Neuroeconomics is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to explain human decision-making, the ability to process multiple alternatives and to follow through on a plan of action. It studies how economic behavior can shape our understanding of the brain, and how neuroscientific discoveries can guide models of economics.

It combines research from neuroscience, experimental and behavioral economics, and cognitive and social psychology. As research into decision-making behavior becomes increasingly computational, it has also incorporated new approaches from theoretical biology, computer science, and mathematics. Neuroeconomics studies decision-making by using a combination of tools from these fields so as to avoid the shortcomings that arise from a single-perspective approach. In mainstream economics, expected utility (EU) and the concept of rational agents are still being used. Neuroscience has the potential to reduce the reliance on this flawed assumption by inferring what emotions, habits, biases, heuristics and environmental factors contribute to individual, and societal preferences. Economists can thereby make more accurate predictions of human behavior in their models.

Behavioral economics was the first subfield to emerge to account for these anomalies by integrating social and cognitive factors in understanding economic decisions. Neuroeconomics adds another layer by using neuroscience and psychology to understand the root of decision-making. This involves researching what occurs within the brain when making economic decisions. The economic decisions researched can cover diverse circumstances such as buying a first home, voting in an election, choosing to marry a partner or go on a diet. Using tools from various fields, neuroeconomics works toward an integrated account of economic decision-making.

History

In 1989, Paul Glimcher joined the Center for Neural Science at NYU. Initial forays into neuroeconomic topics occurred in the late 1990s thanks, in part, to the rising prevalence of cognitive neuroscience research. Improvements in brain imaging technology suddenly allowed for crossover between behavioral and neurobiological enquiry. At the same time, critical tension was building between neoclassical and behavioral schools of economics seeking to produce superior predictive models of human behavior. Behavioral economists, in particular, sought to challenge neo-classicists by looking for alternative computational and psychological processes that validated their counter-findings of irrational choice. These converging trends set the stage for the sub-discipline of neuroeconomics to emerge, with varying and complementary motivations from each parent discipline.

Behavioral economists and cognitive psychologists looked towards functional brain imaging to experiment and develop their alternative theories of decision-making. While groups of physiologists and neuroscientists looked towards economics to develop their algorithmic models of neural hardware pertaining to choice. This split approach characterised the formation of neuroeconomics as an academic pursuit - not without criticism however. Numerous neurobiologists claimed that attempting to synchronise complex models of economics to real human and animal behavior would be futile. Neoclassical economists also argued that this merge would be unlikely to improve the predictive power of the existing revealed preference theory.

Despite the early criticisms, neuroeconomics grew rapidly from its inception in the late 1990s through to the 2000s. Leading many more scholars from father fields of economics, neuroscience and psychology to take notice of the possibilities of such interdisciplinary collaboration. Meetings between scholars and early researchers in neuroeconomics began to take place through the early 2000s. Important among them was a meeting that took place during 2002 at Princeton University. Organized by neuroscientist Jonathan Cohen and economist Christina Paxson, the Princeton meeting gained significant traction for the field and is often credited as the formative beginning of the present-day Society for Neuroeconomics.

The subsequent momentum continued throughout the decade of the 2000s in which research was steadily increasing and the number of publications containing the words "decision making" and "brain" rose impressively. A critical point in 2008 was reached when the first edition of Neuroeconomics: Decision Making and the Brain was published. This marked a watershed moment for the field as it accumulated the growing wealth of research into a widely accessible textbook. The success of this publication sharply increased the visibility of Neuroeconomics and helped affirm its place in economic teachings worldwide.

Major research areas
The field of decision-making is largely concerned with the processes by which individuals make a single choice from among many options. These processes are generally assumed to proceed in a logical manner such that the decision itself is largely independent of context.  Different options are first translated into a common currency, such as monetary value, and are then compared to one another and the option with the largest overall utility value is the one that should be chosen. While there has been support for this economic view of decision-making, there are also situations where the assumptions of optimal decision-making seem to be violated.

The field of neuroeconomics arose out of this controversy. By determining which brain areas are active in which types of decision processes, neuroeconomists hope to better understand the nature of what seem to be suboptimal and illogical decisions. While most of these scientists are using human subjects in this research, others are using animal models where studies can be more tightly controlled and the assumptions of the economic model can be tested directly.

For example, Padoa-Schioppa & Assad tracked the firing rates of individual neurons in the monkey orbitofrontal cortex while the animals chose between two kinds of juice.  The firing rate of the neurons was directly correlated with the utility of the food items and did not differ when other types of food were offered.  This suggests that, in accordance with the economic theory of decision-making, neurons are directly comparing some form of utility across different options and choosing the one with the highest value. Similarly, a common measure of prefrontal cortex dysfunction, the FrSBe, is correlated with multiple different measures of economic attitudes and behavior, supporting the idea that brain activation can display important aspects of the decision process.

Neuroeconomics studies the neurobiological along with the computational bases of decision-making.  A framework of basic computations which may be applied to Neuroeconomics studies is proposed by A. Rangel, C. Camerer, and P. R. Montague. It divides the process of decision-making into five stages implemented by a subject. First, a representation of the problem is formed. This includes analysis of internal states, external states and potential course of action. Second, values are assigned to potential actions. Third, based on the valuations, one of the actions is selected. Fourth, the subject evaluates how desirable the outcome is. In the final stage, learning, includes updating all of the above processes in order to improve future decisions.

Decision-making under risk and ambiguity
Most of our decisions are made under some form of uncertainty. Decision sciences such as psychology and economics usually define risk as the uncertainty about several possible outcomes when the probability of each is known. When the probabilities are unknown, uncertainty takes the form of ambiguity. Utility maximization, first proposed by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, is used to explain decision-making under risk. The theory assumes that humans are rational and will assess options based on the expected utility they will gain from each.

Research and experience uncovered a wide range of expected utility anomalies and common patterns of behavior that are inconsistent with the principle of utility maximization – for example, the tendency to overweight small probabilities and underweight large ones. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky proposed prospect theory to encompass these observations and offer an alternative model.

There seem to be multiple brain areas involved in dealing with situations of uncertainty.  In tasks requiring individuals to make predictions when there is some degree of uncertainty about the outcome, there is an increase in activity in area BA8 of the frontomedian cortex as well as a more generalized increase in activity of the mesial prefrontal cortex and the frontoparietal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is generally involved in all reasoning and understanding, so these particular areas may be specifically involved in determining the best course of action when not all relevant information is available.

The Iowa Gambling Task developing in 1994, involved picking from 4 decks of cards where 2 decks were riskier, containing higher payoffs accompanied by much heftier penalties. Most individuals realise after a few rounds of picking cards that the less risky decks have higher payoffs in the long run due to the small losses, however individuals with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex continue picking from the riskier decks. These results suggested the ventromedial prefrontal region of the brain in strongly associated with recognising the long term consequences of risky behavior as patients with damage to the region struggled to make decisions that prioritised the future over the potential for immediate gain.

In situations that involve known risk rather than ambiguity, the insular cortex seems to be highly active.  For example, when subjects played a 'double or nothing' game in which they could either stop the game and keep accumulated winnings or take a risky option resulting in either a complete loss or doubling of winnings, activation of the right insula increased when individuals took the gamble. It is hypothesized that the main role of the insular cortex in risky decision-making is to simulate potential negative consequences of taking a gamble. Neuroscience has found the insular is activated when thinking about or experiencing something uncomfortable or painful.

In addition to the importance of specific brain areas to the decision process, there is also evidence that the neurotransmitter dopamine may transmit information about uncertainty throughout the cortex. Dopaminergic neurons are strongly involved in the reward process and become highly active after an unexpected reward occurs.  In monkeys, the level of dopaminergic activity is highly correlated with the level of uncertainty such that the activity increases with uncertainty. Furthermore, rats with lesions to the nucleus accumbens, which is an important part of the dopamine reward pathway through the brain, are far more risk averse than normal rats.  This suggests that dopamine may be an important mediator of risky behavior.

Individual level of risk aversion among humans is influenced by testosterone concentration. There are studies exhibiting correlation between the choice of a risky career (financial trading, business) and testosterone exposure. In addition, daily achievements of traders with lower digit ratio are more sensitive to circulating testosterone. A long-term study of risk aversion and risky career choice was conducted for a representative group of MBA students. It revealed that females are in average more risk averse, but the difference between genders vanishes for low organizational and activational testosterone exposure leading to risk-averse behavior. Students with high salivary testosterone concentration and low digit ratio, disregarding the gender, tend to choose risky career in finance (e.g. trading or investment banking).

Serial and functionally localized model vs distributed, hierarchical model

In 2017 March, Laurence T. Hunt and Benjamin Y. Hayden argued an alternative viewpoint of the mechanistic model to explain how we evaluate options and choose the best course of action. Many accounts of reward-based choice argue for distinct component processes that are serial and functionally localized. The component processes typically include the evaluation of options, the comparison of option values in the absence of any other factors, the selection of an appropriate action plan and the monitoring of the outcome of the choice. They emphasized how several features of neuroanatomy may support the implementation of choice, including mutual inhibition in recurrent neural networks and the hierarchical organization of timescales for information processing across the cortex.

Loss aversion
One aspect of human decision-making is a strong aversion to potential loss. Under loss aversion, the perceived cost of loss is experienced more intensely than an equivalent gain. For example, if there was a 50/50 chance of either winning $100 or losing $100, and a loss occurred, the accompanying reaction would emulate losing $200; that is the sum of both losing $100 and the possibility of winning $100. This was first discovered in Prospect Theory by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky.

One of the main controversies in understanding loss aversion is whether the phenomenon manifests in the brain, perhaps as increased attention and arousal with losses. Another area of research is whether loss aversion is evident in sub-cortices, such as the limbic system, thereby involving emotional arousal.

A basic controversy in loss aversion research is whether losses are actually experienced more negatively than equivalent gains or merely predicted to be more painful but actually experienced equivalently.  Neuroeconomic research has attempted to distinguish between these hypotheses by measuring different physiological changes in response to both loss and gain.  Studies have found that skin conductance, pupil dilation and heart rate are all higher in response to monetary loss than to equivalent gain.  All three measures are involved in stress responses, so one might argue that losing a particular amount of money is experienced more strongly than gaining the same amount. On the other hand, in some of these studies, there was no physiological signals of loss aversion.  That may suggest that the experience of losses is merely on attention (what is known as loss attention); such attentional orienting responses also lead to increased autonomic signals.

Brain studies have initially suggested that there is increased medial prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex rapid response following losses compared to gains, which was interpreted as a neural signature of loss aversion. However, subsequent reviews have noticed that in this paradigm individuals do not actually show behavioral loss aversion casting doubts on the interpretability of these findings.
With respect to fMRI studies, while one study found no evidence for an increase in activation in areas related to negative emotional reactions in response to loss aversion another found that individuals with damaged amygdalas had a lack of loss aversion even though they had normal levels of general risk aversion, suggesting that the behavior was specific to potential losses. These conflicting studies suggest that more research needs to be done to determine whether brain response to losses is due to loss aversion or merely to an alerting or orienting aspect of losses; as well as to examine if there are areas in the brain that respond specifically to potential losses .

Intertemporal choice
In addition to risk preference, another central concept in economics is intertemporal choices which are decisions that involve costs and benefits that are distributed over time. Intertemporal choice research studies the expected utility that humans assign to events occurring at different times. The dominant model in economics which explains it is discounted utility (DU). DU assumes that humans have consistent time preference and will assign value to events regardless of when they occur.  Similar to EU in explaining risky decision-making, DU is inadequate in explaining intertemporal choice.

