Évènements
12 mai : Création de 10 cardinaux par Léon XIII
25 mai : consécration de la cathédrale Saint-Patrick de New York
4 août : Encyclique Æterni Patris de Léon XIII sur Thomas d'Aquin et la théologie scolastique
20 août : l'église du Sanctuaire de Notre-Dame de La Salette est officiellement consacrée et promue au rang de basilique mineure.
  : Apparition mariale de Knock en Irlande.
19 septembre : Création de 4 cardinaux par Léon XIII
20 décembre : Achille Ratti, futur pape Pie XI est ordonné prêtre dans la basilique Saint-Jean-de-Latran

Naissances
 4 janvier : Léon Cristiani, prêtre, historien, théologien et universitaire français († )
 8 janvier :
 Georges Chevrot, prêtre, prédicateur et résistant français († )
 Nicéphore Lessard, prêtre canadien, fondateur d'une municipalité († )
 22 janvier : Joseph Wittig, prêtre, théologien et écrivain allemand († )
 14 février : Saint Gaétan Catanoso, prêtre et fondateur français († )
 20 mars : Basile Tanghe, prélat capucin et missionnaire belge au Congo belge († )
 31 mars : Félix Maurice Hedde, prélat et missionnaire français, vicaire apostolique de  Lang Son et Cao Bang († )
 6 mai : Celestino Peralta, prêtre, linguiste et écrivain espagnol de langue basque († 1929)
 20 mai : Léon Gromier, prêtre et liturgiste français († )
 29 juin : Benedetto Aloisi Masella, cardinal italien de la Curie romaine († )
 16 juillet : Jean-Marcel Rodié, prélat français, évêque d'Agen († )
 18 août : Manuel Arce y Ochotorena, cardinal espagnol, archevêque de Tolède († )
 26 août : Édouard de Moreau, prêtre jésuite et historien belge († )
 7 octobre :
 Joseph Bovet, prêtre, compositeur et chef de chœur suisse († )
 William Mark Duke, prélat canadien, archevêque de Vancouver († )
 12 octobre : Michael Curley, prélat américain, archevêque de Baltimore († )
 3 novembre : Gabriel Tappouni, futur patriarche de l'Église catholique syriaque sous le nom d'Ignace Gabriel I Tappouni († )
 4 novembre : Bienheureux Léonide Féodoroff, prêtre gréco-catholique russe, martyr du communisme († )
 5 novembre : Francesco Bracci, cardinal italien de la Curie romaine († )
 17 décembre : Auguste Arribat, prêtre, éducateur, enseignant et vénérable français, Juste parmi les nations († )
 19 décembre : Jean Delay, prélat français, premier archevêque de Marseille († )
 24 décembre : Clemente Micara, cardinal italien de la Curie romaine († )
 28 décembre : Manuel Arteaga y Betancourt, cardinal cubain, archevêque de La Havane († )

Décès
 14 janvier : Claude-Marie Magnin, prélat français, évêque d'Annecy (° )
 29 janvier : Antonio Benedetto Antonucci, cardinal italien, archevêque-évêque d'Ancône (° )
 25 février : Jean-Baptiste Glaire, prêtre et orientaliste français (° )
 27 février : Filippo Maria Guidi, cardinal italien de la Curie romaine (° )
 8 avril :
 Aloys Lütolf, prêtre et historien suisse (° )
 Casimir Wicart, prélat français, évêque de Laval (° )
 16 avril : Sainte Bernadette Soubirous, religieuse, témoin des apparitions mariales de Lourdes (° )
 26 avril : Carlo Luigi Morichini, cardinal italien de la Curie romaine (° )
 2 mai : Pierre Berteaud, prélat français, évêque de Tulle (° )
 9 mai : Bienheureuse Karolina Gerhardinger, religieuse et fondatrice allemande (° )
 27 mai : Jean-Philippe-Auguste Lalanne, prêtre, fondateur et éducateur français (° )
 9 juin : Louis-Désiré Bataille, prélat français, évêque d'Amiens (° )
 17 juin : Domenico Carafa della Spina di Traetto, cardinal italien, archevêque de Bénévent (° )
 11 août : Bienheureux Louis Biraghi, prêtre et fondateur italien (° )
 24 août : Théodore de Montpellier, prélat belge, évêque de Liège (° )
 28 août : Sainte Jeanne Jugan, religieuse et fondatrice française (° )
 17 septembre : Charles-Amable de La Tour d'Auvergne-Lauraguais, prélat français, archevêque de Bourges (° )
 3 octobre : Bienheureux Antoine Chevrier, prêtre et fondateur français (° )
 19 novembre : Jean-Joseph Gaume, prêtre, théologien et essayiste français (° )
 2 décembre : Jean-François Paulouin, prêtre et historien français (° )
 24 décembre : Louis-Charles Féron, prélat français, évêque de Clermont (° )

Notes et références

1879
XIXe siècle dans le catholicisme

1879 dans le catholicisme


El Sedosito del Atherton (Sericornis keri),  es una especie de ave paseriforme perteneciente a la familia  Acanthizidae. Anteriormente incluida en la familia . Es endémica de  Australia. Su hábitat natural son los bosques húmedos de las tierras bajas o montañas subtropicales o tropicales.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Sericornis
Taxones descritos por Gregory Macalister Mathews
Animales descritos en 1920

Sericornis keri


The culture of Finland combines indigenous heritage, as represented for example by the country's national languages Finnish (a Uralic language) and Swedish (a Germanic language), and the sauna, with common Nordic and European cultural aspects. Because of its history and geographic location, Finland has been influenced by the adjacent areas, various Finnic and Baltic peoples as well as the former dominant powers of Sweden and Russia. Finnish culture is built upon the relatively ascetic environmental realities, traditional livelihoods, and heritage of egalitarianism (e.g. Everyman's right, universal suffrage) and the traditionally widespread ideal of self-sufficiency (e.g. predominantly rural lifestyles and modern summer cottages).

There are cultural differences among the various regions of Finland, especially minor differences in dialect. Minorities, some of which have a status recognised by the state, such as the Sami, Swedish-speaking Finns, Karelians, Romani, Jews, and Tatars, maintain their cultural identities within Finland. Many Finns are emotionally connected to the countryside and nature, as large-scale urbanisation is a relatively recent phenomenon.

Historical overview

The Scandinavian ice sheet covered most of northern Europe. Following its recession around 8000 BC, people began arriving in what is today Finland, with a majority presumably traveling from the south and east. Recent archaeological finds also reveal the presence of the north-western Komsa culture in northern Finland to be as old as the earliest discoveries on the Norwegian coast.

What is today Finland belonged to the northeastern Kunda culture until around 5000 BC and the Comb Ceramic culture from about 4200–2000 BC. The Kiukainen culture appeared on the southwestern coast of Finland around 1200 BC.

From 1100 to 1200, the crown of Sweden started to incorporate Finland. However, Novgorod also attempted to gain control. Several wars occurred between 1400 and 1700 where Finland fought against Sweden, Novgorod, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and imperial Russia. In 1721, the Nystad Peace Treaty was signed, ending Swedish dominance in the Baltic region. In 1809, Finland was annexed by Russia. From 1809 to 1917, Finland was a Grand Duchy with the Russian Czar as the constitutional monarch. In southeastern Finland, the region of Karelia, where most of the Russo-Swedish conflicts occurred, was influenced by both cultures while remaining peripheral to both epicentres of power. The verses in Finland's national epic, the Kalevala, originate mainly from Karelia and Ingria.

The 19th century brought a feeling of national Romanticism and Nationalism throughout Europe. Finland's nationalism also grew, forming cultural identity and making control of the land a priority. Expression of Finnish identity by the University docent, A. I. Arwidsson (1791–1858), became an often quoted Fennoman credo: "Swedes we are not, Russians we do not want to become, let us, therefore, be Finns." Nationalism heightened and resulted in a declaration of independence from Russia on 6 December 1917, Finnish Independence Day. Notably, nationalists did not consider the Swedish-speakers members of a different (Swedish) nation; in fact, many Fennomans came from Swedish-speaking families.

Ethnic groups and languages

Finns
The majority ethnic group of Finland is the Finns. Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue. The Finnish language is not an Indo-European language. It belongs to the Uralic language family. Finns are traditionally divided into subgroups (heimo) based on their dialect, but these groupings have only minor importance due to 20th-century urbanization and internal migration.

Swedish-speaking Finns
The largest subculture in Finland is its Swedish-speaking Finns. The political party Swedish People's Party (), has traditionally had a small but important part of the Swedish-Finnish culture. The daily newspaper Hufvudstadsbladet ('Capital City Paper') is the biggest Swedish daily newspaper in Finland and has its headquarters in Helsinki. The Swedish-speaking minority has been the target of harassment and discrimination in Finland. They are still considered the upper-class in Finland, especially in Helsinki, and have earned nicknames, such as "Svenska talande bättre folk" ('Swedish speaking better people'). Swedish-Finns are also sometimes referred to as "Ankkalampi" (Ankdammen or 'The Duck Pond') due to their relatively small number where everybody knows each other. Today, however, most differences are blurred (though rich, powerful Swedish-speaking families still exist) due to mixed marriages and inter-cultural homogenization and communication. The Swedish-Finnish group does have unique traditions distinct from the mainstream Finnish-speaking ones but does not live in a different society. The group has various origins, both from language switching and from immigration.

Sami

The Lapland region of the North holds the Sami population. Up to around 1500, the Sami were mainly fishermen and trappers, usually in a combination, leading a nomadic lifestyle decided by the migrations of the reindeer. Traditionally, Sami people engaged in fishing, trapping and herding reindeer. They have traditionally organized their societies differently from the Finns due to their nomadic lifestyle. Their native language is not Finnish, but one of the three Sami languages spoken in Finland. However, modern times have brought most Sami to urban areas, where they assimilate to mainstream society and speak Finnish. 10% of Sami continue herding in Northern Finland. Currently, the Sami are a 5% minority in their native Finnish Lapland.

Romani

Another nomadic group is the Finnish Gypsies who have existed since the 17th century. For centuries Gypsy men were horse traders, whereas in the post-war era they have turned to horse breeding and dealing in automobiles and scrap metal. Women traditionally engage in fortune-telling and handcrafts. Gypsies have been the target of harassment and discrimination in Finland. "A permanent Advisory Commission on Gypsy Affairs was set up in 1968, and in 1970 racial discrimination was outlawed through an addition to the penal code. The law punished blatant acts such as barring Gypsies from restaurants or shops or subjecting them to unusual surveillance by shopkeepers or the police." Today, financial aid is provided to improve the standard of living for 5,000–6,000 Finnish Gypsies.

Social beliefs

Gender equality

After examining the position of women around the world, the Washington-based Population Crisis Committee reported in 1988 that Finland, slightly behind top-ranked Sweden and just ahead of the United States, was one of the very best places in which a woman could live. The group reached this conclusion after examining the health, educational, economic, and legal conditions that affect women's lives.

When compared with women of other nations, Finnish women, who accounted for just over 50 percent of the population in the mid-1980s, did have a privileged place. They were the first in Europe to gain the franchise, and by the 1980s they routinely constituted about one-third of the membership of the Eduskunta (parliament) and held several ministerial posts. In the 1980s, about 75 percent of adult women worked outside the home; they made up about 48 percent of the workforce. Finnish women were as well educated as their male counterparts, and, in some cases, the number of women studying at the university level, for example, was slightly ahead of the number of men. In addition to an expanding welfare system, which since World War II had come to provide them with substantial assistance in the area of childbearing and child-rearing, women had made notable legislative gains that brought them closer to full equality with men.

In 1972 the  was established to advise lawmakers on methods for realizing full legal equality for women. In 1983 legislation arranged that both parents were to have equal rights for custody of their children. A year later, women were granted equal rights in the establishment of their children's nationality. Henceforth any child born of a Finnish woman would have Finnish citizenship. After a very heated national debate, legislation was passed in 1985 that gave women an equal right to decide what surname or surnames they and their children would use. These advances were capped by  that went into effect in early 1987 forbidding any discrimination based on sex and protecting against this discrimination. Once these laws were passed, Finnish authorities signed the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) in 1986.

In several areas, however, the country's small feminist movement maintained that the circumstances in which Finnish women lived needed to be improved. Most striking was the disparity in wages. Although women made up just under half the workforce and had a tradition of working outside the home, they earned only about two-thirds of the wages paid to men. Occupations in which women predominated, such as those of retail and office personnel, were poorly paid in contrast to those in which men constituted the majority. Despite the sexes' equal educational attainments, and despite a society where sexual differentiation played a smaller role than it did in many other countries, occupational segregation in Finland was marked. In a few of the twenty most common occupations were the two sexes equally represented. Only in occupations relating to agriculture, forestry, and school teaching was a rough parity approached, and as few as 6 percent of Finns worked in jobs where 40 to 60 percent of workers were of the opposite sex. Studies also found that equal educational levels did not—in any category of training—prevent women's wages from lagging behind those paid to men. Women tended to occupy lower positions, while males were more often supervisors or managers. This was the case everywhere, whether in schools or universities, in business, in the civil service, or politics at both the local level and the national level.

