En lingüística, el lema (o ítem lexical) es una unidad autónoma constituyente del léxico de un idioma. Es una serie de caracteres que forman una unidad semántica y que puede constituir una entrada de diccionario. En el vocabulario corriente, lema es frecuentemente usado como sinónimo de palabra, noción a la que sin duda le falta claridad. Un enunciado es una sucesión de lemas, y un lema es una sucesión de morfemas.

Cada lema posee un significante y un significado únicos, en el sentido que sus denotaciones —sentido propio— y sus connotaciones —sentido figurado— agregadas a sus modos de empleo, no quedan representados en ningún caso por otro lema. Por ejemplo en francés, los lemas sinónimos travailler y trimer no son idénticos, aún haciendo abstracción de la diferencia de significante. En efecto, y a pesar de que ambos están asociados a la misma denotación, «hacer un esfuerzo con el objetivo de obtener un resultado», el primero pertenece al uso corriente, mientras que el otro usualmente se aplica al trato familiar. El primero posee una connotación neutra o positiva, mientras que el segundo es francamente peyorativo, pues se asocia a un esfuerzo penoso o desagradable. Por cierto, deberá entenderse que cada uno de estos dos lemas tienen un campo semántico único y propio: el léxico en ningún caso es redundante.

Constitución de lemas

En las lenguas indoeuropeas (como el francés y el inglés), los lemas están constituidos de fonemas agrupados en morfemas. Un lema como por ejemplo anticonstitutionnellement (en francés), se analiza así: [ɑ̃tikɔ̃stitysjɔnɛl(ə)mɑ̃]
 Se distinguen diecinueve o tal vez dieciocho fonemas, según que pronunciemos o no la e inestable (la e caduc).
 En diacronía posee un radical de origen latino, sta- / sti-.
 Y en sincronía está constituido de seis morfemas:

En otros tipos de lenguas como las lenguas analíticas, el lema se reduce a un lexema o a una colección de lemas (palabra compuesta), sin posible descomposición en varios morfemas, frecuentemente debido a que son términos cortos. Así por ejemplo en mandarín, el lema que equivale a «corazón» es   (lema simple o único), y el de «amigo» es   (lema compuesto). En este tipo de lenguas, la sintaxis es frecuentemente más rígida que en las lenguas en las que los lemas están frecuentemente formados por varios morfemas, pues nada (o casi nada) permite distinguir las clases lexicales. Así por ejemplo el verbo que significa «comer» se dice   cuando es empleado sin complemento directo (literalmente: «como comida»), pero se dice en forma más breve   cuando el complemento está indicado:
   «como comida».
   «como carne».

Forma de los lemas

En las lenguas indoeuropeas
Un lema puede ser:
 Simple: una sola palabra → tendre, amour, jamais;
 Compuesto: una palabra compuesta (unidad formada por varias palabras) → rouge gorge, (s')entre(-)tuer;
 Complejo:
 un sintagma (grupo de palabras usadas en un sentido preciso, y relacionadas con un tema central) →: vert-de-gris, petit-bourgeois, grand-chose;
 una expresión compleja → je-ne-sais-quoi, je-m'en-foutiste.

En otro tipo de lenguas

En chino mandarín por ejemplo, la noción de lema se implementa de una manera diferente, según ya se ha viso antes en este mismo artículo. Una explicación mucho más detallada podrá encontrarse en los wikiartículos Escritura china y Sinograma, y en los documentos que se referencian.

Autonomía de los lemas

Cada lema que no sea una palabra simple posee una clase lexical y un significado independiente de sus componentes (en esos casos diremos que es un lema complejo). La autonomía señalada radica, para que el lema pueda existir, en el hecho de que no hay necesidad de que el mismo se encuentre asociado a un morfema o a otro lema. Por ejemplo y en francés, garou en loup-garou no es un lema, puesto que garou no puede decirse solo. Del mismo modo, el morfema -ons en marchons tampoco es un lexema independiente pues en un mensaje (en una frase) no debe expresarse en solitario.

Es difícil determinar el inventario exacto de formas relevantes de un lema. Un ejemplo bien conocido es el de los participios del francés:
 En Il est mort, o bien podrá interpretarse el passé composé del francés (passé composé) correspondiente al lema mourir (construido con el auxiliar être": Il est mort en quelques instants), o bien podrá interpretarse el lema être seguido del lema mort (Il est vraiment mort).
 Las últimas ediciones de Bescherelle (éd. Hatier) se distinguen de las precedentes porque indican la existencia en francés de un gerundio (gérondif) constituido por en + participio presente; según este enfoque, en mourant ("gerundio presente"), y en étant mort ("gerundio pasado") se distinguen dos formas del lema mourir.

Pero también sería admisible de excluir el auxilio o colocación gramatical del campo del análisis en lemas. Según la decisión retenida, una operación automática de reducción de un texto en lemas (para por ejemplo así construir un index o concordancia), hará o no hará aparecer las ocurrencias de être o de en en los ejemplos.

Sentido del lema compuesto o complejo

Cuando el lema va más allá que la palabra simple, está dotado de un significante independiente de sus constituyentes. Por ejemplo, el lema chou-fleur debe ser comprendido independientemente de chou y de fleur. Obviamente el significado no es ni chou en fleur ni une fleur de chou sino una legumbre bien precisa. De la misma manera, rouge gorge tampoco se relaciona con alguien que tiene la gorge rouge (garganta roja), sino con un tipo particular de gorrión.

Clase lexical del lema compuesto o complejo

Grippe-sou (cobrador/administrador) es un nombre, a pesar de estar compuesto por el verbo gripper (aprovechar) y por el nombre sou (antigua moneda francesa cuya etimología se remonta al solidus romano). Asimismo, je-m'en-foutiste es una expresión completa formada por los pronombres (je, me, en) junto a una forma adjetival derivada del verbo (s'en) foutre.

Puede observarse claramente que un lema es completamente independiente del modo de funcionamiento de sus diversos constituyentes: qu'en-dira-t-on es una expresión lexicalizada (con valor de lema) que funciona como un nombre pero no como un sintagma, o sea que el verbo dire (decir) allí no puede conjugase: no se puede decir por ejemplo « le qu'en-disais-tu ».

Lemas y diccionarios

Un diccionario clásico contiene los lemas de una lengua, aunque puede no presentar exhaustivamente las distintas formas de esos lemas. Cuando la lengua es flexiva (fusionante) o aglutinante, la entrada en el diccionario se encabeza a través de una forma o expresión dicha canónica:
 Para los nombres: (1) En singular en las lenguas sin declinación (como por ejemplo el español o el francés: pommes → pomme); (2) en el singular nominativo para el latín (solitudinibus → solitudo) o el griego antiguo (φλεϐῶν / phlebỗn → φλέψ / phléps); (3) en el nominativo o bajo la forma de tema en sánscrito (aśvasya → aśva-, forma sin desinencia); y también (4) bajo la forma absoluta en turco (kaynağın → kaynak); etc.
 Para los verbos: (1) Al infinitivo en español o en francés (mourront → mourir); (2) en turco (okuyordum → okumak), en la primera persona del singular del presente del indicativo, y también en latín (amabimus → amo) así como en griego (ἐλελύκεσαν / elelúkesan → λύω / lúô), etc.

Las reglas de clasificación de lemas en el diccionario de una lengua, para que puedan ser convenientemente establecidas, necesitan tener bien en cuenta la gramática de la lengua correspondiente, y especialmente cuando la lengua es de tipo flexivo, y muy especialmente, cuando el comienzo de las palabras puede ser modificado por la flexión (la clasificación alfabética de las entradas en el diccionario, se hace analizando desde el comienzo del término y hacia el fin del mismo).

Los métodos de enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras así como los análisis gramaticales que puedan resultar de utilidad, deben poner cuidado en las explicaciones, en cada situación y dada la específica lengua en cuestión de que se trate, y muy especialmente en casos que la correspondiente búsqueda en diccionario pueda ser compleja y alejada de lo que el estudiante o el usuario puede estar acostumbrado. Asimismo y en los diccionarios modernos, las formas difíciles de ciertos lemas reenvían o redirigen hacia el lema canónico, lo que por cierto facilita mucho las cosas. Y en algunas situaciones, puede que además se opte por incluir sistemáticamente todas las formas o casi todas (cf. Wiktionnaire, Wikcionario).

He aquí algunos ejemplos:

 En el caso del latín, para encontrar la forma poposcerunt se necesita buscar a posco, que es la forma canónica. Un diccionario de esa lengua, como el Gaffiot (Dictionnaire latin français abrégé de Félix Gaffiot, por ejemplo) asimismo presenta poposci indicando que se trata del pretérito perfecto del indicativo de posco. El estudiante que conozca la gramática de esa lengua, sabrá que poposcerunt es la tercera persona del pretérito perfecto del indicativo del verbo posco, « reclamar ». Y una persona sin ningún conocimiento del latín, y que deseara buscar esta forma, no podría saber de antemano que poposci y poposcerunt son dos formas del mismo tiempo y del mismo verbo, lo que obviamente dificultaría mucho sus búsquedas en el diccionario, pues no podría asociar fácilmente poposcerunt con posco. Mucho peor aún sería, si el diccionario no marca el reenvío de poposci a posco, pues no se podría a priori establecer el vínculo, ya que esas dos formas no estarían ubicadas en la misma página.
 También en latín, la forma milites no estaría en ningún diccionario de tipo tradicional, o sea en papel y en forma de libro, salvo que expresamente se lo ligara a su forma canónica miles « soldado ». En efecto, una palabra terminada por -ites podría derivarse de un nombre terminado en -es, y en ambos casos comenzar por las mismas letras. Pero un profano del latín no siempre tendría chance de descifrar, aunque fuera de manera grosera, un determinado texto latino, pues buscar el sentido de las palabras independientemente de la sintaxis, no es siempre posible.
 Por el contrario y siempre en latín, ciertos diccionarios informatizados (como por ejemplo Dictionnaire Latin Contart) son capaces de proveer el lema; entonces, la forma milites se presentaría asociada a su forma canónica miles « soldado », lo que obviamente facilita las cosas. En estos casos buscar por ejemplo "latus", permitiría conocer la forma canónica "fero" y sus sentidos, pero también "latus,a,um" y sus sentidos. Ese es también el principio por el cual se organiza el Wikcionario (el diccionario libre); tales diccionarios por cierto permiten encontrar con gran comodidad los lemas homográficos.

 El caso planteado es también frecuente en griego. Esta lengua utiliza aumento lingüístico y reduplicación lingüística (consultar Conjugaciones del griego antiguo), y en consecuencia la parte inicial de los verbos está frecuentemente alterada. Aun si los diccionarios de griego dan pistas de búsqueda, es imprescindible conocer algo de la gramática, para saber por ejemplo que la forma ᾤμωξα ốimôksa depende del lema οἰμώζω oimốzô, «lamentarse». Mismo si el esqueleto de las dos formas es idéntico, como en el ejemplo recién expuesto, las letras en común forman la sílaba -μω- en el centro de la palabra, lo que con toda certeza dificulta las búsquedas no automatizadas en un registro.
 En las lenguas celtas, el fenómeno de las mutaciones consonánticas iniciales es notable. En el idioma galés por ejemplo, es necesario asociar garreg, charreg, o ngharreg a carreg, « piedra ». Todas esas formas resultan en efecto mutaciones consonánticas que conllevan raíces-clave como los determinantes.

Lexicalización

Cuando una palabra simple, o una palabra compuesta, etc., entra en el léxico de una lengua, se habla de lexicalización.

Se dice por ejemplo que je-ne-sais-quoi está lexicalizado, por oposición a je ne comprends rien.

Je-ne-sais-quoi, en efecto, está dotado de una clase lexical única (obviamente es un nombre o tiene valor de tal, y al que incluso podemos hacer preceder de un artículo), y evoca un significado muy preciso. Y el significante no puede ser cambiado, o sea que debe se usado sin variarlo en lo más mínimo.

Terminología

Las nociones de lema y de lexema corrientemente están definidas de manera diversa, explícita o implícitamente, según opinan muchos de los lingüistas y muchas de sus escuelas de pensamiento. Para algunos, lo que en este escrito llamamos lema en realidad es un lexema, y entonces el término lema en esos contextos generalmente no es empleado.