For example, DU assumes that people who value a bar of candy today more than 2 bars tomorrow, will also value 1 bar received 100 days from now more than 2 bars received after 101 days. There is strong evidence against this last part in both humans and animals, and hyperbolic discounting has been proposed as an alternative model. Under this model, valuations fall very rapidly for small delay periods, but then fall slowly for longer delay periods. This better explains why most people who would choose 1 candy bar now over 2 candy bars tomorrow, would, in fact, choose 2 candy bars received after 101 days rather than the 1 candy bar received after 100 days which DU assumes.

Neuroeconomic research in intertemporal choice is largely aimed at understanding what mediates observed behaviors such as future discounting and impulsively choosing smaller sooner rather than larger later rewards.  The process of choosing between immediate and delayed rewards seems to be mediated by an interaction between two brain areas.  In choices involving both primary (fruit juice) and secondary rewards (money), the limbic system is highly active when choosing the immediate reward while the lateral prefrontal cortex was equally active when making either choice.  Furthermore, the ratio of limbic to cortex activity decreased as a function of the amount of time until reward.  This suggests that the limbic system, which forms part of the dopamine reward pathway, is most involved in making impulsive decisions while the cortex is responsible for the more general aspects of the intertemporal decision process.

The neurotransmitter serotonin seems to play an important role in modulating future discounting.  In rats, reducing serotonin levels increases future discounting while not affecting decision-making under uncertainty. It seems, then, that while the dopamine system is involved in probabilistic uncertainty, serotonin may be responsible for temporal uncertainty since delayed reward involves a potentially uncertain future.  In addition to neurotransmitters, intertemporal choice is also modulated by hormones in the brain.  In humans, a reduction in cortisol, released by the hypothalamus in response to stress, is correlated with a higher degree of impulsivity in intertemporal choice tasks. Drug addicts tend to have lower levels of cortisol than the general population, which may explain why they seem to discount the future negative effects of taking drugs and opt for the immediate positive reward.

Social decision-making

While most research on decision-making tends to focus on individuals making choices outside of a social context, it is also important to consider decisions that involve social interactions.  The types of behavior that decision theorists study are as diverse as altruism, cooperation, punishment, and retribution.  One of the most frequently utilized tasks in social decision-making is the prisoner's dilemma.

In this situation, the payoff for a particular choice is dependent not only on the decision of the individual but also on that of another individual playing the game.  An individual can choose to either cooperate with his partner or defect against the partner.  Over the course of a typical game, individuals tend to prefer mutual cooperation even though defection would lead to a higher overall payout. This suggests that individuals are motivated not only by monetary gains but also by some reward derived from cooperating in social situations.

This idea is supported by neural imaging studies demonstrating a high degree of activation in the ventral striatum when individuals cooperate with another person but that this is not the case when people play the same prisoner's dilemma against a computer. The ventral striatum is part of the reward pathway, so this research suggests that there may be areas of the reward system that are activated specifically when cooperating in social situations.  Further support for this idea comes from research demonstrating that activation in the striatum and the ventral tegmental area show similar patterns of activation when receiving money and when donating money to charity. In both cases, the level of activation increases as the amount of money increases, suggesting that both giving and receiving money results in neural reward.

An important aspect of social interactions such as the prisoner's dilemma is trust.  The likelihood of one individual cooperating with another is directly related to how much the first individual trusts the second to cooperate; if the other individual is expected to defect, there is no reason to cooperate with them.  Trust behavior may be related to the presence of oxytocin, a hormone involved in maternal behavior and pair bonding in many species.  When oxytocin levels were increased in humans, they were more trusting of other individuals than a control group even though their overall levels of risk-taking were unaffected suggesting that oxytocin is specifically implicated in the social aspects of risk taking. However this research has recently been questioned.

One more important paradigm for neuroeconomic studies is ultimatum game. In this game Player 1 gets a sum of money and decides how much he wants to offer Player 2. Player 2 either accepts or rejects the offer. If he accepts both players get the amount as proposed by Player 1, if he rejects nobody gets anything. Rational strategy for Player 2 would be to accept any offer because it has more value than zero. However, it has been shown that people often reject offers that they consider as unfair. Neuroimaging studies indicated several brain regions that are activated in response to unfairness in ultimatum game. They include bilateral mid-anterior insula, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), medial supplementary motor area (SMA), cerebellum and right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). It has been shown that low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of DLPFC increases the likelihood of accepting unfair offers in the ultimatum game.

Another issue in the field of neuroeconomics is represented by role of reputation acquisition in social decision-making. Social exchange theory claims that prosocial behavior originates from the intention to maximize social rewards and minimize social costs. In this case, approval from others may be viewed as a significant positive reinforcer - i.e., a reward. Neuroimaging studies have provided evidence supporting this idea – it was shown that processing of social rewards activates striatum, especially left putamen and left caudate nucleus, in the same fashion these areas are activated during the processing of monetary rewards. These findings also support so-called "common neural currency" idea, which assumes existence of shared neural basis for processing of different types of reward.

Sexual decision-making
Regarding the choice of sexual partner, research studies have been conducted on humans and on nonhuman primates. Notably, Cheney & Seyfarth 1990, Deaner et al. 2005, and Hayden et al. 2007 suggest a persistent willingness to accept fewer physical goods or higher prices in return for access to socially high-ranking individuals, including physically attractive individuals, whereas increasingly high rewards are demanded if asked to relate to low-ranking individuals.

Cordelia Fine is most well known for her research on gendered minds and sexual decision-making. In her book Testosterone Rex she critiques sex differences in the brain and goes into detail on the economic cost and benefits of finding a partner, as interpreted and analysed by our brains. Her showcases an interesting sub-topic of neuroeconomics.

The neurobiological basis for this preference includes neurons of the lateral intraparietal cortex (LIP), which is related to eye movement, and which is operative in situations of two-alternative forced choices.

Methodology
Behavioral economics experiments record the subject's decisions over various design parameters and use the data to generate formal models that predict performance. Neuroeconomics extends this approach by adding states of the nervous system to the set of explanatory variables. The goal of neuroeconomics is to help explain decisions and to enrich the data sets available for testing predictions.

Furthermore, neuroeconomic research is being used to understand and explain aspects of human behavior that do not conform to traditional economic models.  While these behavior patterns are generally dismissed as 'fallacious' or 'illogical' by economists, neuroeconomic researchers are trying to determine the biological reasons for these behaviors.  By using this approach, researchers may be able to find explanations for why people often act sub-optimally. Richard Thaler provides a prime example in his book Misbehaving, detailing a scenario where an appetiser is served before a meal and guest accidentally fill up of it. Most people need the appetiser to be completely hidden in order to stop themselves from the temptation, where as a rational agent would simply stop and wait for the meal. Temptation is just one of the many irrationalities that have been ignored due to difficulties of studying them

Neurobiological research techniques
There are several different techniques that can be utilized to understand the biological basis of economic behavior.  Neural imaging is used in human subjects to determine which areas of the brain are most active during particular tasks.  Some of these techniques, such as fMRI or PET are best suited to giving detailed pictures of the brain which can give information about specific structures involved in a task.  Other techniques, such as ERP (event-related potentials) and oscillatory brain activity are used to gain detailed knowledge of the time course of events within a more general area of the brain. If a specific region of the brain is suspected to be involved in a type of economic decision-making, researchers may use Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to temporarily disrupt that region, and compare the results to when the brain was allowed to function normally. More recently, there has been interest in the role that brain structure, such as white matter connectivity between brain areas, plays in determining individual differences in reward-based decision-making.

Neuroscience does not always involve observing the brain directly, as brain activity can also be interpret by physiological measurements such skin conductance, heart rate, hormones, pupil dilation and muscle contraction known as electromyography, especially of the face to infer emotions linked to decisions.

Neuroeconomics of Addiction

In addition to studying areas of the brain, some studies are aimed at understanding the functions of different brain chemicals in relation to behavior. This can be done by either correlating existing chemical levels with different behavior patterns or by changing the amount of the chemical in the brain and noting any resulting behavioral changes.  For example, the neurotransmitter serotonin seems to be involved in making decisions involving intertemporal choice while dopamine is utilized when individuals make judgments involving uncertainty. Furthermore, artificially increasing oxytocin levels increases trust behavior in humans while individuals with lower cortisol levels tend to be more impulsive and exhibit more future discounting.

In addition to studying the behavior of neurologically normal individuals in decision-making tasks, some research involves comparing that behavior to individuals with damage to areas of the brain expected to be involved in decision-making.  In humans, this means finding individuals with specific types of neural impairment.  These case studies may have things like amygdala damage, leading to a decrease in loss aversion compared to controls. Also, scores from a survey measuring prefrontal cortex dysfunction are correlated with general economic attitudes, like risk preferences.

Previous studies investigated the behavioral patterns of patients with psychiatric disorders, or Neuroeconomics of Addiction, such as schizophrenia, autism, depression,,to get the insights of their pathophysiology. In animal studies, highly controlled experiments can get more specific information about the importance of brain areas to economic behavior.  This can involve either lesioning entire brain areas and measuring resulting behavior changes or using electrodes to measure the firing of individual neurons in response to particular stimuli.

Notable theorists

Experiments
As explained in Methodologies above, in a typical behavioral economics experiment, a subject is asked to make a series of economic decisions.  For example, a subject may be asked whether they prefer to have 45 cents or a gamble with a 50% chance to win one dollar. Many experiments involve the participant completing games where they either make one-off of repeated decisions and psychological responses and reaction time is measured. For example, it is common to test peoples relationship with the future, known as future discounting, by asking them questions such as "would you prefer $10 today, or $50 in a year from today?"  The experimenter will then measure different variables in order to determine what is going on in the subject's brain as they make the decision.
Some authors have demonstrated that neuroeconomics may be useful to describe not only experiments involving rewards but also common psychiatric syndromes involving addiction or delusion.

Criticisms
From the beginnings of neuroeconomics and throughout its swift academic rise, criticisms have been voiced over the field's validity and usefulness. Glenn W. Harris and Emanuel Donchin have both criticized the emerging field, with the former publishing his concerns in 2008 with the paper 'Neuroeconomics: A Critical Reconsideration'.
 Harris surmises that much of the neuroscience-assisted insights into economic modelling is "academic marketing hype" and that the true substance of the field is yet to present itself and needs to be seriously reconsidered. He also mentions that methodologically, many of the studies in neuroeconomics are flawed by their small sample sizes and limited applicability.

A review of the learnings of neuroeconomics, published in 2016 by Arkady Konovalov, shared the sentiment that the field suffers from experimental shortcomings. Primary among them being a lack of analogous ties between specific brain regions and some psychological constructs such as "value". The review mentions that although early neuroeconomic fMRI studies assumed that specific brain regions were singularly responsible for one function in the decision-making process, they have subsequently been shown to be recruiting in multiple different functions. The practice of reverse inference has therefore seen much less use and has hurt the field. Instead, FMRI should not be a standalone methodology, but rather be collected and connected to self-reports and behavioral data. The validity of using functional neuroimaging in consumer neuroscience can be improved by carefully designing studies, conducting meta-analyses, and connecting psychometric and behavioral data with data from neuroimaging.