In addition to occupying a secondary position in the workplace, women had longer workdays because they performed a greater share of household tasks than did men. On the average, their workweek outside the home was several hours shorter than men's because a greater number of them were employed only part-time or worked in the service sector, where hours were shorter than they were in manufacturing. Studies have found, however, that women spent about twice as much time on housework as men—about three hours and forty minutes a day, compared with one hour and fifty minutes for men. Men did twice as many household repairs and about an equal amount of shopping, but they devoted only one-third to one-fourth as much time to cleaning, cooking, and caring for children. Given that the bulk of family chores fell to women, and that they were five times more likely than men to head a single-parent family, the shortcomings of Finland's child day-care system affected women more than it did men.
The Equality Law that went into effect in 1987 committed the country to achieve full equality for women. In the late 1980s, there was a timetable listing specific goals to be achieved during the remainder of the 20th century. The emphasis was equality for everyone, rather than protection for women. Efforts were undertaken not only to place women in occupations dominated by males but also to bring males into fields traditionally believed to belong to the women's sphere, such as child care and elementary school teaching. Another aim was for women to occupy a more equal share of decision-making positions.

Since the 1986 Equality Act, a number of updates have been made. The most recent, the Non-Discrimination Act passed in 2015, prohibited discrimination based on gender identity or gender expression and a gender equality plan requirement was extended to comprehensive schools and employers. It also made pay surveys more precise, a  was established, and the independent position of the  was strengthened. It has been clarified that in the Equality Act, the phrase 'gender identity' refers to an individual's experience of their own gender, through clothing, behaviour, or by other means.

Family structure
The Finnish family life is usually understood to be centered on the nuclear family, rather than the extended family. There are usually one or two children in a family. Traditionally, men were the wage-earners and women remained in the home and cared for children. However, since the Second World War, gender roles have changed. Today, both men and women are dual wage-earners. The welfare system allows for generous parental leave with income-based benefits. Finnish parents have the option to take partial or total leave they are entitled to. A majority of mothers opt to take longer leave, up to one year. Finland's divorce rate is 51% of marriages being dissolved (Statistics Finland, updated 5/07). Cohabitation is also common. Finland has the highest proportion of quarter lifers, (those in their twenties) who have left the nest (i.e. no longer live with parents) in Europe.

Etiquette
Finnish people are stereotyped as being very introverted, having little interest in small talk, and being very protective of their personal space. This was the subject of a 2005 book Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf by Richard Lewis. In October 2018, the BBC published an article on this subject.

Economic equality
The Finnish society encourages equality and liberalism with a popular commitment to the ideals of the welfare state; discouraging disparity of wealth and division into social classes. Everyman's right (Ministry of Environment, 1999) is a philosophy carried over from ancient times. All citizens have access to public and private lands for agrarian activities or leisure. Finns value being close to nature; the agricultural roots are embedded in the rural lifestyle. Finns are also nationalistic, as opposed to self-identification with ethnicity or clan.

With the emergence of reform, the Compulsory Education Act made education a civil right and available to all citizens, except for tertiary education, which is free of charge, and admissions are based strictly on test scores. The beliefs of the Finns are future employment security necessitating higher education in today's increasingly technological world.

Religion

Prior to the Christianization of Finland in the 11th century, Finnish paganism was the primary religion. Song magic and bear worship were distinctive marks of the ancient religion. A contemporary revival of the belief system exists, called suomenusko.

Christianity entered Finnish culture in the 12th century. As in 2016, 72.8% of Finns belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church and 1.1% belong to the Finnish Orthodox Church.

Holidays and festivals

Finnish holidays are similar to the Western Christian calendar and Protestant traditions. Holidays and traditions are a blend of the thousand year old Christian presence and vestiges of old Finnish pagan traditions.

Notable among these is Juhannus, the Finnish Midsummer. A majority of Finns retreat to summer cottages (mökki) on any one of Finland's numerous lakes. Depending on the region, a bonfire at midnight celebrates the summer solstice, and in Åland, the Swedish-originated tradition of dancing around the Maypole is observed. The midsummer traditions also include different versions of pairing magic and folklore in the festivities. Midsummer Day is also Flag Day in Finland.

The Finnish Christmas, Joulu, follows traditions of Christmas trees and the Advent calendars. Holidays start on 23 December. Gift giving occurs on Christmas Eve with a visit from Joulupukki (Father Christmas, Santa Claus). Traditional meals are typically only eaten on Christmas followed by sauna. Christmas Day is reserved for a "quiet day" and the holidays end after the 26th, St. Stephen's Day (tapaninpäivä).

Easter is a combination of Christian and Pagan customs. Either on Palm Sunday or the Holy Saturday, children dress up as witches (noita) and go from door to door, giving away daffodil adorned branches of willow in exchange for sweets. This is similar to the celebration of Halloween in some countries (such as the United Kingdom and the United States). Burning Easter bonfires is a Pagan custom meant to keep witches at bay.

Vappu, or May Day is a national holiday, an event for Finns to emphatically welcome spring after several months of little daylight. It can be compared to Mardi Gras with parades and parties. Traditionally, the event begins on the eve of Vappu by former and current students putting on their student caps (graduation cap).

Finnish Independence Day is 6 December and a national holiday.

Public holidays

All official holidays in Finland are established by acts of Parliament. The official holidays can be divided into Christian and secular holidays. The main Christian holidays are Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, Ascension Day, Pentecost, and All Saints' Day. The secular holidays are New Year's Day, May Day, Midsummer Day, and the Independence Day. Christmas is the most extensively celebrated holiday: usually at least 24 to 26 December are holidays.

Sauna

Sauna is a type of dry steam bath practiced widely in Finland. The word is of Proto-Finnish origin (found in Finnic and Sámi languages) dating back 7,000 years. The sauna's purpose is to bathe, and the heat (either dry or steam) opens pores in the skin and thoroughly cleanses the body. Cedar or birch branches can be tapped along the body to stimulate blood circulation. The sauna soothes sore and aching muscles. The Finns often use and have used the sauna to recover from hard physical labor. Sauna culture dictates subdued speech and time for thought to soothe the mind. Sauna is not to be rushed as it is essential to spiritual living. The structure of the sauna began as a small log building partially buried in the earth. A "smoke sauna" was used to cure meats in pre-industrial years as well as, to bathe or a sterile environment for childbirth, but this tradition has declined in favor of a modern invention, the continuously heated sauna, which is hotter, cleaner and faster to heat up. In Finnish saunas, temperature is set to about 60–100 °C (sometimes up to 120 °C), and small amounts of water thrown on rocks atop the stove emit steam, which produces a heat sensation. Some Finns prefer the "dry sauna" using very little steam if any. Traditional sauna includes the process of perspiring and cooling several times. A part of the cooling process is a swim in the lake before returning to the sauna for an additional sweat.

Steam baths have been part of European tradition elsewhere as well, but the sauna has survived best in Finland, in addition to Sweden, the Baltic States, Russia, Norway, and parts of the United States and Canada. Moreover, nearly all Finnish houses have either their own sauna or in multistory apartment houses, a timeshare sauna. Public saunas were previously common, but the tradition has declined when saunas have been built nearly everywhere (private homes, municipal swimming halls, hotels, corporate headquarters, gyms, etc.).

Literature

Though Finnish written language could be said to exist since Mikael Agricola translated the New Testament into Finnish in the 16th century as a result of the Protestant Reformation, few notable works of literature were written until the 19th century, which saw the beginning of a Finnish national Romantic Movement. This prompted Elias Lönnrot to collect Finnish and Karelian folk poetry and arrange and publish them as Kalevala, the Finnish national epic. The era saw a rise of poets and novelists who wrote in Finnish, notably Aleksis Kivi and Eino Leino. Juhani Aho was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature twelve times.

After Finland became independent there was a rise of modernist writers, most famously Mika Waltari. Frans Eemil Sillanpää was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1939, so far the only Nobel prize-winning Finnish author. The Second World War prompted a return to more national interests in comparison to a more international line of thought, characterized by Väinö Linna. Literature in modern Finland is in a healthy state, with detective stories enjoying a particular boom of popularity. Ilkka Remes, a Finnish author of thrillers, is very popular. Juha Vuorinen has received the Kultapokkari ('Golden Paperback') award for his humorous books, and in all has sold over two million books in Finland.

Visual arts

Innovative functionalist movements have distinguished design of furniture, ceramics, glass, and textiles as well the Finnish architecture. Finnish design combines local artistic themes with tools and materials adapted to demanding northern conditions. Many artists and architects, from Akseli Gallen-Kallela to Alvar Aalto, have designed furniture and tableware during their career.

Forces, shapes, colors, and textures of the northern landscape and the human relationship to nature have strongly influenced also painting, sculpture, and other art forms. This is particularly evident in the representational romantic nationalism that blossomed at the end of the 19th century.

Abstract art movements did not gain a foothold until the 1950s. When Sam Vanni's monumental painting  (1959) won competition for mural in Helsinki, abstract art was considered to be accepted and established in Finland. In recent years, however, graphic artists have experimented with innovative processes of image production and multimedia technologies to create new forms of art that sometimes serve as critiques of society and technology.

The Finnish contemporary art scene became much more visible than before with the establishment of Kiasma, the Museum of Contemporary Art in Helsinki in 1998.

Architecture

The architecture of Finland has a notable history spanning over 800 years. As a land of predominating forests, wood provided the natural building material for both housing and public buildings up until the 20th century. The more limited history of stone buildings before the 19th century was realised, however, in various stone churches, castles and fortresses. Finnish architecture has contributed significantly to several styles internationally, such as Jugendstil (or Art Nouveau), Nordic Classicism and Functionalism.

Three of the world's most noted figures in architecture history were Finns; Eliel Saarinen was a major influence in Art Nouveau architecture, with such buildings as the Helsinki Central railway station and, following his emigration to the US, the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Michigan. His son, Eero Saarinen, though born in Finland is also regarded as an American architect, and created significant pieces of architecture throughout the US, including the TWA Flight Center at New York's Kennedy Airport and the Gateway Arch in St. Louis. The works of Finland's most noted modernist architect, Alvar Aalto, regarded as one of the major figures in the world history of modern architecture, has had significant worldwide influence; he was instrumental in bringing functionalist architecture to Finland, but also made his reputation for developing a more organic style of modernist architecture. Among his most famous buildings are Viipuri Library, Vyborg and the Baker House dormitory at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, US. Aalto is also famous for his work in furniture (e.g. the ) and glassware (e.g. Savoy vase).

Music

Folk music
Much of the folk music of Finland is influenced by traditional eastern Finnish e.g. Karelian melodies and lyrics, and the western parts of the country were influenced by Nordic dance music. Traditional form of singing, rune-singing i.e. poem singing was preserved better in the eastern Finland, and it was often accompanied by the traditional instrument kantele. This type of music is often seen as more pure form of traditional music, since it lacks Germanic influence. Since Nordic dance music became popular the popularity of the poem singing has been diminishing, but Finnish folk music has undergone a roots revival in recent decades and has become a part of popular music, for example, the group Värttinä.

Sami music

The people of northern Finland, Sweden, and Norway, the Sami, are known primarily for highly spiritual songs called Joik. The same word sometimes refers to lavlu or vuelie songs, though this is technically incorrect.

Classical and opera

The first Finnish opera was written by the German composer Fredrik Pacius in 1852. Pacius also wrote Maamme/Vårt land (Our Land), Finland's national anthem. In the 1890s Finnish nationalism based on the Kalevala spread, and Jean Sibelius became famous for his vocal symphony Kullervo. He soon received a grant to study runo singers in Karelia and continued his rise as the first prominent Finnish musician. In 1899 he composed Finlandia, which played its important role in Finland gaining independence. He remains one of Finland's most popular national figures and is a symbol of the nation.

Today, Finland has a very lively classical music scene. Finnish classical music has only existed for about a hundred years, and many of the important composers are still alive, such as Magnus Lindberg, Kaija Saariaho, Aulis Sallinen, and Einojuhani Rautavaara. The composers are accompanied by a large number of great conductors such as Sakari Oramo, Mikko Franck, Esa-Pekka Salonen, Osmo Vänskä, Jukka-Pekka Saraste, Susanna Mälkki, and Leif Segerstam. Some of the internationally acclaimed Finnish classical musicians are Karita Mattila, Soile Isokoski, Kari Kriikku, Pekka Kuusisto, Réka Szilvay, and Linda Brava.