En la presente enciclopedia digital libre, o al menos en el presente artículo, y a pesar de que esta elección puede ser contestable, utilizamos los conceptos de lexema y de lema según se indica a continuación:
 El lema es la unidad autónoma del léxico;
 El lexema es el constituyente lexical, autónomo o no, de un lema.

Véase también
 Léxico
 Lexicón
 Lexema
 Palabra
 Lexicología

Véase también (en francés)
 Lexique
 Lexème
 Lexicalisation
 Mot
 Lexicologie

Referencias y notas

Lexicología
Morfología lingüística

Lema (lingüística)


Aceasta este o listă de filme britanice din 2016:

Lista

Note

Legături externe
 Filme britanice din 2016 la Internet Movie Database

Vezi și
2016 în Marea Britanie
2016 în film
2016 în televiziune

 *Listă
britanice
Liste de filme britanice

Listă de filme britanice din 2016


Patronyme
 Stuart Roosa (1933-1994), astronaute américain.

Toponyme
 Rõõsa, village en Estonie.

Roosa


Emiratet Fujairah (; ) er et emirat på østkysten af den Arabiske Halvø og et af de syv emirater, der indgår i de Forenede Arabiske Emirater. Det har et areal på og et befolkningstal på  indbyggere. Emiratet omfatter hovedstaden Fujairah, efter hvilken det er opkaldt. Det har været regeret af Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi siden 1974.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fujairah
Fujairah
Forenede Arabiske Emirater

Fujairah (emirat)


Kompressor was a parody industrial hip hop act (2000-2005) performed by "Andreas K.", a stagename of webcomic artist Drew Fairweather from Washington Court House, Ohio, United States.

Kompressor was originally anonymous but later revealed himself to be Drew, the author of the Toothpaste For Dinner daily webcomic and blog.

Kompressor's music is self-described as: "Kompressor sound is hard and angry, good words used for song and electronic."

History and persona

Kompressor began in 2000, when Drew began recording songs under the Kompressor name and putting songs, and videos of the songs, up for free download. The songs became popular over the ensuing years, leading to four albums.

Kompressor is depicted in his albums and videos wearing a strange alien mask, usually with a black leather jacket and black gloves. He proclaims to be from Bremen, Germany, to speak English as a second language, and some of his songs are in German, or have some German lyrics.

Kompressor released a cover of the "Tunak Tunak Tun" song by Sikh bhangra singer Daler Mehndi. In Kompressor's version, the lyrics open with "Kompressor crushing American people, Kompressor driving cars into stores, Kompressor crushing all of Manhattan, Kompressor flying plane into building". The song was recorded before the September 11, 2001 attacks, in which terrorists flew planes into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in lower Manhattan. After the attack, Kompressor replaced those two lines of the song in the web-released video, splicing in an old man playing "It's a Small World After All" on a piano.

Albums
Kompressormusik (1998)
World Domination (2001)

Crush Television (2002)

Underground Archives (2003)
Discipline (2004)

Discipline Remix CD (2005)
This two-CD set is the final release by Kompressor. It set contains 52 royalty-free audio tracks, which contain all sounds from Discipline and many World Domination and Crush Television sounds, including drums, synthesizers, vocoder, vocals, and processed/acoustic sounds. The CDs also contain 9 tracks of out-takes, unused synthesizer and drum tracks, and fragments of never-heard b-sides from Discipline.

Public domain
According to Sharing Machine, Kompressor's record label, while the music is copyrighted, all existing Kompressor lyrics () are available in the public domain. Kompressor has also stated that his music is free to distribute, as long as it is not sold or used for commercial use.

Kompressor Singularity
Kompressor, who announced his intentions to revamp his project at the start of 2006, closed his online store at the end of 2005. Prior to closing the online store, he released all songs from World Domination and Crush Television (plus some songs from Underground Archives) for free download.

As of January 1, 2006, Kompressor's Singularity occurred. While not explicitly stating all music production will cease, his statement on the matter indicates that he will no longer sell music, and he would be selling off his music equipment. Additionally, the old Kompressor web site is replaced with a discography, yet other pages still exist on the server.

Sometime in late 2008 the Kompressor website was redirected to another website run by Drew, Superpoop. Drew was quoted as saying "You can buy Kompressor MP3s at amazon (drm-free) and there's no need to keep the old site online, so there you have it."

References

External links
Kompressor's LiveJournal
Toothpaste For Dinner webcomic and blog
Superpoop: His latest project, comedy image macro site
Kompressor Interview At Synthtopia

1979 births
Living people
American electronic musicians

Kompressor (musician)


Konunglegt merki Wales var formlega tekið upp í maí 2008. Það inniheldur skjaldarmerki prinsins af Wales (fjögur ljón á gulum og rauðum reitum) sem var tekið upp af Llywelin mikla, fursta af Wales á 13. öld, að viðbættri kórónu heilags Játvarðs yfir borða, ásamt einkennisblómum fjögurra landa Bretlands. Á borðann er ritað kjörorðið PLEIDIOL WYF I'M GWLAD ("Ég er trúr landi mínu"). Það kemur úr þjóðsöng Wales og kemur líka fyrir á velskum útgáfum eins punda myntar sem slegin var frá 1985 til 2000. Merkið birtist áður á forsíðum ráðstafana velska þingsins. Frá þjóðaratkvæðagreiðslunni í Wales 2011 hefur það birst á forsíðum laga sem velska þingið samþykkir, og er á innsigli Wales.

Merkið fylgir aldalangri skjaldarmerkjahefð Wales. Merki Wales hafa í gegnum tíðina ýmist verið einhver útgáfa af velska drekanum sem birtist á fána Wales, eða skjaldarmerki Llywelyns mikla. Skjaldarmerki Englands, skjaldarmerki Skotlands og skjaldarmerki Írlands koma öll fyrir í skjaldarmerki Bretlands, en þar er ekkert skjaldarmerki Wales þar sem landið var innlimað í konungsríkið England. Wales hefur því ekki sömu stöðu og þessi lönd innan Bretlands. Merkið hefur samt verið notað eins og skjaldarmerki Wales af velska þinginu.

Tilvísanir

Skjaldarmerki Evrópulanda
Wales

Konunglegt merki Wales


Karólínueyjar eru eyjaklasi í Kyrrahafinu norður af Papúa-Nýju Gíneu. Eystri hluti eyjanna tilheyrir Míkrónesíu, en sá vestlægari til Palá.

Eyjarnar urðu spænsk nýlenda 1686, en voru seldar til Þýskalands 1898. 1914, í fyrri heimstyrjöldinni, réðust Japanir á eyjarnar og hertóku og héldu þeim til loka síðari heimstyrjaldar þegar Bandaríkjamenn tóku þær af þeim. Bandaríkin deiltu þeim upp í Palá og Míkrónesíu.
Míkrónesía hlaut sjálfstæði 1986, en Palá hlaut sjálfstæði 1994.

Kyrrahafseyjar

Karólínueyjar


Les permis de séjour dans le domaine de l'asile en Suisse sont variés et octroient des droits très différents.

Tout étranger séjournant plus de trois mois en Suisse doit posséder une autorisation de séjour.

À l'arrivée en Suisse, une procédure d'asile peut être ouverte par une simple demande dans un aéroport ou à un poste de frontière. Depuis le , les procédures d'asile se déroulent sur six zones du territoire. Un centre fédéral pour requérants d'asile (CFA) chargé des tâches procédurales se trouve dans chacune d'entre elles.

Notion de réfugié en droit suisse
En Suisse la Loi sur l'asile (LASI) définit les principes, les critères, la procédure et les modalités d'application des décisions.

La procédure d'asile détermine le statut de réfugié, où le demandeur d'asile a le droit d'être entendu, de faire un recours effectif, etc. (une personne reconnue comme réfugiée dans tel État européen ne l'est pas forcément dans un autre, parce que la qualité des procédures varie d'un pays à l'autre)

Le Secrétariat d'État aux migrations (SEM), qui dépend du Département fédéral de justice et police, reçoit les demandes d'asile, auditionne les requérants et attribue des permis de séjours selon les critères d'éligibilité.

La Suisse est partie de la Convention relative au statut des réfugiés depuis le  ; le traité est en vigueur dès le . En raison de la diversification des catégories de réfugiés, la Convention est complétée par le Protocole relatif au statut des réfugiés, en vigueur à partir du .

La pertinence de la Convention est remise en cause au niveau du Conseil des États par le postulat de Damian Müller « Adaptation de la Convention de 1951 relative au statut des réfugiés ». Le Conseil fédéral accepte d'étudier la proposition, rend un rapport qui conclut que la Convention a toujours une importance majeure, qu'elle répond aux besoins actuels et qu'une révision n'est pas nécessaire. L'objet est classé le . L'Organisation suisse d'aide aux réfugiés (OSAR), qui a participé à la rédaction du rapport, s'en réjouit.

Permis N
Le permis N est délivré aux personnes qui ont déposé une demande d'asile et qui sont en attente de l'issue de la procédure.

Il faut être demandeur d'asile, donc avoir requis la protection d'un pays différent du sien, et en attente d'une décision. Être demandeur d'asile est un droit et la personne séjourne légalement dans le pays durant toute la procédure d'asile.

Droits avec le titre
Ce permis interdit l'accès au marché du travail durant trois voire six mois en cas de procédure étendue depuis l'arrivée sur le territoire (puis admission selon un ordre de priorité). L'aide sociale pour ses détenteurs est inférieure au barème ordinaire. Les voyages hors de la Suisse sont interdits (sauf motifs exceptionnels), l'individu n'a pas de choix du canton de résidence (sauf sur invocation du principe d'unité de la famille, ou avec l'accord des deux cantons). La naturalisation n'est pas possible. Le détenteur du permis N peut séjourner au plus  dans les centres de la Confédération avant de se voir attribué à un canton.

À l'issue de la procédure d'asile, les droits des réfugiés dépendent de la décision prise par le Secrétariat d'État aux migrations quant à leur statut légal. Il y a différents permis possibles, en sus d'une possible décision de non-entrée en matière.

Permis B

Si la qualité de réfugié est reconnue, selon la Convention de Genève, c'est le  qui est octroyé. Les critères sont d'être exposé à de sérieux préjudices ou de craindre de l'être du fait notamment de ses opinions politiques, de sa religion ou de sa race.

Il faut noter que c'est le même permis qui est octroyé à des ressortissants de l'UE qui ont trouvé un emploi en Suisse et souhaitent y résider. Le  permet donc à la personne en question de travailler en Suisse, de bénéficier des aides sociales et de profiter des services publics (comme les écoles).

Il n'est par contre pas possible de voter au niveau fédéral, ni de changer de canton de domiciliation.

Après cinq ans, la personne réfugiée peut faire une demande d'établissement (permis C) s'il existe aucun motif de révocation ou de rétrogradation, qu'elle est intégrée et dispose d'une bonne connaissance de la langue.

Permis F
Si l'asile n'est pas accordé, cela n'implique pas nécessairement une expulsion. La personne peut être acceptée sur le territoire suisse à titre provisoire. C'est le .

Il existe deux sous-catégories au  ; soit le statut de réfugiés a été reconnu mais l'asile n'a pas pu être accordé (cf. infra «  réfugiés »), soit le statut de réfugiés n'est pas reconnu, l'asile n'a pas été accordé mais le renvoi de la personne n'est pas possible, licite ou raisonnablement exigible (cf. infra «  pour étrangers »).

Permis F pour réfugiés
Le permis F réfugié reconnaît la qualité de réfugié selon l' de la loi sur l'asile (LAsi), mais il y a des motifs d'exclusion qui font que la personne ne peut se voir octroyer l'asile.

Motifs d'exclusion à l'asile
D'une part, selon l', l'asile ne peut être accordé à une personne qui devient un réfugié car elle a quitté son pays d'origine ou de provenance, ou à cause de son comportement ultérieur à la fuite. C'est-à-dire, qu'avant de quitter le pays, la mise en danger n'existait pas ; c'est par le départ de la personne ou après son départ qu'elle est apparue.

