C. At higher peaks on the Sierra Nevada de Mérida, temperatures tend to be under 0 °C. El Vigía sees temperatures around 28 °C. It rains almost every late afternoon in January–February. These are the coldest months. In August and September it often rains at night.

Mérida has temperatures characteristic of each subregion, which can reach 32 °C in the Southern Zone of the Lake, less warm temperatures in the metropolitan area with values around 25 °C, warmer values between 17° and 22° towards the areas of the Mocotí Valley and the Northern Townships, and temperatures below 12 °C in the Southern Townships and the Paramo Townships, even reaching values below 0 °C in the latter.

Vegetation

The vegetation is exuberant and there are many lakes and rivers, a great number of which are well stocked with trout, one of the delicacies of Mérida. The most important river in the state is the "Chama" because a large part of the water resources of Venezuela originates in the Mérida mountains. The state tree is the "Bucare" and the state flower is the "Frailejón", The "Coloradito" contains the tree that is found at the highest altitude in the world. In this mountains habitat the "Oso Frontino" bear and the Condor flies through the skies of the páramos and in the lagoons there are many trout.

Hydrography
The hydrography of the State of Merida is very varied, because throughout its geography we can find rivers, streams, creeks, natural lakes and glaciers, Merida even has jurisdiction over a small portion of Lake Maracaibo, where we located the beaches Palmarito in the municipality of Tulio Febres Cordero in the south of the lake.

Main rivers
The rivers of the State of Merida are mountain rivers, with abundant flow and steep slopes and form a few deep valleys, longitudinally embedded in the relief. They are located between the Andean alignments of the Sierra de Merida. The main ones are the Motatán in its upper basin and the Chama with its tributaries the Mocotíes and the Mucujún, which belong to the Maracaibo Lake basin, while the Santo Domingo, Caparo and Mucuchachí belong to the Orinoco basin through the Apure River.

Main lagoons

La Rosa Lagoon
Lágrima de la India Lagoon
Los Anteojos Lagoon
Mucubají Lagoon
Black Lagoon (Laguna Negra)
Pico del Toro Lagoon
Green Lagoon (Laguna Verde)
El Suero Lagoon
Urao Lagoon
Del Humo Lagoon
El Bizcocho Lagoon
La Cura Lagoon
La Barrosa or del Medio Lagoon
Mina e'hierro lagoons
Los Chorros Lagoon
La Carbonera Lagoon
La Escopeta Lagoon
Brava Lagoon
Los Lirios Lagoon
White Lagoon (Laguna Blanca)
Santo Cristo Lagoon

Politics and government

The State is autonomous and equal in political terms to the rest of the Federation. It organizes its administration and public powers through the Constitution of the State of Merida, sanctioned by the Legislative Council on November 7, 1995 and promulgated by the State Governor on November 16 of the same year.

Like the other 23 federal entities of Venezuela, the State maintains its own police force, which is supported and complemented by the National Police and the Venezuelan National Guard.

Executive power
It is composed of the Governor of the State of Merida and a group of State Secretaries of his confidence who are freely appointed and removed officials and assist him in the management of the state government. The Governor is elected by the people through direct and secret vote for a period of four years and with the possibility of re-election for other periods, being in charge of the state administration.

Until 1989 the governors were appointed directly from the National Executive, it is only since then that they are directly elected in open elections.

The current governor is Ramón Guevara of the Acción Democrática party elected in the 2017 Regional Elections of Venezuela with 50.82% of the votes.

Legislative power
The state legislature is the responsibility of the Legislative Council of the State of Merida, a unicameral parliament, elected by the people through direct and secret vote every four years, and may be re-elected for two consecutive periods, under a system of proportional representation of the population of the state and its municipalities. The state has 9 deputies, of which 3 belong to the opposition and 6 to the ruling party.

The legislative council approves the use of state funds, can create new municipalities and has a range of functions relating to regional government.

Administrative divisions
The capital of the state of Merida is the city of Merida and is divided into 23 municipalities and 86 parishes, which are strategically organized into 4 geopolitical zones:

 Metropolitan area
 Mocotíes Valley area
 South Zone of the Lake (Zona Sur del Lago)
 Northern villages (Pueblos del Norte)

Municipalities and municipal seats

 Alberto Adriani (El Vigía)
 Andrés Bello (La Azulita)
 Antonio Pinto Salinas (Santa Cruz de Mora)
 Aricagua (Aricagua)
 Arzobispo Chacón (Canagua)
 Campo Elías (Ejido)
 Caracciolo Parra Olmedo (Tucaní)
 Cardenal Quintero (Santo Domingo)
 Guaraque (Guaraque)
 Julio César Salas (Arapuey)
 Justo Briceño (Torondoy)
 Libertador (Mérida)
 Miranda (Timotes)
 Obispo Ramos de Lora (Santa Elena de Arenales)
 Padre Noguera (Santa María de Caparo)
 Pueblo Llano (Pueblo Llano)
 Rangel (Mucuchíes)
 Rivas Dávila (Bailadores)
 Santos Marquina (Tabay)
 Sucre (Lagunillas)
 Tovar (Tovar)
 Tulio Febres Cordero (Nueva Bolivia)
 Zea (Zea)

Demographics

The State of Merida has an estimated population of 1,025,445 inhabitants for the year 2018 according to the I.N.E., with a population density of 90.74 inhabitants/km², being the main urban agglomerations the Metropolitan Area of Merida with 508,988 inhabitants (49.6% total population), the City of El Vigia with 159,166 inhabitants (15.5% total population), the Conurbation of Tovar (Mocotíes Valley) with 104.817 inhabitants (10.2% total population) and the city of Nueva Bolivia-Caja Seca with 60,490 inhabitants, the latter being a bi-state agglomeration, as it is made up of two localities from different states.

Race and ethnicity

According to the 2011 Census, the racial composition of the population was:

For Venezuelan Census:

Economy
The main economic activities are agriculture, tourism, livestock, agribusiness, trout farming, service activities associated with the University of the Andes and the regional and national government. Merida is one of the great cultural, artisan and university centers of the country.

It is the first state producer of celery, potatoes, cauliflower, lettuce, carrots, garlic, beets and cabbage in the country. It also stands out for the cultivation of peas, cambures, bananas, caraotas, tomatoes, yucca, cocoa, and coffee.

In the livestock sector, highlights in cattle (meat), pigs and poultry. The fishing activity has acquired great importance through the breeding of trout in rivers, lagoons and streams.

The industries present in the entity are mainly: food products, clothing and domestic utensils. The tourist sector is very relevant, as it has a very good infrastructure.

There is a great variety of shops and services that also contribute to Merida's economy.

An important factor in the economy is a wide range of handcrafted articles, such as: wool fabrics in the manufacture of beautiful blankets, wood carvings of original sculptures, clay articles, typical sweets, wines, punches and handcrafted liquors made with fruits grown in the region. Most of the tourists acquire these products, generating an additional income to the state.

The economy is complemented by income from tourism. The cable car system, being the highest and longest in the world, attracts thousands of people every year who venture to climb to the vicinity of Pico Bolivar. In addition, Merida is rich in natural attractions, you only need to climb the trans-Andean highway to enjoy the beauty of the moor. For this, and many other reasons, it is one of the preferred tourist destinations for Venezuelans and foreigners.

Another important industry is the hotel industry. The entire state of Merida is equipped with an excellent hotel infrastructure. There are mountain hotels with cabin service, equipped with playgrounds, riding horses, artificial lakes for fishing and many other services that satisfy the most demanding tourists.

Tourism

Natural heritage

The State of Merida has a great amount of natural tourist attractions, which has characterized it as a tourist power of Venezuela. Its immense geographic diversity due to its transition between the Andes Region and the South Region of the Lake of Maracaibo gives it different climates and varied temperatures, propitious for each of the vacation tastes offering Mountain and Beach places in the same state.

Some natural attractions are:

National Parks

Sierra Nevada National Park.
Pico Bolivar.
Pico Espejo.
Mucubají Lagoon.
Laguna Negra.
Santo Cristo Lagoon.
Juan Pablo Peñaloza National Park
Páramo de Mariño.

Páramo de la Negra.
Las Palmas Lagoon.
Los Lirios Lagoon.
White Lagoon.
Sierra de La Culata National Park
Collado del Condor (known as El Aguila Peak).
El Gavilán Peak.
Mucuñuque Peak.
El Condor Refuge.
Páramo de Mistafi.

Páramo de los Conejos
Tapo-Caparo National Park
Caparo Forest Reserve.
Caparo Reservoir.

Natural Monuments
Chorrera de las González Natural Monument.
Natural Monument Laguna de Urao.
Meseta la Galera Natural Monument

Regional Natural Parks
Thermal waters of Chiguara.
Thermal waters of Jají.
Thermal waters of Tabay.
Thermal waters of Santa Apolonia.
Thermal waters of Quebrada de las Tapias Valley.
Natural Park Cascada De La India Carú.
El Guayabal Waterfall Natural Park.
Bath of Palmarito.
Bath of Cucuchica.

Built heritage

Theme Parks and Tourist Complexes
Theme park La Venezuela de Antier.
Theme Park The Mountain of Dreams.
Theme Park The Dogs.
EcoWild Tourist Complex.
Lusitano Theme Park.
Zoo Park Chorros de Milla.
Park Aquarium Garden Merida.
Museum of Science and Technology of Merida.
Los Andes Tourist Complex: La Isla Park and Mucumbarila International Convention Center.
Vegasol Tourist Complex.

Museums and Cultural Centers
Rectorate of the University of Los Andes: Aula Magna
 Museo Arqueológico de Mérida
César Rengifo Theater
School of Music at the University of Los Andes: La Otra Banda Art Gallery.
Archbishop's Palace of Merida: Archdiocesan Museum.
La Victoria Estate: Immigrant and Coffee Museum (Santa Cruz de Mora).
Colonial Art Museum.
Science and Technology Museum.
Modern Art Museum Juan Astorga Anta.
Museum of Art of Tovar Jose Lorenzo Alvarado.
Immaculate Conception Museum
Marian Picon Salas Museum.
Cultural Center Tulio Febres Cordero, Merida.
Marian Picon Salas Cultural Center, El Vigia.
Elbano Méndez Osuna Cultural Center, Tovar.
Carlos Febres Pobeda Cultural Center, Merida.
Casa Bosset.
House of Culture Juan Felix Sanchez.
House of the Governors.
Bolivarian Library of Merida.
Bolivarian House of Dancers.
Plaza de Toros Coliseo el Llano, Tovar: Museo Histórico Taurino de Tovar, Museo de Arte Contemporáneo and sub-home of the Mérida State Youth Symphony Orchestra.
Plaza de Toros Monumental Román Eduardo Sandia, Merida: *Bullfighting Museum of Merida.