Popular music
Modern Finnish popular music includes a renowned heavy metal music scene, in common with other Nordic countries, as well as a number of prominent rock bands, hip hop performers, pop music and dance music acts such as Bomfunk MCs, Darude and Waldo's People.
Jazz also plays a role in the Finnish Music scene. Some important Jazz Musicians are the brothers Heikki and Pekka Sarmanto, Jukka Linkola, Keith Hall (UK), Esko Linnavalli and Vladimir Schafranov (Russia). There are numerous Jazz Clubs in Finland, such as Storyville, The Hot Tomato and UMO Jazz Club (UMO is the acronym for Uuden Musiikin Orkesteri, meaning the"New Music Orchestra).
Finnish electronic music such as the Sähkö Recordings record label enjoys underground acclaim. Iskelmä (coined directly from the German word Schlager, meaning hit) is a traditional Finnish word for a light popular song. Finnish popular music also includes various kinds of dance music; tango, a style of Argentine music, is also popular. One of the most productive composers of popular music was Toivo Kärki, and the most famous singer Olavi Virta (1915–1972). Among the lyricists,  (1928–2014), Reino Helismaa (died 1965) and Veikko "Vexi" Salmi are a few of the most notable writers. The composer and bandleader Jimi Tenor is well known for his brand of retro-funk music.

Dance music
Notable Finnish dance and electronic music artists include Jori Hulkkonen, Darude, JS16, , Fanu, , trance duo Super8 & Tab and DJ Orkidea. Finnish dance music is also known for Suomisaundi, a kind of freestyle psychedelic trance that originated in Finland around the mid-1990s.

Rock and heavy metal music

The Finnish rock music scene emerged in the 1960s, pioneered by artists such as Blues Section and Kirka. In the 1970s Finnish rock musicians started to write their own music instead of translating international hits into Finnish. During the decade some progressive rock groups, such as Tasavallan Presidentti and Wigwam, gained respect abroad but failed to make a commercial breakthrough outside Finland. This was also the fate of the rock and roll group, Hurriganes. The Finnish punk scene produced some internationally respected names including Terveet Kädet in the 1980s. Hanoi Rocks was a pioneering 1980s glam rock act that left perhaps a deeper mark in the history of popular music than any other Finnish group by being an influence for groups such as Guns N' Roses.

In 1990s Finnish rock and metal music started to gain international fame with such bands as The 69 Eyes, Amorphis, Children of Bodom, Ensiferum, Norther, Wintersun, HIM, Impaled Nazarene, Lordi, Negative, Nightwish, The Rasmus, Sentenced, Sonata Arctica, Stratovarius, and Tarja Turunen, a solo artist, who is popular for mixing classical music with Metal/Rock. In the late 1990s the cello metal group Apocalyptica played Metallica cover versions as cello quartettos and sold half a million records worldwide. Some of the Finland's most domestically popular rock groups are CMX and Eppu Normaali. Finland also helped bring Folk Metal music more popularity, through bands such as Turisas and Finntroll.

In the 2000s Finnish rock bands started to sell well internationally. The Rasmus finally captured Europe (and other places, like South America) in the 2000s. Their 2003 album Dead Letters sold 1.5 million units worldwide and garnered them eight gold and five platinum albums designations. But so far the most successful Finnish band in the United States has been HIM; they were the first band from Finland to ever sell an album that was certified gold by the RIAA. Most recently, the Finnish hard rock/heavy metal band Lordi won the 2006 Eurovision Song Contest with a record 292 points, giving Finland its first ever victory. Rock bands such as The 69 Eyes and Indica enjoy cult following abroad.

Tuska Open Air Metal Festival, one of the largest open-air heavy metal music festivals in the world, is held annually in Kaisaniemi, Helsinki. Ruisrock and Provinssirock are the most famous rock festivals held in Finland.

Entertainment and games

Finland has a number of soap operas and television reality series, such as Salatut elämät and Vain elämää.

Madventures is a very popular Finnish travel documentary television series.

Sketches are a popular form of humor in Finland. Comedy has a strong representation, with some examples of popular artists being Kari Ketonen, , Ali Jahangiri, André Wickström, Ismo Leikola, Krisse Salminen and .

In 2014 Ismo Leikola was named as the "Funniest Person in the World" in a stand-up comedy competition held by Laugh Factory in the United States.

YouTube videos and video blogs have found their audience in second half of the 2010s. Tubecon YouTube event gathers thousands of fans to meet the most popular Finnish YouTube creators.

Games are recognized as a form of culture in Finland. Professional game development has a strong basis in education, In 2015, there are over 20 educational institutions providing game education in all educational levels. The first commercial Finnish digital game was published in 1979 and the first globally distributed game in 1986. In 2009, Angry Birds of Rovio Entertainment became the big hit. Rovio is a Finnish developer, publisher, distributor of video games and is an entertainment company headquartered in Espoo, Finland.

The throwing game of Mölkky originated in Finland.

Remedy Entertainment were established in Espoo, notable for creating games such as Max Payne, Alan Wake, Quantum Break and Control.

Cinema

Finland has a growing film industry with a number of famous directors such as Aki Kaurismäki, Timo Koivusalo, Aleksi Mäkelä and Klaus Härö. Hollywood film director/producer Renny Harlin (born Lauri Mauritz Harjola) was born in Finland.

Media and communications

Finland is one of the most advanced information societies in the world. There are 200 newspapers; 320 popular magazines, 2,100 professional magazines and 67 commercial radio stations, with one nationwide, six national public service radio channels (three in Finnish, two in Swedish, one in Sami); digital radio has three channels. Four national analog television channels (two public services and two commercial) were fully replaced by five public services and three commercial digital television channels on 1 September 2007.

Broadband access is a legal right, and by 2015 over 93% of population was online.

In 2015, 95% of Finns read a newspaper (in print or online) at least once per week – which was the highest value in countries compared by Reuters (including Denmark (87%) UK (73%) and USA (56%). The most read newspaper in Finland is Helsingin Sanomat, with a circulation of 267,000. The media group Sanoma behind Helsingin Sanomat also publishes the newspaper Aamulehti, tabloid Ilta-Sanomat and commerce-oriented Taloussanomat. It also owns the Nelonen television channel. Sanoma's largest shareholders are Aatos Erkko's family foundation and Antti Herlin. The other major publisher Alma Media publishes almost thirty magazines, including tabloid Iltalehti and commerce-oriented Kauppalehti. Finland has been at the top of the worldwide Press Freedom Index list every year since the publication of the first index by Reporters Without Borders in 2002.

In 2015, there were 765 public libraries, which were visited over 49 million times. Over 10,000 books and 46 daily (4–7 times a week) newspapers were published. 311 movie theatres showed 202 new films.

Finland's National Broadcasting Company Yle is an independent state-owned company. It has five television channels and 13 radio channels in two national languages. Yle is funded through a television license and private television broadcasting license fees. Ongoing transformation to digital TV broadcasting is in progress – analog broadcasts ceased on the terrestrial network 31 August 2007 on cable at the end of February 2008. The most popular television channel MTV3 and the most popular radio channel Radio Nova are owned by Nordic Broadcasting (Bonnier and Proventus).

The people of Finland are accustomed to technology and information services. The number of cellular phone subscribers as well as the number of Internet connections per capita in Finland is among the highest in the world. According to the Ministry of Transport and Communications, Finnish mobile phone penetration exceeded fifty percent of the population as far back as August 1998 – first in the world – and by December 1998 the number of cell phone subscriptions outnumbered fixed-line phone connections. By the end of June 2007, there were 5.78 million cellular phone subscriptions, or 109 percent of the population.

Another fast-growing sector is the use of the Internet. Finland had more than 1.52 million broadband Internet connections by the end of June 2007 (about 287 per 1,000 inhabitants). The Finns are not only connected; they are heavy users of Internet services. All Finnish schools and public libraries have been connected to the Internet for years.

Finland is also internationally known for major demoscene achievements, particularly due to Assembly, the largest annual demo party.

Cuisine

Traditional Finnish cuisine is a combination of European, Fennoscandian and Western Russian elements; table manners are European. The food is generally simple, fresh and healthy. Meat, berries, milk and ground vegetables are typical ingredients whereas spices are not common due to their historical unavailability. In years past, Finnish food often varied from region to region, most notably between the west and east. In coastal and lakeside villages, fish was a main feature of cooking, whereas, in the eastern and also northern regions, vegetables and game were more common. In Finnish Lapland, reindeer was also important. The prototypical breakfast is oatmeal or other continental-style foods such as bread. Lunch is usually a full warm meal, served by a canteen at workplaces. Dinner is eaten at around 17.00 to 18.00 at home, and it is also common to have supper later in the evening.

Modern Finnish cuisine combines country fare and haute cuisine with contemporary continental cooking style. Today, spices are a prominent ingredient in many modern Finnish recipes, having been adopted from the east and west in recent decades.

Sports

Various sporting events are popular in Finland. Pesäpallo (reminiscent of baseball) is the national sport of Finland, although the most popular sports in Finland in terms of media coverage and audience attendance are Formula One, ice hockey, track and field, football and harness racing. However, in terms of actually playing sports, the most popular ones in terms of people registered to a club are football and horse-riding.

The Finnish national ice hockey team is considered one of the best in the world and has won the world championships four times in 1995, 2011, 2019 and 2022. During the past century there has been a rivalry in sporting between Finland and Sweden, mostly in ice hockey and athletics (Finland-Sweden athletics international). Jari Kurri and Teemu Selänne are the two Finnish-born ice hockey players to have scored 500 goals in their NHL careers. Association football is also popular in Finland, with the national football team recently qualifying for the European Football Championships 2021, their first major international tournament. Jari Litmanen and Sami Hyypiä are the most internationally renowned of the Finnish football players.

Relative to its population, Finland has been a top country in the world in automobile racing, measured by international success. Finland has produced three Formula One World Champions – Keke Rosberg (Williams, 1982), Mika Häkkinen (McLaren, 1998 and 1999) and Kimi Räikkönen (Ferrari, 2007). Along with Räikkönen, the other Finnish Formula One driver currently active is Valtteri Bottas. Other notable Finnish Grand Prix drivers include Leo Kinnunen, JJ Lehto, Mika Salo and Heikki Kovalainen. Finland has also produced most of the world's best rally drivers, including the ex-WRC World Champion drivers Marcus Grönholm, Juha Kankkunen, Hannu Mikkola, Tommi Mäkinen, Timo Salonen and Ari Vatanen. The only Finn to have won a road racing World Championship, Jarno Saarinen, was killed in 1973 while racing.

Among winter sports, Finland has been the most successful country in ski jumping, with former ski jumper Matti Nykänen being arguably the best ever in that sport. Most notably, he won five Olympic medals (four gold) and nine World Championships medals (five gold). Among currently active Finnish ski jumpers, Janne Ahonen has been the most successful. Kalle Palander is a well-known alpine skiing winner, who won the World Championship and Crystal Ball (twice, in Kitzbühel). Tanja Poutiainen has won an Olympic silver medal for alpine skiing, as well as multiple FIS World Cup races.

Some of the most outstanding athletes from the past include Hannes Kolehmainen (1890–1966), Paavo Nurmi (1897–1973) and Ville Ritola (1896–1982) who won eighteen gold and seven silver Olympic medals in the 1910s and 1920s. They are also considered to be the first of a generation of great Finnish middle and long-distance runners (and subsequently, other great Finnish sportsmen) often named the "Flying Finns". Another long-distance runner, Lasse Virén (born 1949), won a total of four gold medals during the 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics.

Also, in the past, Riku Kiri, Jouko Ahola and Janne Virtanen have been the greatest strength athletes in the country, participating in the World's Strongest Man competition between 1993 and 2000.

The 1952 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad, were held in 1952 in Helsinki, Finland. Other notable sporting events held in Finland include the 1983 and 2005 World Championships in Athletics, among others.

Some of the most popular recreational sports and activities include floorball, Nordic walking, running, cycling and skiing.

International business

Finns are comfortable and adept at working in international contexts, if notably reserved in demeanor. Many Finnish corporations do business throughout the Nordic and Baltic region, as well as globally. There is a strong tradition of professional business etiquette, focused more on relationship-building and effective communications than on superficial protocols and they prefer to speak plainly and openly; however, they do not need personal relationships in order to conduct business. Many major corporations, such as Nokia, actively draw staff from around the globe and may use English as their house language. As English is a required subject, the majority of Finns (70%) have fluency for social and professional settings. Hosting international conferences is an important component of Helsinki's economy.

List of cultural aspects

List of Finns
Suuret suomalaiset – a list of the "100 Greatest Finns" of all time as voted by the Finnish people in 2004.
Below are listed some of the characteristics of Finnishness. The term "Finnishness" is often referred to as the national identity of the Finnish people and its culture.