D'autre part, l'indignité au sens de l' est un autre motif de refus d'asile. Toute personne est considérée comme indigne de l'asile si elle a commis un acte répréhensible, c'est-à-dire si l'acte est passible d'une peine privative de plus de trois ans selon le code pénal suisse.  L'indignité peut aussi être retenue contre le requérant s'il met en danger ou porte atteinte à la sûreté de l'État (p.ex. l'espionnage, l'extrémisme violent, le crime organisé). Le troisième cas d'indignité est si la personne demandant l'asile est sous le coup d'une expulsion.

En d'autres termes, une personne qui remplit les conditions de l' et donc qui a la qualité de réfugié, mais qui se trouve dans une des situations susmentionnées, pourrait tout de même obtenir un  pour réfugiés.

Droits avec le permis F réfugiés
Le permis F permet d'avoir une activité lucrative dans toute la Suisse. Il se renouvelle tous les .

Le regroupement familial est autorisé au plus tôt trois ans après l'admission provisoire mais il y a des conditions à respecter tels que notamment un logement adapté et une indépendance financière. Il est possible de se marier.

La scolarisation des enfants est autorisée. Le voyage à l'étranger est possible sauf dans le pays d'origine.

Il est possible d'obtenir une autorisation de séjour () après cinq ans de séjour en Suisse. Pour cela il faut en faire la demande et certains critères seront évalués afin de déterminer si le permis peut être octroyé; les critères sont notamment le niveau d'intégration, la situation financière, mais aussi si un retour dans le pays d'origine ou de provenance peut être exigé.

Permis F pour étrangers
Le permis F pour étranger est une admission provisoire pour les personnes qui n'ont pas obtenu l'asile et qui ne peuvent pas être considérées comme réfugiées.

Motifs pour une admission provisoire
Ces personnes font l'objet d'une décision de renvoi de Suisse accompagnée d'une admission provisoire sur le territoire si« l'exécution du renvoi se révèle illicite (violation du droit international public), inexigible (mise en danger concrète de l'étranger) ou matériellement impossible (pour des motifs techniques d'exécution).

Le plus souvent, l'exécution de la décision de renvoi mettrait la vie de la personne requérante en danger en raison d'une guerre ou de risque de torture par exemple. Dans ce cas, la personne est considérée comme ayant un besoin de protection internationale.

Droits avec le permis F pour étrangers
Le permis permet une activité lucrative dans toute la Suisse. Cependant, c'est un permis qui ne permet le regroupement familial de la famille nucléaire qu'après trois ans et sous conditions (logement, indépendance financière…). De plus, le voyage à l'étranger n'est autorisé qu'à des conditions très restrictives. L'aide sociale dont ces personnes peuvent bénéficier est inférieure au barème normal. Il est possible de faire la demande du  après cinq ans de séjour en Suisse.

Il existe en outre la possibilité pour les personnes bénéficiant d'un  pour étrangers d'obtenir un statut de séjour plus stable est de faire une demande pour cas de rigueur ( humanitaire).

Permis S

Critères d'éligibilité
Il faut faire partie d'un groupe pour lequel une protection collective est accordée pour la durée d'une menace (par exemple: une guerre).

Créé en 1998 dans le contexte des flux migratoires liés aux guerres des Balkans, ce statut a en fait été activé pour la première fois en mars 2022 dans le contexte de la guerre en Ukraine.

Fin mars 2022, les catégories bénéficiaires sont les citoyens d'Ukraine et les membres de leur famille (mariage classique, concubinage et partenariat enregistré), les enfants mineurs, et les autres parents qu'ils soutenaient et qui résidaient en Ukraine avant le . Au printemps 2022, l'attribution du statut de protection S étant basé sur la nationalité ukrainienne, les autres habitants en fuite arrivant en Suisse n'y ont pas droit lorsque leur pays d'origine est considéré comme « sûr ».

Droits avec le titre
La personne qui reçoit un  bénéficie d'un droit de séjour pendant la durée de la protection temporaire. Elle est autorisée à exercer une activité lucrative dès l'arrivée sur le territoire (sur autorisation cantonale). La scolarisation des enfants est possible. La validité du permis est limitée à un an, mais peut être prolongée. L'aide sociale pour ses détenteurs est inférieure au barème ordinaire. Les voyages hors de la Suisse sont possibles, ainsi que le choix du canton de résidence en fonction des liens familiaux amicaux. Cependant, la naturalisation est impossible.

Critiques et questions
Des organisations comme l'OSAR critiquent notamment le fait qu'aucune mesure d'intégration ne soit financée pour les personnes ayant le statut de protection S. Liée à un statut « orienté sur le retour », cette absence de mesures d'intégration rendrait l'intégration des personnes concernées plus difficile.

Le , un nouveau groupe se réunit pour la première fois à Berne sur invitation de la conseillère fédérale Karin Keller-Sutter. Sa mission est d'examiner les difficultés et questions soulevées par le statut S. Ses membres sont en majorité des anciens conseillers aux États et l'ancien secrétaire d'État Mario Gattiker.

D'un autre point de vue, un jeune réfugié avec un permis F témoigne des difficultés de son parcours d'intégration. Il regrette en particulier de ne pas avoir pu apprendre le métier de ses rêves. Il souhaite que tous les réfugiés soient traités de la même façon.

Les Centres fédéraux pour requérants d'asile

En arrivant en Suisse, la personne qui fait une demande d'asile à un poste de frontière sera ensuite envoyée dans un centre fédéral pour requérants d'asile. La personne y séjourne, maximum , le temps qu'une décision soit prise.

Il existe deux catégories de Centres fédéraux pour requérants d'asile (CFA) : les CFA avec tâches procédurales et les CFA qui servent de lieux d'attente ou de départ. Il existe aussi une troisième catégorie qualifiée de centres spécifiques.

Les CFA avec tâches procédurales prennent les demandes des requérants d'asile et les examinent selon la procédure accélérée et rendent les décisions d'asile.

Les CFA sans tâches procédurales accueillent les personnes pendant la période de la procédure de Dublin ou celles qui se voient refuser leur demande d'asile. Ces dernières devant quitter le territoire, elles ne sont plus transférés dans les centres cantonaux.

Un centre fédéral spécifique est réservé aux requérants d'asile menaçant la sécurité et l'ordre public ou le bon fonctionnement des autres CFA.

Historique

Notes et références

Notes

Références

Voir aussi

Vidéographie
 Brochure électronique,

Bibliographie

 Coalition des juristes indépendant.e.s pour le droit d'asile. Présentation : Bilan de la restructuration du domaine de l'asile ; dossier :

Liens externes

 Récapitulatif des permis de séjour en Suisse : .
 Organisation suisse d'aide aux réfugiés, Sommaire de lois
 .

Droit d'asile en Suisse

Permis de séjour dans le domaine de l'asile en Suisse


Bayat, Çorum ilinin Kargı ilçesine bağlı bir köydür.

Tarihçe
Köy, 1919 yılından beri aynı adı taşımaktadır. Daha önceleri Taşköprü ilçesine bağlıyken, 28 Temmuz 1936'da Kargı ilçesine bağlandı.

Coğrafya
Köy, Çorum il merkezine 146 km, Kargı ilçe merkezine 40 km uzaklıktadır.

Nüfus

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

Kargı belde ve köyleri

Bayat, Kargı


Schizo ist eine italienische Thrash-Metal-Band aus Catania, die im Jahr 1984 gegründet wurde.

Geschichte
Die Band wurde im Mai 1984 von Alberto Penzin und S.B. Reder gegründet. Zu Beginn probten sie ohne Schlagzeug; der erste Schlagzeuger verließ die Band nach einem halben Jahr wieder, weil er mit ihrer Geschwindigkeit nicht mithalten konnte. Die Band hatte keinen permanenten Schlagzeuger, bis Carlo F. im August 1986 zu ihr stieß. Mit dem auf ihrer zweiten Demoaufnahme Total Schizophrenia enthaltenen Lied Nazi and Proud stieß die Band auf Ablehnung. Penzin betonte daher, dass die Mitglieder von Schizo keine Nationalsozialisten oder Faschisten seien; er gebe zu, dass es keine besonders kluge Idee gewesen sei, das Stück habe aber keinen politischen Hintergrund und sollte einfach nur brutal sein. Personen, die die Band wegen Nazi and Proud ablehnten, warf er fehlenden Humor vor. Für Schizos Debütalbum Main Frame Collapse wollte Penzin als Fan der Band Death deren Sänger Chuck Schuldiner für die Aufnahmen gewinnen und rief deshalb erst Combat Records und dann ihn an, Schuldiner musste jedoch wegen Verpflichtungen in letzter Minute absagen. Den Gesang übernahm stattdessen Ingo Veleno von Necrodeath, im Jahr 1989 wurde das Album veröffentlicht. Nazi and Proud war darauf nicht enthalten, laut Penzin, da die Band in der Zwischenzeit besseres Material geschrieben habe. Im Jahr 1990 widmeten sich Alberto Penzin und Schlagzeuger Peso von Necrodeath und Sadist ihrem Nebenprojekt Mondocane und veröffentlichten mit dieser Band das einzige Album Project One.

Im Jahr 1990 verließen Schlagzeuger Carlo F. und Sänger und Gitarrist S.B. Reder die Band. Dadurch pausierte die Band ein Jahr, bis Gitarrist Vittorio Blanco und Schlagzeuger Pat Pappalardo als Ersatz zur Band stießen. In den Folgemonaten studierten sie einige Stücke ein, woraus das Demo Wounds (In the Clay) resultierte. Im Jahr 1994 erschien die EP Sounds of Coming Darkness. Sie wurde von Toningenieur Steve Harris in den Fon Studios aufgenommen und in London in den Abbey Road Studios gemastert. Im selben Jahr kam als neuer Schlagzeuger Dario Casabona zur Band. Kurz darauf musste das Label der Band seinen Bankrott erklären, was dazu führte, dass die Band eine lange Zeit kaum aktiv war, nur wenig neues Material veröffentlichte und nur noch selten auftrat.

Im April 2007 meldete sich die Band wieder zurück und veröffentlichte das Album Cicatriz Black über Scarlet Records. Das Album wurde von Peter in de Betou (Marduk, Meshuggah) gemastert, das Cover wurde von Lorenzo Mariani (Mayhem, Darkthrone) gestaltet. Als Gastmusiker waren Steve Sylvester (Death SS), A.C. Wild (Bulldozer) und Flegias (Necrodeath) zu hören. Die Band bestand nun aus Bassist Alberto Penzin, Gitarrist und Sänger S.B. Reder, Schlagzeuger Dario Casabona und Sänger Nicola Accurso. Im September verließ Penzin die Band und wurde im Januar 2008 durch F.T. Dovorcon (Sinoath) ersetzt. Im Jahr 2010 veröffentlichten sie das Album Hallucination Cramps, ein Konzeptalbum, das sich mit Schizophrenie und anderen psychischen Störungen befasste. Das Album wurde im Resonance Studio und im Sound Empathy Studio von Riccardo Failla und Fabio Monaco aufgenommen. Abgemischt und gemastert wurde es von Graziano Manuele im Ueickap Home Studio.

Stil
Die Band spielt klassischen Thrash Metal und wird mit den alten Werken von Sodom und Kreator, sowie Celtic Frost und Venom verglichen. Der Gesang auf dem Debütalbum Main Frame Collapse wurde im Slayer als "berserkerhaft" und "manisch" bezeichnet.

Diskografie
 1985: Thrash the Unthrashable – Thrash to Kill!!! (Demo, Eigenveröffentlichung)
 1986: Total Schizophrenia (Demo, Eigenveröffentlichung)
 1987: Main Frame Collapse (Demo, Eigenveröffentlichung)
 1989: Main Frame Collapse (Album, Crime Records)
 1992: Wounds (In the Clay) (Demo, Eigenveröffentlichung)
 1994: Sound of Coming Darkness (EP, A.V. Arts)
 1995: Tones of the Absolute (Single, Nosferatu Records)
 1998: Nero (Single, Hit & Run Records)
 2007: Cicatriz Black (Album, Scarlet Records)
 2010: Hallucination Cramps (Album, Scarlet Records)

Weblinks
 Offizielle Website
 Myspace-Seite der Band

Einzelnachweise

Italienische Band
Thrash-Metal-Band

Schizo (Band)


Perros callejeros III: Los últimos golpes de «El Torete» (1980) es una película dirigida por José Antonio de la Loma y protagonizada por El Torete. Forma parte del género cinematográfico conocido como cine quinqui y es la tercera parte de la trílogía Perros callejeros.