Buildings and Monuments

Metropolitan Cathedral of Merida: Basilica Menor de Nuestra Señora de la Inmaculada
Santa Lucia Minor Basilica, Timotes.
Diocesan Sanctuary of Our Lady of Regla, Tovar.
Diocesan Shrine of Our Lady of Candelaria, Dancers.
Diocesan Sanctuary of Our Lady of the Immaculate, La Azulita.
Monument to the Condor of the Andes: in commemoration of Bolivar's passage through the Collado del Condor.
Monument to Christ the King of La Galera in the city of Tovar.
Monument to the Column of Bolívar.
Castle of San Ignacio.
Monument to the Crazy Light Caraballo.
Chapel of the Virgin of Coromoto stone

Others
Merida's Cable Car Tourist Transport System. (Mukumbari)
Museum of Science and Technology.
National Astronomical Observatory of Llano del Hato of the Astronomy Research Center.
Coromoto Ice Cream Factory.
Merida's Main Market.
Trucha-cultura.

Education

The state of Merida is an entity with an important percentage of its population within the classrooms, its capital for example has between 20 and 30% of the population doing university studies and a literacy rate of 97%. It has one of the most traditional universities in the country, and the second oldest one: the University of Los Andes. In addition, different institutions of higher education are located in Merida, such as universities, university centers, polytechnic institutes, and university colleges, among others.

Initial, basic, medium and diversified education
Basic and secondary education has a large number of institutions, mostly public, depending on both the national and state governments. Among these we have "Escuela Básica Rafael Antonio Godoy" "Liceo Antonio Nicolas Rangel " , Dr. Armando González Puccini "Liceo Libertador and the Liceo Caracciolo Parra in Mérida, the Liceo Alberto Adriani in El Vigía, the Liceo de Ejido in the city of the same name, the Liceo José Nucete Sardi in Tovar, just to name a few. In addition, there is an important number of private schools maintained by Catholic organizations, some of which have the greatest educational infrastructure such as Colegio "Sagrada Familia", Colegio La Salle in Mérida, Colegio San Luis, Colegio Seráfico and Colegio Fátima in the capital city.

Other model educational institutions, which should be highlighted, are the language, sports and music schools. Important music conservatories, orchestras and choirs are based in the city. These depend mostly on the universities or the State within the framework of the Symphonic Orchestra System, and teach how to play multiple musical instruments, as well as instruct in lyrical interpretation and voice development. The most important language schools are those that teach English and, to a lesser extent, French and Italian.

University education

The University of Los Andes, the most relevant in the region, offers undergraduate programs in various artistic areas, health sciences, forestry, science and technology, engineering, legal sciences, social sciences and economics, literature and humanities, between short and long careers, as well as courses, undergraduate, graduate, specializations, diplomas, among others, so it brings together more than 40.000 students and 6,000 teachers; this is divided into 3 nuclei within the state, in the cities of Merida, El Vigía and Tovar, in the case of the capital city is distributed in 4 complexes: "Pedro Rincón Gutierrez" (La Hechicera), La Liria, "Ciclo Básico" (Los Chorros) and the Campo de Oro, and more than one faculty watered by all the geography of the same as Medicine, Dentistry and Arts, established since 1785 in Merida.

Another house of studies of great importance is the Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Mérida Kléber Ramírez, formerly known as the Instituto Universitario Tecnológico de Ejido (IUTE), has its headquarters in the city of Ejido, was founded on November 25, 1981 by the national executive and raised to the rank of National Experimental University, changing its name to the current one on February 14, 2012. It also has extensions in the cities of Tucaní, Tovar and Bailadores.

The other two universities that operate in the city are of more recent creation, being the UNA that offers distance learning undergraduate degrees and the UNEFA, a military university that operates in the city since 2006 and also offers undergraduate degrees related to the engineering field.

The main university centres are:

Universidad de Los Andes, ULA. (Mérida, El Vigía and Tovar)
Universidad Politécnica Territorial de Mérida UPT (Ejido, El Vigía, Tucaní, Tovar and Bailadores)
Universidad Nacional Abierta, UNA. (Mérida and Tovar)
Universidad Nacional Experimental de las Fuerzas Armadas, UNEFA. (Mérida and Tovar)
Universidad Bolivariana de Venezuela, UBV. (23 municipalities)
Universidad Nacional Experimental Simón Rodríguez, UNESR. (El Vigía)
Universidad Pedagógica Experimental Libertador, UPEL. (Mérida, El Vigía and Zea)

Universidad Nacional Experimental del Sur del Lago, UNESUR. (Santa Cruz de Mora)
Instituto Universitario Politécnico Santiago Mariño, IUPSM. (Mérida)
Colegio Universitario Hotel Escuela de Los Andes Venezolanos, CUHELAV. (Mérida)
Instituto Santiago de los Caballeros de Mérida, ISCM. (Mérida)
Instituto Universitario de Tecnología Antonio José de Sucre, IUTAJS. (Mérida)
Instituto Tecnológico Universitario Cristóbal Mendoza. (Mérida and El Vigía)
Instituto Tecnológico de La Frontera, IUFRONT. (Mérida)

Libraries
The largest network of libraries is constituted by the libraries of the University of Los Andes, each faculty has a library specialized in its area, in addition to the centralized libraries of the university nucleus "Pedro Rincón Gutierrez" of La Hechicera, known as BIACI (Integrated Library of Architecture, Sciences and Engineering), the direction of sports, the administrative headquarters and other smaller libraries that add up to more than a dozen sites under the organization of Serbiula. In addition, the ULA has the largest amount of study and research material in digital form in the whole country, available to the public, as well as several newspaper libraries, among which the newspaper library of the faculty of the same name with one of the largest collections in Latin America stands out.

In addition to the university libraries, the city is home to the Bolivarian Library, which also serves as an exhibition gallery, a branch of the National Library of Venezuela, and the Simón Bolívar Central Public Library, which depends on the regional government. Other public and private institutions such as schools, high schools, churches and language institutes have smaller libraries often for the exclusive use of their members.

A final metropolitan library was to be added to the list in 2006, however, the headquarters that would be used for it was transferred to UNEFA and has not yet been granted new space.

Science and technology

The State of Merida is a scientific and technological entity par excellence, an activity that derives largely from the presence of multiple houses of higher education, as well as the contribution of public institutions such as IVIC and Fundacite, which have generated significant progress through research, development of new technologies and scientific work.

The metropolitan area of Mérida has been characterized by being the national spearhead for research, innovation, development of new technologies and application of the scientific method, since Mérida is the only Venezuelan city whose indexes of professionals and researchers are at the levels suggested by UNESCO,9 which led to the decree of the so-called Free Cultural, Scientific and Technological Zone of the State of Mérida on July 14, 1995, published in the Official Gazette of the Republic of Venezuela No. 4,937 Extraordinary of the same year 10

IVIC-Merida
The Venezuelan Institute for Scientific Research (IVIC) located in the State of Merida (IVIC-Merida) includes the Multidisciplinary Center for Science (CMC). IVIC-Merida has two headquarters, one located in the municipality of Libertador, and the other in the municipality of Campo Elias. The latter is a few kilometers from Jají, precisely in the community Loma de Los Guamos, in the parish of Jají. The Laboratory of Sensory Ecology (LabEcoSen) has been operating there since 2008, and since May 2013 the Unit of Community Articulation (UniArco). These teams bring together multidisciplinary personnel who focus their efforts on various fundamental and applied themes related to multiple disciplines such as agro-ecology, health, environment, agriculture and politics, without losing sight of the social relevance of the research topics.

Health System

The state of Merida is one of the seven states in the country that signed the agreement to decentralize the health sector in 1992, under the provisions of the Constitution of the state of Merida, now the Constitution of the Bolivarian State of Merida (amended in 2014), is in charge of the Health Corporation of the Bolivarian State of Merida, which in turn is subdivided into Health Districts, which are distributed according to geographical location, population density and existing health centres, as well as Autonomous Health Institutes such as the Los Andes University Hospital, FarmaMérida, Nutrition and Food, Health Plan, Social Development and Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Hospital; The regional public health system is not the only one since there are parallel systems, both public, mixed and private, such as the Venezuelan Institute of Social Security, which has administrative offices and a hospital, the health system of the University of Los Andes: It has the Institute for Teacher Prevention (APULA IPP) and the Center for Comprehensive Medical Care (CAMIULA), the Institute for Protection and Social Assistance of the Educational Teaching Profession (IPASME) under the National Executive and another of the Regional Executive, the Military Pavilion attached to the MPPDS, Public Health Laboratories attached to the National Institute of Hygiene "Rafael Rangel" as well as private health systems operating within the territory.

Health Corporation
The Health Corporation was founded on August 14, 1995, according to Official Gazette No. 04 Extraordinary of the Government of the State of Merida, with the mission and vision to promote health and prevent disease in the population of Merida, which are assigned 6 Health Districts and 23 Healthy Municipalities, its stewardship is in charge of the Director General of the entity under the supervision of the Board of Directors, in this institution operate various health programs and coordination of areas and services in health which administer the destinies of the health system in the state of Merida.

Health Districts

The health system in the state of Merida is divided into six regions or health districts, which are responsible for planning prevention and promotion activities, as well as human resources management, economic resource management, and health center coordination.