{| cellspacing=3 cellpadding=0 border=0hi how areyou
|-
| Finnish Maiden
|   a figure of national personification symbolising Finland
|-
| Flying Finns
|   a nickname given to notable Finnish sportsmen (originated with Olympic medalist Hannes Kolehmainen)
|-
| Ice swimming
|   swimming in a body of water with a frozen crust of ice
|-
| Joulupukki
|   Father Christmas/Santa Claus
|-
| Kalakukko
|   traditional Savonian food
|-
| Kalevala
|   the national epic of Finland, and Finnish mythology in general
|-
| Kantele
|   traditional musical instrument
|-
| Karelian pasties
|   traditional pasties from the region of Karelia
|-
| Koskenkorva
|   Finnish vodka
|-
| Latin bastion
|   Finland has a reputation as a bastion of enthusiasm for Latin, thanks to such factors as the national broadcaster Yle's output of Nuntii Latini, a short weekly news service in Latin (from 1989 until the service was shut down in June 2019), and academic Jukka Ammondt's translation of songs by Elvis Presley into Latin.
|-
| Mämmi
|   traditional Easter food
|-
| Mustamakkara
|   traditional blood sausage from Tampere
|-
| Nordic walking
|   a recreational sport first popularized in Finland
|-
| Perkele
|   swear word (see Finnish profanity)
|-
| Puukko
|   traditional Finnish style woodcraft belt-knife
|-
| Reilu meininki
|   fair dealing
|-
| Sahti
|   traditional beer
|-
| Salmiakki
|   salty liquorice
|-
| Sauna
|   a Finnish national institution (see also Finnish sauna)
|-
| Sibelius
|   one of the most popular national figures (composer of the symphonic poem Finlandia)
|-
| Sisu
|   will, determination, perseverance, mental fortitude
|-
| Talkoot
|   community work
|}

See also

Finnish national symbols
Golden Age of Finnish Art
Holidays in Finland, Flag flying days in Finland, Namesdays in Finland
List of Finns
List of bands from Finland

Notes

References

Bibliography
The World Book Encyclopedia (1990). Finland (Vol. 7), p. 117.

External links
What Finland can Teach America About True Luxury by Trevor Corson, The Christian Science Monitor, 1 May 2009
Discussion about Finnish Culture
RADICAL RENEWING IN URALISTICS
Finland – Guide to language, society, customs and culture
Statistics Finland, updated 5/07

Culture of Finland


الرعب في أمتيفيل  هي سلسلة أفلام رعب تدور حول أمتيفيل ومنزل مسكون بالأشباح. معظم أفلام السلسلة ذات وقائع خيالية أو مبنية على قصص حقيقية. أول أفلام السلسلة أنتج في عام 1979.

مراجع

أفلام أمريكية
أفلام أمريكية عن بيوت مسكونة
أفلام إنتاج 1979
أفلام باللغة الإنجليزية
أفلام رعب حسب السلسلة
أفلام رعب خارق أمريكية
أفلام عن الرقية
أفلام مبنية على كتب
أفلام مقتبسة من روايات رعب
سلاسل أفلام
لونغ آيلند في الخيال

رعب أمتيفيل (سلسلة أفلام)


The David Rumsey Historical Map Collection is a large private map collection with over 150,000 maps and cartographic items. The collection was created by David Rumsey who, after making his fortune in real estate, focused initially on collecting 18th- and 19th century maps of North and South America, as this era "saw the rise of modern cartography."

After 2004 Rumsey expanded the collection to include maps from the 16th through 21st centuries, covering more of the world. In 2008 the collection's website was cited as one of only seven websites with freely available "skillfully compiled carto-bibliographic entries with corresponding early-map images." At that time the site comprised 16,000 digital images.

In February 2009, David Rumsey announced that the entire collection would be donated to Stanford University, including 150,000 maps and their digital images, as well as the database used to track the images. Stanford houses the collection in the new David Rumsey Map Center which opened in the main library in 2016. The website (where the images are posted on-line) was to continue as a separate public resource.

As of February 2022, there were over 114,000 digitized items available through the website, hundreds of which were hosted through Google Earth layers. Select maps are also featured at the Rumsey Maps island in Second Life. as well as 2D and 3D GIS. A new MapRank search tool has been added enabling geographical searching of about 60,000 maps from the collection by map location and coverage. In addition, a georeferencing tool has been added that allows site users to georeference and display any of the maps in the collection. The website has additional viewers from Luna Imaging, Inc, including the LUNA browser which doesn't require any special plug-ins or software to view the collection, zoom into image detail, create slide shows, media groups, or presentations.

The website also has a blog listing new additions to the collection, featured maps, news, videos, and related sites.

When a document is found on the website, it is usually accompanied by extensive metadata, such as author, date of publication, short title, type, dimensions, note(s), area, full title of the document, full title of the publication it may be part of with notes and download options.

References

External links
 David Rumsey Map Collection: Cartography Associates

Map collections
Historical geographic information systems
Discipline-oriented digital libraries
American digital libraries
Map websites

David Rumsey Historical Map Collection


José Belbiure Serrano (Zaragoza, -ib., ) fue un escultor aragonés.

Biografía
Formado en la Escuela de Artes y Oficios de Zaragoza y en la Escuela de Artes y Oficios de Madrid, amplió sus estudios en París, trabajando sobre todo en el terreno de la soldadura, aplicando las novedades de esta técnica al campo de la forja artística, que fue su especialidad artística. Hizo algunos trabajos de pequeña escala —por cuenta propia—, y también por encargo del Concejo municipal de Zaragoza un busto de Alejandro Lerroux y una alegoría de la Segunda República Española que fueron destruidos durante el franquismo. Desde mediados de la década de 1940 fue profesor en la Escuela de Artes y Oficios de Zaragoza.

Exposiciones
En junio de 1935 presentó al menos una escultura en la Exposición Nacional de la Asociación de Pintores y Escultores. La muestra se dispuso en el Palacio de Cristal del Retiro en Madrid.

Notas y referencias

Enlaces externos

Escultores de España del siglo XX
Escultores de Zaragoza
Zaragozanos del siglo XX
Escultores de España en Francia
Nacidos en Zaragoza

José Belbiure Serrano


Forrest Gump, 1986 yılında Winston Groom tarafından aynı adla yayımlanan romandan esinlenerek çekilmiş, 1994 yapımı epik, romantik, komedi-drama dalında bir filmdir. Robert Zemeckis tarafından çekilmiş ve Tom Hanks, Robin Wright, Gary Sinise ve Sally Field başrol oyunculuklarını yapmıştır.

Film, öğrenme güçlüğü yaşayan ancak atletik olarak inanılmaz yeteneklere sahip Forrest Gump'ın, doğum yılı olan 1944 ve 1982 yılları arasında gerçekleşmiş, bazen sadece gözlemlediği, bazen de başkalarına ilham verdiği 20. yüzyılın dönüm noktası olaylarını betimler. Film, esinlenilerek çekildiği Winston Groom'un romanından, Forrest'ın kişiliği ve ele alınan bazı olaylar yönünden farklıdır. Başta Georgia olmak üzere, Kuzey ve Güney Carolina'da, 1993 yılının sonlarına doğru çekilmiştir. Filmin kahramanını eski arşiv görüntülerine dahil edebilmek ve bazı sahneleri çekebilmek için, gelişmiş görsel efektler kullanılmıştır. Ele alınan sahneleri daha iyi anlatabilmek için, dönemlerin ruhuna uygun kapsamlı bir müzik arşivi kullanılmıştır. Film müziğinin ticari baskısı, dünya genelinde 12 milyondan fazla satarak en fazla satan albümler sıralamasına girmiştir.

Forrest Gump, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde gösterime girdiği 6 Temmuz 1994 tarihinde ciddi ölçüde övgü aldı ve Paramount Pictures'ın o sene başında Viacom'a devrinden itibaren en yüksek başarıyı elde etti ve Kuzey Amerika'da gösterime girdiği yıl en yüksek hasılaya ulaşarak ciddi bir ticari başarıya ulaştı. Film gösterimde kaldığı süre boyunca dünya genelinde 677 milyon dolar hasıla üretti. Yine Akademi Ödüllerinde  en iyi görüntü, Robert Zemeckis en iyi yönetmen, Tom Hanks en iyi aktör, en iyi uyarlanmış görüntü, en iyi film efektleri ve en iyi yönetmen dallarında ödül aldı. Film aynı zamanda Altın Küre Ödülü ve People's Choice Award ve Genç Aktör Ödülleri gibi ödüller aldı veya bunlara aday gösterildi. Filmin gösterime girişiyle birlikte, oyuncular ve betimlediği politik semboller hakkında pek çok yorum yapıldı. 1996 yılında, filmde bahsedilen Bubba Gump Karides Şirketi kuruldu ve dünya genelinde çeşitli şubeler açtı. Ülke genelinde çekilen sahneler gerçek hayattaki kahramanların izlerini taşır. 2011 yılında Kongre Kütüphanesi, Forrest Gump'ın Birleşik Devletler Ulusal Film Kayıtlarında korunması gereken kültürel, tarihi ve estetik bir film olarak seçti.

Senaryo
Forrest otobüs durağında beklerken, kendisiyle aynı bankta oturan yabancılara hayat hikayesini anlatmaya başlar. Hikayesi, Forrest henüz bir çocukken kambur olan sırtını düzeltmek için taktığı ve diğer çocukların zorbalık yapmalarına neden olan bacak aparatlarını anlatmasıyla başlar. Annesi Alabama'da Greenbow bölgesindeki evlerini pansiyon olarak işletmektedir ve Forrest evlerininde bir müddet konaklayan Elvis Presley(Peter Dobson)'e "hip-swinging" dansını öğretir. Okul hayatının ilk gününde okul servisinde görür görmez âşık olduğu ve ileride de en iyi arkadaşı olacak olan Jenny'e rastlar. Kendisine zorbalık yapanlardan kurtulmaya çalıştığı bir gün, bacağındaki aparatlar kendiliğinden ayrılır ve orta seviyedeki zekasına rağmen yüksek hızda koşabildiğini görür; bu sayede Alabama Üniversitesi'nden burs kazanır. Üniversite yıllarında, George Wallace'nin Stand in the School House Door (zencilerin okula girmemesi için okul kapısında bekleyerek gerçekleştirdiği eylem)'e tanıklık eder, Amerikan futbolu oynamaya başlayıp ün kazanır ve bu sayede Başkan John F. Kennedy ile tokalaşma imkânı bulur.

Forrest, üniversiteden mezun olduktan sonra, daha sonraları birlikte karides işine girmek üzere anlaştıkları Benjamin Buford Blue (Mykelti Williamson), yani "Bubba" ile arkadaş olacakları Birleşik Devletler Ordusuna katılır. Forrest ile Bubba birlikte o esnalarda savaşın hüküm sürdüğü Vietnam'a gönderilirler ve devriye gezdikleri bir gün pusuya düşürülürler. Forrest, müfreze komutanı teğmen Dan Taylor (Gary Sinise) ile birlikte dört kişiyi kurtarır; fakat Bubba ölür. Forrest ise bu esnada kalçasından vurulur ve üstün cesaretinden ötürü Başkan Lyndon B. Johnson'dan şeref madalyası alır. Tedavisi esnasında Forrest, aldığı yaralardan ötürü bacağı diz kapağının altından kesilen teğmen Dan ile tekrar karşılaşır. Teğmen Dan, kendisini kurtararak sakat kalmasına neden olduğu ve kaderinin önüne geçtiğini, kendisinin de ataları gibi savaşta ölmesi gerektiğini düşündüğü için, kendisini kurtaran Forrest'a kızgındır. Forrest, Washington'dayken National Mall'de savaş karşıtı bir gösteriye istemeden katılır ve orada Jenny ile karşılaşır. Birlikte tüm gece dolaşırlar fakat Jenny ertesi gün, kendisine şiddet uygulayan, ağzı bozuk erkek arkadaşına geri döner.

Forrest bir ara pinpon oynamadaki yeteneğini keşfeder ve Birleşik Devletler Ordu Takımında oynamaya başlar, hatta Çin takımına karşı oynanan bir dostluk maçında görev alır. Ardından Beyaz Saray'a tekrar çıkar ve Başkan Richard Nixon ile tekrar bir araya gelir. Başkan Gump'a Watergate Oteli'nde bir oda ayarlar, Gump burada Watergate Skandalı'nın ortaya çıkmasına farkında olmadan yardımcı olur. Elde ettiği sayısız başarıdan ötürü John Lennon ile birlikte The Dick Cavett Show'a katılır ve burada Lennon'un "Imagine" şarkısına esin kaynağı olur. Forrest hayattan umudunu kesmiş, içki müptelası haline gelen teğmen Dan ile tekrar karşılaşır. Dan, Forrest'ın karides işine girme planlarını küçümser ve bu işe girerse kendisinin ilk elemanı olacağına dair alaycı bir şekilde söz verir. Bu esnada Jenny kendi hayatını mahvedecek bir çizgide ilerlemektedir; sayısız erkekle zaman geçiren bir eroin bağımlısı haline gelmiştir hatta bir seferinde intihar etmeyi düşünür.

Forrest ordudan ayrıldıktan sonra pinpon reklamından kazandığı parayla Bubba'ya askerdeyken verdiği sözü tutarak bir karides teknesi alır ve tekneye Jenny adını verir. Teğmen Dan de sözünü tutarak Forrest'ın yanına gelir ve ilk çalışanı olur. Başlarda karides işinde şansları pek yaver gitmez; fakat Carmen kasırgasının diğer teknelere zarar verip rekabeti ortadan kaldırmasıyla birlikte Bubba Gump Karides Şirketi büyük bir başarı elde eder. Kasırga esnasında tanrıyla barışan teğmen Dan, sonunda Forrest'a hayatını kurtardığı için teşekkür eder. Daha sonra Forrest hastalanan annesi için eve geri döner ve bir süre sonra annesi vefat eder. Forrest şirketi Dan'in yönetimine bırakır ve o da daha sonraları tüm servetini kendilerini milyoner edecek bir "meyve şirketine" (Apple) yatırır. Forrest, Bubba'nın annesine, düşük ücretle çalıştığı işini bırakmasını sağlayacak hatırı sayılır bir miktar içeren çek verir.