Sinopsis

El Torete y El Vaquilla (Bernard Seray) son dos delincuentes juveniles con numerosos antecedentes penales que coinciden en el robo del mismo banco, decidiéndose ser compañeros a partir de entonces.

Doblaje

La película no fue exhibida con las voces originales de los intérpretes, que fueron doblados por actores profesionales como Joan Pera (el Vaquilla).

Enlaces externos
 Ficha en Hoycinema
 Ficha en Filmaffinity
 Ficha en Eldoblaje
 Coloquio sobre la trilogía comenzada con Perros callejeros, y en especial sobre Los últimos golpes de «El Torete»; en el programa de La 2 (TVE) Historia de nuestro cine, presentado por Elena Sánchez Sánchez.

Películas ambientadas en Barcelona
Películas de cine quinqui
Películas sobre la Transición española
España en 1980
Películas en español

Los últimos golpes de «El Torete»


María Elena Morán (Maracaibo, 27 de novembro de 1985) é uma escritora e roteirista venezuelana, radicada no Brasil.

Seu primeiro romance, Os continentes de Dentro, foi publicado em 2021, no Brasil (Zouk) e na Espanha (Ménades Editorial). Ganhadora do Premio Café Gijón 2022, com seu romance Volver a cuándo, que será publicado em janeiro de 2023 pela Ediciones Siruela.

Biografia
Graduada em Comunicação Social na Universidad del Zulia (2007), Venezuela, e no curso regular da EICTV, Cuba, onde estudou Roteiro Cinematográfico (2012). Mestre e doutora pela Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil (2022), atualmente vive em São Paulo, Brasil.

Tem contos publicados em antologias Melhor não abrir essa gaveta (Terceiro Selo, 2015), Fake Fiction (Dublinense, 2020), Acervo de Ficções (Zouk, 2021) y Não escrevo porque (EdiPUCRS, 2021), entre várias outras, assim como em revistas literárias como a Travessa em Três Tempos e a Letralia.

Seu primeiro romance, Os Continentes de Dentro, foi publicado no Brasil (Zouk, 2021) e na Espanha (Ménades Editorial, 2021).

Obras
 Os Continentes de Dentro. Zouk, Porto Alegre, Brasil. 2021.
 Los Continentes del Adentro. Ménades Editorial, Madri, Espanha. 2021.

Premiações
 2018 - Ainda assim, Prêmio Cabíria de Roteiro.
 2022 - Volver a cuándo, Premio Café Gijón.

Ligações externas

Escritoras da Venezuela
Naturais de Maracaibo

María Elena Morán


غوستيليتسي  هي مدينة في مقاطعة لينينغراد أوبلاست في روسيا.

يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 3506 نسمة.

مدن مقاطعة لينينغراد

غوستيليتسي (لينينغراد)


An Carex mucronatiformis in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Tang, Fa Tsuan Wang ngan S.Yun Liang. An Carex mucronatiformis in nahilalakip ha genus nga Carex, ngan familia nga Cyperaceae.

Mabibilngan ini ha Qinghai. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Carex

Carex mucronatiformis


An Leymus fedtschenkoi in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Nikolai Nikolaievich Tzvelev. An Leymus fedtschenkoi in nahilalakip ha genus nga Leymus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Leymus

Leymus fedtschenkoi


Boks, iki kişinin boks hakemi gözetiminde karşılıklı yumruklaştıkları ve birbirlerini nakavtla ya da puanla yenmeye çalıştıkları spor müsabakasıdır. Belden aşağıya ve enseye vurmak, sporcunun kendi etrafında 360 derece dönmesi, avuç içi (boks eldiveni'n beyaz boyalı bölgesi harici) vurmak, ses çıkarmak uyarı almasına neden olur, üç uyarı bir ihtar (-1 puan) alınmasına neden olur. Amatör boksörler 227 gr ağırlığında, profesyonel boksörler ise ağırlığı 170-283 gr arasında değişen eldivenler kullanırlar. Profesyonel boksörler yalnızca şort, amatör boksörler ise şort ve atlet giyer. Hem amatör hem de profesyonel boksörler karşılaşmada diş ve kasık koruyucuları kullanırlar. Amatör boksörler ayrıca koruyucu başlık da takarlar.

Ring
Boks karşılaşmaları boks ringi'nde yapılır. Ring, üç veya dört sıra halatla çevrili ve yerden yüksekliği en az 91 cm en fazla 122 cm olan kare biçiminde bir alandır. Halat aralıkları en az 40 cm olmalıdır. Ringte kırmızı, mavi ve tarafsız beyaz köşeler vardır. Sporcular ait oldukları köşeden, hakem ve doktor ise jüri masasına yakın olan beyaz köşeden ringe çıkar.

Profesyonel boks'ta ringin büyüklüğü 5–6 m², amatör boks'ta ise en az 3–6 m²'dir. Boks karşılaşmalarında, her iki boksörün de aynı siklette (ağırlık aralığında) olması gerekir.

Antrenman ve teknikler

Boks, zor ve çok yorucu bir spordur. Boksörler antrenman yaparak karşılaşmaya hazırlanırlar. Boks antrenmanı bir başka boksörle yapılan çalışmanın yanı sıra, gölge boksu, antrenman torbası ve kum torbasıyla çalışma, ip atlama ve kondisyon için koşu gibi başka çalışmaları da kapsar.

Boksta duruş çok önemlidir. Çünkü bir boksörün saldırı ve savunma gücü ile hızı, dengesine ve harekete her an hazır olmasına bağlıdır. Boksörün duruşu rahat olmalıdır. İyi bir duruşta sağ ayak, biraz öndeki sol ayakla bir denge oluşturacak biçimde sağa doğru biraz açılmalıdır. Her iki ayağın ucu da hafifçe sağa dönük olmalıdır. Böylece bedenin yalnızca sol yanı rakibe açık tutulur. Hafifçe sıkılmış sol yumruk biraz ileride ve çene hizasında olmalıdır. Sağ kol da çene hizasında, ama çeneden yaklaşık 15 cm önde tutulur. Her iki kolun dirseği, bedeni korumak için içe doğru çekilmelidir. Bedenin öne doğru biraz eğik tutulması, rakibin yumruğu karşısında denge yitirilmeksizin geriye kaçmayı kolaylaştırır.

Doğru vuruş boksun temelini oluşturur. Bu temel boksun en önemli koşuludur. Rakibe atılan yumruğun eldivenin içinde iyice sıkılmış olması gerekir. Başlıca vuruş biçimleri şunlardır:

 direkt yumruk (straight punch)
 sağ direkt (right straight punch)
 sol direkt (left straight punch)
 sağ kroşe (right hook punch)
 sol kroşe (left hook punch)
 aparkat (uppercut punch)
 swing
 dış el yumruk (backfist)
 sağ dış el yumruk
 sol dış el yumruk
Direkt vuruş adından da anlaşılacağı gibi düz bir şekilde atılır. Sol kroşe ise sol kol ile gövde arasında 45-90 derece arasında açı yapılarak atılan vuruştur. (Aynı durumun tersi sağ kroşe için geçerlidir). Aparkat çok fazla kullanılmayan,yani genelde vurma fırsatı bulunmayan bir vuruş türüdür. Fakat böyle bir durum yakalandığında çok sert etki bırakır. Genelde çeneyi hedef alır. Swing ise kroşelerin uzatılmış şeklidir. Devamlı hareketlerle rakibi şuursuz bir hücuma zorlamak ve hemen kontraataklara geçmek üzere yapılır.

Yasak Kuralları
 Belden aşağıya ve enseye vurmak
 Sporcunun kendi etrafında 360 derece dönerek rakibine vurması
 Avuç içi (eldivenin beyaz boyalı bölgesi harici) ile vurmak
 Dirsekle rakibe vurmak
 Kulağın arka tarafına vurmak
 Arkadan vurmak
 Tekme atmak
 Kafa atmak
Yasak olan kurallardan bazılarıdır. Eğer oyuncu bunlardan birini uygularsa ihtar alır.

Kararlar
Maçların kararları genelde ya ringdeki hakem tarafından verilir ya da kenarda oturan üç 	yan hakem tarafından. Maçlar alttaki kararlardan biri ile sonuçlanır:

Nakavt
 Teknik nakavt (technical knockout): maç esnasında ring içindeki hakem boksörün sağlıklı bir şekilde maç'a devam edemeyeceğine karar verir ve maçı bitirir.
 Nakavt (knockout): maç esnasında boksör yere serilir ve ayağa kalkamaz, boksör ayık ise hakem 10'a kadar sayar.
 Hakemin teknik kararı/Köşe çekilir (referee technical decision/corner retirement): raund arası dinlenme esnasında ringdeki hakem maçı kendi veya doktor kararı ile, veya boksör devam edemeyeceğini belirttikten sonra bitirir.

Yan hakem oylaması
 Karar oy birliği (unanimous decision): maç sonu üç yan hakemden üçü de aynı boksör'ü kazanan olarak seçer
 Karar çoğunluğu (majority decision): maç sonu iki yan hakem aynı boksör'ü kazanan olarak seçer, üçüncü ise berabere kararı verir
 Karar ayrılığı (split decision): maç sonu iki yan hakem aynı boksör'ü kazanan olarak seçer, üçüncü ise rakip boksör'ü seçer
 Teknik karar (technical decision): maç esnasında kazara yaralanma nedeni ile ringdeki hakem maçı erken bitirir ve yan hakemler kazanan boksor'ü seçer
 Berabere (draw): maç sonu üç yan hakemden üçü de berabere kararı vermiştir
 Çoğunluk berabere (majority draw): maç sonu iki yan hakem berabere kararı vermiştir, üçüncü yan hakem kazanan bir boksör'ü seçmiştir
 Ayrık berabere (split draw): maç sonu iki yan hakem farklı bir boksör'ü kazanan olarak seçer, üçüncü yan hakem ise maç berabere bitti diye karar verir
 Teknik berabere (technical draw): maç esnasında kazara yaralanma nedeni ile ringdeki hakem maçı erken bitirir ve yan hakemlerin oylaması berabere kalır (genelde bu karar artık verilmiyor, onun yerine böyle karar çıktığında maç sonuçsuz olarak kararlanıyor)

Diğer kararlar
 Diskalifiye (disqualification): maç esnasında boksörlerden biri kuralları tekrarlı çiğnediği için maçı kaybeder
 Sonuçsuz (no contest): maç esnasında genelde farklı sebeplerden dolayı kazanan veya kaybeden seçilemez
 Puan kararı (points decision): maç sonu ringdeki hakem kimin kazandığını seçer

Tarih

Eski Yunan'da ve Roma'da boks önemli sporlardan biriydi. Ama bu spor acımasız bir biçimde yapılırdı ve dövüş genellikle boksörlerden biri ölünceye kadar sürerdi. Daha sonra yasaklanan boks, 18. yüzyılın başlarında İngiltere'de yeniden ortaya çıktı. 1719'da James Fig, Londra'da bir ring kurarak hem ders verdi, hem de bütün rakipleriyle dövüştü. Çıplak yumrukla yapılan bu dövüşlerin kuralları yoktu ve çok acımasız biçimde bazen saatlerce sürüyordu. İngiltere'de 1866'da Amatör Spor Kulübü kuruldu. John Chambers ve VIII. Queensburg markisinin yönlendirmesiyle eldivenle yapılan maçlar için kurallar getirildi. Böylece çağdaş boksun temelleri atılmış oldu.