Ariel Rubinstein, an economist at the University of Tel Aviv, spoke about neuroeconomic research, saying "standard experiments provide little information about the procedures of choice as it is difficult to extrapolate from a few choice observations to the entire choice function. If we want to know more about human procedures of choice we need to look somewhere else". These comments echo a salient and consistent argument of traditional economists against the neuroeconomic approach that the use of non-choice data, such as response times, eye-tracking and neural signals that people generate during decision-making, should be excluded from any economic analysis.

Other critiques have also included claims that neuroeconomics is "a field that oversells itself"; or that neuroeconomic studies "misunderstand and underestimate traditional economic models".

Applications

Currently, the real-world applications and predictions of neuroeconomics are still unknown or under-developed as the burgeoning field continues to grow. Some criticisms have been made that the accumulation of research and its findings have so far produced little in the way of pertinent recommendations to economic policy-makers. But many neuroeconomists insist that the potential of the field to enhance our understanding of the brain's machinations with decision-making may prove highly influential in the future.

In particular, the findings of specific neurological markers of individual preferences may have important implications for well-known economic models and paradigms. An example of this is the finding that an increase in computational capacity (likely related to increased gray matter volume) could lead to higher risk tolerance by loosening the constraints that govern subjective representations of probabilities and rewards in lottery tasks.

Economists are also looking at neuroeconomics to assist with explanations of group aggregate behavior that have market-level implications. For example, many researchers anticipate that neurobiological data may be used to detect when individuals or groups of individuals are likely to exhibit economically problematic behavior. This may be applied to the concept of market bubbles. These occurrences are majorly consequential in modern society and regulators could gain substantial insights into their formulation and lack of prediction/prevention.

Neuroeconomic work has also seen a close relationship with academic investigations of addiction. Researchers acknowledged, in the 2010 publication 'Advances in the Neuroscience of Addiction: 2nd Edition', that the neuroeconomic approach serves as a "powerful new conceptual method that is likely to be critical for progress in understanding addictive behavior".

German neuroscientist Tania Singer spoke at the World Economic Forum in 2015 about her research in compassion training. While economics and neuroscience are largely spilt, her research is an example of how they can meld together. Her study revealed a preference change toward prosocial behavior after 3 months of compassion training. She also demonstrated a structural change in the grey matter of the brain indicating new neural connections had formed as a result of the mental training. She showed that if economists utilised predictors other than consumption, they could model and predict a more diverse range of economic behaviors. She also advocated that neuroeconomics could vastly improve policymaking as we can create contexts that predictably lead to positive behavioral outcomes such as prosocial behavior when caring emotions are primed. Her research demonstrates the impact neuroeconomics could have on our individual psyches, our societal norms and political landscapes at large.

Neuromarketing is another applied example of a distinct discipline closely related to neuroeconomics. While broader neuroeconomics has more academic aims, since it studies the basic mechanisms of decision-making, neuromarketing is an applied sub-field which uses neuroimaging tools for market investigations. Insights derived from brain imaging technologies (fMRI) are typically used to analyse the brain's response to particular marketing stimuli.

Another neuroscientist, Emily Falk contributed to the neuroeconomics and neuromarketing fields by researching how the brain reacts to marketing aimed at evoking behavioral change. Specifically, her paper on anti-smoking advertisements highlighted the disparity between what advertisements we believe will be convincing and what the brain responds to most positively. The advertisement the experts and trial audience agreed on as being the most effective anti-smoking campaign actually elicited very little behavioral change in smokers. Meanwhile, the campaign ranked least likely to be effective by the experts and audience, generated the strongest neural response in the medial prefrontal cortex and resulted in the largest number of people deciding to quit smoking. This revealed that often our brains may know better than us when it comes to what motivators lead to behavioral change. It also emphasises the importance of integrating neuroscience into mainstream and behavioral economics to generate more wholistic models and accurate predictions. This research could have impacts in promoting healthier diets, more exercise, or encouraging people to make behavioral changes that benefit the environment and reduce climate change.

See also
Journals
Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics
Journal of Economic Psychology

References

Further reading
 Glimcher, Paul W. & Ernst Fehr, eds. 2014. Neuroeconomics : Decision Making and the Brain London: Academic Press.
 David Krueger (2009) The Secret Language of Money, McGraw-Hill Professional.
 PDF
 Paul W. Glimcher; Colin Camerer; Russell A. Poldrack; Ernst Fehr; Neuroeconomics: Decision Making and the Brain, Academic Press, 2008.

 Colin Camerer, George Loewenstein, Drazen Prelec, "Neuroeconomics: How neuroscience can inform economics", Journal of Economic Literature, 2005

 Daniel Houser; Kevin McCabe; Neuroeconomics, Advances in Health Economics and Health Services Research v. 20, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley West Yorkshire
 Peter Kenning, Hilke Plassmann, "Brain Research Bulletin - Special Issue on NeuroEconomics", 2005
 Paul Glimcher, Decisions, Uncertainty, and the Brain: The Science of Neuroeconomics, MIT Press, 2003.
 PDF
 alternative source

 John Cassidy, "Mind Games. What neuroeconomics tells us about money and the brain", ''New Yorker, 2006 September.
 Fließbach K., Weber B, Trautner P, Dohmen T, Sunde U, Elger CE, Falk A.; Social Comparison Affects Reward-Related Brain Activity in the Human Ventral Striatum, Science, 2007, 318(5854):1305-8.
 Weber B, Rangel A, Wibral M, Falk A. The medial prefrontal cortex exhibits money illusion., PNAS, 106(13):5025-8.
 Hardy-Vallée, B. (forthcoming). "Decision-making: a neuroeconomic perspective". Philosophy Compass.

  Pdf.

External links
 Scholarpedia neuroeconomics
 "Neuroeconomics"

Behavioral economics
Social psychology
Cognitive psychology

Neuroeconomics


Les organismes de décentralisation régionale (, EDR), sont quatre subdivisions administratives de la région autonome italienne du Frioul-Vénétie Julienne institués par la loi régionale n° 21 du 29 novembre 2019 et opérationnelles depuis le . Leur territoire correspond à celui de provinces dissoutes en 2016.

Caractéristiques
L'article 27 de la loi régionale 21/2019 établit la dissolution de plein droit, à partir du , des ancienne unions territoriales intercommunales (Unioni Territoriali Intercomunali), qui, elles-mêmes, ont remplacé les anciennes provinces abolies au Frioul-Vénétie Julienne par la loi régionale n° 20 du 9 décembre 2016.

Le territoire de chacun des quatre organismes correspond à celui des provinces qu'ils remplacent.

Ils possèdent leur propre personnalité juridique et leur autonomie comptable, organisationnelle et de gestion, mais ils sont néanmoins soumis au contrôle de la région.

Chaque EDR possède :
 un service technique qui est responsable, entre autres, de la gestion des constructions de bâtiments destinés à l'enseignement secondaire ainsi que  de travaux publics relevant de la compétence des communes sur leurs territoires respectifs si elles en font la demande ;
 un service d'affaires générales, avec des fonctions administratives et comptables transverses.

En plus de cela, les organismes de décentralisation régionale servent de centrale d'achat pour l'acquisition de biens et de services par les collectivités locales de leur territoire, conformément à la législation nationale et régionale sur les marchés publics.

Les municipalités peuvent déléguer aux EDR la planification et l'exécution de travaux publics relevant de leur compétence. Les EDR peuvent conclure des accords avec les municipalités intéressées pour l'utilisation des bâtiments scolaires.

Liste des organismes de décentralisation régionale

Références

Liens externes

Subdivision en Italie
Politique au Frioul-Vénétie Julienne
Géographie du Frioul-Vénétie Julienne
Nomenclature d'unités territoriales statistiques 3

Organismes de décentralisation régionale


Jacques-Yves Cousteau (d. 11 Haziran 1910 - ö. 25 Haziran 1997),  Fransız okyanus uzmanı, deniz subayı ve sinema yönetmeni.

Biyografi

Gençliği ve kariyerinin başlangıcı

Avukat oğlu ve noter torunu olan Cousteau, denizi ailesinin yerleştiği Marsilya civarlarındaki küçük koylar sayesinde keşfetti.

1930'da saygın bir okul olan Stanislas Okulunu bitirdikten sonra Brest'in Deniz Harp Okuluna girdi ve topçu eri oldu.

12 Temmuz 1937'de Simone Melchior ile hayatını birleştirdi. İki tane çocukları oldu, Jean-Michel Cousteau (1938) ve Philippe Cousteau (1940). İkisi de Calypso macerasına katılacaklardı.

Modern su altı dalışın icadı (1943)

İlk deniz altı deneyimlerini, Fransız Deniz Kuvvetlerinde yaptı. 1936 'da, belki de modern dalgıç maskelerinin ataları olan deniz gözlüklerini denedi.

II. Dünya Savaşına katılan Cousteau, birçok askeri ödül aldı.
Ateşkesin ardından Simone ve Jacques Cousteau'nun ailesi Megeve şehrine sığındılar. Orada Ichac ailesi ile arkadaş oldular. Jacques-Yves Cousteau'nun ve Marcel Ichac'in hedefi aynıydı: herkese ulaşılmaz ve bilinmeyen yerleri tanıtmak. Cousteau bunu denizaltında yapmayı hedeflerken Ichac dağları tercih ediyor. İki komşu 1943 'te Belgesel Filmi Kongresinde berabere birinci oldular.

O dönemde Jacques-Yves Cousteau, kardeşi Pierre-Antoine'den uzaklaşıyor. Yahudi düşmanı bir gazeteci olan kardeşi 1946 'da idam cezası aldıysa da  1954 'te serbest bırakıldı.

Savaş yılları dalış için önemli yıllar oldu. 1943 'te, Cousteau Émile Gagnan ile birlikte modern otonom dalgıç giysisi icat etti. Cousteau 19. yüzyılın (Rouquayrol ve Denayrouze) ve 20. yüzyılın başlangıcındaki (Le Prieur) icatları geliştirip yenileştirdi. Bu icadın patenti onu ömür boyu para sıkıntısından korudu.

GERS'ler ve  Élie Monnier (1946-1949)

Savaştan sonra (1946), Cousteau Toulon'da Groupe d'Etudes et de Recherches Sous-marines'i, yani GERS'i (Deniz altı Araştırma ve Çalışma Grubunu) kurdu.

1948'de, Cousteau Akdeniz'e ilk seferi düzenliyor. GERS'in toplandığı yer olan Elie Monnier eski bir römorkördü. Bu seferde Philippe Tailliez, Frédéric Dumas, Jean Alinat ve bulgunun film yapımcısı Marcel Ichac vardı. Küçük bulgu ekibi Mahia'da (Tunus) bulunan ve Romalılar zamanından kalan bir kalıntıyı inceledi.
Otonom dalışı kullanan ilk arkeolojik denizaltı operasyonuydu. Böylece bilimsel denizaltı arkeolojisi için ilk adım atılmış oldu.

Calypso ve Fransız oşinografik seferleri (1950)

1949 'da Cousteau ordudan ayrılıp Fransız Oşinografik Seferleri'ni kuruyor. Ünlü gemisi Calypso'yu satın alıp dünyanın en ilgi çekici denizlerini ve ırmaklarını gezdi.

Gezileri sırasında birçok filme imza attı. Louis Malle ile 1956 'da hazırladığı le Monde du silence yani Sessiz Dünya filmi Cannes Film Festivalinde Altın Palmiye ile ödülendirildi. Denizaltı biyolojisini yazdığı kitaplarla tanıtmaya çalıştı.