Jenny, Forrest'ın yanına geri döner ve bir müddet onunla kalır. Forrest Jenny'e evlenme teklif eder fakat Jenny reddeder. Birlikte geçirdikleri gecenin ardından Jenny ertesi gün sessizce evden ayrılır. Forrest bir anda koşmaya karar verir fakat koşusu batı sahilinden doğu sahiline uzanan bir maratona dönüşür. Koşu esnasında Forrest'ın pek çok takipçisi olur ve iflas etmiş pek çok girişimciye de esin kaynağı olur. Bir gün koşmayı aniden bırakır ve evine döner. Jenny'den kendisini ziyaret etmesini isteyen ve hayatını bankta anlatmasına neden olan bir mektup alır. Buluştuktan kısa süre sonra, kendisi gibi Forrest adında bir oğlu (Haley Joel Osment) olduğunu öğrenir. Jenny ayrıca kendisine bilinmeyen bir virüsün bulaştığını ve tedavisinin mümkün olmadığını söyler. Bu sefer evlenme teklifini Jenny yapar, Forrest kabul eder; Alabama'ya küçük Forrest ile dönerler ve evlenirler. Düğün törenine protez bacak kullanmaya başlayan teğmen Dan de nişanlısı ile birlikte katılır. Jenny bir yıl kadar sonra, 37 yaşında ölür. Forrest, okulun ilk gününde küçük Forrest'ı okul servisine bindirmek için, kendisinin de okula ilk başladığında annesinin oturduğu ağaç kütüğünün üzerine oturarak bekler, bu esnada kitap ayracı olarak kullandığı kuş tüyünün rüzgarda uçuşmasını izler.

Oyuncular
Forrest Gump rolünde Tom Hanks: Çocukluğunda ortalama 75 IQ'nun altında olduğu düşünülmesine rağmen, kendini sevdiren bir karakterinin olması, sevdiklerine ve görevine olan bağlılığı, hayatını değiştiren pek çok olayı beraberinde getiren karakter özellikleri… Hayatın akışında tarihte yer edinmiş pek çok figür ve olayla karşılaşır. Başlarda John Travolta başrol oyuncusu olarak seçilir ve kendisi de bu role seçilmesinin bir hata olduğunu belirtir. Bill Murray'de bu rol için değerlendirilmiştir. Ancak Tom Hanks senaryoyu bir buçuk saat okuduktan sonra rolü kabul eder. Tom Hanks filmdeki tarihsel olayların çarpıtılmaması şartıyla rolü kabul eder.
Jenny Curran rolünde Robin Wright: Forrest'ın ilk görüşte aşık olduğu ve ömür boyu sevmekten vazgeçmediği çocukluk arkadaşı. Çocukken tacize maruz kalan Jenny, Forrest'ınkinden tamamen farklı, hayatını mahvedecek bir hayat çizgisini tercih eder ve 60'lı ve 70'li yılların hippie akımına kapılarak uyuşturucu kullanır. Yetişkinlik döneminde, farklı zamanlarda Forrest'ın hayatına girip çıkar. Jenny, Georgia Savannah'ta garson olarak çalışmaya başlar ve küçük bir apartman dairesinde oğlu Forrest ile yaşar. Sonunda Forrest ile evlenirler ve kısa süre sonra belirlenemeyen bir hastalıktan ölür. (1982 yılında bu hastalık CDC-Centre of Disease Control tarafından AIDS olarak adlandırıldı.)
Teğmen Dan Taylor rolünde Gary Sinise: Amerika'nın yer aldığı her bir savaşta atalarından biri ölen ve kendinin de sonunun aynı olacağına inanan, Forrest ve Bubba'nın Vietnam Savaşındaki komutanı. Düşürüldükleri bir pusuda bacaklarını kaybeden ve kendisini kurtararak sakat bıraktığı ve derin bir depresyona ittiği için Forrest'a kızgındır. Bubba Gump Karides Şirketinde Forrest'ın ilk ortağı olarak emirlerin çoğunu o verir ve yaşama sevincini yeniden kazanır. Forrest'ı affeder ve hayatını kurtardığı için ona teşekkür eder.
Benjamin Bufor Blue "Bubba" rolünde Mykelti Williamsons: Bubba, Forest'ın orduya katılmasıyla tanıştığı arkadaşıdır. Bubba başlangıçta Bubba Gump Karides Şirketinin asıl ortağı olacaktır ancak onun Vietnam'da ölmesiyle yerini teğmen Dan alır. Forrest Bubba'nın şirketteki payını Bubba'nın annesine teslim eder. Filmde dudaklarını aşağı sarkıtabilmek için özel bir aparat takmıştır.
Gump'ın annesi rolünde Sally Field: Kocasının kendilerini terk etmesinin ardından kendini Forrest'a adayan annesi. Filmde kendisini koşulsuz bir şekilde oğluna adar ve dialoglarının çoğu birer slogan niteliğindedir.

Prodüksiyon
Film, Winston Groom'un 1986 yılında piyasaya sürülen romanına dayanmaktadır. Gerek filmde gerekse romanda ana karakter Forrest Gump'tır. Ancak film genel olarak kitabın ilk on bir bölümünü içerir ve Bubba Gump Karides Şirketinin kurulması, filmin sonundaki Forrest'ın oğluyla buluşması sahnelerini atlar. Romandaki bazı bölümlerin atlanmasına rağmen, bacak destek aparatlarını kullanması ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'ni boydan boya koşarak geçmesi gibi bazı sahneler eklenmiştir. Filmde ayrıca Gump'ın ana karakter ve kişiliği de değiştirilmiştir. Robert Zemeckis yönetmen olarak seçilmeden önce iki yönetmene daha teklifte bulunulmuştur. Terry Gilliam teklifi direkt reddetmiştir. Barry Sonnenfeld başlarda teklifle ilgilenmiş ancak sonradan Addams Family Values filmini çekmek üzere ayrılmıştır.

Çekimler
Çekimler 1993 yılı Ağustos ayından, aynı yılın Aralık ayına kadar devam etmiştir. Her ne kadar film setinin çoğu Alabama'da kurulsa da, film çekimleri genelde Beaufort, Güney Carolina ile Virginia ve Kuzey Carolina'nın kıyı kesimlerinde, filmin koşu sahneleri ise Blue Ridge Parkway'de çekilmiştir. Filmdeki Greenbow kasabasının çarşı merkez çekimleri ise Güney Carolina'nın Varville bölgesinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Forrest'ın çatışma anında koşarkenki görüntüleri ise Güney Carolina'daki Fripp Adasında çekilmiştir. Yine filmin bazı bölümleri Biltmore Estate, Ashaville'de, New York'ta ve New York yakınlarındaki Blue Ridge Parkway'de çekildi. Gump'ın film seti olarak kullanılan iki katlı beyaz evi "Gump House" ise, Güney Carolina'daki Combahee Nehri yakınlarında inşa edilirken, yine yakınlardaki bir alanda ise Curran'ın evi ve Vietnam ile ilgili sahneler çekildi. Savaş sahnelerinde, ortamı Vietnam'a daha çok benzetebilmek amacıyla yirmiden fazla palmiye ağacı kullanıldı. Forrest Gump hayat hikâyesini, Georgia Savannah'taki Chippewa Square'de, bir otobüs durağındaki banka oturarak anlatmaya başladı. Üniversite sahneleri ise Los Angeles'taki Güney Carolina Üniversitesinde çekilmiştir.

Görsel Efektler
Ken Ralston ve ekibi Indistrual Light&Magic şirketi, filmin görsel efektlerinden sorumluydu. Bazı sahnelerde CGI tekniğini kullanılarak, Gump'ın o anda hayatta olmayan kimselerle bir araya gelip, el sıkışması sağlandı. Tarihsel figürlerin seslerini kaydedebilmek için, seslendirme sanatçıları istihdam edilmiş ve yeni diyaloglardaki ağız ve yüz mimiklerini oluşturabilmek için özel efektler kullanılmıştır. Eski televizyon görüntülerinin içine Tom Hanks'i yerleştirebilmek için, chrome key, image warping, morphing ve rotoscoping teknikleri kullanılmıştır.

Yine sahnelerden birinde, Gump, Bubba'yı arka planda napalm bombaları patlarken taşımaktadır. Bu sahnenin çekiminde önce dublörler kullanılmış, daha sonra Hanks ve Williamson'ın sahnesi çekilmiştir. Hanks'in Williamson'ı taşıyabilmesi için tel üzerinde kayan bir çengelli halat kullanılmıştır. Önce taşıma sahnesi çekilmiş, daha sonra ise patlama sahneleri çekilerek, patlama esnasında koşuyormuş gibi gösterilmiştir. Rol gereği Gary Sinise'nin kesilen bacaklarının görünmemesi için, bacakları mavi bir bezle sarılmış ve sonra Gary Sinise'nin göründüğü her sahnede bacak kısımları CGI tekniğiyle boyanmıştır.

Washington DC.'deki Lincoln Anıtı ve Reflecting Pool'da düzenlenen bir barış gösterisinde, Jenny ve Forrest'ın buluşma görüntülerinde ise, kalabalık oluşturabilmek için görsel efektler kullanılmıştır. İki günden fazla süren çekimlerde, 1500'ün üzerinde ekstragörüntü kullanılmış ve her çekimin ardından insanların yerleri değiştirilerek, farklı kamera açıları ile tekrar çekim yapılmıştır. Bilgisayarların da yardımıyla bu görüntüler çoğaltıldı ve yüzbinlerce kişiden oluşan bir kalabalık oluşturuldu.

Eleştiriler
Film hakkında genelde pozitif görüş bildirilmiştir. Rotter Tomatoes, 63 kişiden %71'inin film hakkında pozitif geri bildirimde bulunduğunu belirtmiştir.Yine normalleştirilmiş oylama sistemi kullanan Metacritic ise 19 izleyiciden %82'sinin pozitif oy kulladığını söylemiştir.

Chicago Sun-Times'dan Roger Ebert, "Filmden önce Forrest Gump gibisiyle hiç karşılaşmadım ve hatta Forrest Gump gibi bir film hiç izlemedim. Aslında filmi açıklamaya çalışmak, onu olduğundan daha bilindik türden gösterebilir; ancak yine de bir şeyler söylemek gerekirse, bence film komedi türünde. Drama da olabilir, sadece bir hayal de. Eric Roth tarafından yazılan senaryo, modern kurgunun karmaşasını barındırıyor. Komedi ve hüzün arasında nefes kesici bir denge; insanı kahkaya boğacak ya da acı gerçeklerle yüzleştirecek bir senaryo…Ne fantastik bir film."

Gişe Hasılatı
55 milyon dolarlık bir bütçe ile üretilen film, ülke içinde 1,595 salonda gösterime girdiği ilk hafta, 24,450,602 dolarlık bir hasıla üretti. Senaryo yazarı ve danışman Jeffry Hilton, filmin ilk kopyasını izledikten sonra, filmin tanıtım ve pazarlama bütçesinin iki katına çıkarılmasını önerdi. Bu tavsiye üzerine bütçe hemen iki kat artırıldı. Film ilk hafta sonu hasılatında yer edinerek, dört haftadır gösterimde bulunan The Lion King filmini az farkla geçti.

Gösterime girdiği ilk 10 haftada zirvedeki yerini bırakmadı. Film 42 hafta gösterimde kaldı ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ile Kanada'da 329,7 milyon dolarlık hasılat üreterek zamanının en çok hasıla üreten dördüncü filmi oldu. 250 milyon dolarlık sınır 66 günde geçti ve 100, 200 ve 300 milyon dolar sınırını en kısa zamanda geçen film oldu. Film Amerika Birleşik Devletleri ve Kanada'da toplam 329,694,499 dolar, dünya genelinde ise 347,693,217 milyon dolar ile genel toplamda 677,387,716 dolar gelir elde etti. Film bu kadar büyük hasıla üretmesine karşın, Paramount Yapım, dağıtımcılara ve gösterim salonlarına ödenen yüksek paylardan dolayı 62 milyon dolarlık hasıla kaybına uğradı ve bu durum yöneticilere anlaşma yaparken daha dikkatli olunması gerektiğini bir kez daha hatırlatmış oldu. Ancak bu durum masrafları kabartmak suretiyle şirketlerin daha az kar payı dağıtmasını sağlamak amacı güden Hollywood muhasebesinden kaynaklandığı da söylenebilir.