ABD'de ise boks 19. yüzyıl başlarında ortaya çıktı ve boksa olan ilgi 1880'lerde John L. Sullivan'la birlikte arttı. Sullivan, Paddy Ryan'ı 1882'de nakavtla yenerek eldivensiz boksun tartışmasız şampiyonu oldu. Daha sonra eldivenli olarak pek çok maç yaptı. Dünya ağır sıklet boks şampiyonluğunu kazanan ilk siyah boksör Jack Johnson'dı. 1937'de ağır sıklet şampiyonu olan Joe Louis, bu unvanı kazanan ikinci siyah boksör oldu. Louis, bu unvanını 25 kez korudu ve 1949'da yenilmeyen şampiyon olarak emekliye ayrıldı.

ABD'de 1950'lerin en ünlü şampiyonu olan Rocky Marciano, boks tarihine en sert yumruklara sahip boksörlerden biri olarak geçti. Hiçbir profesyonel maçta yenilgi almamış tek boksör olarak 1956'da boksu bıraktı. Böylece Slyvester Stallone'ye ilham vererek "Rocky" filmi çekilmiş oldu. 1960'larda ve 1970'lerde dünya ağır sıklet boksunun efsanevi kişisi Muhammed Ali'ydi. ABD'de ağır siklet dışındaki sıkletlerde de önemli boksörler yetişti. Henry Armstrong, George Dixon, Willie Pep, Joe Gans ve Benny Leonard bunların başında gelir.

Tehlikeli bir spor olarak görülmesi ve beyne hasar tehlikesi
Nörologlar, boksun olimpiyat sporlarından çıkarılması ve açık gösterimden yasaklanması yönünde görüşler belirtmektedirler. Boksun, beyinde hasara yol açtığını belirtiyorlar. Kafatasına alınan darbe sonucunda beyin dokusunda meydana gelebilecek bozulmalar olarak tanımlanan travmatik beyin hasarı, akla hemen, başta boks olmak üzere, dövüş sporlarını getiriyor.

Resimler

Ayrıca bakınız
 Türkiye Kulüplerarası Boks Şampiyonası
 Ağır siklet boks şampiyonları listesi
 Uluslararası Şöhretli Boksörler Salonu
 Dünya Boks Birliği
 Uluslararası Boks Federasyonu
 Dünya Boks Konseyi
 Dünya Boks Organizasyonu
 Uluslararası Boks Organizasyonu
 Türkiye Kulüplerarası Boks Şampiyonası
 Akdeniz Oyunları'nda boks
 Uluslararası Boks Sıralaması Kurulu
 Yaz Olimpiyatları'nda boks
 Dünya Amatör Boks Şampiyonası
 Türkiye'de boks
 Şampiyon kemeri

Kaynakça

Avrupa dövüş sanatları
Yaz Olimpiyatları sporları
Bireysel sporlar
Fransızcadan Türkçeye geçen sözcükler
Dövüş sanatları

Boks


Sascha Pallenberg (* 22. November 1971 in Dortmund) ist ein deutscher Blogger. Er war von 2017 bis 2020 Mitarbeiter in der Abteilung Unternehmenskommunikation der Daimler AG, für die er die sozialen Medien betreute. Sascha Pallenberg lebt in Taiwan.

Er schreibt im englischen Blog netbooknews.com und auf Deutsch unter netbooknews.de. Von 2012 bis 2016 betrieb er die Blog-Plattform mobilegeeks.de, dessen thematischer Schwerpunkt auf Smartphones, Tablets, Notebooks und Smart Cars liegt. Mit seinem Wechsel zu Daimler übertrug er seine Anteile an die Co-Gründerin Nicole Scott.

Werdegang
Nach der Fachhochschulreife ging Pallenberg von 1992 bis 1996 zur Bundeswehr. Er hielt sich mit diversen Jobs über Wasser, bis er 2001 die Techcase GbR gründete und unter techcase.de Mini-ITX-Systeme verkaufte. Zur Vermarktung des Shops startete er die Online-Communitys epiacenter.de und epiacenter.com. 2004 verließ Pallenberg Techcase und gründete epiOS GmbH & Co. KG, das auf Basis der Linux-Distribution Gentoo Software für Embedded Systems herstellte. Das Unternehmen wurde 2006 geschlossen. 2007 gründete er den Blog eeepcnews.de und war damit ab 2008 mit 10.000 Besuchern pro Tag wirtschaftlich erfolgreich. 2009 zog Pallenberg nach Taipeh und gründete 2010 New Media Publishing and Consulting Ltd.

Das Time Magazine, The New York Times, ABC News, ZDF (Heute-journal, heute) und viele andere große englisch- und deutschsprachige Zeitungen, Zeitschriften und TV-Sender haben Pallenberg als Experten befragt. In den Jahren 2010, 2011 und 2012 gewann er den Award "Top 20 Smart Mobile Device Pundit".

Blogs, Unternehmen und Kritik

Die New Media Publishing and Consulting Ltd. betrieb die Blogs netbooknews.de und netbooknews.com mit zusammen 20.000 bis 25.000 Besuchen am Tag. Anfangs beschrieben die Seiten Netbooks, später auch Ultrabooks, Tablets und Smartphones. Der dazugehörende YouTube-Channel minipcpro erreicht mit durchschnittlich täglich drei produzierten Videos 120.000 bis 150.000 Besucher pro Tag. Unter meetmobility.com produzierte Pallenberg 70 Podcasts mit je 20.000 Zuhörern. netbooknews.de gewann Platz acht der besten IT-Blogs bei Computerwoche 2010.

In Deutschland arbeiten für das Unternehmen drei 400-Euro-Jobber, in Kanada eine Angestellte und in Taipei außer Pallenberg noch seine Co-Gründerin. Der Umsatz 2011 betrug 350.000 US-Dollar. 65 Prozent des Umsatzes werden durch Werbeeinnahmen auf YouTube erwirtschaftet. 20 Prozent der Finanzierung geschieht auf den Blogs über Affiliate-Links auf Amazon, Google-Bannerwerbung, Direktvermarktung von Werbeflächen und die übrigen 15 Prozent des Umsatzes setzen sich aus Einnahmen für Consulting und Reden zusammen. Zwischenzeitlich vermarktete Pallenberg sogar seine Kleidung als Werbefläche.

Im Sommer 2013 wurde Pallenberg auch außerhalb der Blogger-Szene bekannt, nachdem er Geschäftspraktiken der Eyeo GmbH (Hersteller des Werbeblockers Adblock Plus) angeprangert hatte.

Von Juli 2013 bis Dezember 2016 produzierte Pallenberg zusammen mit dem Blogger Carsten Knobloch den Neuland-Podcast, der sich mit aktuellen Entwicklungen auf den Märkten für Mobile, Gadget und IT allgemein beschäftigte. Nach 75 Folgen beendeten die zwei Blogger am 25. Dezember 2016 den Podcast mit der Folge "Das große Finale".

Im Januar 2018 wurde Sascha Pallenberg in einem Zeitungsbericht dafür kritisiert, dass er das Schneeballsystem "BitSequence" durch Empfehlungen unterstützt und dafür Provision bekommt. In wenigen Wochen soll er für die Briefkastenfirma "BitSequence" 170 Personen geworben haben, die Personen wurden dabei unter anderem mit der Aussage gelockt, knapp fünf Millionen Prozent Rendite (drei pro Tag) zu erhalten. Wenige Tage nach der Presseberichterstattung brach das Schneeballsystem "BitSequenze.biz" zusammen. Sascha Pallenberg entschuldigte sich am 1. Februar 2018 in der Wochenzeitung Zeit für seine "Naivität" bei den Anlegern.

Im Oktober 2020 startete Pallenberg den STBNHCKR Podcast zu den Themen Home Office und digitale Transformation, der auch als Livestream auf LinkedIn, Facebook, YouTube, Twitter ausgestrahlt wird.

Während der Corona-Pandemie trat Pallenberg auf LinkedIn vehement für Zero-Covid Konzepte ein. Er schreckte dabei auch nicht davor zurück, Personen mit anderen Auffassungen bei deren Arbeitgebern zu denunzieren, wobei er den Alias "Mr. Mark Baum" verwendete

Am 1. April 2021 wurde bekannt gegeben, dass Pallenberg als "Chief Awareness Officer" die Kommunikation der Nachhaltigkeits-Plattform Aware verantwortet. Zuvor war Pallenberg beim Autobauer Daimler als Head of Digital Transformation tätig.

Weblinks
 Privates Blog von Pallenberg

Vorträge
 Blogs monetarisieren, re:publica 2010
 Youtube als Zukunft des Blogging, re:publica 2011
 Rockstars und Mimosen – wie die deutsche Blogosphäre veramerikanisiert wird, re:publica 2012

Einzelnachweise

Blogger
Deutscher Emigrant
Deutscher
Geboren 1971
Mann

Sascha Pallenberg


Fetița din capătul străzii  (titlu original: The Little Girl Who Lives Down the Lane) este un film de groază canadiano-francez din 1976 regizat de Nicolas Gessner. Rolurile principale au fost interpretate de actorii Jodie Foster, Martin Sheen, Alexis Smith, Mort Shuman și Scott Jacoby. A primit Premiul Saturn pentru cel mai bun film de groază.

Prezentare

Distribuție
 Jodie Foster ca Rynn Jacobs
 Martin Sheen ca Frank Hallet
 Alexis Smith ca Mrs. Hallet
 Mort Shuman ca Officer Miglioriti
 Scott Jacoby ca Mario

Note

Legături externe

Filme din 1976
Filme canadieneFilme franțuzești
Filme în limba engleză
Filme regizate de Nicolas Gessner
Filme de groază din anii 1970
Premiul Saturn pentru cel mai bun film de groază

Fetița din capătul străzii


Zagonetka: list za zabavu i razbibrigu je bio hrvatski zagonetački tjednik iz Zagreba, jedan od prvih hrvatskih enigmatskih listova. Prvi broj izašao je 2. ožujka , a posljednji 22. lipnja 1929. godine. Glavni urednik bio je Nikola Faller. Izdavač je bio J. V. Horvat. ISSN je 1846-6060.

Izvori

Zagrebački tisak
Hrvatski enigmatski tjednici

Zagonetka (1929.)


Roland E-16 TR, Roland adlı müzik aleti üreticisi firmanın sadece Türkiye için çıkardığı üzerinde 32 adet Türk ritimi bulunan Roland E-16 modelinin Türk versiyonudur. Üretim tarihi 1994'tür. Roland E-70 adlı model için Türkiye'de yapılan T3 ritim kartının ritimlerinin Roland E-16 modeline eklenmesiyle oluşturulmuştur. 4 adet Türk demosu içermektedir. İtalya üretimidir.

Özellikleri

 61 Dokunma hassiyetli tuş
 128 Farklı ses seçeneği (9'u Davul kit)
 64 Ritim (32'si Türk)
 Klavye Modları: Arranger, Lower, Drum Set
 Picth-Bend, Modulation
 Arranger Kontrolü : 1 Intro, 1 Ending, 2 Fill, 2 Varyasyon

Dış bağlantılar

Üretici firma resmi websitesi : http://www.roland.com

E-16 TR
Elektronik klavyeler

Roland E-16 TR


මේරිවැල් ඉන්දියානු නේවාසික පාසල යනු  කැනේඩියානු ඉන්දියානු නේවාසික පාසල් පද්ධතියෙහි කොටසකි. මේරිවැල්, සස්කැචිවාන්හී කැවසිස් 73 රක්ෂිතයෙහි පිහිටා ඇති මෙය, 1898 සිට 1997 දක්වා ක්‍රියාත්මක විය. කෘකඩ් ලේක් වෙතට නැගෙනහිරින් සහ  බ්‍රෝඩ්විව් වෙතින් කිමී 24ක් උතුරු දෙසින්  කැපෙල්ල නිම්නයෙහි, මෙය පිහිටා තිබුණි.