Merida Health District: Municipalities of Libertador, Campo Elias, Santos Marquina, and Aricagua.
El Vigía Health District: Municipalities Alberto Adriani, Bishop Ramos de Lora and Andrés Bello.
Tovar Healthcare District: Municipalities of Tovar, Antonio Pinto Salinas, Rivas Dávila, Zea and Guaraque.
Tucaní Healthcare District: Municipalities of Caracciolo Parra and Olmedo, Tulio Febres-Cordero, Julio César Salas and Justo Briceño.
Lagunillas Sanitary District: Municipalities of Sucre, Archbishop Chacón and Padre Noguera
Mucuchies Sanitary District: Municipalities Rangel, Miranda, Cardenal Quintero and Pueblo Llano

General Hospitals
University Hospital of Los Andes: it is an autonomous institute attached to the Government of the State of Merida, has 483 beds, more than 33 medical specialties, basic and specialized imaging services, nutrition service, hospital and social pharmacy service, basic and specialized clinical laboratory services, research and teaching units, legal medicine and morgue, special care units and long-stay unit.
Sor Juana Inés de La Cruz Hospital: formerly attached to the Archdiocese of Merida, it is located at the second level of medical care, has 3 operating rooms, 85 beds, diagnostic support and assistance services.
Hospital "Dr. Tulio Carnevalli Salvatierra" of the IVSS: it is an infrastructure of Health belonging to the Venezuelan Institute of Social Security, is located in the second level of medical attention and has an important place beds, as well as diverse medical specialties and services of support diagnosis and assistance.
San Juan de Dios Hospital: It is a Comprehensive Health Care Center that operates as a Type III Specialty Hospital, located at the third level of mental health care. It is part of the Preventive-Assistance Network of the Regional Mental Health Program, cooperating with Corposalud Mérida and the University of Los Andes.
General Hospital of El Vigía: (Under construction) According to information from the Ministry, it is being built with the intention of opening a complete emergency room for adult and pediatric patients, as well as two operating rooms, an X-ray room, a clinical laboratory, a hospitalization service for adults and children, maternal and infant care, obstetrics, neonatal care, imaging and a blood distribution center, as well as 52 beds, staff areas, electrical plants, and a medicinal gas system.
Hospital II El Vigía: in the past it was the main hospital infrastructure of the city of El Vigía, at present it has been displaced by the General Hospital, it has three operating rooms for general and specialized surgeries, it has been characterized by the traumatological attention, it has 150 hospital beds.
Hospital II "San José" of Tovar: it is the main hospital infrastructure of the Mocotíes Valley, it has 115 beds, general emergency, cold room for morgue, and more than 10 medical specialties.

Transport

The State of Merida is bounded by the States of Zulia, Trujillo, Tachira and Barinas, in the west of Venezuela, which allows any traveler to arrive by land through a series of roads that connect it with the states mentioned above:

Northern Trasandina Road: this road artery connects the states of Lara, Portuguesa and Trujillo with the populations of Timotes, Chachopo, Apartaderos, San Rafael de Mucuchíes, Mucucuchíes, Mucuruba, Tabay, Mérida and Ejido.
Barinas-Mérida road: through this road artery the western plains (Cojedes, Portuguesa and Barinas States) are communicated with the towns of Pueblo Llano, Santo Domingo, Apartaderos, San Rafael de Mucuchíes, Mucuchíes, Mucuruba, Tabay, Mérida and Ejido.
Southern Trasandina Road: this section of the so-called Trasandina connects the capital of the state of Merida with the state of Tachira and the Republic of Colombia, crossing the towns of Ejido, Villa Libertad, San Juan de Lagunillas, Lagunillas, Llano El Anis, Chiguara, Estanques, Santa Cruz de Mora, Tovar, La Playa and Bailadores.
Pan American Highway: the National Trunk 1 that links the Capital District, Miranda State, Aragua State, Carabobo State, Yaracuy State, Lara State, Trujillo State, Zulia State with Merida State and in turn with Táchira State and the Republic of Colombia, forming part of the Pan American Highway of Venezuela. For the state of Merida runs through the towns of Arapuey, Nueva Bolivia, Tucaní, Santa Elena de Arenales and El Vigía.

In addition to these roads it is important to note that the 2 main localities of the state as the cities of Merida (State Capital) and El Vigia (Economic Capital) are connected by the Rafael Caldera Highway, in a stretch of 60 km at an average speed of 100 km / h.

Land terminals
José Antonio Paredes Passenger Terminal: is the largest land transport station in the state, it is located on Las Américas Avenue in the city of Merida, and has inter-municipal departures to all the municipal capitals of the state of Merida such as Lagunillas, El Vigía, Tovar, Santa Cruz de Mora, Mucuchíes, La Azulita, Timotes and Santo Domingo Pueblo Llano, as well as national departures to San Cristóbal, Cabimas, Ciudad Ojeda, Maracaibo, Santa Bárbara del Zulia, Caja Seca, Trujillo, Boconó, Valera, Barinas, Barquisimeto, Coro, Punto Fijo, Puerto Cabello, Valencia, Maracay, Caracas, Los Teques, Puerto La Cruz, Cumaná, Ciudad Bolívar and Puerto Ordaz.
Abelardo Pernía Passenger Terminal in El Vigía: it is the second terminal with the highest capacity and logistics in the state, it is located in Don Pepe Rójas Avenue in the city of El Vigía, it provides services to the main cities in the Center-West of the country such as Trujillo, Boconó, Valera, Barquisimeto, Coro, Punto Fijo, Puerto Cabello, Valencia, Maracay, Caracas and Los Teques, in the same way it maintains connection with the main entities of the neighboring states such as: Santa Bárbara del Zulia, San Carlos del Zulia, El Chivo and 4 Esquinas, Encontrados, Caja Seca, Cabimas, Ciudad Ojeda and Maracaibo in the state of Zulia, Coloncito, La Tendida, Seboruco, San Simón and San Cristóbal in the state of Táchira.
Don Rafael Vivas de Tovar Passenger Terminal: it is 3.Terminal station of terrestrial transport of the state, is in the Avenue Cristóbal Mendoza of the City of Tovar, maintains exit towards the populations of Dancers, the Beach, Santa Cruz de Mora, Zea, Guaraque, Table Bolivar, as well as the cities of Merida and the Watchman, of equal way to San Cristóbal, Coloncito, the Shout, Cabimas, City Ojeda, Maracaibo, Barquisimeto, Chorus, Fixed Point, Valencia, Maracay and Caracas.
Terminal of Short Routes: this project of great importance was executed in the previous ones of the City of Ejido, with the purpose of decongesting the internal traffic of the capital, since its location to the south of the conurbation, guarantees the entrance of transport of passengers of a comfortable and simple form to be located in the entrance of the same one, after its inauguration it has served as a terminal of routes feeding the Massive Transport System Trolleybus of Mérida having a network of articulated buses mark yutong known as BUSMÉRIDA with routes towards the zones South of the Lake of Maracaibo, Valley of the Mocotíes, Towns of the South, the Towns of the North and towns of the Páramo.

Airports

Alberto Carnevalli Airport (IATA: MRD, ICAO: SVMD) is a domestic airport located in the central area of the same, at an average altitude of 1,600 meters above sea level, currently provides commercial services through the national airline Conviasa which has 4 weekly connections with the Simon Bolivar International Airport in Maiquetía, this after its reopening on August 1, 2013, after 5 years of disuse. However, the Juan Pablo Perez Alfonso International Airport in the city of El Vigia serves the city of Merida as an alternative option for commercial operations, both cities are connected through the Rafael Caldera Highway at 60 km.
The Juan Pablo Perez Alfonso International Airport is located in the city of El Vigia, Merida State in Venezuela. The airport was inaugurated on July 31, 1991, and currently has regular operations by Laser Airlines and Conviasa to Caracas, Perla Airlines to Porlamar, Serami Air to Maracaibo and Aerolínea Estelar Latinoamericana to Cartagena de Indias, being the only air terminal in commercial operation in the entity, as well as the South of Lake Maracaibo, is located 40 minutes from the city of Merida, 30 minutes from the city of Tovar and 40 minutes from the city of Santa Barbara del Zulia. One of the most outstanding characteristics of the airport is that the runway (more than 3,000 meters long) is the second longest in Venezuela after that of the International Airport of Maiquetía Simón Bolívar. It also has night lighting, which allows visual flight operations even after sunset, and a 30,750 m2 parking platform that is equipped with fuel supply services through direct piping to the aircraft.

Culture

Gastronomy
The typical dishes of the meridian food are:

Acema andina (round bread made with corn flour)
Pisca andina (coriander-based broth in which eggs, potatoes and milk are added)
Cakes (filled with meat,chicken,cheese,etc..)
Andean arepas (made with wheat flour)
Trout (state-owned freshwater fish)
Andean Hallaca
Among the most outstanding typical desserts are: the sweet polished (based on milk and covered with sugar), alfajores, guava sandwiches, milky candy and strawberries with cream, as well as drinks such as the Andean girl, the calentaíto, mead, pineapple guarapo, blackberry wine and panela (paper).

It is worth mentioning that the southern gastronomy is internationally recognized, so many cooking contests and international fairs are held around the southern state.

Music
In the Páramo and the southern villages next to the Mocotíes area, the tradition and folklore of the mountains is expressed with native instruments; the so-called Peasant Music made up of genres such as waltz and string meringue are typical of the region.
One more expression of the popular music of this land, originates in the Northern Towns or Pan-American Zone, whose afro-descendant roots give life to the Black music or percussion, a range of genres such as La Murga, the Chimbangle, the Drums, among others... each one inspired by legends, paraphrases or simply improvisation.

Llanera music such as the Pasaje and Joropo that tell popular stories and the long days of work are not absent in Merida since due to the characteristics of the Panamerican Zone the popular genre of Venezuela is also felt; but not only in this zone since in the fields of the Mocotíes the Llanero feeling resonates with strength.

The sounds of the aboriginal cultures move like the wind around the whole state, being its epicenter the towns of San Juan, Chiguará and Lagunillas where the ethnic roots of the Meridians still prevail as if time never passed.

The most danceable genres typical of Caribbean cultures such as Salsa, Merengue, Colombian Cumbia, percussions and wind sounds are rooted in lands like Tovar, El Vigía, Ejido, Timotes, Zea and Merida; there the best orchestras of the Region and Venezuela have been formed and grown.