Ev Medyası
Forrest Gump ilk olarak 27 Nisan 1995'te VHS kaset, 28 Nisan 1995'te de iki lazerdiskten oluşan ve "Forrest'ın Gözünden" isimli özel versiyonunu da içeren bir set ve 28 Ağustos 2001'de de iki diskten oluşan DVD seti şeklinde piyasaya sürüldü. Özel versiyon, yönetmen ve yapımcının yorumları, kısa metraj film ve deneme çekimlerini içeriyordu. 2009 yılı Kasım ayında da Blue-Ray versiyonu piyasaya sürüldü.

Ödüller
Film; En İyi Görüntü, Aktör, Yönetmen, Görsel Efekt, Uyarlanmış Senaryo ve En İyi Düzenleme dallarında 67. Akademi Ödülleri'ni kazanmıştır. Yine yedi dalda Altın Küre Ödüllerine aday gösterilen film; En İyi Aktör, Yönetmen ve Görüntü dallarında bu ödüllerden üçünü aldı. Film aynı zamanda altı dalda Saturn Ödülleri'ne aday gösterilmiş ve En İyi Fantezi ile En İyi Yardımcı Aktör dallarında ödül almıştır.

Aldığı çeşitli ödül ve adaylıkların yanı sıra Amerikan Film Enstitüsünün bazı derecelendirme listelerine de girmeyi başarmıştır. 100 Yıl…100 Alkış listesinde 37'nci, 100 Yıl…100 Film listesinde 71'inci, 100 Yıl…100 Film listesinin 10'uncu yıl yıldönümü özel lisel listesinde 76'ncı oldu. Yanı sıra, "Annem her zaman, hayat her zaman bir kutu çikolata gibidir Forrest; şansına ne çıkacağını asla bilemezsin, derdi." repliği de; 100 Yıl…100 Replik listesinde 40'ıncı olmuştur. Film aynı zamanda, tüm zamanların En İyi 500 Filmi listesinde 240'ıncı sırada yer almıştır.

Uyuşmazlık
Yazar Winston Groom'a, film senaryosu romanına dayandığından telif hakları için 350,000 dolar ve filmden elde edilen net kardan yüzde üç pay ödenecekti. Fakat film yapımcıları ve Paramount Yapım, Hollywood muhasebe tekniklerini kullanarak masrafları fazla gösterip gişe rekoru kıran film için zarar gösterdiklerinden, Winston Groom'a kardan ödenmesi gereken payı ödemediler. Tom Hanks ve yönetmen Zemeckis ise sabit ücretle anlaşmak yerine brüt hasılat üzerinden anlaştıklarından, her biri yaklaşık 40 milyon dolar aldılar. Yanı sıra, Akademi Ödülleri'ndeki altı konuşmanın hiçbirinde yazar Groom'un adı yer almadı. Ancak yazarla olan uyuşmazlık sonradan çözüldü.

Kuş Tüyü
"Bu filmin, 'içindeki çocuğu' anlatan filmlerden biri olduğunu söylemek istemiyorum. Fakat hepimizin gözüne çarpan ilk şey, Forrest Gump'ın çocuksu masumiyeti. Gülersin ve ağlarsın, bu filmde diğer filmlerin yapmak istediği şeyi yapıyor: Kendini filmin içinde hisset." Yapımcı Wendy Finerman

Filmin başında ve sonunda yer alan kuş tüyü için pek çok açıklama getirildi. Hanks bu kuş tüyünü şu şekilde açıkladı: "Kaderimiz, hayatta karşılaştığımız şans elementlerini nasıl değerlendirdiğimizdir ve tüyün hayatımıza girerek somutlaşmasıdır. Sizin ayağınıza da düşebilir, başka yerlere de konabilir. Bu bazı İlahi şeylerin oldukça büyük bir göstergesi." Sally Field ise kuş tüyü ile kaderi karşılaştırarak; "Havada uçuşuyor ve burada ya da orada yere konuyor. Bu önceden planlanan bir şey mi yoksa sadece şans mı?". Görsel efekt yönetmeni Ken Ralston ise kuş tüyünü soyut resim ile bağdaştırarak; "Pek çok insan için pek çok anlam barındırıyor."

Kuş tüyünün arasına konduğu ve Forrest'ın en çok sevdiği, annesinin ona okuduğu ve filmi Forrest'ın 1940'lı yıllardaki çocukluğuna bağlayan kitabın adı ise "Curious George"tur. Tüyün arasına konduğu sayfada ise gergin bir ip üzerinde yürüyen maymun yer alıyor. Bunu bilinçli bir şekilde yapıp yapmadıkları bilinmiyor fakat oldukça sembolik olduğu bir gerçek. Kuş tüyü aynı zamanda daha bir çocukken babası tarafından taciz edilen ve bu durum kendisinde takıntı haline dönüşen Jenny'nin bir kuşa dönüşüp uçma dileğini de sembolize ediyor. Jenny filmde Forrest'a; "Köprüden atlarsam, uçabilir miyim?" diye soruyor ve sürekli uzaklara seyahat ediyor.

Fon Müzikleri
32 parçadan oluşan fon müziği albümü 6 Temmuz 1994'te piyasaya sürüldü. Alan Silvestri'nin filmin ana fon müziği haricinde olanlar; Elvis Presley, Fleetwood Mac, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Aretha Franklin, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Three Dog Night, The Byrds, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix, The Mamas&the Papas, Aileen Quinn, The Doobie Brothers, Simon & Garfunkel, Bob Seger, Buffalo Springfield, ve Michael McDonald'a ait parçalar daha önce kendi albümlerinde piyasaya sürülmüştü.

Iki adet disten oluşan albüm 1950 ve 1960'lı yıllara ait ve Amerikalı sanatçılar tarafından söylenen parçalarından oluşuyor. Yönetmen Robert Zemeckis, filmde kullanılan tüm temaların Amerikan tarzında olmasını istemişti.

Fon müziği albümü piyasaya sürüldükten sonra Billboard Album Chart'ta en çok satılanlar listesinde ikinci sıraya yükselmişti. Yine 12 milyondan fazla kopya satarak Amerika'da en çok satılan albümler listesinde yer almıştı. Filmin ana fon müziği Alan Silvestri tarafından bestelendi ve 2 Ağustos 1994'te piyasaya sürüldü.

Filmin Muhtemel Devamı
Filmin devamı olması düşünülen senaryo 2001 yılında Eric Roth tarafından yazıldı. Senaryo, orijinal romanın devamı niteliğinde olan ve 1995 yılında Winston Groom tarafından yazılan "Gump and Co." romanına dayanıyordu. Roth'un senaryosu, Forrest'ın bir bankta oturup oğlunun okuldan dönmesini beklemesiyle başlıyordu. Fakat 11 Eylül 2001 saldırısından sonra, Roth, Zemeckis ve Hanks filmin pek de yerinde olmayacağını düşündüler. 2007 yılı Mart ayında ise Paramount yapım senaryoyla tekrar ilgilenmeye başladı.

Devam niteliğindeki romanın ilk sayfasında Forrest Gump okuyuculara "Asla birilerinin sizin hayat hikayenizi filme çevirmesine izin vermeyin, doğru veya yanlış anlamaları önemli değil." der. Kitabın ilk bölümü, filmde anlatılan gerçekleşmiş olayların, Forrest'ın öyküsüyle örtüştüğünü ve Forrest'ın sinema filmi sayesinde medyanın bayağı ilgisini çektiğini belirtir. Devam romanında Gump, Tom Hanks ile karşılaşır, romanın sonunda film gösterime çıkar ve Gump, The David Letterman Show ile Akademi Ödülleri'ne katılır.

Kaynakça

1994 çıkışlı komedi-drama filmleri
1994 çıkışlı romantik dram filmleri
1990'larda dramatik genç yetişkin filmleri
1990'larda romantik komedi filmleri
1990'larda İngilizce filmler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Ulusal Film Arşivi filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri alternatif tarih filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri dramatik genç yetişkin filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri epik filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri komedi-drama filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri romantik dram filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri romantik komedi filmleri
Doğrusal olmayan anlatı içeren Amerika Birleşik Devletleri filmleri
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri romanlarından uyarlanan filmler
Askerî mizah filmleri
Robert Zemeckis'in yönettiği filmler
Eric Roth'un senaryosunu yazdığı filmler
Alan Silvestri'nin müziğini yaptığı filmler
IMAX filmler
Paramount Pictures filmleri
En İyi Film Akademi Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Görsel Efekt Akademi Ödülü kazanan filmler
En İyi Drama Filmi Altın Küre Ödülü sahipleri
BAFTA Ödülü kazanan filmler
Çek Aslanı Ödülü kazanan filmler
En İyi Fantastik Film Saturn Ödülü sahipleri
En İyi Film National Board of Review Ödülü sahipleri
1951'de geçen filmler
1955'te geçen filmler
1962'de geçen filmler
1964'te geçen filmler
1967'de geçen filmler
1969'da geçen filmler
1971'de geçen filmler
1972'de geçen filmler
1974'te geçen filmler
1976'da geçen filmler
1979'da geçen filmler
1981'de geçen filmler
1982'de geçen filmler
Konusu Beyaz Saray'da geçen filmler
Konusu Alabama'da geçen filmler
Konusu Arizona'da geçen filmler
Konusu Çin'de geçen filmler
Konusu Georgia'da geçen filmler
Konusu Louisiana'da geçen filmler
Konusu New York'ta geçen filmler
Konusu San Francisco'da geçen filmler
Konusu Vietnam'da geçen filmler
Konusu Virginia'da geçen filmler
Alabama'da çekilmiş filmler
Arizona'da çekilmiş filmler
Güney Karolina'da çekilmiş filmler
Kaliforniya'da çekilmiş filmler
Kuzey Karolina'da çekilmiş filmler
Maine'de çekilmiş filmler
Montana'da çekilmiş filmler
New York eyaletinde çekilmiş filmler
Savannah, Georgia'da çekilmiş filmler
Utah'ta çekilmiş filmler
Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Kara Kuvvetleri ile ilgili filmler
Amerikan futbolu filmleri
Amputeler ile ilgili filmler
Ensest konulu filmler
Gaziler ile ilgili filmler
Hippi filmleri
Madde bağımlılığı ile ilgili filmler
Otizm ile ilgili filmler
Psikolojik bozukluk ile ilgili filmler
Vietnam Savaşı filmleri
Watergate skandalı ile ilgili filmler
Lyndon B. Johnson hakkındaki kültürel tasvirler
John Lennon hakkındaki kültürel tasvirler
Elvis Presley hakkındaki kültürel tasvirler
Richard Nixon hakkındaki kültürel tasvirler
Çerçeve öyküler
John F. Kennedy ile ilgili eserler

Forrest Gump


Mindaugas Stakvilevičius (* 24. Juli 1931 in Stebuliai, Rajongemeinde Lazdijai) ist ein litauischer Politiker und Mitglied des Seimas.

Leben
Nach dem Abitur 1950 am Gymnasium Pagėgiai absolvierte er das Studium der Physik von 1950 bis 1956 an der Universität Moskau, das er mit der Promotion abschloss.
Von 1956 bis 1989 lehrte er in den Schulen der Rajongemeinde Šiauliai, und von 1956 bis 1992 am Šiaulių pedagoginis institutas.
Von 1990 bis 1992 und von 1992 bis 1996 war er Mitglied des Seimas (als Mitglied der Lietuvos demokratinė darbo partija).

Von 1996 bis 2000 war er Dozent an der Šiaulių universitetas und lehrte an der Šiaurės Lietuvos kolegija in Šiauliai. Von 2003 bis 2011 war er Mitglied im Rat der Stadtgemeinde Šiauliai.

Er war Mitglied von KPdSU, LDDP und Lietuvos socialistų partija (seit 1996, von 1997 bis 2006 Vorsitzender).

Weblinks

Mitglied des Ausschusses für Menschenrechte (Litauen)
Parteivorsitzender (Litauen)
Litauischer Abgeordneter (Oberster Sowjet der UdSSR)
KPdSU-Mitglied
LSP-Mitglied (Litauen)
LDDP-Mitglied
Politiker (Šiauliai)
Hochschullehrer (Universität Šiauliai)
Person (Rajongemeinde Lazdijai)
Person (Pagėgiai)
Mann
Geboren 1931
Litauer

Mindaugas Stakvilevičius


Frederikke er en dansk børnefilm fra 2007 med instruktion og manuskript af Heidi Maria Faisst.

Handling
Frederikke på 9 år bliver afleveret af sin far: Hun skal på weekend hos sin mor. Frederikke glæder sig, men weekenden går ikke helt, som hun har forventet. Moren har fået en ny kæreste, og hans ting fylder hele Frederikkes værelse. Der er ikke rigtigt plads til Frederikke nogen steder. Moren og kæresten skændes, og Frederikke er overladt helt til sig selv. Heldigvis kan hun lege med hunden Nielsen og sammen laver de en overraskelse til Frederikkes mor. Men moren bliver ikke så glædeligt overrasket, som Frederikke havde håbet. Frederikke mister helt lysten til at være på weekend hos sin mor og ringer efter sin far.