2021 ජූනි මාසයෙහිදී, සලකුණු නොකල සොහාන් 751 ක්,   කැවසිස් මුල් පදිංචිකරුවන් විසින් පාසල් භූමිය තුල සොයාගත් අතර, සස්කැචිවාන්හී මුල් පදිංචිකරුවන් නියෝජනය කරන ස්වෛරී ආදිවාසික පදිංචිකරුවන්ගේ සංසදය (එෆ්එස්අයිඑන්) පරිදී, කැනඩාව තුල සොයා ගැණුනු විශාලතම සංඛ්‍යාව වෙයි  මෙය 2021 වසර තුල, කැනඩාවෙහි  සලකුණු නොකල සොහොන් දෙවන සොයාගැනීම වන අතර, පෙර මාසයෙහිදී කෑම්ලූප්ස් ඉන්දියානු නේවාසික පාසල තුල සලකුණු නොකල සොහොන් 215ක් සොයා ගැණිනි.

පැහැදිලිකිරීම් සටහන්

ආශ්‍රිත

මේරිවැල් ඉන්දියානු නේවාසික පාසල


In military tactics, close air support (CAS) is defined as aerial warfare actions—often air-to-ground actions such as strafes or airstrikes—by military aircraft against hostile targets in close proximity to friendly forces. A form of fire support, CAS requires detailed integration of each air mission with fire and movement of all forces involved. CAS may be conducted using aerial bombs, glide bombs, missiles, rockets, autocannons, machine guns, and even directed-energy weapons such as lasers.

The requirement for detailed integration because of proximity, fires or movement is the determining factor. CAS may need to be conducted during shaping operations with special forces if the mission requires detailed integration with the fire and movement of those forces. A closely related subset of air interdiction, battlefield air interdiction, denotes interdiction against units with near-term effects on friendly units, but which does not require integration with friendly troop movements. CAS requires excellent coordination with ground forces, typically handled by specialists such as artillery observers, joint terminal attack controllers, and forward air controllers.

World War I was the first conflict to make extensive use of CAS, albeit using relatively primitive methods in contrast to later warfare, though it was made evident that proper coordination between aerial and ground forces via radio made attacks more effective. Several conflicts during the interwar period—including the Polish–Soviet War, the Spanish Civil War, the Iraqi Revolt, and the Chaco War—made notable use of CAS. World War II marked the universal acceptance of the integration of air power into combined arms warfare, with all of the war's major combatants having developed effective air-ground coordination techniques by the conflict's end. New techniques, such as the use of forward air control to guide CAS aircraft and identifying invasion stripes, also emerged at this time, being heavily shaped by the Italian Campaign and the invasion of Normandy. CAS continued to advance during the conflicts of the Cold War, especially the Korean War and the Vietnam War; major milestones included the introduction of attack helicopters, gunships, and dedicated CAS attack jets.

History

World War I

The use of aircraft in the close air support of ground forces dates back to World War I, the first conflict to make significant military use of aerial forces. Air warfare, and indeed aviation itself, was still in its infancy – and the direct effect of rifle caliber machine guns and light bombs of World War I aircraft was very limited compared with the power of (for instance) an average fighter bomber of World War II, but CAS aircraft were still able to achieve a powerful psychological impact. The aircraft was a visible and personal enemy – unlike artillery – presenting a personal threat to enemy troops, while providing friendly forces assurance that their superiors were concerned about their situation.

The most successful attacks of 1917–1918 had included planning for co-ordination between aerial and ground units, although it was relatively difficult at this early date to co-ordinate these attacks due to the primitive nature of air-to-ground radio communication. Though most air-power proponents sought independence from ground commanders and hence pushed the importance of interdiction and strategic bombing, they nonetheless recognized the need for close air support.

From the commencement of hostilities in 1914, aviators engaged in sporadic and spontaneous attacks on ground forces, but it was not until 1916 that an air support doctrine was elaborated and dedicated fighters for the job were put into service. By that point, the startling and demoralizing effect that attack from the air could have on the troops in the trenches had been made clear.

At the Battle of the Somme, 18 British armed reconnaissance planes strafed the enemy trenches after conducting surveillance operations. The success of this improvised assault spurred innovation on both sides. In 1917, following the Second Battle of the Aisne, the British debuted the first ground-attack aircraft, a modified F.E 2b fighter carrying  bombs and mounted machine-guns. After exhausting their ammunition, the planes returned to base for refueling and rearming before returned to the battle-zone. Other modified planes used in this role were the Airco DH.5 and Sopwith Camel – the latter was particularly successful in this role.

Aircraft support was first integrated into a battle plan on a large scale at the 1917 Battle of Cambrai, where a significantly larger number of tanks were deployed than previously. By that time, effective anti-aircraft tactics were being used by the enemy infantry and pilot casualties were high, although air support was later judged as having been of a critical importance in places where the infantry had got pinned down.

At this time, British doctrine came to recognize two forms of air support; trench strafing (the modern-day doctrine of CAS), and ground strafing (the modern-day doctrine of air interdiction) – attacking tactical ground targets away from the land battle. As well as strafing with machine-guns, planes engaged in such operations were commonly modified with bomb racks; the plane would fly in very low to the ground and release the bombs just above the trenches.

The Germans were also quick to adopt this new form of warfare and were able to deploy aircraft in a similar capacity at Cambrai. While the British used single-seater planes, the Germans preferred the use of heavier two-seaters with an additional machine gunner in the aft cockpit. The Germans adopted the powerful Hannover CL.II and built the first purpose-built ground attack aircraft, the Junkers J.I. During the 1918 German spring offensive, the Germans employed 30 squadrons, or Schlasta, of ground attack fighters and were able to achieve some initial tactical success. The British later deployed the Sopwith Salamander as a specialized ground attack aircraft, although it was too late to see much action.

During the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of 1918, CAS aircraft functioned as an important factor in ultimate victory. After the British achieved air superiority over the German aircraft sent to aid the Ottoman Turks, squadrons of S.E 5a's and D.H. 4s were sent on wide-ranging attacks against German and Turkish positions near the Jordan river. Combined with a ground assault led by General Edmund Allenby, three Turkish armies soon collapsed into a full rout. In the words of the attacking squadron's official report:

Inter-war period

The close air support doctrine was further developed in the interwar period. Most theorists advocated the adaptation of fighters or light bombers into the role. During this period, airpower advocates crystallized their views on the role of air-power in warfare. Aviators and ground officers developed largely opposing views on the importance of CAS, views that would frame institutional battles for CAS in the 20th century.

The inter-war period saw the use of CAS in a number of conflicts, including the Polish–Soviet War, the Spanish Civil War, the Iraqi revolt of 1920 and the Gran Chaco War.

The British used air power to great effect in various colonial hotspots in the Middle East and North Africa during the immediate postwar period. The newly formed Royal Air force (RAF) contributed to the defeat of the Afghan military during the Third Anglo-Afghan War by harassing Afghani troops and breaking up their formations. Z Force, an RAF air squadron, was also used to support ground operations during the Somaliland campaign, in which the Darawiish king  Diiriye Guure's insurgency was defeated. Following from these successes, the decision was made to create a unified RAF Iraq Command to use air power as a more cost-effective way of controlling large areas than the use of conventional land forces. It was effectively used to suppress the Great Iraqi Revolution of 1920 and various other tribal revolts.

During the Spanish Civil War German volunteer aviators of the Condor Legion on the Nationalist side, despite little official support from their government, developed close air support tactics that proved highly influential for subsequent Luftwaffe doctrine.

U.S. Marine Corps Aviation was used as an intervention force in support of U.S. Marine Corps ground forces during the Banana Wars, in places such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. Marine Aviators experimented with air-ground tactics and in Haiti and Nicaragua they adopted the tactic of dive bombing.

The observers and participants of these wars would base their CAS strategies on their experience of the conflict. Aviators, who wanted institutional independence from the Army, pushed for a view of air-power centered around interdiction, which would relieve them of the necessity of integrating with ground forces and allow them to operate as an independent military arm. They saw close air support as both the most difficult and most inefficient use of aerial assets.

Close air support was the most difficult mission, requiring identifying and distinguishing between friendly and hostile units. At the same time, targets engaged in combat are dispersed and concealed, reducing the effectiveness of air attacks. They also argued that the CAS mission merely duplicated the abilities of artillery, whereas interdiction provided a unique capability. Ground officers contended there was rarely sufficient artillery available, and the flexibility of aircraft would be ideal for massing firepower at critical points, while producing a greater psychological effect on friendly and hostile forces alike. Moreover, unlike massive, indiscriminate artillery strikes, small aerial bombs would not render ground untrafficable, slowing attacking friendly forces.

Although the prevailing view in official circles was largely indifferent to CAS during the interwar period, its importance was expounded upon by military theorists, such as J. F. C. Fuller and Basil Liddell Hart. Hart, who was an advocate of what later came to be known as 'Blitzkrieg' tactics, thought that the speed of armoured tanks would render conventional artillery incapable of providing support fire. Instead he proposed that:

World War II

Luftwaffe

As a continental power intent on offensive operations, Germany could not ignore the need for aerial support of ground operations. Though the Luftwaffe, like its counterparts, tended to focus on strategic bombing, it was unique in its willingness to commit forces to CAS. Unlike the Allies, the Germans were not able to develop powerful strategic bombing capabilities, which implied industrial developments they were forbidden to take according to the Treaty of Versailles. In joint exercises with Sweden in 1934, the Germans were first exposed to dive-bombing, which permitted greater accuracy while making attack aircraft more difficult to track by antiaircraft gunners. As a result, Ernst Udet, chief of the Luftwaffe's development, initiated procurement of close support dive bombers on the model of the U.S. Navy's Curtiss Helldiver, resulting in the Henschel Hs 123, which was later replaced by the famous Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. Experience in the Spanish Civil War lead to the creation of five ground-attack groups in 1938, four of which would be equipped with Stukas. The Luftwaffe matched its material acquisitions with advances in the air-ground coordination. General Wolfram von Richthofen organized a limited number of air liaison detachments that were attached to ground units of the main effort. These detachments existed to pass requests from the ground to the air, and receive reconnaissance reports, but they were not trained to guide aircraft onto targets.

These preparations did not prove fruitful in the invasion of Poland, where the Luftwaffe focused on interdiction and dedicated few assets to close air support. But the value of CAS was demonstrated at the crossing of the Meuse River during the Invasion of France in 1940. General Heinz Guderian, one of the creators of the combined-arms tactical doctrine commonly known as "blitzkrieg", believed the best way to provide cover for the crossing would be a continuous stream of ground attack aircraft on French defenders. Though few guns were hit, the attacks kept the French under cover and prevented them from manning their guns. Aided by the sirens attached to Stukas, the psychological impact was disproportional to the destructive power of close air support (although as often as not, the Stukas were used as tactical bombers instead of close air support, leaving much of the actual work to the older Hs 123 units for the first years of the war). In addition, the reliance on air support over artillery reduced the demand for logistical support through the Ardennes. Though there were difficulties in coordinating air support with the rapid advance, the Germans demonstrated consistently superior CAS tactics to those of the British and French defenders. Later, on the Eastern front, the Germans would devise visual ground signals to mark friendly units and to indicate direction and distance to enemy emplacements.

Despite these accomplishments, German CAS was not perfect and suffered from the same misunderstanding and interservice rivalry that plagued other nations' air arms, and friendly fire was not uncommon. For example, on the eve of the Meuse offensive, Guderian's superior cancelled his CAS plans and called for high-altitude strikes from medium bombers, which would have required halting the offensive until the air strikes were complete. Fortunately for the Germans, his order was issued too late to be implemented, and the Luftwaffe commander followed the schedule he had previously worked out with Guderian. As late as November 1941, the Luftwaffe refused to provide Erwin Rommel with an air liaison officer for the Afrika Korps, because it "would be against the best use of the air force as a whole."

German CAS was also extensively used on the Eastern Front during the period 1941–1943. Their decline was caused by the growing strength of the Red Air Force and the redeployment of assets to defend against American and British strategic bombardment. Luftwaffe's loss of air superiority, combined with a declining supply of aircraft and fuel, crippled their ability to provide effective CAS on the western front after 1943.

RAF and USAAF

The Royal Air Force (RAF) entered the war woefully unprepared to provide CAS. In 1940 during the Battle of France, the Royal Air Force and Army headquarters in France were located at separate positions, resulting in unreliable communications. After the RAF was withdrawn in May, Army officers had to telephone the War Office in London to arrange for air support. The stunning effectiveness of German air-ground coordination spurred change. On the basis of tests in Northern Ireland in August 1940, Group Captain A. H. Wann RAF and Colonel J.D. Woodall (British Army) issued the Wann-Woodall Report, recommending the creation of a distinct tactical air force liaison officer (known colloquially as "tentacles") to accompany Army divisions and brigades. Their report spurred the RAF to create an RAF Army Cooperation Command and to develop tentacle equipment and procedures placing an Air Liaison Officer with each brigade.