Although the Latin American, Afro-descendant, Caribbean and Timotocuica traditions and roots have not been erased with time, the influence of the Anglo-Saxon music has also had a place in these lands, this is obvious, it was impossible to think that cities like El Vigia and Ejido with an important commercial impact and cities like Merida and Tovar with a transcendental bohemian culture were not influenced by the Rock, Pop, Hip Hop, Dancehall, R&B genres, among others.

Bullfighting
The Venezuelan Andes are lands of native roots and acquired as the Fiesta Brava, this type of party known as the most gallant and heroic of the existing ones felt by a sector of the world population but known as the most cruel and inhumane by another sector more dissident and humanist.
Bullfighting is a cultural expression of the mother country Spain, has had a strong follow up in the cities of the heights as those belonging to the States Merida and Tachira. The Andean epicenter (Merida) is a state where bullfights are held almost by law accompanied by the festivities of each town, which is why it is called the main course of the celebrations, this has led to important national and international events which not only allow the recreation and entertainment of the people also allows a cultural exchange of own and others causing the representatives of the municipal and state executives invest a large amount of foreign exchange in both promotion and implementation of them.

The festival of the bull and the bullfighter has generated strong changes in the southern Indo-Caribbean since the festivities create in the citizens an emotion of anxiety and waiting for them to take place.

Although Merida is not the cradle of bullfighting in Venezuela if it is the land where this art is best cooked, there are some of the best squares and some of the best schools giving rise to excellent shows and great bullfighters.

Sports

Merida is a sports entity par excellence, home to different sports clubs and franchises, representing localities, commercial houses, public entities, educational institutions, municipalities and even the state in various competitions; The southern territory has been the scene of various sports such as chess, football, baseball, cycling, swimming, basketball, volleyball, trekking, athletics, mountaineering, paragliding, tennis, Basque pelota, judo, taekwondo, karate, fencing, table tennis, gymnastics, indoor football, beach volleyball, softball, bolas criollas, among other disciplines.

Throughout the region there is a diversity of sports scenarios of high competition and street sports which characterizes Merida as an important sports entity in the country, a fact that has been consolidated by the different national and international sports entities when they have put their faith in their localities to host different tournaments such as:

Copa América Venezuela 2007
1977 South American U-20 Championship
Copa Libertadores de América
XXI Central American and Caribbean Games
XVI National Games 2005
IV Juvines ULA 85
VII Juvines ULA 94
XIV Juvines ULA 2007

Sports facilities
Merida has sports and Olympic facilities in all localities and municipalities, the main ones being

The 5 Águilas Blancas Metropolitan Olympic Complex in the city of Merida, which includes the Metropolitan Olympic Stadium in Merida with a capacity for 42,200 people, the Alvaro Parra Davila Coleo Sleeve, an Olympic swimming pool, a tennis court complex, and several specialized gyms for the practice of Judo, Gymnastics, Karate, Fencing and Table Tennis.
The Los Andes Sports Complex in the city of Merida, consisting of the 9 de Octubre Gymnasium, the Gimnasio de Fuerza, the Tae-kwon-do Gymnasium, the Municipal Libertador Baseball Stadium and the Guillermo Soto Rosa Olympic Stadium.
The Carlos Maya Sports Complex in the city of El Vigía, located in the Buenos Aires urbanization, comprising the Ramón Hernández Stadium, the Acacio Sandia Ramírez Baseball Stadium, the América Bendito swimming pool complex, the Óscar Ortega Multiple Gymnasium and the José Luis Varela Boxing Gym.12
The Campo de Oro Sports Complex of the Universidad de Los Andes, located in the city of Merida, has an Olympic swimming pool, a softball stadium, two minor baseball stadiums, a soccer and rugby practice facility, an open field for soccer and rugby training, and a complex of sand courts.
The Italo D' Filippis Sports Complex in the city of Ejido, made up of a short pool and a complex of multiple courts.
The Claudio Corredor Muller Recreational Complex in the City of Tovar, made up of the Ramón Chiarelli Municipal Olympic Stadium, the Teresita Izaguirre Olympic Pool and the Tovar Bullring, also called the Coliseo el Llano, with a capacity for 9,000 spectators.

Football
Mérida is the birthplace of the oldest Venezuelan soccer team, Estudiantes de Mérida F.C., in addition to other teams such as Union Atlético El Vigía Fútbol Club, ULA F.C., among others.

Teams
Merida students: It is a Venezuelan team that plays in the First Division of professional football in Venezuela. It was founded on April 4, 1971, and its debut was on October 12, 1971, against Deportivo Portugués de Caracas, which it defeated two times by one.
ULA F.C.: The Universidad de Los Andes Fútbol Club commonly referred to as Universidad de Los Andes, ULA FC or ULA Mérida, is a team of the Venezuelan professional soccer league based in the city of Merida. Founded in 1977, it has participated in international tournaments such as the Copa Libertadores and has won national competitions in both the first and second divisions.
Unión Atlético El Vigía Fútbol Club: Team that plays in the First Division of professional football in Venezuela, is a Venezuelan football team, establish in October 1987 with the name of El Vigía Fútbol Club, has its headquarters in the city of El Vigía-Estado Mérida.
Tovar FC: this team was founded in 2014 and plays in the third division of professional football in Venezuela. It has its headquarters in the Ramon Chiarelli Diaz Municipal Olympic Stadium in the city of Tovar.

Baseball

Baseball represents one of the most practiced disciplines in the region, being its epicenter the city of Tovar, where the main headquarters of the delegation of Los Criollitos de Venezuela in the state of Merida, is also the birthplace of great baseball players like Johan Santana one of the best baseball pitchers of all times in Venezuela, player of the Navegantes del Magallanes in the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League and of the New York Mets of the National Major League Baseball, as well as Oswaldo Sosa, Wiston Márquez and Julio Puentes, who have been recruited by the Scouts of national and international clubs.

On February 25, 2005, the Bolivarian National Baseball League was founded at the initiative of the then National Institute of Sports, a semi-professional baseball league in Venezuela, created to offer an alternative to baseball players who had little chance of playing outside Venezuela during the months when the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League was inactive and to consolidate baseball practice in other regions of Venezuela, In the case of the state of Merida, the league has the participation of the Condor de Merida BBC club, which plays in the Central-Western conference, being in the Llanera-Andina division and is based in the Libertador de Merida Stadium located in the city of Merida.

Cycling

The state of Merida is one of the entities that have more support to the practice of the cycling, counting with professional teams like Escaladores de Merida and Sumiglov that compete in the principal competitions of the national cycling, between his principal exponents are the vigienses Carlos Maya and Jose Alarcón and the santacrucense Leonardo Sierra and the Tovareño Jose Rujano, being this last one champion of the Vuelta a Colombia, the Vuelta a Venezuela, the Vuelta al Táchira and mountain champion of the Giro d'Italia.

Swimming
The aquatic discipline also has relevance in the state of Merida, this can be seen in the large number of facilities that allow the development and strengthening of the clubs that represent this Olympic branch, the main epicenters being the cities of Merida, El Vigia, Ejido and Tovar, there we find groups like the Centro de Entrenamiento de Deportes Acuáticos de Mérida CEDAM, Club Talento 5 Aguilas Blancas, Club América Bendito ULA, Club Actividades Acuáticas Rafael Vidal, Academia de Deportes Acuáticos de Mérida ADAME, Club de Natación Tovar CNT, among others.

Rugby
In the state there are rugby teams like the Caballeros de Merida Rugby Club, Merida Rugby Club, Alacranes Rugby Club and Pucara El Vigia Rugby Club; all of them participating in the Venezuelan Rugby Club Championship.

See also

 States of Venezuela
 Nevado
 Merida glaciation
 Sierra Nevada de Merida
 Los Aleros theme park
 Albarregas Metropolitan Park

References

External links
 Government of Mérida State

States of Venezuela
States and territories established in 1864

Mérida (state)


An Paepalanthus latifolius in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Friedrich August Körnicke. An Paepalanthus latifolius in nahilalakip ha genus nga Paepalanthus, ngan familia nga Eriocaulaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Paepalanthus

Paepalanthus latifolius


Cimitero acattolico di Capri je nekatoličko groblje na otoku Capriju. Osnovao ga je 1878. Englez George Hayward, a sadrži 204 groba iz ukupno 21 različite nacije. Većina ljudi koji su pokopani na groblju ipak su engleske nacionalnosti, Nijemci, Rusi ili Amerikanci. Osim protestanata, na groblju su pokopani i Židovi, pravoslavci i nešto katolika.  Značajni pokopi uključuju francuskog baruna Jacquesa d'Adelsward-Fersena, Lucia Amelia, Güntera Ammona, Gracie Fields, Normana Douglasa i Jakoba Johanna von Uexkülla.

Nakon Drugog svjetskog rata groblje je dugo bilo zapušteno, dok nije 1986. godine općina Capri osigurala očuvanje i obnovu grobova na groblju.

Izvori

Vanjske poveznice

Groblja u Italiji
Građevine u Capriju

Cimitero acattolico di Capri


Nogometno prvenstvo Korčule i Pelješca je bila liga petog ranga natjecanja nogometnog prvenstva Jugoslavije u sezoni 1973./74.
Sudjelovalo je 7 klubova, a prvak je bio "Hajduk" iz Vela Luke.

Ljestvica

Rezultatska križaljka

"Hajduk" se plasirao u Dalmatinsku ligu

Povezani članci
 Dalmatinska nogometna liga 1973./74.
 Dalmatinska nogometna liga – Jug 1973./74.
 Prvenstvo NSO Split 1973./74.

Izvori
 "Sportske novosti", izdanje od 12. lipnja 1974., str. 17

1973-74 Korčula-Pelješac
1973-74 Korčula-Pelješac
Korčula-Pelješac

Nogometno prvenstvo Korčule i Pelješca 1973./74.


Roust er en sydvestjysk landsby, der ligger ca. 17 km nordøst for Esbjerg og 12 km sydøst for Varde i Grimstrup Sogn, Varde Kommune. Landsbyen er kendt for sin fiskesø og industri, herunder Roust Træ, der eksporterer spær og træ internationalt.