Jean Mollard'ın yardımıyla SP-350'yi inşa etti. Bu 2 kişilik denizaltı 350 metrelik derinliğe inebildi. Başarılı denemeden sonra, bunu 1965'te 2 taşıt ile tekrarladılar ve böylece 500 metre derinliğe ulaştılar.

1957'de Monako Okyanus Araştırmaları Müzesi'ni yönetti. Precontinent projelerini idare ediyordu. Bu projelerde su altında uzun süre kalınıyordu ve bir "sualtı evi" sayesinde incelemeler yapılıyordu. ABD'nin Bilimler Akademisine kabul edilen ender yabancılardan biriydi.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau ünü giderek yükseliyordu. 1960 yılının Ekim ayında bir yığın radyoaktif madde CEA tarafından Akdeniz'e atılacaktı. Komutan Cousteau basın kampanyası düzenledi ve 2 hafta geçmeden halk ayaklandı. Radyoaktif maddeler treni büyük bir kalabalık tarafından durduruldu ve geldiği yere dönmek zorunda kaldı.

1960'ta Monako'da, Fransız Cumhurbaşkanı Charles de Gaulle'un resmi ziyareti ve Ekim ayındaki nükleer denemeler üzerindeki tartışmaları sayesinde ünlü oldu.

Fransa elçisi, Prens Rainier'ye görüşmelerinin engellenmesinin daha iyi olacağını söylemesine rağmen prens Cousteau'nun müze ziyareti sırasında orada olmasını sağladı. Cumhurbaşkanı dostça kumandana, "atom bilginlerine karşı iyi davranmalarını" istedi. Cousteau şu şekilde cevap verdi: «Sizin atom bilginleriniz bize iyi davranmalı». Devam eden tartışmada, Jacques-Yves Cousteau nükleer sırların Fransa ile paylaşılmamasının Amerikan bir karar olduğu için üzüldüğünü belirti. Çünkü bu yüzden Fransa nükleer araştırmalara ve denemelere başlamıştı.

1974'te ABD'de The Cousteau Society 'i kurdu. Günümüzde bu vakfın 100.000 üyesi var ve amaçları şimdiki ve gelecek nesillerin yaşam kalitesini korumak.

1977'de Peter Scott ile birlikte, Birleşmiş Milletler tarafından çevre için yaptıklarından dolayı ödüllendirildiler. Presidential Medal of Freedom yani "Özgürlük Madalyası" ona Ronald Reagan, dönemin ABD Cumhurbaşkanı tarafından takdim edildi.

28 Haziran 1979'da, Calypso ile Portekize doğru bir seferde, oğlu Philippe bir kaza sonucu hayatını kaybediyor. Bu durumdan çok etkilenen Cousteau, yanına öbür oğlunu çağırıyor.

1990'lı yıllar

24 Kasım 1988'de, Fransız Akademisi'ne seçildi.
Kabul töreni 22 Haziran 1989'da gerçekleşti. Kabul törenindeki konuşmasına cevap Bertrand Poirot-Delpech tarafından söylendi.

2 Aralık 1990 eşi Simone Cousteau kanser yüzünden hayatını kaybediyor. Bu güçlü karakterli kadın, Calypsoda eşinden fazla vakit geçiriyordu. 1991 yılının Haziran ayında Cousteau  Francine Triplet ile yeni bir evlilik yaptı. Evlenmeden önce yeni eşinden iki tane çocuğu olmuştu, Dianne ve Pierre-Yves. Şu anda Francine Cousteau eşinin eserini sürdürüyor.

Bu andan itibaren, Cousteau ile büyük oğlu arasında ipler gerildi ve beraber çalışmayı bıraktılar. 1996'da Jacques-Yves Cousteau oğlunu Fiji Adaları'nda Cousteau isminde bir tatil köyü açmayı planladığı için mahkemeye verdi.

1992'de Birleşmiş Milletlerin Rio de Janeiro'da (Brezilya) düzenledikleri çevre ve gelişme hakkındaki konferansa davet edildi. BM'nin ve daha sonra Dünya Bankasının sürekli danışmanı oldu.

Aynı sene Gelecek Nesillerin Hakkı Konseyinde başkan seçildi..

Jacques-Yves Cousteau  25 Haziran 1997'de öldü. Ölümü en popüler Fransızlardan biri olduğu ABD'de çok hissedildi. Doğduğu şehirde onun anısına Komutan Cousteau Sokağı yapıldı.

Rütbeleri

 Légion d'Honneur (Commandeur)
 Ordre national du Mérite (Grand-Croix)
 1939-1945 Savaş Haçı
 Deniz Kuvvetleri subayı
 Sanat ve Edebiyat ödülü (Commandeur)

Jacques-Yves Cousteau'ın mirası

Denizaltı dünyasının halk tarafından görülmesi

Cousteau kendine "oşinografik teknisyen" demeyi seviyordu. Çoğu kişi Onun doğaya, özellikle denize âşık olduğunu düşünüyordu. Kendine has gülüşüyle ve televizyon sayesinde, tüm dünyanın insanlarına denizaltı zenginliklerini tanıttı.

Cousteau tarafından yapılanlar ortaya yeni bir tür bilimsel iletişim çıkardı. Bu konuda akademisyenler tarafından eleştirildi. Çünkü televizyonda sunulan işlerle bilimsel çalışmadan uzaklaştığı söyleniyordu.
Ama en azından, bilim dalları daha çok kişiye ulaşmış oldu.

Jacques-Yves Cousteau  20. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında, denizaltının keşfi konusunda tartışmasız en önemli insanlardan biriydi. Birçok nesile hiç tanınmamış diyarları tanıttı.

Teknik yenilikler
 1943'te Émile Gagnan ile birlikte modern otonom dalgıç giysisini icat etti.

Çevre korumacılığı

Jacques-Yves Cousteau'nun eserleri

Kitaplar

 Le monde du silence (Sessizlik Dünyası), Frédéric "Didi" Dumas ile birlikte, Éditions de Paris, 1952.
 La planète des baleines (Balinalar gezegeni), Yves Paccalet ile birlikte, Robert Laffont, 1986.
 L'Homme, la Pieuvre et l'Orchidée (İnsanoğlu, Ahtapot ve Orkide, Robert Laffont, 1998, ISBN 2-221-08523-X
 vs.

Bibliyografi
 Cousteau, une biographie.(Cousteau, bir biyografi) Bernard Violet, Fayard, 1993
 Cousteau, Captain Planet.(Cousteau, Gezegen Kaptanı) Roger Cans. Sang de la Terre, 1997
 Mon père, le commandant.(Komutan babam) Jean-Michel Cousteau, éd. L'Archipel, 2004
 Jacques-Yves Cousteau dans l'océan de la vie(Jacques-Yves Cousteau, hayatın okyanusunda). Yves Paccalet, Lattès

Filmleri
 Par-Dix-Huit Métres de Fond (Onsekiz Metre Derinlikte), (1943)
 Epaves (Batıklar), (1945)
 Paysages du Silence (Sessizlik Manzaraları), (1947)
 Les Phoques du Rio de Oro (Rio de Oro Fokları)
 Dauphins et Cétacés (Yunuslar ve Balinagiller), (1948-1949)
 Le Monde du Silence (Sessiz Dünya), (1955)

Kaynakça

Dış bağlantılar

 Custo Vakfı
 imdb sayfası

1910 doğumlular
1997 yılında ölenler
Jacques-Yves
Fransız denizciler
Fransız mucitler
Başkanlık Özgürlük Madalyası sahipleri
Fransız Akademisi üyeleri
Okyanus bilimciler
BAFTA Ödülü sahipleri
BAFTA Akademi Bağlılık Ödülü sahipleri

Jacques-Yves Cousteau


Sloclap est un développeur de jeux vidéo français basé à Paris et fondée en 2015 par des anciens développeurs d'Ubisoft Paris, deux jeux ont été produit par la société : Absolver et Sifu.

Historique
Sloclap est créé en 2015 par d'anciens développeurs d'Ubisoft Paris, leur premier projet était Absolver, dont il est sorti le 29 août 2017 et s'est vendu à plus de 250 000 unité moins d'un mois après son lancement. Le second jeu du studio, Sifu, est sorti le 8 février 2022 : « Nous avons voulu pousser plus loin qu'Absolver dans la représentation du combat au corps-à-corps et la vision artistique, capitaliser sur nos acquis tout en corrigeant ce qui pouvait pêcher sur notre premier jeu » affirma l'un des directeurs.

Jeux développés

Références

Liens externes

Entreprise fondée en 2015
Développeur de jeux vidéo
Entreprise de jeux vidéo ayant son siège en France

Sloclap


في الطوبولوجيا، تدعى المجموعة U بالمجموعة المفتوحة  إذا كان، ابتداءً من أي نقطة x في المجموعة U من الممكن التحرك في أي اتجاه بشكل بسيط دون الخروج خارج المجموعة.

بشكل آخر، إن المسافة بين أي نقطة x في المجموعة U ومحيط المجموعة U تكون دائماً أكبر من الصفر.

وبصفة عامة في فضاء طوبولوجي (E,T)  المجموعات المفتوحة أو  المفتوحات اختصارا هي عناصر T. يشكل هذا المفهوم مفهوما هاما وأساسيا في الرياضيات.

تعريف
توجد عدة تعاريف للمفهوم، تختلف حسب نوع الفضاء. لكنها لا تتعارض مع تعريف عام:

حيث E مجموعة ما و T مجموعةٌ عناصرها هي مجوعات جزئية لِ E, إذا تحققت الخاصياتُ  الثلاثة الآتية مجتمعةً:
 الفراغُ والشمولُ: المجموعة الفارغة Ø و E عضوان في T.
 الوَصْل: أيُ اتحادٍ لاعضاء من T ينتمي لِ T (إن كان نهائياً أو غير نهائي).
 البَيْن: تقاطع أي مجموعتين من T ينتمي هو أيضا لِ T (ليس ضروريا ان ينتمي تقاطع عدد لا نهائي من المجموعات من داخل T إلى TT).
و في هذه الحالة نسمي T طوبولوجيّةً الفضاء، والمجموعات الاعضاء فيها نسميهن المجموعات المفتوحة في الفضاء. مجموعةٌ التي مكَمّلتها مجموعة مفتوحة تُسمّى مجموعة مغلقة.

بالنسبة للفضائات المترية فنقول أن مجموعة هي مجموعة مفتوحة اٍذا كان بالنسبة لأي عنصر x من المجموعة، فاٍنه يوجد عدد حقيقي r موجب قطعا، حيت تكون الفلكة التي مركزها x وشعاعها r مضمونة في المجموعة.

أمثلة
في مجموعة الأعداد الحقيقية يتقاطع مفهوم المجموعة المفتوحة مع مجال مفتوح. فكل مجموعة مفتوحة هي اتحاد مجالات مفتوحة قابلة للعد متفارقة (منفصلة) فيما بينها مثنى مثنى.

انظر أيضاً

 جوار (رياضيات)

مراجع

طوبولوجيا عامة

مجموعة مفتوحة


مبرهنة ديزارغ  هي مبرهنة في هندسة الإسقاط، سميت على اسم العالم جيرار ديزارغ، نصها كما يلي:

في فضاء الإسقاط، يكون مثلثان منظوران محورياً إذا وفقط إذا كانا منظوران مركزياً.