Medvirkende
 Laura Rihan - Frederikke
 Johannes Lilleøre - Michael
 Maibritt Saerens - Mor
 Benjamin Boe Rasmussen - Far

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Film fra 2007

Børnefilm fra Danmark

Frederikke


Orindiúva es un municipio brasilero del estado de São Paulo. Se localiza a una latitud 20º10'56" sur y a una longitud 49º21'05" oeste, estando a una altitud de 633 metros. La ciudad tiene una población de 5.675 habitantes (IBGE/2010) y área de 248,1 km². Orindiúva pertenece a la Microrregión de São José do Río Preto.

Demografía
Datos del Censo - 2010

Población total: 5.675
 Urbana: 5.223
 Rural: 452
 Hombres: 2.899
 Mujeres: 2.776
Densidad demográfica (hab./km²): 22,87

Mortalidad infantil hasta 1 año (por mil): 17,97

Expectativa de vida (años): 70,13

Tasa de fertilidad (hijos por mujer): 2,36

Tasa de alfabetización: 89,76%

Índice de Desarrollo Humano (IDH-M): 0,776
 IDH-M Salario: 0,715
 IDH-M Longevidad: 0,752
 IDH-M Educación: 0,862

(Fuente: IPEADATA)

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Localidades de São Paulo

Orindiúva


එකයිනොඩමාටා වංශයට කරදියෙහි පමණක් වෙසෙන පංච අරීය සමමිතියකින් යුතු සත්තු අයත් ය.

ජීව විද්‍යාව

ශල්‍යචර්මියා


La California Institution for Men (CIM), dite aussi prison de Chino, est une prison d'État pour hommes située à Chino en Californie. L'établissement est géré par le Département de l'administration pénitentiaire et de la réinsertion de Californie.

Description
La CIM s'étend sur un peu plus de 1 000 hectares dans une zone aride située à l'est de Los Angeles et comprend:

 Le centre de détention le plus grand du niveau I du système pénitentiaire américain; le niveau I signifie que les dortoirs sont ouverts sans périmètre de sécurité.
 Trois centres d'admission permettant aussi l'accueil à court terme, l'orientation et l'évaluation des détenus entrants avec le centre de détention central pour la détention moyenne/maximum de prisonniers venus des comtés du sud de la Californie; le centre d'accueil Est pour la détention moyenne/maximum de prisonniers ayant besoin de soins particuliers, de soins psychiatriques et cent lits pour les détenus atteints du HIV et de ses conséquences ; le centre de détention Ouest pour les prisonniers détenus pour une durée moyenne qui sont en attente de traitement/transfert vers des établissements de programmation.
 Les comtés relevant du centre de détention central comprennent le comté d'Orange, le comte de Riverside, le comte de Santa Clara, le comté de San Diego et le comté de San Bernardino. Il accueille aussi les prisonniers transférés du centre de détention de Pitchess de Castaic dans le comté de Los Angeles.

Population et personnel
Pour l'année fiscale 2006-2007, le CIM avaient 2 327 membres du personnel pour un budget annuel de 232,2 millions de dollars. En février 2012, la prison pouvait accueillir 2 976 personnes pour une population totale de 5 266 personnes, avec un taux d'occupation de 177%.

En avril 2020, la CIM comptait un taux d'occupation de 112,8% avec 3 357 hommes incarcérés.

Histoire
La CIM a ouvert ses portes en 1941, étant alors l'institution pénitentiaire la plus importante des États-Unis et la quatrième prison d'État de Californie (après la prison d'État de San Quentin, la prison d'État de Folsom et la maison de correction pour femmes de Californie, devenue la California Correctional Institution pour femmes située à Tehachapi). La CIM est donc aujourd'hui la troisième prison d'État la plus ancienne de Californie.

En 1970,  un programme de formation de plongeur professionnel a commencé à la CIM. Les diplômés de ce programme ont eu plus de chance de trouver un emploi à la sortie de prison et le taux de récidive n'était que de 12%; mais ce programme a cessé en 2003 pour des raisons budgétaires; puis il a rouvert en 2006.

Le détenu Kevin Cooper s'est échappé de la prison en 1983. Rétrospectivement, les facteurs qui ont pu contribuer à l'évasion comprenaient une condamnation « sous un pseudonyme », une « histoire d'évasion des prisons et des hôpitaux psychiatriques » non détectée et « un trou dans une clôture » entourant la CIM. Trois jours après cette évasion, quatre personnes ont été découvertes mortes dans les collines de Chino, et Cooper a été plus tard confondu et condamné pour ces crimes.

En 1987, la municipalité de Chino s'oppose au projet de construction d'un bâtiment pour les détenus atteints du HIV/SIDA, estimant que cela mettait en danger la population de Chino. Après que les responsables du service pénitentiaire ont annoncé qu'ils n'augmenteraient pas la population carcérale atteinte du SIDA à plus de 200 hommes, l'opposition à ce projet s'est atténuée. Le bâtiment a été construit et a reçu ses premiers patients en mai 1988, suivant le California Medical Facility ouvert en 1984.

Shayne Allyn Ziska  a été gardien de prison à la CIM de janvier 1984 à octobre. Il a été arrêté en 2004 pour avoir aidé les Nazi Lowriders (groupuscule de suprématistes blancs) à leur fournir  au sein de la CIM. Ziska a été condamné en 2006 à 17 ans de prison, sur des accusations de . Ziska est emprisonné à la prison d'Englewood.

Le gardien de prison Manuel A. Gonzalez Jr. a été poignardé à mort à la CIM en 2005. Les facteurs ayant contribué à ce meurtre sont la surpopulation carcérale, le manque d'effectif de personnel de surveillance, l'omission d'isoler le détenu en question en raison d'antécédents de comportement violent, le long séjour du détenu à la CIM, l'accès du détenu à une arme et le manque de gilet de protection de l'agent. Après le meurtre de Gonzalez, la CIM
a opéré des réformes. Le département de l'administration pénitentiaire et de la réinsertion de Californie a dû payer en juillet 2007 $1.2 million à la famille de Gonzalez.

En 2005 et en 2007, l'État de Californie a prévu de construire une centaine de places pour des détenus atteints de maladies psychiatriques à la CIM et à la California Institution pour femmes; mais les élus locaux se sont opposés à ces projets. Un « hôpital général de soins aigus à la CIM » avait reçu une licence d'exploitation en 1984, mais en mars 2006, la salle d'opération de l'hôpital a été fermée et en juillet 2007, le plan était de « renoncer à la licence » parce que l'établissement ne fonctionnait pas comme un hôpital.

Une émeute a éclaté au sein de la prison le 8 août 2009, au cours de laquelle plus de 250 détenus ont été blessés, et qui a mis douze heures avant d'être jugulée. La cause de cette émeute n'a jamais été élucidée. l'émeute a éclaté à 8h20 du soir entre majoritairement des détenus d'origine hispanique et des détenus afro-américains. Les dommages ont été importants, les lavabos ont été arrachés, des incendies ont éclaté et 50 détenus ont été transférés dans les hôpitaux voisins. La prison a été bouclée, ainsi que six autres dans la région.

En février 2010, le centre de détention des jeunes détenus  a été fermé et les autorités californiennes ont prévu de le transférer au sein de la CIM; mais en 2017, il demeure toujours vide, à l'exception d'un bâtiment servant à loger des employés du CDCR.

En août 2020, le rôle de la CIM en tant que centre d'admission a pris fin; c'était l'un des trois anciens centres d'admission en Californie qui ont été reclassés.

Détenus notables
Le clarinettiste et saxophoniste Art Pepper y a été incarcéré en 1964 pour trafic d'héroïne.

Le cinéaste Roman Polanski y a effectué une peine de 90 jours en 1977 et a été libéré au bout de quarante-deux jours pour .

Pandémie de Coronavirus
Le 4 décembre 2020, la presse rapporte que le virus COVID-19 virus a tué 27 détenus de la CIM et a infecté 172 membres du personnel et que 789 cas ont été guéris, 1 036 détenus ont été touchés.

Références dans la culture populaire américaine
 Le roman de Don Carpenter, paru en 1966 et intitulé Sale temps pour les braves, a en partie pour cadre Chino et son personnage principal, Jack Levitt, y est envoyé après avoir été condamné pour enlèvement.
 On peut voir la prison dans la saison 2 de Newport Beach, lorsque le frère de Ryan, Trey, est relâché.
 La prison sert de cadre à la saison 4 de Veronica Mars.
 Le film sorti en 1955 film Prisons sans chaînes a été tourné à la CIM et comprend des prises de vue avec de vrais détenus
 Dans le film 2 Fast 2 Furious Brian O'conner évoque Chino.
 Le film L'Exécuteur  est tourné à Chino.

Notes et références

Liens externes
  California Institution for Men

Comté de San Bernardino
Prison d'État en Californie
Fondation en 1941

California Institution for Men


El cloruro de 2,3,5-trifeniltetrazolio o simplemente cloruro de tetrazolio es un indicador redox usado comúnmente en experimentos bioquímicos para indicar especialmente la respiración celular. Es un polvo blanco cristalino, soluble en agua, etanol y acetona, pero insoluble en éter.

Test de Tetrazolio
El cloruro de 2,3,5-trifeniltetrazolio es un indicador redox utilizado para diferenciar tejidos metábolicamente activos de aquellos metabólicamente inactivos, principalmente en viabilidad de semillas. El compuesto blanco es reducido enzimáticamente a 1,3,5-trifenilformazán, o simplemente formazán, de color rojo, en tejidos vivos debido a la actividad de varias deshidrogenasas, enzimas importantes en la oxidación de compuestos orgánicos y, así, del metabolismo celular. En zonas de necrosis o de tejidos muertos, el tetrazolio conserva su color blanco o incoloro, debido a que las enzimas han sido desnaturalizadas o degradadas.

Nota: el tetrazolio es algo inestable térmica y lumínicamente, así que se recomienda evitar la exposición a estos ambientes.

Referencias
 Difco TTC Solution 1%

Cloruros
Tetrazoles

Cloruro de tetrazolio


البلاستيك أو ما يعرف باللدائن هي مادة سهلة التشكيل بصور مختلفة تتكون أساساً من سلاسل تدعى البوليميرات. منذ أن عرف العالم الثورة الصناعية، لا تزال المجتمعات تشهد التطور فمن عصر الفحم الحجري إلى عصر الذهب الأسود (النفط)، والذي ساهم في ظهور صناعات جديدة وكثيرة تطورت بمرور الأيام. ظهرت الصناعة البلاستيكية وازدهرت وأصبحت اليوم تحتل الصدارة بالنسبة للصناعات الحالية نظرا لاستخداماتها العديدة في الحياة اليومية وذلك لأنها تدخل في تركيب الأشياء والأدوات المحيطة بنا.

يتم استخلاصها من المواد التالية:
 البترول.
 الغاز الطبيعي .
 الفحم.

التركيبة
يتركب البلاستيك من الإيثيلين (هو غاز عضوي يتكون جُزيء الواحد من ذرتين من الكربون وأربع ذرات من الهيدروجين، ويرمز له بالصيغة: C2H4)، أحد مشتقات النفط، الذي يستخدم في صناعة البولي إيثيلين، من أشهر أنواع البلاستيك.

لاحتوائه على الكربون الذي يشكل العنصر الفعّال في صناعة البوليمار، و يضاف إليه مواد تكسبه خواص معينة كالليونة والمرونة والشفافية.

صناعة البلاستيك
تشمل صناعة البلاستيك مرحلة تصنيع البوليميرات فمرحلة تشكيل المنتج النهائي.

تحضير البوليمار
تقوم مصانع البتروكيماوية بتحويل البترول الخام إلى مونوميرات عن طريق تكسير الروابط. ثم يتم ربط المونوميرات في سلاسل طويلة تدعى البوليمارات ويتم إنجازها في وحدات قياسية.

تشكيل المنتج النهائي
يتم خلالها تشكيل المنتج النهائي بعد إضافة المواد كالمقويات والمالئات والملدنات والإخضاب لتحسين خواصه ويتضمن تشكيل المنتج عبر 7 عمليات هي:
 القولبة ← صناعة قالب بالشكل المطلوب للصب أو السبك فيه.
 السبك أو الصب ← صب المزيج في القالب.
 البثق ← فك القالب .
 تلميس أو تشكيل رقائق المصقولة ← ازالة الشوائب.
 تشكيل الرقائق أو التصفيح ← ألواح تغطية المناضد.
 الرغوي ← الإسفنج المستعمل في المساند.
 تشكيل الحراري ← اوعية التعبئة.