Historie
Roust går tilbage til middelalderen. Stednavnet Rousthøje kendes fra 1449 som Rowesthøwe. Efterleddet er wist i betydningen "opholdssted".

Roust landsby bestod i 1682 af 7 gårde og 1 hus med jord. Det samlede dyrkede areal udgjorde 336,1 tønder land skyldsat til 41,62 tønder hartkorn. I tilknytning hertil lå Roust mølle. Dyrkningsmåden var græsmarksbrug med tægter..
Engang var Roust en meget kompleks landsby med, fx En skole, et mejeri og en smedje. Skolen bestod af elever fra Rousthøje, Roust og Hjortkær (Grimstrup Sogn).

Tilbage i 1898 blev Roust brugsforening oprettet, og havde 50 års jubilæum i 1948

Litteratur
 Vibeke Christensen og John Kousgaard-Sørensen: Stednavneforskning I. Afgrænsning, terminologi, metode, datering. Universitetsforlaget i København. I kommission hos Gyldendal. København 1972.
 Karl-Erik Frandsen: Vang og tægt. Studier over dyrkningssystemer og agrarstrukturer i Danmarks landsbyer 1682-83 (Bygd 1983),
 Henrik Pedersen: De danske Landbrug fremstillet paa Grundlag af Forarbejderne til Christian V.s Matrikel 1688. Udgivet efter hans Død paa Bekostning af Carlsbergfondet (København MCMXXVIII; Reprotryk for Landbohistorisk Selskab, København 1975),

Kilder og henvisninger

Byer i Varde Kommune

Roust


Mihai sau Mișu Ion Văcărescu (1842 sau 1843 – 12 iunie 1903), cel mai frecvent cunoscut sub numele de Claymoor, a fost un cronicar monden al vieții bucureștene, critic de film, critic de teatru, fiul poetului Iancu Văcărescu. Ofițer de cavalerie în rezervă în Forțele Terestre Române, a început să scrie în jurul vârstei de 30 de ani, atingând faima ca foiletonist de cronică mondenă la cotidianul francofon L'Indépendence Roumaine. El a fost respectat pe scară largă pentru verdictele sale în lumea modei și ca arbitru al bunului gust; totuși, unii dintre contemporanii săi l-au ridiculizat pentru stilul său literar înflorit, implicarea sa politică în Partidul Conservator și aparenta sa homosexualitate.

Perioada de glorie a lui Claymoor, care s-a suprapus cu apogeul perioadei Belle Époque, s-a încheiat cu moartea sa subită. Deși almanahul său era deja publicat, el a fost uitat în mare măsură până la sfârșitul Primului Război Mondial. Urmele amintirii sale sunt păstrate în portrete și parodii ale unor scriitori precum Ion Luca Caragiale și Petru Dumitriu.

Biografie
Data exactă a nașterii lui Văcărescu rămâne necunoscută. Totuși se știe că el a murit la vârsta de 60 sau 61 de ani, ceea ce înseamnă că s-a născut în 1842 sau 1843. Este, de asemenea, sigur că a primit o educație aristocrată în familia Văcărescu și a avut o legătură directă cu alte familii proeminente ale boierilor valahi; spre deosebire de ei, el a moștenit puțină avere. A fost fiul poetului Iancu Văcărescu și nepot al lui Alecu Văcărescu. Unchiul său, Ienăchiță Văcărescu, a fost mare dregător domnesc și autorul celei dintâi gramatici românești tipărite (1787). Străbunicul său, Ianache Văcărescu, a servit sub Domnul Constantin Brâncoveanu în timpul Campaniei de pe Prut și a fost executat alături de el. Alți strămoși ai jurnalistului au fost în permanent conflict cu domnii fanarioți care l-au succedat pe Brâncoveanu: tatăl lui Ienăchiță a fost otrăvit, în timp ce Alecu a fost condamnat la moarte sub acuzații false.

Iancu a fost disident în timpul regimului Regulamentul Organic. Arestat pentru intervale diferite de timp, moșia sa a fost confiscată de prințul Alexandru Dimitrie Ghica. După căderea lui Ghica, el a candidat în primele alegeri de
deputați ai Adunării Obștești, câștigând doar 21 de voturi din 179. Mătușa sa, Marițica Văcărescu-Ghica, s-a căsătorit cu câștigătorul alegerilor, Gheorghe Bibescu. Ea a fost de asemenea poetă, deși opera ei a rămas nepublicată.

Mama lui Mișu Văcărescu, Ecaterina (1819-1891), era boieroaică, descendentă din familia Cantacuzino prin ramura moldovenească și a revendicat dreptul de proprietate asupra unei moșii din Pașcani. În ciuda zestrei ei generoase, familia s-a confruntat cu probleme financiare. Ea a avut opt copii cu Iancu, dintre care șase au ajuns la maturitate: Eufrosina măritată Greceanu (1837-1870), despre care George Călinescu scrie că era "producătoare de copii nelegitimi"; Ioan (1839-1914), militar de carieră și tatăl scriitoarei Elena Văcărescu; Maria măritată Fălcoianu (1841-1912); Ecaterina măritată Lahovary (1846-1917); Alexandrina măritată Darvary (1851-1899); Constantin (1850-1899). Printre verișorii lui Claymoor se numără și Theodor C. Văcărescu, diplomat.

Absolvent al liceului Henri-IV din Paris, Văcărescu a rămas întotdeauna ca un "mare prieten al Franței", potrivit colegilor săi de la Le Figaro. Orfan la vârsta de 20 de ani, când tatăl său a murit "de răceală, în vârstă de 70 de ani", el și frații săi și-au împărțit averea între ei și creditorii lui Iancu. Prima sa chemare a fost armata, unde a ajuns la rangul de căpitan în corpul de cavalerie al Principatelor Unite, după care s-a retras pentru a prelua munca în presa mondenă din București. Scriitorul-diplomat Gheorghe Crutzescu notează că lui Claymoor  "nu-i plăceau femeile" deși La Belle Otero reușise să-l impresioneze. În jurul anului 1890, a fost implicat într-un conflict juridic cu maiorul Baldovici, iar zvonurile răspândite în presa rivală spun că a încercat să-l seducă pe el și pe alți militari. Cu toate acestea, Bacalbașa califică astfel de zvonuri "înspăimântătoare" drept "fabule".

Prima experiență a lui Văcărescu cu jurnalismul francofon a fost la ziarul La Roumanie (1873-1876), unde a folosit pseudonimul Velréas. Mai târziu a scris la ziarul de stânga Românul (1877–1879), unde a început să-și folosească pseudonimul consacrat. Ca Claymoor, el și-a început activitatea la L'Indépendence Roumaine în 1879 sau 1880. În același timp, ca Babylas, el scria pentru La Roumanie Ilustrée. Aceste cronici timpurii au coincis cu introducerea iluminatului electric, care, de la cca. 1882, a permis ca petrecerile de noapte în aer liber să devină modă. Cronica sa regulată a fost "Carnet du High-Life" și anual publica un "Almanach du High-Life". Primul almanah al lui Claymoor a fost La Vie à Bucarest 1882–1883 ("Viața în București 1882-1883"), publicat la compania Theil & Weiss, urmat de La Lanterne Mondaine  în 1884. În acel an, în februarie, Claymoor a avut o ceartă cu un redactor de la L'Indépendence Roumaine, Alexandru Ciurcu, și a plecat pentru scurt timp să lucreze pentru Gazette de Roumanie. Potrivit spuselor sale, acesta a fost un "incident destul de burlesc", declanșat de încercarea lui Ciurcu de a elimina din cronica de modă "toate petrecerile la care el nu a fost niciodată invitat".<ref>"Informațiuni", in Telegraphul", 16 februarie 1884, pp. 1–2</ref>

 Arbitru al eleganței
Claymoor a devenit în curând unul dintre obișnuiții de la Casa Capșa, frecventând o societate care i-a inclus și pe Nicolae Filipescu și N. T. Orășanu. Memoiristul Constantin Bacalbașa amintește de el ca  "un om foarte decent" și "perfect colegial". Totuși, el spune despre Claymoor că "a fost ziarist, dar prin nici o lature nu făcea parte din lumea ziariștilor; trăia în sânul societății boierești în care crescuse și căreia îi aparținea". Mai controversat, din 1888, când a devenit delegat român la Expoziția Universală de la Paris, Claymoor a fost zugrăvit ca un client politic al Partidului Conservator de guvernământ.

Scriitorul George Costescu descrie L'Indépendence Roumaine ca fiind "întocmit pe normele ziaristice occidentale" și notează rolul lui Claymoor în pionieratul pe plan local a reportajului "mondain": "Iscusitul Mihail Văcărescu-Claymoor făcea recenziile tuturor recepțiunilor politice și diplomatice, ale reuniunilor artistice și ale balurilor, concertelor, servărilor și nunților la care luau parte familiile elitei bucureștene". Conceptul a fost criticat de anti-elitiști. În 1912, George Ranetti susținea că rubrica Carnet du High-life ar fi fost "mai mult sau mai puțin justificată într-un oraș ca Parisul", întrebându-se "la ce ar servi în România?"; în absența unei culturi aristocratice, Claymoor doar "hrănind vanitățile" unei plutocrații comerciale. În mod similar, Bulei vede Carnetul ca o imitație a celor similare din Le Figaro și Le Gaulois, "dar avea savoarea ei dâmbovițeană". El sugerează că unele dintre cronicile lui - de exemplu una care o descria pe Zoe Sturdza, soția politicianului D. A. Sturdza - au fost neintenționat amuzante.