Although the RAF was working on its CAS doctrine in London, officers in North Africa improvised their own coordination techniques. In October 1941, Sir Arthur Tedder and Arthur Coningham, senior RAF commanders in North Africa, created joint RAF-Army Air Support Control staffs at each corps and armored division headquarters, and placed a Forward Air Support Link at each brigade to forward air support requests. When trained tentacle teams arrived in 1942, they cut response time on support requests to thirty minutes. It was also in the North Africa desert that the cab rank strategy was developed. It used a series of three aircraft, each in turn directed by the pertinent ground control by radio. One aircraft would be attacking, another in flight to the battle area, while a third was being refuelled and rearmed at its base. If the first attack failed to destroy the tactical target, the aircraft in flight would be directed to continue the attack. The first aircraft would land for its own refuelling and rearming once the third had taken off. The CAS tactics developed and refined by the British during the campaign in North Africa served as the basis for the Allied system used to subsequently gain victory in the air over Germany in 1944 and devastate its cities and industries.

The use of forward air control to guide close air support (CAS) aircraft, so as to ensure that their attack hits the intended target and not friendly troops, was first used by the British Desert Air Force in North Africa, but not by the USAAF until operations in Salerno. During the North African Campaign in 1941 the British Army and the Royal Air Force established Forward Air Support Links (FASL), a mobile air support system using ground vehicles. Light reconnaissance aircraft would observe enemy activity and report it by radio to the FASL which was attached at brigade level. The FASL was in communication (a two-way radio link known as a "tentacle") with the Air Support Control (ASC) Headquarters attached to the corps or armoured division which could summon support through a Rear Air Support Link with the airfields. They also introduced the system of ground direction of air strikes by what was originally termed a "Mobile Fighter Controller" traveling with the forward troops. The controller rode in the "leading tank or armoured car" and directed a "cab rank" of aircraft above the battlefield. This system of close co-operation first used by the Desert Air Force, was steadily refined and perfected, during the campaigns in Italy, Normandy and Germany.

By the time the Italian Campaign had reached Rome, the Allies had established air superiority. They were then able to pre-schedule strikes by fighter-bomber squadrons; however, by the time the aircraft arrived in the strike area, oftentimes the targets, which were usually trucks, had fled. The initial solution to fleeing targets was the British "Rover" system. These were pairings of air controllers and army liaison officers at the front but able to switch communications seamlessly from one brigade to another – hence Rover. Incoming strike aircraft arrived with pre-briefed targets, which they would strike 20 minutes after arriving on station only if the Rovers had not directed them to another more pressing target. Rovers might call on artillery to mark targets with smoke shells, or they might direct the fighters to map grid coordinates, or they might resort to a description of prominent terrain features as guidance. However, one drawback for the Rovers was the constant rotation of pilots, who were there for fortnightly stints, leading to a lack of institutional memory. US commanders, impressed by the British tactics at the Salerno landings, adapted their own doctrine to include many features of the British system.

At the start of the War, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) had, as its principal mission, the doctrine of strategic bombing. This incorporated the unerring belief that unescorted bombers could win the war without the advent of ground troops. This doctrine proved to be fundamentally flawed. However, during the entire course of the war the USAAF top brass clung to this doctrine, and hence operated independently of the rest of the Army. Thus it was initially unprepared to provide CAS, and in fact, had to be dragged "kicking and screaming" into the CAS function with the ground troops. USAAF doctrinal priorities for tactical aviation were, in order, air superiority, isolation of the battlefield via supply interdiction, and thirdly, close air support. Hence, during the North African Campaign, CAS was poorly executed, if at all. So few aerial assets were assigned to U.S. troops that they fired on anything in the air. And in 1943, the USAAF changed their radios to a frequency incompatible with ground radios.

The situation improved during the Italian Campaign, where American and British forces, working in close cooperation, exchanged CAS techniques and ideas. There, the AAF's XII Air Support Command and the Fifth U.S. Army shared headquarters, meeting every evening to plan strikes and devising a network of liaisons and radios for communications. However, friendly fire continued to be a concern – pilots did not know recognition signals and regularly bombed friendly units, until an A-36 was shot down in self-defense by Allied tanks. The expectation of losses to friendly fire from the ground during the planned invasion of France prompted the black and white invasion stripes painted on all Allied aircraft from 1944.

In 1944, USAAF commander Lt. Gen. Henry ("Hap") Arnold acquired 2 groups of A-24 dive bombers, the army version of the Navy's SBD-2, in response to the success of the Stuka and German CAS. Later, the USAAF developed a modification of the North American P-51 Mustang with dive brakes – the North American A-36 Apache. However, there was no training to match the purchases. Though Gen. Lesley McNair, commander of Army Ground Forces, pushed to change USAAF priorities, the latter failed to provide aircraft for even major training exercises. Six months before the invasion of Normandy, 33 divisions had received no joint air-ground training.

The USAAF saw the greatest innovations in 1944 under General Elwood Quesada, commander of IX Tactical Air Command, supporting the First U.S. Army. He developed the "armored column cover", where on-call fighter-bombers maintained a high-level of availability for important tank advances, allowing armor units to maintain a high tempo of exploitation even when they outran their artillery assets. He also used a modified antiaircraft radar to track friendly attack aircraft to redirect them as necessary, and experimented with assigning fighter pilots to tours as forward air controllers to familiarize them with the ground perspective. In July 1944, Quesada provided VHF aircraft radios to tank crews in Normandy. When the armored units broke out of the Normandy beachhead, tank commanders were able to communicate directly with overhead fighter-bombers. However, despite the innovation, Quesada focused his aircraft on CAS only for major offensives. Typically, both British and American attack aircraft were tasked primarily to interdiction, even though later analysis showed them to be twice as dangerous as CAS.

XIX TAC, under the command of General Otto P. Weyland used similar tactics to support the rapid armored advance of General Patton's Third Army in its drive across France. Armed reconnaissance was a major feature of XIX TAC close air support, as the rapid advance left Patton's Southern flank open. Such was the close nature of cooperation between the Third Army and XIX TAC that Patton actually counted on XIX TAC to guard his flanks. This close air support from XIX TAC was credited by Patton as having been a key factor in the rapid advance and success of his Third Army.

The American Navy and Marine Corps used CAS in conjunction with or as a substitute for the lack of available artillery or naval gunfire in the Pacific theater. Navy and Marine F6F Hellcats and F4U Corsairs used a variety of ordnance such as conventional bombs, rockets and napalm to dislodge or attack Japanese troops using cave complexes in the latter part of the Second World War.

Red Air Force
The Soviet Union's Red Air Force quickly recognized the value of ground-support aircraft. As early as the Battles of Khalkhyn Gol in 1939, Soviet aircraft had the task of disrupting enemy ground operations. This use increased markedly after the June 1941 Axis invasion of the Soviet Union. Purpose-built aircraft such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik proved highly effective in blunting the activity of the Panzers. Joseph Stalin paid the Il-2 a great tribute in his own inimitable manner: when a particular production factory fell behind on its deliveries, Stalin sent the following cable to the factory manager: "They are as essential to the Red Army as air and bread".

Korean War

From Navy experiments with the KGW-1 Loon, the Navy designation for the German V-1 flying bomb, Marine Captain Marian Cranford Dalby developed the AN/MPQ-14, a system that enabled radar-guided bomb release at night or in poor weather.

Though the Marine Corps continued its tradition of intimate air–ground cooperation in the Korean War, the newly created United States Air Force (USAF) again moved away from CAS, now to strategic bombers and jet interceptors. Though eventually the Air Force supplied sufficient pilots and forward air controllers to provide battlefield support, coordination was still lacking. Since pilots operated under centralized control, ground controllers were never able to familiarize themselves with pilots, and requests were not processed quickly. Harold K. Johnson, then commander of the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division (later Army Chief of Staff) commented regarding CAS: "If you want it, you can't get it. If you can get it, it can't find you. If it can find you, it can't identify the target. If it can identify the target, it can't hit it. But if it does hit the target, it doesn't do a great deal of damage anyway."

It is unsurprising, then, that MacArthur excluded USAF aircraft from the airspace over the Inchon Landing in September 1950, instead relying on Marine Aircraft Group 33 for CAS. In December 1951, Lt. Gen. James Van Fleet, commander of the Eighth U.S. Army, formally requested the United Nations Commander, Gen. Mark Clark, to permanently attach an attack squadron to each of the four army corps in Korea. Though the request was denied, Clark allocated many more Navy and Air Force aircraft to CAS. Despite the rocky start, the USAF would also work to improve its coordination efforts. It eventually required pilots to serve 80 days as forward air controllers (FACs), which gave them an understanding of the difficulties from the ground perspective and helped cooperation when they returned to the cockpit. The USAF also provided airborne FACs in critical locations. The Army also learned to assist, by suppressing anti-aircraft fire prior to air strikes.

The U.S. Army wanted a dedicated USAF presence on the battlefield to reduce fratricide, or the harm of friendly forces. This preference led to the creation of the air liaison officer (ALO) position. The ALO is an aeronautically rated officer that has spent a tour away from the cockpit, serving as the primary adviser to the ground commander on the capabilities and limitations of airpower. The Korean War revealed important flaws in the application of CAS. Firstly, the USAF preferred interdiction over fire support while the Army regarded support missions as the main concern for air forces. Then, the Army advocated a degree of decentralization for good reactivity, in contrast with the USAF-favored centralization of CAS. The third point dealt with the lack of training and joint culture, which are necessary for an adequate air-ground integration. Finally, USAF aircraft were not designed for CAS: "the advent of jet fighters, too fast to adjust their targets, and strategic bombers, too big to be used on theatre, rendered CAS much harder to implement".

Vietnam and the CAS role debate

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the US Army began to identify a dedicated CAS need for itself. The Howze Board, which studied the question, published a landmark report describing the need for a helicopter-based CAS requirement. However, the Army did not follow the Howze Board recommendation initially. Nevertheless, it did eventually adopt the use of helicopter gunships and attack helicopters in the CAS role.

Though the Army gained more control over its own CAS due to the development of the helicopter gunship and attack helicopter, the Air Force continued to provide fixed-wing CAS for Army units. Over the course of the war, the adaptation of The Tactical Air Control System proved crucial to the improvement of Air Force CAS. Jets replaced propeller-driven aircraft with minimal issues. The assumption of responsibility for the air request net by the Air Force improved communication equipment and procedures, which had long been a problem. Additionally, a major step in satisfying the Army's demands for more control over their CAS was the successful implementation of close air support control agencies at the corps level under Air Force control. Other notable adaptations were the usage of airborne Forward Air Controllers (FACs), a role previously dominated by FACs on the ground, and the use of B-52s for CAS.

U.S. Marine Corps Aviation was much more prepared for the application of CAS in the Vietnam War, due to CAS being its central mission. In fact, as late as 1998, Marines were still claiming in their training manuals that "Close air support (CAS) is a Marine Corps innovation." One of the main debates taking place within the Marine Corps during the war was whether to adopt the helicopter gunship as a part of CAS doctrine and what its adoption would mean for fixed-wing CAS in the Marine Corps. The issue would eventually be put to rest, however, as the helicopter gunship proved crucial in the combat environment of Vietnam.

Though helicopters were initially armed merely as defensive measures to support the landing and extraction of troops, their value in this role led to the modification of early helicopters as dedicated gunship platforms. Though not as fast as fixed-wing aircraft and consequently more vulnerable to anti-aircraft weaponry, helicopters could use terrain for cover, and more importantly, had much greater battlefield persistence owing to their low speeds. The latter made them a natural complement to ground forces in the CAS role. In addition, newly developed anti-tank guided missiles, demonstrated to great effectiveness in the 1973 Yom Kippur War, provided aircraft with an effective ranged anti-tank weapon. These considerations motivated armies to promote the helicopter from a support role to a combat arm. Though the U.S. Army controlled rotary-wing assets, coordination continued to pose a problem. During wargames, field commanders tended to hold back attack helicopters out of fear of air defenses, committing them too late to effectively support ground units. The earlier debate over control over CAS assets was reiterated between ground commanders and aviators. Nevertheless, the US Army incrementally gained increased control over its CAS role.