من أجل فهم المبرهنة، ليكن لدينا ثلاث نقاط على مثلث ما (نرمز لها بأحرف صغيرة a, b, c) وثلاث نقاط على مثلث آخر (بأحرف كبيرة A, B, C). إن المنظورية المحورية تكون محققة إذا وفقط إذا كانت نقط تقاطع امتداد اضلع المثلثين، مثلاً تقاطع ab مع AB و ac مع AC و bc مع BC، ينتمون إلى نفس الخط الذي يدعى محور المنظورية. وتتحقق المنظورية المركزية إذا وفقط إذا تقاطعت المستقيمات Aa، Bb، Cc في نقطة واحدة هي مركز المنظور.

طالع أيضًا
 تماثل

مراجع

مبرهنات في الهندسة المستوية
هندسة إسقاطية
هندسة إقليدية مستوية
مبرهنات حول المثلثات

مبرهنة ديزارغ


El término seguro puede referirse:

al seguro, una operación económica por la que se transfieren los riesgos de una pérdida económica a un tercero;
al contrato de seguro, medio por el cual el asegurador se obliga, mediante el cobro de una prima, a resarcir de un daño o a pagar una suma de dinero, al verificarse la eventualidad prevista en el contrato;
 al seguro de personas, un seguro que cubre los riesgos que afectan a las personas;
 al seguro de vida, un seguro que cubre los riesgos que afectan a la vida de las personas;
 al seguro contra daños, un seguro que pretende el resarcimiento de un daño patrimonial sufrido por el asegurado;
 al seguro del automóvil, un seguro que cubre los riesgos de los vehículos;
 al seguro de caución;
 al corredor de seguros, una persona que actúa como agente intermediario de varias compañías aseguradoras;

Seguridad

Seguro (desambiguación)


El Aeropuerto de Kittilä ()  es un aeropuerto de uso civil situado en los aledaños de la localidad de Kittilä, Finlandia, dentro del círculo polar ártico.

Aerolíneas y destinos

Estadísticas

Referencias

Enlaces externos

Kittilä
Kitt

Aeropuerto de Kittilä


The dark chanting goshawk (Melierax metabates) is a bird of prey in the family Accipitridae which is found across much of sub-Saharan Africa and southern Arabia, with an isolated and declining population in southern Morocco.

Description
The dark chanting goshawk is a medium-sized, bulky hawk with an upright stance. The head, breast and upperparts are essentially dark grey, while the underparts, other than the breast, are white, finely barred with black. The wing primaries are black, and the tail has broad black and white bars. The cere and the long legs are orange-red. The female is, on average, larger than the male, weighing up to 840g to the male's maximum weight of 700g. Juveniles tend to have browner plumage reminiscent in colour and pattern to a buzzard Buteo spp but with the broad winged, long tailed silhouette of an accipiter.

Voice
As its common name suggests the dark chanting goshawk is a vocal bird, although less so than its two congeners. It often calls from a perch or in flight, making an accelerating series of piping notes and fluty whistles, which has been described as a song or chant and there are up to a dozen notes in a series  . It also gives a high-pitched . During the breeding season it is more vocal than when non breeding.

Distribution and subspecies
The dark chanting goshawk breeds in sub-Saharan Africa, but avoids the rainforests of the Congo Basin and the far south, where it is replaced by the pale chanting goshawk and east Africa where the Eastern chanting goshawk seems to replace it.

There are five currently recognised subspecies,

Melierax metabates metabates: Senegal and the Gambia east to Ethiopia, south to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and northern Tanzania.
Melierax metabates neumanni: Mali east to northern Sudan.
Melierax metabates theresae: south west Morocco.
Melierax metabates ignoscens: South western Arabia, i.e. south western Saudi Arabia and western Yemen.
Melierax metabates mechowi: south eastern Gabon to Angola, south Tanzania south to northern Namibia and north eastern South Africa.

Although the status of M. neumanni is debatable as it is poorly differentiated.

Habitat
The dark chanting goshawk occurs in savannahs and open woodlands, favouring mixed bushveld and broad-leafed woodlands and avoid dense forest and desert, where it overlaps with other Melierax species the dark chanting goshawk prefers moister richer woodland.  In southern Africa it is found in tall, well-developed woodland, especially wheremiombo (Brachystegia spp), mopane (Colosphermum mopane), Zambezi teak (Baikiaea plurijuga), Knob thorn (Senegalia nigrescens) and Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) are among the canopy.

Habits
The dark chanting goshawk preys on a wide variety of animals, especially mammals, birds and reptiles; these are normally hunted from a perch, from which the bird swoops to capture prey on the ground or in the air. They have been recorded following honey badgers (Mellivora capensis), Southern ground-hornbills, dogs or people, catching the small animals disturbed by their passage.  The largest recorded prey items are helmeted guineafowl Numida meleagris and dwarf mongoose.

The dark chanting goshawk is a territorial nester. The courtship display is performed by both sexes during which the male repeatedly dives at the female, who presents her claws to him. The nest is constructed in a tree by both sexes and is a flattish platform of sticks, slightly lower in the centre than at the edges and decorated with spider webs and sometimes cemented with mud. It may be lined with a wide variety of materials, including animal, plant, mineral and man-made objects. The one to two, occasionally three, eggs are laid from July–November, with a peak from August–October, and they are incubated by the female for around 36–38 days, while the male brings food to her at the nest. Initially, the young are brooded and guarded by the female, while the male hunts to provide all the food. The young fledge at about 50 days old, and are fully independent roughly 3–8 months after fledging. They move away from their natal area at the beginning of the following breeding season.

Taxonomy
The chanting goshawks are sometimes considered to be a single species, the chanting goshawk Melierax metabates, or to be this species plus the other two lumped as the pale chanting goshawk Melierax canorus.

Conservation status
The dark-chanting goshawk is widespread and common and therefore not globally threatened. However, the two isolated subspecies occurring in Morocco and the Arabian Peninsula, are highly vulnerable to the clearance of woodland. In particular the subspecies Melierax metabates theresae, is confined to a small area of south western Morocco, where it is thought to be nearly extinct as a result of deforestation and hunting. Otherwise its wide range means that Birdlife International categorise the species as Least Concern.

References

External links

 Dark Chanting Goshawk - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds

dark chanting goshawk
Birds of prey of Africa
Birds of the Middle East
dark chanting goshawk
Taxa named by Theodor von Heuglin

Dark chanting goshawk


Maïjirgui (auch: Magirgui, Maï Jirgui) ist eine Landgemeinde im Departement Tessaoua in Niger.

Geographie
Maïjirgui liegt am Übergang der Sahelzone zur Großlandschaft Sudan. Die Nachbargemeinden sind Ourafane im Nordosten, Garagoumsa im Osten, Baoudetta, Koona und Korgom im Südosten, Gazaoua im Süden, Aguié im Südwesten sowie Issawane, Kanan-Bakaché und Tessaoua im Nordwesten.

Bei den Siedlungen im Gemeindegebiet handelt es sich um 26 Dörfer und 74 Weiler. Der Hauptort der Landgemeinde ist das Dorf Maïjirgui.

Die Forêt classée de Chabaré ist ein 795 Hektar großes unter Naturschutz stehendes Waldgebiet beim Dorf Chabaré im Gemeindegebiet von Maïjirgui. Die Unterschutzstellung erfolgte 1952.

Geschichte

Julien Chanoine und Paul Voulet, die Anführer der für ihre Grausamkeit berüchtigten französischen Militärexpedition Mission Voulet-Chanoine, wurden am 16. bzw. 17. Juli 1899 von ihren eigenen Soldaten in Maïjirgui getötet und dort unter einem Anabaum bestattet. Noch am 6. Dezember desselben Jahres machte mit der Mission Foureau-Lamy eine weitere französische Militärexpedition im Dorf Station, die zuvor die Sahara durchquert hatte und danach weiter zum Tschadsee zog.

Der Markt von Maïjirgui war einer der kleinen Märkte in der Region, die zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts von der damaligen französischen Verwaltung zugelassen wurden. Der britische Reiseschriftsteller A. Henry Savage Landor besuchte den Ort 1906 im Rahmen seiner zwölfmonatigen Afrika-Durchquerung. In den 1920er Jahren galt die durch Maïjirgui führende und 1375 Kilometer lange Piste von Niamey nach N'Guigmi als einer der Hauptverkehrswege in der Kolonie Niger. Sie war in der Trockenzeit bis Guidimouni und wieder ab Maïné-Soroa von Automobilen befahrbar.

Die Landgemeinde Maïjirgui ging 2002 im Zuge einer landesweiten Verwaltungsreform aus jenem Teil des Kantons Tessaoua hervor, der nicht der Stadtgemeinde Tessaoua zugeschlagen wurde.

Bevölkerung
Bei der Volkszählung 2012 hatte die Landgemeinde 70.655 Einwohner, die in 8.398 Haushalten lebten. Bei der Volkszählung 2001 betrug die Einwohnerzahl 44.183 in 5.653 Haushalten.

Im Hauptort lebten bei der Volkszählung 2012 9.168 Einwohner in 1.173 Haushalten, bei der Volkszählung 2001 6.407 in 821 Haushalten und bei der Volkszählung 1988 4.444 in 684 Haushalten.

In ethnischer Hinsicht ist die Gemeinde ein Siedlungsgebiet von Katsinawa, Iklan, Kanuri und Fulbe.

Politik
Der Gemeinderat (conseil municipal) hat 19 Mitglieder. Mit den Kommunalwahlen 2020 sind die Sitze im Gemeinderat wie folgt verteilt: 7 PNDS-Tarayya, 6 CPR-Inganci, 2 MDEN-Falala, 2 RDR-Tchanji, 1 RPP-Farilla und 1 RSD-Gaskiya.

Jeweils ein traditioneller Ortsvorsteher (chef traditionnel) steht an der Spitze von 24 Dörfern in der Gemeinde, darunter dem Hauptort.

Wirtschaft und Infrastruktur
Die Gemeinde liegt in einer Zone, in der Regenfeldbau betrieben wird. Der Markt von Maïjirgui ist bedeutend für den Zwischenhandel von landwirtschaftlichen Erzeugnissen und Vieh und darin vergleichbar den benachbarten Märkten von Baoudetta, Gazaoua, Koona und Madobi. Hier werden die auf Lokalmärkten wie jenem in Toki erworbenen Waren weiter in die Märkte der Großstädte Agadez, Arlit und Niamey verkauft.

Im Hauptort ist ein Gesundheitszentrum des Typs Centre de Santé Intégré (CSI) vorhanden. Der CEG Maïjirgui ist eine allgemein bildende Schule der Sekundarstufe des Typs Collège d'Enseignement Général (CEG). Beim Centre de Formation aux Métiers de Maïjirgui (CFM Maïjirgui) handelt es sich um ein Berufsausbildungszentrum.

Durch Maïjirgui verläuft die Nationalstraße 1, die den Ort mit den Regionalhauptstädten Maradi und Zinder verbindet.

Literatur

Weblinks

 Observations for location Maï Jirgui. In: West African Bird DataBase (englisch).

Einzelnachweise

Ort in Niger
Maradi (Region)
Ort in Afrika

Maïjirgui


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Calea ferată forestieră Crăcăoani a reprezentat un sistem de căi ferate forestiere cu ecartament îngust situate în bazinele Cracăului Alb și Cracăului Negru în județul Neamț, construit între 1888-1891 cu scopul de asigura transportul lemnului de la exploatările forestiere din zonă către fabrica de cherestea de la Cracăul Negru. Structura și ecartamentul acestui sistem au variat de-a lungul timpului.