În 1890, ziarul Amiculu Familiei îl descria pe Claymoor drept "o figură tristă a jurnalismului [românesc]". Acesta a deplâns cultura franțuzită care l-a produs pe Claymoor, și a remarcat că stilul său metaforic a fost luat în râs de ziarul belgian La Réforme. Totuși, așa cum notează Bacalbașa, scrierile lui Claymoor l-au făcut "o mică celebritate": "timp de 24 de ani, Bucureștii au avut epoca lui Claymoor". Potrivit aceleiași surse, Claymoor putea descrie "minunat și cu multă competență o îmbrăcăminte completă a doamnelor la deosebitele serate. Unii pretindeau că autorul lor era plătit de cusătoresele cele de lux, însă lucru n-a fost niciodată dovedit." Se pare că abonarea la L'Indépendence Roumaine și "citirea doar a rubricii lui Claymoor" au fost preocuparea centrală pentru fetele abia ieșite din internatele școlare. Potrivit lui Crutzescu: "pe atunci, pentru doamnele din societatea bucureșteană să nu fii citată de Claymoor în "Carnet du Highlife" era o nenorocire, o jicnire soră cu moartea mondenă. De aceea, casa lui Claymoor era plină cu daruri felurite, de la doamnele doritoare de a nu fi niciodată uitate, sau trecute cu vederea." "Atunci când Claymoore lăuda o toaletă sau recomanda o cusătoreasă, toată lumea bună adopta și cusătoreasa și toaleta".

Uneori, contribuțiile sale erau dublate de critici de teatru, cum ar fi atunci când, în 1884, el a făcut cronică la O scrisoare pierdută a lui Ion Luca Caragiale. Opinia sa generală negativă a fost judecată de criticii ulteriori. Inclus în mod repetat ca unul dintre detractorii lui Caragiale,Dan C. Mihăilescu, "Unde îi sunt detractorii?", in Biblioteca Bucureștilor, Nr. 7/2002, p. 5 el a criticat  pe Caragiale și Paul Gusty pentru adaptarea și punerea în scenă a unei piese anti-război în 1888. Totuți, el a aplaudat producția Tochter des Herrn Fabricius de Adolf Wilbrandt. Competența sa în domeniu a fost pusă la îndoială de cronicarul Dimitrie Rosetti-Max. Când, în 1887, s-a anunțat că Claymoor va fi criticul pentru o trupă franceză aflată în turneu în București, Rosetti-Max a remarcat: "Aceasta mă face să bănuiesc că trupa nu are costume încă și Claymoor [...] este pentru a evalua dacă corsajele artiștilor trec de inspecția de la miezul nopții".

Claymoor a câștigat mai multă respect în calitate de critic cinematografic de pionierat: în 1896-1897 el a fost printre primii care au făcut cronică primelor filme românești și, după cum susține istoricul de film Dinu-Ioan Nicola, a avut "intuiții critice surprinzătoare".

Claymoor a contribuit direct la succesul L'Indépendence Roumaine (a devenit al doilea cel mai popular ziar până în 1897). A murit la București la 12 iunie 1903, după ce a căzut în fața biroului L'Indépendence Roumaine, unde tocmai aducea ultima sa cronică. Deși uneori se spune că a murit pe loc, de fapt a murit în casa surorii sale. Cauza ultimă a morții a fost un ulcer gastroduodenal. A fost îngropat la cimitirul Bellu. Obiectele sale de artă au fost scoase la licitație până în ianuarie 1904, iar  Almanach du High-Life a continuat să fie publicat în anii următori.

 Note

 Bibliografie

 Constantin Bacalbașa, Bucureștii de altă dată, Vol. III. București: Universul, 1936.
 George Costescu, Bucureștii Vechiului Regat. Cu numeroase reproduceri fotografice documentare și două planșe cu peste 200 de portrete caricaturale ale oamenilor timpului. București: Universul, 1944.
 Gheorghe Crutzescu, Podul Mogoșoaiei. Povestea unei străzi. București: Biblioteca Bucureștilor, 2011.
 C. Popescu-Cadem, Document în replică''. București: Mihail Sadoveanu City Library, 2007.

Nașteri în anii 1840
Decese în 1903
Decese pe 12 iunie
Absolvenți ai Lycée Henri-IV
Colecționari de artă români
Critici de film români
Critici de teatru români
Decese cauzate de ulcer
Editori români
Editorialiști români
Familia Văcărescu
Fondatori de reviste români
Înmormântări în Cimitirul Bellu
Ofițeri ai Forțelor Terestre Române
Români cunoscuți sub pseudonimele folosite
Scriitori exofoni români
Scriitori români de limbă franceză

Claymoor


Kate Wilhelm (June 8, 1928 –  March 8, 2018) was an American author. She wrote novels and stories in the science fiction, mystery, and suspense genres, including the Hugo Award–winning Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang. Wilhelm established the Clarion Workshop along with her husband Damon Knight and writer Robin Scott Wilson.

Life
Katie Gertrude Meredith was born in Toledo, Ohio, daughter of Jesse and Ann Meredith. She graduated from high school in Louisville, Kentucky, and worked as a model, telephone operator, sales clerk, switchboard operator, and underwriter for an insurance company.

She married Joseph Wilhelm in 1947 and had two sons. The couple divorced in 1962 and Wilhelm married Damon Knight in 1963. She and her husband lived in Eugene, Oregon, until his death in 2002 and she remained there until her own death in 2018.

Career
Her first published short fiction was "The Pint-Size Genie" in the October 1956 issue of Fantastic, edited by Paul W. Fairman (assisted by Cele Goldsmith, who was responsible for looking at unsolicited submissions to the magazine). The next year, her first accepted story, "The Mile-Long Spaceship", was published in John W. Campbell's Astounding Science Fiction, and ten of her speculative fiction stories were published during 1958 and 1959. Her debut novel was a murder mystery, More Bitter Than Death (Simon & Schuster, 1963), and her science fiction novel debut, The Clone (1965) by Wilhelm and Theodore L. Thomas, was a finalist for the annual Nebula Award.

Her work has been published in Quark/, Orbit, The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Locus, Amazing Stories, Asimov's Science Fiction, Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine, Fantastic, Omni, Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine, Redbook and Cosmopolitan.

She and her second husband, Damon Knight, mentored many authors and helped to establish the Clarion Writers Workshop and the Milford Writer's Workshop. After his death in 2002, Wilhelm continued to host monthly workshops, as well as lecturing at other events, until her death.

Recognition

The Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted Wilhelm in 2003, its eighth class of two deceased and two living writers.

In 2009, she received one of three inaugural Solstice Awards from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (founded by Knight in 1965), which recognize "significant impact on the science fiction or fantasy landscape".

The Nebula Award trophy was designed for the first awards by J. A. Lawrence, based on a sketch by Wilhelm.

She also won a few annual genre awards for particular works:

 Nebula Award for Best Short Story, 1968, "The Planners"
 Hugo Award for Best Novel and Locus Award for Best Novel, both 1977, Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang
 Nebula Award for Best Novelette, 1986, "The Girl Who Fell into the Sky"
 Nebula Award for Best Short Story, 1987, "Forever Yours, Anna"
 Hugo Award (best related book) and Locus Award (best nonfiction), both 2006, Storyteller: Writing Lessons and More from 27 Years of the Clarion Writers' Workshop (Small Beer Press, 2005; )

The Hugo- and Locus Award-winning novel Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang was also a finalist for the Nebula Award, winner of the short-lived Jupiter Award from science fiction instructors, and third place for the academic John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel.

In 2016, the SFWA renamed the Solstice Award the Kate Wilhelm Solstice Award.

Works

Barbara Holloway mysteries
Holloway is an attorney in Eugene, Oregon. She and her semi-retired lawyer father, Frank Holloway, solve mysteries that combine detective fiction with courtroom drama.

 Death Qualified: A Mystery of Chaos (1991)
 The Best Defense (1994)
 For the Defense also named Malice Prepense in hardbound editions (1996)
 Defense for the Devil (1999)
 No Defense (2000)
 Desperate Measures (2001)
 Clear and Convincing Proof (2003)
 The Unbidden Truth (2004)
 Sleight of Hand (2006)
 A Wrongful Death (2007)
 Cold Case (2008)
 Heaven Is High (2011)
 By Stone, by Blade, by Fire (2012)
 Mirror, Mirror (2017)

Constance Leidl and Charlie Meiklejohn mysteries
Meiklejohn is a former arson detective turned private investigator. His wife, Leidl, is a professional psychologist. Together they solve cases.

 The Hamlet Trap (1987)
 The Dark Door (1988)
 Smart House (1989)
 Sweet, Sweet Poison (1990)
 Seven Kinds of Death (1992)
 Whisper Her Name (2012)

Collections
 A Flush of Shadows: Five Short Novels (1995) – includes "With Thimbles, With Forks, and Hope", "Torch Song", "All for One", "Sister Alice", and "Gorgon Fields"
 The Casebook of Constance and Charlie Volume 1 (1999) – includes "The Hamlet Trap", "Smart House", and "Seven Kinds of Death"
 The Casebook of Constance and Charlie Volume 2 (2000) – includes "Sweet, Sweet Poison" and "The Dark Door", plus shorter stories "Christ's Tears", "Torch Song", and "An Imperfect Gift"

Short stories in Ellery Queen Mystery Magazine
 "Christ's Tears" April 1996
 "An Imperfect Gift" Aug 1999
 "His Deadliest Enemy" Mar/Apr2004

Standalone mystery/suspense novels
 More Bitter Than Death (1962)
 The Clewiston Test (1976)
 Fault Lines (1977)
 Oh, Susannah! (1982)
 Justice for Some (1993)
 The Good Children (1998)
 The Deepest Water (2000)
 Skeletons: A Novel of Suspense (2002)
 The Price of Silence (2005)
 Death of an Artist (2012)

Non-fiction
 Storyteller: Writing Lessons & More from 27 Years of the Clarion Writers' Workshop (2005)

Poems
 Alternatives (1980)
 Four Seasons (1980)
 No One Listens (1980)
 The Eagle (1980)

Editor
 Clarion SF – anthology of 15 short stories by authors such as Damon Knight, Robert Crais, and Vonda N. McIntyre
 Nebula Award Stories 9: anthology of Nebula Award–winning and nominated stories