القولبة
هذه العملية بدورها تنقسم إلي مجموعة من العمليات الأخرى:
 النفخ : تستعمل هذه العملية في صنع قوارير مجوّفة. تتم العملية بإدخال أنبوب من الراتينج المنصهر (باريسون) في قالب ويدفع بهواء مضغوط أو بخار إلى الباريسون الذي يتمدد دافعا الراتينج إلى كل جوانب القالب ويتم إبقاءه حتى يتصلب.
 الحقن : هي أكثر عمليات قولبة البلاستيك الحرارية شيوعا من أهم منتجاتها الهواتف وعجلات السيارات ...إلخ. وتتم العملية بإسقاط أقراص الراتينج من وعاء قمعي إلى القالب المُراد صنعه، وبعد مدة 10 إلى 30 ثانية فقط يتصلّب البلاستيك. ويتم فتح القالب بعد ذلك وإخراج المنتج المتشكل بواسطة مسمار طرد.
 الضغط : هي أكثر عمليات القولبة وتسمّى المتصلدات الحرارية شيوعا. من أهم منتجاتها دعامات السيارات ومقابض الأواني ...إلخ. تتم العملية بضغط على البلاستيك وبعد التكوين يضغط على القالب المستعمل في تشكيل المنتج النهائي.
 القوة الدورانية: من منتجاتها كل شيء مجوّف مثل كرة القدم الأطفال واللعب (الدُمى) ...إلخ. تتم العملية كالتالي:
 ملئ القالب جزئيا بمسحوق الراتينج.
 تسخين القالب وكذلك يدار المحرك بسرعة قصوى مشكل قوة الطرد المركزية.
 تقوم هذه القوة المسماة قوة الراتينج بدفع المنصهر إلى جدران القالب وتبقيها في وضعها حتى تتصلب.

السبك أو الصب
هو غير القولبة حيث أنه لا يعتمد فيه على ضغط خارجي لتشكيل البلاستيك، ويقوم المُصنّعون باعتماد هذه الطريقة لتشكيل كل مواد البلاستيك الحرارية وتصلد الحراري وتتم هذه العملية بصب الراتينج المنصهر في قالب وتركه يبرد ويتصلد ومن منتجات هذه العملية : الألواح السميكة والتروس ...إلخ.

البثق
وتستعمل هذه العملية لإنتاج الأنابيب والقضبان وأغطية الأسلاك ...إلخ.
وذلك بإدخال جُزيئات صلبة من البلاستيك الحراري الخارجة من إناء مخروطي إلى داخل أسطوانة ساخنة ويدفع واحد أو أكثر من اللوالب الدوّارة حيث تدفع وتنصهر إلى الأمام، ثم تندفع المادة المتشكلة إلى الخارج.

التلميس أو تشكيل رقائق المصقولة
وذلك بوضع البلاستيك المنصهر بين زوجين مصقولين من الأسطوانات الساخنة، تنتج عن هذه العملية عناصر مثل: أوراق اللعب المغطّاة بالبلاستيك والأفرشة المستعملة في المناضد، وذلك بعد إضافة ألياف الأوراق أو رقائق من المعدن .

تشكيل الرقائق أو التصفيح
وذلك بتلصيق أكداس من الألياف الزجاجية والخشب و الورق وأقمشة ...إلخ.
نقوم بنقع هذه الرقائق في الراتينج، تتم العملية بوضع الواحدة فوق الأخرى ووضعها تحت آلة حيث تقوم هذه الآلة بضغطها حتى يقوم الراتينج بتلصيق الرقائق مع بعضها بقوة الضغط وتنتج عن هذه العملية الخشب المضغوط وألواح تغطية المناضد ...إلخ.

التشكيل الرغوي
وهذه من الطرق المتعددة لإنتاج البلاستيك الإسفنجي وكل هذه التقنيات تتضمن إدخال غاز ساخن من راتينج البلاستيك، حيث يتمدد هذا الأخير ويكون فقاعات داخل الراتينج حتى يبرد، ويكون المنتج النهائي عبارة عن بلاستيك إسفنجي خفيف الوزن.

أم من أجل تقوية البلاستيك الإسفنجي فيقوم المصنعون بإضافة الراتينج وتغير الطريقة المستعملة في التصنيع ويكون قويا لاستعماله عازل في المنازل وفي تغليف وتعبئة الوجبات السريعة ويكون لينا لاستعماله في المساند ووسادات الأثاث.

التشكيل الحراري
هي العملية الأقل تكلفة من حيث المال بالمقارنة مع العمليات الأخرى .
وتتم بتثبيت رقائق البلاستيك فوق القالب وتسخينها حتى تصبح لينة، ثم تقوم مضخة الهواء بامتصاص الرقائق اللينة إلى الأسفل حتى تُغطّي جميع القالب وهكذا تبرد وتتصلد في أشكال وقوالب مختلفة وأهم منتجاتها أحواض الاستحمام وقواعد الحمامات الرشاشات ...إلخ.

أهم الدول المصنعة للبلاستيك
تعدّ كل من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية واليابان من البلدان الرائجة في صناعة البلاستيك في العالم ويعتمد صناعة البلاستيك على الكم الوافر من النفط.

وتنقسم الشركات المصنعة:
 الشركات المجهزة والمعدة للأجهزة البلاستيك
 الشركات المصنعة للراتينجي

يستحب تواجدها في المناطق قريبة من مركز النفط.
 الشركات المنفذة :وتقوم بتحويل الراتينج إلي منتجات.

أنواع البلاستيك

البلاستيك الحراري
وهو الذي يليّن بالحرارة فيغيّر من شكلها وبالتالي يمكن صهره وإعادة تشكيله وهذا النوع هو الأكثر استعمالا من ذلك: الأكياس البلاستيكية، القارورات البلاستيكية ...إلخ.

البلاستيك اللاحراري
يتحوّل هذا النوع من اللدائن بعد تشكيله إلى مواد غير منصهرة، لا يمكن إعادة تليينها وتشكيلها عند إعادة التسخين، ومن أمثلة عن هذه البوليميرات :راتنجات الفينول وراتنجات اليوريا فورماهيدو يستعمل هذا النوع من البلاستيك في تغليف الأسلاك الكهربائية ومقابض القدور ...إلخ

طرق صناعة البلاستيك

التشكيل بالحقن
يتم تسخين البوليمار إلى أن ينصهر ويعطى مصهورا لزجا ثم يقذف المصهور داخل قالب بارد نسبيا ذو تجويف يمثل شكل المنتج النهائي حيث يبرد المصهور داخل القالب، تتميز هذه الطريقة بالسرعة والدقة.
وهناك نوعان من التشكيل بالحقن حسب المعدات المستخدمة:
 تشكيل بالحقن بالكباس.
 التشكيل بالحقن اللولبي.

طريقة قوالب الحقن
تعدّ الصناعة بواسطة قوالب الحقن من أقدم الصناعات البلاستيكية التي تعرف في معظم الدول:
يمكن تلخيصها في الخطوات التالية:

1-يملأ القادوس بحبيبات الراتنج .

2-يسخن الراتنج إلى الدرجة التي تجعله لينا وقابلا للتدفق.

3-يدفع الراتنج المتدفق خلال الفونية إلى تجويف القالب

4-عندما يبرد القالب فينفصل نصفيه متباعدين.

5-يطرد المنتج النهائي من القالب.

وتعدّ هذه العمليات الخمس من بين العمليات المشهورة في الحقن بالقولبة

طريقة البثق
تعدّ هذه الطريقة الأنجح في صناعة:

1-الأشكال القياسية كالقضبان والأنابيب والألواح والأشكال ذات المقاطعة الغير عادية.

2-الشرائط المفردة أو المتعددة الطبقات للاستخدام المباشر أو كطبقة تغطية للورق، الملابس أو أي سطح آخر.

3- عمل طبقة حماية وعزل حول الأسلاك والكابلات بالبثق.

وهذه الطريقة قياسية في صناعة الأشكال المختلفة وهذه الطريقة تصلح للمواد الترموبلاستيكية.

أهم العوامل المؤثرة على خصائص أنواع البلاستيك

يتم التجانس بين المواد المستعملة والتي تعد عبارة عن أنواع مختلفة حيث أن هذا التجانس له عدة عوامل مختلفة تؤثر عليه فمثلا : لأحداث التجانس بين المواد البلاستيكية المستقطبة مثل البولي أسترات والمواد البلاستيكيية غير المستقطبة مثل البولي اثيلين يجب إضافة مواد عديدة منها إضافة مادة; و هي تساعد على زيادة الترابط ;وتسمّى هذه العملية : كنتو بليزي ;تساعد على ربط أطوال البوليميرات مع بعضها البعض.

المزايا
من مزايا البلاستيك :
 سهولة التشكيل
 عازل للكهرباء
 مقاومة الصدأ والتآكل
 تعدد الألوان الواسعة
 رخص سعره
 إعادة تدويره

عيوب البلاستيك
 صعوبة الإصلاح وإمكانية إعطاء رائحة غير مرغوب فيها.
 عدم احتمال الحرارة العالية.
 صعوبة التحلل.

البلاستيك والبيئة

يعرف البلاستيك على أنه منتج صعب التحلل إذ يستغرق ما يقارب 4 قرون من الزمن للتحلل، كما أن حرقه يؤدى إلى انتشار غازات سامة قد تؤثر على صحة الإنسان، ودفنها في الأرض لا يحل المشكلة فنفس المشكلة تنتقل من سطح الأرض إلى باطنه، فوجود البلاستيك في التربة يعنى القضاء على الغطاء النباتي .

الأثار المترتبة عن عملية التصنيع

 ملايين الأطنان من النفايات الصلبة السامة.
 استعمال محاليل سامة لتسريع الإنتاج.
 الغازات السامة التي تؤثر على العمال والمحيط كغاز البنزين.
 استخدام المعادن الثقيلة لتثبيت الألوان.

زراعة البلاستيك
لقد قام فريق من الباحثين من جامعة «برديو» من استنساخ جين من أحد النباتات. هذا الجين يحث النباتات على استخدام بعض المركبات والمحافظة عليها من أجل استعمالها كمواد أولية لإنتاج البلاستيك. وباستخدام النباتات لهذا الجين تصبح قادرة على إنتاج وتخزين تلك المركبات دون أن يؤثر هذا على النبات في حد ذاته.

النباتات، الذي سوف يضاف إليها هذا الجين، ستصبح لها القدرة على إنتاج أنواع جديدة من البلاستيك. تتميز بنفس خواص البلاستيك من حيث الشدة والشفافية، غير أن هذا النوع من البلاستيك يختلف عن البلاستيك المصنوع من البترول. إلا أن المشكلة التي تواجه الباحثين هي كيفية حث النبات على إنتاج كمية وفيرة من هذا المركب.

المراجع

تخصصات الهندسة
علم المواد
منتجات لدنة

صناعة اللدائن


Colistina este un antibiotic din clasa polimixinelor, fiind utilizat în tratamentul unor infecții bacteriene produse de bacili Gram-negativi, în special cu bacterii multidrug-rezistente precum Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae și Acinetobacter baumannii. Căile de administrare disponibile sunt orală, intravenoasă și intramusculară.

Este un amestec de colistină A și colistină B (polimixinele E), compuși polipeptidici cu structură ciclică. Este produs în mod natural de către specia Bacillus polymyxa var. colistinus.

Utilizări medicale

Reacții adverse

Note

Vezi și
 Polimixină
 Polimixină B

Polimixine

Colistină


Richard James Baker (born 29 May 1974) is a Scottish Labour politician and former member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for the North East Scotland region. He was first elected in the 2003 general election, when he was the youngest sitting MSP. He is a former member of Labour's Shadow Cabinet in the Scottish Parliament having served as the Shadow Cabinet Secretary for Justice and Shadow Cabinet Secretary for Finance.

Baker was born in Edinburgh to an Episcopalian priest father and English teacher mother, and is godson to the then Episcopalian Bishop of Aberdeen, Ian Begg. He was educated at the independent St. Bees School in Cumbria and at Aberdeen University. He was the elected president of the National Union of Students Scotland from 1998 till 2000 and before that the senior vice-president (an elected, full-time sabbatical officer post) at the University of Aberdeen students' representative council (now Aberdeen University Students' Association) in the academic year 1995/96. He is a former Scottish press officer of Help the Aged. Baker is a member of Unite the Union and the Co-operative Party.

In the early part of 2014, he was selected as the Labour candidate for Aberdeen North in the 2015 UK general election, after current MP Frank Doran announced his retirement. However, he lost in the election to Scottish National Party candidate Kirsty Blackman.

In June 2015, Baker announced he would stand in the 2015 Scottish Labour Party deputy leadership election. When the result was announced, he had come third of the three candidates in a close contest with 30% of the vote.

In September 2015, Baker announced he would be stepping down from the parliament at the 2016 election. He instead stood down early in January 2016 to take up a job with Age Scotland. As a list MSP, his seat was taken up by the next person on the Labour list for the North East Scotland region, Lesley Brennan.

Family
Baker's wife, Claire Brennan-Baker became an MSP after the 2007 election, representing the Mid Scotland and Fife region.

References

External links

 Richard Baker MSP – Personal website
 Scottish Labour Party – Crime & Justice

1974 births
Living people
Politicians from Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
Labour MSPs
People educated at St Bees School
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2003–2007
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2007–2011
Members of the Scottish Parliament 2011–2016
Scottish Episcopalians
Scottish public relations people

Richard Baker (Scottish politician)