Acest sistem fost desființat și dezafectat treptat între anii 1950-1962.

Construcție
În anul 1880 a fost construită la Cracăul Negru o fabrică de cherestea, aceasta urmând să prelucreze lemnul exploatat în zonă.

Între 1888-1891, respectiva fabrică a construit o cale ferată forestieră cu șine de lemn, pentru a putea transporta buștenii de pe văile Cracăului Negru, Cracăului Alb, Boulețului Mic și  Boulețului Mare.
Pe o platformă realizată prin mici lucrări de terasare, în special nivelări de teren, se așezau la 1,5-2 m traverse de lemn, pe care se fixau șinele. Acestea erau realizate  din rigle cu secțiunea 6/8-8/12 cm, sau din lemn rotund de 13-18 cm diametru. Pe drumurile cu șine de lemn se deplasau vehicule glisante (goange) sau cu roți, trase de cai la cursele în gol (în rampă), sau la cele în plin, acolo unde erau pantele mici. Acolo unde erau pante suficient de mari, vehiculele se deplasa gravitațional.

Exploatare
Calea ferată, cu un ecartament de 800 mm și un total de 29 km, avea următoarele trasee:
 Magazia–Mitocu Bălan–Vaca, pe valea Cracăului Alb, în lungime de 13 km
 Mitocu Bălan–valea Boulețului–valea Boulețului Mic, în lungime de 6 km
 Valea Boulețului–valea Boulețului Mare, în lungime de 1 km
 Magazia–Cracăul Negru–valea Cracăului Negru, în lungime de 9 km

În anul 1948 linia a fost naționalizată, trecând în administrarea IFET Piatra Neamț. În perioada 1950-1953 ecartamentul a fost schimbat de la 800 mm la 760 mm și au fost desființați 11 km de linie, porțiunea respectivă fiind dezafectată până în anul 1956.

Au rămas să funcționeze doar traseul de 9 km de pe valea Cracăului Negru și cel de 1km pe  valea Boulețului Mare, precum și 1 km de pe valea Boulețului Mic. Aceste trasee au fost treptat desființate și ele, în perioada 1959-1962.

Locomotivele care au deservit linia au fost de tip Henschel, model din 1910.

Referințe

Legături externe
 Harta liniilor de cale ferată forestieră din bazinul Cracăului; ZiarTârguNeamț.ro

Crăcăoani
Crăcăoani
Transportul în județul Neamț

Calea ferată forestieră Crăcăoani


Silvio Pestrin Farina (Buenos Aires, 20 de enero de 1975-Córdoba, España, 6 de marzo de 2023) fue un empresario y desarrollador de sistemas argentino, creador de la red social para artistas FictionCity. Además, formó parte del banco virtual Patagon.com y trabajó para instituciones internacionales como el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID) y el Banco Mundial.

Carrera profesional

Comenzó a estudiar ingeniería informática en la Universidad de Belgrano en 1992. En 1998, inició su experiencia laboral en el BID, dónde se desempeñó como desarrollador de lenguajes Java y Visual Basic. En 1999, estuvo al frente de Patagon.com, primer banco virtual, luego vendido al Banco Santander Central Hispano Argentina.

FictionCity.net

En 2009, Pestrin Farina lanzó la red social para artistas FictionCity, plataforma virtual disponible en 12 idiomas cuyo número de miembros ascendía a 250.000 en septiembre de 2011. Este emprendimiento ha sido definido por publicaciones especializadas como "el Linkedin para los artistas". Desde su lanzamiento en modo beta, a principios de 2011, se estima que la red social creció a razón de 1000 usuarios nuevos por día. Uno de los motivos de su expansión es la facilidad con la que permite a los artistas, de todas las disciplinas, mostrar e intercambiar sus obras en diferentes formatos de imagen, audio, texto y video. Otra de sus funciones permite conectar a sus usuarios con empresas y organizaciones sociales además de generar, en menos de 72 horas, eventos virtuales como muestras, recitales, concursos y cástines.

Codamation.com

En 2015 , Silvio Pestrin Farina, se unió a CodaMation como Director Regional de Producto. A cargo del equipo de producto, es el responsable de KeeAccount (Plataforma de transacciones digitales de Codamation. Encargado del crecimiento , evolución, innovación, productos y estrategias comerciales . Teniendo en cuenta su experiencia y conocimiento de los productos tecnológicos, se le otorga un voto en el Comité de Aprobación de los proyectos que se  cocrearon. En consecuencia , es el respondable de garantizar el desarrollo de los productos cocreados y que cumplancon las especificaciones requeridas.

KOIPartners.com

En 2016 , Silvio Pestrin Farina, funda KOI Ventures & Co., fondo de inversión (60 MM) con foco en empresas de internet. El mismo posee oficinas en NYC, Miami y Madrid. En consecuencia , es el responsable del análisis de empresas a invertir.

Referencias

Enlaces externos

 Entrevista a Silvio Pestrin Farina
 Entrevista a Silvio Pestrin Farina en FayerWayer
 Entrevista a Silvio Pestrin Farina en CNN en español
 Nota en Diario El Mundo
 Entrevista a Silvio Pestrin Farina en Clarín
 Entrevista a Silvio Pestrin Farina en Plata Fresca
 Entrevista a Silvio Pestrin Farina Diario Veloz

Empresarios de Argentina

Silvio Pestrin Farina


Yoshikiyo Kuboyama (født 21. juli 1976) er en tidligere japansk fodboldspiller.

Han har spillet for flere forskellige klubber i sin karriere, herunder Yokohama Flügels og Shimizu S-Pulse.

Eksterne henvisninger

Fodboldspillere fra Japan

Yoshikiyo Kuboyama


La saison 1966-1967 de Serie B, organisée par la Lega Calcio pour la vingt-et-unième fois, est la  du championnat de deuxième division en Italie. Les deux premiers sont promus directement en Serie A et les quatre derniers sont relégués en Serie C.

À l'issue de la saison, la Sampdoria termine à la première place et monte en Serie A 1967-1968 ( division), accompagné par le vice-champion, Varèse.

Avec la réforme de la Serie A qui passera de 18 à 16 équipes, il n'y aura que deux promotions en fin de saison, par contre il y aura quatre clubs relégués.

Compétition
La victoire est à deux points, un match nul à 1 point.

Classement

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Notes et références
 saison 66-67 sur calcio-seriea.net

1966-1967
Championnat Italie Football 1966-1967 Serie B
Championnat Italie Football 1966-1967 Serie B
Italie
Italie

Championnat d'Italie de football de deuxième division 1966-1967


Castelul Puyguilhem (în ) este un castel din Renașterea franceză situat în comuna Villars, departamentul Dordogne. Clasat monument istoric în 1912, este administrat de Centrul Monumentelor Naționale.

Istoric
Feuda Puyguilhem a fost cumpărată de Pierre Mondot de La Marthonie, președintele Parlamentului din Guyenne la Bordeaux, înainte de 1510. În 1515 el a fost desemnat prim-președintele al Parlamentului din Paris. Apropriat al reginei-mamă Louise de Savoia, a devenit chiar mai influent când regele Francisc I a plecat la război în Italia. Construirea castelului își manifestă ascensiunea socială. După ce el a murit subit în 1517, lucrările au fost continuate de fratele său, Gaston, până în anul 1535.

Castelul Puyguilhem a rămas în familia La Marthonie până în secolul al XVIII-lea, apoi a fost moștenit de familia Chapt de Rastignac, pe urmă de familia La Rochefoucauld. S-a tranzacționat de mai multe ori la începutul secolului al XX-lea, dar a fost neglijat și a ajuns aproape în ruine, până la punctul în care statul francez a lansat o procedură de expropriere și l-a cumpărat în 1939. Castelul a fost restaurat timp de 20 ani sub îndrumarea arhitectului monumentelor istorice, Yves-Marie Froidevaux. Este în prezent deschis publicului.

Descriere
Castelul se compune dintr-un corp de clădire de două etaje prelungit de două aripi, cu un turnuleț de scară poligonal și o scară de onoare pe fațada de nord. Este flancat de un mare turn rotund de aspect mai vechi.

Referințe

Legături externe
    Site-ul oficial
  Notița pe baza Mérimée (baza de date a monumentelor istorice franceze)

Puyguilhem
Monumente istorice din Franța

Castelul Puyguilhem


An Sporobolus caespitosus in uska species han Liliopsida nga ginhulagway ni Carl Sigismund Kunth. An Sporobolus caespitosus in nahilalakip ha genus nga Sporobolus, ngan familia nga Poaceae. Ginklasipika han IUCN an species komo nangangarat-an duro. Waray hini subspecies nga nakalista.

Mga kasarigan

Mga sumpay ha gawas

Sporobolus

Sporobolus caespitosus


Finala Ligii Campionilor din 2019 a fost meciul final al Ligii Campionilor UEFA din 2018-1919, cel de-al 64-lea sezon al turneului european de fotbal de club organizat de UEFA și al 27-lea sezon de la rebrandingul la Liga Campionilor UEFA. A fost jucată la Wanda Metropolitano din Madrid, Spania, la 1 iunie 2019, între echipele engleze Tottenham Hotspur, în prima lor finală a Cupei Europene, și Liverpool, în cea de-a noua finală și a doua la rând, fiind înfrânți de către Real Madrid în 2018. A fost cea de-a șaptea finală a Ligii Campionilor - și a patra a deceniului - care cuprinde două echipe din aceeași asociație și cea de-a doua finală engleză după 2008. A fost, de asemenea, prima finală din 2013, care nu prezintă cel puțin o echipă spaniolă, Barcelona și Real Madrid având în comun cele cinci titluri precedente.

Liverpool a câștigat finala cu 2-0, cu o lovitură de pedeapsă care a fost transformată după 106 de secunde de către Mohamed Salah și un șut de către rezerva Divock Origi după 87 minute. În calitate de câștigători, pentru al șaselea eveniment global și pentru prima dată din 2005, Liverpool și-a câștigat dreptul de a juca în Campionatul Mondial al Cluburilor FIFA 2019, precum și împotriva lui Chelsea, câștigătorii Ligii Europei UEFA 2018-19, în Supercupa Europei 2019. Ei urmau, de asemenea, să se califice pentru a intra în faza grupelor a Ligii Campionilor UEFA 2019-20. Cu toate acestea, deoarece Liverpool s-a calificat deja prin poziția lor în ligă, locul rezervat a fost oferit campionilor Bundesliga 2018-19 din Austria, clasată pe locul 11 în lista de acces a sezonului următor.

În martie 2018, UEFA a anunțat că va fi permisă a patra înlocuire în timpul suplimentar și că numărul de rezerve va fi crescut de la 7 la 12. Timpul de început a fost de asemenea schimbat de la 20:45 CEST la 21:00 CEST. Meciul a fost, de asemenea, prima finală a Ligii Campionilor de a folosi sistemul de arbitri asistent video (VAR).

Meci
Echipa "gazdă" (în scopuri administrative) a fost determinată după tragerea la sorți suplimentară care a avut loc după tragerea la sorți a sferturilor de finală și a semifinalelor. Tragerea la sorți a avut loc la 15 martie 2019, ora 12:00 CET, la sediul UEFA din Nyon, Elveția.