SF novels, noted stories and collections

 The Mile-Long Spaceship (1963)
 The Clone (1965) – 1966 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novel
 The Nevermore Affair (1966)
 Andover and the Android (1966)
 Baby, You Were Great (1967) – 1968 Nebula Award nominee, Best Short Story
 The Killer Thing (1967)
 The Planners (1968) – 1969 Nebula Award winner, Best Short Story
 The Downstairs Room (1968) – collection of 14 SF short stories (Dutch translation Het Anti-Verjaardagsfeest as by Kathleen Curran)
 Let the Fire Fall (1969)
 The Year of the Cloud (1970)
 April Fool's Day Forever (1970) – 1971 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novella
 A Cold Dark Night with Snow (1970) – 1971 Nebula Award nominee, Best Short Story
 Abyss: Two Novellas (1971) – contains "The Plastic Abyss" (1992 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novella) and "Stranger in the House"
 Margaret and I (1971) - 1972 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novel
 City of Cain (1974)
 The Infinity Box (1975) – collection of nine9 SF short stories, including 1992 Nebula Award nominee "The Infinity Box", for Best Novella
 Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang (1976) – Hugo and Locus Award winner; Nebula nominee, Best Novel
 Somerset Dreams and Other Fiction (1978) – collection of 8 shorter SF stories/novellas
 Juniper Time (1979) – 1980 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novel
 The Winter Beach (1981) – 1982 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novella
 A Sense of Shadow (1981)
 Listen, Listen (1981) – contains four novellas: "Julian", "With Thimbles, With Forks and Hope", "Moongate", and "The Uncertain Edge of Reality"
 Welcome, Chaos (1983)
 Huysman's Pets (1985)
 Forever Yours, Anna (1987) – 1988 Nebula Award winner, Best Short Story
 Crazy Time (1988)
 Children of the Wind (1989) – contains "Children of the Wind", "The Gorgon Field" (1986 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novella), "A Brother to Dragons, A Companion of Owls", "The Blue Ladies", and "The Girl Who Fell into the Sky" (1987 Nebula Award winner, Best Novelette)
 Cambio Bay (1990)
 Naming the Flowers (1992) – 1994 Nebula Award nominee, Best Novella
 And the Angels Sing (1992) – collection of 12 SF short stories
 I Know What You're Thinking (1994) – 1995 Nebula Award nominee, Best Short Story
 Fear is a Cold Black (2010) – collection of Wilhelm's early SF short stories
 Music Makers (2012) – collection of five stories: "Music Makers", "Shadows on the Wall of the Cave", "Mockingbird", "The Late Night Train", and "An Ordinary Day with Jason"
 The Bird Cage (2012) – collection of four stories: "The Bird Cage", "Changing the World", "The Fountain of Neptune", and "Rules of the Game"

See also

References

External links
 Former official website at the Internet Archive

"Baby, You Were Great" (1967) by Wilhelm, LoA reprint including story notes and an illustration by Ed Emshwiller
 Infinity Box Press, Wilhelm's publishing company
 Kate Wilhelm at Library of Congress Authorities — with 58 catalog records
 Guide to the Kate Wilhelm Papers at the University of Oregon
 Battistella, Maureen Flanagan,Kate Wilhelm (1928-2018), Oregon Encyclopedia

1928 births
2018 deaths
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American women writers
American fantasy writers
American mystery writers
American psychological fiction writers
American science fiction writers
American women novelists
Hugo Award-winning writers
Nebula Award winners
Novelists from Ohio
Novelists from Oregon
Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees
The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction people
Women mystery writers
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
Writers from Eugene, Oregon
Writers from Toledo, Ohio

Kate Wilhelm


اتحاد الكتاب العرب هو رابطة تجمع الأدباء العرب وتقوم بنشر أعمالهم في كتب ودوريات أو نشرات ثقافية. تأسس الاتحاد عام 1969، بناءً على المرسوم التشريعي رقم (72) من مجلس الوزراء بتاريخ 28 كانون الثاني 1969، ويقع مركزه في دمشق. كان الروائي حنا مينه من بين مؤسسيه.

الرئاسة
يرأس الاتحاد حاليا الاديب مالك صقور

الأعضاء
يضم الاتحاد 970 عضواً من الكتاب، الأدباء، النقاد، الباحثين والمترجمين ومن ابرزهم:
 إبراهيم الجرادي - شاعر وناقد من مواليد تل أبيض (1951 - 29 أيلول 2018)
 إبراهيم الكيلاني - مفكر وفيلسوف ومؤرخ من مواليد دمشق (1916 - 2004)
 إبراهيم خريط - كاتب دير الزور (1943 - 2012)
 إبراهيم عباس ياسين - شاعر من مواليد بصرى (1954 - )
 إسكندر لوقا - روائي من مواليد إسكندرونة (6 كانون الأول 1929 - )
 سامي الدروبي - باحث ومترجم من مواليد حمص (27 نيسان 1921 - 12 شباط 1976)
 ياسر الفهد - صحفي، باحث ومترجم من مواليد يافا (1939 - )
 محسن يوسف - أديب، مترجم و كاتب قصة قصيرة من مواليد  اللاذقية (1939 - )

الجمعيات
ينقسم الاتحاد إلى خمس جمعيات، والجمعية هي مجموعة من الكتاب الأعضاء في الاتحاد الذين يمارسون نشاطهم في مجالات فكرية واحدة أو متقاربة، ويحق لكل عضو في الاتحاد الانتساب إلى إحدى الجمعيات الخمس. وهذه الجمعيات هي:
 جمعية البحوث والدراسات
 جمعية الشعر.
 جمعية القصة والرواية.
 جمعية المسرح.
 جمعية النقد الأدبي.

الدوريات

الأسبوع الأدبي
 جريدة اسبوعية تعنى بشؤون الأدب والفكر والفن صدر العدد (1689) منها بتاريخ 26 تموز 2020

الموقف الأدبي
مجلة أدبية شهرية صدر العدد (591) منها في تموز 2020
 رئيس التحرير : مالك صقور
 مدير التحرير : فلك حصرية

الفكر السياسي
مجلة فصلية صدر العدد المزدوج 74-75 منها الربع الثاني والثالث لعام 2020
 رئيس التحرير : د.جابر سلمان
 مدير التحرير : الأرقم الزعبي

التراث العربي
مجلة فصلية محكمة صدر العدد 156 منها شتاء 2020
 رئيس التحرير : د.علي دياب
 مدير التحرير : د.محمد موعد

الآداب العالميـة
مجلة فصلية صدر العدد 177 منها شتاء 2020
 رئيس التحرير : بديع صقور
 مدير التحرير : د.طالب عمران

شام الطفولة
مجلة شهرية للأطفال صدر العدد الأول منها فقط
 رئيس التحرير : صبحي سعيد قضيماتي
 مدير التحرير : أسعد الديري

انظر أيضا
 قائمة أفضل مئة رواية عربية
 إيمان أكرم البياتي
 رابطة الكتاب السوريين

المصادر

وصلات خارجية
 الموقع الرسمي لاتحاد الكتاب العرب

أدب عربي
أدب مصري
كتاب عرب
منظمات أسست في 1969
منظمات دولية مقرها في مصر
منظمات عربية

اتحاد الكتاب العرب


{{efn|The bull is known by its incipit:
Unam sanctam ecclesiam catholicam et ipsam apostolicam urgente fide credere cogimur et tenere, nosque hanc firmiter credimus et simpliciter confitemur, [...]".|name=|group=}} is a papal bull that was issued by Pope Boniface VIII on 18 November 1302. It laid down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the Pope as supreme head of the Church and the duty thence arising of submission to the Pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The Pope further emphasized the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order. The historian Brian Tierney calls it "probably the most famous" document on church and state in medieval Europe. The original document is lost, but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican Archives. The bull was the definitive statement of the late medieval theory of hierocracy, which argued for the temporal as well as spiritual supremacy of the pope.

Background

The bull was promulgated during an ongoing dispute between Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France (Philip the Fair). Philip had levied taxes on the French clergy of half their annual income. On 5 February 1296, Boniface responded with the papal bull Clericis laicos that forbade clerics, without authority from the Holy See, to pay taxes to temporal rulers, and threatened excommunication on rulers who demanded such payments.

King Edward I of England defended his own taxing powers by putting defiant clergy under outlawry, a Roman law concept withdrawing their protection under the English common law, and confiscated the temporal properties of bishops who refused his levies. As Edward was demanding an amount well above the tenth offered by the clergy, Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Winchelsey left it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit.

In August 1296 King Philip imposed an embargo forbidding export of horses, arms, gold, and silver, effectively keeping the French clergy from sending taxes to Rome and blocking a main source of papal revenue. Philip also banished from France papal agents raising funds for a new crusade.

In September 1296 the pope sent a protest to Philip headed  that declared that he would rather suffer death than surrender any of the rightful prerogatives of the Church. While threatening a papal alliance with England and Germany, the pope soothingly explained that his claims were not intended against the customary feudal dues, and that reasonable taxation of Church revenue would be permitted. To assist their king against the Anglo-Flemish alliance, the French bishops asked permission to make contributions for the defense of the kingdom. In February 1297, Boniface issued Romana mater ecclesia, declaring that when the clergy consented to make payments and delay could cause grave danger, papal permission could be dispensed, and ratified the French payments in the encyclical Corum illo fatemur. While insisting that Church consent was required for subsidies to the state, he recognised that the clergy in each country must evaluate such claims. In July 1297, Boniface, further beset by an uprising in Rome by the Ghibelline (pro-Emperor) Colonna family, again moderated his assertions in Clericis laicos. The bull Etsi de statu allowed lay authorities to declare emergencies to tax clerical property.

The Jubilee year of 1300 filled Rome with fervent masses of pilgrims who supplied the lack of French gold in the treasury. The following year, Philip's ministers overstepped their bounds. In the Albigensian Crusade, the suppression of the Cathar heresy had brought much of Languedoc under French royal control, but in the farthest south, heretics still survived, and Bernard Saisset, Bishop of Pamiers in Foix, was recalcitrant and insolent with king. Philip's ministry decided to make an example of the bishop, who was brought before the royal court on 24 October 1301. The chancellor, Pierre Flotte, charged him with high treason, and put the bishop in the keeping of his metropolitan, the archbishop of Narbonne. Before Saisset could be tried, the royal ministry needed the Pope to strip the bishop of his office and protections, a "canonical degradation". Instead, in December 1301 Boniface ordered the bishop to Rome to justify himself before his pope rather than his king. In the bull  ("Give ear, my son"), he scolded Phillip: "Let no one persuade you that you have no superior or that you are not subject to the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, for he is a fool who so thinks." At the same time, Boniface sent out the general bull  strongly reiterating .