In the mid-1970s, after Vietnam, the USAF decided to train an enlisted force to handle many of the tasks the ALO was saturated with, to include terminal attack control. Presently, the ALO mainly serves in the liaison role, the intricate details of mission planning and attack guidance left to the enlisted members of the Tactical Air Control Party.

NATO and AirLand Battle
Since their 1977 introduction into modern military practice for close air support purposes, General Crosbie E. Saint provided the AH-64 Apache the doctrinal cover for use in AirLand Battle operations such as in the NATO European theatre.

Aircraft

Various aircraft can fill close air support roles. Military helicopters are often used for close air support and are so closely integrated with ground operations that in most countries they are operated by the army rather than the air force. Fighters and ground attack aircraft like the A-10 Thunderbolt II provide close air support using rockets, missiles, bombs, and strafing runs.

During the Second World War, a mixture of dive bombers and fighters were used for CAS missions. Dive bombing permitted greater accuracy than level bombing runs, while the rapid altitude change made it more difficult for anti aircraft gunners to track. The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka is a well known example of a dive bomber built for precision bombing but which was successfully used for CAS. It was fitted with wind-blown sirens on its landing gear to enhance its psychological effect. Some variants of the Stuka were equipped with a pair of  Bordkanone BK 3,7 cannons mounted in under-wing gun pods, each loaded with two six-round magazines of armour-piercing tungsten carbide-cored ammunition, for anti-tank operations.

Other than the North American A-36 Apache, a P-51 modified with dive brakes, the Americans and British used no dedicated CAS aircraft in the Second World War, preferring fighters or fighter-bombers that could be pressed into CAS service. While some aircraft, such as the Hawker Typhoon and the P-47 Thunderbolt, performed admirably in that role, there were a number of compromises that prevented most fighters from making effective CAS platforms. Fighters were usually optimized for high-altitude operations without bombs or other external ordnance – flying at low level with bombs quickly expended fuel. Cannons had to be mounted differently for strafing – strafing required a further and lower convergence point than aerial combat did.

Of the Allied powers that fought in the Second World War, the Soviet Union used specifically designed ground attack aircraft more than the UK and US. Such aircraft included the Ilyushin Il-2, the single most produced military aircraft at any point in world history. The Soviet military also frequently deployed the Polikarpov Po-2 biplane as a ground attack aircraft.

The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the U.S. Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated in a ground attack capacity during the Korean War. Outside of the conflict, there were numerous other occasions that the Sea Fury was used as a ground attack platform. Cuban Sea Furies, operated by the Fuerza Aérea Revolucionaria ("Revolutionary Air Force"; FAR), were used to oppose the US-orchestrated Bay of Pigs Invasion to attack incoming transport ships and disembarking ground forces alike. The A-1 Skyraider also saw later use, especially throughout the Vietnam War.

In the Vietnam War, the United States introduced a number of fixed and rotary wing gunships, including several cargo aircraft that were refitted as gun platforms to serve as CAS and air interdiction aircraft. The first of these to emerge was the Douglas AC-47 Spooky, which was converted from the Douglas C-47 Skytrain/Douglas DC-3. Some commentators have remarked on the high effectiveness of the AC-47 in the CAS role. The USAF developed several other platforms following on from the AC-47, including the Fairchild AC-119 and the Lockheed AC-130. The AC-130 has had a particularly lengthy service, being used extensively during the War in Afghanistan, the Iraq War and the US military intervention in Libya during the early twenty-first century. Multiple variants of the AC-130 have been developed and it has continued to be modernised, including the adoption of various new armaments.

Usually close support is thought to be only carried out by fighter-bombers or dedicated ground-attack aircraft, such as the A-10 Thunderbolt II (Warthog) or Su-25 (Frogfoot) or attack helicopters such as the AH-64 Apache, but even large high-altitude bombers have successfully filled close support roles using precision-guided munitions. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the lack of fighter aircraft forced military planners to rely heavily on US bombers, particularly the B-1B Lancer, to fill the CAS role. Bomber CAS, relying mainly on GPS guided weapons and laser-guided JDAMs has evolved into a devastating tactical employment methodology and has changed US doctrinal thinking regarding CAS in general. With significantly longer loiter times, range, and weapon capacity, bombers can be deployed to bases outside of the immediate battlefield area, with 12-hour missions being commonplace since 2001. After the initial collapse of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, airfields in Afghanistan became available for continuing operations against the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. This resulted in a great number of CAS operations being undertaken by aircraft from Belgium (F-16 Fighting Falcon), Denmark (F-16), France (Mirage 2000D), the Netherlands (F-16), Norway (F-16), the United Kingdom (Harrier GR7s, GR9s and Tornado GR4s) and the United States (A-10, F-16, AV-8B Harrier II, F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, UH-1Y Venom).

The use of information technology to direct and coordinate precision air support has increased the importance of intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance in using CAS. Laser, GPS, and battlefield data transfer are routinely used to coordinate with a wide variety of air platforms able to provide CAS. The 2003 joint CAS doctrine reflects the increased use of electronic and optical technology to direct targeted fires for CAS. Air platforms communicating with ground forces can also provide additional aerial-to-ground visual search, ground-convoy escort, and enhancement of command and control (C2), assets which can be particularly important for low intensity conflict.<ref name=AirSpace_Haun_2006>Haun (2006), Air & Space Power Journal.</ref>

Doctrine
 MCWP 3-23.1:
 JP 3-09.3:

See also
 Artillery observer
 Attack aircraft
 Counter-insurgency aircraft, a specific type of CAS aircraft
 Flying Leathernecks Forward air control
 Light Attack/Armed Reconnaissance
 Pace-Finletter MOU 1952
 Tactical bombing, a general term for the type of bombing that includes CAS and air interdiction

References
Citations

Bibliography

 .
 Coox, Alvin D.: Nomonhan: Japan Against Russia, 1939. Two volumes; 1985, Stanford University Press.
 .
 Darling, Kev. Hawker Sea Fury (Warbird Tech Vol. 37). North Branch, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 2002. .
 Delve, Ken. The Source Book of the RAF. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1994. .
 Dorr, Robert F. and Chris Bishop. Vietnam Air War Debrief. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1996. .
 Gordon, Yefim. "Soviet Air Power in World War 2". Hersham-Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2008. .
 .
 Gruenhagen, Robert W. Mustang: The Story of the P-51 Mustang. New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1969. .
 .
 .
 Hardesty, Von. Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power, 1941–1945. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books, 1982. .
 .
 .

 Kinzey, Bert. F4U Corsair Part 2: F4U-4 Through F4U-7: Detail and Scale Vol 56. Carrolton, Texas: Squadron Signal Publications, 1998. .
 Kinzey, Bert. P-51 Mustang Mk In Detail & Scale: Part 1; Prototype through P-51C. Carrollton, Texas: Detail & Scale Inc., 1996. .
 .
 Spires, David, Air Power for Patton's Army: The XIX Tactical Air Command in the Second World War (Washington, D.C.: Air Force History and Museums Program, 2002.
 .
 Thomas, Chris and Christopher Shores. The Typhoon and Tempest Story. London: Arms and Armour Press, 1988. .

External links
 Can Our Jets Support the Guys on the Ground? – Popular Science''
 The Forward Air Controller Association
 The ROMAD Locator The home of the current ground FAC
 Operation Anaconda: An Airpower Perspective  – Close air support during Operation Anaconda, United States Airforce, 2005.

Close

Close air support


Kenneth Ross Stevenson (né le ) est un homme politique canadien de l'Ontario. Il est député fédéral progressiste-conservateur de la circonscription ontarienne de Durham de 1988 à 1993 et député provincial du progressiste-conservateur de la circonscription ontarienne de Durham—York de 1981 à 1987.

Biographie
Né à Lindsay en Ontario, Stevenson étudie à l'université de Guelph et de l'université d'État de l'Iowa où il obtient un Ph.D.. Il travaille ensuite comme agriculture et comme professeur à l'université de Guelph.

Politique

Provincial
Élu dans la circonscription de Durham—York en . Il sert comme député d'arrière-ban supportant les gouvernements de Bill Davis et de Frank Miller. Réélu en 1985 dans une gouvernement minoritaire, il sert brièvement comme  avant la défaite progressiste-conservatrice face une motion de confiance amenant au pouvoir une coalition libérale-néo-démocrate.

Dans l'opposition, Stevenson sert comme critique en matière d'Agriculture et d'Alimentation. Il est défait en 1987.

Fédéral
Élu député progressiste-conservateur dans Durham en 1988, il sert comme député d'arrière-ban supportant les gouvernements de Brian Mulroney et de Kim Campbell. Il est défait en 1993.

Après la politique
Stevenson devient directeur des programmes stratégiques de l'Institut universitaire de technologie de l'Ontario. En 2003, il soutient la fusion entre les Progressistes-conservateurs avec l'Alliance canadienne pour créer le nouveau Parti conservateur. Il poursuit ensuite comme professeur de l'école d'Ingénierie, de Sciences et Technologies du  d'Oshawa.

Résultats électoraux

Références
Kenneth Ross Stevenson, M.P. - Chambre des communes du Canada
Kenneth Ross Stevenson - Assemblée législative de l'Ontario

Naissance en octobre 1942
Député fédéral canadien provenant de l'Ontario
Député du Parti progressiste-conservateur du Canada
Membre du Conseil exécutif de l'Ontario
Député du Parti progressiste-conservateur de l'Ontario

K. Ross Stevenson


Pociumbeni este o rezervație naturală silvică în raionul Rîșcani, Republica Moldova. Este amplasată în ocolul silvic Rîșcani, Pociumbeni, parcela 1, subparcelele 13, 19. Are o suprafață de 53 ha. Obiectul este administrat de Gospodăria Silvică de Stat Glodeni.

Referințe

Legături externe

Pociumbeni
Raionul Rîșcani

Rezervația naturală Pociumbeni


مجمع الملك سعود التعليمي يتضمن قسمي البنين والبنات لجميع المراحل الدراسية من حضانة الأطفال إلى المرحلة الثانوية (الصف الثاني عشر) تعد المدرسة من المدارس المعدودة التي تمثل المملكة العربية السعودية خارج المملكة وتمثل الرياض داخلها في جميع الأصعدة العلمية والتربوية والأنشطة اللاصفية. افتتحه الملك سلمان بن عبد العزيز يوم الثلاثاء 15 محرم 1419 هـ حين كان أميرًا لمنطقة الرياض. في المدينة الجامعية لجامعة الملك سعود بالرياض. قسم البنين يقع خارج اسكان الجامعة...قسم البنات داخل اسكان الجامعة..مخرج 2 الدائري بمدينة الرياض، ويعتبر المجمع نهضة تعليمية قوية إذ انه حصل على المركز الأول بمدينة الرياض من المدارس الحكومية، والمركز الثالث من ناحية المدارس الحكومية والاهلية أي بعد مدارس نجد والرواد.

وهي الحائزة على لقب المدرسة الرائده المصنف لدى إدارة التربية والتعليم بمنطقة الرياض. تعد المدرسة أول من طبق نظام الموهوبين والاهتمام بهم وتنمية أفكارهم منذ عام 1424/1423 هـ، وهي أول من بدأ بنظام التعليم الإلكتروني عن طريق ثانوية البنات بالمجمع، وأول من طبق نظام الكتب الشرحية المساعدة عن طريق ابتدائية المجمع للبنين والبنات، وأول من طبق نظام الدروس الإلكترونية والتعليم عن بعد لطلاب المرحلة المتوسطة للبنين، وطبقت ثانوية مجمع الملك سعود التعليمي للبنين نظام المقررات بالعام الدراسي 1431/1430 هـ، كما تعتبر واحدة من أفضل المدارس المطبقة لهذا النظام.

المراجع

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