Statistică

Referințe

Legături externe

2019 final: Madrid, UEFA.com

Finalele Ligii Campionilor UEFA
Liga Campionilor 2018-2019

Finala Ligii Campionilor 2019


El-Karamah () ya da tam adıyla Nadi El-Karamah er-Riyadi (), Suriye'nin Humus şehrinde 1928 yılında kurulmuş bir futbol kulübüdür. Maçlarını Halid bin Velid Stadyumu'nda yapmaktadır.

Başarılar
 Suriye Futbol Şampiyonu: 1975, 1982, 1983, 1996, 2006
 Suriye Futbol Kupası Şampiyonu: 1983, 1987, 1995, 1996
 Finalist: 1990, 1998

Suriye'deki futbol kulüpleri
Humus
1928'de kurulan futbol kulüpleri

El-Karamah


Szymon Czyż, né le  à Gdynia en Pologne, est un footballeur polonais qui évolue au poste de milieu offensif au Raków Częstochowa.

Biographie

Carrière en club
Né à Gdynia en Pologne, Szymon Czyż est formé par le club de sa ville natale, l'Arka Gdynia, puis le Lech Poznań avant d'arriver en Italie en juillet 2018 pour s'engager avec la Lazio Rome.

Il joue son premier match en professionnel avec la Lazio le , lors d'une rencontre de Ligue des champions face au Club Bruges KV. Il entre en jeu à la place de Felipe Caicedo et les deux équipes se neutralisent (1-1 score final).

Le , Szymon Czyż s'engage fait son retour en Pologne, signant un contrat de trois ans avec le  Warta Poznań. Il fait ses débuts dans l'élite du football polonais en même temps que sa première apparition sous ses nouvelles couleurs, le , lors de la première journée de la saison 2021-2022, contre le Śląsk Wrocław. Il est titularisé et délivre une passe décisive ce jour-là. Les deux équipes se neutralisent sur un score de deux partout.

Le , lors du mercato hivernal, Szymon Czyż s'engage en faveur du Raków Częstochowa. Il signe un contrat courant jusqu'en juin 2025.

En sélection
Il compte trois sélections avec l'équipe de Pologne des moins de 20 ans, toutes obtenues en 2021.

Le , Szymon Czyż joue son premier match avec l'équipe de Pologne espoirs contre la Lettonie. Il entre en jeu à la place de Michał Skóraś et son équipe s'impose par trois buts à un.

Notes et références

Liens externes

Footballeur polonais
Joueur de la Lazio Rome
Joueur du Warta Poznań
Joueur du Raków Częstochowa
Naissance en juillet 2001
Naissance à Gdynia

Szymon Czyż


Johan Hansen (født 7. februar 1845 i Havnbjerg, død 25. februar 1928 i Gentofte), var en københavnsk fabrikant og grosserer, der fra små kår på Als arbejdede sig op til at blive en velhavende forretningsmand i København.

Johan Hansen var Kommandør af Dannebrog og Dannebrogsmand.

Baggrund
Johan Hansen voksede op på slægtsgården "Havnbjerg Vestergaard", hvor han allerede som 2-årig mistede sin far. Als var dengang tysk, og Johan Hansen stod derfor som 22-årig overfor at skulle være tysk soldat: Dette ønskede han ikke, og hans eneste mulighed var derfor at udvandre, hvorfor han den 13. maj 1867 sejlede med båd fra Sønderborg med retning mod Korsør og det endelige mål København.

Efter dansk militærtjeneste endte han efter forskellige jobs med at overtage en købmandsbutik på Købmagergade. Efter ægteskab i 1875 med Caroline Beyer fra Aalborg, købte de et gartneri på Frederiksberg, som de senere solgte med et godt udbytte. Herefter slog Johan Hansen sig på sit egentlige virkefelt: køb af grunde og beboelsesejendomme i Københavnsområdet. I 1882 flyttede han til Ordrup, hvor han blev en kendt person, optaget af Venstres ideer.

I 1902 købte han en lille, men anerkendt sølvvarefabrik, Dansk Forsølvnings Anstalt, som han sammen med sin søn arbejdede op til en betydelig virksomhed.

Johan Hansen var meget optaget af nationale emner, og han har gennem tiderne givet gaver til mange danske formål, bl.a. kan nævnes:
 den første flyvemaskine til hæren: en " Maurice Farman to-dækker" med en 80 HK motor
 større beløb til Nationalmuseet
 hjælp til Skovshovedfiskerne (Øresund lå tæt på hans bopæl)
 store bidrag til oprettelse af danske forsamlingshuse i Slesvig
Johan Hansen døde i Gentofte i 1928, 83 år gammel. Hans gravsted findes på Ordrup Kirkegård.

Nordborg Slot
I 1921, kort efter Genforeningen 1920, købte Johan Hansen Nordborg Slot, som han samme år overdrog til byen Nordborg med den klausul, at bygningerne skulle bruges som en dansk efterskole. Med denne gave fulgte også et stort beløb i obligationer, der sikrede driften af efterskolen i en lang årrække.

Johan Hansen havde i sit gavebrev bestemt at der skulle stå en bolig til rådighed for ham og hans familie på slottet. Sønnen Carl Hansen og senere dennes søn, Johan Helbig Hansen, var, ligesom Johan Hansen, meget optaget af livet på slottet, og opholdt sig i lange perioder i gæsteboligen.

Johan Hansen blev æresborger i Nordborg i året 1924.

En vej tæt på slottet er opkaldt efter Johan Hansen.

Henvisninger
 Nordborg Slot
 Nordborg Slots Efterskole

Grosserere fra Danmark
Personer i Kraks Blå Bog (afdøde)

Johan Hansen (grosserer)


El valiato de Edirne (en turco otomano, ولايت ادرنه, Vilâyet-i Edirne) o  valiato de Adrianópolis fue un valiato del Imperio otomano.

Este valiato abarcaba los territorios en la actual Turquía europea, parte oriental del norte de Grecia y las franjas meridionales del sur de Bulgaria. A finales del siglo  tenía, según se sabe, un área de 67 800 km². Después de la ciudad de Adrianópolis (alrededor de 80 000 habitantes en 1905), los principales localidades eran Rodosto (35 000 hab.), Galípoli (25 000 hab.), Kirk-Kilisseh (16 000 hab.), Xánthi (14 000 hab.), Çorlu (11 500 hab.), Dimotika (10 000 hab.), Enos (8000 hab.), Gyumyurdzhina (8000 hab.) y Dedeagatch (3000 hab.). Limitaba al este con el Valiato de Estambul, el mar Negro y el mar de Mármara, al oeste con el Valiato de Salónica, al norte con Bulgaria y al sur con el mar Egeo.

La capital era Adrianópolis, que antes de la guerras balcánicas tenía una población muy variada, de unos noventa mil habitantes: cuarenta y siete mil turcos, veinte mil griegos, quince mil judíos, cuatro mil armenios y dos mil búlgaros, entre otros. La población de la provincia también era muy variada: según el censo de 1887-88 había en ella 200 808 personas, de las cuales el 39,3% eran musulmanes, el 38,4% griegos, el 15,9 % búlgaros, el 0,04 % judíos y el  0,02 % armenios. El grueso de la población musulmana se concentraba en el oeste de la provincia y la no musulmana, en el este.

Divisiones administrativas
Sanjacados del valiato:

Sanjacado de Edirne
Sanjacado de Kirklareli (Kirkkilise)
Sanjacado de Tekirdağ (Tekirdagi)
Sanjacado de Dedeagaç
Sanjacado de Gümülcine

Referencias

Bibliografía

Enlaces externos

Estados y territorios fundados en 1867
Estados y territorios desaparecidos en 1922
Edirne
Estados y territorios desaparecidos de Grecia

Valiato de Edirne


Food processing is the transformation of agricultural products into food, or of one form of food into other forms. Food processing takes many forms, from grinding grain into raw flour, home cooking, and complex industrial methods used in the making of convenience foods.  Some food processing methods play important roles in reducing food waste and improving food preservation, thus reducing the total environmental impact of agriculture and improving food security.

The Nova classification groups food according to different food processing techniques.

Primary food processing is necessary to make most foods edible while secondary food processing turns ingredients into familiar foods, such as bread. Tertiary food processing results in ultra-processed foods and has been widely criticized for promoting overnutrition and obesity, containing too much sugar and salt, too little fiber, and otherwise being unhealthful in respect to dietary needs of humans and farm animals.

Processing levels

Primary food processing

Primary food processing turns agricultural products, such as raw wheat kernels or livestock, into something that can eventually be eaten. This category includes ingredients that are produced by ancient processes such as drying, threshing, winnowing and milling grain, shelling nuts, and butchering animals for meat.  It also includes deboning and cutting meat, freezing and smoking fish and meat, extracting and filtering oils, canning food, preserving food through food irradiation, and candling eggs, as well as homogenizing and pasteurizing milk.

Contamination and spoilage problems in primary food processing can lead to significant public health threats, as the resulting foods are used so widely.  However, many forms of processing contribute to improved food safety and longer shelf life before the food spoils.  Commercial food processing uses control systems such as hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) to reduce the risk of harm.

Secondary food processing

Secondary food processing is the everyday process of creating food from ingredients that are ready to use. Baking bread, regardless of whether it is made at home, in a small bakery, or in a large factory, is an example of secondary food processing.  Fermenting fish and making wine, beer, and other alcoholic products are traditional forms of secondary food processing.  Sausages are a common form of secondary processed meat, formed by comminution (grinding) of meat that has already undergone primary processing. Most of the secondary food processing methods known to humankind are commonly described as cooking methods.

Tertiary food processing
Tertiary food processing is the commercial production of what is commonly called processed food.  These are ready-to-eat or heat-and-serve foods, such as frozen meals and re-heated airline meals.

History
Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages when crude processing incorporated fermenting, sun drying, preserving with salt, and various types of cooking (such as roasting, smoking, steaming, and oven baking), Such basic food processing involved chemical enzymatic changes to the basic structure of food in its natural form, as well served to build a barrier against surface microbial activity that caused rapid decay. Salt-preservation was especially common for foods that constituted warrior and sailors' diets until the introduction of canning methods. Evidence for the existence of these methods can be found in the writings of the ancient Greek, Chaldean, Egyptian and Roman civilizations as well as archaeological evidence from Europe, North and South America and Asia. These tried and tested processing techniques remained essentially the same until the advent of the industrial revolution. Examples of ready-meals also date back to before the preindustrial revolution, and include dishes such as Cornish pasty and Haggis. Both during ancient times and today in modern society these are considered processed foods.

Modern food processing technology developed in the 19th and 20th centuries was developed in a large part to serve military needs. In 1809, Nicolas Appert invented a hermetic bottling technique that would preserve food for French troops which ultimately contributed to the development of tinning, and subsequently canning by Peter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive and somewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans, canned goods would later become a staple around the world. Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1864, improved the quality and safety of preserved foods and introduced the wine, beer, and milk preservation.

In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and the rising consumer society in developed countries contributed to the growth of food processing with such advances as spray drying, evaporation, juice concentrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificial sweeteners, colouring agents, and such preservatives as sodium benzoate. In the late 20th century, products such as dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, and self cooking meals such as MRE food ration were developed. By the 20th century, automatic appliances like microwave oven, blender, and rotimatic paved way for convenience cooking.

In western Europe and North America, the second half of the 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of convenience. Food processing companies marketed their products especially towards middle-class working wives and mothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence Birdseye) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and "TV dinners". Processors utilised the perceived value of time to appeal to the postwar population, and this same appeal contributes to the success of convenience foods today.