With his customary tactlessness, Boniface then summoned the French bishops to Rome to reform their national Church matters. Philip forbade Saisset or any bishop to attend, and organized a counterassembly of his own in Paris in April 1302. Nobles, burgesses and clergy met to denounce the Pope and pass around a crude forgery, Deum Time ("Fear God"), in which Boniface supposedly claimed feudal suzerainty over France, an "unheard-of assertion". Boniface denied the document and its claims, but reminded Phillip that previous popes had deposed three French kings.

This was the atmosphere in which Unam sanctam was promulgated weeks later. Reading of the "two swords" (the spiritual and temporal powers), one of Philip's ministers is alleged to have remarked, "My master's sword is steel; the Pope's is made of words". As Matthew Edward Harris writes, "The overall impression gained is that the papacy was described in increasingly exalted terms as the thirteenth century progressed, although this development was neither disjunctive nor uniform, and was often in response to conflict, such as against Frederick II and Philip the Fair".

Content
Most significantly, the bull proclaimed the doctrine extra ecclesiam nulla salus ("outside of the Church, there is no salvation)". The phrase is first found in Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258) discussing the validity of baptisms by heretical clergy. Gregory of Nazianzus also held that view but, with his father as an example, recognized men whose devout conduct anticipates their faith: by the charity of their life they were united to Christ, even before explicitly professing Christianity. Subsequent commentators such as Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Bede cited the doctrine in an ecclesiastical context.

Boniface interpreted it as a form of the concept of plenitudo potestatis (plenitude of power), that those who resist the Roman Pontiff resist God's ordination. In the 13th century, the canonists used the term plenitudo potestatis to characterize the power of the Pope within the church or, more rarely, his prerogative in the secular sphere. The bull declares that the Church must be united and the Pope was its sole and absolute head: "Therefore, of the one and only Church there is one body and one head, not two heads like a monster".

The bull also stated, "We are informed by the texts of the gospels that in this Church and in its power are two swords; namely, the spiritual and the temporal." The metaphor refers to the swords yielded by the Apostles upon Christ's arrest (Luke 22:38; Matthew 26:52). Early theologians believed that if there are two swords, one must be subordinate to the other, rungs in a spiritual hierarchical ladder: the spiritual judges the secular "on account of its greatness and sublimity", and the higher spiritual power judges the lower spiritual power etc. Thus, the bull concluded, the temporal authorities must submit to the spiritual authorities, not merely on matters concerning doctrine and morality: "For with truth as our witness, it belongs to spiritual power to establish the terrestrial power and to pass judgment if it has not been good". The bull ended, "Furthermore, we declare, we proclaim, we define that it is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff"

The bull reiterated the declarations of popes since Gregory VII, as well as the writings of Bernard of Clairvaux, Hugh of Saint Victor and Thomas Aquinas. The bull also contained passages from the letters of Pope Innocent III, who mainly reasserted the spiritual power and the "plenitudo potestatis" of the papacy. A voice heavily noticed in the bull is Giles of Rome, who some hold might have been its actual writer. Giles, in On Ecclesiastical Power, voiced the supremacy of the Roman Pontiff over the material world. He argued that since the body is governed by the soul, and the soul is governed by the spiritual ruler, the Roman Pontiff is the governor of both soul and body.

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, on the margin of the text of the record, the last sentence is noted as its real definition: Declaratio quod subesse Romano Pontifici est omni humanae creaturae de necessitate salutis ("A declaration that it is necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff"); thus this phrase, like some in canonical scripture, may have moved from an original position as a marginal gloss to an integral part of the text as it has been accepted. Some believe that this is the only intended dogmatic definition in the bull because the rest is based on differing "papal claims of the thirteenth century". Eamon Duffy finds most of the claims in the encyclical to be similar to those made by every pope since Gregory VII. However, what made his claim "notorious" was that Boniface "insisted that the Pope wielded both the spiritual and secular sword, [...] the culminating blow in a propaganda war against the French crown."

Aftermath
Boniface's reputation for overweening papal claims made it difficult to accept such an extreme declaration. His assertion over the temporal was seen as hollow and misguided, and it is said that the document was not seen as authoritative because the body of the faithful did not accept it.

Philip had the Dominican John of Paris issue a refutation. Boniface reacted by excommunicating Philip, who then called an assembly which made 29 accusations against the pope, including infidelity, heresy, simony, gross and unnatural immorality, idolatry, magic, loss of the Holy Land and the death of Pope Celestine V. Five archbishops and 21 bishops sided with the king.

Boniface could respond only by denouncing the charges, but it was already too late for him. On 7 September 1303, the king's advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a band of 2000 mercenaries on horse and foot who joined locals in an attack on the palaces of the Pope and his nephew at the papal residence at Anagni, which was later referred to as the Outrage of Anagni. The Pope's attendants and his beloved nephew Francesco all soon fled; only the Spaniard Pedro Rodríguez, Cardinal of Santa Sabina, remained at his side to the end.

The palace was plundered, and Boniface escaped murder only upon Nogaret's explicit order. Boniface was subjected to harassment and held prisoner for three days without food or drink. Eventually, the townsfolk, led by Cardinal Luca Fieschi, expelled the marauders. Boniface pardoned those who were captured and was escorted back to Rome on 13 September 1303.

Despite his stoicism, Boniface was shaken by the incident. He developed a violent fever and died on 11 October 1303. In A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous Fourteenth Century, Barbara W. Tuchman stated that his close advisors would later maintain that he had died of a "profound chagrin".

Boniface's successor, Pope Benedict XI, reigned for only nine months. He removed himself and the Roman Curia from the violence of Rome as soon as the Easter celebrations of 1304 were completed. However, on 7 June 1304, from Perugia, he excommunicated Guillaume de Nogaret, Reynald de Supino, his son Robert, Thomas de Morolo, Peter of Gennazano, his son Stephen, Adenulph and Nicolas, the sons of a certain Matteo, Geoffrey Bussy, Orlando and Pietro de Luparia of Anagni, Sciarra Colonna, John the son of Landolph, Gottifredus the son of John de Ceccano, Maximus de Trebes, and other leaders of the factions who had attacked Boniface. He died on 7 July 1304. The conclave to pick his successor was in deadlock for eleven months before deciding, under the intimidation of King Charles II of Naples, on Archbishop Bertrand de Got of Bordeaux, who took the name Pope Clement V. To please Philip IV of France, Clement moved his residence to Avignon. From then until around 1378, the Church fell under the domination of the French monarchy. Philip was said to have held a vendetta against the Holy See until his death.

It was not only the French monarchy and clergy who disapproved of Boniface and his assertions. Writers throughout Europe attacked the bull and Boniface's bold claims for the power of the papacy over the temporal, most notably the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, who expressed his need for another strong Holy Roman Emperor. Dante's treatise De Monarchia'' attempted to refute the Pope's claim that the spiritual sword had power over the temporal sword. Dante pointed out that the Pope and Roman Emperor were both equally human, and thus peers. The two "equal swords" were given power by God to rule over their respective domains.

Notes

References

External links

 Pope Boniface VIII, Unam Sanctam, 18 November 1302
 Unam sanctam dans APOSCRIPTA Database – Lettres des papes (UMR 5648), n. 1000, with bibliography.

1302 works
Economic history of the Holy See
14th-century papal bulls
Documents of Pope Boniface VIII

Unam sanctam


Açık tohumlular (Gymnospermae), çoğunlukla ağaç ya da ağaççık, seyrek de olsa çalı biçiminde olan bitkileri kapsayan taksonomik grup. Bütünüyle odunsu olan bu bitkiler, genellikle yapraklarının tamamını birden dökmediği için dört mevsim yeşil kalabilirler. Yaprakları çoğunlukla iğnemsidir. Bununla birlikte pulsu, yelpaze, şeritsi ya da tüysü tipte yapraklı olanları da vardır.

Odun boruları (ksilem) ve soymuk boruları (floem) yapılarından oluşan vasküler sisteme sahiptirler. Odun yapıları gövdede bir daire üzerine dizilmiş açık koleteral iletim demetleri içerir. Bu nedenle de ikincil kalınlaşma gösterirler.

Bir ya da iki evcikli bitkilerdir. Genel olarak erkek kozalaklar bir eksen üzerinde üst üste binmiş yapıda mikrosporofillerden oluşmuştur. Pul ya da kalkan biçiminde olan mikrosporofillerin karın kısmında çoğunlukla 2, bazen 4 polen kesesi (mikrosporangiyum) gelişir. Bu keselerde bulunan mikrospor ana hücresi, mayoz bölünme geçirerek mikrosporları, bunlar da polenleri verir. Açık tohumlularda polen üretimi oldukça fazla olup her bir erkek kozalak birkaç milyon polen üretebilir. Bazı üyelerinin polenlerinde, polenin rüzgarla uçmasını sağlayan 2-3 hava keseciği bulunabilir.

Dişi kozalak genelde erkek kozalağa benzer. Bir eksen üzerinde sarmal dizilmiş makrosporofillerden oluşmuştur. Her bir makrosporofilin üst kısmında iki tohum taslağı bulunur. Tohum taslaklarında da makrosporangiyumlar yer alır.

Bu gruptaki bitkilere açık tohumlular denilmesinin nedeni, tohumun bir yapıyla kapanmamış olarak açıkta bulunmasıdır. Tozlaşmaları genelde rüzgarla olur. Doğrudan doğruya mikrofil üzerine gelen polenler, polen odacığında çimlenirler ve polen tüpü oluşur. Bu sırada generatif hücrenin çekirdeği bölünerek iki sperma çekirdeği verir. Polen hortumuyla arkegonyumlar içine sokulan bu sperm çekirdekleri yumurta hücresini döller. Embriyonun etrafında tohum kabuğu (testa) bulunur. Döllenmeden sonra tohum taslağı örtüsü genellikle odunsu bir yapı kazanır; ancak bazı gruplarda meyveyi andıran bir yapı da ortaya çıkabilir. Tohumların olgunlaşma süreleri 1-3 yıl arasındadır. Günümüzde 600 ile 1000 türle temsil edilmektedirler.

Açık tohumlular