Benefits and drawbacks

Benefits

Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preservation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, and increasing food consistency. In addition, it increases yearly availability of many foods, enables transportation of delicate perishable foods across long distances and makes many kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilage and pathogenic micro-organisms. Modern supermarkets would not exist without modern food processing techniques, and long voyages would not be possible.

Processed foods are usually less susceptible to early spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for long-distance transportation from the source to the consumer. When they were first introduced, some processed foods helped to alleviate food shortages and improved the overall nutrition of populations as it made many new foods available to the masses.

Processing can also reduce the incidence of food-borne disease. Fresh materials, such as fresh produce and raw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of causing serious illnesses.

The extremely varied modern diet is only truly possible on a wide scale because of food processing. Transportation of more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of much hard labor gives the modern eater easy access to a wide variety of food unimaginable to their ancestors.

The act of processing can often improve the taste of food significantly.

Mass production of food is much cheaper overall than individual production of meals from raw ingredients. Therefore, a large profit potential exists for the manufacturers and suppliers of processed food products. Individuals may see a benefit in convenience, but rarely see any direct financial cost benefit in using processed food as compared to home preparation.

Processed food freed people from the large amount of time involved in preparing and cooking "natural" unprocessed foods.  The increase in free time allows people much more choice in life style than previously allowed. In many families the adults are working away from home and therefore there is little time for the preparation of food based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offers products that fulfill many different needs: e.g. fully prepared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwave oven within a few minutes.

Modern food processing also improves the quality of life for people with allergies, diabetics, and other people who cannot consume some common food elements. Food processing can also add extra nutrients such as vitamins.

Drawbacks

Processing of food can decrease its nutritional density. The amount of nutrients lost depends on the food and processing method. For example, heat destroys vitamin C. Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitamin C than their fresh alternatives. The USDA conducted a study of nutrient retention in 2004, creating a table of foods, levels of preparation, and nutrition.

New research highlighting the importance to human health of a rich microbial environment in the intestine indicates that abundant food processing (not fermentation of foods) endangers that environment.

Added sodium
One of the main sources for sodium in the diet is processed foods. Sodium, mostly in the form of sodium chloride, i.e. salt, is added to prevent spoilage, add flavor and enhance the texture of these foods. Americans consume an average of 3436 milligrams of sodium per day, which is higher than the recommended limit of 2300 milligrams per day for healthy people, and more than twice the limit of 1500 milligrams per day for those at increased risk for heart disease.

Added sugars
While it is not necessary to limit the sugars found naturally in whole, unprocessed foods like fresh fruit, eating too much added sugar found in many processed foods increases the risk of heart disease, obesity, cavities and Type 2 diabetes. The American Heart Association recommends women limit added sugars to no more than , or 25 grams, and men limit added sugars to no more than , or about 38.75 grams, per day. Currently, Americans consume an average of  from added sugars each day.

Nutrient losses
Processing foods often involves nutrient losses, which can make it harder to meet the body's needs if these nutrients are not added back through fortification or enrichment. For example, using high heat during processing can cause vitamin C losses. Another example is refined grains, which have less fiber, vitamins and minerals than whole grains. Eating refined grains, such as those found in many processed foods, instead of whole grains may increase the risk for high cholesterol, diabetes and obesity, according to a study published in "The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition" in December 2007.

Trans fats
Foods that have undergone processing, including some commercial baked goods, desserts, margarine, frozen pizza, microwave popcorn and coffee creamers, sometimes contain trans fats. This is the most unhealthy type of fat, and may increase risk for high cholesterol, heart disease and stroke. The 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends keeping trans fat intake as low as possible.

Other potential disadvantages
Processed foods may actually take less energy to digest than whole foods, according to a study published in "Food & Nutrition Research" in 2010, meaning more of their food energy content is retained within the body. Processed foods also tend to be more allergenic than whole foods, according to a June 2004 "Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology" article. Although the preservatives and other food additives used in many processed foods are generally recognized as safe, a few may cause problems for some individuals, including sulfites, artificial sweeteners, artificial colors and flavors, sodium nitrate, BHA and BHT, olestra, caffeine and monosodium glutamate — a flavor enhancer.

Performance parameters for food processing

When designing processes for the food industry the following performance parameters may be taken into account:
 Hygiene, e.g. measured by number of micro-organisms per mL of finished product.
 Energy efficiency measured e.g. by "ton of steam per ton of sugar produced".
 Minimization of waste, measured e.g. by "percentage of peeling loss during the peeling of potatoes".
 Labour used, measured e.g. by "number of working hours per ton of finished product".
 Minimization of cleaning stops measured e.g. by "number of hours between cleaning stops".

Industries
Food processing industries and practices include the following:

 Cannery
 Fish processing
 Food packaging plant
 Industrial rendering
 Meat packing plant
 Potato processing industry
 Slaughterhouse
 Sugar industry

See also

 Brewery
 Canning
 Clean-in-place
 Dietary supplement
 Enzyme
 Flavoring
 Food additive
 Food and Bioprocess Technology
 Food coloring
 Food extrusion
 Food fortification
 Food quality
 Food rheology
 Food safety
 Food science
 Food storage
 Genetically modified food
 Good manufacturing practice
 List of cooking techniques
 Material handling
 Nutraceutical
 Pasteurization
 Pink slime
 Shelf life
 Snap freezing
 Ultra-high temperature processing
 Ultra-processed food
 Washdown

Notes and references

Bibliography
 Fábricas de alimentos, 9th edition .
 Nutritional evaluation of food processing,
 Food preservation 2nd edition, by Norman W. Desrosier.

External links

Agricultural economics
Food industry
Food science
Processing
Industrial processes
Packaging

de:Lebensmittelindustrie#Industrielle Lebensmittelverarbeitung

Food processing


Sir Walter Alexander Raleigh (; 5 September 1861 – 13 May 1922) was an English scholar, poet, and author. Raleigh was also a Cambridge Apostle.

Biography
Walter Alexander Raleigh was born in London, the fifth child and only son of a local Congregationalist minister. Raleigh was educated at the City of London School, Edinburgh Academy, University College London, and King's College, Cambridge.

He was Professor of English Literature at the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in India (1885–87), Professor of Modern Literature at the University College Liverpool (1890–1900), Regius Professor of English Language and Literature at Glasgow University (1900–1904), and in 1904 became the first holder of the Chair of English Literature at Oxford University and he was a fellow of Merton College, Oxford (1914–22). Raleigh was knighted in 1911. Among his works are Style (1897), Milton (1900) and Shakespeare (1907), but in his day he was more renowned as a stimulating if informal lecturer than as a critic.

On the outbreak of World War I, he turned to the war as his primary subject. Raleigh's correspondence during the war revealed strong anti-German beliefs: one letter stated "German University Culture is mere evil", and added that the deaths "of 100 Boche professors ... would be a benefit to the human race".  His finest book may be the first volume of The War in the Air (1922), whose volumes II to VI (1928–1937, plus 3 volumes of maps) had to be compiled by Henry Albert Jones after Raleigh's death.

In 1915, he delivered the Vanuxem lectures at Princeton on "The Origins of Romance" and "The Beginnings of the Romantic Revival," and lectured on Chaucer at Brown, which gave him the degree of Litt.D.

Raleigh died at the Acland Nursing Home, Oxford, from typhoid (contracted during a visit to the Near East) on 13 May 1922 (aged 60), being survived by his wife, Lucie Gertrude Jackson (sister-in-law of Catherine Carswell), three of their four sons, and a daughter. His daughter Philippa married the writer Charles Whibley. He is buried in the churchyard of the parish church of St. Lawrence at North Hinksey, near Oxford.

His son Hilary edited his light prose, verse and plays in Laughter from a Cloud (1923). Raleigh is probably best known for the poem "Wishes of an Elderly Man, Wished at a Garden Party, June 1914":

Raleigh Park at North Hinksey, near Harcourt Hill where he lived from 1909 to his death, is named after him. The Department of English at Aligarh Muslim University has an active Raleigh Literary Society, which regularly organises performances of scenes from Shakespeare's plays.

Bibliography
 Anthumous
 The English Novel (1894)
 Robert Louis Stevenson:  An Essay (1895); 2nd edition, 1896
 Style (1897)
 Milton (1900); 1905 reprint
 Wordsworth (1903)
 The English Voyagers (1904)
 Shakespeare (1907)

 Six Essays on Johnson (1910)
 Early English Voyages of the 16th Century (1910)
 Shakespeare's England : an account of the life & manners of his age (1916, with Sir Sidney Lee)
  Annual Shakespeare Lecture of the British Academy (1918)
 The War in the Air: being the story of the part played in the Great War by the Royal Air Force, Volume I: "Air operations of the 1915 Gallipoli campaign; the Western Front in 1915/1916; naval air operations." (1922; revised 1939)

 Posthumous
 The Letters of Sir Walter Raleigh 1879–1922 (1926, 2 volumes; 1928, enlarged); reprinted as The Letters of Sir Walter Raleigh 1879 to 1922 (2005, 2-in-1 volume)

References
Glasgow James MacLehose and Sons Publishers to the University

External links

1861 births
1922 deaths
People from North Hinksey
Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
Alumni of University College London
People educated at the City of London School
Fellows of Merton College, Oxford
Academic staff of Aligarh Muslim University
Merton Professors of English Literature
Deaths from typhoid fever
19th-century English writers
20th-century English writers
Writers from London
English male poets
19th-century English male writers
Knights Bachelor

Walter Raleigh (professor)


Et civiliseret land er en dansk dokumentarfilm fra 2014 med instruktion og manuskript af Nanna Frank Møller.

Handling
Jørgen Lange Thomsen er retsmediciner og derfor vant til at undersøge døde mennesker for at fastslå, hvordan de har endt livet. Det er en eksakt videnskab, hvor Jørgen gennem sine undersøgelser, ofte er i stand til at nå frem til konklusioner, der ofte kan afgøre en retssag. En dag bliver Jørgen "hyret" af en menneskerettighedsorganisation til en spektakulær sag, som stiller helt anderledes krav til ham og hans profession. Han skal undersøge en gruppe levende irakere, for at afgøre, om de har været udsat for tortur. Sagen kan få enorm politisk betydning, da Jørgens resultat bliver afgørende for, om der skal rejses en sag mod den danske stat for krigsforbrydelser under Irak-krigen.

Referencer

Eksterne henvisninger

Danske film fra 2014

Dokumentarfilm fra Danmark

Et civiliseret land


Takuya Takagi (født 12. november 1967) er en japansk fodboldspiller.

Japans fodboldlandshold

|-
|1992||11||5
|-
|1993||13||7
|-
|1994||5||2
|-
|1995||0||0
|-
|1996||10||6
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|1997||5||7
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!Total||44||27
|}

Eksterne henvisninger

Japan National Football Team Database

Fodboldspillere fra Japan
Fodboldtrænere fra Japan

Takuya Takagi


Olaylar

Doğumlar
 İmparator Junna, Japonya'nın geleneksel veraset düzenine göre 53. imparatoru (ö. 840)

Ölümler
 4 Ağustos - Mehdi veya Muhammed el-Mehdî bin Abdullâh Mansûr, Abbasi halifesi (d. 746)
 tarihi bilinmeyen
 Edessalı Theofilus, Orta Çağ astroloğu ve âlimi (d. 695)
 Ōtomo no Yakamochi, Japon şair ve devlet adamı (d. 715)
 Tatzates, Ermeni asıllı Bizans generali

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